Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.6alpha first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk Image Image talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk Portal Portal talk 1 32899315 2005-12-27T18:46:47Z Jsmethers 614213 #REDIRECT [[AAA]] 5 18063769 2005-07-03T11:13:13Z Docu 8029 adding cur_id=5: {{R from CamelCase}} #REDIRECT [[Algeria]]{{R from CamelCase}} 6 18063795 2005-07-03T11:14:17Z Docu 8029 adding to cur_id=6 {{R from CamelCase}} #REDIRECT [[American Samoa]]{{R from CamelCase}} 8 15898943 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Applied ethics]] 10 15898945 2003-04-25T22:18:38Z Ams80 7543 Fixing redirect #REDIRECT [[Accessible_computing]] 11 15898946 2002-09-22T16:02:58Z Andre Engels 300 #REDIRECT [[Ada programming language]] 12 42136831 2006-03-04T01:41:25Z CJames745 832382 /* Anarchist Communism */ too many brackets {{Anarchism}} '''Anarchism''' originated as a term of abuse first used against early [[working class]] [[radical]]s including the [[Diggers]] of the [[English Revolution]] and the [[sans-culotte|''sans-culottes'']] of the [[French Revolution]].[http://uk.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568770/Anarchism.html] Whilst the term is still used in a pejorative way to describe ''"any act that used violent means to destroy the organization of society"''<ref>[http://www.cas.sc.edu/socy/faculty/deflem/zhistorintpolency.html History of International Police Cooperation], from the final protocols of the "International Conference of Rome for the Social Defense Against Anarchists", 1898</ref>, it has also been taken up as a positive label by self-defined anarchists. The word '''anarchism''' is [[etymology|derived from]] the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''[[Wiktionary:&#945;&#957;&#945;&#961;&#967;&#943;&#945;|&#945;&#957;&#945;&#961;&#967;&#943;&#945;]]'' ("without [[archon]]s (ruler, chief, king)"). Anarchism as a [[political philosophy]], is the belief that ''rulers'' are unnecessary and should be abolished, although there are differing interpretations of what this means. Anarchism also refers to related [[social movement]]s) that advocate the elimination of authoritarian institutions, particularly the [[state]].<ref>[http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Definitions_of_anarchism Definitions of anarchism] on Wikiquote, accessed 2006</ref> The word "[[anarchy]]," as most anarchists use it, does not imply [[chaos]], [[nihilism]], or [[anomie]], but rather a harmonious [[anti-authoritarian]] society. In place of what are regarded as authoritarian political structures and coercive economic institutions, anarchists advocate social relations based upon [[voluntary association]] of autonomous individuals, [[mutual aid]], and [[self-governance]]. While anarchism is most easily defined by what it is against, anarchists also offer positive visions of what they believe to be a truly free society. However, ideas about how an anarchist society might work vary considerably, especially with respect to economics; there is also disagreement about how a free society might be brought about. == Origins and predecessors == [[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]], and others, argue that before recorded [[history]], human society was organized on anarchist principles.<ref>[[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]], Peter. ''"[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]"'', 1902.</ref> Most anthropologists follow Kropotkin and Engels in believing that hunter-gatherer bands were egalitarian and lacked division of labour, accumulated wealth, or decreed law, and had equal access to resources.<ref>[[Friedrich Engels|Engels]], Freidrich. ''"[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1884/origin-family/index.htm Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State]"'', 1884.</ref> [[Image:WilliamGodwin.jpg|thumb|right|150px|William Godwin]] Anarchists including the [[The Anarchy Organisation]] and [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard]] find anarchist attitudes in [[Taoism]] from [[History of China|Ancient China]].<ref>The Anarchy Organization (Toronto). ''Taoism and Anarchy.'' [[April 14]] [[2002]] [http://www.toxicpop.co.uk/library/taoism.htm Toxicpop mirror] [http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/5705/taoan.html Vanity site mirror]</ref><ref>[[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard]], Murray. ''"[http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/ancient-chinese.html The Ancient Chinese Libertarian Tradition]"'', an extract from ''"[http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/9_2/9_2_3.pdf Concepts of the Role of Intellectuals in Social Change Toward Laissez Faire]"'', The Journal of Libertarian Studies, 9 (2) Fall 1990.</ref> [[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]] found similar ideas in [[stoicism|stoic]] [[Zeno of Citium]]. According to Kropotkin, Zeno "repudiated the omnipotence of the state, its intervention and regimentation, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the moral law of the individual". <ref>[http://www.blackcrayon.com/page.jsp/library/britt1910.html Anarchism], written by Peter Kropotkin, from Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1910]</ref> The [[Anabaptist]]s of 16th century Europe are sometimes considered to be religious forerunners of modern anarchism. [[Bertrand Russell]], in his ''History of Western Philosophy'', writes that the Anabaptists "repudiated all law, since they held that the good man will be guided at every moment by [[the Holy Spirit]]...[f]rom this premise they arrive at [[communism]]...."<ref>[[Bertrand Russell|Russell]], Bertrand. ''"Ancient philosophy"'' in ''A History of Western Philosophy, and its connection with political and social circumstances from the earliest times to the present day'', 1945.</ref> [[Diggers (True Levellers)|The Diggers]] or "True Levellers" were an early communistic movement during the time of the [[English Civil War]], and are considered by some as forerunners of modern anarchism.<ref>[http://www.zpub.com/notes/aan-hist.html An Anarchist Timeline], from Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1994.</ref> In the [[modern era]], the first to use the term to mean something other than chaos was [[Louis-Armand de Lom d'Arce de Lahontan, Baron de Lahontan|Louis-Armand, Baron de Lahontan]] in his ''Nouveaux voyages dans l'Amérique septentrionale'', (1703), where he described the [[Native Americans in the United States|indigenous American]] society, which had no state, laws, prisons, priests, or private property, as being in anarchy<ref>[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-12 Dictionary of the History of Ideas - ANARCHISM]</ref>. [[Russell Means]], a [[libertarian]] and leader in the [[American Indian Movement]], has repeatedly stated that he is "an anarchist, and so are all [his] ancestors." In 1793, in the thick of the [[French Revolution]], [[William Godwin]] published ''An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice'' [http://web.bilkent.edu.tr/Online/www.english.upenn.edu/jlynch/Frank/Godwin/pjtp.html]. Although Godwin did not use the word ''anarchism'', many later anarchists have regarded this book as the first major anarchist text, and Godwin as the "founder of philosophical anarchism." But at this point no anarchist movement yet existed, and the term ''anarchiste'' was known mainly as an insult hurled by the [[bourgeois]] [[Girondins]] at more radical elements in the [[French revolution]]. ==The first self-labelled anarchist== [[Image:Pierre_Joseph_Proudhon.jpg|110px|thumb|left|Pierre Joseph Proudhon]] {{main articles|[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] and [[Mutualism (economic theory)]]}} It is commonly held that it wasn't until [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] published ''[[What is Property?]]'' in 1840 that the term "anarchist" was adopted as a self-description. It is for this reason that some claim Proudhon as the founder of modern anarchist theory. In [[What is Property?]] Proudhon answers with the famous accusation "[[Property is theft]]." In this work he opposed the institution of decreed "property" (propriété), where owners have complete rights to "use and abuse" their property as they wish, such as exploiting workers for profit.<ref name="proudhon-prop">[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]], Pierre-Joseph. ''"[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/economics/proudhon/property/ch03.htm Chapter 3. Labour as the efficient cause of the domain of property]"'' from ''"[[What is Property?]]"'', 1840</ref> In its place Proudhon supported what he called 'possession' - individuals can have limited rights to use resources, capital and goods in accordance with principles of equality and justice. Proudhon's vision of anarchy, which he called [[mutualism]] (mutuellisme), involved an exchange economy where individuals and groups could trade the products of their labor using ''labor notes'' which represented the amount of working time involved in production. This would ensure that no one would profit from the labor of others. Workers could freely join together in co-operative workshops. An interest-free bank would be set up to provide everyone with access to the means of production. Proudhon's ideas were influential within French working class movements, and his followers were active in the [[Revolution of 1848]] in France. Proudhon's philosophy of property is complex: it was developed in a number of works over his lifetime, and there are differing interpretations of some of his ideas. ''For more detailed discussion see [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|here]].'' ==Max Stirner's Egoism== {{main articles|[[Max Stirner]] and [[Egoism]]}} In his ''The Ego and Its Own'' Stirner argued that most commonly accepted social institutions - including the notion of State, property as a right, natural rights in general, and the very notion of society - were mere illusions or ''ghosts'' in the mind, saying of society that "the individuals are its reality." He advocated egoism and a form of amoralism, in which individuals would unite in 'associations of egoists' only when it was in their self interest to do so. For him, property simply comes about through might: "Whoever knows how to take, to defend, the thing, to him belongs property." And, "What I have in my power, that is my own. So long as I assert myself as holder, I am the proprietor of the thing." Stirner never called himself an anarchist - he accepted only the label 'egoist'. Nevertheless, his ideas were influential on many individualistically-inclined anarchists, although interpretations of his thought are diverse. ==American individualist anarchism== [[Image:BenjaminTucker.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Benjamin Tucker]]]] {{main articles|[[Individualist anarchism]] and [[American individualist anarchism]]}} In 1825 [[Josiah Warren]] had participated in a [[communitarian]] experiment headed by [[Robert Owen]] called [[New Harmony]], which failed in a few years amidst much internal conflict. Warren blamed the community's failure on a lack of [[individual sovereignty]] and a lack of private property. Warren proceeded to organise experimenal anarchist communities which respected what he called "the sovereignty of the individual" at [[Utopia (anarchist community)|Utopia]] and [[Modern Times]]. In 1833 Warren wrote and published ''The Peaceful Revolutionist'', which some have noted to be the first anarchist periodical ever published. Benjamin Tucker says that Warren "was the first man to expound and formulate the doctrine now known as Anarchism." (''Liberty'' XIV (December, 1900):1) [[Benjamin Tucker]] became interested in anarchism through meeting Josiah Warren and [[William B. Greene]]. He edited and published ''Liberty'' from August 1881 to April 1908; it is widely considered to be the finest individualist-anarchist periodical ever issued in the English language. Tucker's conception of individualist anarchism incorporated the ideas of a variety of theorists: Greene's ideas on [[mutualism|mutual banking]]; Warren's ideas on [[cost the limit of price|cost as the limit of price]] (a [[heterodox economics|heterodox]] variety of [[labour theory of value]]); [[Proudhon]]'s market anarchism; [[Max Stirner]]'s [[egoism]]; and, [[Herbert Spencer]]'s "law of equal freedom". Tucker strongly supported the individual's right to own the product of his or her labour as "[[private property]]", and believed in a <ref name="tucker-pay">[[Benjamin Tucker|Tucker]], Benjamin. ''"[http://www.blackcrayon.com/page.jsp/library/tucker/tucker37.htm Labor and Its Pay]"'' Individual Liberty: Selections From the Writings of Benjamin R. Tucker, Vanguard Press, New York, 1926, Kraus Reprint Co., Millwood, NY, 1973.</ref>[[market economy]] for trading this property. He argued that in a truly free market system without the state, the abundance of competition would eliminate profits and ensure that all workers received the full value of their labor. Other 19th century individualists included [[Lysander Spooner]], [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]], and [[Victor Yarros]]. ==The First International== [[Image:Bakuninfull.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Bakunin|Mikhail Bakunin 1814-1876]]]] {{main articles|[[International Workingmen's Association]], [[Anarchism and Marxism]]}} In Europe, harsh reaction followed the revolutions of 1848. Twenty years later in 1864 the [[International Workingmen's Association]], sometimes called the 'First International', united some diverse European revolutionary currents including anarchism. Due to its genuine links to active workers movements the International became signficiant. From the start [[Karl Marx]] was a leading figure in the International: he was elected to every succeeding General Council of the association. The first objections to Marx came from the [[Mutualism|Mutualists]] who opposed communism and statism. Shortly after [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and his followers joined in 1868, the First International became polarised into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads. The clearest difference between the camps was over strategy. The anarchists around Bakunin favoured (in Kropotkin's words) "direct economical struggle against capitalism, without interfering in the political parliamentary agitation." At that time Marx and his followers focused on parliamentary activity. Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as [[authoritarian]], and predicted that if a Marxist party gained to power its leaders would end up as bad as the [[ruling class]] they had fought against.<ref>[[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin]], Mikhail. ''"[http://www.litencyc.com/php/adpage.php?id=1969 Statism and Anarchy]"''</ref> In 1872 the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups at the [[Hague Congress (1872)|Hague Congress]]. This is often cited as the origin of the [[Anarchist_objections_to_marxism|conflict between anarchists and Marxists]]. From this moment the ''[[Social democracy|social democratic]]'' and ''[[Libertarian socialism|libertarian]]'' currents of socialism had distinct organisations including rival [[List of left-wing internationals|'internationals'.]] ==Anarchist Communism== {{main|Anarchist communism}} [[Image:PeterKropotkin.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Peter Kropotkin]] Proudhon and Bakunin both opposed [[communism]], associating it with statism. However, in the 1870s many anarchists moved away from Bakunin's economic thinking (called "collectivism") and embraced communist concepts. Communists believed the means of production should be owned collectively, and that goods be distributed by need, not labor. [http://nefac.net/node/157] An early anarchist communist was Joseph Déjacque, the first person to describe himself as "[[libertarian socialism|libertarian]]".[http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/Encyclopedia/DejacqueJoseph.htm]<ref>[http://joseph.dejacque.free.fr/ecrits/lettreapjp.htm De l'être-humain mâle et femelle - Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque] (in [[French language|French]])</ref> Unlike Proudhon, he argued that "it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature." He announced his ideas in his US published journal Le Libertaire (1858-1861). Peter Kropotkin, often seen as the most important theorist, outlined his economic ideas in The Conquest of Bread and Fields, Factories and Workshops. He felt co-operation is more beneficial than competition, illustrated in nature in Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (1897). Subsequent anarchist communists include Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman. Many in the anarcho-syndicalist movements (see below) saw anarchist communism as their objective. Isaac Puente's 1932 Comunismo Libertario was adopted by the Spanish CNT as its manifesto for a post-revolutionary society. Some anarchists disliked merging communism with anarchism. Several individualist anarchists maintained that abolition of private property was not consistent with liberty. For example, Benjamin Tucker, whilst professing respect for Kropotkin and publishing his work[http://www.zetetics.com/mac/libdebates/apx1pubs.html], described communist anarchism as "pseudo-anarchism".<ref name="tucker-pay"/> ==Propaganda of the deed== [[Image:JohannMost.jpg|left|150px|thumb|[[Johann Most]] was an outspoken advocate of violence]] {{main|Propaganda of the deed}} Anarchists have often been portrayed as dangerous and violent, due mainly to a number of high-profile violent acts, including [[riot]]s, [[assassination]]s, [[insurrection]]s, and [[terrorism]] by some anarchists. Some [[revolution]]aries of the late 19th century encouraged acts of political violence, such as [[bomb]]ings and the [[assassination]]s of [[head of state|heads of state]] to further anarchism. Such actions have sometimes been called '[[propaganda by the deed]]'. One of the more outspoken advocates of this strategy was [[Johann Most]], who said "the existing system will be quickest and most radically overthrown by the annihilation of its exponents. Therefore, massacres of the enemies of the people must be set in motion."{{fact}} Most's preferred method of terrorism, dynamite, earned him the moniker "Dynamost." However, there is no [[consensus]] on the legitimacy or utility of violence in general. [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and [[Errico Malatesta]], for example, wrote of violence as a necessary and sometimes desirable force in revolutionary settings. But at the same time, they denounced acts of individual terrorism. (Malatesta in "On Violence" and Bakunin when he refuted Nechaev). Other anarchists, sometimes identified as [[anarcho-pacifists|pacifist anarchists]], advocated complete [[nonviolence]]. [[Leo Tolstoy]], whose philosophy is often viewed as a form of [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchism]] ''(see below)'', was a notable exponent of [[nonviolent resistance]]. ==Anarchism in the labour movement== {{seealso|Anarcho-syndicalism}} [[Image:Flag of Anarcho syndicalism.svg|thumb|175px|The red-and-black flag, coming from the experience of anarchists in the labour movement, is particularly associated with anarcho-syndicalism.]] [[Anarcho-syndicalism]] was an early 20th century working class movement seeking to overthrow capitalism and the state to institute a worker controlled society. The movement pursued [[industrial action]]s, such as [[general strike]], as a primary strategy. Many anarcho-syndicalists believed in [[anarchist communism]], though not all communists believed in syndicalism. After the [[Paris Commune|1871 repression]] French anarchism reemerged, influencing the ''Bourses de Travails'' of autonomous workers groups and trade unions. From this movement the [[Confédération Générale du Travail]] (General Confederation of Work, CGT) was formed in 1895 as the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement. [[Emile Pataud]] and [[Emile Pouget]]'s writing for the CGT saw [[libertarian communism]] developing from a [[general strike]]. After 1914 the CGT moved away from anarcho-syndicalism due to the appeal of [[Bolshevism]]. French-style syndicalism was a significant movement in Europe prior to 1921, and remained a significant movement in Spain until the mid 1940s. The [[Industrial Workers of the World]] (IWW), founded in 1905 in the US, espoused [[industrial unionism|unionism]] and sought a [[general strike]] to usher in a stateless society. In 1923 100,000 members existed, with the support of up to 300,000. Though not explicitly anarchist, they organized by rank and file democracy, embodying a spirit of resistance that has inspired many Anglophone syndicalists. [[Image:CNT_tu_votar_y_ellos_deciden.jpg|thumb|175px|CNT propaganda from April 2004. Reads: Don't let the politicians rule our lives/ You vote and they decide/ Don't allow it/ Unity, Action, Self-management.]] Spanish anarchist trade union federations were formed in the 1870's, 1900 and 1910. The most successful was the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] (National Confederation of Labour: CNT), founded in 1910. Prior to the 1940s the CNT was the major force in Spanish working class politics. With a membership of 1.58 million in 1934, the CNT played a major role in the [[Spanish Civil War]]. ''See also:'' [[Anarchism in Spain]]. Syndicalists like [[Ricardo Flores Magón]] were key figures in the [[Mexican Revolution]]. [[Latin America|Latin American]] anarchism was strongly influenced, extending to the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation|Zapatista]] rebellion and the [[factory occupation movements]] in Argentina. In Berlin in 1922 the CNT was joined with the [[International Workers Association]], an anarcho-syndicalist successor to the [[First International]]. Contemporary anarcho-syndicalism continues as a minor force in many socities; much smaller than in the 1910s, 20s and 30s. The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain, in the form of the [[Confederación General del Trabajo]] and the [[CNT]]. The CGT claims a paid-up membership of 60,000, and received over a million votes in Spanish [[syndical]] elections. Other active syndicalist movements include the US [[Workers Solidarity Alliance]], and the UK [[Solidarity Federation]]. The revolutionary industrial unionist [[Industrial Workers of the World]] also exists, claiming 2,000 paid members. Contemporary critics of anarcho-syndicalism and revolutionary industrial unionism claim that they are [[workerist]] and fail to deal with economic life outside work. Post-leftist critics such as [[Bob Black]] claim anarcho-syndicalism advocates oppressive social structures, such as [[Manual labour|work]] and the [[workplace]]. Anarcho-syndicalists in general uphold principles of workers solidarity, [[direct action]], and self-management. ==The Russian Revolution== {{main|Russian Revolution of 1917}} The [[Russian Revolution of 1917]] was a seismic event in the development of anarchism as a movement and as a philosophy. Anarchists participated alongside the [[Bolsheviks]] in both February and October revolutions, many anarchists initially supporting the Bolshevik coup. However the Bolsheviks soon turned against the anarchists and other left-wing opposition, a conflict which culminated in the 1918 [[Kronstadt rebellion]]. Anarchists in central Russia were imprisoned or driven underground, or joined the victorious Bolsheviks. In [[Ukraine]] anarchists fought in the [[Russian Civil War|civil war]] against both Whites and Bolsheviks within the Makhnovshchina peasant army led by [[Nestor Makhno]]). Expelled American anarchists [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Alexander Berkman]] before leaving Russia were amongst those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of the Kronstadt uprising. Both wrote classic accounts of their experiences in Russia, aiming to expose the reality of Bolshevik control. For them, [[Bakunin]]'s predictions about the consequences of Marxist rule had proved all too true. The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw Bolshevik success as setting an example; Communist parties grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the US for example, the major syndicalist movements of the [[CGT]] and [[IWW]] began to realign themselves away from anarchism and towards the [[Comintern|Communist International]]. In Paris, the [[Dielo Truda]] group of Russian anarchist exiles which included [[Nestor Makhno]] concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the structures of Bolshevism. Their 1926 manifesto, known as the [[Platformism|Organisational Platform of the Libertarian Communists]], was supported by some communist anarchists, though opposed by many others. The ''Platform'' continues to inspire some contemporary anarchist groups who believe in an anarchist movement organised around its principles of 'theoretical unity', 'tactical unity', 'collective responsibility' and 'federalism'. Platformist groups today include the [[Workers Solidarity Movement]] in Ireland, the UK's [[Anarchist Federation]], and the late [[North Eastern Federation of Anarchist Communists]] in the northeastern United States and bordering Canada. ==The fight against fascism== {{main articles|[[Anti-fascism]] and [[Anarchism in Spain]]}} [[Image:CNT-armoured-car-factory.jpg|right|thumb|270px|[[Spain]], [[1936]]. Members of the [[CNT]] construct [[armoured car]]s to fight against the [[fascist]]s in one of the [[collectivisation|collectivised]] factories.]] In the 1920s and 1930s the familiar dynamics of anarchism's conflict with the state were transformed by the rise of [[fascism]] in Europe. In many cases, European anarchists faced difficult choices - should they join in [[popular front]]s with reformist democrats and Soviet-led [[Communists]] against a common fascist enemy? Luigi Fabbri, an exile from Italian fascism, was amongst those arguing that fascism was something different: :"Fascism is not just another form of government which, like all others, uses violence. It is the most authoritarian and the most violent form of government imaginable. It represents the utmost glorification of the theory and practice of the principle of authority." {{fact}} In France, where the fascists came close to insurrection in the February 1934 riots, anarchists divided over a 'united front' policy. [http://melior.univ-montp3.fr/ra_forum/en/people/berry_david/fascism_or_revolution.html] In Spain, the [[CNT]] initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right wing election victory. But in 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the ruling class responded with an attempted coup, and the [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936-39) was underway. In reponse to the army rebellion [[Anarchism in Spain|an anarchist-inspired]] movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of the major [[city]] of [[Barcelona]] and of large areas of rural Spain where they [[collectivization|collectivized]] the land. But even before the eventual fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the [[Stalinists]]. The CNT leadership often appeared confused and divided, with some members controversially entering the government. Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives, and persecuted both [[POUM|dissident marxists]] and anarchists. Since the late 1970s anarchists have been involved in fighting the rise of [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]] groups. In Germany and the United Kingdom some anarchists worked within [[militant]] [[anti-fascism|anti-fascist]] groups alongside members of the [[Marxist]] left. They advocated directly combating fascists with physical force rather than relying on the state. Since the late 1990s, a similar tendency has developed within US anarchism. ''See also: [[Anti-Racist Action]] (US), [[Anti-Fascist Action]] (UK), [[Antifa]]'' ==Religious anarchism== [[Image:LeoTolstoy.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Leo Tolstoy|Leo Tolstoy]] 1828-1910]] {{main articles|[[Christian anarchism]] and [[Anarchism and religion]]}} Most anarchist culture tends to be [[secular]] if not outright [[militant athiesm|anti-religious]]. However, the combination of religious social conscience, historical religiousity amongst oppressed social classes, and the compatibility of some interpretations of religious traditions with anarchism has resulted in religious anarchism. [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchists]] believe that there is no higher authority than [[God]], and oppose earthly authority such as [[government]] and established churches. They believe that Jesus' teachings were clearly anarchistic, but were corrupted when "Christianity" was declared the official religion of Rome. Christian anarchists, who follow Jesus' directive to "turn the other cheek", are strict [[pacifism|pacifists]]. The most famous advocate of Christian anarchism was [[Leo Tolstoy]], author of ''[[The Kingdom of God is Within You]]'', who called for a society based on compassion, nonviolent principles and freedom. Christian anarchists tend to form [[experimental communities]]. They also occasionally [[tax resistance|resist taxation]]. Many Christian anarchists are [[vegetarianism|vegetarian]] or [[veganism|vegan]]{{fact}}. Christian anarchy can be said to have roots as old as the religion's birth, as the [[early church]] exhibits many anarchistic tendencies, such as communal goods and wealth. By aiming to obey utterly certain of the Bible's teachings certain [[anabaptism|anabaptist]] groups of sixteenth century Europe attempted to emulate the early church's social-economic organisation and philosophy by regarding it as the only social structure capable of true obediance to Jesus' teachings, and utterly rejected (in theory) all earthly hierarchies and authority (and indeed non-anabaptists in general) and violence as ungodly. Such groups, for example the [[Hutterites]], typically went from initially anarchistic beginnings to, as their movements stabalised, more authoritarian social models. [[Chinese Anarchism]] was most influential in the 1920s. Strands of Chinese anarchism included [[Tai-Xu]]'s [[Buddhist Anarchism]] which was influenced by Tolstoy and the [[well-field system]]. [[Neopaganism]], with its focus on the environment and equality, along with its often decentralized nature, has lead to a number of neopagan anarchists. One of the most prominent is [[Starhawk]], who writes extensively about both [[spirituality]] and [[activism]]. ==Anarchism and feminism== [[Image:Goldman-4.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Emma Goldman]]]] {{main|Anarcha-Feminism}} Early [[French feminism|French feminists]] such as [[Jenny d'Héricourt]] and [[Juliette Adam]] criticised the [[mysogyny]] in the anarchism of [[Proudhon]] during the 1850s. Anarcha-feminism is a kind of [[radical feminism]] that espouses the belief that [[patriarchy]] is a fundamental problem in society. While anarchist feminism has existed for more than a hundred years, its explicit formulation as ''anarcha-feminism'' dates back to the early 70s<ref>[http://www.anarcha.org/sallydarity/Anarcho-FeminismTwoStatements.htm Anarcho-Feminism - Two Statements - Who we are: An Anarcho-Feminist Manifesto]</ref>, during the [[second-wave feminism|second-wave]] feminist movement. Anarcha-feminism, views [[patriarchy]] as the first manifestation of hierarchy in human history; thus, the first form of oppression occurred in the dominance of male over female. Anarcha-feminists then conclude that if feminists are against patriarchy, they must also be against all forms of [[hierarchy]], and therefore must reject the authoritarian nature of the state and capitalism. {{fact}} Anarcho-primitivists see the creation of gender roles and patriarchy a creation of the start of [[civilization]], and therefore consider primitivism to also be an anarchist school of thought that addresses feminist concerns. [[Eco-feminism]] is often considered a feminist variant of green anarchist feminist thought. Anarcha-feminism is most often associated with early 20th-century authors and theorists such as [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Voltairine de Cleyre]], although even early first-wave feminist [[Mary Wollstonecraft]] held proto-anarchist views, and William Godwin is often considered a feminist anarchist precursor. It should be noted that Goldman and de Cleyre, though they both opposed the state, had opposing philosophies, as de Cleyre explains: "Miss Goldman is a communist; I am an individualist. She wishes to destroy the right of property, I wish to assert it. I make my war upon privilege and authority, whereby the right of property, the true right in that which is proper to the individual, is annihilated. She believes that co-operation would entirely supplant competition; I hold that competition in one form or another will always exist, and that it is highly desirable it should." In the [[Spanish Civil War]], an anarcha-feminist group, "Free Women", organized to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas. In the modern day anarchist movement, many anarchists, male or female, consider themselves feminists, and anarcha-feminist ideas are growing. The publishing of Quiet Rumors, an anarcha-feminist reader, has helped to spread various kinds of anti-authoritarian and anarchist feminist ideas to the broader movement. Wendy McElroy has popularized an individualist-anarchism take on feminism in her books, articles, and individualist feminist website.<ref>[http://www.ifeminists.net I-feminists.net]</ref> ==Anarcho-capitalism== [[Image:Murray Rothbard Smile.JPG|thumb|left|150px|[[Murray Rothbard]] (1926-1995)]] {{main|Anarcho-capitalism}} Anarcho-capitalism is a predominantly United States-based theoretical tradition that desires a stateless society with the economic system of [[free market]] [[capitalism]]. Unlike other branches of anarchism, it does not oppose [[profit]] or capitalism. Consequently, most anarchists do not recognise anarcho-capitalism as a form of anarchism. [[Murray Rothbard]]'s synthesis of [[classical liberalism]] and [[Austrian economics]] was germinal for the development of contemporary anarcho-capitalist theory. He defines anarcho-capitalism in terms of the [[non-aggression principle]], based on the concept of [[Natural Law]]. Competiting theorists use egoism, [[utilitarianism]] (used by [[David Friedman]]), or [[contractarianism]] (used by [[Jan Narveson]]). Some [[minarchism|minarchists]], such as [[Ayn Rand]], [[Robert Nozick]], and [[Robert A. Heinlein]], have influenced anarcho-capitalism. Some anarcho-capitalists, along with some right-wing libertarian historians such as David Hart and [[Ralph Raico]], considered similar philosophies existing prior to Rothbard to be anarcho-capitalist, such as those of [[Gustave de Molinari]] and [[Auberon Herbert]] <ref>[[Gustave de Molinari|Molinari]], Gustave de. ''[http://praxeology.net/MR-GM-PS.htm Preface to "The Production of Security"]'', translated by J. Huston McCulloch, Occasional Papers Series #2 (Richard M. Ebeling, Editor), New York: The Center for Libertarian Studies, May 1977.</ref><ref name="david-hart"/><ref>[[Ralph Raico|Raico]], Ralph [http://www.mises.org/story/1787 ''Authentic German Liberalism of the 19th Century''] Ecole Polytechnique, Centre de Recherce en Epistemologie Appliquee, Unité associée au CNRS (2004).</ref> Opponents of anarcho-capitalists dispute these claims.<ref>McKay, Iain; Elkin, Gary; Neal, Dave ''et al'' [http://www.infoshop.org/faq/append11.html Replies to Some Errors and Distortions in Bryan Caplan's "Anarchist Theory FAQ" version 5.2] ''An Anarchist FAQ Version 11.2'' Accessed February 20, 2006.</ref> The place of anarcho-capitalism within anarchism, and indeed whether it is a form of anarchism at all, is highly controversial. For more on this debate see ''[[Anarchism and anarcho-capitalism]]''. ==Anarchism and the environment== {{seealso|Anarcho-primitivism|Green anarchism|Eco-anarchism|Ecofeminism}} Since the late 1970s anarchists in Anglophone and European countries have been taking action for the natural environment. [[Eco-anarchism|Eco-anarchists]] or [[Green anarchism|Green anarchists]] believe in [[deep ecology]]. This is a worldview that embraces [[biodiversity]] and [[sustainability]]. Eco-anarchists often use [[direct action]] against what they see as earth-destroying institutions. Of particular importance is the [[Earth First!]] movement, that takes action such as [[tree sitting]]. Another important component is [[ecofeminism]], which sees the domination of nature as a metaphor for the domination of women. Green anarchism also involves a critique of industrial capitalism, and, for some green anarchists, civilization itself.{{fact}} Primitivism is a predominantly Western philosophy that advocates a return to a pre-industrial and usually pre-agricultural society. It develops a critique of industrial civilization. In this critique [[technology]] and [[development]] have [[alienation|alienated]] people from the natural world. This philosophy develops themes present in the political action of the [[Luddites]] and the writings of [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]. Primitivism developed in the context of the [[Reclaim the Streets]], Earth First! and the [[Earth Liberation Front]] movements. [[John Zerzan]] wrote that [[civilization]] &mdash; not just the state &mdash; would need to fall for anarchy to be achieved.{{fact}} Anarcho-primitivists point to the anti-authoritarian nature of many 'primitive' or hunter-gatherer societies throughout the world's history, as examples of anarchist societies. ==Other branches and offshoots== Anarchism generates many eclectic and syncretic philosophies and movements. Since the Western social formet in the 1960s and 1970s a number new of movements and schools have appeared. Most of these stances are limited to even smaller numbers than the schools and movements listed above. [[Image:Hakim Bey.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Hakim Bey]]]] *'''Post-left anarchy''' - Post-left anarchy (also called egoist-anarchism) seeks to distance itself from the traditional "left" - communists, liberals, social democrats, etc. - and to escape the confines of [[ideology]] in general. Post-leftists argue that anarchism has been weakened by its long attachment to contrary "leftist" movements and single issue causes ([[anti-war]], [[anti-nuclear]], etc.). It calls for a synthesis of anarchist thought and a specifically anti-authoritarian revolutionary movement outside of the leftist milieu. It often focuses on the individual rather than speaking in terms of class or other broad generalizations and shuns organizational tendencies in favor of the complete absence of explicit hierarchy. Important groups and individuals associated with Post-left anarchy include: [[CrimethInc]], the magazine [[Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed]] and its editor [[Jason McQuinn]], [[Bob Black]], [[Hakim Bey]] and others. For more information, see [[Infoshop.org]]'s ''Anarchy After Leftism''<ref>[http://www.infoshop.org/afterleftism.html Infoshop.org - Anarchy After Leftism]</ref> section, and the [http://anarchism.ws/postleft.html Post-left section] on [http://anarchism.ws/ anarchism.ws.] ''See also:'' [[Post-left anarchy]] *'''Post-structuralism''' - The term postanarchism was originated by [[Saul Newman]], first receiving popular attention in his book ''[[From Bakunin to Lacan]]'' to refer to a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and [[poststructuralist]] thought. Subsequent to Newman's use of the term, however, it has taken on a life of its own and a wide range of ideas including [[autonomism]], [[post-left anarchy]], [[situationism]], [[post-colonialism]] and Zapatismo. By its very nature post-anarchism rejects the idea that it should be a coherent set of doctrines and beliefs. As such it is difficult, if not impossible, to state with any degree of certainty who should or shouldn't be grouped under the rubric. Nonetheless key thinkers associated with post-anarchism include [[Saul Newman]], [[Todd May]], [[Gilles Deleuze]] and [[Félix Guattari]]. ''External reference: Postanarchism Clearinghouse''<ref>[http://www.postanarchism.org/ Post anarchist clearing house]</ref> ''See also'' [[Post-anarchism]] *'''Insurrectionary anarchism''' - Insurrectionary anarchism is a form of revolutionary anarchism critical of formal anarchist labor unions and federations. Insurrectionary anarchists advocate informal organization, including small affinity groups, carrying out acts of resistance in various struggles, and mass organizations called base structures, which can include exploited individuals who are not anarchists. Proponents include [[Wolfi Landstreicher]] and [[Alfredo M. Bonanno]], author of works including "Armed Joy" and "The Anarchist Tension". This tendency is represented in the US in magazines such as [[Willful Disobedience]] and [[Killing King Abacus]]. ''See also:'' [[Insurrectionary anarchism]] *'''Small 'a' anarchism''' - '''Small 'a' anarchism''' is a term used in two different, but not unconnected contexts. Dave Neal posited the term in opposition to big 'A' Anarchism in the article [http://www.spunk.org/library/intro/practice/sp001689.html Anarchism: Ideology or Methodology?]. While big 'A' Anarchism referred to ideological Anarchists, small 'a' anarchism was applied to their methodological counterparts; those who viewed anarchism as "a way of acting, or a historical tendency against illegitimate authority." As an anti-ideological position, small 'a' anarchism shares some similarities with [[post-left anarchy]]. [[David Graeber]] and [[Andrej Grubacic]] offer an alternative use of the term, applying it to groups and movements organising according to or acting in a manner consistent with anarchist principles of decentralisation, voluntary association, mutual aid, the network model, and crucially, "the rejection of any idea that the end justifies the means, let alone that the business of a revolutionary is to seize state power and then begin imposing one's vision at the point of a gun."[http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=41&ItemID=4796] ==Other issues== *'''Conceptions of an anarchist society''' - Many political philosophers justify support of the state as a means of regulating violence, so that the destruction caused by human conflict is minimized and fair relationships are established. Anarchists argue that pursuit of these ends does not justify the establishment of a state; many argue that the state is incompatible with those goals and the ''cause'' of chaos, violence, and war. Anarchists argue that the state helps to create a [[Monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force|monopoly on violence]], and uses violence to advance elite interests. Much effort has been dedicated to explaining how anarchist societies would handle criminality.''See also:'' [[Anarchism and Society]] *'''Civil rights and cultural sovereignty''' - [[Black anarchism]] opposes the existence of a state, capitalism, and subjugation and domination of people of color, and favors a non-hierarchical organization of society. Theorists include [[Ashanti Alston]], [[Lorenzo Komboa Ervin]], and [[Sam Mbah]]. [[Anarchist People of Color]] was created as a forum for non-caucasian anarchists to express their thoughts about racial issues within the anarchist movement, particularly within the United States. [[National anarchism]] is a political view which seeks to unite cultural or ethnic preservation with anarchist views. Its adherents propose that those preventing ethnic groups (or [[races]]) from living in separate autonomous groupings should be resisted. [[Anti-Racist Action]] is not an anarchist group, but many anarchists are involved. It focuses on publicly confronting racist agitators. The [[Zapatista]] movement of Chiapas, Mexico is a cultural sovereignty group with some anarchist proclivities. *'''Neocolonialism and Globalization''' - Nearly all anarchists oppose [[neocolonialism]] as an attempt to use economic coercion on a global scale, carried out through state institutions such as the [[World Bank]], [[World Trade Organization]], [[G8|Group of Eight]], and the [[World Economic Forum]]. [[Globalization]] is an ambiguous term that has different meanings to different anarchist factions. Most anarchists use the term to mean neocolonialism and/or [[cultural imperialism]] (which they may see as related). Many are active in the [[anti-globalization]] movement. Others, particularly anarcho-capitalists, use "globalization" to mean the worldwide expansion of the division of labor and trade, which they see as beneficial so long as governments do not intervene. *'''Parallel structures''' - Many anarchists try to set up alternatives to state-supported institutions and "outposts," such as [[Food Not Bombs]], [[infoshop]]s, educational systems such as home-schooling, neighborhood mediation/arbitration groups, and so on. The idea is to create the structures for a new anti-authoritarian society in the shell of the old, authoritarian one. *'''Technology''' - Recent technological developments have made the anarchist cause both easier to advance and more conceivable to people. Many people use the Internet to form on-line communities. [[Intellectual property]] is undermined and a gift-culture supported by [[file sharing|sharing music files]], [[open source]] programming, and the [[free software movement]]. These cyber-communities include the [[GNU]], [[Linux]], [[Indymedia]], and [[Wiki]]. <!-- ***NEEDS SOURCE THAT E-GOLD IS USED BY ANARCHISTS*** [[Public key cryptography]] has made anonymous digital currencies such as [[e-gold]] and [[Local Exchange Trading Systems]] an alternative to statist [[fiat money]]. --> Some anarchists see [[information technology]] as the best weapon to defeat authoritarianism. Some even think the information age makes eventual anarchy inevitable.<ref>[http://www.modulaware.com/a/?m=select&id=0684832720 The Sovereign Individual -- Mastering the transition to the information age]</ref> ''See also'': [[Crypto-anarchism]] and [[Cypherpunk]]. *'''Pacifism''' - Some anarchists consider [[Pacifism]] (opposition to [[war]]) to be inherent in their philosophy. [[Anarcho-pacifism|anarcho-pacifists]] take it further and follow [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s belief in [[Nonviolence|non-violence]]. Anarchists see war as an activity in which the state seeks to gain and consolidate power, both domestically and in foreign lands, and subscribe to [[Randolph Bourne]]'s view that "war is the health of the state"<ref>[http://struggle.ws/hist_texts/warhealthstate1918.html War is the Health of the State]</ref>. A lot of anarchist activity has been [[anti-war]] based. *'''Parliamentarianism''' - In general terms, the anarchist ethos opposes voting in elections, because voting amounts to condoning the state.<ref>[http://members.aol.com/vlntryst/hitler.html The Voluntaryist - Why I would not vote against Hitler]</ref>. [[Voluntaryism]] is an anarchist school of thought which emphasizes "tending your own garden" and "neither ballots nor bullets." The anarchist case against voting is explained in ''The Ethics of Voting''<ref>[http://www.voluntaryist.com/nonvoting/ethics_of_voting.php Voluntaryist - The ethics of voting]</ref> by [[George H. Smith]]. (Also see "Voting Anarchists: An Oxymoron or What?" by [[Joe Peacott]], and writings by [[Fred Woodworth]]). *'''Sectarianism''' - Most anarchist schools of thought are, to some degree, [[sectarian]]. There is often a difference of opinion ''within'' each school about how to react to, or interact with, other schools. Some, such as [[panarchy|panarchists]], believe that it is possible for a variety of modes of social life to coexist and compete. Some anarchists view opposing schools as a social impossibility and resist interaction; others see opportunities for coalition-building, or at least temporary alliances for specific purposes. ''See [[anarchism without adjectives]].'' ==Criticisms of anarchism== :''Main article:'' [[Criticisms of anarchism]] '''Violence.''' Since anarchism has often been associated with violence and destruction, some people have seen it as being too violent. On the other hand hand, [[Frederick Engels]] criticsed anarchists for not being violent enough: :''"A revolution is certainly the most authoritarian thing there is; it is the act whereby one part of the population imposes its will upon the other part by means of rifles, bayonets and cannon — authoritarian means, if such there be at all; and if the victorious party does not want to have fought in vain, it must maintain this rule by means of the terror which its arms inspire in the reactionists. Would the Paris Commune have lasted a single day if it had not made use of this authority of the armed people against the bourgeois?"<ref>[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1872/10/authority.htm ''On Authority'']</ref> '''Utopianism.''' Anarchism is often criticised as unfeasible, or plain [[utopian]], even by many who agree that it's a nice idea in principle. For example, Carl Landauer in his book ''European Socialism'' criticizes anarchism as being unrealistically utopian, and holds that government is a "lesser evil" than a society without "repressive force." He holds that the belief that "ill intentions will cease if repressive force disappears" is an "absurdity."<ref>[[Carl Landauer|Landauer]], Carl. ''European Socialism: A History of Ideas and Movements'' (1959) (retrieved from "Anarchist Theory FAQ" by [[Bryan Caplan]] on [[January 27]] [[2006]]</ref> However, it must be noted that not all anarchists have such a utopian view of anarchism. For example, some, such as Benjamin Tucker, advocate privately-funded institutions that defend individual liberty and property. However, other anarchists, such as Sir [[Herbert Read]], proudly accept the characterization "utopian." '''[[Social class|Class]] character.''' [[Marxists]] have characterised anarchism as an expression of the class interests of the [[petite bourgeoisie]] or perhaps the [[lumpenproletariat]]. See e.g. Plekhanov<ref>[[G. V. Plekhanov]] ''"[http://www.marxists.org/archive/plekhanov/1895/anarch/index.htm Anarchism and Socialism]"''</ref> for a Marxist critique of 1895. Anarchists have also been characterised as spoilt [[middle-class]] [[dilettante]]s, most recently in relation to [[anti-capitalism|anti-capitalist]] protesters. '''Tacit authoritarianism.''' In recent decades anarchism has been criticised by 'situationists', 'post-anarchists' and others of preserving 'tacitly statist', authoritarian or bureaucratic tendencies behind a dogmatic facade.<ref>[http://library.nothingness.org/articles/SI/en/display/20 ''Society of the Spectacle] Paragraph 91</ref> '''Hypocrisy.''' Some critics point to the [[sexist]]<ref>[[Jenny P. d'Hericourt]], ''"[http://www.pinn.net/~sunshine/whm2003/hericourt2.html Contemporary feminist critic of Proudhon]"''</ref> and [[racist]] views of some prominent anarchists, notably [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]] and [[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin]], as examples of [[hypocrisy]] inherent within anarchism. While many anarchists, however, dismiss that the personal prejudices of 19th century theorists influence the beliefs of present-day anarchists, others criticise modern anarchism for continuing to be [[eurocentric]] and reference the impact of anarchist thinkers like Proudhon on [[fascism]] through groups like [[Cercle Proudhon]].<ref>[http://www.stewarthomesociety.org/ai.htm ''Anarchist Integralism]</ref> Anarcho-capitalist [[Bryan Caplan]] argues that the treatment of fascists and suspected fascist sympathizers by Spanish Anarchists in the Spanish Civil War was a form of illegitimate coercion, making the proffessed anarchists "ultimately just a third faction of totalitarians," alongside the communists and fascists. He also criticizes the willingness of the CNT to join the (statist) Republican government during the civil war, and references [[Stanley G. Payne]]'s book on the Franco regime which claims that the CNT entered negotiations with the fascist government six years after the war.<ref>[[Bryan Caplan|Caplan]], Bryan. ''"[http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/bcaplan/spain.htm The Anarcho-Statists of Spain]"''</ref> ==Cultural phenomena== [[Image:Noam_chomsky.jpg|thumb|150px|right| [[Noam Chomsky]] (1928–)]] The kind of anarchism that is most easily encountered in popular culture is represented by celebrities who publicly identify themselves as anarchists. Although some anarchists reject any focus on such famous living individuals as inherently élitist, the following figures are examples of prominent publicly self-avowed anarchists: * the [[MIT]] professor of [[Linguistics]] [[Noam Chomsky]] * the [[science fiction]] author [[Ursula K. Le Guin]] * the social historian [[Howard Zinn]] * entertainer and author [[Hans Alfredsson]] * the [[Avant-garde]] artist [[Nicolás Rosselló]] In [[Denmark]], the [[Freetown Christiania]] was created in downtown [[Copenhagen]]. The housing and employment crisis in most of [[Western Europe]] led to the formation of [[commune (intentional community)|communes]] and squatter movements like the one still thriving in [[Barcelona]], in [[Catalonia]]. Militant [[antifa|resistance to neo-Nazi groups]] in places like Germany, and the uprisings of [[autonomous Marxism]], [[situationist]], and [[Autonomist]] groups in France and Italy also helped to give popularity to anti-authoritarian, non-capitalist ideas. In various musical styles, anarchism rose in popularity. Most famous for the linking of anarchist ideas and music has been punk rock, although in the modern age, hip hop, and folk music are also becoming important mediums for the spreading of the anarchist message. In the [[United Kingdom|UK]] this was associated with the [[punk rock]] movement; the band [[Crass]] is celebrated for its anarchist and [[pacifism|pacifist]] ideas. The [[Dutch people|Dutch]] punk band [[The Ex]] further exemplifies this expression. ''For further details, see [[anarcho-punk]]'' ==See also== <!-- (Please take care in adding to this list that it not grow excessively large, consider adding to the list of anarchist concepts page) --> There are many concepts relevant to the topic of anarchism, this is a brief summary. There is also a more extensive [[list of anarchist concepts]]. * [[individualist anarchism]], [[anarcho-communism]], [[anarcho-syndicalism]], [[anarcho-capitalism]], [[mutualism]], [[Christian anarchism]], [[anarcha-feminism]], [[green anarchism]], [[nihilist anarchism]], [[anarcho-nationalism]], [[black anarchism]], [[national anarchism]]. [[post-anarchism]], [[post-left anarchism]] * [[Libertarian Socialism]] * [[Anarchist symbolism]] * [[Anarchism/Links|List of anarchism links]] * [[List of anarchists]] * [[List of anarchist organizations]] * [[Major conflicts within anarchist thought]] * [[Past and present anarchist communities]] ===Historical events=== *[[Paris Commune]] (1871) *[[Haymarket Riot]] (1886) *[[The Makhnovschina]] (1917 &mdash; 1921) *[[Kronstadt rebellion]] (1921) *[[Spanish Revolution]] (1936) (see [[Anarchism in Spain]] and [[Spanish Revolution]]) *May 1968, France (1968) *[[WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999|WTO Meeting in Seattle]] (1999) ===Books=== {{main|List of anarchist books}} The following is a sample of books that have been referenced in this page, a more complete list can be found at the [[list of anarchist books]]. *[[Mikhail Bakunin]], ''[[God and the State]]'' [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bakunin/godandstate/godandstate_ch1.html] *[[Emma Goldman]], ''[[Anarchism & Other Essays]]'' [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/goldman/GoldmanCW.html] *[[Peter Kropotkin]], ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution|Mutual Aid]]'' [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/4341] *[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], ''[[What is Property?]]'' [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/360] *[[Rudolf Rocker]], ''[[Anarcho-Syndicalism (book)|Anarcho-Syndicalism]]'' *[[Murray Rothbard]] ''[[The Ethics of Liberty]]'' [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/ethics/ethics.asp] *[[Max Stirner]], ''[[The Ego And Its Own]]'' [http://www.df.lth.se/~triad/stirner/] *[[Leo Tolstoy]], ''[[The Kingdom of God is Within You]]'' [http://www.kingdomnow.org/withinyou.html] ===Anarchism by region/culture=== * [[African Anarchism]] * [[Anarchism in Spain]] * [[Anarchism in the English tradition]] * [[Chinese anarchism]] ==References== <div style="font-size: 85%"> <references/> </div> '''These notes have no corresponding reference in the article. They might be re-used.''' # {{note|bill}} [http://ns52.super-hosts.com/~vaz1net/bill/anarchism/library/thelaw.html] # {{note|praxeology}} [http://praxeology.net/GM-PS.htm] # {{note|platform}} [http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/platform/plat_preface.html] # {{note|appleton}} [http://www.againstpolitics.com/market_anarchism/appleton_boston.htm Against Politics - Appleton - Boston Anarchists] # {{note|Yarros-NotUtopian}} [[Victor Yarros|Yarros, Victor]] ''Liberty'' VII, [[January 2]] [[1892]]. # {{note|totse}} [http://www.totse.com/en/politics/anarchism/161594.html Noam Chomsky on Anarchism by Noam Chomsky] ==External links== The overwhelming diversity and number of links relating to anarchism is extensively covered on the [[List of anarchism web resources|links subpage]]. {{wikiquote|Definitions of anarchism}} *[http://anarchoblogs.protest.net/ Anarchoblogs] Blogs by Anarchists. *[http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/ Anarchy Archives] extensively archives information relating to famous anarchists. This includes many of their books and other publications. *Hundreds of anarchists are listed, with short bios, links & dedicated pages [http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/gallery/galleryindex.htm at the Daily Bleed's Anarchist Encyclopedia] *[http://www.infoshop.org/ Infoshop.org] ([[Infoshop.org|wikipedia page]]) *[http://www.iww.org/ Industrial Workers of the World] <!-- Attention! The external link portion of this article regularly grows far beyond manageable size. Please only list an outside link if it applies to anarchism in general and is somewhat noteworthy. Links to lesser known sites or submovements will be routinely moved to the list page to keep this article free of clutter --> [[Category:Anarchism|*]] [[Category:Forms of government|Anarchism]] [[Category:Political ideology entry points|Anarchism]] [[Category:Political theories|Anarchism]] [[Category:Social philosophy|Anarchism]] [[ar:لاسلطوية]] [[ast:Anarquismu]] [[bg:Анархизъм]] [[bs:Anarhizam]] [[ca:Anarquisme]] [[cs:Anarchismus]] [[da:Anarkisme]] [[de:Anarchismus]] [[eo:Anarkiismo]] [[es:Anarquismo]] [[et:Anarhism]] [[eu:Anarkismo]] [[fa:دولت‌زدائی]] [[fi:Anarkismi]] [[fr:Anarchisme]] [[gl:Anarquismo]] [[he:אנרכיזם]] [[hu:Anarchizmus]] [[id:Anarkisme]] [[is:Stjórnleysisstefna]] [[it:Anarchismo]] [[ja:アナキズム]] [[ko:아나키즘]] [[lt:Anarchizmas]] [[nl:Anarchisme]] [[nn:Anarkisme]] [[no:Anarkisme]] [[pl:Anarchizm]] [[pt:Anarquismo]] [[ro:Anarhism]] [[ru:Анархизм]] [[sco:Anarchism]] [[simple:Anarchism]] [[sk:Anarchizmus]] [[sl:Anarhizem]] [[sr:Анархизам]] [[sv:Anarkism]] [[th:ลัทธิอนาธิปไตย]] [[tr:Anarşizm]] [[zh:无政府主义]] [[zh-min-nan:Hui-thóng-tī-chú-gī]] 13 15898948 2002-08-27T03:07:44Z Magnus Manske 4 whoops #REDIRECT [[History of Afghanistan]] 14 15898949 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Geography of Afghanistan]] 15 15898950 2002-08-21T10:42:35Z -- April 166 fix link #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Afghanistan]] 17 15898951 2002-05-17T15:30:05Z AxelBoldt 2 fix redirect #REDIRECT [[Economy of Afghanistan]] 18 15898952 2002-09-13T13:39:26Z Andre Engels 300 indirect redirect #REDIRECT [[Communications in Afghanistan]] 19 15898953 2002-10-09T13:36:44Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Transportation in Afghanistan]] #REDIRECT [[Transportation in Afghanistan]] 20 15898954 2002-09-03T01:14:20Z Andre Engels 300 short-circuiting two-step redirect #REDIRECT [[Military of Afghanistan]] 21 15898955 2002-10-09T13:37:01Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Afghanistan]] #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Afghanistan]] 22 15898956 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Altruism]] 23 15898957 2003-04-25T22:20:03Z Ams80 7543 Fixing redirect #REDIRECT [[Assistive_technology]] 24 15898958 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Amoeboid]] 25 42019020 2006-03-03T06:39:21Z Ohnoitsjamie 507787 rv difficult-to-follow paragraph <!-- NOTES: 1) Please do not convert the bullets to subheadings here as the table of contents would be too large in that case (for example, see the FAC). 2) Use ref/note combos for all links and explicitly cited references 3) Reference anything you put here with notable references, as this subject tends to attract a lot of controversy. -->{{DiseaseDisorder infobox | Name = Childhood autism | ICD10 = F84.0 | ICD9 = {{ICD9|299.0}} | }} '''Autism''' is classified as a neurodevelopmental disorder that manifests itself in markedly abnormal social interaction, communication ability, patterns of interests, and patterns of behavior. Although the specific [[etiology]] of autism is unknown, many researchers suspect that autism results from genetically mediated vulnerabilities to environmental triggers. And while there is disagreement about the magnitude, nature, and mechanisms for such environmental factors, researchers have found at least seven major genes prevalent among individuals diagnosed as autistic. Some estimate that autism occurs in as many as one [[United States]] child in 166, however the [[National Institute of Mental Health]] gives a more conservative estimate of one in 1000{{ref|NihAutismov2005}}. For families that already have one autistic child, the odds of a second autistic child may be as high as one in twenty. Diagnosis is based on a list of [[Psychiatry|psychiatric]] criteria, and a series of standardized clinical tests may also be used. Autism may not be [[Physiology|physiologically]] obvious. A complete physical and [[neurological]] evaluation will typically be part of diagnosing autism. Some now speculate that autism is not a single condition but a group of several distinct conditions that manifest in similar ways. By definition, autism must manifest delays in "social interaction, language as used in social communication, or symbolic or imaginative play," with "onset prior to age 3 years", according to the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]. The [[ICD-10]] also says that symptoms must "manifest before the age of three years." There have been large increases in the reported [[Autism epidemic|incidence of autism]], for reasons that are heavily debated by [[research]]ers in [[psychology]] and related fields within the [[scientific community]]. Some children with autism have improved their social and other skills to the point where they can fully participate in mainstream education and social events, but there are lingering concerns that an absolute cure from autism is impossible with current technology. However, many autistic children and adults who are able to communicate (at least in writing) are opposed to attempts to cure their conditions, and see such conditions as part of who they are. ==History== [[image:Asperger_kl2.jpg|frame|right|Dr. [[Hans Asperger]] described a form of autism in the 1940s that later became known as [[Asperger's syndrome]].]] The word ''autism'' was first used in the [[English language]] by Swiss psychiatrist [[Eugene Bleuler]] in a 1912 number of the ''American Journal of Insanity''. It comes from the Greek word for "self". However, the [[Medical classification|classification]] of autism did not occur until the middle of the [[twentieth century]], when in 1943 psychiatrist Dr. [[Leo Kanner]] of the [[Johns Hopkins Hospital]] in Baltimore reported on 11 child patients with striking behavioral similarities, and introduced the label ''early infantile autism''. He suggested "autism" from the [[Greek language|Greek]] &alpha;&upsilon;&tau;&omicron;&sigmaf; (''autos''), meaning "self", to describe the fact that the children seemed to lack interest in other people. Although Kanner's first paper on the subject was published in a (now defunct) journal, ''The Nervous Child'', almost every characteristic he originally described is still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders. At the same time an [[Austria|Austrian]] scientist, Dr. [[Hans Asperger]], described a different form of autism that became known as [[Asperger's syndrome]]&mdash;but the widespread recognition of Asperger's work was delayed by [[World War II]] in [[Germany]], and by the fact that his seminal paper wasn't translated into English for almost 50 years. The majority of his work wasn't widely read until 1997. Thus these two conditions were described and are today listed in the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] DSM-IV-TR (fourth edition, text revision 1) as two of the five [[Pervasive developmental disorder|pervasive developmental disorders]] (PDD), more often referred to today as [[Autistic spectrum|autism spectrum disorders]] (ASD). All of these conditions are characterized by varying degrees of difference in [[communication skill]]s, social interactions, and restricted, repetitive and stereotyped patterns of [[Human behavior|behavior]]. Few clinicians today solely use the DSM-IV criteria for determining a diagnosis of autism, which are based on the absence or delay of certain developmental milestones. Many clinicians instead use an alternate means (or a combination thereof) to more accurately determine a [[diagnosis]]. ==Terminology== {{wiktionarypar2|autism|autistic}} When referring to someone diagnosed with autism, the term ''autistic'' is often used. However, the term ''person with autism'' can be used instead. This is referred to as ''[[person-first terminology]]''. The [[autistic community]] generally prefers the term ''autistic'' for reasons that are fairly controversial. This article uses the term ''autistic'' (see [[Talk:Autism|talk page]]). ==Characteristics== [[Image:kanner_kl2.jpg|frame|right|Dr. [[Leo Kanner]] introduced the label ''early infantile autism'' in 1943.]] There is a great diversity in the skills and behaviors of individuals diagnosed as autistic, and physicians will often arrive at different conclusions about the appropriate diagnosis. Much of this is due to the [[sensory system]] of an autistic which is quite different from the sensory system of other people, since certain [[stimulus|stimulations]] can affect an autistic differently than a non-autistic, and the degree to which the sensory system is affected varies wildly from one autistic person to another. Nevertheless, professionals within [[pediatric]] care and development often look for early indicators of autism in order to initiate treatment as early as possible. However, some people do not believe in treatment for autism, either because they do not believe autism is a disorder or because they believe treatment can do more harm than good. ===Social development=== Typically, developing infants are social beings&mdash;early in life they do such things as gaze at people, turn toward voices, grasp a finger, and even smile. In contrast, most autistic children prefer objects to faces and seem to have tremendous difficulty learning to engage in the give-and-take of everyday human interaction. Even in the first few months of life, many seem indifferent to other people because they avoid eye contact and do not interact with them as often as non-autistic children. Children with autism often appear to prefer being alone to the company of others and may passively accept such things as hugs and cuddling without reciprocating, or resist attention altogether. Later, they seldom seek comfort from others or respond to parents' displays of [[anger]] or [[affection]] in a typical way. Research has suggested that although autistic children are attached to their [[parent]]s, their expression of this attachment is unusual and difficult to interpret. Parents who looked forward to the joys of cuddling, [[teaching]], and playing with their child may feel crushed by this lack of expected [[attachment theory|attachment]] behavior. Children with autism appear to lack "[[Theory of mind|theory of mind]]", the ability to see things from another person's perspective, a behavior cited as exclusive to human beings above the age of five and, possibly, other higher [[primate]]s such as adult [[gorilla]]s, [[Common chimpanzee|chimpanzee]]s and [[bonobos]]. Typical 5-year-olds can develop insights into other people's different knowledge, feelings, and intentions, interpretations based upon social cues (e.g., gestures, facial expressions). An individual with autism seems to lack these interpretation skills, an inability that leaves them unable to predict or understand other people's actions. The [[social alienation]] of autistic and Asperger's people is so intense from childhood that many of them have [[imaginary friend]]s as companionship. However, having an imaginary friend is not necessarily a sign of autism and also occurs in non-autistic children. Although not universal, it is common for autistic people to not regulate their behavior. This can take the form of crying or verbal outbursts that may seem out of proportion to the situation. Individuals with autism generally prefer consistent routines and environments; they may react negatively to changes in them. It is not uncommon for these individuals to exhibit aggression, increased levels of self-stimulatory behavior, self-injury or extensive withdrawal in overwhelming situations. ===Sensory system=== A key indicator to clinicians making a proper assessment for autism would include looking for symptoms much like those found in [[Sensory Integration Dysfunction|sensory integration dysfunction]]. Children will exhibit problems coping with the normal sensory input. Indicators of this disorder include oversensitivity or underreactivity to touch, movement, sights, or sounds; physical clumsiness or carelessness; poor body awareness; a tendency to be easily distracted; impulsive physical or verbal behavior; an activity level that is unusually high or low; not unwinding or calming oneself; difficulty learning new movements; difficulty in making transitions from one situation to another; social and/or emotional problems; delays in [[Speech delay|speech]], [[Language delay|language]] or [[motor skills]]; specific learning difficulties/delays in academic achievement. One common example is an individual with autism [[Hearing (sense)|hearing]]. A person with Autism may have trouble hearing certain people while other people are louder than usual. Or the person with autism may be unable to filter out sounds in certain situations, such as in a large crowd of people (see [[cocktail party effect]]). However, this is perhaps the part of the autism that tends to vary the most from person to person, so these examples may not apply to every autistic. It should be noted that sensory difficulties, although reportedly common in autistics, are not part of the [[DSM-IV]] diagnostic criteria for ''autistic disorder''. ===Communication difficulties=== By age 3, typical children have passed predictable language learning milestones; one of the earliest is babbling. By the first birthday, a typical toddler says words, turns when he or she hears his or her name, points when he or she wants a toy, and when offered something distasteful, makes it clear that the answer is "no." Speech development in people with autism takes different paths. Some remain [[mute]] throughout their lives while being fully [[literacy|literate]] and able to communicate in other ways&mdash;images, [[sign language]], and [[typing]] are far more natural to them. Some infants who later show signs of autism coo and babble during the first few months of life, but stop soon afterwards. Others may be delayed, developing language as late as the [[adolescence|teenage]] years. Still, inability to speak does not mean that people with autism are unintelligent or unaware. Once given appropriate accommodations, many will happily converse for hours, and can often be found in online [[chat room]]s, discussion boards or [[website]]s and even using communication devices at autism-community social events such as [[Autreat]]. Those who do speak often use [[language]] in unusual ways, retaining features of earlier stages of language development for long periods or throughout their lives. Some speak only single words, while others repeat the same phrase over and over. Some repeat what they hear, a condition called [[echolalia]]. Sing-song repetitions in particular are a calming, joyous activity that many autistic adults engage in. Many people with autism have a strong [[tonality|tonal]] sense, and can often understand spoken language. Some children may exhibit only slight delays in language, or even seem to have precocious language and unusually large [[vocabulary|vocabularies]], but have great difficulty in sustaining typical [[conversation]]s. The "give and take" of non-autistic conversation is hard for them, although they often carry on a [[monologue]] on a favorite subject, giving no one else an opportunity to comment. When given the chance to converse with other autistics, they comfortably do so in "parallel monologue"&mdash;taking turns expressing views and information. Just as "[[neurotypical]]s" (people without autism) have trouble understanding autistic [[body language]]s, vocal tones, or phraseology, people with autism similarly have trouble with such things in people without autism. In particular, autistic language abilities tend to be highly literal; people without autism often inappropriately attribute hidden meaning to what people with autism say or expect the person with autism to sense such unstated meaning in their own words. The body language of people with autism can be difficult for other people to understand. Facial expressions, movements, and gestures may be easily understood by some other people with autism, but do not match those used by other people. Also, their tone of voice has a much more subtle inflection in reflecting their feelings, and the [[auditory system]] of a person without autism often cannot sense the fluctuations. What seems to non-autistic people like a high-pitched, sing-song, or flat, [[robot]]-like voice is common in autistic children. Some autistic children with relatively good language skills speak like little adults, rather than communicating at their current age level, which is one of the things that can lead to problems. Since non-autistic people are often unfamiliar with the autistic [[body language]], and since autistic natural language may not tend towards speech, autistic people often struggle to let other people know what they need. As anybody might do in such a situation, they may scream in frustration or resort to grabbing what they want. While waiting for non-autistic people to learn to communicate with them, people with autism do whatever they can to get through to them. Communication difficulties may contribute to autistic people becoming socially anxious or depressed. ===Repetitive behaviors=== Although people with autism usually appear physically normal and have good muscle control, unusual repetitive motions, known as self-stimulation or "stimming," may set them apart. These behaviors might be extreme and highly apparent or more subtle. Some children and older individuals spend a lot of time repeatedly flapping their arms or wiggling their toes, others suddenly freeze in position. As [[child]]ren, they might spend hours lining up their cars and trains in a certain way, not using them for pretend play. If someone accidentally moves one of these toys, the child may be tremendously upset. Autistic children often need, and demand, absolute consistency in their environment. A slight change in any routine&mdash;in mealtimes, dressing, taking a bath, or going to school at a certain time and by the same route&mdash;can be extremely disturbing. People with autism sometimes have a persistent, intense preoccupation. For example, the child might be obsessed with learning all about [[vacuum cleaners]], [[train]] schedules or [[lighthouses]]. Often they show great interest in different languages, numbers, symbols or [[science]] topics. Repetitive behaviors can also extend into the spoken word as well. Perseveration of a single word or phrase, even for a specific number of times can also become a part of the child's daily routine. ===Effects in education=== Children with autism are affected with these symptoms every day. These unusual characteristics set them apart from the everyday normal student. Because they have trouble understanding people’s thoughts and feelings, they have trouble understanding what their teacher may be telling them. They do not understand that facial expressions and vocal variations hold meanings and may misinterpret what emotion their instructor is displaying. This inability to fully decipher the world around them makes education stressful. Teachers need to be aware of a student's disorder so that they are able to help the student get the best out of the lessons being taught. Some students learn better with visual aids as they are better able to understand material presented this way. Because of this, many teachers create “visual schedules” for their autistic students. This allows the student to know what is going on throughout the day, so they know what to prepare for and what activity they will be doing next. Some autistic children have trouble going from one activity to the next, so this visual schedule can help to reduce stress. Research has shown that working in pairs may be beneficial to autistic children. <!-- cite a source here, please! --> Autistic students have problems in schools not only with language and communication, but with socialization as well. They feel self-conscious about themselves and many feel that they will always be outcasts. By allowing them to work with peers they can make friends, which in turn can help them cope with the problems that arise. By doing so they can become more integrated into the mainstream environment of the classroom. A teacher's aide can also be useful to the student. The aide is able to give more elaborate directions that the teacher may not have time to explain to the autistic child. The aide can also facilitate the autistic child in such a way as to allow them to stay at a similar level to the rest of the class. This allows a partially one-on-one lesson structure so that the child is still able to stay in a normal classroom but be given the extra help that they need. There are many different techniques that teachers can use to assist their students. A teacher needs to become familiar with the child’s disorder to know what will work best with that particular child. Every child is going to be different and teachers have to be able to adjust with every one of them. Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders typically have high levels of anxiety and stress, particularly in social environments like school. If a student exhibits aggressive or explosive behavior, it is important for educational teams to recognize the impact of stress and anxiety. Preparing students for new situations by writing Social Stories can lower anxiety. Teaching social and emotional concepts using systematic teaching approaches such as The Incredible 5-Point Scale or other Cognitive Behavioral strategies can increase a student's ability to control excessive behavioral reactions. == DSM definition == Autism is defined in section 299.00 of the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] (DSM-IV) as: #A total of six (or more) items from (1), (2) and (3), with at least two from (1), and one each from (2) and (3): ##qualitative impairment in social interaction, as manifested by at least two of the following: ###marked impairment in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors such as eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body postures, and gestures to regulate social interaction ###failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to developmental level ###a lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interests, or achievements with other people (e.g., by a lack of showing, bringing, or pointing out objects of interest) ###lack of social or emotional reciprocity ##qualitative impairments in communication as manifested by at least one of the following: ###delay in, or total lack of, the development of spoken language (not accompanied by an attempt to compensate through alternative modes of communication such as gesture or mime) ###in individuals with adequate speech, marked impairment in the ability to initiate or sustain a conversation with others ###stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language ###lack of varied, spontaneous make-believe play or social imitative play appropriate to developmental level ##restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests, and activities, as manifested by at least one of the following: ###encompassing preoccupation with one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest that is abnormal either in intensity or focus ###apparently inflexible adherence to specific, nonfunctional routines or rituals ###stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms (e.g., hand or finger flapping or twisting, or complex whole-body movements) ###persistent preoccupation with parts of objects #Delays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the following areas, with onset prior to age 3 years: (1) social interaction, (2) language as used in social communication, or (3) symbolic or imaginative play. #The disturbance is not better accounted for by [[Rett syndrome|Rett's Disorder]] or [[Childhood disintegrative disorder|Childhood Disintegrative Disorder]]. The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual''<!-- -->'s diagnostic criteria in general is controversial for being vague and subjective. (See the [[DSM cautionary statement]].) The criteria for autism is much more controversial and some clinicians today may ignore it completely, instead solely relying on other methods for determining the diagnosis. == Types of autism == Autism presents in a wide degree, from those who are nearly [[dysfunctional]] and apparently [[Developmental Disability|mentally handicapped]] to those whose symptoms are mild or remedied enough to appear unexceptional ("normal") to the general public. In terms of both classification and therapy, autistic individuals are often divided into those with an [[Intelligence Quotient|IQ]]&lt;80 referred to as having "low-functioning autism" (LFA), while those with IQ&gt;80 are referred to as having "high-functioning autism" (HFA). Low and high functioning are more generally applied to how well an individual can accomplish activities of daily living, rather than to [[IQ]]. The terms low and high functioning are controversial and not all autistics accept these labels. Further, these two labels are not currently used or accepted in autism literature. This discrepancy can lead to confusion among service providers who equate IQ with functioning and may refuse to serve high-IQ autistic people who are severely compromised in their ability to perform daily living tasks, or may fail to recognize the intellectual potential of many autistic people who are considered LFA. For example, some professionals refuse to recognize autistics who can speak or write as being autistic at all, because they still think of autism as a communication disorder so severe that no speech or writing is possible. As a consequence, many "high-functioning" autistic persons, and autistic people with a relatively high [[IQ]], are underdiagnosed, thus making the claim that "autism implies retardation" self-fulfilling. The number of people diagnosed with LFA is not rising quite as sharply as HFA, indicating that at least part of the explanation for the apparent rise is probably better diagnostics. === Asperger's and Kanner's syndrome === [[Image:Hans Asperger.jpg|thumb|right|160px|Asperger described his patients as "little professors".]] In the current [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] (DSM-IV-TR), the most significant difference between Autistic Disorder (Kanner's) and Asperger's syndrome is that a diagnosis of the former includes the observation of "[d]elays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the following areas, with onset prior to age 3 years: (1) social interaction, (2) language as used in social communication, or (3) symbolic or imaginative play[,]" {{ref|bnat}} while a diagnosis of Asperger's syndrome observes "no clinically significant delay" in these areas. {{ref|bnas}} The DSM makes no mention of level of intellectual functioning, but the fact that Asperger's autistics as a group tend to perform better than those with Kanner's autism has produced a popular conception that ''[[Asperger's syndrome]]'' is synonymous with "higher-functioning autism," or that it is a lesser [[disorder]] than ''autism''. There is also a popular but not necessarily true conception that all autistic individuals with a high level of intellectual functioning have Asperger's autism or that both types are merely [[geek]]s with a medical label attached. Also, autism has evolved in the public understanding, but the popular identification of autism with relatively severe cases as accurately depicted in ''[[Rain Man]]'' has encouraged relatives of family members diagnosed in the autistic spectrum to speak of their loved ones as having Asperger's syndrome rather than autism. ===Autism as a spectrum disorder=== {{details|Autistic spectrum}} Another view of these disorders is that they are on a continuum known as [[autistic spectrum]] disorders. A related continuum is [[Sensory Integration Dysfunction]], which is about how well we integrate the information we receive from our senses. Autism, Asperger's syndrome, and Sensory Integration Dysfunction are all closely related and overlap. There are two main manifestations of classical autism, [[regressive autism]] and [[early infantile autism]]. Early infantile autism is present at birth while regressive autism begins before the age of 3 and often around 18 months. Although this causes some controversy over when the neurological differences involved in autism truly begin, some believe that it is only a matter of when an environmental toxin triggers the disorder. This triggering could occur during gestation due to a toxin that enters the mother's body and is transfered to the fetus. The triggering could also occur after birth during the crucial early nervous system development of the child due to a toxin directly entering the child's body. == Increase in diagnoses of autism == {{details|Autism epidemic}} [[Image:autismnocgraph.png|right|thumb|400px|The number of reported cases of autism has increased dramatically over the past decade. Statistics in graph from the [[National Center for Health Statistics]].]] There has been an explosion worldwide in reported cases of autism over the last ten years, which is largely reminiscent of increases in the diagnosis of [[schizophrenia]] and [[multiple personality disorder]] in the twentieth century. This has brought rise to a number of different theories as to the nature of the sudden increase. Epidemiologists argue that the rise in diagnoses in the United States is partly or entirely attributable to changes in diagnostic criteria, reclassifications, public awareness, and the incentive to receive federally mandated services. A widely cited study from the [[M.I.N.D. Institute]] in California ([[17 October]] [[2002]]), claimed that the increase in autism is real, even after those complicating factors are accounted for (see reference in this section below). Other researchers remain unconvinced (see references below), including Dr. Chris Johnson, a professor of pediatrics at the University of Texas Health Sciences Center at [[San Antonio]] and cochair of the [[American Academy of Pediatrics]] Autism Expert Panel, who says, "There is a chance we're seeing a true rise, but right now I don't think anybody can answer that question for sure." ([[Newsweek]] reference below). The answer to this question has significant ramifications on the direction of research, since a ''real increase'' would focus more attention (and research funding) on the search for environmental factors, while ''little or no real increase'' would focus more attention to genetics. On the other hand, it is conceivable that certain environmental factors (vaccination, diet, societal changes) may have a particular impact on people with a specific genetic constitution. There is little public research on the effects of [[in vitro fertilization]] on the number of incidences of autism. One of the more popular theories is that there is a connection between "geekdom" and autism. This is hinted, for instance, by a ''Wired Magazine'' article in 2001 entitled "The [[Geek]] Syndrome", which is a point argued by many in the autism rights movement{{ref|Wired}}. This article, many professionals assert, is just one example of the media's application of mental disease labels to what is actually variant normal behavior&mdash;they argue that shyness, lack of athletic ability or social skills, and intellectual interests, even when they seem unusual to others, are not in themselves signs of autism or Asperger's syndrome. Others assert that it is actually the medical profession which is applying mental disease labels to children who in the past would have simply been accepted as a little different or even labeled 'gifted'. See [[clinomorphism]] for further discussion of this issue. Due to the recent publicity surrounding autism and autistic spectrum disorders, an increasing number of adults are choosing to seek diagnoses of high-functioning autism or Asperger's syndrome in light of symptoms they currently experience or experienced during childhood. Since the cause of autism is thought to be at least partly genetic, a proportion of these adults seek their own diagnosis specifically as follow-up to their children's diagnoses. Because autism falls into the [[pervasive developmental disorder]] category, strictly speaking, symptoms must have been present in a given patient before age seven in order to make a [[differential diagnosis]]. == Therapies == {{details|Autism therapies}} ==Sociology== Due to the complexity of autism, there are many facets of [[sociology]] that need to be considered when discussing it, such as the culture which has evolved from autistic persons connecting and communicating with one another. In addition, there are several subgroups forming within the autistic community, sometimes in strong opposition to one another. ===Community and politics=== {{details|Autistic community}} {{details|Autism rights movement}} Much like many other controversies in the world, the autistic community itself has splintered off into several groups. Essentially, these groups are those who seek a cure for autism, dubbed ''pro-cure'', those who do not desire a cure for autism and as such resist it, dubbed ''anti-cure'', and the many people caught in the middle of the two. In recent history, with scientists learning more about autism and possibly coming closer to a cure, some members of the "anti-cure" movement [[Autistic community#Declaration from the autism community|sent a letter to the United Nations]] demanding to be treated as a minority group rather than a group with a [[mental disability]] or disease. Websites such as autistics.org{{ref|refbot.770}} present the view of the anti-cure group. There are numerous resources available for autistics from many groups. Due to the fact that many autistics find it easier to communicate online than in person, many of these resources are available online. In addition, sometimes successful autistic adults in a local community will help out children with autism, much in the way a master would help out an apprentice, for example. 2002 was declared [[Autism Awareness Year]] in the [[United Kingdom]]&mdash;this idea was initiated by [[Ivan and Charika Corea]], parents of an autistic child, Charin. Autism Awareness Year was led by the [[British Institute of Brain Injured Children]], [[Disabilities Trust]], [[National Autistic Society]], [[Autism London]] and 800 organizations in the United Kingdom. It had the personal backing of [[United Kingdom|British]] Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] and parliamentarians of all parties in the [[Palace of Westminster]]. ===Culture=== {{details|Autistic culture}} With the recent increases in autism recognition and new approaches to educating and socializing autistics, an ''autistic culture'' has begun to develop. Similar to [[deaf culture]], autistic culture is based in a belief that autism is a unique way of being and not a disorder to be cured. There are some commonalities which are specific to autism in general as a culture, not just "autistic culture". It is a common misperception that people with autism do not marry; many do get married. Often, they marry another person with autism, although this is not always the case. Many times autistics are attracted to other autistics due to shared interests or obsessions, but more often than not the attraction is due to simple compatibility with personality types, the same as is true for non-autistics. Autistics who communicate have explained that companionship is as important to autistics as it is to anyone else. Multigenerational autistic families have also recently become a bit more common. The interests of autistic people and so-called "[[geeks]]" or "[[Nerd|nerds]]" can often overlap as autistic people can sometimes become preoccupied with certain subjects, much like the variant normal behavior geeks experience. However, in practice many autistic people have difficulty with working in groups, which impairs them even in the most "technical" of situations. ===Autistic adults=== [[image:Grandin2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Temple Grandin]], one of the more successful adults with autism. <small>Photograph courtesy Joshua Nathaniel Pritikin and William Lawrence Jarrold.</small>]] Some autistic adults are able to work successfully in mainstream jobs, usually those with high-functioning autism or Asperger's syndrome. Nevertheless, communication and social problems often cause difficulties in many areas of the autistic's life. Other autistics are capable of employment in sheltered workshops under the supervision of managers trained in working with persons with disabilities. A nurturing environment at home, at school, and later in job training and at work, helps autistic people continue to learn and to develop throughout their lives. Some argue that the internet allows autistic individuals to communicate and form online communities, in addition to being able to find occupations such as independent consulting, which does generally not require much human interaction offline. In the [[United States]], the public schools' responsibility for providing services ends when the autistic person is in their 20s, depending on each state. The family is then faced with the challenge of finding living arrangements and employment to match the particular needs of their adult child, as well as the programs and facilities that can provide support services to achieve these goals. === Autistic savants === {{Main|autistic savant}} The autistic savant phenomenon is sometimes seen in autistic people. The term is used to describe a person who is autistic and has extreme talent in a certain area of study. Although there is a common association between savants and autism (an association created by the 1988 film ''[[Rain Man]]''), most autistic people are not [[savants]]. [[Mental calculator]]s and fast [[programming]] skills are the most common form. The famous example is [[Daniel Tammet]], the subject of the [[documentary film]] ''[[The Brain Man]]'' {{ref|guardianbrainman}} ([[Kim Peek]], one of the inspirations for [[Dustin Hoffman]]'s character in the film ''[[Rain Man]]'', is not autistic). "Bright Splinters of the Mind" is a book that explores this issue further. == Other pervasive developmental disorders == Autism and Asperger's syndrome are just two of the five pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs). The three other pervasive developmental disorders are [[Rett syndrome]], [[Childhood disintegrative disorder]], and [[PDD not otherwise specified|Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified]]. Some of these are related to autism, while some of them are entirely separate conditions. === Rett syndrome === [[Rett syndrome]] is relatively rare, affecting almost exclusively females, one out of 10,000 to 15,000. After a period of normal development, sometime between 6 and 18 months, autism-like symptoms begin to appear. The little girl's mental and social development regresses; she no longer responds to her parents and pulls away from any social contact. If she has been talking, she stops; she cannot control her feet; she wrings her hands. Some of these early symptoms may be confused for autism. Some of the problems associated with Rett syndrome can be treated. [[Physical therapy|Physical]], [[Occupational therapy|occupational]], and [[Speech therapy|speech]] therapy can help with problems of coordination, movement, and [[speech]]. Scientists sponsored by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development have discovered that a mutation in the sequence of a single gene causes Rett syndrome, and can physically test for it with a 80% accuracy rate {{ref|nihrett}}. Rett syndrome in the past was sometimes classified as an autistic spectrum disorder, however most scientists agree that Rett syndrome is a separate developmental disorder and not part of the autistic spectrum {{ref|brighttotsrett}}. ===Childhood disintegrative disorder=== [[Childhood disintegrative disorder]] (CDD, and sometimes abbreviated as CHDD also) is a condition appearing in 3 or 4 year old children who have developed normally until age 2. Over several months, the child will deteriorate in intellectual, social, and language functioning from previously normal behaviour. This long period of normal development before regression helps differentiate CDD from Rett syndrome (and in fact it must be differentiated from autism in testing). The cause for CDD is unknown (thus it may be a spectrum disorder) but current evidence suggests it has something to do with the central nervous system {{ref|yalecdd}} {{ref|nihcdd}}. === Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified === [[PDD not otherwise specified|Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified]], or PDD-NOS, is referred to as a ''subthreshold'' condition because it is a classification which is given to someone who suffers from impairments in social interaction, communication, and/or stereotyped behaviour but does not meet the criteria for one of the other four pervasive developmental disorders. Unlike the other four pervasive developmental disorders, PDD-NOS has no specific guidelines for diagnosis, so the person may have a lot of characteristics of an autistic person, or few to none at all. Note that pervasive developmental disorder is not a diagnosis, just a term to refer to the five mentioned conditions, while PDD-NOS is an official diagnosis {{ref|yalepddnos}}. ==See also== * '''General''' :* [[Autism therapies]] :* [[Causes of autism]] :* [[Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders]] :* [[Early Childhood Autism]] :* [[Heritability of autism]] * '''Groups''' :* [[Aspies For Freedom]] :* [[National Alliance for Autism Research]] * '''Controversy''' :* [[Controversies about functioning labels in the autism spectrum]] :* [[Controversies in autism]] :* [[Ethical challenges to autism treatment]] * '''Lists''' :* [[List of autism-related topics]] :* [[List of fictional characters on the autistic spectrum]] :* [[List of autistic people]] ==References== * {{cite web | author= | title=Rett syndrome (NIH Publication No. 01-4960) | publisher=Rockville, MD: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development | year=2001 | work=Rett syndrome | url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubskey.cfm?from=autism | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear= 2005 }} * {{cite journal | author=Frombonne E. | title=Prevalence of childhood disintegrative disorder | journal=Autism | year=2002 | volume=6 | issue=2 | pages=149-157}} * {{cite journal | author=Volkmar RM and Rutter M. | title=Childhood disintegrative disorder: Results of the DSM-IV autism field trial | journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry | year=1995 | volume=34 | pages=1092-1095}} * {{Citenewsauthor | surname=Ewald | given=Paul | title=Plague Time | date=April 2001 | org=Popular Science | url=http://www.centurytel.net/tjs11/bug/ewald1.htm}} * {{cite web | title=PANDAS (Paediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococci) and PITAND (Paediatric Infection-triggered Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders) | work=PANDAS & PITAND Syndromes | url=http://www.webpediatrics.com/pandas.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }} * {{cite web | title=Closer to Truth: PBS, with Paul Ewald | work=Microbes -- Friend or Foe? | url=http://www.pbs.org/kcet/closertotruth/explore/show_05.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }} * {{cite web | title=M.I.N.D. Institute Study Confirms Autism Increase | work=U.C. Davis| url=http://www.ucdmc.ucdavis.edu/news/MINDepi_study.html | accessdate=March 6| accessyear=2005 }} * {{Citenews | surname=Stenson | given=Jacqueline | title=As autism cases soar, a search for clues | date=[[24 February]] [[2005]] | org=Newsweek | url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6947652/}} * {{Citenews | surname=Goode | given=Erica | title=Autism Statistics: More and More Autism Cases | date=[[26 January]] [[2004]] | org=New York Times | url=http://www.autisticsociety.org/article262.html}} * {{cite journal | author=Wing L, Potter D. | title=The epidemiology of autistic spectrum disorders: is the prevalence rising? | journal=Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews | volume=8 | issue=3 | year=2002 | pages=151&#8211;61}} ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12216059&dopt=Abstract abstract]) * {{cite journal | author=Croen LA, Grether JK, Hoogstrate J, Selvin S. | title=The changing prevalence of autism in California | journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders| volume=32| issue=3 | year=2002 Jun | pages=207-15}} ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12108622 abstract]) * Manev R, Manev H. Aminoglycoside antibiotics and autism: a speculative hypothesis. BMC Psychiatry. 2001;1:5. Epub 2001 [[10 October]].[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11696245&query_hl=60] * Strock, Margaret (2004). Autism Spectrum Disorders (Pervasive Developmental Disorders). NIH Publication No. NIH-04-5511, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD, 40 pp. http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/autism.cfm ==Footnotes== # {{note|NihAutismov2005}} {{cite web | title=NIH Autism Overview 2005 | url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/autism_overview_2005.pdf | accessdate=February 5 | accessyear=2006 }} # {{note|bnat}} {{cite web | title=BehaveNet autism description | url=http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/autistic.htm | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|bnas}} {{cite web | title=BehaveNet aspergers description | url=http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/asperger.htm | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|Wired}} {{Citenewsauthor | surname=Silberman | given=Steve | title=The Geek Syndrome | date=December 2001 | org=Wired | url=http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.12/aspergers_pr.html}} # {{note|refbot.770}} {{cite web | title=autistics.org: The REAL Voice of Autism (See above) | url=http://www.autistics.org | accessdate=December 11 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|guardianbrainman}} {{cite web | title=Guardian "Brain Man" article | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/weekend/story/0,3605,1409903,00.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|nihrett}} {{cite web | title=NIH Rett description | url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/rett/detail_rett.htm | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|brighttotsrett}} {{cite web | title=Bright Tots Rett description | url=http://www.brighttots.com/Rett_Syndrome.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|yalecdd}} {{cite web | title=Yale CDD description | url=http://info.med.yale.edu/chldstdy/autism/cdd.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|nihcdd}} {{cite web | title=NIH CDD description | url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001535.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|yalepddnos}} {{cite web | title=PDD-NOS at Yale | url=http://info.med.yale.edu/chldstdy/autism/pddnos.html | accessdate=August 22 | accessyear=2005 }} ==External links== * '''General''' :[http://www.wrongplanet.net WrongPlanet.net - The Community and Resource for Autism] : [http://www.autism-spectrum-disorder.com Autism-Spectrum-Disorder.com] - Autism Spectrum Disorder : [http://www.colour-se7en.co.uk Colour-se7en]- a website created to bring awareness of spectrum related disorders and forums for NT and ASD interaction. : [http://www.ericdigests.org/2000-3/autism.htm EricDigests.org] - 'Teaching Students with Autism', Glen Dunlap, Lise Fox, ERIC Digest (October, 1999) : [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/magazine/story/0,11913,1639392,00.html Autistic and Proud] Describes new discoveries about autism, autistics speaking for themselves. : [http://www.weirdnotstupid.com Weird Not Stupid] - A website created from the perspective of a person who has two siblings who are on the Autism Spectrum with the goal of giving information to anybody who is seeking it. * ''Blogs'' : [http://autism.about.com/ Autism/Pervasive Developmental Disorders] By Adelle Jameson Tilton, [[About.com]] : [http://aboutautism.blogspot.com/ Autism News and More] : [http://www.adventuresinautism.blogspot.com/ Adventures In Autism] By a health professional who is the mother of an autistic boy. : [http://www.autismsymptoms.blogspot.com Autism Symptoms] : [http://www.gettingthetruthout.org Getting The Truth Out] By Argues that there are common misconceptions about autism. : [http://www.autismtreatment.info/reality+aba.aspx?rssid=1 Reality ABA, An Autism Diary] By Katherine Lee, mother of an autistic son. * ''Organizations'' :* [http://www.onthespectrum.com On The Spectrum] A web community for those on the autism spectrum with an emphasis on support and advocacy : [http://www.autismwebsite.com/ari/index.htm autismwebsite.com Autism Research Institute] Clearinghouse for information relating to autism, particularly the biomedical treatment approach : [http://www.autism-society.org/site/PageServer Autism-Society.org] - [[Autism Society of America]] : [http://www.autistics.org autistics.org] - Clearinghouse for information related to autism, from a non-cure standpoint. Many articles by autistics. : [http://www.autism.org/contents.html Center for the Study of Autism], Autism Research Institute (founded by [[Bernard Rimland]]) * ''Resources'' : [http://www.geocities.com/growingjoel/index.html A Way Of Life] Resources and information for parents. :[http://www.autismtreatment.info Autism Treatment Info] Treatment Tips for Children with Autism, PDD & Asperger's Syndrome. : [http://rsaffran.tripod.com/aba.html ABA Resources for Recovery from Autism] - Information about and resource guide for behavioral intervention for autism : [http://www.autism-resources.com/ Autism-Resources.com] - Offering information and links regarding the developmental disabilities autism and Asperger's Syndrome. : [http://www.autismtalk.net Autism Talk] Parents & educators discuss all views. : [http://www.autismtoday.com/ AutismToday.com] - 'everything you need to know about autism', Autism Today : [http://www.teachers.tv/autism Focus on Autism] Selection of documentaries, interviews, etc. : [http://www.info.autism.org.uk/ Autism.org.uk] - 'PARIS: Public Autism Resource & Information Service' (directory of UK autism services) : [http://glennrowe.net/BaronCohen/AutismSpectrumQuotient/AutismSpectrumQuotient.aspx Autism Spectrum Quotient] - Measure Your Autism Spectrum Quotient : [http://www.rdos.net/eng/Aspie-quiz.php Aspie-quiz] - Quiz that measures autistic traits {{Pervasive developmental disorders}} {{featured article}} [[Category:Autism]] [[Category:Childhood psychiatric disorders]] [[Category:Disability]] [[Category:Communication disorders]] [[Category:Mental illness diagnosis by DSM and ISCDRHP]] [[Category:Neurological disorders]] [[de:Autismus]] [[es:Autismo]] [[eo:Aŭtismo]] [[fr:Autisme]] [[ko:자폐증]] [[ia:Autismo]] [[it:Autismo]] [[he:אוטיזם]] [[ka:აუტიზმი]] [[hu:Autizmus]] [[ms:Autisme]] [[nl:Autisme]] [[ja:自閉症]] [[no:Autisme]] [[pl:Autyzm wczesnodziecięcy]] [[pt:Autismo]] [[simple:Autism]] [[sk:Autizmus (uzavretosť)]] [[sr:Аутизам]] [[fi:Autismi]] [[sv:Autism]] [[ta:மதியிறுக்கம்]] [[tr:Otizm]] [[zh:自閉症]] 27 15898960 2002-10-09T13:37:21Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[History of Albania]] #REDIRECT [[History of Albania]] 28 15898961 2002-10-09T13:37:41Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Geography of Albania]] #REDIRECT [[Geography of Albania]] 29 15898962 2002-10-09T13:38:05Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Albania]] #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Albania]] 30 15898963 2002-08-07T17:29:40Z Lee Daniel Crocker 43 #REDIRECT [[As_We_May_Think]] 33 15898964 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[All Saints]] 35 15898965 2002-10-09T13:38:25Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Politics of Albania]] #REDIRECT [[Politics of Albania]] 36 15898966 2002-10-09T13:39:00Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Economy of Albania]] #REDIRECT [[Economy of Albania]] 38 15898967 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Alchemy]] 39 41496222 2006-02-27T19:32:46Z 24.119.3.44 {{otheruses}} '''Albedo''' is the measure of [[reflectivity]] of a surface or body. It is the ratio of [[electromagnetic radiation]] (EM radiation) reflected to the amount incident upon it. The fraction, usually expressed as a percentage from 0% to 100%, is an important concept in [[climatology]] and [[astronomy]]. This ratio depends on the [[frequency]] of the radiation considered: unqualified, it refers to an average across the spectrum of [[visible light]]. It also depends on the [[angle of incidence]] of the radiation: unqualified, normal incidence. Fresh snow albedos are high: up to 90%. The ocean surface has a low albedo. The average albedo of [[Earth]] is about 30% whereas the albedo of the [[Moon]] is about 7%. In astronomy, the albedo of satellites and asteroids can be used to infer surface composition, most notably ice content. [[Enceladus_(moon)|Enceladus]], a moon of Saturn, has the highest known albedo of any body in the solar system, with 99% of EM radiation reflected. Human activities have changed the albedo (via forest clearance and farming, for example) of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect is difficult on the global scale: it is not clear whether the changes have tended to increase or decrease [[global warming]]. The "classical" example of albedo effect is the snow-temperature feedback. If a snow covered area warms and the snow melts, the albedo decreases, more sunlight is absorbed, and the temperature tends to increase. The converse is true: if snow forms, a cooling cycle happens. The intensity of the albedo effect depends on the size of the change in albedo and the amount of [[insolation]]; for this reason it can be potentially very large in the tropics. == Some examples of albedo effects == === Fairbanks, Alaska === According to the [[National Climatic Data Center]]'s GHCN 2 data, which is composed of 30-year smoothed climatic means for thousands of weather stations across the world, the college weather station at [[Fairbanks]], [[Alaska]], is about 3 °C (5 °F) warmer than the airport at Fairbanks, partly because of drainage patterns but also largely because of the lower albedo at the college resulting from a higher concentration of [[pine]] [[tree]]s and therefore less open snowy ground to reflect the heat back into space. Neunke and Kukla have shown that this difference is especially marked during the late [[winter]] months, when [[solar radiation]] is greater. === The tropics === Although the albedo-temperature effect is most famous in colder regions of Earth, because more [[snow]] falls there, it is actually much stronger in tropical regions because in the tropics there is consistently more sunlight. When [[Brazil]]ian ranchers cut down dark, tropical [[rainforest]] trees to replace them with even darker soil in order to grow crops, the average temperature of the area appears to increase by an average of about 3 °C (5 °F) year-round, which is a significant amount. === Small scale effects === Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. People who wear dark clothes in the summertime put themselves at a greater risk of [[heatstroke]] than those who wear white clothes. === Pine forests === The albedo of a [[pine]] forest at 45°N in the winter in which the trees cover the land surface completely is only about 9%, among the lowest of any naturally occurring land environment. This is partly due to the color of the pines, and partly due to multiple scattering of sunlight within the trees which lowers the overall reflected light level. Due to light penetration, the ocean's albedo is even lower at about 3.5%, though this depends strongly on the angle of the incident radiation. Dense [[swamp]]land averages between 9% and 14%. [[Deciduous tree]]s average about 13%. A [[grass]]y field usually comes in at about 20%. A barren field will depend on the color of the soil, and can be as low as 5% or as high as 40%, with 15% being about the average for farmland. A [[desert]] or large [[beach]] usually averages around 25% but varies depending on the color of the sand. [Reference: Edward Walker's study in the Great Plains in the winter around 45°N]. === Urban areas === Urban areas in particular have very unnatural values for albedo because of the many human-built structures which absorb light before the light can reach the surface. In the northern part of the world, cities are relatively dark, and Walker has shown that their average albedo is about 7%, with only a slight increase during the summer. In most tropical countries, cities average around 12%. This is similar to the values found in northern suburban transitional zones. Part of the reason for this is the different natural environment of cities in tropical regions, e.g., there are more very dark trees around; another reason is that portions of the tropics are very poor, and city buildings must be built with different materials. Warmer regions may also choose lighter colored building materials so the structures will remain cooler. === Trees === Because trees tend to have a low albedo, removing forests would tend to increase albedo and thereby cool the planet. Cloud feedbacks further complicate the issue. In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. Studies by the [[Hadley Centre]] have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of [[carbon sequestration]] on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g. Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming [http://66.102.11.104/search?q=cache:o7LD-owSkNgJ:www.ulapland.fi/home/arktinen/feed_pdf/Betts_revised.pdf+hadley+albedo+forest&hl=en]. === Snow === Snow albedos can be as high as 90%. This is for the ideal example, however: fresh deep snow over a featureless landscape. Over [[Antarctica]] they average a little more than 80%. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt (the ice-albedo [[feedback]]). This is the basis for predictions of enhanced warming in the polar and seasonally snow covered regions as a result of [[global warming]]. === Clouds === Clouds are another source of albedo that play into the global warming equation. Different types of clouds have different albedo values, theoretically ranging from a minimum of near 0% to a maximum in the high 70s. [[Climate model]]s have shown that if the whole Earth were to be suddenly covered by white clouds, the surface temperatures would drop to a value of about -150 °C (-240 °F). This model, though it is far from perfect, also predicts that to offset a 5 °C (9 °F) temperature change due to an increase in the magnitude of the [[greenhouse effect]], "all" we would need to do is increase the Earth's overall albedo by about 12% by adding more white clouds. Albedo and climate in some areas are already affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the [[contrail]]s of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11 attacks]], after which all major airlines in the U.S. shut down for three days, showed a local 1 &deg;C increase in the daily temperature range (the difference of day and night temperatures) (''see: [[contrail]]''). === Aerosol effects === [[Particulate|Aerosol]] (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) has two effects, direct and indirect. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as [[Cloud condensation nuclei|CCN]]s and thereby change [[cloud properties]]) is less certain [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/231.htm#671]. === Black carbon === Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the [[IPCC]] say that their "estimate of the global mean radiative forcing for BC aerosols from fossil fuels is ... +0.2 W m^-2 (from +0.1 W m^-2 in the [[SAR_(IPCC)|SAR)]]) with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m^-2". [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/233.htm]. [[Category:Electromagnetic radiation]] [[Category:Climatology]] [[Category:Climate forcing]] [[Category:Astrophysics]] [[als:Albedo]] [[bg:Албедо]] [[bs:Albedo]] [[ca:Albedo]] [[cs:Albedo]] [[da:Albedo]] [[de:Albedo]] [[et:Albeedo]] [[es:Albedo]] [[eo:Albedo]] [[fr:Albédo]] [[gl:Albedo]] [[ko:반사율]] [[hr:Albedo]] [[it:Albedo]] [[he:אלבדו]] [[hu:Albedó]] [[nl:Weerkaatsingsvermogen]] [[ja:アルベド]] [[no:Albedo]] [[nn:Albedo]] [[pl:Albedo]] [[pt:Albedo]] [[ru:Альбедо]] [[sk:Albedo]] [[sr:Албедо]] [[fi:Albedo]] [[sv:Albedo]] [[uk:Альбедо]] 40 15898969 2002-10-09T13:39:18Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Afro-Asiatic languages]] #REDIRECT [[Afro-Asiatic languages]] 42 39218545 2006-02-11T16:19:55Z Nikai 9759 R from misspelling #REDIRECT [[Constructed language]] {{R from misspelling}} 43 41580021 2006-02-28T07:19:07Z El C 92203 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.193.1.105|71.193.1.105]] ([[User talk:71.193.1.105|talk]]) to last version by Bloodshedder [[Image:AbuDhabi02.JPG|thumb|View of Abu Dhabi|right|300px]] [[Image:Abu Dhabi from Space-ISS006-E-32079-March 2003.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Satellite image of Abu Dhabi (March 2003)]] [[Image:Emirates_Palace_Hotel_Abu_Dhabi_front.jpg|thumb|Emirates Palace Hotel Front|right|300px]] [[Image:Emirates_Palace_Hotel_Abu_Dhabi_side.jpg|thumb|Emirates Palace Hotel from the side|right|300px]] '''Abu Dhabi''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: &#1571;&#1576;&#1608; &#1592;&#1576;&#1610; ''&#700;Ab&#363; &#7826;aby'') is the largest of the seven [[emirate]]s that comprise the [[United Arab Emirates]] and was also the largest of the former [[Trucial States]]. '''Abu Dhabi''' is also a city of the same name within the Emirate that is the [[capital city|capital]] of the country, in north central UAE. The city lies on a T-shaped island jutting into the [[Persian Gulf]] from the central western coast. An estimated 1,000,000 lived there in 2000, with about an 80% [[expatriate]] population. Abu Dhabi city is located at {{coor d|24.4667|N|54.3667|E}}. [[Al Ain]] is Abu Dhabi's second largest urban area with a population of 348,000 ([[2003]] census estimate) and is located 150 kilometres inland. ==History== Parts of Abu Dhabi were settled as far back as the [[3rd millennium BC]] and its early history fits the nomadic, herding and fishing pattern typical of the broader region. Modern Abu Dhabi traces its origins to the rise of an important tribal confederation the Bani Yas in the late 18th century, who also assumed control of [[Dubai]]. In the 19th century the Dubai and Abu Dhabi branches parted ways. Into the mid-20th century, the economy of Abu Dhabi continued to be sustained mainly by camel herding, production of dates and vegetables at the inland oases of [[Al Ain]] and Liwa, and fishing and pearl diving off the coast of Abu Dhabi city, which was occupied mainly during the summer months. Most dwellings in Abu Dhabi city were, at this time constructed of palm fronds (barasti), with the better-off families occupying mud huts. The growth of the cultured pearl industry in the first half of the 20th century created hardship for residents of Abu Dhabi as pearls represented the largest export and main source of cash earnings. In 1939, Sheikh [[Shakhbut Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan]] granted [[Petroleum]] concessions, and oil was first found in 1958. At first, oil money had a marginal impact. A few lowrise concete buildings were erected, and the first paved road was completed in 1961, but Sheikh Shakbut, uncertain whether the new oil royalties would last, took a cautious approach, prefering to save the revenue rather than investing it in development. His brother, [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahayan]], saw that oil wealth had the potential to transform Abu Dhabi. The ruling Al Nahayan family decided that Sheikh Zayed should replace his brother as Ruler and carry out his vision of developing the country. On [[August 6]], [[1966]], with the assistance of the British, Sheikh Zayed became the new ruler. See generally, Al-Fahim, M, ''From Rags to Riches: A Story of Abu Dhabi'', Chapter Six (London Centre of Arab Studies, 1995), ISBN 1 900404 00 1. With the announcement by Britain in 1968 that it would withdraw from the Gulf area by 1971, Sheikh Zayed became the main driving force behind the formation of the [[United Arab Emirates]]. After the Emirates gained independence in 1971, oil wealth continued to flow to the area and traditional [[Mudbrick|mud-brick]] [[hut]]s were rapidly replaced with [[banks]], boutiques and modern [[highrise]]s. ==Current ruler== His Highness Sheikh [[Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahayan]] is the hereditary [[Emir|emir]] and ruler of Abu Dhabi, as well as the current president of the [[United Arab Emirates]] (UAE). ==Postal History== [[Image:Stamp_Abu_1967_40f-170px.jpg|right|170px|thumb|[[Shaikh]] [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahayan|Zaid]], [[1967]].]] Now part of the [[United Arab Emirates]], '''Abu Dhabi''' was formerly the largest of the seven sheikdoms which made up the [[Trucial States]] on the so-called [[Pirate Coast]] of eastern [[Arabia]] between [[Oman]] and [[Qatar]]. The [[Trucial States]] as a whole had an area of some 32,000 square miles of which Abu Dhabi alone had 26,000. The capital was the town of Abu Dhabi which is on an offshore island and was first settled in 1761. The name [[Trucial States]] arose from [[treaties]] made with [[Great Britain]] in 1820 which ensured a condition of [[truce]] in the area and the suppression of [[piracy]] and [[slavery]]. The [[treaty]] expired on [[31 December]] [[1966]]. The decision to form the [[UAE]] was made on [[18 July]] [[1971]] and the [[federation]] was founded on [[1 August]] [[1972]], although the inaugural [[UAE]] stamps were not issued until [[1 January]] [[1973]]. [[petroleum|Oil]] production began on [[Das Island]] after [[prospecting]] during 1956-1960. [[Das Island]] is part of Abu Dhabi but lies well [[offshore]], about 100 miles north of the mainland. [[petroleum|Oil]] production on the [[mainland]] began in 1962. As a major [[petroleum|oil]] producer, Abu Dhabi soon acquired massive [[financial]] wealth. [[Investment]] in long-term [[construction]] projects and the establishment of a [[finance]] sector has led to the area becoming a centre of [[commerce]] which may well secure its lasting importance when the [[petroleum|oil]] resources are exhausted. In December 1960, [[postage stamps]] of [[Compendium of postage stamp issuers (Brit - British)#British Postal Agencies in Eastern Arabia|British Postal Agencies in Eastern Arabia]] were supplied to the [[construction]] workers on [[Das Island]] but the [[postal service]] was administered via the agency office in [[Bahrain]]. The [[mail]] was also [[postmark]]ed [[Bahrain]] so there was no clear indication that a [[letter]] had come from [[Das Island]]. On [[30 March]] [[1963]], a British agency was opened in Abu Dhabi and issued the agency stamps after the sheik objected to the use of the [[Trucial States]] [[definitive]]s. [[Mail]] from [[Das Island]] continued to be administered by [[Bahrain]] but was now cancelled by an Abu Dhabi [[Trucial States]] [[postmark]]. The first Abu Dhabi stamps were a [[definitive series]] of [[30 March]] [[1964]] depicting [[Shaikh]] [[Shakhbut Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan]]. There were eleven values under the [[India|Indian]] [[currency]] that was used of 100 [[paisa|naye paise]] = 1 [[rupee]]. The range of values was 5 np to 10 [[rupee]]s. Despite the introduction of these [[definitive]]s, the British agency stamps remained valid in both Abu Dhabi and [[Das Island]] until the end of 1966 when they were withdrawn. A [[post office]] was opened on [[Das Island]] on [[6 January]] [[1966]] and this ended the [[Bahrain]] service. [[Mail]] from [[Das Island]] was now handled within Abu Dhabi. When the [[treaty]] with [[Great Britain]] expired at the end of 1966, Abu Dhabi introduced a new [[currency]] of 1000 [[fils]] = 1 [[dinar]] and took over its own postal administration, including the [[Das Island]] office. The earlier issues were subject to [[surcharge]]s in this [[currency]] and replacement [[definitive]]s were released depicting the new ruler [[Shaikh]] [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahayan|Zaid]]. Issues continued until introduction of [[UAE]] stamps in 1973. In all, Abu Dhabi issued 95 stamps from 1964 to 1972, the final set being three views of the [[Dome of the Rock]] in [[Jerusalem]]. '''Source''': [http://www.jl.sl.btinternet.co.uk/stampsite/alpha/a/abudhabi.html Encyclopaedia of Postal History] ==Climate== Sunny/blue skies can be expected through-out the year. The months June through September are generally hot and humid with temperatures averaging above 40ºC(110ºF). The weather is usually pleasant from October to May. January to February is cooler and may require the use of a light jacket. The oasis city of [[Al Ain]] enjoys cooler temperatures even through summer due to [[sporadic]] rainfall. ==Transport== [[Abu Dhabi International Airport]] serves this city. The local time is [[GMT]] + 4 hours. ==Trivia== * The cartoon cat [[Garfield]] would often put the kitten [[Nermal]] in a box and ship him to Abu Dhabi. A common phrase from Garfield is "Abu Dhabi is where all the cute kittens go." The reason is that the author of Garfield found out through over-seas relations that the city of Abu Dhabi, and the majority of UAE, has a large amount of cats that roam wild. Many live around the suburbs. == See also == * [[Mina' Zayid]], the port of Abu Dhabi. * [[Al Ain]] * [[Marawah]] * [[Postal Authorities]] * [[Saudi Arabia]] * [[Transportation in the United Arab Emirates]] ==External links== {{Wiktionary}} {{commons|Abu Dhabi}} * [http://www.jl.sl.btinternet.co.uk/stampsite/alpha/a/abudhabi.html Encyclopaedia of Postal History] * [http://www.thepersiangulf.org/cities/abudhabi.html Abu Dhabi, The Persian Gulf] * [http://www.abudhabi.com/ abudhabi.com] * [http://www.adcci-uae.com/ Abu Dhabi Chamber of Commerce and Industry] * [http://www.adnoc.com/ Abu Dhabi National Oil Company] * [http://www.spe.org/society/abudhabi/AbuDhabi-info.htm SPE history, with oil details] * [http://www.angelfire.com/ok/ABUDHABISTAMPS/ Abu Dhabi postal history] * [http://www.adias-uae.com ADIAS], Abu Dhabi Islands Archaeological Survey * [http://www.alloexpat.com/abu_dhabi_expat_forum/ Expatriates Forums in Abu Dhabi] * [http://www.timeoutabudhabi.com/ Time Out Abu Dhabi], Guide to life in Abu Dhabi *[http://www.careeruae.net/ Career UAE - Useful web site for the job seekers in Abu dabi/United Arab Emirates] ===Non-Government Organisations=== * [http://www.ansarburney.org/ Ansar Burney Trust] - human rights and anti-slavery organisation {{UAE}} [[Category:Capitals in Asia]] [[Category:Cities in the United Arab Emirates]] [[Category:Emirates]] [[Category:Coastal cities]] [[Category:Philately by country]] [[ar:أبوظبي]] [[bg:Абу Даби]] [[bs:Abu Dhabi]] [[ca:Abu Dhabi]] [[da:Abu Dhabi]] [[de:Abu Dhabi]] [[et:Abu Dhabi emiraat]] [[es:Abu Dhabi]] [[eo:Abu-Dabio]] [[fr:Abu Dhabi]] [[gl:Emirato de Abu Dabi]] [[ko:아부다비]] [[io:Abu Dhabi]] [[id:Abu Dhabi]] [[is:Abú Dabí]] [[it:Abu Dhabi]] [[he:אבו דאבי]] [[lt:Abu Dabis]] [[nl:Abu Dhabi]] [[ja:アブダビ]] [[no:Abu Dhabi]] [[nn:Abu Dhabi]] [[pl:Abu Zabi]] [[pt:Abu Dhabi]] [[ru:Абу-Даби]] [[simple:Abu Dhabi]] [[sk:Abú Zabí (mesto)]] [[fi:Abu Dhabi]] [[sv:Abu Dhabi]] [[uk:Абу-Дабі]] [[zh:阿布扎比]] 44 15898972 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Aardvark]] 46 15898973 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Abacus]] 47 15898974 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Abalone]] 48 15898975 2002-10-09T13:39:34Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Abbadid]] #REDIRECT [[Abbadid]] 49 15898976 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Abbess]] 50 15898977 2003-05-15T03:16:46Z Minesweeper 7279 fix double redir #REDIRECT [[Abbeville]] 51 15898978 2002-05-19T16:35:31Z AxelBoldt 2 *fixing redirect #REDIRECT [[Abbey]] 52 15898979 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Abbot]] 53 15898980 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Abbreviation]] 54 15898981 2002-04-01T06:26:22Z Magnus Manske 4 No edit; Are all the subpages moved to &quot;Atlas shrugged&quot; (with space)? If they are, the old ones should be deleted (see orphans)! #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged]] 55 15898982 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Achilles]] 56 39218442 2006-02-11T16:18:58Z Nikai 9759 R CamelCase #REDIRECT [[Constructed language]] {{R CamelCase}} 58 15898984 2003-03-13T02:57:44Z CatherineMunro 8316 #REDIRECT [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged]] #REDIRECT [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged]] 59 15898985 2003-03-13T23:05:33Z Ams80 7543 Redirecting #REDIRECT [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged]] 60 15898986 2003-03-19T13:36:26Z Ams80 7543 #REDIRECT [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged]] #REDIRECT [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged]] 61 15898987 2003-03-13T15:07:10Z Ams80 7543 Redirecting redirect #REDIRECT [[Places in Atlas Shrugged]] 62 15898988 2003-03-20T12:54:37Z Ams80 7543 #REDIRECT [[Things in Atlas Shrugged]] #REDIRECT [[Things in Atlas Shrugged]] 241 37661965 2006-02-01T11:35:06Z Eskimbot 477460 Robot: Fixing double redirect #REDIRECT [[African American]] 242 15898991 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Adolf Hitler]] 244 15898992 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Abdomen]] 246 15898993 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Abdominal surgery]] 247 15898994 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Abecedarian]] 248 30807934 2005-12-10T09:01:43Z Spiffy sperry 79741 fix double redirect - [[Special:DoubleRedirects|click here to help]] #REDIRECT [[Cain and Abel]] 249 15898996 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Abensberg]] 251 15898997 2002-08-17T11:23:12Z DavidLevinson 1689 fix link #REDIRECT [[Aberdeen, South Dakota]] 252 15898998 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Aardwolf]] 253 15898999 2003-11-08T12:12:19Z Minesweeper 7279 fix double redir #REDIRECT [[Abadan]] 254 15899000 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Arthur Koestler]] 255 15899001 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Ayn Rand]] 256 15899002 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Alexander the Great]] 258 15899003 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Anchorage, Alaska]] 259 15899004 2002-04-07T01:40:05Z The Anome 76 #redirect [[Argument form]] #redirect [[Argument form]] 260 24813178 2005-10-05T14:22:00Z Kbdank71 197953 fix double redirect #REDIRECT [[Existence of God]] 261 17822768 2005-06-29T11:11:17Z Jni 23999 fix redir #REDIRECT [[knowledge]] 263 15899007 2002-11-05T13:28:51Z Tzartzam 3624 #REDIRECT [[Anarchy]] #REDIRECT [[Anarchy]] 264 15899008 2002-10-09T13:40:04Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[ASCII art]] #REDIRECT [[ASCII art]] 268 15899010 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Andre Agassi]] 269 41555330 2006-02-28T03:06:14Z Rdsmith4 61329 fix #REDIRECT [[Academy Awards]] 270 15899012 2002-07-12T20:44:53Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 fix redirect #REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Picture]] 271 19178967 2005-07-19T21:19:49Z Jnc 18024 Why are people too lazy to fix dbl redirs when they move a page? #REDIRECT [[Austrian German]] 272 15899014 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Academic elitism]] 274 15899015 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Axiom of choice]] 276 15899016 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[American football]] 278 19987901 2005-07-31T16:10:07Z Paddu 6949 {{R from CamelCase}} #REDIRECT [[America]] {{R from CamelCase}} 279 15899018 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Anna Kournikova]] 280 15899019 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Andorra]] 281 15899020 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z LA2 445 * #REDIRECT [[History of Andorra]] 283 15899021 2002-08-20T15:38:36Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Andorra]] 284 15899022 2002-10-09T13:41:32Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Politics of Andorra]] #REDIRECT [[Politics of Andorra]] 285 15899023 2002-10-09T13:41:53Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Economy of Andorra]] #REDIRECT [[Economy of Andorra]] 287 15899025 2005-05-01T07:12:45Z 212.100.250.225 [[WP:WS|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]] #REDIRECT [[Austro-Asiatic languages]] 288 15899026 2002-09-01T17:22:32Z Bryan Derksen 66 bypassing double redirect #REDIRECT [[Actor]] 289 15899027 2003-11-08T12:13:11Z Minesweeper 7279 fix double redir #REDIRECT [[List of female movie actors]] 290 42119076 2006-03-03T23:14:28Z Waggers 878293 Revert to revision 41533857 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] {{AZ|uc=A|lc=a}} {{wiktionarypar2|A|a}} The letter '''A''' is the first letter in the [[Latin alphabet]]. Its name in [[English language|English]] is ''a'', plural ''aes,'' ''a's,'' or ''as''. ==History== The letter A probably started as a [[pictogram]] of an [[ox]] head in [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s or the [[Proto-semitic alphabet]]. {| align="center" cellspacing="10" |- align="center" |[[Image:EgyptianA-01.png|Egyptian hieroglyphic ox head]]<br />Egyptian hieroglyph<br />ox head |[[Image:Proto-semiticA-01.png|Proto-semitic ox head]]<br />Proto-semitic<br />ox head |[[Image:PhoenicianA-01.png|Phoenician aleph]]<br />Phoenician ''aleph'' |[[Image:GreekA-01.png|Greek alpha]]<br />Greek ''alpha'' |[[Image:EtruscanA-01.png|Etruscan A]]<br />Etruscan A |[[Image:RomanA-01.png|Roman A]]<br />Roman A |} By [[1600 BC]], the [[Phoenician alphabet]]'s letter had a linear form that served as the basis for all later forms. Its name must have corresponded closely to the [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] [[Aleph (letter)|aleph]]. The name is also similar to the Arabic [[Alif|alif.]] When the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] adopted the alphabet, they had no use for the [[glottal stop]] that the letter had denoted in Phoenician and other [[Semitic languages]], so they used the sign for the vowel {{IPA|/&#593;/}}, and changed its name to [[alpha (letter)|alpha]]. In the earliest Greek inscriptions, dating to the [[8th century BC]], the letter rests upon its side, but in the [[Greek alphabet]] of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter, although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set. The [[Etruscans]] brought the Greek alphabet to what was [[Italy]] and left the letter unchanged. The Romans later adopted the [[Old Italic alphabet|Etruscan alphabet]] to write [[Latin]], and the resulting letter was preserved in the modern [[Latin alphabet]] used to write many languages, including [[English language|English]]. The letter has two [[minuscule]] (lower-case) forms. The form used in most current handwriting consists of a circle and vertical stroke. Most printed material uses a form consisting of a small loop with an arc over it. Both derive from the majuscule (capital) form. In Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the Uncial version below. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical. In some of these, the [[serif]] that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form. {| align="center" cellspacing="10" |- align="center" |[[Image:BlackletterA-01.png|Blackletter A]]<br />[[Blackletter]] A |[[Image:UncialA-01.png|Uncial A]]<br />[[Uncial]] A |[[Image:Acap.png|Another Capital A]] |- align="center" |[[Image:ModernRomanA-01.png|Modern Roman A]]<br />Modern Roman A |[[Image:ModernItalicA-01.png|Modern Italic A]]<br />Modern Italic A |[[Image:ModernScriptA-01.png|Modern Script A]]<br />Modern Script A |} ==Usage== In [[English language|English]], the letter A by itself usually denotes the [[lax open front unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA2|æ}}) as in ''pad'', the [[open back unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA2|ɑ}}) as in ''father'', or, in concert with a later orthographic [[e]], the diphthong {{IPA2|eʲ}} (though the pronunciation varies with the dialect) as in ''ace'', due to effects of the [[Great vowel shift]]. In most other languages that use the Latin alphabet, the letter A denotes either an [[open back unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA2|ɑ}}), or an [[open central unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA2|a}}). In the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], variants of the letter A denote various [[vowel]]s. In [[X-SAMPA]], capital A denotes the [[open back unrounded vowel]] and lowercase a denotes the [[open front unrounded vowel]]. A also is the English [[indefinite article]], extended to [[an]] before a vowel. ==Codes for computing== {{Letter |NATO=Alpha |Morse=·– |B1=● |B2=○ |B3=○ |B4=○ |B5=○ |B6=○ }} In [[Unicode]] the [[majuscule|capital]] A is codepoint U+0041 and the [[minuscule|lowercase]] a is U+0061. In [[Hexadecimal|Hex]], A is the character used to represent decimal 10, or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]], 01010 The [[ASCII]] code for capital A is 65 and for lowercase a is 97; or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]] 01000001 and 01100001, correspondingly. The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital A is 193 and for lowercase a is 129. The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are "<tt>&amp;#65;</tt>" and "<tt>&amp;#97;</tt>" for upper and lower case respectively. ==Meanings for '''A'''== * As a word; see [[A, an]] * In [[United States|American]] [[Major League Baseball]], the [[Oakland Athletics]] are often simply referred to as the "'''A's'''." * In [[astronomy]], ** A stands for a January 1 through 15 discovery, in the provisional designation of a comet (e.g. [[C/1760 A1]], the Great Comet of 1760) or asteroid (e.g. {{mpl|(4099) 1988 AB|5}}) ** ''a'' is often used to denote the [[semi-major axis]] of an orbit * In [[biochemistry]], A is the symbol for [[alanine]] and [[adenosine]]. * Brassiere [[cup size]] '''A''' * In [[calendar]]s, A is often an abbreviation for the [[month]]s [[April]] and [[August]]. * In [[computing]], ** <tt>&lt;a&gt;</tt> is the [[HTML element#links and anchors|HTML element for an anchor tag]]. ** In Windows, Ctrl-A, and Mac OS, Command-A, selects all the text in the document, or all the pixels of an image. ** A sometimes represents the set of all alphabetic characters within [[character string (computer science)|string]] patterns. ** A:\ is the conventional address of the first floppy disk drive in [[CP/M]]-based [[operating system]]s such as [[DOS]]. ** A is a security division ("Verified Protection") in the [[TCSEC]]. * In [[education]], a [[Grade (education)|grade]] of '''A''' typically represents the highest score that students can achieve. This is sometimes coupled with a [[plus]]/[[minus]] sign, as in '''A+''' or '''A-''', or a number, as in '''A1'''. It is occasionally a grade one level below '''A*''' (pronounced "A Star"). * In [[electronics]], ** [[A battery|A]] is a standard size of [[battery (electricity)|battery]]. ** A refers to the Anode, or filament, component of a [[vacuum tube]]. * In [[English language|English]], the word ''a'' is an indefinite [[article (grammar)|article]], see [[A, an]] * In [[Esperanto#Grammar|Esperanto]], -a is the adjectival/attributive ending; A is commonly an abbreviation meaning English (language). * In [[fiction]], the letter worn by Hester Prynne marking her as an adultress in the [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] novel ''[[The Scarlet Letter]]'' was an ''A''. * In [[film]], ''A'' is an Italian film made in [[1969]]; see ''[[A (film)]]''. * In [[finance]], A is the U.S. [[ticker symbol]] for [[Agilent Technologies]]. * In [[game]]s, the letter A is used to mark each of the [[Ace]]s in a deck of [[playing card]]s. * In [[Greek language|Greek]], a- is a [[prefix]] (''alpha privativum'') meaning "not" or "devoid of," used in many borrowed words in [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]] and [[Romance languages]]. * In [[India]] ''A'' is movie rating, given to those intended to be seen only by adults. * In [[List of international license plate codes|international licence plate codes]], A stands for [[Austria]]. * In [[paper size|international paper sizes]], A is a series of sizes with an [[Paper size|aspect ratio]] of roughly 70% width to height, with A4 being an example popular size. * In [[logic]], **the letter A is used as a symbol for the universal affirmative proposition in the general form "all x is y." The letters I, E, and O are used respectively for the particular affirmative "some x is y," the universal negative "no x is y," and the particular negative "some x is not y." The use of these letters is generally derived from the vowels of the two [[Latin]] [[verb]]s ''affirmo'' (or AIo), "I assert," and ''nego'', "I deny." The use of the symbols dates from the [[13th century]], though some authorities trace their origin to the Greek logicians. **In [[symbolic logic]], the symbol &forall; (an inverted letter A) is the [[universal quantifier]]. * In [[mathematics]], **A is often used as a [[numerical digit|digit]] meaning ''[[10 (number)|ten]]'' in [[hexadecimal]] and other positional [[numeral system]]s with a [[radix]] of 11 or greater, **[[blackboard bold]] <math>\mathbb{A}</math> (&#x1D504; in [[Unicode]]) sometimes represents the [[algebraic numbers]]. **In the [[On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences]], each sequence has an ID consisting of the letter A and six base 10 digits. * In [[medicine]], '''A''' (also, '''A+''' or '''A-''') is one of the human [[blood type]]s. * In [[music]], ** A is a [[Pitch class]] or [[note]], see [[A (musical note)]]. ** A, or "side A," refers to the top or first side of a [[vinyl record]]. ** ''A'' is a [[British rock]] band; see ''[[A (band)]]''. ** ''A'' is an album by [[Jethro Tull (band)|Jethro Tull]]; see ''[[A (album)]]''. * In [[nutrition]], A is a [[vitamin]]. * In [[photography]], most SLR cameras use A to signify aperture priority mode, where the user sets the aperture and the camera determines the shutter speed. * In [[poetry]], [[A (poem)|A]] is the major work of influential 20th century author [[Louis Zukofsky]]. * In [[political science|political theory]], a circumscribed "A" is an [[anarchist symbolism|anarchist symbol]]. * As the first letter of a [[postal code]], ** In [[Canada]], A stands for [[Newfoundland and Labrador]]. * On the serial numbers of [[United States dollar]]s, A identifies the [[Federal Reserve Bank of Boston]]. * In the [[SI]] system of units, ** A is the symbol for the [[ampere]] or amp, the [[SI base unit]] of [[electric current]]. ** a, [[atto]], is the [[SI prefix]] meaning 10^-18 ** a is the symbol for the [[are]], a unit of surface area equal to 100 [[square metre]]s. * As a [[timezone]], A is the military designation for [[Coordinated Universal Time]]+1, also known as CET or [[Central European Time]]. ==See also== {{Wikisource1911Enc|A}} {{Commons|A}} * [[Alpha (letter)|Alpha]] * [[A (Cyrillic)|Cyrillic A]] * <big>[[ª]]</big> * [[À]] * [[Á]] * [[Â]] * [[Ã]] * [[Ä]] (Ae) * [[Å]] (Aa) * [[Æ]] * [[A-breve|&#258;]] * [[A-ogonek|&#260;]] * [[∀]] <br clear="all" /> {{AZsubnav}} [[Category:Latin letters]] [[Category:Vowels]] [[als:A]] [[ar:A]] [[bs:A]] [[ca:A]] [[cs:A]] [[da:A]] [[de:A]] [[et:A]] [[el:A]] [[es:A]] [[eo:A]] [[fr:A]] [[gl:A]] [[ko:A]] [[hr:A]] [[io:A]] [[id:A]] [[it:A]] [[he:A]] [[kw:A]] [[la:A]] [[hu:A]] [[nl:A]] [[ja:A]] [[no:A]] [[nn:A]] [[pl:A]] [[pt:A]] [[ro:A]] [[ru:А (буква)]] [[sq:A]] [[scn:A]] [[simple:A]] [[sl:A]] [[sr:A (латиничко)]] [[fi:A]] [[sv:A]] [[tl:A]] [[vi:A]] [[tr:A]] [[yo:A]] [[zh:A]] 291 15899029 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Anarcho-capitalism]] 293 15899031 2002-10-09T13:47:21Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[anarcho-capitalism]] #REDIRECT [[anarcho-capitalism]] 296 15899034 2003-11-08T12:13:18Z Minesweeper 7279 fix double redir #REDIRECT [[List of female movie actors]] 298 15899036 2002-10-09T13:47:51Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[talk:Anarchism]] #REDIRECT [[talk:Anarchism]] 299 15899037 2002-05-19T16:44:20Z AxelBoldt 2 fix redir #REDIRECT [[An American in Paris]] 301 15899038 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Automorphism]] 302 15899039 2002-08-04T00:46:33Z Maveric149 62 #REDIRECT [[Action movie]] 303 42140365 2006-03-04T02:12:43Z Gregski711 704911 /* Political Climate */ {{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}} <div style="float:right; clear:right; width:300px; margin-left: 1em;"> {{US Confederate state | Name = Alabama | Fullname = State of Alabama | Flag = Flag of Alabama.svg | Flaglink = [[Flag of Alabama]] | Seal = Alabama state seal.png| Map = Map_of_USA_highlighting_Alabama.png | Nickname = Camellia State, The Heart of Dixie[[#Notes|&sup1;]], Yellowhammer State| Capital = [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] | OfficialLang = [[English language|English]] | Languages = [[English language|English]] 96.7%, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] 2.2% | LargestCity = [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] | Governor = [[Bob Riley (Alabama)|Bob Riley]] (R)| Senators = [[Richard Shelby]] (R) [[Jeff Sessions]] (R) | PostalAbbreviation = AL | AreaRank = 30^th | TotalArea = 52,423 mi²/135,775 | LandArea = 50,750 mi²/131,442 | WaterArea = 1,673 mi²/4,333 | PCWater = 3.19 | PopRank = 23^rd | 2000Pop = 4,447,100 | DensityRank = 26^th | 2000Density = 33.84 | AdmittanceOrder = 22^nd | AdmittanceDate = [[December 14]], [[1819]] | SecessionDate = [[January 11]], [[1861]] | ReadmittanceDate = [[July 14]], [[1868]] | TimeZone = [[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-6/[[Daylight saving time|DST]]-5 | Latitude = 30°13'N to 35°N | Longitude = 84°51'W to 88°28'W | Width = 190 mi/306 | Length = 330 mi/531 | HighestElev = [[Mount Cheaha]] 2,408 ft/734 | MeanElev = 499 ft/152 | LowestElev = 0 ft/0 | ISOCode = US-AL | Website = www.alabama.gov }} [[[[image:AlaUrb.gif |thumb|center|250px|Alabama Cities and Urban Areas/Sprawl]] {| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; clear:right; width:300px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" class="toccolours" |'''[[List of U.S. state mottos|State motto]]'''||''[[Audemus jura nostra defendere]]'' |- |'''[[List of U.S. state birds|State bird]]'''||[[Northern Flicker|Yellowhammer]] |- |'''[[List of U.S. state flowers|State flower]]'''||[[Camellia]] |- |'''[[List of U.S. state songs|State song]]'''||"[[Alabama (song)|Alabama]]" |- |'''[[List of U.S. state trees|State tree]]'''||[[Longleaf Pine]] |- |'''[[List of U.S. state spirits|State spirit]]'''||[[Conecuh Ridge Whiskey|Conecuh Ridge]] |- |'''[[List of U.S. state reptiles|State reptile]]'''||[[Red-bellied turtle]] |} </div> '''Alabama''' is a [[U.S. state|state]] located in the [[Southern United States|Southern]] [[United States]]. ==History== ''Main article: [[History of Alabama]]'' The memory of the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] presence is particularly strong in Alabama. Among Native American people once living in present Alabama were [[Alabama (people)|Alabama]] (Alibamu), [[Cherokee]], [[Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw]], [[Creek people|Creek]], [[Koasati]], and [[Mobile (people)|Mobile]]. Trade with the Northeast via the [[Ohio River]] began during the Burial Mound Period ([[1000 BC]]-A.D. [[700]]) and continued until European contact. Meso-American influence is evident in the agrarian Mississippian culture that followed. The [[France|French]] established the first [[Europe]]an settlement in the state with the establishment of [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] in [[1702]]. Southern Alabama was French from [[1702]]&ndash;[[1763]], part of British West Florida from [[1763]]&ndash;[[1780]], and part of Spanish West Florida from [[1780]]&ndash;[[1814]]. Northern and central Alabama was part of British Georgia from [[1763]]&ndash;[[1783]] and part of the American Mississippi territory thereafter. Its statehood delayed by the lack of a coastline (rectified when Andrew Jackson captured Spanish Mobile in [[1814]]), Alabama became the 22nd state in [[1819]]. The state of Alabama seceded from the Union on [[January 11]], [[1861]] and became the [[Alabama Republic]] and on [[February 18]] [[1861]] became a [[Confederate States of America|Confederate state]]. While not many battles were fought in the state, it contributed about 120,000 soldiers to the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]]. After the war a provisional government was set up in [[1865]] and Alabama was officially readmitted to the Union on July 14 [[1868]]. The cradle of the Confederacy during the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]], Alabama was at stage center in the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|civil rights movement]] of the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]]. ==Law and government== ''Main article: [[Law and Government of Alabama]]'' ===Local & County Government=== Alabama has 67 [[county|counties]], each having its own elected legislative branch, usually called the Board of Commissioners, which usually also has executive authority in the county. Due to the restraints placed in the [[Alabama Constitution]], all but 7 counties (Jefferson, Lee, Mobile, Madison, Montgomery, Shelby, and Tuscaloosa) in the state have little to no [[home rule]]. Instead, most counties in the state have to lobby to the Local Legislation Committee the state legislature to get simple local policies such as waste disposal to land use zoning. Alabama is an alcohol monopoly or [[Alcoholic beverage control state]]. ===Political Climate=== The current governor of the state is [[Bob Riley (Alabama)|Bob Riley]] and the two U.S. senators are [[Jeff Sessions|Jefferson B. Sessions III]] and [[Richard Shelby|Richard C. Shelby]] (all three from the [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]]). The current [[Alabama Constitution]] was adopted in [[1901]]. During [[Reconstruction]] following the [[American Civil War]], Alabama was occupied by federal troops of the [[Third Military District]] under [[John Pope (military officer)|General John Pope]]. In [[1877]], the Reconstruction period ended with the recognition of [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] as President-elect. [[White people|White]] Southerners assumed control of the government and passed laws to [[racial segregation|segregate]] and disenfranchise black residents. The state became part of the "[[Solid South]]," a one-party system in which the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] became essentially the only political party in every Southern state. For nearly 100 years, local and state elections in Alabama were decided in the Democratic Party primary, with generally no Republican challenger running. From [[1876]] through [[1956]], Alabama supported only Democratic presidential candidates, by margins as high as 73 percentage points. In [[1960]], Alabama gave most of its electoral votes to [[Harry F. Byrd]] as a protest. In [[1964]], the national [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] began to win more votes in the South by following a "[[Southern Strategy]]" which emphasized "[[States' rights|states' rights]]" and the increasing liberalism of the national Democratic Party. The first such candidate was conservative [[Barry Goldwater]], who became the first Republican candidate supported by Alabama. In [[1968]], Alabama supported native son and [[American Independent Party]] candidate [[George Wallace]]. The last Democratic candidate to win Alabama's votes in a presidential election was Southerner [[Jimmy Carter]] in [[1976]]. Today, the Republican party has become increasingly dominant in conservative Alabama politics. However, in local politics, Democrats still control many offices, including majorities in both houses of the Legislature, and registered Democrats outnumber Republicans in the state. In 2004, [[George W. Bush]] won Alabama's nine electoral votes by a margin of 25 percentage points with 62.5% of the vote. The only 11 counties voting Democratic were [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt]] counties, where [[African American]]s are in the majority. Alabama is located in the [[Bible Belt]], and its educational policies reflect this. According to the [[Alan Guttmacher Institute]], Alabama requires sex education classes to emphasize "that [[homosexuality]] is not an acceptable lifestyle to the general public and that homosexual conduct is a criminal offense under the laws of the state." While the mandate is not typically enforced in Alabama classrooms, it is unclear whether or not the official requirements have changed since the Supreme Court's ruling in [[Lawrence v. Texas]]. According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], in 2000, Alabama was home to 4,561 same-sex male couples and 4,167 same-sex female couples. *[[U.S. presidential election, 2004, in Alabama]] ==Geography== ''Main article: [[Geography of Alabama]]'' {{ussm|alabama.PNG|al}} Alabama is the 30^th largest state in the United States with 135,775 km² (52,423 mi²) of total area. 3.19% of that is water, making Alabama 23^rd in the amount of surface water, also giving it the second largest inland waterway system in the [[United States]]. About three-fifths of the land area is a gentle [[plain]] with a general incline towards the [[Mississippi River]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. The [[North Alabama]] region is mostly mountainous, with the [[Tennessee River]] cutting a large valley creating numerous creeks, streams, rivers, mountains, and lakes. The lowest point east of the [[Mississippi River]] lies in [[Dekalb County]] along a creek cutting tower ridges, and creating [[Buck's Pocket State Park]]. Another natural wonder is "Land Bridge" the longest natural bridge span east of the [[Mississippi River]]. Alabama generally ranges in [[elevation]] from [[sea level]] at [[Mobile Bay]], to a little more than 1800 [[foot (unit)|feet]] or 550 [[metre|meters]] in the Appalachian mountains in the northeast. The highest point is [[Mount Cheaha]]. ==Economy== [[Image:wiki_alabama.jpg|thumb|275px|Greetings from Alabama]] According to the [[Bureau of Economic Analysis]], the [[2003]] total [[gross state product]] was $132 billion. The [[per capita income]] for the state was $26,505 in 2003. Alabama's [[agricultural]] outputs include [[poultry]] and [[Egg (food)|eggs]], [[cattle]], plant nursery items, [[peanut]]s, [[cotton]], [[grains]] such as [[maize|corn]] and [[sorgum]], [[vegetables]], [[milk]], [[soybeans]], and [[peaches]]. Even though neighboring [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] is called the [[Peach State]], Alabama produces twice as many peaches annually. Its [[Industry|industrial]] outputs include [[iron]] and [[steel]] products, including cast-iron and steel pipe, [[paper]], [[lumber]], and [[wood]] products, [[mining]] (mostly coal), and [[plastic]] products, cars and trucks, and [[apparel]]. Also, Alabama produces [[aerospace]] and [[electronic]] products, mostly in the [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] area, home of the [[NASA]] [[George C. Marshall Space Flight Center]] and the [[United States Army Aviation and Missile Command|US Army Missile Command]], headquartered at [[Redstone Arsenal]]. Also, the city of [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] is a busy seaport on the [[Gulf of Mexico]], and with inland waterway access to the Midwest via the [[Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway]]. ==Demographics== {{seesubarticle|Demographics of Alabama}} {| class="toccolours" align="right" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;" |- ! colspan=2 bgcolor="#ccccff" align="center"| Historical populations |- ! align="center"| Census<br>year !! align="right"| Population |- | colspan=2|<hr> |- | align="center"| 1800 || align="right"| 1,250 |- | align="center"| 1810 || align="right"| 9,046 |- | align="center"| 1820 || align="right"| 127,901 |- | align="center"| 1830 || align="right"| 309,527 |- | align="center"| 1840 || align="right"| 590,756 |- | align="center"| 1850 || align="right"| 771,623 |- | align="center"| 1860 || align="right"| 964,201 |- | align="center"| 1870 || align="right"| 996,992 |- | align="center"| 1880 || align="right"| 1,262,505 |- | align="center"| 1890 || align="right"| 1,513,401 |- | align="center"| 1900 || align="right"| 1,828,697 |- | align="center"| 1910 || align="right"| 2,138,093 |- | align="center"| 1920 || align="right"| 2,348,174 |- | align="center"| 1930 || align="right"| 2,646,248 |- | align="center"| 1940 || align="right"| 2,832,961 |- | align="center"| 1950 || align="right"| 3,061,743 |- | align="center"| 1960 || align="right"| 3,266,740 |- | align="center"| 1970 || align="right"| 3,444,165 |- | align="center"| 1980 || align="right"| 3,893,888 |- | align="center"| 1990 || align="right"| 4,040,587 |- | align="center"| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align="right"| 4,447,100 |} {| |- As of 2005, Alabama has an estimated population of 4,557,808, which is an increase of 32,433, or 0.7%, from the prior year and an increase of 110,457, or 2.5%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 77,418 people (that is 319,544 births minus 242,126 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 36,457 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 25,936 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 10,521 people. The state had 108,000 foreign-born (2.4% of the state population), of which an estimated 22.2% were illegal aliens (24,000). |} |[[Image:Alabama_population_map.png|thumb|right|300px|Alabama Population Density map]] ===Race and ancestry=== The racial makeup of the state and comparison to the prior census: {{Racial_demographics_begin | year1=2000 | year2=1990 }} {{Racial_demographics_White | year1=71.1% | year2=73.6% }} {{Racial_demographics_Black | year1=26.0% | year2=25.3% }} {{Racial_demographics_Asian | year1=0.7% | year2=0.5% }} {{Racial_demographics_Amerindian | year1=0.5% | year2=0.4% }} {{Racial_demographics_Other | race=Other race | year1=0.7% | year2=0.1% }} {{Racial_demographics_Mixed | year1=1.0% | year2=<center>*</center> }} {{Racial_demographics_Hispanic | year1White=70.3% | year2White=73.3% | year1Hispanic=1.7% | year2Hispanic=0.6% }} {{Racial_demographics_end}} The largest reported ancestry groups in Alabama: American (17.0%), [[British American|English]] (7.8%), [[Irish American|Irish]] (7.7%), [[German American|German]] (5.7%), and [[Scots-Irish American|Scotch-Irish]] (2.0%). 'American' includes those reported as Native American or [[African American]]. ===Religion=== The major religions of Alabama: *[[Christian]] &#8211; 92% **[[Protestant]] &#8211; 79% ***[[Baptist]] &#8211; 49% ***[[Methodist]] &#8211; 10% ***[[Presbyterian]] &#8211; 3% ***[[Episcopalian]] &#8211; 2% ***[[Church of God]] &#8211; 2% ***[[Church of Christ]] &#8211; 2% ***[[Pentecostal]] &#8211; 2% ***[[Lutheran]] &#8211; 2% ***Other Protestant &#8211; 7% **[[Catholic]] &#8211; 13% *Other religions &#8211; 1% *Non-religious &#8211; 7% ==Colleges and Universities (incomplete)== {{main|List of colleges and universities in Alabama}} {| |- | valign="top" | *[http://www.au.af.mil/ Air University] *[[Alabama A&M University]] *[[Alabama State University]] *[[Andrew Jackson University]] *[[Athens State University]] *[[Auburn University]] *[[Auburn University Montgomery]] *[[Birmingham-Southern College]] *[[Bishop State Community College]] *[[Calhoun Community College|Calhoun Community College System]] ** [[Calhoun Community College at Decatur|Decatur-Main Campus]] ** [[Calhoun Community College at Cummings Research Park|Huntsville/Cummings Research Park]] ** [[Calhoun Community College at Redstone Arsenal|Redstone Arsenal]] *[[Capps College]] *[[Concordia College-Selma]] *[[Faulkner University]] *[[Heritage Christian University]] *[[Huntingdon College]] *[[Jacksonville State University]] *[[Judson College]] *[[Miles College]] *[[Oakwood College]] *[[Remington College]] *[[Samford University]] *[[Selma University]] *[[Southeastern Bible College]] *[[Southern Christian University]] | valign="top" | *[[Spring Hill College]] *[[Stillman College]] *[[Talladega College]] *[[Troy University System]] (formerly "Troy State University System") **[[Troy University|Main Campus (Troy)]] **[[Troy University at Dothan]] **[[Troy University at Montgomery]] **[[Troy University at Phenix City]] *[[Tuskegee University]] *[[United States Sports Academy]] *[[University of Alabama System]] **[[University of Alabama|Main Campus (Tuscaloosa)]] **[[University of Alabama at Birmingham|Birmingham]] **[[University of Alabama at Huntsville|Huntsville]] *[[University of Mobile]] *[[University of Montevallo]] *[[University of North Alabama]] *[[University of South Alabama]] *[[University of West Alabama]] *[[Virginia College]] |} ==Culture and interests== <small> *[[Famous Alabamians]] *[[Alabama Jubilee Hot Air Balloon Classic]] *[[Music of Alabama]] *[[Alabama Public Television]], state wide public TV network *[[List of television stations in Alabama]] *[[Alabama Shakespeare Festival]] *[[Alabama Sports Festival]] *[[Spirit of America Festival]] *[[U.S. Space & Rocket Center]]/[[U.S. Space Camp]] *[[USS Alabama (BB-60)|USS Alabama]] *[[Rickwood Field]] *[[Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail]] *[[Visionland Theme Park]] *[[Old State Bank]] *[[Vulcan statue]] *[[Mobile Bay jubilee]] *[[Point Mallard Aquatic Center]] *[[Noccalula Falls Park]] </small> ==References== * Atkins, Leah Rawls, Wayne Flynt, William Warren Rogers, and David Ward. ''[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=29166058 Alabama: The History of a Deep South State]'' (1994) * Flynt, Wayne. ''Alabama in the Twentieth Century'' (2004) * Owen Thomas M. ''History of Alabama and Dictionary of Alabama Biography'' 4 vols. 1921. * Jackson, Harvey H. ''Inside Alabama: A Personal History of My State'' (2004) * [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=52694010 Peirce, Neal R. ''The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States'' (1974)] solid reporting on politics and economics 1960-72 * Williams, Benjamin Buford. ''A Literary History of Alabama: The Nineteenth Century'' 1979. * WPA. ''Guide to Alabama'' (1939) * for a detailed bibliography see [[History of Alabama]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Alabama}} *[http://alabama.gov/ Alabama.gov] - Official website. *[http://www.alarc.org/ Alabama Association of Regional Councils] *[http://www.touralabama.org/ TourAlabama.org] - Alabama Department of Tourism and Travel *[http://www.archives.state.al.us/ Archives.state.al.us] - Alabama Department of Archives and History **[http://www.archives.state.al.us/aaa.html All About Alabama] at the Archives Department site *[http://alguard.state.al.us Alabama National Guard] - Alabama National Guard *[http://www.legislature.state.al.us/CodeofAlabama/1975/coatoc.htm Code of Alabama 1975] - at the Alabama Legislature site *[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/01000.html Alabama QuickFacts] from the U.S. Census Bureau *[http://www.countymapsofalabama.com/ County Maps of Alabama] - Full color maps. List of cities, towns and county seats *[http://www.southernlitreview.com/states/alabama Alabama Literature] from the Southern Literary Review ==Notes== &sup1; The phrase ''The Heart of Dixie'' is required by state law to be included on standard state vehicle license plates, but has recently been reduced to a very small size and eclipsed by the phrase ''Stars Fell on Alabama''. {{Alabama}} {{USPoliticalDivisions}} [[Category:Alabama| ]] [[Category:States of the United States]] [[Category:1819 establishments]] [[ang:Alabama]] [[ar:ألاباما]] [[ast:Alabama]] [[bg:Алабама]] [[zh-min-nan:Alabama]] [[bs:Alabama]] [[ca:Alabama]] [[cs:Alabama]] [[cy:Alabama]] [[da:Alabama]] [[de:Alabama (Bundesstaat)]] [[et:Alabama]] [[es:Alabama]] [[eo:Alabamo]] [[fr:Alabama]] [[ga:Alabama]] [[gd:Alabama]] [[gl:Alabama]] [[ko:앨라배마 주]] [[hr:Alabama]] [[io:Alabama]] [[id:Alabama]] [[is:Alabama]] [[it:Alabama]] [[he:אלבמה]] [[ka:ალაბამა (შტატი)]] [[la:Alabama]] [[lv:Alabama]] [[lt:Alabama]] [[lb:Alabama (Bundesstaat)]] [[jbo:alybamys]] [[hu:Alabama]] [[mk:Алабама]] [[ms:Alabama]] [[mo:Алабама]] [[nl:Alabama]] [[ja:アラバマ州]] [[no:Alabama]] [[nn:Alabama]] [[os:Алабамæ (штат)]] [[pl:Alabama]] [[pt:Alabama]] [[ro:Alabama]] [[ru:Алабама (штат)]] [[sq:Alabama]] [[simple:Alabama]] [[sk:Alabama]] [[sl:Alabama]] [[sr:Алабама]] [[fi:Alabama]] [[sv:Alabama]] [[th:มลรัฐแอละแบมา]] [[tr:Alabama]] [[uk:Алабама (штат)]] [[zh:阿拉巴馬州]] 304 15899041 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Africa]] 305 41915510 2006-03-02T16:19:19Z Josiah Rowe 210455 /* Other stories about Achilles */ grammar :''For other uses, see [[Achilles (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:The_wrath_of_Achilles.jpg|220px|thumb|right|The wrath of Achilles, by Léon Benouville]]{{Greek myth}}In [[Greek mythology]], '''{{polytonic|&#7944;χιλλεύς}}''', transliterated to '''Akhilleus''' or '''Achilleus'' in Roman letters, Latinized from this ancient Greek to '''Achilles''', appearing in Etruscan as '''Achle''', was a [[hero]] (ancient Greek heros, "defender") of the [[Trojan War]], the greatest and the most [[central character]] of [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]''. ==Name== The very first two lines of the ''Iliad'' read: :{{Polytonic|μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος}} :{{Polytonic|οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκεν,}} Transliterated: :Mēnin aeide thea, Pēlēiadeō Akhilēos :oulomenēn, hē muri' Akhaiois alge' ethēken, Translated: :Sing, Muse, the wrath of Achilles the son of Peleus, :the destructive wrath, that brought countless griefs upon the Achaeans, [[Image:G-achilles-trojan-wars-bb-l.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of Achilles]]In these lines, we see the name Akhilleus Peleides, which is a [[praenomen]] and a [[patronymic]], the latter being formed from Peleus with the suffix -ides producing ''Achilles the son of [[Peleus]]''. The system is similar to the names used by [[Scandinavians]] before modern times, such as Leif Erikson. Achilles' name can be analyzed as a combination of {{Polytonic|ἄχος}} (''akhos'') "grief" and {{Polytonic|λαός}} (''laos'') "a people, tribe, nation, etc." [http://www.stanford.edu/group/shl/Crowds/hist/laos.htm] In other words, Achilles is an embodiment of the grief of the people, grief being a theme raised numerous times in the Iliad (frequently by Achilles). Achilles' role as the hero of grief forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of Achilles as the hero of ''kleos'' (glory, usually glory in war). ''Laos'' has been construed by Gregory Nagy, following Leonard Palmer, to mean ''a corps of soldiers''. With this derivation, the name would have a double meaning in the poem: When the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring grief to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership. ==Birth== Achilles was the son of the mortal [[Peleus]], king of the [[Myrmidons]] in [[Phthia]] (southeast [[Thessaly]]), and the sea nymph [[Thetis]]. [[Zeus]] and [[Poseidon]] had been rivals for the hand of Thetis until [[Prometheus]] the fire-bringer prophesized that Thetis would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit, and had her wed to Peleus. When Achilles was born, according to the most common version of the myth, Thetis tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river [[Styx (mythology)|Styx]]. But she forgot to wet the heel she held him by, leaving him vulnerable at that spot. (See [[Achilles' tendon]].) In an earlier and less popular version of the story, Thetis anointed the boy in [[ambrosia]] and put him on top of a fire to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage. Homer does not make reference to this invulnerability in the [[Iliad]]. To the contrary, he mentions Achilles being wounded, although not seriously. Peleus gave him (together with his young friend or lover [[Patroclus]]) to [[Chiron]] the [[Centaur]], on Mt. [[Pelion]], to be raised. ==Achilles in the Trojan War== ===Telephus=== When the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in [[Mysia]], ruled by King [[Telephus]]. In the resulting battle, Achilles gave Telephus a wound that would not heal; Telephus consulted an oracle, who stated that "he that wounded shall heal". According to other reports in [[Euripides]]' lost play about Telephus, he went to [[Aulis]] pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] for ransom, the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. [[Odysseus]] reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed. This is an example of [[sympathetic magic]]. ===During the Trojan War=== [[Image:The_Rage_of_Achilles_by_Giovanni_Battista_Tiepolo.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|“The Rage of Achilles” by [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]].]] In Homer's Iliad, Achilles is the only mortal to experience consuming rage (''menon''). His anger is at some times wavering, at other times absolute. The humanization of Achilles by the events of the war is an important theme of the ''[[Iliad]]''. Achilles' [[charioteer]]'s name was [[Automedon]]. ====Troilus==== According to [[Dares Phrygius]]' ''Account of the Destruction of Troy'' [http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/DaresTW.html], while [[Troilus]], the youngest son of [[Priam]] and [[Hecuba]] (whom some say was fathered by [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]]), was watering his horses at the Lion Fountain outside the walls of Troy, Achilles saw him and fell in love with his beauty (whose "loveliness of form" was described by [[Ibycus]] as being like "gold thrice refined"). The youth rejected his advances and took refuge inside the temple of Apollo. Achilles pursued him into the sanctuary and decapitated him on the god's own altar. ([[John Tzetzes|Tzetzes]], [[scholiast]] on [[Lycophron]]). At the time, Troilus was said to be a year short of his twentieth birthday, and the legend goes that if Troilus had lived to be twenty, Troy would have been invincible. ([[First Vatican Mythographer]]) ====Agamemnon and the death of Patroclus==== [[Image:Patrocluspederastyscene.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Patroclus]] and Achilles. Achilles bandages the arm of his friend Patroclus. The latter turns his head aside to avoid the sight of blood and of Achilles noticing his pain grimaces. The scene has been interpreted as an act of welfare and comradeship, or as a scene with sexual overtones. Ancient Greek culture often held the two [[Iliad#The_relationship_of_Achilles_and_Patroclus|to be lovers]].]] Achilles took 23 towns outside [[Troy]], including [[Lyrnessos]], where he captured [[Briseis]] to keep as a [[concubine]]. Meanwhile, [[Agamemnon]] took a woman named [[Chryseis]] and taunted her father, [[Chryses]], a priest of [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]], when he attempted to buy her back. Apollo sent a plague through the Greek armies, and Agamemnon was forced to give Chryseis back to her father; however, he took Briseis away from Achilles as compensation for his loss. This action sparked the central plot of the [[Iliad]]: Achilles becomes enraged and refuses to fight for the Greeks any further. The war goes badly, through the influence of [[Zeus]], and the Greeks offer handsome reparations to their greatest warrior. After the Greeks are pushed back to the ships, which are just starting to be set on fire by the Trojan hero [[Hector]], Achilles is visited by [[Odysseus]], [[Telamonian Aias|Ajax]], and [[Phoenix (Iliad)|Phoenix]], who attempt to persuade him to return to battle. Achilles still refuses to fight, but agrees to allow [[Patroclus]] to fight in his place, wearing his armor. The next day, [[Patroclus]] is killed and stripped of the armor by Hector, who mistakes him for Achilles. Achilles is overwhelmed with grief for his beloved friend, and the rage he once harbored toward Agamemnon begins shifting to Hector. Thetis, his mother, rises from the sea floor and sympathizes with his grief. She obtains magnificent new armor for him from [[Hephaestus]]. The goddess [[Athena]] provides him with the [[aegis]] of Zeus. When he goes to the battlefield, the entire Trojan army flees behind the walls of Troy. Achilles' wrath is terrible, and he slays many Trojan warriors and allies, including Priam's son [[Lycaon]] (whom Achilles had previously captured and sold into slavery, but who had been returned to Troy). Eventually Hector comes out of the walls to defend the honour of Troy. He asked Achilles to agree that the body of the loser would be returned for proper burial by the winner. Achilles rejected this arrangement, saying, "Though twenty ransoms and thy weight in gold were offered, I would refuse it all." Stories tell that Hector ran about Troy seven times and Achilles followed him, however seeing that Achilles would not be outrun, Hector stood his ground and fought. Other versions of the tale say that Achilles chased after Hector two times, and one time he was delivered by the gods, however, on their second encounter, Achilles trapped Hector and challenged him. After a legendary fight, Achilles kills Hector. Influenced by his anger, he drags the body of Hector behind his chariot round the walls of Troy three times, and refuses to allow it to receive [[funeral rites]]. Much to the dismay of Achilles, the body of Hector miraculously heals and will not decay as normally expected. [[Aphrodite]], the goddess of love who sided with Troy throughout the whole conflict, put a protective barrier over [[Hector]], which kept him looking like he did before he was viciously killed by Achilles. When [[Priam]], the king of Troy and Hector's father, comes secretly into the Greek camp to plead for the body, Achilles finally relents; in one of the most moving scenes of the ''Iliad'', he receives Priam graciously and allows him to take the body away. The scene is intensely moving because [[Priam]], the king of one of the greatest cities in the known world, kneels down, old and frail as he is, and kisses the hands of the man who killed his son. The greatness of Achilles lies in not just being the greatest Greek fighter ever, but in knowing the choice provided to him by [[Destiny]]. His mother Thetis had prophesied to him that if he pulled out of the [[Trojan War]], he would enjoy a long and a happy life. If Achilles fought, however, he would die before the walls of [[Troy]] but assure an everlasting glory, surpassing that of all other heroes. He had made the choice, and coming face to face with it showed his greatness. ====Xanthos==== During the [[Trojan War]], [[Balius and Xanthos|Xanthos]], one of Achilles' horses, was rebuked by Achilles for allowing [[Patroclus]] to be killed. Xanthos responded by saying (Hera temporarily gave him voice to do so) that a god and a mortal had killed Patroclus and a god and a mortal would soon kill Achilles too. ====Memnon, Cycnus, Penthesilea, and the death of Achilles==== [[Image:TBanksThetis.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''Thetis rising from the sea to comfort Achilles'' (Book 18), by [[Thomas Banks]], English, [[1778]] [[Victoria and Albert Museum]].]] Shortly after the death of [[Hector]], Achilles defeated [[Memnon]] of [[Ethiopia]], [[Cycnus]] of [[Colonae]] and the [[Amazons|Amazonian]] warrior [[Penthesilia]] (with whom Achilles also had an affair in some versions). As predicted by [[Hector]] with his dying breath, Achilles was thereafter killed by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] &mdash; either by an arrow to the heel (which may have subsequently become fatally infected, and is said to have been guided by [[Apollo]]), or in an older version by a knife to the back while visiting [[Polyxena]], a princess of Troy. Both versions conspicuously deny the killer any sort of valor, and Achilles remains undefeated on the battlefield (Paris was later killed by Philoctetes using the enormous bow of Heracles). His bones are mingled with those of [[Patroclus]], and funeral games are held. Like Ajax, he is represented (although not by [[Homer]]) as living after his death in the island of [[Leuke]] at the mouth of the [[Danube]]. ====The fate of Achilles' armor==== Achilles' armor was the object of a feud between [[Odysseus]] and [[Telamonian Aias|Ajax the Greater]] (Achilles' older cousin). They competed for it and Odysseus won. Ajax went mad with grief and vowed to kill his comrades; he started killing cattle (thinking they were Greek soldiers), and then himself. ==Other stories about Achilles== Some post-Homeric sources claim that in order to keep Achilles safe from the war, Thetis (or, in some versions, Peleus) hid the young man at the court of [[Lycomedes]], king of [[Skyros]]. There, Achilles was disguised as a girl and lived among Lycomedes' daughters under the name "Pyrrha" (the red-haired girl). With Lycomedes' daughter [[Deidamea|Deidamia]], Achilles fathered a son, [[Neoptolemus]] (also called Pyrrhus, after his father's alias). According to this story, Odysseus learned from the prophet [[Calchas]] that the Achaeans would be unable to capture Troy without Achilles' aid. He went to Skyros in the guise of a peddler selling women's clothes and jewelry, but placed a shield and spear among his goods. When Achilles instantly took up the spear, Odysseus saw through his disguise and convinced him to join the Trojan campaign. In another version of the story, Odysseus arranged for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with Lycomedes' women; while the women fled in panic, Achilles prepared to defend the court, thus giving his identity away. The story about Achilles in [[drag (clothing)|drag]] is not found in Homer. In Homer's ''[[Odyssey]]'', there is a passage in which Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades. One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be a slave than be dead. This has been interpreted as a rejection of his warrior life, but also as indignity to his martyrdom being slighted. The kings of [[Despotate of Epirus|Epirus]] claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son. [[Alexander the Great]], son of the Epiran princess [[Olympias]], could therefore also claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor; he is said to have visited his tomb while passing Troy. Achilles was worshipped as a sea-god in many of the [[Greek colonies]] on the [[Black Sea]]. The [[homosexual]] [[Achilles and Patroclus|relationship between Achilles and Patroclus]] is something much explored in post-[[Homeric]] literature. By the fifth and fourth centuries, the deep — and arguably ambiguous — friendship portrayed in Homer blossomed into an unequivocal love affair in the works of [[Aeschylus]], [[Plato]], and [[Aeschines]], and seems to have inspired the enigmatic verses in [[Lycophron]]'s third century ''Alexandra'' that claim Achilles slayed Troilus in a matter of unrequited love. Achilles fought and killed the [[Amazons|Amazon]] [[Helene (mythology)|Helene]]. Some also said he married [[Medea]], and that after both their deaths they were united in the Elysian Fields of Hades - as Hera promised Thetis in Apollonius' [[Argonautica]]. ==Achilles in lost plays== In the early [[1990]]s a lost play by [[Aeschylus]] was discovered in the wrappings of a [[mummy]] in [[Egypt]]. The play, ''[[Achilles (play)|Achilles]]'', was part of a [[trilogy]] about the [[Trojan War]]. It was known to exist due to mentions in ancient sources, but had been lost for over 2,000 years. Another lost play by Aeschylus, ''The Myrmidons'', focussed on the relationship between Achilles and Patroclus; only a few lines survive today. There is another lost play with Achilles as the main character, ''The Lovers of Achilles'', by [[Sophocles]]. ==Spoken-word myths (audio)== {| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" |- ! style="background:#ffdead;" | Achilles myths as told by story tellers |- |[[Media:Achilles and Patroclus wiki.ogg|'''1. Achilles and Patroclus,''' read by Timothy Carter]] |- |Bibliography of reconstruction: [[Homer]] ''Iliad,'' 9.308, 16.2, 11.780, 23.54 ([[700 BC]]); [[Pindar]] ''[[Olympian Odes]],'' IX ([[476 BC]]); [[Aeschylus]] ''Myrmidons,'' F135-36 ([[495 BC]]); [[Euripides]] ''Iphigenia in Aulis,'' ([[405 BC]]); [[Plato]] ''Symposium,'' 179e ([[388 BC]]-[[367 BC]]); [[Statius]] ''Achilleid,'' 161, 174, 182 ([[96]] CE) |- |} ==Achilles in music== Achilles has frequently been mentioned in music. *"Achilles, Agony & Ecstasy In Eight Parts", by [[Manowar]]; from the album ''The Triumph of Steel'', [[1992]], [[Atlantic Records]]. *"[[Achilles Last Stand]]", by [[Led Zeppelin]]; from the album ''Presence'', [[1976]], Atlantic Records. *"Achilles' Revenge" is a song by [[Warlord (band)|Warlord]]. *Achilles' Heel is an album by the indie rock band [[Pedro the Lion]]. *Achilles and his heel are referenced in the song "Special K" by the rock band [[Placebo (band)|Placebo]]. *Achilles is referred to in [[Bob Dylan]]'s song, "Temporary Like Achilles". *"Achilles' Heel" is a song by the UK band [[Toploader]]. *"Achilles" is a song by the Colorado-based power metal band [[Jag Panzer]], from the album ''Casting the Stones''. *Achilles is referenced in the [[Indigo Girls]] song "Ghost". ==Achilles in film== The role of Achilles has been played by: * [[Stanley Baker]] in ''[[Helen of Troy (movie)|Helen of Troy]]'' ([[1956]]) * [[Arturo Dominici]] in ''[[La Guerra di Troia (movie)|La Guerra di Troia]]'' ([[1962]]) * [[Derek Jacobi]] [voice] in Achilles (Channel Four Television) ([[1995]]) * [[Steve Davislim]] in ''[[La Belle Hélène (TV movie)|La Belle Hélène]]'' (TV, [[1996]]) * [[Joe Montana (actor)|Joe Montana]] in ''[[Helen of Troy (TV movie)|Helen of Troy]]'' (TV, [[2003]]) * [[Brad Pitt]] in ''[[Troy (movie)|Troy]]'' (2004) ==Namesakes== * The [[Royal New Zealand Navy]] gave the name [[HMNZS Achilles (70)|HMNZS ''Achilles'']] to an [[British A class destroyer|''A'' class]] [[destroyer]] which served in [[World War II]]. ==References== *[[Homer]], ''[[Iliad]]'' *[[Homer]], [[Odyssey|''Odyssey'' XI]], 467-540 *[[Apollodorus]], ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheca]]'' III, xiii, 5-8 *[[Apollodorus]], [[Epitome III|''Epitome'' III]], 14-V, 7 *[[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' XI, 217-265; XII, 580-XIII, 398 *[[Ovid]], [[Heroides|''Heroides'' III]] *[[Apollonius Rhodius]], [[Argonautica|''Argonautica'' IV]], 783-879 *[[Dante]], ''[[The Divine Comedy]]'', Inferno, V. ==Bibliography== * Ileana Chirassi Colombo, “Heros Achilleus— Theos Apollon.” In ''Il Mito Greco'', éd. Bruno Gentili & Giuseppe Paione, Rome, 1977; * Anthony Edwards: ** “Achilles in the Underworld: Iliad, Odyssey, and Æthiopis”, ''Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies'', 26 (1985): pp. 215-227 ; ** “Achilles in the Odyssey: Ideologies of Heroism in the Homeric Epic”, ''Beitrage zur klassischen Philologie'', 171, Meisenheim, 1985 ; ** “Kleos Aphthiton and Oral Theory,” ''Classical Quarterly'', 38 (1988): pp. 25-30 ; * Hélène Monsacré, ''Les larmes d'Achille. Le héros, la femme et la souffrance dans la poésie d'Homère'', Paris, Albin Michel, 1984; * [[Gregory Nagy]]: ** ''The Best of The Acheans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry'', Johns Hopkins University, 1999 (rev. edition); ** ''The Name of Achilles: Questions of Etymology and 'Folk Etymology''', ''Illinois Classical Studies'', 19, 1994; * Dale S. Sinos, ''The Entry of Achilles into Greek Epic'', Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University; * Johansson, Warren. ''Achilles.'' [http://williamapercy.com/pub-EncyHom.htm '''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality.'''] Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.), Garland Publishing, 1990. p. 8 ==External links== {{commons|Category:Achilles}} * [http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Mythology/Greek/ The Story of Achilles and Patroclus] * [http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/troy.html Trojan War Resources] [[Category:People who fought in the Trojan War]] [[Category:Anti-heroes|Achilles]] [[Category:Pederastic heroes and deities]] <!-- interwiki --> {{Link FA|fr}} [[ar:أخيل]] [[bg:Ахил]] [[ca:Aquil·les]] [[da:Achilleus]] [[de:Achilleus]] [[et:Achilleus]] [[el:Αχιλλέας]] [[es:Aquiles]] [[eo:Aĥilo]] [[fa:آشیل]] [[fr:Achille]] [[gl:Aquiles]] [[ko:아킬레우스]] [[hr:Ahilej]] [[it:Achille]] [[he:אכילס]] [[la:Achilles]] [[lt:Achilas]] [[lb:Achilleus]] [[hu:Akhilleusz]] [[nl:Achilles]] [[ja:アキレウス]] [[no:Akilles]] [[pl:Achilles (mitologia)]] [[pt:Aquiles]] [[ru:Ахиллес]] [[sk:Achilles]] [[sl:Ahil]] [[fi:Akhilleus]] [[sv:Akilles]] [[uk:Ахіллес]] [[zh:阿基琉斯]] 306 15899043 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Applied statistics]] 307 42155236 2006-03-04T04:35:40Z Naconkantari 676502 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Bennettsnider|Bennettsnider]] ([[User talk:Bennettsnider|talk]]) to last version by Naconkantari :''For other uses of the name Abraham Lincoln, see [[Abraham Lincoln (disambiguation)]]'' {{Infobox_President | name=Abraham Lincoln | nationality=American | image=Abraham Lincoln head on shoulders photo portrait.jpg | order=16th President | term_start=[[March 4]], [[1861]] | term_end=[[April 15]], [[1865]] | predecessor=[[James Buchanan]] | successor=[[Andrew Johnson]] | birth_date=[[February 12]], [[1809]] | birth_place=[[Hardin County, Kentucky]] (now in [[LaRue County, Kentucky|LaRue County]]) | death_date=[[April 15]], [[1865]] | death_place=[[Washington, D.C.]] | spouse=[[Mary Todd Lincoln]] | party=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] | vicepresident=[[Hannibal Hamlin]] (1861 to 1865); [[Andrew Johnson]] (March - April 1865) }} '''Abraham Lincoln''' ([[February 12]], [[1809]] – [[April 15]], [[1865]]), sometimes called '''Abe Lincoln''' and nicknamed '''Honest Abe''', the '''Rail Splitter''', and the '''Great Emancipator''', was the 16th [[President of the United States]] (1861 to 1865), and the first president from the [[History of United States Republican Party|Republican Party]]. Lincoln opposed the expansion of slavery and oversaw the Union war effort during the [[American Civil War]]. He selected the generals and approved their strategy; selected senior civilian officials; supervised diplomacy, patronage and party affairs; rallied public opinion through messages and speeches such as the [[Gettysburg Address]]; and took personal charge of plans for the [[Emancipation Proclamation|abolition of slavery]] and the [[Reconstruction]] of the Union. He was assassinated as the war ended by [[John Wilkes Booth]]. ==Role in history== President Lincoln was opposed to what he saw as the [[Slave Power]] and staunchly opposed its efforts to expand [[history of slavery in the United States|slavery]] into federal territories. His victory in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1860|1860 presidential election]] further polarized an already divided nation. Before his inauguration in March of 1861, seven [[Southern United States|Southern]] states [[secession|seceded]] from the [[United States]], formed the [[Confederate States of America]], and took control of U.S. forts and other properties within their boundaries. These events soon led to the [[American Civil War]]. Lincoln is often praised for his work as a wartime leader who proved adept at balancing competing considerations and at getting rival groups to work together toward a common goal. Lincoln had to negotiate between [[Radical Republican|Radical]] and Moderate Republican leaders, who were often far apart on the issues, while attempting to win support from [[War Democrats]] and loyalists in the seceding states. He personally directed the war effort, in close cooperation (1864-65) with General [[Ulysses S. Grant]] which ultimately led the Union forces to victory over the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. His leadership qualities were evident in his diplomatic handling of the border slave states at the beginning of the fighting, in his defeat of a congressional attempt to reorganize his cabinet in 1862, in his many speeches and writings which helped mobilize and inspire the North, and in his defusing of the peace issue in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1864|1864 presidential campaign]]. [[Copperheads (politics)|Copperheads]] vehemently criticized him for violating the Constitution, overstepping the bounds of executive power, refusing to compromise on slavery, declaring [[martial law]], suspending [[habeas corpus]], ordering the arrest of thousands of public officials and a number of newspaper publishers, and killing hundreds of thousands of young men. [[Radical Republicans]] criticized him for going too slow on abolition of slavery, and not being ruthless enough toward the conquered South. Lincoln is most famous for his roles in preserving the Union and ending [[slavery]] in the United States with the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] and the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]]. However, some abolitionists criticized him for only freeing the slaves under the Confederacy in 1863, and waiting until 1865 to free slaves held in the Union. Historians have argued that Lincoln had a lasting influence on U.S. political and social institutions, importantly setting a precedent for greater centralization of powers in the federal government and the weakening of the powers of the individual [[state government]]s. Lincoln spent most of his attention on military matters and politics but with his strong support his administration established the current system of [[national bank]]s with the [[National Bank Act]]. He increased the [[Morrill tariff|tariff]] to raise revenue and encourage factories, imposed the first [[Income tax in the United States|income tax]], issued hundreds of millions of dollars of bonds and Greenbacks, encouraged immigration from Europe, built the [[First Transcontinental Railroad|transcontinental railroad]], set up the [[United States Department of Agriculture|Department of Agriculture]], encouraged farm ownership with the [[Homestead Act]] of 1862, and set up the modern system of state universities with the [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]]. During the war his Treasury department effectively controlled all cotton trade in the occupied South--the most dramatic incursion of federal controls on the economy. During his administration [[West Virginia]] and [[Nevada]] were admitted as states. Lincoln is usually [[historical rankings of U.S. Presidents|ranked as one of the greatest presidents]]. Because of his roles in destroying slavery, redefining national values, and saving the Union, his [[assassination]] made him a [[martyr]] to millions of Americans. However, others considered him an unconstitutional tyrant for declaring martial law, suspending civil liberties, habeas corpus, and the First Amendment, and ordering the arrest of thousands of public officials and newspaper publishers. ==Early life== Abraham Lincoln was born on [[February 12]], [[1809]], in a one-room [[log cabin]] on the 348 acre (1.4 km&sup2;) Sinking Spring Farm in the Southeast part of [[Hardin County, Kentucky]], then considered the [[frontier]] (now part of [[LaRue County, Kentucky|LaRue Co.]], in Nolin Creek, three miles (5 km) south of [[Hodgenville, Kentucky|Hodgenville]]), to [[Thomas Lincoln]] and [[Nancy Hanks]]. Lincoln was named after his deceased grandfather, who was [[scalping|scalped]] in 1786 in an Indian raid. He had no middle name. Lincoln's parents were uneducated, illiterate farmers. When Lincoln became famous, reporters and storytellers often exaggerated the poverty and obscurity of his birth. However Lincoln's father Thomas was a respected and relatively affluent citizen of the Kentucky backcountry. He had purchased the [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site|Sinking Spring Farm]] in December 1808 for $200 cash and assumption of a debt. His parents belonged to a Baptist church that had pulled away from a larger church because they refused to support slavery. From a very young age, Lincoln was exposed to anti-slavery sentiment. However he never joined his parents' church, or any other church, and as a youth ridiculed religion. Three years after purchasing the property, a prior land claim filed in Hardin Circuit Court forced the Lincolns to move. Thomas continued legal action until he lost the case in 1815. Legal expenses contributed to family difficulties. In 1811, they were able to lease 30 acres (0.1 km&sup2;) of a 230 acre (0.9 km&sup2;) farm on Knob Creek a few miles away, where they then moved. In a valley of the [[Rolling Fork River]], this was some of the best farmland in the area. At this time, Lincoln's father was a respected community member and a successful farmer and carpenter. Lincoln's earliest recollections are from this farm. In 1815, another claimant sought to eject the family from the [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site|Knob Creek farm]]. Frustrated with litigation and lack of security provided by Kentucky courts, Thomas decided to move to [[Indiana]], which had been surveyed by the federal government, making land titles more secure. It is possible that these episodes motivated Abraham to later learn surveying and become an attorney. In 1816, when Lincoln was seven years old, he and his parents moved to [[Spencer County, Indiana]], he would state "partly on account of slavery" and partly because of economic difficulties in Kentucky. In 1818, Lincoln's mother died of "[[milk sickness]]" at age thirty four, when Abe was nine. Soon afterwards, Lincoln's father remarried to Sarah Bush Johnston. Sarah Lincoln raised young Lincoln like one of her own children. Years later she compared Lincoln to her own son, saying "Both were good boys, but I must say — both now being dead that Abe was the best boy I ever saw or ever expect to see." (''Lincoln'', by David Herbert Donald, 1995) In 1830, after more economic and land-title difficulties in Indiana, the family settled on government land on a site selected by Lincoln's father in [[Macon County, Illinois]]. The following winter was especially brutal, and the family nearly moved back to Indiana. When his father relocated the family to a nearby site the following year, the 22-year-old Lincoln struck out on his own, [[canoe]]ing down the Sangamon to [[Sangamon County, Illinois]] (now in [[Menard County, Illinois|Menard County]]), in the village of [[New Salem (Menard County), Illinois|New Salem]]. Later that year, hired by New Salem businessman [[Denton Offutt]] and accompanied by friends, he took goods from New Salem to [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] via [[flatboat]] on the Sangamon, [[Illinois River|Illinois]] and [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]] [[river]]s. While in New Orleans, he may have witnessed a slave auction that left an indelible impression on him for the rest of his life. Whether he actually witnessed a slave auction at that time or not, living in a country with a considerable slave presence, he probably saw similar atrocities from time to time. His formal education consisted of perhaps 18 months of schooling from itinerant teachers. In effect he was self-educated, studying every book he could borrow. He mastered the Bible, Shakespeare, English history and American history, and developed a plain style that puzzled audiences more used to orotund oratory. He avoided hunting and fishing because he did not like killing animals even for food and, though unusually tall and strong, spent so much time reading that some neighbors thought he must be doing it to avoid strenuous manual labor. He was skilled with an axe—they called him the "rail splitter"—and a good wrestler. [[Image:Abe_Lincoln_young.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Young Abraham Lincoln]] ==Early career== Lincoln began his political career in 1832 at the age of 23 with a campaign for the [[Illinois General Assembly]] as a member of the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]]. The centerpiece of his platform was the undertaking of navigational improvements on the [[Sangamon River]] in the hopes of attracting [[steamboat]] traffic to the river, which would allow sparsely populated, poor areas along and near the river to grow and prosper. He served as a captain in a company of the [[Illinois]] [[militia]] drawn from New Salem during the [[Black Hawk War]], although he never saw combat. He wrote after being elected by his peers that he had not had "any such success in life which gave him so much satisfaction." He later tried and failed at several small-time business ventures. He held an Illinois state [[liquor]] license and sold whiskey. Finally, after coming across the second volume of [[Sir William Blackstone]]'s four-volume ''[[Commentaries on the Laws of England]]'', he taught himself the [[law]], and was admitted to the [[Illinois State Bar Association|Illinois Bar]] in 1837. That same year, he moved to [[Springfield, Illinois]] and began to practice law with [[Stephen T. Logan]]. He became one of the most respected and successful lawyers in the prairie state, and grew steadily more prosperous. Lincoln served four successive terms in the [[Illinois House of Representatives]], as a representative from [[Sangamon County, Illinois|Sangamon County]], beginning in 1834. He became a leader of the Whig party in the legislature. In 1837 he made his first protest against slavery in the Illinois House, stating that the institution was "founded on both injustice and bad policy." [http://www.hti.umich.edu/l/lincoln/] Lincoln shared a bed with [[Joshua Fry Speed]] from 1837 to 1841 in Springfield. While many historians claim it was not uncommon in the mid-19th century for men to share a bed (just as two men today may share a house or an apartment), gay activist [[C. A. Tripp]] generated controversy with his 2005 book ''[[The Intimate World of Abraham Lincoln]]'', which suggested their relationship may also have been sexual. In 1841, Lincoln entered law practice with [[William Herndon (lawyer)|William Herndon]], a fellow Whig. In 1856, both men joined the fledgling [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]. Following Lincoln's assassination, Herndon began collecting stories about Lincoln from those who knew him in central Illinois, eventually publishing a book, ''Herndon's Lincoln''. Lincoln never joined an antislavery society and denied he supported the abolitionists. He married into a prominent slave-owning family from Kentucky, and allowed his children to spend time there surrounded by slaves. Several of his in-laws became Confederate officers. He greatly admired the science that flourished in New England, and was perhaps the only father in Illinois at the time to send his son, [[Robert Todd Lincoln]], to elite eastern schools, [[Phillips Exeter Academy]] and [[Harvard College]]. ==Marriage== On [[November 4]], [[1842]], at the age of 33, Lincoln married [[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]]. The couple had four sons. *[[Robert Todd Lincoln]]: b. [[August 1]], [[1843]], in Springfield, Illinois; d. [[July 26]], [[1926]], in [[Manchester, Vermont]]. *[[Edward Baker Lincoln]]: b. [[March 10]], [[1846]], in Springfield, Illinois; d. [[February 1]], [[1850]], in Springfield, Illinois. *[[William Wallace Lincoln]]: b. [[December 21]], [[1850]], in Springfield, Illinois; d. [[February 20]], [[1862]], in Washington, D.C. *[[Thomas (Tad) Lincoln]]: b. [[April 4]], [[1853]], in Springfield, Illinois; d. [[July 16]], [[1871]], in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. Only Robert survived into adulthood. Of Robert's three children, only [[Jessie Harlan Lincoln|Jessie Lincoln]] had any children (two: Mary Lincoln Beckwith and Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith). Neither Robert Beckwith nor Mary Beckwith had any children, so Abraham Lincoln's bloodline ended when Robert Beckwith (Lincoln's great-grandson) died on [[December 24]], [[1985]]. [http://members.aol.com/beaufait/biography/geneology.htm] ==Illinois politics== [[Image:Abelincoln1846.jpeg|thumb|Lincoln in 1846 or 1847]] In 1846, Lincoln was elected to one term in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]]. A staunch Whig, Lincoln often referred to party leader [[Henry Clay]] as his political idol. As a freshman House member, Lincoln was not a particularly powerful or influential figure in Congress. He used his office as an opportunity to speak out against the [[Mexican-American War|war]] with [[Mexico]], which he attributed to [[James Knox Polk|President Polk]]'s desire for "military glory — that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood." Lincoln was a key early supporter of [[Zachary Taylor]]'s candidacy for the [[U.S. presidential election, 1848|1848 '''Whig Presidential nomination]]. When Lincoln's term ended, the incoming Taylor administration offered him the governorship of remote [[Oregon Territory]]. Acceptance would end his career in the fast-growing state of Illinois, so he declined. Returning instead to [[Springfield, Illinois]] he turned''' most of his energies to making a living at the [[bar (law)|bar]], which involved extensive travel on horseback from county to county. ==Prairie lawyer== By the mid-1850s, Lincoln faced competing transportation interests — both the river [[barge]]s and the [[railroad]]s. In 1849, he received a patent related to buoying vessels. Lincoln represented the [[Alton & Sangamon Railroad]] in an 1851 dispute with one of its shareholders, [[James A. Barret]]. Barret had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to that corporation on the grounds that it had changed its originally planned route. Lincoln argued that as a matter of law a corporation is not bound by its original charter when that charter can be amended in the public interest, that the newer proposed Alton & Sangamon route was superior and less expensive, and that accordingly the corporation had a right to sue Mr. Barret for his delinquent payment. He won this case, and the decision by the [[Illinois Supreme Court]] was eventually cited by several other courts throughout the United States. Another important example of Lincoln's skills as a railroad lawyer was a lawsuit over a tax exemption that the state granted to the [[Illinois Central Railroad]]. [[McLean County, Illinois|McLean County]] argued that the state had no authority to grant such an exemption, and it sought to impose taxes on the railroad notwithstanding. In January 1856, the Illinois Supreme Court delivered its opinion upholding the tax exemption, accepting Lincoln's arguments. Lincoln's most notable criminal trial came in 1858 when he defended [[William "Duff" Armstrong]], who was on trial for the murder of [[James Preston Metzker]]. The case is famous for Lincoln's use of [[judicial notice]], a rare tactic at that time, to show an eyewitness had lied on the stand, claiming he witnessed the crime in the moonlight. Lincoln produced a [[Farmer's Almanac]] to show that the moon on that date was at such a low angle it could not have produced enough illumination to see anything clearly. Based upon this evidence, Armstrong was acquitted. ==Republican politics 1854-1860== The [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]] of 1854, which expressly repealed the limits on slavery's spread that had been part of the [[Missouri Compromise]] of 1820, drew Lincoln back into politics. Illinois Democrat [[Stephen A. Douglas]], the most powerful man in the Senate, proposed [[popular sovereignty]] as the solution to the slavery impasse, incorporating it into the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Douglas argued that in a democracy the people of a territory should decide whether to allow slavery or not, and not have a decision imposed on them by Congress. It was a speech against Kansas-Nebraska, on [[October 16]], [[1854]] in [[Peoria, Illinois|Peoria]], that caused Lincoln to stand out among the other [[free soil]] orators of the day. He helped form the new Republican party, drawing on remnants of the old Whig, [[Free Soil Party|Free Soil]], Liberty and Democratic parties. In a stirring campaign, the Republicans carried Illinois in 1854, and elected a senator. Lincoln was the obvious choice, but to keep party unity he allowed the election to go to his colleague [[Lyman Trumbull]]. In 1857-58 Douglas broke with President [[James Buchanan|Buchanan]], leading to a terrific fight for control of the Democratic party. Some eastern Republicans even favored the reelection of Douglas in 1858, since he led the opposition to the administration's push for the [[Lecompton Constitution]] which would have admitted Kansas as a [[slave state]]. Accepting the Republican nomination for the Senate in 1858, Lincoln delivered a famous speech [http://www.nationalcenter.org/HouseDivided.html] in which he stated, "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved — I do not expect the house to fall — but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other." The speech created a lasting image of the danger of disunion due to slavery, and rallied Republicans across the north. The 1858 campaign featured the [[Lincoln-Douglas Debates of 1858|Lincoln-Douglas debates]], a nationally noticed discussion on the issues that threatened to split the nation in two. Lincoln forced Douglas to propose his [[Freeport Doctrine]], which lost him further support among slave-holders and speeded the division of the Democratic Party. Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats and the legislature reelected Douglas to the Senate. Nevertheless, Lincoln's eloquence transformed him into a national political star. During the debates of 1858 the issue of race was often discussed. During a time period when racial egalitarianism was considered politically incorrect, Stephen Douglas would inform the crowds, “If you desire negro citizenship…if you desire them to vote on an equality with yourselves… then support Mr. Lincoln and the Black Republican party, who are in favor of the citizenship of the negro.” [http://www.nps.gov/liho/debate1.htm (Official Records of Debate)] On the defensive Lincoln countered that he was “not in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races.” [http://www.nps.gov/liho/debate4.htm (Official Records of Debate)] Historians generally remained mixed on what Lincoln’s actual views were on race. However, many tend to doubt that the highly political nature of these debates offer reliable evidence about his personal views. (Team of Rivals, by Doris Kearns Goodwin, 2005) (Lincoln: In Text and Context, by Donald Fehrenbacher, 1987) As Fredrick Douglass observed, “[Lincoln was] the first great man that I talked with in the United States freely who in no single instance reminded me of the difference between himself and myself, of the difference of color.” (Life and Times of Fredrick Douglass, by Fredrick Douglass, 1895) Lincoln's opposition to slavery was opposition to the [[Slave Power]], and he was not an abolitionist in 1858. But the Civil War changed everything, and changed Lincoln's beliefs in race relations as well. ==Election of 1860== [[Image:The Rail Candidate.jpg|thumb|"The Rail Candidate", political cartoon, 1860]] Entering the presidential nomination process as a distinct underdog, Lincoln was eventually chosen as the Republican candidate for the [[U.S. presidential election, 1860|1860 election]] for several reasons. His expressed views on slavery were seen as more moderate than rivals [[William H. Seward]] and [[Salmon Chase]]. His "western" origins also appealed to the newer states. Other contenders, especially those with more governmental experience, had acquired enemies within the party, specifically Seward, who had run afoul of newspaperman [[Horace Greeley]]. During the campaign, Lincoln was dubbed "The Rail Splitter" by Republicans to emphasize the power of "free labor," whereby a common farm boy could work his way to the top by his own efforts. On [[November 6]], [[1860]], Lincoln was elected the 16th President of the United States, beating Democrat Douglas, [[John C. Breckenridge]] of the Southern Democrats, and [[John C. Bell]] of the new [[Constitutional Union Party (United States)|Constitutional Union Party]]. Lincoln was the first Republican president. He won entirely on the strength of his support in the North: he was not even on the ballot in nine states in the South — and won only 2 of 996 counties there. Lincoln gained 1,865,908 votes (39.9% of the total,) for 180 electoral votes, Douglas 1,380,202 (29.5%) for 12 electoral votes, Breckenridge 848,019 (18.1%) for 72 electoral votes, and Bell 590,901 (12.5%) for 39 electoral votes. There were fusion tickets in some states, but even if his opponents had combined in every state, Lincoln had a majority vote in all but two of the states in which he won the electoral votes, and would still have won the electoral college and the election. ==Secession winter 1860-61== As Lincoln's election became more and more probable, secessionists made it clear that their states would leave the Union. South Carolina took the lead followed by six other [[cotton]]-growing states: Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. The upper South (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) listened to and rejected the secessionist appeal. They decided to stay in the Union, though warning Lincoln they would not support an invasion through their territory. The seven Confederate states seceded before Lincoln took office, declaring themselves an entirely new nation, the [[Confederate States of America]]. President Buchanan and president-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy. President-elect Lincoln survived an [[assassination]] threat in Baltimore, and on [[February 23]], [[1861]] arrived in disguise in Washington. At Lincoln's inauguration on [[March 4]], [[1861]], the [[Turners]] formed Lincoln's bodyguard; and a sizable garrison of federal troops was also present, ready to protect the capital from Confederate invasion or insurrection from Confederates in the capital city. [[Image:Abraham lincoln inauguration 1861.jpg|thumb|left|175px|Photograph showing [[March 4]], [[1861]] inauguration of Abraham Lincoln in front of U.S. Capitol]] In his [[Lincoln's First Inaugural|First Inaugural]] Address, Lincoln declared, "I hold that in contemplation of universal law and of the Constitution the Union of these States is perpetual. Perpetuity is implied, if not expressed, in the fundamental law of all national governments", arguing further that the purpose of the [[United States Constitution]] was "to form a more perfect union" than the [[Articles of Confederation]] which were ''explicitly'' perpetual, and thus the Constitution too was perpetual. He asked rhetorically that even were the Constitution a simple contract, would it not require the agreement of all parties to rescind it? Also in his inaugural address, in a final attempt to unite the Union and prevent the looming war, Lincoln supported the proposed [[Corwin amendment|Corwin Amendment]] to the constitution, of which he had been a driving force. It would have explicitly protected slavery in those states in which it already existed, and had already passed both houses. Lincoln adamantly opposed the [[Crittenden Compromise]], however, which would have permitted slavery in the territories, renewing the boundary set by the [[Missouri Compromise]] and extending it to [[California]]. Despite support for this compromise among some Republicans, Lincoln declared that were the Crittenden Compromise accepted, it "would amount to a perpetual covenant of war against every people, tribe, and state owning a foot of land between here and [[Tierra del Fuego]]." Because opposition to slavery expansion was the key issue uniting the Republican Party at the time, Lincoln is sometimes criticized for putting politics ahead of the national interest in refusing any compromise allowing the expansion of slavery. Supporters of Lincoln, however, point out that he did not oppose slavery because he was a Republican, but became a Republican because of his opposition to the expansion of slavery, that he opposed several other Republicans who were in favor of compromise, and that he clearly thought his course of action was in the national interest. By the time Lincoln took office the Confederacy was an established fact and not a single leader of that country ever proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. No compromise was found because no compromise was possible. Lincoln perhaps could have allowed the southern states to secede, and some Republicans recommended that. However conservative Democratic nationalists, such as [[Jeremiah S. Black]], [[Joseph Holt]], and [[Edwin M. Stanton]] had taken control of Buchanan's cabinet around January 1, 1861, and refused to accept secession. Lincoln, and nearly all Republican leaders, adopted this nationalistic position by March, 1861: the Union could not be broken. ==War begins: 1861-1862== {{main|American Civil War}} After Union troops at [[Battle of Fort Sumter|Fort Sumter]] were fired on and forced to surrender in April, Lincoln called on governors of every state to send 75,000 troops to recapture forts, protect the capital, and "preserve the Union," which in his view still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states. Virginia, which had repeatedly warned Lincoln it would not allow an invasion of its territory or join an attack on another state, then seceded, along with North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas. The slave states of Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware did not secede, and Lincoln urgently negotiated with state leaders there, promising not to interfere with slavery in loyal states. ==Emancipation Proclamation== [[Image:Emancipation_proclamation.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Lincoln met with his Cabinet for the first reading of the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] draft on [[July 22]], [[1862]].]] {{main articles|[[Abraham Lincoln on slavery]] and [[Emancipation Proclamation]]}} Congress in July 1862 moved to free the slaves by passing the Second Confiscation Act. It provided: :That if any person shall hereafter incite, set on foot, assist, or engage in any rebellion or insurrection against the authority of the United States, or the laws thereof, or shall give aid or comfort thereto, or shall engage in, or give aid and comfort to, any such existing rebellion or insurrection, and be convicted thereof, such person shall be punished by imprisonment for a period not exceeding ten years, or by a fine not exceeding ten thousand dollars, and by the liberation of all his slaves, if any he have; or by both of said punishments, at the discretion of the court. :.... :SEC. 9. And be it further enacted, That all slaves of persons who shall hereafter be engaged in rebellion against the government of the United States, or who shall in any way give aid or comfort thereto, escaping from such persons and taking refuge within the lines of the army; and all slaves captured from such persons or deserted by them and coming under the control of the government of the United States; and all slaves of such person found on [or] being within any place occupied by rebel forces and afterwards occupied by the forces of the United States, shall be deemed captives of war, and shall be forever free of their servitude, and not again held as slaves. Thus everyone who 60 days after [[July 17]], [[1862]] supported the rebellion was to be punished by having all their slaves freed. The goal was to weaken the rebellion, which was led and controlled by slave owners. This did not abolish the legal institution of slavery (the XIII Amendment did that), but it shows Lincoln had the support of (and was even somewhat pushed by) Congress in liberating the slaves owned by rebels. Lincoln implemented the new law by his "Emancipation Proclamation." Lincoln is well known for ending slavery in the United States and he personally opposed slavery as a profound moral evil not in accord with the principle of equality asserted in the [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|Declaration of Independence]]. Yet, Lincoln's views of the role of the federal government on the subject of slavery are more complicated. Before the Confederate states seceded, Lincoln had campaigned against the expansion of slavery into the [[Historic regions of the United States|territories]], where Congress did have authority. However, he maintained that the federal government could not constitutionally bar slavery in states where it already existed. During his presidency, Lincoln made it clear that the North was fighting the war to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery. Freeing the slaves was a war measure to weaken the rebellion by destroying the economic base of its leadership class. Lincoln was criticized both at home and abroad for his refusal to take a stand for the complete abolition of slavery. On [[August 22]], [[1862]], a few weeks before signing the Proclamation, and after it had already been drafted, Lincoln responded by letter to an editorial by [[Horace Greeley]] of the ''[[New York Tribune]]'' which had urged abolition: :I would save the Union. I would save it the shortest way under the Constitution. The sooner the national authority can be restored; the nearer the Union will be "the Union as it was." If there be those who would not save the Union, unless they could at the same time save slavery, I do not agree with them. If there be those who would not save the Union unless they could at the same time destroy slavery, I do not agree with them. My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that. What I do about slavery, and the colored race, I do because I believe it helps to save the Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because I do not believe it would help to save the Union. I shall do less whenever I shall believe what I am doing hurts the cause, and I shall do more whenever I shall believe doing more will help the cause. I shall try to correct errors when shown to be errors; and I shall adopt new views so fast as they shall appear to be true views. :I have here stated my purpose according to my view of official duty; and I intend no modification of my oft-expressed personal wish that all men everywhere could be free.[http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/speeches/greeley.htm] With the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] issued in two parts on [[September 22]], [[1862]] and [[January 1]], [[1863]], Lincoln made the abolition of slavery a goal of the war. Lincoln addresses the issue of his consistency (or lack thereof) between his earlier position and his later position on emancipation in an 1864 letter to [[Albert G. Hodges]][http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/speeches/hodges.htm] Lincoln is often credited with freeing enslaved [[African Americans]] with the [[Emancipation Proclamation]]. However, border states that still allowed slavery but were under Union control were exempt from the emancipation because they were not covered under any war measures. The proclamation on its first day, [[January 1]], [[1863]], freed only a few escaped slaves, but as Union armies advanced south more and more slaves were liberated until hundreds of thousands were freed (exactly how many is unknown). Lincoln signed the Proclamation as a wartime measure, insisting that only the outbreak of war gave constitutional power to the President to free slaves in states where it already existed. He later said: "I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper." The proclamation made abolishing slavery in the rebel states an official war goal and it became the impetus for the enactment of the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|13th Amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]] which abolished slavery; Lincoln was one of the main promoters of that amendment. Although some Northern conservatives recoiled at the notion that the war was now being fought for the slaves instead of for preserving the Union, in the end the Emancipation Proclamation did much to help the Northern cause politically. Lincoln's strong [[abolitionist]] stand finally convinced the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] and other foreign countries that they could not support the [[Confederate States of America]]. This move remains one of the great seizures of private property by the federal government, restoring the ownership of the blacks to themselves, Lincoln had for some time been working on plans to set up [[Abraham Lincoln on slavery#Colonization|colonies]] in Africa and South America for the nearly 4 million newly freed slaves. He remarked upon colonization favorably in the Emancipation Proclamation, but all attempts at such a massive undertaking failed. ==Important domestic measures of Lincoln's first term== [[Image:Lincoln.png|thumb|right|While Lincoln is usually portrayed bearded, he first grew a beard in 1861 at the suggestion of 11-year-old [[Grace Bedell]].]] Lincoln believed in the Whig theory of the presidency, which left Congress to write the laws. He was anti-vescovian. He signed them, vetoing only bills that threatened his war powers. Thus he signed the [[Homestead Act]] in 1862, making available millions of acres of government-held land in the west for purchase at very low cost. The [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]], also signed in 1862, provided government grants for [[agricultural universities]] in each state. Lincoln also signed the Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864, which granted federal support to the construction of the United States' first transcontinental railroad, which was completed in 1869. The most important legislation involved money matters, including the first income tax and higher tariffs. Most important was the creation of the system of national banks by the [[National Banking Act]]s of 1863, 1864 and 1865 which allowed the creation of a strong national financial system. Lincoln sent a senior general to put down the "[[Sioux Uprising |Sioux Uprising]]" of August 1862 in [[Minnesota]]. Presented with 303 death warrants for convicted [[Santee Dakota]] who had massacred innocent farmers, Lincoln affirmed 39 of these for execution (one was later reprieved). ==1864 election and second inauguration== After Union victories at [[Battle of Gettysburg|Gettysburg]], [[Battle of Vicksburg|Vicksburg]] and [[Battle of Chattanooga|Chattanooga]] in 1863, many in the North believed that victory was soon to come after Lincoln appointed [[Ulysses S. Grant|U.S. Grant]] General-in-Chief on [[March 12]], [[1864]]. Although no president since [[Andrew Jackson]] had been elected to a second term (and none since [[Martin Van Buren|Van Buren]] had been re-nominated), Lincoln's re-election was considered a certainty. However, when the spring campaigns, east and west, all turned into bloody stalemates, Northern morale dipped and Lincoln seemed less likely to be re-nominated. [[U.S. Treasury Secretary|Treasury Secretary]] [[Salmon P. Chase]] strongly desired the Republican nomination and was working hard to win it, while [[John Fremont]] was nominated by a breakoff group of radical Republicans, potentially taking away crucial votes in the November elections. Fearing he might lose the election, Lincoln wrote out and signed the following pledge, but did not show it to his cabinet, asking them each to sign the sealed envelope. Lincoln wrote: :This morning, as for some days past, it seems exceedingly probable that this Administration will not be re-elected. Then it will be my duty to so co-operate with the President elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he can not possibly save it afterwards. The Democrats, hoping to make setbacks in the war a top campaign issue, waited until late summer to nominate a candidate. Their platform was heavily influenced by the [[Copperheads (politics)|Peace wing]] of the party, calling the war a "failure," but their candidate, former General [[George McClellan]], was a [[War Democrats|War Democrat]], determined to prosecute the war until the Union was restored, although willing to compromise on all other issues, including slavery. McClellan's candidacy was soon undercut as on [[September 1]], just two days after the [[1864 Democratic National Convention|convention]], [[Battle of Atlanta|Atlanta]] was abandoned by the Confederate army. Coming on the heels of [[David Farragut|David Farragut's]] capture of [[Battle of Mobile Bay|Mobile Bay]] and followed by [[Phil Sheridan|Phil Sheridan's]] crushing victory over [[Jubal Anderson Early|Jubal Early's]] army at [[Battle of Cedar Creek|Cedar Creek]], it was now apparent that the tide had turned in favor of the Union and that Lincoln may be reelected despite the costs of the war. Still, Lincoln believed that he would win the [[U.S. Electoral College|electoral vote]] by only a slim margin, failing to give him the [[Mandate (politics)|mandate]] he'd need if he was to push his lenient [[reconstruction]] plan. To his surprise, Lincoln ended up winning all but two states, capturing 212 of 233 electoral votes. After Lincoln's election, on [[March 4]], [[1865]], he delivered his [[Lincoln's second inaugural address|second inaugural address]], which was his favorite of all his speeches. At this time, a victory over the rebels was within sight, [[slavery]] had effectively ended, and Lincoln was looking to the future. :Fondly do we hope--fervently do we pray--that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue, until all the wealth piled by the bond-man's two hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash, shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said three thousand years ago, so still it must be said "the judgments of the Lord, are true and righteous altogether" :With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan--to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations. ==Civil War and reconstruction== ===Conducting the war effort=== The war was a source of constant frustration for the president, and it occupied nearly all of his time. Lincoln had a contentious relationship with General [[George B. McClellan]], who became general-in-chief of all the Union armies in the wake of the embarrassing Union defeat at the [[First Battle of Bull Run]] and after the retirement of [[Winfield Scott]] in late 1861. Lincoln wished to take an active part in planning the war strategy despite his inexperience in military affairs. Lincoln's strategic priorities were two-fold: first, to ensure that Washington, D.C., was well-defended; and second, to conduct an aggressive war effort in hopes of ending the war quickly and appeasing the Northern public and press, who pushed for an offensive war. McClellan, a youthful [[United States Military Academy|West Point]] graduate and railroad executive called back to military service, took a more cautious approach. McClellan took several months to plan and execute his [[Peninsula Campaign]], which involved capturing [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]] by moving the [[Army of the Potomac]] by boat to the [[Virginia Peninsula|peninsula]] between the [[James River (Virginia)|James]] and [[York River (Virginia)|York Rivers]]. McClellan's delay irritated Lincoln, as did McClellan's insistence that no troops were needed to defend Washington, D.C. Lincoln insisted on holding some of McClellan's troops to defend the capital, a decision McClellan blamed for the ultimate failure of his Peninsula Campaign. McClellan, a lifelong [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] who was temperamentally conservative, was relieved as general-in-chief after releasing his ''[[Harrison's Landing Letter]]'', where he offered unsolicited political advice to Lincoln urging caution in the war effort. McClellan's letter incensed Radical Republicans, who successfully pressured Lincoln to appoint fellow Republican [[John Pope (military officer)|John Pope]] as head of the new [[Army of Virginia]]. Pope complied with Lincoln's strategic desire for the Union to move towards Richmond from the north, thus guarding Washington, D.C. However, Pope was soundly defeated at the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]] during the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac back into the defenses of Washington for a second time. Pope was sent to Minnesota to fight the [[Sioux]]. Panicked by Confederate General [[Robert E. Lee]]'s invasion of [[Maryland]], Lincoln restored McClellan to command of all forces around Washington in time for the [[Battle of Antietam]] in September 1862. It was the Union victory in that battle that allowed Lincoln to release his Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln relieved McClellan of command shortly after the 1862 midterm elections and appointed Republican [[Ambrose Burnside]] to head the Army of the Potomac, who promised to follow through on Lincoln's strategic vision for an aggressive offensive against Lee and Richmond. After Burnside was stunningly defeated at [[Battle of Fredericksburg|Fredericksburg]], [[Joseph Hooker]] was given command, despite his idle talk about becoming a military strong man. Hooker was routed by Lee at [[Battle of Chancellorsville|Chancellorsville]] in May 1863 and also relieved of command. After the Union victory at [[Battle of Gettysburg|Gettysburg]], [[George G. Meade | Meade's]] failure to pursue Lee, and months of inactivity for the Army of the Potomac, Lincoln decided to bring in a western general: General [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. He had a solid string of victories in the Western Theater, including [[Battle of Vicksburg|Vicksburg]] and [[Battle of Chattanooga III|Chattanooga]]. Earlier, reacting to criticism of Grant, Lincoln was quoted as saying, "I cannot spare this man. He fights." Grant waged his bloody [[Overland Campaign]] in 1864, using a strategy of a [[war of attrition]], characterized by high Union losses at battles such as the [[Battle of the Wilderness|Wilderness]] and [[Battle of Cold Harbor|Cold Harbor]], but by proportionately higher losses in the Confederate army. Grant's aggressive campaign would eventually bottle up Lee in the [[Siege of Petersburg]] and result in the Union taking Richmond and bringing the war to a close in the spring of 1865. Lincoln authorized Grant to use a [[scorched earth]] approach to destroy the South's morale and economic ability to continue the war. This allowed Generals [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] and [[Philip Sheridan]] to destroy farms and towns in the [[Shenandoah Valley]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], and [[South Carolina]]. The damage in [[Sherman's March to the Sea]] through Georgia totaled in excess of $100 million. Lincoln had a star-crossed record as a military leader, possessing a keen understanding of strategic points (such as the [[Mississippi River]] and the fortress city of Vicksburg) and the importance of defeating the enemy's army, rather than simply capturing cities. However, he had little success in his efforts to motivate his generals to adopt his strategies. Eventually, he found in Grant a man who shared his vision of the war and was able to bring that vision to reality with his relentless pursuit of coordinated offensives in multiple theaters of war. Lincoln, perhaps reflecting his lack of military experience, developed a keen curiosity with military campaigning during the war. He spent hours at the [[United States War Department|War Department]] [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] office, reading dispatches from his generals through many a night. He frequently visited battle sites and seemed fascinated by watching scenes of war. During [[Jubal A. Early]]'s [[Battle of Fort Stevens|raid into Washington, D.C.]], in 1864, Lincoln had to be told to duck his head to avoid being shot while observing the scenes of battle. ===Homefront=== Lincoln was more successful in giving the war meaning to Northern civilians through his oratorical skills. Despite his meager education and &#8220;backwoods&#8221; upbringing, Lincoln possessed an extraordinary command of the English language, as evidenced by the [[Gettysburg Address]], a speech dedicating a cemetery of Union soldiers from the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] that he delivered on November 19, 1863. While the featured speaker, orator [[Edward Everett]], spoke for two hours, Lincoln's few choice words resonated across the nation and across history, defying Lincoln's own prediction that "the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here." Lincoln's [[Lincoln's second inaugural address|second inaugural address]] is also greatly admired and often quoted. In these speeches, Lincoln articulated better than any of his contemporaries the rationale behind the Union effort. During the Civil War, Lincoln exercised powers no previous president had wielded; he proclaimed a [[blockade]], suspended the writ of [[habeas corpus]], spent money without [[Congress of the United States|congressional]] authorization, and imprisoned thousands of accused Confederate sympathizers without trial. There is a fragment of uncorraborated evidence that Lincoln made contingency plans to arrest [[Chief Justice]] [[Roger Brooke Taney]], though the allegation remains unresolved and controversial (see the [[Taney Arrest Warrant]] controversy). The long war and the issue of emancipation appeared to be severely hampering his prospects and pessimists warned that defeat appeared likely. Lincoln ran under the Union party banner, composed of War Democrats and Republicans. General Grant was facing severe criticism for his conduct of the bloody [[Overland Campaign]] that summer and the seemingly endless [[Siege of Petersburg]]. However, the Union capture of the key railroad center of [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]] by Sherman's forces in September changed the situation dramatically and Lincoln was reelected. ===Reconstruction=== The [[reconstruction]] of the Union weighed heavy on the President's mind throughout the war effort. He was determined to take a course that would not permanently alienate the former Confederate states, and throughout the war Lincoln urged speedy elections under generous terms in areas behind Union lines. This irritated congressional Republicans, who urged a more stringent Reconstruction policy. One of Lincoln's few vetoes during his term was of the [[Wade-Davis Bil]]l, an effort by congressional Republicans to impose harsher Reconstruction terms on the Confederate areas. Republicans in Congress retaliated by refusing to seat representatives elected from [[Louisiana]], [[Arkansas]], and [[Tennessee]] during the war under Lincoln's generous terms. "Let 'em up easy," he told his assembled military leaders [[Ulysses S. Grant|Gen. Ulysses S. Grant]] (a future president), [[William Tecumseh Sherman|Gen. William T. Sherman]] and [[David Dixon Porter|Adm. David Dixon Porter]] in an 1865 meeting on the steamer ''River Queen''. When [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]], the Confederate capital, was at long last captured, Lincoln went there to make a public gesture of sitting at [[Jefferson Davis]]'s own desk, symbolically saying to the nation that the President of the United States held authority over the entire land. He was greeted at the city as a conquering hero by freed slaves, whose sentiments were epitomized by one admirer's quote, "I know I am free for I have seen the face of Father Abraham and have felt him." On [[April 9]], [[1865]], Confederate General [[Robert E. Lee]] surrendered at [[Appomattox Court House]] in [[Virginia]]. This left only [[Joseph Johnston]]'s forces in the East to deal with. Weeks later Johnston would defy Jefferson Davis and surrender his forces to Sherman. Of course, Lincoln would not survive to see the surrender of all Confederate forces; just five days after Lee surrendered, Lincoln was [[assassination|assassinated]]. He was the first President to be assassinated, and the third to die in office. ==Assassination== [[Image:Lincolnassassination.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|The assassination of Abraham Lincoln. From left to right: [[Henry Rathbone]], [[Clara Harris]], Mary Todd Lincoln, Lincoln, and Booth.]] Lincoln had met frequently with Lt. Gen. [[Ulysses S. Grant]] as the war drew to a close. The two men planned matters of reconstruction, and it was evident to all that they held each other in high regard. During their last meeting, on [[April 14]], [[1865]] ([[Good Friday]]), Lincoln invited Grant to a social engagement that evening. Grant declined (Grant's wife, [[Julia Dent Grant]], is said to have strongly disliked [[Mary Todd Lincoln]]). The President's eldest son, [[Robert Todd Lincoln]], also turned down the invitation. [[John Wilkes Booth]], a well-known actor and Southern sympathizer from [[Maryland]], heard that the president and Mrs. Lincoln, along with the Grants, would be attending [[Ford's Theatre]]. Having failed in a plot to kidnap Lincoln earlier, Booth informed his co-conspirators of his intention to kill Lincoln. Others were assigned to assassinate [[Vice-President]] [[Andrew Johnson]] and [[Secretary of State]] [[William Seward]]. Without his [[bodyguard]] [[Ward Hill Lamon]], to whom he related his famous [[dream]] of his own assassination, the Lincolns left to attend the play at Ford's Theater. The play, ''[[Our American Cousin]]'', was a musical comedy by the British writer [[Tom Taylor]]. As Lincoln sat in his state box in the balcony, Booth crept up behind the President's box and waited for the funniest line of the play, hoping the laughter would cover the gunshot noise. On stage, actor Harry Hawk said the last words Lincoln would ever hear "Well, I guess I know enough to turn you inside out, old gal—you sockdologizing old man-trap...". When the laughter came Booth jumped into the box the president was in and aimed a single-shot, round-slug .44 [[caliber]] [[Deringer]] at his head, firing at point-blank range. The bullet entered behind Lincoln's left ear and lodged behind his right eyeball. Major [[Henry Rathbone]], who was present in the Presidential Box, momentarily grappled with Booth but was severely stabbed and slashed by the assassin. It was believed that Booth then shouted "''[[Sic semper tyrannis]]!''" (Latin: "Thus always to tyrants," the state motto of Virginia; some accounts say he added "The South is avenged!") and jumped from the balcony to the stage below, breaking his leg. Despite his injury, Booth managed to limp to his horse and make his escape. As Booth fled from the theater, a young physician, Dr. [[Charles Leale]], made his way through the audience to Lincoln's box. Leale quickly assessed the wound as mortal. The President was taken across the street from the theater to the [[Petersen House]], where he lay in a coma for nine hours before he expired. Several physicians attended Lincoln, including U.S. Army Surgeon General Joseph K. Barnes of the Army Medical Museum. Using a probe, Barnes located some fragments of Lincoln's skull and the ball lodged 6 inches inside his brain. Lincoln, who never regained consciousness, was officially pronounced dead at 7:22 A.M. the next morning, April 15, 1865. Upon his death, Secretary of War [[Edwin Stanton]] lamented "now he belongs to the ages." After Lincoln's body was returned to the [[White House]], his body was prepared for his "lying in state" in the [[East Room]]. The Army Medical Museum, now named the National Museum of Health and Medicine, has retained in its collection since the time of Lincoln's death, several artifacts relating to the assassination. Currently on display in the museum are the bullet that was fired from the Deringer pistol, ending Lincoln's life, the probe used by Barnes, pieces of his skull and hair and the surgeon's cuff, stained with Lincoln's blood. The museum can be found at [http://www.nmhm.washingtondc.museum/exhibits/nationswounds/lincoln.html www.hmhm.washingtondc.museum] [[Image:LincolnTrain.jpeg|right|thumbnail|250px|Lincoln's funeral train carried his remains, as well as 300 mourners and the casket of his son William, 1,654 miles to Illinois.]] Lincoln's body was carried by train in a grand funeral procession through several states on its way back to Illinois. The nation mourned a man whom many viewed as the savior of the United States. He was buried in [[Oak Ridge Cemetery]] in Springfield, where a 177 foot (54 m) tall granite tomb surmounted with several bronze statues of Lincoln was constructed by 1874. To prevent repeated attempts to steal Lincoln's body and hold it for ransom, Robert Todd Lincoln had Lincoln exhumed and reinterred in concrete several feet thick on [[September 26]], [[1901]]. {{further|[[Abraham Lincoln's burial and exhumation]]}} ==Presidential appointments== ===Administration and Cabinet=== Lincoln was known for appointing his enemies and political rivals to high positions in his Cabinet. Not only did he use great political skill in reducing potential political opposition, but he felt he was appointing the best qualified person for the good of the country. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Office !! Name !! Term |- | [[President of the United States|President]] || '''Abraham Lincoln''' || 1861–1865 |- | [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] || '''[[Hannibal Hamlin]]''' || 1861–1865 |- | &nbsp; || '''[[Andrew Johnson]]''' || 1865 |- | [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] || '''[[William H. Seward]]''' || 1861–1865 |- | [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]] || '''[[Salmon P. Chase]]''' || 1861–1864 |- | &nbsp; || '''[[William P. Fessenden]]''' || 1864–1865 |- | &nbsp; || '''[[Hugh McCulloch]]''' || 1865 |- | [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]] || '''[[Simon Cameron]]''' || 1861–1862 |- | &nbsp; || '''[[Edwin M. Stanton]]''' || 1862–1865 |- | [[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]] || '''[[Edward Bates]]''' || 1861–1864 |- | &nbsp; || '''[[James Speed]]'''||align="left"|1864–1865 |- | [[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]] || '''[[Horatio King]]''' || 1861 |- | &nbsp; || '''[[Montgomery Blair]]''' || 1861–1864 |- | &nbsp; || '''[[William Dennison (Ohio governor)|William Dennison]]''' || 1864–1865 |- | [[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]] || '''[[Gideon Welles]]''' || 1861–1865 |- | [[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]] || '''[[Caleb B. Smith]]''' || 1861–1863 |- | &nbsp; || '''[[John P. Usher]]''' || 1863–1865 |} <br clear="all"> ===Supreme Court=== Lincoln appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]: *[[Noah Haynes Swayne]] - 1862 *[[Samuel Freeman Miller]] - 1862 *[[David Davis (senator)|David Davis]] - 1862 *[[Stephen Johnson Field]] - 1863 *[[Salmon P. Chase]] - [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] - 1864 ==Major presidential acts== ===Involvement as President-elect=== *[[Morrill tariff|Morrill Tariff of 1861]] *[[Corwin amendment|Corwin Amendment]] ===Enacted as President=== *Signed [[Revenue Act of 1861]] *Signed [[Homestead Act]] *Signed [[Morrill Act|Morill Land-Grant College Act]] *Signed [[Internal Revenue Act of 1862]] *Signed Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 *Established [[Department of Agriculture]] (1862) *Signed [[National Banking Act|National Banking Act of 1863]] *Signed [[Internal Revenue Act of 1864]] ==States admitted to the Union== *[[West Virginia]] – 1863 *[[Nevada]] – 1864 ==Legacy and memorials== Lincoln's death made the President a [[martyr]] to many. Today he is perhaps America's second most famous and beloved President after [[George Washington]]. Repeated polls of historians have ranked Lincoln as among the [[historical rankings of U.S. Presidents|greatest presidents in U.S. history]]. Among contemporary admirers, Lincoln is usually seen as a figure who personifies [[Image:Lincoln_statue.jpg|thumbnail|200px|[[Daniel Chester French]]'s seated ''Lincoln'' faces the [[National Mall]] to the east.]] [[Image:MtRushmore Abe close.JPG|thumbnail|100px|Lincoln's bust on Mt. Rushmore.]]classical values of honesty, integrity, as well as respect for individual and minority rights, and human freedom in general. Many American organizations of all purposes and agendas continue to cite his name and image, with interests ranging from the [[gay rights]] group [[Log Cabin Republicans]] to the [[insurance]] corporation [[Lincoln Financial Group|Lincoln Financial]]. The [[Lincoln automobile]] is also named after him. Over the years Lincoln has been memorialized in many city names, notably the [[Lincoln, Nebraska|capital of Nebraska]]; with the [[Lincoln Memorial]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] (''pictured, right''); on the U.S. [[U.S. five dollar bill|$5 bill]] and the [[Penny (U.S. coin)|1 cent coin]] (Illinois is the primary opponent to the removal of the penny from circulation); and as part of the [[Mount Rushmore National Memorial]]. [[Lincoln's Tomb]], [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site]] in [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]], [[New Salem (Menard County), Illinois|New Salem, Illinois]] (a reconstruction of Lincoln's early adult hometown), [[Ford's Theater]] and Petersen House are all preserved as museums. The [[List of U.S. state nicknames|state nickname]] for [[Illinois]] is ''Land of Lincoln''. [[Counties of the United States|Counties]] in 18 [[U.S. state]]s ([[Lincoln County, Arkansas|Arkansas]], [[Lincoln County, Colorado|Colorado]], [[Lincoln County, Idaho|Idaho]], [[Lincoln County, Kansas|Kansas]], [[Lincoln County, Minnesota|Minnesota]], [[Lincoln County, Mississippi|Mississippi]], [[Lincoln County, Montana|Montana]], [[Lincoln County, Nebraska|Nebraska]], [[Lincoln County, Nevada|Nevada]], [[Lincoln County, New Mexico|New Mexico]], [[Lincoln County, Oklahoma|Oklahoma]], [[Lincoln County, Oregon|Oregon]], [[Lincoln County, South Dakota|South Dakota]], [[Lincoln County, Tennessee|Tennessee]], [[Lincoln County, West Virginia|West Virginia]], [[Lincoln County, Washington|Washington]], [[Lincoln County, Wisconsin|Wisconsin]], and [[Lincoln County, Wyoming|Wyoming]]) are named after Lincoln. On [[February 12]], [[1892]], Abraham Lincoln's birthday was declared to be a federal [[holiday]] in the United States, although in 1971 it was combined with Washington's birthday in the form of [[President's Day]]. February 12 is still observed as a separate legal holiday in many states, including Illinois. Lincoln's birthplace and family home are national historic memorials: [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site]] in [[Hodgenville, Kentucky]] and [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site]] in [[Springfield, Illinois]]. The [[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]] is also in Springfield. The [[Abraham Lincoln National Cemetery]] is located in [[Elwood, Illinois]]. Statues of Lincoln can be found in other countries. In [[Ciudad Juárez]], [[Chihuahua]], [[Mexico]], is a 13-foot high bronze statue, a gift from the United States, dedicated in 1966 by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]. The U.S. received a statue of [[Benito Juárez]] in exchange, which is in Washington, D.C. Juárez and Lincoln exchanged friendly letters, and Mexico remembers Lincoln's opposition to the [[Mexican-American War]]. There is also a statue in [[Tijuana]], Mexico, showing Lincoln standing and destroying the chains of slavery. There are at least three statues of Lincoln in the [[United Kingdom]]—one in [[London]] by [[Augustus St. Gaudens]], one in [[Manchester]] by [[George Grey Barnard]] and another in [[Edinburgh]] by [[George Bissell (industrialist)|George Bissell]]. The [[ballistic missile]] [[submarine]] [[USS Abraham Lincoln (SSBN-602)|''Abraham Lincoln'' (SSBN-602)]] and the [[aircraft carrier]] [[USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72)|''Abraham Lincoln'' (CVN-72)]] were named in his honor. Also, the [[Liberty ship]], [[SS Nancy Hanks|SS ''Nancy Hanks'']] was named to honor his mother. In a recent public vote entitled "[[The Greatest American]]," Lincoln placed second (placing first was [[Ronald Reagan]]). ==Lincoln in popular culture== {{see|Lincoln in popular culture}} ==Trivia== * Lincoln stood 6'3 3/4" (192.4 cm) tall and thus was the tallest president in U.S. history, just edging out [[Lyndon Johnson]] at 6'3 1/2" (191.8 cm). * He was born on the same day as [[Charles Darwin]]. * The last surviving self-described witness to Lincoln's assassination was [[Samuel J. Seymour]] (~1860–[[April 14]], [[1956]]), who appeared two months before his death at age 96 on the [[CBS]]-TV [[quiz show]] ''[[I've Got a Secret]]''. He said that as a five-year-old he had thought at first that he, himself, had been shot because his nurse, trying to fix a torn place in his blouse, stuck him with a pin at the moment of the gun's discharge. * According to legend, Lincoln was referred to as "two-faced" by his opponent in the 1858 [[Senate]] election, [[Stephen A. Douglas|Stephen Douglas]]. Upon hearing about this Lincoln jokingly replied, "If I had another face to wear, do you really think I would be wearing this one?" * According to legend, Lincoln also said, as a young man, on his appearance one day when looking in the mirror: "It's a fact, Abe! You are the ugliest man in the world. If ever I see a man uglier than you, I'm going to shoot him on the spot!" It would no doubt, he thought, be an act of mercy. * Based on written descriptions of Lincoln, including the observations that he was much taller than most men of his day and had long limbs, an abnormally-shaped chest, and loose or lax joints, it has been conjectured since the 1960s that Lincoln may have suffered from [[Marfan syndrome]]. *Lincoln was known to have a case of [[depression]]. During his time in New Salem, Illinois, his fiancee died, and that triggered his depression. His close friends watched over him to make sure he did not commit suicide. He also suffered from nightmares during his term in the [[White House]]. His depression got so severe, he had to hold a cabinet meeting from his bed. *He once mentioned one of his haunting nightmares to his friend. Lincoln mentioned that he was standing in a mourning crowd surrounding a train, and when he asked a grieving woman what had happened, she replied, "The President has been shot, and he has died." *Lincoln is the only American president to hold a [[patent]]. The patent is for a device that lifts [[boat|boats]] over [[shoal|shoals]]. ==See also== *[[Origins of the American Civil War]] *[[American System (economics)|American System]], Lincoln's economic beliefs. *[[Lincoln-Kennedy coincidences]] *[[List of U.S. Presidential religious affiliations]] * Movies: ''[[D.W. Griffith's 'Abraham Lincoln']]'', ''[[The Dramatic Life of Abraham Lincoln]]'' *[[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]] ==References== ===Biographies=== *''Lincoln'' by [[David Herbert Donald]] (1999) ISBN 068482535X, very well reviewed by scholars; Donald has won two Pulitzer prizes for biography *''Abraham Lincoln and Civil War America: A Biography'' by William E. Gienapp ISBN 0195150996 (2002), short *''Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln'' by [[Doris Kearns Goodwin]] ISBN 0684824906 (2005). reviewers report it is very well written *''Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President'' by Allen C. Guelzo ISBN 0802838723 (1999) *''Abraham Lincoln: a History'' (1890) by [[John Hay]] & [[John George Nicolay]]; online at [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6812 Volume 1] and [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11708 Volume 2] 10 volumes in all; written by Lincoln's top aides *''The Real Abraham Lincoln'' by Reinhard H Luthin (1960), well regarded by reviewers *''The Abraham Lincoln Encyclopedia'' by [[Mark E. Neely]] (1984), detailed articles on many men and movements associated with AL * ''The Last Best Hope of Earth: Abraham Lincoln and the Promise of America'' by Mark E. Neely (1993), Pulitzer prize winning author * ''With Malice Toward None: The Life of Abraham Lincoln'' by Stephen B. Oates (1994). *''Lincoln the President'' by James G. Randall (4 vol., 1945–55; reprint 2000.) by prize winning scholar **''Mr. Lincoln'' excerpts ed. by Richard N. Current (1957) *''Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years'' (2 vol 1926); ''The War Years'' (4 vol 1939) biography by [[Carl Sandburg]]. Pulitzer Prize winner by famous poet *''Abraham Lincoln: A Biography'' by Benjamin P. Thomas; (1952) ===Specialty topics=== *Baker, Jean H. ''Mary Todd Lincoln: A Biography'' (1987) *Belz, Herman. ''Abraham Lincoln, Constitutionalism, and Equal Rights in the Civil War Era'' (1998) *Boritt, Gabor S. ''Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream'' (1994). Lincoln's economic theory and policies *Boritt, Gabor S. ''Lincoln the War President'' (1994). *Boritt, Gabor S., ed. ''The Historian's Lincoln.'' Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988, historiography *Bruce, Robert V. ''Lincoln and the Tools of War'' (1956) on weapons development during the war *Donald, David Herbert. ''Lincoln Reconsidered: Essays on the Civil War Era'' (1960). *Foner, Eric. ''Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War'' (1970) intellectual history of different prewar faction's in AL's party *Harris, William C. ''With Charity for All: Lincoln and the Restoration of the Union'' (1997). AL's plans for Reconstruction *Hendrick, Burton J. ''Lincoln's War Cabinet'' (1946) *Hofstadter, Richard. ''The American Political Tradition: And the Men Who Made It'' (1948) ch 5: "Abraham Lincoln and the Self-MAde Myth". *Holzer, Harold. ''Lincoln at Cooper Union: The Speech That Made Abraham Lincoln President'' (2004). *McPherson, James M. ''Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution'' (1992) *McPherson, James M. ''Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era'' (1988). Pulitzer Prize winner surveys all aspects of the war *Morgenthau, Hans J., and David Hein. ''Essays on Lincoln's Faith and Politics''. Lanham, MD: University Press of America for the White Burkett Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia, 1983. *Neely, Mark E. ''The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties'' (1992). Pulitzer Prize winner. * Philip S. Paludan ''The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln'' (1994), reviewers call it the most thorough treatment of AL's administration *''Lincoln in American Memory'' by Merrill D. Peterson, (1994). how Lincoln was remembered after 1865 *Randall, James G. ''Lincoln the Liberal Statesman'' (1947). * Richardson, Heather Cox. ''The Greatest Nation of the Earth: Republican Economic Policies during the Civil War'' (1997) * Shenk, Joshua Wolf. ''Lincoln's Melancholy: How Depression Challenged a President and Fueled His Greatness'' (2005). Named one of the best books of 2005 by The Washington Post, The New York Times, and The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. *''Lincoln'' by [[Gore Vidal]] ISBN 0375708766, a novel. *''Lincoln and His Generals'' by T. Harry Williams (1967). *''Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That Remade America'' by Garry Wills ISBN 0671867423 *''Honor's Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln'' by Douglas L. Wilson (1999). ===Lincoln in art and popular culture=== * Bullard. F. Lauriston, ''Lincoln in Marble and Bronze'', Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey 1952 * Mead, Fanklin B., ''Heroic Statues in Bronze of Abraham Lincoln: Introducing The Hoosier Youth by [[Paul Manship]]'', The Lincoln National Life Foundation, Fort Wayne, Indiana 1932 * Moffatt, Frederick C., ''Errant Bronzes: [[George Grey Barnard]]'s Statues of Abraham Lincoln'', University of Deleware Press, Newark, DE 1998 * Murry, Freeman Henry Morris, ''Emancipation anf the Freed in American Sculpture'', Books For Libraries Press, the Black Heritage Library Collection, Freeport, NY 1972 - originally published in 1916 * Petz, Weldon, ''Michigan's Monumental Tributes to Abraham Lincoln'', Historical Society of Michigan 1987 * Redway, Maurine Whorton and Dorothy Kendall Bracken, ''Marks of Lincoln on Our Land''. Hastings House, Publishers, New York 1957 * Savage, Kirk, ''Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves: Race War and Monument in Nineteenth Century America'', Princeton University Press, Princeton New Jersey 1997 * Tice, George, ''Lincoln'', Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey 1984 *''The Real Lincoln'' by [[Thomas DiLorenzo]] ISBN 0761526463, a stinging neo-Confederate attack on Lincoln as evil 2002 ===Primary Sources=== * Basler, Roy P. ed. ''Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln'' 9 vols. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1953-55) * Basler, Roy P. ed. ''Abraham Lincoln: His Speeches and Writings'' (1946) * Lincoln, Abraham. ''Lincoln: Speeches and Writings'' 2 vol Library of America edition, (1989). * Lincoln, Abraham. ''The Life and Writings of Abraham Lincoln'' (Modern Library Classics ed by Philip Van Doren Stern) (2000). ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Abraham Lincoln}} *{{CongBio|L000313}} *[http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/al16.html White House Biography] *[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/malhome.html Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress] (1850-1865) *[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Lincolnatpeace2.jpg The Controversial photograph of Lincoln in death] *[http://www.abrahamlincoln.org/ The Lincoln Institute] *[http://www.rootdig.com/abraham_lincoln.html Abraham Lincoln in United States Census Records] *[http://home.att.net/~rjnorton/Lincoln77.html Especially for Students: An Overview of Abraham Lincoln's Life] *[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/alhome.html Mr. Lincoln's Virtual Library] *[http://www.quotesandpoem.com/literature/ListofLiteraryWorks/Lincoln__Abraham Speeches and Quotes by Abraham Lincoln] *[http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/prespoetry/al.html Poetry written by Abraham Lincoln] *[http://www.mybigadventure.com/index.php?action=Stats&stat=Memorials&date=20041027.3&page=5 Lincoln Memorial Tour] - My Big Adventure (33 Images) *[http://members.aol.com/RVSNorton/Lincoln2.html Abraham Lincoln Research Site] *[http://www.abrahamlincolnonline.org Abraham Lincoln Online] *[http://www.hti.umich.edu/l/lincoln/ The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln] *[http://deptorg.knox.edu/lincolnstudies/ Lincoln Studies Center at Knox College] *[http://lenbernstein.com/Pages/EgoJustice.html Discussion of John Drinkwater's play ''Abraham Lincoln''] *[http://www.sonofthesouth.net/prod01.htm Original 1860's Harper's Weekly Images and News on Abraham Lincoln] *[http://dev.stg.brown.edu/projects/lincoln/ The Lincoln Log: A Daily Chronology of the Life of Abraham Lincoln] *[http://www.nps.gov/linc/ Lincoln Memorial] Washington, DC *[http://www.thelincolnmuseum.org The Lincoln Museum] Fort Wayne, Indiana *[http://www.gilderlehrman.org/historians/fellowship2.html The Lincoln Prize] A national book award sponsored by The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History and the Civil War Institute at Gettysburg College *[http://members.aol.com/RVSNorton/Lincoln.html Abraham Lincoln's Assassination] *[http://www.lincolnherald.com/1970articleSubstitute.html John Summerfield Staples, President Lincoln's "Substitute"] *[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=6469.WKU.&OS=PN/6469&RS=PN/6469 US6469] Patent -- ''Manner of Buoying Vessels'' -- A. Lincoln -- 1849 *[http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig2/lincoln-arch.html King Lincoln] (an archive of articles on Lincoln) *[http://www.nps.gov/abli/ National Park Service Abraham Lincoln birthplace] (includes good early history) *Hoard Historical Museum [http://www.hoardmuseum.org/] in [[Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin]] with Lincoln Library *[http://www.williamapercy.com/pub-LincolnIntimate.htm On the Question of Lincoln's Sexuality] *[http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g16.htm Medical and Health history of Abraham Lincoln] *[http://www.worldofbiography.com/9052%2DAbraham%20Lincoln/ Biography] (World of Biography) ===Project Gutenberg eTexts=== *List of {{gutenberg author| id=Abraham+Lincoln | name=Abraham Lincoln}} *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12462 A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents: Volume 6, part 1: Abraham Lincoln] *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2517 Lincoln's Yarns and Stories] *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6812 Volume 1] and [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11708 Volume 2] of ''Abraham Lincoln: a History'' (1890) by [[John Hay]] (1835 to 1905) & [[John George Nicolay]] (1832 to 1901) *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1815 ''The Boys' Life of Abraham Lincoln''] (1907) by Nicolay, Helen (1866 to 1954) *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6811 ''The Life of Abraham Lincoln''] (1901) by Henry Ketcham *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12800 Volume 1] and [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12801 Volume 2] of ''Abraham Lincoln'' (1899) by John T. Morse *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14004 ''The Every-day Life of Abraham Lincoln''] (1913) by Francis Fisher Browne *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11728 ''Abraham Lincoln: The People's Leader in the Struggle for National Existence''] (1909) by George Haven Putnam, Litt. D. *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1713 ''Lincoln's Personal Life''] (1922) by Nathaniel W. Stephenson {{start box}} {{succession box | title={{ushr|Illinois|7|Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Illinois's 7th District}} | before=[[John Henry (Illinois politician)|John Henry]] | after=[[Thomas Langrell Harris]] | years=1847 – 1849}} {{succession box | before=[[John Frémont]] | title=[[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|Republican Party presidential nominee]] | after=[[Ulysses Grant]] | years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1860|1860]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1864|1864]] (won)}} {{succession box | before=[[James Buchanan]] | title=[[President of the United States]] | after=[[Andrew Johnson]] | years=[[March 4]], [[1861]] – [[April 15]], [[1865]]}} {{end box}} {{USpresidents}} {{USRepPresNominees}} {{featured article}} [[Category:1809 births|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:1865 deaths|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Abraham Lincoln| ]] [[Category:American Civil War people|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:American lawyers|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Assassinated politicians|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Autodidacts|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Cat lovers|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Firearm deaths|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Humanists|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Humanitarians|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Members of the Illinois House of Representatives|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Murder victims|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:People from Kentucky|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Presidents of the United States|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:United States Army officers|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:United States Senate candidates|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Welsh-Americans|Lincoln, Abraham]] {{Link FA|de}} [[ar:أبراهام لينكولن]] [[bg:Ейбрахам Линкълн]] [[bs:Abraham Lincoln]] [[ca:Abraham Lincoln]] [[cs:Abraham Lincoln]] [[cy:Abraham Lincoln]] [[da:Abraham Lincoln]] [[de:Abraham Lincoln]] [[eo:Abraham LINCOLN]] [[es:Abraham Lincoln]] [[et:Abraham Lincoln]] [[eu:Abraham Lincoln]] [[fa:آبراهام لینکلن]] [[fi:Abraham Lincoln]] [[fr:Abraham Lincoln]] [[ga:Abraham Lincoln]] [[gl:Abraham Lincoln]] [[he:אברהם לינקולן]] [[hr:Abraham Lincoln]] [[id:Abraham Lincoln]] [[it:Abramo Lincoln]] [[ja:エイブラハム・リンカーン]] [[ko:에이브러햄 링컨]] [[lt:Abraomas Linkolnas]] [[mk:Абрахам Линколн]] [[nl:Abraham Lincoln]] [[nn:Abraham Lincoln]] [[no:Abraham Lincoln]] [[pl:Abraham Lincoln]] [[pt:Abraham Lincoln]] [[ru:Линкольн, Авраам]] [[scn:Abraham Lincoln]] [[sh:Abraham Lincoln]] [[simple:Abraham Lincoln]] [[sk:Abraham Lincoln]] [[sl:Abraham Lincoln]] [[sq:Abraham Lincoln]] [[sr:Абрахам Линколн]] [[sv:Abraham Lincoln]] [[th:อับราฮัม ลินคอล์น]] [[tr:Abraham Lincoln]] [[vi:Abraham Lincoln]] [[zh:亚伯拉罕·林肯]] 308 42134476 2006-03-04T01:21:48Z Dpbsmith 21036 I don't think Ayn Rand has quite the same stature as Alexander the Great and Thomas Aquinas {{Infobox_Philosopher | <!-- Scroll down to edit this page --> <!-- Philosopher Category --> region = Western philosophers | era = [[Ancient philosophy]] | color = #B0C4DE | <!-- Image and Caption --> image_name = Aristoteles Louvre.jpg | image_caption = Aristotle, [[marble]] copy of [[bronze]] by [[Lysippos]] | <!-- Information --> name = Αριστοτέλης, Aristotelēs | birth = [[384 BC]] | death = [[March 7]] [[322 BC]] | school_tradition = [[Materialism]] and [[Empiricism]] | main_interests = [[Politics]], | influences = [[Plato]], | influenced = [[Alexander the Great]], [[Thomas Aquinas]] | notable_ideas = [[Golden mean (philosophy)|The Golden mean]], Rule of the Superior, Reason > Passion, | }} '''Aristotle''' ({{lang-grc|{{{polytonic|Αριστοτέλης}}}}} Aristotelēs [[384 BC]] &ndash; [[March 7]], [[322 BC]]) was an [[ancient Greek]] [[philosopher]], who studied with [[Plato]] and taught [[Alexander the Great]]. He wrote books on many subjects, including [[physics]], [[poetry]], [[zoology]], [[logic]], [[rhetoric]], [[government]], and [[biology]]. Aristotle, along with Plato and [[Socrates]], is generally considered one of the most influential of [[Ancient philosophy|ancient Greek philosophers]]. They transformed [[Presocratic]] [[Greek philosophy]] into the foundations of [[Western philosophy]] as we know it. The writings of Plato and Aristotle founded two of the most important schools of [[Ancient philosophy]]. Aristotle valued knowledge gained from the senses and in modern terms would be classed among the modern [[empiricist]]s (see [[materialism]] and [[empiricism]]). He also achieved a "grounding" of dialectic in the Topics by allowing interlocutors to begin from commonly held beliefs (''[[Endoxa]]''); his goal being non-contradiction rather than [[Truth]]. He set the stage for what would eventually develop into the empiricist version of [[scientific method]] centuries later. Although he wrote dialogues early in his career, no more than fragments of these have survived. The works of Aristotle that still exist today are in [[treatise]] form and were, for the most part, unpublished texts. These were probably lecture notes or texts used by his students, and were almost certainly revised repeatedly over the course of years. As a result, these works tend to be eclectic, dense and difficult to read. Among the most important ones are ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'', ''[[Metaphysics]] (or [[Ontology]])'', ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', ''[[De Anima]] (On the Soul)'' and ''[[Poetics]]''. These works, although connected in many fundamental ways, are very different in both style and substance. Aristotle is known for being one of the few figures in history who studied almost every subject possible at the time. In science, Aristotle studied [[anatomy]], [[astronomy]], [[economics]], [[embryology]], [[geography]], [[geology]], [[meteorology]], [[physics]], and [[zoology]]. In philosophy, Aristotle wrote on [[aesthetics]], [[ethics]], [[government]], [[metaphysics]], [[politics]], [[psychology]], [[rhetoric]] and [[theology]]. He also dealt with [[education]], foreign customs, [[literature]] and [[poetry]]. His combined works practically constitute an [[encyclopedia]] of Greek knowledge. == Biography == ===Early life and studies at the Academy=== [[Image:Bust of Aristotle.jpg|thumb|A [[bust (sculpture)|bust]] of Aristotle is a nearly ubiquitous ornament in places of high culture in the [[Western world|West]].]] Aristotle was born at [[Stageira]], a [[apoikia|colony]] of [[Andros]] on the [[Macedon]]ian peninsula of [[Chalcidice]] in [[384 BC]]. His father, Nicomachus, was court physician to King [[Amyntas III of Macedon]]. It is believed that Aristotle's ancestors held this position under various kings of the Macedons. As such, Aristotle's early education would probably have consisted of instruction in [[medicine]] and [[biology]] from his father. About his mother, Phaestis, little is known. It is known that she died early in Aristotle's life. When Nicomachus also died, in Aristotle's tenth year, he was left an [[orphan]] and placed under the guardianship of his uncle, [[Proxenus of Atarneus]]. He taught Aristotle [[Greek language|Greek]], [[rhetoric]], and [[poetry]] (O'Connor ''et al.'', [[2004]]). Aristotle was probably influenced by his father's medical knowledge; when he went to [[Athens]] at the age of 18, he was likely already trained in the investigation of natural phenomena. From the age of 18 to 37 Aristotle remained in Athens as a pupil of [[Plato]] and distinguished himself at the ''[[Academy]]''. The relations between Plato and Aristotle have formed the subject of various legends, many of which depict Aristotle unfavourably. No doubt there were divergences of opinion between Plato, who took his stand on sublime, idealistic principles, and Aristotle, who even at that time showed a preference for the investigation of the facts and laws of the physical world. It is also probable that Plato suggested that Aristotle needed restraining rather than encouragement, but not that there was an open breach of friendship. In fact, Aristotle's conduct after the death of Plato, his continued association with [[Xenocrates]] and other [[Platonists]], and his allusions in his writings to Plato's doctrines prove that while there were conflicts of opinion between Plato and Aristotle, there was no lack of cordial appreciation or mutual forbearance. Besides this, the legends that reflect Aristotle unfavourably are traceable to the [[Epicureans]], who were known as slanderers. If such legends were circulated widely by [[patristic]] writers such as [[Justin Martyr]] and [[Gregory Nazianzen]], the reason lies in the exaggerated esteem Aristotle was held in by the early [[Christianity|Christian]] [[heretic]]s, not in any well-grounded historical tradition. ===Aristotle as philosopher and tutor=== After the death of Plato ([[347 BC]]), Aristotle was considered as the next head of the Academy, a position that was eventually awarded to Plato's nephew. Aristotle then went with Xenocrates to the court of [[Hermias]], ruler of [[Atarneus]] in [[Asia Minor]], and married his niece and adopted daughter, Pythia. In [[344 BC]], Hermias was murdered in a rebellion, <!--''(or a Persian attack?)''--> and Aristotle went with his family to [[Mytilene]]. It is also reported that he stopped on [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]] and briefly conducted biological research. Then, one or two years later, he was summoned to Pella, the Macedonian capital, by King [[Philip II of Macedon]] to become the tutor of [[Alexander the Great]], who was then 13. [[Plutarch]] wrote that Aristotle not only imparted to Alexander a knowledge of ethics and politics, but also of the most profound secrets of philosophy. We have much proof that Alexander profited by contact with the philosopher, and that Aristotle made prudent and beneficial use of his influence over the young prince (although [[Bertrand Russell]] disputes this). Due to this influence, Alexander provided Aristotle with ample means for the acquisition of books and the pursuit of his scientific investigation. It is possible that Aristotle also participated in the education of Alexander's boyhood friends, which may have included for example [[Hephaestion]] and [[Harpalus]]. Aristotle maintained a long correspondence with Hephaestion, eventually collected into a book, unfortunately now lost. According to sources such as Plutarch and [[Diogenes]], Philip had Aristotle's hometown of Stageira burned during the [[340s BC]], and Aristotle successfully requested that Alexander rebuild it. During his tutorship of Alexander, Aristotle was reportedly considered a second time for leadership of the Academy; his companion Xenocrates was selected instead. ===Founder and master of the Lyceum=== In about [[335 BC]], Alexander departed for his Asiatic campaign, and Aristotle, who had served as an informal adviser (more or less) since Alexander ascended the Macedonian throne, returned to Athens and opened his own school of philosophy. He may, as [[Aulus Gellius]] says, have conducted a school of [[rhetoric]] during his former residence in Athens; but now, following Plato's example, he gave regular instruction in philosophy in a [[gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]] dedicated to [[Apollo Lyceios]], from which his school has come to be known as the [[Lyceum]]. (It was also called the [[Peripatetic]] School because Aristotle preferred to discuss problems of philosophy with his pupils while walking up and down -- ''peripateo'' -- the shaded walks -- ''peripatoi'' -- around the gymnasium). During the thirteen years ([[335 BC]]&ndash;[[322 BC]]) which he spent as teacher of the Lyceum, Aristotle composed most of his writings. Imitating Plato, he wrote ''[[Dialogue]]s'' in which his doctrines were expounded in somewhat popular language. He also composed the several treatises (which will be mentioned below) on physics, metaphysics, and so forth, in which the exposition is more [[didactic]] and the language more technical than in the ''Dialogues''. These writings show to what good use he put the resources Alexander had provided for him. They show particularly how he succeeded in bringing together the works of his predecessors in Greek philosophy, and how he pursued, either personally or through others, his investigations in the realm of natural phenomena. [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] claimed that Alexander placed under Aristotle's orders all the hunters, fishermen, and fowlers of the royal kingdom and all the overseers of the royal forests, lakes, ponds and cattle-ranges, and Aristotle's works on zoology make this statement more believable. Aristotle was fully informed about the doctrines of his predecessors, and [[Strabo]] asserted that he was the first to accumulate a great library. During the last years of Aristotle's life the relations between him and Alexander became very strained, owing to the disgrace and punishment of [[Callisthenes]], whom Aristotle had recommended to Alexander. Nevertheless, Aristotle continued to be regarded at Athens as a friend of Alexander and a representative of Macedonia. Consequently, when Alexander's death became known in Athens, and the outbreak occurred which led to the [[Lamian war]], Aristotle shared in the general unpopularity of the Macedonians. The charge of [[impiety]], which had been brought against [[Anaxagoras]] and [[Socrates]], was now, with even less reason, brought against Aristotle. He left the city, saying (according to many ancient authorities) that he would not give the Athenians a chance to sin a third time against philosophy. He took up residence at his country house at [[Chalcis]], in [[Euboea]], and there he died the following year, [[322 BC]]. His death was due to a disease, reportedly 'of the stomach', from which he had long suffered. The story that his death was due to [[hemlock]] poisoning, as well as the legend that he threw himself into the sea "because he could not explain the [[tide]]s," is without historical foundation. Very little is known about Aristotle's personal appearance except from hostile sources. The statues and busts of Aristotle, possibly from the first years of the Peripatetic School, represent him as sharp and keen of countenance, and somewhat below the average height. His character&mdash;as revealed by his writings, his will (which is undoubtedly genuine), fragments of his letters and the allusions of his unprejudiced contemporaries&mdash;was that of a high-minded, kind-hearted man, devoted to his family and his friends, kind to his slaves, fair to his enemies and rivals, grateful towards his benefactors. When [[Platonism]] ceased to dominate the world of [[Christianity|Christian]] speculation, and the works of Aristotle began to be studied without fear and prejudice, the personality of Aristotle appeared to the Christian writers of the [[13th century]], as it had to the unprejudiced pagan writers of his own day, as calm, majestic, untroubled by passion, and undimmed by any great moral defects, "the master of those who know". Aristotle's legacy also had a profound influence on Islamic thought and philosophy during the [[Middle Ages|middle ages]]. The likes of [[Avicenna]], [[Farabi]], and Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi<small>[http://www.ummah.net/history/scholars/KINDI.html 1]</small> were a few of the major proponents of the Aristotelian school of thought during the ''[[Golden Age of Islam]]''. == Methodology == {{details|Aristotle's theory of universals}} Aristotle defines philosophy in terms of [[essence]], saying that philosophy is "the science of the universal essence of that which is [[actual]]". Plato had defined it as the "science of the [[idea]]", meaning by idea what we should call the unconditional basis of [[phenomena]]. Both pupil and master regard philosophy as concerned with the [[universal]]; Aristotle, however, finds the universal in [[particular]] things, and called it the essence of things, while Plato finds that the universal exists apart from particular things, and is related to them as their [[prototype]] or [[exemplar]]. For Aristotle, therefore, philosophic method implies the ascent from the study of particular phenomena to the knowledge of essences, while for Plato philosophic method means the descent from a knowledge of universal ideas to a contemplation of particular imitations of those ideas. In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both [[Inductive reasoning|inductive]] and [[Deductive reasoning|deductive]], while Plato's is essentially deductive. In Aristotle's terminology, the term ''natural philosophy'' corresponds to the phenomena of the natural world, which include: [[motion]], [[light]], and the [[laws of physics]]. Many centuries later these subjects would become the basis of modern science, as studied through the [[scientific method]]. In modern times the term ''philosophy'' has come to be more narrowly understood as metaphysics, distinct from empirical study of the natural world via the physical sciences. In contrast, in Aristotle's time and use [[philosophy]] was taken to encompass all facets of intellectual inquiry. In the larger sense of the word, he makes philosophy coextensive with [[reasoning]], which he also called "science". Note, however, that his use of the term ''science'' carries a different meaning than that which is covered by the scientific method. "All science (''dianoia'') is either practical, poetical or theoretical." By practical science he understands ethics and politics; by poetical, he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts; while by theoretical philosophy he means physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. The last, philosophy in the stricter sense, he defines as "the knowledge of [[immaterial]] being," and calls it "first philosophy", "the theologic science" or of "being in the highest degree of abstraction." If logic, or, as Aristotle calls it, [[Analytic]], be regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, we have as divisions of Aristotelian philosophy (1) [[Logic]]; (2) Theoretical Philosophy, including [[Metaphysics]], [[Physics]], [[Mathematics]], (3) Practical Philosophy; and (4) Poetical Philosophy. ==Aristotle's epistemology== ===Logic=== {{main|Aristotelian logic}} {{see details|Non-Aristotelian logic}} ==== History ==== Aristotle "says that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak about'" (Boche&#324;ski, [[1951]]). However, Plato reports that [[syntax]] was thought of before him, by [[Prodikos of Keos]], who was concerned by the right use of words. Logic seems to have emerged from [[dialectics]]; the earlier philosophers used concepts like ''[[reductio ad absurdum]]'' as a rule when discussing, but never understood its logical implications. Even Plato had difficulties with logic. Although he had the idea of constructing a system for [[deduction]], he was never able to construct one. Instead, he relied on his [[dialectic]], which was a confusion between different sciences and methods (Boche&#324;ski, [[1951]]). Plato thought that deduction would simply follow from [[premise]]s, so he focused on having good premises so that the [[conclusion]] would follow. Later on, Plato realised that a method for obtaining the conclusion would be beneficial. Plato never obtained such a method, but his best attempt was published in his book ''Sophist'', where he introduced his division method (Rose, [[1968]]). ====Analytics and the ''Organon''==== {{main|Organon}} What we call today Aristotelian logic, Aristotle himself would have labelled analytics. The term logic he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, since it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into six books at about the time of [[Christ]]: #''Categories'' #''On Interpretation'' #''Prior Analytics'' #''Posterior Analytics'' #''Topics'' #''On Sophistical Refutations'' The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. There is one volume of Aristotle's concerning logic not found in the ''Organon'', namely the fourth book of ''Metaphysics.'' (Boche&#324;ski, 1951). ====Modal logic==== Aristotle is also the creator of [[syllogism]]s with modalities ([[modal logic]]). The word modal refers to the word 'modes', explaining the fact that modal logic deals with the modes of [[truth]]. Aristotle introduced the qualification of 'necessary' and 'possible' premises. He constructed a logic which helped in the evaluation of truth but which was very difficult to interpret. (Rose, 1968). ===Science=== [[Image:Francesco Hayez 001.jpg|thumb|left|Aristotle, by Francesco Hayez]] Aristotelian discussions about science had only been qualitative, not quantitative. By the modern definition of the term, Aristotelian philosophy was not science, as this [[worldview]] did not attempt to probe how the world actually worked through [[experiment]]. For example, in his book ''[[History of Animals|The history of animals]]'' he claimed that human males have more teeth than females. Had he only made some observations, he would have discovered that this claim is false. Rather, based on what one's senses told one, Aristotelian philosophy then depended upon the assumption that man's mind could elucidate all the laws of the universe, based on simple observation (without experimentation) through [[reason]] alone. One of the reasons for this was that Aristotle held that physics was about changing objects with a reality of their own, whereas mathematics was about unchanging objects without a reality of their own. In this philosophy, he could not imagine that there was a relationship between them. In contrast, today's "science" assumes that thinking alone often leads people astray, and therefore one must compare one's ideas to the actual world through experimentation; only then can one see if one's ideas are based in reality. This position is known as [[empiricism]] or the [[scientific method]]. Although Aristotle initiated an important step in the history of scientific method by founding logic as a formal science, he also left behind a trail of bankrupt cosmology that we may discern in selections of the metaphysics. His cosmology would gain much acceptance up until the 1500’s, where Copernicus and Galileo began to figure out that Europe is not the center of the universe. From the 3rd century to the 1500’s, the dominant view held that the earth was the center of the universe: at this late date it is uncontroversial that the earth is not even the center of our own solar system. In spite of Aristotle’s bogus account of the planets and sun, he is a vital character in the history of metaphysics, both in terms of the etymology of the word, as well as a figure within metaphysics as a discipline. Dubbed “the stuff next to the physics.” by Andronicus of Rhodes, “metaphysics” became connected to the idea of “beyond the physical” by Simplicius, a commentator on Aristotle. Andronicus had published Aristotle’s works sometime around 43-20 BC; so initially the etymology of metaphysics was simply that which is “next to the physics.” ==Aristotle's metaphysics== ===[[Causality]]=== [[Aristole]] is the first who saw that "All causes of things are beginnings; that we have scientific knowledge when we know the cause; that to know a thing's existence is to know the reason for its existence."{{fact}} Setting the guidelines for all the subsequent causal theories, by specifying the number, nature, principles, elements, varieties, order, and modes of causation, Aristotle's account of the causes of things is the most comprehensive theory up to now. According to Aristotle's theory, all the causes fall into several senses, the total number of which amounts to the ways the question 'why' may be answered; namely, by reference to the matter or the ''substratum''; the ''essence'', the pattern, the form, or the structure; to the primary moving ''change'' or the agent and its action; and to the goal, the plan, the ''end'', or the good. Consequently, the major kinds of causes come under the following divisions: The [[Material Cause]] is that from which a thing comes into existence as from its parts, constituents, substratum or materials. This reduces the explanation of causes to the parts (factors, elements, constituents, ingredients) forming the whole (system, structure, compound, complex, composite, or combination) (the part-whole causation). The [[Formal Cause]] tells us what a thing is, that any thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis, or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (macrostructure) is the cause of its parts (the whole-part causation). The [[Efficient Cause]] is that from which the change or the ending of the change first starts. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. The [[Final Cause]] is that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause or telos is the purpose or end that something is supposed to serve, or it is that from which and that to which the change is. This also covers modern ideas of mental causation involving such psychological causes as volition, need, motivation, or motives, rational, irrational, ethical, all that gives purpose to behavior. Additionally, things can be causes of one another, causing each other reciprocally, as hard work causes fitness and vice versa, although not in the same way or function, the one is as the beginning of change, the other as the goal. [Thus Aristotle first suggested a reciprocal or circular causality as a relation of mutual dependence or action or influence of cause and effect.] Also, Aristotle indicated that the same thing can be the cause of contrary effects, its presence and absent may result in different outcomes. Besides, Aristotle marked two modes of causation: proper (prior) causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes, proper and incidental, can be spoken as potential or as actual, particular or generic. The same language refers to the effects of causes, so that generic effects assigned to generic causes, particular effects to particular causes, operating causes to actual effects. Essentiallly, causality does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause and the effect All further investigations of causality will be consisting in imposing the favorite hierarchies on the order causes, like as final > efficient> material > formal (Aquinas), or in restricting all causality to the material and efficient causes or to the efficient causality (deterministic or chance) or just to regular sequences and correlations of natural phenomena (the natural sciences describing how things happen instead of explaining the whys and wherefores). ===Chance and Spontaneity=== Spontaneity and chance are causes of effects. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things. It is "from what is spontaneous" (but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance). For a better understanding of Aristotle's conception of "chance" it might be better to think of "coincidence": Something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place, but with the result of another thing (not intended) taking place. For example: A person seeks donations. That person may find another person willing to donate a substantial sum. However, if the person seeking the donations met the person donating, not for the purpose of collecting donations, but for some other purpose, Aristotle would call the collecting of the donation by that particular donator a result of chance. It must be unusual that something happens by chance. In other words, if something happens all or most of the time, we cannot say that it is by chance. However, chance can only apply to human beings, it is in the sphere of moral actions. According to Aristotle, chance must involve choice (and thus deliberation), and only humans are capable of deliberation and choice. "What is not capable of action cannot do anything by chance" (Physics, 2.6). ===The Five Elements=== *'''Fire''' which is hot and dry. *'''Earth''' which is cold and dry. *'''Air''' which is hot and wet. *'''Water''' which is cold and wet. *'''Aether''' which is the divine substance that makes up the heavens These four elements interchange (i.e. Fire &#x2194; Air &#x2194; Water &#x2194; Earth etc.), while aether is on its own. The Sun keeps this cycle going. God keeps the Sun going (and thus the Sun is eternal). == Aristotle's ethics == {{main|Aristotelian ethics}} Although Aristotle wrote several works on [[ethics]], the major one was the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', which is considered one of Aristotle's greatest works; it discusses [[virtue]]s. The ten books which comprise it are based on notes from his lectures at the [[Lyceum]] and were either edited by or dedicated to Aristotle's son, [[Nicomachus]]. Aristotle believed that ethical knowledge is not ''certain'' knowledge, like [[metaphysics]] and [[epistemology]], but ''general knowledge''. Also, as it is a practical discipline rather than a [[theory|theoretical]] one, he thought that in order to become "good," one could not simply study what virtue ''is''; one must actually do virtuous deeds. In order to do this, Aristotle had first to establish what was virtuous. He began by determining that everything was done with some goal in mind and that goal is 'good.' The ultimate goal he called the ''Highest Good''. Aristotle contested that happiness could not be found only in pleasure or only in fame and honor. He finally finds happiness "by ascertaining the specific function of man." But what is this function that will bring happiness? To determine this, Aristotle analyzed the soul and found it to have three parts: the Nutritive Soul (plants, animals and humans), the Perceptive Soul (animals and humans) and the Rational Soul (humans only). Thus, a human's function is to do what makes it human, to be good at what sets it apart from everything else: the ability to reason or ''Nous''. A person that does this is the happiest because they are fulfilling their purpose or nature as found in the rational soul. Depending on how well they did this, Aristotle said people belonged to one of four categories: the Virtuous, the Continent, the Incontinent and the Vicious. Aristotle believes that every ethical virtue is an intermediate condition between [[excess]] and [[deficiency]]. This does not mean Aristotle believed in moral relativism, however. He set certain emotions (e.g., hate, envy, jealousy, spite, etc.) and certain actions (e.g., adultery, theft, murder, etc.) as always wrong, regardless of the situation or the circumstances. ===Nicomachean ethics=== {{main|Nicomachean Ethics}} In ''Nicomachean Ethics'', Aristotle focuses on the importance of continually [[behavior|behaving]] virtuously and developing [[virtue]] rather than committing specific good actions. This can be contrasted with [[Immanuel Kant|Kantian]] ethics, in which the primary focus is on individual action. ''Nicomachean Ethics'' emphasizes the importance of context to ethical behaviour &mdash; what might be right in one situation might be wrong in another. Aristotle believed that [[happiness]] is the end of life and that as long as a person is striving for [[Goodness and value theory|goodness]], good deeds will result from that struggle, making the person virtuous and therefore happy. == Aristotle's critics == [[Image:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|left|[[Plato]] (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of ''[[Raphael Rooms|The School of Athens]]'', a fresco by [[Raphael]]. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, whilst Plato points up to the heavens showing his belief in the ultimate truth.]] Aristotle has been criticised on several grounds. * His analysis of procreation is frequently criticised on the grounds that it presupposes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive, lumpen female element; it is on these grounds that some feminist critics refer to Aristotle as a misogynist. *At times, the objections that Aristotle raises against the arguments of his own teacher, [[Plato]], appear to rely on faulty interpretations of those arguments. *Although Aristotle advised, against Plato, that knowledge of the world could only be obtained through experience, he frequently failed to take his own advice. Aristotle conducted projects of careful [[empirical]] investigation, but often drifted into [[Abstraction|abstract]] logical reasoning, with the result that his work was littered with conclusions that were not supported by empirical evidence: for example, his assertion that objects of different [[mass]] fall at different speeds under [[gravity]], which was later refuted by [[John Philoponus]] (credit is often given to [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], even though Philopinus lived centuries earlier). *In the [[Middle Ages]], roughly from the [[12th century]] to the [[15th century]], the philosophy of Aristotle became firmly established [[dogma]]. Although Aristotle himself was far from dogmatic in his approach to philosophical inquiry, two aspects of his philosophy might have assisted its transformation into dogma. His works were wide-ranging and [[systematic]] so that they could give the impression that no significant matter had been left unsettled. He was also much less inclined to employ the [[skeptic]]al methods of his predecessors, Socrates and Plato. *Some academics have suggested that Aristotle was unaware of much of the current science of his own time. Aristotle was called not a great philosopher, but "The Philosopher" by [[Scholastic]] thinkers. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods. == The loss of his works == Though we know that Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises ([[Cicero]] described his literary style as "a river of gold"), the originals have been lost in time. All that we have now are the literary notes for his pupils, which are often difficult to read (the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' is a good example). It is now believed that we have about one fifth of his original works. Aristotle underestimated the importance of his written work for humanity. He thus never published his books, except from his dialogues. The story of the original manuscripts of his treatises is described by [[Strabo]] in his Geography and [[Plutarch]] in his "[[Parallel Lives]], Sulla": The manuscripts were left from Aristotle to [[Theophrastus]], from Theophrastus to [[Neleus of Scepsis]], from Neleus to his heirs. Their descendants sold them to [[Apellicon of Teos]]. When [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]] occupied Athens in [[86 BC]], he carried off the library of Appellicon to [[Rome]], where they were first published in [[60 BC]] from the grammarian [[Tyrranion of Amisus]] and then by philosopher [[Andronicus of Rhodes]]. == Bibliography == ''Note: [[Bekker numbers]] are often used to uniquely identify passages of Aristotle. They are identified below where available.'' === Major works === The extant works of Aristotle are broken down according to the five categories in the ''[[Corpus Aristotelicum]]''. Not all of these works are considered genuine, but differ with respect to their connection to Aristotle, his associates and his views. Some, such as the ''Athenaion Politeia'' or the fragments of other ''politeia'' are regarded by most scholars as products of Aristotle's "school" and compiled under his direction or supervision. Other works, such ''On Colours'' may have been products of Aristotle's successors at the Lyceum, e.g., [[Theophrastus]] and [[Straton]]. Still others acquired Aristotle's name through similarities in doctrine or content, such as the ''De Plantis,'' possibly by [[Nicolaus of Damascus]]. A final category, omitted here, includes medieval [[palmistries]], [[astrological]] and [[magical]] texts whose connection to Aristotle is purely fanciful and self-promotional. Those that are seriously disputed are marked with an asterisk. ==== Logical writings ==== * [[Organon]] (collected works on logic): ** (1a) [[Categories (Aristotle)|Categories]] (or ''Categoriae'') ** (16a) [[On Interpretation]] (or ''De Interpretatione'') ** (24a) [[Prior Analytics]] (or ''Analytica Priora'') ** (71a) [[Posterior Analytics]] (or ''Analytica Posteriora'') ** (100b) [[Topics (Aristotle)|Topics]] (or ''Topica'') ** (164a) [[On Sophistical Refutations]] (or ''De Sophisticis Elenchis'') ==== Physical and scientific writings ==== * (184a) [[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]] (or ''Physica'') * (268a) [[On the Heavens]] (or ''De Caelo'') * (314a) [[On Generation and Corruption]] (or ''De Generatione et Corruptione'') * (338a) [[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorology]] (or ''Meteorologica'') * (391a) [[On the Cosmos]] (or ''De Mundo'', or ''On the Universe'') * * (402a) [[On the Soul]] (or ''De Anima'') * (436a) [[Little Physical Treatises]] (or ''Parva Naturalia''): ** [[On Sense and the Sensible]] (or ''De Sensu et Sensibilibus'') ** [[On Memory and Reminiscence]] (or ''De Memoria et Reminiscentia'') ** [[On Sleep and Sleeplessness]] (or ''De Somno et Vigilia'') ** [[On Dreams]] (or ''De Insomniis'') * ** [[On Prophesying by Dreams]] (or ''De Divinatione per Somnum'') ** [[On Longevity and Shortness of Life]] (or ''De Longitudine et Brevitate Vitae'') ** [[On Youth and Old Age]] (On Life and Death) (or ''De Juventute et Senectute'', ''De Vita et Morte'') ** [[On Breathing]] (or ''De Respiratione'') * (481a) [[On Breath]] (or ''De Spiritu'') * * (486a) [[History of Animals]] (or ''Historia Animalium'', or ''On the History of Animals'', or ''Description of Animals'') * (639a) [[On the Parts of Animals]] (or ''De Partibus Animalium'') * (698a) [[On the Gait of Animals]] (or ''De Motu Animalium'', or ''On the Movement of Animals'') * (704a) [[On the Progression of Animals]] (or ''De Incessu Animalium'') * (715a) [[On the Generation of Animals]] (or ''De Generatione Animalium'') * (791a) [[On Colours]] (or ''De Coloribus'') * * (800a) ''[[De audibilibus]]'' * (805a) [[Physiognomics]] (or ''Physiognomonica'') * * [[On Plants]] (or ''De Plantis'') * * (830a) [[On Marvellous Things Heard]] (or ''Mirabilibus Auscultationibus'', or ''On Things Heard'') * * (847a) [[Mechanical Problems]] (or ''Mechanica'') * * (859a) [[Problems (Aristotle)|Problems]] (or ''Problemata'') * * (968a) [[On Indivisible Lines]] (or ''De Lineis Insecabilibus'') * * (973a) [[Situations and Names of Winds]] (or ''Ventorum Situs'') * * (974a) [[On Melissus, Xenophanes and Gorgias]] (or ''MXG'') * The section On Xenophanes starts at 977a13, the section On Gorgias starts at 979a11. ==== Metaphysical writings ==== * (980a) [[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]] (or ''Metaphysica'') ==== Ethical writings ==== * (1094a) [[Nicomachean Ethics]] (or ''Ethica Nicomachea'', or ''The Ethics'') * (1181a) [[Great Ethics]] (or ''Magna Moralia'') * * (1214a) [[Eudemian Ethics]] (or ''Ethica Eudemia'') * (1249a) [[Virtues and Vices]] (or ''De Virtutibus et Vitiis Libellus'', ''Libellus de virtutibus'') * * (1252a) [[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]] (or ''Politica'') * (1343a) [[Economics (Aristotle)|Economics]] (or ''Oeconomica'') ==== Aesthetic writings ==== * (1354a) [[Rhetoric (Aristotle)|Rhetoric]] (or ''Ars Rhetorica'', or ''The Art of Rhetoric'' or ''Treatise on Rhetoric'') * [[Rhetoric to Alexander]] (or ''Rhetorica ad Alexandrum'') * * (1447a) [[Poetics]] (or ''Ars Poetica'') ==== A work outside the ''Corpus Aristotelicum'' ==== * The [[Constitution of the Athenians]] (or ''Athenaion Politeia'', or ''The Athenian Constitution'') * === Specific editions=== * [[Princeton University]] Press: ''The Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised Oxford Translation'' (2 Volume Set; Bollingen Series, Vol. LXXI, No. 2), edited by [[Jonathan Barnes]] ISBN 0-691-09950-2 (The most complete recent translation of Aristotle's extant works) * [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] Press: ''Clarendon Aristotle Series''. [http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/series/ClarendonAristotleSeries/?view=usa Scholarly edition] * [[Harvard University]] Press: ''[[Loeb Classical Library#Aristotle|Loeb Classical Library]]'' (hardbound; publishes in Greek, with English translations on facing pages) * [[Oxford Classical Texts]] (hardbound; Greek only) ==Named for Aristotle== *[[Aristoteles (crater)|Aristoteles crater]] on the [[Moon]]. *The [[Aristotle University of Thessaloniki]] *Aristotle's Cockney legacy - The name of Aristotle, like that of [[J. Arthur Rank]], became a common expression in [[Cockney rhyming slang]]. ==See also== *[[Aristotelian view of God]] *[[Aristotelian theory of gravity]] *[[Philia]] *[[Phronesis]] *[[Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)|Aristotle's theory of potentialiy and actuality]] ==References== Needless to say, the secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following references are only a small selection. * {{cite book | last = Adler | first = Mortimer J. | authorlink = Mortimer Adler | title=[[Aristotle for Everybody]] | publisher=Macmillan | location = New York | year=1978 }} A popular exposition for the general reader. * {{cite book | last = Bocheński | first = I. M. | authorlink = I. M. Bocheński | title=Ancient Formal Logic | publisher=North-Holland Publishing Company | location = Amsterdam | year=1951 }} * {{cite book | last = Guthrie | first = W. K. C. | title=A History of Greek Philosophy, Vol. 6 | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | year=1981 }} A detailed and scholarly work, but very readable. * {{cite book | last = Melchert | first = Norman | authorlink = Norman Melchert | title=The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy | publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0195175107 }} * {{cite book | last = Rose | first = Lynn E. | authorlink = Lynn E. Rose | title=Aristotle's Syllogistic | publisher=Charles C Thomas Publisher | location = Springfield | year=1968 }} * {{cite book | last = Ross | first = Sir David | authorlink = Sir David Ross | title=Aristotle | publisher=Routledge | edition = 6^th ed. | location = London | year=1995 }} An classic overview by one of Aristotle's most important English translators, in print since 1923. * {{cite book | last = Taylor | first = Henry Osborn | authorlink = Henry Osborn Taylor | url = http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/index.html | title = Greek Biology and Medicine | year = 1922 | chapter = Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology | chapterurl = http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html }} * {{cite book | last = Turner | first = William | authorlink = William Turner | others = Nihil Obstat Remy Lafort, S.T.D.; Censor Imprimatur + John Cardinal Farley, Abp. of New York | title = The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume I: "Aristotle" | publisher = Robert Appleton Company | edition = 1907 | year = 1907 | location=New York }} * {{cite book | last = Veatch | first = Henry B. | authorlink = Henry Babcock Veatch | title=Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation | publisher=Indiana U. Press | location = Bloomington | year=1974 }} For the general reader. ==External links== {{Wikisource author}} {{wikiquote}} {{commons|Aristotelēs}} *{{gutenberg author | id=Aristotle | name=Aristotle}} *[http://Aristotle.thefreelibrary.com/ A brief biography and e-texts presented one chapter at a time] *[http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/aristotl.htm The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Aristotle.], 2004. *[http://www.non-contradiction.com/ An extensive collection of Aristotle's philosophy and works, including lesser known texts] *[http://www.virtuescience.com/nicomachean-ethics.html Nicomachean Ethics by Aristotle.] *[http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/physics/0505172 Aristotle and Indian logic] *O'Connor, J. John & Robertson, Edmund F., [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Aristotle.html Aristotle], 2004. *{{PerseusAuthor|Aristotle}} *{{planetmath|id=5840|title=Aristotle}} *[http://www.greektexts.com/library/Aristotle/index.html Large collection of Aristotle's texts, presented page by page] *[http://www.greek-literature-online.com/aristotle/ Read Aristotle's works online] *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01713a.htm Source of most of the Biography and Methodology sections, as well as more overview] * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Aristotle}} *[http://www.shvoong.com/books/history/119724-constitution-athens/ a summary of "The Constitution of Athens"] {{Philosophy navigation}} [[Category:322 BC deaths|Aristotle]] [[Category:384 BC births|Aristotle]] [[Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers]] [[Category:Aristotelian philosophers]] [[Category:Aristotle]] [[Category:Empiricists]] [[Category:Greek logicians]] [[Category:History of philosophy]] [[Category:History of science]] [[Category:Meteorologists]] [[Category:Rhetoric]] [[Category:Rhetoricians]] {{Link FA|fi}} [[ar:أرسطو]] [[bg:Аристотел]] [[ba:Аристотель]] [[bs:Aristotel]] [[ca:Aristòtil]] [[cs:Aristotelés]] [[da:Aristoteles]] [[de:Aristoteles]] [[et:Aristoteles]] [[el:Αριστοτέλης]] [[es:Aristóteles de Estagira]] [[eo:Aristotelo]] [[eu:Aristoteles]] [[fa:ارسطو]] [[fr:Aristote]] [[ga:Arastotail]] [[gl:Aristóteles]] [[ko:아리스토텔레스]] [[hr:Aristotel]] [[io:Aristoteles]] [[id:Aristoteles]] [[is:Aristóteles]] [[it:Aristotele]] [[he:אריסטו]] [[jv:Aristoteles]] [[la:Aristoteles]] [[lv:Aristotelis]] [[lt:Aristotelis]] [[hu:Arisztotelész]] [[mk:Аристотел]] [[ms:Aristotle]] [[nl:Aristoteles]] [[nds:Aristoteles]] [[ja:アリストテレス]] [[no:Aristoteles]] [[nn:Aristoteles]] [[pl:Arystoteles]] [[pt:Aristóteles]] [[ro:Aristotel]] [[ru:Аристотель]] [[sq:Aristoteli]] [[simple:Aristotle]] [[sk:Aristoteles]] [[sl:Aristotel]] [[sr:Аристотел]] [[fi:Aristoteles]] [[sv:Aristoteles]] [[tl:Aristoteles]] [[ta:அரிஸ்டாட்டில்]] [[th:อริสโตเติล]] [[vi:Aristotle]] [[tr:Aristoteles]] [[uk:Арістотель]] [[zh:亚里士多德]] 309 37835840 2006-02-02T12:39:22Z Japanese Searobin 153340 +ja: : '' ''[[An American in Paris (film)|An American In Paris]]'' is also a 1951 film musical starring [[Gene Kelly]].'' '''''An American in Paris''''' is a [[European-influenced classical music|symphonic]] composition by [[United States|American]] composer [[George Gershwin]] which debuted in [[1928]]. Inspired by Gershwin's time in [[Paris]], it is in the form of an extended [[tone poem]] evoking the sights and energy of the [[France|French]] capital in the [[1920s]]. In addition to the standard instruments of the [[symphony orchestra]], the score features period automobile horns; Gershwin brought back some Parisian taxi-cab horns for the New York premiere of the composition. * "An American In Paris" is second only to [[Rhapsody In Blue]] as a favorite of Gershwin's classical compositions. * The score also features instruments rarely seen in the concert hall: [[celesta]] and [[saxophone]]s. [[Category:Compositions by George Gershwin]] [[Category:Symphonic poems|American in Paris, An]] [[ja:パリのアメリカ人]] [[pl:Amerykanin w Pary&#380;u]] [[sv:An American in Paris (symfonisk dikt)]] 310 15899047 2002-09-01T17:22:59Z Bryan Derksen 66 bypassing double redirect #REDIRECT [[Actor]] 311 15899048 2002-07-12T20:14:52Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 REDIRECt #REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Picture]] 312 15899049 2002-05-30T07:56:01Z Ap 122 redirecting to [[Academy Award for Best Actor]] #REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Actor]] 313 15899050 2002-07-13T09:18:33Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 REDIRECT to [[Academy Award for Best Actress]] #REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Actress]] 314 15899051 2002-07-13T10:44:18Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 REDIRECT #REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor]] 315 15899052 2002-07-13T10:50:57Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 REDIRECT #REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress]] 316 15899053 2002-07-13T11:13:39Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 REDIRECT #REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Art Direction]] 317 15899054 2002-07-14T09:07:06Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 * #REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Directing]] 319 15899055 2002-07-13T01:06:05Z Eclecticology 372 * #redirect [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film]] 320 15899056 2002-07-13T11:16:52Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 REDIRECT #REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Cinematography]] 321 15899057 2002-07-16T20:06:11Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 REDIRECT #REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Documentary Feature]] 322 15899058 2002-07-13T11:00:26Z Eclecticology 372 de sub-paging #redirect [[Academy Award for Best Song]] 323 15899059 2002-07-13T11:14:18Z Eclecticology 372 de-subpage #redirect [[Academy Award for Live Action Short Film]] 324 42155468 2006-03-04T04:37:49Z Wikipedical 729854 /* See also */ The '''Academy Awards''', popularly known as the '''Oscars''', are the most prominent [[film]] awards in the [[United States]] and arguably the world. The Awards are granted by the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]], a professional honorary organization which, [[as of 2003]], had a voting membership of 5,816. Actors (with a membership of 1,311) make up the largest voting bloc. The votes have been tabulated and certified by auditing firm [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] since close to the awards' inception. [http://www.pwc.com/extweb/newcolth.nsf/docid/540E0FBE1B2997EE85256E55005BE8FB] The [[78th Academy Awards|next Oscars]] will take place on Sunday, [[March 5th]], [[2006]]. ==Oscar statuette== The official name of the Oscar [[statuette]] is the "Academy Award of Merit." Made of [[gold]]-plated [[britannium]] on a black marble base, it is 13.5 inches (34 cm) tall, weighs 8.5 lbs (3.85 kg) and depicts a [[knight]] holding a [[crusade|crusader]]'s [[sword]] standing on a [[reel]] of film. The root of the name "Oscar" is contested. Some believe it comes from Academy librarian [[Margaret Herrick]], who saw it on a table and said, "it looks just like my uncle Oscar!" Others claim that [[Bette Davis]] named it after her first husband. However it became, the nickname stuck and is used almost as commonly as ''Academy Award'', even by the Academy itself. In fact, the Academy's domain name is ''oscars.org'' and the official website for the Academy Awards is at ''oscar.com''. ==Awards night== The major awards are given out at a ceremony, most commonly in March following the relevant calendar year. This is an elaborate extravaganza, with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in the creations of the most prominent [[fashion]] designers of the day. The ceremony and extravagant afterparties, including the Academy's Governors Ball, are televised around the world. The ceremony has consecutively aired on [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] since 1976. ==Nominations== Today, according to Rules 2 and 3 of the official Academy Awards Rules, a film has to open in the previous calendar year (from [[midnight]] [[January 1]] to midnight [[December 31]]) in [[Los Angeles County, California]], to qualify. [http://www.oscars.org/78academyawards/rules/index.html] Rule 2 states that a film must be "feature-length" (defined as 40 minutes) to qualify for an award (except for Short Subject awards, of course). It must also exist either on a [[35 mm film|35mm]] or [[70 mm film|70mm]] film print OR on a 24fps or 48fps [[progressive scan]] [[digital film]] print with a native resolution no lower than [[SXGA|1280x1024]]. The members of the various branches nominate those in their respective fields (actors are nominated by the actors' branch, etc.) while all members may submit nominees for Best Picture. The winners are then determined by a second round of voting in which all members are now allowed to vote in all categories. ==Membership== Academy membership may be obtained by one of two ways: a competitive nomination (however, the nominee must be invited to join) or a member may submit a name, seconded by at least two other members, then voted upon by the Board of Governors. The Academy does not publicly disclose its membership, although past press releases have announced the names of those who have been invited to join. If a person not yet a member is nominated in more than one category in a single year, he/she must choose which branch to join when he/she accepts membership. ==Awards== [[Image:BobHopegettingOsca.jpg|thumb|Although he never won an Oscar for any of his movie performances, the comedian [[Bob Hope]] received five honorary Oscars for contributions to cinema and humanitarian work.]] ===Academy Award of Merit=== ====Current awards==== *[[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Leading Actor]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Actress|Best Leading Actress]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1936]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1936]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature|Best Animated Feature]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[2001]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Art Direction|Best Art Direction]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present (also called Interior or Set Decoration) *[[Academy Award for Best Cinematography|Best Cinematography]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present *[[Academy Award for Costume Design|Best Costume Design]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1948]] to present *[[Academy Award for Directing|Best Director]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present *[[Academy Award for Documentary Feature|Best Documentary Feature]] *[[Academy Award for Documentary Short Subject|Best Documentary Short Subject]] *[[Academy Award for Film Editing|Best Film Editing]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1935]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film|Best Foreign Language Film]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1947]] to present *[[Academy Award for Makeup|Best Makeup]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1981]] to present *[[Academy Award for Original Music Score|Best Original Score]]; [[1934]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Song|Best Original Song]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1934]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Song|Best Original Musical]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1934]] to present *[[Academy Award for Animated Short Film|Best Animated Short Film]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1931]] to present *[[Academy Award for Live Action Short Film|Best Live Action Short Film]] *[[Academy Award for Sound|Best Sound Mixing]]; [[1930]] to present *[[Academy Award for Sound Effects Editing|Best Sound Editing]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1963]] to present *[[Academy Award for Visual Effects|Best Visual Effects]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1939]] to present *[[Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay|Best Adapted Screenplay]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present *[[Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay|Best Original Screenplay]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1940]] to present ====Retired awards==== *[[Academy Award for Best Assistant Director|Best Assistant Director]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1933]] to [[1937]] *[[Academy Award for Best Dance Direction|Best Dance Direction]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1935]] to [[1937]] *[[Academy Award for Engineering Effects|Best Engineering Effects]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] only *Best Score -- Adaptation or Treatment *[[Academy Award for Best Short Film - Color|Best Short Film - Color]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1936]] and [[1937]] *[[Academy Award for Best Short Film - Live Action - 2 Reels|Best Short Film - Live Action - 2 Reels]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1936]] to [[1956]] *[[Academy Award for Short Film - Novelty|Best Short Film - Novelty]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1932]] to [[1935]] *[[Academy Award for Best Story|Best Original Story]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to [[1956]] *[[Academy Award for Best Title Writing|Best Title Writing]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] only *[[Academy Award for Unique and Artistic Production|Best Unique and Artistic Quality of Production]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] only In the first year of the awards, the Best Director category was split into separate Drama and Comedy categories. At times, the Best Original Score category has been split into separate Drama and Comedy/Musical categories. Today, the Best Original Score category is one category. From the 1930s through the 1960s, the Cinematography, Art Direction, and Costume Design awards were split into separate categories for black and white and color films. ===Special awards=== These awards are voted on by special committees, rather than by the Academy membership as a whole. ====Current awards==== *[[Academy Honorary Award]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1928]] to present *[[Academy Special Achievement Award]] * [[Academy Award, Scientific or Technical]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1931]] to present at three levels *[[The Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1938]] to present *[[The Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award]] *[[Gordon E. Sawyer Award]] ====Retired awards ==== *[[Academy Juvenile Award]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[1934]] to [[1960]] ==Academy Award statistics== *[[Academy Award statistics: Films receiving 10 or more nominations]] *[[Academy Award statistics: Films receiving 8 or more awards]] *[[Academy Award statistics: Films receiving awards for Best Picture, Directing, Actor, Actress and Writing]] *[[Academy Award statistics: Films receiving 3 or more acting nominations]] *[[Academy Award statistics: Actors receiving 5 or more nominations]] *[[Academy Award statistics: Actors receiving 2 or more awards]] *[[Academy Award statistics: Directors receiving 3 or more nominations]] ==See also== *[[List of Academy Awards ceremonies]] *[[List of movies that have won eight or more Academy Awards]] *[[List of Academy Award winning movies]] *[[78th Academy Awards]] ([[2006]]) ==References== Gail, K. & Piazza, J. (2002) ''The Academy Awards the Complete History of Oscar.'' Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, Inc. ==External links== {{Wiktionary}} * [http://www.oscars.org/ Oscars.org] * [http://www.oscars.org/awardsdatabase/index.html The Academy Awards Database] * [http://www.oscar.com Oscar.com] * [http://www.imdb.com/Sections/Awards/Academy_Awards_USA/ The Academy Awards] at [[The Internet Movie Database]] [[Category:Academy Awards| ]] [[Category:Film awards]] [[ar:جائزة الأوسكار]] [[af:Oscar]] [[bg:Оскар]] [[bs:Oskar]] [[ca:Premi Òscar]] [[cs:Oscar]] [[da:Oscar-uddeling]] [[de:Oscar]] [[et:Oscar]] [[es:Premios Oscar]] [[eo:Oskar-premio]] [[fa:اسکار]] [[fr:Oscar du cinéma]] [[kn:ಆಸ್ಕರ್ ಪ್ರಶಸ್ತಿ]] [[ko:아카데미상]] [[hr:Oscar]] [[id:Academy Award]] [[ilo:Pammadayaw nga Oscar]] [[it:Premio Oscar]] [[he:פרס האוסקר]] [[hu:Oscar-díj]] [[zh-min-nan:Oscar Chióng]] [[nl:Academy Award]] [[ja:アカデミー賞]] [[nb:Oscar]] [[pl:Nagroda Akademii Filmowej]] [[pt:Óscar]] [[ro:Premiul Oscar]] [[fi:Oscar-palkinto]] [[sq:Academy Award]] [[simple:Academy Award]] [[sv:Oscar (filmpris)]] [[vi:Giải Oscar]] [[zh:奥斯卡金像奖]] 325 15899061 2002-08-04T00:46:46Z Maveric149 62 #REDIRECT [[Action movie]] 326 28000771 2005-11-11T06:10:02Z RoyBoy 94806 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.56.253.183|202.56.253.183]] to last version by Maveric149 #REDIRECT [[Actor]] 328 15899064 2004-10-03T13:53:06Z Timwi 13051 fix double-redirect #REDIRECT [[List of male movie actors (A-K)]] 330 15899066 2002-06-12T19:11:03Z Maveric149 62 opps #REDIRECT [[actor]] 332 41366701 2006-02-26T22:06:27Z Cherry blossom tree 92624 remove, er, just words, really. i suppose. {{dablink|For the kingdom of life, see [[Animal]].}} [[Image:Animalia.jpg|thumb|120px|Animalia Cover.]]'''Animalia''' is an illustrated [[Children's literature|children's book]] by [[Graeme Base]]. It was published in [[1986]]. Animalia is an alphabet book and contains twenty six illustrations, one for each letter of the alphabet. Each illustration features an animal from the animal kingdom (A is for [[alligator]], B is for [[butterfly]], etc). The illustrations contain dozens of small objects that the curious reader can try to identify. Base also published a [[coloring book]] version [http://www.alibris.com/search/search.cfm?qwork=7937230&wauth=Base%2C%20Graeme&matches=16&qsort=r&cm_re=works*listing*title] for children to do their own coloring. ==External links== * [http://www.tellapallet.com/animalia.htm A web site that contains a fairly comprehensive list of items hidden in Animalia's illustrations] * [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0810918684 Animalia on Amazon.com] * [https://www.graemebase.com/Home.cfm Graeme Base's Official website] [[Category:Children's books]] [[sk:Živočíchy]] 333 23401668 2005-09-17T16:42:05Z Hurricane111 99272 Fixed double redirect; [[Wikipedia:Computer help desk/cleanup/double redirects/20050713|You can help!]]. #REDIRECT [[Public-key cryptography]] 334 36597984 2006-01-25T04:14:11Z ShakataGaNai 60232 utc disambig '''Temps Atomique International''' ('''TAI''') or '''International Atomic Time''' is a very accurate and stable [[time scale]]. It is a weighted average of the time kept by about 300 [[atomic clock]]s (including a large number of [[caesium]] atomic clocks) in over 50 national laboratories worldwide. It has been available since [[1955]], and became the international standard on which [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] is based on [[January 1]], [[1972]], as decided by the 14th [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]] (CGPM). The [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] is in charge of the realization of TAI. The highest precision realization of TAI times can only be determined retrospectively, as the timescale is defined by periodic comparisons among its participating atomic clocks. However, these corrections are usually only needed for applications that require nanosecond-scale accuracy. Most time service users use realtime estimates of TAI provided by atomic clocks that have been previously referenced to the composite timescale. [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] is a commonly-used realtime source of time traceable back to TAI. [[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC) is the basis for legal time throughout much of the world, and always differs from TAI by an integral number of seconds. From [[1 January]] [[2006]], UTC was behind TAI by 33 seconds. The difference is due to an initial ten second offset on [[1 January]] [[1972]] when UTC was established and [[leap second]]s, which have been periodically inserted into UTC since the first on [[30 June]] [[1972]] due to slight irregularities in Earth's rate of rotation. While TAI is a continuous and stable timescale, UTC has intentional discontinuities to keep it from drifting more than 0.9 second from [[UT1]], a timescale defined by the Earth's rotation. Roughly speaking, solar noon (the time at which the sun is directly overhead) would drift away from 12:00:00 without leap second corrections. UT1 is computed by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] (IERS). TAI was defined such that TAI = [[UT2]] on [[January 1]] [[1958]]. Because UTC is a discontinuous timescale, it is not possible to compute the exact time interval elapsed between two UTC timestamps without consulting a table that describes how many leap seconds occurred during that interval. Therefore, many scientific applications that require precise measurement of long (multi-year) intervals use TAI instead. TAI is also commonly used by systems that can not handle leap seconds. ==See also== * [[Terrestrial Time]] * [[Coordinated Universal Time]] * [[Universal Time]] * [[Sidereal Time]] * [[Time and frequency transfer]] * [[Clock synchronization]] * [[Network Time Protocol]] ==External links== * [http://www.bipm.fr/enus/5_Scientific/c_time/time_1.html ''Bureau International des Poids et Mesures''] * [http://hpiers.obspm.fr IERS website] * [http://www.boulder.nist.gov/timefreq/general/faq.htm ''NIST Time and Frequency FAQs''] <!--Categories--> [[Category:Time scales]] <!--Interwiki--> [[de:Internationale Atomzeit]] [[eo:TAI]] [[es:Tiempo atómico]] [[fr:Temps atomique international]] [[he:&#1492;&#1494;&#1502;&#1503; &#1492;&#1488;&#1496;&#1493;&#1502;&#1497; &#1492;&#1489;&#1497;&#1504;&#1500;&#1488;&#1493;&#1502;&#1497;]] [[id:Waktu Atom Internasional]] [[ja:国際原子時]] [[pl:Mi&#281;dzynarodowy czas atomowy]] [[ru:Международное атомное время]] [[sk:Medzin&#225;rodn&#253; at&#243;mov&#253; &#269;as]] [[zh:&#21407;&#23376;&#26102;]] [[sv:TAI]] 336 41949335 2006-03-02T20:54:01Z 66.147.108.78 /* Altruism and religion */ '''Altruism''' is considered a belief, a practice, a habit, or an [[ethics|ethical doctrine]]. Many cultures and religious traditions judge altruism to be [[virtue|virtuous]]. In English, the idea was often described as [[Ethic of reciprocity|Golden rule of ethics]]. In [[Buddhism]] it is considered a fundamental property of [[human nature]]. ''Altruism'' can refer to: * being helpful to other people with little or no interest in being rewarded for one's efforts (the colloquial definition). This is distinct from merely helping others. * actions that benefit others with a net detrimental or neutral effect on the actor, regardless of the actor's own psychology, motivation, or the cause of his or her actions. This type of altruistic behavior is referred to in [[ecology]] as ''[[Commensalism]]''. * an ethical doctrine that holds that individuals have a moral obligation to help others, if necessary to the exclusion of one's own interest or benefit. One who holds such a doctrine is known as an "altruist." The concepts have a long history in [[philosophical]] and [[ethical]] thought, and have more recently become a topic for [[psychologists]], [[sociologists]], [[evolution]]ary biologists, and [[ethology|ethologists]]. While ideas about altruism from one field can have an impact on the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields lead to different perspectives on altruism. Altruism can be distinguished from a feeling of [[loyalty]] and [[duty]]. Altruism focuses on a moral obligation towards all [[humanity]], while duty focuses on a moral obligation towards a specific individual (e.g. a [[king]]), a specific organization (e.g. a [[government]]), or an abstract concept (e.g. [[God]], [[country]] etc). Some individuals may feel both altruism and duty, while others may not. As opposed to altruism, duty is much easier to enforce by an [[authority]]. ==Altruism in ethics== ''Main article: [[Altruism (ethical doctrine)]]'' The word "altruism" (''French, altruisme, from autrui: "other people", derived from Latin alter: "other"'') was coined by [[Auguste Comte]], the French founder of [[positivism]], in order to describe the ethical doctrine he supported. He believed that individuals had a moral obligation to serve the interest of others or the "greater good" of humanity. Comte says, in his Catechisme Positiviste, that ''"[the] social point of view cannot tolerate the notion of rights, for such notion rests on individualism. We are born under a load of obligations of every kind, to our predecessors, to our successors, to our contemporaries. After our birth these obligations increase or accumulate, for it is some time before we can return any service.... This ["to live for others"], the definitive formula of human morality, gives a direct sanction exclusively to our instincts of benevolence, the common source of happiness and duty. [Man must serve] Humanity, whose we are entirely."'' As the name of the ethical doctrine is "altruism," doing what the ethical doctrine prescribes has also come to be referred to by the term "altruism" -- serving others through placing their interests above one's own. However, the idea that one has a moral obligation to serve others is much older than Auguste Comte. For example, many of the world's oldest and most widespread [[religion]]s (particularly [[Buddhism]] and [[Christianity]]) advocate it. In the [[New Testament]] of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Bible]], it is explained as follows: :"Jesus made answer and said, ''A certain man was going down from Jerusalem to Jericho; and he fell among robbers, who both stripped him and beat him, and departed, leaving him half dead. And by chance a certain priest was going down that way: and when he saw him, he passed by on the other side. And in like manner a Levite also, when he came to the place, and saw him, passed by on the other side. But a certain Samaritan, as he journeyed, came where he was: and when he saw him, he was moved with compassion, and came to him, and bound up his wounds, pouring on [them] oil and wine; and he set him on his own beast, and brought him to an inn, and took care of him. And on the morrow he took out two shillings, and gave them to the host, and said, Take care of him; and whatsoever thou spendest more, I, when I come back again, will repay thee.'' Which of these three, thinkest thou, proved neighbor unto him that fell among the robbers? And he said, He that showed mercy on him. And Jesus said unto him, '''Go, and do thou likewise.'''" ''(Luke 10: 30-37)'' Philosophers who support [[ethical egoism|egoism]] have argued that altruism is demeaning to the individual and that no moral obligation to help others actually exists. [[Nietzsche]] asserts that altruism is predicated on the assumption that others are more important than one's self and that such a position is degrading and demeaning. He also claims that it was very uncommon for people in Europe to consider the sacrifice of one's own interests for others as virtuous until after the advent of Christianity. [[Ayn Rand]] argued that altruism is the willful sacrifice of one's values, and represents the reversal of morality because only a rationally selfish ethics allows one to pursue the values required for human life. Advocates of altruism as an ethical doctrine maintain that one ought to act, or refrain from acting, so that benefit or [[good (economics)|good]] is bestowed on other people, if necessary to the exclusion of one's own interests (Note that refraining from murdering someone, for example, is not altruism since he is not receiving a benefit or being helped, as he already has his life; this would amount to the same thing as ignoring someone). ==Altruism in ethology and evolutionary biology== In the science of [[ethology]] (the study of behavior), altruism refers to behavior by an individual that increases the [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor. This would appear to be counter-intuitive if one presumes that [[natural selection]] acts on the individual. Natural selection, however, acts on the gene pool of the subjects, not on each subject individually. Recent developments in [[game theory]] have provided some explanations for apparent altruism, as have traditional evolutionary analyses. Among the proposed mechanisms are: * [[Behavioral manipulation]] (e.g., by certain [[parasites]] that can alter the behavior of the host, see [http://news.yahoo.com/s/space/20060211/sc_space/mindcontrolbyparasites]) * [[Bounded rationality]] (e.g., [[Herbert Simon]]) * [[Conscience]] * [[Indirect reciprocity]] (e.g., [[reputation]]) * [[Kin selection]] including [[eusociality]] (see also "[[selfish gene]]") * [[Meme]]s (by influencing behavior to favour their own spread, e.g., [[religion]]) * [[Reciprocal altruism]], mutual aid * [[Sexual selection]] * [[Strong reciprocity]] The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind [[George R. Price]]'s development of the [[Price equation]] which is a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular [[slime mould]]s, such as ''[[Dictyostelid|Dictyostelium]] mucoroides''. These protists live as individual [[amoebae]] until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body. Social behavior and altruism share many similaraties to the interactions between the many parts (cells, genes) of an organism, but are distinguished by the ability of each individual to reproduce indefinitely without an absolute requirement for its neighbors. ==Altruism in psychology and sociology== If one performs an act beneficial to others with a view to gaining some personal benefit, then it is not an altruistically motivated act. There are several different perspectives on how "benefit" (or "interest") should be defined. A material gain (e.g. money, a physical reward, etc.) is clearly a form of benefit, while others identify and include both material and immaterial gains (affection, respect, happiness, satisfaction etc.) as being philosophically identical benefits. According to ''[[psychological egoism]]'', while people can exhibit altruistic ''behavior'', they cannot have altruistic ''motivations''. Psychological egoists would say that while they might very well spend their lives benefitting others with no material benefit (or a material net loss) to themselves, their most basic motive for doing so is always to further their own interests. For example, it would be alleged that the foundational motive behind a person acting this way is to advance their own psychological well-being ("good feeling"). Critics of this theory often reject it on the grounds that it is [[falsifiability|non-falsifiable]]; in other words, it is designed in such a way as to be impossible to prove or disprove - because immaterial gains such as a "good feeling" cannot be measured or proven to exist in all people performing altruistic acts. Psychological egoism has also been accused of using [[circular logic]]: "If a person willingly performs an act, that means he derives personal enjoyment from it; therefore, people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment". This statement is circular because its conclusion is identical to its hypothesis (it assumes that people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment, and concludes that people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment). In contrast to psychological egoism, the ''[[empathy-altruism]]'' hypothesis states that when an individual experiences empathy towards someone in need, the individual will then be altruistically motivated to help that person; that is, the individual will be primarily concerned about that person's welfare, not his or her own. In common parlance, altruism usually means helping another person without expecting material reward from that or other persons, although it may well entail the "internal" benefit of a "good feeling," sense of satisfaction, self-esteem, fulfillment of duty (whether imposed by a religion or ideology or simply one's conscience), or the like. In this way one need not speculate on the motives of the altruist in question. Humans are not exclusively altruistic towards family members, previous co-operators or potential future allies, but can be altruistic towards people they don't know and will never meet. For example, humans donate to international [[charity|charities]] and volunteer their time to help [[society]]'s less fortunate. It strains plausibility to claim that these altruistic deeds are done in the hope of a return favor. The game theory analysis of this 'just in case' strategy, where the principle would be 'always help everyone in case you need to pull in a favor in return', is a decidedly ''non-optimal'' strategy, where the net expenditure of effort (tit) is far greater than the net profit when it occasionally pays off (tat). According to some, it is difficult to believe that these behaviors are solely explained as indirect selfish [[rationality]], be it conscious or sub-conscious. Mathematical formulations of [[kin selection]], along the lines of the [[prisoner's dilemma]], are helpful as far as they go; but what a [[game theory|game-theoretic]] explanation glosses over is the fact that altruistic behavior can be attributed to that apparently mysterious phenomenon, the [[conscience]]. One recent suggestion, proposed by the philosopher [[Daniel Dennett]], was initially developed when considering the problem of so-called 'free riders' in the [[tragedy of the commons]], a larger-scale version of the [[prisoner's dilemma]]. In [[game theory]] terms, a free rider is an [[agent (grammar)|agent]] who draws benefits from a co-operative society without contributing. In a one-to-one situation, free riding can easily be discouraged by a tit-for-tat strategy. But in a larger-scale society, where contributions and benefits are pooled and shared, they can be incredibly difficult to shake off. Imagine an elementary society of co-operative organisms. Co-operative agents interact with each other, each contributing resources and each drawing on the common good. Now imagine a [[rogue]] [[free rider]], an agent who draws a favor ("you scratch my back") and later refuses to return it. The problem is that free riding is always going to be beneficial to individuals at cost to society. How can well-behaved co-operative agents avoid being cheated? Over many generations, one obvious solution is for co-operators to evolve the ability to spot potential free riders in advance and refuse to enter into [[reciprocal]] arrangements with them. Then, the canonical free rider response is to evolve a more convincing [[disguise]], fooling co-operators into co-operating after all. This can lead to an evolutionary [[arms race]]s, with ever-more-sophisticated disguises and ever-more-sophisticated detectors. In this evolutionary arms race, how best might one convince comrades that one ''really is'' a genuine co-operator, not a free rider in disguise? One answer is by ''actually making oneself'' a genuine co-operator, by erecting [[psychological barriers]] to breaking promises, and by advertising this fact to everyone else. In other words, a good solution is for organisms to evolve things that everyone knows will force them to be co-operators - and to make it obvious that they've evolved these things. So evolution will produce organisms who are sincerely moral and who wear their hearts on their sleeves; in short, evolution will give rise to the phenomenon of conscience. This theory, combined with ideas of [[kin selection]] and the one-to-one sharing of benefits, may explain how a blind and fundamentally selfish process can produce a genuinely non-cynical form of altruism that gives rise to the human conscience. Critics of such technical game theory analysis point out that it appears to forget that human beings are rational and emotional. To presume an analysis of human behaviour without including human rationale or emotion is necessarily unrealistically narrow, and treats human beings as if they are mere machines, sometimes called [[Homo economicus]]. Another objection is that often people donate anonymously, so that it is impossible to determine if they really did the altruistic act. Beginning with an understanding that rational human beings benefit from living in a benign universe, logically it follows that particular human beings may gain substantial emotional satisfaction from acts which they perceive to make the world a better place. == Comparison of Altruism and Tit for Tat == Studying the simple strategy "[[Tit for tat]]" in the [[iterated prisoner's dilemma]] problem, [[game theory|game theorists]] argue that "Tit for tat" is much more successful in establishing stable [[cooperation]] among individuals than altruism, defined as ''unconditional'' cooperation, can ever be. "Tit for tat" starts with cooperation in the first step (as altruism does) and then just imitates the behaviour of the partner step by step. If the partner cooperates, then he ''rewards'' him with cooperation, if he doesn't, then he ''punishes'' him by not cooperating in the next step. Confronted with many strategies that try to exploit or abuse cooperation of others, this simple strategy surprisingly proved to be the most successful (see [[The Evolution of Cooperation]]). It was even more successful than these abusing strategies, while unconditional cooperativity (altruism) was one of the most unsuccessful strategies. Confronted with altruistic behaviour, Tit for tat is indistinguishable from pure altruism. [[Robert Axelrod]] and [[Richard Dawkins]] also showed that altruism may be harmful to society by nourishing exploiters and abusers (and making them more and more powerful until they can force everyone to cooperate unconditionally), which is not the case for "Tit for tat". (See also comparison of [[entrepreneur]] and [[entredonneur]]) In the context of [[biology]], the "Tit for tat" strategy is also called [[reciprocal altruism]]. ==Altruism in politics== <table border> <tr> <td colspan='2' align='center'>'''There is currently a [[WP:NPOV|POV]] [[WP:DR|dispute]] as to the wording of the section shown below.'''</td> </tr> <tr> <td valign='top'> If one is an adherent to the ''ethical doctrine'' called altruism (that people have an ethical obligation to help or further the welfare of others), then one will support the kind of politics that one believes to be most effective in furthering the welfare of others, regardless of the effect this may have on oneself. Since there is no general consensus on what kind of politics results in the greatest benefit for others, different altruists may have very different political views. With regard to their political convictions, altruists may be divided in two broad groups: Those who believe altruism is a matter of personal choice (and therefore selfishness can and should be tolerated), and those who believe that altruism is a moral ideal which should be embraced, if possible, by all human beings. A prominent example of the former branch of altruist political thought is [[Lysander Spooner]], who, in ''Natural Law'', writes: "''Man, no doubt, owes many other moral duties to his fellow men; such as to feed the hungry, clothe the naked, shelter the homeless, care for the sick, protect the defenceless, assist the weak, and enlighten the ignorant. But these are simply moral duties, of which each man must be his own judge, in each particular case, as to whether, and how, and how far, he can, or will, perform them.''" The latter branch of altruist political thought, on the other hand, argues that [[egoism]] should be actively discouraged, and that altruists have a duty not only to help other people, but to teach those people to help each other as well. Thus, in politics, these altruists almost always take a [[left-wing]] stance, ranging from moderate [[social democracy]] to [[socialism]] or even [[communism]]. Moderate altruists of this branch may argue for the creation of [[tax|taxation-funded]] government programs aimed at benefiting the needy (for example [[transfer payments]], such as [[social welfare]], or [[public healthcare]] and [[public education]]). Less obvious things such as a law that motorists pull over to let emergency vehicles pass may also be justified by appealing to the altruism ethic. Finally, radical altruists of this branch may take things further and advocate some form of [[collectivism]] or [[communalism]]. On a somewhat related note, altruism is often held - even by non-altruists - to be the kind of ethic that should guide the actions of politicians and other people in positions of power. Such people are usually expected to set their own interests aside and serve the populace. When they do not, they may be criticized as defaulting on what is believed to be an ethical obligation to place the interests of others above their own. </td> <td valign='top'> Politicians often speak of a moral obligation of individuals to help others. For example, [[George Bush]], speaking to the [[United Nations]] said: "We have a moral obligation to help others -- and a moral duty to make sure our actions are effective." If one is an adherent to the ''ethical doctrine'' called altruism (that people have an ethical obligation to help or further the welfare of others), it can become a moral justification for forcing, or advocating forcing individuals to help others. In the realm of politics, the altruist may employ an agent in the form of [[government]] to enforce this supposed moral obligation. This is not to say that an ethical altruist will ''necessarily'' force this on anyone. An altruist may allow others the freedom to behave in a manner they believe to be immoral or selfish. In other words, their ethical doctrine would not manifest itself politically. With regard those who believe benevolence is a moral obligation, altruists may be divided in two broad groups: Those who believe helping others is a moral obligation but should not be enforced on individuals. And, those who believe that since helping others is a moral obligation, forcing individuals to help others if they are not willing on their own is justified. A prominent example of the former branch of altruist political thought is [[Lysander Spooner]], who, in ''Natural Law'', writes: "''Man, no doubt, owes many other moral duties to his fellow men; such as to feed the hungry, clothe the naked, shelter the homeless, care for the sick, protect the defenceless, assist the weak, and enlighten the ignorant. But these are simply moral duties, of which each man must be his own judge, in each particular case, as to whether, and how, and how far, he can, or will, perform them.''" The latter branch of altruist political thought, on the other hand, argues that [[egoism]] should be actively discouraged, and that individuals should be forced to help other people. Thus, in politics, these altruists almost always take a [[left-wing]] stance, ranging from moderate [[social democracy]] to [[socialism]] or even [[communism]]. Moderate altruists of this branch may argue for the creation of [[tax|taxation-funded]] government programs aimed at benefiting the needy (for example [[transfer payments]], such as [[social welfare]], or [[public healthcare]] and [[public education]]). Finally, radical altruists of this branch may take things to an extreme and advocate some form of state-enforced [[collectivism]], [[communalism]], or communism. This is in line with August Comte's philosophy (who coined the term altruism), which argues against individual rights. Finally, many believe that helping others or serving society is not a moral obligation at all, but that altrusm is an arbitrary pronouncement not philosophically derivable. These oppose all government-enforced charity. [[Individualist anarchist]] [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] in 1847 warns of enforcing charity: "That is why charity, the prime virtue of the Christian, the legitimate hope of the socialist, the object of all the efforts of the economist, is a social vice the moment it is made a principle of constitution and a law; that is why certain economists have been able to say that legal charity had caused more evil in society than proprietary usurpation" (''The Philosophy of Poverty''). Comte asserts that individual rights are not compatible with the supposed obligation to serve others. Some argue that the ethical doctrine, if taken to its logical conclusion, leads to tyranny. </td> </tr> </table> ==Altruism and religion== {{sect-stub}} All the major world [[religion]]s promote altruism as a very important moral value. [[Christianity]] and [[Buddhism]] place particular emphasis on altruistic morality, as noted above, but [[Judaism]], [[Islam]] and [[Hinduism]] also promote altruistic behavior. The [[Good Samaritan]] is a famous [[New Testament]] parable appearing only in the [[Gospel of Luke]] (10:25-37). The parable is told by [[Jesus]] illustrating altruism. <!-- This section should continue by quoting altruism-related verses from the holy books of the aforementioned religions --> ==See also== * [[Altruism (ethical doctrine)]] * [[Altruism in animals]] * [[Psychology]] * [[Euphemism]] * [[Will (law)]] * [[Trust (law)]] * [[Tit for tat]] * [[Reciprocal altruism]] ==External links== *[http://www.altruists.org/about/altruism What is Altruism? (Altruists International)] *[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism-biological/ Biological Altruism ] *[http://www.humboldt.edu/~altruism/home.html The Altruistic Personality and Prosocial Behavior Institute at Humboldt State University] *[http://www.iipbaar.org International Institute for Prosocial Behavior and Altruism Research] ==References== *Batson, C.D. (1991). ''The altruism question''. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. *Fehr, E. & Fischbacher, U. ([[23 October]] [[2003]]). The nature of human altruism. In ''Nature, 425'', 785 &ndash; 791. *[[August Comte]], ''Catechisme positiviste'' (1852) or ''Catechism of Positivism'', tr. R. Congreve, (London: Kegan Paul, 1891) * Oord, Thomas Jay, Science of Love (Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press, 2004). *[[Nietzsche, Friedrich]], ''[[Beyond Good and Evil]]'' *[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], ''The Philosophy of Poverty'' (1847) *[[Lysander Spooner]], ''Natural Law'' *[[Ayn Rand]], ''[[The Virtue of Selfishness]]'' *[[Matt Ridley]], ''[[The Origins Of Virtue]]'' *Oliner, Samuel P. and Pearl M. Towards a Caring Society: Ideas into Action. West Port, CT: Praeger, 1995. * ''[[The Evolution of Cooperation]]'', [[Robert Axelrod]], Basic Books, ISBN 0465021212 *''[[The Selfish Gene]]'', [[Richard Dawkins]] (1990), second edition -- includes two chapters about the evolution of cooperation, ISBN 0192860925 *[[Robert Wright_(journalist)|Robert Wright]], ''The moral animal'', Vintage, 1995, ISBN 0679763996. {{Philosophy navigation}} [[Category:Ethics]] [[Category:Evolutionary biology]] [[Category:philanthropy]] [[Category:Social philosophy]] [[Category:Social psychology]] [[Category:Sociology]] [[Category:Virtues]] [[Category:Motivation]] [[bg:Алтруизъм]] [[de:Altruismus]] [[es:Altruismo]] [[fi:Altruismi]] [[fr:Altruisme]] [[he:זולתנות]] [[it:Altruismo]] [[lt:Altruizmas]] [[nl:Altruïsme]] [[pl:Altruizm]] [[sv:Altruism]] 337 42100410 2006-03-03T21:00:09Z 209.167.177.36 /* Actor */ [[Image:Ang_lee.jpg|frame|Lee accepting the Best Foreign Film award for ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' at the 73rd Academy Awards]] '''Ang Lee''' (Chinese: 李安; Pinyin: Lǐ Ān ) (born [[October 23]], [[1954]]) is an [[Academy Award]]-winning [[film director]] from [[Taiwan]]. ==Early life== Ang Lee was born and raised in [[Pingtung County|Pingtung, Taiwan]] and educated in the [[United States]], where he found success as a [[Hollywood]] director, well-known for his [[wuxia]] film ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (2000). He completed his bachelor's degree in Theater from the [[University of Illinois]] and received his [[MFA]] from [[New York University]]'s [[Tisch School of the Arts]], where in 1984 he made a thesis film called ''Fine Line''. He was a classmate of [[Spike Lee]] and worked on the crew of the latter Lee's thesis film, ''Joe's Bed-Stuy Barbershop: We Cut Heads''. ==Career== Many of his films have focused on the interactions between modernity and tradition. His films have also tended to have a light-hearted comic tone which marks a break from the tragic historical realism which characterized Taiwanese filmmaking after the end of the martial law period in 1987. Lee's films also tend to draw on deep secrets and internal torment that begin to come to the surface such as the gay-themed films ''[[The Wedding Banquet]]'' (1993), ''[[Brokeback Mountain]]'' (2005), the martial arts epic ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (2000) and the comic book adaptation ''[[Hulk (film)|Hulk]]'' (2003) He received the Dartmouth Film Award in 2002, along with [[Meryl Streep]]. Lee's film ''[[Brokeback Mountain]]'' (2005) won the best film award at the Venice International Film Festival and was named 2005's best film by the Los Angeles film critics. It also won the [[Golden Globe Award]] for Best Motion Picture — Drama, with Lee winning the [[Golden Globe Award]] for Best Director. Lee also won the Best Director award for the film at the 2006 British Academy Awards (BAFTAs). In January 2006, Brokeback scored a leading 8 [[Academy Award]] nominations including Lee for Best Director. The film is considered to be the frontrunner for the March 5, 2006 ceremony. He taught [[Meryl Streep]]'s son and [[Kai Christophe Wong]], initially scheduled for the lead in ''[[Dark Matter]]''. ==Private life== His wife, Jane, is a microbiologist; they have two children, Haan and Mason. He is a huge fan of the [[Vancouver Canucks]] of the [[National Hockey League]]. He kept his directing aspirations a secret because his culture did not encourage ambitions in a non-practical career like film. ==Films== === Director === * ''[[Hulk 2]]'' (2007) * ''[[Brokeback Mountain]]'' (2005) * ''[[Hulk (film)|Hulk]]'' (2003) * ''[[The Hire]]'' (BMW Short Movies) - Chosen (2002) * ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (Chinese: 臥虎藏龍) (2000) * ''[[Ride with the Devil]]'' (1999) * ''[[The Ice Storm]]'' (1997) * ''[[Sense and Sensibility (film)|Sense and Sensibility]]'' (1995) * ''[[Eat Drink Man Woman]]'' (Chinese: 飲食男女) (1994) * ''[[The Wedding Banquet]]'' (Chinese: 喜宴) (1993) * ''[[Pushing Hands (movie)|Pushing Hands]]'' (Chinese: 推手) (1992) * ''Fine Line'' (1984) * ''Shades of the lake'' (1982) * ''I Love Chinese Food'' (1981) * ''Beat the Artist'' (1981) * ''The Runner''' (1980) * ''One Day of Ma-Chuan Chen'' (Chinese: 陳媽勸的一天) * ''Laziness in a Saturday Afternoon'' (Chinese: 星期六下午的懶散) ''See Also:'' [[:Category:Films directed by Ang Lee|Films directed by Ang Lee]] === Writer === * ''[[Siao Yu]]'' (Chinese: 少女小漁) (1995) * ''[[Eat Drink Man Woman]]'' (Chinese: 飲食男女) (1994) * ''[[The Wedding Banquet]]'' (Chinese: 喜宴) (1993) * ''[[Pushing Hands (movie)|Pushing Hands]]'' (Chinese: 推手) (1992) === Actor === * ''[[The Wedding Banquet]]'' (Chinese: 喜宴) (1993) * ''[[The Hulk]]''(2003) === Editing === * ''[[Eat Drink Man Woman]]'' (Chinese: 飲食男女) (1994) * ''[[Pushing Hands (movie)|Pushing Hands]]'' (Chinese: 推手) (1992) === Producer === * ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (Chinese: 臥虎藏龍) (2000) * ''[[Siao Yu]]'' (Chinese: 少女小漁) (1995) ==External links== * {{imdb name|id=0000487|name=Ang Lee}} * [http://www.thecheappop.com/heath.html Ang Lee on Brokeback] * [http://movie.cca.gov.tw/PEOPLE/people_inside.asp?rowid=70&id=1 Ang Lee] (Chinese) [[Category:1954 births|Lee, Ang]] [[Category:Living people|Lee, Ang]] [[Category:American film directors|Lee, Ang]] [[Category:Hulk|Lee, Ang]] [[Category:Taiwanese Americans|Lee, Ang]] [[Category:Taiwanese film directors|Lee, Ang]] [[Category:Best Director Golden Globe]] [[Category:Best Director Oscar nominees]] [[de:Ang Lee]] [[es:Ang Lee]] [[et:Ang Lee]] [[fi:Ang Lee]] [[fr:Ang Lee]] [[hr:Ang Lee]] [[it:Ang Lee]] [[ja:アン・リー]] [[ka:ანგ ლი]] [[nl:Ang Lee]] [[pt:Ang Lee]] [[zh:李安]] 338 15899073 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Auto racing]] 339 edit=sysop:move=sysop 40260861 2006-02-19T08:35:36Z Woohookitty 159678 {{protected}} {{Infobox_Philosopher | <!-- Scroll down to edit this page --> <!-- Philosopher Category --> region = Western Philosophy | era = [[Contemporary philosophy]], | color = #B0C4DE | <!-- Image and Caption --> image_name = Ayn_Rand1.jpg| image_caption = Ayn Rand: novelist and philosopher| <!-- Information --> name = Ayn Rand | birth = [[February 2]], [[1905]] | death = [[March 6]], [[1982]]| school_tradition = [[Objectivist philosophy]] | main_interests = [[Objectivist metaphysics]], [[Objectivist ethics]]| influences = [[Aristotle]], [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Nietzsche]] | influenced = [[Leonard Peikoff]], [[Harry Binswanger]], [[John Ridpath]], [[Tara Smith]], [[David Kelley]], [[Dr. Frank R. Wallace]]| notable_ideas = |[[Rational self-interest]]}} '''Ayn Rand''' ({{IPA2|ajn ɹænd}}, {{OldStyleDate|February 2|1905|January 20}} &ndash; [[March 6]] [[1982]]), born '''Alissa Zinovievna Rosenbaum''', was best known for her [[philosophy]] of [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivism]] and her novels ''[[We the Living]]'', ''[[Anthem (novel)|Anthem]]'', ''[[The Fountainhead]]'', and ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''. Her philosophy and her fiction both emphasize, above all, the concepts of [[individualism]], rational [[egoism]] ("[[Objectivist ethics|rational self-interest]]"), and [[capitalism]], which she believed should be implemented fully via ''[[Laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]]. Her politics has been described as [[minarchism]] and [[libertarianism]], though she never used the first term and detested the second. Her novels were based upon the projection of the Randian [[hero]], a man whose ability and independence causes conflict with the masses, but who perseveres nevertheless to achieve his values. Rand viewed this hero as the ideal, and the express goal of her fiction was to showcase such heroes. She believed: *That man must choose his values and actions by reason; *That the individual has a right to exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing self to others nor others to self; and *That no one has the right to seek values from others by physical force, or impose ideas on others by physical force. ==Biography== ===Early life=== Rand was born in [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russia]], and was the eldest of three daughters of a [[Jew]]ish family. Her parents were [[agnostic]] and largely non-observant. From an early age, she displayed a strong interest in literature and films. She started writing screenplays and novels from the age of seven. Her mother taught her French and subscribed to a magazine featuring stories for boys, where Rand found her first childhood hero: Cyrus Paltons, an Indian army officer in a [[Rudyard Kipling]]-style story called "The Mysterious Valley". Throughout her youth, she read the novels of [[Sir Walter Scott]], [[Alexandre Dumas]] and other Romantic writers, and expressed a passionate enthusiasm toward the Romantic movement as a whole. She discovered [[Victor Hugo]] at the age of thirteen, and fell deeply in love with his novels. Later, she cited him as her favorite novelist and the greatest novelist of world literature. She studied philosophy and history at the [[Saint Petersburg State University|University of Petrograd]]. Her major literary discoveries in university were the works of [[Edmond Rostand]], [[Friedrich Schiller]] and [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]]. She admired Rostand for his richly romantic imagination and Schiller for his grand, heroic scale. She admired Dostoevsky for his sense of drama and his intense moral judgments, but was deeply against his philosophy and his sense of life. She continued to write short stories and screenplays and wrote sporadically in her diary, which contained intensely anti-Soviet ideas. She also encountered the philosophical ideas of [[Nietzsche]], and loved his exaltation of the heroic and independent individual who embraced egoism and rejected altruism in ''[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]''. Though an early fan of Nietzsche, she eventually became critical, seeing his philosophy as emphasizing emotion over reason. Nevertheless, as Allan Gotthelf points out in book ''On Ayn Rand'', "the influence was real." She did still retain an admiration for some of his ideas, and quoted Nietzsche in the introduction to the 25th aniversary edition of ''The Fountainhead'': "''The noble soul has reverence for itself.''" Her greatest influence by far is [[Aristotle]], especially ''Organon (Logic)''. Although Leonard Peikoff, promoter of her ideas, says she is the greatest philosopher who ever lived, she herself considered Aristotle the greatest philosopher ever, and stated that he was the only philosopher who had influenced her (this is probably because, as she has stated, she did not include her own work when analyzing the culture.) She then entered the State Institute for Cinema Arts in 1924 to study screenwriting; in late 1925, however, she was granted a [[Visa (document)|visa]] to visit American relatives. She arrived in the [[United States]] in February 1926, at the age of twenty-one. After a brief stay with her relatives in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], she resolved never to return to the [[Soviet Union]], and set out for [[Hollywood]] to become a [[screenwriter]]. She then changed her name to "Ayn Rand". There is a story told that she named herself after the [[Remington Rand]] [[typewriter]], but she began using the name Ayn Rand before the typewriter was first sold. She stated that her first name, 'Ayn', was an adaptation of the name of a Finnish writer. This may have been the Finnish-Estonian author [[Aino Kallas]], but variations of this name are common in [[Finnish language|Finnish]]-speaking regions. ===Major works=== Initially, Rand struggled in [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] and took odd jobs to pay her basic living expenses. While working as an [[extra (drama)|extra]] on [[Cecil B. DeMille]]'s ''[[The King of Kings|King of Kings]]'', she intentionally bumped into an aspiring young actor, [[Frank O'Connor (actor)|Frank O'Connor]], who caught her eye. The two married in 1929. In 1931, Rand became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States. Her first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay ''[[Red Pawn]]'' in 1932 to [[Universal Studios]]. Rand then wrote the play ''[[The Night of January 16th]]'' in 1934, which was highly successful, and published two novels, ''[[We the Living]]'' (1936), and ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]'' (1938). While ''We the Living'' met with mixed reviews in the U.S. and positive reviews in the U.K., ''Anthem'' received significiant and positive reviews only in England, due in part to its odd publication history. She was up against [[The Red Decade ]] in America, and ''Anthem'' did not even find a publisher in the United States; it was first published in England. Besides, Rand had still not perfected her literary style and these novels cannot be considered representative. Without Rand's knowledge or permission, ''[[We The Living]]'' was made into a pair of films, ''Noi vivi'' and ''Addio, Kira'' in 1942 by Scalara Films, [[Rome]]. They were nearly censored by the [[Italy|Italian]] government under [[Benito Mussolini]], but they were permitted because the novel upon which they were based was anti-Soviet. The films were successful and the public easily realized that they were as much against Fascism as Communism, and the government banned them quickly thereafter. These films were re-edited into a new version which was approved by Rand and re-released as ''We the Living'' in 1986. Rand's first major professional success came with her best-selling novel ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' (1943), which she wrote over a period of seven years. The novel was rejected by twelve publishers, who thought it was too intellectual and opposed to the mainstream of American thought. It was finally accepted by the [[Bobbs-Merrill Company]] publishing house, thanks mainly to a member of the editorial board, Archibald Ogden, who praised the book in the highest terms and finally prevailed. Eventually, ''The Fountainhead'' was a worldwide success, bringing Rand fame and financial security. The theme of ''The Fountainhead'' is "individualism and collectivism in man's soul". It features the lives of five main characters. The hero, Howard Roark, is Rand's ideal, a noble soul ''par excellence'', an architect who is firmly and serenely devoted to his own ideals and believes that no man should copy the style of another in any field, especially architecture. All the other characters in the novel demand that he renounce his values, but Roark maintains his integrity. Unlike traditional heroes who launch into long and passionate monologues about their integrity and the unfairness of the world; Roark, in contrast, does it with a disdainful, almost contemptuous taciturnity and laconicism. Rand's [[magnum opus]], ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'', was published in 1957, becoming an international bestseller. ''Atlas Shrugged'' is often seen as Rand's most complete statement of the [[Objectivist philosophy]] in any of her works of fiction. In its appendix, she offered this summary: :"My philosophy, in essence, is the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute." The theme of ''Atlas Shrugged'' is "The role of man's mind in society". Rand upheld the industrialist as one of the most admirable members of any society and fiercely opposed the popular resentment accorded to industrialists. This led her to envision a novel wherein the industrialists of America go on strike and retreat to a mountainous hideaway. The American economy and its society in general slowly start to collapse. The government responds by increasing the already stifling controls on industrial concerns. The novel deals with issues as complex and divergent as sex, music, medicine, politics, and human ability. Along with [[Nathaniel Branden]], his wife [[Barbara Branden|Barbara]], and others including [[Alan Greenspan]] and [[Leonard Peikoff]], (jokingly designated "[[The Ayn Rand Collective|The Collective]]"), Rand launched the [[Objectivism|Objectivist]] movement to promote her philosophy. ===The Objectivist movement=== ''Main article: The [[Objectivist movement]]'' In 1950 Rand moved to [[New York City]], where in 1951 she met the young [[psychology]] student [[Nathaniel Branden]] [http://www.nathanielbranden.com], who had read her book, ''The Fountainhead'', at the age of 14. Branden, then 19, enjoyed discussing Rand's emerging Objectivist philosophy with her. Together, Branden and some of his other friends formed a group that they dubbed the [[Collective]], which included some participation by future Federal Reserve chairman [[Alan Greenspan]]. After several years, Rand and Branden's friendly relationship blossomed into a romantic affair, despite the fact that both were married at the time. Their spouses were both convinced to accept this affair but it eventually led to the separation and then divorce of [[Nathaniel Branden]] from his wife. Although one of Rand's most strident philosophical points was never to bow to societal pressure or norms, Ayn Rand abandoned her own name (see top of page), as did Branden (born Nathan Blumenthal). Throughout the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]], Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through both her fiction [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_fiction] and non-fiction [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_nonfiction] works, and by giving talks at several east-coast universities, largely through the [[Nathaniel Branden Institute]] ("the NBI") which Branden established to promote her philosophy. After a convoluted series of separations, Rand abruptly ended her relationship with both Nathaniel Branden and his wife, [[Barbara Branden]], in 1968 when she learned of Nathaniel Branden's affair with Patrecia Scott (this later affair did not overlap chronologically with the earlier Branden/Rand affair). Rand refused to have any further dealings with the NBI. She then published a letter in "The Objectivist" announcing her repudiation of Branden for various reasons, including dishonesty, but did not mention their affair or her role in the schism. The two never reconciled, and Branden remained a ''persona non grata'' in the Objectivist movement. [[Image:ayn rand stamp.jpg|222px|frame|left|1999 U.S. [[postage stamp]] honoring Rand. Art by [[Nick Gaetano]].]] Barbara Branden presented an account of the breakup of the affair in her book, ''The Passion of Ayn Rand.'' She describes the encounter between Nathaniel and Rand, saying that Rand slapped him numerous times, and denounced him in these words: "If you have an ounce of morality left in you, an ounce of psychological health — you'll be impotent for the next twenty years! And if you achieve any potency, you'll know it's a sign of still worse moral degradation!" Conflicts continued in the wake of the break with Branden and the subsequent collapse of the NBI. Many of her closest "Collective" friends began to part ways, and during the late 70's, her activities within the formal Objectivist movement began to decline, a situation which increased after the death of her husband in 1979. One of her final projects was work on a television adaptation of ''Atlas Shrugged''. Rand died of heart failure on [[March 6]], [[1982]] in [[New York City]], years after having successfully battled cancer, and was interred in the [[Kensico Cemetery]], [[Valhalla, New York]]. [[Image:Ayn_Rand_Marker.jpg|thumb|right|324px|Grave marker of [[Frank O'Connor (actor)|Frank O'Connor]] and Ayn Rand.]] ===Philosophical influences=== Rand rejected virtually all other philosophical schools. She acknowledged a shared intellectual lineage with [[Aristotle]] and [[John Locke]], and more generally with the philosophies of the [[Age of Enlightenment]] and the [[Age of Reason]]. She occasionally remarked with approval on specific philosophical positions of, e.g., [[Baruch Spinoza]] and [[Thomas Aquinas]]. She seems also to have respected the American rationalist [[Brand Blanshard]]. However, she regarded most philosophers as at best incompetent and at worst downright evil. She singled out [[Immanuel Kant]] as the most influential of the latter sort. Nonetheless, there are connections between Rand's views and those of other philosophers. She acknowledged that she had been influenced at an early age by the writings of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]. Though she later repudiated his thought and reprinted her first novel, ''[[We The Living]]'', with some wording changes in 1959, her own thought grew out of critical interaction with it. Generally, her political thought is in the tradition of [[classical liberalism]]. She expressed qualified enthusiasm for the economic thought of [[Ludwig von Mises]] and [[Henry Hazlitt]]. Though not mentioned as an influence by her specifically, parallels between her works and [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]'s essay [[Self-Reliance]] do exist. Later Objectivists, such as [[Richard Salsman]], have claimed that Rand's economic theories are implicitly more supportive of the doctrines of [[Jean-Baptiste Say]], though Rand herself was likely not acquainted with his work. ===Politics and House Committee on Un-American Activities testimony=== Rand's political views were radically pro-[[capitalist]], [[anti-statist]], and [[anti-Communist]]. Her writings praised above all the human individual and the creative genius of which one is capable. She exalted what she saw as the heroic [[American values]] of egoism and individualism. Rand also had a strong dislike for [[mysticism]], [[religion]], and compulsory [[charity]], all of which she believed helped foster a crippling culture of resentment towards individual human happiness and success. Rand detested many prominent [[liberalism|liberal]] and [[conservative]] politicians of her time, even including prominent anti-Communist crusaders like Presidents [[Harry S. Truman]] and [[Ronald Reagan]], and Senators [[Hubert H. Humphrey]] and [[Joseph McCarthy]] (although she argued that ''[[McCarthyism]]'' was a myth, and that the accusation of McCarthyism was used as an [[ad hominem]] argument to discredit anti-Communists). In 1947, during the [[Red Scare]], Rand testified as a "friendly witness" before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]] (see [[http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/texts/huac.html]]). Rand's testimony involved analysis of the 1943 film ''[[Song of Russia]]''. While many believe that Ayn Rand disclosed the names of members of the Communist Party in the U.S., thus exposing them to [[blacklisting]], her testimony consisted entirely of comments regarding the disparity between her experiences in the [[Soviet Union]] and the fanciful portrayal of it in the film. Rand argued that the movie grossly misrepresented the socioeconomic conditions in the Soviet Union. She told the committee that the film presented life in the USSR as being much better than it actually was. Apparently this 1943 film was intentional wartime [[propaganda]] by U.S. patriots, trying to put their Soviet allies in [[World War II]] under the best possible light. After the HUAC hearings, when Ayn Rand was asked about her feelings on the effectiveness of their investigations, she described the process as "futile". ==Legacy== Rand's funeral was attended by some of her prominent followers, including [[Alan Greenspan]]. A six-foot floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket. [http://www.eckerd.edu/aspec/writers/atlas_shrugged.htm] In 1985, [[Leonard Peikoff]], a surviving member of "[[The Ayn Rand Collective|The Collective]]" and Ayn Rand's designated heir, established "The [[Ayn Rand Institute]]: The Center for the Advancement of Objectivism" (ARI). The Institute has since registered the name ''Ayn Rand'' as a trademark, despite Rand's desire that her name never be used to promote the philosophy she developed. Rand expressed her wish to keep her name and the philosophy of Objectivism separate to ensure the survival of her ideas. Another schism in the movement occurred in 1989, when Objectivist [[David Kelley]] wrote "A Question of Sanction," [http://www.wetheliving.com/boston/sanction.html] in which he defended his choice to speak to non-Objectivist [[Libertarianism|libertarian]] groups. Kelley stated that Objectivism was not a "closed system" and should engage with other philosophies. Peikoff, in an article for ''[[The Intellectual Activist]]'' called "Fact and Value" [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_f-v], argued that Objectivism is, indeed, a closed system, and that truth and moral goodness are directly related. Peikoff expelled Kelley from his movement, whereupon Kelley founded The Institute for Objectivist Studies (now known as "[[The Objectivist Center]]"). Rand and Objectivism are less well known outside [[North America]], although there are pockets of interest in [[Europe]] and [[Australia]], and her novels are reported to be popular in [[India]] ([http://www.theatlasphere.com/metablog/000058.php]) and to be gaining an increasingly wider audience in [[Africa]]. Her work has had little effect on academic philosophy, for her followers are, with some notable exceptions, drawn from the non-academic world. [[Neil Peart]], the drummer and lyricist with the Canadian progressive rock band [[Rush (band)|Rush]], was influenced by Rand philosophy during the early years of the band. The most notable instances of this are the track "Anthem" from the album ''[[Fly By Night]]'' ([[1975]]) and the title track from the album ''[[2112]]'' ([[1976]]). ==Controversy== Rand's views are controversial. Religious and socially conservative thinkers have criticized her atheism. Many adherents and practitioners of [[continental philosophy]] criticize her celebration of rationality and self-interest. Within the dominant philosophical movement in the English-speaking world, [[analytic philosophy]], Rand's work has been mostly ignored. No leading research university in this tradition considers Rand or Objectivism to be an important philosophical specialty or research area, as is documented by [[Brian Leiter]]'s report [http://www.philosophicalgourmet.com/]. Some academics, however, are trying to bring Rand's work into the mainstream. For instance, the [http://www.aynrandsociety.org/ Ayn Rand Society], founded in 1987, is affiliated with the [[American Philosophical Association]]. In 2006, [[Cambridge University Press]] will publish a volume on Rand's ethical theory written by ARI-affiliated scholar [[Tara Smith]]. A notable exception to the general lack of attention paid to Rand is the essay "On the Randian Argument" by [[Harvard University]] philosopher [[Robert Nozick]], which appears in his collection ''Socratic Puzzles''. Nozick's own [[libertarian]] political conclusions are similar to Rand's, but his essay criticizes her foundational argument in ethics, which claims that one's own life is, for each individual, the only ultimate value because it makes all other values possible. To make this argument sound, Nozick argues that Rand still needs to explain why someone could not rationally prefer the state of eventually dying and having no values. Thus, he argues, her attempt to deduce the morality of selfishness is essentially an instance of assuming the conclusion or [[begging the question]] and that her solution to [[David Hume]]'s famous [[is-ought problem]] is unsatisfactory. Nevertheless, Nozick respected Rand as an author and noted that he found her books enjoyable and thought-provoking. Rand has sometimes been viewed with suspicion for her practice of presenting her philosophy in fiction and non-fiction books aimed at a general audience rather than publishing in [[peer-review]]ed journals. Rand's defenders note that she is part of a long tradition of authors who wrote philosophically rich fiction — including [[Dante]], [[John Milton]], [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], and [[Albert Camus]], and that other philosophers such as [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] presented their philosophies in both fictional and non-fictional forms. Other critics argue that Rand’s idealistic philosophy and her [[Romantic]] literary style are not applicable to the inhabited world. In particular, these critics claim that Rand's novels are made up of unrealistic and one-dimensional characters. They criticize the portrayal of the Objectivist heroes as incredibly intelligent, unencumbered by doubt, wealthy, and free of flaws, in contrast to the frequent portrayal of the antagonists as weak, pathetic, full of uncertainty, and lacking in imagination and talent. Defenders of Rand point out counterexamples to these criticisms: neither Eddie Willers nor Cherryl Taggart (both positive characters) is especially gifted or intelligent, but both are characters of dignity and respect; Leo Kovalensky suffers enormously due to his inability to cope with the brutality and banality of communism; Andrei Taganov dies after realizing his philosophical errors; Dominique Francon is initially bitterly unhappy because she believes evil is powerful; Hank Rearden is torn by inner emotional conflict brought on by a philosophical contradiction; and Dagny Taggart thinks that she alone is capable of saving the world. Two of her main protagonists, Howard Roark and John Galt, did not begin life wealthy. Though Rand believed that, under capitalism, valuable contributions will routinely be rewarded by wealth, she certainly did not think that wealth made a person virtuous. In fact, she presents many vicious bureaucrats and waspish elitists who use [[statism]] to accumulate money and power. Moreover, Hank Rearden is exploited because of his social naïveté. As for the purportedly weak and pathetic villains, Rand's defenders point out that Ellsworth Toohey is represented as being a great strategist and communicator from an early age, and Dr. Robert Stadler is a brilliant scientist. Rand herself replied to these literary criticisms (and in advance of much of them) with her essay "The Goal of My Writing" (1963). There, and in other essays collected in her book ''[[The Romantic Manifesto|The Romantic Manifesto: A Philosophy of Literature]]'' (2nd rev. ed. 1975), Rand makes it clear that her goal is to project her vision of an ideal man: not man as he is, but man as he might and ought to be. Rand's views on sex have also led to some controversy. According to her, "For a woman ''qua'' woman, the essence of femininity is hero-worship – the desire to look up to man." (1968) Some in the [[BDSM]] community see her work as relevant and supportive, particularly ''The Fountainhead'' [http://www.mistressmorgana.com/site04/read_rec.html]. Another source of controversy is Rand's view that homosexuality is "immoral" and "disgusting" [http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/homo/atlasphere.htm], as well as her support for the right of businesses to discriminate on the basis of homosexuality, such as in their hiring practices. Specifically, she stated that "there is a psychological immorality at the root of homosexuality" because "it involves psychological flaws, corruptions, errors, or unfortunate premises". On the topic of non-governmental discrimination, Rand's defenders argue that her support for its legality was motivated by holding property rights above civil or human rights (as she did not believe that human rights were distinct from property rights) so it did not constitute an endorsement of the morality of the prejudice itself. In support of this, they cite Rand's opposition to some prejudices &mdash; though not homophobia &mdash; on moral grounds, in essays like 'Racism' and 'Global Balkanization', while still arguing for the right of individuals and businesses to act on such prejudice without government intervention. [http://forum.objectivismonline.net/lofiversion/index.php/t2277.html]. ==Bibliography== ===Fiction=== * ''[[Night of January 16th]]'' (1934) * ''[[We The Living]]'' (1936) * ''[[Anthem (novel)|Anthem]]'' (1938) * ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' (1943) * ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'' (1957) ====Posthumous fiction==== * ''Three Plays'' (2005) ===Nonfiction=== * ''For the New Intellectual'' (1961) * ''The Virtue of Selfishness'' (with [[Nathaniel Branden]]) ([[1964]]) * ''[[Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal]]'' (with [[Nathaniel Branden]], [[Alan Greenspan]], and [[Robert Hessen]]) ([[1966]]) * ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'' (1967) * ''[[The Romantic Manifesto]]'' (1969) * ''The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution'' (1971) * ''Philosophy: Who Needs It'' (1982) ====Posthumous nonfiction==== * ''[[The Early Ayn Rand]]'' (edited and with commentary by [[Leonard Peikoff]]) ([[1984]]) * ''The Voice of Reason: Essays in Objectivist Thought'' (edited by [[Leonard Peikoff]]; additional essays by [[Leonard Peikoff]] and [[Peter Schwartz]]) ([[1989]]) * ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'' second edition (edited by [[Harry Binswanger]]; additional material by [[Leonard Peikoff]]) ([[1990]]) * ''Letters of Ayn Rand'' (edited by [[Michael S. Berliner]]) ([[1995]]) * ''Journals of Ayn Rand'' (edited by [[David Harriman]]) ([[1997]]) * ''Ayn Rand's Marginalia : Her Critical Comments on the Writings of over Twenty Authors'' (edited by [[Robert Mayhew]]) ([[1998]]) * ''The Ayn Rand Column: Written for the Los Angeles Times'' (edited by [[Peter Schwartz]]) ([[1998]]) * ''Russian Writings on Hollywood'' (edited by [[Michael S. Berliner]]) ([[1999]]) * ''Return of the Primitive: The Anti-Industrial Revolution'' (expanded edition of ''The New Left''; edited and with additional essays by [[Peter Schwartz]]) ([[1999]]) * ''The Art of Fiction'' (edited by [[Tore Boeckmann]]) ([[2000]]) * ''The Art of Nonfiction'' (edited by [[Robert Mayhew]]) ([[2001]]) * ''The Objectivism Research CD-ROM'' (collection of most of Rand's works in CD-ROM format) (2001) * ''Ayn Rand Answers'' (2005) ==References== In addition to Rand's own works (listed above), the following references discuss Rand's life and/or literary work. References that discuss her philosophy can be found in the [[bibliography of work on Objectivism]]. <div style="font-size: 90%"> * {{cite book | last = Baker | first = James T. | authorlink = James T. Baker | title = Ayn Rand | publisher = Twayne | location = Boston | year = 1987 | id = ISBN 0-8057-7497-1 }} * {{cite book | last = Branden | first = Barbara | authorlink = Barbara Branden | title = The Passion of Ayn Rand | publisher = Doubleday &amp; Company | location = Garden City, New York | year = 1986 | id = ISBN 0-385-19171-5 }} * {{cite book | last = Branden | first = Nathaniel | authorlink = Nathaniel Branden | title = My Years with Ayn Rand | publisher = Jossey Bass | location = San Francisco | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 0-7879-4513-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Branden | first = Nathaniel | authorlink = Nathaniel Branden | coauthors = [[Barbara Branden]] | title = Who Is Ayn Rand? | publisher = Random House | location = New York | year = 1962 }} * {{cite book | last = Britting | first = Jeff | authorlink = Jeff Britting | title = Ayn Rand | publisher = Overlook Duckworth | location = New York | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 1-58567-406-0 }} * {{cite book | last = Gladstein | first = Mimi Reisel | authorlink = Mimi Reisel Gladstein | title = The New Ayn Rand Companion | publisher = Greenwood Press | location = Westport, Connecticut | year = 1999 | id = ISBN 0-313-30321-5 }} * {{cite book | author = [[Mimi Reisel Gladstein|Gladstein, Mimi Reisel]] and [[Chris Matthew Sciabarra|Sciabarra, Chris Matthew]] (editors) | title = Feminist Interpretations of Ayn Rand | publisher = The Pennsylvania State University Press | location = University Park, Pennsylvania | year = 1999 | id = ISBN 0-271-01830-5 }} * {{cite book | last = Hamel | first = Virginia L.L. | authorlink = Virginia L.L. Hamel | title = In Defense of Ayn Rand | publisher = New Beacon | location = Brookline, Massachusetts | year = 1990 }} * {{cite book | last = Mayhew | first = Robert | authorlink = Robert Mayhew | title = Ayn Rand and Song of Russia | publisher = Rowman &amp; Littlefield | location = Lanham, Maryland | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0-8108-5276-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Mayhew | first = Robert | authorlink = Robert Mayhew | title = Essays on Ayn Rand's Anthem | publisher = Rowman &amp; Littlefield | location = Lanham, Maryland | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0-7391-1031-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Mayhew | first = Robert | authorlink = Robert Mayhew | title = Essays on Ayn Rand's We the Living | publisher = Rowman &amp; Littlefield | location = Lanham, Maryland | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0-7391-0698-8 }} * {{cite book | last = Paxton | first = Michael | authorlink = Michael Paxton | title = Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life (The Companion Book) | publisher = Gibbs Smith | location = Layton, Utah | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 0-87905-845-5 }} * {{cite journal | last = Peikoff | first = Leonard | authorlink = Leonard Peikoff | title = My Thirty Years with Ayn Rand: An Intellectual Memoir | journal = The Objectivist Forum | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | year = 1987 | pages = 1–16 }} * {{cite book | last = Rothbard | first = Murray N. | authorlink = Murray N. Rothbard | title = The Sociology of the Ayn Rand Cult | url = http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard23.html | publisher = Liberty | location = Port Townsend, Washington | year = 1987 }} * {{cite book | last = Sures | first = Mary Ann | authorlink = Mary Ann Sures | coauthors = [[Charles Sures]] | title = Facets of Ayn Rand | publisher = Ayn Rand Institute Press | location = Los Angeles | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 0-9625336-5-3 }} * {{cite book | last = Sciabarra | first = Chris Matthew | authorlink = Chris Matthew Sciabarra | title = Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical | location = University Park, Pennsylvania | publisher = The Pennsylvania State University Press | year = 1995 | id = ISBN 0-271-01440-7 }} * {{cite journal | last = Sciabarra | first = Chris Matthew | authorlink = Chris Matthew Sciabarra | title = The Rand Transcript | url = http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/randt2.htm | journal = The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | year = 1999 | pages = 1–26 }} * {{cite journal | last = Shermer | first = Michael | authorlink = Michael Shermer | url = http://www.2think.org/02_2_she.shtml | title = The Unlikeliest Cult In History | journal = Skeptic | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | year = 1993 | pages = 74–81 }} * {{cite book | author = [[William Thomas|Thomas, William]] (editor) | title = The Literary Art of Ayn Rand | location = Poughkeepsie, New York | publisher = The Objectivist Center | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 1-577240-70-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Tuccile | first = Jerome | authorlink = Jerome Tuccille | title = It Usually Begins with Ayn Rand | location = New York | publisher = Fox & Wilkes | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 0930073258 }} * {{cite book | last = Valliant | first = James S. | authorlink = James S. Valliant | title = The Passion of Ayn Rand's Critics | location = Dallas | publisher = Durban House | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 1-930654-67-1 }} * {{cite book | last = Walker | first = Jeff | authorlink = Jeff Walker | title = The Ayn Rand Cult | location = Chicago | publisher = Open Court | year = 1999 | id = ISBN 0-8126-9390-6 }} </div> ==External links== {{Philosophy portal}} {{sisterlinks|Ayn Rand}} '''General information''' * [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/bio/biofaq.html Ayn Rand FAQ] * [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=about_ayn_rand_faq_index2 Frequently Asked Questions on Ayn Rand] * [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/r/rand.htm "Ayn Rand" entry from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy] '''Organizations promoting Ayn Rand's philosophy''' * [http://www.aynrand.org/ The Ayn Rand Institute] * [http://www.ariwatch.com/ ARI Watch] &mdash; Argues that some positions of the Ayn Rand Institute differ from those of Ayn Rand. <!-- Note that this link is routinely removed as an act of vandalism. It will be routinely reverted, until the vandals give up. If you disagree, take it to Talk. --> * [http://www.objectivistcenter.org/ The Objectivist Center] * [http://www.capitalismcenter.org/ The Center for the Advancement of Capitalism] '''Articles''' * [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v27/n23/turn03_.html ''As Astonishing as Elvis'' by Jenny Turner] &mdash; Essay review of ''Ayn Rand'' by Jeff Britting * [http://www.starshipaurora.com/aynrand100.html Ayn Rand 100 Tribute] &mdash; includes reference to a tribute album, "Concerto of Deliverance", inspired by Rand's words describing such music. * [http://chronicle.com/colloquy/99/rand/background.htm ''Ayn Rand Has Finally Caught the Attention of Scholars''] by Jeff Sharlet * [http://www.jeffcomp.com/faq/index.html FAQ - What's REALLY Wrong With Objectivism?] * [http://www.mclemee.com/id39.html ''The Heirs of Ayn Rand'' by Scott McLemee] &mdash; An article published in [[Lingua Franca]] which covers the arc of her publishing career, while alive and posthomous, as well as the continuing scholarship. * [http://www.americanwriters.org/writers/rand.asp Rand featured on C-Span's "American Writers"] &mdash; RealVideo discussions on Rand's writing '''Articles critical of Ayn Rand''' * [http://world.std.com/~mhuben/critobj.html Criticisms of Objectivism (or Ayn Rand)] &mdash; from of the Critiques of Libertarianism site * [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/critics/ Criticisms of Objectivism] &mdash; from the Objectivism Reference Center site * [http://www.johannhari.com/archive/article.php?id=756 "Don't give to tsunami victims - the message of the American right's philosopher-queen"] &mdash; A critical profile from the London Independent * [http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard23.html ''The Sociology of the Ayn Rand Cult'' by Murray Rothbard] &mdash; written in 1972, this was the first piece of Rand revisionism from the [[libertarian]] standpoint. * [http://www.2think.org/02_2_she.shtml "The Unlikeliest Cult in History" by Michael Shermer] {{see also|Bibliography of work on Objectivism}} '''Rand's associates''' * [http://www.barbarabranden.com/ Barbara Branden's website] * [http://www.nathanielbranden.com/ Nathaniel Branden's website] * [http://www.leonardpeikoff.com/ Leonard Peikoff's website] '''Online groups and blogs''' * [http://www.theatlasphere.com/ The Atlasphere] &mdash; For admirers of Rand's novels, includes member directory, dating service, columns, and news * [http://www.theaynrandforum.com The Ayn Rand Forum] &mdash; Online forum for discussion of Ayn Rand and Objectivism. * [http://community.livejournal.com/aynrandforum Ayn Rand LiveJournal Community] &mdash; A large LiveJournal Community for Ayn Rand. * [http://www.capmag.com/shownews.asp Dollars & Crosses] &mdash; Commentary from a pro-capitalist perspective. * [http://www.DrHurd.com/ Dr. Michael J. Hurd, psychologist] &mdash; The Daily Dose of Reason: psychology, life coaching and comments on cultural/political topics from an Objectivist perspective &mdash; also, The Living Resources Newsletter and Dr. Hurd's publications * [http://forums.4aynrandfans.com The Forum for Ayn Rand Fans] * [http://www.hblist.com Harry Binswanger List] &mdash; E-mail-based discussion group * [http://www.aynrandstudies.com The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies] &mdash; Contains abstracts of articles, author bios, links to several articles, and submission guidelines. * [http://www.objectivism.net Objectivism.net] &mdash; Ayn Rand on CD-ROM, and links * [http://www.objectivismonline.net/ ObjectivismOnline.Net] &mdash; Contains [http://forum.objectivismonline.net/ forums], blogs, essays, chat room, and a [http://wiki.objectivismonline.net wiki on Objectivism] * [http://www.objectivistblogs.com Objectivist Blogs] &mdash; A list of Rand-influenced bloggers * [http://randex.org/ Randex] &mdash; Index of online media references to Ayn Rand and Objectivism * [http://www.solopassion.com Sense of Life Objectivists] &mdash; Online columns and discussion, by and for Objectivists - hosted by Lindsay Perigo * [http://www.TIADaily.com/ TIA Daily] &mdash; Daily news and commentary from the Objectivist perspective by e-mail '''Imagery''' * [http://www.yoyita.com/Ayn_Rand.html Portrait of Ayn Rand] '''Rand's writing and speeches''' * [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/texts/anthem/complete.html ''Anthem''] &mdash; The complete text of the novel, which has fallen into the public domain * [http://www.ayn-rand.com/ayn-rand-atlas-shrugged.asp ''Atlas Shrugged'' ] &mdash; Book outline * [http://www.ayn-rand.com/ayn-rand-fountainhead.asp ''The Fountainhead''] &mdash; Book outline * [http://www.ayn-rand.com/ayn-rand-we-the-living.asp ''We The Living''] &mdash; Book outline * [http://www.tracyfineart.com/usmc/philosophy_who_needs_it.htm "Philosophy: Who Needs It?"] &mdash; Address To The Graduating Class Of The United States Military Academy at West Point, New York - March 6, 1974 * [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/texts/huac.html Rand's HUAC testimony] &mdash; Transcript * [http://www.libertyhaven.org/bookstore/B00004LC7UAMUS169912.shtml ''We the Living''] &mdash; Video outline * {{gutenberg author| id=Ayn+Rand | name=Ayn Rand}} * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/faidfrquery/r?faid/faidfr:@field(SOURCE+@band(rand+ayn)) Rand's papers at The Library of Congress] [[Category:1905 births|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:1982 deaths|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:20th century philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:American literary critics|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:American novelists|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:American philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Anti-communism|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Anti-Vietnam War|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Aristotelian philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Atheists|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Atheist philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Atheist thinkers and activists|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Cat lovers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Epistemologists|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Jewish American writers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Minarchists|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Moral philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Natives of Saint Petersburg|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Novelists|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Objectivists|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Political philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Political writers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Pro-choice celebrities|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Women writers|Rand, Ayn]] [[cs:Ayn Randová]] [[da:Ayn Rand]] [[de:Ayn Rand]] [[es:Ayn Rand]] [[fi:Ayn Rand]] [[fr:Ayn Rand]] [[he:איין ראנד]] [[hu:Ayn Rand]] [[is:Ayn Rand]] [[ja:アイン・ランド]] [[nl:Ayn Rand]] [[nn:Ayn Rand]] [[no:Ayn Rand]] [[pl:Ayn Rand]] [[pt:Ayn Rand]] [[sk:Ayn Randová]] [[sv:Ayn Rand]] [[zh:艾茵·兰德]] 340 41123331 2006-02-25T04:54:20Z 221.226.98.5 '''Alain Connes''' (born [[April 1]], [[1947]]) is a [[France|French]] [[mathematician]], currently Professor at the [[College de France]] ([[Paris]], [[France]]), [[IHES]] ([[Bures-sur-Yvette]], [[France]]) and [[Vanderbilt University]] ([[Nashville]], [[Tennessee]]). He is a specialist of [[Von Neumann algebra]]s and succeeded in completing the classification of [[factor]]s of these objects. Although his work in physics was not very convincing he tried to connect the planckian scales with what he called a "2-brane" Universe, model which was largely rejected by string theorists so far. The remarkable links between this subject, the tools he and others devised to tackle the problem and other subjects in [[theoretical physics]], [[particle physics]], and [[differential geometry]], made him emphasize [[Noncommutative geometry]] (which is also the title of his major book to date). He was awarded the [[Fields Medal]] in [[1982]], the [[Crafoord Prize]] in [[2001]] and the gold medal of the [[CNRS]] in 2004. ==See also== * [[cyclic homology]] * [[factor (functional analysis)]] * [[Higgs boson]] * [[C*-algebra]] * [[M Theory]] * [[Groupoid]] * [[Jean Louis Loday]] ==External links== * [http://www.alainconnes.org/ Alain Connes Official Web Site] * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Connes}} {{Fields medalists}} [[Category:1947 births|Connes, Alain]] [[Category:Living people|Connes, Alain]] [[Category:French mathematicians|Connes, Alain]] [[Category:Alumni of the École Normale Supérieure|Connes, Alain]] [[Category:Members and associates of the US National Academy of Sciences|Connes, Alain]] [[ar:ألان كن]] [[de:Alain Connes]] [[es:Alain Connes]] [[fr:Alain Connes]] [[ja:アラン・コンヌ]] [[ko:알랭 콘느]] [[pl:Alain Connes]] [[zh:阿兰·孔]] 341 15899076 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Applied statistics]] 343 15899077 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Arithmetic mean]] 344 40346482 2006-02-19T23:33:42Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 '''Allan Dwan''' ([[April 3]], [[1885 in film|1885]] &ndash; [[December 21]], [[1981 in film|1981]]) was a pioneering [[Canada|Canadian]]-born American [[film|motion picture]] [[film director|director]], producer and screenwriter. Born '''Joseph Aloysius Dwan''' in [[Toronto, Ontario]], [[Canada]], his family moved to the [[United States]] when he was eleven years of age. At university, he trained as an engineer and began working for a lighting company in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. However, he had a strong interest in the fledgling motion picture industry and when [[Essanay Studios]] offered him the opportunity to become a scriptwriter, he took the job. At that time, some of the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] movie makers began to spend winters in [[California]] where the climate allowed them to continue productions requiring warm weather. Soon, a number of movie companies worked there year-round and, in [[1911]], Dwan began working part time in [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]]. While still in New York, in [[1917 in film|1917]] he was the founding president of the East Coast chapter of the [[Motion Picture Directors Association]]. Allan Dwan became a true innovator in the motion picture industry. After making a series of westerns and comedies, he directed fellow Canadian, [[Mary Pickford]] in several very successful movies as well as her husband, [[Douglas Fairbanks]], notably in the acclaimed [[1922 in film|1922]] ''[[Robin Hood]]''. Following the introduction of the [[sound film|talkies]], in [[1937 in film|1937]] he directed child-star [[Shirley Temple]] in ''[[Heidi]]'' and ''Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm'' the following year. Over his long and successful career spanning over fifty years, he directed over 400 motion pictures, many of them highly acclaimed, such as the [[1949 in film|1949]] box office smash, ''[[The Sands of Iwo Jima]]''. His last movie was in [[1961]]. Dwan is one of the directors who spanned the silent to sound era. Most of the silent movies he directed are lost due to poor preservation. Little historical writing has been devoted to Dwan, but some believe that he will be the last "discovered" great director from the [[Classic Hollywood Era]]. He died in Los Angeles at the age of ninety-six, and is interred in the [[San Fernando Mission Cemetery]], [[Mission Hills, California]]. Allan Dwan has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 6263 Hollywood Boulevard in [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]]. ==Selected films== As director: *''[[Manhattan Madness]]'' (1916) *''[[Fairbanks Fine Arts]]'' (1916) *''[[Fairbanks Fragments]]'' (1916-1918) also screenwriter *''[[Robin Hood (1922 film)|Robin Hood]]'' (1922) *''The Iron Mask'' (1929) *''[[Heidi]]'' (1937) *''[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm/The Little Colonel]]'' (1938) *''Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm'' (1938) *''[[The Three Musketeers (film)|The Three Musketeers]]'' (1939) *''The Gorilla'' (1939) *''[[Young People]]'' (1940) *''[[Look Who's Laughing]]'' (1941) also producer *''[[Friendly Enemies]]'' (1942) *''Around the World'' (1943) also producer *''[[Up in Mabel's Room]]'' (1944) *''[[Abroad With Two Yanks]]'' (1944) *''[[Getting Gertie's Garter]]'' (1945) also screenwriter *''[[Brewster's Millions]]'' (1945) *''Driftwood'' (1947) *''Calendar Girl'' (1947) *''[[Northwest Outpost]]'' (1947) also associate producer *''[[Sands of Iwo Jima]]'' (1949) *''[[Montana Belle]]'' (1952) *''[[Silver Lode (1954 film)|Silver Lode]]'' (1954) *''[[Passion (1954 movie)|Passion]]'' (1954) *''[[Cattle Queen of Montana]]'' (1954) *''[[Tennessee's Partner]]'' (1955) *''[[Pearl of the South Pacific]]'' (1955) *''[[Escape to Burma]]'' (1955) *''[[Slightly Scarlet]]'' (1956) *''[[The Restless Breed]]'' (1957) *''[[Enchanted Island]]'' (1958) See also: [[Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood]] ==External links== *{{imdb name|id=0245385|name= Allan Dwan}} [[Category:1885 births|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:1981 deaths|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:Roman Catholics|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:American film directors|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:American film producers|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:American screenwriters|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:Ontario writers|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:Torontonians|Dwan, Allan]] [[de:Allan Dwan]] 345 15899079 2004-03-15T17:30:39Z Anthony DiPierro 34793 #REDIRECT [[History of Algeria]] 346 15899080 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z 128.227.230.147 * #REDIRECT [[Geography of Algeria]] 347 15899081 2002-08-20T15:34:45Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Algeria]] 348 15899082 2002-08-22T22:05:03Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 more removals #REDIRECT [[Politics of Algeria]] 349 40484200 2006-02-20T22:28:44Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 {{update}} {{cleanup-date|December 2005}} {{Economy of Algeria table}} In the '''economy of Algeria''' the [[hydrocarbons]] sector is the backbone, accounting for roughly 52% of budget revenues, 25% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], and over 95% of export earnings. [[Algeria]] has the fifth-largest reserves of [[natural gas]] in the world and is the second largest gas exporter; it ranks fourteenth for oil reserves. Algiers' efforts to reform one of the most centrally planned economies in the Arab world stalled in [[1992]] as the country became embroiled in political turmoil. Burdened with a heavy foreign debt, Algiers concluded a one-year standby arrangement with the [[International Monetary Fund]] in April [[1994]] and the following year signed onto a three-year extended fund facility which ended [[30 April]], [[1998]]. Some progress on economic reform, [[Paris Club]] [[debt rescheduling]]s in [[1995]] and [[1996]], and oil and gas sector expansion contributed to a recovery in growth since 1995, reducing inflation to approximately 1% and narrowing the budget deficit. Algeria's economy has grown at about 4% annually since [[1999]]. The country's foreign debt has fallen from a high of $28 billion in [[1999]] to its current level of $24 billion. The spike in oil prices in [[1999]]-[[2000]] and the government's tight fiscal policy, as well as a large increase in the trade surplus and the near tripling of foreign exchange reserves has helped the country's finances. However, an ongoing drought, the after effects of the [[November 10]], [[2001]] floods and an uncertain oil market make prospects for [[2002]]-[[2003|03]] more problematic. The government pledges to continue its efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector. However, it has thus far had little success in reducing high unemployment, officially estimated at 30% and improving living standards. [[President Bouteflika]] has announced sweeping economic reforms, which, if implemented, will significantly restructure the economy. Still, the economy remains heavily dependent on volatile oil and gas revenues. The government has continued efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector, but has had little success in reducing high unemployment and improving living standards. Other priority areas include banking reform, improving the investment environment, and reducing government bureaucracy. The government has announced plans to sell off state enterprises: sales of a national cement factory and steel plant have been completed and other industries are up for offer. In 2001, Algeria signed an Association Agreement with the [[European Union]]; it has started accession negotiations for entry into the [[World Trade Organization]]. ===[[Agriculture]]=== Since Roman times Algeria has been noted for the fertility of its soil. About a quarter of the inhabitants are engaged in agricultural pursuits. More than 7,500,000 acres (30,000 km&sup2;) are devoted to the cultivation of [[cereal grain]]s. The Tell is the grain-growing land. During the time of [[France|French]] rule its productivity was increased substantially by the sinking of [[Artesian aquifer|artesian well]]s in districts which only required water to make them fertile. Of the crops raised, [[wheat]], [[barley]] and [[oat]]s are the principal cereals. A great variety of [[vegetable]]s and of [[fruit]]s, especially [[citrus]] products, is exported. A considerable amount of [[cotton]] was grown at the time of the [[United States]]' [[American Civil War|Civil War]], but the industry declined afterwards. In the early years of the 20th century efforts to extend the cultivation of the plant were renewed. A small amount of [[cotton]] is also grown in the southern oases. Large quantities of [[crin vegetal]] (vegetable horse-hair) an excellent fibre, are made from the leaves of the dwarf palm. The [[olive]] (both for its fruit and [[Petroleum]]) and [[tobacco]] are cultivated with great success. Algeria also exports [[fig]]s, [[date (fruit)|date]]s, [[esparto]] grass, and [[cork (material)|cork]]. ====Wine Production==== Throughout Algeria the soil favours the growth of vines. The country, in the words of an expert sent to report on the subject by the French government, :"can produce an infinite variety of wines suitable to every constitution and to every caprice of taste." The growing of vines was undertaken early by the colonists, but it was not until vineyards in [[France]] were attacked by [[phylloxera]] that the export of [[wine]] from Algeria became significant. In [[1883]], despite precautionary measures, Algerian [[vineyard]]s were also attacked but in the meantime the quality of their wines had been proved. In 1850 less than 2000 acres (8 km&sup2;) were devoted to the grape, but in 1878 this had increased to over 42,000 acres (170 km&sup2;), which yielded 7,436,000 gallons (28,000 m&sup3;) of wine. Despite bad seasons and ravages of insects, cultivation extended, and in 1895 the vineyards covered 300,000 acres (1,200 km&sup2;), the produce being 88,000,000 gallons (333,000 m&sup3;). The area of cultivation in 1905 exceeded 400,000 acres (1,600 km&sup2;), and in that year the amount of wine produced was 157,000,000 gallons (594,000 m&sup3;). By that time the limits of profitable production had been reached in many parts of the country. Practically the only foreign market for Algerian wine is France, which in 1905 imported about 110,000,000 gallons (416,000 m&sup3;). ===Fishing=== Fishing is a flourishing but minor industry. Fish caught are principally [[sardine]]s, [[bonito]], [[smelt]] and [[sprat]]s. Fresh fish are exported to [[France]], dried and preserved fish to [[Spain]] and [[Italy]]. Coral [[fishery|fisheries]] are found along the coast from [[Bona]] to [[Tunis]]. ===Minerals=== Algeria is rich in minerals; the country has many [[iron]], [[lead]] and [[zinc]], [[copper]], [[calamine]], [[antimony]] and [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] mines. The most productive are those of iron and zinc. Lignite is found in Algiers; immense [[phosphate]] beds were discovered near [[Tebessa]] in 1891, yielding 313,500 tons in 1905. Phosphate beds are also worked near [[Setif]], [[Guelma]] and [[Ain Beida]]. There are more than 300 quarries which produce, amongst other stones, [[onyx]] and beautiful white and red [[marble]]s. Algerian onyx from Ain Tekbalet was used by the Romans, and many ancient quarries have been found near [[Kleber]], some being certainly those from which the long-lost Numidian marbles were taken. [[Salt]] is collected on the margins of the chotts. ==Foreign trade== Under French administration the commerce of Algeria developed greatly: the total imports and exports at the time of the French occupation (1830) did not exceed £ 175,000. In 1850 the figures had reached £ 5,000,000; in 1868, £ 12,000,000; in 1880, £ 17,000,000; and in 1890, £ 20,000,000. From this point progress was slower and the figures varied considerably year by year. In 1905 the total value of the foreign trade was £ 24,500,000. About five-sixths of the trade is with or via France, into which country several Algerian goods have been admitted duty-free since 1851, and all since 1867. French goods, except [[sugar]], have been admitted into Algeria without payment of duty since 1835. After the increase, in 1892, of the French minimum tariff, which applied to Algeria also, foreign trade greatly diminished. By far Algeria's most significant exports, financially, are [[petroleum]] and [[natural gas]]. The reserves are mostly in the Eastern [[Sahara]]; the Algerian government curbed the exports in the 1980s to slow depletion; exports increased again somewhat in the [[1990|1990s]]. Other significant exports are [[domestic sheep|sheep]], [[ox]]en, and [[horse]]s; animal products, such as [[wool]] and skins; [[wine]], cereals ([[rye]], [[barley]], [[oat]]s), [[vegetable]]s, [[fruit]]s (chiefly [[fig]]s and [[grape]]s for the table) and [[seed]]s, [[esparto]] grass, oils and vegetable extracts (chiefly [[olive oil]]), [[iron]] ore, [[zinc]], natural [[phosphate]]s, [[timber]], [[Cork (material)|cork]], [[crin vegetal]] and [[tobacco]]. The import of [[wool]] exceeds the export. [[Sugar]], [[coffee]], machinery, metal work of all kinds, clothing and pottery are largely imported. Of these by far the greater part comes from France. The [[United Kingdom|British]] imports consist chiefly of [[coal]], cotton fabrics and machinery. ===Exports=== Algeria trades most extensively with France and [[Italy]], in terms of both imports and exports, but also trades with the United States and [[Spain]]. ===Statistics=== ==Reference== *[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ag.html CIA World Factbook] :''See also :'' [[Algeria]] {{OPEC}} [[Category:Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries|Alegeria]] [[Category:Economies by country|Algeria]] [[Category:Economy of Algeria| ]] [[Category:African Union member economies|Algeria]] [[fr:Économie de l'Algérie]] [[pt:Economia da Argélia]] [[ru:Экономика Алжира]] 350 15899084 2002-06-16T16:23:09Z Danny 584 * #REDIRECT [[Communications in Algeria]] 351 39213634 2006-02-11T15:33:09Z Eskimbot 477460 Robot: Fixing double redirect #REDIRECT [[Transport in Algeria]] 352 15899086 2005-03-27T03:27:25Z Srs 209316 #REDIRECT [[Military of Algeria]] 353 15899087 2002-06-16T16:27:14Z Danny 584 * #REDIRECT [[Transnational issues of Algeria]] 356 15899089 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z 128.227.230.147 * #REDIRECT [[Archeology of Algeria]] 357 15899090 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[History of Algeria]] :''See also :'' [[Algeria]] 358 edit=sysop:move=sysop 40426750 2006-02-20T13:34:27Z Splash 285145 do not use semi in an editorial dispute, even if one side is anons, per [[WP:SEMI]] {{protected}} {{Infobox_Country| native_name = الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية<br>Al-Jumhūrīyah al-Jazā’irīyah<br>ad-Dīmuqrāţīyah ash-Sha’bīyah| common_name = Algeria | image_flag = Flag of Algeria.svg | image_coat = Algeria coa.png | image_map = LocationAlgeria.png | national_motto = (translation): The Revolution by the people and for the people | national_anthem = ''[[Kassaman|Kassaman <small>(Qasaman Bin-Nāzilāt Il-Māḥiqāt)]]''<br>(<small>[[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ''[[Kassaman|We Swear By The Lightning That Destroys]]'') | official_languages = [[Arabic language|Arabic]] | capital = [[Algiers]] | latd=36|latm=42|latNS=N|longd=3|longm=13|longEW=E| largest_city = [[Algiers]] | government_type= Democratic [[Republic]] | leader_titles = [[President of Algeria|President]]<br>[[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]] | leader_names = [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]]<br>[[Ahmed Ouyahia]] | area_rank = 11th | area_magnitude = 1 E12 | area = 2,381,740 | percent_water = negligible | population_estimate = 32,531,853 | population_estimate_year = 2005 | population_estimate_rank = 36th | population_census= | population_census_year= | population_density = 13 | population_density_rank= 168th| GDP_PPP_year= 2004 | GDP_PPP = $217,224,000,000 | GDP_PPP_rank = 38th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $6,799 | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 85th | HDI_year = 2003 | HDI = 0.722 | HDI_rank = 103rd | HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font> | sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]| established_events = Declared | established_dates = From [[France]]<br>[[July 5]], [[1962]] | currency = [[Algerian dinar]] | currency_code = DA | time_zone= [[Central European Time|CET]] | utc_offset= +1 | time_zone_DST= [[Central European Time|CET]] | utc_offset_DST= +1 does not observe | cctld= [[.dz]] | calling_code = 213 | footnotes = }} The '''People's Democratic Republic of Algeria''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية''') , or '''Algeria''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''الجزائر'''), is a presidential state in [[north Africa]], and the second largest country on the [[Africa]]n continent, [[Sudan]] being the largest. It is bordered by [[Tunisia]] in the northeast, [[Libya]] in the east, [[Niger]] in the southeast, [[Mali]] and [[Mauritania]] in the southwest, and [[Morocco]] as well as a few kilometers of its annexed territory, [[Western Sahara]], in the west. [[Constitution of Algeria|Constitutionally]], it is defined as an [[Islam]]ic, [[Arab]], and [[Amazigh]] (Berber) country. The name Algeria is derived from the name of the city of [[Algiers]], from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''al-jazā’ir'', which translates as ''the islands'', referring to the four islands which lay off that city's coast until becoming part of the mainland in 1525. ==History== {{main|History of Algeria}} Algeria has been inhabited by [[Berber]]s (or Amazigh) since at least [[10,000 BC]]. From [[1000 BC]] on, the [[Carthage|Carthaginians]] became an influence on them, establishing settlements along the coast. Berber kingdoms began to emerge, most notably [[Numidia]], and seized the opportunity offered by the Punic Wars to become independent of Carthage, only to be taken over soon after by the [[Roman Republic]] in 200 BC. As the western [[Roman Empire]] collapsed, the Berbers became independent again in much of the area, while the [[Vandals]] took over parts until later expelled by the generals of the [[Byzantine Emperor]], [[Justinian I]]. The [[Byzantine Empire]] then retained a precarious grip on the east of the country until the coming of the [[Arab]]s in the [[8th century]]. [[Image:Roman Arch of Trajan at Thamugadi (Timgad), Algeria 04966r.jpg|thumb|left|Roman arch of Trajan at Thamugadi (Timgad), Algeria]] After some decades of fierce resistance under leaders such as [[Kusayla]] and [[Kahina]], the Berbers adopted [[Islam]] ''en masse'', but almost immediately expelled the [[Caliphate]] from Algeria, establishing an [[Ibadi]] state under the [[Rustamid]]s. Having converted the [[Kutama]] of [[Kabylie]] to its cause, the [[Shia]] [[Fatimid]]s overthrew the Rustamids, and conquered Egypt. They left Algeria and Tunisia to their [[Zirid]] vassals; when the latter rebelled and adopted [[Sunni]]sm, they sent in a populous [[Arab]] tribe, the [[Banu Hilal]], to weaken them, thus incidentally initiating the [[Arabization]] of the countryside. The [[Almoravid]]s and [[Almohad]]s, Berber dynasties from the west founded by religious reformers, brought a period of relative peace and development; however, with the Almohads' collapse, Algeria became a battleground for their three [[successor state]]s, the Algerian [[Zayyanid]]s, Tunisian [[Hafsid]]s, and Moroccan [[Merinid]]s. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, [[Spain]] started attacking and taking over many coastal cities, prompting some to seek help from the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Algeria was brought into the Ottoman Empire by [[Khair ad Din|Khair ad-Din]] and his brother [[Aruj]], who established Algeria's modern boundaries in the north and made its coast a base for the [[Privateer|corsairs]]; their privateering peaked in Algiers in the 1600s. Piracy on American vessels in the Mediterranean resulted in the [[First Barbary War|First]] and [[Second Barbary War]] with the [[United States]]. On the pretext of a slight to their consul, the [[France|French]] invaded Algiers in 1830; however, intense resistance from such personalities as [[Emir Abdelkader]], [[Ahmed Bey]] and [[Lalla Fatma N'Soumer|Fatma N'Soumer]] made for a slow conquest of Algeria, not technically completed until the early 1900s when the last [[Tuareg]] were conquered. [[Image:Constantine Algerien 002.jpg|thumb|left|Constantine, Algeria 1840]] Meanwhile, however, the French suppressed slavery and made Algeria an integral part of France, a status that would end only with the collapse of the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]]. Tens of thousands of settlers from France, Italy, Spain, and Malta moved in to farm the Algerian coastal plain and occupy the most prized parts of Algeria's cities, benefiting from the French government's confiscation of communally held land. People of European descent in Algeria (the so-called ''[[pied-noir|pieds-noirs]]''), as well as the native Algerian Jews, were full French citizens starting from the end of the 19th century; by contrast, the vast majority of Muslim Algerians (even veterans of the French army) remained outside of French law, possessing neither French citizenship nor the right to vote. Algeria's social fabric was stretched to breaking point during this period: literacy dropped massively, while land confiscation uprooted much of the population. In 1954, the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|National Liberation Front]] (FLN) launched the [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] [[Algerian War of Independence]]; after nearly a decade of urban and rural warfare, they succeeded in pushing France out in 1962. Most of the 1,025,000 ''[[pied-noir|pieds-noirs]]'', as well as 91,000 ''[[harki]]s'' (pro-French Muslim Algerians serving in the French Army), together forming about 10% of the population of Algeria in 1962, fled Algeria for France in just a few months in the middle of that year. [[Image:TheBattleofAlgiers.png|thumb|right|''[[The Battle of Algiers]]'' is a movie about the [[Algerian War of Independence]].]] Algeria's first president, the FLN leader [[Ahmed Ben Bella]], was overthrown by his former ally and defense minister, [[Houari Boumédiènne]] in 1965. Under Ben Bella the government had already become increasingly socialist and dictatorial, and this trend continued throughout Boumedienne's government; however, Boumedienne relied much more heavily on the army, and reduced the sole legal party to a merely symbolic role. Agriculture was collectivised, and a massive industrialization drive launched. Oil extraction facilities were nationalized and this increased the state's wealth, especially after the 1973 oil crisis, but the Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil, bringing hardship when the price collapsed in the 1980s. In foreign policy Algeria was a member and leader of the 'non-aligned' nations. A dispute with Morocco over the [[Western Sahara]] nearly led to war. Dissent was rarely tolerated, and the state's control over the media and the outlawing of political parties other than the FLN was cemented in the repressive constitution of 1976. Boumédienne died in 1978, but the rule of his successor, [[Chadli Bendjedid]], was little more open. The state took on a strongly bureaucratic character and corruption was widespread. The modernization drive brought considerable demographic changes to Algeria. Village traditions underwent significant change as urbanization increased, new industries emerged, agriculture was substantially reduced, and education, a rarity in colonial times, was extended nationwide, raising the literacy rate from less than 10% to over 60%. Improvements in healthcare led to a dramatic increase in the birthrate (7-8 children per mother) which had two consequences: a very youthful population, and a housing crisis. The new generation struggled to relate to the cultural obsession with the war years and two conflicting protest movements developed: left-wingers, including Berber identity movements, and Islamic 'intégristes'. Both protested against one-party rule but also clashed with each other in universities and on the streets during the 1980s. Mass protests from both camps in autumn 1988 forced Benjedid to concede the end of one-party rule, and elections were announced for 1991. In December 1991, the [[Islamic Salvation Front]] won the [[Algerian National Assembly elections, 1991|first round]] of the country's first multiparty elections. The military then canceled the second round, forced then-president Bendjedid to resign, and banned the Islamic Salvation Front. The ensuing conflict engulfed Algeria in the violent [[Algerian Civil War]]. More than 100,000 people were killed, often in unprovoked massacres of civilians. The question of who was responsible for these massacres remains controversial among academic observers; many were claimed by the [[Armed Islamic Group]]. After 1998, the war waned, and by 2002 the main guerrilla groups had either been destroyed or surrendered, taking advantage of an amnesty program, though sporadic fighting continued in some areas. Elections resumed in 1995, and in 1999, after a series of short-term leaders representing the military, [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]], the current president, was elected. The issue of Berber language and identity increased in significance, particularly after the extensive [[Kabyle]] protests of 2001 and the near-total boycott of local elections in [[Kabylie]]; the government responded with concessions including naming of [[Tamazight]] (Berber) as a national language and teaching it in schools. ==Politics== {{main|Politics of Algeria}} The head of state is the [[President of Algeria|President of the republic]], who is elected to a 5-year term, renewable once. Algeria has [[universal suffrage]]. The President is the head of the Council of Ministers and of the High Security Council. He appoints the [[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]] who is also the head of government. The Prime Minister appoints the Council of Ministers. The Algerian [[parliament]] is bicameral, consisting of a lower chamber, the National People's Assembly (APN), with 380 members and an upper chamber, the Council of Nation, with 144 members. The APN is elected every 5 years. Throughout the 1960's, Algeria supported many independence movements in sub-Saharan Africa, and was a leader in the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]. While it shares much of its history and cultural heritage with neighbouring [[Morocco]], the two countries have had somewhat hostile relations with each other since Algeria's independence. This is due to two reasons: Morocco's [[Greater Morocco|claim to portions of western Algeria]] (which led to the [[Sand war]] in 1963), and Algeria's support for the [[Polisario]], an armed group of [[Sahrawi]] [[refugee]]s seeking [[independence]] for the Moroccan-ruled [[Western Sahara]], which it hosts within its borders in the city of [[Tindouf]]. Tensions between Algeria and Morocco, as well as issues relating to the [[Algerian Civil War]], have put great obstacles in the way of tightening the [[Maghreb Arab Union]], nominally established in 1989 but with little practical weight, with its coastal neighbors. ==Provinces== {{main|Provinces of Algeria}} Algeria is divided into 48 ''[[Wilayah|wilayas]]'' ([[provinces]]):- {| |- | *<small>1</small> [[Adrar (Algerian province)|Adrar]] *<small>2</small> [[Aïn Defla]] *<small>3</small> [[Aïn Témouchent]] *<small>4</small> [[Algiers|Alger]] *<small>5</small> [[Annaba (province)|Annaba]] *<small>6</small> [[Batna (province)|Batna]] *<small>7</small> [[Béchar]] *<small>8</small> [[Béjaïa (province)|Béjaïa]] *<small>9</small> [[Biskra (province)|Biskra]] *<small>10</small> [[Blida]] *<small>11</small> [[Bordj Bou Arréridj (province)|Bordj Bou Arréridj]] *<small>12</small> [[Bouira]] *<small>13</small> [[Boumerdès]] *<small>14</small> [[Chlef]] *<small>15</small> [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] *<small>16</small> [[Djelfa (province)|Djelfa]] *<small>17</small> [[El Bayadh]] | *<small>18</small> [[El Oued (province)|El Oued]] *<small>19</small> [[El Tarf]] *<small>20</small> [[Ghardaïa]] *<small>21</small> [[Guelma]] *<small>22</small> [[Illizi]] *<small>23</small> [[Jijel]] *<small>24</small> [[Khenchela]] *<small>25</small> [[Laghouat]] *<small>26</small> [[Mila]] *<small>27</small> [[Mostaganem (province)|Mostaganem]] *<small>28</small> [[Medea]] *<small>29</small> [[Muaskar]] *<small>30</small> [[M'Sila]] *<small>31</small> [[Naama]] *<small>32</small> [[Oran]] *<small>33</small> [[Ouargla]] | *<small>34</small> [[Oum el-Bouaghi]] *<small>35</small> [[Relizane]] *<small>36</small> [[Saida (province)|Saida]] *<small>37</small> [[Sétif]] *<small>38</small> [[Sidi Bel Abbes]] *<small>39</small> [[Skikda]] *<small>40</small> [[Souk Ahras]] *<small>41</small> [[Tamanrasset]] *<small>42</small> [[Tébessa]] *<small>43</small> [[Tiaret]] *<small>44</small> [[Tindouf Province|Tindouf]] *<small>45</small> [[Tipaza]] *<small>46</small> [[Tissemsilt]] *<small>47</small> [[Tizi Ouzou]] *<small>48</small> [[Tlemcen]] | |[[Image:Algeria provinces.png|right|250px|Map of the provinces of [[Algeria]] in alphabetical order.]] |} ==Geography== {{main|Geography of Algeria}} [[Image:Algeria map.png|220px|right|Map of Algeria with cities]] [[Image:Hoggar3.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Ahaggar Mountains|Hoggar]] Mountains]] Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are few good harbours. The area just south of the coast, known as the [[Tell]], is fertile. Further south is the [[Atlas mountains|Atlas mountain]] range and the [[Sahara]] desert. [[Algiers]], [[Oran]] and [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] are the main cities. Algeria's [[climate]] is arid and hot, although the coastal climate is mild, and the winters in the mountainous areas can be severe. Algeria is prone to [[sirocco]], a hot dust- and sand-laden wind especially common in summer. ''See also'': [[Extreme points of Algeria]] ==Economy== {{main|Economy of Algeria}} [[Image:Unknown origin coin2.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Algerian coins]] The fossil fuels energy sector is the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the fifth-largest reserves of [[natural gas]] in the world and is the second largest gas exporter; it ranks 14th in [[Petroleum]] reserves. Algeria’s financial and economic indicators improved during the mid-1990s, in part because of policy reforms supported by the IMF and debt rescheduling from the [[Paris Club]]. Algeria’s finances in 2000 and 2001 benefited from an increase in oil prices and the government’s tight fiscal policy, leading to a large increase in the trade surplus, record highs in foreign exchange reserves, and reduction in foreign debt. The government's continued efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector has had little success in reducing high unemployment and improving living standards. In 2001, the government signed an Association Treaty with the [[European Union]] that will eventually lower tariffs and increase trade. ==Demographics== [[Image:Algiers coast.jpg|thumb|[[Algiers]] coast]] {{main|Demographics of Algeria}} About 90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the minority who inhabit the [[Sahara desert]] are mainly concentrated in [[oasis|oases]], although some 1.5 million remain [[nomad]]ic or partly nomadic. Ninety-nine percent of the population is classified ethnically as [[Arab]]/[[Berber]], and religiously as [[Muslim]]; other religions are restricted to extremely small groups, mainly of foreigners. Europeans account for less than 1%. Most Algerians are Arab by language and identity, and of mixed Berber-Arab ancestry. The Berbers inhabited Algeria before the arrival of Arab tribes during the expansion of Islam, in the 7th century. The issue of ethnicity and language is sensitive after many years of government marginalization of Berber (or [[Amazigh]], as some prefer) culture. Today, the Arab-Berber issue is often a case of self-identification or identification through language and culture, rather than a racial or ethnic distinction. The 20% or so of the population who self-identify as Berbers, and primarily speak Berber languages (such as [[Tamazight]]), are divided into several ethnic groups, notably [[Kabyle]] (the largest) in the mountainous north-central area, [[Chaoui]] in the eastern [[Atlas Mountains]], [[Mozabite]]s in the [[M'zab]] valley, and [[Tuareg]] in the far south. ==Language== {{main|Languages of Algeria}} The [[official language]] is [[Arabic language|Arabic]], spoken natively in dialectal form ("[[Algerian Arabic|Darja]]") by some 80% of the population; the other 20% or so speak [[Berber]] ([[Tamazight]]), officially a [[national language]]. [[French language|French]] is the most widely studied foreign language (distantly followed by [[English language|English]]), but is very rare as a [[native language]]. Since independence, the government has pursued a policy of linguistic [[Arabization]] of education and bureaucracy, with some success, although many university courses continue to be taught in French. ==Culture== [[Image:Algiers mosque.jpg|thumb|[[Mosque]] in Algiers]] {{main|Culture of Algeria}} Modern Algerian literature, split between Arabic and French, has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. [[List of Algerian writers|Famous novelists]] of the 20th century include [[Mohammed Dib]] and [[Kateb Yacine]], while [[Assia Djebar]] is widely translated. Important novelists of the 1980s included [[Rachid Mimouni]], later vice-president of Amnesty International, and [[Tahar Djaout]], murdered by an [[Islamist]] group in 1993 for his secularist views. As early as Roman times, [[Apuleius]], born in [[Mdaourouch]], was native to what would become Algeria. In philosophy and the humanities, [[Malek Bennabi]] and [[Frantz Fanon]] are noted for their thoughts on [[decolonization]], while [[Augustine of Hippo]] was born in [[Tagaste]] (about 60 miles from the present day city of [[Annaba]]), and [[Ibn Khaldun]], though born in [[Tunis]], wrote the [[Muqaddima]] while staying in Algeria. Algerian culture has been strongly influenced by [[Islam in Algeria|Islam]], the main religion. The works of the [[Sanusi]] family in precolonial times, and of Emir [[Abdelkader]] and Sheikh [[Ben Badis]] in colonial times, are widely noted. The [[Music of Algeria|Algerian musical]] genre best known abroad is [[raï]], a pop-flavored, opinionated take on folk music, featuring international stars such as [[Khaled (musician)|Khaled]] and [[Cheb Mami]]. However, in Algeria itself the older, highly verbal [[chaabi]] style remains more popular, with such stars as [[El Hadj El Anka]] or [[Dahmane El Harrachi]], while the tuneful melodies of [[Kabyle]] music, exemplified by [[Idir]], [[Ait Menguellet]], or [[Lounès Matoub]], have a wide audience. For more classical tastes, [[Andalusian classical music|Andalusi music]], brought from [[Al-Andalus]] by [[Morisco]] refugees, is preserved in many older coastal towns. In painting, [[Mohammed Khadda]] and [[M'hemed Issiakhem]] are notable in recent years. == Picture gallery == <gallery> Image:Houbel.JPG|''The Monument of the Martyrs Algiers'' Image:Algernuit.jpg|''Algiers by night'' Image:Finace.jpg|''Minister of the finances'' Image:Makam Echehid.jpg|''Algiers view by air'' Image:Benyen.JPG|''the Forest Bainem in Algeria at (Bouzareah)'' Image:Algierssnow.jpg|''Snow on Algiers'' Image:Church Saintcharlesalgiers.jpg|''The church Saint charles at Algiers'' Image:PE Algerie Sahara 0121.JPG|''Sahara of Algeria'' </gallery> == Miscellaneous topics == * [[Archeology of Algeria]] * [[Communications in Algeria]] * [[Foreign relations of Algeria]] * [[List of Algeria-related topics]] * [[List of cities in Algeria]] * [[List of Algerians]] * [[List of sovereign states]] * [[Military of Algeria]] * [[Transportation in Algeria|Transportation in Algeria]] * ''[[The Battle of Algiers]]'' movie * [[Algerian War of Independence]] (1954-1962) * [[Algerian Civil War]] (1991-2002) === Directories === *[http://www.pagesjaunes-dz.com/index.php?lang=en Yellow Pages of Algeria] ==External links== {{portal}} {{sisterlinks|Algeria}} '''Government''' *[http://www.el-mouradia.dz El Mouradia] official presidential site (in French and Arabic) *[http://www.apn-dz.org/apn/english/index.htm National People's Assembly] official parliamentary site *[http://www.algeria-us.org/ The Embassy of Algeria in Washington, DC] '''News''' *[http://allafrica.com/algeria/ allAfrica.com - ''Algeria''] news headline links *[http://www.elkhabar.com/FrEn/?idc=52 El Khabar] *[http://www.north-africa.com/one.htm The North Africa Journal] business news '''Overviews''' * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ag.html CIA World Factbook - ''Algeria''] * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/dztoc.html Library of Congress - Country Study: ''Algeria''] data as of December 1993 * [http://www.exile.ru/2003-February-20/war_nerd.html Algeria: The Psychos Will Inherit the Earth] - an irreverent look at Algeria's military situation '''Tourism''' *{{wikitravel}} '''Other''' * [http://www.algeria-watch.org/francais.htm Algeria Watch] human rights organization critical of widespread torture practiced by the régime (in French) * [http://www.opendemocracy.net/globalization-institutions_government/algeria_2874.jsp Algeria’s past needs opening, not closing] Analysis on the public referendum held [[29 September]] [[2005]] by Veerle Opgenhaffen and Hanny Megally *[http://algerie.el-annabi.com all City of Algéria] *[http://www.dicodialna.com Algerian-English Online Dictionary] {{Africa}} {{Mediterranean}} [[Category:African Union member states]] [[Category:Algeria| ]] [[Category:Arab League]] [[Category:Peace and Security Council]] [[af:Algerië]] [[am:አልጄሪያ]] [[an:Alcheria]] [[ar:الجزائر]] [[ast:Arxelia]] [[bn:আলজেরিয়া]] [[bs:Alžir]] [[ca:Algèria]] [[cs:Alžírsko]] [[cy:Algeria]] [[da:Algeriet]] [[de:Algerien]] [[el:Αλγερία]] [[eo:Alĝerio]] [[es:Argelia]] [[et:Alžeeria]] [[fa:الجزایر]] [[fi:Algeria]] [[fr:Algérie]] [[gl:Alxeria - الجزائر]] [[ha:Aljeriya]] [[haw:ʻAlekelia]] [[he:אלג'יריה]] [[hi:अल्जीरिया]] [[ht:Aljeri]] [[ia:Algeria]] [[id:Aljazair]] [[io:Aljeria]] [[is:Alsír]] [[it:Algeria]] [[ja:アルジェリア]] [[ko:알제리]] [[kw:Aljeri]] [[la:Algeria]] [[li:Algerieë]] [[lt:Alžyras]] [[lv:Alžīrija]] [[mk:Алжир]] [[ms:Algeria]] [[na:Algeria]] [[nds:Algerien]] [[nl:Algerije]] [[nn:Algerie]] [[no:Algerie]] [[pl:Algieria]] [[pt:Argélia]] [[rm:Algeria]] [[ro:Algeria]] [[ru:Алжир]] [[sa:अल्जीरिया]] [[scn:Algiria]] [[simple:Algeria]] [[sk:Alžírsko]] [[sl:Alžirija]] [[so:Aljeeriya]] [[sq:Algjeria]] [[sr:Алжир]] [[sv:Algeriet]] [[tg:Алҷазоир]] [[th:ประเทศแอลจีเรีย]] [[tl:Algeria]] [[tr:Cezayir]] [[ur:الجزائر]] [[wa:Aldjereye]] [[yi:אַלזשיר]] [[zh:阿尔及利亚]] [[zh-min-nan:Algeria]] 359 41302556 2006-02-26T11:34:49Z Bchampion 671891 Removed inccorect info about etymology of "mooch" see discussion '''Characters in [[Ayn Rand]]'s novel, [[Atlas Shrugged]].''' {{spoiler}} ==Balph Eubank== Called "the literary leader of the age", despite the fact that he is incapable of writing anything that people actually want to read. What people ''want'' to read, he says, is irrelevant. He complains that it is disgraceful that artists are treated as peddlers, and that there should be a law limiting the sales of books to ten thousand copies. He is a member of the ''Looters''. Balph Eubank appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==Ben Nealy== A railroad contractor whom ''Dagny Taggart'' hires to replace the track on the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] with [[Technology in Atlas Shrugged#Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]]. Nealy is incompetent, but Dagny can find no one better in all the country. Nealy believes that anything can get done with enough muscle power. He sees no role for intelligence in human achievement, and this is manifest in his inability to organize the project and to make decisions. He relies on Dagny and ''Ellis Wyatt'' to run things, and resents them for doing it, because it appears to him like they are just bossing people around. Ben Nealy appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==Bertram Scudder== Editorial writer for the magazine ''The Future''. He typically bashes business and businessmen, but he never says anything specific in his articles, relying on innuendo, sneers, and denunciation. He wrote a hatchet job on ''Hank Rearden'' called ''The Octopus''. He is also vocal in support of the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Equalization of Opportunity Bill|Equalization of Opportunity Bill]]. Bertram Scudder appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==Betty Pope== A wealthy socialite who is having a meaningless sexual affair with ''James Taggart'' that coincides with the overall meaninglessness of her life. She regrets having to wake up every morning because she has to face another empty day. She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position. Betty Pope appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 142 and 161. ==Brakeman== An unnamed employee working on the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Taggart Comet|Taggart Comet]] train. ''Dagny Taggart'' hears Brakeman whistling the theme of a concerto. When she asks him what piece it is from, he says it is [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Halley's Fifth Concerto|Halley's Fifth Concerto]]. When Dagny points out that ''Richard Halley'' only wrote four concertos, Brakeman claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece. Later, after Dagny instructs the train crew how to proceed, he asks a co-worker who she is, and learns she is the one who runs [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]]. It is later discovered that the unknown brakeman is one of the strikers, when Dagny meets him in the valley. Brakeman appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112 and 113. ==Cherryl Brooks== Dime store shopgirl who marries James Taggart after a chance encounter in her store the night the John Galt Line was deemed his greatest success. She marries him thinking he is the heroic person behind Taggart Transcontinental. She is horrible to Dagny until the night before she commits suicide, when she confesses to Dagny that she married Jim, thinking she was marrying Dagny. Like Eddie Willers, Cherryl is one representation of a "good" person who lacks the extraordinary capacities of the primary heroes of the novel. ==Claude Slagenhop== The president of political organization [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Friends of Global Progress]] (which is supported by ''Philip Rearden''), and one of ''Lillian Rearden's'' friends. He believes that ideas are just air, that this is no time for talk, but for action. He is not bothered by the fact that action unguided by ideas is random and pointless. Global Progress is a sponsor of the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Equalization of Opportunity Bill]]. Claude Slagenhop appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==Cuffy Meigs== A looter who's assigned by Wesley Mouch to keep watch over the workings of ''Taggart Transcontinental,'' and later assumes control over the company after Dagny Taggart leaves. He carries a pistol and a lucky rabbit's foot, he dresses in a military uniform. The "intellectual heir" of Dr. Robert Stadler, Meigs comes to a fitting end at the hands of ''Project X.'' ==Dagny Taggart== The main character in Atlas Shrugged (also the name of her namesake ''Mrs. Nathaniel Taggart''). Dagny is Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental. She is the female hero, the counterpart to John Galt, her journey is the journey of the reader exploring and understanding Galts philosophy. Those in the know understand that she is the one who really runs the railroad. In the course of the novel, she forms romantic liaisons with three men of ability. Francisco, Hank Rearden and John Galt in order. John is the one who, because of the sum-total of his qualities, will become the choice of Dagny. Dagny appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112, 113, 114, 132, 133, 141, 145, 146, 147, 148, 151, 152, and 161. ==Dan Conway== The middle-aged president of the [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Phoenix-Durango]] railroad. Running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows. When the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule]] is used to drive his business out of [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Colorado]], he loses the will to fight, and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing. He claims that somebody had to be sacrificed, it turned out to be him, and he has no right to complain, bowing to the will of the majority. When pressed he says he doesn't really believe this is right, but he can't understand why it is wrong and what the alternative might be. He is trapped by a moral code that makes him a willing victim, and rather than challenge that morality, he simply gives up. Dan Conway appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 145 and 146, and is mentioned in section 148. ==Dick McNamara== A contractor who finished the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|San Sebastian Line]] and who is hired to lay the new [[Technology in Atlas Shrugged|Rearden Metal]] track for the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]]. Before he gets a chance to do so, he mysteriously disappears. Dick McNamara is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 133 and 141. ==Eddie Willers== Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental. He grew up with ''Dagny Taggart''. His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and he followed in their footsteps. He is completely loyal to Dagny and to [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Taggart Transcontinental]]. He is also secretly in love with Dagny. Willers is generally assumed to represent the common man: someone who does not possess the promethian creative ability of The Strikers, but nevertheless matches them in moral courage and is capable of appreciating and making use of their creations. Eddie Willers appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 117, 132, 133, 141, 151, and 152. ==Ellis Wyatt== The head of [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Wyatt Oil]]. He has almost single-handedly revived the economy of [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Colorado]] by discovering oil there. Of all the disappearances of industrialists in the novel, Wyatt's, involving the fiery destruction of his oil wells, is surely the most dramatic. Ellis Wyatt is mentioned or appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 132, 146, 147, 148, and 152. ==Francisco d'Anconia== One of the central characters in [[Atlas Shrugged]]. By all accounts, he is a worthless millionaire playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|San Sebastian Mines]], and a childhood friend and first love of ''Dagny Taggart''. Francisco began working on the sly as a teenager in order to learn all he could about business. While still a student at [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Patrick Henry University]], he began working at a copper foundry, and investing in the stock market. By the time he was twenty he had made enough to purchase the foundry. He began working for [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|d'Anconia Copper]] as assistant superintendent of a mine in Montana, but was quickly promoted to head of the New York office. He took over d'Anconia Copper at age 23, after the death of his father. When he was 26, Francisco secretly joined the ''Strikers'' and began to slowly destroy the d'Anconia empire so the ''Looters'' could not get it. He adopted the persona of a worthless playboy, by which he is known to the world, as an effective cover. His full name is Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastian d'Anconia. ''According to [mailto:areed2@calstatela.edu Adam Reed] ([http://www.monmouth.com/~adamreed/Ayn_Rands_jewish_years/Who_is_Francisco_DAnconia.html Who is Francisco D'Anconia?]), d'Anconia is the only Hero-class character who is recognizably Jewish (not in the religious, but in the historical sense, like Ayn Rand herself).'' Francisco D'Anconia appears or is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 132, 141, 144, 151, and 152 - this last section includes a detailed history of his life. ==Hank Rearden== One of the central characters in [[Atlas Shrugged]]. He is the founder of [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Rearden Steel]] and the inventor of [[Technology in Atlas Shrugged|Rearden Metal]]. He lives in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Philadelphia]] with his wife ''Lillian'', his brother ''Philip'', and an elderly woman known only as ''Rearden's Mother'', all of whom he supports. [[Gwen Ives]] is his secretary. The character of Hank Rearden has two important roles to play in the novel. First, he is in the same position as the reader in that he is aware that there is something wrong with the world but is not sure what it is. Rearden is guided toward an understanding of the solution through his friendship with ''Francisco d'Anconia'', who does know the secret, and by this mechanism the reader is also prepared to understand the secret when it is revealed explicitly in [[Atlas Shrugged/Galts Speech|Galt's Speech]]. Second, Rearden is used to illustrate Rand's [[Concepts in Atlas Shrugged|theory of sex]]. ''Lillian Rearden'' cannot appreciate Hank Rearden's virtues, and she is portrayed as being disgusted by sex. ''Dagny Taggart'' clearly does appreciate Rearden's virtues, and this appreciation evolves into a sexual desire. Rearden is torn by a contradiction because he accepts the premises of the traditional view of sex as a lower instinct, while responding sexually to Dagny, who represents his highest values. Rearden struggles to resolve this internal conflict and in doing so illustrates Rand's sexual theory. Rearden appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121, 132, 147, and 161, and is mentioned in sections 114 and 131. ==Hugh Akston== Identified as "One of the last great advocates of reason." He was a renowned philosopher and the head of the Department of Philosophy at [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Patrick Henry University]], where he taught ''Francisco d'Anconia'', ''John Galt'', and ''Ragnar Danneskjöld''. He was, along with ''Robert Stadler'', a father figure to these three. Akston's name is so hallowed that a young lady, on hearing that Francisco had studied under him, is shocked. She thought he must have been one of those great names from an earlier century. Hugh Akston is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==James Taggart== The President of [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Taggart Transcontinental]] and a leader of the ''Looters''. Taggart is an expert influence peddler who is incapable of making decisions on his own. He relies on his sister ''Dagny Taggart'' to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor. In a sense, he is the antithesis of Dagny. As the novel progresses, the moral philosophy of the Looters is revealed: it is a code of [[nihilism]]. The goal of this code is to not exist, to become a zero. Taggart struggles to remain unaware that this is his goal. He maintains his pretence that he wants to live, and becomes horrified whenever his mind starts to grasp the truth about himself. This contradiction leads to the recurring absurdity of his life: the desire to destroy those on whom his life depends, and the horror that he will succeed at this. James Taggart appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131, 132, 143, 144, 152 and 161, and is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 146 and 148. ==John Galt== *The question "[[Who is John Galt?]]" is asked repeatedly throughout [[Atlas Shrugged]]. Late into the book we learn that '''John Galt''' is the man who stopped the motor of the world and the leader of the ''Strikers''. He is also the same character as the '''Mystery Worker'''. The son of an [[Ohio]] garage mechanic, Galt left home at age 12 and began college at [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]] at age 16. There he befriended [[#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and [[#Ragnar Danneskjöld|Ragnar Danneskjöld]], all three of whom double-majored in [[physics]] and [[philosophy]]. They were the cherished students of the brilliant scientist [[#Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler]] and the brilliant philosopher [[#Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]]. After graduating, Galt became an [[engineer]] at the [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Twentieth Century Motor Works]] where he designed a revolutionary new motor powered by ambient static electricity with the potential to change the world. Like [[#Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]], he has created what many had for years said was impossible. When the company owners decided to run the factory by the collectivist maxim, 'By each according to his ability, to each according to his need', Galt organized a successful [[labor strike]], proclaiming his promise to stop the motor of the world. He began traversing the globe, meeting the world's most successful businessmen, systematically convincing them to follow in his footsteps; one by one, they began abandoning their business empires (which, Galt convinced them, were doomed to failure anyhow, given the increased nationalization of industry by the government). Secretly, these captains of industry, led by Galt and [[banker]] [[#Midas Mulligan|Midas Mulligan]], had created their own society &mdash; a secret enclave of rational individualists living in "[[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Galt's Gulch|Galt's Gulch]]", a town secluded high in a wilderness of mountains. [[#Dagny Taggert|Dagny]] accidentally finds the town &mdash; and a shocked John Galt &mdash; by crash-landing a light [[aircraft]] while pursuing [[#Quentin Daniels|Quentin Daniels]]. Since everyone across the country is repeating the phrase, "Who is John Galt?", it is natural that many people have attempted to answer that question. The phrase becomes an expression of helplessness and despair at the current state of the world. ''Dagny Taggart'' hears a number of [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#John Galt Legends|John Galt Legends]] before finding the real John Galt and eventually joining his cause, and learning that all of the stories have an element of truth to them. :''There is a clothing store in [[Vail, Colorado]] called John Galt Ltd. One presumes that, on occasion, a customer unknowingly walks in and asks, "Who is John Galt?"'' ==Lillian Rearden== The wildly unsupportive wife of ''Hank Rearden''. They have been married eight years as the novel begins. Lillian is a frigid ''Moocher'' who seeks to destroy her husband. She compares being Rearden's wife with owning the world's most powerful horse. Since she cannot comfortably ride a horse that goes too fast, she must bridle it down to her level, even if that means it will never reach its full potential and its power will be greviously wasted. Lillian also serves to illustrate Rand's [[Concepts in Atlas Shrugged|Theory of sex]]. She believes sex is a base animal instinct and that sexual indulgence is a sign of moral weakness. She is incapable of feeling this kind of desire, which she believes testifies to her moral superiority. However, according to the theory of sex Lillian's lack of sexual capacity results from her inability to experience value in herself; she is therefore unable to respond sexually when she experiences value in others. Lillian tolerates sex with her husband only because she is 'realistic' enough to know he is just a brute who requires satisfaction of his brute instincts. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161 she indicates that she abhors ''Francisco d'Anconia'', because she believes he is a sexual adventurer. Lillian Rearden appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121 and 161. ==The Looters== A group of evil characters sometimes referred to as "James Taggart and his friends". They are similar to the Moochers. The Looters consist of men and women who use force to obtain value from those who produce it. They seek to destroy the producers despite the fact that they are dependent upon them. The Looters include: Mr. Thompson, Balph Eubank, Floyd Ferris, James Taggart, Orren Boyle, Paul Larkin, Robert Stadler, Simon Pritchett, Wesley Mouch, and Cuffy Miegs. ==Midas Mulligan== A wealthy banker who mysteriously disappears in protest after he is given a court order to loan money to an incompetent loan applicant. Midas Mulligan is responsible for the creation and distribution of the money that is exclusively used in Galt's Gulch, and is the original owner of the land where Galt's Gulch is located. He is also responsible for the production of the money used there. ==The Moochers== A group of characters, similar to the ''Looters'', who use guilt as a weapon against those who produce value. They seek to destroy the producers despite the fact that they are dependent upon them. The Moochers include ''Lillian Rearden'', ''Philip Rearden'', and Hank Rearden's ''mother''. ==Mort Liddy== A [[hack writer|hack]] composer who writes trite scores for movies and modern symphonies that no one listens to. He believes melody is a primitive vulgarity. He is one of ''Lillian Rearden's'' friends and a member of the cultural elite. Mort Liddy appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==Mr. Mowen== The president of the [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Amalgamated Switch and Signal Company, Inc.]] of Connecticut. He is a businessman who sees nothing wrong with the moral code that is destroying society and would never dream of saying he is in business for any reason other than the good of society. He is unable to grapple with abstract issues, and is frightened of anything controversial. Dagny Taggart hires Mr. Mowen to produce switches made of [[Technology in Atlas Shrugged|Rearden Metal]]. He is reluctant to build anything with this unproven technology, and has to be ridden and cajoled before he is willing to accept the contract. When pressured by public opinion, he discontinues production of the switches, forcing Dagny to find an alternative source. Mr. Mowen appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==Mystery Worker== A menial worker for [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Taggart Transcontinental]] who often dines with ''Eddie Willers'' in the employee's cafeteria. Eddie finds him very easy to talk to, and Mystery Worker not-so-subtly leads him on so that Eddie reveals important information about ''Dagny Taggart'' and Taggart Transcontinental. Eddie tells him which suppliers and contractors Dagny is most dependent on, and with remarkable consistency, those are the next men to disappear mysteriously. Mystery Worker is actually John Galt. Mystery Worker appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 133. ==The unnamed newsstand owner== He works in the Taggart Terminal. Twenty years ago he owned a cigarette factory but it went under, and he's been working at his newsstand ever since. He is a collector of cigarettes, and knows every brand ever made. He occasionally chats with ''Dagny Taggart'' when she comes by. On one occasion, in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 132, after Dagny asks him about his collection, he bemoans the fact that there are no new brands and the old brands are all disappearing. He examines a cigarette given to Dagny by ''Hugh Akston'', but it is a new brand that he has never seen before. It carries the sign of the dollar. In his first appearance, the Newsstand Owner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind. This alludes to the Greek myth of Prometheus, who gave mankind the gift of fire, allowing it to raise itself up and become civilized. In [[Atlas Shrugged]], it is the mind of man that raises mankind. Thus the cigarettes become symbolic of the men of the mind. The disappearance of the old brands represents the disappearance of the men of the mind, and the Newsstand Owner's discovery of the new brand foreshadows Dagny's discovery of a new kind of men of the mind. ==Orren Boyle== The head of [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Associated Steel]] and a friend of ''James Taggart''. He is one of the ''Looters''. He is an investor in the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|San Sebastian Mines]]. Orren Boyle appears or is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131, 132, 144, and 152. ==Owen Kellogg== Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|New York]]. He catches ''Dagny Taggart's'' eye as one of the few competent men on staff. After seeing the sorry state of the Ohio Division she decides to make him to its new Superintendent. However, as soon as she returns to [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|New York]], Kellogg informs her that he is quitting his job. He admits that he loves his work, but that's not enough to keep him. He won't say why he is leaving or what he will do. Later, he is noticed working as transient labor by the unsuccessful/unmotivated businessman ''Mr. Mowen''. Owen Kellog eventually reaches, and settles in Atlantis. Owen Kellogg appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112 and 114. ==Paul Larkin== An unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family, and a member of the ''Looters''. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121 Larkin visits [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Philadelphia]] to warn ''Hank Rearden'' of possible trouble from [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Washington]]. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 131 he meets with the other Looters to work out a plan to bring Rearden down. James Taggart knows he is friends with Hank Rearden and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them. Paul Larkin appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121, 132, and 2A1. ==Philip Rearden== The younger brother of ''Hank Rearden'', and a ''Moocher''. He lives in his brother's home in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Philadelphia]] and is completely dependent on him. He believes that the source of his sustenance is evil and would love to see him destroyed. He has never had a career and spends his time perfunctorily working for various social groups. He becomes resentful of his brother's charity. He then requests that he be granted a job from his brother because he should not have to be burdened by the feeling of inadequacy of not earning his own livelihood. When confronted by his brother on how this job should be a mutually beneficial arrangement, Philip shrugs the argument off as irrelevant and that the job should be entitled to him solely based on his need for money and the fact of familial ties. Philip Rearden appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121 and 161. ==Quentin Daniels== An enterprising engineer hired by ''Dagny Taggart'' to reconstruct ''John Galt's'' motor. Partway through this process, Quentin withdraws his effort for the same reasons John Galt himself had. Dagny sets out to meet Quentin in hopes of convincing him to resume his work. John Galt narrowly gets to him first. Dagny's pursuit of Quentin leads her to "[[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Galt's Gulch|Galt's Gulch]]" ==Ragnar Danneskjöld== One of the original ''Strikers''. He is now world famous as a pirate. Ragnar was from [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Norway]], the son of a bishop and the scion of one of Norway's most ancient, noble families. He attended [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Patrick Henry University]] and became friends with ''John Galt'' and ''Francisco d'Anconia'', while studying under ''Hugh Akston'' and ''Robert Stadler''. Ragnar seizes relief ships that are being sent from the [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|United States]] to [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Europe]]. No one knows what he does with the goods he seizes. As the novel progresses, Ragnar begins, for the first time, to become active in American waters, and is even spotted in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Delaware Bay]]. Reportedly, his ship is better than any available in the fleets of the world's navies. When he became a pirate, he was disowned and excommunicated. There is a price on his head in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Norway]], [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Portugal]], [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Turkey]]. According to Ayn Rand (verbal report), his name is a tribute to Victor Hugo. In Hugo's first novel, ''Hans of Iceland'', the hero becomes the first of the Counts of Danneskjöld. His name may be a pun on 'Dane's Gold', although "skjöld" means shield, not gold. Ragnar Danneskjöld appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==Rearden's mother== Named Gertrude, she is a ''Moocher'' who lives with her son ''Hank Rearden'' at his home in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Philadelphia]]. She is involved in church-based charity work, and berates Rearden whenever she can. She insults him by saying he was always selfish, even as a child. She dotes on her weak son ''Philip Rearden''. Rearden's mother appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121. ==Richard Halley== Dagny Taggart's favorite composer, who mysteriously disappeared after the evening of his greatest triumph. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141 we learn that Richard Halley spent years as a struggling and unappreciated composer. At age 24 his opera ''Phaethon'' was performed for the first time, to an audience who booed and heckled it. (It was based on the [[Greek mythology|Greek myth]] in which [[Phaethon]] steals his father's chariot, and dies in an audacious attempt to drive the sun across the sky. Halley changed the story, though, into one of triumph, in which Phaethon succeeds.) For years Halley wrote in obscurity. After nineteen years, ''Phaethon'' was performed again, but this time it was received to the greatest ovation the opera house had ever heard. It appears his critics felt he had paid his dues long enough that he was at last worthy of their approval. The following day, Halley retired, sold the rights to his music, and disappeared. Richard Halley is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112, 114, 133, and 141, and appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152. ==Dr. Robert Stadler== A former professor at Patrick Henry University, mentor to ''Francisco d'Anconia'', ''John Galt'' and ''Ragnar Danneskjöld''. He has since become a sell-out, one who had great promise but squandered it for social approval, to the detriment of the free. He works at the State Science Institute where all his inventions are perverted for use by the military, including the instrument of his demise: ''Project X.'' ==Dr. Simon Pritchett== The prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Patrick Henry University]] and is considered the leading philosopher of the age. He is also a ''Looter''. He is certainly representative of the philosophy of the age - he is a crude reductionist who believes man is nothing but a collection of chemicals; he believes there are no standards, that definitions are fluid, reason is a superstition, that it is futile to seek meaning in life, and that the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood. He explains all this in his book ''The Metaphysical Contradictions of the Universe'', and at cocktail parties. Dr. Pritchett appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==The Strikers== People of the mind who go on strike because they do not appreciate being exploited by ''the Looters'' and demonized by a society who depends on them for its very existence. The leader of the Strikers is ''John Galt''. Other Strikers include: Hugh Akston, Francisco d'Anconia, Ragnar Danneskjöld, Richard Halley, and the Brakeman. Characters who join the Strikers in the course of the book include: Dagny Taggart, Ellis Wyatt, Hank Rearden, Dick McNamara, and Owen Kellogg. ==Mr. Thompson== The "[[Head of State|Head of the State]]," which essentially means that he's the [[President of the United States]], though he's never specifically referred to as such. In the world of ''Atlas Shrugged'' all Presidents and Prime Ministers are referred to simply as "Head of the State" and "Mr. ____." This is because countries have been standardized as "People's States" which seem to share a common form of government. Thomspon's title can thus be seen as reflecting the fact that the US is in the process of evolving into one of these "People's States." One of the Looters, he's not particularly intelligent and has a very undistinguished look. He knows politics, however, and is a master of public relations and back-room deals. Rand's notes indicate that she modelled him on President [[Harry S. Truman]]. ==Wesley Mouch== A member of the ''Looters'' and, at the beginning of the storyline, the incompetent lobbyist whom ''Hank Rearden'' reluctantly employs in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Washington]]. Initially Wesley Mouch is the least powerful and least significant of the Looters - the other members of this group feel they can look down upon him with impunity. Eventually he becomes the most powerful Looter, and the [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|country's]] economic dictator, thereby illustrating Rand's belief that a government-run economy places too much power in the hands of incompetent bureaucrats who would never have positions of similar influence in a private sector business. Wesley Mouch appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 131 and is mentioned in section 161. ==See also== *[[Minor characters in Atlas Shrugged]] [[Category:Atlas Shrugged]] [[Category:Lists of fictional characters|Atlas Shrugged characters]] 362 33289648 2005-12-30T20:28:28Z Brianhe 82697 /* Galt's Motor */ prototype '''Technology in Atlas Shrugged''', [[Ayn Rand]]'s novel includes a variety of technological products and devices. In addition to real world technology ([[aircraft]], [[automobile]]s, [[diesel engine]]s, [[phonograph record]]s, [[radio]]s, [[telephone]]s, [[television]], and [[traffic signals]]) [[Atlas Shrugged]] also includes various fictional technologies or fictional variants on real inventions. {{spoilers}} ==Fictional technology== Fictional inventions mentioned in the book include refractor rays (Gulch mirage), Rearden Metal, a sonic [[death ray]] ("Project X"), voice activated door locks (Gulch power station), motors powered by [[static electricity]], palm-activated door locks (Galt's NY lab), shale-oil drilling, and a [[nerve]]-induction [[torture]] machine. ===Traffic Signals=== Early on, the book mentions the "screech" of a traffic signal as it changes. This implies the older technology of mechanical traffic signals, the kind which displayed a pennant or flag indicating stop or go, and the inverse indicator in the opposite direction. Traffic signals using lights have been around for over 40 years, so anything of this type is very old compared to today. ===Project X=== Project X is an invention of the scientists at the state science institute, requiring tons of Rearden Metal. Basically, it is a "death ray", and is capable of destroying anything. The scientists claim that the project will be used to preserve peace and squash rebellion. It is destroyed towards the end of the book, and emits a pulse of radiation that destroys everything in the surrounding area, including Cuffy Meigs and Dr. Stadler, as well as the Taggart Bridge. ===Rearden Metal=== Rearden metal is a [[Fictional_chemical_substance#Fictional_compounds_and_alloys|fictitious metal]] alloy invented by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]]. It is lighter than traditional [[steel]] but stronger, and is to steel what steel was to [[iron]]. It is described as greenish-blue. Among its ingredients are iron and [[copper]]. Initially no one is willing to use Rearden metal because no one wants to stick his neck out and be the first to try it. Finally, [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] places an order for Rearden Metal when she needs rails to rebuild the dying [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]]. The first thing made from Rearden metal is a [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|bracelet]]. Rearden metal is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 114, 121, 131, 148 and 161. ===Galt's Motor=== John Galt invented a new type of electrical apparatus described in the book as a [[motor]]. However, it does not operate like a motor in the common use of the word today: it is capable of harnessing, transforming and applying energy in many ways other than mechanical. Galt's Motor was capable of [[Radio jamming|jamming]] all [[radio receiver]]s on Earth, and completely destroying the contents of Galt's [[booby-trap]]ped laboratory without causing [[collateral damage|collateral structural damage]]. Though Rand describes it as turning [[static electricity ]] into useful [[mechanical work]], its operation is more reminiscent of modern speculation about [[zero-point energy]]. Dagny discovers a discarded prototype of the motor and it is superficially described in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] Part 1, Chapter 9. Galt shows Dagny the motor and describes it in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] Part 3, Chapter 1. [[Category:Atlas Shrugged]] [[Category:Fictional technology|Atlas Shrugged]] 364 32287258 2005-12-21T22:16:51Z Topynate 85137 removed NPOV and irrelevant additions to Taggart Transcontinental '''Companies in Atlas Shrugged''', the [[Ayn Rand]] [[novel]], generally, are divided into two groups, these that are operated by sympathetic characters are given the name of the owner, while companies operated by evil or incompetent characters are given generic names. In [[Atlas Shrugged]] men who give their names to their companies all become [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Strikers]] in due time. ==Amalgamated Switch and Signal== A company run by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Mr. Mowen]] and located in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Connecticut]]. They have supplied Taggart Transcontinental for generations. [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] orders [[Technology in Atlas_Shrugged|Rearden Metal]] switches from them. Amalgamated Switch and Signal appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==Associated Steel== Associated Steel is the company owned by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Orren Boyle]]. The company was started with just a few hundred-thousand dollars of [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Boyle's]] own money, and hundreds of millions of dollars in government grants. Boyle used this money to buy out his competitors, and now relies on influence peddling and political favors to run his business. Associated Steel is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131 and 171. ==Ayers Music Publishing Company== Ayers Music Publishing Company is the publisher of the music of [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Richard Halley]]. [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] contacts [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Mr. Ayers]] to inquire as to the existence of [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Halley's Fifth Concerto]]. Ayers Music Publishing Company is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 114. ==Barton and Jones== The company, located in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Denver]], that supplies food for the workers rebuilding the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]]. They go bankrupt in the middle of the project. Barton and James is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==d'Anconia Copper== A copper and mining company founded by [[Minor Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Sebastian d'Anconia]] in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Argentina]] during the time of the Inquisition. Each man who ran the company saw it grow by 10% in his lifetime, so by the time [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Francisco d'Anconia]] heads the company it is the largest in the world. His dream, from childhood, is to increase the size of the company by 100%. d'Anconia Copper is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 152 and 171. ==Hammond Motors== A car company in Colorado. They make the best cars on the market until the founder disappears. [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] buys a Hammond on his trip to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==Incorporated Tool== A company that is contracted to deliver drill heads to Taggart Transcontinental but who fail to do this. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==Phoenix-Durango== The Phoenix-Durango is an old, small railroad located in the Southwest run by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dan Conway]] that has been insignificant for most of its existence. However, the Phoenix-Durango grows rapidly when [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Ellis Wyatt]] revives the economy of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] and Taggart Transcontinental's [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]] fails to service Wyatt adequately. Later, [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|James Taggart]] conspires to get the Phoenix-Durango driven out of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] with the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule]]. The Phoenix-Durango is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131 (alluded to), 132, 145, 146, 147 and 152. ==Rearden Coal== A business founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] prior to the founding of Rearden Steel. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121. ==Rearden Limestone== A business founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] prior to the founding of Rearden Steel. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121. ==Rearden Ore== The first business founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]]. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121. ==Rearden Steel== A company founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] about ten years prior to the start of the story in the novel. Rearden bought an abandoned steel mill in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Philadelphia]] at a time when all the experts thought that such a venture would be hopeless. He turned it into the most reliable and profitable steel company in the country. As [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] struggles to save Taggart Transcontinental, she becomes increasingly dependent on Rearden Steel. Rearden Steel is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 121, 131 (alluded to), 161 and 162. ==Summit Casting== A company in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Illinois]] under contract to deliver rail spikes to Taggart Transcontinental. They go bankrupt before they can deliver, prompting [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] to fly to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Chicago]] and buy the company to get it started again. Summit Casting is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==Taggart Transcontinental== The fictional [[railroad]] run by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]]. Her commitment to the railroad creates one of the book's major conflicts. Taggart Transcontinental was founded by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Nathaniel Taggart]] who lived three generations (or so) prior to Dagny's generation. It was built without any grants, loans, or favors from the government, and was the last railroad that was still owned and controlled by its founder's descendants. Its motto is, ''From Ocean to Ocean''. The 'flagship' of Taggart Transcontinental is the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Taggart Comet]] which runs from [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|New York]] to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|San Francisco]], and which has never been late. ==United Locomotive Works== An incompetent company that is supposed to deliver Diesel engines to Taggart Transcontinental. The order is delayed in perpetuity, and the [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|president]] of the company refuses to ever give a straight answer as to why this is so. The United Locomotive Works is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 133 and 141. ==Wyatt Oil== The oil company run by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Ellis Wyatt]]. Wyatt's father had squeezed a living out of the oil fields in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]], but when Ellis Wyatt took over the business took off. He discovered a technique for extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned as dried up. The success of Wyatt Oil that followed this discovery suddenly and unexpectedly turned [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] into the leading economy in the country. Wyatt Oil traditionally relied on Taggart Transcontinental's [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]] to ship its oil. But when that company could not grow fast enough to keep up with the booming [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] economy, Wyatt started using the small but well-managed Phoenix-Durango instead. This prompted [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|James Taggart]] to make deals with his friends to drive the Phoenix-Durango out of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]]. Afterwards, [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] has to rebuild the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]] so it can supply transportation to Wyatt Oil - if she fails, the economy of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]], and of the whole country, could collapse. Wyatt Oil is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 132 and 171. [[Category:Atlas Shrugged]] [[Category:Fictional companies|Atlas Shrugged]] 365 28929793 2005-11-21T20:43:06Z Iceberg3k 50063 Some of the important '''concepts''' discussed in [[Atlas Shrugged]] include the ''Sanction of the Victim'' and the ''Theory of Sex''. ===Sanction of the Victim=== The Sanction of the Victim is defined as "the willingness of the good to suffer at the hands of the [[evil]], to accept the role of sacrificial victim for the '[[sin]]' of creating values." The entire story of Atlas Shrugged can be seen as an answer to the question, what would happen if this sanction was revoked? When Atlas shrugs, relieving himself of the burden of carrying the world, he is revoking his sanction. The concept is supposedly original in the thinking of [[Ayn Rand]] and is foundational to her moral theory. She holds that evil is a parasite on the good and can only exist if the good tolerates it. To quote from [[Atlas_Shrugged/Galts Speech|Galt's Speech]]: "Evil is impotent and has no power but that which we let it extort from us", and, "I saw that evil was impotent...and the only weapon of its triumph was the willingness of the good to serve it." Morality requires that we do not sanction our own victimhood, Rand claims. In adhering to this concept, Rand assigns virtue to the trait of [[selfishness]]. Throughout Atlas Shrugged, numerous characters admit that there is something wrong with the world but they cannot put their finger on what it is. The concept they cannot grasp is the sanction of the victim. The first person to grasp the concept is [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|John Galt]], who vows to stop the motor of the world by getting the creators of the world to withhold their sanction. We first glimpse the concept in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121 when [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] feels he is duty-bound to support his family, despite their hostility towards him. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 146 the principle is stated explicitly by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Dan Conway]]: "I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed. If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain." ===Theory of Sex=== In rejecting the traditional [[Christianity|Christian]] altruist [[moral code]], Rand also rejects the sexual code that, in her view, is a [[logical implication]] of [[altruism]]. Rand introduces a theory of sex in ''Atlas Shrugged'' which is purportedly implied by her broader ethical and psychological theories. Far from being a debasing animal instinct, sex is the highest celebration of our greatest values. Sex is a physical response to intellectual and spiritual values&mdash;a mechanism for giving concrete expression to values that could otherwise only be experienced in the abstract. One is sexually attracted to those who embody one's values. Those who have base values will be attracted to baseness, to those who also have ignoble values. Those who lack any clear purpose will find sex devoid of meaning. People of high values will respond sexually to those who embody high values. That our [[sexual desire]] is a response to the embodiment of our values in others is a radical and original theory. However, even those who are sympathetic to this theory have criticized it as being incomplete. For instance, since according to Rand the economy is also such an expression of values, and since it is always possible to encounter someone who embodies one's values more completely, this would seem to make [[family]] undesirable. (Indeed, Rand treats "family" as a sort of trap.) Furthermore, [[promiscuity]], [[prostitution]], and an endless [[round-robin]] of "values-driven" sexual relationships would become inevitable. From this viewpoint, one could say that [[Aldous Huxley]] portrayed the ideal sexual state: ''[[Brave New World]]'' features humans who are incapable of deviating from their caste-oriented "values", which naturally include a code of sexual desirability. Her sexual theory is illustrated in the contrasting relationships of [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] with [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Lillian Rearden]] and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]], and later with Dagny Taggart and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|John Galt]]. Other important illustrations of this theory are found in: [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|Section]] 152 - recounts Dagny's relationship with [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Francisco d'Anconia]]. [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|Section]] 161 - recounts Hank and Lillian Rearden's courtship, and Lillian's attitude towards sex. [[Category:Atlas Shrugged]] 366 15899096 2003-03-13T15:37:38Z Ams80 7543 Making redirect #REDIRECT [[Places in Atlas Shrugged]] 368 35151715 2006-01-14T15:11:15Z 80.177.190.150 /* John Galt Legends */ This is a list of general items in [[Ayn Rand]]'s ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''. {{spoiler}} ==Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule== The Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is passed by the National Alliance of Railroads in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 145, allegedly to prevent "destructive competition" between [[railroad]]s. The rule gives the Alliance the authority to forbid competition between railroads in certain parts of the country. It was crafted by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]] as a favor for [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#James Taggart|James Taggart]], with the purpose of driving the [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] out of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged#Colorado|Colorado]]. ==Bracelet== The very first thing made from ''Rearden Metal'' is a bracelet. The bracelet is used to illustrate Rand's [[Concepts in Atlas Shrugged#Theory of Sex|Theory of Sex]]. The bracelet symbolizes the value created by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] long struggle to invent Rearden Metal. When he gives it to [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]] as a present in section 121; she says, "It's fully as valuable as a piece of railroad rails." However, Lillian fully grasps the significance of the gift; her snide remark is her way of denigrating her husband's ethos. In section 161, Lillian wears this bracelet at a party thrown on her anniversary. She makes fun of it all night long, and when [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] hears Lillian say she would gladly trade it for a common diamond bracelet, Dagny takes her up on it. Lillian later asks for it back upon realizing her power over her husband was slowly diminishing. Dagny denies the offer. The bracelet appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121 and 161. ==Cub Club== A night club in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]]. When [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] returns to New York in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141, he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the Cub Club and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessen on Third Avenue. ==Equalization of Opportunity Bill== A bill designed by the [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Looters|Looters]] that proposes to limit the number of businesses any one person can own to one. It is aimed primarily at [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]], who uses [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Rearden Ore|Rearden Ore]] to guarantee [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]] with a supply of iron ore. By passing this Bill, the Looters can seize Rearden's other businesses for themselves, and then deny him the iron he needs to run his steel mills. The Looters claim the Bill is meant to give a chance to the little guy. The Equalization of Opportunity Bill is appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==Galt's Gulch== A secluded refuge in a valley of Colorado where the men of ability have retreated after relinquishing participation in American society. Nicknamed "Galt's Gulch" by its inhabitants, it is in fact the property of "Midas" Mulligan, one of the early strikers to follow John Galt's call. This call was to the great men of mind and action to abandon the increasingly slave-state inclinations of a decaying United States - to go on strike - thereby withdrawing the only thing supporting the parasites and looters. Sarcastically nicknamed Midas in the press because everything he seemed to touch turned to gold, Mulligan adopted the nickname during his explosive investment career before dropping out of sight. He had purchased this land among his far-ranging speculative endeavors, and subsequently retreated to it upon his disappearance. Other strikers soon followed him there, including John Galt, renting or buying land for summer retreats as a respite from continuing their search for fellow strikers among the increasingly collapsing American society. Eventually, a society develops in Galt's Gulch as more people live there year-round as the outside world becomes virtually unsafe to visit. We are introduced to Galt's Gulch in the final section of the Novel, in the first chapter, entitled Atlantis. The people live with each other in completely free society and embody everything which is the thesis of the Novel, the appropriate values for a society of Mankind: philosophical, moral, economic, legal, aesthetic, and sexual, among others too numerous to mention. We find industrious, ambitious, happy people continuing their chosen fields of endeavor without the yokes of any taxation or regulation. Conversely, there is a reverence for private property; everything transacted is paid for with the re-invented currency of solid gold coin struck from the reserves of Midas Mulligan's bank which now resides in the valley. The townspeople receive services from the various heroes we have met throughout the Novel, who all now reside and produce in the valley. They purchase power inexpensively from Galt and his invention of the static electricity motor, maintain their anonymity from the outside world via Galt's invention of the air-wave reflection device (giving the view from above the camouflage of reflected images of other mountainsides nearby), and some attend Galt's lectures on Physics, where he explains his discoveries on new fundamental laws and applied mathematics. The people purchase medical treatment from the care of Dr. Hendricks, who uses his invention of a portable [[X-ray]] machine to initially diagnose Dagny Taggart upon her crash landing into the valley, attend concerts of new musical compositions of Richard Halley who has continued to compose in the Valley, acquire raw materials from the efforts of Francisco D'Anconia's excavations around the valley, attend philosophy lectures from the now-retired pirate Ragnar Danneskjöld, receive loans from Midas Mulligan, etc. Rand's description of Galt's Gulch was inspired by a visit she and her husband Frank O'Connor took to [[Ouray, Colorado]] while researching Colorado for the novel. ==Halley's Fifth Concerto== [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Richard Halley|Richard Halley]] disappeared after he had written only four concertos. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 112, [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]], an enthusiastic fan of Halley's music, hears an unfamiliar theme being whistled by a [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Brakeman|brakeman]] on the Taggart Comet. She asks him what it is; he responds Halley's Fifth Concerto. When Dagny says Halley only wrote four concertos, the brakeman says he made a mistake and denies knowing what the song was. Later, Dagny calls [[Minor characters in Atlas Shrugged|Mr. Ayers]] to find out if Halley wrote a fifth concerto. Ayers says Halley did not. Halley's Fifth Concerto is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112, 114 and 152. ==Halley's Fourth Concerto== The last thing [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Richard Halley|Richard Halley]] wrote before he disappeared. It is a song of rebellion and defiance that seemed to say agony and suffering were not necessary. [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] listened to this piece in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152. ==''Heaven's In Your Backyard''== A film. [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Mort Liddy|Mort Liddy]] wrote the score, using a bastardized version of ''Halley's Fourth Concerto''. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==John Galt Legends== Since everyone across the country is asking, "Who is John Galt?", it is not surprising that some people have come up with answers. A number of John Galt Legends are told, each of which, ironically, turns out to be true, at least symbolically. '''''Legend 1''''' ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161): A [[Minor characters in Atlas Shrugged|spinster]] at [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden's]] party tells [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] the story. John Galt was a man of inestimable wealth who found the sunken island of [[Atlantis]] while fighting the worst storm ever wreaked upon the world. The sight was so beautiful that, having seen it, he could never go back to the world, so he sank his ship and took his fortune down with him. The actual John Galt was a man who created something of inestimable value, a new motor, and who discovered the secret to what was wrong with the world while fighting the most evil social philosophy ever put into practice. The world he envisioned was so beautiful that he refused to live in the world that was, and disappeared, taking the secret of motor with him. Atlantis, the Isles of the Blessed, is a place where no one could enter except those who had the spirit of a hero. Described in these terms, it is the same as ''Galt's Gulch''. ==Moe's Delicatessen== A delicatessen in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged#New York|New York]]. When [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] returns to New York in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141, he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the ''Cub Club'' and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessen on Third Avenue. ==National Alliance of Railroads== An industry group formed to promote the welfare of the industry as a whole, requiring members to sacrifice their individual interests for the common good. [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]] has friends on the National Alliance of Railroads, and he gets them to support the Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule, which uses a string of pretenses to drive the [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] out of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged#Colorado|Colorado]]. The National Alliance of Railroads is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 131, 145 and 146. ==National Council of Metal Industries== An industry group that uses political pull to get its way. [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#James Taggart|James Taggart]] has friends on the National Council of Metal Industries, and he gets them to support legislation that will hurt [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]] and help [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Associated Steel|Associated Steel]]. The National Council of Metal Industries is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 131. ==Patrick Henry University== The most prestigious university in the world. It was attended by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|John Galt]], [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Ragnar_Danneskj.F6ld|Ragnar Danneskjold]], where they met and became friends. [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]] and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler]] taught there. It is located in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Cleveland]]. ==Rio Norte Line== A branch of [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] that runs from [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Cheyenne, Wyoming]] to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|El Paso, Texas]]. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131 (alluded to), 132, 133, 141, 146, 147 and 148. ==Rockdale Station== A station on the [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] line, located five miles from the Taggart estate and overlooking the [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Hudson River]]. It was the site of [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] first job with the railroad, night operator, at age 16. It appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152. ==San Sebastian== A community built to house the workers of the ''San Sebastian Mines'' and their families. As it turns out, the houses, roads, and everything of practical value is built so poorly that the community can be expected to fall apart within a year or two. Only the church was built to last. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152. ==San Sebastian Line== A branch of [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] that serves the ''San Sebastian Mines'' in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Mexico]]. The mines were developed by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and attracted significant investments from [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#James Taggart|James Taggart]] and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]], who assumed Francisco could be counted on to deliver a winner. The San Sebastian Line is nationalized by the Mexican government soon after completion. When it is nationalized in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 142, it is referred to as the San Sebastian Railroad. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 114, 131, 132, 133, 142, 143 and 152. ==San Sebastian Mines== San Sebastian Mines is a copper mining project in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Mexico]] founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and named after his ancestor [[Minor characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Sebastian d'Anconia]]. Francisco's reputation as a businessman is so great that investors flock to him, begging to invest money in the enterprise. Investors include [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#James Taggart|James Taggart]] and [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]]. Taggart goes so far as to build a new branch of [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]], the ''San Sebastian Line'', to serve the mines, sinking $30 million into the project. When the development of the mines appears complete, the Mexican government nationalizes them as well as the ''San Sebastian Line'', only to discover there is no copper and there never was. When Taggart tells Francisco he considers the Mines a rotten swindle ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161), Francisco explains that Taggart should be pleased with the way he ran the mines. He says he put into practice those moral precepts that were accepted around the world. The world says it is evil to pursue a profit &mdash; he got no profit from the worthless mines. The world says the purpose of an enterprise is not to produce, but to give a livelihood to its employees &mdash; it produced nothing, but created jobs that would never have existed if one was only concerned with developing a real mine. The world says the owner is an exploiter and the workers do all the real work &mdash; he left the enterprise entirely in the hands of the workers and did not burden anyone with his presence. The world says need is more important than ability &mdash; he hired a mining specialist who needed a job very badly, but had no ability. In short, the San Sebastian Mines were an illustration of what happens when this moral code is put into practice, and a warning of what will soon happen to the world as a whole. The San Sebastian Mines appear in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 131, 132, 142, 151, 152 and 161. ==Taggart Building== A skyscraper in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]], the headquarters of [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]], and the location of the Taggart Terminal. ==Taggart Comet== The Taggart Comet is [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental's]] flagship train. It runs from [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]] to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|San Francisco]], and has never been late. The Taggart Comet appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112, 113 and 152. ==The Future== See [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]]. ==''The Heart Is A Milkman''== ''The Heart is a Milkman'' is a novel being written by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Balph Eubank|Balph Eubank]]. It is about the central fact of human existence, frustration. Eubank says he will dedicate it to [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]]. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==The Octopus== See [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]]. ==''The Vulture Is Molting''== A best-selling novel that captures the spirit of the times, ''The Vulture Is Molting'' is "A penetrating study of a businessman's greed. A fearless revelation of man's depravity." The book is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141 as one of the artifacts of [[popular culture]] that depresses [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] with its baseness. ==Wayne-Falkland Hotel== A luxurious hotel in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]], it is considered the best hotel left in the world. It is where [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] stays when he is in town. It was also the scene of [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] debut ball when she was seventeen. It may be based on the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York City. The Wayne-Falkland Hotel is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 141, 151 and 152. ==Wyatt Oil Fields== The Wyatt Oil Fields are in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]]. They are a bunch of old, abandoned oil wells that were revived by a new technique invented by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]. This has almost single-handedly revitalized the economy of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]]. The Wyatt Oil Fields appear in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111 and 161. [[Category:Atlas Shrugged]] [[Category:Lists of fictional things]] 369 38560634 2006-02-07T02:58:11Z Ds13 43805 reduce generalization about lack of lying ===Atlas=== As told in ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'', Atlas carried the world on his shoulders. But in the [[Greek Mythology|Greek Myths]], the Titan [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]] stands on the earth and holds up the sky. In the statues that represent Atlas, the big round thing on his back represents the heavens, which, because of the apparent circular motion of the planets around the earth, were conceived of as being round. Some tellings of the Atlas myth have him carrying both the earth and the heavens on his back, but this appears to be a modern retelling; further research might confirm this. ===Character names=== Some of the character names are, or appear to be, puns, or have some other significance. (See also [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged]].) When asked why so many of her names have syllables with many hard consonants like dag, tag, den, stad, Rand said that she just liked those sounds. *'''Ragnar Danneskjold''' - sounds like 'Dane's Gold', a tribute paid by the medieval English to the Vikings to bribe them into being peaceful. (However, note "skjold" means shield, not gold.) However, the hero of [[Victor Hugo]]'s first novel, ''Hans of Iceland'' becomes the first of the Counts of Danneskjöld. In the 1970's, Rand told Marsha Familaro Enright that her use of this name was not plagiarism because there really were Counts of Danneskjöld. *'''Robert Stadler''' - sounds like the German word for state, Staat. Dr. Stadler is a statist, in that he believes it appropriate and necessary for the state to fund scientific research. *'''Francisco d'Anconia''' - Rand's husband was Frank O'Connor. *'''John Galt''' - the name of a 19th century Scottish novelist, though this is apparently coincidental. Galt is close to 'Geld' and 'gold'. The name was probably used because it had to be such that it could become proverbial&mdash;this would not be possible with a long, awkward name. *'''Wesley Mouch''' - Mouch is exactly what his name sounds like, a mooch. He has no real virtue or skill, but somehow becomes a powerful figure. ===Crime=== Common street crime is conspicuously absent in ''Atlas Shrugged''. Characters walk the streets with no thought of being mugged or attacked. ===Historical figures and events=== ''Atlas Shrugged'' takes place in a world with a different history from our own, but there are some historical figures and events that are mentioned. *[[Aristotle]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152): Francisco d'Anconia wrote a thesis on the influence of Aristotle's theory of the Immovable Mover. *[[Dark Ages]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161): Ragnar Danneskjold's piracy is likened to something out of the Dark Ages. *[[Inquisition]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152): Sebastian d'Anconia flees Spain to escape persecution under the Inquisition. *[[Middle Ages]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161): It is said that Ragnar Danneskjold hides in the Norwegian fjords as the Vikings did in the Middle Ages. *[[Nero]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152): Francisco d'Anconia compares himself to the Emperor Nero. *[[Patrick Henry]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152): The [[eponym]] of Patrick Henry University. *[[Vikings]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161): It is said that Ragnar Danneskjold hides in the Norwegian fjords as the Vikings did in the Middle Ages. ===Humor=== In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152, Francisco cracks that the Mexican government was promising a roast of pork every Sunday for every man, woman, child and abortion. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152, Francisco lists the various buildings constructed for the workers of the San Sebastian Mines, and notes how they are all poorly built and can be expected to collapse, except for the church. "The church, I think, will stand. They'll need it," he quips. Since the other things are things of value&mdash;houses, roads, etc.&mdash;it is ironic that only the church was built to last; to Rand and her heroes, a church is of no real value. Almost every nation in the world except the United States is referred to as "The People's State of...", and they are all, apparently, the recipients of relief supplies from the United States. In conversation, people casually refer to them as "The People's State of..." rather than just, say, France or Norway. It is obvious that people would not refer to countries by their formal names in casual conversation&mdash;we don't call Canada "The Dominion of Canada" or Germany "The Federal Republic of Germany"&mdash;so by having her characters do this Rand is exercising her dry wit. ===Lying=== The sympathetic characters of ''Atlas Shrugged'' generally do not tell lies. With the following exceptions, even when they are clearly trying to conceal something, they do not rely on overt falsehood, even when it is obvious that they could do so without being found out. *In section 112 Brakeman tells Dagny Taggart he does not recall the name of the song he was whistling or where he heard it. *In section 141 Francisco d'Anconia tells the press he came to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]] because of a hat check girl and the liverwurst at [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Moe's Delicatessen]]. *In section 151 we learn Dagny Taggart once lied to her mother about a cut to her lip that Francisco had given her. This was the only lie she ever told. *In section 152 Dagny Taggart asks Francisco if Richard Halley has written a fifth concerto. He is evasive and tells her that Halley has stopped writing. Is this a lie? *In section 161, Hank Rearden tells Dagny that he was the one who invited Bertram Scudder to the Rearden's anniversary party. It was actually Lillian who invited him, and Rearden had been furious about it. *In part 2/chapter 9, Eddie Willers tells Dagny Taggart that his hesitation and uncertainty is caused by the illegality of her directions. In fact, Eddie was shocked by the evidence and thus realization of her affair with Hank Rearden. ===People's States=== Almost every nation that is mentioned, other than the [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|United States]], is referred to as a "People's State". These include: * The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|England]] * The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|France]] * The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|India]] * The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Mexico]] * The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Norway]] * The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Portugal]] * The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Turkey]] The leaders of these countries are given the title the "Head of the People's State," and called "Mr._____" (or "Senor"____). The President of the United States is refered to as "Mr. Thompson" and called the "Head of the State," which seems to imply the US is on its way to becoming a People's State as well. ===Religion=== In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152 Francisco tells Dagny he named the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|San Sebastian Mines]] after his ancestor Sebastian d'Anconia, a man they both honor deeply. This, to Dagny, is blasphemy&mdash;the only kind of blasphemy she understands. ===Social classes=== Rand is sometimes called an elitist. This claim is probably accurate if we allow for the fact that Rand had her own standard of eliteness&mdash;throughout ''Atlas Shrugged'', virtue is equated with creative ability. It is, however, worth noting that in ''Atlas Shrugged'', there are no characters with creative ability which do not function as [[author surrogate]] characters (most notably Dagny Taggart); conversely, all of the [[Straw man|characters]] which disagree with the author are unintelligent and creatively bankrupt, and usually actively destructive. Compare to the real world, where scientists, inventors, artists and industrialists often have wildly varying and strongly conflicting desires and opinions. Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of ''Atlas Shrugged''. Among the heroes, John Galt and Hank Rearden are from working class backgrounds, while Dagny Taggart and Francisco d'Anconia are from wealthy families. Among the villains, Fred Kinnan is from a working class background, while James Taggart and Betty Pope are from wealthy families. [[Category:Atlas Shrugged]] 568 42127150 2006-03-04T00:18:59Z 72.141.37.94 [[Image:Atlas shrugged cover.jpg|thumbnail|200px|''Atlas Shrugged'' cover by [[Nick Gaetano]]. ]] '''''Atlas Shrugged''''' is a novel by Russian-born writer and philosopher [[Ayn Rand]], first published in [[1957]] in the [[United States|USA]], and Rand's last work of fiction before concentrating her writings exclusively on philosophy. Most regard ''Atlas Shrugged'' as Rand's most famous work, her ''tour de force'', and most [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivists]] hold it to be, objectively (as in factually), the greatest novel of all time. Its theme (as stated by Rand) is "the importance of the individual's reasoning mind in human life." It is a highly philosophical and [[allegory|allegorical]] story that deals with themes of Rand's own [[Objectivism]], though she was not yet known as a philosopher when it was written. Whether or not she had philosophical intentions, and to what extent or sense the novel is an allegory, are controversial subjects. In fact, the ideas behind the book, and their extremism, as well as its relative popularity have made it one of the most controversial novels of the [[20th century]]. It is also one of the [[List_of_longest_novels|longest novels]] ever written, totaling one-thousand pages or more (depending on the publication). {{spoiler}} ==Philosophy and writing== The theme of ''Atlas Shrugged'' is that independent, rational thought is the motor that powers the world. In the book, "men of the mind" go on [[Strike action|strike]], allowing the collapse of what only they hold together &#8212; a peaceful cohesiveness Rand claims that humans, particularly those whose productive work comes from mental effort, may create wherever forceful human interference is absent. Given no alternative, they remove themselves from the "looters." The title is an analogy: the rational men, like the Greek God Atlas, hold the world on their shoulders; in the form of a strike, they have chosen to 'shrug.' The book is rooted in [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivism]], the philosophical system founded by Rand. Rand suggests that society stagnates when independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized, and that, inversely, a society will become more prosperous as it allows, encourages, and rewards independence and individual achievement. Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is rewarded best when [[private property]] is respected strictly. She advocated [[Laissez-faire|laissez-faire capitalism]] as the [[political system]] that is most consistent with these beliefs. These considerations make ''Atlas Shrugged'' a highly political book, especially in its portrayal of [[fascism]], [[socialism]] and [[communism]], or indeed any form of state intervention in societal affairs, as fatally flawed. However, Rand claimed that it is not a ''fundamentally'' political book, but that the politics portrayed in the novel are a result of her attempt to display her image of the ideal man and the position of the human mind in society. Rand argues that independence and individual achievement drive the world, and should be embraced. Her worldview requires a "[[rationality|rational]]" [[moral code]]. She disputes the notion that [[self-sacrifice]] is a virtue, and is similarly dismissive of human faith in a [[divinity|god]] or higher being. The book positions itself against [[Christianity]] specifically, often directly within the characters' dialogue. == Setting == Exactly when ''Atlas Shrugged'' is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague. In [[Wikibooks:Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152, the population of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York City]] is given as 7 [[million]]. The historical New York City reached 7 million people in the [[1930s]], which might place the novel sometime after that. There are many early [[20th century]] technologies available, but the political situation is clearly different from actual history. One interpretation is that the novel takes place a hundred (or perhaps ''hundreds'') of years in the future, implying that since the world lapsed into its socialistic morass, a global-wide stagnation has occurred in technological growth, population growth, and indeed growth of ''any'' kind; the wars, economic depressions, and other events of the 20th century would be a distant memory to all but [[scholar]]s and [[academician]]s. This would be in line with Rand's ideas and commentary on other novels depicting utopian and dystopian societies. Furthermore, this is also in line with an excerpt from a 1964 interview with ''Playboy'' magazine in which Rand states "What we have today is not a capitalist society, but a mixed economy -- that is, a mixture of freedom and controls, which, by the presently dominant trend, is moving toward dictatorship. The action in ''Atlas Shrugged'' takes place at a time when society has reached the stage of dictatorship. When and if this happens, that will be the time to go on strike, but not until then.", thus implying that her novel takes place at some point in the future. The concept of societal stagnation in the wake of collectivist systems is central to the plot of another of Rand's works, ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]''. All countries outside the US have become, or become during the novel, "People's States". There are many examples of early 20th century [[Technology in Atlas_Shrugged|technology]] in ''Atlas Shrugged'', but no post-war advances such as [[nuclear weapon]]s, [[helicopter]]s, or [[computer]]s. [[Jet plane]]s are mentioned briefly as being a relatively new technology. [[Television]] is a novelty that has yet to assume any cultural significance, while [[radio]] broadcasts are prominent. Though Rand does not use in the book many of the technological innovations available while she was writing, she introduces some advanced, fictional inventions (e.g., sound-based [[weapons of mass destruction|weapons of mass destruction]], torture devices, as well as power plants). Most of the action in ''Atlas Shrugged'' occurs in the [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|United States]]. However, there are important events around the world, such as in the People's States of [[Mexico]], [[Chile]], and [[Argentina]], and [[piracy]] at sea. ==Plot== A section by section analysis of ''Atlas Shrugged'' is available on [[Wikibooks:Atlas Shrugged|Wikibooks]]. The novel’s plot, split into three sections (though the story is coherent apart from these,) is extremely complex. The first two sections, and to some extent the last, follow Dagny Taggart, a no-nonsense railroad executive, and her attempt to keep the company alive despite the fact that society is falling towards collectivism/altruism/statism. All throughout the novel people repeat a platitude Dagny greatly resents: ‘Who is John Galt?’ It is a reflection of their helplessness, as the saying means ‘Don’t ask important questions, because they don’t have answers.’ The geniuses of the world seem to be disappearing, and the apparent decline of civilization is making it more and more difficult for her to sustain her life-long aspirations of running the trans-continental railroad, which has been in her family for several generations. She deals with other characters such as Hank Rearden, a self-made businessman of great integrity whose career is hindered by his false feelings of obligation towards his wife. Francisco d'Anconia, Dagny’s childhood friend, first love, and king of the copper industry, appears to have become a worthless playboy who is purposely destroying his business. As the novel progresses: the myths about the real John Galt, as well as Francisco d'Anconia’s actions, become more and more a reflection of the state of the culture, and seem to make more and more sense; and, Hank and Dagny begin to experience the futility of their attempts to survive in a society that hates them and those like them for their greatness. During their plight, Dagny and Hank find the remnants of a motor that turns atmospheric energy into kinetic energy, an astounding feat; they also find evidence that the minds (the ‘Atlases’) of the world are disappearing because of one particular ‘destroyer’ taking them away. Dagny and Hank deal with the irrationalities and apparent contradictions of their atmosphere, and search for the creator of the motor as well as ‘the destroyer’ who is draining the world of its prime movers, in an effort to secure their ability to live rational lives. All of this leads to an elaborate action-based explanation and eventual climax, presenting an understanding of all of the issues explored, and breaking everything down into one basic conflict. The final parts of the novel involve a speech by the story's true protagonist, and a resolution concerning the fate of society. The question 'Who is John Galt' is also answered. * [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Characters]] ** [[Minor Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Minor Characters]] * [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Companies]] * [[Concepts in Atlas Shrugged|Concepts]] * [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Places]] * [[Technology in Atlas_Shrugged|Technology]] * [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Things]] * [[Topics of note in Atlas Shrugged|Topics of note]] ==Film adaptation== Rights to the novel ''Atlas Shrugged'' were purchased by the Baldwin Entertainment Group in [[2003]] with the intent of producing a feature-length film. Company leader [[Howard Baldwin]] was quoted in September 2004 as saying "...everything is on track and [the movie] hasn’t been held up one bit... I assure you that this will be a big movie and ''it will get made''." Two works of Rand's&mdash;''[[The Fountainhead]]'' and ''[[We the Living]]''&mdash;have been adapted into movies so far. ==External links== * http://www.aynrand.org * http://www.atlassociety.org/news_atlas-movie-updated050304.asp * http://www.cordair.com/gaetano/index.htm ==References and further reading== ===Publications=== * ''Atlas Shrugged'', Ayn Rand; Signet; (September 1996) ISBN 0451191145 * ''Atlas Shrugged (Cliffs Notes)'', Andrew Bernstein; [[Cliffs Notes]]; (June 5, 2000) ISBN 0764585568 * ''The World of Atlas Shrugged'', Robert Bidinotto/The Objectivist Center; HighBridge Company; (April 19, 2001) ISBN 156511471X * ''Atlas Shrugged: Manifesto of the Mind (Twayne's Masterwork Studies, No. 174)'' Mimi Reisel Gladstein; Twayne Pub; (June 2000) ISBN 0805716386 * ''The Moral Revolution in Atlas Shrugged'', [[Nathaniel Branden]]; The Objectivist Center; (July 1999) ISBN 1577240332 * ''Odysseus, Jesus, and Dagny'', Susan McCloskey; The Objectivist Center; (August 1, 1998) ISBN 1577240251 === Foreign translations === * [[German language|German]]: ''Wer ist John Galt?'' (Hamburg, Germany: GEWIS Verlag), ISBN 3-932-56403-0. * [[Italian language|Italian]]: ''La rivolta di Atlante'', 2 vol. (Milano, Garzanti, 1958), Out of print. Translator: Laura Grimaldi * [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: ''肩をすくめるアトラス'' 　(ビジネス社), ISBN 4-8284-1149-6. Translator: 脇坂 あゆみ. * [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]: ''De som beveger verden''. (Kagge Forlag, 2000), ISBN 8-248-90083-5 (hardcover), ISBN 8-248-90169-6 (paperback). Translator: John Erik Bøe Lindgren. * [[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Atlas Zbuntowany'' (Zysk i S-ka, 2004), ISBN 83-7150-969-3 (Twarda). Translator: Iwona Michałowska. * [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''La Rebelion de Atlas.'' (Editorial Grito Sagrado), ISBN 9-872-09510-8 (hardcover), ISBN 9-872-09511-6 (paperback). * [[Swedish language|Swedish]]: ''Och världen skälvde.'' ([http://www.timbro.se/rand/ Timbro Förlag], 2005), ISBN 9-175-66556-5. Translator: Maud Freccero. * [[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Atlas Vazgeçti.'' (Plato Yay&#305;nlar&#305;, 2003), ISBN 9-759-67726-1. Translator: Belk&#305;s Çorapç&#305;. ===Reviews=== *{{note|geoff}} [http://www.cix.co.uk/~morven/atlas.html Review] from a self-proclaimed non-Libertarian *{{note|weird-bookshelf}} [http://www.strangewords.com/archive/ayn.html Review] from the Weird Bookshelf ("fine science fiction books"). *{{note|Slade}} Slade, Robert M. [http://victoria.tc.ca/int-grps/books/techrev/bkatshrg.rvw Review] from the Internet Review Project (1998). *{{note|pierssen}} [http://www.pierssen.com/cfile/objectivist.htm A review] which, while attempting to address the environmentalist issues, claims that ''Atlas Shrugged'' is a sequel to ''[[The Lord of the Rings]].'' *{{note|analysis}} [http://atlasshruggednovel.blogspot.com A Review] and in-depth Chapter-by-Chapter, Motif-by-Motif, etc. analysis. ===Satires and parodies=== *[http://kamita.com/misc/illuminatus/illuminatus.html "Telemachus Sneezed"] within Robert Anton Wilson's [[Illuminatus! Trilogy]] (Search for "Taffy Rhinestone" in the former link to read the spoof.) *[http://www.spudworks.com/article/66/2/ The Abridged ''Atlas Shrugged''] - a thousand pages distilled into about a thousand words. *[http://www.modernhumorist.com/mh/0101/rand/ Atlas Shr], a look at [[parallel universe (fiction)|parallel universe]]s wherein all of Ayn Rand's books are four hundred pages shorter *''Elvis Shrugged'', an early '90s comic book miniseries published by Revolutionary Comics in which popular entertainers [[Elvis Presley]], a cyborg [[Frank Sinatra]], [[Frank Zappa]], [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]], [[Spike Lee]], and others take the place of various ''Atlas Shrugged'' counterparts. *[http://www.mskousen.com/Books/Articles/shrugged.html Oscar Shrugged], a depiction of the first film festival held in Galt's Gulch *[http://www.angryflower.com/atlass.gif ''Atlas Shrugged 2: One Hour Later''], starring Bob the Angry Flower [[Category:1957 books]] [[Category:Atlas Shrugged]] [[Category:Novels]] [[Category:Philosophical novels]] [[Category:Books critical of Christianity]] [[Category:Books by Ayn Rand]] [[de:Atlas wirft die Welt ab]] [[es:La Rebelion de Atlas]] [[he:מרד הנפילים]] [[sv:Och världen skälvde]] [[zh:阿特拉斯摆脱重负]] 569 41967527 2006-03-02T23:04:10Z 168.18.146.160 '''Anthropology''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''άνθρωπος'', "human" or "person") consists of the study of [[humanity]] (see genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]''). It is [[holism|holistic]] in two senses: it is concerned with all humans at all times and with all dimensions of humanity. A primary trait that traditionally distinguished anthropology from other humanistic disciplines is an emphasis on cultural relativity, indepth examination of context, and cross cultural comparisons. In [[North America]], "anthropology" is traditionally divided into four sub-disciplines: * [[physical anthropology]] or [[biological anthropology]], which studies [[primatology|primate behavior]], [[human evolution]], [[osteology]], [[forensics]] and [[population genetics]]; * [[cultural anthropology]], (called [[social anthropology]] in the [[United Kingdom]] and now often known as [[socio-cultural anthropology]]). Areas studied by cultural anthropologists include social networks, [[diffusion (anthropology)|diffusion]], social behavior, [[kinship]] patterns, law, politics, [[ideology]], religion, beliefs, patterns in production and consumption, exchange, socialization, gender, and other expressions of culture, with strong emphasis on the importance of [[fieldwork]] or participant-observation (i.e living among the social group being studied for an extended period of time); * [[linguistic anthropology]], which studies variation in [[language]] across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture; and * [[archaeology]], that studies the material remains of human [[society|societies]]. Archaeology itself is normally treated as a separate (but related) field in the rest of the world, although closely related to the anthropological field of [[material culture]], which deals with physical objects created or used within a living or past group as mediums of understanding its cultural values. More recently, some anthropology programs began dividing the field into two, one emphasizing the [[humanities]] and [[critical theory]], the other emphasizing the [[natural science]]s and [[empiricism|empirical observation]]. ==Historical and institutional context== :''Main Article: [[History of anthropology]]'' The anthropologist [[T J Brewer]] once characterized anthropology as the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the sciences. Understanding how anthropology developed contributes to understanding how it fits into other academic disciplines. Contemporary anthropologists claim a number of earlier thinkers as their forebearers and the discipline has several sources. However, anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the [[Age of Enlightenment]]. It was during this period that Europeans attempted systematically to study human behavior. Traditions of [[jurisprudence]], [[history]], [[philology]] and [[sociology]] developed during this time and informed the development of the [[social sciences]] of which anthropology was a part. At the same time, the [[romanticism|romantic]] reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as [[Herder]] and later [[Wilhelm Dilthey]] whose work formed the basis for the culture concept which is central to the discipline. Institutionally anthropology emerged from [[natural history]] (expounded by authors such as [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon|Buffon]]). This was the study of human beings - typically people living in European [[colonialism|colonies]]. Thus studying the language, culture, physiology, and artifacts of European colonies was more or less equivalent to studying the flora and fauna of those places. It was for this reason, for instance, that [[Lewis Henry Morgan]] could write monographs on both ''The League of the Iroquois'' and ''The American Beaver and His Works''. This is also why the material culture of 'civilized' nations such as China have historically been displayed in fine arts museums alongside European art while artifacts from Africa or Native North American cultures were displayed in Natural History Museums with dinosaur bones and nature dioramas. This being said, curatorial practice has changed dramatically in recent years, and it would be wrong to see anthropology as merely an extension of colonial rule and European [[chauvinism]], since its relationship to [[imperialism]] was and is complex. Anthropology grew increasingly distinct from natural history and by the end of the nineteenth century the discipline began to crystallize into its modern form - by 1935, for example, it was possible for T.K. Penniman to write a history of the discipline entitled ''A Hundred Years of Anthropology''. Early anthropology was dominated by 'the comparative method'. It was assumed that all societies passed through a single evolutionary process from the most primitive to most advanced. Non-European societies were thus seen as evolutionary 'living fossils' that could be studied in order to understand the European past. Scholars wrote histories of prehistoric migrations which were sometimes valuable but often also fanciful. It was during this time that Europeans first accurately traced [[polynesia|Polynesian]] migrations across the [[Pacific Ocean]] for instance - although some of them believed it originated in [[Egypt]]. Finally, the concept of [[race]] was actively discussed as a way to classify - and rank - human beings based on inherent biological difference. In the twentieth century academic disciplines began to organize around three main domains. The "[[sciences]]" seeks to derive natural laws through reproducible and falsifiable experiments. The "[[humanities]]" reflected an attempt to study different national traditions, in the form of [[history]] and the [[art]]s, as an attempt to provide people in emerging nation-states with a sense of coherence. The "[[social sciences]]" emerged at this time as an attempt to develop scientific methods to address social phenomena, in an attempt to provide a universal basis for social knowledge. Anthropology does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains. Drawing on the methods of the [[natural science]]s as well as developing new techniques involving not only structured interviews but unstructured "participant-observation" – and drawing on the new [[theory of evolution]] through [[natural selection]], they proposed the scientific study of a new object: "humankind," conceived of as a whole. Crucial to this study is the concept "culture," which anthropologists defined both as a universal capacity and propensity for social learning, thinking, and acting (which they see as a product of human evolution and something that distinguishes Homo sapiens – and perhaps all species of genus ''[[Hominoid|Homo]]'' – from other species), and as a particular adaptation to local conditions that takes the form of highly variable beliefs and practices. Thus, "culture" not only transcends the opposition between nature and nurture; it transcends and absorbs the peculiarly European distinction between politics, religion, kinship, and the economy as autonomous domains. Anthropology thus transcends the divisions between the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities to explore the biological, linguistic, material, and symbolic dimensions of humankind in all forms. ==Anthropology in the U.S.== Anthropology in the United States was pioneered by staff of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Smithsonian Institution's Bureau of American Ethnology, such as John Wesley Powell and Frank Hamilton Cushing. Academic Anthropology was established by [[Franz Boas]], who used his positions at [[Columbia University]] and the [[American Museum of Natural History]] to train and develop multiple generations of students. Boasian anthropology was politically active and suspicious of research dictated by the U.S. government or wealthy patrons. It was also rigorously empirical and skeptical of over-generalizations and attempts to establish universal laws. Boas studied immigrant children in order to demonstrate that biological race was not immutable and that human conduct and behavior was the result of nurture rather than nature. Drawing on his German roots, he argued that the world was full of distinct 'cultures' rather than societies whose evolution could be measured by how much or how little 'civilization' they had. Boas felt that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations like those made in the [[natural science]]s were not possible. In doing so Boas fought discrimination against immigrants, African Americans, and Native North Americans. Many American anthropologists adopted Boas' agenda for social reform, and theories of race continue to be popular targets for anthropologists today. Boas's first generation of students included [[Alfred Kroeber]], [[Robert Lowie]], [[Edward Sapir]] and [[Ruth Benedict]]. All of these scholars produced richly detailed studies which described Native North America. In doing so they provided a wealth of details used to attack the theory of a single evolutionary process. Kroeber and Sapir's focus on Native American languages also helped establish [[linguistics]] as a truly general science and free it from its historical focus on [[Indo-European languages]]. The publication of [[Alfred Kroeber]]'s textbook ''Anthropology'' marked a turning point in American anthropology. After three decades of amassing material the urge to generalize grew. This was most obvious in the 'Culture and Personality' studies carried out by younger Boasians such as [[Margaret Mead]] and [[Ruth Benedict]]. Influenced by psychoanalytic psychologists such as [[Sigmund Freud]] and [[Carl Jung]], these authors sought to understand the way that individual personalities were shaped by the wider cultural and social forces in which they grew up. While such works as ''Coming of Age in Samoa'' and ''The Chrysanthemum and the Sword'' remain popular with the American public, Mead and Benedict never had the impact on the discipline of anthropology that some expected. Boas had planned for Ruth Benedict to succeed him as chair of Columbia's anthropology department, but she was sidelined by [[Ralph Linton]] and Mead was limited to her offices at the [[American Museum of Natural History|AMNH]]. ==Anthropology in Britain== Whereas Boas picked his opponents to pieces through attention to detail, in Britain modern anthropology was formed by rejecting historical reconstruction in the name of a science of society that focused on analyzing how societies held together in the present. The two most important names in this tradition were [[Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown]] and [[Bronislaw Malinowski]], both of whom released seminal works in 1922. Radcliffe-Brown's initial fieldwork in the [[Andaman Islands]] was carried out in the old style, but after reading [[Émile Durkheim]] he published an account of his research (entitled simply ''The Andaman Islanders'') which drew heavily on the French sociologist. Over time he developed an approach known as structural-functionalism, which focused on how institutions in societies worked to balance out or create an equilibrium in the social system to keep it functioning harmoniously. [[Bronislaw Malinowski|Malinowski]], on the other hand, advocated an unhyphenated 'functionalism' which examined how society functioned to meet individual needs. Malinowski is best known not for his theory, however, but for his detailed [[ethnography]] and advances in methodology. His classic ''Argonauts of the Western Pacific'' advocated getting 'the native's point of view' and an approach to field work that became standard in the field. Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown's success stem from the fact that they, like Boas, actively trained students and aggressively built up institutions which furthered their programmatic ambitions. This was particularly the case with Radcliffe-Brown, who spread his agenda for 'Social Anthropology' by teaching at universities across the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]. From the late 1930s until the post-war period a string of monographs and edited volumes appeared which cemented the paradigm of British Social Anthropology. Famous ethnographies include ''The Nuer'' by [[Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard]] and ''The Dynamics of Clanship Among the Tallensi'' by [[Meyer Fortes]], while well known edited volumes include ''African Systems of Kinship and Marriage'' and ''African Political Systems''. ==Anthropology in France== Anthropology in France has a less clear genealogy than the British and American traditions. Most commentators consider [[Marcel Mauss]] to be the founder of the French anthropological tradition. Mauss was a member of [[Émile Durkheim|Durkheim's]] [[Annee Sociologique]] group, and while Durkheim and others examined the state of modern societies, Mauss and his collaborators (such as [[Henri Hubert]] and [[Robert Hertz]]) drew on ethnography and philology to analyze societies which were not as 'differentiated' as European nation states. In particular, Mauss's ''Essay on the Gift'' was to prove of enduring relevance in anthropological studies of [[trade|exchange]] and [[reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]]. Throughout the interwar years, French interest in anthropology often dovetailed with wider cultural movements such as [[surrealism]] and [[primitivism (art movement)|primitivism]] which drew on ethnography for inspiration. [[Marcel Griaule]] and [[Michel Leiris]] are examples of people who combined anthropology with the French avant-garde. During this time most of what is known as ''ethnologie'' was restricted to museums, and anthropology had a close relationship with studies of [[folklore]]. Above all, however, it was [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] who helped institutionalize anthropology in France. In addition to the enormous influence his [[structuralism]] exerted across multiple disciplines, Lévi-Strauss established ties with American and British anthropologists. At the same time he established centers and laboratories within France to provide an institutional context within anthropology while training influential students such as [[Maurice Godelier]] and [[Francoise Heritier]] who would prove influential in the world of French anthropology. Much of the distinct character of France's anthropology today is a result of the fact that most anthropology is carried out in nationally-funded research laboratories rather than academic departments in universities. ==Anthropology after World War Two== Before [[World War II|WWII]] British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. It was after the war that the two would blend to create a 'sociocultural' anthropology. In the 1950s and mid-1960s anthropology tended increasingly to model itself after the [[natural science]]s. Some, such as [[Lloyd Fallers]] and [[Clifford Geertz]], focused on processes of modernization by which newly independent states could develop. Others, such as [[Julian Steward]] and [[Leslie White]] focused on how societies evolve and fit their ecological niche - an approach popularized by [[Marvin Harris]]. [[Economic anthropology]] as influenced by [[Karl Polanyi]] and practiced by [[Marshall Sahlins]] and [[George Dalton]] focused on how traditional [[economics]] ignored cultural and social factors. In England, British Social Anthropology's paradigm began to fragment as [[Max Gluckman]] and [[Peter Worsley]] experimented with Marxism and authors such as [[Rodney Needham]] and [[Edmund Leach]] incorporated Lévi-Strauss's structuralism into their work. Structuralism also influenced a number of development in 1960s and 1970s, including [[cognitive anthropology]] and componential analysis. Authors such as [[David Schneider]], [[Clifford Geertz]], and [[Marshall Sahlins]] developed a more fleshed-out concept of culture as a web of meaning or signification, which proved very popular within and beyond the discipline. In keeping with the times, much of anthropology became politicized through the [[Algerian War of Independence]] and opposition to the [[Vietnam War]]; [[Marxism]] became a more and more popular theoretical approach in the discipline. By the 1970s the authors of volumes such as ''Reinventing Anthropology'' worried about anthropology's relevance. In the 1980s issues of power, such as those examined in [[Eric Wolf]]'s ''Europe and the People Without History'' - were central to the discipline. Books like ''Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter'' pondered anthropology's ties to colonial inequality, while the immense popularity of theorists such as [[Antonio Gramsci]] and [[Michel Foucault]] moved issues of power and hegemony into the spotlight. Gender and sexuality became a popular topic, as did the relationship between history and anthropology, influenced by [[Marshall Sahlins]] (again) who drew on [[Claude Lévi-Strauss|Lévi-Strauss]] and [[Fernand Braudel]] to examine the relationship between social structure and individual agency. In the late 1980s and 1990s authors such as [[George Marcus]] and [[James Clifford]] pondered ethnographic authority, particularly how and why anthropological knowledge was possible and authoritative. Ethnographies became more reflexive, explicitly addressing the author's methodology and cultural positioning, and its influence on their ethnographic analysis. This was part of a more general trend of [[postmodernism]] that was popular contemporaneously. Currently anthropologists have begun to pay attention to globalization, medicine and biotechnology, indigenous rights, and the anthropology of Europe. ==Politics of anthropology== Anthropology's traditional involvement with nonwestern cultures has involved it in politics in many different ways. Some political problems arise simply because anthropologists usually have more power than the people they study. Some have argued that the discipline is a form of colonialist theft in which the anthropologist gains power at the expense of subjects. The anthropologist, they argue, can gain yet more power by exploiting knowledge and artifacts of the people he studies while the people he studies gain nothing, or even lose, in the exchange. An example of this exploitative relationship can been seen in the collaboration in Africa prior to World War II of British anthropologists (such as Fortes) and colonial forces. More recently, there have been newfound concerns about bioprospecting, along with struggles for self-representation for native peoples and the repatriation of indigenous remains and material culture. Other political controversies come from American anthropology's emphasis on cultural relativism and its long-standing antipathy to the concept of race. The development of [[sociobiology]] in the late 1960s was opposed by cultural anthropologists such as [[Marshall Sahlins]], who argued that these positions were reductive. While authors such John Randal Baker continued to develop the biological concept of race into the 1970s, the rise of genetics has proven to be central to developments on this front. Recently, [[Kevin B. MacDonald]] criticized Boasian anthropology as part of a "Jewish strategy to facilitate mass immigration and to weaken the West" ([[The Culture of Critique]],2002). As genetics continues to advance as a science some anthropologists such as Luca [[Cavalli-Sforza]] have continued to transform and advance notions of race through the use of recent developments in genetics, such as tracing past migrations of peoples through their mitcochondial and Y-chromosomal DNA, and [[ancestry-informative marker]]s. Finally, anthropology has a history of entanglement with government intelligence agencies and anti-war politics. Boas publicly objected to US participation in [[World War I]] and the collaboration of some anthropologists with US intelligence. In contrast, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the war effort in some form, including dozens who served in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] and the Office of War Information. In the 1950s, the [[American Anthropological Association]] provided the [[CIA]] information on the area specialities of its members, and a number of anthropologists participated in the U.S. government's [[Operation Camelot]] during the war in Vietnam. At the same time, many other anthropologists were active in the antiwar movement and passed resolutions in the [[American Anthropological Association]] (AAA) condemning anthropological involvement in covert operations. Anthropologists were also vocal in their opposition to the war in Iraq, although there was no consensus amongst practitioners of the discipline. Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the [[state]]. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The British Association for Social Anthropology has called certain scholarships ethically dangerous. For example, the British Association for Social Anthropology has condemned the [[CIA]]'s Pat Roberts Intelligence Scholars Program[http://avenue.org/ngic/about_prisp.htm], which funds anthropology students at US universities in preparation for them to spy for the [[United States]] government. The AAA's current 'Statement of Professional Responsibility' clearly states that "in relation with their own government and with host governments... no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given." Anthropology is the study of human diversity--diversity of body and behavior, in the past and present. Anthropology consists of four subfields or subdisciplines: '''Physical anthropology'''--studies the diversity of the human body in the past and present. It includes how we acquired the structure of our body over time, that is human evolution, as well as differences and relationships between human populations today and their adaptations to their local environments. It also sometimes includes the evolution and diversity of our nearest relatives, the primates (apes and monkeys). '''Cultural anthropology'''--studies the diversity of human behavior in the present. This is what most anthropologists do and what most of the public sees when they look at "National Geographic" magazine or the "Discovery" channel on TV. Cultural anthropologists travel to foreign societies (although it is possible to do anthropology on your own society!), live among the people there, and try as much as they can to understand how those people live. '''Archaeology'''--studies the diversity of human behavior in the past. Since it studies how people lived in the past, these people are not available for us to visit and talk to...or at least, not people who are currently living in the same way that their ancestors did in the past. Therefore, archaeologists must depend on the artifacts and features that the people produced in the past and attempt to reconstruct their vanished way of life from the remnants of their culture. '''Linguistic anthropology'''--studies the diversity of human language in the past and present. While language is naturally a part of culture, it is such a huge topic that anthropologists have separated it into its own area of study. Linguistic anthropologists are concerned about the development of languages, perhaps even back to the first forms of language, and how language changes over time. They are also interested in how different contemporary languages differ today, how they are related, and how we can learn about things like migration and diffusion from that data. They also ask how language is related to and reflects on other aspects of culture. Other sciences study humans too, of course. History, economics, psychology, sociology, even biology and chemistry can study humans. How is anthropology different? The answer is the anthropological perspective, that is, the way that anthropology approaches the subject and thinks about or studies humans and their behavior. The anthropological perspective has three components: (1) Cross-cultural or comparative--anthropology investigates humans in every form that they take. We are interested to see the entire spectrum of human bodies and behaviors, trying to learn the range of humanity--all the ways that we can be human. By seeing humans in their every manifestation, and comparing those manifestations to each other, we can ask what is possible for humans and what is necessary for humans. (2) Holistic--anthropology tries to relate every part of culture to every other part. It understands that the various parts of culture are connected to each other and that certain combinations tend to occur or not to occur (for example, there are no hunting and gathering cultures that traditionally lived in cities...that's just impossible!). We are also interested in how a people's cultures is connected to their environment; again, without high technology, you are not going to see farming or cities in the middle of the desert or the arctic. (3) Relativistic--this is the most profound yet controversial part of the anthropological perspective. Relativism means that the rules or norms or values of a culture are relative to that specific culture. In other words, say, monogamy may be normal or preferred in one culture, but polygamy may be normal or preferred in another. The point is that different cultures believe different things or value different things or even mean different things with perhaps identical-looking behaviors or objects. When you go to another culture, or even just interact with another culture (for example, when you are doing international business), you cannot assume that other people understand things the same way you do. In fact, you should assume that they don't! Anthropology counsels against hasty judgement of a new culture: aspects that a Western visitor may find strange or distasteful can be understood when situated within that culture's history and cosmology (understanding of the world). There will be a rationality for the phenomenon; it may be 'rational', however, according to a cultural logic that conflicts with Western understandings. Malinowski's primacy of seeking to understand "the native point of view" remains fundamental to socio-cultural anthropology today. The point is that, if we want to understand other people properly, we must see what their behaviors or words or concepts mean to them, not what they would mean to us. Meaning is relative to the culture that creates that meaning. This is not to say that all things are true or even that all things are good - cultural relativism does not necessarily entail moral relativism. Indeed, the American Anthropological Association's qualified support (1948; 1997) for the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as well as work by Sally Engle Merry, shows the latter is not a common anthropological point of view. How does anthropology study culture? One other way that anthropology is unique among the sciences that study humans is by its emphasis on 'fieldwork' You cannot get to know another culture just by reading about it or watching movies about it. At best, you could learn what other people have already discovered, but you could not learn anything new. So anthropology requires actually going to that society and living within their culture as much as possible. This is called [[Participant observation|participant observation]]. This depends crucially on finding (preferrably friendly) informants within the society, who will teach you their culture's rules of social behaviour, and include you in their activities. Then, as much as possible, you will try to eat their food, speak their language, and live their lives, often actually residing with a family in that society. It is not easy work, and it is not always fun, but there is no better way to learn. ==Anthropological fields and subfields== *[[Biological anthropology]] (also [[Physical anthropology]]) **[[Forensic anthropology]] **[[Paleoethnobotany]] *[[Cultural anthropology]] (also [[Social anthropology]]) **[[Anthropology of art]] **[[Applied anthropology]] **[[Cross-Cultural Studies]] **[[Cyber anthropology]] **[[Development anthropology]] **[[Dual inheritance theory]] **[[Environmental anthropology]] **[[Economic anthropology]] **[[Ecological anthropology]] **[[Ethnography]] **[[Ethnomusicology]] **[[Feminist anthropology]] **[[Gender]] **[[Human behavioral ecology]] **[[Medical anthropology]] **[[Psychological anthropology]] **[[Political anthropology]] **[[Anthropology of religion]] **[[Public anthropology]] **[[Urban anthropology]] **[[Visual anthropology]] *[[Anthropological linguistics|Linguistic anthropology]] **[[Descriptive linguistics|Synchronic linguistics]] (or Descriptive linguistics) **[[Diachronic linguistics]] (or [[Historical linguistics]]) **[[Ethnolinguistics]] **[[Sociolinguistics]] *[[Archaeology]] ==External links== *[http://www.aaanet.org/ The American Anthropological Association Homepage] - the webpage of the largest professional organization of anthropologists in the world. *[http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/wcpa/ow/09dbb3346fc1c2a4.html Race] - a book by John Randal Baker discussing the origins of racial classification and oppositions to the concept. *[http://www.antropologi.info Anthropology.Info] *[http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20001120&c=2&s=price Anthropologists as Spies] - an article by David Price examining the relationship between American Anthropology and US intelligence services. *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/4603271.stm Pat Roberts Intelligence Program] - a BBC article on the program *[http://www.antropologi.info/blog/anthropology Social and Cultural Anthropology in the News] - (nearly) daily updated blog *[http://www.anthrobase.com Anthrobase.com] - Collection of anthropological texts *[http://www.cybercultura.it Cybercultura] - Collection of web resources about anthropology of cyberspace (in Italian) *[http://www.anthropology.net Anthropology.net] - A community orientated anthropology web portal with user run blogs, forums, tags, and a wiki. *[http://sscl.berkeley.edu/~afaweb/reviews/index.html Association for Feminist Anthropology] ==See also== * [[List of anthropologists]] * [[List of publications in biology#Anthropology|Important publications in anthropology]] <!--What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Anthropology, please refer to [[Anthropology basic topics]].--> [[Category:Anthropology|Anthropology]] [[Category:Mammalogy]] [[Category:Behavioural sciences]] {{Social sciences-footer}} [[af:Antropologie]] [[an:Antropolochía]] [[ar: علم الإنسان]] [[ast:Antropoloxía]] [[bg:Антропология]] [[bm:Anthropologie]] [[bn:নৃতত্ত্ববিদ্যা]] [[bs:Antropologija]] [[ca:Antropologia]] [[co:Antropologia]] [[cs:Antropologie]] [[da:Antropologi]] [[de:Anthropologie]] [[el:Ανθρωπολογία]] [[eo:Antropologio]] [[es:Antropología]] [[et:Antropoloogia]] [[fa:مردم‌شناسی]] [[fi:Antropologia]] [[fr:Anthropologie]] [[fy:Antropology]] [[gl:Antropoloxía]] [[he:אנתרופולוגיה]] [[hi:मानव शास्त्र]] [[hr:Antropologija]] [[hu:Antropológia]] [[ie:Antropologie]] [[io:Antropologio]] [[it:Antropologia]] [[ja:人類学]] [[ko:인류학]] [[ku:Antropolojî]] [[ky:Антропология]] [[lt:Antropologija]] [[lv:Antropoloģija]] [[mk:Антропологија]] [[ms:Antropologi]] [[nl:Antropologie]] [[no:Antropologi]] [[pl:Antropologia]] [[pt:Antropologia]] [[ro:Antropologie]] [[ru:Антропология]] [[sa:मानवविज्ञानं]] [[scn:Antropoluggia]] [[simple:Anthropology]] [[sk:Antropológia]] [[sl:Antropologija]] [[su:Antropologi]] [[sv:Antropologi]] [[ta:மனிதவியல்]] [[th:มานุษยวิทยา]] [[tl:Antropolohiya]] [[tpi:Antropoloji]] [[tr:Antropoloji]] [[uk:Антропологія]] [[zh-min-nan:Jîn-lūi-ha̍k]] [[zh:人类学]] 570 41925879 2006-03-02T17:45:33Z Edgar181 491706 Revert to revision 41925705 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] {{portal}}'''Archaeology''' or '''archeology''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''αρχαίος'' = ancient and ''λόγος'' = word/speech/discourse) is the study of [[Homo (genus)|human]] [[culture]]s through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including [[architecture]], [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifact]]s, [[biofact]]s, human remains, and [[landscape]]s. The goals of archaeology are to document and explain the origins and development of human [[culture]], understand [[culture history]], chronicle [[cultural evolution]], and study human [[behavior]] and [[ecology]], for both [[prehistory|prehistoric]] and [[history|historic]] societies. It is considered to be one of the four sub-fields of [[anthropology]]. ==Usage== As with words such as [[encyclopedia]] and [[gynaecology]], archaeology traditionally has an ''ae'' combination; however, unlike other words, the ''ae'' is all but universally retained. Contrary to popular belief in other parts of the world, the spelling ''archeology'' is not predominant in [[United States]] [[dictionary|dictionaries]] and would look quite odd to most Americans. Like the claim that ''theater'' refers to a building and ''[[theatre]]'' refers to the [[performing arts]], the belief that ''archeology'' is an [[Americanism]] is little more than an [[urban myth]]. The traditional spelling, ''archaeology'', continues to be used in everyday writing throughout the world, including the U.S., even more so than theatre (the alternate spelling of which, while considered acceptable, is preferred less often than not). ==Ontology and definition== In the [[Old World]], archaeology has tended to focus on the study of physical remains, the methods used in recovering them and the theoretical and philosophical underpinnings in achieving the subject's goals. The discipline's roots in [[antiquarian]]ism and the study of [[Latin]] and [[Ancient Greek]] provided it with a natural affinity with the field of [[history]]. In the [[New World]], archaeology is more commonly devoted to the study of human [[society|societies]] and is treated as one of the four subfields of [[Anthropology]]. The other subfields of [[anthropology]] supplement the findings of archaeology in a holistic manner. These subfields are [[cultural anthropology]], which studies behavioural, symbolic, and material dimensions of culture; [[linguistics]], which studies language, including the origins of language and language groups; and [[physical anthropology]], which includes the study of human evolution and physical and [[genetics|genetic]] characteristics. Other disciplines also supplement archaeology, such as [[paleontology]], [[paleozoology]], [[paleoethnobotany]], [[paleobotany]], [[geography]], [[geology]], [[art history]], and [[classics]]. Archaeology has been described as a [[craft]] that enlists the [[science|sciences]] to illuminate the [[humanities]]. Writing in 1948, the American archaeologist [[Walter Taylor]] asserted that "Archaeology is neither history nor anthropology. As an autonomous discipline, it consists of a method and a set of specialised techniques for the gathering, or 'production' of cultural information". Archaeology is an approach to understanding human culture through its material remains regardless of chronology. In [[England]], archaeologists have uncovered the long-lost layouts of medieval villages abandoned after the crises of the 14th century and the equally lost layouts of 17th century parterre gardens swept away by a change in fashion. In downtown [[New York City]] archaeologists have exhumed the 18th century remains of the Black burial ground. Traditional Archaeology is viewed as the study of pre-historical human cultures; that is cultures that existed before the development of [[writing]] for that culture. [[Historical archaeology]] is the study of post-[[writing]] cultures. In the study of relatively recent cultures, which have been observed and studied by Western scholars, archaeology is closely allied with [[ethnography]]. This is the case in large parts of [[North America]], [[Oceania]], [[Siberia]], and other places where the study of archaeology mingles with the living traditions of the cultures being studied. [[Kennewick Man]] is an example of archaeology interacting with modern culture. In the study of cultures that were literate or had literate neighbours, [[history]] and archaeology supplement one another for broader understanding of the complete cultural context, as at [[Hadrian's Wall]]. ==Importance and applicability== Most of human history is not described by any written records. [[Writing]] did not exist anywhere in the world until about 5000 years ago, and only spread among a relatively small number of technologically advanced [[civilisation]]s. In contrast [[Homo Sapiens|''Homo sapiens'']] have existed for at least 200,000 years, and other species of [[Homo (genus)|''Homo'']] for millions of years (see [[Human evolution]]). These civilisations are, not coincidentally, the best-known; they have been open to the inquiry of historians for centuries, while the study of pre-historic cultures has arisen only recently. Even within a civilisation that is literate at some levels, many important human practices are not officially recorded. Any knowledge of the formative early years of human civilisation - the development of [[agriculture]], cult practices of [[folk religion]], the rise of the first [[city|cities]] - must come from archaeology. Even where written records do exist, they are invariably incomplete or biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the [[elite]] classes, such as the [[clergy]] or the [[bureaucracy]] of court or temple. The literacy even of an [[aristocracy]] has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are often quite different from the lives and interests of the rest of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into [[library|libraries]] and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases of the literate classes, and cannot be trusted as a sole source. The material record is nearer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject to its own inaccuracies, such as [[sampling bias]] and [[differential preservation]]. In addition to their scientific importance, archaeological remains sometimes have political significance to descendants of the people who produced them, monetary value to collectors, or simply strong [[aesthetic]] appeal. Many people identify archaeology with the recovery of such aesthetic, religious, political, or economic treasures rather than with the reconstruction of past societies. This view is often espoused in works of popular fiction, such as ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'', ''[[The Mummy (1999 movie)|The Mummy]]'', and ''[[King Solomon's Mines]]''. When such unrealistic subjects are treated more seriously, accusations of [[pseudoscience]] are invariably levelled at their proponents (see Pseudoarchaeology, below). However, these endeavours, real and fictional, are not representative of the modern state of archaeology. ==Goals== There is still a tremendous emphasis in the practice of archaeology on field techniques and methodologies. These include the tasks of surveying areas in order to find new sites, digging sites in order to unearth the cultural remains therein, and classification and preservation techniques in order to analyse and keep these remains. Every phase of this process can be a source of information. The goals of archaeology are not always the same. There are at least three broad, distinct theories of exactly what archaeological research should do. (These are beyond the scope of the present discussion, and are discussed at length below.) Nevertheless, there is much common ground. ===Academic sub-disciplines=== ''Main article: [[Archaeological sub-disciplines]]'' As with most [[academia|academic]] disciplines, there are a very large number of [[archaeological sub-disciplines]] characterised by a specific method or type of material (e.g. [[lithic analysis]], [[music (archaeology)|music]], [[archaeobotany]]), geographical or chronological focus (e.g. [[Near Eastern archaeology]], [[Medieval archaeology]]), other thematic concern (e.g. [[landscape archaeology]]), or a specific [[archaeological culture]] or [[civilisation]] (e.g. [[Egyptology]]). ===Cultural resources management=== ''[[Cultural resources management]]'' (CRM) (also called ''heritage management'' in Britain) is a branch of archaeology that accounts for most research done in the [[United States]] and much of that in [[western Europe]] as well. In the United States, CRM archaeology has been a growing concern since the passage of the [[National Historic Preservation Act]] of 1966 and most of the archaeology done in that country today proceeds from either direct or related requirements of that measure. In the United States, the vast majority of taxpayers, scholars, and politicians believe that CRM has helped to preserve much of that nation's history and prehistory that would have otherwise been lost in the expansion of cities, dams, and highways. Along with other statutes, this mandates that no construction project on [[public land]] or involving public funds may damage an unstudied [[archaeological site]]. The application of CRM in the United Kingdom is not limited to government-funded projects. Since 1990 [[PPG 16]] has required planners to consider archaeology as a [[material consideration]] in determining applications for new development. As a result, numerous archaeological organisations undertake mitigation work in advance of (or during) construction work in archaeologically sensitive areas, at the developer's expense. Among the goals of CRM are the identification, preservation, and maintenance of [[cultural]] sites on public and private lands, and the removal of culturally valuable materials from areas where they would otherwise be destroyed by human activity, such as proposed construction. This study involves at least a cursory examination to determine whether or not any significant archaeological sites are present in the area affected by the proposed construction. If these do exist, time and money must be allotted for their excavation. If initial survey and/or test excavation indicates the presence of an extraordinarily valuable site, the construction may be prohibited entirely. CRM is a thriving entity, especially in the United States and Europe where archaeologists from private companies and all levels of government engage in the practice of their discipline. Cultural resources management has, however, been criticized. CRM is conducted by private companies that bid for projects by submitting proposals outlining the work to be done and an expected budget. It is not unheard-of for the agency responsible for the construction to simply choose the proposal that asks for the least funding. CRM archaeologists face considerable time pressure, often being forced to complete their work in a fraction of the time that might be allotted for a purely scholarly endeavour. ==Field methods== ===Survey=== A modern archaeological project often begins with a [[archaeological survey|survey]]. ''Regional survey'' is the attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region. ''Site survey'' is the attempt to systematically locate features of interest, such as houses and [[midden|middens]], within a site. Each of these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods. Survey was not widely practiced in the early days of archaeology. Cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content with discovering the locations of monumental sites from the local populace, and excavating only the plainly visible features there. [[Gordon Willey]] pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the [[Viru Valley]] of coastal [[Peru]], and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later. Survey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place of, excavation. It requires relatively little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artefacts. (Nevertheless, surveying a large region or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ [[sampling (statistics)|sampling]] methods.) It avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendant peoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some forms of information, such as [[settlement pattern|settlement patterns]] and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into [[map|maps]], which may show surface features and/or artefact distribution. The simplest survey technique is ''surface survey''. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanised transport, to search for features or artefacts visible on the surface. Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as [[auger|augers]], [[corer|corers]], and [[shovel test]] pits. ''[[Aerial survey]]'' is conducted using [[camera|cameras]] attached to [[aircraft]], [[balloon|balloons]], or even [[kite|kites]]. A bird's-eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites. Aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface. [[Plant|Plants]] growing above a stone structure, such as a wall, will develop more slowly, while those above other types of features (such as [[midden|middens]]) may develop more rapidly. Photographs of ripening [[cereal|grain]], which changes colour rapidly at maturation, have revealed buried structures with great precision. Aerial survey also employs [[infrared]], ground-penetrating [[radar]] wavelengths, and [[thermography]]. ''[[Geophysical survey]]'' is the most effective way to see beneath the ground. [[Magnetometer|Magnetometers]] detect minute deviations in the [[Earth's magnetic field]] caused by [[iron]] artefacts, [[kiln|kilns]], some types of [[stone structures]], and even ditches and middens. Devices that measure the [[electrical resistivity]] of the soil are also widely used. Most soils are [[moisture|moist]] below the surface, which gives them a relatively low resistivity. Features such as hard-packed floors or concentrations of stone have a higher resistivity. Although some archaeologists consider the use of [[metal detector|metal detectors]] to be tantamount to treasure hunting, others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying. Examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on [[English Civil War]] battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a nineteenth century ship wreck, and service cable location during evaluation. Metal detectorists have also contributed to the archaeological record where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from their archaeological context. In the UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the [[Portable Antiquities Scheme]]. Regional survey in maritime archaeology uses [[side-scan sonar]]. ===Excavation=== [[Excavation|Archaeological excavation]] existed even when the field was still the domain of amateurs, and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects. It can reveal several types of information usually not accessible to survey, such as stratigraphy, three-dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context. Modern excavation techniques require that the precise locations of objects and features, known as their [[provenance]] or provenience, be recorded. This always involves determining their horizontal locations, and sometimes vertical position as well (also see [[Primary Laws of Archaeology]]). Similarly, their [[archaeological association|association]], or relationship with nearby objects and features, needs to be recorded for later analysis. This allows the archaeologist to deduce what artefacts and features were likely used together and which may be from different phases of activity. For example, excavation of a site reveals its [[stratigraphy]]; if a site was occupied by a succession of distinct [[culture|cultures]], artefacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures. Excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research. Also, as a destructive process, it carries [[ethics|ethical]] concerns. As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety. [[Sampling (statistics)|Sampling]] is even more important in excavation than in survey. It is common for large mechanical equipment, such as [[backhoe]]s ([[J. C. Bamford|JCBs]]), to be used in excavation, especially to remove the [[topsoil]] ([[overburden]]), though this method is increasingly used with great caution. Following this rather dramatic step, the exposed area is usually hand-cleaned with trowels or hoes to ensure that all features are apparent. The next task is to form a [[Archaeological plan|site plan]] and then use it to help decide the method of excavation. Features dug into the natural [[subsoil]] are normally excavated in portions in order to produce a visible [[archaeological section]] for recording. Scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site, black and white and colour photographs of them are taken, and recording sheets are filled in describing the [[context]] of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of the now-destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site. ==Post-excavation analysis== Once artefacts and structures have been excavated, or collected from surface surveys, it is necessary to properly study them, to gain as much data as possible. This process is known as post-excavation analysis, and is normally the most time-consuming part of the archaeological investigation. It is not uncommon for the final excavation reports on major sites to take years to be published. At its most basic, the artefacts found are cleaned, catalogued and compared to published collections, in order to classify them [[typology|typologically]] and to identify other sites with similar artefact assemblages. However, a much more comprehensive range of analytical techniques are available through [[archaeological science]], meaning that artefacts can be dated and their compositions examined. The bones, plants and pollen collected from a site can all be analysed (using the techniques of [[zooarchaeology]], [[paleoethnobotany]], and [[palynology]]), while any texts can usually be [[Decipherment|deciphered]]. These techniques frequently provide information that would not otherwise be known and therefore contribute greatly to the understanding of a site. ==History of archaeology== ''Main article: [[History of archaeology]]'' The history of archaeology has been one of increasing professionalisation, and the use of an increasing range of techniques, to obtain as much data on the site being examined as possible. Excavations of ancient monuments and the collection of antiquities have been taking place for thousands of years, but these were mostly for the extraction of valuable or aesthetically pleasing artefacts. It was only in the 19th century that the systematic study of the past through its physical remains began to be carried out. Archaeological methods were developed by both interested amateurs and professionals, including [[Augustus Pitt Rivers]] and [[William Flinders Petrie]]. This process was continued in the 20th century by such people as [[Mortimer Wheeler]], whose highly disciplined approach to excavation greatly improved the quality of evidence that could be obtained. During the 20th century, the development of [[urban archaeology]] and then [[rescue archaeology]] have been important factors, as has the development of [[archaeological science]], which has greatly increased the amount of data that it is possible to obtain. ==Archaeological theory== ''Main article: [[Archaeological theory]]'' There is no single theory of archaeology, and even definitions are disputed. Until the mid-20th century and the introduction of technology, there was a general consensus that archaeology was closely related to both history and anthropology. The first major phase in the history of archaeological theory is commonly referred to as '''[[Cultural-history archaeology|cultural, or culture, history]]''', which was developed during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In the 1960s, a number of young, primarily American archaeologists, such as [[Lewis Binford]], rebelled against the paradigms of cultural history. They proposed a "New Archaeology", which would be more "scientific" and "anthropological", with [[hypothesis]] testing and the [[scientific method]] very important parts of what became known as '''[[processual archaeology]]'''. In the 1980s, a new movement arose led by the British archaeologists [[Michael Shanks (archaeologist)|Michael Shanks]], [[Christopher Tilley]], [[Daniel Miller]], and [[Ian Hodder]]. It questioned processualism's appeals to science and impartiality and emphasised the importance of relativism, becoming known as '''[[post-processual archaeology]]'''. However, this approach has been criticised by processualists as lacking scientific rigour. The validity of both processualism and post-procuessualism is still under debate. Archaeological theory now borrows from a wide range of influences, including [[evolution|neo-Darwinian evolutionary thought]], [[phenomenology]], [[postmodernism]], [[Structure and agency|agency theory]], [[Cognitive archaeology|cognitive science]], [[Functionalism (sociology)|Functionalism]], [[Gender archaeology|gender-based]] and [[Feminist archaeology]], and [[Systems theory in archaeology|Systems theory]]. ==Public archaeology== Early archaeology was largely an attempt to uncover spectacular artifacts and features, or to explore vast and mysterious abandoned cities. Such pursuits continue to fascinate the public, portrayed in books (such as ''[[King Solomon's Mines]]'') and films (such as ''[[The Mummy (1999 movie)|The Mummy]]'' and ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]''). Much thorough and productive research has indeed been conducted in dramatic locales such as [[Copán]] and the [[Valley of the Kings]], but the stuff of modern archaeology is not so reliably sensational. In addition, archaeological adventure stories tend to ignore the painstaking work involved in modern [[archaeological survey|survey]], [[excavation]], and [[archaeological data processing|data processing]] techniques. Some archaeologists refer to such portrayals as "[[pseudoarchaeology]]". Nevertheless, archaeology has profited from its portrayal in the mainstream media. Many practitioners point to the childhood excitement of [[Indiana Jones]] films and [[Tomb Raider games]] as the inspiration for them to enter the field. Archaeologists are also very much reliant on public support, the question of exactly who they are doing their work for is often discussed. Without a strong public interest in the subject, often sparked by significant finds and celebrity archaeologists, it would be a great deal harder for archaeologists to gain the political and financial support they require. In the UK, popular archaeology programmes such as ''[[Time Team]]'' and ''[[Meet the Ancestors]]'' have resulted in a huge upsurge in public interest. Where possible, archaeologists now make more provision for public involvement and outreach in larger projects than they once did. However, the move towards being more professional has meant that volunteer places are now relegated to unskilled labour, and even this is less freely available than before. Developer-funded excavation necessitates a well-trained staff that can work quickly and accurately, observing the necessary [[health and safety]] and indemnity insurance issues involved in working on a modern [[construction|building site]] with tight deadlines. Certain charities and [[local government]] bodies sometimes offer places on research projects either as part of academic work or as a defined community project. There is also a flourishing industry selling places on commercial [[training excavations]] and archaeological holiday tours. Archaeologists prize local knowledge and often liaise with local historical and archaeological societies. Anyone looking to get involved in the field without having to pay to do so should contact a local group. ===Pseudoarchaeology=== ''Main article: [[Pseudoarchaeology]]''. Pseudoarchaeology is an umbrella term for all activities that claim to be archaeological but in fact violate commonly accepted archaeological practices. It includes much fictional archaeological work (discussed above), as well as some actual activity. Many non-fiction authors have ignored the scientific methods of [[processual archaeology]], or the specific critiques of it contained in [[Post-processual archaeology|Post-processualism]]. An example of this type is the writing of [[Erich von Däniken]]. His ''[[Chariots of the Gods]]'' (1968), together with many subsequent lesser-known works, expounds a theory of ancient contacts between human civilisation on Earth and more technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilisations. This theory, known as [[palaeocontact theory]], is not exclusively Däniken's nor did the idea originate with him. Works of this nature are usually marked by the renunciation of well-established theories on the basis of limited evidence, and the interpretation of evidence with a preconceived theory in mind. ===Looting=== Looting of archaeological sites by people in search of [[hoard|hoards]] of buried treasure is an ancient problem. For instance, many of the tombs of the Egyptian [[pharaoh|pharaohs]] were looted in antiquity. The advent of archaeology has made ancient sites objects of great scientific and public interest, but it has also attracted unwelcome attention to the works of past peoples. A brisk commercial demand for artefacts encourages looting and the [[illicit antiquities]] trade, which smuggles items abroad to private collectors. Looters damage the integrity of a historic site, deny archaeologists valuable information that would be learnt from excavation, and are often deemed to be robbing local people of their heritage. The popular consciousness often associates looting with poor [[Third World]] countries. Many are former homes to many well-known ancient civilizations but lack the financial resources or political will to protect even the most significant sites. Certainly, the high prices that intact objects can command relative to a poor farmer's income make looting a tempting financial proposition for some local people. However, looting has taken its toll in places as rich and populous as the United States and Western Europe as well. Abandoned towns of the ancient [[Sinagua]] people of [[Arizona]], clearly visible in the desert landscape, have been destroyed in large numbers by treasure hunters. Sites in more densely populated areas farther east have also been looted. Where looting is proscribed by law it takes place under cover of night, with the [[metal detector]] a common instrument used to identify profitable places to dig. ===Public outreach=== Motivated by a desire to halt '''looting''', curb '''pseudoarchaeology''', and to secure greater public funding and appreciation for their work, archaeologists are mounting '''public-outreach campaigns'''. They seek to stop looting by informing prospective artefact collectors of the provenance of these goods, and by alerting people who live near archaeological sites of the threat of looting and the danger that it poses to science and their own heritage. Common methods of public outreach include press releases and the encouragement of school field trips to sites under excavation. The final audience for archaeologists' work is the public and it is increasingly realised that their work is ultimately being done to benefit and inform them. The putative social benefits of local heritage awareness are also being promoted with initiatives to increase civic and individual pride through projects such as community excavation projects and better interpretation and presentation of existing sites. ===Descendant peoples=== In the United States, examples such as the case of [[Kennewick Man]] have illustrated the tensions between [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s and archaeologists which can be summarised as a conflict between a need to remain respectful towards burials sacred sites and the academic benefit from studying them. For years, American archaeologists dug on Indian burial grounds and other places considered sacred, removing artefacts and human remains to storage facilities for further study. In some cases human remains were not even thoroughly studied but instead archived rather than reburied. Furthermore, Western archaeologists' views of the past often differ from those of tribal peoples. The West views time as linear; for many natives, it is cyclic. From a Western perspective, the past is long-gone; from a native perspective, disturbing the past can have dire consequences in the present. To an archaeologist, the past is long-gone and must be reconstructed through its material remains; to indigenous peoples, it is often still alive. As a consequence of this, American Indians attempted to prevent archaeological excavation of sites inhabited by their ancestors, while American archaeologists believed that the advancement of scientific knowledge was a valid reason to continue their studies. This contradictory situation was addressed by the [[Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act]] (NAGPRA, 1990), which sought to reach a compromise by limiting the right of research institutions to possess human remains. Due in part to the spirit of postprocessualism, some archaeologists have begun to actively enlist the assistance of [[indigenous peoples]] likely to be descended from those under study. Archaeologists have also been obliged to re-examine what constitutes an archaeological site in view of what native peoples believe to constitute sacred space. To many native peoples, natural features such as lakes, mountains or even individual trees have cultural significance. Australian archaeologists especially have explored this issue and attempted to survey these sites in order to give them some protection from being developed. Such work requires close links and trust between archaeologists and the people they are trying to help and at the same time study. While this cooperation presents a new set of challenges and hurdles to fieldwork, it has benefits for all parties involved. Tribal elders cooperating with archaeologists can prevent the excavation of areas of sites that they consider sacred, while the archaeologists gain the elders' aid in interpreting their finds. There have also been active efforts to recruit aboriginal peoples directly into the archaeological profession. ====Repatriation==== A new trend in the heated controversy between [[First Nations]] groups and scientists is the [[repatriation]] of native [[artifacts]] to the original descendants. An example of this occurred June 21, 2005, when a community members and elders from a number of the 10 [[Algonquian]] nations in the [[Ottawa]] area convened on the Kitigan Zibi reservation in [[Kanawagi, Quebec]], to inter ancestral human remains and burial goods — some dating back 6,000 years. The ceremony marked the end of a journey spanning thousands of years and many miles. The remains and artifacts, including [[beads]], [[tools]] and [[weapons]], were originally excavated from various sites in the [[Ottawa Valley]], including [[Morrison]] and the [[Allumette Islands]]. They had been part of the [[Canadian Museum of Civilization]]’s research collection for decades, some since the late 1800s. Elders from various Algonquin communities conferred on an appropriate reburial, eventually deciding on traditional [[redcedar]] and [[birchbark]] boxes lined with redcedar chips, [[muskrat]] and [[beaver pelts]]. Now, an inconspicuous rock mound marks the reburial site where close to 90 boxes of various sizes are buried. Although negotiations were at times tense between the Kitigan Zibi community and museum, they were able to reach agreement (source: [http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/SO05/indepth/archaeology.asp Canadian Geographic Online]). ==See also== *[[List of significant archaeological discoveries]] *[[List of archaeological sites sorted by country]] *[[List of archaeologists]] *[[Biblical archaeology]] *[[List of archaeological periods]] *[[Prehistory]] ==External links== {{commonscat|Archaeology}} * [http://www.archeologia.be Archeologia belga] The Alphabetical of Archaeology. French Archaeology. * [http://www.archaeologynews.org Archaeology News] Current News and Information pertaining to all areas of archaeology, plus free news feeds for webmasters. *[http://www.northpacificprehistory.com North Pacific Prehistory] is an academic journal specialising in Northeast Asian and North American archaeology. * [http://nefer-seba.net/Archaeological-Fieldwork.php Excavation Sites] Archaeological work and volunteer pages. * [http://wasteflake.com/tiki-index.php?page=PopularArchaeology Archaeology in Popular Culture] * [http://www.anthropology-resources.org/ Anthropology Resources on the Internet] - Anthropology Resources on the Internet : a web directory, part of the WWW Virtual Library, with over 4000 links grouped in specialised topics. * [http://www.archaeology.org/ ''Archaeology'' magazine] published by the Archaeological Institute of America * [http://www.archaeologydirectory.com/ Archaeology Directory] - Directory of archaeological topics on the web. * [http://cctr.umkc.edu/user/fdeblauwe/iraq.html The 2003- Iraq War & Archaeology] Information about looting in Iraq. * [http://www.galilean-library.org/newarch.html Philosophy and the New Archaeology], an essay at the Galilean Library on the philosophical underpinnning of archaeology and the debate over the New Archaeology. * [http://www.african-archaeology.net/ WWW VL African Archaeology] - The african archaeology portal, part of the WWW Virtual Library : all the web sites relating to african archaeology are listed here. ==Further reading== * Ashmore, W. and Sharer, R. J., ''Discovering Our Past: A Brief Introduction to Archaeology'' Mountain View: Mayfield Publishing Company. ISBN 076741196X. This has also been used as a source. * Neumann, Thomas W. and Robert M. Sanford, ''Practicing Archaeology: A Training Manual for Cultural Resources Archaeology'' [http://www.rowmanlittlefield.com/ Rowman and Littlefield Pub Inc], August, 2001, hardcover, 450 pages, ISBN 0759100942 * Renfrew, Colin & Bahn, Paul G., ''Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice'', Thames and Hudson, 4th edition, 2004. ISBN 0500284415 * Sanford, Robert M. and Thomas W. Neumann, ''Cultural Resources Archaeology: An Introduction'', [http://www.rowmanlittlefield.com/ Rowman and Littlefield Pub Inc], December, 2001, trade paperback, 256 pages, ISBN 0759100950 * Trigger, Bruce. 1990. "A History of Archaeological Thought". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521338182 [[Category:Anthropology]] [[Category:Archaeology]] [[Category:Humanities occupations]] [[Category:Social sciences]] [[af:Argeologie]] [[als:Archäologie]] [[ar:علم الآثار]] [[an:Arquiolochía]] [[bg:Археология]] [[bn:প্রত্নতত্ত্ববিদ্যা]] [[bs:Arheologija]] [[ca:Arqueologia]] [[ceb:Arkeyolohiya]] [[cs:Archeologie]] [[cy:Archaeoleg]] [[da:Arkæologi]] [[de:Archäologie]] [[et:Arheoloogia]] [[el:Αρχαιολογία]] [[es:Arqueología]] [[eo:Arkeologio]] [[eu:Arkeologia]] [[fa:باستان‌شناسی]] [[fr:Archéologie]] [[fur:Archeologjie]] [[gl:Arqueoloxía]] [[ko:고고학]] [[hr:Arheologija]] [[io:Arkeologio]] [[id:Arkeologi]] [[ia:Archeologia]] [[is:Fornleifafræði]] [[it:Archeologia]] [[he:ארכאולוגיה]] [[ka:არქეოლოგია]] [[csb:Archeòlogijô]] [[ky:Археология]] [[sw:Akiolojia]] [[lad:Arkeolojiya]] [[la:Archaeologia]] [[lv:Arheoloģija]] [[lt:Archeologija]] [[lb:Archeologie]] [[li:Archeologie]] [[hu:Régészet]] [[mk:Археологија]] [[ms:Arkeologi]] [[nl:Archeologie]] [[ja:考古学]] [[no:Arkeologi]] [[nn:Arkeologi]] [[pl:Archeologia]] [[pt:Arqueologia]] [[ro:Arheologie]] [[ru:Археология]] [[sco:Airchaeologie]] [[sq:Arkeologjia]] [[scn:Archioluggìa]] [[simple:Archaeology]] [[sk:Archeológia]] [[sl:Arheologija]] [[sr:Археологија]] [[su:Arkéologi]] [[fi:Arkeologia]] [[sv:Arkeologi]] [[tl:Arkeolohiya]] [[ta:தொல்பொருளியல்]] [[th:โบราณคดี]] [[vi:Khảo cổ học]] [[tr:Kazıbilim]] [[uk:Археологія]] [[vo:Vönotav]] [[zh:考古学]] 571 15899102 2003-04-03T17:08:05Z Michael Hardy 4626 #REDIRECT [[Anomalous_phenomenon]] 572 40369957 2006-02-20T02:43:30Z Ceyockey 150564 Disambiguate [[GMO]] to [[Genetically modified organism]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] '''Agricultural science''' is a broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic, and [[social sciences]] that are used in the practice and understanding of [[agriculture]]. ([[veterinary medicine|Veterinary science]], but not [[animal science]], is often excluded from the definition.) ==Agriculture and agricultural science == The two terms are often confused. However, they cover different concepts: :Agriculture is the set of activities that transform the environment for the production of animals and plants for human use. Agriculture concerns techniques, including the application of agronomic research. :Agronomy is [[research and development]] related to studying and improving plant-based agriculture. Agricultural sciences include research and development on: * Production techniques (e.g., [[irrigation]] management, recommended [[nitrogen]] inputs) * Improving [[agricultural productivity|production]] in terms of quantity and quality (e.g., selection of [[drought]]-resistant crops and animals, development of new [[pesticide]]s, yield-sensing technologies, simulation models of crop growth, in-vitro [[cell culture]] techniques) * Transformation of primary products into end-[[consumer]] products (e.g., production, preservation, and packaging of [[dairy product]]s) * Prevention and correction of adverse environmental effects (e.g., [[soils retrogression and degradation|soil degradation]], [[waste management]], [[bioremediation]]) * [[Theoretical production ecology]], relating to crop production modeling * [[traditional agricultural systems]] such as which serve to feed most people in the world and which often retain integration with nature in a way that hs proven more sustainable than modern systems * Food production and demand on a global basis, with special attention paid to the major producers of China and India. == Agricultural science: a local science == With the exception of [[theoretical production ecology|theoretical agronomy]], research in agronomy, more than in any other field, is strongly related to local areas. It can be considered a science of [[ecoregions]], because it is closely linked to soil properties and [[climate]], which are never exactly the same from one place to another. Many people think an agricultural production system relying on local weather, [[soil]] characteristics, and specific crops has to be studied locally. Others feel a need to know and understand production systems in as many areas as possible, and the human dimension of interation with nature. == History of agricultural science == ''Main Article: [[History of agricultural science]]'' Agricultural science is seen by some to have began with [[Mendel]]'s insightful genetc work, but in modern terms might be better dated from the [[chemical fertilizer]] outputs of [[plant physiological]] understanding in eighteenth century [[Germany]]. Today it is very different from what it was even in 1950. Intensification of agriculture since the 1960s in developed and [[developing countries]], often referred to as the [[Green Revolution]], was closely tied to progress made in selecting and improving crops and animals for high productivity, as well as to developing additional inputs such as artificial [[fertilizer]]s and [[pesticide|phytosanitary product]]s. As the oldest and largest human intervention in nature, the environmental impact of agriculture in general and more recently [[intensive agriculture]], industrial development, and population growth have raised many questions among agricultural scientists and have led to the development and emergence of new fields. These include technological fields that assume the solution to technological problems lies in better technology, such as [[integrated pest management]], [[waste management|waste treatment]] technologies, [[landscape architecture]], [[genomics]], and [[agricultural philosophy]] fields that include references to food production as something essentially different from non-essential eeconomic 'goods'. In fact, the interaction between these two approaches provide a fertile field for deeper understanding in agricultural science. New technologies, such as [[biotechnology]] and [[computer science]] (for data processing and storage), and technological advances have made it possible to develop new research fields, including [[genetic engineering]], [[agrophysics]], improved [[statistics|statistical analysis]], and [[precision farming]]. Balancing these, as above, are the natural and human sciences of agricultural science that seek to understand the human-nature interactions of [[traditional agriculture]], including interaction of [[religion and agriculture]], and the non-material components of agricultural production systems. === Prominent agricultural scientists === * [[Norman Borlaug]] * [[Luther Burbank]] * [[Louis Pasteur]] * [[Gregor Mendel]] * [[Rene Dumont|René Dumont]] * [[George Washington Carver]] == Agricultural science and agriculture crisis== Agriculture sciences seek to feed the world's population while preventing [[biosafety]] problems that may affect human health and the [[Natural environment|environment]]. This requires promoting good management of [[natural resources]] and respect for the environment, and increasingly concern for the psychological wellbeing of all concerned in the food production and consumption system. Economic, environmental, and social aspects of agriculture sciences are subjects of ongoing debate. Recent crises (such as Avian Flu, [[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy|mad cow disease]] and issues such as the use of [[genetically modified organism]]s) illustrate the complexity and importance of this debate. == Fields of agricultural science == * [[Agricultural engineering]] * [[Agricultural philosophy]] * [[Biosystems engineering]] * [[Aquaculture]] * [[Agronomy]] and [[Horticulture]] * [[Agrophysics]] * [[Livestock|Animal science]] * Plant [[fertilizer|fertilization]], [[animal nutrition|animal]] and [[human nutrition]] * Plant protection and animal health * [[Soil science]], especially [[edaphology]]. * [[hydrology|water science]] * [[Agricultural biotechnology|Biotechnology]], [[genetic engineering]], and [[microbiology]] * Farming equipment * [[Irrigation]] and [[water management]] * Agricultural [[economics]] * [[Food science]] * [[Environmental science]] and [[environmental engineering|engineering]] * [[Waste management]] * [[Ecology]] and [[Natural environment|environment]] * [[Theoretical production ecology]] == See also == *[[Agricultural sciences basic topics]] *[[Agrology]] *[[Agronomy]] *[[History of agricultural science]] [[Category:Agriculture]] [[Category:Agronomy|*]] [[Category:Soil science]] [[bg:Аграрни науки]] [[da:Agronomi]] [[de:Agrarwissenschaft]] [[fr:Agronomie]] [[id:Agronomi]] [[it:Agronomia]] [[he:אגרונומיה]] [[nl:Landbouwkunde]] [[ja:農学]] [[pl:Agronomia]] [[fi:Maataloustiede]] [[sv:Agronomi]] [[th:เกษตรศาสตร์]] [[zh:农学]] 573 move=:edit= 42147983 2006-03-04T03:23:08Z Silence 84942 /* Alchemy in Medieval Europe */ {{featured article}} {{Otheruses}} [[Image:Alchemist's Laboratory, Heinrich Khunrath, Amphitheatrum sapientiae aeternae, 1595 c.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Alchemist's laboratory, by Hans Vredman de Vries, c 1595.]] '''Alchemy''' is an early [[protoscience|protoscientific]] and [[philosophy|philosophical]] discipline combining elements of [[chemistry]], [[metallurgy]], [[physics]], [[medicine]], [[astrology]], [[semiotics]], [[mysticism]], [[spiritualism]], and [[art]]. Alchemy has been practiced in ancient [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[India]], and [[China]], in [[Classical Antiquity|Classical]] [[Greece]] and [[Rome]], in the [[Caliphate|Islamic empire]], and then in [[Europe]] up to the 19th century &mdash; in a complex network of schools and philosophical systems spanning at least 2500 years. Western alchemy has always been closely connected with [[Hermeticism]], a philosophical and spiritual system that traces its roots to [[Hermes Trismegistus]], a [[syncretism|syncretic]] Egyptian-Greek deity and legendary alchemist. These two disciplines influenced the birth of [[Rosicrucianism]], an important esoteric movement of the 17th century. In the 19th century, as mainstream alchemy evolved into modern chemistry, its mystic and Hermetic aspects became the focus of a modern [[spiritual alchemy]], where material manipulations are viewed as mere symbols of spiritual transformations. The alchemists did not follow what is now known as the [[scientific method]], and much of the "knowledge" they produced was later found to be banal, limited, wrong, or meaningless. Today, the discipline is of interest mainly to [[history of science|historians of science]] and [[history of philosophy|philosophy]], and for its mystic, [[esoterism|esoteric]], and artistic aspects. Nevertheless, alchemy was one of the main precursors of modern [[science]]s, and we owe to the ancient alchemists the discovery of many substances and processes that are the mainstay of modern chemical and metallurgical industries. ==Overview== [[Image:William Fettes Douglas - The Alchemist.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The alchemist - by Sir [[William Fettes Douglas]].]] === Alchemy as a proto-science === The common perception of alchemists is that they were [[pseudoscience|pseudo-scientists]], [[crackpot]]s and [[charlatans]], who attempted to turn [[lead]] into [[gold]], believed that the universe was composed of the [[classical element|four elements]] of earth, air, fire, and water, and spent most of their time concocting miraculous [[medication|remedies]], [[poison]]s, and [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] [[potion]]s. This picture is rather unfair. Although many alchemists were indeed crackpots and charlatans, many were well-meaning and intelligent scholars, who were simply struggling to make sense of a subject which, as we now know, was far beyond the reach of their tools. These people were basically "proto-scientists", who attempted to explore and investigate the nature of chemical substances and processes. They had to rely on unsystematic experimentation, traditional know-how, [[rule of thumb|rules of thumb]], &mdash; and plenty of speculative thought to fill in the wide gaps in existing knowledge. Given these conditions, the mystic character of alchemy is quite understandable: to the early alchemist, chemical transformations could only seem like magical phenomena governed by incomprehensible laws, whose potential and limitations he had no way of knowing. Having discovered that a specific procedure could turn an earth-like ore into glistening metal, it was only natural to speculate that some different procedure could turn a metal into another. At the same time, it was clear to the alchemists that "something" was generally being conserved in chemical processes, even in the most dramatic changes of physical state and appearance; i.e. that substances contained some "principles" that could be hidden under many outer forms, and revealed by proper manipulation. Throughout the history of the discipline, alchemists struggled very hard to understand the nature of these principles, and find some order and sense in the results of their chemical experiments &mdash; which were often undermined by impure or poorly characterized reagents, the lack of quantitative measurements, and confusing and inconsistent nomenclature. In spite of those difficulties, and of many false turns and loops, the alchemists managed to make steady progress in the understanding of the natural world. To them we owe the discovery of many important substances and chemical processes, which paved the way for the modern science of chemistry, and are still the mainstay of today's chemical and metallurgical industries. === Alchemy as a philosophical and spiritual discipline === The best known goals of the [[alchemist]]s were the [[transmutation]] of common metals into [[gold]] or [[silver]], and the creation of a "[[universal panacea|panacea]]", a remedy that supposedly would cure all diseases and prolong life indefinitely. Starting with the Middle Ages, European alchemists invested much effort on the search for the "[[philosopher's stone]]", a mythical substance that was believed to be an essential ingredient for either or both of those goals. Alchemists enjoyed prestige and support through the centuries, though not for their pursuit of those unattainable goals, nor the mystic and philosophical speculation that dominates their literature. Rather it was for their mundane contributions to the "chemical" industries of the day &mdash; ore testing and refining, metalworking, production of ink, dyes, paints, and cosmetics, leather tanning, ceramics and glass manufacture, preparation of extracts and liquors, and so on. (It seems that the preparation of ''[[aqua vitae]]'', the "water of life", was a fairly popular "experiment" among European alchemists.) On the other hand, alchemists never had the intellectual tools nor the motivation to separate the physical (chemical) aspects of their craft from the metaphysical interpretations. Indeed, from antiquity until well into the [[Modern Age]], a physics devoid of metaphysical insight would have been as unsatisfying as a metaphysics devoid of physical manifestation. For one thing, the lack of common words for chemical concepts and processes, as well as the need for secrecy, led alchemists to borrow the terms and symbols of [[Bible|biblical]] and [[Paganism|pagan]] [[mythology]], [[astrology]], [[kabbalah]], and other mystic and [[esoterism|esoteric]] fields; so that even the plainest chemical recipe ended up reading like an abstruse magic incantation. Moreover, alchemists sought in those fields the theoretical frameworks into which they could fit their growing collection of disjointed experimental facts. Starting with the middle ages, some alchemists increasingly came to view these metaphysical aspects as the true foundation of alchemy; and chemical substances, physical states, and material processes as mere metaphors for spiritual entities, states and transformations. Thus, both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible and ephemeral state towards a perfect, healthy, incorruptible and everlasting state; and the philosopher's stone then represented some mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented some hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic [[alchemical symbol]]s, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; and must be laborously "decoded" in order to discover their true meaning. Some humanistic scholars now see these spiritual and metaphysical allegories as the truest and most valuable aspect of alchemy, and even claim that the development of chemistry out of alchemy was a "corruption" of the original Hermetic tradition. This is the view espoused by contemporary practitioners of [[spiritual alchemy]]. Most scientists, on the other hand, tend to take quite the opposite view: to them, the path from the material side of alchemy to modern chemistry was the "straight road" in the evolution of the discipline, while the metaphysically oriented brand of alchemy was a "wrong turn" that led to nowhere. In either view, however, the naïve interpretations of some practitoners or the fraudulent hopes fostered by others should not diminish the contribution of the more sincere alchemists. ===Alchemy and astrology=== Since its earliest times, alchemy has been closely connected to [[astrology]] &mdash; which, in Islam and Europe, generally meant the traditional [[Babylon]]ian-Greek school of astrology. Alchemical systems often postulated that each of the seven [[planet]]s known to the ancients "[[astrological sign|ruled]]" or was associated with a certain [[metal]]. See the separate article on [[astrology and alchemy]] for further details. ===Alchemy in the age of science=== Up to the 18th century, alchemy was actually considered serious science in Europe; for instance, [[Isaac Newton]] devoted considerably more of his time and writing to the study of alchemy than he did to either optics or physics, for which he is famous, (see [[Isaac Newton's occult studies]]). Other eminent alchemists of the Western world are [[Roger Bacon]], Saint [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Tycho Brahe]], [[Thomas Browne]], and [[Parmigianino]]. The decline of alchemy began in the 18th century with the birth of modern chemistry, which provided a more precise and reliable framework for matter transmutations and medicine, within a new grand design of the universe based on rational materialism. In the first half of the nineteenth century, one established chemist, Baron [[Carl Reichenbach]], researched on concepts similar to the old alchemy, such as the [[Odic force]], but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion. Matter transmutation, the old goal of alchemy, enjoyed a moment in the sun in the 20th century when physicists were able to convert lead atoms into gold atoms via a [[nuclear reaction]]. However, the new gold atoms, being unstable [[isotope]]s, lasted for under five seconds before they broke apart. More recently, reports of table-top element transmutation — by means of [[electrolysis]] or [[sonic cavitation]] — were the pivot of the [[cold fusion]] controversy of 1989. None of those claims have yet been reliably duplicated. Alchemical symbolism has been occasionally used in the 20th century by [[psychology|psychologists]] and philosophers. [[Carl Jung]] reexamined alchemical symbolism and theory and began to show the inner meaning of alchemical work as a [[spirituality|spiritual]] path. Alchemical philosophy, symbols and methods have enjoyed something of a renaissance in [[post-modernism|post-modern]] contexts, such as the [[New Age]] movement. Even some physicists have played with alchemical ideas in books such as ''[[The Tao of Physics]]'' and ''[[The Dancing Wu Li Masters]]''. ===Alchemy as a subject of historical research === The history of alchemy has become a vigorous academic field. As the obscure&mdash;''hermetic'', of course&mdash;language of the alchemists is gradually being "deciphered", historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, [[kabbala|kabbalism]], [[spiritualism]], [[Rosicrucianism]], and other mystic movements, [[cryptography]], [[witchcraft]]&mdash;and, of course, the evolution of [[science]] and [[philosophy]]. ==Etymology== {{Wiktionarypar|alchemy}} The word ''alchemy'' comes from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''al-k&#299;miya&#704;'' or ''al-kh&#299;miya&#704;'' (&#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1610;&#1605;&#1610;&#1575;&#1569; or &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1610;&#1605;&#1610;&#1575;&#1569;), which might be formed from the article ''al-'' and the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''chumeia'' (&chi;η&mu;&epsilon;&#943;&alpha;) meaning "cast together", "pour together", "weld", "alloy", etc. (from ''khumatos'', "that which is poured out, an ingot", or from Persian ''Kimia'' meaning "gold." A decree of [[Diocletian]], written about 300 CE in Greek, speaks against "the ancient writings of the Egyptians, which treat of the ''kh&#275;mia'' [transmutation] of gold and silver". It has been suggested that the Arabic word ''al-k&#299;miya&#704;'' actually means "the Egyptian [science]", borrowing from the [[Coptic language|Coptic]] word for "Egypt", ''k&#275;me'' (or its equivalent in the Mediaeval [[Bohairic]] dialect of Coptic, ''kh&#275;me''). The Coptic word derives from [[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]] ''km&#7881;'', itself from ancient [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] ''kmt''. The ancient Egyptian word referred to both the country and the colour "black" (Egypt was the "Black Land", by contrast with the "Red Land", the surrounding desert); so this etymology could also explain the nickname "Egyptian black arts". However, this theory may be just an example of [[folk etymology]]. ==History== [[Image:Alchemy-Digby-RareSecrets.png|thumb|right|300px|Extract and symbol key from a 17th century book on alchemy. The symbols used have a one-to-one correspondence with symbols used in [[astrology]] at the time.]] Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and "genetic" relationships. One can distinguish at least two major strands, which appear to be largely independent, at least in their earlier stages: [[Chinese alchemy]], centered in [[China]] and its zone of cultural influence; and [[Western alchemy]], whose center has shifted over the millennia between [[Egypt]], [[Greece]] and [[Rome]], the [[Islam]]ic world, and finally back to [[Europe]]. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to [[Taoism]], whereas Western alchemy developed its own philosophical system, with only superficial connections to the major Western religions. It is still an open question whether these two strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other. ===Alchemy in Ancient Egypt=== The origin of western alchemy may generally be traced to [[Ancient Egypt|ancient (pharaonic) Egypt]]. [[Metallurgy]] and [[mysticism]] were inexorably tied together in the ancient world, as the transformation of drab ore into shining metal must have seemed to be an act of magic governed by mysterious rules. It is claimed therefore that Alchemy in ancient Egypt was the domain of the priestly class. Egyptian alchemy is known mostly through the writings of ancient (Hellenic) [[Greece|Greek]] philosophers, which in turn have often survived only in Islamic translations. Practically no original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived. Those writings, if they existed, were likely lost when the [[Roman Emperor|emperor]] [[Diocletian]] ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria (292), which had been a center of Egyptian alchemy. Nevertheless [[archaeological]] expeditions in recent times have unearthed evidence of chemical analysis during the [[Naqada]] periods. For example, a [[copper]] tool dating to the [[Naqada]] era bears evidence of having been used in such a way (reference: artifact 5437 on display at [http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/naqada/tombs/finds7.html]). Also, the process of [[tanning]] [[animal]] [[Rawhide|skins]] was already known in [[Predynastic Egypt]] as early as the [[6th millennium BC]] [http://www.touregypt.net/ebph5.htm]; although it possibly was discovered haphazardly. Other evidence indicates early alchemists in [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egypt]] had invented [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]] by [[4000 BC]] and [[glass]] by [[1500 BC]]. The chemical reaction involved in the production of [[Calcium Oxide]] is one of the oldest known (references: [[Calcium Oxide]], [[limekiln]]): :CaCO₃ + heat → CaO + CO₂. [[Ancient Egypt]] additionally produced [[cosmetics]], [[cement]], [[faience]] and also [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]] for [[shipbuilding]]. [[Papyrus]] had also been invented by [[3000 BC]]. Legend has it that the founder of Egyptian alchemy was the [[deity|god]] [[Thoth]], called Hermes-Thoth or Thrice-Great Hermes (''[[Hermes Trismegistus]]'') by the Greek. According to legend, he wrote what were called the forty-two Books of Knowledge, covering all fields of knowledge—including alchemy. Hermes's symbol was the [[caduceus]] or serpent-staff, which became one of many of alchemy's principal symbols. The "[[Emerald Tablet]]" or ''[[Hermetica]]'' of Thrice-Great Hermes, which is known only through Greek and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] translations, is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the [[hermeticism|hermetic philosophy]] by its early practitioners. The first point of the "Emerald Tablet" tells the purpose of hermetical science: "in truth certainly and without doubt, whatever is below is like that which is above, and whatever is above is like that which is below, to accomplish the miracles of one thing." {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 196-7|a}} This is the [[macrocosm]]-[[microcosm]] belief central to the hermetic philosophy. In other words, the human body (the microcosm) is affected by the exterior world (the macrocosm), which includes the heavens through [[astrology]], and the earth through the [[classical element|element]]s. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt,p. 34-42|b}} It has been speculated that a riddle from the Emerald Tablet—"it was carried in the womb by the wind"—refers to the distillation of oxygen from [[sodium nitrate|saltpeter]]—a process that was unknown in Europe until its (re)discovery by Sendivogius in the 17th century. In the 4th century BC, the Greek-speaking [[Macedon|Macedonia]]ns conquered Egypt and founded the city of Alexandria in 332. This brought them into contact with Egyptian ideas. See [[#Alchemy in the Greek world|Alchemy in the Greek World]] below. ===Chinese alchemy=== Whereas Western alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble ones, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The [[philosopher's stone]] of European alchemists can be compared to the [[Elixir of life|Grand Elixir of Immortality]] sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the [[universal panacea]]; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than it initially appears. [[Black powder]] may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. Described in 9th century texts and used in [[fireworks]] by the 10th Century, it was used in [[cannon]]s by 1290. From China, the use of gunpowder spread to [[Japan]], the [[Mongol]]s, the Arab world and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe starting with the 14th century. Black powder was most likely invented in the middle east before it found its way to China. Saltpeter, the critical oxidising component, was found naturally in India and along the Salt trade routes in the Middle East. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of [[traditional Chinese medicine|medicine]], such as [[Acupuncture]] and [[Moxibustion]], and to [[martial arts]] such as [[Tai Chi Chuan]] and [[Kung Fu]] (although some Tai Chi schools believe that their art derives from the Hygienic or Philosophical branches of Taoism, not the Alchemical). ===Indian alchemy=== Little is known in the West about the character and history of [[India]]n alchemy. An 11th century [[Iran|Persia]]n alchemist named [[al-Biruni]] reported that they "have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them, which is called [[Rasavātam]]. It means the art which is restricted to certain operations, drugs, compounds, and medicines, most of which are taken from plants. Its principles restored the health of those who were ill beyond hope and gave back youth to fading old age." The best example of a text based on this science is ''The Vaishashik Darshana'' of [[Kanad]]a (fl. 600 BC), who described an atomic theory over a century before Democritus. The texts of [[Ayurvedic]] Medicine and Science have aspects related to alchemy, such having cures for all known diseases. The similarities in [[Ayurveda]] and alchemy are that both had methods used to treat people by putting oils over them. Some people have also noted certain similarities between the [[metaphysics]] of the [[Samkhya]] philosophical tradition of Hinduism and the metaphysics of alchemy. Whether there is any direct connection between the two systems is an open question. The Rasavadam was understood by very few people at the time. Two famous examples were Nagarjunacharya and Nityanadhiya. Nagarjunacharya was a buddhist monk who, in ancient times, ran the great university of Nagarjuna Sagar. His famous book, Rasaratanakaram, is a famous example of early Indian medicine. In traditional Indian medicinal terminology 'rasa' translates as 'mercury' and Nagarjunacharya was said to have developed a method to convert the mercury into gold. Much of his original writings are lost to us, but his teachings still have strong influence on traditional Indian medicine (Ayureveda) to this day. ===Alchemy in the Greek world=== The Greek city of [[Alexandria]] in Egypt was a center of Greek alchemical knowledge, and retained its preeminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods. The Greeks appropriated the hermetical beliefs of the Egyptians and melded with them the philosophies of [[Pythagoras|Pythagoreanism]], [[ionianism]], and [[gnosticism]]. Pythagorean philosophy is, essentially, the belief that numbers rule the universe, originating from the observations of sound, stars, and geometric shapes like triangles, or anything from which a [[ratio]] could be derived. [[Ionia]]n thought was based on the belief that the universe could be explained through concentration on [[phenomenon|natural phenomena]]; this philosophy is believed to have originated with [[Thales]] and his pupil [[Anaximander]], and later developed by [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]], whose works came to be an integral part of alchemy. According to this belief, the universe can be described by a few unified [[law (principle)|natural laws]] that can be determined only through careful, thorough, and exacting philosophical explorations. The third component introduced to hermetical philosophy by the Greeks was [[gnosticism]], a belief prevalent in the Christian and early post-Christian [[Roman empire]], that the world is imperfect because it was created in a flawed manner, and that learning about the nature of spiritual matter would lead to salvation. They further believed that [[god (monotheism)|God]] did not "create" the universe in the classic sense, but that the universe was created "from" him, but was corrupted in the process (rather than becoming corrupted by the transgressions of Adam and Eve, i.e. [[original sin]]). According to Gnostic belief, by worshipping the cosmos, nature, or the creatures of the world, one worships the True God. Gnostics do not seek salvation from sin, but instead seek to escape ignorance, believing that sin is merely a consequence of ignorance. Platonic and neo-Platonic theories about universals and the omnipotence of God were also absorbed. One very important concept introduced at this time, originated by [[Empedocles]] and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: ''earth'', ''air'', ''water'', and ''fire''. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed. {{ref_harvard|Lindsay|Lindsay, p. 16|a}} The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are. "...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form." {{ref_harvard|Hitchcock|Hitchcock, p. 66|a}} Later alchemists (if Plato and Aristotle can be called alchemists) extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept. ===Alchemy in the Roman Empire=== The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] adopted Greek alchemy and metaphysics, just as they adopted much of Greek knowledge and philosophy. By the end of the [[Roman empire]] the Greek alchemical philosophy had been joined to the philosophies of the Egyptians to create the cult of Hermeticism. {{ref_harvard|Lindsay|Lindsay|b}} However, the development of [[Christianity]] in the Empire brought a contrary line of thinking, stemming from [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] (354-430 AD), an early Christian philosopher who wrote of his beliefs shortly before the [[fall of the Roman Empire]]. In essence, he felt that [[reason]] and [[faith]] could be used to understand God, but [[experimental philosophy]] was evil: "There is also present in the soul, by means of these same bodily sense, a kind of empty longing and curiosity which aims not at taking pleasure in the flesh but at acquiring experience through the flesh, and this empty curiosity he is dignified by the names of learning and science." {{ref_harvard|Augustine|Augustine, p. 245|a}} Augustinian ideas were decidedly anti-experimental, yet when Aristotelian experimental techniques were made available to the West they were not shunned. Still, Augustinian thought was well ingrained in [[medieval society]] and was used to show alchemy as being un-Godly. Much of the Roman knowledge of Alchemy, like that of the Greeks and Egyptians, is now lost. In Alexandria, the centre of alchemical studies in the Roman Empire, the art was mainly oral and in the interests of secrecy little was committed to paper. (Whence the use of "hermetic" to mean "secretive".) {{ref_harvard|Lindsay|Lindsay, p. 155|c}} It is possible that some writing was done in Alexandria, and that it was subsequently lost or destroyed in fires and the turbulent periods that followed. ===Alchemy in the Islamic world=== After the fall of the Roman Empire, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Middle East. Much more is known about [[Islam]]ic alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Islamic translations. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt p. 46|c}} The Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. [[Plato]]nic and [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated. Islamic alchemists such as [[Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi|al-Razi]] (Latin Rasis or Rhazes) contributed key chemical discoveries of their own, such as the technique of [[distillation]] (the words ''[[alembic]]'' and ''[[alcohol]]'' are of [[Arabic language|Arabic]] origin), the [[hydrochloric acid|muriatic]], [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]], and [[nitric acid|nitric]] acids, [[sodium carbonate|soda]], [[potash]], and more. (From the Arabic names of the last two substances, ''al-natrun'' and ''al-qalīy'', Latinized into ''Natrium'' and ''Kalium'', come the modern symbols for [[sodium]] and [[potassium]].) The discovery that [[aqua regia]], a mixture of nitric and muriatic acids, could dissolve the noblest metal; gold, was to fuel the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium. Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably [[Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan|Jabir Ibn Hayyan]] (Arabic &#1580;&#1575;&#1576;&#1585; &#1573;&#1576;&#1606; &#1581;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;, Latin Geberus; usually rendered in English as Geber). Jabir's ultimate goal was [[takwin]], the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to and including human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of ''hotness'', ''coldness'', ''dryness'', and ''moistness''. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burkhardt, p. 29|d}} According to Geber, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 29|e}} By this reasoning, the search for the [[philosopher's stone]] was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate [[numerology]] whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties. It is now commonly accepted that Chinese alchemy influenced Arabic alchemists {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes pp. 33-59|a}}{{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 10-22|f}}, although the extent of that influence is still a matter of debate. Likewise, [[Hinduism|Hindu]] learning was assimilated into Islamic alchemy, but again the extent and effects of this are not well known. ===Alchemy in Medieval Europe=== [[Image:JosephWright-Alchemist-1.jpg|thumb|250px|right|''The Alchemist in Search of the Philosophers Stone''. By [[Joseph Wright of Derby]], [[1771]].]] Because of its strong connections to the Greek and Roman cultures, alchemy was rather easily accepted into Christian philosophy, and Medieval European alchemists extensively absorbed Islamic alchemical knowledge. [[Gerbert of Aurillac]], who was later to become [[Pope Silvester II]], (d. 1003) was among the first to bring Islamic science to Europe from [[Spain]]. Later men such as [[Adelard of Bath]], who lived in the 12th century, brought additional learning. But until the 13th century the moves were mainly assimilative. {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister p. 124, 294|a}} In this period there appeared some deviations from the [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustinian]] principles of earlier Christian thinkers. [[Anselm of Canterbury|Saint Anselm]] (1033–1109) was a Benedictine who believed faith must precede rationalism, as Augustine and most theologians prior to Anselm had believed, but Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. His views set the stage for the philosophical explosion to occur. [[Peter Abelard]] followed Anselm's work, laying the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle reached the West. His major influence on alchemy was his belief that Platonic universals did not have a separate existence outside of man's [[consciousness]]. Abelard also systematized the analysis of philosophical contradictions. {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister, p. 287-8|b}} [[Robert Grosseteste]] (1170–1253) was a pioneer of the scientific theory that would later be used and refined by the alchemists. He took Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observations, experimentation, and conclusions in making scientific evaluations. Grosseteste also did much work to bridge Platonic and Aristotelian thinking. {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister pp. 294-5|c}} [[Albertus Magnus]] (1193–1280) and [[Thomas Aquinas]] (1225–1274) were both [[Dominican Order|Dominican]]s who studied Aristotle and worked at reconciling the differences between philosophy and Christianity. Aquinas also did a great deal of work in developing the [[scientific method]]. He even went as far as claiming that universals could be discovered only through [[logical reasoning]], and, since [[reason]] could not run in opposition to God, reason must be compatible with [[theology]]. {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister p. 290-4, 355|d}}. This ran contrary to the commonly held Platonic belief that universals were found through [[divine illumination]] alone. Magnus and Aquinas were among the first to take up the examination of alchemical theory, and could be considered to be alchemists themselves, except that these two did little in the way of [[experimentation]]. The first true alchemist in Medieval Europe was [[Roger Bacon]]. His work did as much for alchemy as [[Robert Boyle]]'s was to do for [[chemistry]] and [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]]'s for [[astronomy]] and [[physics]]. Bacon (1214–1294) was an Oxford [[Franciscan]] who explored [[optics]] and [[linguistics|languages]] in addition to alchemy. The Franciscan ideals of taking on the world rather than rejecting the world led to his conviction that experimentation was more important than reasoning: "Of the three ways in which men think that they acquire [[knowledge]] of things: authority, [[reason|reasoning]], and [[experience]]; only the last is effective and able to bring peace to the intellect." (Bacon p. 367) "[[Experimental Science]] controls the conclusions of all other sciences. It reveals truths which reasoning from [[law (principle)|general principles]] would never have discovered." {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister p. 294-5|e}} Roger Bacon has also been attributed with originating the search for the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life: "That medicine which will remove all impurities and corruptibilities from the lesser metals will also, in the opinion of the wise, take off so much of the corruptibility of the body that human life may be prolonged for many centuries." The idea of [[immortality]] was replaced with the notion of [[longevity|long life]]; after all, man's time on Earth was simply to wait and prepare for immortality in the world of God. Immortality on Earth did not mesh with Christian theology. {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes p. 37-8|b}} Bacon was not the only alchemist of the high middle ages, but he was the most significant. His works were used by countless alchemists of the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries. Other alchemists of Bacon's time shared several traits. First, and most obviously, nearly all were members of the clergy. This was simply because few people outside the parochial schools had the education to examine the Arabic-derived works. Also, alchemy at this time was sanctioned by the church as a good method of exploring and developing theology. Alchemy was interesting to the wide variety of churchmen because it offered a rationalistic view of the universe when men were just beginning to learn about rationalism. {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes p. 24-7|c}} So by the end of the thirteenth century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (e.g., if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the [[soul|human soul]].) They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded [[jargon]] set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made [[observation]]s and [[theory|theories]] about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt p. 149|g}} In the fourteenth century, these views underwent a major change. [[William of Ockham]], an [[Oxford]] Franciscan who died in 1349, attacked the [[Thomist]] view of compatibility between faith and reason. His view, widely accepted today, was that God must be accepted on faith alone; He could not be limited by human reason. Of course this view was not incorrect if one accepted the postulate of a limitless God versus limited human reasoning capability, but it virtually erased alchemy from practice in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister p. 335|f}} [[Pope John XXII]] in the early 1300s issued an edict against alchemy, which effectively removed all church personnel from the practice of the Art. {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes, p.49|d}} The climate changes, [[Black Death|Black plague]], and increase in [[war|warfare]] and [[famine]] that characterized this century no doubt also served to hamper philosophical pursuits in general. [[Image:flamel-figures.png|thumb|250px|[[Nicholas Flamel]] had these mysterious alchemical symbols carved on his [[tomb]] in the Church of the [[Holy Innocents]] in Paris.]] Alchemy was kept alive by men such as [[Nicolas Flamel]], who was noteworthy only because he was one of the few alchemists writing in those troubled times. Flamel lived from 1330 to 1417 and would serve as the [[archetype]] for the next phase of alchemy. He was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone, which he is reputed to have found; his work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of his work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosophers' stone. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt pp.170-181|h}} Through the [[high middle ages]] (1300-1500) alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone and the elixir of youth, now believed to be separate things. Their cryptic allusions and [[symbolism]] led to wide variations in interpretation of the art. For example, many alchemists during this period interpreted the purification of the soul to mean the [[transmutation]] of lead into gold (in which they believed elemental [[mercury (element)|mercury]], or 'quicksilver', played a crucial role). These men were viewed as [[magic (paranormal)|magicians and sorcerers]] by many, and were often persecuted for their practices. {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes pp. 50-75|e}}{{ref_harvard|Norton|Norton pp lxiii-lxvii|a}} One of these men who emerged at the beginning of the sixteenth century was named [[Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa]]. This alchemist believed himself to be a wizard and actually thought himself capable of summoning [[spiritual being|spirit]]s. His influence was negligible, but like Flamel, he produced writings which were referred to by alchemists of later years. Again like Flamel, he did much to change alchemy from a mystical philosophy to an [[occult]]ist magic. He did keep alive the philosophies of the earlier alchemists, including experimental science, numerology, etc., but he added magic theory, which reinforced the idea of alchemy as an occultist belief. In spite of all this, Agrippa still considered himself a Christian, though his views often came into conflict with the church. {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes p.56-9|f}}{{ref_harvard|Wilson|Wilson p.23-9|a}} ===Alchemy in the Modern Age and Renaissance=== European alchemy continued in this way through the dawning of the [[Renaissance]]. The era also saw a flourishing of [[con artist]]s who would use chemical tricks and sleight of hand to "demonstrate" the transmutation of common metals into gold, or claim to possess secret knowledge that — with a "small" initial investment — would surely lead to that goal. The most important name in this period is Philippus Aureolus [[Paracelsus]], (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) who cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of the occultism that had accumulated over the years and promoting the use of observations and experiments to learn about the human body. He rejected Gnostic traditions, but kept much of the Hermetical, neo-Platonic, and Pythagorean philosophies; however, Hermetical science had so much Aristotelian theory that his rejection of Gnosticism was practically meaningless. In particular, Paracelsus rejected the magic theories of Agrippa and Flamel. He did not think of himself as a magician, and scorned those who did. (Williams p.239-45) Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine, and wrote "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines." {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes, p.47|g}} His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. {{ref_harvard|Debus|Debus & Multhauf, p.6-12|a}} While his attempts of treating diseases with such remedies as Mercury might seem ill-advised from a modern point of view, his basic idea of chemically produced medicines has stood time surprisingly well. [[Image:Alchemik Sedziwoj Matejko.JPG|thumb|left|400px|Alchemist Michal Sedziwoj|"Alchemik Michał Sędziwój", oil on board by [[Jan Matejko]], 73 x 130 cm, Museum of Arts in [[Łódź]].]] In [[England]], the topic of alchemy in that time frame is often associated with Doctor [[John Dee]] ([[13 July]] [[1527]] – December, 1608), better known for his role as [[astrologer]], cryptographer, and general "scientific consultant" to [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]]. Dee was considered an authority on the works of [[Roger Bacon]], and was interested enough in alchemy to write a book on that subject (''Monas Hieroglyphica'', 1564) influenced by the [[Kabbala]]. Dee's associate [[Edward Kelley]] — who claimed to converse with [[angel]]s through a crystal ball and to own a powder that would turn [[mercury (element)|mercury]] into [[gold]] — may have been the source of the popular image of the alchemist-charlatan. Another lesser known alchemist was [[Michał Sędziwój|Michael Sendivogius]] (''Michał Sędziwój'', 1566 - 1636), a [[Poland|Polish]] alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry. According to some accounts, he distilled [[oxygen]] in a lab sometime around 1600, 170 years before [[Karl Wilhelm Scheele|Scheele]] and [[Joseph Priestley|Priestley]], by warming nitre ([[saltpetre]]). He thought of the gas given off as "the elixir of life". Shortly after discovering this method, it is believed that Sendivogious taught his technique to [[Cornelius Drebbel]]. In 1621, Drebbel practically applied this in a submarine. [[Tycho Brahe]] (1546–1601), better known for his [[astronomical]] and [[astrological]] investigations, was also an alchemist. He had a laboratory built for that purpose at his [[Uraniborg]] observatory/research institute. ===The decline of Western alchemy=== The demise of Western alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its apogee in the 18th century. [[Robert Boyle]] (1627–1691), better known for his studies of gases (cf. [[Boyle's law]]) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data; in a typical experiment, Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant. {{ref_harvard|Pilkington|Pilkington p.11|a}} This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the [[18th century|18th]] and [[19th century|19th]] centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of [[Antoine Lavoisier|Lavoisier]] and [[John Dalton]] — which finally provided a logical, quantitative and reliable framework for understanding matter transmutations, and revealed the futility of longstanding alchemical goals such as the philospher's stone. Meanwhile, Paracelsian alchemy led to the development of modern medicine. Experimentalists gradually uncovered the workings of the human body, such as blood circulation ([[William Harvey|Harvey]], [[1616]]), and eventually traced many diseases to infections with germs ([[Robert Koch|Koch]] and [[Louis Pasteur|Pasteur]], 19th century) or lack of ''natural'' nutrients and [[vitamin]]s ([[James Lind|Lind]], [[Christiaan Eijkman|Eijkman]], [[Casimir Funk|Funk]], et al.). Supported by parallel developments in organic chemistry, the new science easily displaced alchemy from its medical roles, interpretive and prescriptive, while deflating its hopes of miraculous elixirs and exposing the ineffectiveness or even toxicity of its remedies. Thus, as science steadily continued to uncover and rationalize the clockwork of the universe, founded on its own materialistic metaphysics, Alchemy was left deprived of its chemical and medical connections — but still incurably burdened by them. Reduced to an arcane philosophical system, poorly connected to the material world, it suffered the common fate of other [[esoteric]] disciplines such as [[astrology]] and [[Kabbalah]]: excluded from [[university]] curricula, shunned by its former patrons, [[damned knowledge|ostracized]] by scientists, and commonly viewed as the epitome of [[charlatan]]ism and [[superstition]]. These developments could be interpreted as part of a broader reaction in European intellectualism against the [[Romanticism|Romantic]] movement of the preceding century. Be as it may, it is sobering to observe how a discipline that held so much intellectual and material prestige, for more than two thousand years, could disappear so easily from the universe of Western thought. ===Modern 'alchemy'=== In modern times, progress has been made toward achieving the goals of alchemy using scientific, rather than alchemic, means. These developments may on occasion be called "alchemy" for rhetorical reasons. In 1919, [[Ernest Rutherford]] used [[artificial disintegration]] to convert nitrogen into oxygen. This process of bombarding the atomic nucleus with high energy particles is the principle behind modern [[particle accelerators]], in which transmutations of elements are common. Indeed, in 1980, [[Glenn Seaborg]] transmuted lead into gold, though the amount of energy used and the microscopic quantities created negated any possible financial benefit. In 1964, [[George Ohsawa]] and [[Michio Kushi]], based on the claims of [[Louis Kervran]], reportedly successfully transmutated [[sodium]] into [[potassium]], by use of an electric arc, and later of [[carbon]] and [[oxygen]] into [[iron]]. In 1994, [[R. Sundaresan]] and [[J. Bockris]] reported that they had observed fusion reactions in electrical discharges between carbon rods immersed in water. However, none of these claims have been replicated by other scientists, and the idea is now thoroughly discredited. As of 2006, a universal panacea remains elusive, though [[futurist]]s such as [[Ray Kurzweil]] believe sufficiently advanced [[nanotechnology]] may prolong life indefinitely. Some say the third goal of alchemy has been fulfilled by [[In vitro fertilization|IVF]] and the [[cloning]] of a human embryo, although these technologies fall far short of creating a human life from scratch. The aim of [[artificial intelligence]] research could be said to be creating a life from scratch, and those philosophically opposed to the possibility of AI have compared it with alchemy, such as Herbert and Stuart Dreyfus in their 1960 paper ''Alchemy and AI''. ==Alchemy in art and entertainment == References to alchemy in art and entertainment are far too numerous to list. Here we give only a few indicative samples. More titles can be found in the [[philosopher's stone]] article. ===Novels and plays=== Many [[literature|writers]] lampooned alchemists and used them as the butt of [[satire|satirical]] attacks. Two early and well-known examples are *[[Geoffrey Chaucer]], ''[[The Canon's Yeoman's Prologue and Tale|Canon's Yeoman's Tale]]'' (ca. 1380). The main character, an alchemist on the way to [[Canterbury]], claims that he will "pave it all of silver and of gold". *[[Ben Jonson]], ''[[The Alchemist (play)|The Alchemist]]'' (ca 1610). In this five-act play, the characters set up an alchemy workshop to swindle people. [[Image:Alchemical Laboratory - Project Gutenberg eText 14218.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|An Alchemical Laboratory, from ''The Story of Alchemy and the Beginnings of Chemistry'']] In more recent works, alchemists are generally presented in a more romatic or mystic light, and often little distinction is made between alchemy, magic, and witchcraft: *[[Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley|Mary Shelley]], ''[[Frankenstein]]'' (1818). Victor Frankenstein uses both alchemy and modern science to create [[Frankenstein's monster]]. *[[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], ''[[Faust, Part 2]]'' (1832). Faust's servant Wagner uses alchemy to create a [[homunculus]]. *[[Gabriel García Márquez]], ''[[One Hundred Years of Solitude]]'' (1967). An alchemist named Melquíades adds to the novel's surreal atmosphere. *[[Paulo Coelho]], ''[[The Alchemist (book)|The Alchemist]]'' (1988). *[[J. K. Rowling]], ''[[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone]]'' (1997). Features [[Nicholas Flamel]] as a character. *[[Neal Stephenson]], ''[[The Baroque Cycle]]'' (2003–2004). Features real and imaginary alchemists such as [[Isaac Newton]], [[Nicolas Fatio de Duillier|de Duillier]], and [[Enoch Root]]. *[[Martin Booth]], ''[[Doctor Illuminatus: The Alchemist's Son]]'' (2003). *[[Margaret Mahy]], ''[[Alchemy (Margaret Mahy book)|Alchemy]]'' (2004). *[[John Fasman]], ''[[The Geographer's Library]]''<!--DATE??-->, whose plot revolves around thirteen alchemical artifacts. *[[Gregory Keyes]], ''[[Age of Unreason]]''<!--DATE??-->. Features [[Isaac Newton]] and [[Nicolas Fatio de Duillier|de Duillier]]. *[[Cornelia Funke]], ''[[Dragon Rider]]'' (2004). Twigleg the [[homonculus]] was created by an alchemist. ===Comics, manga, and video games=== *[[Stan Lee]] and [[Jack Kirby]], ''[[Fantastic Four]]'' comics (ca. 1962–). Villain [[Diablo (comics)|Diablo]] is an alchemist. *[[Darklands]] PC game (1992). Alchemy features prominently throughout the game. *[[Mike Mignola]]'s ''[[Hellboy]]'' comics (1993–). The character [[Roger the Homunculus]] was created by alchemy. *[[Nintendo]]'s [[Golden Sun]] video game (2001). Alchemy is an evil force that threatens the world. *[[Hiromu Arakawa]], ''[[Fullmetal Alchemist]]'' (2002–). 'Alchemists' can transform anything within the principle of [[Equivalent Exchange]]. *[[Nobuhiro Watsuki]], ''[[Buso Renkin|Weapon Alchemist]]'' manga (2003?–). *[[Kazuki Takahashi]], ''[[Yu-Gi-Oh! GX]]'' anime (2004–). The character [[Lyman Banner|Daitokuji]] is an alchemist who preserved his soul within a homunculus. *Nintendo's [[Final Fantasy Tactics Advance]] video game (2003). Has a playable class called Alchemist. *[[Bethesda Softworks]]' [[The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind]] prominently features alchemy as a method of creating various potions for use by the player. *[[Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb]] computer game (2003). A large portion of the game is centered around a castle in Prague formerly owned by an alchemist king. *[[World of Warcraft]] computer game (2004). Alchemy is one of the [[Professions_(World_of_Warcraft)#Alchemy|professions]] the player can learn. <!--Please provide dates --> ===Music=== *[[Tool (band)]], album ''[[Lateralus]]'' (2001). ==References== * {{note_label|Augustine|Augustine, p. 245|a}} {{cite book | author=Augustine | title=The Confessions | publisher=New York: Mentor Books | year=1963 | id= }} Trans. Rex Warner. * {{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 196-7|a}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt,p. 34-42|b}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt p. 46|c}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burkhardt, p. 29|d}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 29|e}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 10-22|f}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt p. 149|g}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt pp.170-181|h}} {{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul. | publisher=Baltimore:Penguin | year=1967 | id= }} Trans. William Stoddart. * Cavendish, Richard, The Black Arts, Perigee Books * {{note_label|Debus|Debus & Multhauf, p.6-12|a}} {{cite book | author=Debus, Allen G. and Multhauf, Robert P. | title=Alchemy and Chemistry in the Seventeenth Century | publisher=Los Angeles: William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, University of California. | year=1966 | id= }} * {{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes pp. 33-59|a}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes p. 37-8|b}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes p. 24-7|c}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes, p.49|d}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes pp. 50-75|e}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes p.56-9|f}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes, p.47|g}} {{cite book | author=Edwardes, Michael | title=The Dark Side of History | publisher=New York: Stein and Day | year=1977 | id= }} * {{cite book | author=Gettgins, Fred | title=Encyclopedia of the Occult | publisher=London: Rider | year=1986 | id= }} * {{note_label|Hitchcock|Hitchcock, p. 66|a}} {{cite book | author=Hitchcock, Ethan Allen | title=Remarks Upon Alchemy and the Alchemists | publisher=Boston: Crosby, Nichols | year=1857 | id= }} * {{note_label|Hollister|Hollister p. 124, 294|a}}{{note_label|Hollister|Hollister, p. 287-8|b}}{{note_label|Hollister|Hollister pp. 294-5|c}}{{note_label|Hollister|Hollister p. 290-4, 355|d}}{{note_label|Hollister|Hollister p. 294-5|e}}{{note_label|Hollister|Hollister p. 335|f}} {{cite book | author=Hollister, C. Warren | title=Medieval Europe: A Short History | publisher=Blacklick, Ohio: McGraw-Hill College | year=1990 | id=ISBN 0075571412 }} 6th ed. * {{note_label|Lindsay|Lindsay, p. 16|a}}{{note_label|Lindsay|Lindsay|b}}{{note_label|Lindsay|Lindsay, p. 155|c}} {{cite book | author=Lindsay, Jack | title=The Origins of Alchemy in Graeco-Roman Egypt | publisher=London: Muller. | year=1970 | id=ISBN 0389010065 }} * {{cite book | author=Marius | title=On the Elements | publisher=Berkeley: University of California Press | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0520028562 }} Trans. Richard Dales. * {{note_label|Norton|Norton pp lxiii-lxvii|a}} {{cite book | author=Norton, Thomas (Ed. John Reidy) | title=Ordinal of Alchemy | publisher=London: Early English Text Society | year=1975 | id=ISBN 0197222749 }} * {{note_label|Pilkington|Pilkington p.11|a}} {{cite book | author=Pilkington, Roger | title=Robert Boyle: Father of Chemistry | publisher=London: John Murray | year=1959 | id= }} * {{cite book | author=Weaver, Jefferson Hane | title=The World of Physics | publisher=New York: Simon & Schuster | year=1987 | id= }} * {{note_label|Wilson|Wilson p.23-9|a}} {{cite book | author=Wilson, Colin | title=The Occult: A History | publisher=New York: Random House | year=1971 | id=ISBN 0394465555 }} * {{cite book | author=Zumdahl, Steven S. | title=Chemistry | publisher=Lexington, Maryland: D. C. Heath and Co. | year=1989 | id=ISBN 0669167088 }} 2nd ed. * {{cite book | author=Greenberg, Adele Droblas | title=Chemical History Tour, Picturing Chemistry from Alchemy to Modern Molecular Science | publisher=Wiley-Interscience | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0471354082 }} ==See also== ===Other alchemical pages=== {{commons|Alchemy}} *[[Vulcan of the alchemists]] *[[Philosopher's stone]] *[[Hermeticism]] *[[Astrology and alchemy]] *[[Transmutation]] *[[Duality]] *[[The four humours]] *[[Alkahest]], [[arcanum]], [[berith]], [[elixir]], [[quintessence]] *[[Alembic]] *[[Alchemical symbol]]<!-- *[[Circle with a point at its centre]] --> *[[Goldwasser|Gold water]] ===Related and alternative philosophies=== *[[Western mystery tradition]] *[[Astrology]] *[[Necromancy]], [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], *[[Esotericism]], [[Rosicrucianism]], [[Illuminati]] *[[Taoism]] and the [[Five Elements]] *[[Kayaku-Jutsu]] *[[Acupuncture]], [[moxibustion]], [[ayurveda]], [[homeopathy]] *[[Anthroposophy]] *[[Psychology]] and [[Carl Jung]] *[[New Age]] ===Scientific connections=== *[[Chemistry]] *[[Physics]] *[[Scientific method]] *[[Protoscience]], [[Pseudoscience]], and [[Anti-science]] *[[Obsolete scientific theories]] *[[Historicism]] ===Substances of the alchemists=== *[[gold]] &bull; [[silver]] &bull; [[lead]] &bull; [[copper]] &bull; [[zinc]] &bull; [[mercury (element)|mercury]] *[[phosphorus]] &bull; [[sulfur]] &bull; [[arsenic]] &bull; [[antimony]] *[[vitriol]] &bull; [[cinnabar]] &bull; [[pyrites]] &bull; [[orpiment]] &bull; [[galena]] *[[magnesium oxide|magnesia]] &bull; [[calcium oxide|lime]] &bull; [[potash]] &bull; [[natron]] &bull; [[saltpetre]] &bull; [[kohl (cosmetics)|kohl]] *[[ammonia]] &bull; [[ammonium chloride]] &bull; [[alcohol]] &bull; [[camphor]] * Acids: [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]] &bull;[[hydrochloric acid|muriatic]] &bull; [[nitric acid|nitric]] &bull; [[acetic acid|acetic]] &bull; [[formic acid|formic]] &bull; [[citric acid|citric]]&bull; [[tartaric acid|tartaric]] *[[aqua regia]] &bull; [[gunpowder]] ===Other resources=== *[[List of alchemists]] *[[List of occultists]] ==External links== Some websites discussing the original notion of alchemical transmutation: * [http://aras.org''Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism'':] A pictorial and written archive of mythological, ritualistic, and symbolic images from all over the world and from all epochs of human history. * [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-04 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Alchemy * [http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/distance/sci122/TVtext/24/MOD24.htm Skeptical Chemists]: from alchemy to chemistry, tracing the contributions of Paracelsus * [http://www.alchemy.cz The Alchemy Museum in Kutna Hora] : World's First Museum Dedicated to Alchemy in All Its Aspects * [http://antiquity.ac.uk/ProjGall/martinon/index.html A 16th century lab in a 21st century lab] : Analytical study of the archaeological remains of an alchemical laboratory * [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14218 The Story of Alchemy and the Beginnings of Chemistry], 1913, from [[Project Gutenberg]] * [http://www.levity.com/alchemy/ The Alchemy Website] : A collection of many alchemical texts and other alchemical information Some websites which appear to espouse modern versions of alchemy: * [http://www.rexresearch.com/ Rex Research] (Robert Nelson). * [http://www.alchemicaltaoism.com/ Alchemical Taoism.com] Eases study of the complex Healing Tao qi gong (chi kung) system. Essays by experienced students and instructors. [[Category:Alchemy]] [[Category:Ancient Egypt]] [[Category:Arabic words]] [[Category:Esoteric schools of thought]] [[Category:Gold]] [[Category:History of ideas]] [[Category:Obsolete scientific theories]] {{Link FA|es}} {{Link FA|pt}} [[af:Alchemie]] [[bg:Алхимия]] [[ca:Alquímia]] [[cs:Alchymie]] [[da:Alkymi]] [[de:Alchemie]] [[eo:Alkemio]] [[es:Alquimia]] [[et:Alkeemia]] [[fi:Alkemia]] [[fr:Alchimie]] [[he:אלכימיה]] [[hr:Alkemija]] [[id:Alkimia]] [[io:Alkemio]] [[it:Alchimia]] [[ja:錬金術]] [[la:Alchemia]] [[lt:Alchemija]] [[nl:Alchemie]] [[nn:Alkymi]] [[pl:Alchemia]] [[pt:Alquimia]] [[ru:Алхимия]] [[sk:Alchýmia]] [[sl:Alkimija]] [[su:Alkémi]] [[sv:Alkemi]] [[th:การเล่นแร่แปรธาตุ]] [[tl:Alkimiya]] [[tr:Simya]] [[uk:Алхімія]] [[zh:炼金术]] 574 39084664 2006-02-10T16:43:29Z 195.157.81.101 /* External links */ '''Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast''' (also called '''ADS-B''') is a system by which [[aircraft|airplanes]] constantly broadcast their current position and altitude, category of aircraft, [[airspeed]], [[identification]], and whether the aircraft is turning, climbing or descending over a dedicated radio [[datalink]]. This functionality is known as "ADS-B out" and is the basic level of ADS-B functionality. The ADS-B system was developed in the 1990s. It relies on data from the [[Global Positioning System]], or any navigation system that provides an equivalent or better service. The maximum range of the system is line-of-sight, typically less than 200 [[nautical mile]]s (370 km). The ADS-B transmissions are received by [[air traffic control]] stations, and all other ADS-B equipped aircraft within reception range. Reception by aircraft of ADS-B data is known as "ADS-B in". ==Usage== The initial use of ADS-B is expected to be by [[air traffic control]] and for surveillance purposes and for enhancing pilot situational awareness. ADS-B is lower cost than conventional radar and permits higher quality surveillance of airborne and surface movements. ADS-B is effective in remote areas or in mountainous terrain where there is no radar coverage, or where radar coverage is limited. The outback of Australia is one such area where ADS-B will provide surveillance where previously none existed. ADS-B also enhances surveillance on the airport surface, so it can also be used to monitor traffic on the taxiways and runways of an airport. ADS-B equipped aircraft may also have a [[display]] unit in the cockpit picturing surrounding air traffic from ADS-B data (ADS-B in) and TIS-B (Traffic Information Service-Broadcast) data derived from air traffic radar. Both Pilots and [[air traffic controller]]s will then be able to "see" the positions of air traffic in the vicinity of the aircraft, and this may be used to provide an ASAS (Airborne Separation Assurance System). Airborne Collision Avoidance Systems may in the future also make use of "ADS-B in", supplementing the existing TCAS collision avoidance system by what is called 'hybrid surveillance'. Airbus and Boeing are now expected to include ADS-B out (i.e. the transmitter of information) as standard on new-build aircraft from 2005 onwards. This is in part due to the European requirements for Mode S Elementary Surveillance (which uses 1090MHz Mode S transponder which now is normally capable of ADS-B via Extended Squitter), and some common functionality with ADS-B out. ==Addressed and Broadcast ADS== The Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics’ ([[RTCA]]) Free Flight Selection Committee defines surveillance as “detection, tracking, characterization and observation of aircraft, other vehicles and weather phenomena for the purpose of conducting flight operations in a safe and efficient manner." Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) is described as the process of creating and sending a message including the sender’s current position and other surveillance information, such as velocity, intent and flight identification. This information supports aircraft separation management by improving surveillance information at increased ranges, situational awareness and decision making. ADS data can be used in cooperation with data from current radar beacon systems, such as Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon Systems (ATCRBS), Mode S, Traffic Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS) and primary Air Traffic Control (ATC) radar, and may also be used as a sole means of surveillance. There are two commonly recognized types of ADS for aircraft applications: *ADS-Addressed (ADS-A), also known as ADS-Contract (ADS-C), and *ADS-Broadcast (ADS-B. ADS-A provides a surveillance data report that is sent to a specific addressee. For example, ADS-A reports are employed in the Future Air Navigation System (FANS) using the Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System ([[ACARS]]) as the communication protocol. During transoceanic flight, reports are periodically sent by an aircraft to the controlling air traffic region. When ADS-B is used, aircraft and other vehicles continuously broadcast a message including position, heading, velocity and intent. Other uses may include obstacles transmitting a position message. Aircraft, ground-based stations, and other users monitoring the channels can receive the information and use it in a wide variety of applications. Because of this potential for broad utilization, a system using ADS-B is most often discussed as a replacement for or an augmentation to current methods of monitoring aeronautical traffic. To understand the full capability of ADS-B, consider how the current Air Traffic Control system creates information. The radar measures the range and bearing of an aircraft. Bearing is measured by the position of the rotating radar antenna when it receives a response to its interrogation from the aircraft, and range is measured by the time it takes for the radar to receive the interrogation response. The antenna beam becomes wider as the aircraft get farther away, making the position information less accurate. Additionally, detecting changes in aircraft velocity requires several radar sweeps that are spaced several seconds apart. In contrast, a system using ADS-B creates and listens for periodic position and intent reports from aircraft. These reports are generated and distributed using precise instruments, such as the global positioning system (GPS) and Mode S transponders, meaning integrity of the data is no longer susceptible to the range of the aircraft or the length of time between radar sweeps. The enhanced accuracy of the information will be used to improve safety, support a wide variety of applications and increase airport and airspace capacity. Use of ADS-B for ground-based surveillance requires only ADS-B Out (transmit) capability on the aircraft. With the addition of ADS-B In (receive) capability, the potential for ADS-B applications grows significantly. Some of the equipment and services associated with ADS-B In capability include: *Cockpit Display of Traffic Information (CDTI), a display of proximate traffic based on ADS-B reports from other aircraft and ground-based facilities. *Traffic Information Services-Broadcast (TIS-B), a ground-based uplink report of proximate traffic that is under surveillance by ATC but is not ADS-B-equipped. This service would be available even with limited ADS-B implementation. *Flight Information Services-Broadcast (FIS-B), a ground-based uplink of flight information services and weather data. ==ADS-B Physical Layer== Three link solutions are being proposed as the physical layer for relaying the ADS-B position reports: *1090 MHz Mode S Extended Squitter (ES), *Universal Access Transceiver (UAT) and *VHF Digital Link ([[VDL]]) Mode 4. ===Mode S=== The FAA has announced its selection of the 1090 MHz ES and UAT as the mediums for the ADS-B system in the United States. 1090 MHz ES will be the primary medium for air carrier and high-performance commercial aircraft while UAT will be the primary medium for general aviation aircraft. Europe has also chosen 1090 MHz as the primary physical layer for ADS-B. However, the second medium has not yet been selected between UAT and VDL Mode 4. With 1090 ES, the existing Mode S transponder (or a stand alone 1090 MHz transmitter) supports a message type known as the ES message. It is a periodic message that provides position, velocity, heading, time, and, in the future, intent. The basic ES does not offer intent since current flight management systems do not provide such data – called trajectory change points. To enable an aircraft to send an extended squitter message, the transponder is modified and aircraft position and other status information is routed to the transponder. ATC ground stations and TCAS-equipped aircraft already have the necessary 1090 MHz receivers to receive these signals, and would only require enhancements to accept and process the additional information. 1090 ES will not support FIS-B, due to regulatory requirements. ===Universal Access Transceiver=== The UAT system is specifically designed for ADS-B operation. A 1 MHz channel in the 900 MHz frequency range is dedicated for transmission of airborne ADS-B reports and for broadcast of ground-based aeronautical information. UAT users would have access to the additional ground-based aeronautical data and would receive reports from proximate traffic (FIS-B and TIS-B). ===VDL Mode 4=== The VDL Mode 4 system could utilize one or more of the existing aeronautical VHF frequencies as the radio frequency physical layer for ADS-B transmissions. VDL Mode 4 uses a protocol (STDMA) that allows it to be self-organizing, meaning no master ground station is required. This medium is best used for short message transmissions from a large number of users. VDL Mode 4 systems are capable of increased range in comparison to L Band Mode S (1090 MHz) or UAT systems. ==Implementation Timetable== The timetable for airborne ADS-B equipage will be determined by ground and airborne facility implementation, equipment cost, perceived benefits of equipping and regulatory actions by the Civil Aviation Authorities (CAA). The cost to equip with ADS-B Out capability is relatively small and would benefit the airspace by enabling increased situational awareness. ADS-B In capability can provide additional benefits when ground stations and the critical mass of aircraft are also equipped. This data was taken into consideration when building the following estimated implementation timetable. ===Near-term Implementation (2006-2008)=== The next three years will see a continuation of ADS-B trials and some implementation in “pockets” where limited aircraft equipage can bring operational benefits. Some of these include: *'''Capstone'''. In Alaska, the FAA is conducting its Capstone program to improve surveillance in some of the more remote locations of Alaska and as a test bed for implementing elements of ADS-B into the ATC environment. Approximately 190 general aviation users have been equipped with GPS receivers, UAT transceivers and flight deck displays. In addition, 11 ground-based transceivers have been installed for radar-like services, and flight information services data (FIS-B), including weather information, is being uplinked from the ground. Phase II of the program will expand the coverage and add more than 250 additional users. *'''Gulf of Mexico''' – In the Gulf of Mexico, where ATC radar coverage is incomplete, the FAA is locating ADS-B (1090 MHz) receivers on oil rigs and buoys to relay information received from aircraft equipped with ADS-B extended squitters back to the ATC centers to expand and improve surveillance coverage. *'''Australia'''. Australia is implementing ADS-B trials in Queensland to test the feasibility of 1090 MHz ADS-B as an alternative to ground-based radar. ADS-B is expected to be a much more cost-effective method of providing ATC surveillance coverage for remote areas which currently have limited or no surveillance coverage. *'''Cargo Airline Association'''. Cargo carriers operating at their hub airports operate largely at night. Equipage of these aircraft with ADS-B and CDTI displays along with a ground-based transceiver at these hubs will allow better situational awareness at night and in inclement weather and offers the potential for increased airport traffic handling capability. *'''Embry Riddle Aeronautical University'''. Embry Riddle Aeronautical University is equipping the training aircraft at its two main campuses in Florida and Arizona with ADS-B capability as a safety enhancement. The FAA will provide FIS-B and TIS-B uplink capabilities in those areas in support of this equipage. *'''Safe Flight 21 East Coast Broadcast Services'''. The FAA has announced its intention to implement ADS-B coverage for the entire east coast of the U.S. by the end of 2004. Service range will extend inland 150 miles with a goal of providing coverage at altitudes down to 2,000 feet. The medium will be UAT and the implementation will also include TIS-B and FIS-B information. ===Mid-term Implementation (2008-2012)=== Within four to eight years, an increasing number of aircraft with ADS-B Out capability along with the start of ground-based ADS-B infrastructure will begin to make a number of ADS-B applications attractive. *Benefits of “Pockets of Implementation” will become evident and these areas will be expanded, encouraging more users to equip with ADS-B capability. *Beginning in 2004 the FAA is expected to deploy ADS-B ground infrastructure based on ASDE-X equipment. This infrastructure will allow the use of ADS-B data for ATC purposes such as surface movement tracking/guidance and airborne surveillance. *Ground uplinks of TIS-B and FIS-B will commence where the ground infrastructure is deployed. *Other Civil Aviation Authorities may install ADS-B ground infrastructure and require aircraft to be equipped with ADS-B Out for operation in selected airspace. Australia is expected to be the first country to do so; however, a number of other countries with limited surveillance coverage may find ADS-B an attractive alternative to radar surveillance. *Significant numbers of users will become equipped with a minimum of ADS-B Out capability. In Europe, 1090 MHz ES will become standard capability for all new Mode S transponder installations after 31 March, 2005. UAT will become increasingly popular in the upper end of the general aviation market. *Airport Situational Awareness – A combination of detailed airport maps, airport multilateration (ASDE-X) systems, enhanced aircraft displays and ADS-B have the potential to significantly improve Runway situational awareness. *Oceanic In-trail – ADS-B can provide enhanced situational awareness and safety for Oceanic In-trail maneuvers as additional aircraft become equipped. *Use of ADS-B and CDTI will allow decreased approach spacing and closely spaced parallel approaches at congested airports with improved safety and capacity during low-/lower-visibility operations. ===Long-term Implementations (2012 and beyond)=== *Air carriers’ fleets will achieve intended ADS-B benefits in the terminal and en route airspace. *New Aircraft Separation Assurance applications will take advantage of the increased situational awareness and positional accuracy available in an airspace environment largely equipped with ADS-B capability. *FIS-B and TIS-B services will encourage general aviation equipage in all market segments. ==References== ==See also== *[[DO-212]] Minimal Operational Performance Standards for Airborne Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) Equipment ==External links== *[http://www.airservicesaustralia.com/pilotcentre/projects/adsb/default.asp Airservices Australia ADS-B info] * [http://www.flyadsb.com Safe Flight 21 ADS-B Projects] * [http://www.alaska.faa.gov/capstone/ Capstone ADS-B Project] * [http://www.nup.nu NUP II Project] * [http://www.adsmedup.it/ ADS-MEDUP Project] * [http://www.eurocontrol.int/cascade/public/subsite_homepage/homepage.html Eurocontrol CASCADE Programme] * [http://www.eurocae.org/ European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment] * [http://www.janes.com/aerospace/civil/news/jar/jar060117_1_n.shtml US crunches the numbers before committing to ADS-B] Jane's Airport Review [[Category:Avionics]] 575 15899106 2003-12-11T16:14:25Z Optim 20978 #REDIRECT [[Aviation]] 576 42041443 2006-03-03T11:38:19Z Tasc 853739 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/193.171.250.252|193.171.250.252]] to last version by Gugganij {{Infobox_Country| common_name = Austria| native_name = Republik Österreich| image_flag = Flag of Austria.svg| image_coat = Austria Bundesadler.svg| image_map = LocationAustria.png| national_motto = none| national_anthem = [[Land der Berge, Land am Strome]]| official_languages = [[German language|German]]<br>[[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]&nbsp;([[regional language|reg.]]) [[Croatian language|Croatian]]&nbsp;(reg.) [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]&nbsp;(reg.)| capital = [[Vienna]] |latd=48|latm=12|latNS=N|longd=16|longm=21|longEW=E| largest_city = Vienna | government_type = [[Republic]] | leader_titles = [[Federal President of Austria|President]]<br>[[Chancellor of Austria|Chancellor]]| leader_names = [[Heinz Fischer]]<br>[[Wolfgang Schüssel]]| area = 83,871|area_rank=113th|area_magnitude=1 E10|percent_water=1.3| areami² = 32,383 | <!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> population_estimate = 8,206,524|population_estimate_year=2005|population_estimate_rank=86th| population_density = 97|population_density_rank=78th | population_densitymi² = 251 | <!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> population_census = 8,032,926|population_census_year=2001| GDP_PPP = $267 billion|GDP_PPP_year=2005|GDP_PPP_rank=35th| GDP_nominal = $318 billion|GDP_nominal_year=2005|GDP_nominal_rank=22nd| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $32,962|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank=9th| GDP_nominal_per_capita = $39,292|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank=10th| HDI_year = 2003| HDI = 0.936| HDI_rank = 17th| HDI_category = <font color="#009900">high</font>| sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]| established_events = From [[Austria-Hungary]]|established_dates=<br>1919| currency = [[Austrian euro coins|Euro]]&sup1;|currency_code=EUR| time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]] |utc_offset=+1 | time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] |utc_offset_DST=+2 | cctld = [[.at]] | calling_code = 43| footnotes = &sup1; Prior to 2002: Austrian [[Schilling]]| }} The '''Republic of Austria''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Republik Österreich)'' is a [[landlocked]] country in central [[Central Europe|Europe]]. It borders [[Germany]] and the [[Czech Republic]] to the north, [[Slovakia]] and [[Hungary]] to the east, [[Slovenia]] and [[Italy]] to the south, and [[Switzerland]] and [[Liechtenstein]] to the west. The capital is the city of [[Vienna]]. Austria is a parliamentary [[representative democracy]] consisting of nine federal states and is one of two European countries that have declared their everlasting [[neutral country|neutrality]], the other being Switzerland. Austria is a member of the [[United Nations]] (since 1955) and the [[European Union]] (since 1995). For the first half of 2006 Austria holds the seat of the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union|Presidency of the EU]]. ==Origin and history of the name== The [[German language|German]] name ''Österreich'' can be translated into [[English language|English]] as the "eastern realm", which is derived from the [[Old German]] ''[[Ostarrîchi]]''. ''Reich'' can also mean "empire", and this connotation is the one that is understood in the context of the [[Austrian Empire|Austrian]]/[[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Empire]], [[Holy Roman Empire]], although not in the context of the modern Republic of ''Österreich''. The term probably originates in a [[vernacular]] translation of the [[Medieval Latin]] name for the region: ''Marchia orientalis'', which translates as "eastern border", as it was situated at the eastern edge of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], that was also mirrored in the name ''[[Ostmark]]'' applied after ''[[Anschluss]]'' to [[Germany]]. ==History== {{details|History of Austria}} ===Austria and the Holy Roman Empire=== The territory of Austria originally known as the [[Celts|Celtic]] kingdom of [[Noricum]], was a long time ally of Rome. It was occupied rather than conquered by the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] during the reign of [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]] and made the province Noricum in [[16 BC]]. Later it was conquered by [[Huns]], Rugii, [[Lombards]], [[Ostrogoth]]s, [[Bavarii]], [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] (until c. 800), and [[Franks]] (in that order). Finally, after 48 years of Hungarian rule (907 to 955), the core territory of Austria was awarded to [[Leopold I of Austria (Babenberg)| Leopold of Babenberg]] in 976. Being part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] the Babenbergs ruled and expanded Austria from the 10th century to the 13th century. [[image:Juliusz Kossak Sobieski pod Wiedniem.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|Battle of Vienna 1683]] After Duke [[Frederick II]] died in 1246 and left no successor, [[Rudolf I of Habsburg]] gave the lands to his sons marking the beginning of the line of the [[Habsburg]]s, who continued to govern Austria until the 20th century. With the short exception of [[Charles VII Albert]] of Bavaria, Austrian Habsburgs held the position of German Emperor beginning in 1438 with [[Albert II of Habsburg]] until the end of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. During the [[14th century|14th]] and 15th century Austria continued to expand its territory until it reached the position of a European imperial power at the end of the 15th century until the end of the Habsburg monarchy in 1918. ===Modern history=== Just two years before the abolition of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1806, in 1804 the [[Austrian Empire|Empire of Austria]] was founded, which was transformed in 1867 into the dual-monarchy [[Austria-Hungary]]. The empire was split into several independent states in 1918, after the defeat of the [[Central Powers]] in [[World War I]], with most of the German-speaking parts becoming a [[republic]]. (See [[Treaty of Saint-Germain]].) Between 1918 and 1919 it was officially known as the Republic of German Austria (''Republik Deutschösterreich''). After the [[Entente]] powers forbade German Austria to unite with Germany, they also forbade the name, and then it was changed to simply Republic of Austria. The democratic republic lasted until 1933 when the chancellor [[Engelbert Dollfuß]] established an autocratic regime oriented towards Italian fascism ([[Austrofascism]]). Austria became part of [[Germany]] in 1938 through the [[Anschluß]] and remained under [[Nazis|Nazi]] rule until the end of [[World War II]]. After the defeat of the [[Axis Powers]], the [[Potsdam Conference|Allies occupied Austria]] until 1955, when the country became a fully independent republic under the condition that it would remain neutral (see: [[Austrian State Treaty]]). Austria also became a member of the UN in the same year. After the collapse of [[communist state]]s in [[Eastern Europe]], Austria became increasingly involved in European affairs, and in 1995, Austria joined the [[European Union]], and the [[Euro]] monetary system in 1999. ==Politics== {{details|Politics of Austria}} [[image:AustrianParliament.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Austrian Parliament in Vienna]] Austria became a federal, [[parliamentary democracy|parliamentarian, democratic]] [[republic]] through the [[Federal Constitution (Austria)|Federal Constitution]] of 1920. It was reintroduced in 1945 to the nine [[States of Austria|states]] of the Federal Republic. The [[head of state]] is the [[President of Austria|Federal President]], who is directly elected. The chairman of the [[Government of Austria|Federal Government]] is the [[Chancellor of Austria|Federal Chancellor]], who is appointed by the president. The government can be removed from office by either a presidential decree or by [[vote of no confidence]] in the lower chamber of parliament, the [[National Council of Austria|Nationalrat]]. The [[Parliament of Austria]] consists of two chambers. The composition of the Nationalrat is determined every four years by a free general election in which every citizen is allowed to vote to fill its 183 seats. A "Four Percent Hurdle" prevents a large splintering of the political landscape in the Nationalrat by awarding seats only to political parties that have obtained at least a four percent threshold of the general vote, or alternatively, have won a direct seat, or ''Direktmandat'', in one of the 43 regional election districts. The Nationalrat is the dominant chamber in the formation of legislation in Austria. However, the upper house of parliament, the [[Federal Council of Austria|Bundesrat]] has a limited right of [[veto]] (the Nationalrat can - in most cases - pass the respective bill a second time bypassing the Bundesrat altogether). A convention, called the ''Österreich&ndash;Konvent'' [http://www.konvent.gv.at/] was convened in [[June 30]], [[2003]] to decide upon suggestions to reform the constitution, but has failed to produce a proposal that would receive the two thirds of votes in the Nationalrat necessary for constitutional amendments and/or reform. However some important parts of the final report were generally agreed upon and are still expected to be implemented. ==Subdivisions== {{details|States of Austria}} A federal republic, Austria is divided into nine [[states]], ([[German language|German]]: ''[[States of Austria|Bundesländer]]''). These states are divided into [[district]]s (''[[Bezirke]]'') and cities (''[[Statutarstadt|Statutarstädte]]''). Districts are subdivided into municipalities (''Gemeinden''). Cities have the competencies otherwise granted to both districts and municipalities. The states are not mere administrative divisions, but have some distinct legislative authority separate from the federal government. [[Image:The States of Austria Numbered.png|right|States of Austria]] {| border style="border-collapse:collapse" !colspan=2|[[English language|In English]] !colspan=2|[[German language|In German]] |- ![[States of Austria|State]] !! [[Capital]] !! State !! Capital |- |'''1''' [[Burgenland]] ||[[Eisenstadt]] ||Burgenland ||Eisenstadt |- |'''2''' [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]]||[[Klagenfurt]]||Kärnten||Klagenfurt |- |'''3''' [[Lower Austria]]||[[St. Pölten]]||Niederösterreich||St. Pölten |- |'''4''' [[Upper Austria]]||[[Linz]]||Oberösterreich||Linz |- |'''5''' [[Salzburg (state)|Salzburg]]||[[Salzburg]]||Salzburg (Land)||Salzburg |- |'''6''' [[Styria (state)|Styria]]||[[Graz]]||Steiermark||Graz |- |'''7''' [[Tyrol (state)|Tyrol]]||[[Innsbruck]]||Tirol||Innsbruck |- |'''8''' [[Vorarlberg]]||[[Bregenz]]||Vorarlberg||Bregenz |- |'''9''' [[Vienna]]||[[Vienna]]||Wien (Land)||Wien |} ==Geography== {{details|Geography of Austria}} [[image:Oesterreich topo.png|thumb|left|240px|Topography of Austria]] Austria is a largely [[mountain]]ous country due to its location in the [[Alps]]. The [[Central Eastern Alps]], [[Northern Limestone Alps]] and [[Southern Limestone Alps]] are all partly in Austria. Of the total area of Austria (84,000 km² or 32,000&nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi]]), only about a quarter can be considered low lying, and only 32% of the country is below 500 [[metre]]s (1,640&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). The high mountainous Alps in the west of Austria flatten somewhat into low lands and plains in the east of the country. [[Image:Au-map.png|thumb|right|240px|Map of Austria]] Austria may be divided into 5 different areas. The biggest area are the [[Eastern Alps|Austrian Alps]], which constitute 62% of Austria's total area. The Austrian foothills at the base of the [[Alps]] and the [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathian]]s account for around 12% of its area. The foothills in the east and areas surrounding the periphery of the Pannoni low country amount to about 12% of the total landmass. The second greater mountain area (much lower than the Alps) is situated in the north. Known as the Austrian [[granite]] [[plateau]], it is located in the central area of the Bohemian Mass, and accounts for 10% of Austria. The Austrian portion of the [[Viennese basin]] comprises the remaining 4%. ===Climate=== The greater part of Austria lies in the cool/temperate [[climate zone]] in which humid westerly winds predominate. With over half of the country dominated by the [[Alps]] the [[alpine climate]] is the predominant one. In the East the climate shows continental features with less rain than the areas with high rainfall averages. The six highest mountains in Austria are: {| |----- bgcolor=#DDDDDD ! &nbsp;&nbsp; ! Name ! &nbsp;Height&nbsp;(m) !&nbsp;Height&nbsp;([[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) ! Range |----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE | &nbsp; &nbsp;1 || [[Großglockner]]&nbsp; &nbsp; | 3,797 m || 12,457 ft || [[Hohe Tauern]] |----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE | &nbsp; &nbsp;2 || [[Wildspitze]]&nbsp; &nbsp; || 3,768 m || 12,362 ft || [[Ötztal Alps]] |----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE | &nbsp; &nbsp;3 || [[Weißkugel]]&nbsp; &nbsp; || 3,739 m || 12,267 ft || [[Ötztal Alps]] |----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE | &nbsp; &nbsp;4 || [[Großvenediger]]&nbsp; &nbsp; || 3,674 m || 12,054 ft || [[Hohe Tauern]] |----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE | &nbsp; &nbsp;5 || [[Similaun]]&nbsp; &nbsp; || 3,606 m || 11,831 ft || [[Ötztal Alps]] |----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE | &nbsp; &nbsp;6 || [[Großes Wiesbachhorn]]&nbsp; &nbsp; || 3,571 m || 11,715 ft || [[Hohe Tauern]] |----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE |} ==Economy== {{details|Economy of Austria}} [[Image:20ec_oes.png|320px|right|frame| The [[Belvedere (palace)|Belvedere]] Palace, an example of the [[Baroque]] ]] Austria has a well-developed [[social market economy]] and a high [[standard of living]]. Until the 1980s many of Austria's largest industry firms were nationalised, however in recent years privatisation has reduced state holdings to a level comparable to other European economies. Labour movements are particularly strong in Austria and have large influence on labour politics. [[Germany]] has historically been the main trading partner of Austria, making it vulnerable to rapid changes in the [[German economy]]. Slow growth in Germany and elsewhere in the world affected Austria, slowing its growth to 1.2% in 2001. But since Austria became a member state of the [[European Union]] it has gained closer ties to other [[European Union]] economies, reducing its economic dependence on Germany. In addition, membership in the EU has drawn an influx of foreign investors attracted by Austria's access to the single European market and proximity to EU aspiring economies. Therefore estimates of growth in 2005 (up to 2%) are much more favourable than in the crippling German economy. '''Agriculture''': Austrian farms, like those of other west European mountainous countries, are small and fragmented, and production is relatively expensive. '''Industry''': Although some industries, such as several iron and steel works and chemical plants, are large industrial enterprises employing thousands of people, most industrial and commercial enterprises in Austria are relatively small on an international scale. '''Services''': Like in other western countries, the biggest contributor to Austria's GDP is its service sector. Most notably is [[tourism]], especially [[winter]] [[tourism]]. To meet increased competition from both EU and Central European countries, Austria will need to emphasize knowledge-based sectors of the economy, continue to deregulate the [[service sector]], and lower its tax burden. See also: [[List of Austrian companies]] ==Demographics== {{details|Demographics of Austria}} [[image:1Canaletto-Wien-Belvedere.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Vienna]] during the first half of the 18th century, painting by [[Canaletto]].]] Austria's capital [[Vienna]] is one of Europe's major cities with a population exceeding 1.6 million (2 million with suburbs) and constitutes a ''melting pot'' of citizens from all over Central and Eastern Europe. In contrast to this ''Metropolis'', other cities do not exceed 1 million inhabitants, in fact the second largest [[city]] [[Graz]] is home of 305,000 people (followed by [[Linz]] with 180,000, [[Salzburg]] with 145,000 and [[Innsbruck]] with 134,803 (2005). All other cities have fewer than 100,000 inhabitants. Austrians of German mother tongue, by far the country's largest group, form 91.1% of Austria's population. The remaining [[number]] of Austria's people are of non-Austrian descent, many from surrounding countries, especially from the former [[Eastern Bloc|East Bloc]] nations. The Austrian federal states of [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]] and [[Styria (state)|Styria]] are home to a significant (indigenous) Slovenian minority with around 14,000 members (Austrian census; unofficial numbers of Slovene groups speak of about 40,000). So-called guest workers ''(Gastarbeiter)'' and their descendants also form an important [[minority group]] in Austria. Around 20,000 [[Hungarians]] and 30,000 [[Croatians]] live in the east-most Bundesland, [[Burgenland]] (formerly part of Hungary). The official language, [[German language|German]], is spoken by almost all residents of the country. Austria's mountainous terrain led to the development of many distinct German dialects. All of the dialects in the [[country]], however, belong to [[Austro-Bavarian]] groups of German dialects, with the exception of the dialect spoken in its west-most Bundesland, [[Vorarlberg]], which belongs to the group of [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] dialects. There is also a distinct grammatical standard for [[Austrian language|Austrian]] German with a few differences to the German spoken in Germany. ===Politics concerning ethnic groups (Volksgruppenpolitik)=== An estimated 25,000-40,000 [[Slovenians]] in the Austrian state of [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]] as well as Croatians and [[Hungarians]] in Burgenland were recognized as a minority and have enjoyed special rights following the Austrian State Treaty (Staatsvertrag) of 1955. The Slovenians in the Austrian state of [[Styria (state)|Styria]] (estimated at a number between 1,600 and 5,000) are not recognized as a minority and do not enjoy special rights, although the State Treaty of July 27, 1955 states otherwise. The right for bilingual topographic signs for the regions where Slovene and Croatian speaking Austrians live alongside with the German speaking population (as required by the 1955 State Treaty) is still to be fully implemented. There is also an undercurrent of thinking amongst parts of the Carenthian population that the [[Slovenian]] involvement in the partisan war against the [[Nazi]] occupation force was a bad thing, and indeed "Tito partisan" is a not an infrequent insult hurled against members of the minority. Many Carinthians are afraid of Slovenian territorial claims, pointing to the fact that Yugoslav troops entered the state after each of the two World Wars and considering that some official Slovenian atlases still show parts of Carinthia as Slovenian cultural territory. The current governor, [[Jörg Haider]], has made this fact a matter of public argument in fall 2005 by refusing to increase the number of bilingual topographic signs in Carinthia. A poll by the Kärntner Humaninstitut conducted in January 2006 states that 65% of Carinthians are not in favour of an increase of bilingual topographic signs, since the original requirements set by the State Treaty of 1955 have already been fulfilled according to their point of view. Another interesting phenomenon is the so called "Windischen-Theorie" [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windischen-Theorie] stating that the Slovenians can be split in two groups: actual Slovenians and Windische, based on differences in language between Austrian Slovenians, who were taught Slovenian standard language in school and those Slovenians, who spoke their local Slovenian dialect but went to German schools. To the latter group the term "Windische" (originally the German word for Slovenians) was applied, claiming that they were a different ethnic group. This theory was never generally accepted and has been ultimately rejected several decades ago. *[[List of cities in Austria]] ==Religion== [[Image:Emperor_charles_v.png|thumb|right|250px|'''Charles V''' Austrian Habsburg ruler and one of the major figures within the [[Counter-Reformation]].]] While northern and central Germany was the origin of the [[Reformation]], Austria (and Bavaria) were the heart of the [[Counter-Reformation]] in the [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th]] century, when the absolute monarchy of [[Habsburg]] imposed a strict regime to maintain [[Catholicism]]'s power and influence among Austrians. Despite this establishment of Catholicism as the predominant [[Christian]] religion (Protestants have throughout Austria's history remained a relatively small group), Austria's history as a multinational state has made it necessary for Habsburg rulers to deal with a heterogeneous religious population. Religious freedom was declared a constitutional right as early as 1867 and [[Austria-Hungary]] was home of numerous religions beside [[Roman Catholicism]] such as Greek, Serbian, Romanian, Russian, and Bulgarian [[Orthodox Christians]], [[Jew]]s, [[Muslims]] (Austria neighboured the [[Ottoman empire]] for centuries), [[Mormons]] and both [[Calvinism|Calvinists]] and [[Lutheran]] [[Protestants]]. Still Austria remained largely influenced by Catholicism. After 1918 First Republic Catholic leaders such as [[Theodor Innitzer]] and [[Ignaz Seipel]] took leading positions within or close to the Austrian Government and increased their influence during the time of the [[Austrofascism]] – Catholicism was treated much like a [[state religion]] by dictators [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] and [[Kurt Schuschnigg]]. Although Catholic leaders welcomed the Germans in 1938 during the [[Anschluss]] of Austria into [[Germany]], Austrian Catholicism stopped its support of [[Nazism]] later on and many former religious public figures became involved with the resistance during the [[Third Reich]]. After 1945 a stricter secularism was imposed in Austria and religious influence on politics has nearly vanished. As of the end of the 20th century about 73% of Austria's population are registered as Roman Catholic, while about 5% consider themselves [[Protestant]]s. Both these numbers have been on the decline for decades, especially Roman Catholicism, which has suffered an increasing number of seceders of the church. This is due partly to [[child sexual abuse]] scandals by priests as well as the alleged unwillingness of the Roman Catholic Church to implement reforms. In addition, Austrian Catholics are obliged to pay a mandatory tax (calculated by income – ca 1%) to the Austrian Roman Catholic Church, which acts as another incentive to leave the church. About 12% of the population declare that they do not belong to any [[church]] or religious community. Of the remaining people, about 180,000 are members of the [[Eastern Orthodox|Eastern Orthodox Church]] and about 7,300 are [[Judaism|Jewish]]. It has to be noted that the Austrian Jewish Community of 1938 – Vienna alone counted more than 200,000, of which solely 4,000 to 5,000 remained after the [[World War II|Second World War]]. The influx of [[Eastern Europe|Eastern Europeans]], especially from the former Yugoslav nations, Albania and particularly from [[Turkey]] largely contributed to a substantial Muslim minority in Austria – around 300,000 are registered as members of various Muslim communities. The numbers of people adhering to the [[Islam]] has increased largely during the last years and is expected to grow in the future. [[Buddhism in Austria|Buddhism]], which was legally recognized as a religion in Austria in 1983, enjoys widespread acceptance and has a following of 20,000 (10,402 at the 2001 [[census]]). A 2005 survey among 8,000 people in various [[Europe]]an countries showed that Austrians are still among the countries with the strongest belief in [[god (monotheism)|God]]. 84% of all Austrians do state they believe in God, with only [[Poland]] (97%), [[Portugal]] (90%) and [[Russia]] (87%) in front of the countries surveyed. This is a much larger figure than the European average of 71% or [[Germany]] with 67%. [http://www.readers-digest.de/service_fuer_journalisten/index.php?id=mrd&no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=251&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=15] ==Culture== {{details|Culture of Austria}} {{Austrians}} [[image:Wittgenstein2.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Ludwig Wittgenstein]] Although Austria is a small country, its history as a world power and its unique cultural environment in the heart of Europe have generated contributions to mankind in every possible field. One might argue that Austria is internationally best known for its musicians. It has been the birthplace of many [[Music of Austria|famous composers]] such as [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], [[Haydn|Joseph Haydn]], [[Franz Schubert]], [[Anton Bruckner]], [[Johann Strauss, Sr.]], [[Johann Strauss, Jr.]] or [[Gustav Mahler]] as well as members of the [[Second Viennese School]] such as [[Arnold Schoenberg]], [[Anton Webern]] or [[Alban Berg]]. Complementing its status as a land of artists, Austria has always been a country of great poets, writers and novelists. It was the home of novelists [[Arthur Schnitzler]], [[Stefan Zweig]], [[Thomas Bernhard]] or [[Robert Musil]], of poets [[Georg Trakl]], [[Franz Werfel]], [[Franz Grillparzer]], [[Rainer Maria Rilke]] or [[Adalbert Stifter]]. Famous contemporary playwrights and novelists are [[Elfriede Jelinek]] and [[Peter Handke]]. Among Austrian artists and architects one can find painters [[Gustav Klimt]], [[Oskar Kokoschka]], [[Egon Schiele]] or [[Friedensreich Hundertwasser]], photographer [[Inge Morath]] or architect [[Otto Wagner]]. Austria was the cradle of numerous scientists including physicists [[Ludwig Boltzmann]], [[Lise Meitner]], [[Erwin Schrödinger]], [[Ernst Mach]], [[Wolfgang Pauli]], [[Richard von Mises]] and [[Christian Doppler]], philosophers [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] and [[Karl Popper]], biologists [[Gregor Mendel]] and [[Konrad Lorenz]] as well as mathematician [[Kurt Gödel]]. It was home to psychologists [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Alfred Adler]], [[Paul Watzlawick]] and [[Hans Asperger]], psychiatrist [[Viktor Frankl]], economists [[Joseph Schumpeter]], [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]], [[Ludwig von Mises]], and [[Friedrich Hayek]] ([[Austrian School]]) and [[Peter Drucker]], and engineers such as [[Ferdinand Porsche]] and [[Siegfried Marcus]]. Although Austrians can look back with pride on their cultural past, current Austria does not stand back in art and science. Austria hosts a tremendous amount of culture, with its classical music festivals in [[Vienna]], [[Salzburg]] and [[Bregenz]], its modern artists and writers, its theatres and opera houses. * [[List of Austrians]] * [[Music of Austria]] ==Miscellaneous topics== * [[Austrian folk dancing]] * [[Austrian German]] * [[Communications in Austria]] * [[Cuisine of Austria]] * [[Education in Austria]] * [[Foreign relations of Austria]] * [[Media in Austria|Media in Austria]] * [[Military of Austria]] * [[Public holidays in Austria]] * [[Spanish Riding School]] * [[Stamps and postal history of Austria]] * [[Tourism in Austria]] * [[Transportation in Austria]] ==References== * References and bibliography can be found in the more detailed articles linked to in this article ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Austria}} * The ''[[aeiou Encyclopedia]]'' ([http://www.aeiou.at/;internal&action=_setlanguage.action?LANGUAGE=en Homepage] | [http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.encyclop.a Table of Contents] | [http://www.aeiou.at/;internal&action=search.action Search]) * [http://www.oevsv.at Amateur Radio in Austria] * [http://www.answers.com/austria Answers.com] Article on Austria * [http://austria.europe-countries.com Austria in Pictures] * [http://www.austria.info/ Austria.info] Official homepage of the Austrian National Tourist Office (German, English and other languages) * [http://www.acfny.org Austrian Cultural Forum New York] Cultural meeting place in Manhattan * [http://www.cookbookwiki.com/Category:Austrian Austrian Recipes on CookBookWiki.com] * [http://www.austrosearch.at/ Austrosearch] Bilingual Austrian Search engine and Directory (German, English) * [http://www.bundeskanzleramt.at/ Bundeskanzleramt Österreich/Federal Chancellor of Austria] Website of the Federal Chancellery of Austria (German, English) * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/au.html Cia.gov] CIA's Factbook on Austria * [http://www.dwellan.com/documents/links_at_en.html Dwellan.com] Tourism in Austria * [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/european/austria/au.html Library of Congress] Portals on the World - Austria * [http://peter-diem.at/default_e.htm Peter Diem] The Symbols of Austria * [http://www.photoglobe.info/ebooks/austria/ Photoglobe.info] Country Studies - Austria Info * [http://radio.orf.at/ Radio-ORF] Austrian Radio stations - both classical and modern music (live feed) * [http://www.tiscover.at/ Tiscover.at] Austria travel guide * [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3165.htm US Department of State] Facts and Information (updated February 2005) * [http://www.aua.com/ Austrian Airlines] {{EU_countries}} {{Europe}} {{States of Austria}} [[Category:Austria| ]] [[Category:Erasmus Prize winners|Austria, People of]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[af:Oostenryk]] [[als:Österreich]] [[ang:Ēastrīce]] [[ar:نمسا]] [[an:Austria]] [[ast:Austria]] [[bg:Австрия]] [[zh-min-nan:Tang-kok]] [[be:Аўстрыя]] [[bn:অস্ট্রিয়া]] [[bs:Austrija]] [[br:Aostria]] [[ca:Àustria]] [[cs:Rakousko]] [[cy:Awstria]] [[da:Østrig]] [[de:Österreich]] [[et:Austria]] [[el:Αυστρία]] [[es:Austria]] [[eo:Aŭstrio]] [[eu:Austria]] [[fa:اتریش]] [[fo:Eysturríki]] [[fr:Autriche]] [[fy:Eastenryk]] [[fur:Austrie]] [[ga:An Ostair]] [[gd:An Ostair]] [[gl:Austria - Österreich]] [[ko:오스트리아]] [[hi:ऑस्ट्रिया]] [[hr:Austrija]] [[io:Austria]] [[id:Austria]] [[ia:Austria]] [[is:Austurríki]] [[it:Austria]] [[he:אוסטריה]] [[ka:ავსტრია]] [[kw:Estrych]] [[ku:Avusturya]] [[la:Austria]] [[lv:Austrija]] [[lt:Austrija]] [[lb:Éisträich]] [[li:Oosteriek]] [[hu:Ausztria]] [[mk:Австрија]] [[mt:Awstrija]] [[ms:Austria]] [[na:Austria]] [[nl:Oostenrijk]] [[nds:Österriek]] [[ja:オーストリア]] [[no:Østerrike]] [[nn:Austerrike]] [[oc:Àustria]] [[os:Австри]] [[pl:Austria]] [[pt:Áustria]] [[ro:Austria]] [[rm:Austria]] [[ru:Австрия]] [[se:Nuortariika]] [[sa:आस्ट्रिया]] [[sq:Austria]] [[sh:Austrija]] [[scn:Austria]] [[simple:Austria]] [[sk:Rakúsko]] [[sl:Avstrija]] [[sr:Аустрија]] [[fi:Itävalta]] [[sv:Österrike]] [[tl:Austria]] [[ta:ஆஸ்திரியா]] [[th:ประเทศออสเตรีย]] [[vi:Áo]] [[tr:Avusturya]] [[uk:Австрія]] [[yi:עסטרייך]] [[zh:奥地利]] [[fiu-vro:Austria]] 577 move=sysop 42149638 2006-03-04T03:38:21Z Jackp 988990 /* Geography */ {{otheruses}} {{Infobox Country|the=| native_name =Commonwealth of Australia| common_name =Australia| image_flag =Flag of Australia.svg| image_coat =Aust Coat of Arms (large).jpg| image_map =LocationAU.png| national_motto =none (formerly ''Advance Australia'')| national_anthem=''[[Advance Australia Fair]]''| official_languages =[[English language|English]] (''de facto'')¹| capital =[[Canberra]]| latd=35|latm=15|latNS=S|longd=149|longm=28|longEW=E| largest_city =[[Sydney]]| government_type=[[Constitutional monarchy|Const. monarchy]]| leader_titles = &nbsp;• [[Queen of Australia|Queen]]<br>&nbsp;• [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]]<br>&nbsp;• [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] | leader_names = [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]<br>[[Michael Jeffery]]<br>[[John Howard]]| area_rank=6th| area_magnitude=1_E12| area=7,686,850| areami² = 2,967,909| <!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> percent_water=1| population_estimate = 20,502,900| population_estimate_year = February 2006| population_estimate_rank = 52nd | population_census = 18,972,350 | population_census_year = 2001| population_density = 2| population_densitymi² = 5.2|<!-- Do not remove --> population_density_rank = 191st| sovereignty_type=[[Independence]]| established_events= &nbsp;• [[Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900|Constitution Act]]<br> &nbsp;• [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]]<br> &nbsp;• [[Australia Act]]| established_dates=From the [[United Kingdom|UK]]:<br>[[1 January]] [[1901]]<br>[[11 December]] [[1931]]<br>[[3 March]] [[1986]]| currency=[[Australian dollar|Dollar]]| currency_code=AUD| time_zone=[[States and territories of Australia|various]]²| utc_offset=+8–+10| time_zone_DST=[[States and territories of Australia|various]]²| utc_offset_DST=+8–+11| cctld= [[.au]] | calling_code=61| GDP_PPP_year=2006| GDP_PPP=$674.97 billion| GDP_PPP_rank=16th| GDP_PPP_per_capita=$32,686| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank=13th| HDI_year=2003| HDI=0.955| HDI_rank=3rd| HDI_category=<font color="#009900">high</font>| footnotes=¹English does not have ''de jure'' official status ([http://www.immi.gov.au/multicultural/_inc/publications/confer/04/speech18b.htm source]) <br>²There are some minor variations from these three timezones, see [[States and territories of Australia]]<div class="noprint" style="float:right;"> ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Infobox_Australia&action=edit edit] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Infobox_Australia&action=watch watch] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Australia&action=purge purge]''</div> }} <!--PLEASE USE AUSTRALIAN ENGLISH THROUGHOUT THIS ARTICLE--> The '''Commonwealth of Australia''' is a country in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] comprising the world's smallest [[continent]] and a number of islands in the [[Southern Ocean|Southern]], [[Indian Ocean|Indian]] and [[Pacific Ocean]]s. Australia's neighbouring countries include [[Indonesia]], [[East Timor]] and [[Papua New Guinea]] to the north, the [[Solomon Islands]], [[Vanuatu]] and the [[France|French]] dependency of [[New Caledonia]] to the northeast, and [[New Zealand]] to the southeast. The [[Australia (continent)|continent of Australia]] has been inhabited for over 40,000 years by [[Indigenous Australians]]. After sporadic visits by fishermen from the north and by [[Europe]]an explorers and merchants starting in the 17th century, the eastern half of the continent was claimed by the [[British]] in 1770 and officially settled as the [[penal colony]] of [[New South Wales]] on [[26 January]] [[1788]]. As the population grew and new areas were explored, another five largely self-governing [[British overseas territory|British Crown Colonies]] were successively established over the course of the 19th century. On [[1 January]] [[1901]], the six colonies [[Federation of Australia|federated]] and the Commonwealth of Australia was formed. Since federation, Australia has maintained a stable [[liberal democracy|liberal democratic]] political system and remains a [[Commonwealth Realm]]. The current population of around 20.4 million is concentrated mainly in the large coastal cities of [[Sydney]], [[Melbourne]], [[Brisbane]], [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], and [[Adelaide]]. == Origin and history of the name == The name Australia is derived from the [[Latin language|Latin]] ''australis'', meaning ''southern''. Legends of an "unknown southern land" (''[[Terra Australis|terra australis incognita]]'') date back to the Roman times and were commonplace in mediaeval geography, but they were not based on any actual knowledge of the continent. The Dutch adjectival form ''Australische'' ("Australian", in the sense of "southern") was used by Dutch officials in [[Jakarta|Batavia]] to refer to the newly discovered land to the south as early as 1638. The first use of the word "Australia" in [[English language|English]] was a 1693 translation of ''Les Aventures de Jacques Sadeur dans la Découverte et le Voyage de la Terre Australe'', a 1692 French novel by [[Gabriel de Foigny]] under the pen name Jacques Sadeur {{ref|Baker}}. <!-- there was a 1676 version, but it was suppressed --> [[Alexander Dalrymple]] then used it in ''An Historical Collection of Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean'', published in 1771. He used the term to refer to the entire South Pacific region, not specifically to the Australian continent. In 1793, [[George Shaw]] and [[James Edward Smith|Sir James Smith]] published ''Zoology and Botany of New Holland'', in which they wrote of "the vast island, or rather continent, of Australia, Australasia or [[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]]." [[Image:Flinders View of Port Jackson taken from South Head.jpg|200px|thumb|left|View of [[Port Jackson]], taken from the South Head, from ''A Voyage to Terra Australis''. [[Sydney]] was established on this site.]] The name "Australia" was popularised by the 1814 work ''A Voyage to Terra Australis'' by the navigator [[Matthew Flinders]]. Despite its title, which reflected the view of the Admiralty, Flinders used the word "Australia" in the book, which was widely read and gave the term general currency. Governor [[Lachlan Macquarie]] of [[New South Wales]] subsequently used the word in his dispatches to [[England]]. In 1817 he recommended that it be officially adopted. In 1824, the British Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The word "Australia" in [[Australian English]] is [[IPA chart for English|pronounced]] as either {{IPA|/ə.ˈstɹæɪ.ljə/}}, {{IPA|/ə.ˈstɹæɪ.liː.ə/}} or {{IPA|/ə.ˈstɹæɪ.jə/}}. == History == {{main|History of Australia}} The first human habitation of Australia is estimated to have occurred between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago.{{ref|Gillespie2002}} The first Australians were the ancestors of the current [[Indigenous Australians]]; they arrived via land bridges and short sea-crossings from present-day [[Southeast Asia]]. Most of these people were [[hunter-gatherer]]s, with a complex oral culture and spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the [[Dreamtime (mythology)|Dreamtime]]. The [[Torres Strait Islanders]], ethnically [[Melanesia]]n, inhabited the [[Torres Strait Islands]] and parts of far-north [[Queensland]]; they possess distinct cultural practices from the Aborigines. [[Image:Endeavour replica in Cooktown harbour.jpg|240px|left|thumb|Lieutenant [[James Cook]] charted the East coast of Australia on [[HM Bark Endeavour|HM Bark ''Endeavour'']], claiming the land for Britain in 1770. This replica was built in [[Fremantle, Western Australia|Fremantle]] in 1988 for Australia's bicentenary.]] The first undisputed recorded European sighting of the Australian continent was made by the Dutch navigator [[Willem Jansz]], who sighted the coast of [[Cape York Peninsula]] in 1606. During the 17th century, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines of what they called [[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]], but made no attempt at settlement. In 1770, [[James Cook]] sailed along and mapped the east coast of Australia, which he named [[New South Wales]] and claimed for Britain. The expedition's discoveries provided impetus for the establishment of a [[penal colony]] there following the loss of the American colonies that had previously filled that role. [[Image:Port Arthur Seeseite.jpg|260px|thumb|right|[[Port Arthur, Tasmania|Port Arthur]], [[Tasmania]] was Australia's largest penal colony.]] The British [[British overseas territory|Crown Colony]] of New South Wales started with the establishment of a settlement at [[Port Jackson]] by Captain [[Arthur Phillip]] on [[26 January]] [[1788]]. This date was later to become Australia's national day, [[Australia Day]]. [[Van Diemen's Land]], now known as [[Tasmania]], was settled in 1803 and became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the western part of Australia in 1829. Separate colonies were created from parts of New South Wales: [[South Australia]] in 1836, [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] in 1851, and [[Queensland]] in 1859. The [[Northern Territory]] (NT) was founded in 1863 as part of the Province of South Australia. Victoria and South Australia were founded as "free colonies" — that is, they were never penal colonies, although the former did receive some convicts from Tasmania. Western Australia was also founded "free", but later accepted transported convicts due to an acute labour shortage. The transportation of convicts to Australia was phased out between 1840 and 1868. The [[Indigenous Australian]] population, estimated at about 350,000 at the time of European settlement,{{ref|Smith1980}} declined steeply for 150 years following settlement, mainly due to infectious disease, forced migration, the [[Stolen Generation|removal of children]], and other colonial government policies that some historians and Indigenous Australians have argued could be considered tantamount to [[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide|genocide]] by today's understanding.{{ref|Tatz1999}} Such interpretations of Aboriginal history are disputed by some as being exaggerated or fabricated for political or ideological reasons.{{ref|wind2001}} {{ref|smh2002}} This debate is known within Australia as the [[History Wars]]. Following the [[Australian referendum, 1967 (Aboriginals)|1967 referendum]], the Federal government gained the power to implement policies and make laws with respect to Aborigines. Traditional ownership of land — [[native title]] — was not recognised until the [[High Court of Australia|High Court]] case ''[[Mabo v Queensland (No 2)]]'' overturned the notion of Australia as ''[[terra nullius]]'' at the time of European occupation. [[Image:Anzac1.JPG|left|thumb|240px|The [[Last Post]] is played at an [[ANZAC Day]] ceremony in [[Port Melbourne, Victoria]], [[25 April]] [[2005]]. Ceremonies such as this are held in virtually every suburb and town in Australia.]] A [[gold rush]] began in Australia in the early 1850s, and the [[Eureka Stockade]] rebellion in 1854 was an early expression of nationalist sentiment. Between 1855 and 1890, the six colonies individually gained [[responsible government]], managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the [[British Empire]]. The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs, defence and international shipping. On [[1 January]] [[1901]], [[Federation of Australia|federation]] of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, consultation and voting, and the Commonwealth of Australia was born, as a [[Dominion]] of the [[British Empire]]. The [[Australian Capital Territory]] (ACT) was formed from New South Wales in 1911 to provide a location for the proposed new federal capital of [[Canberra]] ([[Melbourne]] was the capital from 1901 to 1927). The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the Commonwealth in 1911. Australia willingly participated in [[World War I]];{{ref|Bean1941}} many Australians regard the defeat of the [[Australian and New Zealand Army Corps]] (ANZACs) at [[Battle of Gallipoli|Gallipoli]] as the birth of the nation — its first major military action. The Gallipoli campaign is often erroneously portrayed as or conceived to have been a solely or mainly ANZAC campaign. The reality was that British deaths during the campaign were twice as high as those of ANZAC forces. Much like Gallipoli, the [[Kokoda Track Campaign]] is regarded by many as a nation-defining battle from [[World War II]]. The [[Statute of Westminster 1931]] formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the United Kingdom, but Australia did not [[Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942|adopt the Statute]] until 1942. The shock of the United Kingdom's defeat in Asia in 1942 and the threat of Japanese invasion caused Australia to turn to the [[United States]] as a new ally and protector. Since 1951, Australia has been a formal military ally of the US under the auspices of the [[ANZUS]] treaty. After World War II, Australia encouraged mass immigration from Europe; since the 1970s and the abolition of the [[White Australia policy]], immigration from Asia and other parts of the world was also encouraged. As a result, Australia's demography, culture and image of itself were radically transformed. The final constitutional ties between Australia and the United Kingdom ended in 1986 with the passing of the [[Australia Act 1986]], ending any British role in the Australian States, and ending judicial appeals to the UK Privy Council. Australian voters rejected a move to become a republic in 1999 by a 55% majority,{{ref|AEC}} but the result is generally viewed in terms of dissatisfaction with the specifics of the proposed republican model rather than attachment to the monarchy. Since the election of the [[Gough Whitlam|Whitlam Government]] in 1972, there has been an increasing focus on the nation's future as a part of the Asia-Pacific region. ==Politics== {{main articles|[[Government of Australia]] and [[Politics of Australia]]}} [[Image:NewParliamentHouseInCanberra.jpg|thumb|right|240px|New [[Parliament House, Canberra|Parliament House]] in [[Canberra]] was opened in 1988 replacing the [[Old Parliament House, Canberra|provisional Parliament House building]] opened in 1927.]] The Commonwealth of Australia is a [[constitutional monarchy]] and has a [[parliamentary system]] of government. [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] is the [[Queen of Australia]], a role that is distinct from her position as Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. The Queen is nominally represented by the [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]]; although the [[Constitution of Australia|Constitution]] gives extensive [[Executive (government)|executive powers]] to the Governor-General, these are normally exercised only on the advice of the [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]]. The most notable exercise of the Governor-General's [[reserve power]]s outside the Prime Minister's direction was the dismissal of the Whitlam Government in the [[Australian constitutional crisis of 1975|constitutional crisis of 1975]].{{ref|PL1997}} There are three branches of government. *The legislature: the [[Parliament of Australia|Commonwealth Parliament]], comprising the Queen, the Senate, and the House of Representatives; the Queen is represented by the Governor-General, who in practice exercises little or no power over the Parliament. *The executive: the [[Federal Executive Council]] (the Governor-General as advised by the executive councillors); in practice, the councillors are the prime minister and ministers of state, whose advice the Governor-General accepts, with rare exceptions. *The judiciary: the [[High Court of Australia]] and other [[Australian court hierarchy|federal courts]]. The State courts became formally independent from the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] when the ''[[Australia Act]]'' was passed in 1986. The [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] Commonwealth Parliament consists of the Queen, the [[Australian Senate|Senate]] (the upper house) of 76 senators, and a [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] (the lower house) of 150 members. Members of the lower house are elected from single-member constituencies, commonly known as 'electorates' or 'seats'. Seats in the House of Representatives are allocated to states on the basis of population. In the Senate, each state, regardless of population, is represented by 12 senators, with the ACT and the NT each electing two. Elections for both chambers are held every three years; typically only half of the Senate seats are put to each election, because senators have overlapping six-year terms. The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms Government, with its leader becoming Prime Minister. There are three major political parties: the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor Party]], the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]] and the [[National Party of Australia|National Party]]. Independent members and several minor parties — including the [[Australian Greens|Greens]], [[Family First Party|Family First]] and the [[Australian Democrats]] — have achieved representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses, although their influence has been marginal. Since the [[Australian legislative election, 1996|1996 election]], the [[Coalition (Australia)|Liberal/National Coalition]] led by the Prime Minister, [[John Howard]], has been in power in Canberra. In the [[Australian legislative election, 2004|2004 election]], the Coalition won control of the Senate, the first time that a party (or coalition of governing parties) has done so while in government in more than 20 years. The Labor Party is in power in every state and territory. [[Compulsory voting|Voting is compulsory]] in each state and territory and at the federal level. == States and territories== {{main|States and territories of Australia}} [[Image:Map of Australia.png|thumb|240px|States and territories of Australia]] Australia consists of six states, two major mainland territories, and other minor territories. The states are [[New South Wales]], [[Queensland]], [[South Australia]], [[Tasmania]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] and [[Western Australia]]. The two major mainland territories are the [[Northern Territory]] and the [[Australian Capital Territory|Australian Capital Territory]]. In most respects, the territories function similarly to the states, but the Commonwealth Parliament can override any legislation of their parliaments. By contrast, federal legislation overrides state legislation only with respect to certain areas as set out in [[Section 51 of the Australian Constitution|Section 51]] of the [[Constitution of Australia|Constitution]]; all residual legislative powers are retained by the state parliaments, including powers over hospitals, education, police, the judiciary, roads, public transport and local government. Each state and territory has its own [[Parliaments of the Australian states and territories|legislature]] ([[Unicameralism|unicameral]] in the case of the Northern Territory, the ACT and Queensland, and bicameral in the remaining states). The [[lower house]] is known as the [[Legislative Assembly]] ([[House of Assembly]] in South Australia and Tasmania) and the [[upper house]] the [[Legislative Council]]. The [[head of government|heads of the governments]] in each state and territory are called [[Premiers of the Australian states|premiers]] and [[Chief Minister|chief ministers]], respectively. The Queen is represented in each state by a [[Governors of the Australian states|governor]]; an [[Administrator of the Northern Territory|administrator]] in the Northern Territory, and the Governor-General in the ACT, have analogous roles. Australia also has several minor territories; the federal government administers a separate area within New South Wales, the [[Jervis Bay Territory]], as a naval base and sea port for the national capital. In addition Australia has the following, inhabited, external territories: [[Norfolk Island]], [[Christmas Island]], [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]], and several largely uninhabited external territories: [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]], [[Coral Sea Islands]], [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] and the [[Australian Antarctic Territory]]. ==Foreign relations and military== {{main articles|[[Foreign relations of Australia]] and [[Australian Defence Force]]}} Over recent decades, [[Foreign relations of Australia|Australia's foreign relations]] have been driven by a close association with the [[United States]], through the [[ANZUS|ANZUS pact]] and by a desire to develop relationships with [[Asia]] and the Pacific, particularly through [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations|ASEAN]] and the [[Pacific Islands Forum]]. In 2005 Australia secured an inaugural seat at the [[East Asia Summit]] following its accession to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation. Australia is a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], in which the [[Commonwealth Heads of Government]] meetings provide the main forum for co-operation. Much of Australia's diplomatic energy is focused on international trade liberalisation. Australia led the formation of the [[Cairns Group]] and [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]], and is a member of the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] and the [[WTO]]. Australia has pursued several major bilateral free trade agreements, most recently the [[Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement|Australia-US Free Trade Agreement]]. Australia is a founding member of the [[United Nations]], and maintains an international aid program under which some 60 countries receive assistance. The 2005–06 budget provides A$2.5&nbsp;bn for development assistance;{{ref|AGov2005}} as a percentage of GDP, this contribution is less than that of the UN [[Millennium Development Goals]]. Australia's armed forces — the [[Australian Defence Force]] (ADF) — comprise the [[Royal Australian Navy]] (RAN), the [[Australian Army]], and the [[Royal Australian Air Force]] (RAAF). All branches of the ADF have been involved in UN and regional peacekeeping (most recently in East Timor, the Solomon Islands and [[Sudan]]), disaster relief, and armed conflict, including the [[2003 Invasion of Iraq]]. The government appoints the chief of the Defence Force from one of the armed services; the current chief is Air Chief Marshal [[Angus Houston]]. In 2005–06, the defence budget is A$17.5&nbsp;bn.{{ref_label|AGov2005|8|a}} ==Geography== {{main|Geography of Australia}} [[Image:Australia-climate-map_MJC01.png|thumb|250px|Climate map of Australia]] Australia's 7,686,850 [[square kilometre]]s (2,967,909 [[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi]]) landmass is on the [[Indo-Australian Plate]]. Surrounded by the [[Indian Ocean|Indian]], [[Southern Ocean|Southern]] and [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] oceans, Australia is separated from Asia by the [[Arafura Sea|Arafura]] and [[Timor Sea|Timor]] seas. Australia has a total 25,760 [[kilometre]]s (16,007&nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) of coastline and claims an extensive [[Exclusive Economic Zone]] of 8,148,250 square kilometres (3,146,057&nbsp;sq.&nbsp;mi). This exclusive economic zone does not include the [[Australian Antarctic Territory]]. The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef, lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for over 2,000 kilometres (1,250&nbsp;mi). The world's two largest monoliths are located in Australia, Mount Augustus in Western Australia is the largest and Uluru in central Australia is the second largest. At 2,228 [[metre]]s (7,310 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), Mount Kosciuszko on the Great Dividing Range is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland, although Mawson Peak on the remote Australian territory of Heard Island is taller at 2,745 metres (9,006&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). ==Climate== The largest part of Australia is [[desert]] or [[semi-arid]] – 40% of the landmass is covered by [[sand dune]]s. Only the south-east and south-west corners have a temperate climate and moderately fertile soil. The northern part of the country has a tropical climate: part is tropical [[rainforest]]s, part grasslands, and very little desert. Australia receives [[snowfall]] in some cities, but mostly in towns and at higher evaluations. Climate is highly influenced by ocean currents, including the [[El Niño]] southern oscillation, which is correlated with periodic drought, and the seasonal tropical low pressure system that produces cyclones in northern Australia. Rainfall is highly variable, with frequent [[drought]]s. Rising levels of [[salinity]] and desertification in some areas. Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, and therefore has no active volcanism only extinct volcanos, although it may sometimes receive minor earthquakes. The terrain is mostly heavily weathered, low [[plateau]] with deserts, rangelands and a fertile plain in southeast. Tasmania and the [[Australian Alps]] do not contain any permanent [[icefield]]s or [[glacier]]s, although they may have existed in the past. The [[Great Barrier Reef]], by far the world's largest [[coral]] [[reef]], lies a short distance off the north-east coast. [[Mount Augustus National Park|Mount Augustus]], in [[Western Australia]], is the largest [[monolith]] in the world. == Flora and fauna == {{main articles|[[Flora of Australia]] and [[Fauna of Australia]]}} [[Image:Koala climbing tree.jpg|right|thumb|240px|The [[Koala]] and the ''[[Eucalyptus]]'' make an iconic pair of Australian flora and fauna.]] Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert, it covers a diverse range of habitats, from alpine heaths to tropical [[rainforest]]s. Because of the great age and consequent low levels of fertility of the continent, its extremely variable weather patterns and its long-term geographic isolation, much of Australia's [[biota (ecology)|biota]] is unique and [[biodiversity|diverse]]. About 85% of [[flowering plant]]s, 84% of [[mammal]]s, more than 45% of [[List of Australian birds|bird]]s, and 89% of in-shore, temperate-zone fish are [[Endemic (ecology)|endemic]].{{ref|DEH}} Many of Australia's ecoregions, and the species within those regions, are threatened by human activities and [[Invasive species in Australia|introduced plant and animal species]]. The federal ''Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999'' is a legal framework used for the protection of threatened species. Numerous [[Protected areas of Australia|protected areas]] have been created to protect and preserve Australia's unique ecosystems, 64 wetlands are registered under the [[Ramsar Convention]], and 16 [[World Heritage Site]]s have been established. Australia was ranked 13th in the World on the 2005 [[Environmental Sustainability Index]]. Most Australian plant species are evergreen and many are adapted to fire and drought, including the [[Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] and [[acacia]]s. Australia has a rich variety of endemic [[legume]] species that thrive in nutrient-poor soils because of their symbiosis with [[Rhizobia]] bacteria and [[Mycorrhiza|mycorrhizal]] fungi. Well-known Australian fauna include [[monotreme]]s (the [[platypus]] and [[echidna]]); a host of [[marsupial]]s, including the [[koala]], [[kangaroo]], [[wombat]]; and birds such as the [[emu]], [[cockatoo]], and [[kookaburra]]. The [[dingo]] was introduced by Austronesian people that traded with Indigenous Australians around 4000 [[Common Era|BCE]]. Many plant and animal species became extinct soon after human settlement, including the [[Australian megafauna]]; many more have become extinct since European settlement, among them the [[Thylacine]] (Tasmanian Tiger). == Economy == {{main|Economy of Australia}} [[Image:Melbourne yarra afternoon.jpg|240px|thumb|right| [[Melbourne]]'s population is approximately 3.7 million, the second largest in Australia]] Australia has a prosperous, Western-style [[mixed economy]], with a per capita [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] slightly higher than those of the UK, [[Germany]] and [[France]]. The country was ranked third in the [[United Nations]]' 2005 [[Human Development Index]] and sixth in ''[[The Economist]]'' worldwide quality-of-life index 2005. In recent years, the Australian economy has been resilient in the face of global economic downturn. Rising output in the domestic economy has been offsetting the global slump, and business and consumer confidence remains robust. Australia's emphasis on economic reform is often claimed to be key factor behind the economy's strength. In the 1980s, the Labor Party, led by [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] [[Bob Hawke]] and [[Treasurer of Australia|Treasurer]] [[Paul Keating]], started the process of economic reform by [[Floating exchange rate|floating]] the [[Australian dollar]] in 1983, and deregulating the financial system.{{ref|Macfarlane1998}} Since 1996, the Howard government has continued the process of micro-economic reform, including the partial deregulation of the labour market and the privatisation of state-owned businesses, most notably in the [[Communications in Australia|telecommunications]] industry.{{ref|Parham2002}} Substantial reform of the indirect tax system was implemented in July 2000 with the introduction of a 10% [[Goods and Services Tax (Australia)|Goods and Services Tax]], which has slightly reduced the heavy reliance on personal and company income tax that still characterises Australia's tax system. The Australian economy has not suffered a [[recession]] since the early 1990s. As of January 2006, [[unemployment]] was 5.3% with 10,034,500 persons employed.{{ref|ABS6202}} The service sector of the economy, including tourism, education, and financial services, comprises 69% of GDP.{{ref|DFAT}} [[Agriculture in Australia|Agriculture]] and natural-resources represent only 3% and 5% of GDP, respectively, but contribute substantially to Australia's export performance. Australia's largest export markets include [[Japan]], [[People's Republic of China|China]], the United States, [[South Korea]] and New Zealand.{{ref|ABS2005}} Areas of concern to some economists include the chronically high [[current account deficit]] and also high levels of net foreign debt. == Demographics == {{main|Demographics of Australia}} [[Image:Sydney_opera_house_and_skyline.jpg|thumb|259px|right|Most Australians live in urban areas; [[Sydney]] is the most populous city in Australia.]] Most of the estimated 20.4 million Australians are descended from 19th- and 20th-century immigrants, the majority from [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]]. Australia's population has quadrupled since the end of World War I {{ref|ABS}}, spurred by an ambitious [[Immigration to Australia|immigration]] program. In 2001, the five largest groups of the 27.4% of Australians who were born overseas were from the United Kingdom, [[New Zealand]], [[Italy]], [[Vietnam]] and China.{{ref_label|ABS2005|13|a}} Following the abolition of the [[White Australia policy]] in [[1973]], numerous government initiatives have been established to encourage and promote racial harmony based on a policy of [[multiculturalism]]{{ref|DIMIA}}. Australia’s population has increased by about 60 times since European settlement. The self-declared indigenous population — including Torres Strait Islanders, who are of Melanesian descent — was 410,003 (2.2% of the total population) in 2001, a significant increase from the 1977 census, which showed an indigenous population of 115,953.{{ref|ABS2001}} Indigenous Australians have higher rates of imprisonment and unemployment, lower levels of education and life expectancies for males and females that are 17 years lower than those of other Australians.{{ref_label|ABS2005|13|b}} Perceived racial inequality is an ongoing political and [[human rights in Australia|human rights]] issue for Australians. [[Image:Tanunda.jpg|left|thumb|240px|Fewer than 15% of Australians live in rural areas. This picture shows the [[Barossa Valley]] wine producing region of [[South Australia]].]] In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. A large number of Australians (759,849 for the period 2002&ndash;03{{ref|PoA2005}}) live outside their home country. Australia has maintained one of the most active [[Immigration to Australia|immigration]] programs in the world to boost population growth. Most immigrants are skilled; the quota includes categories for family members and [[refugee]]s. [[English language|English]] is the [[official language]],{{ref|DIMIA2}} and is spoken and written in a distinct variety known as [[Australian English]]. According to the 2001 census, English is the only language spoken in the home for around 80% of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home are [[Chinese language|Chinese]] (2.1%), [[Italian language|Italian]] (1.9%) and [[Greek language|Greek]] (1.4%). A considerable proportion of first- and second-generation migrants are [[Multilingual|bilingual]]. It is believed that there were between 200 and 300 [[Australian Aboriginal languages]] at the time of first European contact. Only about 70 of these languages have survived, and all but 20 of these are now [[endangered languages|endangered]]. An indigenous language remains the main language for about 50,000 (0.02%) people. Australia has a [[sign language]] known as [[Auslan]], which is the main language of about 6,500 [[deaf]] people. Australia has no [[state religion]]. The 2001 census identified that 68% of Australians call themselves Christian: 27% identifying themselves as [[Roman Catholic Church in Australia|Roman Catholic]] and 21% as [[Anglican Church|Anglican]]. Australians that identify themselves as followers of non-Christian religions number 5%. A total of 16% were categorised as having "No Religion" (which includes non theistic beliefs such as [[secular humanism|Humanism]], [[atheism]], [[agnosticism]] and [[rationalism]]) and a further 12% declined to answer or did not give a response adequate for interpretation. As in many Western countries, the level of active participation in church worship is much lower than this; weekly attendance at church services is about 1.5 million, about 7.5% of the population.{{ref|NCLSattsurvey}} School attendance is compulsory throughout Australia between the ages of 6&ndash;15 years (16 years in South Australia and Tasmania), contributing to an adult literacy rate that is assumed to be 99%. Government grants have supported the establishment of Australia's 38 universities, and although several private universities have been established, the majority receive government funding. There is a state-based system of vocational training colleges, known as [[Technical and Further Education|TAFE Institutes]], and many trades conduct [[apprenticeship]]s for training new tradespeople. Approximately 58% of Australians between the ages of 25 and 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications.{{ref_label|ABS2005|13|c}} == Culture == {{main|Culture of Australia}} [[Image:Golden Summer Eaglemont Arthur Streeton.jpg|right|thumb|240px|''Golden Summer, Eaglemont'' ([[Eaglemont, Victoria]]) by [[Arthur Streeton]] (1889) is an early example of the rich tradition of Australian [[landscape painting]].]] The primary basis of Australian culture up until the mid-20th century was [[Anglo-Celtic]], although distinctive Australian features had been evolving from the environment and [[Australian Aborigine|indigenous]] culture. Over the past 50 years, Australian culture has been strongly influenced by American popular culture (particularly television and cinema), large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking countries, and Australia's Asian neighbours. The vigour and originality of the arts in Australia—films, opera, music, painting, theater, dance, and crafts—are achieving international recognition. Australia has a long history of visual arts, starting with the [[Cave painting|cave]] and bark paintings of its indigenous peoples. From the time of European settlement, a common theme in [[Art of Australia|Australian art]] has been the Australian landscape, seen in the works of [[Arthur Streeton]], [[Arthur Boyd]] and [[Albert Namatjira]], among others. The traditions of indigenous Australians are largely transmitted orally and are closely tied to ceremony and the telling of the stories of the [[Dreamtime (mythology)|Dreamtime]]. [[Australian Aboriginal music]], dance and [[Australian Aboriginal art|art]] have a palpable influence on contemporary Australian visual and performing arts. Australia has an active tradition of [[music]], [[ballet]] and [[theatre]]; many of its performing arts companies receive public funding through the federal government's [[The Australia Council|Australia Council]]. There is a [[Orchestra|symphony orchestra]] in each capital city, and a national [[opera]] company, [[Opera Australia]], first made prominent by the renowned diva [[Joan Sutherland|Dame Joan Sutherland]]; [[Music of Australia|Australian music]] includes classical, jazz, and many popular music genres. [[Australian literature]] has also been influenced by the landscape; the works of writers such as [[Banjo Paterson]] and [[Henry Lawson]] captured the experience of the Australian bush. The character of colonial Australia, as embodied in early literature, resonates with modern Australia and its perceived emphasis on [[egalitarianism]], mateship, and anti-authoritarianism. In 1973, [[Patrick White]] was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]], the only Australian to have achieved this; he is recognised as one of the great English-language writers of the 20th century. [[Australian English]] is a major variety of the language; its grammar and spelling are largely based on those of British English, overlaid with a rich vernacular of unique lexical items and phrases, some of which have found their way into standard English. Australia has two public broadcasters (the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] and [[Special Broadcasting Service|SBS]]), three commercial [[television network]]s, three pay TV services, and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. [[Cinema of Australia|Australia's film industry]] has achieved critical and commercial successes. Each major city has daily newspapers, and there are two national daily newspapers, ''[[The Australian]]'' and ''[[The Australian Financial Review]]''. According to [[Reporters Without Borders]] in 2005, Australia is in 31st position on a list of countries ranked by [[freedom of the press|press freedom]], behind [[New Zealand]] (9th) and the [[United Kingdom]] (28th) but ahead of the [[United States]]. This ranking is primarily due to the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in Australia. Most Australian [[Publishing|print media]] in particular is under the control of either [[News Corporation]] or [[John Fairfax Holdings]]. [[Image:Aussie rules wikipedia.jpg|thumb|240px|right|[[Australian rules football]] was developed in [[Melbourne]], Australia and is played at amateur and professional levels.]] [[Sport in Australia|Sport]] is an important part of Australian culture, assisted by a climate that favours outdoor activities; 23.5% Australians over the age of 15 regularly participate in organised sporting activities{{ref_label|ABS2005|13|d}}. At an international level, Australia has particularly strong teams in [[cricket]], [[field hockey|hockey]], [[netball]], [[rugby league]], [[rugby union]], and performs well in [[cycling]] and [[swimming]]. Australia has participated in every summer [[Olympic Games]] of the modern era, and every [[Commonwealth Games]]. Australia has hosted the [[1956 Summer Olympics|1956]] and [[2000 Summer Olympics|2000]] Summer Olympics, and has ranked among the top five medal-takers since 2000. In [[2004]], it collected 49 Olympic medals (17 gold, 16 silver and 16 bronze). Australia has also hosted the [[1938 British Empire Games|1938]], [[1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games|1962]] and [[1982 Commonwealth Games|1982]] Commonwealth Games, and will host the [[2006 Commonwealth Games]] in [[Melbourne]]. [[Australian rules football]] is the most popular national sport; players gain some international prominence through [[International rules football|International Rules]] which is an annual meeting between the Australian code and Irish Gaelic Football. However, [[Rugby League]] is more popular than Australian Rules in New South Wales and Queensland. The [[Australian Open]] is one of the four [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] tennis tournaments, held in [[Melbourne]] each January. The F1 [[Australian Grand Prix]] is also held in Melbourne, usually towards the end of March each year. Corporate and government sponsorship of many sports and élite athletes is common in Australia. Televised sport is popular; some of the highest rating television programs include the summer Olympic Games and the grand finals of local and international football competitions.{{ref|AFC}} == See also == {{Template:Australian Topics}} ==References== <!--This article uses [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] please add references using that system and adjust the other references as necessary--> <div style="font-size: 90%"> #{{note|Baker}}Sidney J. Baker, ''The Australian Language'', second edition, 1966. #{{note|Gillespie2002}}Gillespie, R. (2002). Dating the first Australians. ''Radiocarbon'' 44:455-472 #{{note|Smith1980}}Smith, L. (1980), The Aboriginal Population of Australia, Australian National University Press, Canberra #{{note|Tatz1999}}Tatz, C. (1999). ''[http://www.aiatsis.gov.au/rsrch/rsrch_dp/genocide.htm Genocide in Australia]'', AIATSIS Research Discussion Papers No 8, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, Canberra #{{note|wind2001}} Windschuttle, K. (2001). ''[http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/20/sept01/keith.htm# The Fabrication of Aboriginal History]'', The New Criterion Vol. 20, No. 1, September 20. #{{note|smh2002}} Sheehan, P. (2002). ''[http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/11/24/1037697982065.html Our history, not rewritten but put right]'', The Sydney Morning Herald, November 25. #{{note|Bean1941}}Bean, C. Ed. (1941). [http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/ww1/1/index.asp Volume I - The Story of Anzac: the first phase], First World War Official Histories 11th Edition. #{{note|AEC}}Australian Electoral Commission (2000). [http://www.aec.gov.au/_content/when/referendums/1999_report/index.htm 1999 Referendum Reports and Statistics] #{{note|PL1997}}Parliamentary Library (1997). [http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rn/1997-98/98rn25.htm The Reserve Powers of the Governor-General] #{{note|AGov2005}}{{note_label|AGov2005|8|a}}Australian Government. (2005). [http://www.budget.gov.au/ Budget 2005-2006] #{{note|DEH}}Department of the Environment and Heritage. [http://www.deh.gov.au/biodiversity/about-biodiversity.html About Biodiversity] #{{note|Macfarlane1998}}Macfarlane, I. J. (1998). [http://www.rba.gov.au/PublicationsAndResearch/Bulletin/bu_oct98/bu_1098_2.pdf Australian Monetary Policy in the Last Quarter of the Twentieth Century]. ''Reserve Bank of Australia Bulletin'', October #{{note|Parham2002}}Parham, D. (2002). [http://www.pc.gov.au/research/confproc/mrrag/mrrag.pdf Microeconomic reforms and the revival in Australia’s growth in productivity and living standards]. ''Conference of Economists'', Adelaide, [[1 October]] #{{note|ABS6202}} Australian Bureau of Statistics. Labour Force Australia. Cat#6202 #{{note|ABS2005}}{{note_label|ABS2005|13|a}}{{note_label|ABS2005|13|b}}{{note_label|ABS2005|13|c}}{{note_label|ABS2005|13|d}}Australian Bureau of Statistics. [http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/1a79e7ae231704f8ca256f720082feb9!OpenDocument Year Book Australia 2005] #{{note|DFAT}} Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (2003). ''Advancing the National Interest'', [http://www.dfat.gov.au/ani/appendix_one.pdf Appenidix 1] #{{note|ABS}} Australian Bureau of Statistics, [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/68180154bf128d91ca2569d000164365?OpenDocument Population Growth - Australia’s Population Growth] #{{note|DIMIA}}Department of Immigration, Multicultural and Indigenous Affiars. (2005). [http://www.immi.gov.au/facts/06evolution.htm The Evolution of Australia's Multicultural Policy]<br> #{{note|ABS2001|}}Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2001 Census, [http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@census.nsf/ddc9b4f92657325cca256c3e000bdbaf/7dd97c937216e32fca256bbe008371f0!OpenDocument A Snapshot of Australia] #{{note|PoA2005}}Parliament of Australia, Senate (2005). [http://www.aph.gov.au/Senate/committee/legcon_ctte/expats03/ Inquiry into Australian Expatriates] #{{note|DIMIA2}}Department of Immigration, Multicultural and Indigenous Affiars. (1995). [http://www.immi.gov.au/multicultural/_inc/publications/confer/04/speech18b.htm Pluralist Nations: Pluralist Language Policies?] #{{note|NCLSattsurvey}} [http://www.ncls.org.au/default.aspx?docid=2250&track=82083 NCLS releases latest estimates of church attendance], National Church Life Survey, Media release, [[28 February]] [[2004]] #{{note|AFC}}Australian Film Commission. What are Australians Watching?, [http://www.afc.gov.au/gtp/freetv.html Free-to-Air, 1999-2004 TV] </div> == External links == {{portal}} {{Spoken Wikipedia-2|2006-01-17|AustraliaPart1.ogg|AustraliaPart2.ogg|}} {{sisterlinks|Australia}} *[http://wikitravel.org/en/Australia Wikitravel guide to Australia] *[http://www.gov.au/ Australian Government Entry Portal] *[http://www.australia.gov.au/ Commonwealth Government Online] *[http://www.immi.gov.au/ Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs (DIMIA)] *[http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/australia/index.html Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT): Country Information] *[http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=-27.000000,133.000000&spn=38.871300,61.703613&t=h&hl=en Satellite images of Australia] (Google Maps) *[http://www.nla.gov.au/ National Library of Australia] *[http://www.nma.gov.au/ National Museum of Australia] *[http://www.australia.com/ Official Australia Tourism Website] *[http://www.bom.gov.au/ Bureau of Meteorology] *[http://www.m2006.com.au/ Official website of the Melbourne 2006 Commonwealth Games] {{Continent}} {{Pacific_Islands}} <!-- featured artcicle indicator --> {{Featured article}} {{Link FA|de}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Australia| ]] [[Category:Continents]] [[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:Monarchies]] [[Category:1901 establishments]] <!-- The below are interlanguage links. --> [[af:Australië]] [[ar:أستراليا]] [[an:Australia]] [[bg:Австралия]] [[bs:Australija]] [[zh-min-nan:Australia]] [[bn:অস্ট্রেলিয়া]] [[ca:Austràlia]] [[ceb:Australia]] [[cs:Austrálie]] [[cy:Awstralia]] [[da:Australien]] [[de:Australien]] [[et:Austraalia]] [[el:Αυστραλία]] [[es:Australia]] [[eo:Aŭstralio]] [[fa:استرالیا]] [[fr:Australie]] [[ga:An Astráil]] [[gl:Australia]] [[hr:Australija]] [[ko:오스트레일리아]] [[hi:ऑस्ट्रेलिया]] [[io:Australia]] [[id:Australia]] [[ia:Australia]] [[is:Ástralía]] [[it:Australia]] [[he:אוסטרליה]] [[kw:Ostrali]] [[la:Australia]] [[lv:Austrālija (valsts)]] [[lt:Australija]] [[lb:Australien]] [[li:Australië]] [[hu:Ausztrália]] [[mi:Ahitereiria]] [[ms:Australia]] [[na:Otereiriya]] [[nl:Australië (land)]] [[nds:Australien]] [[ja:オーストラリア]] [[ko:호주]] [[no:Australia]] [[nn:Australia]] [[pl:Australia]] [[pt:Austrália]] [[ro:Australia]] [[ru:Австралия]] [[scn:Australia]] [[simple:Australia]] [[sk:Austrália (štát)]] [[sl:Avstralija]] [[sr:Аустралија]] [[fi:Australia]] [[sv:Australien]] [[ta:ஆஸ்திரேலியா]] [[tl:Australia]] [[th:ประเทศออสเตรเลีย]] [[vi:Úc]] [[tpi:Ostrelia]] [[tr:Avustralya]] [[uk:Австралія (країна)]] [[yi:אױסטראַליע]] [[zh:澳大利亚]] 578 41583091 2006-02-28T08:03:44Z DopefishJustin 5399 /* External links */ make link prettier {| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" |+ <big>'''Amerika Samoa<br>American Samoa'''</big> |- | style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2" | {| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" | align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:Flag of American Samoa.svg|125px|Flag of American Samoa]] | align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:American samoa coa.png|80px|American Samoa COA]] |- | align="center" width="140px" | ([[Flag of American Samoa|Flag]]) | align="center" width="140px" | ([[Coat of Arms of American Samoa|Coat of Arms]]) |} |- | align=center style="vertical-align: top;" colspan=2 | <small>''National [[motto]]: Samoa, Muamua Le Atua (Samoa, Let God Be First)''</small> |- | align=center colspan=2 style="background: #ffffff;" | [[Image:LocationAmericanSamoa.png]] |- | '''[[Official languages]]''' | [[Samoan language|Samoan]], [[English language|English]] |- | '''[[Capital]]''' || [[Fagatogo]] (constitutional and ''de facto'' seat of government); executive offices are located in [[Utulei]] |- | '''[[Governor of American Samoa|Governor]]''' | [[Togiola Tulafono]] |- | '''[[Area]]'''<br />&nbsp;- Total <br />&nbsp;- % water | [[List of countries by area|Ranked 226th]] <br /> [[1 E8 m²|199 km²]] (76.8&nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi]]) <br /> 0% |- | '''[[Population]]''' <br />&nbsp;- Total ([[2003]]) <br />&nbsp;- [[Density]] | [[List of countries by population|Ranked 203rd]] <br /> 70,260 <br /> 353/km² (914/sq.&nbsp;mi) |- | '''[[Currency]]''' || [[United States dollar|USD]] |- | '''[[Time zone]]''' || [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -11 (no DST) |- | '''[[National anthem]]''' || [[Amerika Samoa]] |- | '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' || [[.as]] |- | '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]''' | +1 684 |- | style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2" |[[Image:Fatu Rock.jpg|right|300px]]Fatu Rock (right) and Futi Rock (left), islets on the reef of Tutuila at the entrance to Pago Pago Harbor (seen behind Fatu). |} '''American Samoa''' ([[Samoan language|Samoan]]: '''Amerika Samoa''') is an [[unorganized territory|unorganized]], [[incorporated territory|unincorporated territory]] of the [[United States]] located in the South [[Pacific Ocean]] southeast of the sovereign state of [[Samoa]]. The main (largest and most populous) island is [[Tutuila]], with the {{Unicode|[[Manua|Manu'a]]}} Islands, [[Rose Atoll]], and [[Swains Island]] also included in the territory. American Samoa is part of the Samoan Islands chain, located west of the [[Cook Islands]], north of [[Tonga]], and some 300 [[mile]]s (500 km) south of [[Tokelau]]. To the west are the islands of the [[Wallis and Futuna]] group. ==History== ''Main article: [[History of Samoa]], [[History of American Samoa]]'' Originally inhabited as early as [[1000 BC]], Samoa was not reached by [[Europe]]an explorers until the [[18th century]]. International rivalries in the latter half of the [[19th century]] were settled by an [[1899]] [[Treaty of Berlin, 1899|Treaty of Berlin]] in which [[Germany]] and the U.S. divided the Samoan [[archipelago]]. The U.S. formally occupied its portion—a smaller group of eastern islands with the noted harbor of [[Pago Pago, American Samoa|Pago Pago]]—the following year. The western islands are now the independent state of [[Samoa]]. After the U.S. took possession of American Samoa, the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] built a [[coal|coaling]] station on Pago Pago Bay for its Pacific Squadron and appointed a local Secretary. The navy secured a Deed of Cession of Tutuila in [[1900]] and a Deed of Cession of {{Unicode|[[Manua|Manuʻa]]}} in [[1904]]. The last sovereign of {{Unicode|Manuʻa}}, the {{Unicode|[[Tui Manua Elisala|Tui Manuʻa Elisala]]}}, was forced to sign a Deed of Cession of {{Unicode|Manuʻa}} following a series of US Naval trials, known as the "Trial of the Ipu", in Pago Pago, {{Unicode|Taʻu}}, and aboard a Pacific Squadron gunboat. During [[World War II]], U.S. Marines in American Samoa outnumbered the local population, having a huge cultural influence. After the war, Organic Act 4500, a U.S. [[United States Department of the Interior|Department of Interior]]-sponsored attempt to incorporate American Samoa, was defeated in Congress, primarily through the efforts of American Samoan chiefs, led by [[Tuiasosopo Mariota]]. These chiefs' efforts led to the creation of a local legislature, the American Samoa ''Fono,'' which meets in the village of [[Fagatogo]], the territory's ''de facto'' and ''de jure'' capital. (See the Trivia section below for more information on Fagatogo.) In time, the Navy-appointed governor was replaced by a locally elected one. Although technically considered "unorganized" in that the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] has not passed an [[Organic Act]] for the territory, American Samoa is self-governing under a constitution that became effective on [[July 1]], [[1967]]. The U.S. Territory of American Samoa is on the [[United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories]], a listing which is disputed by territorial government officials. ==Administrative Divisions== American Samoa is administratively divided into 3 [[district]]s and 2 "unorganized" islands. These districts are subdivided into 73 villages. Districts: * Eastern * Western * Manu'a Unorganized Islands: *[[Rose Atoll|Rose Island]] *[[Swains Island|Swains Island]] [[Image:American Samoa Districts.png|thumb|left|400px|Map of the districts of American Samoa]] <br clear="left"> The villages for Eastern and Western districts are: <table border=0><tr valign=top> <td> <ol> <li>[[Aasu|Aasu]] <li>[[Afao|Afao]] <li>[[Afono|Afono]] <li>[[Agugulu|Agugulu]] <li>[[Alao|Alao]] <li>[[Alofau|Alofau]] <li>[[Aloga|Aloga]] <li>[[Amaluia|Amaluia]] <li>[[Amanave|Amanave]] <li>[[Amaua|Amaua]] <li>[[Amouli|Amouli]] <li>[[Anua|Anua]] <li>[[Aoa|Aoa]] <li>[[Aoloau|Aoloau]] <li>[[Asili|Asili]] <li>[[Atu'u|Atu'u]] <li>[[Aua|Aua]] <li>[[Auasi|Auasi]] <li>[[Aumi|Aumi]] <li>[[Aunu'u|Aunu'u]] <li>[[Auto, American Samoa|Auto]] <li>[[Avaio|Avaio]] <li>[[Faga'alu|Faga'alu]] <li>[[Faga'itau|Faga'itau]] <li>[[Fagaili'i|Fagaili'i]] <li>[[Fagamalo|Fagamalo]] <li>[[Faganeanea|Faganeanea]] <li>[[Fagasa|Fagasa]] <li>[[Fagatogo|Fagatogo]] <li>[[Failolo|Failolo]] <li>[[Falenin|Falenin]] <li>[[Fatumafuti|Fatumafuti]] </ol> </td> <td> <ol start=33> <li>[[Futiga|Futiga]] <li>[[Ili'ili|Ili'ili]] <li>[[Leloaloa|Leloaloa]] <li>[[Leone, American Samoa|Leone]] <li>[[Leuli'i|Leuli'i]] <li>[[Malaeimi|Malaeimi]] <li>[[Malaeloa/Aitulagi|Malaeloa/Aitulagi]] <li>[[Malaeloa/Ituau|Malaeloa/Ituau]] <li>[[Maloata|Maloata]] <li>[[Mapusagafou|Mapusagafou]] <li>[[Masausi|Masausi]] <li>[[Masefau|Masefau]] <li>[[Matu'u|Matu'u]] <li>[[Mesepa|Mesespa]] <li>[[Nu'uuli|Nu'uuli]] <li>[[Nua|Nua]] <li>[[Onenoa|Onenoa]] <li>[[Pago Pago|Pago Pago]] <li>[[Pava'ia'i|Pava'ia'i]] <li>[[Poloa|Poloa]] <li>[[Sa'ilele|Sa'ilele]] <li>[[Se'etaga|Se'etaga]] <li>[[Tafuna|Tafuna]] <li>[[Taputimu|Taputimu]] <li>[[Tula, American Samoa|Tula]] <li>[[Utulei|Utulei]] <li>[[Utumea East|Utumea East]] <li>[[Utumea West|Utumea West]] <li>[[Vailoatai|Vailoatai]] <li>[[Vaitogi|Vaitogi]] <li>[[Vatia|Vatia]] </ol> </td> <td> [[Image:American Samoa Counties1.png|thumb|400px|Map of the villages of American Samoa]] </td> </tr> </table> [[Image:American Samoa Counties2.png|thumb|right|300px|Map of the villages of the Manu{{okina}}a districts and Swain's Atoll]] The villages for the [[Manu'a]] district are: #[[Faleasao|Faleasao]] #[[Leusoali'i|Leusoali'i]] #[[Luma, American Samoa|Luma]] #[[Maia, American SAmoa|Maia]] #[[Ofu|Ofu]] #[[Olosega|Olosega]] #[[Si'ufaga|Si'ufaga]] #[[Sili|Sili]] There is one village on Swains Island. Rose Island is an uninhabited wildlife refuge. ==Trivia== * American Samoa is the location of [[Rose Atoll]], the southernmost point in the United States (if [[insular area]]s and territories are included); see [[Extreme Points of the United States|extreme points]] for more information). * About 30 ethnic Samoans, many from American Samoa, currently play in the [[National Football League]]. A 2002 article from [http://espn.go.com/gen/s/2002/0527/1387626.html ESPN] estimated that a Samoan male (either an American Samoan, or a Samoan living in the 50 United States) is 40 times more likely to play in the NFL than a non-Samoan American. A number have also ventured into professional wrestling (see especially [[:Category:Anoai wrestling family|Anoai wrestling family]]). * Persons born in American Samoa are United States [[nationality|national]]s, but not United States [[citizen]]s. This is the only circumstance under which an individual would be one and not the other. * The [[American Samoa national soccer team]] holds an unwanted world record in international [[football (soccer)|soccer]]—the record defeat in an international match, a 31-0 crushing by [[Australia national football team|Australia]] on [[April 11]], [[2001]]. * Although many respected reference sources list the neighboring village of [[Pago Pago]] as the capital, [[Fagatogo]] is the ''de facto'' and ''de jure'' (i.e., constitutionally designated; cf. Article 5, Section 9) seat of government. Additionally, the governor's office is located in the village of Utulei, located on the opposite side of Fagatogo from Pago Pago. The reason why many sources list Pago Pago is because the name Pago Pago, the most popular port of call in American Samoa, has become associated with the harbor itself; thus Pago Pago is now generally applied to the harbor area and the capital. However, both the port itself and the legislature of American Samoa—known as the Fono—are located in Fagatogo, a village that is adjacent to (and for all practical purposes indistinguishable from) Pago Pago. (Cf. Wikipedia entry for [[Pago Pago]].) *In March of 1889, a [[Germany|German]] naval force shelled a village in [[Samoa]], and by doing so destroyed some [[United States|American]] property. Three American warships then entered the [[Samoan]] harbor and were prepared to fire on the three German warships found there. Before guns were fired, a hurricane blew up and sank all the ships, American and German. A compulsory [[armistice]] was called because of the lack of warships. ==See also== [[Aloha Council#Scouting in American Samoa|Scouting in American Samoa]] ===Government=== * [[List of American Samoa Governors]] * [[Elections in American Samoa]] ===Sports=== * [[American Samoa at the 2000 Summer Olympics]] * [[American Samoa national rugby league team]] * [[American Samoa national soccer team]] ===CIA Factbook Data=== ''From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000:'' * [[Geography of American Samoa]] * [[Demographics of American Samoa]] * [[Politics of American Samoa]] * [[Economy of American Samoa]] * [[Communications in American Samoa]] * [[Transportation in American Samoa]] * [[Military of the United States|Military: Defense is the responsibility of the US]] ==External links== {{wikinewscat|American Samoa|American Samoa}} * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/aq.html CIA - The World Factbook -- American Samoa] - [[CIA]]'s Factbook on American Samoa * [http://www.nebraskapress.unl.edu/bookinfo/4883.html "The Passive Resistance of Samoans to US and Other Colonialisms"], article in "Sovereignty Matters", ed. Joanne Barker, University of Nebraska Press, 2005. *[http://www.historyofnations.net/oceania/americansamoa.html History of American Samoa]- Essay which looks at the history of the territory from ancient to more modern times. *[http://www.janeresture.com/amsam/index.htm Jane's American Samoa Page] *[http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/asian/americansamoa/americansamoa.html Library of Congress Portals of the World - American Samoa] - Library of Congress resource which provides links to resources on American Samoa. * [http://www.mapsouthpacific.com/american_samoa/index.html Map of American Samoa] - Map showing the basic layout of American Samoa. * [http://www.asbar.org/Newcode/rcas.htm Revised Constitution of American Samoa] - Provides the text of the constition of American Samoa. *[http://www.asg-gov.net/ The Official Webpage of the American Samoa Government] - Lists information on the territorial government including officials and recent legislation. * [http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/decolonization/docs.htm United Nations Decolonization Papers] - Online United Nations Decolonization Documents including current and past Working Papers on American Samoa * [http://www.choohoo.com/ ChooHoo!] - An online community for Samoans. Features include forums, chat, blogs, etc. *[http://www.rulers.org/rula1.html#american_samoa Rulers.org — American_samoa] List of rulers for American Samoa {{American Samoa}} {{Pacific Islands}} {{Polynesia}} {{United States}} [[Category:American Samoa|*]] [[Category:Insular areas of the United States]] [[Category:Oceanic dependencies]] [[zh-min-nan:Bí-kok Samoa]] [[ca:Samoa Nord-americana]] [[da:Amerikansk Samoa]] [[de:Amerikanisch-Samoa]] [[et:Ameerika Samoa]] [[es:Samoa Americana]] [[eo:Usona Samoo]] [[fr:Samoa américaines]] [[ko:아메리칸사모아]] [[id:Samoa Amerika]] [[is:Bandaríska Samóa]] [[it:Samoa Americane]] [[he:סמואה האמריקנית]] [[lv:Austrumsamoa]] [[lt:Amerikos Samoa]] [[hu:Amerikai Szamoa]] [[mk:Американска Самоа]] [[ms:Samoa Amerika]] [[nl:Amerikaans-Samoa]] [[ja:アメリカ領サモア]] [[no:Amerikansk Samoa]] [[nn:Amerikansk Samoa]] [[pl:Samoa Amerykańskie]] [[pt:Samoa Americana]] [[ru:Американское Самоа]] [[sm:Amerika Samoa]] [[simple:American Samoa]] [[sk:Americká Samoa]] [[sl:Ameriška Samoa]] [[fi:Amerikan Samoa]] [[sv:Amerikanska Samoa]] [[tr:Amerikan Samoası]] [[uk:Американське Самоа]] [[zh:美屬薩摩亞]] 579 41942092 2006-03-02T19:59:23Z Lucian Gregory 1008143 {{wiktionarypar|alien}} '''Alien''' or '''Aliens''' may mean: * [[Extraterrestrial life]], in scientific context * [[Extraterrestrial life in culture]] * [[Alien (film)|''Alien'' (film)]] (1979), by Ridley Scott * [[Aliens (1986 film)|''Aliens'' (1986 film)]], the sequel to the above film * [[xenomorph]], the alien creatures from the ''Alien'' movies * [[Aliens (comic)]], a group of comic book series * [[Alien (biology)]], a non-native species * [[Alien (computing)]], a program that converts between different Linux package distribution file formats * [[Alien (law)]], a person who is neither a native nor a citizen of their country of residence * [[Alien (signifier)]], use in literature and criticism as the embodiment of an outside perspective or the sense of the other * [[The Aliens]], Roky Erickson's backing band * [[Alien (game)]], a 1982 DOS text adventure {{disambig}} [[de:Alien]] [[es:Alien]] [[fr:Alien]] [[ja:宇宙人]] [[nl:Buitenaards wezen]] [[pl:obcy]] [[pt:Alienígena]] [[fi:Alien]] [[zh:外星人]] 580 42138169 2006-03-04T01:52:54Z Mozasaur 475997 terminology, astronomers are people, not all astronomers do research. An '''astronomer''' or '''astrophysicist''' is a person whose area of interest is [[astronomy]] or [[astrophysics]]. [[Image:Johannes Helvelius.jpg|right|thumb|180px|[[Johannes Hevelius]] was famed for his work on [[sunspot]]s, and being the first to study the surface of the [[moon]].]] Astronomy is generally thought to have begun in [[ancient history|ancient]] [[Babylon]] by the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] [[Zoroastrian]] priests (the ''[[magi]]''). Recent studies of Babylonian records have shown them to be extremely accurate for the ancient night sky. Following the Babylonians, the [[Egypt]]ians also had an emphasis on observations of the sky. Mixtures of religious interpretations of the sky and the development of complex models for applying these interpretations, led to a [[duality]] that we now identify as [[astrology]]. It is important to recognize that before about [[1750]], there was no distinction between [[astrology]] and [[astronomy]]. Astronomers, unlike most scientists, cannot interact with the objects that they study. They instead must resort to detailed [[observation]] in order to make discoveries. Generally, astronomers use [[telescope|telescopes]] or other imaging equipment to make such observations. The job itself is involved with travel to remote locations to study as well. == Famous astronomers == {| border |- !Astronomer !Contribution |- |- |[[Hipparchus (astronomer)|Hipparchus]] and [[Ptolemy]] |Determined the positions of about 1,000 bright stars, tried to explain the puzzles of astronomy without refuting only believed geocentric model of universe and classified stars by [[Apparent magnitude|magnitude]]. |- |[[Aristarchus of Samos]] |First known person to propound the [[Heliocentrism|heliocentric model]] of universe |- |[[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] |This Persian astronomer gave the first extant exposition of the whole system of plane and spherical [[trigonometry]]. Made very accurate tables of [[planetary]] movements and named many [[star]]s. His planetary system was the most advanced of his period and was used extensively until the development of the [[heliocentric]] model. [[Tusi-couple]] resolves linear motion into the sum of two circular motions. He also calculated the value of 51' for the [[precession]] of the [[equinoxes]] and contributed to construction and usage of [[astrolabe]]. |- |[[copernicus|Nicolaus Copernicus]] |Was influential in reintroducing the concept of Heliocentrism in modern times. |- |[[Tycho Brahe]] |Did develop many important astronomical instruments, and was the first to do accurate repeatable measurments of the heavens. The measurements of the orbit of Mars were very important to the development of astronomy. |- |[[Johannes Kepler]] |Suggested the [[Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion|elliptical orbits]] of planets, and propounded his ''[[Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion|Laws of Planetary Motion]]''. |- |[[Galileo Galilei]] |Was the first to use the [[telescope]] to observe the sky. Condemned to house arrest for his discoveries by [[Inquisition|Inquisitional]] edict, which was lifted 359 years later by [[Pope John Paul II]]. |- |[[Isaac Newton]] |Published ''Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica'' ([[1687]]), containing the "[[Newton's laws of motion]]", which are fundamental to mechanical physics, and which explained Kepler's laws of planetary motion. Predicted the orbits of the [[Planet|planets]]. |- |[[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]] |Extensive work on the internal mechanisms of stars, particularly known for determining the effect of [[special relativity]] on stars, including being the first to calculate the [[Chandrasekhar limit]], which he did, without a calculator, on a boat journey. |- |[[Henrietta Swan Leavitt]] |Catalogued [[Cepheid variable]] stars in the [[Magellanic Clouds]], in [[1912]] discovered the relationship between luminosty and periodicity in Cepheids -- leading to [[Ejnar Hertzsprung|Hertzprung]]'s later work. |- |[[Ejnar Hertzsprung]] |determined the distance to several [[Cepheid variable|Cepheids]], when Cepheids were detected in other [[galaxy|galaxies]] such as the [[Andromeda galaxy]], the distance to those galaxies could then be determined. |- |[[Edwin Hubble]] |Discovered the expansion of the universe. ([[Hubble's Law]]) [[Hubble Space Telescope|The Hubble Orbiting Space Telescope]] was named in his honor. |} == See also == * [[Amateur astronomy]] * [[List of astronomers]] ---- There is also a well-known painting by [[Johannes Vermeer]] titled ''The Astronomer'', which is often linked to Vermeer's ''The [[Geographer]]''. These paintings are both thought to represent the growing influence and rise in prominence of scientific inquiry in [[Europe]] at the time of their painting, [[1668]]-[[1669|69]]. ---- [[Category:Astronomers| ]] [[Category:Science occupations]] [[als:Astronom]] [[bg:Астроном]] [[da:Astronom]] [[de:Astronom]] [[eo:Astronomo]] [[ko:천문학자]] [[it:Astronomo]] [[hu:Csillagász]] [[nl:Astronoom]] [[ja:天文学者]] [[no:Astronom]] [[nn:Astronom]] [[pl:Astronom]] [[simple:Astronomer]] [[sk:Astronóm]] [[sl:Astronom]] [[fi:Tähtitieteilijä]] [[th:นักดาราศาสตร์]] [[zh:天文学家]] 583 15899114 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Amoeboid]] 584 40444702 2006-02-20T16:26:57Z BinaryTed 709141 Revert to revision 36472982 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] [[Image:Chaos diffluens.jpg|thumb|Amoeba (''Chaos diffluens'')]] [[Image:live_Ammonia_tepida.jpg|thumb|Foraminiferan (''Ammonia tepida'')]] [[Image:Actinophrys sol.jpg|thumb|Heliozoan (''Actinophrys sol'')]] '''Amoeboids''' are [[cell (biology)|cell]]s that move or feed by means of temporary projections, called [[pseudopod]]s (false feet). They have appeared in a number of different groups. Some cells in multicellular animals may be amoeboid, for instance our [[white blood cell]]s, which consume pathogens. Many [[protist]]s exist as individual amoeboid cells, or take such a form at some point in their life-cycle. The most famous such organism is ''[[Amoeba|Amoeba proteus]]''; the name amoebae is variously used to describe its close relatives, other organisms similar to it, or the amoeboids in general. Amoeboids may be divided into several morphological categories based on the form and structure of the pseudopods. Those where the pseudopods are supported by regular arrays of [[microtubule]]s are called actinopods, and forms where they are not are called rhizopods, further divided into lobse, filose, and reticulose amoebae. There is also a strange group of giant marine amoeboids, the [[xenophyophore]]s, that do not fall into any of these categories. * Lobose pseudopods are blunt, and there may be one or several on a cell, which is usually divided into a layer of clear ectoplasm surrounding more granular endoplasm. Most, including ''Amoeba'' itself, move by the body mass flowing into an anterior pseudopod. The vast majority form a monophyletic group called the [[Amoebozoa]], which also includes most [[slime mould]]s. A second group, the [[Percolozoa]], includes protists that can transform between amoeboid and [[flagellate]] forms. * Filose pseudopods are narrow and tapering. The vast majority of filose amoebae, including all those that produce shells, are placed within the [[Cercozoa]] together with various flagellates that tend to have amoeboid forms. The naked filose amoebae comprise two other groups, the [[vampyrellid]]s and [[nucleariid]]s. The latter appear to be close relatives of [[animal]]s and [[fungus|fungi]]. * Reticulose pseudopods are cytoplasmic strands that branch and merge to form a net. They are found most notably among the [[Foraminifera]], a large group of marine protists that generally produce multi-chambered shells. There are only a few sorts of naked reticulose amoeboids, notably the [[gymnophryid]]s, and their relationships are not certain. * Actinopods are divided into the [[radiolaria]] and [[heliozoa]]. The radiolaria are mostly marine protists with complex internal skeletons, including central capsules that divide the cells into granular endoplasm and frothy ectoplasm that keeps them buoyant. The heliozoa include both freshwater and marine forms that use their axopods to capture small prey, and only have simple scales or spines for skeletal elements. Both groups appear to be [[polyphyletic]]. Traditionally the amoeboid protozoa are grouped together as the Sarcodina, variously ranked from class to phylum, with each of the above categories as a formal subtaxon. However, since they are all based on form rather than phylogeny, newer systems generally separate some out or abandon them entirely. Most amoeboids are now included in two major supergroups - the [[Amoebozoa]], including most lobose amoebae and slime moulds, and the [[Rhizaria]], including the Cercozoa, Foraminifera, radiolarian classes and certain heliozoa. However, amoeboids have appeared separately in many other groups, including various different lines of algae not listed above. == External links == * [http://www.bms.ed.ac.uk/research/others/smaciver/amoebae.htm The Amoebae] website brings together information from published sources. * [http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/wimsmall/sundr.html Amoebas are more than just blobs] * [http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/indexmag.html?http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/wimsmall/sundr.html sun animacules and amoebas] [[Category:Protista]][[Category:Cell biology]][[Category:Amoeboids|*]][[Category:Motile cells]] [[es:rizópodo]] [[fr:Actinopoda]] [[pl:Ameby]] 586 move=:edit= 41964454 2006-03-02T22:42:35Z TigerShark 161478 rv to Johnteslade {{featured article}} {{otheruses}} [[Image:ascii_full.png|frame|There are 95 printable ASCII characters, numbered 32 to 126.]] '''ASCII''' ('''''A'''merican '''S'''tandard '''C'''ode for '''I'''nformation '''I'''nterchange''), generally [[IPA for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|[&#712;æski]}}, is a [[character encoding]] based on the [[English alphabet]]. ASCII codes represent [[character (computing)|text]] in [[computer]]s, [[telecommunications|communications]] equipment, and other devices that work with text. Most modern character encodings have a historical basis in ASCII. ASCII was first published as a standard in 1967 and was last updated in 1986. It currently defines codes for 33 non-printing, mostly obsolete [[control character]]s that affect how text is processed, plus the following 95 printable characters (starting with the space character): <pre> !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>? @ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_ `abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~ </pre> Asteroid [[3568 ASCII]] is named after the character encoding. ==Overview== Like other character representation computer [[code]]s, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and the symbols/[[glyph]]s of a written language, thus allowing [[digital]] devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information. The ASCII character encoding<ref>International Organization for Standardization ([[December 1]], [[1975]]). "[http://www.itscj.ipsj.or.jp/ISO-IR/001.pdf The set of control characters for ISO 646]". ''Internet Assigned Numbers Authority Registry''. Alternate U.S. version: [http://www.itscj.ipsj.or.jp/ISO-IR/006.pdf]. Accessed [[August 7]], [[2005]].</ref>&nbsp;— or a compatible extension (see below)&nbsp;— is used on nearly all common computers, especially [[personal computer]]s and [[workstation]]s. The preferred [[MIME]] name for this encoding is "US-ASCII".<ref>Internet Assigned Numbers Authority ([[January 28]], [[2005]]). "[http://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets Character Sets]". Accessed [[August 7]], [[2005]].</ref> ASCII is, strictly, a seven-[[bit]] code, meaning that it uses the bit patterns representable with seven binary digits (a range of 0 to 127 decimal) to represent character information. At the time ASCII was introduced, many computers dealt with eight-bit groups ([[byte]]s or, more specifically, [[octet (computing)|octet]]s) as the smallest unit of information; the eighth bit was commonly used as a [[parity bit]] for error checking on communication lines or other device-specific functions. Machines which did not use parity typically set the eighth bit to zero, though some systems such as [[Prime computer|Prime]] machines running [[PRIMOS]] set the eighth bit of ASCII characters to one. ASCII only defines a relationship between specific characters and bit sequences; aside from reserving a few control codes for line-oriented formatting, it does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. Such concepts are within the realm of other systems such as the [[markup language]]s. ==History== ASCII developed from [[Telegraphy|telegraphic codes]] and first entered commercial use as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by [[AT&T|Bell]] data services. The [[Bell System]] had previously planned to use a six-bit code, derived from [[Fieldata]], that added punctuation and lower-case letters to the earlier five-bit [[Baudot code|Baudot]] teleprinter code, but was persuaded instead to join the [[American National Standards Institute|ASA]] subcommittee that had started to develop ASCII. Baudot helped in the automation of sending and receiving telegraphic messages, and took many features from [[Morse code]]; however, unlike Morse code, Baudot used constant-length codes. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII both underwent re-ordering for more convenient sorting (especially alphabetization) of lists, and added features for devices other than teleprinters. [[Bob Bemer]] introduced features such as the '[[escape sequence]]'. The American Standards Association (ASA, later to become [[American National Standards Institute|ANSI]]) first published ASCII as a standard in 1963. ASCII-1963 lacked the lowercase letters, and had an up-arrow (&#8593;) instead of the caret (^) and a left-arrow (&#8592;) instead of the underscore (_). The 1967 version added the lowercase letters, changed the names of a few control characters and moved the two controls ACK and ESC from the lowercase letters area into the control codes area. ASCII was subsequently updated and published as ANSI X3.4-1968, ANSI X3.4-1977, and finally, ANSI X3.4-1986. Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings that are identical or nearly identical to ASCII. These encodings are sometimes referred to as ASCII, even though ASCII is strictly defined only by the ASA/ANSI standards: * The [[European Computer Manufacturers Association]] published editions of its ASCII clone, ECMA-6, in 1965, 1967, 1970, 1973, 1983, and 1991. The 1991 edition is the same as ANSI X3.4-1986.<ref>ECMA International (December 1991). [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/files/ECMA-ST/Ecma-006.pdf Standard ECMA-6: 7-bit Coded Character Set, 6th edition.] Accessed [[December 17]], [[2005]].</ref> * The [[International Organization for Standardization]] published its version, ISO 646 (later [[ISO/IEC 646]]) in 1967, 1972, 1983, and 1991. ISO 646:1972, in particular, established a set of country-specific versions with punctuation characters replaced with non-English letters. ISO/IEC 646:1991 International Reference Version is the same as ANSI X3.4-1986. * The [[International Telecommunication Union]] published its version of ANSI X3.4-1986, [[ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector|ITU-T]] Recommendation T.50, in 1992. In the early 1970s, under the name CCITT, the same organization published a version as CCITT Recommendation V.3. * [[DIN]] published a version of ASCII as DIN 66003 in 1974. * The [[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]] published a version in 1969 as RFC 20, and established the Internet's standard version, based on ANSI X3.4-1986, with the publication of RFC 1345 in 1992. * [[IBM]]'s version of ANSI X3.4-1986 is published in IBM technical literature as [[code page 367]]. ASCII has also become embedded in its probable replacement, [[Unicode]], as the 'lowest' 128 characters. Some observers consider ASCII the most "successful" software standard ever promulgated. ==ASCII control characters== ASCII reserves the first 32 codes (numbers 0–31 decimal) for [[control character]]s: codes originally intended not to carry printable information, but rather to control devices (such as [[computer printer|printer]]s) that make use of ASCII. For example, character 10 represents the "line feed" function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 27 represents the "escape" key often found in the top left corner of common [[Computer keyboard|keyboard]]s. Code 127 (all seven bits on), another special character, equates to "delete" or "rubout". Though its function resembles that of other control characters, the designers of ASCII used this pattern so that it could "erase" a section of [[punched tape|paper tape]] (a popular storage medium until the 1980s) by punching all possible holes at a particular character position, thus effectively replacing any previous information. Since Code 0 (null,all bits off) was also ignored it was possible to leave gaps and then make corrections by blanking characters before or after the gap and then entering new characters in the gap. Many of the ASCII control codes serve (or served) to mark data packets, or to control a data transmission protocol (e.g. ENQuiry [effectively, "any stations out there?"], ACKnowledge, Negative AcKnowledge, Start Of Header, Start of TeXt, End of TeXt, etc). ESCape and SUBstitute permit a communications protocol to, for instance, mark binary data so that if it contains codes with the same pattern as a protocol character, the recipient will process the code as data. The designers of ASCII intended the separator characters ("Record Separator", etc.) for use with magnetic tape systems. Two of the device control characters, commonly interpreted as [[XON]] and [[XOFF]], generally function as [[flow control]] characters to throttle data flow to a slow device (such as a printer) from a fast device (such as a computer) - so data does not overrun and get lost. Early users of ASCII adopted some of the control codes to represent "meta information" such as end-of-line, start/end of a data element, and so on. These assignments often conflict, so part of the effort in converting data from one format to another involves making the correct meta information transformations. For example, the character(s) representing end-of-line ("[[newline]]") in text data files/streams vary from [[operating system]] to operating system. When moving files from one system to another, the conversion process must recognize these characters as end-of-line markers and handle them appropriately. Today, ASCII users use the control characters less and less—with the exception of "carriage return" and/or "line feed". Modern markup languages, modern communication protocols, the move from text-based to graphical devices, and the demise of teleprinters, punch-cards, and paper tapes have rendered most of the control characters obsolete. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |- !style="width: 5.5em"|Binary !style="width: 2.5em"|Oct !style="width: 2.5em"|Dec !style="width: 2.5em"|Hex !style="width: 2.5em"|Abbr !style="width: 2.5em"|PR{{ref 1}} !style="width: 2.5em"|CS{{ref 2}} !Description |- |0000&nbsp;0000 |000 |0 |00 |NUL |<big>&#9216;</big> |^@ |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Null character]] |- |0000&nbsp;0001 |001 |1 |01 |SOH |<big>&#9217;</big> |^A |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Start of Header |- |0000&nbsp;0010 |002 |2 |02 |STX |<big>&#9218;</big> |^B |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Start of Text |- |0000&nbsp;0011 |003 |3 |03 |ETX |<big>&#9219;</big> |^C |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|End of Text |- |0000&nbsp;0100 |004 |4 |04 |EOT |<big>&#9220;</big> |^D |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[End-of-transmission character|End of Transmission]] |- |0000&nbsp;0101 |005 |5 |05 |ENQ |<big>&#9221;</big> |^E |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Enquiry |- |0000&nbsp;0110 |006 |6 |06 |ACK |<big>&#9222;</big> |^F |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Acknowledgment |- |0000&nbsp;0111 |007 |7 |07 |BEL |<big>&#9223;</big> |^G |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Bell character|Bell]] |- |0000&nbsp;1000 |010 |8 |08 |BS |<big>&#9224;</big> |^H |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Backspace]]{{ref 3}}{{ref 7}} |- |0000&nbsp;1001 |011 |9 |09 |HT |<big>&#9225;</big> |^I |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Horizontal [[Tab]] |- |0000&nbsp;1010 |012 |10 |0A |LF |<big>&#9226;</big> |^J |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Line feed]] |- |0000&nbsp;1011 |013 |11 |0B |VT |<big>&#9227;</big> |^K |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Vertical Tab |- |0000&nbsp;1100 |014 |12 |0C |FF |<big>&#9228;</big> |^L |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Form feed]] |- |0000&nbsp;1101 |015 |13 |0D |CR |<big>&#9229;</big> |^M |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Carriage return]]{{ref 6}} |- |0000&nbsp;1110 |016 |14 |0E |SO |<big>&#9230;</big> |^N |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Shift Out and Shift In characters|Shift Out]] |- |0000&nbsp;1111 |017 |15 |0F |SI |<big>&#9231;</big> |^O |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Shift Out and Shift In characters|Shift In]] |- |0001&nbsp;0000 |020 |16 |10 |DLE |<big>&#9232;</big> |^P |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Data Link Escape |- |0001&nbsp;0001 |021 |17 |11 |DC1 |<big>&#9233;</big> |^Q |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Device Control 1 (oft. XON) |- |0001&nbsp;0010 |022 |18 |12 |DC2 |<big>&#9234;</big> |^R |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Device Control 2 |- |0001&nbsp;0011 |023 |19 |13 |DC3 |<big>&#9235;</big> |^S |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Device Control 3 (oft. XOFF) |- |0001&nbsp;0100 |024 |20 |14 |DC4 |<big>&#9236;</big> |^T |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Device Control 4 |- |0001&nbsp;0101 |025 |21 |15 |NAK |<big>&#9237;</big> |^U |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Negative-acknowledge character|Negative Acknowledgement]] |- |0001&nbsp;0110 |026 |22 |16 |SYN |<big>&#9238;</big> |^V |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Synchronous Idle |- |0001&nbsp;0111 |027 |23 |17 |ETB |<big>&#9239;</big> |^W |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|End of Trans. Block |- |0001&nbsp;1000 |030 |24 |18 |CAN |<big>&#9240;</big> |^X |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Cancel character|Cancel]] |- |0001&nbsp;1001 |031 |25 |19 |EM |<big>&#9241;</big> |^Y |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|End of Medium |- |0001&nbsp;1010 |032 |26 |1A |SUB |<big>&#9242;</big> |^Z |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Substitute |- |0001&nbsp;1011 |033 |27 |1B |ESC |<big>&#9243;</big> |^<nowiki>[</nowiki> |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|[[Escape character|Escape]]{{ref 5}} |- |0001&nbsp;1100 |034 |28 |1C |FS |<big>&#9244;</big> |^\ |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|File Separator |- |0001&nbsp;1101 |035 |29 |1D |GS |<big>&#9245;</big> |^<nowiki>]</nowiki> |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Group Separator |- |0001&nbsp;1110 |036 |30 |1E |RS |<big>&#9246;</big> |^^ |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Record Separator |- |0001&nbsp;1111 |037 |31 |1F |US |<big>&#9247;</big> |^_ |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Unit Separator |- |0111&nbsp;1111 |177 |127 |7F |DEL |<big>&#9249;</big> |^? |style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em"|Delete{{ref 4}}{{ref 7}} |} # Printable Representation, the [[Unicode]] glyphs reserved for representing control characters when it is necessary to print or display them rather than have them perform their intended function. # Control key Sequence, the traditional key sequences for inputting control characters. The caret (^) represents the "Control" or "Ctrl" key that must be held down while pressing the second key in the sequence. The caret-key representation is also used by some software to represent control characters. # The Backspace character can also be entered by pressing the "Backspace", "Bksp", or ← key on some systems. # The Delete character can also be entered by pressing the "Delete" or "Del" key. It can also be entered by pressing the "Backspace", "Bksp", or ← key on some systems. # The Escape character can also be entered by pressing the "Escape" or "Esc" key on some systems. # The Carriage Return character can also be entered by pressing the "Return", "Ret", "Enter", or ↵ key on most systems. # The ambiguity surrounding the Backspace key comes from systems that translated the DEL control character into a BS (backspace) before transmitting it. Some software was unable to process the character and would display "^H" instead. "^H" persists in messages today as a deliberate humorous device, e.g. [[there's a sucker born every minute|"there's a sucker^H^H^H^H^H^Hpotential customer born every minute"]]. A less common variant of this involves the use of "^W", which in some [[text editor|text editors]] means "delete previous word". The example sentence would therefore also work as "there's a sucker^W potential customer born every minute". ==ASCII printable characters== Code 32, the [[Space (punctuation)|"space" character]], denotes the space between words, as produced by the large space-bar of a keyboard. Codes 33 to 126, known as the printable characters, represent letters, digits, punctuation marks, and a few miscellaneous symbols. Seven-bit ASCII provided seven "national" characters and, if the combined hardware and software permit, can use overstrikes to simulate some additional international characters: in such a scenario a backspace can precede a [[grave accent]] (which the American and British standards, but only those standards, also call "opening single quotation mark"), a [[tilde]], or a breath mark (inverted [[vel]]). {| |- valign="top" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |- !style="width: 5.5em"|Binary !style="width: 2.5em"|Dec !style="width: 2.5em"|Hex !Glyph |- |0010&nbsp;0000 |32 |20 |[[Space (punctuation)|(blank)]] (&#9248;) |- |0010&nbsp;0001 |33 |21 |[[Exclamation mark|!]] |- |0010&nbsp;0010 |34 |22 |" |- |0010&nbsp;0011 |35 |23 |[[Number sign|#]] |- |0010&nbsp;0100 |36 |24 |[[Dollar sign|$]] |- |0010&nbsp;0101 |37 |25 |[[Percent sign|%]] |- |0010&nbsp;0110 |38 |26 |[[Ampersand|&]] |- |0010&nbsp;0111 |39 |27 |[[Apostrophe (punctuation)|']] |- |0010&nbsp;1000 |40 |28 |[[Bracket|(]] |- |0010&nbsp;1001 |41 |29 |[[Bracket|)]] |- |0010&nbsp;1010 |42 |2A |[[Asterisk|*]] |- |0010&nbsp;1011 |43 |2B |[[Plus sign|+]] |- |0010&nbsp;1100 |44 |2C |[[Comma (punctuation)|,]] |- |0010&nbsp;1101 |45 |2D |[[Hyphen|-]] |- |0010&nbsp;1110 |46 |2E |[[Full stop|.]] |- |0010&nbsp;1111 |47 |2F |[[Slash (punctuation)|/]] |- |0011&nbsp;0000 |48 |30 |0 |- |0011&nbsp;0001 |49 |31 |1 |- |0011&nbsp;0010 |50 |32 |2 |- |0011&nbsp;0011 |51 |33 |3 |- |0011&nbsp;0100 |52 |34 |4 |- |0011&nbsp;0101 |53 |35 |5 |- |0011&nbsp;0110 |54 |36 |6 |- |0011&nbsp;0111 |55 |37 |7 |- |0011&nbsp;1000 |56 |38 |8 |- |0011&nbsp;1001 |57 |39 |9 |- |0011&nbsp;1010 |58 |3A |[[Colon (punctuation)|:]] |- |0011&nbsp;1011 |59 |3B |[[Semicolon|;]] |- |0011&nbsp;1100 |60 |3C |[[Less than sign|<]] |- |0011&nbsp;1101 |61 |3D |[[Equals sign|=]] |- |0011&nbsp;1110 |62 |3E |[[Greater than sign|>]] |- |0011&nbsp;1111 |63 |3F |[[Question mark|?]] |} |&nbsp; | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |- valign="bottom" !style="width: 5.5em"|Bin !style="width: 2.5em"|Dec !style="width: 2.5em"|Hex !Glyph |- |0100&nbsp;0000 |64 |40 |[[@]] |- |0100&nbsp;0001 |65 |41 |A |- |0100&nbsp;0010 |66 |42 |B |- |0100&nbsp;0011 |67 |43 |C |- |0100&nbsp;0100 |68 |44 |D |- |0100&nbsp;0101 |69 |45 |E |- |0100&nbsp;0110 |70 |46 |F |- |0100&nbsp;0111 |71 |47 |G |- |0100&nbsp;1000 |72 |48 |H |- |0100&nbsp;1001 |73 |49 |I |- |0100&nbsp;1010 |74 |4A |J |- |0100&nbsp;1011 |75 |4B |K |- |0100&nbsp;1100 |76 |4C |L |- |0100&nbsp;1101 |77 |4D |M |- |0100&nbsp;1110 |78 |4E |N |- |0100&nbsp;1111 |79 |4F |O |- |0101&nbsp;0000 |80 |50 |P |- |0101&nbsp;0001 |81 |51 |Q |- |0101&nbsp;0010 |82 |52 |R |- |0101&nbsp;0011 |83 |53 |S |- |0101&nbsp;0100 |84 |54 |T |- |0101&nbsp;0101 |85 |55 |U |- |0101&nbsp;0110 |86 |56 |V |- |0101&nbsp;0111 |87 |57 |W |- |0101&nbsp;1000 |88 |58 |X |- |0101&nbsp;1001 |89 |59 |Y |- |0101&nbsp;1010 |90 |5A |Z |- |0101&nbsp;1011 |91 |5B |[[Bracket|<nowiki>[</nowiki>]] |- |0101&nbsp;1100 |92 |5C |[[Backslash|\]] |- |0101&nbsp;1101 |93 |5D |[[Bracket|<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] |- |0101&nbsp;1110 |94 |5E |[[Caret|^]] |- |0101&nbsp;1111 |95 |5F |[[Underscore|_]] |} |&nbsp; | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |- valign="bottom" !style="width: 5.5em"|Bin !style="width: 2.5em"|Dec !style="width: 2.5em"|Hex !Glyph |- |0110&nbsp;0000 |96 |60 |[[Grave accent|`]] |- |0110&nbsp;0001 |97 |61 |a |- |0110&nbsp;0010 |98 |62 |b |- |0110&nbsp;0011 |99 |63 |c |- |0110&nbsp;0100 |100 |64 |d |- |0110&nbsp;0101 |101 |65 |e |- |0110&nbsp;0110 |102 |66 |f |- |0110&nbsp;0111 |103 |67 |g |- |0110&nbsp;1000 |104 |68 |h |- |0110&nbsp;1001 |105 |69 |i |- |0110&nbsp;1010 |106 |6A |j |- |0110&nbsp;1011 |107 |6B |k |- |0110&nbsp;1100 |108 |6C |l |- |0110&nbsp;1101 |109 |6D |m |- |0110&nbsp;1110 |110 |6E |n |- |0110&nbsp;1111 |111 |6F |o |- |0111&nbsp;0000 |112 |70 |p |- |0111&nbsp;0001 |113 |71 |q |- |0111&nbsp;0010 |114 |72 |r |- |0111&nbsp;0011 |115 |73 |s |- |0111&nbsp;0100 |116 |74 |t |- |0111&nbsp;0101 |117 |75 |u |- |0111&nbsp;0110 |118 |76 |v |- |0111&nbsp;0111 |119 |77 |w |- |0111&nbsp;1000 |120 |78 |x |- |0111&nbsp;1001 |121 |79 |y |- |0111&nbsp;1010 |122 |7A |z |- |0111&nbsp;1011 |123 |7B |[[Bracket|<nowiki>{</nowiki>]] |- |0111&nbsp;1100 |124 |7C |[[Vertical bar|&#124;]] |- |0111&nbsp;1101 |125 |7D |[[Bracket|<nowiki>}</nowiki>]] |- |0111&nbsp;1110 |126 |7E |[[Tilde|~]] |} |} ==Structural features== * The digits 0-9 are represented with their values in binary prefixed with 0011 (this means that [[Binary-coded decimal|bcd]]-ASCII is simply a matter of taking each bcd nibble separately and prefixing 0011 to it. * Lowercase and uppercase letters only differ in bit pattern by a single bit simplifying case conversion to a range test (to avoid converting characters that are not letters) and a single [[bitwise operation]]. ==Aliases for ASCII== RFC 1345 (published in June 1992) and the [http://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets IANA registry of character sets] (ongoing), both recognize the following case-insensitive aliases for ASCII as suitable for use on the Internet: * ANSI_X3.4-1968 (canonical name) * ANSI_X3.4-1986 * ASCII * US-ASCII (preferred MIME name) * us * ISO646-US * ISO_646.irv:1991 * iso-ir-6 * IBM367 * cp367 * csASCII Of these, only the aliases "US-ASCII" and "ASCII" have achieved widespread use. One often finds them in the optional "charset" parameter in the Content-Type header of some [[MIME]] messages, in the equivalent "meta" element of some [[HTML]] documents, and in the encoding declaration part of the prolog of some [[XML]] documents. ==Variants of ASCII== As computer technology spread throughout the world, different standards bodies and corporations developed many variations of ASCII in order to facilitate the expression of non-English languages that used Roman-based alphabets. One could class some of these variations as "ASCII [[Extended ASCII|extensions]]", although some mis-apply that term to cover all variants, including those that do not preserve ASCII's character-map in the 7-bit range. [[ISO 646]] (1972), the first attempt to remedy the pro-English-language bias, created compatibility problems, since it remained a 7-bit character-set. It made no additional codes available, so it reassigned some in language-specific variants. It thus became impossible to know what character a code represented without knowing which variant to work with, and text-processing systems could generally cope with only one variant anyway. Eventually, improved technology brought out-of-band means to represent the information formerly encoded in the eighth bit of each byte, freeing this bit to add another 128 additional character-codes for new assignments. For example, [[IBM]] developed 8-bit [[code page]]s, such as [[code page 437]], which replaced the control-characters with graphic symbols such as [[smiley]] faces, and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 bytes. Operating systems such as [[DOS]] supported these code-pages, and manufacturers of [[IBM PC]]s supported them in hardware. Eight-bit standards such as [[ISO 8859|ISO/IEC 8859]] and [[Mac OS Roman]] developed as true extensions of ASCII, leaving the original character-mapping intact and just adding additional values above the 7-bit range. This enabled the representation of a broader range of languages, but these standards continued to suffer from incompatibilities and limitations. Still, [[ISO-8859-1]] its variant [[Windows-1252]] (often mislabeled as ISO-8859-1) and original 7-bit ASCII remain the most common character encodings in use today. [[Unicode]] and the ISO/IEC 10646 [[Universal Character Set]] (UCS) have a much wider array of characters, and their various encoding forms have begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII rapidly in many environments. While ASCII basically uses 7-bit codes, Unicode and the UCS use relatively abstract "code points": non-negative integer numbers that map, using different encoding forms and schemes, to sequences of one or more 8-bit bytes. To permit backward compatibility, Unicode and the UCS assign the first 128 code points to the same characters as ASCII. One can therefore think of ASCII as a 7-bit encoding scheme for a very small subset of Unicode and of the UCS. The popular [[UTF-8]] encoding-form prescribes the use of one to four 8-bit code values for each code point character, and equates exactly to ASCII for the code values below 128. Other encoding forms such as [[UTF-16]] resemble ASCII in how they represent the first 128 characters of Unicode, but tend to use 16 or 32 bits per character, so they require conversion for compatibility. The [[blend (linguistics)|blend]] word ''ASCIIbetical'' has evolved to describe the [[collation]] of data in ASCII-code order rather than "standard" alphabetical order.<ref>Jargon File. [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/A/ASCIIbetical-order.html ASCIIbetical]. Accessed [[December 17]], [[2005]].</ref> The abbreviation ASCIIZ or ASCIZ refers to a [[Character string (computer science)|null-terminated ASCII string]]. ==See also== *[[American National Standards Institute|ANSI]] *[[ASCII art]] *[[ASCII game]]s *[[Text file]] *[[Bob Bemer]] *[[EBCDIC]] *[[Unicode]] *[[ASCII ribbon]] ===ASCII extensions=== (where all ASCII printable characters are identical to ASCII) *[[Extended ASCII]] *[[UTF-8]] *[[ISO 8859]] *[[ISCII]] *[[VISCII]] *[[Windows code pages]] ===ASCII variants=== (where some ASCII printable characters have been replaced) *[[ISO 646]] *[[ATASCII]] *[[PETSCII]] *[[ZX Spectrum character set]] ==References== ===For specific points=== <references/> ===General=== *[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0000.pdf Unicode.org chart on the ASCII range] * Tom Jennings ([[October 29]] [[2004]]). [http://www.wps.com/projects/codes/index.html Annotated History of Character Codes.] Accessed [[December 17]] [[2005]]. *[[Alt codes]] ==External links== <!--*[http://quickkeydotnet.sourceforge.net/ Quick Key Character Grid], a [[FOSS]] [[Application software|Application]] for [[Microsoft Windows]] inserts any character with one click. >>> not relevant to this page [[User:Chris_Chittleborough]], [[8 February]] [[2006]] --> *[http://www.speech.cs.cmu.edu/~sburke/stuff/pronunciation-guide.txt A pronunciation guide for ASCII characters] <!--good info but i'd like something more authoritive than a random personal website if at all possible [[User:Plugwash|Plugwash]] 23:14, [[25 December]] [[2005]] (UTC)--> *[http://www.jimprice.com/jim-asc.htm ASCII Chart, how to send documents "in ASCII", etc]<!-- i think this can stay at least for now it doesn't seem to contain misinformation about what ASCII is or extended ASCII though there is a small issue with its "IBM PC Extended ASCII" section (its only correct for English versions and sometimes not even for those) [[User:Plugwash|Plugwash]] 23:14, [[25 December]] [[2005]] (UTC)--> *[http://www.paulschou.com/tools/xlate/ Online Encoder/Decoder for ASCII, HEX, Binary, Base64, etc with MD2, MD4, MD5, SHA1+2, CRC, and other hashing algorithms] <!-- note: this website originally started as a school project, I wanted to make something to help the other students in the class and I think it may really help others. I intend to stand behind this work and if you find any error please don't hesitate to notify me of them. -user:paulschou --> [[Category:5-letter acronyms]] [[Category:Character encoding]] [[Category:Character sets]] [[Category:Latin alphabet representations]] [[als:ASCII]] [[ar:ASCII]] [[ast:ASCII]] [[bg:ASCII]] [[ca:ASCII]] [[cs:ASCII]] [[da:ASCII]] [[de:ASCII]] [[el:ASCII]] [[eo:Askio]] [[es:ASCII]] [[fi:ASCII]] [[fr:American Standard Code for Information Interchange]] [[gl:ASCII]] [[he:ASCII]] [[hu:ASCII]] [[ia:ASCII]] [[id:ASCII]] [[it:ASCII]] [[ja:American Standard Code for Information Interchange]] [[ko:ASCII]] [[ku:ASCII]] [[lv:ASCII]] [[ms:ASCII]] [[nl:ASCII (tekenset)]] [[nn:ASCII]] [[no:ASCII]] [[pl:ASCII]] [[pt:ASCII]] [[ro:ASCII]] [[ru:ASCII]] [[sk:ASCII]] [[sl:ASCII]] [[sq:ASCII]] [[sr:ASCII]] [[sv:ASCII]] [[th:ASCII]] [[tr:ASCII]] [[uk:ASCII]] [[vi:ASCII]] [[zh:ASCII]] [[zh-min-nan:ASCII]] 587 42091980 2006-03-03T19:50:49Z Acjelen 107326 revert confused vandalism '''America''' is usually meant as either: * The [[Americas]], the lands between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, usually subdivided into: **[[North America]] **[[South America]] * The [[United States]] of America ''See also: [[Americas (terminology)]], [[United_States#endnote_America|Use of the word America]], and [[Use of the word American|Use of the word American]]'' ---- America is also: * [[America, Netherlands]] in Limburg * America, a part of the parish of [[Sutton-in-the-Isle]] in Cambridgeshire, England America is the title or name of:<br/> ''Entertainment:'' * [[América (Perales song)|"América"]], a song by Spanish singer and composer [[José Luis Perales]] * [[America (Paul Simon song)|"America"]], a song by Simon and Garfunkel * [[America (Prince song)|"America"]], a song by Prince * [[America (Neil Diamond song)|"America"]], a song by [[Neil Diamond]] * [[America (band)]], a rock and roll band ** ''[[America (album)|America]]'', the title of their debut album * ''[[America (Havalina album)|America]]'', an album by the band Havalina * ''[[America (movie)|America]]'', a 1924 film directed by [[D.W. Griffith]] * ''[[America (The Book)]]'', a book written by the staff of ''The Daily Show with Jon Stewart'' * ''[[America (book)|America]]'', a book by [[Jean Baudrillard]] examining the nation sociologically * "America", a song from [[West Side Story]] by Leonard Bernstein, also performed by the UK rock group The Nice * [[America (XM)]], [[XM Satellite Radio]] channel 10 *''[[América (soap opera)|América]]'', a Brazilian telenovela (soap opera). * [[America (television station)]], an [[Argentina|Argentinian]] television station * ''[[America (magazine)|America]]'', a weekly Roman Catholic magazine ''Sports:'' * [[Club America]], Mexican football (soccer) team *[[América de Cali]], a Colombian football (soccer) team * ''[[America (yacht)|America]]'', a racing yacht that won the first ever America's Cup in 1851 ''Transportation:'' * ''[[America (airplane)|America]]'', a multi-engine airplane used by Richard E. Byrd and his crew on a 1927 transatlantic flight * ''[[America (commercial ship)|America]]'', a passenger liner commanded by [[George Fried]] involved in a famous sea rescue in 1929 * [[USS America|USS ''America'']], the name of three United States Navy ships * ''[[SS America (1940)|SS America]]'', a passenger liner owned by the United States Lines. America is an alternative title for: * [[My Country, 'Tis of Thee|"My Country, 'Tis of Thee"]], a patriotic song of the United States * [[Our America]], an essay by [[Jose Marti]] ==See also== *[[Amerika (disambiguation)]] *[[Americas#Naming of America|Naming of America]] {{disambig}} <!-- interwiki --> [[cy:America]] [[de:Amerika]] [[fr:America]] [[hr:Amerika]] [[nl:Amerika]] [[ja:アメリカ (曖昧さ回避)]] [[no:Amerika (andre betydninger)]] [[pt:América (desambiguação)]] [[sq:America]] [[sr:Америка]] [[fi:Amerikka]] [[tr:Amerika]] 588 42098769 2006-03-03T20:46:07Z BanyanTree 137674 rv back to Ashmoo {{otheruses}} {{portal}} [[Image:Africa satellite orthographic.jpg|thumb|280px|A satellite composite image of Africa]] '''Africa''' is the world's second-largest and second most populous [[continent]], after [[Asia]]. At about 30,370,000 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (11,730,000 [[square mile|sq mi]]) including its adjacent islands, it covers 5.9% of the [[Earth]]'s total surface area, and 20.3% of the total land area. With over 840,000,000 people (as of 2005) in 61 territories, it accounts for more than 12% of the world's [[human population]]. ==Etymology== [[Image:LocationAfrica.png|thumb|250px|World map showing Africa (geographically)]] The name '''Africa''' came into Western use through the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], who used the name ''Africa terra'' — "land of the Afri" (plural, or "Afer" singular) — for the northern part of the continent, as the [[Africa (province)|province of Africa]] with its capital [[Carthage]], corresponding to modern-day [[Tunisia]]. The Afri were a tribe — possibly [[Berber]] — who dwelt in [[North Africa]] in the Carthage area. The origin of ''Afer'' may be connected with [[Phoenician languages|Phoenician]] ''`afar'', [[dust]] (also found in most other [[Semitic languages]]); some other etymologies that have been postulated for the ancient name 'Africa' that are much more debatable include: :*the [[Latin]] word ''aprica'', meaning "sunny"; :*the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''aphrike'', meaning "without cold" (see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]). The historian [[Leo Africanus]] ([[1495]]-[[1554]]) attributed the origin to the Greek word ''phrike'' (φρίκη, meaning "cold and horror"), combined with the negating prefix a-, so meaning a land free of cold and horror. However, the change of sound from ''ph'' to ''f'' in Greek is datable to about the [[first century]], so this is unlikely to be the origin. Ancient Africa extended into what is now known as Asia. There was no line drawn between the two continents until the geographer [[Ptolemy]] ([[85]] - [[165]] AD), accepted [[Alexandria]] as [[Prime Meridian]] and made the [[Suez Canal|isthmus of Suez]] and the [[Red Sea]] the boundary between [[Asia]] and Africa. As [[Europe]]ans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of ''Africa'' expanded with their knowledge. ==Geography== ''Main article: [[Geography of Africa]]'' [[Image:The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg|thumb|250px|Africa in the [[Blue marble]] picture, with [[Antarctica]] to the south, and the [[Sahara]] and [[Arabian peninsula]] at the top of the globe]] Africa is the largest of the three great southward projections from the main mass of the Earth's surface. It includes within its remarkably regular outline an area, of c. 30,360,288 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (11,722,173 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]), including the islands. Separated from [[Europe]] by the [[Mediterranean Sea]], it is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by the [[Suez Canal|Isthmus of Suez]] (transected by the Suez Canal), 130 km (80 miles) wide. ([[Geopolitical]]ly, [[Egypt]]'s [[Sinai Peninsula]] east of the Suez Canal is often considered part of Africa, as well.) From the most northerly point, [[Cape Blanc]] (Ra’s al Abyad) in [[Tunisia]] (37&deg;21&prime; N), to the most southerly point, [[Cape Agulhas]] in [[South Africa]] (34&deg;51&prime;15&Prime; S), is a distance approximately of 8,000 km (5,000 miles); from [[Cap-Vert|Cape Verde]], 17&deg;33&prime;22&Prime; W, the westernmost point, to [[Ras Hafun]] in [[Somalia]], 51&deg;27&prime;52&Prime; E, the most easterly projection, is a distance (also approximately) of 7,400 km (4,600 miles). The length of coast-line is 26,000 km (16,100 miles) and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is shown by the fact that Europe, which covers only [[1 E12 m²|9,700,000 km&sup2;]] (3,760,000 square miles), has a coast-line of 32,000 km (19,800 miles). The main structural lines of the continent show both the east-to-west direction characteristic, at least in the eastern hemisphere, of the more northern parts of the world, and the north-to-south direction seen in the southern peninsulas. Africa is thus composed of two segments at right angles, the northern running from east to west, the southern from north to south, the subordinate lines corresponding in the main to these two directions. ==History== ''Main article: [[History of Africa]]'' [[Image:Afryka 1890.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Map of Africa 1890]] Africa is home to the [[cradle of Humankind|oldest inhabited territory]] on earth, with the [[human]] race [[mitochondrial Eve|originating]] from this continent. During the mid 20th century, [[Anthropology|anthropologists]] discovered many [[fossil]]s and evidence of human occupation perhaps as early as 7 million years ago. Fossil remains of several species of early ape-like humans thought to have [[evolve]]d into modern day man, such as ''[[Australopithecus afarensis]]'' ([[radiometrically dated]] to 3.9-3.0 million years [[Before_Christ|BC]]), ''[[Paranthropus boisei]]'' (2.3-1.4 million BC) and ''[[Homo ergaster]]'' (c. 600,000-1.9 million BC) has been discovered. The [[Ishango Bone]], dated to c. 25,000 years ago, shows [[tally stick|tallies]] in [[mathematical notation]]. Throughout humanity's [[prehistory]], Africa (like all other continents) had no [[nation state]]s, and was instead inhabited by groups of [[hunter-gatherers]] such as the [[Khoi]] and [[San]] (formerly known as [[bushmen]]). Around 3300 BC, the historical record opens in Africa with the rise of literacy in [[Egypt]], which continued with varying levels of influence over other areas until 343 BC. Other prominent [[civilization]]s include [[Ethiopia]], the [[Nubia]]n kingdom, [[Carthage]], the kingdoms of the [[Sahelian kingdom|Sahel]] ([[Ghana Empire|Ghana]], [[Mali Empire|Mali]], and [[Songhai empire|Songhai]]) and [[Great Zimbabwe]]. In 1482, the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] established the first of many trading stations along the Guinea coast at [[Elmina]]. The chief commodities dealt in were slaves, gold, ivory and spices. The European discovery of America in 1492 was followed by a great development of the [[slave trade]], which, before the Portuguese era, had been an overland trade almost exclusively, and never confined to any one continent. But at the same time that slavery was ending in Europe, in the early 19th century the European [[Imperialism|imperial]] powers staged a massive "[[scramble for Africa]]" and occupied most of the continent, creating many [[colony|colonial]] nation states, and leaving only two independent nations: [[Liberia]], the Black American colony, and [[Ethiopia]]. This occupation continued until after the conclusion of the [[World War II|Second World War]], when all colonial states gradually obtained formal independence. Today, Africa is home to over 50 independent countries, all but 2 of which still have the [[border]]s drawn up during the era of European [[colonialism]]. ==Politics== [[Image:ColonialAfrica.png|frame|''Map showing European claimants to the African continent at the beginning of [[World War I]]'']] ===Precolonial Africa=== {{sect-stub}} ===Colonial Africa=== [[Colonialism]] had a destabilizing effect on what had been a number of ethnic groups that is still being felt in African politics. Prior to European influence, national borders were not much of a concern, with Africans generally following the practice of other areas of the world, such as the Arabian peninsula, where a group's territory was congruent with its military or trade influence. The European insistence of drawing borders around territories to isolate them from those of other colonial powers often had the effect of separating otherwise contiguous political groups, or forcing traditional enemies to live side by side with no buffer between them. For example, the [[Congo River]], although it appears to be a natural geographic boundary, had groups that otherwise shared a [[language]], [[culture]] or other similarity who resided on both sides. The division of the land between [[Belgium]] and [[France]] along the river isolated these groups from each other. Those who lived in Saharan or [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] and traded across the continent for centuries often found themselves crossing "borders" that existed only on European maps. In nations that had substantial European populations, for example [[Rhodesia]] and [[South Africa]], systems of second-class citizenship were often set up in order to give Europeans [[political power]] far in excess of their numbers. However, the lines were not often drawn strictly across racial lines. In [[Liberia]], the citizens who were descendants of American slaves managed to have a political system for over 100 years that gave ex-slaves and natives to the area roughly equal [[legislative power]] despite the fact the ex-slaves were outnumbered ten to one in the general population. The inspiration for this system was the [[United States Senate]], which had balanced the power of free and slave states despite the much larger population of the former. Europeans often changed the balance of power, created ethnic divides where they did not previously exist, and introduced a cultural dichotomy detrimental to the native inhabitants in the areas they controlled. For example, in what is now [[Rwanda]] and [[Burundi]], two ethnic groups [[Hutus]] and [[Tutsis]] had merged into one culture by the time Belgian colonists had taken control of the region in the 19th century. No longer divided by ethnicity as intermingling, inter-marriage, and merging of cultural practices over the centuries had long since erased visible signs of a culture divide, the Belgians instituted a policy of racial categorization, upon taking control of the region, as racial based categorization and philosophies was a fixture of the European culture of that time. The term [[Hutu]] originally referred to the agricultural-based Bantu speaking tribes that moved into present day Rwandan and Burundi from the West, and the term [[Tutsi]] referred to North Eastern cattle-based tribes that migrated into the region later. The terms to the indigenous peoples eventually came to describe a person's economic class. Those individuals who owned roughly 10 or more cattle were considered Tutsi, and those with fewer were considered Hutu, regardless of ancestral history. This was not a strict line but a general rule of thumb, and one could move from Hutu to Tutsi and vice versa. The Belgians introduced a racialised system. Those individuals who had characteristics the Europeans admired - fairer skin, ample height, narrow noses, etc. - were given power amongst the colonized peoples. The Belgians determined these features were more ideally [[Hamitic]], Hamitic in turn being more ideally European and belonged to those people closest to Tutsi in ancestry. They instituted a policy of issuing identity cards based on this philosophy. Those closest to this ideal were proclaimed Tutsi and those not were proclaimed Hutu. ===Post-colonial Africa=== Since independence, African states have frequently been hampered by instability, corruption, violence, and [[authoritarianism]]. The vast majority of African nations are [[republic]]s that operate under some form of the [[presidential system]] of rule. Few nations in Africa have been able to sustain [[Democracy|democratic]] governments, instead cycling through a series of brutal [[Coup d'état|coup]]s and [[military dictatorship]]s. A number of Africa's post-colonial political leaders were poorly educated and ignorant on matters of governance; great instability, however, was mainly the result of marginalization of other ethnic groups and graft under these leaders. As well, many used the positions of power to ignite ethnic conflicts that had been exacerbated, or even created, under colonial rule. In many countries, the [[Armed force|military]] was perceived as being the only group that could effectively maintain order and ruled most nations in Africa during the [[1970s|70s]] and early [[1980s|80s]]. During the period from the early [[1960s]] to the late 1980s Africa had over 70 coups and 13 presidential [[assassination]]s. [[Cold War]] conflicts between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] also played a role in the instability. When a country became independent for the first time, it was often expected to align with one of the two [[superpower]]s. Many countries in [[Northern Africa]] received Soviet military aid, while many in Central and Southern Africa were supported by the [[United States]] and/or [[France]]. The 1970s saw an escalation as newly independent [[Angola]] and [[Mozambique]] aligned themselves with the [[Soviet Union]] and the West and [[South Africa]] sought to contain Soviet influence. Border and territorial disputes have also been common, with the European-imposed borders of many nations being widely contested through armed conflicts. Failed government policies and political corruption have also resulted in many widespread [[famine]]s, and significant portions of Africa remain with distribution systems unable to disseminate enough food or water for the population to survive. The spread of [[disease]] is also rampant, especially the spread of the [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus]] (HIV) and the associated [[Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome]] (AIDS), which has become a deadly [[epidemic]] on the continent. Despite numerous hardships, there have been some signs the continent has hope for the future. [[Democracy|Democratic government]]s seem to be spreading, though are not yet the majority (National Geographic claims 13 African nations can be considered truly democratic). As well, many nations have at least nominally recognized basic [[human right]]s for all [[citizen]]s, though in practice these are not always recognized, and have created reasonably independent [[judiciary|judiciaries]]. There are clear signs of increased networking among African organisations and states. In the civil war in the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] (former [[Zaire]]), rather than rich, non-African countries intervening, about half-a-dozen neighbouring African countries got involved (see also [[Second Congo War]]). The death toll has been estimated by some to be 3.5 million since the conflict began in 1998. This might play a role similar to that of [[World War II]] for Europe, after which the people in the neighbouring countries decide to integrate their societies in such a way that war between them becomes as unthinkable as a war between, say, [[France]] and [[Germany]] would be today. Political associations such as the [[African Union]] are also offering hope for greater co-operation and peace between the continent's many countries. Extensive human rights abuses still occur in several parts of Africa, often under the oversight of the state. Most of such violations occur for political reasons, often times as a 'side-effect' of civil war. Countries where major human rights violations have been reported in recent times include the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Liberia]], [[Sudan]], and [[Côte d'Ivoire]]. ===Modern Africa=== Most western countries place limitations on aid to African nations, especially the United States. These limitations are often used to control the governments of these African nations; as a result, these nations are turning to non-traditional sources of financial aid. [[China]] has increasingly provided financial aid to Africa in order to secure contracts on [[Natural resource|natural resources]], such as [[petroleum|oil]], [[gold]], and [[diamonds]]. There usually is no political prescription. Countries the Chinese are investing in include: Central African Republic (plantations), Nigeria ([[petroleum|oil]] & [[gas]]), Sierra Leone ([[tourism]]), Gabon ([[petroleum|oil]]), Congo-Brazzaville ([[petroleum|oil]] & wood-industry), Congo ([[copper]] & [[cobalt]]), Angola ([[railroad]]-system), Libya ([[petroleum|oil]]), Sudan ([[petroleum|oil]]), Uganda ([[coffee]] & [[fishing]]-industry), Kenya ([[Telecommunication|communications]]-network), Rwanda (public works), Burundi ([[Nickel]]), Zimbabwe (infrastructure), South Africa ([[coal]] & [[gold]]). ==Economy== ''Main article: [[Economy of Africa]]'' Africa is the world's poorest inhabited continent: the [[United Nation]]s' [http://hdr.undp.org/ Human Development Report] [[2003]] (of 175 countries) found that positions 151 ([[Gambia]]) to 175 ([[Sierra Leone]]) were taken up entirely by African nations. It has had (and in some ways is still having) a shaky and uncertain transition from [[colonialism]], with increases in [[political corruption|corruption]] and [[despotism]] being major contributing factors to its poor economic situation. While rapid growth in [[China]] and now [[India]], and moderate growth in [[Latin America]], has lifted millions beyond subsistence living, Africa has gone backwards in terms of foreign [[trade]], [[investment]], and [[per capita]] [[income]]. This [[poverty]] has widespread effects, including lower [[life expectancy]], [[violence]], and [[instability]] - factors intertwined with the continent's poverty. Major economic successes are [[Botswana]] and [[South Africa]], which is developed to the extent that it has its own mature [[Johannesburg Stock Exchange|stock exchange]]. This is partly due to its wealth of [[natural resource]]s, being the world's leading producer of both [[gold]] and [[diamond]]s, and partly due to its well-established legal system. South Africa also has access to financial capital, numerous markets and skilled labor. Other African countries are making comparable progress, such as [[Ghana]], and some, like Egypt, have a longer history of commercial and economic success. [[Nigeria]] sits on one of the largest proven oil reserves in the world and has the highest population among nations in Africa, with one of the fastest-growing economies in the world. It is believed that with the country's rapidly expanding economy and increasing actions against corruption, Nigeria's status as Africa's economic powerhouse will soon be firmly established. ==Demographics== Africans may be grouped according to whether they live north or south of the [[Sahara Desert]]; these groups are called [[North African]]s and [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]ns, respectively. [[Afro-Asiatic]] speaking peoples predominate in North Africa, while Sub-Saharan Africa is dominated by a number of populations grouped according to their language --[[Niger-Congo]] predominantly in West Africa, [[Nilo-Saharan]] in the Eastern highlands and [[Khoisan]] in the south. Speakers of [[Bantu languages]] (part of the Niger-Congo family) are the majority in southern, central and east Africa proper; but there are also several Nilotic groups in East Africa, and a few remaining [[Indigenous peoples of Africa|indigenous]] Khoisan ('[[San]]' or '[[Bushmen]]') and Pygmy peoples in southern and central Africa, respectively. Bantu-speaking Africans also predominate in Gabon and Equatorial Guinea, and are found in parts of southern Cameroon and southern Somalia. In the [[Kalahari Desert]] of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as the Bushmen (also "San", closely related to, but distinct from "[[Khoikhoi|Hottentots]]") have long been present. The San are physically distinct from other Africans and are the indigenous people of southern Africa. [[Pygmies]] are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of central Africa. The peoples of [[North Africa]] comprise two main groups; [[Berber]] and [[Arabic]]-speaking peoples in the west, and [[Demographics_of_Egypt#People|Egyptians]] in the east. The Arabs who arrived in the 7th century introduced the [[Arabic language]] and [[Islam]] to North Africa. The Semitic [[Phoenicia]]ns, and the European [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] settled in North Africa as well. Berbers still make up the majority in [[Morocco]], while they are a significant minority within [[Algeria]]. They are also present in [[Tunisia]] and [[Libya]]. The [[Tuareg]] and other often-nomadic peoples are the principal inhabitants of the Saharan interior of North Africa. [[Nubians]] are a [[Nilo-Saharan]]-speaking group (though many also speak Arabic), who developed an ancient civilization in Northeast Africa. During the past century or so, small but economically important colonies of [[Demographics_of_Lebanon#The_Lebanese_Diaspora|Lebanese]] and [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] have also developed in the larger coastal cities of [[West Africa|West]] and [[East Africa]], respectively. Some [[Ethiopia]]n and Eritrean groups (like the [[Amhara]] and [[Tigray]]ans, collectively known as "[[Habesha]]") have [[Semitic]] (Sabaean) ancestry. The Somalis as a people originated in the [[Ethiopian Highlands]], but most Somali clans can trace some Arab ancestry as well. [[Sudan]] and [[Mauritania]] are divided between a mostly Arabized north and a native African south (although the "Arabs" of Sudan clearly have a predominantly native African ancestry themselves). Some areas of East Africa, particularly the island of [[Zanzibar]] and the Kenyan island of Lamu, received Arab Muslim and [[Southwest Asia]]n settlers and merchants throughout the [[Middle Ages]] and in antiquity. Beginning in the [[16th century]], Europeans such as the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and [[The Netherlands|Dutch]] began to establish [[trading post]]s and [[Fortification|forts]] along the coasts of western and southern Africa. Eventually, a large number of Dutch, augmented by French [[Huguenots]] and [[German people|Germans]] settled in what is today [[South Africa]]. Their descendants, the [[Afrikaners]] and the [[Coloureds]], are the largest European-descended groups in Africa today. In the [[19th century]], a second phase of colonization brought a large number of French and [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] settlers to Africa. The Portuguese settled mainly in Angola, but also in Mozambique. The French settled in large numbers in [[Algeria]] where they became known collectively as ''[[Pied-noir|pieds-noirs]]'', and on a smaller scale in other areas of North and West Africa as well as in Madagascar. The British settled chiefly in South Africa as well as the colony of [[Rhodesia]], and in the highlands of what is now [[Kenya]]. Germans settled in what is now [[Tanzania]] and [[Namibia]], and there is still a population of German-speaking white Namibians. Smaller numbers of European soldiers, businessmen, and officials also established themselves in administrative centers such as [[Nairobi]] and [[Dakar]]. Decolonization during the 1960s often resulted in the mass emigration of European-descended settlers out of Africa &mdash; especially from Algeria, Angola, Kenya and Rhodesia (now [[Zimbabwe]]). However, in South Africa and Namibia, the white minority remained politically dominant after independence from Europe, and a significant population of white Africans remained in these two countries even after [[liberal democracy|democracy]] was finally instituted at the end of the [[Cold War]]. South Africa has also become the preferred destination of white Anglo-Zimbabweans, and of migrants from all over southern Africa. European colonization also brought sizeable groups of [[Asians]], particularly people from the [[Indian subcontinent]], to British colonies. Large [[Indian diaspora|Indian communities]] are found in South Africa, and smaller ones are present in Kenya, Tanzania, and some other southern and east African countries. A fairly large Indian community in [[Uganda]] was expelled by the dictator [[Idi Amin]] in 1972, though many have since returned. The islands in the [[Indian Ocean]] are also populated primarily by people of Asian origin, often mixed with Africans and Europeans. The [[Malagasy]] people of [[Madagascar]] are a [[Malay people]], but those along the coast are generally mixed with Bantu, Arab, Indian and European origins. Malay and Indian ancestries are also important components in the group of people known in South Africa as [[Coloureds]] (people with origins in two or more races and continents). ==Languages== [[Image:African language families.png|right|300px|thumb|Map showing the distribution of African language families and some major African languages. [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]] extends from the [[Sahel]] to [[Southwest Asia]]. [[Niger-Congo languages|Niger-Congo]] is divided to show the size of the [[Bantu languages|Bantu sub-family]].]] ''Main article: [[African languages]]'' By most estimates Africa contains well over a thousand [[language]]s. There are four major [[language family|language families]] native to Africa. * The [[Afro-Asiatic languages|''Afro-Asiatic'']] languages are a language family of about 240 languages and 285 million people widespread throughout North Africa, [[East Africa]], the Sahel, and [[Southwest Asia]]. * The [[Nilo-Saharan languages|''Nilo-Saharan'']] language family consists of more than a hundred languages spoken by 30 million people. Nilo-Saharan languages are mainly spoken in [[Chad]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]], and northern [[Tanzania]]. * The [[Niger-Congo languages|''Niger-Congo'']] language family covers much of Sub-Saharan Africa and is probably the largest language family in the world in terms of different languages. A substantial number of them are the [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] languages spoken in much of sub-Saharan Africa. * The [[Khoisan languages|''Khoisan'']] languages number about 50 and are spoken in Southern Africa by approximately 120 000 people. Many of the Khoisan languages are [[endangered language|endangered]]. The [[Khoikhoi|Khoi]] and [[Bushmen|San]] peoples are considered the original inhabitants of this part of Africa. With a few notable exceptions in [[East Africa]], nearly all African countries have adopted [[official language]]s that originated outside the continent and spread through [[colonialism]] or [[human migration]]. For example, in numerous countries [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]] are used for communication in the public sphere such as government, commerce, education and the media. [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Afrikaans]] and [[Malagasy]] are other examples of originally non-African languages that are used by millions of Africans today, both in the public and private spheres. ==Culture== Africa has a number of overlapping cultures. The most conventional distinction is that between sub-Saharan Africa and the northern countries from [[Egypt]] to [[Morocco]], who largely associate themselves with [[Arab]]ic culture. In this comparison, the nations to the south of the [[Sahara]] are considered to consist of many cultural areas, in particular that of the [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] linguistic group. Divisions may also be made between [[Francophone Africa]] and the rest of Africa, in particular the former British colonies of [[southern Africa|southern]] and [[East Africa]]. Another cultural fault-line is that between those Africans living traditional lifestyles and those who are essentially modern. The traditionalists are sometimes subdivided into [[pastoralism|pastoralists]] and [[agriculture|agriculturalists]]. [[African art]] reflects the diversity of African cultures. The oldest existing art from Africa are 6000-year old carvings found in [[Niger]], while the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] in [[Egypt]] was the world's tallest architectural accomplishment for four thousand years until the creation of the [[Eiffel Tower]]. The Ethiopian complex of [[monolithic church]]es at [[Lalibela]], of which the [[Church of St. George]] is representative, is regarded as another marvel of engineering. The [[music of Africa]] is one of its most dynamic art forms. Egypt has long been a cultural focus of the Arab world, while remembrance of the rhythms of sub-Saharan Africa, in particular west Africa, was transmitted through the [[Atlantic slave trade]] to modern [[blues]], [[jazz]], [[reggae]], [[rap music|rap]], and [[rock and roll]]. Modern music of the continent includes the highly complex choral singing of southern Africa and the dance rhythms of [[soukous]], dominated by the [[music of the Democratic Republic of Congo]]. A recent development of the 21st century is the emergence of [[African hip hop]], in particular a form from [[Senegal]] is blended with traditional [[mbalax]]. Recently in South Africa, a form of music related to [[house music]] known under the name [[Kwaito]] has developed, although the country has been home to its own form of [[South African jazz]] for some time, while [[Afrikaans]] music is completely distinct and comprised mostly of traditional [[Boere musiek]], and forms of [[Folk music|Folk]] and [[Rock and roll|Rock]]. * [[List of African musicians]] * [[List of African writers]] * [[African Cinema]] * [[Afrology]] ==Religion== Africans profess a wide variety of religious beliefs, with [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] being the most widespread. Approximately 40% of all Africans are Christians and another 40% Muslims. Roughly 20% of Africans primarily follow indigenous [[African religions]]. A small number of Africans also have beliefs [[African Jew|from the Judaic tradition]], such as the [[Beta Israel]] and [[Lemba]] tribes. The indigenous African religions tend to revolve around [[animism]] and [[ancestor worship]]. A common thread in traditional belief systems was the division of the [[spiritual world]] into "helpful" and "harmful". Helpful [[Spiritual being|spirits]] are usually deemed to include ancestor spirits that help their descendants, and powerful spirits that protected entire communities from natural disaster or attacks from enemies; whereas harmful spirits include the [[soul]]s of murdered victims who were buried without the proper [[Funeral|funeral rites]], and spirits used by hostile spirit [[Medium (spirituality)|mediums]] to cause illness among their enemies. While the effect of these early forms of worship continues to have a profound influence, belief systems have evolved as they interact with other religions. The formation of the [[Old Kingdom]] of [[Egypt]] in the [[third millennium BCE]] marked the first known complex religious system on the continent. Around the [[ninth century BCE]], [[Carthage]] (in present-day [[Tunisia]]) was founded by the Phoenicians, and went on to become a major cosmopolitan center where [[deity|deities]] from neighboring Egypt, [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] and the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan city-states]] were worshipped. The [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church]] officially dates from the [[fourth century]], and is thus one of the first established [[Christianity|Christian]] churches anywhere. At first Christian Orthodoxy made gains in modern-day Sudan and other neighbouring regions; however following the spread of Islam, growth was slow and restricted to the highlands. Islam entered Africa as Muslims conquered North Africa between 640 and 710, beginning with Egypt. They established Mogadishu, Melinde, Mombasa, Kilwa, and Sofala, following the sea trade down the coast of [[East Africa]], and diffusing through the Sahara desert into the interior of Africa -- following in particular the paths of Muslim traders. Muslims were also among the Asian peoples who later settled in British-ruled Africa. Many Africans were converted to [[Western Christianity|West European forms of Christianity]] during the colonial period. In the last decades of the twentieth century, various sects of [[charismatic movement|Charismatic Christianity]] rapidly grew. A number of Roman Catholic African bishops were even mentioned as possible [[Pope|papal]] candidates in 2005. African Christians appear to be more socially conservative than their co-religionists in much of the industrialized world, which has quite recently led to tensions within [[Religious denomination|denominations]] such as the [[Anglican Church|Anglican]] and [[Methodism|Methodist Churches]]. ==Territories== [[Image:Africa-regions.png|thumb|300px|Regions of Africa. Blue: North Africa, green: West Africa, brown: Central Africa, orange: Horn of Africa, magenta: East Africa, red: Southern Africa.]] [[Image:AfricaCIA-HiRes.jpg|thumb|300px|Political Map of Africa]] [[Image:topography_of_africa.jpg|thumb|310px|Physical map of Africa]] ===Independent states=== '''[[East Africa]]''' East Africa proper * [[Burundi]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[Kenya]] <!--* [[Mozambique]] (usually considered part of Southern Africa)--> * [[Rwanda]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[Tanzania]] * [[Uganda]] [[North East Africa]] ([[Horn of Africa]]) * [[Djibouti]] * [[Eritrea]] * [[Ethiopia]] * [[Somalia]] (including [[Somaliland]]) '''[[Central Africa]]''' <!--* [[Angola]] (usually considered part of Southern Africa)--> * [[Burundi]] (also sometimes considered part of East Africa) <!--* [[Cameroon]] (usually considered part of West Africa)--> * [[Central African Republic]] * [[Chad]] (also sometimes considered part of West Africa) * [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] * [[Equatorial Guinea]] (also sometimes considered part of West Africa) * [[Gabon]] (also sometimes considered part of West Africa) * [[Rwanda]] (also sometimes considered part of East Africa) * [[Republic of Congo]] <!--* [[Zambia]] (usually considered part of Southern Africa)--> '''[[North Africa]]''' * [[Algeria]] * [[Egypt]] * [[Libya]] * [[Mauritania]] * [[Morocco]] * [[Sudan]] * [[Tunisia]] '''[[Southern Africa]]''' * [[Angola]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[Botswana]] * [[Lesotho]] * [[Malawi]] * [[Mozambique]] (also sometimes considered part of East Africa) * [[Namibia]] * [[South Africa]] * [[Swaziland]] * [[Zambia]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[Zimbabwe]] '''[[West Africa]]''' * [[Benin]] * [[Burkina Faso]] * [[Cameroon]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[Chad]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[Côte d'Ivoire]] * [[Equatorial Guinea]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[Gabon]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa) * [[The Gambia]] * [[Ghana]] * [[Guinea]] * [[Guinea-Bissau]] * [[Liberia]] * [[Mali]] <!--* [[Mauritania]] (usually considered part of North Africa)--> * [[Niger]] * [[Nigeria]] * [[Senegal]] * [[Sierra Leone]] * [[Togo]] '''African Island Nations''' * [[Cape Verde]] (West Africa) * [[Comoros]] (Southern Africa) * [[Madagascar]] (Southern Africa) * [[Mauritius]] (Southern Africa) * [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] (Central Africa or West Africa) * [[Seychelles]] (East Africa) ===Territories, possessions, départements=== * [[Canary Islands]] ([[Spain]]) * [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]] ([[Spain]]/claimed by [[Morocco]]) * [[Madeira]] ([[Portugal]]) * [[Mayotte]] ([[France]]) * [[Réunion]] ([[France]]) * [[Saint Helena]] (including dependencies [[Ascension Island]] and [[Tristan da Cunha]]) ([[United Kingdom]]) ===Disputed territories=== * [[Western Sahara]] is claimed and mostly [[military occupation|occupied]] by [[Morocco]]. The [[Free Zone (region)|remainder]] is administered by the [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic]]. ===Table of territories and regions=== {| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse" |- bgcolor="#ECECEC" ! Name of territory,<br>with [[flag]] ! [[List of countries by area|Area]]<br>(km&sup2;) ! [[List of countries by population|Population]]<br>([[1 July]] [[2002]] est.) ! [[List of countries by population density|Population density]]<br>(per km&sup2;) ! [[Capital]] |- | colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Eastern Africa]]{{ref|region}}''': |- | {{flagicon|Burundi}} [[Burundi]] | align="right" | 27,830 | align="right" | 6,373,002 | align="right" | 229.0 | [[Bujumbura]] |- | {{flagicon|Comoros}} [[Comoros]] | align="right" | 2,170 | align="right" | 614,382 | align="right" | 283.1 | [[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]] |- | {{flagicon|Djibouti}} [[Djibouti]] | align="right" | 23,000 | align="right" | 472,810 | align="right" | 20.6 | [[Djibouti City|Djibouti]] |- | {{flagicon|Eritrea}} [[Eritrea]] | align="right" | 121,320 | align="right" | 4,465,651 | align="right" | 36.8 | [[Asmara]] |- | {{flagicon|Ethiopia}} [[Ethiopia]] | align="right" | 1,127,127 | align="right" | 67,673,031 | align="right" | 60.0 | [[Addis Ababa]] |- | {{flagicon|Kenya}} [[Kenya]] | align="right" | 582,650 | align="right" | 31,138,735 | align="right" | 53.4 | [[Nairobi]] |- | {{flagicon|Madagascar}} [[Madagascar]] | align="right" | 587,040 | align="right" | 16,473,477 | align="right" | 28.1 | [[Antananarivo]] |- | {{flagicon|Malawi}} [[Malawi]] | align="right" | 118,480 | align="right" | 10,701,824 | align="right" | 90.3 | [[Lilongwe]] |- | {{flagicon|Mauritius}} [[Mauritius]] | align="right" | 2,040 | align="right" | 1,200,206 | align="right" | 588.3 | [[Port Louis]] |- | {{flagicon|Mayotte}} [[Mayotte]] ([[France]]) | align="right" | 374 | align="right" | 170,879 | align="right" | 456.9 | [[Mamoudzou]] |- | {{flagicon|Mozambique}} [[Mozambique]] | align="right" | 801,590 | align="right" | 19,607,519 | align="right" | 24.5 | [[Maputo]] |- | {{flagicon|Réunion}} [[Réunion]] (France) | align="right" | 2,512 | align="right" | 743,981 | align="right" | 296.2 | [[Saint-Denis, Réunion|Saint-Denis]] |- | {{flagicon|Rwanda}} [[Rwanda]] | align="right" | 26,338 | align="right" | 7,398,074 | align="right" | 280.9 | [[Kigali]] |- | {{flagicon|Seychelles}} [[Seychelles]] | align="right" | 455 | align="right" | 80,098 | align="right" | 176.0 | [[Victoria, Seychelles|Victoria]] |- | {{flagicon|Somalia}} [[Somalia]] | align="right" | 637,657 | align="right" | 7,753,310 | align="right" | 12.2 | [[Mogadishu]] |- | {{flagicon|Tanzania}} [[Tanzania]] | align="right" | 945,087 | align="right" | 37,187,939 | align="right" | 39.3 | [[Dodoma]] |- | {{flagicon|Uganda}} [[Uganda]] | align="right" | 236,040 | align="right" | 24,699,073 | align="right" | 104.6 | [[Kampala]] |- | {{flagicon|Zambia}} [[Zambia]] | align="right" | 752,614 | align="right" | 9,959,037 | align="right" | 13.2 | [[Lusaka]] |- | {{flagicon|Zimbabwe}} [[Zimbabwe]] | align="right" | 390,580 | align="right" | 11,376,676 | align="right" | 29.1 | [[Harare]] |- | colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Middle Africa]]''': |- | {{flagicon|Angola}} [[Angola]] | align="right" | 1,246,700 | align="right" | 10,593,171 | align="right" | 8.5 | [[Luanda]] |- | {{flagicon|Cameroon}} [[Cameroon]] | align="right" | 475,440 | align="right" | 16,184,748 | align="right" | 34.0 | [[Yaoundé]] |- | {{flagicon|Central African Republic}} [[Central African Republic]] | align="right" | 622,984 | align="right" | 3,642,739 | align="right" | 5.8 | [[Bangui]] |- | {{flagicon|Chad}} [[Chad]] | align="right" | 1,284,000 | align="right" | 8,997,237 | align="right" | 7.0 | [[N'Djamena]] |- | {{flagicon|Republic of the Congo}} [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]] | align="right" | 342,000 | align="right" | 2,958,448 | align="right" | 8.7 | [[Brazzaville]] |- | {{flagicon|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] | align="right" | 2,345,410 | align="right" | 55,225,478 | align="right" | 23.5 | [[Kinshasa]] |- | {{flagicon|Equatorial Guinea}} [[Equatorial Guinea]] | align="right" | 28,051 | align="right" | 498,144 | align="right" | 17.8 | [[Malabo]] |- | {{flagicon|Gabon}} [[Gabon]] | align="right" | 267,667 | align="right" | 1,233,353 | align="right" | 4.6 | [[Libreville]] |- | {{flagicon|São Tomé and Príncipe}} [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] | align="right" | 1,001 | align="right" | 170,372 | align="right" | 170.2 | [[São Tomé]] |- | colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Northern Africa]]''': |- | {{flagicon|Algeria}} [[Algeria]] | align="right" | 2,381,740 | align="right" | 32,277,942 | align="right" | 13.6 | [[Algiers]] |- | {{flagicon|Egypt}} [[Egypt]]{{ref|Egypt}} | align="right" | 1,001,450 | align="right" | 70,712,345 | align="right" | 70.6 | [[Cairo]] |- | {{flagicon|Libya}} [[Libya]] | align="right" | 1,759,540 | align="right" | 5,368,585 | align="right" | 3.1 | [[Tripoli]] |- | {{flagicon|Morocco}} [[Morocco]] | align="right" | 446,550 | align="right" | 31,167,783 | align="right" | 69.8 | [[Rabat]] |- | {{flagicon|Sudan}} [[Sudan]] | align="right" | 2,505,810 | align="right" | 37,090,298 | align="right" | 14.8 | [[Khartoum]] |- | {{flagicon|Tunisia}} [[Tunisia]] | align="right" | 163,610 | align="right" | 9,815,644 | align="right" | 60.0 | [[Tunis]] |- | {{flagicon|Western Sahara}} [[Western Sahara]] ([[Morocco]]){{ref|WSM}} | align="right" | 266,000 | align="right" | 256,177 | align="right" | 1.0 | [[El Aaiún]] |- | colspan=5 | ''Southern Europe dependencies in Northern Africa'': |- | [[image:Flag of the Canary Islands.png|20px]] [[Canary Islands]] ([[Spain]]){{ref|Canary}} | align="right" | 7,492 | align="right" | 1,694,477 | align="right" | 226.2 | [[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]],<br />[[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] |- | {{flagicon|Ceuta}} [[Ceuta]] (Spain){{ref|Spain}} | align="right" | 20 | align="right" | 71,505 | align="right" | 3,575.2 | — |- | [[image:MadeiraFlag.png|20px]] [[Madeira Islands]] ([[Portugal]]){{ref|Portugal}} | align="right" | 797 | align="right" | 245,000 | align="right" | 307.4 | [[Funchal]] |- | {{flagicon|Melilla}} [[Melilla]] (Spain){{ref|Spain}} | align="right" | 12 | align="right" | 66,411 | align="right" | 5,534.2 | — |- | colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Southern Africa]]''': |- | {{flagicon|Botswana}} [[Botswana]] | align="right" | 600,370 | align="right" | 1,591,232 | align="right" | 2.7 | [[Gaborone]] |- | {{flagicon|Lesotho}} [[Lesotho]] | align="right" | 30,355 | align="right" | 2,207,954 | align="right" | 72.7 | [[Maseru]] |- | {{flagicon|Namibia}} [[Namibia]] | align="right" | 825,418 | align="right" | 1,820,916 | align="right" | 2.2 | [[Windhoek]] |- | {{flagicon|South Africa}} [[South Africa]] | align="right" | 1,219,912 | align="right" | 43,647,658 | align="right" | 35.8 | [[Bloemfontein]], [[Cape Town]], [[Pretoria]]{{ref|SCcaps}} |- | {{flagicon|Swaziland}} [[Swaziland]] | align="right" | 17,363 | align="right" | 1,123,605 | align="right" | 64.7 | [[Mbabane]] |- | colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" | '''[[Western Africa]]''': |- | {{flagicon|Benin}} [[Benin]] | align="right" | 112,620 | align="right" | 6,787,625 | align="right" | 60.3 | [[Porto-Novo]] |- | {{flagicon|Burkina Faso}} [[Burkina Faso]] | align="right" | 274,200 | align="right" | 12,603,185 | align="right" | 46.0 | [[Ouagadougou]] |- | {{flagicon|Cape Verde}} [[Cape Verde]] | align="right" | 4,033 | align="right" | 408,760 | align="right" | 101.4 | [[Praia]] |- | {{flagicon|Côte d'Ivoire}} [[Côte d'Ivoire]] | align="right" | 322,460 | align="right" | 16,804,784 | align="right" | 52.1 | [[Abidjan]], [[Yamoussoukro]]{{ref|ICcaps}} |- | {{flagicon|Gambia}} [[The Gambia|Gambia]] | align="right" | 11,300 | align="right" | 1,455,842 | align="right" | 128.8 | [[Banjul]] |- | {{flagicon|Ghana}} [[Ghana]] | align="right" | 239,460 | align="right" | 20,244,154 | align="right" | 84.5 | [[Accra]] |- | {{flagicon|Guinea}} [[Guinea]] | align="right" | 245,857 | align="right" | 7,775,065 | align="right" | 31.6 | [[Conakry]] |- | {{flagicon|Guinea-Bissau}} [[Guinea-Bissau]] | align="right" | 36,120 | align="right" | 1,345,479 | align="right" | 37.3 | [[Bissau]] |- | {{flagicon|Liberia}} [[Liberia]] | align="right" | 111,370 | align="right" | 3,288,198 | align="right" | 29.5 | [[Monrovia]] |- | {{flagicon|Mali}} [[Mali]] | align="right" | 1,240,000 | align="right" | 11,340,480 | align="right" | 9.1 | [[Bamako]] |- | {{flagicon|Mauritania}} [[Mauritania]] | align="right" | 1,030,700 | align="right" | 2,828,858 | align="right" | 2.7 | [[Nouakchott]] |- | {{flagicon|Niger}} [[Niger]] | align="right" | 1,267,000 | align="right" | 10,639,744 | align="right" | 8.4 | [[Niamey]] |- | {{flagicon|Nigeria}} [[Nigeria]] | align="right" | 923,768 | align="right" | 129,934,911 | align="right" | 140.7 | [[Abuja]] |- | {{flagicon|Saint Helena}} [[Saint Helena (Britain)|Saint Helena]] ([[UK]]) | align="right" | 410 | align="right" | 7,317 | align="right" | 17.8 | [[Jamestown, Saint Helena|Jamestown]] |- | {{flagicon|Senegal}} [[Senegal]] | align="right" | 196,190 | align="right" | 10,589,571 | align="right" | 54.0 | [[Dakar]] |- | {{flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[Sierra Leone]] | align="right" | 71,740 | align="right" | 5,614,743 | align="right" | 78.3 | [[Freetown]] |- | {{flagicon|Togo}} [[Togo]] | align="right" | 56,785 | align="right" | 5,285,501 | align="right" | 93.1 | [[Lomé]] |- style=" font-weight:bold; " | Total | align="right" | 30,368,609 | align="right" | 843,705,143 | align="right" | 27.8 |} ''Notes:''<br> #<small>{{note|region}} Continental regions as per [[:Image:United Nations geographical subregions.png|UN categorisations/map]].<br> #<small>{{note|Egypt}} Depending on definitions, [[Egypt]] has territory in [[transcontinental nation|one or both of]] Africa and [[Asia]].<br> #<small>{{note|WSM}} [[Western Sahara]] is claimed and mostly [[military occupation|occupied]] by [[Morocco]]. The [[Free Zone (region)|remainder]] is administered by the [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic]]. </small><br> #<small>{{note|Canary}} The [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Canary Islands]], of which [[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]] are [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] are co-capitals, are often considered part of Northern Africa due to their relative proximity to [[Morocco]] and [[Western Sahara]]; population and area figures are for 2001.<br> #<small>{{note|Spain}} The [[Spain|Spanish]] [[exclave]] of [[Ceuta]] is surrounded on land by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001.<br> #<small>{{note|Portugal}} The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Madeira Islands]] are often considered part of Northern Africa due to their relative proximity to Morocco; population and area figures are for 2001.<br> #<small>{{note|Spain}} The [[Spain|Spanish]] [[exclave]] of [[Melilla]] is surrounded on land by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001.<br> #<small>{{note|SCcaps}} [[Bloemfontein]] is the judicial capital of [[South Africa]], while [[Cape Town]] is its legislative seat, and [[Pretoria]] is the country's administrative seat.<br> #<small>{{note|ICcaps}} [[Yamoussoukro]] is the official capital of [[Côte d'Ivoire]], while [[Abidjan]] is the ''[[de facto]]'' seat.<br> ==See also== {{sisterlinks|Africa}} *{{wikitravel}} *[[2005 in Africa]] - [[2006 in Africa]] *[[31st G8 summit]] *[[AIDS in Africa]] *[[African Anarchism]] *[[African philosophy]] *[[African Union]] *[[Cuisine of Africa|African cuisine]] *[[Confederation of African Football]] *[[Congo craton]] *[[Ecology of Africa]] *[[Education in Africa]] *[[History of Africa]] *[[Human rights in Africa]] *[[Regions of Africa]] *[[Sub-Saharan Africa]] *[[Universities in Africa]] *[[Heart of Africa (game)]] *[[List of African countries by population density]] *[[List of African countries by population]] *[[List of African countries by GDP]] *[[List of African stock exchanges]] ==External links== ;News * [http://allafrica.com/ allAfrica.com] current news, events and statistics * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/africa/2005/africa/default.stm BBC News In Depth - Africa 2005: Time for Change?] * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/hearafrica05/0,15756,1399090,00.html Guardian Unlimited - Special Report: Hear Africa 05] ;Directories * [http://africadatabase.org/ Contemporary Africa Database] * [http://www.afrika.no/index/ The Index on Africa] directory from The Norwegian Council for Africa * [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/ Open Directory Project - Africa] directory category *[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/ Columbia University - African Studies] *[http://www.loc.gov/rr/amed/ Library of Congress - African &amp; Middle Eastern Reading Room] *[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/ Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara] *[http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/su/afr/ University of Chicago - Joseph Regenstein Library: African Studies] *[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/ University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center] *[http://www.africahomepage.org/ Africa Homepage] ;Politics *[http://www.africaaction.org/index.php ''Africa Action''] Africa Action is the oldest organization in the US working on Africa affairs. It is a national organization that works for political, economic and social justice in Africa. *[http://www.zabalaza.net/texts/african_anarchism/contents.htm African Anarchism: The History of a Movement] * [http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/africa/accounts/chekov.html An Irish anarchist in Africa], western Africa from anarchist perspective. * [http://www.commissionforafrica.org/english.htm Commission for Africa] * [http://www.africanfront.com African Unification Front] * [http://www.libcom.org/history/africa.php Working class history in Africa] - people's and grassroots histories ;Photos and Information *[http://www.junglephotos.com/africa/index.shtml ''Jungle Photos''] Jungle Photos Africa provides images and information on various countries in sub-Saharan Africa. *[http://www.africam.com Africam - African Wildlife Webcams] *[http://www.afrika.no/english/index.html Afrika.no News] *[http://www.afrol.com/Afrol News- African News Agency] *[http://www.ips.org/africa.shtml Inter Press Service-Africa] ;Sports *[http://www.cafonline.com/ Confederation of African Football; in English and French] ;Tourism * {{wikitravel}} {{Africa}} {{Continent}} {{Region}} <!-- The below are interlanguage links. --> [[Category:Africa|*]] [[Category:Continents]] [[tk:Afrika]] [[af:Afrika]] [[am:አፍሪቃ]] [[ang:Africa]] [[ar:أفريقيا]] [[an:Africa]] [[ast:África]] [[az:Afrika]] [[bg:Африка]] [[zh-min-nan:Hui-chiu]] [[bn:আফ্রিকা]] [[bs:Afrika]] [[br:Afrika]] [[ca:Àfrica]] [[cs:Afrika]] [[cy:Affrica]] [[da:Afrika]] [[de:Afrika]] [[et:Aafrika]] [[el:Αφρική]] [[es:África]] [[eo:Afriko]] [[eu:Afrika]] [[fa:آفریقا]] [[fo:Afrika]] [[fr:Afrique]] [[fy:Afrika]] [[ga:An Afraic]] [[gd:Afraga]] [[gl:África]] [[gu:આફ્રિકા]] [[ko:아프리카]] [[ht:Afrik]] [[hr:Afrika]] [[io:Afrika]] [[id:Afrika]] [[ia:Africa]] [[is:Afríka]] [[it:Africa]] [[he:אפריקה]] [[jv:Afrika]] [[kn:ಆಫ್ರಿಕ]] [[ku:Efrîqa]] [[kw:Afrika]] [[sw:Afrika]] [[la:Africa]] [[lv:Āfrika]] [[lt:Afrika]] [[lb:Afrika]] [[li:Afrika]] [[hu:Afrika]] [[mk:Африка]] [[mg:Afrika]] [[mt:Afrika]] [[ms:Afrika]] [[nl:Afrika]] [[nds:Afrika]] [[ja:アフリカ]] [[no:Afrika]] [[nn:Afrika]] [[pl:Afryka]] [[pt:África]] [[ro:Africa]] [[ru:Африка]] [[se:Afrihkká]] [[sm:Aferika]] [[sa:अफ्रीका]] [[sq:Afrika]] [[sh:Afrika]] [[scn:Àfrica]] [[simple:Africa]] [[sk:Afrika]] [[sl:Afrika]] [[sr:Африка]] [[fi:Afrikka]] [[sv:Afrika]] [[tl:Aprika]] [[ta:ஆப்பிரிக்கா]] [[th:ทวีปแอฟริกา]] [[vi:Châu Phi]] [[to:Aferika]] [[tr:Afrika]] [[uk:Африка]] [[yi:אַפֿריקע]] [[zh:非洲]] [[so:Afrika]] 589 15899120 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Ashmore_and_Cartier_Islands]] 590 41665486 2006-02-28T22:56:49Z 129.186.159.125 '''Austin''' is a word that may refer to various things. '''Austin''' can also be a given name. == Places in the U.S. == '''Austin''' may be the name of a town or city in the U.S.: *[[Austin, Texas]], the capital of Texas (best known city with this name) *[[Austin, Arkansas]] *[[Austin, Colorado]] *[[Austin, Indiana]] *[[Austin, Kentucky]] *[[Austin Township, Michigan]] *[[Austin, Minnesota]] *[[Austin Township, Minnesota]] *[[Austin, Nevada]] *[[Austin, North Carolina]] *[[Austin, Pennsylvania]] *[[Austin, Utah]] *[[Port Austin, Michigan]] *[[Austinburg, Ohio]] Other places in the U.S. named '''Austin''': *[[Austin, Chicago]], a neighborhood in Chicago *[[Austin College]], a college in Sherman, Texas *[[Lake Austin]] == Places in Canada == *[[Austin Flat, British Columbia]] *[[Austin Heights, British Columbia]] *[[Austin Subdivision No 1, British Columbia]] *[[Austin Subdivision No 2, British Columbia]] *[[Austin, Manitoba]] *[[Austin, Ontario]] *[[Austin, Quebec]] == Names of people named Austin == *[[Austin Powers]], a fictional movie spy *[[Albert Austin]] *[[Herbert Austin]], Sir Herbert Austin, founder of the Austin Motor Company *[[John Austin (legal philosophy)]] *[[J. L. Austin]], philosopher *[[John Arnold Austin]], United States Navy warrant officer *[[Phil Austin]], member of the Firesign Theatre *[[Sherrie Austin]], musician *[[Stephen F. Austin]], founder of Texas *[[Steve Austin (fictional character)]], the title character in Martin Caidin's novel ''Cyborg'', which inspired the TV series "The Six Million Dollar Man" *Col. [[Steve Austin (fictional character)]], the lead character played by Lee Majors in the TV series "The Six Million Dollar Man". *[[Stone Cold Steve Austin]], a Professional wrestler turned actor *[[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]], noticeable in the English version "Austin Friars" to refer to the '''[[Augustinians|Augustinian Order]]'''. :''See also [[Jane Austen]], the author.'' == Things named Austin == *[[Austin Motor Company]], a British make of car *[[American Austin Car Company]], a short lived United States make of automobile *[[Austin (brand)]], a brand owned by the [[Kellogg Company]] *[[USS Austin (sloop)|USS ''Austin'']], a sloop-of-war (originally in the Texas Navy) *[[USS Austin (DE-15)|USS ''Austin'' (DE-15)]], a destroyer escort *[[USS Austin (LPD-4)|USS ''Austin'' (LPD-4)]], an amphibious transport dock *[[Austin elementary school]] {{disambig}} [[da:Austin]] [[de:Austin]] [[fr:Austin]] [[io:Austin]] [[it:Austin]] [[ja:オースティン (曖昧さ回避)]] [[pl:Austin]] [[ru:Остин]] [[sv:Austin]] 591 15899122 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Animation]] 592 15899123 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[ASCII art]] 593 41836622 2006-03-02T01:37:39Z Kuru 764407 revert: vanity link {{rootpage}} <div style="float: right; width: 30%; margin: 1em"> [[Image:Animexample.gif]]<br /><small>''This animation moves at 10 frames per second.''</small> <br />[[Image:Animexample2.gif]]<br /><small>''This animation moves at 2 frames per second. At this rate, the individual frames should be discernible.''</small><br />[[Image:Animhorse.gif|200px]]<br /><small>''12 frames per second is the typical rate for an [[animated cartoon]].''</small> </div> '''Animation''' is the illusion of motion created by the consecutive display of images of static elements. In film and video production, this refers to techniques by which each frame of a [[film]] or [[Film|movie]] is produced individually. These frames may be generated by computers, or by photographing a drawn or painted image, or by repeatedly making small changes to a model unit (see [[claymation]] and [[stop motion]]), and then photographing the result with a special [[animation camera]]. When the frames are strung together and the resulting film is viewed, there is an illusion of continuous movement due to the phenomenon known as [[persistence of vision]]. Generating such a film tends to be very labour intensive and tedious, though the development of [[computer animation]] has greatly sped up the process. [[Graphics file format]]s like [[GIF]], [[MNG]], [[Scalable Vector Graphics|SVG]] and [[Macromedia Flash|Flash]](SWF) allow animation to be viewed on a computer or over the Internet. [[Image:Animexample3.png|frame|none|''The animations shown before consist of these 6 frames.'']] __TOC__ == Animation techniques == [[Traditional animation]] began with each frame being painted and then filmed. [[Traditional animation|Cel animation]], developed by [[Bray Productions|Bray]] and Hurd in the 1910s, sped up the process by using transparent overlays so that characters could be moved without the need to repaint the background for every frame. More recently, styles of animation based on painting and drawing have evolved, such as the minimalist [[Simpsons]] cartoons, or the roughly sketched [[The Snowman]]. [[Computer animation]] has advanced rapidly, and is now approaching the point where movies can be created with characters so lifelike as to be hard to distinguish from real actors. This involved a move from 2D to 3D, the difference being that in 2D animation the effect of perspective is created artistically, but in 3D objects are modeled in an internal 3D representation within the computer, and are then 'lit' and 'shot' from chosen angles, just as in real life, before being 'rendered' to a 2D bitmapped frame. Predictions that famous dead actors might even be 'brought back to life' to play in new movies before long have led to speculation about the moral and copyright issues involved. The use of computer animation as a way of achieving the otherwise impossible in conventionally shot movies has led to the term "[[computer generated imagery]]" being used, though the term has become hard to distinguish from computer animation as it is now used in referring to 3D movies that are entirely animated. Computer animation involves modelling, motion generation, followed by the addition of surfaces and then [[rendering]]. Surfaces are programmed to stretch and bend automatically in response to movements of a '[[wire frame model]]', and the final rendering converts such movements to a [[Raster graphics|bitmap image]]. It is the recent developments in rendering complex surfaces like fur and clothing textures that have enabled stunningly life-like character models, including surfaces that even ripple, fold and blow in the wind, with every fibre or hair individually calculated for rendering. However, that actually has little to do with the animation itself. Animation is the process of bringing a lifeless puppet to life through the use of motion. Many people confuse fancy effects and high-res textures with animation, but in fact life-like motion can be created using the simplest of models. Pixar's work is a testament to this. The goal of an animator is not simply to "copy" the real world, but to enhance and to take the essence of the motion that is there, and this is how animation can be elevated to the level of art. There is a large misconception in the public mind that computers create animation today. This couldn't be further from the truth. A computer is nothing more (though also nothing less) than a very expensive fancy pencil, and has to be treated as such for any quality work to be acheived. The choices a computer makes when interpolating motion are almost always the wrong ones, because the computer does not know what you are trying to create. Even if a complex physics system were created complete enough to exactly mimic the real world, the end result would not be the desirable one, because a large part of animation concerns the choices an animator makes. When a computer tries to make the choices for you, disaster is the general result. ==History== {{see|Animated cartoon|History of animation}} The major use of animation has always been for entertainment. However, there is growing use of [[instructional animation]] and [[educational animation]] to support explanation and learning. The "classic" form of animation, the "[[animated cartoon]]", as developed in the early 1900s and refined by [[Ub Iwerks]], [[Walt Disney]] and others, requires up to 24 distinct drawings for one second of animation. This technique is described in detail in the article [[Traditional animation]]. Because animation is very time-consuming and often very expensive to produce, the majority of animation for [[Television|TV]] and movies comes from professional animation studios. However, the field of [[independent animation]] has existed at least since the [[1950s]], with animation being produced by independent studios (and sometimes by a single person). Several independent animation producers have gone on to enter the professional animation industry. [[Bill Plympton]] is one of the most well known independent animators today. [[Limited animation]] is a way of increasing production and decreasing costs of animation by using "short cuts" in the animation process. This method was pioneered by [[United Productions of America|UPA]] and popularized (some say exploited) by [[Hanna-Barbera]], and adapted by other studios as cartoons moved from [[movie theater]]s to [[television]]. ==Animation studios== Animation Studios, like [[Movie studio|Movie Studios]] may be production facilities, or financial entities. In some cases, especially in [[Anime]] they have things in common with [[Studio|artists studios]] where a Master or group of talented individuals oversee the work of lesser artists and crafts persons in realising their vision. ==Styles and techniques of animation== {| | style="width:20%" valign="top"| *[[Traditional animation]] **[[Character animation]] **[[Limited animation]] **[[Rotoscope|Rotoscoping]] | style="width:20%" valign="top"| *[[Computer animation]] **[[Multi-Sketch|Multi-Sketching]] **[[skeletal animation]] **[[Morph target animation]] **[[Cel-shaded animation]] **[[Onion skinning]] **[[Analog computer animation]] **[[Motion capture]] **[[Tradigital animation]] | style="width:20%" valign="top"| *[[Stop-motion animation]] **[[Cutout animation]] **[[claymation]] **[[Pixilation]] **[[Pinscreen animation]] **[[Puppetoon]] | style="width:20%" valign="top"| *[[Drawn on film animation]] *[[Special effects animation]] |} ==Branch pages== * [[Computer animation]] * [[Computer generated imagery]] * [[Traditional animation]] * [[Animated cartoon]] * [[Motion capture]] * [[Avar (animation variable)]] * [[Wire frame model]] * [[Animated series]] * [[Japanese Animation|Anime]] (Japanese animation) * [[List of animation studios]] * [[Famous names in animation]] ==See also== * [[List of film-related topics|List of motion picture topics]] * [[List of movie genres]] ==Further Readings== *[[Frank Thomas]] and [[Ollie Johnston]], [[The_Illusion_Of_Life|Disney animation: The Illusion Of Life]], Abbeville 1981 *Walters Faber, Helen Walters, Algrant (Ed.), ''Animation Unlimited: Innovative Short Films Since 1940'', HarperCollins Publishers 2004 *Trish Ledoux, Doug Ranney, Fred Patten (Ed.), ''Complete Anime Guide: Japanese Animation Film Directory and Resource Guide'', Tiger Mountain Press 1997 *The Animator's Survival Kit, Richard Williams *Animation Script to Screen, Shamus Culhane *The Animation Book, Kit Laybourne ==External links== <!-- These links need annotation to distinguish the true reference sites from the ones merely using Wikipedia to drive business to their ad-supported site --> {{commons|Animation}} * [http://mag.awn.com/index.php?ltype=search&sval=jean%20ann%20wright Writing for Animation] * [http://www.awn.com/mag/issue3.2/3.2pages/3.2student.html Animating Under the Camera] * [http://academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/eat/handouts/Pictures/CutSandPaintRules.pdf Experimental Animation Techniques] * [http://www.abc.net.au/arts/strange/workshop/style.htm Drawn Under-Camera Style Animation] * [http://www.mattworld.2ya.com Matt World - Web-based animations from animator Matt Greenwood] * [http://www.keyframeonline.com Keyframe - the Animation Resource] * [http://www.nftsanimation.org The Animation Department of the National Film and Television School UK ] * [http://www.animationnation.com Animation Nation - a forum for professional animators] * [http://www.public.iastate.edu/~rllew/chronint.html Chronology of Animation] * [http://www.fh-wuerzburg.de/petzke/zagreb.html Zagreb Film] * [http://www.safcakovec.com/ SAF], [[Cakovec|&#268;akovec]] school of animation * [http://www.dmoz.org/Arts/Animation/ Animation Directory] * [http://www.toonopedia.com Don Markenstein's Toonopedia] * [http://www.bcdb.com/ Big Cartoon Database] * [http://www.goldenagecartoons.com/ Golden Age of Cartoons] * [http://www.saunalahti.fi/animato Hints and tips for the animation hobbyist] * [http://www.acmeanimation.org ACME Animation] * [http://www.awn.com Animation World Network] * [http://www.animationarena.com/principles-of-animation.html 28 Principles of Animation] * [http://www.animationmeat.com Animationmeat.com - Notes Model Sheets and Reference material by Professional Animators] * [http://www.writer2001.com/animtech.htm Media & Techniques in Animation] [[Category:Animation|Animation]] [[Category:Film]] [[bs:Animacija]] [[cs:Animovaný film]] [[de:Animation]] [[eo:animacio]] [[es:Animación]] [[et:Animatsioon]] [[fa:پویانمایی]] [[fi:Animaatio]] [[fr:Animation]] [[gl:Cine de animación]] [[he:אנימציה]] [[hu:Animáció]] [[it:Cartone animato]] [[ja:アニメーション]] [[ko:애니메이션]] [[lv:Multiplikācija]] [[mk:Анимација]] [[nl:Animatie]] [[pl:Film animowany]] [[pt:Animação]] [[ru:Мультипликация]] [[simple:Animation]] [[sq:Animation]] [[sv:Animering]] [[th:แอนิเมชัน]] [[zh:动画]] 594 41703674 2006-03-01T04:13:14Z Tom Lougheed 450264 fixed typeo {{otheruses}} [[Image: Statue of Apollo.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Statue of Apollo at the [[British Museum]].]] In [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology]], '''Apollo''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: &#913;&#960;&#972;&#955;&#955;&#969;&#957;, '''''Apóll&#333;n'''''; or &Alpha;&pi;&epsilon;&lambda;&lambda;&omega;&nu;, ''Apell&#333;n'') was a god of light, healing and poetry. Apollo was the son of [[Zeus]] and [[Leto]], and the twin brother of [[Artemis]], goddess of the hunt. As the prophetic deity of the [[Delphic Sibyl|Delphic Oracle]], Apollo was one of the most important and many-sided of the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian deities]]. In [[Etruscan mythology]], he was known as [[Aplu]]. In later times, Apollo became partly confused or equated with [[Helios]], [[solar deity|god of the sun]], and his sister similarly equated with [[Selene]], [[lunar deity|god of the moon]], particularly in religious contexts. However, Apollo and Helios remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts. ==Domains and symbols== [[Image:Apollo II (Greek Mythology).jpg|thumb|left|200px|Apollo, the son of [[Zeus]] and the mortal [[Leto]].]] Apollo was considered to have dominion over disease, beauty, light, healing, [[colony|colonists]], [[medicine]], [[archery]], [[poetry]], [[prophecy]], [[dance]], [[reason]], [[intellectualism]], and [[shaman]]s, and was the patron defender of herds and flocks. Apollo's most common attributes were the lyre and the bow. Other attributes of his included the [[kithara]] (an advanced version of the common [[lyre]]) and [[plectrum]]. Another common emblem was the sacrificial tripod, representing his prophetic powers. The [[Pythian Games]] were held in Apollo's honor every four years at [[Delphi]]. The [[laurel tree|laurel]] bay plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the crown of victory at these games. The palm-tree was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in [[Delos]]. Animals sacred to Apollo included wolves, dolphins and roe, swans and grasshoppers (symbolizing music and song), hawks, ravens, crows and snakes (referencing Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), mice, and [[griffin]]s, mythical eagle-lion hybrids of Eastern origin. As god of colonization, Apollo gave guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, [[750 BC|750&ndash;550 BC]]. According to Greek tradition, he helped [[Crete|Cretan]] or [[Arcadia]]n colonists find the city of Troy. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: [[Hittites|Hittite]] [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] texts mention a Minor Asian god called ''Appaliunas'' or ''Apalunas'' in connection with the city of ''Wilusa'', which is now regarded as being identical with the Greek [[Troy|Illios]] by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo’s title of ''Lykegenes'' can simply be read as "born in Lycia", which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a [[folk etymology]]). Apollo popularly (e.g., in [[literary criticism]]) represents harmony, order, and reasons&mdash;characteristics contrasted with those of [[Dionysus]], god of wine, who popularly represents emotion and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives ''[[Apollonian]]'' and ''[[Dionysian]]''. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for Hyperborea, he would leave the Delphi Oracle to Dionysus. ==Worship== Apollo had a famous [[oracle]] in [[Delphi]], and other notable ones in [[Clarus]] and [[Branchidae]]. Apollo is known as the leader of the [[Muse]]s ('''''musagetes''''') and director of their choir. Hymns sung to Apollo were called [[Paean]]s. The Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. There is a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the [[Roman Kingdom|kings]] during the reign of [[Tarquinius Superbus]]. In [[430]], a temple was dedicated to Apollo on the occasion of a pestilence. During the [[Second Punic War]] in [[212]], the Ludi Apollinares were instituted in his honor. In the time of [[Augustus]], who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, His worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome. After the [[battle of Actium]], Augustus enlarged his old temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted quinquennial games in his honour. He also erected a new temple on the Palatine hill and transferred the secular games, for which Horace composed his ''Carmen Saeculare'', to Apollo and [[Diana]]. The chief festivals held in honour of Apollo were the [[Carneia]], [[Daphnephoria]], [[Delia]], [[Hyacinthia]], [[Pyanepsia]], [[Pythia]] and [[Thargelia]]. The [[Ludi Apollinares]] were solemn games held to honor him. The worship of Apollo has returned with the rise of [[revivalism|revivalist]] [[Hellenic polytheism]], and the contemporary Pagan movement. One example of this revival is the group [http://winterscapes.com/kyklosapollon Kyklos Apollon]. Also, together with Athena, Apollo (under the name Phevos) was controversially designated as a mascot of the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens. ==Etymology== The name ''Apollo'' might have been derived from a Pre-Hellenic compound ''Apo-ollon'',{{fact}} likely related to an archaic verb ''Apo-ell-'' and literally meaning "he who elbows off", that is "the Dispelling One." Indeed, he seems to have personified dispelling power, which would relate to his association with the darkness-dispelling power of the morning sun and the conceived power of reason and prophecy to dispel doubt and ignorance. In addition: * The apparent expelling character of city walls and doorways as bulwarks against trespassers * The people-dispelling nature of disembarkations and [[expatriation]]s to colonies * The disease-dispelling character of healing * The predator-dispelling character of a shepherd tending his flocks * The pest-dispelling nature of a farmer growing crops * The power of music and the arts to dispel discord and [[barbary]] * The highly important power of fit and skilled young men to dispel intruders and invading armies * The ability of foresight into the future An explanation given by [[Plutarch]] in ''[[Moralia]]'' is that Apollon signified a [[unity]], since ''pollon'' meant "many," and the [[prefix]] ''a-'' was a negative. Thus, Apollon could be read as meaning "deprived of multitude." Apollo was consequently associated with the [[monad]]. [[Hesychius]] connects the name Apollo with the Doric &alpha;&pi;&epsilon;&lambda;&lambda;&alpha;, which means assembly, so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation &sigma;&eta;&kappa;&omicron;&sigmaf; ("fold"), in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds. [[Image:Apollonmosaic.jpg|thumb|366px|right|Apollo with a radiant [[halo]] in a Roman floor mosaic, [[El Djem]], Tunisia, lare 2nd century]] == Apollo in art == In art, Apollo is usually depicted as a handsome beardless young man and often with a lyre or bow in hand. In the late 2nd century floor mosaic from [[El Djem]], Roman Thysdrus, (''illustration, right''), he is identifiable as [[Helios|Apollo Helios]] by his effulgent halo, though now even a god's divine nakedness is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later Empire. Anther haloed Apollo in mosaic, from Hadrumentum, is in the museum at Sousse [http://www.tunisiaonline.com/mosaics/mosaic05b.html].The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling hair cut in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the 3rd century BCE to depict [[Alexander the Great]] (Bieber 1964, Yalouris 1980). Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ will be beardless and haloed. == Appellations == [[Epithet]]s applied to Apollo include: *'''Phoebus''' ("shining one"), for Apollo in the context of the god of light *'''Smintheus''' ("mouse-catcher") and '''Parnopius''' ("grasshopper"), as god of the plague and defender against rats and locusts. *'''Delphinios''' ("delphinian"), meaning "of the womb", associating Apollo with ''Delphoi'' ([[Delphi]]). An [[aitiology]] in the [[Homeric hymns]] connects the epitheton to [[dolphin]]s. *'''Archegetes''', ("director of the foundation") for colonies. *'''Musagetes''' ("leader of the [[muses]]"). *'''Pythios''' ("Pythian") at [[Delphi]] *'''Apotropaeus''' ("he who averts evil") *'''Nymphegetes''' ("[[nymph]]-leader") *'''Lyceios''' and '''Lykegenes''' ("wolfish" or "of [[Lycia]]," where some postulate his cult originated) *'''Nomios''' ("wandering"), as the pastoral shepherd-god *'''Klarios''' from Doric ''klaros'' "allotment of land", for his supervision over cities and colonies. *'''Kynthios''' is another epithet, stemming from his birth on Mt. [[Cynthus]] *'''Loxias''' ("the obscure"), as Apollo a god of prophecy specifically. *'''Argurotoxos''', ("with the silver bow") for archery. *'''Aphetoros''', ("god of the bow") for archery. *'''Alexikakos''', ("restrainer of evil"), as Apollo the healer. *'''Akesios''' or '''Iatros''', "healer" == Birth == When [[Hera]] discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Hera's husband, Zeus, was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on "terra-firma", or the mainland, or any island at sea. In her wanderings, Leto found the newly created floating island of [[Delos]], which was neither mainland nor a real island, and gave birth there. The island was surrounded by swans. Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean. This island later became sacred to Apollo. Alternatively, Hera kidnapped [[Ilithyia]], the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace, nine yards long, of amber. Either way, Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo. Another version states that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of [[Ortygia]] and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Apollo was born on the 7th day (&eta;&#788;&beta;&delta;&omicron;&mu;&alpha;&gamma;&epsilon;&nu;&eta;&sigmaf;) of the month Thargelion according to Delian tradition or of the month Bysios according to Delphian tradition. The 7th and 20th, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him. == Youth == In his youth, Apollo killed the vicious dragon [[Python (mythology)|Python]], which lived in [[Delphi]] beside the [[Castalian Spring]], according to some because Python had attempted to rape Leto while she was pregnant with Apollo and Artemis.This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the [[Oracle]] at Delphi to give her prophesies. Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]. == Apollo and Admetus == When Zeus struck down Apollo's son, [[Asclepius]], with a lightning bolt for resurrecting the dead (and thus stealing [[Hades]]'s subjects), Apollo in revenge killed the [[Cyclops]], who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus. Apollo would have been banished to [[Tartarus]] forever, but was instead sentenced to one year of hard labour as punishment, thanks to the intercession of his mother, [[Leto]]. During this time he served as shepherd for [[Admetus|King Admetus]] of [[Pherae]] in [[Thessaly]]. Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on Admetus. Apollo helped Admetus win [[Alcestis]], the daughtor of [[Pelias|King Pelias]] and later convinced the [[Moirae|Fates]] to let Admetus live past his time if another took his place. But when it came time for Admetus to die, his elderly parents, whom he had assumed would gladly die for him, refused to cooperate. Instead, Alcestis took his place, but [[Heracles]] managed to "persuade" [[Thanatos]], the god of death, to return her to the world of the living. == Apollo during the [[Trojan War]] == Apollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the [[Trojan War]] in rage because the Greeks had kidnapped Chryseis, the daughter of Apollo's priest. He demanded her return, and the Greeks eventually complied. When [[Diomedes]] injured [[Aeneas]] during the [[Trojan War]], Apollo rescued him. First, [[Aphrodite]] tried to rescue Aeneas but Diomedes injured her as well. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]], who took him to [[Pergamos (troy)|Pergamos]], a sacred spot in [[Troy]]. [[Artemis]] healed Aeneas there. Apollo had aided Paris in the killing of [[Achilles]], if Paris did not accomplish the task himself. == Niobe == A Queen of [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]] and wife of [[Amphion]], [[Niobe]] boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children ([[Niobids]]), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. Apollo killed her sons as they practiced athletics, with the last begging for his life, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, a number of the Niobids were spared ([[Chloris]], usually). Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge. A devastated Niobe fled to [[Mt. Siplyon]] in [[Asia Minor]] and turned into stone as she wept. Her tears formed the river [[Achelous]]. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them. == Apollo's romantic life and children == ===Female lovers=== Apollo chased the nymph [[Daphne]], daughter of [[Peneus]], who had scorned him. His infatuation was caused by an arrow from [[Eros (god)|Eros]], who was jealous because Apollo had made fun of his archery skills. Eros also claimed to be irritated by Apollo's singing. Simultaneously, however, Eros had shot a hate arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prayed to Mother earth (alternatively, her father- a river god) to help her and he changed her into a Laurel tree, which became sacred to Apollo. Apollo had an affair with a mortal princess named [[Leucothea]], daughter of [[Orchamus]] and sister of [[Clytia]]. Leucothea loved Apollo who disguised himself as Leucothea's mother to gain entrance to her chambers. Clytia, jealous of her sister because she wanted Apollo for herself, told Orchamus the truth, betraying her sister's trust and confidence in her. Enraged, Orchamus ordered Leucothea to be buried alive. Apollo refused to forgive Clytia for betraying his beloved, and a grieving Clytia wilted and slowly died. Apollo changed her into an incense plant, either heliotrope or sunflower, which follows the sun every day. [[Marpessa]] was kidnapped by [[Idas]] but was loved by Apollo as well. [[Zeus]] made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old. [[Castalia]] was a [[nymph]] whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dived into the spring at Delphi, at the base of [[Mt. Parnassos]], which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire poets. By [[Cyrene (mythology)|Cyrene]], Apollo had a son named [[Aristaeus]], who became the patron god of cattle, [[fruit trees]], hunting, husbandry and [[bee-keeping]]. He was also a [[culture-hero]] and taught humanity dairy skills and the use of nets and traps in hunting, as well as how to cultivate olives. With [[Hecuba]], wife of King [[Priam]] of [[Troy]], Apollo had a son named [[Troilius]]. An [[oracle]] prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilius reached the age of twenty alive. He and his sister, [[Polyxena]] were ambushed and killed by [[Achilles]]. Apollo also fell in love with [[Cassandra]], daughter of Hecuba and Priam, and Troilius' half-sister. He promised Cassandra the gift of prophecy to seduce her, but she rejected him afterwards. Enraged, Apollo indeed gifted her with the ability to know the future, with a curse that no one would ever believe her. [[Coronis]], daughter of [[Phlegyas]], King of the [[Lapiths]], was another of Apollo's liaisons. Pregnant with [[Asclepius]], Coronis fell in love with [[Ischys]], son of [[Elatus]]. A crow informed Apollo of the affair. When first informed he disbelieved the crow and turned all crows black (where they were previously white) as a punishment for speading untruths. When he found out the truth he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis. As a result he also made the crow sacred and gave them the task of announcing important deaths. Apollo rescued the baby and gave it to the [[centaur]] [[Chiron]] to raise. Phlegyas was irate after the death of his daughter and burned the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Apollo then killed him for what he did. ===Male lovers=== [[Image:Hyacinthus.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Apollo and Hyacinthus'''<br>Jacopo Caraglio; 16th c. Italian engraving]] Apollo, the eternal beardless [[kouros]] himself, had the most male lovers of all the [[Greek gods]]. That was to be expected from a god who was god of the [[palaestra]], the athletic gathering place for youth who all competed [[Nudity in sport|in the nude]], a god said to represent the ideal educator and therefore the ideal [[erastes]], or lover of a boy (Sergent, p.102). All his lovers were younger than him, in the style of the [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|Greek pederastic relationships]] of the time. Many of Apollo's young beloveds died "accidentally", a reflection on the function of these myths as part of [[rite of passage|rites of passage]], in which the youth died in order to be reborn as an adult. [[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinth]] was one of his male lovers. Hyacinthus was a [[Sparta|Spartan]] prince, beautiful and athletic. The pair were practicing throwing the [[discus]] when Hyacinthus was struck in the head by a discus blown off course by [[Zephyrus]], who was jealous of Apollo and loved Hyacinthus as well. When Hyacinthus died, Apollo is said in some accounts to have been so filled with grief that he cursed his own immortality, wishing to join his lover in mortal death. Out of the blood of his slain lover Apollo created the [[hyacinth (flower)|hyacinth flower]] as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with ''άί'' ''άί'', meaning alas. The Festival of Hyacinthus was a celebration of Sparta. One of his other liaisons was with [[Acantha]], the spirit of the [[Acanthus (genus)|acanthus]] tree. Upon his death, he was transformed into a sun-loving herb by Apollo, and his bereaved sister, Acanthis, was turned into a thistle finch by the other gods. Another male lover was [[Cyparissus]], a descendant of [[Heracles]]. Apollo gave the boy a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a [[javelin]] as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo turned the sad boy into a [[Cupressaceae|cypress]] tree, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk. == Apollo and the Birth of [[Hermes]] == Hermes was born on [[Mount Kyllini|Mount Cyllene]] in Arcadia. The story is told in the [[Homeric Hymn]] to [[Hermes]]. His mother, [[Maia]], had been secretly impregnated by [[Zeus]], in a secret affair. Maia wrapped the infant in blankets but Hermes escaped while she was asleep. Hermes ran to [[Thessaly]], where Apollo was grazing his cattle. The infant Hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near [[Pylos]], covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a [[tortoise]] and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell and made the first [[lyre]]. Apollo complained to Maia that her son had stolen his cattle, but Hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in, so Maia refused to believe Apollo's claim. Zeus intervened and, claiming to have seen the events, sided with Apollo. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo, a god of music, fell in love with the instrument and offered to allow exchange the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo became a master of the lyre and Hermes invented a kind of pipes-instrument called a [[syrinx]]. Later, Apollo exchanged a [[caduceus]] for a [[syrinx]] from Hermes. == Other stories == === Musical contests === ==== [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]] ==== Once Pan had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo, and to challenge Apollo, the god of the [[lyre]], to a trial of skill. [[Tmolus]], the mountain-god, was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, [[Midas]], who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. He dissented, and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a [[donkey]]. ==== [[Marsyas]] ==== [[Image:The Flaying of Marsyas.jpg|thumb|230px|''The Flaying of Marsyas'' by [[Titian]], c.1570-76.]] Marsyas was a [[satyr]] who challenged Apollo to a contest of music. He had found an [[aulos]] on the ground, tossed away after being invented by [[Athena]] because it made her cheeks puffy. Marsyas lost and was [[flaying|flayed]] alive in a cave near [[Calaenae]] in [[Phrygia]] for his [[hubris]] to challenge a god. His blood turned into the river Marsyas. Another variation is that Apollo played his instrument (the lyre) upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument (the flute), and so Apollo hung him from a tree and flayed him alive. [taken from ''MAN MYTH & MAGIC'' by Richard Cavendish] === Miscellaneous === When Zeus killed [[Asclepius]] for raising the dead and violating the natural order of things, Apollo killed the [[Cyclopes]] in response. They had fashioned Zeus' thunderbolts, which he used to kill Apollo's son, Asclepius. As punishment, he was condemned by Zeus to year's servitude to King Admetus. Apollo gave the order, through the Oracle at Delphi, for [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] to kill his mother, [[Clytemnestra]], and her lover, [[Aegisthus]]. Orestes was punished fiercely by the [[Erinyes]] for this crime. In the [[Odyssey]], [[Odysseus]] and his surviving crew landed on an island sacred to Helios the sun god, where he kept sacred cattle. Though Odysseus warned his men not to (as [[Tiresias]] and [[kirke]] had told him), they killed and ate some of the cattle and Helios had [[Zeus]] destroy the ship and all the men save [[Odysseus]]. Apollo also had a [[lyre]]-playing contest with [[Cinyras]], his son, who committed suicide when he lost. Apollo killed the [[Aloadae]] when they attempted to storm [[Mt. Olympus]]. It was also said that Apollo rode on the back of a swan to the land of the [[Hyperboreans]] during the winter months, a swan that he also lent to his beloved Hyacinthus to ride. Apollo turned [[Cephissus]] into a [[sea monster]]. '''Consorts/Children''' # Male Beloveds ## [[Acantha]] ## [[Cyparissus]] ## [[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinth]] ## [[Hymenaeus]] # Female Lovers ## [[Arsinoe (mythology)|Arsinoe]] ### [[Asclepius]] ## [[Cassandra]] ## [[Calliope]] ### [[Linus]] ### [[Orpheus]] ## [[Chione]] ### [[Philammon]] ## [[Coronis]] ### [[Asclepius]] ## [[Cyrene (mythology)|Cyrene]] ### [[Aristaeus]] ## [[Daphne]] ## [[Dryope]] ### [[Amphissus]] ## [[Hecuba]] ### [[Troilius]] ### [[Polyxena]] ## [[Leucothea]] ## [[Manto (Greek mythology)|Manto]] ### [[Mopsus]] ## [[Psamathe]] ### [[Linus]] ## [[Rhoeo]] ### [[Anius]] ## [[Terpsichore]] ### [[Linus]] ## Unknown Mother ### [[Cinyras]] ### [[Cycnus]] ### [[Phemonoe]] ## [[Urania]] ### [[Linus]] == Spoken-word myths - audio files == {| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" |- ! style="background:#ffdead;" | Apollo Myths as told by story tellers |- |[[Media:Apollo and Hyacinth - wiki.ogg|1. ''Apollo and Hyacinthus,'' read by Timothy Carter]] |- |'''Bibliography of reconstruction:''' [[Homer]], ''Illiad'' ii.595 - 600 (c. 700 BC); Various 5th century BC vase paintings; [[Palaephatus]], ''On Unbelievable Tales'' 46. Hyacinthus (330 BC); [[Apollodorus]], ''Library'' 1.3.3 (140 BC); [[Ovid]], ''Metamorphoses'' 10. 162-219 (AD 1 - 8); [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'' 3.1.3, 3.19.4 (AD 160 - 176); [[Philostratus the Elder]], ''Images'' i.24 Hyacinthus (AD 170 - 245); [[Philostratus the Younger]], ''Images'' 14. Hyacinthus (AD 170 - 245); [[Lucian]], ''Dialogues of the Gods'' 14 (AD 170); [[First Vatican Mythographer]], 197. Thamyris et Musae |- |} ==Apollo in popular culture== In the ''[[Star Trek]]'' episode "[[Who Mourns for Adonis?]]" a man claiming to be Apollo is seen on a [[Greek]]-themed planet that [[Captain Kirk]], [[Pavel Chekov]], [[Mr. Spock]], and [[Dr. McCoy]] arrive on. In the ''[[Battlestar_Galactica|Battlestar Galactica]]'' series, one of the main characters is given the call-sign of Apollo. The song "[[Cygnus X-1 Book II: Hemispheres]]" by [[Rush (band)|Rush]] is about the struggle between the champions of the two Hemispheres, Apollo, the God of Reason, and [[Dionysus]], the God of Love. The song appears of the [[1978]] album ''[[Hemispheres (1978 album)|Hemispheres]]''. In the sixties, [[NASA]] named its [[Apollo program|Apollo Lunar program]] because Apollo was considered the god of all wisdom. Many people mistakenly believe that the rockets that carried astronauts to the Moon were called Apollo rockets; they were [[Saturn V]] rockets. == References == * [[F. L. W. Schwartz]], ''De antiquissima Apollinis Natura'' (Berlin, 1843) * [[J. A. Schönborn]], ''Über das Wesen Apollons'' (Berlin, 1854) * [[Arthur Milchhoefer]], ''Über den attischen Apollon'' (Munich, 1873) * [[Theodor Schreiber]], ''Apollon Pythoktonos'' (Leipzig, 1879) * [[W. H. Roscher]], ''Studien zur vergleichenden Mythologie der Griechen und Romer'', i. (Leipzig, 1873) * [[R. Hecker]], ''De Apollinis apud Romanos Cultu'' (Leipzig, 1879) * [[Gaston Colin]], ''Le Culte d'Apollon pythien à Athènes'' (1905) * [[Louis Dyer]], ''Studies of the Gods in Greece'' (1891) * articles in [[Pauly-Wissowa]]'s ''Realencyclopädie'', W. H. Roscher's ''Lexikon der Mythologie'', and [[Daremberg]] and [[Saglio]]'s ''Dictionnaire des antiquités'' * [[L. Preller]], ''Griechische und romische Mythologie'' (4th ed. by [[C. Robert]]) * [[J. Marquardt]], ''Römische Staalsverwaltung'', iii. * [[G. Wissowa]], ''Religion und Kultus der Romer'' (1902) * [[D. Bassi]], ''Saggio di Bibliografia mitologica'', i. ''Apollo'' (1896) * [[L. Farnell]], ''Cults of the Greek States'', iv. (1907) * [[O. Gruppe]], ''Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte'', ii. (1906) * {{1911}} * M. Bieber, 1964. ''Alexander the Great in Greek and Roman Art'' (Chicago) * N. Yalouris, 1980. ''The Search for Alexander'' (Boston) Exhibition. 2. For the iconography of the Alexander-Helios type, see H. Hoffmann, "Helios," Journal of the Arnerican Research Center in Egypt 2 (1963) 117-23; cf. Yalouris, no. 42. ==External links== {{commons|Apollo}} * [http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/ Greek Mythology resource] * [http://www.gregoryferdinandsen.com/FCO2003/apollo.htm The Temple of Apollo, Rome] * [http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Mythology/Greek/ The stories of Apollo and Hyacinthus; and Apollo and Cyparissus; and Apollo and Orpheus] * [http://janusquirinus.org/essays/Apollo/MultifacetedGod.html Apollo and the Romans] {{Greek myth (Olympian)2}} {{Roman myth (major)}} [[Category:Greek gods]] [[Category:Roman gods]] [[Category:Solar gods]] [[Category:Pederastic heroes and deities]] [[ar:أبولو (إله إغريقي)]] [[bg:Аполон]] [[ca:Apol·lo]] [[cs:Apollón]] [[da:Apollon]] [[de:Apollon]] [[el:Απόλλων]] [[es:Apolo]] [[eo:Apolono]] [[fr:Apollon]] [[gl:Apolo]] [[ko:아폴론]] [[hr:Apolon]] [[it:Apollo (mitologia)]] [[he:אפולו]] [[kw:Appolyn]] [[la:Apollo]] [[lt:Apolonas]] [[hu:Apollón]] [[nl:Apollo (god)]] [[ja:アポロン]] [[no:Apollon]] [[nn:Apollon]] [[pl:Apollo (mitologia)]] [[pt:Apolo (mitologia)]] [[ro:Apollo (mitologie)]] [[ru:Аполлон (мифология)]] [[sk:Apolón]] [[sl:Apolon]] [[sr:Аполон]] [[fi:Apollon]] [[sv:Apollon]] [[vi:Apollo (thần thoại)]] [[tr:Apollon]] [[uk:Аполлон]] [[zh:阿波罗]] 595 41929306 2006-03-02T18:14:20Z 86.52.13.177 /* 2006 */ {{Infobox Tennis player |image= [[Image:Agassi Backhand.jpg|250px|Agassi Backhand]] |playername= Andre Agassi |country= [[United States]] |residence= [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], [[USA]] |datebirth= [[April 29]], [[1970]] |placebirth= [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], [[USA]] |height= 5'11" (180 cm) |weight= 177 lbs (80 kg) |turnedpro= [[1986]] |plays= Right |grip= |careerprizemoney= $31,006,875 |singlestitles= 60 |highestsinglesranking= No. 1 ([[April 10]], [[1995]]) |AustralianOpenresult= '''W''' (1995, 2000, 2001, 2003) |FrenchOpenresult= '''W''' (1999) |Wimbledonresult= '''W''' (1992) |USOpenresult= '''W''' (1994, 1999) |doublestitles= 1 |highestdoublesranking= No. 123 ([[August 17]], [[1992]]) }} '''Andre Kirk Agassi''', (born [[April 29]] [[1970]], in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], [[Nevada]]) is a [[professional]] [[male]] former '''[[List of ATP number 1 ranked players|World No. 1]]''' [[tennis]] player from the [[United States]]. He has won eight [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] singles titles, and is one of only five players to have won all four Grand Slam events. He is considered among the all-time great tennis players. Agassi was married to the actress [[Brooke Shields]] from 1997 to 1999. Since 2001, he has been married to the former World No. 1 woman tennis player [[Steffi Graf]] and had two children. ==Early life== Agassi's father, (an Armenian from Iran) Emmanuel "Mike" Agassian (who represented [[Iran]] in [[boxing]] at the 1948 and 1952 [[Olympic Games]] before emigrating to the [[United States]]), was intent on having a child win all four tennis Grand Slams. He called Agassi's two older siblings "guinea pigs" in the development of his coaching techniques. He honed Andre's eye-coordination when he was an infant by hanging tennis balls above his crib. He gave Agassi paddles and balloons when he was still in a high chair. When Agassi started playing tennis, his ball collection filled 60 garbage cans with 300 balls per can, and Agassi would hit 3,000-5,000 balls every day. When Andre was five years old, he was already practicing with pros such as [[Jimmy Connors]] and [[Roscoe Tanner]]. Mike Agassi learned tennis by watching tapes of champions. Mike Agassi took a very systematic approach to the physics and psychology of tennis, and still remains active in the sport. (More information can be found in Mike Agassi's book, ''The Agassi Story''.) At age of 14, Andre was shipped off to teaching guru [[Nick Bollettieri]]'s Tennis Academy in [[Florida]]. He turned professional when he was 16. ==Tennis career== ===1986-1997=== Agassi turned professional in 1986, and won his first top-level singles title in 1987 at [[Itaparica]]. He won six further tournaments in 1988, and by December that year he had surpassed US$2 million in career prize money after playing in just 43 tournaments – the quickest player in history to do so. As a young up-and-coming player, Agassi embraced a rebel image. He grew his hair to rock-star length, sported an ear-ring, and wore colorful shirts that pushed tennis' still-strict sartorial boundaries. He boasted of a cheeseburger-heavy diet and endorsed the Canon Rebel camera. "Image is everything" was the ad's tag line, and it became Andre's as well. Strong performances on the tour meant that Agassi was quickly tipped as a future Grand Slam champion. But he began the 1990s with a series of near-misses. He reached his first Grand Slam final in 1990 at the [[French Open]], where he lost in four sets to the seasoned veteran player [[Andrés Gómez]]. Later that year he lost in the final of the [[U.S. Open (tennis)|US Open]] to another up-and-coming teenaged star, [[Pete Sampras]]. The rivalry between these two American players was to become the dominant rivalry in tennis over the rest the of the decade. In 1991, Agassi reached his second consecutive French Open final where he faced his former Bollettieri Academy-mate [[Jim Courier]]. Courier emerged the victor in a dramatic rain-interrupted five-set final. Agassi chose not to play at [[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]] from 1988-90, and publicly stated that he did not wish to play there because of the event's traditionalism, particularly its "predominantly-white" dress code which players at the event are required to conform to. Many observers at the time speculated that Agassi's real motivation was that his strong baseline game would not be well suited to Wimbledon's [[grass court]] surface. Agassi decided to play at Wimbledon in 1991, leading to weeks of speculation in the media about what he would wear – he eventually emerged for the first round in a completely white outfit. He reached the quarter-finals on that occasion. To the surprise of many, Agassi's Grand Slam breakthrough came at Wimbledon in 1992, when he beat [[Goran Ivanišević]] in a tight five-set final. Following wrist surgery in 1993, Agassi came back strongly in 1994 and captured the US Open, beating [[Michael Stich]] in the final. He then captured his first [[Australian Open]] title in 1995, beating Sampras in a four-set final. He won a career-high seven titles that year and he reached the World No. 1 ranking for the first time that April. He held it for 30 weeks on that occasion through to November. He compiled a career-best 26-match winning streak during the summer [[hardcourt]] circuit, which ended when he lost in the US Open final to Sampras. In 1995, Agassi won seven singles titles, the biggest being the [[Australian Open]], the [[Cincinnati Masters]], the [[Miami Masters]], and the [[Canada Masters]]. In terms of win/loss record, 1995 was Agassi's best year (72/10) (includes Davis Cup). This is slightly short of Sampras's best season, 1994, in which he (Sampras) won 77 matches and lost 12. In 1996, Agassi won the men's singles Gold Medal at the [[1996 Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]] in [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], beating [[Sergi Bruguera]] of [[Spain]] in straight sets in the final. He also repeated at the [[Cincinnati Masters]] and the [[Miami Masters]]. 1997 was a poor year for Agassi. He won no top-level titles and his ranking sank to World No. 141 in November. His form was perhaps affected by the intense publicity surrounding his high-profile and turbulent relationship and marriage to actress Brooke Shields. ===1998-2004=== In 1998, Agassi rededicated himself to tennis. He shaved his balding head, began a rigorous conditioning program, and worked his way back up the rankings by playing in Challenger Series tournaments (a circuit for professional players ranked outside the world's top 50). Perhaps most remarkably, the one-time rebel emerged as a gracious and thoughtful athlete, looked up to by younger players. After winning matches, he took to bowing and blowing a two-handed kisses to spectators on each side of the court, a gesture seen as a rather humble acknowledgment of their support for him and for tennis. In 1998, Agassi won five titles and leapt from No. 122 on the rankings at the start of the year, to No. 6 at the end of it, making it the highest jump into the Top 10 made by any player in tennis. He won five titles in ten finals, and finished runner-up at the [[Miami Masters]]. Agassi entered the history books in 1999 when he beat [[Andrei Medvedev]] in a five-set French Open final to become only the fifth male player to have won all four Grand Slam singles titles (a feat last achieved in the 1960s by [[Roy Emerson]]). He followed this up by reaching the Wimbledon final, where he lost to Sampras. He then won the US Open, beating [[Todd Martin]] in five sets in the final, and finished the year ranked the World No. 1. Agassi began 2000 by capturing his second Australian Open title, beating [[Yevgeny Kafelnikov]] in a four-set final. He was the first male player to have reached four consecutive Grand Slam finals since [[Rod Laver]] achieved the Grand Slam in 1969. 2000 also saw Agassi reach the semi-finals at Wimbledon, where he lost in five sets to [[Patrick Rafter]] in a very high quality battle considered by many to be one of the best matches ever played at Wimbledon [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/wimbledon_history/3742067.stm]. At the inaugural [[Tennis Masters Cup]] in [[Lisbon]], Agassi made it all the way to the final after defeating [[Marat Safin]] 6-3, 6-3 in the semifinals to end the Russian's hopes to become the youngest World No. 1 in the history of tennis. Agassi eventually lost to [[Gustavo Kuerten]] 6-4, 6-4, 6-4. This loss allowed Kuerten to be crowned year end World No. 1. 2000 is considered by many of his fans to be a disappointing season for Agassi, as he managed to win only one tournament (2000 Australian Open). Agassi opened 2001 by successfully defending his Australian Open title with a straight-sets final win over [[Arnaud Clement]]. At Wimbledon, he battled Rafter again in the semi-finals and lost 8-6 in the fifth set. At the US Open he lost in the quarter-finals to Sampras in what is considered to be one of tournament's all-time greatest matches. Sampras won 6-7, 7-6, 7-6, 7-6 in a match with no breaks of serve. Agassi and Sampras' last duel came in the final of the US Open in 2002. The battle between the two veterans saw Sampras emerge victorious in four sets, and left Sampras with a 20-14 edge in their 34 career meetings. (The match in fact proved to be the last of Sampras' career. He did not play in an event on the professional tour again, and officially announced his retirement in 2003.) Agassi's US Open finish, along with his victories at the Miami Masters, [[Rome Masters]], and [[Madrid Masters]], helped him finish 2002 as the oldest year-end No. 2 at 32 years and 8 months. In 2003, Agassi won the eighth Grand Slam title of his career at the Australian Open, where he beat [[Rainer Schüttler]] in straight sets in the final. In May that year, he recaptured the World No.1 ranking to become the oldest No. 1 ranked male tennis player in history at 33 years and 13 days. He held the No. 1 ranking on that occasion for 13 weeks. At the year-end Tennis Masters Cup, he lost in the final to [[Roger Federer]] and finished the year ranked World No. 4. In 2004, the 34-year-old Agassi won the [[Cincinnati Masters]] to bring his career total to 59 top-level singles titles and a record 17 ATP Masters Series titles. He became the second-oldest singles champion in Cincinnati's storied history (the tournament began in 1899), surpassed only by [[Ken Rosewall]] who won the title in 1970 at age 35. Agassi has also won one doubles title (at the [[Cincinnati Masters]] in 1993, partnering [[Petr Korda]]). He is one of only five male players to have won all the Grand Slams – along with legends [[Don Budge]], [[Roy Emerson]], [[Rod Laver]] and [[Fred Perry]]. He is in fact the first male tennis player to win the four Grand Slams on four different surfaces. The previous players won the Australian Open, Wimbledon, and the US Open on grass courts and the French Open on [[clay court]]s; whereas Agassi won the Australian Open on [[Rebound Ace]], the French Open on clay, Wimbledon on grass, and the US Open on hardcourts. After winning [[French Open]] in 1999, Agassi became the first male tennis player to win the [[Career Golden Slam]]. Agassi also helped the United States win the [[Davis Cup]] in 1990 and 1992. He was named the [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality|BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year]] in 1992. Agassi has earned more than US$30 million in prize-money throughout his career, second only to Sampras. In addition to this, he also earns over US$25 million a year through endorsements, the most by any tennis player and fourth in all sports (first place is [[Tiger Woods]] at US$70 million a year). ===2005=== Agassi started off 2005 with strong runs, most of which were cut short by [[Roger Federer]]. He lost to Federer in the quarterfinals of the Australian Open and the semifinals at Dubai. He reached the quarterfinals at Indian Wells after a dominant victory over Guillermo Coria, but withdrew from his match with Lleyton Hewitt with a swollen big toe. Agassi lost in the semifinals at Miami to Federer in a tight match. Although the claycourt season is the toughest on the body, Agassi played in Rome and reached the semifinals which he lost to Coria in a tough battle. At the 2005 French Open, Agassi lost to [[Jarkko Nieminem]], in their first-round match after enduring back pain related to a pinched [[sciatic nerve]]. He lost in five sets with 6-0 in the fifth. After much media speculation about retirement, the 35-year-old Agassi won in Los Angeles and made the final at Montreal before falling to world No. 2 [[Rafael Nadal]] in three long sets that he might have won if a few points had gone differently. His coach Darren Cahill and close friend and personal trainer [[Gil Reyes]] worked with Agassi throughout the summer to prepare for the [[2005 US Open]]. Agassi made a spectacular run at the Open, beating Razvan Sabau 6-3, 6-3, 6-1, [[Ivo Karlovic]] in the second round 7-6(7-4), 7-6(7-5), 7-6(7-4); [[Tomáš Berdych]] 3-6, 6-1, 6-4, 7-6(7-2); and [[Xavier Malisse]] 6-3, 6-4, 6-7(5-7), 4-6, 6-2. His quarterfinal match against fellow American [[James Blake]] has been called one of the best matches in US Open history. After dropping the first two sets, 3-6, 3-6, Agassi took the next two, 6-3, 6-3. In the fifth set, Blake served for the match at 5-4, but Agassi broke his serve, then won the tiebreak 8-6 to secure the victory at 1:15 a.m. He defeated [[Robby Ginepri]], another rising, talented American with a consistent baseline game, in his third consecutive five-set match to earn a spot in the final against World No. 1 [[Roger Federer]]. After losing the first set 6-3, Agassi broke Federer twice to win the second, 6-2. He broke Federer again and at this point looked to be the better player. Agassi had a 30-love lead but with a few costly errors was broken to force a tiebreak, which Federer took, 7-1. Andre ran out of gas which allowed Federer to reel off five straight games. Being down 5-0 in the fourth set, Agassi held to make it 5-1 before Federer closed it out to win the championship. After the match, Agassi thanked New York for the 20 years of memories, hinting at potential retirement. However, Agassi has made clear that he will only retire on his terms, when he feels that he cannot perform at his best on the court. He will likely continue for another year, as he has qualified for the 2005 Masters Cup (which is limited to the eight best players in the world) and is scheduled to play the lead-in tournament to the 2006 Australian Open. Coming into the 2005 Masters Cup, Agassi is 29-5 on hard courts (with his only losses coming to [[Roger Federer]] and [[Rafael Nadal]]), and is 5-4 on clay (wins over Gasquet, Ljubicic, and Hrbaty, losses to Coria and Lopez). In 2005, Agassi left [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] after 17 years and signed an endorsement deal with [[Adidas]]. [http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/news/story?id=2116135] Hampered by a third degree ankle injury caused by several torn ligaments, Agassi lost his opening match against Nikolay Davydenko in the Masters Cup and was forced to withdraw. The withdrawal list also included Rafael Nadal, Andy Roddick, Lleyton Hewitt, and Marat Safin. ===2006=== Agassi withdrew from the Australian Open because of an ankle injury. Once he withdrew, he immediately requested a wildcard to enter the Delray Beach International Tennis Championships, where he eventually finished as a quarterfinalist losing to [[Guillermo Garcia Lopez]] 4-6, 2-6. He was then forced to retire from SAP Open because of a lower back injury causing him severe pain in his lower back and down his legs. He then played in the Dubai Open where he won in straight sets over [[Greg Rusedski]] in the first round before losing in straights to German [[Bjorn Phau]] in second round. Health permitting, Agassi is scheduled to play tournaments in Indian Wells and Miami to close out the winter hardcourt season. Agassi has officially said that he is skipping the entire clay season, since it burdens his body. He will do his best to be ready for Wimbledon. However, Agassi's top priority in 2006 will once again be making yet another run at the US Open in August. Expect all scheduling decisons to be made with that goal in mind. ==Playing style== Agassi employs a baseline style of play, but unlike most such players, he typically makes contact with the ball ''inside'' the baseline -- exceptionally difficult even for professionals. This is possible because of his short backswing, which also helps him return fast serves. He is also blessed with the best hand and eye coordination, rivaled only by [[Roger Federer]]. [[John McEnroe]] and others have called Agassi the best service returner ever to play professional tennis. After Agassi's rededication to tennis in 1998, he has focused more on physical conditioning than in the past and is now one of the fittest players on the tour. His upper-body strength allows him to [[bench press]] 350 lbs. He has remarkable endurance and rarely appears tired on court. As long as he is not injured, he handles long, grueling matches arguably better than any other player on the tour (even Roger Federer has been known to tire by the fifth set). Indeed, Agassi is often ready to start the next point when his opponent is catching his breath. One of his strategies is to wear down his opponents, continually putting pressure on them by returning the ball early and deep at angles. Agassi will try to stand in nearly one spot and hit the corners to make his opponent scramble. He will often pass up the winner and hit a slightly less aggressive shot to make his opponent run a little more to retrieve a few more shots. His penchant for running players around point after point has earned him the nickname "The Punisher". Agassi's biggest weakness currently is his lack of consistent speed, and players who are able to consistently hit at sharp angles with pace give him trouble. Agassi used to be one of the fastest players on tour; however, his recent injuries have forced him to consistently run his fastest selectively, usually in Grand Slams and Tennis Masters Series events. To make up for this recently-adopted weakness, Agassi generally keeps his opponent on the defense. (Federer is the only player with a long winning streak against Agassi; even Sampras lost to Agassi many times). ==Personal and family life== After a four-year courtship, Agassi married actress Brooke Shields in a lavish ceremony on [[April 19]] 1997. That February, they had filed suit against ''[[The National Enquirer]]'' claiming it printed "false and fabricated" statements: Brooke was undergoing counseling, binge-eating and taking pills; Agassi "lashed into" Brooke and he and Brooke's mother "tangled like wildcats" when she demanded a [[prenuptial agreement|prenup]]; the case was dismissed. Agassi filed for divorce, which was granted on [[April 9]], 1999. By the time the divorce was final, Agassi was dating the German tennis legend Steffi Graf. With only their mothers as witnesses, they were married at his home on [[October 22]], 2001. Their son, [[Jaden Gil Agassi|Jaden Gil]], was born 6 weeks prematurely on [[October 26]] that year. Their daughter, [[Jaz Elle Agassi|Jaz Elle]], was born on [[October 3]] [[2003]]. Agassi's older sister Rita married the former tennis legend [[Pancho Gonzales]]. In 1995, when Gonzales died in Las Vegas, Andre paid for his brother-in-law's funeral. Andre has participated in many charity organizations, and founded the Andre Agassi Charitable Association, which assists the youth of Las Vegas. In 1995, he has won 1995's ATP Arthur Ashe's Humanitarian award in recognition of his efforts helping disadvantaged youth in LA. The Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation has always and will continue to fund organizations which offer programs that consistently carry out the mission of the Foundation. The Foundation's mission is to provide educational and recreational institutions and activities for abandoned, abused, and at-risk kids. The following organizations are fine examples: ===The Andre Agassi Boys & Girls Club=== In 1997, Agassi opened the Boys & Girls Club, a 25,000-square-foot facility that features an indoor basketball court, outdoor tennis courts, a computer lab, library and teen centre. It sees as many as 400 children a day in the summer and well over 2,000 during the year. Its junior tennis team, Team Agassi, includes mostly players with no previous tennis experience. As of January 2006, the team boasted four nationally ranked players as well as a number of regionally ranked players. Coached by Tim Blenkiron, the group practices regularly, attends study sessions, and often travels to play in various tournaments. The program also encourages members to respect each other and appreciate the challenges of winning and losing. A basketball program, the Agassi Stars, began in 2000. Headed by Coach Jermone Riley, the Stars are required to attend study hall sessions, write to universities they might be interested in attending, and balance athletics and education. The Foundation hopes to make these programs a college recruiting ground for kids with academic as well as athletic potential. In a community where drugs and gangs are prevalent forces, the Agassi Club promotes learning and gives kids a safe place to go after school. == Ethnicity question == Agassi's ethnicity, beyond being an American citizen, has been a subject of discussion by fans around the world. His father Mike Agassi is of [[Armenian people|Armenian]] and [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] ethnicity from the state of Iran, and there have been attempts to "claim" Agassi by both the Armenian and Iranian communities in the United States and abroad. Agassi has often seemed somewhat ambivalent, for example, joking after his "All-Armenian" match against [[Sargis Sargsian]] at the US Open in 2004, "Well, I'm only half-Armenian" [http://www.boston.com/sports/other_sports/tennis/articles/2004/09/07/armenian_supremacy_for_agassi?mode=PF], though he agreed to appear in a [[PBS]] documentary about [http://www.wliw.org/productions/armenian.html Armenian-Americans]. His father has written in his book, ''The Agassi Story'', about his experience of being an outsider in Muslim Iran, but Andre has also shown interest in the Iranian aspect of his heritage, in February 2005 expressing a desire to visit Iran, which holds "a special place" in his heart.[http://www.payvand.com/news/05/feb/1171.html] ==Quotes== About Pete Sampras' retirement: "You grow up with a guy, you compete against him for so long, he's such a big part of your career, something that's pretty special, so you do have that sense of personal regret that he's not around any more. You miss having that around." During the 2005 US Open: "I've been motivated by overcoming challenge and overcoming the hurdles and obstacles that face me. There still is plenty out there to get motivated by." (from [[Mats Wilander]], asked to name the top 5 tennis players of all time; he placed Agassi, Sampras, Federer, and Borg in the top 4 (in no order) and tied McEnroe, Lendl, and Connors for fifth place): ON AGASSI: “He has some limitations, like he can’t serve and volley, yet he has won all four Slams. He has a very high energy level, quite like Borg. He is on fifth gear from the very first point. There is some abnormality in his eyes, otherwise he wouldn’t have had such a phenomenal return. He sees the ball like none else and just guides it wherever he wants to. He’s just played a Grand Slam final at 35, that tells me he wasted the first five years of his career, otherwise he couldn’t have lasted this long. No one has done more to tennis than Agassi and Borg.” ==Video games== * ''[[Andre Agassi Tennis]]'' for the [[SNES]], [[Sega Genesis]], [[Game Gear]], and [[Mobile phone]] * ''[[Agassi Tennis Generation]]'' for [[PlayStation 2|PS2]] and [[Game Boy Advance|GBA]] * ''[[Smash Court Pro Tournament]]'' for PS2 ==Grand Slam record== [[Australian Open]] *'''Singles champion: 1995, 2000, 2001, 2003 *Singles semi-finalist: 1996, 2004 *Singles quarter-finalist: 2005 [[French Open]] *'''Singles champion: 1999 *Singles finalist: 1990, 1991 *Singles semi-finalist: 1988, 1992 *Singles quarter-finalist: 1995, 2001, 2002, 2003 *Doubles quarter-finalist: 1992 [[Wimbledon]] *'''Singles champion: 1992 *Singles finalist: 1999 *Singles semi-finalist: 1995, 2000, 2001 *Singles quarter-finalist: 1991, 1993 [[U.S. Open (tennis)|U.S. Open]] *'''Singles champion: 1994, 1999 *Singles finalist: 1990, 1995, 2002, 2005 *Singles semi-finalist: 1988, 1989, 1996, 2003 *Singles quarter-finalist: 1992, 2001, 2004 ==Grand Slam finals== ===Wins (8)=== '''Year''' '''Championship''' '''Opponent in Final''' '''Score in Final''' 1992 Wimbledon Goran Ivanišević 6-7, 6-4, 6-4, 1-6, 6-4 1994 US Open Michael Stich 6-1, 7-6, 7-5 1995 Australian Open Pete Sampras 4-6, 6-1, 7-6, 6-4 1999 French Open Andrei Medvedev 1-6, 2-6, 6-4, 6-3, 6-4 1999 US Open Todd Martin 6-4, 6-7, 6-7, 6-3, 6-2 2000 Australian Open Yevgeny Kafelnikov 3-6, 6-3, 6-2, 6-4 2001 Australian Open Arnaud Clement 6-4, 6-2, 6-2 2003 Australian Open Rainer Schuettler 6-2, 6-2, 6-1 ===Runner-ups (7)=== '''Year''' '''Championship''' '''Opponent in Final''' '''Score in Final''' 1990 French Open Andres Gomez 6-3, 2-6, 6-4, 6-4 1990 US Open Pete Sampras 6-4, 6-3, 6-2 1991 French Open Jim Courier 3-6, 6-4, 2-6, 6-1, 6-4 1995 US Open Pete Sampras 6-4, 6-3, 4-6, 7-5 1999 Wimbledon Pete Sampras 6-3, 6-4, 7-5 2002 US Open Pete Sampras 6-3, 6-4, 5-7, 6-4 2005 US Open Roger Federer 6-3, 2-6, 7-6, 6-1 ==Famous matches== * US Open quarterfinal 1989: defeated [[Jimmy Connors]] 6-1, 4-6, 0-6, 6-3, 6-4. Agassi's first five-set win. At one point during a changeover, Agassi joked to his box that he was losing sets on purpose to prove that he could win in five. The previous time he played Connors was at the 1988 US Open quarterfinal in which he beat Connors convincingly and did not lose a set. * French Open final 1990: lost to [[Andrés Gómez]] 6-3, 2-6, 6-4, 6-4. Agassi's first Grand Slam final. * US Open final 1990: lost to [[Pete Sampras]] 6-4, 6-3, 6-2. The first of five Grand Slam finals contested by the top two players of their generation. * French Open final 1991: lost to [[Jim Courier]] 6-3, 4-6, 6-2, 1-6, 4-6. Blew 2 sets to 1 lead after rain delay. Many questioned if Agassi had the heart to win a major championship. * Wimbledon final 1992: defeated [[Goran Ivanišević]] 6-7(8), 6-4, 6-4, 1-6, 6-4. Agassi's first Grand Slam title occurring at the tournament no one thought he could ever win. Still his only Wimbledon championship. * Wimbledon quarterfinal 1993: lost to Pete Sampras 6-2, 6-2, 3-6, 3-6, 6-4. The first of only two 5-set matches between the two (The other was the 2000 Australian Open semis). * US Open 4th Round 1994: defeated [[Michael Chang]] 6-1, 6-7(3), 6-3, 3-6, 6-1. Outlasts Chang en route to becoming the first unseeded man to win the US Open championship in 28 years. Knocked off five seeded players along the way. First US Open title. * Australian Open 1995 final: defeated Pete Sampras 4-6, 6-1, 7-6(6), 6-4. Agassi's only Grand Slam Final victory over Sampras. * Atlanta Summer Olympics Gold Medal Match 1996: defeated [[Serge Bruguera]] 6-2, 6-3, 6-1. Demolished two-time French Open Champion to achieve important personal goal of winning an Olympic Gold Medal. * French Open 1st round: lost to [[Marat Safin]] 7-5, 5-7, 2-6, 6-3, 2-6 in what was the Russian's first Grand Slam match. Safin's win foreshadowed his win over Pete Sampras in the 2000 US Open final. * French Open final 1999: defeated [[Andrei Medvedev]] 1-6, 2-6, 6-4, 6-3, 6-4. A spectacular come-from-behind victory that completed his career Grand Slam at the "advanced" age of 29, and his return to the top of tennis after being as low as #141. Referred to as the "Miracle in Paris". Agassi has stated that he considers this his greatest moment on a tennis court. * US Open final 1999: defeated [[Todd Martin]] 6-4, 6-7(5), 6-7(2), 6-3, 6-2. Another come-from-behind thriller. * Australian Open 2000 semi-final: defeated Pete Sampras 6-4, 3-6, 6-7(0), 7-6(5), 6-1. En route to his second Australian Open crown. [[Tennis Magazine]] stated: "''This'' was Sampras-Agassi for the ages." * Wimbledon semi-final 2000: lost to [[Patrick Rafter]] 7-5, 4-6, 7-5, 4-6, 6-3. This match was universally praised for its asthetic beauty as the world's greatest baseliner battled the game's most fluid and athletic volleyer over five tense sets. * Australian Open 2001 semi-final: defeated Patrick Rafter 7-5, 2-6, 6-7(5), 6-2, 6-3. Exacted some revenge for 2000 Wimbledon semi loss to Rafter. Rallied from 2 sets to 1 down to stun Rafter in front of an energized Australian crowd. * Wimbledon semi-final 2001: lost to Patrick Rafter 2-6, 6-3, 3-6, 6-2, 8-6. Although not considered possible, the rematch topped the standard set by their encounter from the year before. * US Open 2001 quarter-final: lost to Pete Sampras 6-7(9), 7-6(2), 7-6(2), 7-6(5). Match featured no breaks of serve. Many consider this the best Agassi-Sampras match played. * US Open 2002 final: lost to Pete Sampras 6-3, 6-4, 5-7, 6-4. Sampras' final competitive match. * French Open 2003 2nd round: defeated [[Mario Ancic]] 5-7, 1-6, 6-4, 6-2, 7-5. Rallied back from two sets to love against the young and powerful Ancic to win the match. One of only six matches Agassi has won after being down two sets to love. Three of them have been at the [[French Open]]. * French Open 2004 1st round: lost to [[Jerome Haehnel]] 4-6, 6-7(4), 3-6. Shock first round loss to lowly French career journeyman. Arguably the greatest upset in French Open history. * US Open 2004 quarter-final: lost to Roger Federer 3-6, 6-2, 5-7, 6-3, 3-6. 5th set marred by record-breaking winds. By far Roger Federer's most difficult match en route to the title. * Australian Open 2005 4th round: defeated [[Joachim Johansson]] 6-7(4), 7-6(5), 7-6(3), 6-4. Won despite Johansson's world-record 51 aces. * French Open 2005 1st round: lost to [[Jarkko Nieminen]] 5-7, 6-4, 7-6, 1-6, 0-6. Possibly Agassi's last match at the French Open. He led two sets to one heading into the fourth set, but a pinched sciatic nerve hampered Agasi's movement very noticeably. Agassi limped off the court with tears in his eyes after the match. The match was a major indicator to many that Agassi's career might be coming to a close soon. * US Open 2005 quarter-final: defeated [[James Blake]] 3-6, 3-6, 6-3, 6-3, 7-6(6). Agassi had never come back from two sets down in the US Open. This was called the best match of the 2005 Open and one of the best in US Open history. * US Open 2005 semi-final: defeated [[Robby Ginepri]] in his third consecutive five-set thriller: 6-4, 5-7, 6-3, 4-6, 6-3. At 35 years old, he played his best tennis in the fifth set. * US Open 2005, final: lost to Roger Federer in his sixth US Open final. In the finale of Agassi's magic run at the Open which included 3 five-set matches in a row, Agassi met Federer and appeared to have the upper hand, being up a break in the third set with the match tied at one set each. However, Federer withstood the pressure and rallied to beat Agassi 6-3, 2-6, 7-6(1), 6-1. * Tennis Masters Cup 2005, Round Robin: lost to [[Nikolay Davydenko]] 6-4, 6-2. Agassi was suffering from a sprained ankle injured while he was playing racquetball three weeks before. Although the match itself was unremarkable, the afterward was, when one of the tournament organizers absurdly accused Agassi of faking injury and losing on purpose because he (Agassi) was playing in Shanghai. It turned out that the same injury would cause Agassi to withdraw the 2006 Australian Open. ==Titles (60)== {| {{pt}} |- bgcolor="#eeeeee" |'''Legend (Singles)''' |- bgcolor="#e5d1cb" | Grand Slam (8) |- bgcolor="ffffcc" | Tennis Masters Cup (1) |- bgcolor="gold" | Olympic Gold (1) |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" | ATP Masters Series (17) |- bgcolor="#ffffff" | ATP Tour (33) |} ===Singles (60)=== {| {{pt}} |- bgcolor="#eeeeee" |'''No.''' |'''Date''' |'''Tournament''' |'''Surface''' |'''Opponent in the final''' |'''Score''' |- |1. |[[November 23]], [[1987]] |[[Itaparica]], [[Brazil]] |Hard |[[Luiz Mattar]] ([[Brazil]]) |7-6 6-2 |- |2. |[[February 15]], [[1988]] |[[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Mikael Pernfors]] ([[Sweden]]) |6-4 6-4 7-5 |- |3. |[[April 25]], [[1988]] |[[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]], [[United States|USA]] |Clay |[[Jimmy Arias]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-2 6-2 |- |4. |[[May 2]], [[1988]] |[[Forest Hills]], [[United States|USA]] |Clay |[[Slobodan Zivojinovic]] ([[Yugoslavia]]) |7-5 7-6 7-5 |- |5. |[[July 11]], [[1988]] |[[Stuttgart|Stuttgart Outdoors]], [[Germany]] |Clay |[[Andres Gomez]] ([[Ecuador]]) |6-4 6-2 |- |6. |[[July 25]], [[1988]] |[[Stratton, Vermont|Stratton]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Paul Annacone]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-2 6-4 |- |7. |[[August 15]], [[1988]] |[[Livingston]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Jeff Tarango]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-2 6-4 |- |8. |[[October 2]], [[1989]] |[[Orlando, Florida]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Brad Gilbert]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-2 6-1 |- |9. |[[February 5]], [[1990]] |[[San Francisco]], [[United States|USA]] |Carpet |[[Todd Witsken]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-1 6-3 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |10. |[[March 12]], [[1990]] |[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Stefan Edberg]] ([[Sweden]]) |6-1 6-4 6 6-2 |- |11. |[[July 16]], [[1990]] |[[Legg Mason Tennis Classic|Washington]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Jim Grabb]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-1 6-4 |- bgcolor="ffffcc" |12. |[[November 12]], [[1990]] |[[Tennis Masters Cup|Tour Championships]], [[Frankfurt]], [[Germany]] |Carpet |[[Stefan Edberg]] ([[Sweden]]) |5-7 7-6 7-5 6-2 |- |13. |[[April 1]], [[1991]] |[[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Derrick Rostagno]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-2 1-6 6-3 |- |14. |[[July 15]], [[1991]] |[[Legg Mason Tennis Classic|Washington]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Petr Korda]] ([[Czechoslovakia]]) |6-3 6-4 |- |15. |[[April 27]], [[1992]] |[[Atlanta]], [[United States|USA]] |Clay |[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]]) |7-5 6-4 |- bgcolor="#e5d1cb" |'''16.''' |'''[[June 22]], [[1992]]''' |'''[[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]]''' |Grass |[[Goran Ivanišević]] ([[Croatia]]) |6-7 6-4 6-4 1-6 6-4 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |17. |[[July 20]], [[1992]] |[[Toronto]], [[Canada]] |Hard |[[Ivan Lendl]] ([[United States|USA]]) |3-6 6-2 6-0 |- |18. |[[January 2]], [[1993]] |[[San Francisco]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Brad Gilbert]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-2 6-7 6-2 |- |19. |[[February 22]], [[1993]] |[[Scottsdale]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |Marcos Ondruska ([[Russia]]) |6-2 3-6 6-3 |- |20. |[[February 2]], [[1994]] |[[Scottsdale]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |Luiz Mattar ([[Brazil]]) |6-4 6-3 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |21. |[[July 25]], [[1994]] |[[Toronto]], [[Canada]] |Hard |Jason Stoltenberg ([[Australia]]) |6-4 6-4 |- bgcolor="#e5d1cb" |'''22.''' |'''[[August 29]], [[1994]]''' |'''[[U.S. Open (tennis)|US Open]]''' |Hard |[[Michael Stich]] ([[Germany]]) |6-1 7-6 7-5 |- |23. |[[October 17]], [[1994]] |[[Vienna]], [[Austria]] |Carpet |[[Michael Stich]] ([[Germany]]) |7-6 4-6 6-2 6-3 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |24. |[[October 31]], [[1994]] |[[Paris]], [[France]] |Carpet |[[Marc Rosset]] ([[Switzerland]]) |6-3 6-3 4-6 7-5 |- bgcolor="#e5d1cb" |'''25.''' |'''[[January 16]], [[1995]]''' |'''[[Australian Open]]''' |Hard |[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]]) |4-6 6-1 7-6 6-4 |- |26. |[[February 6]], [[1995]] |[[San Jose, California|San Jose]] |Hard |[[Michael Chang]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-2 1-6 6-3 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |27. |[[March 13]], [[1995]] |[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]] |Hard |[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]]) |3-6 6-2 7-6 |- |28. |[[July 17]], [[1995]] |[[Legg Mason Tennis Classic|Washington]] |Hard |[[Stefan Edberg]]([[Sweden]]) |6-4 2-6 7-5 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |29. |[[July 24]], [[1995]] |[[Montreal]] |Hard |[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]]) |3-6 6-2 6-3 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |30. |[[August 7]], [[1995]] |[[Cincinnati Masters|Cincinnati]] |Hard |[[Michael Chang]] ([[United States|USA]]) |7-5 6-2 |- |31. |[[August 14]], [[1995]] |[[New Haven]] |Hard |[[Richard Krajicek]] ([[Netherlands]]) |3-6 7-6 6-3 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |32. |[[March 18]], [[1996]] |[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]] |Hard |[[Goran Ivanišević]] ([[Croatia]]) |3-0 40-0 |- bgcolor="gold" |33. |[[July 22]], [[1996]] |[[1996 Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]], [[Atlanta]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Sergi Bruguera]] ([[Spain]]) |6-2 6-3 6-1 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |34. |[[August 5]], [[1996]] |[[Cincinnati Masters|Cincinnati]] |Hard |[[Michael Chang]] ([[United States|USA]]) |7-6 6-4 |- |35. |[[February 9]], [[1998]] |[[San Jose, California|San Jose]] |Hard |[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-2 6-4 |- |36. |[[March 2]], [[1998]] |[[Scottsdale]] |Hard |[[Jason Stoltenberg]] ([[Australia]]) |6-4 7-6 |- |37. |[[July 20]], [[1998]] |[[Legg Mason Tennis Classic|Washington]] |Hard |[[Scott Draper]] ([[Australia]]) |6-2 6-0 |- |38. |[[July 27]], [[1998]] |[[Mercedes-Benz Cup|Los Angeles]] |Hard |[[Tim Henman]] ([[United Kingdom|UK]]) |6-4 6-4 |- |39. |[[October 19]], [[1998]] |[[Ostrava]] |Carpet |[[Jan Kroslak]] ([[Slovakia]]) |6-2 3-6 6-3 |- |40. |[[April 5]], [[1999]] |[[Hong Kong]] |Hard |[[Boris Becker]] ([[Germany]]) |6-7 6-4 6-4 |- bgcolor="#e5d1cb" |'''41.''' |'''[[May 24]], [[1999]]''' |'''[[French Open]]''' |Clay |[[Andrei Medvedev]] ([[Ukraine]]) |1-6 2-6 6-4 6-3 6-4 |- |42. |[[August 16]], [[1999]] |[[Legg Mason Tennis Classic|Washington]] |Hard |[[Yevgeny Kafelnikov]] ([[Russia]]) |7-6 6-1 |- bgcolor="#e5d1cb" |'''43.''' |'''[[August 30]], [[1999]]''' |'''[[U.S. Open (tennis)|US Open]]''' |Hard |[[Todd Martin]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-4 6-7 6-7 6-3 6-2 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |44. |[[November 1]], [[1999]] |[[Paris]] |Carpet |[[Marat Safin]] ([[Russia]]) |7-6 6-2 4-6 6-4 |- bgcolor="#e5d1cb" |'''45.''' |'''[[January 17]], [[2000]]''' |'''[[Australian Open]]''' |Hard |[[Yevgeny Kafelnikov]] ([[Russia]]) |3-6 6-3 6-2 6-4 |- bgcolor="#e5d1cb" |'''46.''' |'''[[January 15]], [[2001]]''' |'''[[Australian Open]]''' |Hard |[[Arnaud Clement]] ([[France]]) |6-4 6-2 6-2 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |47. |[[March 12]], [[2001]] |[[Indian Wells Masters|Indian Wells]] |Hard |[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]]) |7-6 7-5 6-1 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |48. |[[March 19]], [[2001]] |[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]] |Hard |[[Jan-Michael Gambill]] ([[United States|USA]]) |7-6 6-1 6-0 |- |49. |[[July 23]], [[2001]] |[[Mercedes-Benz Cup|Los Angeles]] |Hard |[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]] |6-4 6-2 |- |50. |[[March 4]], [[2002]] |[[Scottsdale]] |Hard |[[Juan Balcells]] ([[Spain]]) |6-2 7-6 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |51. |[[March 18]], [[2002]] |[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]] |Hard |[[Roger Federer]] ([[Switzerland]]) |6-3 6-3 3-6 6-4 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |52. |[[May 6]], [[2002]] |[[Rome Masters|Rome]], [[Italy]] |Clay |[[Tommy Haas]] ([[Germany]]) |6-3 6-3 6-0 |- |53. |[[July 22]], [[2002]] |[[Mercedes-Benz Cup|Los Angeles]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Jan-Michael Gambill]] ([[United States|USA]]) |6-2 6-4 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |54. |[[October 14]], [[2002]] |[[Madrid]], [[Spain]] |Hard |[[Jiri Novak]] ([[Czech Republic]]) |W/O |- bgcolor="#e5d1cb" |'''55.''' |'''[[January 13]], [[2003]]''' |'''[[Australian Open]]''' |Hard |[[Rainer Schuettler]] ([[Germany]]) |6-2 6-2 6-1 |- |56. |[[February 10]], [[2003]] |[[San Jose, California|San Jose]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Davide Sanguinetti]] ([[Italy]]) |6-3 6-1 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |57. |[[March 17]], [[2003]] |[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]] |Hard |[[Carlos Moyà]] ([[Spain]]) |6-3 6-3 |- |58. |[[April 21]], [[2003]] |[[Houston]], [[United States|USA]] |Clay |[[Andy Roddick]] ([[United States|USA]]) |3-6 6-3 6-4 |- bgcolor="#dfe2e9" |59. |[[August 2]], [[2004]] |[[Cincinnati Masters|Cincinnati]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Lleyton Hewitt]] ([[Australia]]) |6-3 3-6 6-2 |- |60. |[[July 31]], [[2005]] |[[Mercedes-Benz Cup|Los Angeles]], [[United States|USA]] |Hard |[[Gilles Muller]] ([[Luxembourg]]) |6-4 7-5 |} ===Doubles (1)=== {| {{pt}} |- bgcolor="#eeeeee" |'''No.''' |'''Date''' |'''Tournament''' |'''Surface''' |'''Partner''' |'''Opponents in the final''' |'''Score''' |- |1. |[[August 16]], [[1993]] |[[Cincinnati Masters]] |Hard |[[Petr Korda]] ([[Czech Republic]]) |[[Stefan Edberg]] ([[Sweden]]) & [[Henrik Holm]] ([[Sweden]]) |7-6 6-4 |} ===Performance timeline=== {| {{pt}} |- bgcolor="#efefef" ! Tournament !! [[2006]] !! [[2005]] !! [[2004]] !! [[2003]] !! [[2002]] !! [[2001]] !! [[2000]] !! [[1999]] !! [[1998]] !! [[1997]] !! [[1996]] !! [[1995]] !! [[1994]] !! [[1993]] !! [[1992]] !! [[1991]] !! [[1990]] |- |[[Australian Open]] |align="center"|- |align="center"|QF |align="center"|SF |align="center"|'''W''' |align="center"|- |align="center"|'''W''' |align="center"|'''W''' |align="center"|4r |align="center"|4r |align="center"|- |align="center"|SF |align="center"|'''W''' |align="center"|- |align="center"|- |align="center"|- |align="center"|- |align="center"|- |- |[[French Open]] |align="center"| |align="center"|1r |align="center"|1r |align="center"|QF |align="center"|QF |align="center"|QF |align="center"|2r |align="center"|'''W''' |align="center"|1r |align="center"|- |align="center"|2r |align="center"|QF |align="center"|2r |align="center"|- |align="center"|SF |align="center"|F |align="center"|F |- |[[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]] |align="center"| |align="center"|- |align="center"|- |align="center"|4r |align="center"|2r |align="center"|SF |align="center"|SF |align="center"|F |align="center"|2r |align="center"|- |align="center"|1r |align="center"|SF |align="center"|4r |align="center"|QF |align="center"|'''W''' |align="center"|QF |align="center"|- |- |[[U.S. Open (tennis)|US Open]] |align="center"| |align="center"|F |align="center"|QF |align="center"|SF |align="center"|F |align="center"|QF |align="center"|2r |align="center"|'''W''' |align="center"|4r |align="center"|4r |align="center"|SF |align="center"|F |align="center"|'''W''' |align="center"|1r |align="center"|QF |align="center"|1r |align="center"|F |- |Grand Slam W-L |align="center"| |align="center"|10-2 |align="center"|9-3 |align="center"|19-3 |align="center"|11-3 |align="center"|20-3 |align="center"|14-3 |align="center"|23-2 |align="center"|7-4 |align="center"|3-1 |align="center"|11-4 |align="center"|22-3 |align="center"|11-2 |align="center"|4-2 |align="center"|16-2 |align="center"|10-3 |align="center"|12-2 |- bgcolor="#efefef" |'''Tournaments Won''' |align="center"| |align="center"|'''1''' |align="center"|'''1''' |align="center"|'''4''' |align="center"|'''5''' |align="center"|'''4''' |align="center"|'''1''' |align="center"|'''5''' |align="center"|'''5''' |align="center"|'''0''' |align="center"|'''3''' |align="center"|'''7''' |align="center"|'''5''' |align="center"|'''2''' |align="center"|'''3''' |align="center"|'''2''' |align="center"|'''4''' |- |Hardcourt W-L |align="center"| |align="center"|19-3 |align="center"|37-10 |align="center"|32-6 |align="center"|36-7 |align="center"|35-10 |align="center"|25-9 |align="center"|41-9 |align="center"|47-10 |align="center"|11-10 |align="center"|34-7 |align="center"|53-3 |align="center"|29-6 |align=&amp;quot;center"|27-8 |align="center"|19-7 |align="center"|17-7 |align="center"|26-5 |} {| {{pt}} |- bgcolor="#efefef" ! Tournament !! [[1989]] !! [[1988]] !! [[1987]] !! [[1986]] |- |[[Australian Open]] |align="center"|- |align="center"|- |align="center"|- |align="center"|- |- |[[French Open]] |align="center"|3r |align="center"|SF |align="center"|2r |align="center"|- |- |[[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]] |align="center"|- |align="center"|- |align="center"|1r |align="center"|- |- |[[U.S. Open (tennis)|US Open]] |align="center"|SF |align="center"|SF |align="center"|1r |align="center"|1r |- |Grand Slam W-L |align="center"|7-2 |align="center"|10-2 |align="center"|1-3 |align="center"|0-1 |- bgcolor="#efefef" |'''Tournaments Won''' |align="center"|'''1''' |align="center"|'''6''' |align="center"|'''1''' |align="center"|'''0''' |- |Hardcourt W-L |align="center"|20-6 |align="center"|33-6 |align="center"|21-10 |align="center"|4-5 |} ==Head-to-Head== *vs. Sampras, Pete: 14-20 *vs. Roddick, Andy: 5-1 *vs. Ginepri, Robby: 4-0 *vs. Blake, James: 4-1 *vs. Dent, Taylor: 5-0 *vs. Kiefer, Nicolas: 6-0 *vs. Rusedski, Greg: 8-2 *vs. Henman, Tim: 2-1 *vs. Johansson, Thomas: 6-1 *vs. Novak, Jiri: 5-1 *vs. Gaudio, Gaston: 4-1 *vs. Davydenko, Nikolay: 2-1 *vs. Coria, Guillermo: 5-2 *vs. Chang, Michael: 15-7 *vs. Ivanisevic, Goran: 4-3 *vs. Rafter, Patrick: 10-5 *vs. Connors, Jimmy: 2-0 *vs. McEnroe, John: 2-2 *vs. Becker, Boris: 10-4 *vs. Safin, Marat: 3-3 *vs. Hewitt, Lleyton: 4-4 *vs. Courier, Jim: 5-7 *vs. Muster, Thomas: 5-4 *vs. Federer, Roger: 3-8 *vs. Nadal, Rafael: 0-1 *vs. Grosjean, Sebastien: 4-3 *vs. Nalbandian, David: 1-0 *vs. Ferrero, Juan Carlos: 2-3 *vs. Kuerten, Gustavo: 7-4 *vs. Corretja, Alex: 5-3 *vs. Costa, Albert: 4-1 *vs. Moya, Carlos: 3-1 *vs. Malisse, Xavier: 5-0 *vs. Pioline, Cedric: 3-0 *vs. Haas, Tommy: 6-3 ==External links== *[http://www.atptennis.com/en/players/playerprofiles/default2.asp?playernumber=A092 Official ATP profile] *[http://www.tenniscorner.net/index.php?corner=M&action=players&playerid=AGA001/ Profile on tenniscorner.net] *[http://www.daviscup.com/teams/player.asp?player=10000009 Davis Cup record] *[http://www.agassifoundation.org/ Andre Agassi Foundation] *[http://www.olympic.org/uk/athletes/profiles/bio_uk.asp?PAR_I_ID=96979/ IOC profile] *[http://www.agassiopen.com/ Agassi Open] {{Tennis World Number Ones (men)}} {{Footer Olympic Champions Tennis Men}} {{Australian Open men's singles champions}} {{French Open men's singles champions}} {{Wimbledon men's singles champions}} {{US Open men's singles champions}} [[Category:1970 births|Agassi, Andre]] [[Category:Living people|Agassi, Andre]] [[Category:American tennis players|Agassi, Andre]] [[Category:Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics|Agassi, Andre]] [[Category:Armenian-Americans|Agassi, Andre]] [[Category:Iranian Americans|Agassi, Andre]] [[Category:Las Vegans|Agassi, Andre]] [[Category:Australian Open champions|Agassi, Andre]] [[Category:French Open champions|Agassi, Andre]] [[Category:Wimbledon champions|Agassi, Andre]] [[Category:US Open champions|Agassi, Andre]] [[bg:Андре Агаси]] [[da:Andre Agassi]] [[de:Andre Agassi]] [[et:Andre Agassi]] [[es:Andre Agassi]] [[fr:Andre Agassi]] [[it:Andre Agassi]] [[he:אנדרה אגסי]] [[nl:Andre Agassi]] [[ja:アンドレ・アガシ]] [[no:Andre Agassi]] [[pl:Andre Agassi]] [[pt:Andre Agassi]] [[fi:Andre Agassi]] [[sv:Andre Agassi]] [[zh:安德烈·阿加西]] [[Category:List of Assyrians|Agassi, Andre]] 596 15899127 2002-07-21T02:57:49Z Christian 899 #REDIRECT [[Constructed language]] 597 39114113 2006-02-10T20:32:21Z Visviva 123395 link Khmuic. [[Image:MK map.gif|thumb|Austro-Asiatic languages]] The '''Austro-Asiatic languages''' are a large [[language family]] of [[Southeast Asia]] and [[India]]. The name comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words for [[South Asia]]. Among these languages, only [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Khmer language|Khmer]], and [[Mon language|Mon]] have a long recorded history, and only Vietnamese and Khmer have official status (in Vietnam and Cambodia, respectively). The rest of the languages are spoken by minority groups. Austroasiatic languages have a disjunct distribution across India and Southeast Asia, separated by regions where other languages are spoken. It is widely believed that the Austroasiatic languages are the [[autochthonous]] languages of Southeast Asia and eastern India, and that the other languages of the region, including the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]], [[Tai-Kadai languages|Tai-Kadai]], and [[Sino-Tibetan]] languages, are the result of later [[human migration|migrations of people]]. (There are, for example, Austroasiatic words in the Tibeto-Burman languages of eastern Nepal.) Some linguists have attempted to prove that Austroasiatic languages are related to [[Austronesian languages]], thus forming the [[Austric languages|Austric]] superfamily. Linguists traditionally recognize two major divisions of Austroasiatic, the [[Mon-Khmer]] languages of Southeast Asia and the [[Munda languages]] of east-central and central India. [[Ethnologue]] identifies 168 Austroasiatic languages, of which 147 are [[Mon-Khmer]] languages and 21 are [[Munda languages]]. However, no evidence for this classification has ever been published, and it remains speculative. Each of the subdivisions of the classification below that is written in boldface type is accepted as a valid family. However, the relationships between these families within Austroasiatic is debated. It should be noted that little of the data used for competing classifications has ever been published, and therefore cannot be evaluated by peer review. The classification used here is that of Diffloth (in press), which does not accept traditional Mon-Khmer as a valid unit. * [[Munda languages]] ([[India]]) :* '''Koraput''' (7 languages) :*Core Munda languages ::* '''Kharian-Juang''' (2 languages) ::*North Munda languages ::: '''[[Korku language|Korku]]''' (1 language) ::: '''Kherwarian''' (12 languages) * Khasi-Khmuic languages :* '''[[Khasi language|Khasian]]''' (3 languages) of eastern [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]]. :*Palaungo-Khmuic languages ::* '''[[Khmuic]]''' (13 languages) of [[Laos]] and [[Thailand]]. ::*Palaungo-Pakanic languages ::: '''Pakanic''' or '''Palyu''' (2 languages) of southern [[China]] ::: '''Palaungic''' (21 languages) of [[Myanmar]], southern [[China]], and [[Thailand]], plus Mang of [[Vietnam]]. * [[Mon-Khmer]] languages :* Khmero-Vietic languages ::* Vieto-Katuic languages ::: '''Viet-Muong''' or '''Vietic''' (10 languages) of [[Vietnam]] and [[Laos]], includes the [[Vietnamese language]], which has the most speakers of any Austroasiatic language. These are the only Austroasiatic languages to have highly developed tone systems. ::: '''Katuic''' (19 languages) of [[Laos]], [[Vietnam]], and [[Thailand]]. ::* Khmero-Bahnaric languages :::* '''[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]]''' (40 languages) of [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], and [[Cambodia]]. :::*Khmeric languages :::: The '''[[Khmer language]]''' of [[Cambodia]], [[Thailand]], and [[Vietnam]]. :::: '''Pearic''' (6 languages) of [[Cambodia]]. :* Nico-Monic languages ::* '''[[Nicobarese languages]]''' (6 languages) of the [[Nicobar Islands]], a territory of India. ::* Asli-Monic languages ::: '''Aslian''' (19 languages) of peninsular [[Malaysia]] and [[Thailand]]. ::: '''Monic''' (2 languages) includes the [[Mon language]] of [[Myanmar]] and the Nyahkur language of [[Thailand]]. There are in addition several unclassified languages of southern China. [[Category:Austro-Asiatic languages|*]] [[da:Austroasiatiske sprog]] [[de:Austroasiatische Sprachen]] [[es:Lenguas austroasiáticas]] [[fi:Austroaasialaiset kielet]] [[fr:Langues austroasiatiques]] [[hu:Ausztroázsiai nyelvcsalád]] [[id:Bahasa Austro-Asia]] [[ko:오스트로아시아어족]] [[lt:Austroazinės kalbos]] [[nl:Austroaziatische talen]] [[ru:Австроазиатские языки]] [[vi:Hệ ngôn ngữ Nam Á]] [[zh:南亚语系]] 598 15899129 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Afro-Asiatic languages]] 599 41955043 2006-03-02T21:34:17Z Mustafaa 57891 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/85.250.213.76|85.250.213.76]] ([[User talk:85.250.213.76|talk]]) to last version by Dewet {{Contradict-other|''The population Figures in the Semitic languages Article (and others)''}} [[Image:Afro-Asiatic.png|right|300px|thumb|Map showing the distribution of Afro-Asiatic languages]] The '''Afro-Asiatic languages''' constitute a [[language family]] of about 240 languages and over 307 million people widespread throughout [[North Africa]], [[East Africa]], the [[Sahel]], and [[Southwest Asia]]. Other names sometimes given to this family include "Afrasian", "Hamito-Semitic" (deprecated), "Lisramic" (Hodge 1972), "Erythraean" (Tucker 1966). The following language subfamilies are included: * [[Berber languages]] * [[Chadic languages]] * [[Egyptian language|Egyptian languages]] * [[Semitic languages]] * [[Cushitic languages]] * [[Beja language]] (subclassification controversial; widely classified as part of Cushitic) * [[Omotic languages]] (controversial; sometimes argued to be outside Afro-Asiatic) The [[Ongota]] language is often considered Afro-Asiatic, but its classification within the family remains controversial, partly for lack of data. [[Harold Fleming]] tentatively suggests that it is an independent branch of non-Omotic Afro-Asiatic. It is not generally agreed on where [[Proto-Afro-Asiatic]] was spoken; [[Africa]] (e.g., [[Igor Diakonoff]], [[Lionel Bender]]) has often been suggested, particularly [[Ethiopia]], because it includes the majority of the diversity of the Afro-Asiatic language family and has very diverse groups in close geographic proximity, often considered a telltale sign for a linguistic geographic origin. The western [[Red Sea]] coast and the [[Sahara]] have also been put forward (e.g., [[Christopher Ehret]]). [[Alexander Militarev]] suggests that their homeland was in the [[Levant]] (specifically, he identifies them with the [[Natufian culture]]). The Semitic languages are the only Afro-Asiatic subfamily based outside of Africa; however, in historical or near-historical times, some Semitic speakers crossed from South Arabia back into Ethiopia, so some modern Ethiopian languages (such as [[Amharic]]) are Semitic rather than belonging to the substrate Cushitic or Omotic groups. (A minority of academics, e.g. A. Murtonen (1967), dispute this view, suggesting that Semitic may have originated in Ethiopia.) [[Tonal language]]s are found in the Omotic, Chadic, and South & East Cushitic branches of Afro-Asiatic, according to Ehret (1996). The Semitic, Berber and Egyptian branches are not tonal. ==Common features and cognates== Common features of the Afro-Asiatic languages include: *a two-[[grammatical gender|gender]] system in the singular, with the feminine marked by the /t/ sound, *[[Verb Subject Object|VSO]] [[linguistic_typology|typology]] with [[Subject Verb Object|SVO]] tendencies, *a set of [[emphatic consonant]]s, variously realized as glottalized, pharyngealized, or implosive, and *a templatic [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] in which words inflect by internal changes as well as prefixes and suffixes. Some cognates are: *''b-n-'' "build" (Ehret: *''b&#301;n''), attested in Chadic, Semitic (''*bny''), Cushitic (*''m&#301;n''/*''m&#259;n'' "house") and Omotic (Dime ''bin-'' "build, create"); *''m-t'' "die" (Ehret: *''maaw''), attested in Chadic (eg Hausa ''mutu''), Egyptian (''mwt'', ''mt'', Coptic ''mu''), Berber (''mmet'', pr. ''yemmut''), Semitic (*''mwt''), and Cushitic (Proto-Somali *''umaaw''/*''-am-w(t)-'' "die"), also similar to the Latin ''mortis'', indicating a possible vocabulary drift *''s-n'' "know", attested in Chadic, Berber, and Egyptian; *''l-s'' "tongue" (Ehret: ''*lis' ''"to lick"), attested in Semitic (*''lasaan/lisaan''), Egyptian (''ns'', Coptic ''las''), Berber (''ils''), Chadic (eg Hausa ''harshe''), and possibly Omotic (Dime ''lits'-'' "lick"); *''s-m'' "name" (Ehret: *''s&#365;m'' / *''s&#301;m''), attested in Semitic (*''sm''), Berber (''ism''), Chadic (eg Hausa ''suna''), Cushitic, and Omotic (though the Berber form, ''ism'', and the Omotic form, ''sunts'', are sometimes argued to be Semitic [[loanword]]s.) The Egyptian ''smi'' "report, announce" may also be cognate. * ''d-m'' "blood" (Ehret: *''dîm'' / *''dâm''), attested in Berber (''idammen''), Semitic (*''dam''), Chadic, and arguably Omotic. Cushitic *''dîm''/*''dâm'', "red", may be cognate. In the verbal system, Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic (including Beja) all provide evidence for a prefix conjugation: {| |- | English || Arabic (Semitic) || Kabyle (Berber) | Saho (Cushitic; verb is "kill") || Beja (verb is "arrive") |- | he dies || ''yamuutu'' || ''yemmut'' | ''yagdifé'' || ''iktim'' |- | she dies || ''tamuutu'' || ''temmut'' | ''yagdifé'' || ''tiktim'' |- | they (m.) die || ''yamuutuuna'' || ''mmuten'' | ''yagdifín'' || ''iktimna'' |- | you (m. sg.) die || ''tamuutu'' || ''temmuted&#803;'' | ''tagdifé'' || ''tiktima'' |- | you (m. pl.) die || ''tamuutuuna'' || ''temmutem'' | ''tagdifín'' || ''tiktimna'' |- | I die || ''&#704;amuutu'' || ''mmute&#947;'' | ''agdifé'' || ''aktim'' |- | we die || ''namuutu'' || ''nemmut'' || ''nagdifé'' || ''niktim'' |} A causative affix ''s'' is widespread (found in all its subfamilies), but is also found in other groups, such as the [[Niger-Congo languages]]. The [[possessive pronoun]] suffixes are supported by Semitic, Berber, Cushitic (including Beja), and Chadic. ==Classification history== Medieval scholars sometimes linked two or more branches of Afro-Asiatic together; already in the [[9th century]], the Hebrew grammarian [[Judah ibn Quraysh]] of [[Tiaret]], [[Algeria]] perceived a relationship between Berber and Semitic (the latter being known to him through Arabic, Hebrew, and Aramaic.) In the 1800's, Europeans began suggesting such relationships; thus in [[1844]] Th. Benfey suggested a language family containing Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic (calling the latter "Ethiopic"). In the same year, T. N. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and Hausa, but this would long remain a topic of dispute and uncertainty. The traditional "Hamito-Semitic" family was named by [[Friedrich Müller]] in [[1876]] in his ''Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft'', and defined as consisting of a Semitic group plus a "Hamitic" group containing Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic; the Chadic group was not included. These classifications were partly based on non-linguistic anthropological and racial arguments. (See also [[Hamitic hypothesis]].) [[Leo Reinisch]] (1909) proposed to link Cushitic and Chadic, while urging a more distant affinity with Egyptian and Semitic, thus foreshadowing Greenberg; but his suggestion was largely ignored. [[Marcel Cohen]] (1924) rejected the idea of a distinct "Hamitic" subgroup, and included Hausa (a Chadic language) in his comparative Hamito-Semitic vocabulary. [[Joseph Greenberg]] (1950) strongly confirmed Cohen's rejection of "Hamitic", added (and sub-classified) the Chadic languages, and proposed the new name Afro-Asiatic for the family; his classification of it came to be almost universally accepted. In 1969, [[Harold Fleming]] proposed the recognition of [[Omotic]] as a fifth branch, rather than (as previously believed) a subgroup of Cushitic, and this has become generally accepted. Several scholars, including Harold Fleming and [[Robert Hetzron]], have since questioned the traditional inclusion of Beja in Cushitic, but this view has yet to gain general acceptance. There is little agreement on the subclassification of the five or six branches mentioned; however, [[Christopher Ehret]] (1979), [[Harold Fleming]] (1981), and [[Joseph Greenberg]] (1981) all agree that Omotic was the first branch to split from the rest. Otherwise, *Ehret groups Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic together in a North Afro-Asiatic subgroup; *[[Paul Newman (professor)|Paul Newman]] (1980) groups Berber with Chadic and Egyptian with Semitic, while questioning the inclusion of Omotic; *Fleming (1981) divided non-Omotic Afroasiatic, or "Erythraean", into three groups, Cushitic, Semitic, and Chadic-Berber-Egyptian; he later added Semitic and Beja to the latter, and proposed [[Ongota language|Ongotá]] as a tentative new third branch of Erythraean; *[[Lionel Bender]] (1997) advocates a "Macro-Cushitic" consisting of Berber, Cushitic, and Semitic, while regarding Chadic and Omotic as the most remote branches; *[[Vladimir Orel]] and [[Olga Stolbova]] (1995) group Berber with Semitic, Chadic with Egyptian, and split Cushitic into five or more independent branches of Afro-Asiatic, seeing Cushitic as a [[Sprachbund]] rather than a valid family; *[[Alexander Militarev]] (2000), on the basis of [[lexicostatistics]], groups Berber with Chadic and both, more distantly, with Semitic, as against Cushitic and Omotic. ==See also== * [[African languages]] ==Etymological bibliography== Some of the main sources for Afro-Asiatic etymologies include: * Marcel Cohen, ''Essai comparatif sur la vocabulaire et la phonétique du chamito-sémitique'', Champion, Paris 1947. * Igor M. Diakonoff et al., "Historical-Comparative Vocabulary of Afrasian", ''St. Petersburg Journal of African Studies'' Nos. 2-6, 1993-7. * Christopher Ehret. ''Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary'' (''University of California Publications in Linguistics 126''), California, Berkeley 1996. * Vladimir E. Orel and Olga V. Stolbova, ''Hamito-Semitic [[Etymological Dictionary]]: Materials for a Reconstruction'', Brill, Leiden 1995. ISBN 9004100512. [http://www.ilx.nl/blonline/blonlinesearch2.php?ficheid=101010209591] ==Sources== * Bernd Heine and Derek Nurse, ''African Languages,'' Cambridge University Press, 2000 - Chapter 4 * Merritt Ruhlen, ''A Guide to the World's Languages'', Stanford University Press, Stanford 1991. * Lionel Bender et al., ''Selected Comparative-Historical Afro-Asiatic Studies in Memory of Igor M. Diakonoff'', LINCOM 2003. * [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=89997 Ethnologue] * Russell G. Schuh, ''[http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/schuh/Papers/Chadic_overview.pdf Chadic Overview]''. * [http://homepage.ntlworld.com/roger_blench/Archaeology%20data/Africa%20language%20history%20text.pdf African Language History] (pdf), [[Roger Blench]] ==External links== * [http://www.tufs.ac.jp/ts/personal/ratcliffe/comp%20&%20method-Ratcliffe.pdf A comparison of Orel-Stolbova's and Ehret's Afro-Asiatic reconstructions] *[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/306/5702/1680c The Origins of Afroasiatic] by Paul Newman (Requires Science Magazine subscription) [[Category:Afro-Asiatic languages| ]] [[af:Afro-Asiaties]] [[ar:أفروآسيوية]] [[bg:Афро-азиатски езици]] [[bs:Afroazijski jezici]] [[ca:Llengües afroasiàtiques]] [[de:Afroasiatische Sprachen]] [[es:Lenguas afroasiáticas]] [[eo:Afrikazia lingvaro]] [[eu:Hizkuntza Afroasiatikoak]] [[fr:Langues afro-asiatiques]] [[ko:아프리카아시아어족]] [[id:Bahasa Afro-Asia]] [[ia:Linguas afro-asiatic]] [[he:שפות אפרו-אסיאתיות]] [[lt:Semitų-chamitų kalbos]] [[hu:Afroázsiai nyelvcsalád]] [[nl:Afro-Aziatische talen]] [[ja:アフロ・アジア語族]] [[nn:Afroasiatiske språk]] [[pt:Línguas afro-asiáticas]] [[sl:Afroazijski jeziki]] [[fi:Afroaasialaiset kielet]] [[sv:Afroasiatiska språk]] [[ta:ஆபிரிக்க-ஆசிய மொழிகள்]] [[zh:闪含语系]] 600 41907777 2006-03-02T15:08:32Z 217.10.60.85 revert vandalism {{For|the 1961 play by Max Frisch|Andorra (play)}} {| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" |+<big><big>'''Principat d'Andorra'''<br></font> |- | style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2" | {| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" |- | align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:Flag of Andorra.svg|125px|Flag of Andorra]] | align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:Andorra_coa.png|Andorra's Coat of Arms]] |- | align="center" width="140px" | ([[Flag of Andorra|Flag]]) | align="center" width="140px" | ([[Coat of Arms of Andorra|Coat of Arms]]) |} |- | align="center" colspan=2 | <small>''National [[motto]]: Virtus Unita Fortior<br/>([[Latin]]: Virtue united is stronger)''</small> |- | align="center" colspan=2 | [[image:LocationAndorra.png]] |- | '''[[Official language]]''': || [[Catalan language|Catalan]] |- | '''[[Capital]]''':<br>&nbsp;- Population:<br>&nbsp;- [[Coordinates]]: || [[Andorra la Vella]]<br>22,035 <small>(1990 est.)</small><br>{{coor dm|42|30|N|1|31|E|type:country}} |- | '''[[List of Co-Princes of Andorra|French Co-Prince]]''': | [[Jacques Chirac]] |- | '''[[List of Co-Princes of Andorra|Episcopal Co-Prince]]''': | [[Joan Enric Vives Sicília]] |- | '''[[Head of Government]]''': || [[Albert Pintat]] |- | '''[[Area]]''':<br/>&nbsp;- Total: <br/>&nbsp;- % water: | [[List of countries by area|Ranked 178th]] <br/> [[1 E8 m²|468 km&sup2;]] <br/> Negligible |- | '''[[Population]]''':<br>&nbsp;- Total (2003)<br>&nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]: | [[List of countries by population|Ranked 182nd]]<br> 69,150<br> 144.5/km&sup2; |- | '''[[Independence]]''': || 1278 |- | '''[[National Day]]''': || [[8 September]] |- valign=top | '''[[Religion]]s''': || [[Roman Catholic]] (established religion) |- | '''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' (2003) || [[List of countries by Human Development Index|NA]] – <font color=gray>unranked</font> |- | '''[[Currency]]''': || [[Euro|Euro <small>(&euro;)</small>]]'''&sup1;''' = 100 [[cents]] |- | '''[[Time zone]]''' <br>&nbsp;- in [[European Summer Time|summer]] | [[Central European Time|CET]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+1)<br>[[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+2) |- valign=top | '''[[National anthem]]''': || ''[[El Gran Carlemany|El Gran Carlemany, Mon Pare]]'' |- | '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''': || [[.ad]] |- | '''[[List_of_country_calling_codes|Calling Code]]''': | +376 |- | colspan="2" align="center" | <small><sup>1</sup> Prior to 1999: French [[franc]] and Spanish [[peseta]]. Some of their own currency, 1 [[Andorran_diner|diner]] of 100 centim was minted after 1982.</small> |} {{Catalan-speaking world|align=right}} The '''Principality of Andorra''' ([[Catalan language|Catalan]]: ''Principat d'Andorra'', [[French language|French]]: ''Principauté d'Andorre'', [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Principado de Andorra'') is a small, [[landlocked country|landlocked]] [[principality]] in south-western [[Europe]], located in the eastern [[Pyrenees]] mountains and bordered by [[France]] and [[Spain]]. Once isolated, it is currently a prosperous country mainly because of [[tourism]] and its status as a [[tax haven]]. Andorra is not to be confused with the [[Andora|Comune di Andora]]. == Origin and history of the name == The name "Andorra" probably originates from a [[Navarre|Navarrese]] word ''andurrial'', which translates as ''shrub-covered land''. == History == {{main|History of Andorra}} Tradition holds that [[Charlemagne]] granted a charter to the Andorran people in return for their fighting the [[Moors]]. Overlordship of the territory passed to the local [[count of Urgell]] and eventually to the [[bishop]] of the [[diocese]] of Urgell. In the [[11th century]] a dispute arose between the bishop and his northern French neighbour over Andorra. In 1278, the conflict was resolved by the signing of a [[parage]], which provided that Andorra's sovereignty be shared between the French [[count of Foix]] (whose title would ultimately transfer to the French head of state) and the bishop of [[La Seu d'Urgell]], in [[Catalonia]]. This gave the small [[principality]] its territory and political form. Over the years the title passed to the kings of [[Navarre]]. After Henry of Navarre became King [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]] of France, he issued an edict (1607) that established the head of the French state and the Bishop of Urgell as co-princes of Andorra. In the period 1812–13, the French Empire annexed Catalonia and divided it in four departments. Andorra was also annexed and made part of the district of Puigcerdà (département of Sègre). In 1933 France occupied Andorra as a result of social unrest before elections. On [[July 12]], [[1934]], an adventurer named [[Boris Skossyreff]] issued a proclamation in Urgel, declaring himself Boris I, sovereign prince of Andorra, simultaneously declaring war on the bishop of Urgel. He was arrested by Spanish authorities on [[July 20]] and ultimately expelled from Spain. From 1936 to 1940, a French detachment was garrisoned in Andorra to prevent influences of the [[Spanish Civil War]] and Franco's Spain. The Franco troops reached the Andorran border in the later stages of the war. During the [[Second World War]], Andorra remained neutral and was an important smuggling route between [[Vichy France]] and Spain. In 1958 Andorra declared peace with [[Germany]], having been forgotten on the [[Treaty of Versailles]] that ended the [[First World War]] and remaining legally at war. Given its relative isolation, Andorra has existed outside the mainstream of European history, with few ties to countries other than France and Spain. In recent times, however, its thriving [[tourism|tourist]] industry along with developments in transportation and communications have removed the country from its isolation and its political system was thoroughly modernized in 1993, the year in which it finally became a member of the United Nations. == Politics == {{main articles|[[Politics of Andorra]] and [[Constitution of Andorra]]}} {{seealso|List of Co-Princes of Andorra}} Until very recently, Andorra's political system had no clear division of powers into [[Executive (government)|executive]], [[legislative]], and [[judicial]] branches. Ratified and approved in 1993, the [[Constitution of Andorra|constitution]] establishes Andorra as a sovereign parliamentary democracy that retains the co-princes as [[head of state|heads of state]], but the [[head of government]] retains executive power. The two co-princes serve coequally with limited powers that do not include veto over government acts. They are represented in Andorra by a delegate. The way in which the two [[prince]]s are chosen makes Andorra one of the most politically distinct nations on earth. One co-Prince is the man or woman who is currently serving as [[President of France]], currently [[Jacques Chirac]] (it has historically been any Head of State of France, including Kings and Emperors of France). The other is the current [[Catholic]] [[bishop]] of the [[Catalan]] city of [[La Seu d'Urgell]], currently [[Joan Enric Vives i Sicilia]]. As neither prince lives in Andorra their role is almost entirely ceremonial. Andorra's main legislative body is the [[unicameral]] [[General Council of the Valleys]] (''Consell General de les Valls''), a [[parliament]] of 28 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote, 14 from a single national constituency and 14 to represent each of the 7 parishes, with members serving four-year terms. The Andorran government is formed by the General Council electing the [[Head of Government]] (''Cap de Govern''), who then appoints ministers to the [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]], the Executive Council (''Govern''). Currently, government is held by the [[Liberal Party of Andorra]], with [[Albert Pintat]] as [[Prime Minister]]. The [[Social Democratic Party (Andorra)|Social Democratic Party]] is in opposition. Defense of the country is the responsibility of [[France]] and [[Spain]]. == Administrative divisions == [[Image:Andorra.geohive.gif|thumb|right|300px|Map of Andorra.]] {{main|Parishes of Andorra}} Andorra consists of seven communities, known as ''parròquies'' (singular ''parròquia'' ''[[English Language|Engl.]]:'' parish) *[[Andorra la Vella]] *[[Canillo]] *[[Encamp]] *[[Escaldes-Engordany]] *[[La Massana]] *[[Ordino]] *[[Sant Julià de Lòria]] == Geography == {{main|Geography of Andorra}} Befitting its location in the eastern [[Pyrenees]] mountain range, Andorra consists predominantly of rugged mountains of an average height of 1,996 m with the highest being the [[Coma Pedrosa]] at 2,946 m. These are dissected by three narrow valleys in a Y shape that combine into one as the main stream, the [[Valira]] river, leaves the country for Spain (at Andorra's lowest point of 870 m). Andorra's [[climate]] is similar to its neighbours' [[temperate climate]], but its higher altitude means there is on average more snow in winter and it is slightly cooler in summer. == Economy == {{main|Economy of Andorra}} [[Image:AndorraLaVella.jpg|left|190px|Andorra La Vella]] [[Tourism]], the mainstay of Andorra's tiny, well-to-do economy, accounts for roughly 80% of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]. An estimated 9 million tourists visit annually, attracted by Andorra's duty-free status and by its summer and winter [[resort]]s. Andorra's comparative advantage has recently eroded as the economies of adjoining [[France]] and [[Spain]] have been opened up, providing broader availability of goods and lower [[tariff]]s. The [[banking]] sector, with its [[tax haven]] status, also contributes substantially to the economy. [[Agriculture|Agricultural]] production is limited&mdash;only 2% of the land is arable&mdash;and most [[food]] has to be [[import]]ed. The principal livestock activity is [[domestic sheep]] raising. [[Manufacturing]] output consists mainly of cigarettes, cigars, and furniture. Andorra is not a full member of the [[European Union]], but enjoys a special relationship with it, such as being treated as an EU member for trade in manufactured goods (no tariffs) and as a non-EU member for agricultural products. Andorra lacks a [[currency]] of its own and uses that of its two surrounding nations. Prior to 1999 these were the [[French franc]] and the Spanish [[peseta]], which have since been replaced by a single currency, the [[euro]]. Unlike other small European states that use the euro, Andorra does not yet mint its own [[euro coins]]; in October 2004, negotiations between Andorra and the [[European Union|EU]] began on an agreement which would allow Andorra to mint its own coins. Andorra’s [[natural resource]]s include [[hydropower]], [[mineral water]], [[timber]], [[iron ore]], and [[lead]]. == Demographics == {{main|Demographics of Andorra}} {{seealso|List of Andorrans}} Andorrans constitute a minority in their own country; only 33% of inhabitants hold Andorran nationality. The largest group of foreign nationals is that of [[Spain|Spaniards]] (43%), with [[Portugal|Portuguese]] (11%) and [[France|French]] (7%) nationals the other main groups. The remaining 6% belong to several other nationalities. The only official language is [[Catalan language|Catalan]], the language of the nearby Spanish [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous region]] of [[Catalonia]], with which Andorra shares many cultural traits, though [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Portuguese Language|Portuguese]] and [[French language|French]] are also commonly spoken. The predominant religion is [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]]. == Culture == {{main|Culture of Andorra}} {{seealso|Music of Andorra}} Andorra's long [[history]] has provided it with a rich [[mythology]] and an abundance of [[Fable|folk tales]], with roots originating in as far as [[Andalusia]] in the south and [[Netherlands]] in the north. == Miscellaneous topics == * [[Communications in Andorra]] * [[Civil unions in Andorra]] * [[Foreign relations of Andorra]] * [[Postal services in Andorra]] * [[Tourism in Andorra]] * [[Transportation in Andorra]] == See also == *[[List of sovereign states]] == External links == {{sisterlinks|Andorra}} * [http://www.andorra.ad/ang/home/index.htm Andorra.ad] - Main portal * [http://www.andorra-intern.com/index_en.htm Andorra-Intern] - Andorra Inside Information * [http://www.andorraonline.ad/index.asp?newlang=english Andorra Online] - Information on various Andorran topics * [http://www.andorramania.co.uk Andorra Mania] - Information on various Andorran topics * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/an.html CIA - The World Factbook -- Andorra] - [[CIA]]'s Factbook on Andorra * [http://based.in/?Andorra Financial institutions in Andorra] * [http://www.govern.ad/ Govern d'Andorra] - Official governmental site (in Catalan) * [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/andorra/andorra.html Library of Congress Portals on the World - Andorra] {{Europe}} [[Category:Andorra|*]] [[af:Andorra]] [[ar:أندورا]] [[an:Andorra]] [[ast:Andorra]] [[bg:Андора]] [[zh-min-nan:Andorra]] [[be:Андора]] [[bn:এন্ডোরা]] [[bs:Andora]] [[ca:Andorra]] [[cs:Andorra]] [[cy:Andorra]] [[da:Andorra]] [[de:Andorra]] [[et:Andorra]] [[el:Ανδόρα]] [[es:Andorra]] [[eo:Andoro]] [[eu:Andorra]] [[fr:Andorre]] [[fy:Andorra]] [[fur:Andorra]] [[ga:Andóra]] [[gl:Andorra]] [[ko:안도라]] [[hi:अन्डोरा]] [[hr:Andora]] [[io:Andora]] [[id:Andorra]] [[ia:Andorra]] [[is:Andorra]] [[it:Andorra]] [[he:אנדורה]] [[jv:Andorra]] [[ka:ანდორა]] [[kw:Andorra]] [[ku:Andorra]] [[la:Andorra]] [[lv:Andora]] [[lt:Andora]] [[lb:Andorra]] [[li:Andorra]] [[hu:Andorra]] [[mk:Андора]] [[ms:Andorra]] [[na:Andorra]] [[nl:Andorra]] [[nds:Andorra]] [[ja:アンドラ]] [[no:Andorra]] [[nn:Andorra]] [[oc:Andòrra]] [[ps:انډورا]] [[pl:Andora]] [[pt:Andorra]] [[ro:Andorra]] [[ru:Андорра]] [[se:Andorra]] [[sa:अंडोरा]] [[sq:Andora]] [[scn:Andorra]] [[simple:Andorra]] [[sk:Andorra]] [[sl:Andora]] [[sr:Андора]] [[fi:Andorra]] [[sv:Andorra]] [[tl:Andorra]] [[th:ประเทศอันดอร์รา]] [[tr:Andorra]] [[udm:Андорра]] [[uk:Андорра]] [[war:Andorra]] [[zh:安道尔]] [[fiu-vro:Andorra]] 601 15899132 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z LA2 445 * #REDIRECT [[History of Andorra]] 602 15899133 2002-06-13T21:19:04Z Karen Johnson 1300 redirect #REDIRECT [[Geography of Andorra]] 603 15899134 2002-08-20T15:34:41Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Andorra]] 604 15899135 2002-08-04T11:16:40Z Ellmist 2214 move to Politics of Andorra #REDIRECT [[Politics of Andorra]] 605 15899136 2002-08-04T11:19:13Z Ellmist 2214 move to Economy of Andorra #REDIRECT [[Economy of Andorra]] 606 15899137 2003-05-25T18:56:00Z Camembert 3113 fix redir #REDIRECT [[Andorra]] 607 15899138 2002-08-04T11:19:57Z Ellmist 2214 move to Communications in Adorra #REDIRECT [[Communications in Andorra]] 608 15899139 2002-08-04T11:20:42Z Ellmist 2214 move to Transportation in Andorra #REDIRECT [[Transportation in Andorra]] 609 15899140 2002-08-04T11:24:45Z Ellmist 2214 move to Foreign relations of Andorra #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Andorra]] 610 15899141 2002-10-09T13:48:41Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Andorra]] #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Andorra]] 611 15899142 2002-08-04T11:22:05Z Ellmist 2214 move to Foreign relations of Andorra #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Andorra]] 612 39274572 2006-02-12T00:51:46Z Michael Hardy 4626 In [[mathematics]] and [[statistics]], the '''arithmetic [[mean]]''' of a set of numbers is the sum of all the members of the set divided by the number of items in the set (cardinality). (The word ''set'' is used perhaps somewhat loosely; for example, the number 3.8 could occur more than once in such a "set".) If one particular number occurs more times than others in the set, it is called a mode. The arithmetic mean is what pupils are taught very early to call the "[[average]]." If the set is a [[statistical population]], then we speak of the '''population mean'''. If the set is a [[sampling (statistics)|statistical sample]], we call the resulting [[statistic]] a '''sample mean'''. When the mean is not an accurate estimate of the median, the set of numbers, or [[frequency distribution]], is said to be [[skewness|skewed]]. The symbol &mu; (Greek: mu) is used to denote the arithmetic mean of a population. If we denote a set of data by ''X'' = { ''x''<sub>1</sub>, ''x''<sub>2</sub>, ..., ''x''<sub>''n''</sub>}, then the sample mean is typically denoted with a horizontal bar over the variable (''x̅'', generally enunciated "''x'' bar"). In practice, the difference between &mu; and ''x̅'' is that &mu; is typically unobservable because one observes only a sample rather than the whole population, and if the sample is drawn randomly, then one may treat ''x̅'', but not &mu;, as a [[random variable]], attributing a [[probability distribution]] to it. Both are computed in the same way: :<math>\mathrm{mean} = \bar{x} = (x_1+\cdots+x_n)/n.</math> The arithmetic mean is greatly influenced by [[outlier]]s. For instance, reporting the "average" [[net worth]] in [[Redmond, Washington]] as the arithmetic mean of all annual net worths would yield a surprisingly high number because of [[Bill Gates]]. These distortions occur when the mean is different from the median, and the median is a superior alternative when that happens. In certain situations, the arithmetic mean is the wrong concept of "average" altogether. For example, if a stock rose 10% in the first year, 30% in the second year and fell 10% in the third year, then it would be incorrect to report its "average" increase per year over this three year period as the arithmetic mean (10% + 30% + (&minus;10%))/3 = 10%; the correct average in this case is the [[geometric mean]] which yields an average increase per year of only 8.8%. If ''X'' is a [[random variable]], then the [[expected value]] of ''X'' can be seen as the long-term arithmetic mean that occurs on repeated measurements of ''X''. This is the content of the [[law of large numbers]]. As a result, the sample mean is used to estimate unknown expected values. Note that several other "means" have been defined, including the [[generalized mean]], the [[generalised f-mean|generalized f-mean]], the [[harmonic mean]], the [[arithmetic-geometric mean]], and the [[weighted mean]]. ==Alternate notations== The arithmetic mean may also be expressed using the sum notation: :<math>\bar{x} = \frac1n\sum_{i=1}^n x_i.</math> ==See also== [[mean]], [[average]], [[summary statistics]], [[variance]], [[central tendency]], [[standard deviation]], [[inequality of arithmetic and geometric means]], [[Muirhead's inequality]] ==External links== *[http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-geommean.htm Calculations and comparisons between arithmetic and geometric mean between two numbers] *[http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Generalization/means.shtml Arithmetic and geometric means] - [[cut-the-knot]] [[Category:Statistics]] [[Category:Means]] <!-- interwiki --> [[ar:متوسط حسابي]] [[cs:Aritmetick%C3%BD pr%C5%AFm%C4%9Br]] [[de:Mittelwert]] [[es:Media aritmética]] [[fr:Moyenne arithmétique]] [[hr:Aritmeti%C4%8Dka_sredina]] [[nl:Rekenkundig gemiddelde]] [[ja:&#31639;&#34899;&#24179;&#22343;]] [[no:Gjennomsnitt]] [[pl:&#346;rednia arytmetyczna]] [[pt:Média aritmética]] [[fi:Aritmeettinen keskiarvo]] [[zh:算术平均数]] 615 39772694 2006-02-15T19:57:26Z Zzyzx11 182902 briefly mention the NFC [[Image:AmericanFootballConference.png|right|American Football Conference]] The '''American Football Conference''' ('''AFC''') is one of the two conferences of the [[National Football League]] (NFL). The AFC was created after the league [[AFL-NFL Merger|merged]] with the [[American Football League]] (AFL) in early 1970. The NFL's [[Cleveland Browns]], [[Pittsburgh Steelers]], and the then-[[Indianapolis Colts|Baltimore Colts]] agreed to join the new AFC along with the 10 former AFL teams. All of the other NFL teams formed the [[National Football Conference]] (NFC). Initially, this alignment proved to be very unpopular with fans in these cities. The AFC logo, shown to the right, is a variation of the old AFL logo [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:AmericanFootballLeague.jpg as seen here]. Introduced in 1970 alongside the beginning of the new AFC, the logo has basically remained unchanged since its introduction, though the "A" wasn't as bold when it was first introduced. The AFC currently consists of 16 teams, organized into four divisions (North, South, East, and West) of four teams each. Each team plays the other teams in their division twice (home and away) during the regular season in addition to 10 other games/teams assigned to their schedule by the NFL the previous May. Two of these games are assigned on the basis of the team's final record in the previous season. The remaining 8 games are split between the roster of two other NFL divisions. This assignment shifts each year. For instance, in the [[2006 NFL season|2006 regular season]], each team in the [[AFC East]] will play a game apiece against each team in both the [[AFC South]] and the [[NFC North]]. In this way division competition consists of common opponents, with the exception of the 2 games assigned on the strength of each team's prior season record. The NFC operates according to the same system. At the end of each football [[season (sport)|season]], there are [[NFL playoffs|playoff]] games involving the top six teams in the AFC (the four division champions by place standing and the top two remaining non-division-champion teams ("[[Wild card (sports)|wild cards]]") by record). The last two teams remaining play in the [[AFC Championship Game|AFC Championship game]] with the winner receiving the [[Lamar Hunt]] Trophy. The AFC champion plays the [[National Football Conference|NFC]] champion in the [[Super Bowl]]. {{NFL}} [[Category:National Football League]] [[da:American Football Conference]] [[fr:American Football Conference]] 616 15899145 2002-05-05T14:35:26Z Maveric149 62 #redirect [[applied mathematics]] #redirect [[applied mathematics]] 617 35530264 2006-01-17T11:55:38Z Korg 263660 {{hndis}} There have been two [[United States]] [[politician]]s named '''Albert Arnold Gore'''. * The father, [[Albert Gore, Sr.]], was a Senator from Tennessee from 1953 to 1971. * The son, [[Albert Gore, Jr.]] (often called simply "Al Gore") was both a Representative and a Senator from Tennessee, and was both a U.S. Vice President and a presidential candidate. {{hndis}} 618 15899147 2002-08-31T19:45:59Z Bryan Derksen 66 removed old article from below the redirect - it's already been moved over #REDIRECT [[An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding]] 619 42075724 2006-03-03T17:33:26Z 64.8.10.9 :''This article is about the former United States Vice President. For his father, see [[Albert Gore, Sr.|Albert Gore, Sr.]]'' {| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; text-align:left; clear:right" |+ style="margin-left: inherit; font-size: larger;" | '''Albert Arnold Gore, Jr.''' |- | align="center" colspan=2 | [[Image:AlGorerecent.jpg|200px|none|Al Gore]] |- ! Order: | 45th Vice President |- ! Term of Office: | [[January 20]], [[1993]] to [[January 20]], [[2001]] |- ! Preceded by: | [[Dan Quayle]] |- ! Succeeded by: | [[Dick Cheney]] |- ! Date of Birth | [[March 31]], [[1948]] |- ! Place of Birth: | [[Washington, D.C.]] |- ! [[Wife]]: | [[Tipper Gore|Mary Elizabeth "Tipper" Gore]] |- ! [[Profession]]: | [[Journalist]], [[Businessman]] |- ! [[Political party|Political Party]]: | [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] |- ! [[President of the United States|President]]: | [[Bill Clinton]] |} '''Albert Arnold Gore, Jr.''' (born [[March 31]], [[1948]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[politician]] and businessman, who served as the 45th [[Vice President of the United States]] from [[1993]] to [[2001]]. He [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|ran for President in 2000]] following [[Bill Clinton]]'s two four-year terms. He was defeated in the [[U.S. Electoral College|Electoral College]] vote by the [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] candidate [[George W. Bush]] on a vote of 271-266 with a Gore committed Elector from [[Washington, DC]] abstaining. However, Gore did receive more individual votes than Bush. The election was bitterly contested, including multiple recounts and a [[Bush v. Gore|5-4 Supreme Court]] decision that effectively secured the election for President [[George W. Bush]]. Gore currently serves as President of the American television channel [[Current TV|Current]] and Chairman of [[Generation Investment Management]], sits on the board of directors of [[Apple Computer]], and serves as an unofficial advisor to [[Google]]'s senior management. Although speculation about a possible [[U.S. presidential election, 2008|presidential run in 2008]] still continues, he has stated that he does not currently plan to return to politics, but doesn't rule this possibility out in the future. ==Early life== He attended the [[Sheridan school|Sheridan School]], and later the elite [[St. Albans School]]. In 1965, Gore enrolled at [[Harvard College]], where he majored in government. His roommates (in [[Dunster House]]) were actor [[Tommy Lee Jones]] and former Columbia University women's basketball star Katie Day's father, Bart Day. Gore graduated from Harvard in June 1969 with a Bachelor of Arts degree. :For more information on Gore's academic records, see [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&amp;contentId=A37397-2000Mar18] ==Family== Al Gore was born in [[Washington, D.C.]], to [[Albert Gore, Sr.|Albert A. Gore, Sr.]], a politician, and [[Pauline LaFon Gore]], one of the first female lawyers to graduate from Vanderbilt Law School. Since his [[father]] was a veteran Democratic senator from Tennessee, Al Gore, Jr. divided his childhood between Washington, D.C., and [[Carthage, Tennessee|Carthage]], [[Tennessee]]. During the school year, the younger Gore lived in a [[hotel]] in Washington, during summer vacations, he lived in Carthage, where he worked on the Gore family farm. In 1970, Gore married Mary Elizabeth Aitcheson ([[Tipper Gore]]), whom he had first met many years before at his high school senior [[prom]] (St. Albans School in Washington, D.C.). They have four children: [[Karenna Gore|Karenna]] (born [[August 6]], [[1973]]), married to [[Drew Schiff]]; [[Kristin Gore|Kristin]] (born [[June 5]], [[1977]]); [[Sarah Gore|Sarah]] (born [[January 7]], [[1979]]); and [[Al Gore III|Al III]] (born [[October 19]], [[1982]]). The Gores also have two grandchildren: Wyatt (born [[July 4]], [[1999]]) and Anna Schiff. The Gores now reside in [[Nashville]], Tennessee, USA, and own a small farm near Carthage, Tennessee. The family attends New Salem Missionary [[Baptist Church]] in Carthage. The Gores in late 2005 bought a condo at San Francisco's swanky St. Regis. [http://www.prweb.com/releases/2005/12/prweb326327.htm] ==Soldier and journalist== [[Image:AlGoreVietnam.gif|right|thumb|200px|Gore served as a field reporter in Vietnam for four months.]] Although opposed to the Vietnam War, on [[August 7]], [[1969]], Gore enlisted in the [[United States Army|army]] to participate in the [[Vietnam War]] effort. After completing training as a military journalist, Gore shipped to [[Vietnam]] in early 1971, serving for four months before being given an honorable discharge. The chronology of Gore's military service is as follows: * '''August 1969''': Enlisted at the [[Newark, New Jersey]] recruiting office. * '''August to October 1969''': 8 weeks of basic training at [[Fort Dix]], [[New Jersey]] * '''Late October 1969 to December 1970''': [[Fort Rucker]], [[Alabama]], on-the-job occupational training at the [[Army Flier]] newspaper. * '''January 1971 to May 1971''': field reporter in [[Vietnam]], part of the 20th Engineer Brigade, stationed primarily at [[Bien Hoa]] Air Base near [[Saigon]]. * '''[[May 24]], [[1971]]''': Given an honorable discharge, after his early discharge request was granted. Gore stated many times that he opposed the Vietnam War, but chose to enlist anyway. Some observers have noted that Gore could have avoided Vietnam in a number of ways. Gore considered all these options, but said that his sense of civic duty compelled him to serve. [[Alexander Cockburn]] and [[Jeffrey St. Clair]] suggest in ''[[Al Gore: A User's Manual]]'' that Gore joined the military for political gain. Because Gore served as a journalist, he was never exposed to front-line combat. Although some allege that his famous father's influence helped him to obtain this position, most military analysts agree that any man who enlisted with a Harvard degree had a good chance of being assigned a support specialty rather than an infantry position (even at the war's height, 88% of all servicemen were assigned to noncombatant specialties). However, Gore's decision to enlist for a two year term did mean that he would not be able to select his assignment, a choice which was available to three year enlistees. According to [[Newsweek]] journalist [[Bill Turque]]'s [[biography]] ''[[Inventing Al Gore]]'' (which does not shy away from criticism and scandals, such as charging Gore with smoking [[marijuana]] far more frequently than he admits), :''Dess Stokes, staff sergeant at the Newark Armed Forces Entrance and Examination Station on the day he walked in, doesn't remember any communication from superiors about Gore. A kid with Gore's background (a 134 [[IQ]] and a Harvard degree), he said, didn't need to be a senator's son with high-level contacts to get the military job he wanted''. Gore's father, [[Al Gore Sr.]], lost the [[U.S. Senate election, 1970|1970 election]], and was no longer a Senator by the time Gore arrived in Vietnam, but was a Senator until January 1971 which included the time his son would have received his assignment. Some critics charge that his father's stature led Gore's superiors to give him less dangerous assignments than they might otherwise have given him. According to combat photographer [[H. Alan Leo]], Gore was protected from dangerous situations at the request of Brigadier General [[Kenneth B. Cooper]], the 20th Engineer Brigades Commander. Leo stated that Gore's trips into the field were safe, and that Gore "could have worn a tuxedo." These remarks seem to contradict Gore's many public statements; :"I carried an M-16. I pulled my turn on the perimeter at night and walked through the elephant grass and I was fired upon."(''[[Baltimore Sun]]'') :"I took my turn regularly on the perimeter in these little firebases out in the boonies. Something would move, we'd fire first and ask questions later." (''[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'') :"I was shot at. I spent most of my time in the field." (''[[Washington Post]]'') :"I used to fly these things (combat helicopters) with the doors open, sitting on the ledge with our feet hanging down. If you flew low and fast, they wouldn't have as much time to shoot you."(''[[Weekly Standard]]'') For his part, Gore has stated that he knew Leo but rarely traveled with him in Vietnam, and that he never felt that he was being given special protection. On the other hand, Leo's testimony is that Cooper gave the orders before Gore arrived, so Gore would not know about them. The question of whether Leo frequently traveled with Gore or not still has not been conclusively answered. Turque's book, however, states that :''[Cooper] said that he has no recollection of even meeting Leo, much less discussing Gore's safety with him. ...'' :''The evidence indicates that if there was an official effort to guarantee Gore's safety, it was uneven at best. His clippings from the Castle Courier, the newspaper of the U.S. Army Engineering Command, and other publications suggest that he pulled his weight, which in his case meant choppering around to report features about the good works of the 20th Engineers... When Smith said he was scheduled to leave for R&amp;R in Hawaii, the sergeant called for volunteers. Gore stepped up and spent a cold night in a foxhole. "Al did what everybody else did," said Mike O'Hara, the photographer who shot the Khe Sanh assignment...'' :''Regulations allowed for early release of personnel to teach or attend school if their services were deemed "not essential to the mission," and Gore certainly qualified. '' Gore stated in 1988 that his experience in Vietnam :''didn't change my conclusions about the war being a terrible mistake, but it struck me that opponents to the war, including myself, really did not take into account the fact that there were an awful lot of South Vietnamese who desperately wanted to hang on to what they called freedom. Coming face to face with those sentiments expressed by people who did the laundry and ran the restaurants and worked in the fields was something I was naively unprepared for''. After returning from Vietnam, Gore spent five years as a [[Journalist|reporter]] for the ''Tennessean'', a newspaper headquartered in [[Nashville, Tennessee]]. During this time, Gore also attended [[Vanderbilt University| Vanderbilt]] Divinity School and Law School, although he did not complete a degree at either. ==Congress== [[Image:GoreSenate.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Al Gore speaks during a [[congressional hearing]] in the 1980s.]] In the spring of 1976, Gore quit law school to run for the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House]], in [[United States House of Representatives, Tennessee District 4|Tennessee's fourth district]]. Gore defeated [[Stanley Rogers]] in the Democratic primary, then ran unopposed and was elected to his first [[Congress of the United States|Congressional]] post. He was re-elected three times, in [[U.S. House election, 1978|1978]], [[U.S. House election, 1980|1980]], and [[U.S. House election, 1982|1982]]. In [[U.S. Senate election, 1984|1984]] Gore did not run for the House; instead he successfully ran for a seat in the [[United States Senate|Senate]], which had been vacated by Republican Majority Leader [[Howard Baker]]. Gore served as a Senator from Tennessee until 1993, when he became Vice President. ===House of Representatives=== On [[March 19]], [[1979]], Gore became the first person to appear on [[C-SPAN]], making a speech in the House chambers. ===Senate=== ===1988 Presidential Run=== In 1988, Gore ran for President but failed to obtain the Democratic nomination, which went instead to [[Michael Dukakis]]. ===Son's Accident and effect on 1992 Presidential run=== On [[April 3]], [[1989]], Gore's six-year-old son [[Al Gore III|Albert]] was nearly killed in an automobile accident while leaving the [[Baltimore Orioles]] opening game. Because of this and the resulting lengthy healing process, his father chose to stay near him during the recovery instead of laying the foundation for a presidential primary campaign against eventual nominee Bill Clinton. Gore started writing ''[[Earth in the Balance]]'', his book on environmental conservation, during his son's recovery. ''Earth in the Balance'' became the first book written by a sitting senator to make ''[[The New York Times]]'' best-seller list since [[John F. Kennedy]]'s ''[[Profiles in Courage]]''. ===Congressional Committees=== While in Congress, Gore was a member of the following committees: [[U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services|Armed Services]] (Defense Industry and Technology Projection Forces and Regional Defense; [[Strategic Forces and Nuclear Deterrence]]); [[U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation|Commerce, Science and Transportation]] (Communications; Consumer; Science, Technology and Space- chairman 1992; [[Surface Transportatio]]n; [[National Ocean Policy]] Study); [[U.S. Congress Joint Committee on Printing|Joint Committee on Printing]]; [[U.S. Congress Joint Economic Committee|Joint Economic Committee]]; [[U.S. Senate Committee on Rules and Administration|Rules and Administration]]. ==Vice Presidency== [[Image:ClintonGore2.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Vice President talking with President Clinton as the two pass through the Colonnade at the White House.]] [[Bill Clinton]] chose Gore to be his running mate on [[July 9]], [[1992]], to the surprise of many as the two were both young and were from the same region of the nation. After winning the [[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992 election]], Al Gore was inaugurated as the 45th Vice President of the United States on [[January 20]], [[1993]]. Clinton and Gore were re-elected to a second term in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1996|1996 election]]. During his time as Vice President, Al Gore was mostly a behind the scenes player. However, many experts consider him to be one of the most active and influential Vice Presidents in U.S. history. This was evident as Gore had weekly lunches with Clinton to keep each other abreast of current developments, although he later said that it was he who insisted on having those weekly lunches in the first place. ===Debate with Perot=== In 1993 Gore debated [[Ross Perot]] on [[CNN]]'s [[Larry King Live]] on the issue of [[free trade]]. Public opinion polls taken after the debate showed that a majority of Americans agreed with his point of view and supported [[NAFTA]]. Some claim that this performance may have been responsible for the passing of NAFTA in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], where it passed 234-200. [http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/initiatives/reinventing_government.html] ===Initatives=== One of Gore's major accomplishments as Vice President was the ''National Performance Review'', which pointed out waste, fraud, and other abuse in the federal government and stressed the need for cutting the size of the [[bureaucracy]] and the number of regulations. His book later helped guide President Clinton when he down sized the [[federal government]]. [http://clinton2.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/speeches/interego.html] ====Internet Education==== As Vice President, Gore instituted a federal program calling for all schools and libraries to be wired to the [[Internet]]. This was a culmination of work that he had started several years before. While serving in the Senate, Gore had introduced legislation which called for the creation of a new federal research center for educational computing to support an "information systems highway". [http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/initiatives/technology.html] ====Environment==== During Gore's tenure as Vice President, he was a strong proponent for environmental protection. While a senator working on his book ''Earth in the Balance'', Gore had traveled around the world on numerous fact-finding missions. On [[Earth Day]] 1994, Gore launched the worldwide [[GLOBE program]], an innovative hands-on, school-based education and science activity that made extensive use of the Internet to increase student awareness of their environment and contribute research data for scientists. The opinions he developed on issues such as global warming, the depletion of the ozone layer, and the destruction of rain forests is said to have played a major role in policy making for the Clinton administration. In the late nineties, Gore strongly pushed for the passage of the [[Kyoto Treaty]], which called for reduction in green house emissions. [http://web.archive.org/web/20001207090900/www.algore.com/speeches/speeches_kyoto_120897.html], [http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/initiatives/environment.html] ====Foreign Policy==== Because of President Clinton's inexperience and Gore's service in Vietnam and in the Senate, Clinton would often look to Gore for advice in the area of foreign policy. Gore was one of the first to call for action to remove Yugoslav President [[Slobodan Milošević]] from power in 1998. Gore also supported [[Operation Desert Fox]], a three day bombing campaign against Iraq that attempted to "degrade Saddam Hussein's ability to make and to use weapons of mass destruction." [http://www.defenselink.mil/specials/desert_fox/], [http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/initiatives/foreign_policy.html] [[Image:Algoreyasser.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Vice President Al Gore works along side President Clinton in trying to negotiate a Middle East peace plan with Palestinian leader [[Yasser Arafat]].]] ====Other==== During the Clinton/Gore administration, Americans enjoyed eight years of relative peace along with the longest economic expansion in history. Democrats attributed this prosperity to the policies of the Clinton/Gore administration, and especially to the passage of the [[Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993]], for which Gore cast the [[U.S. Vice President's tie-breaking votes|tie-breaking vote]]. During his 2000 campaign for the presidency, Gore attributed several positive economic results to his and Clinton's policies [http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/initiatives/economy.html] more than 22 million new jobs, highest homeownership in American history, Lowest unemployment in 30 years, Paid off $360 billion of the national debt, lowest poverty rate in 20 years, higher incomes at all levels, converted the largest budget deficit, up to that time, in American history to the largest surplus, lowest government spending in three decades, lowest federal income tax burden in 35 years, and more families own stock than ever before. However Gore later placed a large share of the blame for his election loss on the economic downturn and NASDAQ crash of March 2000 in an interview with [[National Public Radio]]'s [[Bob Edwards]]. [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=848572] ==2000 presidential election== {{main articles|[[Al Gore presidential campaign, 2000]] and [[U.S. presidential election, 2000]]}} [[Image:Goreconvention.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Al Gore and running-mate Joe Lieberman at the [[2000 Democratic National Convention]].]] After two terms as Vice President, Gore ran for [[President of the United States|President]]. In the Democratic primaries, Gore faced an early challenge from [[Bill Bradley]]. Gore's nomination was never really in doubt and Bradley withdrew from the race in early March 2000 after failing to win any state primary or caucus. In August 2000, Gore surprised many when he selected United States Senator [[Joe Lieberman]] to be his vice-presidential running mate. Lieberman, who is a more conservative Democrat than Gore, had publicly blasted President Clinton for the [[Monica Lewinsky]] affair. Many pundits saw Gore's choice of Lieberman as another way of trying to distance himself from the scandal-prone Clinton White House. Lieberman was also the first Jewish nominee on a major party's national ticket. During the entire campaign, Gore was neck-and-neck in the polls with [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] [[Governor of Texas]] [[George W. Bush]]. On Election Day, the results were so close that the outcome of the race took over a month to resolve, highlighted by the premature declaration of a winner on election night, and an extremely close result in the state of [[Florida]]. On election night, news networks first called Florida for Gore, then Fox News decided to call it for Bush and all of the other news stations followed their decision. The race was ultimately decided by a razor thin margin of only 537 popular votes in Florida, a state favored to have gone to Bush (as his brother served as Governor). The 537 number was an astonishingly close margin out of some 105 million votes cast nationwide. Florida's 25 electoral votes were awarded to George W. Bush only after numerous court challenges. Al Gore publicly conceded the election after the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] in ''[[Bush v. Gore]]'' voted 7 to 2 to declare the ongoing recount procedure unconstitutional because it feared that different standards would be used in different parts of the state, and 5 to 4 to ban recounts using other procedures. [[Image:Gore_Debate.jpg|thumb|200px|Al Gore makes a point during a [[U.S. presidential debate|presidential debate]] during the 2000 election as George W. Bush looks on.]] Gore strongly disagreed with the Court's decision, but decided "for the sake of our unity of the people and the strength of our democracy, I offer my concession." He had previously made a concession phone call to Bush the night of the election, but quickly retracted it after learning just how close the election was. Following the election, a subsequent recount conducted by various U.S. news media organizations indicated that Mr. Bush would have won using the partial recount method of 4 strongly Democratic areas advocated by Mr. Gore, but that Mr. Gore would have won given a full recount of the state. [http://www.bushwatch.com/gorebush.htm][http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/florida.ballots/stories/main.html]. The states that ultimately voted for Gore over Bush in the 2000 elections were New York, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Vermont, Massachusetts, Washington, D.C., Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, New Mexico, California, Oregon, Washington, Illinois, Iowa, Maryland, Minnesota and Hawaii giving Gore 267 electoral votes to Bush's 271. One of Gore's electors cast a blank ballot, to protest what she called DC's "colonial status", thus the candidate's final number of electoral votes was 266. The Florida election has been closely scrutinized since the election. Critics have argued that the Governor of Florida, Jeb Bush (Brother of George W. Bush) and the Secretary of State of Florida, Katherine Harris, did play a part in ensuring that the state was in the red column of the Republicans come election day. Several irregularities are thought to have favored Bush; others may have given Gore an edge. Irregularities favoring Bush included the notorious Palm Beach "butterfly ballots", which were alleged to have produced an unexpectedly large number of votes for [[Reform Party of the United States of America|Reform Party]] candidate [[Pat Buchanan]], and a purge of some 50,000 alleged felons from the Florida voting rolls that included some voters who were again eligible to vote under Florida law. Many Bush supporters, however, believed that an unfair advantage was given to Gore when all major news networks, early on, prematurely projected Gore as the winner of Florida's 25 electoral votes at 7:52 PM Eastern Time. This happened before the polls closed in 10 Florida counties in the heavily Republican western panhandle which are in the Central Time Zone, and thus closed at 7 PM Central Time (8 PM Eastern). Some have thought that this depressed the pro-Bush vote in that area. [http://archives.cnn.com/2001/ALLPOLITICS/stories/02/02/cnn.report/cnn.pdf] During the numerous recounts (which made the phrase "hanging chads" infamous in the American vocabulary), there were also allegations of both pro-Bush and pro-Gore tampering by low-level operatives in the controversial counties. [http://www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2000/11/26/230955.shtml] It is unclear what effect, if any, this may have had. And while the Gore camp fought (with some success) to keep overseas absentee votes out in counties thought to be pro-Bush, Bush operatives similarly (albeit while drawing less attention to their efforts) prevented the counting of overseas absentee votes in strong Democratic counties. Both sides contended that the votes were cast after Election Day, and since many of the envelopes did not have cancelled stamps, it was not clear when the votes were cast. Reports later surfaced that many overseas voters attempted to vote only after learning of the closeness of the Florida vote. Some commentators still see such irregularities, and the legal maneuvering around the recounts as casting doubt on the legitimacy of the vote; as a matter of law, however, the issue was settled, albeit controversially again, when the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] accepted Florida's electoral delegation, only after a challenge to the Florida electors was presented in the congressional chambers on [[January 6]], [[2001]] by members of the [[Congressional Black Caucus]]. Member after member went up decrying the lack of a senator who would be willing to co-sponsor the challenge without any effect. They thus failed to bring the challenge to a debate. Concern about the possible disenfranchisement of voters in the Florida vote led to widespread calls for electoral reform in the United States, and ultimately to the passage of the [[Help America Vote Act]], which authorized the [[United States federal government]] to provide funds to the states to replace their mechanical voting equipment with [[electronic voting]] equipment. However, this has led to new controversies, because of the security weaknesses of the computer systems, the lack of paper-based methods of secure verification, and the necessity to rely on the trustworthiness of the manufacturers whose employees also count those votes. Although Gore won the nationwide popular vote by more than 500,000 votes, he lost the election by five electoral votes (with one D.C. elector, pledged to Gore, casting a blank ballot to protest the District's lack of representation in Congress). [[Image:Al Gore on Futurama.JPG|thumb|[[Recurring_characters_of_Futurama#Al_Gore|Al Gore]] on [[Futurama]].]] Joe Lieberman later criticized Al Gore for adopting a populist theme during their 2000 campaign. Lieberman said he objected to Gore's "people vs. the powerful" message, believing it was not the best strategy for Democrats to use to recapture the White House.[http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=28519] While running for president in 2000, Al Gore was used as a voice actor for the television show ''[[Futurama]]'' (for which his daughter, Kristin, was a writer). He played [[Recurring characters of Futurama#Al Gore|himself]] again in another episode after the campaign was over. ==Private citizen== ===Professor Gore=== [[Image:Goreharvard2.jpg|right|200px|thumb|left|Al Gore re-emerges in 2001 as a visiting professor with a [[beard]].]] Following his election loss, Gore accepted visiting [[professor]]ships at [[Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism|Columbia University's Graduate School of Journalism]], [[Middle Tennessee State University]], [[University of California Los Angeles]], and [[Fisk University]]. In late 2001, Al Gore became a Senior Advisor to [[Google|Google]] and Vice Chairman of [[Los Angeles]]-based financial firm [[Metropolitan West Financial LLC]]. ===Blasting Bush=== On [[September 23]], 2002, Gore spoke in [[San Francisco]] to The [[Commonwealth Club]] and made a controversial speech blasting Bush on the Iraq war [http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2002-09-23-gore_x.htm] Although he admitted Saddam was a potential danger saying: "We know that [Saddam] has stored secret supplies of biological and chemical weapons throughout his country. Iraq's search for weapons of mass destruction has proven impossible to deter and we should assume that it will continue for as long as Saddam is in power"[http://www.commonwealthclub.org/archive/02/02-09gore-speech.html] He also spoke against rushing to war with Iraq, advising caution and saying that Iraq was a diversion from fighting Al-Qaeda and terrorism in Afghanistan and elsewhere: "I don't think that we should allow anything to diminish our focus on avenging the 3,000 Americans who were murdered and dismantling the network of terrorists who we know to be responsible for it. The fact that we don't know where they are should not cause us to focus instead on some other enemy whose location may be easier to identify." Following the [[November 5]], [[2002]], midterm elections Gore re-emerged into the public eye with a 14-city book tour and a well-orchestrated "full Gore" media blitz which included a pair of policy speeches. On [[September 23]], Gore delivered a speech on the impending [[2003 invasion of Iraq|War with Iraq]] and the [[War on Terrorism]] that generated a fair amount of commentary. Less than two weeks later, on October 2, he made a speech on Bush's handling of the economy to the [[Brookings Institution]]. Also, during this time period Gore guest starred on several programs such as [[The Late Show with David Letterman]] and [[Saturday Night Live]] (with legendary rock band [[Phish]]), appearing much more relaxed and funnier as a private citizen than he did while holding public office. [[Image:Goresnl.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Al Gore hosting ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' along side ''[[The West Wing (television)|West Wing]]'' stars [[Martin Sheen]] and [[John Spencer (actor)|John Spencer]].]] In 2003 Gore joined the board of directors of [[Apple Computer]]. On the political front, Gore kept his promise of staying involved in public debate when he offered his criticism and advice to the [[Bush Administration]] on key topics such as the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Occupation of Iraq]], [[USA Patriot Act]], and [[natural environment|environmental]] issues, most notably [[global warming]]. Gore also continued to visit campuses across the nation lecturing on issues such as [[race]], [[media]], and [[democracy]]. On [[April 10]], [[2004]], Gore met with the [[9-11 Commission]] in private to give his testimony on what his administration did to prevent terror attacks. In a statement after the three-hour session, the commission said he was candid and forthcoming, and it thanked him for his "continued cooperation." In the summer of 2004, Gore teamed up with [[MoveOn.org]], to promote the new science fiction film, [[The Day After Tomorrow|''The Day After Tomorrow'']]. Although Gore said the movie was a far-fetched example of global warming, he said the movie would escalate public debate on the issue. On [[April 27]], [[2005]], Gore gave an hour-long speech lambasting the GOP's effort to do away with the legislative [[filibuster]]. In response to Senate Majority Leader [[Bill Frist]], who for weeks had repeated threats to impose the "[[nuclear option]]" if [[Senate]] [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] did not stop blocking judicial nominees via the filibuster, Gore said, "Their grand design is an all-powerful executive using a weakened [[legislature]] to fashion a compliant judiciary in its own image. The Senate has confirmed 205 or over 95% of President Bush's nominees. Democrats have held up only 10 nominees, less than 5%. Compare that with the 60 Clinton nominees who were blocked by Republican obstruction between 1995 and 2000. What is involved here is a power grab," Gore said. Gore also took aim at what he called "religious zealots" who claim special knowledge of [[god (monotheism)|God's]] will in [[American politics]]. He went on to say, "They even claim that those of us who disagree with their point of view are waging war against people of faith. How dare they!" This was Gore's first major policy speech of 2005 and also the first one since the defeat of Democratic hopeful John Kerry in late 2004. In May 2005, Gore was awarded a lifetime achievement award for three decades of contributions to the Internet. The [[Webby Awards]], which are widely hailed as the ''[[Oscars]]'' of the web, "wanted to set the record straight" about Al Gore and the Internet once and for all. [[Tiffany Shlain]], the awards' founder and chairwoman said, "It's just one of those instances someone did amazing work for three decades as congressman, senator and vice president and it got spun around into this political mess," Shlain said. [http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2005-05-04-gore-webby_x.htm] In September 2005, Gore chartered two aircraft to evacuate 270 evacuees from New Orleans in the aftermath of [[Hurricane Katrina]]. [http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/wire/sns-ap-katrina-gore,1,535141.story?coll=sns-ap-nation-headlines&amp;ctrack=1&amp;cset=true] He was highly critical of the government and federal response in the days after the hurricane. ===Future=== Speaking at an economic forum in [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]], in October 2005, Gore again stated that he has no intention of ever running for president again in response to questions from reporters. However, Gore said he could not rule the possibility out completely saying, "I do not completely rule out some future interest, but I do not expect to have that." When asked how the United States would have been different if he had become president, Gore stated, "We would not have invaded a country that didn't attack us," he said, referring to Iraq. "We would not have taken money from the working families and given it to the most wealthy families." "We would not be trying to control and intimidate the news media. We would not be routinely torturing people," Gore said. [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/10/12/politics/main938098.shtml] In the past few years, Gore has remained busy traveling the world speaking and participating in events mainly aimed towards global warming awareness and prevention. On January 2006, Al Gore delivered a major speech criticising President Bush's use of domestic wiretaps. Gore stated that Bush broke the law and recommended an independent counsel investigate the matter further. Also in January 2006, Al Gore was the leading man in the Sundance global warming documentary ''[[An Inconvenient Truth]]''. Al Gore will be publishing a second book on global warming titled "An Inconvenient Truth" in April 2006. On February 12, 2006: Former US vice-president Al Gore on Sunday said that the US government had committed ‘terrible abuses’ against Arabs living in America after 9/11 attacks, and that most Americans did not support such treatment. “The thoughtless way in which visas are now handled, that is a mistake,” Mr Gore said at the Jeddah Economic Forum. “The worst thing we can possibly do is to cut off the channels of friendship and mutual understanding between Saudi Arabia and the United States.” The former US vice-president told this Saudi audience, many of them educated in US universities, that Arabs in the United States had been “indiscriminately rounded up, often on minor charges of overstaying a visa or not having a green card in proper order, and held in conditions that were just unforgivable.” “Unfortunately there have been terrible abuses and it’s wrong. I do want you to know that it does not represent the desires or wishes or feelings of the majority of the citizens of my country.” Terrence Jeffrey of [[Human Events]] and [[Jack Kelly]] of [[RealClearPolitics.com]] however criticized Gore's comments, and pointed out that [[9/11 Commission]] (page 492) reported that [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]], who planned the attacks, told interrogators most of the hijackers he selected were Saudis because they had the easiest time getting visas. [http://www.realclearpolitics.com/Commentary/com-2_17_06_JKE.html] [http://michellemalkin.com/archives/004544.htm] [[Mohammad Atta]] himself was in the United States, having overstayed his visa. ====Television network==== {{main|Current TV}} [[Image:Current.png|right|thumb|200px|Al Gore's ''Current'' official logo.]] On [[May 4]], [[2004]], [[INdTV]] Holdings, a company co-founded by Gore and [[Joel Hyatt]], purchased cable news channel [[NewsWorld International]] from [[Vivendi Universal]]. The new network will not have political leanings, Gore said, but will serve as an "independent voice" for a target audience of people between 18 and 34 "who want to learn about the world in a voice they recognize and a view they recognize as their own." The network was relaunched under the name [[Current TV|Current]] on [[August 1]], [[2005]]. ====Investment firm==== In late 2004, it was announced that Al Gore had launched and will chair an investment firm to seek out companies taking a responsible view on big global issues like [[climate change]]. Gore's group, [[Generation Investment Management]], was created to assist the growing demand for an investment style which can bring returns by blending traditional equity research with a focus on more intangible non-financial factors such as social and environmental responsibility and corporate governance. ==2004 presidential election== ===Endorsing Dean=== [[Image:AlGoreHowardDean.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Al Gore shocked many when he did not endorse his 2000 running mate Joe Lieberman, but the outsider candidate, Howard Dean, in 2003.]] Initially, Al Gore was touted as a logical opponent of George W. Bush in the [[2004 United States Presidential Election]]. <!-- "Re-elect Gore!" was a common slogan among many Democrats who felt the former Vice President had been unfairly cheated out of the presidency, on the grounds that he had won the popular vote and (in the opinion of many){{fact}} should have won the Electoral College vote. --> On [[December 16]], [[2002]] however, Gore announced that he would not run in 2004, saying that it was time for "fresh faces" and "new ideas" to emerge from the Democrats. When he appeared on a ''[[60 Minutes]]'' interview, Gore said that he felt if he had run, the focus of the election would be the rematch rather than the issues. Gore's former running mate, Joe Lieberman quickly announced his own candidacy for the presidency, which he had vowed he would not do if Gore ran. Despite Gore taking himself out of the race, a handful of his supporters formed a national campaign to "[[political draft|draft]]" him into running. However, that effort largely came to an end when Gore publicly endorsed [[Governor of Vermont|Vermont Governor]] [[Howard Dean]] (over his former running mate [[Joe Lieberman]]) weeks before the first primary of the election cycle. There was still some effort to encourage write-in votes for Gore in the primaries by a different group of Gore supporters who were separate from the draft movement. Although Gore did receive a small number of votes in New Hampshire and New Mexico, that effort was halted when [[John Kerry]] pulled into the lead for the nomination. Gore's endorsement of Dean was helpful to the latter in legitimizing him in the eyes of the establishment faction of the Democratic Party, but it also led the media to dub Dean as the clear front-runner, with the result that his opponents devoted more of their emphasis to opposing him. ===Campaigning against Bush=== On [[January 15]], [[2004]], Al Gore gave a major policy address in [[New York City]] on [[climate change]] and the Bush administration's approach to the environment. Accompanied by slides and projector, Gore slammed the Bush administration's attitude towards global warming saying, "There are many who still do not believe that global warming is a problem at all. And it's no wonder: because they are the targets of a massive and well-organized campaign of disinformation lavishly funded by polluters who are determined to prevent any action to reduce the [[greenhouse gas]] [[emissions]] that cause global warming, out of a fear that their profits might be affected if they had to stop dumping so much pollution into the atmosphere." On [[February 9]], [[2004]], on the eve of the [[Tennessee]] primary, Gore gave what many consider his harshest criticism of the president yet when he accused [[George W. Bush]] of betraying the country by using the 9/11 attacks as a justification for the invasion of Iraq. "He betrayed this country!" Mr. Gore shouted into the microphone. "He played on our fears! He took America on an ill-conceived foreign adventure dangerous to our troops, an adventure preordained and planned before 9/11 ever took place!" Gore also urged all Democrats to unite behind their eventual nominee proclaiming, "Any one of these candidates is far better than George W. Bush." In [[March 2004]] Gore, along with former Presidents [[Bill Clinton]] and [[Jimmy Carter]], united behind Kerry as the presumptive Democratic nominee. [[Image:AlGoreSpeaking2004.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Al Gore, who just four years prior accepted his party's nomination, speaks as a party elder at the 2004 Democratic National Convention.]] On [[April 28]], [[2004]], Gore announced that he would be donating $6 million to various Democratic Party groups. Drawing from his funds left over from his [[Al Gore presidential campaign, 2000|2000 presidential campaign]], Gore pledged to donate $4 million to the [[Democratic National Committee]]. The party's Senate and House committees would each get $1 million, and the party from Gore's home state of [[Tennessee]] would receive $250,000. In addition, Gore announced that all of the surplus funds in his "Recount Fund" from the 2000 election controversy that resulted in the Supreme Court halting the counting of the ballots, a total of $240,000, will be donated to the [[Florida]] Democratic Party. In his speech, Gore stressed the importance of voting and having every vote counted, a point that foreshadowed the [[2004 U.S. election voting controversies]]. On [[May 26]], [[2004]], Gore gave a highly critical speech on the Iraq crisis and the [[Bush Administration]]. In the speech, Gore demanded [[Secretary of Defense]] [[Donald Rumsfeld]], [[United States National Security Advisor|National Security Advisor]] [[Condoleezza Rice]], [[Director of Central Intelligence]] [[George Tenet]], [[Deputy Secretary of Defense]] [[Paul Wolfowitz]], [[Undersecretary of Defense for Policy]] [[Douglas Feith]], and [[Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence]] [[Stephen Cambone]] all resign for encouraging policies that led to the abuse of Iraqi prisoners and fanned hatred of Americans abroad. During the fiery speech, which lasted more than an hour, Gore called the Bush administration's Iraq war plan "incompetent" and called George W. Bush the most dishonest president since [[Richard Nixon]], who resigned the office of the presidency in 1974 following the [[Watergate]] scandal. Gore also decried the [[Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse|abuse of prisoners in Abu Ghraib Prison in Iraq]], saying, "What happened at that prison, it is now clear, is not the result of random acts of a few bad apples. It was the natural consequence of the Bush Administration policy." ====Convention==== As the first major speaker at the [[2004 Democratic National Convention]], Gore held himself out as a living reminder that every vote counts. "Let's make sure not only that the Supreme Court does not pick the next president, but also that this president is not the one who picks the next Supreme Court," said Gore. Gore directed remarks to supporters of third-party presidential candidate [[Ralph Nader]], who abandoned the Democratic Party four years ago, asking them, "Do you still believe that there was no difference between the candidates?" ====Post-Convention==== On [[October 18]], 2004, Al Gore delivered his final major policy speech of the 2004 political season. In an hour long presentation, Gore concluded that, "I'm convinced that most of the president's frequent departures from fact-based analysis have much more to do with right-wing political and economic [[ideology]] than with the [[Bible]]." ==Views and controversies== {{main|Al Gore controversies}} Gore is a strong supporter of [[abortion]] rights, [[free trade]], and strong [[environmentalism|environmental]] policy. He was a vocal opponent of the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] [http://www.commonwealthclub.org/archive/02/02-09gore-speech.html]. Gore has gradually moved politically further [[Left-wing politics | left]]; he was once a moderate-to-conservative lawmaker. While in Congress, Gore had a strong pro-life record on abortion and voted pro-life 27 times. When exactly Gore became pro-choice is unknown, but by 1988, when he sought the Democratic presidential nomination, he was on record as opposing the criminalization of abortion. Critics have charged Gore with [[1996 U.S. campaign finance scandal|illegal fundraising]] at a Buddhist temple and illegal use of his government office and telephone for political fundraising in violation of the Hatch Act, although he was never indicted on such a charge. ===The Internet=== Gore is a frequent target of satire, based on his supposedly having claimed to have invented the Internet. In fact he never made such a claim [http://www.snopes.com/quotes/internet.asp]. Rather, during an interview with [[Wolf Blitzer]] on [[CNN]]'s "Late Edition" on March 9, 1999, Gore stated: : During my service in the United States Congress, I took the initiative in creating the Internet. I took the initiative in moving forward a whole range of initiatives that have proven to be important to our country's economic growth and environmental protection, improvements in our educational system [http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/stories/1999/03/09/president.2000/transcript.gore]. The phrase from the statement above which sparked the debate, "I took the initiative in creating the Internet," referred to Gore's involvement with and sponsorship of the ''High Performance Computing Act of 1991'' which advanced the growth and mainstreaming of the Internet during the [[1990s]] [http://www.mit.edu/afs/net.mit.edu/dev/mit/jis/OldFiles/nrenbill.txt]. This statement was later defended by Internet pioneers [[Bob Kahn|Robert Kahn]] and [[Vinton Cerf]] [http://www.interesting-people.org/archives/interesting-people/200009/msg00052.html]: : ...as the two people who designed the basic architecture and the core protocols that make the Internet work, we would like to acknowledge VP Gore's contributions as a Congressman, Senator and as Vice President. No other elected official, to our knowledge, has made a greater contribution over a longer period of time. ===Accusations of hypocrisy by McClellan and Gonzales=== On the 16th of January, 2006, Gore accused U.S. [[George W. Bush|President Bush]] of "breaking the law repeatedly and insistently," and called for a special investigation of [[NSA]] spying on Americans because the spying was without a warrant from a special federal court that authorizes such requests to eavesdrop on Americans. Bush press secretary [[Scott McClellan]] and Attorney General [[Alberto Gonzales]] both responded to reporters that the Clinton-Gore administration had done illegal warrantless physical searches themselves of [[Aldrich Ames]] without permission from a judge. "I think his hypocrisy knows no bounds," McClellan said of Gore. But the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act]] at the time did not cover physical searches. The law had changed in 1995. Gore claimed that because Gonzales made a "political defense" for Bush, he was no longer eligible to review charges against Bush and therefore must name a [[special counsel]]. "His charges are factually wrong," said Gore, "Both before and after the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act]] was amended in 1995; the Clinton-Gore administration complied fully and completely with the terms of the law." [http://www.forbes.com/business/manufacturing/feeds/ap/2006/01/17/ap2456266.html] ==See also== ===Al Gore Television Credits=== * [[The Tonight Show with Jay Leno]], ([[August 1]], [[2005]]) * [[Saturday Night Live]], ([[December 14]], [[2002]]) * [[The Tonight Show with Jay Leno]], ([[November 27]], [[2002]]) * [[Futurama]], "[[Futurama (TV series - season 5)#Crimes of the Hot|Crimes of the Hot]]", ([[November 10]], [[2002]]) * [[Seven Days]], "Stairway to Heaven", ([[October 11]], [[2000]]) * [[The Late Show with David Letterman]], ([[September 14]], [[2000]]) * [[Futurama]], "[[Futurama (TV series - season 2)#Anthology of Interest I|Anthology of Interest I]]", ([[May 21]], [[2000]]) * [[Larry King Live]], ([[April 20]], 2000) * [[Mad About You]], "Breastfeeding", ([[January 6]], [[1998]]) * [[Late Show with David Letterman]], ([[September 8]], [[1993]]) ==External links== "The [[Spallation Neutron Source|SNS Project]]" and *[http://lib1.isd.ornl.gov:8087/cgi/psearch_sns_new.cgi?beg_num=1&amp;end_num=50&amp;sval=list&amp;res_type=images&amp;photo_num=&amp;keywords=gore&amp;connect4=AND&amp;beg_yr=1999&amp;end_yr=2005&amp;sval2=list&amp;submit=Submit&amp;ips=25 Al Gore] {{wikiquote}} {{wikisource author}} ===General sites=== *[http://www.ElectGore2008.com/ ElectGore2008.com - Elect Al Gore in 2008 , For Current Daily Updated News on Al Gore, Discuss and Debate on Forum] *[http://www.RunAlGore.com/ Al Gore For President - For Current Daily Updated News on Al Gore, Discuss and Debate on Forum ] *[http://www.algoresupportcenter.com/ Al Gore Support Center 2008 - The Home of Hardcore Gore Supporters] *[http://www.algore-08.com/ Al Gore '08 - Organize, Discuss, Act] *[http://www.patriotsforgore.com/ Patriots for Al Gore/The Gore Support Site With A Social Conscience] *[http://www.current.tv Current TV] *[http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/VP.html The Official NARA Online Office Of Vice President Gore (1993-2001)] *[http://clinton3.nara.gov/WH/Accomplishments/ Clinton-Gore Administration Accomplishments] * [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/campaigns/wh2000/stories/goremain100399.htm The Life of Al Gore - Washington Post] *[http://www.ontheissues.org/Al_Gore.htm Al Gore on the Issues] *[http://www.freemedia.at/Boston_Congress_Report/boston3.htm A New Approach for a New Century, International Press Institute World Congress, April 2000] *[http://www.newsmeat.com/washington_political_donations/Al_Gore.php Political Donations Made by Al Gore] ===Recent speeches by Al Gore=== *[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/16/AR2006011600779.html Gore's 2006 Martin Luther King Day Speech on NSA Spying Scandal and Restoring The Rule of Law] ([http://irregulartimes.com/gorejan06.mp3 mp3 audio] | [http://irregulartimes.com/index.php/archives/2006/01/16/al-gore-speech-transcript/ transcript]) *[http://mediacenter.blogs.com/morph/2005/10/al_gore_address.html Gore Speaks On The Threat To Democracy] *[http://www.sierrasummit2005.org/sierrasummit/coverage/r016.asp Gore's Speech To The Sierra Club] *[http://s6.invisionfree.com/Patriots_for_Gore/index.php?showtopic=2268 Gore Slams GOP's Efforts To End Filibuster] *[http://www.xpatusa.com/Al_Gore2.htm Gore Charges The Bush Administration With A Failed Presidency] *[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/07/26/politics/campaign/26TEXT-GORE.html Gore's Remarks At The 2004 Democratic Convention] *[http://s8.invisionfree.com/Al_Gore_Support/index.php?showtopic=100 Gore Says Bush Lied To Push For War In Iraq] *[http://www.moveonpac.org/gore/ Gore Calls for the Resignation of the Bush Team] *[http://www.moveon.org/front/gore.html Gore Speaks on the Use of "Fear" in Politics] - *[http://www.moveon.org/gore3/speech.html Gore Speaks on Global Warming and the Environment] *[http://www.moveon.org/gore/speech.html Gore Calls for the Repeal of the Patriot Act] *[http://www.moveon.org/gore-speech.html Gore Blasts Bush for Misleading America] *[http://www.commonwealthclub.org/archive/02/02-09gore-speech.html Gore Speaks On The Build Up To War With Iraq and The War On Terror] *[http://www.gwu.edu/~action/2004/gore/gore100202sp.html Gore Speaks On Matching our Nation's Economic Course to Our Current Realities] ===Al Gore's Current=== *[http://www.current.tv Official website of the television station Current] ===Al Gore and the Internet=== * [http://clinton1.nara.gov/White_House/EOP/OVP/other/superhig.html Remarks as Delivered by Vice President Al Gore to The Superhighway Summit, UCLA (1994)] &amp; [http://www.clintonfoundation.org/legacy/011194-remarks-by-the-vp-on-television.htm Another URL with the speech] * [http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue5_10/wiggins Al Gore and the Creation of the Internet] * [http://www.snopes.com/quotes/internet.asp Snopes analyzes Gore's statement about his role in "creation" of the Internet] * [http://www.politechbot.com/p-01394.html Full Text of Vint Cerf and Robert Kahn's Email on Gore and the Internet] ===Al Gore myths and media bias=== * [http://www.algoresupportcenter.com/goretruth.html Gore Myths Page] * [http://www.eriposte.com/media/bias/media_bias_gore.htm Media Bias Against Al Gore Exposed] ===Al Gore's early career in journalism=== * [http://archives.cjr.org/year/93/1/gore.asp Columbia Journalism Review on Gore's journalistic past] {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[United States House of Representatives, Tennessee District 4|Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Tennessee's 4th District]] | before=[[Joe L. Evins]] | after=[[Jim Cooper]] | years=1977 &ndash; 1985}} {{U.S. Senator box | state= Tennessee | class= 2 | before=[[Howard H. Baker, Jr.|Howard H. Baker Jr.]] | after=[[Harlan Mathews]] | alongside=[[James R. Sasser]] | years=1985 &ndash; 1993}} {{succession box | title=[[List of United States Democratic Party presidential tickets|Democratic Party vice presidential candidate]] | before=[[Lloyd Bentsen]] | after=[[Joe Lieberman]] | years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1996|1996]] (won)}} {{succession box | title=[[Vice President of the United States]] | before=[[Dan Quayle]] | after=[[Dick Cheney]] | years=[[January 20]], [[1993]] &ndash; [[January 20]], [[2001]]}} {{succession box | title=[[List of United States Democratic Party presidential tickets|Democratic Party presidential candidate]] | before=[[Bill Clinton]] | after=[[John Kerry]] | years=[[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000]] (lost)}} {{end box}} {{USDemVicePresNominees}} {{US Vice Presidents}} {{USDemPresNominees}} {{Apple}} [[Category:1948 births|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]] [[Category:Al Gore|Al Gore]] [[Category:Anti-Iraq war Veterans|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]] [[Category:Apple employees|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]] [[Category:Baptists|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]] [[Category:Democratic Party (United States) presidential nominees|Gore, Al]] [[Category:Futurama actors|Gore, Al]] [[Category:Harvard alumni|Gore, Al]] [[Category:Living people|Gore, Al]] [[Category:Nashvillians|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]] [[Category:Politics and technology|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]] [[Category:Pro-choice politicians|Gore, Al]] [[Category:U.S. Democratic Party vice presidential nominees|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]] [[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Tennessee|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]] [[Category:United States Senators from Tennessee|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]] [[Category:Vice Presidents of the United States|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]] [[Category:Vietnam War veterans|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]] [[cs:Al Gore]] [[da:Al Gore]] [[de:Al Gore]] [[es:Al Gore]] [[fr:Al Gore]] [[hr:Al Gore]] [[id:Al Gore]] [[it:Al Gore]] [[he:אל גור]] [[nl:Al Gore]] [[ja:アル・ゴア]] [[pl:Al Gore]] [[pt:Al Gore]] [[simple:Al Gore]] [[sk:Al Gore]] [[fi:Al Gore]] [[sv:Al Gore]] [[zh:艾伯特·戈尔]] 620 42124943 2006-03-04T00:01:46Z Atreyu1075 997080 /* Cultural references */ [[Image:animalfarm2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''Animal Farm'' book cover]] '''Animal Farm''' is a [[satire|satirical]] [[novel]] (which can also be understood as a modern [[fable]] or [[allegory]]) by [[George Orwell]], ostensibly about a group of animals who oust the humans from the [[farm]] they live on and run it themselves, only to have it corrupted into a brutal tyranny on its own. It was written during [[World War II]] and published in 1945, although it was not widely successful until the late [[1950s]]. ''Animal Farm'' is a thinly veiled critique and satire of Soviet [[totalitarianism]]. Many events in the book are based on events from the [[Soviet Union]] during the [[Stalin]] era. Orwell, though a leftist — he was for many years a member of the [[Independent Labour Party]] — was a critic of Stalin, and suspicious of Moscow-directed communism after his experiences in the [[Spanish Civil War]]. ==Plot== {{spoiler}} When the farm's prize-winning pig, [[Old Major]], calls a meeting of all the animals of Manor Farm, he tells them that he has had a dream in which mankind is gone, and animals are free to live in peace and harmony. He compares the humans to parasites, and then proceeds to teach the animals a [[revolution]]ary song, "[[Beasts of England]]". The other animals begin to hope and dream for the revolution of such a day. When Old Major dies, a mere three days later, three pigs -- [[Snowball (Animal Farm)|Snowball]] (who teaches the animals to read), [[Napoleon (Animal Farm)|Napoleon]], and [[Squealer (Animal Farm)|Squealer]] -- assume command, and turn his dream into a full-fledged philosophy. One night, the starved animals suddenly revolt and drive the farmer [[Jones (Animal Farm)|Mr. Jones]], his wife, and his pet raven off the farm and take control. The farm is renamed "Animal Farm" as the animals work towards a future [[utopia]]. The [[Seven Commandments]] of the new philosophy of [[Animalism]] are written on the wall of a barn for all to read, the seventh and most important of which is that "all animals are equal". All animals work, but the [[horse|workhorse]] [[Boxer (Animal Farm)|Boxer]] does more than his fair share and adopts a [[Maxim (saying)|maxim]] of his own — "I will work harder." Animal Farm is off to a great start. Snowball teaches the other animals to [[reading (activity)|read]] and write (though few animals besides the pigs learn to read well), food is plentiful due to a good harvest, and the entire Farm is organized and running smoothly. Even when Mr. Jones tries his last-ditch effort to retake control of the farm, the animals easily defeat him at what they later call the "[[Battle of the Cowshed]]". Soon, however, things begin to unravel as Napoleon and Snowball begin an epic power struggle over the farm. When Snowball announces his idea for a [[windmill]], Napoleon quickly opposes it. A meeting is held, and when Snowball makes his passionate and articulate speech in favour of the windmill, Napoleon only makes a brief retort and then makes a strange noise to call in nine attack dogs. They burst in and chase Snowball off of the farm. In his absence, Napoleon declares himself the leader of the farm and makes instant changes. He announces that meetings will no longer be held as before, and a committee of pigs alone will decide what happens with the farm. Napoleon changes his mind about the windmill, claiming (through Squealer) that Snowball stole the idea from him, and the animals begin to work. After a violent [[storm]], the animals wake to find the fruit of their months of labour utterly annihilated. Though neighbouring [[farmer]]s scoff at the thin walls, Napoleon and Squealer convince everyone that Snowball destroyed it. Napoleon begins to purge the farm, killing many animals he accuses of consorting with Snowball. In the meantime, Boxer takes a second [[mantra]], "Napoleon is always right." Napoleon begins to abuse his powers even more and life on the farm becomes harder and harder for the rest of the animals. The pigs impose more and more controls on them while reserving [[privilege]]s for themselves. History is rewritten to villainise Snowball and glorify Napoleon even further. Each step of this development is justified by the pig, Squealer, who on several occasions alters the Seven Commandments on the barn in the dead of night. The song "Beasts of England" is banned as inappropriate now that the dream of Animal Farm has been realised, and is replaced by an anthem glorifying Napoleon who begins to live more and more like a human. The animals, though cold, starving, and overworked, remain convinced that they are still better off than when they were ruled by a man named Jones. [[Frederick (Animal Farm)|Mr. Frederick]], one of the two neighbouring farmers, swindles Napoleon by paying with forged banknotes, and then attacks the farm and uses [[dynamite]] to blow up the recently restored windmill. Though the animals of Animal Farm eventually win the battle, they do so at a great cost, as many of the animals, including Boxer, are wounded. However, Boxer continues to work harder and harder, until he finally collapses while working on the windmill. Napoleon sends for a van to come and take Boxer to the veterinarian, but as Boxer is loaded up and the van drives away, the animals read what is written on the side of the van: "Alfred Simmonds, Horse Slaughterer and Glue Boiler." Squealer quickly reports that the van with the old writing has been purchased by the hospital, and later that Boxer has died in the hospital, in spite of the best medical care. Many years pass, and the pigs learn to walk upright, carry [[whip]]s, and wear clothes. The Seven Commandments are reduced to a single phrase: "All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others." Napoleon holds a dinner party for the pigs, and the humans of the area (in the adjacent Foxwood Farm run by Mr. [[Pilkington (Animal Farm)|Pilkington]]). He announces his alliance with the humans against the labouring classes of both "worlds". The animals discover this when they overhear Napoleon's conversations and finally realize that a change has come over the ruling pigs. During a poker match, an argument breaks out between Napoleon and Mr. Pilkington when they both play an [[Ace of Spades]], and the animals realise how they cannot tell the difference between the pigs and the humans. The pigs walked on two feet and they adopted many of Mr. Jones' customs and principles. The pigs have violated every one of the rules set out in the beginning which they set up. This is when we come to the theme of this book: power corrupts. ==Plot references to real events== *The ousting of the Humans after the farmers forget to feed the animals – [[Russian Revolution of 1917]] led to the removal of the Tsars after a series of famine and poverty. *The refusal of the Humans to refer to Animal Farm by its new name (still calling it Manor Farm) may be indicative of the diplomatic limbo in which the Soviets existed following their early history. *Mr. Jones' last ditch effort to re-take the farm (The Battle of the Cowshed) – [[Russian Civil War]] in which the western capitalist governments sent soldiers to try to remove the Bolsheviks from power. *Napoleon's removal of Snowball – [[Stalin]]’s removal of [[Leon Trotsky]] from power in 1927 and his subsequent expulsion. *Napoleon stealing Snowball’s idea for a windmill – Stalin later shifted away from "[[World revolution|World Socialism]]" to "[[Socialism in one country]]" which Trotsky had originally promoted. The windmill can also be considered a symbol of the Soviet [[Five-Year Plan|Five-Year Plans]], a concept developed by Trotsky and adopted by Stalin, who claimed them to be his idea. *Moses the raven leaving the farm for a while and then returning — Similar to the Russian Orthodox Church going underground and then being brought back to give the workers hope. *Boxer's motto, "Napoleon is always right" is strikingly similar to "Mussolini is always right" a chant used to hail [[Benito Mussolini]] during his rule of [[Italy]] from 1922 to 1943. *During the rise of Napoleon, he ordered the collection of all the hens' eggs. In an act of defiance, the Hens destroyed their eggs rather than give them to Napoleon — During Stalin's [[collectivization]] period in the early 1930s, many Ukrainian peasants burned their crops and farms rather than handing them over to the government. *Napoleon's mass executions, of which many were unfair for the alleged crimes — [[Stalin]] executed his political enemies for various crimes after they were tortured and forced to falsely confess. *The four pigs that go against Napoleon's will represent the [[White movement]]. *Napoleon's replacement of the farm anthem "[[Beasts of England]]" with an inane composition by the pig poet Minimus ("Animal Farm, Animal Farm / Never through me / Will you come to harm") – In 1943, Stalin replaced the old national anthem "[[the Internationale]]" with "the [[National Anthem of the Soviet Union|Hymn of the Soviet Union]]." The old internationale glorified the revolution and "the people." The original version of the Hymn of the Soviet Union glorified Stalin so heavily that after his death in 1953, entire sections of the anthem had to be replaced or removed. Orwell could have also been referring to [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]]'s banning of the French national hymn, [[La Marseillaise]] in 1799. *Napoleon's dealing with Mr. Frederick, who eventually betrays Animal Farm and destroys the windmill. Though Animal Farm repels the human attack, many animals are wounded and killed — Stalin’s [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] with [[Nazi Germany]] in 1939, which was later betrayed in 1941 when [[Operation Barbarossa|Hitler invaded the Soviet Union]]. Though the Soviet Union won the war, it came at a tremendous price of roughly 8.5-15 million Soviet soldiers (unconfirmed) and many civilians, coming to an incredible estimated 20 million dead, as well as the utter destruction of the Western Soviet Union and its prized collective farms which Stalin had created in the 1930s. *Napoleon's later alliance with the humans — Stalin’s non-aggression pact with Hitler in the early years of WWII. *Napoleon's changing Animal Farm back to Manor — The [[Red Army]]’s name was changed from the "Workers' and Peasants' Red Army" to the "Soviet Army" to appear as a more appealing and professional organization rather than an army of the common people. *After Old Major dies, his skull is placed on display on a tree stump. Similarly, [[Vladmir Lenin|Lenin's]] (whom Old Major is based on along with Karl Marx) embalmed body was put on display in [[Lenin's mausoleum|Lenin's Tomb]] in [[Red Square]] postmortem, where it still remains. *Squealer, constantly changing the commandments, is said to be a reference to a perversion in Russian religious history, as observed by [[Leo Tolstoy]] when the essential precepts of the [[Sermon on the Mount]] were altered by [[Russian Orthodox]] Church. It may also refer to the revision of history texts to glorify Stalin during his regime. == Characters == The events and characters in Animal Farm are all carefully drawn to represent the history of the Soviet Union; Orwell makes this explicit in the case of Napoleon, whom he directly connects to Stalin in a letter of [[17 March]] [[1945]] to the publisher. :..when the windmill is blown up, I wrote 'all the animals including Napoleon flung themselves on their faces'. I would like to alter it to 'all the animals except Napoleon'. If that has been printed it's not worth bothering about, but I just thought the alteration would be fair to JS [Joseph Stalin], as he did stay in Moscow during the German advance. The other characters have their analogies in the real world, but care should be taken with these comparisons as they do not always match history exactly and often simply represent generalised concepts. ===The pigs=== *[[Napoleon (Animal Farm)|Napoleon]] — The pig who becomes the leader of Animal Farm post-Rebellion. Created based on the actions of [[Joseph Stalin]], he uses his military (of nine attack dogs) to cement his power through fear. Napoleon craftily drives out his opponent, Snowball. *[[Snowball (Animal Farm)|Snowball]] — The pig who fights Napoleon for control post-Rebellion. Inspired by [[Leon Trotsky]], Snowball is a passionate intellectual and is far more honest about his motives than Napoleon. Snowball easily wins the loyalty of most of the animals. Trotsky was driven into exile in Mexico where he was assassinated. *[[Squealer (Animal Farm)|Squealer]] — The pig who serves as public speaker. Inspired by [[Vyacheslav Molotov]] and the Russian paper [[Pravda]], Squealer twists and abuses the language to excuse, justify and extol Napoleon's actions, no matter how egregious. All his life, George Orwell made it a point to show how politicians used language. Squealer limits the debate by complicating it, and he confuses and disorients, making claims that the pigs need the extra luxury they are taking in order to function properly. To squeal is to betray, something Squealer does often to his fellow animals. *Minimus — A poet pig who writes a song about Napoleon, representing admirers of Stalin both inside and outside the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] such as [[Maxim Gorky]]. *[[Old Major (Animal Farm)|Old Major]] — As a fellow socialist, Orwell agreed with some of [[Karl Marx]]'s politics, and even respected [[Vladimir Lenin]]. In fact, the satire in Animal Farm is not of Marxism, or Lenin's revolution, but of the corruption that occurred later. Major, who is based upon both Lenin and Marx, is the inspiration which fuels the rest of the book. Though it is a positive image, Orwell does slip some flaws in Old Major, such as how during his complaints about the abuse of animals he admits that he has been largely free from those terrors. *Pinkeye — A small piglet who tastes Napoleon's food for poisoning. *Piglets — While not truly noted in the novel, these piglets are hinted to be the children of Napoleon, and are the first generation of animals to actually be subjugated to his idea of animal inequality. ===The humans=== *[[Jones (Animal Farm)|Mr. Jones]] — The original owner of Manor Farm. He is probably based on [[Nicholas II of Russia|Tsar Nicholas II]]. *[[Frederick (Animal Farm)|Mr. Frederick]] — The tough owner of Pinchfield, a well-kept neighbouring farm. He is probably based on [[Germany]] and/or [[Adolf Hitler]]. *[[Pilkington (Animal Farm)|Mr. Pilkington]] — The easy-going but crafty owner of Foxwood, a neighbouring farm. He represents [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and/or [[Winston Churchill]]. *Mr. Whymper — A human whom Napoleon hires to represent Animal Farm in human society. He is loosely based on [[George Bernard Shaw]] who visited the USSR in 1931 and praised what he found. ===The other animals=== *[[Boxer (Animal Farm)|Boxer]] — Possibly one of the more popular characters, Boxer is the tragic avatar of the working class, or [[proletariat]]: loyal, dedicated, and strong. His major flaw, however, is his blind trust of the leaders and his inability to see corruption. He is used and abused by the pigs as much or more than he was by Jones. His death serves to show just how far the pigs are willing to go. A strong and loyal [[draft horse]], Boxer played a huge part in keeping the Farm together prior to his death. Boxer could also represent a [[Stakhanovite]]. His name is a reference to the [[Boxer Rebellion]] *Clover — Boxer's close friend, and also a draft horse. She blames herself for forgetting the original [[Seven Commandments]] when Squealer revises them. She represents the middle class educated people who acquiesce to the subversion of principles by the powerful. *Mollie — A horse who likes wearing ribbons (which represent luxury) and being pampered by humans. She represents upper-class people, the [[Bourgeoisie]] who fled from the [[Soviet Union|U.S.S.R]] after the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]]. *Benjamin — A [[donkey]] who is cynical about the revolution. He is said to be inspired by Orwell himself. He represented the skeptical people in and out of Russia who believed that [[communism]] would not help the people of Russia *Moses — A tame [[raven]] who spreads stories of Sugarcandy Mountain, the "animal heaven". These beliefs are denounced by the pigs. Moses represents religion (specifically the Russian Orthodox Church), which has always been in conflict with [[communism]]. It is interesting to note that, while Moses initially leaves the farm after the rebellion, he later returns and is supported by the pigs. This represents the cynical use of religion by the state to anaesthetise the minds of the masses. *Muriel — A [[goat]] who reads the edited commandments. She may represent intelligent labour. *Jessie and Bluebell — Two dogs who give birth in Chapter III. Their puppies are nurtured by Napoleon to inspire fear, without doubt representing the formation of the [[NKVD]]/[[KGB]]. *The Hens — Represent the [[Kulaks]], landed [[peasants]] persecuted by [[Stalin]]. *The Dogs — Napoleon's secret police and bodyguards (inspired by Cheka, NKVD, OGPU, MVD) *The Sheep — The sheep show the dumb, animal following of the proletariats in the midst of the Russian Civil War (“Four legs good, two legs bad!”). == Significance== The book is an [[allegory]] about the events following the revolution in the [[Soviet Union]], and in particular the rise of [[Stalinism]] and the betrayal of the revolution which basically replaced one dictatorship for another. Orwell wrote the book following his experiences during the [[Spanish Civil War]] which are described in another of his books, ''[[Homage to Catalonia]]''. He intended it to be a strong condemnation of what he saw as the [[Stalinist]] corruption of the original [[socialism|socialist]] ideals, in which he believed and continued to believe after he saw a revolution betrayed, as in Spain. For the preface of a Ukrainian edition he prepared in 1947, Orwell describes what gave him the idea of setting the book on a farm<ref>[http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/essays/ukrainian-af-pref.htm Preface to the Ukrainian Edition of Animal Farm]</ref>. :..I saw a little boy, perhaps ten years old, driving a huge cart-horse along a narrow path, whipping it whenever it tried to turn. It struck me that if only such animals became aware of their strength we should have no power over them, and that men exploit animals in much the same way as the rich exploit the proletariat. This Ukrainian edition was an early propaganda use of the book. It was printed to be distributed among the soviet citizens of Ukraine who were just some of the many millions of [[displaced persons]] throughout Europe at the end of the Second World War. The American occupation forces did not appreciate these illegal presses, printing propaganda, and confiscated 1,500 copies of ''Animal Farm'', handing them to the Soviet authorities. The politics in the book also affected Britain, with Orwell reporting that [[Ernest Bevin]] was "terrified"<ref> Letter to [[Herbert Read]], [[18 August]], [[1945]].</ref> that it may cause embarrassment if published before the [[United Kingdom general election, 1945|1945 general election]]. In recent years the book has been used to compare new movements that overthrow heads of a corrupt and undemocratic government or organization, only to become corrupt and oppressive themselves over time as they succumb to the trappings of power and begin using violent and dictatorial methods to keep it. Such analogies have been used for many former African colonies such as [[Zimbabwe]] and [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], whose succeeding African-born rulers were thought to be as corrupt as the European colonists they supplanted. In schools Animal Farm is used in the [[Core Knowledge]] curriculum. Core knowledge is based on the interaction of different subjects in schools. The way Animal Farm comes into play is that if a student's Geography or History Class is learning about the former Soviet Union, the English class will be reading Animal Farm. ==Post-publication views of the book== In the post-[[World War Two|War]] years it became apparent to Orwell that anti-Russian literature was not something which most major publishing houses would touch — including his regular publisher [[Victor Gollancz Ltd|Gollancz]]. One publisher he sought to sell his book to rejected it on the grounds of government advice — although it was later found that the civil servant who gave the order was a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[spy]].<ref>''Orwell: The Life'', D.J. Taylor, 2003, ISBN 0-8050-7473-2)''</ref> Orwell originally prepared a preface on freedom of the press for the book which noted "The sinister fact about literary [[censorship]] in England is that it is largely voluntary. ... [Things are] kept right out of the British press, not because the Government intervened but because of a general tacit agreement that ‘it wouldn’t do’ to mention that particular fact."<ref>[http://orwell.ru/library/novels/Animal_Farm/english/efp_go The Freedom of the Press]</ref> Somewhat [[irony|ironically]], the preface itself was censored and is not published with most copies of the book. ==Film versions== The book was the basis of an animated feature [[film]] in 1955 (Britain's first full-length animated movie), directed by [[John Halas]] and [[Joy Batchelor]] and quietly commissioned by the American [[CIA]], which softened the theme of the story slightly by reducing the role of Moses, the character representing religion, and adding an epilogue, that occurs immediately after the novel's iconic concluding imagery is depicted, where the other animals successfully revolt against the pigs. There was also a 1999 live action film directed by John Stephenson, with voices by [[Kelsey Grammer]] as Snowball, [[Patrick Stewart]] as Napoleon, and [[Ian Holm]] as Squealer. Despite a few differences (such as completely different songs and Jesse being the first to question the pigs), much of the plot is loyal to the book. The film diverges from the book with an additional epilogue in which Jesse and several animals escape and return years later to a post-Napoleon era Animal Farm. ==Cultural references== * [[Pink Floyd]]'s [[1977]] [[record album|album]] ''[[Animals (album)|Animals]]'' was partially inspired by Animal Farm. It categorises people as pigs, dogs, or sheep. * In an episode of ''[[Johnny Bravo]]'' ("Aunt Katie's Farm"), Johnny, while dressed in a pig costume, goes crazy and yells, "Four legs good! Two legs bad!" over and over. * Radical socialist rappers [[Dead Prez]] released a song called "Animal in Man" off their debut LP, ''[[Let's Get Free]]'', re-telling the story. * A song off canadian band [[Protest the Hero]]'s debut CD [[A Calculated Use of Sound]], called "Red Stars Over the Battle of the Cowshed" is presumably a reference to Animal Farm ==See also== '''Songs''' *"[[Beasts of England]]" *"[[Comrade Napoleon]]" '''Battles''' *[[Battle of the Cowshed]] *[[Battle of the Windmill (Animal Farm)|Battle of the Windmill]] '''Characters''' *[[Old Major]] *[[Napoleon (Animal Farm)|Napoleon]] *[[Snowball (Animal Farm)|Snowball]] *[[Squealer (Animal Farm)|Squealer]] *[[Frederick (Animal Farm)|Frederick]] *[[Pilkington (Animal Farm)|Pilkington]] *[[Jones (Animal Farm)|Jones]] *[[Boxer (Animal Farm)|Boxer]] '''The Seven Commandments''' *[[Seven Commandments]] ==References== <references/> == External links == {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/LitNote/id-12.html Animal Farm CliffsNotes] * [http://www.slashdoc.com/tag/animal_farm.html Slashdoc : ''Animal Farm''] Analytical essays of the novel * [http://www.george-orwell.org/Animal_Farm/index.html Animal Farm] &mdash; Searchable, indexed etext. * [http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/books/animalfarm.htm Animal Farm — Complete Novel] — Includes publication data and search feature. * [http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/essays/letters-agent-af.htm Excerpts from Orwell's letters to his agent concerning Animal Farm] * [http://t.webring.com/hub?ring=orwellwebring George Orwell Web Ring] *[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0047834/ IMDB — Animal Farm (1954 animated film)] *[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0204824/ IMDB — Animal Farm (1999 TV film)] ==ISBN numbers== * ISBN 9966472487 ([[paperback]], [[1988]], Swahili translation) * ISBN 0582021731 ([[paper text]], [[1989]]) * ISBN 0151072558 ([[hardcover]], [[1990]]) * ISBN 0582060109 (paper text, 1991) * ISBN 0679420398 (hardcover, 1993) * ISBN 0606001026 ([[prebound]], [[1996]]) * ISBN 0151002177 (hardcover, 1996, Anniversary Edition) * ISBN 0452277507 ([[paperback]], 1996, Anniversary Edition) * ISBN 0451526341 ([[mass market paperback]], 1996, Anniversary Edition) * ISBN 0582530083 (1996) * ISBN 1560005203 ([[cloth text]], [[1998]], Large Type Edition) * ISBN 0791047741 (hardcover, 1999) * ISBN 0451525361 (paperback, 1999) * ISBN 0764108190 (paperback, 1999) * ISBN 082207009X ([[e-book]], 1999) * ISBN 0758778430 (hardcover, 2002) * ISBN 0151010269 (hardcover, 2003, with ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'') * ISBN 0452284244 (paperback, 2003, Centennial Edition) * ISBN 0848801202 (hardcover) [[Category:1945 books]] [[Category:Animal Farm]] [[Category:Dystopian novels]] [[Category:English novels]] [[Category:George Orwell books]] [[Category:Modern Library 100 best novels]] [[Category:Satirical books]] [[Category:Time Magazine 100 best novels]] [[Category:Twentieth century British novels]] [[da:Kammerat Napoleon]] [[de:Farm der Tiere]] [[es:Rebelión en la granja]] [[fr:La Ferme des animaux]] [[ko:동물 농장]] [[it:La fattoria degli animali]] [[he:חוות החיות]] [[hu:Állatfarm]] [[nl:Animal Farm]] [[ja:動物農場]] [[lv:Dzīvnieku ferma]] [[no:Kamerat Napoleon]] [[pl:Folwark zwierzęcy]] [[pt:Animal Farm]] [[fi:Eläinten vallankumous]] [[sv:Djurfarmen]] [[zh:动物庄园]] 621 41645993 2006-02-28T19:41:37Z 161.97.162.148 /* History of amphibians */ {{otheruses}} {{taxobox | color=pink | name=Amphibians | image = Caerulea3 crop.jpg | image_width = 230px | image_caption = [[White's Tree Frog]] (''Litoria caerulea'') | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | subphylum = [[Vertebrata]] | classis = '''Amphibia''' | classis_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] 1758 | subdivision_ranks = Orders | subdivision = Subclass [[Labyrinthodontia]] - ''extinct''<br /> Subclass [[Lepospondyli]] - ''extinct''<br /> Subclass [[Lissamphibia]]<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;[[Anura]]<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;[[salamander|Caudata]]<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;[[caecilian|Gymnophiona]]}} '''Amphibians''' ([[Class (biology)|class]] '''Amphibia''') are a [[taxon]] of [[animal]]s that include all [[tetrapod]]s (four-legged [[vertebrate]]s) that do not have [[amniotic sac|amniotic]] eggs. Amphibians (from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''αμφις'' "both" and ''βιος'' "life") generally spend part of their time on land, but they do not have the adaptations to an entirely terrestrial existence found in most other modern tetrapods ([[amniote]]s). There are about 5,950 described, living [[species]] of amphibians. The study of amphibians and [[reptile]]s is known as [[herpetology]]. == History of amphibians == [[Image:Salamandra salamandra CZ.JPG|thumb|226px|right|[[Fire Salamander]] (''Salamandra salamandra'')]]Amphibians developed with the characteristics of pharyngeal slits/[[gills]], a [[dorsal nerve cord]], a [[notochord]], and a post-anal tail at different stages of their life. They have persisted since the dawn of tetrapods 390 million years ago in the [[Devonian]] period, when they were the first four-legged animals to develop [[lung]]s. During the following [[Carboniferous]] period they also developed the ability to walk on land to avoid aquatic competition and [[predation]] while allowing them to travel from water source to water source. As a group they maintained the status of the dominant animal for nearly 75 million years. Throughout their history they have ranged in size from the 3 foot (90cm) long Devonian [[Ichthyostega]], to the slightly larger 5 foot (150cm) long [[Permian]] [[Eryops]], and down to the tiny ''[[Brachycephalus didactylus]]'' (Brazilian Gold Frog) and ''[[Eleutherodactylus iberia]]'' from [[Cuba]], with a total length of 9.6-9.8 millimeters (0.4 inches). Amphibians have mastered almost every climate on earth from the hottest deserts to the frozen arctic. == Classification == [[Image:Caecilian.jpg|226px|thumb|right|[[Caecilian]] from the [[San Antonio]] zoo]] Traditionally the amphibians are taken to include all [[tetrapod]]s that are not [[amniote]]s. Recent amphibians all belong to a single subgroup of these, called the [[Lissamphibia]]. Recently there has been a tendency to restrict the class Amphibia to the Lissamphibia, i.e. to exclude tetrapods that are not more closely related to modern forms than they are to modern reptiles, birds, and mammals. There are two [[ancient]], [[extinct]], [[Subclass (biology)|subclasses]]: * Subclass [[Labyrinthodontia]] ([[paraphyletic]]) * Subclass [[Lepospondyli]] Of the remaining modern subclass '''Lissamphibia''' there are three [[Order (biology)|order]]s: * Order [[Anura]] ([[frog]]s and [[toad]]s) (in Superorder Salientia): 5,228 species * Order [[Caudata]] or [[Urodela]] ([[salamander]]s): 552 species * Order [[Gymnophiona]] or [[Apoda]] ([[caecilian]]s): 171 species Authorities disagree on whether Salientia is a Superorder that includes the order Anura, or whether Anura is a sub-order of the order Salientia. In effect Salientia includes all the Anura plus a single [[Triassic]] proto-frog species, ''[[Triadobatrachus massinoti]]''. Practical considerations seem to favour using the former arrangement now. == Reproduction == For the purpose of [[reproduction]] most amphibians are bound to [[fresh water]]. A few tolerate [[brackish water]], but there are no true [[sea water]] amphibians. Several hundred frog species in adaptive radiations (e.g., [[Eleutherodactylus]], the Pacific Platymantines, the Australo-Papuan microhylids, and many other tropical frogs), however, do not need any water whatsoever. They reproduce via direct development, an ecological and [[evolution]]ary adaptation that has allowed them to be completely independent from free-standing water. Almost all of these frogs live in wet [[tropical rainforest]]s and their eggs hatch directly into miniature versions of the adult, bypassing the [[tadpole]] stage entirely. Several species have also adapted to arid and semi-arid environments, but most of them still need water to lay their eggs. [[Symbiosis]] with single celled [[algae]] that lives in the jelly-like layer of the eggs has evolved several times. The larvae (tadpoles or polliwogs) breathe with exterior [[gill]]s. After hatching, they start to transform gradually into the adult's appearance. This process is called [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]]. Typically, the animals then leave the water and become terrestrial adults, but there are many interesting exceptions to this general way of reproduction. The most obvious part of the amphibian metamorphosis is the formation of four legs in order to support the body on land. But there are several other changes: * The gills are replaced by other [[Respiratory system|respiratory organ]]s, i.e. [[lung]]s. * The skin changes and develops [[gland]]s to avoid [[dehydration]] * The eyes get eyelids and adapt to vision outside the water * An [[eardrum]] is developed to lock the middle [[ear]] * In frogs and toads, the [[tail]] disappears ==Amphibian conservation== {{main|decline in frog populations}} [[Image:Bufo periglenes1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Golden toad]] of [[Monteverde]], [[Costa Rica]] was among the first casualties of amphibian declines. Formerly abundant, it was last seen in 1989.]] Dramatic declines in amphibian populations, including population crashes and mass localized [[extinction]], have been noted in the past two decades from locations all over the world, and amphibian declines are thus perceived as one of the most critical threats to global [[biodiversity]]. A number of causes are believed to be involved, including [[habitat destruction]] and modification, over-exploitation, [[pollution]], [[introduced species]], [[climate change]], and disease. However, many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood, and amphibian declines are currently a topic of much ongoing research. == See also == *[[Frog zoology]] *[[Prehistoric amphibian]] *[[Tetrapod]] == References == *Duellman/Trueb, ''Biology of Amphibians'' *{{cite journal | last = Pounds | first = J. Alan | title = Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming | url = http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v439/n7073/full/nature04246.html | journal = Nature | volume = 439 | pages = 161-167 | year = 2006 | month = January | id = {{doi|10.1038/nature04246}} | coauthors = Martín R. Bustamante, Luis A. Coloma, Jamie A. Consuegra, Michael P. L. Fogden, Pru N. Foster, Enrique La Marca, Karen L. Masters, Andrés Merino-Viteri, Robert Puschendorf, Santiago R. Ron, G. Arturo Sánchez-Azofeifa, Christopher J. Still and Bruce E. Young }} *Solomon Berg Martin, ''Biology'' *{{cite journal | last = Stuart | first = Simon N. | coauthors = Janice S. Chanson, Neil A. Cox, Bruce E. Young, Ana S. L. Rodrigues, Debra L. Fischman, Robert W. Waller | title = Status and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/306/5702/1783 | journal = Science | volume = 306 | issue = 5702 | pages = 1783-1786 | year = 2004 | month = December | id = {{doi|10.1126/science.1103538}} }} == External links == {{Wikispecies|Amphibia}} {{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Amphibia}} * [http://research.amnh.org/herpetology/ American Museum of Natural History: Department of herpetology] * [http://www.globalamphibians.org/ The Global Amphibian Assessment] * [http://amphibiaweb.org/ AmphibiaWeb] [[Category:Chordates]] [[Category:Amphibians]] [[bg:Земноводни]] [[ca:Amfibi]] [[cs:Obojživelníci]] [[cy:Amffibiad]] [[da:Padde]] [[de:Amphibien]] [[es:Amphibia]] [[eo:Amfibioj]] [[fr:Amphibia]] [[ko:양서류]] [[id:Amfibia]] [[io:Amfibia]] [[it:Amphibia]] [[he:דו חיים]] [[lt:Varliagyviai]] [[li:Amfibieë]] [[mk:Водоземци]] [[ms:Amfibia]] [[nl:Amfibieën]] [[nds:Amphibia]] [[ja:両生類]] [[no:Amfibier]] [[oc:Amphibia]] [[pl:Płazy]] [[pt:Amphibia]] [[ru:Земноводные]] [[simple:Amphibian]] [[sl:Dvoživke]] [[fi:Sammakkoeläimet]] [[sr:Водоземци]] [[sv:Groddjur]] [[tr:İki yaşamlılar]] [[uk:Земноводні]] [[zh:两栖动物]] 622 15899151 2002-08-29T07:34:07Z Andre Engels 300 circumventing two-step redirect, removing text from redirect page #REDIRECT [[Al Gore]] 623 15899152 2004-07-04T10:37:36Z Tannin 6169 restore redirect #REDIRECT [[bird]] 624 42081829 2006-03-03T18:26:49Z RexNL 241337 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.40.182.97|71.40.182.97]] ([[User talk:71.40.182.97|talk]]) to last version by Kareeser {{mergefrom|North to the future}} {{otheruses}} {{US state | Name = Alaska | Fullname = State of Alaska | Flag = Flag of Alaska.svg | Flaglink = [[Flag of Alaska]] | Seal = Alaskastateseal.jpg | Map = ak-locator.png | Nickname = The Last Frontier, The Land of the Midnight Sun | Motto = North to the Future | Capital = [[Juneau, Alaska|Juneau]] | OfficialLang = [[English language|English]] | Languages = [[English language|English]] 85.7%, Native North American 5.2%, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] 2.9% | LargestCity = [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] | Governor = [[Frank Murkowski]] (R) | Senators = [[Ted Stevens]] (R)<br>[[Lisa Murkowski]] (R) | PostalAbbreviation = AK | AreaRank = 1<sup>st</sup> | TotalArea = 663,267 mi² / 1&nbsp;717&nbsp;854 | LandArea = 571,951 mi² / 1&nbsp;481&nbsp;347 | WaterArea = 91,316 mi² / 236&nbsp;507 | PCWater = 13.77 | PopRank = 47<sup>th</sup> | 2000Pop = 626,932 | DensityRank = 50<sup>th</sup> | 2000Density = 1.09/mi² / 0.42 | AdmittanceOrder = 49<sup>th</sup> | AdmittanceDate = [[January 3]], [[1959]] | TimeZone = [[Alaska Standard Time Zone|Alaska]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-9/[[Daylight saving time|-8]]<br/>[[Hawaii-Aleutian Standard Time Zone|Aleutian]]: UTC-10/[[Daylight saving time|-9]] (west of 169° 30') | Latitude = 54°40'N to 71°50'N | Longitude = 130°W to 173°E | Width = 808 mi / 1300 | Length = 1,479 mi / 2380 | HighestElev = 20,321 ft / 6194 | MeanElev = 10,039 ft / 3060 | LowestElev = 0 ft / 0 | ISOCode = US-AK | Website = www.state.ak.us }} '''Alaska''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[ə 'læ skə]}}) is the 49th [[U.S. state|state]] of the [[United States]]. It was admitted on [[January 3]], [[1959]]. The population of the state is 626,932, [[as of 2000]], according to the [[United States Census, 2000|2000 U.S. census]]. Alaska is most likely ranked the fourth smallest state population wise in the U.S. with Wyoming, Vermont, and by now North Dakota smaller than Alaska. The name "Alaska" is most likely derived from the [[Aleut]] word ''Alyeska'', meaning ''greater land'' as opposed to the Aleut word ''Aleutia,'' meaning ''lesser land''. To the Aleuts, this distinction was a linguistic variation distinguishing the ''mainland'' from an ''island''. It is bordered by [[Yukon|Yukon Territory]] and [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]] to the east, the [[Gulf of Alaska]] and the [[Pacific Ocean]] to the south, the [[Bering Sea]], [[Bering Strait]], and [[Chukchi Sea]] to the west, and the [[Beaufort Sea]] and the [[Arctic Ocean]] to the north. Alaska is the largest state by area in the United States. It is larger in area than all but 18 of the world's nations. ==History== {{main|History of Alaska}} Alaska was first inhabited by humans who came across the [[Bering Land Bridge]]. Eventually, Alaska became populated by the [[Inupiaq]], [[Inuit]] and [[Yupik]] [[Eskimo]]s, [[Aleut]]s, and a variety of [[American Indians in the United States|American Indian]] groups. Most, if not all, of the pre-Columbian population of the Americas probably took this route and continued further south and east. The first written accounts indicate that [[Russian colonization of the Americas|the first Europeans to reach Alaska came from Russia]]. [[Vitus Bering]] sailed east and saw [[Mount Saint Elias|Mt. St. Elias]]. The [[Russian-American Company]] hunted [[sea otter]]s for their fur. The colony was never very profitable, because of the costs of transportation. At the urging of [[United States Secretary of State|U.S. Secretary of State]] [[William H. Seward|William Seward]], the [[United States Senate]] approved the [[Alaska purchase|purchase of Alaska]] from [[Russia]] for $7,200,000 (approximately $134,000,000 in 2005 dollars, adjusted for inflation[http://www.westegg.com/inflation/]) on [[9 April]] [[1867]], and the United States flag was raised on [[18 October]] of that same year (now called [[Alaska Day]]). Coincident with the ownership change, the de facto [[International Date Line]] was moved westward, and Alaska changed from the [[Julian calendar]] to the [[Gregorian calendar]]. Therefore, for residents, Friday, [[October 6]], [[1867]] was followed by Friday, [[October 18]], [[1867]]; two Fridays in a row because of the date line shift. The first American administrator of Alaska was [[Poles|Polish]] immigrant [[Wlodzimierz Krzyzanowski|Włodzimierz Krzyżanowski]]. The purchase was not popular in the contiguous United States, where Alaska became known as "Seward's Folly" or "Seward's Icebox." Alaska celebrates the purchase each year on the last Monday of [[March]], calling it [[Seward's Day]]. After the purchase of Alaska between 1867 and 1884 the name was changed to the Department of Alaska. Between 1884 and 1912 it was called the district of Alaska. {{lastfrontier}} President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] signed the [[Alaska Statehood Act]] into [[United States law]] on [[7 July]] [[1958]] which paved the way for Alaska's admission into the Union on [[January 3]] [[1959]]. Alaska suffered one of the worst [[earthquake]]s in recorded North American history on [[Good Friday]] 1964 (see [[Good Friday Earthquake]]). In 1976, the people of Alaska amended the state's constitution, establishing the [[Alaska Permanent Fund]]. The fund invests a portion of the state's mineral revenue, including revenue from the [[Trans-Alaskan Pipeline System]], "to benefit all generations of Alaskans." In March 2005, the fund's value was over $30 billion. Prior to 1983, the state lay across four different [[time zone]]s&mdash;Pacific Standard Time (UTC -8 hours) in the southeast panhandle, a small area of Yukon Standard Time (UTC -9 hours) around [[Yakutat]], Alaska&ndash;Hawaii Standard Time (UTC -10 hours) in the [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] and [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]] vicinity, with the [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]] area and most of the [[Aleutian Islands]] observing Bering Standard Time (UTC -11 hours). In 1983 the number of time zones was reduced to two, with the entire mainland plus the inner Aleutian Islands going to UTC -9 hours (and this zone then being renamed Alaska Standard Time as the [[Yukon Territory]] had several years earlier (circa 1975) adopted a single time zone identical to Pacific Standard Time), and the remaining Aleutian Islands were slotted into the UTC &minus;10 hours zone, which was then renamed Hawaii&ndash;Aleutian Standard Time. Over the years various [[vessel]]s have been named [[USS Alaska|USS ''Alaska'']], in honor of the state. During [[World War II]] three of the outer Aleutian Islands&mdash;[[Attu Island|Attu]], [[Agattu]] and [[Kiska]]&mdash;were occupied by [[Japan|Japanese]] troops. It was the only territory within the current borders of the United States to have land occupied during the war. ==Politics== Alaska is often characterized as a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]-leaning state with strong [[Libertarianism|Libertarian]] tendencies. Local political communities often work on issues related to land use development, [[fishing]], [[tourism]], and [[individual rights]] as many residents are proud of their rough Alaskan heritage. [[Alaska Native|Alaska Natives]], while organized in and around their communities, are often active within the [[Alaska Native Regional Corporations|Native corporations]] which have been given ownership over large tracts of land, and thus need to deliberate resource conservation and development issues. In presidential elections, the state's Electoral College votes have been most often won by a Republican nominee. Only once has Alaska supported a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] nominee, when it supported [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] in the landslide year of 1964, although the 1960 and 1968 elections were close. No state has voted for a Democratic presidential candidate fewer times. President [[George W. Bush]] won the state's electoral votes in 2004 by a margin of 25 percentage points with 61.1% of the vote. Juneau stands out as an area that supports Democratic candidates. When the [[United States Congress]], in 1957 and 1958, debated the wisdom of admitting it as the 49th state, much of the political debate centered on whether Alaska would become a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] or [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]-leaning state. Conventional wisdom had it that, with its rugged individualism, penchant for new ideas, and dependence on the [[Federal Government]] largess for basic needs, it would become a Democratic stronghold, about which Republicans, and the, then, Republican Administration of [[Dwight Eisenhower]] had reservations. Given time, those fears proved roundly unfounded. After an early flirtatious period with liberal politics, the political climate of Alaska changed quickly once [[petroleum]] was discovered and the federal government came to be seen as 'meddling' in local affairs. Still, despite its libertarian leanings, the state regularly takes in more federal money than it gives out, a fact that can be attributed at least partially to its equal representation in the [[United States Senate]]. In recent years, the [[Alaska Legislature]] is a 20-member Senate serving 4-year terms and 40-member House serving 2-year terms. It has been dominated by conservatives, generally Republicans. Likewise, recent state governors have been mostly conservatives, although not always elected under the official 'Party' banner. Republican [[Walter Joseph Hickel|Wally Hickel]] was elected to the office for a second term in 1990 after jumping the Republican ship and briefly joining the [[Alaskan Independence Party]] ticket just long enough to be reelected. He subsequently officially 'rejoined' the Republican fold in 1994. Alaska's members of the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] are all Republican. U.S. Senator [[Ted Stevens]] was appointed to the position following the death of U.S. Senator [[Bob Bartlett]] in December of 1968, and has never lost a re-election campaign since. As the longest-serving Republican in the Senate (some political wits call him Senator-For-Life), Stevens has been a crucial force in gaining Federal money for his state. Until his resignation from the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] to run for Governor, Republican [[Frank Murkowski]] held the state's other Senatorial position and, as Governor, was allowed to appoint his daughter, [[Lisa Murkowski]] as his successor. She won a full six-year term on her own in 2004. Alaska's sole [[U.S. House of Representatives|U.S. House]] Representative, [[Don Young]] won re-election to his 17th-straight term, also in 2004. His seniority in House ranks him as one of the most influential Republican House members. His position on the House Transportation Committee allowed him to parlay some $450 million to two bridge projects in Alaska, named the ''[[Bridges to Nowhere]]'', for which he gained national notoriety following the devastation in the State of [[Louisiana]] following [[Hurricane Katrina]] and his insistence that the money not be returned to aid in rebuilding the Gulf Coast. ==Geography== [[image:Looking back to Little Port Walter - NOAA.jpg|thumb|250px|Near [[Little Port Walter]]]] Alaska is one of the two states that is not bordered by another US state, [[Hawaii]] being the other. It is the only state that is both in [[North America]] and is not part of the 48 contiguous states; about 500 miles (800 kilometers) of [[Canada|Canadian]] territory separate Alaska from Washington. Therefore, Alaska is an [[exclave]] of the United States that is part of the continental U.S. but is not part of the contiguous U.S. It is also the only mainland state whose [[capital city]] is accessible only via [[Water transportation|ship]] or [[aviation|air]]. There are no [[road]]s connecting Juneau to the rest of the state. Alaska is the largest state in the United States in terms of land area, 570,374 square miles (1&nbsp;477&nbsp;261 km²). If a map of Alaska were superimposed upon a map of the [[Continental United States]], Alaska would overlap [[Texas]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Kansas]], [[New Mexico]] and [[Colorado]]. Alaska has the longest [[coastline]] of any state. One scheme for describing the state's geography is by labeling the regions: *[[South Central Alaska]] is the southern coastal region and is the population center for the state. The Municipality of Anchorage and many small but growing towns, such as [[Palmer, Alaska|Palmer]], and [[Wasilla, Alaska|Wasilla]], lie within this area. [[Petroleum]] industrial plants, transportation, [[tourism]], and two [[military base]]s form the core of the economy here. *The [[Alaska Panhandle]], also known as Southeast Alaska, is home to Juneau, many small towns, tidewater [[glacier|glaciers]] and extensive forests. Tourism, fishing, forestry and state government anchor the economy. *The [[Alaska Interior]] is home to [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]]. The geography is marked by large [[braided river]]s, such as the [[Yukon River]] and the [[Kuskokwim River]], as well as [[Arctic]] [[tundra]] lands and shorelines. *The [[Alaskan Bush]] is the remote, less crowded part of the state, encompassing 380 native villages and small towns such as [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]], [[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]], [[Kotzebue, Alaska|Kotzebue]] and, most famously, [[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]], the northernmost town in the United States. The northeast corner of Alaska is covered by the [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]], which covers 19,049,236 acres (79,318 km²). With its numerous islands, Alaska has nearly 34,000 miles (54&nbsp;700 km) of tidal shoreline. The island chain extending west from the southern tip of the [[Alaska Peninsula]] is called the [[Aleutian Islands]]. Many active [[volcano]]es are found in the Aleutians. For example, [[Unimak Island]] is home to [[Mount Shishaldin]], a moderately active volcano that rises to 9,980 ft (3042&nbsp;m) above [[sea level]]. The chain of volcanoes extends to [[Mount Spurr]], west of Anchorage on the mainland. North America's second largest [[tide]]s occur in [[Turnagain Arm]] just south of Anchorage, which often sees tidal differences of more than 35 feet (10.7&nbsp;m). Alaska is home to 3.5 million [[lake]]s of 20 acres (8&nbsp;ha) or larger. [[Marshland]]s and wetland [[permafrost]] cover 188,320 square miles (487&nbsp;747&nbsp;km², mostly in northern, western and southwest flatlands. Frozen water, in the form of [[glacier]] ice, covers some 16,000 square miles (41&nbsp;440&nbsp;km²) of land and 1200 square miles (3108&nbsp;km²) of tidal zone. The Bering Glacier complex near the southeastern border with [[Yukon]], [[Canada]], covers 2250 square miles (5827&nbsp;km²) alone. {{ussm|alaska.png|ak}} The Aleutian Islands actually cross longitude 180°, also making it the easternmost state, although the [[International Date Line]] doglegs around them to keep the whole state in the same day. It is part of the [[extreme points of the United States]]. According to the October 1998 report of the [[United States Bureau of Land Management]], approximately 65% of Alaska is owned and managed by the [[United States Federal Government|U.S. Federal Government]] as [[national forest]]s, [[national park]]s, and [[national wildlife refuge]]s. Of these, the [[Bureau of Land Management]] manages 87 million acres (350&nbsp;000&nbsp;km²), or 23.8% of the state. The [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]] is managed by the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]]. Of the remaining land area, the State of Alaska owns 24.5%; another 10% is managed by thirteen regional and dozens of local Native corporations created under the [[Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act]]. Various private interests own the remaining land, totaling less than 1%. ''See also:'' * [[List of Alaska rivers]] * [[Alaska Peninsula]] * [[Bristol Bay]] ==Boroughs and census areas== Alaska has no [[county (United States)|counties]] in the sense used in the rest of the country. Instead, the state is divided into [[List of boroughs and census areas in Alaska|27 census areas and boroughs]]. The difference between [[borough]]s and census areas is that boroughs have an organized area-wide government, while census areas are artificial divisions defined by the [[United States Census Bureau]] for statistical purposes only. Areas of the state not in organized boroughs compose what the government of Alaska calls the [[unorganized borough]]. Borough-level government services in the unorganized borough are provided by the state itself. ==Economy== [[Image:wiki_alaska.jpg|thumb|350px|Greetings from Alaska]] The state's 2003 total gross state product was $31 billion. Its ''per-capita'' income for 2003 was $33,213, 14<sup>th</sup> in the nation. Alaska's main export is seafood. Agriculture represents only a fraction of the Alaska economy. Agricultural production is primarily for consumption within the state and includes nursery stock, dairy products, vegetables, and livestock. Manufacturing is limited, with most foodstuffs and general goods imported from elsewhere. Employment is primarily in government and industries such as [[natural resource]] extraction, shipping, and transportation. Military bases are a significant component of the economy in both Fairbanks and Anchorage. Its industrial outputs are crude petroleum, natural gas, coal, gold, precious metals, zinc and other mining, seafood processing, timber and wood products. There is also a growing service and [[tourism]] sector. Tourists have contributed to the economy by supporting local lodging. - The cost of goods in Alaska has long been higher than in the contiguous 48 states. This has changed for the most part in [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] and [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]], where the cost of living is actually less than some major cities in the Lower 48, thanks to lower housing and transportation costs. The introduction of big-box stores in Anchorage, Fairbanks, and Juneau also did much to lower prices. However, rural Alaska suffers from extremely high prices for food and consumer goods, compared to the rest of the country due to the relatively limited transportation infrastructure. Many rural residents come in to these cities and purchase food and goods in bulk from warehouse clubs like [[Costco]] and [[Sam's Club]]. Some have embraced the free shipping offers of some online retailers to purchase items much more cheaply than they could in their own communities, if they are available at all. ==Transportation== [[image:Alaska Highway Bridge.jpg|thumb|234px|Bridge on [[Alaska Highway]] between [[Watson Lake]] and [[Whitehorse, Yukon|Whitehorse]].]] Alaska is arguably the least-connected state in terms of road transportation. The state's road system covers a relatively small area of the state, linking the central population centers and the [[Alaska Highway]], the principal route out of the state through [[Canada]]. The state capital, [[Juneau]], is not accessible by road, which has spurred several debates over the decades about moving the capital to a city on the road system. One unique feature of the road system is the [[Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel]], which links the [[Seward Highway]] south of Anchorage with the relatively isolated community of [[Whittier, Alaska|Whittier]]. The tunnel held the title of the longest road tunnel in North America (at nearly 2.5 miles [4&nbsp;km]) until completion of the 3.5 mile (5.6km) [[Interstate 93]] tunnel as part of the "[[Big Dig]]" project in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]. The Anderson Tunnel combines a one-lane roadway and train tracks in the same housing. Consequently, eastbound traffic, westbound traffic, and the [[Alaska Railroad]] must share the tunnel, resulting in waits of 20 minutes or more to enter. As reflected on the Alaska Department of Transportation [http://www.dot.state.ak.us/creg/whittiertunnel/index.shtml Tunnel Website], it is now considered "North America's longest railroad-highway tunnel." The [[Alaska Railroad]] runs from [[Seward, Alaska|Seward]] through [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]], [[Denali]], and [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]] to [[North Pole, Alaska|North Pole]], with spurs to [[Whittier, Alaska|Whittier]] and [[Palmer, Alaska|Palmer]]. The railroad is famous for its summertime passenger services but also plays a vital part in moving Alaska's natural resources, such as coal and gravel, to ports in Anchorage, Whittier and Seward. The Alaska Railroad is the only remaining railroad in North America to use [[caboose]]s on its freight trains. A stretch of the track along an area inaccessible by road serves as the only transportation to cabins in the area. Most cities and villages in the state are accessible only by sea or air. Alaska has a well-developed [[ferry]] system, known as the [[Alaska Marine Highway]], which serves the cities of [[Southeast Alaska|Southeast]] and the [[Alaska Peninsula]]. The system also operates a ferry service from [[Bellingham, Washington|Bellingham]], [[Washington]] up the [[Inside Passage]] to [[Skagway, Alaska|Skagway]]. Cities not served by road or sea can only be reached by air, accounting for Alaska's extremely well-developed [[Alaskan Bush|Bush]] air services&mdash;an Alaskan novelty. Anchorage itself, and to a lesser extent Fairbanks, are serviced by [[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport#Airlines and destinations|many major airlines]]. Air travel is the cheapest and most efficient form of transportation in and out of the state. Anchorage recently completed extensive remodeling and construction at [[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport]] to help accommodate the upsurge in tourism (unofficial sources have estimated the numbers for 2004 at some four million tourists arriving in Alaska between May and September). However, regular flights to most villages and towns within the state are commercially challenging to provide. Alaska Airlines is the only major airline offering in-state travel with jet service (sometimes in combination cargo and passenger [[Boeing 737]]-200s) from Anchorage and Fairbanks to regional hubs like [[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]], [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]], [[Kotzebue, Alaska|Kotzebue]], [[Dillingham, Alaska|Dillingham]], [[Kodiak, Alaska|Kodiak]], and other larger communities as well as to major Southeast and Alaska Peninsula communities. The bulk of remaining commercial flight offerings come from small regional commuter airlines like: [[Era Aviation]], [[Peninsula Airways|PenAir]], and [[Frontier Flying Service]]. The smallest towns and villages must rely on scheduled or chartered Bush flying services using general aviation aircraft such as the [[Cessna Caravan]], the most popular aircraft in use in the state. Much of this service can be attributed to the Alaska bypass mail program which subsidizes bulk mail delivery to Alaskan rural communities. The program requires 70% of that subsidy to go to carriers who offer passenger service to the communities. But perhaps the most quintessentially Alaskan plane is the Bush seaplane. The world's busiest seaplane base is [[Lake Hood Seaplane Base|Lake Hood]], located next to Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport, where flights bound for remote villages without an airstrip carry passengers, cargo, and lots of items from stores and warehouse clubs. Another Alaskan transportation method is the [[dogsled]]. In modern times, dog [[mushing]] is more of a sport than a true means of transportation. Various races are held around the state, but the best known is the [[Iditarod]], a 1,150-mile (1850&nbsp;km) trail from Anchorage to Nome. The race commemorates the famous [[1925 serum run to Nome]] in which mushers and dogs like [[Balto]] took much-needed medicine to the [[diphtheria]]-stricken community of [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]] when all other means of transportation had failed. Mushers from all over the world come to Anchorage each March to compete for cash prizes and prestige. ==Demographics== {| class="toccolours" align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;" |- ! colspan=2 bgcolor="#ccccff" align=center | Historical populations |- ! align=center | Census<br>year !! align=right | Population |- | colspan=2 |<hr> |- | align=center | [[United States Census, 1950|1950]] || align=right | 128,643 |- | align=center | [[United States Census, 1960|1960]] || align=right | 226,167 |- | align=center | [[United States Census, 1970|1970]] || align=right | 300,382 |- | align=center | [[United States Census, 1980|1980]] || align=right | 401,851 |- | align=center | [[United States Census, 1990|1990]] || align=right | 550,043 |- | align=center | [[United States Census, 2000|2000]] || align=right | 626,932 |} As of 2005, Alaska has an estimated population of 663,661, which is an increase of 5,906, or 0.9%, from the prior year and an increase of 36,730, or 5.9%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 36,590 people derived from its 53,132 births of which 16,542 deaths is subtracted from, and an increase due to net migration of 1,181 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 5,800 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 4,619 people. Alaska is the least densely populated state. ===Race and ancestry=== The racial breakdown of the state is: *67.6% [[Whites|White]] (Non-Hispanic) *15.6% [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] or [[Alaska Native]] *4.1% [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] *4% [[Asian American|Asian]] *3.5% [[Blacks|Black]] *5.4% [[Mixed race]] The largest ancestry groups in the state are: [[German-American|German]] (16.6%), Alaska Native or American Indian (15.6%), [[Ireland|Irish]] (10.8%), [[British American|English]] (9.6%), [[United States|American]] (5.7%), and [[Norwegian-American|Norwegian]] (4.2%). Alaska has the largest percentage of American Indians (16%) of any state. The vast, sparsely populated bush regions of northern and western Alaska are primarily inhabited by Alaska Natives, and they also have a large presence in the southeast. Anchorage, Fairbanks, and other parts of south-central and southeast Alaska have many whites of northern and western European ancestry. The Wrangell-Petersburg area has many residents of Scandinavian ancestry and the Aleutians have many Filipinos. Most of the state's black population lives in Anchorage. [[As of 2000]], 85.7% of Alaska residents age 5 and older speak [[English language|English]] at home and 5.2% speak [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Native American languages]]. [[Spanish language|Spanish]] speakers make up 2.9% of the population, followed by [[Tagalog]] speakers at 1.5% and [[Korean language|Korean]] at 0.8%. ===Religion=== *[[Christianity|Christian]] &ndash; 81% **[[Protestantism|Protestant]] &ndash; 68% ***[[Baptist]] &ndash; 11% ***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] &ndash; 8% ***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &ndash; 6% ***[[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] &ndash; 2% ***[[Episcopal]] &ndash; 1% ***[[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] &ndash; 1% **[[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] &ndash; 8% **[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Catholic]] &ndash; 7% **[[Latter-day Saint]] &ndash; 1% *Other [[religion]]s &ndash; 1% *Not religious/[[agnosticism|agnostic]] &ndash; 17% Notable is Alaska's relatively large [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] [[Christianity|Christian]] population, a result of early [[Russia]]n colonization and [[missionary]] work among indigenous Alaskans. ==Social issues== Alaska has long had a problem with alcohol use and abuse. Many rural communities in Alaska have outlawed its import. "Dry", "wet", and "damp" are terms describing a community's laws on liquor consumption. This problem directly relates to Alaska's high rate of [[Fetal Alcohol Syndrome]] (FAS) as well as contributing to the high rate of suicides. This is a controversial topic for many residents. Alaska has also had a problem with "[[brain drain]]" as many of its young people, including most of the highest academic achievers, leave the state upon graduating high school. While for many this functions as a sort of [[walkabout]], many do not return to the state. The [[University of Alaska]] has been successfully combating this by offering four-year scholarships to the top 10 percent of Alaska high school graduates, the Alaska Scholars Program. [[Domestic abuse]] and other violent crimes are also at notoriously high levels in the state; this is in part linked to alcohol abuse. ==Notable Alaskans== The [[National Statuary Hall]] of the United States of America is part of the [[United States Capitol|Capitol]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] Each state has selected one or two distinguished citizens and provided statues. Alaska's are of its first two senators: * [[Bob Bartlett|Edward Lewis "Bob" Bartlett]] (1904&ndash;1968) was the territorial delegate to the US Congress from 1944 to 1958, and was elected as the first senior [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]] in 1958 and re-elected in 1964. There are streets, buildings, and even the first state ferry, named for him. * [[Ernest Gruening]] (1886&ndash;1974) was appointed Governor of the [[Alaska Territory|Territory of Alaska]] in 1939, and served in that position for fourteen years. He was elected to the United States Senate in 1958 and re-elected in 1962. * [[Jay Hammond]] (1922&ndash;2005) was Governor during the building of the [[Alaska Pipeline]] and established the [[Alaska Permanent Fund]], providing Alaskans with essentially free money. He is regarded as somewhat of a hero because of this. He was also governor during passage of the [[Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act]] and effectively served to moderate associated issues within the state among disparate interest groups ranging from conservationists to natives to pro-development interests. * [[Fran Ulmer]] was the first woman elected to statewide office&mdash;she became Lieutenant Governor in 1994. * [[George Sharrock]] (1910&ndash;2005) moved to the territory before statehood, eventually elected as the mayor of Anchorage and served during the [[Good Friday Earthquake]] in March 1964. This was the most devastating earthquake to hit Alaska and it sunk beach property, damaged roads and destroyed buildings all over the south central area. Sharrock, sometimes called the "earthquake mayor," led the city's rebuilding effort over six months. ==Important cities and towns== Alaska's most populous city is [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]], home of 260,283 people, 225,744 of whom live in the urbanized area. It ranks third in the [[List of U.S. cities by area]], behind two other Alaskan cities. Sitka ranks as America's largest city by area, followed closely by Juneau. [[image:SitkaNOAA.jpg|thumb|253px|[[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka Town]]]] {| |valign="top"| '''Cities of 100,000 or more people''' *[[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] '''Towns of 10,000-100,000 people''' *[[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]] *[[Juneau, Alaska|Juneau]] |} {| |valign="top"| '''Towns of fewer than 10,000 people''' *[[Wasilla, Alaska|Wasilla]] *[[Kodiak, Alaska|Kodiak]] *[[Ketchikan, Alaska|Ketchikan]] *[[Ester, Alaska|Ester]] *[[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]] *[[Palmer, Alaska|Palmer]] *[[Cordova, Alaska|Cordova]] |width="50"|&nbsp; |valign="top"| *[[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]] *[[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]] *[[Kenai, Alaska|Kenai]] *[[Soldotna, Alaska|Soldotna]] *[[Unalaska, Alaska|Unalaska]] *[[Kotzebue, Alaska|Kotzebue]] *[[Nome, Alaska|Nome]] *[[North Pole, Alaska|North Pole]] *[[Houston, Alaska|Houston]] |width="50"|&nbsp; |valign="top"| *[[Petersburg, Alaska|Petersburg]] *[[Homer, Alaska|Homer]] *[[Dillingham, Alaska|Dillingham]] *[[Valdez, Alaska|Valdez]] *[[Seward, Alaska|Seward]] *[[Delta Junction, Alaska|Delta Junction]] *[[Glennallen, Alaska|Glennallen]] *[[Circle, Alaska |Circle]] *[[Unalakleet, Alaska|Unalakleet]] |} ===25 richest places in Alaska=== Ranked by [[per capita income]]: {| |valign="top"| 1. [[Halibut Cove, Alaska]] $89,895 2. [[Chicken, Alaska]] $65,400 3. [[Edna Bay, Alaska]] $58,967 4. [[Sunrise, Alaska]] $56,000 5. [[Lowell Point, Alaska]] $45,790 6. [[Petersville, Alaska]] $43,200 7. [[Coldfoot, Alaska]] $42,620 8. [[Port Clarence, Alaska]] $35,286 9. [[Hobart Bay, Alaska]] $34,900 |width="50"|&nbsp; |valign="top"| 10. [[Red Dog Mine, Alaska]] $34,348 11. [[Adak, Alaska]] $31,747 12. [[Meyers Chuck, Alaska]] $31,660 13. [[Pelican, Alaska]] $29,347 14. [[Ester, Alaska]] $29,155 15. [[Chignik Lagoon, Alaska]] $28,941 16. [[Four Mile Road, Alaska]] $28,465 17. [[Healy, Alaska]] $28,225 18. [[Moose Pass, Alaska]] $28,147 |width="50"|&nbsp; |valign="top"| 19. [[Cube Cove, Alaska]] $27,920 20. [[Womens Bay, Alaska]] $27,746 21. [[Skagway, Alaska]] $27,700 22. [[Nelson Lagoon, Alaska]] $27,596 23. [[Valdez, Alaska]] $27,341 24. [[McKinley Park, Alaska]] $27,255 25. [[Attu Station, Alaska]] $26,964 |} See also: ''[[Richest Places in Alaska]]'' ==Colleges and universities== *[[University of Alaska System]] **[[University of Alaska Anchorage]] **[[University of Alaska Fairbanks]] **[[University of Alaska Southeast]] *[[Alaska Bible College]] *[[Alaska Pacific University]] *[[Charter College (Anchorage, Alaska)|Charter College]] *[[Ilisagvik College]] *[[Sheldon Jackson College]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Alaska}} *{{wikicities|Alaska|Alaska}} *[http://www.alaska.gov/ State of Alaska website] *[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/02000.html US Census Bureau] *[http://www.alaska.com/ Alaska.com Information] *[http://www.travelalaska.com/ Alaska Travel Industry Association] *[http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/alaska Alaska Newspapers] ===Political parties=== *[http://www.akrepublicans.org/ Alaska Republican Party] *[http://www.akdemocrats.org/ Alaska Democratic Party] *[http://www.republicanmoderates.com/ Alaska Republican Moderate Party] *[http://www.akip.org/ Alaskan Independence Party] *[http://www.ak.lp.org/ Alaska Libertarian Party] *[http://www.alaska.greens.org/ Alaska Green Party] {{Alaska}} {{United_States}} [[Category:Alaska|*]] [[Category:Exclaves]] [[Category:Russian people in the United States]] [[Category:States of the United States]] [[Category:1959 establishments]] {{link FA|hu}} [[ar:ألاسكا]] [[ast:Alaska]] [[bg:Аляска]] [[zh-min-nan:Alaska]] [[bs:Aljaska]] [[ca:Alaska]] [[cs:Aljaška]] [[cy:Alaska]] [[da:Alaska]] [[de:Alaska]] [[et:Alaska]] [[es:Alaska]] [[eo:Alasko]] [[eu:Alaska]] [[fa:آلاسکا]] [[fr:Alaska]] [[ga:Alasca]] [[gl:Alasca - Alaska]] [[ko:알래스카 주]] [[hr:Aljaska]] [[io:Alaska]] [[ilo:Alaska]] [[id:Alaska]] [[iu:ᐊᓛᓯᑲ]] [[is:Alaska]] [[it:Alaska]] [[he:אלסקה]] [[ka:ალასკა (შტატი)]] [[ks:अलास्‍का]] [[kw:Alaska]] [[la:Alasca]] [[lv:Aļaska]] [[lt:Aliaska]] [[hu:Alaszka]] [[mk:Аљаска]] [[ms:Alaska]] [[nl:Alaska]] [[ja:アラスカ州]] [[no:Alaska]] [[nn:Alaska]] [[os:Аляскæ]] [[pl:Alaska]] [[pt:Alasca]] [[ro:Alaska]] [[ru:Аляска]] [[sa:अलास्‍का]] [[sq:Alaska]] [[simple:Alaska]] [[sk:Aljaška]] [[sl:Aljaska]] [[sr:Аљаска]] [[fi:Alaska]] [[sv:Alaska]] [[th:มลรัฐอะแลสกา]] [[vi:Alaska]] [[tr:Alaska]] [[uk:Аляска]] [[zh:阿拉斯加州]] 625 33430024 2006-01-01T00:20:41Z Trevor macinnis 73333 [[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] avoid redirect In modern usage, architecture is the [[art]] of creating an actual, implied or apparent plan of any complex [[object]] or [[system]]. The term can be used to connote the ''implied architecture'' of abstract things such as [[music]] or [[mathematics]], the apparent architecture of natural things, such as [[geology|geological]] formations or the [[structural biology|structure of biological cells]], or explicitly ''planned architectures'' of human-made things such as [[Computer software|software]], [[computers]], [[enterprise]]s, and [[database]]s, in addition to buildings. In every usage, an architecture may be seen as a ''subjective [[Map (mathematics)|mapping]]'' from a human perspective (that of the 'user' in the case of abstract or physical artifacts) to the [[Element (mathematics)|elements]] or [[components]] of some kind of [[structure]] or system, which preserves the relationships among the elements/components. '''Architecture''' may refer to: * [[Architecture|Architecture (built environment)]], the art and science of designing habitations, buildings, and building complexes; classical architecture. * [[Architectural history]] studies the evolution and history of (built) architectures across the world through a consideration of various influences- [[artistic]], [[cultural]], [[political]], [[economic]], and [[technological]]. * [[Architecture (other)]], a representation of an arbitrary abstract, natural, or man-made structure of two or more interacting parts (e.g., architecture of mathematics, architecture of language, cytoarchitecture, cellular architecture, naval architecture, skelletal architecture, battlefield architecture). All [[systems]] can be said to have an architecture. * [[Biological architectures]], the ''apparent'' architecture of biological structures. See [[cytoarchitecture]], [[structural biology]], [[cell (biology)|cell architecture]] * [[Landscape architecture]], the design of man-made land constructs * [[Systems architecture]], the representation of an engineered (or To Be Engineered) system, and the process and discipline for effectively implementing the design(s) for such a system. Such a system may consist of information and/or hardware and/or software. * [[Computer architecture]], the systems architecture of a computer. * [[Software architecture]], the systems architecture of a software system. * [[Enterprise architecture]], a systems architecture, or framework, for aligning an organization's structure/ processes/ information/ operations/ projects with the organization's overall strategy * [[Information architecture]], a systems architecture for structuring a knowledge-based system * [[Product design]], or product architecture, the systems design of a product or product family * [[Vehicle architecture]], an automobile platform made from a set of components common to a number of different vehicles {{disambig}} [[af:Argitektuur]] [[bg:&#1040;&#1088;&#1093;&#1080;&#1090;&#1077;&#1082;&#1090;&#1091;&#1088;&#1072;]] [[ca:Arquitectura]] [[da:Arkitektur]] [[de:Architektur]] [[eo:Arkitekturo]] [[es:Arquitectura]] [[fa:&#1605;&#1593;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;]] [[fi:Arkkitehtuuri]] [[fr:Architecture]] [[he:&#1488;&#1491;&#1512;&#1497;&#1499;&#1500;&#1493;&#1514;]] [[ia:Architectura]] [[it:Architettura]] [[ja:&#24314;&#31689;&#23398;]] [[la:Architectura]] [[lt:Architekt&#363;ra]] [[lv:Arhitektura]] [[nah:Arquitectura]] [[nl:Architectuur]] [[no:Arkitektur]] [[pl:Architektura]] [[pt:Arquitetura (desambiguação)]] [[ro:Arhitectur&#259;]] [[ru:&#1040;&#1088;&#1093;&#1080;&#1090;&#1077;&#1082;&#1090;&#1091;&#1088;&#1072;]] [[simple:Architecture]] [[sl:Arhitektura]] [[sr:&#1040;&#1088;&#1093;&#1080;&#1090;&#1077;&#1082;&#1090;&#1091;&#1088;&#1072;]] [[sv:Arkitektur]] [[sw:Majenzi]] [[ta:&#2965;&#2975;&#3021;&#2975;&#3007;&#2975;&#2965;&#3021;&#2965;&#2994;&#3016;]] [[zh:&#24314;&#31569;&#23398;]] 626 15899155 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Auteur theory]] 627 42032966 2006-03-03T09:38:33Z Pollinator 22743 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.141.123.179|72.141.123.179]] ([[User talk:72.141.123.179|talk]]) to last version by 212.32.71.92 [[Image:HorseAndPlough.jpg|thumb|300px|A [[farm]]er in [[Germany]] working the land in the traditional way, with [[horse]] and [[plough]].]] [[Image:Ford_tractor,_Sweden.jpg|thumb|250px|Farming the modern way using a [[tractor]] in [[Sweden]].]] '''Agriculture''' is the process of producing [[food]], [[feed]], [[fiber]] and many other desired products by the cultivation of certain [[plant]]s and the raising of domesticated [[animal]]s ([[livestock]]). The practice of agriculture is also known as "[[farming]]", while scientists, inventors and others devoted to improving farming methods and implements are also said to be engaged in agriculture. More [[Person|people]] in the [[world]] are involved in agriculture as their primary [[economics|economic activity]] than in any other, yet it only accounts for four percent of the world's [[gross domestic product|GDP]].<!--Source?--> ==Overview== [[Image:Agriculture---Rice.jpg|left|thumb|250px|[[Tea]] plantation in [[Java (island)|Java]], [[Indonesia]].]] Agriculture sometimes refers to [[subsistence farming|subsistence agriculture]], the production of enough [[food]] to meet just the needs of the farmer/[[agriculturalist]] and his/her family. It may also refer to industrial agriculture, (often referred to as [[factory farming]]) long prevalent in developed nations and increasingly so elsewhere, which consists of obtaining financial income from the cultivation of land to yield [[produce]], the commercial raising of animals ([[animal husbandry]]), or both. Agriculture is also short for the ''study'' of the practice of agriculture&mdash;more formally known as [[agricultural science]]. Agricultural students are known (sometimes derisively) as "Aggies". Increasingly, in addition to food for humans and [[fodder|animal feeds]], agriculture produces goods such as cut [[flower]]s, ornamental and [[Nursery (horticulture)|nursery]] plants, [[timber]] or lumber, [[fertilizer]]s, [[animal hides]], [[leather]], industrial chemicals ([[starch]], [[sugar]], [[ethanol]], [[alcohol]]s and [[plastic]]s), [[fiber]]s ([[cotton]], [[wool]], [[hemp]], and [[flax]]), fuels ([[methane]] from [[biomass]], [[biodiesel]]) and both legal and illegal drugs ([[biopharmaceutical]]s, [[tobacco]], [[marijuana]], [[opium]], [[cocaine]]). [[GMO|Genetically engineered]] plants and animals produce specialty drugs. In the [[Western world]], the use of [[genetic modification|gene manipulation]], better management of soil nutrients, and improved [[weed control]] have greatly increased yields per unit area. At the same time, the use of mechanization has decreased labour requirements. The developing world generally produces lower yields, having less of the latest science, [[capital (economics)|capital]], and technology base. Modern agriculture depends heavily on engineering and technology and on the biological and physical sciences. [[Irrigation]], [[drainage]], [[conservation ethic|conservation]] and sanitary engineering, each of which is important in successful farming, are some of the fields requiring the specialized knowledge of agricultural engineers. Agricultural chemistry deals with other vital farming concerns, such as the application of fertilizer, insecticides (see [[Pest control]]), and fungicides, soil makeup, analysis of agricultural products, and nutritional needs of farm animals.[[Plant breeding]] and genetics contribute additionally to farm productivity. Advanced seed engineering has allowed strains of seed to become perfect in every farming situation. Seeds can now germinate faster and adapt to shorter growing seasons in different climates. Present-day seed can resist the spraying of pesticides that kill all green-leaf plants. [[Hydroponics]], a method of soilless gardening in which plants are grown in chemical nutrient solutions, may help meet the need for greater food production as the world's population increases. The packing, processing, and marketing of agricultural products are closely related activities also influenced by science. Methods of quick-freezing and dehydration have increased the markets for farm products (see [[Food preservation]]; [[Meat packing industry]]). Mechanization, the outstanding characteristic of late [[19th century|19th]] and [[20th century]] agricultural evolution, has eased much of the backbreaking toil of the farmer. More significantly, mechanization has enormously increased farm efficiency and productivity (see [[Agricultural machinery]]). Animals, including horses, mules, oxen, camels, llamas, alpacas, and dogs; however, are still used to cultivate [[field (agriculture)|fields]], harvest [[crops]] and transport farm products to markets in many parts of the world. Airplanes, helicopters, trucks and tractors are used in agriculture for seeding, spraying operations for insect and disease control, [[Aerial topdressing]], transporting perishable products, and fighting forest fires. Radio and television disseminate vital weather reports and other information such as market reports that concern farmers. Computers have become an essential tool for farm management. [[Image:Farming-on-Indonesia.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Farming, ploughing rice paddy, in [[Indonesia]].]] According to the [[National Academy of Engineering]] in the US, agricultural mechanization is one of the 20 greatest engineering achievements of the 20th century. Early in the century, it took one American farmer to produce food for 2.5 people, where today, due to engineering technology (also, [[plant breeding]] and [[agrichemical]]s), a single farmer can feed over 130 people [http://www.greatachievements.org/greatachievements/ga_7_2.html]. This comes at a cost, however, of large amounts of energy input, from unsustainable, mostly [[fossil fuel]], sources. Animal husbandry means breeding and raising animals for meat or to harvest animal products (like milk, eggs, or wool) on a continual basis. In recent years some aspects of industrial [[intensive agriculture]] have been the subject of increasing discussion. The widening [[sphere of influence]] held by large seed and chemical companies, meat packers and food processors has been a source of concern both within the farming community and for the general public. There has been increased activity of some people against some farming practices, raising chickens for food being one example. Another issue is the type of feed given to some animals that can cause [[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy]] in cattle. There has also been concern because of the disastrous effect that intensive agriculture has on the environment. In the US, for example, fertilizer has been running off into the Mississippi for years and has caused a dead spot in the Gulf of Mexico, where the Mississippi empties. Intensive agriculture also depletes the fertility of the land over time and the end effect is that which happened in the Middle East, were some of the most fertile farmland in the world was turned into a desert by intensive agriculture. The patent protection given to companies that develop new types of [[seed]] using [[genetic engineering]] has allowed seed to be licensed to farmers in much the same way that computer software is licensed to users. This has changed the balance of power in favor of the seed companies, allowing them to dictate terms and conditions previously unheard of. Some argue these companies are guilty of [[biopiracy]]. [[Soil]] [[conservation ethic|conservation]] and [[nutrient management]] have been important concerns since the [[1950s]], with the best farmers taking a [[stewardship]] role with the land they operate. However, increasing contamination of waterways and wetlands by nutrients like [[nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]] are of concern in many countries. Increasing consumer awareness of agricultural issues has led to the rise of [[community-supported agriculture]], [[local food movement]], [[Slow Food|slow food]], and commercial [[organic farming]], though these yet remain fledgling industries. ==History== [[Image:Ancient egyptian farmer.gif|thumb|230px|Ancient Egyptian farmer]] : ''Main article: [[History of agriculture]]'' [[Paleoethnobotany|Archaeobotanists]]/[[Paleoethnobotany|Paleoethnobotanists]] have traced the selection and cultivation of specific food plant characteristics, such as a semi-tough [[rachis]] and larger [[seeds]], to just after the [[Younger Dryas]] (about 9,500 BC) in the early [[Holocene]] in the [[Levant]] region of the [[Fertile Crescent]]. Limited [[anthropology|anthropological]] and [[archaeology|archaeological]] evidence both indicate a [[cereal|grain]]-[[grinding]] [[culture]] [[farming]] along the [[Nile]] in the [[10th millennium BC]] using the world's earliest known type of [[sickle]] [[blade]]s. There is even earlier evidence for conscious cultivation and seasonal harvest: grains of [[rye]] with domestic traits have been recovered from [[Epi-Palaeolithic]] (10,000+ BC) contexts at [[Abu Hureyra]] in [[Syria]], but this appears to be a localised phenomenon resulting from cultivation of stands of wild rye, rather than a definitive step towards domestication. It is not until ca. 8,500 BC, in middle-Eastern cultures referred to as [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]] ([[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B|PPNB]]), where there is the first definite evidence for the emergence of a widespread subsistence economy that was dependent on domesticated plants and animals. In these contexts lie the origins of the eight so-called [[Neolithic founder crops|founder crops]] of agriculture: firstly [[emmer wheat]], [[einkorn wheat]], then hulled [[barley]], [[pea]], [[lentil]], [[bitter vetch]], [[chick pea]] and [[flax]]. These eight crops occur more or less simultaneously on [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B|PPNB]] sites in this region, although the consensus is that [[wheat]] was the first to be sown and harvested on a significant scale. There are many sites that date to between ca. 8,500 BC and 7,500 BC where the systematic farming of these crops contributed the major part of the inhabitants' diet. From the [[Fertile Crescent]] agriculture spread eastwards to [[Central Asia]] and westwards into [[Cyprus]], [[Anatolia]] and, by 7,000 BC, [[Greece]]. Farming, principally of emmer and einkorn, reached northwestern [[Europe]] via southeastern and central Europe by ca. 4,800 BC (see, among others, Price, D. [ed.] 2000. ''Europe's First Farmers''. Cambridge University Press; Harris, D. [ed.] 1996 ''The Origins and Spread of Agriculture in Eurasia''. UCL Press). [[Image:Agriculture (Plowing) CNE-v1-p58-H.jpg|left|thumb|250px|A [[tractor]] [[plough]]ing an [[alfalfa]] field]] The reasons for the earliest introduction of farming may have included [[climate]] change, but possibly there were also social reasons (e.g. accumulation of food surplus for competitive gift-giving). Most certainly there was a gradual transition from [[hunter-gatherer]] to agricultural economies after a lengthy period when some crops were deliberately planted and other foods were gathered from the wild. Although localised climate change is the favoured explanation for the origins of agriculture in the [[Levant]], the fact that farming was 'invented' at least three times, possibly more, suggests that social reasons may have been instrumental. In addition to emergence of farming in the [[Fertile Crescent]], agriculture appeared by at least 6,800 BC in East Asia ([[rice]]) and, later, in [[Mesoamerica|Central]] and [[South America]] ([[maize]], [[squash (fruit)|squash]]). Small scale agriculture also likely arose independently in early Neolithic contexts in [[India]] (rice) and [[Southeast Asia]] (taro).<!--Sources?--> [[Image:ClaySumerianSickle.jpg|thumb|right|230px|[[Sumer]]ian Harvester's sickle, [[3000 BCE]]. Baked clay. [[Field Museum]].]] Full dependency on domestic crops and animals (i.e. when wild resources contributed a nutritionally insignificant component to the diet) was not until the [[Bronze Age]]. If the operative definition of ''agriculture'' includes large scale intensive cultivation of land, [[mono-cropping]], organised [[irrigation]], and use of a specialized [[labour (economics)|labour]] force, the title "inventors of agriculture" would fall to the [[Sumer]]ians, starting ca. 5,500 BC. Intensive farming allows a much greater density of population than can be supported by hunting and gathering and allows for the accumulation of excess product to keep for winter use or to sell for profit. The ability of farmers to feed large numbers of people whose activities have nothing to do with material production was the crucial factor in the rise of standing armies. The agriculturalism of the Sumerians allowed them to embark on an unprecedented territorial expansion, making them the first [[empire]] builders. Not long after, the Egyptians, powered by effective farming of the [[Nile|Nile valley]], achieved a population density from which enough warriors could be drawn for a territorial expansion more than tripling the Sumerian empire in area.<!--Sources?--> The invention of a [[three field system]] of crop rotation during the [[Middle Ages]] vastly improved agricultural efficiency. After [[1492]] the world's agricultural patterns were shuffled in the widespread exchange of plants and animals known as the [[Columbian Exchange]].<!--Is this just Crosby's term or is it more widely used?--> Crops and animals that were previously only known in the Old World were now transplanted to the New and vice versa. Perhaps most notably, the [[tomato]] became a favorite in European cuisine, while certain wheat strains quickly took to western hemisphere soils and became a dietary staple even for native North, Central and South Americans. By the early [[1800]]s agricultural practices, particularly careful selection of hardy strains and cultivars, had so improved that yield per land unit was many times that seen in the Middle Ages and before, especially in the largely virgin lands of North and South America. With the rapid rise of [[mechanised agriculture|mechanization]] in the 20th century, especially in the form of the [[tractor]], the demanding tasks of [[sowing]], [[harvesting]] and [[threshing]] could be performed with a speed and on a scale barely imaginable before. These advances have led to efficiencies enabling certain modern farms in the United States, Argentina, Israel, Germany and a few other nations to output volumes of high quality produce per land unit at what may be the practical limit. ==Crops== ===World production of major crops in 2004=== In millions of metric tons, based on [[Food and Agriculture Organization | FAO]] estimates[http://faostat.fao.org/faostat/form?collection=Production.Crops.Primary&Domain=Production&servlet=1&hasbulk=0&version=ext&language=EN]: By crop types :[[Cereal]]s 2,264 :[[Vegetable]]s and [[melon]]s 866 :[[Root]]s and [[Tuber]]s 715 :[[Milk]] 619 :[[Fruit]] 503 :[[Meat]] 259 :[[Vegetable oil|Oilcrop]]s 133 :[[Fish]] 130 (2001 estimate) :[[Egg (food)|Eggs]] 63 :[[Pulse (legume)|Pulse]]s 60 :[[Fiber crop|Vegetable Fiber]] 30 By individual crops :[[Sugar Cane]] 1,324 :[[Maize]] 721 :[[Wheat]] 627 :[[Rice]] 605 :[[Potato]]es 328 :[[Sugar Beet]] 249 :[[Soybean]] 204 :[[Oil palm|Oil Palm]] Fruit 162 :[[Barley]] 154 :[[Tomato]] 120 ===Crop improvement=== [[Image:Cropscientist.jpg|right|thumb|250px|An agricultural scientist records corn growth]] [[Image:Bird netting.jpg|thumb|250px|Netting protecting wine grapes from birds]] *''See main article on'' [[Plant breeding]] Domestication of plants is done in order to increase yield, improve disease resistance and drought tolerance, ease harvest and to improve the taste and [[nutrition]]al value and many other characteristics. Centuries of careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. Plant breeders use greenhouses and other techniques to get as many as three generations of plants per year so that they can make improvements all the more quickly. Plant selection and breeding in the 1920s and '30s improved [[pasture]] (grasses and clover) in New Zealand. Extensive radiation mutagenesis efforts (i.e. primitive genetic engineering) during the [[1950s]] produced the modern commercial varieties of grains such as wheat, corn and barley.<!--Source?--> For example, average yields of corn ([[maize]]) in the USA have increased from around 2.5 tons per hectare (40 bushels per acre) in [[1900]] to about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in [[2001]], primarily due to improvements in genetics. Similarly, worldwide average wheat yields have increased from less than 1 t/ha in [[1900]] to more than 2.5 t/ha in [[1990]]. [[South America]]n average wheat yields are around 2 t/ha, [[Africa]]n under 1 t/ha, [[Egypt]] and Arabia up to 3.5 to 4 t/ha with irrigation. In contrast, the average wheat yield in countries such as [[France]] is over 8 t/ha. Higher yields are due to improvements in genetics, as well as use of intensive farming techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical [[pest control]], growth control to avoid lodging).<!--Sources?--> [Conversion note: 1 bushel of wheat = 60 pounds (lb) ≈ 27.215 kg. 1 bushel of corn = 56 pounds ≈ 25.401 kg] In industrialized agriculture, crop "improvement" has often reduced nutritional and other qualities of food plants to serve the interests of producers. After mechanical tomato-harvesters were developed in the early 1960s, agricultural scientists bred tomatoes that were harder and less nutritious (Friedland and Barton 1975). In fact, a major longitudinal study of nutrient levels in numerous vegetables showed significant declines in the last 50 years; garden vegetables in the U.S. today contain on average 38 percent less vitamin B2 and 15 percent less vitamin C (Davis and Riordan 2004). Very recently, [[genetic engineering]] has begun to be employed in some parts of the world to speed up the selection and breeding process. The most widely used modification is a herbicide resistance gene that allows plants to tolerate exposure to glyphosate, which is used to control weeds in the crop. A less frequently used but more controversial modification causes the plant to produce a toxin to reduce damage from insects (c.f. [[Transgenic maize|Starlink]]). There are specialty producers who raise less common types of livestock or plants. [[Aquaculture]], the farming of [[fish]], [[shrimp]], and [[algae]], is closely associated with agriculture. [[Beekeeping|Apiculture]], the culture of bees, traditionally for [[honey]]&mdash;increasingly for crop [[pollination]]. ''See also'' : [[botany]], [[List of domesticated plants]], [[List of vegetables]], [[List of herbs]], [[List of fruit]] ==Environmental problems== Agriculture may often cause environmental problems because it changes natural environments and produces harmful by-products. Some of the negative effects are: * [[Nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]] surplus in [[river]]s and [[lake]]s. * Detrimental effects of [[herbicide]]s, [[fungicide]]s, [[insecticide]]s, and other [[biocide]]s. * Conversion of natural [[ecosystem]]s of all types into [[arable land]]. * Consolidation of diverse [[biomass]] into a few species. * [[Erosion]] * Depletion of [[minerals]] in the [[soil]] * [[Particulate matter]], including [[ammonia]] and [[ammonium]] off-gasing from animal waste contributing to [[air pollution]] * [[Weed]]s - [[feral]] plants and animals * Odor from agricultural [[waste]] * [[Soil salination]] . ==Policy== [[Agricultural policy]] focuses on the goals and methods of agricultural production. At the policy level, common goals of agriculture include: *[[Foodborne illness|Food safety]]: Ensuring that the food supply is free of contamination. *[[Food security]]: Ensuring that the food supply meets the population's needs. *[[Food quality]]: Ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality. * Conservation * Environmental impact * Economic stability ==Agricultural Revolutions== * [[British Agricultural Revolution]] * [[Green Revolution]] * [[Neolithic Revolution]] ==Methods== There are various methods of agricultural production: *[[aeroponics]] *[[aerial topdressing]] *[[agricultural machinery]] *[[animal husbandry]] *[[aquaculture]] *[[beekeeping]] *[[crop rotation]] *[[Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation]] ([[Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation|CAFO]], ''[[factory farming]]'') *[[composting]] *[[dairy farming]] *[[detasseling]] *[[domestication]] *[[agricultural fencing|fencing]] *[[fertilizer]]s *[[greenhouse]] *[[harvest]] *[[heliciculture]] *[[hybrid seed]] *[[hydroponics]] *[[Integrated Pest Management]] ([[Integrated Pest Management|IPM]]) *[[irrigation]] *[[livestock]] *[[market gardening]] *[[monoculture]] *[[no-till farming]] *[[organic farming]] *[[plant breeding]] *[[Permaculture]] *[[pollination management]] *[[precision farming]] *[[ranching]] *[[season extension]] *[[seed saving]] *[[seed testing]] *[[shepherding]] *[[subsistence farming]] *[[succession planting]] *[[sustainable agriculture]] *[[Terrace (agriculture)|terracing]] *[[vegetable farming]] *[[tillage]] *[[weed control]] ==References== *Wells, Spencer: ''The Journey of Man : A Genetic Odyssey''. Princeton University Press, 2003. ISBN: 069111532X *Crosby, Alfred W.: ''The Columbian Exchange : Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492''. Praeger Publishers, 2003 (30th Anniversary Edition). ISBN: 0275980731 *Collinson, M. (editor): ''A History of Farming Systems Research''. CABI Publishing, 2000. ISBN: 0851994059 *Davis, Donald R., and Hugh D. Riordan (2004) Changes in USDA Food Composition Data for 43 Garden Crops, 1950 to 1999. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, Vol. 23, No. 6, 669-682. *Friedland, William H. and Amy Barton (1975) Destalking the Wily Tomato: A Case Study of Social Consequences in California Agricultural Research. Univ. California at Sta. Cruz, Research Monograph 15.· ==See also== * [[Agricultural and Food Research Council]], UK * [[Agricultural education]] * [[Agricultural science]] * [[Agricultural sciences basic topics]] * [[Arid-zone agriculture]] * [[Barnyard]] * [[Community-supported agriculture]] * [[International agricultural research]] * [[Family farm hog pen]] * [[Farm equipment]] * [[Land Allocation Decision Support System]] * [[List of domesticated animals]] * [[List of subsistence techniques]] * [[List of countries by agricultural output]] * [[List of sustainable agriculture topics]] * [[Permaculture]] * [[Protein per unit area]] * [[Timeline of agriculture and food technology]]. * [[USA agriculture]] [[Image:Cows in green field - nullamunjie olive grove03.jpg|thumb|600px|center|Herd of [[Hereford]]s in a green field]] ==External links== * [http://www.fao.org www.fao.org] — Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations World Agricultural Information Centre ** [http://www.fao.org/waicent/portal/statistics_en.asp www.fao.org] — The UN Statistical Databases ** [http://www.fao.org/faostat www.fao.org/faostat] — The FAOSTAT Statistical Databases ** [http://www.fao.org/es/ess www.fao.org/es/ess] — The FAO Statistics Division ** [http://www.fao.org/ag/ FAO Agriculture Department] and its [http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5160e/y5160e00.HTM State of Food and Agriculture 2003-2004] with a focus on the impact of biotechnology **[http://www.greenfacts.org/gmo/index.htm GM Crops in Agriculture] &ndash; A summary for non-specialists of the above FAO report by [[GreenFacts]]. * {{dmoz|Science/Environment/Agriculture/ |Agriculture}} * [http://imperium.lenin.ru/~kaledin/tmp/agricltr.txt ''Agriculture: Demon Engine of Civilization''] by John Zerzan * have a [http://www.geocities.com/ferzenr/farmaze.htm farmaze], for food, from afar *[http://www.ukagriculture.com/countryside/history_of_countryside/countryside_history.html History of UK Agriculture] ===Specific countries=== * [http://www.agr.gc.ca/ www.agr.gc.ca] — Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada * [http://www.nationalpak.com www.nationalpak.com] — Agriculture of Pakistan * [http://www.nationalacademies.org/agriculture/ www.nationalacademies.org] — Agriculture at the United States National Academies * [http://www.usda.gov/ www.usda.gov] — United States Department of Agriculture **[http://www.fas.usda.gov/currwmt.html Current World Production, Market and Trade Reports] from the Foreign Agricultural Service **[http://www.ers.usda.gov/ USDA's main source of economic information and research] from the Economic Research Service **[http://www.ars.usda.gov/ In-house Research Arm] from the [[Agricultural Research Service]] **[http://www.nal.usda.gov/ National Agricultural Library] [[Category:Agriculture| ]] [[ar:زراعة]] [[an:Agricultura]] [[ast:Agricultura]] [[bg:Селско стопанство]] [[ca:Agricultura]] [[cs:Zemědělství]] [[cy:Amaeth]] [[da:Landbrug]] [[de:Landwirtschaft]] [[et:Põllumajandus]] [[es:Agricultura]] [[eo:Agrikulturo]] [[fa:کشاورزی]] [[fr:Agriculture]] [[fy:Lânbou]] [[gl:Agricultura]] [[ko:농업]] [[io:Agrokultivo]] [[id:Pertanian]] [[ia:Agricultura]] [[iu:ᐱᕈᕐᓰᓂᖅ ᓂᐅᕐᕈᑎᒃᓴᓕᐊᕆᓪᓗᒋᑦ]] [[is:Landbúnaður]] [[it:Agricoltura]] [[he:חקלאות]] [[ka:სოფლის მეურნეობა]] [[lad:Agrikultura]] [[la:Agricultura]] [[li:Landboew]] [[hu:Mezőgazdaság]] [[mk:Земјоделство]] [[nah:Millacayotl]] [[nl:Landbouw]] [[nds:Bueree]] [[ja:農業]] [[no:Landbruk]] [[nn:Landbruk]] [[pl:Rolnictwo]] [[pt:Agricultura]] [[ro:Agricultură]] [[ru:Сельское хозяйство]] [[sh:Poljoprivreda]] [[scn:Agricultura]] [[simple:Agriculture]] [[sl:Kmetijstvo]] [[sr:Пољопривреда]] [[su:Agrikultur]] [[fi:Maatalous]] [[sv:Jordbruk]] [[tl:Agrikultura]] [[ta:வேளாண்மை]] [[vi:Nông nghiệp]] [[uk:Сільське господарство]] [[zh:农业]] 628 39834738 2006-02-16T04:24:15Z Kriegman 181058 /* External links */ link to interviews '''Aldous Leonard Huxley''' ([[July 26]], [[1894]] &ndash; [[November 22]], [[1963]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[writer]] who emigrated to the [[United States]]. He was a member of the famous [[Huxley family]] who produced a number of brilliant scientific minds. Best known for his [[novel]]s and wide-ranging output of [[essay]]s, he also published [[short stories]], [[poetry]], [[travel writing]], and [[film]] stories and scripts. Through his novels and essays Huxley functioned as an examiner and sometimes critic of social mores, societal norms and ideals, and possible misapplications of science in [[human]] [[life]]. While his earlier concerns might be called "[[humanist]]," ultimately, he became quite interested in "spiritual" subjects like [[parapsychology]] and [[mysticism|mystically]] based [[philosophy]], which he also wrote about. By the end of his life, Huxley was considered, in certain circles, a 'leader of modern thought'. ==Biography== ===Early years=== [[Image:Huxley-Arnold family tree.png|thumb|right|Family tree]] Huxley was born in [[Godalming]], [[Surrey]], [[England]]. He was the son of the [[writer]] [[Leonard Huxley (writer)|Leonard Huxley]] by his first wife, [[Julia Arnold]]; and grandson of [[Thomas Henry Huxley]], one of the most important naturalists of the 19th Century, a man known as "Darwin's Bulldog." His brother [[Julian Huxley]] was a [[biology|biologist]] also noted for his [[evolution|evolutionary]] theories. Huxley understandably excelled in the areas he took up professionally, for on his father's side were a number of noted men of [[science]], while on his mother's were people of [[literature|literary]] accomplishment. Huxley was a lanky, delicately framed child who was gifted intellectually. His father was a professional [[herbalist]] as well as an author, so Aldous began his learning in his father's well-equipped [[botanical]] [[laboratory]], then continued in a school named Hillside, which his mother supervised for several years until she became terminally ill. From the age of nine, Aldous was then educated in the British [[boarding school]] system. He took readily to the handling of ideas. His mother Julia died in [[1908]], when Aldous was only fourteen, and his sister Roberta died of an unrelated incident in the same month. Three years later Aldous suffered an illness ([[Keratitis|keratitis punctata]]) which seriously damaged his eyesight. His older brother Trev committed [[suicide]] in 1914. Aldous's near-[[blindness]] disqualified him from service in [[World War I]]. Once his eyesight recovered, he was able to read [[English literature]] at [[Balliol College, Oxford|Balliol College]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]], where he was a member of the [[Cambridge Apostles]]. Maturing as a lean young man well over six feet in height, the cerebrotonic Huxley's initial interest in literature was primarily intellectual. While he was noted for his personal kindliness, only considerably later (some say under the influence of such friends as [[D.H. Lawrence]]) did he heartily embrace ''feelings'' as matters of importance in his evolving personal philosophy and literary expression. Following his education at [[Balliol]], Huxley was financially indebted to his father and had to earn a living. For a short while in [[1918]], he was employed acquiring provisions at the [[Air Ministry]]. But never desiring a career in administration (or in business), Huxley's lack of inherited means propelled him into applied literary work. Huxley had completed his first (unpublished) novel at the age of seventeen and began writing seriously in his early twenties. He wrote great novels on dehumanising aspects of scientific progress, most famously ''[[Brave New World]]'', and on [[pacifism|pacifist]] themes (e.g. ''[[Eyeless in Gaza]]''). Huxley was strongly influenced by [[F. Matthias Alexander]] and included him as a character in ''Eyeless in Gaza''. ===Middle years=== Already a noted [[satire|satirist]] and social thinker, during [[World War I]], Huxley spent much of his time at [[Garsington Manor]], home of Lady [[Ottoline Morrell]]. Later, in ''[[Crome Yellow]]'' ([[1921]]) he caricatured the Garsington lifestyle. He married Maria Nys, whom he had met at Garsington. They had one child, Matthew, who grew up to be an [[epidemiologist]]. Huxley moved to [[Hollywood, California| Hollywood]], [[California]] in [[1937]] with his wife and friend [[Gerald Heard]]. Heard introduced Huxley to [[Vedanta]] and [[meditation|meditating]]. In Huxley's 1937 book ''Ends and Means'', most people in modern civilization agree that they want a world of 'liberty, peace, justice, and brotherly love', though they haven't been able to agree on how to achieve it. His book goes on to explore why the confusion or disagreement is there and what might be done about it. In [[1938]] Huxley befriended [[J. Krishnamurti]], whose teachings he greatly admired. He also became a [[Vedantist]] in the circle of [[Swami]] [[Swami Prabhavananda | Prabhavananda]], and he also introduced [[Christopher Isherwood]] to this circle. Not long after, Huxley wrote his book on widely held spiritual values and ideas, ''The Perennial Philosophy'', which discussed teachings of the world's great mystics. For most of his life since the illness in his teens which left Huxley nearly blind, his eyesight was poor (despite the partial recovery which had enabled him to study at Oxford). Around 1939 he heard of the [[Bates Method]] for [[Natural Vision Improvement]], and of a teacher (Margaret Corbett) who was able to teach him in the method. He claimed his sight improved dramatically as a result of using the method, then later wrote a book about it (The Art of Seeing) which was published in 1942 (US), 1943 (UK). He reported that for the first time in over 25 years, he was able to read without [[glasses|spectacles]] and without strain. He was a [[screenwriter]] for the [[1940]] production of [[Pride and Prejudice]]. ===Later years=== After World War II Huxley applied for [[United States]] citizenship, but was denied because he would not say he would take up arms to defend America. He became a [[vegetarianism|vegetarian]]. Thereafter, his works were strongly influenced by [[mysticism]] and his experiences with the [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|hallucinogenic drug]] [[mescaline]], to which he was introduced by the psychiatrist [[Humphry Osmond]] in [[1953]]. His years on psychoactive drugs were described as a paradise, washed down with [[bourbon]], generally. He was a pioneer of self-directed psychedelic drug use in a search for enlightenment, famously taking 100 micrograms of [[LSD]] as he lay dying. Huxley's [[psychedelic]] [[Recreational drug use|drug]] experiences are described in the essays ''[[The Doors of Perception]]'' (the title deriving from some lines in the book ''[[The Marriage of Heaven and Hell]]'' by [[William Blake]]) and ''[[Heaven and Hell (essay)|Heaven and Hell]]''. The title of the former became the inspiration for the naming of the [[Rock (music)|rock]] band, [[The Doors]]. Some of his writings on psychedelics became frequent reading among early [[hippies]]. Huxley's main interest was not in just ''anything'' vague, mysterious, or subjective, but in what is sometimes termed "higher mysticism"; he liked the term "[[perennial philosophy]]" that he used as the title of his noted book on the topic. During the 1950s, Huxley's interest in the related field of [[psychical research]] grew keener. Huxley's wife, Maria, died of [[breast cancer]] in [[1955]], and in [[1956]] he remarried, to [[Laura Huxley|Laura Archera]], who was herself an author and who wrote a [[biography]] of Aldous. In [[1960]], Huxley was diagnosed with [[laryngeal cancer|throat cancer]]. In the years that followed, with his health deteriorating, he wrote the utopian novel ''[[Island (novel)|Island]]'', and gave lectures on "Human Potentialities" at the [[Esalen]] institute. In [[1959]] Huxley, who remained a [[British Citizen]], turned down an offer of a [[Knight Bachelor]] by the [[Harold_MacMillan#Government|Macmillan government]]. His ideas were foundational to the forming of the [[Human Potential Movement]]. He was also invited to speak at several prestigious American universities. At a speech given in [[1961]] at the California Medical School in [[San Francisco]], Huxley warned: "There will be in the next generation or so a pharmacological method of making people love their servitude and producing dictatorship without tears, so to speak, producing a kind of painless [[concentration camp]] for entire societies so that people will in fact have their liberties taken away from them but will rather enjoy it," an idea not dissimilar to his contemporary writer [[J. B. Priestley]]'s idea in [[The Magicians]]. Huxley's views on the proper roles of science and technology (as he portrayed these, say, in ''Island'') are akin to some other noted English and American thinkers of the twentieth century, such as [[Lewis Mumford]] and Huxley's friend [[Gerald Heard]] (and, in some ways, [[Buckminster Fuller]] and [[E.F. Schumacher]]). Clearly, these men found descendants in some significant movers of a younger generation, e.g., [[Stewart Brand]]. Via Gerald Heard, Huxley was introduced to the young [[Huston Smith]], who went on to become a prolific and famous scholar on the religions of man. The two friends acquianted Smith with Vedanta and meditative practice. Later, while Huxley was a guest professor at [[M.I.T.]], he made introductions between Smith and [[Timothy Leary]] that lead to epiphanies Smith covers in his later book, ''Cleansing of the Doors of Perception''.<sup>[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1591810086]</sup> Amongst humanists, Huxley was considered an intellectual's intellectual. Although his financial circumstances had forced him to churn out articles and books, his thinking and ''best'' writing earned him an exalted esteem. His books were frequently on the required reading lists of English and modern philosophy courses in American colleges and universities. He was one of the twentieth-century thinkers honoured in the Scribners Publishing's "Leaders of Modern Thought" series (a volume of biography and literary criticism by Philip Thody, ''Aldous Huxley''). ===Death and afterwards=== On his deathbed, unable to speak, he made a written request to his wife for "[[LSD]], 100 [[microgram|µg]], [[Intramuscular injection|i.m.]]" She obliged, and he died peacefully the following morning, [[November 22]], [[1963]]. Media coverage of his death was overshadowed by news of the [[assassination of President John F. Kennedy]], which occurred on the same day, as did the death of the [[Ireland|Irish]] author [[C. S. Lewis]]. In all of Huxley's mature writings, one finds an awareness that seems to bridge the gap between "[[The Two Cultures]]" &ndash; the [[sciences]] and the [[humanities]]. This gulf posed a potentially enormous problem, one that was recognized by other thinkers during Huxley's lifetime, such as [[C.P. Snow]]. The interest among professors of humanities and [[liberal arts]] in Huxley's work, both during the writer's lifetime and afterwards, rests on this consciousness on the part of the author, and of course on the artful and often humorous way in which he expressed himself. Huxley's [[satirical]], [[dystopia]]n, and [[utopia]]n novels seldom fail to stimulate thought. The same may be said for his essays and essay collections. Perhaps his main message is the tragedy that frequently follows from [[egocentrism]], self-centredness, and selfishness. ==Films== Huxley wrote many [[screenplay]]s, and many of his novels were later adapted for film or [[television]]. Notable works include the original screenplay for [[The_Walt_Disney_Company|Disney]]'s animated ''[[Alice in Wonderland (1951 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]'', two productions of ''[[Brave New World]]'', one of ''[[Point Counter Point]]'', one of ''[[Eyeless in Gaza]]'', and one of ''[[Ape and Essence]]''. He was one of the screenwriters for the 1940 version of ''[[Pride and Prejudice (1940 movie)|Pride and Prejudice]]'' and co-wrote the screenplay for the 1944 version of ''[[Jane Eyre (1944 movie)|Jane Eyre]]'' with [[John Houseman]]. Director [[Ken Russell]]'s [[1971]] film ''[[The Devils (film)|The Devils]]'', starring [[Vanessa Redgrave]], is adapted from Huxley's ''[[The Devils of Loudun]]'', and a 1990 made-for-television film adaptation of ''Brave New World'' was directed by [[Burt Brinckeroffer]] ==Selected works== ===Novels=== *''[[Crome Yellow]]'' ([[1921]]) *''[[Antic Hay]]'' ([[1923]]) *''[[Those Barren Leaves]]'' ([[1925]]) *''[[Point Counter Point]]'' ([[1928]]) *''[[Brave New World]]'' ([[1932]]) *''[[Eyeless in Gaza]]'' ([[1936]]) *''[[After Many a Summer]]'' ([[1939]]) *''[[Time Must Have a Stop]]'' ([[1944]]) *''[[Ape and Essence]]'' ([[1948]]) *''[[The Genius and the Goddess]]'' ([[1955]]) *''[[Island (novel)|Island]]'' ([[1962]]) ===Short stories=== *''[[Limbo]]'' ([[1920]]) *''[[Mortal Coils]]'' ([[1922]]) *''[[Brief Candles]]'' ([[1930]]) *''[[Two or Three Graces]]'' *''[[Little Mexican]]'' *''[[The Young Arquimedes]]'' *''[[Jacob's Hands; A Fable]]'' (Late [[1930s]]) ===Poetry=== *''[[The Burning Wheel]]'' ([[1916]]) *''Jonah'' ([[1917]]) *''[[The Defeat of Youth]]'' ([[1918]]) *''[[Leda]]'' ([[1920]]) *''[[Arabia Infelix]]'' ([[1929]]) *''[[The Cicadias and Other Poems]]'' ([[1931]]) ===Travel writing=== *''[[Along The Road]]'' ([[1925]]) *''[[John 18:38|Jesting Pilate]]'' ([[1926]]) *''[[Beyond the Mexique Bay]]'' ([[1934]]) ===Essays=== *''[[Do What You Will]]'' ([[1929]]) *''[[The Olive Tree (Essay)|The Olive Tree]]'' ([[1936]]) *''[[The Art of Seeing]]'' ([[1942]]) *''[[Tomorrow and Tomorrow and Tomorrow]]'' ([[1952]]) *''[[The Doors of Perception]]'' ([[1954]]) *''[[Heaven and Hell (essay)|Heaven and Hell]]'' ([[1956]]) *''[[Brave_New_World#Brave New World Revisited|Brave New World Revisited]]'' ([[1958]]) *''[[Literature and Science]]'' ([[1963]]) ===Philosophy=== *''[[Ends and Means]]'' ([[1937]]) *''[[The Perennial Philosophy]]'' ([[1944]]) ISBN 006057058X ===Biography=== *''[[Grey Eminence]]'' ([[1941]]) *''[[The Devils of Loudun]]'' ([[1952]]) ===Children's literature=== *''[[The Crows of Pearblossom]]'' ([[1967]]) ===Collections=== *''[[Text and Pretext]]'' ([[1933]]) * ''[[Collected Short Stories]]'' ([[1957]]) * ''[[Moksha: Writings on Psychedelics and the Visionary Experience]]'' ([[1977]]) == Quotes == *On [http://www.cybernation.com/quotationcenter/quoteshow.php?type=author&id=4470 truth]: "Great is truth, but still greater, from a practical point of view, is silence about truth. By simply not mentioning certain subjects... totalitarian propagandists have influenced opinion much more effectively than they could have by the most eloquent denunciations." *On the [[New World Order]][http://www.cybernation.com/quotationcenter/quoteshow.php?type=author&id=4470] (1959): "And it seems to me perfectly in the cards that there will be within the next generation or so a pharmacological method of making people love their servitude, and producing … a kind of painless concentration camp for entire societies, so that people will in fact have their liberties taken away from them but will rather enjoy it, because they will be distracted from any desire to rebel by propaganda, brainwashing, or brainwashing enhanced by pharmacological methods." *On [http://www.cybernation.com/quotationcenter/quoteshow.php?type=author&id=4470 social organizations]: "One of the many reasons for the bewildering and tragic character of human existence is the fact that social organization is at once necessary and fatal. Men are forever creating such organizations for their own convenience and forever finding themselves the victims of their home-made monsters." ==Trivia== *He was six feet four and a half inches tall; *Studied ballet for several years; *Was [[George_Orwell|George Orwell's]] [[French language|French]] teacher for a term at [[Eton College|Eton]]. *Is shown on the cover of [[The Beatles]] album [[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]] as number 18, in the top right hand corner. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.yoism.org/?q=node/143 Video interviews of Huxley] from the 1950's, exploring ''Brave New World'', ''Island'', and psychedelics * [http://movies2.nytimes.com/gst/movies/movie.html?v_id=158613 The Gravity of Light]]. * {{isfdb name | id=Aldous_Huxley | name=Aldous Huxley}} * {{gutenberg author | id=Aldous_Huxley | name=Aldous Huxley}} * [http://huxley.net/bnw/index.html Brave New World], the complete book * [http://somaweb.org/ SomaWeb: Extensive Aldous Huxley bibliography and links to online material] * [http://island.org/ Island Web: Creating a New Culture as Inspired by the Ideas of Aldous Huxley] Website of the Island Foundation * [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/VideoTest/hux1.ram The Ultimate Revolution] (talk at [[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]], March 20, 1962) [[Category:Polymaths|Huxley, Aldous]] [[Category:Natives of Surrey|Huxley, Aldous]] [[Category:Huxley family|Huxley, Aldous]] [[Category:Former students of Balliol College, Oxford|Huxley, Aldous]] [[Category:English novelists|Huxley, Aldous]] [[Category:British science fiction writers|Huxley, Aldous]] [[Category:English science fiction writers|Huxley, Aldous]] [[Category:English poets|Huxley, Aldous]] [[Category:English essayists|Huxley, Aldous]] [[Category:English satirists|Huxley, Aldous]] [[Category:English short story writers|Huxley, Aldous]] [[Category:English travel writers|Huxley, Aldous]] [[Category:Psychedelic advocates and proponents|Huxley, Aldous]] [[Category:Human Potential Movement|Huxley, Aldous]] [[Category:Vegetarians|Huxley, Aldous]] [[cs:Aldous Huxley]] [[da:Aldous Huxley]] [[de:Aldous Huxley]] [[es:Aldous Huxley]] [[eo:Aldous HUXLEY]] [[eu:Aldous Huxley]] [[fr:Aldous Huxley]] [[hr:Aldous Huxley]] [[it:Aldous Huxley]] [[he:אלדוס האקסלי]] [[ka:ჰაქსლი, ოლდოს ლეონარდ]] [[nl:Aldous Huxley]] [[ja:オルダス・ハクスリー]] [[pl:Aldous Huxley]] [[pt:Aldous Huxley]] [[ru:Хаксли, Олдос Леонард]] [[simple:Aldous Huxley]] [[sr:Алдо Хаксли]] [[fi:Aldous Huxley]] [[sv:Aldous Huxley]] [[th:อัลดัส ฮักซเลย์]] [[tr:Aldous Huxley]] 629 15899158 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Abstract algebra]] 630 41416699 2006-02-27T04:27:24Z TShilo12 153537 dab Hebrew {{Wiktionarypar2|ADA|Ada}} Meanings of '''Ada''': === People === * Variant [[transliteration]] of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [[Adah]]. * [[Ada Lovelace|Ada, Lady Lovelace]] * Ada, sister of [[Charlemagne]], for whom the [[Ada Gospels]] at Trier were produced. * [[Ada of Caria|Ada]], [[satrap]] of [[Caria]], deposed by her brother [[Idrieus]], restored by [[Alexander the Great]] === Places === * [[Ada, Afghanistan]] * [[Ada, Saskatchewan]], [[Canada]] * [[Ada, Ghana]] * [[Ada, Greece]] * [[Ada, Nigeria]] * [[Ada, Serbia]] *[[Ada, Oregon]], USA (historical) *[[Ada County, Idaho]], USA *[[Ada Division, Oklahoma]], USA *[[Ada, Alabama]], USA *[[Ada, Arkansas]], USA *[[Ada, Kansas]], USA *[[Ada, Louisiana]], USA *[[Ada, Michigan]], USA *[[Ada, Minnesota]], USA *[[Ada, Ohio]], USA *[[Ada, Oklahoma]], USA *[[Ada, Virginia]], USA *[[Ada, Wisconsin]], USA *[[Ada, West Virginia]], USA *[[Ada Township, Michigan]], USA *[[Ada Township, North Dakota]], USA *[[Ada Township, South Dakota]], USA ===[[Acronym_and_initialism|Initialism]]s=== * [[Aeronautical Development Agency]] of [[India]]'s Ministry of Defence * [[Air Defense Artillery]] a branch of the [[United States Army]] * [[American Decency Association]] * [[American Dental Association]] * [[American Diabetes Association]] * [[American Dietetic Association]] * [[Americans For Democratic Action]] * [[Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990|Americans with Disabilities Act]] * [[Aotearoa Digital Arts]] - http://ada.waikato.ac.nz/ * [[United_States_Attorney|Assistant district attorney]] * Average Daily Attendance === Other === * [[Ada programming language]] * ''[[Ada (orchid)|Ada]]'', a genus of [[orchid]]s * The short title of ''[[Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle]]'', a novel by [[Vladimir Nabokov]] (1969). * [[Ada (demon)|Ada]], A [[demon]], after which [[Adasaurus]] was named. * [[Ada (film)|Ada]] , A film directed by [[Daniel Mann]], with [[Susan Hayward]] y [[Dean Martin]]. * means "father" in Sindarin Elvish {{TLAdisambig}} [[da:Ada]] [[de:Ada]] [[es:ADA]] [[eo:Ada]] [[fr:Ada]] [[hu:Ada]] [[nn:Ada]] [[pl:Ada]] [[sv:Ada]] [[tr:Ada (anlam ayrım)]] 632 39241965 2006-02-11T20:13:26Z Kjkolb 107439 removed pipe link as per MoS '''Aberdeen''' may refer to: === Places === In [[Scotland]]: * [[Aberdeen]], a major port city in north-east Scotland In [[Australia]]: * [[Aberdeen, New South Wales]] In [[Canada]]: * [[Aberdeen Centre]], an Asian-themed shopping mall in Richmond, British Columbia. * [[Aberdeen, British Columbia]] - two locations: ** [[Aberdeen, Fraser Valley Regional District, British Columbia]] ** [[Aberdeen, Thompson-Nicola Regional District, British Columbia]] * [[Aberdeen, New Brunswick]] * [[Aberdeen, Nova Scotia]] * [[New Aberdeen, Nova Scotia]] * [[Aberdeen Bay, Nunavut]] * [[Aberdeen Lake, Nunavut]] * [[Aberdeen, Ontario]] - two locations: ** [[Aberdeen, Ontario (Grey County)]] ** [[Aberdeen, Ontario (Prescott and Russell County)]] * [[Aberdeen Township, Ontario]] * [[Macdonald, Merideth and Aberdeen Additional, Ontario]] * [[Sheen-Esher-Aberdeen-et-Malakoff, Quebec]] * [[Aberdeen, Saskatchewan]] * [[Aberdeen No. 373, Saskatchewan]] In [[China]]: * [[Aberdeen Harbour, Hong Kong]] In [[South Africa]]: * [[Aberdeen, South Africa]] In the [[United States]]: * [[Aberdeen, Arkansas]] * [[Aberdeen, California]] * [[Aberdeen, Florida]] * [[Aberdeen, Georgia]] * [[Aberdeen, Idaho]] * [[Aberdeen, Indiana]] * [[Aberdeen, Kentucky]] * [[Aberdeen, Massachusetts]] * [[Aberdeen, Maryland]] * [[Aberdeen, Mississippi]] * [[Aberdeen, Montana]] * [[Aberdeen Township, New Jersey]] * [[Aberdeen, North Carolina]] * [[Aberdeen, Ohio]] * [[Aberdeen, Pennsylvania]] * [[Aberdeen, South Dakota]] * [[Aberdeen, Texas]] * [[Aberdeen, Washington]] * [[Aberdeen, West Virginia]] === Other === * [[Aberdeen (band)]], an American rock band. * [[Aberdeen (movie)]], a movie (2000) directed by [[Hans Petter Moland]], starring [[Stellan Skarsgård]] and [[Lena Headey]]. *[[Aberdeen City (band)]] * [[Aberdeen Proving Ground]], a [[U.S. Army]] installation in [[Maryland]]. {{disambig}} [[cs:Aberdeen]] [[de:Aberdeen (Begriffsklärung)]] [[et:Aberdeen (täpsustus)]] [[fr:Aberdeen (homonymie)]] [[gl:Aberdeen]] [[pl:Aberdeen]] 633 42158817 2006-03-04T05:14:26Z 68.103.121.196 added link to Cyanosite, the premier webserver for bluegreen algae :''This article is about an organism. See [[algae programming language]] for a [[programming language]] in [[computing]].'' [[Image:Laurencia.jpg|300px|thumb|right|A seaweed (''Laurencia'') up close: the "branches" are multicellular and only about 1 mm thick. Much smaller algae are seen growing attached to the structure extending upwards in the lower right quarter]] '''Algae''' (singular ''alga'') encompass several different groups of living organisms that capture light energy through [[photosynthesis]], converting inorganic substances into simple sugars using the captured energy. Algae have been traditionally regarded as simple [[plant]]s, and some are closely related to the [[embryophyte|higher plant]]s. Others appear to represent different [[protist]] groups, alongside other organisms that are traditionally considered more animal-like (that is, [[protozoa]]). Thus algae do not represent a single evolutionary direction or line, but a level of organization that may have developed several times in the early history of life on earth. Algae range from single-celled organisms to multi-cellular organisms, some with fairly complex differentiated form and (if marine) called [[seaweed]]s. All lack [[leaf|leaves]], [[root]]s, [[flower]]s, and other organ structures that characterize higher plants. They are distinguished from other [[protozoa]] in that they are [[autotrophic|photoautotrophic]], although this is not a hard and fast distinction as some groups contain members that are [[mixotrophic]], deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by [[osmotrophy]], [[myzocytosis|myzotrophy]], or [[phagocytosis|phagotrophy]]. Some unicellular species rely entirely on external energy sources and have reduced or lost their photosynthetic apparatus. All algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from the [[cyanobacteria]], and so produce [[oxygen]] as a by-product of photosynthesis, unlike non-cyanobacterial photosynthetic bacteria. Algae are usually found in damp places or bodies of water and thus are common in terrestrial as well as aquatic environments. However, terrestrial algae are usually rather inconspicuous and far more common in moist, tropical regions than dry ones, because algae lack vascular tissues and other adaptions to live on land. Algae can endure dryness and other conditions in symbiosis with a fungus as [[lichen]]. The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column&mdash;called '''[[phytoplankton]]'''&mdash;provide the food base for most marine [[food chain]]s. In very high densities (so-called [[algal bloom]]s) these algae may discolor the water and outcompete or poison other life forms. [[Seaweed]]s grow mostly in shallow marine waters. Some are used as human food or harvested for useful substances such as [[agar]] or fertilizer. The study of algae is called [[phycology]] or algology. == Relationships among algal groups == === Prokaryotic algae === Traditionally the [[cyanobacteria]] have been included among the algae, referred to as the ''cyanophytes'' or ''Blue-green Algae'', (the term "algae" refers to any aquatic organisms capable of photosynthesis)[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/bacteria/cyanolh.html], though some recent treatises on algae specifically exclude them. [[Cyanobacteria]] are some of the oldest organisms to appear in the [[fossil record]], dating back about 3.8 billion years ([[Precambrian]]). Ancient cyanobacteria likely produced much of the [[oxygen]] in the Earth's atmosphere. [[Cyanobacteria]] can be unicellular, colonial, or filamentous. They have a [[prokaryote|prokaryotic]] cell structure typical of bacteria and conduct photosynthesis directly within the [[cytoplasm]], rather than in specialized organelles. Some filamentous [[blue-green algae]] have specialized cells, termed heterocysts, in which [[nitrogen fixation]] occurs. [http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/e42/42a.htm] === Eukaryotic algae === All other algae are [[eukaryote]]s and conduct photosynthesis within membrane-bound structures (organelles) called [[chloroplast]]s. Chloroplasts contain DNA and are similar in structure to cyanobacteria, presumably representing reduced cyanobacterial [[endosymbiotic theory|endosymbionts]]. The exact nature of the chloroplasts is different among the different lines of algae, reflecting different endosymbiotic events. There are three groups ([[Archaeplastida]]) that have ''primary'' chloroplasts: * [[Green alga]]e, together with [[embryophyte|higher plant]]s * [[Red alga]]e * [[Glaucophyte]]s In these groups, the chloroplast is surrounded by two membranes and probably developed through a single endosymbiosis. The chloroplasts of red algae have a more or less typical cyanobacterial pigmentation, while those of the green alga have chloroplasts with chlorophyll ''a'' and ''b'', the latter found in some cyanobacteria and not most. Higher plants are pigmented similarly to green algae and probably developed from them. Two other groups of algae have green chloroplasts containing chlorophyll ''b'': * [[Euglenid]]s and * [[Chlorarachniophyte]]s. These are surrounded by three and four membranes, respectively, and were probably retained from an ingested green alga. Those of the chlorarchniophytes contain a small nucleomorph, which is the remnant of the alga's [[cell nucleus|nucleus]]. It has been suggested that the euglenid chloroplasts only have three membranes because they were acquired through [[myzocytosis]] rather than [[phagocytosis]]. The remaining algae all have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls ''a'' and ''c''. The latter chlorophyll type is not known from any prokaryotes or primary chloroplasts, but genetic similarities with the red algae suggest a relationship there. These groups include: * [[Heterokont]]s (e.g., golden algae, diatoms, brown algae) * [[Haptophyte]]s (e.g., coccolithophores) * [[Cryptomonad]]s * [[Dinoflagellate]]s In the first three of these groups ([[Chromista]]), the chloroplast has four membranes, retaining a nucleomorph in cryptomonads, and they likely share a common pigmented ancestor. The typical dinoflagellate chloroplast has three membranes, but there is considerable diversity in chloroplasts among the group, as some members have acquired theirs from different sources. The [[Apicomplexa]], a group of closely related parasites, also have [[plastid]]s though not actual chloroplasts, which appear to have a common origin with those of the dinoflagellates. Note many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic. Some retain plastids, but not chloroplasts, while others have lost them entirely. == Forms of algae == Most of the simpler algae are unicellular [[flagellate]]s or [[amoeboid]]s, but colonial and non-motile forms have developed independently among several of the groups. Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the [[Biological life cycle|life cycle]] of a species, are: * ''Colonial'' - small, regular groups of motile cells * ''Capsoid'' - individual non-motile cells embedded in [[mucilage]] * ''Coccoid'' - individual non-motile cells with cell walls * ''Palmelloid'' - non-motile cells embedded in mucilage * ''Filamentous'' - a string of non-motile cells connected together, sometimes branching * ''Parenchymatous'' - cells forming a [[thallus (tissue)|thallus]] with partial differentiation of tissues In three lines even higher levels of organization have been reached, leading to organisms with full tissue differentiation. These are the [[brown alga]]e&mdash;some of which may reach 70 m in length ([[kelp]]s)&mdash;the [[red alga]]e, and the [[green alga]]e. The most complex forms are found among the green algae (see [[Charales]]), in a lineage that eventually led to the higher land plants. The point where these non-algal plants begin and algae stop is usually taken to be the presence of reproductive organs with protective cell layers, a characteristic not found in the other alga groups. == Algae and symbioses== Some species of algae form [[symbiosis|symbiotic relationships]] with other organisms. In these symbioses, the algae supply photosynthates (organic substances) to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells. The host organism derives some or all of its energy requirements from the alga. Examples include: * ''lichens'' - a fungus is the host, usually with a green alga or a cyanobacterium as its symbiont. Both fungal and algal species found in lichens are capable of living independently, although habitat requirements may be greatly different from those of the lichen pair. * ''corals'' - algae known as [[zooxanthella]]e are symbionts with [[coral]]s. Notable amongst these is the dinoflagellate ''Symbiodinium'', found in many hard corals. The loss of ''Symbiodinium'', or other zooxanthellae, from the host is known as [[coral bleaching]]. * ''sponges'' - == Uses of algae == Algae are used by man in a great many ways. Because many species are aquatic and microscopic, they are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds. [[Algae culture]] on a large scale is an important type of [[aquaculture]] in some places. ===Energy source=== *Algae can be used to produce [[biodiesel]] (see [[algae culture#biodiesel production|algae culture]]), and by some estimates can produce vastly superior amounts of oil, compared to terrestrial crops grown for the same purpose. Because algae grown to produce biodiesel does not need to meet the requirements of a food crop, it is much cheaper to produce. Also it does not need fresh water or fertilizer (both of which are quite expensive). *Algae can be grown to produce [[hydrogen]]. In 1939 a German researcher named [[Hans Gaffron]], while working at the University of Chicago, observed that the algae he was studying, [[Chlamydomonas reinhardtii]] (a green-algae), would sometimes switch from the production of oxygen to the production of hydrogen.[http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,54456,00.html] Gaffron never discovered the cause for this change and for many years other scientists failed in their attempts at its discovery. In the late 1990's professor [[Anastasios Melis]] a researcher at the University of California at Berkeley discovered that if you deprive the algae of sulfur it will switch from the production of oxygen (normal photosynthesis), to the production of hydrogen. He found that the [[enzyme]] responsible for this reaction is [[hydrogenase]], but that the hydrogenase will not cause this switch in the pressence of oxygen. Melis found that depleting the amount of sulfur available to the algae interrupted its internal oxygen flow, allowing the hydrogenase an environment in which it can react, causing the algae to produce hydrogen. [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/10.04/mustread.html?pg=5] [[Chlamydomonas moeweesi]] is also a good strain for the production of hydrogen. *Algae can be grown to produce [[biomass]], which can be burned to produce heat and electricity. [http://pmb.berkeley.edu/newPMB/faculty/melis/melis.shtml pmb.berkeley.edu] ===Pollution control=== * Algae are used in wastewater treatment facilities, reducing the need for more dangerous chemicals. * Algae can be used to capture [[fertilizers]] in runoff from farms. If this algae is then harvested, it itself can be used as fertilizer. * Algae are used by some powerplants to reduce CO2 [[emissions]][http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2006-01-10-algae-powerplants_x.htm]. The CO2 is pumped into a pond, or some kind of tank, on which the algae feed. ===Nutritional value of algae=== *Algae is commercially cultivated as a nutritional supplement. One of the most popular [[microalgal]] species is [[Spirulina]] (Arthrospira platensis), which is a [[Cyanobacteria]] (known as blue-green algae), and has been hailed by some as a superfood. [http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/algae.htm]Other algal species cultivated for their nutritional value include; [[Chlorella]] (a green algae), and [[Dunaliella]] (Dunaliella salina), which is high in [[beta-carotene]] and is used in vitamin C supplements. *Algae is sometimes also used as a food, as in the Chinese "vegetable" known as ''[[fat choy (vegetable)|fat choy]]'' (which is actually a [[cyanobacterium]]). *The oil from some algae have high levels of unsaturated fatty acids. [[Arachidonic acid]](a polyunsaturated fatty acid), is very high in [[parietochloris incisa]], (a green algae) where it reaches up to 47% of the triglyceride pool (Bigogno C et al. Phytochemistry 2002, 60, 497). [http://www.spirulinasource.com/earthfoodch8a.html www.spirulinasource.com] [http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~rdb/opa-g137.html www.cfsan.fda.gov] FDA on algal-oil use in food products The natural [[pigment]]s produced by algae can be used as an alternative to chemical [[dyes]] and coloring agents. [http://www.bgu.ac.il/bgn/Microalgae.html] Many of the paper products used today are not recyclable because of the chemical inks that they use, paper recyclers have found that inks made from algae are much easier to break down. There is also much interest in the food industry into replacing the coloring agents that are currently used with coloring derived from algal pigments. ==See also== * [[Algae culture]] * [[Brown Algae]] * [[Coccolithophore]] * [[Cyanobacteria]] * [[Diatom]] * [[Golden Algae]] * [[Green Algae]] * [[List of publications in biology#Phycology|Important publications in phycology]] * [[Red Algae]] * [[Yellow-Green Algae]] == External links == *[http://www.phyco.org/phyco/index.php/Main_Page www.phyco.org]; a wiki-based site that is focused on energy production from algae. *[http://forums.biodieselnow.com/forum.asp?FORUM_ID=71 biodieselnow.com] biodiesel production-biodiesel from algae *[http://www.algaebase.org/ www.algaebase.org] *[http://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/information_about_plants/botanical_info/australian_freshwater_algae2 Australian freshwater algae] - Sydney Botanic Gardens *[http://www.algae.info/ Learn about Algae & Algal Blooms] - Rural Chemical Industries (Aust.) Pty Ltd. *[http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/ Harmful Algal Blooms - "Red tide"] - National Office for Marine Biotoxins and Harmful Algal Blooms, USA. *[http://www.nmnh.si.edu/botany/projects/algae/Alg-Menu.htm Algae Section, National Museum of Natural History] - Smithsonian Institution *[http://www.plantphysiol.org/ www.plantphysiol.org] *[http://www-cyanosite.bio.purdue.edu/ Cyanosite] [[Category:Algae|Algae]] [[Category:Botany]] [[ar:أشنيات]] [[bg:Водорасли]] [[ca:Alga]] [[da:Alge]] [[de:Alge]] [[et:Vetikad]] [[es:Alga]] [[eo:Algo]] [[fr:Algue]] [[gl:Alga]] [[it:Alga]] [[he:אצות]] [[lt:Dumbliai]] [[lv:Aļģes]] [[mk:Алги]] [[nl:Algen]] [[ja:藻類]] [[no:Alge]] [[nn:Alge]] [[pl:Glony]] [[pt:Alga]] [[ru:Водоросли]] [[sl:Alge]] [[sr:Алге]] [[sv:Alg]] [[ta:பாசிகள்]] [[zh:藻類]] 634 41806464 2006-03-01T21:50:23Z Schwnj 108312 /* External links */ rm commerical link In [[statistics]], '''analysis of variance''' ('''ANOVA''') is a collection of [[statistical model]]s and their associated procedures which compare means by splitting the overall observed [[variance]] into different parts. The initial techniques of the analysis of variance were pioneered by the [[statistician]] and [[geneticist]] [[Ronald Fisher]] in the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]], and is sometimes known as '''Fisher's ANOVA''' or '''Fisher's analysis of variance'''. ==Overview== There are three conceptual classes of such models: *Fixed-effects model assumes that the data come from [[normal distribution|normal populations]] which differ in their means. *Random-effects models assume that the data describe a hierarchy of different populations whose differences are constrained by the hierarchy. *Mixed models describe situations where both fixed and random effects are present. The fundamental technique is a partitioning of the total sum of squares into components related to the effects in the model used. For example, we show the model for a simplified ANOVA with one type of treatment at different levels. (If the treatment levels are quantitative and the effects are linear, a [[linear regression]] analysis may be appropriate.) : <math>SS_{\hbox{Total}} = SS_{\hbox{Error}} + SS_{\hbox{Treatments}}.</math> The number of [[degrees of freedom]] (abbreviated ''df'') can be partitioned in a similar way and specifies the [[chi-square distribution]] which describes the associated sums of squares. : <math>df_{\hbox{Total}} = df_{\hbox{Error}} + df_{\hbox{Treatments}}.</math> == Fixed-effects model == The fixed-effects model of analysis of variance applies to situations in which the experimenter has subjected his experimental material to several treatments, each of which affects only the mean of the underlying normal distribution of the "response variable". == Random-effects model == Random effects models are used to describe situations in which incomparable differences in experimental material occur. The simplest example is that of estimating the unknown mean of a population whose individuals differ from each other. In this case, the variation between individuals is ''confounded'' with that of the observing instrument. == Degrees of freedom == Degrees of freedom indicates the effective number of observations which contribute to the sum of squares in an ANOVA, the total number of observations minus the number of linear constraints in the data. == Tests of significance == Analyses of variance lead to tests of [[statistical significance]] using [[Ronald Fisher|Fisher]]'s [[F-distribution]]. ==See also== *[[ANCOVA]] *[[MANOVA]] *[[list of publications in statistics#Analysis of variance |Important publications in analysis of variance]] *[[Multiple comparisons]] *[[Duncan's new multiple range test]] == External links == *[http://www.sixsigmafirst.com/anova.htm Analysis Of Variance (sixsigmafirst)] [[Category:Statistics]] [[de:Varianzanalyse]] [[es:Análisis de varianza]] [[fr:Analyse de la variance]] [[gl:Análise da varianza]] [[it:Analisi della varianza]] [[nl:Variantie-analyse]] [[pl:Analiza wariancji]] [[sl:Analiza variance]] [[su:Analisis varian]] 635 15899164 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]] 636 15899165 2003-01-17T05:40:55Z Ellmist 2214 #REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]] #REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]] 637 15899166 2003-01-17T05:41:09Z Ellmist 2214 #REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]] 638 15899167 2003-01-17T05:41:23Z Ellmist 2214 #REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]] #REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]] 639 41703306 2006-03-01T04:09:54Z Chobot 259798 robot Adding: el, ko Removing: no {{mergefrom|List of alkanes}} :''For [[Saturation (chemistry)|saturated]] [[hydrocarbon]]s containing one or more rings, see [[Cycloalkane]].'' An '''alkane''' in [[organic chemistry]] is a [[Saturation (chemistry)|saturated]] [[hydrocarbon]] without cycles, that is, an acyclic [[hydrocarbon]] in which the [[molecule]] has the maximum possible number of [[hydrogen]] atoms and so has no [[double bond]]s. Alkanes are [[aliphatic]] compounds. The general formula for alkanes is '''C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n+2</sub>'''; the simplest possible alkane is therefore [[methane]], CH<sub>4</sub>. The next simplest is [[ethane]], C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>; the series continues indefinitely. Each carbon atom in an alkane has sp³ [[Orbital hybridisation|hybridization]]. Alkanes are also known as [[Paraffin|paraffins]], or collectively as the ''paraffin series''. These terms also used for alkanes whose carbon atoms form a single, unbranched chain. Such branched-chain alkanes are called ''[[isoparaffins]]''. ==Isomerism== The atoms in alkanes with more than three carbon atoms can be arranged in multiple ways, forming different [[isomer]]s. "Normal" alkanes have a linear, unbranched configuration. The number of isomers increases rapidly with the number of carbon atoms; for alkanes with 1 to 12 carbon atoms, the number of isomers equals 1, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 18, 35, 75, 159, and 355, respectively {{OEIS|id=A000602}}. ==Nomenclature of alkanes== The names of all alkanes end with '''-ane'''. ===Alkanes with unbranched carbon chains=== The first four members of the series (in terms of number of carbon atoms) are named as follows: :[[methane]], CH<sub>4</sub> :[[ethane]], C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub> :[[propane]], C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub> :[[butane]], C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub> Alkanes with [[five]] or more carbon atoms are named by adding the [[suffix]] '''-ane''' to the appropriate [[IUPAC numerical multiplier|numerical multiplier]] with elision of a terminal ''-a-'' from the basic numerical term. Hence, [[pentane]], C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>12</sub>; [[hexane]], C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>14</sub>; [[heptane]], C<sub>7</sub>H<sub>16</sub>; [[octane]], C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>18</sub>; etc. For a more complete list, see [[List of alkanes]]. Straight-chain alkanes are sometimes indicated by the prefix ''n-'' (for ''normal'') to distinguish them from branched-chain alkanes having the same number of carbon atoms. Although this is not strictly necessary, the usage is still common in cases where there is an important difference in properties between the straight-chain and branched-chain isomers: e.g. [[hexane|''n''-hexane]] is a [[neurotoxin]] while its branched-chain isomers are not. ===Alkanes with branched carbon chains=== Branched alkanes are named as follows: * Identify the longest straight chain of carbon atoms. * Number the atoms in this chain, starting from 1 at one end and counting upwards to the other end. * Examine the groups attached to the chain in order and form their names. * Form the name by looking at the different attached groups, and writing, for each group, the following: ** The number, or numbers, of the carbon atom, or atoms, where it is attached. ** The prefixes ''di-'', ''tri-'', ''tetra-'', etc. if the group is attached in 2, 3, 4, etc. places, or nothing if it is attached in only one place. ** The name of the attached group. * The formation of the name is finished by writing down the name of the longest straight chain. To carry out this algorithm, we must know how to name the substituent groups. This is done by the same method, except that instead of the longest chain of carbon atoms, the longest chain starting from the attachment point is used; also, the numbering is done so that the carbon atom next to the attachment point has the number 1. For example, the compound [[image:isobutane.png]] is the only 4-carbon alkane possible, apart from butane. Its formal name is 2-methylpropane. Pentane, however, has two branched isomers, in addition to its linear, normal form: [[image:dimethylpropane.png]]<br /> 2,2-dimethylpropane and [[image:2-methylbutane.png]] <br /> 2-methylbutane. ===Trivial names=== The following nonsystematic names are retained in the IUPAC system: :[[isobutane]] for 2-methylpropane :[[isopentane]] for 2-methylbutane :[[neopentane]] for 2,2-dimethylpropane The name ''isooctane'' is very widely used in the [[Petrochemistry|petrochemical industry]] to refer to [[2,2,4-trimethylpentane]]. ==Occurrence== <!-- Translated from [[:de:Alkane]] --> [[Image:Jupiter.jpg|thumb|right|Methane and ethane make up a large proportion of Jupiter's atmosphere]] Alkanes occur both on [[Earth]] and in the solar system, however only the first hundred or so, and even then mostly only in traces. The light hydrocarbons, especially [[methane]] and [[ethane]] for example, have been detected both in the tail of the comet [[Hyakutake]] and in some [[meteorite]]s such as [[carbonaceous chondrite]]s. They also form an important portion of the [[Celestial body atmosphere|atmospheres]] of the outer gas planets [[Jupiter]], [[Saturn]], [[Uranus]] and [[Neptune]]. On [[Titan (moon)|Titan]], the satellite of Saturn, it is believed that there were once large oceans of these and longer chain alkanes: smaller seas of liquid ethane are thought still to exist there. Traces of methane (about 0.0001% or 1 ppm) occur in the Earth's atmosphere, produced primarily by forms of [[Archaea]]. The content in the oceans is negligible due to the low solubility in water: however, at high pressures and low temperatures, methane can co-crystallize with water to form a solid [[methane hydrate]]. Although they cannot be commercially exploited at the present time, the calorific value of the known methane hydrate fields exceeds the energy content of all the natural gas and oil deposits put together&mdash;methane extracted from methane hydrate is considered therefore a candidate for future fuels. [[Image:Oil well3419.jpg|thumb|right|Extraction of alkanes in Ontario]] Today, the most important commercial sources for alkanes are clearly [[natural gas]] and [[Petroleum|oil]], which are the only [[organic compound]]s to occur as minerals in nature. Natural gas contains primarily methane and ethane, with some [[propane]] and [[butane]]: oil is a mixture of liquid alkanes and other hydrocarbons. Both were formed when dead marine animals and plants (zooplankton and phytoplankton) sank to the bottom of ancient seas and were covered with sediments in an anoxic environment (ie lacking in oxygen) and converted over many millions of years at high temperatures and high pressure to their current form. Natural gas resulted thereby for example from the following reaction: :C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub> &rarr; 3CH<sub>4</sub> + 3CO<sub>2</sub> These hydrocarbons collected in porous rocks, trapped beneath an impermeable cap rock. In contrast to methane, which is constantly reformed in large quantities, higher alkanes rarely develop to a considerable extent in nature. The present deposits will not be reformed once they are exhausted. Solid alkanes occur as [[evaporation]] residues from oil, known as [[tar]]. One of the largest natural deposits of solid alkanes is in the [[asphalt]] lake known as the [[Pitch Lake]] in [[Trinidad and Tobago]]. ==Purification and use== <!-- Translated from [[:de:Alkane]] --> [[Image:ShellMartinez.jpg|thumb|right|An [[oil refinery]] at [[Martinez]], [[California]].]] Alkanes are both important raw materials of the chemical industry and the most important fuels of the world economy. The starting materials for the processing are always [[natural gas]] and [[crude oil]]. The latter is separated in an [[oil refinery]] by [[fractional distillation]] and processed into many different products, for example [[gasoline]]. The different "fractions" of crude oil have different boiling points and can be isolated and separated quite easily: within the individual fractions the boiling points lie closely together. The domain of usage of a certain alkane can be determined quite well according to the number of carbon atoms, although the following demarcation is idealized and not perfect. The first four alkanes are used mainly for heating and cooking purposes, and in some countries for electricity generation. [[Methane]] and [[ethane]] are the main componants of natural gas; they are normally stored as gases under pressure. It is however easier to transport them as liquids: this requires both compression and cooling of the gas. [[Propane]] and [[butane]] can be liquefied at fairly low pressures, and are well known as '''liquified petroleum gas (LPG)'''. Propane, for example, is used in the propane gas burner, butane in disposable cigarette lighters (where the pressure is a mere 2 [[bar (unit)|bar]]). The two alkanes are used as propellants in [[aerosol spray]]s. From [[pentane]] to [[octane]] the alkanes are highly volatile liquids. They are used as fuels in [[internal combustion engine]]s, as they vaporise easily on entry into the combustion chamber without forming droplets which would impair the unifomity of the combustion. Branched-chain alkanes are preferred, as they are much less prone to premature ignition which causes [[Engine knocking|knocking]] than their straight-chain homologues. This propensity to premature ignition is measured by the [[octane rating]] of the fuel, where [[2,2,4-trimethylpentane]] (''isooctane'') has an arbitrary value of 100 and [[heptane]] has a value of zero. Apart from their use as fuels, the middle alkanes are also good solvents for nonpolar substances. Alkanes from [[nonane]] to, for instance, [[hexadecane]] (an alkane with sixteen carbon atoms) are liquids of higher [[viscosity]], less and less suitable for use in gasoline. They form instead the major part of [[diesel]] and [[aviation fuel]]. Diesel fuels are charaterised by their [[cetane number]], cetane being an old name for hexadecane. However the higher melting points of these alkanes can cause problems at low temperatures and in polar regions, where the fuel becomes too thick to flow correctly. Alkanes from hexadecane upwards form the most important components of [[fuel oil]] and [[lubricating oil]]. In latter function they work at the same time as anti-corrosive agents, as their hydrophobic nature means that water cannot reach the metal surface. Many solid alkanes find use as [[paraffin wax]], for example in [[candle]]s. This should not be confused however with true [[wax]], which consists primarily of [[ester]]s. Alkanes with a chain length of approximately 35 or more carbon atoms are found in [[bitumen]], used for example in road surfacing. However the higher alkanes have little value and are usually split into lower alkanes by [[cracking]]. ==Preparation== Numerous ways exist to prepare alkanes in the laboratory. The most well known methods are [[hydrogenation]] of [[alkene]]s and [[hydrolysis]] of [[Grignard reagent]]s. Alkanes can also be prepared directly from [[alkyl halide]]s in the [[Corey-House-Posner-Whitesides reaction]]. The [[Barton-McCombie deoxygenation]] removes hydroxyl groups from alcohols and the [[Clemmensen reduction]] removes carbonyl groups from aldehydes and ketones to form alkanes. ==Molecular geometry== <!-- Translated from [:de:Alkane]] --> [[Image:Ch4-hybridisation.png|thumb|right|sp<sup>3</sup>-hybridisation in [[methane]].]] The molecular structure of the alkanes directly affects their physical and chemical characteristics. It is derived from the [[electron configuration]] of [[carbon]], which has four [[valence electron]]s. The carbon atoms in alkanes are always [[Orbital hybidisation|sp<sup>3</sup>-hybridised]], that is to say that the valence electrons are said to be in four equivalent orbitals derived from the combination of the 2s-orbital and the three 2p-orbitals. These orbitals, which have identical energies, are arranged spatially in the form of a tetrahedron, the angle of 109.47° between them. ===Bond lengths and bond angles=== <!-- Translated from [:de:Alkane]] --> An alkane molecule has only C&ndash;H and C&ndash;C single bonds. The former result from the overlap of a sp³-orbital of carbon with the 1s-orbital of a hydrogen; the latter by the overlap of two sp³-orbitals on different carbon atoms. The [[bond length]]s amount to 1.09×10<sup>&minus;10</sup>&nbsp;m for a C&ndash;H bond and 1.54×10<sup>&minus;10</sup>&nbsp;m for a C&ndash;C bond. [[Image:Ch4-structure.png|thumb|right|The tetrahedral structure of methane.]] The spatial arrangement of the bonds is similar to that of the four sp³-orbitals&mdash;they are tetrahedrally arranged, with an angle of 109.47° between them. Structural formulae which represent the bonds as being at right angles to one another, while both common and useful, do not correspond with the reality. ===Conformation=== <!-- Translated from [:de:Alkane]] --> The structural formula and the [[bond angle]]s are not usually sufficient to completely describe the geometry of a molecule. There is a further [[degree of freedom]] for each carbon&ndash;carbon bond: the [[torsion angle]] between the atoms or groups bound to the atoms at each end of the bond. The spatial arrangement described by the torsion angles of the molecule is known as its [[conformation]]. ====Ethane==== <!-- Translated from [:de:Alkane]] --> [[Ethane]] forms the simplest case for studying the conformation of alkanes, as there is only one C&ndash;C bond. If one looks down the axis of the C&ndash;C bond, then one will see the so-called [[Newman projection]]: The circle represents the two carbon atoms, one behind the other, and the bonds to hydrogen are represented by the straight lines. The hydrogen atoms on both the front and rear carbon atoms have an angle of 120° between them, resulting from the projection of the base of the tetrahedron onto a flat plane. However the torsion angle between a given hydrogen atom attached to the front carbon and a given hydrogen atom attached to the rear carbon can vary freely between 0° and 360°. This is a consequence of the free rotation about a carbon&ndash;carbon single bond. Despite this apparent freedom, only two limiting conformations are important: [[Image:Newman_projection_ethane.png|thumb|right|200px|Newman projections of the two conformations of ethane: eclipsed on the left, staggered on the right.]] * In the '''eclipsed conformation''', corresponding to a torsion angle of 0°, 120° or 240°, the hydrogen atoms attached to the front carbon are directly in front of those attached to the rear carbon. * In the '''staggered conformation''', corresponding to a torsion angle of 60°, 180° or 300°, the hydrogen atoms attached to the front carbon are exactly in between those attached to the rear carbon. The two conformations, also known as [[rotomer]]s, differ in energy: The staggered conformation is 12.6&nbsp;kJ/mol lower in energy (more stable) than the eclipsed conformation. The explanation for this difference in energy has been the subject of debate, with two main theories predominating: *in the eclipsed conformation, the electrostatic repulsion between the electrons in the carbon&ndash;hydrogen bonds is maximised. *in the staggered conformation, the [[hyperconjugation]] (a form of delocalisation) of the valence electrons is maximised. These two explanations are not contradictory or exclusive; the latter is thought to be the more important for ethane itself. This difference in energy between the two conformations, known as the [[torsion energy]], is low compared to the thermal energy of an ethane molecule at ambient temperature. There is constant rotation about the C&ndash;C bond, albeit with short "pauses" at each staggered conformation. The time taken for an ethane molecule to pass from one staggered conformation to the next, equivalent to the rotation of one CH<sub>3</sub>-group by 120° relative to the other, is of the order of 10<sup>&minus;11</sup>&nbsp;seconds. ====Higher alkanes==== <!-- Translated from [:de:Alkane]] --> [[Image:Newman_projection_butane.png|thumb|right|400px|The four conformations of butane. From left to right: fully eclipsed, inclined, partially eclipsed, antiperiplanar.]] The situation with respect to the two C&ndash;C bonds in [[propane]] is qualitatively similar to that of ethane: it is more complex, however, for [[butane]] and higher alkanes. If one takes the central C&ndash;C bond of butane as the reference axis, each of the two central carbon atoms is bound to two hydrogen atoms and a methyl group. Four different conformations can be defined by the torsion angle between the two methyl groups and, as in the case of ethane, each has its characteristic energy. *The '''fully eclipsed''' or '''synperiplanar''' conformation has a torsion angle of 0°. It is the configuration with the highest energy. *The '''inclined''' conformation has a torsion angle of 60° (or 300°). It is a local energy minimum. *The '''partially eclipsed''' conformation has a torsion angle of 120° (or 240°). It is a local energy maximum. *The '''antiperiplanar''' conformation has a torsion angle of 180°. The two methyl groups are as far from each other as is possible, and this configuration has the lowest energy. The difference in energy between the fully eclipsed conformation and the antiperiplanar conformation is about 19&nbsp;kJ/mol, and is therefore still relatively small at ambient temperature. The case of higher alkanes is similar: the antiperiplanar conformation is always the most favoured around each carbon&ndash;carbon bond. For this reason, alkanes are usually shown in a zigzag arrangement in diagrams or in models. The actual structure will always differ somewhat from these idealised forms, as the differences in energy between the conformations are small compared to the thermal energy of the molecules: alkane molecules have no fixed structural form, whatever the models may suggest. The conformations of other organic molecules are based on those of alkanes, and are discussed in the relevant articles. ==Properties== ===Physical properties=== <!-- Translated from [:de:Alkane]] --> [[Image:Alkanschmelzundsiedepunkt.png|right|thumb|300px|Melting (blue) and boiling (pink) points of the first 14 ''n''-alkanes in °C. ]] The molecular structure, particularly the [[surface area]] of the molecule, determines the boiling point of the alkane: the smaller the surface, the lower the boiling point, as the [[van der Waals force]]s between the molecules are weaker. A reduction of the surface area can be achieved by chain-branching or by a circular structure. This means in practice that alkanes with higher number of carbon atoms usually have higher [[boiling point]]s than those with lower numbers of carbon atoms, and that branched-chain alkanes and [[cycloalkane]]s have lower boiling points than their straight-chain homologues. Under [[standard conditions]], from CH<sub>4</sub> to C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub> alkanes are gaseous; from C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>12</sub> to C<sub>17</sub>H<sub>36</sub> they are liquids; and after C<sub>18</sub>H<sub>38</sub> they are solids. The boiling point increases between 20 and 30&nbsp;&deg;C per CH<sub>2</sub>-group. The [[melting point]]s of the alkanes also rise with the increase in the number of carbon atoms (with only one exception, [[propane]]). However the melting points rise more slowly than the boiling points, in particular for the higher alkanes. In addition, the melting points of alkanes with an odd number of carbon atoms increase faster than the melting points of alkanes with an even number of carbon atoms (see figure): the cause of this phenomenon is the higher [[packing density]] of the alkanes with an even number of carbon atoms. The melting points of branched-chain alkanes can be either higher or lower than those of the corresponding straight-chain alkanes, depending on the efficiency of molecular packing: this is particularly true for isoalkanes (2-methyl isomers), which often have melting points higher than those of their normal analogues. Alkanes do not conduct [[electricity]], nor are they substantially [[Polarization|polarized]] by an [[electric field]]. For this reason they do not form [[hydrogen bond]]s and are insoluble in polar solvents such as water. Since the hydrogen bonds between individual water molecules are aligned away from an alkane molecule, the coexistance of an alkane and water leads to an increase in molecular order (a reduction in [[entropy]]). As there is no significant bonding between water molecules and alkane molecules, the [[second law of thermodynamics]] suggests that this reduction in entropy should be minimised by minimising the contact between alkane and water: alkanes are said to be [[hydrophobic]] in that they repel water. Their solubility in nonpolar solvents is relatively good, a property which is called [[lipophilicity]]. Different alkanes are, for example, miscible in all proportions among themselves. The density of the alkanes usually increases with increasing number of carbon atoms, but remains less than that of water. Hence, alkanes form the upper layer in an alkane-water mixture. ===Chemical properties=== <!-- Translated from [:de:Alkane]] --> Alkanes generally show a relatively low reactivity, because their C&ndash;H and C&ndash;C bonds are relatively stable and cannot be easily broken. Unlike all other organic compounds, they possess no [[functional group]]s. They react only very poorly with ionic or other polar substances. The [[Acid dissociation constant|p''K''<sub>a</sub>]] values of all alkanes are above 60, and so they are practically inert to acids and bases. This inertness is the source of the term ''paraffins'' ([[Latin]] ''para'' + ''affinis'', with the meaning here of "lacking affinity"). In [[crude oil]] the alkane molecules have remained chemically unchanged for millions of years. However [[redox reaction]]s of alkanes, in particular with [[oxygen]] and the [[halogen]]s, are possible as the carbon atoms are in a strongly reduced condition; in the case of [[methane]], the lowest possible [[oxidation state]] for carbon (&minus;4) is reached. Reaction with oxygen leads to [[combustion]]; with halogens, [[substitution]]. In addition, alkanes have been shown to interact with, and bind to, certain transition metal complexes. Free radicals, molecules with unpaired electrons, play a large role in most reactions of alkanes, such as [[cracking]] and [[reformation]] where long-chain alkanes are converted into shorter-chain alkanes and straight-chain alkanes into branched-chain isomers. In highly brached alkanes, the [[bond angle]]s may differ significantly from the optimal value (109.5&deg;) in order to allow the different groups sufficient space. This causes a tension in the molecule, known as [[steric hinderance]], and can substantially increase the reactivity. ===Thermochemistry=== Alkanes are stable molecules relative to their constituent elements, which is manifested as a negative [[Standard enthalpy change of formation|heat of formation]]. For linear alkanes, each [[methylene]] (CH<sub>2</sub>) unit contributes -5 kcal/mol to the overal heat of formation. Branched alkanes are always a little bit more stable than their linear isomers; for example, 2-methylbutane is more stable than ''n''-pentane by 1.8 kcal/mol, and 2,2-methylpropane is more stable than ''n''-pentane by 5 kcal/mol. See the [[Standard enthalpy change of formation (data table)#Alkanes|alkane heat of formation table]] for detailed data. ===Spectroscopic properties=== Virtually all organic compounds contain carbon&ndash;carbon and carbon&ndash;hydrogen bonds, and so show some of the features of alkanes in their spectra. Alkanes are notable for having no other groups, and therefore for the ''absence'' of other characreistic spectroscopic features. ====Infrared spectroscopy==== The carbon&ndash;hydrogen stretching mode gives a strong absorption between 2850 and 2960&nbsp;cm<sup>&minus;1</sup>, while the carbon&ndash;carbon stretching mode absorbes between 800 and 1300&nbsp;cm<sup>&minus;1</sup>. The carbon&ndash;hydrogen bending modes depend on the nature of the group: methyl groups show bands at 1450&nbsp;cm<sup>&minus;1</sup> and 1375&nbsp;cm<sup>&minus;1</sup>, while methylene groups show bands at 1465&nbsp;cm<sup>&minus;1</sup> and 1450&nbsp;cm<sup>&minus;1</sup>. Carbon chains with more than four carbon atoms show a weak absorption at around 725&nbsp;cm<sup>&minus;1</sup>. ====NMR spectroscopy==== The proton resonances of alkanes are usually found at &delta;<sub>H</sub> = 0&ndash;1. The carbon-13 resonances depend on the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon: &delta;<sub>C</sub> = 8&ndash;30 (methyl), 15&ndash;55 (methylene), 20&ndash;60 (methyne). The carbon-13 resonance of quaternary carbon atoms is characteristically weak, due to the lack of [[nuclear Overhauser enhancement]] and the long [[relaxation time]]: it can be missed in routine spectra. ====Mass spectrometry==== Alkanes have a high [[ionisation energy]], and the molecular ion is usually weak. The fragmentation pattern can be difficult to interpret, but, in the case of branched chain alkanes, the carbon chain is preferentially cleaved at tertiary or quaternary carbons due to the relative stability of the resulting [[free radical]]s. The fragment resulting from the loss of a single methyl group (M&minus;15) is often absent, and other fragment are often spaced by intervals of fourteen mass units, corresponding to sequential loss of CH<sub>2</sub>-groups. ==Reactions== ===Reactions with oxygen=== All alkanes react with [[oxygen]] in a [[combustion]] reaction, although they become increasing difficult to ignite as the number of carbon atoms increases. The general equation for complete combustion is: :2C<sub>''n''</sub>H<sub>2''n''+2</sub> + (3''n''+1)O<sub>2</sub> &rarr; 2(''n''+1)H<sub>2</sub>O + 2''n''CO<sub>2</sub> In the absence of sufficient oxygen, [[carbon monoxide]] or even [[soot]] can be formed, as shown below for [[methane]]: :2CH<sub>4</sub> + 3O<sub>2</sub> &rarr; 2CO + 4H<sub>2</sub>O :CH<sub>4</sub> + O<sub>2</sub> &rarr; C + 2H<sub>2</sub>O Alkanes usually burn with a non-luminous flame with very little soot formation. The [[standard enthalpy change of combustion]], &Delta;<sub>c</sub>''H''<sup><s>o</s></sup>, for alkanes increases by about 650&nbsp;kJ/mol per CH<sub>2</sub> group. Branched-chain alkanes have lower values of &Delta;<sub>c</sub>''H''<sup><s>o</s></sup> than straight-chain alkanes of the same number of carbon atoms, and so can be seen to be somewhat more stable. ===Reactions with halogens=== Alkanes react with [[halogen]]s in a so-called [[halogenation]] reaction. The hydrogen atoms of the alkane are progressively replaced, or [[Substitution|substituted]], by halogen atoms. [[Free radical]]s are the reactive species which participate in the reaction, which usually leads to a mixture of products. The reaction is highly [[exothermic reaction|exothermic]], and can lead to an explosion. The chain mechanism is as follows, using the chlorination of methane as a typical example: :'''1.''' ''Initiation'': splitting of a chlorine molecule to form two chlorine atoms, initiated by [[ultraviolet radiation]]. A chlorine atom has an unpaired electron and acts as a free radical. ::Cl<sub>2</sub> &rarr; 2Cl&middot; :'''2.''' ''Propagation'' (two steps): a hydrogen atom is pulled off from methane then the methyl radical pulls a Cl&middot; from Cl<sub>2</sub>. ::CH<sub>4</sub> + Cl&middot; &rarr; CH<sub>3</sub>&middot; + HCl ::CH<sub>3</sub>&middot; + Cl<sub>2</sub> &rarr; CH<sub>3</sub>Cl + Cl&middot; :This results in the desired product plus another chlorine radical. This radical will then go on to take part in another propagation reaction causing a chain reaction. If there is sufficient chlorine, other products such as CH<sub>2</sub>Cl<sub>2</sub> may be formed. :'''3.''' ''Termination'': recombination of two free radicals: ::Cl&middot; + Cl&middot; &rarr; Cl<sub>2</sub>; or ::CH<sub>3</sub>&middot; + Cl&middot; &rarr; CH<sub>3</sub>Cl; or ::CH<sub>3</sub>&middot; + CH<sub>3</sub>&middot; &rarr; C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>. :The last possibility in the termination step will result in an impurity in the final mixture; notably this results in an organic molecule with a longer carbon chain than the reactants. In the case of methane or ethane, all the hydrogen atoms are equivalent and have an equal chance of being replaced. This leads to what is known as a ''statistical product distribution''. For propane and higher alkanes, the hydrogen atoms which form part of CH<sub>2</sub> (or CH) groups are preferentially replaced. The reactivity of the different halogens varies considerably: the relative rates are: [[fluorine]] (108) > [[chlorine]] (1) > [[bromine]] (7&times;10<sup>&minus;11</sup>) > [[iodine]] (2&times;10<sup>&minus;22</sup>). Hence the reaction of alkanes with fluorine is difficult to control, that with chlorine is moderate to fast, that with bromine is slow and requires high levels of UV irradiation while the reaction with iodine is practically non-existent and [[Thermodynamics|thermodynamically]] unfavorable. These reactions are an important industrial route to halogenated hydrocarbons. ===Cracking and reforming=== "[[Cracking]]" breaks larger molecules into smaller ones. This can be done with a thermic or catalytic method. The thermal cracking process follows a homolytic mechanism, that is, bonds break symmetrically and thus pairs of [[free radical]]s are formed. The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of [[acid]] [[catalyst|catalysts]] (usually solid acids such as [[silica-alumina]] and [[zeolite|zeolites]]) which promote a heterolytic (asymmetric) breakage of bonds yielding pairs of [[ion|ions]] of opposite charges, usually a carbo[[cation]] and the very unstable [[hydride]] [[anion]]. Carbon-localized free radicals and cations are both highly unstable and undergo processes of chain rearrangement, C-C scission in position [[beta scission|beta]] (i.e., cracking) and [[intramolecular|intra-]] and [[intermolecular]] hydrogen transfer or [[hydride transfer]]. In both types of processes, the corresponding reactive intermediates (radicals, ions) are permanently regenerated, and thus they proceed by a self-propagating chain mechanism. The chain of reactions is eventually terminated by radical or ion recombination. Here is an example of cracking with butane CH<sub>3</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>3</sub> * 1st possibility (48%): breaking is done on the CH<sub>3</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub> bond. CH<sub>3</sub>* / *CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>3</sub> after a certain number of steps, we will obtain an alkane and an [[alkene]]: CH<sub>4</sub> + CH<sub>2</sub>=CH-CH<sub>3</sub> * 2nd possibility (38%): breaking is done on the CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub> bond. CH<sub>3</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>* / *CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>3</sub> after a certain number of steps, we will obtain an alkane and an [[alkene]] from different types: CH<sub>3</sub>-CH<sub>3</sub> + CH<sub>2</sub>=CH<sub>2</sub> * 3rd possibility (14%): breaking of a C-H bond after a certain number of steps, we will obtain an [[alkene]] and hydrogen gas: CH<sub>2</sub>=CH-CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>3</sub> + H<sub>2</sub> ===Other reactions=== <!-- translated from [[:de:Alkane]] --> Alkanes will react with [[steam]] in the presence of a [[nickel]] [[catalyst]] to give [[hydrogen]]. Alkanes can by [[Chlorosulfonation|chlorosulfonated]] and [[nitration|nitrated]], although both reactions require special conditions. The [[fermentation]] of alkanes to [[carboxylic acid]]s is of some technical importance. In the [[Reed reaction]], [[sulfur dioxide]], [[chlorine]] and [[photochemistry|light]] convert hydrocarbons to [[Sulfonic acid|sulfonyl chloride]]s. ==Hazards== Methane is explosive in when mixed with air (1&ndash;8% CH<sub>4</sub>) and is a strong [[greenhouse gas]]: other lower alkanes can also form explosive mixtures with air. The lighter liquid alkanes are highly flammable, although this risk decreases with the length of the carbon chain. Pentane, hexane, heptane and octane are classed as ''dangerous for the environment'' and ''harmful''. The straight chain isomer of hexane is a [[neurotoxin]], and therefore rarely used commercially. ==Alkanes in nature== <!-- Translated from [[:de:Alkane]] --> Although alkanes occur in nature in various way, they do not rank biologically among the essential materials. Cycloalkanes with 14 to 18 carbon atoms occur in [[musk]], extracted from [[deer]] of the family [[Moschidae]]. All further information refers to acyclic alkanes. ===Bacteria and archaea=== <!-- Translated from [[:de:Alkane]] --> [[Image:Rotbuntes Rind.jpg|thumb|right|[[Methanogen]]ic [[archaea]] in the gut of this cow are responsible for some of the [[methane]] in the Earth's atmosphere.]] Certain types of [[bacteria]] can metabolise alkanes: they prefer even-numbered carbon chains as they are easier to degrade than odd-numbered chains. On the other hand certain [[archaea]], the [[methanogen]]s, produce large quantites of [[methane]] by the metabolism of [[carbon dioxide]] or other [[oxidation|oxidised]] organic compounds. The energy is released by the oxidation of [[hydrogen]]: :CO<sub>2</sub> + 4H<sub>2</sub> &rarr; CH<sub>4</sub> + 2H<sub>2</sub>O Methanogens are also the producers of [[marsh gas]] in [[wetlands]], and release about two billion tonnes of methane per year&mdash;the atmospheric content of this gas is produced nearly exclusively by them. The methane output of [[cattle]] and other [[herbivore]]s, which can release up to 150&nbsp;litres per day, and of [[termite]]s, is also due to methanogens. They also produce this simplest of all alkanes in the [[intestine]]s of [[human]]s. Methanogenic archaea are hence at the end of the [[carbon cycle]], with carbon being released back into the atmosphere after having been fixed by [[photosynthesis]]. It is probable that our current deposits of [[natural gas]] were formed in a similar way. ===Fungi and plants=== <!-- Translated from [[:de:Alkane]] --> [[Image:Fuji apple.jpg|thumb|right|Water forms droplets on a thin film of alkane wax on the skin of the apple.]] Alkanes also play a role, if a minor role, in the biology of the three [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] groups of organisms: [[Fungus|fungi]], [[plant]]s and [[animal]]s. Some specialised yeasts, e.g. ''Candida tropicale'', ''[[Pichia]]'' sp., ''[[Rhodotorula]]'' sp., can use alkanes as a source of carbon and/or energy. The fungus ''[[Amorphotheca resinae]]'' prefers the longer-chain alkanes in [[aviation fuel]], and can cause serious problems for aircraft in tropical regions. In plants it is the solid long-chain alkanes that are found; they form a firm layer of wax, the [[cuticle]], over areas of the plant exposed to the air. This protects the plant against water loss, while preventing the [[leaching]] of important minerals by the rain. It is also a protection against bacteria, fungi and harmful [[insect]]s&mdash;the latter sink with their legs into the soft waxlike substance and have difficulty moving. The shining layer on fruits such as apples consists of long-chain alkanes. The carbon chains are usually between twenty and thirty carbon atoms in length and are made by the plants from [[fatty acid]]s. The exact composition of the layer of wax is not only species-dependent, but changes also with the season and such environmental factors as lighting conditions, temperature or humidity. ===Animals=== <!-- Translated from [[:de:Alkane]] --> Alkanes are found in animal products, although they are less important than unsaturated hydrocarbons. On example is the shark liver oil, which is approximately 14% [[pristane]] (2,6,10,14-tetramethylpentadecane, C<sub>19</sub>H<sub>40</sub>). Their occurrence is more important in [[pheromone]]s, chemical messenger materials, on which above all insects are dependent for communication. With some kinds, as the support beetle ''[[Xylotrechus colonus]]'', primarily [[pentacosane]] (C<sub>25</sub>H<sub>52</sub>), 3-methylpentaicosane (C<sub>26</sub>H<sub>54</sub>) and 9-methylpentaicosane (C<sub>26</sub>H<sub>54</sub>), they are transferred by body contact. With others like the [[tsetse fly]] ''Glossina morsitans morsitans'', the pheromone contians the four alkanes 2-methylheptadecane (C<sub>18</sub>H<sub>38</sub>), 17,21-dimethylheptatriacontane (C<sub>39</sub>H<sub>80</sub>), 15,19-dimethylheptatriacontane (C<sub>39</sub>H<sub>80</sub>) and 15,19,23-trimethylheptatriacontane (C<sub>40</sub>H<sub>82</sub>), and acts by smell over longer distances, a useful characteristic for [[pest control]]. ===Ecological relations=== <!-- Translated from [[:de:Alkane]] --> [[Image:Ophrys sphegodes flower.jpg|thumb|right|Early spider orchid (''Ophrys sphegodes'')]] One example, in which both plant and animal alkanes play a role, is the ecological relationship between the [[sand bee]] (''[[Andrena nigroaenea]]'') and the [[early spider orchid]] (''[[Ophrys sphegodes]]''); the latter is dependent for [[pollination]] on the former. Sand bees use pheromones in order to identify a mate; in the case of ''A. nigroaenea'', the females emit a mixture of [[tricosane]] (C<sub>23</sub>H<sub>48</sub>), [[pentacosane]] (C<sub>25</sub>H<sub>52</sub>) and [[heptacosane]] (C<sub>27</sub>H<sub>56</sub>) in the ratio 3:3:1, and males are attracted by specifically this odour. The orchid takes advantage of this mating arrangement to get the male bee to collect and disseminate its pollen; parts of its flower not only resemble the appearance of sand bees, but also produce large quantities of the three alkanes in the same ratio as female sand bees. As a result numerous males are lured to the blooms and attempte to copulate with their imaginary partner: although this endeavour is not crowned with success for the bee, it allows the orchid to transfer its pollen, which will be dispersed after the departure of the frustrated male to different blooms. ==See also== * [[Cycloalkane]] * [[Higher alkanes]] * [[Alkene]] * [[Alkyne]] * [[Functional group]] * [[Cracking (chemistry)]] * [[List of alkanes]] {{Alkanes}} [[Category:Hydrocarbons]] [[Category:Alkanes]] {{Link FA|de}} [[ar:ألكان]] [[bg:Алкан]] [[ca:Alcà]] [[cs:Alkan]] [[da:Alkan]] [[de:Alkane]] [[et:Alkaanid]] [[el:Αλκάνια]] [[es:Alcano]] [[eo:Alkano]] [[fr:Alcane]] [[ko:알케인]] [[it:Alcani]] [[he:אלקאן]] [[lv:Alkāni]] [[nl:Alkaan]] [[ja:アルカン]] [[nn:Alkan]] [[pl:Alkan]] [[pt:Alcano]] [[ru:Алканы]] [[sk:Alkán]] [[sr:Алкан]] [[su:Alkana]] [[fi:Alkaani]] [[sv:Alkan]] [[vi:Ankan]] [[zh:烷烃]] 640 38794131 2006-02-08T18:27:36Z DS1953 92631 fix circular redirect :''This article is about the legal term. For other usages see [[Appeal (disambiguation)]].'' An '''appeal''' is the act or fact of challenging a judicially cognizable and binding [[judgment]] to a higher judicial authority. In [[common law]] jurisdictions, most commonly, this means formally filing a [[notice of appeal]] with a lower court, indicating one's intention to take the matter to the next higher court with jurisdiction over the matter, and then actually filing the appeal with the appropriate [[Court of Appeals|appellate court]]. ==United States== The [[United States]] legal system generally recognizes two types of appeals: a trial ''de novo'' or an appeal on the record. A [[trial de novo]] is usually available for review of informal proceedings conducted by [[administrative agency|administrative agency]], referees, masters, commissioners and some minor judicial tribunals in proceedings that do not provide all the procedural attributes of a formal judicial [[trial (law)|trial]]. If unchallenged, these decisions have the power to settle more minor legal disputes once and for all. If a party is dissatisfied with the finding of such a tribunal, one generally has the power to request a trial ''de novo'' by a [[court of record]]. In such a proceeding, all issues and [[evidence (law)|evidence]] may be developed newly, as though never heard before, and one is not restricted to the evidence heard in the lower proceeding. Sometimes, however, the decision of the lower proceeding is itself admissible as evidence, thus helping to curb frivolous appeals. In an appeal on the record from a decision in a judicial proceeding, both [[appellant]] and [[respondent]] are bound to base their arguments wholly on the proceedings and body of evidence as they were presented in the lower tribunal. Each seeks to prove to the higher court that the result they desired was the just result. [[Precedent]] and [[case law]] figure prominently in the arguments. In order for the appeal to succeed, the appellant must prove that the lower court committed [[reversible error]], that is, an impermissible action by the court acted to cause a result that was unjust, and which would not have resulted had the court acted properly. Some examples of reversible error would be erroneously instructing the [[jury]] on the law applicable to the case, permitting seriously [[improper argument]] by an attorney, admitting or excluding evidence improperly, acting outside the court's jurisdiction, injecting bias into the proceeding or appearing to do so, juror misconduct, etc. The failure to formally object at the time, to what one views as improper action in the lower court, may result in the affirmance of the lower court's judgment on the grounds that one did not "preserve the issue for appeal" by objecting. In cases where a [[judge]] rather than a [[jury]] decided issues of fact, an appellate court will apply an ''abuse of discretion'' standard of review. Under this standard, the appellate court gives deference to the lower court's view of the evidence, and reverses its decision only if it was a clear abuse of discretion. This is usually defined as a decision outside the bounds of reasonableness. On the other hand, the appellate court normally gives less deference to a lower court's decision on issues of law, and may reverse if it finds that the lower court applied the wrong legal standard. In some rare cases, an appellant may successfully argue that the law under which the lower decision was rendered was [[unconstitutional]] or otherwise invalid, or may convince the higher court to order a new trial on the basis that evidence earlier sought was concealed or only recently discovered. In the case of new evidence, there must be a high probability that its presence or absence would have made a material difference in the trial. Another issue suitable for appeal in criminal cases is effective assistance of counsel. If a defendant has been convicted and can prove that his lawyer did not adequately handle his case ''and'' that there is a reasonable probability that the result of the trial would have been different had the lawyer given competent representation, he is entitled to a new trial. An appellate court is a [[court]] that hears cases in which a [[lower court]] -- either a [[trial court]] or a lower-level appellate court &#8212; has already made a decision, but in which at least one party to the action wants to challenge this ruling based upon some legal grounds that are allowed to be appealed either by right or by leave of the appellate court. These grounds typically include errors of [[law]], [[fact]], or [[due process]]. In different jurisdictions, appellate courts are also called appeals courts, courts of appeals, superior courts, or supreme courts. ==Who can appeal== A party who files an appeal is called an ''appellant'', and a party on the other side is an ''appellee'' or ''respondent'' or, in some jurisdictions, the party who files is known as a ''petitioner'' and the party being sued is designated the ''respondent''. Cross-appeals can also occur, when more than one party to a case is unhappy with the decision in some way, often when the winning party claims that more damages were deserved than were awarded. An appeal ''as of right'' is one that is guaranteed by statute or some underlying constitutional or legal principle. The appellate court cannot refuse to listen to the appeal. An appeal ''by leave'' or ''permission'' requires the appellant to move for leave to appeal; in such a situation either or both of the lower court and the appellate court have the discretion to grant or refuse the appellant's demand to appeal the lower court's decision. In [[tort]], [[equity]], or other civil matters either party to a previous case may file an appeal. In criminal matters, however, the state or prosecution generally has no appeal ''as of right''. And due to the [[double jeopardy]] principle, the state or prosecution may never appeal a jury or bench verdict. But in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal ''as of right'' from a trial court's dismissal of an indictment in whole or in part or from a trial court's granting of a defendant's suppression motion. Likewise, in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal an issue of law ''by leave'' from the trial court and/or the appellate court. ==How an appeal is processed== Generally speaking the appellate court examines the record of [[evidence (law)|evidence]] presented in the trial court and the [[law]] that the lower court applied and decides whether that decision was legally sound or not. The appellate court will typically be deferential to the lower court's findings of fact (such as whether a defendant committed a particular act), unless clearly erroneous, and so will focus on the court's application of the law to those facts (such as whether the act found by the court to have occurred fits a legal definition at issue). If the appellate court finds no defect, it "affirms" the judgment. If the appellate court does find a legal defect in the decision "below" (i.e., in the lower court), it may "modify" the ruling to correct the defect, or it may nullify ("reverse" or "vacate") the whole decision or any part of it. It may in addition send the case back ("remand" or "remit") to the lower court for further proceedings to remedy the defect. In some cases an appellate court may review a lower court decision ''de novo'' (or completely), challenging even the lower court's findings of fact. This might be the proper standard of review, for example, if the lower court resolved the case by granting a pre-trial [[motion to dismiss]] or motion for [[summary judgment]] which is usually based only upon written submissions to the trial court and not on any trial testimony. Another situation is where appeal is by way of ''re-hearing''. Certain jurisdictions permit certain appeals to cause the trial to be heard afresh in the appellate court. An example would be an appeal from a [[Magistrate's court]] to the [[Crown Court]] in [[England and Wales]]. Sometimes the appellate court finds a defect in the procedure the parties used in filing the appeal and dismisses the appeal without considering its merits, which has the same effect as affirming the judgment below. (This would happen, for example, if the appellant waited too long, under the appellate court's rules, to file the appeal.) In [[England]] and many other jurisdictions, however, the phrase ''appeal dismissed'' is equivalent to the [[United States|U.S.]] term ''affirmed''; and the phrase ''appeal allowed'' is equivalent to the U.S. term ''reversed''. Generally there is no [[Jury trial|trial]] in an appellate court, only consideration of the [[record]] of the evidence presented to the trial court and all the pre-trial and trial court proceedings are reviewed &#8212; unless the appeal is by way of re-hearing, new evidence will usually only be considered on appeal in ''very'' rare instances, for example if that material evidence was unavailable to a party for some very significant reason such as [[prosecutorial misconduct]]. In some systems an appellate court will only consider the written decision of the lower court, together with any written evidence that was before that court and is relevant to the appeal. In other systems, the appellate court will normally consider the record of the lower court. In those cases the record will first be certified by the lower court. The appellant has the opportunity to present arguments for the granting of the appeal and the appellee (or respondent) can present arguments against it. Arguments of the parties to the appeal are presented through their appellate [[lawyer]]s, if represented, or ''[[pro se]]'' if the party has not engaged legal representation. Those arguments are presented in written [[brief (law)|briefs]] and sometimes in [[oral argument]] to the court at a [[hearing (law)|hearing]]. At such hearings each party is allowed a brief presentation at which the appellate judges ask questions based on their review of the record below and the submitted briefs. It is important to note that in an [[adversarial system]] appellate courts do not have the power to review lower court decisions unless a party appeals it. Therefore if a lower court has ruled in an improper manner or against [[legal precedent]] that judgment will stand even if it might have been overturned on appeal. In the [[United States]], a [[lawyer]] traditionally starts an oral argument to any appellate court with the words "May it please the court." ==See also== * [[List of legal topics]] * [[Appellate review]] * [[Supreme Court of the United States]] * [[Court of Appeal of England and Wales]] [[Category:Court systems]] [[Category:Appellate_review]] [[cs:Apelační soud]] [[de:Berufung (Recht)]] [[es:Apelación]] [[hu:Fellebbezés]] [[ja:抗告]] [[nl:Hoger beroep]] [[pl:Apelacja (prawo)]] [[pt:Recurso de apelação]] [[sv:Appellationsdomstol]] [[th:ศาลอุทธรณ์]] [[zh:上訴法院]] 642 41984073 2006-03-03T01:13:16Z Met8304 1020725 ''For the US radical anti-war protest group, see [[A.N.S.W.E.R.]]'' ''See also [[Google Answers]], [[Answers.com]]'' {{CivilProcedure}} An '''answer''' (derived from ''and'', against, and the same root as ''swear'') was originally a solemn assertion in opposition to some one or something, and thus generally any counter-statement or defence, a reply to a question or objection, or a correct solution of a problem. In the [[common law]], an '''answer''' is the first [[pleading]] by a [[defendant]], usually filed and served upon the [[plaintiff]] within a certain strict time limit after a civil [[complaint]] or criminal [[information]] or [[indictment]] has been served upon the defendant. It may have been preceded by an ''optional'' "pre-answer" [[motion to dismiss]] or [[demurrer]]; if such a motion is unsuccessful, the defendant ''must'' file an answer to the complaint or risk an adverse [[default judgment]]. The ''answer'' establishes which allegations ([[cause of action]] in civil matters) set forth by the complaining party will be contested by the defendant, and states all the defendant's [[Defense (legal)|defense]]s, thus establishing the nature and parameters of the controversy to be decided by the [[court]]. In the case of a criminal case there is usually an [[arraignment]] or some other kind of appearance before the court by the defendant. The pleading in the criminal case, which is entered on the record in open court, is either [[guilt|guilty]] or not guilty. Generally speaking in private, civil cases there is no guilt or innocence. There is only a judgment that grants money damages or some other kind of [[equitable remedy]] such as [[restitution]] or an [[injunction]]. Criminal cases may lead to [[fine]]s or other [[punishment]], such as [[imprisonment]]. The famous Latin ''Responsa Prudentum'' ("answers of the learned") were the accumulated views of many successive generations of Roman lawyers, a body of legal opinion which gradually became authoritative. In music an "'''answer'''" is the technical name in counterpoint for the repetition by one part or instrument of a theme proposed by another. {{wiktionarypar|answer}} G. sup garrett 1902 1807 1983 1861 1872 1961 (back) 1309 1827 1931 1962 643 24603435 2005-10-02T23:58:37Z Tarret 450465 #Redirect [[Appeal]] 644 15899172 2005-04-02T15:48:05Z Wernher 19431 #REDIRECT [[arithmetic logic unit]] #REDIRECT [[arithmetic logic unit]] 645 15899173 2005-04-02T15:45:35Z Wernher 19431 #REDIRECT [[arithmetic logic unit]] #REDIRECT [[arithmetic logic unit]] 647 15899174 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Aircraft carrier]] 648 15899175 2002-06-12T19:07:50Z Maveric149 62 * #REDIRECT [[Actor]] 649 41736393 2006-03-01T11:08:27Z Acerperi 173184 {{CrimPro}} '''Arraignment''' is a [[common law]] term for the formal reading of a [[crime|criminal]] [[complaint]], in the presence of the [[defendant]], to inform him of the charges against him. In response to arraignment, the accused is expected to enter a [[plea]]. Acceptable pleas vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but they generally include "guilty", "not guilty", and the [[peremptory pleas]] (or pleas in bar), which set out reasons why a trial cannot proceed. In addition, [[United States|US]] jurisdictions allow pleas of "[[nolo contendere]]" (no contest) and the "[[Alford plea]]" in some circumstances. In the [[UK]] arraignment is the first of eleven stages in a criminal trial, and involves the [[clerk]] of the [[court]] reading out the [[indictment]]. The defendant is asked whether they plead guilty or not guilty to each individual charge. ==Guilty and Not Guilty pleas== If the defendant pleads guilty an [[preliminary hearing|evidentiary hearing]] usually follows. The court is not required to accept a guilty plea. During that hearing the judge will assess the offense, [[mitigating factor]]s, and the defendant's character; and then pass [[Sentence (law)|sentence]]. If the defendant pleads [[not guilty]], a date will be set for a [[preliminary hearing]] or [[Jury trial|trial]]. ==What if the defendant enters no plea?== In the past, a defendant who refused to plea (or, "stood mute") would be subjected to [[Crushing|peine forte et dure]] ([[Law French]] for "strong and hard punishment"). But today in all common law jurisdictions, defendants who refuse to enter a plea will have a plea of not guilty entered for them on their behalf. ==The Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure== The US ''[[Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure]]'' state: "...arraignment shall...[consist of an] open...reading [of] the [[indictment]]...to the defendant...and calling on him to plead thereto. He shall be given a copy of the indictment...before he is called upon to plead." [[category:legal terms]] [[Category:Prosecution]] 650 15899177 2003-04-03T12:12:24Z Olivier 3808 #REDIRECT [[Abbeville]] 651 39174236 2006-02-11T05:26:13Z Pusher robot 718079 /* Sources/external links */ "'''America the Beautiful'''" is an [[United States|American]] [[patriotic song]] which rivals "[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]", the [[national anthem]] of the United States, in popularity. It is often found in [[Christian]] [[hymn]]als in a wide variety of churches in the United States, and may be sung as part of a Christian service of worship to [[The Trinity|God]]. ==History== The words are by [[Katharine Lee Bates]], an English teacher at [[Wellesley College]]. She had taken a train trip to [[Colorado Springs, Colorado|Colorado Springs]], [[Colorado]] in [[1893]] to teach a short summer school session at [[Colorado College]], and several of the sights on her trip found their way into her poem: *The [[World's Columbian Exposition]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]], the "White City" with its promise of the future contained within its alabaster buildings. *The wheat fields of [[Kansas]], through which her train was riding on [[July 4]]. *The majestic view of the [[Great Plains]] from atop [[Pike's Peak]]. On that mountain, the words of the poem started to come to her, and she wrote them down upon returning to her hotel room at the original Antlers Hotel. The poem was initially published two years later in ''[[The Congregationalist]]'', to commemorate the [[Independence Day (US)|Fourth of July]]. It quickly caught the public's fancy. Amended versions were published in 1904 and 1913. Several existing pieces of music were adapted to the poem. The [[hymn]] ''Materna'', composed in [[1882]] by [[Samuel A. Ward]], was generally considered the best music as early as 1910 and is still the popular tune today. Ward had been similarly inspired. The tune came to him while he was on a ferryboat trip from [[Coney Island]] back to his home in [[New York City]] after a leisurely summer day, and he immediately wrote it down. Ward died in 1903, not knowing the national stature his music would attain. Miss Bates was more fortunate, as the song's popularity was well-established by her death in 1929. At various times in the more than 100 years that have elapsed since the song as we know it was born, particularly during the [[John F. Kennedy]] administration, there have been efforts to give "America the Beautiful" legal status either as a national hymn, or as a national anthem equal to, or in place of, "The Star-Spangled Banner", but so far this has not succeeded. Proponents prefer "America the Beautiful" for various reasons, saying it is easier to sing, more melodic, and more adaptable to new orchestrations while still remaining as easily recognizable as "The Star-Spangled Banner." Some prefer "America the Beautiful" over "The Star-Spangled Banner" due to the latter's war-oriented imagery. (Others prefer "The Star-Spangled Banner" for the same reason.) While that national dichotomy has stymied any effort at changing the tradition of the national anthem, "America the Beautiful" continues to be held in high esteem by a large number of Americans. Popularity of the song soared following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]]; at some sporting events it was sung in addition to the traditional singing of the national anthem. [[Ray Charles]] is credited with the song's most well known rendition in current times (although [[Elvis Presley]] had a good success with it in the 70´s). His recording is very commonly played at major sporting events, such as the [[Super Bowl]]. His unique take on it places the third verse first, after which he sings the usual first verse. In the third verse (see below), the author scolds the [[materialistic]] and self-serving [[robber baron]]s of her day, and urges America to live up to its noble ideals and to honor, with both word and deed, the memory of those who died for their country...a message that resonates just as strongly today.<!-- Agreed. Also see the entire set of 1913 lyrics (source listed below) where this antimaterialist, God-centered theme is repeated in one of the forgotten to most American's ears "extra" lyrics. --> An amusing oddity of the song is that its meter (technically "[[Common metre|common meter double]]" or 8-6-8-6-8-6-8-6) is identical to that of ''[[Auld Lang Syne]]''. The two songs can be sung perfectly with lyrics interchanged. ==Lyrics== Oh beautiful, for spacious skies,<br /> For amber waves of grain,<br /> For purple mountain majesties<br /> Above the fruited plain!<br /> ''America! America! God shed his grace on thee,''<br /> ''And crown thy good with brotherhood, from sea to shining sea.''<br /><br /> Oh beautiful, for pilgrims' feet<br /> Whose stern, impassioned stress<br /> A thoroughfare for freedom beat<br /> Across the wilderness!<br /> ''America! America! God mend thine ev'ry flaw;''<br /> ''Confirm thy soul in self control, thy liberty in law!''<br /><br /> Oh beautiful, for heroes proved<br /> In liberating strife,<br /> Who more than self their country loved<br /> And mercy more than life!<br /> ''America! America! May God thy gold refine,''<br /> '''Til all success be nobleness, and ev'ry gain divine!''<br /><br /> Oh beautiful, for patriot's dream<br /> That sees beyond the years!<br /> Thine alabaster cities gleam<br /> Undimmed by human tears!<br /> ''America! America! God shed his grace on thee,''<br /> ''And crown thy good with brotherhood, from sea to shining sea!'' ==Takeoffs== A song as popular and familiar as "America the Beautiful" inevitably gets used out of its proper context or time frame, for humorous effect. As the song seems to have "always been there", it is often presented as if [[Christopher Columbus]] had written it when he arrived at the [[New World]] (though in fact, Columbus never set foot on [[North America]]; all his voyages were to the [[Caribbean|Caribbean islands]], [[South America|South]] and [[Central America]]). Some examples: *In 1971, the song inspired the cross-country [[Cannonball Baker Sea-To-Shining-Sea Memorial Trophy Dash]] race from New York to Los Angeles that later was the topic of several movies with [[Burt Reynolds]] *A ''[[Far Side]]'' cartoon from 1982 (reprinted in Sherr's book) shows Columbus nearing land, with his crew of ''conquistador'' types, and saying, "Look, gentlemen! Purple mountains! Spacious skies! Fruited plains! ... Is someone writing this down?" *In one of his comedy club routines in the early [[1960s]], [[Flip Wilson]] did a Columbus story with an African-American twist... ironically, the catchphrase repeated by Queen Isabel (an early "Geraldine") is "Chris gon' find Ray Charles!" When his Columbus sees land, he comments, "It's America, all right... just look at those spacious skies... those amber waves of grain... dig that purple mountain's majesty... I'll bet there's fruit out there on the plain!" *In his satirical, musical [[record album]], ''The United States of America, Volume 1'', [[Stan Freberg]] plays Columbus, [[Jesse White (actor)|Jesse White]] plays a skeptical King Ferdinand, and [[Colleen Collins]] does Queen Isabella (mimicking [[Tallulah Bankhead]]), resulting in this bit of dialogue: [http://freberg.8m.com/text/usa1.html] :Ferdinand: Look at him in that hat! Is that a crazy sailor? :Isabella: Crazy? I'll tell you how crazy! He's a man with a dream, a vision, a vision of a new world, whose alabaster cities gleam undimmed by human tears, with purple mountain majesties above the [[Two Cents Plain]] . . . :Ferdinand and Columbus: Fruited! :Isabella: Fruited. [[Mel Brooks]], on a talk show, once did an impression of how [[Frank Sinatra]] might sing the song, complete with tuxedo, black hat and coat, and cigarette, leaning up against a bar, and rendering the song in "lounge style". [[George Carlin]] performed a satirical version around 1970, when environmental issues were becoming a hot political topic: [http://www.creativequotations.com/one/1309b.htm] :Oh beautiful, for smoggy skies, insecticided grain :For strip-mined mountain's majesty above the asphalt plain. :America, America, man sheds his waste on thee :And hides the pines with billboard signs, from sea to oily sea! [[Wellesley College]] students and alumnae tend to change "brotherhood" to "SISTERhood" in renditions of the song. ==Books== [[Lynn Sherr]]'s 2001 book ''America the Beautiful'' discusses the origins of the song and the backgrounds of its authors in depth. ISBN 1-58648-085-5. == Sources/external links == *[http://www.fuzzylu.com/falmouth/bates/america.html 1913 Lyrics (eight stanzas)] *[http://www.niehs.nih.gov/kids/lyrics/america.htm Lyrics (four stanzas)] *[http://www.chime-o-wind.com/national.html A National Treasure] *[http://web.archive.org/web/20040829074504/www.antlers.com/indexenter.html The Antlers Hotel/history: where Katherine Lee Bates penned ''America the Beautiful''] (Click on "History" on the top left hand corner of index to access page) *[http://www.cyberhymnal.org/htm/o/b/obfsskis.htm Midi file of ''America the Beautiful'' from The Cyber Hymnal] *[http://www.tradoc.army.mil/band/multimedia/recordings/HeresToAmerica/AmericaTheBeautiful.mp3 MP3 of ''America The Beautiful'' as performed by the United States Continental Army Band] {{American songs}} [[Category:Patriotic songs]] [[Category:Christian hymns]] 652 15899179 2002-03-19T15:06:01Z Lee Daniel Crocker 43 * #REDIRECT [[Constructed language]] 653 40974795 2006-02-24T05:32:59Z Jmabel 28107 /* Assistive technology products */ spelling; simpler link for an article to be written '''Assistive Technology''' (AT) is a generic term that includes assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices and the process used in selecting, locating, and using them. AT promotes greater independence for [[disability|people with disabilities]] by enabling them to perform tasks that they were formerly unable to accomplish, or had great difficulty accomplishing, by providing enhancements to or changed methods of interacting with the [[technology]] needed to accomplish such tasks. According to disability advocates, technology, all too often, is created without regard to people with disabilities, and unnecessary barriers make new technology inaccessible to hundreds of millions. Universal (or broadened) accessibility, or [[universal design]] means excellent [[usability]], particularly for people with disabilities. But, argue advocates of assistive technology, universally accessible technology yields great rewards to the typical user; good accessible design ''is'' universal design, they say. The classic example of an assistive technology that has improved everyone's life is the "[[curb cut]]s" in the sidewalk at street crossings. While these curb cuts surely enable pedestrians with mobility impairments to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, and travellers and workers with pull-type bags, not to mention [[skateboard]]ers and [[inline skate]]rs. Consider an example of an assistive technology. The modern [[telephone]] is, except for the deaf, universally accessible. Combined with a [[Telecommunications devices for the deaf|text telephone]] (also known as a TDD [Telephone Device for the Deaf] and in the USA generally called a TTY[TeleTYpewriter]), which converts typed characters into tones that may be sent over the telephone line, the deaf person is able to communicate immediately at a distance. Together with "relay" services (where an operator reads what the deaf person types and types what a hearing person says) the deaf person is then given access to everyone's telephone, not just those of people who possess text telephones. Many telephones now have volume controls, which are primarily intended for the benefit of people who are hard of hearing, but can be useful for all users at times and places where there is significant background noise. Another example: [[calculator]]s are cheap, but a person with a mobility impairment can have difficulty using them. [[Speech recognition]] software could recognize short commands and make use of calculators a little easier. People with cognitive disabilities would appreciate the simplicity; others would as well. Toys which have been adapted to be used by children with disabilities, may have advantages for "typical" children as well. The [[Lekotek]] movement assists parents by lending assistive technology toys and expertise to families. Telecare is a particular sort of assistive technology that uses electronic sensors connected to an alarm system to help caregivers manage risk and help vulnerable people stay independent at home longer. A good example would be the systems being put in place for senior people such as fall detectors, thermometers (for [[hypothermia]] risk), flooding and unlit gas sensors (for people with mild [[dementia]]). The principle being that these alerts can be customised to the particular person's risks. When the alert is triggered, a message is sent to a carer or contact centre who can respond appropriately. The range of sensors is wide and expanding rapidly. Technology similar to Telecare can also be used to act within a person's home rather than just to respond to a detected crisis. Using one of the examples above, unlit gas sensors for people with dementia can be used to trigger a device that turns off the gas and tells someone what has happened. This is safer than just telling an external person that there is a problem. Designing for people with dementia is a good example of where the design of the interface of a piece of assistive technology (AT) is critical to its usefulness. It is important to make sure that people with dementia or any other identified user group are involved in the design process to make sure that the design is accessible and useable. In the example above, a voice message could be used to remind the person with dementia to turn of the gas himself, but who's voice should be used, and what should the message say? Questions like these must be answered through user consultantion, involvement and evaluation. ==Assistive technology products== *[[Standing frames]] support wheelchair users in a standing position, increasing their reach, as well as improving their health and self-esteem. * [[Magnifier|Magnifiers]] magnify computer displays for people with some degree of [[Visual_impairment|visual impairment]]. * [[Sticky keys]], a feature of [[Microsoft Windows]] and [[Mac OS X]] operating systems allowing key combinations (such as Control-Alt-Delete) to be pressed in sequence rather than simultaneously. * [[Screen reader|Screen readers]] allow blind people to use computers by communicating what is on the screen via speech or Braille. * [[Refreshable Braille display]], used to convert on-screen text to Braille characters. * [[Reading machine|Reading machines]] allow blind people to access printed material. * [[Video Magnifier|CCTV (Closed Circuit Television) or Video Magnifier]], magnifies printed text for people with low vision. ==Further reading== * Behrmann, M. & Schaff, J.(2001). Assisting educators with assistive technology: Enabling children to achieve independence in living and learning. Children and Families 42(3), 24-28. * Bishop, J. (2003). The Internet for educating individuals with social impairments. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 19(4), 546-556. Available as a free [http://www.jonathanbishop.com/publications/display.aspx?Item=9 download] * Cain, S. (2001). Accessing Technology - Using technology to support the learning and employment opportunities for visually impaired users. Royal National Institute for the Blind. ISBN 1858785170. * Cook, A., & Hussey, S. (2002). Assistive Technologies - Principles and Practice, 2nd Edition. Mosby. ISBN 0323006434 * Franklin, K.S. (1991). Supported employment and assistive technology-A powerful partnership. In S.L. Griffin & W.G. Revell (Eds.), Rehabilitation counselor desktop guide to supported employment. Richmond, VA : Virginia Commonwealth University Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Supported Employment. * Lahm, E., & Morrissette, S. (1994, April). Zap 'em with assistive technology. Paper presented at the annual meeting of The Council for Exceptional Children, Denver, CO. * Lee, C. (1999). Learning disabilities and assistive technologies; an emerging way to touch the future. Amherst, MA: McGowan Publications. * McKeown, S. (2000). Unlocking Potential - How ICT can support children with special needs. The Questions Publishing Company Ltd. ISBN 1841900419 * Nisbet, P. & Poon, P. (1998). Special Access Technology. The CALL Centre, University of Edinburgh. Available as a free [http://callcentre.education.ed.ac.uk/About_CALL/Publications_CAA/Books_CAB/SAT_CAC/sat_cac.html download] The CALL Centre. ISBN 189804211X * Nisbet, P., Spooner, R., Arthur, E. & Whittaker P. (1999). Supportive Writing Technology. The CALL Centre, University of Edinburgh. Available as a free [http://callcentre.education.ed.ac.uk/About_CALL/Publications_CAA/Books_CAB/Supp_Writing_CAC/supp_writing_cac.html download] The CALL Centre. ISBN 1898042136 * Rose, D. & Meyer, A. (2000). Universal design for individual differences. Educational Leadership, 58(3), 39-43. * Orpwood, R. Design methodology for aids for the disabled. J Med Eng Technol. 1990 Jan-Feb;14(1):2-10. | [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=2342081&itool=iconabstr&query_hl=2 PubMed ID: 2342081] * Adlam, T. et al. The installation and support of internationally distributed equipment for people with dementia." IEEE transactions on information technology in biomedicine (1089-7771) yr:2004 vol:8 iss:3 pg:253-257 | [http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/4233/29401/01331402.pdf download from IEEE (694k PDF)] ==External links== * [http://www.afb.org/prodMain.asp Assistive Technology Product Database - American Foundation for the Blind] * [http://www.afb.org/accessworld AccessWorld®: Technology and People with Visual Impairments] * [http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-3/assistive.htm Integrating Assistive Technology into the Standard Curriculum] * [http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-1/assistive.htm Assistive Technology for Students with Mild Disabilities] * [http://www.ericdigests.org/1995-2/mild.htm Assistive Technology for Students with Mild Disabilities] * [http://www.inclusive.co.uk/infosite/snhome.shtml Inclusive Technology (Special Needs Articles and Information pages)] === European organisations for assistive technology === * [http://www.aaate.net/index.asp?auto-redirect=true&accept-initial-profile=standard The Association for the Advancement of Assistive Technology in Europe (AAATE)] === UK-based organisations for assistive technology === * [http://www.aidis.org/ The Aidis Trust] * [http://www.dlf.org.uk/ The Disabled Living Foundation] * [http://www.abilitynet.org.uk/ AbilityNet] * [http://callcentre.education.ed.ac.uk/ The CALL Centre] * [http://www.communicationmatters.org.uk/ Communication Matters] * [http://www.fastuk.org/ FAST (Research and Development, Organisations, Events and Jobs)] including [http://www.fastuk.org/atforum.php Assistive Technology (AT) Forum] * [http://atp.nlb-online.org/Lessons/p_00.php National Library for the Blind (Access Technology Primer)] * [http://www.rnib.org.uk/technology RNIB (Technology Information Service)] * [http://www.rnid.org.uk/html/information/technology/home.htm RNID (Technology)] * [http://www.icesdoh.org/article.asp?page=156 UK Dept of Health page on telecare] * [http://www.ace-centre.org.uk/ The ACE Centres] * [http://www.bime.org.uk/ Bath Institute of Medical Engineering (BIME).] A medical engineering design and development charity. === North American organizations for assistive technology === * [http://www.resna.org/ Rehabilitation Engineering & Assistive Technology Society of North America] * [http://www.abledata.com/ ABLEDATA Global database of AT and Rehab products] * [http://www.ataccess.org/ The Alliance for Technology Access] * [http://www.atia.org/ Assistive Technology Industry Association] * [http://www.fctd.info/ The Family Center on Technology and Disability] [[Category:Accessibility]] [[Category:Assistive technology]] [[Category:disability]] [[Category:Educational technology]] [[de:Hilfsmittel (Rehabilitation)]] 654 30764945 2005-12-09T23:02:07Z CLW 346386 [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted redirection bypass from [[Assistive Technology]] to [[Assistive_technology]] '''Accessible computing''' covers * [[Assistive_technology|Assistive Technology]] * [[Accessible Software]] * [[Accessible Web]] * [[Legal Issues In Accessible Computing]] ** United States *** [[Private Lawsuits]] *** [[Section 508 Amendment to the Rehabilitation Act of 1973]] {{compu-stub}} [[Category:Accessibility]] [[Category:Assistive technology]] [[Category:Human-computer interaction]] 655 42021696 2006-03-03T07:12:11Z 203.113.67.71 th {{about|the calculator|the flat slab at the top of a column|[[abacus (architecture)]]}} An '''abacus''' is a calculation tool, often constructed as a wooden frame with beads sliding on wires. It was in use centuries before the adoption of the written [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system]] and is still widely used by merchants and clerks in [[China]] and elsewhere. The origins of the abacus are disputed, suggestions including invention in [[Babylonia]] and in [[China]], to have taken place between 2400 BC and 300 BC. The first abacus was almost certainly based on a flat stone covered with sand or dust. Lines were drawn in the sand and pebbles used to aid calculations. From this, a variety of abaci were developed; the most popular were based on the bi-quinary system, using a combination of two bases (base-2 and base-5) to represent decimal numbers The use of the word ''abacus'' dates back to before 1387 when a [[Middle English]] work borrowed the word from [[Latin]] to describe a sandboard abacus. The Latin word came from ''abakos'', the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Genitive case|genitive form]] of ''abax'' ("calculating-table"). Because ''abax'' also had the sense of "table sprinkled with sand or dust, used for drawing geometric figures," it is speculated by some linguists that the Greek word may be derived from a [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] [[Root (philology)|root]], ''ābāq'', the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word for "dust." Though details of the transmission are obscure, it may also be derived from the [[Phoenician]] word ''abak'', meaning "sand". The plural of abacus is abaci. == Babylonian abacus == {{Main|Babylonian abacus}} A tablet found on the island of Salamis (near Greece) in 1846 dates back to the Babylonians of 300 BC making it the oldest counting board discovered so far. It was originally thought to be a gaming board. Its construction is a slab of white marble measuring 149cm in length, 75cm in width and 4.5cm thick, on which are 5 groups of markings. In the center of the tablet are a set of 5 parallel lines equally divided by a vertical line, capped with a semi-circle at the intersection of the bottom-most horizontal line and the single vertical line. Below these lines is a wide space with a horizontal crack dividing it. Below this crack is another group of eleven parallel lines, again divided into two sections by a line perpendicular to them but with the semi-circle at the top of the intersection; the third, sixth and ninth of these lines are marked with a cross where they intersect with the vertical line. == Roman abacus == {{Main|Roman abacus}} [[image:RomanAbacusRecon.jpg|right|Reconstruction of Roman Abacus]] <!-- This image is a 2004 photograph of the Mainz reconstruction of the original in the Paris Library. It gives a much clearer picture that the device is not beads on wires than the drawing used in this entry earlier. If we are only allowed one image then this is the better to use. [[User:Mfc|mfc]] --> The [[Roman Empire|Late Empire]] [[Roman abacus]] shown here in reconstruction contains eight long and eight shorter grooves, the former having up to five beads in each and the latter one. The groove marked I indicates units, X tens, and so on up to millions. The beads in the shorter grooves denote fives&mdash;five units, five tens, ''etc.'', essentially in a [[bi-quinary coded decimal]] system, obviously related to the [[Roman numerals]]. The short grooves on the right may have been used for marking Roman ounces. Computations are made by means of beads which would probably have been slid up and down the grooves to indicate the value of each column. ==Chinese abacus== {{Main|Chinese abacus}} The '''suanpan''' ({{zh-stp|s=&#31639;&#30424;|t=&#31639;&#30436;|p=su&agrave;np&aacute;n}}) of the [[China|Chinese]] is similar to the Roman abacus in principle, though has a different construction, and it was designed to do both decimal and hexadecimal arithmetics. [[image:abacus_6.png|right|Chinese abacus, the suanpan]] The Chinese abacus is typically around 20 cm (8 inches) tall and it comes in various widths depending on the application. It usually has more than seven rods. There are two beads on each rod in the upper deck and five beads each in the bottom for both decimal and hexadecimal computation. The beads are usually rounded and made of a hard wood. The beads are counted by moving them up or down towards the beam. The abacus can be reset to the starting position instantly by a quick jerk along the horizontal axis to spin all the beads away from the horizontal beam at the center. Chinese abaci can be used for functions other than counting. Unlike the simple counting board used in elementary schools, very efficient suanpan techniques have been developed to do [[multiplication]], [[division (mathematics)|division]], [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[square root]] and [[cube root]] operations at high speed. '''Bead arithmetic''' is the calculating technique used with various types of abaci, in particular the Chinese abacus. == Japanese abacus (Soroban) == The Japanese eliminated (first) one bead from the upper deck and (later) another bead from the lower deck in each column of the Chinese abacus. The Japanese also eliminated the use of Qiuchu (Chinese division table). The method of Chinese division table was still used when there were 5 lower beads. There came the war of the Multiplication Table versus the Division Table. The school of Multiplication table prevailed in 1920s. The rods (number of digits) increase to usually 21, 23, 27 or even 31, thus allowing calculation for more digits. Soroban is taught in elementary schools as a part of lessons in mathematics. When teaching the soroban, a song-like instruction is given by the tutor. The soroban is about 8 cm (3 inches) tall. The beads on a soroban are usually shaped as a double cone (bi-cone) to facilitate ease of movement. Often, primary students may bring along with them two sorobans, one with 1 upper bead and 5 lower beads, the other with 1 upper bead with 4 lower beads, when they learn soroban in school. The size of beads of soroban is standardized, and they come in two types: the "Japanese" classified soroban for native Japanese, and a separate size for foreigners (since Westerners tend to be larger than most Japanese, and therefore have larger hands and fingers). The soroban that are for foreigners are made with a plastic pipe on both the left and right side of the frame, while ones made for native Japanese were all made with wooden frames. In this way the "thickness" of the soroban (for foreigners) is higher, rendering it easier for the non-Japanese to manipulate. <center>[[Image:Soroban.JPG|none|thumb|400px|Japanese soroban]]</center> == Russian abacus == [[Image:Schoty_abacus.jpg|thumb|Russian abacus]] The Russian abacus, the [[schoty]] or sjotty (&#1089;&#1095;&#1105;&#1090;&#1099;), usually has a single slanted deck, with ten beads on each wire (except one wire which has four, and acts as a separator or for fractions). This wire is usually near the user. The Russian abacus is often used vertically, with wires from left to right in the manner of a book. The wires are usually bowed to bulge upward in the center, in order to keep the beads pinned to either of the two sides. It is cleared when all the beads are moved to the right. During manipulation, beads are moved to the left. For easy viewing, the middle 2 beads on each wire (the 5th and 6th bead) usually have a colour different to the other 8 beads. Likewise, the left bead of the thousands wire (and the million wire, if present) may have a different color. The Russian abacus is still in common use today in shops and markets throughout the [[Commonwealth of Independent States|former Soviet Union]], although it is no longer taught in most schools. == School abacus == [[Image:Kugleramme.jpg|right|150px|thumb|School abacus used in Danish elementary school. Early 20th century.]] Around the world, abaci have been used in pre-schools and elementary schools as an aid in teaching arithmetics. In Western countries, a '''bead frame''' similar to the Russian abacus but with straight wires has been common (see image). It is still often seen as a plastic or wooden toy. == Uses by the visually impaired == Abaci are still commonly used by individuals who have [[blindness|visual impairments]]. They use an abacus to perform the mathematical functions [[multiplication]], [[division (mathematics)|division]], [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[square root]] and [[cubic root]]. A piece of soft fabric or rubber is placed behind the beads so that they don't move inadvertently. This keeps the beads in place while the user feels or manipulates them. Recently, abaci have been replaced to some extent by electronic calculators with speech, but only in those countries where they are easily available and affordable. However, even when they are available, many visually impaired people still prefer to use the abacus. In addition, many blind children are required to learn how to use the abacus before they are permitted the use of a talking calculator or similar device. This can be compared to sighted children being required to learn how to solve mathematical problems on paper before they are allowed the use of a calculator. == Native American abacus == Some sources mention the use of an abacus called a ''Nepohualtzintzin'' in ancient Mayan culture. This Mesoamerican abacus uses the 5-digit base-20 [[Mayan numerals|Mayan numeral]] system. The [[khipu]] of the [[Inka]]s was a system of knotted cords used to record numerical data - like advanced [[tally stick]]s&mdash;but was not used to perform calculations. == See also == * [[Chisenbop]] * [[Slide rule]] * [[Napier's bones]] * [[History of computing]] * [[History of computing hardware]] * [[Abacus logic]] * [[Abacus system | Mental abacus]] * [[Positional notation]] ==External links== {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abacus}} {{Commons|Abacus}} ===General and historical articles=== *[http://www.abacus.ca/abacus-images.php Abacus Photos and Images] *[http://www.ee.ryerson.ca/~elf/abacus/ Abacus] *[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Abacus.html#4 Roman abacus] ===Tutorials=== <!-- in alphabetical order by author --> * [http://www.gis.net/~daveber/Abacus/Abacus.htm Bernazzani's Soroban Abacus Handbook] * [http://www.minmm.com/minc/show_classes.php?id=273 Min Multimedia] * [http://www.sungwh.freeserve.co.uk/sapienti/abacus01.htm Suan Pan] * [http://webhome.idirect.com/~totton/abacus/ Abacus: Mystery of the Bead - an Abacus Manual] ===Abacus curiosities=== * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/Abacus.shtml Abacus in Various Number Systems] at [[cut-the-knot]] *[http://www.tux.org/~bagleyd/abacus.html Java applet of Chinese, Japanese and Russian abaci] *[http://www.research.ibm.com/atomic/nano/roomtemp.html An atomic-scale abacus] [[Category:Ancient Rome]] [[Category:Mathematical tools]] [[Category:Mechanical calculators]] [[af:Abakus]] [[ar:أباكوس]] [[be:Абак]] [[ca:Àbac]] [[cs:Abakus]] [[da:Abacus (regnemaskine)]] [[de:Abakus (Rechentafel)]] [[el:Άβακας]] [[es:Ábaco]] [[eo:Abako]] [[fa:چرتکه]] [[fr:Boulier]] [[gl:Ábaco]] [[ia:Abaco]] [[it:Abaco]] [[he:חשבונייה]] [[hu:Abakusz]] [[nah:Nepohualtzintzin]] [[nl:Abacus]] [[ja:そろばん]] [[pl:Abakus (liczydło)]] [[pt:Ábaco]] [[ru:Абак]] [[sl:Abak]] [[fi:Helmitaulu]] [[sv:Abakus]] [[tl:Abakus]] [[ta:எண்சட்டம்]] [[th:ลูกคิด]] [[tr:Abaküs]] [[zh:算盘]] 656 42117662 2006-03-03T23:03:46Z Hashbrowncipher 592332 Replaced false arab etymology {{mergefrom|strong acid}} {{Acids and Bases}} {{otheruses}} {{For|the cyber novellete by Nadeem Parachee|Acidity (Novelette)}} An '''acid''' (often represented by the generic formula '''HA''') is a water-soluble, sour-tasting [[chemical compound]] that when dissolved in [[water]], gives a solution with a [[pH]] of less than 7. == Definitions of acids and bases == The word "acid" comes from the [[Latin]] ''acidus'' meaning "sour", but in [[chemistry]] the term acid has a more specific meaning. There are three common [[Acid-base reaction theories|ways to define an acid]], namely, the '''Arrhenius''', the '''Brønsted-Lowry''' and the '''Lewis''' definitions, in order of increasing generality. * '''Arrhenius''': According to this definition, an acid is a substance that increases the concentration of hydronium ion (H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup>) when dissolved in water, while bases are substances that increase the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH<sup>-</sup>). This definition limits acids and bases to substances that can dissolve in water. Around 1800, many [[France|French]] chemists, including [[Antoine Lavoisier]], incorrectly believed that all acids contained [[oxygen]]. [[England|English]] chemists, including [[Sir Humphry Davy]] at the same time believed all acids contained hydrogen. The [[Sweden|Swedish]] chemist [[Svante Arrhenius]] used this belief to develop this definition of acid. * '''Brønsted-Lowry''': According to this definition, an acid is a [[proton]] donor and a base is a proton acceptor. The acid is said to be dissociated after the proton is donated. An acid and the corresponding base are referred to conjugate acid-base pairs. [[Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted|Brønsted]] and [[Martin Lowry|Lowry]] formulated this definition, which includes water-insoluble substances not in the Arrhenius definition. * '''Lewis''': According to this definition, an acid as an electron-pair acceptor and a base is an electron-pair donor. (These are frequently referred to as "[[Lewis acid]]s" and "[[Lewis base]]s," and are [[electrophile]]s and [[nucleophile]]s in [[organic chemistry]]). Lewis acids include substances with no [[protons]], such as [[iron(III) chloride]]. The Lewis definition can also be explained with [[molecular orbital]] theory. In general, an acid can receive an electron pair in its lowest unoccupied orbital ([[LUMO]]) from the highest occupied orbital ([[HOMO]]) of a base. That is, the HOMO from the base and the LUMO from the acid combine to a bonding [[molecular orbital]]. This definition was developed by [[Gilbert N. Lewis]]. Although not the most general theory, the Brønsted-Lowry definition is the most widely used definition. The strength of an acid may be understood by this defintion by the stability of [[hydronium]] and the solvated conjugate base upon dissociation. Increasing stability of the the conjugate base will increase the acidity of a compound. This concept of acidity is used frequently for organic acids such as [[carboxylic acid]]. The molecular orbital description, where the unfilled proton orbital overlaps with a lone pair, is connected to the Lewis definition. Solutions of weak acids and salts of their conjugate bases form [[buffer solution]]s. Acid/base systems are different from [[redox]] reactions in that there is no change in oxidation state. Generally, acids have the following chemical and physical properties: * '''Taste''': Acids generally are sour when dissolved in water. * '''Touch''': Acids produce a stinging feeling, particularly strong acids. * '''Reactivity''': Acids react aggressively with or corrode most [[metal]]s. * '''Electrical conductivity''': Acids are [[electrolyte]]s. [[Strong acid]]s are dangerous, causing severe burns for even minor contact. Generally, acid burns are treated by rinsing the affected area abundantly with water and followed up with immediate medical attention. == Nomenclature == Acids are named according to the ending of their [[anion]]. That ionic ending is dropped and replaced with a new suffix according to the table below. For example, HCl has chloride as its anion, so the -ide suffix makes it take the form hydrochloric acid. {| border="1" cellpadding="4" align="center" cellspacing="0" style="background: #f9f9f9; color: black; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;" !Anion Ending !Acid Prefix !Acid Suffix |- |per-anion-ate |per |ic acid |- |ate | |ic acid |- |ite | |ous acid |- |hypo-anion-ite |hypo |ous acid |- |ide |Hydro |ic acid |} == Chemical characteristics == In water the following [[Chemical equilibrium|equilibrium]] occurs between an acid (HA) and water, which acts as a base: HA(aq) {{unicode|&#8652;}} H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup>(aq) + A<sup>-</sup>(aq) The [[acidity constant]] (or acid dissociation constant) is the equilibrium constant for the reaction of HA with water: :<math>K_a = {[\mbox{H}_3\mbox{O}^+]\cdot[A^-] \over [HA]}</math> [[Strong acid]]s have large ''K''<sub>a</sub> values (i.e. the reaction equilibrium lies far to the right; the acid is almost completely dissociated to H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup> and A<sup>-</sup>). Strong acids include the heavier [[hydrohalic acid]]s: [[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl), [[hydrobromic acid]] (HBr), and [[hydroiodic acid]] (HI). (However, [[hydrofluoric acid]], HF, is relatively weak.) For example, the ''K''<sub>a</sub> value for [[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl) is 10<sup>7</sup>. [[Weak acid]]s have small ''K''<sub>a</sub> values (i.e. at equilibrium significant amounts of HA and A<sup>&minus;</sup> exist together in solution; modest levels of H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup> are present; the acid is only partially dissociated). For example, the K<sub>a</sub> value for acetic acid is 1.8 x 10<sup>-5</sup>. Most organic acids are weak acids. [[Oxoacid]]s, which tend to contain central atoms in high oxidation states surrounded by oxygen may be quite strong or weak. [[Nitric acid]], [[sulfuric acid]], and [[perchloric acid]] are all strong acids, whereas [[nitrous acid]], [[sulfurous acid]] and [[hypochlorous acid]] are all weak. Note the following: * The terms "[[hydrogen]] ion" and "proton" are used interchangebly; both refer to H<sup>+</sup>. * In aqueous solution, the water is protonated to form [[hydronium]] ion, H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup>(aq). This is often abbreviated as H<sup>+</sup>(aq) even though the symbol is not chemically correct. * The strength of an acid is measured by its [[acid dissociation constant]] (''K''<sub>a</sub>) or equivalently its p''K''<sub>a</sub> (p''K''<sub>a</sub>= - log(''K''<sub>a</sub>). * The [[pH]] of a solution is a measurement of the concentration of [[hydronium]]. This will depend of the concnetration and nature of acids and bases in solution. === Polyprotic acids === [[Polyprotic]] acids are able to donate more than one proton per acid molecule, in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule. Specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names, such as '''diprotic acid''' (two potenital protons to donate) and '''triprotic acid''' (three potenital protons to donate) A monoprotic acid can undergo one [[dissociation]] (sometimes called ionization) as follows and simply has one acid dissociation constant as shown above: :::::HA(aq) + H<sub>2</sub>O(l) {{unicode|&#8652;}} H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup>(aq) + A<sup>&minus;</sup>(aq) &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; ''K''<sub>a</sub> A diprotic acid (here symbolized by H<sub>2</sub>A) can undergo one or two dissociations depending on the pH. Each dissociation has its own dissociation constant, K<sub>a1</sub> and K<sub>a2</sub>. :::::H<sub>2</sub>A(aq) + H<sub>2</sub>O(l) {{unicode|&#8652;}} H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup>(aq) + HA<sup>&minus;</sup>(aq) &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; ''K''<sub>a1</sub> :::::HA<sup>&minus;</sup>(aq) + H<sub>2</sub>O(l) {{unicode|&#8652;}} H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup>(aq) + A<sup>2&minus;</sup>(aq)&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; ''K''<sub>a2</sub> The first dissociation constant is typically greater than the second; i.e., ''K''<sub>a1</sub> > ''K''<sub>a2</sub> . For example, [[sulfuric acid]] (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>) can donate one proton to form the [[bisulfate]] anion (HSO<sub>4</sub><sup>&minus;</sup>), for which ''K''<sub>a1</sub> is very large; then it can donate a second proton to form the [[sulfate]] anion (SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2&minus;</sup>), wherein the ''K''<sub>a2</sub> is intermediate strength. The large ''K''<sub>a1</sub> for the first dissociation makes sulfuric a strong acid. In a similar manner, the weak unstable [[carbonic acid]] (H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>) can lose one proton to form [[bicarbonate]] anion (HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>&minus;</sup>) and lose a second to form [[carbonate]] anion (CO<sub>3</sub><sup>2&minus;</sup>). Both ''K''<sub>a</sub> values are small, but ''K''<sub>a1</sub> > ''K''<sub>a2</sub> . A triprotic acid (H<sub>3</sub>A) can undergo one, two, or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants, where ''K''<sub>a1</sub> > ''K''<sub>a2</sub> > ''K''<sub>a3</sub> . :::::H<sub>3</sub>A(aq) + H<sub>2</sub>O(l) {{unicode|&#8652;}} H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup>(aq) + H<sub>2</sub>A<sup>&minus;</sup>(aq) &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; ''K''<sub>a1</sub> :::::H<sub>2</sub>A<sup>&minus;</sup>(aq) + H<sub>2</sub>O(l) {{unicode|&#8652;}} H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup>(aq) + HA<sup>2&minus;</sup>(aq) &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; ''K''<sub>a2</sub> :::::HA<sup>2&minus;</sup>(aq) + H<sub>2</sub>O(l) {{unicode|&#8652;}} H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup>(aq) + A<sup>3&minus;</sup>(aq) &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ''K''<sub>a3</sub> An [[inorganic]] example of a triprotic acid is orthophosphoric acid (H<sub>3</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>), usually just called [[phosphoric acid]]. All three protons can be successively lost to yield H<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub><sup>&minus;</sup>, then HPO<sub>4</sub><sup>2&minus;</sup>, and finally PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3&minus;</sup> , the orthophosphate ion, usually just called [[phosphate]]. An [[Organic compound|organic]] example of a triprotic acid is [[citric acid]], which can successively lose three protons to finally form the [[citrate]] ion. Even though the positions of the protons on the original molecule may be equivalent, the successive ''K''<sub>a</sub> values will differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more negatively charged. == Neutralization == [[Neutralization]] is the reaction between equal amounts of an acid and a base, producing a [[salt]] and [[water (molecule)|water]]; for example, hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide form sodium chloride and water: ::HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) -> H<sub>2</sub>O(l) + NaCl(aq) Neutralization is the basis of [[titration]], where a [[PH indicator|pH indicator]] shows equivalence point when the equivalent number of moles of a base have been added to an acid. == Common acids == === Strong inorganic acids === * [[Hydrobromic acid]] * [[Hydrochloric acid]] * [[Hydroiodic acid]] * [[Nitric acid]] * [[Sulfuric acid]] * [[Perchloric acid]] === Medium to weak inorganic acids === * [[Boric acid]] * [[Carbonic acid]] * [[Chloric acid]] * [[Hydrofluoric acid]] * [[Phosphoric acid]] * [[Pyrophosphoric acid]] ===Weak [[organic acid]]s=== * [[Acetic acid]] * [[Benzoic acid]] * [[Butyric acid]] * [[Citric acid]] * [[Formic acid]] * [[Lactic acid]] * [[Malic acid]] * [[Mandelic acid]] * [[Methanethiol]] * [[Propionic acid]] * [[Pyruvic acid]] * [[Valeric acid]] == Acids in food == * '''[[Acetic acid]]''': (E260) found in [[vinegar]] * '''[[Adipic acid]]''': (E355) * '''[[Alginic acid]]''': (E400) * '''[[Ascorbic acid]]''' (vitamin C): (E300) found in fruits * '''[[Benzoic acid]]''': (E210) * '''[[Boric acid]]''': (E284) * '''[[Citric acid]]''': (E330) found in [[citrus fruits]] * '''[[Carbonic acid]]''': (E290) found in [[carbonation|carbonated]] [[soft drink]]s * '''[[Carminic acid]]''': (E120) * '''[[Cyclamic acid]]''': (E952) * '''[[Erythorbic acid]]''': (E315) * '''[[Erythorbin acid]]''': (E317) * '''[[Formic acid]]''': (E236)found in bee and ant stings * '''[[Fumaric acid]]''': (E297) * '''[[Gluconic acid]]''': (E574) * '''[[Glutamic acid]]''': (E620) * '''[[Guanylic acid]]''': (E626) * '''[[Hydrochloric acid]]''': (E507) * '''[[Inosinic acid]]''': (E630) * '''[[Lactic acid]]''': (E270) found in [[dairy products]] such as [[yoghurt]] and sour [[milk]], also is product of [[cellular fermentation]], the reason muscles burn * '''[[Malic acid]]''': (E296) * '''[[Metatartaric acid]]''': (E353) * '''[[Methanethiol]]''': found in cheese and some other fermented foods. * '''[[Niacin]]''' (nicotinic acid): (E375) * '''[[Oxalic acid]]''': found in [[spinach]] and [[rhubarb]] * '''[[Pectic acid]]''': found in fruits and some vegetables * '''[[Phosphoric acid]]''': (E338) * '''[[Propionic acid]]''': (E280) * '''[[Sorbic acid]]''': (E200) found in foods and drinks * '''[[Stearic acid]]''': (E570), a type of [[fatty acid]]. * '''[[Succinic acid]]''': (E363) * '''[[Sulfuric acid]]''': (E513) * '''[[Tannic acid]]''': found in [[tea]] * '''[[Tartaric acid]]''': (E334) found in [[grapes]] == Sources == * [http://www.csudh.edu/oliver/chemdata/data-ka.htm Listing of strengths of common acids and bases] * Zumdahl, Chemistry, 4th Edition. == See also== * [[acid number]] [[Category:Chemical substances]] [[Category:Acids|*]] [[Category:Arabic words]] <!-- interwiki --> [[bg:Киселина]] [[ca:Àcid]] [[cs:Kyselina]] [[da:Syre]] [[de:Säuren]] [[et:Hape]] [[es:Ácido]] [[eo:Acido]] [[fr:Acide]] [[gl:Ácido]] [[ko:산 (화학)]] [[hr:Kiseline]] [[io:Acido]] [[id:Asam]] [[it:Acido]] [[he:חומצה]] [[lv:Skābe]] [[lt:Rūgštis]] [[hu:Sav]] [[mk:Киселина]] [[nl:Zuur (chemie)]] [[nds:Süür]] [[ja:酸と塩基]] [[pl:Kwas]] [[pt:Ácido]] [[ro:Acid]] [[ru:Кислоты]] [[simple:Acid]] [[sk:Kyselina]] [[sl:Kislina]] [[sr:Киселина]] [[sv:Syra]] [[tl:Asido]] [[ta:அமிலம்]] [[th:กรด]] [[vi:Axít]] [[uk:Кислота]] [[zh:酸]] 657 42066690 2006-03-03T16:08:10Z DonSiano 215548 add ref ''The term '''asphalt''' is often used as an abbreviation for [[asphalt concrete]].'' '''Asphalt''' is a sticky, black and highly [[viscosity|viscous]] liquid or semi-solid that is present in most crude [[petroleum]]s and in some natural deposits. Asphalt is composed almost entirely of [[bitumen]]. There is some disagreement amongst [[chemist]]s regarding the structure of asphalt, however it is most commonly modeled as a [[colloid]], with ''asphaltenes'' as the dispersed phase and ''maltenes'' as the continuous phase. Asphalt is sometimes confused with [[tar]], which is an artificial material produced by the [[destructive distillation]] of [[organic matter]]. Tar is also predominantly composed of bitumen, however the bitumen content of tar is typically lower than that of asphalt. Tar and asphalt have very different engineering properties. Asphalt can be separated from the other components in crude oil (such as [[naphtha]], [[gasoline]] and [[diesel]]) by the process of [[fractional distillation]], usually under [[vacuum]] conditions. A better separation can be achieved by further processing of the heavier fractions of the crude oil in a [[de-asphalting unit]] which uses either [[propane]] or [[butane]] in a [[Supercritical fluid|supercritical]] phase to dissolve the lighter molecules which are then separated. Further processing is possible by "blowing" the product: namely reacting it with [[oxygen]]. This makes the product harder and more viscous. Natural deposits of asphalt include Lake Asphalts (primarily from the [[Pitch Lake]] in [[Trinidad and Tobago]] and [[Bermudez Lake]] in [[Venezuela]]), [[Gilsonite]], the [[Dead Sea]] in [[Israel]], and [[Tar Sands]]. Asphalt is rather hard to transport in bulk (it hardens unless kept very hot) so it is sometimes mixed with [[diesel oil]] or [[kerosene]] before shipping. Upon delivery, these lighter materials are separated out of the mixture. This mixture is often called '''bitumen feedstock''', or BFS. The largest use of asphalt is for making [[asphalt concrete]] for [[Pavement (material)|pavement]]s, which accounts for approximately 80% of the asphalt consumed in the [[United States]]. [[Roof]]ing [[shingle]]s account for most of the remaining asphalt consumption. Other uses include [[cattle spray]]s, fence post treatments, and waterproofing for fabrics. In the ancient [[middle-east]] natural asphalt deposits were used for [[mortar (masonry)| mortar]] between bricks and stones, ship [[caulking | caulk]], and waterproofing. The [[Persian language | Persian]] word for asphalt is ''mumiya'', which may be the source for the English word [[mummy]]. ==References== Barth, Edwin J., ''Asphalt: Science and Technology'' Gordon and Breach (1962). ISBN 0677000405. ==External links== *[http://www.biffvernon.freeserve.co.uk/black_stuff.htm Black Stuff] *[http://www.hawaiiasphalt.com/HAPI Hawaii Asphalt Pavement Guide] [[Category:Petroleum products]] [[Category:Construction]] [[Category:Pavements]] [[de:Asphalt]] [[es:Asfalto]] [[fr:Asphalte]] [[id:Aspal]] [[he:אספלט]] [[nl:Asfalt]] [[ja:アスファルト]] [[pl:Asfalt]] [[pt:Asfalto]] [[ru:Асфальт]] [[sv:Asfalt]] [[fi:Asvaltti]] [[vi:Nhựa đường]] 658 15899185 2004-09-29T01:43:26Z Nohat 13661 redirect #REDIRECT [[Acronym and initialism]] 659 41941782 2006-03-02T19:57:03Z Bluebot 527862 title => bold text + clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]] The '''American National Standards Institute''' (ANSI) is a nonprofit organization that oversees the development of standards for products, services, processes and systems in the United States. The organization also coordinates U.S. standards with international standards so that American products can be used worldwide. For example, standards make sure that people who own cameras can find the film they need for them anywhere around the globe. The American National Standards Institute approves standards that are developed by representatives of standards developing organizations, government agencies, consumer groups, companies, and others. These standards make sure that the characteristics and performance of products are consistent, that people use the same definitions and terms, and that products are tested the same way. ANSI accredits organizations that carry out product or personnel certification in accordance with requirements defined in international standards. The ANSI accreditation programs conform to international guidelines as verified by government and peer review assessments. In 1918, five engineering societies and three government agencies founded the American Engineering Standards Committee (AESC). The AESC became the American Standards Association (ASA) in 1928. In 1966, the ASA was reorganized and became the United States of America Standards Institute (USASI). The present name was adopted in 1969. The organization's headquarters are in Washington, D.C. For more information see its Web site at http://www.ansi.org. The '''ASA''' photographic exposure system became the basis for the ISO [[film speed]] system, currently used worldwide. In [[Microsoft Windows]], the phrase "ANSI" refers to the [[Windows ANSI code page]]s. Most of these are fixed width though there are some variable width ones for [[ideographic language]]s. Some of these are very close to the [[ISO-8859]] series leading many to falsely assume that they are identical. [[ASCII art]] which is colorized or animated by way of ANSI terminal control codes (X3.64 sequences) are commonly referred to as "[[ANSI art]]" and were predominantly popular on [[bulletin board system]]s throughout the 1980s and 1990s. == See also== * [http://www.ansi.org/nsp American National Standards Institute Nanotechnology Standards Panel (ANSI-NSP)] * [http://www.ansi.org/hssp American National Standards Institute Homeland Security Standards Panel (ANSI-HSSP)] * [http://www.ansi.org/hitsp American National Standards Institute Healthcare Information Technology Standards Panel (ANSI-HITSP)] * [[ANSI art]], art created from a subset of [[ANSI X3.64|X3.64]] * [[ANSI.SYS]], a device driver for [[MS-DOS]] * [[ANSI escape code|ANSI escape codes]] * [[Unified Thread Standard]] ==External links== * [http://www.ansi.org/ American National Standards Institute] official website * [http://www.ansi.org/about_ansi/introduction/introduction.aspx?menuid=1 ANSI Overview] * [http://www.ansi.org/about_ansi/introduction/history.aspx?menuid=1 ANSI Historical Overview] *[http://www.paulschou.com/tools/xlate/ Online Char (ASCII), HEX, Binary, Base64, etc... Encoder/Decoder] [[Category:Standards organizations]] [[ar:ANSI]] [[zh-min-nan:ANSI]] [[cs:American National Standards Institute]] [[de:American National Standards Institute]] [[es:ANSI]] [[fr:American National Standards Institute]] [[ko:ANSI]] [[it:ANSI]] [[he:מכון התקנים האמריקני]] [[hu:ANSI]] [[nl:American National Standards Institute]] [[ja:ANSI]] [[no:American National Standards Institute]] [[pl:ANSI]] [[pt:American National Standards Institute]] [[sl:ANSI]] [[sv:ANSI]] [[th:สถาบันมาตรฐานแห่งชาติของสหรัฐอเมริกา]] [[vi:ANSI]] [[tr:ANSI]] [[zh:美国国家标准学会]] 660 42009131 2006-03-03T04:48:21Z 67.10.251.112 /* History */ {{Otheruses4|the city in the [[United States|U.S.]] state of [[Alaska]]|other meanings|Anchorage}} {{Infobox City | official_name = Anchorage, Alaska | nickname = The City of Lights and Flowers | image_skyline = Downtownanchorage,Alaska.jpg | image_flag = Us-ak-an.jpg | image_seal = | image_map = Map of Alaska highlighting Anchorage Municipality.png | map_caption = Location in the state of [[Alaska]] | subdivision_type = [[Boroughs of the United States|Borough]] | subdivision_name = [[Municipality of Anchorage]] | leader_title = [[Mayor]] | leader_name = [[Mark Begich]] | area_magnitude = 1 E9 | area_total = 1,961.1 mi&sup2; / 5,079.2 | area_land = 1,697.2 mi&sup2; / 4,395.8 | area_water = 2.63.9 mi&sup2; / 683.4 | population_as_of = 2004 | population_metro = 339,286 | population_total = 272,687 | population_density = 160.7 | timezone = [[Alaska Standard Time Zone|AST]] | utc_offset = -9 | timezone_DST = [[Alaska Daylight Time|ADT]] | utc_offset_DST = -8 | latd = 61 | latm = 13 | lats = 06 | latNS = N | longd = 149 | longm = 53 | longs = 57 | longEW = W | elevation = 115 | website = [http://www.ci.anchorage.ak.us/ www.ci.anchorage.ak.us/] | footnotes = }} '''Anchorage''' is a Unified [[Home Rule]] [[Municipality]] (officially called the '''Municipality of Anchorage''') in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Alaska]]. It is also a [[census area]]. With 260,283 residents according to the [[U.S. Census, 2000|2000 census]], Anchorage is the largest city in the state of [[Alaska]], composing more than two-fifths of the state's population. A State of Alaska Demographer in 2004 estimates the population at 277,498. Anchorage was founded in 1915 and named after a place where a ship lies at [[anchor]]. Its official [[List of city nicknames|nickname]] is "The City of Lights and Flowers". Garden writers call Anchorage the "Hanging Basket Capital of the World" when it comes to the city's 100,000 hanging baskets, and aviation buffs refer to the city as the "Air Crossroads of the World" because of its geographical location between the two northern continents. In downtown Anchorage along the streets and sidewalks are 425 baskets of bright gold triploid marigold drenched with trailing sapphire lobelia. The blue and gold flowers represent the colors of the Municipality of Anchorage flag and the [[Flag of Alaska|Alaska state flag]]. The city of Anchorage blooms with vibrant color during the late spring and summer when it comes to [[flowers]]. Today Anchorage has many features of a modern [[urban area]], such as [[park]]s and forests, bike and city trails, [[skiing]] and cross-country ski trails, business and [[commerce]], theaters and other [[entertainment]]s. The [[tourist industry]] is strong and offers many activities and attractions. == History == {{main|History of Anchorage, Alaska}} Russia was well-established in North America by the 1800s. In 1867, U.S. Secretary of State [[William H. Seward]] brokered a [[Alaska purchase|deal to purchase Alaska]] from debt-ridden [[Russia]] for $7.2 million, about two cents an acre. Alaska's value was not appreciated by the American masses at that time, calling it "'''Seward's folly'''", "'''Seward's icebox'''" and "'''Walrussia'''". By 1888, gold was discovered along [[Turnagain Arm]]. In 1912, Alaska became a [[United States Territory]]. Anchorage was carefully laid out by city planners in 1914, originally as a [[railroad]] [[construction]] [[port]] for the [[Alaska Railroad]], and on [[July 9]], [[1915]], the first sale of town lots was held. In 1915 President [[Woodrow Wilson]] authorized funds for the construction of the [[Alaska Railroad]]. That same year the Anchorage [[Chamber of Commerce]] was formed. Ship Creek Landing in Anchorage was selected as the headquarters of this effort. Soon a "Tent City" sprang up at the mouth of Ship Creek and the population quickly swelled to more than 2,000. Would-be entrepreneurs flocked to this bustling frontier town, and they brought with them everything necessary to build a city. A popular hardware and clothing store, "The Anchorage," was actually an old dry-docked steamship named "Berth." Although the area had been known by various names, the [[U.S. Post Office]] Department formalized the use of the name "Anchorage," and despite some protests the name stuck. In 1920, the United States government relinquished its direct control over the city, and elections were held. Anchorage was incorporated on [[November 23]], [[1920]]. In 1923, [[William Mulcahy]] establishes the Anchorage Baseball League. Mulcahy was a baseball fan who was working as the Alaska Railroad station auditor assistant and established the baseball league in his spare time. Later in life, Mulcahy introduced Little League baseball and established the city's [[YMCA]]. The Mulcahy Park stadium and ball field were named in his honor for his contributions to early Anchorage. The 1930s were a time that Anchorage rebounded from the loss of population and industry it had suffered during [[World War I]]. [[Air transportation]] became increasingly important to Anchorage. In 1930, the original "Park Strip" landing field was replaced by a new facility, [[Merrill Field]], which had a beacon and a control [[tower]], and in a few short years, it became one of the busiest centers of [[civilian]] [[aircraft]] activity in the [[United States]]. In 1937, [[Providence Alaska Medical Center]] opened its doors. <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Anchorage-1940s2.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Fourth Avenue in the 1940s.]] --> The arrival of US Army troops in 1940 marked a decade of growth based on military expansion for Anchorage. Growth spurted in the 1940s, with the construction of [[Elmendorf Air Force Base]] and [[Fort Richardson]], which made Anchorage a major defense center. In 1940, a canal was built connecting [[Lake Spenard]] with [[Lake Hood]], making it the world's largest [[seaplane]] base. The outbreak of [[World War II]] with the threat of a Japanese invasion prompted continued expansion of military personnel and aircraft, and later the pressures of the [[Cold War]] between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] ensured continued heavy military investment in the Anchorage area. In 1947, the [[parking meter]] was introduced in Anchorage, and in 1949, the first [[traffic light]]s were installed on Fourth Avenue. Between 1939 and 1950, Anchorage's population spurted from 4,230 to 30,060, and the cost of living soared. Anchorage also experienced an unfortunate rise in crime during this tumultuous growth period, a problem the city would fight for decades. The decade of the 1950s was also eventful. In 1951 came the opening of the [[Seward Highway]]. On [[December 10]], [[1951]], Anchorage established itself as the "Air Crossroads of the World" when Anchorage International Airport opened with transpolar airline traffic flying between Western [[Europe]] and East [[Asia]]. The new airport also became a refueling stop for flights between the contiguous 48 states and East Asia, until nonstop flights became practical around 1970, with the Boeing 747 airliner. In 1953, [[health care]] expanded with the opening of the [[Alaska Native Medical Center]]. Also, three volcanoes erupted in the area, including [[Mount Spurr]], which dumped several inches of ash on Anchorage. [[KTVA]], the city's first [[television station]], began broadcasting in 1953. In 1954, the [[Alyeska Resort]] was established. In 1957, oil was discovered on the [[Kenai Peninsula]]. On [[January 3]], [[1959]], Alaska joined the union as the 49th state. <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Anc65.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Downtown Anchorage in 1965.]] --> The decade of the 1960s began on a bright note for Anchorage after Alaska's attaining statehood. After Alaska became a state, Anchorage faced a severe housing shortage, which was solved partially by [[suburb|suburban expansion]]. In January 1964, Anchorage became both a City and a Borough. But on [[March 27]], [[1964]], Anchorage was hit by the [[Good Friday Earthquake]], which registered 9.2 on the [[Richter scale]] and caused tremendous destruction in south Alaska. This earthquake was the strongest ever recorded in [[North America]] and [[United States]] history, and Anchorage lay only 75 miles (120 km) from the [[epicenter]]. It killed 131 people across [[South Central Alaska]], and property damage was estimated at over $300 million (1964 dollars). The brand new J.C. Penney department store in Anchorage was flattened. Anchorage's remarkable recovery from this disaster dominated life in the late 1960s. The continued threat of earthquakes has prompted a limit on the height of buildings in the city; the tallest buildings are 21 stories high. In 1968, Kincaid Park was created in South Anchorage from a former [[Project Nike|Nike]] surface-to-air missile site. That same year, oil was discovered in [[Prudhoe Bay, Alaska|Prudhoe Bay]] on the Arctic Slope and, in 1969, oil-lease sales brought billions of dollars to the state. [[Image:Statue_of_Balto_in_Anchorage.jpg|thumb|right|Statue in downtown Anchorage of [[Balto|Balto]], the lead sled dog during the last part of the [[Iditarod]] serum run.]] The decade of the 1970s was an important time of growth for the Anchorage economy. On [[March 3]], [[1973]], the first 1049-mile-long (1690 km) [[Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race]] started from downtown Anchorage with 34 mushers. Twenty-two mushers finished the race, with the last one arriving in [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]] one-month after he left the starting line. In recent years, winners have finished the race in less than 10 days. In 1974, construction begain on the [[Trans-Alaska Pipeline System]], with [[Valdez]], not Anchorage, as its southern terminus. The oil discovery and pipline construction fueled a modern-day boom when oil and construction companies set up their headquarters in Anchorage. The pipeline was completed in 1977 at a cost of more than $8 billion. In 1975, Bicentennial Park was created in Southeast Anchorage. On [[September 15]], [[1975]], the city and borough consolidated forming a [[unified government]]. Also included in this unification were [[Eagle River, Alaska|Eagle River]], [[Eklutna, Alaska|Eklutna]], [[Girdwood, Alaska|Girdwood]], [[Glen Alps, Alaska|Glen Alps]], and several other communities. The unified area became officially known as the [[Anchorage Municipality|Municipality of Anchorage]]. By 1980, the population of Anchorage had grown to 174,431. The decade of the 1980s was a time of growth, thanks to a flood of North Slope oil revenue into the state treasury. Capital projects and an aggressive beautification program, combined with far-sighted community planning, greatly increased infrastructure and quality of life. These included a new [[library]], [[civic center]], [[arena|sports arena]], and [[performing arts center]]. The 1980s was also a time when Alaska's up-and-down economy struck. The price of oil dropped dramatically, and recession hit Anchorage. But in 1984, [[Hilltop Ski Area]] was established, which along with the [[Alyeska Resort]] in [[Girdwood, Alaska|Girdwood]], and [[Alpenglow at Arctic Valley]] gave residents three fully- operational skiing areas, benefitting tourism and recreational activities. In 1986, Kincaid Outdoor Center opens. In 1989, [[Mount Redoubt]] erupted again, curtailing aviation in the Anchorage area for a short period of time. The decade of the 1990s was a time when Anchorage saw gold. In 1996, the Arctic Winter Games were held in [[Chugiak]]/[[Eagle River, Alaska|Eagle River]] and, in 1999, the [[Alaska Native Heritage Center]] opened. On [[July 8]], [[2000]], the municipal airport was renamed "[[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport]]" in honor of Alaska's longest-serving [[United States Senator]]. <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:AnchoragewithMcKinleyinthebackground.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A view of downtown Anchorage with a clear view of [[Mount McKinley]] ([[Denali]]) in background.]] --> In spite of the height limitations on buildings, Anchorage today has an attractive skyline nevertheless, particularly with the [[Chugach Mountains]], [[Cook Inlet]], or the often-visible [[Mount McKinley]] (also known as [[Denali]]) as a backdrop. From Government Hill, one can see the best view of Mount McKinley. Though space is limited in the "Anchorage bowl," as locals call the peninsula on which the city is located, many parks, greenbelts, and other undeveloped areas can be found within the city itself, making it particularly attractive to nature lovers (to say nothing of the attractions available just a short distance outside the city). Over the past thirty years, however, many of these undeveloped areas have filled in with houses, strip malls, and other development. Nonetheless, there is an enormous amount of land under the Anchorage Municipal control, which totals some 1,955 square miles (5063 km&sup2) - about the size of Delaware. The majority of this land is located within the [[Chugach Mountains]] to the east of the city, which also comprises [[Chugach State Park]]. == Geography and climate == === Geography === [[Image:Vicinity map of Municipality of Anchorage.gif|right|350px]] According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the municipality has a total area of 5,079.2 [[Square Kilometre|km&sup2;]] (1,961.1 [[Square Mile|mi&sup2;]]), 4,395.8 km&sup2; (1,697.2 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 683.4 km&sup2; (263.9 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 13.46% water. Anchorage is located in [[South Central Alaska]], at 61 °13'06"North [[latitude]] (about the same as [[Stockholm]] and [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]]), -149 °53'57"West [[longitude]] (about the same as [[Hawaii]]), northeast of the [[Alaska Peninsula]], [[Kodiak Island]], and [[Cook Inlet]], due north of the [[Kenai Peninsula]], northwest of [[Prince William Sound]] and [[Alaska Panhandle]], and nearly due south of [[Mount McKinley]]/[[Denali]]. The city is situated on a triangular [[peninsula]] bordered on the east by the rugged, scenic, and eminently hike-worthy [[Chugach Mountains]], on the northwest by the [[Knik Arm]], and on the southwest by the [[Turnagain Arm]], upper branches of the Cook Inlet, which itself is the northernmost reach of the [[Pacific Ocean]]. Despite this, the city lacks coastal beaches, instead having wide, treacherous [[mudflats]]. Adjacent to the north is [[Matanuska-Susitna Borough, Alaska]]. To the south is [[Kenai Peninsula Borough, Alaska]], and to the east is [[Valdez-Cordova Census Area, Alaska]]. {{seealso|Anchorage neighborhood communities}} === Climate === Average daytime summer temperatures are approximately 55 to 80 degrees [[Fahrenheit]] (13 to 27 degrees [[Celsius]]); average daytime winter temperatures are about 5 to 20 degrees (-15 to -7 degrees Celsius) (warmer than many places in the [[The Lower 48|contiguous United States]]). Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport (PANC) average January low and high temperatures are 9 °F / 22 °F (-13 °C / -5 °C) with an average winter snowfall of 70.60 inches (179.3 cm). The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be very unpredictable. Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures, while others, just a foot or two of snow and frequent thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets. On [[March 17]], [[2002]], a record 24-hour ([[St. Patrick's Day]]) [[snow]] storm dumped 25.7 inches (65.3 cm) of snow on the Anchorage area, causing the airport and schools to close on that day, and several days longer for the schools. The 1954-1955 winter had 132.8 inches (337.3 cm), which made it the snowiest winter on record. The coldest [[temperature]] ever recorded at [[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport]] was -38 °F (-38.8 °C) on [[February 3]], [[1948]]. Summers are typically very mild and pleasant, though it can rain frequently. There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days, when those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular. Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport average July low and high temperatures are 52 °F / 66 °F (11 °C / 19 °C) and the hottest reading ever recorded was 86 °F (30 °C) on [[June 25]], [[1953]]. The average annual precipitation at Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport is 16.07 inches (40.8 cm). Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitoes (which are much worse out in [[Alaskan Bush|the Bush]] than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days. Since Anchorage is at such a high latitude, for months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return home in the dark. Those who don't study or work next to a window can go all week long without seeing the sun. == Demographics == {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:3px; text-size:80%; text-align:right" |align=center colspan=2| '''City of Anchorage <br>Population by year [http://www.muni.org/iceimages/Planning/popu1a.pdf]''' |- |1950 || 30,060 |- |1960 || 82,833 |- |1970 || 126,385 |- |1980 || 174,431 |- |1990 || 226,338 |- |2000 || 260,283 |} As of the [[U.S. Census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, Anchorage had a population of 260,283 and in all the Municipality of Anchorage is home to almost two-fifths of Alaska's population. The [[population density]] is 59.2/ km&sup2; (153.4/ mi&sup2;). There are 100,368 housing units at an average density of 22.8/ km&sup2; (59.1/ mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the municipality is 72.23% [[White]] ([[Caucasian race|Caucasian]]), 5.55% are [[Asian American]]s, 5.84% are [[African American]]s, 7.28% are [[American Indians (U.S. Census)|American Indians]] or [[Alaska Native]]s, 0.93% are [[Pacific Islander]]s, 5.69% are [[Hispanic American]]s or [[Latino]]s of any race, 5.98% are from two or more races, and 2.19% are from other non-white backgrounds. There are 94,822 households out of which 38.9% have children under the age 18 living with them, 51.1% are [[married couples]] living together, 11.5% have a female householder with no husband present, and 32.4% are non-families. 23.4% of all households are made up of individuals and 3.8% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.67 and the average family size is 3.19. In the city the population is spread out with 29.1% under the age of 18, 9.6% from 18 to 24, 33.9% from 25 to 44, 21.9% from 45 to 64, and 5.5% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 32 years. For every 100 females there are 101.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 102.4 males. The median income for a household in the city is $55,546, and the median income for a family is $63,682. Males have a median income of $41,267 versus $63,682 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $25,287. 7.3% of the population and 5.1% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 8.8% of those under the age of 18 and 6.4% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. Anchoragites exemplify many of the qualities to be found among Alaskans generally: independence, friendliness, practical-mindedness, and a love of the outdoors. There is, even among businesspeople in Anchorage, a tendency to "dress down". (There is no [[dress code]] in any Anchorage restaurant.) This, and a sort of frontier spirit that still lives on in [[Alaska]] generally, gives Anchorage a relatively casual, relaxed atmosphere compared to some other American cities. (These cultural characteristics are only more exaggerated the farther one moves out of the city into the rest of [[Alaska]].) The city has traditionally served as a destination for immigrants, and there are active [[Asian]], [[Eastern European]], and [[Hispanic]] populations, along with communities of [[African Americans]] and various groups of [[indigenous peoples|aboriginal]] Alaskans. Over 95 languages are spoken by students in the Anchorage School District. == Government == Anchorage is administered by an elected [[mayor]] and [[city council|assembly]], and a [[city manager]]. The city's current mayor is [[Mark Begich]]. {{See also|List of mayors of Anchorage, Alaska}} === Sister cities === Anchorage is internationally partnered with a number of [[Town twinning|sister cities]] to promote global cooperation, cultural exchange and economic collaboration. Today, Anchorage has six sister cities, including [[Chitose]], ([[Japan]]); [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]], ([[Australia]]); [[Incheon]], ([[South Korea]]); [[Magadan]], ([[Russia]]); [[Tromso]], ([[Norway]]); and [[Whitby]], ([[England]]). == Economy == Anchorage is the center of [[commerce]] for [[Alaska]] and a major port, receiving over 95% of all freight entering Alaska passes, as well as a major hub of the famous [[Alaska Railroad]]. Several [[petroleum|oil]] and [[gas]] industries like: [[BP]] Exploration (Alaska}, Inc.; [[ConocoPhillips]] Alaska, Inc.; Doyon Universal Services; Enstar Natural Gas Co.; [[ExxonMobil]] Production; Flint Hills Resources; Norcoast Mechanical; [[Tesoro]] Alaska Petroleum Co.; Udelhoven Oilfield System Services, Inc.; [[Union Oil Company]] of California; and VECO Alaska, Inc. are all headquartered in Anchorage. Anchorage is home to two major corporations which provide communication services to Alaska: [[Alaska Communications Systems]] and [[General Communications, Inc.]], both of which offer local and long distance telephone service, dial up and [[broadband Internet]] access, and [[cellular telephone]] service. Many corporations, such as large [[banks]], [[real estate]], [[transportation]], other [[communication|communications]], and [[government]] agencies are all headquartered in Anchorage. There are two strategically important [[U.S. military]] bases bordering Anchorage on the north: [[Elmendorf AFB]] and [[Fort Richardson]]. Both military bases together station over 9,000 military personnels. Numerous visitor and [[tourist]] facilities and services are available throughout the Municipality of Anchorage. Nearly all [[Alaska Interior]]-bound tourists pass through Anchorage at some stage of their journeys in Alaska. This is particulatly true since the [[Alaska Railroad]] has its southern terminus in Anchorage. Not surprisingly, the summer is [[tourist|tourist season]], and downtown Anchorage, as well as the highways and railroads leading north and south of the city, are typically teeming with tourists. Anchorage has seasonal factors contribute to a fluctuating, though low, unemployment rate. == Education == Education in Anchorage, [[Eagle River, Alaska|Eagle River]], [[Chugiak]], [[Eklutna, Alaska|Eklutna]], [[Girdwood, Alaska|Girdwood]], [[Fort Richardson]], and [[Elmendorf AFB]] is managed by the [[Anchorage School District]]. Anchorage has an excellent [[public school]] system that is ranked among the finest in the nation. The Anchorage School District is the 81st largest district in the [[United States]], with nearly 50,000 students attending 88 schools. The district's average SAT and ACT [[College]] entrance exam scores are consistently above the national average and [[Advanced Placement]] courses are offered at each of the district's [[high schools]]. The [[International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme]] is also offered at West High, one of the local high schools. The average [[teacher]]/[[student]] ratio in the district's [[elementary schools]] is one teacher to approximately every 25 students. The district offers a comprehensive curriculum that emphasizes the basic communication skills of [[reading (activity)|reading]], [[writing]], and [[arithmetic]]. The standard program also includes [[social studies]], [[health]], [[science]], and [[physical education]]. All students receive a quality [[education]] enriched with [[technology]], [[foreign language]], [[visual]] and [[performing arts]], and [[social sciences]]. A variety of programs and alternative learning environments meet the needs of the diverse student population. Some examples include ABC (back-to-basics curriculum) and Montessori schools, open-optional programs, foreign-language immersion, vocational/technical training and [[charter schools]]. [[Comprehensive]] services for bilingual students and students with special needs are also available. === Colleges and universities === Ninety percent of Anchorage's adults have high-school [[diplomas]], 65 percent have attended one to three years of college, and 17 percent hold advanced [[Academic degree|degrees]], placing Anchorage among the top [[metropolis|metropolitan]] cities in educational attainment. Anchorage boasts four excellent [[higher education|higher-education]] facilities that offer quality higher education. The [[University of Alaska Anchorage]] and [[Alaska Pacific University]] are within walking distance of each other, and [[Charter College]] and [[Wayland Baptist University (Anchorage, Alaska)|Wayland Baptist University]] are also located in city limits. == Culture == === Performing arts === <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Alaska_Center_for_the_Performing_Arts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Alaska Center for the Performing Arts building in downtown Anchorage.]] --> Despite the relative remoteness of the location, the city sports a lively arts community. Located next to Town Square Municipal Park in downtown Anchorage, the [[Alaska Center for the Performing Arts]] [http://www.alaskapac.org] is a three-part complex host to many [[performing arts]] events. The facility can accommodate more than 3,000 patrons. In 2000, nearly 245,000 people visited 678 public performances. It is home to eight resident performing arts companies and has featured mega-musicals such as CATS, Grease, Les Miserables, Phantom of the Opera and Big River. The center hosts the [[Anchorage Symphony Orchestra]] which is a semi professional symphony [[orchestra]]. The center also hosts the world famous [[International Ice Carving Competition]] as part of the [[Fur Rendezvous festival]] in February. There are also weekly sessions of [[Irish traditional music]], [[Jazz]], and other musical scenes. The [[Anchorage Concert Association]] brings 15 to 20 world-class performing arts events to the community each [[winter]], and numerous independent perforance groups. === Museums and art collections === The [[Alaska Aviation Heritage Museum]] is a museum with artifacts reflecting Alaska's unique aviation history. The [[Alaska State Troopers Museum]] was formed in the late 1960s, and shares the history of the Alaska State Troopers. The [[Anchorage Fire Department Museum]] is a museum that relive Anchorage history among the displays of fire-fighting memorabilia, including a vintage 1921 LaFrance fire truck. The [[Imaginarium]] is a hands-on Science Discovery Center. The [[Oscar Anderson House Museum]] is Anchorage's only house museum established in 1915. The [[Russian Orthodox Museum]] [http://dioceseofalaska.org] is a museum that represents history of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] in Alaska. The [[Wolf Song of Alaska]] [http://www.wolfsongalaska.org] was incorporated in 1988, is a world-class observation facility. The [[Alaska Museum of Natural History]] [http://alaskamuseum.org] is a non-profit museum that educates exclusively on Alaska's unique geological, cultural, and ecological history. History art collections are at the [[Anchorage Museum of History and Art]], opened in 1968, is a world-class museum. The [[Heritage Library Museum]] was established in 1968, and is viewed as one of the largest collections of Alaska artifacts. === Other cultural institutions === <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Alaska_Statehood_Monument_in_Downtown_Anchorage.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Alaska Statehood Monument in downtown Anchorage.]] --> The [[Alaska Zoo]], opened as a children's zoo in 1969, is home to just under 100 [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s. The [[Alaska Wildlife Conservation Center]], opened to the public in 1993, is a [[refuge]] for the [[orphaned]], injured wildlife, a [[non-profit organization]]. The [[Alaska Native Heritage Center]], opened in 1999, is a gathering place that celebrates, perpetuates and shares Alaska Native cultures. The [[Alaska Botanical Garden]] contains over 900 species of hardy perennials and 150 native plant species. === Local attractions === The [[H2Oasis Indoor Waterpark]], opened in 2003, is literally and figuratively the hottest spot in Alaska for fun and adventure. [[Alpenglow at Arctic Valley]] is a [[ski resort]] that is located on Ski Bowl Road in the [[Chugach State Park]] near [[Fort Richardson]]. The [[Alyeska Resort]] is a ski resort that is located in [[Girdwood, Alaska|Girdwood]]. The [[Hilltop Ski Area]] is located on the gentle slopes of southeast Anchorage that weave against the base of Chugach State Park. The Nordic Skiing Association of Anchorage [http://www.anchoragenordicski.com] is a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting all forms of [[nordic skiing]]. === Media === Anchorage's leading [[newspaper]]s are the [[Anchorage Daily News]] [http://www.adn.com/], the [[Alaska Star]] [http://www.alaskastar.com], the [[Insurgent49]] [http://www.insurgent49.com], the [[Anchorage Press]] [http://www.anchoragepress.com] and the [[Petroleum News]] [http://www.petroleumnews.com/]. Anchorage is also well served by [[television]] and [[radio]]. Anchorage's major network television affiliates are [[KIMO]] 13[[American Broadcasting Company|(ABC)]], [[KTVA]] 11[[CBS|(CBS)]], [[KAKM]] 7[[Public Broadcasting Service|(PBS)]], [[KTBY]] 4[[Fox Broadcasting Company|(FOX)]], [[KTUU-TV]] 2[[NBC|(NBC)]], [[KYES]] 5[[UPN|(UPN)]] and [[KDMD]] 33[[I (TV network)|(PAX/Shopping)]]. [[ARCS]]: The Alaska Rural Communications Service, which provides some original programming and also "cherry-picks" retransmissions from among the broadcast stations in Anchorage, though usually not KIMO except in very rare occasions (such as [[Iditarod]] coverage), to provide television service to remote areas. Leading [[radio]] stations include AM Stations [[KTZN]] 550-Clear Channel Communications, [[KHAR]] 590, [[KENI]] 650-Clear Channel Communications, [[KBYR]] 700, [[KFQD]] 750 and [[KUDO]] 1080. FM Stations [[KRUA]] 88.1-[[University of Alaska, Anchorage]], [[KAKL]] 88.5-"Positive, Encouraging K-Love", Christian Music, K-Love, EMF Broadcasting, [[KATB]] 89.3, [[KNBA]] 90.3, [[KSKA]] 91.1, [[KFAT-FM|KFAT]] 92.9-New Northwest Broadcasters, [[KAFC]] 93.7, [[KEAG]] 97.3, [[KLEF]] 98.1, [[KYMG]] 98.9-Clear Channel Communications, [[KBFX-FM|KBFX]] 100.5- Clear Channel Communications, [[KGOT]] 101.3-Clear Channel Communications, [[KDBZ]] 102.1-New Northwest Broadcasters, [[KMXS]] 103.1, [[KBRJ]] 104.1, [[KNIK]] 105.7, [[KWHL]] 106.5 and [[KASH]] 107.5-Clear Channel Communications. === Sports === {| class="wikitable" ! Club ! Sport ! League ! Stadium ! Logo |- | [[Alaska Aces]] | [[Ice Hockey]] | [[ECHL]] | [[Sullivan Arena]] | [[Image:Alaska Aces.jpg|30px|Alaska Aces Logo]] |- | [[Anchorage Bucs Baseball Club]] | [[Baseball]] | [[Alaska Baseball League]] | [[Mulcahy Stadium]] | [[Image:Anchorage Bucs Baseball Club.jpg|30px|Anchorage Bucs Baseball Club]] |- | [[Anchorage Glacier Pilots]] | [[Baseball]] | [[Alaska Baseball League]] | [[Mulcahy Stadium]] | [[Image:Anchorage Glacier Pilots.jpg|30px|Anchorage Glacier Pilots]] |- | [[Great Alaska Shootout]] | [[Basketball]] | N/A | [[Sullivan Arena]] | [[Image:Great Alaska Shootout.jpg|30px|Great Alaska Shootout]] |} Anchorage is home to the [[Alaska Aces]] of the ECHL hockey league. The [[Anchorage Bucs Baseball Club]] is a summer collegiate baseball team, attracting players from universities throughout the world. The [[Anchorage Glacier Pilots]] is a member of the [[National Baseball Congress]]. Anchorage is also home to the [[Great Alaska Shootout]], an annual [[college basketball]] tournament that features colleges from all over the U.S. The best ski jumper from the U.S. in the past 15 years is from Anchorage, Alan Alborn. He has finished 4th in a stage of the World Cup in [[Engelberg]], [[Switzerland]], and has a 11th place from the [[2002 Olympics]] in [[Salt Lake City, Utah]]. He also holds the US skiflying record with 221,5 meters from 2002 in [[Planica]], [[Slovenia]]. == Infrastructure == === Transportation === <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Anc-downtown-night-1072.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Downtown Anchorage at night.]] --> Anchorage is usually the starting or ending point of most visitors' Alaska vacations, and it serves as the airline hub for the state, being serviced by [[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport]]. Anchorage is served by some national airlines, primarily Seattle-based [[Alaska Airlines]], as well as a number of international airlines. The [[Alaska Railroad]] offers daily summer service to [[Seward]], [[Talkeetna]], [[Denali National Park]], and [[Fairbanks]]. These communities are also served by inter-city bus line from Anchorage. Transportation to downtown Anchorage is convenient by taxicab, airport shuttle, or hotel courtesy shuttles. Upon arrival, visitors can stop by the Anchorage Convention & Visitors Bureau Visitor Information Center or the Alaska Visitors Center for direction. Diamond Airport Parking offers long-term parking with free 24-hour shuttle service to the airport. [[Cruise]] passengers with a few hours or a full day to explore Anchorage can store their luggage (and fish) at the airport. The Ship Creek Shuttle connects key downtown Anchorage locations with the Ship Creek area, including stops at the Alaska Railroad Depot. <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Tourist_returning_to_Anchorage_from_Denali_National_Park.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Alaska Railroad tourist returning to Anchorage from [[Denali National Park]].]] --> Anchorage also has a [[public transit|bus system]] called People Mover [http://www.muni.org/transit], with a central hub in downtown Anchorage and satellite hubs at [[Dimond Center]] and [[Muldoon Mall]]. People Mover also provides point-to-point van services to seniors and those with disabilities, as well as car pool organization services. There is only one officially designated [[Interstate Highway]] in Alaska. Unlike the Interstate routes in [[Hawaii]], it is unsigned as such. The route, officially [[Interstate A-1]] runs along the Seward and Glenn Highways. The highway is numbered [[Alaska State Highway 1]]. About 10 miles of the [[Seward Highway]], (known as the New Seward Highway) is built to [[freeway]] standards. The [[Glenn Highway]], also built to freeway standards goes northeast from Anchorage, six lanes carrying commuter traffic to and from Eagle River, Chugiak, and the Matanuska Valley towns of [[Palmer]] and [[Wasilla]]. The highway is four lanes wide from Eagle River to the junction with the Parks Highway ([[Alaska State Highway 3]]) near Wasilla. Anchorage's roads and the state's highways are all asphalt. They are plowed when necessary in the winter. Highway construction and maintenance is limited to the warm months, so expect some delays. As of 2005, Anchorage has a long-range transportation plan. Building the Highway to Highway Connection as a limited-access highway link between the Glenn and Seward highways could be the backbone that efficiently delivers traffic to many destinations throughout the city. Today, traffic is heavy all day long 5th-6th Avenues, Ingra and Gambell, and spills into East Anchorage neighborhoods to avoid congestion. In the Fairview, Mountain View, and Midtown neighborhoods, the new road link would be dug down, out of sight and covered in some areas to allow easy pedestrian and vehicle access across. === Medical centers and hospitals === [[Providence Alaska Medical Center]] on Providence Drive in Anchorage is the largest hospital in Alaska and is part of [[Providence Health System]] in [[Alaska]], [[Washington]], [[Oregon]] and [[California]]. It features the state's most comprehensive range of services. Providence Health System has a history of serving Alaska, beginning when the Sisters of Providence first brought health care to [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]] in 1902. As the territory grew during the following decades, so did efforts to provide care. Their hospitals were opened in [[Fairbanks]] in 1910 and Anchorage in 1937. [[Alaska Regional Hospital]] on DeBarr Road in Anchorage was born in 1963 as Anchorage Presbyterian Hospital, located at 8th and L Street downtown. This predecessor to Alaska Regional was a joint venture between local [[physicians]] and the Presbyterian Church. In 1976 the hospital moved to it's present location on DeBarr Road, and is now a 254-bed licensed and accredited facility. Alaska Regional has expanded services and in 1994, Alaska Regional joined with [[HCA]], one of the nation's largest [[healthcare]] providers. [[Alaska Native Medical Center]] on Tudor Road, provides medical care and therapeutic health care to Native Alaskans - 229 tribes of [[Eskimos]] and [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indians]] - at the Anchorage site and at 15 satellite facilities throughout the state. ANMC specialists also travel to clinics in the bush to provide care. The 150-bed hospital is also a teaching center for the [[University of Washington]]'s regional medical education program. ANMC houses an office of the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]. The Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium and Southcentral Foundation jointly own and manage ANMC. === Utilities === A full complement of [[utilities]] is available within the Anchorage area. Two [[electric]] companies provide service, depending on where you live within the Municipality of Anchorage. They are: Municipal Light & Power (ML&P) and Chugach Electric Association. A municipally-owned utility since 1932, ML&P supplies high-quality and reliable electric power to more than 30,000 residential and commercial customers in the Anchorage area. Chugach Electric Association is a not-for-profit, member-owned cooperative that was formed in 1948. Most homes have [[natural gas]]-fueled heat. ENSTAR Natural Gas Company is the sole provider for Anchorage, serving some 90-percent of the city's population. While some homes in Anchorage use private [[wells]] and [[septic]] systems, the Municipality of Anchorage owns and operates the Water and Wastewater Utility serving an approximate population base of 214,000. == Shopping and entertainment == Anchorage has restaurants and places to shop. Anchorage 5th Avenue Mall, located in the heart of downtown Anchorage, has 110 stores including [[Nordstrom]], [[JCPenny]], and the [[Gap]]. There is a full-size family-owned [[shopping mall]] in Anchorage: [[Dimond Center]] [http://www.dimondcenter.com] located at the intersection of East Dimond Boulevard and Old Seward Highway is the largest shopping center in Alaska, at 728,000 square feet, with 120,000 square feet of professional office space. The mall is home to over 200 stores and offices and 17 eating establishments, with an [[ice skating rink]], [[bowling alley]], [[athletic|athletic club]], [[library]], and [[cinemas|Dimond 9 Cinemas]]. The anchor stores are: [[Best Buy]], [[Gottschalks]], and [[Old Navy]]. Lodging is offered by the 109-room [[Dimond Center Hotel]] [http://www.dimondcenterhotel.com/]. The Mall at [[Sears]] located on East Northern Lights Boulevard has great shopping and food court in the center of town. The Northway Mall is located on Penland Parkway near Airport Heights and the Glenn Highway. Ship Creek Center is a place that has Alaska, Russian gifts, dining, groceries and dancing. == Points of interest == There are features of Anchorage that make it unique: the large tidal range; multiple, beautiful cross-country ski trails; America's highest percentage of licensed airplane pilots (with several airports and landing strips in the city or nearby); a very low [[population density]] for a city its size; frequent small earthquakes; spring windstorms ("[[Chinook wind]]s"); active volcanoes nearby (to the southwest, in the [[Alaska Range]], volcanoes such as [[Mount Spurr]], [[Augustine Volcano]], [[Mount Redoubt (Alaska)|Mount Redoubt]], and others have coated the city with ash in recent years); its extreme youth (it was founded in 1915 but didn't grow much until the 1940s); and much else. Despite this, or perhaps because of it, Anchorage is definitely an ''American'' city, replete with a vibrant business climate, large [[shopping mall]]s, traffic congestion (one can't easily move about by foot and [[public transportation]] in the middle of winter), suburban-style subdivisions and two [[suburbs]], [[Suburb of Eagle River|Eagle River]] and [[Chugiak]], unless one counts the massive numbers of commuters who drive from as far away as the [[Matanuska Valley]] [http://www.alaskavisit.com/] communities of [[Wasilla, Alaska|Wasilla]] and [[Palmer, Alaska|Palmer]]. Anchorage has been named an [[All-America City Award|All America City]] in the years 1956, 1965, 1984-85 and most recently in 2002. The city won its latest award based on civic activities like the 2001 [[Special Olympics Winter Games]] [http://www.specialolympicsalaska.org/] , the [[Anchorage Youth Court]] [http://www.ayc.ak.org/], and [[Bridge Builders]] [http://www.bridgebuilders.ak.org/]. == See also == * [[South Central Alaska]] * [[Neighborhoods of Anchorage, Alaska]] * [[Port of Anchorage]] == References == #{{note|census}} [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/SAFFFacts?_event=ChangeGeoContext&geo_id=05000US02020&_geoContext=01000US|04000US39|16000US3916000&_street=&county=anchorage&_cityTown=anchorage&_state=04000US02&_zip=&lang=en&_see=on&ActiveGeoDiv=geoSelect&_useEV=&pctxt=fph&pgs|=010 Anchorage, Alaska Fact Sheet] ([[United States Census Bureau]]). URL accessed on [[December 30]], [[2005]]. #{{note|Climate Records List}} [http://pafc.arh.noaa.gov/misc.php?page=climlist Anchorage Climate Records List] ([[National Weather Service]]). URL accessed on [[December 30]], [[2005]]. #{{note|temperature}} The Weather Channel (1995-2005). [http://www.weather.com/activities/other/other/weather/climo-monthly-graph.html?locid=USAK0012&from=36hr/_bottomnav_undeclared Monthly Climatolgy Graph]. URL retrieved on [[December 30]], [[2005]]. #{{note|highway project}} [http://www.muni.org/transplan/2004LRTP.cfm Municipality of Anchorage Traffic Department] (Long Range Transportation Plan). URL accessed on [[January 18]], [[2006]]. #{{note|History}} [http://www.ci.anchorage.ak.us/History/ Anchorage Historical Highlights]. URL accessed on [[January 21]], [[2006]]. #{{note|giseis}} [http://www.giseis.alaska.edu/quakes/Alaska_1964_earthquake.html The Great Alaska Earthquake of 1964]. URL accessed on [[January 21]], [[2006]]. ==External links== *[http://www.muni.org/ Municipality of Anchorage] official site *[http://www.anchorage.net/ Anchorage Convention and Visitors Bureau] *[http://www.alaskavisitorscenter.com Alaska Visitors Center] *[http://www.alaska.com Alaska.com information] *[http://lexicon.ci.anchorage.ak.us/ Anchorage Municipal Libraries] *[http://www.muni.org/mayor/allamericacity.cfm Anchorage All-America City 2002 Information] *[http://www.Untraveledroad.com/USA/Alaska/Anchorage/Anchorage.htm Photographic virtual tour of Anchorage.] *[http://www.anchoragecam.com Anchorage Cam (includes camera links)] *[http://pafc.arh.noaa.gov National Weather Service Anchorage office] {{Mapit-US-cityscale|61.1919|-149.762097}} {{Alaska}} [[Category:All-America City]] [[Category:Anchorage, Alaska| ]] [[Category:Cities in Alaska]] [[Category:Coastal cities]] [[Category:Independent cities in the United States]] [[af:Anchorage, Alaska]] [[bg:Анкоридж]] [[da:Anchorage]] [[de:Anchorage]] [[es:Anchorage]] [[fi:Anchorage]] [[fr:Anchorage]] [[gl:Anchorage]] [[hu:Anchorage]] [[io:Anchorage, Alaska]] [[it:Anchorage]] [[ja:アンカレッジ]] [[ko:앵커리지]] [[lt:Ankoridžas]] [[nl:Anchorage]] [[no:Anchorage]] [[pl:Anchorage (Alaska)]] [[pt:Anchorage]] [[ru:Анкоридж]] [[sv:Anchorage]] [[uk:Анкорідж]] [[zh:安克拉治]] 661 41817129 2006-03-01T23:06:17Z DavidLevinson 1689 /* See also */ * [[Distinction without a difference]] {{wiktionarypar|argument}} An '''argument''' is a collected series of statements to establish a definite proposition, and may refer to: * [[logical argument]], a demonstration of a [[deductive reasoning|proof]], or using logical reasoning for persuasion * [[oral argument]], a verbal presentation to a judge by a lawyer * [[verb argument]], a phrase in a sentence that qualifies a verb * [[heuristic argument]], a proof or demonstration relying on [[experiment]]al results, or one which is not fully [[Rigour#Mathematical rigour|rigorous]] * [[ontological argument]], a proof by intuition or reason of the existence of God * [[political argument]], the use of logic rather than propaganda in promoting political ideas * [[doublespeak argument]], the use of misleading or irrelevant reasoning by one side during a debate * [[javelin argument]], a cosmological reasoning about the infinite size of the universe * ''[[The Argument]]'', an album by the band Fugazi released in 2001 * [[argument (literature)]], the brief summary at the beginning of a section of a poem * [[grand argument story]], a type of story that is intended to be conceptually complete In '''[[mathematics]]''', '''argument''' may also mean: * [[independent variable]] or input of a [[mathematical function|function]]: the argument of <math>f(x)</math> is <math>x</math> * [[Complex number#The_complex_plane|complex argument]], the angular component &phi; of a [[complex number]] represented in [[Coordinates (mathematics)#Polar coordinates|polar coordinates]] * [[argument principle]], a [[theorem]] in [[complex analysis]] about [[meromorphic function]]s inside and on a closed contour * [[diagonal argument]], a type of proof over an infinite [[domain (mathematics)|domain]], used to identify the [[transfinite number|cardinal class]] of the [[real number]]s * [[probabilistic argument]], any proof using [[probability theory]] In '''[[Computer Science]]''', '''argument''' may also mean: * [[argument (computer science)]], an input to a [[computer program|subprogram]] or [[procedure|subroutine]] ==See also== * [[Category:Philosophical arguments]] * [[Argument form]], a method of logically analyzing sentences * [[Argumentation theory]], the science and theory of civil debates * [[Argumentative]], a type of evidentiary objection to a question for a witness during a trial * [[Default argument]], an actual parameter to a program that is used when no other actual parameter is provided * [[Existence of God]], contains lists of common ontological [[Existance of God#Arguments for the existence of God|arguments for]] and [[Existance of God#Arguments against the existence of God|arguments against]] the existence of God * [[Toulmin Model]], The model of an argument * [[Distinction without a difference]] {{disambig}} [[da:Argument]] [[de:Argument (Begriffsklärung)]] [[et:Argument (täpsustus)]] [[es:Argumento]] [[fr:Argument]] [[ia:Argumento]] [[io:Argumento]] [[nl:Argument]] [[pl:Argument]] [[sl:Argument]] [[fi:Argumentti]] [[sv:Argument]] 662 42127572 2006-03-04T00:22:12Z 85.166.229.83 /* Launch and lunar landing */ {| border=2 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 style="margin: 0.25em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" |+<font size="+1">'''''Apollo 11'''''</font> |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission Insignia |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:Apollo_11_insignia.jpg|center|233px|''Apollo 11'' insignia]] |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission Statistics |- |'''Mission name:'''||''Apollo 11'' |- |'''Call sign:'''||[[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command module]]:<br />''Columbia''<br />[[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar module]]:<br />''Eagle'' |- |'''Number of<br />Crew:'''||3 |- |'''Launch:'''||[[July 16]], [[1969]]<br />13:32:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]<br />[[Kennedy Space Center]], Florida<br />LC 39A |- |'''Lunar<br />landing:'''||[[July 20]], 1969<br />20:17:40 UTC<br />[[Mare Tranquillitatis|Sea of Tranquility]]<br />0° 40' 26.69" N,<br />23° 28' 22.69" E [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database/MasterCatalog?sc=1969-059C]<br />(based on the [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]]<br />Mean Earth Polar Axis<br />[[coordinate system]]) |- |'''Lunar EVA<br />length:'''||2 h 31 min 40 s |- |'''Lunar surface<br />time:'''||21 h 36 min 20 s |- |'''[[Lunar sample]]<br />mass:'''|| 21.55 kg (47.5 lb) |- |'''Splashdown:'''||[[July 24]], [[1969]]<br />16:50:35 UTC<br />{{coor dm|13|19|N|169|9|W|}} |- |'''Time in<br />lunar orbit:'''||59 h 30 min 25.79 s |- |'''Mass:'''||''(see [[#Mission parameters|mission<br />parameters]])'' |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Crew Picture |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:ap11-s69-31740.jpg|center|225px|Apollo 11 crew portrait (L-R: Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin)]]<br><small>L-R: Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin</small> |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|''Apollo 11'' Crew |} {|align=right |- |[[Image:First step on moon.jpg|thumb|center|160px|Neil Armstrong takes first step onto the Moon]] |- |align=center width=160|'''''"That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind."'''''<br>-Neil Armstrong |} '''''Apollo 11''''' was an [[United States|American]] space mission, part of the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]] and the first manned mission to land on the [[Moon]]. It launched on [[July 16]], [[1969]]. On [[July 20]], mission commander [[Neil Armstrong]] and pilot [[Buzz Aldrin|Edwin 'Buzz' Aldrin]] became the first humans to set foot on the Moon. ==Crew== *[[Neil Armstrong]] (flew in ''[[Gemini 8]]'' & ''Apollo 11''), commander *[[Edwin Aldrin|Edwin 'Buzz' Aldrin]] (flew in ''[[Gemini 12]]'' & ''Apollo 11''), lunar module pilot *[[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] (flew in ''[[Gemini 10]]'' & ''Apollo 11''), command module pilot ===Backup crew=== *[[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]] (flew in ''[[Gemini 7]]'', ''[[Gemini 12]]'', ''[[Apollo 8]]'', ''[[Apollo 13]]''), commander *[[Fred Haise]] (flew in ''[[Apollo 13]]''), lunar module pilot *[[Bill Anders]] (flew in ''[[Apollo 8]]''), command module pilot ===Support crew=== *[[Ron Evans]] (flew in ''[[Apollo 17]]'') *[[Ken Mattingly]] (flew in ''[[Apollo 16]]'', ''[[STS-4]]'', ''[[STS-51-C]]'') *[[Jack Swigert]] (flew in ''[[Apollo 13]]'') *[[William Pogue|Bill Pogue]] (flew in ''[[Skylab 4]]'') ==Mission highlights== ===Launch and lunar landing=== The ''Apollo 11'' mission launched from the [[Kennedy Space Center]] on [[July 16]], [[1969]] at 13:32 UTC (9:32 A.M. local time) and entered Earth orbit 12 minutes later. After one and a half orbits, the third-stage engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon. About 30 minutes later, the command/service module pair separated from the last remaining Saturn V stage, turned around, and docked its nose to the top of the lunar module still nestled in the [[Apollo spacecraft#Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter .28SLA.29|Lunar Module Adaptor]] ''Apollo 11'' passed behind the Moon on [[July 19]] and soon after fired its main rocket, entering into lunar orbit. In the several orbits that followed, the crew got passing views of their landing site. The first ''Apollo'' landing site, in the southern [[Mare Tranquilitatis|Sea of Tranquility]] about 20 km (12 mi) southwest of the crater Sabine D, was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automated ''[[Ranger 8]]'' and ''[[Surveyor 5]]'' landers, as well as by ''[[Lunar Orbiter]]'' mapping spacecraft, and therefore unlikely to present major landing or [[Extra-vehicular activity|Extra-vehicular activity (EVA)]] challenges. Armstrong bestowed the name [[Tranquillity Base]] on the landing site immediately after touchdown. [[Image:Apollo 11 bootprint.jpg|thumb|233px|left|Buzz Aldrin bootprint. It was part of an experiment to test the properties of the lunar [[regolith]].]] On [[July 20]], [[1969]], while on the [[Far side (Moon)|far side]] of the Moon, the [[Apollo Lunar Module|lunar module]], called ''Eagle'', separated from the Command Module, named ''Columbia''. Collins, now alone aboard ''Columbia'', carefully inspected ''Eagle'' as it pirouetted before him. Soon after, Armstrong and Aldrin fired ''Eagle'''s engine and began their descent. They soon saw that they were "running long"; ''Eagle'' was 4 seconds further along its descent trajectory than planned, and would land miles west of the intended site. The [[Apollo Guidance Computer|LM navigation and guidance computer]] reported several unusual "program alarms" as it guided the LM's descent. These alarms tore the crew's attention away from the scene outside as the descent proceeded. In NASA's Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas, a young [[Flight controller| controller]] named Steve Bales told the [[Flight controller| flight director]] that it was safe to continue the descent in spite of the alarms. Once they returned their attention to the view outside, the astronauts saw that their computer was guiding them toward a landing site full of large rocks scattered around a large crater. Armstrong took manual control of the lunar module at that point, and guided it to a landing at 20:17 UTC on [[July 20]] with about 30 seconds' worth of fuel left[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.landing.html]. [[Image:ap11-KSC-69PC-442.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[Saturn V]] carrying ''Apollo 11'' took several seconds to clear the tower on [[July 16]], [[1969]].]] The program alarms were "executive overflows", indicating that the computer could not finish its work in the time allotted. The cause was later determined to be the LM rendezvous radar being left on during the descent, causing the computer to spend unplanned time servicing the unused radar. Steve Bales received a [[Medal of Freedom]] for his "go" call under pressure. Although Apollo 11 landed with less fuel than other missions, they also encountered a premature low fuel warning. It was later found caused by the lunar gravity permitting greater propellant 'slosh', uncovering a fuel sensor; extra baffles in the tanks were subsequently added. At 2:56 UTC on [[July 21]], six and a half hours after landing, Armstrong made his descent to the Moon surface and took his famous "one giant leap for mankind." Aldrin joined him, and the two spent two-and-a-half hours drilling core samples, photographing what they saw and collecting rocks. {{video|filename=A11v 1094228.ogg|title=Buzz Aldrin steps onto the Moon|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}} They planned placement of the Early Apollo Scientific Experiment Package (EASEP) and the U.S. flag by studying their landing site through ''Eagle'''s twin triangular windows, which gave them a 60° field of view. Preparation required longer than the two hours scheduled. Armstrong had some initial difficulties squeezing through the hatch with his [[Portable Life Support System|PLSS]]. According to veteran moonwalker [[John W. Young|John Young]], a redesign of the [[Apollo Lunar Module|LM]] to incorporate a smaller hatch was not followed by a redesign of the PLSS backpack, so some of the highest heart rates recorded from ''Apollo'' astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress. [[Image:As11-40-5903HR.jpg|thumb|right|275px|[[Buzz Aldrin]] poses on the [[Moon]] allowing [[Neil Armstrong]] to photograph both of them using the visor's reflection.]] The Remote Control Unit controls on Armstrong's chest prevented him from seeing his feet. While climbing down the nine-rung ladder, Armstrong pulled a D-ring to deploy the Modular Equipment Stowage Assembly (MESA) folded against ''Eagle'''s side and activate the TV camera. The first images used a [[Slow-scan television]] system and were picked up at [[Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex|Goldstone]] in the USA but with better fidelity by [[Honeysuckle Creek]] in Australia. Minutes later the TV was switched to normal television, and the feed was switched to the more sensitive [[radio telescope]] station at the [[Parkes Observatory]] in [[Australia]]. Despite some technical and weather difficulties, ghostly black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and were immediately broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth. After describing the surface ("very fine grained... almost like a powder"), Armstrong stepped off ''Eagle'''s footpad and into history as the first human to set foot on another world. He reported that moving in the Moon's gravity, one-sixth of Earth's, was "perhaps even easier than the simulations." In addition to fulfilling President [[John F. Kennedy]]'s mandate to land a man on the Moon before the end of the 1960s, ''Apollo 11'' was an engineering test of the Apollo system; therefore, Armstrong snapped photos of the LM so engineers would be able to judge its post-landing condition. He then collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick. He folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on his right thigh. He removed the TV camera from the MESA, made a panoramic sweep, and mounted it on a tripod 12 m (40 ft) from the LM. The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA. [[Image:Apollo 11 plaque closeup on Moon.jpg|right|thumb|Photo of the actual plaque left on the moon (attached to the ladder of the LM Descent Stage).]] Aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around, including two-footed kangaroo hops. The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip backwards, but neither astronaut had serious problems maintaining balance. Loping became the preferred method of movement. The astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead. The fine soil was quite slippery. Aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight into ''Eagle'''s shadow produced no temperature change inside the suit, though the helmet was warmer in sunlight, so he felt cooler in shadow. [[Image:Apollo 11 launch.jpg|thumb|left|180px|A visible shockwave formed as the [[Saturn V]] encountered Maximum Dynamic Pressure (Max Q) at about 1 minute 20 seconds into the flight (altitude 12.5 km, 4 km downrange, velocity 440m/s).]] Together the astronauts planted the U.S. flag, then took a phone call from President [[Richard Nixon]]. The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow, slowing work somewhat. As they worked, the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust which soiled the outer part of their suits, the integrated thermal meteoroid garment. They deployed the EASEP, which included a passive seismograph and a laser ranging retroreflector. Then Armstrong loped about 120 m (400 ft) from the LM to snap photos at the rim of East Crater while Aldrin collected two core tubes. He used the geological hammer to pound in the tubes - the only time the hammer was used on ''Apollo 11''. The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected, so they had to stop documented sample collection halfway through the allotted 34 min. [[image:as11-40-5886.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Neil Armstrong works at the LM in one of the few photos taken of him from the lunar surface. NASA photo as11-40-5886]] During this period Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn Armstrong that his metabolic rates were high and that he should slow down. He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out. Rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk, however, so Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15-minute extension. ===Lunar ascent and return=== Aldrin entered ''Eagle'' first. With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing more than 22 kg (48 lb) of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor. Armstrong then jumped to the ladder's third rung and climbed into the LM. After transferring to LM [[life support]], the explorers lightened the ascent stage for return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks, lunar overshoes, one [[Hasselblad]] camera, and other equipment. Then they lifted off in ''Eagle''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s ascent stage to rejoin CMP Michael Collins aboard ''Columbia'' in lunar orbit. ''Eagle'' was jettisoned and left in lunar orbit. Later NASA reports mentioned that ''Eagle''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s orbit had decayed resulting in it impacting in an "uncertain location" on the lunar surface. After more than 2&frac12; hours on the lunar surface, they returned to Collins on board ''Columbia'', bringing 20.87 kilograms of lunar samples with them. The two Moon-walkers had left behind scientific instruments such as a [[retroreflector]] array used for the [[Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment]]. They also left an [[Flag of the United States|American flag]] and other mementos, including a [[lunar plaques|plaque]] (mounted on the LM Descent Stage ladder) bearing two drawings of Earth (of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres), an inscription, and signatures of the astronauts and [[Richard Nixon]]. The inscription read: :''Here Men From Planet Earth<br>First Set Foot Upon the Moon<br>July 1969 A.D.<br>We Came in Peace For All Mankind.'' The astronauts returned to earth on [[July 24]], welcomed as [[hero]]es. The splashdown point was {{coor dm|13|19|N|169|9|W|}}, 2,660 km (1,440 [[nautical mile|nm]]) east of [[Wake Island]], or 380 km (210 nm) south of [[Johnston Atoll]], and 24 km (15 [[statute mile|mi]]) from the recovery ship, [[USS Hornet (CV-12)|''USS Hornet'']]. The command module is displayed at the [[National Air and Space Museum]], [[Washington, D.C.]] [[Image:Apollo 11 crew in quarantine.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The crew of Apollo 11 in [[quarantine]] after returing to earth, visited by [[Richard Nixon]].]] ==Contingency television address== The [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]] in Washington, D.C. has a copy of the following contingency memo titled "In Event of Moon Disaster" and dated [[July 18]], [[1969]], which was prepared by [[William Safire]] for President Nixon to read on television, in the event the ''Apollo 11'' astronauts were stranded on the Moon. :''"Fate has ordained that the men who went to the Moon to explore in peace will stay on the Moon to rest in peace. These brave men, Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, know that there is no hope for their recovery. But they also know that there is hope for mankind in their sacrifice.'' :''These two men are laying down their lives in mankind's most noble goal: the search for truth and understanding. They will be mourned by their families and friends; they will be mourned by their nation; they will be mourned by the people of the world; they will be mourned by a Mother Earth that dared send two of her sons into the unknown.'' :''In their exploration, they stirred the people of the world to feel as one; in their sacrifice, they bind more tightly the brotherhood of man. In ancient days, men looked at stars and saw their heroes in the constellations. In modern times, we do much the same, but our heroes are epic men of flesh and blood.'' :''Others will follow, and surely find their way home. Man's search will not be denied. But these men were the first, and they will remain the foremost in our hearts.'' [[Image:Armstrong_16mm.jpg |thumb|right|250px|Armstrong on lunar surface with gold visor raised. From [[16 mm]] film (NASA).]] :''For every human being who looks up at the Moon in the nights to come will know that there is some corner of another world that is forever mankind."'' The last line of the statement is reminiscent of a [[Rupert Brooke]] poem called "The Soldier". The poem starts: :''If I should die, think only this of me:<br>That there's some corner of a foreign field<br>That is forever England.'' Following this address, radio communications with the moon would have been cut off, the astronauts left alone to die, while a clergyman was to commend their souls to "the deepest of the deep" in the fashion of a burial at sea. ==Gallery== <gallery> Image:Apollo11.png|Aldrin stands next to the Passive Seismic Experiment Package with the [[Lunar Module]] in the background. Image:Aldrin near Module leg.jpg|Aldrin inspects the LM landing gear. Image:Apollo11.1000.jpg|Aldrin unpacks experiments from the LM. Image:Buzz Aldrin with U.S. flag.jpg|Aldrin with the U.S. flag Image:23_A11east.jpg|Panoramic Assembly of East Crater </gallery> ==Communications link== Early in the planning of the [[Project Apollo]], NASA decided to combine all communications between spacecraft and Earth into a single multiplexed feed called 'The Unified S-Band System', including audio communications, television images, crew medical telemetry and the spacecraft systems telemetry. The signal was picked up by three purpose-built stations (Goldstone (California), Honeysuckle Creek (Australia) and Fresnedillas (Spain) and backed-up by deep space network stations (known as 'wing stations') in Australia, Spain and the United States. At first, the signal was routed to Greenbelt, Maryland, by way of submarine telephone cables, using twelve voice circuits. The signal was divided into twelve parts using inverse multiplexing, sent onto the circuits, and reintegrated in Maryland, before being sent on to NASA in Houston. Intelsat satellites began taking over the trans-oceanic transmissions toward the end of the 1960s, and NASA ended its contracts for the submarine telephone circuits, which were then reallocated by telephone administrations for normal voice use. On [[14 July]] [[1969]], the Intelsat satellite over the Atlantic failed. A replacement was launched on 16 July, but went into a useless orbit and would not be reoriented in time to be used. The [[Early Bird]] satellite was activated, but thought it might not have enough power to get a signal to the United States. The Australia station was vital to picking up the signal during the moonwalks, or keeping the astronauts waiting on the moon eight hours before venturing out. A communications team was dispatched to Spain to begin setting up the telephone circuits for NASA's inverse multiplexed signal. European telecommunications administrators, mostly government post offices, were not accustomed to doing the business required: they would normally require telegram messages to be exchanged, with top level administrative approval, but the twelve circuits had to be recovered from six countries to be made available to NASA, which had set a time limit two hours before launch, or the launch would be canceled. It would be the last ideal launch window before 1970. Other launch windows had been missed due to spacecraft equipment problems. An official with the Spanish communications authority helped the team secure the circuits with his own personal list of contacts. The last circuit using inverse multiplexing was accepted by NASA just minutes before the time limit. Three days later, the transmissions from the Moon were picked up in Spain, relayed to the United States over the undersea circuits, and made available by NASA to the Americas. They were beamed across the Pacific Ocean, and from the Far East were carried on the Indian Ocean satellite. The postal/telephone authority in West Germany turned a large radio dish to aim at the Indian Ocean satellite, picking up the signal from Australia and providing it to Western Europe, therefore, viewers in Western Europe saw Neil Armstrong set foot on the moon a full half second later than those in the United States, and some 1.8 seconds after it actually happened. Had this vital communications link not been restored, the pledge of President [[John F. Kennedy]] to land a man on the moon by the end of the decade would have been missed. ==Mission trivia and urban legends== ===Trivia=== * Some internal NASA planning documents referred to the callsigns of the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|CSM]] and [[Apollo Lunar Module|LM]] as "Snowcone" and "Haystack"; these were quietly changed before being announced to the press. * Shortly after landing, before preparations have begun for the [[Extra-vehicular activity|EVA]], Aldrin broadcast that - ::''This is the LM pilot. I'd like to take this opportunity to ask every person listening in, whoever and wherever they may be, to pause for a moment and contemplate the events of the past few hours and to give thanks in his or her own way.'' :He then took [[Eucharist|Holy Communion]], privately. At this time, NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by [[Madalyn Murray O'Hair]] (who had objected to the ''[[Apollo 8]]'' crew reading from the [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Book of Genesis]]), which demanded that their astronauts refrain from religious activities while in space. As such, Aldrin (an [[Episcopalian]]) chose to refrain from directly mentioning this. He had kept the plan quiet, not even mentioning it to his wife, and did not reveal it publicly for several years. * Several books indicate that early mission timelines had Buzz Aldrin, not Neil Armstrong, as the first man on the Moon. * A replica of the footprint left by Neil Armstrong is located in Tranquility Park in [[Houston, Texas]]; the park was dedicated in 1979, a decade after the first moon landing. * The [[Australia]]n movie, ''[[The Dish]]'' (2000), tells the (slightly fictionalised) story of how the images of the moon-walk were received by the [[radio telescope]] at [[Parkes Observatory]], [[New South Wales]]. * According to the [[HBO]] [[mini-series]] ''[[From the Earth to the Moon (HBO)|From the Earth to the Moon]]'', [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] made the following suggestion as to what Armstrong should say upon stepping onto the lunar surface: "If you had any balls, you'd say 'Oh, my God, what is [[extraterrestrial life|that thing]]?' then scream and cut your [[microphone|mic]]." * Armstrong claims to have said "That's one small step for ''a'' man, one giant leap for mankind.", although the "''a''" is not at all clear in recordings made at ground control. It has been pointed out that the audio and video links were somewhat intermittent (partly due to storms near [[Parkes Observatory]]). Recently, digital analysis of the tape by NASA revealed the "a" may have been spoken, but obscured by static.[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a3_362] ===Folklore=== *At some point while on the moon Armstrong supposedly said "Good luck Mr. Gorski". Some years later Gorski died, so he felt he could now explain this remark. As a boy, he heard a couple next door arguing, and the wife said: "Oral sex? Is it oral sex you want? You'll get oral sex when the kid next door walks on the moon, Mr. Gorski!" This story is untrue. [http://www.snopes.com/quotes/mrgorsky.htm] * Neil Armstrong apparently took a [[tartan]] where no tartan had been worn before. A tiny swatch of the [[Scottish clan|Clan]] Armstrong plaid was affixed to his suit when he walked on the Moon. Another item that Armstrong took with him was a special diamond-studded [[astronaut pin]] which was given to [[Deke Slayton]] by the widows of the ''[[Apollo 1]]'' crew. The pin had been intended to be flown in ''Apollo 1'', then given to Deke after the mission, but due to the disaster, the widows ended up giving the pin to him after the funerals. Deke gave the pin to Neil to leave at Tranquility Base. * Two main [[Conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories]] surround the mission. ** Firstly that the [[Apollo moon landing hoax accusations|landing was a hoax]]. This is generally discounted, although it has slowly grown in popularity, particularly since the release of the movie ''[[Capricorn One]]'' (1978), which portrays a NASA attempt to fake a landing on Mars. ** Secondly, a less well known [[urban legend]] suggests that they were being 'watched' while on the Moon, and had seen alien vehicles there. This grew in popularity after the book ''Someone else is on our Moon'' was published. *According to another legend, a survey undertaken in the 1980s in [[Morocco]] revealed that a substantial percentage didn't think man had landed on the Moon; this was not due to conspiracy theory, but rather to that segment not having been informed. ==See also== {{commons|Apollo 11}} * [[Extra-vehicular activity]] * [[List of spacewalks]] * [[Splashdown]] * [[List of artificial objects on the Moon]] * [[Google Moon]] ==External links== * [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/frame.html NASA: ''Apollo'' Lunar Surface Journal] *[http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo11.htm ''Apollo 11'' entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica] * [[USGS]]: [http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/LunarAtlas/maps/ ''Apollo'' Mission Traverse Maps] * [http://www.abc.net.au/science/moon/computer.htm Description of The Lunar Module Computer] * [http://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/ap11events.html Record of Lunar Events] * [http://www.CompleatHeretic.com/pubs/columns/apollo11.html First moon landing in 1969 marked an entire generation] * [http://sourceforge.net/projects/nassp/ ''Apollo'' simulation for Orbiter spaceflight sim] ===References=== * {{cite web | url = http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm | title = ''Apollo'' by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference | author = Richard W. Orloff | publisher = NASA }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm | title = The ''Apollo'' Spacecraft: A Chronology }} * {{cite web | url = http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm | title = ''Apollo'' Program Summary Report }} * {{cite web | url = http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.39.htm | title = ''Apollo 11'' Characteristics | work = SP-4012 NASA Historical Data Book }} * {{cite web | url = http://moonpans.co.uk/missions.htm | title = ''Apollo'' Assembled Panoramas }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.apolloarchive.com/ | title = ''Apollo'' Image Gallery }} * {{snopes | link = http://www.snopes.com/quotes/onesmall.asp | title = One Small Step }}, discussing (mis-)quote * {{cite web | url = http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19710015566_1971015566.pdf | title = ''Apollo 11'' Mission Report | format = PDF }} * {{cite web | author=Office of Public Affairs, NASA | url=http://history.nasa.gov/ap11-35ann/apollo11_log/log.htm | title=EP-72 Log of ''Apollo 11'' | publisher=NASA History Office | accessdate=2006-01-16 }} * {{cite web | url = http://moon.google.com/ | title = Google Moon }} Lunar Landing Sites - in honor of the first manned Moon landing {{Project Apollo| before=''[[Apollo 10]]''| after=''[[Apollo 12]]''}} [[Category:Apollo program]] [[Category:Human spaceflights]] [[Category:Lunar spacecraft]] [[Category:1969]] [[ca:Apollo 11]] [[cs:Apollo 11]] [[da:Apollo 11]] [[de:Apollo 11]] [[et:Apollo 11]] [[es:Apollo 11]] [[eo:Apollo 11]] [[fr:Apollo 11]] [[gl:Apolo XI]] [[ko:아폴로 11호]] [[it:Apollo 11]] [[he:אפולו 11]] [[hu:Apollo-11]] [[nl:Apollo 11]] [[ja:アポロ11号]] [[no:Apollo 11]] [[nn:Apollo 11]] [[pl:Apollo 11]] [[pt:Apollo 11]] [[ru:Аполлон-11]] [[sk:Apollo 11]] [[sl:Apollo 11]] [[fi:Apollo 11]] [[sv:Apollo 11]] [[ta:அப்பல்லோ 11]] [[zh:阿波罗11号]] 663 41819462 2006-03-01T23:21:08Z Tianxiaozhang 557868 {| class="infobox" style="font-size: 95%; width: 20em;" |+style="font-size: larger;" | '''''Apollo 8''''' |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission insignia |- |colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"| [[Image:Apollo-8-patch.jpg|center|200px]] |- !colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission statistics |- |'''Mission name:'''||Apollo 8 |- |'''Call sign:'''||Command module:<br />''Apollo 8'' |- |'''Number of crew:'''||3 |- |'''Launch:'''||[[December 21]], [[1968]]<br />12:51:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]<br />[[Kennedy Space Center]]<br />LC 39A |- |'''Lunar orbit:'''||Dec 24 09:59:20 UTC –<br />Dec 25 06:10:16 UTC |- |'''Splashdown:'''||[[December 27]], [[1968]]<br />15:51:42 UTC<br /> {{coor dm|8|6|N|165|1|W|}} |- |'''Duration:'''||6 d 3 h 0 min 42 s |- |'''Number of lunar orbits:'''||10 |- |'''Time in lunar orbit:'''||20 h 10 min 13.0 s |- |'''Mass:'''||CSM 28,817 kg;<br />LTA 9,026 kg |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Crew picture |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:Ap8-s68-50265HR.jpg|275px|Apollo 8 crew portrait (L-R: Lovell, Anders and Borman)]]<br><small>''Apollo 8'' crew portrait <br/>(L-R: Lovell, Anders and Borman)</small> |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Apollo 8 crew |} '''''Apollo 8''''' was the second [[Human spaceflight|manned mission]] of the [[Project Apollo|Apollo space program]], in which Commander [[Frank Borman]], Command Module Pilot [[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]] and Lunar Module Pilot [[William Anders]] became the first humans to leave [[Low Earth orbit|Earth orbit]] and to orbit around the [[Moon]]. It was also the first manned launch of the [[Saturn V]] [[rocket]]. NASA prepared for the mission in only four months. The hardware involved had only been used a few times—the Saturn V had launched only twice before, and the Apollo spacecraft had only just finished its first manned mission, ''[[Apollo 7]]''. However, the success of the mission paved the way for the successful completion of [[John F. Kennedy]]'s goal of landing on the Moon before the end of the decade. After launching on [[December 21]], [[1968]], the crew took three days to travel to the Moon, which they orbited for 20 hours. While in lunar orbit they made a [[Christmas Eve]] television broadcast. This was one of the most watched broadcasts of all time. ==Planning== On [[December 22]], [[1966]], [[NASA]] announced the crew for the third manned Apollo flight: Frank Borman, [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] and Bill Anders. Collins was replaced by his backup Jim Lovell, in July 1968, after Collins had to have surgery as he was suffering cervical intervertebral disc herniation — an [[intervertebral disc]] had slipped into the [[spinal cavity]] and required two [[vertebra]]e to be fused together. Collins recovered and went on to be the Command Module Pilot for ''[[Apollo 11]]''. In September 1967, the [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|Manned Spacecraft Center]] in [[Houston, Texas]], proposed a series of missions that would lead up to a manned lunar landing. Seven mission types were outlined, each testing a specific set of components and tasks; each previous step needed to be completed successfully before the next mission type could be undertaken. These were: '''A''' - Unmanned [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Module]] (CSM) test</br> '''B''' - Unmanned [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]] (LM) test</br> '''C''' - Manned CSM in [[low Earth orbit]]</br> '''D''' - Manned CSM and LM in low Earth orbit</br> '''E''' - Manned CSM and LM in an [[ellipse|elliptical]] Earth orbit with an apogee of 4600&nbsp;mi (7400&nbsp;km)</br> '''F''' - Manned CSM and LM in lunar orbit</br> '''G''' - Manned lunar landing Of all the components of the Apollo system, the [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]] (LM), which would eventually be used to land on the Moon, presented the most problems. It was behind schedule and when the first model was shipped to [[Cape Canaveral]] in June 1968, over 101 separate defects were discovered. [[Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation]], which was the lead contractor for the LM, predicted that the first mannable LM, to be used for the D mission, would not be ready until at least February 1969, delaying the entire sequence. [[Image:Apollo-linedrawing.png|thumb|Apollo CSM diagram (NASA)]] [[George Low]], the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office, proposed a solution in August. Since the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Module]] (CSM) would be ready three months before the Lunar Module, they could fly a CSM-only mission in [[December]] [[1968]]. But instead of just repeating the flight of ''[[Apollo 7]]'', the C mission that would fly the CSM in Earth orbit, they could send the CSM all the way to the Moon and maybe even enter into orbit. This mission was dubbed the "C-Prime" mission. This new mission would allow [[NASA]] to test procedures that would be used on the manned lunar landings that would otherwise have to wait until ''[[Apollo 10]]'', the F mission. There were also concerns from the [[CIA]] that the [[Soviets]] were planning their own circumlunar flight for December to upstage the Americans once again (see [[Zond]] program). [[Image:Ap8-68-HC-70.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The first stage of AS-503 being erected in the VAB on [[February 1]], [[1968]].]] Almost every senior manager at NASA agreed with this new mission. The only person who needed some convincing was [[James E. Webb]], the NASA administrator. However, outvoted by the rest of the agency, he gave his approval. After leading the agency for eight years, he would resign just four days before the launch of ''Apollo 7'', the first manned Apollo flight. [[Deke Slayton]], the Director of Flight Crew Operations, decided to swap the crews of the D and E missions. [[James McDivitt]], the original commander of the D mission, has said he was never offered the circumlunar flight but would probably have turned it down, as he wanted to fly the lunar module. Borman, on the other hand, jumped at the chance: his original mission would just have been a repeat of the previous flight, except in a higher orbit. This swap also meant a swap of spacecraft — Borman's crew would now use CSM-103, while McDivitt's crew would use CSM-104. In the end, the E mission was canceled as most its objectives had been covered by the ''Apollo 8'' and ''Apollo 9'' flights. Mission managers were also confident that ''[[Apollo 10]]'' would also cover the remaining objectives with its lunar orbit flight. On [[September 9]], the crew entered the [[Space flight simulator|simulators]] to begin their preparation for the flight. By the time the mission flew, the crew would have spent seven hours training for every actual hour of flight. Although all crew members were trained for all aspects of the mission, it was necessary to specialize. Borman, as commander, was given training on controlling the spacecraft during the [[Atmospheric reentry|re-entry]]. Lovell was trained on [[Celestial navigation|navigating]] the spacecraft in case communication was lost with the Earth. Anders was placed in charge of checking the spacecraft was in working order. It was not until [[November 12]] that a public announcement was made about the change of mission for ''Apollo 8''. Previous to this [[Thomas O. Paine]], the deputy Administrator of NASA, had made a fleeting remark that all options were being considered. Borman's main concern during the four months leading up to the launch was keeping the flight plan as simple as possible, not accepting any addition that went beyond the simple objectives of performing the first manned Saturn V launch, going to the Moon and orbiting it. He made sure that they stayed in lunar orbit only as long as necessary — 10 orbits. The crew, now living in the crew quarters at [[Kennedy Space Center]], received a visit from [[Charles Lindbergh]] the night before the launch. They talked about how before his flight, Lindbergh had used a piece of string to measure the distance from [[New York]] to [[Paris]] on a globe and from that calculated the fuel needed for the flight. The total was a tenth of the amount that the Saturn V would burn every second. ==The Saturn V== {{main|Saturn V}} [[Image:Ap8-KSC-68PC-147.jpg|thumb|300px|The ''Apollo 8'' Saturn V being rolled out to [[Pad 39A]].]] The Saturn V rocket used by ''Apollo 8'' was designated SA-503, the third flight model. When it was erected in the [[Vertical Assembly Building]] <!-- Editor's Note: At that time it was called the Vertical Assembly Building -->on [[20 December]], [[1967]], it was thought that the rocket would be used for an unmanned test flight carrying a [[boilerplate]] Command/Service Module. Although ''[[Apollo 6]]'' had suffered several major problems (it suffered severe [[pogo oscillation]] during its first stage and two second stage engines shutdown early), [[Marshall Space Flight Center]], in charge of the Saturn V, was confident that it could solve all the issues without the need for another unmanned test flight. The SA-503 mission was thus changed to a manned one. However, NASA managers did impose some restrictions on a manned flight taking place: the [[S-II]] second stage had to undergo [[cryogenic]] testing at the [[Mississippi Test Facility]] and other changes were to be made to "man-rate" the vehicle. So on [[April 30]], the Saturn V was unstacked and the [[S-II|S-II second stage]] shipped by barge to the test site. The spark igniters on the second and third stage engines were also modified. In May 1968 a leak was found in a first stage engine, requiring it to be replaced. With only two launches of the Saturn V under its belt, the ground crew at [[Kennedy Space Center]] (KSC) was having problems keeping to the schedule. The Grumman crew was also having issues with the lunar module. Concern was expressed at the fact so much work had to be done on the lunar module after it had shipped to the Cape. The ascent engine developed leaks that caused redesigns and valve changes. Then in August 1968, the entire mission changed. SA-503 would launch men to the Moon and would not be carrying a lunar module, instead carrying a mass equivalent, called a lunar module test article (LTA), similar to ones used for ''[[Apollo 4]]'' and ''[[Apollo 6]]''. In order to speed up the pre-launch preparations, much of the modification of the Saturn V was taken out of the hands of KSC and given to appropriate development centers; only changes that affected crew safety were made. The ''Apollo 8'' spacecraft was placed on top of the rocket on [[September 21]] and the rocket made the slow 3-mile (5 km) journey to the launch pad on [[9 October]]. Testing continued all through December until the day before launch. The SA-503 designation stood for Saturn-Apollo, and was used by NASA departments concerned with the launch vehicle. However, departments concerned with the manned flight often used AS-503, standing for Apollo-Saturn; both of these designations were used at the time to refer to the mission as a whole. The -503 number indicated that it was flight number ''3'' (5'''03''') of the Saturn ''V'' ('''5'''03). ==The mission== ===Launch and trans-lunar injection=== [[Image:Ap8-KSC-68PC-329.jpg|thumb|250px|''Apollo 8'' launch. The photo is a [[double exposure]], as the Moon was not visible at the time of launch (NASA)]] ''Apollo 8'' launched at 7:51:00 a.m. [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern Standard Time]] on [[December 21]], [[1968]]. The entire launch phase was practically flawless with only minor problems. The [[S-IC|S-IC first stage]]'s engines underperformed by 0.75%, causing the engines to burn for 2.45 seconds longer than planned. Towards the end of the second stage burn, the rocket underwent [[pogo oscillation]]s that Frank Borman estimated were of the order of 12 [[Hertz|Hz]] and about ±0.25 [[gee|g]] (±2.5 m/s&sup2;). The first manned Saturn V placed the spacecraft into a 112.8 mi by 118.9 mi (181.5 km by 191.3 km) Earth orbit with a period of 88 minutes and 10 seconds. The [[apogee]] was also slightly higher than intended, with a planned circular orbit of 115 mi (185 km). The S-IC impacted the Atlantic Ocean at {{coor dm|30|12|N|74|7|W|}} and the S-II at {{coor dm|31|50|N|37|17|W|}}. {{listen|filename=Apollo 8 liftoff.ogg|title=Launch of Apollo 8|description=Air-to-ground transmissions from T-15 seconds to T+3 minutes|format=[[Ogg]]}} For the next 2 hours and 38 minutes the crew and Mission Control worked to check that the spacecraft was in working in order and ready for Trans-Lunar Injection (TLI), the burn that would put the spacecraft on a trajectory to the Moon. At the same time the crew transformed the capsule from a rocket payload to a spacecraft. And the [[S-IVB]] third stage had to be in working order. On the previous unmanned test, the S-IVB had failed to re-ignite. During the flight there would be three [[capsule communicator]]s (usually referred to as "capcoms") on a rotating roster. These were the only people who would normally communicate with the crew. [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] was the first of these on duty and at 2 hours, 27 minutes and 22 seconds after launch radioed "''Apollo 8''. You are Go for TLI". Mission Control had given official permission for the crew to go to the moon. Over the next twelve minutes before the burn, the crew continued to monitor the spacecraft and the rocket. The [[S-IVB|S-IVB third stage]] rocket ignited on time and burned perfectly for 5 minutes and 17 seconds. The burn increased the velocity of the spacecraft to 35,505 ft/s (10,822 m/s) and their altitude at the end of the burn was 215.4 mi (346.7 km). They were the fastest humans in history. {{listen|filename=Apollo 8 go for TLI.ogg|title=Go for TLI|description=Capsule communicator Michael Collins gives the crew of ''Apollo 8'' a 'go' for Trans-Lunar Injection|format=[[Ogg]]}} Now that the S-IVB had performed its required tasks it was jettisoned. The crew then rotated the spacecraft to take some photographs of the spent stage, as well as practiced flying in formation with it. As the crew rotated the spacecraft around they had their first views of the Earth as they moved away from it. This was the first time humans had been able to see the entire Earth in one go. Borman became worried that the S-IVB was staying too close to the CSM and suggested to Mission Control that the crew perform a separation maneuver. Mission Control at first suggested pointing the spacecraft towards Earth and using the Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters on the Service Module to add 3 ft/s (0.9 m/s) away from the Earth, but Borman did not want to lose sight of the S-IVB. After much discussion it was decided to burn in this direction anyway but at 9 ft/s (2.7 m/s). These discussions ended up putting the crew an hour behind their flight plan. Five hours after launch, mission control commanded the S-IVB booster to vent its remaining fuel through its engine bell to change its trajectory such that it would flyby the Moon and enter into a solar orbit, so as to pose no future hazard to the crew. It went into a 0.99 by 0.92 [[Astronomical Unit|AU]] solar orbit with an [[inclination]] of 23.47° and a period of 340.80 days. The members of the ''Apollo 8'' crew were the first humans to pass through the [[Van Allen radiation belt]]s, which extend up to 15,000 mi (25,000 km) from Earth. Although it was predicted that the passage through the belts would cause a radiation dosage of no more than a chest [[X-ray]] or 1 [[Gray (unit)|milligray]] (during the course of a year, the average human receives a dose of 2 to 3 mGy), there was still interest in the radiation dosages on the crew. So each crewmember wore a Personal Radiation [[Dosimeter]] that could be read back to the ground as well as three passive film dosimeters that show the cumulative radiation experienced by the crew. By the end of the mission, the average radiation dose of the crew was 1.6 mGy. ===Coasting to the Moon=== [[Image:As08-16-2593.jpg|thumb|250px|One of the first images taken by humans of the whole Earth. Probably photographed by [[Bill Anders]]. South is up with [[South America]] in the middle]] Jim Lovell's main job as Command Module Pilot was to act as [[navigator]]. Although Mission Control performed all the actual navigation calculation, it was necessary that in case of communication loss the crew could navigate their way home. This was done by star sightings using a [[sextant]] built into the spacecraft, measuring the angle between a star and the Earth's (or the Moon's) [[horizon]]. This proved to be difficult, as the venting by the S-IVB had caused a large cloud of debris to form around the spacecraft, making it hard to distinguish what were the actual stars. By seven hours into the mission, the delay in moving away from the S-IVB and Lovell's star sightings meant that they were behind schedule on the flight plan by about one hour and 40 minutes. The crew now placed the spacecraft into Passive Thermal Control (PTC), or what is more aptly called [[barbecue]] mode. This had the spacecraft roll about one rotation per hour, along its long axis in order to ensure even [[heat distribution]] of the spacecraft. In direct sunlight, the spacecraft could be heated to over 200 °C while the parts in shadow would be -100 °C. These temperatures could cause the [[heat shield]] to crack or propellant lines to burst. As it was impossible to get a perfect roll, the spacecraft actually swept out a [[Conical surface|cone]] as it rotated. This would have to be trimmed every half hour as it started to get larger and larger. The first mid-course correction came 11 hours into the flight. Testing on the ground had shown there was a small chance that the [[Service Propulsion System]] (SPS) engine would explode when burned for long periods unless its [[combustion chamber]] was 'coated' first. This could be done by burning the engine for a short period. This first correction burn was only 2.4 seconds and added about 20.4 ft/s (6.2 m/s) [[Prograde and retrograde motion|prograde]] (in the direction of travel). This was less than the 24.8 ft/s (7.5 m/s) planned, and the shortfall was due to a bubble of [[helium]] in the [[redox|oxidizer]] lines causing lower than expected fuel pressure, requiring the crew to use the small Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters to make up the shortfall. Two later planned midcourse corrections were cancelled as the trajectory was found to be perfect. Eleven hours into the flight, the crew had been awake for over 16 hours, having been awakened about 5 hours before launch. So it was time for Frank Borman to start his scheduled 7-hour sleep period. It proved difficult to sleep. NASA had decided that at least one crewmember should be awake at all times to deal with any issues that might arise. But the constant radio chatter with the ground and the air circulation fans made it hard to sleep. As well as this, sleeping in space is a somewhat unnatural experience—you cannot rest your head on a [[pillow]] and Bill Anders said that he would suddenly jolt awake with the sensation that he was falling. [[Image:As8-16-2583.jpg|thumb|250px|''Apollo 8'' [[S-IVB]] rocket stage. (NASA)]] About an hour after starting his sleep period, Borman requested clearance to take a [[Secobarbitol|Seconal]] [[Barbiturate|sleeping pill]], but the pill had little effect. After Borman slept for seven hours fitfully, he awoke feeling ill. He [[vomiting|vomited]] twice, and had a bout of [[diarrhea]] that left the spacecraft full of small globules of vomit and [[feces]]. The crew cleaned up as best as they could. Borman decided that he did not want the world to know about his medical problems but Lovell and Anders still wanted to tell the ground. They decided to use the Data Storage Equipment (DSE), which could be used by the crew to [[tape recorder|tape voice recordings]] and telemetry, which were then dumped to the ground at high speed. After recording a description of Borman's illness they requested that mission control check the recording, as the crew ''"would like an evaluation of the voice comments"''. A conference between the crew and medical personnel was held using the unoccupied second floor control room (there were two identical control rooms in Houston on the second and third floor, of which only one is used during the course of a mission). During a private communication with the crew, it was decided that there was little to worry about and that it was either a [[Gastroenteritis|24-hour flu]] as Borman thought, or just a reaction to the sleeping pill. In fact it is now thought that he was suffering from [[Space Adaptation Syndrome]], which affects about a third of astronauts during their first day in space as their [[Labyrinth (inner ear)|vestibular system]] adapts to [[weightlessness]]. It had never arisen on previous spacecraft ([[Project Mercury|Mercury]] and [[Project Gemini|Gemini]]) as they had been too small to move freely in. [[Image:Ap8-S68-56531.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In-flight footage of the crew taken while they were in orbit around the Moon. In the center is Frank Borman]] The cruise phase was a relatively uneventful part of the flight, with little happening except for the crew checking that the spacecraft was in working order and they were on course. During this time, NASA scheduled a television broadcast for 31 hours after launch. The camera used was 2 kg and broadcast in [[black-and-white]] only, using a [[Video camera tube|Vidicon]] tube. It had two [[lens (optics)|lens]]es: a very [[wide-angle]] (160°) lens and a [[telephoto]] (9°) lens. During this first broadcast the crew gave a tour of the spacecraft and attempted to show how the Earth appeared. However this proved impossible, as the narrow-angle lens was difficult to aim without the aid of a monitor to show what it was looking at. Also without proper [[filter (optics)|filter]]s, the image became saturated by any bright source. In the end all the crew could do was show the people watching back on Earth a bright blob. After broadcasting for 17 minutes the rotation of the spacecraft took the [[High Gain Antenna]] out of view of the receiving stations on Earth and they ended the transmission with Lovell wishing his mother happy birthday. {{listen|filename=Apollo 8 Borman describing the Earth.ogg|title=Borman described the Earth|description=Frank Borman describes view of Earth from midway to Moon|format=[[Ogg]]}} By this time the planned sleep periods had completely been abandoned. 32½ hours into the flight, Lovell went to bed, 3½ hours before he had planned to. A short while later Anders also went to bed after taking a sleeping pill. Somewhat strangely the crew were unable to see the [[Moon]] for much of the outward cruise. Three of the five windows had fogged up, due to outgassed oils from the [[silicone]] [[sealant]], and due to the attitude required for the PTC, the Moon was almost impossible to see from inside the spacecraft. In fact it was not until the crew had gone behind the Moon that they would be able to see it for the first time. A second television broadcast came at 55 hours. This time the crew had managed to rig up [[filter (optics)|filter]]s meant for the still cameras, so that they could acquire images of the Earth through the [[telephoto]] lens. Although difficult to aim, as they had to maneuver the entire spacecraft, the crew was able to broadcast back to Earth the first [[television]] pictures of the Earth. The crew spent the transmission describing the Earth and what was visible and the colors that could be seen. The transmission lasted 23 minutes. {{listen|filename=Apollo 8 Lovell describing the Earth.ogg|title=Lovell describes the Earth|description=Jim Lovell describes view of Earth from 200,000 miles out|format=[[Ogg]]}} ===Lunar sphere of influence=== At about 55 hours and 40 minutes into the flight, the crew of ''Apollo 8'' became the first humans to enter the gravitational sphere of influence of another celestial body. Or to put it another way, the Moon's [[gravitational force]] became stronger than that of the Earth. At the time it happened, they were 38,759 mi (62,377 km) from the Moon and had a speed of 3,990 ft/s (1,216 m/s) with respect to the Moon. This historic moment was of little interest to the crew as they still calculated their [[trajectory]] with respect to the launch pad at Kennedy Space Center and would do so until they performed their last midcourse correction, when they would switch to a [[reference frame]] based on ideal orientation for the second engine burn they would make in lunar orbit. It was only thirteen hours until they would be in lunar orbit. The last major event before Lunar Orbit Insertion was a second midcourse correction. It was in [[Prograde and retrograde motion|retrograde]] (against direction of travel) and slowed the spacecraft down by 2.0 ft/s (0.6 m/s), in effect lowering the closest distance that the spacecraft would pass the moon. At exactly 61 hours after launch, about 24,200 mi (39,000 km) from the Moon, the crew burned the RCS for 11 seconds. They would now pass 71.7 mi (115.4 km) from the lunar surface. At 64 hours into the flight, the crew began to prepare for Lunar Orbit Insertion-1 (LOI-1). This maneuver had to be performed perfectly, and due to [[Astrodynamics|orbital mechanics]] had to be on the far side of the Moon, out of contact with the Earth. After Mission Control was polled for a Go/No Go decision, the crew was told at 68 hours, they were Go and ''"riding the best bird we can find"''. At 68 hours and 58 minutes, the spacecraft went behind the Moon and out of radio contact with the Earth. {{listen|filename=Apollo 8 prior to LOI.ogg|title=''Apollo 8'' goes behind the Moon|description=The last transmissions from the spacecraft before it goes behind the Moon|format=[[Ogg]]}} With ten minutes before the LOI-1, the crew began one last check of the spacecraft systems and made sure that every switch was in the correct place. Then they finally got their first glimpses of the Moon. They had been flying over the unlit side, and it was Lovell who saw the first shafts of sunlight [[oblique]]ly illuminating the lunar surface. But the burn was only two minutes away so the crew had little time to appreciate the view. ===Lunar orbit=== Igniting at 69 hours, 8 minutes and 16 seconds after launch, the SPS burned for 4 minutes and 13 seconds, placing the crew of ''Apollo 8'' in orbit around the Moon. The crew described this as being the longest four minutes of their lives. If the burn had not lasted exactly the right amount of time, the spacecraft could have ended up in a highly [[ellipse|elliptical]] lunar [[orbit]] or even flung off into space. If it lasted too long they could have ended up impacting the Moon. After making sure the spacecraft was working, they finally had a chance to look at the Moon, which they would orbit for the next 20 hours. [[Image:AS8-13-2329.jpg|thumb|250px|The first Earthrise photographed by humans]] On Earth, Mission Control continued to wait. If the crew had not burned the engine or the burn had not lasted the planned length of time the crew would appear early from behind the Moon. However this time came and went without ''Apollo 8'' reappearing. And then exactly at the predicted moment, the signal was received from the spacecraft indicating it was in a 193.3 mi by 69.5 mi (311.1 km by 111.9 km) orbit about the Moon. {{listen|filename=Apollo 8 first lunar orbit transmissions.ogg|title=''Apollo 8'' appears from behind the Moon|description=First transmissions from ''Apollo 8'' after it has entered into lunar orbit|format=[[Ogg]]}} After reporting on the status of the spacecraft, Lovell gave the first description of what the lunar surface looked like: :The Moon is essentially grey, no color; looks like [[plaster of Paris]] or sort of a grayish beach sand. We can see quite a bit of detail. The [[Mare Fecunditatis|Sea of Fertility]] doesn't stand out as well here as it does back on Earth. There's not as much contrast between that and the surrounding craters. The craters are all rounded off. There's quite a few of them, some of them are newer. Many of them look like—especially the round ones—look like hit by [[meteorite]]s or projectiles of some sort. [[Langrenus (crater)|Langrenus]] is quite a huge crater; it's got a central cone to it. The walls of the crater are terraced, about six or seven different [[wiktionary:terrace|terrace]]s on the way down. Lovell continued to describe the terrain that they were passing over. One of the crew's major tasks was [[reconnaissance]] of the planned landing sites on the Moon, especially one in [[Mare Tranquillitatis]] that would be the ''[[Apollo 11]]'' landing site. The launch time of ''Apollo 8'' had been chosen to give the best lighting conditions for the site. A [[film camera]] had been set up in one of the windows to record a frame every second of the Moon below. And Bill Anders would spend much of the next 20 hours taking as many photographs as he could of targets of interest. By the end of the mission the crew would take 700 photographs of the Moon and 150 of the Earth. [[Image:As8-13-2225.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A portion of the lunar near side. The large crater in the bottom half of the photo is [[Goclenius (crater)|Goclenius]].]] Throughout the hour that the spacecraft was in contact with the Earth, Borman kept asking how the data for the SPS looked. He wanted to make sure that the engine was working and could be used to return early to the Earth if necessary. He also asked that they receive a Go/No Go decision before they passed behind the Moon on each orbit. As they reappeared for their second pass in front of the Moon, the crew set up the television to broadcast a view of the lunar surface. Anders described the craters that they were passing over. At the end of this second orbit they performed the eleven-second LOI-2 burn of the SPS to circularize the orbit to 70.0 mi by 71.3 mi (112.6 km by 114.8 km). Over the next two orbits the crew continued to keep check of the spacecraft and to observe and photograph the Moon. During the third pass, Borman read a small [[prayer]] for his [[church]], as he was meant to lay read during the [[Midnight service]] at St. Christopher's [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal]] Church near [[Seabrook, Texas]] but due to the Apollo 8 flight was unable. A fellow parishioner and engineer at Mission Control, Rod Rose, suggested that Borman read the prayer which could be recorded and then replayed during the service. It was as the spacecraft came out from behind the Moon for its fourth pass across the front that the crew witnessed an event never before seen—Earthrise. Anders glanced out the window and saw a blue and white orb and realized it was the [[Earth]]. Instantly the crew understood that they needed to take a photograph of this. Anders took both the first photograph, which was black-and-white, and then later the more famous color photo. (After the flight, Borman and Anders both claimed they took the first earthrise photo (Lovell also did, but more as a joke than anything else) - it was determined that it was probably Anders.) [[Image:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|thumb|250px|Earth as seen from ''Apollo 8'', December 24, 1968 (NASA)]] Anders continued to take photographs while Lovell took the controls of the spacecraft so that Borman could get some rest. As always resting was difficult in the cramped and noisy capsule, though Borman was able to [[doze]] for two orbits. He would awaken at times to ask a question about their status, only to be told that everything was going fine. Borman did wake up however when he started to hear his fellow crewmembers make mistakes. They were beginning to not understand questions and would have to ask for the answers to be repeated. Borman realized that everyone was extremely tired having not had a good night's sleep in over three days. Taking command, he ordered Anders and Lovell to get some sleep and that the rest of the flight plan regarding observing the Moon be scrubbed. At first Anders protested saying that he was fine, but Borman would not be swayed. At last Anders agreed as long as the commander would set up the camera to continue to take automatic shots of the Moon. Borman also remembered that there was a second television broadcast planned, and with so many people expected to be watching he wanted to crew to be alert. For the next two orbits Anders and Lovell slept while Borman sat at the helm. As they rounded the Moon for the ninth time, the second television transmission began. Borman introduced the crew, followed by each man giving his impression of the lunar surface and what it was like to be orbiting the Moon. Borman described it as being ''"a vast, lonely, forbidding type of existence or expanse of nothing"''. And then after talking about what they were flying over, Anders said that the crew had a message for all those on Earth. {{listen|filename=Apollo 8 describing the Moon.ogg|title=''Apollo 8'''s describing the Moon|description=The ''Apollo 8'' crew talk about the Moon and their impressions of it|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{listen|filename=Apollo 8 genesis reading.ogg|title=The crew of ''Apollo 8'' reading Genesis and wishing Merry Christmas|description=Each man reading a section of [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]] 1:1-10, the story of [[Creation (theology)|creation]]. Borman closes with: "And from the crew of ''Apollo 8'', we close with, Good night, Good luck, a Merry Christmas, and God bless all of you, all of you on the good Earth"|format=[[Ogg]]}} The only thing left for the crew now was to perform the Trans-Earth Injection or TEI, which would occur 2½ hours after the end of the television transmission. This was the most critical burn of the whole flight. If the SPS failed to ignite, then the crew would be stuck in orbit around the Moon, with only about 5 more days of oxygen and no chance of escape. And once again the burn had to be performed while the crew was out of contact with Earth, on the far side of the Moon. The burn occurred perfectly on time. The spacecraft telemetry was reacquired as it re-emerged from behind the Moon at 89 hours, 28 minutes, and 39 seconds, the exact time predicted. When voice contact was regained, Lovell announced, "Please be informed, there is a [[Santa Claus]]", to which [[Ken Mattingly]], the capcom, replied, "That's affirmative, You are the best ones to know". It was [[Christmas Day]], 1968. {{listen|filename=Apollo 8 on the way home.ogg|title=There is a Santa Claus|description=''Apollo 8'' appears from behind the Moon after its successful SPS engine burn|format=[[Ogg]]}} [[Image:AS8-13-2344.jpg|thumb|250px|Rupes Cauchy in eastern Mare Tranquillitatis]] ===Unplanned manual re-alignment=== Later, Lovell used some otherwise idle time to do some navigational sightings, maneuvering the module to view various stars by using the computer keyboard. However, an accidental entry erased some of the computer's memory, which caused the inertial measuring unit (IMU) to think the module was in the same relative position it had been in before lift-off and fire the thrusters to "correct" the module's attitude. Once the crew realized why the computer had changed the module's attitude, they realized they would have to re-enter data that would tell the computer its real position. It took Lovell ten minutes to figure out the right numbers, using the thrusters to get the stars [[Rigel]] and [[Sirius]] aligned, and another fifteen minutes to enter the corrected data into the computer. Sixteen months later, Lovell would once again have to perform a similar manual re-alignment, under more critical conditions, during the ''[[Apollo 13]]'' mission, after that module's IMU had to be turned off to conserve energy. In his 1994 book, ''Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13'' (later re-titled ''Apollo 13'' when the movie based on it, ''[[Apollo 13 (film)|Apollo 13]]'' came out), Lovell wrote, "My training [on Apollo 8] came in handy!" In that book he dismissed the incident as a 'planned experiment', requested by the ground crew. However, in subsequent interviews Lovell has acknowledged that the incident was an accident, caused by his mistake, as described in [[Robert Zimmerman (author)|Robert Zimmerman]]'s 1998 book ''Genesis: The Story of Apollo 8''. ===Cruise back to Earth and re-entry=== The cruise back to Earth was mostly a time for the crew to relax and monitor the spacecraft. As long as the trajectory specialists had calculated everything correctly, the spacecraft would re-enter 2½ days after TEI and [[splashdown]] in the Pacific. On Christmas afternoon, the crew made their fifth and final television broadcast. This time they gave a tour of the spacecraft, showing how an astronaut lived in space. When they had finished broadcasting they found a small present from Deke Slayton in the food locker—real [[domesticated turkey|turkey]] with [[stuffing]] and three miniature bottles of [[brandy]] (which remained unopened). There were also small presents to the crew from their wives. [[Image:Ap8-S68-56310.jpg|thumb|250px|The ''Apollo 8'' Command Module on the deck of the [[USS Yorktown (CV-10)|USS ''Yorktown'']].]] After two uneventful days the crew prepared for re-entry. The computer would control the re-entry and all the crew had to do was put the spacecraft in the correct attitude, blunt end forward. If the computer broke down, Borman would take over. After separating from the Service Module, all the crew could do was sit and wait. Six minutes before they hit the top of the atmosphere, the crew saw the Moon rising above the Earth's horizon, just as had been predicted by the trajectory specialists. As they hit the thin outer atmosphere they noticed it was becoming hazy outside as glowing [[Plasma physics|plasma]] formed around the capsule. The capsule started slowing down and the deceleration peaked at 6 g (59 m/s&sup2;). With the computer controlling the descent by changing the [[Aircraft attitude|attitude]] of the capsule, ''Apollo 8'' rose briefly like a skipping stone before descending to the ocean. At 30,000 feet (9 km) the drogue parachute stabilized the spacecraft and was followed at 10,000 feet (3 km) by the three main parachutes. The spacecraft splashdown position was estimated to be {{coor dm|8|6|N|165|1|W|}}. When it hit the water, the parachutes dragged the spacecraft over and left it upside down, in what was termed Stable 2 position. As they were buffeted by a 10-foot (3 m) swell, Borman was sick, waiting for the three floatation balloons to right the capsule. It was 43 minutes after splashdown before the first [[frogman]] from the [[USS Yorktown (CV-10)|USS ''Yorktown'']] arrived, as the capsule had landed before sunrise. Forty-five minutes later they were on the deck of the aircraft carrier. The command module is now displayed at the [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] [[Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago|Museum of Science and Industry]], along with a collection of personal items from the flight donated by Lovell and Frank Borman's spacesuit. Jim Lovell's spacesuit can be found at NASA's [[Glenn Research Center]]. ==Historical importance== ''Apollo 8'' came at the end of 1968, a year that had seen much upheaval around the world. [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] tanks had put a stop to the [[Prague Spring]] in [[Czechoslovakia]]; [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] and [[Robert F. Kennedy]] had been assassinated; the [[Vietnam War]] had escalated with the [[Tet Offensive]]; University campuses across the [[United States]] had seen rioting and occupation of buildings by students; [[May 1968|May]] had seen rioting in [[Paris]] that almost led to revolution. Yet over all these other events, [[TIME|TIME magazine]] chose the crew of ''Apollo 8'' as their [[Person of the Year|Men of the Year]] for 1968, recognizing them as the people that most influenced events in the preceding year. They had been the first people to ever leave the gravitational influence of the Earth and orbit another celestial body. They had survived a mission that even the crew themselves had rated as only having a fifty-fifty chance of fully succeeding. The effect of ''Apollo 8'' can be summed up by a [[Telegraphy|telegram]] from a stranger, received by Borman after the mission, that simply stated, "Thank you ''Apollo 8''. You saved 1968." [[Image:January 3, 1969 Time Magazine Cover.jpg|thumb|[[January 3]], [[1969]] cover of [[TIME|TIME Magazine]] with the Apollo 8 crew]] One of the most famous aspects of the flight was the Earthrise picture that was taken as they came around for their fourth orbit of the Moon. Although it was not the first image taken of the whole Earth nor would it be the last, this was the first time that humans had taken such a picture. Some regard the picture as being the start of the [[Environmentalism|environmentalist]] movement, with the first [[Earth Day]] in 1970.[http://ipp.nasa.gov/innovation/Innovation_84/wnewview.html] The mission was the most widely covered by the media since the first American orbital flight, [[Mercury Atlas 6]] by [[John Glenn]] in 1962. There were 1200 journalists covering the mission, with the [[BBC]] coverage being broadcast in 54 countries in 15 different languages. The Soviet newspaper ''[[Pravda]]'' even covered the flight without the usual anti-American editorializing. It is estimated that a quarter of the people alive at the time saw — either live or delayed — the Christmas Eve transmission during the ninth orbit of the Moon; it had a tremendous impact. Touring the world after the mission, Borman met with [[Pope Paul VI]]; he was told "I have spent my entire life trying to say to the world what you did on Christmas Eve." The militant [[atheist]] [[Madalyn Murray O'Hair]] later caused controversy by bringing a lawsuit against NASA over the reading from ''Genesis''; she wished the courts to ban US astronauts—who were all Government employees—from public prayer in space. This was eventually rejected by the courts, but it caused NASA to be skittish about the issue of religion throughout the rest of the Apollo program. [[Buzz Aldrin]], on ''[[Apollo 11]]'', took [[Eucharist|communion]] on the surface of the moon after landing; he refrained from mentioning this publicly for several years, and only obliquely referred to it at the time. ==Crew== *[[Frank Borman]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 7]]'' & ''Apollo 8''), commander *[[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 7]]'', ''[[Gemini 12]]'', ''Apollo 8'' & ''[[Apollo 13]]''), command module pilot *[[William Anders]] (flew on ''Apollo 8''), lunar module pilot As a note, astronaut [[Michael Collins]], who flew aboard the [[Gemini 10]] mission, was originally slated to fly aboard Apollo 8 as Command Module pilot. A [[bone spur]] in his neck that required surgery grounded Collins, requiring Jim Lovell to fly in Collins' place. In early 1969, Collins was reinstated to active flight status, and replaced Fred Haise on the Apollo 11 prime crew as Command Module pilot, while Edwin Aldrin became lunar module pilot. Haise became the backup LM pilot for Apollo 11. ===Backup crew=== The backup crew trained to take the place of the prime crew in case of illness or death. *[[Neil Armstrong]], (flew on ''[[Gemini 8]]'', ''[[Apollo 11]]''), commander *[[Edwin E. Aldrin]], (flew on ''[[Gemini 12]]'', ''[[Apollo 11]]''), command module pilot *[[Fred Haise]], (flew on ''[[Apollo 13]]''), lunar module pilot ===Support crew=== The support crew were not trained to fly the mission but were able to stand in for astronauts in meetings and be involved in the minutiae of mission planning, while the prime and backup crews trained. They often also served as capcoms during the mission. *[[John S. Bull|John Bull]] (never flew in space) *[[Vance Brand]] (flew on ''[[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]]'', ''[[STS-5]]'', ''[[STS-41-B]]'', ''[[STS-35]]'' *[[Gerald Carr]] (flew on ''[[Skylab 4]]'') *[[Ken Mattingly]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 16]]'', ''[[STS-4]]'', ''[[STS-51-C]]'') ==Mission parameters== *'''CSM [[Mass]]:''' 63,531 lb (28,817 kg) ===Earth parking orbit=== *'''[[Perigee]]:''' 112.8 mi (181.5 km) *'''[[Apogee]]:''' 118.9 mi (191.3 km) *'''[[Inclination]]:''' 32.51° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 88.17 min ===Lunar orbit=== *'''[[Perilune]]:''' 69.5 mi (111.9 km) *'''[[Apolune]]:''' 193.3 mi (311.1 km) *'''[[Inclination]]:''' 12° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 128.7 min ===Translunar injection burn=== *[[December 21]], [[1968]], 15:41:38 UTC The Saturn V, [[S-IVB]] third stage, was fired for a second time. It burned for a total of 318 seconds. ''Apollo 8'' was propelled from an [[Earth]] [[Low Earth orbit|parking orbit]] velocity of 25,567 ft/s (7793 m/s) to a translunar [[trajectory]] [[Escape velocity|velocity]] of 35,505 ft/s (10,822 m/s). ==See also== {{Commons|Apollo 8}} *[[Splashdown]] *[[Project Apollo]] *[[Space Race]] *[[List of lunar astronauts]] ==References== *[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo8info.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog]. Retrieved on [[March 10]], [[2005]] *[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_08a_Summary.htm Apollo By The Numbers: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)]. Retrieved on [[March 10]], [[2005]] *[http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/ Apollo 8 Flight Journal]. Retrieved on [[March 10]], [[2005]] *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/ch20-6.html Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations]. Retrieved on [[March 10]], [[2005]] *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch11-5.html Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft]. Retrieved on [[March 10]], [[2005]] *[http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo8.htm Apollo 8] in the [[Encyclopedia Astronautica]]. Retrieved on [[March 10]], [[2005]] *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology]. Retrieved on [[March 10]], [[2005]] *[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report]. Retrieved on [[March 15]], [[2005]] *[http://cgi.canoe.ca/SpaceArchive/981221_30.html Astronauts look back 30 years after historic lunar launch]. Retrieved on [[March 19]], [[2005]] *[http://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/books/apollo/S2ch3.htm Biomedical Results of Apollo]. Retrieved on [[March 19]], [[2005]] *Chaikin, Andrew (1994). ''A Man On The Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts''. Viking. ISBN 0670814466. *Zimmerman, Robert (1998). ''Genesis: The Story of Apollo 8''. Four Wall Eight Windows. ISBN 1568581181. *Collins, Michael (1975). ''Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys''. W. H. Allen. ISBN 0491016034. *Slayton, Donald K.; Cassutt, Michael (1995). ''Deke! : An Autobiography''. Forge Books. ISBN 031285918X. *Compiled by NASA Manned Spacecraft Center (1969). ''Analysis of Apollo 8 Photography and Visual Observations''. US Government Printing Office. [http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19700005062_1970005062.pdf NASA PDF online version] {{Project Apollo | before=[[Apollo 7]] | after=[[Apollo 9]]}} {{featured article}} [[Category:Apollo program|Apollo 08]] [[Category:Human spaceflights|Apollo 08]] [[Category:Lunar spacecraft|Apollo 08]] [[Category:1968 in the United States]] [[cs:Apollo 8]] [[de:Apollo 8]] [[fi:Apollo 8]] [[fr:Apollo 8]] [[it:Apollo 8]] [[he:%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95_8]] [[hu:Apollo-8]] [[nl:Apollo 8]] [[pl:Apollo 8]] [[pt:Apollo 8]] [[sk:Apollo 8]] [[zh:阿波罗8号]] 664 41903543 2006-03-02T14:26:20Z Tom harrison 42168 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/82.249.117.123|82.249.117.123]] ([[User talk:82.249.117.123|talk]]) to last version by Orville Eastland [[image:Astronaut-EVA.jpg|right|300px|thumb|U.S. Space Shuttle astronaut [[Bruce McCandless II]] using a manned maneuvering unit (MMU) outside the ''Challenger'' in 1984. Picture courtesy NASA]] An '''astronaut''', '''cosmonaut''' ([[Russian language|Russian]]: космона́вт), '''spationaut''' or '''taikonaut''' (''taikongren'', 太空人) is a person who [[space travel|travels into space]], or who makes a career of doing so. The criteria for determining who has achieved [[human spaceflight]] vary (see [[edge of space]]). In the [[United States]], people who travel above an altitude of 50 miles (80&nbsp;km) are designated as astronauts. The [[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale|FAI]] defines spaceflight as over 100 km (61 miles). As of [[October 12]], [[As of 2005|2005]], a total of 448 humans have reached space according to the U.S. definition, 442 people qualify under the FAI definition, while 438 people have reached [[Earth]] orbit or beyond. These individuals have spent over 28,000 crew-days (or a cumulative total of 76.7 years) in space including over 100 crew-days of spacewalks. A person who has traveled in space is said to hold [[astronaut wings]]. Astronauts from at least [[Timeline of astronauts by nationality|34 countries]] have gone into space. ==International variations== By convention, a space traveller employed by the [[Russian Aviation and Space Agency]] or its [[Soviet space program|Soviet]] predecessor is called a '''cosmonaut'''. "Cosmonaut" is an [[anglicisation]] of the [[Russia]]n word космонавт ''(kosmonavt)'', which in turn derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''kosmos'' ("universe") and ''nautes'' ("sailor"). In the [[United States|USA]], a space traveller is called an '''astronaut'''. The term derives from the Greek words ''ástron'' ("star") and ''nautes,'' ("sailor"). For the most part, "cosmonaut" and "astronaut" are synonyms in all languages, and the usage of choice is often dictated by political reasons. However in the United States, the term "astronaut" is typically applied to the individual as soon as training begins, while in Russia, an individual is not labeled a cosmonaut until successful space flight. The first known use of the term was by [[Neil R. Jones]] in his short story ''The Death's Head Meteor'' in [[1930]]. On [[March 14]], [[1995]] astronaut [[Norman Thagard]] became the first American to ride to space on board a Russian launch vehicle, arguably becoming the first American cosmonaut in the process. [[Europe]]an (outside of the [[UK]]) space travellers are sometimes, especially in [[French language|French]]-speaking countries, called '''spationauts''' (a [[hybrid word]] formed from the [[Latin]] ''spatium'', "space", and Greek ''nautes'', "sailor"). Apart from the Soviet Union, Europe has not yet produced manned spacecraft, but has sent men and women into space in cooperation with Russia and the United States. '''Taikonaut''' is sometimes used in English for astronauts from [[China]] by Western news media. The term was coined in May 1998 by Chiew Lee Yih (赵里昱) from [[Malaysia]], who used it first in [[newsgroup]]s. Almost simultaneously, Chen Lan coined it for use in the Western [[mass media|media]] based on the term ''tàikōng'' (太空, literally "great emptiness"), [[Chinese language|Chinese]] for "[[outer space|space]]". In Chinese itself, however, a single term ''yǔháng yuán'' (宇航员, "universe navigator") has long been used for astronauts. The closest term using ''taikong'' is a [[colloquialism]] ''tàikōng rén'' (太空人, "space person"), which refers to people who have actually been in space. Official English texts issued by the Chinese government use ''astronaut'' ({{zh-sp|s=航天员|p=hángtiān yuán}}). ==Space milestones== [[Image:GagarinPortrait.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Yuri Gagarin]] ]] [[Image:Tereshkova.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Valentina Tereshkova]] ]] The first attempt ever in human history to use rocket for a spaceflight was done in the [[16th century]] by a Chinese [[Ming dynasty]] official, a skilled stargazer named [[Wan Hu]].<sup>[http://edition.cnn.com/2003/TECH/space/09/30/china.wanhu/index.html]</sup> This attempt was not successful. The first cosmonaut was [[Yuri Gagarin]], who was launched into space on [[April 12]] [[1961]] aboard [[Vostok 1]]. The first woman cosmonaut was [[Valentina Tereshkova]], launched into space in June [[1963]] aboard [[Vostok 6]]. [[Alan Shepard]] became the first American in space in May 1961. [[Vladimir Remek]] became the first non-Soviet European in space in [[1978]] on a Russian [[Soyuz launch vehicle|Soyuz]] rocket. On [[July 23]] [[1980]] [[Pham Tuan]] of Vietnam became the first [[Asian]] in space when he flew aboard [[Soyuz 37]]. Also in 1980, [[Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez]] became the first person of [[African]] descent to fly in space. (The first person born in Africa to fly in space was [[Patrick Baudry]].) In June [[1985]] [[Shannon Lucid]] became the first Chinese born person in space. In [[2002]] [[Mark Shuttleworth]] became the first citizen of an African country to fly in space. On [[15 October]] [[2003]] [[Yang Liwei]] became China's first astronaut on the [[Shenzhou 5]] spacecraft. The first mission to orbit the moon was ''[[Apollo 8]]'' which included [[William Anders]] - who was born in Hong Kong making him the first Asian-born astronaut in [[1968]]. The youngest person to fly in space is [[Gherman Titov]], who was roughly 26 years old when he flew [[Vostok 2]], and the oldest is [[John Glenn]] who was 77 when he flew on [[STS-95]]. The longest stay in space was 438 days by [[Valeri Polyakov]]. [[As of 2005]], the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut was seven, a record held by both [[Jerry L. Ross]] and [[Franklin Chang-Diaz]]. The furthest distance from Earth an astronaut has traveled was 401&nbsp;056&nbsp;km (during the [[Apollo 13]] emergency). The first non-governmental astronaut was [[Byron K. Lichtenberg]], an [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] researcher who flew on [[Space Shuttle program|Space Shuttle]] mission [[STS-9]] in 1983. In [[December 1990]], [[Toyohiro Akiyama]] became the first commercial space‐farer as a reporter for [[Tokyo Broadcasting System|TBS]] who paid for his flight. The first self‐funded [[space tourist]] was [[Dennis Tito]] on [[28 April]] [[2001]], while the first astronaut to fly on an entirely privately-funded mission was [[Mike Melvill]], on [[SpaceShipOne flight 15P]], though this flight was sub‐orbital. In the United States, persons selected as astronaut candidates receive silver [[Astronaut wings]]. Once they have flown in space they receive gold Astronaut wings. The [[United States Air Force]] also presents Astronaut wings to its pilots who exceed 50 miles (80 km) in altitude. == International astronauts == [[Image:ZeroG.jpg|right|thumb|400px|Astronauts on the International Space Station. British astronaut [[Michael Foale]] can be seen exercising in the foreground]] Up until the end of the [[1970s]] only Americans and Soviets were active astronauts. In [[1976]] the Soviets started the [[Intercosmos]] program with a first group of 6 cosmonauts from fellow [[Eastern Bloc]] countries and [[Cuba]], a second group started training in [[1978]]. At about the same time in [[1978]] the [[European Space Agency]] selected 4 astronauts to train for the first [[Spacelab]] mission on board of the [[Space Shuttle]]. In [[1980]] [[France]] started their own selection of astronauts, followed in [[1982]] by [[Germany]], in [[1983]] by the [[Canadian space program]], in [[1985]] by [[Japan]] and [[Italy]] in [[1988]]. Several international payload specialists were selected for the Space Shuttle, and also later for international [[Soyuz programme|Soyuz]] missions of Russia. In [[1998]] the [[European Space Agency]] formed a single astronaut corps of 18 by dissolving the former national corps of France, Germany and Italy. The [[United Kingdom]] does not contribute to ESA's [[human spaceflight]] programme and so its citizens must receive training from either the United States or Russia if they wish to become astronauts. == Astronaut training== The first astronauts, both in the USA and USSR, tended to be jet fighter pilots, often [[test pilot|test pilots]], from military backgrounds. U.S. military astronauts receive a special qualification badge, known as the [[Astronaut Badge]] upon completion of Astronaut training and participation in a space flight. == Astronaut deaths == [[Image:DickScobee.jpeg|frame|[[Dick Scobee]], commander of the Space Shuttle Challenger during the [[STS-51-L]] mission. ]] To date, eighteen astronauts have been killed on space missions, and at least ten more have been killed in ground-based training accidents. ''See also: [[space disaster]].'' ==Trivia== Many people who claim the [[Apollo moon landing hoax accusations|Apollo moon landings were faked]] often call the astronauts ''astroNOTs''. ==See also== * [[List of astronauts by name]] * [[List of astronauts by selection]] * [[Timeline of astronauts by nationality]] * List of human spaceflights: [[List of human spaceflights, 1961-1986|1961-1986]], [[List of human spaceflights, 1987-1999|1987-1999]], [[List of human spaceflights, 2000-present|2000-present]]. * [[List of spacewalks and moonwalks]] * [[X-15]] * [[Spaceflight records]] * [[Shirley Thomas (USC professor)|Shirley Thomas]], author of ''Men of Space'' series (1960-1968) ==External links== * [http://www.astronautix.com Encyclopedia Astronautica] * [http://www.astronautix.com/astrogrp/phaonaut.htm Encyclopedia Astronautica: Phantom cosmonauts] [[Category:Astronauts|*]] [[Category:Transportation occupations]] [[Category:Science occupations]] [[af:Ruimtevaarder]] [[bg:Космонавт]] [[bn:মহাশূণ্যচারী]] [[ca:Astronauta]] [[cv:Космонавт]] [[cs:Kosmonaut]] [[da:Astronaut]] [[de:Raumfahrer]] [[es:Astronauta]] [[eo:Kosmonaŭto]] [[fr:Spationaute]] [[id:Astronaut]] [[it:Astronauta]] [[he:טייס חלל]] [[la:Astronauta]] [[hu:Űrhajós]] [[nl:Ruimtevaarder]] [[ja:宇宙飛行士]] [[no:Astronaut]] [[pl:Astronauta]] [[pt:Astronauta]] [[ru:Космонавт]] [[simple:Astronaut]] [[sk:Kozmonaut]] [[sl:Astronavt]] [[fi:Astronautti]] [[sv:Rymdfarare]] [[th:นักบินอวกาศ]] [[zh:宇航员]] 665 41713510 2006-03-01T06:08:06Z 58.166.74.32 '''''A Modest Proposal: For Preventing the Children of Poor People in Ireland from Being a Burden to Their Parents or Country, and for Making Them Beneficial to the Publick''''', commonly referred to as '''''A Modest Proposal''''', is a [[satire|satirical]] [[pamphlet]] written by [[Jonathan Swift]] in [[1729]]. The work has now become one of the epitomes of satire, and the modern phrase "A modest proposal" derives from the work. ==Theme== The work is written in [[first person]] [[Point of view (literature)|point of view]]; however, the narrator should not be confused with Swift himself, because the writer is merely a [[persona]]. He argues, through economic reasoning as well as a self-righteous moral stance, for a way to turn the problem of squalor among the [[Catholic]]s in [[Ireland]] into its own solution. His proposal is to fatten up the undernourished children and feed them to [[Ireland]]'s rich land-owners. Children of the poor could be sold into a meat market at the age of one thus combating [[overpopulation]] and [[unemployment]], sparing families the expense of child-rearing while providing them with a little extra income, improving the culinary experience of the wealthy, and contributing to the overall economic well-being of the nation. He offers statistical support for his assertions and gives specific data about the number of children to be sold, their weight and price, and the projected consumption patterns. He suggests some recipes for preparing this delicious new meat, and he feels sure that innovative cooks will be quick to generate more. He also anticipates that the practice of selling and eating children will have positive effects on family morality: husbands will treat their wives with more respect, and parents will value their children in ways hitherto unknown. His conclusion is that the implementation of this project will do more to solve Ireland's complex social, political, and economic problems than any other measure that has been proposed. This is widely believed to be the greatest example of sustained [[irony]] in the history of the English language. ==Reactions== The satirical intent of ''A Modest Proposal'' was misunderstood by many of Swift's peers, and he was harshly criticized for writing prose in such exceptionally "[[Taste (sociology)|bad taste]]". He came close to losing his [[patronage]] because of this essay. The misunderstanding of the intent of the satirical attack came about largely because of the disparity between the satirical intent of the [[cannibal|cannibalistic]] proposal and the sincere tone of the narrative voice. ==Modern usage== In modern usage, the phrase "modest proposal" has come to indicate a proposal that is anything but modest. Such a 'proposal' may serve to advance a cause or [[Logical argument|argument]], by promoting discussion on the merits of the argument's opposite. ==Other examples of "modest proposals"== *[http://sniggle.net/lithoax.php Modest Proposals and other literary hoaxes] *[[Report From Iron Mountain]] *[[Sokal Affair]] *[[Miscegenation]] (origin of the word) *[[Dihydrogen monoxide]] *[[Jack Thompson]], attorney, has been criticised for writing an open letter similar to Swift's piece, one that included a promise of donating money to charity. ==External links== {{wikisource}} * [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1080 A Modest Proposal (Gutenberg)] * [http://librivox.org/a-modest-proposal-by-jonathan-swift/ Free audiobook] from [http://librivox.org/ LibriVox] * [http://sniggle.net/lithoax.php sniggle.net: Modest Proposals] [[Category:Satire]] [[Category:Essays|Modest Proposal, A]] [[Category:Non-fictional British literature|Modest Proposal, A]] [[Category:1729 books|Modest Proposal, A]] [[sv:Ett anspråkslöst förslag]] 666 41685752 2006-03-01T01:29:33Z Ummit 328950 {| align="right" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em;" ! [[Periodic table group|Group]] ! [[Group 1 element|1]] |- ! [[Periodic table period|Period]] | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; |- ! [[Period 2 element|2]] | {{element cell| 3|Lithium|Li| |Solid|Alkali metals|Primordial}} |- ! [[Period 3 element|3]] | {{element cell|11|Sodium|Na| |Solid|Alkali metals|Primordial}} |- ! [[Period 4 element|4]] | {{element cell|19|Potassium|K| |Solid|Alkali metals|Primordial}} |- ! [[Period 5 element|5]] | {{element cell|37|Rubidium|Rb| |Solid|Alkali metals|Primordial}} |- ! [[Period 6 element|6]] | {{element cell|55|Caesium|Cs| |Solid|Alkali metals|Primordial}} |- ! [[Period 7 element|7]] | {{element cell|87|Francium|Fr| |Solid|Alkali metals|Natural radio}} |} The '''alkali metals''' are the [[chemical series|series]] of [[chemical element|elements]] in [[Periodic table group|Group 1]] ([[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]] style) of the [[periodic table]] (excluding [[hydrogen]] in all but one [[Metallic_hydrogen|rare circumstance]]): [[lithium]] ('''Li'''), [[sodium]] ('''Na'''), [[potassium]] ('''K'''), [[rubidium]] ('''Rb'''), [[caesium]] ('''Cs'''), and [[francium]] ('''Fr'''). They are all highly reactive and are never found in elemental form in nature. The alkali metals are silver-colored (caesium has a golden tinge), soft, low-[[density]] [[metal]]s, which react readily with [[halogen]]s to form [[ionic salt]]s, and with [[water (molecule)|water]] to form strongly [[alkali|alkaline]] [[Base (chemistry)|(basic)]] [[hydroxide]]s. These elements all have one [[electron]] in their outermost shell, so the energetically preferred state of achieving a filled [[electron shell]] is to lose one electron to form a singly [[electric charge|charged]] positive [[ion]]. [[Hydrogen]], with a solitary electron, is sometimes placed at the top of Group 1, but it is not an alkali metal (except under extreme circumstances as [[metallic hydrogen]]); rather it exists naturally as a diatomic [[gas]]. Removal of its single electron requires considerably more energy than removal of the outer electron for the alkali metals. As in the [[halogen]]s, only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom, so hydrogen can in some circumstances behave like a halogen, forming the negative [[hydride]] ion. Binary compounds of hydride with the alkali metals and some [[transition metal]]s have been prepared. Under extremely high [[pressure]], such as is found at the core of [[Jupiter]], hydrogen does become metallic and behaves like an alkali metal; see [[metallic hydrogen]]. {|style="text-align: center;" border="1" cellpadding="2" |+ '''Explanation of above periodic table slice:''' | bgcolor="{{element color/Alkali metals}}" | [[Alkali metal]]s | atomic number in <font color="{{element color/Solid}}">{{element color/Solid}}</font> are solids | style="border:{{element frame/Primordial}};" | solid borders are [[primordial element]]s (older than the [[Earth]]) | style="border:{{element frame/Natural radio}};" | dashed borders are naturally [[radioactive decay|radioactive element]]s with no isotopes older than the Earth |} {{PeriodicTablesFooter}} <!--Category--> [[Category:Alkali metals]] [[Category:Periodic table]] <!--Interlanguage links--> [[ar:فلز قلوي]] [[bg:Група 1А на периодичната система]] [[bs:Alkalni metali]] [[ca:Metall alcalí]] [[da:Alkalimetal]] [[de:Alkalimetalle]] [[es:Alcalino]] [[eo:Alkala metalo]] [[eu:Metal alkalino]] [[fr:Métal alcalin]] [[gl:Alcalino]] [[ko:알칼리 금속]] [[hr:Alkalijski metali]] [[is:Alkalímálmur]] [[it:Metalli alcalini]] [[he:מתכת אלקלית]] [[la:Metallum alkalicum]] [[lv:Sārmu metāli]] [[lt:Šarminiai metalai]] [[mk:Алкален метал]] [[ms:Logam Alkali]] [[nl:Alkalimetaal]] [[ja:第1族元素]] [[no:Alkalimetall]] [[nn:Alkalimetall]] [[pl:Metale alkaliczne]] [[pt:Alcalino-metálicos]] [[ro:Metal alcalin]] [[sk:Alkalické kovy]] [[sl:Alkalijska kovina]] [[sr:Алкални метали]] [[fi:Alkalimetalli]] [[sv:Alkalimetall]] [[th:โลหะแอลคาไล]] [[vi:Kim loại kiềm]] [[tr:Alkali metal]] [[zh:碱金属]] 668 19406655 2005-07-22T23:16:01Z KSchutte 295931 In [[logic]], the '''argument form''' or ''test form'' of an [[logical argument|argument]] results from replacing the different words, or sentences, that make up the argument with letters, along the lines of [[algebra]]; the letters represent logical ''[[variable]]s''. The ''sentence forms'' which classify argument forms of common arguments important are studied in [[college logic]]. Here is an example of an argument: '''A''' All humans are mortal. Socrates is human. ''Therefore'', Socrates is mortal. We can rewrite argument A by putting each sentence on its own line: '''B''' :All humans are mortal. :Socrates is human. :''Therefore'', Socrates is mortal. To demonstrate the important notion of the ''form'' of an argument, substitute letters for similar items throughout '''B''': '''C''' :All S are P. :''a'' is S. :''Therefore'', ''a'' is P. All we have done in '''C''' is to put 'S' for 'human' and 'humans', 'P' for 'mortal', and '''a''' for 'Socrates'; what results, '''C''', is the ''form'' of the original argument in '''A'''. So argument form '''C''' is the form of argument '''A'''. Moreover, each individual sentence of '''C''' is the ''sentence'' ''form'' of its respective sentence in '''A'''. Attention is given to argument and sentence form, because ''form is what makes an argument [[validity|valid]] or [[cogency|cogent]]''. Some examples of valid arguments forms are [[modus ponens]], [[modus tollens]], and the [[disjunctive syllogism]]. Two invalid argument forms are [[affirming the consequent]] and [[denying the antecedent]]. ==See also== *[[analytic proposition]] *[[synthetic proposition]] [[Category:Logic]] 669 15899195 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Allotropy]] 670 41872890 2006-03-02T07:19:07Z 210.213.187.17 +tl {{otheruses}} An '''alphabet''' is a complete standardized set of ''letters'' &mdash; basic written symbols &mdash; each of which roughly represents a [[phoneme]] of a spoken [[language]], either as it exists now or as it may have been in the past. There are other [[writing system|systems of writing]] such as [[logogram]]s, in which each symbol represents a [[morpheme]], or word, and [[syllabary|syllabaries]], in which each symbol represents a syllable. The word "alphabet" itself comes from [[alpha (letter)|alpha]] and [[beta (letter)|beta]], the first two symbols of the [[Greek alphabet]]. There are dozens of alphabets in use today. Most of them are '[[linear writing|linear]]', which means that they are made up of lines. Notable [[non-linear writing|exceptions]] are the [[Braille|Braille alphabet]], [[Morse code]] and the [[cuneiform script|cuneiform]] alphabet of the ancient city of [[Ugarit]]. {{alphabet}} ==Types== The term "alphabet" is currently used by linguists both in a wider and in a narrower sense. In the wider sense, the term refers to any script that is segmental on the [[phoneme]] level, i.e. that has separate glyphs for individual sounds and not for larger units such as syllables or words. In the narrower sense, some scholars distinguish true "alphabets" from two other subtypes, [[abjad]]s and [[abugida]]s. The three types differ from each other in the way vowels are treated in relation to consonants. Abjads record only consonants and leave vowels (or most vowels) unexpressed; in Abugidas the vowels are indicated by diacritical marks or systematic modification of the form of the consonants. In alphabets in the narrow sense, both consonants and vowels have separate symbols. The first alphabet in the wider sense was the [[Proto-Canaanite alphabet]], an [[abjad]], which through its successor [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] became the ancestor of all later alphabets. The first alphabet in the narrow sense was the [[Greek alphabet]]. Examples of present-day abjads are the [[Arabic script|Arabic]] and [[Hebrew script]]s; true alphabets include [[Latin alphabet|Latin]], [[Cyrillic]], and Korean [[Hangul]]; and abugidas are used to write [[Amharic language|Amharic]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]], and [[Thai language|Thai]]. The [[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]] are also an abugida rather than a syllabary, as a glyph stands for a consonant and is rotated to represent the vowel, rather than each consonant-vowel combination being represented by a separate glyph, as in a true syllabary. The boundaries between these three types are not always clear-cut. For example, Iraqi [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] is written in the [[Arabic script]], which is normally an abjad. However, in Kurdish, writing the vowels is mandatory, and full letters are used, so the script is a true alphabet. Other languages may use a Semitic abjad with mandatory vowel diacritics, effectively making them abugidas. On the other hand, the [[Phagspa]] script of the [[Mongol Empire]] was based closely on the [[Tibetan script|Tibetan abugida]], but all vowel marks were written after the preceding consonant rather than as diacritic marks. Although short ''a'' was not written, as in the abugidas, one could argue that the linear arrangement made this a true alphabet. Conversely, the vowel marks of the [[Amharic_language#Amharic_Abugida_Symbols_.28.22Fidel.22_.E1.8D.8A.E1.8B.B0.E1.88.8D.29|Amharic abugida]] have been so completely assimilated into their consonants that the system is learned as a [[syllabary]] rather than as a segmental script. Even more extreme, the Pahlavi abjad became [[logogram|logographic]]. (See below.) Thus the primary classification of alphabets reflects how they treat vowels. For [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal languages]], further classification can be based on the treatment of tone, though there are as yet no names to distinguish the various types. Some alphabets disregard tone entirely, especially when it does not carry a heavy functional load, as in [[Somali language|Somali]] and many other languages of Africa and the Americas. Such scripts are to tone what abjads are to vowels. Most commonly, tones are indicated with diacritics, the way vowels are treated in abugidas. This is the case for [[Vietnamese alphabet|Vietnamese]] (a true alphabet) and [[Thai alphabet|Thai]] (an abugida). In Thai, tone is determined primarily by the choice of consonant, with diacritics for disambiguation. In the [[Pollard script]] (an abugida), vowels are indicated by diacritics, but the placement of the vowel relative to the consonant indicates the tone. More rarely, a script has separate letters for the tones, as is the case for [[Hmong pronunciation|Hmong]] and [[Zhuang language|Zhuang]]. For many of these languages, regardless of whether letters or diacritics are used, the most common tone is not marked, just as the most common vowel is not marked in Indic abugidas. Alphabets can be quite small. The Book [[Pahlavi]] script, an abjad, had only twelve letters at one point, and may have had even fewer later on. Today the [[Rotokas alphabet]] has only twelve letters. (The [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] alphabet is sometimes claimed to be as small, but it actually consists of 18 letters, including the [[Okina|ʻokina]] and five long vowels.) While Rotokas has a small alphabet because it has few phonemes to represent (just eleven), Book Pahlavi was small because many letters had been ''conflated'', that is, the graphic distinctions had been lost over time, and diacritics were not developed to compensate for this as they were in [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], another script that lost many of its distinct letter shapes. For example, a comma-shaped letter represented ''g, d, y, k,'' and ''j''. However, such simplifications can perversely make a script more complicated. In later Pahlavi [[papyrus|papyri]], up to half of the remaining graphic distinctions were lost, and the script could no longer be read as a sequence of letters at all, but had to be learned as word symbols &ndash; that is, as [[logogram]]s like Egyptian [[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]]. The largest segmental script is probably an abugida, [[Devanagari]]. When written in Devanagari, Vedic [[Sanskrit]] has an alphabet of 53 letters, including the ''visarga'' mark for final aspiration and special letters for ''kš'' and ''jñ'', though one of the letters is theoretical and not actually used. The Hindi alphabet must represent both Sanskrit and modern vocabulary, and so has been expanded to 58 with the ''khutma'' letters (letters with a dot added to represent sounds from Persian and English). The largest known abjad is [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], with 51 letters. The largest true alphabets include [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]] and [[Abkhaz language|Abxaz]] (for [[Cyrillic]]), with 58 and 56 letters, respectively, and [[Slovak language|Slovak]] (for the [[Latin alphabet]]), with 46. However, these scripts either include di- and tri-graphs, similar to Spanish ''ch'', or [[diacritic]]s, like Slovak ''č''. The largest true alphabet where each letter is graphically independent is probably [[Georgian alphabet|Georgian]], with 41 letters. Syllabaries typically include 50 to 400 glyphs (though the [[Múra-Pirahã language]] of [[Brazil]] would require only 24 if tone were not indicated, and Rotokas 30), and the glyphs of logographic systems number from the hundreds to the thousands. Thus a simple count of the number of distinct symbols is an important clue to the nature of an unknown script. It is not always clear what constitutes a distinct alphabet. [[French language|French]] uses the same basic alphabet as English, but many of the letters can carry [[diacritic]] and other marks (for example, é, à or ô). In French, these marks are not considered to create additional letters. However, in [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], the accented letters (such as á, í and ö) are considered distinct letters of the alphabet. Some adaptations of the Latin alphabet are augmented with [[ligature (typography)|ligatures]], such as [[æ]] in [[Old English language|Old English]] and [[Ou (letter)|&#546;]] in [[Algonquian language|Algonquian]]; by borrowings from other alphabets, such as the [[thorn (letter)|thorn]] þ in [[Old English language|Old English]] and [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], which came from the [[Futhark]] runes; and by modifying existing letters, such as the [[Eth (letter)|eth]] ð of Old English and Icelandic, which came from ''d''. Other alphabets only use a subset of the Latin alphabet, such as Hawaiian, or [[Italian language|Italian]], which only uses the letters ''j'', ''k'', ''x'', ''y'' and ''w'' for foreign words. ==Spelling== {{details|Spelling}} Each language may establish certain general rules that govern the association between letters and phonemes, but, depending on the language, these rules may or may not be consistently followed. In a perfectly [[phonology| phonological]] alphabet, the phonemes and letters would correspond perfectly in two directions: a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling. However, languages often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for, so the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language. Languages may fail to achieve a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds in any of several ways: * A language may represent a given phoneme with a combination of letters rather than just a single letter. Two-letter combinations are called [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s and three-letter groups are called [[trigraph (orthography)|trigraph]]s. [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]] uses a tesseragraph (four letters) for one of its phonemes. * A language may represent the same phoneme with two different letters or combinations of letters. * A language may spell some words with unpronounced letters that exist for historical or other reasons. * Pronunciation of individual words may change according to the presence of surrounding words in a sentence. * Different dialects of a language may use different phonemes for the same word. * A language may use different sets of symbols or different rules for distinct sets of vocabulary items (such as the Japanese [[hiragana]] and [[katakana]] syllabaries, or the various rules in English for spelling words from Latin and Greek, or the original [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] vocabulary. National languages generally elect to address the problem of dialects by simply associating the alphabet with the national standard. However, with an international language with wide variations in its dialects, such as [[English language|English]], it would be impossible to represent the language in all its variations with a single phonetic alphabet. Some national languages like [[Finnish language|Finnish]] have a very regular spelling system with a nearly one-to-one correspondence between letters and phonemes. The [[Italian language|Italian]] verb corresponding to 'spell', ''compitare'', is unknown to many Italians because the act of spelling itself is almost never needed: each phoneme of Standard Italian is represented in only one way. However, pronunciation cannot always be predicted from spelling because certain letters are pronounced in more than one way. In standard Spanish, it is possible to tell the pronunciation of a word from its spelling, but not vice versa; this is because certain phonemes can be represented in more than one way, but a given letter is consistently pronounced. [[French language|French]], with its [[silent letter]]s and its heavy use of [[nasal vowel]]s and [[elision]], may seem to lack much correspondence between spelling and pronunciation, but its rules on pronunciation are actually consistent and predictable with a fair degree of accuracy. At the other extreme, however, are languages such as English and [[Irish language|Irish]], where the spelling of many words simply has to be memorized as they do not correspond to sounds in a consistent way. For English, this is because the [[Great Vowel Shift]] occurred after the orthography was established, and because English has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times retaining their original spelling at varying levels. However, even English has general rules that predict pronunciation from spelling, and these rules are successful most of the time. The sounds of speech of all languages of the world can be written by a rather small universal phonetic alphabet. A standard for this is the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]. ==Collation== {{details|Collation}} An alphabet also serves to establish an ''order'' among letters that can be used for sorting entries in lists, called collating. Note that the order does not have to be constant among different languages using this alphabet; for examples see [[Latin alphabet#Collating in other languages|Latin alphabet: Collating in other languages]]. In recent years the [[Unicode]] initiative has attempted to collate most of the world's known writing systems into a single [[character encoding]]. As well as its primary purpose of standardising computer processing of non-Roman scripts, the Unicode project has provided a focus for script-related scholarship. ==The Alphabet effect== Some communication theorists (notably those associated with the so-called "Toronto school of communications", such as [[Marshall McLuhan]], [[Harold Innis]] and more recently [[Robert K. Logan]]) have advanced hypotheses to the effect that alphabetic scripts in particular have served to promote and encourage the skills of analysis, coding, decoding, and classification. This set of hypotheses may be known as "the Alphabet effect", after the title of Logan's [[1986]] work. The theory claims that a greater level of abstraction is required due to the greater economy of symbols in alphabetic systems; and this abstraction needed to interpret phonemic symbols in turn has contributed in some way to the development of the societies which use it. Proponents of this theory hold that the development of alphabetic (as distinct to other types of) writing systems has made a significant impact on "Western" thinking and development because it introduced a new level of abstraction, analysis, and classification. McLuhan and Logan (1977) postulates that, as a result of these skills, the use of the alphabet created an environment conducive to the development of codified law, monotheism, abstract science, deductive logic, objective history, and individualism. According to Logan, "All of these innovations, including the alphabet, arose within the very narrow geographic zone between the Tigris-Euphrates river system and the Aegean Sea, and within the very narrow time frame between 2000 B.C. and 500 B.C." (Logan 2004). However, many of these abstractions first occurred in societies which did not use an alphabet, such as the codified law of [[Hammurabi]] in [[Babylonia]], which predated similar codes in societies with the alphabet. Since the alphabet quickly spread to become nearly ubiquitous, it is difficult to trace cause and effect in this matter. == See also == * [[Abecedarium]] * [[Abjad]] * [[Abugida]] * [[Akshara]] * [[Alphabetical order]] * [[Alphabets derived from the Latin]] * [[Artificial script]]s * [[Character set]] * [[Lipogram]] * [[List of alphabets]] * [[Syllabary]] * [[Transliteration]] * [[Unicode]] * [[A]] | [[B]] | [[C]] | [[D]] | [[E]] | [[F]] | [[G]] | [[H]] | [[I]] | [[J]] | [[K]] | [[L]] | [[M]] | [[N]] | [[O]] | [[P]] | [[Q]] | [[R]] | [[S]] | [[T]] | [[U]] | [[V]] | [[W]] | [[X]] | [[Y]] | [[Z]] == References == * {{cite book | author=Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William | title=The World's Writing Systems | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0-19-507993-0 }} - Overview of modern and some ancient writing systems. * {{cite book | author=Driver, G.R. | title=Semetic Writing from Pictograph to Alphabet | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1976 }} * {{cite book | author=Hoffman, Joel M. | title=In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language | publisher=NYU Press | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0814736548 }} - Chapter 3 traces and summarizes the invention of alphabetic writing. * {{cite book | author=Logan, Robert K. | title=The Alphabet Effect: A Media Ecology Understanding of the Making of Western Civilization | publisher=Hampton Press | year=2004 | id=ISBN 1-57273-522-8}} * McLuhan, Marshall; Logan, Robert K. (1977). Alphabet, Mother of Invention. Etcetera. Vol. 34, pp. 373-383. * {{cite book | author=Ouaknin, Marc-Alain; Bacon, Josephine | title=Mysteries of the Alphabet: The Origins of Writing | publisher=Abbeville Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0-7892-0521-1 }} * {{cite book | author=Sacks, David | title=Letter Perfect: The Marvelous History of Our Alphabet from A to Z | publisher=Broadway Books | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-7679-1173-3}} * {{cite book | author=Saggs, H.W.F | title=Civilization Before Greece and Rome | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0300050313}} - Chapter 4 traces the invention of writing. == External links == {{wiktionarypar|alphabet}} * [http://omniglot.com/writing/alphabetic.htm Alphabetic Writing Systems] * [[Michael Everson]]'s [http://www.evertype.com/alphabets/index.html Alphabets of Europe] * The [http://www.unicode.org/cldr/data/diff/by_type/characters.html Unicode Consortium] * [http://www.wam.umd.edu/~rfradkin/alphapage.html Evolution of alphabets] animation by Prof. Robert Fradkin at the University of Maryland * [http://www.ancientscripts.com/alphabet.html History of alphabet] * [http://hebrew4christians.com/Grammar/Unit_One/Aleph-Bet/aleph-bet.html The Hebrew Alphabet] [[Category:Alphabetic writing systems]] [[Category:Documents]] [[Category:Writing]] [[af:Alfabet]] [[als:Alphabet]] [[ar:أبجدية]] [[ast:Alfabetu]] [[be:Алфавіт]] [[bg:Азбука]] [[br:Lizherenneg]] [[ca:Alfabet]] [[cv:Алфавит]] [[cs:Abeceda]] [[da:Alfabet]] [[de:Alphabet]] [[et:Tähestik]] [[es:Alfabeto]] [[eo:Alfabetoj]] [[eu:Alfabeto]] [[fr:Alphabet]] [[gl:Alfabeto]] [[id:Alfabet]] [[it:Alfabeto]] [[he:אלפבית]] [[ka:ანბანი]] [[ko:음소 문자]] [[ku:Alfabe]] [[kw:Lytherennek]] [[la:abecedarium]] [[lad:Alefbet]] [[lv:Alfabēts]] [[lt:Abėcėlė]] [[hu:Ábécé]] [[ms:Aksara]] [[nl:Alfabet]] [[ja:アルファベット]] [[no:Alfabet]] [[nn:Alfabet]] [[pl:Alfabet]] [[pt:Alfabeto]] [[ro:Alfabet]] [[ru:Алфавит]] [[sq:Alfabeti]] [[simple:Alphabet]] [[sk:Abeceda]] [[sl:Abeceda]] [[fi:Aakkoset]] [[sv:Alfabet]] [[tl:Alpabeto]] [[th:อักษร]] [[tr:Abece]] [[uk:Алфавіт]] [[zh:字母]] 673 42072226 2006-03-03T17:03:51Z Vsmith 84417 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.157.119.20|207.157.119.20]] ([[User talk:207.157.119.20|talk]]) to last version by Vsmith In [[chemistry]] and [[physics]], the '''atomic number''' ('''Z''') is the number of [[proton]]s found in the nucleus of an [[atom]]. In an atom of [[neutral|neutral charge]], the number of [[electrons]] ''also'' equals the atomic number. The atomic number originally meant the number of an element's place in the [[periodic table]]. When [[Dmitriy Mendeleyev|Mendeleyev]] arranged the known [[chemical element]]s grouped by their similarities in chemistry, it was noticeable that placing them in strict order of [[atomic weight|atomic mass]] resulted in some mismatches. [[Iodine]] and [[tellurium]], if listed by atomic mass, appeared to be in the wrong order, and would fit better if their places in the table were swapped. Placing them in the order which fit chemical properties most closely, their number in the table was their atomic number. This number appeared to be approximately proportional to the mass of the atom, but, as the discrepancy showed, reflected some other property than mass. The anomalies in this sequence were finally explained after research by [[Henry Moseley|Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley]] in [[1913]]. Moseley discovered a strict relationship between the [[x-ray diffraction]] spectra of elements, and their correct location in the periodic table. It was later shown that the atomic number corresponds to the [[electric charge]] of the nucleus &mdash; in other words the number of protons. It is the charge which gives elements their chemical properties, rather than the atomic mass. The atomic number is closely related to the [[mass number]] (although they should not be confused) which is the number of protons and [[neutron|neutrons]] in the nucleus of an atom. The mass number often comes after the name of the element, e.g. [[carbon-14]] (used in [[carbon dating]]). ==See also== *[[Periodic table]] *[[List of elements by number]] *[[Effective atomic number]] <!--Categories--> [[Category:Chemical properties]] [[Category:Nuclear physics]] <!--Interwiki--> [[af:Atoomgetal]] [[als:Ordnungszahl]] [[ar:رقم ذري]] [[ast:Númberu atómicu]] [[bg:Атомен номер]] [[bs:Atomski broj]] [[br:Niver atomek]] [[ca:Nombre atòmic]] [[cs:Atomové číslo]] [[da:Atomnummer]] [[de:Ordnungszahl]] [[et:Järjenumber]] [[es:Número atómico]] [[eo:Atomnumero]] [[fr:Numéro atomique]] [[gl:Número Atómico]] [[ko:원자 번호]] [[hr:Atomski broj]] [[io:Atomala nombro]] [[id:Nomor atom]] [[is:Sætistala]] [[it:Numero atomico]] [[he:מספר אטומי]] [[lt:Atomo numeris]] [[nl:Atoomnummer]] [[ja:原子番号]] [[no:Atomnummer]] [[nn:Atomnummer]] [[pl:Liczba atomowa]] [[pt:Número atómico]] [[ro:Număr atomic]] [[ru:Атомный номер]] [[simple:Atomic number]] [[sk:Protónové číslo]] [[sl:Vrstno število]] [[sr:Атомски број]] [[fi:Järjestysluku (kemia)]] [[sv:Atomnummer]] [[th:เลขอะตอม]] [[tr:Atom numarası]] [[uk:Атомний номер]] [[zh:原子序数]] 674 42072900 2006-03-03T17:10:12Z Brian0918 90640 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.11.5.9|216.11.5.9]] ([[User talk:216.11.5.9|talk]]) to last version by El C [[Image:ENC plate 1-143 750px.jpeg|thumb|250px|Anatomical drawing of the human muscles from the ''[[Encyclopédie]]''.]] [[Image:Anatomical chart, Cyclopaedia, 1728, volume 1, between pages 84 and 85.jpg|thumb|300px|Anatomical chart from the ''[[Cyclopaedia]]'', 1728]] '''Anatomy''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''{{polytonic|ἀνατομία}} anatomia'', from '' {{polytonic|ἀνατέμνειν}} anatemnein'', to cut up, cut open), is the branch of [[biology]] that deals with the structure and organization of living things. It can be divided into animal anatomy ([[zootomy]]) and plant anatomy ([[phytonomy]]). Furthermore, anatomy can be covered either regionally or systemically, that is, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest for the former, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systmes for the latter. Major branches of anatomy include [[comparative anatomy]], [[histology]], and [[human anatomy]]. ==Animal anatomy== Animal anatomy may include the study of the structure of different animals, when it is called [[comparative anatomy]] or [[animal morphology]], or it may be limited to one animal only, in which case it is spoken of as ''special anatomy''. ==Human anatomy== From a utilitarian point of view the study of [[human]]s is the most important division of special anatomy, and this human anatomy may be approached from different points of view. From that of Medicine it consists of a knowledge of the exact form, position, size and relationship of the various structures of the healthy human body, and to this study the term descriptive or topographical human anatomy is given, though it is often, less happily, spoken of as ''anthropotomy''. So intricate is the [[human body]] that only a small number of professional human anatomists, after years of patient observation, are complete masters of all its details; most of them specialize on certain parts, such as the brain or viscera, contenting themselves with a good working knowledge of the rest. ''Topographical anatomy'' must be learned by repeated dissection and inspection of dead human bodies. It is no more a [[science]] than a pilot's knowledge is, and, like that knowledge, must be exact and available in moments of emergency. From the morphological point of view, however, human anatomy is a scientific and fascinating study, having for its object the discovery of the [[morphogenesis|causes]] which have brought about the existing structure of humans, and needing a knowledge of the allied sciences of [[embryology]] or [[developmental biology]], [[phylogeny]], and [[histology]]. ''[[Anatomical pathology|Pathological anatomy]]'' (or ''morbid anatomy'') is the study of [[disease]]d [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s, while sections of normal anatomy, applied to various purposes, receive special names such as medical, surgical, gynaecological, artistic and superficial anatomy. The comparison of the anatomy of different [[race]]s of humans is part of the science of physical anthropology or anthropological anatomy. In the present edition of this work the subject of anatomy is treated systematically rather than topographically. Each anatomical article contains first a description of the structures of an organ or system (such as [[nerve]]s, [[Artery|arteries]], [[heart]], and so forth), as it is found in humans; this is followed by an account of the development (embryology) and comparative anatomy (morphology), as far as [[Vertebrate|vertebrate animals]] are concerned; but only those parts of the lower animals which are of interest in explaining human body structure are here dealt with. The articles have a twofold purpose; first, to give enough details of structure to make the articles on physiology, surgery, medicine and pathology intelligible; and, secondly, to give the non-expert inquirer, or the worker in some other branch of science, the chief theories on which the modern scientific groundwork of anatomy is built. ==Major body systems== {{col-begin}} {{col-3}} *[[Circulatory system]] *[[Digestive system]] *[[Endocrine system]] *[[Excretory system]] {{col-3}} *[[Immune system]] *[[Integumentary system]] *[[Lymphatic system]] *[[Muscular system]] {{col-3}} *[[Nervous system]] *[[Reproductive system]] *[[Respiratory system]] *[[Skeletal system]] ([[Human skeleton]]) {{col-end}} ==[[Organ (anatomy)|Organ]]s== {{col-begin}} {{col-3}} *[[Anus]] *[[Vermiform appendix|Appendix]] *[[Brain]] *[[Breast]] *[[Colon (anatomy)|Colon]] or large intestine *[[Diaphragm (anatomy)|Diaphragm]] *[[Ear]] *[[Eye]] *[[Heart]] {{col-3}} *[[Kidney]] *[[Labium|Labia]] *[[Larynx]] *[[Liver]] *[[Lung]] *[[Nose]] *[[Ovary]] *[[Pharynx]] *[[Pancreas]] {{col-3}} *[[Penis]] *[[Placenta]] *[[Rectum]] *[[Skin]] *[[Small intestine]] *[[Spleen]] *[[Stomach]] *[[Tongue]] *[[Uterus]] {{col-end}} ==[[Bone]]s in the [[human skeleton]]== {{col-begin}} {{col-3}} *[[Collar bone]] (clavicle) *[[Thigh bone]] (femur) *[[Humerus]] *[[Mandible]] *[[Patella]] {{col-3}} *[[Radius (bone)|Radius]] *[[Skull]] (cranium) *[[Tibia]] *[[Ulna]] *[[Rib]] (costa) {{col-3}} *[[Vertebrae]] *[[Pelvis]] *[[Sternum]] {{col-end}} ==[[Gland]]s== {{col-begin}} {{col-3}} *[[Ductless gland]] *[[Mammary gland]] *[[Salivary gland]] {{col-3}} *[[Thyroid gland]] *[[Parathyroid gland]] *[[Adrenal gland]] {{col-3}} *[[Pituitary gland]] *[[Pineal gland]] {{col-end}} ==[[Biological tissue|Tissues]]== *[[Connective tissue]] *[[Endothelial tissue]] *[[Epithelial tissue]] *[[Glandular tissue]] *[[Lymphoid tissue]] ==Externally visible parts of the human body== {{col-begin}} {{col-3}} *[[Abdomen]] *[[Arm]] *[[Back]] *[[Buttock]] *[[Chest]] *[[Ear]] {{col-3}} *[[Eye]] *[[Face]] *[[Genitals]] *[[head (anatomy)|Head]] *[[Joint (anatomy)|Joint]] *[[Human leg|Leg]] {{col-3}} *[[Mouth]] *[[Neck]] *[[Scalp]] *[[Skin]] *[[Tooth|Teeth]] *[[Tongue]] {{col-end}} ==Other anatomic terms (not classified)== {{col-begin}} {{col-3}} *[[Artery]] *[[body cavity| Coelom]] *[[Diaphragm (anatomy)|Diaphragm]] *[[Gastrointestinal tract]] *[[Hair]] {{col-3}} *[[Exoskeleton]] *[[Lip]] *[[Nerve]] *[[Peritoneum]] *[[Serous membrane]] {{col-3}} *[[Skeleton]] *[[Skull]] *[[Spinal cord]] *[[Vein]] {{col-end}} ==See also== *[[List of anatomical topics]] *[[List of human anatomical features]] *[[List of publications in biology#Anatomy|Important publications in anatomy]] *[[History of anatomy]] *[[Human anatomy]] *[[Organ (anatomy)]] *[[Superficial anatomy]] *[[Zootomical terms for location]] ==External links== {{Commons|Anatomy}} *[http://brainmaps.org High-Resolution Cytoarchitectural Primate Brain Atlases] *[http://www.innerbody.com/htm/body.html Free online anatomy atlas] *[http://www.npac.syr.edu/projects/vishuman/VisibleHuman.html The NPAC Visible Human Viewer] *[http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/omd/index.html On-Line Medical Dictionary] *[http://www.bartleby.com/107/ Anatomy of the Human Body by Henry Gray] *[http://www.rtstudents.com/ Online Radiology Anatomy Resources] *[http://www.wikimd.org/index.php?title=Gray%27s_Anatomy Gray's Anatomy wiki] *http://immunity-info.net *[http://www.anatomyatlases.org/ Anatomy Atlases - a digital library of anatomy information] {{Biology-footer}} [[Category:Anatomy]] [[be:Анатомія]] [[bg:Анатомия]] [[bs:Anatomija]] [[ca:Anatomia]] [[cs:Anatomie]] [[cy:Anatomeg]] [[da:Anatomi]] [[de:Anatomie]] [[eo:Anatomio]] [[es:Anatomía]] [[et:Anatoomia]] [[eu:Anatomia]] [[fa:کالبدشناسی]] [[fi:Anatomia]] [[fr:Anatomie]] [[fy:Anatomy]] [[he:אנטומיה]] [[ia:Anatomia]] [[id:Anatomi]] [[io:Anatomio]] [[is:Líffærafræði]] [[it:Anatomia]] [[ja:解剖学]] [[ko:해부학]] [[ku:Anatomî]] [[la:Anatomia]] [[lt:Anatomija]] [[mk:Анатомија]] [[nds:Anatomie]] [[nl:Anatomie]] [[no:Anatomi]] [[os:Анатоми]] [[pl:Anatomia]] [[pt:Anatomia]] [[ru:Анатомия]] [[scn:Anatumìa]] [[simple:Anatomy]] [[sk:Anatómia]] [[sl:Anatomija]] [[sr:Анатомија]] [[su:Anatomi]] [[sv:Anatomi]] [[th:กายวิภาคศาสตร์]] [[tl:Anatomiya]] [[tr:Anatomi]] [[uk:Анатомія]] [[vi:Giải phẫu học]] [[zh:解剖學]] 675 34703526 2006-01-11T03:07:03Z 66.240.10.188 '''Affirming the consequent''' is a [[logical fallacy]] in the form of a hypothetical proposition. Propositionally speaking, Affirming the Consequent is the logical equivalent of assuming the converse of a statement to be true. The fallacy of affirming the consequent occurs when a hypothetical proposition comprising an [[Antecedent (logic)|antecedent]] and a [[consequent]] asserts that the truthhood of the consequent implies the truthhood of the antecedent. This is fallacious because it assumes a bidirectionality when it does not necessarily exist. This fallacy has the following [[argument form]]: :If P, then Q. :Q. :Therefore, P. This logical error is called the fallacy of affirming the consequent because it is mistakenly concluded from the second premise that the affirmation of the consequent entails the truthhood of the antecedent. One way to demonstrate the invalidity is to use a counterexample. Here is an argument that is obviously incorrect: :If [[Stephen King]] wrote the [[Bible]] (P), then Stephen King is a good writer (Q). :Stephen King is a good writer (Q). :Therefore, Stephen King wrote the Bible (P). The previous argument was obviously incorrect, but the next argument may be more deceiving: :If someone is human (P), then she is mortal (Q). :Anna is mortal (Q). :Therefore Anna is human (P). But in fact Anna can be a cat; very much a mortal, but not a human one. However, be aware that a similar [[argument form]] is [[validity|valid]] in which the first premise asserts "[[if and only if]]" rather than "if". Similarly, the converse of a statement can be validly assumed to be true so long as the "[[if and only if]]" phrase is attached. ==See also== *[[Modus ponens]] *[[Modus tollens]] *[[Denying the antecedent]] *[[Fallacy of the undistributed middle]] [[Category:Logical fallacies]] [[he:%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A8_%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%92%D7%A8]] [[tl:pinapatibayan ang kasunod]] 676 41655113 2006-02-28T20:58:42Z GrinBot 411872 robot Adding: ca Modifying: es [[Image:Tarkovsky.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Andrei Tarkovsky]] '''Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky''' (Андре́й Арсе́ньевич Тарко́вский) ([[April 4]], [[1932]] - [[December 28]], [[1986]]) was a [[Russia]]n movie director, writer, and actor. He is regarded as one of the most important and influential filmmakers of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] era in Russia and one of the greatest in the [[history of film|history of cinema]]. ==Biography== Tarkovsky, son of the prominent poet [[Arseniy Tarkovsky]], was a product of the golden era of Soviet arts education. He received a classical education in [[Moscow]], studying [[Music]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]], before training for over five years at the [[VGIK]] film school, studying directly under [[Mikhail Romm]] among others. He also worked as a geologist in Siberia. Although the [[Orthodox Christian]] symbolism of his films led to prevarication and occasional suppression of the finished product by the Soviet authorities, the Soviet [[Mosfilm]] studio system enabled him to make films that would not have been commercially viable in the West. However, Tarkovsky's principal complaint about his treatment by the authorities was that he had many more ideas in him than he was allowed to bring to the screen, and in [[1984]], after shooting ''[[Nostalghia]]'' in [[Italy]], he decided not to return to Russia. He made only one more film, ''[[The Sacrifice]]'', a European co-production filmed in [[Sweden]], before dying of [[cancer]] in the suburb of [[Paris]] at the early age of 54. Andrei Tarkovsky was buried in a graveyard for Russian émigrés in the town of [[Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois]], [[Île-de-France (région)|Île-de-France]], [[France]]. ==Work== Tarkovsky's films are characterised by [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] themes, extremely long takes, and memorable images of exceptional beauty. Recurring motifs in his films are dreams, memory, childhood, running water accompanied by fire, rain indoors, reflections, and characters re-appearing in the foreground of long panning movements of the camera. Tarkovsky developed a theory of cinema that he called "sculpting in time". By this he meant that the unique characteristic of cinema as a medium was to take our experience of time and alter it. Unedited movie footage transcribes time in real time. (The speedy jump-cutting style that is prevalent in MTV videos and Hollywood movies, by contrast, overrides any sense of time by imposing the editor's viewpoint.) By using long takes and few cuts in his films, he aimed to give the viewers a sense of time passing, time lost, and the relationship of one moment in time to another. Up to and including his film [[The Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]], Tarkovsky focused his cinematic works on exploring this theory. After Mirror, he announced that he would focus his work on exploring the dramatic unities proposed by [[Aristotle]]: a concentrated action, happening in one place, within the span of a single day. [[The Sacrifice]] is the only film that truly reflects this ambition; it is also considered by many to be a near-perfect reflection of the sculpting in time theory. ==Filmography== * ''[[The Killers (1958 film)|The Killers]]'' (1958) - Tarkovsky's first student film at VGIK, the Soviet State Film School. * ''[[Concentrate (1958 film)|Concentrate]]'' (1958) - Tarkovsky's second student film at VGIK, the Soviet State Film School. * ''[[There Will be No Leave Today]]'' (1959) - Tarkovsky's final student film at VGIK, the Soviet State Film School. * ''[[The Steamroller and the Violin]]'' (1960) - Tarkovsky's graduation film from VGIK, the Soviet State Film School, cowritten with [[Andrei Konchalovsky]]. * ''[[My Name is Ivan]] / [[Ivan's Childhood]]'' (1962) - Winner of Golden Lion for "Best Film" at [[1962]] [[Venice Film Festival]]. Set in the Second World War, this is Tarkovsky's most conventional feature film, although it still has moments of lyrical beauty. * ''[[Andrei Rublev (film)|Andrei Rublev]]'' (1966) - An epic based on the life of [[Andrei Rublev]], the most famous medieval Russian painter of icons. * ''[[Solaris (film)|Solaris]]'' (1972) - based on the [[science fiction]] [[Solaris (novel)|novel]] by [[Stanisław Lem]]. * ''[[The Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]]'' (1975) - A loosely autobiographical reconstruction of key scenes in Tarkovsky's life, the film he'd tried to make earlier but abandoned for ''Solaris'' (we can note thematic ties between them). Said by Tarkovsky to be closest to his own vision of cinema. * ''[[Stalker (film)|Stalker]]'' (1979) - inspired by the novel ''[[Roadside Picnic]]'' by [[Boris and Arkady Strugatsky]]. * ''[[Tempo di Viaggio/Italian Journey]]'' (1982) - a documentary made for Italian television while scouting locations for [[Nostalghia]] with Italian co-writer (and frequent screenwriter for [[Antonioni |Michelangelo Antonioni]]) [http://imdb.com/name/nm0346096/ Tonino Guerra]. * ''[[Nostalghia]]'' (1983) - A Russian scholar retraces the footsteps of an 18th century Russian composer in Italy. An encounter with a local lunatic - a man who believes he can save humanity by carrying a lit candle across an empty swimming pool - crystalizes the poet's melancholic sense of longing for his family, faith, and homeland. * ''[[The Sacrifice]]'' (1986) - The film is about the prospect of nuclear annihilation and man's spiritual response to this and other dilemmas set in counterpoint to a minor fable of failed adultery. ==Bibliography== *''[[Sculpting in Time : Reflections on the Cinema]]'', translated by Kitty Hunter-Blair (1987) *''[[Time Within Time: The Diaries 1970-1986]]'', translated by Kitty Hunter-Blair (1993) ==External links== * {{imdb name|name=Andrei Tarkovsky|id=0001789}} * {{senses|id=directors/02/tarkovsky|name=Andrei Tarkovsky}} *[http://tarkovskyzone.proboards27.com/ 'Stalker: we're now into the Zone' - the one and only Fan Forum] *[http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/%7Etstronds/nostalghia.com/index.html Nostalghia.com: A comprehensive site about Tarkovsky] *[http://www.museum.ru/museum/tarkovsky/begine.htm Tarkovsky museum] *[http://www.talkingpix.co.uk/Article_Tarkovsky2.html The Genius of Andrei Tarkovsky by Alan Pavelin] {{tarkovsky}} [[Category:1932 births|Tarkovsky, Andrei]] [[Category:1986 deaths|Tarkovsky, Andrei]] [[Category:Russian actors|Tarkovsky, Andrei]] [[Category:Russian and Soviet film directors|Tarkovsky, Andrei]] [[ca:Andrei Tarkovski]] [[cs:Andrej Tarkovskij]] [[da:Andrei Tarkovsky]] [[de:Andrei Arsenjewitsch Tarkowski]] [[et:Andrei Tarkovski]] [[es:Andrei Tarkovsky]] [[fa:آندری تارکوفسکی]] [[fr:Andreï Tarkovski]] [[it:Andrej Tarkovskij]] [[he:אנדריי טרקובסקי]] [[hu:Andrej Tarkovszkij]] [[nl:Andrej Tarkovski]] [[ja:アンドレイ・タルコフスキー]] [[no:Andrej Tarkovskij]] [[pl:Andriej Tarkowski]] [[pt:Andrei Tarkovski]] [[ro:Andrei Tarkovski]] [[ru:Тарковский, Андрей Арсеньевич]] [[fi:Andrei Tarkovski]] [[sv:Andrej Tarkovskij]] [[tr:Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky]] 677 40840484 2006-02-23T09:53:12Z 24.164.205.69 transition {{wiktionary|ambiguity}} "This word has many meanings..." Dónal Troddyn, A Treatise on Language Vol. 2, 2004 A word, phrase, sentence, or other communication is called '''ambiguous''' if it can be interpreted in more than one way. Ambiguity is distinct from ''[[vagueness]]'', which arises when the boundaries of meaning are indistinct. '''Lexical ambiguity''' arises when context is insufficient to determine the sense of a single word that has more than one meaning. For example, the word "bank" has several meanings, including "financial institution" and "edge of a river", but if someone says "I deposited $100 in the bank", the intended meaning is clear. More problematic are words whose senses express closely related concepts. "Good", for example, can mean "useful" or "functional" (''That's a good hammer''), "exemplary" (''She's a good student''), "pleasing" (''This is good soup''), "moral" (''He is a good person''), and probably other similar things. "I have a good daughter" isn't clear about which sense is intended. '''[[Syntactic ambiguity]]''' arises when a sentence can be [[parsing|parsed]] in more than one way. "He ate the cookies on the couch", for example, could mean that he ate those cookies which were on the couch (as opposed to those that were on the table), or it could mean that he was sitting on the couch when he ate the cookies. Spoken language can also contain lexical ambiguities, where there is more than one way to break up a set of sounds into words, for example "ice cream" and "I scream". This is rarely a problem due to the use of context. [[Philosopher]]s (and other users of [[logic]]) spend a lot of time and effort searching for and removing ambiguity in arguments, because it can lead to incorrect conclusions and can be used to deliberately conceal bad arguments. For example, a politician might say "I oppose taxes which hinder economic growth". Some will think he opposes taxes in general because they hinder economic growth; others will think he opposes only those taxes that he believes will hinder economic growth (although in writing, the correct insertion or omission of a [[comma (punctuation)|comma]] after "taxes" removes ambiguity here). The politician hopes that each will interpret the statement in the way he wants, and both will think the politician is on his side. The logical fallacies of [[amphiboly]] and [[equivocation]] also rely on the use of ambiguous words and phrases. In [[literature]] and [[rhetoric]], on the other hand, ambiguity can be a useful tool. [[Groucho Marx]]'s classic joke depends on a grammatical ambiguity for its [[humor]], for example: ''Last night I shot an elephant in my pajamas. What he was doing in my pajamas I'll never know.'' Songs and poetry often rely on ambiguous words for artistic effect, as in the song title "Don't It Make My Brown Eyes Blue" (where "blue" can refer to the color, or to sadness). In narrative, ambiguty can be introduced in several ways: motive, plot, character. [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] uses the latter type of ambiguity with notable effect in his novel [[The Great Gatsby]]. In [[music]] pieces or sections which confound expectations and may be or are interpreted simultaneously in different ways are ambiguous, such as some [[polytonality]], [[polymeter]], other ambiguous [[metre|meters]] or [[rhythm]]s, and ambiguous [[phrase (music)|phrasing]], or (Stein 2005, p.79) any [[aspect of music]]. The [[music of Africa]] is often purposely ambiguous. To quote Sir [[Donald Francis Tovey]] (1935, p.195), "Theorists are apt to vex themselves with vain efforts to remove uncertainty just where it has a high aesthetic value." Some languages have been created with the intention of avoiding ambiguity, especially syntactic ambiguity. [[Lojban]] and [[Loglan]] are two nearly identical languages which have been created with the intention of being clear and impossible to misunderstand. The languages can be both spoken and written. Their unambiguity makes them better suited than natural languages for use in communication between humans and computers. ==See also== * [[double entendre]] * [[imprecise language]] * [[logical fallacy]] * [[semantics]] ==External links== * [http://www.gray-area.org/Research/Ambig/ Collection of Ambiguous or Inconsistent/Incomplete Statements] [[Category:Semantics]] [[de:Mehrdeutigkeit]] [[nl:Ambiguïteit]] 678 30571937 2005-12-08T08:08:03Z FDuffy 380940 Merged to [[Cain and Abel]] #REDIRECT [[Cain and Abel]] 679 41857935 2006-03-02T04:40:08Z Ohnoitsjamie 507787 that is not what disambiguation is for The word '''animal''' when used alone has several possible meanings in the [[English language]]. It could refer to: * A [[taxonomy|taxonomic]] member of the Kingdom [[wikispecies:animalia|Animalia]], an [[animal]]. * A [[British rock]] [[rock band|band]] called [[The Animals]]. * An album released by [[United Kingdom|British]] rock band [[Pink Floyd]] called ''[[Animals (album)|Animals]]''. * A 2001 film starring [[Rob Schneider]] called ''[[The Animal]]''. * A genre of [[anime]]. * A [[Muppet Show]] character: see [[Dr. Teeth and The Electric Mayhem]]. * A [[professional wrestling|professional wrestler]]: see [[Joseph Laurinaitis]]. * A [[video game]] by [[Microtime]] called [[Animal (video game)|Animal]]. * [[Animal (song)|Animal]] is the name of several songs. * For all English languange meanings, see the [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/animal Wiktionary definition of animal]. {{disambig}} [[de:Animals]] [[hu:Animals]] 680 41872223 2006-03-02T07:12:04Z 24.10.96.43 edible? this is not fact or useful {{cleanup-date|January 2006}} {{otheruses}} {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Aardvark | status = {{StatusConcern}} | image = Erdferkel-drawing.jpg | image_width = 200px | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammal]]ia | ordo = '''Tubulidentata''' | ordo_authority = [[Thomas Henry Huxley|Huxley]], 1872 | familia = '''Orycteropodidae''' | familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821 | genus = '''''Orycteropus''''' | genus_authority = [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]], 1796 | species = '''''O. afer''''' | binomial = ''Orycteropus afer'' | binomial_authority = [[Peter Simon Pallas|Pallas]], [[1766]] }} The '''Aardvark''' (''Orycteropus afer'') is a medium-sized [[mammal]] native to [[Africa]]. The name comes from the [[Afrikaans]]/[[Dutch language|Dutch]] for "earth pig" (''aarde'' earth, ''varken'' pig), because early settlers from [[Europe]] thought it resembled a [[pig]] (although Aardvarks are not closely related to pigs). The Aardvark is the only surviving member of the [[Family (biology)|family]] '''Orycteropodidae''' and of the [[Order (biology)|order]] '''Tubulidentata'''. The Aardvark was originally placed in the same [[genus]] as the [[anteater|South American anteater]]s because of superficial similarities which, it is now known, are the result of [[convergent evolution]], not common ancestry. (For the same reason, Aardvarks bear a striking first-glance resemblance to the [[marsupial]] [[Bilby|bilbies]] and [[Bandicoot|bandicoots]] of [[Australasia]], which are not [[Eutheria|placental mammals]] at all.) The oldest known Tubulidentata fossils have been found in [[Kenya]] and date to the early [[Miocene]]. Although the relationships of Tubulidentata are unknown, they are probably [[Ungulates]]. They spread to Europe and [[southern Asia]] during the later Miocene and early [[Pliocene]] periods. Three genera of the family Orycteropodidae are known: ''Leptorycteropus'', ''Myorycteropus'', and ''Orycteropus'', the surviving Aardvark. A genus from Madagascar may be related to them, called ''Plesiorycteropus''. The most distinctive characteristic of the Tubulidentata is (as the name implies) their teeth which, instead of having a pulp cavity, have lots of thin tubes of dentine, each containing pulp and held together by cementum. The teeth have no enamel coating and are worn away and regrow continuously. Aardvarks are born with conventional incisors and canines at the front of the jaw, but these fall out and are not replaced. In adult Aardvarks, the only teeth are the molars at the back of the jaw. [[Image:Orycteropus afer01.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Aardvark]] Aardvarks are only vaguely pig-like; the body is stout with an arched back; the limbs are of moderate length. The front feet have lost the pollex (or 'thumb')&mdash;resulting in four toes&mdash;but the rear feet have all five toes. Each toe bears a large, robust nail which is somewhat flattened and shovel-like, and appears to be intermediate between a claw and a hoof. The ears are disproportionately long and the tail very thick at the base with a gradual taper. The greatly elongated head is set on a short, thick neck, and at the end of the snout is a disk in which the nostrils open. The mouth is typical of species that feed on termites: small and tubular. Aardvarks have long, thin, protrusible tongues and elaborate structures supporting a keen [[olfaction|sense of smell]]. Weight is typically between 40 and 65 kg; length is usually between 1 and 1.3 m. Aardvarks are a pale yellowish gray in color, often stained reddish-brown by soil. The coat is thin and the animal's primary protection is its tough skin; Aardvarks have been known to sleep in a recently excavated ant nest, so well does it protect them. In the past, several individual species of Aardvark were named, however current knowledge indicates that there is only one species, ''Orycteropus afer'', with several subspecies; 18 have been listed but most are regarded as invalid. Aardvarks are [[nocturnal]] and solitary creatures that feed almost exclusively on [[ant]]s and [[termite]]s. An Aardvark emerges from its burrow in the late afternoon or shortly after sunset, and forages over a considerable home range, swinging its long nose from side to side to pick up the scent of food. When a concentration of ants or termites is found, the Aardvark digs into it with its powerful front legs, keeping its long ears upright to listen for predators, and takes up an astonishing number of insects with its long, sticky tongue&mdash;as many as 50,000 in one night has been recorded. They are exceptionally fast diggers, but otherwise move rather slowly. Aside from digging out ants and termites, aardvarks also excavate burrows to live in: temporary sites scattered around the home range as refuges, and the main burrow which is used for breeding. Main burrows can be deep and extensive, have several entrances, and be 13m long. Aardvarks change the layout of their home burrow regularly, and from time to time move on and make a new one. Only mothers and young share burrows. After a gestation period of 7 months, a single young weighing around 2 kg is born, and is able to leave the burrow to accompany its mother after only two weeks. At six months of age it is digging its own burrows, but it will often remain with the mother until the next [[mating season]]. Aardvarks can grow older than 20 years in captivity. Aardvarks are distributed across most of [[sub-Saharan Africa]], and although killed by humans both for their flesh and for their teeth (which are used as decorations), do not appear to be threatened. ''Aardvark'' is always the first noun in the English dictionary. More precise information are given in a diploma thesis on the biology of the aardvark which can be downloaded here: [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Image:Aardvark.pdf '''The Biology of the Aardvark''' (''Orycteropus afer'') ==Similar animals== {{Wikisource1911Enc|Aard-vark}} *The [[anteater]]s of South America. *[[Pangolin]]s are also called ''scaly anteaters''. *The [[Numbat]] (''Myrmecobius fasciatus''), a [[marsupial]]. *[[Echidna]]s, a family of [[monotreme]]s, are still sometimes called ''spinous anteaters''. *[[Armadillo]]s are omnivorous but ants form a large part of their diet. {{Mammals}} [[Category:Dutch loanwords]] [[Category:Mammals]] [[Category:Wildlife of Africa]] [[cs:Hrabáč]] [[da:Jordsvin]] [[de:Erdferkel]] [[et:Tuhnik]] [[es:Cerdo hormiguero]] [[eo:Orikteropo]] [[fr:Oryctérope du Cap]] [[he:שנבובאים]] [[sw:Mhanga]] [[lt:Vamzdžiadančiai]] [[li:Eerdverke]] [[nl:Aardvarken]] [[no:Jordsvin]] [[ja:ツチブタ]] [[pl:Mrównik]] [[pt:Oricterope]] [[ru:Трубкозуб]] [[simple:Aardvark]] [[sv:Jordsvin]] 681 42099772 2006-03-03T20:55:32Z Hansnesse 247414 rv to last edit by Dawson {{taxobox | color=pink | name=Aardwolf | status = {{StatusConcern}} | image = Aardwolf.png | image_width = 235px | image_caption = Aardwolf | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammal]]ia | ordo = [[Carnivora]] | familia = [[Hyaenidae]] | genus = '''''Proteles''''' | species = '''''P. cristatus''''' | binomial = ''Proteles cristatus'' | binomial_authority = [[Anders Sparrman|Sparrman]] [[1783]] }} The '''Aardwolf''' (''Proteles cristatus'') is a small [[mammal]] related to the [[Hyena]], native to Africa. The name means "earth wolf" in [[Afrikaans]]. There are two subspecies: * ''Proteles cristatus cristatus'' ([[Southern Africa]]) * ''Proteles cristatus septentrionalis'' ([[East Africa]]) The Aardwolf looks most like the [[Striped Hyena]] but smaller with a more pointed [[muzzle]], sharper [[ear]]s, vertical stripes, and a long mane down the middle line of the neck and back. It stands about 50 cm at the shoulder, weighs around 9 kg, and has two glands at the rear that secrete a musky fluid for marking territory and communicating with other aardwolves. [[Image:Aardwolf.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Aardwolf from the zoo in [[San Antonio]], [[Texas]]]] The Aardwolf is nocturnal, sleeping in underground burrows by day. By night, an Aardwolf can consume up to 200,000 harvester [[termites]]. They are also known to feed on other insects, larvae, and eggs. While primarily solitary, a mating pair will occupy the same territory with their young. Gestation lasts between 90 and 100 days. The first six to eight weeks are spent in the den with the mother. After three months, they begin supervised foraging and set off on their own shortly thereafter. ==External links== {{Wikisource1911Enc|Aard-wolf}} *[http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Proteles_cristatus.html Animal Diversity Web] [[Category:Hyenas]] [[Category:Wildlife of Africa]] [[bg:Земен вълк]] [[da:Jordulv]] [[de:Erdwolf]] [[es:Lobo de tierra]] [[eo:Protelo]] [[it:Proteles cristatus]] [[he:פרוטל (צבועון)]] [[nl:Aardwolf]] [[no:Jordulv]] [[pt:Proteles cristatus]] 682 41628033 2006-02-28T17:03:30Z Ugur Basak Bot 735354 robot Adding: tr {{for|the software company|Adobe Systems}} [[Image:AdobeSurfaceCoatingRenewalOnWall.jpg|frame|right|Renewal of the surface coating of an adobe wall in Chamisal, New Mexico]] '''Adobe''' is a [[building material]] composed of water, [[sand]]y [[clay]] and [[straw]] or other organic materials, which is shaped into bricks using wooden frames and dried in the sun, also known as [[Mudbrick]] . Adobe structures are extremely durable and account for the oldest extant buildings on the planet. Adobe buildings also offer significant advantages in hot, dry [[climate]]s, as they remain cooler as it stores and releases heat very slowly. The word "adobe" is Spanish and comes from the Arabic "at-tub", the brick, and from the Coptic "tObe". The word may be pronounced ah-doh-beh or uh-doh-bee. Buildings made of sun-dried earth are common in [[the Middle East]], [[North Africa]], and in [[Spain]] (usually in the [[Mudejar]] style). The method of brickmaking was imported to the Americas in the [[16th century]] by Spaniards. A distinction is sometimes made between the smaller ''adobes,'' which are about the size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger ''adobines,'' some of which are as much as from one to two yards long. In more modern usage, the term "adobe" has come to mean a style of architecture that is popular in the [[desert]] [[climate]]s of [[North America]], especially in [[New Mexico]]. Cf. [[stucco]]. [[Image:Adobe kilns from HABS.jpg|frame|right|Detail of Adobe kilns in Arizona]] ==Composition of adobe== An adobe brick is made of soil mixed with water and an organic material such as straw or animal dung. The soil composition typically contains [[clay]] and [[sand]]. Straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly. Dung offers the same advantage and is also added to repel insects. ==Adobe bricks== Bricks are made in an open frame, 25 cm (10 inches) by 36 cm (14 inches) is a reasonable size, but any convenient size is fine for your own use. After the mud is put into the frame the frame is removed. After a few hours the bricks are put on edge to finish drying. Bricks should be dried in the shade to avoid cracking. Use the same mixture you use to make bricks for mortar when laying the bricks and for plaster on the interior and exterior walls. Some ancient cultures used concrete for the plaster to avoid rain damage. It is sometimes useful to include occasional pieces of wood as you lay a wall to give something to nail insulation onto, and stone can be used for additional strength. The largest structure ever made from adobe (bricks), was the [[Bam Citadel]], which suffered serious damage, up to 80%, by an earthquake on December 26, 2003. Other large adobe structures are the [[Huaca del Sol]] in [[Peru]], built using 100 million signed bricks, and the ciudellas of [[Chan Chan]], also in Peru. ==Thermal properties== Because an adobe wall, either made of bricks or using a [[rammed earth]] technique, is quite massive it will hold heat or cold. A south facing adobe wall may be left uninsulated in order to collect heat during the day. It should be thick enough that it remains cool on the inside during the heat of the day but should be thin enough that the heat can be transferred through the wall by evening. Such a wall can be covered with glass to increase heat collection. Used in a [[passive solar heating|passive solar]] home, such a wall is called a [[Trombe wall]]. Adobe has a large thermal mass, therefore this type of construction is only good in tropical climates. In temperate climates it is almost impossible to heat a home of this type as the heat is leached by the ground and the walls. ==Around the world== <gallery> Image:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0003jpg.JPG|Still in production today, Danube Delta Image:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0002jpg.JPG Image:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0001jpg.JPG Image:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0004jpg.JPG </gallery> ''See also'' [[Hassan Fathy]], [[mudbrick]] ==External links== *[http://www.eartharchitecture.org Earth Architecture] - A website whose focus is contemporary issues in earth architecture. *[http://www.buildingwithawareness.com/ '''Building With Awareness''' - A detailed how-to DVD video that shows adobe wall construction and their use as thermal mass walls] * [http://www.calearth.org '''Cal-Earth''' (The California Institute of Earth Art and Architecture)] has developed a patented system called Superadobe, in which bags filled with stabilized earth are layered with strands of barbed wire to form a structure strong enough to withstand earthquakes, fire and flood. [[Category:Materials]] [[Category:Masonry]] [[:Category:Appropriate technology]] [[Category:Arabic words]] [[ar:أدوب (الطوب)]] [[cs:Adobe (stavebnictví)]] [[de:Adobe (Ziegel)]] [[es:Adobe (construcción)]] [[eo:Adobo]] [[fr:Adobe (brique)]] [[hu:Vályog]] [[pl:Adobe (budownictwo)]] [[pt:Adobe]] [[tr:Kerpiç]] 683 38395655 2006-02-06T01:29:37Z AxelBoldt 2 [[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] spelling "occurrence"; see [[WP:Typo]] :''For other uses, see [[Adventure (disambiguation)]].'' '''Adventure''' refers to events which happen unexpectedly and involve the chance of danger or loss. Adventures can include daring feats, remarkable occurrences, stirring encounters, and major life undertakings. Adventurous experiences create psychological and physiological [[arousal]] which can be interpreted as negative (e.g., [[fear]]) or positive (e.g., [[flow]]) (see [[Yerkes-Dodson law]]). For some people, adventure becomes a major pursuit in and of itself, for example see [[Extreme Sports]]. ===Applications of Adventure=== Adventure is a term used in many contexts and situations. For example, it is a key component of [[narrative]], [[story-telling]], [[drama]] and [[role-playing]] and the concept is used to structure and interpet [[books]], [[film]]s, music and [[computer games]]. Adventure is also used within [[education]], [[sport]], [[tourism]] and others forms of [[entertainment]]. Examples of these adventure genres and applications include: * [[Adventure education]] is the use of challenging experiences for learning. * [[Adventure film]] is a film genre. * [[Adventure game]] is a computer game genre. * [[Adventure novel]] is a fiction genre. * [[Adventure (role-playing games)]] involve acting out a specific storyline or plotline. * [[Adventure racing]] involves competing in multiple outdoor adventure extreme sports. * [[Adventure tourism]] offers travellers chances to have exciting travel encounters. ===See also=== * [[Risk]] {{socio-stub}} [[de:Abenteuer]] [[es:Aventura]] [[fr:Aventure]] [[sv:Äventyrsspel]] 684 15899210 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Pope Agatho]] 685 42091317 2006-03-03T19:45:20Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 :''For the queen of Greek mythology, see [[Agave (mythology)]].'' {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = ''Agave'' | image = Agave americana a-m.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = [[Century plant]] | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Liliopsida]] | ordo = [[Asparagales]] | familia = [[Agavaceae]] | genus = '''''Agave''''' | genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]] | subdivision_ranks = [[Species]] | subdivision = ''[[Agave americana]]''<br /> ''[[Agave fourcroydes]]''<br /> ''[[Agave sisalana]]''<br /> many others, see text }} '''Agaves''' are [[succulent plant|succulent]] [[plant]]s of a large botanical genus of the same name, belonging to the family [[Agavaceae]]. Chiefly [[Mexico|Mexican]], they occur also in the southern and western [[United States]] and in central and tropical [[South America]]. The plants have a large rosette of thick fleshy leaves generally ending in a sharp point and with a spiny margin; the stout stem is usually short, the leaves apparently springing from the root. Each rosette is [[monocarpic]] and grows slowly to flower but once after a number of years, when a tall stem or "mast" grows from the center of the leaf rosette and bears a large number of shortly tubular flowers. After development of fruit the original plant dies, but suckers are frequently produced from the base of the stem which become new plants. [[Image:Agaveattenuata1web.jpg|thumb|left|Swan's Neck Agave (''Agave attenuata'')]] The most familiar species is ''[[Agave americana]]'', a native of tropical America, the so-called [[century plant|Century Plant]] or American [[aloe]] (the [[maguey]] of Mexico). The name refers to the long time the plant takes to flower, although the number of years before flowering occurs depends on the vigor of the individual, the richness of the soil and the climate; during these years the plant is storing in its fleshy leaves the nourishment required for the effort of flowering. During the development of the inflorescence there is a rush of sap to the base of the young flowerstalk. In the case of ''A. americana'' and other species this is used by the Mexicans to make their national beverage, [[pulque]]; the flower shoot is cut out and the sap collected and subsequently fermented. By distillation a spirit called [[mezcal]] is prepared. The leaves of several species yield fiber, as for instance, ''Agave rigida var. sisalana'', [[sisal]] hemp, ''Agave decipiens'', False Sisal Hemp; ''Agave americana'' is the source of pita fiber, and is used as a fiber plant in Mexico, the [[West Indies]] and southern [[Europe]]. The flowering stem of the last named, dried and cut in slices, forms natural razor strops, and the expressed juice of the leaves will lather in water like soap. The Native Americans of Mexico used the agave both to make pens, nails and needles as well as string to sew and make weavings. In [[India]] the plant is extensively used for hedges along railroads. [[Image:Aloe-flower.jpg|thumb|Agave in bloom in a garden (Roquevaire, Bouches-du-Rhône, France, September 1978)]] ''Agave americana'', century plant, was introduced into Europe about the middle of the [[16th century]] and is now widely cultivated for its handsome appearance; in the variegated forms the leaf has a white or yellow marginal or central stripe from base to apex. As the leaves unfold from the center of the rosette the impression of the marginal spines is very conspicuous on the still erect younger leaves. The tequ plants are usually grown in tubs and put out in the summer months, but in the winter require protection from frost. They mature very slowly and die after flowering, but are easily propagated by the offsets from the base of the stem. Agave [[nectar (plant)|nectar]] has been used as an alternative to [[sugar]] in cooking. The juice from many species of agave can cause acute contact [[dermatitis]]. It will produce reddening and blistering lasting one to two weeks. Episodes of itching may recur up to a year thereafter, even though there is no longer a visible rash. Interestingly, dried parts of the plants can be handled with bare hands with little or no effect. ==Taxonomy== Agaves were once classified in [[Liliaceae]] but most references now include them in their own family, [[Agavaceae]]. Agaves have long presented special difficulties for [[taxonomy]]; variations within a species may be considerable, and a number of named species are of unknown origin, and may just be variants of original wild species. Spanish and Portuguese explorers probably brought agaves back with them, but really became popular in Europe during the [[19th century]], with many types being imported by collectors. Some of have been continuously propagated by offset since then, and do not consistently resemble any species known in nature, although this may simply be due to the unnatural growing conditions in Europe. ==Species== *''[[Agave aboriginum]]'' *''[[Agave abortiva]]'' *''[[Agave abrupta]]'' *''[[Agave acicularis]]'' *''[[Agave acklinicola]]'' *''[[Agave affinis]]'' [[Image:Agave lechuguilla0.jpg|thumb|right|''Agave lecheguilla'']] *''Agave × ajoensis'' = ''Agave schottii'' var. ''schottii'' × ''Agave deserti'' var. ''simplex'' *''[[Agave aktites]]'' *''[[Agave albescens]]'' *''[[Agave albomarginata]]'' *''[[Agave alibertii]]'' *''[[Agave aloides]]'' *''[[Agave amaniensis]]'' *''[[Agave americana]]'' L. &ndash; American Agave, American Century Plant, Century Plant, Maguey americano **''Agave americana'' var. ''americana'' **''Agave americana'' var. ''expansa'' **''Agave americana'' var. ''latifolia'' **''Agave americana'' var. ''marginata'' **''Agave americana'' var. ''medio-picta'' **''Agave americana'' var. ''oaxacensis'' **''Agave americana'' var. ''striata'' **''Agave americana'' ssp. ''protamericana'' [[Image:Agave tequilana0.jpg|thumb|right|Tequila Agave (''Agave tequilana'')]] *''[[Agave angustiarum]]'' *''[[Agave angustifolia]]'' Haw. &ndash; Century plant, Maguey espad n *''[[Agave angustissima]]'' *''[[Agave anomala]]'' *''[[Agave antillarum]]'' **''Agave antillarum'' var. ''grammontensis'' *''[[Agave applanata]]'' *''[[Agave arizonica]]'' Gentry & J.H. Weber &ndash; Arizona Agave, Arizona Century Plant *''[[Agave arubensis]]'' *''[[Agave aspera]]'' *''[[Agave asperrima]]'' Jacobi &ndash; Maguey spero, Rough Century Plant *''[[Agave attenuata]]'' &ndash; Swan's Neck Agave, Dragon Tree Agave, Foxtail Agave *''[[Agave aurea]]'' [[Image:Agaveespinho1.jpg|thumb|right|''Agave horrida'']] *''[[Agave avellanidens]]'' *''[[Agave bahamana]]'' *''[[Agave bakeri]]'' *''[[Agave banlan]]'' *''[[Agave barbadensis]]'' *''[[Agave baxteri]]'' *''[[Agave bergeri]]'' *''[[Agave bernhardi]]'' *''[[Agave boldinghiana]]'' *''[[Agave bollii]]'' *''[[Agave botterii]] '' *''[[Agave bouchei]]'' *''[[Agave bourgaei]]'' *''[[Agave bovicornuta]]'' &ndash; Cowhorn Agave *''[[Agave braceana]]'' *''[[Agave brachystachys]]'' *''[[Agave bracteosa]]'' &ndash; Squid Agave *''[[Agave brandegeei]]'' *''[[Agave brauniana]]'' *''[[Agave breedlovei]]'' *''[[Agave brevipetala]]'' *''[[Agave breviscapa]]'' *''[[Agave brevispina]]'' *''[[Agave brittonia]]'' *''[[Agave bromeliaefolia]]'' *''[[Agave brunnea]]'' *''[[Agave bulbifera]]'' *''[[Agave cacozela]]'' *''[[Agave cajalbanensis]]'' *''[[Agave calderoni]]'' *''[[Agave calodonta]]'' *''[[Agave campanulata]]'' *''[[Agave cantala]]'' Roxb. &ndash; cantala, Maguey de la India (supplies Manila-Maquey fiber) *''[[Agave capensis]]'' [[Image:Agave1web.jpg|thumb|right|agave]] *''[[Agave carchariodonta]]'' *''[[Agave caribaea]]'' *''[[Agave caribiicola]]'' *''[[Agave carminis]]'' *''[[Agave caroli-schmidtii]]'' *''[[Agave celsii]]'' *''[[Agave cernua]]'' *''[[Agave cerulata]]'' **''Agave cerulata'' ssp. ''subcerulata'' *''[[Agave chiapensis]]'' (syn. ''Agave polyacantha'') *''[[Agave chihuahuana]]'' *''[[Agave chinensis]]'' *''[[Agave chisosensis]]'' *''[[Agave chloracantha]]'' *''[[Agave chrysantha]]'' Peebles &ndash; Golden Flowered Agave, Golden Flower Century Plant *''[[Agave chrysoglossa]]'' *''[[Agave coccinea]]'' *''[[Agave cocui]]'' *''[[Agave coespitosa]]'' *''[[Agave colimana]]'' *''[[Agave collina]]'' *''[[Agave colorata]]'' &ndash; Mescal ceniza *''[[Agave compacta]]'' *''[[Agave complicata]]'' *''[[Agave compluviata]]'' *''[[Agave concinna]]'' *''[[Agave congesta]]'' *''[[Agave conjuncta]]'' *''[[Agave connochaetodon]]'' *''[[Agave consociata]]'' *''[[Agave convallis]]'' *''[[Agave corderoyi]]'' *''[[Agave costaricana]]'' *''[[Agave cucullata]]'' *''[[Agave cundinamarcensis]]'' *''[[Agave cupreata]]'' *''[[Agave dasyliriodes]]'' *''[[Agave datylio]]'' *''[[Agave davilloni]]'' *''[[Agave de-meesteriana]]'' *''[[Agave dealbata]]'' *''[[Agave deamiana]]'' *''[[Agave debilis]]'' *''[[Agave decaisneana]]'' *''[[Agave decipiens]]'' Baker &ndash; False Sisal *''[[Agave delamateri]]'' W.C. Hodgson & L. Slauson *''[[Agave densiflora]]'' *''[[Agave dentiens]]'' *''[[Agave deserti]]'' Engelm. &ndash; Desert Century Plant, Desert Agave, Maguey de Desierto **''Agave deserti'' ssp. ''simplex'' *''[[Agave desmettiana]]'' Jacobi &ndash; Dwarf Century Plant, Smooth Agave (syn. ''A. miradorensis'') *''[[Agave diacantha]]'' *''[[Agave difformis]]'' *''[[Agave disceptata]]'' *''[[Agave disjuncta]]'' *''[[Agave dissimulans]]'' *''[[Agave donnell-smithii]]'' *''[[Agave durangensis]]'' *''[[Agave dussiana]]'' *''[[Agave eborispina]]'' *''[[Agave eduardi]]'' *''[[Agave eggersiana]]'' Trel. &ndash; Eggers' Century Plant, St. Croix Agave *''[[Agave ehrenbergii]]'' *''[[Agave eichlami]]'' *''[[Agave ekmani]]'' *''[[Agave elizae]]'' *''[[Agave ellemeetiana]]'' *''[[Agave endlichiana]]'' *''[[Agave engelmanni]]'' *''[[Agave entea]]'' *''[[Agave erosa]]'' *''[[Agave evadens]]'' *''[[Agave excelsa]]'' *''[[Agave expatriata]]'' *''[[Agave falcata]]'' **''Agave falcata'' var. ''espadina'' **''Agave falcata'' var. ''microcarpa'' *''[[Agave felgeri]]'' &ndash; Mescalito *''[[Agave felina]]'' *''[[Agave fenzliana]]'' *''[[Agave ferdinandi-regis]]'' *''[[Agave filifera]]'' &ndash; Thread-leaf Agave **''Agave filifera'' subsp. ''microceps'' *''[[Agave flaccida]]'' *''[[Agave flaccifolia]]'' *''[[Agave flavovirens]]'' *''[[Agave flexispina]]'' *''[[Agave fortiflora]]'' *''[[Agave fourcroydes]]'' Lemaire &ndash; Henequen, Maguey Henequen, Mexican Sisal (supplies henequen fiber) **''Agave fourcroydes var. espiculata'' *''[[Agave fragrantissima]]'' *''[[Agave franceschiana]]'' *''[[Agave franzosini]]'' *''[[Agave friderici]]'' *''[[Agave funifera]]'' *''[[Agave funkiana]]'' &ndash; Ixtle de Jaumave (syn. ''Agave lophanta'') *''[[Agave galeottei]]'' *''[[Agave garciae-mendozae]]'' *''[[Agave geminiflora]]'' **''Agave geminiflora'' var. ''filifera'' *''[[Agave gentryi]]'' *''[[Agave ghiesbrechtii]]'' *''[[Agave glabra]]'' *''[[Agave glaucescens]]'' *''[[Agave goeppertiana]]'' *''[[Agave glomeruliflora]]'' (Engelm.) Berger &ndash; Chisos Mountain Century Plant, Maguey del Bravo *''[[Agave gracilipes]]'' Trel. &ndash; Maguey de pastizal, Slimfoot Century Plant *''[[Agave gracilis]]'' *''[[Agave grandibracteata]]'' *''[[Agave granulosa]]'' *''[[Agave grenadina]]'' *''[[Agave grijalvensis]]'' *''[[Agave grisea]]'' *''[[Agave guadalajarana]]'' &ndash; Maguey chato *''[[Agave guatemalensis]]'' *''[[Agave guedeneyri]]'' *''[[Agave guiengola]]'' *''[[Agave gutierreziana]]'' *''[[Agave guttata]]'' *''[[Agave gypsophila]]'' *''[[Agave hanburii]]'' *''[[Agave harrisii]]'' *''[[Agave hartmani]]'' *''[[Agave haseloffii]]'' *''[[Agave hauniensis]]'' *''[[Agave havardiana]]'' Trel. &ndash; Havard's Century Plant, Chisos Agave, Maguey de Havard *''[[Agave haynaldi]]'' *''[[Agave henriquesii]]'' *''[[Agave hexapetala]]'' *''[[Agave hiemiflora]]'' *''[[Agave hookeri]]'' *''[[Agave horizontalis]]'' *''[[Agave horrida]]'' *''[[Agave houghii]]'' *''[[Agave huachucaensis]]'' *''[[Agave huehueteca]]'' *''[[Agave humboldtiana]]'' *''[[Agave hurteri]]'' *''[[Agave impressa]]'' *''[[Agave inaequidens]]'' *''[[Agave inaguensis]]'' *''[[Agave indagatorum]]'' *''[[Agave ingens]]'' *''[[Agave inopinabilis]]'' *''[[Agave integrifolia]]'' *''[[Agave intermixta]]'' *''[[Agave intrepida]]'' *''[[Agave isthmensis]]'' *''[[Agave jaiboli]]'' *''[[Agave jarucoensis]]'' *''[[Agave karatto]]'' *''[[Agave kellermaniana]]'' *''[[Agave kerchovei]]'' *''[[Agave kewensis]]'' *''[[Agave kirchneriana]]'' *''[[Agave lagunae]]'' *''[[Agave langlassei]]'' *''[[Agave laticincta]]'' *''[[Agave latifolia]]'' *''[[Agave laurentiana]]'' *''[[Agave laxa]]'' *''[[Agave laxifolia]]'' *''[[Agave lecheguilla]]'' Torr. &ndash; Agave lechuguilla, Lecheguilla, Lechuguilla, Maguey lechuguilla (syn. ''Agave heteracantha'') *''[[Agave lemairei]]'' *''[[Agave lempana]]'' *''[[Agave lespinassei]]'' *''[[Agave lindleyi]]'' *''[[Agave littaeaoides]]'' *''[[Agave longipes]]'' *''[[Agave longisepala]]'' *''[[Agave lophantha]]'' Schiede &ndash; Maguey mezortillo, Thorncrest Century Plant *''[[Agave lurida]]'' *''[[Agave macrantha]]'' *''[[Agave macroculmis]]'' (= ''Agave gentryi'') &ndash; Hardy Century Plant *''[[Agave maculata]]'' *''[[Agave madagascariensis]]'' *''[[Agave mapisaga]]'' *''[[Agave margaritae]]'' *''[[Agave marmorata]]'' *''[[Agave martiana]]'' *''[[Agave maximiliana]]'' *''[[Agave maximowicziana]]'' *''[[Agave mayoensis]]'' *''[[Agave mckelveyana]]'' Gentry &ndash; Mckelvey Agave, McKelvey's Century Plant *''[[Agave medioxima]]'' *''[[Agave megalacantha]]'' *''[[Agave melanacantha]]'' *''[[Agave melliflua]]'' *''[[Agave mexicana]]'' *''[[Agave micracantha]]'' *''[[Agave millspaughii]]'' *''[[Agave minarum]]'' *''[[Agave mirabilis]]'' *''[[Agave missionum]]'' Trel. &ndash; Corita *''[[Agave mitis]]'' *''[[Agave monostachya]]'' *''[[Agave montana]]'' *''[[Agave montserratensis]]'' *''[[Agave moranii]]'' *''[[Agave morrisii]]'' *''[[Agave muilmanni]]'' *''[[Agave mulfordiana]]'' *''[[Agave multifilifera]]'' *''[[Agave multiflora]]'' *''[[Agave multilineata]]'' *''[[Agave murpheyi]]'' F. Gibson &ndash; Maguey Bandeado, Murphey Agave, Murphey's Century Plant, Hohokam Agave *''[[Agave nashii]]'' *''[[Agave nayaritensis]]'' *''[[Agave neglecta]]'' Small &ndash; Wild Century Plant *''[[Agave nelsoni]]'' *''[[Agave nevadensis]]'' *''[[Agave nevidis]]'' *''[[Agave newberyi]]'' *''[[Agave nickelsi]]'' *''[[Agave nissoni]]'' *''[[Agave nizandensis]]'' &ndash; Dwarf Octopus Agave *''[[Agave noli-tangere]]'' *''[[Agave obducta]]'' *''[[Agave oblongata]]'' *''[[Agave obscura]]'' *''[[Agave ocahui]]'' **''Agave ocahui'' var. ''longifolia'' *''[[Agave offoyana]]'' *''[[Agave oligophylla]]'' *''[[Agave oliverana]]'' *''[[Agave opacidens]]'' *''[[Agave orcuttiana]]'' *''[[Agave ornithobroma]]'' &ndash; Maguey pajarito *''[[Agave oroensis]]'' *''[[Agave ovatifolia]]'' *''[[Agave oweni]]'' *''[[Agave pachyacantha]]'' *''[[Agave pachycentra]]'' *''[[Agave pacifica]]'' *''[[Agave pallida]]'' *''[[Agave palmaris]]'' *''[[Agave palmeri]]'' Engelm. &ndash; Maguey de tlalcoyote, Palmer Agave, Palmer Century Plant, Palmer's Century Plant *''[[Agave pampaniniana]]'' *''[[Agave panamana]]'' *''[[Agave papyriocarpa]]'' *''[[Agave parryi]]'' Engelm. &ndash; Mezcal yapavai, Parry Agave, Parry's Agave **''Agave parryi'' var. ''truncata'' *''[[Agave parvidentata]]'' *''[[Agave parviflora]]'' Torr. &ndash; Maguey sbari, Smallflower Agave, Smallflower Century Plant, Little Princess Agave **''Agave parviflora'' subsp. ''flexiflora'' *''[[Agave patonii]]'' *''[[Agave paucifolia]]'' *''[[Agave paupera]]'' *''[[Agave pavoliniana]]'' *''[[Agave peacockii]]'' *''[[Agave pedrosana]]'' *''[[Agave pedunculifera]]'' *''[[Agave pelona]]'' &ndash; Bald Agave *''[[Agave perplexans]]'' *''[[Agave pes-mulae]]'' *''[[Agave petiolata]]'' *''[[Agave petrophila]]'' *''[[Agave phillipsiana]]'' *''[[Agave picta]]'' *''[[Agave planera]]'' *''[[Agave polianthiflora]]'' *''[[Agave polianthoides]]'' *''[[Agave portoricensis]]'' Trel. &ndash; Puerto Rico Century Plant *''[[Agave potatorum]]'' &ndash; Drunkard Agave[[Image:agave.potatorum.kewgardens.london.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Agave potatorum at Kew Gardens, London, England]] *''[[Agave potosina]]'' *''[[Agave potrerana]]'' *''[[Agave prainiana]]'' *''[[Agave promontorii]]'' *''[[Agave prostrata]]'' *''[[Agave protuberans]]'' *''[[Agave pruinosa]]'' *''[[Agave pseudotequilana]]'' *''[[Agave pugioniformis]]'' *''[[Agave pulcherrima]]'' *''[[Agave pulchra]]'' *''[[Agave pumila]]'' *''[[Agave punctata]]'' *''[[Agave purpurea]]'' *''[[Agave purpusorum]]'' *''[[Agave pygmae]]'' *''[[Agave quadrata]]'' *''[[Agave quiotifera]]'' *''[[Agave ragusae]]'' *''[[Agave rasconensis]]'' *''[[Agave regia]]'' *''[[Agave revoluta]]'' *''[[Agave rhodacantha]]'' *''[[Agave rigida]]'' *''[[Agave roezliana]]'' *''[[Agave rudis]]'' *''[[Agave rupicola]]'' **''Agave rupicola'' var. ''brevifolia'' **''Agave rupicola'' var. ''longifolia'' **''Agave rupicola'' var. ''rubridentata'' *''[[Agave rutteniae]]'' *''[[Agave rzedowskiana]]'' *''[[Agave salmdyckii]]'' *''[[Agave salmiana]]'' &ndash; Pulque, Maguey, Maguey de montaña (syn. ''Agave atrovirens'') **''Agave salmiana'' var. ''angustifolia'' **''Agave salmiana'' var. ''cochlearis'' *''[[Agave samalana]]'' *''[[Agave sartorii]]'' *''[[Agave scaphoidea]]'' *''[[Agave scaposa]]'' *''[[Agave scheuermaniana]]'' *''[[Agave schildigera]]'' *''[[Agave schneideriana]]'' *''[[Agave schottii]]'' Engelm. &ndash; Maguey puercoesp n, Schott Agave, Schott's Century Plant, Shindagger, Leather Agave **''Agave schottii'' var. ''serrulata'' *''[[Agave scolymus]]'' **''Agave scolymus'' var. ''polymorpha'' *''[[Agave sebastiana]]'' *''[[Agave seemanniana]]'' **''Agave seemanniana'' var. ''perscabra'' *''[[Agave serrulata]]'' *''[[Agave sessiliflora]]'' *''[[Agave shaferi]]'' *''[[Agave shawii]]'' Engelm. &ndash; Coastal Agave, Maguey primavera *''[[Agave shrevei]]'' **''Agave shrevei'' ssp. ''magna'' **''Agave shrevei'' ssp. ''matapensis'' *''[[Agave sicaefolia]]'' *''[[Agave simoni]]'' *''[[Agave sisalana]]'' Perrine &ndash; Maguey de Sisal, Sisal, Sisal Hemp (syn. ''Furcraea sisaliana'') *''[[Agave sleviniana]]'' *''[[Agave smithiana]]'' *''[[Agave sobolifera]]'' **''Agave sobolifera'' f. ''spinidentata'' *''[[Agave sobria]]'' **''Agave sobria'' ssp. ''frailensis'' *''[[Agave sordida]]'' *''[[Agave striata]]'' **''Agave striata'' var. ''mesae'' *''[[Agave stricta]]'' *''[[Agave stringens]]'' *''[[Agave subinermis]]'' *''[[Agave subsimplex]]'' *''[[Agave subtilis]]'' *''[[Agave subzonata]]'' *''[[Agave sullivani]]'' *''[[Agave tecta]]'' *''[[Agave tenuifolia]]'' *''[[Agave tenuispina]]'' *''[[Agave teopiscana]]'' *''[[Agave tequilana]]'' A. Weber &ndash; Mezcal azul tequilero, Tequila Agave, Weber Blue Agave (gives [[tequila]]) *''[[Agave terraccianoi]]'' *''[[Agave theometel]]'' *''[[Agave thomasae]]'' *''[[Agave thomsoniana]]'' *''[[Agave tigrina]]'' *''[[Agave titanota]]'' *''[[Agave todaroi]]'' *''[[Agave toneliana]]'' *''[[Agave tortispina]]'' *''[[Agave toumeyana]]'' Trel. &ndash; Toumey Agave, Toumey's Century Plant **''Agave toumeyana'' var. ''bella'' *''[[Agave trankeera]]'' *''[[Agave troubetskoyana]]'' *''[[Agave tubulata]]'' **''Agave tubulata'' ssp. ''brevituba'' *''[[Agave underwoodii]]'' *''[[Agave unguiculata]]'' *''[[Agave utahensis]]'' Engelm. &ndash; Utah Agave **''Agave utahensis'' var. ''discreta'' *''[[Agave van-grolae]]'' *''[[Agave vandervinneni]]'' *''[[Agave ventum-versa]]'' *''[[Agave vernae]]'' *''[[Agave verschaffeltii]]'' *''[[Agave vestita]]'' *''[[Agave vicina]]'' *''[[Agave victoriae-reginae]]'' &ndash; Queen Victoria's Agave **''Agave victoriae-reginae'' f. ''dentata'' **''Agave victoriae-reginae'' f. ''latifolia'' **''Agave victoriae-reginae'' f. ''longifolia'' **''Agave victoriae-reginae'' f. ''longispina'' **''Agave victoriae-reginae'' f. ''ornata'' **''Agave victoriae-reginae'' f. ''stolonifera'' **''Agave victoriae-reginae'' f. ''viridis'' **''Agave victoriae-reginae'' ssp. ''swobodae'' *''[[Agave vilmoriniana]]'' Berger &ndash; Octopus Agave *''[[Agave viridissima]]'' *''[[Agave vivipara]]'' **''Agave vivipara'' var. ''cabaiensis'' **''Agave vivipara'' var. ''cuebensis'' *''[[Agave vizcainoensis]]'' *''[[Agave wallisii]]'' *''[[Agave warelliana]]'' *''[[Agave washingtonensis]]'' *''[[Agave watsoni]]'' *''[[Agave weberi]]'' Cels ex Poisson &ndash; Maguey liso, Weber's Century Plant, Weber Agave *''[[Agave weingartii]]'' *''[[Agave wendtii]]'' *''[[Agave wercklei]]'' *''[[Agave wiesenbergensis]]'' *''[[Agave wightii]]'' *''[[Agave wildingii]]'' *''[[Agave winteriana]]'' *''[[Agave wislizeni]]'' [[Image:Agave parrasana.jpg|thumb|''Agave parrasana'' synonym ''Agave wislizeni'']] *''[[Agave wocomahi]]'' *''[[Agave woodrowi]]'' *''[[Agave wrightii]]'' *''[[Agave xylonacantha]]'' Salm-Dyck &ndash; Century Plant, Maguey diente de tiburn *''[[Agave yaquiana]]'' *''[[Agave yuccaefolia]]'' **''Agave yuccifolia'' var. ''caespitosa'' *''[[Agave zapupe]]'' *''[[Agave zebra]]'' *''[[Agave zonata]]'' *''[[Agave zuccarinii]]'' ==References== * [[Howard Scott Gentry]], ''Agaves of Continental North America'' (University of Arizona Press, 1982), the standard work, with accounts of 136 species *[http://www.ipni.org/index.html IPNI : The International Plant Name Index] ==External links== * [http://www.desert-tropicals.com/Plants/Agavaceae/Agave.html Desert Tropicals ''Agave'' list] * [http://www.shakeoffthesugar.net/article1042.html Agave Nectar or Syrup] * [http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/kings/agave-virg.html Agave virginica (False Aloe)] King's American Dispensatory @ Henriette's Herbal *[http://bodd.cf.ac.uk/BotDermFolder/BotDermA/AGAV.html Botanical Dermatology Database] Information on agave contact dermatitis [[Category:Agavaceae]] [[Category:Poisonous_plants]] [[Category:Dermatology]] [[da:Agave]] [[de:Agaven]] [[es:Agave (planta)]] [[fr:Agave]] [[it:Agave (botanica)]] [[la:Agave (planta)]] [[nl:Agave]] [[ja:リュウゼツラン]] [[pl:Agawa]] [[fi:Agaavet]] [[zh:龍舌蘭草]] 686 15899212 2004-12-06T00:57:24Z Wetman 21492 eliminating secondary redirect #REDIRECT [[Amalthea (mythology)]] 687 15899213 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]] 689 42122541 2006-03-03T23:42:05Z Jaxl 309415 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.137.245.207|72.137.245.207]] ([[User talk:72.137.245.207|talk]]) to last version by Dcsohl {{cleanup-date|February 2006}} {{otheruses}} {{seealso|Asian|Eurasian}} '''Asia''' is the largest and most populous region or [[continent]] depending on the definition. It is traditionally defined as part of the [[landmass]] of [[Africa]]-[[Eurasia]] lying east of the [[Suez Canal]], east of the [[Ural Mountains]], and south of the [[Caucasus Mountains]] and the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] and [[Black Sea]]s. About 60% of the world's [[human population]] lives in Asia, of whom only 2% live in the northern and interior half ([[Siberia]], [[Mongolia]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Xinjiang]], [[Tibet]], [[Qinghai]], western [[Uzbekistan]] and [[Turkmenistan]]); the other 98% live in the remaining half. [[Image:LocationAsia.png|thumb|250px|World map showing Asia.]] ==Etymology== The word ''Asia'' entered English, via [[Latin]], from [[Ancient Greek]] Ασία (''Asia''; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]). This name is first attested in [[Herodotus]] (c. 440 BC), where it refers to [[Asia Minor]]; or, for the purposes of describing the [[Persian Wars]], to the [[Persian Empire]], as opposed to [[Greece]] and [[Egypt]]. Herodotus comments that he is puzzled as to why three different women's names are used to describe a single land-mass ([[Europa]], Asia and [[Libya]], referring to Africa) stating that most Greeks assumed that Asia was named after the wife of [[Prometheus]] but that the [[Lydians]] say it was named after [[Asias]], son of [[Cotys]] who passed the name on to a tribe in [[Sardis]]. Even before Herodotus, [[Homer]] knew of a [[Troy|Trojan]] ally named [[Asios Hyrtakides|Asios]], son of [[Hyrtacus]], a ruler over several towns, and elsewhere he describes a marsh as ασιος (Iliad 2, 461). The Greek term may be derived from [[Assuwa]], a [[14th century BC]] confederation of states in Western Anatolia. [[Hittite language|Hittite]] ''assu-'' "good" is probably an element in that name. Alternatively, the ultimate etymology of the term may be from the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] word ''(w)aṣû(m)'', cognate of Hebrew יצא, which means "to go out" or "to ascend", referring to the direction of the [[sun]] at sunrise in the [[Middle East]], and also likely connected with the Phoenician word ''asa'' meaning east. This may be contrasted to a similar etymology proposed for ''Europe'', as being from [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] ''erēbu'' "to enter" or "set" (of the sun). However, an originally Mesopotamian or Middle Eastern perspective would not explain how the term "Asia" first came to be associated with Anatolia as lying ''west'' of the Semitic speaking area. ==Definition and Boundaries== [[Image:Asia-map.png|right|thumb|280px|Political map of Asia]] Medieval Europeans considered Asia as a continent, a distinct landmass. The European concept of the three continents in the [[Old World]] goes back to [[classical antiquity]] with the [[etymology]] of the word rooted in the ancient [[Near East|Near]] and [[Middle East]]. The demarcation between Asia and [[Africa]] is the [[Isthmus]] of [[Suez Canal|Suez]] and the [[Red Sea]]. The boundary between Asia and [[Europe]] is commonly believed to run through the [[Dardanelles]], the [[Sea of Marmara]], the [[Bosporus]], the Black Sea, the Caucasus Mountains, the Caspian Sea, the [[Ural River]] to its source, and the Ural Mountains to the [[Kara Sea]] near Kara, [[Russia]]. However, modern discovery of the extent of Africa and Asia made this definition rather anachronistic, especially in the case of Asia, which would have several regions that would be considered distinct landmasses if these criteria were used (for example, South Asia and East Asia). Geologists and physical geographers no longer consider Asia and Europe to be separate continents. It is either defined in terms of geological landmasses (physical geography) or tectonic plates (geology). In the former case, Europe is a western peninsula of [[Eurasia]] or the Africa-Eurasia landmass. In the latter, Europe and Asia are still part of the Eurasian plate, which excludes the Arabian and Indian tectonic plates. In human geography, there are two schools of thought. One school follows historical convention and treats Europe and Asia as different continents, categorizing Europe, East Asia (the Orient), South Asia (British India), and the Middle East (Arabia and Persia) as specific regions for more detailed analysis. The other schools equate the word "continent" in terms of geographical region when referring to Europe, and use the term "region" to describe Asia in terms of physical geography. Because in linguistic terms, "continent" implies a distinct landmass, it is becoming increasingly common to substitute the term "region" for "continent" to avoid the problem of disambiguation altogether. There is much confusion in European languages with the term "Asian". Because a category implies homogenity, the term "Asian" almost always refers to a subcategory of people from Asia rather than referring to "Asian" defined in term of "Asia". The fact that in American English, Asian refers to East Asian (Orientals), while in British English, Asian refers to South Asian reflects this confusion. Sometimes, it is not even clear exactly what "Asia" consists of. Some definitions exclude [[Turkey]], the Middle East, and/or Russia. The term is sometimes used more strictly in reference to [[Asia Pacific]], which does not include the Middle East or Russia, but does include islands in the [[Pacific Ocean]] &mdash; a number of which may also be considered part of [[Australasia]] and/or [[Oceania]]. Asia contains the [[Indian subcontinent]], Arabian subcontinent, as well as a piece of the North American plate in Siberia. {{further|[[Transcontinental nation#Countries in both Asia and Europe]]}} {{seealso|Copenhagen criteria#Geographic_criteria for the definition of Europe}} {{seealso|Orientalism}} ==Geographical regions== {{seealso|Geography of Asia}} [[Image:Asia satellite orthographic.jpg|thumb|280px|Satellite view of Asia]] As already mentioned, Asia is a subregion of [[Eurasia]]. For further subdivisions based on that term, see [[North Eurasia]] and [[Central Eurasia]]. Some Asian countries stretch beyond Asia. See [[Bicontinental country]] for details about the borderline cases between Asia and Europe, Asia and Africa, and Asia and Oceania. The following subregions of Asia are traditionally recognized: *[[Central Asia]] *[[East Asia]] *[[Far East]] *[[North Asia]] *[[South Asia]] (or Indian Subcontinent) *[[Southeast Asia]] *[[Southwest Asia]] (or Middle East or West Asia) ===Central Asia=== There is no absolute consensus in the usage of this term. Usually, Central Asia includes: * the [[Central Asian Republics]] of [[Kazakhstan]] (excluding its small [[Bicontinental country#Countries in both Asia and Europe|European]] territory), [[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Kyrgyzstan]]. * [[Afghanistan]], [[Mongolia]], and the western regions of [[China]] are also sometimes included. * Former [[Soviet]] states in the [[Caucasus]] region. Central Asia is currently geopolitically important because international disputes and conflicts over [[oil pipeline|oil pipelines]], [[Nagorno-Karabakh]], and [[Chechnya]], as well as the presence of [[U.S. military]] and [[Military of the UK|U.K. military]] forces in [[Afghanistan]]. ===East Asia === This area includes: * The [[Pacific Ocean]] island countries of [[Taiwan]] and [[Japan]]. {{further|[[Political status of Taiwan]]}} * [[North Korea|North]] and [[South Korea]] on the [[Korean Peninsula]]. * [[China]], but sometimes only the eastern regions Sometimes the nations of [[Mongolia]] and [[Vietnam]] are also included in East Asia. More informally, [[Southeast Asia]] is included in East Asia on some occasions. ===North Asia=== This term is rarely used by geographers, but usually it refers to the bigger Asian part of Russia, also known as [[Siberia]]. Sometimes the northern parts of other Asian nations, such as [[Kazakhstan]] are also included in Northern Asia. ===South Asia (or Indian Subcontinent)=== South Asia is also referred to as the [[Indian Subcontinent]]. It includes: * The [[Himalayan States]] of [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]] and [[Bangladesh]]. * The [[Indian Ocean]] nations of [[Sri Lanka]] and the [[Maldives]]. India's [[Andaman]], [[Nicobar]] and [[Lakshadweep]] islands also lie in the Indian Ocean. * The [[peninsular India]] (also known as the [[Deccan Plateau]]) * Sometimes Afghanistan is also included into this category. ===Southeast Asia=== This region contains the [[Malay Peninsula]], [[Indochina]] and islands in the [[Indian Ocean]] and [[Pacific Ocean]]. The countries it contains are: * In [[Indochina|mainland Southeast Asia]], the countries [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Laos]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Vietnam]]. * In [[Maritime Southeast Asia]], the countries of [[Malaysia]], [[Brunei]], the [[Philippines]], [[Singapore]] and [[Indonesia]] ([[Bicontinental country#Countries in both Asia and Oceania|some]] of the Indonesian islands also lie in the [[Melanesia]] region of [[Oceania]]). [[East Timor]] (also [[Melanesia]]n) is sometimes included too. The country of [[Malaysia]] is divided in two by the [[South China Sea]], and thus has both a mainland and island part. ===Southwest Asia (or Middle East, Near East or West Asia)=== This can also be called by the Western term ''[[Middle East]]'', which is commonly used by Europeans and Americans. ''Middle East'' (to some interpretations) is often used to also refer to some countries in [[North Africa]]. Southwest Asia can be further divided into: * [[Anatolia]] (i.e. [[Asia Minor]]), constituting the [[Asian]] [[Bicontinental country#Countries in both Asia and Europe|part of]] Turkey. * The [[island nation]] of [[Cyprus]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. * The [[Levant]] or [[Near East]], which includes [[Syria]], [[Israel]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]], [[Iraq]] and the Asian [[Bicontinental country#Countries in both Asia and Africa|portion]] of [[Egypt]]. * The [[Arabian peninsula]], including [[Saudi Arabia]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Bahrain]], [[Qatar]], [[Oman]], [[Yemen]] and [[Kuwait]]. * The [[Caucasus]] region (which straddles both Asia and [[Europe]]), namely [[Transcaucasia]], including a small portion of Russia and, arguably, most if not all of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Armenia]], and [[Azerbaijan]]. * The [[Iranian Plateau]], containing [[Iran]] and parts of other neighbouring nations. {{seealso|Gulf States}} ==Economy== {| class="wikitable" style="width:300px;" align="right" |+ <big>'''Economy of Asia'''</big><br><small>During 2003 unless otherwise stated</small> |- |Population: | 4.001 billion (2002) |- |[[Gross domestic product|GDP]] ([[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|PPP]]): |[[US$]]18.077 trillion |- |[[Gross domestic product|GDP]] ([[List of countries by GDP|Currency]]): | $8.782 trillion |- |GDP/capita ([[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|PPP]]): | $4,518 |- |GDP/capita ([[List of countries by GDP (Nominal) per capita|Currency]]): | $2,195 |- |Annual growth of <br> per capita GDP: | |- |Income of top 10%: | |- | [[Millionaires]]: | 2.0 million (0.05%) |- |[[Unemployment]] | |- |Estimated female<br> [[income]] | |- | align="center" colspan="2" | <small>Most numbers are from the [[UNDP]] from 2002, some numbers exclude certain countries for lack of information.</small> |- | align="center" colspan="2" | {{World economy infobox footer}} |} {{main|Economy of Asia}} In terms of [[gross domestic product]] ([[Purchasing Power Parity|PPP]]), the largest national economy within Asia is that of the [[PRC]] ([[People's Republic of China]]). Over the last decade, China's and [[India]]'s economies have been growing rapidly, both with an average annual growth rate above 7%. PRC is the world's second largest economy after the US, followed by [[Japan]] and [[India]] as the world's third and fourth largest economies respectively (then followed by the European nations: [[Germany]], [[U.K.]], [[France]] and [[Italy]]). In terms of [[exchange rates]] (nominal GDP) however, Japan has the largest economy in Asia and second largest of any single nation in the world, after surpassing the Soviet Union (measured in [[Net Material Product]]) in 1986 and Germany in 1968. (NB: A number of supernational economies are larger, such as the [[EU]], [[NAFTA]] or [[APEC]]). Economic growth in Asia since [[World War II]] to the 1990's had been concentrated in few countries of the [[Pacific Rim]], and has spread more recently to other regions. In the late 80's and early 90's Japan's economy was almost as large as that of the rest of the continent combined. In 1995, Japan's economy nearly equalled the USA to tie the largest economy in the world for a day, after the Japanese currency reached a record high of 79 [[yen]]. However, since then Japan's currency has corrected and China has grown to be the second largest Asian economy, followed by India in terms of exchange rates. It is expected that China will surpass Japan in currency terms to have the largest nominal GDP in Asia within a decade or two. Trade blocs: *[[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] *[[Asia-Europe Meeting|Asia-Europe Economic Meeting]] *[[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] *[[Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement]] *[[Commonwealth of Independent States]] *[[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]] *[[South Asia Free Trade Agreement (proposed)]] ===Natural resources=== Asia is by a considerable margin the largest continent in the [[world]], and is rich in natural resources, such as [[Petroleum]] and [[iron]]. High productivity in agriculture, especially of [[rice]], allows high population density of countries in the warm and humid area. Other main agricultural products include [[wheat]] and [[chicken]]. Forestry is extensive throughout Asia except Southwest and Central Asia. [[Fishing]] is a major source of food in Asia, particularly in Japan. ===Manufacturing=== Manufacturing in Asia has traditionally been strongest in East and Southeast Asia, particularly in [[PRC]], [[Taiwan]], [[Japan]], [[South Korea]] and [[Singapore]]. The industry varies from manufacturing cheap goods such as [[toy]]s to high-tech goods such as [[computer]]s and [[automobile|car]]s. Many companies from [[Europe]], [[North America]], and [[Japan]] have significant operations in the developing Asia to take avantage of its abundant supply of cheap labor. One of the major employers in manufacturing in Asia is the [[textile]] industry. Much of the world's supply of clothing and footwear now originates in Southeast Asia. ===Financial and other services=== Asia has three main financial centers. They are in [[Hong Kong]], [[Singapore]] and [[Tokyo]]. Call centers are becoming major employers in [[India]] and the [[Philippines]], due to the availablity of many well-educated English speakers. The rise of the business process [[outsourcing]] industry has seen the rise of India and China as the other financial centers. ==Early history== {{main|History of Asia}} [[Image:Asia 1892 amer ency brit.jpg|thumb|200px|Map of Asia, 1892.]] The history of Asia can be seen as the distinct histories of several peripheral coastal regions &mdashl [[East Asia]], [[South Asia]], and the [[Middle East]] &mdash; linked by the interior mass of the [[Central Asia]]n [[steppe]]. The coastal periphery was home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations, each of them developing around fertile river valleys. The civilizations in [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Indus Valley]], and the [[Yangtze River|Yangtze]] shared many similarities, and may well have exchanged technologies and ideas such as [[mathematics]] and the wheel. Other innovations, such as that of writing, seem to have been developed individually in each area. Cities, states and empires developed in these lowlands. The central steppe region had long been inhabited by horse-mounted nomads, and from the steppes they could reach all areas of Asia. The earliest postulated expansion out of the steppe is that of the [[Indo-European]]s, who spread their languages into the Middle East, India, and in the [[Tocharians]], to the borders of China. The northernmost part of Asia, including much of [[Siberia]], was largely inaccessible to the steppe nomads, owing to the dense forests, the climate, and the [[tundra]]. These areas remained very sparsely populated. The centre and the peripheries were mostly kept separated by mountains and deserts. The [[Caucasus]] and [[Himalaya]] mountains and the [[Karakum Desert|Karakum]] and [[Gobi Desert|Gobi]] deserts formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could cross only with difficulty. While technologically and socially, the urban city dwellers were more advanced, in many cases they could do little militarily to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force; for this and other reasons, the nomads who conquered states in China, India, and the Middle East often found themselves adapting to the local, more affluent societies. ==Population density== The following table lists countries and dependencies by [[population density]] in inhabitants and km<sup>2</sup>. Unlike the figures in the country articles, the figures in this table are based on areas including inland water bodies (lakes, reservoirs, rivers) and may therefore be lower here. The whole of Egypt, Russia, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Turkey are referred to in the table, although they may be considered to be only [[Countries in both Europe and Asia|partly in Asia]]. Asia also contains about 60% of the world's population. Leaving the other 40% of the world's population to other continents. <center> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;" |- style="text-align:center;" ! Country / Region ! Population Density<br><small>(/km<sup>2</sup>)</small> ! Area<br><small>(km<sup>2</sup>)</small> ! Population<br><small>(2002-07-01 est.)</small> |- | align="left" | ''{{MacauSAR}}'' | 17,684 | 25 | 461,833 |- | align="left" | {{SIN}} | 6,389 | 693 | 4,452,732 |- | align="left" | ''{{HongKongSAR}}'' | 6,317 | 1,092 | 7,303,334 |- | align="left" | {{MDV}} | 1,070 | 300 | 320,165 |- | align="left" | {{BAN}} | 1,002 | 144,000 | 133,376,684 |- | align="left" | {{BHR}} | 987 | 665 | 656,397 |- | align="left" | {{ROC-TW}} | 627 | 35,980 | 22,548,009 |- | align="left" | {{SKO}} | 491 | 98,480 | 48,324,000 |- | align="left" | {{LBN}} | 354 | 10,400 | 3,677,780 |- | align="left" | {{JPN}} | 336 | 377,835 | 126,974,628 |- | align="left" | {{IND}} | 329 | 3,287,590 | 1,045,845,226 |- | align="left" | {{LKA}} | 298 | 65,610 | 19,576,783 |- | align="left" | {{ISR}} | 290 | 20,770 | 6,029,529 |- | align="left" | {{PHL}} | 282 | 300,000 | 84,525,639 |- | align="left" | {{VNM}} | 246 | 329,560 | 81,098,416 |- | align="left" | {{NKO}} | 184 | 120,540 | 22,224,195 |- | align="left" | {{NEP}} | 184 | 140,800 | 25,873,917 |- | align="left" | {{PAK}} | 184 | 803,940 | 147,663,429 |- | align="left" | {{PRC-mainland}} | 134 | 9,596,960 | 1,284,303,705 |- | align="left" | {{THA}} | 121 | 514,000 | 62,354,402 |- | align="left" | {{IDN}} | 121 | 1,919,440 | 231,328,092 |- | align="left" | {{KUW}} | 118 | 17,820 | 2,111,561 |- | align="left" | {{ARM}} | 112 | 29,800 | 3,330,099 |- | align="left" | {{SYR}} | 93 | 185,180 | 17,155,814 |- | align="left" | {{AZE}} | 90 | 86,600 | 7,798,497 |- | align="left" | {{TUR}} | 86 | 780,580 | 67,308,928 |- | align="left" | {{CYP}} | 83 | 9,250 | 775,927 |- | align="left" | {{GEO}} | 71 | 69,700 | 4,960,951 |- | align="left" | {{CAM}} | 71 | 181,040 | 12,775,324 |- | align="left" | {{EGY}} | 71 | 1,001,450 | 70,712,345 |- | align="left" | {{QAT}} | 69 | 11,437 | 793,341 |- | align="left" | {{MAS}} | 69 | 329,750 | 22,662,365 |- | align="left" | {{TLS}} | 63 | 15,007 | 952,618 |- | align="left" | {{MMR}} | 62 | 678,500 | 42,238,224 |- | align="left" | {{BRU}} | 61 | 5,770 | 350,898 |- | align="left" | {{JOR}} | 58 | 92,300 | 5,307,470 |- | align="left" | {{UZB}} | 57 | 447,400 | 25,563,441 |- | align="left" | {{IRQ}} | 55 | 437,072 | 24,001,816 |- | align="left" | {{TJK}} | 47 | 143,100 | 6,719,567 |- | align="left" | {{BHU}} | 45 | 47,000 | 2,094,176 |- | align="left" | {{AFG}} | 43 | 647,500 | 27,755,775 |- | align="left" | {{IRN}} | 40 | 1,648,000 | 66,622,704 |- | align="left" | {{YEM}} | 35 | 527,970 | 18,701,257 |- | align="left" | {{ARE}} | 30 | 82,880 | 2,445,989 |- | align="left" | {{LAO}} | 24 | 236,800 | 5,777,180 |- | align="left" | {{KGZ}} | 24 | 198,500 | 4,822,166 |- | align="left" | {{OMN}} | 13 | 212,460 | 2,713,462 |- | align="left" | {{SAU}} | 12 | 1,960,582 | 23,513,330 |- | align="left" | {{TKM}} | 9.6 | 488,100 | 4,688,963 |- | align="left" | {{KAZ}} | 6.2 | 2,717,300 | 16,741,519 |- | align="left" | {{RUS}} | 3.0 | 13,083,100 | 39,129,729 |- | align="left" | {{MNG}} | 1.7 | 1,565,000 | 2,694,432 |- style="font-weight:bold;" | align="left" | Total | | 45,711,848 | 3,895,528,341 |} </center> ==Religion== A large majority of people in the world who practice a religious faith practice one founded in Asia. Religions founded in Asia and with a majority of their contemporary adherents in Asia include: *[[Bahá'í Faith]]: slightly more than half of all adherents are in Asia *[[Buddhism]]: [[Cambodia]], [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], [[Laos]], [[Mongolia]], [[Myanmar]], [[Singapore]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Thailand]], [[Vietnam]], parts of northern, eastern, and western [[India]], and parts of central and eastern [[Russia]] (Siberia). **[[Mahayana Buddhism]]: China, Japan, Korea, Singapore, Vietnam. **[[Theravada Buddhism]]: Cambodia, parts of China, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, as well as parts of [[Vietnam]]. **[[Vajrayana Buddhism]]: Parts of China, [[Mongolia]], parts of northern and eastern [[India]], parts of central, eastern [[Russia]] and [[Siberia]]. *[[Hinduism]]: [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Pakistan]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Bali]]. *[[Islam]]: [[Central Asia|Central]], [[South Asia|South]], and [[Southwest Asia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Philippines]] [[Brunei]] and [[Indonesia]]. **[[Shia Islam]]: largely to specific [[Iran]], [[Azerbaijan]], parts of [[Iraq]], [[Bahrain]], parts of [[Afghanistan]], parts of [[India]], parts of [[Pakistan]]. **[[Sunni Islam]]: dominant in the rest of the regions mentioned above. *[[Jainism]]: [[India]] *[[Qadiani]]: [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], [[India]]. *[[Shinto]]: [[Japan]] *[[Sikhism]]: [[India]], [[Malaysia]], [[Hong Kong]] *[[Daoism]]: [[China]], [[Korea]], [[Vietnam]], [[Singapore]], and [[Taiwan]] *[[Zoroastrianism]]: [[Iran]], [[India]], [[Pakistan]] *[[Shamanism]]: [[Siberia]] *[[Animism]]: Eastern [[India]] Religions founded in Asia that have the majority of their contemporary adherents in other regions include: *[[Christianity]] ([[Lebanon]], [[Syria]], [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]], [[Armenia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[South Korea]], [[Singapore]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], [[East Timor]], [[Pakistan]], [[India]] and the [[Philippines]]) *[[Judaism]] (slightly fewer than half of its adherents reside in Asia; [[Israel]], [[Iran]], [[India]], [[Syria]].) ==See also== {{commons|Asia}} *[[Assuwa]] *[[Asia Minor]] *[[Pan-Asianism]] ==References== {{unsourced}} ==External links== *http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/asia.html *http://www.freeworldmaps.net/asia/index.html {{Continent}} {{Region}} [[Category:Asia| ]] [[Category:Continents]] [[af:Asië]] [[ar:آسيا]] [[an:Asia]] [[ast:Asia]] [[bg:Азия]] [[zh-min-nan:A-chiu]] [[bn:এশিয়া]] [[bs:Azija]] [[br:Azia]] [[ca:Àsia]] [[ceb:Asya]] [[cs:Asie]] [[cy:Asia]] [[da:Asien]] [[de:Asien]] [[et:Aasia]] [[el:Ασία]] [[es:Asia]] [[eo:Azio]] [[eu:Asia]] [[fa:آسیا]] [[fo:Asia]] [[fr:Asie]] [[fy:Aazje]] [[ga:An Áise]] [[gl:Asia]] [[gu:એશિયા]] [[ko:아시아]] [[ht:Azi]] [[hi:एशिया]] [[hr:Azija]] [[io:Azia]] [[id:Asia]] [[ia:Asia]] [[is:Asía]] [[it:Asia]] [[he:אסיה]] [[ka:აზია (ქვეყნის ნაწილი)]] [[csb:Azëjô]] [[kw:Asi]] [[sw:Asia]] [[ku:Asya]] [[la:Asia]] [[lt:Azija]] [[lb:Asien]] [[li:Azië]] [[jbo:zdotu'a]] [[hu:Ázsia]] [[mk:Азија]] [[mg:Azia]] [[ms:Asia]] [[mo:Асия]] [[my:အာရ္ဟတိုက္‌]] [[nl:Azië]] [[nds:Asien]] [[ja:アジア]] [[no:Asia]] [[nn:Asia]] [[os:Ази]] [[pl:Azja]] [[pt:Ásia]] [[ro:Asia]] [[ru:Азия]] [[se:Ásia]] [[sa:एशिया]] [[simple:Asia]] [[sk:Ázia]] [[sl:Azija]] [[sr:Азија]] [[su:Asia]] [[fi:Aasia]] [[sv:Asien]] [[tl:Asya]] [[ta:ஆசியா]] [[th:ทวีปเอเชีย]] [[vi:Châu Á]] [[tr:Asya]] [[uk:Азія]] [[war:Asya]] [[yi:אזיע]] [[zh:亚洲]] 690 41860401 2006-03-02T05:03:44Z Justin Eiler 312798 rvv {| style =" "margin-left:" 0.5em;" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="260px" |+ <font size="+1">'''Aruba'''</font> |- | style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan=2 | {| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" |- | align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:Flag of Aruba.png|125px|Flag of Aruba]] | align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:Aruba coa.png|100px]] |- | align="center" width="140px" | ([[Flag of Aruba|In Detail]]) | align="center" width="140px" | ([[Coat of Arms of Aruba|In Detail]]) |} |- | align="center" colspan=2 | <font size="-1">''National [[motto]]: One Happy Island''</font> |- | align="center" colspan=2 | [[Image:LocationAruba.png|Location of Aruba]] |- | [[Official language]] || [[Dutch language|Dutch]] |- | [[Political status]] || Dependent area of the [[Netherlands]] |- | [[Capital]] || [[Oranjestad, Aruba|Oranjestad]] |- | [[Dutch monarchy|Queen]] | [[Beatrix of the Netherlands|Beatrix]] |- | [[Governor]] || [[Fredis Refunjol]] |- | [[Prime Minister of Aruba|Prime Minister]] | [[Nelson O. Oduber]] |- | [[Area]]<br />&nbsp;- Total <br />&nbsp;- % water | (Not ranked)<br /> [[1 E8 m²|180 km&sup2;]] <br /> Negligible |- | [[Population]] <br />&nbsp;- Total (2004 est.) <br />&nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]] | (Ranked 187) <br /> 103,000 (2004) <br /> 363/km&sup2; |- | [[Currency]] || [[Aruban florin]] |- | [[Time zone]] | [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -4 |- | [[National anthem]] || [[Aruba Dushi Tera]] |- | [[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]] || [[.aw]] |- | [[List_of_country_calling_codes|Calling Code]] | +297 |} '''Aruba''' is an [[island]] in the [[Caribbean Sea]], just a short distance north of the [[Venezuela]]n [[Paraguaná Peninsula]], and it forms a part of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]. Unlike much of the Caribbean region, it has a dry climate and an arid, cactus-strewn landscape. This climate has helped tourism, however, as visitors to the island can reliably expect warm, sunny weather. ==History== :''Main article: [[History of Aruba]]'' Discovered and claimed for [[Spain]] in 1499, Aruba was acquired by the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] in 1636. The island's economy has been dominated by three main industries. A [[19th century|19th-century]] [[gold]] rush was followed by prosperity brought on by the opening in 1924 of an [[Petroleum|oil]] refinery. The last decades of the [[20th century]] saw a boom in the [[tourism]] industry. Aruba seceded from the [[Netherlands Antilles]] on [[January 1]], [[1986]], and became a separate, self-governing member of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]. Movement toward full independence by [[1996]] was halted at Aruba's request in 1990. ==Politics== :''Main article: [[Politics of Aruba]]'' Aruba is a part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, but maintains full control over its own affairs except for issues dealing with national defence, citizenship, foreign affairs, and extradition. Aruba has its own laws, constitution, government, and currency. The Aruban [[head of state]] is the ruling monarch of the [[Netherlands]], who is represented in Aruba by a [[governor]], appointed for a six-year term. The [[head of government]] is the [[Prime Minister]], who forms, together with the Council of Ministers, the [[executive branch]] of the government. They are elected by the [[parliament]], the [[unicameral]] Legislature or ''Staten'', which holds 21 seats. Members are elected by direct, popular vote to serve four-year terms. ==Geography== :''Main article: [[Geography of Aruba]]'' Aruba is a generally flat, [[river]]less island renowned for its white sand [[beach]]es. Most of these are located on the western and southern coasts of the island, which are relatively sheltered from fierce ocean currents. The northern and eastern coasts, lacking this protection, are considerably more battered by the sea and have been left largely untouched by humans. The interior of the island features some rolling hills, the better two of which are called [[Hooiberg]] at 165 [[metre]]s (541 [[foot (unit of length|ft]]) and [[Mount Jamanota]], which is the highest on the island, at 188 metres (617 ft) above [[sea level]]. Oranjestad, the capital, is located at {{coor dm|12|19|N|70|1|W|}}. As a separate member state of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]], the island/state has no administrative subdivisions. On the east are [[Curaçao]] and [[Bonaire]],two island territories which form the southwest part of the [[Netherlands Antilles]]; Aruba and these two Netherlands Antilles islands are also known as the [[ABC islands]]. The local [[climate]] is a pleasant tropical marine climate. Little seasonal temperature variation exists, which helps Aruba to attract tourists all year round. Temperatures are almost constant at about 28&nbsp;[[Celsius|°C]] (82&nbsp;[[Fahrenheit|°F]]), moderated by constant [[trade wind]]s from the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. Yearly precipitation barely reaches 500 [[millimeter|mm]] (20 [[inch|in]]), most of it falling in late autumn. [[Image:Aruba_map.png|right|Map of Aruba with cities]] ==Economy== :''Main article: [[Economy of Aruba]]'' Aruba enjoys one of the highest standards of living in the Caribbean region, with low poverty and unemployment rates. About half of the Aruban [[Gross National Product]] is earned with [[tourism]] or related activities. Most of the tourists are from [[Canada]], the [[European Union]] and other places notably the [[United States]], which is the country's largest trading partner. Oil processing is the dominant industry in Aruba, despite expansion of the tourism sector. The size of the agriculture and manufacturing industries remains minimal. Deficit spending has been a staple in Aruba's history, and modestly high inflation has been present as well, although recent efforts at tightening monetary policy may correct this. Aruba receives some [[development aid]] from the Dutch government each year. The Aruban guilder has a fixed exchange rate with the [[United States dollar]] of 1.79:1. ==Demographics== [[Image:Aruba-demography.png|thumb|300px|left|Population of Aruba, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]] Having poor [[soil]] and aridity, Aruba was saved from plantation economics and the [[slave trade]]. In 1515, the Spanish transported the entire population to [[Hispaniola]] to work in the [[copper]] [[mining|mines]]; most were allowed to return when the mines were tapped out. The Dutch, who took control a century later, left the [[Arawaks]] to graze livestock, using the island as a source of meat for other Dutch possessions in the Caribbean. The Arawak heritage is stronger on Aruba than on most Caribbean islands. No full-blooded [[Native American (Americas)|Indians]] remain, but the features of the islanders clearly indicate their genetic heritage. The majority of the population is descended from Arawak, Dutch and Spanish ancestors. Recently there has been substantial immigration to the island from neighboring Latin American and Caribbean nations, attracted by the lure of well-paying jobs. The two official languages are the Dutch language and the predominant, national language [[Papiamento]], which is classified as a Creole language. This [[creole language]] is formed primarily from 16th century [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], and several other languages. Spanish and English are also spoken. Islanders can often speak four or more languages and are mostly [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]. '''Population:''' 103,000( April 2004 est.) '''Age structure:''' * 0-14 years: 20.7% (male 7,540; female 7,121) * 15-64 years: 68.3% (male 23,427; female 24,955) * 65 years and over: 11% (male 3,215; female 4,586) (2003 est.) '''Median age:''' * total: 37.1 years * male: 35.3 years * female: 38.5 years (2002) '''Population growth rate:''' 0.55% (2003 est.) '''Birth rate:''' 11.86 births/1,000 population (2003 est.) '''Death rate:''' 6.38 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.) '''Net migration rate:''' 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2003 est.) '''Sex ratio:'''<br /> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female<br /> under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female<br /> 15-64 years: 0.94 male(s)/female<br /> 65 years and over: 0.7 male(s)/female<br /> total population: 0.93 male(s)/female (2003 est.) '''Infant mortality rate:''' * total: 6.14 deaths/1,000 live births * female: 5.25 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.) * male: 6.99 deaths/1,000 live births '''Life expectancy at birth:''' * total population: 78.83 years * male: 75.48 years * female: 82.34 years (2003 est.) '''Total fertility rate:''' 1.79 children born/woman (2003 est.) '''Nationality:'''<br /> ''noun:'' Aruban(s)<br /> ''adjective:'' Aruban; Dutch '''Religions:''' [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] 82%, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] 8%, [[Hindu]], [[Muslim]], [[Confucian]], [[Jew]]ish '''Languages:''' [[Dutch language|Dutch]] (official), [[Papiamento]] (national language), [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[English language|English]]. ==Culture== :''Main article: [[Culture of Aruba]]'' The origins of the population and location of the island give Aruba a mixed culture. Dutch influence can still be seen, even though not much of the population is of Dutch origin. Tourism from the United States has recently also increased the visibility of American culture on the island. [[Queen Beatrix International Airport]], located near [[Oranjestad, Aruba]], currently serves the whole island of Aruba. This airport has access to various cities across the eastern U.S., from Miami, Orlando, Houston, Atlanta to New York. It also connects Aruba with Europe through the [[Schiphol Airport]] in the Netherlands. The holiday of [[Carnival]] is an important one in Aruba, as it is in many Caribbean and Latin American countries. Carnival is usually held from the beginning of January until the end of February, with a large parade on the final Sunday of the festivities. ''See also: [[Music of Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles]]'' ==Language== {{main|Languages of Aruba}} Language can be seen as an important part of island culture in Aruba. The cultural mixture has given way to a linguistic mixture known as "[[Papiamento]]". However, islanders are known to speak many languages. Islanders often speak Papiamento, English, Dutch and Spanish. In recent years the government of Aruba has shown an increased interest in acknowledging the cultural and historical importance of its native language. ==Places of interest== * Alto Vista Chapel * [[Arikok National Park]] * Ayo and Casibari Rock Formations * [http://www.thejanskys.org/lighthouse/Other/calif.html California Lighthouse] * Frenchman's Pass * [[Hooiberg]] * Lourdes Grotto * [http://www.thespecks.com/Aruba/Aruba2000/natbridge.html Natural Bridge] (Collapsed on September 2, 2005 [http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-09-02-aruba-bridge_x.htm?csp=36]) * Natural Pool * Palm and Eagle Beaches ==Miscellaneous topics== *[[Communications in Aruba]] *[[Foreign relations of Aruba]] *[[Transportation in Aruba]] *[[Military of Aruba]] ==External links== {{Spoken Wikipedia|En-aruba.ogg|2005-08-15}} {{Commons|Aruba}} {{Wiktionarypar|Aruba}} *[http://www.aruba.com/ Aruba.com] - Official governmental portal *[http://www.arubatravelinfo.com/ Aruba Hotels and Travel Info] *[http://www.arubatourism.com/ ArubaTourism.com] - The original website for Aruba Visitors, established in 1996. *[http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/aruba/aruba.html Library of Congress Portals on the World - Aruba] *[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/aa.html CIA - The World Factbook -- Aruba] - [[CIA World Factbook]] on Aruba * An [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/ar/armap.shtml island map of Aruba] and a [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/ar/ormap.shtml detailed map of Oranjestad] are available at Caribbean-On-Line.com *[http://www.aruba-bb.com/ Aruba Travel Forums] - Aruba Message Board *[http://bb.visitaruba.com/index.php Visit Aruba Travel Forums] - Aruba Message Board *[http://www.zerokarma.com/modules.php?name=Photo_Album&file=thumbnails&album=4 Photos & Pictures of Aruba] *[http://www.airportaruba.com/ Aruba Airport Authority] *[http://www.aruba-ecards.com/ Free Aruba Ecards] *[http://www.cbaruba.org/ CBAruba.org] - The official Central Bank of Aruba. *[http://www.arubaaloe.com/ Aruba Aloe] *[http://www.arubabound.com/ Aruba Bound!] *[http://www.elmar.aw/info/content/default.jsp N.V. Elmar] - Aruba's electric utility *[http://aruba-guide.info/ Aruba Guide] - The Definitive Aruba Vacation Guide {{West_Indies}} {{Caricom}} [[Category:Aruba]] [[Category:Caribbean islands]] [[Category:Special territories of the European Union]] [[ar:أروبا]] [[zh-min-nan:Aruba]] [[ca:Aruba]] [[de:Aruba]] [[et:Aruba]] [[es:Aruba]] [[eo:Arubo]] [[eu:Aruba]] [[fr:Aruba]] [[gl:Aruba]] [[ko:아루바]] [[hr:Aruba]] [[id:Aruba]] [[ia:Aruba]] [[is:Arúba]] [[it:Aruba]] [[he:ארובה (טריטוריה)]] [[lv:Aruba]] [[lt:Aruba]] [[li:Aruba]] [[hu:Aruba]] [[mk:Аруба]] [[nl:Aruba]] [[nds:Aruba]] [[ja:アルバ]] [[no:Aruba]] [[nn:Aruba]] [[pl:Aruba]] [[pt:Aruba]] [[ro:Aruba]] [[ru:Аруба]] [[sh:Aruba]] [[simple:Aruba]] [[sl:Aruba]] [[fi:Aruba]] [[sv:Aruba]] [[tl:Aruba]] [[tr:Aruba]] [[zh:阿魯巴]] 691 41819362 2006-03-01T23:20:28Z 64.12.116.204 /* Ratification */ [[Image:Articles page1.jpg|thumb|right|The Articles of Confederation]] The '''Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union''', commonly known as the '''Articles of Confederation''' was the first governing document of the [[United States|United States of America]]. The articles, which combined the [[13 colonies]] of the [[American Revolutionary War]] into a loose [[confederation]], were adopted by the [[Second Continental Congress]] on [[November 15]], [[1777]], after 16 months of debate. The articles were ratified three years later on March 1, 1781. The articles were eventually replaced by the [[United States Constitution]] on June 21, 1788, when the ninth state, [[New Hampshire]], ratified the Constitution. According to their own terms for modification, however, the articles were still in effect until 1790, when every one of the 13 states had ratified the new Constitution. == Ratification == The Articles of Confederation were submitted to the states for ratification on [[November 17]] [[1777]], accompanied by a letter from Congress urging that the document :''be candidly reviewed under a sense of the difficulty of combining in one general system the various sentiments and interests of a continent divided into so many sovereign and independent communities, under a conviction of the absolute necessity of uniting all our councils and all our strength, to maintain and defend our common liberties .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. '' {{ref|ratificationletter}} The document only became effective as it was ratified by the states. This process dragged on for several years, stalled by an interstate quarrel over claims to uncolonized land in the west. [[Maryland]] was the last hold-out; it refused to ratify until [[Virginia]] and [[New York]] agreed to rescind their claims to lands in the [[Ohio River]] valley. All of the colonies rebelling against Britain ratified it by [[1781]]. Although Congress debated the Articles for over a year, it requested immediate action on the part of the states. On [[February 5]] [[1778]] [[South Carolina]] became the first state to ratify the Articles of Confederation. However, three and a half years passed before the final ratification by [[Maryland]] on [[March 1]] [[1781]]. ==Article Summaries == {{ChartersOfFreedom}} Even though the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution were established by much of the same people, they were still very different. The document contained 13 articles, a conclusion, and a signatory section. #Establishes the name of the confederation as "The United States of America" #Explains the rights possessed by any state, and the amount of power to which any state is entitled #Establishes the United States as a league of states united "...for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them..." #Establishes [[freedom of movement]]&ndash;anyone can pass freely between states, excluding "[[pauper]]s, [[vagabond]]s, and [[fugitive]]s from justice excepted." All people are entitled to the rights established by the state into which he or she travels. If a crime is committed in one state and the perpetrator flees to another state, he will be [[extradition|extradited]] to and tried in the state in which the crime was committed. #Allocates one vote in the [[Congress of the Confederation]] (United States in Congress Assembled) to each state, which was entitled to a delegation of between two and seven members. Members of Congress were appointed by state legislatures; individuals could not serve more than three out of any six years. #Limits the powers of states to conduct [[foreign relations]] and to [[declaration of war|declare war]]. #When an army is raised for common defense, [[Colonel (United States)|colonels]] and [[military rank]]s below colonel will be named by the state legislatures. #Expenditures by the United States will be paid by funds raised by state legislatures, and apportioned to the states based on the real property values of each. #Defines the rights of the central government: to declare war, to set weights and measures (including coins), and for Congress to serve as a final court for disputes between states. #Defines a [[Committee of the States]] to be a government when Congress is not in session. #Requires nine states to approve the admission of a new state into the confederacy; preapproves [[Canada]], if they apply for membership. #Reaffirms that the Confederation accepts war debt incurred by Congress before the articles ([[assumption]]). #Declares that the articles are perpetual, and can only be altered by approval of Congress with ratification by ''all'' the state legislatures. Still at war with the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], the colonists were reluctant to establish another powerful national government. Jealously guarding their new independence, the Continental Congress created a loosely structured [[unicameral]] legislature that protected the liberty of the individual states at the expense of the confederation. While calling on Congress to regulate military and monetary affairs, for example, the Articles of Confederation provided no mechanism to ensure states complied with requests for troops or revenue. At times this left the military in a precarious position, as [[George Washington]] wrote in a [[1781]] letter to the governor of [[Massachusetts]], [[John Hancock]]. == The end of the war == The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)]], ending hostilities with Great Britain, languished in Congress for months because state representatives failed to attend sessions of the national legislature. Yet, Congress had no power to enforce attendance. Writing to [[George Clinton (politician)|George Clinton]] in September [[1783]], George Washington complained: :''Congress have come to no determination yet respecting the Peace Establishment, nor am I able to say when they will. I have lately had a conference with a Committee on this subject, and have reiterated my former opinions, but it appears to me that there is not a sufficient representation to discuss Great National points.'' {{ref|washingtonclinton}} ==Function== The Articles supported the Congressional direction of the [[Continental Army]], and allowed the [[13 Colonies|Thirteen Colonies]] to present a unified front when dealing with the European powers. But as an instrument of government, they were largely a failure. Congress could make decisions, but had no power to enforce them. Perhaps the most important power that Congress was denied was the power of taxation: Congress could only request [[money]] from the states. Understandably, the states did not generally comply with the requests in full, leaving the confederation chronically short of funds. The states and the national congress had both incurred debts during the war, and paying congressional debts became a major issue. Nevertheless the [[Continental Congress]] did take two actions with lasting impact. The [[Land Ordinance of 1785]] established the general land survey and ownership provisions used throughout later American expansion. The [[Northwest Ordinance]] of [[1787]] noted the agreement of the original states to give up western land claims and cleared the way for the entry of new states. Once the unity demanded by the Revolutionary War became unnecessary, the [[Continental Army]] was largely disbanded. A very small national force was maintained to man frontier forts and protect against Indian attacks. Meanwhile, each of the states had an army (or militia), and 11 of them had navies. The wartime promises of bounties and land grants to be paid for service were not being met. In 1783, [[George Washington|Washington]] defused the [[Newburgh conspiracy]], but riots by unpaid [[Pennsylvania]] veterans forced the Congress to leave [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]] on [[June 21]]. ==Revision== In May [[1786]], [[Charles Pinckney (governor)|Charles Pinckney]] of [[South Carolina]] proposed that Congress revise the Articles of Confederation. Recommended changes included granting [[Congress]] power over foreign and domestic commerce, and providing means for Congress to collect money from state treasuries. Unanimous approval was necessary to make the alterations, however, and Congress failed to reach a consensus. In September, five states assembled in the [[Annapolis Convention (1786)]] to discuss adjustments that would improve commerce. Under their chairman, [[Alexander Hamilton]], they invited state representatives to convene in [[Philadelphia]] to discuss improvements to the federal government. After debate, Congress endorsed the plan to revise the Articles of Confederation on [[February 21]] [[1787]]. According to some historians, the Articles were flawed; in particular, the [[confederal]] government was unable to settle state disputes on issues like trade and had no power to tax directly. After all, the states were thirteen individual [[republics]]. It took radical action to strip them of that [[sovereignty]]. ==Lessons== Although ultimately replaced by the [[United States Constitution]], the Articles of Confederation provided stability during the [[American Revolutionary War]] years. Most importantly, the experience of drafting and living under this initial document provided valuable lessons in self-governance and somewhat tempered fears about a powerful central government. Still, reconciling the turmoil between state and federal authority continues to challenge America, as seen in such conflicts as the [[1832]] [[Nullification Crisis]], the [[American Civil War]] ([[1861]]-[[1865|65]]), post-Civil War [[Reconstruction]], and the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]]'s landmark ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' decision in [[1954]]. ***** ==Signatures== The copy of the Articles in the U.S. National Archives has a series of signatures on page six. A list of them is presented here. The signing of the Articles was a process that has caused some confusion. The Articles were approved for distribution to the states, on [[November 15]], [[1777]]. A copy was made for each state and one was kept by the [[Continental Congress|Congress]]. The copies sent to the states for ratification were unsigned, and a cover letter had only the signatures of [[Henry Laurens]] and [[Charles Thomson]], who were the [[President of the Continental Congress|President]] and Secretary to the Congress. But, the Articles at that time were unsigned, and the date was blank. Congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the Articles on [[June 27]], [[1778]]. They ordered a final copy prepared (the one in the National Archives), and that delegates should inform the secretary of their authority for ratification. Then, on [[July 9]], [[1778]] the prepared copy was ready. They dated it, and began to sign. They also requested each of the remaining states to notify its delegation when ratification was completed. On that date, delegates present from New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and South Carolina signed the articles to indicate that their states had ratified. New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland could not, since their states had not ratified. North Carolina and Georgia also didn't sign that day, since their delegations were absent. After the first signing, some delegates signed at the next meeting they attended. For example John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name on [[August 8]]. John Penn was the first of North Carolina's delegates to arrive (on [[July 10]]), and the delegation signed the Articles on [[July 21]], [[1778]]. The other states had to wait until they ratified the Articles, and notified their Congressional delegation. Georgia signed on [[July 24]], New Jersey on [[November 26]], and Delaware on [[February 12]], [[1779]]. After a wait of two years, Maryland ratified, and her delegates signed the Articles on [[March 1]], [[1781]]. The articles were finally in force. Congress had debated the Articles for over a year and a half, and the ratification process had taken nearly three and a half years. Many participants in the original debates were no longer delegates, and some of the signers had only recently arrived. The '''Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union''' were signed by a group of men who were never present in the Congress at the same time. The signers and the states they represented were: * [[New Hampshire]]: [[Josiah Bartlett]] and [[John Wentworth Jr.]] * [[Massachusetts|Massachusetts Bay]]: [[John Hancock]], [[Samuel Adams]], [[Elbridge Gerry]], [[Francis Dana]], [[James Lovell (delegate)|James Lovell]], and [[Samuel Holten]] * [[Rhode Island|Rhode Island and Providence Plantations]]: [[William Ellery]], [[Henry Marchant]], and [[John Collins (delegate)|John Collins]] * [[Connecticut]]: [[Roger Sherman]], [[Samuel Huntington (statesman)|Samuel Huntington]], [[Oliver Wolcott]], [[Titus Hosmer]], and [[Andrew Adams]] * [[New York]]: [[James Duane]], [[Francis Lewis]], [[William Duer (1747-1799)|William Duer]], and [[Gouverneur Morris]] * [[New Jersey]]: [[John Witherspoon]] and [[Nathaniel Scudder]] * [[Pennsylvania]]: [[Robert Morris (merchant)|Robert Morris]], [[Daniel Roberdeau]], [[Jonathan Bayard Smith]], [[William Clingan]], and [[Joseph Reed (jurist)|Joseph Reed]] * [[Delaware]]: [[Thomas McKean]], [[John Dickinson (1732-1808)|John Dickinson]], and [[Nicholas Van Dyke (1738-1789)|Nicholas Van Dyke]] * [[Maryland]]: [[John Hanson]] and [[Daniel Carroll]] * [[Virginia]]: [[Richard Henry Lee]], [[John Banister]], [[Thomas Adams (politician)|Thomas Adams]], [[John Harvie]], and [[Francis Lightfoot Lee]] * [[North Carolina]]: [[John Penn (delegate)|John Penn]], [[Cornelius Harnett]], and [[John Williams (delegate)|John Williams]] * [[South Carolina]]: [[Henry Laurens]], [[William Henry Drayton|Will Henry Drayton]], [[John Mathews]], [[Richard Hutson]], and [[Thomas Heyward Jr.]] * [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]: [[John Walton (1738-1783)|John Walton]], [[Edward Telfair]], and [[Edward Langworthy]] ==Presidents of the Congress of the Confederation== The following list are those who led the [[Congress]] under the Articles of Confederation as the [[President of the United States in Congress Assembled|Presidents of the United States in Congress Assembled]]. The "president" under the Articles was the presiding officer of Congress, not the chief [[executive (government)|executive]], as is the [[President of the United States]] under the Constitution. Also, the Articles defined the powers of a [[confederation]] of states as opposed to the current [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]], which defines the powers of a [[federation]] of states. #[[Samuel Huntington (statesman)|Samuel Huntington]] #[[Thomas McKean]] #[[John Hanson]] #[[Elias Boudinot]] #[[Thomas Mifflin]] #[[Richard Henry Lee]] #[[John Hancock]] #[[Nathaniel Gorham]] #[[Arthur St. Clair]] #[[Cyrus Griffin]] For a full list of Presidents of the Congress Assembled and Presidents under the two Continental Congresses before the Articles, see [[President of the Continental Congress]]. ==References== #{{note|ratificationletter}}[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(jc00941)) Monday, November 17, 1777], Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/lawhome.html A Century of Lawmaking, 1774-1873] #{{note|washingtonclinton}}[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mgw:@field(DOCID+@lit(gw270170)) Letter George Washington to George Clinton], September 11, 1783. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/gwhtml/gwhome.html The George Washington Papers, 1741-1799] ==External links== {{wikisource}} * [http://www.law.ou.edu/hist/artconf.html Text Version of the Articles of Confederation] * [http://earlyamerica.com/earlyamerica/milestones/articles/cover.html Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union] * [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/articles.html Library of Congress: Articles of Confederation and related resources] * [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/nov15.html Library of Congress: "Today in History: November 15"] * [http://www.usconstitution.net/articles.html The United States Constitution Online: The Articles of Confederation] {{US Constitution}} [[Category:Defunct constitutions]] [[Category:United States historical documents]] [[Category:Legal history of the United States]] [[Category:American Revolution]] [[Category:Federalism]] [[Category:1781 in law]] [[de:Konföderationsartikel]] [[eo:Artikoloj de Konfederacio]] [[fr:Articles de la Confédération]] [[it:Articoli della Confederazione]] [[nl:Artikelen van de Confederatie]] 693 15899219 2003-10-30T12:00:32Z Andre Engels 300 removing 'see also' from redirect page #REDIRECT [[Broch]] 694 15899220 2004-11-01T22:52:41Z Docu 8029 {{R with possibilities}} #REDIRECT [[Anatolia]]{{R with possibilities}} 695 42103474 2006-03-03T21:22:29Z GilliamJF 506179 /* Introduction */ dab Prince Albert [[Image:Adam sedgwick.JPG|right|thumb|Adam Sedgwick]] '''Adam Sedgwick''' ([[March 22]], [[1785]] &ndash; [[January 27]], [[1873]]) was one of the founders of modern [[geology]]. He proposed the [[Devonian period]] of the geological timescale and later the [[Cambrian]] period. The latter proposal was based on work which he did on [[Wales|Welsh]] rock strata. Sedgwick was born in [[Dent (Lonsdale)|Dent]], at that time in [[Yorkshire]], the third child of an Anglican vicar. He was educated at [[Sedbergh School]] and [[Trinity College, Cambridge]]. ==Introduction== In [[1817]] he took [[holy orders]], and in [[1818]] he became [[Woodwardian Professor of Geology]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] [[University of Cambridge Department of Earth Sciences|Department of Earth Sciences]], holding a chair that had been endowed ninety years before by the natural historian [[John Woodward (naturalist)|John Woodward]]. He lacked formal training in geology, but he quickly became an active researcher in geology and [[paleontology]]. During his tenure, he immensely enlarged the geological collections of Cambridge University, and carried out important field research all over [[Great Britain]]. Sedgwick is said to have remarked, upon being appointed Woodwardian Professor, "Hitherto I have never turned a stone; henceforth I will leave no stone unturned." In [[1822]] he carried out fieldwork unraveling the complex geology of the [[Lake District]] of [[northern England]], armed with the new discoveries and techniques of [[William Smith (geologist)|William Smith]]. He met and befriended the poet [[William Wordsworth]] on this expedition, and also met the poet [[Robert Southey]] and the chemist [[John Dalton]]. His lectures at [[Cambridge]] were immensely popular; he was a spellbinding [[lecturer]], and -- breaking with the traditions of his time -- his lectures were open to women, whom Sedgwick thought could make great contributions to natural history. He continued to rise in his profession: in [[1829]] he became President of the [[Geological Society of London]], and in [[1845]] a Vice-Master of [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]]. As Vice-Master, he led campaigns to open Cambridge to non-[[Anglican]]s and to reorganize the academic programs, in the process meeting and becoming close to [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] and her consort [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Albert]]. By the 1850s he was in poor health, cared for by his niece Isabella. Still, he kept giving his famous lectures until [[1871]]. ==Early work== Sedgwick was one of several great figures in what has been called the Heroic Age of geology -- the time when the great geological time periods were defined, and when much exploration and fundamental research was carried out. Sedgwick's work placed him at the epicenter of one of the most heated geological controversies of his day, stemming from his work with the gentleman geologist [[Roderick Murchison]]. They explored the [[geology of Scotland]] in [[1827]], and in [[1839]] they jointly presented their researches on certain rocks in [[Devon]], [[England]], which had a distinctive [[fossil]] assemblage that led them to propose a new division of the geological time scale -- the [[Devonian]]. In the early 1830s, both men were working on the rocks of Wales, which were and are very difficult to work on due to extensive [[folding]] and [[geologic fault|faulting]]. However, they seemed to be older than most of the [[sedimentary rocks]] farther east. Murchison documented the presence of a distinctive set of fossils, one in which very few fish were found, but that included numerous different types of [[trilobites]], [[brachiopods]], and other such fossils. Murchison named the system of rocks containing such fossils the [[Silurian]], after the Silures, a Celtic tribe living in the Welsh Borderlands at the time of the Romans. Sedgwick, who had been working in central Wales, proposed the existence of a separate system below the Silurian, which he named the [[Cambrian]] -- after Cambria, the Latin name for Wales. The two presented a joint paper in [[1835]], entitled "On the Silurian and Cambrian Systems, exhibiting the order in which the older sedimentary strata succeed each other in England and Wales." Sedgwick's upper "Cambrian" overlapped with the lower part of Murchison's "Silurian." Sedgwick had defined his "Cambrian" using physical characters of the rocks, which were unique to Wales, and had not relied extensively on fossils, which could be found everywhere. Murchison, who had used fossils extensively in defining the Silurian, claimed at first that the upper Cambrian, and then the entire Cambrian, were really parts of the Silurian. The resulting quarrel between the two men left them permanently estranged and took years to resolve. There was more than a simple matter of names involved. Both geologists wanted the honour of describing the rocks that recorded the beginning of life on Earth, for no fossils were known that were older than those of the Cambrian. Murchison felt that the fossils of Sedgwick's "Cambrian" were not different enough from his "Silurian" forms to merit the naming of a geologic time period, and it was some time before truly distinctive Cambrian fossils were documented. Today, following the solution worked out in 1879 by Sedgwick's colleague [[Charles Lapworth]], geologists use both time periods, with a third one -- the [[Ordovician]], also named for a Celtic tribe in Wales -- between the Cambrian and the Silurian, equivalent to the disputed "upper Cambrian-lower Silurian" beds. Each one of these is now known to be characterized by distinct fossil assemblages. ==Disagreement with Darwin== For one summer of his work in Wales which was to lead to this controversy, Sedgwick made a fateful choice of field assistant: a young Cambridge graduate named [[Charles Darwin]]. Darwin had passed his examinations for the [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in January 1831, and began attending Sedgwick's geology lectures, which he found fascinating. That summer, the two men explored the rocks of north Wales; Darwin got a "crash course" in field geology from Sedgwick, an experience that would stand him in good stead over the next five years, on the round-the-world voyage of [[HMS Beagle]]. During this voyage, Darwin sent rocks and fossils from [[South America]] back to Sedgwick, as well as descriptions of the geology of South America. These impressed Sedgwick, who wrote in a letter to Darwin's family: He is doing admirably in S. America & has already sent home a Collection above all praise. -- It was the best thing in the world for him that he went out on the Voyage of Discovery... In November 1835, before Darwin had returned to England, Sedgwick read some of Darwin's work on South American geology to the Geological Society of London. This greatly improved Darwin's reputation as a scientist; he was inducted into the Society shortly after his return. The two stayed friends until Sedgwick's death, but Sedgwick was upset and disappointed by Darwin's theory of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]]. After reading [[The Origin of Species]], Sedgwick candidly wrote to Darwin on [[November 24]], [[1859]]: "If I did not think you a good tempered & truth loving man I should not tell you that. . . I have read your book with more pain than pleasure. Parts of it I admired greatly; parts I laughed at till my sides were almost sore; other parts I read with absolute sorrow; because I think them utterly false & grievously mischievous-- You have deserted-- after a start in that tram-road of all solid physical truth-- the true method of induction. . . " However despite this difference of opinion, the two men remained friendly until Sedgwick's death. ==Flawed opinions== Sedgwick's own geological views were generally catastrophic -- he believed that the history of the [[Earth]] had been marked by a series of cataclysmic events which had destroyed much of the Earth's life. In this belief he followed Cuvier, and he was opposed to Charles Lyell's models of slow, gradual geological change and a more or less steady-state Earth. However, Sedgwick was interested in the possibility that at least some of the "catastrophic" changes implied by the rock record might be shown to be gradual. He originally followed his colleague [[William Buckland]] in believing that the uppermost [[Pleistocene]] deposits had been laid down by the Biblical Flood, but retracted this belief after many of these deposits turned out to have been formed by glaciers, not floods. Sedgwick also did not object to evolution, or "development" as such theories were called then, in the broad sense -- to the fact that the life on Earth had changed over time. Nor was he a young-Earth creationist; he believed that the Earth must be extremely old. As Darwin wrote of Sedgwick's lectures, "What a capital hand is Sedgewick [sic] for drawing large cheques upon the Bank of Time!" However, Sedgwick believed in the Divine creation of life over long periods of time, by "a power I cannot imitate or comprehend -- but in which I believe, by a legitimate conclusion of sound reason drawn from the laws of harmonies of nature." What Sedgwick objected to was the apparent amoral and materialist nature of Darwin's proposed mechanism, natural selection, which he thought degrading to humanity's spiritual aspirations. His letter of November 24 went on to state: This view of nature you have stated admirably; tho' admitted by all naturalists & denied by no one of common sense. We all admit development as a fact of history; but how came it about? Here, in language, & still more in logic, we are point blank at issue-- There is a moral or metaphysical part of nature as well as a physical. A man who denies this is deep in the mire of folly. Tis the crown & glory of organic science that it does thro' final cause, link material to moral. . . You have ignored this link; &, if I do not mistake your meaning, you have done your best in one or two pregnant cases to break it. Were it possible (which thank God it is not) to break it, humanity in my mind, would suffer a damage that might brutalize it--& sink the human race into a lower grade of degradation than any into which it has fallen since its written records tell us of its history. ==External links== *[http://www.sedgwickmuseum.org/ Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge] *[http://www.esc.cam.ac.uk/SedgwickClub/ Sedgwick Club, Cambridge] *[http://www.esc.cam.ac.uk/ University of Cambridge Department of Earth Sciences] [[Category:1785 births|Sedgwick, Adam]] [[Category:1873 deaths|Sedgwick, Adam]] [[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge|Sedgwick, Adam]] [[Category:British geologists|Sedgwick, Adam]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Sedgwick, Adam]] [[Category:Natives of Cumbria|Sedgwick, Adam]] [[de:Adam Sedgwick]] [[fr:Adam Sedgwick]] 696 41989325 2006-03-03T01:53:17Z Zhaladshar 302064 {{Wikisource1911Enc}} - EB1911 article refers to a collection of European rivers {{Wikisource1911Enc|Aa}} '''Aa River''' may refer to: *The [[Aa River (France)]], in the north of France *The [[Aabach (Greifensee)]] river in Switzerland *The [[Aabach (Afte)]] river in Germany, a tributary of the Afte River *The [[Lielupe]] river (called "Kurländische Aa" in German) in Latvia *The [[Gauja]] river (called "Livländische Aa" in German) in Latvia <!-- * Aa is also an English noun, beloved of Scrabble players, meaning a [[stream]]. --> <!-- *The [[Sarner Aa]] river in Switzerland *The [[Engelberger Aa]] river in Switzerland *The [[Westfälische Aa]] river in the Westphalia region of Germany *The [[Münstersche Aa]] river in the Münster region of Germany *The [[Great Aa]] (Große Aa) river in Germany *in the [[Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]]: **Aa, a river in [[Antwerp (province)|Antwerp]], and joining the [[Kleine Nete]] at [[Grobbendonk]]. **Drentse Aa, a small river in the [[Drenthe]] and [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]] provinces that also flows through [[Groningen (city)|Groningen]] city. **Aa, a river in [[Noord-Brabant]], flowing through [[Helmond]] and [['s-Hertogenbosch]]. **Aa or Weerijs, also in [[Noord-Brabant]], a small river near [[Breda (Netherlands)|Breda]], rising at [[Wuustwezel]], Belgium, joint by the Kleine Aa, rising at [[Brecht]], Belgium. **several small rivers and canals in [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]] province, such as Pekel Aa, Ruiten Aa, Mussel Aa. --> {{disambig}} [[de:Liste der Gewässer mit Aa]] [[et:Aa jõgi]] [[fr:Aa (fleuve)]] [[ga:Aa (abhainn)]] [[nl:Aa (waternaam)]] [[zh:阿河]] 697 41390660 2006-02-27T00:44:56Z Koavf 205121 [[Image:Arthur Koestler.jpg|110px|thumb|Arthur Koestler]] '''Arthur Koestler''' ([[September 5]], [[1905]], [[Budapest]] &ndash; [[March 3]], [[1983]], [[London]]) was a [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[polymath]] who became a naturalized [[United Kingdom|British]] subject. He wrote [[journalism]], [[novels]], social [[philosophy]], and books on scientific subjects. He was a [[Communism|Communist]] during much of the 1930s and remained politically active until the 1950s. He wrote a number of popular books, including ''Arrow in the Blue'' (the first volume of his autobiography), ''The Yogi and the Commissar'' (a collection of essays, many dealing with [[Communism]]), ''The Sleepwalkers'' (''A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe''), ''The Act of Creation'', and ''The Thirteenth Tribe'' giving a new theory of the origins of the Jews of Eastern Europe. His most famous work, the novel ''[[Darkness at Noon]]'' about the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Great Purge|purges]] of the 1930s, ranks with [[George Orwell]]'s ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' as a fictional treatment of [[Stalinism]]. He also wrote ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' articles.<!--Many number?? I know but one.--> == Life == He was born Kösztler Artur (Hungarians put the [[surname]] first) in [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]] to a [[German language|German-speaking]] Hungarian family of [[Ashkenazi Jews| Ashkenazi Jewish]] descent. His father, Henrik, was an [[industrialist]] and [[inventor]] whose business ideas revealed flawed judgement; for example, he invested for a while in the manufacture of a kind of [[radioactive]] soap. When Artur was 14, his family moved to [[Vienna]], [[Austria]]. In 1918, Hungary obtained its independence from Austria and flirted for a while with [[Bolshevism]]. Koestler studied [[science]] and [[psychology]] at the [[University of Vienna]], where he became involved in [[Zionism]]. After completing his studies, he worked as a [[news correspondent]]. From [[1926]] to [[1929]] he lived in the [[British Mandate of Palestine]], partly in a ''[[kibbutz]]''. He joined the [[Germany|German]] [[Communist Party]] in [[1931]], but left it after the [[Stalin]]ist purges of [[1938]]. During this period he traveled extensively in the [[Soviet Union]] and climbed [[Mount Ararat]] in [[Turkey]]. In [[Turkmenistan]], he met the black American writer [[Langston Hughes]]. In [[1931]], he was a member of a [[zeppelin]] expedition to the [[North Pole]]. In his memoir ''The Invisible Writing'', Koestler recalls that during the summer of [[1935]] he "wrote about half of a satirical novel called ''[[The Good Soldier Švejk|The Good Soldier Schweik Goes to War Again....]]''. It had been commissioned by [[Willi Münzenberg|Willy Münzenberg]] <nowiki>[</nowiki>the [[Comintern]]'s chief [[propagandist]] in the [[Western world|West]]] ... but was vetoed by the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Party]] on the grounds of the book's 'pacifist errors'..." (p. 283). Soon after the outbreak of [[World War II]], the French authorities detained him for several months in a camp for resident aliens at Le Vernet in the foothills of the [[Pyrenees]] mountains. Upon his release, he joined the [[French Foreign Legion]]. He eventually escaped to [[England]] via Morocco and Portugal. In England, he served in the [[British Army]] as a member of the [[British Pioneer Corps]], 1941-42, then worked for the [[BBC]]. He became a [[British subject]] in [[1945]]. He returned to France after the war, where he rubbed shoulders with the set gravitating around [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] and [[Simone de Beauvoir]]. One of the characters in de Beauvoir's novel ''The Mandarins'' is believed based on Koestler. He returned to [[London]] and spent the rest of his life writing and lecturing. He was made a [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] in the [[1970s]]. In [[1983]], Koestler, suffering from [[Parkinson's disease]] and [[leukemia]], committed joint [[suicide]] by taking an overdose of drugs with his third wife Cynthia. He had long been an advocate of voluntary [[euthanasia]], and in [[1981]], had become vice-president of "[[EXIT]]", a British group campaigning for it. His will endowed the chair of [[parapsychology]] at the [[University of Edinburgh]] in [[Scotland]]. ===Multilingualism=== In addition to his mother tongue [[German language|German]], Koestler became fluent in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[English language|English]], and [[French language|French]], and knew some [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Russian language|Russian]]. His biographer [[David Cesarani]] claims there is some evidence that Koestler may have picked up some [[Yiddish]] from his grandfather. Koestler's multilingualism was principally due to his having resided, worked, and/or studied in [[Hungary]], [[Austria]], [[Germany]], [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]] (pre-independence [[Israel]]), the [[Soviet Union]], the [[United Kingdom]], and [[France]], all by 40 years of age. Though he wrote the bulk of his later work in English, Koestler wrote his best-known novels in three different languages: ''The Gladiators'' in Hungarian, ''Darkness at Noon'' in German (although the original is now lost), and ''Arrival and Departure'' in English. His journalism was written in German, Hebrew, French and English. He claimed to have produced the first Hebrew language [[crossword]] puzzles. ===Women=== Koestler was married to Dorothy Asher (1935-50), Mamaine Paget (1950-52), and Cynthia Jefferies (1965-83). He also had a very short fling with the French writer [[Simone de Beauvoir]], one that may explain the mutual animosity between him and [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. David Cesarani claimed that Koestler beat and raped several women, including [[film director]] [[Jill Craigie]]. The resulting protests led to the removal of a bust of Koestler from public display at the [[University of Edinburgh]]. Questions have also been raised by his [[suicide pact]] with his last spouse. Although he was [[Terminal illness|terminally ill]] at the time, she was apparently healthy, leading some to claim he wrongly persuaded her to take her own life. ==Mixed legacy== Just as ''[[Darkness at Noon]]'' was selling well during the [[Cold War]] of the 40s and 50s, Koestler announced his retirement from [[politics]]. Much of what he wrote thereafter revealed a multidisciplinary thinker whose work anticipated a number of trends by many years. He was among the first to experiment with [[LSD]] (in a laboratory). He also wrote about [[Japan|Japanese]] and [[India|Indian]] mysticism in ''[[The Lotus and the Robot]]'' ([[1960]]). He did not merely arrive at different answers to accepted questions; rather, he tended to ask questions that no one else thought to ask. This originality resulted in an uneven set of ideas and conclusions. Some of them, such as his work on creativity (''Insight and Outlook, Act of Creation'') and the history of science (''The Sleepwalkers''), are arguably brilliant and challenge us to readjust our thinking. Some of his other pursuits, such as his interest in the [[paranormal]], his support for [[euthanasia]], his theory of the origin of [[Ashkenazi Jews]] like himself, and his disagreement with [[Darwinism]], are more controversial. === Politics === Koestler was involved in a number of political causes during his life, from [[Zionism]] and [[communism]] to [[anti-communism]], voluntary [[euthanasia]] and campaigns against [[capital punishment]], particularly [[hanging]]. He was also an early advocate of [[nuclear disarmament]]. === Journalism === Until the bestseller status of ''[[Darkness at Noon]]'' made him financially comfortable, Koestler often earned his living as a journalist and foreign correspondent, trading on his ability to write quickly in several languages, and to acquire with facility a working knowledge of a new language. He wrote for a variety of newspapers, including ''Vossische Zeitung'' (science editor) and ''B.Z. am Mittag'' (foreign editor) in the 1920s. In the early 1930s, he worked for the Ullstein publishing group in [[Berlin]] and did freelance writing for the French press. While covering the [[Spanish Civil War]], in [[1937]], he was captured and held for several months by the [[Falange|Falangists]] in [[Málaga]], until the [[United Kingdom|British]] Foreign Office negotiated his release. His ''[[Spanish Testament]]'' records these experiences, which he soon transformed into his classic prison novel ''[[Darkness at Noon]]''. After his release from Spanish detention, Koestler worked for the ''News Chronicle'', then edited ''Die Zukunft'' with [[Willi Münzenberg]], an anti-Nazi, anti-Stalinist German language paper based in [[Paris]], founded in [[1938]]. During and after [[WWII]], he wrote for a number of English and American papers, including ''The Sunday Telegraph'', on various subjects. ===Science=== During the last 30 years of his life, Koestler wrote extensively on science and scientific practice. The [[Post-Modernism|post-modernist]] scepticism colouring much of this writing tended to alienate most of the scientific community. A case in point is his 1971 book ''The Case of the Midwife Toad'' about the biologist [[Paul Kammerer]], who claimed to find experimental support for [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarckian inheritance]]. [[Mysticism]] and a fascination with the [[paranormal]] imbued much of his later work, and greatly influenced his personal life. He left a substantial part of his estate to establish the Koestler Institute at the [[University of Edinburgh]] dedicated to the study of [[Parapsychology|paranormal]] phenomena. His ''The Roots of Coincidence'' centered on yet another line of unconventional research by Paul Kammerer, this time his claim of a quantum theory of coincidence or [[synchronicity]], a theory Koestler evaluated in light of the writings of [[Carl Jung]]. More controversial were Koestler's studies of [[levitation]] and [[telepathy]]. ===Judaism=== Although a lifelong atheist, Koestler's ancestry was Jewish. His biographer [[David Cesarani]] has claimed that Koestler deliberately disowned his Jewish ancestry. Koestler's book ''[[The Thirteenth Tribe]]'' advanced the controversial thesis that [[Ashkenazi]] Jews are not descended from the Israelites of antiquity, but from the [[Khazars]], a [[Turkic]] people in the [[Caucasus]] who converted to [[Judaism]] in the [[8th century]] and were later forced to move westwards into current [[Russia]], [[Ukraine]] and [[Poland]]. Koestler stated that part of his intent in writing ''The Thirteenth Tribe'' was to defuse [[anti-Semitism]] by undermining the identification of European Jews with Biblical Jews, with the hope of rendering anti-Semitic epithets such as "Christ killer" inapplicable. Ironically, Koestler's thesis that Ashkenazi Jews are not Semitic has become an important claim of many anti-Semitic groups. Some [[Palestinian]]s have eagerly seized upon this thesis, believing that to identify most Jews as non-Semites seriously undermines their historical claim to the [[land of Israel]]. The thesis of ''The Thirteenth Tribe'' has since been criticized. To date, the genetic evidence has been inconclusive. Some researchers claim to find a Middle Eastern genetic element in virtually all Ashkenazim. Others note both Turkic words and Turkic genetic markers in these populations. But the usefulness of genetic markers in determining ancestry can be problematic; for instance, Ashkenazim also display a high level of similarity to the genetic markers of [[Khoisan]] [[Bushmen]] in Southern Africa. A thorough review of the scientific literature can be found at [http://www.khazaria.com/ Khazaria.com]. When Koestler resided in Palestine during the 1920s, he lived on a [[kibbutz]], an experience forming the basis of his unfinished ''Thieves in the Night''. His view of [[Israel]] was that it would never be destroyed, short of a second [[Shoah]]. He supported the statehood of Israel, but opposed a diaspora Jewish culture. In an interview published in the ''London Jewish Chronicle'' around the time of Israel's founding, Koestler asserted that all Jews should either migrate to Israel, or assimilate completely into their local cultures. Koestler was also no dogmatic Zionist; for instance, he proposed that Israel drop the [[Hebrew alphabet]] for the [[Roman alphabet|Roman]]. == Cultural influence == In his younger days, the [[singer]] [[Sting (musician)|Sting]] was an avid reader of Koestler. His band of the time, [[The Police]] were to name one of their albums ''[[Ghost in the Machine]]'' after one of Koestler's books. The title ''[[Synchronicity (album)|Synchronicity]]'' was also inspired by Koestler's ''[[The Roots of Coincidence]]'', which mentions [[Carl Jung]]'s [[synchronicity|theory]] of the same name. Koestler knew little about the burgeoning [[New Wave music]] scene, and is alleged to have said: <blockquote> Look at this. Did you ever see a magazine called the ''New Musical Express''? It turns out there is a pop group called [[The Police]] - I don't know why they are called that, presumably to distinguish them from the punks - and they've made an album of my essay ''The Ghost in the Machine''. I didn't know anything about it until my clipping agency sent me a review of the record. </blockquote> The [[cyberpunk]] [[manga]] and [[anime]] series ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'' was also inspired by Koestler's ''The Ghost in the Machine''. == Bibliography == An excellent introduction to Koestler's writing and thought is the following anthology of passages from many of his books, described as "A selection from 50 years of his writings, chosen and with new commentary by the author": *1980. ''[[Bricks to Babel]]''. Random House, ISBN 0394518977 ===Autobiography === *1952. ''[[Arrow in the Blue|Arrow In The Blue: The First Volume Of An Autobiography, 1905-31]]'', 2005 reprint, ISBN 0099490676 *1954. ''[[The Invisible Writing: The Second Volume Of An Autobiography, 1932-40]]'', 1984 reprint, ISBN 081286218X *1937. ''[[Spanish Testament]]''. *1941. ''[[Scum of the Earth (book)|Scum of the Earth]]''. *1984. ''[[Stranger on the Square]]''. The books ''The Lotus and the Robot'', ''The God that Failed'', and ''Von Weissen Nächten und Roten Tagen'', as well as his numerous essays, all contain autobiographical information. ===Biographies=== * Atkins, J., 1956. ''Arthur Koestler''. * Buckard, Christian G., 2004. ''Arthur Koestler: Ein extremes Leben 1905-1983''. ISBN 3406521770. * [[David Cesarani]], 1998. ''Arthur Koestler: The Homeless Mind''. ISBN 0684867206. * Hamilton, Iain, 1982. ''Koestler: A Biography''. ISBN 0025476602. * Koestler, Mamaine, 1985. ''Living with Koestler''. ISBN 0297785311 or ISBN 0312490291. * Levene, M., 1984. ''Arthur Koestler''. ISBN 080446412X. * Mikes, George, 1983. ''Arthur Koestler: The Story of a Friendship''. ISBN 0233976124. * Pearson, S. A., 1978. ''Arthur Koestler''. ISBN 0805766995. [[Langston Hughes]]'s autobiography also documents their meeting in [[Turkestan]] during the [[Soviet]] era. === Books by Koestler (excluding autobiography) === *1933. ''Von Weissen Nächten und Roten Tagen''. Very difficult to find. *1935. ''The Good Soldier Schweik Goes to War Again....'' Unfinished and unpublished. *1937. ''L'Espagne ensanglantée''. *1939. ''[[The Gladiators (book)|The Gladiators]]'', 1967 reprint, ISBN 0025653202. A novel on the revolt of [[Spartacus]]. *1940. ''[[Darkness at Noon]]'', ISBN 0099424916 *1942. ''[[Dialogue with Death]]''. Abridgement of ''Spanish Testament''. *1943. ''[[Arrival and Departure]]'', novel. 1990 reprint, ISBN 0140181199 *1945. ''[[The Yogi and the Commissar]] and other essays''. *1945. ''[[Twilight Bar]]''. Drama. *1946. ''[[Thieves in the Night (novel)]]''. *1949. ''The Challenge of our Time''. *1949. ''[[Promise and Fulfilment]]: Palestine 1917-1949''. *1949. ''[[Insight and Outlook]]''. *1955. ''[[The Trail of the Dinosaur]] and other essays''. *1956. ''[[Reflections on Hanging]]''. *1959. ''[[The Sleepwalkers]]: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe''. ISBN 0140192468 *1960. ''The Watershed: A Biography of Johannes Kepler''. Based on ''The Sleepwalkers''. ISBN 0385095767 *1960. ''[[Lotus and the Robot]]'', ISBN 0090598911. Koestler's journey to India and Japan, and his assessment of East and West. *1961. ''Control of the Mind''. *1961. ''Hanged by the Neck''. Reuses some material from ''Reflections on Hanging''. *1963. ''[[Suicide of a Nation]]''. *1964. ''[[The Act of Creation]]''. *1967. ''[[The Ghost in the Machine]]''. Penquin reprint 1990: ISBN 0140191925. *1968. ''[[Drinkers of Infinity]]: Essays 1955-1967''. *1970. ''The Age of Longing'', ISBN 0091045207. *1971. ''[[The Case of the Midwife Toad]]'', ISBN 0394718232. An account of [[Paul Kammerer]]'s research on [[Lamarckism|Lamarckian evolution]] and what he called "serial coincidences". *1972. ''[[The Roots of Coincidence]]'', ISBN 0394719344. Sequel to ''The Case of the Midwife Toad''. *1972. ''[[The Call Girls (play)|The Call Girls]]: A Tragicomedy with a Prologue and Epilogue'' (play). *1973. ''The Lion and the Ostrich''. *1974. ''[[The Heel of Achilles (essays)|The Heel of Achilles]]: Essays 1968-1973'', ISBN 0394495969. *1976. ''[[The Thirteenth Tribe]]: The Khazar Empire and Its Heritage'', ISBN 0394402847. *1976. ''Astride the Two Cultures: Arthur Koestler at 70'', ISBN 0394400631. *1977. ''Twentieth Century Views: A Collection of Critical Essays'', ISBN 0130492132. *1978. ''[[Janus: A Summing Up]]'', ISBN 0394500520. Sequel to ''The Ghost in the Machine'' *1981. ''[[Kaleidoscope (Koestler)|Kaleidoscope]]''. Essays from ''Drinkers of Infinity'' and ''The Heel of Achilles'', plus later pieces and stories. ===Writings as a contributor=== *''Encyclopaedia of Sexual Knowledge'' (1935) *''Foreign Correspondent'' (1939), *''The Practice of Sex'' (1940) *''[[The God That Failed]]'' (1950) (collection of testimonies by ex-Communists) *"[[Attila, the poet]]" (1954) (Encounter ; ; 1954.2 (5)). On loan at the UCL library of the School of Slavonic & Eastern European Studies. *[http://library.ucl.ac.uk:80/F/482FU6EL2H2D5M313X59FNURXIJEXB9DEH6UNIIMKH4BHVDSG1-00222?func=item-global&doc_library=UCL01&doc_number=000806339&year=&volume=&sub_library=SSEES UCL library online] *''Beyond Reductionism: The Alpbach Symposium. New Perspectives in the Life Sciences'' (co-editor with J.R. Smythies, 1969), ISBN 0807015350 *''[[The Challenge of Chance]]: A Mass Experiment in Telepathy and Its Unexpected Outcome'' (1973) *''Life After Death'', (co-editor, 1976) *''[[Humour]] and [[Wit]]. I'': [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]. 15th ed. vol. 9.([[1983]]) **<small>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9106291 humour - Encyclopædia Britannica](by Arthur Koestler)</small> ==Quotes== "Courage is never to let your actions be influenced by your fears." "Creative activity could be described as a type of learning process where teacher and pupil are located in the same individual." "Nothing is more sad than the death of an illusion." "Prometheus is reaching out for the stars with an empty grin on his face." "Scientists are peeping toms at the keyhole of eternity." "The more original a discovery, the more obvious it seems afterwards." "The most persistent sound which reverberates through man's history is the beating of war drums." "The principle mark of genius is not perfection but originality, the opening of new frontiers." "True creativity often starts where language ends." == External links == {{wikiquote}} *[http://moebius.psy.ed.ac.uk/ Koestler Parapsychology Unit] - Koestler and his third spouse left a large sum of money for research into parapsychology: this funded, amongst other things, the Koestler Parapsychology Unit at Edinburgh University *[http://koestlerarthur.fw.hu http://koestlerarthur.fw.hu] *[http://www.draken.com/ahellas/koestler.html Arthur Koestler Project] [[Category:1905 births|Koestler, Arthur]] [[Category:1983 deaths|Koestler, Arthur]] [[Category:Commanders of the British Empire|Koestler, Arthur]] [[Category:Hungarian philosophers|Koestler, Arthur]] [[Category:Hungarian novelists|Koestler, Arthur]] [[Category:Hungarian writers|Koestler, Arthur]] [[Category:Khazar studies|Koestler]] [[Category:Writers who committed suicide|Koestler]] [[de:Arthur Koestler]] [[es:Arthur Koestler]] [[eo:Arthur KOESTLER]] [[fr:Arthur Koestler]] [[he:ארתור קסטלר]] [[hu:Arthur Koestler]] [[ja:アーサー・ケストラー]] [[pl:Arthur Koestler]] [[ro:Arthur Koestler]] [[ru:Кестлер, Артур]] [[sk:Arthur Koestler]] 698 41796941 2006-03-01T20:38:45Z Chcknwnm 644872 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.209.193.99|209.209.193.99]] to last version by Cactus.man {{redirect|Atlantic}} {{Five oceans}} The '''Atlantic Ocean''' is [[Earth]]'s second-largest [[ocean]], covering approximately one-fifth of its surface. The ocean's name, derived from [[Greek mythology]], means the "[[Sea]] of [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]]". This ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending in a north-south direction and is divided into the North Atlantic and South Atlantic by [[Equatorial Counter Current|equatorial counter current]]s at about 8° north [[latitude]]. Bounded by the [[Americas]] on the west and [[Europe]] and [[Africa]] on the east, the Atlantic is linked to the [[Pacific Ocean]] by the [[Arctic Ocean]] on the north and the [[Drake Passage]] on the south. An artificial connection between the Atlantic and Pacific is also provided by the [[Panama Canal]]. On the east, the dividing line between the Atlantic and the [[Indian Ocean]] is the 20° east meridian, running south from [[Cape Agulhas]] to [[Antarctica]]. The Atlantic is separated from the [[Arctic Ocean]] by a line from [[Greenland]] to northwestern [[Iceland]] and then from northeastern Iceland to southernmost tip of [[Spitsbergen]] and then to [[North Cape, Norway|North Cape]] in northern [[Norway]].<ref>[http://ioc.unesco.org/oceanteacher/OceanTeacher2/01_GlobOcToday/03_GeopolOc/s23_1953.pdf ''Limits of Oceans and Seas'']. International Hydrographic Organization Special Publication No. 23, 1953.</ref> [[Image:Ireland-AtlanticOceanwithAranIsland.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The Atlantic Ocean as seen from the west coast of [[Ireland]] on a fair day.]] Covering approximately 20% of Earth's surface, the Atlantic Ocean is second only to the Pacific in size. With its adjacent seas it occupies an area of about [[1 E14 m²|106,400,000]] [[square kilometre]]s (41,100,000 [[square mile]]s); without them, it has an area of [[1 E13 m²|82,400,000 square kilometres]] (31,800,000 sq mi). The land area that drains into the Atlantic is four times that of either the Pacific or Indian oceans. The volume of the Atlantic Ocean with its adjacent seas is [[1 E15 m³|354,700,000]] [[cubic kilometre]]s (85,100,000 [[cubic mile|cu mi]]) and without them 323,600,000 cubic kilometres (77,640,000 cu mi). The average depths of the Atlantic, with its adjacent seas, is 3,332 [[metre]]s (10,932 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]); without them it is 3,926 metres (12,881 ft). The greatest depth, 8,605 metres (28,232 ft), is in the [[Puerto Rico Trench]]. The width of the Atlantic varies from [[1 E6 m|2,848]] [[kilometre]]s (1,770 [[mile|miles]]) between Brazil and [[Liberia]] to about [[1 E6 m|4,830 kilometes]] (3,000 mi) between the United States and northern Africa. The Atlantic Ocean has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. These include the [[Caribbean Sea]], [[Gulf of Mexico]], [[Gulf of St. Lawrence]], [[Mediterranean Sea]], [[Black Sea]], [[North Sea]], [[Labrador Sea]], [[Baltic Sea]], and [[Norwegian Sea|Norwegian]]-[[Greenland Sea]]. Islands in the Atlantic Ocean include [[Faroe Islands]], [[Greenland]], [[Iceland]], [[Rockall]], [[Great Britain]], [[Ireland]], [[Fernando de Noronha]], the [[Azores]], the [[Madeira Islands]], the [[Canaries]], the [[Cape Verde]] Islands, [[Sao Tome e Principe]], [[Newfoundland]], [[Bermuda]], the [[West Indies]], [[Ascension Island|Ascension]], [[Saint Helena (Britain)|St. Helena]], [[Trindade Island|Trindade]], [[Martin Vaz]], [[Tristan da Cunha]], the [[Falkland Islands]], and [[South Georgia Island]]. [[Image:Atlantic_Ocean.png|right|Atlantic Ocean]] ==Ocean bottom== The principal feature of the bottom [[topography]] of the Atlantic Ocean is a great submarine mountain range called the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]]. It extends from [[Iceland]] in the north to approximately 58° south latitude, reaching a maximum width of about 1,600 kilometres (1,000 mi). A great [[rift valley]] also extends along the ridge over most of its length. The depth of water over the ridge is less than 2,700 metres (8,900 ft) in most places, and several mountain peaks rise above the water, forming islands. The South Atlantic Ocean has an additional submarine ridge, the Walvis Ridge. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge separates the Atlantic Ocean into two large [[trough (geology)|trough]]s with depths averaging between 3,700 and 5,500 metres (12,000 and 18,000 ft). Transverse ridges running between the continents and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge divide the ocean floor into numerous basins. Some of the larger basins are the Guiana, North American, Cape Verde, and Canaries basins in the North Atlantic. The largest South Atlantic basins are the Angola, Cape, Argentina, and Brazil basins. The deep ocean floor is thought to be fairly flat, although numerous [[seamount]]s and some [[guyot]]s exist. Several deeps or trenches are also found on the ocean floor. The Puerto Rico Trench, in the North Atlantic, is the deepest. The [[Laurentian Abyss]] is found off the eastern coast of Canada. In the south Atlantic, the [[South Sandwich Trench]] reaches a depth of 8,428 metres (27,651 ft). A third major trench, the [[Romanche Trench]], is located near the equator and reaches a depth of about 7,454 metres (24,455 ft). The shelves along the margins of the continents constitute about 11% of the bottom topography. In addition, a number of deep channels cut across the continental rise. Ocean [[sediment]]s are composed of terrigenous, pelagic, and authigenic material. Terrigenous deposits consist of sand, mud, and rock particles formed by erosion, weathering, and volcanic activity on land and then washed to sea. These materials are largely found on the [[continental shelf|continental shelves]] and are thickest off the mouths of large rivers or off desert coasts. Pelagic deposits, which contain the remains of organisms that sink to the ocean floor, include red clays and [[Globigerinida|Globigerina]], [[pteropod]], and siliceous oozes. Covering most of the ocean floor and ranging in thickness from 60 metres to 3,300 metres (200 ft to 11,000 ft), they are thickest in the convergence belts and in the zones of upwelling. Authigenic deposits consist of such materials as [[manganese nodule]]s. They occur where [[sediment]]ation proceeds slowly or where currents sort the deposits. ==Water characteristics== <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Capespearnew.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The Atlantic Ocean at [[Cape Spear]], Newfoundland]] --> The [[salinity]] of the surface waters in the open ocean ranges from 33 to 37 parts per thousand by mass and varies with latitude and season. Although the minimum salinity values are found just north of the equator, in general the lowest values are in the high latitudes and along coasts where large rivers flow into the ocean. Maximum salinity values occur at about 25° north latitude. Surface salinity values are influenced by evaporation, precipitation, river inflow, and melting of sea ice. Surface water temperatures, which vary with latitude, current systems, and season and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, range from less than −2&nbsp;°[[Celsius|C]] to 29&nbsp;°C (28&nbsp;°[[Fahrenheit|F]] to 84&nbsp;°F). <!-- less than 2 is not −2, but assuming less than -2 intended, degree signs butt to letter with space from number --> Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator, and minimum values are found in the polar regions. In the middle latitudes, the area of maximum temperature variations, values may vary by 7&nbsp;°C to 8&nbsp;°C (13&nbsp;°F to 15&nbsp;°F). The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major water masses. The North and South Atlantic central waters constitute the surface waters. The sub-Antarctic intermediate water extends to depths of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). The North Atlantic deep water reaches depths of as much as 4,000 metres (13,200 ft). The [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] bottom water occupies ocean basins at depths greater than 4,000 metres (13,200 ft). Within the North Atlantic, ocean currents isolate a large elongated body of water known as the [[Sargasso Sea]], in which the salinity is noticeably higher than average. The Sargasso Sea contains large amounts of [[seaweed]], and is also the spawning ground for the [[European eel]]. Due to the [[Coriolis effect]], water in the North Atlantic circulates in a clockwise direction, whereas water circulation in the South Atlantic is counter clockwise. The South [[tide]]s in the Atlantic Ocean are semi-[[diel|diurnal]]; that is, two high tides occur during each 24 lunar hours. The tides are a general wave that moves from south to north. In latitudes above 40° north some east-west oscillation occurs. ==Climate== [[Image:Atlantic hurricane graphic.gif|frame|right|Waves in the trade winds in the Atlantic Ocean — areas of converging winds that move along the same track as the prevailing wind — create instabilities in the atmosphere that may lead to the formation of hurricanes.]] The climate of the Atlantic Ocean and adjacent land areas is influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters and water currents as well as the winds blowing across the waters. Because of the oceans' great capacity for retaining heat, maritime climates are moderate and free of extreme seasonal variations. [[Precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] can be approximated from coastal weather data and air temperature from the water temperatures. The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation. Climatic zones vary with latitude; the warmest climatic zones stretch across the Atlantic north of the equator. The coldest zones are in the high latitudes, with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas covered by sea ice. Ocean currents contribute to climatic control by transporting warm and cold waters to other regions. Adjacent land areas are affected by the winds that are cooled or warmed when blowing over these currents. The [[Gulf Stream]], for example, warms the atmosphere of the British Isles and northwestern Europe, and the cold water currents contribute to heavy fog off the coast of northeastern Canada (the [[Grand Banks]] area) and the northwestern coast of Africa. In general, winds tend to transport moisture and warm or cool air over land areas. [[tropical cyclone|Hurricane]]s develop in the southern part of the North Atlantic Ocean. ==History and economy== The Atlantic Ocean appears to be the second youngest of the world's oceans, after the [[Southern Ocean]]. Evidence indicates that it did not exist prior to 180 million years ago, when the continents that formed from the breakup of the ancestral supercontinent, [[Pangaea]], were being rafted apart by the process of seafloor spreading. The Atlantic has been extensively explored since the earliest settlements were established along its shores. The [[Vikings]], [[Portugal|Portuguese]], and [[Christopher Columbus]] were the most famous among its early explorers. After Columbus, European exploration rapidly accelerated, and many new trade routes were established. As a result, the Atlantic became and remains the major artery between Europe and the Americas (known as [[transatlantic]] trade). Numerous scientific explorations have been undertaken, including those by the German Meteor expedition, Columbia University's Lamont Geological Observatory, and the United States Navy [[Hydrographic office#United States|Hydrographic Office]]. The ocean has also contributed significantly to the development and economy of the countries around it. Besides its major "[[transatlantic]]" transportation and communication routes, the Atlantic offers abundant petroleum deposits in the [[sedimentary rock]]s of the continental shelves and the world's richest fishing resources, especially in the waters covering the shelves. The major species of fish caught are [[cod]], [[haddock]], [[hake]], [[herring]], and [[mackerel]]. The most productive areas include the [[Grand Banks]] of [[Newfoundland]], the shelf area off [[Nova Scotia]], [[Georges Bank]] off [[Cape Cod]], the Bahama Banks, the waters around [[Iceland]], the [[Irish Sea]], the [[Dogger Bank]] of the [[North Sea]], and the Falkland Banks. [[Eel]], [[lobster]], and [[whale]]s have also been taken in great quantities. All these factors, taken together, tremendously enhance the Atlantic's great commercial value. Because of the threats to the ocean environment presented by oil spills, [[marine debris]], and the incineration of toxic wastes at sea, various international treaties exist to reduce some forms of pollution. *In [[1858]], the first [[Transatlantic telegraph cable]] was laid by [[Cyrus Field]]. *In [[1919]], the American [[NC-4]] became the first [[airplane]] to cross the Atlantic (though it made a couple of landings on islands along the way). *Later in [[1919]], a British airplane piloted by [[Alcock and Brown]] made the first non-stop transatlantic flight from [[Newfoundland]] to [[Ireland]]. *In [[1921]], the [[United Kingdom|British]] were the first to cross the North Atlantic in an [[airship]]. *In [[1922]], the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] were the first to cross the South Atlantic in an [[airship]]. *The first transatlantic [[telephone]] call was made on [[January 7]], 1927. *In [[1927]], [[Charles Lindbergh]] made the first solo non-stop transatlantic flight in an airplane (between [[New York City]] and [[Paris]]). *After rowing for 81 days and 2,962 miles, on [[December 3]], [[1999]] [[Tori Murden]] became the first woman to cross the Atlantic Ocean by [[rowboat]] alone when she reached [[Guadeloupe]] from the [[Canary Islands]]. '''Location:''' body of water between [[Africa]], [[Europe]], the [[Southern Ocean]], and the [[Americas]] '''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|0|00|N|25|00|W|}} '''Map references:''' [[World]] '''Area:''' * ''total:'' [[1 E13 m²|76.762 million km²]] (29.637 million mi²) * ''note:'' includes the [[Baltic Sea]], [[Black Sea]], [[Caribbean Sea]], [[Davis Strait]], [[Denmark Strait]], part of the [[Drake Passage]], [[Gulf of Mexico]], [[Labrador Sea]], [[Mediterranean Sea]], [[North Sea]], [[Norwegian Sea]], almost all of the [[Scotia Sea]], and other tributary water bodies '''Area - comparative:''' slightly less than 6.5 times the size of the [[United States]] '''Coastline:''' 111,866 km (69,510 mi) '''Climate:''' Tropical cyclones ([[hurricane]]s) develop anywhere from off the coast of Africa near [[Cape Verde]] to the [[Windward Islands]] and move westward into the [[Caribbean Sea]] or up the east coast of North America; hurricanes can occur from May to December, but are most frequent from late July to early November. Storms are common in the North Atlantic during northern winters, making ocean crossings more difficult and dangerous. ==Terrain== The surface is usually covered with sea ice in the [[Labrador Sea]], [[Denmark Strait]], and [[Baltic Sea]] from October to June. There is a clockwise warm-water gyre (broad, circular system of currents) in the northern Atlantic, and a counter-clockwise warm-water gyre in the southern Atlantic. The ocean floor is dominated by the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]], a rugged north-south centerline for the entire Atlantic basin, first discovered by the [[Challenger Expedition]]. ===Elevation extremes=== *''lowest point:'' [[Milwaukee Deep]] in the [[Puerto Rico Trench]] -8,605 metres (28,232 ft; 5.3 mi) *''highest point:'' sea level 0 metres ===Natural resources=== [[Petroleum]] and [[gas]] fields, [[fish]], marine mammals ([[seal (mammal)|seal]]s and [[whale]]s), sand and gravel aggregates, [[placer deposit]]s, polymetallic nodules, precious stones ===Natural hazards=== [[Iceberg]]s are common in the [[Davis Strait]], [[Denmark Strait]], and the northwestern Atlantic Ocean from February to August and have been spotted as far south as [[Bermuda]] and the [[Madeira Islands]]. Ships are subject to [[superstructure#Engineering concept|superstructure]] [[icing (nautical)|icing]] in extreme northern Atlantic from October to May. Persistent fog can be a maritime hazard from May to September. So can hurricanes north of the equator (May to December). The [[Bermuda Triangle]] is popularly believed to be the site of numerous aviation and shipping incidents, due to unexplained and supposedly mysterious causes, but coastguard records do not support this belief. == Current environmental issues == Endangered marine species include the [[manatee]], [[seal (mammal)|seal]]s, [[sea lion]]s, [[turtle]]s, and [[whale]]s. Drift net fishing is killing [[dolphin]]s, [[albatross]]es and other seabirds ([[petrel]]s, [[auk]]s), hastening the decline of fish stocks and contributing to international disputes. There is municipal sludge pollution off the eastern United States, southern [[Brazil]], and eastern [[Argentina]], oil pollution in the [[Caribbean Sea]], [[Gulf of Mexico]], [[Lake Maracaibo]], [[Mediterranean Sea]], and [[North Sea]], and industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in the Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea. == Notes on geography == Major chokepoints include the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] and the [[Panama Canal]]; strategic straits include the [[Strait of Dover]], [[Straits of Florida]], [[Mona Passage]], The Sound ([[Oresund]]), and [[Windward Passage]]; the [[Equator]] divides the Atlantic Ocean into the North Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean (previously known as the [[Ethiopic Ocean]]). During the [[Cold War]] the so called [[Greenland]]-[[Iceland]]-[[United Kingdom|UK]] (GIUK) Gap was a major strategic concern, the seabed in that area was laid with extensive [[hydrophone]] systems to track Soviet [[submarine]]s. ==Ports and harbours== *[[Aberdeen]] ([[United Kingdom]]) *[[Abidjan]] ([[Côte d'Ivoire]]) *[[A Coruña]] ([[Spain]]) *[[Accra]] ([[Ghana]]) *[[Ålesund]] ([[Norway]]) *[[Amsterdam]] ([[Netherlands]]) *[[Antwerp]] ([[Belgium]]) *[[Bahia Blanca]] ([[Argentina]]) *[[Baltimore]] ([[United States]]) *[[Banjul]] ([[The Gambia]]) *[[Belfast]] ([[Northern Ireland]]) *[[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]] ([[Norway]]) *[[Bissau]] ([[Guinea-Bissau]]) *[[Bodø]] ([[Norway]]) *[[Bordeaux]] ([[France]]) *[[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] ([[United States]]) *[[Bremen (city)|Bremen]] ([[Germany]]) *[[Brest, France|Brest]] ([[France]]) *[[Bristol]] ([[England]]) *[[Cadiz]] ([[Spain]]) *[[Cape Town]] ([[South Africa]]) *[[Casablanca]] ([[Morocco]]) *[[Cayenne]] ([[French Guiana]]) *[[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]] ([[United States]]) *[[Charlottetown]] ([[Canada]]) *[[Cherbourg]] ([[France]]) *[[Conakry]] ([[Guinea]]) *[[Cork]] ([[Republic of Ireland]]) *[[Cotonou]] ([[Benin]]) *[[Dakar]] ([[Senegal]]) *[[Douala]] ([[Cameroon]]) *[[Dublin]] ([[Republic of Ireland]]) *[[Dunkirk, France|Dunkirk]] ([[France]]) *[[Edinburgh]] ([[Scotland]]) *[[Port Everglades|Everglades, Port]] ([[United States]]) *[[Fortaleza]] ([[Brazil]]) *[[Georgetown, Guyana|Georgetown]] ([[Guyana]]) *[[Glasgow]] ([[Scotland]]) *[[Gothenburg]]([[Sweden]]) *[[Hamburg]] ([[Germany]]) *[[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax]] ([[Canada]]) *[[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]] ([[United States]]) *[[Lagos]] ([[Nigeria]]) *[[Las Palmas]] ([[Spain]]) *[[Le Havre]] ([[France]]) *[[Libreville]] ([[Gabon]]) *[[Lisbon]] ([[Portugal]]) *[[Liverpool]] ([[England]]) *[[Lomé]] ([[Togo]]) *[[London]] ([[England]]) *[[Luanda]] ([[Angola]]) *[[Maceió]] ([[Brazil]]) *[[Malabo]] ([[Equatorial Guinea]]) *[[Port of Miami-Dade|Miami]] ([[United States]]) *[[Monrovia]] ([[Liberia]]) *[[Montreal|Montréal]] ([[Canada]]) *[[Morehead City, North Carolina|Morehead City]] ([[United States]]) *[[Nantes]] ([[France]]) *[[Nantucket]] ([[United States]]) *[[Narvik]] ([[Norway]]) *[[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] ([[United States]]) *[[New London, Connecticut|New London]] ([[United States]]) *[[New York]] ([[United States]]) *[[Newcastle upon Tyne]] ([[England]]) *[[Newport News]] ([[United States]]) *[[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]] ([[United States]]) *[[Nouakchott]] ([[Mauritania]]) *[[Oslo]] ([[Norway]]) *[[Ostend]] ([[Belgium]]) *[[Port of Palm Beach|Palm Beach]] ([[United States]]) *[[Paramaribo]] ([[Suriname]]) *[[Peterhead]] ([[United Kingdom]]) *[[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]] ([[United States]]) *[[Port Harcourt]] ([[Nigeria]]) *[[Portland, Maine|Portland]] ([[United States]]) *[[Porto]] ([[Portugal]]) *[[Porto-Novo]] ([[Benin]]) *[[Portsmouth]] ([[England]]) *[[Portsmouth, New Hampshire|Portsmouth]] ([[United States]]) *[[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]] ([[United States]]) *[[Puerto Cortes]] ([[Honduras]]) *[[Quebec City, Quebec|Québec]] ([[Canada]]) *[[Rabat]] ([[Morocco]]) *[[Recife]] ([[Brazil]]) *[[Reykjavík]] ([[Iceland]]) *[[Rio de Janeiro]] ([[Brazil]]) *[[Rotterdam]] ([[Netherlands]]) *[[Salvador, Brazil|Salvador]] ([[Brazil]]) *[[Saint-Nazaire]] ([[France]]) *[[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] ([[Spain]]) *[[Santander, Spain|Santander]] ([[Spain]]) *[[Santos (São Paulo)|Santos]] ([[Brazil]]) *[[Savannah, Georgia|Savannah]] ([[United States]]) *[[Seville]] ([[Spain]]) *[[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]] ([[Canada]]) *[[Sept-Îles]] ([[Canada]]) *[[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's]] ([[Canada]]) *[[Southampton]] ([[England]]) *[[Stavanger]] ([[Norway]]) *[[Sydney, Nova Scotia|Sydney]] ([[Canada]]) *[[Tangier]] ([[Morocco]]) *[[Trois-Rivières]] ([[Canada]]) *[[Tromsø]] ([[Norway]]) *[[Trondheim]] ([[Norway]]) *[[Vigo]] ([[Spain]]) *[[Vitória]] ([[Brazil]]) *[[Walvis Bay]] ([[Namibia]]) *[[Willemstad, Netherlands Antilles|Willemstad]] ([[Netherlands Antilles]]) *[[Wilmington, North Carolina|Wilmington]] ([[United States]]) *[[Yarmouth, Nova Scotia|Yarmouth]] ([[Canada]]) === Note on transportation === The [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]] is an important waterway. == References == <div style="font-size:85%;"> <references/> </div> Much of this article comes from the public domain site <nowiki>http://oceanographer.navy.mil/atlantic.html</nowiki> ([[dead link]]). It is now accessible from the [[Internet Archive]] at http://web.archive.org/web/20020221215514/http%3a//oceanographer.navy.mil/atlantic.html. * Disclaimers for this website, including its status as a public domain resource, are recorded on the Internet Archive at http://web.archive.org/web/20020212021049/http%3a//oceanographer.navy.mil/warning.html. ==External links== {{Commons|Atlantic Ocean}} * [http://dapper.pmel.noaa.gov/dchart/ NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer] Plot and download ocean observations *[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/zh.html CIA – The World Factbook – Atlantic Ocean] [[Category:Atlantic Ocean]] [[Category:Oceans]] [[af:Atlantiese Oseaan]] [[als:Atlantik]] [[ar:أطلسي]] [[an:Ozián Atlantico]] [[ast:Océanu Atlánticu]] [[bg:Атлантически океан]] [[zh-min-nan:Tāi-se-iûⁿ]] [[be:Атлянтычны акіян]] [[bn:আটলান্টিক মহাসমুদ্র]] [[br:Meurvor atlantel]] [[ca:Oceà Atlàntic]] [[cv:Атлантика океанĕ]] [[cs:Atlantský oceán]] [[cy:Cefnfor Iwerydd]] [[da:Atlanterhavet]] [[de:Atlantischer Ozean]] [[et:Atlandi ookean]] [[el:Ατλαντικός Ωκεανός]] [[es:Océano Atlántico]] [[eo:Atlantika Oceano]] [[eu:Atlantiar ozeano]] [[fa:اقیانوس اطلس]] [[fr:Océan Atlantique]] [[fy:Atlantyske Oseaan]] [[ga:An tAigéan Atlantach]] [[gl:Océano Atlántico]] [[ko:대서양]] [[hr:Atlantski ocean]] [[io:Atlantiko]] [[id:Samudra Atlantik]] [[is:Atlantshaf]] [[it:Oceano Atlantico]] [[he:האוקיינוס האטלנטי]] [[kw:Keynvor Iwerydh]] [[la:Oceanus Atlanticus]] [[lt:Atlanto vandenynas]] [[li:Atlantische Oceaan]] [[hu:Atlanti-óceán]] [[mk:Атлантски Океан]] [[nl:Atlantische Oceaan]] [[nds:Atlantik]] [[ja:大西洋]] [[no:Atlanterhavet]] [[nn:Atlanterhavet]] [[pl:Ocean Atlantycki]] [[pt:Oceano Atlântico]] [[ro:Oceanul Atlantic]] [[ru:Атлантический океан]] [[scn:Ocèanu Atlànticu]] [[simple:Atlantic Ocean]] [[sk:Atlantický oceán]] [[sl:Atlantski ocean]] [[sr:Атлантски океан]] [[fi:Atlantin valtameri]] [[sv:Atlanten]] [[ta:அட்லாண்டிக் பெருங்கடல்]] [[th:มหาสมุทรแอตแลนติก]] [[vi:Đại Tây Dương]] [[tr:Atlas Okyanusu]] [[uk:Атлантичний океан]] [[zh:大西洋]] 699 15899225 2002-07-16T00:04:52Z Josh Grosse 517 To singular #REDIRECT [[Alveolate]] 700 move=:edit= 41807323 2006-03-01T21:57:24Z 144.131.166.198 {{Infobox_Philosopher | <!-- Scroll down to edit this page --> <!-- Philosopher Category --> region = Western Philosophers | era = [[19th-century philosophy]] | color = #B0C4DE | <!-- Image and Caption --> image_name = Schopenhauer.jpg | image_caption = Arthur Schopenhauer | <!-- Information --> name = Arthur Schopenhauer | birth = [[February 22]], [[1788]] ([[Sztutowo]], [[Poland]]) | death = [[September 21]], [[1860]] ([[Frankfurt-am-Main]], [[Germany]]) | school_tradition = [[Kantianism]], [[Idealism]] | main_interests = [[Metaphysics]], [[Aesthetics]], [[Phenomenology]], [[Morality]], [[Psychology]] | influences = [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Plato]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], [[Giacomo Leopardi]], [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]], [[George Berkeley|Berkeley]], [[David Hume|Hume]], [[Rene Descartes|Descartes]], [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]] | influenced = [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]], [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]], [[Carl Jung|Jung]], [[Hermann Hesse]], [[Thomas Mann]] | notable_ideas = [[Will (philosophy)|Will]], [[Fourfold root of the sufficient principle of reason|Fourfold root of reason]] | }} '''Arthur Schopenhauer''' ([[February 22]], [[1788]] &ndash; [[September 21]], [[1860]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[philosopher]]. He is most famous for his work ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]''. He is commonly known for having espoused a sort of philosophical [[pessimism]] that saw life as being essentially [[evil]], futile, and full of suffering. However, upon closer inspection, in accordance with [[Eastern philosophy|Eastern thought]], especially that of [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]], he saw [[salvation]], deliverance, or escape from suffering in [[aesthetic]] [[contemplation]], [[sympathy]] for others, and [[ascetic]] living. His ideas profoundly influenced the fields of [[philosophy]], [[psychology]], [[music]], and [[literature]]. == Life == Schopenhauer was born in [[1788]] in [[Sztutowo]], Poland, near [[Gdańsk]]. He was the son of Heinrich Floris Schopenhauer and [[Johanna Schopenhauer]], a middle class mercantile family of [[Netherlands|Dutch]] heritage, although they had strong feelings against any kind of nationalism. Indeed, the name Arthur was selected by his father especially because it was the same in [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]], and [[French language|French]]. His parents were both from the city, and Johanna was an author as well. After the city was annexed by [[Prussia]] during the second [[Partitions of Poland|partition of Poland]] in [[1793]], the Schopenhauer family fled to [[Hamburg]]; in [[1805]] Schopenhauer's father died, possibly by [[suicide]], and Johanna moved to [[Weimar]]. Because of a promise to pursue a business career, Schopenhauer remained in Hamburg. His disgust of this career, however, drove him away to join his mother in Weimar after only a year. He never got along with his mother; when the writer [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], who was a friend of Johanna Schopenhauer, told her that he thought her son was destined for great things, Johanna objected: she had never heard there could be ''two'' geniuses in a single family. Schopenhauer studied at the [[Georg August University of Göttingen|University of Göttingen]] and was awarded a PhD from the [[University of Jena]]. In [[1820]], Schopenhauer became a lecturer at the [[University of Berlin]]; it was there that his opposition to [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] began. While in Berlin, Schopenhauer became involved in a consuming lawsuit from a Caroline Marquet. She asked for damages from him, a man of independent means, on the basis that she had been injured when Schopenhauer allegedly pushed her. Marquet had noisily attracted Schopenhauer's attention. Then, Marquet's companion witnessed her as being prostrate outside of his apartment. Marquet claimed that the philosopher had assaulted and battered her after she refused to leave his doorway. In this manner, she succeeded in gaining, through the court, a portion of Schopenhauer's limited wealth; he had to make payments for many years. His reputation was permanently damaged by her legal machination. Schopenhauer's health deteriorated during the year of [[1860]]. He died of [[natural causes]] on [[September 21]] of the same year at the age of 72. Schopenhauer called himself a [[Immanuel Kant|Kantian]] and despised Hegel. He formulated a [[philosophical pessimism|pessimistic]] [[philosophy]] that gained importance and support after the failure of the German and Austrian [[revolution]]s of [[1848]]. == Philosophy == Schopenhauer's starting point was [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s division of the universe into [[phenomenon]] and [[noumenon]], claiming that the noumenon was the same as that in us which we call [[will (philosophy)|Will]]. It is the inner content and the driving force of the world. For Schopenhauer, human will had [[ontology|ontological]] primacy over the [[intellect]]; in other words, desire is understood to be prior to thought, and, in a parallel sense, will is said to be prior to being. In solving/alleviating the fundamental problems of life, Schopenhauer was rare among philosophers in considering [[philosophy]] and [[logic]] less important (or less effective) than [[art]], certain types of charitable practice ("loving kindness", in his terms), and certain forms of religious discipline; Schopenhauer concluded that discursive thought (such as philosophy and logic) could neither touch nor transcend the nature of desire&mdash; i.e., the will. In ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', Schopenhauer posited that humans living in the [[realm of objects]] are living in the [[realm of desire]], and thus are eternally tormented by that desire (his idea of the role of desire in life is similar to that of [[Vedanta]] [[Hinduism]] and Buddhism, and Schopenhauer draws attention to these similarities himself). While Schopenhauer's philosophy may sound rather mystical in such a summary, his [[methodology]] was resolutely [[empirical]], rather than speculative or transcendental: {{Quotation|Philosophy... is a science, and as such has no articles of faith; accordingly, in it nothing can be assumed as existing except what is either positively given empirically, or demonstrated through indubitable conclusions.|Arthur Schopenhauer|''Parerga & Paralipomena'', vol. i, pg. 106., E.F.J. Payne Translation}} {{Quotation|This actual world of what is knowable, in which we are and which is in us, remains both the material and the limit of our consideration.|Arthur Schopenhauer|''World as Will and Representation'', vol. i, pg. 273, E.F.J. Payne Translation}} Schopenhauer's identification of the Kantian ''noumenon'' (i.e., the actually existing entity) with what we call our will deserves some explanation. The noumenon was what Kant called the ''Ding an Sich'', the "Thing in Itself", the reality that is the foundation of our [[sense|sensory]] and [[mind|mental]] representations of an external world; in Kantian terms, those sensory and mental representations are mere phenomena. Schopenhauer's assertion that what we call our will is the same as this ''noumenon'' might at first instance strike some as oddly as [[Heraclitus]]'s revelation that everything is made out of [[fire]]. But Kant's philosophy was formulated as a response to the radical [[philosophical skepticism]] of [[David Hume]] and his fellow [[British Empiricists]], who claimed that as far as we could tell there was [[solipsism|no outside reality]] beyond our mental representations of it. Schopenhauer begins by arguing that Kant's demarcation between external objects, knowable only as phenomena, and the Thing in Itself of noumenon, contains a significant omission. There is, in fact, one physical object we know more intimately than we know any object of sense perception. It is our own body. We know our [[human anatomy|human bodies]] have [[boundary|boundaries]], and occupy space, the same way other objects known only through our named senses do. Though we seldom think of our bodies as physical objects, we know even before reflection that it shares some of their properties. We understand that a watermelon cannot successfully occupy the same space as an oncoming truck. We know that if we tried to repeat the experiment with our own bodies, we would obtain similar results. We know this even if we do not understand the [[physics]] involved. We know that our consciousness inhabits a physical body, similar to other physical objects only known as phenomena. Yet, our consciousness is not commensurate with our body. Most of us possess the power of voluntary motion. We usually are not aware of our [[lung]]s' breath, or our [[heart]]beat, unless our attention is called to it. Our ability to control either is limited. Our [[kidney]]s command our attention on their schedule rather than one we choose. Few of us have any idea what our [[liver]]s are doing right now, though this organ is as needful as lungs, heart, or kidneys. The conscious mind is the servant, not the master, of these and other organs. These organs have an agenda which the conscious mind did not choose, and has limited power over. When Schopenhauer identifies the ''noumenon'' with the desires, needs, and impulses in us that we name "will," what he is saying is that we participate in the reality of an otherwise unachievable world outside the mind through will. We cannot ''prove'' that our mental picture of an outside world corresponds with a reality by reasoning. Through will, we know&mdash;without thinking&mdash; that the world can stimulate us. We suffer fear, or desire. These states arise involuntarily. They arise prior to reflection. They arise even when the conscious mind would prefer to hold them at bay. The rational mind is for Schopenhauer a leaf borne along in a stream of pre-reflective and largely unconscious emotion. That stream is will; and through will, if not through logic, we can participate in the underlying reality that lies beyond mere phenomena. It is for this reason that Schopenhauer identifies the ''noumenon'' with what we call our will. Also, Schopenhauer's philosophy could be considered as [[panpsychism]] and [[solipsism]], and in some way [[Gnosticism|gnostic]]. == Psychology == Schopenhauer was perhaps even more influential in his treatment of man's [[mind]] than he was in the realm of [[philosophy]]. Philosophers have not traditionally been impressed by the tribulations of [[love]]. But Schopenhauer addressed it, and related concepts, forthrightly. :"We should be surprised that a matter that generally plays such an important part in the life of man [love] has hitherto been almost entirely disregarded by philosophers, and lies before us as raw and untreated material." He gave a name to a [[force]] within man which he felt invariably had precedence over reason: the [[Will to Live]] (Wille zum Leben), defined as an inherent [[drive]] within human beings, and indeed all creatures, to stay alive and to [[reproduce]]. Schopenhauer refused to conceive of love as either trifling or accidental, but rather understood it to be an immensely powerful force lying unseen within man's [[psyche]] and dramatically shaping the [[world]]: :"The ultimate aim of all love affairs ...is more important than all other aims in man's life; and therefore it is quite worthy of the profound seriousness with which everyone pursues it." :"What is decided by it is nothing less than the composition of the next generation..." These ideas foreshadowed and laid the groundwork for [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s [[theory of evolution]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]'s [[Will to Power]] and [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]]'s concepts of the [[libido]] and the [[unconscious]] [[mind]]. == Aesthetics == :''See main article: [[Schopenhauer's aesthetics]]'' This wild and powerful drive to reproduce, however, caused [[suffering]] and [[pain]] in the world. For Schopenhauer, one way to escape the suffering inherent in a world of Will was through [[art]]. Through art, Schopenhauer thought, the thinking subject could be jarred out of their limited, individual [[perspective]] to feel a sense of the [[universal (metaphysics)]] directly &mdash; the "universal" in question, of course, was the will. The contest of personal [[desire]] with a world that was, by nature, inimical to its satisfaction is inevitably tragical; therefore, the highest place in art was given to [[tragedy]]. [[Music]] was also given a special status in [[Schopenhauer's aesthetics]] as it did not rely upon the medium of representation to communicate a sense of the universal. Schopenhauer believed the function of art to be a [[meditation]] on the unity of [[human nature]], and an attempt to either demonstrate or directly communicate to the [[audience]] a certain [[existential]] [[angst]] for which most forms of entertainment &mdash; including bad art &mdash; only provided a distraction. A wide range of authors (from [[Thomas Hardy]] to [[Woody Allen]]) and artists have been influenced by this system of [[aesthetics]], and in the 20th century this area of Schopenhauer's work garnered more attention and praise than any other. According to Daniel Albright (2005), "Schopenhauer thought that [[music]] was the only art that did not merely copy ideas, but actually embodied the will itself." ==Politics== Schopenhauer's [[politics]] were, for the most part, a much-diminished echo of his system of ethics (the latter being expressed in ''[[Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik]]'', available in English as two separate books, ''[[On the Basis of Morality]]'' and ''[[On the Freedom of the Will]]''; ethics also occupies about one fourth of his central work, ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]''). In occasional political comments in his ''[[Parerga and Paralimpomena]]'' and ''[[Manuscript Remains]]'', Schopenhauer described himself as a proponent of limited government. What was essential, he thought, was that the state should "leave each man free to work out his own salvation", and so long as government was thus limited, he would "prefer to be ruled by a lion than one of [his] fellow rats" &mdash; i.e., a monarch. Schopenhauer did, however, share the view of [[Thomas Hobbes]] on the necessity of the state, and of state violence, to check the destructive tendencies innate to our species. Schopenhauer, by his own admission, did not give much thought to politics, and several times he writes prideful boasts of how little attention he had paid "to political affairs of [his] day". In a life that spanned several revolutions in French and German government, and a few continent-shaking wars, he did indeed maintain his aloof position of "minding not the times but the eternities". == Schopenhauer on women == Schopenhauer is also famous for his essay "On Women" (''Über die Weiber''), in which he expressed his opposition to what he called "Teutonico-Christian stupidity" on female affairs. He claimed that "woman is by nature meant to obey", and opposed [[Friedrich Schiller|Schiller]]'s poem in honor of women, ''Würde der Frauen''. The essay does give two compliments however: that "women are decidedly more sober in their judgment than [men] are" and are more sympathetic to the suffering of others. However, the latter was discounted as weakness rather than humanitarian virtue. The ultra-intolerant view of women contrasts with Schopenhauer's generally liberal views on other social issues: he was strongly against [[taboo]]s on issues like [[suicide]] and [[masochism]] and condemned the treatment of African [[slavery|slave]]s. This [[polemic]] on female nature has since been fiercely attacked as [[misogyny|misogynistic]]. However, he did not hold a universally negative opinion of women in particular; one should note that Schopenhauer had a very high opinion of [[Madame de Guyon]], whose writings and biography he highly recommended. In any case, the controversial writing has influenced many, from [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]] to [[19th century]] [[feminism|feminists]]. While Schopenhauer's hostility to women may tell us more about his [[biography]] than about philosophy, his [[biology|biological]] analysis of the difference between the sexes, and their separate roles in the struggle for survival and reproduction, anticipates some of the claims that were later ventured by [[sociobiology|sociobiologists]] and [[evolutionary psychology|evolutionary psychologists]] in the [[twentieth century]]. ==Schopenhauer on homosexuality== Schopenhauer was also one of the first philosophers since the days of [[Greek philosophy]] to address the subject of male [[homosexuality]]. In the third, expanded edition of ''The World as Will and Representation'' ([[1856]]), Schopenhauer added an appendix to his chapter on the "Metaphysics of Sexual Love." In it, he develops the idea that since only mature men and fully adult but pre-[[menopause|menopausal]] women are capable of bearing healthy children, in early adolescence and in late middle age the sexual appetite is susceptible of being turned towards another channel. While there may again be more [[autobiography]] than analysis in this hypothesis, it is consistent with the general tenor of Schopenhauer's thought, which gives the Will in nature the position of setting an agenda for individual lives. It is also one of the first attempts at portraying homosexuality as a natural phenomenon, acknowledging its existence in every culture, and seeking to explain its appearance even in those cultures whose moralities sharply condemn homosexual behaviour. ==Schopenhauer on Hegel== Schopenhauer seems to have disliked just about everything concerning his contemporary [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]]. The following quotation from ''[[On the Basis of Morality]]'' (page 15-16) is quite famous: {{Quotation|If I were to say that the so-called philosophy of this fellow [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] is a colossal piece of mystification which will yet provide posterity with an inexhaustible theme for laughter at our times, that it is a [[pseudophilosophy|pseudo-philosophy]] paralyzing all mental powers, stifling all real thinking, and, by the most outrageous misuse of language, putting in its place the hollowest, most senseless, thoughtless, and, as is confirmed by its success, most stupefying verbiage, I should be quite right.<p> Further, if I were to say that this summus philosophus [...] scribbled nonsense quite unlike any mortal before him, so that whoever could read his most eulogized work, the so-called [[Phenomenology of the Mind]], without feeling as if he were in a madhouse, would qualify as an inmate for [[Bethlem Royal Hospital|Bedlam]], I should be no less right.|Arthur Schopenhauer|''[[On the Basis of Morality]]'' (page 15-16)}} But Schopenhauer had good reason to mistrust the writings of Hegel. In his "Foreword to the first edition" of his work [[Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik]], Schopenhauer had found Hegel to have fallen prey to the ''[[Post hoc ergo propter hoc]]'' fallacy. Schopenhauer's critique of Hegel is most certainly directed at his perception that Hegel's works use deliberately impressive but ultimately vacuous [[jargon]] and [[neologism]]s, and that they contained castles of abstraction that sounded impressive but ultimately contained no verifiable content. He also thought that his glorification of church and state were designed for personal advantage and had little to do with search for philosophical truth. Although Schopenhauer may have appeared vain in his constant attacks on [[Hegel]], they were not necessarily devoid of merit: the [[Right Hegelians]] interpreted Hegel as seeing the Prussian state of his day as perfect and the goal of all history up until then. ==Common Misconceptions== Many are put off Schopenhauer by descriptions of him as an obstinate and arrogant man, who did not lead the ascetic life that he glorified in his work. The idea that he made resignation into a command to virtue is inaccurate, as he was merely trying to explain asceticism in terms of [[metaphysics]]. He does refer to the asceticism as a state of "inner peace and cheerfulness", but he also clearly states that he was not trying to recommend the denial of the will above the affirmation of the will. Furthermore, the call to asceticism was supposed to come to select individuals as knowledge all of a sudden, rather than being a virtue that can be taught. "In general," he wrote, "it is a strange demand on a moralist that he should commend no other virtue than that which he himself possesses." (''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', Vol.I, § 68) [[Nietzsche]] seems to have made this misinterpretation, leading some people to a distorted view of Schopenhauer. The following sentence from ''[[The Twilight of the Idols]]'' is often quoted: {{Quotation|He has interpreted art, heroism, genius, beauty, great sympathy, knowledge, the will to truth, and tragedy, in turn, as consequences of "negation" or of the "will's" need to negate.|[[Friedrich Nietzsche]]|''[[The Twilight of the Idols]]''}} Schopenhauer did see all these things as means to a more peaceful and enlightened way of life, but none of them were "denial of the will-to-live". Only asceticism is referred to in that way. [[Nietzsche]] also claimed that Schopenhauer did not recognise that suffering had a redemptive quality, yet his recognition of this seems blatantly clear in part 4 of ''The World as Will and Representation''. Also, his identification of the [[Will (philosophy)|will]] with the Kantian "thing-in-itself" has been misunderstood. [[Kant]] defined things-in-themselves as being beyond comprehension and that no-one could know the inner nature of a material thing. It is sometimes thought that Schopenhauer denied this, but he did not. What he did assert was that one could know things about the thing-in-itself. For example, you can know that the will is a striving force, that it is endless, that it causes suffering, that it will produce boredom if unoccupied, etc. However, he did not say that you could directly know the will. In addition, it has sometimes been criticised that he never defined the will, but he explained that it could not be fully defined. ==Influence== Schopenhauer is thought to have influenced the following intellectual figures and schools of thought: [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], [[Richard Wagner]], [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Charles Darwin]], [[Theodule Ribot]], [[Eugene O'Neill]], [[Max Horkheimer]], [[C. G. Jung]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], [[Samuel Beckett]], [[Jorge Luis Borges]], [[Dylan Thomas]], [[Emil Cioran]], [[Thomas Mann]], [[Phenomenalism]], and [[Recursionism]]. ==See also== *[[Criticism of the Kantian Philosophy (Schopenhauer)|Schopenhauer's criticism of the Kantian philosophy]] == Bibliography == === Major works === *''Über die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde'', 1813 ''(On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason)'' *''Über das Sehen und die Farben'', 1816 ''(On Vision and Colours)'' *''Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung'', 1818/1819, vol 2 1844 ''([[The World as Will and Representation]]'', sometimes also known in English as ''The World as Will and Idea'') **vol. 1 Dover edition 1966, ISBN 0486217612 **vol. 2 Dover edition 1966, ISBN 0486217620 **Peter Smith Publisher hardcover set 1969, ISBN 0844628859 **Everyman Paperback combined abridged edition (290 p.) ISBN 0460875051 *''Über den Willen in der Natur'', 1836 ''(On the Will in Nature)'' *''Über die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens'', 1839 ''(On Freedom of the Will)'' *''Über die Grundlage der Moral'', 1840 ''(On the Basis of Morality)'' *''Parerga und Paralipomena'', 1851 === Online texts === *''[http://homes.rhein-zeitung.de/~ahipler/kritik/religio1.htm Über Religion, from Parerga und Paralipomena II]'' (german) *[http://www.friesian.com/arthur.htm Influence on Friesian philosophy] *[http://www.geocities.com/c_ansata/Women.html Essay ''Über die Weiber''] *[http://coolhaus.de/art-of-controversy/ ''Die Kunst, Recht zu behalten - The Art Of Controversy'' (bilingual)] * {{gutenberg author| id=Arthur+Schopenhauer | name=Arthur Schopenhauer}} ==Source== *Albright, Daniel (2004). ''Modernism and Music: An Anthology of Sources'', p.39n34. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226012670. == External links == {{commons|Arthur Schopenhauer}} {{wikiquote}} {{Wikisourcelang|de|Arthur Schopenhauer|Arthur Schopenhauer}} *[http://www.friesian.com/arthur.htm Biography and summary of his philosophy] *[http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Biographies/Philosophy/Schopenhauer.htm Short biography] (Contains the false view that Schopenhauer was a solipsist) *[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/schopenhauer/ Indepth overview of his life and philosophy] *[http://www.carleton.ca/~abrook/SCHOPENY.htm On the philosopher's impact on Freud and psychology] *[http://www.centrebouddhisteparis.org/En_Anglais/Sangharakshita_en_anglais/Aesthetic_appreciation/aesthetic_appreciation.html Schopenhauer and aesthetic appreciation.] *[http://www.pratyeka.org/schopenhauer/ An essay on Schopenhauer's (debated) place in the history of European philosophy, detailing his relationship to earlier sources] {{Philosophy navigation}} [[Category:1788 births|Schopenhauer, Arthur]] [[Category:1860 deaths|Schopenhauer, Arthur]] [[Category:Natives of Gdańsk|Schopenhauer, Arthur]] [[Category:19th century philosophers|Schopenhauer, Arthur]] [[Category:Atheist philosophers|Schopenhauer, Arthur]] [[Category:Continental philosophers|Schopenhauer, Arthur]] [[Category:German philosophers|Schopenhauer, Arthur]] [[Category:Idealists|Schopenhauer, Arthur]] [[Category:Kantian philosophers|Schopenhauer, Arthur]] [[bg:Артур Шопенхауер]] [[bs:Arthur Schopenhauer]] [[ca:Arthur Schopenhauer]] [[cs:Arthur Schopenhauer]] [[da:Arthur Schopenhauer]] [[de:Arthur Schopenhauer]] [[eo:Arthur SCHOPENHAUER]] [[es:Arthur Schopenhauer]] [[fi:Arthur Schopenhauer]] [[fr:Arthur Schopenhauer]] [[gl:Arthur Schopenhauer]] [[he:ארתור שופנהאואר]] [[hr:Arthur Schopenhauer]] [[io:Arthur Schopenhauer]] [[it:Arthur Schopenhauer]] [[ja:アルトゥル・ショーペンハウアー]] [[ko:아르투르 쇼펜하우어]] [[lt:Artūras Šopenhaueris]] [[lv:Artūrs Šopenhauers]] [[mk:Артур Шопенхауер]] [[nl:Arthur Schopenhauer]] [[no:Arthur Schopenhauer]] [[pl:Arthur Schopenhauer]] [[pt:Arthur Schopenhauer]] [[ro:Arthur Schopenhauer]] [[ru:Шопенгауэр, Артур]] [[sk:Arthur Schopenhauer]] [[sr:Артур Шопенхауер]] [[sv:Arthur Schopenhauer]] [[tr:Arthur Schopenhauer]] [[zh:亚瑟·叔本华]] 701 41994444 2006-03-03T02:36:46Z 195.23.17.113 added a reference to jornaldeangola.com {{Infobox Country | native_name = República de Angola | common_name = Angola | image_flag = Flag of Angola.svg | image_coat = Angola coa.png | national_motto = none | image_map = LocationAngola.png | national_anthem = [[Angola Avante|Angola Avante!]]<br><small>([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: [[Angola Avante|Forward Angola!]]) | official_languages = [[Angolan Portuguese|Portuguese]] | capital = [[Luanda]] | latd=8|latm=50|latNS=S|longd=13|longm=20|longEW=E| government_type = [[Multi-party]] [[democracy]] | leader_titles = [[President of Angola|Head of State]] <br> [[Prime Minister of Angola|Head of Government]]| leader_names = [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] <br> [[Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos|Fernando da Piedade <br> Dias dos Santos]]| largest_city = [[Luanda]] | area = 1,246,700 | areami² = 481,354 | <!--Do not remove --> area_rank = 22nd | area_magnitude = 1 E12 | percent_water = Negligible | population_estimate = 10,978,552 | population_estimate_year = 2004 | population_estimate_rank = 71st | population_census = ''unavailable'' | population_census_year = ? | population_density = 8.6 | population_densitymi² = 22.3 | <!--Do not remove --> population_density_rank = 213 | GDP_PPP_year = 2003 | GDP_PPP = 31,364<sup>1</sup> | GDP_PPP_rank = 83 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = 2,319 | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 120 | HDI_year = 2003 | HDI = 0.445 | HDI_rank = 160th | HDI_category = <font color="#E0584E">low</font> | sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] | established_events = From [[Portugal]] | established_dates = [[November 11]] [[1975]] | currency = [[Kwanza]] | currency_code = AOA | time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]] | utc_offset = +1 | time_zone_DST = not observed | utc_offset_DST = +1 | cctld = [[.ao]] | calling_code = 244 | footnotes = <sup>1</sup> Estimate is based on regression; other PPP figures are extrapolated from the latest International Comparison Programme benchmark estimates. }}{{about|the country|the prison|[[Louisiana State Penitentiary]]}} '''Angola''' is a country in southwestern [[Africa]] bordering [[Namibia]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], and [[Zambia]], and with a west coast along the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The [[exclave]] province [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] has a border with [[Republic of the Congo|Congo-Brazzaville]]. A former [[Portugal|Portuguese]] colony, it has considerable natural resources, among which oil and diamonds are the most relevant. The country is nominally a [[democracy]] and is formally named the '''Republic of Angola''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''República de Angola'', [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[IPA]]: /{{IPA|ʁɛ.'pu.βli.kɐ dɨ ɐ̃.'ɣɔ.lɐ}}/). ==Origin and history of the name== The name '''Angola''' is a Portuguese derivation of the [[Bantu language|Bantu]] word N’gola, being the title of the native rulers of the Quimbundos Kingdom in the [[16th century]], at the time of colonization by the Portuguese. ==History== ''Main article: [[History of Angola]]'' [[Image:Queen Nzinga 1657.png|thumb|left|Shows Queen Nzinga in peace negotiations with the portuguese governor in Luanda, 1657.]] The earliest inhabitants of the area were [[Khoisan]] [[hunter-gatherer]]s. They were largely replaced by Bantu tribes during [[Bantu]] [[human migration|migrations]]. In present-day Angola [[Portugal]] settled in 1483 at the river Congo, where the [[Kongo Empire|Kongo]] State, [[Ndongo]] and [[Lunda]] existed. The Kongo State stretched from modern [[Gabon]] in the north to the [[Kwanza River]] in the south. Portugal established in 1575 a Portuguese colony at [[Luanda]] based on the slave trade. The Portuguese gradually took control of the coastal strip throughout the 16th century by a series of treaties and wars. They formed the colony of Angola. The [[Netherlands|Dutch]] occupied Luanda from 1641-48, providing a boost for anti-Portuguese states. In 1648 Portugal retook Luanda and initiated a process of military conquest of the Kongo and Ndongo states that ended with Portuguese victory in 1671. Full Portuguese administrative control of the interior didn't occur until the beginning of the 20th century. In 1951 the colony was restyled as an overseas province, also called Portuguese West Africa. When Portugal refused a decolonization process three independence movements emerged: * the [[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] (''Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola'' MPLA), with a base among [[Kimbundu]] and the mixed-race intelligentsia of Luanda, and links to communist parties in Portugal and the [[Eastern Bloc]]; * the [[National Liberation Front of Angola]] (''Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola'', FNLA), with an ethnic base in the Bakongo region of the north and links to the [[United States]] and the [[Mobutu Sese Seko|Mobutu]] regime in [[Zaire]]; and * the [[National Union for Total Independence of Angola]] (''União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola'', UNITA), led by [[Jonas Savimbi|Jonas Malheiro Savimbi]] with an ethnic and regional base in the Ovimbundu heartland in the center of the country. After a 14 year independence guerrilla war, and the overthrow of fascist Portugal's government by a military coup, Angola's nationalist parties began to negotiate for independence in January 1975. Independence was to be declared in November 1975. Almost immediately, a [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]] broke out between MPLA, UNITA and FNLA, exacerbated by foreign intervention. South African troops struck an alliance of convenience with UNITA and invaded Angola in August 1975 to ensure that there would be no interference (by a newly independent Angolan state) in [[Namibia]], which was then under South African control (Hodges, 2001, 11). Cuban troops came to the support of the MPLA in October 1975, enabling them to control the capital, [[Luanda]], and hold off the South African forces. The MPLA declared itself to be the de facto government of the country when independence was formally declared in November, with [[Agostinho Neto]] as the first President. In 1976, the FNLA was defeated by a combination of MPLA and [[Cuba|Cuban]] troops, leaving the Marxist MPLA and UNITA (backed by the United States and South Africa) to fight for power. The conflict raged on, fuelled by the geopolitics of the Cold War and by the ability of both parties to access Angola's natural resources. The MPLA drew upon the revenues of off-shore oil resources, while UNITA accessed alluvial diamonds that were easily smuggled through the region's very porous borders (LeBillon, 1999). In 1991, the factions agreed to turn Angola into a multiparty state, but after the current president [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] of MPLA won UN supervised elections, UNITA claimed there was fraud and fighting broke out again. A 1994 peace accord ([[Lusaka]] protocol) between the government and UNITA provided for the integration of former UNITA [[insurgent]]s into the government. A national unity government was installed in 1997, but serious fighting resumed in late 1998, rendering hundreds of thousands of people homeless. President José Eduardo dos Santos suspended the regular functioning of democratic instances due to the conflict. On [[February 22]] [[2002]], Jonas Savimbi, the leader of UNITA, was shot dead and a cease-fire was reached by the two factions. UNITA gave up its armed wing and assumed the role of major opposition party. Although the political situation of the country seems to be normalizing, president dos Santos still hasn't allowed regular democratic processes to take place. Among Angola's major problems are a serious humanitarian crisis (a result of the prolonged war), the abundance of [[minefield]]s, and the actions of guerrilla movements fighting for the independence of the northern exclave of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] ([[Frente para a Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda]]). Angola, like many sub-Saharan nations, is subject to periodic outbreaks of infectious diseases. In April 2005, Angola was in the midst of an [[Marburg virus#2004-2005 outbreak in Angola|outbreak]] of the [[Marburg virus]] which was rapidly becoming the worst outbreak of a haemorrhagic fever in recorded history, with over 237 deaths recorded out of 261 reported cases, and having spread to 7 out of the 18 provinces as of [[April 19]], [[2005]]. ==Politics== ''Main article: [[Politics of Angola]]'' The executive branch of the government is composed of the President, the Prime Minister (currently [[Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos]]) and Council of Ministers. Currently, political power is concentrated in the Presidency. The Council of Ministers, composed of all government ministers and vice ministers, meets regularly to discuss policy issues. Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by and serve at the pleasure of the president. The Constitutional Law of 1992 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented, and courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review has never been constituted despite statutory authorization. The 27 year long civil war has ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The UN estimates of 1.8 million internally displaced persons (IDPs), while generally the accepted figure for war-affected people is 4 million. Daily conditions of life throughout the country and specifically Luanda (population approximately 4 million) mirror the collapse of administrative infrastructure as well as many social institutions. The ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for social institutions. Hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment, schools are without books, and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work. The president has announced the government's intention to hold elections in 2006. These elections would be the first since 1992 and would serve to elect both a new president and a new National Assembly. * [[List of political parties in Angola]] == Administrative Divisions == [[Image:Angola Provinces numbered 300px.png|right|200px|Map of Angola with the provinces numbered]] ''Main Article: [[Provinces of Angola]]'' Angola is divided into 18 provinces:- {| border=0 |- valign="top" | *<small>1</small> [[Bengo (province)|Bengo]] *<small>2</small> [[Benguela Province|Benguela]] *<small>3</small> [[Bié (province)|Bié]] *<small>4</small> [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] *<small>5</small> [[Cuando Cubango]] *<small>6</small> [[Cuanza Norte]] | *<small>7</small> [[Cuanza Sul]] *<small>8</small> [[Cunene (province)|Cunene]] *<small>9</small> [[Huambo Province|Huambo]] *<small>10</small> [[Huila Province|Huila]] *<small>11</small> [[Luanda Province|Luanda]] *<small>12</small> [[Lunda Norte]] | *<small>13</small> [[Lunda Sul]] *<small>14</small> [[Malanje Province|Malanje]] *<small>15</small> [[Moxico (province)|Moxico]] *<small>16</small> [[Namibe Province|Namibe]] *<small>17</small> [[Uige Province|Uige]] *<small>18</small> [[Zaire Province|Zaire]] |} ==Geography== [[Image:Angola map.png|thumb|300px|Map of Angola]] [[Image:LuandaJuin2005-1-br.jpg|thumb|230px|[[Luanda]], the Angolan capital]] ''Main article: [[Geography of Angola]]'' Angola is bordered by [[Namibia]] to the south, [[Zambia]] to the east, the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] to the north-east, and the [[South Atlantic Ocean]] to the west. The [[exclave]] of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] also borders the [[Republic of the Congo]] to the north. Angola's capital, [[Luanda]], lies on the Atlantic coast in the north-west of the country. Angola is divided into an arid coastal strip stretching from Namibia to Luanda; a wet, interior highland; a dry savanna in the interior south and southeast; and rain forest in the north and in Cabinda. The [[Zambezi River]] and several tributaries of the Congo River have their sources in Angola. ===Exclaves and enclaves=== The [[exclave]] province of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] borders with both the [[Republic of the Congo]] and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. The latter's only oceanic access, 60 kilometres (37 [[mile|mi]]) in width, divides Angola from Cabinda. The population stands at around 300,000, two-thirds of which inhabit the surroundings in a generally stable state on Congolese and Zairian territory. The Angolan central government has yet to put a definitive end to the Cabindese secessionist movement. ==Economy== ''Main article: [[Economy of Angola]]'' Angola is an economy in disarray because of a quarter century of nearly continuous warfare. Despite its abundant natural resources, output per capita is among the world's lowest. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for 85% of the population. Oil production and the supporting activities are vital to the economy, contributing about 45% to GDP and 90% of exports. Control of the oil industry is consolidated in [[Sonangol Group]], a conglomerate which is owned by the Angolan government. Notwithstanding the signing of a peace accord in November 1994, millions of land mines remain, rural violence is a possibility, and many farmers are reluctant to return to their fields. As a result, much of the country's food must still be imported. Despite the increase in the pace of civil warfare in late 1998, the economy grew by an estimated 4% in 1999. The government introduced new currency denominations in 1999, including a 1 and 5 kwanza note. Expanded oil production brightens prospects for 2000, but internal strife discourages investment outside of the petroleum sector. With the advent of peace in 2002 a strategic partnership with China is set in motion, so huge investments by Chinese companies are now in place, especially in the construction sector and more recently in the metallurgical sector. ==Demographics== ''Main article: [[Demographics of Angola]]'' Angola has three main ethnic groups, each speaking a Bantu language: [[Ovimbundu]] 37%, [[Kimbundu]] 25%, and [[Bakongo]] 13%. Other groups include [[Chokwe]] (or [[Lunda]]), [[Ganguela]], [[Nhaneca-Humbe]], [[Ambo]], [[Herero]], and [[Xindunga]]. In addition, ''[[mestiço]]s'' (Angolans of mixed European and African family origins) amount to about 2%, with a small (1%) population of whites, mainly ethnically [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]. Portuguese make up the largest non-Angolan population, with at least 30,000 (though many native-born Angolans can claim Portuguese nationality under Portuguese law). In [[1975]], 250,000 [[Cuba]]n soldiers settled Angola to help the MPLA forces to fight for its independence. These Cubans are of European and [[Asia]]n (mostly [[Chinese Cuban| Chinese]] descent, while others include those of pure [[Afro-Cuban|African]] and [[mulatto]] descent, who has ancestors in Angola. But in [[1989]], almost all Cubans went out of the country after a peace agreement has been signed between Angola, Cuba, and [[South Africa]]. Portuguese is both the official and predominant language, spoken in the homes of about two-thirds of the population, and as a secondary language by many more. Cubans speak [[Spanish language]], but almost none of their descendants speak it. The great majority of the inhabitants are of Bantu stock with some admixture in the Congo district. In the south-east are various tribes of Bushmen. The best-known of the Bantu tribes are the Ba-Kongo (Ba-Fiot), who dwell chiefly in the north, and the [[Abunda]] (Mbunda, Ba-Bundo), who occupy the central part of the province, which takes its name from the Ngola tribe of Abunda. Another of these tribes, the Bangala, living on the west bank of the upper Kwango, must not be confused with the Bangala of the middle Congo. In the Abunda is a considerable strain of Portuguese blood. The Ba-Lunda inhabit the Lunda district. Along the upper Kunene and in other districts of the plateau are settlements of Boers, the Boer population being about 2000. In the coast towns the majority of the white inhabitants are Portuguese. The Mushi-Kongo and other divisions of the Ba-Kongo retain curious traces of the Christianity professed by them in the 16th and 17th centuries and possibly later. Crucifixes are used as potent fetish charms or as symbols of power passing down from chief to chief; whilst every native has a "Santu" or Christian name and is dubbed dom or dona. [[Fetishism]] is the prevailing religion throughout the province. The dwelling-places of the natives are usually small huts of the simplest construction, used chiefly as sleeping apartments; the day is spent in an open space in front of the hut protected from the sun by a roof of palm or other leaves. Despite all that, Catholicism remains the dominant religion, although recently an increasing number of churches are claiming more followers, particularly evangelicals. *[[List of Angolans]] ==Culture== ''Main article: [[Culture of Angola]]'' *[[List of African writers (by country)#Angola|List of writers from Angola]] *[[Contemporary Dance Company of Angola]][http://www.cdcangola.com] ==Stamps== * [[List of errors on Portuguese ex-Colonies stamps of Angola 1912]] * [[List of errors on Portuguese ex-Colonies stamps of Angola 1914]] * [[List of errors on Portuguese ex-Colonies stamps of Angola 1921]] * [[List of birds on stamps of Angola]] * [[List of people on stamps of Angola]] * [[List of bonsai on stamps]] * [[List of fish on stamps]] == Miscellaneous topics == * [[Communications in Angola]] * [[Foreign relations of Angola]] * [[List of Angolan companies]] * [[Military of Angola]] * [[Sonangol Group]] * [[Transport in Angola]] ==See also== *[[List of sovereign states]] ==Reference== *''Much of the material in these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.'' ==External links== {{portal}} {{sisterlinks|Angola}} ===Government=== *[http://www.angola.org/ Republic of Angola] official government portal *[http://www.parlamento.ao/ National Assembly of Angola] official site (in Portuguese) *[http://www.angola.org/ Embassy of Angola in Washington DC] government information and links ===News=== *[http://allafrica.com/angola/ allAfrica - Angola] - News headline links *[http://www.angolapress-angop.ao/ Angola Press] - Government-controlled news agency (in Portuguese, French and English) *[http://www.angonoticias.com/ Angonoticias] (in Portuguese) - A popular news source in Angola *[http://mangole.hypermart.net Mangole] (in Portuguese) - A full news source in Angola and web directory of angolan sites online *[http://www.jornaldeangola.com/ Jornal de Angola] (in Portuguese) - A popular newspaper in Angola ===Overviews=== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1063073.stm BBC - Country profile: ''Angola''] * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ao.html CIA World Factbook - ''Angola''] * [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/ao/ US State Department - ''Angola''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports ===Radio & Music=== * [http://www.Kizomba.ORG/ Site Official de Kizomba] * [http://www.CanalAngola.NET/ Radio Canal Angola ONLINE] ===Directories=== *[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Angola.html Columbia University Libraries - ''Angola''] directory category of the WWW-VL *[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Angola/ Open Directory Project - ''Angola''] directory category *[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/angola.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Angola''] directory category ===Tourism=== *{{wikitravel}} ===Other=== * [http://www.flashpoints.info/countries-conflicts/Angola-web/angola_briefing.html Angola Conflict Briefing] {{Africa}} [[Category:Angola| ]] [[Category:African Union member states]] [[Category:Former Portuguese colonies]] [[Category:CPLP member states]] [[af:Angola]] [[am:አንጎላ]] [[ar:أنغولا]] [[an:Angola]] [[ast:Angola]] [[bg:Ангола]] [[zh-min-nan:Angola]] [[bn:এঙ্গোলা]] [[bs:Angola]] [[ca:Angola]] [[cs:Angola]] [[da:Angola]] [[de:Angola]] [[et:Angola]] [[el:Αγκόλα]] [[es:Angola]] [[eo:Angolo]] [[eu:Angola]] [[fr:Angola]] [[gd:Angola]] [[gl:Angola]] [[ko:앙골라]] [[ht:Angola]] [[hr:Angola]] [[io:Angola]] [[id:Angola]] [[ia:Angola]] [[is:Angóla]] [[it:Angola]] [[he:אנגולה]] [[jv:Angola]] [[ku:Angola]] [[la:Angolia]] [[lv:Angola]] [[lt:Angola]] [[lb:Angola]] [[li:Angola]] [[hu:Angola]] [[mk:Ангола]] [[mg:Angola]] [[ms:Angola]] [[na:Angola]] [[nl:Angola]] [[nds:Angola]] [[ja:アンゴラ]] [[no:Angola]] [[nn:Angola]] [[oc:Angòla]] [[pl:Angola]] [[pt:Angola]] [[ro:Angola]] [[ru:Ангола]] [[se:Angola]] [[sa:अंगोला]] [[sq:Angola]] [[sh:Angola]] [[scn:Angola]] [[simple:Angola]] [[sk:Angola]] [[sl:Angola]] [[sr:Ангола]] [[fi:Angola]] [[sv:Angola]] [[tl:Angola]] [[vi:Angola]] [[tr:Angola]] [[uk:Ангола]] [[zh:安哥拉]] 702 15899228 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z LA2 445 * #REDIRECT [[History of Angola]] 703 40697070 2006-02-22T10:51:45Z 83.41.197.224 Link to spanish Wikipedia [[Image:Angola Map.jpg|right||thumb|300px|Map of Angola]] [[Angola]] is located on the [[South Atlantic]] Coast of West [[Africa]] between [[Namibia]] and the [[Republic of the Congo]]. It also is bordered by the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] and [[Zambia]] to the east. The country is divided into an arid coastal strip stretching from Namibia to [[Luanda]]; a wet, interior highland; a dry [[savanna]] in the interior south and southeast; and [[rain forest]] in the north and in [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]]. The [[Zambezi River]] and several tributaries of the [[Congo River]] have their sources in Angola. The coastal strip is tempered by the cool [[Benguela]] current, resulting in a climate similar to coastal [[Peru]] or [[Baja California]]. There is a short rainy season lasting from February to April. Summers are hot and dry, while winters are mild. The interior highlands have a mild climate with a rainy season from November through April followed by a cool dry season from May to October. Elevations generally range from 3,000 to 6,000 feet (900 to 1,800 m). The far north and Cabinda enjoy rain throughout much of the year. The coast is for the most part flat, with occasional low cliffs and bluffs of red [[sandstone]]. There is but one deep inlet of the sea - [[Great Fish Bay]] (or [[Baía dos Tigres]]). Farther north are [[Port Alexander]], [[Little Fish Bay]] and [[Lobito Bay]], while shallower bays are numerous. Lobito Bay has water sufficient to allow large ships to unload close inshore. The coast plain extends inland for a distance varying from 30 to 100 miles (48 to 165 km). This region is in general sparsely watered and somewhat sterile. The approach to the great central plateau of Africa is marked by a series of irregular terraces. This intermediate mountain belt is covered with luxuriant vegetation. Water is fairly abundant, though in the dry season obtainable only by digging in the sandy beds of the rivers. The plateau has an altitude ranging from 4000 to 6000 ft (1,200 to 1,800 m). It consists of well-watered, wide, rolling plains, and low hills with scanty vegetation. In the east the tableland falls away to the basins of the Congo and Zambezi, to the south it merges into a barren sandy [[desert]]. A large number of rivers make their way westward to the sea; they rise, mostly, in the mountain belt, and are unimportant, the only two of any size being the Kwanza and the Kunene, separately noticed. The mountain chains which form the edge of the plateau, or diversify its surface, run generally parallel to the coast, as [[Tala Mugongo]] (4400 ft., 1350 m), [[Chella]] and [[Vissecua]] (5250 ft. to 6500 ft. or 1500 to 2000 m). In the district of [[Benguela]] are the highest points of the province, viz. [[Loviti]] (7780 ft., 2370 m), in 12° 5' S., and [[Mt. Elonga]] (7550 ft., 2300 m). South of the Kwanza is the volcanic mountain [[Caculo-Cabaza]] (3300 ft., 1000 m). From the tableland the [[Kwango]] and many other streams flow north to join the [[Kasai River]] (one of the largest affluents of the Congo), which in its upper course forms for fully 300 mi (490 km). the boundary between Angola and the Congo State. In the south-east part of the province the rivers belong either to the [[Zambezi]] system, or, like the [[Okavango River|Okavango]], drain to [[Lake Ngami]]. == Geology == The rock formations of Angola are met with in three distinct regions: # the [[littoral]] zone, # the median zone formed by a series of hills more or less parallel with the coast, # the central plateau. The central plateau consists of ancient [[crystalline rock]]s with [[granite]]s overlain by [[unfossiliferous]] sandstones and conglomerates of [[Paleozoic]] age. The outcrops are largely hidden under [[laterite]]. The median zone is composed largely of crystalline rocks with granites and some Palaeozoic unfossiliferous rocks. The [[littoral]] zone contains the only [[fossiliferous]] strata. These are of [[Tertiary Age|Tertiary]] and [[Cretaceous]] ages, the latter rocks resting on a reddish sandstone of older date. The Cretaceous rocks of the Dombe Grande region (near Benguella) are of [[Albian age]] and belong to the ''[[Acanthoceras mamillari]]'' zone. The beds containing ''[[Schloenbachia inflata]]'' are referable to the [[Gault]]. Rocks of Tertiary age are met with at Dombe Grande, Mossamedes and near Loanda. The sandstones with [[gypsum]], [[copper]] and [[sulfur]] of Dombe are doubtfully considered to be of [[Triassic]] age. Recent eruptive rocks, mainly [[basalt]]s, form a line of hills almost bare of vegetation between Benguella and Mossamedes. Nepheline basalts and [[liparite]]s occur at Dombe Grande. The presence of [[gum copal]] in considerable quantities in the superficial rocks is characteristic of certain regions. == Location == Southern [[Africa]], bordering the South [[Atlantic Ocean]], between [[Namibia]] and [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] '''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|12|30|S|18|30|E|type:country}} '''Map references:''' Africa == Area == * ''total:'' 1,246,700 km² * ''land:'' 1,246,700 km² * ''water:'' 0 km² === Area comparative === *[[Australia]] comparative: smaller than the [[Northern Territory]] *[[Canada]] comparative: slightly smaller than the [[Northwest Territories]] *[[United Kingdom]] comparative: 5 times bigger than the UK *[[United States]] comparative: slightly less than twice the size of [[Texas]] == Capital == *[[Luanda]] (São Paulo de Loanda) - port - [[railhead]] == Major Cities == *[[Amboim]] (Porto Amboim) *[[Bailundo]] (Vila Teixeira da Silva) *[[Benguela]] (São Felipe de Benguella) - port - [[railhead]] *[[Caála]] (Vila Robert Williams) *[[Calandula]] (Duque de Bragança) *[[Camacupa]] (Vila General Machado) *[[Chibia]] (Vila João de Almeida) *[[Ganda]] (Vila Mariano Machado) *[[Huambo]] (Nova Lisboa) - rail *[[Kuito]] (Silva Porto) *[[Kuvango]] (Vila da Ponte) *[[Lubango]] (Sá da Bandeira) *[[Lwena]] (Vila Luso) *[[Massango]] (Forte República) *[[Mbanza Congo]] (São Salvador do Congo) *[[Menongue]] (Serpa Pinto) - [[railhead]] *[[Namibe]] (Moçâmedes) - port - [[railhead]] *[[N'Dalatando]] (Vila Salazar) - rail *[[N'Giva]] (Vila Pereira d'Eça) *[[Saurimo]] (Vila Henrique de Carvalho) *[[Soyo]] (Santo António do Zaire) *[[Sumbe]] (Novo Redondo) *[[Tombua]] (Porto Alexandre) *[[Uíje]] (Carmona) * Other [[Towns in Angola]] == Land boundaries == * ''total:'' 5,198 km * ''border countries:'' [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] 2,511 km (of which 220 km is the boundary of discontiguous [[Angola/Cabinda|Cabinda Province]]), Republic of the Congo 201 km, [[Namibia]] 1,376 km, [[Zambia]] 1,110 km '''Coastline:''' 1,600 km '''Maritime claims:''' * ''contiguous zone:'' 24 nautical miles (44,5 km) * ''exclusive economic zone:'' 200 [[nautical mile]]s (370 km) * ''territorial sea:'' 12 nautical miles (22 km) == Climate == Like the rest of tropical Africa, Angola experiences distinct, alternating rainy and dry seasons. It is semiarid in South and along coast to Luanda; North has cool, dry season (May to October) and hot, rainy season (November to April). In the interior, above 3300 ft. (1000 m), the temperature and rainfall decrease. The plateau climate is healthy and invigorating. The mean annual temperature at [[São Salvador do Congo]] is 22.2° C (72.5° F); at [[Loanda]], 23.3° C (74.3° F); and at [[Caconda]], 19.5° C (67.2° F). The climate is greatly influenced by the prevailing [[wind]]s, which arc W., S.W. and S.S.W. Two seasons are distinguished - the cool, from June to September; and the rainy, from October to May. The heaviest [[rainfall]] occurs in April, and is accompanied by violent storms. == Terrain == Angola has three principal natural regions: the coastal lowland, characterized by low plains and terraces; hills and mountains, rising inland from the coast into a great escarpment; and an area of high plains, called the high plateau (planalto), which extends eastward from the escarpment. The highest point in Angola is [[Morro de Moco]], at 2,620 m. ===Coastal lowland=== The coastal lowland rises from the sea in a series of low terraces. This region varies in width from about 25 kilometers near Benguela to more than 150 kilometers in the Cuanza River Valley just south of Angola's capital, Luanda, and is markedly different from Angola's highland mass. The Atlantic Ocean's cold, northwardflowing Benguela Current substantially reduces precipitation along the coast, making the region relatively arid or nearly so south of Benguela (where it forms the northern extension of the Namib Desert), and quite dry even in its northern reaches. Even where, as around Luanda, the average annual rainfall may be as much as fifty centimeters, it is not uncommon for the rains to fail. Given this pattern of precipitation, the far south is marked by sand dunes, which give way to dry scrub along the middle coast. Portions of the northern coastal plain are covered by thick brush. ===Hills and mountains=== The belt of hills and mountains parallels the coast at distances ranging from 20 kilometers to 100 kilometers inland. The Cuanza River divides the zone into two parts. The northern part rises gradually from the coastal zone to an average elevation of 500 meters, with crests as high as 1,000 meters to 1,800 meters. South of the Cuanza River, the hills rise sharply from the coastal lowlands and form a high escarpment, extending from a point east of Luanda and running south through Namibia. The escarpment reaches 2,400 meters at its highest point, southeast of the town of Sumbe, and is steepest in the far south in the Serra da Chela mountain range. ===High plateau=== The high plateau lies to the east of the hills and mountains and dominates Angola's terrain. The surface of the plateau is typically flat or rolling, but parts of the Benguela Plateau and the Humpata Highland area of the Huíla Plateau in the south reach heights of 2,500 meters and more. The Malanje Plateau to the north rarely exceeds 1,000 meters in height. The Benguela Plateau and the coastal area in the immediate environs of Benguela and Lobito, the Bié Plateau, the Malanje Plateau, and a small section of the Huíla Plateau near the town of Lubango have long been among the most densely settled areas in Angola. ==Drainage== Most of the country's many rivers originate in central Angola, but their patterns of flow are diverse and their ultimate outlets varied. A number of rivers flow in a more or less westerly course to the Atlantic Ocean, providing water for irrigation in the dry coastal strip and the potential for hydroelectric power, only some of which had been realized by 1988. Two of Angola's most important rivers, the Cuanza and the Cunene, take a more indirect route to the Atlantic, the Cuanza flowing north and the Cunene flowing south before turning west. The Cuanza is the only river wholly within Angola that is navigable--for nearly 200 kilometers from its mouth- -by boats of commercially or militarily significant size. The Congo River, whose mouth and western end form a small portion of Angola's northern border with Zaire, is also navigable. North of the Lunda Divide a number of important tributaries of the Congo River flow north to join it, draining Angola's northeast quadrant. South of the divide some rivers flow into the Zambezi River and thence to the Indian Ocean, others to the Okavango River (as the Cubango River is called along the border with Namibia and in Botswana) and thence to the Okavango Swamp in Botswana. The tributaries of the Cubango River and several of the southern rivers flowing to the Atlantic are seasonal, completely dry much of the year. ==Land use and hazards== '''Natural resources:''' [[petroleum]], [[diamond]]s, [[iron]] ore, [[phosphates]], [[copper]], [[feldspar]], [[gold]], [[bauxite]], [[uranium]] '''Land use:''' * ''arable land:'' 2.41% * ''permanent crops:'' 0.4% * ''other:'' 97.19% (1999 est.) '''Irrigated land:''' 750 km² (1998 est.) '''Natural hazards:''' locally heavy rainfall causes periodic flooding on the plateau == Environment - current issues == Overuse of [[pasture]]s and subsequent [[soil erosion]] attributable to population pressures; [[desertification]]; [[deforestation]] of tropical rain forest, in response to both international demand for tropical [[timber]] and to domestic use as fuel, resulting in loss of [[biodiversity]]; soil erosion contributing to [[water pollution]] and [[silting]] of rivers and dams; inadequate supplies of potable water '''Environment - international agreements:''' * ''party to:'' Biodiversity, [[Climate Change]], Desertification, [[Law of the Sea]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], Ship Pollution ([[MARPOL 73/78]]) * ''signed, but not ratified:'' none of the selected agreements == Flora and fauna == Both [[flora (plants)|flora]] and [[fauna (animals)|fauna]] are those characteristic of the greater part of tropical Africa. As far south as Benguela the coast region is rich in [[oil palm]]s and [[mangrove]]s. In the Northern part of the province are dense forests. In the South towards the Kunene are regions of dense [[thorn scrub]]. [[Rubber]] vines and trees are abundant, but in some districts their number has been considerably reduced by the primitive methods adopted by native collectors of rubber. The species most common are various root rubbers, notably the ''Carpodinus chylorrhiza''. This species and other varieties of carpodinus are very widely distributed. [[Landolphia]]s are also found. The [[coffee]], [[cotton]] and [[Guinea pepper]] plants are indigenous, and the [[tobacco]] plant flourishes in several districts. Among the trees are several which yield excellent timber, such as the [[tacula]] (''Pterocarpus tinctorius''), which grows to an immense size, its wood being blood-red in colour, and the Angola [[mahogany]]. The [[bark]] of the [[musuemba]] (''Albizzia coriaria'') is largely used in the tanning of [[leather]]. The [[mulundo]] bears a fruit about the size of a cricket ball covered with a hard green shell and containing scarlet pips like a [[pomegranate]]. The fauna includes the [[lion]], [[leopard]], [[cheetah]], [[elephant]], [[giraffe]], [[rhinoceros]], [[hippopotamus]], [[African Buffalo|buffalo]], [[zebra]], [[kudu]] and many other kinds of [[antelope]], [[wildpig]], [[ostrich]] and [[crocodile]]. Among fish are the [[barbel]], [[bream]] and [[African yellow fish]]. '''Geography - note:''' the province of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] is an [[exclave]], separated from the rest of the country by the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] == Extreme points == This is a list of the '''extreme points of [[Angola]]''', the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location. '''''Angola''''' * Northernmost Point - unnamed point on the border with [[Republic of the Congo]] (north of the town [[Caio Bemba]], [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] province (an Angolan [[exclave]]) * Easternmost Point - unnamed location on a river section of the border with [[Zambia]] (north of the town [[Sapeta]] in Zambia), [[Moxico (province)|Moxico]] province * Southernmost Point - on the point where the [[Cunene River]] section of the border with [[Namibia]] terminates at the [[Caprivi Strip]] (immediately north of the town [[Andara]] in Namibia, [[Cuando Cubango]] province * Westernmost Point - [[Baía dos Tigres]] island, [[Namibe Province]] '''''Angola (mainland)''''' * Northernmost Point - a point on the border with the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] immediately to the north-west of the town [[Luvo]], [[Zaire Province]] * Easternmost Point - unnamed point on a river section of the border with [[Zambia]] (north of the town [[Sapeta]] in Zambia), [[Moxico (province)|Moxico]] province * Southernmost Point - on the point where the [[Cunene River]] section of the border with [[Namibia]] terminates at the [[Caprivi Strip]] (immediately north of the town [[Andara]] in Namibia, [[Cuando Cubango]] province * Westernmost Point - unnamed headland west of [[Tombua]] (Porto Alexandre), [[Namibe Province|Namibe]] == Sources == *[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies] *''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2003 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.'' *{{1911}} == See also == *[[Angola]] *[[Extreme points of Angola]] {{Africa in topic|Geography of}} [[Category:Geography of Angola| ]] [[Category:Geography by country|Angola, Geography of]] [[es:Geografía de Angola]] [[fr:Géographie de l'Angola]] [[pt:Geografia de Angola]] 704 41587062 2006-02-28T09:00:51Z 203.131.142.187 [[Image:Angola demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of [[Angola]], Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]] The '''demographics of Angola''' consist of three main ethnic groups, each speaking a [[Bantu language]]: [[Ovimbundu]] 37%, [[Kimbundu]] 25%, and [[Bakongo]] 13%. Other groups include [[Chokwe]] (or Lunda), Ganguela, Nhaneca-Humbe, Ambo, Herero, and Xindunga. In addition, mixed racial (European and Africa) people amount to about 2%, with a small (1%) population of whites, mainly ethnically [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]. Portuguese make up the largest non-Angolan population, with at least 30,000 (though many native-born Angolans can claim Portuguese nationality under Portuguese law). In [[1975]], 250,000 [[Cuba]]n soldiers settled Angola to help the MPLA forces to fight for its independence. These Cubans are of European and [[Asia]]n (mostly [[Chinese Cuban| Chinese]] descent, while others include those of pure [[Afro-Cuban|African]] and [[mulatto]] descent, who has ancestors in Angola. But in [[1989]], almost all Cubans went out of the country after a peace agreement has been signed between Angola, Cuba, and [[South Africa]]. Cubans speak [[Spanish language]], but almost none of their descendants speak it. [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] is both the official and predominant language. The great majority of the inhabitants are of Bantu-Negro stock with some admixture in the Congo district with the pure negro type. In the south-east are various tribes of Bushmen. The best-known of the Bantu-Negro tribes are the Ba-Kongo (Ba-Fiot), who dwell chiefly in the north, and the Abunda (Mbunda, Ba-Bundo), who occupy the central part of the province, which takes its name from the Ngola tribe of Abunda. Another of these tribes, the Bangala, living on the west bank of the upper Kwango, must not be confounded with the Bangala of the middle [[Congo]]. In the Abunda is a considerable strain of Portuguese blood. The Ba-Lunda inhabit the Lunda district. Along the upper Kunene and in other districts of the plateau are settlements of Boers, the Boer population being about 2000. In the coast towns the majority of the white inhabitants are Portuguese. The Mushi-Kongo and other divisions of the Ba-Kongo retain curious traces of the Christianity professed by them in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and possibly later. Crucifixes are used as potent fetish charms or as symbols of power passing down from chief to chief; whilst every native has a "Santu" or Christian name and is dubbed dom or dona. Fetishism is the prevailing religion throughout the province. The dwelling-places of the natives are usually small huts of the simplest construction, used chiefly as sleeping apartments; the day is spent in an open space in front of the hut protected from the sun by a roof of palm or other leaves. ==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook== [[Image:Angola population pyramid 2005.png|thumb|300px|[[Population pyramid]] for Angola]] ===Population=== :11,190,786 (July 2005 est.) ===Age structure=== :0-14 years: 43.4% (male 2,454,209/female 2,407,083) :15-64 years: 53.7% (male 3,059,339/female 2,955,060) :65 years and over: 2.8% (male 139,961/female 175,134) (2005 est.) ===Median age=== :Total: 18.12 years :Male: 18.12 years :Female: 18.11 years (2005 est.) ===Population growth rate=== :1.9% (2005 est.) ===Birth rate=== :44.64 births/1,000 population (2005 est.) ===Death rate=== :25.9 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.) ===Net migration rate=== :0.28 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.) ===Sex ratio=== :At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female :Under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female :15-64 years: 1.04 male(s)/female :65 years and over: 0.8 male(s)/female :Total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2005 est.) ===Infant mortality rate=== :Total: 191.19 deaths/1,000 live births :Male: 203.68 deaths/1,000 live births :Female: 178.07 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.) ===Life expectancy at birth=== :Total population: 36.61 years :Male: 36 years :Female: 37.25 years (2005 est.) ===Total fertility rate=== :6.27 children born/woman (2005 est.) ===HIV/AIDS=== :Adult prevalence rate: 3.9% (2003 est.) :People living with HIV/AIDS: 240,000 (2003 est.) :Deaths: 21,000 (2003 est.) ===Major infectious diseases=== :Degree of risk: very high :Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, typhoid fever :Vectorborne diseases: malaria, African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) are high risks in some locations :Respiratory disease: meningococcal meningitis :Water contact disease: schistosomiasis (2004) ===Nationality=== :Noun: Angolan(s) :Adjective: Angolan ===Ethnic groups=== :Ovimbundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, Bakongo 13%, mestico (mixed European and native African) 2%, European 1%, other 22% ===Religions=== :Indigenous beliefs 47%, Roman Catholic 38%, Protestant 15% (1998 est.) ===Languages=== :Portuguese (official), Bantu and other African languages ===Literacy=== :Definition: age 15 and over can read and write :Total population: 42% :Male: 56% :Female: 28% (1998 est.) ==References== ''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2005 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.'' {{Africa in topic|Demographics of}} [[Category:Geography of Angola]] [[Category:Angolan society]] [[Category:Demographics by country|Angola]] 705 35512983 2006-01-17T07:09:30Z Acntx 104025 /* International organization participation */ {{Politics of Angola}} [[Angola]] changed from a [[Single-party state|one-party]] [[Marxist]]-[[Leninist]] system ruled by the [[MPLA]] to a formal multiparty democracy following the 1992 elections. President [[José Eduardo dos Santos|dos Santos]] won the first round election with more than 49% of the vote to [[Jonas Savimbi]]'s 40%. A runoff never has taken place. The subsequent renewal of civil war and collapse of the [[Lusaka Protocol]] have left much of this process stillborn, but democratic forms exist, notably the [[National Assembly of Angola|National Assembly]]. Currently, political power is concentrated in the Presidency. The executive branch of the government is composed of the President, the Prime Minister (currently [[Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos]]) and Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers, composed of all government ministers and vice ministers, meets regularly to discuss policy issues. Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by and serve at the pleasure of the president. The Constitutional Law of 1992 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented. Courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review has never been constituted despite statutory authorization. The 26-year long civil war has ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The UN estimates of 1.8 million [[internally displaced person]]s (IDPs), while generally the accepted figure for war-affected people is 4 million. Daily conditions of life throughout the country and specifically Luanda (population approximately 4 million) mirror the collapse of administrative infrastructure as well as many social institutions. The ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for social institutions. Hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment, schools are without books, and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work. ==Executive branch== {{office-table}} |[[President of Angola|President]] |[[José Eduardo dos Santos]] |[[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola|MPLA]] |[[21 September]] [[1979]] |- |[[Prime Minister of Angola|Prime Minister]] |[[Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos]] "Nando" |[[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola|MPLA]] |[[6 December]] [[2002]] |} The president is elected for a five year term by the people. The Council of Ministers appointed by the president. ==Legislative branch== The '''[[National Assembly of Angola|National Assembly]]''' (''Assembleia Nacional'') has 220 members, elected for a four year term, 130 members by [[proportional representation]] and 90 members in provincial districts. The next elections, due for 1997, have been put off indefinitely. ==Political parties and elections== {{elect|List of political parties in Angola|Elections in Angola}} The president has announced the government's intention to hold elections in [[2006]]. These elections would be the first since 1992 and would serve to elect both a new president and a new National Assembly. {{Angola presidential election, 1992}} {{Angola parliamentary election, 1992}} ==Judicial branch== Supreme Court or Tribunal da Relacao, judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the president ==Administrative divisions== Angola has eighteen provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Bengo, Benguela, Bie, Cabinda, Cuando Cubango, Cuanza Norte, Cuanza Sul, Cunene, Huambo, Huila, Luanda, Lunda Norte, Lunda Sul, Malanje, Moxico, Namibe, Uige, Zaire ==Political pressure groups and leaders== Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda or FLEC [N'zita Henriques TIAGO; Antonio Bento BEMBE] * ''note:'' FLEC is waging a small-scale, highly factionalized, armed struggle for the independence of Cabinda Province ==International organization participation== ACP, AfDB, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAS (observer), OAU, SADC, UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO {{Africa in topic|Politics of}} [[Category:Politics of Angola| ]] [[pt:Política de Angola]] 706 38981232 2006-02-09T22:46:25Z Briaboru 284038 {{Economy of Angola table}} [[Angola]]'s is the fastest-growing economy in Africa, largely due to a major oil boom, but it also ranks in the bottom 10 of socioeconomic conditions in the world. Aside from the oil sector and [[diamond]]s, it is in economic disarray because of 26 years of nearly continuous warfare. Despite abundant natural resources, output per capita remains among the world's lowest. Subsistence agriculture and dependence on humanitarian food assistance sustain the large majority of the population. Little industry exists. By contrast, the rapidly expanding [[petroleum]] industry now producing up to 800,000 barrels (127,000 m&sup3;) per day, behind only Nigeria in Africa, accounts for more than 60% of GNP and 90% of government revenues. Oil production remains largely offshore and has few linkages with other sectors of the economy. Block Zero, located of the enclave of Cabinda, provides the majority of Angola's crude oil production. There, [[ChevronTexaco]], through its subsidiary Cabinda Gulf Oil Company, is the operator with a 39.2% share, with [[SONANGOL]] (the Angolan state oil company), [[Total S.A.|Total]], and [[ENI-Agip]] splitting up the rest. ChevronTexaco also operates Angola's first producing deepwater section, Block 14, which started pumping in January 2000. The U.S. takes more than half of Angola's production, by far the largest importer. Exports to Asian countries have grown rapidly in recent years, however, especially China. Significant discoveries have been made on deepwater Blocks 15, 17, 18, and 24, with [[ExxonMobil]], [[BP]], [[Statoil]], [[Norsk Hydro]], and [[Agip]] having major interests. Total operates Angola's one refinery (in Luanda) as a joint venture with SONANGOL; plans for a second refinery in Lobito are moving forward. In the last decade of the colonial period, Angola was a major African food exporter but now is forced to import almost all its food. Because of severe wartime conditions, including extensive planting of landmines throughout the countryside, agricultural activities have been brought to a near standstill. Some efforts to recover have gone forward, however, notably in fisheries. Coffee production, though a fraction of its pre-1975 level, is sufficient for domestic needs and some exports. In sharp contrast to a bleak picture of devastation and bare subsistence is expanding oil production, now almost half of GDP and 90% of exports, at 800,000 barrels (127,000 m&sup3;) a day. Diamonds make up most of the remaining exports--and have provided much of the revenue for [[Jonas Savimbi]]'s [[UNITA]] rebellion through illicit trade. Other rich resources await development: gold, forest products, fisheries, iron ore, coffee, and countless fruits. An economic reform effort was launched in 1998. In April 2000, Angola started an International Monetary Fund (IMF) Staff-Monitored Program (SMP). The program formally lapsed in June 2001, but the IMF remains engaged. In this context, the Government of Angola has succeeded in unifying exchange rates and has raised fuel, electricity, and water rates. The Commercial Code, telecommunications law, and Foreign Investment Code are being modernized. A privatization effort, prepared with World Bank assistance, has begun with the BCI bank. Nevertheless, a legacy of fiscal mismanagement and corruption persists. Angola is the third-largest trading partner of the United States in Sub-Saharan Africa, largely because of its petroleum exports. The U.S. imports about 4% of its oil from Angola, a share which should continue to increase. By the same token, U.S. companies account for more than half the investment in Angola, with Chevron-Texaco leading the way. The U.S. exports industrial goods and services--primarily oilfield equipment, mining equipment, chemicals, aircraft, and food--to Angola, while principally importing petroleum. '''Economy - overview:''' Angola is an economy in disarray because of a quarter century of nearly continuous warfare and corruption. Despite its abundant natural resources, output per capita is among the world's lowest. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for 85% of the population. Oil production and the supporting activities are vital to the economy, contributing about 45% to GDP and 90% of exports. Notwithstanding the signing of a peace accord in November 1994, violence continues, millions of land mines remain, and many farmers are reluctant to return to their fields. As a result, much of the country's food must still be imported. To take advantage of its rich resources - [[gold]], [[diamond]]s, extensive forests, Atlantic fisheries, and large oil deposits - Angola will need to implement the peace agreement and reform government policies. Despite the increase in the pace of civil warfare in late 1998, the economy grew by an estimated 4% in 1999. The government introduced new currency denominations in 1999, including a 1 and 5 kwanza note. Expanded oil production brightens prospects for 2000, but internal strife discourages investment outside of the petroleum sector. [[Category:African Union member economies|Angola]] 707 37393314 2006-01-30T19:24:11Z ZachPruckowski 626251 [[Communication|Communications]] in [[Angola]]: ==Telephony== Telephone service is limited mostly to government and business use. 96,300 [[landline|main lines]] were reported to be in use in 2003, and 130,000 [[mobile cellular]] lines were reported in 2002. [[high frequency|HF]] [[radiotelephone]] is used extensively for military links. The domestic system consists of a limited system of [[wire]]. It also uses [[microwave radio relay]] and [[tropospheric scatter]]. The international [[country calling code|country code]] for Angola is 244. Angola has 2 [[Intelsat]] [[satellite earth station]]s for communications across the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. [[Fiber optic]] [[submarine cable]] ([[SAT-3/WASC]]) provides connectivity to [[Europe]] and [[Asia]]. ==Radio== :'''Broadcast stations''': AM 21, FM 6, shortwave 7 (2000) :'''Radios''': 630,000 (1997) ==Television== :'''Broadcast stations''': 6 (2000) :'''Televisions''': 150,000 (1997) ==Internet== :'''Internet hosts''': 17 (2003) :'''Internet users''': 200,000 (2002) :'''[[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] [[country code]]''': AO ==Reference== *[[CIA World Factbook]] 2004 {{Africa-stub}} [[Category:Communications in Angola| ]] 708 36634605 2006-01-25T12:33:02Z Tabletop 173687 under construction '''Transportation in Angola''' comprises: == Railways == * ''total:'' 2,761 km * ''narrow gauge:'' 2,638 km 1.067-m gauge; 123 km 0.600-m gauge (2002) * there are three separate lines which do not link up. A fourth system linked [[Gunza]] and [[Gabela]]. * railways in Angola have suffered a lot of damage in the civil war, and a $4b project is proposed to restore the lines, and even to extend the system. A link to Namibia is partly under construction. === Railway links to adjacent countries === The major railway in [[Angola]] is the [[Benguela railway]], severely damaged during the civil war after independence. * [[Transportation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]] - no - [[Lobito]] - [[Lubumbashi]] restoration link proposed. * [[Transportation in Namibia|Namibia]] - no - same gauge - links proposed and partially under construction in [[2005]]. * [[Transportation in Zambia|Zambia]] - no == Highways == * ''total:'' 76,626 km * ''paved:'' 19,156 km * ''unpaved:'' 57,470 km (1997 est.) == Waterways == 1,295 km navigable == Pipelines == * crude oil 179 km == Ports and harbors == === Atlantic Ocean === * from North to South * [[Ambriz]] * [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] * [[Luanda]] - [[railhead]] for [[Malanje]] * [[Lobito]] - [[railhead]] for [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]] * [[Malongo]] * [[Namibe]] - [[railhead]] for [[Menongue]] * [[Porto Amboim]] * [[Soyo]] == Merchant marine == * ''total:'' 8 ships (1,000 GRT or over) 30,311 GRT/48,924 DWT * ''ships by type:'' cargo 7, petroleum tanker 1 (2002 est.) == Airports == 243 (2002) === Airports - with paved runways === * ''total:'' 32 * ''over 3,047 m:'' 4 * ''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 8 * ''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 14 * ''914 to 1,523 m:'' 5 * ''under 914 m:'' 1 (2002 est.) === Airports - with unpaved runways === * ''total:'' 211 (2002) * ''over 3,047 m:'' 2 * ''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 4 * ''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 30 * ''914 to 1,523 m:'' 95 * ''under 914 m:'' 80 (2002 est.) === National Airline === * [[TAAG Air Angola]] == Reference == ''This article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2003.'' == See also == * [[Angola]] {{CIAfb}} {{Africa in topic|Transport in}} [[Category:Transportation in Angola| ]] 709 42091342 2006-03-03T19:45:35Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 {{Military | color=#CC3300 | age=17 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript service obligation - 2 years plus time for training (2001) | availability=2,423,221 (2005 est.) | service=1,174,548 (2005 est.) | reaching age=121,254 (2005 est.) | active= | amount=$183.58 million (2004) | percent GDP=10.6% (2004) }} [[Angola]]'s military is called the FAA, the Portuguese acronym for [[Angolan Armed Forces]], headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defense. There are three divisions--the '''Army''', Navy ('''Marinha de Guerra''', MdG), and '''Air and Air Defense Forces''' (FANA). Total manpower is about 110,000. The army is by far the largest of the services with about 100,000 men and women. The navy numbers about 3,000 and operates several small patrol craft and barges. Air force personnel total about 7,000; its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters and transport planes. A small number of FAA personnel are stationed in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (Kinshasa) and the [[Republic of the Congo]] (Brazzaville). ==References== *''[[CIA World Factbook]]'', 2005 *''U.S. Department of State Background Notes'', 2003 [[Category:Military of Angola]] [[Category:Militaries|Angola]] 710 39812262 2006-02-16T00:55:16Z 71.3.230.131 {{Politics of Angola}} Froom 1975 to 1989, [[Angola]] was aligned with the [[Eastern bloc]], in particular the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Cuba]]. Since then, it has focused on improving relationships with [[Western world|Western countries]], cultivating links with other Portuguese-speaking countries, and asserting its own national interests in [[Central Africa]] through military and diplomatic intervention. In 1993, it established formal diplomatic relations with the [[United States]]. It has entered the [[Southern African Development Community]] as a vehicle for improving ties with its largely anglophone neighbors to the south. [[Zimbabwe]] and [[Namibia]] joined Angola in its military intervention in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], where Angolan troops remain in support of the [[Joseph Kabila]] government. It also has intervened in the [[Republic of the Congo]] (Brazzaville) to support the existing government in that country. Since 1998, Angola has successfully worked with the [[UN Security Council]] to impose and carry out sanctions on [[UNITA]]. More recently, it has extended those efforts to controls on conflict diamonds, the primary source of revenue for UNITA. At the same time, Angola has promoted the revival of the Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries (CPLP) as a forum for cultural exchange and expanding ties with Portugal and Brazil in particular. '''Disputes - international:''' [[Angola]] gives shelter to thousands of refugees from the Democratic Republic of the Congo while thousands of Angolan refugees still remain in neighboring states as a consequence of the protracted civil wars in both states '''Illicit drugs:''' [[Angola]] is used as a transshipment point for cocaine destined for [[Western Europe]] and other African states ==Reference== ''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2003 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.'' {{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}} [[Category:Foreign relations of Angola| ]] 711 41210266 2006-02-25T20:31:06Z 213.232.248.85 /* Texas Army */ [[Image:ASJohnston.jpeg|thumb|Albert Sidney Johnston]] '''Albert Sidney Johnston''' ([[February 2]], [[1803]] &ndash; [[April 6]], [[1862]]) was a career [[U.S. Army]] officer and a [[Confederate States Army | Confederate]] [[general]] during the [[American Civil War]]. Considered by [[President of the Confederate States | Confederate President]] [[Jefferson Davis]] to be the finest general in the Confederacy, he was killed early in the war at the [[Battle of Shiloh]]. ==Early life== Johnston was born in [[Washington, Kentucky | Washington]], [[Kentucky]], the youngest son of Dr. John and Abigail Harris Johnston. His father was a native of [[Salisbury, Connecticut]]. Although Albert Johnston was born in Kentucky, he lived much of his life in [[Texas]], which he considered his home. He was educated at [[Transylvania University]] in [[Lexington, Kentucky | Lexington]] and later secured an appointment to [[United States Military Academy|West Point]]. In [[1826]] he graduated eighth in his class from the [[United States Military Academy]] with a commission as a [[second lieutenant]] in the 2nd U.S. [[Infantry]]. He was assigned to posts in [[New York]] and [[Missouri]] and served in the [[Black Hawk War]] in [[1832]] as chief of staff to General Henry Atlinson. In [[1829]] he married Henrietta Preston. He resigned his commission in [[1834]] to return to Kentucky to care for his dying wife. They had one son, William Preston Johnston. ==Texas Army== In April 1834, Johnston took up farming in [[Texas]], but enlisted as a [[Private (rank)|private]] in the Texas Army during the [[Texas War of Independence]] against the Republic of [[Mexico]] in [[1836]]. One month later, Johnston was promoted to [[major]] and the position of [[aide-de-camp]] to General [[Sam Houston]]. He was named [[Adjutant General]] as a [[colonel]] in the [[Republic of Texas]] Army on [[August 5]], [[1836]]. On [[January 31]], [[1837]], he became Senior Brigadier General in command of the Texas Army. On [[February 7]], [[1837]], he fought in a [[duel]] with Texas Brig. Gen. [[Felix Huston]], challenging each other for the command of the Texas Army; Johnston refused to fire on Huston and lost the position after he was wounded in the pelvis. The second president of the [[Republic of Texas]], [[Mirabeau B. Lamar]], appointed him Secretary of War on [[December 22]], [[1838]]. Johnston was to provide the defense of the Texas border against Mexican invasion, and in 1839 conducted a campaign against [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]] in northern Texas. In February 1840, he resigned and returned to Kentucky, where he married [[Eliza Griffin]] in [[1843]]. They settled on a large [[plantation]] he named China Grove in [[Brazoria County, Texas]]. ==U.S. Army== Johnston returned to the Texas Army during the [[Mexican-American War]] under General [[Zachary Taylor]] as a [[colonel]] of the 1st Texas Rifle Volunteers. The enlistments of his volunteers ran out just before the [[Battle of Monterrey]]. Johnston managed to convince a few volunteers to stay and fight as he himself served as the inspector general of volunteers and fought at the battles of Monterrey and [[Battle of Buena Vista|Buena Vista]]. Johnston remained on his plantation after the war until he was appointed by [[President of the United States | President]] [[Zachary Taylor]] to the U.S. Army as a [[major]] and was made a [[U.S. Army Paymaster | paymaster]] in December of [[1849]]. He served in that role for more than five years, making six tours, and traveling more than 4,000 miles annually on the Indian frontier of Texas. He served on the Texas frontier and elsewhere in the West. In [[1855]] President [[Franklin Pierce]] appointed him colonel of the 2nd (now 5th) Cavalry, a new regiment, which he organized. As a key figure in the [[Utah War]], he led U.S. troops who established a non-Mormon government in the formerly [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints|Mormon]] territory. He received a [[brevet (military) | brevet]] promotion to [[brigadier general]] in [[1857]] for his service in Utah. He spent [[1860]] in Kentucky until [[December 21]], when he sailed for California to take command of the Department of the Pacific. ==Civil War== At the outbreak of the [[American Civil War | Civil War]], Johnston was the commander of the U.S. Army [[Department of the Pacific]] in [[California and the Civil War|California]]. He was approached by some Californians who urged him to take his forces east to join the [[Union army | Union]] against the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. He resigned his commission, [[April 9]], [[1861]], as soon as he heard of the [[secession]] of Texas. He remained in California until June. After a rapid march through the deserts of Arizona and Texas, he reached [[Richmond, Virginia]], on or about [[September 1]], [[1861]]. There Johnston was appointed a general by his friend, Jefferson Davis. On [[May 30]], [[1861]], Johnston became the second highest ranking Confederate General (after the little-known [[Samuel Cooper (general) | Samuel Cooper]]) as commander of the [[Western Theater of the American Civil War | Western Department]]. He raised the [[Army of Mississippi]] to defend Confederate lines from the [[Mississippi River]] to [[Kentucky]] and the [[Allegheny Mountains]]. Although the [[Confederate Army]] won a morale-boosting victory at [[First Bull Run]] in the East in [[1861]], matters in the West turned ugly by early [[1862]]. Johnston's subordinate generals lost [[Battle of Fort Henry | Fort Henry]] on [[February 6]], [[1862]], and [[Battle of Fort Donelson | Fort Donelson]] on [[February 16]], [[1862]], to [[Union army | Union]] [[Brigadier General | Brig. Gen.]] [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. Johnston has been faulted for poor judgment in selecting Gens. [[Lloyd Tilghman | Tilghman]] and [[John B. Floyd | Floyd]] for those crucial positions and for not supervising adequate construction of the forts. And Union Maj. Gen. [[Don Carlos Buell]] captured the vital city of [[Nashville, Tennessee]]. Gen. [[P.G.T. Beauregard]] was sent west to join Johnston and they organized their forces at [[Corinth, Mississippi]], planning to ambush Grant's forces at [[Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee]]. ==Shiloh== Johnston concentrated many of his forces from around the theater and launched a massive surprise attack against Grant at the [[Battle of Shiloh]] on [[April 6]], [[1862]]. As the Confederate forces overran the Union camps, Johnston seemed to be everywhere, personally leading and rallying troops up and down the line. At about 2:30 p.m., while leading one of those charges, he was wounded, taking a bullet behind his right knee. He did not think the wound serious at the time, and sent his personal physician to attend to some wounded Union soldiers instead. The bullet had in fact clipped his [[popliteal artery]] and his boot was filling up with blood. Within a few minutes Johnston was observed by his staff to be nearly fainting off of his horse, and asked him if he was wounded, to which he replied "Yes, and I fear seriously." It is possible that Johnston's duel in [[1837]] had caused nerve damage or numbness to that leg and that he did not feel the wound to his leg as a result. Johnston was taken to a small ravine, where he bled to death in minutes. Ironically, it is probable that a Confederate soldier fired the fatal round. No Union soldiers were observed to have ever gotten behind Johnston during the fatal charge, while it is known that many Confederates were firing at the Union lines while Johnston charged well in advance of his soldiers. He was the highest-ranking casualty of the war and his death was a strong blow to the morale of the Confederacy. Jefferson Davis considered him the best general in the country; this was two months before the emergence of [[Robert E. Lee]] as their pre-eminent general. ==Epitaph== Johnston was buried in [[New Orleans, Louisiana]]. In [[1866]], a joint resolution of the [[Texas Legislature]] was passed to have his body reinterred to the [[Texas State Cemetery]] in [[Austin, Texas|Austin]] (the re-interment occurred in [[1867]]). Four decades later, the state appointed [[Elisbet Ney]] to design a monument and sculpture of him to be erected at his gravesite. The [[Texas Historical Commission]] has erected a historical marker near the entrance of what was once his [[plantation]]. An adjacent marker was erected by the San Jacinto Chapter of the [[Daughters of The Republic of Texas]] and the Lee, Roberts, and Davis Chapter of the [[United Daughters of the Confederate States of America]]. ==References== * Eicher, John H., & Eicher, David J.: ''Civil War High Commands'', Stanford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8047-3641-3. ==External links== * [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=4334 Albert Sidney Johnson at Find-A-Grave] == Further reading == * Gott, Kendall D,, ''Where the South Lost the War: An Analysis of the Fort Henry-Fort Donelson Campaign, February 1862'', Stackpole Books, 2003, ISBN 0-8117-0049-6. * Johnson, William Preston, ''The Life of Albert Sidney Johnston'', New York, 1878. * Nofi, Albert A.; ''The Alamo and the Texas War for Independence''; Da Capo Press; ISBN: 0-306-81040-9. * Roland, Charles P., ''Albert Sidney Johnston: Soldier of Three Republics'', Austin, 1964. [[Category:1803 births|Johnston, Albert Sidney]] [[Category:1862 deaths|Johnston, Albert Sidney]] [[Category:American Civil War Generals|Johnston, Albert]] [[Category:American Civil War people|Johnston, Albert]] [[Category:Confederate Army generals|Johnston, Albert Sidney]] [[Category:History of Texas|Johnston, Albert Sidney]] [[Category:People from Texas|Johnston, Albert Sidney]] [[Category:Texas]] [[Category:United States Army officers|Johnston, Albert Sidney]] [[Category:West Point graduates|Johnston, Albert Sidney]] [[ca:Albert S. Johnston]] [[de:Albert S. Johnston]] [[hr:Albert Sidney Johnston]] [[nl:Albert Sidney Johnston]] 712 41316727 2006-02-26T14:42:37Z Mohammed Khalil 541247 +ar {{Five oceans}} The '''[[Arctic]] Ocean''', located mostly in the [[North Pole|north polar]] region, is the smallest of the world's five [[ocean]]s, and the shallowest. Even though [[International Hydrographic Organization|IHO]] recognizes it as an ocean, [[oceanography|oceanographers]] may call it ''the Arctic Mediterranean Sea'' or simply ''the Arctic Sea'', classifying it as one of the [[mediterranean sea]]s of the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. ==Geography== [[Image:Arctic_Ocean.png|right|Arctic Ocean]] The Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,090,000 km² (5,440,000 mi&sup2;), slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the [[United States|US]]. The coastline length is 45,389 km. Nearly landlocked, it is surrounded by the land masses of [[Eurasia]], [[North America]], [[Greenland]], and a number of islands. It includes [[Baffin Bay]], [[Barents Sea]], [[Beaufort Sea]], [[Chukchi Sea]], [[East Siberian Sea]], [[Greenland Sea]], [[Hudson Bay]], [[Hudson Strait]], [[Kara Sea]], [[Laptev Sea]], [[White Sea]] and other tributary bodies of water. It is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the [[Bering Strait]] and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea. An underwater [[ocean ridge]], the [[Lomonosov Ridge]], divides the Arctic Ocean into two basins: the [[Eurasian Basin|Eurasian]], or [[Nansen Basin|Nansen]], Basin, which is between 4,000 and 4,500 m (13,000 and 15,000 ft) deep, and the [[North American Basin|North American]], or [[Hyperborean Basin|Hyperborean]], Basin, which is about 4,000 m deep. The [[topography]] of the ocean bottom is marked by [[fault-block ridge]]s, [[abyssal plain|plains of the abyssal zone]], ocean deeps, and basins. The average depth of the Arctic Ocean is 1,038 m (3,407 ft), in part due to the large extent of [[continental shelf]] extant on the Eurasian side [http://www.marianatrench.com/mariana_trench-oceanography.htm]. [[Image:Polar bears near north pole.jpg|thumb|The Arctic Ocean is used by both [[marine mammal]]s and nuclear [[submarine]]s.]] The greatest inflow of water comes from the Atlantic by way of the [[Norwegian Current]], which then flows along the Eurasian coast. Water also enters from the Pacific via the Bering Strait. The [[East Greenland Current]] carries the major outflow. [[Temperature]] and [[salinity]] vary [[season]]ally as the ice cover melts and freezes. Ice covers most of the ocean surface year-round, causing subfreezing temperatures much of the time. The Arctic is a major source of very cold air that inevitably moves toward the [[equator]], meeting with warmer air in the middle [[latitude]]s and causing [[rain]] and [[snow]]. Little marine life exists where the ocean surface is covered with ice throughout the year. Marine life abounds in open areas, especially the more southerly waters. The ocean's major ports are the [[Russia]]n cities of [[Murmansk]] and [[Arkhangelsk]] (Archangel). The Arctic Ocean is important as the shortest air route between the Pacific coast of North America and Europe overflies it. Major chokepoint is the southern Chukchi Sea (northern access to the Pacific Ocean via the Bering Strait); strategic location between North America and Russia; shortest marine link between the extremes of eastern and western Russia; floating research stations operated by the US and Russia; maximum snow cover in March or April about 20 to 50 centimeters over the frozen ocean; snow cover lasts about 10 months. Geographic coordinates: {{coor dm|90|00|N|0|00|E|}} ==Climate== [[image:north pole september ice-pack 1978-2002.png|thumb|Extent of the Arctic ice-pack in September, 1978-2002]] [[image:north pole february ice-pack 1978-2002.png|thumb|Extent of the Arctic ice-pack in February, 1978-2002]] [[Polar climate]] characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges; winters characterized by continuous darkness, cold and stable weather conditions, and clear skies; summers characterized by continuous daylight, damp and foggy weather, and weak cyclones with rain or snow. There is considerable seasonal variation in how much [[pack ice]] covers the Arctic Ocean. ==Elevation extremes== * ''lowest point:'' [[Fram Basin]] &minus;4,665 m (according to [http://www.marianatrench.com/mariana_trench-oceanography.htm], the Arctic Ocean's Eurasian Basin deepest point is at &minus;5,450 m (17,881 ft)) * ''highest point:'' sea level 0 m ==Natural resources== Oil and gas fields, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, sand and gravel aggregates, [[fish]], marine mammals ([[Seal (mammal)|seals]] and [[Whale|whales]]). The political dead zone near the center of the sea is also at the center of a mounting dispute between the [[United States]], [[Russia]], [[Canada]], [[Norway]], and [[Denmark]]. It is considered significant because of its potential to contain as much as or more than a quarter of the world's oil and gas resources, the tapping of which could greatly alter the flow of the global energy market. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4354036.stm#map The Arctic's New Gold Rush - BBC] ==Natural hazards== Ice islands occasionally break away from northern [[Ellesmere Island]]; icebergs calved from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern [[Canada]]; permafrost on islands; virtually ice locked from October to June; ships subject to superstructure icing from October to May. ==Environment - current issues== Endangered marine species include [[Walrus|walruses]] and whales; fragile [[ecosystem]] slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage; thinning polar icepack; seasonal hole in [[ozone layer]] over the [[North Pole]]. Reduction of the area of Arctic sea ice will have an effect on the planet's [[albedo]], thus possibly affecting [[global warming]]. Many scientists are presently concerned that warming temperatures in the Arctic may cause large amounts of fresh, Arctic Ocean meltwater to enter the North Atlantic, possibly disrupting global [[thermohaline circulation|ocean current patterns]]. Potentially severe changes in the Earth's climate might then ensue. ==Ports and harbors== [[Image:Arctic Ocean Seaports.png|thumb|250px|Arctic Ocean Seaports, Churchill, Inuvik, Prudhoe Bay, Barrow, Pevek, Tiksi, Dikson, Dudinka, Arkhangelsk, Murmansk]] [[Churchill, Manitoba]] (Canada), [[Inuvik]], (Canada) [[Prudhoe Bay]], (US) [[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]], (US) [[Pevek]], (Russia) [[Tiksi]], (Russia), [[Dikson]] (Russia), [[Dudinka]], (Russia), [[Murmansk]] (Russia), [[Arkhangelsk]] (Russia) [[Kirkenes]], (Norway) [[Vardø]], (Norway) ==Transportation - note== Sparse network of air, ocean, river, and land routes; the [[Northwest Passage]] (North America) and [[Northern Sea Route]] ([[Eurasia]]) are important seasonal waterways. ==Exploration== The first surface crossing of the Arctic Ocean was led by Wally Herbert in [[1969]], in a dogsled expedition from [[Alaska]] to [[Svalbard]] with air support. See also [[Northwest Passage]], [[Open Polar Sea]]. ==References== Bibliography: *Neatby, Leslie H., ''Discovery in Russian and Siberian Waters'' [[1973]] ISBN 0821401246 *Ray, L., and Stonehouse, B., eds., ''The Arctic Ocean'' [[1982]] ISBN 0333310179 *Thorén, Ragnar V. A., ''Picture Atlas of the Arctic'' [[1969]] ISBN 0821401246 Based on public domain text by US Naval Oceanographer: http://oceanographer.navy.mil/arctic.html ==See also== *[[North Pole]] ==External links== {{Wiktionary}} *[http://www.arctic-council.org Arctic Council] *[http://www.northernforum.org The Northern Forum] *[http://vitalgraphics.grida.no/arcticmap Arctic Environmental Atlas] Interactive map of the Greater Arctic, including shaded relief and bathymetry of the Arctic Ocean. *[http://www.arctic.noaa.gov NOAA Arctic Theme Page] Comprehensive Arctic Resource with data, photos, maps, essays on key Arctic issues, and much more. * [http://dapper.pmel.noaa.gov/dchart/ NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer] Plot and download ocean observations *[http://www.unaami.noaa.gov Arctic time series: The Unaami Data collection] Viewable interdisciplinary, diverse collection of Arctic variables from different geographic regions and data types. *[http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/gallery_np.html NOAA North Pole Web Cam] Images from Web Cams deployed in Spring on an ice floe in the middle of the Arctic Ocean. *[http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/gallery_np_weatherdata.html NOAA Near-realtime North Pole Weather Data] Data from instruments deployed on an ice floe in the middle of the Arctic Ocean. *[http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,63980,00.html ''Search for Arctic Life Heats Up'' by Stephen Leahy] [[Category:Oceans]] [[Category:Seas]] [[Category:Arctic]] [[ar:محيط متجمد شمالي]] [[an:Ozián Artico]] [[zh-min-nan:Pak-ke̍k-iûⁿ]] [[bn:উত্তর মহাসমুদ্র]] [[br:Meurvor skornek Arktika]] [[ca:Oceà Àrtic]] [[cv:Çурçĕр Пăрлă океан]] [[cs:Severní ledový oceán]] [[cy:Cefnfor Arctig]] [[da:Ishavet]] [[de:Arktischer Ozean]] [[et:Põhja-Jäämeri]] [[el:Αρκτικός Ωκεανός]] [[es:Océano Glacial Ártico]] [[eo:Arkta Oceano]] [[fr:Océan Arctique]] [[gl:Océano Ártico]] [[ko:북극해]] [[io:Arktika Oceano]] [[id:Samudra Arktik]] [[ia:Oceano Arctic]] [[it:Mare Glaciale Artico]] [[he:אוקיינוס הקרח הצפוני]] [[la:Oceanus Arcticus]] [[lt:Arkties vandenynas]] [[hu:Jeges-tenger]] [[mk:Арктички Океан]] [[nl:Arctische Oceaan]] [[ja:北極海]] [[no:Nordishavet]] [[nn:Nordishavet]] [[pl:Ocean Arktyczny]] [[pt:Oceano Ártico]] [[ru:Северный Ледовитый океан]] [[simple:Arctic Ocean]] [[sk:Severný ľadový oceán]] [[sl:Arktični ocean]] [[sr:Северни ледени океан]] [[fi:Pohjoinen jäämeri]] [[sv:Norra ishavet]] [[ta:ஆர்க்டிக் பெருங்கடல்]] [[th:มหาสมุทรอาร์กติก]] [[tr:Arktik Okyanusu]] [[uk:Північний Льодовитий океан]] [[zh:北冰洋]] 713 40868805 2006-02-23T15:24:43Z 138.251.155.236 /* References */ {{merge|gynoid}} [[Image:Data2.jpg|thumbnail|200px|The android [[Data (Star Trek)|Data]], portrayed by [[Brent Spiner]], from the TV series ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'']]An '''android''' is an [[artificial]]ly created [[robot]], an [[automaton]], that resembles a [[human]] being usually both in appearance and behavior. The word derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''andr-'', " meaning "[[man]], male", and the suffix ''-eides'', used to mean "of the [[species]]; alike" (from ''eidos'' "species"). The word ''[[droid]]'', a robot in the ''[[Star Wars]]'' universe, is derived from this meaning. In the semantic sense the word "android" is a misnomer. The intended meaning is "an artificial human being like being", while the literal translation is "an artificial male being". The word ''andros'' has definite meaning of "male human being" in Greek, while the word ''man'' can mean either "male human being" or "human being in general". The gender-neutral word for human being in Greek is ''anthropos'', and the correct word for an artificial human being-like automaton would be [[anthropoid]]. __TOC__ == Usage and distinctions == Unlike the terms ''[[robot]]'' (a "[[mechanics|mechanical]]" being) and ''[[cyborg]]'' (a being that is partly [[organic compound|organic]] and partly mechanical), the word ''android'' has been used in literature and other media to denote several different kinds of [[artificial life|artificially constructed beings]]: * a robot that closely resembles a human * a cyborg that closely resembles a human * an artificially created, yet primarily organic, being that closely resembles a human Although human morphology is not necessarily the ideal form for working robots, the fascination in developing robots that can mimic it can be found historically in the assimilation of two concepts: ''[[simulacra]]'' (devices that exhibit likeness) and ''[[automata]]'' (devices that have independence). The term android was first used by the French author [[Mathias Villiers de l'Isle-Adam]] (1838-1889) in his work ''[[Tomorrow's Eve]]'', featuring an artificial human-like robot named Hadaly. As said by the officer in the story, "In this age of Realien advancement, who knows what goes on in the mind of those responsible for these mechanical dolls." Although [[Karel Capek|Karel &#268;apek]]'s robots in ''[[R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)]]'' (1921)&mdash;the play that introduced the word "robot" to the world&mdash;were organic artificial humans, the word ''robot'' has come to primarily refer to mechanical humans, animals, and other beings. The term android can mean either one of these, while a [[cyborg]] ("cybernetic organism" or "bionic man") would be a creature that is a combination of organic and mechanical parts. == Ambiguity == Historically, [[science fiction]] [[authors]] have used "android" in a greater diversity of ways than the terms "robot" and "cyborg". In some fiction works, the primary difference between a robot and android is only skin-deep, with androids being made to look almost exactly like humans on the outside, but with internal mechanics exactly the same as that of robots. In other stories, authors have defined android to indicate a wholly organic, yet artificial, creation. Other definitions of android fall somewhere in between. The character [[Data (Star Trek)|Data]], from the [[television series]] ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'', is described as an android. Data became [[intoxication|intoxicated]] in an early episode ("[[The Naked Now (TNG episode)|The Naked Now]]") and is later referred to having "bioplast sheeting" for skin ("[[The Most Toys (TNG episode)|The Most Toys]]"), perhaps suggesting that he was initially intended by the writers to be at least partially organic. Otherwise, Data was shown to be mechanical throughout and this often became a central plot theme. The [[Replicant]]s from the movie ''[[Blade Runner]]'' were [[bioengineering|bioengineered]] organic beings. While they were not referred to as either robots or androids in the movie, the screenplay was originally based on a [[novel]] by [[Philip K. Dick]] called ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]'' In the video game [[Beneath a Steel Sky]], genetically engineered androids similar to Blade Runner's Replicants are a central plot theme. However, despite their organic makeup, their behavior is programmed by computer. The robots of &#268;apek's ''R.U.R.'' were organic in nature. Today, an author writing a similar story might very well be inclined to call them androids. The character Ash in the movie ''[[Alien (movie)|Alien]]'', another artificial organic being, is often referred to as an android (though not in the dialogue of the movie itself). Similarly, the character Bishop in ''[[Aliens (movie)|Aliens]]'' and ''[[Alien³]]'' is a more advanced android commonly called a Synthetic, but prefers to be called an "artificial person". Much later in the series timeline, the character Call in ''[[Alien Resurrection]]'' is ashamed of being an android. [[C-3PO]] and [[R2-D2]] from the [[Star Wars]] movies are referred to as ''droids''. While C-3PO could reasonably be called an android because he is humanoid in appearance, the squat cylinder R2-D2 is only humanoid in behavior. In the movie ''[[A.I. (movie)|A.I.]]'', the robotic characters are called ''mechanoids'', but the film is loosely based on a short story written by [[Brian Aldiss]] called "Supertoys Last All Summer Long", in which the central character David is called an android (by which Aldiss seemed to be referring to an organic creation). In the anime/manga Chobits, Androids are known as "Persicoms", essentially computers in a man-made body. The series does not go into their internal composition, but it is assumed to be artificial with a very realistic outside. One of the key points of this series was a special type of persicom named a "Chobit", a persicom that had free will and the ability to fall in love and have emotions. == Androids in fiction == Thus far, androids have remained mostly within the domain of [[science fiction]] and, frequently, in [[film]] and [[television]]. However, some "[[humanoid robot]]s" exist. One of the earliest android characters is Otho from the [[Captain Future]] stories of [[Edmond Hamilton]]. Otho's construction is never discussed but he is much more human-like than his companion Grag, a mechanical [[robot]]. [[Isaac Asimov]]'s robot stories are mostly about androids; many are collected in ''[[I, Robot]]'' (1950). They promulgated a set of rules of ethics for androids and robots (see [[Three Laws of Robotics]]) that greatly influenced other writers and thinkers in their treatment of the subject. Most of Asimov's robots appear too artificial to be mistaken for human beings, with the notable exceptions of R. Jander Panell, [[R. Daneel Olivaw]] and Andrew Martin. Perhaps the most famous android is [[Data (Star Trek)|Data]], played by actor [[Brent Spiner]], of the series ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'' (1987&ndash;1994) and several spin-off motion pictures; this character was largely inspired by another android character created by [[Gene Roddenberry]] for ''[[The Questor Tapes]]''. Data's immediate 'family' – brothers [[Lore (Star Trek)|Lore]] and [[B-4 (Star Trek)|B-4]] et al., daughter [[Lal]], and 'mother' [[Juliana Tainer|Dr. Juliana Tainer]] – were also androids (and the fembots are properly, though rarely, referred to as [[gynoid]]s) from the same creator, [[Noonien Soong|Dr. Noonien Soong]]. Earlier in ''[[Star Trek: The Motion Picture]]'' (1979), the Ilia [[probe]] – a precisely duplicated biomechanical [[drone]] of [[Ilia|Lieutenant Ilia]], with some of her [[emotion]]s intact – was dispatched by [[V'ger]] to gather information about the crew of the [[starship]] ''[[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701)|Enterprise]]''. In the TV series ''[[Gene Roddenberry's Andromeda]]'' (2000&ndash;2005), the [[gynoid]] [[Rommie]] is an extension of [[Andromeda Ascendant|the starship]]'s [[artificial intelligence|AI]] [[operating system]], represented by an [[avatar (virtual reality)|avatar]] of Rommie. In the re-imagined series ''[[Battlestar Galactica (2003)|Battlestar Galactica]]'' (2003&ndash;), the gynoid [[Number Six (Battlestar Galactica)|Number Six]] is one of a (seductive) variant of the [[antagonist]]ic, robotic [[Cylon (Battlestar Galactica)|Cylons]] that is used to infiltrate the fleeing [[human]] [[Twelve Colonies|Colonial forces]] and, particularly, the mind of the scientist [[Gaius Baltar|Dr. Gaius Baltar]]. Androids (Jinzou Ningen in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]; meaning 'artificial human') are also a race in ''[[Dragon Ball]]'', ''[[Dragon Ball Z]]'', and ''[[Dragon Ball GT]]''. The androids' names were only numbers (such as Android #13 or Android #20). They were created by Dr. Gero, Dr. Muu, and the Red Ribbon Army. Some are entirely artificial and some are created from humans and can be considered cyborgs. Jinzo Ningen [[Kikaider]] was the first [[manga]] and [[tokusatsu]] series to feature an android protagonist. The series [[Xenosaga]] borrows Villiers' original term Realian when referring to a race of beings created by Vector Corporation. Two playable characters are androids (MOMO and KOS-MOS). One is refered to as a Realian while the second is simply an android. In their respective series by [[Capcom]], [[Mega Man]] was initially called a "humanoid", which was then simplified to robot. [[Mega Man X|X]], a later version, is said to be more advanced, more independent of thought, and closer to an android. Other beings, based off his design, are called [[Reploids]]. Many more examples may be found in this [[list of fictional robots]]. ==References== * Kerman, Judith B. (1991). ''Retrofitting Blade Runner: Issues in Ridley Scott's Blade Runner and Philip K. Dick's Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?''. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press. ISBN 0879725095 * Shelde, Per (1993). ''Androids, Humanoids, and Other Science Fiction Monsters: Science and Soul in Science Fiction Films''. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0814779301 * Sidney Perkowitz (2004) [http://fermat.nap.edu/books/0309089875/html Digital People: From Bionic Humans to Androids] Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 0309096197 == See also == *[[Animatronic]] *[[Cyborg]] *[[Domestic robot]] *[[Muscle wire]] *[[Robot]] *[[Sex doll]] *[[Realdoll]] *[[Statuephilia]] *[[Gynoid]] *[[Artificial intelligence]] *[[Humanoid]] *[[Humanoid robot]] *[[Transhumanism]] *[[Repliee Q1]] ==External links== *[http://www.androidworld.com/ Android World] *[http://www.androidworld.com/prod52.htm Valerie, the domestic female android]. [[Category:Science fiction themes]] [[Category:Robots]] [[cs:Android]] [[de:Android]] [[es:Androide]] [[fr:Androïde]] [[it:Androide]] [[he:אנדרואיד]] [[nl:Androïde]] [[pt:Andróide]] [[ja:人造人間]] [[pl:Android]] [[sv:Android]] [[uk:Андроїд]] 715 15899241 2002-07-15T00:27:23Z Maveric149 62 #REDIRECT [[Arthropod]] #REDIRECT [[Arthropod]] 717 42091503 2006-03-03T19:46:47Z Bidabadi 726723 /* External links */ interwiki fa {{otheruses}} {{Canadian province or territory | Name = Alberta | AlternateName = | Fullname = Province of Alberta | EntityAdjective = Provincial | Flag = Flag of Alberta.svg | CoatOfArms = AlbertaCoatofArms.png | Map = Alberta-map.png | Motto = Fortis et Liber ([[Latin]]: Strong and free) | OfficialLang = [[English language|English]] | Capital = [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] | LargestCity = [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]] | Flower = [[Wild Rose (also known as prickly rose]] | Premier = [[Ralph Klein]] | PremierParty = [[Alberta Progressive Conservatives|PC]] | Viceroy = [[Norman Kwong]] | ViceroyType = Lieutenant-Governor | PostalAbbreviation = AB | PostalCodePrefix = [[List of T Postal Codes of Canada|T]] | AreaRank = 6<sup>th (provinces and territories)</sup> | TotalArea = 661,848 | LandArea = 642,317 | WaterArea = 19,531 | PercentWater = 2.95 | PopulationRank = 4<sup>th</sup> | Population = 3,223,400 | PopulationYear = 2005| DensityRank = 6<sup>th</sup> | Density = 4.63 | AdmittanceOrder = 8<sup>th</sup> (province)| AdmittanceDate = [[September 1]], [[1905]] (split from [[Northwest Territories]]) | TimeZone = [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-7 | HouseSeats = 28 | SenateSeats = 6 | ISOCode = CA-AB | Website = www.gov.ab.ca }} '''Alberta''' is one of [[Canada|Canada's]] [[Provinces of Canada|provinces]]. It celebrated 100 years as a province on [[September 1]], [[2005]]. Alberta is located in western Canada. It is bounded on the west by the province of British Columbia, on the north by the Northwest Territories, on the east by the province of Saskatchewan, and on the south by the United States of America (State of Montana). Alberta's capital is the city of [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]], located just south of the centre of the province. The most populous city and metropolitan area is [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]]. Calgary is also the province's busiest transportation hub (for road, air, and rail) and is one of Canada's major commerce centres. Other major municipalities include [[Red Deer, Alberta|Red Deer]], [[Lethbridge, Alberta|Lethbridge]], [[Medicine Hat, Alberta|Medicine Hat]], [[Fort McMurray, Alberta|Fort McMurray]], [[Grande Prairie, Alberta|Grande Prairie]], [[Camrose, Alberta|Camrose]], [[Lloydminster, Alberta|Lloydminster]], [[Wetaskiwin, Alberta|Wetaskiwin]], [[Banff, Alberta|Banff]], and [[Jasper, Alberta|Jasper]]. See also: [[List of communities in Alberta]]. The [[Premier (Canada)|Premier]] of the province is Hon. [[Ralph Klein]], Progressive Conservative. See also [[List of Alberta Premiers]]. Alberta is named after [[Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll|Princess Louise Caroline Alberta]] (1848-1939), the fourth daughter of Queen [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victoria]]. Princess Louise was also the wife of [[John Douglas Sutherland Campbell, 9th Duke of Argyll|Sir John Campbell]], who was the [[Governor General of Canada]] from 1878-1883. [[Lake Louise]] was also named in honour of Princess Louise. ==Geography== :''Main article: [[Geography of Alberta]]'' Alberta is in [[western Canada]], and covers an area of 661,190 km² (255,287 mi²). To the south, it borders the US state of [[Montana]] at a latitude of 49°N, or the [[49th parallel north|49th Parallel]]. To the east at a longitude of 110°W, it borders the province of [[Saskatchewan]]. At 60°N, it is bordered by the [[Northwest Territories]]. To the west, its border with [[British Columbia]] follows the line of peaks of the [[Rocky Mountains]] range along the [[Continental Divide]], which runs northwesterly until it reaches 120° W, at which point the border follows this meridian to 60°N. With the exception of the southeastern section, the province is well watered. Alberta contains dozens of rivers and lakes ideal for [[swimming]], [[water skiing]], [[fishing]] and a full range of other [[water sports]]. There are a multitude of fresh-water lakes, each less than 260&nbsp;km² situated in Alberta, and three of more considerable size. These three larger lakes are [[Lake Athabasca]] (7898&nbsp;km²), part of which lies in the province of Saskatchewan, [[Lake Claire (Albertan lake)|Lake Claire]] (1436&nbsp;km²), which lies just west of Lake Athabasca in [[Wood Bufflao National Park]], and [[Lesser Slave Lake]] (1168&nbsp;km²), which is well northwest of [[Edmonton]]. As Alberta extends for 1200&nbsp;km from north to south, and about 600&nbsp;km wide at its greatest east-west extent, it is natural that the climate should vary considerably between the 49th and 60th parallels. It is also further influenced by altitude, especially in the southwestern part of the province within the [[Canadian Rockies]] and adjacent areas directly to the east. [[Image:Canada 35 bg 061904.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Banff National Park]] Northern Alberta is mostly covered by [[taiga|boreal forest]] and has fewer frost-free days than southern Alberta, which is often semi-arid due to the summer heat and much lower rainfall. Western Alberta is protected by the mountains, and enjoys the warmth brought by winter [[chinook wind]]s, while southeastern Alberta is flat, dry prairie, where temperatures can range from very cold (&minus;35°C (&minus;31°F) in the winter) to very hot (35°C (95°F) or higher in the summer). Central and parts of northwestern Alberta in the Peace River region are largely [[aspen parkland]], a [[biome]] transitional between [[prairie]] to the south and [[taiga|boreal forest]] to the north. After southern [[Ontario]], Central Alberta is the most likely region in [[Canada]] to experience [[tornadoe]]s. [[Thunderstorm]]s, some of them severe, are frequent in the summer, especially in central and southern Alberta. The region surrounding the [[Calgary-Edmonton Corridor]] is notable for having the highest frequency of [[hail]] in Canada. Overall, Alberta has cold winters, with a daytime average of about &minus;10°C (14°F) in the south to &minus;24°C (&minus;12°F) in the north. In the summer, the daytime temperature averages from about 13°C (55°F) in the Rocky Mountains to 19°C (67°F) in the dry prairie to the south-east. The northern and western parts of the province experience higher rainfall and lower evaporation rates caused by cooler summer temperatures. Alberta's capital city, [[Edmonton]], is located almost in the geographic centre of the province, and most of Alberta's oil is [[refinery|refined]] here. Southern Alberta, where [[Calgary]] is located, is known for its [[ranching]]. Much of the unforested part of Alberta is given over either to grain or to [[dairy farming]], with ranching predominantly a southern Alberta industry. <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Dinosaurparkalberta.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Badlands]] terrain at the Dinosaur Provincial Park]] --> In southeastern Alberta, where the [[Red Deer River]] traverses the flat prairie and farmland, are the Alberta [[badlands]] with deep [[gorge|gorges]] and striking landforms. [[Dinosaur Provincial Park]], near [[Drumheller, Alberta]], showcases the badlands terrain, [[desert]] [[flora (plants)|flora]], and remnants from Alberta's past when [[dinosaurs]] roamed the then lush landscape. Alberta is one of only two Canadian provinces to have no maritime coast (the other being the neighbouring province of Saskatchewan.) ===Largest municipalities and metro areas by population=== [[Image:dwalberta.png|thumb|250px|right|Major municipalities of Alberta]] <table border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=2 width=50%> <th> Municipality <th> 2005 <th> 2001 <th> 1996 <tr><td>'''[[Census Metropolitan Area|Census Metropolitan Areas]]:''' <tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3><td>[[Calgary Region|Calgary CMA]]<td>1,060,300**<td>951,395<td>821,628 <tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3><td>[[Edmonton Capital Region|Edmonton CMA]]<td>1,016,000**<td>937,845<td>862,597 <tr><td>'''Cities (10 Largest):''' <tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3><td>[[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]]<td>956,078<td>878,866<td>768,082 <tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3><td>[[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]]<td>712,391<td>666,104<td>616,306 <tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3><td>[[Red Deer, Alberta|Red Deer]]<td>79,082<td>67,707<td>60,080 <tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3><td>[[Lethbridge, Alberta|Lethbridge]]<td>77,202<td>67,374<td>63,053 <tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3><td>[[St. Albert, Alberta|St. Albert]] <small>(included in Edmonton CMA)</small><td>56,318<td>53,081<td>46,888 <tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3><td>[[Medicine Hat, Alberta|Medicine Hat]]<td>56,048<td>51,249<td>46,783 <tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3><td>[[Grande Prairie, Alberta|Grande Prairie]]<td>44,631<td>36,983<td>31,353 <tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3><td>[[Airdrie, Alberta|Airdrie]] <small>(included in Calgary CMA)</small><td>27,069<td>20,382<td>15,946 <tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3><td>[[Spruce Grove, Alberta|Spruce Grove]] <small>(included in Edmonton CMA)</small><td>18,405<td>15,983<td>14,271 <tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3><td>[[Camrose, Alberta|Camrose]]<td>15,850<td>14,854<td>13,728 <tr><td>'''Districts (3 Largest):''' <tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3><td>[[Strathcona County, Alberta|Strathcona County]] <small>(included in Edmonton CMA)</small><td>80,232<td>71,986<td>64,176 <tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3><td>[[Wood Buffalo, Alberta|Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo]]<td>73,176<td>41,466<td>35,213 <tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3><td>[[Rocky View No. 44, Alberta|Municipality of Rocky View]] <small>(included in Calgary CMA)</small><td>30,688*<td>28,441<td>23,326 </b> </table> [[Image:calgaryalberta34.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Calgary, Alberta]] <small>''Sources: All 2005 figures are based on official 2005 census data from municipalities. Where no 2005 data is available, ''(*)'' indicates the most recent official data from either the municipality or the 2001 [[Statistics Canada]] federal census. All data for 2001 and 1996 is from the respective federal census.''</small> <small>''(**) indicates 2005 CMA estimates according to [http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo05a.htm Statistics Canada - Population of Census Metropolitan Areas]''</small> <small>''Although the city of [[Lloydminster, Alberta/Saskatchewan|Lloydminster]] has a total population of 23,632, it is not included on the list because the city straddles the Alberta-[[Saskatchewan]] border. Only 15,487 people live on the Alberta side, which would make it Alberta's 11th largest city.''</small> ==Industry== :''Main article: [[Industry in Alberta]]'' Alberta is the largest producer of [[petroleum|conventional crude oil]], [[synthetic crude]], [[natural gas]] and gas products in the country. Two of the largest producers of [[petrochemicals]] in [[North America]] are located in central and north central Alberta. In both [[Red Deer, Alberta|Red Deer]] and [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]], world class [[polyethylene]] and [[vinyl]] manufacturers produce products shipped all over the world, and Edmonton's [[oil refinery|oil refineries]] provide the raw materials for a large [[petrochemical]] industry to the east of Edmonton. The [[Athabasca Oil Sands]] (previously known as the Athabasca [[Tar sands|Tar Sands]]) have estimated [[Petroleum|oil]] reserves in excess of that of the rest of the world, estimated to be 1.6 trillion barrels (254 km³). With the advancement of extraction methods, bitumen and economical synthetic crude are produced at costs nearing that of conventional crude. This technology is Alberta grown and developed. Many companies employ both conventional [[surface mining|strip mining]] and non-conventional methods to extract the [[bitumen]] from the Athabasca deposit. With current technology, only 315 billion barrels (50 km³) are recoverable. [[Fort McMurray]], one of Canada's youngest and liveliest cities, has grown up entirely because of the large [[multinational corporation]]s which have taken on the task of oil production. Another factor determining the viability of oil extraction from the Tar Sands is the price of oil. In 2005, record oil prices have made it more than profitable to extract this oil, which in the past would give little profit or even a loss. While [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] is considered the pipeline junction, manufacturing, chemical processing, research and refining centre of the province, [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]] is known for its senior and junior oil company head offices (unlike Edmonton, Calgary is not close to any large sources of oil). With concerted effort and support from the provincial government, several high-tech industries have found their birth in Alberta, notably the invention and perfection of [[liquid crystal display]] systems. With a growing economy, Alberta has several financial institutions dealing with several civil and private funds. ==Agriculture and forestry== [[Image:Alberta red farm buildings.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Farm Buildings]] [[Image:Field 150.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Alberta canola field]] [[Image:Grain Elevator 047.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Grain Elevator - Alberta]] [[Agriculture]] has a significant position in the province's economy. Over 5 million [[cattle]] are residents of the province at one time or another, and Alberta beef has a healthy worldwide market. Nearly one half of all Canadian beef is produced in Alberta. Alberta is one of the prime producers of plains [[American Bison|buffalo (bison)]] for the consumer market. [[domestic sheep|Sheep]] for [[wool]] and [[mutton]] are also [[sheep farm|raised]]. [[Wheat]] and [[canola]] are primary farm crops, with Alberta leading the provinces in spring wheat production, with other [[cereal|grain]]s also prominent. Much of the farming is dryland farming, often with fallow seasons interspersed with cultivation. Continuous cropping (in which there is no fallow season) is gradually becoming a more common mode of production because of increased profits and a reduction of soil erosion. Across the province, the once common [[grain elevator]] is slowly being lost as rail lines are decreased and farmers now truck the grain to central points. Alberta is the leading [[beekeeping]] province of Canada, with some beekeepers wintering [[hive]]s indoors in specially designed barns in southern Alberta, then migrating north during the summer into the [[Peace River (Alberta)|Peace River]] valley where the season is short but the working days are long for [[honeybee]]s to produce honey from [[clover]] and [[fireweed]]. [[Hybrid]] [[canola]] also requires [[bee]] [[pollination]], and some beekeepers service this need. The vast northern [[forest]] reserves of [[softwood]] allow Alberta to produce large quantities of [[lumber]] and [[plywood]], and several northern Alberta plants supply [[North America]] and the [[Pacific Rim]] [[nation]]s with bleached [[wood pulp]] and [[newsprint]]. ==Government== :''See also: [[Politics of Alberta]]'' [[Edmonton]] is the seat of government of Alberta. It is a [[parliamentary]] [[democracy]]. Its [[unicameral]] legislature -- the [[Legislative Assembly of Alberta|Legislative Assembly]] -- consists of 83 members. As Canada's head of state, Queen Elizabeth II is the Government of Alberta's chief executive. Her duties in Alberta are carried out by Lieutenant Governor, Norman Kwong. The government is headed by the [[Premier]], [[Ralph Klein]]. The city of [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] is Alberta's government capital. The province's revenue comes mainly from the taxation of oil, natural gas, beef, softwood lumber, and wheat, but also includes [[grant]]s from the [[federal government]] primarily for [[infrastructure]] projects. Albertans are the lowest-[[tax]]ed people in [[Canada]], and Alberta is the only province in Canada without a provincial [[sales tax]] (though residents are still subject to the federal sales tax, the [[GST]]). Alberta's municipalities have their own governments which (usually) work in co-operation with the provincial government. Alberta's [[politics]] are much more conservative than those of other Canadian provinces. Alberta has traditionally had three political parties, the [[Alberta Progressive Conservatives|Progressive Conservatives]] ("Conservatives" or "Tories"), the centrist [[Alberta Liberal Party|Liberals]], and the social democratic [[Alberta New Democratic Party|New Democrats]]. A fourth party, the strongly conservative [[Social Credit Party of Alberta|Social Credit Party]], was a power in Alberta for many [[decade]]s, but fell from the political map after the Progressive Conservatives came to power in the early [[1970s]]. Since that time, no other political party has governed Alberta. In fact, only three parties have governed Alberta: the [[United Farmers of Alberta]] the Social Credit Party, and the currently-governing Progressive Conservative Party As is the case with many western Canadian provinces, Alberta has had occasional bouts of separatist sentiment. Even during the [[1980|1980s]], when these feelings were at their strongest, there has never been enough interest in secession to initiate any major movements or referenda. There are a number of groups wishing to promote the independence of Alberta in some form currently active in the province. See also: [[Alberta separatism]]. In the [[Alberta general election, 2004|2004 provincial election]], held in November, the [[Alberta Alliance Party]], running to the [[right-wing politics|right]] of the Conservatives, won one seat. See also: [[List of Alberta Premiers]], [[List of Alberta general elections]] ==Education== As with any Canadian province, the Alberta government is the highest authority in education, creating and regulating the school boards, public colleges, universities, and other educational institutions. ===K-12=== The vast majority of Alberta's schools are run by publicly funded school boards (each with its own district of authority). The largest are English language Public school boards. Alberta also has English Separate Catholic boards throughout the province, which serve a substantial minority of students. There is one protestant school board in part of the province. Where numbers warrant, there are francophone school boards (Public and Separate Catholic). All five of these types of boards are primarily publicly funded (basic school fees range from $200-$750 depending on the school board) by local property taxes and provincial grants given on an equal per student basis by the province (with some adjustments). The different types of school boards are a necessity under the Canadian constitution, which guarantees the francophones and Catholic communities both the right to their own schools, and the right to administer them. <!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Myhallway.jpg|thumb|210px|right|School Hallway]] --> Some other Canadian provinces have reformed their school systems on non-religious lines, by seeking a constitutional amendment, but Alberta has not. Often the decision to go to one system or another is not based on religion, but a parent's belief of which system provides a better education. Starting in 1994, the province has allowed some [[Alberta charter schools|chartered schools]] to operate, independently of any district school board, reporting directly to the province. Homeschooling is officially recognized and partially funded from within the Alberta school system. Originally in Alberta, school boards had the power to levy property taxes within their respective districts. However, this meant districts with a low tax base were underfunded, so the province moved to a system that pools the education property tax, and distributes it based on student population and need. ===Post-secondary=== Alberta's oldest and largest university is Edmonton's [[University of Alberta]]. The [[University of Calgary]], once affiliated with the University of Alberta, gained its autonomy in 1966, and is now the second largest university in Alberta. There is also [[Athabasca University]], which focuses on distance learning, and the [[University of Lethbridge]]. There are 15 colleges that receive direct public funding, along with two technical institutes, [[Northern Alberta Institute of Technology|NAIT]] and [[Southern Alberta Institute of Technology|SAIT]] ([http://www.advancededucation.gov.ab.ca/college/postsecsystem/postsecinst/postsecinst.asp]). Students may also receive government loans and grants while attending selected private institutions. ==Transportation== Alberta has over 180,000&nbsp;km of [[highway]]s and roads, of which nearly 50,000&nbsp;km are paved. The main north-south [[corridor]] is [[Alberta Highway 2|Highway 2]], which begins south of [[Cardston, Alberta|Cardston]] at the [[Carway, Alberta|Carway]] [[border]] crossing. Highway 4, which effectively extends [[Interstate 15|U.S. Interstate Highway 15]] into Alberta and is the busiest U.S. gateway to the province, begins at the [[Coutts, Alberta|Coutts]] border crossing and ends at [[Lethbridge, Alberta|Lethbridge]]. [[Alberta Highway 3|Highway 3]] joins Lethbridge to [[Fort Macleod, Alberta|Fort Macleod]] and links Highway 4 to Highway 2. Highway 2 travels northward through Fort Macleod, [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]], [[Red Deer, Alberta|Red Deer]], and [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] before dividing into two highways. One continues northwest as Highway 43 into [[Grande Prairie, Alberta|Grande Prairie]] and the [[Peace River country]]; the other (Highway 63) travels northeast to [[Fort McMurray]], the location of the [[Athabasca Tar Sands|Athabasca Oil Sands]]. Highway 2 is supplimented by two more highways that run parallel to it: highway 22, west of highway 2, known as 'the cowboy trail', and highway 21, east of highway 2. Alberta has two main east-west corridors. The southern corridor, part of the [[Trans-Canada Highway|Trans-Canada Highway]] system, enters the province near [[Medicine Hat, Alberta|Medicine Hat]], runs westward through Calgary, and leaves Alberta through [[Banff National Park]]. The northern corridor, also part of the Trans-Canada network but known alternatively as the [[Yellowhead Highway]] ([[Alberta Highway 16|Highway 16]]), runs west from [[Lloydminster, Alberta/Saskatchewan|Lloydminster]] in eastern Alberta, through Edmonton and [[Jasper National Park]] into [[British Columbia]]. On a sunny spring or fall day, one of the most scenic drives in the world is along the [[Icefields Parkway]], which runs some 300&nbsp;km between Jasper and Banff, with mountain ranges and glaciers on either side of its entire length. Urban stretches of Alberta's major highways and [[freeway]]s are often called ''trails''. For example, Highway 2 is Deerfoot Trail as it passes through Calgary, Calgary Trail as it leaves Edmonton southbound, and St. Albert Trail as it leaves Edmonton northbound toward the city of [[St. Albert, Alberta|St. Albert]]. Visitors from outside Alberta often find this disconcerting, accustomed as they are to the notion that a trail is an unpaved route primarily for [[pedestrian]]s. Edmonton, Calgary, Red Deer, Medicine Hat, and Lethbridge have substantial mass transit systems. Edmonton and Calgary also operate light rail vehicles. Alberta is well-connected by air, with international [[airport]]s at both Edmonton and Calgary. Calgary's airport is the larger of the two, and is also the fourth busiest in Canada. It is a hub airport for a significant proportion of the connecting trans-border and international flights into and out of central Canada. There are over 9000&nbsp;km of operating mainline railway, and many tourists see Alberta aboard [[Via Rail]] or [[Rocky Mountain Railtours]]. ==Culture== :''Main article: [[Culture of Alberta]]'' Alberta is well known for its warm and outgoing friendliness and [[frontier]] spirit. [[Image:whyte4.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Whyte Avenue, Edmonton]] Summer brings many festivals to the province. Edmonton's Fringe Festival is the world's second largest after [[Edinburgh]]'s. Alberta also hosts some of Canada's largest folk festivals, multicultural festivals, and heritage days (to name a few). Calgary is also home to [[Carifest]], the second largest [[Caribbean]] festival in the nation (after [[Caribana]] in [[Toronto]]). These events highlight the province's cultural diversity and love of entertainment. Most of the major cities have several performing theatre companies who entertain in venues as diverse as Edmonton's Arts Barns and the [[Francis Winspear Centre]]. Alberta also has a large ethnic population. Both the Chinese and East Indian communities are significant. According to [[Statistics Canada]], Alberta is home to the second highest proportion (two percent) of Francophones in western Canada (after [[Manitoba]]). Many of Alberta's French-speaking residents live in the central and northwestern regions of the province. As reported in the 2001 census, the [[China|Chinese]] represented nearly four percent of Alberta's population and [[India|East Indians]] represented better than two percent. Both Edmonton and Calgary have [[Chinatown]]s and Calgary's is Canada's third largest. [[Aboriginal peoples in Alberta|Aboriginal Albertans]] make up approximately three percent of the population. The major contributors to Alberta's ethnic diversity have been the European nations. Forty-four percent of Albertans are of [[Great Britain|British]] and [[Irish people|Irish]] descent, and there are also large numbers of [[Germany|Germans]], [[Ukraine|Ukrainians]], and [[Scandinavia]]ns. Both cities heavily support first-class [[Canadian Football League]] and [[National Hockey League]] teams. [[football (soccer)|Soccer]], [[rugby union]] and [[lacrosse]] are also played professionally in Alberta. [[Tourism]] is also important to Albertans. A million visitors come to Alberta each year just for Calgary's world-famous [[Calgary Stampede | Stampede]] and for Edmonton's [[Klondike Days]]. Edmonton was the gateway to the only all-Canadian route to the [[Yukon]] [[gold field]]s, and the only route which did not require gold-seekers to travel the exhausting and dangerous [[Chilkoot Pass]]. [[Image:Stephen_Avenue.jpg |thumb|left|Stephen Avenue, Calgary]] Visitors throng to Calgary for ten days every July for a taste of "Stampede Fever". As a celebration of Canada's own [[Wild West]] and the cattle ranching industry, the [[Calgary Stampede | Stampede]] welcomes around 1.2 million people each year. Only an hour's drive from the [[Rocky Mountains]], Calgary also makes a visit to tourist attractions like [[Banff National Park]] something which can easily be done in a day. Calgary and Banff each host nearly 5 million tourists yearly. Alberta is an important destination for tourists who love to [[skiing|ski]] and [[hiking|hike]]; Alberta boasts several world-class [[ski resort]]s. Hunters and fishermen from around the world are able to take home impressive [[trophy|trophies]] and [[tall tales]] from their experiences in Alberta's wilderness. ==Demographics== Alberta has enjoyed a relatively high rate of growth in recent years, due in large part to its burgeoning economy. Between 2003 and 2004, the province saw high birthrates (on par with some larger provinces such as [[British Columbia]]), relatively high immigration, and a high rate of interprovincial migration when compared to other provinces [http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo33c.htm]. As of 2005, the population of the province was 3,212,813 (''Albertans''). 81% of this population lives in urban areas and 19% is rural. The [[Calgary-Edmonton Corridor]] is the most urbanized area in the province and one of the densest in Canada. Many of Alberta's cities and towns have also experienced very high rates of growth in recent history. ===Population of Alberta since 1901=== [[Image:Alberta_pop.JPG|thumb|500px|right|Alberta's population has grown steadily for over a century]] {| border="1" cellpadding="2" !Year !Population !Five Year <br /> % change !Ten Year <br /> % change !Percentage of <br /> Canadian Pop. |- |1901 ||73,022 ||n/a ||n/a ||1.4 |- |1911 ||374,295 ||n/a ||412.6 ||5.2 |- |1921 ||588,454 ||n/a ||57.2 ||6.7 |- |1931 ||731,605 ||n/a ||24.3 ||7.0 |- |1941 ||796,169 ||n/a ||8.8 ||6.9 |- |1951 || 939,501 ||n/a ||18.0 ||6.7 |- |1961 ||1,331,944 ||n/a ||41.8 ||7.3 |- |1971 ||1,627,874 ||n/a ||22.2 ||7.5 |- |1981 ||2,237,724 ||n/a ||37.5 ||9.2 |- |1986 ||2,365,825 ||5.7 ||n/a ||9.3 |- |1991 ||2,545,553 ||7.6 ||13.8 ||9.3 |- |1996 ||2,696,826 ||5.9 ||14.0 ||9.3 |- |2001 ||2,974,807 ||10.3 ||16.9 ||9.9 |} Racially and ethnically, the province is predominantly [[Caucasian race|Caucasian]]. 88.8% of the population is either white or [[Aboriginal peoples of Canada|Aboriginal]] (Aboriginals represent a fairly small proportion of this percentage, however). This number is significantly smaller in many of the cities, particularly [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]] and [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] which are home to a much larger number of visible minorities. '''Visible Minorities''' *3.3% [[China|Chinese]] *2.3% [[Asian]] *1.1% [[Black]] *1.1% [[Filipino people|Filipino]] Most Albertans identify as [[Christian]]s. Nevertheless, many people in the province observe other faiths or do not profess to a religion at all. Alberta has a somewhat higher percentage of [[evangelicalism|evangelical]] Christians than do other provinces. Conversely, Alberta also has the second highest percentage of [[Non-religious]] residents in Canada (after British Columbia). The [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Mormons]] of Alberta reside primarily in the extreme south of the province. There are [[Temple (Mormonism)|temples]] in both Cardston and Edmonton. Many Alberta Mormons descend from [[Mormon pioneers]] who emigrated from [[Utah]] around the turn of the 20th century. Alberta also has a large [[Hutterite]] population, a communal [[Anabaptist]] sect similar to the [[Mennonites]], and a significant population of [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]] in and around the [[Lacombe]] area due to the presence of the [[Canadian University College]]. Many people of the [[Hindu]], [[Sikh]], and [[Muslim]] faiths also make Alberta their home; one of the largest [[Gurdwara|Sikh temples]] in Canada is located just outside of Edmonton. '''Religion''' *[[Protestant]]: 38.9% *[[Roman Catholic]]: 26.7% *[[Non-religious|No Affiliation]]: 23.6% *[[Eastern Orthodoxy|Christian Orthodox]]: 1.5% *other Christian: 4.1% *Muslim: 1.5% *Buddhist: 1.1% ==History== :''Main article: [[History of Alberta]]'' The present province of Alberta, as far north as about 53° north latitude, was a part of [[Rupert's Land]] from the time of the incorporation of the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] ([[1670]]). After the arrival in the North-West of the French around 1731 they settled the prairies of the west, establishing communities such as Lac La Biche and Bonnyville. Fort La Jonquière was established near what is now Calgary in (1752). The [[North-West Company]] of Montreal occupied the northern part of Alberta territory before the Hudson's Bay Company arrived from Hudson Bay to take possession of it. The first explorer of the Athabasca region was [[Peter Pond]], who, on behalf of the North-West Company of Montreal, built [[Fort Athabasca]] on [[Lac La Biche, Alberta|Lac La Biche]] in 1778. [[Roderick Mackenzie]] built [[Fort Chipewyan]] on [[Lake Athabasca]] ten years later in 1788. His cousin, Sir [[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)|Alexander Mackenzie]] followed the [[North Saskatchewan River]] to its northernmost point near Edmonton, then setting northward on foot, trekked to the [[Athabasca River]], which he followed to Lake Athabasca. It was there he discovered the mighty outflow river which bears his name -- the [[Mackenzie River]] -- which he followed to its outlet in the Arctic Ocean. Returning to [[Lake Athabasca]], he followed the [[Peace River (Canada)|Peace River]] upstream, eventually reaching the [[Pacific Ocean]], and so being the first white man to cross the North American continent north of [[Mexico]]. The district of Alberta was created as part of the North-West Territories in 1882. As settlement increased, local representatives to the North-West Legislative Assembly were added. After a long campaign for autonomy, in 1905 the district of Alberta was enlarged and given provincial status. ==Fauna and flora== ===Fauna=== The three climatic regions ([[alpine]], [[forest]], and [[prairie]]) of Alberta are home to many different species of animals. The south and central prairie was the land of the bison, its grasses providing a great pasture and breeding ground for millions of [[American Bison|buffalo]]. The buffalo population was decimated during early settlement, but since then buffalo have made a strong comeback, and thrive on farms and in parks all over Alberta. Alberta is home to many large [[carnivore]]s. Among them are the [[Grizzly bear|grizzly]] and [[american Black Bear|black bears]], which are found in the mountains and wooded regions. Smaller carnivores of the [[dog]] and [[Felidae|cat]] families include [[coyote]]s, [[wolf|wolves]], [[fox]], [[lynx]], [[bobcat]] and [[mountain lion]] (cougar). [[Image:Bighorn23.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Rocky Mountains]] Bighorn Sheep]] [[Herbivorous]], or plant-eating animals, are found throughout the province. [[Moose]] and [[deer]] (both mule and white-tail [[variety (biology)|varieties]]) are found in the wooded regions, and [[pronghorn antelope]] can be found in the prairies of southern Alberta. [[Bighorn sheep]] and [[mountain goat]]s live in the Rocky Mountains. [[Rabbit]]s, [[porcupine]]s, [[skunk]]s, [[squirrel]]s, and many species of rodents and reptiles live in every corner of the province. Alberta is fortunate in that it is home to only one variety of venomous snake, the prairie [[rattlesnake]]. Central and northern Alberta and the region farther north is the nesting-ground of the migratory birds. Vast numbers of [[duck]]s, [[goose|geese]], [[swan]]s, and [[pelican]]s arrive in Alberta every spring and nest on or near one of the hundreds of small lakes that dot northern Alberta. [[Eagle]]s, [[hawk]]s, [[owl]]s, and [[crow]]s are plentiful, and a huge variety of smaller seed and insect-eating birds can be found. Alberta, like other [[temperate]] regions, is home to [[mosquito]]es, [[fly|flies]], [[wasp]]s, and [[bee]]s. Rivers and lakes are well stocked with [[pike (fish)|pike]], [[walleye]], [[white fish]], [[Rainbow trout|rainbow]], [[Brook trout|speckled]], and [[Brown trout|brown]] [[trout]], and even [[sturgeon]]. [[Turtle]]s are found in some water bodies in the southern part of the province. [[Frog]]s and [[salamander]]s are a few of the [[amphibian]]s that make their homes in Alberta. ===Flora=== In central and northern Alberta the arrival of spring brings the prairie anemone, the [[avens]], [[crocus]]es, and other early flowers. The advancing summer introduces many flowers of the [[sunflower]] family, until in August the plains are one blaze of yellow and purple. The southern part of Alberta is covered by a short grass, very nutritive, but dries up as summer lengthens, to be replaced by hardy perennials such as the [[buffalo bean]], [[fleabane]], and [[sage]]. Both yellow and purple [[clover]] fill the roadways and the ditches with their beauty and aromatic scents. The trees in the parkland region of the province grow in clumps and belts on the hillsides. These are largely [[deciduous]], typically [[birch]], [[poplar]], and [[tamarack]]. Many species of [[willow]] and other shrubs grow in virtually any terrain. On the north side of the North Saskatchewan River evergreen forests prevail for hundreds of thousands of square kilometres. [[aspen|Aspen poplar]], [[balsam poplar]] (or [[cottonwood]]), and [[paper birch]] are the primary large deciduous species. [[Conifer]]s include [[Jack pine]], Rocky Mountain pine, [[Lodgepole pine]], both white and black [[spruce]], and the deciduous conifer [[tamarack]]. ==See also== [[Family Law Act]] ==External links== *[http://www.gov.ab.ca/ Government of Alberta website] *[http://www.travelalberta.com/ Travel Alberta] *[http://www.albertasource.ca/ Alberta Encyclopedia] *[http://www.albertafirst.com/ Alberta Community Profiles] (A site offering info on tax, census info, and economic development of large and small Albertan Communities) *[http://www.alberta.demosphere.net Alberta Demosphere] {{Canada}} <br /> {{Alberta}} [[Category:Alberta| ]] {{Link FA|es}} [[af:Alberta]] [[bg:Алберта]] [[zh-min-nan:Alberta]] [[ca:Alberta]] [[da:Alberta]] [[de:Alberta (Kanada)]] [[et:Alberta]] [[es:Alberta]] [[eo:Alberto]] [[fa:آلبرتا]] [[fr:Alberta]] [[ko:앨버타 주]] [[io:Alberta]] [[id:Alberta]] [[is:Alberta (fylki)]] [[it:Alberta]] [[he:אלברטה]] [[ka:ალბერტა]] [[la:Alberta]] [[nl:Alberta]] [[ja:アルバータ州]] [[no:Alberta]] [[pl:Alberta (prowincja Kanady)]] [[pt:Alberta]] [[ro:Alberta]] [[ru:Альберта]] [[simple:Alberta]] [[sk:Alberta]] [[fi:Alberta]] [[sv:Alberta]] [[vi:Alberta]] [[tr:Alberta]] [[uk:Альберта (Канада)]] [[zh:阿尔伯达]] 718 40865303 2006-02-23T14:52:49Z Poulpy 400519 fr: :''For the fast food restaurant chain, see [[Arctic Circle Restaurants]]'' [[Image:ARCTIC CIRCLE 021106.jpg|thumb|350px]] [[Image:Arctic Circle sign.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A sign along the [[Dalton Highway]] marking the location of the Arctic Circle]] The '''Arctic Circle''' is one of the five major [[circle of latitude|circles of latitude]] that mark maps of the [[Earth]]. This is the parallel of [[latitude]] that (in 2000) runs [[degree (angle)|66° 33' 39"]] north of the [[Equator]]. Everything north of this circle is known as the [[Arctic]], and the zone just to the south of this circle is the [[temperate|Northern Temperate Zone]]. The Arctic Circle marks the southern extremity of the [[polar day]] of the [[summer solstice]] in June and the [[polar night]] of the [[winter solstice]] in December. Within the Arctic Circle, the arctic [[Sun]] is above the [[horizon]] for at least 24 continuous [[hour]]s once per [[year]], in conjunction with the Arctic's [[Summer Solstice]] - this is often referred to in local [[wiktionary:Vernacular|vernacular]] as [[midnight sun]]. Likewise, in conjunction with the Arctic's [[Winter Solstice]], the Arctic sun will be below the horizon for at least 24 continuous hours. (In fact, because of [[refraction]] and because the sun appears as a disk and not a point, part of the midnight sun may be seen at the night of the summer solstice up to about 50' (90 km) south of the geometric arctic circle; similarly, at the day of the winter solstice part of the sun may be seen up to about 50' north of the geometric arctic circle. This is true at sea level; these limits increase with elevation above sea level, however in mountainous regions there is often no direct view of the horizon.) The position of the Arctic Circle is determined by the [[axial tilt]] (angle) of the polar axis of rotation of the Earth on the [[ecliptic]]. This angle is not constant, but has a complex motion determined by many cycles of short to very long periods. Due to [[nutation]] the tilt oscillates over 9" (about 280 [[metre|m]] on the surface) over a period of 18.6 years. The main long-term cycle has a period of 41000 years and an amplitude of about 0.68°, or 76 km on the surface. Currently the tilt is decreasing by about 0.47" per year, so the Arctic Circle is moving north by about 14 m per year. Also see [[precession]]. Countries which have significant territory within the Arctic Circle are: * [[Russia]] * [[Canada]] * [[Denmark]] ([[Greenland]]) * [[United States of America]] ([[Alaska]]) * [[Norway]] * [[Sweden]] * [[Finland]] The country of [[Iceland]] also has territory within the Arctic Circle, but less than 1 sq km. This area is on a few small islets, of which only [[Grímsey]] (which lies directly on the Arctic Circle) is inhabited. ==See also== *[[Antarctic Circle]] *[[Circumpolar arctic]] ==External links== {{Wiktionary}} *[http://groups.msn.com/965172qg02rbm4ek3a6e7udur5/_whatsnew.msnw Santa`s Lapland and Christmas Club] &mdash; Lapland and Arctic Circle *[http://www.bugbog.com/images/maps/arctic_circle_map.jpg Topographical map of Arctic Circle, centered about North Pole] *[http://www.world-maps.co.uk/maps/600-arctic.jpg Map of Arctic Circle (dotted line), showing major population areas] *[http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/GE_P3_5_EN.html Terra Incognita: Exploration of the Canadian Arctic] &mdash; Historical essay about early expeditions to the Canadian arctic, illustrated with maps, photographs and drawings [[Category:Arctic]] [[Category:Geography of Nunavut]] [[Category:Geography of the Northwest Territories]] [[Category:Lines of latitude]] [[cs:Severní polární kruh]] [[de:Polarkreis]] [[el:Αρκτικός Κύκλος]] [[eo:Arkta Cirklo]] [[es:Círculo polar ártico]] [[fr:Cercle Arctique]] [[no:Den nordlige polarsirkel]] [[pl:Ko&#322;o podbiegunowe]] [[pt:Círculo polar ártico]] [[sv:Polcirkeln]] [[wa:Ceke polaire artike]] [[zh:&#21271;&#26997;&#22280;]] 719 40563851 2006-02-21T13:27:48Z Bastin8 154626 United Kingdom [[Image:Usarmy m16a2.jpg|right|thumb|[[M16A2]] ([[United States|U.S.]]). This version was adopted in 1982]] An '''assault rifle''' is a type of [[automatic rifle]] generally defined as a [[selective fire]] [[rifle]] or [[carbine]] (depending on the particular [[firearm]]'s size), using intermediate-powered ammunition. They are categorized between the larger and heavier [[light machine gun]] and the weaker [[submachine gun]]. Assault rifles are the standard [[Small arms|small arm]] in most modern [[Army|armies]], having largely replaced or suplemented the larger, more powerful rifles of the past. The name is a literal translation of the German term ''Sturmgewehr'' or "storm weapon", first applied to the [[Sturmgewehr 44]], developed during [[World War II]]. It gradually became a popular term for this type of firearm. The term has since been retro-actively applied to earlier weapons with similar traits. ==History== ===1900s to the 1930s: Light automatic rifles using rifle cartridges=== [[Image:Avtomat Fedorova 1916.jpg|right|thumb|]]Federov Avtomat (Russia). The weapon fired the Japanese rifle [[Cartridge (firearms)|cartridge.]] ''These automatic firearms tended to use used pre-existing rifle cartridges, [[kinetic energy]] ranged between 3,000&ndash;5,000 [[Joule|J]] (2,200&ndash;3,700 foot-pounds), velocites of 750&ndash;900 [[m/s]] (2,460&ndash;2,950 ft/s) and bullets of 9 to 13 [[Gram|g]] (139&ndash;200 grains).'' The first true assault rifle was probably the [[Italy|Italian]]-made [[Cei-Rigotti]], which was developed in the 1890s and finished around 1900, at the beginning of the 20th century; it never entered military service, however. The first service assault rifle was the [[Russia]]n [[Federov Avtomat]] of 1916, chambered for the [[Japan]]ese [[Arisaka]] 6.5 × 50 mm rifle [[Cartridge (firearms)|cartridge]], which was only used in small numbers due to supply problems. The [[Browning Automatic Rifle]] (BAR) was a [[World War I]]-era weapon that used a full-power round. It was an [[automatic rifle]] by today's definition, and designed for single accurate shots and suppressive automatic fire. The weight of roughly 15 pounds (7 kg) meant that it was rather cumbersome for closer quarters. Later developments added heavier [[Gun barrel|barrels]] and [[bipod]]s that lent it to being used as more like today's light machine gun or [[squad automatic weapon]], though it did help establish the doctrine of use for light selective fire rifles. The BAR was produced in large numbers, widely adopted, and served into the 1960s with the U.S. military and other nations. While it did not use an intermediate cartridge, it was an intermediate weapon between the newly adopted submachine guns and heavier [[machine gun]]s such as the [[Lewis Gun]]. During WWI, a few weaker submachine guns also entered service, such as the [[Villar Perosa]], the [[Berretta 1918]] and the [[MP18]]. These weapons fired rounds based of pistols — [[9 mm Glisenti]] and [[9 mm Bergmann]]. The 9 mm Bergman was based on the [[9 mm Parabellum]], with reduced charge to reduce recoil in the MP18. The developers of the [[Thompson submachine gun]] (also developed during the 1910s) originally intended to use rifle-powered rounds. However, a mechanical system that could handle their power was not found and it ended up using the [[.45 ACP]] cartridge. These firearms are considered part of the [[submachine gun]] class, but were an important part in the development of the assault rifles. ===1930s: Automatic intermediate weapons=== ''Some of these automatic and [[semi-automatic]] firearms used new intermediate cartridges; others used pre-existing rounds.'' An attempt to provide soldiers with a rifle with intermediate-power ammunition that was heavier than a [[submachine gun]] (too weak, with short range due to the [[pistol]] ammunition), but lighter than a long rifle (uncomfortable to fire, and difficult to control on [[fully-automatic]] mode due to the powerful ammunition; more expensive to design and manufacture), by the [[Italy|Italian]] arms company [[Beretta]] resulted in the MAB 38 (''Moschetto Automatico Beretta 1938''). The MAB 38 used a [[Fiocchi]] ''9M38'' cartridge and a higher-powered 9 mm Parabellum cartridge, which could provide longer range fire. The effective range was about 200 m, although it was declared to be effective up to 500 m. The MAB 38 was a multipurpose weapon. [[Image:M1 Carbine.jpg|thumb|[[M1 Carbine]] (U.S.). Unlike the M1, the later M2 and M3 were [[Automatic fire|fully-automatic]]]] In 1938, prior to World War II, the United States introduced the [[M1 Carbine]], which was an intermediate power weapon chambered for the [[.30 Carbine]] cartridge. The M1 Carbine was originally planned to have automatic fire, but this was dropped from the first version, although later in the war, selective fire variants were made (M2 and M3 Carbines). The weapon had higher [[stopping power]] than [[submachine gun]]s, but was not as powerful as full-size automatic rifles such as the BAR. The longer barrel (18-inch) provided the carbine with higher [[muzzle velocity]] than pistols and submachine guns chambered for the same .30 round. The M1 Carbine series was designed for close quarters engagements, a concept that would be re-applied later. It marked the first time in which such an intermediate weapon would be mass-produced in such large numbers &mdash; it became the most produced American weapon of the war, with millions made. The M1 Carbine series would remain in service with the U.S. military until replaced by the [[M16 (rifle)|M16 rifle]] in the 1960s; it continued to be used in other nations. ===1940s and 1950s: Maschinenkarabiner, Sturmgewehr, & the AK-47=== [[Image:Sturmgewehr 44.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sturmgewehr 44]] (Germany). Its development began in earnest with the Maschinenkarabiner project]] ''Some of these automatic firearms used pre-existing rounds; others used new intermediate cartridges. Kinetic energy ranged between 1,400&ndash;2,100 J (1,033&ndash;1,550 foot-pounds), muzzle velocities of 600&ndash;800m/s (1,970&ndash;2,625 ft/s) and bullets of 7&ndash;9g (108&ndash;139 grains).'' Germany, like other countries, had studied the problem since [[World War I]], and their factories made a variety of non-standard cartridges, therefore having less incentive to retain their existing calibers. The 7.92 × 30 mm cartridge was an example of these experiments; in 1941, it was improved to [[7.92 x 33 mm|7.92 × 33 mm]] ''Infanterie Kurz Patrone'' ("Infantry Short Standard"). In 1942, it was again improved as ''Maschinenkarabiner Patrone S'', and in 1943, ''Pistolen Patrone 43mE''; then, finally, ''Infanterie Kurz Patrone 43''. It is just a coincidence, but the intermediate cartridge developed by Winchester for the M1 Carbine, developed slightly before, also measured 33 mm. In 1942, [[Walther]] presented the ''Maschinenkarabiner'' ("automatic carbine", abbr. MKb), named MKb42(W). In the same year, [[Haenel]] presented the MKb42(H), designed by [[Hugo Schmeisser]] as a result of this program. Rheinmetall-Borsig (some said Krieghoff) presented its [[FG 42]] (''Fallschirmjaeger Gewehr 42'', sponsored by [[Hermann Göring]]) though this was in a different role, and using a heavy [[8 mm Mauser|8 × 57 mm]] (8 mm Mauser) cartridge, which was not an intermediate round. War-time tests in [[Russia]] indicated the MKb42(H) performed better than the other two. Schmeisser developed it first as the MP43, then MP43/1, and finally as the MP44/Sturmgewehr 44 (abbreviated StG44). It immediately entered large scale production. More than 5,000 units had been produced by February 1944, and 55,000 by the following November. Following the end of the war, the [[Soviet Union]] developed the [[AK-47]], which was vaguely similar in concept and layout to the German StG44, but extremely different mechanically. It fired the [[7.62 x 39 mm|7.62 × 39 mm]] cartridge, which had been developed during WWII. The round was similar to the StG44's in that the bullet was of a similar caliber to the Russian rifle ammunition. ===1960s and 1970s: Lighter automatic weapons and lighter smaller bullets=== ''Many of these automatic firearms used intermediate cartridges with much lighter bullets and smaller calibers, but fired at very high velocity, kinetic energy ranged between 1300&ndash;1800J (960&ndash;1,330 foot-pounds), velocities of 900&ndash;1050m/s (2,950&ndash;3,450 ft/s), and bullets of 3&ndash;4g (46&ndash;62 grains).'' [[Image:Stgw 90.jpg|thumb|right|[[SIG 550]] ([[Switzerland|Swiss]]). The SIG fires [[Gw Pat.90]], which has the same caliber as the [[5.56 mm NATO]]]] Many nations continued the development of traditional high-powered rifles with ranges of 500 meters (550 yards) and beyond. Most designs of this period used low-caliber but high-velocity ammunition, with some experiments in [[flechette]]s and other exotic ammunition. Statistical studies of World War II battles performed by the [[U.S. Army]] revealed that infantry combat beyond 300 meters (325 yards) was rare. The Russians saw no reason to make a rifle that shot beyond a rifleman's ability to aim. Therefore, a lighter, less-powerful cartridge could be effective. This permitted a lighter rifle and enabled troops to carry more ammunition, making them more autonomous &mdash; a greater amount of the lighter ammunition could be transported in the same amount of space. In addition, the smaller size and handiness of an assault rifle would benefit [[tank]] crews, support troops, and units with missions other than [[front line]] combat. The [[5.56 x 45 mm NATO|5.56 × 45 mm NATO]] cartridge was developed in the 1960s, and was adopted for use in the [[M16 (rifle)|M16]] assault rifle. The M16A1 version soon followed, and was then replaced in 1982 by the M16A2. The [[Soviet Union]] also developed its own similar round, the [[5.45 x 39 mm|5.45 × 39 mm]], which was used in the [[AK-74]], the successor of the [[AK-47]]. These rounds are usually considered less lethal than the previous generation of assault rifle rounds that fired larger rifle caliber ammunition with reduced propellant, but the smaller caliber and lighter bullets achieve higher velocities than even a hunting rifle bullet. These high speeds induce additional lethality through bullet shattering, although these high speed rounds generally do not exceed the momentum of the heavier (but slower) bullets of the less sophisticated AK-47. Any pointed (spitzer) round will tumble in soft tissue. If the jacket has a cannelure like the U.S. 5.56 × 45 mm M193 round, the bullet will fragment, leading to significant blood loss and internal damage. Blood loss leads to indirect incapacitation, but often takes longer than direct destruction of tissue. Since combat use of rifles expends around 50,000 rounds in suppressive fire for each combatant killed, trading lighter cartridge weight and lower recoil for slower but more sure incapacitation often makes good sense. The key to the assault rifle concept is firing at both known ''and suspected'' enemy positions. This allows an attacking infantry unit to shoot at a hidden enemy first, rather than waiting for the enemy to fire first. Good volume and distribution of aimed suppressive fire delivered by infantry squad members as they maneuver, prevents enemy return fire, and in turn allows the assaulting unit to maneuver through enemy fields of fire faster. Faster maneuver limits the assaulting unit's vulnerability to small arms fire, [[artillery]], [[mortar]]s, or counter-attack. Of course this requires a larger basic ammunition load and steady supply of rifle ammunition. ===1970s, 1980s, 1990s: New form factors and features=== ''Many of these automatic firearms usually used the same rounds as in older eras, but focused on using new form factors, materials, and added features like standard [[Telescopic sight|telescopic]] and [[Red dot sight|reflex]] sights.'' [[Image:FAMAS dsc06877.jpg|thumb|[[FAMAS]] ([[France]]). It was adopted in 1978]] The biggest change since adoption of high velocity rounds of 5 mm caliber and higher, has been designs that have new form factors, sights, electronics, and materials. A number of [[bullpup]] rifles entered service in the late 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. Although bullpup rifles had existed since the 1930s, the [[United Kingdom]]'s [[EM2]] was one of the few bullpup assault rifles prior to this time. Examples of the new trend include the [[FAMAS]], [[Steyr AUG]], and [[SA80]]. They were all bullpup rifles that made heavy use of composites and plastics with ambidextrous controls, and the latter both added a low-power [[telescopic sight]] to the standard service version. The [[SAR-21]], the [[Tavor TAR-21]], and [[QBZ-95]] follow a similar trend as well, with a bullpup configuration and heavy use of composites. The [[Heckler & Koch G36]], adopted in the late 1990s by [[Spain]] and [[Germany]], is of the traditional configuration, but also has integral telescopic and red dot sights and composite exterior. The [[XM8 rifle]], developed from the G36, had similar features, but also added more electronics such as [[laser]] sight, round counter, and integral [[infrared]] laser and pointers. The trend in the new designs, and very likely future ones, is towards more integrated features and lighter weight with new materials and configurations. Introduction of a new ammunition would require retooling factories, phasing out conventional ammunition and in general infrastructure change that is considered by many military planners too expensive to undertake. Some have called for a reintroduction of larger caliber rounds to improve conventional lethality, or an increase in caliber in the 6&ndash;7 mm range, with rifle round velocities and lower mass bullets: a kind of intermediate philosophy between the smaller caliber&ndash;faster modern rounds and the standard caliber–slower rounds of the previous generation. China in the late 1980's introduced a 5.8 × 42 mm round, with an initial velocity of 930 m/s, 4.26 g bullet and 1,842 J of energy, China claims the new round provides superior performace and lethality to the NATO and modern Soviet intermediate rounds. In the United States, [[Remington]] has developed the [[6.8 mm Remington SPC]] cartridge, which is the same overall length at the 5.56 x 45 mm NATO round but fires a bullet the same caliber at the [[.270 Winchester]] hunting cartridge. Its similar size to the 5.56 × 45 mm means that existing rifles can be converted without an excessive amount of trouble. Development of a [[G11|4.73 mm]] [[caseless ammunition]] and advanced assault rifle in the 1970&ndash;1980s by Germany was effectively halted by the [[German reunification]] in 1990, and that rifle never entered full production. =="Assault weapons" vs. Fully-automatic weapons== Primarily in the [[United States]], the term ''[[assault weapon]]'' is an arbitrary (and politicized) phrase generally used to describe a collection of '''''semi-automatic''''' firearms that have certain features associated with military/police use, such as a folding stock, [[flash suppressor]], [[bayonet]], protruding pistol grip, or the ability to accept a detachable magazine of a capacity larger than ten rounds. The phrase ''assault weapon'' has been used primarily in relation to a specific expired [[gun law]] that was commonly known as the '[[Federal assault weapons ban|Assault Weapons Ban]]', '[[Clinton]] gun ban', or '1994 crime bill'. It is a common misconception that the assault weapons ban restricted weapons capable of fully-automatic fire, such as assault rifles and [[machine gun]]s. Fully-automatic weapons were unaffected by the ban because they have been heavily restricted since the [[National Firearms Act]] of 1934, and other, more recent laws. The term 'assault weapon' has often been erroneously used to describe machine guns. Many states and localities still use the term [[assault weapon]] with a variety of variations following the California model loosely. See separate article on [[assault weapon]]s for further information. ==See also== *[[Automatic firearm]] for clarification on similar categories *[[Battle rifle]] *[[Federal assault weapons ban (USA)]] *[[Firearm action]] *[[Gas-operated]] *[[List of firearms]] ==External links== * [http://www.quarry.nildram.co.uk/Assault.htm Assault Rifles and their Ammunition: History and Prospects] [[Category:Rifles]] [[Category:Assault rifles|*]] [[de:Sturmgewehr]] [[fr:Fusil d'assaut]] [[he:רובה סער]] [[ja:アサルトライフル]] [[ko:돌격소총]] [[lt:Automatas]] [[no:Automatgevær]] [[pl:Karabin automatyczny]] [[ru:Автомат (оружие)]] [[sl:Jurišna puška]] [[fi:Rynnäkkökivääri]] [[sv:Automatkarbin]] [[zh:突击步枪]] 721 42091723 2006-03-03T19:48:45Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 Ced. {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Animals | image = Sea nettles.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = [[Sea nettle]]s, ''Chrysaora quinquecirrha'' | domain = [[Eukaryote|Eukaryota]] | regnum = '''Animalia''' | regnum_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758 | subdivision_ranks = Phyla | subdivision = ***[[Sponge|Porifera]] (sponges) ***[[Ctenophora]] (comb jellies) ***[[Cnidaria]] (coral, jellyfish, anemones) ***[[Trichoplax|Placozoa]] (trichoplax) *'''''Subregnum [[Bilateria]]''''' ([[symmetry (biology)|bilateral symmetry]]) ***[[Acoelomorpha]] (basal) ***[[Orthonectida]] (parasitic to flatworms, echinoderms, etc.) ***[[Rhombozoa]] (dicyemids) ***[[Myxozoa]] (slime animals) **'''Superphylum [[Deuterostome|Deuterostomia]]''' (blastopore becomes anus) ***[[Chordate|Chordata]] (vertebrates, etc.) ***[[Hemichordata]] (acorn worms) ***[[Echinoderm]]ata (starfish, urchins) ***[[Chaetognatha]] ([[arrow worm]]s and [[Pterobranchia]]) **'''Superphylum [[Ecdysozoa]]''' (shed exoskeleton) ***[[Kinorhyncha]] (mud dragons) ***[[Loricifera]] ***[[Priapulida]] (priapulid worms) ***[[Nematoda]] (roundworms) ***[[Nematomorpha]] (horsehair worms) ***[[Onychophora]] (velvet worms) ***[[Tardigrada]] (water bears) ***[[Arthropoda]] (insects, etc.) **'''Superphylum [[Platyzoa]]''' ***[[Platyhelminthes]] (flatworms) ***[[Gastrotricha]] (gastrotrichs) ***[[Rotifera]] (rotifers) ***[[Acanthocephala]] (acanthocephalans) ***[[Gnathostomulida]] (jaw worms) ***[[Micrognathozoa]] (limnognathia) ***[[Cycliophora]] (pandora) **'''Superphylum [[Lophotrochozoa]]''' (trochophore larvae / lophophores) ***[[Sipuncula]] (peanut worms) ***[[Nemertea]] (ribbon worms) ***[[Phoronida]] (horseshoe worms) ***[[Bryozoa]] (moss animals) ***[[Entoprocta]] (goblet worms) ***[[Brachiopoda]] (brachipods) ***[[Mollusca]] (mollusks) ***[[Annelida]] (segmented worms) }} {{redirect|Animalia|the book by Graeme Base|[[Animalia (book)]]}}{{otheruses}} '''Animals''' are a major group of [[organism]]s, classified as the [[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]] '''Animalia''' or '''Metazoa'''. In general they are [[multicellular]], capable of locomotion and responsive to their environment, and feed by consuming other organisms. Their body plan becomes fixed as they develop, usually early on in their [[ontogeny|development]] as [[embryo]]s, although some undergo a process of [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]] later on. The name animal comes from the [[Latin]] word ''animal'', of which ''animalia'' is the plural, and ultimately from ''anima'', meaning vital breath or soul. ==Characteristics== Kingdom Animalia has several characteristics that set it apart from other living things. Animals are [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] and [[multicellular]], which separates them from [[bacteria]] and most [[protist]]s. They are [[Heterotroph|heterotrophic]], generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from [[plant]]s and [[alga]]e. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and [[fungus|fungi]] by lacking cell walls. ==Structure== With a few exceptions, most notably the [[sponge|sponges]] (Phylum Porifera), animals have bodies differentiated into separate [[biological tissue|tissues]]. These include [[muscle]]s, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and a [[nervous system]], which sends and processes signals. There is also typically an internal [[digestion|digestive]] chamber, with one or two openings. Animals with this sort of organization are called metazoans, or [[eumetazoan]]s when the former is used for animals in general. All animals have [[eukaryotic]] cells, surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of [[collagen]] and elastic [[glycoprotein]]s. This may be calcified to form structures like [[shell]]s, [[bone]]s, and [[spicule]]s. During development it forms a relatively flexible framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganized, making complex structures possible. In contrast, other multicellular organisms like plants and fungi have cells held in place by cell walls, and so develop by progressive growth. Also, unique to animal cells are the following intercellular junctions: [[tight junction]]s, [[gap junction]]s, and [[desmosome]]s. ==Reproduction and development== Nearly all animals undergo some form of [[sexual reproduction]]. Adults are [[diploid]] or occasionally [[polyploid]]. They have a few specialized reproductive cells, which undergo [[meiosis]] to produce smaller motile [[spermatozoon|spermatozoa]] or larger non-motile [[ovum|ova]]. These fuse to form [[zygote]]s, which develop into new individuals. Many animals are also capable of [[asexual reproduction]]. This may take place through [[parthenogenesis]], where fertile eggs are produced without mating, or in some cases through fragmentation. A [[zygote]] initially develops into a hollow sphere, called a [[blastula]], which undergoes rearrangement and differentiation. In sponges, blastula larvae swim to a new location and develop into a new sponge. In most other groups, the blastula undergoes more complicated rearrangement. It first [[invagination|invaginates]] to form a [[gastrula]] with a digestive chamber, and two separate [[germ layer]]s - an external ectoderm and an internal endoderm. In most cases, a mesoderm also develops between them. These germ layers then differentiate to form tissues and organs. Animals grow by indirectly using the energy of [[sunlight]]. Plants use this [[energy]] to turn air into simple [[sugars]] using a process known as [[photosynthesis]]. These sugars are then used as the building blocks which allow the plant to grow. When animals eat these plants (or eat other animals which have eaten plants), the sugars produced by the plant are used by the animal. They are either used directly to help the animal grow, or broken down, releasing stored solar energy, and giving the animal the energy required for motion. This process is known as [[glycolysis]]. ==Origin and fossil record== Animals are generally considered to have evolved from [[flagellate]] protozoa. Their closest living relatives are the [[choanoflagellate]]s, collared flagellates that have the same structure as certain sponge cells do. Molecular studies place them in a supergroup called the [[opisthokont]]s, which also include the [[fungus|fungi]] and a few small parasitic [[protist]]s. The name comes from the posterior location of the [[flagellum]] in motile cells, such as most animal sperm, whereas other eukaryotes tend to have anterior flagella. The first fossils that might represent animals appear towards the end of the [[Precambrian]], around 600 million years ago, and are known as the [[Vendian biota]]. These are difficult to relate to later fossils, however. Some may represent precursors of modern phyla, but they may be separate groups, and it is possible they are not really animals at all. Aside from them, most known animal phyla make a more or less simultaneous appearance during the [[Cambrian]] period, about 570 million years ago. It is still disputed whether this event, called the [[Cambrian explosion]], represents a rapid divergence between different groups or a change in conditions that made fossilization possible. ==Groups of animals== [[Image:Elephant-ear-sponge.jpg|thumb|left|Elephant ear [[sponge]]]] The sponges ([[Porifera]]) diverged from other animals early. As mentioned, they lack the complex organization found in most other phyla. Their cells are differentiated, but not organized into distinct tissues. Sponges are sessile and typically feed by drawing in water through [[pore]]s. [[Archaeocyatha]], which have fused skeletons, may represent sponges or a separate phylum. [[Image:Brain_coral.jpg|thumb|right|[[Brain Coral]]]] Among the eumetazoan phyla, two are radially symmetric and have digestive chambers with a single opening, which serves as both the mouth and the anus. These are the [[Cnidaria]], which include [[sea anemone]]s, [[coral]]s, and [[jellyfish]], and the [[Ctenophora]] or comb jellies. Both have distinct tissues, but they are not organized into [[organ (anatomy)|organs]]. There are only two main germ layers, the ectoderm and endoderm, with only scattered cells between them. As such, these animals are sometimes called [[diploblastic]]. The tiny phylum [[Placozoa]] is similar, but individuals do not have a permanent digestive chamber. The remaining animals form a monophyletic group called the [[Bilateria]]. For the most part, they are bilaterally symmetric, and often have a specialized head with feeding and sensory organs. The body is [[triploblastic]], i.e. all three germ layers are well-developed, and tissues form distinct organs. The digestive chamber has two openings, a mouth and an anus, and there is also an internal body cavity called a coelom or pseudocoelom. There are exceptions to each of these characteristics, however - for instance adult [[echinoderm]]s are radially symmetric, and certain parasitic worms have extremely simplified body structures. [[Image:Common_clownfish.jpg|thumb|right|[[Clownfish]] in their [[Sea Anemone]] home]] Genetic studies have considerably changed our understanding of the relationships within the Bilateria. Most appear to belong to four major lineages: # [[Deuterostomes]] # [[Ecdysozoa]] # [[Platyzoa]] # [[Lophotrochozoa]] In addition to these, there are a few small groups of bilaterians with relatively similar structure that appear to have diverged before these major groups. These include the [[Acoelomorpha]], [[Rhombozoa]], and [[Orthonectida]]. The [[Myxozoa]], single-celled parasites that were originally considered Protozoa, are now believed to have developed from the Bilateria as well. [[Image:Magellanic-penguin02.jpg|thumb|left|the [[Magellanic Penguin]]]] ===Deuterostomes=== [[Deuterostome]]s differ from the other Bilateria, called [[protostome]]s, in several ways. In both cases there is a complete digestive tract. However, in protostomes the initial opening (the [[archenteron]]) develops into the mouth, and an anus forms separately. In deuterostomes this is reversed. In most protostomes cells simply fill in the interior of the gastrula to form the mesoderm, called schizocoelous development, but in deuterostomes it forms through [[invagination]] of the endoderm, called enterocoelic pouching. Deuterostomes also have a dorsal, rather than a ventral, nerve chord and their embryos undergo different cleavage. All this suggests the deuterostomes and protostomes are separate, monophyletic lineages. The main phyla of deuterostomes are the [[Echinodermata]] and [[Chordate|Chordata]]. The former are radially symmetric and exclusively marine, such as [[sea star]]s, [[sea urchin]]s, and [[sea cucumber]]s. The latter are dominated by the [[vertebrate]]s, animals with backbones. These include [[fish]], [[amphibian]]s, [[reptile]]s, [[bird]]s, and [[mammal]]s. In addition to these, the deuterostomes also include the [[Hemichordata]] or acorn worms. Although they are not especially prominent today, the important fossil [[graptolite]]s may belong to this group. The [[Chaetognatha]] or arrow worms may also be deuterostomes, but this is less certain. ===Ecdysozoa=== [[Image:Sympetrum flaveolum - side (aka).jpg|thumb|the [[Yellow-winged Darter]]]] The [[Ecdysozoa]] are protostomes, named after the common trait of growth by moulting or [[ecdysis]]. The largest animal phylum belongs here, the [[Arthropoda]], including [[insect]]s, [[spider]]s, [[crab]]s, and their kin. All these organisms have a body divided into repeating segments, typically with paired appendages. Two smaller phyla, the [[Onychophora]] and [[Tardigrada]], are close relatives of the arthropods and share these traits. [[Image:roundworm.jpg|thumb|left|[[Roundworm]]]] The ecdysozoans also include the [[Nematoda]] or roundworms, the second largest animal phylum. Roundworms are typically microscopic, and occur in nearly every environment where there is water. A number are important parasites. Smaller phyla related to them are the [[Nematomorpha]] or horsehair worms, which are visible to the unaided eye, and the [[Kinorhyncha]], [[Priapulida]], and [[Loricifera]], which are all microscopic. These groups have a reduced coelom, called a pseudocoelom. The remaining two groups of protostomes are sometimes grouped together as the Spiralia, since in both embryos develop with spiral cleavage. [[Image:Bedford-s_flatworm.jpg|thumb|left|Bedford's [[Flatworm]]]] ===Platyzoa=== The [[Platyzoa]] include the phylum [[Platyhelminthes]], the flatworms. These were originally considered some of the most primitive Bilateria, but it now appears they developed from more complex ancestors. [[Image:Rotifer.jpg|thumb|right|[[Rotifer]]]] A number of parasites are included in this group, such as the [[fluke]]s and [[tapeworm]]s. Flatworms lack a coelom, as do their closest relatives, the microscopic [[Gastrotricha]]. The other platyzoan phyla are microscopic and pseudocoelomate. The most prominent are the [[Rotifera]] or rotifers, which are common in aqueous environments. They also include the [[Acanthocephala]] or spiny-headed worms, the [[Gnathostomulida]], [[Micrognathozoa]], and possibly the [[Cycliophora]]. These groups share the presence of complex jaws, from which they are called the [[Gnathifera]]. ===Lophotrochozoa=== [[Image:Reef2063.jpg|thumb|Big Blue [[Octopus]]]] The [[Lophotrochozoa]] include two of the most successful animal phyla, the [[Mollusca]] and [[Annelida]]. The former includes animals such as [[snail]]s, [[clam]]s, and [[squid]]s, and the latter comprises the segmented worms, such as [[earthworm]]s and [[leech]]es. These two groups have long been considered close relatives because of the common presence of [[trochophore]] larvae, but the annelids were considered closer to the arthropods, because they are both segmented. Now this is generally considered convergent evolution, owing to many morphological and genetic differences between the two phyla. The Lophotrochozoa also include the [[Nemertea]] or ribbon worms, the [[Sipuncula]], and several phyla that have a fan of cilia around the mouth, called a [[lophophore]]. These were traditionally grouped together as the lophophorates, but it now appears they are [[paraphyletic]], some closer to the Nemertea and some to the Mollusca and Annelida. They include the [[Brachiopoda]] or lamp shells, which are prominent in the fossil record, the [[Entoprocta]], the [[Phoronida]], and possibly the [[Bryozoa]] or moss animals. ==History of classification== [[Image:Caerulea3 crop.jpg|thumb|left|[[White's Tree Frog]]]] [[Image:Rød ræv (Vulpes vulpes).jpg|thumb|''Vulpes vulpes'', the [[red fox]]]] [[Aristotle]] divided the living world between animals and [[plant]]s, and this was followed by [[Carolus Linnaeus]] in the first hierarchical classification. Since then biologists have begun emphasizing evolutionary relationships, and so these groups have been restricted somewhat. For instance, microscopic [[protozoa]] were originally considered animals because they move, but are now treated separately. In [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]]' original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of [[Vermes]], [[Insect]]a, [[Fish|Pisces]], [[Amphibia]], [[bird|Aves]], and [[Mammal]]ia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, the [[chordate|Chordata]], whereas the various other forms have been separated out. The above lists represent our current understanding of the group, though there is some variation from source to source. ==Usage of the word ''animal''== In everyday usage ''animal'' refers to any member of the [[animal kingdom]] that is not a [[human being]], and sometimes excludes [[insects]] (although including such arthropods as crabs). This confusion stems primarily from the familiarity with zoo animals, farm animals and pets, not from an analytical distinction between insects, humans and the rest of the animal kingdom. ==Examples== {{see also|List of animal names}} Some well-known types of animals, listed by their common names: {{col-begin}} {{col-5}} *[[aardvark]] *[[afghan hound]] *[[albatross]] *[[alligator]] *[[alpaca]] *[[anaconda]] *[[angelfish]] *[[anglerfish]] *[[ant]] *[[antlion]] *[[anteater]] *[[antelope]] *[[ape]] *[[aphid]] *[[armadillo]] *[[arrow crab]] *[[asp]] *[[donkey|ass]] *[[baboon]] *[[badger (animal)|badger]] *[[bald eagle]] *[[bandicoot]] *[[barnacle]] *[[common Basilisk|basilisk]] *[[barracuda]] *[[bass (fish)|bass]] *[[basset hound]] *[[bat]] *[[bear]] *[[beaver]] *[[bed bug]] *[[bee]] *[[beetle]] *[[bird]] *[[bison]] *[[blackbird]] *[[black panther]] *[[black widow]] *[[blue jay]] *[[blue whale]] *[[boa]] *[[bobcat]] *[[bobolink]] *[[booby]] *[[Box jellyfish]] *[[Boston Terrier|boston terrier]] *[[bovid]] *[[bison|buffalo]] *[[bug]] *[[bulldog]] *[[Bull Terrier|bull terrier]] *[[butterfly]] *[[buzzard]] *[[camel]] *[[canid]] *[[cape buffalo]] *[[cardinal (bird)]] *[[caribou]] *[[carp]] *[[cat]] *[[caterpillar]] *[[catfish]] *[[centipede]] *[[cephalopod]] *[[chameleon]] *[[cheetah]] *[[chickadee]] *[[chicken]] *[[chihuahua]] *[[chimpanzee]] *[[chinchilla]] *[[chipmunk]] *[[clam]] *[[clownfish]] *[[cobra]] *[[cockroach]] *[[cod]] *[[collie]] *[[condor]] *[[constrictor]] *[[coral]] *[[cougar]] *[[coyote]] {{col-5}} *[[cattle|cow]] *[[crab]] *[[crane (bird)|crane]] *[[crane fly]] *[[crawdad]] *[[crayfish]] *[[cricket (insect)|cricket]] *[[crocodile]] *[[crow]] *[[cuckoo]] *[[daddy longlegs]] *[[damselfly]] *[[deer]] *[[dingo]] *[[dinosaur]] *[[dog]] *[[dolphin]] *[[donkey]] *[[dormouse]] *[[dove]] *[[dragonfly]] *[[duck]] *[[dung beetle]] *[[eagle]] *[[earthworm]] *[[earwig]] *[[eel]] *[[egret]] *[[elephant]] *[[Elephant Seal]] *[[Red Deer|elk]] *[[emu]] *[[English Pointer|english pointer]] *[[English Setter|english setter]] *[[ermine]] *[[falcon]] *[[ferret]] *[[finch]] *[[firefly]] *[[fish]] *[[flamingo]] *[[flea]] *[[fly]] *[[flyingfish]] *[[fowl]] *[[fox]] *[[frog]] *[[fruit bat]] *[[gazelle]] *[[gecko]] *[[gerbil]] *[[German Shepherd Dog|german shepherd]] *[[giant panda]] *[[giant squid]] *[[gibbon]] *[[gila monster]] *[[guanaco]] *[[guineafowl]] *[[giraffe]] *[[goat]] *[[golden retriever]] *[[goldfinch]] *[[goldfish]] *[[goose]] *[[gopher]] *[[gorilla]] *[[grasshopper]] *[[great blue heron]] *[[great dane]] *[[great white shark]] *[[greyhound]] *[[grizzly bear]] *[[grouse]] *[[guinea pig]] *[[gull]] *[[guppy]] *[[haddock]] *[[halibut]] *[[hammerhead shark]] *[[hamster]] *[[hare]] *[[harrier (bird)|harrier]] *[[hawk]] {{col-5}} *[[hedgehog]] *[[hermit crab]] *[[heron]] *[[herring]] *[[hippopotamus]] *[[hookworm]] *[[hornet]] *[[horse]] *[[hound]] *[[human]] *[[hummingbird]] *[[humpback whale]] *[[husky]] *[[hyena]] *[[iguana]] *[[impala]] *[[insect]] *[[Irish Setter|irish setter]] *[[Irish Wolfhound|irish wolfhound]] *[[Irukandji jellyfish]] *[[jackal]] *[[jaguar]] *[[jay]] *[[jellyfish]] *[[kangaroo]] *[[kangaroo mouse]] *[[kangaroo rat]] *[[kingfisher]] *[[kite (bird)|kite]] *[[kiwi]] *[[koala]] *[[koi]] *[[komodo dragon]] *[[krill]] *[[labrador retriever]] *[[ladybug]] *[[lamprey]] *[[lark]] *[[leech]] *[[lemming]] *[[lemur]] *[[leopard]] *[[leopon]] *[[liger]] *[[lion]] *[[lizard]] *[[llama]] *[[lobster]] *[[locust]] *[[loon]] *[[louse]] *[[lungfish]] *[[lynx]] *[[macaw]] *[[mackerel]] *[[magpie]] *[[mammal]] *[[manta ray]] *[[marlin]] *[[marmoset]] *[[marmot]] *[[marsupial]] *[[marten]] *[[mastiff]] *[[meadowlark]] *[[meerkat]] *[[mink]] *[[minnow]] *[[mite]] *[[mockingbird]] *[[mole]] *[[mollusk]] *[[mongoose]] *[[monitor lizard]] *[[monkey]] *[[moose]] *[[mosquito]] *[[moth]] *[[mountain goat]] *[[mouse]] *[[mule]] *[[muskox]] *[[mussel]] {{col-5}} *[[narwhal]] *[[newt]] *[[nightingale]] *[[ocelot]] *[[octopus]] *[[Old English Sheepdog|old english sheepdog]] *[[opossum]] *[[orangutan]] *[[orca]] *[[ostrich]] *[[otter]] *[[owl]] *[[ox]] *[[oyster]] *[[panda]] *[[panther]] *[[panthera hybrid]] *[[parakeet]] *[[parrot]] *[[parrotfish]] *[[partridge]] *[[peacock]] *[[peafowl]] *[[pekingese]] *[[pelican]] *[[penguin]] *[[perch]] *[[Peregrine Falcon|peregrine falcon]] *[[persian (cat)|persian cat]] *[[pheasant]] *[[pig]] *[[pigeon]] *[[pike (fish)|pike]] *[[pilot whale]] *[[piranha]] *[[platypus]] *[[polar bear]] *[[poodle]] *[[porcupine]] *[[porpoise]] *[[portuguese man o' war]] *[[possum]] *[[prairie dog]] *[[prawn]] *[[praying mantis]] *[[primate]] *[[puffin]] *[[puma]] *[[python]] *[[quail]] *[[rabbit]] *[[raccoon]] *[[rainbow trout]] *[[rat]] *[[rattlesnake]] *[[raven]] *[[reindeer]] *[[rhinoceros]] *[[right whale]] *[[roadrunner]] *[[robin]] *[[rodent]] *[[rook (bird)|rook]] *[[roundworm]] *[[sailfish]] *[[St. Bernard (dog)|saint bernard]] *[[salamander]] *[[salmon]] *[[sawfish]] *[[scallop]] *[[scorpion]] *[[hippocampus (fish)|seahorse]] *[[sea lion]] *[[sea slug]] *[[sea urchin]] *[[setter]] *[[shark]] *[[sheep]] *[[sheepdog]] *[[shrew]] *[[shrimp]] *[[siamese (cat)|siamese cat]] *[[silkworm]] {{col-5}} *[[silverfish]] *[[skink]] *[[skunk]] *[[sloth]] *[[slug]] *[[smelt]] *[[snail]] *[[snake]] *[[snipe]] *[[snow leopard]] *[[sockeye salmon]] *[[sole]] *[[spaniel]] *[[sperm whale]] *[[spider]] *[[spider monkey]] *[[spoonbill]] *[[squid]] *[[squirrel]] *[[starfish]] *[[Star-nosed Mole|star-nosed mole]] *[[steelhead trout]] *[[stoat]] *[[stork]] *[[sturgeon]] *[[swallow]] *[[swan]] *[[swift]] *[[swordfish]] *[[swordtail]] *[[tabby cat]] *[[tahr]] *[[takin]] *[[tapeworm]] *[[tapir]] *[[tarantula]] *[[tasmanian devil]] *[[termite]] *[[tern]] *[[terrier]] *[[thrush]] *[[tiger]] *[[tiger shark]] *[[tigon]] *[[toad]] *[[tortoise]] *[[toucan]] *[[Toy Poodle|toy poodle]] *[[trapdoor spider]] *[[tree frog]] *[[trout]] *[[tuna]] *[[turkey]] *[[turtle]] *[[tyrannosaurus]] *[[urial]] *[[vampire bat]] *[[viper]] *[[vole]] *[[vulture]] *[[wallaby]] *[[walrus]] *[[wasp]] *[[warbler]] *[[water buffalo]] *[[weasel]] *[[whale]] *[[whitefish]] *[[whooping crane]] *[[wild cat]] *[[wildebeest]] *[[wildfowl]] *[[wolf]] *[[wolverine]] *[[wombat]] *[[woodpecker]] *[[worm]] *[[wren]] *[[yak]] *[[zebra]] {{col-end}} ==References== *Klaus Nielsen. ''Animal Evolution: Interrelationships of the Living Phyla'' (2nd edition). Oxford Univ. Press, 2001. *Knut Schmidt-Nielsen. ''Animal Physiology: Adaptation and Environment''. (5th edition). Cambridge Univ. Press, 1997. ==External links== {{Sisterlinks|Animalia}} {{wikispecies| Animalia}} * [http://tolweb.org/ Tree of Life Project] * [http://www.arkive.org ARKive] - multimedia database of worldwide endangered/protected species and of UK common species * [http://www.georgetown.edu/faculty/ballc/animals/animals.html Sounds of the World's Animals] - animal sounds in many languages [[Category:Animals]] <!-- interwiki --> [[af:Animalia]] [[als:Tiere]] [[an:Animal]] [[ast:Animal]] [[bg:Животно]] [[bm:Bagan]] [[zh-min-nan:Tōng-bu̍t]] [[ca:Animal]] [[cs:Živočichové]] [[cy:Anifail]] [[da:Dyr]] [[de:Tiere]] [[et:Loomad]] [[el:Ζώα]] [[es:Animal]] [[eo:Animalo]] [[fr:Animal]] [[fy:Dier]] [[ga:Ainmhí]] [[he:בעלי חיים]] [[hr:%C5%BDivotinje]] [[ko:동물]] [[io:Animalo]] [[id:Hewan]] [[ia:Animal]] [[it:Animali]] [[kw:Enyval]] [[ku:Ajal]] [[la:Animalia]] [[lv:Dzīvnieki]] [[lt:Gyvūnų karalystė]] [[lb:Déiereräich]] [[li:Diere]] [[mk:Животни]] [[ms:Haiwan]] [[nah:Yolkatl]] [[nl:Dieren (rijk)]] [[nds:Beest]] [[ja:動物]] [[no:Dyr]] [[pl:Zwierzęta]] [[pt:Animalia]] [[ru:Животные]] [[scn:Armali]] [[simple:Animal]] [[sl:Živali]] [[sr:Животиња]] [[fi:Eläinkunta]] [[sv:Djur]] [[th:สัตว์]] [[uk:Тварини]] [[zh:动物]] [[vi:Động vật]] [[chy:Hova]] 724 15899247 2003-03-17T11:02:55Z MyRedDice 5862 #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Nupedia and Wikipedia]] (moved to meta) #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Nupedia and Wikipedia]] 727 15899249 2002-09-01T17:24:05Z Bryan Derksen 66 bypassing double redirect #REDIRECT [[History of astronomy]] 728 42101343 2006-03-03T21:07:05Z Nigosh 221949 /* F */ + [[Raymond Firth]] See [[Anthropology]]. A '''list of notable anthropologists'''. {{compactTOC}} __NOTOC__ ==A== *[[John Adair (anthropologist)|John Adair]] *[[Timothy Asch]] ==B== *[[Nigel Barley]] *[[Fredrik Barth]] *[[Vasily Bartold]] *[[Keith H. Basso]] *[[Ruth Behar]] *[[Ruth Benedict]] *[[Theodore C. Bestor]] *[[Wilhelm Bleek]] *[[Franz Boas]] *[[Pere Bosch-Gimpera]] *[[Paul Pierre Broca]] ==C== *[[Mauro Campagnoli]] *[[Joseph Campbell]] *[[Napoléon Chagnon]] *[[Pierre Clastres]] *[[Carleton Coon]] *[[Frank Hamilton Cushing]] ==D== *[[Raymond Dart]] *[[Ella Cara Deloria]] *[[Mary Douglas]] *[[Eugene Dubois]] ==E== *[[Mircea Eliade]] *[[E. E. Evans-Pritchard]] ==F== *[[Raymond Firth]] *[[Dian Fossey]] *[[James Frazer]] ==G== *[[Clifford Geertz]] *[[Alfred Gell]] *[[Ernest Gellner]] *[[Max Gluckman]] *[[Jane Goodall]] *[[Robert J Gorden]] *[[Hilma Granqvist]] *[[Marcel Griaule]] *[[Jacob Grimm]] *[[Wilhelm Grimm]] ==H== *[[Marvin Harris]] *[[Cassidy Hendrickson]] *[[Arthur Maurice Hocart]] *[[Earnest Hooton]] *[[Ales Hrdlicka|Aleš Hrdli&#269;ka]] ==I== ==J== *[[William Jones (philologist)|William Jones]] ==K== *[[Richard G. Klein]] *[[Dorinne K. Kondo]] *[[Conrad Kottak]] *[[Grover Krantz]] *[[Charles H. Kraft]] *[[Alfred L. Kroeber]] *[[Hilda Kuper]] ==L== *[[William Labov]] *[[George Lakoff]] *[[Bruno Latour]] *[[Edmund Leach]] *[[Louis Leakey]] *[[Mary Leakey]] *[[Richard Leakey]] *[[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] *[[Robert Lowie]] ==M== *[[Bronislaw Malinowski]] *[[Marcel Mauss]] *[[Grant McCracken]] *[[Margaret Mead]] *[[Mervyn Meggitt]] *[[Nikolay Miklukho-Maklay]] *[[Sidney Mintz]] *[[Ashley Montagu]] *[[James Mooney]] *[[John H. Moore]] *[[Lewis H. Morgan]] *[[George Murdock]] ==N== *[[Laura Nader]] *[[Raoul Naroll]] ==O== *[[Gananath Obeyesekere]] *[[Marvin Opler]] *[[Morris Opler]] ==P== *[[Glenn Petersen]] *[[Bronislav Pilsudski]] *[[Hortense Powdermaker]] ==Q== ==R== *[[Wilhelm Radloff]] *[[Hans Ras]] *[[Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown]] *[[Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff]] *[[W. H. R. Rivers]] *[[Eric Ross]] ==S== *[[Marshall Sahlins]] *[[Roger Sandall]] *[[Edward Sapir]] *[[Wilhelm Schmidt]] *[[Tobias Schneebaum]] *[[Afanasy Shchapov]] *[[Marilyn Strathern]] ==T== *[[Edward Burnett Tylor]] *[[Colin Turnbull]] *[[Victor Turner]] ==U== ==V== *[[Christine VanPool]] *[[Karl Verner]] ==W== *[[Camilla Wedgwood]] *[[Hank Wesselman]] *[[Leslie White]] *[[Ben White]] *[[Tim White]] *[[Benjamin Whorf]] *[[Clark Wissler]] *[[Eric Wolf]] *[[Sol Worth]] ==X== ==Y== ==Z== [[Category:Lists of people by occupation|Anthropologists]] [[Category:Anthropologists|*]] [[es:Lista de antropólogos]] [[pl:Znani antropolodzy]] [[pt:Lista_de_antropólogos]] [[simple:Anthropologist]] [[sl:seznam antropologov]] [[zh:人类学家列表]] 730 36862446 2006-01-26T23:25:49Z Bluemoose 178836 [[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up '''''Astronomy and Astrophysics''''' (abbreviated as ''A&A'' in the astronomical literature, or else ''Astron. Astrophys.'') is a European Journal, publishing papers on theoretical, observational and instrumental [[astronomy]] and [[astrophysics]]. It was published by [[Springer-Verlag]] from [[1969]]-[[2000]], while [[EDP Sciences]] published the companion ''A&A Supplement Series''. In 2000, the two journals merged, with the combined journal known simply as ''Astronomy and Astrophysics'', and published by EDP Sciences. ''A&A'' is one of the major journals of astronomy, alongside the ''[[Astrophysical Journal]]'', ''[[Astronomical Journal]]'' and the ''[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]''. While the first two are often the preferred journal of US-based researchers and the MNRAS is often the favoured journal for UK- and Commonwealth-based astronomers, A&A tends to be the preferred journal of astronomers based in [[Europe]] (excluding the UK), particularly since page charges are waived for astronomers working in member countries. ''A&A'' was created from the merger in 1969 of six major European astronomical journals * ''Annales d'Astrophysique'' (France), founded in 1938 * ''Arkiv for Astronomi'' (Sweden), founded in 1948 * ''Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Netherlands'', founded in 1921 * ''Bulletin Astronomique'' (France), founded in 1884 * ''Journal des Observateurs'' (France), founded in 1915 * ''Zeitschrift fur Astrophysik'' (Germany), founded in 1930 and extended in 1992 by the incorporation of: * ''Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of Czechoslovakia'', founded in 1947 ==External links== *[http://www.aanda.org/ A&A home page] *[http://www.edpsciences.org/journal/index.cfm?edpsname=aa A&A Publisher's home page] [[Category:Astronomy journals]] {{sci-journal-stub}} 731 15899252 2002-10-09T13:49:22Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[History of astronomy]] #REDIRECT [[History of astronomy]] 734 40010022 2006-02-17T13:44:26Z 209.158.165.30 /* Classification */ {{taxobox | color=pink | name=Ray-finned fish | image = Herring2.jpg | image_caption = [[Atlantic herring]] | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = '''Actinopterygii''' | classis_authority = Klein 1885 | subdivision_ranks = Subclasses | subdivision = [[Chondrostei]]<br/> [[Neopterygii]]<br/> See text for orders.}} The '''Actinopterygii''' are the '''ray-finned [[fish]]'''. They are the dominant group of [[vertebrate]]s, with over 27,000 species ubiquitous throughout [[fresh water]] and [[ocean|marine]] environments. ==Classification== Traditionally three grades of Actinopterygii have been recognized: the '''[[Chondrostei]]''', '''[[Holostei]]''', and '''[[Teleostei]]'''. The second is [[paraphyletic]] and tends to be abandoned, however, while the first is now restricted to those forms closer to extant [[Chondrostei]] than to the other groups. Nearly all fish alive today are teleosts. A listing of the different groups is given below, down to the level of orders, arranged in what is believed to represent the evolutionary sequence down to the level of superorder. * '''Subclass [[Chondrostei]]''' ** Order [[Polypteriformes]] (bichirs) ** Order [[Acipenseriformes]] (sturgeons, paddlefish) * '''Subclass [[Neopterygii]]''' ** Order [[Semionotiformes]] (gars) ** Order [[Amiiformes]] (bowfins) ** '''Infraclass [[Teleostei]]''' *** '''Superorder [[Osteoglossomorpha]]''' **** Order [[Osteoglossiformes]] (bony tongues, etc) **** Order [[Hiodontiformes]] (mooneye, etc) *** '''Superorder [[Elopomorpha]]''' **** Order [[Elopiformes]] (tarpons, etc) **** Order [[Albuliformes]] (bonefishes) **** Order [[Notacanthiformes]] (spiny eels) **** Order [[Anguilliformes]] (true eels, gulpers) **** Order [[Saccopharyngiformes]] *** '''Superorder [[Clupeomorpha]]''' **** Order [[Clupeiformes]] (herrings & allies) *** '''Superorder [[Ostariophysi]]''' **** Order [[Gonorynchiformes]] **** Order [[Cypriniform]]es (minnows & allies) **** Order [[Characiformes]] (characins & allies) **** Order [[Gymnotiformes]] (electric eels, knifefishes) **** Order [[Siluriformes]] (catfishes) *** '''Superorder [[Protacanthopterygii]]''' **** Order [[Salmoniformes]] (salmon & allies) **** Order [[Esociformes]] (pikes & allies) **** Order [[Osmeriformes]] (smelts & allies) *** '''Superorder [[Sternopterygii]]''' **** Order [[Ateleopodiformes]] (jellynose fishes) **** Order [[Stomiiformes]] (dragonfishes & allies) *** '''Superorder [[Cyclosquamata]]''' **** Order [[Aulopiformes]] (lizardfishes) *** '''Superorder [[Scopelomorpha]]''' **** Order [[Myctophiformes]] (lanternfishes) *** '''Superorder [[Lampridiomorpha]]''' **** Order [[Lampridiformes]] (opahs, etc) *** '''Superorder [[Polymyxiomorpha]]''' **** Order [[Polymixiiformes]] (beardfishes) *** '''Superorder [[Paracanthopterygii]]''' **** Order [[Percopsiformes]] (trout-perches & allies) **** Order [[Batrachoidiformes]] (toadfishes) **** Order [[Lophiiformes]] (goosefishes, etc) **** Order [[Gadiformes]] (cods & allies) **** Order [[Ophidiiformes]] (cusk eels, etc) *** '''Superorder [[Acanthopterygii]]''' **** Order [[Mugiliformes]] (mullets & allies) **** Order [[Atheriniformes]] (silversides & allies) **** Order [[Beloniformes]] (needlefishes, etc) **** Order [[Cetomimiformes]] (whalefishes) **** Order [[Cyprinodontiformes]] (killifishes, etc) **** Order [[Stephanoberyciformes]] (pricklefishes, whalefishes, etc) **** Order [[Beryciformes]] (alfonsinos, etc) **** Order [[Zeiformes]] (dories, etc) **** Order [[Gasterosteiformes]] (sticklebacks, pipefishes, seahorses, etc) **** Order [[Synbranchiformes]] (swamp-eels, etc) **** Order [[Tetraodontiformes]] (triggerfishes & allies) **** Order [[Pleuronectiformes]] (flatfishes & allies) **** Order [[Scorpaeniformes]] (scorpionfishes & allies) **** Order [[Perciformes]] (perches & many allies) Subphulum Vertebrata ==External links== * * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?name=actinopterygii NCBI Taxonomy entry] ==References== * {{ITIS|ID=161061|year=2004|date=8 December|taxon=Actinopterygii}} [[Category:Ray-finned fish| ]] [[Category:Bony fish]] [[bg:Лъчеперки]] [[cs:Paprskoploutví]] [[da:Strålefinnede fisk]] [[de:Strahlenflosser]] [[fa:شعاع‌باله]] [[fr:Actinopterygii]] [[ko:조기어류]] [[is:Geisluggar]] [[he:מקריני סנפיר]] [[la:Actinopterygii]] [[lt:Stipinpelekės žuvys]] [[nl:Straalvinnigen]] [[ja:条鰭亜綱]] [[no:Strålefinnede fisker]] [[pl:Promieniopłetwe]] [[pt:Actinopterygii]] [[fi:Viuhkaeväiset]] [[sv:Taggfeniga fiskar]] [[zh:輻鰭魚]] 735 15899255 2002-06-16T15:12:19Z Ortolan88 1325 *moved single para to main article, made this redirect #REDIRECT [[Al Gore]] 736 42155072 2006-03-04T04:33:46Z Licorne 921428 /* General relativity */ {{Redirect|Einstein}} [[Image:Einstein In Overcoat.jpg|thumb|right|222px|Albert Einstein photographed by Oren J. Turner in 1947.]] '''Albert Einstein''' ([[March 14]], [[1879]] – [[April 18]], [[1955]]) was a [[Germany|German]]-born [[theoretical physics|theoretical physicist]] widely regarded as the greatest [[science|scientist]] of the 20th century. He was the author of the [[general theory of relativity]] and made important contributions to the [[special theory of relativity]], [[quantum mechanics]], [[statistical mechanics]], and [[physical cosmology|cosmology]]. He was awarded the 1921 [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize for Physics]] for his explanation of the [[photoelectric effect]] in 1905 (his "[[Annus Mirabilis Papers|miracle year]]") and "for his services to Theoretical Physics." After British [[solar eclipse]] expeditions in 1919 confirmed that light rays from distant stars were deflected by the gravity of the sun in the exact amount he predicted in his [[general theory of relativity]], Einstein became world-famous, an unusual achievement for a scientist. In his later years, his fame exceeded that of any other scientist in [[history of science and technology|history]]. In [[popular culture]], his name has become synonymous with great [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] and [[genius]]. ==Biography== [[Image:Young Albert Einstein.jpg|thumb|left|222px|Young Einstein before the Einsteins moved from [[Germany]] to [[Italy]].]] ===Youth and college=== Einstein was born on [[March 14]], [[1879]] at [[Ulm]] in [[Baden-Württemberg]], [[German Empire]], about 100 km east of [[Stuttgart]]. His parents were Hermann Einstein, a featherbed salesman who later ran an [[electrochemistry|electrochemical]] works, and Pauline, whose maiden name was Koch. They were married in Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt. The family was [[Jew]]ish (non-observant); Albert attended a [[Catholic school|Catholic elementary school]] and, at the insistence of his mother, was given [[violin]] lessons. Though he initially disliked (and eventually discontinued) the lessons, he would later take great solace in [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s [[violin sonata]]s. When Albert was five, his [[father]] showed him a pocket [[compass]], and Einstein realized that something in "empty" space acted upon the [[needle]]; he would later describe the experience as one of the most revelatory of his life. Though he built [[model (physical)|model]]s and [[machine|mechanical device]]s for fun and showed great mathematical faculty early on, he was considered a slow learner, possibly due to [[dyslexia]], simple [[shyness]], or the significantly rare and unusual structure of [[Albert Einstein's brain|his brain]] (examined after his death).{{rf|1|brain}} He later credited his development of the theory of relativity to this slowness, saying that by pondering space and time later than most children, he was able to apply a more developed intellect. Some researchers have speculated that Einstein may have exhibited some traits of mild forms of [[autism]], although they concede that a reliable posthumous diagnosis is impossible.{{rf|2|autism}} In 1889, a student named Max Talmud introduced Einstein to key science and [[philosophy]] texts including [[Immanuel Kant|Kant's]] ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]''. Two of his uncles would further foster his intellectual interests during his late childhood and early adolescence by suggesting and providing books on science, mathematics and philosophy. Einstein attended the [[Luitpold Gymnasium]] where he received a relatively progressive education. He began to learn [[mathematics]] around age twelve: in 1891, he taught himself [[Euclidean geometry|Euclidean plane geometry]] from a school booklet and began to study [[calculus]]. There is a recurring [[rumor]] that he failed mathematics later in his education, but this is untrue; a change in the way grades were assigned caused confusion years later. While there, he clashed with authority and resented the school regimen, believing the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost in such an endeavor as strict memorization. In 1894, following the failure of Hermann's electrochemical business, the Einsteins moved from [[Munich]] to [[Pavia, Italy]] (near [[Milan]]). Einstein's first scientific work was written therein (called "''The Investigation of the State of [[Aether]] in [[Magnetic Field]]s''"). Albert remained behind in Munich lodgings to finish school, completing only one term before leaving the [[gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]] in spring 1895 to rejoin his family in Pavia. He quit without telling his parents and a year and a half prior to final examinations, Einstein convinced the school to let him go with a medical note from a friendly doctor, but this meant he had no secondary-school certificate.{{rf|3|Highfield1}} That year, at the age of 16, he performed the [[thought experiment]] known as Albert Einstein's mirror. After gazing into a mirror, he examined what would happen to his image if he were moving at the [[speed of light]]; his conclusion that the speed of light is independent of the observer would later become one of the two [[postulates of special relativity]]. Despite excelling in the mathematics and science portion, his failure of the liberal arts portion of the ''[[ETH Zurich|Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule]]'' (ETH, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, in [[Zurich]]) entrance exam the following year was a setback; his family sent him to [[Aarau]], [[Switzerland]], to finish secondary school, where he studied the seldom-taught [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell's]] [[classical electromagnetism|electromagnetic theory]] and received his diploma in September 1896. During this time he lodged with Professor Jost Winteler's family and became enamoured with Marie, their daughter, his first sweetheart. Albert's sister Maja was to later marry their son Paul, and his friend [[Michele Besso]] married their other daughter Anna.{{rf|4|Highfield2}} Einstein subsequently enrolled at the ''Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule'' in October and moved to Zurich, while Marie moved to [[Olsberg]] for a teaching post. The same year, he renounced his [[Württemberg]] citizenship and became [[stateless person|stateless]]. In the spring of 1896, the [[Serbia]]n [[Mileva Maric|Mileva Marić]] started initially as a medical student at the [[University of Zurich]], but after a term switched to the same section as Einstein as the only woman that year to study for the same diploma. Einstein's relationship with Mileva developed into romance over the next few years. In 1900, he was granted a teaching diploma by the ''Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule'' ([[ETH Zurich]]). Einstein then wrote his first published paper on the [[capillary action|capillary forces]] of a drinking straw, wherein he tried to unify the [[laws of physics]], an attempt he would continually make throughout his life. (It was titled "''Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen''," which translated is "''Consequences of the observations of capillarity phenomena''," found in "''Annalen der Physik''" volume 4, page 513.) Shortly following, Einstein was accepted as a Swiss citizen in 1901; he kept his Swiss passport for his whole life. Through his friend Michelle Besso, an [[engineer]], he was presented with the works of [[Ernst Mach]] and later would consider him "the best sounding board in Europe" for physical ideas. During this time Einstein discussed his scientific interests with a group of close friends, including Besso and Mileva. The men referred to themselves as the "Olympia Academy." He and Mileva had an illegitimate daughter [[Lieserl Einstein|Lieserl]], born in January 1902. ===Work and doctorate=== [[Image:Einstein patentoffice.jpg|frame|right||Einstein in 1905, when he wrote the "''[[Annus Mirabilis Papers]]''"]] Upon graduation, Einstein could not find a teaching post, mostly because his brashness as a young man had apparently irritated most of his professors. The father of a classmate helped him obtain employment as a technical assistant [[patent clerk|examiner]] at the Swiss Patent Office{{rf|5|www.ipi.ch.376}} in 1902. There, Einstein judged the worth of [[inventor]]s' [[patent]] applications for devices that required a knowledge of physics to understand — in particular he was chiefly charged to evaluate patents relating to electromagnetic devices.{{rf|6|Galison368}} He also learned how to discern the essence of applications despite sometimes poor descriptions, and was taught by the director how "to express [him]self correctly". He occasionally rectified their design errors while evaluating the practicality of their work. Einstein married [[Mileva Marić]] on [[January 6]], [[1903]]. Einstein's marriage to Marić, who was a mathematician, was both a personal and intellectual partnership: Einstein referred to Mileva as "a creature who is my equal and who is as strong and independent as I am". [[Ronald W. Clark]], a biographer of Einstein, claimed that Einstein depended on the distance that existed in his and Mileva's marriage in order to have the solitude necessary to accomplish his work; he required intellectual isolation. [[Abram Joffe]], a Soviet physicist who knew Einstein, in an obituary of Einstein, wrote, "The author of [the papers of 1905] was ... a bureaucrat at the Patent Office in Bern, Einstein-Marić" and this has recently been taken as evidence of a collaborative relationship. However, according to Alberto A. Martínez of the Center for Einstein Studies at Boston University, Joffe only ascribed authorship to Einstein, as he believed that it was a Swiss custom at the time to append the spouse's last name to the husband's name.{{rf|7|physicsweb.org.377}} Whatever the truth, the extent of her influence on Einstein's work is a highly controversial and debated question. On [[May 14]], [[1904]], the couple's first son, [[Hans Albert Einstein]], was born. In 1903, Einstein's position at the [[Swiss Patent Office]] had been made permanent, though he was passed over for promotion until he had "fully mastered machine technology".{{rf|8|Galison370}} He obtained his [[Doctor of Philosophy|doctorate]] after submitting his thesis "''A new determination of molecular dimensions''" ("''Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen''") in 1905. That same year, he wrote four articles that provided the foundation of modern physics, without much [[scientific literature]] to which he could refer or many scientific colleagues with whom he could discuss the theories. Most physicists agree that three of those papers (on [[Brownian motion]], the [[photoelectric effect]], and [[special relativity]]) deserved [[Nobel Prize]]s. Only the paper on the photoelectric effect would be mentioned by the Nobel committee in the award. This is ironic, not only because Einstein is far better-known for relativity, but also because the photoelectric effect is a quantum phenomenon, and Einstein became somewhat disenchanted with the path [[quantum mechanics|quantum theory]] would take. In each of these papers, Einstein boldly took an idea from theoretical physics to its logical consequences and managed to explain experimental results that had baffled scientists for decades. [[Image:Max-Planck-und-Albert-Einstein.jpg|thumb|left|222px|[[Max Planck]] and Einstein]] ====Annus Mirabilis Papers==== {{details|Annus Mirabilis Papers}} Einstein submitted the series of papers to the "''Annalen der Physik''". They are commonly referred to as the "''[[Annus Mirabilis Papers]]''" (from [[List of Latin phrases|''Annus mirabilis'']], [[Latin]] for 'year of wonders'). The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics ([[IUPAP]]) commemorated the 100th year of the publication of Einstein's extensive work in 1905 as the '[[World Year of Physics 2005]]'. The first paper, named "''On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light''", ("''Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt''") proposed that "energy quanta" (which are essentially what we now call [[photon]]s) were real, and showed how they could be used to explain such phenomena as the [[photoelectric effect]]. This paper was specifically cited for his Nobel Prize. [[Max Planck]] had made the formal assumption that energy was quantized in deriving his black-body radiation law, published in 1901, but had considered this to be no more than a mathematical trick. The photoelectric effect thus provided a simple confirmation of Max Planck's hypothesis of quanta. His second article in 1905, named "''On the Motion—Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat—of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid''", ("''[[Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen]]''") covered his study of [[Brownian motion]], and provided empirical evidence for the existence of atoms. Before this paper, [[atom]]s were recognized as a useful concept, but [[physicist]]s and [[chemist]]s hotly debated whether atoms were real entities. Einstein's statistical discussion of atomic behavior gave [[experimentalist]]s a way to count atoms by looking through an ordinary [[microscope]]. [[Wilhelm Ostwald]], one of the leaders of the anti-atom school, later told [[Arnold Sommerfeld]] that he had been converted to a belief in atoms by Einstein's complete explanation of Brownian motion. At the same time as Einstein, Brownian Motion was also described by [[Smoluchowski]]. Einstein's third paper that year, "''On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies''" ("''Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper''"), was published in September 1905. This paper introduced the [[special relativity|special theory of relativity]], a theory of time, distance, mass and energy which was consistent with [[electromagnetism]], but omitted the force of [[gravity]]. While developing this paper, Einstein wrote to Mileva about "our work on relative motion", and this has led some to ask whether Mileva played a part in its development. A few historians of science believe that Einstein and his wife were both aware that the famous Frenchman [[Henri Poincaré]] had already published the equations of Relativity, a few weeks before Einstein submitted his paper; most believe their work independent, especially given Einstein's isolation at this time. A fourth paper, "''Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?''", ("''Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?''") published late in 1905, showed one further deduction from relativity's [[axiom]]s, the famous equation that the [[energy]] of a body at rest (''E'') equals its mass (''m'') times the speed of light (''c'') squared: ''[[E=mc²|E&nbsp;=&nbsp;mc&sup2;]]''. <!-- whether this is correct or should be included seems dubious: , this equation having been first correctly published by [[Henri Poincaré]] (1900), for the case of mass equivalence of electromagnetic [[radiation]]. Max Planck(1907) questioned the reasoning in Einstein's derivation, and H.E.Ives(1953) called Einstein's derivation a tautology. --> ===Middle years=== [[Image:Einstein 1911 Solvay.jpg|frame|right|Einstein at the 1911 [[Solvay Conference]].]] In 1906, Einstein was promoted to technical examiner second class. In 1908, Einstein was licensed in [[Bern]], Switzerland, as a [[Privatdozent]] (unsalaried teacher at a university). Einstein's second son, [[Eduard Einstein|Eduard]], was born on [[July 28]], [[1910]]. At this time, he described why the sky is blue in his paper on the phenomenon of [[critical opalescence]], which shows the cumulative effect of [[scattering]] of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere.[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/genius/] In 1911, Einstein became first associate [[professor]] at the [[University of Zurich]], and shortly afterwards full professor at the (German) [[University of Prague]], only to return the following year to [[Zurich]] in order to become full professor at the [[ETH Zurich]]. At that time, he worked closely with the [[mathematician]] [[Marcel Grossmann]]. In 1912, Einstein started to refer to [[time]] as the [[fourth dimension]] (although [[H.G. Wells]] had done this earlier, in 1895 in ''[[The Time Machine]]''). In 1914, just before the start of [[World War I]], Einstein settled in [[Berlin]] as professor at the local [[University of Berlin|university]] and became a member of the [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]]. He took German citizenship. His [[pacifism]] and [[Jew]]ish origins irritated German nationalists. After he became world-famous, nationalistic hatred of him grew and for the first time he was the subject of an organized campaign to discredit his theories. From 1914 to 1933, he served as director of the [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute]] for Physics in Berlin, and it was during this time that he was awarded his [[Nobel Prize]] and made his most groundbreaking discoveries. He was also an extraordinary professor at the [[Leiden University]] from 1920 until officially 1946, where he regularly gave guest lectures. In 1917, Einstein published "''On the Quantum Mechanics of Radiation''" ("''Zur Quantenmechanik der Strahlung''", Physkalische Zeitschrift 18, 121-128). This article introduced the concept of [[stimulated emission]], the physical principle that allows light amplification in the [[laser]]. He also published a paper that year that used the general theory of relativity to model the behavior of the entire universe, setting the stage for modern [[physical cosmology|cosmology]]. In this work he created his self-described "worst blunder", the [[cosmological constant]]. Einstein divorced Mileva on [[February 14]], [[1919]], and married his cousin [[Elsa Löwenthal]] (born Einstein: Löwenthal was the surname of her first husband, Max) on [[June 2]], [[1919]]. Elsa was Albert's first cousin (maternally) and his second cousin (paternally). She was three years older than Albert, and had nursed him to health after he had suffered a partial nervous breakdown combined with a severe stomach ailment; there were no children from this marriage. The fate of Albert and Mileva's first child, Lieserl, is unknown. Some believe she died in infancy, while others believe she was given out for adoption. They later had two sons: Eduard and Hans Albert. Eduard intended to practice as a [[psychoanalyst|Freudian analyst]] but was institutionalized for [[schizophrenia]] and died in an asylum. [[Hans Albert Einstein|Hans Albert]], his older brother, became a professor of [[hydraulic engineering]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], having little interaction with his father. [[Image:Einstein theory triumphs.png|thumb|left|222px|"Einstein theory triumphs," declared the ''[[New York Times]]'' on [[November 10]] [[1919]].]] ====General relativity==== In November 1915, Einstein presented a series of lectures before the Prussian Academy of Sciences in which he described his theory of gravity, known as [[general relativity]]. The final lecture climaxed with his introduction of an equation that replaced Newton's law of gravity, the Field Equation, which was first derived from a variational principle by [[David Hilbert]]. This theory considered all observers to be equivalent, not only those moving at a uniform speed. In general relativity, gravity is no longer a force (as it is in Newton's law of gravity) but is a consequence of the curvature of [[space-time]]. The theory provided the foundation for the study of [[physical cosmology|cosmology]] and gave scientists the tools for understanding many features of the universe that were discovered well after Einstein's death. A truly revolutionary theory, general relativity has so far passed every test posed to it and has become a powerful tool used in the analysis of many subjects in physics. Initially, scientists were skeptical because the theory was derived by mathematical reasoning and rational analysis, not by experiment or observation. But in 1919, predictions made using the theory were confirmed by [[Arthur Stanley Eddington|Arthur Eddington]]'s measurements (during a [[solar eclipse]]), of how much the light emanating from a star was [[Gravitational lens|bent]] by the [[Sun]]'s gravity when it passed close to the Sun, an effect called gravitational lensing. The observations were carried out on [[May 29]], [[1919]], at two locations, one in [[Sobral, Ceará]], [[Brazil]], and another in the island of [[Principe]], in the west coast of [[Africa]]. On [[November 7]], ''[[The Times]]'' reported the confirmation, cementing Einstein's fame. Many scientists were still unconvinced for various reasons ranging from disagreement with Einstein's interpretation of the experiments, to not being able to tolerate the absence of an absolute frame of reference. In Einstein's view, many of them simply could not understand the mathematics involved. Einstein's public fame which followed the 1919 article created resentment among these scientists some of which lasted well into the 1930s. In the early 1920s Einstein was the lead figure in a famous weekly physics colloquium at the University of Berlin. On [[March 30]], [[1921]], Einstein went to [[New York City|New York]] to give a lecture on his new Theory of Relativity, the same year he was awarded the Nobel Prize. Though he is now most famous for his work on relativity, it was for his earlier work on the [[photoelectric effect]] that he was given the Prize, as his work on general relativity was still disputed. The Nobel committee decided that citing his less-contested theory in the Prize would gain more acceptance from the scientific community. Sir Edmund Whittaker(1953) stated that [[David Hilbert]] published the theory of general relativity ''nearly simultaneously'' with Einstein. ====The "Copenhagen" interpretation==== [[Image:Niels Bohr Albert Einstein by Ehrenfest.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Einstein and [[Niels Bohr]] sparred over [[quantum theory]] during the 1920s.]] Einstein's postulation that light can be described not only as a wave with no kinetic energy, but also as massless discrete packets of energy called quanta with measurable kinetic energy (now known as photons) was a landmark break with the classical physics. In 1909 Einstein presented his first paper on the quantification of light to a gathering of physicists and told them that they must find some way to understand waves and particles together. In the mid-1920s, as the original quantum theory was replaced with a new theory of [[quantum mechanics]], Einstein balked at the [[Copenhagen interpretation]] of the new equations because it settled for a probabilistic, non-visualizable account of physical behaviour. Einstein agreed that the theory was the best available, but he looked for a more "complete" explanation, i.e., more [[scientific determinism|deterministic]]. He could not abandon the belief that physics described the laws that govern "real things", the belief which had led to his successes with atoms, photons, and gravity. In a 1926 letter to [[Max Born]], Einstein made a remark that is now famous: : ''Quantum mechanics is certainly imposing. But an inner voice tells me it is not yet the real thing. The theory says a lot, but does not really bring us any closer to the secret of the Old One. I, at any rate, am convinced that He does not throw dice.'' To this, [[Niels Bohr|Bohr]], who sparred with Einstein on quantum theory, retorted, "Stop telling God what He must do!" The [[Bohr-Einstein debates]] on foundational aspects of quantum mechanics happened during the [[Solvay Conference|Solvay conferences]]. Einstein was not rejecting probabilistic theories ''per se''. Einstein himself was a great statistician, using statistical analysis in his works on Brownian motion and photoelectricity and in papers published before the miraculous year 1905; Einstein had even discovered [[Gibbs ensemble]]s. He believed, however, that at the core reality behaved [[scientific determinism|deterministically]]. Many physicists argue that experimental evidence contradicting this belief was found much later with the discovery of [[Bell's Theorem]] and [[Bell's inequality]]. Nonetheless, there is still space for lively discussions about the [[interpretation of quantum mechanics]]. ====Bose-Einstein statistics==== In 1924, Einstein received a short paper from a young [[India]]n physicist named [[Satyendra Nath Bose]] describing light as a gas of photons and asking for Einstein's assistance in publication. Einstein realized that the same statistics could be applied to atoms, and published an article in [[German language|German]] (then the [[lingua franca]] of physics) which described Bose's model and explained its implications. [[Bose-Einstein statistics]] now describe any assembly of these [[identical particles|indistinguishable particles]] known as [[boson]]s. The [[Bose-Einstein condensate]] phenomenon was predicted in the 1920s by Bose and Einstein, based on Bose's work on the statistical mechanics of photons, which was then formalized and generalized by Einstein. The first such condensate was produced by [[Eric Cornell]] and [[Carl Wieman]] in 1995 at the [[University of Colorado at Boulder]]. Einstein's original sketches on this theory were recovered in August 2005 in the library of [[Leiden University]].{{rf|10|www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl.378}} Einstein also assisted [[Erwin Schrödinger]] in the development of the [[quantum Boltzmann distribution]], a mixed classical and quantum mechanical gas model although he realized that this was less significant than the Bose-Einstein model and declined to have his name included on the paper. ====The Einstein refrigerator==== [[Image:Einstein Refrigerator.png|thumb|right|222px|Einstein and [[Leó Szilárd|Szilárd]]'s refrigerator patent diagram.]] Einstein and former student [[Leó Szilárd]] co-invented a unique type of [[refrigeration|refrigerator]] (usually called the [[Einstein refrigerator]]) in 1926.{{rf|11|gtalumni.org.379}} On [[November 11]], [[1930]], {{US patent|1,781,541}} was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd. The patent covered a thermodynamic refrigeration cycle providing cooling with no moving parts, at a constant [[pressure]], with only [[heat]] as an input. The refrigeration cycle used [[ammonia]], [[butane]], and [[water (molecule)|water]]. ====World War II==== When [[Adolf Hitler]] came to power in January 1933, Einstein was a guest professor at [[Princeton University]], a position which he took in December 1932, after a invitation from the American educator, [[Abraham Flexner]]. In 1933, the [[Nazi]]s passed "The Law of the Restoration of the Civil Service" which forced all Jewish university professors out of their jobs, and throughout the 1930s a campaign to label Einstein's work as "Jewish physics"&mdash;in contrast with "German" or "Aryan physics"&mdash;was led by Nobel laureates [[Philipp Lenard]] and [[Johannes Stark]]. With the assistance of the [[SS]], the ''[[Deutsche Physik]]'' supporters worked to publish pamplets and textbooks denigrating Einstein's theories and attempted to politically [[blacklist]] German physicists who taught them, notably [[Werner Heisenberg]]. Einstein renounced his German citizenship and stayed in the [[United States]], where he was given permanent residency. He accepted a position at the newly founded [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in [[Princeton Township, New Jersey|Princeton Township]], [[New Jersey]]. He became an American citizen in 1940, though he still retained Swiss citizenship. In 1939, under the encouragement of Szilárd, Einstein [[Einstein-Szilárd letter|sent a letter]] to President [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] urging the study of [[nuclear fission]] for military purposes, under fears that the Nazi government would be first to develop [[atomic weapon]]s. Roosevelt started a small investigation into the matter which eventually became the massive [[Manhattan Project]]. Einstein himself did not work on the bomb project, however. The [[International Rescue Committee]] was founded 1933 at the request of Albert Einstein to assist opponents of Adolf Hitler. For more information, see the section below on Einstein's [[#Political views|political views]]. ====Institute for Advanced Study==== His work at the Institute for Advanced Study focused on the unification of the [[physical law|laws of physics]], which he referred to as the ''Unified Field Theory''. He attempted to construct a model which would describe all of the [[fundamental forces]] as different manifestations of a single force. This took the form of an attempt to unify the gravitational and electrodynamic forces. His attempt was hindered because the [[strong interaction|strong]] and [[weak nuclear force]]s were not understood independently until around 1970, fifteen years after Einstein's death. Einstein's goal of unifying the laws of physics under a single model survives in the current drive for [[Grand unification theory|unification of the forces]], embodied most notably by [[string theory]]. ====Generalized theory==== Einstein began to form a [[generalized theory of gravitation]] with the Universal Law of Gravitation and the electromagnetic force in his first attempt to demonstrate the unification and simplification of the fundamental forces. In 1950 he described his work in a ''[[Scientific American]]'' article. Einstein was guided by a belief in a single statistical measure of variance for the entire set of physical laws. Einstein's Generalized Theory of Gravitation is a universal mathematical approach to field theory. He investigated reducing the different phenomena by the process of logic to something already known or evident. Einstein tried to unify gravity and electromagnetism in a way that also led to a new subtle understanding of quantum mechanics. Einstein postulated a four-dimensional space-time continuum expressed in axioms represented by five component vectors. Particles appear in his research as a limited region in space in which the field strength or the energy density are particularly high. Einstein treated subatomic particles as objects embedded in the unified field, influencing it and existing as an essential constituent of the unified field but not of it. Einstein also investigated a natural generalization of symmetrical tensor fields, treating the combination of two parts of the field as being a natural procedure of the total field and not the symmetrical and antisymmetrical parts separately. He researched a way to delineate the equations and systems to be derived from a [[variational principle]]. Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research on a generalised theory of gravitation and was ultimately unsuccessful in his attempts. In particular, his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces ignored work in the physics community at large, most notably the discovery of the [[strong nuclear force]] and [[weak nuclear force]]. [[Image:Einstein house in Princeton.jpg|thumb|left|222px|Einstein's two-story house, white frame with front porch in [[Greek revival]] style, in [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]] (112 Mercer Street).]] ===Final years=== In 1948, Einstein served on the original committee which resulted in the founding of [[Brandeis University]]. A portrait of Einstein was taken by [[Yousuf Karsh]] on [[February 11]] of that same year. In 1952, the [[Israel]]i government proposed to Einstein that he take the post of second president. He declined the offer, and remains the only United States citizen ever to be offered a position as a foreign head of state. On [[March 30]], [[1953]], Einstein released a revised unified [[Field (physics)|field theory]]. He died at 1:15 AM[http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/ein.html] in Princeton hospital[http://www.princetonhistory.org/museum_alberteinstein.cfm] in [[Princeton, New Jersey]], on [[April 18]], [[1955]] at the age of 76 from internal bleeding, which was caused by the rupture of an [[aortic aneurism]], leaving the Generalized Theory of Gravitation unsolved. The only person present at his deathbed, a hospital nurse, said that just before his death he mumbled several words in [[German language|German]] that she did not understand. He was [[cremation|cremated]] without ceremony on the same day he died at [[Trenton, New Jersey]], in accordance with his wishes. His ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location. An autopsy was performed on Einstein by Dr. [[Thomas Stoltz Harvey]], who removed and preserved [[Albert Einstein's brain|his brain]]. Harvey found nothing unusual with his brain, but in 1999 further analysis by a team at [[McMaster University]] revealed that his parietal [[Operculum (brain)|operculum]] region was missing and, to compensate, his inferior [[parietal lobe]] was 15% wider than normal.{{rf|12|news.bbc.co.uk.381}} The inferior parietal region is responsible for mathematical thought, visuospatial cognition, and imagery of movement. Einstein's brain also contained 73% more [[glial cells]] than the average brain. ==Personality== Albert Einstein was much respected for his kind and friendly demeanor rooted in his [[pacifism]]. He was modest about his abilities, and had distinctive attitudes and fashions—for example, he minimized his wardrobe so that he would not need to waste time in deciding on what to wear. He was captivatingly simple, wearing mothy sweaters and sweatshirts and sans socks in his old age. He occasionally had a playful sense of humor, and enjoyed [[sailing]] and playing the [[violin]]. He was also the stereotypical bumbling "[[absent-minded professor]]"; he was often forgetful of everyday items, such as keys, and would focus so intently on solving physics problems that he would often become oblivious to his surroundings. In his later years, his appearance inadvertently created (or reflected) another stereotype of scientist in the process: the researcher with unruly white hair. ===Religious views=== Although he was raised [[Jewish]], he was not a believer in the religious aspect of [[Judaism]], though he still considered himself a Jew. He simply admired the beauty of nature and the universe. From a letter written in [[English language|English]], dated [[March 24]], [[1954]], Einstein wrote, ''"It was, of course, a lie what you read about my religious convictions, a lie which is being systematically repeated. I do not believe in a personal God and I have never denied this but have expressed it clearly. If something is in me which can be called religious then it is the unbounded admiration for the structure of the world so far as our science can reveal it."'' He also said (in an essay reprinted in ''Living Philosophies'', vol. 13, 1931): ''"A knowledge of the existence of something we cannot penetrate, our perceptions of the profoundest reason and the most radiant beauty, which only in their most primitive forms are accessible to our minds—it is this knowledge and this emotion that constitute true religiosity; in this sense, and this [sense] alone, I am a deeply religious man."'' The following is a response made to [[Rabbi Herbert Goldstein]] of the [[International Synagogue]] in [[New York City|New York]] which read, ''"I believe in [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza's God]] who reveals himself in the orderly harmony of what exists, not in a God who concerns himself with the fates and actions of human beings."'' After being pressed on his religious views by [[Martin Buber]], Einstein exclaimed, ''"What we [physicists] strive for is just to draw His lines after Him."'' He also quoted once ''"When I read the [[Bhagavad Gita]], I ask myself how God created the universe. Everything else seems superfluous."'' Summarizing his religious beliefs, he once said: ''"My [[religion]] consists of a humble admiration of the illimitable superior spirit who reveals himself in the slight details we are able to perceive with our frail and feeble mind."'' Einstein was an Honorary Associate of the [[Rationalist Press Association]] beginning in 1934, and was an admirer of [[Ethical Culture]].{{rf|13|ethicalculture.1}} ===Political views=== [[Image:Mikhoels and Einstein 1943.jpg|thumb|right|222px|Einstein and [[Solomon Mikhoels]], the chairman of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee]], in 1943.]] Einstein considered himself a [[pacifism|pacifist]]{{rf|14|www.amnh.org.382}} and [[Humanitarianism|humanitarian]],{{rf|15|www.amnh.org.383}} and in later years, a committed democratic [[socialism|socialist]]. He once said, ''"I believe [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi's]] views were the most enlightened of all the political men of our time. We should strive to do things in his spirit: not to use violence for fighting for our cause, but by non-participation of anything you believe is evil."'' Einstein's views on other issues, including socialism, [[McCarthyism]] and [[racism]], were controversial. In a 1949 article entitled "Why Socialism?",{{rf|16|socialism}} Albert Einstein described the "predatory phase of human development", exemplified by a chaotic [[capitalism|capitalist]] society, as a source of evil to be overcome. He disapproved of the [[totalitarian]] regimes in the [[Soviet Union]] and elsewhere, and argued in favor of a [[democratic socialism|democratic socialist]] system which would combine a [[planned economy]] with a deep respect for [[human rights]]. Einstein was a co-founder of the liberal [[German Democratic Party]] and a member of the [[AFL-CIO]]-affiliated union the [[American Federation of Teachers]]. Einstein was very much involved in the [[American Civil Rights Movement|Civil Rights movement]]. He was a close friend of [[Paul Robeson]] for over 20 years. Einstein was a member of several civil rights groups (including the Princeton chapter of the [[NAACP]]) many of which were headed by Paul Robeson. He served as co-chair with [[Paul Robeson]] of the ''American Crusade to End Lynching''. When [[W.E.B. DuBois]] was frivolously charged with being a communist spy during the McCarthy era while he was in his 80s, Einstein volunteered as a character witness in the case. The case was dismissed shortly after it was announced that he was to appear in that capacity. Einstein was quoted as saying that "racism is America's greatest disease". The U.S. [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] kept a 1,427 page file on his activities and recommended that he be barred from immigrating to the United States under the [[Alien Exclusion Act]], alleging that Einstein ''"believes in, advises, advocates, or teaches a doctrine which, in a legal sense, as held by the courts in other cases, 'would allow [[anarchy (word)|anarchy]] to stalk in unmolested' and result in 'government in name only'"'', among other charges. They also alleged that Einstein ''"was a member, sponsor, or affiliated with thirty-four [[communism|communist]] fronts between 1937-1954"'' and ''"also served as honorary chairman for three communist organizations"''.{{rf|17|foia.fbi.gov.384}} It should be noted that many of the documents in the file were submitted to the FBI, mainly by civilian political groups, and not actually written by FBI officials. [[Image:EinsteinSzilard.jpg|thumb|left|222px|In 1939, Einstein signed a letter, written by [[Leó Szilárd]], to [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|President Roosevelt]] arguing that the United States should start funding research into the development of [[nuclear weapon]]s.]] Einstein opposed tyrannical forms of government, and for this reason (and his Jewish background), opposed the Nazi regime and fled Germany shortly after it came to power. At the same time, Einstein's [[libertarian socialism|anarchist]] nephew [[Carl Einstein]], who shared many of his views, was fighting the fascists in the [[Spanish Civil War]]. Einstein initially favored construction of the [[atomic bomb]], in order to ensure that [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] did not do so first, and even sent a letter{{rf|18|hypertextbook.com.385}} to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] (dated [[August 2]], [[1939]], before [[World War II]] broke out, and probably written by [[Leó Szilárd]]) encouraging him to initiate a program to create a nuclear weapon. Roosevelt responded to this by setting up a committee for the investigation of using [[uranium]] as a weapon, which in a few years was superseded by the [[Manhattan Project]]. After the war, though, Einstein lobbied for [[nuclear disarmament]] and a [[world government]]: "I do not know how the Third World War will be fought, but I can tell you what they will use in the Fourth—rocks!"{{rf|19|calaprice173}} Einstein was a supporter of [[Zionism]]. He supported Jewish settlement of the ancient seat of Judaism and was active in the establishment of the [[Hebrew University]] in [[Jerusalem]], which published (1930) a volume titled ''About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein'', and to which Einstein bequeathed his papers. However, he opposed nationalism and expressed skepticism about whether a Jewish nation-state was the best solution. He may have imagined Jews and Arabs living peacefully in the same land. In later life, in 1952, he was offered the post of second president of the newly created state of [[Israel]], but declined the offer, claiming that he lacked the necessary people skills. Einstein was disturbed by the violence taking place in the Palestine after the Second World War and expressed that he was disappointed with the Jewish Ultra-Nationalist Organization ([[Irgun]] and Stern Gang). Nonetheless, Einstein remained deeply committed to the welfare of Israel and the Jewish people for the rest of his life. Einstein, along with [[Albert Schweitzer]] and [[Bertrand Russell]], fought against nuclear tests and bombs. As his last public act, and just days before his death, he signed the [[Russell-Einstein Manifesto]], which led to the [[Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs]]. His letter to Russell read: :Dear Bertrand Russell, ::Thank you for your letter of April&nbsp;5. I am gladly willing to sign your excellent statement. I also agree with your choice of the prospective signers. :With kind regards, A. Einstein ==Nationality: German, Swiss or American?== Einstein was born a [[Germany|German]] citizen. At the age of seventeen, on [[January 28]], [[1896]], he was released from the German citizenship by his own request and with the approval of his father. He remained [[stateless person|stateless]] for five years. On [[February 21]], [[1901]] he gained [[Switzerland|Swiss]] citizenship, which he never revoked. Einstein regained German citizenship in [[1914#January-April|April 1914]] when he entered German civil service, but due to the political situation and the persecution of Jewish people in [[Nazi Germany]], he left civil service in [[1933#March|March 1933]] and thus also lost the German citizenship. On [[1940#September-October|October 1, 1940]], Einstein became an [[United States citizen|American citizen]]. He remained both an American and a Swiss citizen until his death on [[1955#April|April 18, 1955]]. ==Popularity and cultural impact== Einstein's popularity has led to widespread use of Einstein in [[advertising]] and [[merchandising]], including the registration of "Albert Einstein" as a [[trademark]]. [[Image:Einstongue.jpg|thumb|right|222px|The photo (detail from the original) of this humorous expression was taken during Einstein's [[birthday]] on [[March 14]], [[1951]], [[United Press International|UPI]].]] ===Entertainment=== Albert Einstein has become the subject of a number of novels, [[film]]s and plays, including [[Jean-Claude Carrier]]'s 2005 French novel, Einstein S'il Vous Plait (Please Mr Einstein), [[Nicolas Roeg]]'s film ''[[Insignificance (film)|Insignificance]]'', [[Fred Schepisi]]'s film ''[[I.Q. (film)|I.Q.]]'', [[Alan Lightman]]'s novel ''Einstein's Dreams'', and [[Steve Martin]]'s comedic play "[[Picasso at the Lapin Agile]]". He was the subject of [[Philip Glass]]'s groundbreaking 1976 [[opera]] ''[[Einstein on the Beach]]''. His humorous side is also the subject of [[Ed Metzger]]'s one-man play ''[[Albert Einstein: The Practical Bohemian]]''. He is often used as a model for depictions of [[mad scientists|eccentric scientist]]s in works of fiction; his own character and distinctive hairstyle suggest eccentricity, or even lunacy and are widely copied or exaggerated. [[Time (magazine)|TIME]] magazine writer Frederic Golden referred to Einstein as "a cartoonist's dream come true." On Einstein's 72nd birthday in 1951, the [[UPI]] photographer Arthur Sasse was trying to coax him into smiling for the camera. Having done this for the photographer many times that day, Einstein stuck out his tongue instead.{{rf|20|www.mentalfloss.com.386}} The image has become an icon in pop culture for its contrast of the genius scientist displaying a moment of levity. [[Yahoo Serious]], an Australian film maker, used the photo as an inspiration for the intentionally anachronistic movie ''[[Young Einstein]]''. ===Licensing=== Einstein bequeathed his estate, as well as the use of his image (see [[personality rights]]), to the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]].{{rf|21|aip.org.387}} Einstein actively supported the university during his life and this support continues with the [[royalties]] received from licensing activities. [[The Roger Richman Agency]] [[licence|licences]] the commercial use of the name "Albert Einstein" and associated imagery and likenesses of Einstein, as [[agent (law)|agent]] for the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]]. As head licensee the agency can control commercial usage of Einstein's name which does not comply with certain standards (e.g., when Einstein's name is used as a [[trademark]], the ™ symbol must be used){{rf|22|refbot.388}}. As of May, 2005, the Roger Richman Agency was acquired by [[Corbis]]. ===Honors=== [[Image:Einstein TIME Person of the Century.jpg|thumb|right|159px|Einstein on the cover of ''TIME'' as Person of the Century.]] Einstein has received a number of posthumous honors. For example: *In 1992, he was ranked #10 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]]. *In 1999, he was named ''Person of the Century'' by [[Time (magazine)|TIME]] magazine. *Also in 1999, [[Gallup]] recorded him as the fourth most [[Gallup's List of Widely Admired People|admired]] person of the 20th century. *The year 2005 was designated as the "[[World Year of Physics]]" by [[UNESCO]] for its coinciding with the centennial of the "[[Annus Mirabilis Papers|Annus Mirabilis]]" papers, celebrated at the [[Einstein Symposium]]. Among Einstein's many namesakes are: *a unit used in [[photochemistry]], the ''[[einstein (unit)|einstein]]''. *the [[chemical element]] 99, [[einsteinium]]. *the [[asteroid]] [[2001 Einstein]]. *the [[Albert Einstein Peace Prize]]. *the Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University{{rf|23|refbot.389}} was named after Einstein upon his death in 1955. *the Albert Einstein Medical Center{{rf|24|www.einstein.edu.390}} in [[Philadelphia]], PA. ==See also== * [[Special relativity]] * [[General relativity]] * [[History of special relativity]] * [[History of general relativity]] * [[Henri Poincaré]] * [[David Hilbert]] * [[Priority disputes about Einstein and the relativity theories]] ==Works by Albert Einstein== [[Image:A clay portrait of Einstein by the sculptor Moshe Ziffer.jpg|thumb|right|155px|Clay portrait of Einstein by the sculptor [[Moshe Ziffer]].]] *''[http://www.worldscibooks.com/phy_etextbook/4454/4454_chap1.pdf The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields]''. (PDF) *''Ideas & Opinions'' ISBN 0517003937 *''The World As I See It'' ISBN 080650711X (translation of "Mein Weltbild") *''[[wikisource:Relativity: The Special and General Theory|Relativity: The Special and General Theory]].'' ISBN 0517884410 ([http://www.gutenberg.net/browse/BIBREC/BR5001.HTM Project Gutenberg E-text]) * "[http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/specrel/www/ On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies]" ''[[Annalen der Physik]].'' [[June 30]], [[1905]] * "[http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/E_mc2/www/ Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?]" ''[[Annalen der Physik]].'' [[September 27]], 1905. * "[http://alberteinstein.info/gallery/pdf/CP6Doc3_English_pp16-18.pdf Inaugural Lecture to the Prussian Academy of Sciences]." 1914. [PDF] * "[http://hem.bredband.net/b153434/Works/Einstein.htm The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity ]." ''[[Annalen der Physik]],'' 49. 1916. * "[[wikisource:Nobel_Lecture_Physics_1921|Fundamental ideas and problems of the theory of relativity]]." ''1921 Nobel Lecture in Physics.'' Nordic Assembly of Naturalists at Gothenburg, [[11 July]] [[1923]]. * Einstein A., Lorenz H. A., Weyl H. and Minkowski H. ''The Principle of Relativity.'' Trans. W. Perrett and [[George Barker Jeffery|G. B. Jeffery]]. New York: Dover Publications, 1923. * "[http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm Why Socialism?]" ''[[Monthly Review]].'' May 1949 ([http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/einstein/global/popups/socialism.php original manuscript]). * ''[http://www.alberteinstein.info/db/ViewImage.do?DocumentID=34170&Page=1 On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation]''. April, 1950. ==References== * {{cite book | author = [[Edmund Blair Bolles | Bolles, Edmund Blair]] | year = 2004 | month = April | title = Einstein Defiant: Genius versus Genius in the Quantum Revolution | publisher = National Academy Press | id = ISBN 0309089980 }} * {{cite web | author = Butcher, Sandra Ionno | date = March 2005 | url = http://www.pugwash.org/publication/phs/phslist.htm | title = The Origins of the Russell-Einstein Manifesto }} * {{cite book | first = Alice | last = Calaprice | title = The new quotable Einstein | pages = p. 173 | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0-691-12075-7 }} * {{cite book | author = [[Ronald W. Clark | Clark, Ronald W.]] | year = 1971 | title = Einstein: The Life and Times | publisher = Avon | id = ISBN 0-380-44123-3 }} * {{cite journal | author = Galison, Peter | authorlink = Peter Galison | title = Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time | journal = Critical Inquiry | year = Winter 2000 | volume = 26 | issue = 2 | pages = 355&ndash;389 }} [[IMAGE:Einstein Memorial.jpg | thumb | right | 215px | The [[Albert Einstein Memorial, Washington DC]] at the [[National Academy of Sciences]] in [[Washington, DC]].]] * {{cite book | author = Highfield, Roger; Carter, Paul | title = The Private Lives of Albert Einstein | publisher = Faber and Faber, London, Boston | year = 1993 | id = ISBN 0-571-17170-2 (US ed. ISBN 0312110472) }} * {{cite journal | author = Macrossan, Michael | title = A note on relativity before Einstein | journal = British Journal for the Philosophy of Science | year = 1986 | volume = 37 | pages = 232-234 }} [http://eprint.uq.edu.au/archive/00002307 Abstract and link to full text]. * {{cite web | author = Martínez, Alberto A. | year = April 2004 | url = http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/17/4/2 | title = Arguing about Einstein's wife | publisher = Physics World | accessdate = 2005-11-23 }} * {{cite book | author = [[Abraham Pais | Pais, Abraham]] | year = 1982 | title = Subtle is the Lord. The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | id = ISBN 0-19-520438-7 }} This is the definitive scientific biography. * {{cite book | author = [[Abraham Pais | Pais, Abraham]] | year = 1994 | title = Einstein Lived Here | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | id = ISBN 0198539940 }} This book discusses non-science aspects of Einstein; marriages, affairs, illegitimate daughter, public image. * {{cite book | author = [[Clifford A. Pickover | Pickover, Clifford A.]] | date = [[2005-09-09]] | title = Sex, Drugs, Einstein, and Elves: Sushi, Psychedelics, Parallel Universes, and the Quest for Transcendence | publisher = Smart Publications | id = ISBN 1890572179 }} Discusses the final disposition of Einstein's brain, hair, and eyes as well as the importance of Einstein and his work in the shaping of science and culture. * {{cite book | author = [[John Stachel | Stachel, John]] | date = 1998-03-30 | title = Einstein's Miraculous Year: Five Papers That Changed the Face of Physics | publisher = Princeton University Press | id = ISBN 0691059381 }} * {{cite book | author = [[Peter D. Smith | Smith, Peter D.]] | year = 2000 | title = Einstein (Life & Times Series) | publisher = Haus Publishing | id = ISBN 1904341152 }} * {{cite book | authorlink = Kip Thorne | last = Thorne | first = Kip | year = 1995 | title = [[Black Holes and Time Warps | Black Holes and Time Warps: Einstein's Outrageous Legacy]] | publisher = W. W. Norton & Company | edition = Reprint edition | date = [[January 1]] [[1995]] | id = ISBN 0393312763 }} * {{cite web | author = Levenson, Thomas | year = June 2005 | url = http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/genius/ | title = Genius Among Geniuses | accessdate = 2006-02-25 }} * {{cite web | author = Golden, Frederic | year = 2000-01-03 | url = http://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/magazine/albert_einstein5a.html | title = Person of the Century: Albert Einstein | accessdate = 2006-02-25 }} * {{cite web | author = American Institute of Physics | year = 1996 | url = http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/index.html | title = Einstein-Image and Impact | accessdate = 2006-02-25 }} * {{cite web | author = Bodanis, David | year = June 2005 | url = http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/bodanis.html | title = Einstein the Nobody | accessdate = 2006-02-25 }} ==Notes== {{ent|1|brain}} [http://www.bioquant.com/gallery/einstein.html The Exceptional Brain of Albert Einstein]. {{ent|2|autism}} {{news reference|author=Muir, Hazel|title=Einstein and Newton showed signs of autism|org=New Scientist|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn3676|date=2003-04-30|urldate=2006-01-04}} See also [[People speculated to have been autistic]]. {{ent|3|Highfield1}} Highfield. {{ent|4|Highfield2}} Ibid. {{ent|5|www.ipi.ch.376}} {{cite web | title=The institute / IPI / Federal Institute of Intellectual Property | url=http://www.ipi.ch/E/institut/i1.shtm | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|6|Galison368}} Galison p. 368. {{ent|7|physicsweb.org.377}} {{cite web | title=Arguing about Einstein's wife (April 2004) - Physics World - PhysicsWeb (See above) | url=http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/17/4/2 | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|8|Galison370}} Galison p. 370. {{ent|9|Thorne}} [[David Hilbert]] actually published the field equation in an article dated five days before Einstein's lecture. But according to Thorne (pp. 117&ndash;118), Hilbert had discovered the correct derivation after "mulling over things he had learned" on a recent visit by Einstein to Gottingen. However Thorne goes on to say "Quite naturally, and in accord with Hilbert's view of things, the resulting law of warpage was quickly given the name the ''Einstein field equation'' rather than being named after Hilbert. Hilbert had carried out the last few mathematical steps to its discovery independently and almost simultaneously with Einstein, but Einstein was responsible for essentially everything that preceded those steps: the recognition that tidal gravity must be the same thing as a warpage of spacetime, the vision that the law of warpage must obey the reativity principle, and the first 90 percent of that law, the Einstein field equation. In fact without Einstein the general relativistic laws of gravity might not have been discovered until several decades later." See [[Priority disputes about Einstein and the relativity theories]] for more details. {{ent|9|www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl.378}} {{cite web | title=Einstein archive at the Instituut-Lorentz | url=http://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/Einstein_archive/ | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|11|gtalumni.org.379}} {{cite web | title=Einstein's Refrigerator | url=http://gtalumni.org/StayInformed/magazine/sum98/einsrefr.html | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|12|news.bbc.co.uk.381}} {{cite web | title=BBC News : Sci/Tech : Why size mattered for Einstein | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/371698.stm | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|13|ethicalculture.1}} {{cite web | title=The Humanist Way: An Introduction to Ethical Humanist Religion | url=http://www.aeu.org/ericson2.html | accessdate=February 25 | accessyear=2006 }} {{ent|14|www.amnh.org.382}} {{cite web | title=Einstein : American Museum of Natural History | url=http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/einstein/peace/index.php | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|15|www.amnh.org.383}} Ibid. {{ent|16|socialism}} {{news reference|title=Why Socialism?|firstname=Albert|lastname=Einstein|org=Monthly Review|date=May 1949|url=http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm|urldate=2006-01-16}} {{ent|17|foia.fbi.gov.384}} {{cite web | title=Federal Bureau of Investigation - Freedom of Information Privacy Act | url=http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/einstein.htm | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|18|hypertextbook.com.385}} {{cite web | title=Einstein's Letters to Roosevelt | url=http://hypertextbook.com/eworld/einstein.shtml | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|19|calaprice173}} Calaprice p. 173. {{ent|20|www.mentalfloss.com.386}} {{cite web | title=mental_floss library | url=http://www.mentalfloss.com/archives/archive2003-03-14.htm | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|21|aip.org.387}} {{cite web | title=http://aip.org/history/esva/einuse.htm | url=http://aip.org/history/esva/einuse.htm | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|22|refbot.388}} {{cite web | title=ALBRT EINSTEIN BRAND LOGO | url=http://www.albert-einstein.net/styleguide-readonly/brand.html | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|23|refbot.389}} {{cite web | title= Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University | url=http://www.aecom.yu.edu | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} {{ent|24|www.einstein.edu.390}} {{cite web | title= Albert Einstein Medical Center | url=http://www.einstein.edu/facilities/aemc/ | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }} ==External links== {{wikiquote|Albert Einstein}} {{commons|Albert_Einstein}} {{sisterlinks|Albert Einstein}} * {{gutenberg author| id=Albert+Einstein | name=Albert Einstein}} * [[Nobel Prize in Physics]]: [http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1921/press.html The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921]—[http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1921/index.html Albert Einstein] * [[Annalen der Physik]]: [http://gallica.bnf.fr/Catalogue/noticesInd/FRBNF34462944.htm#listeUC Works by Einstein] digitalized at The University of Applied Sciences in Jena (Fachhochschule [[Jena]]) * S. Morgan Friedman, "[http://www.westegg.com/einstein/ Albert Einstein Online]"—Comprehensive listing of online resources about Einstein. *[[TIME magazine]] 100: [http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/einstein.html Albert Einstein] *[http://www.timelessquotes.com/author/Albert_Einstein.html Albert Einstein Quotes] - Hundreds of famous Albert Einstein quotes * ''Audio excerpts of famous speeches: '' [http://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/audio/einstein1.ram E=mc&sup2; and relativity], [http://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/audio/einstein2.ram Impossibility of atomic energy], [http://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/audio/einstein3.ram arms race] (From Time magazine archives) * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Einstein}} * [[Leiden University]]: [http://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/Einstein_archive/ Einstein Archive] * [[PBS]]: [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/truman/psources/ps_einstein.html Einstein's letter to Roosevelt] * PBS [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/ NOVA—Einstein] * PBS [http://www.pbs.org/opb/einsteinswife/ Einstein's wife]: Mileva Maric * [[FBI]]: [http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/einstein.htm FBI files]—investigation regarding affiliation with the Communist Party * [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe University of Frankfurt am Main|University of Frankfurt]]: [http://www.th.physik.uni-frankfurt.de/~jr/physpiceinfam.html Einstein family pictures] * [[Salon.com]]: [http://dir.salon.com/people/feature/2000/07/06/einstein/index.html Did Einstein cheat?] * [http://www.germanheritage.com/biographies/atol/einstein.html Albert Einstein Biography from "German-American corner: History and Heritage"] * [http://www.alberteinstein.info/ Official Einstein Archives Online] * [http://www.alberteinstein.info/manuscripts/index.html Einstein's Manuscripts] * [http://www.albert-einstein.org/ Albert Einstein Archive] * [http://www.einstein.caltech.edu/ Einstein Papers Project] * [[Max Planck Institute]]: [http://living-einstein.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/living_einstein Living Einstein] * [[American Institute of Physics]]: [http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/index.html Albert Einstein] includes his life and work, audio files and full site available as a downloadable PDF for classroom use * [[American Museum of Natural History]]: [http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/einstein/index.php Albert Einstein] * [http://www.aeinstein.org The Albert Einstein Institution] * [[The Economist]]: [http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=3518580 "100 years of Einstein"] * Einstein@Home: [http://www.physics2005.org/events/einsteinathome/index.html Distributed computing project searching for gravitational waves predicted by Einstein's theories] * World Year of Physics 2005 [http://www.physics2005.org A celebration of Einstein's Miracle Year] * [http://www.einsteinyear.org/ Einstein Year 2005] * [[The Guardian]]: [http://www.guardian.co.uk/japan/story/0,7369,1521314,00.html Einstein's pacifist dilemma revealed] * [http://www.muppetlabs.com/~breadbox/txt/al.html Einstein's Theory of Relativity, In Words of Four Letters or Fewer] * [[Rabindranath Tagore|Rabindranath Tagore's]] [http://www.schoolofwisdom.com/tagore-einstein.html Conversation with Einstein] * [http://www.zionistarchives.org.il/ZA/SiteE/pShowView.aspx?GM=Y&ID=48&Teur=Protest%20against%20the%20suppression%20of%20Hebrew%20in%20the%20Soviet%20Union%20%201930-1931 Protest against the suppression of Hebrew in the Soviet Union 1930-1931] * [http://www.einsteinonrace.com/ Einstein on Race] * [http://www.stn-international.de/archive/stn_brochures/einstein_e.pdf Einstein brochure (PDF), 100 years special theory of relativity 2005] * [http://supernaturalminds.com/AlbertEinstein.html Albert Einstein Profile At Supernatural Minds] * [http://www.oxonianreview.org/issues/5-1/5-1foster.html Everyone Loves Einstein, The Oxonian Review of Books] {{featured article}} [[Category:1879 births|Einstein, Albert]] [[Category:1955 deaths|Einstein, Albert]] [[Category:Natives of Baden-Württemberg|Einstein, Albert]] 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Albert]] [[Category:Agnostics|Einstein, Albert]] {{Link FA|cs}} {{Link FA|de}} {{Link FA|es}} {{Link FA|he}} {{Link FA|lv}} {{Link FA|pt}} {{Link FA|vi}} [[af:Albert Einstein]] [[als:Albert Einstein]] [[ar:ألبرت أينشتاين]] [[an:Albert Einstein]] [[ast:Albert Einstein]] [[bg:Алберт Айнщайн]] [[be:Альбэрт Айнштайн]] [[bn:আলবার্ট আইনস্টাইন]] [[bs:Albert Einstein]] [[br:Albert Einstein]] [[ca:Albert Einstein]] [[cs:Albert Einstein]] [[da:Albert Einstein]] [[de:Albert Einstein]] [[et:Albert Einstein]] [[el:Άλμπερτ Αϊνστάιν]] [[es:Albert Einstein]] [[eo:Albert EINSTEIN]] [[eu:Albert Einstein]] [[fa:آلبرت اینشتین]] [[fr:Albert Einstein]] [[ga:Albert Einstein]] [[gd:Albert Einstein]] [[gl:Albert Einstein]] [[ko:알베르트 아인슈타인]] [[hr:Albert Einstein]] [[io:Albert Einstein]] [[ilo:Albert Einstein]] [[id:Albert Einstein]] [[ia:Albert Einstein]] [[is:Albert Einstein]] [[it:Albert Einstein]] [[he:אלברט איינשטיין]] [[jv:Albert Einstein]] [[kn:ಆಲ್ಬರ್ಟ್ ಐನ್ಸ್ಟನ್]] [[ka:აინშტაინი, ალბერტ]] [[ku:Albert Einstein]] [[lad:Albert Einstein]] [[la:Albertus Einstein]] [[lv:Alberts Einšteins]] [[lt:Albertas Einšteinas]] [[lb:Albert Einstein]] [[hu:Albert Einstein]] [[mk:Алберт Ајнштајн]] [[mr:अल्बर्ट आईन्स्टाईन]] [[ms:Albert Einstein]] [[nl:Albert Einstein]] [[nds:Albert Einstein]] [[ja:アルベルト・アインシュタイン]] [[no:Albert Einstein]] [[nn:Albert Einstein]] [[os:Эйнштейн, Альберт]] [[pl:Albert Einstein]] [[pt:Albert Einstein]] [[ro:Albert Einstein]] [[ru:Эйнштейн, Альберт]] [[sco:Albert Einstein]] [[sq:Albert Einstein]] [[scn:Albert Einstein]] [[simple:Albert Einstein]] [[sk:Albert Einstein]] [[sl:Albert Einstein]] [[sr:Алберт Ајнштајн]] [[fi:Albert Einstein]] [[sv:Albert Einstein]] [[tl:Albert Einstein]] [[ta:அல்பர்ட் ஐன்ஸ்டீன்]] [[tt:Albert Einstein]] [[th:อัลเบิร์ต ไอน์สไตน์]] [[vi:Albert Einstein]] [[tpi:Albert Einstein]] [[tr:Albert Einstein]] [[uk:Альберт Ейнштейн]] [[zh:阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦]] 737 42144721 2006-03-04T02:52:16Z 24.195.129.231 /* Economy */ {{Infobox_Country| native_name = د افغانستان اسلامي دولت<br />دولت اسلامی افغانستان<br> Da Afghanistan Islami Dawlat<br> Dawlate Islamiye Afghanistan <br />Islamic Republic of Afghanistan | common_name = Afghanistan | image_flag = 2001.gif| image_coat = Afghanistan COA.png | image_map = LocationAfghanistan.png | national_motto = None | national_anthem = [[Soroud-e-Melli]] | official_languages = [[Pashto]], [[Persian language|Persian]] ([[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari]]) | capital = [[Kabul]] | latd=34|latm=30|latNS=N|longd=69|longm=10|longEW=E| largest_city = [[Kabul]] | government_type = [[Islamic Republic]] | leader_titles = [[President of Afghanistan|President]] | leader_names = [[Hamid Karzai]] | area_rank = 40th | area_magnitude = 1_E11 | area = 647,500 | areami² = 250,001 |<!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> percent_water = 0 | population_estimate = 29,928,987 | population_estimate_year = 2005 | population_estimate_rank = 38th | population_census =| population_census_year =| population_density = 43 | population_densitymi² = 111 |<!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> population_density_rank= n/a | GDP_PPP_year= 2004 | GDP_PPP = $21.5 billion | GDP_PPP_rank = 105th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $800 | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 185th | HDI_year = 2003 | HDI = NA | HDI_rank = unranked | HDI_category = <font color=gray>NA</font> | sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] | established_events = | established_dates = (from [[United Kingdom|UK]] control over Afghan affairs)<br />1919 | currency = [[Afghani (currency)|Afghani <small>(Af)</small>]] | currency_code = AFN | country_code = AFG | time_zone = | utc_offset = +4:30 | time_zone_DST = | utc_offset_DST = +4:30 | cctld = [[.af]] | calling_code = 93 | footnotes = }} '''Afghanistan''' ([[Pashto language|Pashto]]/[[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari-Persian]]: افغانستان, Afğānistān) is a [[landlocked]] country at the crossroads of [[Asia]]. Generally considered a part of [[Central Asia]], it is sometimes ascribed to a regional bloc in either [[South Asia]] or the [[Middle East]], as it has cultural, ethno-linguistic, and geographic links with most of its neighbors. It is bordered by [[Iran]] in the west, [[Pakistan]] in the south and east, [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uzbekistan]] and [[Tajikistan]] in the north, and [[People's Republic of China|China]] to the east. It has a population of 30 million people, although this remains an estimate, as no official census has been taken for decades. Afghanistan literally translates to 'land of the [[Afghan people|Afghans]]', but a plethora of other names have been applied to its general location in the past. Between the fall of the [[Taliban]] after the [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan]] and the [[2003 Loya jirga]], Afghanistan was referred to by the Government of the United States as the ''Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan''. Under its new [[Constitution of Afghanistan|constitution]], the country is now officially named the '''[[Islamic republic|Islamic Republic]] of Afghanistan'''. <!-- Orphaned information: Population of Kabul: 1,424,400 (1988) Land borders: 5,529 km Coastline: Landlocked [[National Day]]: [[18 August]] Religions: Sunni 84%, Shi'a 15% 1 Afghani = 100 [[pul]]s --> ==Origin and history of the name== The name of '''Afghanistan''' derives from word ''[[Afghan people|Afghan]]''. The [[Pushtun]]s appear to have begun using the term Afghan as a name for themselves from the [[Islam |Islamic]] period onwards. According to W.K. Frazier Tyler, M.C. Gillet and several other scholars, ''"The word Afghan first appears in history in the [[Hudud ul-'alam min al-mashriq ila al-maghrib|Hudud-al-Alam]] in 982 AD."'' There are numerous views, regarding the origin of name Afghan, most of them being purely speculative as can be seen below: Makhzan-i-Afghni by Nematullah written in 1612 CE, traces the Afghan or Pakhtun origin from the super-Patriarch [[Abraham]] down to one named King Talut or [[Saul]]. It states that Saul had a son Irmia (Jeremia), who had a son called Afghana. Upon the death of King Saul, Afghana was raised by David, and was later promoted to the chief command of the army during the reign of King [[Solomon]]. The progeny of this Afghana multiplied numerously, and came to be called ''Bani-Israel''. In the sixth century BCE, Bakhtunnasar, or [[Nebuchadnezzar]] king of [[Babul]], attacked [[Judah]] and exiled the progeny of Afghana to Ghor located in the center of what is now Afghanistan. In course of time, the exiled community came to be addressed as ''Afghan'' after the name of their ancestor, and the country got its name as Afghanistan. This traditional view has many historical discrepancies, and is therefore not accepted by modern scholarship---the last pleader for the ''Bani-Israel'' hypothesis being Mayor Raverty (The Pathans, 1958, Olaf Caroe). Another version of Pushtun legend places Afghana, the professed eponymous ancestor of the Afghans or [[Pushtun]]s, as a contemporary of Muslim [[Prophet Mohammad]]. On hearing about the new faith of Islam, Qais from Aryana travelled to [[Medina]] to see the Muslim [[Muhammad |Prophet Muhammad]], and returned to Aryana as a Muslim. Qais Abdur Rashid purportedly had many sons, one of whom was Afghana. Afghana, in turn, had four sons who set out to the east to establish their separate lineages. The first son went to [[Swat]], the second to [[Lahore]] and [[India]], the third to [[Multan]], and the last one to [[Quetta]]. This legend is one of many traditional tales amongst the Pashtuns regarding their disparate origins. Again, it was this legendary Afghana who is stated to have given the Pushtuns their current name. It is notable that the Afghan of this legend is separated from the Afghana of [[Solomon]]'s times by at least 11 centuries. Dr H.W. Bellew, in his book ''An Enquiry into the Ethnography of Afghanistan'', believes that the name ''Afghan'' derives from the [[Latin]] term ''Alban'', used by [[Armenians]] as ''Alvan'' or ''Alwan'', which refers to mountaineers, and in the case of transliterated Armenian characters, would be pronounced as ''[[Caucasian Albania|Aghvan]]'' or ''Aghwan''. To the [[Persians]], this would further be altered to ''Aoghan'', ''Avghan'', and ''Afghan'' as a reference to the highlanders or "mountaineers" of the eastern [[Iranian plateau]]. Some people hold that the name derives from "Abagan" (i.e without God) which term the [[Persians]] are stated to have coined for the [[Pushtun]]s to describe them as ''Godless or non-believers''. It is claimed that word ''Abagan'' is antonym of the word Bagan (=believer in God) just as word apolitical is [[antonym]] of political in the English language. There are also a few people who link "Afghan" to an [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] word "''Avagan''" said to mean "original". Still others believe that the name derives from [[Sanskrit]] ''upa-ganah'', said to mean "allied tribes". Another etymological view is that the name ''Afghan'' evidently derives from [[Sanskrit]] [[Ashvaka]] or [[Ashvakan]] (q.v), the Assakenoi of [[Arrian]]. This view was propounded by J. W. McCrindle and is supported by numerous modern scholars (including C. Lassen, S. Martin, Bishop, Crooks, W. Crooke, J. C. Vidyalnar, M. R. Singh, P. Smith, N. L. Dey, Dr J. L. Kamboj, S. Kirpal Singh and several others). In Sanskrit, word ''ashva'' ([[Iranian languages|Iranian]] ''aspa'', [[Prakrit]] ''assa'') means "horse", and ''ashvaka'' (Prakrit ''assaka'') means "horseman". Pre-Christian times knew the people of eastern Afghanistan as ''Ashvakas'' ([[cavalry |horsemen]]), since they raised a fine breed of horses and had a reputation for providing expert [[cavalrymen]]. The fifth-century-BCE [[India]]n grammarian [[Panini]] calls them ''Ashvayana'' and ''Ashvakayana''. Classical writers use the respective equivalents ''Aspasios'' (or Aspasii, Hippasii) and ''Assakenois'' (or Assaceni/Assacani, Asscenus). The Aspasios/Assakenois (= Ashvakas = cavalrymen) is stated to be another name for the [[Kambojas]] because of their [[equestrian]] characteristics (see [[List of country name etymologies]]). The last part of the name ''Afghanistan'' originates from the [[Persian language|Persian]] word ''st&#257;n'' (''country'' or ''land''). The English word ''Afghanland'' that appeared in various treaties between [[Qajars|Qajar-Persia]] and the [[United Kingdom]] dealing with the Eastern lands of the Persian kingdom (modern Afghanistan) was adopted by the Afghans and became ''Afghanistan''. Before being called 'Afghanistan', the region had gone through several name changes in its long history of around 5000 years. One of the most ancient names, according to historians and scholars, was ''Ariana'' - the Greek pronunciation of the ancient [[Avestan]] ''Aryanam Vaeja'' or the [[Sanskrit]] "Aryavarta", ''Land of the [[Aryans]]''. Today this Old-Persian, and [[Avestan]] expression is preserved in the name ''[[Iran]]'' and it is noted in the name of the Afghan national airline, ''[[Ariana Airlines]]''. The term 'Ariana Afghanistan' is still popular amongst Persian speakers in the country. Many centuries later, Afghanistan was part of [[Greater Khorasan]], and hence was recognized with the name [[Khorasan]] (along with regions centered around [[Merv]] and [[Neishabur]]), which in [[Pahlavi]] means "The Eastern Land" (خاور زمین in Persian). ''([[Dehkhoda]], p8457)'' ==History== {{main|History of Afghanistan}} Afghanistan exists at a unique nexus-point where numerous Eurasian civilizations have interacted and often fought and was an important site of early historical activity. Through the ages, the region today known as ''Afghanistan'' has been invaded by a host of peoples, including the [[Indo-Iranians|Aryans]], [[Medes]], [[Achaemenids|Persians]], [[Greeks]], [[Mauryan Empire|Mauryans]], [[Kushans]], [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanians]], [[Arabs]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]], [[British]], and [[Soviets]], but rarely have these groups managed to exert complete control over the region. On other occasions, native Afghan entities have invaded surrounding regions to form empires of their own. [[Image:Bamiyan.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Buddhas of Bamiyan, dating back to 1st century pre-Islamic Afghanistan, were the largest Buddha statues in the world. They were destroyed by the [[Taliban]] in 2001 calling them "Us-Islamic". Photo by Hadi Zaheer]] Between 2000 and 1200 [[Common Era|BCE]], waves of [[Indo-European]]-speaking [[Indo-Iranians|Aryans]] are thought to have flooded into modern-day Afghanistan, setting up a nation that became known as ''Aryānām Xšaθra'', or "Land of the Aryans." [[Zoroastrianism]] is speculated to have possibly originated in Afghanistan between 1800 to 800 BCE. Ancient Eastern Iranian languages such as [[Avestan]] may have been spoken in Afghanistan around a similar time-line with the rise of Zoroastrianism. Around 1000 BCE (or earlier), the [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] [[Vedic]] civilization may have arisen near the vicinity of the [[Kabul]] valley of eastern Afghanistan, but this remains speculative as more viable theories based upon archaeological finds tend to support the emergence of the Vedic civilization east of the [[Indus]] and/or [[Ganges]] in what is today Pakistan and India. By the middle of the 6th century BCE, the [[Achaemenids|Persian Empire]] supplanted the [[Medes]] and incorporated Aryana within its boundaries; and by 330 BCE, Alexander the Great had invaded the region. Following Alexander's brief occupation, the Hellenic successor states of the [[Seleucids]] and [[Bactrians]] controlled the area, while the [[Maurya]]ns from India annexed the southeast for a time and introduced [[Buddhism]] to the region until the area returned to the Bactrian rule. During the 1st century [[Common Era|CE]], the [[Kushan]]s, a [[Tocharian]] people from Central Asia with Indo-European origins, occupied the region. Thereafter, Aryana fell to a number of Eurasian tribes &mdash; including [[Parthians]], [[Scythians]], and [[Hepthalites|Huns]], as well as the [[Sassanian]] Persians and local rulers such as the [[Hindu]] [[Shahi]]s in Kabul &mdash; until the 7th century CE, when Muslim [[Arab]] armies invaded the region. The Arabs initially annexed parts of western Afghanistan in 652 and then conquered most of the rest of Afghanistan between 706-709 CE and administered the region as [[Khorasan]], and over time much of the local population converted to Islam, but retained their [[Iranian languages]]. Afghanistan became the center of various important empires, including the [[Ghaznavid Empire]] (962-1151), founded by a local [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] ruler from [[Ghazni]] named [[Mahmud Ghaznavi|Yamin ul-Dawlah Mahmud]], that expanded its suzerainty over a vast area from [[Kurdistan]] to northern India. This empire was replaced by the Ghorid Empire (1151-1219), founded by another local ruler, this time of [[Tajik]] extraction, [[Muhammad Ghori]], whose domains included huge parts of Central and South Asia, and laid the foundations for the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in India. In 1219, the region was overrun by the Mongols under [[Genghis Khan]], who devastated the land. Their rule continued with the [[Ilkhanate]]s, and was extended further following the invasion of [[Tamerlane]] (Timur Leng), a ruler from Central Asia. By 1400, all of Afghanistan came under his dominion, and he also laid the foundation of another Islamic empire in India, the [[Mughal Empire]]. The [[Uzbek]]-born [[Babur]], a descendant of both Tamerlane and Genghis Khan, established an empire with its capital at Kabul by 1504, and then expanded into South Asia in 1525 and established the Mughal Empire's rule throughout much of what is today Pakistan and northern India by 1527. As the empire shifted eastward, the [[Safavids]] of Persia challenged Mughal rule while the two superpower empires of the day battled over the fate of Afghanistan for decades with the Persians acquiring the area by the mid-17th century. Local [[Ghilzai]] Pashtun tribesmen, lead by Khan Nashir, successfully overthrew Safavid rule, and under the [[Hotaki]] dynasty, briefly controlled all or parts of Persia itself from 1722 to 1736. Following a brief period under the rule (1736-1747) of the Turko-Iranian conqueror [[Nadir Shah]], one of his high-ranking military officers, [[Ahmad Shah Durrani|Ahmad Shah Abdali]], himself a Pashtun tribesman of the [[Durrani|Abdali]] clan, called for a ''loya jirga'' following Nadir Shah's assassination (for which many implicate Abdali) in 1747. The Afghans/Pashtuns came together at Kandahar in 1747 and chose Ahmad Shah, who changed his last name to Durrani (meaning 'pearl of pearls' in Persian), to be king. The Afghanistan nation-state as it is known today came into existence in 1747 as the [[Durrani Empire]], and expanded outward from traditional Pashtun territories to include all of what is today Afghanistan, a portion of [[Mashad]] in Iran, and all of Pakistan and Kashmir as well. The Durrani Empire lasted for nearly a century until internecine conflict and wars with the Persians and [[Sikhs]] diminished their empire by the early 19th century. However, the current borders of Afghanistan would not be determined until the coming of the British. During the 19th century, following the [[Anglo-Afghan wars]] (fought in 1839-1842, 1878-1880, and lastly in 1919), Afghanistan saw much of its territory and autonomy ceded to the [[United Kingdom]]. The United Kingdom exercised a great deal of influence, and it was not until King [[Amanullah]] acceded to the throne in 1919 (see "[[The Great Game]]") that Afghanistan regained complete independence. During the period of British intervention in Afghanistan, ethnic Pashtun territories were divided by the [[Durand Line]], and this would lead to strained relations between Afghanistan and [[British India]], and later the new state of Pakistan, over what came to be known as the [[Pashtunistan]] debate. The historical rulers of Afghanistan were part of the Abdali tribe of the ethnic Afghans, whose name was changed to [[Durrani]] upon the accession of [[Ahmad Shah]]. They belonged to the Saddozay segment of the [[Popalzay]] clan, or to the Mohammadzay segment of the Barakzay clan, of the ethnic Afghans. The Mohammadzay frequently furnished the Sadozay kings with top counselors, who served occasionally as regents, and identified with the name Mohammadzay. Since 1900, eleven monarchs and rulers have been unseated through undemocratic means: in 1919 (assassination), 1929 (abdication), 1929 (execution), 1933 (assassination), 1973 (deposition), 1978 (execution), 1979 (execution), 1979 (execution), 1987 (removal), 1992 (overthrow), 1996 (overthrow) and 2001 (overthrow). The longest period of stability in Afghanistan was between 1933 and 1973, when the country was under the rule of King [[Mohammed Zahir Shah|Zahir Shah]]. However, in 1973, Zahir's brother-in-law, [[Sardar Mohammed Daoud]] launched a bloodless coup. Daoud and his entire family were murdered in 1978 when the [[communist]] [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] launched a coup known as the [[Khalq|Great Saur Revolution]] and took over the government. Opposition against, and conflict within, the series of communist governments that followed, was considerable. As part of a [[Cold War]] strategy, the US government began to covertly fund and train anti-government [[Mujahideen]] forces through the Pakistani secret service agency known as Inter Services Intelligence or ISI, which were derived from discontented Muslims in the country who opposed the official atheism of the Marxist regime, in 1978. In order to bolster the local Communist forces the [[Soviet Union]] - citing the 1978 Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Good Neighborliness that had been signed between the two countries in 1978 - intervened on [[December 24]], 1979. The Soviet occupation resulted in a mass exodus of over 5 million Afghans who moved into refugee camps in neighboring Pakistan and Iran. More than 3 million alone settled in Pakistan. Faced with mounting international pressure and the loss of approximately 15,000 Soviet soldiers as a result of Mujahideen opposition forces trained by the [[United States]], Pakistan, and other foreign governments, the Soviets withdrew ten years later, in 1989. For more details, see [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]]. The Soviet withdrawal was seen as an ideological victory in the US, which ostensibly had backed the Mujahideen in order to counter Soviet influence in the vicinity of the oil-rich [[Persian Gulf]]. Following the removal of the Soviet forces in 1989, the US and its allies lost interest in Afghanistan and did little to help rebuild the war-ravaged country. The USSR continued to support the regime of Dr. Najubullah (formerly the head of the secret service, Khad) until its downfall in 1992. However, the absence of the Soviet forces resulted in the downfall of the government as it steadily lost ground to the guerrilla forces. [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0856490.html] As the vast majority of the elites and intellectuals had either been systematically eliminated by the Communists, or escaped to take refuge abroad, a dangerous leadership vacuum came into existence. Fighting continued among the various Mujahidin factions, eventually giving rise to a state of [[warlordism]]. The chaos and corruption that dominated post-Soviet Afghanistan in turn spawned the rise of the [[Taliban]] in response to the growing chaos. The most serious fighting during this growing civil conflict occurred in 1994, when 10,000 people were killed during factional fighting in Kabul. Exploiting the chaotic situation in Afghanistan, a few regional bedfellows including fundamentalist Afghans trained in refugee camps in western Pakistan, the Pakistani secret intelligence service (ISI), the regional Mafia (well-established network that smuggled mainly Japanese electronics and tyres before the Russian invasion, now involved in drug smuggling) and Arab extremist groups (that were looking for a safe operational hub) joined forces and helped to create the [[Taliban]] movement (Rashid 2000).[http://www.ahmedrashid.com/] Backed by Pakistan, [[Saudi Arabia]] and other strategic allies, the Taliban developed as a politico-religious force, and eventually seized power in 1996. The Taliban were able to capture 90% of the country, aside from the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]] strongholds primarily found in the northeast in the [[Panjshir Valley]]. The Taliban sought to impose a strict interpretation of [[Islam]]ic ''[[Sharia]]'' law and gave safe haven and assistance to individuals and organizations that were implicated as terrorists, most notably [[Osama bin Laden]]'s [[Al-Qaeda]] network. The United States and allied military action in support of the opposition following the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks]] forced the Taliban's downfall. In late 2001, major leaders from the Afghan opposition groups and diaspora met in [[Bonn]], and agreed on a [[Bonn Agreement (Afghanistan)|plan]] for the formulation of a new government structure that resulted in the inauguration of [[Hamid Karzai]] as Chairman of the [[Afghan Interim Authority]] (AIA) on December 2001. After a nationwide ''[[Loya Jirga]]'' in 2002, Karzai was elected President. On [[March 3]] and [[March 25]] [[2002]], a series of earthquakes struck Afghanistan, with a loss of thousands of homes and over 1800 lives. Over 4000 more people were injured. The earthquakes occurred at Samangan Province ([[March 3]]) and Baghlan Province ([[March 25]]). The latter was the worse of the two, and caused most of the casualties. International authorities assisted the Afghan government in dealing with the situation. As the country continues to rebuild and recover, as of late 2005, it was still struggling against widespread poverty, continued warlordism, a virtually non-existent infrastructure, possibly the largest concentration of land mines on earth and other unexploded ordinance, as well as a sizable illegal poppy and heroin trade. Afghanistan also remains subject to occasionally violent political jockeying, and the nation's first elections were successfully held in 2004 as women parliamentarians were selected in record numbers. Parliamentary elections in 2005 helped to further stabilize the country politically, in spite of the numerous problems it faced, including inadequate international assistance. The country continues to grapple with occasional acts of violence from a few remaining [[al-Qaeda]] and [[Taliban]] and the instability caused by warlords. See also: [[Afghanistan timeline]], [[Invasions of Afghanistan]] ==Politics== ''Main article: [[Politics of Afghanistan]]'' Afghanistan is currently led by president [[Hamid Karzai]], who was elected in October of 2004. Before the election, Karzai led the country after having been hand-picked by the administration of [[United States]]' [[George W. Bush|President Bush]] to head an interim government, after the fall of the Taliban. His current cabinet includes members of the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]], and a mix from other regional and ethnic groups formed from the transitional government by the [[Loya jirga]] (grand council). Former [[monarch]] [[Mohammed Zahir Shah]] returned to the country, but was not reinstated as king, and only exercises limited ceremonial powers. Under the [[Bonn Agreement (Afghanistan)|Bonn Agreement]] the [[Afghan Constitution Commission]] was established to consult with the public and formulate a draft constitution. The meeting of a constitutional ''loya jirga'' was held in December 2003, when a new constitution was adopted creating a presidential form of government with a bicameral legislature. Troops and [[intelligence agencies]] from the United States and a number of other countries are present, some to keep the peace, others assigned to hunt for remnants of the [[Taliban]] and [[al Qaeda]]. A [[United Nations]] peacekeeping force called the [[International Security Assistance Force]] has been operating in Kabul since December 2001. [[NATO]] took control of this Force on [[August 11]], [[2003]]. Some of the country remains under the control of warlords. [http://www.newstatesman.com/200502070006] On [[March 27]], [[2003]], Afghan deputy defense minister and powerful warlord General [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]] created an office for the [[North Zone of Afghanistan]] and appointed officials to it, defying then-interim president [[Hamid Karzai]]'s orders that there be no zones in Afghanistan. [[Eurocorps]] took over the responsibility for the NATO-led [[International Security Assistance Force|ISAF]] in Kabul [[August 9]], [[2004]]. [[Afghan presidential election, 2004|National elections]] were held on [[October 9]], [[2004]]. Over 10 million Afghans were registered to vote. Most of the 17 candidates opposing Karzai [[boycott]]ed the election, charging fraud; [http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,1564,1354517,00.html] an independent commission found evidence of fraud, but ruled that it did not affect the outcome of the poll. Karzai won 55.4% of the vote. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3977677.stm] He was inaugurated as president on [[December 7]]. It was the country's first national election since 1969, when parliamentary elections were last held. On [[September 18]] [[2005]], [[Afghan parliamentary election, 2005|parliamentary elections]] were held; the [[Wolesi Jirga|parliament]] opened on the following [[December 19]]. On [[December 20]] Karzai's close ally and president of the first [[mujahideen]] government, [[Sibghatullah Mojadeddi]], was picked to head the 102-seat upper house. On [[December 21]], [[Yunus Qanuni]], Afghan opposition leader and Karzai's main opponent was chosen to lead the 249-seat lower house of parliament with 122 votes against 117 for his closest challenger. see also: [[List of leaders of Afghanistan]], [[List of Afghanistan Governors]] ==Subdivisions== Afghanistan is divided into 34 provinces (''velayat'') which are further divided into districts. ''Main article: [[Provinces of Afghanistan]]'' ''Main article: [[Districts of Afghanistan]]'' The 34 provinces are: {| | *<small>1</small> [[Badakhshan Province|Badakhshan]] *<small>2</small> [[Badghis Province|Badghis]] *<small>3</small> [[Baghlan Province|Baghlan]] *<small>4</small> [[Balkh Province|Balkh]] *<small>5</small> [[Bamiyan Province|Bamiyan]] *<small>6</small> [[Daikondi Province|Daikondi]] *<small>7</small> [[Farah Province|Farah]] *<small>8</small> [[Faryab Province|Faryab]] *<small>9</small> [[Ghazni Province|Ghazni]] *<small>10</small> [[Ghowr Province|Ghowr]] *<small>11</small> [[Helmand Province|Helmand]] | *<small>12</small> [[Herat Province|Herat]] *<small>13</small> [[Jowzjan Province|Jowzjan]] *<small>14</small> [[Kabul Province|Kabul]] *<small>15</small> [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]] *<small>16</small> [[Kapisa Province|Kapisa]] *<small>17</small> [[Khost Province|Khost]] *<small>18</small> [[Konar Province|Konar]] *<small>19</small> [[Kunduz Province|Kunduz]] *<small>20</small> [[Laghman Province|Laghman]] *<small>21</small> [[Lowgar Province|Lowgar]] *<small>22</small> [[Nangarhar Province|Nangarhar]] | *<small>23</small> [[Nimruz Province|Nimruz]] *<small>24</small> [[Nurestan Province|Nurestan]] *<small>25</small> [[Oruzgan Province|Oruzgan]] *<small>26</small> [[Paktia Province|Paktia]] *<small>27</small> [[Paktika Province|Paktika]] *<small>28</small> [[Panjshir Province|Panjshir]] *<small>29</small> [[Parvan Province|Parvan]] *<small>30</small> [[Samangan Province|Samangan]] *<small>31</small> [[Sar-e Pol Province|Sar-e Pol]] *<small>32</small> [[Takhar Province|Takhar]] *<small>33</small> [[Vardak Province|Vardak]] *<small>34</small> [[Zabol Province|Zabol]] | [[Image:Afghanistan provinces numbered.png|thumb|250px|right|Map showing provinces of Afghanistan]] |} ==Geography== [[Image:Afghanistan map.png|framed|Map of Afghanistan]] ''Main article: [[Geography of Afghanistan]]'' Afghanistan is a land-locked [[mountain]]ous country, with plains in the north and southwest. The highest point, at 7485 m (24,557 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) above sea level, is [[Nowshak]]. Large parts of the country are dry, and fresh water supplies are limited. Afghanistan has a continental climate, with hot summers and cold winters. The country is frequently subject to [[earthquake]]s. The major cities of Afghanistan are its capital Kabul, [[Herat]], [[Jalalabad, Afghanistan|Jalalabad]], [[Mazar-e Sharif]] and [[Kandahar]]. See also [[List of cities in Afghanistan]], [[Places in Afghanistan]]. ==Economy== ''Main article: [[Economy of Afghanistan]]'' Afghanistan is an extremely impoverished country, being one of the world's poorest and least developed countries. Two-thirds of the population lives on less than US$2 a day. The economy has suffered greatly from the recent political and military unrest since the 1979-80 Soviet invasion and subsequent conflicts, while severe drought added to the nation's difficulties in 1998-2001. About 70 percent of the population is under 30 according to Asian Development Bank. The total fertility rate is 6.8, the highest in South Asia (with a regional average at 3.3), but so are mortality rates. Infant mortality rate is 166 per 1000 births. The economically active population in 2002 was about 11 million (out of a total of an estimated 29 million). While there are no official unemployment rate estimates available, it is evident that it is high. The number of non-skilled young people is estimated at 3 million, which is likely to increase by some 300,000 per annum. (Fujimura, 2004a). [http://www.adbi.org/research-policy-brief/2004/10/15/698.afghan.economy.after.election/] The country's natural resources include copper, zinc and iron ore in central areas; precious and semi-precious stones such as lapis, emerald and azure in the north-east and east; and (unproved) oil and gas reserves in the north. However, "its significant mineral resources remain largely untapped because of the Afghan War of the 1980s and subsequent fighting" (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2005). A good portion of Afghanistan GDP comes from illicit drugs including opium, its derivtives morphine and heroin and hashish. [[Image:President Celal Bayar, King Zahir and Lord Nasher.jpg|thumb|Afghanistan was once a world-renowned producer of cotton. Here Turkish President Celal Bayar and King Zahir inspect the produce of Khan Nasher's Spinzar Cotton Company in 1966]] On a positive note, international efforts to rebuild Afghanistan led to the formation of the Afghan Interim Authority (AIA) as a result of the December 2001 [[Bonn Agreement (Afghanistan)| Bonn Agreement]], and later addressed at the Tokyo Donors Conference for Afghan Reconstruction in January 2002, where $4.5 billion was committed in a trust fund to be administered by the [[World Bank Group]]. Priority areas for reconstruction include the rebuilding of education system, health, and sanitation facilities, enhancement of administrative capacity, the development of the agricultural sector, and the rebuilding of road, energy, and telecommunication links. According to a 2004 report by the Asian Development Bank, the present reconstruction effort is two-pronged: first it focuses on rebuilding critical physical infrastructure, and second, on building modern public sector institutions from the remnants of Soviet style planning to ones that promote market-led development (Fujimura, 2004b). But macroeconomic planning and management at present is hampered by poor information, weak service delivery systems, and less than adequate law enforcement. The country has been going through economic recovery since the Taliban were overthrown in October 2001. However, estimating Afghanistan's economy is problematic as it is impossible to gather reliable statistics while it is going through a significant change period in all fronts, with the added problem of less than ideal security situation. The best estimate that can be relied upon is that of the Central Statistical Office in 2003, from which the CIA Factbook seems to have drawn some data. Accordingly, the country's estimated gross domestic product (GDP) was $21.5 billion in 2003, a 28.6% growth over 2002 (CIA Factbook 2003) [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/af.html] Among the 232 listed countries in the CIA Factbook, Afghanistan ranks 108th in terms of GDP, which means per capita income of $800. A brief comparison shows that Afghanistan is the poorest country among its neighbors. Pakistan, with a GDP of $347 billion in 2003 had a per capita purchasing power of $2200 and Iran with its $517 billion had $7700. In the north, Turkmenistan had a GDP of $27.6 billion and a per capita income of $5700, Uzbekistan with its $48 billion had $1800, and Tajikistan despite a low GDP of only $8 billion had a per capita income of $1100 per head. The World Bank estimates that Afghanistan will remain in need of external financial help before it can stand on its own feet economically. Ironically, Afghanistan's GDP ranks approximately at the same level as Jordan ($25.5bn) and Qatar ($19.5bn). However, considering that those oil-rich Arab states have smaller populations, Jordan per capita income amounts to $4500 and Qatar's to $23,200. One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over two million refugees from neighbouring countries and the West, who brought with them fresh energy, entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed capital to start up small businesses. What is also helping is the estimated $2-3 billion in international assistance, the partial recovery of the agricultural sector, and the reestablishment of market institutions. While the country's current account deficit is largely financed with the "donor money", only a small portion - about 15% - is provided directly to the government budget. The rest is provided to non-budgetary expenditure and donor-designated projects through the UN system and NGOs. It needs to be mentioned that there are some (as yet unconfirmed) claims that most of this money is spent on the expenses of the UN and other non-governmental organizations as well as being funneled into illegitimate activities. The government had a central budget of only $350 million in 2003 and an estimated $550 million in 2004. The country's foreign exchange reserves totals about $500 million. Revenue is mostly generated through customs, as income and corporate tax bases are negligible. Inflation had been a major problem until 2002. However, the depreciation of the afghani in 2002 after the introduction of the new notes (which replaced 1,000 old afghani by 1 new afghani) coupled with the relative stability compared to previous periods has helped prices to stabilize and even decrease between December 2002 and February 2003, reflecting the turnaround appreciation of the new Afghani currency. Since then, the index has indicated stability, with a moderate increase toward late 2003 (Fujimura, 2004c). The Afghan government and international donors seem to remain committed to improving access to basic necessities, infrastructure development, education, housing and economic reform. The central government is also focusing on improved revenue collection and public sector expenditure discipline. The rebuilding of the financial sector seems to have been so far successful. Money can now be transferred in and out of the country via official banking channels and according to accepted international norms. A new law on private investment provides 3-7 year tax holidays to eligible companies and a 4-year exemption from exports tariffs and duties. While these improvements will help rebuild a strong basis for the nation in the future, for now, the majority of the population continues to suffer from insufficient food, clothing, housing, medical care, and other problems exacerbated by military operations and political uncertainties. The government is not strong enough to collect customs duties from all the provinces due to the power of the warlords. Fraud is widespread and “corruption is rife within all Afghan government organs, and central authority is barely felt in the lawless south and south-west” (The Economist, 2005). [http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=4494134] Expanding poppy cultivation and a growing opium trade is another huge problem for the country. The CIA estimates that one-third of the country's GDP comes from opium export, although the Asian Development Bank states a lower figure, namely $2.5 billion (12% of the GDP). At any rate, this is not only one of Kabul's most serious policy and law-enforcement challenges[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html], but also one of the world's most serious problems. The problem began with the Soviet invasion in 1979-80. As the government began to lose control of provinces, "warlordism" flourished and with it opium production as regional commanders searched for ways to generate money to purchase weapons, according to the UN. [http://www.irinnews.org/webspecials/opium/Chronology.asp] (At this time the West was pursuing an "arms-length" supporting strategy of the Afghan freedom-fighters or Mujahidin, the main purpose being to cripple the USSR slowly into withdrawal rather than a quick and decisive overthrow). When the West abandoned Afghanistan after its perceived victory over the Soviet Union as the Red Army was forced to withdraw in 1989, a power vacuum was created. Various Mujahidin factions started fighting against each other for power. With the discontinuation of Western support, they resorted ever more to poppy cultivation to finance their military existence. The regional mafia, who were looking for a safe operational hub, joined forces with the more fanatic sections of the Mujahidin supported by Arab extremists like Osama bin Laden as well as the Pakistani secret intelligence service [[ISI]] to form the [[Taliban]] movement towards the end of 1994 (Rashid, 2000); [http://www.ahmedrashid.com/] see also BBC report here [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1569826.stm]. The Taliban, having taken control of 90% of the country, actively encouraged poppy cultivation. With this, they not only fulfilled their promises and obligations to their partners - the regional mafia - but also increased their own desperately needed income through taxes. According to the above UN source, Afghanistan saw a bumper opium crop of 4,600 million tonnes in 1999, which was the height of the Taliban rule in Afghanistan. When they came under extreme international diplomatic pressure in 2002, they initiated a ban on poppy cultivation. Following the US-led coalition war that led to the defeat of the [[Taliban]] in November 2001 which essentially collapsed the economy, the relatively few other sources of revenue forced many of the country's farmers to resort back to growing cash crops for export. A notable example of such a crop is the [[opium poppy]] (1,300 km&sup2; in 2004 according to the [[United Nations]] Office on Drugs and Crime), the cultivation of which has largely increased during the last decade: Afghanistan has become the first illicit opium producer in the world, before [[Burma]] ([[Myanmar]]), part of the so-called "[[Golden Triangle]]". The main obstacle to eradicating poppy cultivation in Afghanistan is the US forces' need for the warlords and their forces in hunting terrorists. The warlords are the major culprits in poppy cultivation, but are also highly useful to the US forces in scouting, providing local intelligence, keeping their own territories clean from Al-Qaeda and Taliban insurgents, and even taking part in military operations - all for money. This also contributes to the lack of central government's real authority in provinces and discourages farmers from growing grain and fruit as they did for centuries previously. In short, the Afghan economy is currently (December 2005) going through a hefty change period. On the one hand, there are encouraging signs of positive development and increasing wealth creation and management. But on the other hand, the security situation, the lingering war against terrorism and the opium problem have created tall barriers for Afghanistan to rejoin the international community in prosperity and economic development. ===Economy References=== - Fujimura, Manabu (2004) "Afghan Economy After the Election", Asian Development Bank Institute - CIA Factbook (2003), Afghanistan Section - The Economist magazine, UK, October 2005 - UN Office for the Coordination of Human Affairs website - Rashid, Ahmed (2000) "Taliban - Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia", Yale University Press - The BBC ==Demographics== ''Main article: [[Demographics of Afghanistan]]'' The population of Afghanistan is divided into a wide variety of ethnic groups largely composed of [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] and [[Turkic peoples]]. Because a systematic census has not been held in the country in decades, exact figures about the size and composition of the various ethnic groups are not available.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3717092.stm] Therefore most figures are approximations only. According to the CIA World FactBook (updated on [[17 May]] [[2005]]), an approximate ethnic group distribution is as follows: [[Pashtun]] 30%, [[Tajiks|Tajik]] 29%,, [[Hazara]] 22%, [[Uzbek]] 11%, [[Aimak]] 5%, [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]] 3%, [[Baloch]] 2%, other 4% including sikhs.[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/af.html#People] The CIA factbook on languages in Afghanistan refers to the official languages of Afghanistan as being [[Persian language|Persian]] (local name: [[Dari]]) 50% and [[Pashtu]] 35%. Other languages include [[Turkic language]]s (primarily [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] and [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]]) 11%, 30 minor languages (primarily [[Balochi]] and [[Pashai]]) 4%. Bilingualism is common. Religiously, Afghans are overwhelmingly [[Muslim]] (approximately 80% [[Sunni]] and 19% [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]]). There are also small [[Hindu]] and [[Sikh]] minorities. Afghanistan was once home to a many-centuries-old [[Jew]]ish minority, numbering approximately 5,000 in 1948. Most Jewish families fled the country after the 1979 Soviet invasion, and only one individual remains today, [[Zablon Simintov]]. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A39702-2005Jan26.html] With the fall of the Taliban a number of [[Sikhs]] have returned to the [[Ghazni]], [[Nangarhar]], [[Kandahar]] and [[Kabul]] Provinces of Afghanistan. ==Constitution== ''Main article: [[Constitution of Afghanistan]]'' According to the 2004 constitution, Afghanistan is run by a president, who is elected by direct popular vote to a five-year term. The president may only serve two terms. A candidate for president must be at least forty years of age, a Muslim, and a citizen of Afghanistan. The country has two vice-presidents. The president serves as head of state and government, and is commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The president makes appointments for his cabinet, as well as posts in the military, police force, and provincial governorships, with the approval of parliament. The legislative body of Afghanistan is a parliament consisting of two houses: the ''[[Wolesi Jirga]]'' (House of the People) and the ''[[Meshrano Jirga]]'' (House of Elders). The ''Wolesi Jirga'' consists of up to 250 members elected to five-year terms through direct elections in proportion to the population of each province. At least two women must be elected from each province. In the ''Meshrano Jirga'', one-third of the members are elected by provincial councils for four years, one-third are elected by district councils of each province for three years, and one-third are appointed by the president for five years, of whom half must be women. The judicial system of Afghanistan consists of the ''[[Stera Mahkama]]'' (Supreme Court), appeals courts, and lower district courts designated by law. The ''Stera Mahkama'' is made up of nine judges appointed by the president, with the approval of parliament, to a ten-year term. Judges must be at least forty years of age, not belong to a political party, and have a degree in law or Islamic jurisprudence. The ''Stera Mahkama'' can judge the constitutionality of all laws in the country. ==Culture== ''Main article: [[Culture of Afghanistan]]'' Afghans display pride in their country, ancestry, military prowess, and above all, their independence. Like other highlanders, Afghans are regarded with mingled apprehension and condescension, for their high regard for personal honor, for their clan loyalty and for their readiness to carry and use arms to settle disputes. (Heathcote, 2003). As clan warfare / internecine feuding has been one of their chief occupations since time immemorial, this individualistic trait has made it difficult for foreign invaders to hold the region. Afghanistan has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. However, many of the country's historic monuments have been damaged in recent wars. The two famous statues of [[Buddhas of Bamiyan|Buddha]] in the [[Bamiyan Province]] were destroyed by the Taliban, who regarded them as [[Idolatry|idolatrous]]. Other famous sites include the very cities of [[Herat]], [[Ghazni]] and [[Balkh]]. The [[Minaret of Jam]], in the [[Hari Rud]] valley, is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage site]]. The people of Afghanistan are prominent horsemen as the national [[sport]] is [[Buzkashi]]. [[Afghan hound]]s (a type of running [[dog]]s) also originated in Afghanistan. Although literacy levels are very low, classic Persian poetry plays a very important role in Afghan culture. Poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in both Iran and Afghanistan, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture. Private poetry competition events known as “musha’era” are quite common even among ordinary people. Almost every home owns one or more poetry collection of some sort, even if it is not read often. The Afghan dialect of the Persian language [[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari]] derives from "Farsi-e Darbari", meaning 'Persian of the royal courts'. It is regarded by some scholars as the more original version of the language. Iran, having a larger population, a stronger economy and closer ties to the rest of the world has developed its language further in the course of history. Afghanistan took a more conservative approach mainly due to lack of resources. As a result, Dari has not changed much over the last few centuries. Many of the famous Persian language poets of 10th to 15th centuries stem from what is now known as Afghanistan. They were mostly also scholars in many disciplines like languages, natural sciences, medicine, religion and astronomy. Examples are Mawlvi Balkhi ([[Rumi]]), born and educated in the Balkh province in the 13th century and moved to today’s Istanbul, [[Sanaayi]] Ghaznavi (12th century, native of Ghazni provice), [[Jami]] Heravi (15th century, native of Jam-e-Herat in western Afghanistan), [[Alisher Navoi|Nizam ud-Din Ali Sher Heravi Nava'i,]] (15th century, Heart province). Also, some of the contemporary Persian language poets and writers, who are relatively well-know in both Iran and Afghanistan includes [[Ustad Behtab]], [[Khalilullah Khalili]] [http://www.afghanmagazine.com/arts/khalili/khalili.html], Sufi Ghulam Nabi Ashqari [http://www.afghanmagazine.com/jan2000/music/kharaabat/], [[Parwin Pazwak]] and others. In addition to poets, the region of Afghanistan produced numerous scientists as well including [[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sina Balkhi) who hailed from [[Balkh]]. Avicenna, who travelled to [[Isfahan]] later in life to establish a medical school there, is known by some scholars as "the father of modern medicine". George Sarton called Ibn Sina "the most famous scientist of Islam and one of the most famous of all races, places, and times." His most famous works are ''The Book of Healing'' and ''The Canon of Medicine'', also known as the Qanun. Avicenna's story even found way to the contemporary English literature through Noah Gordon's The Physician [http://www.noahgordonbooks.com/index.html], now published in many languages. Before the Taliban gained power, the city of Kabul was home to many musicians who were masters of both traditional and modern Afghan music, especially during the [[Nauroz]]-celebration. Kabul in the middle part of the 20th century has been likened to [[Vienna]] during the 18th and 19th centuries. The tribal system, which orders the life of most people outside metropolitan areas, is certainly as potent in political terms as the national state system of Europe 1914. Men feel a fierce loyalty to their own tribe, such that, if called upon, assemble in arms under the tribal chiefs and local clan leaders (Khans) in the same way that men throughout Europe "flocked to the colours" in 1914, forming up in regional divisions and battalions under the command of the local nobility and gentry. In theory, under Islamic law, every believer has an obligation to bear arms at the ruler's call ([[Ulul-Amr]]), but this was no more needed than was enforced conscription to fill the ranks of the British Army in 1914. The Afghan shepherd or peasant went to war for much the same mixture of reasons as the more "civilised" European clerk or factory worker - a desire for adventure, a desire not to be left out or lose esteem in the eyes of his fellows, a contempt for invading foreigners, revenge against those that ruined his family life or threatened his faith, perhaps even the chance of extra cash or enhanced personal prospects. The tribal system is not something particularly backward or warlike. It is simply the best way of organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically difficult, and in a society that has an uncomplicated lifestyle - from a materialistic point of view (Heathcote, 2003). Reference: Heathcote, Tony (1980, 2003) "The Afghan Wars 1839 - 1919", Sellmount Staplehurst See also: [[Radio Kabul]], [[music of Afghanistan]], [[Islam in Afghanistan]] ==Education== ''Main article: [[Education in Afghanistan]]'' In the spring of 2003, it was estimated that 30% of Afghanistan's 7,000 schools had been seriously damaged during more than two decades of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] occupation and civil war. Only half of the schools were reported to have clean water, while fewer than an estimated 40% had adequate sanitation. Education for boys was not a priority during the [[Taliban]] regime, and girls were banished from schools outright. In regards to the poverty and violence of their surroundings, a study in 2002 by the [[Save the Children]] aid group said Afghan children were resilient and courageous. The study credited the strong institutions of family and community. Up to four million Afghan children, possibly the largest number ever, are believed to have enrolled for class for the school year beginning in March of 2003. Education is available for both girls and boys. Literacy of the entire population is estimated at 36%, Male Literacy rate is 51% and female literacy is 21%. The male literacy rate is higher because previous Taliban laws prohibited the education of women. Higher Education - The American University of Afghanistan Another aspect of education that is rapidly changing in Afghanistan is the face of Higher Education. In 2006 the American University of Afghanistan [http://www.auaf.edu.af] opens it's doors, with support from USAID [http://usinfo.state.gov/sa/Archive/2005/Apr/06-83303.html] and other donors. With the aim of providing a world-class, English-language, co-educational learning environment in Afghanistan, the university will take students from Afghanistan and the region. ==See also== {{sisterlinks|Afghanistan}} *[[Afghan Scout Association]] *[[Communications in Afghanistan]] *[[Foreign relations of Afghanistan]] *[[List of sovereign states]] *[[Military of Afghanistan]] *[[Transportation in Afghanistan]] *[[Stamps and postal history of Afghanistan]] **[[List of birds on stamps of Afghanistan]] **[[List of fish on stamps of Afghanistan]] *[[Golden Needle Sewing School]] *[[Taliban treatment of women]] *[[Taliban]] *[[List of leaders of Afghanistan]] ==Additional references== * Ghobar, Mit Gholam Mohammad. Afghanistan in the Cource of History, 1999, All Prints Inc. * Griffiths, John C. 1981. ''Afghanistan: A History of Conflict''. André Deutsch, London. Updated edition, 2001. Andre Deutsch Ltd, 2002, ISBN 0233050531. * Levi, Peter. 1972. ''The Light Garden of the Angel King: Journeys in Afghanistan''. Collins, 1972, ISBN 0002110423. Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1973, Indianapolis/New York, ISBN 0672512521. * Moorcroft, William and Trebeck, George. 1841. ''Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825'', Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971. Oxford University Press, 1979, ISBN 0195771990. * Rashid, Ahmed (2000) "Taliban - Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia", Yale University Press *Toynbee, Arnold J. 1961. ''Between Oxus and Jumna''. Oxford University Press, London. ISBN B0006DBR44. * Wood, John. 1872. ''A Journey to the Source of the River Oxus''. New Edition, edited by his son, with an essay on the "Geography of the Valley of the Oxus" by Henry Yule. John Murray, London. Gregg Division McGraw-Hill, 1971, ISBN 0576033227. * Heathcote, T.A. The Afghan Wars 1839-1999, 1980,2003, Spellmount Staplehurst ==External links== *{{wikitravel}} *[http://www.afghanplace.com - Afghanistan Directory] *[http://www.afghanchat.com - Large Website on Afghanistan Culture & News] *[http://www.afghan2.com - Online dating Service for Afghans] *[http://www.afghanzone.com/ Afganistan Online News source]. *[http://www.afghanunited.com/ Afghanistan Entertainment center]. *[http://www.afgha.com Afgha.com - News, Discussions, and more about Afghanistan] *[http://www.kabuli.org/ Daily reports from Kabul in Farsi] *[http://afghanlord.blogspot.com/ Afghan LORD] *[http://www.afghanistan.sc/ Afghanistan Service Center with daily news] *[http://www.aims.org.af/ Afghanistan Information Management Service] - provided by joint UN projects *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1162668.stm BBC News Country Profile - Afghanistan] * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/af.html CIA World Factbook - Afghanistan] * [http://www.state.gov/p/sa/ci/af/ US State Department - Afghanistan] includes Background Notes, Country Study (1997), Rebuilding, USAID and NATO *[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Afghanistan/ Open Directory Project - Afghanistan] directory category *[http://dir.yahoo.com/regional/countries/afghanistan/ Yahoo! - Afghanistan] directory category *[http://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/afghanis.pdf 2002 UN map of Afghanistan] (PDF) *[http://www.ArianaNet.com/ News Service latest News about Afghanistan, Discussion board] *[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/world/asia/centralasia/afghanistan/returntoafghanistan/returntoafghanistan.htm Return to Afghanistan] - A series of short films by the Washington Post on the New Afghanistan *[http://www.mod.uk/rcds/bashir.htm British Royal College for Defense Studies analyses and proposes a war in August 2001] * [http://www.geopium.org Geopium: Geopolitics of Illicit Drugs in Asia (Afghanistan and Burma)] * [http://topics.developmentgateway.org/afghanistan Development Gateway's Afghanistan Reconstruction Portal] * [http://www.afghanan.net/index.php Afghanan Dot Net] * [http://www.AfghanMania.com Afghanistan Portal] * [http://www.sabawoon.com Sabawoon Online] * [http://www.afghan-web.com/index.html Afghanistan Online] * [http://www.afghanischerkulturverein.de/en/wirUeberUns_en.php Informative links and glossary about Afghanistan] * [http://www.whatisindia.com/issues/afghanis/index.html Afghanistan Portal on The Indian Analyst] Index of News, Analysis, and Opinion from many sources * [http://www.bh.org.il/Communities/Archive/Afghanistan.asp The Jews of Afghanistan] * [http://www.akdn.org AKDN] * [http://www.faizani.com Islam Way Online - Your Religion and Spirituality Portal] Books written by the celebrated Afghan Scholar [[Mawlana Faizani]] * [http://www.auaf.edu.af American University of Afghanistan] * [http://numismondo.com/pm/afg Afghanistan Paper Money] {{SAARC}} {{Link FA|no}} [[Category:Afghanistan| ]] [[Category:Central Asian countries]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Middle Eastern countries]] [[Category:Near Eastern countries]] [[Category:SAARC members]] [[af:Afghanistan]] [[als:Afghanistan]] [[an:Afganistán]] [[ar:أفغانستان]] [[ast:Afganistán]] [[bg:Афганистан]] [[bs:Afganistan]] [[ca:Afganistan]] [[cs:Afghánistán]] [[cy:Afghanistan]] [[da:Afghanistan]] [[de:Afghanistan]] [[el:Αφγανιστάν]] [[eo:Afganio]] [[es:Afganistán]] [[et:Afganistan]] [[fa:افغانستان]] [[fi:Afganistan]] [[fr:Afghanistan]] [[fur:Afghanistan]] [[fy:Afganistan]] [[ga:An Afganastáin]] [[gd:Afghanistan]] [[gl:Afganistán - افغانستان]] [[gu:અફઘાનિસ્તાન]] [[he:אפגניסטן]] [[hi:अफगानिस्तान]] [[hr:Afganistan]] [[ht:Afganistan]] [[hu:Afganisztán]] [[ia:Afghanistan]] [[id:Afganistan]] [[io:Afganistan]] [[is:Afganistan]] [[it:Afghanistan]] [[ja:アフガニスタン]] [[ka:ავღანეთი]] [[ko:아프가니스탄]] [[ku:Afganistan]] [[la:Afgania]] [[lb:Afghanistan]] [[li:Afganistan]] [[lt:Afganistanas]] [[lv:Afganistāna]] [[ml:അഫ്ഗാനിസ്ഥാന്‍]] [[mo:Афганистан]] [[ms:Afghanistan]] [[na:Afganistan]] [[nds:Afghanistan]] [[nl:Afghanistan]] [[nn:Afghanistan]] [[no:Afghanistan]] [[os:Афгъанистан]] [[pl:Afganistan]] [[ps:افغانستان]] [[pt:Afeganistão]] [[ro:Afganistan]] [[ru:Афганистан]] [[sa:अफगानस्थान]] [[scn:Afganistàn]] [[se:Afghanistan]] [[simple:Afghanistan]] [[sk:Afganistan]] [[sl:Afganistan]] [[sq:Afganistani]] [[sr:Авганистан]] [[sv:Afghanistan]] [[ta:ஆப்கானிஸ்தான்]] [[tg:Афғонистон]] [[th:ประเทศอัฟกานิสถาน]] [[tk:Owganystan]] [[tl:Afghanistan]] [[tr:Afganistan]] [[udm:Афганистан]] [[uk:Афганістан]] [[vi:Afghanistan]] [[zh:阿富汗]] [[zh-min-nan:Afghanistan]] 738 42150547 2006-03-04T03:47:37Z 68.43.190.132 {{Infobox_Country| |native_name = Republika e Shqipërisë |common_name = Albania |image_flag = Flag of Albania.svg |image_coat = Albania state emblem.png|150px |image_map = LocationAlbania.png |national_motto = (not verified) Feja e Shqiptarit është Shqiptaria ([[Albanian language|Albanian]]: The faith of the Albanian is Albanianism) |national_anthem = [[Hymni i Flamurit]] |official_languages = [[Albanian language|Albanian]] |capital = [[Tirana]] |latd=41 |latm=20 |latNS=N |longd=19 |longm=48 |longEW=E |largest_city = [[Tirana]] |government_type = emerging [[democracy]] |leader_titles = &bull; [[List of Presidents of Albania|President]] <br>&bull; [[List of Prime Ministers of Albania|Prime Minister]] |leader_names = &bull; [[Alfred Moisiu]] <br>&bull; [[Sali Berisha]] |area_rank = 139th |area_magnitude = 1 E10 |area = 28,748 |areami² = 11,100 <!--Do not remove--> |percent_water = 4.7 |population_estimate = 3,563,112 |population_estimate_year = 2005 |population_estimate_rank = 126 |population_census = |population_census_year = |population_density = 123 |population_densitymi² = 318.6 <!--Do not remove--> |population_density_rank = 63 |GDP_PPP_year = 2003 |GDP_PPP = $15.7 billion |GDP_PPP_rank = 112th |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $4,900 |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 105th |HDI_year = 2003 |HDI = 0.780 |HDI_rank = 72nd |HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font> |sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] |established_events = |established_dates = From [[Ottoman Empire]] <br>&nbsp;[[November 28]], [[1912]] |currency = [[Lek (currency)|Lek]] |currency_code = ALL |country_code = al |time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]] |utc_offset = +1 |time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] |utc_offset_DST = +2 |cctld = [[.al]] |calling_code = 355 |footnotes = }} ''This article is about Albania, the country on the Adriatic coast of the Balkans. For other historic uses, see [[Albania (disambiguation)]]. '''Albania''' ([[Albanian language|Albanian]]: ''Republika e Shqipërisë'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[ɾɛpublika ɛ ʃciəpəɾisə]}}) is a [[Mediterranean]] country in southeastern [[Europe]]. It is bordered by [[Serbia and Montenegro]] in the north, the [[Republic of Macedonia]] in the east, and [[Greece]] in the south; it has a coast on the [[Adriatic Sea]] in the west, and a coast on the [[Ionian Sea]] in the southwest. The country is an emerging [[democracy]] and is formally named the '''Republic of Albania'''. == History == ''Main articles: [[Illyria]], [[Illyricum]], [[Dalmatia]], [[History of Albania]].'' The earlier inhabitants were probably part of the pre-Indo-European populace that occupied the coastline of most parts of the Mediterranean. Their physical remains are scarce though, and concentrated on the coastal region. Soon, these first inhabitants were overrun by the Proto-Hellenic tribes that gradually occupied modern-day Greece, southern parts of what is now the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and the south of present-day Albania. This process was completed over the second millennium BC and did not really affect northern or central Albania, an area that at the time presented the image of a political vacuum (in essence a historical paradox). Historians do not agree over the origin of the [[Illyrians]]. Some of them maintain that the Illyrians descended from the pre-Indo-European [[Pelasgians]], while most scholars place them in the later wave of Indo-European invasions. Their presence can be traced back to 900 BC, when their political structure was formulated in the [[7th century BC|7th]] and [[6th century BC|6th]] centuries BC. Excellent metal craftsmen and fierce warriors, the Illyrians formed warlord based kingdoms that fought amongst themselves for most of their history. Only during the 6th century did the Illyrians venture significant raids against their immediate neighbours: the kingdom of the [[Molossians]] in southern Albania, the kingdom of [[Macedon]], and the kingdom of [[Paionia]]. Besides warfare, the [[Illyrians]] were also peaceful traders of agricultural products and metal works. The [[Illyrian]] culture was heavily influenced by the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] culture (mainly the south Illyrian tribes). Albania is also the site of several ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] colonies. === Macedonian Rule === Probably their most important success was the slaughter of [[Perdiccas III of Macedon|Perdiccas III]], king of Macedon. Unfortunately for the [[Illyrians]], [[Perdiccas]] was succeeded by [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]], father of [[Alexander the Great]], who effectively terminated the [[Illyrian]] aggression, effectively ending any dominant control by the [[Illyrians]] in the region. === Roman and Byzantine Rule === After being conquered by the [[Roman Empire]], [[Illyria]] was reorganized as a [[Roman]] province, [[Illyricum]], later divided into the provinces of [[Dalmatia]] and [[Pannonia]], the lands comprising Albania mostly being included in [[Dalmatia]]. Later, the [[Byzantine Empire]] governed the region. It was also ruled by the [[Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian]] and [[Serbian Empire]]. After centuries, use of the name ''Illyria'' to denote the region fell out of fashion. === Ottoman Rule === In the middle ages, the name ''Albania'' (see ''[[Origin and history of the name Albania]]'') began to be increasingly applied to the region now comprising the nation of Albania. From [[1443]] to [[1468]] [[Skanderbeg|Gjergj Kastrioti Skenderbeu]] led a successful resistance against the invading [[Ottomans]]. After the death of [[Skenderbeg]], resistance continued until [[1478]], although with only moderate success. The loyalties and alliances created and nurtured by [[Skenderbeg]] faltered and fell apart, and the [[Ottomans]] conquered the territory of Albania shortly after the fall of the [[castle]] [[Kruje]]. '''Albania''' then became part of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Following this, many Albanians fled to neighboring [[Italy]], and the majority of the '''Albanian''' population that remained converted to [[Islam]]. They would remain a part of the [[Ottoman Empire]] until [[1912]]. === Effects of the Balkan Wars === After the [[Balkan Wars|Second Balkan War]], the [[Ottomans]] were removed from Albania and there was a possibility of the lands being absorbed by [[Serbia]], and the southern tip by [[Greece]]. This decision angered the [[Italians]] who did not want [[Serbia]] to have an extended coastline, and it angered the [[German people|Germans]] who could build a railway to reach the Orient. [[Berlin]] then held discussions with [[Russia]] (the superpower in charge of [[Serbia]]) and with [[Greece]]. Eventually, it was decided that the country should not be divided but instead consolidated into the [[Principality]] of Albania under a German [[prince]],[[William of Wied]]. When the German [[prince]] was expelled by the [[Albanian]] people after 6 months as the self named "King of Albania", [[Great Britain]], [[France]], and [[Italy]], as members the [[League of Nations]], wanted to divide the territory once and for all. Intervention by [[United States of America]] [[president]] [[Woodrow Wilson]] vetoed the vote and allowed Albania to retain its status. From [[1928]], the country was ruled by [[Zog of Albania|King Zog I]] until [[1938]] when it became a puppet of [[Italy]]. === World War II and Enver Hoxha Rule === Albanian communists and nationalists actively fought a partisan war against the Italian and German invasions in WW II. Certain smaller organizations helped the foreign invaders, but it was the [[communists]] who took over after [[World War II]]. In November [[1944]] the communists gained control of the government under the leader of the resistance, [[Enver Hoxha]] . From [[1945]] until [[1990]] Albania had one of the most repressive governments in [[Europe]]. The [[communist party]] was created in [[1941]] with the help of [[Bolshevik]] [[Communist]] Parties. All those who opposed it were eliminated. For the many decades under his domination, Hoxha created and destroyed relationships with Belgrade, Moscow, and China, always in his personal interests. The country was isolated, first from the West (Western Europe, North America and Australasia) and later even from the communist East. === The Fall of Communism and Democratic Albania === In 1985, Enver Hoxha died and [[Ramiz Alia]] took his place. Initially, Alia tried to follow in Hoxha's footsteps, but in Eastern Europe changes had already started: [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] had appeared in the [[Soviet Union]] with new policies ([[Glasnost]] and [[perestroika]]). The Albanian totalitarian regime was under pressure from the [[United States|US]], Europe, and the anger and despair of its own people. After [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]] (the communist leader of [[Romania]]) was executed in a revolution, Alia knew he would be next if changes were not made. He signed the [[Helsinki Agreement]] (which was signed by other countries in 1975) that respected some [[human rights]]. He also allowed [[pluralism]], and even though his party won the election of 1991 it was clear that the change would not be stopped. In [[1992]] the general elections were won by the Democratic Party with 62% of the votes. In the general elections of June, [[1996]] the Democratic Party tried to win an absolute majority and manipulated the results. In [[1997]] an epidemic of [[pyramid schemes]] sent shockwaves through the entire country's economy, and riots started. Police stations and military bases were looted of millions of weaponry, [[Kalashnikov]]s. Anarchy prevailed, and many cities were controlled by militia and less-organized armed citizens. Even US military advisors left the country for their own safety. In response to the anarchy, the Socialist Party won the early elections of [[1997]]. However, stability was far from being restored in the years after the 1997 riots. The power feuds raging inside the Socialist Party led to a series of short-lived Socialist governments. The country was flooded with refugees from neighboring [[Kosovo]] in [[1998]] and [[1999]]. In June, 2002, a compromise candidate, Alfred Moisiu, a former general and defense minister, was elected to succeed President Meidani. Parliamentary elections in July, [[2005]], brought back to power Sali Berisha, Leader of the Democratic Party, mostly owing to Socialist infighting and a series of corruption scandals plaguing the Nano government. Since 1990 Albania has been diplomatically oriented towards the West, it was accepted to the Council of Europe and has requested membership of [[NATO]]. The work-force of Albania has continued to emigrate to Greece, Italy, Europe and North America. Corruption in the government is becoming more and more obvious. Any hope for a short and not too painful transition after Communism has long since been dashed. == Politics == ''Main article:'' [[Politics of Albania]] The head of state is the president, who is elected by the ''[[Kuvendi]]'', or the Assembly of the Republic of Albania every 5 years. The main part of the Assembly's 140 members is elected every 4 years. 100 of the parliament's members are chosen by the people with a direct vote, while the other 40 members are chosen using a proportional system. The head of government is the Prime Minister who is assisted by a council of ministers. The Council of Ministers is selected by the Prime Minister (A process called "forming the government") and then approved by a simple majority (71 votes) in the Assembly. == Administrative divisions == ''Main articles: [[Districts of Albania]] and [[Counties of Albania]]'' Albania is divided into 12 ''qark'' (county or prefecture), which are further divided into 36 ''rrethe'' (districts). The capital city, Tiranë, has a special status. The districts are: {| |- | *<small>1</small> [[Berat District|Berat]] *<small>2</small> [[Bulqizë District|Bulqizë]] *<small>3</small> [[Delvinë District|Delvinë]] *<small>4</small> [[Devoll District|Devoll]] *<small>5</small> [[Dibër District|Dibër]] *<small>6</small> [[Durrës District|Durrës]] *<small>7</small> [[Elbasan District|Elbasan]] *<small>8</small> [[Fier District|Fier]] *<small>9</small> [[Gjirokastër District|Gjirokastër]] *<small>10</small> [[Gramsh District|Gramsh]] *<small>11</small> [[Has District|Has]] *<small>12</small> [[Kavajë District|Kavajë]] | *<small>13</small> [[Kolonjë District|Kolonjë]] *<small>14</small> [[Korçë District|Korçë]] *<small>15</small> [[Krujë District|Krujë]] *<small>16</small> [[Kuçovë District|Kuçovë]] *<small>17</small> [[Kukës District|Kukës]] *<small>18</small> [[Kurbin District|Kurbin]] *<small>19</small> [[Lezhë District|Lezhë]] *<small>20</small> [[Librazhd District|Librazhd]] *<small>21</small> [[Lushnjë District|Lushnjë]] *<small>22</small> [[Malësi e Madhe District|Malësi e Madhe]] *<small>23</small> [[Mallakastër District|Mallakastër]] *<small>24</small> [[Mat District|Mat]] | *<small>25</small> [[Mirditë District|Mirditë]] *<small>26</small> [[Peqin District|Peqin]] *<small>27</small> [[Përmet District|Përmet]] *<small>28</small> [[Pogradec District|Pogradec]] *<small>29</small> [[Pukë District|Pukë]] *<small>30</small> [[Sarandë District|Sarandë]] *<small>31</small> [[Shkodër District|Shkodër]] *<small>32</small> [[Skrapar District|Skrapar]] *<small>33</small> [[Tepelenë District|Tepelenë]] *<small>34</small> [[Tiranë District|Tiranë]] *<small>35</small> [[Tropojë District|Tropojë]] *<small>36</small> [[Vlorë District|Vlorë]] | [[Image:AlbaniaNumberedDistricts.png|150px|right|Districts of Albania]] |} See also: [[List of cities in Albania]] (''Note: some cities have the same name as the district they are in''). == Geography == ''Main article: [[Geography of Albania]]'' [[Image:Albania map.png|frame|Map of Albania]] Albania consists of mostly [[hill]]y and [[mountain]]ous terrain, the highest mountain, Korab in the district of Dibra reaching up to 2,753 metres (9,032&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). The country mostly has a continental [[climate]], with cold [[winter]]s and hot [[summer]]s. Besides capital city [[Tirana]], with 800,000 inhabitants, the principal cities are [[Durrës]], [[Elbasan]], [[Shkodër]], [[Gjirokastër]], [[Vlorë]] and [[Korçë]]. In Albanian grammar a word can have indefinite and definite forms, and this also applies to city names: so both Tiranë and Tirana, Shkodër and Shkodra are used. == Economy == ''Main article: [[Economy of Albania]]'' In Albania, half of the economically-active population still engaged in [[agriculture]] and a fifth works abroad. The country has almost no exports, and imports most if its goods from Greece and Italy. Money for imports comes from financial aid and from the money that [[immigrant]]s working abroad - mostly in neighbouring Greece - bring to Albania. This is a good [[status quo]] business for both Greece and Italy. Albania's coastline on the Ionian Sea, near the Greek tourist island of [[Corfu]], is becoming increasingly popular with foreign visitors due to its relatively unspoilt nature and good beaches. However, the tourist industry is still in its infancy. Growth was strong 2003-05 and inflation is not a problem. GDP(purchasing power parity): 18.05 billion Note: Albania has a large gray economy that may be as large as 50% of official GDP. (2005 est.) GDP (official exchange rate): 8.741 billion (2005 est.) GDP (real growth rate): 6% (2005 est.) GDP- composition by sector: agriculture: 23.6% industry: 20.5% services: 55.9% (2005 est.) Exports: 708 million f.o.b. (2005 est.) Imports: 2.473 billion f.o.b. (2005 est.) Aid per Capita: 52 US$ External Debt: 1.41 billion (2003 est.) Defence Expenditure: (n/a) Children in Labour Force: 1 % of children aged 10-14 work == Demographics == ''Main article: [[Demographics of Albania]]'' Most of the population is ethnically Albanian (95% according to the [[CIA World Factbook]] Feb 2005), there is a [[Greece|Greek]] minority (3% of the population), this however could significally vary according to other sources, (note: in 1989, other estimates of the Greek population ranged from 1% (official Albanian statistics) to 12% (from a Greek organization) [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/al.html#People]). Many ethnic Albanians also live in the bordering countries of [[Serbia and Montenegro]] (around 1,850,000; of that, around 1,800,000 in [[Serbia]] (around 1,700,000 in its province called [[Kosovo]] (officially [[Kosovo and Metohia]]) only) and around 50,000 in [[Montenegro]]) and the [[Republic of Macedonia]] (around 500,000) although a lot of Albanians believe that the number might be higher. Also a small number of ethnic Albanians live in Greece which are called Çam. Claims over Çam numbers have ranged from 90,000 to over one 1,000,000 but are believed to be understated because Athens has not considered the local Albanians to be a separate ethnic group.[http://www.frosina.org] Since [[1991]], large numbers of Albanians have emigrated, both legally and illegally, to [[Greece]] and [[Italy]]. The language is [[Albanian language|Albanian]], although [[Greek language|Greek]] is also spoken by the Greek minority in the southern regions of the country. At the height of the Ottoman occupation, the majority of [[Albanians]] were mostly [[Muslim]] (70%), even though religion was prohibited during the communist era. The Albanian government proclaimed Albania the only officially atheistic country in the world. After the fall of the Communist Regime in 1989-1990 religions were reinstated. According to 1939 statistics, the [[Albanian Orthodox Church|Albanian Orthodox]] (20%) and [[Roman Catholic Church]] (10%) would be the other main religions in Albania. Religious fanaticism has never been a serious problem, with people from different religions living in peace and even getting married although this was not considered to be an optimal solution. 20% of the total Muslim population is [[Bektashi]], people who follow a faith originating in the Turkish migrations into Turkey, and came to Albania through the Ottoman [[Janissary|Janissaries]]. It has outwardly Shi'ite Islamic elements, but is really a Shamanic-Pantheistic faith. == Culture == ''Main article: [[Culture of Albania]]'' *[[Albanian Literature]] *[[Cuisine of Albania]] *[[Music of Albania]] *[[Sport in Albania]] *[[Radio Televizioni Shqiptar]] *[[Top-Channel|Top-Channel TV]] == Miscellaneous topics == *[[List of Albania-related articles]] *[[List of Albanians]] *[[Islam in Albania]] *[[Albanian mythology]] *[[Beslidhja Skaut Albania]] *[[List of sovereign states]] *[[Communications in Albania]] *[[Education in Albania]] *[[Foreign relations of Albania]] *[[Military of Albania]] *[[Transportation in Albania]] *[[Public holidays in Albania]] *[[List of Albanian-Americans]] *[[Arbëreshë|Albanians in Italy]] *[[Butrint National Park]] *[[The Jewish Community of Albania]] *[[Albanian-Actors]] == External links == {{sisterlinks|Albania}} *[http://www.vlora.it/ News and Fun from Albania] Albanian Language *[http://www.fotw.us/flags/al-index.html#pol List of Abanian flags] throughout history *[http://www.balkanforums.com Albania and the Balkans] Discussion Forum *[http://www.geocities.com/protoillyrian Albanian Etymological Dictionary] *[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/al.html CIA - The World Factbook -- Albania] - [[CIA]]'s Factbook on Albania *[http://www.albanian.com/community/index.php General information on Albanians] *[http://www.gksoft.com/govt/en/al.html More links of the Albanian government] *[http://www.albaniafoto.com/en/ Albania Pictures] *[http://www.albeu.com An Albanian news portal] (in Albanian) *[http://www.opic.gov/links/countryInfo.asp?country=Albania&region=euro OPIC Guide on Albania] *[http://www.travelconsumer.com/countries/albania.htm Travel guide to Albania] *[http://hotelkalemi.tripod.com Guide to Gjirokaster] *[http://www.freeworldmaps.net/europe/albania/map.html Map of Albania] *[http://vlib.iue.it/history/europe/albania.html WWW-VL: History: Albania] ===Official government websites=== *[http://www.albca.com/aclis Albanian Canadian League Information Service - ACLIS] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[English language|English]]) *[http://www.tanmarket.com/php TanPortal Albanian Social Economic] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]]) *[http://www.albca.com Albanian Canadian League - ACL] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[English language|English]]) *[http://www.km.gov.al/english/default.asp Department of Information] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[English language|English]]) *[http://www.parlament.al The Albanian Parliament] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]]) *[http://www.president.al Presidency of Albania] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[English language|English]]) *[http://www.instat.gov.al Albanian Institute of Statistics] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[English language|English]]) {{Europe}} [[Category:Albania| ]] [[af:Albanië]] [[als:Albanien]] [[ang:Albania]] [[ar:ألبانيا]] [[an:Albania]] [[roa-rup:Albanii]] [[ast:Albania]] [[bg:Албания]] [[zh-min-nan:Shqipëria]] [[be:Альбанія]] [[bn:আলবেনিয়া]] [[bs:Albanija]] [[ca:Albània]] [[chr:ᎠᎸᏇᏂᏯ]] [[cs:Albánie]] [[cy:Albania]] [[da:Albanien]] [[de:Albanien]] [[et:Albaania]] [[el:Αλβανία]] [[es:Albania]] [[eo:Albanio]] [[eu:Albania]] [[fa:آلبانی]] [[fo:Albania]] [[fr:Albanie]] [[fy:Albaanje]] [[fur:Albanie]] [[gd:Albàinia]] [[gl:Albania - Shqipëria]] [[ko:알바니아]] [[ht:Albani]] [[hy:Ալբանիա]] [[hi:अल्बानिया]] [[hr:Albanija]] [[io:Albania]] [[id:Albania]] [[ia:Albania]] [[is:Albanía]] [[it:Albania]] [[he:אלבניה]] [[ka:ალბანეთი]] [[kw:Albani]] [[ku:Elbanya]] [[la:Albania]] [[lv:Albānija]] [[lt:Albanija]] [[lb:Albanien]] [[li:Albanië]] [[hu:Albánia]] [[mk:Албанија]] [[mg:Albania]] [[mt:Albanija]] [[ms:Albania]] [[na:Albania]] [[nl:Albanië]] [[nds:Albanien]] [[ja:アルバニア]] [[no:Albania]] [[nn:Albania]] [[oc:Albania]] [[ps:البانيا]] [[pl:Albania]] [[pt:Albânia]] [[ro:Albania]] [[ru:Албания]] [[se:Albánia]] [[sa:अल्बानिया]] [[sq:Shqipëria]] [[simple:Albania]] [[sk:Albánsko]] [[sl:Albanija]] [[sr:Албанија]] [[fi:Albania]] [[sv:Albanien]] [[tl:Albanya]] [[th:ประเทศแอลเบเนีย]] [[tr:Arnavutluk Cumhuriyeti]] [[uk:Албанія]] [[zh:阿尔巴尼亚]] [[fiu-vro:Albaania]] 740 42136152 2006-03-04T01:35:06Z Jossi 60449 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.122.164.153|71.122.164.153]] ([[User talk:71.122.164.153|talk]]) to last version by El C {{Islam}} :''For a king of [[Anglo-Saxon]] England, see [[Aella of Deira]] or [[Aelle II of Northumbria]] or [[Aelle of Sussex]].'' :''Men's names <u>Allah-ed-din</u> and similar are misspellings for [[Ala-ud-din]]; and see [[Arabic name#Mistakes made by Europeans and other non-Arabs|here]] for other sorts of error.'' The word '''{{ArabDIN|Allāh}}''' is the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] term for "[[God]]". In other languages, it is often used to refer specifically to the [[Islamic concept of God]]: see "[[#Usage|Usage]]" below. ==Etymology== ===Usage=== {{Arabicterm|الله|Allah, Allāh|The God}} Although, outside the Arab world, use of the word ''Allāh'' is most often associated with [[Islam]], it is not exclusive to that faith; [[Arab Christians]] and various Arabic-speaking [[Jew]]s (including the [[Teimanim]], several {{ArabDIN|[[Mizrahi Jews|Mizraḥi]]}} communities and some [[Sephardim]]) also use it to refer to the [[monotheist]] [[deity]]. Arabic translations of the [[Bible]] also employ it, as do [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] in [[Malta]] (who pronounce it as "Alla"), [[Christians]] in [[Indonesia]], who say "Allah Bapa" (God the Father) and Christians in the [[Middle East]] who use the [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] "Allāha". ==="Allah" as a word=== Many [[Linguistics|linguists]] believe that the term ''Allāh'' is derived from a contraction of the Arabic words ''al'' (the) and ''ʾilāh'' (deity, masculine form) - ''al-ilāh'' meaning "the god." In addition, one of the main pagan goddesses of pre-Islamic Arabia, [[Allat|Allāt]] (''al'' + ''ʾilāh'' + ''at'', or 'the goddess'), is cited as being [[Etymology|etymologically]] (though not synchronically) the feminine linguistic counterpart to the grammatically masculine Allāh. If so, the word ''Allāh'' is an abbreviated title, meaning 'the deity', rather than a name. For this reason, both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars often translate Allāh directly into [[English language|English]] as 'God'; this also explains why Arabic-speaking Jews and Christians freely refer to God as Allāh. However, some Muslim scholars feel that "Allāh" should not be translated, because they perceived the Arabic word to express the uniqueness of "Allāh" more accurately than the word "god", which can take a plural "gods", whereas the word "Allāh" has no plural form. This is a significant issue in [[translation of the Qur'an]]. [[Image:Allah.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An example of ''{{ArabDIN|allāh}}'' written in simple [[Arabic calligraphy]].]] The word ''Allāh'' is always written without an [[alif]] to spell the ''ā'' vowel. This is because the spelling was settled before Arabic spelling started habitually using [[alif]] to spell ''ā''. However, in vocalized spelling, a diacritic ''alif'' is added on top of the ''[[shadda|shaddah]]'' to indicate pronunciation. One exception is in the pre-Islamic [[History of the Arabic alphabet#Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions|Zabad inscription]], where it is spelled الاه. [[Unicode]] has glyph reserved for Allah, {{ar|ﷲ}} = U+FDF2, which can be combined with an alif to yield the post-consonantal form, {{ar|اﷲ}}, as opposed to the full spelling ''alif-lām-lām-hā'' {{ar|الله}} which may be rendered slightly differently, in particular featuring a diacritic ''alif'' on top of the ''shadda''. In this, Unicode imitates traditional Arabic typesetting, which also frequently featured special ''llāh'' types. Also In ''[[Abjad numerals]]'', [[The Name Of Allah (&#1575;&#1604;&#1604;&#1607;) ]] numeric value is [[66]]. ==Islamic use of "Allāh"== From the point of view of traditional [[Islam]]ic [[theology]], Allāh is the most precious name of God because it is not a descriptive name like other [[Ninety-nine names of Allah|ninety-nine names of God]], but the name of God's own presence. Muslims believe that the name of Allah had existed before the time of [[Adam and Eve|Adam]]. It is the same God worshipped by [[Adam and Eve|Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Jesus]], [[Muhammad]] and other [[prophets of Islam]]. In Islam, there is only one God and Muhammad is the last messenger. The emphasis in Islamic culture on reciting the [[Qur'an]] in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] has resulted in ''Allāh'' often being used by [[Muslim]]s world-wide as the word for ''God'', regardless of their [[native language]]. Out of 114 [[Sura]]s in the [[Qur'an]], 113 begin with the [[Basmala]] ("Bismi 'llāhi 'r-rahmāni 'r-rahīm" بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم) which means "In the name of God, the most kind, the most merciful". [[Muslim]]s, when referring to the name, often add the words "Subhanahu wa Ta`ala" after it, meaning "Glorified and Exalted is He" as a sign of reverence, or "`Azza wa Jalla" (عز و جل). The entire religion of [[Islam]] is based on the idea of getting closer to God. Although commonly referred to as a "He", God is considered genderless, but there is no [[neuter gender]] to express this in the Arabic language. When Greek or other [[Polytheism|polytheistic]] deities are discussed in Arabic, it is customary to use the expression ''ilāh'', a "deity" or lower-case "god"; sometimes the word ''ma`būd'', literally meaning "worshipped [entity]", is used instead. ===Uses of "Allāh" in phrases=== There are many [[List of Arabic phrases#Phrases with Allah's name|phrases]] that contain the word Allāh: *[[Allahu Akbar|Allāhu Akbar]] (الله أكبر) (God is the greatest) *[[A'uzu billahi minashaitanir rajim]] (I seek refuge in Allah from Shaitan, the damned) *[[Basmala|Bismi-llāh]] (بسم الله) (In the name of God) *[[Insha'Allah|Inshā'Allāh]] (إن شاء الله) (God-willing) :also the origin of the common [[Spanish language|Spanish]] [[interjection]] "Ojalá", which shares a similar meaning. :probably also the origin of the [[Portuguese (language)|Portuguese]] interjection ''Oxalá'', "let's hope for it" or "let's hope that...". *[[Yā Allāh]] (يا الله)(Oh God) :may be the origin of the Spanish and Portuguese [[exclamation]] "Olé!". *[[Masha Allah|Mā shā' Allāh]] (ما شاء الله) ([Look at] what God has willed!) *[[Subhan'allah|Subhān Allāh]] (سبحان الله) (Glory be to God) *[[alhamdulillah|al-Hamdu li-llāh]] (الحمد لله) (All praise be to God) *[[Allāhu A`alam]] (الله أعلم) (God knows best) *[[Jazaka Allāhu khayran]] (جزاك الله خيراً) (May God reward you for your deeds) "Allāh" appears in a stylized form on the [[flag of Iran]], in the phrase "Allāhu Akbar" on the [[flag of Iraq]], and as part of the [[shahadah|shahādah]] on the [[flag of Saudi Arabia]]. "Allah" is not correctly used as a man's name. See [[Arabic name#Mistakes made by Europeans and other non-Arabs]]. ==Islamic concept of God== {{main|Islamic concept of God}} The Islamic concept of mankind's place in the universe hinges on the notion that '''[[Allāh]]''', or '''[[God]]''', is the only true [[reality]]. There is nothing permanent other than Him. God is considered eternal and "uncreated", whereas everything else in the universe is "created." The Qur'an describes Him in [[Sura 112]]: "Say: He is Allāh, [[Singular]]. Allāh, the Absolute. He begetteth not nor was begotten. And to Him have never been one equal." (see [[Tawhid]] for more). The Qur'an condemns and mocks the pre-Islamic Arabs for attributing daughters to Allāh ([[sura 53]]:19.) Muslims believe that Allāh, or [[God]], is the only true God who deserves to be worshipped. This belief must be accompanied by the acknowledgement that Mohammad was a true prophet of God who was chosen to guide people to believing and worshipping God in the correct manner. God is considered eternal and uncreated; with no beginning, whereas everything else in the universe is created with a beginning. The Qur'an mentions, (approximated in English) [[Sura 112]]: "Say: He is Allāh, Without partner. Allāh, the Absolute. He begetteth not nor was begotten. And to Him have never been one equal." (see [[Tawhid]] for more). God is considered by Muslims to be [[Omnipotence|omnipotent]], [[Omnipresence|omnipresent]], and [[Omniscience|omniscient]]. In the Qur'an, God is described as being fully aware of everything that happens in the universe, and knows all things. God also knows what is in people's hearts and minds at all times. It is mentioned in the Qur'an (approximately), "And He it is Who takes your souls at night (in sleep), and He knows what you acquire in the day, then He raises you up therein that an appointed term may be fulfilled; then to Him is your return, then He will inform you of what you were doing. ([[sura 6]]:60)" Placing God inside his creation, or suggesting that nature or creation simultaneously co-exist in God or vice versa, as in other religious traditions, completely compromises exclusive Islamic monotheism. Attributing a partner, spouse, father, son, daughter, mother or other relation(s) to Allah, literally or metaphorically, partially or completely, is considered unquestionably blasphemous by Muslims. Therefore, Muslims consider it blasphemous to describe Jesus (or another man, woman child etc) as 'Son of God' whether literally or metaphorically. Similarly, Muslims do not believe that God resembles a man (old or young), woman, half man half woman, half man half animal , bird, elephant or other animal or other creation. It is forbidden for Muslims to view God [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphically]]. Allah does not resemble any of his creations in any way whatsoever. Allah is not attributed with shape, colour, size, position, location, direction and indeed all of these attributes are found in the creatures Allah created. Further, Muslims do not believe that Allah is located in a place, whether on Earth, below the Earth, in the Sky, above the Sky, on a Throne above the Sky or all of these places at once or anywhere else or everywhere, but rather, God exists without a place (given he created all places and locations) and the perfectness of his existence is not compromised by his existence not being bound to a created (by Allah) place or location. God is attributed with complete perfection in his attributes and is free from any defects or any imperfections. Allah is attributed (amongst other attributes) with oneness (without a partner in God's self or attributes), non-beginningness, eternalness, complete freedom from needing others (i.e. each or any of his creations), complete power to do all things, Will (to do as he wills, as and when God decides without any obstruction), knowledge, (of all things simultaneously, past, present and future) hearing (of all sounds without needing any implement or organ to hear), sight (without needing eyes or any other organ or instrument nor light rays to illuminate an area or an object), life (unlike the human or other life which is created and limited, but that which befits him with no beginning or end), speech (unlike the human, created speech which is constituted of languages, letters and sounds but rather an eternal speech which is not a creation but an attribute of God) and the complete non-resemblence of any creation in his self or attributes. ==History== It was used in pre-Islamic times by Pagans within the Arabian peninsula to signify the supreme creator. Pre-Islamic Jews referred to their supreme creator as [[Yahweh]] or [[Elohim]]. The pagan Arabs recognized "Allāh" as the supreme God in their [[Pre-Islamic mythology|pantheon]]; along with Allah, however, the pre-Islamic Arabs believed in a host of other gods, such as [[Hubal]] and 'daughters of Allāh' (the three daughters associated were [[Al-lat|al-Lāt]], [[Al-Uzza|al-`Uzzah]], and [[Manah]]) (Encyclopedia of World Mythology and Legend, ''"The Facts on File"'', ed. Anthony Mercatante, [[New York]], [[1983]], I:61). This view of Allah by the pre-Islamic pagans is viewed by Muslims as a latter development having arisen as a result of moving away from Abrahamic monotheism over time. Some of the names of these pagan gods are said to be derived from the descendants of Noah, whom latter generations firstly revered as saints, and then transformed into gods (although non-Muslims often view polytheism as having come before monotheism). The pagan Arabians also used the word "Allāh" in the names of their children; [[Muhammad]]'s father, who was born into pagan society, was named "`Abdullāh", which translates "servant of Allāh". "`Abdullāh" is still used for names of Muslim and non-Muslim arabs. The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word for deity, [[Names of God in Judaism#El|El]] (אל) or [[Names of God in Judaism#Elohim|Elōah]] (אלוה), was used as an [[Old Testament]] synonym for [[Yahweh]] (יהוה), which is the proper name for the Jewish God according to the [[Tanakh]]. The [[Aramaic]] word for God is ''alôh-ô'' ([[Syriac]] dialect) or elâhâ (Biblical dialect), which comes from the same Proto-[[Semitic languages|Semitic]] word (''*ʾilâh-'') as the Arabic and Hebrew terms; [[Jesus]] is described in [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 15:34 as having used the word on the cross, with the ending meaning "my", when saying, "My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?" (transliterated in Greek as ''elō-i''). One of the earliest surviving translations of the word into a foreign language is in a [[Greek language|Greek]] translation of the [[Shahada]], from 86-96 AH ([[705]]-[[715]] AD), which translates it as ''ho theos monos''[http://www.islamic-awareness.org/History/Islam/Papyri/enlp1.html], literally "the one god". Also the cognate Aramaic term appears in the Aramaic version of the ''New Testament'', called the [[Pshitta]] (or Peshitta) as one of the words Jesus used to refer to God, e.g., in the sixth Beatitude, "Blessed are the pure in heart for they shall see Alāha." And in the Arabic Bible the same words ([[Matthew 5:8|Mt 5:8]]): "طُوبَى لأَنْقِيَاءِ الْقَلْبِ، فَإِنَّهُمْ سَيَرَوْنَ الله" ==Other beliefs== [[The Nation of Gods and Earths]], one of the many sects created as the result of black separatist movements in the United States, holds that the word "Allāh" is the name of the original black man and stands for "Arm, Leg, Leg, Arm, Head". [http://web.archive.org/web/20041019023127/http://www.ibiblio.org/nge/] [http://www.usatoday.com/news/opinion/2002-10-29-oped-goldblatt_x.htm] This concept is alien to mainstream Islam, which strictly opposes any attempt to portray Allāh as a human or in any other way. Mainstream Islam also prohibits attibuting divine qualities to, worshipping, or glorifying anything other than Allāh. The [[Bahá'í Faith]], whose [[:Category:Bahá'í texts|scriptures]] are primarily written in [[Arabic]] and [[Farsi]], also uses '''Allah''' to mean God, though in practice the customary word for God in the local language is typically used when speaking in that language. Some particular uses are not translated, but the Arabic phrase is used. The chief example of this would be the Bahá'í customary greeting '''Alláh'u'abhá''' which is commonly translated as ''God is the All Glorious''. ==See also== *[[God]] *[[Islam]] *[[99 Names of God]] *[[Muhammad]] *[[Monotheism]] ==External Links== *[http://www.faizani.com/portal/allah.html Islam Way Online - Your Religion and Spirituality Portal] For further discussion on Allah, the word's etymology, and the Islamic concept [[Category:Islam]] [[Category:Arabian deities]] [[Category:Deities]] [[Category:Quran]] [[Category:Singular God]] [[Category:Aqidah]] [[af:Allah]] [[ar:الله]] [[bs:Allah]] [[ca:Al·là]] [[da:Allah]] [[de:Allah]] [[et:Allah]] [[es:Alá]] [[fa:الله]] [[fr:Allah]] [[ko:알라]] [[id:Allah]] [[is:Allāh]] [[it:Allah]] [[hu:Allah]] [[ms:Allah]] [[nl:Allah]] [[ja:アッラーフ]] [[no:Allah]] [[nn:Allah]] [[pl:Allah]] [[pt:Alá]] [[ru:Аллах]] [[simple:Allah]] [[sr:Алах]] [[fi:Allah]] [[sv:Allah]] [[tt:Allah]] [[th:อัลลอหฺ]] [[tr:Allah]] [[uk:Аллах]] [[zh:安拉]] 741 42159026 2006-03-04T05:16:48Z Piotrus 59002 /* Gondwana breakup */ {{featured article}} {| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=250 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" |+<big><big>'''Antarctica'''</big></big> | align=center colspan=2 style="background:#f9f9f9;" | [[Image:Flag of Antarctica.svg|left|100px]] [[Image:LocationAntarctica.png|250px|Location of Antarctica]] |- | '''Area''' || 14,000,000&nbsp;km² (280,000&nbsp;km² ice-free, 13,720,000&nbsp;km² ice-covered) |- | '''Population''' || ~1,000 (none permanent) |- | '''Government''' || None, governed by the [[Antarctic Treaty System]] |- | '''Partial Territorial claims''' || {{ARG}} <br> {{AUS}} <br> {{CHL}} <br> {{FRA}} <br> {{NZL}} <br> {{NOR}} <br> {{GBR}} |- | '''Internet [[Top-level domain|TLD]]''' || [[.aq]] |- | '''Calling Code''' || +672 |} :''For the [[Kim Stanley Robinson]] novel, see [[Antarctica (novel)]]'' '''Antarctica''' ([[Greek language|Greek]], ''antarktikos'': "opposite the [[Arctic]]"<ref>Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon '' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=%239514 "antarktikos"]. Retrieved February 12, 2006.</ref>) is a [[continent]] encircling the [[Earth|Earth's]] [[South Pole]], surrounded by the [[Southern Ocean]] and divided in two by the [[Transantarctic Mountains]]. It is a [[desert|cold desert]] and, on average, the coldest place on Earth. 98% of the continent is covered by [[ice]]. Its 14 million&nbsp;km&sup2; make it the fifth largest continent and the world's largest [[desert]]. There are no permanent human residents, and only cold-adapted plants and animals survive there, including [[penguins]], [[fur seals]], [[lichen]]s, and hundreds of types of [[algae]]. Although myths and speculation about a ''[[Terra Australis]]'' ("Southern Land") go back to antiquity, the first commonly accepted sighting of the continent occurred in 1820 and the first verified landing in 1821 by the [[Russia]]n expedition of [[Mikhail Lazarev]] and [[Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen]]. The continent had been largely neglected in the 19th century because of its hostile environment, lack of efficient resources, and its isolated location. Antarctica is not under the political sovereignty of any nation, although seven countries ([[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Chile]], [[France]], [[Norway]], [[New Zealand]] and the [[United Kingdom]]) maintain territorial claims. Most other countries do not recognise these claims, and the claims of Argentina, Chile and the United Kingdom all overlap. Its usage is regulated by the [[Antarctic Treaty]], signed in 1959 by 12 countries, which prohibits any military activity, supports scientific research, and protects the continent's [[ecozone]]. Ongoing experiments are conducted yearly by more than 4,000 scientists of diverse backgrounds and interests. ==Exploration== {{main|History of Antarctica}} [[Image:Shackleton expedition.jpg|left|thumb|210px|''The Endurance'' at night during [[Ernest Shackleton]]'s [[Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition]] in 1914.]] In the Western world, beliefs in a ''[[Terra Australis]]''—a vast continent located in the far south of the globe to "balance" out the northern lands of Europe, Asia and north Africa—had existed for centuries. Even by late in the 17th century, after explorers had found that [[South America]] and [[Australia]] were not part of "Antarctica", geographers believed the continent was much larger than its true size. European maps continued to show this land until [[Captain]] [[James Cook]] and the crews of his expedition's ships, ''[[HMS Resolution (Cook)|Resolution]]'' and ''[[HMS Adventure (1771)|Adventure]]'', crossed the [[Antarctic Circle]] on [[January 17]], [[1773]] and again in 1774.<ref>The Mariners' Museum [http://www.mariner.org/educationalad/ageofex/cook.php ''Age of Exploration - James Cook'']. Retrieved February 12, 2006.</ref> The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica cannot be accurately attributed to one single person. It can, however, be narrowed down to three individuals. According to various organizations (the [[National Science Foundation]],<ref>National Science Foundation. [http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/1997/antpanel/antpan05.pdf History of Antarctica] Retrieved February 6, 2006.</ref> [[NASA]],<ref>NASA, U.S. Government [http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/antarctica/background/NSF/palmer.html Palmer biography] Retrieved February 6, 2006.</ref> the [[University of California, San Diego]],<ref>University of California, San Diego [http://arcane.ucsd.edu/pstat.html Palmer Station] Retrieved February 5, 2006.</ref> and other sources<ref>South-Pole [http://www.south-pole.com/p0000052.htm An Antarctic Time Line : 1519 - 1959]. Retrieved February 12, 2006</ref><ref>Polar Radar for Ice Sheet Measurements. [http://ku-prism.org/polarscientist/timeline/antarcticexplorers1800.html Antarctic Explorers Timeline: Early 1800s]. Retrieved February 12, 2006.</ref>), three men all sighted Antarctica within days or weeks of each other: [[Fabian von Bellingshausen]] (a captain in the Russian Imperial Navy), [[Edward Bransfield]] (a captain in the British navy), and [[Nathaniel Palmer]] (an American sealer out of Stonington, Connecticut). Bransfield supposedly saw Antarctica on [[January 27]], [[1820]], three days before Palmer sighted land. It is certain that on [[January 28]], [[1820]] the expedition led by [[Fabian von Bellingshausen]] and [[Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev]] on two ships reached a point within 32&nbsp;km (20&nbsp;miles) of the Antarctic mainland and saw ice fields there. In 1841 explorer [[James Clark Ross]] sailed through what is now known as the [[Ross Sea]] and discovered [[Ross Island]]. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the [[Ross Ice Shelf]]. [[Mount Erebus]] and [[Mount Terror (Antarctica)|Mount Terror]] are named after two ships from his expedition: ''[[HMS Erebus (1826)|HMS Erebus]]'' and ''[[HMS Terror (1813)|HMS Terror]]''.<ref>[http://www.south-pole.com/p0000081.htm James Clark Ross] South-Pole - Exploring Antarctica. Retrieved February 12, 2006.</ref> During an [[expedition]] by [[Ernest Shackleton]], parties led by [[T. W. Edgeworth David]] became the first to climb [[Mount Erebus]] and to reach the [[South Magnetic Pole]].<ref>Australian Antarctic Division. [http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=6660 ''Tannatt William Edgeworth David''] Retrieved February 7, 2006.</ref> On [[December 14]], [[1911]], a party led by Norwegian polar explorer [[Roald Amundsen]] from the ship ''[[Fram]]'' became the first to reach the [[South Pole]], using a route from the [[Bay of Whales]] and up the [[Axel Heiberg Glacier]].<ref>South-pole [http://www.south-pole.com/p0000101.htm ''Roald Amundsen''] South-Pole - Exploring Antarctica. Retrieved February 9, 2006.</ref> After [[Robert Falcon Scott]]'s journey, [[Richard Evelyn Byrd]] led several voyages to the Antarctic by plane in the 1930s and 1940s. He is credited with implementing mechanized land transport and conducting extensive geological and biological research.<ref>70South. [http://www.70south.com/resources/antarctic-history/explorers/richardbyrd/ Richard Byrd]. Retrieved February 12, 2006.</ref> However, it was not until [[October 31]], [[1956]] that anyone set foot on the South Pole again; on that day a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral [[George Dufek]] successfully landed on an aircraft.<ref>U.S. Navy. [http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/datesoct.htm Dates in American Naval History: October]. Retrieved February 12, 2006.</ref> ==Geography== {{Main|Geography of Antarctica}} [[Image:Antarctica satellite orthographic.jpg|thumb|150px|A satellite composite image of Antarctica]] The continent of Antarctica is located mostly south of the [[Antarctic Circle]], surrounded by the [[Southern Ocean]]. Antarctica is the southernmost [[land mass]] on Earth comprising more than 14 million&nbsp;km&sup2; making it the 5th largest continent. The coastline measures 17,968&nbsp;km. Physically, Antarctica is divided in two by the [[Transantarctic Mountains]] close to the neck between the [[Ross Sea]] and the [[Weddell Sea]]. The portion of the [[continent]] west of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called [[Western Antarctica]] and the remainder [[Eastern Antarctica]], because they correspond roughly to the Eastern and Western Hemispheres relative to the [[Greenwich meridian]]. Western Antarctica is covered by the [[West Antarctic Ice Sheet]]. About 98 percent of Antarctica is covered by an [[ice sheet]] that is, on average, 2.5 kilometers thick. [[Vinson Massif]], the highest peak in Antarctica at 4,892&nbsp;meters, is located in the [[Ellsworth Mountains]]. The [[West Antarctic Ice Sheet]] has been of recent concern because of the slight possibility of its collapse. If it does break down, [[Sea level change|ocean level]]s would rise by a few meters in a relatively short period of time. Despite its zero rainfall in some areas, the continent has approximately 90% of the world's fresh water--in the form of ice.<ref name="cia">Central Intelligence Agency [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ay.html Factbook] Retrieved February 6, 2006.</ref> [[Image:Mt erebus.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mt. Erebus]], an active volcano in [[Ross Island]].]] Although Antarctica is home to many volcanoes, only [[Deception Island]] and [[Mt. Erebus]] are active. Mount Erebus, located in [[Ross Island]], is the southernmost active volcano on Earth. Minor eruptions are frequent and lava flow has been observed in recent years. Other dormant volcanoes may potentially be active.<ref>British Antarctic Survey. [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/About_Antarctica/Rock/Volcanoes.html Volcanoes]. Retrieved February 13, 2006.</ref> In 2004, an underwater volcano was found in the [[Antarctic Peninsula]] by American and Canadian researchers. Recent evidence shows this unnamed volcano may be active.<ref>National Science Foundation. [http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=100385 Scientists Discover Undersea Volcano Off Antarctica]. Retrieved February 13, 2006</ref> Antarctica is home to more than 70 [[lake]]s that lie thousands of metres under the surface of the continental ice sheet, including one under the South Pole itself. [[Lake Vostok]], discovered beneath [[Russia]]'s [[Vostok Station]] in 1996, is the largest of these [[subglacial lake]]s. It is believed that the lake has been sealed off for 35 million years. There is some evidence that Vostok's waters may contain [[microorganism|microbial life]]. Due to the lake's similarity to [[Europa]], a moon of [[Jupiter]], confirming that life can survive in Lake Vostok might strengthen the argument for the presence of life on Europa.<ref>National Science Foundation [http://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/news/02/fslakevostok.htm Lake Vostok] Retrieved February 6, 2006.</ref><ref>NASA [http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/stories/europa_vostok_0899.html Lake Vostok may teach us about Europa] Retrieved February 4, 2006.</ref> {{seealso|Extreme points of Antarctica|Antarctic territories}} == Geology == ===Gondwana breakup=== More than 170 million years ago (Mya), Antarctica was part of the [[supercontinent]] [[Gondwana]]. [[Africa]] separated from Antarctica around 160 Mya follwed by [[India]] in the early Cretaceous (about 125 Mya). About 65 Mya, Antarctica (then still connected to [[Australia]]) had still tropical to subtropical climate, complete with a [[marsupial]] fauna, but by about 45 Mya [[Australia]]-[[New Guinea]] had separated from Antarctica and the first ice appeared. At around 25 Mya, due to the opening of the [[Drake Passage]] between Antarctica and [[South America]] and the resulting [[Antarctic Circumpolar Current]], the ice spread quickly, displacing the forests that then covered the continent. Since about 15 Mya, the continent has been mostly covered with ice.{{fact}} {{sect-stub}} ==Climate== {{Main|Climate of Antarctica}} [[Image:Lake Fryxell.jpg|thumb|left|225px|The [[Blue ice (glacial)|Blue ice]] covering [[Lake Fryxell]], in the [[Transantarctic Mountains]], comes from [[glacier|glacial]] meltwater from the [[Canada Glacier]] and other smaller glaciers.]] Antarctica is the coldest place on earth. Antarctica has little rainfall, with the South Pole getting none, making it a continental desert. Temperatures reach a minimum of between &minus;85 and &minus;90 degrees Celsius (&minus;121 and &minus;130 degrees Fahrenheit) in the winter and about 30&nbsp;degrees higher in the summer months. Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects over 90% of the sunlight falling on it.<ref name="weather">British Antarctic Survey. [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/met/jds/weather/weather.htm ''Weather in the Antarctic''] Retrieved February 9, 2006.</ref> Eastern Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation. [[Weather front]]s rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the center cold and dry. There is little [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] over the central portion of the continent, but [[ice]] there can last for extended time periods. However, heavy snowfalls are not uncommon on the coastal portion of the continent, where snowfalls of up to 1.22&nbsp;meters (48&nbsp;inches) in 48&nbsp;hours have been recorded. At the edge of the continent, strong [[katabatic wind]]s off the polar plateau often blow at storm force. In the interior, however, wind speeds are often moderate. During summer more [[solar radiation]] reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at the [[equator]] in an equivalent period.<ref name="cia" /> Depending on the latitude, long periods of constant darkness, or constant sunlight, mean that climates familiar to humans are not generally available on the continent. The [[aurora australis]], commonly known as the southern lights, is a glow observed in the night sky near the south pole. Another unique spectacle is [[diamond dust]]. Diamond dust refers to a ground-level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals. Diamond dust generally forms under otherwise clear or nearly clear skies, so people sometimes also refer to it as clear-sky precipitation. A [[sundog]], a frequent atmospheric [[optical phenomenon]], is a bright "spot" beside the true [[sun]].<ref name="weather" /> [[image:iceberg09.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Tabletop [[iceberg]]s in Antarctica]] ==Population== {{seealso|Demographics of Antarctica}} [[Image:Antarctic researchers.jpg|thumb|Two American researchers studying [[plankton]] through [[microscope]]s.]] Although Antarctica has no permanent residents, a number of governments maintain permanent [[research station]]s throughout the continent. The population of persons doing and supporting science on the continent and its nearby islands varies from approximately 4,000 in summer to 1,000 in winter. Many of the stations are staffed around the year. [[Emilio Marcos Palma]] was the first person born in Antarctica (Base Esperanza) in 1978, his parents being sent there along with seven other families by the Argentinean government to determine if family life was suitable in the continent. In 1986 Juan Pablo Camacho was born at the Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva Base, becoming the first Chilean born in Antarctica. Several bases are now home to families with children attending schools at the station.<ref>''The Antarctic Sun'' [http://antarcticsun.usap.gov/oldissues2002-2003/answer.html Questions and answers] Retrieved February 9, 2006.</ref> ==Flora and fauna== {{seealso|Antarctic ecozone}} ===Flora=== {{main|Antarctic flora}} [[Image:Lichen squamulose.jpg|thumb|left|More than 200 species of [[lichen]]s are known in Antarctica.]] The climate of Antarctica does not allow for much vegetation to exist. A combination of freezing temperatures, [[soil]] quality, lack of moisture and sunlight limit the chances for plants to exist. As a result, plant life is limited to mostly mosses and liverworts. The autotrophic community is made up of mostly [[protist]]s. The [[flora]] of the continent largely consists of [[lichen]]s, [[bryophyte]]s, [[algae]], and [[fungi]]. Growth generally occurs in the summer and only for a few weeks, at most. There are more than 200 species of lichens and approximately 50 species of bryophytes, such as mosses. Seven hundred species of algae exist, most of which are [[phytoplankton]]. Multicolored [[snow algae]] and [[diatoms]] are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer. There are two species of flowering plants found in the Antarctic Peninsula: [[Antarctic hair grass]] and [[Antarctic pearlwort]].<ref>Australian Antarctic Division [http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=5551 Antarctic Wildlife] Retrieved February 5, 2006.</ref> ===Fauna=== [[Image:Emperor penguin.jpg|thumb|165px|[[Emperor Penguin]]s in [[Ross Sea]], Antarctica.]] Land [[fauna (animals)|fauna]] is completely [[invertebrate]]. Such invertebrate life includes [[microscopic]] [[mite]]s, [[lice]], and [[springtail]]s. The [[midge]], just 12 [[millimeter|mm]] in size, is the largest land animal in Antarctica (other than man). The [[snow petrel]] is one of only three birds that breed exclusively in Antarctica and have been seen at the [[South Pole]]. A variety of marine animals exist, and they rely, directly or indirectly, on the phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes [[penguin]]s, [[blue whales]], and [[fur seal]]s. More specifically, the [[Emperor penguin]] is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica. The [[Adélie Penguin]] breeds further south than any penguin. The [[Rockhopper penguin]] has distinctive feathers around the eyes; one could call them elaborate eyelashes. [[King penguin]]s are also predominant in the Antarctic. The [[Antarctic fur seal]] was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by sealers from the United States and the United Kingdom. Antarctic krill, which congregate in large [[swarm|school]]s, is the [[keystone species]] of the [[ecosystem]] of the [[Southern Ocean]], and is an important food organism for whales, seals, [[leopard seal]]s, fur seals, [[squid]], [[icefish]], penguins, [[albatross]]es and many other birds.<ref>[http://www.knet.co.za/antarctica/fauna_and_flora.htm Creatures of Antarctica] Retrieved February 6, 2006.</ref> The approval of the [[Antarctic Conservation Act]] brought several restrictions to the continent. The introduction of alien plants or animals can bring a criminal penalty, as can the extraction of any indigenous species. The overfishing of krill, which plays a large role in the Antarctic ecosystem, led officials to enact regulations on fishing. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), a treaty enacted in 1980, requires that regulations managing all Southern Ocean fisheries consider potential effects on the entire Antarctic ecosystem.<ref name="cia" /> Despite these new acts, unregulated and illegal fishing, particularly of [[Patagonian toothfish]], remains a serious problem. Particularly, the illegal fishing of toothfish has been increasing with estimates of 32,000&nbsp;tonnes in 2000.<ref>BBC News. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1492380.stm Toothfish at risk from illegal catches]. Retrieved February 11, 2006.</ref><ref>Australian Antarctic Division. [http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=1539 Toothfish]. Retrieved February 11, 2006.</ref> * [http://scilib.ucsd.edu/sio/nsf/fguide/index.html Underwater Field Guide to Ross Island & McMurdo Sound, Antarctica] ==Politics== Antarctica is considered a neutral territory in respect to politics. The [[Antarctic Treaty]], signed in 1959, and related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System, regulate [[international relations]] with respect to Antarctica, Earth's only uninhabited continent. For the purposes of the treaty system, Antarctica is defined as all land and [[ice shelf|ice shelves]] south of the southern 60th [[circle of latitude|parallel]]. The treaty was signed by 12 countries, including the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[United States]], and set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation, environmental protection, and banned military activity on that continent. This was the first [[arms control]] agreement established during the [[Cold War]]. The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature in Antarctica, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military maneuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon. It permits the use of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes.<ref>Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research. [http://www.scar.org/treaty/ ''Antarctic Treaty''] Retrieved February 9, 2006.</ref> Antarctica has no government. Various countries claim areas of it, but most countries do not recognize those claims. The area between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west is the only land on Earth not claimed by any country.<ref name="cia" /> The only documented large-scale land military maneuver was "[[Operación 90]]", undertaken 10 years before the Antarctic Treaty by the [[Military of Argentina|Argentinian military]].<ref>Antarctica Institute of Argentina. [http://www.dna.gov.ar/INGLES/DIVULGAC/ARGANT.HTM ''Argentina in Antarctica''] Retrieved February 9, 2006.</ref> The [[United States military]] issues the [[Antarctica Service Medal]] to military members or civilians who perform research duty on the Antarctica continent. The medal may include a winter-over bar issued to those who remain on the continent for two complete six-month seasons.<ref>U.S. Navy [http://www.history.navy.mil/medals/antarc.htm Antarctic Service Medal] Retrieved February 9, 2006.</ref> ===Antarctic territories=== {{seealso|Antarctic territories}} [[Image:antarctica.jpg|thumb|300px||Territorial claims of Antarctica]] {| class="wikitable" !Flag !Territory !Claimant !Claim limits !Date |- |[[Image:Flag of France.svg|50px]] |[[Adelie Land]] |[[France]] |142°02'E to 136°'11'E |1924 |- |[[Image:Flag of Argentina.svg|50px]] |[[Argentine Antarctica]] |[[Argentina]] |25°W to 74°W |1943 |- |[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|50px]] |[[ Australian Antarctic Territory]] |[[Australia]] |160°E to 142°02'E and 136°11'E to 44°38'E |1933 |- |[[Image:Flag of Chile.svg|50px]] |[[Antártica Chilena Province]] |[[Chile]] |53°W to 90°W |1940 |- |[[Image:Flag of the British Antarctic Territory.png|50px]] |[[British Antarctic Territory]] |[[United Kingdom]] |20°W to 80°W |1908 |- |[[Image:Flag of Norway.svg|50px]] |[[Dronning Maud Land]]<br>[[Peter I Island]] |[[Norway]] |44°38'E to 20°W<br> 68°50'S, 90°35'W |1939<br>1929 |- |[[Image:Flag of New Zealand.svg|50px]] |[[Ross Dependency]] |[[New Zealand]] |150°W to 160°E |1923 |} The Argentinean, British and Chilean claims all overlap. [[Germany]] also maintained a claim to Antarctica, known as [[New Swabia]] between 1939 and 1945. It was situated at 20°E and 10°W, overlapping Norway's claim. ==Economy== {{main|Economy of Antarctica}} [[Image:Antarctic cod.jpg|thumb|The illegal capture and sale of the [[Patagonian toothfish]] has led to several arrests.]] Although coal, hydrocarbons, iron ore, platinum, copper, chromium, nickel, gold and other minerals have been found, they exist in quantities too small to exploit. The 1991 [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]] prevents such struggle for resources. In 1998 a compromise agreement was reached to add a 50-year ban on mining until the year 2048, further limiting economic development and exploitation. The primary agricultural activity is the capture and offshore trading of fish. Antarctic fisheries in 2000-01 reported landing 112,934 metric tons.<ref name="cia"><ref>Santa Barbara City College Biological Sciences [http://www.biosbcc.net/ocean/AAimportance.htm Importance of Antarctica] Retrieved February 5, 2006.</ref> Small-scale tourism has existed since 1957. As of 2006 several ships transport people into Antarctica for specific scenic locations. A total of 13,571 tourists visited in the 2002-03 antarctic summer with nearly all of them coming from commercial ships. The average stay is about two weeks.<ref name="cia"><ref><ref>[http://www.knet.co.za/antarctica/political.htm Politics of Antarctica] Retrieved February 5, 2006.</ref> Antarctic flights brought tourists from Australia and New Zealand until the fatal crash of [[Air New Zealand Flight 901]] in 1979 near [[Mount Erebus]]. ==Research== {{seealso|List of research stations in Antarctica}} [[Image:Amundsen-Scott marsstation ray h edit.jpg|thumb|left|300px|A [[full moon]] and 25-second exposure allowed sufficient light into this photo taken at [[Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station]] during the long Antarctic night. The new station can be seen at far left, [[power plant]] in the center and the old mechanic's garage in the lower right.]] Each year, scientists from 27 different nations conduct [[experiment]]s not reproducible in any other place in the world but the Antarctic. In the summer more than 4,000 scientists operate [[research station]]s; this number decreases to nearly 1,000 in the winter.<ref name="cia" /> The [[McMurdo Station]] is capable of housing more than a thousand scientists, visitors, and tourists. Researchers include biologists, geologists, oceanographers, physicists, astronomers, glaciologists, and meteorologists. [[Geologist]]s tend to study plate tectonics in the Arctic region, meteorites from the [[outer space]], and resources from the breakup of the supercontinent [[Gondwanaland]]. [[Glaciologist]]s in Antarctica are concerned with the study of the history and dynamics of floating [[ice]], [[snow|seasonal snow]], [[glacier]]s, and [[ice sheet]]s. [[Biologist]]s, in addition to examining the wildlife, are interested in how harsh temperatures and the presence of people affect adaptation and survival strategies in a wide variety of organisms. [[Astrophysicist]]s in [[Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station]] are able to study the celestial dome and [[cosmic microwave background radiation]] because of the ozone hole and the location's dry, cold environment. Medical physicians have made discoveries concerning the spreading of viruses and the body's response to extreme seasonal temperatures.<ref>Antarctic Connection [http://www.antarcticconnection.com/antarctic/science/index.shtml Science in Antarctica] Retrieved February 4, 2006.</ref> Since the 1970s an important focus of study has been the [[ozone layer]] in the [[atmosphere]] above Antarctica. In 1998 [[NASA]] satellite data showed that the Antarctic [[ozone hole]] was the largest on record, covering 27&nbsp;million square kilometers. In 2002 significant areas of ice shelves disintegrated in response to regional warming.<ref name="cia" /> [[Image:ALH84001.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Antarctic meteorite, named [[ALH84001]], from [[Mars]].]] [[Meteorite]]s from Antarctica are a relatively recent resource for study of the material formed early in the [[solar system]]; most are thought to come from [[asteroid]]s, but some may have originated on larger [[planet]]s. The first meteorites in Antarctica were found in 1912. In 1969 the Japanese discovered nine meteorites in Antarctica. Most of these meteorites have fallen onto the [[ice sheet]] in the last one million years. Motion of the ice sheet tends to concentrate the meteorites at blocking locations such as mountain ranges, with wind erosion bringing them to the surface after centuries beneath accumulated snowfall. Compared with meteorites collected in more temperate regions on Earth, the Antarctic meteorites are relatively well preserved.<ref name="meteorite">NASA [http://www-curator.jsc.nasa.gov/antmet/index.cfm Meteorites from Antarctica] Retrieved February 9, 2006.</ref> This large collection of meteorites allows a better understanding of the abundance of meteorite types in the solar system and how meteorites relate to asteroids and comets. New types of meteorites and rare meteorites have been found. Among these meteorites are pieces blasted off the moon, and probably Mars, by impacts. These specimens, specifically [[ALH84001]] discovered by [[ANSMET]], are at the center of the controversy about possible evidence of microbial life on early Mars. Because meteorites in space absorb and record cosmic radiation, the time elapsed since the meteorite hit the Earth can be determined from laboratory studies. The elapsed time since fall, or terrestrial residence age, of a meteorite represents more information that might be useful in environmental studies of Antarctic ice sheets.<ref name="meteorite" /> ==See also== * [[List of antarctic and sub-antarctic islands]] * [[Antarctica ecozone]] * [[Antarctic Stamps]] * [[Antarctic Treaty System|Antarctic Treaty System]] * [[Argentine Antarctic Geopolitics]] * [[Brazil Antarctic Geopolitics]] * [[Chile Antarctic Geopolitics]] * [[Communications in Antarctica]] * [[Extreme points of Antarctica]] * [[Flags of Antarctica]] * ''[[Life in the Freezer]]'', a [[BBC]] natural history [[television]] series on life on and around Antarctica * [[Transportation in Antarctica]] ==Footnotes== <div style="font-size:90%;"><references /></div> ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Antarctica}} * [http://www.ats.aq Antarctic Treaty Secretariat] * [http://www.anetstation.com ANetStation] - radio station in Antarctica * [http://www.add.scar.org The Antarctic Digital Database - a source of digital topographic map data for Antarctica] * [http://www.aad.gov.au/ Australian Antarctic Division] * [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk British Antarctic Survey] * [http://www.planetavivo.org/english/ResearchPrograms/Antarctica/SlideShows/ArdleyIsland/ArdleyIsland1.html Biodiversity at Ardley Island, South Shetland archipelago, Antarctica] * [http://www.comnap.aq/ Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP)], official homepage. * [http://www.awi-bremerhaven.de/Polar/index.html German Antarctic Ships and Stations] * [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/frd/antarctica/antarctica.html Portals on the World - Antarctica] from the [[Library of Congress]] * [http://www.polarmuseum.sp.ru/Eng/ The Russian State Museum of Arctic and Antarctic] * [http://www.scar.org The Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research - coordinating body for Antarctic Science] * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ay.html The World Factbook &ndash; Antarctica] from the U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency]] * [http://www.70south.com Latest Antarctic news and information by 70South] * [http://www.iaato.org International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO)] * [http://www.usap.gov/ The United States Antartic Program] * [http://apc.mfa.government.bg Antarctic Place-names Commission of Bulgaria] * [http://www.geocities.com/peyre1347/ One of many journals by a tourist to Antarctica] {{Continent}} {{Region}} [[Category:Antarctica]] [[Category:Antarctica| ]] [[Category:Continents]] [[Category:Lists of coordinates]] [[Category:Outposts of Antarctica| ]] [[Category:Special territories]] {{Link FA|de}} {{Link FA|ru}} {{Link FA|sl}} [[an:Antartida]] [[ar:أنتارتيكا]] [[ast:Antártida]] [[ba:Антарктика]] [[be:Антарктыда]] [[bg:Антарктида]] [[bn:এন্টার্কটিকা]] [[bs:Antarktik]] [[ca:Antàrtida]] [[cs:Antarktida]] [[cy:Antarctica]] [[da:Antarktis]] [[de:Antarktis]] [[el:Ανταρκτική]] [[eo:Antarkto]] [[es:Antártida]] [[eu:Antartika]] [[fa:جنوبگان]] [[fi:Etelämanner]] [[fo:Antarktis]] [[fr:Antarctique]] [[ga:Antartaice]] [[gl:Antártida]] [[gu:ઍન્ટાર્કટિકા]] [[he:אנטארקטיקה]] [[hr:Antarktika]] [[hu:Antarktisz]] [[ia:Antarctica]] [[id:Antartika]] [[io:Antarktika]] [[is:Suðurskautslandið]] [[it:Antartide]] [[ja:南極大陸]] [[ko:남극]] [[li:Antarctica]] [[lt:Antarktida]] [[lv:Antarktīda]] [[mr:अंटार्क्टिका]] [[ms:Antartika]] [[nds:Antarktis]] [[nl:Antarctica]] [[nn:Antarktis]] [[no:Antarktika]] [[pl:Antarktyda]] [[pt:Antártica]] [[ro:Antarctica]] [[ru:Антарктида]] [[scn:Antartidi]] [[se:Antárktis]] [[simple:Antarctica]] [[sl:Antarktika]] [[sr:Антарктик]] [[sv:Antarktis]] [[ta:அண்டார்டிக்கா]] [[th:ทวีปแอนตาร์กติกา]] [[tl:Antartika]] [[tr:Antarktika]] [[uk:Антарктида]] [[vi:Châu Nam Cực]] [[wa:Antartike]] [[yi:אַנטאַרקטיקע]] [[zh:南极洲]] [[zh-min-nan:Lâm-ke̍k-tāi-lio̍k]] 742 15899261 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Algorithm]] 743 15899262 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Antigua and Barbuda]] 744 42158502 2006-03-04T05:11:09Z OneEuropeanHeart 633536 minor corrections {{Otheruses}} {{Infobox_Country| native_name = República Argentina | common_name = Argentina | image_flag = Flag of Argentina.svg | image_coat = Argentina_coa.png | image_map = LocationArgentina.png | national_motto = ''En Unión y Libertad''<br>([[English language|English]]: In Union and Liberty)| national_anthem = ''[[Argentine National Anthem|Himno Nacional Argentino]]'' | official_languages = [[Spanish language|Spanish]]| capital = [[Buenos Aires]] | latd=34|latm=20|latNS=S|longd=58|longm=30|longEW=W| largest_city = [[Buenos Aires]] | government_type= [[Democracy|Democratic]] [[Federal Republic]] | leader_titles = [[President of Argentina|President]]| leader_names = [[Néstor Kirchner]] | area_rank = 8th | area_magnitude = 1_E12 | area=2,791,810*| areami² = 1,077,924*| <!-- Do not remove --> percent_water = 1.1 | population_estimate = 39,538,000 | population_estimate_year = 2005 | population_estimate_rank = 31st | population_census= 36,260,130| population_census_year= 2001| population_density = 13 | population_densitymi² = 33.7 | <!-- Do not remove --> population_density_rank= 165th| GDP_PPP_year=2005| GDP_PPP = US$ 537.2 billion [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ar.html#Econ]| GDP_PPP_rank =22nd | GDP_PPP_per_capita = US$ 14,087 | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 52nd | HDI_year = 2003 | HDI = 0.863 | HDI_rank = 34th | HDI_category = <font color="#009900">high</font> | sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]| established_events = - [[May Revolution]]<br> - Declared<br> - Recognised | established_dates = from [[Spain]]<br>[[25 May]] [[1810]]<br>[[9 July]] [[1816]]<br>in [[1821]] (by [[Portugal]]) | currency = [[Argentine Peso|Peso]] | currency_code = ARS | time_zone= ART | utc_offset= -3 | time_zone_DST= ARST | utc_offset_DST= -3 | cctld= [[.ar]] | calling_code = 54 | footnotes = <sup>*</sup> Argentina also claims 1,000,000 km² of [[Antarctica]], the [[Falkland Islands]] and [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]]. For a total of 3,761,274 sq.&nbsp;km (1,452,236&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi). }} {{wiktionarypar|Argentina}} The '''Argentine Republic''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''República Argentina'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[reˈpuβlika aɾxɛnˈtina]}}) is a [[country]] in [[South America]], situated between the [[Andes]] in the west and the southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the east and south. It is bordered by [[Paraguay]] and [[Bolivia]] in the north, [[Brazil]] and [[Uruguay]] in the northeast, and [[Chile]] in the west and south. It also claims the [[British overseas territory|British overseas territories]] of the [[Falkland Islands]] ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Islas Malvinas'') and [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]]. Under the name of [[Argentine Antarctica]], it claims around 1,000,000 [[square kilometre]]s (386,000&nbsp;[[square miles|sq.&nbsp;mi]]) of [[Antarctica]], overlapping other claims by [[Chile]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. By area, it is the second largest country of South America after Brazil and the 8th largest country in the [[world]]. The country is formally named ''República Argentina'' {{audio|1=es-Argentina.ogg|2=(pronunciation)}} (Argentine Republic), while for purposes of [[Law of Argentina|legislation]] the form ''Nación Argentina'' (Argentine Nation) is used. ==Origin and history of the name== {{main|Origin and history of the name of Argentina}} The name '''Argentina''' derives from the [[Latin]] ''argentum'' ([[silver]]). The first [[Spain|Spanish]] [[conquistador]]s called the River Plate the [[Río de la Plata]] ("River of Silver"). Indigenous people gave silver gifts to the survivors of the shipwrecked expedition, who were led by [[Juan Díaz de Solís]]. The legend of [[Sierra del Plata]] &mdash; a mountain rich in silver &mdash; reached Spain around [[1524]]. The name Argentina was first used in Ruy Díaz de Guzmán's 1612 book ''Historia del descubrimiento, población, y conquista del Río de la Plata'' (History of the discovery, population, and conquest of the Río de la Plata), naming the territory ''Tierra Argentina'' (Land of Silver). ==History== {{main|History of Argentina}} The area of present Argentina was sparsely populated until it was colonised by [[european|Europeans]]. The native people known as [[Diaguita]] lived in northwestern Argentina on the edge of the expanding [[Inca Empire]]; the [[Guaraní]] lived farther east. Europeans arrived in [[1502]]. [[Spain]] established a permanent colony on the site of [[Buenos Aires]] in [[1580]], and the [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata]] in [[1776]]. Independence from Spain was declared on [[July 9]] [[1816]]. Centralist and federationist groups were in conflict, until national unity was established and the [[Argentine constitution|constitution]] promulgated in [[1853]]. Foreign [[investment]] and [[Immigration in Argentina|immigration]] from Europe aided the introduction of modern agricultural techniques and integration of Argentina into the world economy in the late 19th century. In the 1880s the "[[Conquest of the Desert]]" subdued or exterminated the remaining native tribes throughout [[Patagonia]]. From [[1880]] to [[1930]] Argentina became one of the ten wealthiest nations. Conservative forces dominated Argentine politics until [[1916]], when their traditional rivals, the [[Radical Civic Union|Radicals]], won control of the government. The military forced [[Hipólito Yrigoyen]] from power in 1930 leading to another decade of Conservative rule. Political change led to the presidency of [[Juan Perón]] in [[1946]], who aimed at empowering the working class and greatly expanded the number of unionised workers. The [[Revolución Libertadora]] of [[1955]] deposed him. In the 1950s and 1960s, military and civilian administrations traded power. When military governments failed to revive the economy and suppress escalating [[terrorism]] in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the way was open for Perón's return to the presidency in 1973, with his third wife, [[Isabel Perón|María Estela Isabel Martínez de Perón]], as Vice President. During this period, extremists on the [[political left|left]] and [[political right|right]] carried out [[terrorism|terrorist]] acts with a frequency that threatened public order. [[Image:Buenos Aires-2672f-Banco de la Nación Argentina.jpg|thumb|250px|Bank of the Argentine Nation, Buenos Aires]] Perón died in [[1974]]. His wife succeeded him in office, but a military coup removed her from office in [[1976]], and the armed forces formally exercised power through a [[junta]] in charge of the self-appointed [[Proceso de Reorganización Nacional|National Reorganisation Process]], until [[1983]]. The armed forces repressed opposition using harsh illegal measures (the "[[Dirty War]]"); thousands of dissidents were "[[desaparecidos|disappeared]]", while the [[SIDE]] cooperated with the [[CIA]], [[DINA]] and other South American intelligence agencies in [[Operation Condor]]. Many of the military leaders that took part in the Dirty War were trained in the U.S. financed [[School of the Americas]]. Among them Argentine dictators [[Leopoldo Galtieri]] and [[Roberto Viola]]. Economic problems, charges of corruption, public revulsion in the face of [[human rights]] abuses and, finally, the country's [[1982]] defeat in the [[Falklands War]] discredited the Argentine military regime. Democracy was restored in [[1983]]. [[Raúl Alfonsín]]'s Radical government took steps intending to account for the "disappeared", establishing civilian control of the armed forces and consolidating democratic institutions. Failure to resolve endemic economic problems and an inability to maintain public confidence caused his early departure. President [[Carlos Menem]] imposed [[Argentine peso|peso]]-[[US dollar|dollar]] [[fixed exchange rate]] in [[1991]] to stop [[hyperinflation]], and adopted far-reaching market-based policies, dismantling [[protectionism|protectionist]] barriers and business [[deregulation|regulations]], and implementing a privatisation program. These reforms contributed to significant increases in investment and growth with stable prices through most of the 1990s. The Menem and [[Fernando de la Rúa|de la Rúa]] administrations faced diminished competitiveness of exports, massive imports which damaged national industry and reduced employment, chronic fiscal and trade deficits, and the contagion of several economic crises. The [[Asian financial crisis]] in [[1998]] precipitated an outflow of capital that mushroomed into a [[recession]], which led to a total freezing of the [[bank account]]s (the ''[[corralito]]''), and culminated in a financial panic in November 2001. The next month, amidst [[December 2001 riots (Argentina)|bloody riots]], President de la Rúa resigned. Several new presidents followed in quick succession. Argentina [[default (finance)|default]]ed on its international debt obligations. The peso's almost 12-year-old link with the dollar was abandoned, resulting in massive [[devaluation|currency depreciation]] and [[inflation]], in turn triggering a spike in unemployment and poverty. In [[2003]], [[Néstor Kirchner]] became the president, and started implementing new policies based on re-industrialisation, [[import substitution]], increased exports, consistent fiscal surplus, and high exchange rate. ==Politics== [[Image:Buenos Aires Congreso stock xchng 214239.jpg|thumb|250px|Congress building in Buenos Aires]] {{main|Politics of Argentina}} {{seealso|Law of Argentina}} The [[Constitution of Argentina|Argentine constitution]] of 1853, as [[1994 reform of the Argentine Constitution|revised in 1994]], mandates a [[Separation of powers|separation of powers]] into [[Executive (government)|executive]], [[legislative]], and [[judiciary|judicial branch]]es at the national and provincial level. The [[president of Argentina|president]] and vice-president are directly elected to 4-year terms. Both are limited to two consecutive terms; they are allowed to stand for a third term or more after an interval of at least one term. The president appoints [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] ministers, and the constitution grants him considerable power as both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], including authority to enact laws by presidential decree under conditions of "urgency and necessity" and the [[line-item veto]]. Argentina's [[parliament]] is the bicameral [[National Congress]] or ''[[Argentine National Congress|Congreso de la Nación]]'', consisting of a [[Senate]] (''[[Argentine Senate|Senado]]'') of 72 seats and a [[Chamber of Deputies]] (''[[Argentine Chamber of Deputies|Cámara de Diputados]]'') of 257 members. Since 2001, senators have been directly elected, with each province, including the [[Federal Capital]], represented by three senators. Senators serve 6-year terms. One-third of the Senate stands for reelection every 2 years via a partial majority system in each district. Members of the Chamber of Deputies are directly elected to 4-year term via a system of [[proportional representation]]. Voters elect half the members of the [[lower house]] every 2 years. ==Foreign relations== {{main|Foreign relations of Argentina}} {{seealso|Military of Argentina}} Argentina is currently prompting the [[Mercosur]] as its first external priority, contrasting with the 1990s' emphasis in the relationship with the [[United States]]. ==Administrative divisions== [[Image:Argentina provinces.png|framed|Provinces of Argentina. Argentine Antarctica and Southern Atlantic Islands (23) not shown.]] {{main|Provinces of Argentina}} {{seealso|Governors in Argentina}} Argentina is divided into 23 [[province]]s (''provincias''; singular: ''provincia''), and 1 [[autonomous city]] (commonly known as ''capital federal''), marked with an asterisk: {| | # [[Buenos Aires|Buenos Aires (City)]]<sup>*</sup> # [[Buenos Aires Province|Buenos Aires (Province)]] # [[Catamarca Province|Catamarca]] # [[Chaco Province|Chaco]] # [[Chubut Province|Chubut]] # [[Córdoba Province (Argentina)|Córdoba]] # [[Corrientes Province|Corrientes]] # [[Entre Ríos Province|Entre Ríos]] # [[Formosa Province|Formosa]] # [[Jujuy Province|Jujuy]] # [[La Pampa Province|La Pampa]] # [[La Rioja Province (Argentina)|La Rioja]] | <ol start=13> <li> [[Mendoza Province|Mendoza]] <li> [[Misiones Province|Misiones]] <li> [[Neuquén Province|Neuquén]] <li> [[Río Negro Province|Río Negro]] <li> [[Salta Province|Salta]] <li> [[San Juan Province (Argentina)|San Juan]] <li> [[San Luis Province|San Luis]] <li> [[Santa Cruz Province (Argentina)|Santa Cruz]] <li> [[Santa Fe Province|Santa Fe]] <li> [[Santiago del Estero Province|Santiago del Estero]] <li> [[Tierra del Fuego Province (Argentina)|Tierra del Fuego, Antártida e Islas del Atlántico Sur]] <li> [[Tucumán Province|Tucumán]] </ol> |} <sup>*</sup> The current official name for the [[federal district]] is "Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires". Buenos Aires has been the capital of Argentina since its unification, but there have been projects to move the administrative centre elsewhere. During the presidency of Raúl Alfonsín a law was passed ordering the move of the federal capital to [[Viedma]], a city in the Patagonic province of Río Negro. Studies were underway when hyperinflation, in 1989, killed off the project. Though the law was never formally repealed, it has become a mere historical relic, and the project has been forgotten. ===Urbanization=== {{main|List of cities in Argentina}} [[Image:Tucuman_govthouse.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Government house of Tucumán]] About 2.7 million people live in the Autonomous City of [[Buenos Aires]], and roughly 11.5 million in [[Gran Buenos Aires|Greater Buenos Aires]] (2001), making it one of the largest urban conglomerates in the world. Together with their respective [[metropolitan area]]s, the second and third largest cities in Argentina, [[Córdoba, Argentina|Córdoba]] and [[Rosario]], comprise about 1.3 and 1.1 million inhabitants, respectively. Most European [[immigration in Argentina|immigrants to Argentina]] (coming in great waves especially around the World War I and II) settled in the cities, which offered jobs, education, and other opportunities that enabled newcomers to enter the [[middle class]]. Since the 1930s many rural workers have moved to the big cities. The 1990s saw many rural towns become [[ghost town]]s when train services were abandoned and local products manufactured on a small scale were replaced by massive amounts of imported cheap goods, in part because of the monetary policy which kept the U.S. dollar exchange rate fixed and low. Many slums (''[[villa miseria|villas miseria]]'') sprouted in the outskirts of the largest cities, inhabited by empoverished low-class urban dwellers and migrants from smaller towns in the interior of the country. However, it is important to note that the majority of the people that live in these newly formed small shanty towns are people that came from neighboring countries during the time of convertibility and never left. This immigration of humble people from a low socioeconomic status represented an undesirable change because shanty towns and homeless people begging for money was something Argentines didn't know until the economic disaster of the 1990s. However, the government works actively to try to include these new inmigrants into Argentine society and considers their children born in Argentina to be Argentines. There are no plans to build any type of wall to keep these inmigrants out. Argentina adheres to a policy of allowing anybody who wants to come to Argentina to come freely without restrictive inmigration measures. In this respect Argentina is more progressive than many fully developed countries. <!-- to be filled in with middle class home data --> Argentina's urban areas have a European look, reflecting the influence of their European settlers. Many towns and cities are built like Spanish cities around a main square called a plaza. A cathedral and important government buildings often face the plaza. The general layout of the cities is called a ''damero'', that is, a checkerboard, since it is based on a pattern of square blocks, though modern developments sometimes depart from it (for example, the city of La Plata, built at the end of the 19th century, is organised as a checkerboard plus diagonal avenues at fixed intervals). In descending order by number of inhabitants, the major cities in Argentina are [[Buenos Aires]], [[Córdoba, Argentina|Córdoba]], [[Rosario]], [[Mendoza]], [[La Plata]], [[Tucumán]], [[Mar del Plata]], [[Salta]], [[Santa Fe, Argentina|Santa Fe]], and [[Bahía Blanca]]. ==Geography== [[Image:Ar-map.png|200px|thumb|Map of Argentina]] {{main|Geography of Argentina}} Argentina can roughly be divided into three parts: the fertile plains of the [[Pampa]]s in the central part of the country, the centre of Argentina's [[agriculture|agricultural]] wealth; the flat to rolling plateau of [[Patagonia]] in the southern half down to [[Tierra del Fuego]]; and the rugged [[Andes]] [[mountain range]] along the western border with [[Chile]], with the highest point being the [[Cerro Aconcagua]] at 6,960 metres (22,834 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). Major rivers include the [[Paraguay River|Paraguay]], [[Bermejo River|Bermejo]], [[Colorado River (Argentina)|Colorado]], [[Uruguay River|Uruguay]] and the largest river, the [[Paraná River|Paraná]]. The latter two flow together before meeting the [[Atlantic Ocean]], forming the estuary of the [[Río de la Plata]]. The Argentine [[climate]] is predominantly [[temperate climate|temperate]] with extremes ranging from [[subtropical climate|subtropical]] in the north to arid/sub-Antarctic in far south. === Enclaves and exclaves === There is one Argentine [[exclave]]: the island of [[Martín García]] (co-ordinates {{coor dm|34|11|S|58|15|W}}). It is situated near the confluence of the Paraná and Uruguay rivers, a mere kilometre (0.62&nbsp;mi) inside [[Uruguay]]an waters, about 3.5 kilometres (2.1 mi) from the Uruguayan coastline, near the small city of [[Martín Chico]] (itself about halfway between [[Nueva Palmira]] and [[Colonia del Sacramento]]). An agreement reached by Argentina and Uruguay in 1973 reaffirmed Argentine jurisdiction over the island, ending a century-old dispute between the two countries. According to the terms of the agreement, Martín García is to be devoted exclusively to a natural preserve. Its area is about 2 square kilometres (500&nbsp;[[acre]]s), and the population about 200 people. ==Economy== [[Image:Buenos Aires Monserrat.jpg|thumb|250px|Subway station in Monserrat, Buenos Aires]] {{main|Economy of Argentina}} {{seealso|Tourism in Argentina}} Argentina benefits from rich [[natural resource]]s, a highly [[literate]] population, an export-oriented [[agriculture|agricultural]] sector, and a diversified [[industry|industrial]] base. The country historically had a large middle class, compared to other Latin American countries, but this segment of the population was decimated by a succession of economic crises. Today, while a significant segment of the population is still financially well-off, they stay in sharp contrast with millions who live in poverty or on the brink of it. Since the late 1970s the country piled up public debt and was plagued by bouts of high [[inflation]]. In 1991, the government [[fixed exchange rate|pegged]] the peso to the [[United States dollar|U. S. dollar]] and limited the growth in the [[monetary base]]. The government then embarked on a path of [[free trade|trade liberalisation]], [[deregulation]], and [[privatisation]]. Inflation dropped and [[gross domestic product|GDP]] grew, but external economic shocks and failures of the system diluted its benefits, causing it to crumble in slow motion, from 1995 and up to the [[Argentine economic crisis|collapse in 2001]]. By 2002 Argentina had [[default (finance)|default]]ed on its debt, its GDP had shrunk, [[unemployment]] was over 25%, the peso had [[devaluation|devalued]] 75% after being [[floating exchange rate|floated]], and inflation was hitting again. However, careful spending control and heavy [[tax]]es on now soaring exports gave the state the tools to regain resources and conduct [[monetary policy]]. In 2003, [[import substitution]] policies and soaring [[export]]s, coupled with a lower inflation and expansive economic measures, triggered a surge in the GDP, which was repeated in 2004, creating jobs and encouraging internal consumption. [[Capital flight]] decreased, and [[foreign investment]] slowly returned. The influx of foreign currency from exports created such a huge [[trade surplus]] that the Central Bank was forced to buy dollars from the market, which it continues to do at the time, to be accumulated as [[reserve currency|reserves]]. The situation in 2005 is much improved, but there are still large numbers of unemployed people that beg for some money or food, especially in the outskirts of [[Buenos Aires]]. Some of them are homeless, and there is at least one small non-profit humanitarian organisation which distributes free food to some of them most days of the week. However, the country is still the most developed country in Latin America. It boasts the highest GDP per capita, the highest levels of education measured by university attendance, and a reasonable infrastructure that in many aspects is equal in quality to that found in fully industrialized nations. In 2002 over 57% of the population was below the poverty line, at the end of 2005 it was 34%. In 2002 unemployement had reached over 25%, and now it is 10%. GDP per capita has surpassed the previous pre-recession peek of 1998. It is a very interesting time in Argentina because the experts agree that if the country makes the right decisions it could develop and reclaim its previosly held position in the first world. So far things are looking good; the economy grew 8.8% in 2003, 9.0% in 2004, and 9.1% in 2005. The floor is set so that the economy will grow between 6.0% and 7.5% in 2006 and the government is paying down the foreign debt; foreign debt now stands at 69% of GDP and is slowly decreasing. The Argentine economy has so much untapped potential that if the country manages to encourage the proper level of investment the country could experience growth rates of 9.0% for this year and years to come. ==Demographics== [[Image:TeatroColon.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Night shot of the Colon Theatre in Buenos Aires, Argentina]] {{main|Demographics of Argentina}} Unlike most of its neighbouring countries, Argentina's population descends overwhelmingly from [[Europe|Europeans]]. The basic demographic stock (97% of the population) [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ar.html] is made up of descendants of [[Spain|Spanish]], [[Italy|Italian]], [[Germany|German]] and other [[Europe|European]] settlers. Waves of immigrants from [[Europe]]an countries arrived in the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th centuries]]. The Patagonian [[Chubut Valley]] has a significant [[Welsh settlement in Argentina|Welsh-descended population]] and retains many aspects of [[Wales|Welsh]] culture. Other important immigrant groups came from [[Germany]] ([[Germany|German]] colonies were settled in the provinces of Entre Ríos, Misiones, Formosa, Córdoba and the Patagonian region, as well as in Buenos Aires itself), [[France]] (mostly settled in Buenos Aires city and province), [[Scandinavia]] (especially [[Sweden]]), the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Ireland]] (Buenos Aires and Patagonia), and [[Eastern Europe]]an nations, such as [[Poland]], [[Russia]], [[Ukraine]] and the [[Balkans]] region (especially [[Croatia]] and [[Serbia]]) and others. The overwhelming majority of Argentina's [[Jew|Jewish]] community, numbering about 395,379 [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/jewpop.html], also derives from immigrants of Northern and Eastern European origin &mdash; [[Ashkenazi Jews]]. It is the largest Jewish community in [[Latin America]] and fifth largest in the world. [[Middle East]]ern immigrants number about 500,000, mainly in urban areas.{{Citation needed}} Small numbers of people from [[Far East]] [[Asia]] have also settled Argentina, mainly in Buenos Aires. The first [[Asian-Argentines]] were of [[Japan]]ese descent, but [[Korea]]ns, [[Vietnam]]ese, and [[China|Chinese]] soon followed. There are also smaller numbers of people from the [[Indian subcontinent]]. ==Culture== [[Image:Buenos_Aires-Center-P3050007.JPG|thumb|European and modern styles in Buenos Aires]] {{main|Culture of Argentina}} {{seealso|List of Argentines}} Argentine culture has been primarily informed and influenced by its European roots. Buenos Aires is undeniably the most European city in [[South America]], due both to the prevalence of people of Italian, Spanish and German descent and to conscious imitation. Argentine cinema has achieved international recognition with films such as "[[The Official Story]]" and "[[Nine Queens]]", though it has only rarely been taken into account by mainstream popular viewers who prefer Hollywood-type movies. Even low-budget productions, however, have obtained prizes in cinema festivals (such as [[Cannes]]). The city of [[Mar del Plata]] organizes its own festival dedicated to this art. The best-known element of Argentine culture is probably their music and dance, particularly [[tango (dance)|tango]]. In modern Argentina, tango music is enjoyed in its own right, especially since the radical [[Astor Piazzolla]] redefined the music of [[Carlos Gardel]]. It must be noted that while tango refers mostly to a particular dancing music for foreigners, the music together with the lyrics (often sung in a kind of slang called [[lunfardo]]) are what most Argentines primarily mean by tango. Tango lyrics can be considered a kind of poetry. Since the 1970s rock and roll is also widely appreciated in Argentina. First during the 1970s and then again at the mid 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s, national rock and roll and pop music experienced bursts of popularity, with many new bands (such as [[Soda Stereo]] and Sumo) and composers (like [[Charly García]] and [[Fito Páez]]) becoming important referents of national culture. [[Buenos Aires]] is also considered the [[techno]]/[[electronica]] country in Latin America, that started with little raves, and nowadays is home of important events such as [[Creamfields]] (which has the world record of 65,000 people), South American Music Conference and many more. [[European classical music]] is well-considered in Argentina, with the [[Colón Theater]] one of the best opera houses in the world. Musicians such as [[Martha Argerich]] and composers like [[Lalo Schifrin]] have become internationally famous. See also the articles on the [[Cuisine of Argentina|cuisine]], the [[Music of Argentina|music]], and the [[Football in Argentina|football]] ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Fútbol'') of Argentina. For a prevalent custom among Argentines, see [[Yerba Mate|mate]]. For the traditional Buenos Aires dance, see [[tango (dance)|tango]]. ===Language=== {{main|List of Native American languages in Argentina}} {{seealso|Welsh settlement in Argentina}} [[Image:Buenos Aires-Puente de la Mujer.jpg|thumb|250px|Women's Bridge in Puerto Madero, Buenos Aires]] The only official language is [[Spanish language|Spanish]], although some immigrants and indigenous communities have retained their [[List of Native American languages in Argentina|original languages]] in specific points of the country. There are, for example many [[Welsh language|Welsh]]-speaking towns in Patagonia and [[German language|German]]-speaking cities in Córdoba, Buenos Aires and cities in the Patagonia. Italian and French is also widely spoken. Argentina is the largest [[Spanish language|Spanish]]-speaking community in the world that employs ''[[voseo]]'' (the use of the [[pronoun]] ''vos'' instead of ''tú'', associated with some alternate verb conjugations). The most prevalent dialect is [[Rioplatense Spanish|Rioplatense]], with most speakers located in the basin of the [[Río de la Plata]]. ===Religion=== {{main|Religion in Argentina}} Argentina is an overwhelmingly [[Christian]] country. The majority of Argentina's population (80%) is at least nominally [[Roman Catholic]]. Roman Catholicism is supported by the state, as stipulated in the Constitution. Evangelical churches gained a place in Argentina especially since the 1980s and now number more than 3.5 million or 10%. Members of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] ([[Mormons]]) number over 330,300, the seventh largest concentration in the world[http://www.lds.org.ar/noticias2005/noti_ene2005/info_noti_ene2005_05.htm]. Traditional [[Protestant]] communities are also present. The country also hosts the largest [[Judaism|Jewish]] population in [[Latin America]], about 395,379 strong. It is also home to one of the largest [[mosque]]s in Latin America, serving Argentina's small [[Islam|Muslim]] community. ==See also== <!-- section with alphabetical order --> * [[Argentine Antarctica]] * [[Communications in Argentina]] * [[Education in Argentina]] * [[Elections in Argentina]] * [[Foreign relations of Argentina]] * [[Governors in Argentina]] * [[Military of Argentina]] * [[National parks of Argentina]] * [[Public holidays in Argentina]] * [[Tourism in Argentina]] * [[Transportation in Argentina]] ==References== <!-- section with alphabetical order --> * [http://members.tripod.com.ar/republica_argentina/index.htm General information] * [http://www.argentour.com/ar.html General information] * [http://www.mapsofworld.com/argentina/index.html General information and maps] * [http://www.todo-argentina.net/index.htm Geography and history] * [http://www.argentinaxplora.com/index.htm Geography and tourism] * [http://www.surdelsur.com/ History] * [http://www.monografias.com/cgi-bin/search.cgi?substring=0&bool=and&query=Argentina&I1=Buscar Other information] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Argentina}} <div style="font-size: 90%"> ===Government=== *{{es icon}} [http://www.info.gov.ar Gobierno Electrónico] - Official government website *{{es icon}} [http://www.presidencia.gov.ar Presidencia de la Nación] - Official presidential website *{{es icon}} [http://www.senado.gov.ar Honorable Senado de la Nación] - Official senatorial website *{{es icon}} [http://www.diputados.gov.ar Honorable Cámara de Diputados de la Nación] - Official lower house website ===Directories=== *{{en icon}} [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/argentina/argentina.html Library of Congress] *{{en icon}} [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Argentina Open Directory Project] *{{es icon}} [http://ar.todalanet.net Todalanet] - Search engine of Argentine only websites ===News=== *{{es icon}} [http://www.telam.com.ar Télam] (Official news agency) *{{de icon}} [http://www.tageblatt.com.ar Argentinisches Tageblatt] ([[Argentinisches Tageblatt|See article]]) *{{en icon}} [http://www.buenosairesherald.com Buenos Aires Herald] ([[Buenos Aires Herald|See article]]) *{{es icon}} [http://www.clarin.com Clarín] ([[Clarín (Newspaper)|See article]]) *{{es icon}} [http://www.diariodecuyo.com.ar Diario de Cuyo] ([[San Juan, Argentina|San Juan]]) *{{es icon}} [http://www.lacapital.com.ar La Capital] ([[La Capital|See article]]) *{{es icon}} [http://www.diariouno.net.ar Diario UNO] ([[Mendoza]]) *{{es icon}} [http://www.losandes.com.ar Diario Los Andes] ([[Mendoza]]) *{{es icon}} [http://www.eldiariodeparana.com.ar El Diario] ([[Paraná]]) *{{es icon}} [http://www.eltribuno.com.ar El Tribuno] ([[Salta]]) *{{es icon}} [http://www.infobae.com Infobae] ([[Buenos Aires]]) *{{es icon}} [http://www.lavozdelinterior.com.ar La Voz del Interior] ([[Córdoba, Argentina|Córdoba]]) *{{es icon}} [http://www.lagaceta.com.ar La Gaceta] ([[Tucumán]]) *{{es icon}} [http://www.lanacion.com La Nación] ([[La Nación|See article]]) *{{es icon}} [http://www.larazon.com.ar La Razón] ([[Buenos Aires]]) *{{es icon}} [http://www.lanueva.com.ar La Nueva Provincia] ([[Bahía Blanca]]) *{{es icon}} [http://www.pagina12.com.ar Página/12] ([[Página 12|See article]]) *{{es icon}} [http://www.lacapitalnet.com.ar La Capital] ([[Mar del Plata]]) *{{es icon}} [http://www.lavozdelpueblo.com.ar La Voz del Pueblo] (Tres Arroyos) ===Images=== *{{es icon}} [http://cometoargentina.tripod.com/ Mundo Argentina] *{{es icon}} [http://www.vester.com.ar/argentina/ Regions, landscapes and people] *{{en icon}} [http://www.geographicguide.com/south-america.htm South America Pictures] *{{en icon}} [http://www.geographicguide.com/south-america-map.htm South America Maps] *{{en icon}} [http://www.globe-images.com/south-america.htm South America Satellite Images] *{{es icon}} [http://www.fotos-de-argentina.com.ar/ Photos of Argentina] ===Travel=== *{{es icon}} [http://www.turismo.gov.ar/ Secretaria de Turismo de la Nacion] - Official tourism website *{{es icon}} [http://www.argentinatravelnet.com/ Directory of travel websites] *{{en icon}} [http://www.roadjunky.com/argentina/guide_argentina.shtml Travel tips and a deep look at Argentine culture] *{{en icon}} [http://www.argentinacafe.com/ Guidebook reviews and flight tips] *{{en icon}} [http://www.destination360.com/south-america/argentina/argentina.php Travel highlights] *{{en icon}} [http://www.thowra.com/argentina.html Interesting places] *{{en icon}} [http://www.VisitGayBA.com VisitGayBA.com] *{{en icon}} {{wikitravel}} ===Other=== *{{es icon}} [http://www.josemariarosa.galeon.com/ José María Rosa historian] *{{es icon}} [http://www.elhistoriador.com.ar/ Felipe Pigna historian] *{{en icon}} [http://www.argentina-information.com/ Essential facts and other information] *{{en icon}} [http://www.coha.org Council on Hemispheric Affairs] *{{en icon}} [http://www.latinbusinesschronicle.com/argentina Latin Business Chronicle] *{{en icon}} [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ar.html CIA World Factbook] </div> {{Provinces of Argentina}} {{South America}} [[Category:Argentina| ]] [[Category:South American countries|Argentina]] {{Link FA|de}} [[af:Argentinië]] [[ar:الأرجنتين]] [[an:Archentina]] [[ast:Arxentina]] [[bg:Аржентина]] [[zh-min-nan:Argentina]] [[be:Аргентына]] [[bn:আর্জেন্টিনা]] [[bs:Argentina]] [[ca:Argentina]] [[cs:Argentina]] [[cy:Ariannin]] [[da:Argentina]] [[de:Argentinien]] [[et:Argentina]] [[el:Αργεντινή]] [[es:Argentina]] [[eo:Argentino]] [[eu:Argentina]] [[fr:Argentine]] [[gd:Argentina]] [[gl:Arxentina - Argentina]] [[ko:아르헨티나]] [[ht:Ajantin]] [[hi:अर्जेन्टीना]] [[hr:Argentina]] [[io:Arjentinia]] [[id:Argentina]] [[ia:Argentina]] [[is:Argentína]] [[it:Argentina]] [[he:ארגנטינה]] [[hy:Արգենտինա]] [[ka:არგენტინა]] [[kw:Arghantina]] [[ku:Arjantîn]] [[la:Argentina]] [[lv:Argentīna]] [[lt:Argentina]] [[lb:Argentinien]] [[li:Argentinië]] [[hu:Argentína]] [[mk:Аргентина]] [[ms:Argentina]] [[nah:Arxentina]] [[na:Argentina]] [[nl:Argentinië]] [[nds:Argentinien]] [[ja:アルゼンチン]] [[no:Argentina]] [[nn:Argentina]] [[oc:Argentina]] [[pl:Argentyna]] [[pt:Argentina]] [[ro:Argentina]] [[qu:Arxintina]] [[ru:Аргентина]] [[sa:अर्जन्टीना]] [[sq:Argjentina]] [[simple:Argentina]] [[sk:Argentína]] [[sl:Argentina]] [[sr:Аргентина]] [[fi:Argentiina]] [[sv:Argentina]] [[tl:Arhentina]] [[ta:அர்ஜென்டினா]] [[th:ประเทศอาร์เจนตินา]] [[vi:Argentina]] [[tr:Arjantin]] [[uk:Аргентина]] [[yi:אַרגענטינע]] [[zh:阿根廷]] [[fiu-vro:Argentina]] 745 42152036 2006-03-04T04:03:02Z 68.41.31.120 /* Origin of the name */ {{otheruses1|the country in Eurasia}} <!-- BEGIN INFOBOX --> {{Infobox Country | native_name = Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն<br /> Hayastani Hanrapetutyun<br /> Republic of Armenia | common_name = Armenia | image_flag = Flag of Armenia.svg | image_coat = Coa_Armenia.jpg | national_motto = ''none'' | image_map = LocationArmenia.png | national_anthem = ''[[Mer Hayrenik]]'' | official_languages = [[Armenian language|Armenian]] | capital = [[Yerevan]] |latd=40|latm=16|latNS=N|longd=44|longm=34|longEW=E| government_type = [[Republic]] | leader_titles = [[President of Armenia|President]]<br /> [[Prime Minister of Armenia|Prime Minister]] | leader_names = [[Robert Kocharian]]<br /> [[Andranik Markaryan]] | largest_city = [[Yerevan]] | area = 29,800 | areami² = 11,506 | <!--Do not remove --> area_rank = 139th <small>1</small> | area_magnitude = 1 E11 | percent_water = 4.7 | population_estimate = 2,982,904 | population_estimate_year = 2005 | population_estimate_rank = 133rd | population_census = 3,288,000 | population_census_year = 1989 | population_density = 100 | population_densitymi² = 259 | <!--Do not remove --> population_density_rank = 74th | GDP_PPP_year = 2005 | GDP_PPP = $13,650,000,000 | GDP_PPP_rank = 130th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $4,600 | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 119th | HDI_year = 2003 | HDI = 0.759 | HDI_rank = 83rd | HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font> | sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] | established_events = &nbsp;-&nbsp;Declared<br /> &nbsp;-&nbsp;Established | established_dates = From the [[Soviet Union]]<br/ > [[August 23]] [[1990]]<br/ > [[September 21]] [[1991]] | currency = [[Dram (currency)|Dram]] | currency_code = AMD | time_zone = [[UTC]] | utc_offset = +4 | time_zone_DST = [[DST]] | utc_offset_DST = +5 | cctld = [[.am]] | calling_code = 374 | footnotes = <small>1: Area does not include [[Nagorno-Karabakh]].</small> | }} <!-- END INFOBOX --> The '''Republic of Armenia''', or '''Armenia''' ([[Armenian language|Armenian]]: {{Hayeren|Հայաստան}}, ''Hayastan'', {{Hayeren|Հայք}}, ''Hayq''), is a [[landlocked]] [[Eurasian]] country in the [[Caucasus]] region, bordered by [[Turkey]] to the west, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] to the north, [[Azerbaijan]] to the east, and [[Iran]] and the [[Nakhichevan]] [[exclave]] of Azerbaijan to the south. Armenia is a member of the [[Council of Europe]] and the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] and for centuries has been on the crossroads between the east and west. == Origin of the name == The original [[Armenian language|Armenian]] name for the country was ''Hayq'', later ''Hayastan'', translated as ''the land of Haik'', and consisting of the name Haik and the [[Persian language|Persian]] suffix '[[-stan]]' (land). According to legend, [[Haik]] was a great-great-grandson of [[Noah]] (son of [[Togarmah]], who was a son of [[Gomer]], a son of Noah's son, [[Japheth]]), and according to an ancient Armenian tradition, a forefather of all [[Armenian people|Armenians]]. He is said to have settled below [[Mount Ararat]], travelled to assist in building the [[Tower of Babel]], and, after his return, defeated the [[Babylon|Babylonian]] king Bel (believed by some researchers to be [[Nimrod]]) on [[August 11]], [[25th century BC|2492 BC]] near [[Lake Van]], in the southern part of historic Armenia (presently in [[Turkey]]). Hayq was given the name Armenia by the surrounding states, as it was the name of the strongest tribe living in the historic Armenian lands, who called themselves ''Armens''. It is traditionally derived from ''Armenak'' or ''Aram'' (the great-grandson of Haik's great-grandson, and another leader who is, according to Armenian tradition, the ancestor of all Armenians). Some Jewish and Christian scholars write that the name 'Armenia' was derived from ''Har-Minni'', that is 'Mountains of Minni' (or [[Mannai]]). Pre-Christian accounts suggest that ''Nairi'', meaning ''land of rivers'', was an ancient name for the country's mountainous region, first used by [[Assyrians]] around [[1200 BC]]; while the first recorded inscription bearing the name Armenia, namely the [[Behistun Inscription]] in [[Iran]], dates from [[521 BC]]. == History == {{History of Armenia}} {{main|History of Armenia}} Armenia has been populated by humans since prehistoric times, and has been proposed as the site of the Biblical [[Garden of Eden]]. Armenia was a regional empire with a rich culture in the years leading up to the [[1st century]], spanning from the shores of the [[Black Sea]] to the [[Caspian Sea]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]] during the rule of [[Tigranes the Great]]. Armenia's strategic location between two continents has subjected it to invasions by many peoples, including the [[Assyrians]], [[Persians]], [[Greeks]], [[ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Byzantines]], [[Arabs]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and [[Mongols]]. In [[Anno Domini|AD]] [[301]], Armenia became the first country in the world to adopt [[Christianity]] as its official [[state religion]], twelve years before the Roman Empire granted Christianity official toleration under [[Galerius]], and some 30-40 years before Constantine was baptised. There had been various [[paganism|pagan]] communities before Christianity, but they were converted by an influx of Christian missionaries. Having changed between various dynasties -- including [[Parthian]] (Iranian), [[Ancient Rome|Roman]], [[Byzantine]], [[Arab]], [[Mongol]] and [[Iran|Persian]] occupations -- Armenia was substantially weakened. In 1500's, the [[Ottoman Empire]] and [[Safavid]] Persia divided Armenia among themselves. In 1813 and 1828, present-day Armenia (consisting of the [[Erivan]] and [[Karabakh]] [[khanate]]s within Persia) was temporarily incorporated into the [[Russian Empire]]. After a short-lived independent republic established after the [[Bolshevik Revolution]] in [[Petrograd]], Armenia was incorporated into the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|USSR]]. Between 1922 and 1936 it existed as the [[Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic]] (with Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan), and from 1936 to 1991 as the [[Armenian SSR]]. During the final years of the [[Ottoman Empire]] ([[1915]]-[[1922]]), a large proportion of Armenians living in [[Anatolia]] perished as a result of what is termed the [[Armenian Genocide]], regarded by Armenians and the vast majority of Western historians to have been state-sponsored mass killings. Turkish authorities, however, maintain that the deaths were a result of a [[civil war]] coupled with disease and [[famine]], with casualties incurred by both sides. Most estimates for the number of Armenians killed range from [[Ottoman Armenian casualties|650,000 to 1,500,000]], and these events are traditionally commemorated yearly on [[April 24]]. Armenians and a handful of other countries worldwide have been campaigning for official recognition of the events as genocide for over 30 years, but there are also many countries who are pressured not to officially characterize the Armenian massacres as genocide. Armenia remained preoccupied by a long conflict with [[Azerbaijan]] over [[Nagorno-Karabakh]], a mostly Armenian-populated [[enclave]] that, Armenians allege, [[Stalin]] had placed in Soviet Azerbaijan. A military conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan began in 1988, and the fighting escalated after both countries gained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. By May 1994, when a [[cease-fire]] took hold, <!--ethnic WERE THEY ETHNIC OR ARMENIAN REPUBLIC FORCES>/!-->Armenian forces controlled not only [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] but also the surrounding districts of Azerbaijan proper. The economies of both countries have been hurt in the absence of a peaceful resolution. == Politics == {{main|Politics of Armenia}} The Government of Armenia's stated aim is to build a Western-style [[parliamentary democracy]] as the basis of its [[form of government]]. However, international observers have questioned the fairness of Armenia's parliamentary and presidential elections and constitutional referenda since 1995, citing polling deficiencies, lack of cooperation by the [[Electoral Commission|electoral commission]], and poor maintenance of electoral lists and polling places. For the most part however, Armenia is considered one of the more pro-democratic nations in the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]]. The [[unicameral parliament]] (also called the National Assembly) is controlled by a coalition of three political parties: the conservative Republican party [http://www.hhk.am], the [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation]], and the [[Country of Law]] party. The main opposition is composed of several smaller parties joined in the [[Justice Bloc]]. Armenians voted overwhelmingly for independence in a September 1991 referendum. [[Levon Ter-Petrossian]] was president until January 1998, when public demonstrations against his increasingly authoritarian regime and his domestic and foreign policies forced his resignation. In 1999, as the Prime Minister [[Vasgen Sarkissian|Vazgen Sargsian]], parliament Speaker [[Karen Demirchyan|Karen Demirchian]], and six other officials were killed in the attack on the National Assembly [http://www.aaainc.org/ArTW/article.php?articleID=468], the country experienced a period of political instability. President [[Robert Kocharian]] was successful in riding out the unrest, and currently rules with the support of the parliamentary coalition. == Administrative Provinces == [[Image:ArmeniaNumbered.png|right|200px|Provinces of Armenia]] Armenia is divided into 11 [[province]]s (''marzer'', singular - ''marz''): #[[Aragatsotn]] ({{Hayeren|Արագածոտնի մարզ}}) #[[Ararat (province)|Ararat]] ({{Hayeren|Արարատի մարզ}}) #[[Armavir (province)|Armavir]] ({{Hayeren|Արմավիրի մարզ}}) #[[Gegharkunik]] ({{Hayeren|Գեղարքունիքի մարզ}}) #[[Kotayk]] ({{Hayeren|Կոտայքի մարզ}}) #[[Lori (province)|Lori]] ({{Hayeren|Լոռու մարզ}}) #[[Shirak]] ({{Hayeren|Շիրակի մարզ}}) #[[Syunik|Syunik']] ({{Hayeren|Սյունիքի մարզ}}) #[[Tavush]] ({{Hayeren|Տավուշի մարզ}}) #[[Vayots Dzor]] ({{Hayeren|Վայոց Ձորի մարզ}}) #[[Yerevan]] ({{Hayeren|Երևան}}) <br clear="all" /> == Geography == [[Image:Armenia map.png|thumb|Map of Armenia]] {{main|Geography of Armenia}} Armenia is a [[landlocked]] country in the [[Transcaucasus|southern Caucasus]]. Located between the [[Black Sea|Black]] and [[Caspian Sea]]s, Armenia is bordered on the north and east by [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and [[Azerbaijan]], and on the south and west by [[Iran]] and [[Turkey]]. Though geographically in Western Asia, politically and culturally Armenia is closely aligned with Europe. Historically, Armenia has been at the crossroads between Europe and Southwest Asia, and is therefore seen as a transcontinental nation. The Republic of Armenia, covering an area of 30,000 [[square kilometre]]s (11,600&nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi]]), is located in the north-east of the [[Armenian Highland]] (covering 400,000 sq km or 154,000&nbsp;sq.&nbsp;mi), otherwise known as historic Armenia and considered as the original homeland of [[Armenians]]. The terrain is mostly [[mountain|mountainous]], with fast flowing [[rivers]] and few [[forests]]. The climate is highland [[Continental climate|continental]]: hot summers and cold winters. The land rises to 4,095 [[metre]]s (13,435&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) [[above sea-level]] at [[Mount Aragats]], and no point is below 400 metres (1,312&nbsp;ft) above sea level. [[Ararat|Mount Ararat]], regarded by the Armenians as a [[symbol]] of their land, is the highest mountain in the region and used to be part of Armenia until around 1915, when it fell to the Turks. Armenia is trying to address its [[environment|environmental]] problems. It has established a Ministry of Nature Protection and introduced taxes for air and water pollution and solid waste disposal, whose revenues are used for environmental protection activities. Armenia is interested in cooperating with other members of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS, a group of 12 former [[Soviet]] republics) and with members of the international community on environmental issues. The Armenian Government is working toward closing its Nuclear Power Plant at Medzamor near [[Yerevan]] as soon as alternative energy sources are identified. == Economy == {{main|Economy of Armenia}} Until independence, Armenia's economy was largely [[industry]]-based – [[chemical]]s, [[electronics]], machinery, processed [[food]], [[synthetic rubber]], and [[textile]] – and highly dependent on outside resources. [[Agriculture]] contributed only 20% of net material product and 10% of employment before the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. Armenian mines produce [[copper]], [[zinc]], [[gold]], and [[lead]]. The vast majority of energy is produced with [[fuel]] imported from Russia, including [[gas]] and nuclear fuel (for its one [[nuclear power plant]]); the main domestic energy source is [[hydroelectric]]. Small amounts of [[coal]], gas, and [[petroleum]] have not yet been developed. Like other newly independent states of the former Soviet Union, Armenia's economy suffers from the legacy of a [[centrally planned economy]] and the breakdown of former Soviet trading patterns. Soviet investment in and support of Armenian industry has virtually disappeared, so that few major enterprises are still able to function. In addition, the effects of the 1988 [[Spitak Earthquake]], which killed more than 25,000 people and made 500,000 homeless, are still being felt. The conflict with Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh has not been resolved. The closure of Azerbaijani and Turkish borders has devastated the economy, because Armenia depends on outside supplies of energy and most raw materials. Land routes through Georgia and Iran are inadequate or unreliable. [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] fell nearly 60% from 1989 until 1992–[[1993]]. The national currency, the dram, suffered hyperinflation for the first years after its introduction in 1993. Nevertheless, the government was able to make wide-ranging economic reforms that paid off in dramatically lower inflation and steady growth. The 1994 cease-fire in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict has also helped the economy. Armenia has had strong economic growth since 1995, building on the turnaround that began the previous year, and inflation has been negligible for the past several years. New sectors, such as [[precious stone]] processing and [[jewelry]] making, [[information technology|information]] and [[communication technology]], and even [[tourism]] are beginning to supplement more traditional sectors in the economy, such as agriculture. This steady economic progress has earned Armenia increasing support from international institutions. The [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), [[World Bank]], [[European Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] (EBRD), and other international financial institutions (IFIs) and foreign countries are extending considerable grants and loans. Loans to Armenia since 1993 exceed $1.1 billion. These loans are targeted at reducing the budget deficit, stabilizing the currency; developing private businesses; energy; the agriculture, food processing, transportation, and health and education sectors; and ongoing rehabilitation in the earthquake zone. The government joined the [[World Trade Organization]] on [[February 5]], [[2003]]. But one of the main sources of foreign direct investments remains the Armenian diaspora, which finances major parts of the reconstruction of infrastructure and other public projects. Being a growing democratic state, Armenia also hopes to get more financial aid from the Western World. A liberal foreign investment law was approved in June 1994, and a Law on Privatization was adopted in 1997, as well as a program on state property privatization. Continued progress will depend on the ability of the government to strengthen its macroeconomic management, including increasing revenue collection, improving the investment climate, and making strides against corruption. In the 2006 [[Index of Economic Freedom]], Armenia ranked 27th best, tied with [[Japan]] and ahead of countries like [[Norway]], [[Spain]], [[Portugal]] and [[Italy]]. However, Armenia ranked very low on property rights worse than countries like Botswana, Trinidad and Tobago.[http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/] In the 2005 Transparency International Corruption Index Armenia ranked 88, Highly Corrupt.[http://www.transparency.org/policy_and_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2005] == Demographics == {{main|Demographics of Armenia}} Armenia has a population of 2,982,904 (July 2005 est.) and is the second most densely populated of the former Soviet republics. There has been a problem of population decline due to elevated levels of [[emigration]] after the break-up of the [[USSR]]. The rates of emigration and population decline, however, have been decreasing in the recent years, a trend which is expected to continue. In fact Armenia is expected to resume its positive population growth by 2010. Ethnic [[Armenians]] make up 97.9% of the population. [[Kurds]] make up 1.3%, and [[Russians]] 0.5%. There are smaller communities of [[Assyrians]], [[Georgians]], [[Greeks]] and [[Ukrainians]]. Most [[Azerbaijanis]], once a sizable population, have left since independence. Nearly all of the Armenians in [[Azerbaijan]] (approximately 120,000) now live in the [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] region. Armenia has a very large [[Armenian Diaspora|diaspora]] (8 million by some estimates, greatly exceeding the 3 million population of Armenia itself), with communities existing across the globe, including [[France]], [[Lebanon]], and [[North America]]. The predominant religion in Armenia is [[Christianity]]. The roots of the [[Armenian Church]] go back to the [[1st century|1st]] century AD. According to tradition, the [[Armenian Church]] was founded by two of Jesus' twelve [[Twelve Apostles|apostle]]s--[[Saint Jude|Thaddaeus]] and [[Bartholomew]]--who preached Christianity in Armenia in the 40's-60's AD. Because of these two founding [[Twelve Apostles|apostle]]s, the official name of the [[Armenian Church]] is [[Armenian Apostolic Church]]. Armenia was the first nation to adopt Christianity as a state religion, in AD [[301]]. Over 93% of Armenian Christians belong to the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]], a form of Oriental (Non-[[Chalcedonian]]) Orthodoxy, which is a very ritualistic, conservative church, roughly comparable to the [[Coptic Church|Coptic]] and [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syrian]] churches. Armenia also has a population of Catholics (both Roman and Mekhitarist - Armenian Uniate (180,000)), evangelical Protestantsand followers of the Armenian traditional religion. The [[Yazidi]] [[Kurds]], who live in the western part of the country, practise [[Yazidism]]. The [[Armenian Catholic Church]] is headquartered in [[Bzoummar]], [[Lebanon]]. Ethnic [[Azeris]] and [[Kurds]] who lived in the country before the [[Nagorno-Karabakh|Karabakh]] conflict practised [[Islam]], but most Azeris were driven out of Armenia into [[Azerbaijan]] between 1988 and 1991 at the beginning of the conflict. During the same period, Armenia also received a large influx of Armenians scattered throughout Azerbaijan and large number of Azeri population migrated to Azerbaijan. == Culture == [[Image:Yerewan with Ararat.jpg|thumb|right|Although located in [[Turkey]], [[Mount Ararat]], here seen from Yerevan, is the national symbol of Armenia.]] [[Image:Mother Armenia, Yerevan, Day.jpg|thumb|right|Mother Armenia (Mayr Hayastan) statue, located near Victory Park, in Yerevan.]] {{Main|Culture of Armenia}} Armenians have their own highly distinctive [[Armenian alphabet|alphabet]] and [[Armenian language|language]]. 96% of the people in the country speak Armenian, while 75.8% of the population speaks [[Russian language|Russian]] as well. The adult literacy rate in Armenia is 99% [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/am.html]. Most adults in Yerevan can communicate in Russian, while [[English language|English]] is increasing in popularity. [[Caucasus|Caucasian]] hospitality is legendary and stems from ancient tradition. Social gatherings focused around sumptuous presentations of course after course of elaborately prepared, well-seasoned (but not spicy-hot) food. The host or hostess will often put morsels on a guest's plate whenever it is empty or fill his or her glass when it gets low. After a helping or two it is acceptable to refuse politely or, more simply, just leave a little uneaten food. The National Art Gallery in Yerevan has more than 16,000 works that date back to the [[Middle Ages]]. It houses paintings by many [[European]] masters. The Modern Art Museum, the Children’s Picture Gallery, and the [[Martiros Saryan]] Museum are only a few of the other noteworthy collections of fine art on display in Yerevan. Moreover, many private galleries are in operation, with many more opening each year. They feature rotating exhibitions and sales. The world-class [[Armenian Philharmonic Orchestra]] performs at the beautifully refurbished city Opera House, where you can also attend a full season of opera. In addition, several chamber ensembles are highly regarded for their musicianship, including the [[National Chamber Orchestra of Armenia]] and the [[Serenade Orchestra]]. Classical music can also be heard at one of several smaller venues, including the State Music Conservatory and the Chamber Orchestra Hall. [[Jazz]] is popular, especially in the summer when live performances are a regular occurrence at one of the city’s many outdoor [[cafe|cafes]]. Yerevan’s Vernisage (arts and crafts market), close to Republic Square, bustles with hundreds of vendors selling a variety of crafts, many of superb workmanship, on weekends and Wednesdays (though the selection is much reduced mid-week). The market offers woodcarving, antiques, fine lace, and the hand-knotted wool carpets and kilims that are a Caucasus specialty. Obsidian, which is found locally, is crafted into an amazing assortment of jewelry and ornamental objects. Armenian gold smithery enjoys a long and distinguished tradition, populating one corner of the market with a selection of gold items. Soviet relics and souvenirs of recent Russian manufacture—nesting dolls, watches, enamel boxes and so on, are also available at the Vernisage. Across from the Opera House, a popular art market fills another city park on the weekends. Armenia’s long history as a crossroads of the ancient world has resulted in a landscape with innumerable fascinating archaeological sites to explore. [[Medieval]], [[Iron Age]], [[Bronze Age]] and even [[Stone Age]] sites are all within a few hours drive from the city. All but the most spectacular remain virtually undiscovered, allowing visitors to view churches and fortresses in their original settings. The American University of Armenia has graduate programs in Business and Law, among others. The institution owes its existence to the combined efforts of the Government of Armenia, the [[Armenian General Benevolent Union]], USAID, and the Boalt Hall School of Law at the [[University of California, Berkeley]]. The extension programs and the library at AUA form a new focal point for English-language intellectual life in the city. Many of the country’s most successful young entrepreneurs are graduates of this institution. == See also == *[[Artsakh]] *[[Armenian people]] *[[Armenian Genocide]] *[[First Republic of Armenia]] *[[Castles of Armenia]] *[[Hayastani Azgayin Scautakan Sharjum Kazmakerputiun]] - the Armenian National Scout Movement *[[Nagorno-Karabakh]] *[[Public holidays in Armenia]] *[[Music of Armenia]] *[[Armenian needlelace]] *[[List of Armenians]] *[[Khachkar]]s - intricate Armenian knotwork crosses == Miscellaneous topics == *[[Communications in Armenia]] *[[Foreign relations of Armenia]] *[[Military of Armenia]] *[[Transportation in Armenia]] == External links and references== {{sisterlinks|Armenia}} *[http://www.armeniapedia.org Armeniapedia.org] - the Armenian Wiki with thousands of articles *[http://www.armenianhouse.org Armenianhouse.org] - Armenian literature and history *[http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ The Heritage Foundation] - publishes the index of economic freedom *[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/am.html CIA] - The World Factbook -- Armenia *[http://www.gov.am/enversion/index.html Gov.am] - Government of Armenia *[http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/amed/armenia/armenia.html LoC.gov] - Library of Congress Portal on Armenia *[http://www.armeniainfo.am Armeniainfo.am] - Armenia information *[http://www.armgate.com Armgate.com] - Armenian News and pictures of Churches and Ararat Mountain *[http://hayastan.republika.pl/armenia.htm hayastan.republika.pl] - General information (Armenian, English, Polish) *Portals **[http://www.hayastan.com Hayastan.com] - Armenian portal with millions of visitors (Armenian,Russian,English) **[http://www.circle.am Circle.am] Armenian web ring **[http://www.armeniasearch.com Armeniasearch.com] - Armenian Search Engine and Directory *News sites **[http://www.panarmenian.net PanARMENIAN.Net] - Armenia & Armenian News **[http://www.a1plus.am A1plus.am] - Fastest News from Armenia **[http://www.groong.org Groong.org] - Armenian News Network - Groong **[http://www.ArmeniaNow.com Armenia Now], edited by John Hughes **[http://www.caucaz.com/home_uk Caucaz.com] - Weekly online publishing articles and reports about Armenia and South Caucasus. Available in English and French {{Europe}} {{Asia}} {{Southwest_Asia}} {{Commonwealth_of_Independent_States}} [[Category:Armenia| ]] [[af:Armenië]] [[ar:أرمينيا]] [[an:Armenia]] [[ast:Armenia]] [[az:Ermənistan]] [[bg:Армения]] [[zh-min-nan:Hayastan]] [[be:Армэнія]] [[bn:আর্মেনিয়া]] [[bs:Armenija]] [[ca:Armènia]] [[cs:Arménie]] [[cy:Armenia]] [[da:Armenien]] [[de:Armenien]] [[et:Armeenia]] [[el:Αρμενία]] [[es:Armenia]] [[eo:Armenio]] [[fa:ارمنستان]] [[fr:Arménie]] [[fy:Armeenje]] [[gl:Armenia - Հայաստան]] [[ko:아르메니아]] [[hy:Հայաստան]] [[hi:आर्मीनिया]] [[hr:Armenija]] [[io:Armenia]] [[id:Armenia]] [[ia:Armenia]] [[is:Armenía]] [[it:Armenia]] [[he:ארמניה]] [[ka:სომხეთი]] [[kk:Армения]] [[ku:Ermenistan]] [[la:Armenia]] [[lv:Armēnija]] [[lt:Armėnija]] [[li:Armenië]] [[hu:Örményország]] [[ms:Armenia]] [[mo:Армения]] [[na:Armenia]] [[nl:Armenië]] [[nds:Armenien]] [[ja:アルメニア]] [[no:Armenia]] [[nn:Armenia]] [[pl:Armenia]] [[pt:Arménia]] [[ro:Armenia]] [[ru:Армения]] [[sa:आर्मीनिया]] [[sq:Armenia]] [[sh:Jermenija]] [[simple:Armenia]] [[sk:Arménsko]] [[sl:Armenija]] [[sr:Јерменија]] [[fi:Armenia]] [[sv:Armenien]] [[tl:Armenia]] [[th:ประเทศอาร์เมเนีย]] [[tr:Ermenistan]] [[uk:Вірменія]] [[ur:آرمینیا]] [[zh:亞美尼亞]] 746 move=:edit= 42040989 2006-03-03T11:31:48Z Stephen G. Brown 117550 rvt :''For the region in northwest [[Iran]], see [[Iranian Azerbaijan]]'' {{Infobox Country| native_name = Azərbaycan Respublikası<br>Republic of Azerbaijan| common_name = Azerbaijan | national_motto = none | national_anthem = [[Azərbaycan Respublikasının Dövlət Himni]] | image_flag = Flag of Azerbaijan.svg | image_coat = Azericoat.gif | image_map = LocationAzerbaijan.png | capital = [[Baku]] |latd=40|latm=22|latNS=N|longd=49|longm=53|longEW=E| largest_city = [[Baku]] | official_languages = [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] | government_type = [[Representative democracy]] | leader_titles = [[President of Azerbaijan|President]]<br>Prime Minister | leader_names = [[Ilham Aliyev]]<br>[[Artur Rasizade]] | sovereignty_type = [[Collapse of the Soviet Union|Independence]] | established_events = &nbsp;- Declared<br> &nbsp;- Formerly | established_dates = From the [[Soviet Union]]<br>[[August 30]], [[1991]]<br> [[Azerbaijan SSR]] | area = 86,600 | areami² = 33,436 | <!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> area_rank = 112th | area_magnitude = 1 E9 | percent_water = negligible | population_estimate = 7,911,974 | population_estimate_year = 2005 | population_estimate_rank = 91st | population_census = N/A | population_census_year = 2000| population_density = 90 | population_densitymi² = 233 | <!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> population_density_rank = 81st | GDP_PPP_year = 2004 | GDP_PPP = $37,841,000,000 | GDP_PPP_rank = 87th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $4,500 | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 112th | HDI_year = 2003 | HDI = 0.729 | HDI_rank = 101st | HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font> | currency = [[Manat (Azerbaijan)|Manat]] | currency_code = AZN | time_zone = | utc_offset = +4 | time_zone_DST = | utc_offset_DST = +5 | cctld = [[.az]] | calling_code = 994 | footnotes = | }} The '''Republic of Azerbaijan''' ([[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]]: Azərbaycan or Azərbaycan Respublikası) is a country in the [[Caucasus]], at the crossroads of [[Europe]] and [[Southwest Asia]], with a coast on the [[Caspian Sea]]. It has frontiers with [[Russia]] in the north, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] in the northwest, [[Armenia]] in the west, and [[Iran]] in the south. The [[Nakhichevan|Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic]] (an [[exclave]] of Azerbaijan) borders Armenia to the north and east, Iran to the south and west, and [[Turkey]] to the northwest. Azerbaijan is a secular state, and has been a member of the [[Council of Europe]] since 2001. A majority of the population are [[Shi'a Muslim]] and of Western [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] descent, known as [[Azerbaijanis]], or simply Azeris. The country is formally an emerging [[democracy]], however with strong [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian]] rule. == Etymology == There are several hypotheses regarding the origins of the name "Azerbaijan." The most common theory is that it is derived from "Atropatan." [[Atropat]] was the [[satrap]] at the time of the [[Persian empire|Persian]] [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid dynasty]], and gained independence after [[Alexander the Great]] destroyed the Achaemenids. The region was known as ''[[Medes|Media]] Atropatia'' or ''[[Atropatene]]'' at the time. There are also alternative opinions that the term is a slight Turkification of ''Azarbaijan'', in turn an Arabicized version of the original Persian name ''Âzarâbâdagân'', made up of ''âzar+âbadag+ân'' (''âzar''=fire; ''âbâdag''=cultivated area; ''ân''=suffix of pluralization); that it traditionally means "the land of eternal flames" or "the land of fire", which is probabely implies [[Zoroastrian]] fire temples in this land. Some Azeri historians contend that the name is made up of four [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] components: ''az+er+bay+can'', which means "the land of the brave Az people" or "an elevated place for the wealthy and exalted." <!--please name some of these Azeri historians who so contend--> Historically, a large part of the territory of the present-day Azerbaijan Republic has been called [[Arran (Azerbaijan)|Arran]], named after Arran, a legendary founder of [[Caucasian Albania]]. However, the precise location identified by this name has shifted somewhat over time, currently referring to the lowland Karabakh plains situated between the [[Kura]] and [[Araks]] rivers. Some opponents of the name ''Azerbaijan'' assert that it is anachronistic to use it in a historical context before 1918, because, they say, the term was first introduced by the national intelligentsia in early 20th century and later was endorsed by the Bolsheviks, with intention of claiming the northern province of [[Persian Empire|Persia]]. To substantiate this claim they state that until the early 20th century the population of present-day Azerbaijan had no clear ethnic identification and referred to themselves primarily as "Muslims." == History == ''Main article: [[History of Azerbaijan]]'' The earliest known inhabitants of what is today Azerbaijan were the [[Caucasian Albania]]ns, a [[Languages of the Caucasus|Caucasian]]-speaking people who appear to have been in the region prior to the host of peoples who would eventually invade the Caucasus. Historically Azerbaijan has been occupied by a variety of peoples, including [[Armenians]], [[Persians]], [[Roman Empire|Romans]], [[Arabs]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]], [[Mongols]], [[Greek Empire]], and [[Russians]]. The first state to emerge in the territory of present-day Republic of Azerbaijan was [[Mannai|Mannae]] in the 9th century [[Anno Domini|BC]], lasting until 616 BC when it was overthrown by the [[Medes]]. The satrapies of Atropatene and [[Caucasian Albania]] were established in the [[4th century BC]] and included the approximate territories of present-day Azerbaijan and southern parts of [[Dagestan]]. [[Islam]] spread rapidly in Azerbaijan following the Arab conquests in the [[7th century|7th]]&ndash;[[8th century|8th centuries]]. After the power of the Arab Khalifate waned, several semi-independent states have been formed, the Shirvanshah kingdom being one of them. In the 11th century, the conquering [[Seljuk Turks]] became the dominant force in Azerbaijan and laid the ethnic foundation of contemporary [[Azerbaijanis]] or Azeri Turks. In the [[13th century|13]]&ndash;[[14th century|14th centuries]], the country experienced [[Mongol]]-[[Tatars|Tatar]] invasions. Azerbaijan was part of the [[Safavids|Safavid state]] in [[15th century|15th]]&ndash;[[18th century|18th centuries]]. It also underwent a brief period of feudal fragmentation in the mid-18th to early 19th centuries, and consisted of independent khanates. Following the two wars between the [[Qajars|Qajar dynasty]] of [[Persian Empire|Persia]] and the [[Russian Empire]], Azerbaijan was acquired by Russia through the [[Treaty of Gulistan]] in 1813, and the [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]] in 1828. After the collapse of the Russian Empire during [[World War I]], Azerbaijan declared independence and established the [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]. This first Muslim republic in the world lasted only two years, from 1918 to 1920, before the [[Soviet]] [[Red Army]] invaded Azerbaijan. Subsequently, Azerbaijan became part of the [[Soviet Union]]. Azerbaijan re-established its independence upon the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Despite a [[cease-fire]] in place since 1994, Azerbaijan has yet to resolve its conflict with [[Armenia]] over the predominantly ethnic Armenian [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] region. Azerbaijan has lost control of 16% of its territory including Karabakh, and must support some 800,000 [[refugee]]s and internally [[displaced person]]s as a result of the conflict. == Politics == ''Main article: [[Politics of Azerbaijan]]'' [[Image:Ilham aliyev.jpg|right|160px|thumb|[[Ilham Aliyev]], President of Azerbaijan]] Azerbaijan is a [[presidential republic]]. The [[head of state]] and [[head of government]] are separate from the country’s law-making body. The people elect the [[president of Azerbaijan|president]] for a five-year term of office. The president appoints all [[cabinet]]-level government administrators. A fifty-member national assembly makes the country’s laws. The people of Azerbaijan elect the [[National Assembly]]. Azerbaijan has [[universal suffrage]] above the age of eighteen. After the presidential elections of [[Azerbaijan presidential election, 2003|October 15, 2003]], an official release of the Central Election Committee (CEC) gave [[Isa Gambar]] — leader of the largest opposition bloc, [[Bizim Azerbaycan]] ("Our Azerbaijan") — 14% percent of the electorate and the second place in election. Third, with 3.6%, came [[Lala Shevket|Lala Shevket Hajiyeva]], leader of the National Unity Movement, the first woman to run in presidential election in Azerbaijan. Nevertheless, the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], the [[Council of Europe]], [[Human Rights Watch]] and other international organizations, as well as local independent political and [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]s voiced concern about observed vote rigging and a badly flawed counting process. Several independent local and international organizations that had been observing and monitoring the election directly or indirectly declared [[Isa Gambar]] winner in the [[Azerbaijan presidential election, 2003|15 October election]]. Another view shared by many international organisations is that in reality a second tour of voting should have taken place between the two opposition candidates Isa Gambar and Lala Shevket. *[[Human Rights Watch]] commented on [[Azerbaijan presidential election, 2003|these elections]]: "Human Rights Watch research found that the government has heavily intervened in the campaigning process in favor of Prime Minister Ilham Aliev, son of current President Heidar Aliev. The government has stacked the Central Election Commission and local election commission with its supporters, and banned local non-governmental organizations from monitoring the vote. As the elections draw nearer, government officials have openly sided with the campaign of Ilham Aliev, constantly obstructing opposition rallies and attempting to limit public participation in opposition events. In some cases, local officials have closed all the roads into town during opposition rallies, or have extended working and school hours—on one occasion, even declaring Sunday a workday—to prevent participation in opposition rallies." (source: [http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/eca/azerbaijan/index.htm HTML format]) *OSCE’s final report (source: [http://www.osce.org/documents/html/pdftohtml/1151_en.pdf.html HTML format] or [http://www.osce.org/documents/odihr/2003/11/1151_en.pdf PDF format]) Azerbaijan held [[Azerbaijan parliamentary election, 2005|parliamentary elections]] on Sunday, [[6 November]] [[2005]]. == Subdivisions == ''Main article: [[Subdivisions of Azerbaijan]]'' Azerbaijan is divided into: *59 [[raion]]s (rayonlar; rayon &ndash; singular), *11 [[cities]] (şəhərlər; şəhər &ndash; singular), *1 [[autonomous republic]] (muxtar respublika), which itself is divided into: **7 raions **1 city == Geography == [[Image:Map of Azerbaijan with cities.png|thumb|right|200px|Map of Azerbaijan]] ''Main article: [[Geography of Azerbaijan]]'' Azerbaijan has an [[arid]] [[climate]], except in the southeast. Temperatures vary by season. In the southeast [[lowland]], temperatures average 6°[[Celsius|C]] (43°[[Fahrenheit|F]]) in the winter and 26°C (80°F) in the summer &mdash; though daily maxima typically reach 32°C (89°F). In the northern and western [[mountain range]]s, temperatures average 12°C (55°F) in the summer and &ndash;9°C (20°F) in the winter. Annual rainfall over most of the country varies from 200 to 400 millimetres (8 to 16&nbsp;in) and is generally lowest in the northeast. In the far southeast, however, the climate is much moister and annual rainfall can be as high as 1300 [[millimetre]]s (51 [[inch|in]]). For most of the country, the wettest periods are in spring and autumn, with summers being the driest. == Economy == ''Main article: [[Economy of Azerbaijan]]'' The economy is largely based on [[industry]]. Industries include machine manufacture, [[petroleum]] and other [[mining]], petroleum [[refining]], [[textiles|textile]] production, and chemical processing. [[Agriculture]] accounts for one-third of Azerbaijan’s economy. Most of the nation’s farms are [[irrigation|irrigated]]. In the lowlands, farmers grow such crops as [[cotton]], [[fruit]], [[cereal|grain]], [[tea]], [[tobacco]], and many types of [[vegetable]]s. [[Silkworm]]s are raised for the production of natural [[silk]] for the clothing industry. Azerbaijan’s herders raise [[cattle]], [[domestic sheep]] and [[goat]]s near the mountain ranges. [[Seafood]] and [[fish]] are caught in the nearby [[Caspian Sea]]. Azerbaijan has a highly dynamic economy, mainly because of oil, and has a GDP growth rate of up to 11% a year. == Demographics == ''Main article: [[Demographics of Azerbaijan]]'' Azerbaijan has population of roughly 7,911,974 (July 2005 est.), 90.6% of whom are ethnic [[Azerbaijanis|Azerbaijani]] (also called Azeris; 1999 census figures). Azeris also form about 24% of the population of [[Iran]], predominating in the northern regions of the country. Most of Armenia’s Azeri minority have left since independence and the [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] war. The second largest ethnic group are [[Russians]], who now form roughly 1.8% of the population, most having emigrated since independence. The [[Talysh]], an Iranian people, predominate in the southernmost regions of the country around the Talysh mountains and across the border into Iran. Some people argue that the number of [[Talysh]] is greater than officially recorded, as many of them are counted as Azerbaijanis. Numerous 'Dagestani' peoples live around the border with [[Dagestan]]. The main peoples are the [[Lezgis]], [[Caucasian Avars|Avar]] and the [[Tsakhur]]. Smaller groups include the [[Budukh]], [[Udi]], [[Kryts]] and [[Khinalug]]/Ketsh around the village of [[Xinaliq]]. Around the town of [[Quba]] in the north live the [[Tats]], also known as the [[Mountain Jews]], who are also to be found in Dagestan. Many Tats have emigrated to [[Israel]] in recent years, though this trend has slowed and even reversed more recently. The country’s large Armenian population mostly fled to [[Armenia]] and to other countries with the beginning of the Armenian-Azeri conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh. During the same period, Azerbaijan also received a large influx of Azerbaijanis fleeing Armenia and later [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] and adjacent provinces occupied by the Armenians. Almost all of Azerbaijan’s Armenians now live in Nagorno-Karabakh. Azerbaijan also contains numerous smaller groups, such as [[Kurds]], [[Georgians]], [[Tatars]] and [[Ukrainians]]. Most Azerbaijanis (about 60–70%) are [[Twelver Shia]] [[Islam|Muslim]]. Other [[religion]]s or beliefs that are followed by many in the country are the orthodox [[Sunni]] Islam, the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]] (in Karabakh), the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], and various other Christian and Muslim sects. The Tat in [[Quba]], as well as several thousand [[Ashkenazim Jews]] in Baku, follow [[Judaism]]. Adherence to religious dogmas is nominal for the majority of the population and attitudes are secular. Traditionally, villages around Baku and the [[Lenkoran]] region are considered stronghold of Shi‘ism, and in some northern regions populated by Sunni Dagestani people, the Salafi sect has gained a following. Folk Islam is widely practiced, but an organized [[Sufi]] movement is absent. == Culture == ''Main article: [[Culture of Azerbaijan]]'' The official language of Azerbaijan is [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], a member of the [[Oguz]] subdivision of the [[Turkic languages|Turkic language family]], and is spoken by around 95% of the republic’s population, as well as about a third of the population of Iran. Its closest relatives in language are [[Turkish language|Turkish]] and [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]]. As a result of the language policy of the [[Soviet Union]], [[Russian language|Russian]] is also commonly spoken as a second language among the urbane. There are also speakers of [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] in the state. Azerbaijan’s culture has long cultural roots with [[Iran]] and [[Iranian peoples]].{{fact}} * [[Music of Azerbaijan]] * [[Islam in Azerbaijan]] * [[Azerbaijani literature]] == Miscellaneous topics == * [[Communications in Azerbaijan]] * [[Transportation in Azerbaijan]] * [[Military of Azerbaijan]] * [[Foreign relations of Azerbaijan]] * [[Public holidays in Azerbaijan]] * [[List of Azerbaijanis]] * [[Scout Association of Azerbaijan]] * [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] ==References== *Forrest, Brett (Nov. 28, 2005). "Over a Barrel in Baku". ''[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]'', pp. 54&ndash;60. == External links== {{sisterlinks|Azerbaijan}} * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/aj.html CIA World Factbook: ''Azerbaijan''] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/1235976.stm BBC Country Profile: ''Azerbaijan''] * [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Azerbaijan Open Directory Project: ''Azerbaijan''] directory category *[http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/amed/azerbaijan/azerbaijan.html Library of Congress Portals to the World: Azerbaijan] directory category * [http://www.azerb.com/ Azerbaijan from A to Z] * [http://www.azer.com Azerbaijan International] world's largest website about Azerbaijan * [http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Azerbaijan.html Encyclopedia of Nations — Azerbaijan] * [http://www.azadlig.org/ Democratic Youth Movement New Idea] * [http://www.zerbaijan.com/ Virtual Azerbaijan Republic] *[http://www.caucaz.com/home_uk Caucaz.com]: Weekly online magazine publishing articles and reports about Azerbaijan and South Caucasus. Available in English and French. *[http://www.bakutoday.net Baku Today] *[http://www.azadliq.az/ Independent newspaper Azadliq] *[http://www.azstat.org/indexen.php State Statistical Committee of the Azerbaijan Republic] *[http://www.un-az.org United Nations Office in Azerbaijan] with a [http://www.un-az.org/couinf.htm country report] *[http://ifex.org/en/content/view/full/179/ IFEX: Press Freedom in Azerbaijan] {{Azerbaijantie}} {{Europe}} [[Category:Azerbaijan| ]] [[ar:أذربيجان]] [[an:Azerbayán]] [[ast:Azerbaiyán]] [[az:Azərbaycan]] [[bg:Азербайджан]] [[zh-min-nan:Azerbaijan]] [[be:Азэрбайджан]] [[bn:আজারবাইজান]] [[bs:Azerbejdžan]] [[ca:Azerbaidjan]] [[cs:Ázerbájdžán]] [[cy:Azerbaijan]] [[da:Aserbajdsjan]] [[de:Aserbaidschan]] [[et:Aserbaidžaan]] [[el:Αζερμπαϊτζάν]] [[es:Azerbaiyán]] [[eo:Azerbajĝano]] [[eu:Azerbaijan]] [[fa:جمهوری آذربایجان]] [[fr:Azerbaïdjan]] [[fy:Azerbeidzjan]] [[gl:Acerbaixán - Azərbaycan]] [[ko:아제르바이잔]] [[hi:अज़रबैजान]] [[hr:Azerbejdžan]] [[io:Azerbaijan]] [[id:Azerbaijan]] [[is:Aserbaídsjan]] [[it:Azerbaijan]] [[he:אזרבייג'ן]] [[ka:აზერბაიჯანი]] [[kk:Әзірбайжан]] [[ku:Azerbeycan]] [[lv:Azerbaidžāna]] [[lt:Azerbaidžanas]] [[lb:Aserbaidschan]] [[li:Azerbaidzjan]] [[hu:Azerbajdzsán]] [[ms:Azerbaijan]] [[na:Azerbaijan]] [[nl:Azerbeidzjan]] [[nds:Aserbaidschan]] [[ja:アゼルバイジャン]] [[no:Aserbajdsjan]] [[nn:Aserbajdsjan]] [[os:Азербайджан]] [[pl:Azerbejdżan]] [[pt:Azerbaijão]] [[ro:Azerbaidjan]] [[ru:Азербайджан]] [[sa:अजर्बैजान]] [[sq:Azerbajxhani]] [[simple:Azerbaijan]] [[sk:Azerbajdžan]] [[sl:Azerbajdžan]] [[sr:Азербејџан]] [[fi:Azerbaidžan]] [[sv:Azerbajdzjan]] [[tl:Azerbaijan]] [[tt:Äzärbaycan]] [[th:ประเทศอาเซอร์ไบจาน]] [[tr:Azerbaycan]] [[uk:Азербайджан]] [[ur:آذربائجان]] [[zh:阿塞拜疆]] 748 42139829 2006-03-04T02:08:03Z Mozasaur 475997 add amateur astro pics previously published by NASA {{merge|Skygazing}} '''Amateur astronomy''', often called '''back yard astronomy''' in the US, is a [[hobby]] whose participants enjoy observing celestial objects. It is usually associated with viewing the [[night sky]] when most celestial objects and events are visible, but sometimes amateur astronomers also operate during the day for events such as [[sunspot]]s and [[solar eclipse]]s. Amateur astronomers often look at the sky using nothing more than their eyes, but common tools for amateur astronomy include portable [[optical telescope|telescopes]] and [[binoculars]]. [[Image:AuroraAustralisDisplay.jpg|thumb|Aurora Australis Display Over Wellington NZ November 2001 Published by NASA SpaceWeather.com]] [[Image:CometNeat.jpg|thumb|Comet Neat over Wellington NZ 2003]] == Amateur astronomy and scientific research == Unlike professional astronomy, scientific research is not always the ''main'' goal for many amateur astronomers. Work of scientific merit is certainly possible, however, and many amateurs contribute to the knowledge base of professional astronomers very successfully. Astronomy is often promoted as one of the few remaining sciences for which amateurs can still contribute useful data. The majority of scientific contributions by amateur astronomers are in the area of data collection. In particular, this applies where large numbers of amateur astronomers with small telescopes are more effective than the relatively small number of large telescopes that are available to professional astronomers. Several organisations, such as the Center for Backyard Astrophysics [http://cba.phys.columbia.edu/], exist to help coordinate these contributions. In particular, amateur astronomers often contribute toward activities such as monitoring the changes in brightness of [[variable star]]s, helping to track [[asteroid]]s, and observing [[occultation]]s to determine both the shape of asteroids and the shape of the terrain on the apparent edge of the [[Moon]] as seen from Earth. In the past and present, amateur astronomers have also played a major role in discovering new [[comet]]s. Recently however, funding of projects such as the [[LINEAR|Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research]] and [[Near Earth Asteroid Tracking]] projects has meant that ''most'' comets are now discovered by automated systems, long before it is possible for amateurs to see them. A newer role for amateurs is searching for overlooked phenomena (e.g. [[Kreutz Sungrazers]]) in the vast libraries of digital images and other data captured by Earth and space based observatories, much of which is available over the Internet. == Societies for amateur astronomy == There are a large number of [[astronomical society|amateur astronomical societies]] around the world that serve as a meeting point for those interested in amateur astronomy, whether they be people who are actively interested in observing or "armchair astronomers" who may be simply interested in the topic. Societies range widely in their goals, depending on a variety of factors such as geographic spread, local circumstances, size and membership. For instance, a local society in the middle of a large city may have regular meetings with speakers, focusing less on observing the night sky if the membership is less able to observe due to factors such as [[light pollution]]. It is common for local societies to hold regular meetings, which may include activities such as [[star party|star parties]]. Other activities could include [[amateur telescope making]], which was pioneered in America by [[Russell W. Porter]], who later played a major role in design and construction of the [[Hale Telescope]]. == Approaches to using amateur telescopes == Amateur telescopes come in many shapes and sizes, both commercial and home-built. The preferences of people who use them often differ. === Star hopping === Some amateur astronomers prefer to learn the sky as accurately as they can, using maps to find their way between the stars. In this case a common approach is to use binoculars or a manually driven telescope, combined with star maps, to locate items of interest in the sky. The normal technique for doing this, by locating landmark stars and "hopping" between them, is called [[star hopping]]. === GOTO telescopes === More recently as technology has improved and prices have come down, automated "GOTO" telescopes have also become a popular choice. With these computer-driven telescopes, the user typically enters the name of the item they wish to look at, and the telescope finds it in the sky automatically with comparatively little further effort required by the user. The main advantage of a "GOTO" telescope for an experienced amateur astronomer is the reduction of "wasted" time that may have otherwise been used in trying to find a particular object. This time can therefore be used more effectively for ''studying'' the object. === Comparing methodologies === There is significant (though usually light-hearted) debate within the hobby about which method is better. Promoters of the [[star hopping]] approach for finding items in the sky usually argue that they know the sky much better as a result. The manual method also tends to require simpler equipment with less calibration and setup time, and is therefore more versatile. Promoters of "GOTO" telescopes often argue that they are more interested in studying objects, and the reward of finding them or learning exactly where they are is not as important to them. It may also be argued that the money spent on complex electronics and mounting systems might be better spent on higher quality optics. == Additional tools and activities == In addition to optical equipment, amateur astronomers use a variety of other tools such as celestial maps, and specialised computer software. There is a range of [[astronomy software]] available, from planetarium programs that simulate the sky to programs used to do various kinds of calculations pertaining to astronomical phenomena. Most amateur astronomers also keep a record of their observations. This can take the form of an [[astronomical observing log|observing log]], in which they record details about which objects were observed and describing the details that were seen. [[Astrophotography]] and sketching are also popularly used to record observations. == Beginning in amateur astronomy == There are a many ways for people to become involved in amateur astronomy and study the night sky. One option is to join a local [[astronomical society]], the members of which will often be very happy to help a newcomer take a more active part. Some people also prefer to simply teach themselves, in which case there are likely to be a large amount of books in the local library. Common objects that are observed early are the [[Moon]] and [[planet]]s. Another thing that most newcomers to amateur astronomy become acquainted with are the more prominent [[constellation]]s in the night sky. When reading maps and interpreting instructions for future [[star hopping]], constellations are good starting points for identifying locations in the night sky. They are frequently referred to by amateur astronomers when discussing the location of items of interest when looked at with binoculars and telescopes. === Beginning with a GOTO telescope === A relatively new ''type'' of beginning amateur astronomer, brought about by the increased affordability of powerful "GOTO" telescopes, is one who begins with such a telescope. It is possible for an inexperienced person to immediately look at a large amount of deep sky objects in the night sky without necessarily having any prior experience or training. There is currently some debate among amateur astronomers about the merits of this approach to becoming involved in the hobby, and the effects that low-priced GOTO telescopes may be having. Amateur astronomy is exposed to more people, as an individual is less likely to be discouraged by the need to learn how to locate objects in the night sky before being able to see them. Some are concerned, however, that newcomers may become bored very quickly. A GOTO telescope does not distinguish between objects that are easy and hard to see, and newcomers may therefore begin with objects that require large amounts of experience or understanding to properly appreciate. === Becoming acquainted with the night sky === Most tutors agree that it is very important to know one's way around the sky by means of the constellations. This ability forms a platform from which deeper explorations of the sky are then possible. A planisphere can be used to find and identify the constellations. These devises show the location of the constellations for any time of the night or time of the year. An observer will also need a red flashlight to read star charts or the planisphere. Use of a red light helps preserve the dark adaptation of the eyes. Having learned the main constellations, a beginner may want to extend their hobby and buy a pair of binoculars or a telescope. ==== Using binoculars ==== With [[binoculars]] it is possible to see many [[deep sky object]]s (DSOs). Holding the binoculars can produce a shaky image. One way to improve the view is with the aid of a sturdy tripod mount to steady the view through the binoculars. Binoculars are still limited in range, although most of the [[Messier]] catalogue should be visible, as well as a great many [[New General Catalogue|NGC]]'s, especially near the [[Milky Way]]. An advantage of binoculars is that they allow more complete wide field views of the larger [[open clusters]] such as the [[Pleiades]], the [[Hyades]], the [[Coma Berenices]] cluster and [[Praesepe]], for example, of which only portions are usually observable in one [[field of view]] at higher magnifications. ==== Using a telescope ==== With a telescope, the sky really comes alive, especially one that has an [[aperture]] of six inches or more. Some amateur telescopes are [[telescope making|built]] by their owners from scratch, but many good quality telescopes can be purchased from reputable companies. Thousands of DSOs are visible in a telescope and the determined amateur with a large (about 41 cm) telescope can push this to tens of thousands or more. Another type of telescope to consider, especially if the amateur is observing with children, is a wide-field telescope, such as Edmund Scientific's f/4 Astroscan compact [[Reflecting_telescope|reflector]]. This type of telescope is typically a short tube [[reflector telescope|reflector]] and has an [[aperture]] of only 80 to 120 mm (3 1/4 to 4 3/4 inches), but is easier to target an object, since it offers a much wider field of view. With the aid of high power lenses (i.e. eyepieces), the amateur can zoom in on planets and some of the closer DSOs. It is the best of a blend of a telescope's narrow long range light gathering ability with a binocular's wider field of view. Those who are particularly interested in observing the moon and planets may prefer a high-power design such as the [[Maksutov telescope]]. With any telescope, though, the mount is the most important feature. A tripod that doesn't shake every time one uses it is a must. Too many amateur astronomers give up because they have a hard time targeting an object. If the mounting tripod is rock solid, the amateur can enjoy their time observing the heavens instead of fighting with the telescope. ==== Astrophotography ==== [[Image:Comet_Hale_Bopp_reduced.jpg|thumbnail|right|A photo taken of Comet Hale Bopp using a standard [[35 mm film|35 mm]] camera with a 50 mm lens and 400 ISO film. The exposure was taken for 10 seconds on a tripod using a shutter cable release.]] The next step in an amateur astronomer's quest for more space adventure could be the purchase of a good camera for [[Astrophotography]]. Starting out with a good 35 mm camera with a 50 mm lens mounted on a tripod and using a cable release and 400 or faster speed film, the amateur can capture some nice pictures of the planets and some larger nebula, like the [[Orion Nebula]]. Some of the larger comets and prolific meteor showers can be photographed this way as well. As one progresses, cameras can be mounted directly on to telescopes, capturing on film many DSOs. Special films and even the technique of hypering the film has been employed by the amateur. Many publications accept these astrophotos in their [[magazines]], [[i.e.]], ''[[Astronomy (magazine)|Astronomy]]'' and ''[[Sky & Telescope]]''. A more recent development is the use of [[webcam|webcams]] to do [[speckle imaging]] (also known as ''video astronomy''). The resulting short exposure frames can be stacked using the [[shift-and-add]] method of [[speckle imaging]] or selected to do [[lucky imaging]], all using commercially available astronomy software. ==== Sketching ==== As an alternative to photography in order to make a record of observations, amateurs also use sketching. Sketching does not require the use of any specialized equipment and is therefore suitable for beginners as well as advanced amateur observers. There are different approaches to sketching that require different tools, simple pencil sketches can sometimes be used to make accurate renditions of what the observer sees through binoculars or a telescope. As the expewrience of the observer increases, more advanced drawing tools and techniques can be employed. Sketching has the advantage of helping the observer scrutinize the object that is seen and can help bring out details that otherwise might have been overlooked. === Suggested reading === Some good books for amateur astronomers to start with are: * ''The Stars: A New Way to See Them'', by Hans Augusto Rey, ISBN 0-395-081211 * ''NightWatch: An Equinox Guide to Viewing the Universe'', by [[Terence Dickinson]], ISBN 0-920-656897 * ''The Backyard Astronomer's Guide'', by Terence Dickinson and Alan Dyer, ISBN 0-921-820119 * ''Turn Left at Orion'', by [[Guy Consolmagno]], ISBN 0-521-34090-X * ''Skywatching'', by David H. Levy and John O'Byrne, ISBN 0-707-8354751-X * ''Seeing in the Dark: How Backyard Stargazers Are Probing Deep Space and Guarding Earth from Interplanetary Peril'', by Timothy Ferris, ISBN 0-684-865793 * ''The Complete Manual Of Amateur Astronomy'', by P. Clay Sherrod * ''Burnham's Celestial Handbook: An Observer's Guide to the Universe Beyond the Solar System'' (3 vols.), by [[Robert Burnham, Jr.]], (Vol 1) ISBN 048623567X, (Vol 2) ISBN 0486235688, (Vol 3) ISBN 0486236730 == See also == * [[Amateur telescope making]] * [[Astronomical object]] * [[Astronomy]] * [[Observation]] * [[Observational astronomy]] * [[Skygazing]] == External links == * [http://www.nightskygazing.net Night Sky Gazing] - information for newcomers to the hobby * [http://www.astroleague.org Astronomical League] * [http://www.popastro.com Society for Popular Astronomy] - the UK's biggest society for amateur astronomers * [http://www.licha.de astroscopic labs] - amateur astrophotography, reviews and articles [[Category:Amateur astronomy| ]] [[de:Amateurastronomie]] [[es:Astronomía amateur]] [[fr:Observation du ciel]] [[it:Astronomia amatoriale]] [[hu:Amatőrcsillagász]] [[fi:Tähtitieteen harrastus]] [[th:ดาราศาสตร์สมัครเล่น]] [[zh:业余天文学]] 749 15899267 2002-06-15T18:57:46Z DavidLevinson 1689 #REDIRECT [[Astronomer]] (merge content) #REDIRECT [[Astronomer]] 751 41829883 2006-03-02T00:42:47Z PRehse 410898 currently the the article is written in British English - change all or none. {| border="1" cellpadding="2" width="300" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="float:right;clear:right;" ! colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFCCCC" | Aikido |- ! colspan="2" | Japanese Name |- | width="150" | [[Kanji]] | width="150" | 合気道 |- | width="150" | [[Hiragana]] | width="150" | あいきどう |- | colspan="2" | [[image:nikyo omote.jpeg|300px]] |} '''Aikido''' (合気道 ''Aikidō'', also 合氣道 using an older style of [[kanji]]), literally meaning 'joining energy way', is a [[gendai budo]] — a modern [[Japan]]ese [[martial art]]. Practitioners of Aikido are known as '''aikidoka'''. It was developed by [[Morihei Ueshiba]] (植芝盛平) (also known by Aikidoka as [[o-sensei]] (翁先生) over the period of the [[1930s]] to the [[1960s]]. Technically, the major parts of Aikido are derived from [[Daito Ryu|Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu]] (大東流合気柔術), a form of Jujutsu with many joint techniques, and [[kenjutsu]] (剣術), or Japanese sword technique (some believe the tactics in Aikido are especially influenced by [[Yagyu Shinkage-ryu|Yagyū Shinkage-ryū]]). Aikido is also considered to contain a significant [[Spirituality|spiritual]] component. ==History== The name aikido is formed of three Japanese characters, 合気道, usually romanised as ai, [[qi|ki]] and [[do]]. These are often translated as meaning union, universal energy and way, so aikido can be translated as 'the way to union with universal energy'. Another common interpretation of the characters is harmony, spirit and way, so Aikido can also mean 'the way of spiritual harmony'. Both interpretations draw attention to the fact that aikido's techniques are designed to control an attacker by controlling and redirecting their energy instead of blocking it. An analogy is often made of the way a flexible willow bends with the storm, whereas the stout oak will break if the wind blows too hard. (The Korean [[martial arts|martial art]] commonly known as [[hapkido]] uses the same three characters: some suggest a historical link through [[Daito-ryu]], the main origin of aikido). Morihei Ueshiba developed aikido mainly from Daito-ryu [[aikijutsu]], incorporating training movements such as those for the ''[[yari]]'' ([[spear]]), ''[[jo (weapon)|jo]]'' (a short [[quarterstaff]]), and perhaps also ''juken'' ([[bayonet]]). But arguably the strongest influence is that of the [[katana]] ([[sword]]). In many ways, an aikido practitioner moves as an empty handed swordsman. The aikido strikes ''shomenuchi'' and ''yokomenuchi'' originated from weapon attacks, and resultant techniques likewise from weapon take-aways. Some schools of aikido do no weapons training at all; others, such as [[Iwama Ryu]] usually spend substantial time with ''[[bokken]]''/bokuto (wooden sword), ''[[jo (weapon)|jo]]'', and ''[[tanto]]'' (knife). In some lines of aikido, all techniques can be performed with a sword as well as unarmed. Aikido was first brought to the West in [[1951]] by [[Minoru Mochizuki]] with a visit to [[France]]. It was introduced to the [[United States]] in [[1953]] by [[Kenji Tomiki]] and, a little later in the same year by [[Koichi Tohei]]. The [[United Kingdom]] followed in [[1955]], [[Germany]] and [[Australia]] in [[1965]]. Today there are many aikido [[dojo]]s available to train at throughout the world. ==Technique== Aikido incorporates a wide range of techniques which use principles of energy and motion to redirect, neutralise and control attackers. One of the central martial philosophies of aikido is to be able to handle multiple-attacker circumstances fluidly. ''[[Randori]]'', practice against multiple opponents, is a key part of the curriculum in most aikido schools and is required for the higher level belts. Another tenet of aikido is that the aikidoka should gain control of their opponent as quickly as possible, while causing the least amount of damage possible to either party. If performed correctly, size and strength are not important for the techniques to be effective. ===Training=== The methods of training vary from organisation to organisation, and indeed even between different [[dojo]] in a single organisation. Typically, however, a class consists of a teacher demonstrating techniques or principles which the students then practice. Training is done through mutual technique, where the focus is on entering and blending (harmonising) with the attack, rather than on meeting force with force. ''Uke'', the receiver of the technique, usually initiates an attack against ''nage'' (also referred to as ''tori'' or ''shite'' depending on Aikido style), who neutralises it with an aikido technique. The uke and the nage have equally important roles. Uke's role is to be honest and committed in attack, to use positioning to protect oneself, and to learn proper technique through the imbalanced feeling created by nage's technique. Nage's role is to blend with and neutralise uke's attack without leaving an opening to further attacks. Simultaneously nage will be studying how to create a feeling of being centred (on balance) and controlled in the application of the Aikido technique. Therefore, students must practise both positions in order to learn proper technique. When O-Sensei taught, all his students were uke until he deemed them knowledgeable enough of the technique to be nage. Movement, awareness, precision, distance and timing are all important to the execution of techniques as students progress from rigidly defined exercises to more fluid and adaptable applications. Eventually, students take part in ''jiyu-waza'' (free attack) and/or [[randori]], where the attacks are less predictable. Most schools employ training methods wherein uke actively attempts to employ counter-techniques, or ''kaeshi-waza''. O-Sensei did not allow competition in training because some techniques were considered too dangerous and because he believed that competition did not develop good character in students. Most styles of aikido continue this tradition although [[Tomiki Aikido|Shodokan Aikido]] (see [[#Styles|Styles]]) started with competitions early on. In the [[Ki Society]] there are forms (''[[taigi]]'') competitions held from time to time. ====Defense==== Aikido techniques are largely designed towards keeping the attacker off balance and locking joints. Much of aikido's repertoire of defenses can be performed either as throwing techniques (''nage-waza'') or as pins (''katame-waza''), depending on the situation. Entering, ''irimi'', and turning, ''tenkan'', are widely used aikido concepts, as is striking, ''atemi''. The use of striking techniques is dependent on the organization and, to some extent, the individual dojo. Some dojo teach the strikes that are integral to all aikido techniques as mere distractions used to make the application of an aikido technique easier, while others teach that strikes are to be used for more destructive reasons. O-Sensei himself wrote, while describing the aikido technique ikkyo, "...first smash the eyes." (This might well refer to the fact that the classic opener for ikkyo is a knife-hand thrust towards the face, to make uke block and thus expose his or her arm to the joint control - thus, ''as though'' moving to smash uke's eyes.) Manipulation of uke's balance by entering is often referred to as "taking uke's center". It is sometimes said that Aikido contains only defense, and the attacks that are performed are not really aikido. From a historical perspective this claim is questionable, but many if not most aikidoka have the defense techniques as the focus of their training. ====Attacks==== In the early days when Ueshiba began teaching to the public, students tended to be proficient in another martial art. Due to this, attacks per se are generally not focused on in contemporary aikido dojos. Students will learn the various attacks from which an Aikido technique can be practiced. Although attacks seldom are studied to the same extent as some arts, good attacks are needed to study correct and effective application of technique. "Honest" attacks are considered important. An "honest" attack would be an attack with full intention or a strong neutral (neither pulling or pushing) grab or hold. The speed of an attack may vary depending on the experience and level of the "nage" (the partner who executes the throw or technique). Whether the attack is fast or slow, the uke's intention to strike or control (if grabbing or pinning) should remain, in order to provide the nage a realistic training scenario. Aikido attacks used in normal training include various stylized strikes and grabs such as ''shomenuchi'' (a vertical strike to the head), ''yokomenuchi'' (a lateral strike to the side of the head and/or neck), ''munetsuki'' (a straight punch), ''ryotedori'' (a two handed grab) or ''katadori'' (a shoulder grab). Many of the ''-uchi'' strikes resemble blows from a sword or other weapon. Kicks are sometimes used, but are not usually part of basic curricula. Most aikido techniques can also be applied to a response to an attack, e.g. to a block, and some schools use this as the "basic" form of a given class of technique. Beginners also tend to work with techniques executed in response to a grab. Grabs are considered good for basic practice because the connection with uke is very clear and strong, and it is easier to "feel out" body mechanics and lines of force. There is also the matter of ''atemi'', or strikes employed during an aikido technique. The role and importance of atemi is a matter of some debate in aikido. Some view atemi as strikes to "vital points" that can be delivered during the course of a technique's application, to increase effectiveness. Others consider atemi to be methods of distraction, particularly when aimed at the face. For instance, if a movement would expose the aikido practitioner to a counter-blow, he or she may deliver a quick strike to distract the attacker or occupy the threatening limb. (Such a strike will also usually break the target's concentration, making them easier to throw than if they are able to focus on resisting.) Atemi can be interpreted as not only punches or kicks but also, for instance, striking with a shoulder or a large part of the arm. Some throws are arguably effected through an unbalancing or abrupt application of atemi. [http://www.tsuki-kage.com/ueshiba.html Many sayings about atemi] are attributed to [[Morihei Ueshiba]], although their precise content varies considerably based on the one doing the telling. ====Weapons==== Weapons training in aikido usually consists of [[jo (weapon)|jo]] (4-foot staff), [[bokken]] (wooden sword), and wooden (or sometimes rubber) [[tanto]] (knife). Both weapons-taking and weapons-retention are sometimes taught, to integrate the armed and unarmed aspects of aikido. For example, a technique done with a straight punch may be done with a tanto or jo thrust instead, or a grab technique may be illustrated as a way to draw/strike with a weapon while being grabbed. Many schools use versions of [[Morihiro Saito]]'s weapons system: aiki-jo and aiki-ken. The system contains solo [[Kata (martial arts)|kata]] with jo, and paired exercises for both jo and bokken. Some lineages use bokken kata derived from older sword schools. Also, quite a few aikido teachers, such as [[Mitsugi Saotome]] and [[Kazuo Chiba]], have developed their own weapons systems. This is largely due to the fact that O'Sensei did not teach weapons to his students, excepting a few. ===Clothing=== The [[aikidogi]] used in Aikido is similar to the [[keikogi]] used in most other modern [[budo]] arts; simple trousers and a wraparound jacket, usually white. In some places a keikogi of [[karate]] cut is preferred, in others most people use [[judo]] keikogis. Keikogi made specially for aikido exist, but usually not in the lower price ranges. Many dojos insist that the sleeves are cut short to elbow length, to reduce the risk of trapped fingers and injuries in grab techniques to the wrist. To the keikogi adds the traditional garment [[hakama]], wide pleated trousers. The hakama is usually black or dark blue and in most dojos, the hakama is reserved for practitioners with dan (black belt) ranks. Systems also exist where hakama is never worn or are worn from a specific kyu rank; others exist where women are allowed to wear it earlier than men. The belt, ''obi'' is wrapped twice around the body similar to in karate or judo. Although some systems use many belt colours similar to the system in judo, the most common version is that dan ranks wear black belt, and kyu ranks white - sometimes with an additional brown belt for the highest kyu ranks. In some dojos it is common to have the same color belt at different levels. ==Spirituality== The ending "[[do]]" in the word aikido indicates a spiritual path, unlike the ending "jutsu" in the word aikijujutsu, which indicates a system of techniques. Many people see this difference as important as well as regarding [[iaido|iaijutsu]] and [[iaido]], [[jujutsu]] and [[judo]], and [[kenjutsu]] and [[kendo]]. Others see this distinction as a historically incorrect and somewhat unnatural division. For example, literally, do refers to a path and jitsu to a technique: therefore, some argue, aikido involves both a way (do) and technical study (jutsu). Ueshiba taught that, while it was important to become proficient in physical technique, this is not the ultimate purpose of training. He taught that the principles learned through training in physical technique are universal and are to be applied to all aspects of one's life. He once commented that he was teaching students not how to move their feet but, rather, how to move their minds. Many agree that Ueshiba's style became softer, more fluid, and effortless as he grew older. Some suggest this was due to a shift in focus to the spiritual aspects of the art, while others suggest that this was simply a natural result of Ueshiba becoming more proficient in physical technique. Various interpretations have arisen since Ueshiba's death. A range of aikido schools can be found, each placing a different emphasis on physical techniques, underlying principles, and spiritual concepts. This is largely a result of at what point the founder of each of these schools trained with Ueshiba--earlier or later in Ueshiba's life. The former tend to focus more on physical technique, while the latter tend to focus more on spiritual concepts. However, this should not be overstated, especially since there is considerable variance from sensei to sensei, and an "aikido continuum" is quite problematic to actually construct. Some aikidoka view "physical vs. spiritual" as a false separation, or a failed attempt to stereotype branches of aikido. [[Ki Society]] is an example of a school that focuses heavily on the spiritual concepts of aikido, rather than physical technique. ===Ki=== [[Image:ki-obsolete.png|left|float|200px|Obsolete form of the ki kanji]] The Japanese character for [[Qi|ki]], is a symbolic representation of a lid covering a pot full of rice. The steam being contained within, is ki. This same word is applied to the ability to harness one's own 'breath power', 'power', or 'energy'. This 'ki' is the same as the 'qi' in [[Qigong|qi-gong]], but many people argue it is not the same as the 'chi' in [[Tai Chi Chuan|t'ai chi]]. When [[aikidoka]] say that someone is training with a lot of ki, they usually want to express that the person is very non-forcefully compelling in the execution of his technique. Timing, a sense for the correct distance and a centered (undisturbed) mind and body are particularly important. Most teachers claim to locate ki in the [[hara (Martial Arts)|hara]], which might be loosely defined as the body's center of gravity, situated in the lower abdomen, about two inches below and behind the navel. In training it is constantly emphasized that one should keep one's hara — that is, remain ''centered''. Very high ranking teachers sometimes reach a level of coordination that enables them to execute techniques with very little apparent movement, sometimes even without seeming to touch their opponent's body. Essentially, ki corresponds to the physical concepts of center of gravity, center of momentum, and center of force. However, these centers are not necessarily the same, so ki also encompasses the biological and mental aspect of training oneself to have exquisite control over motion. The "spiritual" interpretation of ki depends very much on what school of aikido one studies, as some emphasize it more than others. Ki Society dojos, for example, tend to spend much more time on ki-related training activities than do, for example, Yoshinkan dojos. The importance of ki in aikido cannot be denied -- the name of the martial art, after all, can be translated as "the meeting of ki". But what ki is, is debated by many within the discipline. O-Sensei himself appears to have changed his views over time -- for example, Yoshinkan Aikido, which largely follows O-Sensei's teachings from before the war, is considerably more martial in nature, reflecting a younger, more violent and less spiritual O-Sensei. Within this school, ki perhaps could be better thought of as having its original Chinese meaning of breath, and aikido as coordination of movement with breath to maximize power. As O-Sensei evolved and his views changed, his teachings took on a much more ethereal feel, and many of his later students (almost all now high ranking senseis within the Aikikai) teach about ki from this perspective. See also: [[Qi]], [[Qigong]] ==Body== Aikido training is for all-around physical fitness, flexibility, and [[relaxation]]. The human body in general can exert power in two ways: contractive and expansive (aikidofaq.com). Many fitness activities, for example weight-lifting, emphasize the former, which means that specific muscles or muscle groups are isolated and worked to improve tone, mass, and power. The disadvantage of this, however, is that whole body movement and coordination are rarely stressed. Thus, while muscle size and power may increase, there is no emphasis on the ways in which those muscles can work together most efficiently. Also, this sort of training tends to increase tension, decrease flexibility, and stress the joints. The result may be aesthetically pleasing, but when done to excess may actually be detrimental to overall health. The second type of power, expansive, is mostly stressed in activities such as dance or gymnastics. In these activities, the body must learn to move in a coordinated manner and with relaxation. Aikido also mostly stresses this sort of training. While both types of power are important, it is interesting to note that a person who masters the second type of power can, in a martial context, often overcome a person who is much bigger or stronger. The reason for this is that the contractive power is only as great as the mass and power of your individual muscles. Expansive power, however, as used in Aikido, can be much greater than your size may lead you to believe. This is because you move with your whole body. Rather than stressing and tensing only a few muscles, you learn to relax and move from the center of your body, where you are most powerful. Power is then extended out naturally through the relaxed limbs, which become almost whip-like in their motion. Needless to say, the power behind an entire person's body will be more than that of someone's arm or leg alone. Hence, aikido develops the body in a unique manner. Aerobic fitness is obtained through vigorous training. Flexibility of the joints and connective tissues is developed through various stretching exercises and through the techniques themselves. [[Relaxation]] is learned automatically, since without it the techniques will not function. A balanced use of contractive and expansive power is mastered, enabling even a small person to pit his entire body's energy against their opponent. With this, different masters stress different aspects of training. Some masters stress importance of body posture while executing the technique in order to coordinate different parts of the body, while others deal with the physical aspects of it. With each way, comes a different means of interpretation of the same basic principles of the art which is discussed in more detail above. ==Mind== Aikido training does not consider the body and mind as independent entities. The condition of one affects the other. For example, the physical relaxation learned in aikido also becomes a mental relaxation. Likewise, the confidence that develops mentally is manifested in a more confident style. [[Psychological]] or spiritual insight learned during training must become reflected in the body, else it will vanish under pressure, when more basic, ingrained patterns and reflexes take over. Aikido training requires the student to squarely face conflict, not to run away from it. Through this experience, an Aikido student may learn to face other areas of life in a similarly proactive fashion, rather than in with avoidance and fear. ==Styles== The major styles of aikido each have their own [[Hombu Dojo]] in [[Japan]], have an international breadth and were founded by direct students of [[Morihei Ueshiba]]. Although there has been an explosion of "independent styles" generally only the first five listed have been considered major. [[Iwama style|Iwama Ryu]] is a debatable sixth as, although its influence is major, it has until recently been part of the [[Aikikai]] (see below). <!-- Please see Talk concerning Styles and External Links. Entries should not act as a list of individual or dojo clusters. The length of such a list would be very long. If you disagree please discuss in Talk. --> * [[Aikikai]] is the largest aikido organisation, and is led by the family of the founder. Numerous sub-organisations and teachers affiliate themselves with this umbrella organisation, which therefore encompasses a wide variety of aikido styles, training methods and technical differences. These sub-organisations are often centred around prominant [[Shihan]] and are usually organised at the national level, although sub-national and inter-national sub-organisations exist. Please see [[List of famous aikidoka]] for more detail. *[[Yoshinkan]] Founded by [[Gozo Shioda]], has a reputation for being the most rigidly precise. Students of Yoshinkan aikido practise basic movements as solo kata, and this style has been popular among the Japanese police. The international organization associated with the Yoshinkan style of aikido is known as the Yoshinkai, and has active branches in many parts of the world. *[[Yoseikan]] was founded by [[Minoru Mochizuki]], who was an early student of O-Sensei and also of Jigoro Kano at the [[Kodokan]]. This style includes elements of aiki-budo together with aspects of karate, judo and other arts. It is now carried on by his son, [[Hiroo Mochizuki]], the creator of [[Yoseikan Budo]]. *[[Tomiki Aikido|Shodokan Aikido]] (often called Tomiki aikido, after its founder) use sparring and rule based competition in training as opposed to most others. People tend to compete to train rather than to train to compete. [[Kenji Tomiki]], an early student of O-Sensei and also of judo's [[Jigoro Kano]], believed that introducing an element of competition would serve to sharpen and focus the practice since it was no longer tested in real combat. This latter view was the cause of a split with O-Sensei's family who firmly believed that there was no place for competition in aikido training. Tomiki said that at no point did O-Sensei actually cast him out. *The [[Ki Society]], founded by former head-instructor of the Hombu dojo 10th dan [[Koichi Tohei]], emphasizes very soft flowing techniques and has a special program for the development of [[ki]]. It also has a special system of ki-ranks alongside the traditional [[kyu]] and [[dan]] system. This style is called [[Shin Shin Toitsu Aikido]] (or [[Ki-Aikido]]). *[[Iwama style|Iwama Ryu]] emphasizes the relation between weapon techniques and barehand techniques, and a great deal of emphasis is placed on weapons training. Since the death of its founder [[Morihiro Saito]], the [[Iwama style]] has been practiced by clubs within the Aikikai and an independent organization headed by [[Hitohiro Saito]]. Saito sensei was a long time uchideshi of O-Sensei, beginning in 1946 and staying with him through his death. Many consider that Saito sensei was the student who spent most time directly studying with O-Sensei. Saito sensei said he was trying to preserve and teach the art exactly as the founder of aikido taught it to him. Technically, Iwama-ryu seems to resemble the aikido O-Sensei was teaching in the early 50s mainly in the Iwama dojo. The technical repertoire is fairly large. The new, separate from Aikikai, Iwama Ryu Aikido has been renamed Iwama Shin Shin Aikishurenkai. *[[Shin'ei Taido]] Founded by the late [[Noriaki Inoue]], nephew of [[Morihei Ueshiba]]. *[[Yoshokai]] aikido, begun by then-hachidan Takashi Kushida of Yoshinkan aikido, is a remarkably centralized style of aikido, with test techniques yearly passed down with explanations from the home dojo. The syllabus contains a considerable amount of weapons study, and like Yoshinkan, Yoshokai includes many solo movements and exercises. *[[Doshinkan]] aikido, begun by Yukio Utada of Yoshinkan aikido. Utada was a student of both the Yoshinkan founder Gozo Shioda and Yoshokai founder Takashi Kushida. Like Yoshokai, the syllabus also contains a considerable amount of weapons study, and like Yoshinkan, Doshinkan includes many solo movements and exercises. Doshinkan Aikido (Aikido Association of North America and Doshinkan Aikido International) is still affiliated with the International Yoshinkan Aikido Federation. *[[Tendo-ryu Aikido|Tendoryu Aikido]] Headed by [[Kenji Shimizu]]. *[[Shin Budo Kai]] headed by [[Shizuo Imaizumi]]. *[[Kokikai]] aikido, founded by [[Shuji Maruyama]] in 1986, focuses on minimalist but effective technique. It emphasizes natural stances and [[ukemi]] that do not require high [[breakfalls]], and deemphasizes [[atemi]] and techniques that cause pain or undue discomfort to [[uke]]. As such, it is considered by some to be a "soft" style of aikido. *[[Seidokan]] Aikido, founded by [[Rod Kobayashi]]. Tends to utilize movements which are very small and economical. Encourages students to discover an aikido which is truly their own, stresses the importance of doing away with the extraneous and focusing on that which works *[[Nippon Kan]] Headed by [[Gaku Homma]]. *[[Nishio AIkido]] a part of the Aikikai although techically well defined according to its head [[Shoji Nishio]]. Nishio Sensei passed away in March 2005. *[[Nihon Goshin Aikido]] Headed by Richard Bowe. It is considered a "hard" style of aikido, combining techniques from karate, Judo and Daito-Ryu Aikijutsu. There are roughly a dozen dojos in the United States and none left in Japan. Founded by Shoto Morita in Japan circa 1950. Derivative styles include Nihon Goshin Aikijutsu founded by Walter Kopitov in 2000. For more information see "The Black Belt Master Course in Nihon Goshin Aikido". *[[Takemusu Aiki Tomita Academy]]. Academy for the development of Takemusu Aiki founded in 1992 by [[Takeji Tomita]]. This training method incorporates [[Tai-Jutsu]], [[Aiki-Ken]] and [[Aiki-Jo]] for the study of the inter-related principles of Takemusu Aiki and Japanese [[Budo]]. *[[Aiki Manseido]] Headed by [[Kanshu Sunadomari]]. Independent style centred in [[Kyushu]], Japan. <!-- Please see Talk concerning Styles and External Links. Entries should not act as a list of individual or dojo clusters. The length of such a list would be very long. If you disagree please discuss in Talk. --> ==Aikidoka== It is sometimes said that in [[Japan]] the term ''aikidoka'' (合気道家) mainly refers to a [[professional]] while in the west, any one who practices may call themselves an aikidoka. The term ''aikidoist'' is also used as a more general term, especially by those who prefer to maintain the more restricted, Japanese, meaning of the term aikidoka. :''See [[List of famous aikidoka]]'' ==External links== <!-- Please see Talk concerning Styles and External Links. Entries should not act as a list of individual or dojo clusters. The length of such a list would be very long. If you disagree please discuss in Talk. --> * [http://www.aikiweb.com AikiWeb Aikido Information] is a comprehensive site on aikido, with essays, [http://www.aikiweb.com/forums/ forums], [http://www.aikiweb.com/gallery images], [http://www.aikiweb.com/reviews reviews], [http://www.aikiweb.com/columns columns], [http://www.aikiweb.com/wiki wiki], and other information. Chief among its notable content is its [http://www.aikiweb.com/search/ aikido dojo search engine]. * [http://www.aikidofaq.com The Aikido FAQ] A large but loose collection of essays, multimedia, and humour * [http://aikidojournal.com/ Aikido Journal Website] the most comprehensive source of aikido historical information <!-- Please see Talk concerning Styles and External Links. Entries should not act as a list of individual or dojo clusters. The length of such a list would be very long. If you disagree please discuss in Talk. --> {{commons|Aikido}} [[Category:Aikido|*]] [[Category:Japanese martial arts]] {{Link FA|eo}} {{Link FA|fr}} [[ar:أيكيدو]] [[bg:Айкидо]] [[ca:Aikido]] [[cs:Aikido]] [[da:Aikido]] [[de:Aikidō]] [[es:Aikido]] [[eo:Aikido]] [[fr:Aïkido]] [[gl:Aikido]] [[hr:Aikido]] [[id:Aikido]] [[it:Aikidō]] [[he:אייקידו]] [[lt:Aikido]] [[hu:Aikido]] [[ms:Aikido]] [[nl:Aikido]] [[ja:合気道]] [[no:Aikido]] [[pl:Aikido]] [[pt:Aikido]] [[ro:Aikido]] [[ru:Айкидо]] [[sk:Aikido]] [[sl:Aikido]] [[sr:Аикидо]] [[fi:Aikido]] [[sv:Aikido]] 752 42116953 2006-03-03T22:58:12Z RexNL 241337 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.203.146.34|24.203.146.34]] ([[User talk:24.203.146.34|talk]]) to last version by Dustimagic {{otheruses}} [[Image:Winged victory.jpg|200px|thumb|[[Winged Victory of Samothrace]] exihibited in the [[Louvre]].]] By its original and broadest definition, '''''[[art]]''''' (from the [[Latin]] ''ars'', meaning "skill" or "craft") is the product or process of the effective application of a body of knowledge and a set of skills; this meaning is preserved in such phrases as "[[liberal arts]]" and "[[martial arts]]". However, in the modern use of the word, which rose to prominence during the [[Renaissance]], ''art'' is commonly understood to be the process or result of making material works (or '''artwork''') which, from concept to creation, adhere to the "[[creativity|creative]] impulse"&mdash;that is, art is distinguished from other works by being in large part unprompted by necessity, by biological drive, or by any undisciplined pursuit of [[recreation]]. By both definitions of the word, artistic works have existed for almost as long as [[human|humankind]], from early [[pre-historic art]] to [[contemporary art]]. The '''creative arts''' are a collection of disciplines whose principal purpose is in the output of material that is compelled by a personal drive and echoes or reflects a message, mood, and [[symbolism]] for the viewer to interpret. As such, the term ''art'' may be taken to include forms as diverse as [[prose]] [[writing]], [[poetry]], [[dance]], [[acting]], [[music]], [[sculpture]] and [[painting]]. In addition to serving as a method of pure creativity and self-expression, the purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically-, religiously-, and philosophically-motivated art, to create a sense of [[beauty]] (see ''[[aesthetics]]'' and ''[[fine art]]'') or pleasure, or to generate strong [[emotion]]s; the purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent. As a form of [[culture|cultural]] expression, art may be defined by the pursuit of [[diversity]] and the usage of [[narrative]]s of liberation and exploration (i.e. [[art history]], [[art criticism]], and [[art theory]]) to mediate its boundaries. This distinction may be applied to objects or performances, current or historical, and its prestige extends to those who made, found, exhibit, or own them. Other than originality, there are no widely agreed-upon criteria for what is or isn't considered "art", and there are many divergent definitions of ''art'' to seek more specific requirements. ==Etymology== The word ''art'' derives from the [[Latin]] ''ars'', which roughly translates to "skill" or "craft", and derives in turn from an [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European root]] meaning "arrangement" or "to arrange". This is the only near-universal definition of art: that whatever is described as such has undergone a deliberate process of arrangement by an agent. A few examples where this meaning proves very broad include [[artifact]], artificial, artifice, [[artillery]], [[Medicine|medical]] arts, and [[military]] arts. However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its [[etymology|etymological]] roots. ==Art forms== There are a variety of arts, including visual arts and design, [[decorative art]]s, [[plastic arts]], and the [[performing arts]]. Artistic expression takes many forms: [[painting]], [[drawing]], [[printmaking]], [[sculpture]], [[music]], [[literature]], and [[architecture]] are the most widely recognised forms. However, since the advent of [[modernism]] and the technological revolution, new forms have emerged. These include [[photography]], [[film]], [[video art]], [[installation art]], [[conceptual art]], [[performance art]], [[community arts]], [[land art]], [[fashion]], [[comics]], [[computer art]], [[anime]], and, most recently, [[video game theory|video games]]. Within each form, a wide range of [[genre]]s may exist. For instance, a painting may be a [[still life]], a [[portrait]], or a [[Landscape art|landscape]] and may deal with [[History painting|historical]] or domestic subjects. In addition, a [[work (fine arts)|work of art]] may be representational or abstract. Most forms of art fit under two main categories: [[fine arts]] and [[applied art]]s, though there is no clear dividing line. In the visual arts, the term ''fine arts'' most often refers to painting and sculpture, arts which have little or no practical function and are valued in terms of the visual pleasure they provide or their success in communicating ideas or feelings. Other visual arts typically designated as fine arts include printmaking, drawing, photography, film, and video, though the tools used to realize these media are often used to make applied or commercial art as well. Architecture typically confounds the distinctions between fine and applied art, since the form involves designing structures that strive to be both attractive and functional. The term ''applied arts'' is most often used to describe the design or decoration of functional objects to make them visually pleasing. Artists who create applied arts or crafts are usually referred to as [[design]]ers, [[artisan]]s, or craftspeople. ==Defining art== There is often confusion about the meaning of the term ''art'' because multiple meanings of the word are used interchangeably. Individuals use the word ''art'' to identify painting, as well as singing. ===Characteristics of art=== There follow some generally accepted characteristics of art; after this there is some lengthier discussion of several of those facets perceived as universal or central to art: * encourages an intuitive understanding rather than a rational understanding, as, for example, with an article in a scientific journal; * was created with the intention of evoking such an understanding, or an attempt at such an understanding, in the audience; * was created with no other purpose or function other than to be itself (a radical, "pure art" definition); * elusive, in that the work may communicate on many different levels of appreciation; one may take the example of [[Gericault]]'s ''[[Raft of the Medusa]]'', in the case of which special knowledge concerning the shipwreck the painting depicts is not a prerequisite to appreciating it, but allows the appreciation of Gericault's political intentions in the piece; * in relation to the above, the piece may offer itself to many different interpretations, or, though it superficially depicts a mundane event or object, invites reflection upon elevated themes; * demonstrates a high level of ability or fluency within a medium; this characteristic might be considered a point of contention, since many modern artists (most notably, conceptual artists) do not themselves create the works they conceive, or do not even create the work in a conventional, demonstrative sense (one might think of [[Tracey Emin]]'s controversial ''My Bed''); * the conferral of a particularly appealing or aesthetically satisfying structure or form upon an original set of unrelated, passive constituents. ===Skill=== Art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a [[Recording medium|medium]]. An example of this is the contemporary young master Josignacio, creator of [[Plastic Paint Medium]]. It can also simply refer to the developed and efficient use of a [[language]] so as to convey meaning, with immediacy and or depth. A common view is that the epithet 'art' (particular in its elevated sense) requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist, whether this be a demonstration of technical ability (such as one might find in many works of the [[Rennaissance]] or in the plays of [[Shakespeare]]) or an originality in stylistic approach, or a combination of these two. For example, a common contemporary criticism of some [[modern art|modern]] painting occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic object. One might take [[Tracey Emin|Tracey Emin]]'s ''My Bed'' or [[Damien Hirst|Hirst]]'s ''The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living'', as examples of pieces wherein the artist exercised little to no traditionally recognised sets of skills. In the first case, Emin simply slept (and engaged in other activities) in her bed before placing the result in a gallery. She has, however, been insistent that there is a high degree of selection and arrangement in this work, which includes objects such as underwear and bottles around the bed. In the second case, Hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork. Although he physically particpated in the creation of this piece, he has left the eventual creation of many other works to employed artisans. These approaches are exemplary of a particular kind of contemporary art: [[conceptual art]]. The exclusionary view that art requires a certain skill level to produce is often described as a [[lay critique]]. It derives from the fact that in [[Western culture]] at least, art has traditionally been pushed in the direction of [[representation (arts)|representationalism]], the literal presentation of reality through literal images. On the other hand, criticism has often been brought to bear on modern artists for having no creative involvement whatsoever in their creations: one might take Hirst's work again as emblematic of this approach. It may be further noted that certain forms of art outside a Western tradition, such as [[Islamic]] geometric designs and [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphy]], [[Buddhist]] or [[Hindu]] [[mandalas]] and [[Celtic knotwork]], though they are non-representational, still require a measure of skill and certain creative involvement in their execution. ===Judgments of value=== Somewhat in relation to the above, the word ''art'' is also used to apply judgments of value, as in such expressions as "that meal was a work of art" (the cook is an artist), or "the art of deception," (the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised). It is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity. Making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism: at the simplest level, a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered ''art'', whether it is perceived to be attractive or repellent. Though perception is always colored by experience, and thus a reaction to art on these grounds is necessarily subjective, it is commonly taken that that which is not aesthetically satisfying in some fashion cannot be art. However, "good" art is not always, or even regularly, aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers. In other words, an artist's prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic, and art often depicts terrible images made for social, moral, or thought-provoking reasons; for example, [[Francisco Goya]]'s painting depicting the Spanish shootings of [[3rd of May]] [[1808]] is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians, yet at the same time, the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition and execution, and his fitting social and political outrage. Thus the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if any, is required to define 'art'. The assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of that which is aesthetically appealing. Indeed, the reverse is often true, that in the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself. Countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality, yet they all seem to agree in at least one point: once their aesthetic choices are accepted, the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium in order to strike some universal chord, or by the rarity of the skill of the artist, or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the ''[[zeitgeist]]''. ===Communicating emotion=== Art appeals to human emotions. It can arouse [[aesthetic]] or [[morality|moral]] feelings, and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. [[artist|Artists]] have to express themselves so that their public is aroused, but they do not have to do so consciously. Art explores what is commonly termed as ''[[human condition|the human condition]]''; that is, essentially, what it is to be human, and art of a superior kind often brings about some new insight concerning humanity (not always positive) or demonstrates a level of skill so fine as to push forward the boundaries of collective human ability. This is not to say that technical skill is a necessary prerequisite of art, but rather that a high degree of skill goes some way in conferring a judgement of high standard upon an artist or artwork. ===Creative impulse=== From one [[point of view|perspective]], art is a generic term for any product of the [[creative impulse]], out of which sprang all other human pursuits &mdash; such as [[science]] via [[alchemy]], and [[religion]] via [[shamanism]]. The term 'art' offers no true definition besides those based within the cultural, historical and geographical context in which it is applied. Though to the artists themselves, the impulse to create is undeniable; an artist can no more deny that impulse than he/she could ignore breathing (one might compare [[Kandinsky]]'s [[inner necessity]] to this popular view). It is because of the overbearing need to create, in the face of financial ruin, public obscurity or political opposition, that artists are typically conceived of as unstable, even crazy, or misguided. ==Differences in defining art== Definitions of art and [[aesthetic]] arguments usually proceed from one of several possible perspectives. Art may be defined by the intention of the artist as in the writings of [[John Dewey|Dewey]]. Art may be seen as being in the response/emotion of the viewer as [[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy]] claims. In [[Arthur Danto|Danto]]'s view, it can be defined as a character of the item itself or as a function of an object's context. ===Plato=== For [[Plato]], art is a pursuit whose adherents are not to be trusted; given that their productions imitate the sensory world (itself an imitation of the divine world of forms) art necessarily is an imitation of an imitation, and thus is hopelessly far from the source of the truth. Plato, it may be noted, barred artists from access to his ideal city, in his [[Republic]]. ===Aristotle=== Aristotle saw art in less of a bad light; though he shared Plato's poor opinion of it, he nevertheless thought that art might serve the purpose of emotional catharsis. That is, by witnessing the sufferings and celebrations of actors onstage onlookers might vicariously experience these same feelings themselves, and thereby purge such negative feelings. ===Institutional definition=== Many people's opinions of what art is would fall inside a relatively small range of accepted standards, or "institutional definition of art" ([[George Dickie]] 1974). This derives from education and other social factors. Most people did not consider the depiction of a [[Brillo|Brillo Box]] or a store-bought [[urinal]] to be art until [[Andy Warhol]] and [[Marcel Duchamp]] (respectively) placed them in the context of art (i.e., the [[art gallery]]), which then provided the association of these objects with the values that define art (Although, strictly speaking, Warhol's artwork was not an actual Brillo box but an ''exact replica'' of one - so it met the traditional criterion of skill at the very least). Most viewers of these objects initially rejected such associations, because the objects did not, themselves, meet the accepted criteria. The objects needed to be absorbed into the general consensus of what art is before they achieved the near-universal acceptance as art in the contemporary era. Once accepted and viewed with a fresh eye, the smooth, white surfaces of Duchamp's urinal are strikingly similar to classical marble sculptural forms, whether the artist intended it or not. This type of recontextualizing provides the same spark of connection expected from any traditionally created art. It should be noted, however, that Duchamps act might be as readily interpreted as a demonstration of the (not always beneficial) power of artistic institutions, rather than the universal art potentially inherent in all objects. The placement of an object in an artistic context is not taken as a universal standard of art, but is a common characteristic of [[conceptual art]], prevalent since the 1960s; notably, the [[Stuckist]] art movement criticises this tendency of recent art. ==Related issues== ===Social criticism=== Art is often seen as belonging to one social class and excluding others. In this context, art is seen as a high-status activity associated with wealth, the ability to purchase art, and the leisure required to pursue or enjoy it. The [[Palace of Versailles|palaces of Versailles]] or the [[Hermitage]] in [[St. Petersburg]] with their vast collections of art, amassed by the fabulously wealthy royalty of Europe exemplify this view. Collecting such art is the preserve of the rich, in one viewpoint. Before the [[13th century]] in [[Europe]], artisans were considered to belong to a lower [[caste]], since they were essentially manual labourers. After Europe was re-exposed to [[Renaissance Classicism|classical culture]] during the [[Renaissance]], particularly in the [[nation-state]]s of what is now Italy ([[Florence]], [[Siena]]), artists gained an association with high status. However, arrangements of "fine" and expensive goods have always been used by institutions of power as marks of their own status. This is seen in the 20th and [[21st century]] by the commissioning or purchasing of art by big businesses and corporations as decoration for their offices. ===Utility=== There are many who ascribe to certain arts the quality of being non-[[utilitarianism|utilitarian]]. This fits within the "art as good" system of definitions and suffers from a class prejudice against labor and utility. Opponents of this view argue that all human activity has some utilitarian function, and these objects claimed to be "non-utilitarian" actually have the rather mundane and banal utility of attempting to mystify and codify unworkable justifications for arbitrary social hierarchy. It might also be argued that non-utilitarian is, in this context, a mis-usage; that art is not in and of itself, useless, but rather that it particularly use does not manifest itself in any traditionally demonstrable way (though advances in neuroscience may arguably enable the isolation of those associated cortices of the brain concerned with the creation or appreciation of art). Art is also used by art therapists and some psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as [[art therapy]]. The end product is not the principal goal in this case; rather a process of healing, through creative acts, is sought. The resultant piece of artwork may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric therapy. The "use" of art from the artist’s standpoint is as a means of expression. When art is conceived as a device, it serves several context and perspective specific functions. From the artist’s perspective it allows one to symbolize complex ideas and emotions in an arbitrary language subject only to the interpretation of the self and peers. In a social context, it can serve to soothe the soul and promote popular morale. In a more negative aspect of this facet, art is often utilised as a form of propaganda, and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood (in some cases, artworks are appropriated to be used in this manner, without the creator's initial intention). From a more anthropological perspective, art is a way of passing ideas and concepts on to later generations in a (somewhat) universal language. The interpretation of this language is very dependent upon the observer’s perspective and context, and it might be argued that the very subjectivity of art demonstrates its importance in providing an arena in which rival ideas might be exchanged and discussed, or to provide a social context in which disparate groups of people might congregate and mingle. ===History of art=== {{main|History of Art}} The term '[[art history]]' typically refers to a historical examination of the various trends of the visual arts through certain periods of human history. It may also be taken to encompass a study of the theories of art, which may or may not include an examination of their historical context. ===Symbols=== {{main|Symbols}} Much of the development of individual artist deals with finding principles for how to express certain ideas through various kinds of [[symbolism]]. For example, [[Vasily Kandinsky]] developed his use of [[color]] in [[painting]] through a system of stimulus response, where over time he gained an understanding of the [[emotions]] that can be evoked by color and combinations of color. Contemporary artist [[Andy Goldsworthy]], on the other hand, chose to use the [[medium]] of found natural objects and materials to arrange temporary sculptures. ==Cultural differences of art== Several genres of art are grouped by cultural relevance, examples can be found in terms such as: *[[African art]] *[[American craft]] *[[Islamic art]] *[[Asian art]] as found in: **[[Buddhist art]] **[[Chinese art]] **[[Art and architecture of Japan|Japanese art]] **[[Tibetan art]] **[[Thai art]] **[[Laotian art]] *[[Visual arts of the United States]] *[[Latin American art]] ==See also== {{portal}} * [[Aesthetics]], the philosophy of [[beauty]] * [[Art criticism]] * [[Art groups]] * [[Art history]] * [[Art sale]] * [[Art school]] * [[Art styles, periods and movements]] * [[Art techniques and materials]] * [[Art theft]] * [[Artist]] * [[Definition of music]] * [[Applied art]] * [[Fine art]] * [[Modern art]] * [[Psychedelic art]] * [[:Category:Aesthetics|Philosophy of art]] * ''[[What Is Art?]]'' == Further reading == * [[Peter Magyar]], ''Thought palaces.'' Amsterdam: Architectura & Natura Press, 1999 * [[Aristotle]], ''Metaphysics'' * [[Plato]], ''Theory of forms'' * [[Carl Jung]], ''Man and his Symbols'' * [[Gyorgy Doczi]], ''The Power of Limits''. * [[Benedetto Croce]], ''Aesthetic as Science of Expression and General Linguistic, 1902'' * [[Louis Torres & Michelle Marder Kamhi]], ''What Art Is: The Esthetic Theory of Ayn Rand,'' Open Court, 2000 ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Arts}} '''Resources''' * [http://www.deviantart.com] - Online Arts * [http://www.artlex.com ArtLex.com] - Dictionary of art terms * [http://www.artcyclopedia.com/ Artcyclopedia.com] - Reference site * [http://art.on-topic.net/art_terms_by_name/ Art.on-topic.net] Art Topic Reference site * [http://www.art-atlas.net Art-Atlas.Net] The International Art Directory * [http://www.nelepets.com/art The Art Millennium] - Comprehensive Art Encyclopedia * [http://www.all-art.org History of Art] - World History of Art * [http://www.hamiltonelectronics.com/hma/ Hamilton Museum of Art] - Online Educational Art Museum ==Professional Links== *[http://www.TheDirectorsForum.Org/ The Art Museum Partnership] *[http://www.aam-us.org/ American Association of Museums] [[Category:Art|*Art]] [[Category:Top 10| Art]] [[an:Arte]] [[ar:فن]] [[ast:Arte]] [[bg:Изкуство]] [[br:Arz]] [[ca:Art]] [[co:Arti]] [[cs:Umění]] [[da:Kunst]] [[de:Kunst]] [[el:Τέχνη]] [[eo:Arto]] [[es:Arte]] [[et:Kunst]] [[eu:Arte]] [[fa:هنر]] [[fi:Taide]] [[fr:Art]] [[fy:Keunst]] [[gl:Arte]] [[he:אמנות]] [[hi:कला]] [[hr:Umjetnost]] [[hu:Művészet]] [[ia:Arte]] [[id:Seni]] [[io:Arto]] [[it:Arte]] [[ja:芸術]] [[ka:ხელოვნება]] [[ku:Huner]] [[kw:Art]] [[la:Ars]] [[lad:Arte]] [[lb:Konscht]] [[li:Kuns]] [[lt:Menas]] [[mi:Toi]] [[mk:Уметност]] [[ms:Seni]] [[nah:Toltecayotl]] [[nap:Arte]] [[nds:Kunst]] [[nl:Kunst]] [[nn:Kunst]] [[no:Kunst]] [[os:Аивад]] [[pl:Sztuka]] [[pt:Arte]] [[ro:Artă]] [[ru:Искусство]] [[scn:Arti]] [[simple:Art]] [[sl:Umetnost]] [[sr:Уметност]] [[sv:Konst]] [[sw:Usanifu]] [[tr:Sanat]] [[vi:Nghệ thuật]] [[yi:קונסט]] [[zh:艺术]] 753 41749572 2006-03-01T13:47:07Z DabMachine 922466 disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]]) {{otheruses}} {{unsourced}} [[Image:ActorsOffSetLaughing.jpg|thumb|right|Actors in period costume sharing a joke whilst waiting between takes during location filming.]] An '''actor''' is a person who [[acting|acts]], or plays a role, in an artistic production. The term commonly refers to someone working in [[film|movies]], [[television]], live [[Theater|theatre]], or [[radio programming|radio]], and can occasionally denote a street entertainer. Besides playing dramatic roles, actors may also sing or dance or work only on radio or as a [[voice artist]]. A [[female]] actor may be known as an '''actress''', although the term "actor", is also used as a gender-neutral term. An actor usually plays a [[fictional character]]. In the case of a true story (or a fictional story that portrays real people) an actor may play a real person (or a fictional version of the same). Occasionally, actors appear as themselves. ==Etymology== "Actor" is directly from the masculine [[Latin]] noun ''actor'' (feminine, ''actrix'') from the [[Latin verbs|verb]] ''agere'' "'''to do''', to drive, to pass time" + the suffix ''-or'' "so./st. who performs the action indicated by the stem". Alternatively from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|ἂκτωρ}} ''(aktor)'', leader, from the [[verb]] {{polytonic|ἂγω}} ''(agō)'', to lead or carry, to convey, to bring. ==History== The first recorded case of an actor performing took place in [[530s BC|534 BC]] (probably on [[23 November]], though the changes in calendar over the years make it hard to determine exactly) when the [[Greece|Greek]] performer [[Thespis]] stepped on to the stage at the ''Theatre Dionysus'' and became the first person to speak words as a character in a play. The machinations of storytelling were immediately revolutionized. Prior to Thespis' act, stories were told in [[song]] and dance and in [[Perspective (storytelling)|third person]] narrative, but no one had assumed the role of a character in a story. In honour of Thespis, actors are commonly called ''Thespians''. Theatrical [[Mythology|myth]] to this day maintains that Thespis exists as a mischievous spirit, and disasters in the theatre are sometimes blamed on his ghostly intervention. Actors were traditionally not people of high status, and in the [[Early Middle Ages]] travelling acting troupes were often viewed with distrust. However, this negative perception dramaticaly changed in 20th Century as acting became an honored and popular profession and art. Part of the reason is due to the rise of the popular appeal and access to dramatic [[film]] entertainment and the resulting rise of the [[movie star]] in social status and the large salaries they commanded. The combination of public presence and wealth had a profound rehabilitation to the image. In the past, only men could become actors. In the ancient and [[middle ages|medieval world]], it was considered disgraceful for a woman to go on the stage, and this belief continued right up until the 17th century, when in [[Venice]] it was broken. In the time of [[William Shakespeare]], women's roles were played by men or boys, though there is some evidence to suggest that women disguised as men also (illegally) performed. ==Actors playing the opposite sex== Women sometimes play the roles of [[prepubescent]] boys, because in some regards a woman has a closer resemblance to a boy than does a man. The role of [[Peter Pan]], for example, is traditionally played by a woman. The tradition of the [[principal boy]] in [[pantomime]] may be compared. An adult playing a child occurs more in theater than in film. The exception to this is voice actors in [[animated]] films, where boys are generally voiced by women, as heard in ''[[The Simpsons]]''. [[Opera]] has several '[[pants role]]s' traditionally sung by women, usually [[mezzo-soprano]]s. Examples are Hansel in ''[[Hänsel und Gretel]]'', and [[The Marriage of Figaro#Characters|Cherubino]] in ''[[The Marriage of Figaro]]''. [[Mary Pickford]] played the part of [[Little Lord Fauntleroy]] in the first film version of the book. [[Linda Hunt]] won an [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress]] in ''[[The Year of Living Dangerously]]'', in which she played the part of a man. Having an actor play the opposite sex for comic effect is also a long standing tradition in comic theatre and film. Most of Shakespeare's comedies include instances of cross dressing, and both [[Dustin Hoffman]] and [[Robin Williams]] appeared in hit comedy films where they were required to play most scenes dressed as women. [[Tony Curtis]] and [[Jack Lemmon]] famously posed as women to escape gangsters in the [[Billy Wilder]] film ''[[Some Like It Hot]]''. ==Techniques of acting== Actors employ a variety of techniques that are learned through training and experience. Some of these are: #The rigorous use of the voice to communicate a character's lines and express emotion. This is achieved through attention to diction and projection through correct breathing and articulation. It is also achieved through the tone and emphasis that an actor puts on words #Physicalisation of a role in order to create a believable character for the audience and to use the acting space appropriately and correctly #Use of gesture to complement the voice, interact with other actors and to bring emphasis to the words in a play, as well as having symbolic meaning [[Shakespeare]] is believed to have been commenting on the acting style and techniques of his era when [[Hamlet]] gives his famous advice to the players: <blockquote>Speak the speech, I pray you, as I pronounced it to you, trippingly on the tongue: but if you mouth it, as many of your players do, I had as lief the town-crier spoke my lines. Nor do not saw the air too much with your hand, thus, but use all gently; for in the very torrent, tempest, and, as I may say, the whirlwind of passion, you must acquire and beget a temperance that may give it smoothness. O, it offends me to the soul to hear a robustious periwig-pated fellow tear a passion to tatters, to very rags, to split the ears of the groundlings, who for the most part are capable of nothing but inexplicable dumbshows and noise: I would have such a fellow whipped for o'erdoing Termagant; it out-herods Herod: pray you, avoid it.</blockquote> <blockquote>Be not too tame neither, but let your own discretion be your tutor: suit the action to the word, the word to the action; with this special observance: o'erstep not the modesty of nature: for any thing so overdone is from the purpose of playing, whose end, both at the first and now, was and is, to hold, as 'twere, the mirror up to nature; to show virtue her own feature, scorn her own image, and the very age and body of the time his form and pressure. Now this overdone, or come tardy off, though it make the unskilful laugh, cannot but make the judicious grieve; the censure of the which one must in your allowance o'erweigh a whole theatre of others. O, there be players that I have seen play, and heard others praise, and that highly, not to speak it profanely, that, neither having the accent of Christians nor the gait of Christian, pagan, nor man, have so strutted and bellowed that I have thought some of nature's journeymen had made men and not made them well, they imitated humanity so abominably.</blockquote> <blockquote>O, reform it altogether. And let those that play your clowns speak no more than is set down for them; for there be of them that will themselves laugh, to set on some quantity of barren spectators to laugh too; though, in the mean time, some necessary question of the play be then to be considered: that's villanous, and shows a most pitiful ambition in the fool that uses it. Go, make you ready.</blockquote> ==Acting awards== * [[Academy Award]]s, also known as the Oscars, for film * [[Golden Globe Award]]s for film and television * [[Emmy Award]]s for television * [[Genie Awards]] for film * [[Gemini Awards]] for television * [[BAFTA|British Academy of Film and Television Arts Award]] for film and television * [[Tony Award]]s for the theatre (specifically, [[Broadway theatre]]) * [[European Theatre Awards]] for the theatre * [[Laurence Olivier Awards]] for the theatre * [[Screen Actors Guild]] Awards for actors in film and television ==See also== * [[Acting]] * [[Celebrities]] * [[Charisma]] * [[Method acting]] * [[Movie star]] * [[Stunt work]] * [[:Category:Lists of actors|Lists of actors]] ==Suggested reading== * ''An Actor Prepares'' by [[Konstantin Stanislavski]] (Theatre Arts Books, ISBN 0878309837, 1989) * ''A Dream of Passion: The Development of the Method'' by [[Lee Strasberg]] (Plume Books, ISBN 0452261988, 1990) * ''Sanford Meisner on Acting'' by [[Sanford Meisner]] (Vintage, ISBN 0394750594, 1987) * ''Letters to a Young Actor'' by [[Robert Brustein]] (Basic Books, ISBN 0465008062, 2005). * ''The Alexander Technique Manual'' by [[Richard Brennan]] (Connections Book Publishing ISBN 1-85906-163-X 2004) [[Category:Actors|*]] [[Category:Entertainment occupations]] [[ast:Actor]] [[bg:Актьор]] [[ca:Actor]] [[cs:Herec]] [[da:Skuespiller]] [[de:Schauspieler]] [[es:Actor]] [[eo:Aktoro]] [[fr:Acteur]] [[gl:Actor]] [[ko:배우]] [[id:Aktor]] [[it:Attore (spettacolo)]] [[he:שחקן קולנוע]] [[lt:Aktorius]] [[hu:Színész]] [[ms:Pelakon]] [[nl:Acteur]] [[ja:俳優]] [[no:Skuespiller]] [[nn:Skodespelar]] [[pl:Aktor]] [[pt:Ator]] [[ru:Актёр]] [[sq:Aktor]] [[simple:Actor]] [[sk:Herec]] [[sl:Filmski igralec]] [[sr:Глумац]] [[fi:Näyttelijä]] [[sv:Skådespelare]] [[vi:Diễn viên]] [[uk:Кіноактор]] [[zh:演員]] 754 15899271 2002-08-22T22:04:25Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Politics of Albania]] 755 15899272 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[History of Albania]] :''See also :'' [[Albania]] 756 15899273 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z 128.227.167.184 * #REDIRECT [[Transportation in Albania]] 757 15899274 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z 128.227.167.184 * #REDIRECT [[Military of Albania]] 758 15899275 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z 128.227.167.184 * #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Albania]] 759 15899276 2002-08-20T15:34:33Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Albania]] 760 15899277 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Geography of Albania]] :''See also :'' [[Albania]] 761 15899278 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z 128.227.167.184 * #REDIRECT [[Economy of Albania]] 762 15899279 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z 128.227.167.184 * #REDIRECT [[Communications in Albania]] 763 15899280 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z 128.227.167.184 * #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Albania]] 764 40357311 2006-02-20T01:01:41Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Agnostida | image = Peronopsis.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = ''Peronopsis interstrictus'' | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Arthropod]]a | classis = [[Trilobita]] | ordo = '''Agnostida''' | ordo_authority = [[John William Salter|Salter]], 1864 | subdivision_ranks = Families | subdivision = '''Suborder [[Agnostina]]'''<br /> *'''Superfamily [[Agnostoidea]]''' **[[Agnostidae]] **[[Ammagnostidae]] **[[Clavagnostidae]] **[[Diplagnostidae]] **[[Doryagnostidae]] **[[Glyptagnostidae]] **[[Metagnostidae]] **[[Peronopsidae]] **[[Ptychagnostidae]] *'''Superfamily&nbsp;[[Condylopygoidea]]''' **[[Condylopygidae]] '''Suborder [[Eodiscina]]'''<br /> *'''Superfamily&nbsp;[[Eodiscoidea]]''' **[[Calodiscidae]] **[[Eodiscidae]] **[[Hebediscidae]] **[[Tsunyidiscidae]] **[[Weymouthiidae]] **[[Yukoniidae]] }} '''Agnostida''' (the '''agnostids''') is an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[trilobite]]. These small trilobites first appeared toward the end of the lower [[Cambrian]] and thrived in the middle Cambrian. The last agnostids held out until the late [[Ordovician]]. The Agnostida are divided into two suborders -- [[Agnostina]] and [[Eodiscina]] -- that are then divided into a number of [[family (biology)|families]]. The Eodiscina appear to be "normal" trilobites with only two or three segments in the thorax; some resemble trilobites of the order [[Ptychopariida]]. As a group, agnostids have ''[[Pygidium|pygidia]]'' (tails) that are similar in size and shape to their ''[[cephalon]]s'' (heads). Neither looks much like the corresponding regions of other trilobites. There has been more than one argument about which end is the "head". Agnostids were probably benthic (bottom-dwelling) creatures. Most agnostid species have no eyes. They likely lived on areas of the ocean floor that received little or no light and fed on detritus that descended from upper layers of the sea to the bottom. Unfortunately, the appendages are known only for one [[genus]] of agnostid. The legs of that genus look much more like [[crustacean]] legs than the legs of other trilobites with preserved appendages. This has caused many [[Taxonomy|taxonomist]]s to question whether the agnostids are truly trilobites. Another view is that the agnostids represent the first line to have diverged from the trilobites. However, four orders of trilobites ([[Redlichiida]], [[Corynexochida]], [[Naraoidia]], [[Ptychopariida]]) considerably predate the earliest Agnostids in the [[fossil]] record. Agnostina are generally referred to simply as "agnostids" even though they probably should be called "agnostines". ==External links== * [http://www.aloha.net/~smgon/ordagnostida.htm Agnostida fact sheet] * [http://www.trilobites.info/ordagnostida.htm A Guide to the 8 Orders of Trilobites] By Sam Gon III [[Category:Prehistoric arthropods]] [[de:Agnostida]] 765 42146960 2006-03-04T03:13:13Z Andrew c 704413 /* Mental health */ rm excessive spaces <!--Note to editors: This article has a long and intense history of terminology debates. Please review the talk page before making changes to lines to see if there is a previous established consensus or compromise. Thank you.--> An '''abortion''' is the termination of a [[pregnancy]] associated with the death of an [[embryo]] or a [[fetus]]. This can occur spontaneously, in the form of a [[miscarriage]], or be intentionally induced through chemical, surgical, or other means. Generally, abortions are performed by [[gynaecology|gynaecologists]] or [[obstetrics|obstetricians]]. All [[Pregnancy (mammals)|mammalian pregnancies]] can be aborted; however, this article focuses exclusively on the abortion of [[human]] pregnancy. There have been various methods of inducing an abortion [[History of abortion|throughout the centuries]]. In the [[20th century]], the [[ethics]] and [[morality]] of abortion became the subject of intense [[political]] [[debate]] in many areas of the world. ==Definitions== [[Pregnancy]] is defined by the [[medicine|medical community]] as beginning at the [[implantation]] of the [[embryo]]. Others differ, however, placing this initiation at [[fertilisation|conception]]. The following medical terms are used to define an abortion: * ''Spontaneous abortion ([[miscarriage]])'': An abortion due to accidental trauma or [[natural causes]]. *''Induced abortion'': An abortion deliberately caused. Induced abortions are further subcategorized into therapeutic abortions and elective abortions: **''Therapeutic abortion'' *** To save the life of the pregnant woman. *** To preserve the woman's physical or mental health. *** To terminate a pregnancy that would result in the birth of a child with defects which would be [[fatal|incompatible with life]] or associated with significant [[morbidity]]. *** To [[selective reduction|selectively reduce]] the number of [[fetus]]es in a [[multiple birth|multiple pregnancy]] to lessen health risks involved. **''Elective abortion'': An abortion performed for any other reason. Methods of birth control that prevent implantation, such as [[emergency contraception]], are not considered to be abortion; however, emergency contraception is generally considered equivalent to abortion by those who reject the medical definition of pregnancy. A pregnancy that ends earlier than 37 completed weeks of gestation, and where an [[infant]] is born and survives, is termed a [[premature birth]]. A pregnancy that ends with an infant dead upon birth at any gestational stage, due to causes including spontaneous abortion or complications during delivery, is termed a [[stillbirth]]. In common parlance, the term "abortion" is synonymous with induced abortion of a human fetus. ==Incidence== The incidence of and reasons for induced abortion vary in regions in which abortion is generally permitted. It has been estimated that the total number of induced abortions performed globally is approximately 46 million per year. 26 million of these are said to occur in [[abortion law|places in which abortion is legal]]; the other 20 million happen where it is illegal. Some countries, such as [[Belgium]] and the [[Netherlands]], experience a low rate of induced abortion, while others like [[Russia]] and [[Vietnam]] have a comparatively high rate. {{ref|incidence2}} A 1998 study aggregated data from studies in 27 countries on the reasons women seek to terminate their pregnancies. It concluded that common factors cited to have influenced the abortion decision were the desire to delay or end childbearing, concern over the interruption of [[employment|work]] or [[education]], issues of financial or relationship stability, and perceived immaturity. {{ref|incidence3}} In [[Finland]] and the [[United States]], concern for the health risks posed by pregnancy in individual cases was not a factor commonly given, whereas in [[Bangladesh]], [[India]], and [[Kenya]] such a concern was found to be more prevalent. A 2004 study in which [[United States|American]] women at [[abortion clinic|clinic]]s answered a [[questionnaire]] yielded similar results. {{ref|incidence4}} Some abortions are undergone as the result of societal pressures, such as [[eugenics]], the stigmatization of [[disabled]] persons, preference for children of a specific [[sex]], disapproval of [[single parent|single motherhood]], insufficient economic support for [[family|families]], lack of access to or rejection of [[birth control|contraceptive]] methods, or efforts toward [[population control]] (such as [[China]]'s [[one-child policy]]). A combination of these factors can sometimes result in forced abortion, [[forced sterilization]], [[infanticide]], [[child abandonment]], or [[sex-selective abortion and infanticide]] — which is illegal in most countries, but difficult to stop. In many areas, especially in [[developing country|developing nations]] or where abortion is illegal, women sometimes resort to "[[back-alley abortion|back-alley]]" or [[self-induced abortion|self-induced]] procedures. The [[World Health Organization]] suggests that there are 19 million terminations annually which fit its criteria for an [[Abortion#Unsafe abortion|unsafe abortion]]. {{ref|unsafe1}} See [[Abortion#Social issues|social issues]] for more information on these subjects. ==Forms of abortion== ===Spontaneous abortion=== {{main|Miscarriage}} <!--improve me!--> Spontaneous abortions, generally referred to as miscarriages, occur when an embryo or fetus is lost due to natural causes. A miscarriage is spontaneous loss of the embryo or fetus before the 20th week of development. Spontaneous abortions after the 20th week are generally considered to be preterm deliveries. Most miscarriages occur very early in a pregnancy. Approximately 10-50% of pregnancies end in miscarriage, depending upon the age and health of the pregnant woman. {{ref|miscarriage1}} The risk for spontaneous abortion is greater in those with a history of more than three previous (known) spontaneous abortions, those who have had a previous induced abortion, those with systemic diseases, and in women over age 35. Other causes can be infection (of either the woman or the fetus), immune responses, or serious systemic diseases of the woman. A spontaneous abortion can also be caused by accidental [[trauma]]; intentional trauma to cause miscarriage is considered an induced abortion. Some governments have laws increasing the criminal liability of a person who causes a miscarriage during an [[assault]] or other violent [[crime]]. ===Induced abortion=== A pregnancy can be intentionally aborted in a number of ways. The manner selected depends chiefly upon the [[gestational age]] of the [[fetus]], in addition to the legality, regional availability, and/or doctor-patient preference for specific procedures. ====Surgical abortion==== [[Image:PBAsigning_wide.jpg|thumb|240px|right|U.S. President George W. Bush signs the ''Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003'']] In the first fifteen weeks, [[suction-aspiration abortion|suction-aspiration]] or vacuum abortion is the most common method. ''[[Manual vacuum aspiration]]'', or MVA abortion, consists of removing the [[fetus]] or [[embryo]] by suction using a manual [[syringe]], while the ''[[Electric vacuum aspiration]]'' or EVA abortion method uses an electric [[pump]]. These techniques are equivalent, differing only in the mechanism use to apply suction. From the fifteenth week up until around the twenty-sixth week, a surgical [[dilation and evacuation]] (D &amp; E) is used. D &amp; E consists of opening the [[cervix]] of the [[uterus]] and emptying it using surgical instruments and suction. ''[[Dilation and curettage]]'' (D &amp; C) is a standard gynaecological procedure performed for a variety of reasons, including examination of the uterine lining for possible malignancy, investigation of abnormal bleeding, and abortion. ''[[Curettage]]'' refers to the cleaning of the walls of the [[uterus]] with a [[curette]]. The [[World Health Organization]] recommends this sort of procedure, also called Sharp Curettage, only when MVA is unavailable. {{ref|surgicalabortion1}} Sharp curettage only accounted for 2.4% of abortion procedures in the US in [[2002]]. {{ref|surgicalabortion2}} The term "D and C" can more generally be used to refer to the first trimester abortion procedure, irrespective of the method used to perform the procedure. Other techniques must be used to induce abortion in the third [[trimester]]. Premature delivery can be induced with [[prostaglandin]]; this can be coupled with injecting the [[amniotic sac|amniotic fluid]] with caustic solutions containing [[saline (medicine)|saline]] or [[urea]]. Very late abortions can be brought about by [[intact dilation and extraction]] (intact D &amp; X), which requires the surgical decompression of the fetus's head before evacuation, and is sometimes termed "[[partial-birth abortion]]." A [[hysterotomy abortion]], similar to a [[caesarian section]] but resulting in a terminated fetus, can also be used at late stages of pregnancy. It can be performed vaginally, with an incision just above the [[cervix]], in the late mid-trimester. ====Chemical abortion==== [[Image:Mifepristone.gif|thumb|right|170px|The molecular structure of the abortifacient drug Mifepristone.]] {{main|Chemical abortion}} Effective in the first trimester of pregnancy, chemical (also referred to as a medical abortion), or non-surgical abortions comprise 10% of all abortions in the [[United States]] and [[Europe]]. The process begins with the administration of either [[methotrexate]] or [[mifepristone]], followed by [[misoprostol]]. When appropriately used, 98% of women undergoing medical termination of pregnancy will experience completed abortion without surgical intervention. The [[Food and Drug Administration]] currently approves the use of mifepristone up to 49 days gestation (7 weeks), though evidence based regimens exist for its use up to 61 days gestation with similar success rates. Misoprostol alone can also be used, though it is not FDA approved for this purpose. Misoprostol (Cytotec) alone has the advantage of costing less than one dollar for an effective dose, as opposed to several hundred dollars for an effective dose of mifepristone. In cases of failure of medical abortion, vacuum or manual aspiration is used to complete the abortion surgically. ====Other means of abortion==== Historically, a number of [[herb]]s reputed to possess [[abortifacient]] properties have been used in [[folk medicine]]: [[tansy]], [[pennyroyal]], [[black cohosh]], and the now-extinct [[silphium]] (see [[Abortion#History of abortion|history of abortion]]). The use of herbs in such a manner can cause serious — even lethal — side effects, such as [[multiple organ dysfunction syndrome|multiple organ failure]], and is not recommended by [[physician]]s. {{ref|othermethods1}} Abortion is sometimes attempted through means of trauma to the [[abdomen]]. The degree of force applied, if severe, can cause serious internal injuries without necessarily succeeding in inducing [[miscarriage]]. {{ref|othermethods2}} Both accidental and deliberate abortions of this kind can be subject to criminal liability in many countries. In [[Myanmar|Burma]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], the [[Philippines]], and [[Thailand]], there is an ancient tradition of attempting abortion through forceful abdominal [[massage]]. {{ref|othermethods3}} Reported methods of unsafe, [[self-induced abortion]] include the misuse of the [[ulcer]] [[drug]] [[Misoprostol]] and the insertion of non-surgical implements such as [[knitting needle]]s and [[clothes hanger]]s into the [[uterus]]. ==Health effects== <!--MAJOR REORG NEEDED. Entire section is argumentative, and biased: See Talk. --> Early-term surgical abortion is a simple procedure, and when performed by competent doctors (and in some states, nurse practitioners, nurse midwives and physician assistants) in first-world nations (before the 16th week), is safer than carrying the pregnancy to term. {{ref|healtheffects1}} <!-- As I pointed out earlier, listing the negatives of this generally safe procedure first would be biased. --> As with most surgical procedures, the most common surgical abortion methods carry the risk of potentially serious complications. These risks include: a perforated uterus, perforated [[bowel]] or [[Urinary bladder|bladder]], [[septic shock]], sterility, and death. The risk of complications occurring can increase depending on how far the pregnancy has progressed, but may be counterbalanced by [[Complications of pregnancy|complications]] that would occur from carrying the pregnancy to term. It is difficult to accurately assess the risks of induced abortion due to a number of factors. These factors include wide variation in the quality of abortion services in different [[Society|societies]] and among different [[socio-economic]] groups, a lack of uniform [[definition]]s of terms, and difficulties in patient follow-up and after-care. The degree of risk is also dependent upon the skill and experience of the practitioner; maternal age, health, and [[parity]]; [[gestational age]]; pre-existing conditions; methods and instruments used; [[medication]]s used; the skill and experience of those assisting the practitioner; and the quality of recovery and follow-up care. A highly-skilled practitioner, operating under ideal conditions, will tend to have a very low rate of complications; an inexperienced practitioner in an ill-equipped and ill-staffed facility, on the other hand, will often have a higher incidence of complications. In the [[United Kingdom]], the number of deaths due to legal abortion between the years of 1991 and 1993 was 5, as compared to the 9 deaths caused by [[ectopic pregnancy]] during the same time frame. {{ref|mortality1}} In the [[United States]], during the year 1999, there were a total of 4 deaths due to legal abortion. {{ref|mortality2}} <!--need to compare the number of abortions and the number of pregnancies for these numbers to relate --> Some practitioners advocate using minimal [[anesthesia]] so that the patient can alert them to possible complications. Others recommend [[general anesthesia]], in order to prevent patient movement, which might cause a perforation. General anesthesia carries its own risks, including death, which is why public health officials recommend against its routine use. [[Dilation]] of the [[cervix]] carries the risk of cervical tears or perforations, including small tears that might not be apparent and might cause [[cervical incompetence]] in future pregnancies. Most practitioners recommend using the smallest possible dilators, and using [[osmotic]] rather than [[mechanical]] dilators after the first [[trimester]] of pregnancy. Instruments are placed within the uterus to remove the fetus. These can, on rare occasions, cause [[perforation]] or [[laceration]] of the uterus, and damage to structures surrounding the uterus. Laceration or perforation of the uterus or cervix can, again on rare occasions, lead to even more serious complications. Incomplete emptying of the uterus can cause [[hemorrhage]] and infection. Use of [[ultrasound]] verification of the location and duration of the pregnancy prior to abortion, with immediate follow-up of patients reporting continuing pregnancy symptoms after the procedure, will virtually eliminate this risk. The sooner a complication is noted and properly treated, the lower the risk of permanent injury or death. In rare cases, the abortion will be unsuccessful and the pregnancy will continue. An unsuccessful abortion can also result in the delivery of a live [[neonate]], or infant. This, termed a failed abortion, is more likely to occur if the procedure is carried out later in the pregnancy. Some doctors faced with this situation have voiced concerns about the ethical and legal ramifications of then letting the neonate die. As a result, recent investigations have been launched in the [[United Kingdom]] by the Confidential Enquiry into Maternal and Child Health (CEMACH) and the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, in order to determine how widespread the problem is and what an ethical response in the treatment of the infant might be. {{ref|failed}} Use of other methods (e.g., overdose of various drugs, insertion of various objects into [[uterus]]) for abortion is potentially dangerous, carrying a significantly elevated risk for permanent injury or death compared to abortions done by [[physician]]s. ===Suggested effects=== There is controversy over a number of proposed risks and effects of abortion. Evidence, whether in support of or against such claims, might in part be influenced by the political and religious beliefs of the parties behind it. ====Breast cancer==== {{main|Abortion-breast cancer hypothesis}} The ''abortion-breast cancer (ABC) hypothesis'' posits a [[causality| causal relationship]] between having an induced abortion and a higher risk of developing [[breast cancer]] in the future. An increased level of [[estrogen]] in early [[pregnancy]] helps to initiate [[cellular differentiation]] (growth) in the [[breast]] in preparation for [[lactation]]. If this process is terminated, through abortion, before full differentiation in the third [[trimester]], then more "vulnerable" undifferentiated cells will be left than there were prior to the pregnancy. It is proposed that this might result in an elevated risk of [[breast cancer]]. The majority of interview-based studies have indicated a link, and some have been demonstrated to be [[statistically significant]], {{ref|abc1}} but there remains debate as to their reliability because of possible [[response bias]]. Larger and more recent record-based studies, such as one in 1997 which used data from two national [[registry|registries]] in [[Denmark]], found the correlation to be negligible to non-existent after statistical adjustment. {{ref|abc2}} The [[National Cancer Institute]] conducted an official workshop with dozens of experts on the issue, between [[February 24]]-[[February 26]], [[2003]], which concluded from its examination of various evidence that it is "well established" that "induced abortion is not associated with an increase in breast cancer risk." {{ref|abc3}} These findings and how the Denmark study statistically adjusted their overall results have been disputed by [[Joel Brind|Dr. Joel Brind]], {{ref|abc4}} an invitee to the workshop and the leading scientific advocate of the abortion-breast cancer hypothesis. Nevertheless, gaps and inconsistencies remain in the research, and the subject continues to be one of political and scientific contention. ====Fetal pain==== {{main|Fetal pain}} The experience of the fetus during abortion is a matter of medical, ethical and public policy concern. Evidence is conflicting, with some authorities holding that the fetus is capable of feeling pain from the first [[trimester]], and others maintaining that the neuro-anatomical requirements for such experience do not exist until the second or third trimester. [[Pain|Pain receptors]] begin to appear in the seventh week of pregnancy. The [[thalamus]], the part of the brain which receives signals from the [[nervous system]] and then relays them to the [[cerebral cortex]], starts to form in the fifth week. However, other anatomical structures involved in the [[pain|nociceptic]] process are not present until much later in gestation. Links between the thalamus and cerebral cortex aren't forged until around the 23rd week. {{ref|pain1}} Researchers have observed changes in the heart rates and [[hormones| hormonal levels]] of newborn [[infants]] after [[circumcision]], [[blood tests]], and surgery — effects which were alleviated with the administration of [[anesthesia]]. {{ref|pain2}} Others suggest that the human experience of pain, being more than just physiological, cannot be measured in such [[reflexive]] responses. ====Mental health==== Some women will experience negative feelings as a result of elective abortion. However, whether this phenomenon is significant enough to warrant a general diagnosis, or even classification as an independent syndrome (see [[post-abortion syndrome]]), is a subject that is debated among members of the medical community. Data on the incidence of [[clinical depression]], [[mental illness]], [[post-traumatic stress disorder]], and suicide in association with abortion remain inconclusive. {{ref|mental1}} A comparative analysis of the suicide rates among [[postnatal| postpartum]] and post-abortive women in [[Finland]] found a [[statistics| statistical]] correlation between abortion and suicide. {{ref|mental2}} Other studies have suggested a link between the elective termination of an unwanted [[pregnancy]] and an improvement in reported mental well-being. {{ref|mental3}} Elective abortion may reduce the occurrence of depression in cases of unwanted pregnancy, as compared to cases in which the pregnancy has been carried to completion, but it is also sometimes reported as an additional [[stressor]] ([[ibid.]]). The majority of evidence would seem to indicate that adverse emotional reactions to the procedure are most strongly influenced by pre-existing [[psychology| psychological]] conditions and other negative factors ([[ibid.]]). Spontaneous abortion, or [[miscarriage]], is known to present an increased risk of [[depression]] in women. {{ref|mental4}} ==History of abortion== {{main|History of abortion}} [[Image:TansyPills.jpg|thumb|right|90px|Bottom-most: "Dr. Caton's Tansy Pills!" An example of a clandestine advertisement.]] The practice of induced abortion, according to some [[anthropologists]], can be traced to ancient times. There is evidence to suggest that, historically, pregnancies were terminated through a number of methods, including the administration of [[abortifacient]] herbs, the use of sharpened implements, the application of abdominal pressure, and other techniques. [[Soranus]], a 2nd century [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[physician]], suggested in his work ''[[Gynecology]]'' that women wishing to abort their pregnancies should engage in violent exercise, energetic jumping, carrying heavy objects, and riding animals. He also prescribed a number of recipes for herbal bathes, [[pessary| pessaries]], and [[bloodletting]], but advised against the use of sharp instruments to induce miscarriage due to the risk of organ [[perforation]]. {{ref|history1}} It is also known that the ancient Greeks relied upon the herb [[silphium]] as both a [[contraceptive]] and an [[abortifacient]]. The plant, as the chief export of [[Cyrene]], was driven to [[extinction]], but it is suggested that it might have possessed the same abortive properties as some of its closest extant relatives in the [[Apiaceae|Apiaceae family]]. Such folk remedies, however, varied in effectiveness and were not without risk. [[Tansy]] and [[pennyroyal]], for example, are two [[poison|poisonous]] [[herbs]] with serious [[Adverse effect (medicine)|side effects]] that have at times been used to terminate pregnancy. [[19th-century]] [[medicine]] saw advances in the fields of [[surgery]], [[anaesthesia]], and [[sanitation]], in the same era that doctors with the [[American Medical Association]] lobbied for bans on abortion in [[The United States]] and the [[British Parliament]] passed the Offences Against the Person Act. Demand for the procedure continued, however, as the disguised, but nonetheless open, advertisement of abortion services in Victorian times would seem to suggest. {{ref|history2}} ==Social issues== A number of of complex issues exist in the debate over abortion. These, like the suggested effects upon health listed above, are a focus of research and a fixture of discussion among members on all sides the controversy. ===Effect upon crime rate=== {{Main|legalized abortion and crime effect}} A controversial theory attempts to draw a [[correlation]] between the unprecedented nationwide decline of the overall [[crime rate]] witnessed in the [[United States]] during the 1990s and the decriminalization of abortion 20 years prior. The suggestion was brought to widespread attention by a 1999 [[academic paper]], ''[[The Impact of Legalized Abortion on Crime]]'', authored by the [[economist]]s [[Steven Levitt| Steven D. Levitt]] and [[John Donohue]]. They attributed the drop in crime to a reduction in individuals said to have a higher statistical probability of committing crimes: unwanted children, especially those born to mothers who are [[African-American]], [[poverty| impoverished]], [[teenage pregnancy|adolescent]], [[education|uneducated]], and [[single parent|single]]. The change coincided with what would've been the adolescence, or peak years of potential criminality, of those who had not been born as a result of ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'' and similar cases. Donohue and Levitt's study also noted that states which legalized abortion before the rest of the nation experienced the lowering crime rate pattern earlier and that those with higher abortion rates had more pronounced reductions. {{ref|crimerate1}} Fellow economists [[Christopher Foote]] and [[Christopher Goetz]] criticized the [[methodology]] in the Donahue-Levitt study, noting a lack of accommodation for statewide yearly variations such as [[cocaine]] use, and recalculating based on incidence of crime [[per capita]]; they found no [[statistically significant|statistically significant]] results. {{ref|crimerate2}} Levitt and Donohue responded to this by presenting an adjusted [[data set]] which took into account these concerns but, they claim, maintained the statistical significance of their initial paper. {{ref|crimerate3}} Such research has been criticized by some as being [[utilitarian]], [[discrimination|discriminatory]] as to [[race]] and [[social class|socioeconomic class]], and as promoting [[eugenic]]s as a solution to [[crime]]. {{ref|crimerate4}} {{ref|crimerate5}} Levitt states in his book, ''[[Freakonomics]]'', that they are neither promoting nor negating any course of action &ndash; merely reporting data as economists. ===Sex-selective abortion=== {{Main|sex-selective abortion and infanticide}} The advent of both [[ultrasound]] and [[amniocentesis]] has allowed [[parent]]s to determine [[sex]] before [[childbirth|birth]]. This has lead to the occurrence of [[sex-selective abortion and infanticide|sex-selective abortion]] or the targeted termination of a [[fetus]] based upon its gender. It is suggested that sex-selective abortion might be partially responsible for the noticeable disparities between the [[birth rate]]s of [[male]] and [[female]] children in some places. The preference for male children is reported in many areas of [[Asia]], and the use of abortion to limit female births has been reported in [[Mainland China]], [[Taiwan]], [[South Korea]], and [[India]]. {{ref|sexselective1}} In [[India]], the [[economic]] role of [[men]], the costs associated with [[dowry| dowries]], and a [[Hindu]] tradition which dictates that [[funeral|funeral rites]] must be performed by a male relative have lead to a [[culture| cultural]] preference for [[son]]s. {{ref|sexselective2}} The widespread availability of diagnostic testing, during the 1970s and '80s, lead to advertisements for services which read, "Invest 500 [[rupee]]s [for a sex test] now, save 50,000 rupees [for a dowry] later." {{ref|sexselective3}} In 1991, the male-to-female [[sex ratio]] in India was skewed from its biological norm of 105 to 100, to an average of 108 to 100. {{ref|sexselective4}} Researchers have asserted that between 1985 and 2005 as many as 10 million female fetuses may have been selectively aborted. {{ref|india1}} The Indian government passed an official ban of pre-natal sex screening in 1994 and moved to pass a complete ban of sex-selective abortion in 2002. {{ref|sexselective5}} In the [[People's Republic of China]], there is also a historic son preference. The implementation of the [[one-child policy]] in 1979, in response to population concerns, lead to an increased disparities in the sex ratio as parents attempted to circumvent the law through sex-selective abortion or the abandonment of unwanted [[daughter]]s. {{ref|sexselective6}} Sex-selective abortion might be a part of what is behind the shift from the baseline male-to-female birth rate to an elevated national rate of 117:100 reported in 2002. The trend was more pronounced in rural regions: as high as 130:100 in [[Guangdong]] and 135:100 in [[Hainan]]. {{ref|sexselective7}} A ban upon the practice of sex-selective abortion was enacted in 2003. {{ref|sexselective8}} ===Unsafe abortion=== {{main|Unsafe abortions}} Where and when access to safe abortion has been barred, due to explicit sanctions or general unavailability, women seeking to terminate their pregnancies have sometimes resorted to unsafe methods. "[[Back-alley abortion]]" is a [[slang]] term for any abortion not practiced under ideal conditions of [[sanitation]] and [[professional| professionalism]]. The [[World Health Organization]] defines an unsafe abortion as being, "a procedure...carried out by persons lacking the necessary skills or in an environment that does not conform to minimal medical standards, or both." {{ref|unsafe1}} This can include a person without medical training, a professional health provider operating in sub-standard conditions, or the woman herself. Unsafe abortion remains a [[public health]] concern today due to the higher incidence and severity of its associated complications, such as incomplete abortion, [[sepsis]], [[hemorrhage]], and damage to internal organs. WHO estimates that 19 million unsafe abortions occur around the world annually and that 68,000 of these result in the death of a woman. {{ref|unsafe1}} Complications of unsafe abortion are said to account, globally, for approximately 13% of all [[maternal death|maternal mortalities]], with regional estimates including 12% in [[Asia]], 25% in [[Latin America]], and 13% in [[sub-Saharan Africa]]. {{ref|unsafe2}} [[Health education]], access to [[family planning]], and improvements in [[healthcare]] during and after abortion have been proposed to address this phenomenon. {{ref|unsafe3}} ==Abortion debate== [[Image:Prolife-DC.JPG|thumb|right|240px||Pro-life activists in Washington, DC stage a silent demonstration before the Supreme Court.]] {{main|abortion debate}} Over the course of the [[history of abortion]], induced abortions have been a source of considerable [[debate]] and [[controversy]] regarding the morality and legality of this practice. An individual's position on the complex [[ethical]], [[moral]], [[philosophical]], [[biological]], and [[legal]] issues have a strong relationship with that individual's [[value system]]. A person's position on abortion may be best described as a combination of their personal beliefs on the morality of abortion, and that person's beliefs on the ethical scope and responsibility of legitimate [[government|governmental]] and legal [[authority]]. Another factor for many individuals is [[religion|religious]] doctrine (see [[religion and abortion]]). Abortion debates, especially pertaining to [[abortion law]]s, are often spearheaded by [[advocacy|advocacy groups]] belonging to one of two camps. Most often those in favor of legal prohibition of abortion describe themselves as [[pro-life]] while those against legal restrictions on abortion describe themselves as [[pro-choice]]. Both are used to indicate the central principles in arguments for and against abortion: "Is the fetus a human being with a fundamental right to ''life''?" for pro-life advocates, and, for those who are pro-choice, "Does a woman have the right to ''choose'' whether or not to have an abortion?" In both public and private debate, arguments presented in favor of or against abortion focus on either the moral permissibility of an induced abortion, or justification of [[laws]] permitting or restricting abortion. Arguments on morality and legality tend to collide and combine, complicating the issue at hand. Debate also focuses on whether the [[pregnancy|pregnant]] woman should have to notify and/or have the [[consent]] of others in distinct cases: a [[minor (law)|minor]] her parents; a [[marriage|legally-married]] or [[common-law marriage|common-law]] wife her husband; or a pregnant woman the biological father. In a 2003 [[Gallup]] poll in the [[United States]], 72% of respondents were in favor of spousal notification, with 26% opposed; of those polled, 79% of males and 67% of females responded in favor. {{ref|abortiondebate1}} ===Public opinion=== Political sides have largely been divided into [[moral absolutism|absolutes]]. The abortion debate, as such, tends to center around individuals who hold strong positions. However, public opinion varies from poll to poll, country to country, and region to region: *'''Australia''': In a February 2005 [[AC Nielsen]] poll, as reported in [[The Age]], 56% thought the [[Abortion in Australia|current abortion laws]], which generally allow abortion for the sake of life or health, were "about right," 16% want changes in law to make abortion "more accessible," and 17% want changes to make it "less accessible." {{ref|publicopinion1}} A 1998 poll, conducted by Roy Morgan Research, asked, "Do you approve of the termination of unwanted pregnancies through surgical abortion?" 65% of the [[Australia| Australians]] polled stated that they approved of surgical abortion and 25% stated that they disapproved of it. {{ref|publicopinion2}} * '''Canada''': A recent poll of [[Canadians]], conducted in April 2005 by [[Gallup]], found that 52% of those polled want abortion laws to "remain the same," 20% want the laws to be "less strict," and 24% would prefer that the laws become "more strict." An earlier Gallup poll, from December 2001, asked, "Do you think abortions should be legal under any circumstances, legal only under certain circumstances or illegal in all circumstances and in what circumstances?" 32% of Canadians responded that they believe abortion should be legal in all circumstance, 52% that it should be legal in certain circumstances, and 14% that it should be legal in no circumstances. See [[Abortion in Canada]]. *'''Ireland''': A 1997 [[Irish Times]]/MRBI poll of the [[Republic of Ireland|Republic of Ireland's]] electorate found that 18% believe that abortion should never be permitted, 35% that one should be allowed in the event that the woman's life is threatened, 18% if her health is at risk, 28% that "an abortion should be provided to those who need it," and 5% were undecided. {{ref|publicopinion3}} * '''The United Kingdom''': An online [[YouGov]]/[[Daily Telegraph]] poll in August 2005 found that 30% of [[The United Kingdom| Britons]] would back a measure to reduce the legal limit for abortion to 20 weeks, 19% support a limit of 12 weeks, 9% support a limit of less than 12 weeks, and 25% support maintaining the current limit of 24 weeks. 6% responded that abortion should never be allowed while 2% said it should be permitted throughout the entirety of pregnancy. {{ref|publicopinion4}} * '''The United States''': In a January 2006 [[CBS News]] poll, which asked, "What is your personal feeling about abortion?", 27% said that abortion should be "permitted in all cases," 15% that it should be "permitted, but subject to greater restrictions than it is now," 33% that it should be "permitted only in cases such as rape, incest or to save the woman's life," 17% that it should "only be permitted to save the woman's life," and 5% that it should "never" be permitted. {{ref|publicopinion5}} A November 2005 [[Pew Research Center]] poll asked "In 1973 the Roe versus Wade decision established a woman's constitutional right to an abortion, at least in the first three months of pregnancy. Would you like to see the Supreme Court completely overturn its Roe versus Wade decision, or not?", with 29% indicating they want it overturned, and 65% that they do not. {{ref|publicopinion6}} ==Abortion law== {{main|Abortion law}} [[Image:AbortionLawsMap.png|thumb|250px|right|International status of abortion law]] The [[Soviet Union]] (1920) and [[Iceland]] (1935) were some of the first countries to generally allow abortion. The second half of the twentieth century saw the liberalization of abortion laws in many other countries. In 1973, the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] struck down state laws banning abortion, ruling that such laws violated an inferred [[right to privacy]] in the [[U.S. Constitution]]. The [[Supreme Court of Canada]], similarly, discarded its criminal code regarding abortion in 1988, after ruling that such restrictions violated the security of person guaranteed to women under in the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] in the case of [[R. v. Morgentaler]]. Canada later struck down provincial regulations of abortion in the case of [[R. v. Morgentaler (1993)]]. [[Ireland]], on the other hand, added an [[Eighth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland| amendment]] to its [[Constitution of Ireland|Constitution]] in 1983 by popular referendum, recognizing "the right to life of the unborn" (see [[Abortion in Ireland]]). Current laws pertaining to abortion are diverse. Religious, moral, and cultural sensibilities continue to influence abortion laws throughout the world. The [[right to life]], the right to [[liberty]], and the right to [[security of person]] are major issues of [[human rights]] that are sometimes used as justification for the existence or the absence of laws controlling abortion. Many countries in which abortion is legal require that certain criteria be met in order for an abortion to be obtained, often, but not always, using a [[trimester]]-based system to regulate the window in which abortion is still legal to perform: * In the [[United States]], some states impose a 24-hour waiting period before the procedure, prescribe the distribution of information on [[fetal development]], or require that parents be contacted if their [[Minor (law)|minor]] daughter requests an abortion. * In the [[United Kingdom]], as in some other countries, two doctors must first certify that an abortion is medically or socially necessary before it can be performed. Other countries, in which abortion is illegal, will allow one to be performed in the case of [[rape]], [[incest]], or danger to the pregnant woman's life or health. A handful of nations ban abortion entirely, such as [[Chile]], [[El Salvador]], and [[Malta]]. ==See also== *[[Abortion in Australia]] *[[Abortion in Canada]] *[[Abortion in Ireland]] *[[Abortion in the United Kingdom]] *[[Abortion in the United States]] *[[Adoption]] *[[Partial-birth abortion]] *[[Pregnancy]] *[[Religion and abortion]] *[[Selective reduction]] *[[Self-induced abortion]] *[[Wrongful abortion]] ==Sources== #{{note|miscarriage1}} "[http://wuphysicians.wustl.edu/dept.asp?pageID=8&ID=35 Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility: Recurrent Pregnancy Loss (Recurrent Miscarriage)]." (n.d.) Retrieved [[2006-01-18]] from Washington University School of Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology web site. #{{note|incidence2}} Henshaw, Stanley K., Singh, Susheela, & Haas, Taylor. (1999). [http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/25s3099.html The Incidence of Abortion Worldwide]. ''International Family Planning Perspectives, 25 (Supplement)'', 30–8. Retrieved [[2006-01-18]]. #{{note|incidence3}} Bankole, Akinrinola, Singh, Susheela, & Haas, Taylor. (1998). [http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/2411798.html Reasons Why Women Have Induced Abortions: Evidence from 27 Countries]. ''International Family Planning Perspectives, 24 (3)'', 117-127 & 152. Retrieved [[2006-01-18]]. #{{note|incidence4}} Finer, Lawrence B., Frohwirth, Lori F., Dauphinee, Lindsay A., Singh, Shusheela, & Moore, Ann M. (2005). [http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3711005.pdf Reasons U.S. women have abortions: quantative and qualitative perspectives]. ''Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 37 (3),'' 110-8. Retrieved [[2006-01-18]]. # {{note|unsafe1}} World Health Organization. (2004). [http://www.who.int/reproductive-health/publications/unsafe_abortion_estimates_04/estimates.pdf Unsafe abortion: global and regional estimates of unsafe abortion and associated mortality in 2000]. Retrieved [[2006-01-12]]. #{{note|incidenceaustralia}} Chan, Annabelle & Sage, Leonie C. (2005). Estimating Australia’s abortion rates 1985–2003 [http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/182_09_020505/cha10829_fm.html Electronic version]. ''Medical Journal of Australia, 182 (9),''447-52. Retrieved [[2006-01-17]]. #{{note|populationaustralia}} Australian Bureau of Statistics. ([[2003-02-18]]). [http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/ProductsbyReleaseDate/C947E831266D3234CA256CD000827941?OpenDocument Population, Australian States and Territories - Electronic delivery, Sep 2002]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]]. #{{note|incidencecanada}} Statistics Canada. ([[2005-02-11]]). [http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/050211/d050211a.htm Induced abortions]. ''The Daily.'' Retrieved [[2006-01-17]]. #{{note|populationcanada}} Statistics Canada. ([[2003-12-18]]). [http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/031218/d031218c.htm Demographic statistics]. ''The Daily.'' Retrieved [[2006-01-28]]. #{{note|incidencedenmark}} Dansmark Statistik. ([[2004-11-25]]). [http://www.statistikbanken.dk/statbank5a/SelectVarVal/Define.asp?MainTable=FOD6&PLanguage=1&PXSId=0 Legal abortions by region (counties) and age]. Retrieved [[2006-01-17]]. #{{note|populationdenmark}} Statistics Denmark. ([[2005-02-01]]). [http://www.dst.dk/HomeUK/Statistics/Key_indicators/Population/pop.aspx Population 1st January]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]]. #{{note|incidencefrance}} Vilain, Annick. Ministry for Employment, Social Cohesion and Housing. (2005, October). [http://www.sante.gouv.fr/drees/etude-resultat/er431/er431.pdf Les interruptions volontaires de grossesse en 2003]. ''Études et Résultats, 431.'' Retrieved [[2006-01-17]]. #{{note|populationfrance}} National Institute for Demographic Studies. (n.d.) [http://www.ined.fr/englishversion/figures/france/population/tabpyr2004A.html Total population of France 1st January 2004]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]]. #{{note|incidencegermany}} Federal Statistical Office Germany. ([[2005-03-09]]). [http://www.destatis.de/basis/e/gesu/gesutab18.htm Abortions in Germany, 1999 to 2004, by the Land of the place of residence and ratio per 1 000 births]. Retrieved [[2006-01-17]]. #{{note|populationgermany}} Federal Statistical Office Germany. ([[2006-01-24]]). [http://www.destatis.de/basis/e/bevoe/bevoetab4.htm Population, by sex and citizenship]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]]. #{{note|incidencejapan}} "[http://web-japan.org/stat/stats/18WME21.html Abortions (1984-2004)]." (2005). Retrieved [[2006-01-17]] from Web Japan. #{{note|populationjapan}} Statistics Bureau. (2004). [http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/jinsui/2004np/index.htm Current Population Estimates as of October 1, 2004]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]]. #{{note|incidencenewzealand}} Ewing, Ian. Statistics New Zealand. ([[2005-06-15]]). [http://www2.stats.govt.nz/domino/external/pasfull/pasfull.nsf/web/Hot+Off+The+Press+Abortions+Year+ended+December+2004?open Abortions (Year ended December 2004)]. Retrieved [[2006-01-17]]. #{{note|populationnewzealand}} Statistics New Zealand. ([[2005-05-15]]). [http://www.stats.govt.nz/analytical-reports/dem-trends-04/tables.htm Demographic Trends 2004]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]]. #{{note|incidencenorway}} Statistics Norway. ([[2005-06-08]]). [http://www.ssb.no/abort_en/tab-2005-06-08-02-en.html Induced abortions, by woman's county of residence, 1980-2004]. Retrieved [[2006-01-17]]. #{{note|populationnorway}} Statistics Norway. (2005). [http://www.ssb.no/folkemengde_en/tab-2005-03-11-01-en.html Population by age, sex, marital status and foreign citizenship]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]]. #{{note|incidencesouthafrica}} Health Systems Trust. (n.d.) [http://hst.org.za/healthstats/47/data TOPs (Terminations of Pregnancy)]. Retrieved [[2006-01-17]]. #{{note|populationsouthafrica}} Statistics South Africa. ([[2001-07-02]]). [http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0302/P03022001.pdf Mid-year estimates 2001]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]]. #{{note|incidencesweden}} Nilsson, Emma & Ollars, Birgitta. The National Board of Health and Welfare. (2005, May). [http://www.socialstyrelsen.se/NR/rdonlyres/8013473F-C14A-467E-A2F7-F3BB1A082E0C/3573/2005423.pdf Aborter 2004]. Retrieved [[2006-01-17]]. #{{note|populationsweden}} Statistics Sweden. ([[2006-01-13]]). [http://www.scb.se/templates/tableOrChart____25897.asp Preliminary population statistics per month, 2003-2005]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]]. #{{note|incidenceenglandwales}} Government Statistical Service for the Department of Health. ([[2005-07-27]]). [http://www.dh.gov.uk/PublicationsAndStatistics/Publications/PublicationsStatistics/PublicationsStatisticsArticle/fs/en?CONTENT_ID=4116461&chk=6T9UTA Abortion statistics, England and Wales: 2004]. Retrieved [[2006-01-17]]. #{{note|incidencescotland}} ISD Scotland. ([[2005-05-24]]). [http://www.isdscotland.org/isd/info3.jsp?pContentID=1919&p_applic=CCC&p_service=Content.show& Number of abortions performed in Scotland]. Retrieved [[2006-01-17]]. #{{note|populationunitedkingdom}} National Statistics. ([[2005-08-25]]). [http://www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/nugget.asp?ID=6 Population Estimates: UK population approaches 60 million]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]]. #{{note|incidenceunitedstates}} Finer, Lawrence B. & Henshaw, Stanley K. The Alan Guttmacher Institute. ([[2005-05-18]]). [http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/2005/05/18/ab_incidence.pdf Estimates of U.S. Abortion Incidence in 2001 and 2002]. Retrieved January 17, 2006. #{{note|populationunitedstates}} U.S. Census Bureau. ([[2006-01-04]]). [http://www.census.gov/prod/www/statistical-abstract.html Statistical Abstract of the United States]. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]]. #{{note|surgicalabortion1}} World Health Organization. (2003). [http://www.who.int/reproductive-health/impac/Procedures/Dilatetion_P61_P63.html Managing complications in pregnancy and childbirth: a guide for midwives and doctors]. Retrieved [[2006-02-24]]. #{{note|surgicalabortion2}} Strauss, Lilo T., Herndon, Joy, Chang, Jeani, Parker, Wilda Y., Bowens, Sonya V., Berg, Cynthia J. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. ([[2005-11-15]]). [http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5407a1.htm Abortion Surveillance - United States, 2002]. ''Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report''. Retrieved [[2006-02-20]]. # {{note|othermethods1}} Ciganda, C., & Laborde, A. (2003). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12807304&query_hl=9 Herbal infusions used for induced abortion]. ''J Toxicol Clin Toxicol, 41(3),'' 235-9. Retrieved [[2006-01-25]]. # {{note|othermethods2}} Education for Choice. ([[2005-05-06]]). [http://www.efc.org.uk/Foryoungpeople/Factsaboutabortion/Unsafeabortion Unsafe abortion]. Retrieved [[2006-01-11]]. # {{note|othermethods3}} Potts, Malcolm, & Campbell, Martha. (2002). [http://big.berkeley.edu/ifplp.history.pdf History of contraception]. ''Gynecology and Obstetrics'', vol. 6, chp. 8. Retrieved [[2005-01-25]]. # {{note|healtheffects1}} Cates W., Jr, & Tietze C. (1978). Standardized mortality rates associated with legal abortion: United States, 1972-1975 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=639966&dopt=Abstract Electronic version]. ''Family Planning Perspectives, 10 (2)'', 109-12. Retrieved [[2006-01-28]]. # {{note|mortality1}} Department of Health. (1998). ''[http://www.archive.official-documents.co.uk/document/doh/wmd/wmd-hm.htm Why Mothers Die: Report on Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths in the United Kingdom 1994–1996].'' London: The Stationery Office. Retrieved [[2006-01-11]]. # {{note|mortality2}} Elam-Evans, Laurie. D., Strauss, Lilo T., Herndon, Joy, Parker, Wilda Y., Bowens, Sonya V., Zane, Suzanne, ''et al.'' Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. ([[2003-11-23]]). ''[http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5212a1.htm Abortion Surveillance - United States, 2000].'' Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Retrieved [[2006-01-11]]. #{{note|failed}}Rogers, Lois. ([[2005-11-27]]). "[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2087-1892696,00.html Fifty babies a year are alive after abortion]." ''The Sunday Times.'' Retrieved [[2006-01-11]]. # {{note|abc1}} [http://www.etters.net/cancerTP.htm#3 American abortion-breast cancer studies] # {{note|abc2}} Melbye M., Wohlfahrt, J., Olsen, J.H., Frisch, M., Westergaard, T., Helweg-Larsen, K., ''et al.'' (1997). Induced abortion and the risk of breast cancer [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=8988884 Electronic version]. ''New England Journal of Medicine, 336,'' 81-5. Retrieved [[2006-01-11]] from PubMed. # {{note|abc3}} National Cancer Institute. ([[2003-03-04]]). [http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/ere-workshop-report Summary Report: Early Reproductive Events and Breast Cancer Workshop]. Retrieved [[2006-01-11]]. # {{note|abc4}} National Cancer Institute. (2003). [http://www.cancer.gov/cancer_information/doc.aspx?viewid=15e3f2d5-5cdd-4697-a2ba-f3388d732642 Minority Dissenting Comment Regarding Early Reproductive Events and Breast Cancer Workshop]. Retrieved [[2006-01-11]]. # {{note|pain1}} Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology. (1997). ''[http://www.parliament.uk/post/pn094.pdf Fetal Awareness].'' Retrieved [[2006-01-11]]. # {{note|Emory}} Mulligan LaRossa, Maureen, & Carter, Sheena L. ([[2005-02-07]]). ''Understanding How the Brain Develops.'' Retrieved [[2006-01-11]], from Emory University, Department of Pediatrics web site: [http://www.pediatrics.emory.edu/neonatology/dpc/brain.htm]. # {{note|pain2}} Anand, K., Phil, D., & Hickey, P.R. (1987). Pain and its effects on the human neonate and fetus. ''New England Journal of Medicine, 316 (21),'' 1321-9. Retrieved [[2006-01-11]] from [http://www.cirp.org/library/pain/anand/ The Circumcision Reference Library]. # {{note|mental1}} Schmiege, S. & Russo, N.F. (2005). Depression and unwanted first pregnancy: longitudinal cohort study [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/331/7528/1303 Electronic version] . ''British Medical Journal, 331 (7528),'' 1303. Retrieved [[2006-01-11]]. # {{note|mental2}} Gissler, M., Hemminki, E., & Lonnqvist, J. (1996). Suicides after pregnancy in Finland, 1987-94: register linkage study [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/313/7070/1431 Electronic version]. ''British Medical Journal, 313,'' 1431-4. Retrieved [[2006-01-11]]. # {{note|mental3}} American Psychological Association. (2005). [http://web.archive.org/web/20050304001316/http://www.apa.org/ppo/issues/womenabortfacts.html APA Briefing Paper on The Impact of Abortion on Women]. Retrieved [[2006-01-15]] from [http://www.archive.org The Internet Archive]. # {{note|mental4}} ''[http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=619 Depression Risk Increased After Miscarriage].'' ([[2002-04-01]]). Retrieved [[2006-01-11]]. # {{note|history1}} Lefkowitz, Mary R. & Fant, Maureen R. (1992). ''[http://www.stoa.org/diotima/anthology/wlgr/ Women's life in Greece & Rome: a source book in translation].'' Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press. Retrieved [[2006-01-11]]. # {{note|history2}} ''[http://users.telerama.com/~jdehullu/abortion/abhist.htm Histories of Abortion].'' (n.d.) Retrieved [[2006-01-11]]. # {{note|crimerate1}} Donohue, John J. and Levitt, Steven D. (2001). [http://ssrn.com/abstract=174508 The impact of legalized abortion on crime].''Quarterly Journal of Economics.'' Retrieved [[2006-02-11]]. # {{note|crimerate2}} Foote, Christopher L. and Goetz, Christopher F. (2005). [http://www.bos.frb.org/economic/wp/wp2005/wp0515.pdf Testing economic hypotheses with state-level data: a comment on Donohue and Levitt (2001)]. ''Working Papers, 05-15''. Retrieved [[2006-02-11]]. # {{note|crimerate3}} Donohue, John J. and Levitt, Steven D. (2006). Measurement error, legalized abortion, and the decline in crime: a response to Foote and Goetz (2005). Retrieved [[2006-02-17]], from University of Chicago, Initiative on Chicago Price Theory web site: [http://pricetheory.uchicago.edu/levitt/Papers/ResponseToFooteGoetz2006.pdf http://pricetheory.uchicago.edu/levitt/Papers/ResponseToFooteGoetz2006.pdf]. # {{note|crimerate4}} "Crime-Abortion Study Continues to Draw Pro-life Backlash." ([[1999-08-11]]). ''The Pro-Life Infonet.'' Retrieved [[2006-02-17]] from [http://ohioroundtable.org/library/articles/life/crimeabortion.html Ohio Roundtable Online Library]. # {{note|crimerate5}} "[http://www.americancatholic.org/Messenger/Jan2000/Editorial.asp Abortion and the Lower Crime Rate]." (2000, January). ''St. Anthony Messenger.'' Retrieved [[2006-02-17]]. # {{note|sexselective1}} Banister, Judith. ([[1999-03-16]]). [http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/ebspr96a.html Son Preference in Asia - Report of a Symposium]. Retrieved [[2006-01-12]]. # {{note|sexselective2}} Mutharayappa, Rangamuthia, Kim Choe, Minja, Arnold, Fred, & Roy, T.K. (1997). [http://www2.eastwestcenter.org/pop/misc/subj-3.pdf Son Preferences and Its Effect on Fertility in India]. ''National Family Health Survey Subject Reports, Number 3.'' Retrieved [[2006-01-12]]. # {{note|sexselective3}} Patel, Rita. (1996). The practice of sex selective abortion in India: may you be the mother of a hundred sons. Retrieved [[2006-01-11]], from University of North Carolina, University Center for International Studies web site: [http://www.ucis.unc.edu/resources/pubs/carolina/abortion.pdf http://www.ucis.unc.edu/resources/pubs/carolina/abortion.pdf]. # {{note|sexselective4}} Sudha, S., & Irudaya Rajan, S. (1999). [http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/organizations/healthnet/gender/docs/sudha.html Female Demographic Disadvantage in India 1981-1991: Sex Selective Abortion, Female Infanticide and Excess Female Child Mortality]. Retrieved [[2006-01-12]] # {{note|india1}} Reaney, Patricia. ([[2006-01-09]]). "[http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L06779563.htm Selective abortion blamed for India's missing girls]." ''Reuters AlertNet.'' Retrieved [[2006-01-09]]. # {{note|sexselective5}} Mudur, Ganapati. (2002). "[http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/abridged/324/7334/385/b India plans new legislation to prevent sex selection]." ''British Medical Journal: News Roundup.'' Retrieved [[2006-01-12]]. # {{note|sexselective6}} Graham, Maureen J., Larsen, Ulla, & Xu, Xiping. (1998). [http://www.agi-usa.org/pubs/journals/2407298.html Son Preference in Anhui Province, China]. ''International Family Planning Perspectives, 24 (2).'' Retrieved [[2006-01-12]]. # {{note|sexselective7}} Plafker, Ted. ([[2002-05-25]]). [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/324/7348/1233/a?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext Sex selection in China sees 117 boys born for every 100 girls]. ''British Medical Journal: News Roundup.'' Retrieved [[2006-01-12]]. # {{note|sexselective8}} "[http://www.china.org.cn/english/2003/Mar/59194.htm China Bans Sex-selection Abortion]." ([[2002-03-22]]). ''Xinhua News Agency.'' Retrieved [[2006-01-12]]. # {{note|unsafe2}} Salter, C., Johnson, H.B., and Hengen, N. (1997). [http://www.infoforhealth.org/pr/l10edsum.shtml Care for postabortion complications: saving women's lives]. ''Population Reports, 25 (1).'' Retrieved [[2006-02-22]]. # {{note|unsafe3}} World Health Organization. (1998). [http://www.who.int/docstore/world-health-day/en/pages1998/whd98_10.html Address Unsafe Abortion]. Retrieved [[2006-03-01]]. # {{note|abortiondebate1}} The Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. ([[2005-11-02]]). "[http://people-press.org/commentary/display.php3?AnalysisID=122 Public Opinion Supports Alito on Spousal Notification Even as It Favors Roe v. Wade]." ''Pew Research Center Pollwatch.'' Retrieved [[2006-03-01]]. # {{note|publicopinion1}} Grattan, Michelle. ([[2005-02-16]]). "[http://www.theage.com.au/news/National/Poll-backs-abortion-laws/2005/02/15/1108230007300.html Poll backs abortion laws]." ''The Age.'' Retrieved [[2006-01-11]]. # {{note|publicopinion2}} Roy Morgan International. ([[1998-03-03]]). [http://www.roymorgan.com/news/polls/1998/3058 Almost Two-Thirds Of Australians Approve Of Abortion]. Retrieved [[2006-01-11]]. # {{note|publicopinion3}} Kennedy, Geraldine. ([[1997-12-11]]). "[http://www.ireland.com/newspaper/front/1997/1211/archive.97121100003.html 77% say limited abortion right should be provided]." ''The Irish Times.'' Retrieved [[2006-01-11]]. # {{note|publicopinion4}} YouGov. ([[2005-07-30]]). [http://www.yougov.com/archives/pdf/TEL050101042_1.pdf YouGov/Daily Telegraph Survey Results]. Retrieved [[2006-01-11]]. # {{note|publicopinion5}} ''[http://www.pollingreport.com/abortion.htm The Polling Report].'' (2006). Retrieved [[2006-01-11]]. # {{note|publicopinion6}} The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. ([[2005-11-29]]). [http://pewforum.org/docs/index.php?DocID=127 Abortion Seen as Most Important Issue for Supreme Court]. Retrieved [[2006-01-12]]. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/policy/abortion Abortion Statistics and Other Data] *[http://annualreview.law.harvard.edu/population/abortion/abortionlaws.htm Abortion Laws of the World] * [http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/abortion Abortion Policies: A Global Review] <!-- HELP KEEP THIS ARTICLE SHORT AND SIMPLE: DO NOT ADD MORE LINKS TO "BIASED" SECTION. ADD THEM TO WHICHEVER SUB-ARTICLE WOULD BE APPROPRIATE INSTEAD. ALSO, PLEASE UNDERSTAND THAT SITES CONTAINING SHOCK MATERIAL SHALL, IN NO CASE, BE ACCEPTED. THANKS! !--> '''The following links may be biased:''' * [http://www.abortion.com/ Abortion.com] * [http://agi-usa.org/ The Alan Guttmacher Institute] * [http://www.all.org/ American Life League] * [http://www.care-net.org/ CareNet] * [http://justfacts.com/abortion.htm Just Facts: Abortion] * [http://www.plannedparenthood.com Planned Parenthood] [[Category:Abortion|*]] [[bg:Аборт]] [[ca:Avortament]] [[cs:Interrupce]] [[da:Provokeret abort]] [[de:Schwangerschaftsabbruch]] [[es:Aborto]] [[eo:Aborto]] [[fr:Interruption volontaire de grossesse]] [[id:Gugur kandungan]] [[ia:Aborto]] [[it:Aborto]] [[he:הפלה מלאכותית]] [[lt:Abortas]] [[hu:Magzatelhajtás]] [[nl:Abortus]] [[ja:妊娠中絶]] [[no:Abort]] [[nn:Abort]] [[pl:Aborcja]] [[pt:Interrupção da gravidez]] [[ru:Аборт]] [[simple:Abortion]] [[sr:Абортус]] [[fi:Abortti]] [[sv:Abort]] [[tl:Aborsiyon]] [[tr:Kürtaj]] [[uk:Аборт]] [[zh:堕胎]] [[pam:Abortion]] 766 35547123 2006-01-17T15:28:03Z Edcolins 51336 moved law-related part to proper article In [[law]], an '''abstract''' is a brief statement that contains the most important points of a long [[legal document]] or of several related legal papers. ==Abstraction of Title== The Abstraction of Title, used in [[real estate]] transactions, is the more common form of abstract. An abstract of title lists all the owners of a piece of land, a house, or a building before it came into possession of the present owner. The abstract also records all [[deed]]s, [[will (law)|wills]], [[mortgage]]s, and other documents that affect [[ownership]] of the property. An abstract describes a chain of transfers from owner to owner and any agreements by former owners that are binding on later owners. ==Clear Title== A Clear Title to property is one that clearly states any obligation in the deed to the property. It reveals no breaks in the chain of legal ownership. After the records of the property have been traced and the title has been found clear, it is sometimes guaranteed, or insured. In a few states, a more efficient system of insuring title real properties provides for registration of a clear title with public authorities. After this is accomplished, no abstract of title is necessary. == Patent law == In the context of [[patent]] law and specifically in [[prior art]] searches, searching through abstracts is a common way to find relevant prior art document to question to [[novelty (patent)|novelty]] or [[Inventive step and non-obviousness|inventive step]] (or [[Inventive step and non-obviousness|non-obviousness]] in [[United States]] patent law) of an invention. ==References== * [[World Book]] encyclopedia 1988 ==See also== *[[Academic conference]] == External links == * [http://www.wipo.int/pct/en/texts/rules/r8.htm Rule 8 PCT], defining the requirements regarding the abstract in an international application filed under [[Patent Cooperation Treaty]] (PCT) * [http://www.european-patent-office.org/legal/epc/e/ar85.html Article 85] and [http://www.european-patent-office.org/legal/epc/e/r33.html Rule 33 EPC], defining the abstract-related requirements in a [[European Patent Convention|European patent application]] {{law-stub}} [[Category:Legal research]] 767 15899284 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[A. E. van Vogt]] 768 36881334 2006-01-27T01:59:20Z Bobblewik 51235 reduce linking to date elements :''See also:'' [[Internet troll]] An '''AOLamer''' or AOL Lamer is a person using [[AOL]] that posts [[flamebait]] or other [[off-topic]] [[message]]s in a [[newsgroup]] in order to disrupt the newsgroup. During the early 1990s, many regular non-AOL internet newsgroup users routinely killed all messages coming from AOL as many of the messages coming from AOL were non-informative. In addition, the term '''AOLamer''' is often used as a derogatory term for AOL subscribers by users of other internet service providers, who view AOL as a provider associated with people who know little about computers. [[Category:America Online]] [[Category:Internet trolling]] [[fr:AOLamer]] {{compu-stub}} 769 41784133 2006-03-01T18:55:12Z 140.247.179.110 /* After ''M*A*S*H'' */ [[Image:Hawkeyepierce.gif|thumb|200px|right|Alan Alda as Benjamin Franklin "Hawkeye" Pierce]] '''Alan Alda''' (born [[January 28]], [[1936]] as '''Alphonso Joseph D'Abruzzo''') is an [[United States|American]] [[actor]], [[writer]], [[film director|director]] and sometimes [[politics|political]] activist. He is most famous for his role as [[Hawkeye Pierce]] in the [[television]] series ''[[M*A*S*H (TV series)|M*A*S*H]]''. In the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]] he was viewed as the archetypal "sensitive male", though in recent years he has appeared in roles which counter that image. ==Family and early life== Alda was born in [[New York City]]. His [[Italian American|Italian-American]] father, [[Robert Alda]] (born Alphonso Giuseppe Giovanni Roberto D'Abruzzo), was a successful actor, and his mother [[Joan Brown]] was crowned "Miss New York" in a [[beauty pageant]]. The adopted surname "Alda" is a contraction of "'''AL'''phonso" and "'''D'A'''bruzzo". When Alan Alda was growing up, his parents divorced. Alan Alda contracted [[polio]] when he was seven years old, which kept him bedridden for two years as he received treatments. Alan Alda's half-brother, [[Anthony Alda]] was christened '''Antonio D'Abruzzo''' on the 9th of [[December]] [[1956]]. He received his [[bachelor's degree]] from [[Fordham University]] in [[1956]]. During his junior year, he studied in [[Europe]] where he acted in a play in [[Rome]] and performed with his father on television in [[Amsterdam]]. After graduation, he joined the [[United States Army|U.S. Army Reserve]] and served a six-month tour of duty as a gunnery officer in Korea following the [[Korean War]]. A year after graduation, he married Arlene Weiss, with whom he has three daughters: Eve, Elizabeth and Beatrice. [[Arlene Alda]] is a well known photographer, author and clarinettist. Raised as a devout [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]], he has since left the church but continues to celebrate religious holidays and events. His specific religious beliefs are difficult to define. He is also an activist for [[feminism|feminist]] causes, and has been for many years. ==Acting career, fame, and ''M*A*S*H''== Alda began his career in the [[1950s]] as a member of the [[Compass Players]] comedy revue. In the eleven years (72-83) he starred in ''[[M*A*S*H (TV series)|M*A*S*H]]'', he was nominated for 21 [[Emmy Awards]] winning five. He wrote (or co-wrote) twenty episodes, and directed thirty episodes. When he won his first Emmy Award for writing, he was so happy that he performed a [[cartwheel]] before running up to the stage to accept the award. He also was the first person to win Emmy Awards for acting, writing, and directing for the same series. Interestingly enough, the late [[H. Richard Hornberger|Richard Hooker]], who wrote the novel on which ''M*A*S*H'' was based, did not like Alan Alda's portrayal of Hawkeye Pierce (Hooker had based Hawkeye on himself), though Hooker didn't care for the show in general. ==After ''M*A*S*H''== Alda's prominence in the enormously successful ''M*A*S*H'' gave him a platform to speak out on political topics, and he has been a strong and vocal supporter of [[women's rights]]. As such, he has been something of a [[boogeyman]] for some political [[social conservative]]s who disagree with his views. He has also appeared in at least two TV commercials. Both of these were in the small-computer industry, first for [[Atari]] and later, with the rest of the ''M*A*S*H'' cast, for [[International Business Machines|IBM]]'s [[PS/2]] product line with [[Micro Channel architecture|MicroChannel architecture]]. [[Image:Alan_Alda.jpg|thumb|left|Alan Alda as Senator Vinick.]] Alan Alda has also played [[Nobel Prize]]-winning physicist [[Richard Feynman]] in the play [[QED (play)|''QED'']], which has only one other character. Although [[Peter Parnell]] wrote the play, Alda both produced and inspired it. Alda has also appeared frequently in the films of [[Woody Allen]], and he has been a guest star five times on ''[[ER (TV series)|ER]]'', playing Dr. Gabriel Lawrence. As of [[2004 in television|2004]], Alda is a regular cast member on the [[National Broadcasting Company|NBC]] program ''[[The West Wing (television)|The West Wing]]'', portraying [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]] and presidential hopeful [[Arnold Vinick]]. He made his premiere in the sixth season's tenth episode, "In The Room", and was added to the opening credits with the thirteenth episode, "King Corn." Throughout his career, he has been nominated for the Emmy Award 31 times and the [[Tony Award]] twice, and has won seven [[People's Choice Award]]s, six [[Golden Globe]] awards, and three [[Director's Guild of America]] awards. However, it was not until [[2004]], after a long acting career, that Alda received his first nomination for an Academy Award. This was the [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]] nomination for his role as Senator [[Ralph Owen Brewster]] in [[Martin Scorsese]]'s film ''[[The Aviator]]''. In the spring of 2005, Alda starred as Shelly Levene in the Tony Award-winning Broadway revival of [[David Mamet]]'s ''[[Glengarry Glen Ross]],'' for which he received a Tony Award nomination for Best Featured Actor in a Play. It has become quite normal for Alda in his later roles to have some reference to his early work in ''M*A*S*H''. For instance, both the senator he played in ''The Aviator'' and Hawkeye Pierce came from [[Maine]]. In a line on ''ER'', his character mentions that he uses a surgical technique he picked up in a "military hospital". The same character also undergoes a mental acuity test where he has to identify pictures of objects. He sees a funnel and identifies it as a martini glass without the base (Hawkeye Pierce was very fond of martinis). Alda's ''West Wing'' character has also made at least one reference to [[Korea]] when he said, "I could take these people to the [[Korean Demilitarized Zone|DMZ]] and it still wouldn't take their minds off ethanol and abortion"). In 2005, Alda published his first round of memoirs, ''Never Have Your Dog Stuffed: and Other Things I've Learned'', published by [[Random House]] (ISBN 1400064090). Among other stories, he recalls his [[intestine]]s becoming strangulated while on location in [[Chile]] for his PBS show ''[[Scientific American Frontiers]]''. He also talks about his mother's battle with [[schizophrenia]]. ==Filmography== *''[[Gone Are the Days!]]'' ([[1963]]) *''[[Paper Lion]]'' ([[1968]]) *''[[The Extraordinary Seaman]]'' ([[1969]]) *''[[Jenny (TV movie)|Jenny]]'' ([[1970]]) *''[[The Moonshine War]]'' ([[1970]]) *''[[The Mephisto Waltz]]'' ([[1971]]) *''[[To Kill a Clown]]'' ([[1972]]) *''[[The Glass House]]'' ([[1972]]) *''[[Kill Me If You Can(TV)]]'' ([[1977]]) *''[[Same Time, Next Year]]'' ([[1978]]) *''[[California Suite]]'' ([[1978]]) *''[[The Seduction of Joe Tynan]]'' ([[1979]]) (also writer) *''[[The Four Seasons (movie)]]'' ([[1981]]) (also director and writer) *''[[Sweet Liberty]]'' ([[1986]]) (also director and writer) *''[[A New Life (1988 film)|A New Life]]'' ([[1988]]) (also director and writer) *''[[Crimes and Misdemeanors]]'' ([[1989]]) *''[[Betsy's Wedding]]'' ([[1990]]) (also director and writer) *''[[Whispers in the Dark]]'' ([[1992]]) *''[[Manhattan Murder Mystery]]'' ([[1993]]) *''[[Canadian Bacon]]'' ([[1995]]) *''[[Flirting with Disaster]]'' ([[1996]]) *''[[Everyone Says I Love You]]'' ([[1996]]) *''[[Murder at 1600]]'' ([[1997]]) *''[[Mad City]]'' ([[1997]]) *''[[The Object of My Affection]]'' ([[1998]]) *''[[Keepers of the Frame]]'' ([[1999]]) (documentary) *''[[What Women Want]]'' ([[2000]]) *''[[The Aviator]]'' (2004) ==External links== *[http://www.pbs.org/saf/alan_bio2.htm Bio on ''Scientific American Frontiers''] *[http://helmi.home.pages.at/mash/english/cast/AlanAlda.html Comprehensive bio] *[http://www.military.com/Careers/Content1?file=trans_alan_alda.htm&area=Content Military Service] *[http://www.geocities.com/TelevisionCity/5576/Alda.htm GeoCities fan site page] * {{imdb name|id=0000257|name=Alan Alda}} *[http://www.npr.org/templates/rundowns/rundown.php?prgId=13&prgDate=21-Sep-05 Interview with Alda] on [[National Public Radio|NPR]]'s ''[[Fresh Air]]'' (September 21, 2005) *[http://www.alanaldabook.com/ Never Have Your Dog Stuffed] web site *[http://www.celebritypro.com/news/alan_alda Daily Alan Alda News] [[Category:1936 births|Alda, Alan]] [[Category:Actors and actresses appearing on ER|Alda, Alan]] [[Category:Actors and actresses appearing on The West Wing|Alda, Alan]] [[Category:American film actors|Alda, Alan]] [[Category:American television actors|Alda, Alan]] [[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee|Alda, Alan]]<!-- The Aviator --> [[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Alda, Alan]] [[Category:Italian-Americans|Alda, Alan]] [[Category:M*A*S*H actors|Alda, Alan]] [[Category:People from New York City|Alda, Alan]] [[Category:Roman Catholics|Alda, Alan]] [[Category:Worst Supporting Actor Razzie Nominee|Alda, Alan]] [[Category:Living people|Alda, Alan]] [[Category:United States Army officers|Alda, Alan]] [[da:Alan Alda]] [[de:Alan Alda]] [[es:Alan Alda]] [[fr:Alan Alda]] [[hu:Alda]] [[nl:Alan Alda]] [[no:Alan Alda]] [[pl:Alan Alda]] [[simple:Alan Alda]] [[sv:Alan Alda]] 770 42083877 2006-03-03T18:44:51Z Gwernol 266416 Revert to revision 42048568 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] <!-- NOTE TO EDITORS -- Remember, this is an *introductory* article to American football. It exists to give people who know little or nothing about the sport a basic understanding of the game. Information that does not fall under that description should go under [[American-football strategy]], [[American football rules]], etc. --> [[Image:Wilson American football.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The ball used in American football has a pointed [[oval]] or [[vesica piscis]] shape, and usually has a large set of stitches along one side.]] {{about|the sport|the indie rock band|[[American Football (band)]]}} '''American football''', known in the [[United States]] <!--but not Canada; what they call "football"is actually the similar (but NOT identical) sport of Canadian football--> simply as '''football''', is a competitive team [[sport]]. The object of the game is to advance the football towards the opposing team's [[end zone]] and score points. The ball can be advanced by carrying the ball, or by throwing or handing it from one teammate to the other. Points can be scored in a variety of ways, including carrying the ball over the goal line, throwing the ball to another player past the goal line or [[placekicker|kicking]] it through the goal posts. The winner is the team with the most points when the time expires. Outside of the [[United States]] and a few other countries such as [[American Samoa]], the sport is usually referred to as ''American football'' (or sometimes as [[gridiron]]) to differentiate it from other football games, especially [[football (soccer)|association football (soccer)]] and [[rugby football]]. American football evolved as a separate sport from rugby football in the late 19th century. [[Arena football]] is a variant of American football. In [[Canada]], the unqualified term "football" typically refers to [[Canadian football]], a game which is a close relative of American football but different in several respects. ==Popularity== Since the 1960s, football has surpassed [[baseball]] as the most popular [[spectator sport]] in the United States. The 32-team [[National Football League]] (NFL) is the most popular and only [[major professional sports league|major]] professional American football [[Sports league|league]]. Its championship game, the [[Super Bowl]], is watched by nearly half of US television households, and is also televised in over 150 other countries. ''[[Super Bowl Sunday]]'' has become an annual ritual in late January or early February. Football is also the most watched sport on [[television]] in the US. The NFL also operates a developmental league, [[NFL Europe]], with 6 teams based in European cities. [[Image:College_Football_CSU_AF.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A [[Colorado State University]] player runs with the ball as an [[United States Air Force Academy|Air Force Academy]] player lines up a tackle.]] <!-- Possible image copyright issue [[Image:American football tackle.jpg|thumb|250px|American football is a physically demanding sport.]] --> [[College football]] is also extremely popular throughout the U.S., especially in markets not served by an NFL team. Several college football stadiums seat more than 100,000 fans -- which regularly sell out. Even [[high school]] football games can attract five-figure crowds, especially in [[hotbed]]s like Western [[Pennsylvania]], [[Nebraska]], [[Florida]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and most especially [[Texas]], [[Ohio]], and [[California]]. The weekly autumn ritual of college and high-school football -- which includes [[marching band]]s, [[cheerleading|cheerleaders]] and parties (including the ubiquitous [[tailgate party]]) -- is an important part of the culture in much of [[small-town|smalltown America]]. It is a long-standing tradition in the United States (though not universally observed) that high school football games are played on [[Friday]], college games on [[Saturday]], and professional games on [[Sunday]] (with an additional professional game on [[Monday]] nights--see ''[[Monday Night Football]]''). It is often said of an outstanding college football player that he is likely to "be playing on Sundays one day", meaning that he is a good pro prospect. Certain fall and winter [[holiday]]s--most notably [[Thanksgiving]], [[Christmas]], and [[New Years' Day]]--have traditional football games associated with them. Football is also played recreationally by amateur club and youth teams (e.g., the [[Pop Warner]] little-league programs). There are also many "semi-pro" teams in leagues where the players are paid to play, but at a small enough salary that they generally must also hold a full-time job. Pro football is played only in the United States and in the above-mentioned NFL Europe league. The sport is popular as an amateur activity in [[Mexico]] and [[American Samoa]] and to a lesser extent in [[Japan]], [[Europe]] and [[Australia]]. A very similar sport, [[Canadian football]], is widely played in [[Canada]]. Organized football is played almost exclusively by men and boys, although a few amateur and semi-professional women's leagues have begun play in recent years. ==The rules of American football== {{See also|American football rules}} <!--This section should only be a basic tutorial. Lengthy content should go to [[American football rules]]--> The object of American football is to score more points than the opposing team within a set time limit. ===Field and players=== [[Image:AmFBfield.png|right|frame|The numbers on the field indicate the number of [[yard]]s to the nearest end zone.]] The field is often called the ''gridiron'' because the markings on the field resemble a [[Grill (cooking)|grill]]. The game is played on a rectangular field 120 [[yard]]s (110 [[metre]]s) long by 53 1/3 yards (49 metres) wide. The longer boundary lines are ''sidelines'', while the shorter boundary lines are ''end lines''. Near each end of the field is a ''goal line''; they are 100 yards apart. A scoring area called an ''[[end zone]]'' extends 10 yards beyond each goal line to each end line. ''Yard lines'' cross the field every 5 yards, and are numbered from each goal line to the 50-yard line, or midfield (similar to a typical [[rugby league]] field). Two rows of lines, known as ''hash marks'', parallel the side lines near the middle of the field. All plays start with the ball on or between the hash marks. At the back of each end zone are two ''goal posts'' (also called ''uprights'') that are 18.5 feet apart. The posts are connected by a crossbar 10 feet from the ground. Successful kicks must go above the crossbar and between the uprights. (At many fields the uprights and crossbar are attached by a curved bar to a post outside the field of play, to reduce the chance of players running into the supports.) Each team has 11 players on the field at a time. However, teams may substitute for any or all of their players between plays. As a result, players have very specialized roles, and almost all of the 53 players on an NFL team will play in any given game. Thus, teams are divided into three separate units: the [[offensive team|offense]], the [[defensive team|defense]] and the [[special teams]] (see below). In the NFL, players' [[jersey number]]s are distributed according to a strict system (e.g. quarterbacks always wear between 1-19). ===Game duration=== A standard football game consists of four 15-minute (typically 12 minutes in high school football) periods (called quarters), with an intermission (called halftime) after the second quarter. The clock stops after certain plays; therefore, a game can last considerably longer (often more than three hours in real time). If an NFL game is tied after four quarters, the teams play up to another 15 minutes. In an NFL overtime game, the first team that scores wins; if neither team scores, the game is a tie. College overtime rules are more complicated and are described at [[Overtime (sport)]]. ===Advancing the ball=== Advancing the ball in American football resembles the ''six-tackle rule'' and the ''play-the-ball'' in [[Rugby league|rugby league football]]. The team that takes possession of the ball (the '''offense''') has four attempts, called '''[[Down (football)|downs]]''', to advance the ball 10 yards towards their opponent's (the '''defense'''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s) end zone. When the offense gains 10 yards, it gets a '''first down''', or another set of four downs to gain 10 yards. If the offense fails to gain a first down (10 yards) after 4 downs, it loses possession of the ball. Except at the beginning of halves and after scores (see ''Kickoffs and free kicks'' below), the ball is always put into play by a '''[[Snap (American football)|snap]]'''. All players line up facing each other at the [[line of scrimmage]] (the position on the field where the play begins). One offensive player, the [[Center (football)|center]], then passes (or "snaps") the ball between his legs to a teammate, usually the [[quarterback]]. Players can then advance the ball in two ways: * By running with the ball, also known as '''[[Rush (football)|rushing]]'''. One ball-carrier can hand the ball to another; this is known as a '''handoff'''. * By throwing the ball to a teammate, known as '''passing'''. The forward pass is a key factor distinguishing American and Canadian football from other football sports. The offense can throw the ball forward only once on a play and only from behind the line of scrimmage. The ball can be thrown sideways or backwards at any time. This type of pass is known as a '''[[Lateral pass|lateral]]''' and is much rarer in American football than in rugby league or rugby union, where a backwards pass is mandatory. A play or down ends, and the ball becomes dead, after any of the following: * The player with the ball is forced to the ground or has his forward progress halted by members of the other team (as determined by an official). * A forward pass flies out of bounds or touches the ground before it is caught. This is known as an '''[[incomplete pass]]'''. The ball is returned to the original line of scrimmage for the next down. * The ball or the player with the ball goes beyond the dimensions of the field ('''out of bounds'''). * A team scores. * A certain penalty is committed (such as false start) that causes the play to be blown dead and replayed. [[Official (American football)|Officials]] blow a whistle to notify all players that the play is over. At all times, players and fans must be aware of the sequence of downs and the distance to a new first down. When a team has a first down, the scoreboard or television screen flashes "1st and 10" — that is, first down and 10 yards to go. If the team gains three yards on the first play, for example, the next down will be "2nd and 7." ===Changes of possession=== The offense maintains possession of the ball unless one of the following things happens: * The team fails to get a first down, that is, move the ball forward at least 10 yards in four downs. The defensive team takes over the ball at the spot where the play ends. A change of possession in this manner is commonly called a '''turnover on downs'''. * The offense scores a touchdown or field goal. The team that scored then kicks off the ball to the other team. (See Scoring and Kickoffs below.) * The offense punts the ball to the defense. A '''[[punt (football)|punt]]''' is a kick in which a player drops the ball and kicks it before it hits the ground. Punts are nearly always made on fourth down, when the offensive team does not want to risk giving up the ball to the other team at its current spot on the field (through a failed attempt to make a first down) and feels it is too far from the other team's goal posts to kick a field goal. * A defensive player catches a forward pass. This is called an '''[[interception]]''', and the player who makes the interception can run with the ball until tackled, forced out of bounds, or scores. After the intercepting player is tackled or forced out of bounds, his team's offensive unit returns to the field and takes over at his last position. * An offensive player drops the ball (a '''[[fumble]]''') and a defensive player picks it up. As with interceptions, a player recovering a fumble can run with the ball until tackled or forced out of bounds. Lost fumbles and interceptions are together known as '''turnovers'''. * The offensive team misses a field goal attempt. The defensive team gets the ball at the spot where the previous play began (or, in the NFL, at the spot of the kick). If the unsuccessful kick was attempted from within 20 yards of the end zone, the other team gets the ball at its own 20-yard line (that is, 20 yards from the end zone). * An offensive player is tackled, forced out of bounds, or commits certain penalties in his own end zone. This rare occurrence is called a '''[[Safety (football)|safety]]'''. (See ''Scoring'' below.) ===Scoring=== A team scores points by the following plays: * A '''[[touchdown]]''' (TD) is worth 6 points. A touchdown is scored when a player runs the ball into or catches a pass in his opponent's end zone. ** After a touchdown, the scoring team attempts a '''conversion'''. The ball is placed at the other team's 3-yard-line (the 2-yard-line in the NFL). The team can attempt to kick it over the crossbar and through the goal posts in the manner of a field goal for 1 point (an '''[[extra point]]'''), or run or pass it into the end zone in the manner of a touchdown for 2 points (a '''[[two-point conversion]]'''). In [[collegiate]] and [[professional]] leagues, the extra point is usually preferred; its success rate is 94% in the [[NFL]] and 93.8% in the [[NCAA]], compared to 43% in the [[NFL]] and 43.5% in the [[NCAA]] for two-point conversions. If the defense forces a turnover on an attempted conversion and runs the ball back to their opponent's endzone, they are awarded with 2 points (does not apply in the NFL). * A '''[[field goal]]''' (FG) is worth 3 points, and it is scored by kicking the ball over the crossbar and through the goal posts. Field goals may be placekicked (kicked when the ball is held vertically against the ground by a teammate) or drop-kicked. A field goal is usually attempted on fourth down instead of a punt when the ball is close to the goal line, or, when there is little or no time left to otherwise score. * A '''[[Safety (football)|safety]]''' is worth 2 points. A safety is scored by the ''defense'' when the offensive player in possession of the ball is forced back into his own end zone and is tackled there, or fumbles the ball out of the end zone. Certain penalties by the offense occurring in the end zone also result in a safety. ===Kickoffs and free kicks=== Each half begins with a [[Kickoff (American football)|kickoff]]. Teams also kick off after scoring touchdowns and field goals. The ball is kicked from a kicking tee, which is made from one's own 30-yard line in the NFL and from the 35-yard line in college football. The other team's kick returner tries to catch the ball and advance it as far as possible. Where he is stopped is the point where the offense will begin its '''drive''', or series of offensive plays. If a kick returner does not want to run with the ball, he has the option to signal for a "fair catch" by waving his hands in the air before the catch. He will then be allowed to catch the ball and kneel it down on the field without being tackled. If the kick returner catches the ball in his own end zone, he can either run with the ball, or elect for a '''[[touchback]]''' by kneeling in the end zone. The receiving team can then start its offensive drive from its own 20-yard line. A touchback can also occur when the kick goes out of the end zone. Punts and turnovers in the end zone can also end in touchbacks. If a kickoff goes out of bounds over the sidelines without being interfered by the receiving team, the ball will be placed 30 yards from the spot of the kickoff (traditionally at the receiving team's 40-yard line in the NFL or the 35-yard line in college football). After safeties, there is a '''[[Safety (American football)#free kick|free kick]]''' instead of a kickoff. A free kick is made from a team's own 20-yard-line and can be punted or placekicked. ===Penalties=== Rule violations are punished with '''penalties'''. Most penalties result in moving the football either towards the endzone in the case of a defensive penalty, or away from the endzone in the case of an offensive penalty. Some defensive penalties give the offense an automatic first down. In addition, if a penalty gives the offensive team enough yardage to gain a first down, the first down is automatically given. If a penalty occurs during a play, an official throws a yellow flag near the spot of the foul. When the play is over, the team that did not commit the penalty has the option of taking either the penalty or the result of the play. For example, say a defensive player commits an offsides penalty on first down by passing the line of scrimmage before the snap, and the offense gains eight yards on the play. The team with the ball has the option of taking the penalty and repeat the first down with five yards to go, or declining the penalty and scrimmaging with 2nd and 2. ====Some common penalties==== * '''False start''': A player on the offense, other than a back moving parallel to the line of scrimmage, moves just prior to the snap. Five yards. * '''Offsides''': A player is on the wrong side of the ball at the start of a play. Five yards. Similar fouls: Touching an opponent before the snap is '''encroachment'''; lining up alongside the football instead of behind it is a '''neutral zone infraction'''. * '''Holding''': A blocker unfairly impedes a would-be tackler or pass receiver, by grabbing the player's jersey, hooking, or tackling. When commited by the offense, or by either team on a change of possession, the penalty is ten yards. When committed by the defense, the penalty is five yards and an automatic first down is awarded to the offense. If the penalty occurred beyond the line of scrimmage, the penalty would be enforced from the spot of the foul. * '''Pass interference''': After a pass is launched into the air, a defender pushes, hooks, grabs, or knocks down a would-be pass receiver, or if the receiver does the same to the defender to prevent an interception. First down at the spot of the foul if against the defense (15 yards from the previous spot in college football), or ten yards from the previous spot if against the offense. Similar penalties before a pass are called as '''holding''' or '''illegal contact'''. * '''Facemask''': a player places his hand on an opponent's facemask during a play. Five yards, or fifteen (a '''personal foul''') if the player hooks his fingers into the facemask or pulls on it. * '''Roughing the passer/kicker''': A player places a hard hit on a passer long enough after a pass has been thrown to consider the contact avoidable, or places a hard hit on a punter or place kicker. Fifteen yards and automatic first down. * '''Running into the kicker''': A lighter contact on a kicker, especially after the kick has been made. Five yards. * '''Intentional grounding''': The passer throws a forward pass not near any eligible receiver, without first leaving the area behind where the blocking linemen were standing before the snap (the "pocket"), or the passer throws a forward pass outside of the pocket which does not reach the original '''line of scrimmage''' and is not near any eligible receiver. Ten yards plus loss of down, except if the penalty occurred in the end zone, then it is ruled a safety, and the defense is awarded 2 points. In college football and high school football, the defense is also credited with a quarterback sack. Note that spiking the ball to stop the clock is exempt from this. * '''Ineligible receiver downfield''': On every play the offense must have 7 players on the line of scrimmage, the player furthest from the ball on each side are eligible receivers; the interior five players are considered ineligible to receive passes. This penalty is called if one of the 5 interior players is more than five yards past the line of scrimmage during a forward pass. * '''Dead ball personal foul''': After the play is blown dead, a player tackles or makes rough contact with a player on the other team. Fifteen yards, automatic first down if on defense. * '''Unnecessary roughness''': A catch-all for rough play that doesn't merit its own foul. An example is an avoidable late hit on a ball carrier who has run out of bounds. Fifteen yards. * '''Unsportsmanlike conduct''': Another catch-all call, commonly used for taunting, excessive celebration after a touchdown, and certain banned forms of pantomime (like slashing the throat). Fifteen yards. ==The players== {{Main|American football positions}} As noted above, most football players have highly specialized roles. At the college and NFL levels, most play only offense or only defense. ===Offense=== * The '''[[offensive line]]''' consists of five players whose job is to protect the passer and clear the way for runners by blocking members of the defense. Except for the center, offensive linemen generally do not handle the ball. * The '''[[quarterback]]''' receives the ball on most plays. He then hands or tosses it to a running back, throws it to a receiver or runs with it himself. *'''[[Running back]]s''' line up behind or beside the QB and specialize in rushing with the ball. They also block, catch passes and, on rare occasions, pass the ball to others. *'''[[Wide receiver]]s''' line up near the sidelines. They specialize in catching passes. *'''[[Tight end]]s''' line up outside the offensive line. They can either play like wide receivers (try to catch passes) or like offensive linemen (protect the QB or create spaces for runners). Not all of these types of players will be in on every offensive play. Teams can vary the number of wide receivers, tight ends and running backs on the field at one time. ===Defense=== * The '''[[defensive line]]''' consists of three to five players who line up across from the offensive line. They try to tackle the running backs before they can gain yardage or the quarterback before he can throw a pass. * At least three players line up as '''[[defensive back]]s'''. They cover the receivers and try to stop pass completions. They occasionally rush the quarterback. * The other players on the defense are known as '''[[linebacker]]s'''. They line up between the defensive line and backs and may either rush the quarterback or cover potential receivers. ===Special teams=== The units of players who handle kicking plays are known as '''[[special teams]]'''. Special-teams feature players that include the '''[[punter (football position)|punter]]''', who handles punts, and the '''[[placekicker]]''' or '''kicker''', who kicks off and attempts field goals and extra points. ==Basic football strategy== {{Main|American football strategy}} To many fans, the chief draw of football is the chess game that goes on between the two coaching staffs. Each team has a '''playbook''' of dozens to hundreds of plays. Plays are the directions for what the players should do on a down. Some plays are very safe; they are very likely to get a few yards, but not much more than that. Other plays have the potential for long gains but a greater risk of a loss of yardage or a turnover. Generally speaking, rushing plays are less risky than passing plays. However, there are relatively safe passing plays and risky running plays. To fool the other team, there are passing plays designed to look like running plays and vice versa. There are many trick or gadget plays, such as when a team lines up like it is going to kick and then tries to run or pass for a first down. Such high-risk plays are a great thrill to the fans when they work. However, they can spell disaster if the opposing team realizes the deception and acts accordingly. It has been said that football is the closest sport that strategically resembles real war, which may explain why it is by far the most popular sport in the American military. In fact, the [[United States Military Academy]], the [[United States Naval Academy]], and the [[United States Air Force Academy]] each field football teams that participate in [[Division I-A]] of the [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]]. Army and Navy have a particularly historic [[Army-Navy Game|rivalry]]. ==A physical game== American football is a collision sport. To stop the offense from advancing the ball, the defense must tackle the player with the ball by knocking him down. As such, defensive players must use some form of physical contact to bring the ball-carrier to the ground, within certain rules and guidelines. Tacklers cannot kick, punch or trip the runner. They also cannot grab the face mask of the runner's helmet, lead into a tackle with their own helmet, or lift the ball carrier up off his feet and drop him. Despite these and other rules regarding unnecessary roughness, most other forms of tackling are legal. Blockers and defenders trying to evade them also have wide leeway in trying to force their opponents out of the way. Quarterbacks are regularly hit by defenders coming on full speed from outside the quarterback's field of vision. The high level of physical contact in football makes it more dangerous than other major American team sports. To compensate for this, players must wear a good deal of special protective equipment, such as a padded plastic [[football helmet|helmet]], [[shoulder pads]], hip pads and knee pads. These protective "paddings" were introduced decades ago and improved ever since to help minimize lasting injury to players. Despite protective equipment and rule changes to emphasize safety, injuries remain very common in football, due to its physical nature. Twenty-five football players, mostly high schoolers, died from injuries directly related to football from 2000-2004, according to the National Center for Catastrophic Sport Injury Research. [[concussion|Concussions]] are common, with an estimated 62,000 suffered every year among high school players according to the Brain Injury Association of Arizona. [http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=104&STORY=/www/story/08-23-2005/0004093186&EDATE=]. It is common to see injuries in the game, and deaths are not unheard of. The game is particularly risky when played by amateurs without proper gear, such as is common amongst Americans in backyards and parks across the country. Some have criticized American football as a violent sport. American football is indeed quite physical in comparison to sports like [[basketball]] and [[soccer]] as well as other major American team sports. Tackle football is often banned in American schoolyards in favor of [[touch football]], which uses two-hand touching instead of tackling; or [[flag football]] in which a player is "tackled" when an opponent pulls a flag off a belt attached to the player's waist. School [[physical education]] classes often use the "two-hand touch" version of the game, leaving the tackles to the school's official after-school sports program which can provide the appropriate gear and supervision. The level of physical aggression and risk of injury has also made football less appealing to females, as they generally lack the muscle and body mass to compete without serious risk. The tackle nature of football also tends to favor the largest and strongest players, along with the fastest. The average weight of players in the NFL has increased in recent years. All these factors have brought the sport into controversy in the past few decades, joining the group of other "violent" and thus controversial sports such as [[dodgeball]], [[wrestling]], [[hockey]], and [[boxing]]. Critics argue that these sports emphasize size, physical strength, and brute force, and breed aggression and unhealthy competitive attitudes in children. Others argue that such sports teach sportsmanship and teamwork, and though [[contact sports]] are all violent to some degree, they always emphasize skill and strategy over mere belligerence. ==Development of the game== {{Details|History of American football}} Both American football and soccer have their origins in [[football|varieties of football]] played in the [[United Kingdom]] in the mid-19th century, and American football is directly descended from [[rugby football]]. Rugby was first introduced to North America in [[Canada]], brought by the [[British Army]] garrison in [[Montreal]] which played a series of games with [[McGill University]]. Both Canadian and American football evolved from this point. For an in-depth overview of the differences and similarities of [[Canadian football]] and American football see: [[Comparison of Canadian and American football]] American colleges spearheaded the growth of football. The [http://www.scarletknights.com/football/history/first_game.htm first inter-collegiate football game] was played between Rutgers and Princeton Universities on November 6, 1869. The game was won by Rutgers (6-4) although "The game, which bore little resemblance to its modern-day counterpart, was played with two teams of 25 men each under rugby-like rules, but like modern football, it was “replete with surprise, strategy, prodigies of determination, and physical prowess,” to use the words of one of the Rutgers players." - [http://www.scarletknights.com/football/history/first_game.htm Rutgers Football] American football in its current form grew out of a series of three games between [[Harvard University]] and [[McGill University]] of [[Montreal]] in 1874. McGill played [[rugby football]] while Harvard played the [[Boston Game]], which was closer to soccer. As often happened in those days of far from universal rules, the teams alternated rules so that both would have a fair chance. The Harvard players liked having the opportunity to run with the ball, and in 1875 persuaded [[Yale University]] to adopt rugby rules for their annual game. In 1876 Yale, Harvard, [[Princeton University|Princeton]], and [[Columbia University|Columbia]] formed the [[Intercollegiate Football Association]], which used the rugby code, except for a slight difference in scoring. In 1880 [[Walter Camp]] introduced the scrimmage in place of the rugby [[Scrum (rugby)|scrum]]. In 1882 the system of downs was introduced to thwart Princeton's and Yale's strategy of controlling the ball without trying to score. In 1883 the number of players was reduced, at Camp's urging, to eleven, and Camp introduced the soon standard arrangement of a seven-man offensive line with a quarterback, two halfbacks, and a fullback. On [[September 3]], [[1895]] the first professional football game was played, in [[Latrobe, Pennsylvania]], between the Latrobe [[YMCA]] and the Jeannette Athletic Club. (Latrobe won the contest 12-0.). By the 1890s interlocking offensive formations such as the flying wedge and the practice of teammates physically dragging ball-carrying players forward had made the game extremely dangerous. Despite restrictions on the flying wedge and other precautions, in 1905 eighteen players were killed in games. President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] informed the universities that the game must be made safer. To force them to respond to his concerns, he threatened to pressure Congress to make playing football a federal crime. In 1906, two rival organizing bodies, the [[Intercollegiate Rules Committee]] and the [[Intercollegiate Athletic Association]], met in New York; eventually they agreed on several new rules intended to make the game safer, among them the addition of a neutral zone between the scrimmage lines and a requirement that at least six players from each team line up on them. The most far-reaching innovation they considered, though, was the legalization of the forward pass. This was very controversial at the time, much derided by purists. As an alternative means of opening out the play, Walter Camp would have preferred widening the field; but representatives from Harvard pointed to recently constructed [[Harvard Stadium]], which could not be widened, and the forward pass was adopted; it has come to shape the whole history of American football, as opposed to its cousins around the world. In 1910, after further deaths, interlocking formations were finally outlawed; and in 1912 the field was changed to its current size, the value of a touchdown increased to 6 points, and a fourth down added to each possession. The game had achieved its modern form. ==Problems in football== {{Main|Issues in American Football}} Injuries are more common in American football than in many other sports, although rule changes made in the past 90 years (for instance, the elimination of "[[Horse-collar tackle|horse-collar tackles]]") have gradually lowered the rates of injuries. In addition, protective equipment has become better - for example, the optional leather helmets introduced during the 1890s have been replaced (in several stages) by required high-tech padded plastic helmets with bars protecting the face. More recently, the use of steroids and the extent thereof has become an object of debate in professional, college, and even high school football leagues. Another problem with football is that it is an expensive sport. The specialized helmets, uniforms, and pads can cost hundreds of dollars. There is a widespread perception that football teams based in schools and public recreational leagues consume far more than their fair share of the sports budget, although sales of tickets to college (and to some extent high school) football games often make it a revenue-producing sport. [[Image:DSCN4567_clevelandbrownsstadium_e2.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Cleveland Browns Stadium]] in [[Cleveland, Ohio]], home of the [[Cleveland Browns]].]] ==Professional, college, and other leagues== Football is played at a number of levels in the United States. These include the following: * [[National Football League]] (NFL) - the top-level men's professional league * [[NFL Europe]] - semi-professional league in [[Europe]] * [[College football]] - played at many U.S. colleges * [[American Football Association]] National organization for the advancement and promotion of semi-pro/minor league football teams and leagues in the United States. * [[North American Football League]] - Amateur minor league with more than 100 member organizations since 1996 * [[Women's American football]] - since 2000, there has been a surge of women's professional leagues. * High school football - played at most U.S. High Schools * [[Pop Warner Little Scholars|Pop Warner]] or youth football - involves younger children who are too young to play high school, generally in middle school. * [[Sprint football]] - players must weigh no more than 172 pounds American football is also played in many nations around the world. Some of the organizations/leagues that play American football are: * [[Mexican College Football]] League or [[ONEFA]] - played by many Mexican colleges, with essentially NCAA rules * [[British Collegiate American Football League]] (BCAFL) - Fast-growing college football league in the UK * [[British American Football League]] (BAFL)-Higher League of American Football in the UK * [[European Federation of American Football]] (www.efaf.info) European organization that crowns its champion in the [[Euro Bowl]] * [[German Football League]] * [[Gridiron Australia]] - national body of several state-level leagues * [[International Federation of American Football]] International governing body for American football with 39 member associations from North America, Europe, Asia and Oceania. The IFAF also overseas the World Championship of American Football. * [[Okinawan Football League]] - Various football teams made up of U.S. servicemembers and one from Ryuku University Other kinds of football with quite different rules: * [[Canadian Football League]] (CFL) - men's professional league based in [[Canada]], played using different rules known as [[Canadian football]] * [[Arena Football League]] - mid-level men's professional league. Played in indoor stadiums, hence the name "arena" football. One of the nation's fastest-growing sports. * [[Nine-man football]], [[Eight-man football]], and [[Six-man football]] - variations of high school football, usually played in sparsely populated areas * Amateur and youth league football * [[Flag football]] and [[Touch football (American)|Touch football]] - non-tackle; almost exclusively amateur The descriptions in this article are based primarily on the current rules of the [[National Football League]] (NFL, 1920-present). Differences with college rules will be noted. Professional, college, high school, and amateur rules are similar. Professional leagues that no longer exist: * [[World Football League]] (WFL, 1974-75) * [[United States Football League]] (USFL, 1983-1985) * [[XFL]] (XFL, 2001) * [[All-America Football Conference]] (AAFC, 1946-1949) (2 teams are now in the NFL) * [[World League of American Football]] (WLAF, 1991-1993 &mdash; now [[NFL Europe]]), * [[American Football League]]s (AFL), four separate ones: I:1926, II: 1937-38, III: 1940-1941 and IV: 1960-1969). The fourth AFL (1960-1969) merged with the NFL in 1970 and now exists (mostly) as the [[American Football Conference|AFC]] with several new teams. The old NFL appeared as the [[National Football Conference|NFC]]. Fore more information: [[List of leagues of American football]] ==References== * {{cite web | url=http://www.nfl.com/fans/ | title=Digest of Rules | publisher= National Football League | accessdate=December 28 | accessyear=2005 }} * {{cite web | url=http://www.nfl.com/history | title=History and the basics | publisher=National Football League | accessdate=December 28 | accessyear=2005 }} * {{cite web | url=http://www.thesportjournal.org/2005Journal/Vol8-No4/starkey.asp | title=Playing with the Percentages When Trailing by Two Touchdowns | publisher=Montana State University | accessdate=December 24 | accessyear=2005 }} ==See also== *[[American football strategy]] *[[National Women's Football Association]] *[[Canadian Football League]] *[[German Football League]] *[[Glossary of American football| American football glossary]] *[[List of American football players]] *[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]] *[[List of defunct sports leagues]] *[[Fantasy Football]] *[[Gridiron football]] ==External links== *The [http://www.nfl.com/ National Football League (NFL)] - the top professional league *[http://www.players.com NFL Players Association] *NCAA [http://www2.ncaa.org/media_and_events/ncaa_publications/playing_rules/ Playing Rules] (complete college football rules are available as a PDF file) *[http://www.afca.org American Football Coaches Association] *[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/S?ammem/papr:@FILREQ(@field(TITLE+@od1(Chicago-Michigan+football+game++))+@FIELD(COLLID+workleis)) Movie of 1903 football game between the University of Chicago and the University of Michigan] *[http://www.nfl.com/history/chronology/ Chronology of many events in the NFL] *[http://www.iwflsports.com The Women's League] *[http://www.unc.edu/depts/nccsi/SurveyofFootballInjuries.htm Annual Survey of Football Injury Research] *[http://www.playfootball.com/footballfacts/basics.html Football Basics] *[http://football.about.com/od/football101/ Football FAQ] *[http://football-plays-and-drills.com/encyclopedia Football Plays, Drills & Fundamentals] - Resource for coaches & players. [[Category:American football| ]] [[Category:Team sports]] {{Link FA|pt}} [[bg:Американски футбол]] [[ca:Futbol americà]] [[cs:Americký fotbal]] [[da:Amerikansk fodbold]] [[de:American Football]] [[es:Fútbol americano]] [[eo:Usona piedpilko]] [[fr:Football américain]] [[ko:미식축구]] [[it:Football americano]] [[he:פוטבול]] [[lv:Amerikāņu futbols]] [[nl:American football]] [[ja:アメリカンフットボール]] [[no:Amerikansk fotball]] [[pl:Futbol amerykański]] [[pt:Futebol americano]] [[sh:Američki fudbal]] [[simple:American football]] [[sk:Americký futbal]] [[sr:Амерички фудбал]] [[fi:Amerikkalainen jalkapallo]] [[sv:Amerikansk fotboll]] [[th:อเมริกันฟุตบอล]] [[zh:美式橄欖球]] 771 41962067 2006-03-02T22:26:17Z TexasAndroid 271376 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.196.45.115|69.196.45.115]] ([[User talk:69.196.45.115|talk]]) to last version by Misza13 {{Warbox| conflict=American Revolutionary War |campaign= |image=[[Image:Sprit of '76.2.jpeg|200px]] |caption= |date=1775–1783 |place=[[North America]] |result=[[Treaty of Paris (1783)]] |combatant1=[[Patriot (American Revolution)|American Revolutionaries]], [[France]], [[Netherlands]], [[Spain]], allies |combatant2=[[British Empire]], allies |commander1=[[George Washington]]<br>[[Comte de Rochambeau|Comte&nbsp;de&nbsp;Rochambeau]]<br>[[Nathanael Greene]] |commander2=[[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|William Howe]]<br>[[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Henry Clinton]]<br>[[Charles Cornwallis|Charles&nbsp;Cornwallis]] |}} The '''American Revolutionary War''' (1775–1783), also known as the '''American War of Independence''', was the military component of the [[American Revolution]]. It was fought primarily between [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] and revolutionaries within [[13 colonies|thirteen British colonies]] in [[North America]], who proclaimed themselves as the [[United States|United States of America]] early in the war. The war began largely as a colonial revolt against the [[mercantilism|economic policies]] of the [[British Empire]], and eventually widened far beyond [[British North America]], with [[France]], [[Spain]], and the [[Netherlands]] entering the war against Great Britain. Additionally, many [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] fought on both sides of the conflict. Throughout the war, the British were able to use their naval superiority to capture and occupy coastal cities, but control of the countryside (where most of the population lived) largely eluded them. French involvement proved decisive, with a naval [[Battle of the Chesapeake|victory in the Chesapeake]] leading to the surrender of a British army at the [[Battle of Yorktown (1781)|Battle of Yorktown]] in 1781. The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] in 1783 recognized the independence of the [[United States|United States of America]]. The terms ''American Revolutionary War'' and ''American Revolution'' are often used interchangeably, though the American Revolution included political and social developments before and after the war itself. This article refers solely to the military campaign; for a broader perspective, including the origins and aftermath of the war, see the article on the [[American Revolution]]. == Combatants == ===Choosing sides=== Colonists were divided over which side to support in the war; in some areas, the struggle was a [[civil war]]. The [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Revolutionaries]] (also known as Americans or Patriots) had the support of about 40 to 45 percent of the colonial population. About 15 to 20 percent of the population supported the British Crown during the war, and were known as [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists (or Tories)]]. Loyalists fielded perhaps 50,000 men during the war years in support of the British Empire. After the war, some 70,000 Loyalists departed, most going to [[Canada]], Great Britain, or to British colonies in the [[Caribbean]].{{ref|loyalists}} When the war began, the Americans did not have a professional [[armed force|army]] (also known as a "[[standing army]]"). Each colony had traditionally provided for its own defenses through the use of local [[militia]]. Militiamen served for only a few weeks or months at a time, were generally reluctant to go very far from home, and would often come and go as they saw fit. Militia typically lacked the training and discipline of regular troops, but could be effective when an emergency energized them. Seeking to coordinate military efforts, the [[Continental Congress]] established (on paper) a regular army—the [[Continental Army]]—in June 1775, and appointed [[George Washington]] as [[commander-in-chief]]. The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress, and Washington reluctantly augmented the regular troops with militia throughout the war. Although as many as 250,000 men may have served as regulars or as militiamen for the Revolutionary cause in the eight years of the war, there were never more than 90,000 total men under arms for the Americans in any given year. Armies in North America were small by European standards of the era; the greatest number of men that Washington personally commanded in the field at any one time was fewer than 17,000.{{ref|continental}} ===European nations=== [[Image:Us unabhaengigkeitskrieg.jpg|thumb|right|300px|German troops serving with the British in North America. (C Ziegler after Conrad Gessner, 1799)]] Early in 1775, the British army consisted of about 36,000 men worldwide, but wartime [[recruitment]] steadily increased this number. Additionally, over the course of the war the British hired about 30,000 [[Ethnic German|German]] [[mercenaries]], popularly known in the colonies as "[[Hessians]]" because many of them came from [[Hesse-Kassel]]. Germans would make up about one-third of the British troop strength in North America. By 1779, the number of British and German troops stationed in North America was over 60,000, though these were spread from [[Canada]] to [[Florida]].{{ref|British}} [[France]], the [[Netherlands]] and [[Spain]] entered the war against Great Britain in an attempt to dilute Britain's emerging [[superpower]] status. Early on, all three countries quietly provided financial assistance to the American rebels. [[France in the American Revolutionary War|France officially entered the war]] in 1778 and soon sent troops, ships, and military equipment to fight against the British for the remainder of the war. Spain entered the war in 1779, officially as an ally of France but not the United States&mdash;Spain was not keen on encouraging similar rebellions in [[Spanish Empire|her own empire]]. The Netherlands entered the war late in 1780, but was soon overwhelmed by the British. ===Blacks and Native Americans=== [[African-Americans]], [[Slavery in the United States|slaves]] and [[free black]]s, served on both sides during the war. Black soldiers served in northern militias from the outset, but this was forbidden in the South, where slaveowners feared arming slaves. [[John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore|Lord Dunmore]], the Royal Governor of [[Virginia]], issued an emancipation proclamation in November 1775, promising freedom to runaway slaves who fought for the British; [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Sir Henry Clinton]] issued a similar edict in New York in 1779. Tens of thousands of slaves escaped to the British lines, although possibly as few as 1,000 served under arms. Many of the rest served as orderlies, mechanics, laborers, servants, scouts and guides, although more than half died in smallpox epidemics that swept the British forces, and a number were driven out of the British lines when food ran low. Despite Dunmore's promises, the majority were not given their freedom.{{ref|black_loyalists}} In response, and because of manpower shortages, Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776. All-black units were formed in [[Rhode Island]] and [[Massachusetts]]; many were slaves promised freedom for serving in lieu of their masters. Another all-black unit came from [[Haiti]] with French forces. At least 5,000 black soldiers fought for the Patriot cause.{{ref|black_patriots}} Most [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian]] communities east of the [[Mississippi River]] were affected by the war, many divided over the question of which side to support. Most Native Americans who joined the fight fought against the United States, since native lands were threatened by expanding American settlement. An estimated 13,000 warriors fought on the British side; the largest group, the [[Iroquois Confederacy]], fielded about 1,500 warriors against the Americans.{{ref|warriors}} == War in the North == === Massachusetts, 1774 to 1776 === [[Image:American Revolution Campaigns 1775 to 1781.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Map of campaigns in the Revolutionary War]] In 1774, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British parliament]] effectively [[Massachusetts Government Act|abolished the provincial government]] of [[Massachusetts]]. [[Lieutenant General]] [[Thomas Gage]], already the [[commander-in-chief]] of British troops in North America, was also appointed governor of Massachusetts and was instructed by [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George's]] government to enforce royal authority in the troublesome colony. However, popular resistance compelled the newly appointed royal officials in Massachusetts to resign or to seek refuge in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]. Gage commanded four [[regiment]]s of British regulars (about 4,000 men) from his headquarters in Boston, but the countryside was in the hands of the Revolutionaries. On the night of [[April 18]] [[1775]], General Gage sent 900 men to seize [[munition]]s stored by the colonial militia at [[Concord, Massachusetts]]. Several riders—including [[Paul Revere]]—alerted the countryside, and when the British troops entered [[Lexington, Massachusetts|Lexington]] on the morning of April 19, they found 75 [[Minutemen (militia)|minutemen]] formed up on the village common. Shots were exchanged, and the British moved on to Concord, where there was more fighting. By the time the "redcoats" (as the British soldiers were called) began the return march, several thousand militiamen had gathered along the road. A running fight ensued, and the British detachment suffered heavily. With the [[Battle of Lexington and Concord]]—the "[[shot heard 'round the world]]"—the war had begun. Afterwards, thousands of militiamen converged on Boston, [[siege of Boston|bottling up the British]] in the city. Late in May, Gage received by sea about 4,500 reinforcements and a trio of generals who would play a vital role in the war: [[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|William Howe]], [[John Burgoyne]], and [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Henry Clinton]]. They formulated a plan to break out of the city. On [[June 17]], [[1775]], British forces under General Howe seized the Charleston peninsula at the [[Battle of Bunker Hill]]. The battle was technically a British victory, but losses were so heavy that the attack was not followed up. Thus the [[siege]] was not broken, and General Gage was soon replaced by General Howe as the British commander-in-chief. In July 1775, newly appointed General Washington arrived outside Boston to take charge of the colonial forces. The standoff continued throughout the fall and winter. In early March 1776, heavy [[cannon]]s that had been [[Battle of Ticonderoga (1775)|captured by the Revolutionaries]] at [[Fort Ticonderoga]] were moved to Boston, a difficult feat engineered by [[Henry Knox]]. When the guns were placed on [[Dorchester Heights]], overlooking the British positions, Howe's situation became untenable. The British [[Evacuation Day|evacuated]] the city on [[March 17]], [[1776]] and sailed for temporary refuge in [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax, Nova Scotia]]. The local militia dispersed and, in April, Washington took most of the Continental Army to fortify [[New York City]]. === Canada, 1775 to 1776 === During the long standoff at Boston, the Continental Congress sought a way to seize the initiative elsewhere. Congress had initially invited [[French-Canadian]]s to join them as the fourteenth colony, but when that failed to happen, an [[Invasion of Canada (1775)|invasion of Canada]] was authorized in an attempt to drive the British from the primarily [[francophone]] colony of Quebec (comprising present-day [[Quebec]] and [[Ontario]]). Two expeditions were undertaken. On [[September 16]], [[1775]], Brigadier General [[Richard Montgomery]] marched north from Fort Ticonderoga with about 1,700 militiamen, capturing [[Montreal]] on November 13. General [[Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester|Guy Carleton]], the governor of Canada, escaped to [[Quebec City|Quebec City]]. [[Arnold Expedition|The second expedition]], led by Colonel [[Benedict Arnold]], set out from [[Fort Western]] (present day [[Maine]]) on September 25. The expedition was a logistical nightmare, and many men succumbed to [[smallpox]]. By the time Arnold reached Quebec City in early November, he had but 600 of his original 1,100 men. Nevertheless, Arnold demanded the surrender of the city, to no avail. Montgomery joined Arnold, and they [[Battle of Quebec (1775)|attacked Quebec City]] on December 31, but were soundly defeated by Carleton. Montgomery was killed, Arnold was wounded, and many men were taken prisoner. The Americans held on outside Quebec City until the spring of 1776, and then withdrew. Another attempt was made by the Revolutionaries to push back towards Quebec, but failed at [[Battle of Trois-Rivières|Trois-Rivières]] on [[June 8]], [[1776]]. Carleton then launched his own invasion, and defeated Arnold in the [[Battle of Valcour Island]] in October. Arnold fell back to Fort Ticonderoga, where the invasion of Canada had begun. The invasion of Canada ended as an embarrassing disaster for the Revolutionaries, but Arnold's improvised navy on Lake Champlain delayed the fateful British counter thrust (the [[Saratoga Campaign]]) until 1777. === New York and New Jersey, 1776 to 1777 === Having withdrawn from Boston, the British now focused on [[New York Campaign|capturing New York City]]. General Howe, with the services of his brother, [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Admiral Lord Howe]], began amassing troops on [[Staten Island]] in July 1776. General Washington, with a smaller army of about 20,000 men, unwittingly violated a cardinal rule of warfare, and divided his troops about equally between [[Long Island]] and [[Manhattan]], thus allowing the Howes to engage only one half of the Continental Army at a time. In late August, the Howes transported about 22,000 men (including 9,000 "Hessians") to Long Island. In the [[Battle of Long Island]] on [[August 27]], [[1776]], the British expertly executed a surprise flanking maneuver, driving the Revolutionaries back to the Brooklyn Heights fortifications. General Howe then laid siege to the works, but Washington skillfully managed a nighttime evacuation to Manhattan. Having taken Long Island, the Howes moved to seize Manhattan. On September 15, General Howe [[Landing at Kip's Bay|landed about 12,000 men]] on lower Manhattan, quickly taking control of New York City. The Revolutionaries withdrew to Harlem Heights, where they [[Battle of Harlem Heights|skirmished the next day]], but held their ground. When Howe moved to [[encirclement|encircle]] Washington's army in October, the Revolutionaries again fell back, and a [[Battle of White Plains|battle at White Plains]] was fought on [[October 28]], [[1776]]. Once more Washington retreated, but Howe, instead of aggressively pursuing the withdrawal, returned to Manhattan and captured [[Fort Washington]] in mid November, taking almost 3,000 prisoners. Four days later, [[Fort Lee, New Jersey|Fort Lee]], across the [[Hudson River]] from Fort Washington, was also taken. [[Image:Washington Crossing the Delaware.png|thumb|right|300px|[[Emanuel Leutze]]'s 1851 painting ''[[Washington Crossing the Delaware]]'' is an [[icon]]ic image of [[American history]].]] [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|General Lord Cornwallis]] continued to chase Washington's army through [[New Jersey]], until the Revolutionaries withdrew across the [[Delaware River]] into [[Pennsylvania]] in early December. With the campaign at an apparent conclusion for the season, the British entered winter quarters. Although Howe had missed several opportunities to crush the diminishing rebel army, he had killed or captured over 5,000 Americans. He controlled much of New York and New Jersey, and was in a good position to resume operations in the spring, with the rebel capital of [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]] in striking distance. The outlook of the Continental Army—and thus the revolution itself—was bleak. "These are the times that try men's souls," wrote [[Thomas Paine]], who was with the army on the retreat. The army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men fit for duty, and would be reduced to 1,400 after enlistments expired at the end of the year. Spirits were low, popular support was wavering, and Congress had abandoned Philadelphia in despair. Washington reacted by taking the offensive, stealthily [[Battle of Trenton|crossing the Delaware]] on [[Christmas]] night and capturing nearly 1,000 Hessians at the [[Battle of Trenton]] on [[December 26]], [[1776]]. Cornwallis marched to retake Trenton, but was outmaneuvered by Washington, who successfully [[Battle of Princeton|attacked the British rearguard]] at [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]] on [[January 3]], [[1777]]. Washington then entered winter quarters at [[Morristown, New Jersey]], having retaken much of New Jersey, and having secured two bold, morale-boosting victories in quick succession to reinvigorate the flagging revolution. === Saratoga Campaign, 1777 === In the summer of [[1777]], the British launched [[Saratoga Campaign|a new expedition]] from Canada. Led by General Burgoyne, the intention was to seize the Lake Champlain and Hudson River corridor, effectively isolating [[New England]] from the rest of the American colonies. Burgoyne's invasion had two components: he would lead about 10,000 men along Lake Champlain towards [[Albany, New York]], while a second column of about 2,000 men, led by [[Barry St. Leger]], would move down the [[Mohawk River]] valley and link up with Burgoyne in Albany. Burgoyne set off in early July, [[Battle of Ticonderoga (1777)|recapturing Fort Ticonderoga]] from the retreating Revolutionaries without firing a shot. He then proceeded overland towards Albany, but Revolutionaries slowed his progress through the wilderness by destroying bridges and felling trees in his path. Running short on supplies, in August Burgoyne sent a detachment to raid nearby [[Bennington (town), Vermont|Bennington, Vermont]]. The raiders were [[Battle of Bennington|decisively defeated]] by local militia, depriving Burgoyne of nearly 1,000 men and the much-needed supplies. [[Image:Joseph Brant painting by George Romney 1776.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Mohawk nation|Mohawk]] leader [[Joseph Brant]] commanded both American Indians and [[whites|white]] [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists]] during the American Revolutionary War.]] Meanwhile, St. Leger—half of his force American Indians led by [[Joseph Brant]]—had laid siege to [[Fort Stanwix]] on the Mohawk River. About 800 Revolutionary militiamen and their Indian allies marched to relieve the siege, but were ambushed and scattered by British and Indians on [[August 6]] at the [[Battle of Oriskany]]. [[Iroquois]] warriors fought on both sides of the battle, marking the beginning of a civil war within the Six Nations. When a second relief expedition approached, this time led by [[Benedict Arnold]], the siege was lifted, and St. Leger's expedition returned to Canada. Burgoyne was on his own. Burgoyne pushed on towards Albany, his forces now reduced to about 6,000 men. A Revolutionary army of about 8,000 men, commanded by the newly arrived General [[Horatio Gates]], had entrenched about 10 miles (16 km) south of [[Saratoga, New York]]. Burgoyne sent 2,000 men to outflank the Revolutionary position, but was checked by Generals Benedict Arnold and [[Daniel Morgan]] in the [[Battle of Freeman's Farm|first battle of Saratoga]] on [[September 19]], [[1777]]. After the battle, the two armies dug in. Burgoyne was in trouble now, but he hoped that help from the south might be on the way. All along, Burgoyne had suggested that his invasion from Canada might be supported by a British offensive up the Hudson River from Howe's location in New York City. However, [[George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville|British war planners]] did not coordinate their efforts. General Howe had instead sailed away from New York on an expedition to capture Philadelphia (see next section). British General Henry Clinton, left in command at New York, did indeed sail up the Hudson in October, capturing several forts and burning [[Kingston (city), New York|Kingston]] (then the rebel capital of New York), but his efforts were not enough to affect the events at Saratoga. Revolutionary militiamen, many of them outraged by the reported murder of [[Jane McCrae|an American woman]] at the hands of Burgoyne's Indian allies, flocked to Gates's army, swelling his force to 11,000 by the beginning of October. Burgoyne, his position becoming desperate, launched a new offensive, the [[Battle of Bemis Heights|second battle of Saratoga]] on October 7. The attack was repelled, and General Arnold, though relieved of command by Gates, rushed to the battle and led a decisive counterattack. Badly beaten, Burgoyne surrendered on October 17. Saratoga is often regarded as the turning point of the war. Revolutionary confidence and determination, suffering from Howe's successful occupation of Philadelphia, was renewed. Even more importantly, the victory encouraged France to enter the war against Great Britain. Spain and the Netherlands soon did the same. For the British, the war had now become much more complicated. === Philadelphia campaign, 1777 to 1778 === Having secured New York City in his 1776 campaign, in 1777 General Howe concentrated on capturing Philadelphia, the seat of the Revolutionary government. He moved slowly, landing 15,000 troops in late August at the northern end of [[Chesapeake Bay]], about 55 miles (90 km) southwest of Philadelphia. Washington positioned his 11,000 men between Howe and Philadelphia, but was outflanked and driven back at the [[Battle of Brandywine]] on [[September 11]], [[1777]]. The Continental Congress once again abandoned the city. British and Revolutionary forces maneuvered around each other for the next several days, clashing in minor encounters such as the so-called "[[Paoli Massacre]]." On September 26, Howe finally outmaneuvered Washington and marched into Philadelphia unopposed. After taking the city, the British [[garrison]]ed about 9,000 troops in [[Germantown, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Germantown]], five miles (8 km) above Philadelphia. Washington [[Battle of Germantown| unsuccessfully attacked Germantown]] in early October, and then retreated to watch and wait. Meanwhile, the British secured the Delaware River by taking (with difficulty) forts [[Fort Mifflin|Mifflin]] and [[Fort Mercer|Mercer]] in November. General Washington's problems at this time were not just with the British. In the so-called [[Conway Cabal]], some politicians and officers unhappy with Washington's recent performance as commander-in-chief secretively discussed his removal. Washington, offended by the behind-the-scenes maneuvering, laid the whole matter openly before Congress. His supporters rallied behind him, and the episode abated. Washington and his army encamped at [[Valley Forge]] in December 1777, about 20 miles (32 km) from Philadelphia, where they would stay for the next six months. Over the winter, 2,500 men (out of 10,000) died from disease and exposure. However, the army eventually emerged from Valley Forge in good order, thanks in part to a training program supervised by [[Baron von Steuben]]. Meanwhile, there was a shakeup in the British command, with General Clinton replacing Howe as commander-in-chief. French entry into the war had changed British war strategy, and Clinton was ordered by the government to abandon Philadelphia and defend New York City, now vulnerable to French naval power. Washington's army shadowed Clinton on his withdrawal, and forced a [[Battle of Monmouth|battle at Monmouth]] on [[June 28]], [[1778]], the last major battle in the North. Washington's second-in-command, General [[Charles Lee (general)|Charles Lee]], ordered a controversial retreat during the battle, allowing Clinton's army to escape. By July, Clinton was in New York City, and Washington was again at White Plains. Both armies were back where they had been two years earlier. With the exception of scattered minor actions in the North, like the [[Battle of Stony Point]], the focus of the war now shifted elsewhere. == War in the West == ''Main article: [[Frontier warfare during the American Revolution]]'' [[Image:Ftsackville.gif|thumb|250px|left|[[George Rogers Clark]]'s 180 mile (290 km) trek in the dead of winter led to the capture of General [[Henry Hamilton]], Lieutenant-Governor of [[Canada]].]] West of the [[Appalachian Mountains]], the American Revolutionary War was an "[[Indian Wars|Indian War]]." The British and the Continental Congress both courted [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indians]] as allies (or urged them to remain neutral), and many Native American communities became divided over what path to take. Like the [[Iroquois]] Confederacy, tribes such as the [[Cherokee]]s and the [[Shawnee]]s split into factions. [[Lenape|Delaware]]s under [[White Eyes]] signed the [[Treaty of Fort Pitt (1778)|first American Indian treaty]] with the United States, but other Delawares joined the British. The British supplied their Indian allies from forts along the Great Lakes, and tribesmen staged raids on Revolutionary settlements in New York, [[Kentucky]], Pennsylvania and elsewhere. Joint Iroquois-Loyalist attacks in the [[Wyoming Valley Massacre|Wyoming Valley]] and at [[Cherry Valley Massacre|Cherry Valley]] in 1778 helped provoke the [[scorched earth]] [[Sullivan Expedition]] into western New York during the summer of 1779. On the western front, every man, woman, and child—regardless of race—was a potential casualty. In the [[Ohio Country]], the [[Virginia]] [[frontier|frontiersman]] [[George Rogers Clark]] attempted to neutralize British influence among the Ohio tribes by capturing the outposts of [[Kaskaskia, Illinois|Kaskaskia]] and [[Battle of Vincennes|Vincennes]] in the summer of 1778. When General [[Henry Hamilton]], the British commander at [[Detroit]], retook Vincennes, Clark returned in a surprise march in February 1779 and captured Hamilton himself. However, a decisive victory in the West eluded the United States even as their fortunes had risen in the East. The low point on the frontier came in 1782 with the [[Gnadenhutten massacre]], when Pennsylvania militiamen—unable to track down enemy warriors—executed nearly 100 [[Christian]] Delaware [[noncombatant]]s, mostly women and children. Later that year, in the last major encounter of the war, a party of Kentuckians was [[Battle of Blue Licks|soundly defeated]] by a superior force of British regulars and Native Americans. == War in the South == During the first three years of the American Revolutionary War, the primary military encounters were in the North. One notable exception was in June 1776, when General [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Henry Clinton]] sailed south to attack [[Charleston, South Carolina]]. This ended in humiliating defeat for the British, and the Patriots remained in control of the southern states for the next three years. Starting in 1778, the British once again turned their attention to [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[South Carolina]], [[North Carolina]], and [[Virginia]], where they hoped to regain control by recruiting thousands of Loyalists. On [[December 29]], [[1778]], an expeditionary corps of 3,500 men from Clinton's army in New York captured [[Savannah, Georgia]]. An attempt by French and Revolutionary forces to [[Siege of Savannah|retake Savannah]] failed on [[October 9]], [[1779]]. In this assault, Count [[Casimir Pulaski]], the [[Poland|Polish]] commander of American Revolutionary [[cavalry]], was mortally wounded. With Savannah secured, Clinton could now launch a new assault on Charleston, South Carolina, where he had failed in 1776. === Carolinas, 1780 to 1781 === [[Image:General_Sir_Banastre_Tarleton_by_Sir_Joshua_Reynolds.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|The young and dashing [[Banastre Tarleton]] was perhaps the best cavalry commander in the war—and the most hated man in the South. This portrait was painted by Sir [[Joshua Reynolds]] in 1782.]] Clinton finally moved against Charleston in 1780, blockading the harbor in March, and building up about 10,000 troops in the area. Inside the city, General [[Benjamin Lincoln]] commanded about 2,650 Continentals and 2,500 militiamen. When British [[Colonel]] [[Banastre Tarleton]] cut off the city's supply lines in victories at [[Monck's Corner]] in April and [[Lenud's Ferry]] in early May, Charleston was surrounded. On [[May 12]], [[1780]], General Lincoln surrendered his 5,000 men—the largest surrender of U.S. troops until the [[American Civil War]]. With relatively few casualties, Clinton had seized the South’s biggest city and seaport, winning perhaps the greatest British victory of the war, and paving the way for what seemed like certain conquest of the South. The remnants of the southern Continental Army began to withdraw to [[North Carolina]], but were pursued by Colonel Tarleton, who defeated them at the [[Waxhaw Massacre|Battle of Waxhaws]] on [[May 29]], [[1780]]. Among the Americans , a story spread that Tarleton had massacred many Americans after they had surrendered (the truth of this charge is still debated). “Bloody Tarleton” became a hated name, and “Tarleton’s quarter”—referring to his reputed lack of mercy (or “quarter”)—soon became a rallying cry. With these events, organized American military activity in the South had collapsed. The states however carried on their functions, and the war was carried on by partisans such as [[Francis Marion]]. General Clinton turned over British operations in the South to Lord Cornwallis. The Continental Congress dispatched General [[Horatio Gates]], to the rescue with a new army. But Gates promptly suffered one of the worst defeats in U.S. military history at the [[Battle of Camden]] on [[August 16]], [[1780]], setting the stage for Cornwallis to invade North Carolina. The tables were quickly turned on Cornwallis, however. One wing of his army was utterly defeated at the [[Battle of Kings Mountain]] on [[October 7]], [[1780]], delaying his move into North Carolina. Kings Mountain was noteworthy because it was not a battle between British redcoats and colonial troops: it was a battle between American Loyalists and American Patriots. The British plan to raise large Loyalist armies failed; not enough Loyalists enlisted, and those who did were at risk once the British army moved on. Only in Georgia did the Crown manage to create a counter-revolutionary civil government. Gates was replaced by George Washington's most dependable subordinate, General [[Nathanael Greene]]. Greene assigned about 1,000 men to General [[Daniel Morgan]], a superb tactician who crushed Tarleton’s troops at the [[Battle of Cowpens]] on [[January 17]], [[1781]]. Greene proceeded to wear down his opponents in a series of battles ([[Battle of Guilford Court House|Guilford Court House]], [[Battle of Hobkirk's Hill|Hobkirk's Hill]], [[Battle of Ninety Six|Ninety Six]], and [[Battle of Eutaw Springs|Eutaw Springs]]), each of them tactically a victory for the British, but giving no strategic advantage to the victors. Greene summed up his approach in a motto that would become famous: "We fight, get beat, rise, and fight again." Unable to capture or destroy Greene's army, Cornwallis moved north to to Virginia. === Virginia, 1775 to 1781 === Virginia had been under revolutionary control since Loyalist forces (including runaway slaves) under [[John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore|Governor Dunmore]] had been defeated at the [[Battle of Great Bridge]] on [[December 9]], [[1775]]. After the defeat, Dunmore and his troops took refuge on British ships off of [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]], which Dunmore bombarded and burned on [[January 1]], [[1776]]. He was driven from an island in [[Chesapeake Bay]] that summer, never to return. British forces raided Virginia sporadically during the war. In January 1781, the rebel capital of [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]] was put to the torch by none other than Benedict Arnold, now a turncoat, who had sold his services to the other side and was now a British general. In March 1781, General Washington dispatched [[Marquis de Lafayette|Lafayette]] to defend Virginia. The young Frenchman had 3,200 men at his command, but British troops in the state, now reinforced and commanded by Cornwallis, totaled 7,200. Lafayette skirmished with Cornwallis, avoiding a decisive battle while gathering reinforcements. "The boy cannot escape me," Cornwallis is supposed to have said. However, Cornwallis was unable to trap Lafayette, and so he moved his forces to [[Yorktown, Virginia]] in July in order to link up with the British navy. == War at sea == ''Main article: [[Naval operations in the American Revolutionary War]]'' Meanwhile the co-operation of the French became active. In July [[Comte de Rochambeau|Count Rochambeau]] arrived at Newport, Rhode Island. That place had been occupied by the British from 1776 to the close of 1779. An unsuccessful attempt was made to drive them out in 1778 by the Revolutionaries assisted by the French admiral [[Charles Hector, comte d'Estaing|d'Estaing]] and a French corps. *[[First Battle of Ushant]] - [[July 27]], [[1778]] *[[John Paul Jones]] *[[Continental Navy]] *[[Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1780)]] *[[Second Battle of Ushant]] - [[December 12]], [[1781]] ===Gulf Coast=== After Spain declared war against Great Britain in June of 1779, Count [[Bernardo de Gálvez]], the Spanish governor of [[Louisiana]], seized three British [[Mississippi River]] outposts: [[Battle of Fort Bute|Manchac]], [[Battle of Baton Rouge|Baton Rouge]], and [[Natchez, Mississippi|Natchez]]. Gálvez then captured [[Battle of Fort Charlotte|Mobile]] on [[March 14]], [[1780]], and, in May of 1781, [[Battle of Pensacola (1781)|forced the surrender]] of the British outpost at [[Pensacola, Florida]]. On [[May 8]], [[1782]], Gálvez captured the British naval base at New Providence in the Bahamas. Galvez also supplied soldiers to George Rogers Clark and had been supplying substantial quantities of war supplies to the American rebels from as early as 1777. ===Caribbean=== The [[Battle of the Saintes]] took place in 1782, during the American War of Independence, and was a victory of a [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] fleet under Admiral Sir [[George Rodney]] over a [[France|French]] fleet under the [[Comte de Grasse]]. The defeat dashed the hopes of France and Spain to take [[Jamaica]] and other colonies from the British. ===India=== The Franco-British war spilled over into [[India]] in 1780, in the form of the [[Second Anglo-Mysore War]]. The two chief combatants were [[Tipu Sultan]], ruler of the [[Kingdom of Mysore]] and a key French ally, and the British government of [[Madras Presidency|Madras]]. The Anglo-Mysore conflict was bloody but inconclusive, and ended in a draw at the [[Treaty of Mangalore]] in 1784. ===Netherlands=== Also in 1780, the British struck against the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] of the [[Netherlands]] in the [[Fourth Anglo-Dutch War]] to preempt Dutch involvement in the [[League of Armed Neutrality]], directed primarily against the British Navy during the war. Agitation by Dutch radicals and a friendly attitude towards the United States by the Dutch government, both influenced by the American Revolution, also encouraged the British to attack. The war lasted into 1784 and was disastrous to the Dutch mercantile economy. ===Mediterranean=== On [[February 5]], [[1782]], Spanish and French forces captured [[Minorca]], which had been under British control since the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] in 1713. A further Franco-Spanish effort to recover [[Gibraltar]] was unsuccessful. Minorca was ceded to Spain in the peace treaty. === Whitehaven === An interesting footnote to this war was the actual landing on [[Britain]] itself of a ship from the U.S. [[Navy]]. This occurred in 1778 when the port of [[Whitehaven]] in [[Cumberland]] was raided by [[John Paul Jones]]. The landing was a surprise attack, taken as an action of revenge by Jones, and was never intended as an invasion. Nevertheless, it caused hysteria in [[England]], with the attack showing a weakness that could be exploited by other states such as [[France]] or [[Spain]]. Its result was an intense period of fortification in British ports. == War's end == The northern, southern, and naval theaters of the war converged at [[Yorktown, Virginia|Yorktown]] in 1781. On [[September 5]], [[1781]], French naval forces defeated the British [[Royal Navy]] at the [[Battle of the Chesapeake]], cutting off Cornwallis's supplies and transport. Washington hurriedly moved his troops from [[New York]], and a combined Franco-American force of 17,000 troops commenced the [[Battle of Yorktown (1781)|Battle of Yorktown]] on [[October 6]], [[1781]]. Cornwallis's position quickly became untenable, and on [[October 19]] his army surrendered. The war was all but over. [[Image:Yorktown80.JPG|thumb|325px|''Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown'' ([[John Trumbull]], 1797). On the right is the American flag, on the left is the French flag (white flag of the monarchy). Despite the painting's title, Cornwallis (claiming illness) was not present and is not depicted. [[George Washington|Washington]] is on horseback in the right background; because the British commander was absent, military protocol dictated that Washington have a subordinate—in this case [[Benjamin Lincoln]]—accept the surrender.]] [[British Prime Minister]] [[Frederick North, 2nd Earl of Guilford|Lord North]] resigned soon after hearing the news from Yorktown. In April 1782, the [[British House of Commons]] voted to end the war in America. On [[November 30]], [[1782]] preliminary peace articles were signed in [[Paris]]; the formal end of the war did not occur until the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] was signed on [[September 3]], [[1783]] and the United States Congress ratified the treaty on [[January 14]], [[1784]]. The last [[Evacuation Day (New York)|British troops left]] [[New York City]] on [[November 25]], [[1783]]. The reasons for Great Britain's misfortunes and defeat may be summarized as follows: Misconception by the home government of the temper and reserve strength of her colonists; disbelief at the outset in the probability of a protracted struggle covering the immense territory in America; consequent failure of the British to use their more efficient military strength effectively; the safe and [[Fabian Strategy|Fabian generalship]] of Washington; and perhaps most significantly, the French alliance and European combinations by which at the close of the conflict left Great Britain without a friend or ally on the continent. Decisive victory eluded the United States on the western frontier. Great Britain negotiated the Paris peace treaty without consulting her Indian allies, however, and ceded much American Indian territory to the United States. Full of resentment, Native Americans reluctantly confirmed these land cessions with the United States in a series of treaties, but the result was essentially an armed truce—the fighting would be renewed in conflicts along the frontier, the largest being the [[Northwest Indian War]]. ===Casualties=== The total loss of life resulting from the American Revolutionary War is unknown. As was typical in the wars of the era, disease claimed more lives than battle. The war took place in the context of a massive [[smallpox]] [[North American smallpox epidemic|epidemic]] in North America that probably killed more than 130,000 people. Historian [[Joseph J. Ellis]] suggests that Washington's decision to have his troops [[inoculation|inoculated]] may have been the commander-in-chief's most important strategic decision.{{ref|smallpox}} Casualty figures for the American Revolutionaries have varied over the years; a recent scholarly estimate lists 6,824 killed and 8,445 wounded in action. The number of Revolutionary troop deaths from disease and other non-combat causes is estimated at about 18,500.{{ref|casualties}} Approximately 1,200 Germans were killed in action and 6,354 died from illness or accident. About 16,000 of the remaining German troops returned home, but roughly 5,500 remained in the United States after the war for various reasons, many becoming American citizens. No reliable statistics exist for the number of casualties among other groups, including American Loyalists, British regulars, American Indians, French and Spanish troops, and civilians. == See also == *[[List of important people in the era of the American Revolution]] *[[Battles of the American Revolutionary War]] *[[Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War]] *[[American Revolution prisoners of war]] *[[British prison ships (New York)]] *[[France in the American Revolutionary War]] *[[Spain in the American Revolutionary War]] *[[The Netherlands in the American Revolutionary War]] *[[The Society of the Cincinnati]] *[[Daughters of the American Revolution]] *[[Timeline of United States revolutionary history (1760-1789)]] *[[Newburgh conspiracy]] *[[List of British Forces in the American Revolutionary War]] *[[List of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War]] *[[Last surviving United States war veterans]] *[[South Carolina during the American Revolution]] *[[New Jersey during the American Revolution]] *[[Evacuation Day (New York)]] == Notes == <div style="font-size: 85%"> #{{note|loyalists}} Percentage of Loyalists and Revolutionaries: Robert M. Calhoon, "Loyalism and Neutrality" in ''The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution'', p. 247; number of Loyalist troops: Boatner, p. 663. #{{note|continental}} Size of Revolutionary armies: Boatner, p. 264. #{{note|British}} British troop strength: Black, pp. 27-29. Number of Germans hired: Boatner, pp. 424-26. #{{note|black_loyalists}} British usage of escaped slaves: Kaplan & Kaplan, pp. 71-89. #{{note|black_patriots}} Revolutionary all-black units: Kaplan & Kaplan, pp. 64-69. #{{note|warriors}} Total number of warriors: James H. Merrell, "Indians and the new republic" in ''The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution'', p. 393. Number of Iroquois warriors: Boatner, p. 545. #{{note|smallpox}} Smallpox epidemic: Fenn, p. 275. A great number of these smallpox deaths occurred outside the theater of war—in Mexico or among American Indians west of the Mississippi River. Washington and inoculation: Ellis, p. 87. #{{note|casualties}} Revolutionary dead and wounded: Chambers, p. 849. </div> == References == *Black, Jeremy. ''War for America: The Fight for Independence, 1775-1783''. St. Martin's Press (New York) and Sutton Publishing (UK), 1991. ISBN 0312067135 (1991), ISBN 0312123469 (1994 paperback), ISBN 0750928085 (2001 paperpack). *Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. ''Encyclopedia of the American Revolution.'' New York: McKay, 1966; revised 1974. ISBN 0811705781. *Chambers, John Whiteclay II, ed. in chief. ''The Oxford Companion to American Military History''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0195071980. *Ellis, Joseph J. ''His Excellency: George Washington''. New York: Knopf, 2004. ISBN 1400040310. *Fenn, Elizabeth Anne. ''Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775-82''. New York: Hill and Wang, 2001. ISBN 0809078201. *Greene, Jack P. and J.R. Pole, eds. ''The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution''. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 1991; reprint 1999. ISBN 1557865477. *Kaplan, Sidney and Emma Nogrady Kaplan. ''The Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution''. Amherst, Massachusetts: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1989. ISBN 0870236636. *Wood, W. J. ''Battles of the Revolutionary War, 1775-1781''. Originally published Chapel Hill, N.C.: Algonquin, 1990; reprinted by Da Capo Press, 1995. ISBN 0306806177 (paperback); ISBN 0306813297 (2003 paperback reprint). ==Further reading== *[http://www.americanrevolution.org/navindex.html Allen, Gardner W. ''A Naval History of the American Revolution'' (1913)] *Black, Jeremy. ''War for America: The Fight for Independence, 1775-1783''. (1991), British viewpoint *Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. ''Encyclopedia of the American Revolution.'' New York: McKay, 1966; revised 1974. ISBN 0811705781. * Buchanan, John. ''The Road to Valley Forge: How Washington Built the Army That Won the Revolution'' (2004) * Fischer, David Hackett. ''Washington's Crossing'' (2004), Pulitzer prize-winning narrative of 1776-77 * Higginbotham, Don. ''The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763-1789'' (1983) Online in ACLS History E-book Project; overview of military topics *Kwasny, Mark V. ''Washington's Partisan War, 1775-1783'' (1996) *McCullough, David. ''1776'' (2005). *Mackesy, Piers. ''The War for America: 1775-1783'' (1992), British viewpoint. *Middlekauff, Robert. ''The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763-1789'' (1984)] *Miller, John C. ''Triumph of Freedom, 1775-1783'' (1948) *Schecter, Barnet. [http://www.thebattlefornewyork.com/''The Battle for New York - The City at the Heart of the American Revolution''] (2002) - The largest military venture of the entire war, and the British albatross *Thayer, Theodore. ''Nathanael Greene: Strategist of the American Revolution'' (1960) *Unger. Harlow Giles. ''Lafayette'' (2002) *Valentine; Alan. ''Lord George Germain'' (1962), the British War Minister *Ward, Christopher. ''The War of the Revolution'' (2 vol 1952), battle history *Weintraub, Stanley. ''Iron Tears: America's Battle for Freedom, Britain's Quagmire: 1775-1783'' (2005). ==External links== *[http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/american%20revolution/american%20revolution%20index.htm Battlefield atlas of the American Revolution] West Point Atlas *[http://members.aol.com/_ht_a/historiography/saratoga.html Histories of the Battle of Saratoga, 1777] *[http://users.snowcrest.net/jmike/amrevmil.html American Revolutionary War History Resources] *[http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/reference/revbib/revwar.htm Entry to US Army Center for Military History, a huge bibliography] *[http://www.americanrevolution.org/hispanic.html Spain's role in the American Revolution from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean] *[http://www.americanrevolution.com/AfricanAmericansInTheRevolution.htm African-American soldiers in the Revolution] *[http://www.besthistorysites.net/USHistory_Independence.shtml American Revolution & Independence] [[Category:American Revolutionary War]] [[Category:National liberation movements]] [[Category:Rebellion]] [[bn:আমেরিকান বিপ্লব]] [[da:USA's uafhængighedskrig]] [[de:Amerikanischer Unabhängigkeitskrieg]] [[eo:Usona Revolucio]] [[es:Guerra de la Independencia de los Estados Unidos]] [[fi:Yhdysvaltain vapaussota]] [[fr:Guerre d'indépendance des États-Unis d'Amérique]] [[ga:Cogadh Réabhlóideach Mheiriceá]] [[he:מלחמת העצמאות של ארצות הברית]] [[id:Perang Revolusi Amerika]] [[is:Bandaríska frelsisstríðið]] [[it:Guerra di indipendenza americana]] [[ja:アメリカ独立戦争]] [[ko:미국 독립전쟁]] [[nl:Amerikaanse Onafhankelijkheidsoorlog]] [[pl:Rewolucja amerykańska]] [[pt:Guerra da Independência dos Estados Unidos da América]] [[sk:Americká vojna za nezávislosť]] [[sv:Amerikanska revolutionen]] [[zh:美國獨立戰爭]] 772 40770189 2006-02-22T22:27:40Z DV8 2XL 146684 Revert to revision 39416945 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] :''For the different meanings of [[Ampère]], see the disambiguation page.'' ---- The '''ampere''' (symbol: A) is the [[SI base unit]] of [[electric current]] equal to one [[coulomb]] per second. It is named after [[André-Marie Ampère]], one of the main discoverers of [[electromagnetism]]. ==Definition== The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 [[metre]] apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2{{e|–7}} [[newton]] per metre of length. ==Explanation== Because it is a base unit, the definition of the ampere is not tied to any other electrical unit. The definition for the ampere is equivalent to fixing a value of the [[Permeability (electromagnetism)|permeability]] of vacuum to ''&mu;''<sub>0</sub> = 4&pi;{{e|&minus;7}} H/m. Prior to 1948, the so-called "international ampere" was used, defined in terms of the [[electrolysis|electrolytic]] deposition rate of [[silver]]. The older unit is equal to 0.999&nbsp;85&nbsp;A. The ampere is most accurately realised using an [[ampere balance]], but is in practice maintained via [[Ohm's Law]] from the units of [[voltage]] and [[electrical resistance|resistance]], the [[volt]] and the [[ohm]], since the latter two can be tied to physical phenomena that are relatively easy to reproduce, the [[Josephson junction]] and the [[quantum Hall effect]], respectively. The unit of [[electric charge]], the [[coulomb]], is defined in terms of the ampere: one coulomb is the amount of electric charge (formerly [[quantity of electricity]]) carried in a current of one ampere flowing for one [[second]]. [[Current (electricity)]], then, is the rate at which charge flows through a wire or surface. One ampere of current (I) is equal to a flow of one [[coulomb]] of charge (Q) per second of time (t): :<math>\mathrm{I=Q/t} \,</math> Since a coulomb is approximately equal to 6.24{{e|18}} elementary charges, one ampere is equivalent to 6.24{{e|18}} elementary charges, such as [[electron]]s, moving through a surface in one second. More precisely, using the SI definitions for the conventional values of the [[Josephson constant|Josephson]] and [[von Klitzing constant|von Klitzing]] constants, the ampere can be defined as exactly 6.241&nbsp;509&nbsp;629&nbsp;152&nbsp;65{{e|18}} elementary charges per second. ==See also== *[[SI]] *[[Ohm's Law]] *[[Electric shock]] ==External links== *[http://alpha.montclair.edu/~kowalskiL/SI/SI_PAGE.HTML A short history of the SI units in electricity] [[Category:SI base units]] [[Category:Units of electrical current]] [[ar:أمبير]] [[bg:Ампер]] [[br:Amper]] [[ca:Ampere]] [[cs:Ampér]] [[da:Ampere]] [[de:Ampere]] [[et:Amper]] [[es:Amperio]] [[eo:Ampero]] [[eu:Anpere]] [[fr:Ampère]] [[gl:Ampere]] [[ko:암페어]] [[hr:Amper]] [[id:Ampere]] [[it:Ampere]] [[he:אמפר]] [[lv:Ampērs]] [[lt:Amperas]] [[nl:Ampère]] [[ja:アンペア]] [[no:Ampere]] [[nn:Ampere]] [[pl:Amper]] [[pt:Ampère]] [[ru:Ампер]] [[sq:Amperimetri]] [[sk:Ampér]] [[sl:Amper]] [[sr:Ампер]] [[fi:Ampeeri]] [[sv:Ampere]] [[tr:Amper]] [[uk:Ампер]] [[zh:安培]] 773 41332303 2006-02-26T17:25:28Z Jcam 273771 3-3 stack __NOTOC__ The following terms are used in [[American football]] and [[Canadian football]]. See also: [[wiktionary:Category:Football (American)]] ==See also== *[[American football|Football]] *[[Football strategy]] {{compactTOC2}} ==0–9== ;''n''-''m'' defense:a defense with ''n'' down linemen and ''m'' linebackers, such as: :;3-3: a defense with 3 lineman, 3 linebackers, and 5 defensive backs. Often called a '''3-3 stack.''' :;3-4 defense:a [[defensive team | defensive]] formation with 3 [[lineman (football)|linemen]] and 4 linebackers. A professional derivative in the 1970's of the earlier [[University of Oklahoma|Oklahoma]] or '''"50" defense''', which had 5 linemen and 2 linebackers. The 3-4 outside linebackers resemble "stand-up ends" in the older defense. :;4-3 defense:a defensive formation with 4 linemen and 3 linebackers. Several variations are employed. First used by coach [[Joe Kuharich]]. :;4-6 defense :(pronounced ''four-six defense'') a defense with four (4) down linemen and six (6) linebackers ;[[46 defense]] :(pronounced ''forty-six defense'') a formation of the 4-3 defense (four linemen and three linebackers) in which three defensive backs (the two cornerbacks and the strong safety) crowd the line of scrimmage. The remaining safety, which is the free safety, stays in the backfield. It is also known as the "Bear" defense because it was popularized by [[Buddy Ryan]] while coaching for the [[Chicago Bears]]. Not to be confused with the 4-6 (four-six) defense. ;50 defense :a once popular college defense with 5 defensive linemen and 2 linebackers. ==A== ;audible: (from [[Latin]] ''aud&#299;re'' = to hear, to listen to) a play called by the quarterback at the line of scrimmage to change the play that was called in the huddle. ;automatic :see [[#A|audible]] ;automatic first down: for several of the most severe penalties, including '''pass interference''' and all personal fouls, a first down is rewarded to the offensive team even if the yardage of that penalty is less than the yardage needed for a first down. ==B== ;back :A [[American and Canadian football position names|position]] behind the offensive line, or behind the linebackers on defense. ;[[blitz (American football)|blitz]] :a defensive maneuver in which one or more linebackers or defensive backs, who normally remain behind the line of scrimmage, instead charge into the opponents' backfield. However, in the 3-4 defense, one linebacker typically rushes the passer with the three down linemen. This is not considered a blitz. If an additional linebacker is sent, bringing the total number of rushers to five, it is a blitz. ;[[blocking (American football)|blocking]] :when a player obstructs another player's path with his body. ;[[bootleg play|bootleg]] :an offensive play predicated upon misdirection in which the quarterback pretends to hand the ball to another player, and then carries the ball in the opposite direction of the supposed ballcarrier with the intent of either passing or running (sometimes the quarterback has the option of doing either). A '''naked bootleg''' is a risky variation of this play when the quarterback has no blockers pulling out with him. Contrast with '''scramble''', '''sneak''', and '''draw''' ;the box :an area on the defensive side of the ball, directly opposite the offensive linemen and about 5 yards deep; having 8 players in the box means bringing in a defensive back, normally the strong safety, to help stop the offensive team's running game ==C== ;[[Center (American football)|center]] :a player [[American and Canadian football position names|position]] on [[offensive team|offense]]. The center snaps the ball. ;centre :Canadian "center" ;chains :the 10-yard long chain that is used by the [[chain crew]] to measure for a new series of downs. ;check-off: see [[#A|audible]] ;chuck and duck : a style of offense with minimal pass protection requiring the Quarterback to "chuck" the ball then "duck" to avoid a defensive lineman. ;clipping :an illegal block in which the victim is blocked from the back and below the waist; the penalty is 15 yards. Originally, clipping was defined as any block from the back, but is now restricted to blocks below the waist. Other blocks from the back are now punished with 10-yard penalties. ;coffin corner :the corner of the field of play. A punter, if he is close enough, will often attempt to kick the ball out of bounds close to the receiving team's goal line and pin them back near their own end zone. ;contain :a defensive assignment. On outside runs such as the sweep, one defensive player (usually a [[cornerback]] or outside linebacker) is assigned to keep the rusher from getting to the edge of the play and turning upfield. If executed properly, the rusher will have to turn upfield before the play calls for it, giving the linebackers a better chance of stopping the play for little or no gain. ;[[cornerback]] (CB):a [[defensive back]] who lines up near the line of scrimmage across from a '''wide receiver'''. Their primary job is to disrupt passing routes and to defend against short and medium passes in the passing game, and to contain the rusher on rushing plays. ;counter :a running play in which the running back will take a step in the apparent direction of the play (ie, the direction the line is moving), only to get the handoff in the other direction. '''Weak side''' linemen will sometimes '''pull''' and lead the back downfield (sometimes called a '''counter trap'''), but not necessarily. The play is designed to get the defense to flow away from the action for a few steps as they follow the linemen, allowing more room for the running back. ;crackback block :an illegal block delivered below the opponent's waist by an offensive player who had left the area of close line play and then returned to it, or was not within it at the snap. The term is also used to describe a legal block (delivered from the front, or from the side with the offensive player's helmet in front of the blocked player) by a wide receiver on a player who lined up inside of him. ;cut # a sharp change of direction by a running player. Also called a [[Cutback (football move)|cutback]]. # see "cut blocking" below ;cut blocking: a blocking technique in which offensive linemen, and sometimes other blockers, block legally below the waist (i.e., from the front of the defensive player) in an attempt to bring the defenders to ground, making them unable to pursue a running back for the short time needed for the back to find a gap in the defense. The technique is somewhat controversial, as it carries a risk of serious leg injuries to the blocked defenders. The [[NFL]]'s [[Denver Broncos]] are especially famous (or infamous) for using this technique. ==D== ;[[dead ball]] :a ball which is no longer in play. ;[[defensive back]] :a cornerback or safety [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] on the defensive team; commonly defends against wide receivers on passing plays. Generally there are 4 defensive backs playing at a time; but see '''nickel back''' and '''dime back'''. ;[[defensive end]] (DE):a player [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] on [[defensive team| defense]] who lines up on the outside of the defensive line. ;[[defensive tackle]] (DT):a player [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] on [[defensive team| defense]] on the inside of the defensive line. When a defensive tackle lines up directly across from the center, he is known often as a [[nose tackle]]. ;[[defensive team]] :the team that begins a play from scrimmage not in possession of the ball. ;[[dime back]] :the second extra, or sixth total, defensive back. Named because a [[dime (U.S. coin)|dime]] has the same value as two [[nickel (U.S. coin)|nickel]]s. ;double reverse: a play in which the ball reverses direction twice behind the line of scrimmage. This is usually accomplished by means of two or three hand-offs, each hand-off going in an opposite direction as the previous one. Such a play is extremely infrequent in football. :Some people confuse the ''double reverse'' with a ''reverse'', which is a play with two hand-offs instead of three. ;[[down (football)| down]] :one of a series of plays in which the offensive team must advance at least 10 yards or lose possession. '''First down''' is the first of the plays; fourth is the last down in American, and third in Canadian, football. A first down occurs after a change of possession of the ball, after advancing the ball 10 yards following a previous first down or after certain penalties. ;down lineman: a player stationed in front of his line of scrimmage and who has either one (three-point stance) or two (four-point stance) hands on the ground. ;[[draw play]] :a play in which the quarterback drops back as if to pass, then hands off to a running back or runs with the ball himself. Contrast with '''scramble''' ;drive *A continuous set of offensive plays gaining substantial yardage and several first downs, usually leading to a scoring opportunity. *A blocking technique - "drive block" - in which an offensive player through an advantaged angle or with assistance drive a defensive player out of position creating a hole for the ball carrier. ;[[drop kick]] :a kick in which the ball is dropped and kicked once it hits the ground and before it hits it again; a half-volley kick. ==E== ;[[eligible receiver]]s :players who may legally touch a forward pass. On the passer's team, these are: the '''ends''' (see below), the '''backs''', and (except in the NFL), one player in position to take a hand-to-hand '''snap''', i.e. a T '''quarterback'''; provided the player's shirt displays a number in the ranges allowed for eligible receivers. All players of the opposing team are eligible receivers, and once the ball is touched by a player of the opposing team (anywhere in American, or beyond the lines of scrimmage in Canadian football), all players become eligible. ;encroachment: an illegal action by a player: to cross the [[line of scrimmage]] and make contact with an opponent before the ball is snapped, or to line up offside and remain there when the ball is put in play. ;[[End (football)|end]] :a player [[American and Canadian football position names|position]], either on [[offensive team| offense]] or [[defensive team| defense]] -- see '''linemen'''. ;[[end zone]] :the area between the end line (or deadline in Canadian amateur football) and the goal line, bounded by the sidelines. ;[[extra point]] :a single point scored in a conversion attempt by making what would be a field goal or a safety during general play. ==F== ;[[fair catch]] :An unhindered catch of an opponent's kick. The player wanting to make one must signal for a fair catch by waving an arm overhead while the ball is in the air. After that signal, if he gains possession of the ball it is dead immediately and opponents will receive a fifteen yard penalty for hitting him. ;[[fantasy football (American)]] :A game in which the participants (called "owners") each draft on their own or with the aid of software [http://www.thecoordinator.com] a team of real-life NFL players and then score points based on those players' statistical performance on the field. ;field of play: the area between both the goal lines and the sidelines, and in some contexts the space vertically above it. ;[[field goal]] :score of 3 points made by place- or drop-kicking the ball through the opponent's goal other than via a kickoff or free kick following a safety; formerly, "goal from the field". ;flanker :a player [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] on offense. A wide receiver who lines up 1 or more yards off the line of scrimmage outside of another receiver. ;flat :an area on the field between the line of scrimmage and 10 yards into the defensive backfield, and within 15 yards of the sideline. Running backs often run pass routes to the flat when they are the safety valve receiver. ;[[flea flicker (American football)|Flea flicker]] :a trick play in which a [[running back]] laterals the ball back to the [[quarterback]], who then throws a pass to a [[wide receiver]] or [[tight end]]. ;formation :An arrangement of the offensive skill players. A formation usually is described in terms of how the running backs line up (e.g. [[I formation]], which refers to the half back is lined up about 7 yard deep, and the fullback is lined up about 5 yards deep, both directly behind the quarterback) or how the wide receivers line up (e.g. Trips left, in which three wide receivers line up to the left of the linemen). Frequently, the formation will allude to both, such as with Strong I Slot Right, in which the halfback is lined up 7 yards deep behind the quarterback, the fullback is 5 yards deep behind the guard or tackle on the strong side, and both wide receivers are lined up on the right side of the offensive line.There are rules limiting what is legal in a formation. All five offensive linemen must be on the line of scrimage (a small amount of leeway is given to tackles when lined up for pass protection). Also, there must be one receiver (usally one tight end and one wide receiver) lined up on the line on either side of the offensive line (it doesn't matter how close they are to the tackles, as long as they are on the line). A receiver who is on the line may not go in motion. ;[[forward pass]] :a pass that touches a person, object, or the ground closer to the opponent's end line than where it was released from, or is accidentally lost during a forward throwing motion. ;four-point stance: a down lineman's stance with four points on the ground, in other words, his two feet and his two hands ;free kick :a kick made to put the ball in play as a kickoff or following a safety (the score; "safety touch" in Canadian football) or fair catch. ;free safety (FS):a player [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] on [[defensive team|defense]]. Free safeties typically play deep, or "center field", and often have the pass defense responsibility of assisting other defensive backs in deep coverage (compared to strong safeties, who usually have an assigned receiver and run support responsibilities). ;[[fullback#American_football|fullback]] (FB):a player [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] on [[offensive team| offense]]. Originally, lined up deep behind the '''quarterback''' in the '''T formation'''. In modern formations this position may be varied, and this player has more blocking responsibilities in comparison to the '''halfback''' or '''tailback'''. ;[[fumble]] :a ball that a player accidentally lost possession of; in Canadian football the term includes muffs. ==G== ;[[Goal line|goal]] :a surface in space marked by a structure of two upright posts 18 feet 6 inches apart extending above a horizontal crossbar whose top edge is 10 feet off the ground. The goal is the surface above the bar and between the lines of the inner edges of the posts, extending infinitely upward, centered above each end line in American, and each goal line in Canadian football. ;goal area :the end zone in Canadian professional football. ;[[goal line]] :the front of the [[end zone]]. ;gridiron :a football field, so called for its markings. ;[[Guard (American football)|guard]] :one of two player [[American and Canadian football position names|positions]] on [[offensive team| offense]] -- see '''linemen'''. A 5-player defensive line will have one, and a defensive line of 6 or more players, two guards, while a defensive line of fewer than 5 players has no guard. ==H== ;[[Hail Mary pass|Hail Mary]] :a long pass play, thrown towards a group of receivers near the '''end zone''' in hope of a '''touchdown'''. Used by a team as a last resort as time is running out in either of two halfs (usually by a team trailing in the second half). Refers to the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] prayer. ;halfback :a player [[American and Canadian football position names|position]] on [[offensive team| offense]]. Also known as a '''tailback'''. ;[[halfback option play]] :a trick play in which the halfback throws a pass. ;halo violation : From 1983 until the end of the 2002 season, in the NCAA (college football) the halo rule was a penalty for interference with the opportunity to catch a kick. The so called '''halo''' rule stated that no player of the kicking team may be within two yards of a receiving team player positioned to catch a punt or kickoff (before that person has touched the ball). The rule was abolished beginning in the 2003 season. ;hand-off :(also known as backward pass) a player's handing of a live ball to another player. The hand-off goes either backwards or laterally, as opposed to a forward pass. Sometimes called a "switch" in touch football. (Note different usage of term from its rugby meaning.) ;hash marks :lines between which the ball begins each play. The lines are parallel to and a distance in from the side lines and marked as broken lines. ;[[H-back]] :a player listed in a [[roster]] or [[depth chart]] as a [[fullback]] and playing as a ''h''ybrid of a fullback and a [[tight end]] ;[[Holder (American football)|holder]] :a player who holds the ball upright for a place kick. Often backup quarterbacks are used for their superior ball-handling ability ;holding :there are two kinds of holding: offensive holding, illegally blocking a player from the opposing team by grabbing and holding his uniform or body; and defensive holding, called against defensive players who impede receivers who are more than 5 yards from the line of scrimmage, but who are not actively making an attempt to catch the ball (if the defensive player were to impede an offensive player in the act of catching the ball, that would be the more severe penalty of pass interference) ;huddle :an on-field gathering of members of a team in order to secretly communicate instructions for the upcoming play. ==I== ;[[I formation]] :A formation that includes a '''fullback''' and '''tailback''' lined up with the fullback directly in front of the tailback. If a third back is in line, this is referred to as a "full house I". If the third back is lined up along side the fullback, it is referred to as a "Power I". ;[[incomplete pass]] :a forward pass of the ball which no player legally caught. ;inbounds lines :the hash marks. ;inside : # of a player's path: relatively close (in reference to the sides of the field) to where the ball was snapped from. Thus, a ballcarrier's path in crossing the neutral zone may be said to be "inside" of an opponent, or an "inside run" in general, and a rushing defensive player may be said to put on an "inside move" or "inside rush". # of the movement of the ball between players: directed toward a player who cuts between a player in the backfield who throws or hands the ball and the place from which it was snapped. Thus, an "inside pass" or "inside handoff". An "inside reverse" (sometimes called a scissors play) is a reverse play via an inside handoff. ;intentional grounding :An illegal forward pass thrown beyond the line of scrimmage without an intented reciever and no chance of completion to any offensive player. Intentional grounding is not called in the case of a '''spike''' or if the quarterback was outside the '''tackle box''' at the time of the pass. ;[[interception]] :the legal catching of a forward pass thrown by an opposing player. ==J== ;[[I formation#Common variations|Jumbo]] :an offensive package which includes two tight ends, a full back and a half back. Similar to '''heavy jumbo''', in which either the half back or the fullback is replaced by another tight end. Often one or more of the "tight ends" is actually a linebacker (The New England Patriots use Mike Vrabel this way - he has 6 career regular season TDs) or offensive linemen. In these cases, the player must report in as an eligible receiver, whereas a tight end is assumed to be one. ==K== ;kick :as a verb, to strike the ball deliberately with the foot; as a noun, such an action producing a [[Punt kick|punt]], [[place kick]], or [[drop kick]] ;[[Kickoff (American football)|kickoff]] :a free kick which starts each half, or restarts the game following a touchdown or field goal. The kickoff may be a place kick in American or Canadian football, or a drop kick in American football. ;kick returner :a player on the receiving team who specializes in fielding kicks and running them back. ;[[Quarterback kneel|kneel-down]] :a low risk play in which the quarterback kneels down after receiving the snap, ending the play. Used to run out the clock. ==L== ;[[lateral pass|lateral]] :a pass thrown to the side or backward. Also called "backward pass" in American football, "onside pass" in Canadian football. ;[[line of scrimmage]]/scrimmage line :one of two vertical planes parallel to the goal line when the ball is to be put in play by scrimmage. For each team in American football, the line of scrimmage is through the point of the ball closest to their end line. The two lines of scrimmage are called ''offensive line of scrimmage'' and ''defensive line of scrimmage'' :In [[Canadian football]], the line of scrimmage of the [[defensive team]] is one yard their side of the ball. ;line to gain :a line parallel to the goal lines, such that having the ball dead beyond it entitles the offense to a new series of downs, i.e. a new "first down". The line is 10 yards in advance of where the ball was to be snapped for the previous first down. ;[[linebacker]] :a player [[American and Canadian football position names|position]] on [[defensive team| defense]]. The linebackers typically play 1 to 3 yards behind the defensive '''linemen''' and have both run and pass defense responsibilities. However they are often called on to '''blitz''', and in some formations a linebacker may be designated as a "rush linebacker", rushing the passer on almost every play. ;[[lineman (football)|lineman]] :a [[defensive team|defensive]] or [[offensive team|offensive]] [[American and Canadian football position names|position]] on the line of scrimmage. *On offense, the player snapping the ball is the '''center'''. The players on either side of him are the '''guard'''s, and the players to the outside of him are the '''tackle'''s. The players on the end of the line are the '''end'''s. This may be varied in an '''unbalanced line'''. *On defense, the outside linemen are '''end'''s, and those inside are '''tackle'''s. If there are 5 or 6 linemen, the inner most linemen are known as '''guard'''s. This is rare in professional football except for goal-line defense, but is sometimes seen in high school or college. ;live ball :any ball that is in play, whether it is a player's possession or not. The ball is live during plays from scrimmage and free kicks, including kickoffs. ;[[long snapper]] :a center who specializes in the long, accurate [[snap (football)|snap]]s required for punts and field goal attempts. Most teams employ a specialist long snapper instead of requiring the normal center to perform this duty. ;loose ball :any ball that is in play and not in a player's possession. This includes a ball in flight during a lateral or forward pass. ==M== ;man coverage :same as man-to-man coverage ;man-in-motion :a player on offense who is moving backwards or parallel to the line of scrimmage just before the snap. In American football, only one offensive player can be in motion at a time, cannot be moving toward the line of scrimmage at the snap, and may not be a player who is on the line of scrimmage. In Canadian football, more than one back can be in motion, and may move in any direction as long as they are behind the line of scrimmage at the snap. ;man-to-man coverage :a defense in which all players in pass coverage, typically linebackers and defensive backs, cover a specific player. Pure man coverage is very rare; defenses typically mix man and zone coverage. ;mike :the ''m''iddle linebacker. ;mo :the other middle linebacker in a 3-4 formation. ;muff :a loose ball that is dropped or mishandled while the player is attempting to gain possession. ==N== ;[[National Football League]] :the largest professional American football league. ;[[neutral zone (American football)|neutral zone]] :the region between the lines of scrimmage or between the free kick restraining lines ;[[National Football League|NFL]] :the National Football League ;[[nickel back]] :an extra, or fifth, defensive back. Named after the coin, worth five cents. Popularized by the [[Miami Dolphins]] in the 1970s, now common. ;[[no-huddle offense]] :a tactic wherein the offense quickly forms near the line of scrimmage without huddling before the next play. ;[[nose tackle]] :a tackle in a 3-man defensive line who lines up "opposite the '''center''''s nose". ==O== ;[[offensive team]] :the team with possession of the ball ;offside : *an infraction of the rule that requires both teams to be on their own side of their restraining line as or before the ball is put play. Offside is normally called on the defensive team. *in Canadian football, at the time a ball is kicked by a teammate, being ahead of the ball, or being the person who held the ball for the place kick ;one back formation :a formation where the '''offensive team''' has one '''running back''' in the backfield with the '''quarterback'''. Other '''eligible receivers''' are near the '''line of scrimmage'''. ;[[onside kick]] :a play in which the kicking team tries to recover the kicked ball. ;[[Option offense|option]] : *Usually, a type of play in which the quarterback has the option of handing off, keeping, or laterally passing to one or more backs. Often described by a type of formation or play action, such as triple option, veer option, or counter option. Teams running option plays often specialize in them. *Less often, a play in which a back may either pass or run ;outside :opposite of '''inside''' ==P== ;package :the group of players on the field for a given play. For example, the Nickel Package substitutes a cornerback for either a linebacker or a defensive lineman (the latter is referred to as a 3-3-5 Nickel), or the Jumbo package substitutes a wide receiver with a tight end. ;[[pass interference]] :when a player illegally hinders an eligible receiver's opportunity to catch forward pass. ;passing play: a play in which a forward pass is made ;[[placekicker|place kick]] :kicking the ball from where it has been placed stationary on the ground or, where legal, on a tee. ;[[football play|play]] :the action between the '''snap''' of the ball, and the end of play signaled by the official's whistle for a '''tackle''' or out of bounds :the plan of action the offensive team has for each snap, for example a running play or pass play ;[[play action pass|play action]] : a tactic in which the quarterback fakes either a handoff or a throw in order to draw the defense away from the intended offensive method ;[[play clock]]: a timer used to increase the pace of the game between plays. The offensive team must [[Snap (American football)|snap]] the ball before the time expires. Currently, the [[National Football League|NFL]] uses 40 seconds (25 seconds after a time out). ;playing field: see [[#F|field of play]] ;pocket :an area on the offensive side of the line of scrimmage, where the offensive linemen attempt to prevent the defensive players from reaching the quarterback during passing plays ;[[American and Canadian football position names|position]] :a place where a player plays relative to teammates, and/or a role filled by that player ;prevent defense :a defensive strategy that utilizes deep zone coverage in order to prevent a big pass play from happening downfield, usually at the expense of giving up yards at shorter distances. Often used against '''hail mary''' plays, or at the end of the game when the defending team is protecting a lead. Disparaged by many fans. John Madden, legendary player, coach, and commentator, has been quoted as saying, "The only thing a prevent defense prevents is a win." ;pulling :a term used to describe an offensive lineman who, instead of blocking the player in front of him, steps back and moves down the line("pulls") to block another player, usually in a "trap" or "sweep." ;[[punt (football)|punt]] :a kick in which the ball is dropped and kicked before it reaches the ground. Used to give up the ball to the opposition after offensive '''downs''' have been used, as far down the field as possible. ;[[punter (football position)|punter]] :a kicker who specializes in punting as opposed to place kicking. ==Q== ;[[quarterback]] (QB):an [[offensive team|offensive]] player who lines up behind the [[center (football)|center]], from whom he takes the [[snap (football)|snap]]. ;[[quick kick]] :an unexpected punt. ==R== ;[[wide receiver|receiver]] :a wide receiver. ;[[reception (American football)|reception]] :when a player catches (receives) the ball. ;red dog :a blitz. ;red zone :the area between the 20 yard line and the goal of the defensive team. ;referee (R): the official who directs the other officials on the field, He is one of seven officials. ;restraining line :a team's respective line of scrimmage :at a free kick, the line the ball is to be kicked from (for the kicking team), or a line 10 yards in advance of that (for the receiving team) ;[[Reverse (American football)|reverse]] :an offensive play in which a ballcarrier going toward one side of the field hands or tosses the ball to a teammate who is running in the opposite direction (if the second ballcarrier is an end, it is an "end around"). ;[[Run & Shoot|run and shoot]] :an [[Offensive philosophy (American football)|offensive philosophy]] designed to force the defense to show its hand prior to the snap of the ball by splitting up receivers and sending them in motion. Receivers run patterns based on the play of the defenders, rather than a predetermined plan. ;[[running back]] :a player position on offense. Although the term usually refers to the halfback or tailback, fullbacks are also considered runningbacks. ;running play: a play where the offense attempts to advance the ball without passing. ;[[rush (American football) | rush]] :trying to tackle or hurry a player before he can throw a pass or make a kick :a running play ==S== ;[[quarterback sack|sack]] :tackling a ball carrier who intends to throw a forward pass. A sack is also awarded if a player forces a fumble of the ball, or the ball carrier to go out of bounds, behind the line of scrimmage on an apparent intended forward pass play. The term gained currency ca. 1970. ;safety #a player position on [[defensive team|defense]] -- see '''free safety''' and '''strong safety'''. #a method of scoring (worth two points) by downing an opposing ballcarrier in his own end zone, forcing the opposing ballcarrier out of his own end zone AND out of bounds, or forcing the offensive team to fumble the ball so that it exits the end zone. A safety is also awarded if the offensive team commits a penalty within its own end zone. After a safety, the team that was scored upon must kick the ball to the scoring team from its own 20-yard line.<br>A safety scored during a try scores 1 point and is followed by a kickoff as for any other try. ;safety valve :a receiver whose job it is to get open for a short pass in case all other receivers are covered. ;sam :the ''s''trong side outside linebacker ;scramble :on a called passing play, when the quarterback runs from the pocket in an attempt to avoid being sacked, giving the receivers more time to get open or attempting to gain positive yards by running himself. ;[[screen pass]] :a short forward pass to a receiver who has blockers in front of him. The receiver in this play is usually a running back, although wide receiver and tight end screens are also used. Although the are both called screen passes, the wide receiver screen and the running back screen are used for very different reasons. In the case of a running back screen, the play is designed to allow the pass rushers by the offensive linemen, leaving the defender out of position to make a play. The play is usually employed to defuse the pass rush in the case of a running back screen. The Wide Receiver screen is a much faster developing play, designed to catch the defense off guard. ;scrimmage :see: [[play from scrimmage]] ;shift :when two or more offensive players move at the same time before the snap. All players who move in a shift must come to a complete stop prior to the snap. ;[[Shoot the gap|shooting]] :the action of a linebacker or defensive back to [[blitz (American football)|blitz]] ;[[shotgun formation]] :formation in which offensive team may line up at the start of a play. In this formation, the quarterback receives the snap 5-8 yards behind the center. ;sideline : # one of the lines marking each side of the field # as adjective: on the field near a sideline ;side zone :the area between a hash mark and a sideline ;[[single wing]] : a formation, now out of fashion, most popular about 1920-50, with an overload and wingback on one side and two backs about 5 yards deep to receive the snap. ;slobber-knocker : a particularly gruesome tackle or hit. ;slot :The area between a split end and the offensive line. A pass receiver lined up in the slot at the snap of the ball may be called a slotback or slot receiver. ;[[snap (football)|snap]] :the handoff or pass from the center that begins a play from scrimmage. ;[[Quarterback sneak|sneak]] :an offensive play in which the quarterback, immediately on receiving the snap dives forward with the ball. The play is used when a team needs a very short gain to reach either the goal line or the line to gain. ;[[special team]]s :the units that handle kickoffs, punts, free kicks and field goal attempts. ;spike :a play in which the quarterback throws the ball at the ground immediately after the snap. Technically an incomplete pass, it stops the clock. Note that a spike is not considered '''intentional grounding'''. ;splits :the distance between the feet of adjacent offensive linemen. Said to be wide, if there is a large gap between players, or narrow, if the gap is small. ;split end :a player position on offence. A receiver who lines up on the line of scrimmage, several yards outside the offensive linemen. The term is no longer used in American Football, having been long since replaced by the wide receiver or wideout, with no distinction between whether the receiver is on the line or not. ;[[squib kick]] :a type of '''kickoff''' in which the ball is intentionally kicked low to the ground, typically bouncing on the ground a few times before being picked up. This is done in the hopes of preventing a long return, as the ball is often picked up by one of the '''upmen''' as opposed to the designated kickoff returner. ;sticks : the pole attached to the end of the 10-yard chain that is used by the [[chain crew]] to measure for a new series of downs -- i.e. the line to gain a new "first down". ;stiff-arm or straight-arm :a ballcarrier warding off a would-be tackler by pushing them away with a straight arm. ;strong i :a formation wherein the tailback is lined up deep directly behind the quarterback, and the fullback is lined up offset to the strong side of the formation. ;strong safety (SS):a kind of safety on [[defensive team|defense]], as opposed to a free safety. This is a central defensive back; originally, the term indicated that he lined up on the strong side of the field and covered the tight end. However, the modern usage of the term now indicates a central defensive back with responsibility for run and pass support, slightly favoring run support. ;strong side :simplistically speaking, the side of the field (left or right) that has the most players, but it depends on the formations of the teams. When a team uses one tight end, the strong side is the side of the field where the tight end lines up. If the offensive package uses no tight end, or more than one tight end, the strong side is the side of the field with the most offensive players on or just behind the line of scrimmage. ;[[stunt (football)|stunt]]:a tactic used by defensive linemen in which they switch roles in an attempt to get past the blockers. Both defenders will start with power rushes, with the stunting defender getting more of a push. The other lineman will then go around him, ideally using him as a pick to get free from his blocker. ;[[Sweep (American football)|sweep]] :a running play in which several blockers lead a running back on a designed play to the outside. Depending on the number of blockers and the design of the play this is sometimes referred to as a "power sweep" or "student-body-right" (or left). ==T== ;[[T formation]] :a classic offensive formation with the quarterback directly behind the center and three running backs behind the quarterback, forming a 'T'. Numerous variations have been developed including the split-T, wing-T, and wishbone-T. ;[[tackle (football)|tackle]] *the act of forcing a ball carrier to the ground *a player position on the line, either an [[offensive tackle]] or a [[defensive tackle]]-- see '''linemen'''. ;tackle box: the area between where the two [[offensive tackle]]s line up prior to the snap. ;[[tailback]] :player position on [[offensive team| offense]] farthest ("deepest") back, except in kicking formations. Also often referred to as the '''running back''', particularly in a '''one-back offense'''. ;[[three-and-out]]: when an offensive team fails to gain a first down on the first three plays of a drive, and thus is forced to punt on fourth down. ;three-point stance: a down lineman's stance with three points on the ground, in another words, his two feet and one of his hands ;[[tight end]] :a player position on [[offensive team| offense]], an eligible receiver ligned up on the line of scrimmage, next to the offensive tackle. Tight ends are used as blockers during running plays, and either run a route or stay in to block during passing plays. ;[[touchback]] :the act of downing the ball behind one's own goal line after the ball had been propelled over the goal by the opposing team. After a touchback, the team that downed it gets the ball at their own 20-yard line. ;touchdown :a play worth six points, accomplished by gaining legal possession of the ball in the opponent's end zone. It also allows the team a chance for one extra point by kicking the ball or a two point conversion; see "try" below. ;trap :a basic blocking pattern in which a defensive lineman is allowed past the line of scrimmage, only to be blocked at an angle by a "pulling" lineman. Designed to gain a preferred blocking angle and larger hole in the line. ;trips :a formation in which 3 wide receivers are lined up close to one another on the same side of the field. Also refers to those receivers. Used to create potential for confusion or collision between defenders as these receivers split up. ;[[two-point conversion]] :a play worth two points accomplished by gaining legal possession of the ball in the opponent's end zone after a touchdown has been made; see "try" below ;try :a scrimmage play, from close to their opponent's goal line, awarded to a team which has scored a touchdown, allowing them (and in some codes, their opponents) to score an additional 1 or 2 points; also called "try-for-point", "conversion", "convert" (Canadian), "extra point(s)", "point(s) after (touchdown)" or PAT ==U== ;unbalanced line :usually refers to an offensive formation which does not have an equal number of '''linemen''' on each side of the ball. Done to gain a blocking advantage on one side of the formation; typically one '''tackle''' or '''guard''' lines up on the other side of the ball. For example a common alignment would be E-G-C-G-T-T-E. ;upman :during a kickoff, every player on the return team is called an "upman" with the exception of the one or two designated kickoff returners, who stand furthest away from the starting point of the kicking team. ==V== ;Veer :a type of '''option''' offense using 2 backs in the backfield, one behind each guard or tackle (referred to as split backs), allowing a triple option play (give to either back or quarterback keep). ==W== ;weak i :a formation wherein the tailback is lined up deep directly behind the quarterback, and the fullback is lined up offset to the weak side of the formation. ;weak side :when one tight end is used, the side of the field opposite the tight end. In other offensive packages, the side of the field with the fewest offensive players on or just behind the line of scrimmage. ;[[West Coast offense]] :an [[Offensive philosophy (American football)|offensive philosophy]] that uses short, high-percentage passes as the core of a ball-control offense. Widely used but originally made popular by [[San Francisco 49ers]] coach [[Bill Walsh (football coach)|Bill Walsh]]. A main component of the west coast offense is use of all the eligible receivers in the short passing game. ;[[wide receiver]] :a player [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] on [[offensive team| offense]]. He is split wide (usually about 10 yards) from the formation and plays on the line of scrimmage as a '''split end''' or one yard off as a '''flanker'''. ;will :the ''w''eak side linebacker ;wing back :a player [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] in some [[offensive team| offensive]] formations. Lines up just outside the '''tight end''' and one yard off the '''line of scrimmage'''. May be a receiver but is more typically used as a blocking back. ;'''[[wishbone formation|wishbone]]''': a formation involving three running backs lined up behind the quarterback in the shape of a Y, similar to the shape of a [[wishbone]]. ==X== ;X-receiver :Term used in play calling that usually refers to the '''split end''', or the [[wide receiver]] that lines up on the line of scrimmage. For example, "Split Right Jet 529 X Post" tells the X-receiver to run a post route. ==Y== ;Y-receiver :Term usually used in offensive play calling to refer to the '''tight end'''. For example, "Buffalo Right 534 Boot Y Corner" tells the Y-receiver to run a corner route. ==Z== ;Z-receiver :a term used in offensive play calling that usually refers to the '''flanker''', or the [[wide receiver]] that lines up off the line of scrimmage. For example, "Panther Gun 85 Slant Z Go" tells the Z-receiver to run a '''go''' (also called a '''fly''' or '''streak''') route. ;zone defense :a defense in which players who are in pass coverage cover zones of the field, instead of individual players. Pure zone packages are seldom used; most defenses employ some combination of zone and man coverage. ;[[zone blitz]] : A defensive package combining a blitz with zone pass coveragee. Allows the defense to choose the blitzer after the offense shows formation and pass coverage requirements, and features unpredictable blitzes from different linebackers and defensive backs. Invented by coach [[Dick LeBeau]]. {{compactTOC4}} [[Category:American football terminology| ]] [[Category:Glossaries|American football]] 775 41965420 2006-03-02T22:49:15Z Jidan 258229 [[Image:flowchart.png|frame|right|[[Flowchart|Flowcharts]] are often used to represent algorithms.]] In [[mathematics]] and [[computer science]], an '''algorithm''' is a procedure (a finite [[set]] of well-defined instructions) for accomplishing some task which, given an initial state, will [[termination|terminate]] in a defined end-state. Informally, the concept of an algorithm is often illustrated by the example of a [[recipe]], although many algorithms are much more complex; algorithms often have steps that repeat ([[iteration|iterate]]) or require decisions (such as [[Boolean logic|logic]] or [[inequality|comparison]]). The concept of an algorithm originated as a means of recording procedures for solving mathematical problems such as finding the common divisor of two numbers or multiplying two numbers. The concept was formalized in [[1936]] through [[Alan Turing]]'s [[Turing machines]] and [[Alonzo Church]]'s [[lambda calculus]], which in turn formed the foundation of [[computer science]]. Most algorithms can be implemented by [[computer program]]s. == History == The word ''algorithm'' comes from the name of the 9th century mathematician [[al-Khwarizmi|Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Musa al-Khwarizmi]]. The word ''[[algorism]]'' originally referred only to the rules of performing [[arithmetic]] using [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system|Hindu-Arabic numerals]] but evolved via European Latin translation of al-Khwarizmi's name into ''algorithm'' by the 18th century. The word evolved to include all definite procedures for solving problems or performing tasks. The first case of an algorithm written for a [[computer]] was [[Ada Lovelace|Ada Byron]]'s [[Ada Byron's notes on the analytical engine|notes on the analytical engine]] written in 1842, for which she is considered by many to be the world's first [[programmer]]. However, since [[Charles Babbage]] never completed his [[analytical engine]] the algorithm was never implemented on it. The lack of [[mathematical rigor]] in the "well-defined procedure" definition of algorithms posed some difficulties for mathematicians and [[logic]]ians of the [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th centuries]]. This problem was largely solved with the description of the [[Turing machine]], an abstract model of a [[computer]] formulated by [[Alan Turing]], and the demonstration that every method yet found for describing "well-defined procedures" advanced by other mathematicians could be emulated on a Turing machine (a statement known as the [[Church-Turing thesis]]). Nowadays, a formal criterion for an algorithm is that it is a procedure that can be implemented on a completely specified Turing machine or one of the equivalent [[formalism]]s. {{sect-stub}} == Formalization of algorithms == Algorithms are essential to the way [[computer]]s process information, because a [[computer program]] is essentially an algorithm that tells the computer what specific steps to perform (in what specific order) in order to carry out a specified task, such as calculating employees&#8217; paychecks or printing students&#8217; report cards. Thus, an algorithm can be considered to be any sequence of operations which can be performed by a [[Turing completeness|Turing-complete]] system. Typically, when an algorithm is associated with processing information, data is read from an input source or device, written to an output sink or device, and/or stored for further use. Stored data is regarded as part of the internal state of the entity performing the algorithm. The state is stored in a [[data structure]]. For any such computational process, the algorithm must be rigorously defined: specified in the way it applies in all possible circumstances that could arise. That is, any conditional steps must be systematically dealt with, case-by-case; the criteria for each case must be clear (and computable). Because an algorithm is a precise list of precise steps, the order of computation will almost always be critical to the functioning of the algorithm. Instructions are usually assumed to be listed explicitly, and are described as starting 'from the top' and going 'down to the bottom', an idea that is described more formally by ''[[control flow|flow of control]]''. So far, this discussion of the formalization of an algorithm has assumed the premises of [[imperative programming]]. This is the most common conception, and it attempts to describe a task in discrete, 'mechanical' means. Unique to this conception of formalized algorithms is the [[assignment operation]], setting the value of a variable. It derives from the intuition of '[[memory]]' as a scratchpad. There is an example below of such an assignment. See [[functional programming]] and [[logic programming]] for alternate conceptions of what constitutes an algorithm. Some writers restrict the definition of ''algorithm'' to procedures that eventually finish. Others include procedures that could run forever without stopping, arguing that some entity may be required to carry out such permanent tasks. In the latter case, success can no longer be defined in terms of halting with a meaningful output. Instead, terms of success that allow for unbounded output sequences must be defined. For example, an algorithm that verifies if there are more zeros than ones in an infinite random binary sequence must run forever to be effective. If it is implemented correctly, however, the algorithm's output will be useful: for as long as it examines the sequence, the algorithm will give a positive response while the number of examined zeros outnumber the ones, and a negative response otherwise. Success for this algorithm could then be defined as eventually outputting only positive responses if there are actually more zeros than ones in the sequence, and in any other case outputting any mixture of positive and negative responses. Summarizing the above discussion about what algorithm should consist. * Zero or more Inputs * One or more Outputs * Finiteness or computability * Definitiveness or Preciseness === Implementation === An algorithm is a set of steps to perform a computation. Most algorithms will be implemented as [[computer programs]]. They can be expressed in any notation including [[English language|English]] for documenting and research purposes. A more preferred way is to embody (or sometimes called ''codify'') an algorithm by writing of its [[pseudocode]]. [[Pseudocode]] representation avoids ambiguities that are common in English statements. The pseudocode can also be translated into particular programming language more straightforwardly. Algorithms are implemented not only as [[computer program]]s, but often also by other means, such as in a biological [[neural network]] (for example, the [[human brain]] implementing [[arithmetic]] or an insect relocating food), in [[electric circuit]]s, or in a mechanical device. == Example == One of the simplest algorithms is to find the largest number in an (unsorted) list of numbers. The solution necessarily requires looking at every number in the list, but only once at each. From this follows a simple algorithm, which can be stated in [[English language|English]] as # Let us assume the first item is largest. # Look at each of the remaining items in the list and make the following adjustment. #:a. If it is larger than the largest item we gathered so far, make a note of it. # The latest noted item is the largest in the list when the process is complete. And here is a more formal coding of the algorithm in [[pseudocode]]: {{algorithm-begin|name=LargestNumber}} Input: A non-empty list of numbers ''L''. Output: The ''largest'' number in the list ''L''. ''largest'' &larr; ''L''<sub>0</sub> '''for each''' ''item'' '''in''' the list ''L<sub>&ge;1</sub>'', '''do''' '''if''' the ''item'' > ''largest'', '''then''' ''largest'' &larr; the ''item'' '''return''' ''largest'' {{algorithm-end}} For a more complex example, see [[Euclid's algorithm]], which is one of the oldest algorithms. === Algorithm analysis === As it happens, most people who implement algorithms want to know how much of a particular resource (such as time or storage) is required for a given algorithm. Methods have been developed for the [[analysis of algorithms]] to obtain such quantitative answers; for example, the algorithm above has a time requirement of O(''n''), using the [[big O notation]] with ''n'' as the length of the list. At all times the algorithm only needs to remember two values: the largest number found so far, and its current position in the input list. Therefore it is said to have a space requirement of ''O(1)''{{ref|space}}. (Note that the size of the inputs is not counted as space used by the algorithm.) Different algorithms may complete the same task with a different set of instructions in less or more time, space, or effort than others. For example, given two different recipes for making potato salad, one may have ''peel the potato'' before ''boil the potato'' while the other presents the steps in the reverse order, yet they both call for these steps to be repeated for all potatoes and end when the potato salad is ready to be eaten. <!-- poor example .. who would boil each potato separately? and making a salad in general requires no cooking ... --> The [[analysis of algorithms|analysis and study of algorithms]] is one discipline of [[computer science]], and is often practiced abstractly (without the use of a specific [[programming language]] or other implementation). In this sense, it resembles other mathematical disciplines in that the analysis focuses on the underlying principles of the algorithm, and not on any particular implementation. The pseudocode is simplest and abstract enough for such analysis. == Classes == There are various ways to classify algorithms, each with its own merits. === Classification by implementation === One way to classify algorithms is by implementation means. * '''Recursion''' or '''iteration''': A [[recursive algorithm]] is one that invokes (makes reference to) itself repeatedly until a certain condition matches, which is a method common to [[functional programming]]. Iterative algorithms use repetitive constructs like loops and sometimes additional data structures like stacks to solve the given problems. Some problems are naturally suited for one implementation to other. For example, [[towers of hanoi]] is well understood in recursive implementation. Every recursive version has an equivalent (but possibly more or less complex) iterative version, and vice versa. * '''Serial''' or '''parallel''': Algorithms are usually discussed with the assumption that computers execute one instruction of an algorithm at a time. Those computers are sometimes called serial computers. An algorithm designed for such an environment is called a serial algorithm, as opposed to [[parallel algorithm]]s, which take advantage of computer architectures where several processors can work on a problem at the same time. Parallel algorithms divide the problem into more symmetrical or asymmetrical subproblems and pass them to many processors and put the results back together at one end. The resource consumption in parallel algorithms is both processor cycles on each processors and also the communication overhead between the processors. Sorting algorithms can be parallelized efficiently, but their communication overhead is expensive. Recursive algorithms are generally parallelizable. Some problems have no parallel algorithms, and are called inherently serial problems. Those problems cannot be solved faster by employing more processors. Iterative [[numerical methods]], such as [[Newton's method]] or the [[three body problem]], are algorithms which are inherently serial. * '''Deterministic''' or '''random''': Deterministic algorithms solve the problem with exact decision at every step of the algorithm. Random algorithms as their name suggests explore the search space randomly until an acceptable solution is found. Various heuristic algorithms (see below) generally fall into the random category. * '''Exact''' or '''approximate''': While many algorithms reach an exact solution, [[approximation algorithm]]s seek an approximation which is close to the true solution. Approximation may use either a deterministic or a random strategy. Such algorithms have practical value for many hard problems. === Classification by design paradigm === Another way of classifying algorithms is by their design methodology or paradigm. There is a certain number of paradigms, each different from the other. Furthermore, each of these categories will include many different types of algorithms. Some commonly found paradigms include: * '''Divide and conquer'''. A [[divide and conquer algorithm]] repeatedly reduces an instance of a problem to one or more smaller instances of the same problem (usually [[recursion|recursively]]), until the instances are small enough to solve easily. One such example of divide and conquer is merge sorting. Sorting can be done on each segment of data after dividing data into segments and sorting of entire data can be obtained in conquer phase by merging them. A simpler variant of divide and conquer is called '''decrease and conquer algorithm''', that solves an identical subproblem and uses the solution of this subproblem to solve the bigger problem. Divide and conquer divides the problem into multiple subproblems and so conquer stage will be more complex than decrease and conquer algorithms. An example of decrease and conquer algorithm is [[binary search algorithm]]. * '''[[Dynamic programming]]'''. When a problem shows [[optimal substructure]], meaning the optimal solution to a problem can be constructed from optimal solutions to subproblems, and [[overlapping subproblems]], meaning the same subproblems are used to solve many different problem instances, we can often solve the problem quickly using ''dynamic programming'', an approach that avoids recomputing solutions that have already been computed. For example, the shortest path to a goal from a vertex in a weighted [[graph (mathematics)|graph]] can be found by using the shortest path to the goal from all adjacent vertices. Dynamic programming and [[memoization]] go together. The main difference between dynamic programming and divide and conquer is, subproblems are more or less independent in divide and conquer, where as the overlap of subproblems occur in dynamic programming. The difference between the dynamic programming and straightforward recursion is in caching or memoization of recursive calls. Where subproblems are independent, there is no chance of repetition and memoization does not help, so dynamic programming is not a solution for all. By using memoization or maintaining a table of subproblems already solved, dynamic programming reduces the exponential nature of many problems to polynomial complexity. * '''The greedy method'''. A [[greedy algorithm]] is similar to a [[dynamic programming|dynamic programming algorithm]], but the difference is that solutions to the subproblems do not have to be known at each stage; instead a "greedy" choice can be made of what looks best for the moment. Difference between dynamic programming and greedy method is, it extends the solution with the best possible decision (not all feasible decisions) at a algorithmic stage based on the current local optimum and the best decision (not all possible decisions) made in previous stage. It is not exhaustive, and does not give accurate answer to many problems. But when it works, it will be the fastest method. The most popular greedy algorithm is finding the minimal spanning tree as given by [[kruskal's algorithm|Kruskal]]. * '''Linear programming'''. When solving a problem using [[linear programming]], the program is put into a number of linear [[inequality|inequalities]] and then an attempt is made to maximize (or minimize) the inputs. Many problems (such as the [[Maximum flow problem|maximum flow]] for directed [[graph (mathematics)|graphs]]) can be stated in a linear programming way, and then be solved by a 'generic' algorithm such as the [[simplex algorithm]]. A complex variant of linear programming is called integer programming, where the solution space is restricted to all integers. * '''[[Reduction (complexity)|Reduction]]''': It is another powerful technique in solving many problems by transforming one problem into another problem. For example, one [[selection algorithm]] for finding the median in an unsorted list is first translating this problem into sorting problem and finding the middle element in sorted list. The goal of reduction algorithms is finding the simplest transformation such that complexity of reduction algorithm does not dominate the complexity of reduced algorithm. This technique is also called ''transform and conquer''. * '''Search and enumeration'''. Many problems (such as playing [[chess]]) can be modeled as problems on [[graph theory|graphs]]. A [[graph exploration algorithm]] specifies rules for moving around a graph and is useful for such problems. This category also includes the [[search algorithm]]s and [[backtracking]]. * '''The probabilistic and heuristic paradigm'''. Algorithms belonging to this class fit the definition of an algorithm more loosely. # [[Probabilistic algorithm]]s are those that make some choices randomly (or pseudo-randomly); for some problems, it can in fact be proven that the fastest solutions must involve some [[randomness]]. # [[Genetic algorithm]]s attempt to find solutions to problems by mimicking biological [[evolution]]ary processes, with a cycle of random mutations yielding successive generations of "solutions". Thus, they emulate reproduction and "survival of the fittest". In [[genetic programming]], this approach is extended to algorithms, by regarding the algorithm itself as a "solution" to a problem. Also there are # [[Heuristic (computer science)|Heuristic]] algorithms, whose general purpose is not to find an optimal solution, but an approximate solution where the time or resources to find a perfect solution are not practical. An example of this would be [[local search (optimization)|local search]], [[taboo search]], or [[simulated annealing]] algorithms, a class of heuristic probabilistic algorithms that vary the solution of a problem by a random amount. The name "simulated annealing" alludes to the metallurgic term meaning the heating and cooling of metal to achieve freedom from defects. The purpose of the random variance is to find close to globally optimal solutions rather than simply locally optimal ones, the idea being that the random element will be decreased as the algorithm settles down to a solution. === Classification by field of study === Every field of science has its own problems and needs efficient algorithms. Related problems in one field are often studied together. Some example classes are [[search algorithm]]s, [[sort algorithm]]s, [[merge algorithm]]s, [[numerical analysis|numerical algorithms]], [[graph theory|graph algorithms]], [[string algorithms]], [[computational geometry|computational geometric algorithms]], [[combinatorial|combinatorial algorithms]], [[machine learning]], [[cryptography]], [[data compression]] algorithms and [[parsing|parsing techniques]]. ''See also:'' '''[[List of algorithms]]''' for more details. Some of these fields overlap with each other and advancing in algorithms for one field causes advancement in many fields and sometimes completely unrelated fields. For example, dynamic programming is originally invented for optimisation in resource consumption in industries, but it is used in solving broad range of problems in many fields. === Classification by complexity === Some algorithms complete in linear time, and some complete in exponential amount of time, and some never complete. One problem may have multiple algorithms, and some problems may have no algorithms. Some problems have no known efficient algorithms. There are also mappings from some problems to other problems. So computer scientists found it is suitable to classify the problems rather than algorithms into equivalence classes based on the complexity. ''See also:'' '''[[Complexity class]]es''' for more details. == Legal issues == Some countries allow algorithms to be [[patented]] when embodied in software or in hardware. Patents have long been a controversial issue (see, for example, the [[software patent debate]]). Some countries do not allow certain algorithms, such as cryptographic algorithms, to be [[exported]] from that country. ==See also== * [[Algorism]] * [[Approximation algorithms]] * [[Data structure]] * [[Randomized algorithm]] * [[Timeline of algorithms]] * [[b:A-Level Mathematics/D1/Algorithms|Wikibooks:Algorithms]] ==Notes== {{note|space}} Although in this example the size of the numbers itself is unbounded, one could therefore argue that the space requirement is O(log ''n''), in practice, however, the space taken up by a number is fixed. ==References== * [[List of important publications in computer science#Algorithms|Important algorithm-related publications]] ==External links== * {{DADS|algorithm|algorithm}} * Gaston H. Gonnet and Ricardo Baeza-Yates: Example programs from [http://www.dcc.uchile.cl/~rbaeza/handbook/ ''Handbook of Algorithms and Data Structures.''] Free source code for many important algorithms. * [http://www.nist.gov/dads/ Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures]. "This is a dictionary of algorithms, algorithmic techniques, data structures, archetypical problems, and related definitions." * [http://www.nr.com Numerical Recipes] * [http://dmoz.org/Computers/Algorithms/ Computers/Algorithms @ dmoz.org] * [http://musicalgorithms.ewu.edu/ ''Musicalgorithms''] An interesting way of using algorithms to make music. * [http://www.algorithmist.com/ The Algorithmist] is a web site dedicated to algorithms. [[Category:Algorithms|*]] [[Category:Arabic words]] [[Category:Discrete mathematics]] [[Category:Mathematical logic]] [[af:Algoritme]] [[an:Algoritmo]] [[ast:Algoritmu]] [[bg:Алгоритъм]] [[bs:Algoritam]] [[ca:Algorisme]] [[cs:Algoritmus]] [[da:Algoritme]] [[de:Algorithmus]] [[el:Αλγόριθμος]] [[eo:Algoritmo]] [[es:Algoritmo]] [[et:Algoritm]] [[fi:Algoritmi]] [[fr:Algorithmique]] [[gl:Algoritmo]] [[he:אלגוריתם]] [[hr:Algoritam]] [[hu:Algoritmus]] [[id:Algoritma]] [[it:Algoritmo]] [[ja:アルゴリズム]] [[ko:알고리즘]] [[lb:Algorithmus]] [[lt:Algoritmas]] [[nl:Algoritme]] [[no:Algoritme]] [[pl:Algorytm]] [[pt:Algoritmo]] [[ro:Algoritm]] [[ru:Алгоритм]] [[simple:Algorithm]] [[sk:Algoritmus]] [[sl:Algoritem]] [[sr:Алгоритам]] [[su:Algoritma]] [[sv:Algoritm]] [[th:อัลกอริทึม]] [[tl:Algoritmo]] [[tr:Algoritma]] [[uk:Алгоритм]] [[vi:Thuật toán]] [[zh:算法]] {{featured article}} 776 23401673 2005-09-17T16:42:11Z Hurricane111 99272 Fixed double redirect; [[Wikipedia:Computer help desk/cleanup/double redirects/20050713|You can help!]]. #REDIRECT [[Public-key cryptography]] 777 34476075 2006-01-09T08:59:46Z 70.107.141.78 An '''annual plant''' is a [[plant]] that usually germinates, [[flower]]s and dies in one [[year]]. Annuals are often used in [[garden]]s to provide splashes of color, as they tend to produce more flowers than perennials. Some [[perennial plant|perennials]] and [[biennial plant|biennials]] are grown in gardens as annuals for convenience, particularly if they are not considered [[hardiness (plants)|hardy]] for the local climate. Also, many food plants are, or are grown as, annuals, including most domesticated [[Cereal|grain]]s. The life-cycle of an annual can occur in a period as short as two or three [[month]]s in some species, though most last a bit longer. Vegetables grown in apartment container gardens can last up to two years, if they are maintained indoors during the winter months. Examples of annual plants include [[pea]]s, [[cauliflower]]s, [[basil]], and [[marigold]]s. ==See also== *[[Biennial plant]] *[[Perennial plant]] ---- [[Category:Botany]] [[Category: gardening]] [[ca:Planta anual]] [[de:Einjährige Pflanze]] [[is:Einær jurt]] [[ru:Однолетнее растение]] [[ta:ஆண்டுத் தாவரம்]] 779 38941522 2006-02-09T17:50:41Z Brya 449067 slight expansion '''''Anthophyta''''' is a [[descriptive botanical names|descriptive botanical name]] that may be used (Art 16, ''[[ICBN]]'') for what, these days, is more commonly known as ''[[Angiospermae]]'', although in some classifications it was used for what now is known as ''[[Spermatophyta]]''. The name ''Anthophyta'' literally means "[[flowering plant]]s"; derived from the Greek 'anthos'="flower" and 'phyton'= "plant". [[Category:Plants| sort31 Anthophyta]] [[category: plant taxonomy| sort31 Anthophyta]] 780 42153502 2006-03-04T04:17:21Z CodemauL 1026617 /* In computers */ __NOTOC__ :''This page is about the word "atlas"''. ''See also the abbreviation "[[ATLAS]]" (written in [[all caps]])''. The most common meaning of '''atlas''' is [[atlas (cartography)]], a collection of maps. By extension, a [[road atlas]] is a collection of road maps. Many other entities are also called "atlas", some of which are listed below: ===In science=== *[[Atlas (anatomy)]] is the topmost cervical vertebra of the spine *Atlas [[beetle]], insect *Atlas [[cedar]], tree *[[Atlas (moon)]], a moon of Saturn *[[Atlas (crater)]], on the Earth's moon *[[Atlas (star)]], a star in the Pleiades star cluster *[[ATLAS_experiment|Atlas Experiment]] The particle detector experiment. ===In computers=== *[[Atlas Computer (Manchester)|Atlas Computer]], University of Manchester * [[Titan (computer)]], also know as Atlas 2, University of Cambridge *[[UNIVAC 1101]], Atlas Computer, Engineering Research Associates *[[UNIVAC 1103]], Atlas II computer, Engineering Research Associates *[[ATLAS Programming Language|ATLAS]], a programming language used for automated test equipment *[[ATLAS.ti]], a [[qualitative analysis]] software[http://www.atlasti.com/index.php] *[[ATLAS_(programming)]], Microsoft's implementation of [[Ajax_(programming)]] for [[ASP.NET]] ===In books and literature=== *''The Atlas'', a book by the American author [[William Vollmann]] *''Atlas'', a book of photography by the German artist [[Gerhard Richter]] *''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'', a novel by Ayn Rand *[[Atlas Games]], publisher *[[Atlas Comics (1950s)]] was, along with the 1940s' [[Timely Comics]], one of the two precursors of [[Marvel Comics]] *[[Atlas/Seaboard Comics]], a short-lived [[comic book]] company created in 1974 *[[Atlas (comic series)|Atlas]], a comic book series published by [[Drawn & Quarterly]] *[[Atlas (comics)|Atlas]], a Marvel Comics character ===In Transportation=== *[[Atlas (rocket)]] *[[Atlas Cheetah]] and [[Atlas Oryx]], aircraft *[[Atlas Van Lines]] ===A last name of=== *[[Charles Atlas]], there are several people who go by this name *[[Teddy Atlas]], boxing trainer of Mike Tyson *[[Natacha Atlas]], a female musician *Atlas is a fictional robot who is the rival of [[Astro Boy]] in the 1980 and 2003 animated series named after the latter *Atlas is a fictional character from Marvel Comics, best known as a member of the [[Thunderbolts (comics)]] ===Other=== *[[Atlas (mythology)]], the [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]] of [[Greek mythology]] *[[Atlas mountains]] *[[Atlas (architecture)]], the column *[[Atlas (topology)]], a collection of local coordinate charts in mathematics *[[CF Atlas]], a Mexican football team *[[Atlas Telecom]], Romanian communications company *[[Atlas Economic Research Foundation]], an [[Business incubator|incubator]] for [[Free market|free market]] [[Think tank|think tanks]]. {{disambig}} [[cs:Atlas]] [[da:Atlas]] [[de:Atlas]] [[es:Atlas]] [[fr:Atlas]] [[hr:Atlas]] [[it:Atlante]] [[he:אטלס]] [[nl:Atlas]] [[pl:Atlas]] [[pt:Atlas]] [[ru:Атлас]] [[sk:Atlas]] [[sl:Atlas]] 782 41972980 2006-03-02T23:46:36Z 68.35.107.145 [[Antiseptic]] mouth rinse, often called '''mouthwash''', is an [[oral hygiene]] product that claims to kill the [[germ]]s that cause [[Dental plaque|plaque]], [[gingivitis]], and [[bad breath]]. However, it is generally agreed that the use of mouthwash does not eliminate the need for both [[toothbrush|brushing]] and [[flossing]]. Common use involves rinsing one's mouth with about 20 [[milliliter|ml]] (2/3 [[ounce|oz]]) of mouthwash two times a day after brushing. The mouthwash is typically swished or [[gargling|gargled]] for about half a minute and then spit out. Active ingredients in commercial brands of mouthwash can include [[thymol]], [[eucalyptol]], [[methyl salicylate]], [[menthol]], [[chlorhexidine gluconate]], [[hydrogen peroxide]] and sometimes [[enzymes]] and [[calcium]]. Ingredients also include [[water]], sweeteners such as [[sorbitol]] and [[Saccharine|Sodium saccharine]], and a significant amount of [[ethanol|alcohol]] (around 20%). Because of the alcohol content, it is possible to fail a [[breathalyzer]] test after rinsing one's mouth. Many newer brands are alcohol-free. A '''salt mouthwash''' is a homemade treatment for mouth infections and is made by dissolving a teaspoon of [[Edible salt|salt]] in a cup of warm water. [[Category:Dental equipment]] {{dentistry-stub}} [[zh-min-nan:Lo&#781;k-chh&#249;i-ch&#250;i]] [[fi:Suuvesi]] 783 42153285 2006-03-04T04:15:15Z Naconkantari 676502 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/128.54.165.110|128.54.165.110]] ([[User talk:128.54.165.110|talk]]) to last version by InGenX {{redirect|Alexander}} [[Image:AlexanderAttackingDarius.jpg|thumb|300px|'''Alexander the Great''' fighting Persian king [[Darius III of Persia|Darius III]] (not in frame) ''[[Alexander Mosaic]]'' from [[Pompeii]], from a [[3rd century BC]] original Greek painting, now lost).]] '''Alexander [[List of people known as The Great|the Great]]''' (in [[Greek language|Greek]] '''{{polytonic|Μέγας Αλέξανδρος}}''', transliterated ''Megas Alexandros'') (Alexander III of Macedon) was born in [[Pella]], [[Macedon]], in [[July]], [[356 BC]], died in [[Babylon]], on [[June 10]], [[323 BC]], King of Macedon [[336 BC|336]]&ndash;[[323 BC]], is considered one of the most successful military commanders in world history (if not the greatest), conquering most of the [[Ptolemy_world_map|known world]] before his death. Alexander is also known in the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] [[Middle Persian]] work ''[[Book of Arda Viraf|Arda Wiraz Nāmag]]'' as "the accursed Alexander" due to his conquest of the [[Persian Empire]] and the destruction of its capital [[Persepolis]]. He is also known in Middle Eastern traditions as ''[[Dhul-Qarnayn]]'' in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and ''Dul-Qarnayim'' in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] (the two-horned one), apparently due to an image on coins minted during his rule that seemingly depicted him with the two ram's horns of the Egyptian god [[Amun|Ammon]]. He is known as '''Sikandar''' in [[Hindi]]; in fact in [[India]], the term Sikandar is used as a synonym for "expert" or "extremely skilled". Following the unification of the multiple city-states of [[ancient Greece]] under the rule of his father, [[Philip II of Macedon]], (a labor Alexander had to repeat twice because the southern Greeks rebelled after Philip's death), Alexander conquered the [[Persian Empire]], including [[Anatolia]], [[Syria]], [[Phoenicia]], [[Gaza]], [[Egypt]], [[Bactria]] and [[Mesopotamia]] and extended the boundaries of his own [[empire]] as far as the [[Punjab region|Punjab]]. Alexander integrated foreigners (non-Macedonians, non-Greeks{{rf|1|MvsG1}}) into his army and administration, leading some scholars to credit him with a "policy of fusion." He encouraged marriage between his army and foreigners, and practiced it himself. After twelve years of constant military campaigning, Alexander died, possibly of [[malaria]], [[typhoid]], viral [[encephalitis]] or even a drug overdose. His conquests ushered in centuries of Greek settlement and rule over foreign areas, a period known as the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic Age]]. Alexander himself lived on in the history and myth of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. Already during his lifetime, and especially after his death, his exploits inspired a literary tradition in which he appears as a towering legendary [[hero]] in the tradition of [[Achilles]]. ==Early life== [[Image:AlexanderTheGreat Bust.jpg|thumb|right|[[Bust (sculpture)|Bust]] of Alexander III in the [[British Museum]].]] Alexander was the son of King Philip II of Macedon and of [[Epirus (region)|Epirote]] princess [[Olympias]]. According to [[Plutarch]] (''Alexander'' 3.1,3), Olympias was impregnated not by Philip, who was afraid of her and her affinity for sleeping in the company of snakes, but by [[Zeus]]. Plutarch (''Alexander'' 2.2-3) relates that both Philip and Olympias dreamt of their son's future birth. Olympias dreamed of a loud burst of thunder and of lightning striking her womb. In Philip's dream, he sealed her womb with the seal of the [[lion]]. Alarmed by this, he consulted the seer [[Aristander|Aristander of Telmessus]], who determined that his wife was pregnant and that the child would have the character of a lion. [[Aristotle]] was Alexander's tutor; he gave Alexander a thorough training in [[rhetoric]] and [[literature]] and stimulated his interest in [[science]], [[medicine]], and [[philosophy]]. After his visit to the [[Oracle]] of [[Amun|Ammon]] at [[Siwa Oasis|Siwa]], according to all five of the extant historians ([[Arrian]], [[Quintus Curtius Rufus|Curtius]], [[Diodorus Siculus|Diodorus]], [[Junianus Justinus|Justin]], and [[Plutarch]]), rumors spread that the Oracle had revealed Alexander's father to be [[Zeus]], rather than Philip. According to Plutarch (''Alexander'' 2.1), his father descended from [[Heracles]] through [[Caranus]] and his mother descended from [[Aeacus]] through [[Neoptolemus]] and [[Achilles]]. Aristotle gave him a copy of the [[Illiad]] and a knife that he always hid under his pillow at night. ===The ascent of Macedon=== When Philip led an attack on [[Byzantium]] in [[340 BC]], Alexander, aged 16, was left in command of Macedonia. In [[339 BC]], Philip took a second wife, to the chagrin of Alexander's mother Olympias, which led to a quarrel between Alexander and his father and threw into question Alexander's succession to the Macedonian throne. In [[338 BC]], Philip created the [[League of Corinth]]. Alexander also assisted his father at the decisive battle of [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Chaeronea]] in this year. The [[Companion cavalry|cavalry]] wing led by Alexander annihilated the [[Sacred Band of Thebes]], an elite corps previously regarded as invincible. Philip was content to deprive Thebes of her dominion over [[Boeotia]] and leave a Macedonian garrison in the citadel. In [[336 BC]], Philip was assassinated at the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra to [[Alexander I of Epirus|King Alexander of Epirus]]. The [[assassin]] was supposedly a former lover of the king, the disgruntled young nobleman [[Pausanias (assassin)|Pausanias]], who held a grudge against Philip because the king had ignored a complaint he had expressed. Philip's murder was once thought to have been planned with the knowledge and involvement of Alexander or Olympias. Another possible instigator could have been [[Darius III of Persia|Darius III]], the recently crowned King of Persia. [[Plutarch]] mentions an irate letter from Alexander to Darius, where Alexander blames Darius and [[Bagoas]], his [[grand vizier]], for his father's murder, stating that it was Darius who had been bragging with the Greek cities of how he managed to assassinate Philip. After Philip's death, the army proclaimed Alexander, then aged 20, as the new king of Macedon. Greek cities like [[Athens]] and [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], which had been forced to pledge allegiance to Philip, saw in the new king an opportunity to retake their full independence. Alexander moved swiftly and Thebes, which had been most active against him, submitted when he appeared at its gates. The assembled Greeks at the [[Isthmus of Corinth]], with the sole exception of the [[Sparta]]ns, elected him to the command against Persia, which had previously been bestowed upon his father. The next year, ([[335 BC]]), Alexander felt free to engage the [[Thracians]] and the [[Illyria]]ns in order to secure the [[Danube]] as the northern boundary of the Macedonian kingdom. While he was triumphantly campaigning north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander reacted immediately and while the other cities once again hesitated, Thebes decided this time to resist with the utmost vigor. The resistance was useless; in the end, the city was conquered with great bloodshed. The Thebans encountered an ever harsher fate when their city was razed to the ground and its territory divided between the other Boeotian cities. Moreover, all of the city's citizens were sold into slavery, sparing only the priests, the leaders of the pro-Macedonian party and the descendants of [[Pindar]], whose house was the only one left untouched. The end of Thebes cowed Athens into submission and it readily accepted Alexander's demand for the exile of all the leaders of the anti-Macedonian party, [[Demosthenes]] first of all. ==Period of conquests== [[Image:Map-alexander-empire.png|thumb|440px|Map of Alexander's empire.]] ===The fall of the Persian Empire=== Alexander's army had crossed the [[Hellespont]] with about 42,000 soldiers primarily Macedonians{{rf|2|MvsG2}} and Greeks, but also including some Thracians, [[Paionia]]ns and Illyrians. After an initial victory against Persian forces at the [[Battle of the Granicus|Battle of Granicus]], Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of [[Sardis]] and proceeded down the [[Ionia|Ionian]] coast. At [[Halicarnassus]], Alexander successfully waged the first of many [[siege]]s, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain [[Memnon of Rhodes]] and the Persian [[satrap]] of [[Caria]], [[Orontobates]], to withdraw by sea. Alexander left Caria in the hands of [[Ada of Caria|Ada]], who was ruler of Caria before being deposed by her brother [[Pixodarus of Caria|Pixodarus]]. From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous [[Lycia]] and the [[Pamphylia]]n plain, asserting control over all coastal cities and denying them to his enemy. From Pamphylia onward, the coast held no major ports and so Alexander moved inland. At [[Termessus]], Alexander humbled but did not storm the [[Pisidia]]n city. At the ancient Phrygian capital of [[Gordium]], Alexander "undid" the tangled [[Gordian Knot|Gordian knot]], a feat said to await the future "king of [[Asia]]." According to the most vivid story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone, and he hacked it apart with his sword. Another version claims that he did not use the sword, but actually figured out how to undo the knot. [[Image:AlexMos.jpg|thumb|350px|Alexander battling Darius at the [[Battle of Issus]], Pompei mosaic.]] Alexander's army crossed the [[Cilician Gates]], met and defeated the main Persian army under the command of Darius III at the [[Battle of Issus]] in [[333 BC]]. Darius fled this battle in such a panic for his life that he left behind his wife, his children, his mother, and much of his personal treasure. [[Sisygambis]], the queen mother, never forgave Darius for abandoning her. She disowned him and adopted Alexander as her son instead. Proceeding down the [[Mediterranean]] coast, he took [[Tyre]] and [[Gaza]] after famous sieges (see [[Siege of Tyre]]). Alexander passed near but probably did not visit [[Jerusalem]]. In [[332 BC]] - [[331 BC]], Alexander was welcomed as a liberator in [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Egypt]] and was pronounced the son of Zeus by Egyptian priests of the god Ammon at the Oracle of the god at the [[Siwa Oasis]] in the [[Libya]]n desert. He founded [[Alexandria]] in Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the [[Ptolemaic]] dynasty after his death. Leaving Egypt, Alexander marched eastward into [[Assyria]] (now northern [[Iraq]]) and defeated Darius and a third Persian army at the [[Battle of Gaugamela]]. Darius was forced to flee the field after his charioteer was killed, and Alexander chased him as far as [[Arbela]]. While Darius fled over the mountains to [[Ecbatana]] (modern [[Hamadan]]), Alexander marched to [[Babylon]]. [[Image:UrumqiSoldier.jpg|thumb|180px|Statuette of a Greek soldier, from a 4th - 3rd century BC burial site north of the [[Tian Shan]], at the maximum extent of Alexander's advance in the East ([[Ürümqi]], [[Xinjiang]] Museum, [[China]]) (drawing).]] From Babylon, Alexander went to [[Susa]], one of the [[Achaemenid]] capitals, and captured its treasury. Sending the bulk of his army to [[Persepolis]], the Persian capital, by the [[Royal Road]], Alexander stormed and captured the Persian Gates (in the modern [[Zagros Mountains]]), then sprinted for [[Persepolis]] before its treasury could be looted. Alexander allowed the League forces to loot Persepolis. A fire broke out in the eastern palace of [[Xerxes]] and spread to the rest of the city. It was not known if it was a drunken accident or a deliberate act of revenge for the burning of the [[Athenian Acropolis]] during the [[Greco-Persian Wars|Second Persian War]]. The ''Book of Arda Wiraz'', a Zoroastrian work composed in the 3rd or 4th century AD, also speaks of archives containing "all the [[Avesta]] and Zand, written upon prepared cow-skins, and with gold ink" that were destroyed; but it must be said that this statement is often treated by scholars with a certain measure of skepticism, because it is generally thought that for many centuries the Avesta was transmitted mainly orally by the [[Magians]]. He then set off in pursuit of Darius, who was kidnapped, and then murdered by followers of [[Bessus]], his [[Bactria]]n satrap and kinsman. Bessus then declared himself Darius' successor as Artaxerxes V and retreated into [[Central Asia]] to launch a [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] campaign against Alexander. With the death of Darius, Alexander declared the war of vengeance over, and released his Greek and other allies from service in the League campaign (although he allowed those that wished to re-enlist as [[mercenaries]] in his imperial army). His three-year campaign against first Bessus and then the satrap of [[Sogdiana]], [[Spitamenes]], took him through [[Medes|Media]], [[Parthia]], [[Aria (place)|Aria]], [[Drangiana]], [[Arachosia]], [[Bactria]], and [[Scythia]]. In the process, he captured and refounded [[Herat]] and [[Samarkand|Maracanda]]. Moreover, he founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern [[Kandahar]] in [[Afghanistan]], and [[Alexandria Eschate]] ("The Furthest") in modern [[Tajikistan]]. In the end, both were betrayed by their men, Bessus in [[329 BC]] and Spitamenes the year after. ====Hostility toward Alexander==== During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of ''[[proskynesis]]'', a symbolic kissing of the hand that Persians paid to their social superiors, but a practice of which the Greeks disapproved. The Greeks regarded the gesture as the preserve of [[deities]] and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him much in the sympathies of many of his countrymen. Here, too, a plot against his life was revealed, and his [[Companion cavalry|companion]] [[Philotas]] was executed for treason for failing to bring the plot to his attention. [[Parmenion]], Philotas' father, who was at the head of an army at [[Ecbatana]], was assassinated by command of Alexander, who feared that Parmenion might attempt to avenge his son. Several other trials for treason followed, and many Macedonians were executed. Later on, in a drunken quarrel at [[Maracanda]], he also killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, [[Clitus the Black]]. Later in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life, this one by his own [[page (servant)|pages]], was revealed, and his official historian, [[Callisthenes]] of [[Olynthus]] (who had fallen out of favor with the king by leading the opposition to his attempt to introduce ''proskynesis''), was implicated on what many historians regard as trumped-up charges. However, the evidence is strong that Callisthenes, the teacher of the pages, must have been the one who persuaded them to assassinate the king. ===The invasion of India=== [[Image:AlexPorusCoin.JPG|thumb|300px|Coin commemorating Alexander's campaigns in India, struck in [[Babylon]] around [[323 BC]].<br/> '''Obv:''' Alexander standing, being crowned by [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]], fully armed and holding [[Zeus]]' [[thunderbolt]].<br/> '''Rev:''' Greek rider, possibly Alexander, attacking an Indian battle-elephant, possibly fleeing [[Porus]].]] With the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to [[Roxana]] (Roshanak in [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]]) to cement his relations with his new Central Asian satrapies, in [[326 BC]] Alexander was finally free to turn his attention to [[India]]. King [[Taxiles|Ambhi]], ruler of [[Taxila]], surrendered the city to Alexander. Many people had fled to a high fortress called [[Aornos]]. Alexander took Aornos by storm. Alexander fought an epic battle against [[Porus]], a ruler of a region in the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] in the [[Battle of Hydaspes]] in ([[326 BC]]). After attaining victory, Alexander made an alliance with Porus and appointed him as satrap of his own kingdom. Alexander then named one of the two new cities that he founded, Bucephala, in honor of his noble mount who had brought him to India. Alexander continued on to conquer all the headwaters of the [[Indus River]]. East of Porus' kingdom, near the [[Ganges River]], was the powerful empire of [[Magadha]] ruled by the [[Nanda dynasty]]. Fearing the prospects of facing another powerful Indian army and exhausted by years of campaigning, his army mutinied at the [[Beas River|Hyphasis]] (modern Beas), refusing to march further east. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, [[Coenus]], was convinced that it was better to return. Alexander was forced to turn south, conquering his way down the Indus to the Indian Ocean. He sent much of his army to [[Carmania]] (modern southern [[Iran]]) with his general [[Craterus]], and commissioned a fleet to explore the [[Persian Gulf]] shore under his admiral [[Nearchus]], while he led the rest of his forces back to Persia by the southern route through the [[Gedrosia]] (present day [[Makran]] in southern [[Pakistan]]). ===After India=== [[Image:Le Brun, Alexander and Porus.jpg|thumb|350px|''Alexander and [[Porus]]'' by [[Charles Le Brun]], [[1673]].]] Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed a number of them as examples on his way to Susa. As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send those over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedonia under Craterus, but his troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of [[Opis]], refusing to be sent away and bitterly criticizing his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units. Alexander executed the ringleaders of the mutiny, but forgave the rank and file. In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, he held a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Opis, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year. His attempts to merge Persian culture with his Greek soldiers also included training a regiment of Persian boys in the ways of Macedonians. It is not certain that Alexander adopted the Persian royal title of ''[[shah|shahanshah]]'' ("great king" or "king of kings"). However, most historians believe that he did. Alexander let it be known that he intended to launch a campaign against the tribes of Arabia. After they were subjugated, it was assumed that Alexander would turn westwards and attack [[Carthage]] and [[Italy]]. After traveling to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure, his closest friend and possible lover [[Hephaestion]] died of an illness. Alexander was distraught and on his return to Babylon, he fell ill and died. ==Alexander's marriages and sexuality== Alexander's greatest emotional attachment is generally considered to have been to his companion, cavalry commander (''chiliarchos'') and probable lover, [[Hephaestion]]. They had most likely been best friends since childhood for Hephaestion too received his education at the court of Alexander's father. Hephaestion makes his appearance in history at the point when Alexander reaches [[Troy]]. There the two friends made sacrifices at the shrines of the two heroes [[Achilles]] and [[Patroclus]]; Alexander honoring Achilles, and Hephaestion honoring Patroclus. As [[Claudius Aelianus|Aelian]] in his ''Varia Historia'' (12.7) claims, "He thus intimated that he was the object of Alexander's love, as Patroclus was of Achilles." Following Hephaestion's death, Alexander mourned him greatly, and did not eat for days. Many have discussed Alexander's ambiguous sexuality. [[Quintus Curtius Rufus|Curtius]] reports that, "He scorned [feminine] sensual pleasures to such an extent that his mother was anxious lest he be unable to beget offspring." To encourage a relationship with a woman, King Philip and Olympias brought in a high-priced [[Thessaly|Thessalian]] [[hetaira|courtesan]] named Callixena. Later in life, Alexander married several princesses of former Persian territories, [[Roxana]] of [[Bactria]], [[Statira]], daughter of Darius III, and [[Parysatis]], daughter of [[Ochus]]. He fathered two children, ([[Heracles (Macedon)|Heracles]]), born by his concubine [[Barsine]] (the daughter of satrap [[Artabazus of Phrygia]]) in [[327 BC]], and [[Alexander IV of Macedon]], born by Roxana shortly after his death in [[323 BC]]. Curtius maintains that Alexander also took as a lover "[[Bagoas (courtier)|Bagoas]], a [[eunuch]] exceptional in beauty and in the very flower of boyhood, with whom Darius was intimate and with whom Alexander would later be intimate," (VI.5.23). Bagoas is the only one who is actually named as the ''eromenos'' &mdash; the beloved &mdash; of Alexander. Their relationship seems to have been well known among the troops, as [[Plutarch]] recounts an episode (also mentioned by [[Dicaearchus]]) during some festivities on the way back from India) in which his men clamor for him to openly kiss the young man: "Bagoas [...] sat down close by him, which so pleased the Macedonians, that they made loud acclamations for him to kiss Bagoas, and never stopped clapping their hands and shouting till Alexander put his arms round him and kissed him." At this point in time, the troops present were all survivors of the crossing of the desert. Bagoas must have endeared himself to them by his courage and fortitude during that harrowing episode. Whatever Alexander's relationship with Bagoas, it was no impediment to relations with his queen: six months after Alexander's death Roxana gave birth to his son and heir, Alexander IV. Besides Bagoas, Curtius mentions yet another possible lover of Alexander, Euxenippus, "whose youthful grace filled him with enthusiasm" (VII.9.19). Allegations concerning Alexander's sexuality remain highly controversial and excite passions in some quarters. People of various national, ethnic and cultural origins regard him as their hero. Some argue that historical accounts describing Alexander's love for Hephaestion and Bagoas as sexual were written centuries after the fact, and thus it can never be established what the historical relationship between Alexander and his male companions were. Others argue that the same can be said about much of our information regarding Alexander. Such debates, however, are generally considered anachronistic by scholars of the period, who point out that the concept of homosexuality as understood today did not exist in [[Greco-Roman]] [[classical antiquity|antiquity]]. Sexual attraction between males was seen as a normal and universal part of [[human nature]] since it was believed that men were attracted to [[beauty]], an attribute of the young, regardless of gender. If Alexander's love life was transgressive, it was not for his love of beautiful youths but for his probable involvement with a man his own age, in a time when the standard model of male love was [[pederasty|pederastic]]. See [[Pederasty in ancient Greece]] for more information. ==The army of Alexander the Great before the [[Battle of Gaugamela]]== {{main|Ancient Macedonian military}} The army of Alexander was, for the most part, that of his father Philip. It was composed of light and heavy troops and some engineers, medical and staff units. About one third of the army was composed of his Greek allies from the Hellenic League. ===Infantry=== [[Image:Macedonian battle formation.gif|right|thumb|330px|Macedonian battle formation, courtesy of The Department of History, United States Military Academy.]] The main infantry corps was the [[Macedonian phalanx|phalanx]], composed of six regiments (''taxies'') numbering about 2000 phalangites each. Each soldier had a long [[pike]] called a ''[[sarissa]]'', which was up to 21 feet long, and a short [[sword]]. For protection, the soldier wore a [[Phrygian cap|Phrygian-style]] [[helmet]] and a [[shield]]. [[Arrian]] mentions large shields (the ''[[aspis]]''), but this is disputed, as it is difficult to wield both a large pike and a large shield at the same time. Many modern historians claim the [[phalanx]] used a smaller shield, called a ''[[pelta]]'', the shield used by [[peltast]]s. It is unclear whether the phalanx used body armor, but heavy body armor is mentioned in Arrian (1.28.7) and other ancient sources. Modern historians believe most of the phalangites did not wear heavy body armor at the time of Alexander. Another important unit were the [[hypaspist]]s (shield bearers), arranged into three battalions (''[[lochoi]]'') of 1000 men each. One of the battalions was named the ''[[Agema]]'' and served as the King's bodyguards. Their armament is unknown and it is difficult to get a clear picture from ancient sources. Sometimes hypaspists are mentioned in the front line of the battle just between the phalanx and the heavy [[cavalry]]. Moreover, they seem to have acted as an extension of the phalanx fighting as heavy infantry while keeping a link between the heavily clad phalangites and the companion cavalry. They also accompanied Alexander on flanking marches and were capable of fighting on rough terrain like light troops so it seems they could perform dual functions. In addition to the units mentioned above, the army included some 6000 Greek allied and mercenary [[hoplite]]s, also arranged in phalanxes. They carried a shorter [[spear]], a ''[[dora]]'', which was six or seven feet long and a large ''aspis''. Alexander also had light infantry units composed of [[peltast]]s, [[psiloi]] and others. Peltasts are considered to be light infantry, although they had a helmet and a small shield and were heavier than the ''psiloi''. The best peltasts were the [[Agrianians]] from [[Thrace]]. ===Cavalry=== The heavy cavalry included the [[Companion cavalry]] raised from the Macedonian nobility, and the Thessalian cavalry. The Companion cavalry (''hetairoi'', friends) was divided into eight squadrons called ''ile'', 200 strong, except the Royal Squadron of 300. They were equipped with a 12 foot lance, the ''xyston'', and heavy body armor. The horses were partially clad in armor as well. The riders did not carry shields, as the xyston required both hands to wield. The organization of the Thessalian cavalry was similar to the Companion Cavalry, but they had a shorter spear and fought in a looser formation. Of light cavalry, the ''prodromoi'' (forerunners) secured the wings of the army during battle and went on [[reconnaissance]] missions. Several hundred allied horses rounded out the cavalry. ==Death== [[Image:Alexander the great 1.jpg|thumb|left|Contemporary [[bust (sculpture)|bust]] of Alexander the Great.]] On the afternoon of [[June 10]] - [[June 11|11]], [[323 BC]], Alexander died of a mysterious illness in the palace of [[Nebuchadrezzar II|Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon]]. He was just one month shy of attaining 33 years of age. Various theories have been proposed for the cause of his death which include [[poisoning]] by the sons of [[Antipater]] or others, sickness that followed a drinking party, or a relapse of the [[malaria]] he had contracted in [[336 BC]]. What is certain is that on May 29, Alexander participated in a banquet organized by his friend [[Medius of Larissa]]. After some heavy drinking, immediately or after a bath, he was forced to bed badly ill. The troops started rumors, more and more anxious, and on June 9, the generals decided to let the soldiers see their king alive one last time. They were admitted to his presence one at a time, while the king, too ill to speak, confined himself to move his hand. The day after, Alexander was dead. The poisoning theory derives from the story held in antiquity by Justin and Curtius. The original story stated that [[Cassander]], son of [[Antipater]], viceroy of Greece, brought the poison to Alexander in Babylon in a mule's hoof, and that Alexander's royal cupbearer, [[Iollas]], brother of Cassander, administered it. Many had powerful motivations for seeing Alexander gone, and were none the worse for it after his death. Deadly agents that could have killed Alexander in one or more doses include hellebore and [[strychnine]]. In [[Robin Lane Fox|R. Lane Fox]]'s opinion, the strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days had passed between the start of his illness and his death and in the ancient world, such long-acting poisons were probably not available (though this discounts the possibility of multiple doses). However, the warrior culture of Macedon favored the sword over strychnine, and many ancient historians, like [[Plutarch]] and [[Arrian]], maintained that Alexander was not poisoned, but died of natural causes. Instead, it is likely that Alexander died of malaria or typhoid fever, which were rampant in ancient Babylon. Other illnesses could have also been the culprit, including [[acute pancreatitis]] or the [[West Nile virus|West Nile]] virus. Recently, theories have been advanced stating that Alexander may have died from the treatment not the disease. [[Hellebore]], believed to have been widely used as a medicine at the time but deadly in large doses, may have been overused by the impatient king to speed his recovery, with deadly results. Disease-related theories often cite the fact that Alexander's health had fallen to dangerously low levels after years of heavy drinking and suffering several appalling wounds (including one in [[India]] that nearly claimed his life), and that it was only a matter of time before one sickness or another finally killed him. No story is conclusive. Alexander's death has been reinterpreted many times over the centuries, and each generation offers a new take on it. What is certain is that Alexander died of a high fever on June 10 or 11 of 323 BC. On his death bed, his marshals asked him to whom he bequeathed his kingdom. Since Alexander had only one heir, it was a question of vital importance. He answered famously, "the strongest." Before dying, his final words were "I foresee a great funeral contest over me." Alexander's 'funeral games', where his marshals fought it out over control of his empire, lasted for nearly forty years. Alexander's death has been surrounded by as much controversy as many of the events of his life. Before long, accusations of foul play were being thrown about by his generals at one another, making it incredibly hard for a modern historian to sort out the propaganda and the half-truths from the actual events. No contemporary source can be fully trusted because of the incredible level of self-serving recording, and as a result what truly happened to Alexander the Great may never be known. Alexander's body was placed in a gold anthropid [[sarcophagus]], which was in turn placed in a second gold casket and covered with a purple robe. Alexander's coffin was placed, together with his armor, in a gold carriage which had a vaulted roof supported by an Ionic peristyle. The decoration of the carriage was very rich and is described in great detail by Diodoros. According to legend, Alexander was preserved in a clay vessel full of [[honey]] (which acts as a preservative) and interred in a glass [[coffin]]. According to Aelian (''Varia Historia'' 12.64), [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] stole the body and brought it to [[Alexandria]], where it was on display until Late Antiquity. It was here that [[Ptolemy IX of Egypt|Ptolemy IX]], one of the last successors of Ptolemy I, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one, and melted the original down in order to strike emergency gold issues of his coinage. The citizens of Alexandria were outraged at this and soon after Ptolemy IX was killed. Its current whereabouts are unknown. The so-called "Alexander Sarcophagus," discovered near [[Sidon]] and now in the [[Istanbul Archaeological Museum]], is now generally thought to be that of [[Abdylonymus]], whom Hephaestion appointed as the king of Sidon by Alexander's order. The sarcophagus depicts Alexander and his companions hunting and in battle with the Persians. ==Legacy and division of the empire== {{main|Diadochi}} [[Image:Alexander Aramaic coin.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Coin of Alexander bearing an [[Aramaic language]] inscription.]] After Alexander's death, his empire was divided among his officers, mostly with the pretense of first preserving a united kingdom. Later, his officers were focused on the explicit formation of rival monarchies and territorial states. Ultimately, the conflict was settled after the [[Battle of Ipsus]] in [[Phrygia]] in [[301 BC]]. Alexander's empire was divided at first into four major portions: Cassander ruled in [[Macedon]], [[Lysimachus]] in [[Thrace]], [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus]] in [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Iran]], and [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] in the [[Levant]] and [[Egypt]]. [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Antigonus]] ruled for a while in [[Asia Minor]] and [[Syria]] but was eventually defeated by the other generals at Ipsus ([[301 BC]]). Control over [[India]]n territory was short-lived when Seleucus was defeated by [[Chandragupta Maurya]], the first [[Mauryan]] emperor. By [[270 BC]], [[Hellenistic]] states consolidated, with: :*The [[Antigonid dynasty|Antigonid Empire]] centered on Macedon. :*The [[Seleucid Empire]] in Asia :*The [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic kingdom]] in Egypt, Palestine and [[Cyrenaica]] By the [[1st century BC]] though, most of the Hellenistic territories in the West had been absorbed by the [[Roman Republic]]. In the East, they had been dramatically reduced by the expansion of the [[Parthian Empire]] and the secession of the [[Greco-Bactrian]] kingdom. Alexander's conquests also had long term [[cultural]] effects, with the flourishing of [[Hellenistic civilization]] throughout the [[Middle-East]] and [[Central Asia]], and the development of [[Greco-Buddhist art]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. ===Influence on [[Ancient Rome]]=== [[Image:Mosaica.jpg|thumb|200px|A mural in [[Pompeii]], depicting the marriage of Alexander to Barsine (Stateira) in 324 BC. The couple are apparently dressed as Ares and Aphrodite.]] Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements, although very little is known about Roman-Macedonian diplomatic relations of that time. [[Julius Caesar]] wept in Spain at the mere sight of Alexander's statue and [[Pompey the Great]] rummaged through the closets of conquered nations for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which the Roman general then wore as the costume of greatness. However in his zeal to honor Alexander, [[Octavian Augustus]] accidentally broke the nose off the Macedonian's mummified corpse while laying a wreath at the hero's shrine in Alexandria, Egypt. The unbalanced emperor [[Caligula]] later took the dead king's armor from that tomb and donned it for luck. The Macriani, a Roman family that rose to the imperial throne in the [[3rd century]] A.D., always kept images of Alexander on their persons, either stamped into their bracelets and rings or stitched into their garments. Even their dinnerware bore Alexander's face, with the story of the king's life displayed around the rims of special bowls[[#Notes|&sup1;]]. In the summer of [[1995]] during the archaeological work of the season centered on excavating the remains of domestic architecture of early-Roman date a statue of Alexander was recovered from the structure, which was richly decorated with mosaic and marble pavements and probably was constructed in the 1st century A.D. and occupied until the 3rd century[[#Notes|&sup2;]]. ====Notes==== <small>1- Frank L. Holt. Alexander the Great and the Mystery of the Elephant Medallions. University of California Press. <small>2- [http://www.egyptology.com/kmt/fall96/nile.html Salima Ikram. Nile Currents] ==General timeline== {{atg-timeline}} ==Alexander's character== {{npov-section}} [[Image:Ac alexanderstatue.jpg|thumb|250px|Equestrian statue of [[Alexander the Great]], on the waterfront at [[Thessaloniki]], capital of [[Greek Macedonia]].]] Modern opinion on Alexander has run the gamut from the idea that he believed he was on a divinely-inspired mission to unite the [[human race]], to the view that he was a [[Narcissism|megalomaniac]] bent on [[Global domination|world domination]]. Such views tend to be [[Anachronism|anachronistic]], however, and the sources allow for a variety of interpretations. Much about Alexander's personality and aims remains enigmatic. Alexander is remembered as a legendary hero in [[Europe]] and much of both [[Southwest Asia]] and [[Central Asia]], where he is known as '''Iskander''' or '''Iskandar Zulkarnain'''. To [[Zoroastrians]], on the other hand, he is remembered as the destroyer of their first great empire and as the leveller of [[Persepolis]]. Ancient sources are generally written with an agenda of either glorifying or denigrating the man, making it difficult to evaluate his actual character. Most refer to a growing instability and megalomania in the years following Gaugamela, but it has been suggested that this simply reflects the Greek [[stereotype]] of an orientalizing king. The murder of his friend [[Clitus the Black|Clitus]], which Alexander deeply and immediately regretted, is often cited as a sign of his paranoia, as is his execution of Philotas and his general Parmenion for failure to pass along details of a plot against him. However, this may have been more prudence than paranoia. Modern Alexandrists continue to debate these same issues, among others, in modern times. One unresolved topic involves whether Alexander was actually attempting to better the world by his conquests, or whether his purpose was primarily to rule the world. Partially in response to the ubiquity of positive portrayals of Alexander, an alternate character is sometimes presented which emphasizes some of Alexander's negative aspects. Some proponents of this view cite the destructions of [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], [[Tyre]], [[Persepolis]], and [[Gaza]] as examples of atrocities, and argue that Alexander preferred to fight rather than negotiate. It is further claimed, in response to the view that Alexander was generally tolerant of the cultures of those whom he conquered, that his attempts at cultural fusion were severely practical and that he never actually admired Persian art or culture. To this way of thinking, Alexander was, first and foremost, a general rather than a statesman. Alexander's character also suffers from the interpretation of historians who themselves are subject to the bias and idealisms of their own time. Good examples are [[W. W. Tarn]], who wrote during the late [[19th century]] and early [[20th century]], and who saw Alexander in an extremely good light, and [[Peter Green (historian)|Peter Green]], who wrote after [[World War II]] and for whom Alexander did little that was not inherently selfish or ambition-driven. Tarn wrote in an age where world conquest and warrior-heroes were acceptable, even encouraged, whereas Green wrote with the backdrop of [[the Holocaust]] and [[nuclear weapon]]s. As a result, Alexander's character is skewed depending on which way the historian's own culture is, and further muddles the debate of who he truly was. ===Stories and legends=== According to one story, the philosopher [[Anaxarchus]] checked the vainglory of Alexander, when he aspired to the honors of divinity, by pointing to Alexander's wound, saying, "See the blood of a mortal, not the [[ichor]] of a god." In another version, Alexander himself pointed out the difference in response to a [[sycophant]]ic soldier. A strong oral tradition, although not attested in any extant primary source, lists Alexander as having [[epilepsy]], known to the Greeks as the Sacred Disease and thought to be a mark of divine favor. Alexander had a legendary horse named [[Bucephalus]] (meaning "ox-headed"), supposedly descended from the [[Mares of Diomedes]]. Alexander himself, while still a young boy, tamed this horse after experienced horse-trainers failed to do so. There is an apocryphal tale, appearing in a redaction of the pseudo-historical [[Alexander Romance]], which details another end for the last true Pharaoh of Egypt. Soon after Alexander's divinity was confirmed by the Oracle of Zeus Ammon, a rumor was begun that [[Nectanebo II]] did not travel to [[Nubia]] but instead to the court of Philip II of Macedon in the guise of an Egyptian magician. He coupled with Phillip's wife [[Olympias]] and from his issue came Alexander. This myth would hold strong appeal for Egyptians who desired continuity in rule and harbored a strong dislike for foreign rule. Another legend tells of Alexander's campaign down into the Syrian world toward Egypt. On the way, he planned to lay siege to the city of [[Jerusalem]]. As the victorious armies of the Greeks approached the city, word was brought to the Jews in Jerusalem that the armies were on their way. The high priest at that time, who was a godly old man by the name of Jaddua (mentioned also in the [[Bible]] [[book of Nehemiah]]) took the sacred writings of [[Daniel the prophet]] and, accompanied by a host of other priests dressed in white garments, went forth and met Alexander some distance outside the city. All this is from the report of [[Josephus]], the Jewish historian, who tells us that Alexander left his army and hurried to meet this body of priests. When he met them, he told the high priest that he had had a vision the night before in which God had shown him an old man, robed in a white garment, who would show him something of great significance to himself, according to the account, the high priest then opened the prophecies of Daniel and read them to Alexander. In the prophecies Alexander was able to see the predictions that he would become that notable goat with the horn in his forehead, who would come from the West and smash the power of Persia and conquer the world. He was so overwhelmed by the accuracy of this prophecy and, of course, by the fact that it spoke about him, that he promised that he would save Jerusalem from siege, and sent the high priest back with honors. ==Ancient sources== The ancient sources for Alexander's life are, from the perspective of ancient history, relatively numerous. Alexander himself left only a few inscriptions and some letter-fragments of dubious authenticity, but a large number of his contemporaries wrote full accounts. The key contemporary historians are considered [[Callisthenes]], his general [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]], [[Aristobulus of Cassandreia|Aristobulus]], [[Nearchus]] and [[Onesicritus]]. Another influential account was penned by [[Cleitarchus]], who, while not a direct witness of Alexander's expedition, used the sources which had just been published. His work was to be the backbone of that of [[Timagenes]], who heavily influenced many surviving historians. Unfortunately, all these works were lost. Instead, the modern historian must rely on authors who used these and other early sources. The five main accounts are by Arrian, Curtius, Plutarch, Diodorus, and Justin. * ''[[Anabasis Alexandri]]'' (''The Campaigns of Alexander'' in Greek) by the Greek historian [[Arrian]] of [[Nicomedia]], writing in the [[2nd century AD]], and based largely on Ptolemy and, to a lesser extent, Aristobulus and Nearchus. It is considered generally the most trustworthy source. * ''Historiae Alexandri Magni'', a biography of Alexander in ten books, of which the last eight survive, by the Roman historian [[Quintus Curtius Rufus]], written in the [[1st century AD]], and based largely on Cleitarchus through the mediation of Timagenes, with some material probably from Ptolemy; * ''Life of Alexander'' (see ''[[Parallel Lives]]'') and two orations ''On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great'' (see ''[[Moralia]]''), by the Greek historian and biographer [[Plutarch]] of [[Chaeronea]] in the second century, based largely on Aristobulus and especially Cleitarchus. * ''Bibliotheca historia'' (''Library of world history''), written in Greek by the [[Sicilian]] historian [[Diodorus Siculus]], from which Book 17 relates the conquests of Alexander, based almost entirely on Timagenes's work. The books immediately before and after, on Philip and Alexander's "Successors," throw light on Alexander's reign. * The ''Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus'' by [[Junianus Justinus|Justin]], which contains factual errors and is highly compressed. It is difficult in this case to understand the source, since we only have an epitome, but it is thought that also [[Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus|Pompeius Trogus]] may have limited himself to use Timagenes for his Latin history. To these five main sources some like to add the ''[[Metz Epitome]]'', an anonymous late Latin work that narrates Alexander's campaigns from [[Hyrcania]] to India. Much is also recounted incidentally in other authors, including [[Strabo]], [[Athenaeus]], [[Polyaenus]], [[Claudius Aelianus|Aelian]], and others. The "problem of the sources" is the main concern (and chief delight) of Alexander-historians. In effect, each presents a different "Alexander," with details to suit. Arrian is mostly interested in the military aspects, while Curtius veers to a more private and darker Alexander. Plutarch can't resist a good story, light or dark. All, with the possible exception of Arrian, include a considerable level of fantasy, prompting Strabo to remark, "All who wrote about Alexander preferred the marvellous to the true." Nevertheless, the sources tell us much, and leave much to our interpretation and imagination. ==Alexander's legend== Alexander was a legend in his own time. His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in [[Cilicia]] as drawing back from him in [[proskynesis]]. Writing after Alexander's death, another participant, [[Onesicritus]], went so far as to invent a [[tryst]] between Alexander and [[Thalestris]], queen of the mythical [[Amazons]]. When Onesicritus read this passage to his patron, Alexander's general and later King [[Lysimachus]], Lysimachus reportedly quipped "I wonder where I was at the time." In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in [[Alexandria]], a quantity of the more legendary material coalesced into a text known as the ''[[Alexander Romance]]'', later falsely ascribed to the historian Callisthenes and therefore known as ''Pseudo-Callisthenes''. This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the [[Middle Ages]], exhibiting a plasticity unseen in "higher" literary forms. Latin and [[Syriac]] translations were made in Late Antiquity. From these, versions were developed in all the major languages of [[Europe]] and the [[Middle East]], including [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Slavic languages|Slavonic]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[German language|German]], [[English language|English]], [[Italian language|Italian]], and [[French language|French]]. The "Romance" is regarded by most Western scholars as the source of the [[account of Alexander given in the Qur'an]] ([[Sura]] ''The Cave''). It is the source of many incidents in [[Ferdowsi]]'s "[[Shahnama]]". A [[Mongol]]ian version is also extant. Some believe that, excepting certain religious texts, it is the most widely-read work of pre-modern times. ===Alexander's legend in non-Western sources=== {{main|Alexander in the Qur'an (Theory)}} Alexander was often identified in Persian and Arabic-language sources as [[Dhul-Qarnayn]], Arabic for the "Two-Horned One", possibly a reference to the appearance of a horn-headed figure that appears on coins minted during his rule and later imitated in ancient Middle Eastern coinage. If this theory is followed, [[Islamic]] accounts of the Alexander legend, particularly in the [[Qur'an]] and in Persian legends, combined the [[Pseudo-Callisthenes]] legendary, pseudo-religious material about Alexander. The same legends from the Pseudo-Callisthenes were combined in Persia with [[Sasanid]] [[Pahlavi languge|Persian]] ideas about Alexander in the [[Iskandarnamah]]. ==Main towns founded by Alexander== Around seventy towns or outposts are claimed to have been founded by Alexander. Some of the main ones are: * [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]], [[Egypt]] * [[Alexandria Asiana]], [[Iran]] * [[Alexandria in Ariana]], [[Afghanistan]] * [[Alexandria of the Caucasus]], [[Afghanistan]] * [[Alexandria on the Oxus]], [[Afghanistan]] * [[Alexandria of the Arachosians]], [[Afghanistan]] * [[Alexandria on the Indus]] (Alexandria Bucephalous), [[Pakistan]] * [[Alexandria Eschate|Alexandria Eschate, "The furthest"]], [[Tajikistan]] * [[Iskenderun]] (Alexandretta), [[Turkey]] * [[Kandahar]] (Alexandropolis), [[Afghanistan]] ==Alexander in popular media== [[Image:Rogue shield.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The ''Smallville'' version of the Shield of Alexander the Great, as seen in the first season episode, "Rogue"]] *A [[1956]] movie starring [[Richard Burton]] titled ''[[Alexander the Great (1956 film)|Alexander the Great]]'' was produced by [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer|MGM]]. *A [[1941]] [[Hindi]] movie ''Sikandar'' directed by [[Sohrab Modi]] depicts Alexander the Great's Indian conquest. *[[Bond (band)|Bond]]'s 2000 album ''Born'' includes a song titled ''Alexander the Great''. *[[Oliver Stone]]'s film ''[[Alexander (film)|Alexander]]'', starring [[Colin Farrell]], was released on [[November 24]], [[2004]]. *[[Baz Luhrmann]] had been planning to make a very different film about Alexander, starring [[Leonardo DiCaprio]], but the release of Stone's film eventually persuaded him to abandon the project. [http://www.imdb.com/news/wenn/2004-11-01#2] *Numerous [[television program|television series]] about Alexander have been created. *The British heavy metal band [[Iron Maiden]] had a song entitled "[[Alexander the Great (song)|Alexander the Great]]" on their album ''[[Somewhere in Time (album)|Somewhere in Time]]'' ([[1986]]). The song describes Alexander's life, but contains one inaccuracy: in the song it is stated that Alexander's army would not follow him into India. * Brazilian musician [[Caetano Veloso]]'s [[1998]] album ''Livro'' includes an epic song about Alexander called "Alexandre." *From [[1969]] to [[1981]], [[Mary Renault]] wrote a historical fiction [[trilogy]], speculating on the life of Alexander: ''Fire from Heaven'' (about his early life), ''The Persian Boy'' (about his conquest of Persia, his expedition to India, and his death, seen from the viewpoint of a Persian [[eunuch]]), and ''Funeral Games'' (about the events following his death). Alexander also appears briefly in Renault's novel ''The Mask of Apollo''. In addition to the fiction, Renault also wrote a non-fiction biography, ''The Nature of Alexander''. *A 1965 [[Hindi]] movie ''Sikandar-e-Azam'' directed by [[Kedar Kapoor]] starring [[Dara Singh]] as Alexandar depicts Alexandar's Indian conquest with Porus. *A further trilogy of novels about Alexander was written in [[Italian language|Italian]] by [[Valerio Massimo Manfredi]] and subsequently published in an English translation, entitled ''The Son of the Dream'', ''The Sands of Ammon'' and ''The Ends Of The Earth''. * David Gemmel's "Dark Prince" features Alexander as the chosen vessel for a world-destroying demon king. ISBN 0345379101. *[[Steven Pressfield]]'s [[2004]] book ''The Virtues of War'' is told from the [[first-person narrative|first-person]] [[point of view (literature)|perspective]] of Alexander. *An [[epic poetry|epic]] [[science fiction]] [[animation|animated]] retelling of the story called ''[[Reign (anime)|Reign: The Conqueror]]'', based on the novel ''Alexander Senki'' by [[Hiroshi Aramata]], with character designs by [[Peter Chung]] of ''[[Aeon Flux]]'' fame, debuted in [[Japan]] in [[1997]] and on the [[Cartoon Network]]'s ''[[Adult Swim]]'' block variety show in [[2003]]. * Alexander is a character in the [[computer game]] [[Civilization (computer game)|Civilization]]. * The ''[[Smallville (TV series)|Smallville]]'' season 1 episode "Rogue", [[Lex Luthor]] shows [[Superman|Clark Kent]] the shield that Alexander the Great wore in battle. The shield is gold, with red and blue diamonds (the colors that represent [[Superman]]), and a snake shaped like the letter S. * The [[1975]] film ''[[The Man Who Would Be King (film)|The Man Who Would Be King]]'' starring [[Sean Connery]] and [[Michael Caine]] is based on the [[Rudyard Kipling]] [[The Man Who Would Be King|story]] of two British adventurers who cross the Hindu Kush to the land of [[Kafiristan]], once conquered by Alexander. Daniel (Connery) is believed by the natives to be the return of Alexander and is crowned King. ==Notes== {{ent|1|MvsG1}} Whether the [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonians]] of Alexander's time and before were [[Hellenes]] (Greeks) is disputed by scholars. The question largely depends on the classification of the [[Ancient Macedonian language]]. By separating Macedonians and Greeks in this sentence and others, no position in this debate is implied. {{ent|2|MvsG2}} See note 1. ==References== *[[J.F.C. Fuller|Fuller, J.F. C]]; ''A Military History of the Western World: From the earliest times to the Battle of Lepanto''; New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1987 and 1988. ISBN 0306803046 *De Santis, Marc G. “At The Crossroads of Conquest.” <u>[[Military Heritage]]</u>. December 2001. Volume 3, No. 3: 46-55, 97 (Alexander the Great, his military, his strategy at the Battle of Gaugamela and his defeat of Darius making Alexander the King of Kings). ==External links== '''Primary Sources''' *[http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z1b.html Alexander the Great: An annotated list of primary sources] from Livius.org *[http://www.thegreatalexander.com Alexander the Great - O Megas Alexandros] Alexander the Great forum, articles, and referenced information. *Wiki Classical Dictionary, [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/wcd/Alexander_the_Great%2C_extant_sources extant sources] and [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/wcd/Alexander_the_Great%2C_Fragmentary_and_lost_sources fragmentary and lost sources] *[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Alexander*/home.html Plutarch, ''Life of Alexander''] (in English) *[http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/index.html Justin, ''Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus''] (in English) *[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Fortuna_Alexandri*/home.html Plutarch, ''Of the Fortune or Virtue of Alexander the Great''] (in English) *[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Curtius/home.html Quintus Curtius Rufus, ''Histories of Alexander''] (in Latin) *[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/alexander/5.html Alexander's Death] from Alexander the Great on the Web: 1,000 resources about Alexander the Great *[http://www.3dsrc.com/alexandrelegrand/multimedia.php Alexander The Great in the french museum Le Louvre] '''Projects''' *[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/Alexanderama.html Alexander the Great on the Web], a comprehensive directory of some 1,000 sites *[http://www.petersommer.com/alexander.html In the footsteps of Alexander the Great]: an archaeological adventure across Turkey, with travel article and archaeological links *[http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander00.html Livius Project] articles on Alexander by Jona Lendering *[http://www.pothos.org Pothos.org: Alexander's Home on the Web] *[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/wcd/Category:Alexander_the_Great Wiki Classical Dictionary: Category Alexander the Great], a Mediawiki based project, with stricter guidelines and editors *[http://rg.ancients.info/alexander/ Alexander the Great Coins], a site depicting Alexander's coins and later coins featuring Alexander's image *[http://www.thegreatalexander.com Alexander the Great Site], a site dedicated to Alexander. Features Articles about Alexander, his life, armies, mysteries surrounding his death, and the Hellenistic Period that came after this great Hellenic Leader. '''Narratives''' *[http://www.1stmuse.com/frames/ Alexander the Great of Macedon], a project by John J. Popovic *[http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Biographies/Alexander/Alexander.htm The loves of Alexander III of Macedon] '''Discussion''' *[http://www.pothos.org/forum Pothos Forum] *[http://www.thegreatalexander.com/alexander-forum/ Alexander the Great Forum], a forum for Alexander the Great and the history surrounding him. '''Bibliography''' *[http://hum.ucalgary.ca/wheckel/bibl/alex-bibl.pdf PDF: A Bibliography of Alexander the Great] by Waldemar Heckel {{start box}} |- | width="30%" align="center" | Preceded by:<br />'''[[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]]''' | width="40%" align="center" | '''[[Kings of Macedon|King of Macedon]]'''<br />336&ndash;323 BC | width="30%" align="center" rowspan="4"| Succeeded by:<br />'''[[Philip III of Macedon|Philip III]] &amp; [[Alexander IV of Macedon|Alexander IV]]''' |- | width="30%" align="center" rowspan="2"| Preceded by:<br />'''[[Darius III of Persia|Darius III]]''' | width="40%" align="center" | '''[[List of kings of Persia|Great King of Media and Persia]]'''<br /> 330&ndash;323 BC |- | width="40%" align="center" | '''[[Pharaoh|Pharaoh of Egypt]]'''<br />332&ndash;323 BC |- {{end box}} {{Plutarch's lives}} [[Category:323 BC deaths]] [[Category:356 BC births]] [[Category:Alexander the Great| ]] [[Category:Ancient Greek generals]] [[Category:Ancient Greeks]] [[Category:City founders]] [[Category:Macedonian monarchs]] [[Category:Mummies]] [[Category:Nine Worthies]] [[Category:Pederastic lovers]] {{Link FA|fi}} {{Link FA|no}} {{Link FA|sk}} [[af:Alexander die Grote]] [[ar:الإسكندر الأكبر]] [[ast:Aleixandre'l Grande]] [[bg:Александър Македонски]] [[bs:Aleksandar Veliki]] [[ca:Alexandre el Gran]] [[cs:Alexandr Veliký]] [[da:Alexander den Store]] [[de:Alexander der Große]] [[el:Αλέξανδρος ο Μέγας]] [[eo:Aleksandro la Granda]] [[es:Alejandro Magno]] [[et:Aleksander Suur]] [[eu:Alexandro Handia]] [[fa:اسکندر مقدونی]] [[fi:Aleksanteri Suuri]] [[fr:Alexandre le Grand]] [[fy:Aleksander de Grutte]] [[gl:Alexandre o Grande]] [[he:אלכסנדר הגדול]] [[hr:Aleksandar Veliki]] [[hu:Nagy Sándor]] [[id:Alexander Agung]] [[is:Alexander mikli]] [[it:Alessandro Magno]] [[ja:アレクサンドロス3世]] [[ko:알렉산드로스 대왕]] [[ku:Eskenderê Mezin]] [[la:Alexander Magnus]] [[lt:Aleksandras Didysis]] [[lv:Aleksandrs Lielais]] [[mk:Александар Македонски]] [[nl:Alexander de Grote]] [[no:Aleksander den store]] [[pl:Aleksander Macedoński]] [[pt:Alexandre, o Grande]] [[ro:Alexandru cel Mare]] [[ru:Александр Македонский]] [[scn:Lissandru lu Granni]] [[simple:Alexander the Great]] [[sk:Alexander Veľký]] [[sl:Aleksander Veliki]] [[sq:Leka i Madh]] [[sr:Александар Македонски]] [[sv:Alexander den store]] [[tl:Alexander ang Dakila]] [[tr:Büyük İskender]] [[tt:İskändär]] [[uk:Александр Македонський]] [[zh:亚历山大大帝]] 784 40877655 2006-02-23T16:41:03Z 205.118.16.153 m [[Image:Korzybski.jpg|thumb|135px|right|Alfred Korzybski]] '''Alfred Korzybski''' was born on [[July 3]], [[1879]] in [[Warsaw]], [[Poland]], and died on [[March 1]], [[1950]] in [[Lakeville, Connecticut]], [[United States|USA]]. He is probably best-remembered for developing the theory of [[general semantics]]. ==Early life and career== He came from an [[aristocratic]] family whose members had worked as [[Mathematics|mathematicians]], [[Science|scientists]], and [[Engineering|engineers]] for generations, and he chose to train as an engineer. Korzybski was educated at the [[Warsaw University of Technology]]. During the [[World War I|First World War]] Korzybski served as an [[Military intelligence|intelligence officer]] in the [[Russia|Russian]] Army. After being wounded in his leg and suffering other injuries, he came to North America in [[1916]] (first to [[Canada]], then the [[United States]]) to coordinate the shipment of artillery to the war front. He also lectured to [[Polish-American]] audiences about the conflict, promoting the sale of war bonds. Following the war, he decided to remain in the United States, becoming a [[Naturalization|naturalized citizen]] in [[1940]]. His first book, <cite>Manhood of Humanity</cite> was published in [[1921]]. In the book, he proposed and explained in detail a new theory of humankind: mankind as a [[time-binding]] class of life. ==General semantics == Korzybski's work culminated in the founding of a discipline that he called [[general semantics]] (GS). As Korzybski explicitly said, GS should not be confused with [[semantics]], a different subject. The basic principles of general semantics, which include time-binding, are outlined in <cite>Science and Sanity</cite>, published in [[1933]]. In [[1938]] Korzybski founded the [[Institute of General Semantics]] and directed it until his death. In simplified form, the "essence" of Korzybski's work was the claim that human beings are limited in what they know by (1) the structure of their nervous systems, and (2) the [[structure]] of their languages. Human beings cannot experience the world directly, but only through their "abstractions" (nonverbal impressions or "gleanings" derived from the nervous system, and verbal indicators expressed and derived from language). Sometimes our perceptions and our languages actually mislead us as to the "facts" with which we must deal. Our understanding of what is going on sometimes lacks ''similarity of structure'' with what is actually going on. He stressed training in awareness of abstracting, using techniques that he had derived from his study of mathematics and science. He called this awareness, this goal of his system, "consciousness of abstracting." His system included modifying the way we approach the world, e.g., with an attitude of "I don't know; let's see," to better discover or reflect its realities as shown by modern science. One of these techniques involved becoming inwardly and outwardly quiet, an experience that he called, "silence on the objective levels." == Korzybski and ''to be'' == It is often said that Korzybski opposed the use of the verb "to be," an unfortunate exaggeration. He thought that ''certain uses'' of the verb "to be," called the "is of identity" and the "is of predication," were faulty in structure, e.g., a statement such as "Joe is a fool" (said of a person named 'Joe' who has done something that we regard as dumb). Korzybski's remedy was to ''deny'' identity; in this example, to be continually aware that 'Joe' is ''not'' what we ''call'' him. We find Joe not in the verbal domain, the world of words, but the nonverbal domain. This was expressed in Korzybski's most famous premise, "[[The map is not the territory|the map is not the territory]]." Note that "the map is not the territory," uses the phrase "is not", a form of the verb "to be." This example shows that he did not intend to abandon the verb as such. == Anecdote about Korzybski == One day, Korzybski was giving a lecture to a group of students, and he suddenly interrupted the lesson in order to retrieve a packet of biscuits, wrapped in white paper, from his briefcase. He muttered that he just had to eat something, and he asked the students on the seats in the front row, if they would also like a biscuit. A few students took a biscuit. "Nice biscuit, don't you think", said Korzybski, while he took a second one. The students were chewing vigorously. Then he tore the white paper from the biscuits, in order to reveal the original packaging. On it was a big picture of a dog's head and the words "Dog Cookies". The students looked at the package, and were shocked. Two of them wanted to throw up, put their hands in front of their mouths, and ran out of the lecture hall to the toilet. "You see, ladies and gentlemen", Korzybski remarked, "I have just demonstrated that people don't just eat food, but also words, and that the taste of the former is often outdone by the taste of the latter." Apparently his prank aimed to illustrate how human suffering originates from the confusion or conflation of linguistic representations of reality and reality itself. (Source: R. Diekstra, ''Haarlemmer Dagblad'', 1993, cited by L. Derks & J. Hollander, ''Essenties van NLP'' (Utrecht: Servire, 1996), p. 58). == Impact == Korzybski's work influenced [[Neuro-linguistic programming]] (especially the [[metamodel]]), [[Gestalt Therapy]], [[Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy]] and individuals such as [[Albert Ellis]], [[Gregory Bateson]], [[Buckminster Fuller]], [[Alvin Toffler]], [[Robert A. Heinlein]], [[L. Ron Hubbard]], [[A. E. van Vogt]], [[Robert Anton Wilson]], Tommy Hall (lyricist for the [[13th Floor Elevators]]), and scientists such as William Alanson White (psychiatry), and W. Horsley Gantt (a student and colleague of Pavlov). {{wikiquote}} ==See also== * [[General Semantics]] * [[The map is not the territory]] * [[Structural differential]] * [[E-Prime]] * [[Institute of General Semantics]] * [[Alfred Korzybski Memorial Lecture]] ==External links== *[http://www.kcmetro.cc.mo.us/pennvalley/biology/lewis/gs.htm Korzybski's General Semantics] *[http://www.general-semantics.org Institute of General Semantics] *[http://www.gestalt.org/alfred.htm Alfred Korzybski and Gestalt Therapy Website] *[http://www.esgs.org/uk/gshome.htm] == Further reading == *<cite>Manhood of Humanity</cite>, Alfred Korzybski, forward by Edward Kasner, notes by M. Kendig, Institute of General Semantics, 1950, hardcover, 2nd edition, 391 pages, ISBN 093729800X *<cite>Science and Sanity An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics</cite>, Alfred Korzybski, Preface by [[Robert P. Pula]], Institute of General Semantics, 1994, hardcover, 5th edition, ISBN 0937298018 * ''Alfred Korzybski: Collected Writings 1920-1950'', Institute of General Semantics, 1990, hardcover, ISBN: 0685406164 [[Category:1879 births|Korzybski, Alfred]] [[Category:1950 deaths|Korzybski, Alfred]] [[Category:Engineers|Korzybski, Alfred]] [[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Korybski, Alfred]] [[Category:Neuro-Linguistic Programming predecessors]] [[Category:Polish engineers|Korzybski, Alfred]] [[Category:Polish philosophers|Korzybski, Alfred]] [[fr:Alfred Korzybski]] [[nl:Alfred Korzybski]] 785 41931398 2006-03-02T18:32:25Z John DiFool2 658468 /* Features */ {{otheruses4|the arcade game|the minor planet type of space object|Asteroid}} {{Infobox Arcade Game |title = Asteroids |image = [[Image:Asteroi1.png|250 px|Asteroids screenshot]] |developer = [[Atari Games|Atari]] |publisher = Atari |designer = [[Lyle Rains]] and [[Ed Logg]] |release = 1979 |genre = [[Shoot 'em up#Multi-directional shooter|Multi-directional shooter]] |modes = Up to 2 players, alternating turns |cabinet = Upright and cocktail |arcade system = |monitor = [[Vector graphics|Vector]] 256 &times; 231 (Horizontal) Colors: black and white, Size: 19[[inch|"]] |input = Five buttons |ports = [[Atari 2600]], [[Atari 5200|5200]], [[Atari 7800|7800]], [[Atari Lynx]], [[PlayStation]], [[Nintendo 64]], [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Game Boy Color]] }} '''''Asteroids''''' is a popular [[vector graphics|vector-based]] video [[arcade game]] released in 1979 by [[Atari Games|Atari]]. The object of the game is for the player to shoot and destroy [[asteroid]]s without being hit by the fragments. It was one of the most popular and influential games of the [[Golden Age of Arcade Games]]. ==Description== ''Asteroids'' was inspired, in a roundabout way, by the seminal ''[[Spacewar]]'', the first computer-based video game. In the early 1980s a stand-up arcade game version was produced as ''Space Wars'', which included a number of optional versions and added a floating asteroid as a visual device. ''Asteroids'' is essentially a one-player version of Spacewar, featuring the "wedge" ship from the original and promoting the asteroids to be the main opponent. The game was conceived by [[Lyle Rains]] and programmed by [[Ed Logg]]. ''Asteroids'' was a hit in the [[United States]] and became one of Atari's best selling games of all time. Atari had been in the process of releasing a vector beam version of ''[[Lunar Lander]]'', but demand for ''Asteroids'' was so high they simply pulled them apart and converted them over. Today the ''Lunar Lander'' version is difficult to find. ''Asteroids'' was so popular that [[video arcade]] owners usually had to install larger boxes to hold all the coins this machine raked in. One feature of the game was the ability for players to record their initials with their high scores, an innovation which is standard in arcade games to this day. ''Asteroids'' was the first of several games to use Atari's "Quadra-Scan" vector-refresh system (although a [[Raster graphics|raster-based]] full-color version was developed for the [[Atari 2600]] home video game system). Later full-color Quadra-Scan games would include ''[[Tempest (game)|Tempest]]''. ==Features== The player's controls consisted of thrust and fire buttons, and rotate left/rotate right buttons (actually rotate counterclockwise and rotate clockwise respectively). The momentum of the player's ship was not conserved, and it would start to slow down if thrust was not applied. There was also a [[hyperspace]] button, which randomly teleported the player's ship somewhere on the screen, with the risk of exploding upon rematerialization (or rematerializing inside an asteroid). The player's ship spawned in the middle of the screen, with 4 large asteroids drifting around. Each large asteroid (20 points) would break into 2 medium-sized ones (50 points) when shot, which in turn would break into 2 small (100 points) asteroids. The medium and small asteroids, once "spawned", could travel at widely varying speeds. Periodically one of two types of flying saucers ("UFOs") would fly onto the screen: the big one (worth 200 points) would shoot in random directions, while the small one (1000 points) would attempt to aim at the player; they tended to appear more often when few asteroids remained on the screen and/or the player hadn't shot an asteroid recently. The screen wrapped around, allowing the player's ship, as well as asteroids and shots but not saucers, to fly off the one edge of the screen and reappear on the opposite side. Once a level had been cleared of all asteroids and UFOs, a new set of large asteroids would appear, increasing by 2 each round up to a maximum of 12. The maximum score possible was 99,990 points, after which it turned back over to zero. A player who desired to get onto the top score list then had to be careful to shoot just enough asteroids/UFOs to reach this score without going over (including committing suicide with the last ship left to reach the final total!). On some early versions of the game it was possible to hide the ship in the score area indefinitely without being hit by asteroids. ==Lurking== [[Image:Asteroids UFO.svg|thumb|right|150px|The small UFO is the key to high scores for many advanced players.]] Soon after the release of ''Asteroids'', some players discovered that small UFOs would be continually sent out when the asteroid count decreased to a certain level. Since these UFOs were worth 1,000 points each - a significant sum on this game - a strategy known as "lurking" soon developed around this. Players would shoot asteroids until there was only one small or mid-sized rock remaining, and then maneuver the ship to a spot approximately one inch from any corner of the screen. Small UFOs would then be ambushed as soon as they emerged (and before they were able to return fire), using wraparound fire if necessary. Because the small UFOs were unable to "lead" the player's ship with their fire (i.e. aiming ahead of the ship's flight path), a clever player could manuever, if necessary, in such a way as to virtually ensure they would never be hit by the small UFO (in fact the large UFO in a sense was seen as more of a threat precisely because of its unpredictable random shots). Since each 10,000 points awarded an extra life, players could continue almost indefinitely once the practice had been mastered. [http://www.gamearchive.com/General/Articles/ClassicNews/1981/Esquire2-81-pg62.htm] The designers abolished this practice in ''Asteroids Deluxe'' by causing the UFOs to either shoot at the remaining asteroids, thus ending the round, or shoot at the player as soon as they appeared on the screen-they also gained the ability to lead the player's ship as well, making them much more dangerous. However it was also possible to succeed by shooting the asteroids instead; a shrewd "asteroid hunting" player would typically attempt to kill all the asteroids "inside" a large one before shooting another asteroid, thus minimizing the amount of "clutter" on the screen. ==Technical Description== The ''Asteroids'' arcade machine is a so-called [[vector game]]. This means that the game graphics are composed entirely of lines which are drawn on a [[vector monitor]]. The hardware consists primarily of a standard [[MOS Technology 6502|MOS 6502]] [[central processing unit|CPU]], which executes the game program, and the [[Atari Digital Vector Generator|Digital Vector Generator]] (DVG), vector processing [[circuitry]] developed by [[Atari]] themselves. As the 6502 by itself was too slow to control both the game play and the vector hardware at the same time, the latter task was delegated to the DVG. For each picture frame, the 6502 writes graphics commands for the DVG into a defined area of [[RAM]] (the vector RAM), and then asks the DVG to draw the corresponding vector image on the screen. The DVG reads the commands and generates appropriate signals for the vector monitor. There are DVG commands for positioning the cathode ray, for drawing a line to a specified destination, calling a subroutine with further commands, and so on. ''Asteroids'' also features various sound effects, each of which is implemented by its own [[circuitry]]. The CPU activates these audio [[electrical network|circuits]] (and other hardware components) by writing to special memory addresses (memory mapped ports). The inputs from the player's controls (buttons) are also mapped into the CPU [[address space]] The main ''Asteroids'' game program uses only 4 [[kilobyte|KB]] of [[Read-only memory|ROM]] code. Another 4 KB of vector ROM contain the descriptions of the main graphical elements (rocks, saucer, player's ship, explosion pictures, letters, and digits) in the form of DVG commands. ==Legacy== The gameplay in ''Asteroids'' was imitated by many games that followed. For example, one of the objects of ''[[Sinistar]]'' is to shoot asteroids in order to get them to release resources which the player needs to collect. Due to its success, ''Asteroids'' was followed by three sequels: * ''[[Asteroids Deluxe]]'' (1980) * ''[[Space Duel]]'' (1982) * ''[[Blasteroids]]'' (1987) However, the original game was by far the most popular of the series. The [[Killer List of Videogames]] (KLOV) credits this game as one of the "Top 100 Videogames." Readers of the KLOV credit it as the seventh most popular game. ==Ports== Being one of the most popular video games ever, ''Asteroids'' has been ported to multiple systems, including many of [[Atari]]'s systems ([[Atari 2600]], [[Atari 5200|5200]], [[Atari 7800|7800]], [[Atari Lynx]]) and many others. The 2600 port was the first game to utilize a bank-switched cartridge, doubling available ROM space. Also, a new version of ''Asteroids'' was developed for [[PlayStation]], [[Nintendo 64]], [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], and the [[Game Boy Color]] in the late 1990s. A port was also included on Atari's [[Atari Cosmos|Cosmos]] system, but the system never saw release. Many of the recent [[TV Games]] series of old Atari games have included either the 2600 or arcade versions of ''Asteroids''. Atari has also used the game for its other late '90s anthology series. Essentially, if one looks for this game, one will be able to find it somewhere. In 2005, ''Asteroids'' (Including both [[Atari 2600]] and the arcade original, along with [[Asteroids Deluxe]]) were included as part of ''[[Atari Anthology]]'' for both [[XBox]] and [[Playstation 2]], using Digital Eclipse's emulation technology.. ===Unofficial clones and variants=== [[Image:NovaBombs.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Avenger class fighter unleashes nova bombs in Starscape.]] There have been countless unofficial versions of ''Asteroids'' produced. These include near-copies such as [[Acornsoft|Acornsoft's]] ''[[Meteors (game)|Meteors]]'', as well as those with expanded gameplay and background, such as ''[[Stardust (game)|Stardust]]'' and ''[[Starscape]]''. ==Record breaking gameplay== In March 2004, [[Portland, Oregon]] resident '''Bill Carlton''' attempted to break the world record for playing an arcade version of ''Asteroids'', playing over 27 hours before his machine malfunctioned, ending his record run. He scored 12.7 million points, putting him in 5th place in the all-time ''Asteroids'' rankings. In November 1982 '''Scott Safran''' set the still unbroken record of 41 million points. ==Song== In 1982, [[Buckner and Garcia]] recorded a song titled "Hyperspace", using sound effects from the game, and released it on the album ''[[Pac-Man Fever (album)|Pac-Man Fever]]''. ==External links== *[http://www.klov.com/game_detail.php?letter=A&game_id=6939 The Killer List of Video Games entry on ''Asteroids''] *[http://www.ataritimes.com/features/asteroids.html Atari Times: All About ''Asteroids''] *{{moby game|id=/asteroids|name=''Asteroids''}} *[http://forums.krazyletter.com/index.php?act=Arcade&do=play&gameid=1 ''Asteroids'' - Flash Version] *[http://www.thedoteaters.com/play2sta2.htm Article at The Dot Eaters], featuring a history of Asteroids *[http://www.edepot.com/game.html ''Asteroids'' written for Sony PSP] *[http://www.moonpod.com/starscape ''Starscape'' ] Asteroids game for PC with heavily advanced gameplay. [[Category: 1979 computer and video games]] [[Category:1979 arcade games]] [[Category:1981 computer and video games]] [[Category:Atari 2600 games]] [[Category: Atari 5200 games]] [[Category: Atari 7800 games]] [[Category: Atari Lynx games]] [[Category:Atari 8-bit family games]] [[Category: Apple Macintosh games]] [[Category: PlayStation games]] [[Category: PC games]] [[Category: Nintendo 64 games]] [[Category: Game Boy Color games]] [[Category:Shoot 'em ups]] [[Category: Arcade games]] [[Category:Atari arcade games]] [[Category:Vector arcade games]] [[Category: Mobile phone games]] [[de:Asteroids]] [[fr:Asteroids]] [[sv:Asteroids]] [[it:Asteroids]] 786 40166879 2006-02-18T17:57:25Z Berton 549980 italics {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Asparagales | image = Illustration Asparagus officinalis0.jpg | image_width = 200px | image_caption = [[Asparagus officinalis]] | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Liliopsida]] | ordo = '''Asparagales''' | ordo_authority = [[Edward French Bromhead|Bromhead]] | subdivision_ranks = Families | subdivision = <small>''according to the <br />[[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]]''</small><hr> *[[Agapanthaceae]] *[[Agavaceae]] *[[Alliaceae]] *[[Amaryllidaceae]] *[[Aphyllanthaceae]] *[[Asparagaceae]] *[[Asphodelaceae]]- <small>(optional synonym of Xanthorrhoeaceae)</small> *[[Asteliaceae]] *[[Blandfordiaceae]] *[[Boryaceae]] *[[Doryanthaceae]] *[[Hemerocallidaceae]] *[[Hyacinthaceae]] *[[Hypoxidaceae]] *[[Iridaceae]] *[[Ixioliriaceae]] *[[Lanariaceae]] *[[Laxmanniaceae]] *[[Orchidaceae]] *[[Ruscaceae]] *[[Tecophilaeaceae]] *[[Themidaceae]] *[[Xanthorrhoeaceae]] }} '''Asparagales''' is an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[monocot]]s which includes a number of families of non-woody plants. In older classification systems, the families now included in the Asparagales were included in order [[Liliales]], and some genera of which were even included in family [[Liliaceae]]. Some classification systems separate some of the families listed below into additional orders, including orders [[Orchidales]] and [[Iridales]], while other systems, especially the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]]'s classification system, include the Orchidales and Iridales within the Asparagales. The order is named after the genus ''[[Asparagus (genus)|Asparagus]]''. The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group's classification system is widely used by botanists, and was updated as the APG II in 2002 to include recent findings, especially in [[DNA]] analysis. Their 1998 scheme identified 29 families in order Asparagales. The APG II consolidates some families, and recognizes an alternative system of fewer, larger families, in which certain smaller families can be grouped within other larger families based on close genetic affinities and still follow the 'APG system'. Under the new classification system one could, for example, correctly include daylilies (''[[Hemerocallis]]'') in family [[Hemerocallidaceae]], or in family [[Xanthorrhoeaceae]]. The APG II classification of the Asparagales is as follows: *[[Alliaceae]] **[[Agapanthaceae]] **[[Amaryllidaceae]] *[[Asparagaceae]] **[[Agavaceae]] **[[Aphyllanthaceae]] **[[Hesperocallidaceae]] **[[Hyacinthaceae]] **[[Laxmanniaceae]] **[[Ruscaceae]] **[[Themidaceae]] *[[Asteliaceae]] *[[Blandfordiaceae]] *[[Boryaceae]] *[[Doryanthaceae]] *[[Hypoxidaceae]] *[[Iridaceae]] *[[Ixioliriaceae]] *[[Lanariaceae]] *[[Orchidaceae]] *[[Tecophilaeaceae]] *[[Xanthorrhoeaceae]] **[[Asphodelaceae]] **[[Hemerocallidaceae]] Classification systems that separate the Asparagales, Orchidales and Iridales are generally organized as follows: * Asparagales, narrow sense ** Family [[Asparagaceae]] ([[asparagus]] family) ** Family [[Alliaceae]] (onion family) *** [[Chives]] *** [[Garlic]] *** [[Onion]] ** Family [[Agavaceae]] (agave family) *** [[Agave]] *** [[Yucca]] ** Family [[Amaryllidaceae]] ([[amaryllis]] family) ** Family [[Asphodelaceae]] (asphodel family) *** [[Aloe]] *** [[Asphodel]] ** Family [[Hyacinthaceae]] (hyacinth family) *** [[Hyacinthoides|Bluebell]] *** [[Hyacinth (flower)|Hyacinth]] ** ''Cetera'' * [[Orchidales]] ** Family [[Geosiridaceae]] ** Family [[Burmanniaceae]] ** Family [[Corsiaceae]] ** Family [[Orchidaceae]] (orchid family) * [[Iridales]] ** Family [[Iridaceae]] (Iris family) ==Asparagales ''sensu'' Kubitzki (1998)== *[[Orchidaceae]] *[[Iridaceae]] *[[Doryanthaceae]] *[[Lanariaceae]] *[[Ixioliriaceae]] *[[Hypoxidaceae]] *[[Johnsoniaceae]] *[[Hemerocallidaceae]] *[[Tecophilaeaceae]] *[[Blandfordiaceae]] *[[Asteliaceae]] *[[Boryaceae]] *[[Asphodelaceae]] *[[Xanthorrhoeaceae]] *[[Aphyllanthaceae]] *[[Anemarrhenaceae]] *[[Amaryllidaceae]] *[[Agapanthaceae]] *[[Alliaceae]] *[[Themidaceae]] *[[Asparagaceae]] *[[Hyacinthaceae]] *[[Lomandraceae]] *[[Herreriaceae]] *[[Hostaceae]] *[[Anthericaceae]] *[[Agavaceae]] *[[Eriospermaceae]] *[[Ruscaceae]] *[[Behniaceae]] *[[Dracaenaceae]] *[[Convallariaceae]] *[[Nolinaceae]] ==Reference== *Kubitzki, K.:Conspectus of Families treated in this Volume (1998).Kubitzki, K.(Editor): ''The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants'', Vol.3. Springer-Verlag. Berlin, Germany. ISBN 3-540-64060-6 ==External links== [http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/orders/asparagalesweb.htm Asparagales] in [http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb Angiosperm Phylogeny Website] [[Category:Asparagales| ]] [[co:Asparagales]] [[da:Asparges-ordenen]] [[de:Spargelartige]] [[es:Asparagales]] [[fr:Asparagales]] [[la:Asparagales]] [[nl:Asparagales]] [[no:Asparagales]] [[pt:Asparagales]] [[ru:Asparagales]] [[fi:Asparagales]] [[sv:Asparagales]] [[zh:天門冬目]] 787 41221508 2006-02-25T21:58:11Z 212.224.239.235 {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Alismatids | image = Lemna trisulca0.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = Ivy Duckweed (''Lemna trisulca'') | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Liliopsida]] | ordo = '''Alismatales''' <small>Dumort. ([[1829]])</small> | subdivision_ranks = Families | subdivision = [[Alismataceae]]<br/> [[Aponogetonaceae]]<br/> [[Araceae]]<br/> [[Butomaceae]]<br/> [[Cymodoceaceae]]<br/> [[Hydrocharitaceae]]<br/> [[Juncaginaceae]]<br/> [[Limnocharitaceae]]<br/> [[Posidoniaceae]]<br/> [[Potamogetonaceae]]<br/> [[Ruppiaceae]]<br/> [[Scheuchzeriaceae]]<br/> [[Tofieldiaceae]]<br/> [[Zosteraceae]] }} The order '''Alismatales''' contains the alismatids, a group of [[monocotyledon]]s (class [[Liliopsida]]). The order contains about 165 genera in 14 families, with cosmopolitic distribution. Most families are comprised of [[herb]]aceous non-[[succulent]] plants. These plants are commonly found in aquatic environmments. The [[flower]]s are usually arranged in [[inflorescence]]s, and the mature seeds lack [[endosperm]]. Traditionally, the order Alismatales was restricted to contain just three families (Alismataceae, Butomaceae and Limnocharitaceae). The other families were not considered as alismatids, and were assigned to various distinct orders, but this approach produced [[polyphyletic]] groups, and so the whole group of families is now placed into a single order. The [[Petrosaviaceae]] have been placed in this order, but their actual affinity is not so clear. The alismatids have been considered the sister group of the [[Arales]] and the latter are now included here. As a result of this merger, the Araceae became the most important family in the order, accounting alone for over 2000 species in about 100 genera. The rest of families contain together just about 500 species. == See also == *[[Seagrass]] == References == * [[Barthélemy Charles Joseph du Mortier|B. C. J. du Mortier]] (1829). ''Analyse des Familles de Plantes : avec l'indication des principaux genres qui s'y rattachent'', 54. Imprimerie de J. Casterman, Tournay. * W. S. Judd, C. S. Campbell, E. A. Kellogg, P. F. Stevens, M. J. Donoghue (2002). ''Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, 2nd edition.'' pp. 242-247 (Alismatales). Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts. ISBN 0878934030. * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Undef&id=16360&lvl=3&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock Alismatales on NCBI] [[Category:Alismatales|*]] [[da:Skeblad-ordenen]] [[de:Froschlöffelartige]] [[es:Alismatales]] [[fr:Alismatales]] [[it:Alismatales]] [[he:כף צפרדע (סדרה)]] [[nl:Alismatales]] [[no:Alismatales]] [[pl:Żabieńcowce]] [[pt:Alismatales]] [[fi:Alismatales]] [[sv:Alismatales]] [[zh:澤瀉目]] 788 37287677 2006-01-30T00:56:23Z Gdrbot 263608 nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}} {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Apiales | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = '''Apiales''' | ordo_authority = Nakai | subdivision_ranks = Families | subdivision = * [[Apiaceae]] ([[carrot]] family) * [[Araliaceae]] ([[ginseng]] family) * [[Pittosporaceae]] * [[Griselinia]]ceae * [[Torriceliaceae]] }} The '''Apiales''' are an order of [[flowering plant]]s. The families given at right are typical of newer classifications, though there is some slight variation, and in particular the Torriceliaceae may be divided. These families are placed within the asterid group of [[dicotyledon]]s. Under the older [[Cronquist system]], only the Apiaceae and Araliaceae were included here, and the restricted order was placed among the rosids rather than the asterids. The Pittosporaceae were placed within the [[Rosales]], and the other forms within the family [[Cornaceae]]. [[Category:Apiales]] [[da:Skærmplante-ordenen]] [[de:Doldenblütlerartige]] [[es:Araliales]] [[fr:Apiales]] [[la:Apiales]] [[nl:Apiales]] [[ja:セリ目]] [[no:Apiales]] [[pl:Selerowce]] [[fi:Apiales]] [[zh:伞形目]] 789 40973981 2006-02-24T05:25:01Z FlaBot 228773 robot Adding: fi {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Asterales | image = A_sunflower.jpg | image_width = 200px | image_caption = ''Helianthus annuus'' | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = '''Asterales''' <small>[[John Lindley|Lindl.]] ([[1833]])</small> | subdivision_ranks = [[Family (biology)|Families]] | subdivision = *[[Alseuosmiaceae]] *[[Argophyllaceae]] *[[Asteraceae]] - [[Daisy|Daisies]] *[[Calyceraceae]] *[[Campanulaceae]] (incl. [[Lobeliaceae]]) - [[Bellflower]]s *[[Goodeniaceae]] *[[Menyanthaceae]] *[[Pentaphragmaceae]] *[[Phellinaceae]] *[[Rousseaceae]] (incl. [[Carpodetaceae]]) *[[Stylidiaceae]] (also [[Donatiaceae]]) }} The '''Asterales''' are an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[dicotyledon]]ous [[flowering plant]]s which include the composite family [[Asteraceae]] ([[sunflower]]s and [[Bellis|daisies]]) and its related families. The order is cosmopolitic, and includes mostly herbaceous species, although a small number of trees (''Lobelia'') and shrubs is also present. The Asterales can be characterized on the morphological and molecular level. Synapomorphies include the [[oligosaccharide]] [[inulin]] as the nutrients storage, and the stamens are usually aggregated densely around the style or even are fused into a tube around it. The last property is probably associated with the plunger (or secondary) [[pollination]], which is common among the families of the order. == Families == The '''Asterales''' include about eleven families, the largest of which is [[Asteraceae]] with about 25,000 species, and [[Campanulaceae]] with about 2,000 species. The remaining families count together for less than 500 species. The two large families are cosmopolitic with center of mass in the northern hemisphere, and the smaller ones are usually confined to Australia and the adjacent areas, or sometimes the South America. Under the [[Cronquist system]], [[Asteraceae]] was the only family in the group, but newer systems (e. g. [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group|APG]] II) have expanded it. ==Evolution and biogeography== The Asterales order probably originated in [[Cretaceous]] on the supercontinent [[Gondwana]], in the area which is now Australia and Asia. Although most extant species are herbaceous, the examination of the basal families in the order suggests that the common ancestor of the order was an arborescent plant. Fossil evidence of the Asterales is rare and belongs to rather recent epoques, so the precise estimation of the order's age is quite difficult. An [[Oligocene]] pollen is known for Asteraceae and Goodeniaceae, and seeds from Oligocene and [[Miocene]] are known for Menyanthaceae and Campanulaceae respectively. (Bremer and Gustafsson, 1997) ==Economical importance== The Asteraceae include some species grown for food, e. g. [[sunflower]] (''Helianthus annuus'') or [[chicory]] (''Cichorium''). Many spices and medicinal herbs are also present. Of horticultural importance are the Asteraceae (e. g. [[chrysanthemum]]) and Campanulaceae. ==References== {{commonscat|Asterales}} * K. Bremer, M. H. G. Gustafsson (1997). East Gondwana ancestry of the sunflower alliance of families. ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A.'' '''94''', 9188-9190. (Available online: [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/94/17/9188 Abstract] | [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/94/17/9188 Full text (HTML)] | [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/94/17/9188.pdf Full text (PDF)]) * W. S. Judd, C. S. Campbell, E. A. Kellogg, P. F. Stevens, M. J. Donoghue (2002). ''Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, 2nd edition.'' pp. 476-486 (Asterales). Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts. ISBN 0878934030. * [[John Lindley|J. Lindley]] (1833). ''Nixus Plantarum'', 20. Londini. * Smissen, R. D. (December 2002). Asterales (Sunflower). In: ''Nature Encyclopedia of Life Sciences''. Nature Publishing Group, London. (Available online: [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/npg.els.0003736 DOI] | [http://www.els.net/ ELS site]) [[Category:Asterales| ]] [[da:Kurvblomst-ordenen]] [[de:Asternartige]] [[es:Asterales]] [[fr:Asterales]] [[he:אסטראים]] [[la:Asterales]] [[nl:Asterales]] [[ja:キク目]] [[no:Asterales]] [[pl:Astrowce]] [[pt:Asterales]] [[fi:Asterales]] [[sv:Asterales]] [[zh:菊目]] 791 42043436 2006-03-03T12:04:56Z 65.31.89.248 /* Asteroid exploration */ :''This page is about the astronomical body ''Asteroid''. For the arcade game, see [[Asteroids]]''. An '''asteroid''' is a small, solid object in our [[Solar System]], orbiting the [[Sun]]. An asteroid is an example of a [[minor planet]] (or '''planetoid'''), which are much smaller than [[planet]]s. Most asteroids are believed to be remnants of the [[protoplanetary disc]] which were not incorporated into planets during the system's formation due to excessive gravitational perturbations by [[Jupiter]]. Some asteroids have [[Asteroid moon|moon]]s. The vast majority of the asteroids are within the main [[asteroid belt]], with [[ellipse|elliptical]] orbits between those of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] and [[Jupiter]]. [[image:433eros.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This picture of [[433 Eros]] shows the view looking from one end of the asteroid across the gouge on its underside and toward the opposite end. Features as small as 35 m across can be seen.]] ==Asteroids in the solar system== [[Image:4 Vesta 1 Ceres Moon at 20 km per px.png|thumb|right|Left to right: [[4 Vesta]], [[1 Ceres]], Earth's [[Moon]].]] Hundreds of thousands of asteroids have been discovered within the solar system, and the present rate of discovery is about 5000 per month. As of [[February 23]], [[2006]], from a total of 325,627 <!--- astorb.dat record count ---> registered minor planets, 120,437 have orbits known well enough to be given [[asteroid naming conventions|permanent official numbers]]. Of these, 12890<!--- using http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/MPNames.html ---> have official names (trivia: at least 610 of these names require [[diacritic]]s). The lowest-numbered but unnamed minor planet is [[(3360) 1981 VA]]; the highest-numbered named minor planet is [[117506 Wildberg]] [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/NumberedMPs115001.html]. Current estimates put the total number of asteroids in the solar system at several million. The largest asteroid in the inner solar system is [[1 Ceres]], with a diameter of 900-1000 km. Two other large inner solar system belt asteroids are [[2 Pallas]] and [[4 Vesta]]; both have diameters of ~500 km. Vesta is the only main belt asteroid that is sometimes visible to the naked eye (in some very rare occasions, a near-Earth asteroid may be visible without technical aid; see [[99942 Apophis]]). The mass of all the asteroids of the Main Belt is estimated to be about 2.3x10<sup>21</sup>&nbsp;kg, or about 3% of the mass of our moon. Of this, [[1 Ceres]] comprises 940 to 950x10<sup>18</sup>&nbsp;kg, some 40% of the total. Adding in the next three most massive asteroids, [[4 Vesta]] (12%), [[2 Pallas]] (9%), and [[10 Hygiea]] (4%), bring this figure up 66%; while the three after that, [[511 Davida]] (1.6%), [[704 Interamnia]] (1.4%), and [[3 Juno]] (1.2%), only add another 4% to the total mass. The number of asteroids then increases [[Exponential distribution|exponentially]] as their individual masses decrease. See also a [[List of noteworthy asteroids]] in our Solar System, or a sequentially-ordered [[List of asteroids]]. ==Asteroid classification== Asteroids are commonly classified into groups based on the characteristics of their orbits and on the details of the [[visible spectrum|spectrum]] of sunlight they reflect. ===Orbit groups and families=== :''main articles: [[asteroid family]] and [[minor planet]]'' Many asteroids have been placed in groups and families based on their orbital characteristics. It is customary to name a group of asteroids after the first member of that group to be discovered. Groups are relatively loose dynamical associations, whereas families are much "tighter" and result from the catastrophic break-up of a large parent asteroid sometime in the past. For a full listing of known asteroid groups and families, see [[minor planet]] and [[asteroid family]]. ===Spectral classification=== [[Image:253 Mathilde small.jpg|thumb|right|[[253 Mathilde]], a [[C-type asteroid]].]] In 1975, an asteroid [[taxonomy|taxonomic]] system based on [[colour]], [[albedo]], and [[spectral line|spectral shape]] was developed by [[Clark R. Chapman]], [[David Morrison]], and [[Ben Zellner]]. These properties are thought to correspond to the composition of the asteroid's surface material. Originally, they classified only three types of asteroids: *[[C-type asteroid]]s - carbonaceous, 75% of known asteroids *[[S-type asteroid]]s - silicaceous, 17% of known asteroids *[[M-type asteroid]]s - metallic, most of the remaining asteroids This list has since been expanded to include a number of other asteroid types. The number of types continues to grow as more asteroids are studied. See [[Asteroid spectral types]] for more detail or [[:Category:Asteroid spectral classes]] for a list. Note that the proportion of known asteroids falling into the various spectral types does not necessarily reflect the proportion of all asteroids that are of that type; some types are easier to detect than others, biasing the totals. ====Problems with spectral classification==== Originally, spectral designations were based on inferences of an asteroid's composition: * C - [[carbonate|Carbonaceous]] * S - [[silicate|Silicaceous]] * M - [[Metallic]] However, the correspondence between spectral class and composition is not always very good, and there are a variety of classifications in use. This has led to significant confusion. While asteroids of different spectral classifications are likely to be composed of different materials, there are no assurances that asteroids within the same taxonomic class are composed of similar materials. At present, the spectral classification based on several coarse resolution spectroscopic surveys in the 1990s is still the standard. Scientists have been unable to agree on a better taxonomic system, largely due to the difficulty of obtaining detailed measurements consistently for a large sample of asteroids (e.g. finer resolution spectra, or non-spectral data such as densities would be very useful). ==Asteroid discovery== ===Historical discovery methods=== Asteroid discovery methods have drastically improved over the past two centuries. In the last years of the [[18th century]], Baron [[Franz Xaver von Zach]] organized a group of 24 astronomers to search the sky for the "missing planet" predicted at about 2.8 [[Astronomical unit|AU]] from the [[Sun]] by the [[Titius-Bode law]], partly as a consequence of the discovery, by Sir [[William Herschel]] in [[1781]], of the planet [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]] at the distance "predicted" by the law. This task required that hand-drawn sky charts be prepared for all stars in the [[zodiac]]al band down to an agreed-upon limit of faintness. On subsequent nights, the sky would be charted again and any moving object would, hopefully, be spotted. The expected motion of the missing planet was about 30 seconds of arc per hour, readily discernable by observers. Ironically, the first asteroid, [[1 Ceres]], was not discovered by a member of the group, but rather by accident in [[1801]] by [[Giuseppe Piazzi]] director, at the time, of the observatory of [[Palermo]], in [[Sicily]]. He discovered a new star-like object in [[Taurus]] and followed the displacement of this object during several nights. His colleague, [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], used these observations to determine the exact distance from this unknown object to the Earth. Gauss' calculations placed the object between the planets [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] and [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]. Piazzi named it after [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]], the Roman goddess of agriculture. Three other asteroids ([[2 Pallas]], [[3 Juno]], [[4 Vesta]]) were discovered over the next few years, with Vesta found in [[1807]]. After eight more years of fruitless searches, most astronomers assumed that there were no more and abandoned any further searches. However, [[Karl Ludwig Hencke]] persisted, and began searching for more asteroids in [[1830]]. Fifteen years later, he found [[5 Astraea]], the first new asteroid in 38 years. He also found [[6 Hebe]] less than two years later. After this, other astronomers joined in the search and at least one new asteroid was discovered every year after that (except the wartime year 1945). Notable asteroid hunters of this early era were [[John Russell Hind|J. R. Hind]], [[Annibale de Gasparis]], [[Karl Theodor Robert Luther|Robert Luther]], [[Hermann Mayer Salomon Goldschmidt|H. M. S. Goldschmidt]], [[Jean Chacornac]], [[James Ferguson (astronomer)|James Ferguson]], [[Norman Robert Pogson]], [[Ernst Wilhelm Leberecht Tempel|E. W. Tempel]], [[James Craig Watson|J. C. Watson]], [[Christian Heinrich Friedrich Peters|C. H. F. Peters]], [[Alphonse Louis Nicolas Borrelly|A. Borrelly]], [[Johann Palisa|J. Palisa]], [[Paul Henry and Prosper Henry]] and [[Auguste Charlois]]. In [[1891]], however, [[Maximilian Franz Joseph Cornelius Wolf|Max Wolf]] pioneered the use of [[astrophotography]] to detect asteroids, which appeared as short streaks on long-exposure photographic plates. This drastically increased the rate of detection compared with previous visual methods: Wolf alone discovered 248 asteroids, beginning with [[323 Brucia]], whereas only slightly more than 300 had been discovered up to that point. Still, a century later, only a few thousand asteroids were identified, numbered and named. It was known that there were many more, but most astronomers did not bother with them, calling them "vermin of the skies". ===Modern discovery methods=== Until [[1998]], asteroids were discovered by a four-step process. First, a region of the sky was [[photograph]]ed by a wide-field [[telescope]]. Pairs of photographs were taken, typically one hour apart. Multiple pairs could be taken over a series of days. Second, the two [[film]]s of the same region were viewed under a [[stereoscope]]. Any body in orbit around the Sun would move slightly between the pair of films. Under the stereoscope, the image of the body would appear to float slightly above the background of stars. Third, once a moving body was identified, its location would be measured precisely using a digitizing microscope. The location would be measured relative to known star locations [http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/About/People/CarolynShoemaker/]. These first three steps do not constitute asteroid discovery: the observer has only found an [[apparition]], which gets a [[Provisional designation in astronomy|provisional designation]], made up of the year of discovery, a code of two letters representing the week of discovery, and of a number so more than the one discovered one took place in this week (example: 1998 FJ74). The final step of discovery is to send the locations and time of observations to [[Brian Marsden]] of the [[Minor Planet Center]]. Dr. Marsden has computer programs that compute whether an apparition ties together previous apparitions into a single orbit. If so, the object gets a number. The observer of the first apparition with a calculated orbit is declared the discoverer, and he gets the honour of naming the asteroid (subject to the approval of the [[International Astronomical Union]]) once it is numbered. ===Latest technology: detecting hazardous asteroids=== There is increasing interest in identifying asteroids whose orbits cross [[Earth|Earth's]] orbit, and that could, given enough time, collide with Earth (see [[Earth-crosser asteroid]]s). The three most important groups of [[near-Earth asteroid]]s are the [[Apollo asteroid|Apollos]], [[Amor_asteroid|Amors]], and the [[Aten_asteroid|Atens]]. Various [[asteroid deflection strategies]] have been proposed. The [[near-Earth object|near-Earth]] asteroid [[433 Eros]] had been discovered as long ago as [[1898]], and the [[1930]]s brought a flurry of similar objects. In order of discovery, these were: [[1221 Amor]], [[1862 Apollo]], [[2101 Adonis]], and finally [[69230 Hermes]], which approached within 0.005 [[Astronomical Unit|AU]] of the [[Earth]] in [[1937]]. Astronomers began to realize the possibilities of Earth impact. Two events in later decades increased the level of alarm: the increasing acceptance of [[Walter Alvarez]]' theory of [[K-T extinction|dinosaur extinction]] being due to an [[impact event]], and the [[1994]] observation of [[Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9]] crashing into [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]. The U.S. military also declassified the information that its military satellites, built to detect nuclear explosions, had detected hundreds of upper-atmosphere impacts by objects ranging from one to 10 metres across. All of these considerations helped spur the launch of highly efficient automated systems that consist of Charge-Coupled Device ([[Charge-coupled device|CCD]]) cameras and computers directly connected to telescopes. Since [[1998]], a large majority of the asteroids have been discovered by such automated systems. A list of teams using such automated systems includes [http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/programs]: * The [[Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research]] (LINEAR) team * The [[Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking]] (NEAT) team * [[Spacewatch]] * The [[LONEOS|Lowell Observatory Near-Earth-Object Search]] (LONEOS) team * The [[Catalina Sky Survey]] (CSS) * The [[Campo Imperatore Near-Earth Objects Survey]] (CINEOS) team * The [[Japanese Spaceguard Association]] * The [[Asiago-DLR Asteroid Survey]] (ADAS) The LINEAR system alone has discovered 62,283 asteroids as of [[December 14]], [[2005]] [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/MPDiscSites.html]. Between all of the automated systems, 3868 near-Earth asteroids have been discovered [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/Unusual.html] including over 600 more than 1 km in diameter. ==Naming asteroids== ===The naming format=== Newly discovered asteroids are given a [[Provisional designation in astronomy|provisional designation]] consisting of the year of discovery and an alphanumeric code, such as 2001 FH. When its orbit is confirmed, it is given a number, and later may also be given a name (e.g. [[1 Ceres]]). The formal naming convention uses parentheses around the number (e.g. ''(433) Eros''), however, dropping the parentheses is quite common. Informally, especially when a name is repeated in running text, it is common to drop the number altogether, or to drop it after the first mention. The [[Minor Planet Circular]] (MPC) of [[October 19]], [[2005]] was a historical one, as it saw the highest numbered asteroid jump from 99947 to 118161, causing a small "[[Y2k]]" like crisis for various automated data services &mdash;up until then, only five digits were allowed in most data formats for the asteroid number. This has been addressed in some data fields by having the leftmost digit, the ten-thousands place, use the alphabet as a digit extension. A=10, B=11,…, Z=35, a=36,…, z=61. The highest number 120437 thus is cross-referenced as C0437 on some lists. Also, the fictional asteroid of ''[[The Little Prince]]'', '''B612''', now could be connected with the real (110612) 2001 TA<sub>142</sub> which is listed as (B0612) 2001 TA<sub>142</sub> in the compacted lists &mdash;although it is already present as [[46610 Bésixdouze]] (B612 in hexadecimal translates to 46610 in decimal notation). ===Unnamed asteroids=== Unnamed asteroids that have been given a number keep their provisional designation, e.g. [[(29075) 1950 DA]]. As modern discovery techniques have discovered vast numbers of new asteroids, they are increasingly being left unnamed. The first asteroid to be left unnamed was [[(3360) 1981 VA]]. On rare occasions, an asteroid's [[Provisional designation in astronomy|provisional designation]] may become used as a name in itself: the still unnamed [[(15760) 1992 QB₁]] gave its name to a group of asteroids which became known as [[cubewano]]s. ===Sources for names=== The first few asteroids were named after figures from [[Graeco-Roman mythology]], but as such names started to run out, others were used &mdash;famous people, literary characters, the names of the discoverer's wives, children, and even television characters. The first asteroid to be given a non-mythological name was [[20 Massalia]], named after the city of [[Marseille|Marseilles]]. For some time only female (or feminized) names were used; [[Alexander von Humboldt]] was the first man to have an asteroid named after him, but his name was feminized to [[54 Alexandra]]. This unspoken tradition lasted until [[334 Chicago]] was named; even then, oddly feminised names show up in the list for years afterward. As the number of asteroids began to run into the hundreds, and eventually the thousands, discoverers began to give them increasingly frivolous names. The first hints of this were [[482 Petrina]] and [[483 Seppina]], named after the discoverer's pet dogs. However, there was little controversy about this until [[1971]], upon the naming of [[2309 Mr. Spock]] (which was not even named after the ''[[Star Trek]]'' character, but after the discoverer's cat who supposedly bore a resemblance to him). Although the [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]] subsequently banned pet names as sources, eccentric asteroid names are still being proposed and accepted, such as [[6042 Cheshirecat]], [[9007 James Bond]], or [[26858 Misterrogers]]. For a full list, see [[meanings of asteroid names]]. ===Special naming rules=== Asteroid naming is not always a free-for-all: there are some types of asteroid for which rules have developed about the sources of names. For instance [[Centaur (planetoid)|Centaurs]] (asteroids orbiting between Saturn and Neptune) are all named after mythological [[centaur]]s, [[Trojan asteroid|Trojans]] after heroes from the [[Trojan War]], and [[trans-Neptunian objects]] after underworld spirits. ==Asteroid symbols== The first few asteroids discovered were assigned symbols like the ones traditionally used to designate Earth, the Moon, the Sun and planets. The symbols quickly became ungainly, hard to draw and recognise. By the end of [[1851]] there were 15 known asteroids, each (except one) with its own symbol. The first four's main variants are shown here: :1 Ceres [[Image:1 Ceres (0).png|15px|Old planetary symbol of Ceres]] [[Image:1 Ceres (1).png|15px|Variant symbol of Ceres]] [[Image:1 Ceres (2).png|15px|Sickle variant symbol of Ceres]] [[Image:1 Ceres (3).png|20px|Other sickle variant symbol of Ceres]] :2 Pallas [[Image:2 Pallas (0).png|15px|Old symbol of Pallas]] [[Image:2 Pallas (1).png|15px|Variant symbol of Pallas]] :3 Juno [[Image:3 Juno (0).png|15px|Old symbol of Juno]] [[Image:3 Juno (1).png|15px|Other symbol of Juno]] :4 Vesta [[Image:4 Vesta (0).png|15px|Old symbol of Vesta]] [[Image:100px-Simbolo di Vesta.jpg|15px|Old planetary symbol of Vesta]] [[Image:4 Vesta (1).png|15px|Modern astrological symbol of Vesta]] [[Johann Franz Encke]] made a major change in the ''Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch'' (BAJ, "Berlin Astronomical Yearbook") for [[1854]]. He introduced encircled numbers instead of symbols, although his numbering began with [[5 Astraea|Astraea]], the first four asteroids continuing to be denoted by their traditional symbols. This symbolic innovation was adopted very quickly by the astronomical community. The following year ([[1855]]), Astraea's number was bumped up to 5, but Ceres through Vesta would be listed by their numbers only in the [[1867]] edition. A few more asteroids ([[28 Bellona]], [[35 Leukothea]], and [[37 Fides]]) would be given symbols as well as using the numbering scheme. The circle would become a pair of parentheses, and the parentheses sometimes omitted altogether over the next few decades. For details, see [[James L. Hilton]], [[2001]], [http://aa.usno.navy.mil/hilton/AsteroidHistory/minorplanets.html ''When Did the Asteroids Become Minor Planets?'']. ==Asteroid exploration== Until the age of [[space travel]], asteroids were merely pinpricks of light in even the largest telescopes and their shapes and terrain remained a mystery. The first [[close-up]] photographs of asteroid-like objects were taken in [[1971]] when the [[Mariner 9]] probe imaged [[Phobos (moon)|Phobos]] and [[Deimos (moon)|Deimos]], the two small moons of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]], which are probably captured asteroids. These images revealed the irregular, potato-like shapes of most asteroids, as did subsequent images from the [[Voyager program|Voyager]] probes of the small moons of the [[gas giant]]s. [[Image:951 Gaspra.jpg|thumb|right|[[951 Gaspra]], the first asteroid to be imaged in close up.]] The first true asteroid to be photographed in close-up was [[951 Gaspra]] in [[1991]], followed in [[1993]] by [[243 Ida]] and its moon [[Dactyl (asteroid)|Dactyl]], all of which were imaged by the [[Galileo spacecraft|Galileo probe]] ''en route'' to [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]. The first dedicated asteroid probe was [[NEAR Shoemaker]], which photographed [[253 Mathilde]] in [[1997]], before entering into orbit around [[433 Eros]], finally landing on its surface in [[2001]]. Other asteroids briefly visited by spacecraft ''en route'' to other destinations include [[9969 Braille]] (by [[Deep Space 1]] in [[1999]]), and [[5535 Annefrank]] (by [[Stardust (spacecraft)|Stardust]] in [[2002]]). In September [[2005]], the Japanese [[Hayabusa]] probe started studying [[25143 Itokawa]] in detail and will return samples of its surface to earth. Following that, the next asteroid encounters will involve the European [[Rosetta space probe|Rosetta probe]] (launched in [[2004]]), which will study [[2867 Steins|2867 &#352;teins]] and [[21 Lutetia]] in [[2008]] and [[2010]]. As a consequence of cost overruns and technical problems, [[NASA]] cancelled its [[Dawn Mission]] in March, 2006. Dawn was originally scheduled to launch June 2006 (later rescheduled for 2007) and was to orbit both [[1 Ceres]] and [[4 Vesta]] in [[2011]]-[[2015]]. It has been suggested that asteroids might be used in the future as a source of materials which may be rare or exhausted on earth ([[asteroid mining]]). ==Asteroids in fiction and film== Understandably, most fictional depictions of asteroids focus on their potential risk of striking Earth. Representations of the asteroid belt in film tend to make it unrealistically cluttered with dangerous rocks; in reality asteroids, even in the main belt, are spaced extremely far apart. *[[Professor Moriarty]], [[Sherlock Holmes]]' arch-enemy, "is the celebrated author of'' "The Dynamics of an Asteroid"'', a book which ascends to such rarefied heights of pure mathematics that it is said that there was no man in the scientific press capable of criticizing it" ([[The Valley of Fear]], [[1914]], set in [[1888]]). *In ''[[The Little Prince]]'', a [[1943]] novel by [[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]], the [[title role|title character]] lives on an asteroid named "B-6-12". The [[asteroid moon]] [[Petit-Prince (asteroid)|Petit-Prince]] was named after the character, and [[46610 Bésixdouze]] after his asteroid. *'[[Catch that Rabbit]]', one of the short stories in [[Isaac Asimov]]'s collection ''[[I, Robot]]'' ([[1950]]), takes place on an asteroid, while ''[[Marooned Off Vesta]],'' Asimov's first published story, concerns the plight of a group of astronauts stranded in orbit around the asteroid [[4 Vesta]]. *The Japanese science fiction film ''[[Chikyu Boeigun|The Mysterians]]'' aka ''[[Chikyu Boeigun]]'' ([[1957]]) reveals the solar system's asteroid belt as the remnants of the Mysterian's home planet, Mysteroid, after a nuclear war broke out. *In ''[[Green Slime]]'' (1968), a masterpiece of [[B-movie]]s, a rogue asteroid hurtles toward Earth. The astronauts leave [[Space station|Space Station]] Gamma 3 and place bombs on the asteroid, finding it inhabited by strange blobs of glowing slime that are drawn to the equipment. Unfortunately for everyone some of the slime was carried back on a [[space suit]] and soon evolves into tentacled creatures! See the review: [http://www.badmovies.org/movies/greenslime/]. The movie inspired the classic [[board game]] ''[[Awful Green Things from Outer Space]]''. *In the classic science-fiction movie ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' ([[1968]]), the ''Discovery'' has a scientifically accurate "close approach" by a binary asteroid whilst en route to [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]. The scene simply cuts briefly to two lone rocks passing by the ship, with tens of thousands of kilometres to spare. * In [[James P. Hogan (writer)|James P. Hogan]]'s ''Inherit the Stars'' ([[1977]]), first book of the ''Gentle Giants'' series, Minerva was a planet that exploded to form the [[asteroid belt]] 50,000 years ago. *The [[disaster movie]] ''[[Meteor (movie)|Meteor]]'' ([[1979]]) depicts an asteroid named Orpheus hurtling toward Earth after its orbit is deflected by a [[comet]]. *[[Atari]] released the arcade game [[Asteroids]] in [[1979]]. *In ''[[The Empire Strikes Back]]'' ([[1980]]), [[Han Solo]] enters an asteroid field to flee from the [[Empire_(Star_Wars)|Imperial]] fleet, and [[C-3PO]] thinks it is a bad idea. Han then hides his ship, the ''[[Millennium Falcon]]'' inside a giant asteroid; The ship is then attacked by a vast monster that lives (inexplicably) within the asteroid in the vacuum of space. *In [[Orson Scott Card]]'s ''[[Ender's Game]]'' ([[1985]]), a school on [[433 Eros]] is dedicated to children learning to become fleet commanders. *[[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s novel ''[[2061: Odyssey Three]]'' ([[1986]]) depicts a journey through the asteroid belt and its ominous parallels with the journey of the ''[[RMS Titanic]]''. *[[L. Neil Smith]]'s novel ''Pallas'' ([[Tor Books]], [[1993]]) depicts a modernized hunting based life on the terraformed asteroid [[Pallas]] and introduces Emerson Ngu. The book was partly insired by the 1987 article "The Worst Mistake in the History of the Human Race" written by [[Jared Diamond]]. The book also includes a brief description of a way to encapsulate the entire surface of a small body such as an asteroid to enable creating an Earthlike environment. *[[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s novel ''[[The Hammer of God]]'' ([[1993]]) depicts mankind's efforts to stop an asteroid named Kali from hitting the Earth. The film ''[[Deep Impact (movie)|Deep Impact]]'' ([[1998]]) was based on Clarke's novel, although in the movie, the asteroid becomes a [[comet]]. *In the [[LucasArts]] game ''[[The Dig]]'' (originally released in [[1995]]) and its novelization, the impact-threatening asteroid Attila turns out to be an alien probe. *In the [[1998]] movie ''[[Starship Troopers]]'', aliens launch an asteroid at Earth, completely wiping out [[Buenos Aires]]. This is the opening move in the war. *The film ''[[Armageddon (movie)|Armageddon]]'' (1998) is also about efforts to stop an asteroid hitting Earth. Its representation of an asteroid (and of space travel in general) is deeply unrealistic. *[[Ben Bova]]'s novel series ''[[The Asteroid Wars]]'' ([[2001]]-[[2004]]) focuses on a war over the mining of the asteroid belt. *In the [[BBC]] [[drama documentary]] ''[[Space Odyssey: Voyage to the Planets]]'' ([[2004]]), the ''Pegasus'' encounters a [[binary asteroid]] from much closer than expected, and dubs the rocks "Hubris" and "Catastrophe" as a result. *An episode of the political television drama, ''[[The West Wing (television)|The West Wing]]'' entitled "Impact Winter" included a subplot in which the [[White House]] staff prepared for a possible asteroid strike on the Earth. (First broadcast on [[December 15]], [[2004]]). ==See also== * [[List of noteworthy asteroids]] * [[List of asteroids]] * [[List of asteroids named after important people]] * [[List of asteroids named after places]] * [[Meanings of asteroid names]] * [[Near-Earth object]] * [[Minor planet]] * [[Asteroid belt]] * [[Pronunciation of asteroid names]] * [[Minor Planet Center]] * [[:Category:Asteroid_groups_and_families|Asteroid groups and families]] * [[:Category:Asteroids|Asteroids]] == References == *McSween and McSween, ''Meteorites and Their Parent Planets'', ISBN 0521587514 == External links == * [http://www.armageddononline.org/asteroid.php Known Asteroid Impacts & Their Effects] * [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/MPNames.html Alphabetical list of minor planet names (ASCII)] (Minor Planet Center) * [http://www.ipa.nw.ru/PAGE/DEPFUND/LSBSS/englenam.htm Alphabetical and numerical lists of minor planet names (Unicode)] (Institute of Applied Astronomy) ('''Warning:''' some ''designation'' here might be incorrect) * [http://newton.dm.unipi.it/cgi-bin/neodys/neoibo Near Earth Objects Dynamic Site] * [http://hamilton.dm.unipi.it/cgi-bin/astdys/astibo Asteroids Dynamic Site ] Up-to date [[osculating orbit|osculating]] [[orbital elements]] and [[proper orbital elements]]. * [http://quasar.ipa.nw.ru/PAGE/DEPFUND/LSBSS/statmpn.htm Asteroid naming statistics] * [http://neat.jpl.nasa.gov/ Near Earth Asteroid Tracking (NEAT)] * [http://www.spaceguarduk.com/ Spaceguard UK] * [http://aa.usno.navy.mil/hilton/AsteroidHistory/minorplanets.html When Did the Asteroids Become Minor Planets?] *[http://www.astrosurf.com/aude/map/us/AstFamilies2004-05-20.htm Large amount of information on asteroid groups collected by Gérard Faure], translation Richard Miles. *[http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/applets/satellites.html Asteroid Simulator with Moon and Earth] <br clear="all"> <center>''(asteroid navigator) | [[1 Ceres|First asteroid]] | ...''</center> {{MinorPlanets_Footer}} {{Footer_SolarSystem}} [[Category:Asteroids|*]] {{Link FA|fr}} [[bg:Астероид]] [[ca:Asteroide]] [[cs:Asteroid]] [[da:Småplanet]] [[de:Asteroid]] [[et:Asteroid]] [[es:Asteroide]] [[eo:Asteroido]] [[fr:Astéroïde]] [[gl:Asteroide]] [[ko:소행성]] [[io:Asteroido-zono]] [[id:Asteroid]] [[it:Asteroide]] [[he:אסטרואיד]] [[la:Asteroides]] [[ms:Asteroid]] [[nl:Planetoïde]] [[ja:小惑星]] [[lt:Asteroidas]] [[lv:Asteroīds]] [[no:Asteroide]] [[nn:Asteroide]] [[pam:Asteroid]] [[pl:Planetoida]] [[pt:Asteróide]] [[ro:Asteroid]] [[ru:Астероид]] [[scn:Astiroidi]] [[simple:Asteroid]] [[sk:Asteroid]] [[sl:Asteroid]] [[sr:Астероид]] [[fi:Asteroidi]] [[sv:Asteroid]] [[tl:Asteroyd]] [[tt:Asteroidlar]] [[th:ดาวเคราะห์น้อย]] [[tr:Asteroit]] [[zh:小行星]] [[zh-min-nan:Sió-he̍k-chheⁿ]] 794 15899309 2005-05-23T05:38:11Z 208.186.187.78 Restored dropped comma; reformatted cross-reference to 'Confession'. Generally, '''to allocute''' means "to speak out formally." In the field of [[apologetics]], allocution is generally done in defense of a belief. In politics, one may allocute before a legislative body in an effort to influence their position on an issue. In law, it is generally meant to state specifically and in detail what one did <nowiki>and/or</nowiki> why, often in relation to commission of a crime. In most jurisdictions, a defendant is allowed the opportunity to allocute &mdash; that is, explain himself, before sentence is passed. Some jurisdictions hold this as an absolute right, and in its absence, a sentence may potentially be overturned, with the result that a new sentencing hearing must be held. Allocution is sometimes required of a defendant who pleads guilty to a crime in a [[plea bargain]] in exchange for a reduced sentence. In this instance, allocution can serve to provide closure for victims or their families. In principle, it removes any doubt as to the exact nature of the defendant's guilt in the matter. However, there have been many cases in which the defendant allocuted to a crime that he did not commit, often because this is a requirement to receiving a lesser sentence. The term "allocution" is generally only in use in jurisdictions in the United States, though there are similar processes in other nations. == See also == * [[Confession]] [[Category:Law]] 795 38942603 2006-02-09T17:59:44Z 128.86.150.65 An '''affidavit''' is a formal sworn statement of fact, written down, signed, and witnessed (as to the veracity of the signature) by a taker of oaths, such as a [[notary public]]. The name is [[Medieval Latin]] for ''he has declared upon oath''. One use of affidavits is to allow evidence to be gathered from witnesses or participants that may not be available to testify in person before the court. In American [[jurisprudence]], it is very unusual to allow an unsupported affidavit to be entered into evidence (as the person sworn in the affidavit is not subject to cross-examination) with regard to material facts which may be dispositive of the matter [[at bar]]. Affidavits from persons who are dead or otherwise incapacitated, or who cannot be located or made to appear may be accepted by the court, but usually only in the presence of [[corroborating evidence]]. A formerly written affidavit, which reflected a better grasp of the facts closer in time to the actual events, may be used to refresh a witness' recollection. Materials used to refresh recollection are admissible as evidence. Some types of motions will not be accepted by a court unless accompanied by an independent sworn statement or other evidence, in support of the need for the motion. In such a case, the court will accept an affidavit from the filing attorney in support of the motion, as certain assumptions are made, to wit: The affidavit in place of sworn testimony promotes [[judicial economy]]. The lawyer is an [[officer of the court]] and knows that a false swearing by him, if found out, could be grounds for severe penalty up to and including [[disbarment]]. The lawyer if called upon would be able to present independent and more detailed evidence to prove the facts set forth in his affidavit. == In the United Kingdom == Affidavits are made by writing "I (state full name) of (insert address)on this date (date in words) make oath and say as follows...". After this has been written, the facts to be sworn are listed, in pros or in bullet points. The document is then taken to a [[commisssioner for oaths]] (most [[solicitors]] are also commissioners for oaths). They will then ask you to swear on a holy book particular to your faith ([[The New Testament]], [[The Old Testament]], the [[Qur'an]], etc) and ask you to verify what has been stated. An Affidavit is of equivalent value to sworn testimony. [[Category:Evidence]] [[Category:Legal documents]] [[de:Versicherung an Eides Statt]] [[he:תצהיר]] 797 15899311 2002-04-27T16:46:33Z Maveric149 62 *link fix #REDIRECT [[Alzheimer's disease]] 798 41512192 2006-02-27T21:33:40Z BorgQueen 382591 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/199.216.116.6|199.216.116.6]] ([[User talk:199.216.116.6|talk]]) to last version by That Guy, From That Show! :''For other uses, see [[Aries (disambiguation)]]'' {{Infobox Constellation| name = Aries | abbreviation = Ari | genitive = Arietis | symbology = the [[Domestic sheep|Ram]]| RA = 3 | dec= +20 | areatotal = 441 | arearank = 39th | numberstars = 2 | starname = [[Alpha Arietis|&alpha; Ari]] (Hamal) | starmagnitude = 2.0 | meteorshowers = *[[May Arietids]] *[[Autumn Arietids]] *[[Delta Arietids]] *[[Epsilon Arietids]] *[[Daytime-Arietids]] *[[Aries-Triangulids]] | bordering = *[[Perseus (constellation)|Perseus]] *[[Triangulum]] *[[Pisces]] *[[Cetus]] *[[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] | latmax = 90 | latmin = 60 | month = December | notes=}} '''Aries''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[sheep|Ram]]'', symbol [[Image:Aries_symbol.png|20px]], [[Unicode]] ♈) is one of the [[constellation]]s of the [[zodiac]]. It lies between [[Pisces]] to the west and [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] to the east. == Notable features == Aries' stars are rather faint except for [[Alpha Arietis|&alpha; Ari]] (Hamal) and [[Beta Arietis|&beta; Ari]] (Sharatan). Other important stars are [[Gamma Arietis|&gamma; Ari]] (Mesarthim) and [[Delta Arietis|&delta; Ari]] (Botein). [[Teegarden's star]], in Aries, is one of our sun's closest neighbours. == Notable deep sky objects == The few [[deep sky object]]s in Aries are very dim. They include the [[galaxy|galaxies]] NGC 697 (northwest of &beta;), NGC 772 (southeast of &beta;), NGC 972 (in the constellation's northern corner), and NGC 1156 (northwest of &delta;). == Mythology == When including fainter stars, visible to the naked eye, the area resembles the head of a [[sheep|ram]], having a general herbivore head shape and a spiral horn. In [[Greek mythology]], this is believed to represent the ram which carried Athamas's son [[Phrixus]] and daughter [[Helle (mythology)|Helle]] to Colchis to escape their stepmother [[Ino]]. Helle fell off into the sea which later became the Hellespont. On reaching safety, Phrixis sacrificed the ram and hung its [[golden fleece|fleece]] in the Grove of Ares, where it turned to gold and later became the quest of [[Jason]] and the [[Argonauts]]. It appears that [[Babylonians]], [[Greeks]], [[Persians]] and [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] all agreed on the name of the Ram for this [[constellation]]. The main area of the sky constituting the sign of Aries, containing part of [[Pisces]], the [[Pleiades]], and the constellation of [[Andromeda (constellation)|Andromeda]], may be the origin of the myth of the girdle of [[Hippolyte]], which forms part of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Hercules]]. ===Astrology=== The Western [[astrological sign]] Aries of the [[tropical zodiac]] ([[March 21]]&ndash;[[April 19]]) differs from the astronomical constellation and the Hindu astrological sign of the [[Sidereal astrology|sidereal zodiac]] ([[April 19]] - [[May 13]]). In some cosmologies, Aries is associated with the [[classical element]] [[Fire (classical element)|Fire]], and thus called a fire sign (along with [[Sagittarius]] and [[Leo]]). It is the [[domicile (astrology)|domicile]] of [[Mars (god)|Mars]] and the [[Exaltation (astrology)|exaltation]] of the [[Sun]]. It is also one of the four [[Cardinal sign]]s (along with [[Libra]], [[Capricorn]], and [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]]). Its polar opposite is [[Libra]]. Each astrological sign is assigned a part of the body, viewed as the seat of its power. Aries rules the head and face. The symbol for Aries is the [[sheep|ram]]. {{unreferenced}} ==Notable and named stars== {| style="color:#000000; font-size:smaller;" cellspacing=2 cellpadding=0 |- ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | [[Bayer designation|BD]] ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | [[Flamsteed designation|F]] ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | Names and other designations ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | [[apparent magnitude|Mag.]] ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | [[Light year|Ly]] away ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | Comments |- | &alpha; || 13 || [[Alpha Arietis]], Hamal, Hemal, Hamul, Ras Hammel, El Nath, Arietis || 2.01 || 65.9 || * < &#1585;&#1571;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1605;&#1604; ''ra's[u] al-&#295;amal'' Head of the ram * < &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1591;&#1581; ''an-na&#355;&#295;'' The butting (horn) |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &beta; || 6 || [[Beta Arietis]], Sheratan, Sharatan, Al Sharatain || 2.64 || 59.6 || * < &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1575;&#1591;&#1575;&#1606; ''a&#353;-&#353;ar&#257;&#355;&#257;n'' The (two) signs (originally &#946; and &#947; Ari) |- | c || 41 || [[41 Arietis]], Bharani || 3.61 || 159 || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &gamma;&sup1;<sup>,</sup>&sup2; || 5 || [[Gamma Arietis]], Mesarthim, Mesartim || 3.88 || 204 || * [[triple star system]]; component magnitudes: 4.75, 4.83, 9.6 * &gamma;&sup2; is an [[Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum variable|Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum type]] [[variable star]] |- | &delta; || 56 || [[Delta Arietis]], Botein || 4.35 || 168 || * < &#1576;&#1591;&#1610;&#1606; ''al-bu&#355;ayn'' The belly [diminutive] |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 39 || [[39 Arietis]] || 4.52 || || |- | &epsilon; || 48 || [[Epsilon Arietis]] || 4.63 || 293 || * [[triple star system]]; component magnitudes: 5.2, 5.5, 12.7 |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 35 || [[35 Arietis]] || 4.65 || || |- | &lambda; || 9 || [[Lambda Arietis]] || 4.79 || 133 || * [[binary star]]; component magnitudes: 4.9, 7.4 |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &zeta; || 58 || [[Zeta Arietis]] || 4.87 || 340 || |- | || 14 || [[14 Arietis]] || 4.98 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &kappa; || 12 || [[Kappa Arietis]] || 5.03 || 187 || * [[spectroscopic binary]] |- | &iota; || 8 || [[Iota Arietis]] || 5.09 || 660 || * [[spectroscopic binary]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &tau;&sup2; || 63 || [[Tau Arietis|Tau-2 Arietis]] || 5.10 || 319 || |- | || 38 || [[38 Arietis]] || 5.17 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &eta; || 17 || [[Eta Arietis]] || 5.23 || 98.3 || |- | &pi; || 42 || [[Pi Arietis]] || 5.26 || 600 || * close [[spectroscopic binary]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &tau;&sup1; || 61 || [[Tau Arietis|Tau-1 Arietis]] || 5.27 || 462 || * [[eclipsing binary|eclipsing]] [[triple star system]]. Magnitude fluctuation: 5.26&ndash;5.32. Component magnitudes: 5.4, 7.9, 8.4 |- | || 33 || [[33 Arietis]] || 5.30 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &nu; || 32 || [[Nu Arietis]] || 5.45 || 347 || |- | || 52 || [[52 Arietis]] || 5.45 || || * [[binary star]]; component magnitudes: 6.8, 7.0 |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &xi; || 24 || [[Xi Arietis]] || 5.48 || 600 || |- | || 64 || [[64 Arietis]] || 5.50 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &sigma; || 43 || [[Sigma Arietis]] || 5.52 || 480 || |- | || 62 || [[62 Arietis]] || 5.55 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 21 || [[21 Arietis]] || 5.57 || || |- | &theta; || 22 || [[Theta Arietis]] || 5.58 || 387 || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &rho;&sup3; || 46 || [[Rho Arietis|Rho-3 Arietis]], Rho Arietis || 5.58 || 115 || |- | || 10 || [[10 Arietis]] || 5.64 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 31 || [[31 Arietis]] || 5.64 || || |- | || 15 || [[15 Arietis]] || 5.68 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 19 || [[19 Arietis]] || 5.72 || || |- | &mu; || 34 || [[Mu Arietis]] || 5.74 || 338 || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 55 || [[55 Arietis]] || 5.74 || || |- | &rho;&sup2; || 45 || [[Rho Arietis|Rho-2 Arietis]], RZ Arietis || 5.76 || 404 || * [[semiregular variable]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 7 || [[7 Arietis]] || 5.76 || || |- | &omicron; || 37 || [[Omicron Arietis]] || 5.78 || 482 || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 56 || [[56 Arietis]] || 5.78 || || |- | || 20 || [[20 Arietis]] || 5.79 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 47 || [[47 Arietis]] || 5.80 || || |- | || 1 || [[1 Arietis]] || 5.83 || || * [[binary star]]; component magnitudes 6.2, 7.3. |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 40 || [[40 Arietis]] || 5.83 || || |- | || 4 || [[4 Arietis]] || 5.86 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 49 || [[49 Arietis]] || 5.91 || || |- | || 59 || [[59 Arietis]] || 5.91 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 29 || [[20 Arietis]] || 6.00 || || |- | || 11 || [[11 Arietis]] || 6.01 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 16 || [[16 Arietis]] || 6.01 || || |- | || 30 || [[30 Arietis]] || 6.01 || || * [[binary star]]; component magnitudes: 6.51, 7.09 |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 66 || [[66 Arietis]] || 6.03 || || |- | || 65 || [[65 Arietis]] || 6.07 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 53 || [[53 Arietis]] || 6.13 || || |- | || 26 || [[26 Arietis]] || 6.14 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 60 || [[60 Arietis]] || 6.14 || || |- | || 27 || [[27 Arietis]] || 6.21 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 54 || [[54 Arietis]] || 6.24 || || |- | || 36 || [[36 Arietis]] || 6.40 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 25 || [[25 Arietis]] || 6.45 || || |- | || 3 || [[3 Arietis]] || 6.55 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 51 || [[51 Arietis]] || 6.62 || || |- | &rho;&sup1; || 44 || [[Rho Arietis|Rho-1 Arietis]] || 7.10 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || || [[HD 12661]] || 7.44 || 121 || * has two planets |- | || || [[BD plus 20 307|BD+20&deg;307]] || 9.01 || 300 || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || || [[TZ Arietis]] || 12.1 || 14.5 || * [[flare star]] |- | || || [[Teegarden's star]], SO025300.5+165258 || 15.4 || 12.6 || * nearby * high [[proper motion]] |} Source: <cite>The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed.</cite>, <cite>The Hipparcos Catalogue, ESA SP-1200</cite> == See also == {{Zodiac}} {{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}} {{ConstellationList}} == External links == {{Commons|Aries}} * [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/aries/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Aries] [[Category:Aries constellation| ]] [[Category:Astrological signs]] [[an:Aries]] [[ast:Aries]] [[ca:Àries]] [[cs:Beran (souhvězdí)]] [[da:Vædderen (stjernetegn)]] [[de:Widder (Sternbild)]] [[es:Aries]] [[eo:Ŝafo (Zodiako)]] [[fr:Bélier (constellation)]] [[ga:An Reithe]] [[ko:양자리]] [[id:Aries]] [[it:Ariete (astronomia)]] [[ka:ვერძი]] [[ku:Beran (birç)]] [[la:Aries (sidus)]] [[lt:Avinas (astronomija)]] [[nl:Ram (sterrenbeeld)]] [[ja:おひつじ座]] [[pl:Baran (gwiazdozbiór)]] [[pt:Aries]] [[ru:Овен (созвездие)]] [[sk:Súhvezdie Baran]] [[fi:Oinas]] [[sv:Väduren]] [[th:กลุ่มดาวแกะ]] [[zh:白羊座]] 799 41610629 2006-02-28T14:20:08Z Emre D. 665265 Revert to revision 40765528 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] {{Otheruses1|the constellation}} {{Infobox Constellation| name = Aquarius | abbreviation = Aqr | genitive = Aquarii | symbology = the Water-bearer | RA = 23 | dec= &minus;15 | areatotal = 980 | arearank = 10th | numberstars = 2 | starname = [[Beta Aquarii|&beta; Aqr]] (Sadalsuud) | starmagnitude = 2.9 | meteorshowers = *[[March Aquarids]] *[[Eta Aquarids]] (May&nbsp;4) *[[Delta Aquarids]] (June&nbsp;28) *[[Iota Aquarids]] | bordering = *[[Pisces]] *[[Pegasus (constellation)|Pegasus]] *[[Equuleus]] *[[Delphinus]] *[[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]] *[[Capricornus]] *[[Piscis Austrinus]] *[[Sculptor (constellation)|Sculptor]] *[[Cetus]] | latmax = 65 | latmin = 90 | month = October | notes=}} '''Aquarius''' ([[Latin]] for the ''[[Water]]-bearer'' or ''Cup-bearer'', symbol [[Image:Aquarius_symbol_small.png|20px]], [[Unicode]] ♒) is the eleventh sign of the [[zodiac]], situated between Capricornus and Pisces. Its symbol is [[Image:Aquarius_symbol_small.png|20px]], representing part of a stream of water. Aquarius is one of the oldest recognized constellations along the zodiac, the sun's apparent path. It is found in a region often called the [[Sea (astronomy)|Sea]] due to its profusion of watery constellations such as [[Cetus]], [[Pisces]], [[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]], etc. Sometimes, the river Eridanus is depicted spilling from Aquarius' watering pot. == Notable deep sky objects == There are three [[deep sky object]]s that are on the [[Messier object|Messier catalog]], the [[Globular Cluster M2]], [[Globular Cluster M72]], and the [[Messier Object 73|Open Cluster M73]]. Two [[planetary nebula]]e are found in Aquarius: [[NGC 7009]], called the [[Saturn Nebula]] due to its resemblance to the [[Saturn (planet)|planet]], to the southeast of &eta; Aquarii; and [[NGC 7293]], the famous [[Helix Nebula]], southwest of &delta; Aquarii. == History == The constellation was immortalized in the [[1960s]], proclaimed the [[Age of Aquarius]]. However, there is no standard definition for astrological ages, so the age of Aquarius could begin in [[2150]] or even [[2660]], depending on the preferred definition. Based on the modern constellation boundaries of [[Pisces]] and Aquarius, the age of Aquarius would begin around 2660. However, with so much of modern society reflecting the qualities of Aquarius most astrologers believe that this era has begun. Mass production, electricity, flight and space travel, electronic communications including computers the Internet, even the growing movement against capitalism in favour of a more socialist system of humanitarian development are all related to the Aquarian paradigm. == Mythology == The best-known myth identifies Aquarius with [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]], a beautiful youth with whom [[Zeus]] fell in love, and whom he (in the guise of an eagle, represented as the constellation [[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]]) carried off to Olympus to be cupbearer to the gods. [[Crater (constellation)|Crater]] is sometimes identified as his cup. Aquarius generally resembles the figure of a man, and when considering fainter humanly visible stars, it takes on the image of a man with a bucket from which is pouring a stream. Aquarius was also identified as the pourer of the waters which flooded the earth in the [[Deluge (mythology)|Great Flood]], in the [[Greek mythology|ancient Greek version]] of the myth. As such, the constellation [[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]] was sometimes identified as being a river poured out by Aquarius. It may also, together with the constellation [[Pegasus (constellation)|Pegasus]], be part of the origin of the myth of the [[Mares of Diomedes]], which forms one of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Heracles]]. Its association with pouring out rivers, and the nearby constellation of [[Capricornus]], may be the source of the myth of the [[Augean stable]], which forms another of the labours. ===Astrology=== The Western [[astrological sign]] Aquarius of the [[tropical zodiac]] ([[January 20]] - [[February 18]]) differs from the astronomical constellation and the Hindu astrological sign of the [[Sidereal astrology|sidereal zodiac]] ([[February 16]] - [[March 11]]). In some cosmologies, Aquarius is associated with the [[classical element]] [[air (classical element)|Air]], and thus called an Air Sign (with [[Libra]] and [[Gemini]]). It is also one of the four Fixed signs (along with [[Leo]], [[Scorpius|Scorpio]], and [[Taurus]]). Its polar opposite is Leo. It is the domicile of [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]] (since its discovery [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]] has been considered Aquarius' ruling or co-ruling planet by many modern astrologers). Each astrological sign is assigned a part of the body, viewed as the seat of its power. Aquarius rules the [[circulatory system]] as well as the [[ankles]]. The symbol for Aquarius is the [[water bearer]]. ==Notable and named stars== {| style="color:#000000; font-size:smaller;" cellspacing=2 cellpadding=0 |- ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | [[Bayer designation|BD]] ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | [[Flamsteed designation|F]] ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | Names and other designations ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | [[apparent magnitude|Mag.]] ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | [[Light year|Ly]] away ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | Comments |- | &beta; || 22 || [[Beta Aquarii]], Sadalsuud, Sadalsud, Sad es Saud, Sadalsund, Saad el Sund || 2.90 || 610 || * < سعد السعودLuck of ''sa<sup>c<sup>d as-su<sup>c<sup>ūd'' ''sa<sup>c<sup>d as-su<sup>c<sup>ūd'' Luck of lucks |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &alpha; || 34 || [[Alpha Aquarii]], Sadalmelik, Sadal Melik, Sadalmelek, Sadlamulk, El Melik, Saad el Melik, Ruchbah || 2.95 || 760 || * < سعد الملك ''sa<sup>c<sup>d al-malik/mulk'' Luck of the king/kinghood * '''Rucbah''' shared with [[Delta Cassiopeiae|&delta; Cassiopeiae]] |- | &gamma; || 48 || [[Gamma Aquarii]], Sadachbia, Sadalachbia || 3.86 || 158 || * < سعد الأخبية ''sa<sup>c<sup>d[u] al-axbiyah'' Luck of the tents (homes) [''lit.'' hidings/shelters] |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &delta; || 76 || [[Delta Aquarii]], Skat, Scheat, Seat, Sheat || 3.27 || 160 || * < ? ''ši'at'' A wish ? * '''Seat''' shared with [[Pi Aquarii|&pi; Aquarii]] |- | &zeta;&sup1;<sup>,</sup>&sup2; || 55 || [[Zeta Aquarii]] || 3.65 || 105 || * [[binary star]]; component magnitudes 4.42, 4.59 |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | c&sup2; || 88 || [[88 Aquarii]] || 3.68 || 234 || |- | &lambda; || 73 || [[Lambda Aquarii]], Hydor, Ekkhysis || 3.73 || 392 || * < ''‘υδωρ'' The water; ''εκχυσις'' The outpouring |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &epsilon; || 2 || [[Epsilon Aquarii]], Albali, Al Bali || 3.78 || 230 || * < البالع ''albāli<sup>c<sup>'' The swallower |- | b&sup1; || 98 || [[98 Aquarii]] || 3.96 || 162 || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &eta; || 62 || [[Eta Aquarii]] || 4.04 || 184 || |- | &tau;&sup2; || 71 || [[Tau Aquarii|Tau-2 Aquarii]] || 4.05 || 380 || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &theta; || 43 || [[Theta Aquarii]], Ancha || 4.17 || 191 || * < [[Old High German|OHG]] ancha "the haunch" |- | &phi; || 90 || [[Phi Aquarii]] || 4.22 || 222 || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &psi;&sup1; || 91 || [[Psi Aquarii|Psi-1 Aquarii]] || 4.24 || 148 || |- | &iota; || 33 || [[Iota Aquarii]] || 4.29 || 173 || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | b&sup2; || 99 || [[99 Aquarii]] || 4.38 || || |- | &psi;&sup2; || 93 || [[Psi Aquarii|Psi-2 Aquarii]] || 4.41 || 322 || * [[Be star]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | k || 3 || [[3 Aquarii]] || 4.43 || || |- | c&sup1; || 86 || [[86 Aquarii]] || 4.48 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &omega;&sup2; || 105 || [[Omega Aquarii|Omega-2 Aquarii]] || 4.49 || 154 || |- | &nu; || 13 || [[Nu Aquarii]], Albulaan || 4.50 || 164 || * < ? ''al-bula<sup>c<sup>ān'' The (two) swallowers * '''Albulaan''' shared with [[Mu Aquarii|&mu; Aquarii]]. |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &pi; || 52 || [[Pi Aquarii]], Seat || 4.66 || 1100 || * '''Seat''' shared with [[Delta Aquarii|&delta; Aquarii]] * [[Gamma Cassiopeiae variable|Gamma Cassiopeiae type]] [[variable star]] |- | &xi; || 23 || [[Xi Aquarii]] || 4.68 || 179 || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | g || 66 || [[66 Aquarii]] || 4.68 || || |- | b&sup3; || 101 || [[101 Aquarii]] || 4.70 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | c&sup3; || 89 || [[89 Aquarii]] || 4.71 || || |- | &mu; || 6 || [[Mu Aquarii]], Albulaan || 4.73 || 155 || * < ? ''al-bula<sup>c<sup>ān'' The (two) swallowers * '''Albulaan''' shared with [[Nu Aquarii|&nu; Aquarii]]. |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &omicron; || 31 || [[Omicron Aquarii]], Kae Uh || 4.74 || 381 || * < 蓋屋 (Mandarin ''gaìwū'') The roof * [[Gamma Cassiopeiae variable|Gamma Cassiopeiae type]] [[variable star]] |- | &sigma; || 57 || [[Sigma Aquarii]] || 4.82 || 265 || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | A&sup2; || 104 || [[104 Aquarii]] || 4.82 || || * [[double star]]; component magnitudes 4.82, 8.58 |- | &chi; || 92 || [[Chi Aquarii]] || 4.93 || 640 || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &omega;&sup1; || 102 || [[Omega Aquarii|Omega-1 Aquarii]] || 4.97 || 134 || |- | &psi;&sup3; || 95 || [[Psi Aquarii|Psi-3 Aquarii]] || 4.99 || 249 || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &kappa; || 63 || [[Kappa Aquarii]], Situla || 5.04 || 234 || * < "the water jar" |- | d || 25 || [[25 Aquarii]] || 5.10 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 47 || [[47 Aquarii]] || 5.12 || || |- | || 1 || [[1 Aquarii]] || 5.15 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | i&sup3; || 108 || [[108 Aquarii]] || 5.17 || || |- | || 97 || [[97 Aquarii]] || 5.19 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 94 || [[94 Aquarii]] || 5.20 || || |- | &upsilon; || 59 || [[Upsilon Aquarii]] || 5.21 || 74.2 || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | i&sup1; || 106 || [[106 Aquarii]] || 5.24 || || |- | || 68 || [[68 Aquarii]] || 5.24 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | i&sup2; || 107 || [[107 Aquarii]] || 5.28 || || |- | || 32 || [[32 Aquarii]] || 5.29 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 41 || [[41 Aquarii]] || 5.33 || || |- | || 42 || [[42 Aquarii]] || 5.34 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &rho; || 46 || [[Rho Aquarii]] || 5.35 || 740 || |- | A&sup1; || 103 || [[103 Aquarii]] || 5.36 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | e || 38 || [[38 Aquarii]] || 5.43 || || |- | h || 83 || [[83 Aquarii]] || 5.44 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 18 || [[18 Aquarii]] || 5.48 || || |- | || 21 || [[21 Aquarii]] || 5.48 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 7 || [[7 Aquarii]] || 5.49 || || |- | || 12 || [[12 Aquarii]] || 5.53 || || * [[double star]]; component magnitudes: 5.89, 7.31 |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 49 || [[49 Aquarii]] || 5.53 || || |- | || 77 || [[77 Aquarii]] || 5.53 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 5 || [[5 Aquarii]] || 5.55 || || |- | f || 53 || [[53 Aquarii]] || 5.55 || || * [[double star]]; component magnitudes: 6.35, 6.57 |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 30 || [[30 Aquarii]] || 5.55 || || |- | || 96 || [[96 Aquarii]] || 5.56 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 26 || [[26 Aquarii]] || 5.66 || || |- | &tau;&sup1; || 69 || [[Tau Aquarii|Tau-1 Aquarii]] || 5.68 || 260 || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 19 || [[19 Aquarii]] || 5.71 || || |- | || 44 || [[44 Aquarii]] || 5.75 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | h || || [[h Aquarii]] || 5.76 || || |- | || 50 || [[50 Aquarii]] || 5.76 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 51 || [[51 Aquarii]] || 5.79 || || |- | || 35 || [[35 Aquarii]] || 5.80 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 74 || [[74 Aquarii]] || 5.80 || || |- | || 15 || [[15 Aquarii]] || 5.83 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 16 || [[16 Aquarii]] || 5.87 || || |- | || 60 || [[60 Aquarii]] || 5.88 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 45 || [[45 Aquarii]] || 5.96 || || |- | || 2 || [[2 Aquarii]] || 5.99 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 17 || [[17 Aquarii]] || 5.99 || || |- | || 39 || [[39 Aquarii]] || 6.04 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 82 || [[82 Aquarii]] || 6.18 || || |- | || 70 || [[70 Aquarii]] || 6.19 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 78 || [[78 Aquarii]] || 6.20 || || |- | || 11 || [[11 Aquarii]] || 6.21 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 81 || [[81 Aquarii]] || 6.23 || || |- | || 100 || [[100 Aquarii]] || 6.24 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 56 || [[56 Aquarii]] || 6.36 || || |- | || 20 || [[20 Aquarii]] || 6.38 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 29 || [[29 Aquarii]] || 6.39 || || |- | || 58 || [[58 Aquarii]] || 6.39 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 61 || [[61 Aquarii]] || 6.40 || || |- | || 37 || [[37 Aquarii]] || 6.64 || || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | || 24 || [[24 Aquarii]] || 6.66 || || |- | || || [[EZ Aquarii]] || 12.66 || 11.26 || * [[flare star]] * nearby |} Source: <cite>The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed.</cite>, <cite>The Hipparcos Catalogue, ESA SP-1200</cite> == See also == {{Zodiac}} {{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}} {{ConstellationList}} == References == * {{1911}} == External links == {{Commons|Aquarius}} * [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/aquarius/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Aquarius] * [http://www.nightskyinfo.com/constellations/aquarius/ NightSkyInfo.com: Constellation Aquarius] [[Category:Aquarius constellation|Aquarius constellation]] [[Category:Astrological signs]] [[ca:Aquari (constel·lació)]] [[cs:Vodnář (souhvězdí)]] [[da:Vandmanden (stjernebillede)]] [[de:Wassermann (Sternbild)]] [[es:Aquarius]] [[eo:Akvisto]] [[fr:Verseau]] [[ga:An tUisceadóir]] [[ko:물병자리]] [[id:Aquarius]] [[it:Acquario (astronomia)]] [[ka:მერწყული]] [[la:Aquarius (sidus)]] [[lt:Vandenis]] [[nl:Waterman]] [[ja:みずがめ座]] [[nn:Vassmannen]] [[pl:Wodnik (gwiazdozbiór)]] [[pt:Aquarius]] [[ru:Водолей (созвездие)]] [[sk:Súhvezdie Vodnár]] [[fi:Vesimies]] [[sv:Vattumannen]] [[th:กลุ่มดาวคนแบกหม้อน้ำ]] [[zh:寶瓶座]] 800 42138622 2006-03-04T01:57:14Z Gmcfoley 416367 /* See also */ {{Portalpar|Anime and manga}} '''Anime''' (アニメ) is a style of [[animated cartoon|cartoon animation]] originating in [[Japan]]. Anime is characterized by character and background styles which may be created by hand or may be assisted by computers. Storylines may feature a variety of [[Fictional character|characters]] and may be set in different locations and in different eras. Anime is aimed at a broad range of audiences because there are a wide range of different [[genre]]s that any series may be categorised under. Anime may be broadcast on [[television]], distributed on media, such as [[DVD]]s, or published as [[console]] and [[computer]] [[games]]. Anime is often influenced by Japanese [[comics]] known as [[manga]]. Anime may also be adapted into [[live action]] television programs. [[Image:Cowboy_bebop01.jpg|frame|A scene from ''[[Cowboy Bebop]]'' (1998)]] __TOC__ <br style="clear:both" /> ==History== [[Image:Astroboy.png|right|thumb|Atom, star of the long-running science fiction series ''[[Astro Boy|Mighty Atom]]'' (also known as [[Astro Boy]] to Western audiences).]] {{main|History of anime}} The '''history of [[anime]]''' begins at the start of the 20th century, when [[Japan]]ese [[filmmaker]]s experimented with the [[animation]] techniques that were being explored in the West. During the 1970s, anime developed further, separating itself from its Western roots, and developing unique genres such as [[mecha]]. In the 1980s, anime was accepted in the [[mainstream]] in Japan, and experienced a [[boom]] in production. The 1990s and 2000s saw an increased acceptance of anime in overseas markets. ==Terminology== The [[Japanese language|Japanese]] term for animation is アニメーション (''animēshon'', pronounced: {{IPA|/ɑnimɛːʃɔn/}}), written in [[katakana]]. It is a direct [[transliteration]] and reborrowed [[loanword]] of the English term "[[animation]]." The Japanese term is abbreviated as アニメ (''anime'', pronounced: {{IPA|/ɑnimɛ/}} ). Both the original and abbreviated forms are valid and interchangeable in Japanese, but as could be expected the abbreviated form is more commonly used. The term is a broad one, and does not specify an animation's nation of origin or style. '''Pronunciation''' The [[English language|English]] word ''anime'' is a [[transliteration]] of the abbreviated version of this Japanese term, and it is typically pronounced as {{IPA|/ˈænɪˌmei/}}, or "ANN ih may" ("AH nee may" is a less common variant). Some theorize the word comes from the [[French language|French]] ''animé'' ("animated") or "les dessins animés" (animated drawings) and pronounce it as "ah nee MAY", though the Japanese themselves deny this theory, and the fact that it is written in Japanese syllables as アニメ (''anime'') rather than アニメイ (''animei'') further lowers its credibility. As with a few other Japanese words such as ''[[Pokémon]]'' and [[Kobo Abe|Kobo Abé]], ''anime'' is sometimes spelled as ''animé'' in English with an [[acute accent]] over the final ''e'' to cue the reader that the letter is pronounced as {{IPA|[e]}}. Hence, the pronunciations "ah NEEM" and "uh NEEM" are generally considered incorrect. '''Syntax''' ''Anime'' can be used as a common [[noun]], ''"Do you watch anime?"'' or as a suppletive [[adjective]], ''"The anime Guyver is different from the movie Guyver."'' It may also be used as a [[mass noun]], as in ''"How much anime have you collected?"'' and therefore is never pluralized "animes" (nouns are never pluralized in Japanese). '''Synonyms''' Anime is sometimes referred to by the [[blend (linguistics)|blend word]] '''Japanimation''', but this term has fallen into disuse. It saw the most usage during the 1970s and 1980s, which broadly comprise the first and second waves of anime [[fandom]]. The term survived at least into the early 1990s but seemed to fade away shortly before the mid-1990s anime resurgence. In general, the term now only appears in nostalgic contexts. The term is much more commonly used within Japan to refer to domestic animation. Since ''anime'' or ''animēshon'' is used to describe all forms of animation, ''Japanimation'' is used to distinguish Japanese work from that of the rest of the world. In more recent years, anime has also frequently been referred to as ''manga'' in Europe, a practice that may stem from the Japanese usage: In Japan, ''[[manga]]'' can refer to both animation and comics (although the use of ''manga'' to refer to animation is mostly restricted to non-fans). Among English speakers, ''manga'' usually has the stricter meaning of "Japanese comics". An alternate explanation is that it is due to the prominence of [[Manga Entertainment]], a distributor of anime to the US and UK markets; because Manga Entertainment started out in the UK, this use of the term is much more common in Europe. ==Characteristics== [[Image:Dragonballz.jpg|thumb|230px|right|[[Dragon Ball Z]] is one of the most popular [[shōnen]] anime.]] Anime features a wide variety of artistic styles which vary from artist to artist and is characterized by stark, colorful graphics and stylized, colorful images depicting vibrant characters in a variety of different settings and storylines, aimed at a wide range of audiences. ===Genres=== Anime has many genres, with as many as traditional, [[live action]] cinema. Such genres include adventure, [[science fiction]], children's stories, [[Romantic love|romance]], medieval [[fantasy]], [[erotica]] ([[hentai]]), occult/horror, action, and [[drama]]. Most anime includes content from several different genres, as well as a variety of thematic elements. This can make categorizing some titles very difficult. A show may have a seemingly simple surface plot, but at the same time may feature a far more complex, deeper storyline and character development. It is not uncommon for a strongly action themed anime to also involve humor, romance, and even poignant [[social commentary]]. The same can be applied to a romance themed anime in that it may involve a strong action element. Genres and designations that are specific to anime and manga: :''(For other possible genres, see [[list of movie genres]].)'' *[[Bishōjo]]: Japanese for 'beautiful girl', blanket term that can be used to describe any anime that features pretty girl characters, for example ''[[Magic Knight Rayearth]]'' *[[Bishōnen]]: Japanese for 'beautiful boy' blanket term that can be used to describe any anime that features "pretty" and elegant boys and men, for example ''[[Fushigi Yūgi]]'' *[[Ecchi]]: Japanese for 'indecent sexuality'. Contains mild sexual humor, for example ''[[Love Hina]]''. *[[Hentai]]: Japanese for 'abnormal' or 'perverted', and used by Western Audiences to refer to pornographic anime or [[erotica]]. However, in Japan the term used to refer to the same material is typically ''Poruno'' or ''Ero''. *[[Josei]]: Japanese for 'young woman', this is anime or manga that is aimed at young women, and is one of the rarest forms. *[[Kodomo]]: Japanese for 'child', this is anime or manga that is aimed at young children, for example ''[[Doraemon]]''. *[[Mecha]]: Anime or manga featuring giant robots, example ''[[Mobile Suit Gundam]]''. *[[Moé]]: Anime or manga featuring characters that are extremely perky or cute, for example ''[[Little Snow Fairy Sugar]]''. *[[progressive anime|Progressive]]: "Art films" or extremely stylized anime, for example ''[[Voices of a Distant Star]]''. *[[Seinen]]: Anime or manga similar to Shōnen, but targeted at teenage or young male adults, for example ''[[Oh My Goddess!]]''. *[[Super Sentai|Sentai/Super Sentai]]: Literally "fighting team" in Japanese, refers to any show that involves a superhero team, for example ''[[Cyborg 009]]''. *[[Shōjo]]: Japanese for 'young lady' or 'little girl', refers to anime or manga targeted at girls, for example ''[[Fruits Basket]]''. **[[Magical girl|Mahō Shōjo]]: Subgenre of Shoujo known for 'Magical Girl' stories, for example ''[[Sailor Moon]]''. *[[Shōjo-ai]]: Japanese for 'girl-love', refers to anime or manga that focus on love and romance between female characters, for example ''[[Revolutionary Girl Utena]]''. *[[Shōnen]]: Japanese for 'boys', refers to anime or manga targeted at boys, for example ''[[Dragon Ball Z]]''. *[[Shōnen-ai]]: Japanese for 'boy-love', refers to anime or manga that focus on love and romance between male characters. This term is being phased out in Japan due to references to [[pedophilia]], and is being replaced by the term "Boys Love" (BL). An example of this style is ''[[Gravitation (manga)|Gravitation]]''. Some anime titles are written for a very specific audience, even narrower than those described above. For example, ''[[Initial D]]'' and ''[[EX-Driver|éX-Driver]]'' concern [[street racing]] and car tuning. ''[[Ashita No Joe]]'' is about [[boxing]]. ''[[Hanaukyo Maid Team]]'' is based on the [[French maid]] fantasy. Recently, the ''National Child Exploitation Coordination Centre of Canada'' has incorrectly classified all anime as [[hentai]], giving an improper impression of the content of most anime and manga series. This occurred despite having linked to this Wikipedia page in order to establish a definition of terms. The site can be viewed at the following link: [http://ncecc.ca/fact_sheets/anime_e.htm]. Complaints about the article's content and improper citations caused the NCECC to revise the citations but not the content. ===Music=== Much like western live-action cinema, anime uses music as an important artistic tool. Anime soundtracks are big business in Japan, and are often times met with similar demand as [[chart-topper|chart topping]] pop albums. It is for this reason that anime music is often composed and performed by 'A-list' musicians, stars, and composers. Skilled BGM composers are highly respected in the anime fan community. Anime series with opening credits use the opening theme song as a quick introduction to the show. The most frequent use of music in Anime is ''background music'' or ''BGM''. BGM is used to set the tone of a given scene, for example ''[[Neon Genesis Evangelion]]'' 's "Decisive Battle" is played when the characters are making battle preparations and it features heavy drum beats and a militaristic style which highlights the tension of the scene and hints at the action to follow. The theme song (also referred to as the Opening song or abbreviated as OP) usually matches the overall tone of the show, and serves to get the viewer excited about the upcoming program. Insert songs and ending songs (abbr. ED) often make commentary about the plot or the program as a whole, and are often times used to highlight a particularly important scene. Opening and ending themes, as well as insert songs, are frequently performed by popular musicians or Japanese [[japanese idol|idols]], so in this way, songs become a very important component of an anime program. In addition to the themes, the seiyū for a specific anime also frequently releases CD for their character, called Image Albums. Despite the word "image" in the CD's name, it only contains music and/or "voice messages" (where the seiyū talks with the audience or about herself), making the listener think that the character him/herself is singing. Another type of Anime CDs release are Drama CD, featuring songs and tracks which makes use of the seiyū to tell a story, often not included in the main anime. ==Animation style== [[Image:Lum-Uresei-Yatsura.png|thumb|250px|right|Lum from ''[[Urusei Yatsura]]'', an iconic anime character.]] The drawing style used in anime is counter productive to the animation process, having far too many details and subsequently making it difficult to keep the number of drawings comparable to other cartoons with design ethics that stress simplicity. This may be due to a philosophy of applying more effort into each of a few drawings than less effort into one of many. [[Osamu Tezuka]] adapted and simplified many [[Walt Disney Pictures|Disney]] animation precepts to reduce the budget costs and number of frames in the production, though it should be noted that Disney films made in the west are not anime. This was intended to be a temporary measure to allow him to produce one episode every week with an inexperienced animation staff. Anime studios have since perfected techniques to draw as little new animation as possible, using scrolling or repeating backgrounds, still shots of characters sliding across the screen, and dialogue which involves only animating mouths while the rest of the screen remains absolutely still, a technique not wholly unfamiliar to Western animation. The overall effect of these techniques, such as reduced [[frame rate]], several still shots and scrolling backgrounds, has led some critics to accuse anime of choppiness or poor quality in general. ''(See also [[limited animation]].)'' There are often scenes where the frame rate of the animation far exceeds the quality of the rest of the production. These are commonly referred to as "money shots" outside of Japan, where more effort is put into the animation of one scene to give it emphasis over the rest of the work. Animator [[Yasuo Otsuka]] was the pioneer of this technique. Exceptions to these rules are early classic films, such as those produced by [[Toei Animation]] up until the mid 1960s, and recent big budget films, such as those produced by the enormously successful [[Studio Ghibli]]. These movies have much higher production values, due to their anticipated success at the box office. Some animators in Japan overcome production values by utilizing different techniques than the Disney or the old Tezuka/Otsuka methods of animating anime. Directors such as [[Hiroyuki Imaishi]] (''[[Cutey Honey]]'', ''[[Dead Leaves]]'') simplify backgrounds so that more attention can be paid to character animation. Other animators like Tatsuyuki Tanaka (in [[Koji Minamoto]]'s ''Eternal Family'' in particular) use [[squash and stretch]], an animation technique not often used by Japanese animators; Tanaka makes other shortcuts to compensate for this. Some higher-budgeted television and OVA ([[Original Video Animation]]) series also forego the shortcuts found in most other anime. While different titles and different artists have their own unique artistic styles, many stylistic elements have become extremely common. Some examples have become so common that they are often described as being definitive of anime in general, and have been given names of their own. The most common is the large eyes style drawn on many anime characters, common mainly due to the influence of [[Osamu Tezuka]], who was inspired by the exaggerated features of Western cartoon characters such as [[Betty Boop]] and [[Mickey Mouse]] and from Disney's ''[[Bambi]]''. Tezuka found that large eyes allowed his characters to better express their emotions. Some Western audiences have interpreted such stylized eyes as more Caucasian. Cultural anthropologist [[Matt Thorn]] argues that Japanese animators and audiences do not perceive them as inherently more or less foreign. {{ref|refbot.15}} When Tezuka began drawing ''[[Princess Knight|Ribbon no Kishi]]'', the first manga specifically targeted at young girls, Tezuka further exaggerated the size of the characters' eyes. Indeed, through ''Ribbon no Kishi'', Tezuka set a stylistic template that later ''shōjo'' artists tended to follow. Another variation of this style is "[[chibi]]" or "[[super deformed]]"; which usually feature huge eyes, an enlarged head, and small body. Other stylistic elements are common as well; often in comedic anime, characters that are shocked or surprised will perform a "face fault", in which they display an extremely exaggerated expression. Angry characters may exhibit a "vein" or "stressmark" effect, where lines representing bulging veins will appear on their forehead. Angry women will sometimes summon a mallet from nowhere and strike someone with it, leading to the concept of [[Hammerspace]]. Male characters will develop a [[bloody nose]] around their female love interests (typically to indicate arousal) -- this is supposedly due to blood rushing to the face in an exaggerated blush. Embarrassed characters will invariably produce a massive [[sweat-drop]], which has become something of a stereotype of anime. The degree of stylization varies from title to title. Some titles make extensive use of common stylization: ''[[FLCL]]'', for example, is known for its wild, exaggerated, stylization. In contrast, titles such as ''[[Only Yesterday]]'', a film by [[Isao Takahata]], take a much more realistic approach, and feature no stylistic exaggerations. Another unique aspect of anime not found in other commercial animation markets is the lack of a directoral system. In most animation produced around the world animators are all forced to conform to a set style by the director or animation director. In Japan starting with the animation director [[Yoshinori Kanada]] (as a means to save time and money) each animator brings his/her own style to the work. The most extreme examples of this can be found in ''[[Mindgame]]'' or ''[[The Hakkenden]]''. ''The Hakkenden'' is particularly extreme, showing constantly shifting styles of animation based upon the key animator that worked on that particular episode. This approach combined with Otsuka's "money shots" make key animators important individuals in the style and production of an anime film. Many non-Japanese cartoons are starting to incorporate mainstream anime shortcuts and symbols to appeal to anime's tremendously growing fanbase and cut costs. ==Production types of anime== Most anime can be categorized as one of three types: *'''Films''', which are generally released in theaters, represent the highest budgets and generally the highest video quality. Popular anime movies include ''[[Akira (film)|Akira]],'' ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'', and ''[[Spirited Away]]''. Some anime [[film]]s are only released at film or animation festivals and are shorter and sometimes lower in production values. Some examples of these are ''[[Winter Days]]'', and [[Osamu Tezuka]]'s ''[[Legend of the Forest]]''. Other types of films include [[compilation movie]]s, which are television episodes edited together and presented in theaters for various reasons, and are hence a concentrated form of a television [[serial]]. These may, however, be longer than the average movie. There are also theatrical shorts derived from existing televisions series and billed in Japanese theaters together to form feature-length showing. *'''Television series''' anime is [[Television syndication|syndicated]] and broadcast on television on a regular schedule. [[Television program|Television series]] are generally low quality compared to OVA ([[Original Video Animation]]) and film titles, because the production budget is spread out over many episodes rather than a single film or a short series. Most episodes are about 23 minutes in length, to fill a typical thirty-minute time slot with added [[Television commercial|commercials]]. One full season is 26 episodes, and many titles run half seasons, or 13 episodes. Most TV series anime episodes will have [[opening credits]], [[closing credits]], and often an "[[eyecatch]]", a very short scene, often humorous or silly, that is used to signal the start or end of the commercial break (as "bumpers" in the United States are used in a similar fashion). "Eyecatch" scenes are often found in TV series anime and are generally similar throughout the series. *'''OVA''' ('''[[Original Video Animation]]'''; sometimes '''OAV''', or '''Original Animated Video''') anime is often similar to a television [[miniseries]]. OVAs are typically two to twenty episodes in length; [[one-shot]]s are particularly short, usually less than film-length. They are most commonly released directly to video. As a general rule OVA anime tends to be of high quality, approaching that of films. Titles often have a very regular, continuous plot best enjoyed if all episodes are viewed in sequence. Popular OVA titles include ''[[FLCL]]'', ''[[Bubblegum Crisis]]'', and ''[[Tenchi Muyo!]]''. Opening credits, closing credits, and eyecatches may sometimes be found in OVA releases, but not universally. '''Franchising''' It is very common for one title to spawn several different releases. A title that starts as a popular television series might then have a movie produced at a later date. A good example is ''Tenchi Muyo!''. Originally an OVA, it spawned three movies, three television series, and several spinoff titles and specials. Not all successors to an anime are a sequel to the original story. Prequels and alternate stories are commonly adapted from the original. ==Licensing and distribution== Anime is available outside of Japan in localized form. Licensed anime is modified by [[Western world|Western]] distributors through [[Dubbing (filmmaking)|dubbing]] into the language of the country. The anime may also be [[edited movie|edited]] to alter cultural references that may not be understood by a non-Japanese person and companies may remove what may be perceived as objectionable content. For the fans who may object to the editing and dubbing of anime, DVDs may be their preference. DVD releases often include both the dubbed audio and the original Japanese audio with [[subtitle]]s, are typically unedited, and lack [[Television commercial|commercial]]s. '''Fansubs''' Although it is a violation of [[copyright]] laws in many countries, some fans watch [[fansub]]s, recordings of anime series that have been subtitled by fans. Watching subtitled Japanese versions is usually seen as the intended method of watching anime by enthusiasts. The ethical implications of producing, distributing, or watching fansubs is a topic of much controversy even when fansub groups do not profit from and cease distribution of their work once the series has been licensed. :''See [[fansub]] for further discussion of ethical issues of fansubbing'' ==See also== [[Image:Laputa-robot-ghibli.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A life-size model of a [[robot]] from the animation ''[[The Castle in the Sky|Laputa]]'' on top of the [[Ghibli Museum]] in [[Mitaka, Tokyo]].]] *[[Animated cartoon]] *[[Animation]] *[[Anime industry]] *[[Anime physics]] *[[History of anime|History of Anime]] *[[Manga]] *[[Traditional animation]] *[[Amerime]] *[[Editing of anime in international distribution]] '''Terminology''' *[[Anime music video|Anime Music Video]] *[[Catgirl]] *[[Chibi]] *[[Cosplay]] *[[Dōjinshi|Dōjinshi or Doujinshi]] *[[Dorama]] *[[Eroge]] *[[Ganguro]] *[[Guro]] *[[Hentai]] *[[J-pop]] *[[Lolicon]] *[[Otaku]] *[[Seiyū]] *[[Shota]] '''Licensing and translation''' *[[Editing of anime in international distribution]] *[[Fansub]] *[[Wikt:Glossary:Japanese film credit terms|Glossary:Japanese film credit terms]] '''Lists''' *[[Animated television series]] *[[Anime characters|Anime Characters]] *[[List of anime companies|Anime Companies]] *[[List of anime conventions|Conventions]] *[[List of anime]] **[[Notable anime]] **[[Anime theatrically released in America]] *[[Notable names in anime]] (directors, creators, and so forth) ==References== *Clements, Jonathan and Helen McCarthy. ''The Anime Encyclopedia''. Berkeley, Calif.: Stone Bridge Press, 2001. ISBN 1880656647. *Napier, Susan J. ''Anime: From Akira to Princess Mononoke''. New York: Palgrave, 2001. ISBN 031223862. *Poitras, Gilles. ''Anime Companion''. Berkeley, Calif.: Stone Bridge Press, 1998. ISBN 1880656329. *Poitras, Gilles. ''Anime Essentials''. Berkeley, Calif.: Stone Bridge Press, 2000. ISBN 1880656531. *Baricordi, Andrea and Pelletier, Claude. ''Anime: A Guide to Japanese Animation (1958-1988)''. Montreal, Canada.: Protoculture, 2000. ISBN 2980575909. ==External links== '''Databases''' *[http://www.anidb.net/ AniDB]: database of anime series, hashes, fansub groups, and 'mylist' feature. *[http://www.animeacademy.com/ Anime Academy]: Anime database, community forum and articles on culture, style, and prominent figures. *[http://www.animelyrics.com/ Anime Lyrics] *[http://www.AnimeNfo.com/ AnimeNfo]: Anime database, reviews, and community forums. *[http://www.public.iastate.edu/~rllew/anitv.html Richard Llewellyn's Anime TV Series List]: Comprehensive anime title database. '''Link sites''' *[http://www.animeallies.com Anime Allies Directory] Directory of anime sites and resources. *[http://www.anipike.com/ Anime Web Turnpike] '''News''' *[http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/ Anime News Network]: Anime news site, also has weekly columns, forums, and an extensive encyclopedia of series, companies, and staff/cast. '''Wikis''' *[http://www.anime-wiki.org/ Anime Wiki] Their goal is to build a wiki without copying other sources. '''Review sites''' *[http://www.dannychoo.com/ Anime reviews, toys and opening movie intros] *[http://www.animeondvd.com/ Anime on DVD]: Extensive database of anime DVD reviews. *[http://www.animefridge.com/ Anime Fridge] An archive of anime, video games, manga, and related soundrack reviews. *[http://www.theanimereview.com/ The Anime Review] Reviews of current and past anime series. *[http://www.themanime.org/ THEM Anime] Indepth reviews and synopses of various anime titles. *[http://www.animefrontier.com/ Anime Frontier] Reviews of anime and manga, as well as other various resources. '''Other reference''' *[http://www.japan-7.com/ Japan-7]: Webzine and an archive of anime music, ost, j-music. *[http://www.tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/AnimeTrope Anime Tropes]: Common cliches and visual cues. *[http://www.greencine.com/static/primers/anime.jsp GreenCine primer on Anime] *[http://www.anime.com.ru/ Anime portal in Russia] ==Notes== # {{note | refbot.15 }} {{cite web | title = Do Manga Characters Look "White"? | url = http://www.matt-thorn.com/mangagaku/faceoftheother.html | accessdate = December 5 | accessyear = 2005 }} <!-- Please do NOT change the Esperanto link again. This one is correct, and 'Animeo' is not. Thank you. --> [[Category:Animation]] [[Category:Anime|*]] [[Category:Art genres]] [[Category:Cartooning]] [[Category:Film]] [[ar:أنيمي]] [[ca:Anime]] [[cs:Anime]] [[da:Anime]] [[de:Anime]] [[el:Anime]] [[es:Anime]] [[eo:japana desegnita filmo]] [[fr:Anime]] [[gl:Anime]] [[ko:재패니메이션]] [[id:Anime]] [[is:Anime]] [[it:Anime]] [[he:אנימה (אמנות יפנית)]] [[lt:Anime]] [[hu:Anime]] [[ms:Anime]] [[nl:Anime]] [[ja:アニメ]] [[no:Anime]] [[pl:Anime]] [[pt:Anime]] [[ru:Аниме]] [[sq:Anime]] [[sk:Anime]] [[sl:Anime]] [[fi:Anime]] [[sv:Anime]] [[tl:Anime]] [[th:อะนิเมะ]] [[tr:Anime]] [[vi:Anime]] [[zh:日本动画]] 801 41953207 2006-03-02T21:21:56Z Timwi 13051 moved [[Asterism (disambiguation)]] to [[Asterism]]: Since the article without parentheses is a redirect... '''Asterism''' may refer to: *[[Asterism (astronomy)]] *[[Asterism (gemmology)]] *[[Asterism (typography)]] {{disambig}} [[fr:Astérisme]] [[it:Asterismo]] 802 41707805 2006-03-01T05:06:20Z SDC 181435 /* Shopping */ {{Infobox town TR |name = Ankara |map2 = Ankara_City_Center.jpg |map2 size = 250 |map2 cap = Ankara from the Atakule Tower, looking N-NE |map = Ankara Turkey Provinces locator.gif |map size = 250 |map cap = Location in [[Turkey]] |province = Ankara |population = 4,319,167 |population_as_of = 2005 |population_ref = [] |pop_dens = |area = |lat_deg = 39 |lat_min = 52 |lat_hem = N |lon_deg = 32 |lon_min = 52 |lon_hem = E |elevation = 850 |postal_code = 06x xx |area_code = 0312 |licence = 06 |mayor = İ. Melih Gökçek (Justice and Development Party) |website = [http://www.ankara.bel.tr/ http://www.ankara.bel.tr/] }} '''Ankara''' is the [[capital city|capital]] of [[Turkey]] and the country's second largest city after [[İstanbul]]. The city has a population of 4,319,167 (Provience 5,153,000) ([[as of 2005]]), and a mean elevation of 850 m. (2800 ft.) It was formerly known as '''[[Angora]]''' or '''Engürü''', and in Roman times as '''Ancyra''', and in classical and Hellenistic periods as Ἄγκυρα '''Áŋkyra'''. It is also the capital of [[Ankara Province]]. Centrally located in [[Anatolia]], Ankara is an important commercial and industrial city. It is the center of the Turkish Government, and houses all foreign embassies. It is an important crossroads of trade, strategically located at the center of Turkey's highway and rail network, and serves as the marketing center for the surrounding agricultural area. The city was famous for its long-haired goat and its wool ([[Angora wool]]), a unique breed of cat ([[Turkish Angora|Ankara cat]]), white [[rabbits]], [[pear]], [[honey]], and the region's [[Muscat grape|muscat]] [[grapes]]. Ankara is situated upon a steep and rocky hill, which rises 500 ft. above the plain on the left bank of the ''Enguri Su'', a tributary of the [[Sakarya]] (Sangarius) river. The city is located 39&deg;52'30" North, 32&deg;52' East (39.875, 32.8333). The city, which is one of the driest places in Turkey and surrounded by a barren featureless steppe vegetation, with various [[Hittite]], [[Phrygian]], [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Roman empire|Roman]] [[archeological site]]s. It has a harsh dry [[continental climate]] with cold snowy winters and hot dry summers. Rainfall occurs mostly during spring and autumn. The hill is crowned by the ruins of the old castle, which add to the picturesqueness of the view; but the town was not well built, many of its houses constructed of sun-dried mud bricks along narrow streets. <sup>[http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html]</sup> There are, however, many finely preserved remains of [[Architecture of Ancient Greece|Greek]], [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Byzantine architecture]], the most remarkable being the temple of [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]], on the walls of which is the famous ''Monumentum Ancyranum''<sup>[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/home.html]</sup> == History == [[Image:A Turkish Kaleidoscope (1926)- Ankara Bazaar.png|left|thumb|300px|Ankara Bazaar in [[1920s]].]] The region's vibrant history can be traced back to the [[Bronze Age]] [[Hattians|Hatti]] civilization, which was succeeded in the 2nd millennium BC by the [[Hittites|Hittites]], in the 10th century BC by the [[Phrygians]], then by the [[Lydians]] and [[Persia|Persians]]. Persian sovereignty lasted until the Persians' defeat at the hands of the Macedonian king [[Alexander the Great]]. In [[333 BC]], Alexander came from [[Gordium]] to Ankara and stayed in the city for a period of time. After his death at [[Babylon]] in [[323 BC]] and the subsequent division of his empire amongst his generals, Ankara and its environs fell into the share of [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Antigonus]]. In [[278 BC]], Ankara was occupied by the [[Gaul|Gaulish]] race of [[Galatia|Galatians]] who were the first to make Ankara their capital. It was then known as '''Ancyra''', meaning "[[anchor]]" in [[Greek language|Greek]]. Ankara's organized and written history starts with the [[Galatia|Galatians]]. [[Image:Ulus_Ankara.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A view from Ulus, the historical district of Ankara.]] The city subsequently fell to the [[Roman Empire]] in [[189 BC]] and became the capital of the Roman province of [[Galatia]]. Under Roman rule, Ankara became a gate to the east for Rome, and as such was well developed, achieving the status of "city-state" or [[polis]]. The city's military as well as logistical significance lasted well into the long [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] reign, even after its capital was moved to [[Constantinople]]. Although Ankara fell into the hands of several Arab armies numerous times after the 6th century, it remained an important crossroads polis within the Byzantine Empire until the late 11th century. In [[1071]] [[Seljuk Turks|Seljuk]] Sultan [[Alp Arslan|Alparslan]] threw open the door to Anatolia for the Turks by his victory at [[Battle of Manzikert|Malazgirt]]. He then annexed Ankara, an important location for military transportation and natural resources, to Turkish territory in [[1073]]. [[Orhan I]], second "bey" of the [[Ottoman Empire]] captured the city in [[1356]]. Another [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] leader, [[Timur Lenk]] besieged Ankara as part of his campaign in [[Anatolia]], but in [[1403]] Ankara was again under Ottoman control. At the close of [[World War I]], Turkey was under the control of the Ottoman sultan and having lost the war, was being shared by [[Greece|Greeks]], [[France|French]], [[United Kingdom|British]], and [[Italy|Italians]]. The leader of the Turkish nationalists, [[Kemal Atatürk]] established the headquarters of his resistance movement in Ankara in [[1919]] (See [[Treaty of Sèvres]] and [[Turkish War of Independence]]). After the War of Independence was won and the Ottoman Empire was dissolved, Turkey was declared a [[republic]] on [[October 29]], [[1923]], Ankara having replaced [[İstanbul]] (formerly [[Constantinople]]) as the capital of the new [[Republic of Turkey]] on [[October 13]], [[1923]]. [[Image:Kizilay_Ankara.jpg|left|thumb|300px|A recent view from Kızılay, the central district of Ankara.]] After Ankara became the capital of the newly founded Republic of Turkey, new development divided the city into an old section, called '''Ulus''', and a new section, called '''Yenişehir'''. Ancient buildings reflecting Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman history and narrow winding streets mark the old section. The new section, now centered around '''Kızılay''', has the trappings of a more modern city: wide streets, hotels, theaters, shopping malls, and high-rises. Government offices and foreign embassies are also located in the new section. ==Attractions== ===General attractions=== [[Image:Anitkabir.DO.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Anıtkabir, Atatürk's mausoleum.]] [[Anıtkabir]] is located on an imposing hill in the ''Anittepe'' quarter of the city stands the mausoleum of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of the Republic of Turkey. Completed in [[1953]], it is an impressive fusion of ancient and modern architecture. An adjacent museum houses a superior wax statue of Atatürk, his writings, letters and personal items, as well as an exhibition of photographs recording important moments in his life and in the establishment of the Republic (Anitkabir is open everyday, and the adjacent museum every day except Mondays). '''The [[Ankara Ethnography Museum]] (''Etnoğrafya Müzesi'')''': This museum is opposite the Opera House on Talat Pasa Boulevard, in Ulus district. There is a fine collection of folkloric as well as Seljuk- and Ottoman-era artifacts. [[Image:AnatolianCivMuseum.DO.jpg|right|thumb|300px|An Hattian artifact, from 3rd millennium BC, in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations]] '''The Museum of Anatolian Civilizations (''Anadolu Medeniyetleri Müzesi'')''': Situated at the Ankara Castle entrance, it is an old "bedesten" (covered bazaar) that has been beautifully restored and now houses a unique collection of [[Paleolithic]], [[Neolithic]], [[Hatti]], [[Hittite]], [[Phrygia]]n, [[Urartu|Urartian]], and [[Roman Empire|Roma]]n works and showpiece [[Lydia]]n treasures. '''The Çengelhan Rahmi M. Koç Museum (''Çengelhan Rahmi M. Koç Müzesi'')''': is an industrial museum opposite the entrance to the Citadel, close to Anatolian Civilization Museum. Located in the historic Çengelhan - a former Caravanserai, built in 1522 - the Museum displays huge variety of exhibits on such diverse themes as Engineering, Road Transport, Scientific Instruments, Maritime, Medicine, and many others. The beautiful and atmospheric courtyard now houses the newly restored shop where the founder of the Koç Group, Mr Vehbi Koç started his working life. And when you have finished your museum visit, you can relax in either the Divan Café or the sophisticated Divan Brasserie in the courtyard. '''[[State Art and Sculpture Museum]] (The Painting and Sculpture Museum) (''Resim-Heykel Müzesi'')''': Close to the Ethnography Museum and houses a rich collection of Turkish art from the late [[19th century]] to the present day. There are also galleries which host guest exhibitions. '''The War of Independence Museum (''Kurtuluş Savaşı Müzesi'')''': In Ulus Square, is what was originally the first parliament building of the Republic of Turkey. There the War of Independence was planned and directed here as recorded in various photographs and items presently on exhibition. In another display, wax figures of former presidents of the Republic of Turkey are on exhibit. '''The TCDD [[Locomotive]] Museum''': Near the railway station by Celal Bayar Blvd., is a very interesting open-air museum that traces the history of steam locomotion through the locomotives and artifacts on display. ===Archeological sites=== [[Image:Ankara Citadel2.MarkHamilto.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Ankara Citadel.]] '''Ankara Citadel''': The foundations of the citadel were laid by the Galatians on a prominent [[lava]] outcrop, and the rest was completed by the Romans. The Byzantines and Seljuks further made restorations and additions. The area around and inside the citadel, being the oldest part of Ankara, contains many fine examples of traditional architecture. There are also recreational areas to relax. Many restored traditional Turkish houses inside the citadel area have found new life as restaurants, serving local cuisine, music and of course, [[Raki]]. '''Roman Theatre''': The remains, the stage, and the backstage, can be seen outside the castle. Roman statues that were found here are exhibited in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations (see above). The seating area is still under excavation. '''Temple of Augustus''': It was built by the Galatian King [[Pylamenes]] in [[AD 10]] as a tribute and sign of fidelity to [[Augustus]], and was reconstructed by the Romans on the ancient Ankara Acropolis in the 2nd century. It is important for the "Monument Ancyranum", the sole surviving political testament of Augustus, detailing his achievements inscribed on its walls in [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]]. In the fifth century the temple was converted into a church by the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]]. The temple is in the Ulus quarter of the city. '''Roman Bath''': This bath has all the typical features of a classical [[Roman bath]]: a frigidarium (cold room), tepidarium (cool room) and caldarium (hot room). The bath was built in the reign of Emperor [[Caracalla|Caracalla]] in 3rd century AD to honour the [[Asclepios]], the God of Medicine. Today only the basement and first floors remain. Situated in Ulus quarter. '''Column of Julian''': This column, in Ulus, was erected in AD 362, to commemorate a visit by the Roman Emperor [[Julian the Apostate]]. It stands fifteen meters high and has a typical leaf decoration on the capital. ===Modern monuments=== '''Monument to a Secure, Confident Future''': This monument, in Güven Park, Bakanlıklar quarter, was erected in 1935 and bears Atatürk's advice to his people: "Turk! Be proud, work hard, and believe in yourself." '''Victory Monument (''Zafer Anıtı'')''': Erected in 1927 in Zafer Square in the Sıhhiye quarter, it depicts Atatürk in uniform. '''Hatti Monument''': Built in the 1970's in Sıhhiye Square, this impressive monument symbolizes the Hatti gods and commemorates Anatolia's earliest known civilization. ===Mosques=== [[Image:Kocatepe Mosque Ankara.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Kocatepe Mosque]] '''Kocatepe Mosque''': This mosque was constructed in the late 20th century in accordance with classical Ottoman models, which emphasize the placement of four minarets. Its size and prominent location make it a landmark that can be seen from most anywhere in central Ankara. '''[[Haci Bayram]] [[Mosque]]''': This mosque, in Ulus quarter next to the Temple of Augustus, was built in the early 15th century in Seljuk style and was subsequently restored by architect [[Sinan]] in the 16th century, with Kutahya tiles being added in the 18th century. The mosque was built in honor of Haci Bayram Veli, whose tomb is next to the mosque. ===Parks=== Ankara has many delightful parks and open spaces mainly established in the early years of the Republic and well maintained and expanded thereafter. The most important of these parks are: Gençlik Park (houses an amusement park with a large pond for rowing), the Botanical Garden, Seğmenler Park, Anayasa Park, Kuğulu Park (famous for the swans received as a gift from the [[China|Chinese]] government), Abdi Ipekci Park, Güven Park (see above for the monument), Kurtuluş Park (has an ice-skating rink), Altın Park (also a prominent exposition/fair area), Harikalar Diyari (said to be, Europe's Biggest Park inside city borders) and Göksu Park. [[Image:Goksu Park Ankara.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Göksu Park located in Eryaman district was established in 2004]] '''Atatürk Farm and Zoo (''Atatürk Orman Çiftliği, AOÇ'')''' is an expansive recreational farming area housing a [[zoo]], several small agricultural farms, [[greenhouse]]s, restaurants, a [[Dairy farming|dairy farm]] and a [[brewery]]. It is a pleasant place to spend a day with family, be it for having picnics, hiking, biking or simply enjoying good food and nature. There is also an exact replica of the house where Atatürk was born in [[1881]], in [[Thessaloniki]], [[Greece]]. Visitors to the "Çiftlik" (farm) as it is affectionately called by Ankarans, can sample such famous products of the farm as its excellent old-fashioned beer and ice cream, fresh dairy products and meat rolls/kebaps made on charcoal, through an excellent traditional restaurant (''Merkez Lokantasi'', Central Restaurant), cafés and other establishments scattered in the farm. ===Shopping=== [[Image:Karum Inside.HB.jpg|left|thumb|200px|An inside view of Karum Shopping & Business Center.]] Foreign visitors to Ankara usually like to visit the old shops in ''Çıkrıkçılar Yokuşu'' (Weavers' road) near Ulus, where a myriad of things ranging from traditional fabrics, hand-woven carpets and leather products can be found for bargain prices. ''Bakırcılar Çarşısı'' (Bazaar of coppersmiths) is particularly popular, and many interesting items, not just of copper, can be found here...like jewelry, carpets, costumes, antiques and embroidery. Walking up the hill to the castle gate, you find many shops selling a huge and fresh collection of spices, dried fruits, nuts, and other produce. [[Image:Beymen Ankara.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Beymen Store located in popular Tunalı Hilmi Avenue]] Modern shopping areas are mostly found in Kızılay, or on Tunalı Hilmi Avenue, including the modern mall of Karum which is located to the end of the Avenue; and in the [[Atakule Tower]] in Çankaya. Çankaya being the quarter with the highest elevation in the city, the tower has a magnificent view over the whole city, and also has a [[revolving restaurant]] at the top where the complete panorama can be enjoyed in a more leisurely fashion. As Ankara started expanding westward in the 1970s, there are several modern, suburbia-style developments and mini-cities along the western highway, also known as [[Eskisehir Province|Eskisehir]] road. The Armada mall on the highway, the Galleria in Ümitköy, and a huge mall in Bilkent Center offering North American and European style mall-shopping opportunities (These can be reached following the Eskişehir highway). ==Universities== Ankara is known for the multitude of universities it is home to. These include the following, several of them being among the most reputable of the country: * [[Ankara University]] * [[Atilim University|Atılım University]] * [[Baskent University|Başkent University]] * [[Bilkent University]] * [[Cankaya University|Çankaya University]] * [[Gazi University]] * [[Hacettepe University]] * [[Middle East Technical University]] * [[Ufuk University]] ==Transportation== [[Image:Ankara_Metro.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Map of the Subway of Ankara.]] [[Esenboga International Airport]], located in the north of the city, is the main airport of Ankara. The bus lines constitute the main means of inter-city transportation in Turkey, and [http://www.asti.com.tr Ankara Intercity Bus Terminal] ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: Ankara Şehirlerarası Terminal İşletmesi, AŞTİ) is an important part of the network. The railstation "Ankara Garı" of [[Turkish Republic Railways]] ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Devlet Demiryolları, TCDD) is an important hub connecting western and eastern parts of the country. [http://www.ego.gov.tr EGO] (Elektrik Gaz Otobüs) operates the public transportation. There are currently two subway lines in the city and three more are under construction. [[Image:Ankara subway.jpg|thumb|300px|left|A view from Ankara Metro.]] ==Sports== The city has three [[football clubs]] currently competing in the [[Turkish Premier Super League]]: [[Genclerbirligi|Gençlerbirliği]] (finished 5th in the league), [[Ankaraspor|Büyükşehir Belediye Ankaraspor]] (finished 7th in the league), and [[Ankaragücü]] (finished 13th in the league). ==See also== * [[Synod of Ancyra]] * [[maNga (band)]] ==External links== {{commons|Ankara}} *[http://www.worldturkey.com/gallery/categories.php?cat_id=12 Ankara City Life Photos Gallery] *[http://www.ankara.bel.tr/album.asp Photo Album of Municipality of Ankara] *[http://www.turkishclass.com/turkey_pictures_gallery_14 Pictures of Ankara] *[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/home.html Monumentum Ancyranum] *[http://goturkey.kultur.gov.tr/destinasyon_en.asp?belgeno=9572&belgekod=9572&Baslik=Ankara Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism's ''Ankara & environs'' page] * [http://www.turkeyforecast.com/weather/ankara/ Ankara Weather Forecast Information] * [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/ankara_turkey Pictures of the capital of this province] * [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/ankara_museum_turkey Pictures of some of the oldest and finest finds in the country at Ankara Museum of Anatolian Civilizations] * [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/ankara_anit_kabir Atatürk Mausoleum in Ankara] [[Category:Archaeological sites in Turkey]] [[Category:Capitals in Asia]] [[Category:Cities in Turkey]] [[Category:Ankara]] [[ar:أنقرة]] [[az:Ankara]] [[bg:Анкара]] [[bs:Ankara]] [[ca:Ancyra]] [[cs:Ankara]] [[cy:Ankara]] [[da:Ankara]] [[de:Ankara]] [[es:Ankara]] [[eo:Ankara]] [[fa:استان آنکارا]] [[fr:Ankara]] [[gl:Ancara - Ankara]] [[ko:앙카라]] [[hr:Ankara]] [[io:Ankara]] [[id:Ankara]] [[ia:Ankara]] [[it:Ankara]] [[he:אנקרה]] [[ku:Enqere]] [[la:Ancyra]] [[lt:Ankara]] [[lb:Ankara]] [[hu:Ankara]] [[nl:Ankara]] [[nds:Ankara]] [[ja:アンカラ]] [[ka:ანკარა]] [[no:Ankara]] [[nn:Ankara]] [[pl:Ankara]] [[pt:Ancara]] [[ro:Ankara]] [[ru:Анкара]] [[simple:Ankara]] [[sk:Ankara]] [[sl:Ankara]] [[sr:Анкара]] [[fi:Ankara]] [[sv:Ankara]] [[tr:Ankara (şehir)]] [[uk:Анкара]] [[zh:安卡拉]] 803 41737407 2006-03-01T11:20:21Z Emrrans 603651 Correction. {{Infobox Language |name=Arabic |nativename=العربية ''{{ArabDIN|al-ʻarabiyyah}}'' |pronunciation=/alˌʕa.raˈbij.ja/ |states=[[Algeria]], [[Bahrain]], [[Egypt]], [[Iraq]], [[Jordan]], [[Kuwait]], [[Lebanon]], [[Libya]], [[Mauritania]], [[Morocco]], [[Oman]], [[Qatar]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Somalia]], [[Sudan]], [[Syria]], [[Tunisia]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine (West Bank and Gaza)]], [[Western Sahara]] ([[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic|SADR]]), [[Yemen]] by a majority, and in many other countries, such as [[Israel]], as a minority language. |region=[[Arab world]] |speakers=206 million ([[Ethnologue]], native speakers of all dialects 1998 est.); 286 million (population of [[Arab]] countries, [[CIA World Factbook]] 2004 est.), excluding Arab minorities in other countries and bilingual speakers |rank=5 (by first language); slightly before [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and [[Bengali language|Bengali]] |familycolor=Afro-Asiatic |fam2=[[Semitic languages|Semitic]] |fam3=[[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]] |fam4=[[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]] |script=[[Arabic alphabet]] |nation=[[Algeria]], [[Bahrain]], [[Comoros]], [[Chad]], [[Djibouti]], [[Egypt]], [[Eritrea]], [[Iraq]], [[Israel]], [[Jordan]], [[Kuwait]], [[Lebanon]], [[Libya]], [[Mauritania]], [[Morocco]], [[Oman]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Qatar]], [[Western Sahara]] ([[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic|SADR]]), [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Somalia]], [[Sudan]], [[Syria]], [[Tunisia]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Yemen]]; <br>A [[national language]] of: [[Mali]], [[Senegal]] ([[Hassaniya]]).<br><br> International organizations: [[United Nations]], [[Arab League]], [[Organization of Islamic Conference]], [[African Union]] |agency=[[Egypt]]: [[Academy of the Arabic Language]] |iso1=ar|iso2=ara |lc1=ara|ld1=Arabic (generic)<br>''see [[varieties of Arabic]] for the individual codes''|ll1=none}} '''Arabic''' ({{ar|اللغة العربية}}; ''{{ArabDIN|al-luġatu-l-ʻarabiyyatu}}'', less formally, {{ar|عربي}} ''{{ArabDIN|ʻarabī}}'') is the largest member of the [[Semitic]] branch of the [[Afro-Asiatic]] [[language family]] (classification: South Central Semitic) and is closely related to [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]. It is spoken throughout the [[Arab world]] and is widely studied and known throughout the [[Islamic world]]. Arabic has been a [[literary language]] since at least the [[6th century]] and is the [[liturgical language]] of [[Islam]]. Quite a few [[English language|English]] words are ultimately derived from Arabic, often through other [[Europe]]an languages, especially [[Spanish language|Spanish]], among them every-day vocabulary like "[[sugar]]" (''sukkar''), "[[cotton]]" (''{{unicode|quṭūn}}'') or "[[magazine]]" (''[[makhzen|{{ArabDIN|maḫāzin}}]]''). More recognizable are words like "[[algebra]]", "[[alcohol]]" and "zenith" (see [[list of English words of Arabic origin]]). ==Literary and Modern Standard Arabic== The term "Arabic" may refer either to [[literary Arabic]] or [[Modern Standard Arabic]] or to the many localized [[varieties of Arabic]] commonly called "colloquial Arabic." Arabs consider literary Arabic as the standard language and tend to view everything else as mere dialects. [[Literary Arabic]], ''{{ArabDIN|al-luġatu-l-ʻarabiyyatu-l-fuṣḥā}}'' (Literally: "the most eloquent Arabic language" &mdash; {{ar|اللغة العربية الفصحى}}) refers both to the language of present-day media across [[North Africa]] and the [[Middle East]] and to the more articulate language of the [[Qur'an]]. (The expression ''media'' here includes most television and radio, and all written matter, including all books, newspapers, magazines, documents of every kind, and reading primers for small children.) "Colloquial" or "dialectal" Arabic refers to the many national or regional varieties derived from Classical Arabic, spoken daily across [[North Africa]] and the [[Middle East]], which constitute the everyday spoken language. These sometimes differ enough to be mutually incomprehensible. These dialects are not typically written, although a certain amount of literature (particularly plays and poetry) exists in many of them. They are often used to varying degrees in informal spoken media, such as [[soap opera]]s and [[talk show]]s. Literary Arabic or classical Arabic is the official language of all Arab countries and is the only form of Arabic taught in schools at all stages. The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of [[diglossia]]–the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their local dialect and their school-taught literary Arabic (to an equal or lesser degree). This diglossic situation facilitates [[code switching]] in which a speaker switches back and forth unaware between the two varieties of the language, sometimes even within the same sentence. In instances in which Arabs of different nationalities engage in conversation only to find their dialects mutually unintelligible (e.g. a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), both should be able to code switch into Literary Arabic for the sake of communication. Since the written Arabic of today differs from the written Arabic of the [[Qur'an]]ic era, it has become customary in western scholarship and among non-Arab scholars of Arabic to refer to the language of the Qur'an as [[Classical Arabic]] and the modern language of the media and of formal speech as [[Modern Standard Arabic]]. Arabs, on the other hand, often use the term ''{{Unicode|fuṣḥā}}'' to refer to both forms, thus placing greater emphasis on the similarities between the two. The difference between Arabic of the Qur'anic era and today's Classical Arabic is only in the degree of eloquence. The vocabulary, the syntactic and grammatical rules are the same. ==Arabic and Islam== It is sometimes difficult to translate [[Islam]]ic concepts, and concepts specific to [[Arab culture]], without using the original Arabic terminology. The [[Qur'an]] is expressed in Arabic and traditionally [[Muslim]]s deem it impossible to translate in a way that would adequately reflect its exact meaning&mdash;indeed, until recently, some schools of thought maintained that it should not be translated at all. A [[list of Islamic terms in Arabic]] covers those terms which are too specific to translate in one phrase. While Arabic is strongly associated with [[Islam]] (and is the language of [[salah]]), it is also spoken by [[Arab Christians]], Oriental {{Unicode|([[Mizrahi Jews|Mizraḥi]])}} [[Jew]]s, and smaller sects such as Iraqi [[Mandaean]]s. Even so, a majority of the world's [[Muslims]] do not actually speak Arabic, but only know some fixed phrases of the language, such as those used in Islamic prayer. However, to counteract this trend, non-Arabic-speaking Muslims are strongly encouraged to learn the language. ==Classification and related languages== [[Maltese language|Maltese]], which is spoken on the Mediterranean island of [[Malta]], is the only surviving European language to derive primarily from Arabic, though it contains a large number of [[Italian language|Italian]] and English borrowings. ==Dialects== ''See [[varieties of Arabic]] for main article'' "Colloquial Arabic" is a collective term for the spoken languages or dialects of people throughout the Arab world, which, as mentioned, differ radically from the [[literary language]]. The main dialectal division is between the [[Maghreb]] dialects and those of the [[Middle East]], followed by that between sedentary dialects and the much more conservative [[Bedouin]] dialects. [[Maltese language|Maltese]], though descended from Arabic, is considered a separate language. Speakers of some of these dialects are unable to converse with speakers of another dialect of Arabic; in particular, while Middle Easterners can generally understand one another, they often have trouble understanding Maghrebis (although the converse is not true, due to the popularity of Middle Eastern&mdash;especially Egyptian&mdash;films and other media). One factor in the differentiation of the dialects is influence from the languages previously spoken in the areas, which have typically provided a significant number of new words, and have sometimes also influenced pronunciation or word order; however, a much more significant factor for most dialects is, as among [[Romance languages]], retention (or change of meaning) of different classical forms. Thus Iraqi ''aku'', Levantine ''fiih'', and North African ''kayen'' all mean "there is", and all come from Arabic (''yakuun'', ''fiihi'', ''kaa'in'' respectively), but now sound very different. The major groups are: *[[Egyptian Arabic]] *[[Maghreb Arabic]] ([[Algerian Arabic]], [[Moroccan Arabic]], [[Tunisian Arabic]] and western Libyan) *[[Levantine Arabic]] (Western Syrian, Lebanese, Palestinian, and western Jordanian, [[Cypriot Maronite Arabic]]) *[[Iraqi Arabic]] ([[Khuzestani Arabic]]), which has significant [[Persian language|Persian]] influence and is not understood by most other Arabic speakers *[[Gulf Arabic]] (Eastern Syrian, Kuwaiti, Saudi Arabian, Persian Gulf coast from Iraq to Oman including much of Saudi Arabia's [[Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia|Eastern Province]], and minorities on the other side) Other varieties include: * {{unicode|[[Hassaniya|Ḥassānīya]]}} (in Mauritania and western Sahara) * [[Andalusi Arabic]] (extinct, but important role in literary history) * [[Maltese language|Maltese]] * [[Sudanese Arabic]] (with a dialect continuum into Chad) * [[Baharna Arabic]] (Bahrain, Saudi Eastern Province, and Oman) * [[Hijazi Arabic]] (west coast of Saudi Arabia, Northern Saudi Arabia, eastern Jordan, Western Iraq) * [[Najdi Arabic]] (Najd region of central Saudi Arabia) * [[Yemeni Arabic]] (Yemen to southern Saudi Arabia) == Sounds == {{IPA notice}} The phonemes below reflect the pronunciation of Standard Arabic. ===Vowels=== Arabic has three vowels, with their long forms, plus two diphthongs: ''a'' {{IPA|[ɛ̈]}} (open ''e'' as in English ''bed'', but centralised), ''i'' {{IPA|[ɪ]}}, ''u'' {{IPA|[ʊ]}}; ''ā'' {{IPA|[æː]}}, ''ī'' {{IPA|[iː]}}, ''ū'' {{IPA|[uː]}}; ''ai'' (''ay'') {{IPA|[ɛ̈ɪ]}}, ''au'' (''aw'') {{IPA|[ɛ̈ʊ]}}. [[Allophone|Allophonically]], after velarized consonants (see following), the vowel ''a'' is pronounced {{IPA|[ɑ]}}, ''ā'' as {{IPA|[ɑː]}} (thus also after ''r''), ''ai'' as {{IPA|[ɑɪ]}} and ''au'' as {{IPA|[ɑʊ]}}. ===Consonants=== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ '''Standard Arabic consonant phonemes'''</CAPTION> |- ! rowspan="2" COLSPAN=2 | &nbsp; ! rowspan="2" | [[Bilabial]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Interdental|Inter-<br />dental]] ! colspan="2" | [[Dental]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Postalveolar|Post-<br>alveolar]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Palatal]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Velar]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Uvular]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Pharyngeal|Pharyn-<BR>geal]] ! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal]] |- ! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | &nbsp;plain&nbsp; ! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[pharyngealization|emphatic]] |- ! style="text-align: left;" ROWSPAN=2 | [[Stop]] ! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]] | &nbsp; | &nbsp; || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|tˁ}} || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|q}} | &nbsp; || {{IPA|ʔ}} |- ! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[Voiced consonant|voiced]] | {{IPA|b}} || &nbsp; || {{IPA|d}} || {{IPA|dˁ}} || {{IPA|dʒ}}&sup1; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | &nbsp; || &nbsp; |- ! style="text-align: left;" ROWSPAN=2 | [[Fricative]] ! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]] | {{IPA|f}} | {{IPA|θ}} || {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|sˁ}} || {{IPA|ʃ}} || &nbsp; || {{IPA|x}} || &nbsp; || {{IPA|ħ}} || {{IPA|h}} |- ! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[Voiced consonant|voiced]] | &nbsp; || {{IPA|ð}} || {{IPA|z}} || {{IPA|ðˁ}} || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || {{IPA|ɣ}} || &nbsp; | {{IPA|ʕ}} || &nbsp; |- ! style="text-align: left;" COLSPAN=2 | [[Nasal]] | {{IPA|m}} || &nbsp; || {{IPA|n}} || &nbsp; | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | rowspan="2" | &nbsp; | rowspan="2" | &nbsp; |- ! style="text-align: left;" COLSPAN=2 | [[Lateral]] | &nbsp; || &nbsp; | {{IPA|l}} ² || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; |- ! style="text-align: left;" COLSPAN=2 | [[Trill]] | &nbsp; | &nbsp; || {{IPA|r}} || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | &nbsp; |- ! style="text-align: left;" COLSPAN=2 | [[Approximant]] | {{IPA|w}} || &nbsp; | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || {{IPA|j}} || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | &nbsp; || &nbsp; |} See [[Arabic alphabet]] for explanations on the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] phonetic symbols found in this chart. # {{IPA|[dʒ]}} is pronounced as {{IPA|[ɡ]}} by some speakers. This is especially characteristic of the Egyptian and southern Yemeni dialects. In many parts of North Africa and in the Levant, it is pronounced as {{IPA|[ʒ]}}. # {{IPA|/l/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[lˁ]}} only in {{IPA|/ʔalˁːɑːh/}}, the name of God, i.e. [[Allah]], when the word follows ''a'', ''ā'', ''u'' or ''ū'' (after ''i'' or ''ī'' it is unvelarised: ''bismi l-lāh'' {{IPA|/bɪsmɪlːæːh/}}). # {{IPA|/ʕ/}} is usually a phonetic [[approximant]]. # In many varieties (if not most), {{IPA|/ħ, ʕ/}} are actually [[epiglottal]] {{IPA|[ʜ, ʢ]}} (despite what is reported in many earlier works). The consonants traditionally termed "emphatic" {{IPA|/tˁ, dˁ, sˁ, ðˁ/}} are either [[velarization|velarised]] {{IPA|[tˠ, dˠ, sˠ, ðˠ]}} or [[pharyngealization|pharyngealised]] {{IPA|[tˁ, dˁ, sˁ, ðˁ]}}. In some transcription systems, emphasis is shown by capitalizing the letter e.g. {{IPA|/dˁ/}} is written ‹D›; in others the letter is underlined or has a dot below it e.g. ‹ḍ›. Vowels and consonants can be (phonologically) short or long. Long (geminate) consonants are normally written doubled in Latin transcription (i.e. bb, dd, etc.), reflecting the presence of the Arabic diacritic mark [[shaddah]], which marks lengthened consonants. Such consonants are held twice as long as short consonants. This consonant lengthening is phonemically contrastive: e.g. ''qabala'' "he received" and ''qabbala'' "he kissed". ===Syllable structure=== Arabic has two kinds of syllable: open syllables (CV) and (CVV) - and closed syllables (CVC), (CVVC) and (CVCC). Every syllable begins with a consonant - or else a consonant is borrowed from a previous word through elision – especially in the case of the definite article THE, ''al'' (used when starting an utterance) or ''_l'' (when following a word), e.g. ''baytu –l mudiir'' “house (of) the director”, which becomes ''bay-tul-mu-diir'' when divided syllabically. By itself, definite ''mudiir'' would be pronounced {{IPA|/al mudiːr/}}. ===Stress=== Although word stress is not phonemically contrastive in Standard Arabic, it does bear a strong relationship to vowel length and syllable shape, and correct word stress aids intelligibility. In general, "heavy" syllables attract stress (i.e. syllables of longer duration - a closed syllable or a syllable with a long vowel). In a word with a syllable with one long vowel, the long vowel attracts the stress (e.g. ''ki-'taab'' and '' ‘kaa-tib''). In a word with two long vowels, the second long vowel attracts stress (e.g.''ma-kaa-'tiib''). In a word with a "heavy" syllable where two consonants occur together or the same consonant is doubled, the (last) heavy syllable attracts stress (e.g. ''ya-ma-’niyy'', ''ka-'tabt'', ''ka-‘tab-na'', ma-‘jal-lah,'' ‘mad-ra-sah'', ''yur-‘sil-na''). This last rule trumps the first two: ''ja-zaa-{{unicode|ʔ}}i-‘riyy''. Otherwise, word stress typically falls on the first syllable: '' ‘ya-man'', '' ‘ka-ta-bat'', etc. The Cairo ([[Egyptian Arabic]]) dialect, however, has some idiosyncrasies in that a heavy syllable may not carry stress more than two syllables from the end of a word, so that ''mad-‘ra-sah'' carries the stress on the second-to-last syllable, as does ''qaa-‘hi-rah''. ===Dialectal variations=== In some dialects, there may be more or fewer phonemes than those listed in the chart above. For example, non-Arabic {{IPA|[v]}} is used in the Maghreb dialects as well in the written language mostly for foreign names. Semitic {{IPA|[p]}} became {{IPA|[f]}} extremely early on in Arabic before it was written down; a few modern Arabic dialects, such as Iraqi (influenced by [[Persian language|Persian]]) distinguish between {{IPA|[p]}} and {{IPA|[b]}}. Interdental fricatives ({{IPA|[θ]}} and {{IPA|[ð]}}) are rendered as stops {{IPA|[t]}} and {{IPA|[d]}} in some dialects (principally Levantine and Egyptian) and as {{IPA|[s]}} and {{IPA|[z]}} in "learned" words from the Standard language. Early in the expansion of Arabic, the separate emphatic phonemes {{IPA|[dˁ]}} and {{IPA|[ðˁ]}} coallesced into a single phoneme, becoming one or the other. Predictably, dialects without interdental fricatives use {{IPA|[dˁ]}} exclusively, while those with such fricatives use {{IPA|[ðˁ]}}. Again, in "learned" words from the Standard language, {{IPA|[ðˁ]}} is rendered as {{IPA|[zˁ]}} in dialects without interdental fricatives. Another key distinguishing mark of Arabic dialects is how they render Standard {{IPA|[q]}} (a voiceless uvular stop): it retains its original pronunciation in widely scattered regions such as Yemen and Morocco (and among the [[Druze]]), while it is rendered {{IPA|[ɡ]}} in Gulf Arabic, Iraqi Arabic, Upper Egypt and less urban parts of the Levant (e.g. Jordan) and as a [[glottal stop]] {{IPA|[ʔ]}} in many prestige dialects, such as those spoken in Cairo, Beirut and Damascus. Thus, Arabs instantly give away their geographical (and class) origin by their pronunciation of a word such as ''qamar'' "moon": {{IPA|[qamar]}}, {{IPA|[ɡamar]}} or {{IPA|[ʔamar]}}. == Grammar == ''See [[Arabic grammar]]'' == Writing system == ''Main article: [[Arabic alphabet]]'' The Arabic alphabet derives from the [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]] script (which variety - [[Nabataean]] or [[Syriac]] - is a matter of scholarly dispute), to which it bears a loose resemblance like that of [[Coptic alphabet|Coptic]] or [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic script]] to [[Greek alphabet|Greek script]]. Traditionally, there were several differences between the Western (Maghrebi) and Eastern version of the alphabet&mdash;in particular, the ''fa'' and ''qaf'' had a dot underneath and a single dot above respectively in the [[Maghreb]], and the order of the letters was slightly different (at least when they were used as numerals). However, the old Maghrebi variant has been abandoned except for calligraphic purposes in the Maghreb itself, and remains in use mainly in the Quranic schools ([[zaouia]]s) of West Africa. Arabic, like other [[Semitic]] languages, is written from right to left. ===Calligraphy=== ''See [[Arabic calligraphy]] for a fuller overview.'' After the definitive fixing of the Arabic script around [[786]], by [[Khalil ibn Ahmad al Farahidi]], many styles were developed, both for the writing down of the Qur'an and other books, and for inscriptions on monuments as decoration. <center><!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Kufi.png|Kufic font]] --></center> Arabic calligraphy has not fallen out of use as in the Western world, and is still considered by Arabs as a major art form; calligraphers are held in great esteem. Being cursive by nature, unlike the [[Latin alphabet]], Arabic script is used to write down a [[ayah|verse]] of the Qur'an, a [[Hadith]], or simply a [[proverb]], in a spectacular composition. The composition is often abstract, but sometimes the writing is shaped into an actual form such as that of an animal. Two of the current masters of the genre are [[Hassan Massoudy]] and [http://arabworld.nitle.org/gallery.php?module_id=7 Khaled Al Saa’i]. ===Transliteration=== ''See [[Arabic transliteration]] and [[Arabic Chat Alphabet]] for more information.'' There are a number of different standards of [[Arabic transliteration]]: methods of accurately and efficiently representing Arabic with the [[Latin alphabet]]. The more scientific standards allow the reader to recreate the exact word using the [[Arabic alphabet]]. However, these systems are heavily reliant on [[diacritic]]al marks such as "š" for the English ''sh'' sound. At first sight, this may be difficult to recognize. Less scientific, systems often use [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s (like ''sh'' and ''kh''), which are usually more simple to read, but sacrifice the definiteness of the scientific systems. In some cases, the ''sh'' or ''kh'' sounds can be represented by italicizing or underlining them -- that way, they can be distinguished from separate ''s'' and ''h'' sounds or ''k'' and ''h'' sounds, respectively. (Compare ''gashouse'' to ''gash''.) During the last few decades and especially since the 1990s, Western-invented text communication technologies have become prevalent in the [[Arab world]], such as [[personal computers]], the [[World Wide Web]], [[email]], [[Bulletin board system]]s, [[IRC]], [[instant messaging]] and [[mobile phone text messaging]]. Most of these technologies originally had the ability to communicate using the [[Latin alphabet]] only, and some of them still do not have the [[Arabic alphabet]] as an optional feature. As a result, Arabic speaking users communicated in these technologies by transliterating the Arabic text using the Latin script, sometime known as [[IM_Arabic]]. To handle those Arabic letters that cannot be accurately represented using the Latin script, numerals and other characters were appropriated. For example, the numeral "3" may be used to represent the Arabic letter "ع", ''ayn''. There is no universal name for this type of transliteration, but some have named it [[Arabic Chat Alphabet]]. Other systems of transliteration exist, such as using dots or capitalization to represent the "emphatic" counterparts of certain consonants. For instance, using capitalization, the letter "د", or ''daal'', may be represented by '''d'''. Its emphatic counterpart, "ض", may be written as '''D'''. ==Literature== Kees Versteegh, ''The Arabic Language'', Edinburgh University Press (1997). [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=36] [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=17] [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=35] [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=113] == See also == *[[Varieties of Arabic]] *[[Wikibooks:en:Arabic|Learn Standard Arabic WikiBook]] *[[Arabist]] *[[Arabic literature]] *[[List of common phrases in various languages]] *[[Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic]] == External links == {{InterWiki|code=ar}} *[http://ar.openoffice.org/ Arabic OpenOffice] a multiplatform and multilingual office suite. *[http://arabic-media.com/ Arabic-Media] on-line access to Arabic newspapers, radio, and television * [http://www.nicoweb.com/sirpus/learn%20arabic%20course%20mp3.htm Arabic Writing and Reading '''with MP3''']. Arabic Writing and Reading Course Online with MP3 audio. *[http://pince31.free.fr/lang/arabic/liens.htm Links to learn Arabic language with online course] *[http://www.madinaharabic.com Arabic language learning course with audio] *[http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=10&categ_id=4&article_id=6173 "Antonyms in Arabic are a strange phenomenon" by Tamim al-Barghouti] *[http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=17 "The Development of Classical Arabic" by Kees Versteegh] *[http://arabworld.nitle.org/audiovisual.php?module_id=1&selected_feed=118 Wellesley College Professor of Arabic on the forms and dialects of the language] *[http://www.uga.edu/islam/arabic_windows.html Multilingual Computing in Arabic with Windows, major word processors, web browsers, Arabic keyboards, and Arabic transliteration fonts] *[http://www.gomideast.com/arabic/index.htm gomideast - Learning to Speak Arabic phrases] *[http://language-directory.50webs.com/languages/arabic.htm List of online Arabic-related resources] *[http://acon.baykal.be/ ACON: online Arabic Verb Conjugator] *[http://www.cacac.org Center for Arabic Culture (CAC)] *[http://st-takla.org/Learn_Languages/01_Learn_Arabic-ta3leem-3araby/Learn-Arabic_00-index_El-Fehres.html Learn Arabic language online with audio pronunciation] from [http://St-Takla.org St. Takla Egyptian Church] *[http://www.tanzeelnet.com Arabic-translated program descriptions] Web references and examples: * [http://transliteration.org/quran/Pronunciation/Letters/TashP.htm Arabic language pronunciation applet] with audio samples * [http://afl.ajeeb.com/freetour/lesson1/song/song1.html Learn Arabic] * [http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1289272 E2 article] * [http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/ar.htm Sprachprofi] * [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Arabic-english/ Arabic - English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition. * [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=arb SIL's Ethnologue] * [http://www.nitle.org/arabworld/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=113 Dialects of Arabic] * [http://www.muftah-alhuruf.com Muftah-Alhuruf.com]: Write and send Arabic emails without having an Arabic keyboard or operating system. * [http://dictionary.sakhr.com/ Number of Arabic Words According to different dictionaries] Over 4 millions words! Arabic languages samples: * [http://www.language-museum.com/a/arabic.php Arabic] * [http://www.language-museum.com/a/arabic-chadian-spoken.php Arabic Chadian Spoken] * [http://www.language-museum.com/a/arabic-judeo-iraqi.php Arabic Judeo Iraqi] * [http://www.language-museum.com/a/arabic-north-levantine-spoken.php Arabic North Levantine Spoken] * [http://www.dicodialna.com Algerian-Arabic Dictionary] [[Category:Arabic language|*]] [[Category:Arab]] [[af:Arabies]] [[ang:Arabisc sprǣc]] [[ar:لغة عربية]] [[ast:Idioma Árabe]] [[bg:Арабски език]] [[bs:Arapski jezik]] [[ca:Llengua àrab]] [[cs:Arabština]] [[cy:Arabeg]] [[da:Arabisk]] [[de:Arabische Sprache]] [[et:Araabia keel]] [[el:Αραβική γλώσσα]] [[es:Idioma árabe]] [[eo:Araba lingvo]] [[fa:عربی]] [[fr:Arabe]] [[fy:Arabysk]] [[ga:Araibis]] [[gl:Lingua árabe]] [[ko:아랍어]] [[haw:ʻŌlelo ʻAlapia]] [[hi:अरबी भाषा]] [[io:Arabiana linguo]] [[id:Bahasa Arab]] [[is:Arabíska]] [[it:Lingua araba]] [[he:ערבית]] [[ka:არაბული ენა]] [[kw:Arabek]] [[sw:Kiarabu]] [[la:Lingua Arabica]] [[lv:Arābu valoda]] [[lt:Arabų kalba]] [[li:Arabisch]] [[hu:Arab nyelv]] [[mk:Арапски јазик]] [[ms:Bahasa Arab]] [[nl:Arabisch]] [[nds:Araabsche Spraak]] [[ja:アラビア語]] [[no:Arabisk språk]] [[nn:Arabisk språk]] [[pl:Język arabski]] [[pt:Língua árabe]] [[ro:Limba arabă]] [[ru:Арабский язык]] [[simple:Arabic language]] [[sk:Arabčina]] [[sl:Arabščina]] [[sr:Арапски језик]] [[fi:Arabian kieli]] [[sv:Arabiska]] [[tl:Wikang Arabo]] [[tt:Ğäräp tele]] [[th:ภาษาอาหรับ]] [[tr:Arapça]] [[zh:阿拉伯语]] [[kn:ಅರಬ್ಬೀ ಭಾಷೆ]] 804 15899318 2005-06-13T21:08:10Z Hajor 23076 #REDIRECT [[Aztec]] #REDIRECT [[Aztec]] 805 15899319 2003-02-02T21:17:03Z Vera Cruz 5753 #REDIRECT [[Emir]] 806 41826845 2006-03-02T00:19:12Z 68.110.117.88 /* Music */ {{Infobox Film | name = Apocalypse Now | image = Apocalypse-now-dvd-cover.jpg | imdb_id = 0078788 | producer = [[Francis Ford Coppola]] | director = [[Francis Ford Coppola]] | writer = [[Joseph Conrad]] (novel)<br>[[John Milius]] & [[Francis Ford Coppola]] (screenplay), [[Michael Herr]] (narration) | starring = [[Martin Sheen]]<br>[[Marlon Brando]]<br>[[Robert Duvall]] | music = [[Carmine Coppola]] & [[Francis Ford Coppola]] | cinematography = [[Vittorio Storaro]] | editing = [[Lisa Fruchtman]]<br>[[Gerald B. Greenberg]] <br>[[Walter Murch]] | distributor = [[United Artists]] | released = [[May 10]], [[1979]] | runtime = 153 min.<br/>202 min. (Redux) | language = [[English language|English]] | budget = $31,500,000| }} '''''Apocalypse Now''''' is a [[1979 in film|1979]] [[United States|American]] [[film]] directed by [[Francis Ford Coppola]] from a script by [[John Milius]] (rewritten by Coppola) which was inspired by [[Joseph Conrad]]'s classic [[novella]] ''[[Heart of Darkness]]''. Set during the [[Vietnam War]], the film tells the story of a taciturn American soldier who is sent to "terminate with extreme prejudice" the command of a rogue [[United States Army Special Forces]] [[colonel]]. The narrative of his journey and its culmination are studded with events which, while bizarre, are based on real Vietnam stories. The soldier's journey becomes increasingly nonlinear and hallucinatory. Coppola's agenda clearly involves larger themes; the film's subtext concerns a journey into the darkness of the human [[psyche]]. The film features performances by [[Martin Sheen]] as Captain Benjamin L. Willard (Marlow in Conrad's novel), [[Marlon Brando]] as Colonel Walter E. Kurtz, [[Dennis Hopper]] as a fast-talking [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|hallucinogen]]-using photojournalist, and [[Robert Duvall]] in an [[Academy Award|Oscar]]-nominated turn as the borderline-[[psychosis|psychotic]] [[Lt. Colonel]] Kilgore. Several other actors who were (or later became) prominent stars had minor or supporting roles in the movie including [[Harrison Ford]], [[R. Lee Ermey]] and [[Laurence Fishburne]] (who, only fourteen years old when shooting began in March 1976, was credited as 'Larry Fishburne'). The movie poster art for ''Apocalypse Now'' is one of the more famous paintings by [[Bob Peak]], who is considered an influential artist in the world of film when it comes to [[movie poster]]s. ==Background== Filmed in the [[Philippines]] (most notably the [[Pagsanjan River]] and [[Hidden Valley Springs]]), the film went far over budget and schedule: a [[typhoon]] destroyed many of the sets, the Philippine Air Force helicopters used for shooting were constantly called back by President [[Ferdinand Marcos]] to be used in actual combat, the lead role was recast (Martin Sheen replaced [[Harvey Keitel]] after shooting had begun), Sheen then had a near-fatal [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]], Brando was intractable and out of shape, and Coppola himself was mentally fragile. Being similar in appearance and remarkably similar in voice, Martin Sheen's brother [[Joe Estevez]] [[Stand-in|stood in]] for the unwell Sheen in much of the film and some of the narration is by him. After the first edit, the film was six hours long and had to be severely edited; the original released version was just over two and a half hours long. (Coppola re-released the film in [[2001]] under the title ''Apocalypse Now Redux'', restoring footage and sequences and lifting the running time to 200 minutes. Recent rumors have persisted that Coppola is considering releasing the true original cut on DVD, but there has been no fruition or conformation of this.) For background information on the film, see [[Eleanor Coppola]]'s documentary, ''[[Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse]]'', released in [[1991]]. ==Synopsis== {{spoiler}} U.S. Army Captain Benjamin L. Willard is stationed in [[Saigon]]; a seasoned veteran, he is deeply troubled and apparently no longer fit for civilian life. A group of [[Military intelligence|intelligence]] officers approach him with a special mission up-river into the remote [[Cambodia|Cambodian]] jungle to find Colonel Walter E. Kurtz, a former member of the [[United States Army Special Forces]]. They state that Kurtz, once considered a model officer and future [[general]], has apparently gone [[insane]] and is commanding a legion of his own [[Degar|Montagnard]] troops deep in [[Neutral country|neutral]] Cambodia. Their claims are supported by very disturbing radio broadcasts and/or recordings made by Kurtz himself. Willard is asked to undertake a mission to find Kurtz and dispose of him "with extreme prejudice." Willard studies the intelligence files during the boat ride to the river entrance and learns that Kurtz, isolated in his compound, has assumed the role of a warlord and is worshipped by the natives and his own loyal men. Another officer, sent earlier to kill Kurtz, has apparently become one of his lieutenants. Willard will begin his trip up the [[Mekong River]] on a PBR ([[Patrol boat, rigid|Patrol Boat, River]]), with an eclectic crew composed of by-the-book and formal [[Chief Petty Officer|Chief]] Phillips, a black Navy boat commander; [[Petty Officer Third Class|GM3]] Lance B. Johnson, a tanned all-American [[California]] surfer; [[Petty Officer Third Class|GM3]] Tyrone, AKA "Clean", a black 17-year-old from [[The Bronx]]; and the [[Cajun]] Engineman, Jay "Chef" Hicks. [[Image:Apocalype Now Huey.jpg|thumbnail|The village attack scene in ''Apocalypse Now''.]] The PBR arrives at a [[Landing Zone]] where Willard and the crew meet up with [[Lt. Colonel]] [[Bill Kilgore]], the merciless commander of the [[air cavalry|AirCav]] in the region, following a massive and hectic mopping-up operation of a conquered enemy town. Kilgore, a keen surfer, befriends Johnson. Later, he learns from one of his men that the beach down the coast which marks the opening to the river is perfect for [[surfing]], a factor which persuades him to capture it. The problem is, his troops say, it's "[[Viet Cong|Charlie]]'s point" and heavily fortified. Dismissing this complaint with the explanation that "Charlie don't surf!", Kilgore orders his men to saddle up in the morning so that the AirCav can capture the town and the beach. Riding high above the coast in a fleet of [[UH-1 Iroquois|Huey]]s accompanied by [[Hughes H-6|H-6]]s, Kilgore launches an attack on the beach. The scene, famous for its use of [[Richard Wagner]]'s epic "[[Ride of the Valkyries]]", ends with the soldiers surfing the barely claimed beach amidst skirmishes between infantry and VC. After helicopters swoop over the village and demolish all visible signs of resistance, a giant [[napalm]] strike in the nearby jungle dramatically marks the [[climax (narrative)|climax]] of the battle. "I love the smell of [[napalm]] in the morning; smells like...victory," Kilgore exults to Willard. The quote made it to #12 onto the [[American Film Institute]]'s [[AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes]], a list of top movie quotes. [[Image:Apocalypse_Now_Smell_Like_Victory.jpg|thumbnail|"I love the smell of napalm in the morning...It smells like...victory."]] The lighting and mood darken as the boat navigates upstream and Willard's silent obsession with Kurtz deepens. Episodes on the journey include a run-in with a [[tiger]] while Willard and Chef search for [[mango]] fruits, an impromptu inspection of a Vietnamese [[sampan]] that leads to massacre, a surreal stop at the last American outpost during a Vietnamese attack against a wood bridge under construction there, and the shocking deaths of both "Clean" and Chief Phillips during a gunfire ambush with hidden Viet Cong soldiers and a spear thrown by a native on the shore, respectively. Once arrived at Kurtz's compound, Willard leaves Chef behind with orders to call in an [[air strike]] on the village if he does not return. They are met by a borderline-psychotic freelance photographer (Hopper) who explains Kurtz's greatness and [[philosophy|philosophic]] skills to provoke his people into following him. Brought before Kurtz and held in captivity in a darkened temple, Willard’s constitution appears to weaken as Kurtz lectures him on his theories of war, [[humanity]], and [[civilization]]. Kurtz explains his motives and philisophy in a famous and haunting monolgue: '' I've seen horrors... horrors that you've seen. But you have no right to call me a murderer. You have a right to kill me. You have a right to do that... but you have no right to judge me. It's impossible for words to describe what is necessary to those who do not know what horror means. Horror. Horror has a face... and you must make a friend of horror. Horror and moral terror are your friends. If they are not then they are enemies to be feared. They are truly enemies. I remember when I was with Special Forces. Seems a thousand centuries ago. We went into a camp to inoculate the children. We left the camp after we had inoculated the children for Polio, and this old man came running after us and he was crying. He couldn't see. We went back there and they had come and hacked off every inoculated arm. There they were in a pile. A pile of little arms. And I remember... I... I... I cried. I wept like some grandmother. I wanted to tear my teeth out. I didn't know what I wanted to do. And I want to remember it. I never want to forget it. I never want to forget. ''And then I realized... like I was shot... like I was shot with a diamond... a diamond bullet right through my forehead. And I thought: My God... the genius of that. The genius. The will to do that. Perfect, genuine, complete, crystalline, pure. And then I realized they were stronger than we. Because they could stand that these were not monsters. These were men... trained cadres. These men who fought with their hearts, who had families, who had children, who were filled with love... but they had the strength... the strength... to do that. If I had ten divisions of those men our troubles here would be over very quickly. You have to have men who are moral... and at the same time who are able to utilize their primordial instincts to kill without feeling... without passion... without judgment... without judgment.'' '''Because it's judgment that defeats us'''.'' While bound outside in the pouring rain, Willard is approached by Kurtz, who places the severed head of Chef in his lap. Coppola makes little explicit, but we come to believe that Willard and Kurtz develop an understanding nonetheless; Kurtz wishes to die at Willard's hands, and Willard, having subsequently granted Kurtz his wish, is offered the chance to succeed him in his warlord-[[demigod]] role. Juxtaposed with a ceremonial slaughtering of a [[water buffalo]], Willard enters Kurtz's chamber during one of his message recordings, and kills him with a machete (This entire sequence is set to [[The End (The Doors song)|The End]] by [[The Doors]]). Lying bloody and dying on the ground, Kurtz whispers "The horror...the horror." (This line is taken directly from Conrad's novella.) Willard walks through the now-silent crowd of natives until he comes upon Lance, who seems to have integrated himself into the society. The two of them make their way to the PBR and float away as Kurtz's final words echo in the wind as the screen fades to black. ===''Redux''=== In 2001 Coppola released ''Apocalypse Now: Redux'', which restored 49 minutes of scenes that were cut from the original film, including stopovers at a [[French people|French]] [[rubber]] plantation wherein Mr. Clean is buried and a rain-soaked American base camp. Nudity absent from the original was also included in the Redux, most notably at the French plantation and in an additional scene with the Playboy playmates (from the [[United Service Organizations|USO]] show.) In this version, Willard steals Kilgore's surfboard, which can still be seen briefly onboard the PBR in the original cut. ===Alternate Endings=== Coppola denied having any actual alternative endings. In the [[DVD]] commentary, he states that they simply had a massive amount of footage to edit with and thus had some choices to make. They did consider using the explosion footage made during their destruction of the Kurtz compound, but he later decided that implying that the air strike had been called in was contrary to his wish to offer some slight hope that we could overcome the horrors of [[war]]. However, there are multiple slightly varying versions of the ending credits. One version, from the 70mm release, ends with no credits, and shows the boat pulling away. Another version, for the 35mm wide release, rolls the credits while the Kurtz compound is destroyed in what must be assumed was an air strike. Yet another version ends silently, without the explosions, and the credits roll over a black background. ==Themes== ''Apocalypse Now'' is a thematically rich film. The primary motif of the film is that of ''[[Heart of Darkness]]'', i.e. an odyssey into the darkness of humanity. Willard's constant narration gives us a glimpse into his fractured psychological state particularly in the opening scenes where he lies in his bed and stares blankly into the ceiling. He relates that he is on his second tour of duty and that he returned because he was unable to re-integrate himself into civilian life. :''Saigon... shit; I'm still only in Saigon... Every time I think I'm gonna wake up back in the jungle. When I was home after my first tour, it was worse. I'd wake up and there'd be nothing. I hardly said a word to my wife, until I said "yes" to a divorce. When I was here, I wanted to be there; when I was there, all I could think of was getting back into the jungle. I'm here a week now... waiting for a mission... getting softer; every minute I stay in this room, I get weaker, and every minute Charlie squats in the bush, he gets stronger. Each time I looked around, the walls moved in a little tighter.'' This chilling monologue besides suggesting how man is connected to war is also an allusion to [[post traumatic stress disorder]], a condition common to many Vietnam veterans. Willard's quest for Kurtz's compound parallels Kurtz's own descent into madness. He never tells his fellow shipmates of the PBR the true purpose of the mission and in a chilling scene, after his crew massacres people sailing on a sampan, Willard murders the surviving girl. Kurtz who was a committed family man and a highly respected colonel is driven insane after witnessing a vile incident commited by his enemies while on a peacekeeping mission. He realised that he can never win the war unless he surrenders his morality and kill without judgment. For Kurtz, this action drove him insane and so he gathered other disillusioned soldiers and started a strange, bizarre civilization in the Cambodian forest. This is a subtle allusion to the bureaucracy that directs soldiers in the war. The bureaucrats propagandized the [[Vietnam War]] as a just cause to save the world from the evil of [[Communism]]. The general public and several Vietnam war veterans fiercely condemned the war and believed that the government lied and misled the public. Even Willard who is assigned the mission is cynical about his mission from the beginning : : ''Charging a man with murder in this place was like handing out speeding tickets at the Indy 500'' {{spoiler}} The climax at Kurtz's compound is the most confusing and the most frequently debated aspect of the film. Several critics believe it to be anticlimactic after the earlier more action oriented scenes and also the fact that it differs greatly from other war films in that there's no final battle scenario. [[Roger Ebert]] in his original review defends the ending: :''Coppola doesn't have an ending, if we or he expected the closing scenes to pull everything together and make sense of it. Nobody should have been surprised. "Apocalypse Now" doesn't tell any kind of a conventional story, doesn't have a thought-out message for us about Vietnam, has no answers, and thus needs no ending.The way the film ends now, with Brando's fuzzy, brooding monologues and the final violence, feels much more satisfactory than any conventional ending possibly could.'' When Willard arrives, he is captured and put into containment as he is 'interrogated' by Kurtz who lectures and drones on about his philosophies. While other interpretations exist, it can be assumed that Kurtz wishes to die a soldier's death and has been waiting for his death. But his followers refuse to kill him and Colby([[Scott Glenn]]) who was sent to kill him ended up joining his 'tribe'. He wishes or rather hopes that Willard would be able to do so. Willard, at first does not want to as he too is converted by Kurtz's beliefs but after Kurtz's monologue and his statement on judgment, Willard understands Kurtz's desire and so decides to complete his mission by subverting his moral judgment and justifies it to himself :''Everybody wanted me to do it, him most of all. I felt like he was up there, waiting for me to take the pain away. He just wanted to go out like a soldier, standing up, not like some poor, wasted, rag-assed renegade. Even the jungle wanted him dead, and that's who he really took his orders from anyway.'' The 'jungle' is seen as a metaphor to nature or more specifically man's human nature. After killing Kurtz, Willard is revered by the denizens of Kurtz's tribe but he instead leaves suggesting that perhaps he is capable of escaping the horror of war. ==Responses== ''Apocalypse Now'' premiered in [[1979]] to mixed reviews and received polarized responses from the audiences. It is said that it was as lauded as it was reviled. Many critics slammed the film, calling it overly pretentious, while others felt that it ended anticlimatically after a splendid first act. [[Roger Ebert]], who hailed it as the best film of [[1979]] and added it to his list of Great Movies stated: :"Apocalypse Now is the best Vietnam film, one of the greatest of all films, because it pushes beyond the others, into the dark places of the soul. It is not about war so much as about how war reveals truths we would be happy never to discover." Today, the film is regarded by many as a masterpiece of the [[New Hollywood]] era. It is on the [[AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies]] list at number 28. Kilgore's quote "I love the smell of napalm in the morning" was number 12 on the [[AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes]] list. ''[[Sight and Sound]]'' magazine polled several critics to name the best film of the last 25 years and ''Apocalypse Now'' was named number 1. The catastrophic production of the film unfortunately made it symbol of the dangers of excessive directorial control over a film. The production was said to have taken a toll on Coppola, both mentally and emotionally. To many cinephiles, ''Apocalypse Now'' is the last great film of a legendary director whose subsequent films have failed to match it in quality. ==Adaptation== Although inspired by Joseph Conrad's ''Heart of Darkness'', the film deviates extensively from it. The novel takes place in the [[Belgian Congo]] in the [[19th century]]; Kurtz and Marlow (who is named Willard in the movie) are commercial agents of a [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[ivory]] company that brutally exploits its [[Africa|African]] native workers. In the novel, Marlow is sent to bring the ailing Kurtz home; in the movie, Willard is sent to kill Kurtz. The character of Kilgore is an invention of the screenwriters. Nevertheless, Coppola has maintained many episodes (the spear and arrow attack on the boat, for example) that respect the spirit of the novel and in particular its critique of the concept of civilization and progress. The fact that Coppola substituted [[Europe|European]] colonization with [[United States|American]] [[interventionism (politics)|interventionism]] does not change the universal message of the book. [http://www.cyberpat.com/essays/coppola.html] ==Influence== As one of the most [[icon]]ic films of the [[1900s|20th century]], the film has been referenced and [[parody|parodied]] countless times. ===Film=== * The film was parodied in a short film called ''[[Porklips Now]]'', about health inspector Will Dullard, who makes a trip to inspect the meat processing shop of a man named Mertz. * British film ''[[Nil by Mouth (film)|Nil by Mouth]]'', by ''[[Gary Oldman]]'', has a scene where the character Danny (played by ''[[Steve Sweeney]]'') dubs the scene that the photojournalist talks to Cap. Willard (when he is in the wood cage), as the film is played on a TV. * In ''[[True Romance]]'', [[Clarence Worley]] calls ''Apocalypse Now'' "the greatest Vietnam film ever made". * ''[[Apocalypse Pooh]]'' is a nine-minute short which marries visuals from ''[[Winnie the Pooh]]'' cartoons with audio from ''Apocalypse Now''. Amazingly, they fit perfectly, following the basic [[plot]] well. * ''[[Hot Shots! Part Deux]]'' starring Sheen's son [[Charlie Sheen]] parodies the film. Martin Sheen, appearing once again as Willard, and Charlie Sheen's character ''Topper'' are depicted staring at each other while passing in opposite directions on PBRs on a river. As they meet each shouts in unison, "I loved you in [[Wall Street (movie)|Wall Street]]!". * Another movie starring Charlie Sheen, ''[[The Chase (1994 film)|The Chase]]'', has a gag scene after the end credits, in which Sheen quotes Kilgore's famous napalm line. * In ''[[Jarhead (film)|Jarhead]]'', shortly before "Swoff" and the guys are sent into action, they are watching ''Apocalypse Now'' in a theater inside the base, singing along and interacting with the infamous helicopter attack scene, much in the way one would at a ''[[Rocky Horror Picture Show]]'' screening. Oddly enough, Walter Murch was editor/sound designer for both Apocalypse Now & Jarhead. * In ''[[Back to the Future Part II (film)|Back to the Future 2]]'', right after Marty meets up with Doc and the police take Jennifer away, you can see a sign behind them reading "Surf Vietnam." ===Television=== * In an episode of ''[[Seinfeld]]'', [[Elaine Benes]] visits her employer, [[J. Peterman]], in a scene that parodies Willard's eventual meeting with Kurtz. * The same scene is also parodied in an episode of ''[[Sealab 2021]]'', with Captain Murphy as Kurtz and Marco as Willard. * Parodied in the episode "[[Kamp Krusty]]" of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' with [[Bart Simpson|Bart]] assuming the role of Kurtz. [[Marge Simpson]] also tells her husband, [[Homer Simpson|Homer]], in another episode, ''"your character provides the comic relief, like Marlon Brando in Apocalypse Now"''. The 'Ride of the Valkyries' helicopter sequence was humorously homaged in a "[[Treehouse of Horror]]" short. * In an episode of ''[[The Critic]]'', one of the films Jay Sherman reviews is a [[musical]] remake titled "Apocalypse Wow." * The episode "Eekpocalypse Now!" of the cartoon series ''[[Eek! the Cat]]'' cast Eek as Willard, Elmo the Elk as Colonel Kilgore and Sharky the Sharkdog as Colonel Kurtz. * In the ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'' episode "Restless," contains [[Xander]]'s dream version of ''Apocalypse Now'', including [[Principal Snyder]] as Kurtz. * [[Claymation]] cartoonist Corky Quakenbush produced "''A Pack of Gifts Now''", which is part of his [[Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer (television special)|Rudolph]] Trilogy (the other two being "''Raging Rudolph''" and "''The Reinfather''.") The short is set in [[Saskatchewan]], with Rudolph in the Willard role and [[Santa Claus]] in the Kurtz role. Rudolph's mission is to "terminate the Kringle (Santa) with extreme prejudice." This short would air on the Christmas edition of ''[[MadTV]]'' in 1999. * In the TV series ''[[Scrubs (TV show)|Scrubs]]'', the episode "My Heavy Meddle" ends with the janitors comment: " The horror!", quoting Kurtz. * In an episode of ''[[Animaniacs]]'', [[Warner Brothers]] sends Yakko, Wakko and Dot Warner on a mission to stop a crazed movie director (a parody of [[Jerry Lewis]]) from filming a movie the studio had cancelled. The trio find the director, who has created a kingdom for himself in which [[stunt double]]s worship him. They stop the film and smash him with a 50 ton weight. His last words are "The hurting... the hurting..." Throughout the episode, a singer who looks very much like [[Jim Morrison]] drones "This is the ending, the ending of our story, the ending." * "Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man," an ''[[X-Files]]'' episode features a flashback scene where "the Cigarette Smoking Man" is tasked with the assassination of [[John F. Kennedy]]. The scene has many things similar or identical to the Scene where Willard is tasked with the assassination of Kurtz, most prominently both have a question that goes something like "have you ever met myself this man or the general before?" to which Willard and the CSM both reply "Not personally". * The cartoon ''[[Yvon of the Yukon]]'' has an episode that parodies the opening scene, as well as a helicopter pilot stating "I love the smell of lip balm in the morning" * In a sketch in [[Alas Smith and Jones]], [[Mel Smith]] sits in a darkened room and expresses philosophies similar to that of Kurtz at length to a man who has been sent to find him, at the end of the sketch [[Griff Rhys Jones]] switches on the light to reveal that they are in fact sitting in a rather mundane bathroom with Smith sitting in the bath. Jones (a fairly dull [[Her Majesty's Revenue and Customs|tax inspector]] perched on the toilet) reveals that he is merely investigating Smith for [[Child benefit]] fraud. ===Music=== * [[Iron Maiden]]'s "The Edge of Darkness" on their album ''[[The X Factor (album)|The X Factor]]'' (1995) is very closely based on the film. Most lyrics are very close to being a direct quote from the movie. * The [[Canada|Canadian]] band [[Death From Above 1979]] take their name from the 'Death From Above' motto on Kilgore's helicopter. * The band [[Dismember]] uses the quote "I love the smell of napalm in the morning!" to start of their song "Let the Napalm Rain." * The band [[Sodom (band)|Sodom]] uses the full quote, including "smells like... victory" in their song "Napalm in the Morning". * The band [[Ministry (band)|Ministry]] uses a sample of Dennis Hopper saying "Alright, it's alright" on their song "N.W.O." * The band [[The Clash]]'s song "Charlie Don't Surf" from their album [[Sandinista!]] derives its title and concept from the movie. * The band [[Milhaven]] samples extensively from Kurtz's monologue at the end of the film in their song "Drink a Pint of Blood a Day." * [[Jedi Mind Tricks]] use a few clips on their CD release Violent By Design. * [[2Pacalypse Now]] was rapper [[Tupac Shakur]]'s debut album, released in November 1991. * [[The Dead Milkmen]] song "Beach Party Vietnam" is a parody of the surfing scene, and the Vietnam War in general. * [[Fall Silent]] incorporates a clip of Marlow's "The Horror...the horror" in their song entitled "The Great White Death." ===Video games=== * In the videogame ''[[World of Warcraft]]'', a series of quests in the Stranglethorn Vale zone take you to the camp of a crazed Colonel Kurzen who has [[brainwash]]ed his men, in an attempt to kill the Colonel. *In a homage to the infamous village attack scene, the computer game "[[Battlefield Vietnam]]" offers up "[[Ride of the Valkyries]]" as a song to be played while inside helicopters and other vehicles. * The Half-Life singleplayer mod 'Heart of Evil' is partly inspired by the film (the Vietnam War setting, a U.S. Army captain sent to assassinate a rogue colonel, the helicopter ride with "[[Ride of the Valkyries]]" in the background, the boat ride to the colonel's compound). *In [[StarCraft]], one of the Firebat's quotes is "I love the smell of napalm." The Firebats are flamethrower wielding infantry. ===Literature=== * The ''[[Star Wars]]'' novel ''[[Shatterpoint]]'', written by [[Matthew Stover]], is based on ''Apocalypse Now''. * Before the members of the SAS patrol leave England in the book [[Bravo Two Zero]] by [[Andy McNab]], they watch ''Apocalypse Now''. ==Primary cast== *[[Marlon Brando]] - Col. Walter E. Kurtz *[[Martin Sheen]] - [[Captain#Army, Marine Corps and Air Force|Capt.]] Benjamin L. Willard *[[Dennis Hopper]] - "American [[photojournalist]]" *[[Robert Duvall]] - Lt. Col. Bill Kilgore *[[Frederic Forrest]] - "Chef", sailor *[[Albert Hall]] - Chief Phillips, Navy boat commander *[[Sam Bottoms]] - Lance B. Johnson, sailor and famous surfer *[[Laurence Fishburne]] - Tyrone, AKA "Clean", sailor *[[G. D. Spradlin]] - Gen. Corman, [[military intelligence|G-2]] *[[Harrison Ford]] - Col. Lucas, aide to Corman *[[Scott Glenn]] - Lt. Richard M. Colby, previously assigned Willard's current mission *[[Tom Mason]] - supply sgt. *[[Colleen Camp]] - [[Playmate]], "Miss May" '''Award wins:''' *[[Cannes Film Festival]] : [[Palme d'Or]] *[[Academy Award for Best Cinematography]] ([[Vittorio Storaro]]) *[[Academy Award for Sound]] ([[Richard Beggs]], [[Mark Berger]], [[Nathan Boxer]] and [[Walter Murch]]) *[[Golden Globe Award for Best Director - Motion Picture|Golden Globe Award for Best Director]] ([[Francis Ford Coppola]]) *[[Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture|Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor]] ([[Robert Duvall]]) *[[Golden Globe|Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score - Motion Picture]] ([[Carmine Coppola]] & [[Francis Ford Coppola]]) In 2000 the United States [[Library of Congress]] deemed the film "[[cultural significance|culturally significant]]" and selected it for preservation in the [[National Film Registry]]. It is widely believed that ''Apocalypse Now'' did not win the Best Picture Oscar in 1979 due to the fact that another Vietnam epic, ''[[The Deer Hunter]]'', had just won the previous year. It is often regarded as a far superior film to the 1979 winner of the award, ''[[Kramer vs. Kramer]]''. '''Award nominations:''' *[[Academy Award for Best Picture]] *[[Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture - Drama]] *[[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor]] - ([[Robert Duvall]]) *[[Academy Award for Best Art Direction|Academy Award for Best Art Direction - Set Decoration]] ([[Angelo P. Graham]], [[George R. Nelson]] and [[Dean Tavoularis]]) *[[Academy Award for Directing]] ([[Francis Ford Coppola]]) *[[Academy Award for Film Editing]] ([[Lisa Fruchtman]], [[Gerald B. Greenberg]], [[Richard Marks]] and [[Walter Murch]]) *[[Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay|Best Writing, Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium]] ([[Francis Ford Coppola]] & [[John Milius]]) *[[Writers Guild of America|WGA Award for Best Drama Written Directly for the Screen]] ([[John Milius]] & [[Francis Ford Coppola]]) *[[Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack Album for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media|Grammy Award for Best Original Score Written for a Motion Picture]] ([[Carmine Coppola]] & [[Francis Ford Coppola]]) ==Quotes== * "You smell that? Do you smell that? ... Napalm, son. Nothing else in the world smells like that. I love the smell of napalm in the morning. You know, one time we had a hill bombed, for twelve hours. When it was all over I walked up. We didn't find one of 'em, not one stinkin' dink body. The smell, you know that gasoline smell, the whole hill. Smelled like ... victory. Someday this war's gonna end." - Lt. Col. Bill Kilgore * "I watched a snail crawl along the edge of a straight razor. That's my dream. That's my nightmare. Crawling, slithering, along the edge of a straight razor, and surviving." - Col. Walter E. Kurtz (on tape) * "We train young men to drop fire on people, but their commanders won't allow them to write <nowiki>'fuck'</nowiki> on their airplanes because ... it's obscene!" - Col. Walter E. Kurtz * "They were gonna make me a major for this, and I wasn't even in their fuckin' army anymore." - Captain Willard * "Charging a man with murder in this place was like handing out speeding tickets at the Indy 500" - Willard, when beginning his assigned mission * "What are they going to say? That he was a kind man? That he was a wise man? That he had plans? Bullshit!" - The photojournalist to Willard, on how Kurtz will be remembered * "Never get out of the boat!" - Chef * "I wanted a mission, and for my sins they gave me one. Brought it up to me like room service. It was a real choice mission, and after it was done, I'd never want another." - Willard. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *{{imdb title|id=0078788|title=Apocalypse Now}} *{{filmsite|id=apoc|title=Apocalypse Now}} <!-- Robert Duvall --> [[Category:1979 films]] [[Category:Best Picture Oscar Nominee]] [[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee (film)]] [[Category:Cult films]] [[Category:Films based on short fiction]] [[Category:Films directed by Francis Ford Coppola]] [[Category:Palme d'Or winners]] [[Category:United States National Film Registry]] [[Category:Vietnam War films]] [[Category:Anti-Military Movies]] [[da:Apocalypse Now]] [[de:Apocalypse Now]] [[es:Apocalypse Now]] [[fr:Apocalypse Now]] [[io:Apocalypse Now]] [[it:Apocalypse Now]] [[he:אפוקליפסה עכשיו]] [[nl:Apocalypse Now]] [[ja:地獄の黙示録]] [[no:Apokalypse nå!]] [[pl:Czas Apokalipsy]] [[pt:Apocalypse Now]] [[ru:Апокалипсис сегодня (фильм)]] [[sk:Apokalypsa (film)]] [[sv:Apocalypse]] [[zh:现代启示录]] 807 15899321 2002-10-09T13:51:13Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Communications in Albania]] #REDIRECT [[Communications in Albania]] 808 42010697 2006-03-03T05:03:26Z 24.5.197.100 /* Hollywood */ {{Infobox Celebrity | name = Alfred Hitchcock | image = Alfred Hitchcock.JPG | caption = Alfred Hitchcock introduces the ''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'' episode "The Sorcerer's Apprentice." | birth_date = [[13 August]] [[1899]] | birth_place = [[Leytonstone]], [[London]], [[United Kingdom|UK]] | death_date = [[29 April]] [[1980]] | death_place = [[Bel-Air, Los Angeles, California|Bel Air]], [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[United States|USA]] | occupation = [[film]] [[film director|director]] and [[film producer|producer]] | spouse = [[Alma Reville]] }} '''Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock''' [[Order of the British Empire|KBE]] ([[13 August]] [[1899]]&ndash;[[29 April]] [[1980]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]]-born [[film]] [[film director|director]] and [[film producer|producer]], closely associated with the [[suspense]] [[thriller]] genre. He began directing in the [[United Kingdom]] before working mostly in the [[United States]] from 1939 onwards, taking out dual citizenship in 1956. He directed more than fifty feature films in a career spanning six decades, from the [[silent film]] era, through the invention of [[talkie]]s, to the [[color]] era. Hitchcock remains one of the best known and most popular directors of all time, famous for his expert and largely unrivaled control of pace and suspense throughout his movies. Hitchcock's films draw heavily on both [[fear]] and [[fantasy]], and are known for their droll humour. They often portray innocent people caught up in circumstances beyond their control or understanding. This often involves a ''[[transference]] of guilt'' in which the "innocent" character's failings are transferred to another character and magnified. Another common theme is the exploration of the compatibility of men and women; Hitchcock's films often take a [[cynicism|cynical]] view of traditional romantic relationships. Although Hitchcock was an enormous [[superstar|star]] during his lifetime, he was not usually ranked highly by contemporaneous [[film critic]]s. ''[[Rebecca (film)|Rebecca]]'' was the only one of his films to win the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]], although four others were nominated. Hitchcock never won the Academy Award for Best Director. He was awarded the [[Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]] for lifetime achievement in 1967, but never personally received an [[Academy Award|Academy Award of Merit]]. The [[French New Wave]] critics, especially [[Éric Rohmer]], [[Claude Chabrol]], and [[François Truffaut]], were among the first to promote his films as having [[artistic merit]] beyond entertainment. Hitchcock was one of the first directors to whom they applied their [[auteur theory]], which stresses the artistic authority of the director in the film-making process. Through his fame, public persona, and degree of creative control, Hitchcock transformed the role of the director, which had previously been eclipsed by that of the producer. He is seen today as the quintessential director who managed to combine art and entertainment in a way very few have ever matched. His innovations and vision have influenced a great number of filmmakers, producers, and [[actor]]s. ==Biography== <!--- The following is okay, with more biographical material, some trimming of minor films, and less of a "laundry-list" exposition ---> ===Early life=== Alfred Hitchcock was born on [[August 13]], [[1899]], in [[Leytonstone]], [[London]], the second son and youngest of the three children of William Hitchcock, a greengrocer, and his wife, Emma Jane Hitchcock (nee Whelan). His family was mostly [[Irish Catholic]]. Hitchcock was sent to Catholic boarding schools in London. He has said his childhood was very lonely and sheltered. At an early age, after acting childishly, Hitchcock claimed that his father sent him to the local police station carrying a note. When he presented the police officer on duty with the note, he was locked in a cell for a few moments, petrifying the young child. This was a favorite anecdote of his, one which is often suggested to be the cause for the theme of distrust of police which runs through many of his films. At 14, Hitchcock lost his father and left the Jesuit-run [[St Ignatius' College]] in [[Stamford Hill]], his school at the time, to study at the School for Engineering and Navigation. After graduating, he became a [[technical drawing|draftsman]] and [[advertising]] designer with a cable company. About that time, Hitchcock became intrigued by [[photography]] and started working in film in London. In 1920, he obtained a full-time job at Islington Studios under its American owners, [[Famous Players Film Company|Players]]-Lasky, and their British successors, [[Gainsborough Pictures]], designing the titles for silent movies. ===Pre-war British career=== As a major talent in a new industry with plenty of opportunity, he rose quickly. In 1925, [[Michael Balcon]] of Gainsborough Pictures gave him a chance to direct his first film, ''[[The Pleasure Garden (1925 film)|The Pleasure Garden]]'', made at the [[Universum Film AG|Ufa studios]] in Germany. However, the commercial failure of this film, and his second, ''[[The Mountain Eagle]]'', threatened to derail his promising career, until he attached himself to the thriller genre. The resulting film, ''[[The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog]]'', was released in [[1927 in film|1927]] and was a major commercial and critical success. Like many of his earlier works it was influenced by [[German Expressionism|Expressionist]] techniques he had witnessed first hand in Germany. In it, attractive blondes are strangled and the new lodger ([[Ivor Novello]]) in the Bunting family's upstairs apartment falls under heavy suspicion. This is the first truly "Hitchcockian" film, incorporating such themes as the "wrong man". Following the success of ''The Lodger'', Hitchcock began his first efforts to promote himself in the media, and hired a publicist to cement his growing reputation as one of the British film industry's rising stars. In 1926, he was to marry his assistant director [[Alma Reville]]. They had a daughter, Patricia, in 1928. Alma was Hitchcock's closest collaborator. She wrote some of his screenplays and worked with him on every one of his films. In 1929, he began work on ''[[Blackmail (1929 film)|Blackmail]]'', his tenth film. While the film was in production, the studio decided to make it one of Britain's first sound pictures. With the climax of the film taking place on the dome of the [[British Museum]], ''Blackmail'' also began the Hitchcock tradition of using famous landmarks as the backdrop to a story. In 1933, Hitchcock was once again working for Michael Balcon at Gaumont-British Picture Corporation. His first film for the company, ''[[The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)|The Man Who Knew Too Much]]'' (1934), was a success, while his second, ''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)| The 39 Steps]]'' (1935), is often considered one of the best films from his early period. It was also one of the first to introduce the concept of the "[[MacGuffin]]", a plot device around which a whole story would revolve. In ''The 39 Steps'', the MacGuffin is a stolen set of blueprints. His next major success was in 1938, ''[[The Lady Vanishes]]'', a clever and fast-paced film about the search for a kindly old Englishwoman ([[Dame May Whitty]]), who disappears while on board a train in the fictional country of Vandrika (a thinly-veiled version of [[Nazi]] [[Germany]]). By the end of the 1930s, Hitchcock was at the top of his game artistically, and in a position to name his own terms when [[David O. Selznick]] managed to entice the Hitchcocks across to Hollywood. ===Hollywood=== Hitchcock's ''[[gallows humour]]'' continued in his American work, together with the suspense that became his trademark. However, working arrangements with his new producer were less than optimal. Selznick suffered from perennial money problems and Hitchcock was often unhappy with the amount of creative control demanded by Selznick over his films. Subsequently, Selznick ended up "loaning" Hitchcock to the larger studios more often than producing Hitchcock's films himself. With the prestigious picture ''[[Rebecca (film)|Rebecca]]'' in 1940, Hitchcock made his first American movie, although it was set in England and based on a novel by English author Dame [[Daphne du Maurier]]. This [[Gothic novel|Gothic]] [[melodrama]] explores the fears of a naïve young bride who enters a great English country home and must grapple with a distant husband, a predatory housekeeper, and the legacy of her husband's late wife. It has also subsequently been noted for the lesbian undercurrents in [[Judith Anderson]]'s performance. The film won the [[Academy Award]] for [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] of 1940. Hitchcock's second American film, the European-set thriller ''[[Foreign Correspondent]]'' was also nominated for Best Picture that year. Hitchcock's work during the 1940's was very diverse, ranging from the romantic comedy, ''[[Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1941 film)|Mr. & Mrs. Smith]]'' (1941) and the courtroom drama ''[[The Paradine Case]]'' (1947), to the dark and disturbing ''Shadow of a Doubt'' (1943). ''[[Shadow of a Doubt]]'', his personal favorite, was about young Charlotte "Charlie" Newton ([[Teresa Wright]]), who suspects her beloved uncle Charlie Spencer ([[Joseph Cotten]]) of murder. In its use of overlapping characters, dialogue, and closeups it has provided a generation of film theorists with psychoanalytic potential, including [[Jacques Lacan]] and [[Slavoj Žižek]]. The film also harkens to one of Cotten's better known films, ''[[Citizen Kane]]''. ''[[Spellbound (1945 film)|Spellbound]]'' explored the then very fashionable subject of [[psychoanalysis]] and featured a dream sequence which was designed by [[Salvador Dali]]. The actual dream sequence in the film was considerably cut from the original planned scene that was to run for some minutes but proved too disturbing for the finished film. ''[[Notorious]]'' (1946) marked Hitchcock's first film as a producer as well as director. As Selznick failed to see the subject's potential, he allowed Hitchcock to make the film for [[RKO]]. From this point on, Hitchcock would produce his own films, giving him a far greater degree of freedom to pursue the projects that interested him. Starring [[Ingrid Bergman]] and Hitchcock regular [[Cary Grant]], and featuring a plot about Nazis, uranium, and South America, ''[[Notorious]]'' was a huge box office success and has remained one of Hitchcock's most acclaimed films. Its inventive use of suspense and props briefly led to Hitchcock being under surveillance by the [[CIA]] due to his use of [[uranium]] as a plot device. ''[[Alfred Hitchcock's Rope|Rope]]'' (his first color film) came next in 1948. Here Hitchcock experimented with marshalling suspense in a confined environment, as he had done earlier with ''[[Lifeboat (film)|Lifeboat]]''. He also experimented with exceptionally long takes - up to ten minutes (see [[Alfred Hitchcock#Themes and devices|Themes and devices]]). Featuring [[James Stewart]] in the leading role, ''Rope'' was the first of an eventual four films Stewart would make for Hitchcock. Based on the [[Leopold and Loeb]] case of the 1920s, ''Rope'' is also among the earliest openly gay-themed films to emerge from the [[Hays Office]] controlled Hollywood studio era. ''[[Under Capricorn]]'', set in nineteenth-century Australia, also used this short-lived technique, but to a more limited extent. For these two films he formed a production company with Sidney Bernstein, called Transatlantic Pictures, which folded after these two unsuccessful pictures. ===Peak years and decline=== With ''[[Strangers on a Train]]'' (1951), his first epic film based on the novel by [[Patricia Highsmith]], Hitchcock combined many of the best elements from his preceding British and American films. Two men casually meet and speculate on removing people who are causing them difficulty. One of the men, though, takes this banter entirely seriously. With [[Farley Granger]] reprising some elements of his role from ''Rope'', ''Strangers'' continued the director's interest in the narrative possiblities of homosexual blackmail and murder. Three very popular films, all starring [[Grace Kelly]], followed. ''[[Dial M for Murder]]'' was adapted from the popular stage play by Frederick Knott. This was originally another experimental film, with Hitchcock using the technique of [[3-D film|3D]] cinematography, although the film was never released in this format. ''[[Rear Window]]'', starred James Stewart again, as well as [[Thelma Ritter]] and [[Raymond Burr]]. Here the wheelchair-bound Stewart observes the movements of his neighbours across the courtyard and becomes convinced one of them has murdered his wife. Like ''[[Lifeboat]]'' and ''[[Rope]]'', the movie was photographed almost entirely within the confines of a small space: Stewart's tiny studio apartment overlooking the massive courtyard set. ''[[To Catch a Thief]]'', set in the French Riviera, starred Kelly and [[Cary Grant]]. In 1956, Hitchcock also remade his 1934 film ''[[The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956 film)|The Man Who Knew Too Much]]'', this time with [[James Stewart]] and [[Doris Day]]. 1958's ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' again starred Stewart, this time with [[Kim Novak]] and [[Barbara Bel Geddes]]. The film was a commercial failure, but has come to be viewed by many as one of Hitchcock's masterpieces. Hitchcock followed ''Vertigo'' with three very different films, which were all massive commercial successes. All are also recognised as among his very best films: ''[[North by Northwest]]'' (1959), ''[[Psycho]]'' (1960), and ''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]'' (1963). The latter two were particularly notable for their unconventional soundtracks, both by [[Bernard Herrmann]]: the screeching strings in the murder scene in ''Psycho'' pushed the limits of the time, and ''The Birds'' dispensed completely with conventional instruments, using an electronically produced soundtrack. These were his last great films, after which his career slowly wound down. In 1972 Hitchcock returned to [[London]] to film ''[[Frenzy]]'', his last major success. For the first time, Hitchcock allowed nudity and profane language, which had before been taboo, in one of his films. Failing health slowed down his output over the last two decades of his life. ''[[Family Plot]]'' (1976) was his last film. It related the escapades of "Madam" Blanche Tyler played by [[Barbara Harris (actress)|Barbara Harris]], a fraudulent spiritualist, and her taxi driver lover [[Bruce Dern]] making a living from her phony powers. [[William Devane]] and [[Katherine Helmond]] co-starred. Hitchcock was created a [[Order of the British Empire|Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire]] by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] in the 1980 [[New Years Honours]]. He died just four months later, on [[April 29]], before he had the opportunity to be formally invested by the Queen. He was nevertheless entitled to be known as '''Sir Alfred Hitchcock''' and to use the postnominal letters [[KBE]], because he remained a British subject when he adopted American citizenship in 1956. Alfred Hitchcock died from [[renal failure]] in his [[Bel Air]], [[Los Angeles]], home aged 80, and was survived by his wife [[Alma Reville]], and their daughter, Patricia Hitchcock O'Connell. His body was cremated, and apparently there was no public funeral or memorial service. ==Themes and devices== Hitchcock preferred the use of suspense over surprise in his films. In surprise, the director assaults the viewer with frightening things. In suspense, the director tells or shows things to the audience which the characters in the film do not know, and then artfully builds tension around what will happen when the characters finally learn the truth. Further blurring the moral distinction between the innocent and the guilty, occasionally making this indictment clear, Hitchcock also makes voyeurs of his "respectable" audience. In ''Rear Window'' ([[1954 in film|1954]]), after L. B. Jeffries (played by James Stewart) has been staring across the courtyard at him for most of the film, Lars Thorwald (played by [[Raymond Burr]]) confronts Jeffries by saying "What do you want of me?" Burr might as well have been addressing the audience. In fact, shortly before asking this, Thorwald turns to face the camera directly for the first time &mdash; at this point, audiences often gasp. One of Hitchcock's favourite devices for driving the plots of his stories and creating suspense was what he called the "[[MacGuffin]]." The plots of many of his suspense films revolve around a "MacGuffin": a detail which, by inciting curiosity and desire, drives the plot and motivates the actions of characters within the story, but whose specific identity and nature is unimportant to the spectator of the film. In ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'', for instance, "Carlotta Valdes" is a MacGuffin; she never appears and the details of her death are unimportant to the viewer, but the story about her ghost's haunting of Madeleine Elster is the spur for Scottie's investigation of her, and hence the film's entire plot. In ''[[Notorious]]'' the uranium that the main characters must recover before it reaches Nazi hands serves as a similarly arbitrary motivation: any dangerous object would suffice. And state secrets of various kinds serve as MacGuffins in several of the spy films, like ''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)| The 39 Steps]]''. Most of Hitchcock's films contain [[cameo role|cameo]] [[List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances|appearances by Hitchcock himself]]: the director would be seen for a brief moment boarding a bus, crossing in front of a building, standing in an apartment across the courtyard, or appearing in a photograph. This playful gesture became one of Hitchcock's signatures. As a recurring theme he would carry a musical instrument &mdash; especially memorable was the large double bass case that he wrestles onto the train at the beginning of ''[[Strangers on a Train]]''. In his earliest appearances he would fill in as an obscure extra, standing in a crowd or walking through a scene in a long camera shot. But he became more prominent in his later appearances, as when he turns to see [[Jane Wyman]]'s disguise when she passes him on the street in ''[[Stage Fright]]'', and in stark silhouette in his final film ''[[Family Plot]]''. In another amusing cameo, albeit just a photograph, Hitchcock's picture is seen in the "before" side of a newspaper weight loss ad in ''[[Lifeboat]]''. (See a [[list of Hitchcock cameo appearances]].) Hitchcock includes the consumption of brandy in nearly every sound film. "I'll get you some brandy. Drink this down. Just like medicine ..." says James Stewart's character to [[Kim Novak]], in ''Vertigo.'' In a real life incident, Hitchcock dared Montgomery Clift at a dinner party around the filming of ''I Confess'' to swallow a carafe of brandy, which caused his lead actor to pass out, almost immediately. This near obsession with brandy remains unexplained. Another almost inexplicable feature of any Hitchcock film is the inclusion of a staircase. Of course, stairways inspire many suspenseful moments, most notably [[Farley Granger]]'s character visit to the murderer in ''[[Strangers On A Train]]'' or the detective's demise in the Bates' mansion in ''Psycho.'' However, a completely nonfunctional staircase adorns the apartment of the James Stewart character in ''[[Rear Window]]'', as if Hitchcock feels compelled to its inclusion by some unspoken superstition. Hitchcock seemed to delight in the technical challenges of filmmaking. In ''Lifeboat'', Hitchcock sets the entire action of the movie in a small boat, yet manages to keep the cinematography from monotonous repetition. His trademark cameo appearance was a dilemma, given the claustrophobic setting; so Hitchcock appeared on camera in a fictitious newspaper ad for a weight loss product. In ''Spellbound'' two unprecedented point-of-view shots were achieved by constructing a large wooden hand (which would appear to belong to the character whose point of view the camera took) and outsized props for it to hold: a bucket-sized glass of milk and a large wooden gun. For added novelty and impact, the climactic gunshot was hand-colored red on some copies of the black-and-white print of the film. ''Rope'' (1948) was another technical challenge: a film that appears to have been shot entirely in a single take. The film was actually shot in eight takes of approximately 10 minutes each, which was the amount of film that would fit in a single camera reel; the transitions between reels were hidden by having a dark object fill the entire screen for a moment. Hitchcock used those points to hide the cut, and began the next take with the camera in the same place. His 1958 film ''Vertigo'' contains a camera trick that has been imitated and re-used so many times by filmmakers, it has become known as the [[Hitchcock zoom]]. Although famous for inventive camera angles, Hitchcock generally avoided points of view that were physically impossible from a human perspective. For example, he would never place the camera looking out from inside a refrigerator. Regarding Hitchcock's sometimes less than pleasant relationship with actors, there was a persistent rumor that he had said that actors were cattle. Hitchcock later denied this, typically [[tongue-in-cheek]], clarifying that he had only said that actors should be treated like cattle. [[Carole Lombard]], tweaking Hitchcock and drumming up a little publicity, brought some cows along with her when she reported to the set of ''[[Mr. and Mrs. Smith]]''. Hitchcock often dealt with matters that he felt were sexually preverse or kinky, and many of his films darring subverted the restrictive Hollywood Production Code that prohibited any mention of [[homosexuality]]. ==His character and its effects on his films== Hitchcock's films sometimes feature male characters struggling in their relationships with their mothers. In ''[[North by Northwest]]'' (1959), Roger Thornhill ([[Cary Grant]]'s character) is an innocent man ridiculed by his mother for insisting that shadowy, murderous men are after him (in this case, they are). In ''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]'' (1963), the [[Rod Taylor]] character, an innocent man, finds his world under attack by vicious birds, and struggles to free himself of a clinging mother ([[Jessica Tandy]]). The killer in ''[[Frenzy]]'' (1972) has a loathing of women but idolizes his mother. The villain Bruno in ''[[Strangers on a Train]]'' hates his father, but has an incredibly close relationship with his mother (played by [[Marion Lorne]]). Norman Bates' troubles with his mother in ''[[Psycho]]'' are infamous. Hitchcock heroines tend to be lovely, cool blondes who seem at first to be proper but, when aroused by passion or danger, respond in a more sensual, animal, perhaps criminal way. As noted, the famous victims in ''The Lodger'' are all blondes. In ''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)| The 39 Steps]]'', Hitchcock's glamorous blonde star, [[Madeleine Carroll]], is put in handcuffs. In ''[[Marnie]]'' (1964), glamorous blonde [[Tippi Hedren]] is a [[kleptomania]]c. In ''[[To Catch a Thief]]'' (1955), glamorous blonde [[Grace Kelly]] offers to help someone she believes is a cat burglar. After becoming interested in Thorwald's life in ''Rear Window'', Lisa breaks into Thorwald's apartment. And, most notoriously, in ''Psycho'', [[Janet Leigh]]'s character steals $40,000 and gets murdered by a young man named [[Norman Bates]] (played by [[Anthony Perkins]]) who thought he was his own mother. His last blonde heroine was French actress [[Claude Jade]] as the secret agent's worried daughter, Michele, in '''Topaz''' (1969). Hitchcock saw that reliance on actors and actresses was a holdover from the theater tradition. He was a pioneer in using camera movement, camera set ups and montage to explore the outer reaches of cinematic art. Most critics and Hitchcock scholars, including Donald Spoto and Roger Ebert, agree that ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' is probably the director's most personal and revealing film, dealing with the obsessions of a man who crafts a woman into the woman he desires. ''Vertigo'' explores more frankly and at greater length his interest in the relation between sex and death than any other film in his filmography. Hitchcock often said that his personal favourite was ''[[Shadow of a Doubt]]''. ==His style of working== Hitchcock once commented, "The writer and I plan out the entire script down to the smallest detail, and when we're finished all that's left to do is to shoot the film. Actually, it's only when one enters the studio that one enters the area of compromise. Really, the novelist has the best casting since he doesn't have to cope with the actors and all the rest." Hitchcock was often critical of his actors and actresses as well, dismissing, for example, Kim Novak's performance in ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'', and once famously remarking that actors were to be treated like cattle. (In response to being accused of saying 'actors are cattle', he said 'I never said they were cattle; I said they were to be ''treated'' like cattle'.) The first book devoted to the director is simply named ''Hitchcock''. It is a document of a one-week interview by [[François Truffaut]] in 1967. (ISBN 0671604295) ==Awards== The [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] awarded Hitchcock the [[Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]], in 1967. However, despite six earlier nominations, he never won an [[Academy Award|Oscar]] in a contested category. His unsuccessful Oscar nominations were: * for [[Academy Award for Best Director|Best Director]]: ''Rebecca'' (1940), ''[[Lifeboat (film)|Lifeboat]]'' (1944), ''[[Spellbound (1945 film)|Spellbound]]'' (1945), ''[[Rear Window]]'', and ''[[Psycho]]''; and * as a producer, for [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]]: ''[[Suspicion]]'' (1941). However ''Rebecca'', which Hitchcock did direct, won the 1940 [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] Oscar for its producer [[David O. Selznick]]. Three other films Hitchcock directed were unsuccessfully nominated for Best Picture. Hitchcock was knighted in 1980. ==Other notes== From [[1955 in television|1955]] to [[1965 in television|1965]], Hitchcock was the host and producer of a long-running [[television]] series entitled ''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]''. While his films had made Hitchcock's name strongly associated with suspense, the TV series made Hitchcock a celebrity himself. His [[irony]]-tinged voice, image, and mannerisms became instantly recognizable and were often the subject of parody. He directed a few episodes of the TV series himself and he upset a number of movie production companies when he insisted on using his TV production crew to produce his motion picture ''[[Psycho]]''. In the late 1980s, a new version of ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'' was produced for television, making use of Hitchcock's original introductions. Alfred Hitchcock is also immortalised in print and appeared as himself in the very popular juvenile detective series, ''Alfred Hitchcock and the Three Investigators''. The long-running detective series was clever and well written, with characters much younger than the [[Hardy Boys]]. In ghost-written introductions, "Alfred Hitchcock" formerly introduced each case at the beginning of the book, often giving them new cases to solve. At the end of each book, Alfred Hitchcock would discuss the specifics of the case with Jupiter Jones, Bob Andrews and Peter Crenshaw and every so often the three boys would give Alfred Hitchcock mementos of their case. When Alfred Hitchcock passed away, his chores as the boys' mentor/friend would be done by a fictional character: a retired detective named Hector Sebastian. Due to the popularity of the series, ''Alfred Hitchcock and the Three Investigators'' scored several reprints and out of respect, the latter reprints were changed to just ''[[The Three Investigators]]''. Over the years, more than one name has been used to replace Alfred Hitchcock's character, especially for the earlier books when his role was emphasised. At the height of Hitchcock's success, he was also asked to introduce a set of books with his name attached. The series was a collection of short stories by popular short story writers, primarily focused on suspense and thrillers. These titles included ''Alfred Hitchcock's Monster Museum'', ''Alfred Hithcock's Supernatural Tales of Terror and Suspense'', ''Alfred Hitchcock's Spellbinders in Suspense'', ''Alfred Hitchcock's Witch's Brew'', ''Alfred Hitchcock's Ghostly Gallery'' and ''Alfred Hitchcock's Haunted Houseful.'' Hitchcock himself was not actually involved in the reading, reviewing, editing or selection of the short stories; in fact, even his introductions were ghost-written. The entire extent of his involvement with the project was to lend his name and collect a check. Some notable writers whose works were used in the collection include [[Shirley Jackson]] (''Strangers in Town'', ''[[The Lottery]]''), [[T.H. White]] (''[[The Sword in the Stone]]''), [[Robert Bloch]], [[H. G. Wells]] (''[[The War of the Worlds (novel)|The War of the Worlds]]''), [[Robert Louis Stevenson]], [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]], [[Mark Twain]] and the creator of ''[[The Three Investigators]]'', [[Robert Arthur (writer)|Robert Arthur]]. ==Filmography== (all dates are for release) ===Silent films=== *No. 13 (Unfinished, also known as ''Mrs. Peabody'') (1922) *Always Tell Your Wife (Uncredited) (1923) *''[[The Pleasure Garden (1927 film)|The Pleasure Garden]]'' (1925) *''[[The Mountain Eagle]]'' (1926) *''[[The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog]]'' (1927) *''[[Downhill (film)|Downhill]]'' (1927) *''[[Easy Virtue]]'' (1928), based on a [[Noel Coward]] play *''[[The Ring (1927 film)|The Ring]]'' (1927), an original story by Hitchcock. *''[[The Farmer's Wife]]'' (1928) *''[[Champagne (film)|Champagne]]'' (1928) *''[[The Manxman]]'' (1929) *''[[Blackmail (1929 film)|Blackmail]]'' (1929), silent version of the more famous [[talkie]] ===Sound films=== *''[[Blackmail (1929 film)|Blackmail]]'' (1929), the first British [[talkie]] *''[[Juno and the Paycock]]'' (1930) *''[[Murder!]]'' (1930) *''[[Elstree Calling]]'' (1930), made jointly with Adrian Brunel, Andre Charlot, Jack Hulbert and Paul Murray *''[[The Skin Game]]'' (1931) *''[[Mary (film)|Mary]]'' (1931) *''[[Number Seventeen]]'' (1932) *''[[Rich and Strange]]'' (1932) *''[[Waltzes from Vienna]]'' (1933) *''[[The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)|The Man Who Knew Too Much]]'' (1934) *''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)| The 39 Steps]]'' (1935), with [[Robert Donat]] *''[[Secret Agent]]'' (1936), loosely based on [[Somerset Maugham]]'s "Ashenden" stories *''[[Sabotage (film)|Sabotage]]'' (aka "A woman alone") (1936), adapted from [[Joseph Conrad]]'s ''The Secret Agent'' *''[[Young and Innocent]]'' (1937) *''[[The Lady Vanishes]]'' (1938), with [[Michael Redgrave]] *''[[Jamaica Inn (film)|Jamaica Inn]]'' (1939), starring [[Charles Laughton]] *''[[Rebecca (film)|Rebecca]]'' (1940), his only film to win the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]] *''[[Foreign Correspondent]]'' (1940) *''[[Mr. & Mrs. Smith (1941 film)|Mr. & Mrs. Smith]]'' (1941), written by [[Norman Krasna]] *''[[Suspicion (film)|Suspicion]]'' (1941) *''[[Saboteur (film)|Saboteur]]'' (1942), often seen as a dry run for ''[[North by Northwest]]'' *''[[Shadow of a Doubt]]'' (1943) *''[[Lifeboat (film)|Lifeboat]]'' (1944), [[Tallulah Bankhead]]'s most famous film role *''[[Aventure Malgache]]'' (1944), a French language short made for the British Ministry of Information *''[[Bon Voyage (1944 film)|Bon Voyage]]'' (1944), another French language propaganda short *''[[Spellbound (1945 film)|Spellbound]]'' (1945), includes dream sequences designed by [[Salvador Dali]] *''[[Notorious]]'' (1946) *''[[The Paradine Case]]'' (1947) *''[[Alfred Hitchcock's Rope|Rope]]'' (1948) *''[[Under Capricorn]]'' (1949) *''[[Stage Fright]]'' (1950), his first film in Britain since 1939 *''[[Strangers on a Train]]'' (1951) *''[[I Confess (movie)|I Confess]]'' (1953) *''[[Dial M for Murder]]'' (1954) *''[[Rear Window]]'' (1954) *''[[To Catch a Thief]]'' (1955) *''[[The Trouble with Harry]]'' (1955) *''[[The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956 film)|The Man Who Knew Too Much]]'' (1956), remake of his 1934 film *''[[The Wrong Man]]'' (1956) *''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' (1958) *''[[North by Northwest]]'' (1959) *''[[Psycho]]'' (1960) *''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]'' (1963) *''[[Marnie]]'' (1964) *''[[Torn Curtain]] '' (1966) *''[[Topaz (1969 film)|Topaz]]'' (1969) *''[[Frenzy]]'' (1972) *''[[Family Plot]]'' (1976) ===Television episodes=== *''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': "Revenge" (1955) *''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': "Breakdown" (1955) *''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': "The Case of Mr. Pelham" (1955) *''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': "Back for Christmas" (1956) *''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': "Wet Saturday" (1956) *''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': "Mr. Blanchard's Secret" (1956) *''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': "One More Mile to Go" (1957) *''[[Suspicion (TV series)|Suspicion]]'': "Four O'Clock" (1957) *''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': "The Perfect Crime" (1957) *''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': "Lamb to the Slaughter" (1958) *''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': "Dip in the Pool" (1958) *''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': "Poison" (1958) *''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': "Banquo's Chair" (1959) *''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': "Arthur" (1959) *''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': "The Crystal Trench" (1959) *''[[Ford Startime]]'': "Incident at a Corner" (1960) *''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': "Mrs. Bixby and the Colonel's Coat" (1960) *''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': "The Horseplayer" (1961) *''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': "Bang! You're Dead" (1961) *''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents|The Alfred Hitchcock Hour]]'': "I Saw the Whole Thing" (1962) ==Frequent collaborators== <!--- This needs to be fleshed out. A simple laundry list does no justice. ---> [[Sara Allgood]], [[Charles Bennett]] (screenwriter), [[Ingrid Bergman]], [[Carl Brisson]], [[Robert Burks]] (cinematographer), [[Madeleine Carroll]], [[Leo G. Carroll]], [[Joseph Cotten]], [[Hume Cronyn]], [[Robert Cummings]], [[Joan Fontaine]], [[John Forsythe]], [[Farley Granger]], [[Cary Grant]], [[Clare Greet]], [[Lilian Hall-Davis]], [[Gordon Harker]], [[Ben Hecht]] (writer), [[Tippi Hedren]], [[Bernard Herrmann]] (composer), [[Hannah Jones]], [[Malcolm Keen]], [[Grace Kelly]], [[Charles Laughton]], [[John Longden]], [[Peter Lorre]], [[Miles Mander]], [[Vera Miles]], [[Ivor Novello]], [[Anny Ondra]], [[Gregory Peck]], [[Jessie Royce Landis]], [[James Stewart (actor)|James Stewart]], [[John Williams (actor)|John Williams]] ==See also== *[[Unproduced Hitchcock Projects]] ==Further reading== * [[François Truffaut|Truffaut, François]]: ''Hitchcock''. Simon and Schuster, 1985. A series of interviews of Hitchcock by the influential French director. This is an important source, but some have criticised Truffaut for taking an uncritical stance. * Leitch, Thomas: ''The Encyclopedia of Alfred Hitchcock''. Checkmark Books, 2002. An excellent single-volume encyclopedia of all things Hitchcock. * DeRosa, Steven: ''Writing with Hitchcock''. Faber and Faber, 2001. An examination of the collaboration between Hitchcock and screenwriter John Michael Hayes, his most frequent writing collaborator in Hollywood. Their films include ''Rear Window'' and ''The Man Who Knew Too Much''. * Deutelbaum, Marshall; Poague, Leland (ed.): ''A Hitchcock Reader''. Iowa State University Press, 1986. A wide-ranging collection of scholarly essays on Hitchcock. * Spoto, Donald: ''The Art of Alfred Hitchcock''. Anchor Books, 1992. The first detailed critical survey of Hitchcock's work by an American. * Spoto, Donald: ''The Dark Side of Genius''. Ballantine Books, 1983. A biography of Hitchcock, featuring a controversial exploration of Hitchcock's psychology. * Gottlieb, Sidney: ''Alfred Hitchcock: Interviews''. University Press of Mississippi, 2003. A collection of Hitchcock interviews. * Conrad, Peter: ''The Hitchcock Murders''. Faber and Faber, 2000. A highly personal and idiosyncratic discussion of Hitchcock's oeuvre. * Rebello, Stephen: ''Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of [[Psycho]]''. St. Martin's, 1990. Intimately researched and detailed history of the making of ''Psycho,'' praised as one of the best books on moviemaking ever. <!--- Doesn't this properly belong at the Psycho article, not here? ---> * McGilligan, Patrick: ''Alfred Hitchcock: A Life in Darkness and Light''. Regan Books, 2003. A comprehensive biography of the director. * Modleski, Tania: ''The Women Who Knew Too Much: Hitchcock And Feminist Theory''. Routledge, 2005 (2nd edition). A collection of critical essays on Hitchcock and his films, argues that Hitchcock's portrayal of women was an ambivalent one, not misogynist nor sympathetic (as widely thought). An important text to consider, given the abundance of female heroes and victims in his films. * Wood, Robin: ''Hitchcock's Films Revisited''. Columbia University Press, 2002 (2nd edition). Another collection of critical essays, now revisited by the author in this 2nd edition to supplement and annotate the highly-lauded entries from before with the additional insight and changes that time and personal experience has brought him (including his own coming-out as a gay man). ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * {{imdb name|id=0000033|name=Alfred Hitchcock}} * [http://hitchcock.tv Alfred Hitchcock -- The Master of Suspense] * [http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/05/hitchcock.html Senses of Cinema's Alfred Hitchcock Page] * [http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tours/hitch/tour1.html ''Hitchcock's Style''] -- online exhibit from [[screenonline]], a website of the [[British Film Institute]] * [http://alfredhitchcock.directorscut.info/ Multi-Language Website] * [http://www.hitchcockpresentsdvd.com/ Official Universal Website] * [http://www.soundtrackinfo.com/search.asp?q=hitchcock Hitchcock at the SoundtrackINFO project] * [http://warnervideo.com/hitchcock/home.html Warner Video: Alfred Hitchcock] * [http://www.labyrinth.net.au/~muffin/ The MacGuffin Web Page] - the online extension of the Alfred Hitchcock journal ''The MacGuffin'' * [http://www.writingwithhitchcock.com/ Writing With Hitchcock] - Companion site to Steven DeRosa's book of the same name, includes original interviews, essays, script excerpts, and extensive material on Hitchcock's unproduced works. * [http://www.daveyp.com/hitchcock/ The Hitchcock DVD Information Site] - details of Hitchcock DVD releases from around the world * [http://tesla.liketelevision.com/liketelevision/tuner.php?channel=133&format=movie&theme=guide The Man Who Knew Too Much] - Watch the movie online for free * [http://www.borgus.com/think/hitch.htm Basic Hitchcock Film Techniques] A checklist of his top 13 film techniques. {{Link FA|pl}} {{Link FA|fr}} [[Category:1899 births|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]] [[Category:1980 deaths|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]] [[Category:British film directors|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]] [[Category:British film producers|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]] [[Category:British television directors|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]] [[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]] [[Category:Old Ignatians|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]] [[Category:Roman Catholics|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]] [[Category:Londoners|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]] [[Category:Knights Commander of the British Empire|Hitchcock, Alfred]] [[ilo:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[bg:Алфред Хичкок]] [[bs:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[ca:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[cs:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[cy:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[da:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[de:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[et:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[es:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[eo:Alfred HITCHCOCK]] [[fa:آلفرد هیچکاک]] [[fr:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[ko:앨프리드 히치콕]] [[hr:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[io:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[id:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[is:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[it:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[he:אלפרד היצ'קוק]] [[lb:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[hu:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[nl:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[ja:アルフレッド・ヒッチコック]] [[no:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[pl:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[pt:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[ro:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[ru:Хичкок, Альфред]] [[sq:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[sh:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[simple:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[sk:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[sl:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[sr:Алфред Хичкок]] [[fi:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[sv:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[th:อัลเฟร็ด ฮิตช์ค็อก]] [[vi:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[tr:Alfred Hitchcock]] [[zh:希治閣]] 809 42042622 2006-03-03T11:54:38Z KnightRider 430793 warnfile Modifying: es {{otheruses}} {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Anacondas | image = Eunectes_notaeus.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = Yellow Anaconda, ''Eunectes notaeus'' | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Reptile|Reptilia]] | ordo = [[Squamata]] | subordo = [[Serpentes]] | familia = [[Boidae]] | genus = '''''Eunectes''''' | genus_authority = [[Johann Georg Wagler|Wagler]], [[1830]] | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = See text. }} '''Anacondas''' (Jibóia and Sucuri, local names) are three species of aquatic [[boa]] inhabiting the swamps and rivers of the dense forests of tropical [[South America]] as well as the southern swamps of the island of [[Trinidad]] . There are two possible origins for the word 'anaconda': It is perhaps an alteration of the [[Sinhalese]] word 'henakanday', meaning 'whip snake', or more likely, the [[Tamil]] word 'anaikolra', which means 'elephant killer', as early [[Spain|Spanish]] settlers in South America referred to the anaconda as 'matatoro', or 'bull killer'. It is unclear how the name originated so far from the snake's native habitat, it is likely due to its vague similarity to the large [[Asia]]n [[python]]s.<sup>[http://news2.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/08/photogalleries/0802_snakes1.html]</sup> Two species are well-known: * The '''Green Anaconda''' (''[[Eunectes murinus]]''), which has been reported at over 10 meters (32.8 feet) in length (although most are considerably smaller). Although shorter than the longest recorded species, the [[Reticulated python|Reticulated Python]], it is considerably heavier. In fact, it is the heaviest [[snake]] species in existence. It can weigh 250 kg (551 pounds) and have a girth of more than 30 cm (11.8 inches) in diameter. Females are larger than males, averaging 22-26 feet and 12-16 feet respectively. These are found mainly in northern [[South America]], in [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]], [[Brazil]], northern [[Bolivia]], northeast [[Peru]], [[Guyana]], and [[Trinidad]]. Although charismatic, very little information was known about the anacondas until [[1992]] when the first study (and so far the only) was made on the field biology of this species in the Venezuelan [[llanos]] by Dr. Jesus Rivas. <sup>[http://www.anacondas.org]</sup> * The '''Yellow Anaconda''' (''[[Eunectes notaeus]]''), which reaches a relatively smaller average adult length of 3 metres (9.8 feet). These live further south in Bolivia, [[Paraguay]], [[Uruguay]], western Brazil, and northeast [[Argentina]]. The third lesser known species is: * The '''Dark-Spotted''' or '''Deschauense's Anaconda''' (''[[Eunectes deschauenseei]]'') found in northeast Brazil. ''Eunectes murinus'' (formerly called ''Boa murina'') differs from [[Boa]] by the snout being covered with shields instead of small scales, the inner of the three nasal shields being in contact with that of the other side. The general colour is dark olive-[[brown]], with large oval [[black]] spots arranged in two alternating rows along the back, and with smaller white-eyed spots along the sides. The belly is whitish, spotted with black spots. The anaconda combines an arboreal with an aquatic life, and feeds chiefly upon [[bird]]s, [[mammal]]s and [[caiman]], mostly during the night. It lies submerged in the water, with only a small part of its head above the surface, waiting for any suitable prey, or it establishes itself upon the branches of a tree which overhangs the water or the track of game. Like almost all boas, anacondas give birth to live young. == Giant Anacondas == The largest known anacondas measure about 10.6 meters (30.7 feet) long, but unverified reports of much larger snakes have occasionally been made. One notable account was reported by adventurer [[Percy Fawcett]]. In [[1906]], Fawcett wrote that he had shot and wounded an anaconda in South America; he reported the snake measured some 18.9 meters (62 feet) from nose to tail. Once publicized, Fawcett’s account of the giant snake was widely ridiculed, although he insisted his account was both truthful and accurate. [[Bernard Heuvelmans]] came to his defense arguing that Fawcett was generally honest and reliable when relating things. Furthermore, Heuvelmans noted that mainstream experts were repeatedly forced to revise their limits regarding the maximum size of snakes when confronted with specimens that defied the generally-accepted estimates. At one point in time, 6 meters (20 feet) in length was the widely-accepted maximum size of an anaconda. These giant snakes are very capable of killing and consuming an adult human being. When it sheds, an adult anaconda relieves itself of an average of 2 pounds of skin. An anaconda's skin can stretch up to 30% larger than the original size of the snake. == In captivity == Anacondas have a reputation for bad temperament; that plus the massive size of the green species mean that anacondas are comparatively less popular as pets than other boas, but they are fairly commonly available in the exotic pet trade, with the exception of ''E. deschauenseei''. == References == * Bernard Heuvelmans, ''On The Track Of Unknown Animals'', Hill and Wang, [[1958]] ==External links== *[http://www.junglephotos.com/amazon/amanimals/amreptiles/anaconda.shtml Anaconda photos and information] *[http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Eunectes_murinus.html ADW: Eunectes murinus (green anaconda)] [[Category:Boas]] [[Category:Fauna of Brazil]] [[Category:Fauna of the Amazon]] [[Category:Wildlife of South America]] [[Category:Fauna of Trinidad and Tobago]] [[ar:أناكوندا]] [[da:Anakonda]] [[de:Anakondas]] [[es:Eunectes]] [[fa:آناکوندا]] [[ko:아나콘다]] [[he:אנאקונדה]] [[lt:Anakonda]] [[nl:Anaconda]] [[ja:アナコンダ]] [[no:Anakonda]] [[pl:Anakonda]] [[pt:Anaconda]] [[fi:Anakonda]] [[sv:Anakonda]] [[uk:Анаконда]] 810 37885228 2006-02-02T19:59:53Z JzG 760284 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/198.234.202.130|198.234.202.130]] ([[User talk:198.234.202.130|talk]]) to last version by Dominick :''This article is about the Christian holiday. For other meanings see [[All Saints (disambiguation)]] and [[All Hallows (disambiguation)]]'' [[Image:Wszystkich swietych cmentarz.jpg|thumb|right|300px|All Saints in Poland]] The [[festival]] of '''All Saints''', also sometimes known as "All Hallows," or "Hallowmas," is a feast celebrated in their honour. '''All Saints''' is also a Christian formula invoking all the faithful [[saint]]s and [[martyr]]s, known or unknown. The [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] holiday (''Festum omnium sanctorum'') falls on [[November 1]], followed by [[All Souls Day]] on [[November 2]], and is a [[Holy Day of Obligation]], with a [[vigil]] and an [[Octave (disambiguation)|octave]]. The [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] Church's '''All Saints''' is the first Sunday after [[Pentecost]] and as such marks the close of the [[Easter]] season. Common commemorations by several churches of the deaths of martyrs began to be celebrated in the 4th century. The first trace of a general celebration is attested in [[Antioch]] on the Sunday after [[Pentecost]]. This custom is also referred to in the 74th homily of [[John Chrysostom]] ([[407]]) and is maintained to the present day in the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] Church. The date of festival was changed to November 1 by [[Pope Gregory III]] ([[731]]&ndash;[[741]]) to coincide with the ancient [[Celts |Celtic]] New Year's festival [[Samhain]]. He designated November 1 as the date of the anniversary of the consecration of a chapel in St. Peter's for the relics "of the holy apostles and of all saints, martyrs and confessors, of all the just made perfect who are at rest throughout the world". By the time of the reign of [[Charlemagne]], the November festival of All Saints was widely celebrated. November 1 was decreed a day of obligation by the [[Franks|Frankish]] king [[Louis the Pious]] in [[835]] issued "at the instance of [[Pope Gregory IV]] and with the assent of all the bishops." In [[Portugal]], [[Spain]] and [[Mexico]], ''ofrendas'' (offerings) are made on this day. In Spain, the play [[Don Juan Tenorio]] is traditionally performed. In [[Portugal]] and [[France]], people offer flowers to dead relatives. In [[Poland]] and [[Germany]], the tradition is to light candles and visit the graves of deceased relatives. In the [[Philippines]], the day is spent visiting the graves of deceased relatives, where they offer prayers, lay flowers, and light candles, often in a picnic-like atmosphere. In English speaking countries, the festival is celebrated with the hymn "For All the Saints", set to music by [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]]. The festival was retained after the [[Reformation]] in the calendar of the [[Church of England]] and in many [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] churches. In the Lutheran churches, such as the [[Church of Sweden]], it assumes a role of general commemoration of the dead (similar to the ''All Souls'' commemoration in the Eastern Orthodox Church that takes place two Saturdays before the beginning of [[Lent]]). In the [[Holidays in Sweden|Swedish calendar]], the observance takes place on the first Saturday of November. In many Lutheran Churches however, the festival has fallen into disuse. ==See also== *[[Veneration of the dead]] *[[Halloween]] *[[Dziady]] *[[Day of the Dead]] ==Compare== *[[Saturnalia]] and [[Yule]] ==Reference== *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01315a.htm All Saints' Day] article in the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] <!-- Categories --> [[Category:Liturgical Calendar]] [[Category:Sainthood|*All Saints]] <!-- Interwiki links --> ==External links== * [http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Saints/faqs.asp American Catholic - Saints FAQs, All Saints and All Souls Day] [[cs:Všech svatých]] [[da:Allehelgensdag]] [[de:Allerheiligen]] [[es:Día de Todos Los Santos]] [[fr:Toussaint]] [[is:Allraheilagramessa]] [[la:Sollemnitas Omnium Sanctorum]] [[nl:Allerheiligen]] [[ja:諸聖人の日]] [[pl:Wszystkich Świętych]] [[pt:Dia de Todos-os-Santos]] [[sl:Dan spomina na mrtve]] [[sv:Alla helgons dag]] [[zh:諸聖日]] 811 15899325 2003-06-19T20:55:07Z Toby Bartels 1078 Re-redirect -- please people, you have to do this with the talk pages also! #REDIRECT [[wikipedia talk:Make omissions explicit]] 813 15899327 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[History of Afghanistan]] :''See also :'' [[Afghanistan]] 814 15899328 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Geography of Afghanistan]] :''See also :'' [[Afghanistan]] 815 15899329 2002-08-01T05:30:57Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 fix redirect to wikiproject standards #REDIRECT [[Politics of Afghanistan]] 816 15899330 2002-08-20T15:34:29Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Afghanistan]] 817 15899331 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Economy of Afghanistan]] :''See also :'' [[Afghanistan]] 818 15899332 2002-09-13T13:38:56Z Andre Engels 300 removing 'see also' from redirect page #REDIRECT [[Communications in Afghanistan]] 819 15899333 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Transportation in Afghanistan]] :''See also :'' [[Afghanistan]] 820 15899334 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Military of Afghanistan]] :''See also :'' [[Afghanistan]] 821 15899335 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Afghanistan]] :''See also :'' [[Afghanistan]] 822 15899336 2004-01-06T22:27:09Z Angela 8551 #redirect [[Afghanistan]] - see talk page #redirect [[Afghanistan]] 824 42001331 2006-03-03T03:39:11Z 71.131.202.249 /* See also */ '''Altaic''' is a proposed [[Language families and languages|language family]] which includes 60 [[language]]s spoken by about 250 million people, mostly in and around [[Central Asia]] and the [[Far East]]. The relationships among these languages remain a matter of debate among historical linguists. Some scholars consider the obvious similarity between these languages as genetically inherited; others propose the idea of the [[Sprachbund]]. Its proponents traditionally considered it to include [[Korean language|Korean]], the [[Turkic languages]], the [[Mongolic languages]], the [[Tungusic languages]] (or Manchu-Tungus), and [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. [[Ainu language|Ainu]] has occasionally been suggested as a member of Altaic, but that hypothesis is generally rejected. Castrén (1862) put forward a similar view, but classified Turkic with what we would now call [[Uralic languages|Uralic]]. In 1857 [[Anton Boller]] suggested adding Korean and Japanese; for Korean, G. J. Ramstedt and E. D. Polivanov put forward more etymologies in the 1920's. Korean has commonly been linked to [[Japonic_languages|Japonic]], and in [[1971]], [[Roy Miller]] suggested relating it to both Korean and Altaic. These suggestions have been taken up and developed by various historical linguists such as [[John Whitman]], [[Sergei Starostin]], and [[Alexander Vovin]] (who now rejects a genetic connection between Korean and Japanese). There have been some attempts to extend the Altaic family borders by including Ainu (e.g., Street 1962, Patrie 1982), [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Nivkh language|Nivkh]], or [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], but these proposals have been rejected by the majority of scholars. ==Controversy== There are two main schools of thought about the Altaic theory. One is that the proposed constituent language families (Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic in the basic theory, with the addition of Korean and Japanese in extended versions) are genetically or "divergently" related by descent from a common ancestor, "Proto-Altaic." The other school rejects this theory (so it is often called the "Anti-Altaic" school) and argues that the member languages are related by convergence (mainly loan influence). The Altaic theory is claimed by its opponents to be based mainly on typological similarities, such as [[vowel harmony]], lack of [[grammatical gender]], an [[agglutinative]] typology, and [[loanword]]s. In fact, its proponents have put together a large variety of grammatical, lexical, and syntactic regular correspondences between the sub-groups of Altaic (e.g., Ramstedt, [[Nicholas Poppe|Poppe]], Martin, Starostin). However, its opponents explain these as [[loanword]]s, mutual influence, or [[convergence]], arguing that, although the Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungusic families do have similarities, they are the result of intensive borrowing and long contact among speakers. The Altaic theory is highly controversial. While some support it, others (e.g., Doerfer 1963) do not regard Altaic as a valid group and see it as three (or more) separate language families. Other linguists, such as [[Bernard Comrie]] (1992, 2003), argue that Altaic may be part of a larger grouping, such as [[Nostratic]] or [[Eurasiatic languages|Eurasiatic]]. In contrast, [[J. Marshall Unger]] (1990) believes that languages such as Korean and Japanese may be part of a "macro-Tungusic" family. Vovin rejected the claim for a Koreo-Japonic branch of Altaic on the basis that they have no [[comparative_method|shared innovation]]s. ==See also== * [[Altay language]] * [[Language families and languages]] * [[Nostratic]] ==External links== *[http://starling.rinet.ru/ Starling Etymological Databases] *[http://altaica.narod.ru/Engl.htm/ Monumenta Altaica - Altaic Linguistics] [[Category:Altai]] [[Category:Altaic languages| ]] [[ar:ألطية]] [[ast:Familia altaica]] [[bg:Алтайски езици]] [[be:Алтайскія мовы]] [[de:Altaisprachen]] [[es:Lenguas altaicas]] [[fa:زبان‌های آلتایی]] [[fr:Langues altaïques]] [[ko:알타이어족]] [[io:Altaika linguaro]] [[id:Bahasa Altai]] [[lt:Altajaus kalbos]] [[hu:Altáji nyelvcsalád]] [[nl:Altaïsche talen]] [[ja:アルタイ諸語]] [[pl:Języki ałtajskie]] [[pt:Línguas altaicas]] [[ro:Limbi altaice]] [[ru:Алтайские языки]] [[sl:Altajski jeziki]] [[fi:Altailaiset kielet]] [[sv:Altaiska språk]] [[vi:Hệ ngôn ngữ Altai]] [[uk:Алтайські мови]] [[zh:阿尔泰语系]] 825 41866943 2006-03-02T06:09:48Z Svenska84 214985 /* Influence of popular culture */ Linguistic research has consistently shown the media don't cause dialect death. Also, if ialects are dying out in most other places in Europe that needs citation '''Austrian German''' is any variety of the [[German language]] spoken in [[Austria]]. There is no unitary Austrian [[language]], but a variety of [[High Germanic languages|High German]] [[dialect]]s are spoken. Besides the Germanic languages discussed here, [[minority language]]s such as [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] are spoken in parts of the country. ==Overview== * [[Standard German]], called ''"High German"'' (German: ''standardsprache'' (by philologists), generally (incorrectly) referred to as ''Hochdeutsch'') in Austria. * [[Vorarlbergerisch]], spoken in [[Vorarlberg]], is an [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] dialect similar to [[Swiss German]]. * All other dialects belong to the [[Austro-Bavarian]] group, which is a common language throughout much of the country. ==Subgroups== Ordinarily, the latter dialects are considered to belong either to the [[Central Austro-Bavarian]] or [[Southern Austro-Bavarian]] subgroups, with the latter encompassing the languages of the [[Tyrol]], [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]], and [[Styria (state)|Styria]] and the former including the dialects of [[Vienna]], [[Upper Austria]], and [[Lower Austria]]. The dialect spoken in Vorarlberg is more closely related to [[Swiss German]] than it is to other Austrian dialects, so Austrians from outside Vorarlberg normally cannot understand it. ==Intercomprehensiblity and regional accents== While strong forms of the various dialects are not normally comprehensible to Northern [[Germany|Germans]], there is virtually no communication barrier to speakers from [[Bavaria]]. The [[Central Austro-Bavarian]] dialects are more intelligible to speakers of Standard German than the [[Southern Austro-Bavarian]] dialects of [[Tyrol (state)|Tirol]]. [[Viennese language|Viennese]], the Austro-Bavarian dialect of [[Vienna]], is most frequently used in [[Germany]] for impersonations of the typical inhabitant of Austria. The people of [[Graz]], the capital of [[Styria (state)|Styria]], speak yet another dialect which is not very Styrian and more easily understood by people from other parts of Austria than other Styrian dialects, for example from western [[Styria (state)|Styria]]. Simple words in the various dialects are very similar, but pronunciation is distinct for each and it is very easy for an Austrian after a few spoken words to judge which Austrian dialect someone speaks. However, if it goes into the dialects of the deeper valleys of [[Tyrol]], sometimes even other Tyroleans are helpless to understand the dialect. Speakers from the different [[States of Austria|states]] of Austria can usually easily be distinguished from each other by their particular accents (probably more so than Bavarians), with those of [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]], [[Styria (state)|Styria]], [[Vienna]], [[Upper Austria]], and the Tyrol being very characteristic. Speakers from those regions, even those speaking [[Standard German]], can usually be easily identified by their accent, even by an untrained listener. Several of the dialects have been influenced by contact with non-Germanic linguistic groups, such as the dialect of Carinthia, where in the past many speakers were bilingual with [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]], and the dialect of Vienna, which has been influenced by immigration during the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] period, particularly from what is today the [[Czech Republic]]. Interestingly, the geographic borderlines between the different accents coincide strongly with the borders of the states and also with the border to [[Bavaria]], with Bavarians having a markedly different rhythm of speech in spite of the similarities in the language as such. ==Standard German in Austria== With German being a [[pluricentric language]], Austrian dialects should not be confused with the variety of [[Standard German]] spoken by most Austrians, which is distinct from that of [[Germany]] or [[Switzerland]]. Distinctions in vocabulary persist, for example, in [[culinary]] terms, where communication with Germans is frequently difficult, and [[administration|administrative]] and [[law|legal]] language, which is due to Austria's exclusion from the development of a German [[nation-state]] in the late [[19th century]] and its manifold particular traditions. Austrians speaking Standard German can almost always be recognised by their accent, much more so than speakers from most regions of [[Germany]]. When Austria became a member of the European Union, the Austrian variety of the German language (limited to 23 agricultural terms) was “protected” in the so-called Protocol no. 10 regarding the use of specific Austrian terms of the German language in the framework of the European Union, which forms part of the Austrian EU accession treaty. Austrian German is the only variety of a pluricentric language recognised under international law / EU primary law. All facts concerning “Protocol no. 10” are documented in Markhardt, Heidemarie: Das österreichische Deutsch im Rahmen der EU, Peter Lang, 2005. ==Influence of popular culture== Dialects are receding in Austria as they are in some other areas of [[Europe]], but it can safely be said that they are more persistent than in most of Germany. Dialects are frequently used in TV series or movies in situation where it is appropriate for the particular character and situation. A classic example of a strong form of Viennese working-class dialect, for example, would be ''[[Ein echter Wiener geht nicht unter]]''. However, strong varieties of dialect are not used quite as much as, for example, in Switzerland. For example, educated people in Vienna usually speak a very slight form of dialect or simply Standard German, but with the characteristic Viennese accent and, where it exists, particular Austrian and Viennese vocabulary. A good reference for the Austrian, Bavarian and other German dialects are the dialect ("Mundart") editions of [[Asterix]] and [[Obelix]] comic books which are available in [[Viennese language|Viennese]] (three editions with different dialects from inside [[Vienna]]) and at least one for the common Tyrolean dialect and one for a deep Styrian dialect. ==See also== *[[Austro-Bavarian]] *[[Viennese German]] [[Category:High Germanic languages]] [[Category:Languages of Austria|*]] [[de:Sprachgebrauch in Österreich]] [[it:Differenze tra tedesco e austriaco]] [[lt:Austriacizmas]] 826 15899340 2002-08-04T10:32:35Z Ellmist 2214 move to Geography of Austria #REDIRECT [[Geography of Austria]] 827 15899341 2002-08-20T14:14:10Z -- April 166 fix redirect #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Austria]] 828 15899342 2002-08-20T10:19:23Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Politics of Austria]] 829 15899343 2002-08-04T10:34:47Z Ellmist 2214 move to Economy of Austria #REDIRECT [[Economy of Austria]] 830 15899344 2002-08-20T10:19:37Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Communications in Austria]] 831 15899345 2002-08-20T10:19:55Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Transportation in Austria]] 832 15899346 2002-08-20T10:20:19Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Austria]] 833 15899347 2002-08-04T10:37:54Z Ellmist 2214 move to Military of Austria #REDIRECT [[Military of Austria]] 834 15899348 2002-08-04T10:37:21Z Ellmist 2214 move to Foreign relations of Austria #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Austria]] 835 15899349 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z LA2 445 * #REDIRECT [[History of Austria]] 836 15899350 2004-03-06T15:24:27Z Timwi 13051 #REDIRECT [[List of acronyms and initialisms]] 837 15899351 2003-05-15T03:18:07Z Minesweeper 7279 fix double redir #REDIRECT [[List_of_medical_abbreviations]] 839 15899353 2003-02-07T17:05:42Z TUF-KAT 8351 oops #redirect [[Anglican Communion]] 840 42010989 2006-03-03T05:06:29Z Sikon 293268 /* Results requiring ¬AC */ In [[mathematics]], the '''axiom of choice''', or '''AC''', is an [[axiom]] of [[set theory]]. It was formulated in [[1904]] by [[Ernst Zermelo]]. While it was originally controversial, it is now used without embarrassment by most mathematicians. However, there are still schools of mathematical thought, primarily within set theory, that either reject the axiom of choice, or even investigate consequences of axioms inconsistent with AC. Intuitively speaking, AC says that given a collection of bins, each containing at least one object, then exactly one object from each bin can be picked and gathered in another bin - even if there are [[infinite]]ly many bins, and there is no "rule" for which object to pick from each. == Statement == The axiom of choice states: :Let ''X'' be a [[set]] of [[non-empty]] sets. Then we can [[choice function|choose]] a member from each set in ''X''. Stated more formally: :Let ''X'' be a set of non-empty sets. Then there exists a [[choice function]] ''f'' defined on ''X''. In other words, there exists a function ''f'' defined on ''X'', such that for each set ''s'' in ''X'', ''f''(''s'') is an element of ''s''. Another formulation of the axiom of choice states: :Given any set of mutually disjoint non-empty sets, there exists at least one set that contains exactly one element in common with each of the non-empty sets. == Usage == Until the late 19th century, the axiom of choice was often used implicitly. For example, after having established that the set ''X'' contains only non-empty sets, a mathematician might have said "let ''F(s)'' be one of the members of ''s'' for all ''s'' in ''X''." In general, it is impossible to prove that ''F'' exists without the axiom of choice, but this seems to have gone unnoticed until Zermelo. Not every situation requires the axiom of choice. For finite sets ''X'', the axiom of choice follows from the other axioms of set theory. In that case it is equivalent to saying that if we have several (a finite number of) boxes, each containing at least one item, then we can choose exactly one item from each box. Clearly we can do this: We start at the first box, choose an item; go to the second box, choose an item; and so on. There are only finitely many boxes, so eventually our choice procedure comes to an end. The result is an explicit choice function: a function that takes the first box to the first element we chose, the second box to the second element we chose, and so on. (A formal proof for all finite sets would use the principle of [[mathematical induction]].) For certain infinite sets ''X'', it is also possible to avoid the axiom of choice. For example, suppose that the elements of ''X'' are sets of natural numbers. Every nonempty set of natural numbers has a least element, so to specify our choice function we can simply say that it takes each set to the least element of that set. This gives us a definite choice of an element from each set and we can write down an explicit expression that tells us what value our choice function takes. Any time it is possible to specify such an explicit choice, the axiom of choice is unnecessary. The difficulty appears when there is no natural choice of elements from each set. If we cannot make explicit choices, how do we know that our set exists? For example, suppose that ''X'' is the set of all non-empty subsets of the [[real number]]s. First we might try to proceed as if ''X'' were finite. If we try to choose an element from each set, then, because ''X'' is infinite, our choice procedure will never come to an end, and consequently, we will never be able to produce a choice function for all of ''X''. So that won't work. Next we might try the trick of specifying the least element from each set. But some subsets of the real numbers don't have least elements. For example, the open interval (0,1) does not have a least element: If ''x'' is in (0,1), then so is ''x''/2, and ''x''/2 is always strictly smaller than ''x''. So taking least elements doesn't work, either. The reason that we are able to choose least elements from subsets of the natural numbers is the fact that the natural numbers are [[well-order]]ed: Every subset of the natural numbers has a unique least element. Perhaps if we were clever we might say, "Even though the usual ordering of the real numbers does not work, it may be possible to find a different ordering of the real numbers which is a well-ordering. Then our choice function can choose the least element of every set under our unusual ordering." The problem then becomes constructing such an ordering, and it turns out that every set can be well-ordered if and only if the axiom of choice is true. A proof requiring the axiom of choice is always [[nonconstructive proof|nonconstructive]]: even if the proof produces an object then it is impossible to say exactly what that object is. Consequently, while the axiom of choice asserts that there is a well-ordering of the real numbers, it does not give us an example of one. Yet the reason why we chose above to well-order the real numbers was so that for each set in ''X'', we could explicitly choose an element of that set. If we cannot write down the well-ordering we are using, then our choice is not very explicit. This is one of the reasons why some mathematicians dislike the axiom of choice. For example, [[constructivism (mathematics)|constructivists]] posit that all existence proofs should be totally explicit; it should be possible to construct anything that exists. They reject the axiom of choice because it asserts the existence of an object without telling what it is. == Independence of AC == By work of [[Kurt Gödel]] and [[Paul Cohen]], the axiom of choice is [[logically independent]] of the other axioms of [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory]] (ZF). This means that neither it nor its negation can be proven to be true in ZF. Consequently, assuming the axiom of choice, or its negation, will never lead to a contradiction that could not be obtained without that assumption. So the decision whether or not it is appropriate to make use of the axiom of choice in a proof cannot be made by appeal to other axioms of set theory. The decision must be made on other grounds. One argument given in favor of using the axiom of choice is that it is convenient to use it: using it cannot hurt (cannot result in contradiction) and makes it possible to prove some propositions that otherwise could not be proved. The axiom of choice is not the only significant statement which is independent of ZF. For example, the [[generalized continuum hypothesis]] (GCH) is not only independent of ZF, but also independent of ZF plus the axiom of choice (ZFC). However, ZF plus GCH implies AC, making GCH a strictly stronger claim than AC, even though they are both independent of ZF. One reason that some mathematicians dislike the axiom of choice is that it implies the existence of some bizarre counter-intuitive objects. An example of this is the [[Banach–Tarski paradox]] which says in effect that it is possible to "carve up" the 3-dimensional solid unit ball into finitely many pieces and, using only rotation and translation, reassemble the pieces into two balls each with the same volume as the original. Note that the proof, like all proofs involving the axiom of choice, is an existence proof only: it does not tell us how to carve up the unit sphere to make this happen, it simply tells us that it can be done. On the other hand, the [[negation]] of the axiom of choice is also bizarre. For example, the statement that for any two sets ''S'' and ''T'', the [[cardinality]] of ''S'' is less than or equal to the cardinality of ''T'' or the cardinality of ''T'' is less than or equal to the cardinality of ''S'' is equivalent to the axiom of choice. Put differently, if the axiom of choice is false, then there are sets ''S'' and ''T'' of incomparable size: neither can be mapped in a one-to-one fashion onto a subset of the other. A third possibility is to prove theorems using neither the axiom of choice nor its negation, a tactic preferred in constructive mathematics. Such statements will be true in any [[model theory|model]] of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, regardless of the truth or falsity of the axiom of choice in that particular model. This renders any claim that relies on either the axiom of choice or its negation undecidable. For example, under such an assumption, the Banach–Tarski paradox is neither true nor false: It is impossible to construct a decomposition of the unit ball which can be reassembled into two unit balls, and it is also impossible to prove that it can't be done. However, the Banach–Tarski paradox can be rephrased as a statement about models of ZF by saying, "In any model of ZF in which AC is true, the Banach–Tarski paradox is true." Similarly, all the statements listed below under [[#Results requiring AC|Results requiring AC]] are undecidable in ZF, but since each is provable in any model of ZFC, there are models of ZF in which each statement is true. == Weaker forms of AC == There are several weaker statements which are not equivalent to the axiom of choice, but which are closely related. A simple one is the [[axiom of countable choice]], which states that a choice function exists for any countable set ''X''. This usually suffices when trying to make statements about the real numbers, for example, because the rational numbers, which are countable, form a dense subset of the reals. See also the [[Boolean prime ideal theorem]], the [[ultrafilter lemma]], the [[axiom of dependent choice]], and the [[Uniformization (set theory)|axiom of uniformization]]. == Results requiring AC (or weaker forms) == One of the most interesting aspects of the axiom of choice is the large number of places in mathematics that it shows up. There are also a remarkable number of important statements that, assuming the axioms of ZF but neither AC nor ¬AC, are equivalent to the axiom of choice. The most important among them are [[Zorn's lemma]] and the [[well-ordering theorem]]: every set can be well-ordered. In fact, Zermelo initially introduced the axiom of choice in order to formalize his proof of the well-ordering principle. Here are some statements that require the axiom of choice in the sense that they are not provable from ZF but are provable from ZFC (ZF plus AC). Equivalently, these statements are true in all models of ZFC but false in some models of ZF. * [[Set theory]] ** Any [[union (set theory)|union]] of [[countable|countably many]] countable sets is itself countable. ** If the set ''A'' is [[infinite]], then there exists an [[injective function|injection]] from the [[natural number]]s '''N''' to ''A''. ** If the set ''A'' is infinite, then ''A'' and ''A''×''A'' have the same [[cardinality]]. ''(This statement is equivalent to AC (over ZF))'' ** [[Trichotomy]]: If two sets are given, then they either have the same cardinality, or one has a smaller cardinality than the other. ''(This statement is equivalent to AC (over ZF))'' ** The product of any nonempty family of nonempty sets is nonempty. ''(This statement is equivalent to AC (over ZF))'' ** Every infinite [[determinacy#Basic notions|game]] <math>G(T,X)</math> where <math>X</math> is either [[open set|open]] or [[closed set|closed]] is [[determinacy#Basic notions|determined]]. * [[Measure theory]] ** The [[Vitali set|Vitali theorem]] on the existence of [[non-measurable set]]s. ** The [[Hausdorff paradox]]. ** The [[Banach–Tarski paradox]]. * [[Algebra]] ** Every [[vector space]] has a [[basis (linear algebra)|basis]]. ''(This statement is equivalent to AC (over ZF))'' ** Every unital [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] other than the trivial ring contains a [[maximal ideal]]. ** Every [[field (mathematics)|field]] has an [[algebraic closure]]. ** Every [[field extension]] has a [[transcendence basis]]. ** Every [[category (category theory)|category]] has a [[skeleton (category theory)|skeleton]]. ** [[Stone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras]] needs the [[Boolean prime ideal theorem]]. ** The [[Nielsen-Schreier theorem]], that every subgroup of a free group is free. ** The [[additive group]]s of '''[[real numbers|R]]''' and '''[[complex numbers|C]]''' are isomorphic. [http://www.cs.nyu.edu/pipermail/fom/2006-February/009959.html] * [[Functional analysis]] ** The [[Hahn-Banach theorem]] in [[functional analysis]], allowing the extension of [[linear map|linear functionals]] ** The theorem that every [[Hilbert space]] has an orthonormal basis. ** The [[Banach-Alaoglu theorem]] about [[compactness]] of sets of functionals. ** The [[Baire category theorem]] about [[complete space|complete]] [[metric space]]s, and its consequences, such as the [[open mapping theorem]] and the [[closed graph theorem]]. * [[General topology]] ** [[Tychonoff's theorem]] stating that every [[product topology|product]] of [[compact]] [[topological space]]s is compact. ''(This statement is equivalent to AC (over ZF))'' ** In the product topology, the [[closure (topology)|closure]] of a product of subsets is equal to the product of the closures. ** Any product of [[complete space|complete]] [[uniform space]]s is complete. ** A uniform space is compact if and only if it is complete and totally bounded. ** Every [[Tychonoff space]] has a [[Stone-Cech compactification]]. == Results requiring ¬AC == There are models of Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory in which the axiom of choice is false. We will abbreviate "Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory plus the negation of the axiom of choice" by ZF¬C. For certain models of ZF¬C, it is possible to prove the negation of some standard facts. Note that any model of ZF¬C is also a model of ZF, so for each of the following statements, there exists a model of ZF in which that statement is true. *There exists a model of ZF¬C in which there is a function ''f'' from the real numbers to the real numbers such that ''f'' is not continuous at ''a'', but for any sequence {''x<sub>n</sub>''} converging to ''a'', lim<sub>''n''</sub> f(''x<sub>n</sub>'')=f(a). *There exists a model of ZF¬C in which real numbers are a countable union of countable sets. *There exists a model of ZF¬C in which there is a field with no algebraic closure. *In all models of ZF¬C there is a vector space with no basis. *There exists a model of ZF¬C in which there is a vector space with two bases of different cardinalities. For proofs, see Thomas Jech, ''The Axiom of Choice'', American Elsevier Pub. Co., New York, 1973. *There exists a model of ZF¬C in which every set in R<sup>''n''</sup> is [[measurable]]. Thus it is possible to exclude counterintuitive results like the [[Banach–Tarski paradox]] which are provable in ZFC. Furthermore, this is possible whilst assuming the [[Axiom of dependent choice]], which is weaker than AC but sufficient to develop most of [[real analysis]]. *In all models of ZF¬C, the [[Continuum hypothesis|generalized continuum hypothesis]] does not hold. == Results requiring choice in intuitionistic logic, though not classically == Interestingly, in various varieties of [[constructive logic]] (in particular, [[intuitionistic logic]]) in which the [[law of excluded middle]] is not assumed, the assumption of the axiom of choice is sufficient to obtain the law of excluded middle as a theorem. To see this, for any proposition <math>P\,,</math> let <math>U\,</math> be the set <math>\{x \in \{0, 1\} : (x = 0) \vee P\}</math> and let <math>V\,</math> be the set <math>\{x \in \{0, 1\} : (x = 1) \vee P\}</math> (see [[Set-builder notation]]). By the axiom of choice, there will exist a choice function <math>f\,</math> for the set <math>\{U, V\}\,</math> (note that, although the axiom of choice isn't classically required in order to obtain choice functions for finite sets, it is necessary here in intuitionistic logic). Since <math>f(U) \in U</math> and <math>f(V) \in V</math>, this implies <math>[(f(U) = 0) \vee P] \wedge [(f(V) = 1) \vee P]</math>, which implies <math>f(U) \neq f(V) \vee P</math>. Since <math>P\,</math> implies <math>U = V = \{0, 1\}\,</math>, it must be that <math>P\,</math> implies <math>f(U) = f(V)\,</math>, so <math>f(U) \neq f(V) \vee P</math> would imply <math>\neg P \vee P</math>. As this could be done for any proposition <math>P\,</math>, this completes the proof that the axiom of choice implies the law of the excluded middle. The above proof is not valid in all intuitionistic deductive systems. For example, in the [[intuitionistic type theory]] of [[Per Martin-Löf]], the axiom of choice is a theorem, yet excluded middle is not. == Quotes == :The Axiom of Choice is obviously true, the [[Well-ordering theorem|well-ordering principle]] obviously false, and who can tell about [[Zorn's lemma]]? ::&mdash;&nbsp;[[Jerry Bona]] :::This is a joke that although the axiom of choice, the well-ordering principle, and Zorn's lemma are mathematically equivalent, most mathematicians find the axiom of choice to be intuitive, the well-ordering principle to be counterintuitive, and Zorn's lemma to be too complex for any intuition. :The Axiom of Choice is necessary to select a set from an infinite number of socks, but not an infinite number of shoes. ::&mdash;&nbsp;[[Bertrand Russell]] :::The observation here is that one can define a function to select from an infinite number of pairs of shoes by stating for example, to choose the left shoe. Without the axiom of choice, one cannot assert that such a function exists for pairs of socks, because left and right socks are (presumably) identical to each other. :The axiom gets its name not because mathematicians prefer it to other axioms. ::&mdash;&nbsp;[[A. K. Dewdney]] :::From the famous [[April Fool's Day]] article in the ''computer recreations'' column of the ''[[Scientific American]]'', April 1989. == External links == * There are many people still doing work on the axiom of choice and its consequences. If you are interested in more, look up [http://www.emunix.emich.edu/~phoward/ Paul Howard at EMU]. == References == * Zermelo, Ernst, "Beweis, dass jede Menge wohlgeordnet werden kann", ''[[Mathematische Annalen]]'', '''59''', 514-516, 1904 * Zermelo, Ernst, "Untersuchungen über die Grundlagen der Mengenlehre I", ''Mathematische Annalen'', '''65''', 261-281, 1908 [[Category:Axioms of set theory]] [[Category:Model theory]] [[cs:Axiom výběru]] [[da:Udvalgsaksiomet]] [[de:Auswahlaxiom]] [[fr:Axiome du choix]] [[ko:선택공리]] [[it:Assioma della scelta]] [[he:אקסיומת הבחירה]] [[hu:Kiválasztási axióma]] [[nl:Keuzeaxioma]] [[ja:選択公理]] [[pl:Aksjomat wyboru]] [[pt:axioma da escolha]] [[ru:Аксиома выбора]] [[sv:Urvalsaxiomet]] 841 move=:edit= 41933099 2006-03-02T18:47:06Z Ghirlandajo 147410 /* Appearance, character, and name */ [[List of Hunnish rulers]] {{featured article}} :''For other uses, see [[Attila (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:Checa-HunCharge.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The [[Huns]], led by Attila (right, foreground), ride into [[Italy]].]] '''Attila the Hun''' ([[Old Norse]]: ''Atle, Atli''; [[Middle High German]]: ''Etzel''; ca. [[406]]&ndash;[[453]] [[Anno Domini|AD]]) was the last and most powerful king of the [[Huns]]. <!--He was from [[Bulgars]] [[clan]] of [[Dulo]]. This information looks bogus. References please--> He reigned over what was then [[Europe]]'s largest [[empire]], from [[434]] until his death. His empire stretched from [[Central Europe]] to the [[Black Sea]] and from the [[Danube|Danube River]] to the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]]. During his rule he was among the direst enemies of the Eastern and Western [[Roman Empire]]s: he invaded the [[Balkans]] twice and encircled [[Constantinople]] in the second invasion. He marched through [[Gaul]] (later [[France]]) as far as [[Orleans]] before being turned back at [[Battle of Chalons|Chalons]]; and he drove the western emperor [[Valentinian III]] from his [[capital]] at [[Ravenna]] in [[452]]. Though his empire died with him and he left no remarkable [[legacy]], he has become a legendary figure in the [[history of Europe]]. In much of [[Western Europe]], he is remembered as the epitome of cruelty and rapacity. In contrast, some histories lionize him as a great and noble king, and he plays major roles in three [[Norse saga]]s. ==Background and beginnings== :''Main article: [[Huns]]'' The European [[Huns]] are often thought to have been a western extension of the [[Xiongnu]] (''Xiōngnú''), (匈奴) n., a group of [[nomad]] tribes from north-eastern [[China]] and [[Central Asia]]. These people achieved military superiority over their rivals (most of them highly cultured and civilized) by their state of readiness for combat, amazing mobility, and weapons like the [[Hun bow]]. Attila was born around 406. Nothing certain is known about his childhood; the supposition that at a young age he was already a capable leader and a capable warrior is reasonable but unknowable. Following [[negotiation]] of peace terms in [[418]], the young Attila, at the age of 12, was sent as a child [[hostage]] to the Roman [[Royal court|court]] of Emperor [[Flavius Augustus Honorius|Honorius]]. In return, the Huns received [[Flavius Aetius]], in a child hostage exchange arranged by the Romans. Most likely the empire schooled Attila in its courts, customs and traditions and in its luxurious [[lifestyle]], in the hope that he would carry an appreciation of these things back to his own nation, thus serving to extend Roman influence. The Huns would probably have hoped that Attila would enhance [[espionage]] capabilities by the exchange. Attila attempted escape during his stay in Rome but failed. He turned his attention to an intense study of the empire while outwardly ceasing to struggle against his hostage status. He studied the internal and [[Foreign policy|foreign policies]] of the Romans. He often secretly observed them in [[Diplomacy|diplomatic]] conference with [[foreign minister]]s. He learned about [[leadership]], [[Protocol (diplomacy)|protocol]] and other essentials suited to future rulers and diplomats. ==Shared kingship== [[Image:Huns empire.png|thumb|300px|left|The Hunnish empire stretched from the [[steppe]]s of Central Asia into modern [[Germany]], and from the Danube river to the Baltic Sea]] By [[432]], the Huns were united under [[Ruga]]. In [[434]] Ruga died, leaving his [[nephew]]s Attila and [[Bleda]], the sons of his brother [[Mundjuk]], in control over all the united Hun tribes. At the time of their accession, the Huns were [[bargain]]ing with [[Theodosius II]]'s envoys over the return of several [[renegade]] tribes who had taken refuge within the [[Byzantine Empire]]. The following year, Attila and Bleda met with the imperial legation at Margus (present-day [[Pozarevac|Požarevac]]) and, all seated on horseback in the Hunnic manner, negotiated a successful [[treaty]]: the Romans agreed not only to return the fugitive tribes (who had been a welcome aid against the [[Vandals]]), but also to double their previous tribute of 350 Roman pounds (ca. 114.5 kg) of gold, open their markets to Hunnish traders, and pay a ransom of eight ''[[solidus (coin)|solidi]]'' for each Roman taken prisoner by the Huns. The Huns, satisfied with the treaty, decamped from the empire and departed into the interior of the [[continent]], perhaps to consolidate and strengthen their empire. Theodosius used this opportunity to strengthen the [[walls of Constantinople]], building the city's first [[sea wall]], and to build up his border defenses along the Danube. The Huns remained out of Roman sight for the next five years. During this time, they were conducting an [[invasion]] of the [[Persian Empire]]. However, in [[Armenia]], a Persian counterattack resulted in a defeat for Attila and Bleda, and they ceased their efforts to conquer Persia. In [[440]], they reappeared on the borders of the empire, attacking the merchants at the market on the north bank of the Danube that had been arranged for by the treaty. Attila and Bleda threatened further war, claiming that the Romans had failed to fulfil their treaty obligations and that the [[bishop]] of Margus (not far from modern [[Belgrade]]) had crossed the Danube to ransack and desecrate the royal Hun graves on the Danube's north bank. They crossed the Danube and laid waste to [[Illyria]]n cities and forts on the river, among them, according to [[Priscus]], [[Viminacium]], which was a city of the [[Moesian]]s in Illyria. Their advance began at Margus, for when the Romans discussed handing over the offending bishop, he slipped away secretly to the barbarians and betrayed the city to them. Theodosius had stripped the river's defenses in response to the Vandal [[Geiseric]]'s capture of [[Carthage]] in [[440]] and the [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid]] [[Yazdegerd II of Persia|Yazdegerd II]]'s invasion of [[Armenia]] in [[441]]. This left Attila and Bleda a clear path through Illyria into the Balkans, which they invaded in 441. The Hunnish army, having sacked Margus and Viminacium, took Sigindunum (modern [[Belgrade]]) and [[Sirmium]] before halting its operations. A lull followed during [[442]], when Theodosius recalled his troops from [[North Africa]] and ordered a large new issue of coins to finance operations against the Huns. Having made these preparations, he thought it safe to refuse the Hunnish kings' demands. Attila and Bleda responded by renewing their [[Military campaign|campaign]] in [[443]]. Striking along the Danube, they overran the military centers of [[Ratiara]] and successfully besieged Naissus (modern [[Niš]]) with [[battering ram]]s and rolling towers&mdash;military sophistication that was new in the Hun repertory&mdash;then pushing along the [[Nisava]] they took Serdica ([[Sofia]]), Philippopolis ([[Plovdiv]]), and [[Arcadiopolis]]. They encountered and destroyed the Roman force outside Constantinople and were only halted by their lack of [[siege|siege equipment]] capable of breaching the city's massive walls. Theodosius admitted defeat and sent the court official [[Anatolius]] to negotiate peace terms, which were harsher than the previous treaty: the Emperor agreed to hand over 6,000 Roman pounds (ca. 1,963 kg) of gold as punishment for having disobeyed the terms of the treaty during the invasion; the yearly tribute was tripled, rising to 2,100 Roman pounds (ca. 687 kg) in gold; and the ransom for each Roman prisoner rose to 12 ''solidi''. Their desires contented for a time, the Hun kings withdrew into the interior of their empire. According to [[Jordanes]] (following [[Priscus]]), sometime during the peace following the Huns' withdrawal from Byzantium (probably around [[445]]), Bleda died (killed by his brother, according to the classical sources), and Attila took the throne for himself. Now undisputed lord of the Huns, he again turned towards the eastern Empire. *[http://www29.homepage.villanova.edu/christopher.haas/embassy.htm Priscus of Panium: fragments from the Embassy to Attila] ==Sole ruler== Constantinople suffered major [[natural disaster|natural]] (and man-made) disasters in the years following the Huns' departure: bloody [[riot]]s between the [[Chariot racing#Byzantine chariot racing|racing factions]] of the [[Hippodrome of Constantinople|Hippodrome]]; [[Pandemic|plague]]s in [[445]] and [[446]], the second following a [[famine]]; and a four-month series of [[earthquake]]s which levelled much of the [[defensive wall|city wall]] and killed thousands, causing another [[epidemic]]. This last struck in [[447]], just as Attila, having consolidated his power, again rode south into the empire through [[Moesia]]. The [[Roman military history|Roman army]], under the [[Goths|Gothic]] ''[[magister militum]]'' [[Arnegisclus]], met him on the river [[Vid]] and was defeated&mdash;though not without inflicting heavy losses. The Huns were left unopposed and rampaged through the Balkans as far as [[Thermopylae]]; Constantinople itself was saved by the intervention of the prefect [[Flavius Constantinus]], who organized the citizenry to reconstruct the earthquake-damaged walls, and in some places to construct a new line of fortification in front of the old. An account of this invasion survives: : ''The barbarian nation of the Huns, which was in [[Thrace]], became so great that more than a hundred cities were captured and Constantinople almost came into danger and most men fled from it. … And there were so many murders and blood-lettings that the dead could not be numbered. Ay, for they took captive the [[churches]] and [[monasteries]] and slew the monks and maidens in great numbers.'' ::&mdash; Callinicus, in his ''Life of Saint Hypatius'' [[Image:MorThanFeastofAttila.jpg|thumb|right|275px|[[Mór Than]]'s painting ''The Feast of Attila'', based on a fragment of [[Priscus]] (depicted at right, dressed in white and holding his history):<br> <small>"When evening began to draw in, torches were lighted, and two barbarians came forward in front of Attila and sang songs which they had composed, hymning his victories and his great deeds in war. And the banqueters gazed at them, and some were rejoiced at the songs, others became excited at heart when they remembered the wars, but others broke into tears&mdash;those whose bodies were weakened by time and whose spirit was compelled to be at rest." </small>]] Attila demanded, as a condition of peace, that the Romans should continue paying [[tribute]] in gold&mdash;and evacuate a strip of land stretching three hundred miles east from Sigindunum ([[Belgrade]]) and up to a hundred miles south of the Danube. Negotiations continued between Roman and Hun for approximately three years. The [[historian]] [[Priscus]] was sent as emissary to Attila's encampment in [[448]], and the fragments of his reports preserved by Jordanes offer the best glimpse of Attila among his numerous wives, his [[Scythia]]n fool, and his [[Moors|Moor]]ish [[dwarf]], impassive and unadorned amid the splendor of the courtiers: :''A luxurious meal, served on [[silver]] plate, had been made ready for us and the barbarian guests, but Attila ate nothing but meat on a wooden trencher. In everything else, too, he showed himself temperate; his cup was of wood, while to the guests were given goblets of gold and silver. His dress, too, was quite simple, affecting only to be clean. The sword he carried at his side, the latchets of his Scythian shoes, the bridle of his horse were not adorned, like those of the other Scythians, with gold or gems or anything costly.'' "The floor of the room was covered with woollen mats for walking on," Priscus noted. During these three years, according to a legend recounted by Jordanes, Attila discovered the "Sword of Mars": :''The historian Priscus says it was discovered under the following circumstances: "When a certain shepherd beheld one heifer of his flock limping and could find no cause for this wound, he anxiously followed the trail of blood and at length came to a sword it had unwittingly trampled while nibbling the grass. He dug it up and took it straight to Attila. He rejoiced at this gift and, being ambitious, thought he had been appointed ruler of the whole world, and that through the sword of Mars supremacy in all wars was assured to him.'' ::&mdash; Jordanes, ''[[The Origin and Deeds of the Goths]]'' ch. XXXV [http://www.boudicca.de/jordanes3-e.htm (e-text)] Later scholarship would identify this legend as part of a pattern of sword worship common among the nomads of the [[Central Asia]]n steppes. ==Attila in the west== [[Image:AttilaTheHun.jpg|frame|An inaccurate sketch of Attila the Hun, probably from the [[19th century]]<!-- my guess --mirv -->, depicts him as [[European]], though the only extant description of his appearance by a Roman court historian states that Atilla had "a flat nose, swarthy dark complexion, broad chest, short stature and small eyes, but full of confidence" among his features, suggesting physical features common among [[Mongolia]]ns.]] As late as [[450]], Attila had proclaimed his intent to attack the powerful [[Visigoth]] kingdom of [[Toulouse]] in [[military alliance|alliance]] with Emperor [[Valentinian III]]. He had previously been on good terms with the western Empire and its ''[[de facto]]'' ruler [[Flavius Aëtius]]&mdash;Aetius had spent a brief [[exile]] among the Huns in [[433]], and the troops Attila provided against the [[Goths]] and [[Bagaudae]] had helped earn him the largely honorary title of ''magister militum'' in the west. The gifts and diplomatic efforts of [[Geiseric]], who opposed and feared the Visigoths, may also have influenced Attila's plans. However Valentinian's sister [[Justa Grata Honoria|Honoria]], in order to escape her forced betrothal to a [[Roman Senate|senator]], had sent the Hunnish king a plea for help&mdash;and her [[engagement ring|ring]]&mdash;in the spring of 450. Though Honoria may not have intended a proposal of marriage, Attila chose to interpret her message as such; he accepted, asking for half of the western Empire as [[dowry]]. When Valentinian discovered the plan, only the influence of his mother [[Galla Placidia]] convinced him to exile, rather than kill, Honoria; he also wrote to Attila strenuously denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal. Attila, not convinced, sent an embassy to [[Ravenna]] to proclaim that Honoria was innocent, that the proposal had been legitimate, and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his. Meanwhile, Theodosius having died in a riding accident, his successor [[Marcian]] cut off the Huns' tribute in late 450; and multiple invasions, by the Huns and by others, had left the Balkans with little to plunder. The king of the [[Salian Franks]] had died, and the succession struggle between his two sons drove a rift between Attila and Aetius: Attila supported the elder son, while Aetius supported the younger{{ref|rift}}. [[J.B. Bury]] believes that Attila's intent, by the time he marched west, was to extend his kingdom&mdash;already the strongest on the continent&mdash;across [[Gaul]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] shore{{ref|atlantic}}. By the time Attila had gathered his [[vassal]]s&mdash;[[Gepids]], [[Ostrogoths]], [[Rugians]], [[Scirians]], [[Heruls]], [[Thuringians]], [[Alans]], [[Burgundians]], et al.&mdash;and begun his march west, he had declared intent of alliance both with the Visigoths and with the Romans. In [[451]], his arrival in [[Belgica]] with an army exaggerated by Jordanes to half a million strong soon made his intent clear. On [[April 7]] he captured [[Metz]], and Aetius moved to oppose him, gathering troops from among the [[Franks]], the [[Burgundians]], and the [[Celts]]. A mission by [[Avitus]], and Attila's continued westward advance, convinced the Visigoth king [[Theodoric I]] (Theodorid) to ally with the Romans. The combined armies reached [[Orleans]] ahead of Attila{{ref|orleans}}, thus checking and turning back the Hunnish advance. Aetius gave chase and caught the Huns at a place usually assumed to be near [[Châlons-en-Champagne]]. The two armies clashed in the [[Battle of Chalons]], whose outcome commonly, though erroneously, is attributed to be a victory for the Gothic-Roman alliance. Theodoric was killed in the fighting. Aetius failed to press his advantage, and the alliance quickly disbanded. Attila withdrew to continue his campaign against Italy. ==Invasion of Italy and death== Attila returned in [[452]] to claim his marriage to Honoria anew, invading and ravaging [[Italy]] along the way; his army sacked numerous cities and razed [[Aquileia]] completely, leaving no trace of it behind. Valentinian fled from [[Ravenna]] to [[Rome]]; Aetius remained in the field but lacked the strength to offer battle. Attila finally halted at the [[Po]], where he met an embassy including the [[prefect]] [[Trigetius]], the [[consul]] [[Aviennus]], and [[Pope Leo I]]. After the meeting he turned his army back, having claimed neither Honoria's hand nor the territories he desired. [[Image:Leoattila-Raphael.jpg|thumb|275px|right|[[Raphael]]'s ''The Meeting between Leo the Great and Attila'' shows Leo I, with [[Saint Peter]] and Saint Paul above him, going to meet Attila]] Several explanations for his actions have been proffered. The [[Pandemic|plague]] and [[famine]] which coincided with his invasion may have caused his army to weaken, or the troops that Marcian sent across the Danube may have given him reason to retreat, or perhaps both. [[Priscus]] reports that superstitious fear of the fate of [[Alaric I|Alaric]]&mdash;who died shortly after sacking Rome in [[410]]&mdash;gave the Hun pause. [[Prosper of Aquitaine]]'s pious "fable which has been represented by the pencil of [[Raphael]] and the chisel of [[Algardi]]" (as [[Edward Gibbon|Gibbon]] called it) says that the Pope, aided by [[Saint Peter]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]], convinced him to turn away from the city. Various historians (e.g. [[Isaac Asimov]]) have supposed that the embassy brought a large amount of gold to the Hunnish leader and persuaded him to abandon his campaign. Whatever his reasons, Attila left Italy and returned to his palace across the Danube. From there he planned to strike at Constantinople again and reclaim the tribute which Marcian had cut off. However, he died in the early months of [[453]]; the conventional account, from Priscus, says that on the night after a feast celebrating his latest marriage (to a beautiful Goth named [[Ildico]]), he suffered a severe [[nosebleed]] and choked to death in a stupor. An alternative to the nosebleed theory is that he succummed to internal bleeding after heavy drinking. His warriors, upon discovering his death, mourned him by cutting off their hair and gashing themselves with their swords so that, says Jordanes, "the greatest of all warriors should be mourned with no feminine lamentations and with no tears, but with the blood of men." His horsemen galloped in circles around the silken tent when Attila lay in state, singing in his [[dirge]], according to [[Cassiodorus]] and Jordanes, "Who can rate this as death, when none believes it calls for vengeance?" then celebrating a ''[[strava]]'' over his burial place with great feasting. He was buried in a triple coffin&mdash;of gold, silver, and iron&mdash;with the spoils of his conquest, and his funeral party was killed to keep his burial place secret. After his death, he lived on as a legendary figure: the characters of ''Etzel'' in the ''[[Nibelungenlied]]'' and ''Atli'' in both the ''[[Volsunga saga]]'' and the ''[[Poetic Edda]]'' were both loosely based on his life. An alternate story of his death, first recorded eighty years after the fact by the Roman chronicler [[Count Marcellinus]], reports: "''Attila rex Hunnorum Europae orbator provinciae noctu mulieris manu cultroque confoditur.''" ("Attila, King of the Huns and ravager of the provinces of Europe, was pierced by the hand and blade of his wife."){{ref|marcellinus}} The ''Volsunga saga'' and the ''Poetic Edda'' claim that King Atli died at the hands of his wife [[Gudrun]].{{ref|atli_death}} Most scholars reject these accounts as no more than romantic fables, preferring instead the version given by Attila's contemporary Priscus. The "official" account by Priscus, however, has recently come under renewed scrutiny by Michael A. Babcock (''The Night Attila Died: Solving the Murder of Attila the Hun'', Berkley Books, 2005 ISBN 0425202720). Based on detailed [[philological]] analysis, Babcock concludes that the account of natural death, given by Priscus, was an ecclesiastical "cover story" and that Emperor Marcian (who ruled the Eastern Roman Empire from [[450]]-[[457]]) was the political force behind Attila's death. His sons [[Ellak]] (his appointed successor), [[Dengizik]], and [[Ernakh]] fought over the division of his legacy&mdash;"what warlike kings with their peoples should be apportioned to them by lot like a family estate" and, divided, were defeated and scattered the following year in the [[Battle of Nedao]] by the Gepids, under [[Ardaric]], whose pride was stirred by being treated with his people like chattel, and the Ostrogoths. Attila's empire did not outlast him. ==Appearance, character, and name== [[Image:Atli.jpg|thumb|270px|left|Atilla. <br> From an illustration to the [[Poetic Edda]].]] The main source for information on Attila is [[Priscus]], a historian who traveled with [[Maximin]] on an embassy from Theodosius II in [[448]]. He describes the village the nomadic Huns had built and settled down in as the size of the great city with solid wooden walls. He described Attila himself as: : ''"short of stature, with a broad chest and a large head; his eyes were small, his beard thin and sprinkled with gray; and he had a flat nose and a swarthy complexion, showing the evidences of his origin."'' Attila's physical appearance was most likely that of an [[Eastern Asia|Eastern Asian]] or more specifically a [[Mongol]], or perhaps a mixture of this type and the Turkic peoples of [[Central Asia]]. Indeed, he probably exhibited the characteristic Eastern Asian facial features, which Europeans were not used to seeing, and so they often described him in harsh terms. Attila is known in Western history and tradition as the grim "Scourge of God", and his name has become a byword for cruelty and [[Barbarian|barbarism]]. Some of this may arise from a conflation of his traits, in the popular imagination, with those perceived in later [[steppe]] warlords such as the [[Mongol]] [[Great Khan]] [[Genghis Khan]] and [[Timur|Tamerlane]]: all run together as cruel, clever, and sanguinary lovers of battle and pillage. The reality of his character may be more complex. The Huns of Attila's era had been mingling with Roman civilization for some time, largely through the Germanic ''[[foederati]]'' of the border&mdash;so that by the time of Theodosius's embassy in 448, Priscus could identify [[Hunnic language|Hunnic]], [[Gothic language|Gothic]], and [[Latin]] as the three common languages of the horde. Priscus also recounts his meeting with an eastern Roman captive who had so fully [[cultural assimilation|assimilated]] into the Huns' way of life that he had no desire to return to his former country, and the Byzantine historian's description of Attila's humility and simplicity is unambiguous in its admiration. The historical context of Attila's life played a large part in determining his later public image: in the waning years of the western Empire, his conflicts with Aetius (often called the "last of the Romans") and the strangeness of his culture both helped dress him in the mask of the ferocious barbarian and enemy of civilization, as he has been portrayed in any number of films and other works of art. The Germanic epics in which he appears offer more nuanced depictions: he is both a noble and generous ally, as [[Etzel]] in the ''Nibelungenlied'', and a cruel miser, as Atli in the ''Volsunga Saga'' and the ''Poetic Edda''. Some national histories, though, always portray him favorably; in [[Hungary]] and [[Turkey]] the names of Attila (sometimes as Atilla in [[Turkish language|Turkish]]) and his last wife Ildikó remain popular to this day. In a similar vein, the Hungarian author [[Géza Gárdonyi]]'s novel ''A láthatatlan ember'' (published in English as ''Slave of the Huns'', and largely based on Priscus) offered a sympathetic portrait of Attila as a wise and beloved leader. The name Attila may mean "Little Father" in Gothic (''atta'' "father" plus diminutive suffix ''-la'') as many Goths were known to serve under Attila. It could also be of pre-[[Turkish language|Turkish]] ([[Altaic languages|Altaic]]) origin (compare it with [[Ataturk|Atatürk]] and ''Alma-Ata'', now called [[Almaty]]). It most probably originates from ''atta'' ("father") and ''il'' ("land"), meaning "Land-Father". [[Atil]] was also the [[Altaic]] name of the present-day [[Volga]] river which may have given its name to Attila. <table width = 75% border="2" align="center" style="border-collapse: collapse;"> <tr><td width = 35% align="center"> Preceded by:<br>'''[[Bleda]]'''</td> <td width = 30% align="center">[[List of Hunnish rulers|List of Hun monarchs]]</td> <td width = 35% align="center"> Succeeded by:<br>'''[[Ernakh]]'''</td> </tr></table> ==Notes== #{{note|rift}} This younger son may have been [[Merovech]], founder of the [[Merovingian]] line, though the sources&mdash;[[Gregory of Tours]] and a later roster from the [[Battle of Chalons]]&mdash;are not conclusive. #{{note|atlantic}}[[J.B. Bury]], ''The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians'', lecture IX [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/bury/017.php (e-text)] #{{note|orleans}}Later accounts of the battle place the Huns either already within the city or in the midst of storming it when the Roman-Visigoth army arrived; Jordanes mentions no such thing. See Bury, ibid. #{{note|marcellinus}}[[Marcellinus Comes]], ''Chronicon'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/marcellinus.html (e-text)], quoted in Hector Munro Chadwick: ''The Heroic Age'' (London, [[Cambridge University Press]], 1926), p. 39 n. 1. #{{note|atli_death}} ''Volsunga Saga'', [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/volsunga/021.php Chapter 39]; ''Poetic Edda'', [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/poe35.htm Atlamol En Grönlenzku, The Greenland Ballad of Atli] ==See also== *[[Attila the Hun to Charlemagne]] *[[Huns]] *[[History of Europe]] *[[History of the Balkans]] *[[List of military commanders]] *[[Mule (Foundation)|The Mule]] ==References== Classical texts include: *Priscus: ''Byzantine History'', available in the original Greek in Ludwig Dindorf : ''Historici Graeci Minores'' (Leipzig, B.G. Teubner, 1870) and available online as a translation by [[J.B. Bury]]: ''[http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/texts/priscus.html Priscus at the court of Attila]'' *Jordanes: ''[http://www.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/jordgeti.html The Origin and Deeds of the Goths]'' Recommended modern works are: *Babcock, Michael A.: "The Night Attila Died: Solving the Murder of Attila the Hun" (Berkley Publishing Group, ISBN 0425202720) *Blockley, R.C.: ''The Fragmentary Classicising Historians of the Later Roman Empire'', vol. II (ISBN 0905205154) (a collection of fragments from Priscus, Olympiodorus, and others, with original text and translation) *C.D. Gordon: ''The Age of Attila: Fifth-century Byzantium and the Barbarians'' (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1960) is a translated collection, with commentary and annotation, of ancient writings on the subject (including those of Priscus). * J. Otto Maenchen-Helfen (ed. Max Knight): ''The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture'' (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1973) is a useful scholarly survey. *E. A. Thompson : ''A History of Attila and the Huns'' (London, [[Oxford University Press]], 1948) is the authoritative English work on the subject. It was reprinted in 1999 as ''The Huns'' in the ''Peoples of Europe'' series (ISBN 0631214437). Thompson did not enter controversies over Hunnic origins, and his revisionist view of Attila read his victories as achieved only while there was no concerted opposition. ==External links== * A reconstructed [http://www.reportret.info/gallery/attilathehun1.html portrait of Attila the Hun], based on historical sources, in a contemporary style. * Edward Gibbon describes Attila in his classic [http://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume1/chap34.htm The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire] * Excerpt from 'Leadership Secrets of Attila The Hun' By Wess Roberts, Ph.D describing Attila's [http://worldservicecorps.us/attila%20intro.htm experience in Rome]. [[Category:400s births]] [[Category:453 deaths]] [[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]] [[Category:History of Europe]] [[Category:History of Hungary]] [[Category:History of the Germanic peoples]] [[Category:Late Antiquity]] [[Category:Huns]] [[ar:أتيلا الهوني]] [[bg:Атила]] [[cs:Attila]] [[da:Attila]] [[de:Attila]] [[es:Atila]] [[eo:Atilo la Huno]] [[fr:Attila]] [[ko:아틸라]] [[hr:Atila]] [[id:Atilla]] [[it:Attila]] [[he:אטילה ההוני]] [[lt:Atila]] [[hu:Attila (hun uralkodó)]] [[ms:Atilla]] [[nl:Attila de Hun]] [[ja:アッティラ]] [[no:Attila]] [[pl:Attyla]] [[pt:Átila o Huno]] [[ro:Attila]] [[ru:Аттила]] [[scn:Attila]] [[sl:Atila]] [[sr:Атила]] [[fi:Attila]] [[sv:Attila]] [[tr:Attila]] [[uk:Аттіла]] [[zh:阿提拉]] 842 42124188 2006-03-03T23:55:45Z Flauto Dolce 30706 Disambiguate [[Samos]] to [[Samos Island]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] [[Image:Aegean Sea map.png|thumb|right|The Aegean Sea.]] The '''Aegean Sea''' is an arm of the [[Mediterranean Sea]], located between the Greek peninsula and [[Asia Minor]]. It is connected to the [[Marmara Sea]] and [[Black Sea]] by the [[Dardanelles]] and [[Bosporus]]. == Etymology == In ancient times there were various explanations for the name Aegean. It was said to have been named after the town of [[Aegae]], or [[Aegea]], a queen of the [[Amazons]] who died in the sea, or [[Aegeus]], the father of [[Theseus]], who drowned himself in the sea when he thought his son had died. The [[Greek language|Greek]] name for the sea is {{Polytonic|Αἰγαῖον Πέλαγος}} (Aigaion Pelagos, [[Modern Greek language|Modern Greek]] Ejéon Pélaγos) and Ege Denizi in [[Turkish language|Turkish]]. A possible etymology is a derivation from the dialect word {{Polytonic|αἶγες}} (aiges) "waves" ([[Hesychius of Alexandria|Hesychius]]; metaphorical use of {{Polytonic|αἴξ}} (aix) "goat"), hence "wavy sea", cf. also {{Polytonic|αἰγιαλός}} (aigialos) "coast". == History == In ancient times the sea was the birthplace of two ancient civilizations - the [[Minoan civilization|Minoans]] of [[Crete]], and the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenean]] Civilization of the [[Peloponnese]]. Later arose the city-states of Athens and Sparta among many others that constituted the [[Hellenic Civilization]]. The Aegean Sea was later inhabited by [[Persian Empire|Persians]], [[Roman Republic|Romans]], the [[Byzantine Empire]], the [[Venice|Venetians]], the [[Seljuk Turks]], and the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The Aegean was the site of the original [[democracy|democracies]], and it allowed for contact between several diverse civilizations of the Eastern Mediterranean. == Geography == [[Image:Aegeansea.jpg|thumb|left|Satellite Image]] The [[Aegean islands]] can be simply divided into seven groups: the [[Thracian Sea]] group, the East Aegean group, the Northern [[Sporades]], the [[Cyclades]], the [[Saronic Islands]] (or [[Argo-Saronic Islands]]), the [[Dodecanese]] and Crete. The word ''[[archipelago]]'' was originally applied specifically to these islands. Many of the Aegean islands, or chains of islands, are actually extensions of the mountains on the mainland. One chain extends across the sea to [[Chios]], another extends across [[Euboea]] to [[Samos Island|Samos]], and a third extends across the [[Peloponnese]] and [[Crete]] to [[Rhodes]], dividing the Aegean from the Mediterranean. Many of the islands have safe harbours and bays, but navigation through the sea is generally difficult. Many of the islands are [[volcano|volcanic]], and [[marble]] and [[iron]] are mined on other islands. The larger islands have some fertile valleys and plains. There are two islands of considerable size belonging to [[Turkey]] on the Aegean Sea: [[Bozcaada]] ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Τένεδος ''[[Tenedos]]'') and [[Gökçeada]] ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Ίμβρος ''[[Imvros]]''). The bays in gulfs counterclockwise includes on [[Crete]], the [[Mirabelli Gulf|Mirabelli]], [[Almyros Bay|Almyros]], [[Souda Bay|Souda]] and [[Gulf of Chania|Chania]] bays or gulfs, on the mainland the [[Myrtoan Sea]] to the west, the [[Saronic Gulf]] northwestward, the [[Petalies Gulf]] which connects with the [[South Euboic Sea]], the [[Pagasetic Gulf]] which connects with the [[North Euboic Sea]], the [[Thermian Gulf]] northwestward, the [[Chalkidiki]] Peninsula including the [[Cassandra Gulf|Cassandra]] and the [[Singitic Gulf]]s, northward the [[Strymonian Gulf|Strymonian]] Gulf and the [[Gulf of Kavala]] and the rest are in [[Turkey]]; [[Saros Gulf]], [[Edremit]] Gulf, Dikili Gulf, Çandarlı Gulf, [[İzmir]] Gulf, [[Kuşadası]] Gulf, Gökova Gulf, Güllük Gulf. ==Port towns== The Aegean Sea has many ports especially on the islands, for ports, see the island chains or its gulfs and bays. ==See also== *[[Aegean civilization]] *[[Aegean dispute]] *[[List of traditional Greek place names]] [[Category:Mediterranean]] [[ar:بحر إيجة]] [[ast:Mar Exéu]] [[bg:Егейско море]] [[ca:Mar Egea]] [[cs:Egejské moře]] [[da:Ægæiske Hav]] [[de:Ägäis]] [[et:Egeuse meri]] [[el:Αιγαίο Πέλαγος]] [[es:Mar Egeo]] [[eo:Egea Maro]] [[fr:Mer Égée]] [[gl:Mar Exeo]] [[ko:에게 해]] [[it:Mar Egeo]] [[he:הים האגאי]] [[la:Mare Aegaeum]] [[lt:Egėjo jūra]] [[nl:Egeïsche Zee]] [[ja:エーゲ海]] [[no:Egeerhavet]] [[pl:Morze Egejskie]] [[pt:Mar Egeu]] [[ru:Эгейское море]] [[sk:Egejské more]] [[sl:Egejsko morje]] [[sr:Егејско море]] [[fi:Aigeianmeri]] [[sv:Egeiska havet]] [[tr:Ege Adaları]] [[uk:Егейське море]] [[zh:爱琴海]] 843 42121758 2006-03-03T23:36:25Z Trevor Andersen 175193 punct (see [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style]]) [[image:clockworkorange2.jpg|200px|thumb|right|''A Clockwork Orange'' book cover]] ''This article describes the novel by Anthony Burgess. For other uses of the term '''Clockwork Orange''', see '[[Clockwork Orange (disambiguation)]]'. '''''A Clockwork Orange''''' is a [[science fiction]] and [[dystopian]] [[1962]] [[novel]] by [[Anthony Burgess]], and forms the basis for the [[A Clockwork Orange (film)|1971 film adaptation]] by [[Stanley Kubrick]]. It is one of Burgess's "terminal novels", written to provide posthumous income for his wife after Burgess had allegedly been diagnosed with an inoperable brain tumour. Burgess wrote that the title came from an old [[Cockney]] expression "As queer as a clockwork orange." [[#References|&sup1;]] Due to his time serving the British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Malaya]], Burgess thought that the phrase could be used to punningly refer to a mechanically responsive (clockwork) non-human (orang, [[Malay language|Malay]] for "person"). The Italian title, "Un'Arancia ad Orologeria" was interpreted to refer to a grenade. Burgess wrote in his later introduction, "A Clockwork Orange Resucked," that a creature who can only perform good or evil is "a clockwork orange&mdash;meaning that he has the appearance of an organism lovely with colour and juice but is in fact only a clockwork toy to be wound up by [[god (monotheism)|God]] or the [[Devil]]." In his essay "Clockwork Oranges"[[#References|&sup2;]] he says that "this title would be appropriate for a story about the application of [[Ivan Pavlov|Pavlovian]], or mechanical, laws to an organism which, like a fruit, was capable of colour and sweetness." This title alludes to the protagonist's negatively conditioned responses to feelings of evil which prevent the exercise of his free will. The book was partly inspired by an event in [[1944]], when Burgess' pregnant wife Lynne was robbed and beaten by four [[desertion |U.S. GI deserters]] in a [[London]] street, suffering a [[miscarriage]] and chronic [[gynecology|gynaecological]] problems[[#References|&sup3;]]. According to Burgess, writing the novel was both a catharsis and an "act of charity" towards his wife's attackers - the story is narrated by and essentially sympathetic to one of the attackers rather than their victim. ==Synopsis== {{spoiler}} Set in the near future, the book centres around the life of the fifteen year old protagonist [[Alex DeLarge]]. Alex and his gang roam the streets at night, committing crimes purely for enjoyment. The crimes described in the book increase in severity, from assault, to robbery, to a fight with rival gang, culminating when the gang breaks into the house of F.D. Alexander and rapes his wife. The gang returns to a bar where Alex hits one of his gang members, Dim, as punishment for Dim's rude behaviour towards a woman who was singing the chorus of ''[[Ode to Joy]]'', classical music being Alex's other passion, apart from violence. This sparks off a tense moment between the two gang members. The next day, after fighting Dim and George to re-establish his control of the gang following the previous night's dispute Alex agrees, on Pete's suggestion, to rob a house in a rich part of town. Alex tries to persuade the woman living in the house to open the door. The woman refuses and calls the police as a precaution. He gains access to the house through a window, but is confronted by the defiant woman, who defends herself with unexpected strength, he goes for a bust of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] and she scratches his face, he manages to knock her out with a silver statue he had previously taken. As he runs out the front door he is struck by Dim who runs off with the rest of the gang just as the police arrive. At the police station we learn that the woman has died. In prison, Alex hears about an experimental rehabilitation programme called "the Ludovico technique", which promises that the prisoner will be released upon completion of the two week treatment and will not commit crimes afterwards and manages to become the first patient. The Ludovico technique itself is a form of [[aversion therapy]], where Alex is given a drug that induces extreme nausea while being forced to watch graphically violent films. At the end of the treatment Alex is unable to carry out or even contemplate violent acts as doing so induces crippling nausea. He is released from prison, but upon returning home he is rejected by his parents. Dejected, Alex contemplates suicide, going to the public library in order to discover what sort of poison he might take to end his life. There he is spotted by one of his former victims, who accompanied by his friends extracts his revenge. Alex is unable to strike back and the police is alerted. The police arrive, but they turn out to be Dim, and Billy Boy, the former leader of a rival gang. They take Alex, beat him up and dump him by the side of the road out in the country. Alex stumbles to the nearest house for help, which turns out to be that of F.D. Alexander, whose wife Alex had raped and beaten earlier in the book. At first Alex is not recognised as he had always worn a mask, but the reader discovers that F.D. Alexander is in a wheel chair and his wife died from her injuries. Realising that Alex is the same person who had attacked him and his wife some years ago, F.D. Alexander drugs him, locks him in a room and plays Beethoven’s [[Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)|9th Symphony]] at full volume. Although previously his favourite piece of music the Ninth was also used as a soundtrack for one of the films that Alex was forced to watch as part of the Ludovico treatment, hence it produces the same nauseating effects on him. Unable to stand the pain Alex throws himself out of the window to try to kill himself. He survives the fall with broken bones and wakes up in hospital informed that his tormentors have been arrested and the Ludovico treatment reversed. The final chapter begins identically to the first, Alex having formed a new gang and reverted to his previous criminality. But on this particular night he decides not to join them and goes for a walk on his own instead. In a cafe he bumps into one of his old gang member Pete, who is married and has become a respectable member of society. Pete's wife giggles at Alex's rhetoric, and asks Pete "why does he speak like that?" After conversing with Pete and his wife, Alex has an epiphany, renouncing violence on one hand, but on the other concluding that his behaviour was an unavoidable part of youth, and that if he had a son, he would not be able to stop him from doing what he did. Although the book is divided into three parts, each containing seven chapters, twenty-one being a symbolic number as it was the age that which a child earns his rights at the time, the 21st chapter was omitted from the versions published in the US. The [[Film|film]] adaptation which was directed by [[Stanley Kubrick]] follows the American version of the book, ending prior the events of the 21st chapter. Kubrick claimed that he had not read the original version until he had virtually finished the screenplay, but that he certainly never gave any serious consideration to using it. ==Analysis== The book, narrated by Alex, contains many words in a slang dialect which Burgess invented for the book, called [[nadsat]]. It is a mix of modified [[Russian_language|Russian]] words, [[English_language|English]] slang and words invented by Burgess himself. It serves two functions, firstly Burgess, while wanting to provide his young characters with their own register did not want to use contemporary slang, fearing that this would "date" the book too much. Secondly, the novel graphically describes horrific scenes of violence, which would be shocking even by today's standards, so nadsat is used as a "linguistic veil" to distance the reader from the action on the page. ==Influence== {{main|List of cultural references to A Clockwork Orange}} Both the story and individual elements have had a strong influence on [[popular culture]] in general and [[popular music]] in particular. ==Trivia== * Alex's age at the end of the novel is the same age that the Burgesses' miscarried child would have been at the date of publication, had the child survived the attack on Lynne, been born and grown up. * The allegedly Cockney phrase ''A Clockwork Orange'' is totally unknown to history: the first recorded use of it is Burgess's title. Quoted in a ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' article, Burgess claimed to have first heard the expression "from a very old Cockney in 1945." *Burgess claimed that he had typed the title ''A Clockwork Orange'' and then sat down to think of a story to go with it. One early idea apparently involved a strike or riot among apprentices under Elizabeth I. *As with many writers and their most popular books, this was one of Burgess's least favourite of the books he wrote, and he thought it was overrated. *Since, in ''A Clockwork Orange,'' the author F. Alexander wrote a book entitled ''A Clockwork Orange'' and it is his wife who is attacked by the droogs, it seems likely Burgess directly inserted some of his own feelings and characteristics into the novel in the form of this character. == See also == * [[A Clockwork Orange (film)]] * [[Aestheticization of violence]] * [[Nadsat]], a fictional slang used in the book * [[Dystopia]] ==References== # ''A Clockwork Orange: A play with music''. Century Hutchinson Ltd. (1987). &mdash; An extract is quoted on several web sites: [http://pers-www.wlv.ac.uk/~fa1871/burgess.html], [http://pages.eidosnet.co.uk/johnnymoped/aclockworktestament/aclockworktestament_anthonyburgessonaclockworkorange_page2.html], [http://kubricks0.tripod.com/burgesam.htm]. # Burgess, Anthony (1978). Clockwork Oranges. In ''1985''. London: Hutchinson. ISBN 0091360803 ([http://pages.eidosnet.co.uk/johnnymoped/aclockworktestament/aclockworktestament_beingtheadventures_page1.html extracts quoted here]) # [[Gore Vidal|Vidal, Gore]]. "Why I am eight years younger than Anthony Burgess," in ''At home : essays, 1982-1988'', p. 411. New York: Random House, 1988. ISBN 0394570200. == External links == {{wikiquote}} * {{isfdb title | id=12305 | title=A Clockwork Orange}} * {{isfdb title | id=25722 | title=A Clockwork Orange (1977)}} * A Prophetic Masterpiece: http://www.city-journal.org/html/16_1_oh_to_be.html [[Category:1962 books|Clockwork Orange, A]] [[Category:Dystopian novels|Clockwork Orange, A]] [[Category:English novels|Clockwork Orange, A]] [[Category:Modern Library 100 best novels|Clockwork Orange, A]] [[Category:Science fiction novels|Clockwork Orange, A]] [[Category:Twentieth century British novels|Clockwork Orange, A]] [[Category:Anthony Burgess books|Clockwork Orange, A]] [[Category:Time Magazine 100 best novels|Clockwork Orange, A]] <!-- There are two interwikis for de: es: fr: pt:, because book and movie are on separate articles on those four wikis. --> [[de:A Clockwork Orange (Buch)]] [[es:La naranja mecánica]] [[fr:L'Orange mécanique]] [[he:התפוז המכני]] [[nl:A Clockwork Orange]] [[ja:時計じかけのオレンジ]] [[ko:시계 태엽 오렌지]] [[pl:Mechaniczna pomarańcza]] [[pt:Laranja Mecânica]] 844 42041031 2006-03-03T11:32:24Z Garion96 397881 /* Famous Amsterdammers */ rm some {{otheruses}} <div class="townBox" style="border:1px solid #dddddd;margin-left:0.5em; width: 200px;"> <center>'''Amsterdam'''</center> [[Image:Canals_of_Amsterdam.jpg|200px|Canals of the Jordaan neighbourhood]] ;Location [[Image:LocationAmsterdam.png|200px|Location of Amsterdam]] ;Flag [[Image:Flag of Amsterdam.svg|200px|Flag of Amsterdam]] ;Country :[[Netherlands]] ;Province :[[North Holland]] ;Population :742,951([[1 January]] [[2005]]) ;Coordinates :{{coor dm|52|22|N|4|54|E|}} ;Website :[http://www.amsterdam.nl www.amsterdam.nl] ;[[Mayor of Amsterdam|Mayor]] :[[Job Cohen]] </div> '''Amsterdam''', ({{Pronunciation|Nl-Amsterdam.ogg}}) the [[capital]] of the [[Netherlands]], lies on the banks of two bodies of water, the [[IJ (bay)|IJ bay]] and the [[Amstel]] river. Founded in the late [[12th century]] as a small fishing village on the banks of the [[Amstel]], it is now the largest city in the country and its financial and cultural centre. As of 2005, the population of the city proper is 742,951{{ref|population}}; the population of the greater Amsterdam area is approximately one and a half million. Amsterdam has one of the largest historic city centres in Europe, dating largely from the 17th century, the Golden Age of the Netherlands, of which it was the focal point. At this time, a series of concentric, semi-circular canals were built around the older city centre, which still defines its layout and appearance today. Many fine houses and mansions are situated along the canals; most are lived in, others are now offices, and some are public buildings. Some of the narrow brick houses are gradually sinking because they are built on [[pile|piles]] to cope with the marshy subsoil. The city is noted for many outstanding museums, including the [[Rijksmuseum]], the [[Van Gogh Museum]], the [[Stedelijk Museum]], [[Rembrandt House Museum]], the [[Anne Frank House]], and its world-class symphony orchestra, the [[Concertgebouworkest]], whose home base is the [[Concertgebouw]]. Notable are also its [[red-light district]], ''[[de Wallen]]'', and its numerous "[[coffee shop]]s" selling [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]]. Although Amsterdam is the capital of the Netherlands, it is neither the capital of the province in which it is located, [[North Holland]] (which is [[Haarlem]]), nor the seat of government (which is [[The Hague]]). ==History== ''Main article: [[History of Amsterdam]]'' [[Image:Amsterdam airphoto.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Historical centre]] Amsterdam was founded as a fishing village in the [[13th century]]. According to legend Amsterdam was founded by two [[Frisian]] fishermen, who landed on the shores of the Amstel in a small boat with their dog. The damming of the river [[Amstel]] gave it its name. It was given [[City rights in the Netherlands|city rights]] in [[1300]] or [[1301]]. From the [[14th century]] on, Amsterdam flourished, largely on the basis of trade with the cities of the [[Hanseatic League]]. The [[16th century]] brought a rebellion by the Dutch against [[Philip II of Spain]] and his successors, escalating into the [[Eighty Years' War]] which ultimately led to Dutch independence. The Dutch Republic became known for its relative religious tolerance and [[Jew]]s from [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]], prosperous merchants from [[Antwerp]] (economic and religious refugees from the part of the Low Countries still controlled by Spain), [[Huguenots]] from [[France]] (persecuted for their religion) sought safety in Amsterdam. It was the rich, refined migrants from Flanders who set the tone (their Brabant dialects became the basis of standard written Dutch) and made Holland a [[Mercantilism|mercantile]] power. [[Image:AmsterdamDamsquar.jpg|thumb|left|Dam Square in the late 17th century: painting by Jan Adriaensz. Berckheyde (Gemäldegalerie, Dresden)]] The [[17th century]] is considered Amsterdam's "Golden Age". In the early 17th century Amsterdam was the richest city in Europe. Ships sailed from Amsterdam to [[North America]], [[Africa]] and present-day [[Indonesia]] and [[Brazil]] and formed the basis of a worldwide trading network. Amsterdam's merchants had the biggest share in the [[Dutch East India Company|VOC]] and [[Dutch West India Company|WIC]]. These companies acquired the overseas possessions which formed the seeds of the later Dutch colonies. Amsterdam was the most important point for the trans-shipment of goods in Europe and it was the leading financial centre of the world. Amsterdam's stock exchange was the first to trade continuously. The population grew from slightly over 10,000 around 1500 to 30,000 around 1570, 60,000 around 1600, 105,000 in 1622 and almost 200,000 around 1700 (a twenty fold increase in 200 years). Thereafter, the population did not change much for another century and a half. During the century before World War II it almost quadrupled to 800,000, but then remained fairly constant again to this day. [[Image:River Amstel by Night - Frans Koppelaar.jpg|thumb|200px|River Amstel by Night<br/><small>Painting by [[Frans Koppelaar|Koppelaar]]</small>]]The 18th and early 19th centuries saw a decline in Amsterdam's prosperity. The wars of the Dutch Republic with the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]] took their toll on Amsterdam. During the [[Napoleonic Wars]] Amsterdam's fortunes reached their lowest point. However, with the establishment of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in [[1815]], things slowly began to improve. In Amsterdam new developments were started by people like [[Sarphati]] who found their inspiration in Paris. The end of the 19th century is sometimes called Amsterdam's second Golden Age. New museums, a train station, and the Concertgebouw were built. At this time the [[Industrial Revolution]] reached Amsterdam. The ''[[Amsterdam-Rhine Canal]]'' was dug to give Amsterdam a direct connection to the [[Rhine]] and the ''[[North Sea Canal]]'' to give the port a shorter connection to the [[North Sea]]. Both projects improved communication with the rest of Europe and the world dramatically. [[Image:annefrankmuseum.jpg|thumb|200px|<font size='1'>In 2004, 936,432 people visited the museum adjoining #263 Prinsengracht, better known as the Anne Frank House.</font>]] Shortly before the [[First World War]] the city began expanding and new suburbs were built. During [[World War I]], the Netherlands remained neutral. Amsterdam suffered a food shortage and heating fuel became scarce. The shortages sparked riots in which several people were killed. Germany invaded the Netherlands in [[10 May]] [[1940]], taking control of the country after five days of fighting. The Germans installed a Nazi civilian government in Amsterdam that cooperated in the persecution of Jews. More than 80,000 [[Jew]]s were deported to concentration camps, of whom perhaps the most famous was a young German girl, [[Anne Frank]]. Only 5,000 Jews survived the war. In the last months of the war communication with the rest of the country broke down and food and fuel became scarce. Many inhabitants of the city had to travel to the countryside to collect food. Most of the trees in Amsterdam were cut down for fuel. ==Coat of arms== [[Image:Wapen amsterdam.jpg|frame|left]] The coat of arms of Amsterdam is composed of three [[Saint Andrew|St Andrew]]'s crosses, aligned vertically, but rotated 90 degrees for the flag. Historians believe they represent the three dangers which have traditionally plagued the city: flood, fire, and pestilence. The city's official motto, ''Heldhaftig, Vastberaden, Barmhartig'' ("Valiant, Resolute, Merciful") which is displayed on the coat of arms, was bestowed on it by [[Queen Wilhelmina]] in 1947 in recognition of the city's bravery during World War II. The lions were added in the sixteenth century. The crown was awarded to the city in 1489 by [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor]], out of gratitude for services and loans. The crown was a sign of imperial protection and acted as a seal of approval for Amsterdam merchants abroad. The Westertoren also features the imperial crown. ==City government== ''Main article: [[Amsterdam (municipality)]]'' [[Image:Amsterdam 4.89943E 52.37109N.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Satellite image of Amsterdam]] As all Dutch municipalities, Amsterdam is governed by a mayor, his ''wethouders'' (aldermen), and the municipal council. However, unlike most other Dutch municipalities, Amsterdam is subdivided into fifteen ''stadsdelen'' (boroughs), a system that was implemented in the 1980s to improve local governance. The ''stadsdelen'' are responsible for many activities that previously had been run by the central city. Fourteen of these have their own council, chosen by a popular election. The fifteenth, Westerpoort, covers the harbour of Amsterdam, has very few inhabitants, and is governed by the central municipal council. Local decisions are made at borough level, and only affairs pertaining to the whole city, such as major infrastructure projects, are handled by the central city council. ''See also:'' [[List of mayors of Amsterdam]] ==Demography== <center>{{Demography 12col|830px|[[1300]]|[[1400]]|[[1500]]|[[1600]]|[[1650]]|[[1796]]|[[1830]]|[[1849]]|[[1879]]|[[1899]]|[[1925]]|[[1999]] |1,000|3,000|12,000|60,000|140,000|200,600|202,400|224,000|317,000|510,900|714,200|727,100}}</center> ==Academia== Amsterdam has two universities: the [[University of Amsterdam]] (Universiteit van Amsterdam), and the [[Vrije Universiteit]]. Other institutions for higher education include an art school, De Rietveldacademie, the Hogeschool van Amsterdam, the Hogeschool voor Economische Studies Amsterdam and the Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor de Kunsten, which includes the Sweelinck Conservatorium. Amsterdam's [[International Institute of Social History]] is one of the world's largest documentary and research institutions concerning social history, and especially the history of the labour movement. Amsterdam's [[Hortus Botanicus (Amsterdam)|Hortus Botanicus]], founded in the early 1600s, is one of the oldest [[botanical garden]]s in the world, with many old and rare specimens, amongst which the coffee plant that served as the parent for the entire coffee culture in Central and South America. [[Image:Java_Island_Architecture.jpg|thumb|Java Island, in [[IJ (bay)|'t IJ]], is known for its modern architecture.]] ==Public transport== Public transport in Amsterdam, operated by [[Gemeentelijk Vervoerbedrijf]], [[Connexxion]], and [[Nederlandse Spoorwegen]], consists of: * national and international [[train]] connections * 3 [[metro]] lines and 1 [[light rail]] line, together the [[Amsterdam metro]] * 16 [[tram]] lines * An express tram line (IJtram) * 55 local bus lines * regional bus lines * several [[ferries]] for pedestrians and cyclists across the [[IJ (bay)|IJ]] (free of charge) * a Fast Flying Ferry towards [[Velsen]]-Zuid on the North Sea shore A new underground line, the [[North/South Line]] (''Noord/Zuidlijn'') is under construction. (See also [[Gemeentelijk Vervoerbedrijf]], [[Amsterdam metro]], [[Amsterdam Centraal]]). ===History=== During the construction of the [[Amsterdam metro]], plans to demolish the entire [[Jew]]ish neighbourhood near the [[Nieuwmarkt]] led to strong protests. The metro was still built (wall decorations at the [[Nieuwmarkt]] station are dedicated to the protests), but plans to build a highway through the neighbourhood in the centre of Amsterdam were abolished. In 1975 there was an incident where a planned bombing of the Venserpolder station led to a political scandal when mayor Ivo Samkalden and everyone in the city council, except for [[Roel van Duijn]], instantly and erroneously blamed the left-wing protesters, which was exactly the objective of the right-wing bombers. [[Image:Amster.jpg|thumb|right|Some of the ubiquitous cyclists in Amsterdam]] ==Private transport== Many people in Amsterdam use [[bicycle|bicycles]] to get around. Most main streets have bike paths. Bike racks are ubiquitous throughout the city. In the city centre, driving a car is complicated by traffic jams and limited and expensive parking space. ==Airport== [[Schiphol Airport|Schiphol]], about twenty minutes by train from downtown Amsterdam, is the biggest airport in the Netherlands, and the fourth largest in Europe. It handles about 42 million passengers a year and is home base to [[KLM]]. ==Sports== Amsterdam is the home town of [[Ajax Amsterdam|Ajax]], a team in the [[Dutch Football League]]. Its home base is the modern stadium [[Amsterdam ArenA]], located in the south-east of the city. The team shares that facility with the [[Amsterdam Admirals]], an [[American football]] team. In 1928, Amsterdam hosted the [[1928 Summer Olympics|Games of the IXth Olympiad]]. The [[Olympisch Stadion (Amsterdam)|Olympic Stadium]] built for the occasion has been completely restored and is now used for cultural and sporting events. Amsterdam also is home to a famous [[ice rink]], the [[Jaap Eden]] baan. The [[Amstel Tijgers]] play in this arena in the Dutch [[ice hockey]] premier league. In [[speed skating]] many international championships have been fought in the 400-meter lane of this ice rink. The city also has a [[baseball]] team, the [[Amsterdam pirates]] who play in the Dutch Major League. Three [[field hockey]] teams, Amsterdam, Pinoké and Hurley, and a [[basketball]] team, the [[Amsterdam Astronauts]] who play in the Dutch premier division and play their games in the Sporthallen Zuid, near the Olympic Stadium. ==Periodic events== * [[Koninginnedag]], ''Queen's day'', [[30 April]], the former [[Queen_of_the_Netherlands|Queen's]] ([[Juliana_of_the_Netherlands|Juliana]]) birthday * [[Uitmarkt]], last weekend in August, the start of the cultural season * ''Amsterdam Roots'', last week of June. International music festival * ''Amsterdam Pride'', mid-August, [[gay pride]] weekend * ''Amsterdam Marathon'', mid-October * [[Sail Amsterdam]], a five-yearly event, when [[tall ship]]s from all over the world can be visited. * [[Cannabis Cup]], mid-November annual cannabis competition, hosted by [[High Times]]. ==Famous Amsterdammers== {{col-begin|width=}} {{col-break}} * [[Karel Appel]] - painter * [[Dennis Bergkamp]] - football player * [[Frits Bolkestein]] - politician * [[Breitner|George Hendrik Breitner]] - painter * [[Simon Carmiggelt]] - writer and columnist * [[Johan Cruijff]] - football player * [[Candy Dulfer]] - saxophonist * [[Max Euwe]] - chess player * [[Anne Frank]] - Holocaust diarist * [[Theo van Gogh (film director)|Theo van Gogh]] - filmmaker and colummnist * [[Vincent van Gogh]] - painter * [[Ruud Gullit]] - football player {{col-break}} * [[André Hazes]] - singer * [[Freddy Heineken]] - beer magnate * [[Meindert Hobbema]] - painter * [[Jozef Israëls]] - painter * [[Wim Kok]] - former prime minister * [[Karel Miljon]] - boxer * [[Harry Mulisch]] - writer * [[Multatuli]] - writer * [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]] - painter * [[Frank Rijkaard]] - football player * [[Baruch Spinoza]] - philosopher * [[Paul Verhoeven]] - film director {{col-end}} ==Notes== <div style="font-size: 90%"> # {{note|population}} [http://www.os.amsterdam.nl/tabel/5425/ City of Amsterdam statistics service in Dutch] </div> ==External links== {{commons|Amsterdam}} * {{wikitravelpar|Amsterdam}} * [http://amsterdam.nl/ Official website of the city of Amsterdam] ([http://www.iamsterdam.com/ English Version]) {{Province North Holland}} {{Olympic Summer Games Host Cities}} [[Category:Amsterdam| ]] [[Category:Capitals in Europe|Netherlands, Amsterdam]] [[Category:Cities in the Netherlands]] [[Category:Eurovision host cities]] [[Category:Host cities of the Summer Olympic Games]] [[Category:North Holland]] [[af:Amsterdam (Nederland)]] [[ar:أمستردام]] [[be:Амстэрдам]] [[bg:Амстердам]] [[bs:Amsterdam]] [[ca:Amsterdam]] [[cs:Amsterdam]] [[da:Amsterdam]] [[de:Amsterdam]] [[et:Amsterdam]] [[el:Άμστερνταμ]] [[es:Amsterdam]] [[eo:Amsterdamo]] [[fr:Amsterdam]] [[fy:Amsterdam]] [[gl:Ámsterdam - Amsterdam]] [[ko:암스테르담]] [[hr:Amsterdam]] [[io:Amsterdam]] [[id:Amsterdam]] [[is:Amsterdam]] [[it:Amsterdam]] [[he:אמסטרדם]] [[csb:Amsterdam]] [[lv:Amsterdama]] [[la:Amstelodamum]] [[lt:Amsterdamas]] [[lb:Amsterdam]] [[li:Amsterdam]] [[na:Amsterdam]] [[nl:Amsterdam]] [[ja:アムステルダム]] [[no:Amsterdam]] [[nn:Amsterdam]] [[pl:Amsterdam]] [[pt:Amsterdão]] [[ro:Amsterdam]] [[ru:Амстердам]] [[scn:Amsterdam]] [[simple:Amsterdam]] [[sk:Amsterdam]] [[sl:Amsterdam]] [[sr:Амстердам]] [[fi:Amsterdam]] [[sv:Amsterdam]] [[tr:Amsterdam]] [[uk:Амстердам]] [[zh:阿姆斯特丹]] 846 40357438 2006-02-20T01:02:43Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 External links per MoS. [[Image:Strykjärnet Motala ström Norrköping april 2005.jpg|thumb|200px|''The Iron'' is a famous 19th century landmark in central Norrköping]] The '''Museum of Work''', or ''Arbetets museum'', is a [[museum]] located in [[Norrköping]], [[Sweden]]. The museum can be found in the 19th century building ''The Iron'' in the [[Motala ström]] river in central Norrköping. ''See also: [[List of museums in Sweden]], [[Culture of Sweden]]'' ==External links== *[http://www.arbetetsmuseum.se/ Museum of Work] - Official site [[Category:Museums in Sweden]] [[Category:Norrköping]] 847 42122808 2006-03-03T23:44:21Z 24.211.126.187 /* Innovation */ {{redirect|Car}} [[Image:Automobiles.jpg|300px|thumb|right|A small variety of cars, the most popular kind of automobile.]] An '''automobile''' is a [[wheel]]ed [[vehicle]] that carries its own [[motor]]. Different types of automobiles include cars, [[bus]]es, [[truck]]s, [[van]]s, and [[motorcycles]], with cars being the most popular. The term is derived from Greek 'autos' (''self'') and Latin 'movére' (''move''), referring to the fact that it 'moves by itself'. Earlier terms for automobile include '[[Brass Era car|horseless carriage]]' and 'motor car'. An automobile has seats for the [[driving|driver]] and, almost without exception, one or more passengers. It is the main source of [[transportation]] across the world. [[As of 2005]] there are 500 million cars worldwide (0.074 per capita), of which 220 million are located in the [[United States]] (0.75 per capita). ==History== {{main|History of the automobile}} ===The history of automobiles=== The modern automobile powered by the Otto gasoline engine was invented in Germany by [[Karl Benz]]. Even though Karl Benz is credited with the invention of the modern automobile, several other German engineers worked on building the first automobile at the same time. These inventors are: [[Karl Benz]] on [[July 3]], [[1886]] in [[Mannheim]], [[Gottlieb Daimler]] and [[Wilhelm Maybach]] in [[Stuttgart]] (also inventors of the first motor bike) and in 1888/89 [[Germany|German]]-[[Austrian]] inventor [[Siegfried Marcus]] in [[Vienna]], although Marcus didn't go beyond the prototype stage. {{Automobile history eras}} ==='''Steam powered vehicles'''=== [[Steam-power]]ed self-propelled cars were devised in the late [[18th century]]. The first self-propelled car was built by [[Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot]] in [[1769]], it could attain speeds of up to 6 km/h. In [[1771]] he designed another steam-driven car, which ran so fast that it rammed into a wall, producing the world’s first [[car accident]]. ===The Internal Combustion Engine=== In 1806 [[Fransois Isaac de Rivaz]], a Swiss, designed the first [[internal combustion engine]] (sometimes abbreviated "ICE" today). He subsequently used it to develop the world’s first vehicle to run on such an engine, one that used a mixture of [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]] to generate [[energy]]. It was not very successful, as was the case with the British inventor, Brown, and the American inventor, Morey, who produced clumsy IC-engine-powered vehicles about 1826. Etienne Lenoir produced the first successful internal-combustion engine in 1860, and within a few years, about 400 were in operation in Paris. In about 1863, Lenoir installed his engine in a vehicle. It seems to have been powered by city lighting-gas in bottles, and was said by Lenoir to have "travelled slower than a man could walk, with breakdowns being frequent." Lenoir, in his patent of 1860, included the provision of a carburettor, so liquid fuel could be substituted for gas, particularly for mobile purposes, i.e., vehicles. Lenoir is said to have tested liquid fuel, such as alcohol, in his stationary engines; but it doesn't appear he used them in his vehicle. If he did, he most certainly didn't use gasoline, as this was not well-known and was considered a waste product. The next innovation comes in the late 1860s, with [[Siegfried Marcus]], a German working in Vienna, Austria. He developed the idea of using gasoline as a fuel in a two-stroke internal-combustion engine. In 1870, he built a crude vehicle, with no seats, steering or brakes, but it was spectacular for one reason: it was the world's first internal-combustion-engine-powered vehicle fueled by gasoline. It was tested in Vienna in September of 1870. In 1888/1889, he built a second car, this one with seats, brakes and steering, and a four-stroke engine of his own design. The four-stroke engine had already been written down and patented in 1862 by the Frenchman Beau de Rochas in a long-winded and rambling pamphlet. He printed about 300 copies of his pamphlet and they were distributed in Paris, but nothing came of this, with the patent expiring soon after and the pamphlet disappearing into total obscurity. In fact, hardly anyone knew of it to begin with. Beau de Rochas never built a single engine. Most historians agree that Nikolaus Otto of Germany built the world's first four-stroke engine. He knew nothing of Beau de Rochas's patent or idea, and came upon the idea entirely on his own; in fact, he began thinking about it in 1861, but abandoned the idea until the mid-1870's. There is some evidence, although not conclusive, that one Christian Reithmann, an Austrian living in Germany, had built a four-stroke engine entirely on his own by 1873. Reithmann had been experimenting with IC-engines as early as 1852. In 1883, Edouard Delamare-Deboutteville and Leon Malandin of France installed an internal-combustion engine powered by a tank of city gas on a tricycle. As they tested the vehicle, the tank hose came loose, resulting in an explosion. In 1884, Delamare-Deboutteville and Malandin built and patented a second vehicle. This one consisted of two four-stroke, liquid-fueled engines mounted to an old four-wheeled horse cart. The patent, and presumably the vehicle, contained many innovations, some of which wouldn't be used for decades. However, during the vehicle's first test, the frame broke apart, the vehicle literally "shaking itself to pieces," in Malandin's own words. No more vehicles were built by the two men, and their venture went completely unnoticed and their patent unexploited. No one else knew of the vehicles and experiments until years later. Supposedly in the late 1870's, an Italian named Murnigotti patented the idea of installing an IC engine on a vehicle, although there is no evidence one was built. In 1884, Enrico Bernardi, another Italian, installed an IC engine on his son's tricycle. Although nothing more than a toy, it is said to have operated somewhat successfully in one source, but another says the engine's power was too feeble to make the vehicle move. But if all of the above experiments hadn't taken place, the development of the automobile wouldn't have been retarded by so much as a moment, since they were unknown experiments that went no further than the testing stage. The internal-combustion-engined car really can be said to have begun with Benz and Daimler in 1886, for their vehicles were successful, they went into series-production, and they inspired others. Benz, after building his first three-wheeled car in 1885, built improved versions in 1886 and 1887, and went into production in 1888 -- the world's first vehicle to do so. Approximately 25 were built until 1893, when his first four-wheeler was introduced. They were powered with four-stroke engines of his own design. Emile Roger of France, already producing Benz engines under license, now added the Benz car to his line of products. Because France was more open to the automobile in general, more were built and sold in France than by Benz himself in Germany. Daimler built a car in 1886 - a new horse carriage fitted with his new high-speed 4-stroke engine. In 1889, he built two vehicles from scratch, with several innovations. From about 1890-1895 about 30 vehicles were built by Daimler and his innovative assistant, Maybach, either at the Daimler works or in the Hotel Hermann, where they set up shop after having a falling out with their backers. In 1890, Emile Levassor and Armand Peugeot of France began series-producing vehicles with Daimler engines, and so laid the foundation of the motor industry in France. They were inspired by Daimler's Stalhradwagen of 1889, which was exhibited in Paris in 1889. The first American automobile with gasoline-powered [[internal combustion engine]]s was supposedly designed in 1877 by [[George Baldwin Selden]] of [[Rochester, New York]], who applied for a patent on the automobile in 1879. Selden didn't build a single car until 1905, when he was forced to do so due to the lawsuit. Selden received his patent and later sued the Ford Motor Company for infringing his patent. Henry Ford was notoriously against the American patent system, and Selden's case against Ford went all the way to the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]], who ruled that Ford and everyone else was free to build automobiles without paying royalties to Selden, since automobile technology had improved since Selden's patent, and no one was building those antiquated designs. Meanwhile, notable advances in steam power evolved in [[Birmingham]], England by the [[Lunar Society]]. It was here that the term [[horsepower]] was first used. It was in Birmingham also that the first British four wheel [[petrol]]-driven automobiles were built in 1895 by [[Frederick William Lanchester]] who also patented the [[disc brake]] in the city. [[Electric vehicle]]s were produced by a small number of manufacturers. ===Innovation=== [[Image:Olds2.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Ransom E. Olds, the creator of the Assembly line]] The first automobile [[patent]] in the [[United States]] was granted to [[Oliver Evans]] in 1789; in 1804 Evans demonstrated his first successful self-propelled vehicle, which not only was the first automobile in the US but was also the first [[amphibious vehicle]], as his steam-powered vehicle was able to travel on [[wheel]]s on land and via a [[paddle wheel]] in the water. On [[5 November]], [[1895]], [[George B. Selden]] was granted a United States patent for a [[two-stroke cycle|two-stroke]] automobile engine ({{US patent|549160}}). This patent did more to hinder than encourage development of autos in the USA. A major breakthrough came with the historic drive of [[Bertha Benz]] in 1888. Steam, electric, and gasoline powered autos competed for decades, with gasoline internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s. [[Image:Bentley Continental GT dashboard.jpg|thumb|right|260px|The interior of a modern luxury car, a [[Bentley Continental GT]]]] The large scale, [[production-line]] manufacturing of affordable automobiles was debuted by [[Oldsmobile]] in 1902, then greatly expanded by [[Henry Ford]] in the 1910s. Development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to the hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain the world's attention. Key developments included electric [[ignition system|ignition]] and the electric self-starter (both by [[Charles Kettering]], for the [[Cadillac (automobile)|Cadillac]] Motor Company in 1910-1911), independent suspension, and four-wheel brakes. ===Model changeover and design change=== [[Image:1989 Ford Sierra GLS.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An English 1989 Ford Sierra GLS Sports Saloon. No longer in production]] [[Image:2000 Ford Taurus.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[Ford Taurus]], a modern family car which has gone through a number of changes.]] Cars are not merely continually perfected mechanical contrivances; since the 1920s nearly all have been mass-produced to meet a market, so marketing plans and manufacture to meet them have often dominated automobile design. It was [[Alfred P. Sloan]] who established the idea of different makes of cars produced by one firm, so that buyers could "move up" as their fortunes improved. The makes shared parts with one another so that the larger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price range. For example, in the 1950s, [[Chevrolet]] shared hood, doors, roof, and windows with [[Pontiac]]; the LaSalle of the 1930s, sold by [[Cadillac]], used the cheaper mechanical parts made by the Oldsmobile division. ==Alternative fuels and batteries== {{main|Alternative fuel cars}} With heavy [[tax]]es on fuel, particularly in [[Europe]] and tightening environmental [[law]]s, particularly in [[California]], and the possibility of further restrictions on [[greenhouse gas]] emissions, work on alternative power systems for vehicles continues. [[Diesel]]-powered cars can run with little or no modification on 100% pure [[biodiesel]], a fuel that can be made from [[vegetable oil]]s. Many cars that currently use gasoline can run on ethanol, a fuel made from plant sugars. Most cars that are designed to run on gasoline are capable of running with 15% ethanol mixed in, and with a small amount of redesign, gasoline-powered vehicles can run on ethanol concentrations as high as 85%. All petrol fuelled cars can run on [[Liquified petroleum gas|LPG]]. There has been some concern that the ethanol-gasoline mixtures prematurely wear down seals and gaskets. Further, the use of higher levels of alcohol requires that the automobile carry/use twice as much. Therefore, if your vehicle is capable of 300 miles on a 15-gallon tank, the efficiency is reduced to approximately 150 miles. Of course, certain measures are available to increase this efficiency, such as different camshaft configurations, altering the timing/spark output of the ignition, or simply, using a larger fuel tank. In the [[United States]], alcohol fuel was produced in corn-alcohol [[still]]s until [[Prohibition]] criminalized the production of alcohol in 1919. [[Brazil]] is the only country which produces ethanol-running cars, since the late 1970s. Attempts at building viable [[battery (electricity)|battery]]-powered electric vehicles continued throughout the 1990s (notably [[General Motors]] with the [[EV1]]), but cost, speed and inadequate driving range made them uneconomical. Battery powered cars have used [[lead-acid batteries]] which are greatly damaged in their recharge capacity if discharged beyond 75% on a regular basis and [[Nickel metal hydride|NiMH batteries]]. Current research and development is centered on "[[Hybrid electric vehicle|hybrid]]" vehicles that use both electric power and internal combustion. The first hybrid vehicle available for sale in the USA was the [[Honda Insight]]. As of 2005, The car is still in production and achieves around 60 mpg. Other R&D efforts in alternative forms of power focus on developing [[fuel cells]], alternative forms of combustion such as [[Gasoline Direct Injection|GDI]] and [[HCCI]], and even the stored energy of compressed air (see [[water Engine]]). ==Safety== [[Image:Eurocar.jpg|thumb|300px|A [[Mini]] in Paris, France]] Automobiles were a significant improvement in safety on a per passenger mile basis, over the horse based travel that they replaced. Millions have been able to reach medical care much more quickly when transported by [[ambulance]]. [[Car accident|Accidents]] seem as old as automobile vehicles themselves. [[Joseph Cugnot]] crashed his steam-powered "Fardier" against a wall in 1770. The first recorded automobile fatality was [[Bridget Driscoll]] on [[1896-08-17]] in [[London]] and the first in the [[United States]] was [[Henry Bliss]] on [[1899-09-13]] in [[New York City, NY]]. Cars have two basic safety problems: They have human drivers who make mistakes, and the wheels lose traction near a half gravity of deceleration. [[Automated highway system|Automated control]] has been seriously proposed and successfully prototyped. Shoulder-belted passengers could tolerate a 32[[Gee|G]] emergency stop (reducing the safe intervehicle gap 64-fold) if high-speed roads incorporated a steel rail for emergency braking. Both safety modifications of the roadway are thought to be too expensive by most funding authorities, although these modifications could dramatically increase the number of vehicles that could safely use a high-speed highway. Early safety research focused on increasing the reliability of brakes and reducing the flammability of fuel systems. For example, modern engine compartments are open at the bottom so that fuel vapors, which are heavier than air, vent to the open air. Brakes are hydraulic so that failures are slow leaks, rather than abrupt cable breaks. Systematic research on crash safety started in 1958 at [[Ford Motor Company]]. Since then, most research has focused on absorbing external crash energy with crushable panels and reducing the motion of human bodies in the passenger compartment. There are standard tests for safety in new automobiles, like the [[EuroNCAP]] and the [http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/testing/ncap/ US NCAP] tests. There are also tests run by organizations such as [http://www.hwysafety.org/ IIHS] and backed by the insurance industry. Despite technological advances, there is still significant loss of life from car accidents: About 40,000 people die every year in the [[U.S.]], with similar figures in [[Europe]]. This figure increases annually in step with rising population and increasing travel if no measures are taken, but the rate [[per capita]] and per mile travelled decreases steadily. The death toll is expected to nearly double worldwide by 2020. A much higher number of accidents result in injury or permanent [[disability]]. The highest accident figures are reported in China and India. The European Union has a rigid program to cut the death toll in the EU in half by 2010 and member states have started implementing measures. ==Current Production== In 2005 63 million cars and light trucks were produced worldwide. The world's biggest car producer (including light trucks) is the European Union with 29% of the world's production. In non-EU Eastern Europe another 4% are produced. The second largest manufacturer is NAFTA with 25.8%, followed by Japan with 16.7%, China with 8.1%, MERCOSUR with 3.9%, India with 2.4% and the rest of the world with 10.1%. (vda-link) Large free trade areas like EU, NAFTA and MERCOSUR attract manufacturers worldwide to produce their products within them and without currency risks or customs, additionally to being close to customers. Thus the production figures do not show the technological ability or business skill of the areas. In fact much if not most of the Third World car production is used western technology and car models (and sometimes even complete obsolete western factories shipped to the country), which is reflected in the patent statistic as well as the locations of the r&d centers. The automobile industry is dominated by relatively few large corporations (not to be confused with the much more numerous brands), the biggest of which (by numbers of produced cars) are currently [[General Motors]], [[Toyota]] and [[Ford Motor Company]]. It is expected, that Toyota will reach the No.1 position in 2006. The most profitable per-unit carmaker of recent years has been Porsche due to their premium price tag. The automotive industry at large still suffers from high under-utilization of its manufacturing potential. ==Future of the car== In order to limit deaths, there has been a push for self-driving automobiles. Much of the drive for computer-driven vehicles has been led by [[DARPA]] with their [http://www.grandchallenge.org/ Grand Challenge] race. A current and powerful invention was ESP by Bosch and many followers that reduces deaths by about 30% and is recommended by many lawmakers and carmakers to be a standard feature in all cars sold in the EU. ESP recognizes dangerous situations and corrects the drivers input for a short moment to stabilize the car. The biggest threat to automobiles is the declining supply of oil, which does not completely stop car usage but makes it significantly more expensive. Beginning of 2006 a gallon of gas costs approx. 6 US$ in Germany and other European countries. If no cheap solution can be found in the relatively near future individual mobility might suffer a major setback. Nevertheless, individual mobility is highly prized in modern societies so the demand for automobiles will remain just with a different power source. Looking at automotive technology some areas appear to have the most need of development. For example, both the rubber tires and the batteries currently used by most cars seem rather antiquated when compared to,say, modern-day engines and traction-control systems. These are like jets with cardboard wings or PCs with 10 KB hard drives respectively. While slow moving cars can control their wheels via ESP reasonably well, fast moving vehicles like a Bugatti Veyron need a special tire checkup before approaching 400 km/h. Also the existing batteries are barely fit to handle the cars electronics but are far off from the ability to store enough energy for moving the car unassisted. ==See also== {{wiktionarypar2|car|automobile}} *[[Carfree movement]] *[[Effects of the automobile on societies]] *[[List of automobile manufacturers]] *[[List of recent automobile models by type]] *[[U.S. Automobile Production Figures]] *[[Car dealership]] *[[Car handling]] *[[Car safety]] *''[[Unsafe at Any Speed]]'' by [[Ralph Nader]] *[[Crash test dummy]] *[[Car washing techniques]] *[[List of automotive superlatives]], [[Lists of automobiles]] for a [[structured list]]. *[[List of automotive packages]] (cosmetic and functional features sold as a group) *[[Road traffic accident]] *[[hybrid cars]] *[[Portal:Cars]] ==Major possible subsystems== *[[engine]] **[[carburetor]] or [[fuel injection]] **[[fuel pump]] **[[engine configuration]]: [[Wankel engine|Wankel]] or [[reciprocating engine|reciprocating]] ([[v engine|V]], [[inline engine|inline]], [[flat engine|flat]]). **[[electronic control unit|engine management system]]s **[[exhaust pipe|exhaust system]] **[[ignition system]] **[[Automobile self starter|self starter]] **[[Automobile emissions control|emissions control]] devices **[[turbocharger]]s and [[supercharger]]s **[[front engine]] **[[rear engine]] **[[mid engine]] *[[Automobile ancillary power|Ancillary power]] - mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, vacuum, air *[[drivetrain]] **[[transmission (automobile)|transmission]] ([[gearbox]]) ***[[manual transmission]] ***[[semi-automatic transmission]] ***[[fully-automatic transmission]] **Layout ***[[FF layout]] ***[[FR layout]] ***[[MR layout]] ***[[RR layout]] **Drive Wheels ***[[2 wheel drive]] ***[[4 wheel drive]] ***[[Front wheel drive]] ***[[Rear wheel drive]] ***[[All wheel drive]] **[[differential (mechanics)|differential]] ***[[limited slip differential]] ***[[locking differential]] **[[axle]] **[[Live axle]] *[[brake]]s **[[disc brake]]s **[[drum brake]]s **[[anti-lock braking system]]s (ABS) *[[wheel]]s and [[tire]]s **[[custom wheel]]s *[[steering]] **[[rack and pinion]] **[[Ackermann steering geometry]] **[[Caster angle]] **[[Camber angle]] **[[Kingpin]] *[[suspension (vehicle)|suspension]] **[[MacPherson strut]] **[[wishbone suspension|wishbone]] **[[double wishbone]] **[[multi-link suspension|multi-link]] **[[torsion beam suspension|torsion beam]] **[[semi-trailing arm suspension|semi-trailing arm]] **[[axle]] *body **[[crumple zone]]s **[[monocoque]] (or unibody) construction **[[:Category:Car doors]] **[[Spoiler (automotive)|spoiler]] **[[Japan Black]] (fore-runner of modern automotive finishes) *interior equipment **[[passive safety]] ***[[seat belt]]s ***[[airbag]]s ***[[child safety lock]]s **[[dashboard]] **[[shifter]] for selecting gear ratios **[[wikt:ancillary|ancillary]] equipment such as [[car audio|stereos]], [[air conditioning]], [[cruise control]], [[car phone]]s, [[Global Positioning System|positioning system]]s, cup holders, etc. *exterior equipment **windows ***[[Power window]] ***[[windshield]] ***[[Daytime running lamp]]s ==External links== {{cleanup-spam}} {{commons|Automobile}} *[http://www.dmv.org/ Department of Motor Vehicles] *[http://www.autoweek.com/ Autoweek.com] *[http://www.detnews.com/autosinsider/index.htm Auto Insider] *[http://www.edmunds.com/ Edmunds.com] *[http://www.kbb.com/ Kelley Blue Book] *[http://www.hwysafety.org/ Insurance Institute for Highway Safety] *[http://nhtsa.gov/ NHTSA.gov] *[http://www.naftc.wvu.edu/ Alternative Fuel Vehicle Training] *[http://www.becomeacardealer.com/ How To Become a Car Dealer] *[http://www.vda.de/de/service/jahresbericht/auto2005/pdf_charts/2_32.pdf/ Worldwide car production] *[http://www.topgear.com/ Top Gear cool automobile show from the BBC UK] *[http://www.automotoportal.com/ Automotive industry portal] [[Category:Automobiles|*]] {{Link FA|eo}} [[bg:Автомобил]] [[ca:Automòbil]] [[cs:Automobil]] [[da:Bil]] [[de:Automobil]] [[es:Automóvil]] [[eo:Aŭtomobilo]] [[fa:خودرو]] [[fr:Automobile]] [[gl:Automóbil]] [[ko:자동차]] [[hr:Automobil]] [[id:Mobil]] [[it:Autovettura]] [[he:מכונית]] [[la:Autocinetum]] [[lt:Automobilis]] [[mk:Автомобил]] [[ms:Kereta]] [[na:Auto]] [[nv:Chidí]] [[nl:Auto]] [[ja:自動車]] [[no:Bil]] [[nn:Bil]] [[os:Хæдтулгæ]] [[pl:Samochód]] [[pt:Automóvel]] [[ro:Automobil]] [[ru:Автомобиль]] [[simple:Car]] [[sk:Automobil]] [[sl:Avtomobil]] [[sr:Аутомобил]] [[su:Otomotif]] [[fi:Auto]] [[sv:Bil]] [[th:รถยนต์]] [[tr:Otomobil]] [[uk:Автомобіль]] [[zh:汽车]] 848 41903912 2006-03-02T14:29:36Z Mushin 271938 /* History */ rw [[Image:Audi_logo.png|none|right|200px|Audi logo]] '''Audi''' is an [[automobile]] maker in [[Germany]], and is a wholly-owned subsidiary of the [[Volkswagen Group]]. The company is headquartered in [[Ingolstadt]], [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]]. Audi's German [[tagline]] is "[[Vorsprung durch Technik]]". The [[tagline]] is used either in original or in its English translation "Progress through Technology". ==History== [[Image:Audi NSU range (1969).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Press photograph of the then newly merged Audi NSU range, 1969.]] ===The origins of Audi=== The company traces its origins back to 1899 and [[August Horch]]. The first Horch automobile was produced in 1901 in [[Zwickau]], in former [[East Germany]]. In 1910, Horch was forced out of the company he had founded. He then started a new company in Zwickau and continued using the Horch brand. His former partners sued him for [[trademark]] infringement and a German court determined that the Horch brand belonged to his former company. August Horch was forced to refrain from using his own [[family name]] in his new car business. As the word "horch!" translates to "listen!" in [[German language|German]], August Horch settled on the [[Latin]] equivalent of his name - "audi!". It is also popularly believed that Audi is an acronym which stands for "Auto Union [[Germany|Deutschland]] [[Ingolstadt]]". Audi produces over 2 million vehicles annually at its main production site in [[Ingolstadt]]. Audi has another production plant in Neckarsulm. Audi started with a 2612 [[Cubic centimetre|cc]] model followed by a four cylinder model with 3564 cc, as well as 4680 cc and 5720 cc models. These cars were successful even in sporting events. August Horch left the Audi company in 1920. The first six cylinder model (4655 cc) appeared in 1924. In 1928, the company was acquired by [[J S Rasmussen]], owner of [[DKW]], who bought the same year the remains of the US [[automobile manufacturer]], [[Rickenbacker]] including the manufacturing equipment for eight cylinder engines. These engines were used in ''Audi Zwickau'' and ''Audi Dresden'' models that were launched in 1929. At the same time, six cylinder and a small four cylinder (licensed from [[Peugeot]]) models were manufactured. Audi cars of that era were luxurious cars equipped with special bodywork. ===The Auto Union era=== In 1932 Audi merged with [[Horch]], [[DKW]] and [[Wanderer (car)|Wanderer]] to form the [[Auto Union]]. Before [[World War II]], Auto Union used the four interlinked rings that make up the Audi badge today, representing these four brands. This badge was used, however, only on Auto Union racing cars in that period while the member companies used their own names and emblems. The technological development became more and more concentrated and some Audi models were propelled by Horch or Wanderer built engines. ===Pause and a new start=== Auto Union plants were heavily bombed and partly destroyed during [[World War II]]. After the war, Zwickau soon became part of the [[German Democratic Republic]] and Audi headquarters were moved to [[Ingolstadt]]. In that period, the four interlinked rings were used together with the DKW badge. The company focused efforts on the DKW brand, but their [[two-stroke]] engines became unpopular. In 1958, [[Daimler-Benz]] acquired 88 per cent of Auto Union and the next year became its sole owner. Daimler-Benz developed a 72 hp (54 kW) four-door sedan, with a modern [[four stroke engine]] driving the front wheels. This model appeared in September 1965, "relaunching" the Audi brand. Daimler-Benz sold the company to [[Volkswagen]] in 1964; subsequently, Volkswagen's purchase of Auto Union has led to the modernization of VW to which it gained expertise in manufacturing water-cooled vehicles. Today, aircooled powerplants once produced by VW are no longer placed into production vehicles since December 23, 2005. [[image:Audi_60.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Audi 60 (1968 - 1972)]] In 1969, Audi merged with [[NSU Motorenwerke AG|NSU]], based in [[Neckarsulm]] near [[Stuttgart]]. In the [[1950s]] NSU had been the world's largest manufacturer of [[motorcycle]]s but had moved on to produce small cars like the [[NSU Prinz]] (the TT and TTS versions are still popular as vintage race cars). NSU then focused on new rotary engines according to the ideas of [[Felix Wankel]]. In 1967, the new [[NSU Ro 80]] was a space-age car well ahead of its time in technical details such as aerodynamics, light weight, safety, et cetera, but teething problems with the rotary engines put an end to the independence of NSU. Presently several lines of Audi cars are produced in Neckarsulm. The mid-sized car that NSU had been working on, the K70, was intended to slot between the rear-engined Prinz models and the futuristic Ro 80. However, Volkswagen took the K70 for its own range, spelling the end of NSU as a separate brand. ===The modern era of Audi=== [[image:audi.quatro.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Audi Quattro]] [[Image:Audi.tt.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Audi TT]] The first Audi of the modern era was the [[Audi 100]] of 1968. This was soon joined by the [[Audi 80|Audi 80/Fox]] (which formed the basis for the 1973 [[Volkswagen Passat]]) in 1972. The Audi image at this time was a conservative one, and so, a proposal from chassis engineer [[Jorg Bensinger]] was accepted to develop the [[four-wheel drive]] technology in [[Volkswagen]]'s [[Iltis]] military vehicle for an Audi performance car and [[Rallying|rally]] racing car. The performance car was named the "[[Quattro]]," a turbocharged coupé which was also the first production vehicle to feature full-time all-wheel drive through a center [[differential]]. Commonly referred to as the "Ur-Quattro" (the "[[Ur-]]" prefix is a German [[augmentative]] used, in this case, to mean "original" and is also applied to the first generation of Audi's S4 and S6 sport sedans, as in "UrS4" and "UrS6"), few of these vehicles were produced (all hand-built by a single team) but the model was a great success in rallying. Prominent wins proved the viability of all-wheel drive racecars, and the Audi name became associated with advances in automotive technology, In 1986, as the Passat-based Audi 80 was beginning to develop a kind of "grandfather's car" image, the type 89 was introduced. This completely new development sold extremely well. However, its modern and dynamic exterior belied the low performance of its base engine, and its base package was quite spartan (even the passenger-side mirror was an option.) In 1987, Audi put forward a new and very elegant [[Audi 90]], which had a much superior set of standard features. In the early nineties, sales began to slump for the Audi 80 series, and some basic construction problems started to surface. This decline in sales was not helped in the [[United States|USA]] by a ''[[60 Minutes]]'' report which purported to show that Audi automobiles suffered from "unintended acceleration". The ''60 Minutes'' report was based on customer reports of acceleration when the brake pedal was pushed. Independent investigators concluded that this was most likely due to a close placement of the accelerator and brake pedals (unlike American cars), and the inability, when not paying attention, to distinguish between the two. (In race cars, when manually downshifting under heavy braking, the accelerator has to be used in order to match revs properly, so both pedals have to be close to each other to be operated by the right foot at once, toes on the brake, heels on the gas. US citizens are used to automatic gearboxes and only two well separated pedals). This was never an issue in Europe, as Europeans in general use manual transmission gears, and have a "feeling" for vehicle revs in comparison to the speed of the car. ''60 Minutes'' ignored this fact and rigged a car to perform in an uncontrolled manner. The report immediately crushed Audi sales, and Audi renamed the affected model (The 5000 became the 100/200 in 1989, as in Germany and elsewhere). Audi had contemplated withdrawing from the American market until sales began to recover in the mid-1990s. The turning point for Audi was the sale of the new A4 in 1996, and with the release of the A4/6/8 series, which was developed together with VW and other sister brands (so called "platforms"). Currently, Audi's sales are growing strongly in Europe, and the company is renowned for having the best build quality of any mainstream auto manufacturer. 2004 marked the 11th straight increase in sales, selling 779,441 vehicles worldwide. Record figures were recorded from 21 out of about 50 major sales markets. The largest sales increases came from Eastern Europe (+19.3%), Africa (+17.2%) and the Middle East (+58.5%). In March of 2005, Audi is building its first two dealerships in India following its high increase in sales in that region. Though its brand still doesn't have the global cachet of [[Mercedes-Benz]] or [[BMW]], Audi's reputation for quality and understated style has once again made it a highly desirable marque. However, after 2003, with the release of the new A4, and in 2004 with the new A6, Audi's dedication to quality had finally paid off when it started to receive news reports and various vehicle critics praising Audis over [[Mercedes-Benz]] and [[BMW]]. ==Auto racing== Audi has competed in (and sometimes dominated) numerous forms of [[auto racing]]. Audi's rich tradition in motorsport began with the [[Auto Union]] in the 1930s. In the 1990s Audi dominated the Touring and Super Touring categories of motor racing after success in circuit racing Stateside. ===Rallying=== In 1980 Audi released the [[Audi Quattro|Quattro]], an [[all wheel drive]] turbocharged car that went on to win [[rally racing|rallies]] and races worldwide. It is considered one of the most significant rally cars of all time because it was one of the first to take advantage of the then-recently changed rules which allowed the use of all-wheel-drive in competition racing. Many critics doubted the viability of all-wheel-drive racers, thinking them to be too heavy and complex, yet the Quattro was an instant success, winning its first rally on its first outing. It won competition after competition for the next two years. In 1984 Audi launched the "[[Quattro|Sport Quattro]]" car which dominated races in [[Monte Carlo]] and [[Sweden]] with Audi taking all podium finishes but succumbed to problems further into [[WRC|World Rally Championship]] contention. After another season mired in mediocre finishes, Walter Röhrl finished the season in his Sport Quattro S1 and helped place Audi second in the manufacturer's points. Audi also received rally honors in the [[Hong Kong]] to [[Beijing]] rally in that same year. Michèle Mouton, the first female WRC driver to win a championship and a driver for Audi, took the Sport Quattro S1, now simply called the S1 and raced in the [[Pikes Peak|Pikes Peak Hill Climb]]. The climb race pits a driver and car to drive up a 4,302 meter high mountain in [[Colorado]] and in 1985, Michèle Mouton set a new record of 11:25.39 and being the first woman to set a Pikes Peak record. In 1986, Audi formally left international rally racing following an accident in Portugal involving driver Joaquim Santos in his RS200. Santos swerved to avoid hitting spectators in the road, and left the track into the crowd of spectators on the side, killing three and injuring 30. [[Bobby Unser]] used an Audi in that same year to claim a new record for the Pikes Peak Hill Climb at 11:09.22. ===Motorsports in the USA=== In 1987, Walter Röhrl claimed the title for Audi setting a new record of 10:47.85 in his Audi S1 he retired from the WRC in 2 years earlier. The Audi S1 employed Audi's time-tested 5-cylinder turbo charged engine and generated over 600 hp (447 kW). The engine was mated to a 6-speed gearbox and ran on Audi's famous all-wheel drive system. All of Audi's top drivers drove this beast, Hannu Mikkola, Stig Blomqvist, Walter Röhrl and the female driver, Michèle Mouton. The Audi S1 enjoys a 0-60 mph (0-100 km/h) time of 2.3 s. This Audi S1 started the S-series of cars for Audi which now represents an increased level of sports options and quality to the Audi line up. As Audi moved away from rallying and into circuit racing, they chose first into America with the [[Trans-Am Series|Trans-Am]] in 1988, In 1989, Audi moved to [[International Motor Sports Association|IMSA GTO]] with the [[Audi 90|90]], however as they avoided the two major endurance events (Daytona and Sebring) despite winning on a regular basis, they would lose out on the title. ===Touring cars=== In 1990, having completed their objective to market cars in the United States, Audi returned to Europe turning first to the [[Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft|DTM]] series with the [[Audi V8]], then in 1993, being unwilling to build cars for the new formula, they turned their attention to the fast growing [[Supertouring]] series, which took place nationally, first in the [[French Supertourisme]] and [[Italian Superturismo]]. In the following year, Audi would switched to the German [[Super Tourenwagen]] (known as STW) and then to [[BTCC]] (British Touring Car Championship) the year after that. The [[FIA]], having difficulty regulating the Quattro system and what impact it had on the competitors, would eventually ban all four wheel drive cars from competiting in 1998, by then Audi switched all their works efforts to sportscar racing. By 2000, Audi would still compete in the US with their [[Audi RS4|RS4]] for the [[SPEED World Challenge|SCCA Speed World GT Challenge]], through dealer/team [[Champion Racing]] competing against Corvettes, Vipers, and smaller BMWs (where it is one of the few series to permit 4WD cars). In 2003, Champion Racing entered an [[Audi RS6|RS6]]. Once again, the quattro was superior and Champion Audi won the championship. They returned in 2004 to defend their title but a newcomer, Cadillac, gave them a run for their money. After four victories in a row, the Audis were sanctioned with several negative changes that deeply affected the car's performance. In 2004, after years of competiting with the TT-R in the revitalised DTM series, with privateer team [[Abt|Abt Racing]] taking the 2002 title with [[Laurent Aiello]], Audi returned as a full factory effort to touring car racing by entering two factory supported [[Joest Racing]] [[Audi A4|A4s]]. ===Sports car racing=== Beginning in 1999, Audi built the [[Audi R8 Race Car|Audi R8]] to compete in [[sports car racing]], including the [[Le Mans Prototype|LMP900]] class at the [[24 hours of Le Mans]]. The factory supported Joest Racing team won at Le Mans three times in a row (2000 - 2002), as well as winning every race in the [[American Le Mans]] Series in its first year. Audi also sold the car to customer teams such as [[Champion Racing]]. In 2003, two [[Bentley]] [[Bentley Speed 8|Speed 8]]s, with engines designed by Audi and driven by Joest drivers ''loaned'' to the fellow VW company, competed in the GTP class and finished the race in the top two positions, while the Champion Racing R8 finished third overall and first in the LMP900 class. Audi returned to the winner's circle at the 2004 race, with the top three finishers all driving R8s: Audi Sport Japan Team Goh finished first, Audi Sport UK Veloqx second, and Champion Racing third. At the 2005 24 Hours of Le Mans, Champion Racing entered two R8s along with an R8 from the Audi PlayStation Team [[Oreca]]. The R8s (which were built to old LMP900 regulations) received a more narrow air inlet restrictor, cutting power, and an additional 50 kg of weight compared to the newer LMP1 chassis. On average, the R8s were about 2-3 seconds off pace compared to the [[Pescarolo]]-[[Judd]]. But with a team of excellent drivers and experience, both Champion R8s were able to take first and third while the ORECA team took fourth. The Champion team was also the first American team to win Le Mans since the Gulf Ford GT's in 1967. This also ends the long era of the R8, however its replacement for 2006, called the [[Audi R10]], was unveiled on December 13, 2005. the R10 employs many new features, including a twin-turbocharged diesel engine. Its first race will likely be the 2006 12 Hours of Sebring as a race-test for the 2006 24 Hours of Le Mans. ==Technology== Audi is the only car manufacturer that produces 100% [[galvanize]]d vehicles to prevent corrosion. Along with other precautionary measures, the thus achieved full-body [[zinc]] coating has proved to be very effective in preventing rust and [[corrosion perforation]]. The body's resulting durability even surpassed Audi's own expectations, causing the manufacturer to extend its original 10-year [[warranty]] against corrosion perforation to currently 12 years. An all-[[aluminium]] car was brought forward by Audi, and in 1994 the Audi A8 was launched, which introduced aluminium [[space frame]] technology. Audi introduced a new series of vehicles in the mid-nineties and continues to pursue leading-edge technology and high performance. The all-aluminium concept was extended to the company's new [[sub-compact]], the [[Audi A2]] which was launched in 2001. In the 1970's, some vehicle manufacturers including Audi (and [[Subaru]]) designed their own [[all wheel drive]] systems in passenger vehicles. In the 1980's, all-wheel drive systems in cars became a fad, and other manufacturers like [[Porsche]] and [[Mercedes-Benz]] offered all-wheel drive systems in their cars to compete in the marketplace. Unfortunately, the all-wheel drive system in the Mercedes-Benz vehicles were riddled with problems right from the design sheet. The system also was not popular in Porsche vehicles because owners wanted the traditional performance of the [[rear wheel drive]] they got used to in older Porsches. Although Porsche and Mercedes-Benz offer all-wheel drive systems in some cars today, neither manufacturer was able to ride the fad and come out on top like Audi has. Today, after many decades of class-leading technology and engineering, the name ''[[quattro]]'' is an identifiable symbol and trademark that shows would-be competitors the level of quality they have to achieve in order to attempt to compete with Audi. In the 1980s, Audi was the champion of the inline 5 cylinder, [[Engine displacement|2.1/2.2 L]] engine as a longer lasting alternative to more traditional 6 cylinder engines. This engine was used in not only production cars but also their race cars. The 2.1 L inline 5 cylinder engine was used as a base for the rally cars in the 1980's, providing well over 400 [[horsepower]] (298 kW) after modification. Before 1990, there were engines produced with a displacement between 2.0 L and 2.3 L. This range of engine capacity was a good combination of good fuel economy which was on the mind of every motorist in the 1980's, and a good amount of power the customer wants. Through the early 1990's, Audi began to move more towards the position of being a real competitor in it's target market against Mercedes-Benz and BMW. This began with the release of the Audi V8 in 1990. It was essentially a new engine fitted to the Audi 100/200, but with noticeable bodywork differences. Most obvious was the new grille that was now incorprated in the bonnet. By 1991, Audi had the 4 cylinder [[Audi 80|Audi 80]], the 5 cylinder [[Audi 80|Audi 90]] and [[Audi 100|Audi 100]], the turbocharged [[Audi 100|Audi 200]] and the [[Audi V8|Audi V8]]. There was also a coupe version of the 80/90 with both 4 and 5 cylinder engines. Although the five cylinder engine was a successful and very robust powerplant, it was still a little too different for the target market. With the introduction of an all-new Audi 100 in 1992, Audi introduced a 2.8l V6 engine. This engine was also fitted to a face-lifted Audi 80 (all 80 and 90 models were now badged 80 except for the USA), giving this model a choice of 4, 5 and 6 cylinder engines, in sedan, coupe and cabriolet body styles. The 5 cylinder was soon dropped as a major engine choice, however a turbocharged 230BHP (169kW) version remained. The engine, initially fitted to the 200 quattro 20V of 1991, was a derivative of the engine fitted to the Sport Quattro. It was fitted to the Audi Coupe and named the S2 and also to the Audi 100 body, and named the [[Audi S4|S4]]. These two models were the beginning of the mass produced S series of performance cars. The [[Audi A8|Audi A8]] replaced the [[Audi V8|V8]] in 1994, with a revolutionary Aluminium Space Frame (ASF) to save weight. The weight reduction was offset by the quattro all-wheel drive system, however it meant the car had similar performance to its rivals, but far superior handling. The next major model change was in 1995 when the [[Audi A4|Audi A4]] replaced the [[Audi 80|Audi 80]]. The new nomenclature scheme was applied to the Audi 100 to become the Audi A6 (with a minor facelift). This also meant the S4 became the [[Audi S6|S6]] and a new S4 was introduced in the A4 body. The S2 was discontinued. The [[Audi Cabriolet]] continued on (based on the Audi 80 platform) until 1999, gaining the engine upgrades along the way. A new [[Audi A3|A3]] (based on the [[VW Golf|Volkswagen Golf]]) was introduced to the range in 1997, and the radical [[Audi TT|TT]] coupe and roadster were debuted in 1998 based on the same underpinnings. Another interesting model introduced was the [[Mercedes Benz|Mercedes-Benz]] A-Class competitor, the [[Audi A2|Audi A2]]. The model sold relatively well in Europe, however Audi decided not to develop a new model and it has since been discontinued as of 2004. The engines available throughout the range were now a 1.4 L, 1.6 L and 1.8 L 4 cylinder, 1.8 turbo, 2.6 L and 2.8 L V6, 2.2 L turbo-charged 5 cylinder and the 4.2 L V8. The V6's were replaced by new 2.4 and 2.8 L 30V V6's in 1998, with marked improvement in power, torque and smoothness. Further engines were added along the way, including a 3.7 L V8 and 6.0 L W12 for the A8. At the turn of the century, Audi introduced the [[direct shift gearbox]] (DSG), a manual transmission driveable like an automatic transmission. The system includes dual electrohydraulically controlled clutches instead of a [[torque converter]]. This is implemented in some [[Volkswagen Golf]], [[Audi A3]] and [[Audi TT|TT]] models. The engine range was continually upgraded, with a 2.7 L twin turbo V6 being offered in the Audi S4, A6 and allroad, the 2.8 L V6 was replaced by a 3.0 L unit. New models of the A3, A4, A6 and A8 have been introduced, with the 1.8 L engine now 2.0 L and the 3.0 L V6 is now 3.1 L in size. Audi has now introduced [[FSI|FSI]] on some of their engines, including the 1.6 L 4 cylinder, a new 2.0 L (Audi was the first manufacturer in the world to utilize a turbo charger and FSI on the same powerplant), and the 3.1 L V6. This is a direct fuel-injection technique that Audi had also used on its diesel engines since the early 1980s. As a premium member of the VW Group, technologies are frequently first introduced to the mass market with Audi vehicles before being 'trickled down' to more value oriented brands such as VW, [[SEAT]] and [[Škoda Auto|Škoda]]. Recent examples of this include DSG and FSI. Audi now has an impressive range of cars, engines and transmissions available, which continue to lead the way and introduce new technologies into the market. ==Models== ===Production cars=== * [[Audi A2|A2]] * [[Audi A3|A3]] ** [[Audi S3|S3]] * [[Audi A4|A4]] ** [[Audi S4|S4]] ** [[Audi RS4|RS4]] * [[Audi A6|A6]] ** [[Audi S6|S6]] ** [[Audi RS6|RS6]] * [[Audi Q7|Q7]] * [[Audi A8|A8]] ** [[S8]] * [[Audi TT|TT]] ===Historical models=== * [[Audi 50]] * [[Audi 80|Audi 80/90/4000]] * [[Audi 100|Audi 100/200/5000]] * [[Audi Quattro]] * [[Audi V8]] * [[Audi UrS4/S6]] * model ===Future models=== ''The following is a list of models Audi ostensibly plans to offer in the future.'' * [[Audi A5|A5]] * [[Audi RS4|RS4]] * [[Audi Q5|Q5]] * [[Audi R8 Road Car (2006-).|R8]] ===Concepts=== ''The following is a partial list of [[concept car]]s.'' * [[Audi RSQ]] designed exclusively for the 2004 film [[I, Robot (movie)|I, Robot]]. * [[Audi Allroad Quattro Concept]] * [[Audi Shooting Brake]], design study for the next generation TT * [[Audi Avus Quattro]] * [[Audi Quattro Spyder]] * [[Audi Avantissimo]] * [[Audi Pikes Peak]] * [[Audi Nuvolari Quattro]] * [[Audi Le Mans Quattro]] * [[Audi Roadjet]] ==See also== {{commons|Audi}} * [[Audi Centre of Excellence]] * [[Audi Driving Experience]] * [[Austin Audi Club]] ==External links== * [http://www.audi.com Official website] * [http://www.audiworld.com AudiWorld.com Enthusiast Website] * [http://www.fourtitude.com Fourtitude.com Enthuiast Forum] * [http://www.audiclubna.org Audi Club North America - The Official Audi Owners Club for North America.] * [http://www.joestracing.de Joest Racing] * [http://audi100.selbst-doku.de/Main/EnglishHomepage Audi100.Selbst-Doku.De - most complete english/german Audi 100, 5000, A6 info site] * [http://www.audiforums.com Audi Forums] Enthusiast forums, recalls, TSBs, photo galleries, and general tech help. * [http://www.audi-forums.com Audi Forum] * [http://www.automotoportal.com/ Automotive industry portal with Audi news] {{Audi}} [[Category:Audi|Audi]] [[Category:Bavaria]] [[Category:German automobile manufacturers]] [[Category:Luxury car manufacturers]] [[Category:Saxony]] [[Category:Volkswagen]] [[bg:Ауди]] [[cs:Audi]] [[da:Audi]] [[de:Audi]] [[es:Audi]] [[fi:Audi]] [[fr:Audi]] [[he:אאודי]] [[id:Audi]] [[it:Audi]] [[ja:アウディ]] [[nl:Audi]] [[no:Audi]] [[pl:Audi]] [[pt:Audi]] [[ru:Ауди]] [[sk:Audi]] [[sv:Audi]] [[tr:Audi]] [[zh:奥迪]] 849 42156837 2006-03-04T04:52:45Z Rogerd 205136 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.57.130.124|24.57.130.124]] ([[User talk:24.57.130.124|talk]]) to last version by Blimpguy [[image:jal.747.newcolours.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|350px|A [[Japan Airlines]] [[Boeing]] [[Boeing 747-400|747-400]]. This is a wide-bodied long-haul '''aircraft''']] An '''aircraft''' is any [[machine]] capable of [[Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric]] [[flight]]. <!--English word "aircraft" is singuar and plural with no "s". See also the link to Wiktionary below.--> ==Categories and classification== Aircraft fall into two broad categories: ===Heavier than air=== Heavier than air [[aerodyne]]s, including [[autogyro]]s, [[helicopter]]s and variants, and conventional [[fixed-wing aircraft]] (airplanes or aeroplanes). Fixed-wing aircraft generally use an [[internal-combustion engine]] in the form of a [[piston engine]] (with a [[propeller]]) or a [[Turbine|turbine engine]] ([[Jet engine|jet]] or [[turboprop]]), to provide [[thrust]] that moves the craft forward through the air. The movement of air over the airfoil produces [[lift (force)|lift]] that causes the aircraft to fly. Exceptions are [[glider]]s which have no engines and gain their thrust, initially, from [[winch]]es or tugs and then from gravity and thermal currents. For a glider to maintain its forward speed it must descend in relation to the air (but not necessarily in relation to the ground). Helicopters and autogyros use a spinning rotor (a ''rotary wing'') to provide lift; helicopters also use the rotor to provide thrust. The abbreviation [[VTOL]] is applied to aircraft other than helicopters that can take off or land vertically. [[STOL]] stands for Short Take Off and Landing. ===Lighter than air=== [[image:yellow.balloon.takesoff.in.bath.arp.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A hot air balloon takes off from Royal Victoria Park, Bath, England]] [[Lighter than air]] [[aerostat]]s: [[hot air balloon]]s and [[airship]]s. Aerostats use [[buoyancy]] to float in the air in much the same manner as ships float on the water. In particular, these aircraft use a relatively low density gas such as [[helium]], [[hydrogen]] or heated air, to displace the air around the craft. The distinction between a balloon and an airship is that an airship has some means of controlling both its forward motion and steering itself, while balloons are carried along with the wind. ===Types of aircraft=== :''See also: [[List of aircraft]]'' There are several ways to classify aircraft. Below, we describe classifications by design, propulsion and usage. ====By design==== [[image:Size-comparison.jpg|thumb|right|350px|A size Comparation of some of the largest airplanes in the world. The Airbus A380-800, the Boeing 747-400 (largest airliner to date) The Antonov An-225 (aircraft with the greatest payload) and the Hughes H-4 "Spruce Goose" (largest airplane in the world) designed by the famous [[Howard Hughes]] ]] A first division by design among aircraft is between lighter-than-air, '''aerostat''', and heavier-than-air aircraft, '''aerodyne'''. Examples of lighter-than-air aircraft include non-steerable [[balloon]]s, such as [[hot air balloon]]s and [[gas balloon]]s, and steerable [[airship]]s (sometimes called dirigible balloons) such as [[blimp]]s (that have non-rigid construction) and [[rigid airship|rigid airships]] that have an internal frame. The most successful type of rigid airship was the [[Zeppelin]]. Several accidents, such as the [[Hindenburg disaster|Hindenburg]] fire at [[Lakehurst]], NJ, in [[1937]] led to the demise of large rigid airships. In heavier-than-air aircraft, there are two ways to produce lift: aerodynamic lift and engine lift. In the case of aerodynamic lift, the aircraft is kept in the air by wings or rotors (see [[aerodynamics]]). With engine lift, the aircraft defeats gravity by use of [[vertical]] Examples of engine lift aircraft are [[rocket]]s, and [[VTOL]] aircraft such as the [[Hawker-Siddeley Harrier]]. Among aerodynamically lifted aircraft, most fall in the category of [[fixed-wing aircraft]], where horizontal airfoils produce [[lift (force)|lift]], by profiting from airflow patterns determined by [[Bernoulli's equation]] and, to some extent, the [[Coanda effect]]. The forerunner of these type of aircraft is the [[Kite flying|kite]]. Kites depend upon the tension between the cord which anchors it to the ground and the force of the [[wind]] currents. Much aerodynamic work was done with kites until test aircraft, wind tunnels and now computer modelling programs became available. In a "conventional" configuration, the lift surfaces are placed in front of a control surface or [[tailplane]]. The other configuration is the [[canard]] where small horizontal control surfaces are placed forward of the wings, near the nose of the aircraft. Canards are becoming more common as [[supersonic]] [[aerodynamic]]s grows more mature and because the forward surface contributes lift during straight-and-level flight. The number of lift surfaces varied in the pre-[[1950]] period, as [[biplane]]s (two wings) and [[triplane]]s (three wings) were numerous in the early days of aviation. Subsequently most aircraft are [[monoplane]]s. This is principally an improvement in [[structure]]s and not aerodynamics. Other possibilities include the [[delta-wing]], where lift and horizontal control surfaces are often combined, and the [[flying wing]], where there is no separate vertical control surface (e.g. the [[B-2 Spirit]]). A variable geometry ('swing-wing') has also been employed in a few examples of combat aircraft (the [[General Dynamics F-111|F-111]], [[Panavia Tornado]], [[F-14 Tomcat]] and [[B-1 Lancer]], among others). The [[lifting body]] configuration is where the body itself produce lift. So far the only significant practical application of the lifting body is in the [[Space Shuttle]], but many aircraft generate lift from nothing other than wings alone. A second category of aerodynamically lifted aircraft are the [[rotary-wing aircraft]]. Here, the lift is provided by rotating [[aerofoil]]s or [[rotor]]s. The best-known examples are the [[helicopter]], the [[autogyro]] and the [[tiltrotor]] aircraft (such as the [[V-22 Osprey]]). Some craft have reaction-powered rotors with gas jets at the tips but most have one or more lift rotors powered from engine-driven shafts. A further category might encompass the [[ground effect|wing-in-ground-effect]] types, for example the Russian [[ekranoplan]] also nicknamed the "Caspian Sea Monster" and [[hovercraft]]; most of the latter employing a skirt and achieving limited ground or water clearance to reduce friction and achieve speeds above those achieved by [[boat]]s of similar weight. A recent innovation is a completely new class of aircraft, the [[fan wing]]. This uses a fixed wing with a forced airflow produced by cylindrical fans mounted above. It is (2005) in development in the [[United Kingdom]]. And finally the flapping-wing [[ornithopter]] is a category of its own. These designs may have potential but are not yet practical. ====By propulsion==== [[Image:WestCoastAirFloatplane.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[turboprop]]-engined [[De Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter|DeHavilland Twin Otter]] adapted as a [[floatplane]].]] Some types of aircraft, such as the balloon or [[glider]], do not have any propulsion. Balloons drift with the wind, though normally the pilot can control the altitude either by heating the air or by releasing ballast, giving some directional control (since the wind direction changes with altitude). For gliders, takeoff takes place from a high location, or the aircraft is pulled into the air by a ground-based winch or vehicle, or towed aloft by a powered "tug" aircraft. [[Airship]]s combine a balloon's [[buoyancy]] with some kind of propulsion, usually [[propeller]] driven. Until [[World War II]], the [[Internal combustion engine|internal combustion piston engine]] was virtually the only type of propulsion used for powered aircraft. (See also: [[Aircraft engine]].) The piston engine is still used in the majority of aircraft produced, since it is efficient at the lower altitudes used by small aircraft, but the [[radial engine]] (with the cylinders arranged in a circle around the [[crankshaft]]) has largely given way to the [[horizontally-opposed engine]] (with the cylinders lined up on two sides of the crankshaft). Water cooled [[V engine]]s, as used in automobiles, were common in high speed aircraft, until they were replaced by jet and turbine power. Piston engines typically operate using [[avgas]] or regular gasoline, though some new ones are being designed to operate on diesel or jet fuel. Piston engines normally become less efficient above 7,000-8,000 ft (2100-2400 m) above sea level because there is less oxygen available for combustion; to solve that problem, some piston engines have mechanically powered compressors (blowers) or turbine-powered [[turbocharger]]s or turbonormalizers that compress the air before feeding it into the engine; these piston engines can often operate efficiently at 20,000 ft (6100 m) above sea level or higher, altitudes that require the use of supplemental oxygen or cabin pressurisation. During the forties and especially following the [[1973 energy crisis]], development work was done on propellers with swept tips or even scimitar-shaped blades for use in high-speed commercial and military transports. Pressurised aircraft, however, are more likely to use the [[turbine|turbine engine]], since it is naturally efficient at higher altitudes and can operate above 40,000 ft. Helicopters also typically use turbine engines. In addition to turbine engines like the [[turboprop]] and [[jet engine|turbojet]], other types of high-altitude, high-performance engines have included the [[ramjet]] and the [[pulse jet]]. [[Rocket aircraft]] have occasionally been experimented with. They are restricted to rather specialised niches, such as [[spaceflight]], where no oxygen is available for combustion (rockets carry their own oxygen). ====By usage==== The major distinction in aircraft usage is between [[military aviation]], which includes all uses of aircraft for military purposes (such as combat, patrolling, search and rescue, reconnaissance, transport, and training), and [[civil aviation]], which includes all uses of aircraft for non-military purposes. =====[[Military aircraft]]===== [[Image:4781.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A prototype of [[Hindustan Aeronautics]]' [[Light Combat Aircraft]].]] Combat aircraft like fighters or bombers represent only a minority of the category. Many civil aircraft have been produced in separate models for military use, such as the civil [[Douglas DC-3]] airliner, which became the military [[C-47]]/C-53/R4D transport in the U.S. military and the "Dakota" in the U.K. and the [[Commonwealth]]. Even the small fabric-covered two-seater [[Piper Cub|Piper J3 Cub]] had a military version, the L-4 liaison, observation and trainer aircraft. In the past, gliders and balloons have also been used as military aircraft; for example, balloons were used for observation during the [[American Civil War]] and [[World War I]], and cargo gliders were used during [[World War II]] to land intruding German troops in a few European countries in the 1940-42 period, while Allied troops used them in landings on [[Sicily]] and [[Italy]], 1943, and in Western Europe [France and Holland] on [[D-Day]] (the [[Normandy]] 6 June 1944 [[Operation Overlord]] invasion) and in [[Operation Anvil-Dragoon]] (1944) and in [[Operation Market Garden]] (1944). Combat aircraft themselves, though used a handful of times for reconnaissance and [[surveillance aircraft|surveillance]] during the [[Italo-Turkish War]], did not come into widespread use until the [[Balkan War]] when [[first air-dropped bomb]] was invented and widely used by [[Bulgarian air force]] against [[Turkey]]. During [[World War I]] many types of aircraft were adapted for attacking the ground or enemy vehicles/ships/guns/aircraft, and the first aircraft designed as [[bomber]]s were born. In order to prevent the enemy from bombing, [[fighter aircraft]] were developed to intercept and shoot down enemy aircraft. [[Tanker (aircraft)|Tanker]]s were developed after [[World War II]] to refuel other aircraft in mid-air, thus increasing their operational range. By the time of the [[Vietnam War]], [[helicopter]]s had come into widespread military use, especially for transporting, supplying, and supporting ground troops. =====Civil aviation===== [[image:heli.g-code.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Bell 206|Bell 206B JetRanger III]] '''[[helicopter]]''']] Civil aviation includes both scheduled airline flights and [[general aviation]], a catch-all covering other kinds of private and commercial use. The vast majority of flights flown around the world each day belong to the general aviation category, ranging from recreational balloon flying to civilian flight training to business trips to firefighting to medevac flights to cargo transportation on [[freight aircraft]]. Within general aviation, the major distinction is between private flights (where the pilot is not paid for time or expenses) and commercial flights (where the pilot is paid by a customer or employer). Private pilots use aircraft primarily for personal travel, business travel, or recreation. Usually these private pilots own their own aircraft and take out loans from banks or specialized lenders to purchase them. Commercial general aviation pilots use aircraft for a wide range of tasks, such as flight training, pipeline surveying, passenger and freight transport, policing, crop dusting, and medical transport ([[medevac]]). Piston-powered propeller aircraft (single-engine or twin-engine) are especially common for both private and commercial general aviation, but even private pilots occasionally own and operate helicopters like the [[Bell 206|Bell JetRanger]] or turboprops like the [[Beechcraft King Air]]. Business jets are typically flown by commercial pilots, although there is a new generation of small jets arriving soon for private pilots. == See also == {{Aviation portal}} *[[List of aircraft by category]] *[[List of aircraft by date and usage category]] *[[List of civil aircraft]] *[[List of helicopter models]] *[[List of military aircraft]] *[[List of notable aircraft]] *[[List of World War II jet aircraft]] *[[List of aircraft engines]] *[[List of aircraft engine manufacturers (alphabetical)]] *[[Aerial refuelling]] *[[Aeronautics]] *[[Aircraft carrier]] *[[Aircraft spotting]] *[[Airline call sign]]s *[[Airliner]] *[[Air safety]] *[[Aviation]] *[[Contrail]] *[[First flying machine]] *[[Flight controls]] *[[Flight instruments]] *[[Gliding]] *[[Lifting body]] *[[List of early flying machines]] *[[Model aircraft]] *[[Category:Notable Aircraft]] *[[Richard Pearse]] *[[Spacecraft propulsion]] *[[Spacecraft]] *[[Steam aircraft]] *[[Successful aircraft types]] *[[Undercarriage]] *[[Wright brothers]] *[[List of aviation, aerospace and aeronautical terms]] ==External links== {{Wiktionary}} {{commons|Aircraft}} '''History''' *[http://www.nasm.si.edu/ Smithsonian Air and Space Museum] - Excellent online collection with a particular focus on history of aircraft and spacecraft *[http://invention.psychology.msstate.edu/Tale_of_Airplane/taleplane.html Virtual Museum] *[http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Prehistory/PH-OV.htm Prehistory of Powered Flight] *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-468/contents.htm The Evolution of Modern Aircraft (NASA)] *[http://www.flightinternational.com/Articles/2005/12/20/203709/Clipped+wings.html On Aircraft never built (Flight Global)] *[http://www.anythingplanes.net Aircraft community ] '''Information''' *[http://www.flightinternational.com Flight International] *[http://www.aircraft-info.net Aircraft-Info.net] *[http://www.airliners.net/info/ Airliners.net] *[http://www.HomebuiltAircraft.com HomebuiltAircraft.com]- Information Portal about Homebuilt Aircraft * [http://www.DefenceTalk.com Airforces ] * [http://www.challoner.com/aviation/index.html Series of Photo Essays on British Aviation] *[http://www.usenet-replayer.com/webrings/aviation.html Pictures of Aircraft] published on [[Usenet]] * [http://www.sulman4paf.tk PAF Procedures and Information, Wallpapers, Picture Gallery, Updated News] '''Patents''' * US[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=821393.WKU.&OS=PN/821393&RS=PN/821393 821393] -- ''Flying machine'' -- O. & W. Wright {{airlistbox}} <!-- The below are interlanguage links. --> [[Category:Aircraft]] [[Category:Aviation]] [[Category:Notable Aircraft]] [[ar:طائرة]] [[af:Vliegtuig]] [[bg:Летателен апарат]] [[zh-min-nan:Hui-hêng-ki]] [[ca:Aeronau]] [[cs:Letadlo]] [[da:Luftfartøj]] [[de:Luftfahrzeug]] [[es:Aeronave]] [[eo:Flugmaŝino]] [[eu:Hegazkin]] [[fa:هواگرد]] [[fr:Aéronef]] [[fy:Loftfartúch]] [[ko:항공기]] [[io:Aeronavo]] [[id:Pesawat]] [[it:Aeromobile]] [[he:כלי טיס]] [[la:Aeroplanum]] [[ms:Pesawat udara]] [[nl:Vliegtuig]] [[ja:航空機]] [[no:Luftfartøy]] [[pl:Statek powietrzny]] [[pt:Aeronave]] [[ru:Воздушное судно]] [[simple:Aircraft]] [[sl:Zrakoplov]] [[sr:Ваздухоплов]] [[fi:Lentokone]] [[sv:Flygmaskin]] [[vi:Khí cụ bay]] [[zh:飞机]] 850 41236145 2006-02-25T23:52:17Z Keenan Pepper 124371 rv POV {{Infobox Band | band_name = Aphex Twin | years_active = [[1991]] &ndash; present | origin = [[Cornwall, England |Cornwall]], [[United Kingdom]] | music_genre = [[Intelligent dance music|IDM]], [[Drum and Bass]], [[Acid (electronic music)|Acid]], [[Ambient music|Ambient]], [[Prepared Piano]], [[Techno]] | image = [[Image:Afx.jpg|250px]] | record_label = [[Rephlex Records]] <br /> [[Warp Records]] | current_members = Richard David James | }} {{redirect|Aphex|the audio signal processing equipment company|[[Aphex Systems]]}} '''Aphex Twin''' (born '''Richard David James''', [[August 18]], [[1971]], [[Ireland]]) is a [[United Kingdom|UK]]-based [[electronic music]] artist, credited with pushing forward the genres of [[techno music|techno]], [[ambient music|ambient]], [[Acid (electronic music)|acid]], and [[drum and bass]]. He has been described as "the most inventive and influential figure in contemporary electronic music" ([http://www.guardian.co.uk/friday_review/story/0,3605,563163,00.html]). ==Biography== Richard David James was born to [[Wales|Welsh]] parents Lorna and Derek James in [[1971]] in [[Limerick, Ireland]]. James spent his childhood in [[Cornwall, United Kingdom]]. As a teenager, he became a [[DJ]] and [[musician]] on the local [[rave party|rave]] scene, taking on the [[moniker]] "Aphex Twin". James formed the [[Rephlex Records]] label in [[1991]] with his friend [[Grant Wilson-Claridge]] and released his first records on this label, as well as [[Mighty Force]] and [[R&S Records]] of [[Belgium]]. After success with his early work, James relocated to [[London]] and released a slew of albums and [[EP (format)|EPs]] on the [[Warp Records]] label, under a bewildering set of aliases (from AFX and Polygon Window to the lesser known Gak and Power Pill). In [[1996]], he began releasing more material composed on computers, and embraced a more [[drum and bass]] sound mixed with a nostalgic childhood theme and strange computer generated acid lines. The early adoption of [[Native Instruments]]' softsynthesizers predated the later popularity of using computers to make music. The late 1990s saw his music become more popular and mainstream, as he released two singles, "Come to Daddy", and "Windowlicker", which were shown on [[MTV]] and the covers of music magazines including [[NME]]. [[Image:Aphex Twin logo.png|frame|right|The Aphex Twin Logo, present on most Aphex Twin/AFX releases.]] In [[2001]] Aphex Twin released his most personal album yet, ''[[drukqs]]'', a 2-CD album which featured [[prepared piano]] songs under the influence of [[Erik Satie]] and [[John Cage]]. Also included were abrasive, fast, and meticulously programmed computer-made songs. The level of detail and artistry was so high, that reviewers and fans complained that the music was less in the style of innovative pop music, and more about detailed beautiful and personal musical art. ''[[drukqs]]'' is perhaps Richard's most controversial album to date; the album lacked the novelty found in his other albums, so reviewers guessed this album was released as a contract breaker with Warp Records - a credible guess, as James' next big release came out on his own Rephlex label. It is also rumored that the album drukqs was released as it was because he had almost all of these songs on a creative jukebox that he forgot and left on a plane, and in fear of all of the tracks being leaked to the internet, its release was rushed as to avoid this. In late 2004, rumours of James' return to a more [[acid techno]] based sound were realised with the ''[[Analord]]'' series. For these records, James used his extensive collection of [[Roland Corporation|Roland]] [[drum machine]]s which he bought when they were still at bargain prices. Also he used one of the rarest, and most desirable [[synthesizer]]s of his generation, the [http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/feb99/articles/syntonfenix883.htm Synton Fenix], and the notoriously difficult to program [[Roland MC-4]] [[sequencer]] (a sequencer with a reputation for excellent timing), as well as the infamous [[Roland TB-303]] for his trademark acid melodies. Apart from music, Richard D. James is a talented [[photography|photographer]], having done his own artwork direction for many of his albums. On the "Windowlicker" single, James hid a picture of his face (created most likely with [http://www.uisoftware.com/MetaSynth/index.html Metasynth]) in the second track (commonly referred to as "[Formula]", "[Symbol]", or "[Equation]"), which can be seen in a [http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,52426,00.html spectral] [http://www.bastwood.com/aphex.php analysis] of the track. The picture illustrates his famous toothy, evil grin. ===Aphex Twin's influences=== James has stated in numerous interviews that he has no musical influences other than himself. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/friday_review/story/0,3605,563163,00.html] He claims to have listened rarely to songs on the [[radio]] as a child and that he is unable to read [[Musical notation|sheet music]]. Conversely, James has said that he has listened to many bands and artists for inspiration and sampling (notably [[Pink Floyd]] and [[Led Zeppelin]] for their [[Break (music)|breaks]] (used as break beats), but he has also expressed appreciation for [[The Fall (band)|The Fall]]). He signed fellow musicans and personal friends Tom "[[Squarepusher]]" Jenkinson and Mike Paradinas ([[µ-ziq]]) to his [[Rephlex Records|Rephlex]] record label, as well as [[Luke Vibert]]. Other debated influences include: <!--Please keep list alphabetical--> * [[808 State]] for whom he has done remix work. * [[John Cage]] and his [[prepared piano]] technique (itself inspired by [[Henry Cowell]] and [[Erik Satie]] independently) in the piano pieces on ''Drukqs'' * [[Coil (band)|Coil]] * [[Tod Dockstader]] An electronic musician who worked with tape, mangling sounds into music of the frequency and dynamics spectrum. * [[Mike Dred]] Acid Techno pioneer and [[Techno]] [[Electroacoustic]] hybrid pioneer (together with Peter Green) on Dred's "Machine Codes" label. James is quoted as saying that he listened to Dred & Green's ''Virtual Farmer'' LP 21 times in a row when he first heard it. * [[Brian Eno]] pioneer of ambient music, and for the artwork of his ambient records. * [[Larry Heard]] (One song on ''Analord 02'' is called Laricheard, an obvious [[pun]] on the names Larry Heard and Richard, as the song resembles Mr. Fingers/Larry Heard track "Amnesia".) * [[Kraftwerk]] and their electropop styles. * Kevin 'Master Reese' Saunderson * [[Derrick May]] Techno pioneer. * [[Joe Meek]], especially ''I Heard A New World'' album of this pioneering 1960s UK producer. * [[Erik Satie]] whose melodic style was borrowed on ''Drukqs''. * [[Squarepusher]] and [[Luke Vibert]] for their extreme versions of drum and bass. ===Influence of Aphex Twin on others=== Fans and journalists coined the genre names [[intelligent dance music|IDM]] and [[drill and bass]] to describe Aphex Twin's novel approach to dance music. Richard's own Rephlex Records label, which he co-owns with [[Grant Wilson-Claridge]] prefers the term "Braindance". These labels have proven useful for upcoming artists looking to find a genre name for their own music, influenced by Aphex Twin and Warp Records. In Aphex Twin's words on the 'Intelligent Dance Music' label: "I just think it's really funny to have terms like that. It's basically saying 'this is intelligent and everything else is stupid.' It's really nasty to everyone else's music. (laughs) It makes me laugh, things like that. I don't use names. I just say that I like something or I don't." Aphex Twin tends to distance himself from rock/pop music, yet he has still had an influence on the rock bands like [[Radiohead]], [[Nine Inch Nails]] and [[Peace Burial at Sea]]. Aphex Twin dismissed going on tour with Radiohead: "I wouldn't play with them since I don't like them."[http://www.kludgemagazine.com/interviews.php?id=82] ==Aphex Twin's press== Aphex Twin press interviews are generally entertaining, eccentric, and confusing. Aphex Twin has a reputation for lying in interviews, which he has [http://www.guardian.co.uk/friday_review/story/0,3605,563163,00.html admitted] to the Guardian newspaper. It is now been confirmed that Richard does own a tank (actually a 1950s armoured scout car, the [[Daimler]] Ferret Mark 3), a [[submarine]] bought from Russia, composing ambient techno at age 13 (contradicting most music history), having "over 100 hours" of unreleased music (including songs on his [[answering machine]] that could be wiped away by leaving a message), being able to incorporate [[lucid dreaming]] into the process of making music. He lives in a converted bank in SE16 London, which was formerly the Bank of Cyprus and then HSBC. It has now been confirmed by Richard`s close friends that he has built his own synthesizers and samplers from scratch in his early years. Richard once built a sampler box for his degree in microelectronics, and a photograph and article of it was taken for a UK electronic music magazine Future music. Richard is experienced in electronics and electricity, and has modified and [[circuit bending|circuit bent]] his equipment from a young age. He has made his own software to compose with, including algorithmic processes which automatically generate beats and melodies. [[Image:Richard_d_james_album_cover.jpg|frame|right|The cover to the ''[[Richard D. James Album]]''.]] == Discography under Aphex Twin == ===Albums=== * ''[[Selected Ambient Works 85-92]]'' ([[1992]]) * ''[[Selected Ambient Works Volume II]]'' ([[1994]]) * ''[[I Care Because You Do|...I Care Because You Do]]'' ([[1995]]) * ''[[Richard D. James Album]]'' ([[1996]]) * ''[[Drukqs]]'' ([[2001]]) * ''[[Analord|Chosen Lords]]'' ([[2006]]) ===EPs and Singles=== * ''[[Digeridoo (single)|Digeridoo]]'' ([[1992]]) * ''[[Xylem Tube EP]]'' ([[1992]]) * ''[[On]]/On Remixes'' ([[1993]]) * ''[[Ventolin (music)|Ventolin]]/Ventolin Remixes'' [[EP (format)|EP]] ([[1995]]) * ''[[Donkey Rhubarb (single)|Donkey Rhubarb]]'' ([[1995]]) * ''[[Girl/Boy EP]]'' (1996) * ''[[Come to Daddy]] [[EP (format)|EP]]'' ([[1997]]) * ''[[Windowlicker]]'' ([[1999]]) * ''Analord 10'' in the ''[[Analord]]'' Series (2004) ===Promos and Compilations=== * ''Words & Music'' (1994) (Interview and tracks from ''[[Selected Ambient Works Volume II]]'') * ''[[Classics (Aphex Twin album)|Classics]]'' (1995) (Compilation of early singles, rare and live tracks) * ''51/13 Singles Collection'' (1996) ([[Australia]] and [[Japan]] -only release) * ''Cock 10/54 Cymru beats'' ([[drukqs]] promo) * ''[[26 Mixes for Cash]]'' ([[2003]]), Compilation of material "remixed" for other artists (plus four original tracks) * ''2 Mixes on a 12" for Cash'' (2003), a ''[[26 Mixes for Cash|26 Mixes]]'' promo * ''Falling Free, Curve Remix'' (2005), a ''[[26 Mixes for Cash|26 Mixes]]'' LP == Discography under various aliases == '''AFX''' * ''[[Analogue Bubblebath]]'' ([[1991]]) * ''[[Analogue Bubblebath 2]]'' (1992) * ''[[Analogue Bubblebath 3]]'' ([[1993]]) * ''[[Analogue Bubblebath 4]]'' (1994) * ''[[Analogue Bubblebath 5]]'' (1995 unreleased) * ''[[Analogue Bubblebath 3.1]]'' (1997) * ''[[Hangable Auto Bulb]]'' (1995 EP, 2005 CD) * ''[[Hangable Auto Bulb|Hangable Auto Bulb 2]]'' (1995 EP, 2005 CD) * ''2 Remixes By AFX'' (2001) * ''Smojphace EP'' (2003) * "Mangle 11 (Circuit Bent V.I.P. Mix)" (appears on ''Rephlexions'' compilation album (2003)) * ''[[Analord]]'' (EP series, mostly as AFX) (2005) * ''AFX/[[LFO (British group)|LFO]]'' (split 12" between AFX/LFO) (2005) <!--http://www.warprecords.com/?mart=WAP195--> '''Bradley Strider''' * ''Bradley's Beat'' (1991)/(1995 re-issue) * ''Bradley's Robot'' (1993) '''Caustic Window''' * ''Joyrex J4'' (1992) * ''Joyrex J5'' (1992) * ''Joyrex J9'' (1993) * ''CAT 023'' (unreleased, only 4 copies pressed) * ''[[Compilation (album)|Compilation]]'' ([[1998]]) '''Gak''' * ''GAK'' (1994) '''[[Universal Indicator (music)|Universal Indicator]]''' series with [[Mike Dred]]: * Universal Indicator: ''Red'' ([[1992]]) * Universal Indicator: ''Green'' ([[1993]]) * Universal Indicator "Blue" ([[1992]]) & "Yellow" ([[1992]]) are by [[Mike Dred]] '''Polygon Window''' * ''[[(Surfing On Sine Waves)]]'' (1993, re-released 2001) * ''(Quoth)'' (1993) '''Power Pill''' * ''Pac-Man'' (1992) '''Q-Chastic''' * ''Q-Chastic EP'' (1992 unreleased) '''Various others''' * ''[[Melodies From Mars]]'' (1995, this is an unreleased RDJ album that was given to friends at Rephlex and Warp Records on C-90 cassettes) This release supposedly includes selections from over 200 tracks James offered video game companies to use as soundtracks. * With [[Squarepusher]], contributed "Freeman Hardy & Willis Acid" to the [[Warp Records|Warp]] compilation ''WAP100''. * As "Rich" of "Mike and Rich" on the album ''[[Mike & Rich]]'' ("Mike" being [[Mike Paradinas]], also known as ''µ-ziq'') * A remixed version of ''afx237 v7'' from the album ''drukqs'' was used as the soundtrack to the short film "[[Rubber Johnny]]", directed by [[Chris Cunningham]]. * The AFX logo was featured in the video games '[[Worms Armageddon]]' and '[[Worms World Party]]'. * "The Diceman" - Polygon Window (Track 1) - Artificial Intelligence - (Warp 6) - Compilation released by Warp Records in 1992 * ''[[Acoustica: Alarm Will Sound Performs Aphex Twin]]'' (2005), performed by [[Alarm Will Sound]] == See also == * [[Snare Rush]] * [[Rephlex Records]] * [[Warp Records]] == External links == * [http://xltronic.com/discography/artist/1/aphex-twin Complete Aphex Twin discography] at xltronic.com * [http://xltronic.com/nostalgia/aphextwin.nu/v4/ The Aphex Twin Community] at xltronic.com * [http://www.discogs.com/artist/Aphex+Twin Aphex Twin discography] at [[Discogs]] * [http://cl4.org/music/lyrics/aphex.php Complete Aphex Twin lyrics] at CL4.org * [http://dmoz.org/Arts/Music/Bands_and_Artists/A/Aphex_Twin/ Aphex Twin links] at [[Open Directory Project]] * [http://www.bastwood.com/aphex.php The Aphex Face] - [[spectrogram]] screenshots of spectral analyses, including that of "Windowlicker" [[Category:Electronic musicians|Aphex Twin]] [[Category:IDM musicians|Aphex Twin]] [[Category:Remixers|Aphex Twin]] [[Category:Cornish people]] [[Category:1971 births|Aphex Twin]] [[Category:Living people|Aphex Twin]] <!-- In other languages, alphabetically by language (not code) name --> [[da:Aphex Twin]] [[de:Aphex Twin]] [[es:Aphex Twin]] [[fr:Aphex Twin]] [[hu:Aphex Twin]] [[nl:Aphex Twin]] [[he:אפקס טווין]] [[ja:エイフェックス・ツイン]] [[pl:Aphex Twin]] [[ru:Афекс Твин]] [[simple:Aphex Twin]] [[fi:Richard D. James]] [[sv:Aphex Twin]] 851 41383827 2006-02-26T23:55:10Z 68.0.192.101 /* Personal background */ [[Image:AlfredNobel.jpg|thumb|200px|Alfred Nobel]] {{Audio|sv-Alfred_Nobel.ogg|'''Alfred Bernhard Nobel'''}} ([[October 21]], [[1833]], [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]] &ndash; [[December 10]], [[1896]], [[San Remo, Italy]]) was a [[Sweden|Swedish]] chemist, engineer, pacifist, innovator, armaments manufacturer and the [[inventor]] of [[dynamite]]. He owned [[Bofors]], a major armaments manufacturer, that he had redirected from its previous role as an iron and steel mill. In his last will, he used his enormous fortune to institute the [[Nobel Prize]]s. The [[synthetic element]] [[Nobelium]] was named after him. ==Personal background== Alfred Nobel, a descendant of the 17th century scientist, [[Olaus Rudbeck]] (1630-1702), was the third son of [[Immanuel Nobel]] (1801-1872). Born in [[Stockholm]], he went with his family at an early age to [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], where his father (who had invented modern [[plywood]]) started a [[naval mine|"torpedo"]] works. In 1859 this was left to the care of the second son, [[Ludvig Nobel|Ludvig Emmanuel]] (1831-1888), by whom it was greatly enlarged, and Alfred, returning to Sweden with his father after the bankruptcy of their family business, devoted himself to the study of [[explosives]], and especially to the safe manufacture and use of [[nitroglycerine]] (discovered in 1847 by [[Ascanio Sobrero]], one of his fellow-students under [[Théophile-Jules Pelouze]] at the [[University of Torino]]). Several explosions were reported at their family-owned factory in [[Heleneborg, Sweden|Heleneborg]], and a disastrous one in 1864 killed Alfred's younger brother Emil and several other workers. Less well known is that Alfred Nobel was also a playwright. His only play, ''[[Nemesis (Nobel)|Nemesis]]'', a prose tragedy in four acts about [[Beatrice Cenci]], partly inspired by [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]]'s blank verse tragedy in five acts [[The Cenci]], was printed when he was dying, and the whole stock except for three copies was destroyed immediately after his death, being regarded as scandalous and blasphemous. The first surviving edition (bilingual Swedish-[[Esperanto]]) was published in Sweden in 2003. The play has not yet (May 2003) been translated into any language other than Esperanto. Alfred Nobel is buried in the [[Norra begravningsplatsen]] in [[Stockholm]]. == Dynamite == Nobel found that when [[nitroglycerin]] was incorporated in an absorbent inert substance like [[diatomaceous earth|kieselguhr]] (diatomaceous earth) it became safer and more convenient to manipulate, and this mixture he [[patent]]ed in 1867 as [[dynamite]]. He next combined nitroglycerin with another high explosive, [[gun-cotton]], and obtained a transparent, jelly-like substance, which was a still more powerful explosive than dynamite. [[Gelignite|Blasting gelatin]], as it was called, was patented in 1876, and was followed by a host of similar combinations, modified by the addition of [[potassium nitrate]], wood-pulp and various other substances. Some years later Nobel produced [[ballistite]], one of the earliest of the nitroglycerin [[smokeless gunpowder]]s, containing in its latest forms about equal parts of gun-cotton and nitroglycerin. This powder was a precursor of [[cordite]], and Nobel's claim that his patent covered the latter was the occasion of vigorously contested law-suits between him and the [[United Kingdom|British]] Government in 1894 and 1895. Cordite also consists of nitroglycerin and gun-cotton, but the form of the latter which its inventors wished to use was the most highly nitrated variety, which is not soluble in mixtures of [[diethyl ether|ether]] and [[ethanol|alcohol]], whereas Nobel contemplated using a less nitrated form, which is soluble in such mixtures. The question was complicated by the fact that it is in practice impossible to prepare either of these two forms without admixture of the other; eventually the courts decided against Nobel. Cordite became a mainstay munition of the British empire throughout the late 19th and early 20th century. From the manufacture of dynamite and other explosives, and from the exploitation of the [[Baky|Baku]] oil-fields, in the development of which he and his brothers, Ludvig and Robert Hjalmar (1829-1896), took a leading part, he amassed an immense fortune. ==Armaments Manufacturer== A less well remembered aspect of his life was his role in setting up a major armaments manufacturer, [[Bofors]] Defence AB. He was Bofors most famous owner, and owned the company from 1894 until his death in December of 1896. He had the key role in reshaping this iron manufacturer to a modern cannon manufacturer and chemical industry. Bofors went on to become a major supplier of howitzers, cannons and field guns to armies around the world, including the USA and many Third-World dictatorships. == The Prizes == The erroneous publication in 1888 of a [[List of premature obituaries|premature obituary]] of Nobel by a French newspaper, condemning his invention of dynamite, is said to have made him decide to leave a better legacy to the world after his death. On [[November 27]], [[1895]] at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in [[Paris]], Nobel signed his last will and testament and set aside the bulk of his estate to establish the [[Nobel Prize]]s, to be awarded annually without distinction of nationality. He died of a [[stroke]] on [[December 10]], [[1896]] at [[San Remo]], [[Italy]]. The amount set aside for the Nobel Prize foundation was 31 million kronor. The first three of these prizes are for eminence in [[Nobel Prize in Physics|physical science]], in [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|chemistry]] and in [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|medical science or physiology]]; the fourth is for the most remarkable [[Nobel Prize for Literature|literary work]] "in an ideal direction" and [[Nobel Peace Prize|the fifth]] is to be given to the person or society that renders the greatest service to the cause of international brother/sisterhood, in the suppression or reduction of standing armies, or in the establishment or furtherance of [[peace]] congresses. The formulation about the literary prize, "in an ideal direction" (Swedish ''i idealisk riktning''), is cryptic and has caused much consternation. For many years, the Swedish Academy interpreted "ideal" as "idealistic" (in Swedish ''idealistisk''), and used it as a pretext to not give the prize to important but less [[Romanticism|romantic]] authors, such as [[Henrik Ibsen]], [[August Strindberg]] and [[Leo Tolstoy]]. This interpretation has been revised, and the prize given to, for example, [[Dario Fo]] and [[José Saramago]], who definitely do not belong to the camp of literary idealism. When reading ''Nemesis'' in its original Swedish and looking at his own philosophical and literary standpoint, it seems possible that his intention might have been rather the opposite of that first believed - that the prize should be given to authors who fight for their ideals ''against'' such authorities as God, Church and State. There was also quite a lot of room for interpretation by the bodies he had named for deciding on the physical sciences and chemistry prizes, given that he had not consulted them before making the will. In his one-page testament he stipulated that the money should go to discoveries or inventions in the physical sciences and to discoveries or improvements in chemistry. He had opened the door to technological awards, but he had not left instructions on how to do the split between science and technology. Since the deciding bodies he had chosen in these domains were more concerned with science than technology it is not surprising that the prizes went to scientists and not to engineers, technicians or other inventors. In a sense the technological prizes announced recently by the [[World Technology Network]] are an indirect (and thus not funded by the Nobel foundation) continuation of the wishes of Nobel, as he set them out in his testament. In 2001, his great-grandnephew, Peter, asked the Bank of Sweden to differentiate its award to economists given "in Alfred Nobel's memory" from the five other awards. This has caused much controversy whether the prize for [[Economics]] is actually a "Nobel Prize" (see [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel]]). ==Nobel Prize rumors== * There is no Nobel Prize for mathematics. A common legend states that Nobel decided against a prize in mathematics because a woman he proposed to (or his wife, or his mistress) rejected him or cheated on him with a famous mathematician, often claimed to be [[Gösta Mittag-Leffler]]. There is no historical evidence to support the story, and Nobel was never married. == References == *[[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]] * Schück, H, and Sohlman, R., (1929). The Life of Alfred Nobel. London: William Heineman Ltd. * [http://www.dprix.com/biblio/nobel/nobel.html Alfred Nobel US Patent No 78,317, dated May 26, 1868] == External links == *[http://www.nobel.se/nobel/alfred-nobel/index.html Alfred Nobel - Man behind the Prizes] *[http://www.nobel.no/eng_com_will1.html Biography at the Norwegian Nobel Institute] *[http://nobelprize.org// Nobelprize.org] *[http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=271383 The Man who Changed his Life after Reading his Obituary] {{NobelPrizes}} [[Category:1833 births|Nobel, Alfred]] [[Category:1896 deaths|Nobel, Alfred]] [[Category:Swedish inventors|Nobel, Alfred]] [[Category:Swedish businesspeople|Nobel, Alfred]] [[Category:Nobel Prize|Nobel, Alfred]] [[Category:Stockholmians|Nobel, Alfred]] [[Category:Premature obituaries|Nobel, Alfred]] {{Link FA|id}} [[als:Alfred Nobel]] [[ang:Ælfred Nobel]] [[ar:ألفريد نوبل]] [[bg:Алфред Нобел]] [[zh-min-nan:Alfred Nobel]] [[be:Альфрэд Нобель]] [[bs:Alfred Nobel]] [[ca:Alfred Nobel]] [[cs:Alfred Nobel]] [[cy:Alfred Nobel]] [[da:Alfred Nobel]] [[de:Alfred Nobel]] [[et:Alfred Nobel]] [[el:Άλφρεντ Νόμπελ]] [[es:Alfred Nobel]] [[eo:Alfred NOBEL]] [[eu:Alfred Nobel]] [[fa:آلفرد نوبل]] [[fr:Alfred Nobel]] [[fy:Alfred Nobel]] [[ga:Alfred Nobel]] [[gl:Alfred Nobel]] [[ko:알프레드 노벨]] [[hr:Alfred Nobel]] [[io:Alfred Nobel]] [[id:Alfred Nobel]] [[it:Alfred Nobel]] [[he:אלפרד נובל]] [[lv:Alfrēds Nobels]] [[lt:Alfredas Nobelis]] [[hu:Alfred Nobel]] [[nl:Alfred Bernhard Nobel]] [[ja:アルフレッド・ノーベル]] [[no:Alfred Nobel]] [[nn:Alfred Nobel]] [[pl:Alfred Nobel]] [[pt:Alfred Nobel]] [[ro:Alfred Nobel]] [[ru:Нобель, Альфред Бернхард]] [[sq:Alfred Nobel]] [[scn:Alfred Nobel]] [[simple:Alfred Nobel]] [[sk:Alfred Nobel]] [[sl:Alfred Nobel]] [[sr:Алфред Нобел]] [[su:Alfred Nobel]] [[fi:Alfred Nobel]] [[sv:Alfred Nobel]] [[vi:Alfred Nobel]] [[tr:Alfred Nobel]] [[uk:Нобель Альфред Бернард]] [[zh:阿尔弗雷德·诺贝尔]] 852 42085266 2006-03-03T18:56:34Z Antandrus 57658 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/38.139.36.119|38.139.36.119]] ([[User talk:38.139.36.119|talk]]) to last version by RexNL {{Infobox Celebrity | name = Alexander Graham Bell | image = Alexander Graham Bell.jpg | caption = | birth_date = [[March 3]], [[1847]] | birth_place = [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]] | death_date = [[August 2]], [[1922]] | death_place = [[Baddeck, Nova Scotia|Baddeck]], [[Canada]] | occupation = [[Scientist]] and [[inventor]]. | salary = | networth = | website = | footnotes = }} '''Alexander Graham Bell''' ([[March 3]], [[1847]] &ndash; [[August 2]], [[1922]]) was a [[Canada|Canadian]] and [[Scotland|Scottish]]-[[United States|American]] [[scientist]] and [[inventor]]. Today, he is still widely considered to be the inventor of the [[telephone]], although this matter has become [[Invention of the telephone#Controversy|controversial]], with a number of people claiming that [[Antonio Meucci]] was the 'real' inventor and others holding out for [[Elisha Gray]], the founder of the [[Western Electric]] Manufacturing Company. In addition to his work in [[telecommunications]] technology, he was responsible for important advances in [[aviation]] and [[hydrofoil]] technology. ==Biography== Born '''Alexander Bell''' in [[Edinburgh]], he later adopted the middle name ''Graham'' out of admiration for Alexander Graham, a family friend. Many called him "the father of the Deaf." This title is somewhat ironic due to his belief in the practice of Eugenics. He hoped to one day eradicate deafness from the population. His family was associated with the teaching of [[elocution]]: his grandfather in [[London]], his uncle in [[Dublin]], and his father, [[Alexander Melville Bell]], in Edinburgh, were all professed elocutionists. The latter has published a variety of works on the subject, several of which are well known, especially his treatise on [[Visible Speech]], which appeared in Edinburgh in 1868. In this he explains his method of instructing [[deaf mutes]], by means of their [[eyesight]], how to articulate words, and also how to read what other persons are saying by the motions of their [[lip]]s. Alexander Graham Bell was educated at the [[Royal High School]] of Edinburgh, from which he graduated at the age of 13. At the age of 16 he secured a position as a pupil-teacher of elocution and music in [[Weston House Academy]], at [[Elgin, Moray|Elgin]], [[Moray]], Scotland. The next year he spent at the [[University of Edinburgh]]. He was graduated from University College London. From 1866 to 1867, he was an instructor at [[Somersetshire College]] at [[Bath, England|Bath]], [[Somerset]], [[England]]. While still in Scotland he is said to have turned his attention to the science of [[acoustics]], with a view to ameliorate the deafness of his mother. In 1870, at the age of 23, he [[emigrated]] with his family to [[Canada]] where they settled at [[Brantford]]. Before he left Scotland, Bell had turned his attention to [[telephony]], and in Canada he continued an interest in communication machines. He designed a piano which could transmit its music to a distance by means of electricity. In 1873, he accompanied his father to [[Montreal]], Canada, where he was employed in teaching the system of visible speech. The elder Bell was invited to introduce the system into a large day-school for mutes at [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], but he declined the post in favor of his son, who became Professor of Vocal Physiology and Elocution at [[Boston University]]'s School of Oratory. [[Image:1876 Bell Speaking into Telephone.jpg|thumb|Bell speaking into prototype model of the telephone]] At [[Boston University]] he continued his research in the same field, and endeavored to produce a telephone which would not only send musical notes, but articulate speech. With financing from his American father-in-law, on [[March 7]], [[1876]], the [[United States Patent and Trademark Office|U.S. Patent Office]] granted him [[Patent]] Number 174,465 covering "the method of, and apparatus for, transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically ... by causing electrical undulations, similar in form to the vibrations of the air accompanying the said vocal or other sound", the [[telephone]]. After obtaining the patent for the telephone, Bell continued his many experiments in communication, which culminated in the invention of the photophone-transmission of sound on a beam of [[light]] &mdash; a precursor of today's [[fiber optics|optical fiber]] systems. He also worked in medical research and invented techniques for teaching speech to the deaf. The range of Bell's inventive genius is represented only in part by the eighteen patents granted in his name alone and the twelve he shared with his collaborators. These included fourteen for the telephone and [[Telegraphy|telegraph]], four for the [[photophone]], one for the [[phonograph]], five for aerial vehicles, four for hydroairplanes, and two for a [[selenium]] cell. Bell had many great ideas that are now real inventions. During his Volta Laboratory period, Bell and his associates considered impressing a magnetic field on a record, as a means of reproducing sound. Although the trio briefly experimented with the concept, they were unable to develop a workable prototype. They abandoned the idea, never realizing they had glimpsed a basic principle which would one day find its application in the tape recorder, the computer, and the CD-ROM. Bell's own home used a primitive form of air conditioning, in which fans blew currents of air across great blocks of ice. He also anticipated modern concerns with fuel shortages and industrial pollution. Methane gas, he reasoned, could be produced from the waste of farms and factories. At his [[Canada|Canadian]] estate in [[Beinn Bhreagh, Nova Scotia|Beinn Bhreagh]], [[Nova Scotia]], he experimented with composting toilets and devices to capture water from the atmosphere. In a magazine interview published shortly before his death, he reflected on the possibility of using solar panels to heat houses. In 1882, he became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States. In 1888, he was one of the founding members of the [[National Geographic Society]] and became its second president. He was the recipient of many honors. The [[France|French Government]] conferred on him the decoration of the [[Légion d'honneur]] (Legion of Honor), the [[Académie française]] bestowed on him the [[Volta Prize]] of 50,000 francs, the [[Royal Society of Arts]] in London awarded him the [[Albert medal]] in 1902, and the University of [[Würzburg]], [[Bavaria]], granted him a Ph.D. He was awarded the [[AIEE]]'s [[Edison Medal]] in 1914 for "For meritorious achievement in the invention of the telephone." Bell married Mabel Hubbard, who was one of his pupils at Boston University, as well as a deaf-mute, on [[July 11]], [[1877]]. His invention of the telephone was actually a device he was trying to create that would allow him to communicate with his wife and his deaf mother. He died at Beinn Bhreagh, located on [[Nova Scotia]]'s [[Cape Breton Island]] near the village of [[Baddeck, Nova Scotia|Baddeck]], in 1922 and is buried alongside his wife atop Beinn Bhreagh mountain overlooking [[Bras d'Or Lake]]. He was survived by two of their four children. Bell was listed among the [[100 Greatest Britons]], [[The Greatest American|the 100 Greatest Americans]] and in the top ten [[The Greatest Canadian|Greatest Canadians]], the only person to be on more than one list. ====Bell and decibel==== The ''bel'' (B) is a unit of measurement invented by [[Bell Labs]] and named after Bell. The bel was too large for everyday use, so the [[decibel]] (dB), equal to 0.1 B, became more commonly used. The dB is commonly used as a unit for measuring sound intensity. ===The photophone=== Another of Bell's inventions was the [[photophone]], a device enabling the transmission of sound over a beam of light, which he developed together with [[Charles Sumner Tainter]]. The device employed light-sensitive cells of crystalline [[selenium]], which has the property that its [[electrical resistance]] varies inversely with the illumination (i.e., the resistance is higher when the material is in the dark, and lower when it is lighted). The basic principle was to modulate a beam of light directed at a receiver made of crystalline selenium, to which a [[telephone]] was attached. The modulation was done either by means of a vibrating mirror, or a rotating disk periodically obscuring the light beam. This idea was by no means new. Selenium had been discovered by [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]] in 1817, and the peculiar properties of crystalline or granulate selenium were discovered by [[Willoughby Smith]] in 1873. In 1878, one writer with the initials J.F.W. from [[Kew]] described such an arrangement in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' in a column appearing on [[June 13]], asking the readers whether any experiments in that direction had already been done. In his paper on the photophone, Bell credited one [[A. C. Browne]] of [[London]] with the independent discovery in 1878&mdash;the same year Bell became aware of the idea. Bell and Tainter, however, were apparently the first to perform a successful experiment, by no means any easy task, as they even had to produce the selenium cells with the desired resistance characteristics themselves. In one experiment in [[Washington, D.C.]] the sender and the receiver were placed on different buildings some 700 [[Foot (unit of length)|feet]] (213 [[metre]]s) apart. The sender consisted of a mirror directing sunlight onto the mouthpiece, where the light beam was modulated by a vibrating mirror, focused by a [[optical device|lens]] and directed at the receiver, which was simply a [[parabolic]] reflector with the selenium cells in the [[focus]] and the telephone attached. With this setup, Bell and Tainter succeeded to communicate clearly. The photophone was [[patent]]ed on [[December 18]] [[1880]], but the quality of communication remained poor and the research was not pursued by Bell. ===Metal detector=== Bell is also credited with the invention of the [[metal detector]] in 1881. The device was hurriedly put together in an attempt to find the bullet in the body of [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[James Garfield]]. The metal detector worked, but didn't find the bullet because the metal bedframe the President was lying on confused the instrument. Bell gave a full account of his experiments in a paper read before the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] in August 1882. Though unsuccessful in its first incarnation, this achievement would eventually change the nature of physical security. ===Experimental aircraft=== Bell was also interested in [[aircraft]] and was a supporter of [[aerospace engineering]] research through the [[Aerial Experiment Association]]. The Association was officially formed at Baddeck, Nova Scotia in October 1907 at the suggestion of Mrs. Mabel Bell and with her financial support. It was headed by the inventor himself. The founding members were four young men, American [[Glenn Curtiss|Glenn H. Curtiss]], a motorcycle manufacturer who would later be awarded the Scientific American Trophy for the first official one-kilometre flight in the Western hemisphere and later be world-renowned as an airplane manufacturer; [[Frederick W. "Casey" Baldwin]], the first Canadian and first British subject to pilot a public flight in [[Hammondsport, New York]]; J.A.D. McCurdy; and Lieutenant [[Thomas Selfridge]], an official observer of the U.S. government. One of the project's inventions, the [[aileron]], is a standard component of aircraft today. (Note that the aileron was also invented independently by [[Robert Esnault-Pelterie]].) In 1909, Bell's ''[[Silver Dart]]'' made the first controlled powered flight in Canada. However, a series of Canadian flights failed to interest the Canadian military in developing the airplane. ===The hydrofoil=== The March 1906 ''[[Scientific American]]'' article by American [[hydrofoil]] pioneer William E. Meacham explained the basic principle of hydrofoils. Bell considered the invention of the [[Hydrofoil|hydroplane]] as a very significant achievement. Based on information gained from that article he began to sketch concepts of what is now called a hydrofoil boat. Bell and Casey Baldwin began hydrofoil experimentation in the summer of 1908 as a possible aid to airplane takeoff from water. Baldwin studied the work of the Italian inventor [[Enrico Forlanini]] and began testing models. This led him and Bell to the development of practical hydrofoil watercraft. During his world tour of 1910&ndash;1911 Bell and Baldwin met with Forlanini in Italy. They had rides in the Forlanini hydrofoil boat over Lake Maggiore. Baldwin described it as being as smooth as flying. On returning to Baddeck a number of designs were tried culminating in the HD-4, using Renault engines. A top speed of 54 miles per hour was achieved, with rapid acceleration, good stability and steering, and the ability to take waves without difficulty. Bell's report to the navy permitted him to obtain two 350 [[horsepower]] (260 [[Watt|kW]]) engines in July 1919. On [[September 9]] [[1919]] the HD-4 set a world's marine speed record of 70.86 miles per hour. This record stood for ten years. ==Eugenics== Along with many very prominent thinkers and scientists of the time, Bell was connected with the [[eugenics]] movement in the United States. From 1912 until 1918 he was the chairman of the board of scientific advisors to the [[Eugenics Record Office]] associated with [[Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory]] in [[New York]], and regularly attended meetings. In 1921 he was the honorary president of the [[Second International Congress of Eugenics]] held under the auspices of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] in New York. Organizations such as these advocated passing laws (with success in some states) that established the [[compulsory sterilization]] of people deemed to be, as Bell called them, a "defective variety of the human race". Much of his thoughts about people he considered defective centered on the deaf because of his long contact with them in relation to his work in [[deaf education]]. In addition to advocating sterilization of the deaf, Bell wished to prohibit deaf teachers from being allowed to teach in schools for the deaf, he worked to outlaw the marriage of deaf individuals to one another, and he was an ardent supporter of [[oralism]] over [[manualism]]. His avowed goal was to eradicate the language and culture of the deaf so as to force them to integrate into the hearing culture for their own long-term benefit and for the benefit of society at large. Although this attitude is widely seen as paternalistic and arrogant today, it was accepted in that era. Although he supported what many would consider harsh and inhumane policies today, he was not unkind to deaf individuals who proved his theories of oralism. He was a personal and longtime friend of [[Helen Keller]], and his wife Mabel was deaf, though none of their children were. Bell was well known as a kindly father and loving family man who took great pleasure playing with his many grandchildren. == Tribute == In the early 1970s, UK Rock Group [[The Sweet]] recorded a tribute to Bell and the telephone, suitably titled "Alexander Graham Bell". The song tells a fictional account of the invention, in which Bell devises the telephone so he can talk to his girlfriend who lives on the other side of the United States from him. The song reached the top 40 in the UK and went on to sell over one million recordings world-wide. ==External links== {{wikiquote}}{{commons|Alexander Graham Bell}} *[http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=42027 Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online''] *[http://bell.uccb.ns.ca/ Alexander Graham Bell Institute] *[http://www.bellhomestead.ca/ Bell Homestead, National Historic Site] *[http://www.alexanderbell.com/ Alexander Bell.com - Telecom Pioneers by Phonebook of the World.com] *[http://histv2.free.fr/bell/bell1.htm Bell's speech] before the American Association for the Advancement of Science in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] on [[August 27]], [[1880]], presenting the [[photophone]]. Very clear description. Published as "On the Production and Reproduction of Sound by Light" in the ''American Journal of Sciences'', Third Series, vol. '''XX''', #118, October 1880, pp. 305 - 324; and as "[[Selenium]] and the Photophone" in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', September 1880. *[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=174465.WKU.&OS=PN/174465&RS=PN/174465 United States Patent and Trademark Office], patent US174465 for the telephone. *[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/bellhtml/bellhome.html Alexander Graham Bell family papers] Online version at the Library of Congress comprises a selection of 4,695 items (totaling about 51,500 images) containing correspondence, scientific notebooks, journals, blueprints, articles, and photographs documenting Bell invention of the telephone and his involvement in the first telephone company, his family life, his interest in the education of the deaf, and his aeronautical and other scientific research. <!-- Categorization --> [[Category:1847 births|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:1922 deaths|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:American eugenicists|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:American entrepreneurs|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:American inventors|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:American physicists|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:Autodidacts|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:British eugenicists|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:Canadian inventors|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:Canadian physicists|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:Canadian eugenicists|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:Canadian businesspeople|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:Edinburghers|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:History of Scotland|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:Legion of Honor recipients|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:Moray|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:People from Massachusetts|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:People from Victoria County, Nova Scotia|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:Scottish-Americans|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:Scottish business people|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:Scottish physicists|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:Scottish inventors|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:Bath and North East Somerset|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:Telecommunications history|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:Unitarians|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:UCL alumni|Bell, Alexander Graham]] [[Category:University of Edinburgh alumni|Bell, Alexander Graham]] <!-- Localization --> [[ar:الكسندر غراهام بيل]] [[bs:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[ca:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[cs:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[da:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[de:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[es:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[eo:Alexander Graham BELL]] [[fr:Alexandre Graham Bell]] [[fy:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[hr:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[id:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[it:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[he:אלכסנדר גרהם בל]] [[lt:Aleksandras Grehemas Belas]] [[mr:अलेक्झांडर ग्रॅहॅम बेल]] [[nl:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[ja:アレクサンダー・グラハム・ベル]] [[ko:알렉산더 그레이엄 벨]] [[no:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[pl:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[pt:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[ro:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[ru:Белл, Александер Грэм]] [[sco:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[sh:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[simple:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[sk:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[sr:Александар Грахам Бел]] [[fi:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[sv:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[sw:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[ta:அலெக்ஸாண்டர் கிரஹாம் பெல்]] [[th:อเล็กซานเดอร์ เกรแฮม เบลล์]] [[tr:Alexander Graham Bell]] [[uk:Белл Александер Ґрехем]] [[zh:亚历山大·格拉汉姆·贝尔]] 853 40627918 2006-02-21T22:53:04Z 87.80.100.62 /* Lyrics */ '''''Amhrán na bhFiann'''''¹ is the [[national anthem]] of the [[Republic of Ireland]]. Although usually sung in the [[Irish language]], a translation of the original, it is also known by the English-language title, '''''A Soldier's Song''''', as well as '''The National Anthem of Ireland''' ('''Amhrán Náisiúnta na hÉireann'''). The lyrics of the song are by [[Peadar Kearney]] and the music by both Kearney and [[Patrick Heeney]]. It was composed in [[1907]] and was first published in ''[[Irish Freedom]]'' in [[1912]]. The [[Irish language]] version of the original was the work of [[Bulmer Hobson]]. The song is regarded by many [[Irish nationalism|nationalists]] as the national anthem of the whole of [[Ireland]], and it is therefore sung, for example, at [[Gaelic Athletic Association]] matches held anywhere on the island. [[Unionists (Ireland)|Unionist]]s, however, reject this use of ''Amhrán na bhFiann'', and at international games played by the all-Ireland [[Ireland national rugby union team|Irish Rugby Football Union]] team the song ''[[Ireland's Call]]'' is sung instead of, or (in the [[Republic of Ireland]]) as well as, ''Amhrán na bhFiann''. ==History== ''Amhrán na bhFiann'' was relatively unknown until it was sung by rebels in the [[General Post Office (Dublin)|General Post Office]] (GPO) during the [[Easter Rising]] of [[1916]], and afterwards in British internment camps. The song became the official state anthem in [[1926]] when it replaced the unofficial anthem, ''[[God Save Ireland]]''. ''[[God Save the Queen|God Save the King]]'' was the official anthem of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] until the independent [[Irish Free State]] was established in [[1922]]. The continued use of ''God Save the King'' by some Irish people caused embarrassment to the new Irish state and, on one famous occasion, [[James McNeill|Governor-General James McNeill]] refused to attend a public function in [[Trinity College, Dublin|Trinity College]] when he discovered that the university intended playing the anthem during his visit. Even after the adoption of ''Amhrán na bhFiann'' as the official anthem of the Irish Free State in July [[1926]], a minority continued to sing the British anthem, and to pray for the King and Queen in religious ceremonies, for a number of years. In [[1934]], the Irish state acquired the copyright of the song for the sum of £1,200.[http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/gen121934a.html] Controversy also surrounds the change in the wording of ''Amhrán na bhFiann'' over the years. In the original translation, the first line read as ''Sinne Laochra Gaedheal'' (literally "we the heroes of Ireland"). This has since been replaced by ''Sinne Fianna Fáil'', which to some people is evidence that the anthem has been hijacked by the [[Fianna Fáil]] party.[http://www.ireland.com/newspaper/letters/2005/1101/] In recent years, a number of Irish newspapers and columnists have proposed replacing ''Amhrán na bhFiann'' with a new national anthem, arguing that the current wording is excessively militant and anti-[[United Kingdom|British]]. Others have argued that the melody is difficult for bands to play. Problems have sometimes been witnessed at international sporting events, where either the entire song (not just the chorus that constitutes the anthem) has been played (as occurred, for example, at the [[1984 Summer Olympics|Los Angeles Olympics]]) or the right part has been played but at the wrong speed, as occurred at the [[2000 Summer Olympics|Sydney Olympics]] in [[2000]]. Some have proposed that the anthem be replaced with the Irish Rugby Football Union's song, ''Ireland's Call''. The suggestion has also been made that, as occurred in [[Germany]] after [[World War II]], the government might change the words of the anthem while keeping the original melody. ==Lyrics== The Irish national anthem consists of the chorus only of ''Amhrán na bhFiann'', and is almost always sung in Irish. The first two lines of the anthem and the last two, played together, form the Irish ''Presidential Salute'', which is played when the [[President of Ireland]] attends official events. The chorus of ''Amhrán na bhFiann'', as used for the anthem, is given below. ===Irish version=== :Sinne Fianna Fáil :Atá faoi gheall ag Éirinn, :Buíon dár slua :Thar toinn do ráinig chughainn, :Faoi mhóid bheith saor. :Sean-tír ár sinsear feasta :Ní fhágfar faoin tiorán ná faoin tráill :Anocht a théam sa bhearna baoil, :Le gean ar Ghaeil chun báis nó saoil :Le gunna scréach faoi lámhach na bpiléar :Seo libh canaig Amhrán na bhFiann. ===Phonetic version=== :shin-na fee-in-na fall :a-thaw fay yeol egg erin :bween dar slew :harr thin the raw ne gooin :Fway vawid veh sair :shawn-tier awr shinshir fasta :nee-owg fur fay teer-awn naw feign trawl :an nocht a hame saw varna vwail :lay gown owr gwale cunn boss no sale :le gunna sh-rake fay law buck naw bell air :shull liv con-ig arawn naveen ===English version=== :Soldiers are we :whose lives are pledged to Ireland; :Some have come :from a land beyond the wave. :Sworn to be free, :No more our ancient sireland :Shall shelter the despot or the slave. :Tonight we man the ''bearna baoil'' ² :In Erin's cause, come woe or weal; :'Mid cannon's roar and rifles' peal, :We'll chant a soldier's song. ==Complete Lyrics== The Following is the full lyrics of Amhrán na bhFiann, in Irish and English. ===Irish lyrics=== :Seo dhibh a cháirde duan Óglaigh, :Cathréimeach briomhar ceolmhar, :Ár dtinte cnámh go buacach táid, :'S an spéir go min réaltogach :Is fonnmhar faobhrach sinn chun gleo :'S go tiúnmhar glé roimh thíocht do'n ló :Fé chiúnas chaomh na hoiche ar seol: :Seo libh canaídh Amhrán na bhFiann. :Curfá: :Sinne Fianna Fáil :A tá fé gheall ag Éirinn, :buion dár slua :Thar toinn do ráinig chugainn, :Fé mhóid bheith saor. :Sean tír ár sinsir feasta :Ní fhagfar fé'n tiorán ná fé'n tráil :Anocht a théam sa bhearna bhaoil, :Le gean ar Ghaeil chun báis nó saoil :Le guna screach fé lámhach na bpiléar :Seo libh canaídh Amhrán na bhFiann. :Cois bánta réidhe, ar árdaibh sléibhe, :Ba bhuachach ár sinsir romhainn, :Ag lámhach go tréan fé'n sár-bhrat séin :Tá thuas sa ghaoith go seolta :Ba dhúchas riamh d'ár gcine cháidh :Gan iompáil siar ó imirt áir, :'S ag siúl mar iad i gcoinne námhad :Seo libh, canaídh Amhrán na bhFiann. :Curfá :A bhuíon nách fann d'fhuil Ghaeil is Gall, :Sin breacadh lae na saoirse, :Ta scéimhle 's scanradh i gcroíthe namhad, :Roimh ranna laochra ár dtire. :Ár dtinte is tréith gan spréach anois, :Sin luisne ghlé san spéir anoir, :'S an bíobha i raon na bpiléar agaibh: :Seo libh, canaídh Amhrán na bhFiann. :Curfá ===English lyrics=== :We'll sing a song, a soldier's song, :With cheering rousing chorus, :As round our blazing fires we throng, :The starry heavens o'er us; :Impatient for the coming fight, :And as we wait the morning's light, :Here in the silence of the night, :We'll chant a soldier's song. :Chorus: :Soldiers are we :whose lives are pledged to Ireland; :Some have come :from a land beyond the wave. :Sworn to be free, :No more our ancient sire land :Shall shelter the despot or the slave. :Tonight we man the gap of danger :In Erin's cause, come woe or weal :'Mid cannons' roar and rifles peal, :We'll chant a soldier's song. :In valley green, on towering crag, :Our fathers fought before us, :And conquered 'neath the same old flag :That's proudly floating o'er us. :We're children of a fighting race, :That never yet has known disgrace, :And as we march, the foe to face, :We'll chant a soldier's song. :Chorus :Sons of the Gael! Men of the Pale! :The long watched day is breaking; :The serried ranks of Inisfail :Shall set the Tyrant quaking. :Our camp fires now are burning low; :See in the east a silv'ry glow, :Out yonder waits the Saxon foe, :So chant a soldier's song. :Chorus ==Footnote== # ''Amhrán na bhFiann'' is pronounced "ow-rawn na veean" # Meaning "gap of danger" and pronounced "vair-na vwail" ''(See article on [[Battle of New Ross 1798#Attack|Battle of New Ross]] for explanation of origin) ==External links== {{wikisource}} *[http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/index.asp?docID=792]Text of National Anthem published on Department of Taoiseach website *[http://www.irishroots.org/aoh/anthem.htm] Complete Lyrics ===Media files=== * [http://www.lengua-translations.de/anthems/ireland.mid MIDI file] 7.6 KB simple sequence * [http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/getFile.asp?FC_ID=288&docID=241 MP3 file] 1 MB anthem played by the Army Band * [http://thetvroom.com/video-4/BE-AR-RTE1-ANTHEM-94-02.rm RealMedia file] 3.9 MB audio-visual as used on [[Radio Telefís Éireann|RTE]] television in the 1980s/90s [[Category:National anthems]] [[Category:Republic of Ireland]] [[Category:Irish songs]] [[cs:Irská hymna]] [[cy:Amhrán na bhFiann]] [[de:Nationalhymne der Republik Irland]] [[es:Amhrán na bhFiann]] [[fr:Amhrán na bhFiann]] [[ga:Amhrán na bhFiann]] [[it:Amhrán na bhFiann]] [[he:המנון אירלנד]] [[hu:Ír himnusz]] [[nl:Amhrán na bhFiann]] [[ja:アイルランドの国歌]] [[nn:Amhrán na bhFiann]] [[pl:Hymn Irlandii]] [[pt:Hino nacional da Irlanda]] [[ru:Гимн Ирландии]] [[sr:Химна Ирске]] [[fi:Amhrán na bhFiann]] [[sv:Amhrán na bhFiann]] [[tr:İrlanda Ulusal Marşı]] 854 41799125 2006-03-01T20:55:01Z OrphanBot 621721 Removing image with no copyright information. Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time. [[Image:Anatolia composite NASA.png|thumb|200px|right|Asia Minor lies east of the [[Bosporus]], between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean.]] '''Anatolia''' ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: "Anadolu",[[Greek language|Greek]]: "Aνατολή" ''Αnatolē'' or Ανατολία ''Anatolìa'') is a region of [[Southwest Asia]] which corresponds today to the [[Asia]]n portion of [[Turkey]], as opposed to the [[Europe]]an portion, [[Rumelia]]. It means "rising of the sun" or "East". The Turkish word '''Anadolu''' derives from the original Greek version. It also often called by the [[Latin]] name of '''Asia Minor'''. Because of its strategic location at the intersection of Asia and [[Europe]], Anatolia has been a cradle for several [[civilization]]s since [[prehistoric]] ages, with [[Neolithic]] settlements such as [[Çatalhöyük]] (Pottery Neolithic), [[Çayönü]] ([[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]] to pottery Neolithic), [[Nevali Cori]] ([[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]]), [[Hacilar]] (Pottery Neolithic), [[Göbekli Tepe]] ([[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]]) and [[Mersin]]. The settlement of [[Troy]] starts in the Neolithic and continues forward into the Iron Age. Major civilizations and peoples that have settled in or conquered Anatolia include the [[Colchians]], [[Hattians]], [[Luwian]]s, [[Hittites]], [[Phrygia]]ns, [[Cimmerian]]s, [[Lydia]]ns, [[Persians]], [[Celt]]s, [[Tabal]]s, [[Meshech]]s, [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]], [[Pelasgians]], [[Armenians]], [[Roman Empire|Romans]], [[Goths]], [[Kurds]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], [[Seljuk Turks]], and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]]. These peoples belonged to many varied [[ethnic]] and [[linguistic]] traditions. Through recorded history, Anatolians have spoken both [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] and [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] languages, as well as many languages of uncertain affiliation. In fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European [[Hittite language|Hittite]] and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical center from which the Indo-European languages have radiated. Other authors have proposed an Anatolian origin for the [[Etruscans]] of ancient [[Italy]]. <!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Asia Minor Ancient Map.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Asia Minor in Antiquity]] --> Today the inhabitants of Anatolia are mostly native speakers of the [[Turkish language]], which was introduced with the conquest of Anatolia by [[Turkic peoples]] and the rise of the [[Seljuk Empire]] in the [[11th century]]. However, Anatolia remained multi-ethnic until the early [[20th century]] (see [[Rise of Nationalism under the Ottoman Empire]]). The Turks in [[Thrace]] were forced to leave their homes and settle in Anatolia during the [[Balkan Wars]]. The last population exchange, as result of the [[Treaty of Lausanne]], between Turkey and Greece eliminated the majority of Turks in Greece and Greeks in Turkey. A significant [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] ethnic and linguistic minority exists in the south eastern regions, while [[Armenian people|Armenians]] have a waning presence in the northeast and in cities. == States of Anatolia == Anatolia has been the center of many great states throughout history. The first known state was built by Hittites. {{Template:History_of_Anatolia}} {|style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:2px; font-size:85%;" align=center | colspan="3" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);" | States that existed over the Anatolia |- |[[History of Hattians and Hittites|Old Kingdom]] |[[Ionia]] |[[Byzantine Empire]] |- |[[History of the New Kingdom|New Kingdom]] |[[Hellenistic Greece]] |[[Nicaean Empire]] |- |[[History of the Neo-Hittite Kingdoms|Neo-Hittite]] |[[Pergamon]] |[[Ottoman Empire]] |- |[[Urartu]] |[[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]] |[[Roman Greece]] |[[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] |} == Ottoman Rule of Asia Minor after 1885== After 1885, with the governing reforms of [[Tanzimat]], the control of the Ottoman land in Asia Minor divided into 15 [[vilayet]]s, one [[sanjak]] and one mutersaflik of the vilayet of [[Constantinople]] (both being on the asiatic side of the [[Bosporus]]). Every vilayet was further divided in a number of sanjaks. More specifically the political division of Asia Minor in 1915 was as follows; * Vilayet of [[Izmir]] divided in the sanjaks of [[Manisa]], Izmir, [[Aydin]], [[Denizli]], [[Mentese]] * Independent vilayet of the [[Dardanelles]] * Vilayet of [[Bursa Province|Bursa]] divided in the sanjaks of [[Balikesir]], Bursa, Erdogrul, [[Kutahya]], [[Afyon]] * Vilayet of [[Konya]] divided in the sanjaks of [[Burdur]], [[Hamid abad]], [[Atalya]], Konya, [[Nigde]] * Vilayet of [[Kastamonu]] divided in the sanjaks of [[Bolu]], [[Cankiri]], Kastamonu, [[Sinop]] * Vilayet of [[Ankara]] divided in the sanjaks of Ankara, [[Kirsehir]], [[Yozgat]], [[Kayseri]] * Vilayet of [[Adana]], divided in the sanjaks of Icel([[Mersin]]), Adana, Hozan, Jebel-i-Bereket * Vilayet of [[Sivas]] divided in the sanjaks of Sivas, [[Tokat]], [[Amasya]], Karahisar-Sarki * Vilayet of [[Trabzon]] divided in the sanjaks of [[Samsun]], Trabzon, Argiropolis, [[Lazistan]] * Vilayet of [[Erzurum]] * Vilayet of [[Bitlis]] divided in the sanjaks of [[Mus]], Ghen, [[Siirt]] * Vilayet of [[Van]] divided in the sanjaks of Van, [[Hakkari]] * Vilayet of Mosul divided in the sanjaks of Mosul, Sehrizan, Suleymanih * Vilayet of Mamure-ul-Azil divided in the sanjak of [[Diyarbakir]] and the mutersaflik of Zor * Vilayet of Halep divided in the sanjaks of Halep, [[Urfa]], [[Kahramanmaraş|Maras]] Also the * Independent mutersaflik of [[Izmit]] and * the sanjak of [[Uskudar]] == Ethnic distribution in Asia Minor in the early 20th century (before the [[Treaty of Lausanne]]) == Based on French [[census]] files of [[1915]] the total population of Asia Minor (not including [[Eastern Thrace]], the vilayets of the orient & the city of Constantinople) was 10,372,411 persons of all nationalities and religions. More specifically the distribution of differerent [[ethnic group]]s as per [[Vilayet]] and [[Sanjak]] is as follows; {| class="wikitable" |- style="background-color:#C9C9C9" |- style="background-color:#E9E9E9" ! Sanjak or Vilayet !! Greeks !! Turks !! Armenians !! Rest !! Total |- |'''Sanjak of Uskudar''' || 74,457 || 124,281 || 35,560 || 24,192 || 258,490 |- |'''Mutersaflik of Izmit''' || 73,134 || 116,949 || 48,635 || 3,615 || 242,333 |- style="background-color:#E9E9E9" | '''Vilayet of the Dardanelles''' || 32,830 || 138,902 || 2,336 || &nbsp; || 177,894 |- style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |colspan="7"|'''Vilayet of Izmir''': |- | Sanjak of Izmir || 449,044 || 219,494 || 11,395 || &nbsp; || 754,046 |- | Sanjak of Manisa || 83,625 || 247,778 || 3,960 || &nbsp; ||337,925 |- | Sanjak of Aydin || 54,633 || 162,554 || 634 || &nbsp; ||219,959 |- | Sanjak of Mentese || 27,798 || 197,317 || 430 || &nbsp; ||205,457 |- | Sanjak of Denizli || 7,710 || 113,700 || 0 || &nbsp; ||142,142 |- style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |colspan="7"|'''Vilayet of Bursa''': |- | Sanjak of Bursa || 82,503 || 215,492 || 50,809 || &nbsp; ||353,976 |- | Sanjak of Balikesir || 150,946 || 194,391 || 17,882 || &nbsp; ||239,236 |- | Sanjak of Kutahya || 16,800 || 244,698 || 5,040 || &nbsp; ||250,938 |- | Sanjak of Afyon || 1,200 || 291,317 || 8,800 || &nbsp; ||317,017 |- | Sanjak of Erdogrul (Bilecig) || 26,970 || 246,851 || 7,495 || &nbsp; ||408,957 |- style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |colspan="7"|'''Vilayet of Konya''': |- | Sanjak of Konya || 8,589 || 294,191 || 6,900 || &nbsp; ||325,180 |- | Sanjak of Atalya || 10,253 || 196,087 || 489 || &nbsp; ||207,258 |- | Sanjak of Burdur || 2,565 || 149,968 || 987 || &nbsp; ||153,565 |- | Sanjak of Nigde || 55,518 || 174,140 || 753 || &nbsp; ||230,490 |- | Sanjak of Hamid Abad (Isparta) || 10,096 || 174,337 || 600 || &nbsp; ||185,056 |- style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |colspan="7"|'''Vilayet of Ankara''': |- | Sanjak of Ankara || 3,154 || 265,283 || 14,019 || &nbsp; ||283,043 |- | Sanjak of Kirsehir || 717 || 116,999 || 346 || &nbsp; ||118,062 |- | Sanjak of Kayseri || 23,201 || 157,331 || 44,985 || &nbsp; ||226,912 |- | Sanjak of Yozgat || 18,801 || 128,787 || 39,448 || &nbsp; ||194,281 |- style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |colspan="7"|'''Vilayet of Kastamonu''': |- | Sanjak of Kastamonu || 10,783 || 334,337 || 1,424 || &nbsp; ||346,552 |- | Sanjak of Sinop || 7,986 || 319,224 || 507 || &nbsp; ||324,738 |- | Sanjak of Kankiri || 1,143 || 165,407 || 960 || &nbsp; ||167,510 |- | Sanjak of Bolu || 5,007 || 119,467 || 314 || &nbsp; ||129,846 |- style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |colspan="7"|'''Vilayet of Sivas''': |- | Sanjak of Sivas || 7,702 || 451,214 || 64,070 || &nbsp; ||522,986 |- | Sanjak of Amasya || 36,739 || 198,000 || 50,600 || &nbsp; ||285,339 |- | Sanjak of Karahisar-Sarki || 27,761 || 38,500 || 18,046 || &nbsp; ||84,307 |- | Sanjak of Tokat || 27,174 || 151,800 || 37,919 || &nbsp; ||216,893 |- style="background-color:#E9E9E9" |colspan="7"|'''Vilayet of Trebzon''': |- | Sanjak of Trabzon || 154,774 || 404,656 || 26,321 || &nbsp; ||583,751 |- | Sanjak of Samsun (Djanik) || 136,087 || 233,454 || 22,585 || &nbsp; ||392,126 |- | Sanjak of Lazistan || 2,924 || 231,885 || 0 || &nbsp; ||234,809 |- | Sanjak of Argiropolis (Gumus-Haneh) || 59,748 || 87,871 || 1,718 || &nbsp; ||149,337 |} ==See also== *[[Hayastan]] (Greater Armenia) *[[Cilicia]] (Lesser Armenia) *[[Western Armenia]] (Ottoman Armenia) *[[Kurdistan]] *[[Lazistan]] *[[Pontus]] *[[Ajaria]] *[[List of ethnic groups]] *[[Levant]] *[[Ancient Near East]] *[[Middle East]] *[[History of Ottoman Armenia]] [[Category:Anatolia| ]] [[Category:Middle East]] [[Category:Near East]] {{Region}} [[ar:أناضول]] [[ast:Anatolia]] [[bg:Мала Азия]] [[ca:Anatòlia]] [[cs:Malá Asie]] [[da:Anatolien]] [[de:Kleinasien]] [[et:Anatoolia]] [[el:Μικρά Ασία]] [[es:Anatolia]] [[eo:Malgrand-Azio]] [[fa:آناتولی]] [[fr:Anatolie]] [[gl:Anatolia]] [[ko:소아시아]] [[hr:Anatolija]] [[id:Anatolia]] [[is:Anatólía]] [[it:Anatolia]] [[he:אסיה הקטנה]] [[ku:Anatoliya]] [[la:Asia Minor]] [[lb:Anatolien]] [[nl:Anatolië]] [[nds:Anatolien]] [[ja:アナトリア半島]] [[ka:ანატოლია]] [[no:Anatolia]] [[pl:Anatolia (Turcja)]] [[pt:Anatólia]] [[ru:Малая Азия]] [[simple:Asia Minor]] [[sl:Anatolija]] [[fi:Anatolia]] [[sv:Anatolien]] [[th:อนาโตเลีย]] [[tr:Anadolu]] [[uk:Мала Азія]] [[zh:安那托利亚]] 855 15899369 2005-03-13T01:44:12Z Woohookitty 159678 Fix Double Redirect - [[WP:WS|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]]. #REDIRECT [[Ecology]] 856 42159476 2006-03-04T05:21:49Z Hohohob 354391 /* Current products */ {{applecomputer}} <!--Please keep this article focused on the company. Try to refrain from turning this into an article on their products or innovations, except when relevant to the manufacturers. Although not terribly long, any reduction in length that does not hurt content is nice.--> '''Apple Computer, Inc. '''({{nasdaq|AAPL}} and {{lse|ACP}}) is an [[United States|American]] [[computer]] technology company. Its headquarters are located at 1 [[Infinite Loop (street)|Infinite Loop]], [[Cupertino, California|Cupertino]], [[California]], part of [[Silicon Valley]]. Apple was a major player in the [[personal computer]] revolution in the 1970s. The [[Apple II]] [[microcomputer]], introduced in 1977, was a hit with home users. In 1983, Apple introduced the first commercial personal computer to use a [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), the [[Apple Lisa|Lisa]]. In 1984, Apple introduced the revolutionary [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]]. The Macintosh (commonly called the "Mac") was the first successful commercial implementation of a GUI, which is now used in all major computers. Apple is known for its innovative, well-designed hardware and software, such as the [[Apple iPod | iPod]] and the [[iMac]], as well as the well-known [[iTunes]] application (part of the [[iLife]] suite) and [[Mac OS X]], its current [[operating system]]. ==History== {{main|History of Apple Computer}} ===1976 to 1980 - The founding of Apple=== Apple Computer was founded in [[Los Gatos, California]] on [[April 1]], [[1976]] by [[Steve Jobs]], [[Steve Wozniak]] and [[Ronald Wayne]], to sell the [[Apple I]] personal computer kit at $666.66. They were hand-built in Jobs' parents' garage, and the Apple I was first shown to the public at the [[Homebrew Computer Club]]. Jobs and Wozniak, ("the two Steves") had been friends since 1971. Jobs managed to interest Wozniak in assembling a personal computer and selling it. Jobs approached a local computer store, The Byte Shop, who, after Jobs' famous persuasion, ordered fifty units and paid $500 for each unit. Jobs then ordered components from Cramer Electronics, a national electronic parts distributor. Using a variety of methods, including borrowing space from friends and family and selling various items including a [[VW Type 2|Volkswagen Type 2 bus]], Jobs managed to secure the parts needed while Wozniak and another friend, [[Ronald Wayne]], assembled the Apple I. They were delivered in June, and paid for on delivery. Eventually 200 Apple I computers were built. Note that the original Apple I was actually a motherboard, it was not a full computer as we know it today. The [[Apple II]] was introduced on [[April 16]], [[1977]] at the first [[West Coast Computer Faire]]. It was popular with home users and was occasionally sold to business users, particularly after the release of the first spreadsheet for any computer called [[VisiCalc]]. (See the timeline for dates of Apple II family model releases&mdash;the 1977 Apple II and its younger siblings, the II Plus, IIe, IIc and IIGS.) But it was a mild success for the small computer company. By now, Jobs and his partners had a staff of computer designers and a production line. The Apple II was succeeded by the [[Apple III]] in May 1980 as the company struggled to compete against [[IBM]] and [[Microsoft]] in the lucrative business and corporate computing market. The designers of the Apple III were forced to comply with Jobs' request to omit the cooling fan, and this ultimately resulted in thousands of recalled units due to overheating. An updated version was introduced in 1983 but it was also a failure due to bad press and discouraged buyers. Nevertheless, the principals of the company persevered with further innovations and marketing. Jobs and several other Apple employees including [[Jef Raskin]] visited [[Xerox PARC]] in December 1979, to see the [[Alto (computer)|Alto computer]]. Xerox granted Apple engineers three days of access to the PARC facilities in return for selling them one million dollars in pre-[[IPO]] Apple stock (approximately $18 million net). ===1981 to 1989 - Lisa and Macintosh=== [[Image:Ad_apple_1984.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The protagonist of Apple's well known [[1984 (television commercial)|1984 ad]], set in a [[dystopia]]n future modeled after the [[Orwellian]] novel [[Nineteen Eighty-Four]].]] In the early 1980s, IBM and Microsoft continued to gain market share at Apple's expense in the personal computer industry. Using a fundamentally different business model, [[IBM]] marketed an open hardware standard created with the [[IBM PC]], which was bundled with [[Microsoft]]'s [[MS-DOS]] (MicroSoft-Disk Operating System). In 1983, Apple introduced the first [[personal computer]] to be sold to the public with a [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), named the [[Apple Lisa|Lisa]]. Using a GUI, the user communicates with the computer by interacting with icons onscreen that resemble real-world items (folders, documents, images). However, the Lisa was a commercial failure as a result of its high price tag ($9995) and limited software titles. After the Lisa, Apple began work on a similar but less expensive computer to be called the [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]]. It was launched in 1984 with the now famous [[1984 (television commercial)|Super Bowl advertisement]] based on [[George Orwell]]'s novel ''[[1984 (novel)|1984]]''. It was an immediate success, particularly in the world of graphic and communications design, where its [[GUI]] (which was to become the industry standard) and ability to handle large graphic files surpassed anything else on the market. The Macintosh also spawned the concept of [[Apple evangelist|Mac evangelism]] among users, which was pioneered by Apple employee and later Apple Fellow, [[Guy Kawasaki]]. In anticipation of the Macintosh launch, [[Bill Gates]], co-founder and chairman of [[Microsoft]], was given several Macintosh prototypes in 1983 to develop software for the "Mac". In 1985, Microsoft launched [[Microsoft Windows]], with its own GUI for IBM PCs using many of the elements of the Macintosh OS. An internal power struggle developed between Jobs and new CEO [[John Sculley]] in 1985. Apple's board of directors sided with Sculley, and Jobs was asked to resign from the company. Jobs then founded [[NeXT]] Inc., a computer company that built machines with futuristic designs and ran the UNIX-derived [[NEXTSTEP|NeXTstep]] operating system. Although powerful, NeXT computers never caught on with buyers, due in part to their high purchase price. ===1990 to 1993 - PowerBook and decline=== Having learned several painful lessons after introducing the bulky [[Macintosh Portable]] in 1989, Apple turned to industrial designers and adopted a product strategy based in three portable devices. One portable was built by [[Sony]], which had a strong reputation for designing small, durable and functional electronics devices. Sony took the specs of the Mac Portable, put in a smaller two-hour battery, a much smaller (physically) twenty [[megabyte]] [[Hard disk|hard drive]] and a smaller nine-inch [[Liquid crystal display|passive matrix screen]]. Called the [[Powerbook|PowerBook 100]], this landmark product was introduced in 1991 and established the modern form and [[ergonomics|ergonomic]] layout of the [[laptop computer]]. This solidified Apple's reputation as a quality manufacturer, both of desktop and now portable machines. The success of the PowerBook and several other Apple products during this period led to increasing revenue. The [[magazine]] ''[[MacAddict]]'' named the period between 1989 to 1991 the "first golden age" of the Macintosh. This golden age was not to last. The introduction of [[Microsoft Windows]] presented an interface that many people thought was close enough to the Macintosh in terms of ease of use and overall look and feel. Apple thought that Windows was ''too'' close, and sued [[Microsoft]] for theft of intellectual property. At about the same time, Apple branched out into consumer electronics. One example of this product diversification was the [[Apple QuickTake]] digital camera (which never caught on). A more famous example was the [[Apple Newton|Newton]], an early [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]] that was introduced in 1993. Though it failed commercially, it defined and launched the new category of computing and was a forerunner and inspiration of devices such as [[BlackBerry]], [[Palm Pilot]] and its descendants-[[PocketPC]]s. During the 1990s, Apple greatly expanded its computer lineup as well. It offered a multitude of different models, yet it failed to adequately explain to the public why it should choose one model over another. The costs involved in making such a wide variety of products, coupled with some highly-publicized product recalls and the growing popularity of Microsoft Windows, all lead to the near-bankruptcy of Apple in the mid-to-late 1990s. === 1994 to 1997 - Attempts at reinvention === By the mid-1990s, Apple realized that it had to reinvent the Macintosh in order to stay competitive in the computer world. The needs of both computer users and computer programs were becoming, for a variety of technical reasons, harder for the existing hardware and operating system to address. In 1994, Apple surprised its loyalists by allying with its long-time competitor IBM and Motorola in the so-called [[AIM alliance]]. This was a bid to create a new computing platform (the [[PowerPC Reference Platform]] or PReP) which would use IBM and [[Motorola]] hardware coupled with Apple's software. The AIM alliance hoped that PReP's performance and Apple's software would leave the PC far behind, thus countering Microsoft, which had become Apple's chief competitor. Towards this end, Apple tried to recruit other companies that would build PReP-compliant computers. Apple hoped to expand the Mac OS market share by licensing the operating system to these other companies, like Microsoft had promoted DOS and Windows by licensing them to external manufacturers. Only a few companies--notably [[Power Computing]] and [[UMAX]]--agreed to produce these computers. But eventually the licensing program was suspended. As the first step toward launching the PReP platform, Apple started the [[Power Macintosh]] line in 1994, using IBM's [[PowerPC]] processor. This processor utilized a [[RISC]] architecture, which differed substantially from the Motorola [[68k]] series that had been used by all previous Macs. Apple's OS's were rewritten so that most software for the older Macs could run on the PowerPC series (in [[emulation]]). Also throughout the mid to late 1990s, Apple tried to improve its operating system's multitasking and memory management. After first attempting to modify its existing code, Apple realized that it would be better to start with an entirely new operating system and then modify it to fit the Macintosh interface. Apple did some preliminary work with IBM towards this goal with the [[Taligent]] project, but that project never produced a replacement operating system. They then investigated using [[Be Incorporated|Be]]'s [[BeOS]], [[NeXT]]'s [[NeXTstep]] OS, and also Microsoft's [[Windows NT]] OS. NeXTstep was chosen, and this supplied the platform for the modern OS X. On [[February 4]], [[1997]], Apple completed its purchase of NeXT and its NeXTstep operating system, thus bringing Steve Jobs back into Apple. On [[July 9]], [[1997]], [[Gil Amelio]] was ousted as CEO of Apple by the board of directors after overseeing a 12-year record-low stock price and crippling financial losses, despite an outstanding decade of innovation. Jobs stepped in as the interim CEO and began a critical restructuring of the company's product line. ===1998 to 2005 - New beginnings=== [[Image:Steve Jobs with iMac.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Steve Jobs]] introducing the original [[iMac]] computer in 1998.]] In 1998, a year after Jobs had returned to the company, Apple introduced a new all-in-one Macintosh (echoing the original [[Macintosh 128K]]): the [[iMac]], a new design that eliminated most Apple-standard connections like [[SCSI]] and [[Apple Desktop Bus|ADB]] in favor of two [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] ports. While technically not impressive (it was aimed at a general market), it featured an innovative new design - its translucent plastic case, originally [[Bondi blue (color)|Bondi Blue]] and [[white]], and later many other colors, is considered an industrial design hallmark of the late-[[1990s|90s]]. The iMac design team was led by Jonathan Ive (who later also designed the iPod). The iMac proved to be phenomenally successful, with 800,000 units sold in 1998, making the company a profit that year of $309 million - Apple's first profitable year since [[Michael Spindler]] took the position of CEO of the company in 1993. The Power Macintosh was redesigned along similar lines, and continues to evolve to this day. At the [[National Association of Broadcasters]] Apple purchased the Final Cut software from [[Macromedia]], beginning their entry into the [[digital video]] editing market. [[iMovie]] was released in [[1999]], for consumers, and [[Final Cut Pro]] was released for professionals in the same year. Final Cut Pro has gone on to be a significant video editing program. Similarly, in [[2000]], Apple bought [[Astarte]]'s DVDirector software, which morphed into [[iDVD]] (for consumers) and [[DVD Studio Pro]] (for professionals) at the [[Macworld Conference and Expo]] of [[2001]]. In 2001, Apple introduced [[Mac OS X]], the operating system based on NeXT's [[NEXTSTEP|NeXTstep]] and [[BSD]] Unix. Aimed at consumers and professionals alike, Apple claims that OS X marries stability, reliability and security of the [[Unix]] operating system with the ease of a completely overhauled user interface. To aid users in moving their applications from OS 9, the new operating system allowed the use of [[Mac OS 9]] applications through OS X's [[Classic (Mac OS X)|Classic environment]]. Apple's [[Carbon (API)|Carbon]] API also allowed developers to adapt their OS 9 software to use Mac OS X's features with a (claimed) simple re-compile. [[Image:Applecomputerheadquarters.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Company headquarters on [[Infinite Loop (street)|Infinite Loop]] in [[Cupertino]], [[California]].]] In May 2001, after much speculation, Apple announced the opening of the [[Apple Store (retail)|Apple retail store]]s, to be located in major U.S. consumer locations. These stores were designed for two purposes: to stem the tide of Apple's declining share of the computer market and to counter a poor record of marketing Apple products by third-party retail outlets. In late 2001, Apple introduced its first [[iPod]] portable [[digital audio player]], a move that has proven to be phenomenally successful with over 42 million units sold even though it was not originally perceived to be a successful product.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4625262.stm BBC News story on Apple's first quarter 2006 earnings report]</ref> Combined with a scheme to offer downloadable songs at US 99 cents per song through Apple's [[ITunes Music Store|iTunes Music Store]], there had been over [http://www.apple.com/itunes/1billion/ 1,000,000,000] downloads for iPod players by February 2006<ref>[http://www.apple.com/quicktime/qtv/mwsf06/ Steve Jobs' January 2006 MacWorld keynote address]</ref>. In [[2002]], Apple purchased [[Nothing Real]], and their advanced digital compositing application, [[Shake (software)|Shake]], raising Apple's professional commitment even higher. In the same year they also acquired [[Emagic]], and with it, obtained their professional-quality music productivity application, [[Logic Pro|Logic]], which led to the development of their consumer-level [[GarageBand]] application. With [[iPhoto]]'s release in 2002 as well, this completed Apple's collection of consumer and professional level creativity software, with the consumer-level applications being collected together into the [[iLife]] suite. On March 10, 2005 Apple Computer announced its support for [[Sony]]'s [[Blu-Ray]] technology and joined the [[Blu-ray Disc Association]], or BDA. In a keynote address on [[June 6]], [[2005]], Steve Jobs officially announced that Apple would begin producing Intel-based Macintosh computers beginning in 2006.<ref>Apple press release [http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/jun/06intel.html Apple to Use Intel Microprocessors Beginning in 2006]</ref> Jobs confirmed [[Mac rumors community|rumor]]s that the company had secretly been producing versions of its current operating system [[Mac OS X]] for both PowerPC and Intel processors for the previous five years, and that the transition to Intel processor systems would last until the end of 2007. Jobs surprised the industry at Macworld 2006 however, by announcing the first Intel based Apple computers would begin selling January 2006 and that the transition would be complete by the end of that same year. Mac OS X is based on [[OPENSTEP]], an operating system originally available for many platforms. Apple's own [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]], the [[open source]] underpinnings of OS X, is also compiled for Intel's ''x''86 architecture.<ref>See articles from [http://news.com.com/Apple+shakes+hands+with+Intel/2009-1006_3-5733319.html news.com], [http://www.appleinsider.com/article.php?id=1112 Apple insider], and [http://nytimes.com/2005/06/06/technology/06apple.html The New York Times]</ref> With the introduction of the [[Power Mac G5]] in [[June 2003]], Apple abandoned flashy colors in favor of white [[polycarbonate]] for consumer lines such as the iMac and iBook, as well as the educational [[eMac]], and anodized [[aluminum]] or [[titanium]] for professional products like the [[Power Mac G5]], [[PowerBook G4]] and [[MacBook Pro]], as well as the low-cost [[Mac mini]]. [[Image:MacBook.jpg|right|thumb|The new [[MacBook Pro]] is Apple's first consumer laptop with an Intel microprocessor.]] ===2006 to present - Start of the Intel era=== {{main|Apple Intel transition}} On [[January 10]], [[2006]], Apple released its first [[Intel]] chip computers, a new [[notebook computer]] known as the [[MacBook Pro]] (a 15.4 inch laptop which replaced the [[PowerBook]] G4 line and offers a 4X speed improvement) and a new (though identical) [[iMac]] with a 2-3 times faster performance increase. Both used Intel's [[Intel Core|Core Duo]] chip technology. The current operating system, OS X Tiger 10.4(.5), runs natively on the new Intel machines, as do many applications, such as iLife '06. Other applications, such as [[Microsoft Office]] and [[Adobe Photoshop]], compiled for the PowerPC, run in emulation mode, using a technology known as [[Rosetta (software)|Rosetta]]. (see [[Apple Intel transition]] for more information regarding the transition) The Intel-based machines do not support Classic (as it has not been translated to x86 binaries), so applications that run only in Mac OS 9 and earlier will not run on these machines. All Macintosh product lines are expected to transition to Intel processors by the end of 2006. The Apple online store sold out of 17-inch iMac G5 computers in [[February 2006]], and Apple ended the life of its 15 inch PowerBook G4 on Wednesday the 22nd of February 2006. The Apple/Intel partnership has coined a new catch-phrase among computer users: "Mactel", in response to the phrase "[[Wintel]]," an informal moniker that describes all Intel-powered systems running the Microsoft Windows operating system. This moniker has never been used seriously by Apple's PR or exceutives, mainly in use only in Apple fanatic circles. ==Current products== [[Image:Ipod 5th Generation white.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Apple iPod | iPod]], shown here, is one of Apple's most successful products. The latest iPod, with a 60 [[gigabyte]] sized hard drive, is capable of playing video.]] Hardware : * Power Mac G5 * MacBook Pro * PowerBook (G4) * iMac (Intel) * iMac (G5) * Mac mini (Intel) * iBook (G4) * Xserve * iPod 5G * iPod Nano * Various iPod acessories Software : * Mac OS X * iLife (iPhoto, iMovie, iDVD, iWeb, Garageband) * iWork (Pages, Keynote) * Final Cut Pro * Final Cut Express * Aperture * Logic Pro * Logic Express * Shake * Motion * Etc. ===Hardware=== Apple introduced the [[Apple Macintosh]] family in 1984 and today makes consumer, professional, and educational computers. The [[Mac mini]] is the company's consumer sub-desktop computer, introduced in January 2005 and designed to motivate [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] users to switch to the Macintosh platform. The [[iMac]] is a consumer desktop computer that was first introduced by Apple in 1998, and its popularity helped save the company from bankruptcy. Now in its third design iteration, the iMac is similar in concept to the original Macintosh in that the monitor and computer are housed in a single unit. The [[Power Mac G5]], Apple's desktop computer for the professional and creative market, is a member of the [[Power Macintosh]] series first introduced in 1994. The [[eMac]] is Apple's cheaper alternative to the iMac for the education market. Apple's server range includes the [[Xserve]], a single-processor, dual-processor, and cluster-node server range, and the [[Xserve RAID]] for server storage options. Apple introduced the [[iBook]] consumer portable computer as a companion to the iMac; it is Apple's lowest cost portable computer. The [[MacBook Pro]] is the professional portable computer alternative to the iBook intended for the professional and creative market and replaced the [[PowerBook]] range. PowerBooks are still being manufactured and sold, but is expected that Apple will phase out both the PowerBook and iBook lines upon arrival of the heavily rumoured MacBook, the low end version of the [[MacBook Pro]] and [[Intel]]-based version of the [[iBook]]. The Powerbook range was first introduced in 1991 and helped Apple's profits increase during the 1990s. In 2001, Apple introduced the [[Apple iPod |iPod]] [[digital music player]] and currently sells the iPod (with video), available in 30 and 60 GB models; the [[iPod nano]], available in 1 GB, 2GB and 4 GB models; and the [[iPod shuffle]], available in 512 MB and 1 GB models. [[Image:MacminiWhiteBGSmall.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Mac mini]] is Apple's lowest cost desktop computer.]] Apple sells a variety of computer accessories for Macintosh computers including the [[iSight]] video conferencing camera, the [[AirPort]] wirelss networking products; [[Apple Cinema Display|Apple Cinema HD Display]] and [[Apple Displays]] computer displays; [[Apple Mighty Mouse|Mighty Mouse]] and [[Apple Wireless Mouse]] computer mice; the [[Apple Wireless Keyboard]] computer keyboard and the [[Apple USB Modem]]. ===Software=== Apple independently develops [[computer software]] titles for its [[Mac OS X]] operating system. Much of the software Apple develops is bundled with its computers. An example of this is the consumer-oriented [[iLife]] software package which bundles [[iDVD]], [[iMovie|iMovie HD]], [[iPhoto]], [[iTunes]], [[GarageBand]], and [[iWeb]]. Both [[iTunes]] and a feature-limited version of the [[QuickTime]] media player are available as free downloads for both Mac OS X and Windows. For presentation and page layout, [[iWork]] is available. Apple also offers a range of professional software titles. Their range of server software includes the [[Mac OS X Server]] operating system; [[Apple Remote Desktop]], a remote desktop control application; [[WebObjects]], [[Java 2 Platform, Enterprise Edition|Java]] [[World Wide Web|Web]] [[application server]]; and [[Xsan]], a [[Storage Area Network]] file system. For the professional creatives market, there is [[Aperture (software)|Aperture]] for professional [[RAW]]-format [[photo]] processing; [[Final Cut Studio]], a video software package, as well as [[Final Cut Express HD]], a cut-down version, for [[Standard-definition television|SD]] and [[High-definition television|HD]] video editors; [[Logic Pro]], a comprehensive music toolkit, and [[Logic Express]], its prosumer cousin; and [[Shake (software)|Shake]], an advanced effects composition program. Apple also offers online services with [[.Mac]] which bundles [[Web page|.Mac HomePage]], [[E-mail|.Mac Mail]], .Mac Groups [[social network service]], [[iDisk|.Mac iDisk]], [[Backup (backup software)|.Mac Backup]], [[iSync|.Mac Sync]], and Learning Center online tutorials. :See also: :*[[List of Macintosh models grouped by CPU]] :*[[List of Macintosh software]] :*[[List of products discontinued by Apple Computer]] ==Corporate affairs== ===Logo=== [[Image:Originalapplelogo.jpg|thumb|left|110px|The original Apple logo featuring [[Isaac Newton]] under the fabled apple tree.]] [[Image:Striped apple logo.png|thumb|right|110px|The rainbow Apple logo, used from late 1976 to early 1998.]] [[Image:Apple-logo.png|thumb|right|110px|The current Apple logo. On products, a simple gray version of the Apple is used, without embellishing it as has been done to computerized images.]] The original Apple logo was designed by [[Steve Jobs]] and [[Ron Wayne]] and depicts Isaac Newton sitting under an apple tree. However this design was soon to be replaced by the now famous [[rainbow]] apple with a "bite" taken out of it. It was one of a set of designs [[Rob Janoff]] presented Jobs in 1976 <ref>[http://wired-vig.wired.com/news/mac/0,2125,60597,00.html Wired News: Apple Doin' the Logo-Motion]</ref>. In the book Zeroes and Ones, author [[Sadie Plant]] speculates that the rainbow Apple logo was a homage to [[Alan Turing]], the homosexual father of modern computer science who committed suicide by eating a cyanide-laced apple in imitation of the movie ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]''. This seems to be an [[urban legend]] as the Apple logo was designed two years before [[Gilbert Baker]]'s [[Rainbow flag|rainbow pride flag]], and did not follow the same color pattern. In 1998, the logo became single-colored, though no specific color is prescribed; for example, it is grey on the [[Power Mac G5]] and [[iMac G5|Apple iMac]], blue (by default) in [[Mac OS X]], chrome on the 'About this Mac' panel and the boot screen in OS X 10.3 and 10.4, red on many [[Software]] packages, and white on the [[iBook]], [[PowerBook G4]] and [[MacBook Pro]]. The logo's shape is one of the most recognized brand symbols in the world, and is featured quite prominently on all Apple products and retail stores. ===Criticism=== Apple was criticized for its [[vertical integration|vertically integrated]] business model, which runs against the "received wisdom" of some economists, particularly those who study the computer industry. However, the company is profitable. Others criticize the company by suggesting it has been personality-driven, especially during the two eras of Steve Jobs' tenure. Some even regard the company as a cult or at least having cult-like features. Jobs' charisma, infamously referred to as his [[reality distortion field]], has drawn criticism. From a technical standpoint, Apple was also criticized for having a closed and proprietary architecture with the original Macintosh and refusing to adopt open standards; for many years a "[[Not Invented Here]]" (NIH) culture seemed to prevail. The [[ITunes Music Store|iTunes Music Store]] continues this trend, utilizing a proprietary [[Digital rights management|Digital Rights Management]] system called [[FairPlay]] that requires burning and re-ripping a CD to place purchased songs on any [[digital audio player]] besides the [[Apple iPod | iPod]]. That trend was largely reversed with [[Mac OS X]], and the company now has an official policy of adopting relevant open industry standards. Mac OS X is based on a [[free software]] / [[Open-source software|open source software]] [[Kernel (computer science)|kernel]] and core operating system called [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]]. Apple also uses an open source framework called [[WebKit]] in its [[Safari (web browser)|Safari web browser]]. Apple has used industry-standard hardware technologies for many years. Many Apple technologies have also become industry standards where no former standard existed, for example [[Zeroconf|Bonjour]] zero-configuration networking, and [[FireWire]]. Some non-Apple technologies only gained wide industry acceptance after Apple adopted them, including 3.5-inch [[floppy disk]]s, [[SCSI]], the [[Universal Serial Bus]] (USB), [[Wi-Fi]] and, of course, graphical user interfaces (GUIs). Apple has recently adopted an Intel-based architecture. Apple's industry-standard software implementations include [[iCalendar]], as well as a host of other networking protocols. [[Open-source software|Open source software]] advocates are often critical of Apple's attempt to appeal to their particular movements. Such advocates claim that such a marketing scheme is not taken seriously enough by Apple because Mac OS X has many proprietary technologies in essential areas. Other open source advocates make a counter-argument that Apple has done much more for open source software than many other major commercial software developers by releasing large portions of source code to the public through the [[Apple Public Source License]] (APSL). Some third-party developers are also critical of the competing factions within Apple itself, noting an apparent rivalry between the developers of [[Cocoa (API)|Cocoa]], which came from NeXT, and those of [[Carbon (API)|Carbon]], which came from Apple. This rivalry is seen as counterproductive and unnecessary by many developers. Apple's retail initiative has had a mixed reception despite its success promoting the Apple brand. Retailers have suggested that Apple-owned retail stores receive preference when receiving Apple hardware, obtaining limited stock product earlier and at lower prices. This accusation is denied by Apple. <!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Steve Jobs2 cropped.png|thumb|100px|right|Steve Jobs, the current [[Chief executive officer|CEO]].]] --> ===Apple CEOs, 1977-present=== <!--If you change the title of this section, please change the link at [[List of Apple Computer CEOs]] correspondingly.--> * 1977 - 1981: [[Michael Scott (Apple Computer)|Michael "Scotty" Scott]] * 1981 - 1983: [[Mike Markkula]] * 1983 - 1993: [[John Sculley]] * 1993 - 1996: [[Michael Spindler]] * 1996 - 1997: [[Gil Amelio]] * 1997 - present: [[Steve Jobs]] ===Current Apple Board of Directors=== * [[Fred D. Anderson]], managing director of [[Elevation Partners]] * [[Bill Campbell (CEO)|Bill Campbell]], chairman of [[Intuit, Inc.]] * [[Millard Drexler]], chairman and CEO of [[J.Crew]] * [[Al Gore]], former [[Vice President of the United States]] * [[Steve Jobs]], CEO of Apple and [[Pixar]] * [[Arthur D. Levinson]], chairman and CEO of [[Genentech]] * [[Jerry York (CEO)|Jerry York]], chairman, president and CEO of [[Harwinton Capital]] ===Current Apple executives=== * [[Steve Jobs]], CEO * [[Timothy D. Cook]], [[chief operating officer]] * [[Jon Rubinstein]], senior vice president of [[iPod]] division * [[Philip W. Schiller]], senior vice president of worldwide [[product marketing]] * [[Bertrand Serlet]], senior vice president of [[software engineering]] * [[Nancy R. Heinen]], senior vice president and general counsel * [[Ron Johnson (Apple)|Ron Johnson]], senior vice president of retail * [[Sina Tamaddon]], senior vice president of applications * [[Peter Oppenheimer]], senior vice president and [[Chief Financial Officer|CFO]] * [[Avie Tevanian]], chief software technology officer ==User culture== :''See Also: [[Cult of Mac]]'' Some Apple customers are devoted to their brand. Some refuse to buy from competitors and stridently uphold their belief in the perceived superiority of Apple products; according to surveys by [[J. D. Power]], Apple has the highest brand and repurchase loyalty of any computer manufacturer. While this brand loyalty is considered unusual for any product, Apple appears not to have gone out of its way to create it. At one time, [[Apple evangelist]]s were actively engaged by the company, but this was after the phenomenon was already firmly established. As [[Guy Kawasaki]] has said, "[the brand fanaticism was] something that was stumbled upon".<ref>[http://www.creatingcustomerevangelists.com/resources/evangelists/guy_kawasaki.asp The father of evangelism marketing] by Ben McConnell and Jackie Huba</ref> Macintosh users meet at the [[Apple Expo]] and [[MacWorld Expo]] trade shows where Apple introduces new products each year to the industry and public. Many users show their loyalty and devotion by wearing Apple [[t-shirt]]s. Another example of Apple's user culture is the [[Apple_Store_%28retail%29|Apple Store]] openings where many wait and sleep outside of stores for days prior to their openings. [[John Sculley]], former Apple CEO, told the Guardian newspaper in 1997: "''People talk about technology, but Apple was a marketing company, It was the marketing company of the decade.''".<ref>[http://www.wired.com/news/culture/mac/0,56677-0.html Wired News: Apple: It's All About the Brand]</ref> ==Notable litigation== {{main|Notable litigation of Apple Computer}} Apple's earliest court action dates to 1978 when [[Apple Records|Apple Corps]], [[The Beatles]]-founded record label, filed suit against Apple Computer for trademark infringement. The suit settled in 1981 with an amount of $80,000 being paid to Apple Corps. As a condition of the settlement, Apple Computer agreed to stay out of the music business. The case arose in 1989 again when Apple Corps sued, claiming violation of the 1981 settlement agreement. In 1991 another settlement of around $26.5 million was reached. <ref>[http://news.com.com/Apple+vs.+Apple+Perfect+harmony/2100-1027_3-5378401.html news.com: Apple vs. Apple: Perfect harmony?]</ref> In September 2003 Apple Computer was sued by Apple Corps again, this time for introducing [[iTunes]] and the [[Apple iPod | iPod]] which Apple Corps believed was a violation of the previous agreement by Apple not to distribute music. <ref>[http://www.legalzoom.com/articles/article_content/article11325.html legalzoom.com: Apple v Apple: What is at the core of The Beatles’ Apple Records vs. Apple Ipod…]</ref> The date for this trial has been set for [[March 27]], [[2006]] in the UK. At the present time [[the Beatles]]' songs are not available for download from any legal music download sites, including the [[iTunes Music Store]]. In 1982 Apple filed a lawsuit against [[Franklin Computer Corp.]], alleging that Franklin's ACE 100 personal computer used illegal copies of Apple's [[operating system]] and [[Read-only memory|ROM]]. [[Apple v. Franklin]] established the fundamental basis of copyright of computer software. As a result, Apple began embedding an encrypted image in ROM. This icon displays "Stolen from Apple Computer". In 1988 Apple sued Microsoft and [[Hewlett-Packard]] on the grounds that they infringed Apple's copyright on a GUI. The [[Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corp.]] trial lasted for four years. The ruling was decided against Apple, and the concept of a GUI was no longer the domain of Apple alone. In July 1998 [[Abdul Traya]] registered the domain name ''appleimac.com'', two months after Apple announced the [[iMac]], in an attempt to draw attention to a web-hosting business. <ref>[http://news.com.com/2100-1023-221921.html news.com: Teen in dispute with Apple over domain]</ref> After a legal dispute that lasted until April 1999, Traya and Apple settled out of court with Apple paying legal fees and giving Traya a "''token payment''" in exchange for the domain name. <ref>[http://www.macobserver.com/news/99/april/990427/applevsteen.html macobserver.com: Battle For Domain Name Between Apple And Teen Resolved]</ref> In 1994 Apple was sued by the astronomer and science popularizer [[Carl Sagan]] for using his name as the internal code-name for the [[Power Macintosh 7100]]. Sagan lost the suit twice. See the Carl Sagan [[Carl Sagan#Personality|article]] for details. In November 2000, [[Benjamin Cohen]] of [http://www.cyberbritain.co.uk CyberBritain] registered the domain name "itunes.co.uk" for an MP3 search engine. Apple was granted a UK restricted (non music) trademark for ITUNES on [[March 23]], [[2001]], and launched its popular iTunes music store service in the UK in 2004. In 2005, Apple took the matter to the Dispute Resolution Service operated by [[.uk]] [[domain|domain name]] [[registry]] [[Nominet UK]], stating that they had rights in the name "iTunes". An expert decided in Apple's favor in the dispute. Cohen launched a media offensive stating that the DRS was biased towards large businesses and made frequent threats of lawsuits against Nominet. In November 2004, two popular [[weblog]] sites that feature [[Mac rumors community|Apple rumors]] publicly revealed information about an unreleased Apple product code-named "Asteroid", also known as "Project Q97". The sites, "AppleInsider" and "PowerPage", were subpoenaed for information about their sources in the [[Apple v. Does]] case. In February 2005 it was decided by a court official in California that the bloggers do not have the same [[shield law]] protection as do journalists. In a related case, the websites went on to fight the journalistic status decision. In a separate matter, Apple filed a lawsuit against website [[Think Secret]] in January 2005, claiming that the site's reports about forthcoming Apple products violated trade secret law. In May 2005 Apple entered into a [[class action]] settlement <ref>[http://www.appleipodsettlement.com http://www.appleipodsettlement.com]</ref>, upheld on December 20, 2005 following an appeal, regarding the battery life of [[Apple iPod | iPod]] music players sold prior to May 2004. Eligible members of the class are entitled to extended warranties, store credit, cash compensation, or battery replacement. ==See also== *[[Apple Computer financial history]] *[[Apple Developer Connection]] — Developer relations program *[[Apple Intel transition]] *[[Apple typography]] — Apple's [[typography|type]] related endeavors, technological and artistic *[[Inside Macintosh]] *[[List of Apple Computer slogans]] *[[Macintosh clones]] — Discussion of Apple's licensing of the Macintosh platform *[[Mac rumors community]] — in recent years, a subculture has developed around rumored products *[[Pirates of Silicon Valley]] - A movie based on the rise of Apple and Microsoft. ==References== <references /> ==Further reading== * Gil Amelio, William L. Simon (1999) ''In the Firing Line: My 500 days at Apple'' ISBN 0887309194 * Jim Carlton, ''Apple: The Inside Story of Intrigue, Egomania and Business Blunders'' ISBN 0887309658 * Owen Linzmayer (2004), ''Apple Confidential 2.0'', No Starch Press ISBN 1593270100 * Michael Malone (1999), ''Infinite Loop'' ISBN 0385486847 * [[Steven Levy]], ''Insanely Great: The Life and Times of Macintosh, the Computer That Changed Everything'' ISBN 0140291776 * [[Andy Hertzfeld]] (2004), ''Revolution in the Valley'', O'Reilly Books ISBN 0596007191 * [http://folklore.org/index.py Folklore.org: Macintosh stories], retrieved [[November 25]], [[2005]] ==External links== <!-- Please do not add unnecessary links to this section: Wikipedia is not a link repository. See the Talk page for this article, and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not --> {{commons|Category:Apple_Computer|Apple Computer}} *[http://www.apple.com/ Apple Computer Official Website] *[http://www.applematters.com/ Apple Matters - Apple news and opinion site] *[http://www.macnn.com/ MacNN - Apple news site] *[http://www.macfixit.com/ MacFixIt - Mac troubleshooting site] *[http://apple.slashdot.org Slashdot: Apple] *[http://www.macuser.co.uk/ MacUser's Apple news site] *[http://www.maccentral.com/ Macworld's Apple news site] *[http://www.macintouch.com/ MacInTouch - Apple and Mac news site] *[http://www.macdailynews.com/ MacDailyNews - Apple and Mac news site] *[http://www.insanely-great.com/ Insanely Great mac - Apple news site] *[http://www.theapplemuseum.com/ The Apple Museum] *[http://www.apple-history.com/ Apple-History.com - Mac OS X Hints, tips, and troubleshooting] *[http://applepedia.com/ ApplePedia.com - An Apple-centric wiki] *[http://www.macinformation.com/pages/articles/article1.html The Branding of Apple] *[http://www.buyblue.org/node/251/view/summary Apple Computer Inc Profile] at [[BuyBlue.org]] *[http://guides.macrumors.com/ Mac Guides - MacRumors.com Guide pages (wiki)] *[http://www.spymac.com/ Spymac - the world's largest Mac community] {{Apple_Articles}} [[Category:1976 establishments]] [[Category:Apple Computer|*]] [[Category:Brands]] [[Category:Companies based in California]] [[Category:Electronics companies]] [[Category:Home computer hardware companies]] [[Category:Human-computer interaction notables]] {{Link FA|he}} [[bg:Епъл]] [[ca:Apple Computer]] [[cs:Apple]] [[da:Apple Computer]] [[de:Apple]] [[es:Apple Computer]] [[eo:Apple]] [[fa:شرکت رایانه‌ای اپل]] [[fr:Apple Computer]] [[gl:Apple Computer]] [[ko:애플 컴퓨터]] [[hr:Apple Computer]] [[id:Apple Computer]] [[ia:Apple Computer]] [[it:Apple Computer]] [[he:אפל מחשבים]] [[la:Apple Computatores]] [[lt:Apple]] [[hu:Apple Computer]] [[ms:Apple]] [[nl:Apple Computer]] [[nds:Apple]] [[ja:アップルコンピュータ]] [[no:Apple]] [[pl:Apple Computer]] [[pt:Apple Computer, Inc.]] [[ro:Apple Computer]] [[ru:Apple Computer]] [[simple:Apple Computer]] [[sk:Apple Computer]] [[fi:Apple Computer]] [[sv:Apple Computer]] [[th:แอปเปิล คอมพิวเตอร์]] [[tr:Apple Computer]] [[zh:苹果电脑]] 857 41953767 2006-03-02T21:25:44Z Bluebot 527862 unicodify using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]] {{cleanup-date|December 2005}} :''For other uses, see [[Aberdeenshire (disambiguation)]].'' {{infobox Scotland council area| |Council= Aberdeenshire |Image= [[Image:ScotlandAberdeenshire.png]] |SizeRank= 4th |Size= [[1 E9 m²|6,313]] [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] |Water= ? |AdminHQ= [[Aberdeen]] |ISO= GB-ABD |ONS= 00QB |PopulationRank= 6th |PopulationDate= 2004 |Population= 232,850 |PopulationDensity=37 / km&sup2; |CouncilDetails= Aberdeenshire Council<br />http://www.aberdeenshire.gov.uk/ |Control= Liberal Democrat/Independent Control |MPs= <ul><li>[[Malcolm Bruce]]<li>[[Alex Salmond]]<li>[[Robert Smith (UK politician)|Robert Smith]]</ul> |MSPs= <ul><li>[[Stewart Stevenson]]<li>[[Nora Radcliffe]]<li>[[Mike Rumbles]]</ul> }} '''Aberdeenshire''' (''Siorrachd Obar Dheathain'' in [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]]) is one of the 32 [[unitary authority|unitary]] [[council areas]] in [[Scotland]]. Present day Aberdeenshire does not include the [[City of Aberdeen]] which is a unitary authority in its own right. However Aberdeenshire council has its headquarters at Woodhill House, Westburn Road, in [[Aberdeen]] - The only Scottish council whose headquarters are based outside of the council area. It also borders [[Angus]], [[Perth and Kinross]], [[Highland]], and [[Moray]]. ==History== The present council area is named after the historic [[Aberdeenshire (historic)|county of Aberdeenshire]] which had different boundaries and was abolished in [[1975]]. Between 1975 and 1996 the area became part of the [[Regions of Scotland|region]] of [[Grampian]]. When the Scottish regions were abolished, a new unitary council area of Aberdeenshire was created, which revived the name of the former county but with different boundaries. ==Aberdeenshire council== Aberdeenshire Council was established in April [[1996]], replacing three [[District council]]s ([[Banff and Buchan]], [[Gordon, Scotland|Gordon]] and [[Kincardine and Deeside]]) and part of the area of [[Grampian Region]]al Council. There are 68 [[councillor]]s; in 2004 they were 28 [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]], 15 [[Scottish National Party|SNP]], 14 Independent and 11 [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]. The Council's net expenditure is £399.1m a year (2003/04). Education takes the largest share of expenditure (55%), followed by Social Work and Housing (19%), Transportation and Infrastructure (11%), and Joint Services such as Fire and Police (10%). 22% of revenue is raised locally through the Council Tax. Average Band D [[Council Tax]] is the eighth lowest in mainland Scotland at £966 (2003/04). The council area has a population of 226,871, representing 4.5% of Scotland's total, and a 20% increase since 1981, 50% since 1971. Major towns are Peterhead (17,947), Fraserburgh (12,454), Inverurie (10,882), Stonehaven (9,577), Westhill (9,498) and Ellon (8,754). The population has a higher proportion of younger age groups than the rest of Scotland, reflecting employment-driven in-migration in recent decades. The council has devolved power to six [[area committee]]s: *[[Banff & Buchan]], *[[Buchan]], *[[Formartine]], *[[Garioch]], *[[Marr]], *[[Kincardine & Mearns]] ;'''Banff & Buchan''' Population 35,742 (2001 Census) Fishing and agriculture are important industries, together with associated processing and service activity. The area is relatively self-contained, and in recent years has seen a small decline in population. It does, however, have tourism assets in its coastline, coastal villages and [[visitor attraction]]s. Economic dependency, peripherality, and the future of the Common Fisheries/Agricultural Policies, are key issues. The Buchan Local Action Plan will address some of these concerns. The Area qualifies for [[European Union Objective 2]] structural funding. ;'''Buchan''' Population 39,160 (2001 Census) [[Peterhead]] is the largest town in Aberdeenshire; the principal white fish landing port in Europe; and a major oil industry service centre. Equally important, is the nearby gas terminal at [[St Fergus]]. Attempts are being made to counter the negative effects of several recent key company closures and economic threats. Inland, the area is dependent upon agriculture, and many villages have seen a decline in population and services. Issues affecting Banff and Buchan also apply here, as does the future of the oil and gas industry. Part of Buchan benefits from EU aid coverage. Opportunities exist through the Buchan Local Action Plan to safeguard and enhance the economic future of Peterhead and Buchan. ;'''Formartine''' Population 36,478 (2001 Census) Formartine has experienced rapid population growth, particularly around [[Ellon]] and [[Oldmeldrum]], and in the south east where development has spread outwith the city of Aberdeen. By contrast, the area around [[Turriff]] retains strong dependency on the traditional agricultural economy. The area's coastline and rural environment offer recreation potential. ;'''Garioch''' Population 42,947 (2001 Census) Centred on [[Inverurie]], a traditional rural market town, Garioch has also experienced rapid growth due to its proximity to the city of Aberdeen. Significant growth in population, services and employment is anticipated in the [[A96 road|A96]] corridor and in [[Westhill]]. The area is largely agricultural, but is strongly affected by the City's economy and the oil and gas sector. Garioch holds growing potential for tourism, in its environment and archaeological heritage. ;'''Marr''' Population 34,038 (2001 Census) To the west, the mountain environment of the [[Cairngorms]] [[National Park]] sustains a well developed tourist industry based on heritage and outdoor pursuits. Forestry and livestock farming are key industries, particularly in remoter areas. Part of the area has qualified for EU financial assistance. To the east, Marr has experienced population growth due to its strong commuter links with the city of Aberdeen. ;'''Kincardine and Mearns''' Population 38,506 (2001 Census) Transport links with Aberdeen have encouraged very rapid population growth, especially to the north of the area. Existing settlements such as [[Portlethen]] and [[Stonehaven]] have greatly expanded, along with industrial activity. The southern part is more self-contained, with the fertile Mearns area sustaining a strong agricultural economy. Small scale tourism activity exists along its attractive coastline and former fishing villages. {{Scotland subdivisions}} [[Category:Unitary authorities of Scotland]] [[Category:Aberdeenshire| ]] [[de:Aberdeenshire]] [[fr:Aberdeenshire]] [[no:Aberdeenshire]] [[pl:Aberdeenshire]] [[zh:阿伯丁郡]] 858 15899372 2003-11-01T09:47:13Z Docu 8029 au is sometimes capitalized AU #REDIRECT [[au]] 859 36881488 2006-01-27T02:00:32Z Bobblewik 51235 reduce linking to date elements '''Aztlan Underground''' is a fusion band from [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]. Since the early 1990s, Aztlan Underground has played [[Rapcore]]. Indigenous drums, flutes, and rattles are commonplace in its musical compositions. This unique sound is the backdrop for the band's message of dignity for indigenous people, all of humanity, and Earth. Aztlan Underground has been cultivating a grass roots audience across the country, which has become a large and loyal underground following. Their music includes spoken word pieces and elements of punk, hip hop, rock, funk, jazz, and indigenous music, among others. The artists are Chenek "DJ Bean" (turntables, samples and percussion), Yaotl (vocals, indigenous percussion), Joe "Peps" (bass, rattles), Zo Rock (Guitars), Ace (drums, indigenous percussion), and Bulldog (vocals, flute). Aztlan Underground appeared on television on [[Culture Clash]] on Fox in [[1993]], was part of ''Breaking Out'', a concert on pay per view in [[1998]], and was featured in the independent films ''Algun Dia'' and ''Frontierlandia''. The band has been mentioned or featured in various newspapers and magazines: the [[Vancouver Sun]], [[Northshore News]] (Vancouver, Canada newspaper), [[New Times]] (Los Angeles weekly entertainment newspaper), BLU Magazine (underground hip hop magazine), [[BAM Magazine]] (Southern California), [[La Banda Elastica Magazine]], and the [[Los Angeles Times]] Calendar section. It is also the subject of a chapter in ''It's Not About A Salary'', by Brian Cross. It was nominated in the New Times 1998 "Best Latin Influenced" category, the BAM Magazine 1999 "Best Rock en Español" category, and the [[LA Weekly]] 1999 "Best Hip Hop" category. Mailing address: Aztlan Underground, P.O. Box 921776, San Fernando, CA 91392. [[Category:American musical groups]] 860 15899374 2003-03-06T17:23:57Z Mic 6273 #REDIRECT [[Åland]] 862 move=sysop 41894341 2006-03-02T12:43:12Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 {{featured article}} [[Image:1anschluss.gif|thumb|right|250px|German troops march into [[Austria]] on [[12 March]] [[1938]].]] The '''Anschluss'''{{ref|spelling}} ([[German language|German]]: ''connection'', or ''political union''), also known as the '''Anschluss Österreichs''', was the 1938 inclusion of [[Austria]] into "[[Großdeutschland|Greater Germany]]" by the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi regime]]. The events of [[March 12]], [[1938]], were the first major steps in [[Adolf Hitler]]'s long-desired expansion of [[Germany]]. The Anschluss followed the return to Germany of the [[Saarland#History|Saar]] region, which had been under the control of the [[League of Nations]] for 15 years by the terms of the [[Treaty of Versailles]]. It was followed by the inclusion of the [[Sudetenland]] later in 1938, the invasion of the remainder of [[Czechoslovakia]] in 1939, and the [[Polish September Campaign|invasion of Poland]]. The Anschluss was preceded by a period of growing political pressure on [[Austria]], exerted by Germany, demanding recognition of the outlawed Austrian National-Socialist party and later, their share of Government. In 1938 Austrian chancellor [[Kurt Schuschnigg]], in a last bid to retain Austrian independence, announced a referendum to determine independence or union with Germany. Germany then pressured Schuschnigg into handing over power to the Nazi party. This well-planned [[Coup d'état|internal overthrow]] by the [[Austrian National Socialism|Austrian Nazi Party]] of Austria's state institutions in [[Vienna]] on [[March 11]] meant that when [[Wehrmacht]] troops entered into Austria to enforce the Anschluss, no fighting ever took place. The international response to the Anschluss was mild: The [[World War I]] [[Allies]] only lodged diplomatic protests, and no concrete action was taken to reverse the Anschluss, even though the allies were, on paper, committed to upholding the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which specifically prohibited the union of Austria and Germany. Austria ceased to exist as an independent nation until a preliminary Austrian government was finally reinstated on [[April 27]], [[1945]], and was legally recognized by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in the following months. ==Situation before the Anschluss== [[Image:Österreich-Ungarns Ende.png|thumb|right|400px|The dissolution of [[Austria-Hungary]] {{legend-line|gray solid 2px|Border of Austria-Hungary in 1914}} {{legend-line|black solid 2px|Borders in 1914}} {{legend-line|red solid 2px|Borders in 1920}} {{legend|#EB955C|[[Empire of Austria]] in 1914}} {{legend|#FAF0EE|[[Kingdom of Hungary]] in 1914}} {{legend|#92A2CB|[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] in 1914}} ]] :''Main articles: [[German Empire]] and [[Austrofascism]]'' The idea of grouping all German people into one state had been the subject of inconclusive debate since the end of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1806. Prior to 1866, it was generally thought that the unification of the German peoples could only succeed under Austrian leadership (''[[Grossdeutschland]]''), but the loss of the [[Austro-Prussian War]] by Austria allowed [[Otto von Bismarck]] to establish the [[Prussia]]n-dominated [[German Empire]] in 1871 without the German-speaking parts of [[Austria-Hungary]] (''[[Kleindeutschland]]''). When the latter broke up in 1918, many German-speaking Austrians hoped to join with Germany in the realignment of Europe, but the [[Treaty of Versailles]] and the [[Treaty of Saint-Germain]] of 1919 explicitly vetoed the inclusion of Austria within a German state, because [[France]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] feared the power of a larger Germany. In the early 1930s, popular support for union with Germany remained overwhelming, and the Austrian government looked to a possible [[customs union]] with Germany in 1931. However Hitler's and the [[Nazi]]s' rise to power in Germany left the Austrian government with little enthusiasm for such formal ties. Hitler, born in Austria, had promoted an "all-German Reich" from the early beginnings of his leadership in the [[NSDAP]] and had publicly stated as early as 1924 in ''[[Mein Kampf]]'' that he would attempt a union, by force if necessary. [[Austria]] shared the economic turbulence of post-1929 Europe with a high unemployment rate and unstable commerce and industry. Similar to its northern and southern neighbours these uncertain conditions made the young democracy very vulnerable. The [[First Republic]], dominated from the late 1920s by the Catholic nationalist [[Christian Social Party]] (CS), gradually disintegrated from 1933 (dissolution of parliament and ban of the Austrian National Socialists) to 1934 ([[Austrian Civil War]] in February and ban of all remaining parties except the CS) and evolved into a pseudo-[[fascist]], [[corporatist]] model of one-party government which combined the CS and the paramilitary [[Heimwehr]] with absolute state domination of [[labour relations]] and no [[freedom of the press]] (see [[Austrofascism]] and [[Patriotic Front (Austria)|Patriotic Front]]). Power was centralized in the office of the [[Chancellor of Austria|Chancellor]] who was empowered to [[rule by decree]]. The predominance of the Christian Social Party (whose economic policies were based on the [[pope|papal]] [[encyclical]] ''[[Rerum novarum]]'') was an Austrian phenomenon in that Austria's national identity had strong Catholic elements which were incorporated into the movement by way of clerical authoritarian tendencies which are certainly not to be found in Nazism. Both [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] and his successor [[Kurt Schuschnigg]] turned to Austria's other fascist neighbour, [[Italy]], for inspiration and support. Indeed, the statist corporatism often referred to as Austrofascism bore more resemblance to [[Fascism|Italian Fascism]] than German National Socialism. [[Benito Mussolini]] was able to support the independent aspirations of the Austrian dictatorship until his need for German support in [[Ethiopia]] forced him into a client relationship with Berlin that began with the 1937 [[Axis Powers|Berlin-Rome Axis]]. When Chancellor Dollfuss was assassinated by the illegal [[Austrian National Socialism|Austrian Nazi party]] on [[25 July]] [[1934]] in a failed coup, the second civil war within only one year followed, lasting until August 1934. After the failed Nazi coup, many leading Austrian Nazis fled to [[Germany]] and continued to coordinate their steps from there while the remaining Austrian Nazis started to make use of terrorist attacks against the Austrian governmental institutions (causing a death toll of more than 800 between 1934 and 1938). Dollfuss' successor Schuschnigg, who followed the political course of Dollfuss, took drastic actions against the Nazis, for instance the rounding up of Nazis (but also Social Democrats) in [[internment camps]]. ==The Anschluss of 1938== ===Hitler's first moves=== [[Image:1ajansa.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Alfred Jansa was forced to retire as Chief of Staff in January 1938]] In early 1938 Hitler had consolidated his power in Germany and was ready to reach out to fulfil his long-planned expansion. After a lengthy period of pressure by Germany, Hitler met Schuschnigg on [[12 February]] [[1938]] in [[Berchtesgaden]] ([[Bavaria]]) and instructed him to lift the ban of the Austrian Nazi party, reinstate full party freedoms, release all imprisoned members of the [[Nazi]] party and let them participate in the government. Otherwise he would take military action. Schuschnigg complied with Hitler's demands and appointed [[Arthur Seyss-Inquart]], a Nazi lawyer, as [[Interior Minister]] and another Nazi, [[Edmund Glaise-Horstenau]], as Minister without Portfolio.{{ref|encarta}} Even before the February meeting, Schuschnigg was under considerable pressure from Germany. This may be seen in the demand to remove the chief of staff of the [[Austrian Army]] [[Alfred Jansa]] from his office in January 1938. Jansa and his staff had developed a scenario for Austria's defence against a German attack, a situation Hitler wanted to avoid at all costs. Schuschnigg subsequently complied with the demand.{{ref|wienerzeitung}} During the following weeks Schuschnigg realized that his newly appointed ministers were gradually working on taking over his authority. Schuschnigg tried to gather support throughout Austria and inflame [[patriotism]] among the people. For the first time since [[12 February]] [[1934]] (the time of the [[Austrian Civil War]]), socialists and communists could legally appear in public again. The [[communists]] announced their unconditional support for the Austrian government, understandable in light of Nazi pressure on Austria. The [[socialists]] demanded further concessions from Schuschnigg before they were willing to side with him. ===Schuschnigg announces a referendum=== On [[9 March]], as a last resort to preserve Austria's independence, Schuschnigg scheduled a [[plebiscite]] on the [[independence]] of Austria for [[13 March]]. To secure a large majority in the referendum, Schuschnigg set the minimum voting age at 24 in order to exclude younger voters who largely sympathized with Nazi ideology. Holding a referendum was a highly risky gamble for Schuschnigg, and on the next day it became apparent that Hitler would not simply stand by while Austria declared its independence by public vote. Hitler declared that the plebiscite would be subject to major fraud and that Germany would not accept it. In addition the German Ministry of Propaganda issued press reports that riots had broken out in Austria and that large parts of the Austrian population were calling for German troops to restore order. Schuschnigg immediately publicly replied that the reports of riots were nothing but lies—as they actually were. Hitler sent an [[ultimatum]] to [[Schuschnigg]] on [[11 March]], demanding that he hand over all power to the [[Austrian National Socialism|Austrian National Socialists]] or face an invasion. The ultimatum was set to expire at noon, but was extended by two hours. However, without waiting for an answer, Hitler had already signed the order to send troops into Austria at one o'clock, issuing it to [[Hermann Göring]] only hours later. Schuschnigg desperately sought support for Austrian independence in the hours following the [[ultimatum]], but, realizing that neither [[France]] nor the [[United Kingdom]] were willing to take steps, he resigned as Chancellor that evening. In the radio broadcast in which he announced his [[resignation]], he argued that he accepted the changes and allowed the Nazis to take over the government in order to avoid bloodshed. Meanwhile, Austrian President [[Wilhelm Miklas]] refused to appoint [[Artur Seyss-Inquart|Seyss-Inquart]] Chancellor and asked other Austrian politicians such as Michael Skubl and Sigismund Schilhawsky to assume the office. However, the Nazis were well organised. Within hours they managed to take control of many parts of Vienna, including the Ministry of Internal Affairs (controlling the Police). As Miklas continued to refuse to appoint a Nazi government and Seyss-Inquart still could not send a telegram in the name of the Austrian government demanding German troops to restore order, Hitler became furious. At about 10 pm, well after Hitler had signed and issued the order for the invasion, Göring and Hitler gave up on waiting and published a forged telegram containing a request by the Austrian Government for German troops to enter Austria. Around midnight, after nearly all critical offices and buildings had fallen into Nazi hands in Vienna and the main political party members of the old government had been arrested, Miklas finally conceded to appoint Seyss-Inquart Chancellor.{{ref|wienerzeitung_a}} ===German troops march into Austria=== <!-- [[Image:Stimzettel-Anschluss.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Voting ballot from [[10 April]] [[1938]]. The ballot text reads "Do you agree with the reunification of Austria with the German Empire that was enacted on [[13 March]] [[1938]], and do you vote for the party of our leader Adolf Hitler?," the large circle is labelled "Yes," the smaller "No."]] --> [[Image:Voting-booth-Anschluss-10-April-1938.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Propaganda even in the voting booth on [[10 April]] [[1938]], with a poster instructing voters how to vote "Yes".]] On the morning of [[12 March]] the 8th Army of the German [[Wehrmacht]] crossed the German-Austrian border. They did not face resistance by the [[Austrian Army]] — on the contrary, the German troops were greeted by cheering Austrians. Although the invading forces were badly organized and coordination between the units was poor, it mattered little because no fighting took place. It did, however, serve as a warning for commanders in future German military operations such as that against [[Czechoslovakia]]. Curiously, the invasion claimed its first fatality within only a few hours: the Nazi [[Heinrich Kurz von Goldstein]] died of a heart attack during the celebrations in [[Salzburg]]. Hitler's car crossed the border in the afternoon at [[Braunau]], his birthplace. In the evening, he arrived at [[Linz]] and was given an enthusiastic welcome in the city hall. The atmosphere was so intense that Göring in a telephone call that evening stated: "There is unbelievable jubilation in Austria. We ourselves did not think that sympathies would be so intense." Hitler's further travel through Austria changed into a triumphal tour that climaxed in [[Vienna]], when around 200,000 Austrians gathered on the [[Heldenplatz]] (Square of Heroes) to hear Hitler proclaim the Austrian Anschluss ([http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.film.data.film/f107a.mpg Video: Hitler proclaims Austria's inclusion in the Reich (2MB)]). Hitler later commented: "Certain foreign newspapers have said that we fell on Austria with brutal methods. I can only say: even in death they cannot stop lying. I have in the course of my political struggle won much love from my people, but when I crossed the former frontier (into Austria) there met me such a stream of love as I have never experienced. Not as tyrants have we come, but as liberators."{{ref|hitlerspeech}} The Anschluss was given immediate effect by legislative act on [[13 March]], subject to ratification by a plebiscite. Austria became the [[province]] of [[Ostmark]], and Seyss-Inquart was appointed Governor. The plebiscite was held on [[10 April]] and officially recorded a support of 99.73 % of the voters.{{ref|doew}} While historians concur that the result itself was not manipulated, the voting process was not free or secret. Officials were present directly beside the voting booths and received the voting ballot by hand (in contrast to a secret vote where the voting ballot is inserted into a closed box). In addition, Hitler's brutal methods to emasculate any opposition had been immediately implemented in the weeks preceding the referendum. Even before the first German soldier crossed the border, [[Heinrich Himmler]] and a few [[SS]] officers landed in Vienna to arrest prominent representatives of the First Republic such as [[Richard Schmitz]], [[Leopold Figl]], [[Friedrich Hillegeist]] and [[Franz Olah]]. During the weeks following the Anschluss (and before the plebiscite), Social Democrats, Communists, and other potential political dissenters, as well as Jews, were rounded up and either imprisoned or sent to concentration camps. Within only a few days of [[12 March]], 70,000 people had been arrested. The [[referendum]] itself was subject to large-scale [[propaganda]] and to the abrogation of the voting rights of around 400,000 people (nearly 10 % of the eligible voting population), mainly former members of left-wing parties and Jews.{{ref|doew_a}} Interestingly, in some remote areas of Austria the referendum on the independence of Austria on [[13 March]] was held despite the [[Wehrmacht]]'s presence in Austria (it took up to 3 days to occupy every part of Austria). For instance, in the village of [[Innervillgraten]] a majority of 95 % voted for Austria's independence.{{ref|wienerzeitung_b}} Austria remained part of the [[Third Reich]] until the end of [[World War II]] when a preliminary Austrian Government declared the Anschluss void and null on [[April 27]] [[1945]]. After the war then [[allied]] occupied Austria was recognized and treated as a separate country, but was not restored to [[sovereignty]] until the [[Austrian State Treaty]] and Austrian [[Declaration of Neutrality]], both of 1955, largely due to the rapid development of the [[Cold War]] and disputes between the [[Soviet Union]] and its former allies over its foreign policy. ==Reactions and consequences of the Anschluss== [[Image:karl-renner.jpg|thumbnail|right|180px|Social Democrat Karl Renner publicly announced his support for the Anschluss]] The picture of Austria in the first days of its existence in the [[Third Reich]] is one of contradictions: At one and the same time, Hitler's terror regime began to tighten its grip in every area of society, beginning with mass arrests and thousands of Austrians attempting to flee in every direction; yet Austrians could be seen cheering and welcoming German troops entering Austrian territory. Many Austrian political figures did not hesitate to announce their support of the Anschluss and their relief that it happened without violence. Cardinal [[Theodor Innitzer]] (a political figure of the CS) declared as early as [[12 March]]: "The Viennese Catholics should thank the Lord for the bloodless way this great political change has occurred, and they should pray for a great future for Austria. Needless to say, everyone should obey the orders of the new institutions." The other Austrian bishops followed suit some days later. [[Vatican Radio]], however, immediately broadcast a vehement denunciation of the German action, and Cardinal [[Pius XII|Pacelli]] ordered Innitzer to report to Rome. Before meeting with the pope, Innitzer met with Pacelli, who had been outraged by Innitzer's statement. He made it clear that Innitzer needed to retract; he was made to sign a new statement, issued on behalf of all the Austrian bishops, which provided: ''“The solemn declaration of the Austrian bishops ... was clearly not intended to be an approval of something that was not and is not compatible with God's law”''. The Vatican newspaper also reported that the bishops' earlier statement had been issued without the approval from Rome. Robert Kauer, President of the [[Protestants]] in Austria, greeted Hitler on [[13 March]] as "saviour of the 350,000 German Protestants in Austria and liberator from a five-year hardship." Even [[Karl Renner]], the most famous Social Democrat of the First Republic announced his support for the Anschluss and appealed to all Austrians to vote in favour of it on [[10 April]].{{ref|wienerzeitung_c}} The international response to the expansion of Germany may be described as ''moderate''. ''[[The Times]]'' commented that 200 years ago Scotland had joined England as well and that this event would not really differ much. On [[14 March]] the [[British Prime Minister]] [[Neville Chamberlain]] noted in the [[House of Commons]]: [[Image:Neville Chamberlain2.jpg|thumb|right|220px|British [[appeasement]] policy led to the [[Treaty of Munich]], the next major step for [[Hitler]] to create an all-German Reich]] <blockquote> His Majesty's Government have throughout been in the closest touch with the situation. The Foreign Secretary saw the German Foreign Minister on the 10th&nbsp;of March and addressed to him a grave warning on the Austrian situation and upon what appeared to be the policy of the German Government in regard to it. . . . Late on the 11th&nbsp;of March our Ambassador in Berlin registered a protest in strong terms with the German Government against such use of coercion, backed by force, against an independent State in order to create a situation incompatible with its national independence. </blockquote> However the speech concluded: <blockquote>I imagine that according to the temperament of the individual the events which are in our minds to-day will be the cause of regret, of sorrow, perhaps of indignation. They cannot be regarded by His Majesty's Government with indifference or equanimity. They are bound to have effects which cannot yet be measured. The immediate result must be to intensify the sense of uncertainty and insecurity in Europe. Unfortunately, while the policy of appeasement would lead to a relaxation of the economic pressure under which many countries are suffering to-day, what has just occurred must inevitably retard economic recovery and, indeed, increased care will be required to ensure that marked deterioration does not set in. This is not a moment for hasty decisions or for careless words. We must consider the new situation quickly, but with cool judgement... As regards our defence programmes, we have always made it clear that they were flexible and that they would have to be reviewed from time to time in the light of any development in the international situation. It would be idle to pretend that recent events do not constitute a change of the kind that we had in mind. Accordingly we have decided to make a fresh review, and in due course we shall announce what further steps we may think it necessary to take. {{ref|speech}}</blockquote> The lenient reaction to the Anschluss was the first major consequence of the strictly followed [[appeasement]] British foreign policy strategy. The international reaction on the events of [[March 12]]th 1938 led Hitler to conclude that he could use even more aggressive tactics in his ''roadmap'' to expand the [[Third Reich]], as he would later in annexing the [[Sudetenland]]. The relatively bloodless Anschluss helped pave the way for the [[Treaty of Munich]] in September 1938 and the annexation of [[Czechoslovakia]] in 1939, because it reinforced [[appeasement]] as the right way for Britain to deal with Hitler's [[Germany]]. ==Legacy of the 1938 Anschluss== ===The Anschluss: annexation or union?=== Some historical sources, for instance [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] and the [[Encarta|Encarta Encyclopedia]] describe the Anschluss as an "annexation" {{ref|encarta_sidebar}}. Outside this context "Anschluss" is properly translated as "join", "connection", "[[unification]]" or "political union". The German word "Annektierung" would mean military annexation unambiguously. However, the word commonly used in German for the process of spring 1938 is ''Anschluss''. The precise character of the Anschluss remains a difficulty essential to Austria's understanding of its history and the obligations it entails. ===The appeal of Nazism to Austrians=== The Anschluss can be misunderstood as ''simply'' a military annexation of an unwilling Austria, but this lends itself to confusion with other German military occupations of European countries. It also tends to conceal the culpability of many Austrians in Nazi crimes, most of all the [[Holocaust]], by perpetuating the myth of Austria as the first victim of Hitler's expansionism. Despite the subversion of Austrian political process by Hitler's sympathisers and associates in Austria, Austrian acceptance of direct government by Hitler's Berlin is a very different phenomenon from the administration of other collaborationist countries. With the break-up of the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian monarchy]] in 1918, popular opinion was for unification with Germany, in realization of the [[Grossdeutschland]] concept- this however was forbidden by the [[Treaty of St. Germain]], to which the newly formed Austrian republic was obliged. This was in stark contrast to the general concept of [[self-determination]] which governed the [[Treaty of Versailles|Versailles talks]], as was the inclusion of the [[Sudetenland]], a German-populated area of the former Austro-Hungarian province of [[Bohemia]] (whose population favoured joining German-speaking Austria), in the newly formed [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak]] republic, giving rise to [[revisionism|revisionist]] sentiment. This laid the grounds for the general willingness of the populations of both Austria and the Sudetenland for inclusion into the [[Third Reich]], as well as the relative acceptance of the Western Governments, who made little protest until March 1939, when the [[irredentism|irredentist]] argument lost its value following the annexation of the rest of Czech-speaking Bohemia, as well as Moravia and Czech Silesia. [[Image:Grossdeutschland.jpg|thumb|right|Nazi propaganda poster]] The small Republic of Austria was seen by many of its citizens as economically unviable, a feeling that was exacerbated by the [[Great Depression|Depression]] of the 1930s. In contrast the Nazi dictatorship appeared to have found a solution to the economic crisis of the 1930s. Furthermore, the break-up had thrown Austria into a crisis of identity, and many Austrians, of both the left and the right, felt that Austria should be part of a larger German nation. Politically, Austria had not had the time to develop a strongly democratic society to resist the onslaught of [[totalitarianism]]. The final version of the First Republic's constitution had only lasted from 1929 to 1933. The [[First Republic]] was ridden by violent strife between the different political camps; the [[Christian Social Party]] were complicit in the murder of large numbers of adherents of the decidedly left-wing [[Social Democratic Party of Austria|Social Democratic Party]] by the police during the [[July Revolt of 1927]]. In fact, with the end of democracy in 1933 and the establishment of [[Austrofascism]], Austria had already purged its democratic institutions and instituted a dictatorship long before the Anschluss. There is thus little to distinguish radically the ''institutions'' of at least the post-1934 Austrian government before or after [[12 March]] [[1938]]. The members of the leading [[Christian Social Party]] were fervent Catholics, but not particularly [[anti-semitism|anti-semitic]]. For instance [[Jew|Jews]] were not prohibited from exercising any profession, in sharp contrast to the [[Third Reich]]. Many prominent Austrian scientists, professors, and lawyers at the time were Jewish; in fact [[Vienna]], with its Jewish population of about 200,000, was considered a [[safe haven]] from 1933 to 1938 by many Jews who fled Nazi Germany. However, the Nazis' anti-Semitism found fertile soil in Austria. Anti-Semitic elements had emerged as a force in Austrian politics in the late nineteenth century, with the rise in prominence of figures such as [[Georg Ritter von Schönerer]] and [[Karl Lueger]] (who had influenced the young Hitler), and in the 1930s anti-Semitism was rampant, as Jews were a convenient scapegoat for economic problems. In addition to the economic appeal of the Anschluss, the popular underpinning of Nazi politics as a total art form (the refinement of film propaganda exemplified by [[Leni Riefenstahl|Riefenstahl's]] ''[[Triumph of the Will]]'' and mythological [[aestheticism]] of a broadly conceived national destiny of the [[German people]] within a "Thousand-Year Reich") gave the Nazis a massive advantage in advancing their claims to power. Moreover [[Austrofascism]] was less grand in its appeal than the choice between [[Stalin]] and [[Hitler]] to which many European intellectuals of the time believed themselves reduced by the end of the decade. Austria had effectively no alternative view of its historical mission when the choice was upon it. In spite of Dollfuss' and Schuschnigg's hostility to Nazi political ambitions, the Nazis succeeded in convincing many Austrians to accept what they viewed as the historical destiny of the German people rather than continue as part of a distinct sovereign nation. ===The Second Republic=== ====The Moscow Declaration==== [[Image:Seyss-inquartmugshot.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Arthur Seyss-Inquart]] [[1945]] mugshot for the [[Nuremberg Trials]].]] The [[Moscow Declaration]] of 1943, signed by the [[United States of America]], the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]], and the [[United Kingdom]] included a "Declaration on Austria," which stated the following: <blockquote> <p>The governments of the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States of America are agreed that Austria, the first free country to fall a victim to Hitlerite aggression, shall be liberated from German domination.</p> <p>They regard the annexation imposed on Austria by Germany on [[15 March]] [[1938]], as null and void. They consider themselves as in no way bound by any charges affected in Austria since that date. They declare that they wish to see re-established a free and independent Austria and thereby to open the way for the Austrian people themselves, as well as those neighbouring States which will be face with similar problems, to find that political and economic security which is the only basis for lasting peace.</p> <p>Austria is reminded, however that she has a responsibility, which she cannot evade, for participation in the war at the side of Hitlerite Germany, and that in the final settlement account will inevitably be taken of her own contribution to her liberation. {{ref|moskauermemo}}</p> </blockquote> To judge from the last paragraph and subsequent determinations at the [[Nuremberg Trial]], the Declaration was intended to serve as [[propaganda]] aimed at stirring Austrian resistance (although there are Austrians counted as [[Righteous Among the Nations]], there never was an effective Austrian armed resistance of the sort found in other countries under German occupation) more than anything else, although the exact text of the declaration is said to have a somewhat complex drafting history.{{ref|nybooks}} At Nuremberg [[Arthur Seyss-Inquart]] {{ref|seyss-inquart}} and [[Franz von Papen]] {{ref|vonpapen}}, in particular, were both indicted under count one (conspiracy to commit crimes against peace) specifically for their activities in support of the Austrian Nazi Party and the Anschluss, but neither was convicted of this count. In acquitting von Papen, the court noted that his actions were in its view political immoralities but not crimes under its charter. Seyss-Inquart was convicted of other serious war crimes, most of which took place in [[Poland]] and the [[Netherlands]], and was sentenced to death. ====Austrian identity and the "victim theory"==== [[Image:1heldeplatz.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Heldenplatz, "Day of the Austrian legion," [[2 April]] [[1938]].]] After [[World War II]], many Austrians sought comfort in the myth of Austria as the Nazis' first victim. Although the Nazi party was promptly banned, Austria did not have the same thorough process of de-Nazification at the top of government which was imposed on Germany for a time. Lacking outside pressure for political reform, factions of Austrian society tried for a long time to advance the view that the Anschluss was ''only'' an annexation at bayonet point. This view of the events of 1938 has deep roots in the ten years of Allied occupation and the struggle to regain Austrian sovereignty: The ''victim theory'' played an essential role in the negotiations on the [[Austrian State Treaty]] with the Soviets, and by pointing to the Moscow Declaration Austrian politicians heavily relied on it to achieve a solution for Austria different from the division into East and West in Germany. The State Treaty, alongside with the subsequent Austrian declaration of permanent [[Neutral country|neutrality]] marked important milestones for the solidification of Austria's independent [[nation]]al identity during the following decades. As Austrian politicians of the left and right attempted to reconcile their differences in order to avoid the violent conflict that had dominated the first republic, discussions of both Austrofascism and Austria's role in Nazism were largely avoided. Still, the [[Austrian People's Party]] (ÖVP) has advanced and still sometimes advances the argument that the establishment of the Dollfuss dictatorship was necessary in order to maintain Austrian independence, while the [[Austrian Social Democratic Party]] (SPÖ) argues that the dictatorship stripped the country of the democratic resources necessary to repel Hitler. ====Political events==== For decades, the victim theory established in the Austrian mind remained largely undisputed. The Austrian public was only rarely forced to confront the legacy of the Third Reich (most notably during the events of 1965 concerning [[Taras Borodajkewycz]], a professor of economic history notorious for anti-Semitic remarks, when [[Ernst Kirchweger]], a concentration camp survivor, was killed by a right-wing protester during riots). It was not until the 1980s that Austrians were finally massively confronted with their past. The main catalyst for the start of a ''[[Vergangenheitsbewältigung]]'' was the so-called [[Kurt Waldheim|Waldheim affair]]. The Austrian reply to allegations during the 1986 Presidential election campaign that successful candidate and former [[United Nations Secretary-General|UN Secretary-General]] [[Kurt Waldheim]] had been a member of the Nazi party and of the infamous [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] (he was later absolved of direct involvement in [[war crimes]]) was that scrutiny was an unwelcome intervention in the country's [[internal affairs]]. Despite the politicians' reactions to international criticism of Waldheim, the Waldheim affair started the first serious major discussion on Austria's past and the Anschluss. Another main factor for Austria and its coming to terms with the past emerged in the 1980s: [[Jörg Haider]] and the rise of the [[FPÖ]]. The party had combined elements of the [[pan-German]] right with free-market liberalism since its foundation in 1955, but after Haider had ascended to the party chairmanship in 1986, the liberal elements became increasingly marginalized while Haider began to openly use nationalist and anti-immigrant rhetoric. He was often criticised for tactics such as the ''völkisch'' (ethnic) definition of national interest ("Austria for Austrians") and his apologism for Austria's past, notably calling members of the [[Waffen-SS]] "men of honour". Following an enormous electoral rise in the 1990s peaking in the [[Austria legislative election, 1999|1999 elections]], the FPÖ, now purged of its liberal elements, entered a coalition with the [[ÖVP]] led by [[Wolfgang Schüssel]] that met international condemnation in 2000. This coalition triggered the regular ''Donnerstagsdemonstrationen'' (Thursday demonstrations) in protest against the government, which took place on the [[Heldenplatz]], where Hitler had greeted the masses during the Anschluss. Haider's tactics and rhetoric, which were often criticised as sympathetic to Nazism, again forced Austrians to reconsider their relationship to the past. But it is not [[Jörg Haider]] alone who has made questionable remarks on Austria's past: [[Jörg Haider]]'s coalition partner the current Chancellor [[Wolfgang Schüssel]] in an interview with the [[Jerusalem Post]] as late as 2000 stated that Austria was the first victim of Hitler-Germany.{{ref|jerusalem}} ====Literature==== Tearing into the simplism of the ''victim theory'' and the time of the [[Austrofascism]], [[Thomas Bernhard|Thomas Bernhard's]] last play, ''Heldenplatz'', was highly controversial even before it appeared on stage in 1988, fifty years after Hitler's visit. Bernhard's achievement was to make the elimination of references to Hitler's reception in Vienna emblematic of Austrian attempts to claim their history and culture under questionable criteria. Many politicians from all political factions called Bernhard a ''Nestbeschmutzer'' (so. damaging the reputation of his country) and openly demanded that the play should not be staged in Vienna's [[Burgtheater]]. [[Kurt Waldheim]], who was at that time still Austrian president called the play ''a crude insult to the Austrian people''.{{ref|bernhard}} ===The Historical Commission and outstanding legal issues=== In the context of the postwar [[Federal Republic of Germany]], one encounters a ''[[Vergangenheitsbewältigung]]'' ("struggle to come to terms with the past") that has been partially institutionalised, variably in literary, cultural, political, and educational contexts (its development and difficulties have not been trivial; see, for example, the [[Historikerstreit]]). Austria formed a ''Historikerkommission''{{ref|historikerkommission}} ("Historian's Commission" or "Historical Commission") in 1998 with a mandate to review Austria's role in the Nazi expropriation of Jewish property from a scholarly rather than legal perspective, partly in response to continuing criticism of its handling of property claims. Its membership was based on recommendations from various quarters, including [[Simon Wiesenthal]] and [[Yad Vashem]]. The Commission delivered its report in 2003. {{ref|report}} Noted Holocaust historian [[Raul Hilberg]] refused to participate in the Commission and in an interview stated his strenuous objections in terms both personal and in reference to larger questions about Austrian culpability and liability, comparing what he to be relative inattention to the settlement governing the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] bank holdings of those who died or were displaced by the Holocaust: <blockquote> I personally would like to know why the WJC &#91;[[World Jewish Congress]]&#93; has hardly put any pressure on Austria, even as leading Nazis and SS leaders were Austrians, Hitler included... Immediately after the war, the US wanted to make the Russians withdraw from Austria, and the Russians wanted to keep Austria neutral, therefore there was a common interest to grant Austria victim status. And later Austria could cry poor - though its per capita income is as high as Germany's. And, most importantly, the Austrian PR machinery works better. Austria has the opera ball, the imperial castle, Mozartkugeln [a chocolate]. Americans like that. And Austrians invest and export relatively little to the US, therefore they are less vulnerable to blackmail. In the meantime, they set up a commission in Austria to clarify what happened to Jewish property. Victor Klima, the former chancellor, has asked me to join. My father fought for Austria in the First World War and in 1939 he was kicked out of Austria. After the war they offered him ten dollars per month as compensation. For this reason I told Klima, no thank you, this makes me sick. {{ref|Hilberg}} </blockquote> The [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]] continues to criticise Austria (as recently as June 2005) for its alleged historical and ongoing unwillingness aggressively to pursue investigations and trials against Nazis for war crimes and crimes against humanity from the seventies onwards. Its 2001 report offered the following characterization: <blockquote> Given the extensive participation of numerous Austrians, including at the highest levels, in the implementation of the Final Solution and other Nazi crimes, Austria should have been a leader in the prosecution of Holocaust perpetrators over the course of the past four decades, as has been the case in Germany. Unfortunately relatively little has been achieved by the Austrian authorities in this regard and in fact, with the exception of the case of Dr. Heinrich Gross which was suspended this year under highly suspicious circumstances (he claimed to be medically unfit, but outside the court proved to be healthy) not a single Nazi war crimes prosecution has been conducted in Austria since the mid-seventies.{{ref|Simon}} </blockquote> In 2003 the Center launched a worldwide effort named "Operation: Last Chance" in order to collect further information about those Nazis still alive that are potentially subject to prosecution. Although reports issued shortly thereafter credited Austria for initiating large-scale investigations, there has been one case where criticism of Austrian authorities arose recently: The Center has put 92-year old [[Croatia]]n [[Milivoj Asner]] on its 2005 top ten list. Asner fled to Austria in 2004 after Croatia announced it would start investigations in the case of war crimes he may have been involved in. In response to objections about Asner's continued freedom, Austria's federal government has deferred to either extradition requests from Croatia or prosecutorial actions from [[Klagenfurt]], neither of which appears forthcoming (as of June 2005). {{ref|asner}} Extradition is not an option since Asner also holds Austrian [[citizenship]], having lived in the country from 1946 to 1991. {{ref|asner_citizen}} <!--to be completed--> ==Austrian political and military leaders in Nazi Germany== *[[Arthur Seyss-Inquart]] *[[Ernst Kaltenbrunner]] *[[Odilo Globocnik]] *[[Amon Göth]] *[[Lothar Rendulic]] *[[Alfred Ritter von Hubicki]] *[[Alexander Löhr]] *[[Franz Böhme]] ==See also== *''[[The Sound of Music]]'' (an account of the Anschluss, dramatized but based on actual events) *''[[The Great Dictator]]'' (a fictitious account of the invasion of "Osterlich" by "Tomania", modeled on the Anschluss) *[[Third Reich]] *[[Kurt Schuschnigg]] *[[History of Austria]] ==Notes== <!-- Instructions for adding a footnote: NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] for details. 1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_[[9 December]]. 2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_[[9 December]]}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote. 3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately proceeds yours in the article body. 4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_[[9 December]]}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3. 5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference will not work: you must insert two uniquely-named footnotes. NOTE: It is important to add the Footnote in the right order in the list. --> #{{Note|spelling}} Until the [[German spelling reform of 1996]], ''Anschluss'' was written ''Anschluß'' in German. (See also the article on [[ß]].) In English-language typography and style conventions, "ß" was often transliterated as "ss," making the spelling currently accepted in German a valid, if not predominant, option before 1996. #{{Note|encarta_sidebar}} [http://encarta.msn.com/sidebar_761593988/The_Anschluss.html The Anschluss], MSN Encarta. (accessed [[8 July]] [[2005]]),[http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?tocId=9355453&query=plebiscite&ct= Anschluss], Britannica, (accessed [[8 July]] [[2005]]), some historical sources refer to the Anschluss as an annexation. #{{Note|encarta}} [http://encarta.msn.com/sidebar_461500064/1938_Austria.html 1938: Austria], MSN Encarta. (accessed [[10 June]] [[2005]]). #{{Note|wienerzeitung}} "[http://www.wienerzeitung.at/linkmap/personen/miklaspopup.htm Österreichs Weg zum Anschluss im März 1938]," ''Wiener Zeitung'', [[25 May]] [[1998]] (detailed article the on the events of the Anschluss, in German). #{{note|wienerzeitung_a}} Ibid. #{{Note|hitlerspeech}} [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/2WWanschluss.htm Anschluss], Spartacus Schoolnet (reactions on the Anschluss). #{{Note|doew}} "[http://www.doew.at/thema/thema_alt/wuv/maerz38_2/propaganda.html Die propagandistische Vorbereitung der Volksabstimmung]," Austrian Resistance Archive, Vienna, 1988 (accessed [[10 June]] [[2005]]). #{{note|doew_a}} Ibid. #{{note|wienerzeitung_b}} See note 2 above. #{{note|wienerzeitung_c}} See note 2 above. #{{Note|speech}} Neville Chamberlain, "[http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/reference/ob92.html Statement of the Prime Minister in the House of Commons, [[14 March]] [[1938]]]." #{{Note|moskauermemo}} [http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1943/431000a.html Moscow Conference: Joint Four-Nation Declaration], October 1943 (full text of the Moscow Memorandum). #{{Note|nybooks}} Gerald Stourzh, "[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/4859 Waldheim's Austria]," ''The New York Review of Books'' 34, no. 3 (February 1987). #{{Note|seyss-inquart}} "[http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/imt/tgmwc/judgment/j-defendants-seyss-inquart.html Judgment, The Defendants: Seyss-Inquart]," The Nizkor Project. #{{Note|vonpapen}} "[http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/imt/tgmwc/judgment/j-defendants-von-papen.html The Defendants: Von Papen]," The Nizkor Project. #{{Note|jerusalem}} [http://www.salzburg.com/cgi-bin/sn/printArticle.pl?xm=165129 Short note on Schüssel's interview in the Jerusalem Post (in German)], ''Salzburger Nachrichten'', [[11 November]] [[2000]]. #{{Note|bernhard}} [http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/bernhard.htm Thomas Bernhard], Books and Writers (article on Bernhard with a short section on Heldenplatz). #{{Note|historikerkommission}} [http://www.historikerkommission.gv.at/ Austrian Historical Commission]. #{{Note|report}} [http://www.austria.org/press/318.html Press statement on the report of the Austrian Historical Commission] Austrian Press and Information Service, [[28 February]] [[2003]] #{{Note|Hilberg}} [http://www.normanfinkelstein.com/article.php?pg=3&ar=5 Hilberg interview with the ''Berliner Zeitung,''] as quoted by [[Norman Finkelstein]]'s web site. #{{Note|Simon}} Efraim Zuroff, "[http://www.dickinson.edu/magazine/fall02/wiesenthal.html Worldwide Investigation and Prosecution of Nazi War Criminals, 2001–2002]," Simon Wiesenthal Center, Jerusalem (April 2002). #{{Note|asner}} "[http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/nfo/article.cfm?id=2283 Take action against Nazi war criminal Milivoj Asner]," World Jewish Congress, [[19 November]] [[2004]]. #{{Note|asner_citizen}} [http://derstandard.at/?id=2183360 Mutmaßlicher Kriegsverbrecher Asner wird nicht an Zagreb ausgeliefert], [[Der Standard]], [[September 23]], [[2005]] <!--READ ME!! PLEASE DO NOT JUST ADD NEW NOTES AT THE BOTTOM. See the instructions above on ordering. --> ==References== ===Books=== * Bukey, Evan Burr (1986). ''Hitler's Hometown: Linz, Austria, 1908-1945.'' Indiana University Press ISBN 0-253-32833-0. * Parkinson, F. (ed.) (1989). ''Conquering the Past: Austrian Nazism Yesterday and Today.'' Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0814320546. * Pauley, Bruce F. (1981). ''Hitler and the Forgotten Nazis: A History of Austrian National Socialism'' University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0807814563 . * Scheuch, Manfred (2005). ''Der Weg zum Heldenplatz: eine Geschichte der österreichischen Diktatur. 1933-1938.'' ISBN 3825877124. * Schuschnigg, Kurt (1971). ''The brutal takeover: The Austrian ex-Chancellor's account of the Anschluss of Austria by Hitler''. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0297003216. * Stuckel, Eva-Maria (2001). ''Österreich, Monarchie, Operette, und Anschluss: Antisemtismus, Faschismus, und Nationalsozialismus im Fadenkreuz von Ingeborg Bachman und Elias Canetti.'' ===Electronic articles and journals=== * [http://www.wienerzeitung.at/linkmap/personen/miklaspopup.htm Österreichs Weg zum Anschluss im März 1938]," ''Wiener Zeitung'', [[25 May]] [[1998]] (detailed article the on the events of the Anschluss, in German). * [http://www.doew.at/thema/thema_alt/wuv/maerz38_2/propaganda.html Die propagandistische Vorbereitung der Volksabstimmung]," Austrian Resistance Archive, Vienna, 1988 (accessed [[10 June]] [[2005]]). * [http://encarta.msn.com/sidebar_461500064/1938_Austria.html 1938: Austria], MSN Encarta. (accessed [[10 June]] [[2005]]). * [http://www.uwm.edu/People/abuchner/crisisyear.htm The Crisis Year of 1934] Buchner, A. From the Destruction of the Socialist Lager to National Socialist Coup Attempt (accessed [[10 June]] [[2005]]). ==External links== *[http://www.historikerkommission.gv.at/ Austrian Historical Commission] *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/genocide/austria_nazism_01.shtml BBC article by Robert Knight, who served on the Historikercommission] *[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/4859 exchange in the ''New York Review of Books'' between Gerald Stourzh and Gordon Craig over the latter's review, "Waldheim's Austria"] *[http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1943/431000a.html full text of the Moscow Declaration] *[http://www.wiesenthal.com/ Simon Wiesenthal Center] *[http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.film.data.film/f107a.mpg Mpg-video Declaration by Adolf Hitler on the Heldeplatz 2.0MB] *[http://xroads.virginia.edu/~MA04/wood/mot/html/austria.htm Time magazine coverage of the events of the Anschluss] [[Category:German loanwords]] [[Category:History of Austria]] [[Category:History of Germany]] [[Category:Nazi Germany]] [[Category:Vergangenheitsbewältigung]] [[bg:Аншлус]] [[da:Anschluss]] [[de:Anschluss (Österreich)]] [[es:Anschluss]] [[fi:Anschluss]] [[fr:Anschluss]] [[he:אנשלוס]] [[ia:Anschluss]] [[it:Anschluss]] [[ja:アンシュルス]] [[nl:Anschluss]] [[pl:Anschluss Austrii]] [[ru:Аншлюс]] [[sl:Anschluss]] [[sv:Anschluss]] [[tr:Avusturyanın ilhakı]] [[uk:Аншлюс]] 863 42107265 2006-03-03T21:48:11Z 68.77.6.128 /* Economics */ {{Infobox Military Conflict| image=[[Image:American Civil War Montage.jpg|300px]]| caption=(clockwise from upper right) Confederate prisoners at [[Battle of Gettysburg|Gettysburg]]; [[Battle of Fort Hindman]], Arkansas; [[William Rosecrans|Rosecrans]] at [[Battle of Stones River|Stones River]], Tennessee| conflict=American Civil War| partof=| date=[[1861]]-[[1865]]| place=Principally in the [[Southern United States]]| Southwestern regions]]| result=Union victory; Southern states [[Reconstruction|reconstructed]]; slavery abolished| combatant1=[[United States|United States<br>of America]]<br>[[Image:Us flag large 35 stars.png|100px|]]| combatant2=[[Confederate States of America|Confederate States<br>of America]]<br>[[Image:3rdnational.png|73px|]]| commander1=[[Abraham Lincoln]]<br>[[Ulysses S. Grant]]| commander2=[[Jefferson Davis]]<br>[[Robert E. Lee]]| strength1=1,556,678 | strength2=1,064,200| casualties1='''[[Killed in action|KIA]]:''' 110,100<br>'''Total dead:''' 359,500<br>'''Wounded:''' 275,200| casualties2='''KIA:''' 74,500<br>'''Total dead:''' 198,500<br>'''Wounded:''' 137,000+&nbsp;| }} The '''American Civil War''' (1861&ndash;1865) was a [[civil war]] between the [[United States |United States of America]], called the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]], and the [[Confederate States of America]], formed by eleven [[Southern United States|Southern states]] that had [[secession|seceded]]<small><small>[[Confederate States of America#International Diplomacy and Legal Status|[1]]]</small></small> from the Union. The Union won a decisive victory, followed by a period of [[Reconstruction]]. The war produced more than 970,000 casualties (3 percent of population), including approximately 560,000 deaths. The [[Origins of the American Civil War|causes of the war]], the reasons for the outcome, and even [[Naming the American Civil War|the name of the war itself]], are subjects of much controversy, even today. ==Historiography: Multiple explanations of why War began == :''Main articles: [[Origins of the American Civil War]], [[Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War|Timeline of events]]'' The '''origin of the American Civil War''' lay in the complex issues of [[slavery]], [[Second Party System|politics]], disagreements over the scope of [[States' rights]] versus federal power, [[expansionism]], [[sectionalism]], economics, modernization, and competing nationalism of the [[Antebellum]] period. Although there is little disagreement among historians on the details of the events that led to war, there is disagreement on exactly what caused what and the relative importance. There is no consensus on whether the war could have been avoided, or if it should have been avoided. ===Failure to compromise=== In 1854 the old political system broke down after passage of the [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]]. The Whig Party disappeared, and the new [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] arose in its place. It was the nation's first major political party with only sectional appeal; though it had much of the old Whig economic platform, its popularity rested on its commitment to stop the expansion of slavery into new territories. Open warfare in the Kansas Territory, the [[panic of 1857]], and John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry further heightened sectional tensions and helped Republicans sweep elections in 1860. In 1860, [[U.S. presidential election, 1860|the election of Abraham Lincoln]], who met staunch opposition from Southern slave-owning interests, triggered Southern secession from the union. The new president decided to resort to arms, if necessary, to preserve the nation's territorial integrity. Historians in the 1930s such as [[James G. Randall]] argued that the rise of mass democracy, the breakdown of the [[Second Party System|old two-party system]], and increasingly virulent and hostile sectional rhetoric made it highly unlikely, if not impossible, to bring about the compromises of the past (such as the [[Missouri Compromise]] and the [[Compromise of 1850]]) necessary to avoid crisis. Although numerous compromises were proposed, none were successful in reuniting the country. One possible "compromise" was peaceful secession agreed to by the United States, which was seriously discussed in late 1860&mdash;and supported by many abolitionists&mdash;but was rejected by both Buchanan's conservative Democrats and the Republican leadership. ===Southern nationalism: Psychological nationhood=== Most historians agree, following [[Ulrich B. Phillips]], [[Avery Craven]], and [[Eugene Genovese]] that the South had grown apart from the North psychologically and in terms of its value systems. One by one the common elements that bound the nation together were broken. For example the major Protestant denominations split along North-South lines. Fewer travelers or students or businessmen went from one region to the other. The last common elements were the Constitution (which was in dispute after the [[Dred Scott]] ruling of 1857); the political parties (which split along regional lines in 1860), and Congress, which was in constant turmoil after 1856. ===Slavery as a cause of the War=== Focus on the slavery issue has been cyclical. It was considered the main cause in the 1860&ndash;1890 era. From 1900 to 1960, historians considered anti-slavery agitation to be less important than constitutional, economic, and cultural issues. Since the 1960s historians have returned to an emphasis on slavery as a major cause of the war. Specifically, they note that the South insisted on protecting it and the North insisted on weakening it. A small but militant abolitionist movement existed in the North--a matter of a few thousand advocates. Their insistence that slavery was a sin and slave owners were deeply guilty angered the South. Historians have looked at many slave owners and decided that they felt neither guilt nor shame, but were angry at what they considered unchristian hate speech from abolitionists. By the 1830s there was a widespread ideological defense of the "peculiar institution" everywhere in the South. As [[United States territorial acquisitions|territorial expansion]] forced the nation to confront the question of whether new territories were to become "slave" or "free," and as multiplying free states became a majority in the Union, the [[Slave Power]] in national politics waned. ===Economics=== The North and South did have different economies but they were complementary and not in competition. The South made money by exporting cotton (and other unique crops like tobacco). The North made money by exporting food and manufactured items. Many northern business interests were closely tied to the Southern economy and pleaded for union and compromise. Some Southerners thought they paid too much in tariffs--but they themselves had written and voted for the tariff laws in effect. The cotton-growing export business or "[[King Cotton]]," as it was touted, was so important to the world economy, southerners argued, that they could stand alone. Indeed, being tied to the North was a hindrance and an economic burden. The South would do better by trading directly with Europe and avoiding extortionate Yankee middlemen. ===Ideologies=== In the view of many northern Republicans, the [[Slave Power]] ruled the South, not democracy. This "Slave Power" was a small group of very wealthy slave owners, especially cotton planters, who dominated the politics and society of the South. However, historians more recently have emphasized that the South was much more democratic than the Republicans of North believed. Both North and South believed strongly to republican values of democracy and civic virtue. But their conceptualizations were diverging. Each side though the other was aggressive, and was violating both the Constitution and the core values of American republicanism. Nationalism was the dominant force in Europe in the 19th century and likewise in America. The South was much more explicit in defining nationalism as a regional characteristic. The North paid less attention to nationalism before 1860, but then focused its mind on it and stressed the whole country, North and South, was the unit of nationalism. This economic differentiation had social and political consequences beyond the issue of slavery itself; for instance, Pennsylvania politicians pushed for a protective tariff to help the iron industry, while the cotton-exporting South wanted to keep the existing policy of nearly free trade. At a deeper level industrialization in the Northeast and farming in the Midwest depended on free labor, which could not exist alongside slave labor, as Lincoln kept emphasizing. The nation had to be all free or all slave, said Lincoln. (Historians [[Charles Beard|Charles and Mary Beard]] went so far as to argue in 1928 that this sectional conflict was a "Second American Revolution"&mdash;a revolutionary watershed in the rise of modern industrial society in the United States.) ===States Rights=== The States' rights debate cut across the issues. Southern politicians argued that the federal government had no power to prevent slaves from being carried into new territories, but they also demanded federal jurisdiction over slaves who escaped into the North; Northern politicians took reversed, though equally contradictory, stances on these issues. ===Slavery in the Territories=== The specific political crisis that culminated in secession and civil war stemmed from a dispute over the expansion of slavery into new territories. The reason was that Congress had power over slavery in the territories, but not in the states. With new territories being formed--especially Kansas--the issue of slaver had to be confronted. This argument grew out of the acquisition of vast new lands during the [[Mexican War]] (1846&ndash;48). Free-state politicians such as David Wilmot, who personally had no sympathy for abolitionism, feared that slaves would provide too much competition for free labor, and thus effectively keep free-state migrants out of newly opened territories. Slaveholders felt that any ban on slaves in the territories was a discrimination against their peculiar form of property, and would undercut both the financial value of slaves and the institution itself. (Slaves comprised the second most valuable form of property in the South, after real estate.) In Congress, the end of the Mexican War was overshadowed by a fight over the [[Wilmot Proviso]], a provision that Wilmot tried (and failed) to enact to bar slavery from all lands acquired in the conflict. The dispute led to open warfare after the [[Kansas]] Territory was organized in the [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]] of 1854. This act repealed the prohibition on slavery there under the Missouri Compromise of 1820, and put the fate of slavery in the hands of the territory's settlers, a process known as "popular sovereignty." Proslavery Missourians expected that Kansas, due west of their state, would naturally become a slave state, and were alarmed by an organized migration of antislavery New Englanders. Soon heavily armed "border ruffians" from Missouri battled antislavery forces under [[John Brown]], among other leaders. Hundreds were killed or wounded. Southern congressmen, perceiving a Northern conspiracy to keep slavery out of Kansas, insisted that it be admitted as a slave state. Northerners, pointing to the large and growing majority of antislavery voters there, denounced this effort. By 1860, sectional divisions had grown deep and bitter. [[Image:Lincolnhead.jpg|frame|left|'''[[Abraham Lincoln]]'''<br>16th President (1861&ndash;1865)]] ===Southern fears of Modernity=== Southern secession was triggered by the election of Republican [[Abraham Lincoln]] because it was feared that he would make good on his promise to stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction. If not Lincoln, then sooner or later another Yankee, many Southerners said; it was time to quit the Union. The slave states had lost the balance of power in the Electoral College and the Senate, and were facing a future as a perpetual minority. In a broader sense the North was rapidly modernizing its economy and its world view; slavery had no role in modern America. Historian James McPherson (1983 p 283) explains: {{Quotation|When secessionists protested in 1861 that they were acting to preserve traditional rights and values, they were correct. They fought to preserve their constitutional liberties against the perceived Northern threat to overthrow them. The South's concept of republicanism had not changed in three-quarters of a century; the North's had. ... The ascension to power of the Republican Party, with its ideology of competitive, egalitarian free-labor capitalism, was a signal to the South that the Northern majority had turned irrevocably towards this frightening, revolutionary future.|James McPherson|"Antebellum Southern Exceptionalism: A New Look at an Old Question," Civil War History 29 (Sept. 1983)}} ===Secession=== Before Lincoln took office, seven states seceded from the Union, and established an independent Southern government, the [[Confederate States of America]] on [[February 9]], [[1861]]. They took control of federal forts and property within their boundaries, with little resistance from President Buchanan. By seceding, the rebel states gave up any claim to the Western territories that were in dispute, canceled any obligation for the North to return fugitive slaves to the Confederacy, and assured easy passage in Congress of many bills and amendments they had long opposed. The Civil War began when, under orders from [[President of the Confederate States | Confederate President]] [[Jefferson Davis]], Confederate General [[P.G.T. Beauregard]] opened fire upon [[Fort Sumter]] in [[Charleston, South Carolina]], on [[April 12]], [[1861]]. There were no casualties from enemy fire in this battle. ==Division of the country== ===The Union States === {{main|Union (American Civil War)}} There were 23 Union States: [[California]], [[Connecticut]], [[Delaware]], [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], [[Iowa]], [[Kansas]], [[Kentucky]], [[Maine]], [[Maryland]], [[Massachusetts]], [[Michigan]], [[Minnesota]], [[Missouri]], [[New Hampshire]], [[New Jersey]], [[New York]], [[Ohio]], [[Oregon]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Vermont]], and [[Wisconsin]]. The Union counted [[Virginia]] as well, and added [[Nevada]] and [[West Virginia]]. It added [[Tennessee]], [[Louisiana]], and other rebel states as soon as they were reconquered. The territories of [[Colorado Territory|Colorado]], [[Dakota Territory|Dakota]], [[Nebraska Territory|Nebraska]], [[Nevada Territory|Nevada]], [[New Mexico Territory|New Mexico]], [[Utah Territory|Utah]], and [[Washington Territory|Washington]] also fought on the Union side. There was a civil war inside the [[Oklahoma territory]]. ===The Confederacy=== {{main|Confederate States of America}} Seven states seceded by March 1861: *[[South Carolina]] ([[December 21]] [[1860]]), *[[Mississippi]] ([[January 9]] [[1861]]), *[[Florida]] ([[January 10]] [[1861]]), *[[Alabama]] ([[January 11]] [[1861]]), *[[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] ([[January 19]] [[1861]]), *[[Louisiana]] ([[January 26]] [[1861]]), *[[Texas]] ([[February 1]] [[1861]]). These states of the [[Deep South]], where [[slavery]] and [[cotton]] were most dominant, formed the Confederate States of America ([[February 4]] [[1861]]), with [[Jefferson Davis]] as president, and a governmental structure closely modeled on the [[U.S. Constitution]] ''(see also: [[Confederate States Constitution]])''. [[Image:Civilwarmap2.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Map of the division of the states during the Civil War. Blue represents Union states; light blue, Union states that permitted [[Slavery in Colonial America|slavery]]; gray, Confederate states; green, Territories.]] After the surrender of [[Fort Sumter]], [[April 13]], [[1861]], Lincoln called for troops from all states to put down the insurrection, resulting in the secession of four more states: *[[Virginia]] ([[April 17]] [[1861]]), *[[Arkansas]] ([[May 6]] [[1861]]), *[[North Carolina]] ([[May 20]] [[1861]]), and *[[Tennessee]] ([[June 8]] [[1861]]). ===Border states=== ''Main article: [[Border states (Civil War)]]'' Along with the northwestern portion of Virginia (whose residents did not wish to secede and eventually entered the Union in 1863 as [[West Virginia]]), four of the five northernmost "[[slave state]]s" ([[Maryland]], [[Delaware]], [[Missouri]], and [[Kentucky]]) did not secede, and became known as the [[Border States (Civil War)|Border States]]. There was considerable anti-war or "[[Copperhead]]" sentiment in the southern parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and some men volunteered for Confederate service; however much larger numbers, led by [[John A. Logan]], joined the Union army. [[Maryland]] had numerous pro-Confederate officials, but after [[Baltimore riot of 1861|rioting in Baltimore]] and other events had prompted a Federal declaration of [[martial law]], Union troops moved in, and arrested the pro-Confederates. Both [[Missouri]] and [[Kentucky]] remained in the Union, but factions within each state organized governments in exile that were recognized by the CSA. In Missouri, an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the Union. However, pro-Southern Governor [[Claiborne F. Jackson]] called out the state militia, which was attacked in St. Louis by federal forces under General [[Nathaniel Lyon]], who chased the governor and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state. (''See also: [[Missouri secession]]''). [[Image:Map of CSA 3.png|thumb|300px|Map of territory claimed by the Confederacy]] Although Kentucky did not secede, for a time it declared itself [[neutral]]. During a brief invasion by Confederate forces, Southern sympathizers organized a secession convention, inaugurated a Confederate Governor, and gained recognition from the Confederacy. However, the military occupation of [[Columbus, Kentucky | Columbus]] by Confederate General [[Leonidas Polk]] in September 1861 turned general popular opinion in Kentucky against the Confederacy, and the state subsequently reaffirmed its loyal status and expelled the Confederate government. Residents of the northwestern counties of Virginia organized a secession from Virginia and entered the Union in 1863 as [[West Virginia]]. Similar secessions were supported in some other areas of the Confederacy (such as eastern [[Tennessee]]), but were suppressed by declarations of martial law by the Confederacy. <!-- California not unique in having split sentiments [[History of California#California and the Civil War|California]] was a [[free state]] and a part of the Union. Lincoln had won a [[plurality]] there, but there were a number of Southern sympathizers. 2% of its votes went to the Southern Democrat candidate, [[John C. Breckinridge]]. California's soldiers were kept under state control and were used to keep the land routes between the Mississippi and the state open. California gold helped finance the Union war effort.[http://www.militarymuseum.org/HistoryCW.html] --> ==Narrative summary: 1861 to Fort Sumter== [[Image:American Civil War Battles by Theater, Year.png|thumb|right|350px|Battles of the American Civil War by Theater, Year]] Lincoln's victory in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1860|presidential election of 1860]] triggered South Carolina's secession from the Union. By [[February 1]], [[1861]], six more Southern states had seceded. On [[February 7]], the seven states adopted a provisional constitution for the Confederate States of America and established their capital at [[Montgomery, Alabama]]. The pre-war February [[peace conference of 1861]] met in Washington, as one last attempt to avoid war; it failed. The remaining southern states as yet remained in the Union. Confederate forces seized all but three federal forts within their boundaries (they did not take Fort Sumter); President Buchanan made no military response, but governors in Massachusetts, New York and Pennsylvania began secretly buying weapons and training militia units to ready them for immediate action. On [[March 4]], [[1861]], Abraham Lincoln was sworn in. In his [[Inauguration|inaugural address]], he argued that the Constitution was a ''more perfect union'' than the earlier [[Articles of Confederation|Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union]], that it was a binding contract, and called the secession "legally void". He stated he had no intent to invade southern states, but would use force to maintain possession of federal property. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union. The South did send delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties, but they were turned down. Lincoln refused to negotiate with any Confederate agents because he insisted the Confederacy was not a legitimate government. On [[April 12]], Confederate soldiers fired upon the Federal troops stationed at [[Fort Sumter]] in [[Charleston, South Carolina]], until the troops surrendered. Lincoln called for all of the states in the Union to send troops to recapture the forts and preserve the Union. Most Northerners hoped that a quick victory for the Union would crush the nascent rebellion, and so Lincoln only called for volunteers for 90 days. Four states, Tennessee, Arkansas, North Carolina, and&mdash;most importantly, Virginia&mdash;which had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures now decided that they could not send forces against the seceding states. They seceded and to reward Virginia the Confederate capital was moved to [[Richmond, Virginia]], a highly vulnerable location at the end of the supply line. Even though the Southern states had seceded, there was considerable anti-secessionist sentiment within several of the seceding states. Eastern Tennessee, in particular, was a hotbed for pro-Unionism. [[Winston County, Alabama]] issued a resolution of secession from the state of Alabama. The ''[[Red Strings (American politics)|Red Strings]]'' were a prominent Southern anti-secession group. [[Winfield Scott]] created the [[Anaconda Plan]] to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible. His idea was that a [[Union blockade]] would strangle the rebel economy, then capture of the Mississippi would split the South. Lincoln adopted the plan but overruled Scott's warnings against an immediate attack on Richmond. ===Naval war and blockade=== {{see details|Naval Battles of the American Civil War}}[[Union blockade]] and [[Confederate States Navy]] In May 1861 Lincoln proclaimed the [[Union blockade]] of all southern ports, which shut down nearly all international traffic and most local port-to-port traffic. Although few naval battles were fought and few men were killed, the blockade shut down [[King Cotton]] and ruined the southern economy. British investors built small, very fast "blockade runners" that brought in military supplies (and civilian luxuries) from Cuba and the Bahamas and took out some cotton and tobacco. When the blockade captured one the ship and cargo were sold and the proceeds given to the Union sailors. The crews were British, so when they were captured they were released and not held as prisoners of war. The most famous naval battle was the [[Battle of Hampton Roads]] (often called "the Battle of the ''Monitor'' and the ''Merrimac''") in March 1862, in which Confederate efforts to break the blockade were frustrated. Other naval battles included [[Battle of Island Number Ten | Island No. 10]], [[Battle of Memphis | Memphis]], [[Battle of Drewry's Bluff | Drewry's Bluff]], [[Battle of Fort Hindman | Arkansas Post]], and [[Battle of Mobile Bay | Mobile Bay]]. ===Eastern Theater 1861&ndash;1863=== {{see details|Eastern Theater of the American Civil War}} Because of the fierce resistance of a few initial Confederate forces at [[Manassas, Virginia]], in July 1861, a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. [[Irvin McDowell]] on the Confederate forces there was halted in the [[First Battle of Bull Run]], or ''First Manassas'', whereupon they were forced back to [[Washington, D.C.]], by Confederate troops under the command of Generals [[Joseph E. Johnston]] and P.G.T. Beauregard. It was in this battle that Confederate General [[Stonewall Jackson|Thomas Jackson]] received the name of "Stonewall" because he stood like a stone wall against Union troops. Alarmed at the loss, and in an attempt to prevent more slave states from leaving the Union, the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passed the [[Crittenden-Johnson Resolution]] on [[July 25]] of that year, which stated that the war was being fought to preserve the Union and not to end [[slavery]]. Major General [[George B. McClellan]] took command of the Union [[Army of the Potomac]] on [[July 26]] (he was briefly general-in-chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. [[Henry W. Halleck]]), and the war began in earnest in [[1862]]. Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan invaded Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the [[Virginia Peninsula|peninsula]] between the [[York River (Virginia)|York River]] and [[James River (Virginia)|James River]], southeast of Richmond. Although McClellan's army reached the gates of Richmond in the [[Peninsula Campaign]], [[Joseph E. Johnston]] halted his advance at the [[Battle of Seven Pines]], then [[Robert E. Lee]] defeated him in the [[Seven Days Battles]] and forced his retreat. McClellan was stripped of many of his troops to reinforce [[John Pope (military officer)|John Pope]]'s Union [[Army of Virginia]]. Pope was beaten spectacularly by Lee in the [[Northern Virginia Campaign]] and the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]] in August. [[Image:conf_dead_chancellorsville.jpg|thumb|300px|Confederate dead behind the stone wall of Marye's Heights, Fredericksburg, Virginia, killed during the Battle of Chancellorsville, May 1863.]] Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North, when General Lee led 55,000 men of the [[Army of Northern Virginia]] across the [[Potomac River]] into [[Maryland]] on [[September 5]]. Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the [[Battle of Antietam]] near [[Sharpsburg, Maryland]], on [[September 17]] [[1862]], the bloodiest single day in American history. Lee's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided justification for Lincoln to announce his [[Emancipation Proclamation]]. When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. [[Ambrose Burnside]]. Burnside suffered near-immediate defeat at the [[Battle of Fredericksburg]] on [[December 13]] [[1862]], when over ten thousand Union soldiers were killed or wounded. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. [[Joseph Hooker|Joseph "Fighting Joe" Hooker]]. Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the [[Battle of Chancellorsville]] in May 1863. He was replaced by Maj. Gen. [[George G. Meade]] during Lee's second invasion of the North, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] ([[July 1]]&ndash;[[July 3|3]], [[1863]]), the largest battle in North American history, which is sometimes considered the war's [[Turning point of the American Civil War|turning point]]. Lee's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade's 23,000), again forcing it to retreat to Virginia, never to launch a full-scale invasion of the North again. Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee's retreat, and decided to turn to the Western Theater for new leadership. On the use of balloons, see [[Aerial warfare]] section on the American Civil War. ===Western Theater 1861&ndash;1863=== {{see details|Western Theater of the American Civil War}} While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern theater, they crucially failed in the West. They were driven from Missouri early in the war as result of the [[Battle of Pea Ridge]]. [[Leonidas Polk]]'s invasion of [[Kentucky]] enraged the citizens there who previously had declared neutrality in the war, turning that state against the Confederacy. [[Nashville, Tennessee]], fell to the Union early in 1862. Most of the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]] was opened with the taking of [[Battle of Island Number Ten|Island No. 10]] and [[New Madrid, Missouri]], and then [[Memphis, Tennessee]]. [[New Orleans, Louisiana]], was captured in May 1862, allowing the Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi as well. Only the fortress city of [[Vicksburg, Mississippi]], prevented unchallenged Union control of the entire river. [[Braxton Bragg]]'s second Confederate invasion of Kentucky was repulsed by [[Don Carlos Buell]] at the confused and bloody [[Battle of Perryville]] and he was narrowly defeated by [[William S. Rosecrans]] at the [[Battle of Stones River]] in [[Tennessee]]. The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the [[Battle of Chickamauga]] in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], near the [[Tennessee]] border, where Bragg, reinforced by the corps of [[James Longstreet]] (from Lee's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of [[George Henry Thomas]], and forced him to retreat to [[Chattanooga, Tennessee|Chattanooga]], which Bragg then besieged. The Union's key strategist and tactician in the west was Maj. Gen. [[Ulysses S. Grant]], who won victories at: Forts [[Battle of Fort Henry|Henry]] and [[Battle of Fort Donelson|Donelson]], by which the Union seized control of the [[Tennessee River |Tennessee]] and [[Cumberland River|Cumberland]] Rivers; [[Battle of Shiloh|Shiloh]]; the [[Battle of Vicksburg]], cementing Union control of the Mississippi River and considered one of the [[Turning point of the American Civil War |turning points]] of the war; and the [[Battle of Chattanooga III|Battle of Chattanooga, Tennessee]], driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening an invasion route to [[Atlanta, Georgia |Atlanta]] and the heart of the Confederacy. ===Trans-Mississippi Theater 1861&ndash;1865=== {{see details| Trans-Mississippi Theater of the American Civil War}} Though geographically isolated from the battles to the east, a number of small-scale military actions took place west of the Mississippi River. Confederate incursions into Arizona and New Mexico were repulsed in 1862. Guerilla activity turned much of Missouri and Indian Territory (Oklahoma) into a battleground. Late in the war the Federal [[Red River Campaign]] was a failure. Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war, but was cut off after the capture of [[Vicksburg]] in 1863 gave the Union control of the Mississippi River. ===End of the War 1864&ndash;1865=== [[Image:President-Jefferson-Davis.jpg|thumb|left|[[Jefferson Davis]], first and only President of the Confederate States of America]] At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, and put Maj. Gen. [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of [[total war]] and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would bring an end to the war. He devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the heart of Confederacy from multiple directions: Generals Grant, Meade, and [[Benjamin Franklin Butler (politician)|Benjamin Butler]] would move against Lee near Richmond; General [[Franz Sigel]] (and later [[Philip Sheridan]]) would [[Valley Campaigns of 1864|invade the Shenandoah Valley]]; General Sherman would and capture [[Atlanta]] and march to the sea; Generals [[George Crook]] and [[William W. Averell]] would operate against railroad supply lines in [[West Virginia]]; and General [[Nathaniel Prentiss Banks|Nathaniel Banks]] would capture [[Mobile, Alabama]]. Union forces in the East attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles during that phase ("Grant's [[Overland Campaign]]") of the Eastern campaign. An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the [[Bermuda Hundred Campaign | Bermuda Hundred]] river bend. Grant was tenacious and, despite astonishing losses (over 66,000 casualties in six weeks), kept pressing Lee's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. He pinned down the Confederate army in the [[Siege of Petersburg]], where the two armies engaged in [[trench warfare]] for over nine months. Grant finally found a commander, General [[Philip Sheridan]], aggressive enough to prevail in the [[Valley Campaigns of 1864]]. Sheridan proved to be more than a match for [[Jubal Anderson Early|Jubal Early]], and defeated him in a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at [[Battle of Cedar Creek|Cedar Creek]], Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Valley, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman would later employ in Georgia. Meanwhile, Sherman marched from [[Chattanooga]] to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals [[Joseph E. Johnston]] and [[John B. Hood]]. The fall of Atlanta, on September 2, 1864, was a significant factor in the re-election of Abraham Lincoln, as President of the Union. Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman's army marched with an unclear destination, laying waste to about 20% of the farms in Georgia in his celebrated "[[Sherman's March to the Sea|March to the Sea]]", and reaching the [[Atlantic Ocean]] at [[Savannah, Georgia]] in December 1864. Burning plantations as they went, Sherman's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves. When Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Virginia lines from the south, it was the end for Lee and his men, and for the Confederacy. Lee attempted to escape from the besieged Petersburg and link up with Johnston in [[North Carolina]], but he was overtaken by Grant. He surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on [[April 9]], [[1865]], at [[Appomattox Court House]]. Johnston surrendered his troops to Sherman shortly thereafter at a [[Bennett Place|local family's farmhouse]] in [[Durham, North Carolina]]. The [[Battle of Palmito Ranch]], fought on [[May 13]], [[1865]], in the far south of [[Texas]], was the last Civil War land battle and ended, ironically, with a Confederate victory. All Confederate land forces surrendered by June 1865. ==Analysis of the outcome== Why the Union prevailed (or why the Confederacy was defeated) in the Civil War has been a subject of extensive analysis and debate. Could the South have won? A significant number of scholars believe that the Union held an insurmountable advantage over the Confederacy in terms of industrial strength, population, and the determination to win. Confederate actions, they argue, could only delay defeat. Southern historian [[Shelby Foote]] expressed this view succinctly in Ken Burns's television series on the Civil War: "I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back.... If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I don't think the South ever had a chance to win that War." [Ward 1990 p 272] Other historians, however, suggest that the South had a chance to win its independence. As James McPherson has observed, the Confederacy remained on the defensive, which required fewer military resources. The Union, committed to the strategic offensive, faced enormous manpower demands that it often had difficulty meeting. War weariness among Union civilians mounted along with casualties, in the long years before Union advantages proved decisive. Thus, the inevitability of Union victory remains hotly contested among scholars. The goals were not symmetric. To win independence the South had to convince the North it could not win, but it did not have to invade the North. To restore the Union the North had to conquer vast stretches of territory. In the short run (a matter of months) the two sides were evenly matched. But in the long run (a matter of years) the North had advantages that increasingly came into play. Both sides had long-term advantages but the Union had more of them. The Union had to control the entire coastline, defeat all the main Confederate armies, seize Richmond, and control most of the population centers. As the occupying force they had to station hundreds of thousands of soldiers to control railroads, supply lines, and major towns and cites. The long-term advantages widely credited by historians to have contributed to the Union's success include: [[Image:Advantages.jpg|right|350px|US economic advantages over CSA]] *The more industrialized economy of the North, which aided in the production of arms, munitions and supplies, as well as finances, and transportation. The graph shows the relative advantage of the USA over the CSA. *A [[Second Party System| party system]] that enabled the Republicans to mobilize soldiers and support at the grass roots, even when the war became unpopular. The Confederacy deliberately did not use parties. *The Union population was 22 million and the South 9 million in 1861; the disparity grew as the Union controlled more and more southern territory with garrisons, and cut off the trans-Mississippi part of the Confederacy. *Excellent railroad links between Union cities, which allowed for the quick and cheap movement of troops and supplies. Transportation was much slower and more difficult in the South which was unable to augment its much smaller system or repair damage, or even perform routine maintenance. *The Union devoted much more of its resources to medical needs, thereby overcoming the unhealthy disease environment that sickened (and killed) more soldiers than combat did. *The Union at the start controlled over 80% of the shipyards, steamships, river boats, and the Navy. It augmented these by a massive shipbuilding program. This enabled the Union to control the river systems and to blockade the entire southern coastline. *The Union's more established government, particularly a mature executive branch which accumulated even greater power during wartime, may have resulted in less regional infighting and a more streamlined conduct of the war. Failure of Davis to maintain positive and productive relationships with state governors damaged the Confederate president's ability to draw on regional resources. *The Confederacy's tactic of engaging in major battles at the cost of heavy manpower losses, when it could not easily replace its losses. *The Confederacy's [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HZY/is_1_14/ai_78397581 failure] to fully use its advantages in guerrilla warfare against Union communication and transportation infrastructure. However, as Lee warned, such warfare would prove devastating to the South, and (with the exception of Confederate partisans in Missouri) Confederate leaders shrank from it. *Despite the Union's many tactical blunders like the [[Seven Days Battle]], those commited by Confederate generals, such as Lee's miscalculations at the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] and [[Battle of Antietam]], were far more serious&mdash;if for no other reason than that the Confederates could so little afford the losses. *Lincoln proved more adept than Davis in replacing unsuccessful generals with better ones. *Strategically the location of the capital Richmond tied Lee to a highly exposed position at the end of supply lines. (Loss of Richmond, everyone realized, meant loss of the war.) *Lincoln grew as a grand strategist, in contrast to Davis. The Confederacy never developed an overall strategy. It never had a plan to deal with the blockade. Davis failed to respond in a coordinated fashion to serious threats, such as Grant's campaign against Vicksburg in 1863 (in the face of which, he allowed Lee to invade Pennsylvania). *The Confederacy's failure to win diplomatic or military support from any foreign powers. Its [[King Cotton]] misperception of the world economy led to bad diplomacy, such as the refusal to ship cotton before the blockade started. * Most important, the Union had the will to win, and leaders like Lincoln, Seward, Stanton, Grant, and Sherman would do whatever it took to achieve victory. The Confederacy, as Beringer et al (1986) argue, may have lacked the total commitment needed to win. It took time, however, for leaders such as Grant, Sherman, and Sheridan to emerge; in the meantime, Union public opinion wavered, and Lincoln worried about losing the election of 1864, until victories in the Shenandoah Valley and Atlanta made victory seem likely. ==Major land battles== There were as many as 10,000 hostile engagements during the war. The costliest and most significant are listed in [[Battles of the American Civil War]]. ==Civil War leaders and soldiers== [[Image:Lincoln and Davis Statue.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Statues of [[Abraham Lincoln]] and [[Jefferson Davis]] at [[Vicksburg National Military Park]].]] One of the reasons that the U.S. Civil War wore on as long as it did and the battles were so fierce was that most important generals on both sides had formerly served in the [[United States Army]]&mdash;some, including [[Ulysses S. Grant]] and [[Robert E. Lee]], during the [[Mexican-American War]] between 1846 and 1848. Most were graduates of the [[United States Military Academy]] at West Point. Southern military commanders and strategists included [[Jefferson Davis]], [[Robert E. Lee]], [[Joseph E. Johnston]], [[Stonewall Jackson|Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson]], [[James Longstreet]], [[P.G.T. Beauregard]], [[John Mosby]], [[Braxton Bragg]], [[John Bell Hood]], [[JEB Stuart|James Ewell Brown (JEB) Stuart]], [[William Mahone]], [[Judah P. Benjamin]], [[Jubal Anderson Early|Jubal Early]], and [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]]. Northern military commanders and strategists included [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[Edwin M. Stanton]], [[Ulysses S. Grant]], [[William Tecumseh Sherman]], [[George H. Thomas]], [[George B. McClellan]], [[Henry W. Halleck]], [[Joseph Hooker]], [[Ambrose Burnside]], [[Irvin McDowell]], [[Winfield Scott]], [[Philip Sheridan]], [[George Crook]], [[George Armstrong Custer]], [[George G. Meade]], and [[Winfield Hancock]] After 1980, scholarly attention turned to ordinary soldiers, and to women and African Americans involved with the War. As James McPherson observed "The profound irony of the Civil War was that Confederate and Union soldiers ... interpreted the heritage of 1776 in opposite ways. Confederates fought for liberty and independence from what they regarded as a tyrannical government; Unionists fought to preserve the nation created by the founders from dismemberment and destruction."(McPherson 1994 p 24) ==The Question of Slavery== Given the painfulness of the historical memory of slavery for many Americans, its role in the war remains controversial to this day. To understand its place in the conflict, it is necessary to divide the issue in two: slavery as a motivation for secession, and abolition as a Union war aim. In the weeks and months preceding the secession of the Confederate states, Southern leaders spoke openly about their desire to preserve slavery, and their fears for the "peculiar institution" if the South remained within the Union. Almost all of the ordinances of secession cited the preservation of slavery as a primary, even the foremost, reason for departure from the Union. And yet many individual Southern soldiers fought for reasons quite apart from the defense of slavery: to protect their families and communities, to defend their home states, and out of a nascent sense of nationality. On the Union side, Lincoln initially declared his purpose in prosecuting the war to be the preservation of the Union, not emancipation. He had no wish to alienate the thousands of slaveholders in the Union border states. The long war, however, had a radicalizing effect on federal policies. With the [[Emancipation Proclamation]], announced in September 1862 and put into effect four months later, Lincoln adopted the abolition of the [[Slave Power]] as a second mission&mdash;that is slaves owned by rebels had to be taken away from them and freed. One goal was to destroy the economic basis of the Confederate leadership class, and another goal was to actually liberate the 4 million slaves, which was accomplished by 1865. The Emancipation Proclamation declared all slaves held in territory then under Confederate control to be "then, thenceforth, and forever free," but did not affect slaves in areas under Union control. It did, however, show the Union that slavery's days were numbered, increasing abolitionist support in the North. The border states (except Kentucky) abolished slavery on their own. ==Foreign diplomacy== Because of the Confederacy's attempt to create a new state, recognition and support from the European powers were critical to its prospects. The Union, under [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[William Henry Seward]] attempted to block the Confederacy's efforts in this sphere. The Confederates hoped that the importance of the cotton trade to Europe (the idea of [[cotton diplomacy]]) and shortages caused by the war, along with early military victories, would enable them to gather increasing European support and force a turn away from neutrality. President Lincoln's decision to announce a [[Union blockade|blockade of the Confederacy]], a clear act of war, enabled Britain, followed by other European powers, to announce their neutrality in the dispute. This enabled the Confederacy to begin to attempt to gain support and funds in Europe. President Jefferson Davis had picked [[Robert Toombs]] of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] as his first Secretary of State. Toombs, having little knowledge in foreign affairs, was replaced several months later by [[Robert M. T. Hunter]] of [[Virginia]], another choice with little suitability. Ultimately, on [[March 17]], [[1862]], Davis selected [[Judah P. Benjamin]] of [[Louisiana]] as Secretary of State, who although having more international knowledge and legal experience with international slavery disputes still failed in the end to create a dynamic foreign policy for the Confederacy. The first attempts to achieve European recognition of the Confederacy were dispatched on [[February 25]], [[1861]] and led by [[William Lowndes Yancey]], [[Pierre A. Rost]], and [[Ambrose Dudley Mann]]. The British foreign minister [[Lord John Russell]] met with them, and the French foreign minister [[Edouard Thouvenel]] received the group unofficially. However, at this point, the two countries had agreed to coordinate and cooperate and would not make any rash moves. [[Charles Francis Adams]] proved particularly adept as ambassador to Britain for the Union, and Britain was reluctant to boldly challenge the Union's blockade. The Confederacy also attempted to initiate propaganda in Europe through journalists [[Henry Hotze]] and [[Edwin De Leon]] in [[Paris]] and [[London]]. However, public opinion against slavery created a political liability for European politicians, especially in Britain. A significant challenge in Anglo-Union relations was also created by the [[Trent Affair]], involving the Union boarding of a British mail steamer to seize [[James M. Mason]] and [[John Slidell]], Confederate diplomats sent to Europe. However, the Union was able to smooth over the problem to some degree. As the war continued, in late 1862, the British considered initiating an attempt to mediate the conflict. However, the Union victory in the [[Battle of Antietam]] caused them to delay this decision. Additionally, the issuing of the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] further reinforced the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. As the war continued, the Confederacy's chances with Britain grew more hopeless, and they focused increasingly on France. [[Napoléon III]] proposed to offer mediation in January 1863, but this was dismissed by Seward. Despite some sympathy for the Confederacy, France's own [[French intervention in Mexico|concerns in Mexico]] ultimately deterred them from substantially antagonizing the Union. As the Confederacy's situation grew more and more tenuous and their pleas increasingly ignored, President Davis sent [[Duncan F. Kenner]] to Europe, in November 1864, to test whether a promised Confederate emancipation of its slaves could lead to possible recognition. The proposal was strictly rejected by both Britain and France. ==Aftermath== {{main|Reconstruction}} [[Image:Peace_Monument_Chattanooga.jpg|thumb|right|The ''Peace Monument'' at [[Lookout Mountain]], [[Tennessee]] depicts a Union and Confederate soldier shaking hands.]] Northern leaders agreed that the war would be over when Confederate nationalism was dead, and slavery was dead. They disagreed sharply on how to identify these goals. They also disagreed on the degree of federal control that should be imposed on the South. The fighting ended with the surrender of all the Confederate forces. There was no significant guerrilla warfare. Many senior Confederate leaders escaped to Europe, but Davis was captured and imprisoned, but never brought to trial. The question became how much the Union could trust the ex-Confederates to be truly loyal to the United States. The second main question in Reconstruction dealt with the destruction of slavery. The XIII Amendment (1865) officially abolished it legally, but the issue was whether [[black codes]] indicated a sort of semi-slavery, and whether Freedmen should have the vote to protect those rights. In 1867 Radicals in Congress pushed aside President Johnson and imposed new rules. Freedmen gained the right to vote and formed Republican political coalitions that took control of each state for varying periods. One by one the white conservatives or "[[Redeemers]]" gained back control of their states, often through lethal force. The final three were redeemed by the [[Compromise of 1877]]. After that the hatreds between North and South rapidly diminished until by 1900 the nation was no longer divided by the war, though it did remain divided by race. Ghosts of the conflict still persist in America. For decades after the war, Northern politicians "waved the bloody shirt," bringing up memories of the Civil War as an electoral tactic, while the "solid South" as a block in national politics was built on memories of the war and a determination to maintain segregation. The [[Civil Rights Movement]] of the 1960s had its [[neoabolitionist]] roots in the failure of Reconstruction. A few debates surrounding the legacy of the war continue, especially regarding memorials and celebrations of Confederate heroes and [[Flags of the Confederate States of America#Controversy|battle flags]]. The question is a deep and troubling one: Americans with Confederate ancestors cherish the memory of their bravery and determination, yet their cause remains one ultimately tied to the shameful history of African American slavery. ==Further reading== ===Overviews=== * Beringer, Richard E., Archer Jones, and Herman Hattaway, ''Why the South Lost the Civil War'' (1986) analysis of factors * [[Bruce Catton|Catton, Bruce]], ''The Civil War'', American Heritage, 1960, ISBN 0-8281-0305-4, illustrated narrative * Donald, David ed. ''Why the North Won the Civil War'' (1977) (ISBN: 0020316607), short interpretive essays * Donald, David et al. ''The Civil War and Reconstruction'' (latest edition 2001); 700 page survey * Eicher, David J., ''The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War'', Simon & Schuster, 2001, ISBN 0-684-84944-5. * Fellman, Michael et al. ''This Terible War: The Civil War and its Aftermath'' (2003), 400 page survey * Esposito, Vincent J. [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/american%20civil%20war/american%20civil%20war%20index.htm ''West Point Atlas of American Wars'' (1959)], these maps are online * [[Shelby Foote | Foote, Shelby]]. ''[[The Civil War: A Narrative]]'' (3 volumes), Random House, 1974, ISBN 0-394-74913-8. Highly detailed narrative covering all fronts * [[James M. McPherson | McPherson, James M.]] ''Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era'' (1988), survey; Pulitzer prize * Mark E. Neely Jr.; "Was the Civil War a Total War?" ''Civil War History'', Vol. 50, 2004 pp 434+ in JSTOR * [[Allan Nevins | Nevins, Allan]]. ''[[Ordeal of the Union]]'', an 8-volume set (1947-1971). the most detailed narrative ** 1. Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847-1852; 2. A House Dividing, 1852-1857; 3. Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857-1859; 4. Prologue to Civil War, 1859-1861; 5. The Improvised War, 1861-1862; 6. War Becomes Revolution, 1862-1863; 7. The Organized War, 1863-1864; 8. The Organized War to Victory, 1864-1865 * Rhodes, James Ford. [http://www.bartleby.com/252/ ''History of the Civil War, 1861-1865 (1918)], Pulitzer Prize; a short version of his 5-volume history * Ward, Geoffrey C. ''The Civil War'' (Alfred Knopf, 1990), based on PBS series by [[Ken Burns]]; visual emphasis * Weigley, Russell Frank. ''A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861-1865'' (2004); primarily military ===Reference books and bibliographies=== * Blair, Jayne E. ''The Essential Civil War: A Handbook to the Battles, Armies, Navies And Commanders'' (2006) * Carter, Alice E. and Richard Jensen. ''The Civil War on the Web: A Guide to the Very Best Sites-'' 2nd ed. (2003) * Current, Richard N., et al eds. ''Encyclopedia of the Confederacy'' (1993) (4 Volume set; also 1 vol abridged version) (ISBN: 0132759918) * Faust, Patricia L. (ed.) ''Historical Times Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Civil War'' (1986) (ISBN: 0061812617) 2000 short entries * Eicher, David J., ''The Civil War in Books: An Analytical Bibliography'', University of Illinois, 1997, ISBN 0-252-02273-4 * Heidler, David Stephen. ''Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History'' (2002), 1600 entries in 2700 pages in 5 vol or 1-vol editions * Wagner, Margaret E. Gary W. Gallagher, and Paul Finkelman, eds. ''The Library of Congress Civil War Desk Reference'' (2002) * Woodworth, Steven E. ed. ''American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research'' (1996) (ISBN: 0313290199), 750 pages of historiography and bibliography ===Biographies=== * Eicher, John H., & Eicher, David J., ''Civil War High Commands'', Stanford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8047-3641-3 * [[Douglas S. Freeman|Freeman, Douglas S.]], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/People/Robert_E_Lee/FREREL/home.html ''R. E. Lee, A Biography''] (4 volumes), Scribners, 1934 * Freeman, Douglas S., ''Lee's Lieutenants: A Study in Command'' (3 volumes), Scribners, 1946, ISBN 0-684-85979-3 * [[Jean Edward Smith | Smith, Jean Edward]], ''Grant'', Simon and Shuster, 2001, ISBN 0-684-84927-5 * Warner, Ezra J., ''Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders'', Louisiana State University Press, 1964, ISBN 0-8071-0882-7 * Warner, Ezra J., ''Generals in Gray: Lives of the Confederate Commanders'', Louisiana State University Press, 1959, ISBN 0-8071-0823-5 ===Soldiers=== * Frank, Joseph Allan and George A. Reaves. ''Seeing the Elephant: Raw Recruits at the Battle of Shiloh'' (1989) * Hess, Earl J. ''The Union Soldier in Battle: Enduring the Ordeal of Combat'' (1997) * McPherson, James. ''What They Fought For, 1861-1865'' (Louisiana State University Press, 1994) * McPherson, James. ''For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War '' (1998) * Wiley, Bell Irvin. ''The Life of Johnny Reb: The Common Soldier of the Confederacy'' (1962) (ISBN: 0807104752) * Wiley, Bell Irvin. ''Life of Billy Yank: The Common Soldier of the Union'' (1952) (ISBN: 0807104760) ===Primary sources=== * U.S. War Dept., [http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/moa/browse.monographs/waro.html ''The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies''], U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880&ndash;1901. 70 very large volumes of letters and reports written by both armies. Online at [http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/moa/browse.monographs/waro.html] *Bedwell, Randall, ''War is All Hell: A Collection of Civil War Quotations'', Cumberland House Publishing, 1999, ISBN 1-58182-419-X * Commager, Henry Steele (ed.). ''The Blue and the Gray. The Story of the Civil War as Told by Participants.'' (1950), often reprinted * Eisenschiml, Otto; Ralph Newman; eds. ''The American Iliad: The Epic Story of the Civil War as Narrated by Eyewitnesses and Contemporaries'' (1947) * Hesseltine, William B. ed.; ''The Tragic Conflict: The Civil War and Reconstruction'' (1962) *Woodword, C. Vann, Ed., ''Mary Chesnut's Civil War'', Yale University Press, 1981, ISBN 0-300-02979-9 Pulitzer Prize ===Novels about the war=== *[[Stephen Crane|Crane, Stephen]], ''[[The Red Badge of Courage]]'' *[[E.L. Doctorow|Doctorow, E.L.]], ''[[The March]]'' *[[Charles Frazier|Frazier, Charles]], ''[[Cold Mountain]]'' *[[Margaret Mitchell|Mitchell, Margaret]], ''[[Gone with the Wind]]'' *[[Ishmael Reed|Reed, Ishmael]], ''Flight to Canada'' *[[Jeffrey Shaara|Shaara, Jeffrey]], ''[[Gods and Generals]]'' *[[Jeffrey Shaara|Shaara, Jeffrey]], ''[[The Last Full Measure]]'' *[[Michael Shaara|Shaara, Michael]], ''[[The Killer Angels]]'' *[[James Street|Street, James]], ''By Valour and Arms'' *[[Jules Verne|Verne, Jules]], ''[[Texar's Revenge, or, North Against South]]'' (''Nord Contre Sud'') *[[Gore Vidal|Vidal, Gore]], ''Lincoln'' ===Films about the war=== *''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'' ([[1915]]) *''[[Gone With the Wind]]'' ([[1939]]) *''[[The Good, the Bad and the Ugly]]'' ([[1966]]) *''[[The Blue and the Gray]]''([[1982]]) *''[[Glory (film)|Glory]]'' ([[1989]]) *''[[Gettysburg (movie)|Gettysburg]]'' ([[1993]]) *''[[Gods and Generals]]'' ([[2003]]) *''[[Cold Mountain]]'' ([[2003]]) ===Documentaries about the war=== *''[[The Civil War (documentary)|The Civil War]]'', directed by [[Ken Burns]] ==See also== *[[African Americans in the Civil War]] *[[California and the Civil War]] *[[Canada and the American Civil War]] *[[Casualties of the American Civil War]] *[[Illinois in the Civil War]] *[[Military history of the Confederate States]] *[[Military history of the United States]] *[[National Civil War Museum]] *[[Naming the American Civil War]] *[[List of American Civil War topics]] *[[List of people associated with the American Civil War]] *[[Official Records of the American Civil War]] *[[Origins of the American Civil War]] *[[Photography and photographers of the American Civil War]] *[[Rail transport in the American Civil War]] *[[U.S. Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War]] *[[Union Army Balloon Corps]] *[[Union blockade]] ==External links== {{commonscat|American Civil War}} *[http://sunsite.utk.edu/civil-war/ The American Civil War Homepage] *[http://www.archives.gov/research_room/research_topics/civil_war/civil_war_photos.html Civil War photos] at the [[National Archives and Records Administration | National Archives]] * [http://www.virginia.org/site/features.asp?FeatureID=198 Civil War in Virginia] *Civil War Research & Discussion Group - [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/FieldsOfConflict/ Fields Of Conflict] - Containing 1500+ Links And 400+ Articles. *[http://www.civilwar-pictures.com Civil War Pictures Database] *[http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/books-title.htm Online texts of Civil War books] at the [[National Park Service]] *[http://www.brucegourley.com/civilwar/gourleyhistor1.htm Religion and the American Civil War] *[http://sunsite.utk.edu/civil-war/generals.html University of Tennessee: U.S. Civil War Generals] *[http://www.civilwarhome.com Shotgun's Home of the American Civil War] *[http://www.us-civilwar.com American Civil War] *[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/chron/civilwar.html American Civil War Detailed Chronology] *[http://www.pbs.org/civilwar ''The Civil War''], a [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] documentary by [[Ken Burns]] * Individual state's contributions to the Civil War: [http://www.militarymuseum.org/HistoryCW.html California], [http://www.floridamemory.com/OnlineClassroom/FloridaCivilWar/index.cfm Florida], [http://www.illinoiscivilwar.org/ Illinois #1], [http://www.rootsweb.com/~ilcivilw/ Illinois #2], [http://www.ohiocivilwar.com/ Ohio], [http://www.pacivilwar.com/ Pennsylvania] *State declarations of the causes of secession: [http://www.civilwar.com/decms.htm Mississippi], [http://www.civilwar.com/decga.htm Georgia], [http://www.civilwar.com/dectx.htm Texas], [http://www.civilwar.com/decsc.htm South Carolina] *[http://members.aol.com/jfepperson/ordnces.html Ordinances of Secession for all CSA states] *[http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?documentprint=76 Alexander Hamilton Stephens' Cornerstone Speech] * [http://www.civilwartrails.org/ Civil War Trails] &mdash; A project to map out sites related to the Civil War in Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina *[http://www.learnoutloud.com/Content/Topic-Pages/Experience-the-Civil-War-with-Your-Ears/21 Civil War Audio Resources] *[http://www.hoardmuseum.org/ Hoard Historical Museum] in [[Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin]] *[http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/CC/qdc2.html ''The Handbook of Texas Online:'' Civil War] *[http://www.brotherswar.com The Brothers War] *[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/MillsSpColl.BandBooks Civil War Band Collection: 1st Brigade Band of Brodhead, Wisconsin] A digital collection of first person narrative accounts from Wisconsin soldiers and citizens, documenting their wartime experiences. *[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/WI.WIWar Wisconsin Goes to War: Our Civil War Experience] *[http://www.worldbook.com/wc/popup?path=features/civilwar&page=html/index.html&direct=yes "A Divided Nation"]. One of ''World Book Encyclopedia'''s monthly features, this one on the American Civil War. {{UShistoryFooter}} [[Category:American Civil War| ]] [[Category:Civil wars]] [[Category:Emergency laws]] [[Category:Rebellions in the United States]] [[Category:Wars of the United States]] {{Link FA|he}} {{Link FA|pt}} [[ast:Guerra de Secesión]] [[bs:Američki građanski rat]] [[ca:Guerra civil dels Estats Units]] [[cs:Americká občanská válka]] [[da:Den amerikanske borgerkrig]] [[de:Sezessionskrieg]] [[es:Guerra de Secesión]] [[eo:Usona Enlanda Milito]] [[fr:Guerre de Sécession]] [[ko:남북 전쟁]] [[hr:Američki građanski rat]] [[ia:Guerra civil american]] [[it:Guerra civile americana]] [[he:מלחמת האזרחים האמריקנית]] [[hu:Amerikai polgárháború]] [[mr:अमेरिकन गृहयुद्ध]] [[nl:Amerikaanse burgeroorlog]] [[nds:Amerikaansche Börgerorlog]] [[ja:南北戦争]] [[no:Den amerikanske borgerkrigen]] [[nn:Borgarkrigen i USA]] [[pl:Wojna secesyjna]] [[pt:Guerra Civil Americana]] [[ru:Гражданская война в США]] [[sh:Američki građanski rat]] [[simple:American Civil War]] [[sk:Americká občianska vojna]] [[sl:Ameriška državljanska vojna]] [[fi:Yhdysvaltojen sisällissota]] [[sv:Amerikanska inbördeskriget]] [[th:สงครามกลางเมืองอเมริกา]] [[zh:南北战争]] 864 42140817 2006-03-04T02:16:50Z Antandrus 57658 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/220.239.31.24|220.239.31.24]] ([[User talk:220.239.31.24|talk]]) to last version by Sylvea [[Image:Helmut Newton- Andy Warhol.jpg|thumb|250PX|Andy Warhol, photographed by [[Helmut Newton]].]] '''Andy Warhol''' ([[August 6]], [[1928]] – [[February 22]], [[1987]]) was an [[United States|American]] painter, filmmaker, publisher, actor, and a major figure in the [[Pop Art]] movement. == Biography == Warhol was born as '''Andrew Warhola''' in [[Forest City, Pennsylvania]]. His parents, Ondrej (Andrew) Warhola and Julia Zavacky, were working class immigrants of [[Rusyns|Ruthenian ethnicity]] from [[Mikova]], in northeast [[Slovakia]]; his father worked in the coal mines of [[Pennsylvania]]. The family was [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] but Warhol's mother had a [[Jewish]] grandmother.[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0815410085/qid=1141095641/sr=1-33/ref=sr_1_33/104-6359540-7548710?s=books&v=glance&n=283155] Warhol showed early artistic talent and studied [[commercial art]] at [[Carnegie Mellon University]] in [[Pittsburgh]]. In 1949 he moved to [[New York City]] and began a successful career in [[magazine]] illustration and [[advertising]]. He became well-known mainly for his whimsical ink drawings of shoes done in a loose, blotted style. In the 1960s, Warhol began to make paintings of famous American products such as [[Campbell Soup Company|Campbell's soup]] cans and [[Coca-Cola]]. He switched to [[silkscreen]] prints, seeking not only to make art of mass produced items, but to mass produce the art itself. He said that he wanted to be like a robot. He hired and supervised "art workers" engaged in making prints, shoes, films, books and other items at his studio, ''[[The Factory]]'', located on [[Union Square (New York City)|Union Square]] in New York City. Warhol's body of work furthermore includes commissioned portraits and commercials. A lot of Warhol's works revolve around the concept of [[Americana]] and American culture. He painted money, dollar signs, food, groceries, women's shoes, celebrities, and newspaper clippings. To him, these subjects represented American cultural values. For instance, Coca-Cola represents democratic equality because :"What’s great about this country is that America started the tradition where the richest consumers buy essentially the same things as the poorest. You can be watching TV and see Coca-Cola, and you know that the President drinks Coke, Liz Taylor drinks Coke, and just think, you can drink Coke, too. A Coke is a Coke and no amount of money can get you a better Coke than the one the bum on the corner is drinking. All the Cokes are the same and all the Cokes are good. Liz Taylor knows it, the President knows it, the bum knows it, and you know it." He used popular imagery and methods to visualize the American cultural identity of the 20th century. This popular redefinition of American culture is a theme and result of Warhol's art. Because American culture has had great international influence, Warhol did as well. Outside of the art world, Andy Warhol is best known for saying that "In the future, everyone will be world famous for [[15 minutes of fame|15 minutes]]." He later told reporters, humorously, "My new line is, 'In fifteen minutes everybody will be famous.'" === Socialite and Recluse === Warhol used to socialize at [[Serendipity (nightclub)|Serendipity]] and [[Studio 54]], nightclubs in New York City. Warhol was generally regarded as quiet, shy, and as a meticulous observer. More than one person jokingly referred to him as "death warmed over." Warhol was openly gay, rare for celebrities of his stature at the time. Many people think of Warhol as [[asexual]] and as merely a [[voyeur]], but these notions have been debunked by biographers (like [[Fred Guiles]]), scholars (e.g. [[Richard Meyer]]), personal accounts of relationships by ex-lovers such as Jed Johnson and Billy Name, and by the overtly campy and homoerotic nature of his work itself. Throughout his career, Warhol produced erotic photography and drawings of male nudes. Many of his most famous works (portraits of [[Liza Minelli]], [[Judy Garland]], [[Elizabeth Taylor]], and films like "My Hustler", "[[Blow Job (film)|Blow Job]]", and "Lonesome Cowboys") draw from gay underground culture and/or openly explore the complexity of sexuality and desire. In fact, many of his films premiered in gay porn theaters. The first works that he submitted to a gallery in the pursuit of a career as an artist were, in fact, homoerotic drawings of male nudes. They were rejected for being too openly gay. A meticulous collector, he organized almost every piece of paper, fan mail&mdash;after taking off the stamps&mdash;and magazine related to his fame along with personal notes, gay pornography and found artifacts into hundreds of numbered boxes and set them aside, never to open them again. Warhol referred to these boxes as his "time capsule". Many exist today and are available for research at his Pittsburgh [[Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh|museum]]. Warhol's house was filled to the brim with his collected art, artifacts, and Americana. Many of his later commissioned portraits were a direct or indirect result of this networking. As a famous artist, Warhol and his Factory attracted and facilitated many "groupies" and friends that Warhol would include in films and happenings. Warhol promoted these [[the factory|factory]] regulars to fame, creating the [[Warhol superstars]]. They would appear in and help him make his work, play in his movies, write his books, hang out and generally become his following. When Warhol was asked to give a series of university lectures that he didn't feel like doing, one of his friends put on a wig and white make-up, and pretended to be him by sitting quietly on the stage. Other Superstars explained Warhol's work to the audience, and urged them to drop out of college. The University eventually found out Warhol's "fraud" and the following dispute had to be settled with a refund. Warhol would regularly volunteer at the homeless shelters in New York, particularly during the busier times of the year. He described himself as a religious person, although not fully accepted by religion because of his homosexuality. Many of his later works contain almost hidden religious themes or subjects, and a body of religious-themed works was found posthumously in his estate. === Shooting === On [[June 3]], [[1968]], [[Valerie Solanas]], a [[The Factory|Factory]] regular, entered Warhol's studio and fired three shots at Warhol, nearly killing him. Although the first two rounds missed, the third passed through Warhol's left [[lung]], [[spleen]], [[stomach]], [[liver]], [[esophagus]], and right lung. Solanas then turned the gun on a companion of Warhol, Mario Amaya, injuring his thigh. Warhol survived his injuries, but he never fully recovered. Earlier, Solanas had given a script to Warhol, in hopes that he would make a film out of it. Warhol never did. Apparently, she had visited the Factory earlier in the day to ask that they give the script back to her. It had, however, been lost. She later explained that she had attacked Warhol because, "he had too much control over [her] life." The story of Valerie Solanas was made into the 1996 film ''[[I Shot Andy Warhol]]'', starring [[Lili Taylor]] and directed by [[Mary Harron]]. In the hospital, his doctors had already declared him deceased, after which he was resuscitated. Warhol later joked that he was now invulnerable, since he had gone through death and came out alive. The shooting and Warhol's "death" received wide media coverage. One of Warhol's associates, [[Paul Morrissey]], later satirized the event in his movie [["Women In Revolt"]], calling a group similar to Solanas' [[S.C.U.M.]] ('''Society for Cutting Up Men'''), ''P.I.G.'' ('''Politically Involved Girls'''). In [[1990 in music|1990]] [[Lou Reed]] recorded the album ''[[Songs for Drella]]'' (one of Warhol's nicknames was Drella, a combination of Dracula and Cinderella) with fellow [[The Velvet Underground|Velvet Underground]] alumnus [[John Cale]]. Warhol had adopted Reed's band the Velvet Underground as one of his projects in the 1960s, "producing" their first album [[The Velvet Underground and Nico]] as well as providing the album art, widely regarded as some of the greatest album art of all time. The album itself is also regarded as one of the greatest (and most influential) albums in rock history. After the band became successful Warhol and band leader Reed started to disagree more and more about the direction the band should take, and the contact between them faded. On the album, Reed apologizes and comes to terms with his part in their conflict. === Death === Warhol died in New York City following routine gallbladder surgery at the age of 58. Warhol was afraid of hospitals and doctors, so he had delayed having his recurring gall bladder problems checked. He is interred at St. John the Baptist Catholic Cemetery in Bethel Park, south of Pittsburgh. Fellow artist [[Yoko Ono]] was among the speakers at his funeral. Andy Warhol had so many posessions it took [[Sotheby's]] 9 days to auction his estate after his death for a total gross amount of over 20,000,000 (USD). == Work == === Paintings === When he decided to pursue a career as an artist, Warhol had already established a reputation as a commercial illustrator. In school he had made paintings, but his work afterwards had mainly consisted of "blotted ink" illustrations for warehouses and magazines. He felt that he was not being taken seriously as an illustrator, and wanted to become a "real" artist. When he started painting, he looked to find a niche for himself. At that time Pop Art - as it was later to be called - was already experimented with by several artists turning away from abstract expressionism, and Warhol turned to this new way of making art, where popular subjects could be part of the artist's vocabulary. His early paintings show images taken from cartoons and advertisements, in a hand-painted style, with paint drips. He added these drips to give his paintings a "serious" feel, to emulate a bit of the style of the abstract expressionists, that were en vogue at the time, in other words to be taken seriously or to sell his paintings, which may have had the same meaning to Warhol. To Warhol, part of defining a niche was defining his subject matter. Cartoons were already being "done" by [[Roy Liechtenstein]], typography by [[Jasper Johns]], et-cetera; Warhol wanted a distinguishing subject. His friends suggested that he should paint the things he loved the most. In his signature way of taking things literally, for his first major exhibition he painted his famous cans of Campbell's Soup, that he had for lunch most of his life. Warhol loved money, so he later painted money. He loved celebrities, so he painted them as well. From these beginnings he developed his later style and themes. Instead of working on a signature subject matter, as he started out to do, he worked more and more on a signature style, slowly eliminating the hand-made from the artistic process. Warhol went from painting to silk-screening, his later drawings were traced from slide projections. In other words, Warhol went from being a painter to being a designer of paintings. At the height of his fame as a painter, Warhol had several assistants who produced his silk-screen multiples, in different versions and variations after his directions. It has been suggested by many that Warhol would just take images of things that were hip in his time and cover them in "Warhol gravy", but for Warhol there was always a personal relation between him and his subjects. For instance the Campbell's Soup did not (only) function as an illustration of commercial industry and advertisement, it was an intrinsical part of Warhol's life and memories. As a child his mother had given him this soup when he was sick, and Warhol loved it very much as a grown up. For him (and many other Americans) the soup represented a feeling of being "home". Another criterion that is important in the way Warhol chose his subjects is that the subjects should also represent a more philosophical notion, should have a metaphorical quality. When Warhol paints money, he paints it because he wants to own it - canvases filled with money. Partly, his work was meant to provide him with this money (and success and fame and maybe even love). At the same time these paintings speak of art as a commercial commodity: the paintings of dollar bills represent monetary value as well, as investments. In this way, instead of merely depicting dollar bills, these paintings touch on notions like (artistic) value, or may be perceived as a comment on art practice. Similarly, when Warhol paints photographs of disasters in bright colors ("Red Car Crash", "Purple Jumping Man", "Orange Disaster") they point at the horror of the event in the picture, and its media value, but also at the way in which these images are trivialized by the media. By turning these "random" clippings into paintings, Warhol turns them into monuments for personal tragedies. As such they represent a personal experience as well as a social comment as well as an illustration of a time when the media grew to be more and more important. On a personal level a lot of Warhol's work is motivational in nature, and speaks of notions like democracy, being able to change things, optimistic materialism, being heard. But Warhol wasn't naively optimistic about these things, his work also deals with loss, death, loneliness and the such. Warhol knew how to juggle many levels of meaning and interpretation, and to combine these in seemingly simple, sometimes even dumb-looking works of art. In general his work has a very high "Duh!" level. Although a bit of a generalization, it may be accurate to say that Warhol depicted highly his very personal approach to subjects that everyone knows, in a way that these subjects become symbolic. Warhol's work became more and more conceptual and more reflective of art itself. His series of Do-It-Yourself-Paintings and Rorschach-blots are intended as pop-comments on art and what art could be. His Cow Wallpaper (literally wallpaper with a cow motif) and his Oxidation Paintings (canvases prepared with copper paint that show oxidated urine stains) are also noteworthy in this context. Warhol later did a series of his old works in negative, as a comment on his own position as an artist. In the beginning of his career Warhol worked on a growing oeuvre of American forms and values, newspaper clippings, disasters, money, commercial products, Coca-Cola bottles, postal stamps, movie stars, criminals, shoes, clothes, etc. defining a position, researching and making statements. As recognition -- and the value of his work -- grew, he went back to his roots as a commercial illustrator, and starts to take commissions, most noticeably for portraits. These are sometimes viewed as Warhol's sell-out (the revolutionary painter that became a jester), but it can also be argued that his self-supporting way of working fit his world-views. At any rate, his body of portraits -- that include many celebrities, athletes, movie stars, politicians, dictators, royalty, his mother, transvestites -- have became a document of an era. Having the money or the relations to be portrayed by Warhol meant that you might be able to enter into immortality. Warhol's commercial effort also include advertisements for Chanel, Apple and more. There are three more periods that are noteworthy in Warhol's oeuvre as a painter. His self-portraits, of which he made many, with his silver wig, painted over with camouflage print may represent Warhol studying his own identity. Warhol has spoken about himself and was spoken about as being empty, hollow, a reflection or a mirror. The second series is his paintings of shadows. These may represent Warhol's study of the abstract. Again there is a relation with Warhol personally, as he has also depicted himself as "The Shadow," the character from the radio show. Thirdly, Warhol produced many "portfolios," series of small paintings meant for commercial sale. These series would be grouped around a theme; for instance, "famous Jews", "cars", or "animals". At one point Warhol publicly declared that he had stopped being a painter, and that he would only make films from then on; but at the end of his life, Warhol took up painting again. His last paintings and drawings are of da Vinci's ''[[Last Supper]]'', which he was working on when he died. === Films === Warhol worked across a wide range of mediums - painting, photography, drawing, and sculpture. He was also a highly prolific filmmaker. Between 1963 and 1968, he made more than sixty films. One of his most famous films, ''[[Sleep (film)|Sleep]]'' (1963), shows a man ([[John Giorno]], who had a relationship with Warhol) sleeping for eight hours. In the 35 minute film ''[[Blow Job (film)|Blow Job]]'' (1963), he shows the face of [[David Pelman]] receiving [[fellatio]]. Another, [[Empire (1964 film)|''Empire'']] (1964), consists of eight hours of footage of the [[Empire State Building]] in New York City at dusk. Warhol's 1965 film ''[[Vinyl (1965 film)|''Vinyl'']]'' is an adaptation of [[Anthony Burgess]]' popular [[Dystopia|dystopian]] novel ''[[A Clockwork Orange]]''. Others record improvised encounters between Factory regulars such as Brigid Berlin, [[Viva]], [[Edie Sedgwick]], [[Candy Darling]], [[Holly Woodlawn]], Ondine, [[Nico]], and [[Jackie Curtis]]. Legendary underground artist [[Jack Smith (actor)|Jack Smith]] appears in the film ''Camp''. His most popular and critically successful film was ''[[Chelsea Girls]]'' (1966). The film was highly innovative in that it consisted of two 16-mm films being projected simultaneously, with two different stories being shown in tandem. From the projection booth, the sound would be raised for one film to elucidate that "story" while it was lowered for the other. Then it would be the other film's turn to bask in the glory of sound. The multiplication of images evoked Warhol's seminal silk-screen works of the early 1960s. The film's influence could be felt as late as 2000 in [[Mike Figgis]]' ''[[Timecode (film)|Timecode]]''. Other important films include ''[[My Hustler (1965 film)|My Hustler]]'', ''[[Midnight Cowboy (1969 film)|Midnight Cowboy]]'', and ''[[Lonesome Cowboys (1968 film)|Lonesome Cowboys]]'' (1968), a raunchy pseudo-western. ''[[Blue Movie]]'', a film in which Warhol superstar [[Viva (Warhol Superstar)|Viva]] makes love and fools around in bed with a man for 33 minutes of the film's playing-time, was Warhol's last film as director. The film was at the time scandalous for its frank approach to a sexual encounter. For many years Viva refused to allow it to be screened. It was publicly screened in New York in 2005 for the first time in over thirty years. After his [[June 3]], [[1968]] shooting, a reclusive Warhol relinquished his personal involvement in filmmaking. His acolyte and assistant director, [[Paul Morrissey]], took over the film-making chores for the [[The Factory|Factory]] collective, steering Warhol-branded cinema towards more mainstream, narrative-based, B-movie exploitation fare with ''[[Flesh (film)|Flesh]]'', ''[[Trash (film)|Trash]]'', and ''[[Heat (film)|Heat]]''. All of these films, including the later ''[[Blood for Dracula|Andy Warhol's Dracula]]'' and ''[[Flesh for Frankenstein|Andy Warhol's Frankenstein]]'', were far more mainstream than anything Warhol as a director had attempted. These latter "Warhol" films, all of which frankly were made to make money, starred [[Joe Dallesandro]], who was more of a Morrissey star than a true Warhol superstar. In order to facilitate the success of these Warhol-branded, Morrissey-directed movies in the marketplace, all of Warhol's earlier avant-garde films were removed from distribution and exhibition by [[1972]]. The first volume of a catalogue raisoné for the Factory film archive is to be published in the spring of 2006. As an actor, Warhol appeared as a bartender in [[The Cars]]' [[music video]] for their [[single (music)|single]] "Hello Again", and [[Curiosity Killed The Cat]]'s video for their "Misfit" single (both videos, and others, were produced by Warhol's video production company). He also appeared in an episode of [[The Love Boat]]. Warhol's character has also been represented in several motion pictures. He has been portrayed by [[Crispin Glover]], [[David Bowie]], and [[Jared Harris]], in ''[[The Doors (film)|The Doors]]'', ''[[Basquiat]]'', and ''[[I Shot Andy Warhol]],'' respectively. === Filmography === <!-- These have been reorganised chronologically from oldest to most recent --> * ''[[Blow Job (film)|Blow Job]]'' (1963) * ''[[Eat (film)|Eat]]'' (1963) * ''[[Haircut (film)|Haircut]]'' (1963) * ''[[Kiss (film, 1963)|Kiss]]'' (1963) * ''[[Naomi's Birthday Party]]'' (1963) * ''[[Sleep (film)|Sleep]]'' (1963) * ''[[13 Most Beautiful Women]]'' (1964) * ''[[Batman Dracula]]'' (1964) * ''[[Clockwork (film)|Clockwork]]'' (1964) * ''[[Couch (film, 1964)|Couch]]'' (1964) * ''[[Drunk (film)|Drunk]]'' (1964) * ''[[Empire (1964 film)|Empire]]'' (1964) * ''[[The End of Dawn]]'' (1964) * ''[[Lips (film)|Lips]]'' (1964) * ''[[Mario Banana I]]'' (1964) * ''[[Mario Banana II]]'' (1964) * ''[[Messy Lives]]'' (1964) * ''[[Naomi and Rufus Kiss]]'' (1964) * ''[[Tarzan and Jane Regained... Sort of]]'' (1964) * ''[[The Thirteen Most Beautiful Boys]]'' (1964) * ''[[Beauty No. 2|Beauty #2]]'' (1965) * ''[[Bitch (film)|Bitch]]'' (1965) * ''[[Camp (1965 film)|Camp]]'' (1965) * ''[[Harlot (film)|Harlot]]'' (1965) * ''[[Horse (film)|Horse]]'' (1965) * ''[[Kitchen (film)|Kitchen]]'' (1965) * ''[[The Life of Juanita Castro]]'' (1965) * ''[[My Hustler]]'' (1965) * ''[[Poor Little Rich Girl]]'' (1965) * ''[[Restaurant (film)|Restaurant]]'' (1965) * ''[[Space (film)|Space]]'' (1965) * ''[[Taylor Mead's Ass]]'' (1965) * ''[[Vinyl (1965 film)|''Vinyl'']]'' (1965) * ''[[Screen Test (film)|Screen Test]]'' (1965) * ''[[Screen Test No. 2|Screen Test #2]]'' (1965) * ''[[Ari and Mario]]'' (1966) * ''[[Hedy]]'' (1966) * ''[[Kiss the Boot]]'' (1966) * ''[[Milk (film)|Milk]]'' (1966) * ''[[Salvador Dalí (film)|Salvador Dalí]]'' (1966) * ''[[Shower (film)|Shower]]'' (1966) * ''[[Sunset (film)|Sunset]]'' (1966) * ''[[Superboy (film)|Superboy]]'' (1966) * ''[[The Closet (1966 film)|The Closet]]'' (1966) * ''[[Chelsea Girls]]'' (1966) * ''[[The Beard]]'' (1966) * ''[[More Milk, Yvette]]'' (1966) * ''[[Outer and Inner Space]]'' (1966) * ''[[The Velvet Underground and Nico (film)|The Velvet Underground and Nico]]'' (1966) * ''[[The Andy Warhol Story]]'' (1967) * ''[[Tiger Morse]]'' (1967) * ''[[**** (film)|****]]'' (1967) * ''[[Imitation of Christ (film)|The Imitation of Christ]]'' (1967) * ''[[The Nude Restaurant]]'' (1967) * ''[[Bike Boy]]'' (1967) * ''[[I, a Man]]'' (1967) * ''[[San Diego Surf]]'' (1968) * ''[[The Loves of Ondine]]'' (1968) * ''[[Blue Movie]]'' (1969) * ''[[Lonesome Cowboys]]'' (1969) * ''[[L'Amour]]'' (1972) === Books and Print === Warhol "wrote" several books. *''[[A, a novel]]'' (1968, ISBN 0-8021-3553-6) is a literal transcription - containing spelling errors and phonetically written background noise and mumbling - of audio recordings of [[Ondine]] and several of Andy Warhol's friends hanging out at the Factory, talking, going out. *''[[The Philosophy of Andy Warhol; from A to B and back again]]'' (1975, ISBN 0-15-671720-4) - according to Pat Hackett's introduction to ''The Andy Warhol Diaries'', Pat Hackett did the transcriptions and text for the book based on daily phone conversations, sometimes (when Warhol was traveling) using audio cassettes that Andy Warhol gave her. Said cassettes contained conversations with [[Brigid Berlin]] (aka Brigid Polk) and former ''Interview'' magazine editor [[Bob Colacello]]. *''[[Popism: The Warhol Sixties]]'' (1980, ISBN 0-15-672960-1), authored by Warhol and [[Pat Hackett]] is a retrospective view of the sixties and the role of Pop Art. *''[[The Andy Warhol Diaries]]'' (1989, ISBN 0-446-39138-7, edited by Pat Hackett) is an edited diary that was dictated by Warhol to Hackett in daily phone conversations. Warhol started keeping a diary to keep track of his expenses after being audited. Warhol created the fashion magazine ''[[Interview (magazine)|Interview]]'' that is still published today. The loopy title script on the cover is thought to be either his own handwriting or that of his mother, Julia Warhola, who would often do text work for his early commercial pieces. ===Other Media=== As stated, although Andy Warhol is most known for his paintings and films, he has authored works in many different media. * Drawing: Warhol started his carreer drawing commercial illustrations in "blotted-ink" style for warehouses and magazines. Most well known are his pictures of shoes. Some of his drawings were published in little booklets, like "Yum, Yum, Yum" (about food), "Ho, Ho, Ho" (about Christmas) and (of course) "Shoes, Shoes, Shoes". His most artistically acclaimed book of drawings is probably "The Gold Book", compiled of sensitive, personal drawings of young men. "The Gold Book" is thus dubbed because of the leaf-gold that decorates the pages. * Sculpture: Warhol's most famous sculpture is probably his "Brillo Boxes"; silkscreened wooden replicas of Brillo soap boxes. Other famous works include the "Silver Floating Pillows"; gas-filled, silver, pillow-shaped balloons that were floated out of the window during the presentation. * Audio: At one point Warhol carried a portable recorder with him wherever he went, taping everything everybody said and did. He referred to this device as his "wife". Some of these tapes were the basis for his literary work. Another audio-work of Warhol's was his "Invisible Sculpture," a presentation in which burglar alarms would go off when entering the room. Warhol's cooperation with the musicians of The Velvet Underground was driven by an expressed desire to become a music producer. * Television: Andy Warhol dreamed of a television show that he wanted to call "The Nothing Special", a Special about his favorite subject: Nothing. Later in his career he did create two cable television shows, "Andy Warhol's TV" in 1982 and "Andy Warhol's Fifteen Minutes" for MTV in 1986. Besides his own shows he regularly made guest-appearances in shows like "Love Boat". * Fashion: Warhol is quoted for having said: "I'd rather buy a dress and put it up on the wall, than put a painting, wouldn't you?" One of his most well-known Superstars, Edie Sedgwick, aspired to be a fashion designer, and his good friend Halston was a famous one. Warhol's work in fashion includes silkscreened dresses, a short sub-career as a catwalk-model and books on fashion as well as paintings with fashion (shoes) as a subject. * Performance Art: Warhol and his friends staged happenings; theatrical multimedia presentations during parties, containing music, film, slide projections and Gerard Malanga in an S&M outfit cracking a whip. The [[Exploding Plastic Inevitable]] is the culmination of this area of his work. * Photography: To produce his silkscreens, Warhol made photographs or had them made by his friends and assistants. These pictures were mostly taken with a specific model of Polaroid camera that Polaroid kept in production especially for Warhol. This photographic approach to painting and his snapshot method of taking pictures has had a great effect on artistic photography. His late oeuvre contains black and white photos sewn together. === Product === In many of his efforts Warhol has taken the position of a producer or director, rather than a creator. From an artist he gradually became the person that determined the direction and was the public face of a company, having a staff of sorts to do the actual labor involved in his products. He would coin an idea and oversee its execution, his Factory evolved from an atelier into an office. As this position proved to work out, he found himself able to expand his activities into other fields. He founded the gossip magazine Interview, creating a stage for celebrities he "endorsed" and creating jobs for his friends. He adopted the young painter Jean-Michel Basquiat, and the band The Velvet Underground and presented them to the public as his latest interest, cooperating with them, shaping their public personas. He would produce things and people, and they were part of his artistic product. He endorsed products, appeared in commercials, made business deals and even "sold" the film-making branch of his company when he decided to spend less time filming himself. In this respect Warhol talked about "Art Business" and "Business Art", and how he thought business was the best type of art. This was a radical new stance, as artists had always presented themselves as flamboyant, individual, visionairy outsiders - commenting on the normal part of society, but never really being a part of it. And receiving appreciation for that position on basis of their idealism, rare talents and personalities. Warhol and other pop-artists helped redefine the artist's position as professional, commercial, popular; a logical and valuable part of society. He did this using methods, imagery and talents that were (or at least seemed to be) available to everyone. Perhaps that has been the most meaningful result of (his) Pop Art: a philosophical and practical incorporation of art into society, art as a product of society. === Museums === The [[Andy Warhol Museum]] is located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It is the largest American art museum dedicated to a single artist, holding more than 4,000 works by the artist himself. Among others, Andy's brother, John Warhola, and the Warhol Foundation in New York, established in 1991 the Warhol Family Museum of Modern Art in the remote town of [[Medzilaborce]], [[Slovakia]]. Andy's mother, Julia Warhola, was born 15 kilometers away in the village of Mikova. The museum houses several originals donated mainly by the Andy Warhol Foundation in New York and also personal items donated by Warhol's relatives === Further Reading on Warhol === Jennifer Doyle, Jonathan Flatley, and [[José Esteban Muñoz]], <u>Pop Out: Queer Warhol</u> (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996). Fred Lawrence Guiles, <u>Lover at the Ball: The Life of Andy Warhol</u> (New York: Bantam, 1989). [[Wayne Koestenbaum]], <u>Andy Warhol</u> (New York: Penguin, 2003). Richard Meyer, <u>Outlaw Representation</u> (New York: Beacon, 2003). Steven Watson, <u>Factory Made: Warhol and the Sixties</u> (New York: Pantheon, 2003). == See also == * [[Electric Circus (nightclub)]] - Warhol had a section called "La Dom" on a lower floor == External links == {{wikiquote}} {{commons|Andy_Warhol}} * {{imdbname|id=0912238|name=Andy Warhol}} * [http://www.visite-virtuelle-france.com/perso/andy_warhol/andy_warhol.htm Virtual visit] in Musée d'Art Contemporain de Lyon. * [http://www.warholfoundation.org/ Warhol Foundation] in New York, New York. * [http://www.warhol.org/ The Andy Warhol Museum] in [[Pittsburgh]], Pennsylvania * [http://www.artquotes.net/masters/warhol-andy.htm Andy Warhol Profile] Includes a biography, selection of images, famous quotes, and links to the artist. * [http://x-traonline.org/vol5_1/warhol_responses.html Two short articles about Warhol's 2002 museum retrospective from the art magazine "X-Tra"] * [http://www.artfacts.net/index.php/pageType/artistInfo/artist/328 Actual exhibitions with Andy Warhol on Artfacts] ''Andy Warhol's works are still widely at present in various shows and permanent collections in museums or galleries throughout the world.'' * [http://www.geocities.com/joopbersee/andy3.html Andy Warhol Poetry Tribute] * [http://www.the3graces.info/random_warhol.htm http://www.the3graces.info] A warholesque biography of Andy Warhol. *[http://www.accuracyproject.org/cbe-Warhol,Andy.html Internet Accuracy Project - Andy Warhol] * [http://www.doubletakeart.com/cgi-bin/dtg/dtg.psearch?a1=00594 Doubletake Gallery] Online Catalog of Limited Editions * [http://www.malarze.walhalla.pl/galeria.php5?art=70 Art Gallery - Andy Warhol] * [http://www.gagosian.com/artists/andywarhol/ Andy Warhol] at Gagosian Gallery * [http://www.freeinfosociety.com/site.php?postnum=66 Biography and Pictures] ===Listening=== *[http://www.wnyc.org/studio360/show121005.html "Warhol, Soup Cans, Cowboys"] (''Studio 360'' radio program, December 10, 2005) <!-- interwiki --> [[Category:1928 births|Warhol, Andy]] [[Category:1987 deaths|Warhol, Andy]] [[Category:American film directors|Warhol, Andy]] [[Category:American experimental filmmakers|Warhol, Andy]] [[Category:American artists|Warhol, Andy]] [[Category:Gay artists|Warhol, Andy]] [[Category:Greenwich Village Scene|Warhol, Andy]] [[Category:Lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender people|Warhol, Andy]] [[Category:People from Pennsylvania|Warhol, Andy]] [[Category:Roman Catholics|Warhol, Andy]] [[bg:Анди Уорхол]] [[ca:Andy Warhol]] [[cs:Andy Warhol]] [[cy:Andy Warhol]] [[da:Andy Warhol]] [[de:Andy Warhol]] [[es:Andy Warhol]] [[eo:Andy WARHOL]] [[fr:Andy Warhol]] [[gl:Andy Warhol]] [[ko:앤디 워홀]] [[hr:Andy Warhol]] [[it:Andy Warhol]] [[he:אנדי וורהול]] [[jv:Andy Warhol]] [[lt:Andy Warhol]] [[li:Andy Warhol]] [[lmo:Andy Warhol]] [[hu:Andy Warhol]] [[mk:Енди Ворхол]] [[nl:Andy Warhol]] [[ja:アンディー・ウォーホル]] [[no:Andy Warhol]] [[pl:Andy Warhol]] [[pt:Andy Warhol]] [[ro:Andy Warhol]] [[ru:Уорхол, Энди]] [[sh:Andy Warhol]] [[simple:Andy Warhol]] [[sk:Andy Warhol]] [[sr:Енди Ворхол]] [[fi:Andy Warhol]] [[sv:Andy Warhol]] [[zh:安迪·沃荷]] 865 41619114 2006-02-28T15:40:10Z 84.178.165.137 {{Album infobox | Name = AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted | Type = [[Album (music)|Album]] | Artist = [[Ice Cube]] | Cover = AmeriKKKa.jpg | Background = Orange | Released = [[May 16]], [[1990]] | Recorded = [[1989]] | Genre = [[Gangsta rap]] | Length = 49:36 | Label = [[Priority Records|Priority]] | Producer = [[Ice Cube]], [[Hank Shocklee]], [[Chuck D]], [[Sir Jinx]], [[Yo-Yo]] | Reviews = <nowiki></nowiki> *''[[All Music Guide]]'' [[Image:5 out of 5.png|5 out of 5 stars]] [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=10:fvh1z8hajyv2 link] | | Last album = | This album = '''''AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted'''''<br />(1990) | Next album = ''[[Kill At Will]]''<br />(1990) }} '''''AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted''''' was [[Ice Cube]]'s debut solo album after his acrimonious split from [[N.W.A.]]. It was originally released [[May 16]], [[1990]] (see [[1990 in music]]). The title of the album is controversial. It is a spoof of a television show called "[[America's Most Wanted]]", wherein real-life crimes are reenacted and viewers are asked to call in if they have seen the alleged perpetrators. The show has taken some criticism for the reenactments, which critics claim perpetuate beliefs in the criminality of [[African-American]] men and other minorities. The [[alternative political spellings|political spelling]] of "America" with "KKK" equates both the show and the status quo of society in the [[United States]] with the [[Ku Klux Klan]], a [[white supremacy|white-supremacist]] organization. ''AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted'' is a [[gangsta rap]] album, and the songs are tales of a young black man living in the [[ghetto]] and dealing with such issues as [[drug addiction]], [[racism]] and [[poverty]]. To understand the album's statement, it is important to note the environment of [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] in the early 1990s. Riots would rack the city following the [[Rodney King]] verdict, seen by many (including Ice Cube) as an example of the racism inherent in the judicial and law enforcement systems. Also, the [[O. J. Simpson]] trial would provoke further racial tension in the country, especially Los Angeles. Unlike many other albums from the same period, Cube did not allow the subject matter to infuse the album with inherent negativity. He attacks perceived racist social structures, far more than many gangsta rappers were doing at the time and since. Though he describes with detail the conditions of the ghetto, he does so in order to condemn those that allow ghetto despair to occur, instead of glorifying it. Cube takes some controversial stands, referring to certain types of African-Americans as "Oreo cookies", implying that they appear to be black but are actually willing participants in the racial hierarchy that keeps the majority of African-Americans living in poverty-stricken and drug-riddled ghettos; specifically, this is aimed at soft-pop-R&B radio stations broadcasting a watered-down sound. [[Arsenio Hall]] is specifically mentioned as being such a "sell-out". The titular song on the album directly parodies the television show, "America's Most Wanted", exposing the perceived racism inherent in watching largely African-American men being arrested for entertainment. :"I think back to when I was robbin' my own kind, :the police didn't pay it no mind. :But when I start robbin the white folks? :Now I'm in the pen with the soap on a rope" A later song ("Get Off My Dick Nigga, and Tell Yo Bitch to Come Here") returns to the same theme at the end, with newscaster [[Peter Jennings]] reporting on rioting: "Outside the [[South Los Angeles|south central]] area, few cared about the violence because it didn't affect them." Also of interest is "It's a Man's World", a rap-conversation with [[Yo-Yo]]; the two verbally spar and trade sexist barbs back and forth; outside of this song, the album received criticism for alleged [[sexism]], as in "You Can't Fade Me", a humorous track where Cube fantasizes about kicking a former one-night stand in the stomach because she is pregnant with his baby. "Nigga You Love To Hate" is also notable for a chorus chanting "Fuck you, Ice Cube", setting the tone for the album and introducing a pattern of obscenity and profanity. Produced by [[the Bomb Squad]] ([[Public Enemy]]) and [[Da Lench Mob]], ''AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted'' received accolades for innovation in production upon release. However, many critics do not feel that the beats in the album have aged very well. Since this time, West Coast rap has largely taken a different direction from Ice Cube's style, heading more towards the smooth drawl of [[Dr. Dre]] and [[Snoop Dogg]]; this album sounds dated as a result. Before striking out on his own, Ice Cube was a member of the legendary West Coast rap group [[N.W.A.]] (''[[Straight Outta Compton]]'' - [[1989]]). Thus, Ice Cube's lyrical style is descended from West Coast rappers like [[Ice T]] (''[[Iceberg/Freedom of Speech...Just Watch What You Say]]'' - [[1989]]) and [[Too Short|Too $hort]] (''[[Life Is Too Short|Life Is...Too $hort]]''). Musically, [[Public Enemy]] (''[[Yo! Bum Rush the Show]]'' - [[1987]])'s spare, hollow beats, [[old school rap]]pers like [[Eric B. & Rakim]] (''[[Paid in Full]]'' - [[1987]]) and [[Kurtis Blow]] (''[[Kurtis Blow (album)|Kurtis Blow]]'' - [[1980]]) and 1970s [[funk]] ([[Parliament (band)|Parliament]] - ''[[Motor Booty Affair]]'' - [[1978]]; [[Gap Band]] - ''[[The Gap Band II]]'') and [[soul music|soul]] ([[Sly & the Family Stone]] - ''[[There's a Riot Goin' On]]'' - [[1971]]; [[Curtis Mayfield]] - ''[[Let's Do It Again]]'' - [[1975]]) influenced Ice Cube's sound, partially through his producers, [[the Bomb Squad]]. Ice Cube influenced later West Coast rappers, including the stoned drawl of [[Cypress Hill]] (''[[Cypress Hill (album)|Cypress Hill]]'' - [[1991]]) and [[The Pharcyde]] (''[[Bizarre Ride II to the Pharcyde]]'' - [[1992]]), as well as later [[G Funk]] rappers like [[Dr. Dre]] (''[[The Chronic]]'' - [[1992]]) and [[Snoop Doggy Dogg]] (''[[Doggystyle]]'' - [[1993]]). Though Ice Cube's popularity among mainstream listeners has not continued into the late 1990s, and his sound is distinctively [[old school rap|old school]] to modern ears, many rappers themselves have been influenced by his innovative lyrical techniques. Rappers like [[Eminem]] (''[[The Slim Shady LP]]'' - [[1999]]), [[Nas (rapper)|Nas]] (''[[Illmatic]]'' - [[1994]]) and [[Tupac Shakur]] (''[[2Pacalypse Now]]'' - [[1992]]) similarly use cartoonish and unrealistic images of thug violence to protest the conditions of the poor and working class. While Ice Cube most often described true circumstances in outlandish fashion, such as a fairy tale in "A Gangsta's Fairytale", later rappers took this to the extreme of describing physically impossible acts of violence in an outrageously exaggerated manner. The album spawned the hit single soulful and depressing ''Dead Homiez'' on the charts. ==Track listing== #"Better off Dead" ([[Brian Holt]]/[[Ice Cube]]) #"The Nigga Ya Love to Hate" (Ice Cube/[[E. Sadler]]) #"Amerikkka's Most Wanted" (Ice Cube/Sadler/[[Keith Shocklee]]) #"What They Hittin' Foe" ([[Average White Band]]/Ice Cube) #"You Can't Fade Me/JD's Gaffilin'" (Ice Cube/Sadler) #"Once upon a Time in the Projects" (Ice Cube/[[Sir Jinx]]) #"Turn off the Radio" (D./Ice Cube/Sadler/[[Betty Shabazz]]) #"Endangered Species (Tales from the Darkside)" ([[Chuck D]]/Ice Cube/Sadler/Sir Jinx) #"A Gangsta's Fairytale" (Ice Cube/Sadler) #"I'm Only Out for One Thang" ([[Flavor Flav]]/Ice Cube/Sir Jinx/[[Stevie Wonder]]) #"Get off My Dick and Tell Yo Bitch to Come Here" (Ice Cube/Sadler) #"The Drive By" (Shocklee/Sir Jinx) #"Rollin' Wit the Lench Mob" (Ice Cube/Sadler) #"Who's the Mack?" (Ice Cube/[[JBs]]) #"It's a Man's World" (Ice Cube/Sir Jinx/[[Yo Yo]]) #"The Bomb" (Ice Cube/Sir Jinx) #"Endangered Species (Tales From the Darkside)(Remix)" #"Jackin’ For Beats" #"Get Off My Dick and Tell Yo Bitch To Come Here(Remix)" #"The Product" #"Dead Homiez" #"JD’s Gaffilin’ (Part 2)" #"I Gotta Say What Up!!!" Tracks 17-23 are on the 2003 re-release, originally on the out-of-print 1990 EP ''Kill At Will''. ==Personnel== #[[The Bomb Squad]] - [[Record Producer]] #Mario Castellanos - [[Photography]] #[[Chris Champion]] - Assistant Engineer #[[Chuck D.]] - Performer #[[Da Lench Mob]] - [[Vocals]] (bckgr), Producer #[[(Ex) Cat Heads]] - Vocals (bckgr) #[[Flavor Flav]] - Vocals, Performer #[[Ricky Harris]] - Vocals (bckgr) #[[Al Hayes]] - [[Bass Guitar]], [[Guitar]] #[[Vincent Henry]] - [[Flute]], [[Saxophone]] #[[Brian Holt]] - Vocals #Kevin Hosmann - Art Direction #[[Ice Cube]] - Vocals, Producer #[[J. Dee]] - Vocals (bckgr) #[[Tim Rollins]] - [[Piano]] #[[E. Sadler]] - Producer #[[Nick Sansano]] - Engineer #Shannon - Vocals (bckgr) #Christopher Shaw - Engineer #[[Keith Shocklee]] - [[Scratching]] #[[Sir Jinx]] - Vocals (bckgr), Producer #[[Howie Weinberg]] - Mastering #Dan Wood - Vocals (bckgr), Engineer #[[Yo-Yo (rapper)|Yo-Yo]] - Vocals, Performer ==Chart positions== [[Billboard Music Charts]] (North America) - album 1990 The Billboard 200 No. 19 1990 Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums No. 6 Billboard (North America) singles 1990 Amerikkka's Most Wanted Hot Rap Singles No. 1 ==External links== *[http://www.leoslyrics.com/albums/1520/ for lyrics] [[Category:Ice Cube albums]] [[Category:1990 albums]] 866 42007869 2006-03-03T04:40:43Z 70.186.181.23 /* Discography */ [[Image:Bambaat7a.jpg|thumb]] '''Afrika Bambaataa''' (born [[April 10]] or [[October 4]], [[1957]] or [[1960]], though his birthdate is hotly debated; he himself refuses to comment on his age) is a DJ and community leader from the South [[Bronx]], who was instrumental in the early development of [[hip hop music|hip hop]] throughout the 1970s. Afrika Bambaataa's birthname has been mistakenly listed as Kevin Donovan; however, Kevin Donovan was actually another man and leader of the Harlem Underground Band. During Bambaataa's early years, he was a founding member of the Bronxdale Projects-area [[street gang]], The Savage Seven. Due to the explosive growth of the gang, it later became known as the [[Black Spades]], and Bambaataa rose to the position of Division Leader. After a life-changing visit to Africa, he changed his name to '''Afrika Bambaataa Aasim'''. Bambaataa was influenced by the depiction of the [[Zulu]] warriors attacking British troops at Rorke's Drift in the [[Michael Caine]] film ''[[Zulu (film)|Zulu]]''. He took his name, which roughly translated to "affectionate leader", from the film. After the visit, Bambaataa decided to use his leadership to turn those involved in the gang life into something more positive to the community. This began the development of [[The Organization]], which soon later became known as the [[Zulu Nation]], a group of racially and politically aware rappers, [[B-boy]]s, [[graffiti]] artists and other people involved in hip hop culture that gained fame in the early eighties to mid nineties. By [[1977]], inspired by DJ [[Kool Herc]], Bambaataa had begun organizing [[block parties]] all around the South Bronx, and he was soon renowned as one of the best DJs in the business. In [[1980]], he produced [[Soul Sonic Force]]'s landmark single, "[[Zulu Nation Throwdown]]". In 2000 [[Rage Against The Machine]] covered Afrika's song Renegades of Funk for their album "[[Renegades (album)|Renegades]]". In [[1982]], Bambaataa organised the very first European hip hop tour. Along with himself were rapper and graffiti artist [[Rammellzee]], Zulu Nation DJ [[Grand Mixer DXT]] (formerly Grand Mixer D.St), B-boy and B-girl crews the [[Rock Steady Crew]], and the Double Dutch Girls, as well as legendary graffiti artists [[Fab 5 Freddy]], [[Phase 2]], [[Futura 2000]], and [[Dondi]]. Also in 1982, Bambaataa became a solo artist (having produced several other singles) and released "[[Jazzy Sensation]]" on [[Tommy Boy Records]] in that year. "[[Planet Rock - The Album|Planet Rock]]", a popular single, came out that June under the name Afrika Bambaataa and the [[Soul Sonic Force]]. The song melded electronic hip hop beats with the main melody from [[Kraftwerk]]'s [[Trans-Europe Express (album)|Trans-Europe Express]], as well as portions from records by [[Ennio Morricone]] and [[Captain Sky]] - thus creating a new style of music altogether, [[electro funk]]. It influenced many styles of [[electronic music|electronic]] and [[dance music]], e.g. [[house music]] and [[techno music]]. In [[1984]], Bambaataa recorded "[[Unity]]" with [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]] and released "[[World Destruction]]" under the name [[Time Zone]] (with [[John Lydon]]). [[Shango Funk Theology]], a full length album, came out under the name Shango. This was followed by "[[Funk You]]" in [[1985]] and then his formal full album debut, [[Beware (The Funk Is Everywhere)]]. Bambaataa then left Tommy Boy and signed with [[Capitol Records]], released [[The Light]] (as Afrika Bambaataa & the Family), which included aid from [[George Clinton (funk musician)|George Clinton]], [[Bootsy Collins]], [[Boy George]] and [[UB40]]. [[1990-2000: Decade of Darkness]] was released in [[1991]]. It included both [[hip house]] tracks that were produced by the Italian team De Point (most of those have been collected on ZYX record's "The 12" Mixes" Compilation) as well as hip hop and electro funk tracks. On "Warlocks and Witches", Bam (as his name is often abbreviated) focused on hip hop. From the mid-1990s, Bam returned to his electro roots, collaborating with [[Westbam]] (who was named after him) and culminating in 2004's excellent album "Dark Matter Moving at the Speed of Light" which featured [[Gary Numan]] and many others. ==Discography== {| cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" border="0" style="border:3px solid grey;" |- ! '''Year''' || '''Title''' || '''Label''' |- | 1982 || ''[[Planet Rock (with Soul Sonic Force)]]'' || [[Tommy Boy Records |Tommy Boy Records (12")]] |- | 1982 || ''[[Looking For The Perfect Beat (with Soul Sonic Force)]]'' || Tommy Boy Records (12") |- | 1983 || ''[[Renegades Of Funk]]'' || Tommy Boy Records (12") |- | 1983 || ''[[Wildstyle]]'' || [[Celluloid Records (12")]] |- | 1984 || ''[[Frantic Situation (with Shango from the motion picture soundtrack "Beat Street")]]'' || Tommy Boy Records |- | 1985 || ''[[Sun City (Artists United Against Apartheid)]]'' || [[EMI]] |- | 1986 || ''[[Planet Rock - The Album]]'' || Tommy Boy Records (12") |- | 1986 || ''Beware (The Funk Is Everywhere)'' | Tommy Boy Records |- | 1987 || ''Death Mix Throwdown'' || Blatant |- | 1988 || ''The Light'' || [[EMI]] America |- | 1991 || ''The Decade of Darkness 1990-2000'' || [[EMI]] Records USA |- | 1992 || ''Don't Stop... Planet Rock (The Remix EP)'' || Tommy Boy (EP) |- | 1993 || "Zulu War Chant" || Profile (12") |- | 1993 || "What's the Name of this Nation?... Zulu" || Profile (12") |- | 1994 || "Feel the Vibe" || DFC (12") (with Khayan) |- | 1996 || "Jazzin'" by Khayan || ZYX |- | 1996 || ''[[Lost Generation]]'' || [[Hot]] |- | 1996 || ''[[Warlocks and Witches, Computer Chips, Microchips and You]]'' || [[Profile]] |- | 1997 || ''Zulu Groove'' || Hudson Vandam (Compilation) |- | 1998 || "Agharta - The City of Shamballa" || Low Spirit (12") (with Westbam) |- | 1999 || ''Electro Funk Breakdown'' || [[DMC]] |- | 1999 || ''Return to Planet Rock'' || [[Berger Music]] |- | 2000 || ''Hydraulic Funk'' || Strictly Hype |- | 2001 || ''Electro Funk Breakdown'' || DMX (Compilation) |- | 2001 || ''Looking for the Perfect Beat: 1980-1985'' || Tommy Boy Records (Compilation) |- | 2004 || ''Dark Matter Moving at the Speed of Light'' || Tommy Boy Records |- | 2005 || ''Metal'' || Tommy Boy Records |- | 2005 || ''Metal Remixes'' || Tommy Boy Records |} ==See also== *[[Nuwaubianism]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * {{musicbrainz artist|id=fe3503fb-146f-4d68-a591-a7e5798c321f|name=Afrika Bambaataa}} [[Category:1957 births|Bambaataa, Afrika]] [[Category:Living people|Bambaataa, Afrika]] [[Category:1960 births|Bambaataa, Afrika]] [[Category:Living people|Bambaataa, Afrika]] [[Category:Hip hop DJs|Bambaata, Afrika]] [[Category:African American musicians|Bambaata, Afrika]] [[als:Afrika Bambaata]] [[de:Afrika Bambaataa]] [[fr:Afrika Bambaataa]] [[nl:Afrika Bambaataa]] [[pl:Kevin Donovan]] [[pt:Afrika Bambaataa]] [[sv:Afrika Bambaataa]] 868 41127491 2006-02-25T05:37:07Z OrphanBot 621721 Removing image with no source information. Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time. <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Alparslan.JPG|thumb|right|250px|''Alp Arslan'']] --> '''Muhammed ben Da'ud''' ([[1029]]–[[December 15]], [[1072]]) was the second sultan of the dynasty of [[Seljuk Turks]], in [[Iran|Persia]], and great-grandson of [[Seljuk]], the founder of the dynasty. He assumed the name of Muhammed when he embraced [[Islam]], and on account of his military prowess and personal valor and fighting skills he obtained the surname '''Alp Arslan''', which signifies "a valiant lion." He succeeded his father [[Da'ud]] as ruler of [[Khorasan]] in [[1059]], and his uncle [[Toghrül|Toğrül]] as sultan of [[Iran]] and [[Baghdad]] in 1063, and thus became sole monarch of [[Iran|Persia]] from the river [[Oxus]] to the [[Tigris]]. In consolidating his empire and subduing contending factions he was ably assisted by [[Nizam ul-Mulk]], his [[Persians|Persian]] [[vizier]], and one of the most eminent statesmen in early [[Muslim]] history. With Peace and security established in his dominions, he convoked an assembly of the states and declared his son [[Malik Shah I]] his heir and successor. With the hope of acquiring immense booty in the rich church of [[St. Basil]] in [[Caesarea Mazaca]], the capital of [[Cappadocia]], he placed himself at the head of the Turkish cavalry, crossed the [[Euphrates]] and entered and plundered that city. He then marched into [[Armenia]] and [[History of Georgia (country)|Georgia]], which he conquered in [[1064]]. ==Byzantine struggle== In [[1068]] Alp Arslan invaded the [[Byzantine Empire]]. The [[Byzantine Emperors|emperor]] [[Romanus IV]] Diogenes, assuming the command in person, met the invaders in [[Cilicia]]. In three arduous campaigns, the first two of which were conducted by the emperor himself while the third was directed by Manuel Comnenus (great-uncle of Emperor [[Manuel Comnenus]]), the Turks were defeated in detail in [[1070]] driven across the Euphrates. In [[1071]] Romanus again took the field and advanced with 100,000 men, including a contingent of the Turkish tribe of the [[Uzes]] as well as contingents of [[France|French]] and [[Normans]], under [[Ursel of Bahol]], into [[Armenia]]. At [[Manzikert]], on the [[Murad Tchai]], north of [[Lake Van]], he was met by Alp Arslan. The sultan proposed terms of peace, which were rejected by the emperor, and the two forces met in the [[Battle of Manzikert]], in which the Byzantines, after a terrible slaughter, were totally routed; a result due mainly to the betrayal of Romanus by his political enemies during the battle and the rapid tactics of the Turkish cavalry. Emperor Romanus IV was himself taken prisoner and conducted into the presence of Alp Arslan, who treated him with generosity, and terms of peace having been agreed to, dismissed him, loaded with presents and respectfully attended by a military guard. This famous conversation is recorded to have taken place after Romanus IV was brought as a prisoner before the Sultan: :''Alp Arslan'': "What would you do if I was brought before you as a prisoner?" :''Romanus'': "Perhaps I'd kill you, or exhibit you in the streets of Constantinople." :''Alp Arslan'': "My punishment is far heavier. I forgive you, and set you free." Unfortunately for Romanus, the Emperor's subjects were far less kind than his enemy, making the mercy of Alp Arlsan a curse: Romanus was blinded and finally killed after great torment. After Alp Arslan's victories the balance in the near Asia changed completely in favour of [[Seljuk Turks]] and [[Sunnite|Sunni]] Muslims. While the Byzantine Empire was to continue for nearly another four centuries, and the Crusades would contest the issue for some time, their victory at Manzikert signalled the beginning of Turkish ascendancy in the [[Middle East]]. Most historians, including Edward Gibbons, date the defeat at Manzikert as the beginning of the end of the Eastern Roman Empire. Certainly the entry of Turkic farmers following their horsemen ended the themes in Anatolia which had furnished the Empire with men and treasure. The importance of this battle, and the skill of Alp Arslan in fighting it, cannot be overstated. ==State organization== Alp Arslan's strength lay in the military realm, domestic affairs being handled by his Persian vizier, [[Nizam al-Mulk]]; founder of the administrative organization which characterized and strengthened the sultanate during the reigns of Alp Arslan and his son, Malik Shah. Military fiefs, governed by Seljuk princes, were established to provide support for the soldiery and to accommodate the nomadic Turks to the established Persian agricultural scene. This type of military fiefdom enabled the nomadic Turks to draw on the resources of the sedantary Persians, and other established cultures within the Seljuk realm, and allowed Alp Arslan to field a huge standing army, without depending on tribute from conquest to pay his soldiery. He not only had enough food from his subjects to maintain his military, but the taxes collected from traders and merchants added to his coffers sufficiently to fund his continuous wars. ==Death== The dominion of Alp Arslan after Manzikert extended over much of western [[Asia]]. He soon prepared to march to the conquest of [[Turkestan]], the original seat of his ancestors. With a powerful army he advanced to the banks of the Oxus. Before he could pass the river with safety, however, it was necessary to subdue certain fortresses, one of which was for several days vigorously defended by the governor, [[Yussuf el-Harezmi]], a [[Khwarezmid Empire|Khwarezmian]]. He was, however, obliged to surrender and was carried a prisoner before the sultan, who condemned him to a cruel death. Yussuf, in desperation, drew his dagger and rushed upon the sultan. Alp Arslan motioned to his guards not to interfere and drew his bow, but his foot slipped, the arrow glanced aside and he received the assassin's dagger in his breast. Alp Arslan died four days later from this wound on [[November 25]], [[1072]] in his 42nd year, and was taken to [[Merv]] to be buried next to his father [[Çağrı Bey]]. Upon his tomb lies the following inscription: :“''O those who saw the sky-high grandeur of Alp Arslan, behold! He is under the black soil now''...” As he lay dying, Alp Arslan whispered to his son that his vanity had killed him. "Alas," he is recorded to have said, "surrounded by great warriors devoted to my cause, guarded night and day by them, I should have allowed them to do their job. I had been warned against trying to protect myself, and against letting my courage get in the way of my good sense. I forgot those warnings, and here I lay, dying in agony. Remember well the lessons learned, and do not allow your vanity to overreach your good sense..." ==Reference== {{wikiquote}} *[http://www.bookrags.com/biography-alp-arslan/index.html Biography] {{s-start}} {{s-bef|before=[[Toghrül]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Seljuk Turks#Rulers of Seljuk Dynasty 1037-1157|Sultan of Great Seljuk]]|years=[[1063]]–[[1072]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Malik Shah I]]}} {{end}} [[Category:1029 births]] [[Category:1072 deaths]] [[Category:Monarchs of Persia]] [[Category:Seljuk Turks]] [[bg:Алп Арслан]] [[de:Alp Arslan]] [[fr:Alp Arslan]] [[he:אלף ארסלאן]] [[nl:Alp Arslan]] [[pl:Alp Arslan]] [[fi:Alp Arslan]] [[sv:Alp Arslan]] [[tk:Alp Arslan]] [[tr:Alp Arslan]] 869 38775301 2006-02-08T15:58:11Z Cookie90 733900 The '''American Film Institute''' ('''AFI''') is an independent [[non-profit]] organization created by the [[National Endowment for the Arts]], which was established in [[1967]] when President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] signed the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act. George Stevens, Jr., was the first CEO and Director. In 1980 [[Jean Picker Firstenberg]] became Director and CEO, a position she still holds. The American Film Institute focuses on training through hands-on experience with established figures in the [[AFI Conservatory]], as well as on preserving old film, which is subject to degradation of its [[film stock]]. In spite of its name, AFI does not focus exclusively on [[film]], but also on [[television]] and [[video]]. In [[1973]], the AFI established a [[AFI Life Achievement Award|Life Achievement Award]]. In [[1998]], the 100th anniversary of American film, AFI began its [[100 Years Series]], celebrating and promoting interest in film history. They recently opened the [[AFI Silver]] theatre in [[Silver Spring, Maryland]] near [[Washington, D.C.]] ==See also== * [[AFI 100 Years series]] * [[2005 American Film Institute Awards|AFI Awards 2005]] * [[2004 American Film Institute Awards|AFI Awards 2004]] * [[2003 American Film Institute Awards|AFI Awards 2003]] * [[2002 American Film Institute Awards|AFI Awards 2002]] * [[2001 American Film Institute Awards|AFI Awards 2001]] ==External links== *[http://www.afi.com/ AFI Website] *[http://www.afi.com/about/history.aspx History of AFI] *[http://www.afifest.com AFI Fest (AFI Los Angeles Film Festival) Official Website] *[http://www.ukhotmovies.com/film-festivals/los-angeles-film-festival/information.html AFI Los Angeles Film Festival - History and Information] [[Category:Cinema of the United States]] [[Category:Film schools]] [[de:American Film Institute]] [[fr:American Film Institute]] [[it:American Film Institute]] [[fi:American Film Institute]] [[simple:American Film Institute]] 870 40359338 2006-02-20T01:17:57Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 The '''auteur theory''' is the theory that a film (or a body of work) by a director (or, rarely, a producer) reflects the personal vision and preoccupations of that director, as if he or she were the work's primary "author" ([[auteur]]). The auteur theory has had a major impact on [[film criticism]] worldwide ever since it was first advocated by [[François Truffaut]] in 1954. "Auteurism" is the method of analyzing films based on this theory (or, alternately, the characteristics of a director's work that makes him an auteur). Both the Auteur Theory and the auteurism method of film analysis are frequently associated with the [[French New Wave]] and the film critics who wrote for the [[Cahiers du cinéma]]. ''For a list of directors who are considered '''auteurs''', go to the article [[Auteur]]''. __NOTOC__ ==Truffaut's theory== In his [[1954]] essay ''Une certaine tendance du cinéma français'' ("a certain tendency in the French cinema") [[François Truffaut]] coined the phrase "la politique des auteurs", and asserted that the worst of [[Jean Renoir]]'s movies would always be more interesting than the best of [[Jean Delannoy]]'s. "Politique" might very well be translated as "policy," "polemic" or "program"; it involves a conscious decision to look at movies and to value them in a certain way. Truffaut provocatively said, "There are no good and bad movies, only good and bad directors." Much of Truffaut's writing of this period (as too that of his colleagues at the film criticism magazine ''[[Cahiers du cinéma]]'') was designed to lambast post-war French cinema, and especially the big production films of the ''cinéma de qualité'' ("quality films") that Truffaut's circle referred to with disdain as ''cinéma de papa'' (or "Dad's cinema"). Their sudden discovery of a host of great American movies which flooded France at the end of the war (the [[Vichy France|Nazi occupation]] had prevented the French from seeing such classics as [[The Maltese Falcon]] and [[Citizen Kane]]) incited Truffaut to take up arms against what he considered to be an old-fashioned and sterile cinema. (One of the unfortunate ironies of the auteur theory is that, at the very moment Truffaut was writing, the Hollywood [[studio system]] of the 1950's had destroyed much of what he had appreciated.) Truffaut's thinking was indebted to the work of [[André Bazin]], co-founder of the ''Cahiers du cinéma'' (where Truffaut worked), who promoted the idea that films should reflect a director's personal vision and who championed such filmmakers as [[Howard Hawks]], [[Alfred Hitchcock]] and [[Jean Renoir]]. Although Bazin provided a forum for auteurism to flourish, he himself remained wary of its excesses. Another key element of Truffaut's theory comes from [[Alexandre Astruc]]'s notion of the ''caméra-stylo'' or "camera-pen" and the idea that directors should wield their cameras like writers use their pens and that they need not be hindered by traditional storytelling. Truffaut and the members of the ''Cahiers'' recognized that moviemaking was an industrial process. However, they proposed an ideal to strive for: the director should use the commercial apparatus the way a writer uses a pen and, through the [[mise en scène]], imprint his or her vision on the work (conversely, the role of the screenwriter was minimized in their eyes). While recognizing that not all directors reached this ideal, they valued the work of those who neared it. Truffaut's theory maintains that all good directors (and many bad ones) have such a distinctive style or consistent theme that their influence is unmistakable in the body of their work. Truffaut himself was appreciative of both directors with a marked visual style (such as [[Alfred Hitchcock]]), and those whose visual style was less pronounced but who had nevertheless a consistent theme throughout their movies (such as [[Jean Renoir]]'s humanism). ==Impact of the "auteur theory"== The ''auteur theory'' was used by the directors of the ''[[nouvelle vague]]'' (New Wave) movement of French cinema in the 1960s (many of whom were also critics at the ''Cahiers du cinéma'') as justification for their intensely personal and idiosyncratic films. The approach soon found a home in English-language film criticism. In the U.K., ''Movie'' adopted auteurism and in the U.S., [[Andrew Sarris]] introduced it in the essay, "Notes on the Auteur Theory" in 1962. This essay is where the half-French, half-English term, "auteur theory," originated. To be classified as an "auteur", according to Sarris, a director must accomplish technical competence in his or her technique, personal style in terms of how the movie looks and feels, and interior meaning (although many of Sarris's auterist criteria were left vague). Later in the decade, Sarris published ''The American Cinema: Directors and Directions, 1929-1968'', which quickly became the unofficial bible of auteurism. The auteurist critics&mdash;[[François Truffaut|Truffaut]], [[Jean-Luc Godard|Godard]], [[Claude Chabrol|Chabrol]], [[Éric Rohmer|Rohmer]]&mdash;wrote mostly about directors (as they were directors themselves), although they also produced some shrewd appreciations of actors. Later writers of the same general school have emphasized the contributions of star personalities like [[Mae West]]. However, the stress was on directors, and screenwriters, producers and others have reacted with a good deal of hostility. Writer [[William Goldman]] has said that, on first hearing the auteur theory, his reaction was, "What's the punchline?" ==Criticism of the "auteur theory"== Starting in the 1960s, there has been a backlash against the auteur theory. [[Pauline Kael]] and [[Andrew Sarris|Sarris]] feuded in the pages of ''[[The New Yorker]]'' and various film magazines. One reason for the backlash is the collaborative aspect of shooting a film (one person cannot do everything) and in the theory's privileging of the role of the director (whose name, at times, has become more important than the movie itself). In [[Pauline Kael|Kael]]'s review of [[Citizen Kane]], a classic film for the auteur model, she points out how the film involved the talents of co-writer [[Herman J. Mankiewicz]] and cinematographer [[Gregg Toland]] and would have been hurt without their distinctive ability. Also, the very people who championed the auteur theory backed away from it. [[Jean-Luc Godard|Godard]] handed over much creative control to others (most notably [[Jean-Pierre Gorin]]) in his later films while, in a twist of irony, Truffaut's later films embraced the same formalism he rejected early on in his career. Also, with costly films like [[Michael Cimino]]'s [[Heaven's Gate (film)|Heaven's Gate]], the excesses of auteurism not only created uncreative films, they put studios out of business. However, even with the reevaulation of auteurism, the auteur theory continues to influence new filmmakers to this day. ==See also== * [[mise en scène]] ==External links== * [http://movies.groups.yahoo.com/group/a_film_by/ An auteurist film discussion group] [[Category:Film theory]] 871 15899384 2002-08-04T00:46:59Z Maveric149 62 #REDIRECT [[Action movie]] 872 41926506 2006-03-02T17:51:18Z 208.250.29.8 {{redirect|Kurosawa}} {| id="toc" width="300" align="right" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; margin: 0em 0em 0em 0.5em; width:300px;" |- ! align="center" colspan="2" style="background:#efefef;" | <big>Akira Kurosawa</big> |- | align="center" colspan="2"| Japanese Film director |- | align="center" colspan="2" style="background:#efefef;" | ''[[Wikiquote:{{PAGENAME}}|"There is something that might be called cinematic beauty. It can only be expressed in a film, and it must be present for that film to be a moving work. When it is very well expressed, one experiences a particularly deep emotion while watching that film. I believe that it is this quality that draws people to come and see a film, and that it is the hope of attaining this quality that inspires the director to make the film in the first place."]]'' |- ! '''Born''' || [[23 March]], [[1910]]<br />[[Ota, Tokyo]], [[Japan]] |- ! '''Died''' || [[6 September]], [[1998]]<br />[[Setagaya, Tokyo]], [[Japan]] |} '''Akira Kurosawa''' (黒澤 明 ''Kurosawa Akira'', also 黒沢 明 in [[Wiktionary:Shinjitai|Shinjitai]], [[23 March]], [[1910]] &ndash; [[6 September]], [[1998]]) was a prominent [[Japan|Japanese]] [[film director]], [[film producer]], and [[screenwriter]]. Few filmmakers have had a career so long or so acclaimed as Akira Kurosawa, perhaps Japan's best-known filmmaker. His films greatly influenced an entire generation of filmmakers the world over, ranging from George Lucas to Sergio Leone. His first credited film (''[[Sanshiro Sugata (1943 film)|Sugata Sanshiro]]'') was released in 1943; his last (''[[Madadayo]]'') in 1993. His many awards include the [[Legion d'Honneur]] and an [[Academy Awards|Oscar]] for Lifetime Achievement. == Early Career == Kurosawa was born in [[Ota, Tokyo|Omori]], [[Tokyo]], the youngest of seven children. He trained as a painter and began work in the film industry as an assistant director to Kajiro Yamamoto in 1936. He made his directorial debut in 1943 with ''[[Sanshiro Sugata (1943 film)|Sugata Sanshiro]]''. His first few films were made under the watchful eye of the wartime Japanese government and sometimes contained nationalistic themes. For instance, ''[[The Most Beautiful|The Most Beautiful]]'' is a propaganda film about Japanese women working in an armaments factory. ''[[Sanshiro Sugata Part II|Judo Saga 2]]'' has been held to be explicitly anti-American in the way that it portrays Japanese [[judo]] as superior to western (American) [[boxing]]. His first post-war film ''No regrets for our youth'', by contrast, is critical of the old Japanese regime and is about the wife of a left-wing dissident arrested for his political leanings. Kurosawa made several more films which deal with contemporary Japan, most notably ''[[Drunken Angel]]'' and ''[[Stray Dog]]''. However it was a period film ''[[Rashomon (film)|Rashomon]]'' which made him internationally famous and won the Grand Prix at the [[Venice Film Festival]]. == Characteristics == Kurosawa is best-known for his period pieces or {{nihongo|''[[jidaigeki]]''|時代劇|}} like ''[[Seven Samurai]]'' and ''[[Ran (1985 film)|Ran]]'', but several of his films dealt with contemporary Japan: for example ''[[Stray Dog]]'', which looks at the criminal underworld just after the end of the war, and ''[[Ikiru]]'', which deals with a Japanese bureaucrat who discovers that he is suffering from cancer but eventually steps out of depression and struggles against bureacratic inertia to leave his small contribution to the world in the form of a small community park before he dies. Kurosawa had a distinctive cinematic technique, which he had developed by the 1950s, and which gave his films a unique look. He liked using telephoto lenses for the way they flattened the frame and also because he believed that placing cameras farther away from his actors produced better performances. He also liked using multiple cameras, which allowed him to shoot an action from different angles. Another Kurosawa trademark was the use of weather elements to heighten mood: for example the heavy rain in the final battle in ''Seven Samurai'' and the fog in ''Throne of Blood''. Kurosawa also liked using left-to-right frame wipes as a transition device. He was known as "Tenno", literally "Emperor", for his dictatorial directing style. He was a perfectionist who spent enormous amounts of time and effort to achieve the desired visual effects. In ''[[Rashomon]]'', he dyed the rain water black with calligraphy ink in order to achieve the effect of heavy rain, and ended up using up the entire local water supply of the location area in creating the rainstorm. In ''[[Throne of Blood]]'', in the final scene in which Mifune is shot by arrows, Kurosawa used real arrows shot by expert archers from a short range, landing within centimetres of Mifune's body. Other stories include demanding a stream be made to run in the opposite direction in order to get a better visual effect, and having the roof of a house removed, later to be replaced, because he felt the roof's presence to be unattractive in a short sequence filmed from a train. == Influences == A notable feature of Kurosawa's films is the breadth of his artistic influences. Some of his plots are adaptations of [[William Shakespeare]]'s works. ''[[The Bad Sleep Well]]'' is based on ''[[Hamlet]]'', ''[[Ran (1985 film)|Ran]]'' is based on ''[[King Lear]]'' and ''Throne of Blood'' is based on ''[[Macbeth]]''. Kurosawa also directed film adaptations of Russian novels, including ''[[The Idiot (novel)|The Idiot]]'' by [[Dostoevsky]] and ''[[The Lower Depths]]'' by [[Maxim Gorky]]. ''Ikiru'' was based on [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s ''[[The Death of Ivan Ilyich]]''. ''[[High and Low]]'' was based on ''[[King's Ransom]]'' by [[United States|American]] [[crime]] writer [[Ed McBain]]. ''[[Stray Dog]]'' was inspired by the detective novels of [[Georges Simenon]]. The American film director [[John Ford]] also had a large influence on his work. Despite criticism by some Japanese critics that Kurosawa was "too Western", he was deeply influenced by Japanese culture as well, including the [[Kabuki]] and [[Noh]] theaters and the jidaigeki (period drama) genre of Japanese cinema. == His influence == Kurosawa's films had a huge influence on world cinema. Most explicitly, ''[[Seven Samurai]]'' was remade as the [[western movie|western]] ''[[The Magnificent Seven]]'', [[science fiction]] movie ''[[Battle Beyond the Stars]]'', and Pixar's ''[[A Bug's Life]]''. It also inspired two [[Hindi films]], [[Ramesh Sippy]]'s ''[[Sholay]]'' and Rajkumar Santhoshi's ''[[China Gate]]'', with similar plots. The story has also inspired [[novel]]s, among them [[Stephen King]]'s fifth ''[[The Dark Tower (series)|Dark Tower]]'' novel, ''[[Wolves of the Calla]]''. ''[[Yojimbo (film)|Yojimbo]]'' was the basis for the [[Sergio Leone]] western ''[[A Fistful of Dollars]]'', the [[Coen Brothers]] film ''[[Miller's Crossing (film)|Miller's Crossing]]'', and the [[Bruce Willis]] prohibition-era ''[[Last Man Standing (film)|Last Man Standing]]''. ''[[The Hidden Fortress]]'' had an influence on [[George Lucas]]'s earliest ''[[Star Wars]]'' film, especially in the characters of R2-D2 and C3PO. ''[[Rashomon (film)|Rashomon]]'' not only helped open Japanese cinema to the world but virtually entered the English language as a term for fractured, inconsistent narratives as well as influencing other works, including episodes of television series and many motion pictures. == Collaboration == During his most productive period, from the late 40s to the mid-60s, Kurosawa often worked with the same group of collaborators. [[Fumio Hayasaka]] composed music for seven of his films; notably ''Rashomon'', ''Ikiru'' and ''Seven Samurai''. Many of Kurosawa's scripts, including ''Throne of Blood'', ''Seven Samurai'' and ''Ran'' were co-written with [[Hideo Oguni]]. [[Yoshiro Muraki]] was Kurosawa's [[production designer]] or [[art director]] for most of his films after ''Stray Dog'' in 1949 and [[Asakazu Naki]] was his [[cinematographer]] on 11 films including ''Ikiru'', ''Seven Samurai'' and ''Ran''. Kurosawa also liked recycling the same group of actors, especially [[Takashi Shimura]] and [[Toshiro Mifune]]. His collaboration with the latter is one of the greatest director-actor combinations in cinema history. It began with 1948's ''[[Drunken Angel]]'' and ended with 1964's ''[[Red Beard]]''. == Later films == Red Beard marked a turning point in Kurosawa's career in more ways than one. In addition to being his last film with Mifune, it was his last in black-and-white. It was also his last as a major director within the Japanese studio system making roughly a film a year. Kurosawa was signed to direct a Hollywood project, ''[[Tora! Tora! Tora!]]''; but [[20th Century Fox]] replaced him with [[Kinji Fukasaku]] before it was completed. His next few films were a lot harder to finance and were made at intervals of five years. The first, ''[[Dodesukaden]]'', about a group of poor people living around a rubbish dump, was not a success. After an attempted suicide, Kurosawa went on to make several more films although arranging domestic financing was highly difficult despite his international reputation. ''[[Dersu Uzala]]'', made in the [[Soviet Union]] and set in Siberia in the early 20th century, was the only Kurosawa film made outside Japan and not in Japanese. It is about the friendship of a Russian explorer and a nomadic hunter. It won the [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film|Oscar]] for Best Foreign Language Film. ''[[Kagemusha]]'', financed with the help of the director's most famous admirers, [[George Lucas]] and [[Francis Ford Coppola]], is the story of a man who is the double of a medieval Japanese lord and takes over his identity. Most important was ''[[Ran (1985 film)|Ran]]'', Kurosawa's version of King Lear set in medieval Japan. It was the great project of Kurosawa's late career, and he spent a decade planning it and trying to obtain funding, which he was finally able to do with the help of the French producer Serge Silberman. The film was a phenomenal international success and is generally considered Kurosawa's last masterpiece. Kurosawa made three more films during the 1990s which were more personal than his earlier works. ''[[Dreams (1990 film)|Dreams]]'' is a series of vignettes based on his own dreams. ''[[Rhapsody in August]]'' is about memories of the [[Nagasaki]] atom bomb and his final film: ''[[Madadayo]]'' is about a retired teacher and his former students. Kurosawa died in [[Setagaya, Tokyo]], at age 88. ==Trivia== Kurosawa was a notoriously lavish gourmet, and spent huge quantities of money on film sets providing an uneatably large quantity and quality of delicacies, especially meat, for the cast and crew. ==Awards== *1951- Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival for Rashomon *1954- Silver Lion at the Venice Film Festival for Seven Samurai *1976- Academy Award: Best Foreign Language Film for Dersu Uzala *1980- Golden Palm at the Cannes Film Festival for Kagemusha *1982- Career Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival *1984- Legion d'Honneur *1990- Honorary Academy Award ==Filmography== [[Image:derzuuzala.jpg|thumb|450px|[[Maxim Munzuk]] as Dersu Uzala (left) and [[Yury Solomin]] as [[Vladimir Arsenyev]] (right) in the [[1975]] film ''[[Dersu Uzala]]''.]] *''[[Sugata Sanshiro (1943 film)|Sanshiro Sugata]]'' (1943) *''[[The Most Beautiful]]'' (1944) *''[[Sanshiro Sugata Part II]]'' aka ''Judo Saga 2'' (1945) *''[[They Who Step on the Tiger's Tail]]'' (1945) *''[[No Regrets for Our Youth]]'' (1946) *''[[One Wonderful Sunday]]'' (1946) *''[[Drunken Angel]]'' (1948) *''[[The Quiet Duel]]'' (1949) *''[[Stray Dog (film)|Stray Dog]]'' (1949) *''[[Scandal (1950 film)|Scandal]]'' (1950) *''[[Rashomon (film)|Rashomon]]'' (1950) *''[[Hakuchi (film)|The Idiot]]'' (1951) *''[[Ikiru]]'' aka ''To Live'' (1952) *''[[The Seven Samurai]]'' (1954) *''[[Record of a Living Being]]'' aka ''I Live in Fear'' (1955) *''[[Throne of Blood|The Throne of Blood]]'' aka ''Spider Web Castle'' (1957) *''[[The Lower Depths]]'' (1957) *''[[The Hidden Fortress]]'' (1958) *''[[The Bad Sleep Well]]'' (1960) *''[[Yojimbo (film)|Yojimbo]]'' aka ''The Bodyguard'' (1961) *''[[Tsubaki Sanjūrō|Sanjuro]]'' (1962) *''[[High and Low]]'' aka ''Heaven and Hell'' (1963) *''[[Red Beard]]'' (1965) *''[[Dodesukaden]]'' (1970) *''[[Dersu Uzala (1975 film)|Dersu Uzala]]'' (1975) *''[[Kagemusha]]'' aka ''Shadow Warrior'' (1980) *''[[Ran (1985 film)|Ran]]'' (1985) *''[[Dreams (1990 film)|Dreams]]'' aka ''Akira Kurosawa's Dreams'' (1990) *''[[Rhapsody in August]]'' (1991) *''[[Madadayo]]'' aka ''Not Yet'' (1993) ==Further reading== * Mitsuhiro Yoshimoto ''Kurosawa: Film Studies and Japanese Cinema'' ISBN: 0822325195 * Akira Kurosawa. ''Something Like An Autobiography''. Vintage Books USA, 1983. ISBN 0394714393 * Stephen Prince. ''The Warrior's Camera''. Princeton University Press, 1999. ISBN 0691010463 * Donald Richie, Joan Mellen. ''The Films of Akira Kurosawa''. University of California Press, 1999. ISBN 0520220374 * Stuart Galbraith IV. ''The Emperor and the Wolf: The Lives and Films of Akira Kurosawa and Toshiro Mifune''. Faber & Faber, 2002. ISBN 0571199828 == See also == * [[Cinema of Japan]] ==External links== * {{imdb name|id=0000041|name=Akira Kurosawa}} *[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/02/kurosawa.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database] *[http://www.japan-zone.com/modern/kurosawa_akira.shtml Profile at Japan Zone] *[http://www2.tky.3web.ne.jp/~adk/kurosawa/AKpage.html Akira Kurosawa Database] *[http://www.boheme-magazine.net/july03/ikiru.html Bohème Magazine] ''Ikiru'': The Art of Living *[http://www.quad4x.net/yojinbo/ Japanese Film - Kurosawa] *[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/gperf/shows/kurosawa/kurosawa.html Great Performances: Kurosawa (PBS)] {{kurosawa}} [[Category:1910 births|Kurosawa, Akira]] [[Category:1998 deaths|Kurosawa, Akira]] [[Category:Japanese film directors|Kurosawa, Akira]] [[Category:People from Tokyo|Kurosawa, Akira]] [[ar:أكيرا كوروساوا]] [[bs:Akira Kurosawa]] [[ca:Akira Kurosawa]] [[cs:Akira Kurosawa]] [[da:Akira Kurosawa]] [[de:Akira Kurosawa]] [[et:Akira Kurosawa]] [[es:Akira Kurosawa]] [[eo:KUROSAWA Akira]] [[fr:Akira Kurosawa]] [[ko:구로사와 아키라]] [[id:Akira Kurosawa]] [[it:Akira Kurosawa]] [[he:אקירה קורוסאווה]] [[kn:ಅಕಿರಾ ಕುರೋಸಾವಾ]] [[ka:კუროსავა აკირა]] [[hu:Kuroszava Akira]] [[nl:Akira Kurosawa]] [[ja:黒澤明]] [[no:Akira Kurosawa]] [[pl:Akira Kurosawa]] [[pt:Akira Kurosawa]] [[ro:Akira Kurosawa]] [[ru:Куросава, Акира]] [[fi:Akira Kurosawa]] [[sv:Akira Kurosawa]] [[tr:Akira Kurosawa]] [[uk:Акіро Куросава]] [[zh:黑澤明]] 873 15899386 2002-08-03T03:13:56Z 195.149.37.94 #REDIRECT [[Ancient history]] #REDIRECT [[Ancient history]] 874 42054072 2006-03-03T14:06:56Z 207.203.140.254 {{AID}} '''Ancient Egypt''' was a [[civilization]] located along the Lower [[Nile]], reaching from the [[Nile Delta]] in the north to as far south as [[Jebel Barkal]] at the time of its greatest extension (15th century BC). It lasted for three [[millennia]], from ''circa'' [[3200 BC]] to [[343 BC]], ending when [[Artaxerxes III]] conquered [[Egypt]]. As a civilization based on [[irrigation]] it is the quintessential example of a [[hydraulic empire]].[[Image:Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.01.jpg |thumb|right|450px|[[Khafre's Pyramid]] ([[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|4th dynasty]]) and [[Great Sphinx of Giza]] (c.[[2600 BC]] or perhaps earlier)]] ==Background== [[Image:Map Ancient Egypt.png|thumb|right|275px|Map of Ancient Egypt]]Egypt is a [[transcontinental nation]] located mostly in [[North Africa]], with the [[Sinai Peninsula]] lying in [[Asia]]. The country has shorelines on the [[Mediterranean Sea]], the [[Red Sea]], the [[Gulf of Suez]] and the [[Gulf of Aqaba]]. It borders [[Libya]] to the west; [[Sudan]] to the south; and the [[Gaza Strip]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and [[Israel]] to the east. Ancient Egypt was divided into two kingdoms, known as [[Upper and Lower Egypt]]. The [[Nile]] river flows northward from a southerly point to the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]]. The Nile river, around which much of the population of the country clusters, has been the lifeline for Egyptian culture since the [[Stone Age]] and [[Naqada]] cultures. The area around the Nile was called Kemet ("the black land", in [[Ancient Egyptian]] ''Kmt''), the name for the dark soil deposited by the Nile floodwaters. In contrast, the desert was called Deshret ("the red land", in [[Ancient Egyptian]] ''Dsrt''), c.f. [[Herodotus]]: "Egypt is a land of black soil.... We know that [[Libya]] is a redder earth" (Histories, 2:12). The vowels within the consonants K-M-T are not known with certainty. [[Coptic language|Coptic]], however, provides some indication. Nomadic hunter-gatherers began living along the Nile during the [[Pleistocene]]. Traces of these early peoples appear in the form of artifacts and rock carvings along the terraces of the Nile and in the oases. By about 6000 B.C., organized agriculture and large building construction had appeared in the Nile Valley. ==People== Many theories have been proposed regarding the origins of early Egyptians, a subject still imbued with controversy today. [[Controversy over race of Ancient Egyptians]] has more information about this subject. Egyptian society was a merging of [[Berbers|North]] and [[Northeast Africa]]n as well as [[Southwest Asia]]n peoples. Modern [[genetic genealogy|genetics]] reveals {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.348}} {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.349}} that the Egyptian population today is characterized by [[Haplogroup#Y chromosome DNA haplogroups|paternal]] lineages common to [[Berbers|North Africans]] primarily, and to some [[Near East]]ern peoples. Studies based on the [[Haplogroup#Mitochondrial DNA haplogroups|maternal]] lineages closely links modern Egyptians with people from modern [[Ethiopia]] {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.350}}, {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.351}}. The ancient Egyptians themselves traced their origin to a land they called [[Land of Punt|Punt]], or "Ta Nteru" ("Land of the Gods"), which most Egyptologists locate in the area encompassing the [[Ethiopian Highlands]]. A recent bioanthropological study on the dental morphology of ancient Egyptians confirms dental traits most characteristic of [[Berbers|North African]] and to a lesser extent [[Southwest Asia]]n populations. The study also establishes biological continuity from the [[Predynastic Egypt|predynastic]] to the post-pharaonic periods. Among the samples included is skeletal material from the [[Gallery of Fayum mummy portraits|Hawara tombs of Fayum]], which was found to most closely resemble the [[Badarian]] series of the predynastic {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.352}}, {{ref|www.world-science.net.353}}. A study based on stature and body proportions suggests that [[Nilotic]] or tropical body characteristics were also present in some later groups {{ref|Zakrzewski}} as the Egyptian empire expanded southward. [[Jean-François Champollion|Champollion the Younger]], who deciphered the [[Rosetta Stone]], claimed in ''Expressions et Termes Particuliers'' that ''kmt'' referred to a 'negroid' population. Modern day professional Egyptologists, anthropologists, and linguists, however, overwhelmingly agree that the term referred to the dark soil of the Nile Valley rather than the people, which contrasted with ''dSrt'' or the "red land" of the [[Sahara]] desert. In c. 450 BC, [[Herodotus]] wrote, "the Colchians are Egyptians... on the fact that they are swarthy (''melanchrôs'') and wooly-haired (''oulothrix'')" (Histories Book 2:104). ''Melanchros'' was also used by [[Homer]] to describe the sunburnt complexion of [[Odysseus]] (Od. 16.176). Although analyzing the hair of ancient Egyptian [[Mummy|mummies]] from the Late [[Middle Kingdom]] has revealed evidence of a stable diet {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.354}}, mummies from circa [[3200 BC]] show signs of severe [[anemia]] and [[Hematology|hemolitic disorders]] {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.355}}. [[Image:Memnon2.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Colossus]] of [[Memnon]].]] ==History== :''Main article: [[History of ancient Egypt]]'' Egyptian culture was remarkably stable and changed little over a period of nearly 3000 years. This includes religion, customs, art expression, architecture and social structure. The [[history of ancient Egypt]] proper starts with Egypt as a unified state, which occurred sometime around [[3000 BC]]. [[Narmer]], who unified Upper and Lower Egypt, was the first [[pharaoh]]; though [[Archaeology|archaeological]] evidence indicates that a developed Egyptian [[society]] existed for a much longer period (see [[Predynastic Egypt]]). Along the [[Nile]], in [[10th millennium BC]], a [[cereal|grain]]-[[grinding]] [[culture]] using the earliest type of [[sickle]] [[blade]]s had been replaced by another culture of [[hunting|hunters]], [[fishing|fishers]], and [[hunter-gatherer|gathering]] peoples using [[stone tool]]s. Evidence also indicates human habitation in the southwestern corner of Egypt, near the [[Sudan]] border, before [[8000 BC]]. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around [[8th millennium BC|8000 BC]] began to desiccate the pastoral lands of [[Egypt]], eventually forming the [[Sahara]] (c.[[2500 BC]]), and early tribes naturally migrated to the Nile river where they developed a settled [[agriculture|agricultural]] [[Economic system|economy]] and more centralized [[society]] (see [[Nile#History|Nile: History]]). There is evidence of [[pastoralism]] and cultivation of [[cereal]]s in the East [[Sahara]] in the [[7th millennium BC]]. By [[6000 BC]] ancient Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were [[herding]] cattle and [[construction|constructing]] large buildings. [[Mortar (masonry)]] was in use by [[4000 BC]]. The [[Predynastic Egypt|Predynastic Period]] continues through this time, variously held to begin with the [[Naqada]] culture. Some authorities however begin the [[Predynastic Egypt|Predynastic Period]] earlier, in the [[Lower Paleolithic]] (see [[Predynastic Egypt]]). Egypt unified as a single state circa [[3000 BC]]. [[Egyptian chronology]] involves assigning beginnings and endings to various dynasties beginning around this time. The [[conventional Egyptian chronology]] is the accepted developments during the 20th century, but do not include any of the major revision proposals that have also been made in that time. Even within a single work, often archeologists will offer several possible dates or even several whole chronologies as possibilities. Consequently, there may be discrepancies between dates shown here and in articles on particular rulers. Often there are also several possible spellings of the names. Typically, Egyptologists divide the history of pharaonic civilization using a schedule laid out first by [[Manetho]]'s ''Aegyptaica''. * '''[[List of pharaohs]]''': The pharaohs stretch from before [[3000 BC]] to around [[30 BC]]. * '''Dynasties''' (see also: [[List of Egyptian dynasties]]): ** [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt]] (1st to 2nd Dynasties; until ca. [[27th century BC]]) ** [[Old Kingdom]] (3rd to 6th Dynasties; 27th to 22nd centuries [[Anno Domini|BC]]) ** [[First Intermediate Period]] (7th to 11th Dynasties) ** [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt]] (11th to 14th Dynasties; 20th to 17th centuries BC) ** [[Second Intermediate Period]] (14th to 17th Dynasties) *** [[Hyksos]] (15th to 16th Dynasties) ** [[New Kingdom of Egypt]] (18th to 20th Dynasties; 16th to 11th centuries BC) ** [[Third Intermediate Period]] (21st to 25th Dynasties; 11th to 7th centuries BC) ** [[Late Period of Ancient Egypt]] (26th to 31st Dynasties; [[7th century BC]] to [[332 BC]]) *** [[Achaemenid Dynasty]] ** [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Graeco-Roman Egypt]] ([[332 BC]] to AD [[639]]) *** [[Ptolemaic Dynasty]] *** [[Roman Empire]] === Taxation === The Egyptian government imposed a number of different taxes upon its people. As there was no known form of currency during that time period, taxes were paid for "in kind" (with produce or work). The Vizier controlled the taxation system through the departments of state. The departments had to report daily on the amount of stock availible, and how much was expected in the future. Taxes were paid for depending on a persons craft or duty. Landowners paid their taxes in grain and other produce grown on their property. Craftsmen paid their taxes in the goods that they produced. Hunters and fishermen paid their taxes with produce from the river, marshes, and desert. One person from every household was required to pay a labor tax by doing public work for a few weeks every year, such as digging canals or mining. However, a richer noble could hire a poorer man to do his labor tax. ==Language== {{main|Egyptian language}} Ancient Egyptian constitutes an independent branch of the [[Afro-Asiatic]] language [[phylum (linguistics)|phylum]]. Its closest relatives are the [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[Semitic languages|Semitic]], and [[Beja language|Beja]] groups of languages. Written records of the [[Egyptian language]] have been dated from about [[32nd century BC|3200 BC]], making it one of the oldest and longest documented languages. Scholars group Egyptian into six major chronological divisions: *'''[[Archaic Egyptian]]''' (before 3000 BC) :Consists of inscriptions from the late [[Predynastic Period|Predynastic]] and [[Early Dynastic Period|Early Dynastic]] period. The earliest known evidence of Egyptian [[hieroglyphic]] writing appears on [[Naqada]] II pottery vessels. *'''[[Old Egyptian]]''' (3000&ndash;2000 BC) :The language of the [[Old Kingdom]] and [[First Intermediate Period]]. The [[Pyramid Texts]] are the largest body of literature written in this phase of the language. Tomb walls of elite Egyptians from this period also bear autobiographical writings representing Old Egyptian. One of its distinguishing characteristics is the tripling of [[ideogram]]s, phonograms, and determinatives to indicate the plural. Overall, it does not differ significantly from the next stage. *'''[[Middle Egyptian]]''' (2000&ndash;1300 BC) :Often dubbed '''Classical Egyptian''', this stage is known from a variety of textual evidence in [[hieroglyphic]] and [[hieratic]] scripts dated from about the [[Middle Kingdom]]. It includes funerary texts inscribed on [[sarcophagi]] such as the [[Coffin Texts]]; wisdom texts instructing people on how to lead a life that exemplified the ancient Egyptian philosophical worldview (see the [[Ipuwer papyrus]]); tales detailing the adventures of a certain individual, for example the [[The Story of Sinuhe|Story of Sinhue]]; medical and scientific texts such as the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]] and the [[Ebers papyrus]]; and poetic texts praising a god or a [[pharaoh]], like the [[Hymn to the Nile]]. The Egyptian [[vernacular]] already began to change from the written language as evidenced by some Middle Kingdom hieratic texts, but classical Middle Egyptian continued to be written in formal contexts well into the Late Dynastic period (sometimes referred to as [[Late Middle Egyptian]]). *'''[[Late Egyptian]]''' (1300&ndash;700 BC) :Records of this stage appear in the second part of the [[New Kingdom]], considered by many as the "Golden Age" of ancient Egyptian civilization. It contains a rich body of religious and secular literature, comprising such famous examples as the [[Story of Wenamun]] and the [[Instructions of Ani]]. It was also the language of [[Ramesside]] administration. Late Egyptian is not totally distinct from Middle Egyptian, as many "classicisms" appear in historical and literary documents of this phase. However, the difference between Middle and Late Egyptian is greater than that between Middle and Old Egyptian. It's also a better representative than Middle Egyptian of the spoken language in the New Kingdom and beyond. Hieroglyphic [[orthography]] saw an enormous expansion of its [[grapheme|graphemic]] inventory between the Late Dynastic and [[Ptolemaic]] periods. *'''[[Demotic Egyptian]]''' (7th century BC&ndash;4th century AD) {{main|Demotic Egyptian}} *'''[[Coptic language|Coptic]]''' (3rd&ndash;17th century AD) {{main|Coptic language}} ===Writing=== For many years, the earliest known hieroglyphic inscription was the [[Narmer Palette]], found during excavations at [[Hierakonpolis]] (modern Kawm al-Ahmar) in the [[1890s]], which has been dated to c.[[3200 BC]]. However recent [[Archaeology|archaeological]] findings reveal that symbols on [[Gerzean]] pottery, ''c.''[[4000 BC]], resemble the traditional hieroglyph forms {{ref|www.touregypt.net.356}}. Also in 1998 a German archeological team under [[Gunter Dreyer]] excavating at [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] (modern [[Umm el-Qa'ab]]) uncovered tomb [[U-j]], which belonged to a [[Predynastic Egypt|Predynastic]] ruler, and they recovered three hundred clay labels inscribed with [[proto-hieroglyphics]] dating to the [[Naqada IIIA]] period, circa [[33rd century BC]] {{ref|www.exn.ca.357}}, {{ref|www.findarticles.com.358}}. Egyptologists refer to Egyptian writing as '''[[Egyptian hieroglyph|hieroglyph]]s''', today standing as the world's earliest known [[writing system]]. The hieroglyphic script was partly [[syllabic]], partly [[ideographic]]. '''[[Hieratic]]''' is a cursive form of Egyptian hieroglyphs and was first used during the First Dynasty (c. 2925 BC &ndash; c. 2775 BC). The term '''[[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]]''', in the context of Egypt, came to refer to both the script and the language that followed the Late Ancient Egyptian stage, i.e. from the [[Nubian]] [[Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt|25th dynasty]] until its marginalization by the Greek [[Koine]] in the early centuries AD. After the conquest of [[Amr ibn al-A'as]] in the 7th century AD, the [[Coptic language]] survived as a spoken language into the [[Middle Ages]]. Today, it continues to be the liturgical language of the [[Christian]] minority. Beginning from around [[2700 BC]], Egyptians used [[pictogram]]s to represent [[Egyptian hieroglyph#Script|vocal sounds]] -- both [[vowel]] and [[consonant]] vocalizations (see [[Egyptian hieroglyph#Script|Hieroglyph: Script]]). By [[2000 BC]], 26 [[pictogram]]s were being used to represent 24 (known) main [[Egyptian hieroglyph#Script|vocal sounds]]. The world's [[Middle Bronze Age alphabets|oldest known alphabet]] (c. [[1800 BC]]) is only an [[abjad]] system and was derived from these [[Egyptian hieroglyph#Script|uniliteral signs]] as well as other [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s. The hieroglyphic script finally fell out of use around the [[4th century]] AD. Attempts to decipher it began after the [[15th century]] (see ''[[Hieroglyphica]]''). ===Literature=== * c. [[19th century BC|1800 BC]]: [[The Story of Sinuhe|Story of Sinuhe]] * c. 1800 BC: [[Ipuwer papyrus]] * c. [[16th century BC|1600 BC]]: [[Westcar Papyrus]] * c. 1180 BC: [[Papyrus Harris I]] * c. [[11th century BC|1000 BC]]: [[Story of Wenamun]] ==Culture== {{see also|Ancient Egyptian architecture}} The Egyptian religions, embodied in [[Egyptian mythology]], were a succession of beliefs held by the people of Egypt, as early as [[Predynastic Egypt|predynastic]] times and all the way until the coming of [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] in the [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Graeco-Roman]] era. These were conducted by Egyptian [[priest]]s or [[magician]]s, but the use of [[magic and religion|magic]] and [[spell (paranormal)|spell]]s is questioned. Every animal portrayed and worshipped in ancient Egyptian art, writing and religion is indigenous to [[Africa]], all the way from the [[Predynastic Egypt|predynastic]] until the [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Graeco-Roman]] eras, over 3000 years. The [[Dromedary]], [[Domestication|domesticated]] first in [[Arabia]], first appears in Egypt (and North Africa) beginning in the 2nd millennium BCE. The religious nature of ancient Egyptian civilization influenced its contribution to the [[arts of the ancient world]]. Many of the great works of ancient Egypt depict gods, goddesses, and pharaohs, who were also considered divine. [[Ancient Egyptian art]] in general is characterized by the idea of order. Evidence of [[Mummy#Mummies in other civilizations|mummies]] and [[Pyramid#Structures|pyramids outside ancient Egypt]] indicate reflections of ancient Egyptian belief values on other [[prehistory|prehistoric]] cultures, transmitted in one way over the [[Silk Road]]. Ancient Egypt's [[Foreign contacts of Ancient Egypt|foreign contacts]] included [[Nubia]] and [[Punt]] to the south, the [[Aegean]] and [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greece]] to the north, the [[Levant]] and other regions in the [[Near East]] to the east, and also [[Libya]] to the west. Some scholars have speculated that Egypt's art pieces are sexually [[Symbolism|symbolic]]. ==Ancient achievements== [[image:Egypte louvre 316.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Louvre Museum]] antiquity]] See [[Predynastic Egypt]] for inventions and other significant achievements in the [[Civilization#Sahara Region|Sahara region]] before the [[Protodynastic Period of Egypt|Protodynastic Period]]. The art and science of [[engineering]] was present in Egypt, such as accurately determining the position of points and the distances between them (known as [[surveying]]). These skills were used to outline [[pyramid]] bases. The [[Egyptian pyramids]] took the geometric shape formed from a polygonal base and a point, called the apex, by triangular faces. [[Cement|Hydraulic Cement]] was first invented by the Egyptians. The [[Al Fayyum]] [[Irrigation]] (water works) was one of the main agricultural breadbaskets of the ancient world. There is evidence of ancient Egyptian pharaohs of the [[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt|twelfth dynasty]] using the natural lake of the Fayyum as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons. From the time of the [[First dynasty of Egypt|First dynasty]] or before, the Egyptians [[Mining|mined]] [[turquoise]] in [[Sinai Peninsula]]. The earliest evidence (circa [[1600 BC]]) of traditional [[empiricism]] is credited to Egypt, as evidenced by the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus|Edwin Smith]] and [[Ebers papyrus|Ebers papyri]]. The roots of the [[Scientific method#History|Scientific method]] may be traced back to the ancient Egyptians. The ancient Egyptians are also credited with devising the world's earliest known [[alphabet]], [[decimal system]] {{ref|www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk.360}} and complex [[Timeline of mathematics|mathematical formularizations]], in the form of the [[Moscow and Rhind Mathematical Papyri]]. An awareness of the [[golden ratio]] seems to be reflected in many constructions, such as the [[Egyptian pyramids]]. The art of glass making is of very ancient origin with the Egyptians, as is evident from the glass jars, figures and ornaments discovered in the tombs. The paintings on the tombs have been interpreted as descriptive of the process of glass blowing. These illustrations representing smiths blowing their fires by means of reeds tipped with clay. Therefore it can be concluded that glass-blowing is apparently of Egyptian origin. ===Timeline=== ''(All dates are approximate.)'' ====Predynastic==== ''See main article and timeline: [[Predynastic Egypt]].'' * [[3500 BC]]: [[Senet]], world's oldest (confirmed) [[board game]] * [[3500 BC]]: [[Faience]], world's earliest known earthenware ====Dynastic==== [[Image:Pyramide_Kheops.JPG|thumb|200px|[[The Great Pyramid of Giza]].]] [[Image:Egyptian Glass.jpg|thumb|200px|Egypt was first to create glass objects. {{3d_glasses}}]] * [[33rd century BC|3300 BC]]: [[Bronze]] works (see [[Bronze Age#Near East Bronze Age|Bronze Age]]) * [[3200 BC]]: [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s fully developed (see [[First dynasty of Egypt]]) * [[3200 BC]]: [[Narmer Palette]], world's earliest known [[historical document]] * [[3100 BC]]: [[Decimal|Decimal system]], {{ref|www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk.360}}, world's earliest (confirmed) use * [[3100 BC]]: [[Wine cellar]]s, world's earliest known {{ref|www.touregypt.net.361}} * [[3100 BC]]: [[Mining]], [[Sinai Peninsula#History|Sinai Peninsula]] * [[3100 BC|3050 BC]]: [[Shipbuilding]] in [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]], {{ref|xoomer.virgilio.it.362}} * [[3000 BC]]: [[Export]]s from [[Nile]] to [[Israel]]: [[wine]] (see [[Narmer]]) * [[3000 BC]]: [[Copper]] [[plumbing]] (see [[Copper#History|Copper: History]]) * [[3000 BC]]: [[Papyrus]], world's earliest known [[paper]] * [[3000 BC]]: [[History of medicine#Egyptian medicine|Medical Institutions]] * [[2900 BC]]: possible [[steel]]: [[carbon]]-containing [[iron]], {{ref|www.touregypt.net.363}} * [[2700 BC]]: [[Surgery#History of surgery|Surgery]], world's earliest known * [[2700 BC]]: precision [[Surveying#Origins|Surveying]] * [[2700 BC]]: [[Egyptian hieroglyph#Script|Uniliteral signs]], forming basis of world's [[History of alphabets|earliest known alphabet]] * [[2600 BC]]: [[Great Sphinx of Giza|Sphinx]], still today the world's largest single-stone [[statue]] * [[2600 BC|2600s]]&ndash;[[2500 BC]]: [[Shipping]] expeditions: [[Sneferu|King Sneferu]] and [[Sahure#History|Pharaoh Sahure]]. See also {{ref|www.msichicago.org.364}}, {{ref|www.touregypt.net.365}}. * [[2600 BC]]: [[Barge]] transportation, stone blocks (see [[Egyptian pyramids#Construction techniques|Egyptian pyramids: Construction]]) * [[2600 BC]]: [[Pyramid of Djoser]], world's earliest known large-scale stone building * [[2600 BC]]: [[Menkaure's Pyramid]] & [[Red Pyramid]], world's earliest known works of carved [[granite]] * [[2600 BC]]: [[Red Pyramid]], world's earliest known "true" smooth-sided pyramid; solid [[granite]] work * [[2600 BC|2580 BC]]: [[Great Pyramid of Giza]], the [[World's tallest structures|world's tallest structure]] until [[1300|AD 1300]] * [[2500 BC]]: [[Beekeeping]], {{ref|www.vftn.org.366}} * [[2400 BC]]: [[Egyptian calendar|Astronomical Calendar]], used even in the [[Middle Ages]] for its [[mathematics|mathematical]] regularity * [[2200 BC]]: [[Beer]], {{ref|www.touregypt.net.367}} * [[1900 BC|1860 BC]]: possible [[Suez Canal|Nile-Red Sea Canal]] ([[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt]]) * [[1800 BC]]: [[History of the alphabet|Alphabet]], world's oldest known * [[1800 BC]]: [[Timeline of mathematics|Berlin Mathematical Papyrus]], {{ref|www.math.buffalo.edu.368}}, 2nd order [[algebraic equations]] * [[1800 BC]]: [[Moscow Papyrus|Moscow Mathematical Papyrus]], generalized formula for volume of [[frustum]] * [[1650s BC|1650 BC]]: [[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus]]: [[geometry]], [[cotangent]] analogue, [[algebraic equations]], [[arithmetic series]], [[geometric series]] * [[1600 BC]]: [[Edwin Smith papyrus]], medical tradition traces as far back as c. [[3000 BC]] * [[1550s BC|1550 BC]]: [[Ebers papyrus|Ebers Medical Papyrus]], traditional [[empiricism]]; world's earliest known documented [[tumors]] (see [[History of medicine#Egyptian medicine|History of medicine]]) * [[1500 BC]]: [[Glass|Glass-making]], world's earliest known * [[1250s BC|1258 BC]]: [[Peace treaty]], world's earliest known (see [[Ramesses II#Life|Ramesses II]], {{ref|www.touregypt.net.369}}) * [[1160s BC|1160 BC]]: [[Turin papyrus]], world's earliest known [[geology|geologic]] and [[topographic]] map * [[1000 BC]]: [[Tar|Petroleum tar]] used in [[Mummy|mummification]]{{ref|www.geotimes.org.feb05}} <!-- world's earliest known use of petroleum???? need documentation --> * [[500s BC|5th]]&ndash;[[400s BC|4th century BC]] (or perhaps earlier): battle games ''petteia'' and ''seega''; possible precursors to [[Chess]] (see [[Origins of chess]]) ====Other==== ** c.[[2500 BC]]: [[Westcar Papyrus]] ** c.[[1800 BC]]: [[Ipuwer papyrus]] ** c.[[1800 BC]]: [[Papyrus Harris I]] ** c.[[1400 BC]]: [[Tulli Papyrus]] ** c.[[1300 BC]]: [[Ebers papyrus|Brugsch Papyrus]] ** Unknown date: [[Rollin Papyrus]] <!-- shouldn't this section just be merged withthe above? why list it as Other? --> <!-- No achievements are represented here; e. g., the Tulli Papyrus does not physically exist! And it is a controversial ancient account of UFOs! --> ===Open problems=== {{main|Unsolved problems in Egyptology}} There is a question as to the sophistication of ancient Egyptian technology, and there are several [[open problem]]s concerning real and alleged ancient Egyptian achievements. Certain artifacts and records do not fit with conventional technological development systems. It is not known why there is no neat progression to an Egyptian [[Iron Age]] nor why the historical record shows the Egyptians taking so long to begin using [[iron]]. It is unknown how the Egyptians shaped and worked [[granite]]. The exact date the Egyptians started producing [[glass]] is debated. Some question whether the Egyptians were capable of long distance [[navigation]] in their [[boat]]s and when they became knowledgeable sailors. It is contentiously disputed as to whether or not the Egyptians had some understanding of [[electricity]] and if the Egyptians used [[engine]]s or [[Baghdad Battery|batteries]]. The [[Dendera light|relief at Dendera]] is interpreted in various ways by scholars. The topic of the [[Saqqara Bird]] is controversial, as is the extent of the Egyptians' understanding of [[aerodynamics]]. It is unknown for certain if the Egyptians had [[kite]]s or [[glider]]s. [[Beekeeping]] is known to have been particularly well developed in Egypt, as accounts are given by several [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] writers &mdash; [[Virgil]], [[Gaius Julius Hyginus]], [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]] and [[Columella]]. It is unknown whether Egyptian [[beekeeping]] developed independently or as an [[import]] from [[Southern Asia]]. ==See also== {{commonscat|Ancient Egypt}}{{portal}} * [[List of Ancient Egyptians]] * [[List of pharaohs]] * [[Egyptology]] * [[Unsolved problems in Egyptology]] * [[History of Egypt]] * [[List of Ancient Egyptian sites]] * [[Egyptian Museum]] * [[Race of the Ancient Egyptians]] * [[Egypt in the European imagination]] ==Further reading== *[[John Baines]] & Jaromir Malek, ''The Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt'', revised edition, Facts on File, 2000. ISBN 0816040362 *[[Barry Kemp]], ''Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization'', Routledge, 1991. ISBN 0415063469 *Bill Manley (ed.), ''The Seventy Great Mysteries of Ancient Egypt''. Thames & Hudson, ISBN 0500051232 *Ian Shaw, ''The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt'', Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0192804588 ==External links== *[http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/ Ancient Egypt] - maintained by the [[British Museum]], this site provides a useful introduction to Ancient Egypt for older children and young adolescents *[http://archaeology.about.com/od/ancientegypt/ Ancient Egypt and Egyptians] articles and resources from About Archaeology *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/ BBC History: Egyptians] - provides a reliable general overview and further links *[http://www.mysteries-in-stone.co.uk Ancient Egyptian History] - A comprehensive & consise educational website focusing on the basic and the advanced in all aspects of Ancient Egypt *[http://www.ancientneareast.net/egypt.html Ancientneareast.net: Ancient Egypt] - provides a comprehensive listing of resources relating to the archaeology of Ancient Egypt *[http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/egypt/ Egyptology Resources] - maintained by Dr Nigel Strudwick, offers one reliable guide to online documentation of Ancient Egypt *[http://www.kv5.com/ The Theban Mapping Project] - although focusing on the Theban region (modern [[Luxor]]), this site holds much of general interest relating to Ancient Egypt *[http://www.projectshum.org/Ancient/egypt.html Ancient Civilizations - Ancient Egypt] children's site == Notes == <!-- How to add a footnote: NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. 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NOTE: It is important to add footnotes in the right order in the list! --> # {{note|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.348}} {{cite web | title=Entrez PubMed | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15202071&query_hl=6&itool=pubmed_docsum | accessdate=January 24 | accessyear=2006 }} # {{note|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.349}} {{cite web | title=Entrez PubMed | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12495079 | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.350}} {{cite web | title=Entrez PubMed | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15457403&query_hl=11&itool=pubmed_docsum | accessdate=January 24 | accessyear=2006 }} # {{note|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.351}} {{cite web | title=Entrez PubMed | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=14748828| accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|Zakrzewski}} {{cite web | title=Entrez PubMed | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?dmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12772210&dopt=Abstract|accessdate=January 27 | accessyear=2006 }} # {{note|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.352}} {{cite web | title=Who were the Ancient Egyptians? | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16331657&query_hl=16&itool=pubmed_docsum | accessdate=January 24 | accessyear=2006 }} # {{note|www.world-science.net.353}} {{cite web | title=Study traces Egyptians’ stone-age roots | url=http://www.world-science.net/exclusives/exclusives-nfrm/051217_egypt1.htm | accessdate=January 24 | accessyear=2006 }} # {{note|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.354}} {{cite web | title=Entrez PubMed | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10091248&itool=iconabstr | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.355}} {{cite web | title=Entrez PubMed | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11148985&itool=iconabstr | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|www.touregypt.net.356}} {{cite web | title=Egypt: History - Predynastic Period | url=http://www.touregypt.net/ebph5.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|www.exn.ca.357}} {{cite web | title=:: Discovery Channel CA :: | url=http://www.exn.ca/egypt/story.asp?st=Lifestyles | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|www.findarticles.com.358}} {{cite web | title=Accounting Historians Journal, The: oldest writings, and inventory tags of Egypt, The | url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3657/is_200206/ai_n9107461 | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk.359}} {{cite web | title=Overview of Egyptian Mathematics | url=http://www.touregypt.net/ebph5.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk.360}} {{cite web | title=Overview of Egyptian Mathematics | url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Egyptian_mathematics.html | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|www.touregypt.net.361}} {{cite web | title=Wine in Ancient Egypt | url=http://www.touregypt.net/magazine/mag11012000/magf2.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|xoomer.virgilio.it.362}} {{cite web | title=Francesco Raffaele Egyptology News | url=http://xoomer.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/news.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|www.touregypt.net.363}} {{cite web | title=Egypt: Science and chemistry in ancient Egypt | url=http://www.touregypt.net/science.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|www.msichicago.org.364}} {{cite web | title=MSIChicago : Exhibits : Ships Through the Ages | url=http://www.msichicago.org/exhibit/ships/ | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|www.touregypt.net.365}} {{cite web | title=The Ancient Egyptian Navy | url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/navy.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|www.vftn.org.366}} {{cite web | title=apiary2 | url=http://www.vftn.org/projects/bryant/navbar_pages/apiary_2.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|www.touregypt.net.367}} {{cite web | title=Egypt: Tour Egypt Monthly: Anceint Egyptian Alcohol and Beer | url=http://www.touregypt.net/magazine/mag04012001/magf2.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk.368}} {{cite web | title=Overview of Egyptian Mathematics | url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Egyptian_mathematics.html | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|www.touregypt.net.369}} {{cite web | title=Egypt: Ramses the Great, The Pharaoh Who Made Peace with his Enemies And the First Peace Treaty in History | url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/treaty.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }} # {{note|www.geotimes.org.370}} {{cite web | title=Geotimes - February 2005 - Mummy tar in ancient Egypt | url=http://www.geotimes.org/feb05/NN_mummytar.html | accessdate=January 9 | accessyear=2006 }} {{Ancient Egypt}} [[Category:Ancient Egypt| ]] [[ar:قدماء المصريين]] [[bg:Древен Египет]] [[ca:Antic Egipte]] [[da:Det gamle Ægypten]] [[de:Altes Ägypten]] [[eo:Egipta civilizo]] [[es:Antiguo Egipto]] [[fa:مصر باستان]] [[fi:Muinainen Egypti]] [[fr:Égypte antique]] [[gl:Antigo Exipto]] [[he:מצרים העתיקה]] [[hu:Ókori Egyiptom]] [[ja:古代エジプト]] [[ko:이집트 문명]] [[lv:Senā Ēģipte]] [[mk:Антички Египет]] [[ms:Mesir purba]] [[nds:Ole Ägypten]] [[nl:Oude Egypte]] [[no:Oldtidens Egypt]] [[oc:Egipte]] [[pl:Starożytny Egipt]] [[ru:Древний Египет]] [[sl:Stari Egipt]] [[sr:Стари Египат]] [[uk:Стародавній Єгипет]] [[zh:古埃及]] 875 41300881 2006-02-26T11:12:46Z Urthogie 106482 /* External links */ remove category overlap '''Analog Brothers''' is an experimental rap crew featuring Ice Oscillator a.k.a. [[Ice T]] (keyboards, drums, voc), Keith Korg a.k.a. [[Kool Keith]] (bass, strings, vocals), Mark Moog (drums, ''violyns'' and vocals) and Silver Synth (''synthasizer'', ''lazar bell'' and vocals). Their CD ''Pimp To Eat'' featured guest appearances by various members of the [[Rhyme Syndicate]], [[Odd Oberheim]], [[Jacky Jasper]], D.J. Cisco from S.M. and H Bomb, the [[Synth-a-Size Sisters]] and Teflon. ==Discography== * 2000 ''[[Pimp to Eat]]'' (Ground Control/Nu Gruv) ==External links== *{{AMG Artist|sql=11:5f47gjlr26ib|artist=Analog Brothers}} *[http://www.discogs.com/artist/Analog+Brothers Analog Brothers] at [[Discogs]] [[Category:American hip hop groups]] [[Category:Alternative hip hop musicians]] {{hip-hop-stub}} 876 42160271 2006-03-04T05:30:24Z 71.251.77.2 /* History and prominent patients */ {{DiseaseDisorder infobox | Name = Motor neurone disease | ICD10 = {{ICD10|G|12|2|g|10}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|335.2}} | }} The '''''motor neurone diseases''''' (MND) are a group of progressive neurological disorders that destroy [[motor neuron]]s, the cells that control voluntary muscle activity such as speaking, walking, breathing, and swallowing. [[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]] (ALS), sometimes called [[Lou Gehrig]]'s disease, [[progressive muscular atrophy]] (PMA), [[spinal muscular atrophy]] (SMA), progressive or pseudo-bulbar palsy (PBP) and [[primary lateral sclerosis]] (PLS) are all forms of motor neurone disease. ==Terminology== In this article, MND refers to a group of diseases which affect the motor neurons. In the [[United States]], the term [[ALS]] is more commonly used, where it is also known as [[Lou Gehrig|Lou Gehrig's]] disease, after the [[baseball]] player. Although previously described by other neurologists of the 19th century, it was [[Jean-Martin Charcot]], a [[France|French]] [[neurologist]], who suggested grouping together a number of disparate conditions all affecting the lateral horn of the spinal cord in [[1869]]. In France the disease is sometimes known as Maladie de Charcot (Charcot's disease), although it may also be referred to by the direct translation of ALS, Sclerose Laterale Amyotrophique (SLA). To help prevent confusion, the annual scientific research conference dedicated to the study of MND is called the International ALS/MND Symposium. ==Signs and symptoms== Neurological examination presents specific signs associated with upper and lower motor neuron degeneration. Signs of [[upper motor neuron]] damage include [[spasticity]], brisk [[reflex action|reflexes]] and the [[Babinski sign]]. Signs of [[lower motor neuron]] damage include weakness and muscle atrophy. Note that every muscle group in the body requires both upper and lower motor neurons to function. It is a common misconception that "upper" motor neurons control the arms, whilst "lower" motor neurons control the legs. The signs described above can occur in any muscle group, including the arms, legs, torso, and bulbar region. Symptoms usually present between the ages of 50-70, and include progressive weakness, muscle wasting, and muscle fasciculations; spasticity or stiffness in the arms and legs; and overactive tendon reflexes. Patients may present with symptoms as diverse as a dragging foot, unilateral muscle wasting in the hands, or slurred speech. The symptoms described above may resemble a number of other rare diseases, known as "MND Mimic Disorders". These include, but are not limited to [[multifocal motor neuropathy]], [[kennedy's disease]], [[hereditary spastic paraplegia]], [[spinal muscular atrophy]] and [[monomelic amyotrophy]]. A small subset of familial MND cases occur in children, such as "juvenile ALS", Madras syndrome, and individuals who have inherited the ALS2 gene. However, these are not typically referred to as MND, but by their specific names. ==Diagnosis== The diagnosis of MND is a clinical one, established by a neurologist on the basis of history and neurological examination. There is no diagnostic test for MND. Investigations such as blood tests, [[electromyography]] (EMG), [[magnetic resonance imaging]] (MRI), and sometmies [[genetic testing]] are useful to rule out other disorders that may mimic MND. However, the diagnosis of MND remains a clinical one. Having excluded other diseases, a relatively rapid progression of symptoms is a strong diagnostic factor. Although an individual's progression may sometimes "plateau", it will not recover or slow down. A set of diagnostic criteria called the El Escorial criteria have been defined by the World Federation of Neurologists for use in research, particularly as inclusion/exclusion criteria for clinical trials. Due to a lack of clincial diagnostic criteria, some neurologists use the El Escorial criteria during the diagnostic process, although strictly speaking this is [[functionality creep]]. MND in the presence of both upper and lower motor neuron degeneration is ALS. Where the illness affects only the upper motor neurons it is PLS, and where it affects only the lower motor neurons it is PMA. Progressive bulbar palsy is degneration of the lower motor neurons innervating the bulbar region (mouth, face, and throat), whilst pseudobulbar palsy refers to degeneration of the upper motor neurons to the same region. ==Prognosis== Most cases of MND progess quite quickly, with noticeable decline occuring over the course of months. Although symptoms may present in one region, they will typically spread. If restricted to one side of the body they are more likely to progress to the same region on the other side of the body before progressing to a new region. After several years, most patients require help to carry out activities of daily living such as self care, feeding, and transportation. MND is typically fatal within 2-5 years. Around 50% die within 14 months of diagnosis. The remaining 50% will not necessarily die within the next 14 months as the distribution is significantly skewed. As a rough estimate, 1 in 5 patients survive for 5 years, and 1 in 10 patients survive 10 years. [[Stephen Hawking]] is a well-known example of a person with MND, and has lived for more than 40 years with the disease. Mortality results when the muscles that control breathing are no longer able to expel carbon dioxide. One exception is PLS, which may last for upwards of 25 years. Given the typical age of onset, this effectively leaves most PLS patients with a normal life span. PLS can progress to ALS, decades later. ==Pathology== ===Causes=== About 90% of cases of MND are "sporadic", meaning that the patient has no family history of ALS and the case appears to have occurred with no known cause. Genetic factors are suspected to be important in determining an individual's susceptibility to disease, and there is some weak evidence to suggest that onset can be "triggered" by as yet unknown environmental factors (see 'Epidemiology' below). Approximately 10% of cases are "familial MND", defined either by a family history of MND or by testing positive for a known genetic mutation associated with the disease. The following genes are known to be linked to ALS: Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase ''SOD1'', ''ALS2'', ''NEFH''(a small number of cases), senataxin (SETX) and vesicle associated protein B (''VAPB''). Of these, SOD1 mutations account for some 20% of familial MND cases. The ''SOD1'' gene codes for the enzyme [[superoxide dismutase]], a [[radical (chemistry)|free radical]] scavenger that reduces the [[oxidative stress]] of cells throughout the body. So far over 100 different mutations in the SOD1 gene have been found, all of which cause some form of ALS([http://www.alsod.org ALSOD database]). In North America, the most commonly occurring mutation is known as A4V and occurs in up to 50% of SOD1 cases. In people of [[Scandinavia]]n extraction there is a relatively benign mutation called D90A which is associated with a slow progression. Future research is concentrating on identifying new genetic mutations and the clinical syndrome associated with them. Familial MND may also confer a higher risk of developing cognitive changes such as frontotemporal dementia or executive dysfunction (see 'extra-motor change in MND' below). It is thought that ''SOD1'' mutations confer a toxic gain, rather than a loss, of function to the enzyme. SOD1 mutations may increase the propensity for the enzyme to form protein aggregates which are toxic to nerve cells. ===Pathophysiology=== [[Skeletal muscle]]s are innervated by a group of neurons (''lower motor neurons'') located on the ventral surface of the spinal cord which project to the muscle cells. These nerve cells are themselves innervated by the corticospinal tract or ''upper motor neurons'' that project from the [[motor cortex]] of the brain. On macroscopic pathology, there is a degeneration of the ventral horns of the spinal cord, as well as atrophy of the ventral roots. In the brain, atrophy may be present in the frontal and temporal lobes. On microscopic examination, neurones may show spongiosis, the presence of astrocytes, and a number of inclusions including characteristic "skein-like" inclusions, bunina bodies, and vacuolisation. There is a role in excitotoxicity and oxidative stress, presumably secondary to mitochondrial dysfunction. In animal models, death by [[apoptosis]] has also been identified. ==Emotional lability / pseudobulbar affect== {{main|labile affect}} Around a third of all MND patients experiece [[labile affect]], also known as emotional lability, pseudobulbar affect, or pathological laughter and crying. Patients with pseudobulbar palsy are particuarly likely to be affected, as are patients with PLS. ==Extra-motor change in MND== [[Cognitive]] change can and does occur in between 33&ndash;50% of patients. A small proportion exhibit a form of [[frontotemporal dementia]] characterised by behavioural abnormalities such as [[disinhibition]], [[apathy]], and personality changes. A small proportion of patients may also suffer from an [[aphasia]], which causes difficulty in naming specific objects. A larger proportion (up to 50%) suffer from a milder version of cognitive change which primarily affects what is known as [[executive function]]. Briefly, this is the ability of an individual to initiate, inhibit, sustain, and switch attention and is involved in the organisation of complex tasks down to smaller components. Often patients with such changes find themselves unable to do the family finances or drive a car. [[clinical depression|Depression]] is surprisingly rare in MND (around 5&ndash;20%) relative to the frequency with which it is found in other, less severe, neurological disorders e.g. ~50% in [[multiple sclerosis]] and [[Parkinson's disease]], ~20% in Epilepsy. Depression does not necessarily increase as the symptoms progress, and in fact many patients report being happy with their [[quality of life]] despite profound disability. This may reflect the use of [[Coping (psychology)|coping strategies]] such as reevaluating what is important in life. Although traditionally thought only to affect the motor system, sensory abnormalities are not necessarily absent, with some patients finding altered sensation to touch and heat, found in around 10% of patients. Patients with a predominantly upper motor neurone syndrome, and particularly PLS, often report an enhanced startle reflex to loud noises. Neuroimaging and neuropathology has demonstrated extra-motor changes in the frontal lobes including the inferior frontal gyrus, superior frontal gyrus, anterior cingulate cortex, and superior temporal gyrus. The degree of pathology in these areas has been directly related to the degree of cognitive change experienced by the patient, if any. Patients with MND and dementia have been shown to exhibit marked frontotemporal lobe atrophy as revealed by [[MRI]] or [[SPECT]] [[neuroimaging]]. ==Epidemiology== The incidence of MND is approximately 1&ndash;5 out of 100,000 people. Men have a slightly higher incidence rate than women. Approximately 5,600 cases are diagnosed in the U.S. every year. By far the greatest risk factor is age, with symptoms typically presenting between the ages of 50-70. Cases under the age of 50 years are called "young onset MND", whilst incidence rates appear to tail off after the age of 85. Tentative environmental risk factors identified so far include: exposure to severe electrical shock leading to coma, having served in the first [[Gulf War]], and playing professional [[football (soccer)]]. However, these findings have not been firmly identified and more research is needed. There are three "hot spots" of MND in the world. One is in the Kii pensinula of Japan, one amongst a tribal population in Papua New Guinea. Until the 1960s, Chamorro inhabitants from the island of [[Guam]] in the [[Oceania|Pacific Ocean]] had an increased risk of developing a form of MND known as Guamanian ALS-PD-dementia complex or "lytico bodig", but since then the incidence rates have returned to near normal, and nobody born since 1940 has developed the disease. Putative theories involve neurotoxins in local wildlife including [[cycad]] nuts and other traditional foodstuffs[http://www.boston.com/news/science/articles/2003/12/09/flying_fox_linked_to_disease/]. ==Treatment== Currently, there is no cure for ALS. The only drug that affects the course of the disease is [[riluzole]]. The drug functions by blocking the effects of the neurotransmitter glutamate, and is thought to extend the lifespan of an ALS patient by only a few months. The lack of effective medications to slow the progression of ALS does not mean that patients with ALS cannot be medically cared for. Instead, treatment of patients with ALS focuses on the relief of symptoms associated with the disease. This involves a variety of health professionals including neurologists, physical therapists, occupational therapists, dieticians, respiratory therapists, social workers, palliative care specialists, specialist nurses and psychologists. A list of neurology clinics that specialize in the care of patients with ALS can be found on the World Federation of Neurology website (http://www.wfnals.org/clinics/). ==Research Efforts== The search for a drug that will slow ALS disease progression is underway. For example, recent research using mouse models suggests that [[minocycline]], a common antibiotic, may also be effective in extending the lifespan of ALS sufferers. This drug must pass [[clinical trials]] with ALS patients before it may be used as a general treatment for ALS. [[Minocycline]] extends the lifespan of ALS mice with SOD1 mutations, but it does not prevent their eventual death. Other agents that are currently in trials include ceftriaxone, arimoclomol, IGF-1 and coenzyme Q10 to name but a few. A list of US-based clinical ALS trials may be found at www.clinicaltrials.org or by contacting your local ALS/MND charity. ==Etymology== ''Amyotrophic'' comes from the [[Greek language]]: ''A-'' means "no", ''myo'' refers to "muscle", and ''trophic'' means "nourishment"; ''amyotrophic'' therefore means "no muscle nourishment," which describes the characteristic [[atrophy|atrophication]] of the sufferer's disused muscle tissue. ''Lateral'' identifies the areas in a person's spinal cord where portions of the nerve cells that are affected are located. As this area degenerates it leads to scarring or hardening ("[[sclerosis]]") in the region. ==History and prominent patients== [[United States|U.S.]] baseball player [[Lou Gehrig]] brought national and international attention to the disease in [[1939]] when he abruptly retired after being diagnosed with ALS/MND; he would die two years later. Former guitar virtuoso [[Jason Becker]], [[Theoretical physics|theoretical physicist]] [[Stephen Hawking]], and ex-[[Celtic F.C.|Celtic]] [[Football (soccer)|football]] player [[Jimmy Johnstone]] also suffer from the disease. Founder of care homes [[Leonard Cheshire]] VC, owner from 1957-1966 of [[Athelhampton]] House in Dorset Sir Robert Cooke F.R.C.S., [[Theoretical physics|theoretical physicist]] [[Victor Emery]], [[Rangers F.C.|Rangers]] [[football (soccer)|football]]er [[Sam English]], [[Baseball Hall of Fame|Hall of Fame]] [[pitcher]] [[Catfish Hunter|Jim "Catfish" Hunter]], [[blues]] singer and guitarist [[Leadbelly]], [[China|Chinese]] Chairman [[Mao Zedong]], [[jazz]] giant [[Charles Mingus]], [[Hollywood]] actor [[David Niven]], legendary [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds United]] manager [[Don Revie]], teacher and book subject [[Morrie Schwartz]], American television actor [[Lane Smith]], linguist [[Larry Trask]], ''[[The Guardian|Guardian]]'' journalist [[Jill Tweedie]], avant-garde guitarist [[Derek Bailey]], American [[soap opera]] veteran [[Michael Zaslow]], and libertarian writer, politician, and investment analyst, [[Harry Browne]] died from the disease. [[Diane Pretty]] was a British woman with the disease who was involved in a prominent [[right-to-die]] case in the early [[2000s]]. ==See also== * [[Kennedy disease]] * [[Monomelic amyotrophy]] * [[Primary lateral sclerosis]] * [[Progressive muscular atrophy]] * [[Riluzole]] ==Sources and references== * [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/motor_neuron_diseases/motor_neuron_diseases.htm NINDS Motor Neuron Diseases Information Page] :Motor Neuron Diseases information sheet compiled by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS). * [http://www.alsod.org/ ALSOD Database of all known SOD1 mutations] * Some information gathered from Dr. M Norenberg, [[University of Miami]] ([[October 26]] [[2004]]). * ''Crossing the Finishing Line&mdash;Last Thoughts of Leonard Cheshire VC'', ed. [[Reginald C. Fuller]] (London 1998). * ''[[De Standaard]]'' ([[Dutch language]] newspaper), [[12 September]] [[2005]]. * Zhu S, Stavrovskaya IG, Drozda M, Kim BY, Ona V, Li M, Sarang S, Liu AS, Hartley DM, Wu du C, Gullans S, Ferrante RJ, Przedborski S, Kristal BS, Friedlander RM. "Minocycline inhibits cytochrome c release and delays progression of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in mice." Nature. 2002 [[May 2]];417(6884):74-8. * Van Den Bosch L, Tilkin P, Lemmens G, Robberecht W. "Minocycline delays disease onset and mortality in a transgenic model of ALS." Neuroreport. 2002 [[12 June]];13(8):1067-70. * Kriz J, Nguyen MD, Julien JP. "Minocycline slows disease progression in a mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis." Neurobiol Dis. 2002 Aug;10(3):268-78. ==Information about Clinical Trials== * [http://clinicaltrials.gov/search/term=Motor%20Neuron%20%20Diseases List of United States government funded clinical trials relating to MND] * [http://www.alsa.org/patient/drug.cfm?id=59 Information on the ALS Association's Website about clinical trials of minocycline as an ALS treatment] ==Other Resources== * [http://www.als.net/ ALS Therapy Development Foundation] * [http://www.alsa.org/ ALS Association] * [http://www.alsmndalliance.org/index.shtml ALS/MND Alliance] * [http://www.mndassociation.org/full-site/home.shtml MND Association] * [http://www.ALSLIGA.be ALS Liga Belgium (dutch and french language)] * [http://hereditarymnd.org.au/index.html The Hereditary Motor Neurone Disease Foundation] - Australian group seeking to find a cure for familial Motor Neurone Disease. * [http://brain.hastypastry.net/forums/forumdisplay.php?f=77/ BrainTalk Communities Forum for people with ALS/MND (US-Based)] * [http://www.magimedia.co.uk/buildforum/ BUILD-UK Forum for people with ALS/MND (UK-Based)] * [http://www.als.ca/ ALS Canada] * [http://www.projectals.org/ Project A.L.S] [[Category:Disability]] [[Category:Motor Neuron Disease| ]] [[Category:Neurological disorders]] [[de:Amyotrophe Lateralsklerose]] [[es:Esclerosis Lateral Amiotrófica]] [[fr:Sclérose latérale amyotrophique]] [[ja:筋萎縮性側索硬化症]] [[nl:Amyotrofische laterale sclerose]] [[no:Amyotrofisk lateral sklerose]] [[sv:Amyotrofisk lateralskleros]] [[zh:肌肉萎缩症]] 877 40025728 2006-02-17T16:13:15Z Phil Boswell 24373 [[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}} :''For the traditional ordering of the letters of the Arabic alphabet, see [[Abjadi order]], [[Abjad numerals]].'' An '''abjad''' is a type of [[writing system]] in which there is one symbol per [[consonant|consonantal]] [[phoneme]], sometimes also called a '''consonantary'''. Abjads differ from [[alphabet|alphabets]], in that in an abjad, each basic [[grapheme]] represents a consonant, although [[vowel]]s may be indicated by [[vowel mark]]s on the basic graphemes. An alphabet has basic graphemes for both consonants and vowels. Abjads also differ from [[abugida|abugidas]]. In an abjad, each basic grapheme represents only a consonant. In an abugida, each basic grapheme represents a syllable consisting of a consonant and a vowel; the same consonant with a different vowel -- or with no vowel -- is represented by a modified or marked form of the same basic grapheme. ==Etymology== The system takes its name from the first nonsense 'word' of the mnemonic sequence for the letters of the [[Arabic alphabet]] in the older [[Arabic alphabet#Abjadi order|abjadi order]]. It has been suggested that the word 'Abjad' may have earlier roots in [[Phoenician languages|Phoenician]] or [[Ugaritic language|Ugaritic]]. ==History== All known abjads belong to the Semitic family of scripts, and derive from the original Northern Linear Abjad. The reason for this is that [[Semitic languages]] have a [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphemic structure]] which makes the denotation of vowels redundant or unnecessary in most cases. ==Impure abjads== "Impure" abjads (such as Arabic) may have characters for some vowels as well (called ''matres lectionis'', 'mothers of reading', singular [[ mater lectionis]]), or optional vowel diacritics, or both; however, the term's originator, [[Peter T. Daniels]], insists that it should be applied only to scripts entirely lacking in vowel indicators, thus excluding [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], and [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]]. Impure abjads develop when, due to [[phonetics|phonetic]] change, a previous [[consonant]] or [[diphthong]] becomes a vowel. Later generations, who receive their [[orthography]] without knowing that letter originally signified a consonant there, understand it to mean a [[vowel]] as it is in their spoken language. They then use that letter as a vowel in other places where it was never a consonant. For example, the Hebrew word הורישׁ probably underwent the following pronunciation change: {{unicode|*hi'''w'''riʃ}} → {{unicode|*ho'''w'''riʃ}} → {{unicode|h'''o'''riʃ}}. The ו, which was originally the consonant w, became the vowel o. Later, probably in the [[Second Temple]] period, the vowel use of ו was expanded to places where no consonant ever existed. ===Addition of vowels=== Many scripts derived from abjads have been extended with vowel symbols to become full [[alphabet]]s. This has mostly happened when the script was adapted to a non-Semitic language, the most famous case being the derivation of the [[Greek alphabet]] from the Phoenician abjad. The Greeks did not need the letters for the [[guttural consonant|guttural]] (&#1488;, &#1492;, &#1495;, &#1506;) and [[co-articulated consonant|co-articulated]] (&#1510;, &#1511;) consonants. They dropped some of them and turned others into vowels. In other cases, the vowel signs come in the form of little points or hooks attached to the consonant letters, producing an [[abugida]] such as the system of writing [[Amharic]] (written using the Ge'ez alphabet, which was formerly an abjad before a vocalization occurred sometime after the 5th century BCE but before the 4th century CE). ==Related concepts== Surprisingly, many non-Semitic languages such as English can be written without vowels and read with little difficulty. For example, the previous sentence could be written ''Srprsngly, mny nn-Smtc lnggs sch `s `nglsh cn b wrttn wtht vwls `nd rd wth lttl dffclty.'' This fact can be used to semi-bowdlerise offensive language, a practice known as [[disemvoweling]]. Some usages of [[1337speak]] drop vowels, especially for small words. ==See also== * [[Abjad numerals]] ==References== * {{cite book|author=Wright, W.|title=A Grammar of the Arabic Language | edition = 3<sup>rd</sup> ed.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1971|id=ISBN 0-521-09455-0}}, v. 1, p. 28. ==External links== * [http://www.abjad.com/ Abjad - The Arabic Alphabet learning system] [[Category:Writing systems]] [[br:Abjad]] [[ca:Abjad]] [[de:Konsonantenschrift]] [[es:Abyad]] [[fa:ابجد]] [[fr:Abjad]] [[gl:Abxad]] [[wa:Abdjad]] 878 41075774 2006-02-24T22:13:33Z 139.76.128.71 {{IndicText}} An '''abugida''', '''alphasyllabary''', or '''syllabics''' is a [[writing system]] composed of signs ([[grapheme]]s) denoting [[consonant]]s with an inherent following [[vowel]], which are consistently modified to indicate other vowels, or, in some cases, the lack of a vowel. Examples include the various scripts of the [[Brahmic family]], Ethiopic [[Ge'ez language|Ge’ez]], and [[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]]. A typical abugida is [[Devanagari]]. There is no basic sign representing the consonant ''k;'' rather the unmodified letter क represents the syllable ''ka;'' the ''a'' is the so-called "inherent" vowel. The vowel may be changed by adding vowel marks to the basic character, producing other syllables beginning with ''k-,'' such as कि ''ki'', कु ''ku'', के ''ke'', को ''ko''. These [[diacritic]]s are applied systematically to other consonantal characters. For example, from ल ''la'' is formed लि ''li'', लु ''lu'', ले ''le'', लो ''lo''. Such a consonant with either an inherent or marked vowel is called an [[akshara]]. In many abugidas, there is also a diacritic to suppress the inherent vowel, yielding the bare consonant. In Devanagari, क् is ''k,'' and ल् is ''l''. This is called the ''[[virama]]'' in [[Sanskrit]], or ''halant'' in [[Hindi]]. It may be used to form [[consonant cluster]]s, or to indicate that a consonant occurs at the end of a word. Other means of expressing these functions include special [[conjunct]] forms in which two or more consonant characters are merged to express a cluster, such as Devanagari: क्ल ''kla.'' (Note that on some fonts display this as क् followed by ल, rather than forming a conjunct.) The diacritics may appear above (के), below (कु), to the left (कि), or to the right (को) of the consonantal character, or may surround it as in [[Tamil script|Tamil]] கௌ = ''kau,'' from க ''ka''. In many of the Brahmic scripts, a syllable beginning with a cluster is treated as a single character for purposes of vowel marking, so a vowel marker like ि ''-i,'' falling before the character it modifies, may appear several positions before the place where it is pronounced. For example, the game [[cricket]] in [[Hindi language|Hindi]] is क्रिकेट ''krikeţ;'' the diacritic for /i/ appears before the [[consonant cluster]] /kr/, not before the /r/. A more unusual example is seen in the [[Batak alphabet]]: Here the syllable ''bim'' is written ''ba-ma-i-(virama)''. That is, the vowel diacritic and virama are both written after the consonants for the whole syllable. In Ge’ez, the prototype abugida, the form of the letter itself may be altered. For example, ሀ ''hä'' (basic form), ሁ ''hu'' (with a right-side diacritic that does not alter the letter), ሂ ''hi'' (with a subdiacritic compresses the letter, so that the whole fidel (akshara) occupies the same amount of space), ህ ''he'' (where the letter is modified with a kink in the left arm). In the family of abugidas known as [[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]], vowels are indicated by modification (rotation and reflection) of the akshara. For example, Inuktitut ᐱ ''pi,'' ᐳ ''pu,'' ᐸ ''pa;'' ᑎ ''ti,'' ᑐ ''tu,'' ᑕ ''ta''. The [[Róng]] script used for the [[Lepcha language]] goes further than other abugidas in that each akshara is a full syllable: Not only the vowel, but any final consonant is indicated by a diacritic. For example, the syllable [sok] would written as something like {{IPA|s̥̽}}, here with an underring representing /o/ and an overcross representing the diacritic for final /k/. There are several abugidas of Indonesia which also indicate final consonants with diacritics, but usually these are restricted to one or two [[nasal consonant|nasals]] such as /ŋ/. The [[Pahawh Hmong]] script represents both consonants and vowels with full letters. However, the graphic order is vowel-consonant even though they are pronounced as consonant-vowel. This is rather like the /o/ vowel in the Indic abugidas. Pahawh Hmong is unusual in that, while the inherent vowel /au/ is unwritten, so is the inherent consonant /k/. For the syllable /kau/, which requires one or the other of the inherent sounds to be overt, it is /au/ that is written. That is, a Pahawh akshara appears to be a vowel with an inherent consonant rather than the other way around. It is difficult to draw a dividing line between abugidas and other [[segment (linguistics)|segmental]] scrips. For example, the [[Meroitic script]] of ancient [[Sudan]] did not indicate an inherent ''a'' (one symbol stood for both ''m'' and ''ma,'' for example), and is thus similar to Brahmic family abugidas. However, the other vowels were indicated with full letters, not diacritics or modification, so the system was essentially an alphabet that did not bother to write the most common vowel. [[Thaana]] is also like an abugida in that vowels are marked with diacritics. However, all vowels are marked, as is the absence of a vowel; there is no inherent vowel. Normally no letter may occur without a diacritic. That is, it is equivalent to an [[abjad]] with obligatory vowel marking, like the [[Arabic alphabet]] as used for [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] in Iraq, as is thus essentially alphabetic. Note that it developed among a population that was already literate with an abugida for their language. Several systems of [[shorthand]] use diacritics for vowels, but they do not have an inherent vowel, and are thus more similar to Thaana and Kurdish than to the Brahmic scripts. The [[Sam Pollard|Pollard]] script, which was based on shorthand, also uses diacritics for vowels; the placements of the vowel relative to the consonant indicates [[tone (linguistics)|tone]]. As the term ''alphasyllabary'' suggests, abugidas have been considered an intermediate step between [[alphabet]]s and [[syllabary|syllabaries]]. Historically, abugidas appear to have evolved from [[abjad|abjads]] (vowelless alphabets). They contrast with syllabaries, where there is a distinct symbol for each syllable or consonant-vowel combination, and where these have no systematic similarity to each other. Compare the Devanagari examples above to sets of syllables in the Japanese [[hiragana]] syllabary: か ''ka'', き ''ki'', く ''ku'', け ''ke'', こ ''ko'' have nothing in common to indicate ''k;'' while ら ''ra'', り ''ri'', る ''ru'', れ ''re'', ろ ''ro'' have neither anything in common for ''r'', nor anything do indicate that they have the same vowels as the ''k'' set. The term ''abugida'' is taken from a conventional name for the Ge'ez script, derived from its first four letters (አቡጊዳ) as ordered in some religious contexts. This order corresponds to the ancestral [[Semitic]] character order, ''aleph, beth, gimel, daleth,'' or A B C D. Historically, abugidas appear to have first evolved from abjads (perhaps [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]]) with the [[Kharoṣṭhī]] and [[Brāhmī]] scripts. The Kharosthi family does not survive today, but Brahmi's descendents include most of the modern scripts of [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. Canadian Syllabics was derived from Devanagari, and is thus in the Brahmic family, or was at least influenced by Devanagari in its creation. Although Ge’ez derived from a different abjad, its evolution into an abugida may have been due to the influence of Christian missionaries from India. == Partial list of abugidas == ;True abugidas *[[Brāhmī|Brahmic]] family, from the 4th (maybe 6th) century BC **[[Balinese alphabet]] **[[Bengali script|Bengali]] **[[Burmese alphabet|Burmese]] **[[Devanagari]] (used to write [[Sanskrit]], [[Pāli|Pali]], modern [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]] etc.) **[[Gujarati script|Gujarati]] **[[Gurmukhi script]] **[[Kannada language|Kannada]] **[[Khmer script|Khmer]] **[[Lao alphabet|Lao]] **[[Malayalam script|Malayalam]] **[[Siddham]] used to write [[Sanskrit]] **[[Sinhala script|Sinhala]] **[[Tamil script|Tamil]] **[[Telugu script|Telugu]] **[[Thai alphabet|Thai]] **[[Tibetan script|Tibetan]] *[[Kharoṣṭhī]] (extinct), from the 3rd century BC *[[Ge'ez language|Ge'ez]] (Ethiopic), from the 4th century AD *[[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]] *[[Baybayin]], pre-colonial script of [[Tagalog language | Tagalog]] ;Abugida-like scripts *[[Meroitic script|Meroitic]] (extinct) *[[Thaana]] *[[Pitman shorthand]] *[[Pollard script]] ==External links== *[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/syllabaries.htm Syllabaries] - [http://www.omniglot.com/ Omniglot's] list of syllabaries and abugidas, including examples of various writing systems [[Category:Writing systems]] [[am:አቡጊዳ]] [[br:Abugida]] [[ca:Abugida]] [[de:Abugida]] [[es:Abugida]] [[fr:Alphasyllabaire]] [[gl:Alfasilabario]] [[ko:아부기다]] [[nl:Abugida]] [[sl:Abugida]] 879 42130717 2006-03-04T00:47:59Z Grcampbell 353882 /* Origin of HIV/AIDS */ {{DiseaseDisorder infobox | Name = Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) | ICD10 = B24 | ICD9 = {{ICD9|042}} | }} '''Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome''', or '''acquired immune deficiency syndrome''' (or [[Acronym and initialism|acronym]] '''AIDS''' or '''Aids'''), is a [[syndrome|collection of symptoms and infections]] resulting from the specific damage to the [[immune system]] caused by [[infection]] with the [[HIV|human immunodeficiency virus]] (HIV).<ref name=Marx>{{ cite journal | author=Marx, J. L. | title=New disease baffles medical community | journal=Science | year=1982 | pages=618-621 | volume=217 | issue=4560 | id={{PMID |7089584}} }}</ref> It results from the latter stages of advanced HIV infection in [[human]]s, thereby leaving compromised individuals prone to [[opportunistic infection]]s and [[tumor]]s. Although treatments for both AIDS and HIV exist to slow the virus' progression in a human patient, there is no known cure. Most researchers believe that HIV originated in [[sub-Saharan Africa]] <ref name=Gao>{{ cite journal | author=Gao, F., Bailes, E., Robertson, D. L., Chen, Y., Rodenburg, C. M., Michael, S. F., Cummins, L. B., Arthur, L. O., Peeters, M., Shaw, G. M., Sharp, P. M. and Hahn, B. H. | title=Origin of HIV-1 in the Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes | journal=Nature | year=1999 | pages=436-441 | volume=397 | issue=6718 | id={{PMID |9989410}} }}</ref> during the twentieth century; it is now a global epidemic. [[UNAIDS]] and the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) estimate that AIDS has killed more than 25 million people since it was first recognized on [[December 1]], [[1981]], making it one of the most destructive pandemics in recorded history. In 2005 alone, AIDS claimed between an estimated 2.8 and 3.6 million, of which more than 570,000 were children.<ref name=UNAIDS>{{ cite web | author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | year= 2005 | url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf | title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005 | accessdate=2006-01-17 }}</ref> In countries where there is access to [[antiretroviral drug|antiretroviral]] treatment, both [[mortality]] and [[morbidity]] of HIV infection have been reduced <ref name=Palella>{{ cite journal | author=Palella, F. J. Jr, Delaney, K. M., Moorman, A. C., Loveless, M. O., Fuhrer, J., Satten, G. A., Aschman and D. J., Holmberg, S. D. | title=Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. HIV Outpatient Study Investigators | journal=N. Engl. J. Med | year=1998 | pages=853-860 | volume=338 | issue=13 | id={{PMID |9516219}} }}</ref>. However, side-effects of these antiretrovirals have also caused problems such as [[lipodystrophy]], [[dyslipidaemia]], [[insulin resistance]] and an increase in [[cardiovascular]] risks <ref name=Montessori>{{ cite journal | author=Montessori, V., Press, N., Harris, M., Akagi, L., Montaner, J. S. | title=Adverse effects of antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection. | journal=CMAJ | year=2004 | pages=229-238 | volume=170 | issue=2 | id={{PMID |14734438}} }}</ref>. The difficulty of consistently taking the medicines has also contributed to the rise of [[viral escape]] and [[viral resistance|resistance]] to the medicines <ref name=Becker>{{ cite journal | author=Becker, S., Dezii, C. M., Burtcel, B., Kawabata, H. and Hodder, S. | title=Young HIV-infected adults are at greater risk for medication nonadherence | journal=MedGenMed | year=2002 | pages=21 | volume=4 | issue=3 | id={{PMID |12466764}} }}</ref>. [[Image:Red_ribbon.png|right|thumbnail|120px|The Red Ribbon is the global symbol for solidarity with HIV-positive people and those living with AIDS.]] ==Infection by HIV== [[Image:HIV-budding.jpg|right|thumbnail|300px|[[Scanning electron microscope|Scanning electron micrograph]] of HIV-1 budding from cultured [[lymphocyte]].]] AIDS is the most severe manifestation of infection with HIV. HIV is a [[retrovirus]] that primarily infects vital components of the human [[immune system]] such as CD4+ [[T cell]]s, [[macrophage]]s and [[dendritic cell]]s. It also directly and indirectly destroys CD4+ T cells. As CD4+ T cells are required for the proper functioning of the immune system, when enough CD4+ cells have been destroyed by HIV, the immune system barely works, leading to AIDS. Acute HIV infection progresses over time to clinical latent HIV infection and then to early symptomatic HIV infection and later, to AIDS, which is identified on the basis of the amount of [[CD4]] positive cells in the blood and the presence of certain infections. {{details|HIV}} In the absence of antiretroviral therapy, progression from HIV infection to AIDS occurs at a [[median]] of between nine to ten years and the median survival time after developing AIDS is only 9.2 months <ref name=Morgan2>{{ cite journal | author=Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B., Okongo, J. M., Lubega, R. and Whitworth, J. A. | title=HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries? | journal=AIDS | year=2002 | pages=597-632 | volume=16 | issue=4 | id={{PMID |11873003}} }}</ref>. However, the rate of clinical disease progression varies widely between individuals, from two weeks up to 20 years. Many factors affect the rate of progression. These include factors that influence the body's ability to defend against HIV, including the infected person's genetic inheritance, general immune function <ref name=Clerici>{{ cite journal | author=Clerici, M., Balotta, C., Meroni, L., Ferrario, E., Riva, C., Trabattoni, D., Ridolfo, A., Villa, M., Shearer, G.M., Moroni, M. and Galli, M. | title=Type 1 cytokine production and low prevalence of viral isolation correlate with long-term non progression in HIV infection | journal=AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. | year=1996 | pages=1053-1061 | volume=12 | issue=11 | id={{PMID |8827221}} }}</ref><ref name=Morgan>{{ cite journal | author=Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B. and Whitworth, J. A. | title=Progression to symptomatic disease in people infected with HIV-1 in rural Uganda: prospective cohort study | journal=BMJ | year=2002 | pages=193-196 | volume=324 | issue=7331 | id={{PMID |11809639}} cite journal | author=Tang, J. and Kaslow, R. A. | title=The impact of host genetics on HIV infection and disease progression in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy | journal=AIDS | year=2003 | pages=S51-S60 | volume=17 | issue=Suppl 4 | id={{PMID |15080180}} }}</ref>, access to health care, age and other coexisting infections <ref name=Morgan2>{{ cite journal | author=Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B., Okongo, J. M., Lubega, R. and Whitworth, J. A. | title=HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries? | journal=AIDS | year=2002 | pages=597-632 | volume=16 | issue=4 | id={{PMID |11873003}} }}</ref><ref name=Gendelman>{{ cite journal | author=Gendelman, H. E., Phelps, W., Feigenbaum, L., Ostrove, J. M., Adachi, A., Howley, P. M., Khoury, G., Ginsberg, H. S. and Martin, M. A. | title=Transactivation of the human immunodeficiency virus long terminal repeat sequences by DNA viruses | journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. | year=1986 | pages=9759-9763 | volume=83 | issue=24 | id={{PMID |2432602}} }}</ref><ref name=Bentwich>{{ cite journal | author=Bentwich, Z., Kalinkovich., A. and Weisman, Z. | title=Immune activation is a dominant factor in the pathogenesis of African AIDS. | journal=Immunol. Today | year=1995 | pages=187-191 | volume=16 | issue=4 | id={{PMID |7734046}} }}</ref>. Different strains of HIV <ref name=Quinones>{{ cite journal | author=Quiñones-Mateu, M. E., Mas, A., Lain de Lera, T., Soriano, V., Alcami, J., Lederman, M. M. and Domingo, E. | title=LTR and tat variability of HIV-1 isolates from patients with divergent rates of disease progression | journal=Virus Research | year=1998 | pages=11-20 | volume=57 | issue=1 | id={{PMID |9833881}} }}</ref><ref name=Campbell>{{ cite journal | author=Campbell, G. R., Pasquier, E., Watkins, J., Bourgarel-Rey, V., Peyrot, V., Esquieu, D., Barbier, P., de Mareuil, J., Braguer, D., Kaleebu, P., Yirrell, D. L. and Loret E. P. | title=The glutamine-rich region of the HIV-1 Tat protein is involved in T-cell apoptosis | journal=J. Biol. Chem. | year=2004 | pages=48197-48204 | volume=279 | issue=46 | id={{PMID |15331610}} }}</ref> may also cause different rates of clinical disease progression. {{details|HIV Disease Progression Rates}} ==Diagnosis== ===AIDS and HIV case definitions=== Since June 18, 1981, many different definitions have been developed for epidemiological surveillance such as the [[Bangui definition]] and the [[1994 expanded World Health Organization AIDS case definition]]. However, these were never intended to be used for clinical staging of patients, for which they are neither sensitive nor specific. The [[World Health Organization]]s (WHO) staging system for HIV infection and disease, using clinical and laboratory data, can be used in developing countries and the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Centers for Disease Control]] (CDC) Classification System can be used in developed nations. ====WHO Disease Staging System for HIV Infection and Disease==== {{main|WHO Disease Staging System for HIV Infection and Disease}} In 1990, the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) grouped these infections and conditions together by introducing a staging system for patients infected with HIV-1 <ref name=WHO>{{ cite journal | author=World Health Organisation | title=Interim proposal for a WHO staging system for HIV infection and disease | journal=WHO Wkly Epidem. Rec. | year=1990 | pages=221-228 | volume=65 | issue=29 | id={{PMID |1974812}} }}</ref>. This was updated in September 2005. Most of these conditions are [[opportunistic infections]] that can be easily treated in healthy people. : ''Stage I:'' HIV disease is asymptomatic and not categorized as AIDS : ''Stage II:'' include minor mucocutaneous manifestations and recurrent upper respiratory tract infections : ''Stage III:'' includes unexplained chronic diarrhea for longer than a month, severe bacterial infections and pulmonary tuberculosis or : ''Stage IV'' includes [[toxoplasmosis]] of the brain, [[candidiasis]] of the esophagus, trachea, bronchi or lungs and [[Kaposi's sarcoma]]; these diseases are used as indicators of AIDS. ====CDC Classification System for HIV Infection==== {{main|CDC Classification System for HIV Infection}} In the [[USA]], the definition of AIDS is governed by the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC). In 1993, the CDC expanded their definition of AIDS to include healthy HIV positive people with a CD4 positive T cell count of less than 200 per µl of blood. The majority of new AIDS cases in the United States are reported on the basis of a low [[T cell]] count in the presence of HIV infection <ref name=MMWR>{{ cite web | author=[[CDC]] | publisher=CDC | year=1992 | url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00018871.htm | title=1993 Revised Classification System for HIV Infection and Expanded Surveillance Case Definition for AIDS Among Adolescents and Adults | accessdate=2006-02-09 }}</ref> ===HIV test=== {{main|HIV test}} Approximately half of those infected with HIV don't know that they are infected until they are diagnosed with AIDS. HIV test kits are used to screen donor blood and blood products, and to diagnose HIV in individuals. Typical HIV tests, including the HIV enzyme immunoassay and the Western blot assay, detect HIV antibodies in serum, plasma, oral fluid, dried blood spot or urine of patients. Other tests to look for HIV antigens, HIV-RNA, and HIV-DNA are also commercially available and can be used to detect HIV infection prior to the development of detectable antibodies. However, these assays are not specifically approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for the diagnosis of HIV infection. ==Symptoms and Complications== [[Image:Hiv-timecourse.png|400px|thumb|right|A generalized graph of the relationship between HIV copies (viral load) and CD4 counts over the average course of untreated HIV infection; any particular individuals' disease course may vary considerably.]] The symptoms of AIDS are primarily the result of conditions that do not normally develop in individuals with healthy [[immune system]]s. Most of these conditions are infections caused by [[bacteria]], [[virus|viruses]], [[fungus|fungi]] and [[parasite]]s that are normally controlled by the elements of the immune system that HIV damages. [[Opportunistic infection]]s are common in people with AIDS <ref name=Holmes>{{ cite journal | author=Holmes, C. B., Losina, E., Walensky, R. P., Yazdanpanah, Y., Freedberg, K. A. | title=Review of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-related opportunistic infections in sub-Saharan Africa | journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. | year=2003 | pages=656-662 | volume=36 | issue=5 | id={{PMID |12594648}} }}</ref>. Nearly every [[organ system]] is affected. People with AIDS also have an increased risk of developing various cancers such as [[Kaposi sarcoma]], [[cervical cancer]] and cancers of the immune system known as [[lymphoma]]s. Additionally, people with AIDS often have systemic symptoms of infection like [[fever]]s, [[sweat]]s (particularly at night), swollen glands, chills, weakness, and weight loss <ref name=Guss>{{ cite journal | author=Guss, D. A. | title=The acquired immune deficiency syndrome: an overview for the emergency physician, Part 1 | journal=J. Emerg. Med. | year=1994 | pages=375-384 | volume=12 | issue=3 | id={{PMID |8040596}} }}</ref><ref name=Guss2>{{ cite journal | author=Guss, D. A. | title=The acquired immune deficiency syndrome: an overview for the emergency physician, Part 2 | journal=J. Emerg. Med. | year=1994 | pages=491-497 | volume=12 | issue=4 | id={{PMID |7963396}} }}</ref>. After the diagnosis of AIDS is made, the current average survival time with antiretroviral therapy is estimated to be between 4 to 5 years <ref name=Schneider>{{ cite journal | author=Schneider, M. F., Gange, S. J., Williams, C. M., Anastos, K., Greenblatt, R. M., Kingsley, L., Detels, R., and Munoz, A. | title=Patterns of the hazard of death after AIDS through the evolution of antiretroviral therapy: 1984-2004 | journal=AIDS | year=2005 | pages=2009-2018 | volume=19 | issue=17 | id={{PMID|16260908}} }}</ref>, but because new treatments continue to be developed and because HIV continues to evolve resistance to treatments, estimates of survival time are likely to continue to change. Without antiretroviral therapy, progression to death normally occurs within a year <ref name=Morgan2>{{ cite journal | author=Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B., Okongo, J. M., Lubega, R. and Whitworth, J. A. | title=HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries? | journal=AIDS | year=2002 | pages=597-632 | volume=16 | issue=4 | id={{PMID |11873003}} }}</ref>. Most patients die from opportunistic infections or malignancies associated with the progressive failure of the immune system <ref name=Lawn>{{ cite journal | author=Lawn, S. D. | title=AIDS in Africa: the impact of coinfections on the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection | journal=J. Infect. Dis. | year=2004 | pages=1-12 | volume=48 | issue=1 | id={{PMID |14667787}} }}</ref>. The rate of clinical disease progression varies widely between individuals and has been shown to be affected by many factors such as host susceptibility <ref name=Clerici>{{ cite journal | author=Clerici, M., Balotta, C., Meroni, L., Ferrario, E., Riva, C., Trabattoni, D., Ridolfo, A., Villa, M., Shearer, G.M., Moroni, M. and Galli, M. | title=Type 1 cytokine production and low prevalence of viral isolation correlate with long-term non progression in HIV infection. | journal=AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. | year=1996 | pages=1053-1061 | volume=12 | issue=11 | id={{PMID |8827221}} }}</ref><ref name=Morgan>{{ cite journal | author=Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B. and Whitworth, J. A. | title=Progression to symptomatic disease in people infected with HIV-1 in rural Uganda: prospective cohort study | journal=BMJ | year=2002 | pages=193-196 | volume=324 | issue=7331 | id={{PMID |11809639}} }}</ref><ref name=Tang>{{ cite journal | author=Tang, J. and Kaslow, R. A. | title=The impact of host genetics on HIV infection and disease progression in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy | journal=AIDS | year=2003 | pages=S51-S60 | volume=17 | issue=Suppl 4 | id={{PMID |15080180}} }}</ref>, health care and co-infections <ref name=Morgan2>{{ cite journal | author=Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B., Okongo, J. M., Lubega, R. and Whitworth, J. A. | title=HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries? | journal=AIDS | year=2002 | pages=597-632 | volume=16 | issue=4 | id={{PMID |11873003}} }}</ref><ref name=Lawn>{{ cite journal | author=Lawn, S. D. | title=AIDS in Africa: the impact of coinfections on the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection | journal=J. Infect. Dis. | year=2004 | pages=1-12 | volume=48 | issue=1 | id={{PMID |14667787}} }}</ref>, and peculiarities of the [[viral strain]] <ref name=Campbell>{{ cite journal | author=Campbell, G. R., Pasquier, E., Watkins, J., Bourgarel-Rey, V., Peyrot, V., Esquieu, D., Barbier, P., de Mareuil, J., Braguer, D., Kaleebu, P., Yirrell, D. L. and Loret E. P. | title=The glutamine-rich region of the HIV-1 Tat protein is involved in T-cell apoptosis | journal=J. Biol. Chem. | year=2004 | pages=48197-48204 | volume=279 | issue=46 | id={{PMID |15331610}} }}</ref><ref name=Campbell2>{{ cite journal | author=Campbell, G. R., Watkins, J. D., Esquieu, D., Pasquier, E., Loret, E. P. and Spector, S. A. | title=The C terminus of HIV-1 Tat modulates the extent of CD178-mediated apoptosis of T cells | journal=J. Biol. Chem. | year=2005 | pages=38376-39382 | volume=280 | issue=46 | id={{PMID |16155003}} }}</ref><ref name=Senkaali>{{ cite journal | author=Senkaali, D., Muwonge, R., Morgan, D., Yirrell, D., Whitworth, J. and Kaleebu, P. | title=The relationship between HIV type 1 disease progression and V3 serotype in a rural Ugandan cohort | journal=AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. | year=2005 | pages=932-937 | volume=20 | issue=9 | id={{PMID |15585080}} }}</ref>. Also, the specific opportunistic infections that AIDS patients develop depends in part on the prevalence of these infections in the geographic area in which the patient lives. ===The major pulmonary illnesses=== *'''''Pneumocystis jiroveci'' pneumonia''': [[Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia|''Pneumocystis jiroveci'' pneumonia]] (originally known as ''Pneumocystis carinii'' pneumonia, often abbreviated PCP) is relatively rare in normal, [[immunocompetent]] people but common among HIV-infected individuals. Before the advent of effective treatment and diagnosis in Western countries it was a common immediate cause of death. In developing countries, it is still one of the first indications of AIDS in untested individuals, although it does not generally occur unless the CD4 count is less than 200 per µl <ref name=Feldman>{{ cite journal | author=Feldman, C. | title=Pneumonia associated with HIV infection | journal=Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. | year=2005 | pages=165-170 | volume=18 | issue=2 | id={{PMID|15735422}} }}</ref>. *'''Tuberculosis''': Among infections associated with HIV, [[tuberculosis]] (TB) is unique in that it may be transmitted to immunocompetent persons via the respiratory route, is easily treatable once identified, may occur in early-stage HIV disease, and is preventable with drug therapy. However, multi-drug resistance is a potentially serious problem. Even though its incidence has declined because of the use of directly observed therapy and other improved practices in Western countries, this is not the case in developing countries where HIV is most prevalent. In early-stage HIV infection (CD4 count &gt;300 cells per µl), TB typically presents as a pulmonary disease. In advanced HIV infection, TB may present atypically and extrapulmonary TB is common infecting [[bone marrow]], [[bone]], urinary and [[gastrointestinal tract]]s, liver, regional lymph nodes, and the central nervous system <ref name=Decker>{{ cite journal | author=Decker, C. F. and Lazarus, A. | title=Tuberculosis and HIV infection. How to safely treat both disorders concurrently | journal=Postgrad Med. | year=2000 | pages=57-60, 65-68 | volume=108 | issue=2 | id={{PMID|10951746}} }}</ref>. ===The major gastro-intestinal illnesses=== * '''Esophagitis''': [[Esophagitis]] is an inflammation of the lining of the lower end of the [[esophagus]] (gullet or swallowing tube leading to the stomach). In HIV infected individuals, this could be due to fungus ([[candidiasis]]), virus ([[Herpes simplex virus|herpes simplex-1]] or [[cytomegalovirus]]). In rare cases, it could be due to [[mycobacteria]] <ref name=Zaidi>{{ cite journal | author=Zaidi, S. A. and Cervia, J. S. | title=Diagnosis and management of infectious esophagitis associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection | journal=J. Int. Assoc. Physicians AIDS Care (Chic Ill) | year=2002 | pages=53-62 | volume=1 | issue=2 | id={{PMID|12942677}} }}</ref>. * '''Unexplained chronic diarrhea''': In HIV infection, there are many possible causes of [[diarrhea]], including common bacterial (''[[Salmonella]]'', ''[[Shigella]]'', ''[[Listeria]]'', ''[[Campylobacter]]'', or ''[[Escherichia coli]]'') and parasitic infections, and uncommon opportunistic infections such as [[cryptosporidiosis]], [[microsporidiosis]], ''[[Mycobacterium avium]]'' complex (MAC) and cytomegalovirus (CMV) colitis. Diarrhea may follow a course of antibiotics (common for ''[[Clostridium difficile]]''). It may also be a side effect of several drugs used to treat HIV, or it may simply accompany HIV infection, particularly during primary HIV infection. In the later stages of HIV infection, diarrhea is thought to be a reflection of changes in the way the intestinal tract absorbs nutrients, and may be an important component of HIV-related wasting <ref name=Guerrant>{{ cite journal | author=Guerrant, R. L., Hughes, J. M., Lima, N. L., Crane, J. | title=Diarrhea in developed and developing countries: magnitude, special settings, and etiologies | journal=Rev. Infect. Dis. | year=1990 | pages=S41-S50 | volume=12 | issue=Suppl 1 | id={{PMID|2406855}} }}</ref>. ===The major neurological illnesses=== * '''Toxoplasmosis''': [[Toxoplasmosis]] is a disease caused by the single-celled parasite called ''Toxoplasma gondii''. ''T. gondii'' usually infects the brain causing toxoplasma encephalitis. It can also infect and cause disease in the eyes and lungs <ref name=Luft>{{ cite journal | author=Luft, B. J. and Chua, A. | title=Central Nervous System Toxoplasmosis in HIV Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapy | journal=Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep. | year=2000 | pages=358-362 | volume=2 | issue=4 | id={{PMID|11095878}} }}</ref>. * '''Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy''': [[Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy]] (PML) is a [[demyelinating disease]], in which the [[myelin]] sheath covering the [[axons]] of nerve cells is gradually destroyed, impairing the transmission of nerve impulses. It is caused by a virus called [[JC virus]] which occurs in 70% of the population in [[latent]] form, causing disease only when the immune system has been severly weakened, as is the case for AIDS patients. It progresses rapidly, usually causing death within months of diagnosis <ref name=Sadler>{{ cite journal | author=Sadler, M. and Nelson, M. R. | title=Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in HIV | journal=Int. J. STD AIDS | year=1997 | pages=351-357 | volume=8 | issue=6 | id={{PMID|9179644}} }}</ref>. * '''HIV-associated dementia''': HIV-1 associated dementia (HAD) is a metabolic [[encephalopathy]] induced by HIV infection and fueled by immune activation of brain [[macrophage]]s and [[microglia]] <ref name=Gray>{{ cite journal | author=Gray, F., Adle-Biassette, H., Chrétien, F., Lorin de la Grandmaison, G., Force, G., Keohane, C. | title=Neuropathology and neurodegeneration in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pathogenesis of HIV-induced lesions of the brain, correlations with HIV-associated disorders and modifications according to treatments | journal=Clin. Neuropathol. | year=2001 | pages=146-155 | volume=20 | issue=4 | id={{PMID|11495003}} }}</ref>. These cells are actively infected with HIV and secrete neurotoxins of both host and viral origin. Specific neurologic impairments are manifested by cognitive, behavioral, and motor abnormalities that occur after years of HIV infection and is associated with low CD4+ T cell levels and high plasma viral loads. Prevalence is between 10-20% in Western countries <ref name=Grant>{{ cite book | author = Grant, I., Sacktor, H., and McArthur, J. | year = 2005 | title = The Neurology of AIDS | chapter = HIV neurocognitive disorders | chapterurl = http://www.hnrc.ucsd.edu/publications_pdf/2005grant1.pdf | editor = H. E. Gendelman, I. Grant, I. Everall, S. A. Lipton, and S. Swindells. (ed.) | edition = 2nd | pages = 357-373 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = London, U.K. | id = ISBN 0198526105 }}</ref> and has only been seen in 1-2% of India based infections <ref name=Satischandra>{{ cite journal | author=Satishchandra, P., Nalini, A., Gourie-Devi, M., Khanna, N., Santosh, V., Ravi, V., Desai, A., Chandramuki, A., Jayakumar, P. N., and Shankar, S. K. | title=Profile of neurologic disorders associated with HIV/AIDS from Bangalore, south India (1989-96) | journal=Indian J. Med. Res. | year=2000 | pages=14-23 | volume=11 | issue= | id={{PMID|10793489}} }}</ref><ref name=Wadia>{{ cite journal | author=Wadia, R. S., Pujari, S. N., Kothari, S., Udhar, M., Kulkarni, S., Bhagat, S., and Nanivadekar, A. | title=Neurological manifestations of HIV disease | journal=J. Assoc. Physicians India | year=2001 | pages=343-348 | volume=49 | issue= | id={{PMID|11291974}} }}</ref>. * '''Cryptococcal meningitis''' This infection of the [[meninges]] (the membrane covering the brain and spinal cord) by the fungus ''[[Cryptococcus]] neoformans'' can cause fevers, headache, fatigue, nausea, and vomiting. Patients may also develop seizures and confusion. If untreated, it can be lethal. ===The major HIV-associated malignancies=== Patients with HIV infection have substantially increased incidence of several malignancies <ref name=Boshoff>{{ cite journal | author=Boshoff, C. and Weiss, R. | title=AIDS-related malignancies | journal=Nat. Rev. Cancer | year=2002 | pages=373-382 | volume=2 | issue=5 | id={{PMID|12044013}} }}</ref><ref name=Yarchoan>{{ cite journal | author=Yarchoan, R., Tosatom G. and Littlem R. F. | title=Therapy insight: AIDS-related malignancies - the influence of antiviral therapy on pathogenesis and management | journal=Nat. Clin. Pract. Oncol. | year=2005 | pages=406-415 | volume=2 | issue=8 | id={{PMID|16130937}} }}</ref>. Several of these, [[Kaposi's sarcoma]], high-grade [[lymphoma]], and [[cervical cancer]] confer a diagnosis of AIDS when they occur in an HIV-infected person. * '''Kaposi's sarcoma:''' [[Kaposi's sarcoma]] is the most common tumor in HIV-infected patients. The appearance of this tumor in young gay men in 1981 was one of the first signals of the AIDS epidemic. It is caused by a gammaherpesvirus called [[Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpes virus]] (KSHV). It often appears as purplish nodules on the skin, but other organs, especially the mouth, gastrointestinal tract, and lungs can be affected. * '''High-grade lymphoma:''' Several high-grade B cell lymphomas have substantially increased incidence in HIV-infected patients and often portend a poor prognosis. The most common AIDS-defining lymphomas are [[Burkitt's lymphoma]], Burkitt's-like lymphoma, and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), including primary central nervous system lymphoma. [[Primary effusion lymphoma]] is less common. Many of these lymphomas are caused by either [[Epstein-Barr virus]] (EBV) or KSHV. * '''Cervical cancer:''' [[Cervical cancer]] in HIV-infected women is also considered AIDS-defining. It is caused by [[human papillomavirus]] (HPV). * '''Other tumors:''' In addition to the AIDS-defining tumors listed above, HIV-infected patients are also at increased risk of certain other tumors, such as [[Hodgkin's disease]] and [[anal carcinoma|anal]] and [[rectal carcinoma|rectal carcinomas]]. However, the incidence of many common tumors, such as [[breast cancer]] or [[colon cancer]], are not increased in HIV-infected patients. Most AIDS-associated malignancies are caused by co-infection of patients with an oncogenic DNA virus, especially [[Epstein-Barr virus]] (EBV), [[Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus]] (KSHV), and [[human papillomavirus]] (HPV). In areas where [[HAART]] is extensively used to treat AIDS, the incidence of many AIDS-related malignancies has decreased, but at the same time malignancies overall have become the most common cause of death of HIV-infected patients <ref name=Bonnet>{{ cite journal | author=Bonnet, F., Lewden, C., May, T., Heripret, L., Jougla, E., Bevilacqua, S., Costagliola, D., Salmon, D., Chene, G. and Morlat, P. | title=Malignancy-related causes of death in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy | journal=Cancer | year=2004 | pages=317-324 | volume=101 | issue=2 | id={{PMID|15241829}} }}</ref>. ===Other opportunistic infections=== Patients with AIDS and severe immunosuppression often develop opportunistic infections that present with non-specific symptoms, especially low grade fevers and weight loss. These include infection with ''[[Mycobacterium avium]]-intracellulare'' and [[cytomegalovirus]] (CMV). CMV can also cause colitis, as described above, and CMV retinitis can cause blindness. [[Penicilliosis]] due to ''[[Penicillium marneffei]]'' is now the third most common opportunistic infection (after extrapulmonary tuberculosis and cryptococcosis) in HIV-positive individuals within the endemic area of Southeast Asia <ref name=Skoulidis>{{ cite journal | author=Skoulidis, F., Morgan, M. S., and MacLeod, K. M. | title=Penicillium marneffei: a pathogen on our doorstep? | journal=J. R. Soc. Med.| year=2004 | pages=394-396 | volume=97 | issue=2 | id={{PMID|15286196}} }}</ref>. ==Transmission== Since the beginning of the [[epidemic]], three main transmission routes of HIV have been identified: * '''Sexual route.''' The majority of HIV infections have been, and still are, acquired through unprotected sexual relations. Sexual transmission occurs when there is contact between sexual secretions of one partner with the rectal, genital or mouth [[Mucous membrane|mucous membranes]] of another. * '''Blood or blood product route.''' This transmission route is particularly important for intravenous drug users, [[Haemophilia|hemophiliac]]s and recipients of [[blood transfusion]]s and blood products. Health care workers (nurses, laboratory workers, doctors etc) are also concerned, although more rarely. Also concerned by this route are people who give and receive tattoos and piercings. * '''Mother-to-child route (vertical transmission).''' The transmission of the virus from the mother to the child can occur ''in utero'' during the last weeks of pregnancy and at childbirth. Breast feeding also presents a risk of infection for the baby. In the absence of treatment, the transmission rate between the mother and child was 20%. However, where treatment is available, combined with the availability of [[Cesarian section]], this has been reduced to 1%. HIV has been found in the [[saliva]], [[tears]] and [[urine]] of infected individuals, but due to the low concentration of virus in these biological liquids, the risk is considered to be negligible. ==Prevention== {| class="wikitable" align=right border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" |- bgcolor="#efefef" ! colspan=5 style="border-right:0px;";| Estimated per act risk for acquisition of HIV, <br />by exposure route, assuming no condom use |- bgcolor="#efefef" | '''Exposure Route''' | '''Risk per 10,000 exposures <br />to an infected source''' |- | Blood Transfusion || 9,000<ref name=Donegan>{{ cite journal | author=Donegan, E., Stuart, M., Niland, J. C., Sacks, H. S., Azen, S. P., Dietrich, S. L., Faucett, C., Fletcher, M. A., Kleinman, S. H., Operskalski, E. A., et al. | title=Infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) among recipients of antibody-positive blood donations | journal=Ann. Intern. Med. | year=1990 | pages=733-739 | volume=113 | issue=10 | id={{PMID|2240875}} }}</ref> |- | Needle-sharing injection drug use || 67 <ref name=Kaplan>{{ cite journal | author=Kaplan, E. H. and Heimer, R. | title=HIV incidence among New Haven needle exchange participants: updated estimates from syringe tracking and testing data | journal=J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. Hum. Retrovirol. | year=1995 | pages=175-176 | volume=10 | issue=2 | id={{PMID|7552482}} }}</ref> |- | Receptive anal intercourse || 50 <ref name=ESG>{{ cite journal | author=European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV | title=Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples | journal=BMJ. | year=1992 | pages=809-813 | volume=304 | issue=6830 | id={{PMID|1392708}} }}</ref><ref name=Varghese>{{ cite journal | author=Varghese, B., Maher, J. E., Peterman, T. A., Branson, B. M. and Steketee, R. W. | title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use | journal=Sex. Transm. Dis. | year=2002 | pages=38-43 | volume=29 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|11773877}} }}</ref> |- | Percutaneous needle stick || 30 <ref name=Bell>{{ cite journal | author=Bell, D. M. | title=Occupational risk of human immunodeficiency virus infection in healthcare workers: an overview. | journal=Am. J. Med. | year=1997 | pages=9-15 | volume=102 | issue=5B | id={{PMID|9845490}} }}</ref> |- | Receptive penile-vaginal intercourse || 10 <ref name=ESG>{{ cite journal | author=European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV | title=Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples | journal=BMJ. | year=1992 | pages=809-813 | volume=304 | issue=6830 | id={{PMID|1392708}} }}</ref><ref name=Varghese>{{ cite journal | author=Varghese, B., Maher, J. E., Peterman, T. A., Branson, B. M. and Steketee, R. W. | title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use | journal=Sex. Transm. Dis. | year=2002 | pages=38-43 | volume=29 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|11773877}} }}</ref><ref name=Leynaert>{{ cite journal | author=Leynaert, B., Downs, A. M. and de Vincenzi, I. | title=Heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus: variability of infectivity throughout the course of infection. European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV | journal=Am. J. Epidemiol. | year=1998 | pages=88-96 | volume=148 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|9663408}} }}</ref> |- | Insertive anal intercourse || 6.5 <ref name=ESG>{{ cite journal | author=European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV | title=Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples | journal=BMJ. | year=1992 | pages=809-813 | volume=304 | issue=6830 | id={{PMID|1392708}} }}</ref><ref name=Varghese>{{ cite journal | author=Varghese, B., Maher, J. E., Peterman, T. A., Branson, B. M. and Steketee, R. W. | title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use | journal=Sex. Transm. Dis. | year=2002 | pages=38-43 | volume=29 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|11773877}} }}</ref> |- | Insertive penile-vaginal intercourse || 5 <ref name=ESG>{{ cite journal | author=European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV | title=Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples | journal=BMJ. | year=1992 | pages=809-813 | volume=304 | issue=6830 | id={{PMID|1392708}} }}</ref><ref name=Varghese>{{ cite journal | author=Varghese, B., Maher, J. E., Peterman, T. A., Branson, B. M. and Steketee, R. W. | title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use | journal=Sex. Transm. Dis. | year=2002 | pages=38-43 | volume=29 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|11773877}} }}</ref> |- | Receptive oral intercourse || 1 <ref name=Varghese>{{ cite journal | author=Varghese, B., Maher, J. E., Peterman, T. A., Branson, B. M. and Steketee, R. W. | title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use | journal=Sex. Transm. Dis. | year=2002 | pages=38-43 | volume=29 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|11773877}} }}</ref> |- | Insertive oral intercourse || 0.5 <ref name=Varghese>{{ cite journal | author=Varghese, B., Maher, J. E., Peterman, T. A., Branson, B. M. and Steketee, R. W. | title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use | journal=Sex. Transm. Dis. | year=2002 | pages=38-43 | volume=29 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|11773877}} }}</ref> |} The diverse transmission routes of HIV are well-known and established. Also well-known is how to prevent transmission of HIV. However, recent epidemiological and behavioral studies in Europe and North America have suggested that a substantial minority of young people continue to engage in high-risk practices and that despite HIV/AIDS knowledge, young people underestimate their own risk of becoming infected with HIV <ref name=Dias>{{ cite journal | author=Dias, S. F., Matos, M. G. and Goncalves, A. C. | title=Preventing HIV transmission in adolescents: an analysis of the Portuguese data from the Health Behaviour School-aged Children study and focus groups | journal=Eur. J. Public Health | year=2005 | pages=300-304 | volume=15 | issue=3 | id={{PMID|15941747}} }}</ref>. However, transmission of HIV between intravenous drug users has clearly decreased, and HIV transmission by blood transfusion has become quite rare in developed countries. ===Prevention of sexual transmission of HIV=== ====Underlying science==== Unprotected receptive sexual acts are at more risk than unprotected insertive sexual acts, with the risk for transmitting HIV from an infected partner to an uninfected partner through unprotected insertive anal intercourse greater than the risk for transmission through vaginal intercourse or oral sex. Oral sex is not without its risks as it has been established that HIV can be transmitted through both insertive and receptive oral sex <ref name=Rothenberg>{{ cite journal | author=Rothenberg, R. B., Scarlett, M., del Rio, C., Reznik, D. and O'Daniels, C. | title=Oral transmission of HIV | journal=AIDS | year=1998 | pages=2095-2105 | volume=12 | issue=16 | id={{PMID|9833850}} }}</ref>. [[Sexually-transmitted infection]]s (STI) increase the risk of HIV transmission and infection because they cause the disruption of the normal epithelial barrier by genital ulceration and/or microulceration; and by accumulation of pools of HIV-susceptible or HIV-infected cells ([[lymphocyte]]s and [[macrophage]]s) in semen and vaginal secretions. Epidemiological studies from sub-Saharan Africa, Europe and North America have suggested that there is approximately a four times greater risk of becoming HIV-infected in the presence of a genital ulcer such as caused by [[syphilis]] and/or [[chancroid]]; and a significant though lesser increased risk in the presence of STIs such as [[gonorrhoea]], [[chlamydia]]l infection and [[trichomoniasis]] which cause local accumulations of lymphocytes and macrophages <ref name=Laga>{{ cite journal | author=Laga, M., Nzila, N., Goeman, J. | title=The interrelationship of sexually transmitted diseases and HIV infection: implications for the control of both epidemics in Africa | journal=AIDS | year=1991 | pages=S55-S63 | volume=5 | issue=Suppl 1 | id={{PMID|1669925}} }}</ref>. Transmission of HIV depends on the infectiousness of the [[index case]] and the susceptibility of the uninfected partner. Infectivity seems to vary during the course of illness and is not constant between individuals. An undetectable plasma viral load does not mean that you have a low viral load in the seminal liquid or genital secretions. Each 10 fold increment of seminal HIV RNA is associated with an 81% increased rate of HIV transmission <ref name=Laga>{{ cite journal | author=Laga, M., Nzila, N., Goeman, J. | title=The interrelationship of sexually transmitted diseases and HIV infection: implications for the control of both epidemics in Africa | journal=AIDS | year=1991 | pages=S55-S63 | volume=5 | issue=Suppl 1 | id={{PMID|1669925}} }}</ref><ref name=Tovanabutra>{{ cite journal | author=Tovanabutra, S., Robison, V., Wongtrakul, J., Sennum, S., Suriyanon, V., Kingkeow, D., Kawichai, S., Tanan, P., Duerr, A. and Nelson, K. E. | title=Male viral load and heterosexual transmission of HIV-1 subtype E in northern Thailand | journal=J. Acquir. Immune. Defic. Syndr. | year=2002 | pages=275-283 | volume=29 | issue=3 | id={{PMID|11873077}} }}</ref>. Women are more susceptible to HIV-1 infection due to hormonal changes, vaginal microbial ecology and physiology, and a higher prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases <ref name=Sagar>{{ cite journal | author=Sagar, M., Lavreys, L., Baeten, J. M., Richardson, B. A., Mandaliya, K., Ndinya-Achola, J. O., Kreiss, J. K., and Overbaugh, J. | title=Identification of modifiable factors that affect the genetic diversity of the transmitted HIV-1 population | journal=AIDS | year=2004 | pages=615-619 | volume=18 | issue=4 | id={{PMID|15090766}} }}</ref><ref name=Lavreys>{{ cite journal | author= Lavreys, L., Baeten, J. M., Martin, H. L. Jr., Overbaugh, J., Mandaliya, K., Ndinya-Achola, J., and Kreiss, J. K. | title=Hormonal contraception and risk of HIV-1 acquisition: results of a 10-year prospective study | journal=AIDS | year=2004 | pages=695-697 | volume=18 | issue=4 | id={{PMID|15090778}} }}</ref>. Also, people who are infected with HIV can still be infected by other, more virulent strains. ====Prevention strategies==== During a sexual act, only [[condom]]s, be they male or female, can reduce the chances of infection with HIV and other STIs and the chances of becoming pregnant. They must be used during all penetrative sexual intercourse with a partner who is HIV positive or whose status is unknown <ref name=Cayley>{{ cite journal | author=Cayley, W. E. Jr. | title=Effectiveness of condoms in reducing heterosexual transmission of HIV | journal=Am. Fam. Physician | year=2004 | pages=1268-1269 | volume=70 | issue=7 | id={{PMID|15508535}} }}</ref>. The effective use of condoms and screening of blood transfusion in North America, Western and Central Europe is credited with the low rates of AIDS in these regions. Promoting condom use, however, has often proved controversial and difficult. Many religious groups, most visibly the [[Roman Catholic Church]], have opposed the use of condoms on religious grounds, and have sometimes seen condom promotion as an affront to the promotion of marriage, monogamy and sexual morality. Other religious groups have argued that preventing HIV infection is a moral task in itself and that condoms are therefore acceptable or even praiseworthy from a religious point of view. [[Image:ThreeColoredRolledUpCondoms.jpg|thumb|right|Condoms in many colors]] ''The male latex condom'' is the single most efficient available technology to reduce the sexual transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. In order to be effective, they must be used correctly during each sexual act. Lubricants containing oil, such as petroleum jelly, or butter, must not be used as they weaken [[latex]] condoms and make them porous. If necessary, lubricants made from water are recommended. However, it is not recommended to use a lubricant for fellatio. Also, condoms have standards and expiration dates. It is essential to check the expiration date and if it conforms to European (EC 600) or American (D3492) standards before use. ''[[Condom#Female condoms|The female condom]]'' is an alternative to the male condom and is made from [[polyurethane]], which allows it to be used in the presence of oil-based lubricants. They are larger than male condoms and have a stiffened ring-shaped opening, and are designed to be inserted into the vagina. The female condom also contains an inner ring which keeps the condom in place inside the vagina - inserting the female condom requires squeezing this ring. With consistent and correct use of condoms, there is a very low risk of HIV infection. Studies on couples where one partner is infected show that with consistent condom use, HIV infection rates for the uninfected partner are below 1% per year <ref name=WHOCondoms>{{ cite web | author=[[WHO]] | publisher= | year= 2003 | url=http://www.wpro.who.int/media_centre/fact_sheets/fs_200308_Condoms.htm | title=Condom Facts and Figures | accessdate=2006-01-17 }}</ref>. ====Governmental programs==== The U.S. government and U.S. health organizations both endorse the '''''ABC Approach''''' to lower the risk of acquiring AIDS during sex: : '''A'''bstinence or delay of sexual activity, especially for youth, : '''B'''eing faithful, especially for those in committed relationships, : '''C'''ondom use, for those who engage in risky behavior. This approach has been very successful in [[Uganda]], where HIV prevalence has decreased from 15% to 5%. However, the ABC approach is far from all that Uganda has done, as "''Uganda has pioneered approaches towards reducing stigma, bringing discussion of sexual behavior out into the open, involving HIV-infected people in public education, persuading individuals and couples to be tested and counseled, improving the status of women, involving religious organizations, enlisting traditional healers, and much more.''" (Edward Green, [[Harvard]] medical anthropologist). Also, it must be noted that there is no conclusive proof that abstinence-only programs have been successful in any country in the world in reducing HIV transmission. This is why condom use is heavily co-promoted. There is also considerable overlap with the '''''CNN Approach'''''. This is: : '''C'''ondom use, for those who engage in risky behavior. : '''N'''eedles, use clean ones : '''N'''egotiating skills; negotiating safer sex with a partner and empowering women to make smart choices The '''ABC approach''' has been criticized, because a faithful partner of an unfaithful partner is at risk of AIDS <ref name=EconomistABC>{{ cite web | author=[[The Economist]] | publisher= | year=2005 | url=http://www.economist.com/opinion/displayStory.cfm?story_id=4223619 | title=Too much morality, too little sense | accessdate=2006-01-17 }}</ref>. Many think that the combination of the CNN approach with the ABC approach will be the optimum prevention platform. ====Circumcision==== Current research is clarifying the relationship between male circumcision and HIV in differing social and cultural contexts. UNAIDS believes that it is premature to recommend male circumcision services as part of HIV prevention programmes <ref name=WHOcircumcision>{{ cite web | author=[[WHO]] | publisher= | year=2005 | url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2005/pr32/en/ | title=UNAIDS statement on South African trial findings regarding male circumcision and HIV | accessdate=2006-01-17 }}</ref>. Moreover, South African medical experts are concerned that the repeated use of unsterilised blades in the ritual circumcision of adolescent boys may be spreading HIV <ref name=Kaisercircum>{{ cite web | author=Various | publisher=Kaisernetwork.org | year=2005 | url=http://www.kaisernetwork.org/daily_reports/rep_index.cfm?DR_ID=31199 | title=Repeated Use of Unsterilized Blades in Ritual Circumcision Might Contribute to HIV Spread in S. Africa, Doctors Say | accessdate=2006-01-17 }}</ref>. ===Prevention of blood or blood product route of HIV transmission=== ====Underlying science==== Sharing and reusing syringes contaminated with HIV-infected blood represents a major risk for infection with not only HIV but also [[hepatitis B]] and [[hepatitis C]]. In the United States a third of all new HIV infections can be traced to needle sharing and almost 50% of long-term addicts have hepatitis C. The risk of being infected with HIV from a single prick with a needle that has been used on an HIV infected person though is thought to be about 1 in 150 ([[AIDS#Prevention|see table above]]). [[Post-exposure prophylaxis]] with anti-HIV drugs can further reduce that small risk <ref name=Fan>{{ cite book | author =Fan, H. | year = 2005 | title =AIDS: science and society | chapter = | chapterurl = | editor = Fan, H., Conner, R. F. and Villarreal, L. P. eds | edition = 4th | pages = | publisher =Jones and Bartlett Publishers | location = Boston, MA | id = ISBN 076370086X }}</ref>. Universal precautions are frequently not followed in both sub-Saharan Africa and much of Asia because of both a shortage of supplies and inadequate training. The WHO estimates that approximately 2.5% of all HIV infections in sub-Saharan Africa are transmitted through unsafe healthcare injections <ref name=WHOJapan>{{ cite web | author=[[WHO]] | publisher= | year= 2003 | url=http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:adH68_6JGG8J:tokyo.usembassy.gov//e/p/tp-20030317a3.html+site:tokyo.usembassy.gov+HIV+healthcare+injection&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=1 | title=WHO, UNAIDS Reaffirm HIV as a Sexually Transmitted Disease | accessdate=2006-01-17 }}</ref>. Because of this, the [[United Nations General Assembly]], supported by universal medical opinion on the matter, has urged the nations of the world to implement universal precautions to prevent HIV transmission in health care settings <ref name=PHR>{{ cite web | author=Physicians for Human Rights | publisher=Partners in Health | year=2003 | url=http://www.phrusa.org/campaigns/aids/who_031303.html | title=HIV Transmission in the Medical Setting: A White Paper by Physicians for Human Rights | accessdate=2006-03-01 }}</ref><ref name=UNGA>{{ cite web | author=United Nations General Assembly | publisher= | year=2001 | url=http://www.un.org/ga/aids/coverage/FinalDeclarationHIVAIDS.html | title=Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS ''Global Crisis — Global Action'' | accessdate=2006-03-01 }}</ref>. ====Prevention strategies==== In countries where improved donor selection and antibody tests have been introduced, the risk of transmitting [[HIV]] infection to [[blood transfusion]] recipients is extremely low. But according to the [[WHO]], the overwhelming majority of the world's population does not have access to safe blood and "between 5% and 10% of HIV infections worldwide are transmitted through the transfusion of infected blood and blood products" <ref name=WHO070401>{{ cite web | author=[[WHO]] | publisher= | year= 2001 | url=http://www.who.int/inf-pr-2000/en/pr2000-25.html | title=Blood safety....for too few | accessdate=2006-01-17 }}</ref>. Medical workers who follow [[universal precautions]] or body substance isolation such as wearing latex gloves when giving injections and washing the hands frequently can help prevent infection of HIV. All AIDS-prevention organizations advise drug-users not to share needles and other material required to prepare and take drugs (including syringes, cotton balls, the spoons, water for diluting the drug, straws, crack pipes etc). It is important that people use new or properly sterilized needles for each injection. Information on cleaning needles using bleach is available from health care and addiction professionals and from [[needle exchange]]s. In the United States and some other countries, clean needles are available free in some cities, at needle exchanges or [[safe injection site]]s. Additionally, many states within the United States and some other nations have decriminalized needle possession and made it possible to buy injection equipment from pharmacists without a prescription. ===Mother to child transmission=== ====Underlying science==== There is a 15–30% risk of transmission of HIV from mother to child during pregnancy, labour and delivery <ref name=Orendi>{{ cite journal | author=Orendi, J. M., Boer, K., van Loon, A. M., Borleffs, J. C., van Oppen, A. C., Boucher, C. A. | title=Vertical HIV-I-transmission. I. Risk and prevention in pregnancy | journal=Ned. Tijdschr. Geneeskd | year=1998 | pages=2720-2724 | volume=142 | issue=50 | id={{PMID|10065235}} }}</ref>. In developed countries the risk can of transmission of HIV from mother to child can be as low as 0-5%. A number of factors influence the risk of infection, particularly the viral load of the mother at birth (the higher the load, the higher the risk). Breastfeeding increases the risk of transmission by 10–15%. This risk depends on clinical factors and may vary according to the pattern and duration of breastfeeding. ====Prevention strategies==== Studies have shown that antiretroviral drugs, cesarean delivery and formula feeding reduce the chance of transmission of HIV from mother to child <ref name=Sperling>{{ cite journal | author=Sperling, R. S., Shapirom D. E., Coombsm R. W., Todd, J. A., Herman, S. A., McSherry, G. D., O'Sullivan, M. J., Van Dyke, R. B., Jimenez, E., Rouzioux, C., Flynn, P. M. and Sullivan, J. L. | title=Maternal viral load, zidovudine treatment, and the risk of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from mother to infant | journal=N. Engl. J. Med. | year=1996 | pages=1621-1629 | volume=335 | issue=22 | id={{PMID|8965861}} }}</ref>. When replacement feeding is acceptable, feasible, affordable, sustainable and safe, HIV-infected mothers are recommended to avoid breast feeding their infant. Otherwise, exclusive breastfeeding is recommended during the first months of life and should be discontinued as soon as possible <ref name=UNAIDS>{{ cite web | author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | year= 2005 | url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf | title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005 | accessdate=2006-01-17 }}</ref>. ==Treatment== {{main|Antiretroviral drug}} {{see|HIV vaccine}} There is currently no cure for [[HIV]] or AIDS. Infection with HIV usually leads to AIDS and ultimately death. However, in western countries, most patients survive many years following diagnosis because of the availability of the highly active antiretroviral therapy ([[HAART]])<ref name=Schneider>{{ cite journal | author=Schneider, M. F., Gange, S. J., Williams, C. M., Anastos, K., Greenblatt, R. M., Kingsley, L., Detels, R., and Munoz, A. | title=Patterns of the hazard of death after AIDS through the evolution of antiretroviral therapy: 1984-2004 | journal=AIDS | year=2005 | pages=2009-2018 | volume=19 | issue=17 | id={{PMID|16260908}} }}</ref>. In the absence of HAART, progression from HIV infection to AIDS occurs at a [[median]] of between nine to ten years and the median survival time after developing AIDS is only 9.2 months<ref name=Morgan2>{{ cite journal | author=Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B., Okongo, J. M., Lubega, R. and Whitworth, J. A. | title=HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries? | journal=AIDS | year=2002 | pages=597-632 | volume=16 | issue=4 | id={{PMID |11873003}} }}</ref>. HAART dramatically increases the time from diagnosis to death, and treatment research continues. Current optimal HAART options consist of combinations (or "cocktails") consisting of at least three drugs belonging to at least two types, or "classes," of [[anti-retroviral]] agents. Typical regimens consist of two [[nucleoside analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitor]]s (NRTIs) plus either a [[protease inhibitor (pharmacology)|protease inhibitor]] or a non nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI). This treatment is frequently referred to as [[HAART]] (highly-active anti-retroviral therapy) <ref name=DhhsHivTreatment>{{ cite web | author=[[Department of Health and Human Services]] | publisher= | year=January, 2005 | url=http://www.hab.hrsa.gov/tools/HIVpocketguide05/PktGARTtables.htm | title=A Pocket Guide to Adult HIV/AIDS Treatment January 2005 edition | accessdate=2006-01-17 }}</ref>. Anti-retroviral treatments, along with medications intended to prevent AIDS-related opportunistic infections, have played a part in delaying complications associated with AIDS, reducing the symptoms of HIV infection, and extending patients' life spans. Over the past decade the success of these treatments in prolonging and improving the quality of life for people with AIDS has improved dramatically <ref name=Wood>{{ cite journal | author=Wood, E., Hogg, R. S., Yip, B., Harrigan, P. R., O'Shaughnessy, M. V. and Montaner, J. S. | title=Is there a baseline CD4 cell count that precludes a survival response to modern antiretroviral therapy? | journal=AIDS | year=2003 | pages=711-720 | volume=17 | issue=5 | id={{PMID|12646794}} }}</ref><ref name=Chene>{{ cite journal | author=Chene, G., Sterne, J. A., May, M., Costagliola, D., Ledergerber, B., Phillips, A. N., Dabis, F., Lundgren, J., D'Arminio Monforte, A., de Wolf, F., Hogg, R., Reiss, P., Justice, A., Leport, C., Staszewski, S., Gill, J., Fatkenheuer, G., Egger, M. E. and the Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort Collaboration. | title=Prognostic importance of initial response in HIV-1 infected patients starting potent antiretroviral therapy: analysis of prospective studies | journal=Lancet | year=2003 | pages=679-686 | volume=362 | issue=9385 | id={{PMID|12957089}} }}</ref>. Because HIV disease progression in children is more rapid than in adults, and laboratory parameters are less predictive of risk for disease progression, particularly for young infants, treatment recommendations from the DHHS have been more aggressive in children than in adults, the current guidelines were published [[November 3]] [[2005]] <ref name=2005dhhsHivChildren>{{ cite web | author=[[Department of Health and Human Services]] Working Group on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of HIV-Infected Children | publisher= | year=[[November 3]], [[2005]] | url=http://www.aidsinfo.nih.gov/ContentFiles/PediatricGuidelines_PDA.pdf | title=Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in Pediatric HIV Infection | accessdate=2006-01-17 }}</ref>. The DHHS also recommends that doctors should assess the viral load, rapidity in CD4 decline, and patient readiness while deciding when to recommend initiating treatment <ref name=2005DhhsHivTreatment>{{ cite web | author=[[Department of Health and Human Services]] Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV Infection | publisher= | year=[[October 6]], [[2005]] | url=http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/ContentFiles/AdultandAdolescentGL.pdf | title=Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in HIV-1-Infected Adults and Adolescents | accessdate=2006-01-17 }}</ref>. There are several concerns about antiretroviral regimens. The drugs can have serious side effects<ref name=Saitoh>{{ cite journal | author=Saitoh, A., Hull, A. D., Franklin, P. and Spector, S. A. | title=Myelomeningocele in an infant with intrauterine exposure to efavirenz | journal=J. Perinatol. | year=2005 | pages=555-556 | volume=25 | issue=8 | id={{PMID|16047034}} }}</ref>. Regimens can be complicated, requiring patients to take several pills at various times during the day, although treatment regimens have been greatly simplified in recent years. If patients miss doses, drug resistance can develop <ref name=Dybul>{{ cite journal | author=Dybul, M., Fauci, A. S., Bartlett, J. G., Kaplan, J. E., Pau, A. K.; Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV. | title=Guidelines for using antiretroviral agents among HIV-infected adults and adolescents | journal=Ann. Intern. Med. | year=2002 | pages=381-433 | volume=137 | issue=5 Pt 2 | id={{PMID|12617573}} }}</ref>. Also, anti-retroviral drugs are costly, and the majority of the world's infected individuals do not have access to medications and treatments for HIV and AIDS. Research to improve current treatments includes decreasing side effects of current drugs, further simplifying drug regimens to improve adherence, and determining the best sequence of regimens to manage drug resistance. A number of studies have shown that measures to prevent opportunistic infections can be beneficial when treating patients with HIV infection or AIDS. Vaccination against hepatitis A and B is advised for patients who are not infected with these viruses and are at risk of getting infected. In addition, AIDS patients should receive vaccination against [[Streptococcus pneumoniae]] and should receive yearly vaccination against [[influenza virus]]. Patients with substantial immunosuppression are generally advised to receive prophylactic therapy for [[Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia]] (PCP), and many patients may benefit from prophylactic therapy for [[toxoplasmosis]] and [[Cryptococcus]] meningitis. ===Alternative medicine=== Ever since AIDS entered the public consciousness, various forms of [[alternative medicine]] have been used to try to treat symptoms or to try to affect the course of the disease itself. In the first decade of the epidemic when no useful conventional treatment was available, a large number of people with AIDS experimented with [[alternative medicine|alternative therapies]]. The definition of "alternative therapies" in AIDS has changed since that time. During that time, the phrase often referred to community-driven treatments, not being tested by government or pharmaceutical company research, that some hoped would directly suppress the virus or stimulate immunity against it. These kinds of approaches have become less common over time as AIDS drugs have become more effective. The phrase then and now also refers to other approaches that people hoped would improve their symptoms or their quality of life--for instance, massage, herbal and flower remedies and [[acupuncture]]; when used with conventional treatment, many now refer to these as "complementary" approaches. None of these treatments have been proven in controlled trials to have any effect in treating HIV or AIDS directly. However, some may improve feelings of well-being in people who believe in their value. Additionally, people with AIDS, like people with other illnesses such as [[cancer]], also sometimes use [[marijuana]] to treat pain, combat nausea and stimulate appetite. ==Epidemiology== {{main|AIDS pandemic}} [[Image:Africa HIV-AIDS 300px.png|300px|thumb|right|Map of Africa coloured according to the percentage of the Adult (ages 15-49) population with HIV/AIDS.]] [[UNAIDS]] and the WHO estimate that AIDS has killed more than 25 million people since it was first recognized in 1981, making it one of the most destructive epidemics in recorded history. Despite recent, improved access to antiretroviral treatment and care in many regions of the world, the AIDS epidemic claimed an estimated 3.1 million (between 2.8 and 3.6 million) lives in 2005 of which more than half a million (570,000) were children <ref name=UNAIDS>{{ cite web | author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | year= 2005 | url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf | title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005 | accessdate=2006-01-17 }}</ref>. Globally, between 36.7 and 45.3 million people are currently living with HIV <ref name=UNAIDS>{{ cite web | author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | year= 2005 | url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf | title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005 | accessdate=2006-01-17 }}</ref>. In 2005, between 4.3 and 6.6 million people were newly infected and between 2.8 and 3.6 million people with AIDS died, an increase from 2004 and the highest number since 1981. [[AIDS pandemic#Sub-Saharan Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] remains by far the worst-affected region, with an estimated 23.8 to 28.9 million people currently living with HIV. More than 60% of all people living with HIV are in sub-Saharan Africa, as are more than three quarters (76%) of all women living with HIV <ref name=UNAIDS>{{ cite web | author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | year= 2005 | url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf | title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005 | accessdate=2006-01-17 }}</ref>. [[AIDS pandemic#South and South-East Asia|South &amp; South East Asia]] are second most affected with 15%. AIDS accounts for the deaths of 500,000 children. The latest evaluation report of the World Bank's Operations Evaluation Department assesses the development effectiveness of the World Bank's country-level HIV/AIDS assistance defined as policy dialogue, analytic work, and lending with the explicit objective of reducing the scope or impact of the AIDS epidemic <ref name=Worldbank>{{ cite web | author=[[World Bank]] | publisher= | year=2005 | url=http://www.worldbank.org/oed/aids/main_report.html | title=Evaluating the World Bank's Assistance for Fighting the HIV/AIDS Epidemic | accessdate=2006-01-17 }}</ref>. This is the first comprehensive evaluation of the World Bank's HIV/AIDS support to countries, from the beginning of the epidemic through mid-2004. Because the Bank's assistance is for implementation of government programs by government, it provides important insights on how national AIDS programs can be made more effective. The development of [[HAART]] as effective therapy for HIV infection and AIDS has substantially reduced the death rate from this disease in those areas where it is widely available. This has created the misperception that the disease has gone away. In fact, as the life expectancy of persons with AIDS has increased in countries where HAART is widely used, the number of persons living with AIDS has increased substantially. In the United States, for example, the number of persons with AIDS increased from about 35,000 in 1988 to over 220,000 in 1996 <ref name=CDC1996>{{ cite journal | author=[[CDC]] | title=U.S. HIV and AIDS cases reported through December 1996 | journal=HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report | year=1996 | pages=1-40 | volume=8 | issue=2 | url=http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/stats/hivsur82.pdf }}</ref>. ==Origin of HIV/AIDS== {{main|AIDS origin}} The official date for the beginning of the AIDS epidemic is marked as [[June 18]], [[1981]], when the U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Center for Disease Control]] and Prevention reported a cluster of [[Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia|''Pneumocystis carinii'' pneumonia]] (now classified as Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia) in five gay men in [[Los Angeles]] <ref name=MMWR2>{{ cite web | author=[[CDC]] | publisher=CDC | year=1981 | url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/june_5.htm | title=Pneumocystis Pneumonia --- Los Angeles | accessdate=2006-01-17 }}</ref>. Originally dubbed GRID, or Gay-Related [[Immunodeficiency|Immune Deficiency]], health authorities soon realized that nearly half of the people identified with the syndrome were not gay. In 1982, the CDC introduced the term AIDS to describe the newly recognized syndrome. Three of the earliest known instances of HIV infection are as follows: #A plasma sample taken in 1959 from an adult male living in what is now the Democratic Republic of Congo <ref name=Zhu>{{ cite journal | author=Zhu, T., Korber, B. T., Nahmias, A. J., Hooper, E., Sharp, P. M. and Ho, D. D. | title=An African HIV-1 Sequence from 1959 and Implications for the Origin of the Epidemic | journal=Nature | year=1998 | pages=594-597 | volume=391 | issue=6667 | id={{PMID|9468138}} }}</ref>. #HIV found in tissue samples from an American teenager who died in St. Louis in 1969. #HIV found in tissue samples from a Norwegian sailor who died around 1976. Two species of HIV infect humans: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is more virulent and more easily transmitted. HIV-1 is the source of the majority of HIV infections throughout the world, while HIV-2 is less easily transmitted and is largely confined to [[West Africa]] <ref name=Reeves>{{ cite journal | author=Reeves, J. D. and Doms, R. W | title=Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2 | journal=J. Gen. Virol. | year=2002 | pages=1253-1265 | volume=83 | issue=Pt 6 | id={{PMID|12029140}} }}</ref>. Both HIV-1 and HIV-2 are of primate origin. The origin of HIV-1 is the [[Common Chimpanzee|Central Common Chimpanzee]] (''Pan troglodytes troglodytes''). The origin of HIV-2 has been established to be the [[Sooty Mangabey]] (''Cercocebus atys''), an Old World monkey of Guinea Bissau, Gabon, and Cameroon. One currently controversial possibility for the origin of HIV/AIDS was discussed in a [[1992]] Rolling Stone magazine article by freelance journalist Tom Curtis. He put forward the theory that AIDS was inadvertantly caused in the late 1950's in the [[Belgian Congo]] by [[Hilary Koprowski]]'s research into a [[polio]] [[vaccine]] <ref name=Curtis>{{ cite journal | author=Curtis, T. | title=The origin of AIDS| journal=Rolling Stone | year=1992 | pages=54-59, 61, 106, 108 | volume= | issue=626 | url=http://www.uow.edu.au/arts/sts/bmartin/dissent/documents/AIDS/Curtis92.html }}</ref>. Although subsequently retracted due to [[libel]] issues surrounding its claims, the Rolling Stone article motivated another freelance journalist, [[Edward Hooper]], to probe more deeply into this subject. Hooper's research resulted in his publishing a 1999 book, [[The River]], in which he alleged that an experimental oral [[polio]] [[vaccine]] prepared using [[chimpanzee]] kidney tissue was the route through which [[SIV]] crossed into humans to become HIV, thus starting the human AIDS pandemic<ref name=Hooper>{{ cite book | author = Hooper, E. | year = 1999 | title = The River : A Journey to the Source of HIV and AIDS | edition = 1st | pages = 1-1070 | publisher = Little Brown & Co | location = Boston, MA | id = ISBN 0316372617 }}</ref>. {{details|OPV AIDS hypothesis}} ==Alternative theories== {{main|AIDS reappraisal}} A minority of scientists and activists question the connection between HIV and AIDS <ref name=Duesberg>{{ cite journal | author=Duesberg, P. H. | title=HIV is not the cause of AIDS | journal=Science | year=1988 | pages=514, 517 | volume=241 | issue=4865 | id={{PMID |3399880}} }}</ref>, or the existence of HIV <ref name=Papadopulos>{{ cite journal | author=Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E., Turner, V. F., Papadimitriou, J., Page, B., Causer, D., Alfonso, H., Mhlongo, S., Miller, T., Maniotis, A. and Fiala, C. | title=A critique of the Montagnier evidence for the HIV/AIDS hypothesis | journal=Med Hypotheses | year=2004 | pages=597-601 | volume=63 | issue=4 | id={{PMID |15325002}} }}</ref>, or the validity of current testing methods. These claims are met with resistance by, and often evoke frustration and hostility from, most of the scientific community, who accuse the dissidents of ignoring evidence in favor of HIV's role in AIDS, and irresponsibly posing a dangerous threat to [[public health]] by their continued activities <ref name=Cohen>{{ cite journal | author=Cohen, J. | title=The Duesberg phenomenon | journal=Science | year=1994 | pages=1642-1644 | volume=266 | issue=5191 | id={{PMID |7992043}} | url=http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/cohen/266-5191-1642a.pdf }}</ref>. Dissidents assert that the current mainstream approach to AIDS, based on HIV causation, has resulted in inaccurate diagnoses, psychological terror, toxic treatments, and a squandering of public funds. The debate and controversy regarding this issue from the early 1980s to the present has provoked heated emotions and passions from both sides. ==References== <div style="font-size:85%"> <references/> </div> ==External links== * [http://www.unaids.org/en/default.asp UNAIDS] The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS * [http://www.eldis.org/hivaids/ Eldis HIV and AIDS] - latest research and other resources on HIV and AIDS in developing countries * [http://www.iasociety.org/ International AIDS Society] - the world's leading independent association of HIV/AIDS professionals * [http://www.aegis.org/ AEGiS.org] AIDS Education Global Information System * [http://www.worldaidsday.org/ World AIDS Day] World AIDS Day [[1 December]] - Show your support * [http://www.worldbank.org/oed/aids AIDS Assistance] Evaluating the World Bank's Assistance for Fighting the HIV/AIDS Epidemic * [http://www.aids.org/ AIDS.ORG]: Comprehensive HIV/AIDS Information * AIDSinfo 2002 [http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/Glossary/GlossaryDefaultCenterPage.aspx?MenuItem=AIDSinfoTools The Glossary of HIV/AIDS-Related Terms 4th Edition] * [http://www.aidsmeds.com AIDSmeds.com]: Comprehensive lessons on HIV/AIDS and their treatments * US Center for Disease Control (2005) [http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/dhap.htm Divisions of HIV/AIDS Prevention] * [http://fightaidsathome.scripps.edu/index.html FightAIDS@Home] Distributed computing project against AIDS * Health Action AIDS (2003) [http://www.phrusa.org/campaigns/aids/who_031303.html HIV Transmission in the Medical Setting] * NIAID/NIH 2003 [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/daids/vaccine/basicinfo.htm Basic Information About AIDS and HIV] * NIAID/NIH 2003 [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/evidhiv.htm Evidence That HIV causes AIDS] * NIAID/NIH 2004 [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/howhiv.htm How HIV Causes AIDS] * NIH 2001 [http://history.nih.gov/NIHInOwnWords/index.html History of AIDS Research in the NIH] * The Body 2005 [http://www.thebody.com/index.shtml The Body: The Complete HIV/AIDS Resource] * Origin of Aids Video [http://www.documentary-film.net/search/video-listings.php?e=5 Watch Free online : Origin of Aids Video] * Journal Watch 2005 [http://aids-clinical-care.jwatch.org/ AIDS Clinical Care] * UNAIDS Scenarios to 2025 [http://www.unaids.org/NetTools/Misc/DocInfo.aspx?LANG=en&amp;href=http%3a%2f%2fgva-doc-owl%2fWEBcontent%2fDocuments%2fpub%2fPublications%2fIRC-pub06%2fAIDS-scenarios-2025_report_en%26%2346%3bhtm Document regarding three scenarios for HIV/AIDS in Africa for the year 2025 (Large PDF file)] * AIDS dissident websites [http://www.reviewingaids.com/awiki/index.php/List_of_dissident_websites AIDS Wiki's comprehensive list of dissident websites] * The Body's list of resources criticizing the "AIDS reappraisal" movement [http://www.thebody.com/whatis/cause.html The Body: AIDS Denialism] * Gestalt Therapy and AIDS [http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/gik_gestalt/rosenblatt.html Treatment Issues with AIDS Patients (1993)] * Documentation on the oral polio vaccine (OPV) theory of AIDS origin [http://www.aidsorigins.com/ AIDSOrigin.com] ==AIDS News== {{wikinews|UN/WHO making progress in treating HIV/AIDS, but will miss 2005 target}} * Nov 2005 - Progress in HIV vaccine research -[http://www.isracast.com/transcripts/011205a_trans.htm - Recorded interview with Prof. Robert Gallo (HIV discoverer)] {{AIDS}} [[Category:HIV/AIDS]] [[Category:Immune system disorders]] [[Category:Infectious diseases]] [[Category:Pandemics]] [[Category:Sexually-transmitted diseases]] [[Category:Virology]] {{Link FA|fr}} {{Link FA|he}} {{Link FA|vi}} [[af:VIGS]] [[als:AIDS]] [[ar:متلازمة نقص المناعة المكتسب]] [[bg:СПИН]] [[bm:Sida]] [[be:СНІД]] [[bs:Sida]] [[ca:SIDA]] [[cs:AIDS]] [[da:Aids]] [[de:Aids]] [[es:SIDA]] [[eo:Aidoso]] [[eu:HIES]] [[fa:ایدز]] [[fr:Syndrome d'immunodéficience acquise]] [[ko:에이즈]] [[hi:एड्स]] [[hr:SIDA]] [[he:איידס]] [[sw:Ukimwi]] [[ku:AIDS]] [[lv:AIDS]] [[lt:AIDS]] [[ln:Sida]] [[hu:AIDS]] [[ms:AIDS]] [[nl:Aids]] [[ja:後天性免疫不全症候群]] [[no:AIDS]] [[nn:HIV/AIDS]] [[pl:Zespół nabytego niedoboru odporności]] [[ps:اېډز]] [[pt:Síndrome da imuno-deficiência adquirida]] [[qu:SIDA]] [[ru:СПИД]] [[simple:AIDS]] [[sk:AIDS]] [[sl:AIDS]] [[sr:СИДА]] [[fi:AIDS]] [[sv:Aids]] [[ta:எய்ட்ஸ்]] [[tt:AİDS]] [[th:เอดส์]] [[vi:AIDS]] [[tr:AIDS]] [[uk:СНІД]] [[zh:艾滋病]] 880 42058359 2006-03-03T14:46:11Z 205.251.103.38 /* Trivia */ {{Infobox_band | band_name = ABBA| image = [[Image:ABBApromotional.jpg]] | caption = ''Clockwise from top: Andersson, Ulvaeus, Lyngstad, Fältskog'' | origin = [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]] | status = | years_active = 1972-1982| music_genre = [[Rock (music)|Rock]]<br /> [[Europop]]<br />[[Pop music|Pop]]<br />[[Disco]] | record_label = [[Polar Music]]<br />[[Atlantic Records]]<br />[[Epic Records]]<br />[[Universal Music]]<br />[[Polydor Records]] | current_members = | past_members = [[Benny Andersson]]<br />[[Agnetha Fältskog]]<br />[[Anni-Frid Lyngstad|Anni-Frid "Frida" Lyngstad]]<br />[[Björn Ulvaeus]] | }} '''ABBA''' ([[1972]]–[[1983]]) was a [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[pop music]] group. They remain the most successful Swedish music act and were one of the most popular groups in the world. The group dominated charts worldwide during the mid-to-late 1970s and early 1980s, selling many [[ABBA discography|hit singles and albums]]. Estimates of ABBA's total worldwide sales vary from 300 to 400 million (there seems to be no reliable source for this information) which could make them the second most successful band of all time after [[The Beatles]]. They were the first act from the European mainland to become a regular fixture in [[UK Singles Chart|British]], [[Hot 100 Singles Sales|American]] and [[ARIA Charts|Australian]] charts, and their success subsequently opened the doors for many other European acts. Their lasting legacy is the legitimising of the Swedish music industry as a mainstream player. ABBA was formed around [[1972]] with [[Björn Ulvaeus]], [[Benny Andersson]], [[Agnetha Fältskog]], and [[Anni-Frid Lyngstad]] (nicknamed "Frida"). They became widely known after winning the [[1974]] [[Eurovision Song Contest]] with "[[Waterloo (English version)|Waterloo]]". The group consisted of two couples, Björn and Agnetha along with Benny and Frida. ABBA collectively decided to take a break at the beginning of [[1983]]. They have yet to record together again in the studio. ''ABBA'' is an [[acronym]] formed from the first letters of each group member's name. It is usually written '''ABBA''' but is sometimes written as a word, '''Abba'''. The first ''B'' in the [[logo]] version of the name was reversed on the band's promotional material from [[1976]] onwards. ==History== ===Before ABBA=== Benny Andersson was a member of the Swedish rock / pop band [[Hep Stars]] who were very popular in Sweden during the 1960s. The band was modeled after various US and UK groups such as [[Herman's Hermits]], [[The Who]] and [[The Rolling Stones]]. The Hep Stars had a huge following, especially among teenage girls. Meanwhile Björn Ulvaeus was fronting a [[skiffle]] group called the [[Hootenanny Singers]] whose sound was softer and more easy-listening than the Hep Stars. The singers crossed paths sometimes and they decided to write songs together. One of these, "Isn't It Easy To Say," became a hit for the Hep Stars and Björn sometimes guested with the band on tour. It was even suggested that the two bands merge but this never happened. [[Stikkan Anderson|Stig Anderson]], manager of the Hootenanny Singers and founder of [[Polar Music]], saw more potential in Benny and Björn working together and encouraged them to write more songs and create an album which was eventually called ''Lycka'' ("Happiness") when released on the Polar label. Agnetha Fältskog was ABBA's youngest member and a pop phenomenon in her own right who wrote and performed Swedish hits while in her teens and had also played [[Mary Magdalene]] in the Swedish production of ''[[Jesus Christ Superstar]]''. Agnetha was noted by critics and songwriters as an accomplished composer but she considered it hard work, writing and performing light pop songs in the [[Schlager]] style, recording [[cover version|covers]] of hit songs and touring Swedish [[folkpark]]s, the main "live circuit" at that time. Inevitably she bumped into the Hootenanny Singers on their folkpark tours, meeting and eventually falling in love with Björn. Their marriage in [[1971]] was the Swedish celebrity wedding of the year and drew much publicity. Housewife Anni-Frid "Frida" Lyngstad was a part-time cabaret singer who decided to enter a talent competition and won. Sweden was [[Dagen H|changing over]] from driving on the left side of the road to the right and a series of spectacular shows was being aired to encourage people to stay off the roads on the night of the switchover. Invited to appear on TV that evening with her winning song, Frida's musical career took off. She met Benny Andersson on the wonted folkpark tour. They became lovers and Benny invited Anni-Frid to sing backing vocals with Agnetha on the ''Lycka'' album. The two women were uncredited for this work. ===Early years=== [[Image:People_Need_Love_small.jpg|frame|right|The cover of "People Need Love," the first single released by the group.]] By the early 1970s, although Björn and Agnetha were married, they pursued their own separate musical careers. However Stig was ambitious and determined to break into the mainstream international market, not something that Swedish acts were usually known for, though previously achieved by Swedish instrumental guitar group [[The Spotnicks]] (their best known hit was "Orange Blossom Special"). As a result he encouraged Björn and Benny to write a song for the [[1972]] [[Eurovision Song Contest]] and it was performed by Lena Anderson. "Say It With a Song" won third in the contest selection rounds but was a huge hit in several countries, convincing Stig he was on the right track. Björn and Benny persevered with their songwriting and experimented with new sounds and vocal arrangements which brought some success in [[Japan]]. One of the songs they came up with was "[[People Need Love]]," featuring guest vocals by the girls who were now given much greater prominence than previously. Everyone involved felt enthusiastic about the new sound and Stig released it as a single, credited to ''Björn & Benny, Agnetha & Anni-Frid''. The record reached number 17 in the Swedish charts, enough to convince them they were on to something. [[Image:Ringring1973sleeve.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The cover of the [[1973]] version of the album ''[[Ring Ring (album)|Ring Ring]]''.]] The following year they decided to have another crack at Eurovision, this time with the song "[[Ring Ring (English version)|Ring Ring]]." The studio work was handled by [[Michael B. Tretow]] who experimented with a [[Phil Spector]]-like "[[wall of sound]]" production technique that became the wholly new ABBA sound. Stig arranged an English translation of the lyrics by [[Neil Sedaka]] and [[Phil Cody]] and they thought this would be a sure-fire winner. Yet again, it came in third. Nevertheless the proto-group put out an album called ''[[Ring Ring (album)|Ring Ring]]'', still carrying the awkward naming of ''Björn, Benny, Agnetha & Frida''. The album did well and the "Ring Ring" single was a hit in many parts of Europe but Stig felt the true breakthrough could only come with a UK or US hit. Around this time Stig, having tired of the unwieldy names, started to refer to the group privately and publicly as ''ABBA''. This was done as a joke at first, since Abba was also the name of a well-known fish-canning company in Sweden. However, since the fish canners were more or less unknown outside Sweden, Stig came to believe the name would work in international markets and so it stuck. Later the group negotiated with the canners for the right to use the name. ===Eurovision and after=== [[Image:Waterloo Watch Out.jpg|right|thumb|200px|"[[Waterloo (English version)|Waterloo]]" ([[1974]])]] [[Image:Mammamiasingle.jpg|right|thumb|200px|"[[Mamma Mia]]" ([[1975]])]] They tried [[Eurovision Song Contest|Eurovision]] again in [[1974]], now inspired by the growing [[glam rock]] scene in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and tracks like [[Wizzard]]'s "See My Baby Jive". "Waterloo" was an unashamedly glam-style pop track produced with Michael B. Tretow's wall of sound approach. Now far more experienced, they were better prepared for the contest and had an album's worth of material released when the show was held in [[Brighton, England]]. The song won hands down and catapulted them into British consciousness for the first time. Now they had a catchy name, ABBA, and people could buy the whole album (''Waterloo'') straightaway. "[[Waterloo (English version)|Waterloo]]" was ABBA's first UK No. 1. It was also released in the [[United States|US]], reaching No. 6. But momentum proved hard to maintain, and their follow-up singles "So Long" and "Honey Honey" did not do nearly as well. The group was overstretched and unable to promote the songs convincingly in any one country. Moreover, much of their material was still heavily derivative. It wasn't until the release of their second proper album ''[[ABBA (album)|ABBA]]'' and their single "[[SOS (song)|SOS]]" that ABBA began to show the first signs they were destined for bigger things. "SOS" consolidated ABBA's presence in the UK where it was a Top 10 hit and they were no longer regarded as a [[one-hit wonder]]. Much wider success came in [[1975]] with every release charting solidly and "[[Mamma Mia (song)|Mamma Mia]]" reaching the UK No. 1 spot in January [[1976]]. At this time the band released the somewhat hubristically titled ''[[Greatest Hits (ABBA album)|Greatest Hits]]'' album despite having had only five Top 40 hits in the UK and the US. This album included "[[Fernando (single)|Fernando]]" (an earlier version had been a Swedish-language hit single for Anni-Frid and included on her 1975 Benny-produced solo LP ''[[Frida Ensam]]''). Becoming one of ABBA's best-known tracks, "Fernando" did not appear on the Swedish or Australian releases of ''Greatest Hits''. In Sweden the song would wait until 1982's ''The Singles-The First Ten Years'' to appear in an English-language version credited to ABBA; the track was later included in the Australian release of their [[1976]] album, ''[[Arrival (ABBA_album)|Arrival]]''. The next album, ''Arrival'', represented a new level of accomplishment in both songwriting and studio work for ABBA. Hit after hit flowed from it: "[[Money, Money, Money]]", "[[Knowing Me, Knowing You (single)|Knowing Me, Knowing You]]" and "[[Dancing Queen (single)|Dancing Queen]]", their most enduring and definitive hit. By this time ABBA were widely popular in the UK, most of Western Europe and [[Australia]] (who in a way almost "adopted" ABBA as their own) but still had only moderate recognition and airplay in the US, and "Dancing Queen" remains the only No. 1 ABBA ever achieved there. [[Image:abbamovieposter.jpg|thumb|right|Movie poster for ''[[ABBA: The Movie]]'' and ''[[The Album]]'' carried the same artwork.]] By this time the ABBA sound was synonymous with European pop and was widely copied by groups like [[Brotherhood of Man]] and later, [[Bucks Fizz (band)|Bucks Fizz]]. Some felt it was necessary to copy ABBA's sound and two girl/two boy approach to win Eurovision, and the notion seemed validated when Brotherhood of Man won in 1976 and Bucks Fizz took the prize in [[1981]]. Meanwhile in [[1977]] ABBA followed up ''Arrival'' with the more complex ''[[The Album]]'' which was released to coincide with ''[[ABBA: The Movie]]'', a feature film of their Australian tour. This album was less well-received by the critics but spawned several hits, "[[The Name of the Game]]" and "[[Take A Chance On Me|Take a Chance on Me]]", both of which topped the UK charts. This album also carried the well-known "Thank You for the Music" that later was released in the UK as a single ([[1983]]) and had been a B-side of "Eagle" in territories where that song was released as a single. ===Later years=== By [[1978]] ABBA was a megagroup. They converted a disused cinema into the Polar Music Studio, a new state-of-the-art studio in [[Stockholm]] which was used by several other successful bands ([[Led Zeppelin]]'s ''[[In Through the Out Door]]'' was recorded there, for example). Their standalone single "[[Summer Night City]]", their last Swedish number one, stopped just short of topping the UK charts but set the stage for ABBA's foray into [[disco]] with the album ''[[Voulez-Vous]]'', which was released in Spring [[1979]]. This release marked a slight decline in ABBA's popularity in the UK and Europe but gained them more attention in the US. The hits still came: "[[Chiquitita]]", "[[Does Your Mother Know]]", "[[Voulez-Vous (song)|Voulez-Vous]]" and "[[I Have A Dream (ABBA song)|I Have A Dream]]" all charted. In January 1979, the group performed at the [[Music for UNICEF Concert]] at the [[United Nations General Assembly]], performing "[[Chiquitita]]"; the [[royalties]] from the song were donated to [[UNICEF]]. Later that year, the group released their second greatest hits album, Greatest Hits Vol 2, which featured a brand new track "[[Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)]]", their best known [[disco]] hit. In [[1979]] ABBA toured the US and Canada, playing to huge audiences, but the breakthrough there was perhaps too little, too late. [[1980]]'s ''[[Super Trouper]]'' reflected a change in ABBA's style with more prominent [[synthesiser]]s and more personal lyrics. It set a record for the most preorders ever received for a UK album after 1 million copies were ordered before release. Anticipation for the release had been built up by "[[The Winner Takes It All]]", the group's eighth UK chart topper (their first since [[1978]]). This song was allegedly written about Bjorn and Agnetha's marriage, which was breaking down at the time. The next single from the album, "[[Super Trouper (song)|Super Trouper]]" also hit number 1. "[[Lay All Your Love On Me]]" was an album track that was released in 1981 as a 12-inch single only in limited territories, and, along with Super Trouper, managed to top the American club and dance chart. A Spanish language compilation album was also recorded at this time - 'Gracias Por La Musica', which was released in Latin America and sold very well. ''[[The Visitors]]'' ([[1981]]), their final studio album, showed a songwriting maturity and depth of feeling distinctly lacking from their earlier recordings but still placed the band squarely in the pop genre, with catchy tunes and harmonies. ''The Visitors''<nowiki>'</nowiki> title track refers to secret meetings held against the approval of Communist governments in Soviet satellite states and other tracks address topics like aging, loss of innocence, a parent watching her child grow up and so on. Their melodies were still catchy but their change of style was reflected by the start of a commercial decline after their final great pop single "[[One Of Us (ABBA song)|One Of Us]]" which was a worldwide hit in December 1981. Although by this time regarded as a group in decline, ABBA still drew huge audiences, particularly in continental Europe and might have gone on indefinitely if it were not for the band's personal turmoils: the two married couples were both divorced by this point. Songs like "The Winner Takes It All" and "One Of Us" gave glimpses of personal issues ABBA's members were facing. In summer 1982, the group gathered to record a new album. In the end they settled for a double album compilation of all their past successes with two new songs. The double album ''[[The Singles: The First Ten Years]]'' topped the UK album chart and was a worldwide bestseller. The new tracks were "[[Under Attack]]" and "[[The Day Before You Came]]", which was the last song ABBA ever recorded together. Two other songs were recorded during 1982, "I Am The City" and "Just Like That". While both were completed, only "I Am The City" was released on the compilation album ''More ABBA Gold'' in 1993. Despite numerous efforts from fans, Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson are still refusing to release "[[Just Like That (ABBA song)|Just Like That]]" in its entirety. The group gradually drifted apart as they began pursuing different projects. Benny and Björn collaborated with [[Tim Rice]] to write the musical ''[[Chess (musical)|Chess]]'', while Agnetha and Frida worked on solo albums. ==After ABBA== Björn and Benny wrote the music for the [[West End]] show ''[[Chess (musical)|Chess]]'' ([[1984]]) with lyricist [[Tim Rice]]. ''Chess'' ran for three years in London. The show also opened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in the US ([[1988]]) but the song order, lyrics and storyline had been altered compared with the London version, and was less successful; the show closed within weeks. "Chess" is best known today for producing the international hit "[[One Night in Bangkok]]", sung by [[Murray Head]]. Björn and Benny, inspired by the successes of Rice and his former collaborator [[Andrew Lloyd-Webber]], had long expressed their desire to write a musical. Their first attempt had been a "mini-musical", ''The Girl with The Golden Hair'', performed by the group during their 1977 tour of Europe and Australia. Excerpts were included in ''ABBA - The Movie'' and ''ABBA - The Album''. Björn and Benny followed ''Chess'' with ''[[Kristina från Duvemåla]]'' ([[1995]]), directed for the stage by [[Lars Rudolfsson]] and based on the ''Emigrants'' [[tetralogy]] by Swedish novelist [[Vilhelm Moberg]]. ''[[Mamma Mia!]]'', a musical built around ABBA's songs, had its London premiere in [[1999]]. In 2003, their first musical was given new life in a Swedish-language version, ''Chess På Svenska''. After being largely forgotten throughout most of the 1980s, ABBA experienced a resurgence. The attention was often ironic, along the lines of "they were so [[wikt:naff|naff]] they were good," yet others recognised that while ABBA was often panned by critics and sneered at by [[punk rock|punk]] and [[New Wave music|New Wave]] musicians they were masters of their art, the three minute pop song. [[1992]] saw a huge revival of interest in ABBA, with the release of their [[ABBA Gold: Greatest Hits]] compilation album selling massively worldwide and setting chart longevity records. The revival was further validated by the [[1994]] film "[[Muriel's Wedding]]", a popular Australian film starring an ABBA-loving protaganist. Björn and Benny were finally recognised in [[2001]] with an [[Ivor Novello|Ivor Novello Award]] for their songwriting. Many former punk and New Wave artistes later admitted to levels of fondness and respect for ABBA they were unwilling to own up to in their early years. During the 1990s many ABBA tracks were rediscovered and covered by other artists, such as [[Erasure]], [[Ash (band)|Ash]] and the [[A*Teens]], among others. The avant-garde band [[Blancmange (band)|Blancmange]] had also covered ''The Day Before You Came'' in the mid-1980s, one of the first bands to cover an ABBA track. On [[April 6]]th 2004 three former ABBA members (Björn, Benny and Frida) showed up together in London for the 30th anniversary of their Eurovision Song Contest win in 1974, appearing on stage after the fifth anniversary performance of ''Mamma Mia!''. In a November 2004 interview with the German magazine ''[[Bunte]]'' Björn said a reunion would not satisfy ABBA's many fans, even though there are legions of them around the world often clamouring for one. In February 2005 all four members of ABBA appeared together in public for the first time since 1986 at the gala opening of ''Mamma Mia!'' in Stockholm. On [[October 22]] 2005, during the celebration show for the 50th anniversary of the Eurovision Song Contest held in [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]], ''Waterloo'' was [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/4366574.stm voted the best] Eurovision song in the history of the contest. ===Post-ABBA solo careers=== Both female members of ABBA have had some success with solo careers following the break-up of the band. In [[1982]], Frida released her [[Phil Collins]]-produced album ''[[Something's Going On]]'' This album included the hit single "I Know There's Something Going On". Agnetha followed in [[1983]] with the album ''Wrap Your Arms Around Me''. This album included the hit single ''The Heat Is On'' (a cover of the [[Noosha Fox]] recording) which was a big hit all over Europe and Scandinavia that year. In the US Agnetha scored a Billboard top 30 hit with ''Can't Shake Loose''. Her album sold over 1.2 million copies worldwide. Frida retired after her second solo album ''Shine'' flopped. Agnetha fared better with her second post-ABBA solo album ''Eyes of a Woman''. The album was number two in the Swedish charts and did reasonably well in Europe. After ''I Stand Alone'' in [[1987]] Agnetha withdrew from public life and refused to give interviews. In [[1996]] she released her [[autobiography]] called ''As I Am'' and also released a compilation that featured her solo hits. In [[2004]] she released a disc of cover songs called "My Colouring Book" which debuted at number one in Sweden and number six in Germany. The album peaked just outside of the British top ten (number 11) and the single ''If I Thought You'd Ever Change Your Mind'' reached number 9 in the UK singles chart. The album went triple-platinum in Sweden (300,000 copies), gold in Finland and silver in Great Britain. Frida released ''Shine'' (produced by [[Steve Lillywhite]]) in [[1984 in music|1984]] but it was not until 1996 that she released her last album to date, the Swedish-language ''Djupa Andetag'' which was a number one album in Sweden (selling 90,000 copies) but unknown internationally. In September 2004 Frida recorded a song called "The Sun Will Shine Again" with former [[Deep Purple]] member [[Jon Lord]] for his latest album, making some rare appearances on German television. ==Fashion and videos== <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:abba2.jpg|thumb|180px|left|Members of ABBA embodied the height of disco glamour in the 70s.]] --> ABBA was widely noted as an epitome of 1970s fashion for the colourful costumes its members wore. The videos which accompanied some of their biggest hits are often cited as being among the earliest examples of the genre. Though The Beatles and the Rolling Stones had shot the occasional video clip, making promotional videos still hadn't become the industry standard by the early-to-mid 1970s. Most of ABBA's videos (and ''ABBA - The Movie'') were directed by [[Lasse Hallström]] who would later direct the films ''[[My Life as a Dog]]'', ''[[The Cider House Rules]]'' and ''[[Chocolat (movie)|Chocolat]]''. ABBA made videos because their songs were hits in so many different countries and personal appearances weren't always possible. This was also an effort to minimise travelling, particularly to countries that would have required extremely long flights. Agnetha and Björn had two young children, and Agnetha, who was also [[Fear of flying|afraid of flying]], was very reluctant to leave her children for such a long time. ABBA's manager Stig Anderson realised the potential of showing a simple video clip on television to publicise a single or album, thereby allowing easier and quicker exposure than a concert tour. Some of these videos became classics because of the 1970s era costumes and early video effects, such as the grouping of the band members in different combinations of pairs, overlapping one girl's profile with the other's full face, and the contrasting of one member against another. Nowadays, most of their videos can be seen on the DVDs ''ABBA Gold'' and ''The Definitive Collection''. [[Image:Ringringstill.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A still from ABBA's music video, or promo clip, "Ring Ring."]] Several ABBA videos were spoofed by others: The video "Knowing Me, Knowing You" was satirised on the [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] [[comedy]] show ''[[Not the Nine O'Clock News]]'' as "Super Dooper." The title ''[[Knowing Me, Knowing You]]'' was also borrowed for a spoof chat show on BBC starring [[Steve Coogan]] as [[Alan Partridge]] who always entered the studio shouting "Aha!" (an exclamation in the lyrics). UK comedy duo [[French and Saunders]] parodied ABBA with their song "C'est La Vie", an homage to "The Winner Takes it All." [[Erasure]] paid homage to the ABBA video style with their video for "[[Take a Chance on Me]]." ==Trivia== *Songwriters Benny and Bj&ouml;rn were unable to [[Musical_notation|notate music]] on paper. Only Agnetha could (as revealed in a [[Dick Cavett]] interview with the group). *Abba have been spoofed by many TV shows, including ''[[French & Saunders]]'', ''[[Not The Nine O'Clock News]]'' and ''[[Fast Forward]]''. In addition, the character of "[[Alan Partridge]]" is noted as being a huge ABBA fan, especially on his television show "[[Knowing Me, Knowing You with Alan Partridge]]" where all the hosts and all guests were introduced with different ABBA songs. *At the height of their success ABBA was Sweden's biggest export, exceeding even [[Volvo]] cars. *While selling their music into Russia during the late 1970s ABBA were paid in oil commodities because of an [[embargo]] on the [[rouble]]. *The song ''Chiquitita'' was first performed at the [[Music for UNICEF Concert]] in [[1979]]. ABBA's performance at the concert was, however, [[lip-synching|lip-synched]]. All royalties from the song were donated to the children's charity [[United Nations Children's Fund|UNICEF]] in perpetuity. *In [[1981]], ABBA sponsored the [[ATS]] [[Formula One]] racing team, for whom [[Slim Borgudd]], a former drummer who appeared on some ABBA recordings, was a driver. *The hit song "Bring Me Edelweiss" ([[1989]]) by [[Edelweiss (band)|Edelweiss]] features the tune and some lyrics from "S.O.S". This caused some controversy between Bjorn & Benny, and manager Stig - Stig had granted approval to use the song without consulting the others. *The sound track of the successful Australian film ''[[Muriel's Wedding]]'' ([[1994]]) prominently featured ABBA songs: The two female leads [[lip sync]] "Waterloo" and the wedding scene is scored to an orchestral rendition of "Dancing Queen". The movie also features "Mamma Mia", "Fernando" and "I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do". *Another 1994 Australian fillm ''[[The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert]]'' features a performance of ''Mamma Mia!'' by two [[drag queen|drag queens]], furthering ABBA's status as a [[gay icon]]. *The ABBA [[tribute band]] [[Bj&ouml;rn Again]] became so successful that as of 2004 there were five casts of Bj&ouml;rn Again performing in various parts of the world. The original Bj&ouml;rn Again had been touring for 15 years, longer than the original group. *[[techno music|Techno]] and [[house music|house]] remakes of many original ABBA hits were released under the name [[Abbacadabra]]. *''[[Mamma Mia!]]'' was nominated for a Broadway [[Tony Award]] as Best Musical in [[2002]]. *In [[2000]] ABBA were reported to have turned down an offer of approximately one billion dollars (US) to do a reunion tour. *In 2005 ABBA's 1976 hit single "Fernando" still held the record for the most weeks spent at number one in Australia (along with The Beatles' "Hey Jude"). [http://www.onmc.iinet.net.au/top/1976.htm] *In addition to being an [[acronym]], the name "ABBA" is also a [[palindrome]]. In 1975, ABBA's "SOS" became the first song with a palindromic title recorded by a group with a palindromic name to hit the pop charts. *ABBA was inducted into the [[Vocal Group Hall of Fame]] in [[2002]]. *In the film ''[[Johnny English]]'', the title character ([[Rowan Atkinson]]) is discretely characterized as an ABBA fan. He sings "Thank You for The Music", and lip-syncs to "Does Your Mother Know" in front of a mirror. * [[The Fugees]] sampled [[ABBA]] (as well as [[Crystal Gayle]]) for their contribution to the [[1996]] "[[When We Were Kings]]" soundtrack, "Rumble in the Jungle" *[[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] sampled the group's "[[Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)]]" in her [[2005]] single "[[Hung Up]]". ==See also== *[[ABBA discography]] - ABBA's discography and chart positions for UK, USA, Germany and Netherlands. *[[ABBA unreleased songs|List of ABBA Unreleased songs]] *[[Music of Sweden]] *[[List of Swedes in music]] *[[Best selling music artists]] - World's top selling music artists chart. *[[List of number-one hits (United States)]] *[[List of artists who reached number one on the Hot 100 (U.S.)]] *[[List of Number 1 Dance Hits (United States)]] *[[List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance chart]] *[[List of Number 1 singles (UK)]] *[[UK Best selling singles artists of all time]] *[[List of artists who reached number one in Ireland]] *[[List of artists who have covered ABBA songs]] *[[List of artists who reached number one on the Australian singles chart]] *[[List of songs with particularly long titles]] ==External links== *[http://www.abba4therecord.com/ abba4therecord.com] - ABBA Discography. *[http://www.abba-thesingles.com/ abba-thesingles.com] - ABBA Singles Discography. *[http://www.abbasite.com/start/ ABBA - The Site] - Official site. This site is owned and maintained by "[[Universal Music]] AB" in Sweden. *[http://www.abba-world.net// ABBA World] - Complete song list, website links reviewed and categorised, selected discography, bibliography, concert information, and much more. *[http://www.abbaplaza.com/ ABBAPlaza.Com] - ABBA fan site in English and in Dutch. *[http://www.icethesite.com/ icethesite.com] - ABBA and the musicals CHESS, Kristina and more... *[http://www.vocalhalloffame.com/abba3.htm VocalHallOffame.Com] - "Vocal Group Hall of Fame" page on ABBA. *[http://www.abba-story.com ABBA-Story.Com] - Site about ABBA. *[http://www.photofeatures.com/abba/index.html Photo archive of ABBA by Rock Photographer Chris Walter.] *[http://66.235.213.139/~abbagall/index.html Collection of ABBA's pictures] *[http://www.abbamail.com/ ABBAmail.Com] ABBA-related site. *[http://www.lyrics-explorer.com/lyrics/artists/a/abba/ ABBA Lyrics Page] Song lyrics collection. *[http://www.codehot.co.uk/lyrics/abcd/abba/abba.htm Code Hot UK - ABBA Lyrics] Popular ABBA song lyrics. *[http://www.mabba.fw.hu/ The Hungarian ABBA site] lyrics, pictures, extras etc. {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Anne-Marie David]] | title=[[Eurovision Song Contest|Winner of the Eurovision Song Contest]] | years=[[1974]] | after=[[Teach-In]] }} {{end box}} [[Category:ABBA]] [[Category:Popular musical groups]] [[Category:Swedish musical groups|ABBA]] [[Category:Disco musicians|ABBA]] [[Category:Eurovision winners]] [[Category:Melodifestivalen|ABBA]] [[af:ABBA]] [[ar:آبا]] [[bg:АББА]] [[zh-min-nan:ABBA]] [[ca:ABBA]] [[cs:ABBA]] [[da:ABBA]] [[de:ABBA]] [[et:ABBA]] [[es:ABBA]] [[eo:ABBA]] [[fo:ABBA]] [[fr:ABBA]] [[hr:ABBA]] [[is:ABBA]] [[it:ABBA]] [[he:אבבא]] [[lt:ABBA]] [[hu:ABBA]] [[nl:ABBA]] [[ja:ABBA]] [[no:ABBA]] [[nn:ABBA]] [[pl:ABBA]] [[pt:ABBA]] [[ru:ABBA]] [[simple:ABBA]] [[sk:ABBA]] [[sl:ABBA]] [[fi:ABBA]] [[sv:ABBA]] [[tr:ABBA]] [[zh:ABBA]] 881 42009066 2006-03-03T04:47:50Z Antandrus 57658 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/220.94.125.128|220.94.125.128]] ([[User talk:220.94.125.128|talk]]) to last version by Ncox {{Otheruses}} '''Allegiance''' is the duty which a subject or a [[citizen]] owes to the [[state (law)|state]] or to the [[Monarch|sovereign]] of the state to which he belongs. ==Origin of the word== Mid. English ''ligeaunce''; med. Latin ''ligeantia''; the al- was probably added through confusion with another legal term, ''allegeance'', an ''allegation''; the [[French language|French]] ''allegeance'' comes from the English; the word is formed from "liege," of which the derivation is given under that heading; the connection with [[Latin]] ''ligare'', to bind, is erroneous. ==Usage== The term ''allegiance'' is often used by English legal commentators in a larger sense, divided by them into natural and local, the latter applying to the deference which even a foreigner must pay to the institutions of the country in which he happens to live; but it is in its proper sense, in which it indicates national character and the subjection due to that character, that the word is important. In that sense it represents the [[feudal]] [[liege homage]], which could be due only to one lord, while simple [[homage]] might be due to every lord under whom the person in question held land. ==United Kingdom== The English doctrine, which was at one time adopted in the [[United States]], asserted that allegiance was indelible: "Nemo potest exuere patriam". Accordingly, as the law stood before [[1870]], every person who by birth or [[naturalization]] satisfied the conditions set forth, though he should be removed in infancy to another country where his family resided, owed an allegiance to the British crown which he could never resign or lose, except by act of parliament or by the recognition of the independence or the cession of the portion of British territory in which he resided. Allegiance is the tie which binds the subject to the [[Sovereign]] in return for that protection which the Sovereign affords the subject. It was the mutual bond and obligation between the King or Queen and his or her subjects, whereby subjects are called his liege subjects, because they are bound to obey and serve him; and he is called their [[liege]] lord, because he should maintain and defend them (''Ex parte Anderson'' (1861) 3 El & El 487; 121 ER 525; ''China Navigation Co v Attorney-General'' (1932) 48 TLR 375; ''Attorney-General v Nissan'' [1969] 1 All ER 629; ''Oppenheimer v Cattermole'' [1972] 3 All ER 1106). The duty of the Crown towards its subjects is to govern and protect. The reciprocal duty of the subject towards the Crown is that of allegiance. At common law allegiance is a true and faithful obedience of the subject due to his Sovereign. As the subject owes to his king his true and faithful allegiance and obedience, so the Sovereign is to govern and protect his subjects, ''regere et protegere subdititos suos'', so as between the Sovereign and subject there is: *''duplex et reciprocum ligamen; quia sicut subditus regi tenetur ad obedientiam, ita rex subdito tenetur ad protectionem; merito igitur ligeantia dicitur a ligando, quia continet in se duplex ligamen'' (''Calvin's Case'' (1608) 7 Co Rep 1a; Jenk 306; 2 State Tr 559; 77 ER 377). Natural allegiance and obedience is an incident inseparable to every subject, for as soon as he or she is born they owe, by birthright, allegiance and obedience to their Sovereign (''Ex parte Anderson'' (1861) 3 El & El 487; 121 ER 525). A natural-born subject owes allegiance wherever he or she may be. Where territory is occupied in the course of hostilities by an enemy's force, even if the annexation of the occupied country is proclaimed by the enemy, there can be no change of allegiance during the progress of hostilities on the part of a citizen of the occupied country (''R v Vermaak'' (1900) 21 NLR 204 (South Africa)). Allegiance is owed both to the Sovereign as a natural person and to the Sovereign in his or her political capacity (''Re Stepney Election Petition, Isaacson v Durant'' (1886) 17 QBD 54 (per Lord Coleridge CJ)). Attachment to the person of the reigning Sovereign is not sufficient. Loyalty requires affection also to the office of the Sovereign, attachment to royalty, attachment to the law and to the constitution of the realm, and he who would, by force or by fraud, endeavour to prostrate that law and constitution, though he may retain his affection for its head, can boast but an imperfect and spurious species of loyalty (''R v O'Connell'' (1844) 7 ILR 261). There were four kinds of allegiances (''Rittson v Stordy'' (1855) 3 Sm & G 230; ''De Geer v Stone'' (1882) 22 Ch D 243; ''Isaacson v Durant'' (1886) 54 LT 684; ''Gibson, Gavin v Gibson'' [1913] 3 KB 379; ''Joyce v DPP'' [1946] AC 347; ''Collingwood v Pace'' (1661) O Bridg 410; ''Lane v Bennett'' (1836) 1 M & W 70; ''Lyons Corp v East India Co'' (1836) 1 Moo PCC 175; ''Birtwhistle v Vardill'' (1840) 7 Cl & Fin 895; ''R v Lopez, R v Sattler'' (1858) Dears & B 525; Ex p Brown (1864) 5 B & S 280); (a) ''Ligeantia naturalis, absoluta, pura et indefinita'', and this originally is due by nature and birthright, and is called ''alta ligeantia'', and those that owe this are called ''subditus natus''; (b) ''Ligeantia acquisita'', not by nature but by acquisition or denization, being called a denizen, or rather denizon, because he or she is ''subditus datus''; (c) ''Ligeantia localis'', by operation of law, when a friendly alien enters the country, because so long as he or she is in the country they are within the Sovereign's protection, therefore they owe the Sovereign a local obedience or allegiance (''R v Cowle'' (1759) 2 Burr 834; ''Low v Routledge'' (1865) 1 Ch App 42; ''Re Johnson, Roberts v Attorney-General'' [1903] 1 Ch 821; ''Tingley v Muller'' [1917] 2 Ch 144; ''Rodriguez v Speyer'' [1919] AC 59; ''Johnstone v Pedlar'' [1921] 2 AC 262; ''R v Tucker'' (1694) Show Parl Cas 186; ''R v Keyn'' (1876) 2 Ex D 63; ''Re Stepney Election Petn, Isaacson v Durant'' (1886) 17 QBD 54); (d) A legal obedience, where a particular law requires the taking of an oath of allegiance by subject or alien alike. Natural allegiance was acquired by birth within the Sovereign's dominions (except for the issue of diplomats or of invading forces or of an alien in enemy occupied territory). The natural allegiance and obedience is an incident inseparable to every subject, for as soon as he or she is born they owe by birthright allegiance and obedience to the Sovereign (''Ex p. Anderson'' (1861) 3 E & E 487). A natural-born subject owes allegiance wherever they may be, so that where territory is occupied in the course of hostilities by an enemy's force, even if the annexation of the occupied country is proclaimed by the enemy, there can be no change of allegiance during the progress of hostilities on the part of a citizen of the occupied country (''R v Vermaak'' (1900) 21 NLR 204 (South Africa)). Acquired allegiance was acquired by naturalisation or denization. Denization, or ''ligeantia acquisita'', appears to be three-fold (''Thomas v Sorrel'' (1673) 3 Keb 143); *(a) absolute, as the common denization, without any limitation or restraint; *(b) limited, as when the Sovereign grants letters of denization to an alien, and to the heirs males of his or her body, or to an alien for term of his or her life; *(c) It may be granted upon condition, ''cujus est dare, ejus est disponere'', and this denization of an alien may come about three ways: by Parliament; by letters patent, which was the usual manner; and by conquest. Local allegiance was due by an alien while in the protection of the Crown. All friendly resident aliens incurred all the obligations of subjects (''The Angelique'' (1801) 3 Ch Rob App 7). An alien, coming into a colony also became, temporarily a subject of the Crown, and acquired rights both within and beyond the colony, and these latter rights could not be affected by the laws of that colony (''Routledge v Low'' (1868) LR 3 HL 100; 37 LJ Ch 454; 18 LT 874; 16 WR 1081, HL; ''Reid v Maxwell'' (1886) 2 TLR 790; ''Falcon v Famous Players Film Co'' [1926] 2 KB 474). A resident alien owed allegiance even when the protection of the Crown was withdrawn owing to the occupation of an enemy, because the absence of the Crown's protection was temporary and involuntary (''de Jager v Attorney-Geneneral of Natal'' [1907] AC 326). Legal allegiance was due when an alien took an oath of allegiance required for a particular office under the Crown. By the [[Naturalization Act 1870]], it was made possible for British subjects to renounce their nationality and allegiance, and the ways in which that nationality is lost are defined. So British subjects voluntarily naturalized in a foreign state are deemed aliens from the time of such naturalization, unless, in the case of persons naturalized before the passing of the act, they have declared their desire to remain British subjects within two years from the passing of the act. Persons who from having been born within British territory are British subjects, but who at birth became under the law of any foreign state subjects of such state, and also persons who though born abroad are British subjects by reason of parentage, may by declarations of alienage get rid of British nationality. [[Emigration]] to an uncivilized country leaves British nationality unaffected: indeed the right claimed by all states to follow with their authority their subjects so emigrating is one of the usual and recognized means of [[colonial]] expansion. ==United States== The doctrine that no man can cast off his native allegiance without the consent of his sovereign was early abandoned in the United States, and on [[July 27]], [[1868]], the day before the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] was adopted, [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] declared in the preamble of the [[Expatriation Act]] that "the right of expatriation is a natural and inherent right of all people, indispensable to the enjoyment of the rights of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness," and (Section I) one of "the fundamental principles of this government" ([[United States Revised Statutes]], sec. 1999). Every citizen of a foreign state in America owes a double allegiance, one to it and one to the United States. He may be guilty of treason against one or both. If the demands of these two sovereigns upon his duty of allegiance come into conflict, those of the United States have the paramount authority in American law. ==Oath of allegiance== ''Main article: [[oath of allegiance]]'' The oath of allegiance is an [[oath]] of fidelity to the sovereign taken by all persons holding important public office and as a condition of naturalization. By ancient common law it might be required of all persons above the age of twelve, and it was repeatedly used as a test for the disaffected. In [[England]] it was first imposed by statute in the reign of [[Elizabeth I of England]] ([[1558]]) and its form has more than once been altered since. Up to the time of the revolution the promise was, "to be true and faithful to the king and his heirs, and truth and faith to bear of life and limb and terrene [[honour]], and not to know or hear of any ill or damage intended him without defending him therefrom." This was thought to favour the doctrine of absolute non-resistance, and accordingly the convention parliament enacted the form that has been in use since that time - "I do sincerely promise and swear that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His Majesty ..." ==See also== * [[Pledge of Allegiance]] ==References== * The original initial text was from the public domain [[Gutenberg Encyclopedia]]. Please update as needed * See also Salmond on "Citizenship and Allegiance," in the ''Law Quarterly Review'' (July 1901, January 1902). ---- '''Allegiance''' is also a [[computer game]] by [[Microsoft Research]]. ''See:'' [[Allegiance (computer game)]] '''Allegiance''' is also an episode of [[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]. ''See:'' [[Allegiance (TNG episode)]] [[de:Loyalität]] [[es:lealtad]] [[Category:Nationalism]] 882 24233840 2005-09-28T14:12:46Z KnightRider 430793 warnfile Adding: es '''Absolute majority''' is a [[supermajority|supermajoritarian]] [[voting]] requirement which is stricter than a [[simple majority]]. It means that more than half of ''all'' the members of a group, including those absent and those present but not voting, must [[vote]] in favour of a proposition in order for that proposition to be passed. As an example, let's say that a member of a club of 100 members proposes a new [[bylaw]]. According to the club's practice, for the bylaw to pass, it requires an absolute majority. The results of the vote are 40 yes votes and 30 no votes. The rest of the voters either abstained or did not vote. Even though this arrangement is a [[simple majority]], since an absolute majority for the club is 51 members, the proposed bylaw fails. Absolute majority voting is most often used to pass changes to constitutions or to [[bylaw]]s in order to ensure that there is affirmative support for a proposal. Most voting decisions require a [[simple majority]] or even just a [[plurality]]. ==Examples of absolute majority voting== From 2005, an absolute majority of the electorate in addition to a three-fourths vote of the [[legislature]] is necessary to pass amendments to the [[Constitution of the Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]] as well as to ratify a [[referendum]]. The requirement of an absolute majority rather than a simple majority effectively gives both major political blocs the power to veto a referendum or constitutional amendment. In the [[politics of the European Union]], any decision taken using the [[codecision procedure]] requires an absolute majority in [[European Parliament]] in order to amend a text in its second reading. (At first reading, only a [[simple majority]] is required.) ==See also== * [[List of democracy and elections-related topics]] [[Category:Elections]] [[Category:Voting theory]] [[es:Mayoría absoluta]] 883 40280861 2006-02-19T13:49:59Z Urthogie 106482 minor '''Afrika Islam''', born '''Charles Glenn''', and known also as the '''Son of [[Afrika Bambaataa|Bambaataa]],''' is a [[hip hop production|hip-hop producer]]. He left [[New York]] for [[Los Angeles]] and went on to co-produce most of [[Ice T]]'s early albums, namely ''[[Rhyme Pays]]'' and ''Power''; the latter is deemed to be Ice's finest effort by some aficionados. In the late [[1990s]], Afrika Islam joined German [[techno music|techno]] icon [[Westbam]] to form [[Mr. X and Mr. Y]], a techno duo that made commercial techno with [[Electro (music)|Electro]] influences. "Back to Berlin" quotes from the Old School rap classic "New York New York" by [[Grandmaster Flash]]. [[Category:Hip hop producers|Islam, Afrika]] [[als:Afrika Islam]] [[de:Afrika Islam]] 884 38699696 2006-02-08T01:24:46Z Deadcujo 708381 Hyphenation and capitalisation of "Spider-Man". '''Adventure International''' was a [[Computer and video games|video game]] publishing company that existed from 1978 until 1985, started by Scott and Alexis Adams. Their games were notable for being the first implementation of the adventure genre to run on a microcomputer system. The adventure game concept originally came from [[Colossal Cave Adventure]] which ran strictly on large mainframe systems at the time. After the success of their first game "Adventureland", games followed rapidly, with Adventure International (or "AI") releasing about two games a year. Initially the games were drawn from the founders imagination, with themes ranging from [[fantasy]] to [[Horror fiction|horror]] and sometimes [[science fiction]]. Some of the later games were written by Scott Adams and other collaborators. Adventure Internationals' games became known for quality, with a reputation only exceeded in the field at the time by [[Infocom]]. Fourteen games later, Adventure International began to release games drawn from film and fiction. The extremely rare Buckaroo Banzai game, developed with Phillip Case, was based on the film [[The Adventures of Buckaroo Banzai Across the Eighth Dimension]] ([[1984]]). Other games came from a more well known source: [[Marvel Comics]]. Adventure International released three games based on the Marvel characters: "The Incredible Hulk", "Spider-Man" and "Torch and the Thing". By the end of [[1982]], game tastes were changing. The traditional text-based [[adventure game]] market had moved to graphical based adventures. Games like [[The Hobbit (video game)|The Hobbit]] had increased expectations of such games, and although Adventure International games included graphics of a sort, they were significantly inferior to contemporary offerings at the time and the company was rapidly losing [[market share]]. Adventure International went [[bankruptcy|bankrupt]] in [[1985]]. The [[copyright]]s for its games reverted to the bank and eventually back to Scott Adams who released them as [[shareware]]. At its peak in late 1983 to early 1984 Adventure International employed approximately 50 individuals, and published titles from over 300 independent programmer/authors. In [[Europe]] the "Adventure International" name was a trading name of [[AdventureSoft]] and other games were released under the name that were not from Adventure International in the [[United States|USA]]. Alexis Adams has remained in the online world and runs the online sex site FatFantasy.net[http://www.fatfantasy.net] . Scott Adams can be reached through his homepage at www.msadams.com[http://www.msadams.com] ==The Games== Scott Adams's original twelve adventure games were * ''Adventureland'', * ''Pirate Adventure'' (also called ''Pirate's Cove''), * ''Secret Mission'' (originally called ''Mission Impossible''), * ''Voodoo Castle'', * ''The Count'', * ''Strange Odyssey'', * ''Mystery Fun House'', * ''Pyramid of Doom'', * ''Ghost Town'', * ''Savage Island'' parts I &amp; II, and * ''The Golden Voyage''. ==External links== * [http://www.freearcade.com/Zplet.jav/Scottadams.html Play Scott Adams games in your web browser] * [http://www.if-legends.org/~adventure/Adventure_International/Classic.html IF Legends, detailed guide to Scott Adams Classic Adventures] * [http://dmoz.org/Games/Video_Games/Developers_and_Publishers/A/Adventure_International/ Category at Open Directory] [[Category:Defunct computer and video game companies]] 885 33133851 2005-12-29T16:24:02Z Keithlaw 171631 +dab tag '''Altenberg''' may refer to: * [[Peter Altenberg]], an Austrian writer and poet * [[Vieille Montagne]] (German name "Altenberg"), a former zinc mine in Kelmis * [[Altenberg, Germany]], a city in [[Saxony]], Germany * [[Altenberg, Austria]], a municipality in Austria near Vienna, on site the family mansion of [[Konrad Lorenz]] [[de:Altenberg]] {{disambig}} 886 41754796 2006-03-01T14:37:32Z Syrthiss 334792 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/167.206.233.170|167.206.233.170]] ([[User talk:167.206.233.170|talk]]) to last version by Jason One [[Image:Arthur C. Clarke.jpg|thumb|200px|Arthur C. Clarke]] '''Sir Arthur Charles Clarke''' (born [[December 16]] [[1917]]) is the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[author]] and [[inventor]], most famous for his [[science-fiction]] novel ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'', and for collaborating with director [[Stanley Kubrick]] on the film of the same name. Clarke is considered one of the Big Three of science fiction, along with [[Robert A. Heinlein]] and [[Isaac Asimov]]; he is the only one still alive. ==''2001: A Space Odyssey''== was written concurrently with the [[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|film version]] by [[Stanley Kubrick]]. It was loosely inspired by Clarke's short story "[[The Sentinel (short story)|The Sentinel]]", but became its own novel while he was collaborating on a screenplay with Kubrick. Kubrick approached Clarke about writing a novel for the express purpose of making "the proverbial good science-fiction movie", and the novel was still being written while the film was being made. This resulted in one of the truly unique collaborations in media history. Clarke has written numerous other books, including the [[Rendezvous with Rama|Rama]] novels and several sequels to ''2001'', and many short stories, including "[[The Star]]", about a Jesuit priest's spiritual dilemma. An [[asteroid]] is named in Clarke's honour, [[4923 Clarke]], as is a species of [[Ceratopsian]] [[dinosaur]], ''[[Serendipaceratops arthurcclarkei]]'', discovered in [[Inverloch, Victoria|Inverloch]] in [[Australia]]. The [[2001 Mars Odyssey]] orbiter is named in honor of Sir Arthur's works. In the [[1940s]] he forecast that man would reach the [[Moon landing|moon]] by the year [[2000]], an idea experts dismissed as rubbish. When [[Neil Armstrong]] landed in [[1969]], the United States said Clarke "provided the essential intellectual drive that led us to the moon." ([http://today.reuters.co.uk/news/newsArticleSearch.aspx?storyID=221763+14-Nov-2005+RTRS&srch=clarke] [http://www.taborcommunications.com/archives/3047.html]) He lives in [[Sri Lanka]], and survived the [[tsunami]]s of the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]], but lost his diving school on [[Hikkaduwa]] ([http://sify.com/news/fullstory.php?id=13638567] [http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2004/12/30/latest/20462ArthurC&sec=latest]). Clarke holds citizenship of both the [[UK]] and [[Sri Lanka]] [http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2005/12/11/new27.html]. ==Biography== Clarke was born in [[Minehead]] in [[Somerset]], [[England]], and as a boy enjoyed stargazing and enthusiastically read old American science-fiction magazines (many of which made their way to England as ballast in ships). After secondary school, and studying at [[Richard Huish College, Taunton]] he was unable to afford a university education and consequently acquired a job as an auditor in the pensions section of the Board of Education. During the [[World War II|Second World War]], he served in the [[Royal Air Force]] as a [[radar]] specialist and was involved in the early warning radar defense system which contributed to the RAF's success during the [[Battle of Britain]]. He retired in the rank of [[Flight Lieutenant]]. After the war, he obtained a first class [[academic degree|degree]] in mathematics and physics at [[King's College London]]. His most important contribution may be the idea that [[geostationary satellite]]s would be ideal [[telecommunication]]s relays. He proposed this concept in a paper titled "[http://www.lsi.usp.br/~rbianchi/clarke/ACC.ETRelaysFull.html Extra-Terrestrial Relays] - Can Rocket Stations Give Worldwide Radio Coverage?", published in ''[[Wireless World]]'' in October [[1945]]. The [[geostationary orbit]] is now sometimes known as the Clarke orbit in his honour. However, it is not clear that his article was actually the inspiration for modern telecommunications satellites. [[John R. Pierce]], of [[Bell Labs]], arrived at the idea independently in 1954, and he was actually involved in the [[Echo satellite]] and [[Telstar]] projects. However, Pierce stated that the idea was "in the air" at the time and certain to be developed regardless of Clarke's publication. Clarke's first professional sale was in [[1946]] to ''[[Astounding Science Fiction]]'', the still memorable short story "Rescue Party". Along with his writing, Clarke worked briefly as Assistant Editor of ''[[Science Abstracts]]'' ([[1949]]) before devoting himself to writing full-time from 1951. Clarke also contributed to the ''[[Dan Dare]]'' series and his first three published novels were for a juvenile audience. He has been chairman of the [[British Interplanetary Society]] and a member of the [[Underwater Explorers Club]]. His work is marked by its optimistic view of science empowering mankind's exploration of the solar system and an obvious influence was the work of [[Olaf Stapledon]]. In [[1951]], he wrote "The Sentinel" for a [[BBC]] competition. Though the story was rejected, it changed the course of Clarke's career. Not only the basis for ''2001'', ''The Sentinel'' introduced a more mystical and cosmic element to Clarke's work. Many of Clarke's later works feature a technologically advanced but prejudiced mankind being confronted by a superior alien intelligence. In the cases of ''[[The City and the Stars]]'', ''[[Childhood's End]]'', and the ''2001'' series, this encounter produces a conceptual breakthrough that accelerates humanity into the next stage of its evolution. He has lived in [[Sri Lanka]] since [[1956]], immigrating when it was still called [[Ceylon]], first in [[Unawatuna]] on the south coast, and then in [[Colombo]]. This inspired the locale for his novel ''[[The Fountains of Paradise]]'', in which he describes a [[space elevator]]. This, he figures, will ultimately be his legacy, more so than [[geostationary satellite]]s, once space elevators make space shuttles obsolete. Early in his career, Clarke had a fascination with the [[paranormal]], and has stated that it was part of the inspiration for his novel ''Childhood's End''. He has also said that he was one of several who were fooled by a [[Uri Geller]] demonstration at [[Birkbeck, University of London|Birkbeck College]]. Although he has long since dismissed and distanced himself from nearly all [[pseudoscience]], he still advocates for research into purported instances of [[psychokinesis]] and other similar phenomena. Following the release of ''2001'', Clarke became much in demand as a commentator on science and technology, especially at the time of the [[Apollo space program]]. He also signed a three-book publishing deal, a record for a science fiction writer. The first of the three was ''[[Rendezvous with Rama]]'' in [[1973]], which won him all the main genre awards and has spawned sequels that, along with the ''2001'' series, formed the backbone of Clarke's later career. In [[1975]], his short story ''The Star'' was not included as prose in a new high school [[English Language|English]] textbook in [[Sri Lanka]], because it was felt that it might offend [[Roman Catholics]], although it had been selected. The textbook caused controversy because it replaced [[Shakespeare]]'s work with that of [[Bob Dylan]], [[John Lennon]] and [[Isaac Asimov]]. Clarke is also well known to many for his television programmes ''[[Arthur C. Clarke's Mysterious World]]'' ([[1981]]) and ''[[Arthur C. Clarke's World of Strange Powers]]'' ([[1984]]). In [[1986]], Clarke provided a grant to fund the prize money (initially £1,000) for the [[Arthur C. Clarke Award]] for the best science fiction novel published in Britain in the previous year. In [[2001]] the prize was increased to £2001, and its value now matches the year (i.e., £2005 in [[2005]]). In [[1988]], he was diagnosed with [[post-polio syndrome]] and has since needed to use a wheelchair. His [[British honours system|knighthood]] was first announced in [[1998]], but then the British [[tabloid]] ''[[The Daily Mirror|The Sunday Mirror]]'' published accusations of [[pedophilia|paedophilia]] against him ([http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/52598.stm]). The award was delayed while the allegations were investigated, although by [[2000]] the BBC reported that he had been cleared ([http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/765385.stm]). Clarke's health did not allow him to travel to [[London]] to receive the honour personally from the [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen]], so the UK [[High Commissioner]] to [[Sri Lanka]] awarded him the title of [[Knight Bachelor]] at a ceremony in [[Colombo]]. He is currently the Honorary Board Chair of the [[Institute for Cooperation in Space]], founded by [[Carol Rosin]] and on the [[Board of Governors]] of the [[National Space Society]], a [[space advocacy]] organization originally founded by Dr. [[Wernher von Braun]]. He was the first Chancellor of the [[International Space University]], serving from [[1989]] to [[2004]] and Chancellor of [[Moratuwa University]], [[Sri Lanka]], from [[1979]] to [[2002]]. In [[2005]] he lent his name to the first ever annual [http://www.clarkeawards.org Sir Arthur Clarke Awards] - dubbed "the Oscars for Space". His brother attended the awards ceremony, and presented an award specially chosen by Arthur (and not by the panel of judges who chose the other awards). On [[14 November]] [[2005]] Sri Lanka awarded Arthur C. Clarke its highest civilian award, the Lankabhimanaya ''(Pride of Lanka)'' award, for his contributions to science and technology and his commitment to his adopted country. ==Partial Bibliography== ===Novels=== * ''[[Prelude to Space]]'' (1951) * ''[[The Sands of Mars]]'' (1951) * ''[[Islands in the Sky]]'' (1952) * ''[[Against the Fall of Night]]'' (1953) * ''[[Childhood's End]]'' (1953) * ''[[Earthlight]]'' (1955) * ''[[The City and the Stars]]'' (1956) * ''[[The Deep Range]]'' (1957) * ''[[A Fall of Moondust]]'' (1961) * ''[[Dolphin Island]]'' (1963) * ''[[Glide Path]]'' (1963) * ''[[2001:_A_Space_Odyssey_(novel)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' (1968) * ''[[The Lion of Comarre & Against the Fall of Night]]'' (1968) * ''[[Report on Planet Three]]'' (1972) * ''[[Rendezvous with Rama]]'' (1973) * ''[[Imperial Earth]]'' (1975) * ''[[The Fountains of Paradise]]'' (1979) * ''[[2010: Odyssey Two]]'' (1982) * ''[[The Songs of Distant Earth]]'' (1986) * ''[[2061: Odyssey Three]]'' (1988) * ''[[A Meeting With Medusa]]'' (1988) * ''[[Cradle (book)|Cradle]]'' (1988, with [[Gentry Lee]]) * ''[[Rama II]]'' (1989, with [[Gentry Lee]]) * ''[[Beyond the Fall of Night]]'' (1990, [[Gregory Benford]]) * ''[[The Ghost from the Grand Banks]]'' (1990) * ''[[The Garden of Rama]]'' (1991, with [[Gentry Lee]]) * ''[[Rama Revealed]]'' (1993, with [[Gentry Lee]]) * ''[[The Hammer of God]]'' (1993) * ''[[Richter 10]]'' (1996, with [[Mike McQuay]]) * ''[[3001: The Final Odyssey]]'' (1997) * ''[[The Trigger]]'' (1999, with [[Michael P. Kube-McDowell]]) * ''[[The Light of Other Days]]'' (2000, with [[Stephen Baxter]]) * ''[[Time's Eye]]'' (2004, with Stephen Baxter) * ''[[Sunstorm (novel)|Sunstorm]]'' (2005, with Stephen Baxter) * ''[[The Last Theorem]]'' (2005) ===Omnibus editions=== * ''[[Across the Sea of Stars]]'' (1959, including ''Childhood's End'', ''Earthlight'' and 18 short stories) * ''[[From the Ocean, From the Stars]]'' (1962, including ''The City and the Stars'', ''The Deep Range'' and ''The Other Side of the Sky'') * ''[[An Arthur C. Clarke Omnibus]]'' (1965, including ''Childhood's End'', ''Prelude to Space'' and ''Expedition to Earth'') * ''[[Prelude to Mars]]'' (1965, including ''Prelude to Space'' and ''The Sands of Mars'') * ''[[An Arthur C. Clarke Second Omnibus]]'' (1968, including ''A Fall of Moondust'', ''Earthlight'' and ''The Sands of Mars'') * ''[[Four Great SF Novels]]'' (1978, including ''The City and the Stars'', ''The Deep Range'', ''A Fall of Moondust'', ''Rendezvous with Rama'') * ''[[The Space Trilogy]]'' (2001, including ''Islands in the Sky'', ''Earthlight'' and ''The Sands of Mars'') [[Image:Startling Stories.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''[[Against the Fall of Night]]'' in ''[[Startling Stories]]''.]] ===Short story collections=== * ''[[Expedition to Earth]]'' (1953) * ''[[Reach for Tomorrow]]'' (1956) * ''[[Tales from the White Hart]]'' (1957) * ''[[The Other Side of the Sky]]'' (1958) * ''[[Tales of Ten Worlds]]'' (1962) * ''[[The Nine Billion Names of God]]'' (1967) * ''[[Of Time and Stars]]'' (1972) * ''[[The Wind from the Sun]]'' (1972) * ''[[The Best of Arthur C. Clarke]]'' (1973) * ''[[The Sentinel (short story)|The Sentinel]]'' (1983) * ''[[Tales From Planet Earth]]'' (1990) * ''[[More Than One Universe]]'' (1991) * ''[[The Collected Stories of Arthur C. Clarke]]'' (2000) ===Non-fiction=== *''Profiles of the Future'' (1962, subtitled "An Enquiry into the Limits of the Possible") *''[[The Snows of Olympus - A Garden on Mars]]'' (1994, picture album with comments] *''[[Ascent to Orbit]]'' is what he calls his scientific autobiography *''[[Astounding Days]]'' his science-fictional autobiography *''[[The coming of the Space Age; famous accounts of man's probing of the universe]]'', selected and edited by Arthur C. Clarke. *''[[The Coast of Coral]]'' with photographs by Mike Wilson and Arthur C. Clarke, volume 1 of the ''Blue planet trilogy'' *''[[How the World Was One: Beyond the Global Village]]. A history and survey of the communications revolution published in 1992. *''[[Greetings, carbon-based bipeds!]]'' collected essays, 1934-1998 *''[[Man and space]]'' *''[[Report on Planet Three and other speculations]]'' *''[[The promise of space]]'' ==Themes, style, and influence== Clarke's early published stories would usually feature the extrapolation of a technological innovation or scientific breakthrough that assists the resolution of a human dilemma. The first manned mission to the moon (''[[Prelude to Space]]''), the colonization of [[Mars]] (''[[The Sands of Mars]]'') and life aboard a space station (''[[Islands in the Sky]]'') were all genre SF mainstays. Clarke's background as a technical writer showed in the early novels as a deliberate documentary style, and his characters reflect Clarke's experience by being mostly military or civil service types. Despite this, Clarke's style was open to humour and a degree of whimsy which salted its propagandist tone regarding scientific advancement with a sting in the tail. A recurring type of character is found in ''[[The Lion of Comarre]]'', ''[[The City and the Stars]]'', ''[[The Road to the Sea]]'', and other works. A young man in a superficially [[utopian]] society becomes dissatisfied and restless and seeks to expand his horizons, thereby discovering the underlying decadence of his own society. ''The Sentinel'' introduced a religious theme to Clarke's work. His interest in the paranormal was influenced by [[Charles Fort]] and embraced the belief that mankind may be the property of an ancient alien civilization. Surprisingly for a writer who is often held up as an example of hard science fiction's obsession with technology, three of Clarke's novels have this as a theme. ==The adapted screenplays of Arthur C. Clarke== ===''2001: A Space Odyssey''=== Clarke's first venture into film was the Stanley Kubrick-directed ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]''. Kubrick and Clarke had met in [[1964]] to discuss the possibility of a collaborative film project. As the idea developed, it was decided that the story for the film was to be loosely based on Clarke's short story "The Sentinel", written in [[1948]] as an entry in a BBC short story competition. Originally, Clarke was going to write the screenplay for the film, but this proved to be more tedious than he had estimated. Instead, Kubrick and Clarke decided it would be best to write a novel first and then adapt it for the film upon its completion. However, as Clarke was finishing the book, the screenplay was also being written simultaneously. Due to the hectic schedule of the film's production, Kubrick and Clarke had difficulty collaborating on the book. Clarke completed a draft of the novel at the end of [[1964]] with the plan to publish the novel in [[1965]] in advance of the film's release in [[1966]]. After many delays the film was released in the spring of [[1968]], before the book was completed. It was credited to Clarke alone. Clarke later complained that this had the effect of making the book into a novelisation, that Kubrick had manipulated circumstances to downplay his authorship. For these and other reasons, the details of the story differ slightly from the book to the movie. The film is a bold artistic piece with little explanation for the events taking place. Clarke, on the other hand, wrote thorough explanations of "cause and effect" for the events in the novel. Despite their differences, both film and novel were well received. [http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=2001.htm] [http://movies.go.com/moviesdynamic/movies/movie?id=479433] [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/search-handle-url/index%3Ddvd%2526field-keywords%3Dspace%2520odyssey%2526results-process%3Ddefault%2526dispatch%3Dsearch/ref%3Dpd%5Fsl%5Fov%5Ftops-1%5Fdvd%5F4138659%5F1/104-5000595-8600727] In [[1972]] Clarke published ''The Lost Worlds of 2001'', which included his account of the production and alternate versions of key scenes. The "special edition" of the novel ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)| A Space Odyssey]]'' (released in [[1999]]) contains an introduction by Clarke, documenting his account of the events leading to the release of the novel and film. ===''2010: The Year We Make Contact''=== In [[1982]] Clarke continued the ''2001'' epic with a sequel, ''[[2010: Odyssey Two]]''. This novel was also made into a film, ''[[2010: The Year We Make Contact]]'', directed by [[Peter Hyams]] for release in [[1984]]. Due to the political environment in America in the 1980s, the novel and film present a Cold War theme, with the looming tensions of nuclear war. The film was not considered to be as revolutionary or artistic as ''2001'', but the reviews were still positive and it has earned over 40 million dollars since its release in North America. [http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=2010.htm] Clarke's email correspondence with Hyams was published in 1984. Titled ''[[The Odyssey File: The Making of 2010]]'', and co-authored with Hyams, it illustrates his fascination with the then-pioneering medium and its use for them to communicate on an almost daily basis at the time of planning and production of the film. The book also includes [[Arthur C Clarke's List of the best Science-Fiction films of all time|Clarke's list of the best science-fiction films]] ever made. ===''Rendezvous with Rama''=== Early in the millennium, actor [[Morgan Freeman]] expressed his desire to produce a film based on Arthur C. Clarke's novel ''Rendezvous with Rama''. The film was to be produced by Freeman's production company, [[Revelations Entertainment]].[http://www.revelationsent.com/flash/index.html] Freeman has not given up on the project, but he states that funding for a movie of this type is hard to procure. A popular science-fiction web site (Sci Fi Wire) posted an interview with Freeman about his troubles with the production. [http://www.scifi.com/scifiwire/art-main.html?2003-03/14/12.00.film] ==Essays and short stories== Most of Clarke's essays (between [[1934]] to [[1998]]) can be found in the book ''[[Greetings, Carbon-Based Bipeds!]]'' ([[2000]]). Most of his short stories can be found in the book ''[[The Collected Stories of Arthur C. Clarke]]'' ([[2001]]). They make a good collection of Clarke's non-fiction and fiction works, even for those who already have most of his books. Another collection of early essays was published in ''[[The View from Serendip]]'' ([[1977]]), which also included one short piece of fiction, "[[When the Twerms Came]]". He has also written short stories under the pseudonyms of [[E. G. O'Brien]] and [[Charles Willis]]. ==See also== * [[Clarke's three laws]] * [[science fiction]]: [[:Category:Science fiction writers|authors]] – [[:Category:Science fiction novels|novels]] – [[:Category:Science fiction short stories|short stories]] – [[:Category:Science fiction television series|television shows]] * [[Arthur C Clarke's List of the best Science-Fiction films of all time]] * [[Clarketech]] * [[Spaceguard]] * [[Religious ideas in science fiction]] * [[:Category:Arthur_C._Clarke_books|Arthur C. Clarke books]] * [[:Category:Arthur_C._Clarke_short_stories|Arthur C. Clarke short stories]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *[http://www.kazlev.karoo.net/ Team ACC - Arthur C Clarke Fans] : an international [[Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing|BOINC]] community team *[http://www.arthurcclarke.net/ ArthurCClarke.net : fan community & discussion site] *[http://www.setileague.org/editor/clarke.htm Where Is Everybody?] : an [[essay]] by Arthur C. Clarke on [[Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence|SETI]] *[http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=library&page=clarke_19_2 God, Science, and Delusion] ''Free Inquiry'' magazine interview Volume 19, Number 2 *[http://avclub.com/content/node/24247 Interview for ''The Onion''] ([[February 2004]]) * [http://www.fantasticmetropolis.com/show.html?ey.clarke The Motif of First Contact in Arthur C. Clarke's SF Works], by [[Zoran Živković (writer)|Zoran Živković]] *[http://www.geocities.com/jcsherwood/ACClinks2.htm Sir Arthur C. Clarke links] at [http://www.geocities.com/jcsherwood/ MysteryVisits.com] *[http://www.geocities.com/jcsherwood/ACCphotos.htm Clarke image archive] at [http://www.geocities.com/jcsherwood/ MysteryVisits.com] *[http://lakdiva.org/clarke/2005trip/ Clarke's 1945 Communication Satellite Idea] *[http://fsweb.berry.edu/academic/hass/jhickman/images/arthur.jpg 2000 Photo] *[http://www.peaceinspace.com/ab_board.shtml Institute for Cooperation in Space] *[http://www.clarkefoundation.org/ The Arthur C. Clarke Foundation] *[http://www.clarkeawards.org/ Sir Arthur Clarke Awards 2005] * {{isfdb name|id=Arthur_C._Clarke|name=Arthur C. Clarke}} * {{imdb name|id=0002009|name=Arthur C. Clarke}} *[http://www.spikemagazine.com/0198clar.php Spike Magazine Interview] * [http://www.ent.mrt.ac.lk/~rohan/career/projects/sundial/sundial.html The Sundial on a Novel Concept] includes image of Clarke at the inaugaration of the Sundial [[Moratuwa University]] [[1996]] * [http://www.iee.org/publish/inspec/100years/clarke.cfm Memoirs of Science Abstracts' editorial staff] &mdash; by Arthur C. Clarke * [http://www.bsac.org/techserv/ndc/doc2003/rlvrep.htm ONCE UPON A TIME IN THE BSAC] references Clarke as a member * The late [[Trevor Hampton]] (British pioneer diver) had Clarke as a client [http://www.divernet.com/profs/0402hampton.htm] * [http://research.spaceref.com/acmgh/ The Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse], Devon Island, Nunavut (NASA Haughton Mars Project) [[Category:1917 births|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Living people|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Alumni of King's College London|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[Category:Science fiction writers|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:British science fiction writers|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Nebula Grand Masters|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:British World War II veterans|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Royal Air Force officers|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Natives of Somerset|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:SETI]] [[Category:Space exploration]] [[Category:Sri Lankans|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Futurists|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:British essayists|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Humanists|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Atheists|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Skeptics|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[bg:Артър Кларк]] [[cs:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[da:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[de:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[es:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[eo:Arthur C. CLARKE]] [[fa:آرتور چارلز کلارک]] [[fr:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[id:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[it:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[he:ארתור סי קלארק]] [[lt:Arturas Klarkas]] [[hu:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[nl:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[ja:アーサー・C・クラーク]] [[pl:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[pt:Arthur Charles Clarke]] [[ru:Кларк, Артур]] [[simple:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[sk:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[sr:Артур Ч. Кларк]] [[fi:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[sv:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[th:อาร์เทอร์ ซี. คลาร์ก]] [[uk:Кларк Артур Чарльз]] [[zh:亞瑟·查理斯·克拉克]] 887 41314092 2006-02-26T14:08:26Z 222.166.160.181 /* External links */ [[Image:Newton logo.gif|right|thumb|The Newton Logo.]] [[Image:Mp2k.gif|right|thumb|The Apple Newton MessagePad 2100, the last model produced.]] The '''Apple Newton''', or simply '''Newton''', was an early line of [[personal digital assistant]]s developed, manufactured and marketed by [[Apple Computer]] from [[1993]] to [[1998]]. The original Newtons were based on the [[ARM architecture|ARM]] 610 RISC processor, and featured [[handwriting recognition]]. Apple's official name for the device was ''MessagePad''; the term ''Newton'' was Apple's name for the operating system it used, but popular usage of the word ''Newton'' has grown to include the device and its software together. == The Newton in development == The Newton project was not originally intended to produce a PDA. The PDA category did not exist for most of Newton's genesis, and the "[[personal digital assistant]]" moniker itself was coined relatively late in the development cycle by Apple's then-CEO [[John Sculley]], the driving force behind the project. Newton was, in fact, intended to be a complete reinvention of personal computing. For most of its design lifecycle Newton had a large-format screen, more internal memory, and a rich object-oriented graphics kernel. One of the original motivating scenarios for the design was known as the "Architect Scenario," in which Newton's designers imagined a residential architect working quickly with a client to sketch, clean up, and interactively modify a simple two-dimensional home plan. For a portion of the Newton's development cycle (roughly the middle third <!--exact dates?-->), the project's primary programming language was [[Dylan programming language|Dylan]], a small, efficient [[object-oriented]] [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] variant that still retains some interest. Although it was efficient (for its day, and considering its substantial run-time [[dynamic programming language|dynamism]]), Dylan was a tough sell for the large-format Newton (and for a development team unused to Lisp programming). With the move to the smaller form factor, Dylan was relegated to experimental status in the "Bauhaus Project" and eventually cancelled outright. Had it been retained, Dylan, with [[garbage collection (computer science)|garbage collection]] and close OS integration, would have preceded Microsoft's [[managed code]] revolution by over a decade. The project missed by far its original goals to reinvent personal computing, and then to rewrite contemporary application programming. The Newton project's broad vision fell victim to project slippage, [[feature creep]], and a growing fear that it would interfere with Macintosh sales. It was reinvented as a PDA which would be a complementary Macintosh peripheral instead of a stand-alone computer which might compete with the Macintosh. == Technical details == Newton used an advanced [[object-oriented programming]] system called [[NewtonScript]], developed by Apple employee [[Walter Smith (programmer)|Walter Smith]] [http://waltersmith.us/]. One of the major complaints programmers had was that the Toolbox programming environment was overpriced at $1000 (later in the life of the Newton, the programming environment was made available free of charge). Additionally, it required learning a new way of programming. Despite this, many third party and [[shareware]] applications were (and continue to be) available for Newton. It has been suggested that the NewtonScript programming system should be made available open-source (as "[[abandonware]]") but most Newton enthusiasts consider this possibility to be highly unlikely. Data in Newton was stored in object-oriented databases known as ''soups.'' One of the revolutionary aspects of Newton was that soups were available to all programs; and programs could operate cross-soup; meaning that the calendar could refer to names in the address book; a note in the notepad could be converted to an appointment, and so forth; and the soups could be programmer-extended - a new address book enhancement could be built on the data from the existing address book. While the soup concept worked remarkably well within the Newton system itself, it caused several usability issues. First, it made it extremely difficult to synchronize data with other systems, like a desktop [[Macintosh]] or [[Personal computer|PC]], making the Newton a [[data island]]. Apple's utility to perform this task, the Newton Connection Utility, was exceedingly complex and was never completed to perform to the satisfaction of most users. The realization that a handheld computer needed to work within the existing data environment of its users was key to the success of the later [[Palm Pilot]] platform, even though the Palm was technically inferior. The second consequence of the data-object soup was that objects could extend built-in applications such as the address book so seamlessly that Newton users could not distinguish which program or add-on object was responsible for the various features on their own system. A user rebuilding their system after extended usage might find themselves unable to manually restore their system to the same functionality because some long-forgotten downloaded extension was missing. Data owned and used by applications and extensions themselves were tossed in the "Storage" area of the "Extras" drawer. There was no built-in distinction between types of data in that area. For example, an installed application's icon could be sitting right next to a database of addresses used by another installed extension further down the list. There was no easy way to get a listing of all user-installed objects on a system. Finally, the data soup concept worked well for data like addresses, which benefit from being shared cross-functionally, but it worked poorly for discrete data sets like files and documents. This difficulty in working and sharing data with other systems, stemming from the too revolutionary data-object soup system, was a key contributor to Newton's demise. Earlier MessagePads used [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]]-standard [[serial port]]s - round [[DIN connector|Mini-DIN 8 connector]]s instead of the more common trapezoidal [[D-subminiature|DE-9, commonly called DB-9]]. The 2000/2100 models had a proprietary small flat connector, called an InterConnect port, used with an adapter. In addition, all models had [[infrared]] connectivity. Unlike the Palm, all MessagePad models were equipped with a standard [[PCMCIA]] expansion slot (two on the 2000/2100). This allowed native modem and even [[Ethernet]] connectivity; Newton users have also written [[Device_driver|drivers]] for [[802.11b]] wireless networking cards and ATA-type [[flash memory]] cards, a category that includes the popular [[CompactFlash]] format, as well as for [[Bluetooth]] cards. With the 1xx series, an optional keyboard became available, which could also be used via the dongle on a 2x00. Newton could also dial a phone number through the MessagePad speaker, simply holding a telephone handset up to the speaker, and fax / email support was built in at the operating system level, although it required external cards. The MessagePad 2000 and 2100, with a vastly improved handwriting recognition system, 162MHz [[StrongARM]]SA-110 [[RISC]] processor, Newton 2.1, and a better, clearer, backlit screen, attracted critical plaudits. Although their size and expense were factors which kept them from being as popular as later [[PalmOS]] devices, the Newton still has a small but passionate user base. The final evolution of the Newton's handwriting recognition system is still considered by many to be very impressive, only matched by the more modern [[Tablet PC]] handwriting recognition system. The MessagePad could be used with the screen turned horizontally ("landscape") as well as vertically ("portrait"). A change of a setting would instantly rotate the contents of the display by ninety degrees. Handwriting recognition would still work properly with the display rotated. The use of 4x [[AA]] [[NiCd]] (MessagePad 110, 120 and 130) and 4x AA [[NiMH]] cells (2x00 series, eMate 300) gave a runtime of up to 30 hours (MP 2100 w/ 2x 20 MB linear [[Flash memory]] [[PC Card]]s, no backlight usage) and up to 24 hours with backlight on. While adding more weight to the Newtons than [[AAA battery|AAA batteries]] (as used in the MessagePad and MessagePad 100) or custom battery packs, the choice of an easily replaceable/rechargeable cell format gave the user a still unsurpassed runtime and flexibility of power supply. This, together with the [[Flash memory]] used as internal storage (if all cells lost their power, no data was lost due to the static character of this storage), gave birth to the slogan "Newton never dies, it only gets new batteries". Apple and third parties marketed several "wallets" (cases) for the MessagePads, which would hold them securely along with the owner's credit cards, driver's license, business cards, and cash. These wallets were even larger than the MessagePads and even less able to fit in a pocket, so they were most often used as a protective case for the unit to shield it from bumps and scratches. == Outcome == Although the Apple Newton was produced for six years, it was never as successful in the marketplace as Apple had hoped. This has been attributed to two primary reasons: the Newton's high price (which went up to $1000 when models 2000 and 2100 were introduced), and its large size (it failed the "pocket test" by not fitting in an average coat, shirt, or trouser pocket). Critics also panned its [[handwriting recognition]]. These initial problems marred Newton's reputation in the eyes of the public, and PDAs would remain a niche product until [[Palm, Inc.]]'s [[Palm Pilot]], which emerged shortly before the Newton was discontinued. The Palm Pilot, with its smaller, thinner shape, cheaper cost, and more robust [[Graffiti (Palm OS)|Graffiti]] handwriting recognition system - which had been available first as a software package for the Newton - managed to restore the viability of the PDA market after Newton's commercial failure. Ironically, Palm Computing was founded by ex-Apple employee [[Donna Dubinsky]]. The Newton marketing campaign trumpeted the product's handwriting recognition, though in initial versions it was fairly inaccurate. The original handwriting recognition engine was called Calligrapher, and was licensed from a Russian company called Paragraph International. It was actually quite sophisticated; unlike the later Palm Pilot's Graffiti - which made the user learn a new handwriting system and write each letter in an input area - Newton learned the user's natural handwriting, using a database of known words to make guesses as to what the user was writing, and could interpret writing anywhere on the screen. Newton could also recognize and clean up simple drawn shapes such as triangles, circles, and squares, and had an intuitive system for handwritten editing, such as scratching out words to be deleted, circling text to be selected, or using written carets to mark inserts. Later releases of the Newton operating system retained the original recognizer for compatibility, but added a printed-text recognizer, code-named "[[Rosetta (Newton)|Rosetta]]," which was developed by Apple, included in version 2.0 of the Newton operating system, and refined in Newton 2.1. Rosetta was generally considered a significant improvement and many users consider the Newton 2.1 handwriting recognition software better than any of the alternatives since. Recognition and computation of handwritten horizontal and vertical formulas such as "1 + 2 =" was also under development but never released. The most critical feature of the Newton handwriting recognition system was the modeless error correction. That is, correction done in situation without using a separate window or widget, using a minimum of gestures. If a word was recognized improperly, the user would simply double-tap the word and a list of alternatives would pop up in a menu under the stylus. Most of the time, the correct word would be in the list. If not, a button at the bottom of the list allowed the user to edit individual characters in that word. Error correction in many current handwriting systems provides such functionality but adds more steps to the process, greatly increasing the interruption to a user's workflow that a given correction requires. Excellent handwriting recognition (in OS 2.1 and higher) with smooth, modeless access to robust error correction is quite possibly a leading reason for the continued popularity of the device among Newton users. Even given the age of the hardware and software, Newtons still demand a sale price on the used market far greater than that of PDAs produced by other companies. [[As of 2004]] the Newton 2000 and 2100 can still fetch a price, without accessories, of over $100. ==Later efforts== Many prototypes of additional Newton models were spotted. Most notable was a Newton tablet or "slate," a large, flat screen that could be written on. Others included a "Kids Newton" with side handgrips and buttons, "VideoPads" which would have incorporated a video camera and screen on their flip-top covers for two-way communications, the "Mini 2000" which would have been very similar to Palm Pilot, and the "NewtonPhone" (developed by [[Siemens AG]]) which incorporated a handset and a keyboard. At least one product, the [[eMate 300]] was derived from the Apple Newton, and was offered to schools in 1997 as an inexpensive ($799 US, originally sold to education markets only) and durable computer for classroom use. However, in order to achieve its low price, the eMate 300 did not have all the features of the contemporary Newton equivalent, the MessagePad 2000 and was cancelled along with the rest of the Newton line. Before the Newton project was cancelled, it was "spun off" into its own company, ''Newton Inc.'', but was reabsorbed several months later when [[Steve Jobs]] ousted Apple CEO [[Gil Amelio]] and resumed control of Apple. There has since been continual speculation that Apple might release a new PDA with some Newton technology or collaborate with Palm. Apple continues to deny that such a project will ever happen. The Apple [[Apple iPod | iPod]] is somewhat of a descendant of the Newton in that it is a pocket-sized programmable device based on the ARM processor. Two ex-Apple Newton developers founded [[Pixo]], the company that created the iPod's OS. Feeding a bit of speculation, Apple put the "Print Recognizer" part of the Newton 2.1 handwriting recognition system into [[Mac OS X]] version 10.2 (known as "Jaguar"). It can be used with graphics tablets to seamlessly input handwritten printed text anywhere there was an insertion point on the screen. This technology, known as "[[Inkwell (Macintosh)|Inkwell]]", appears in the System Preferences whenever a tablet input device is plugged in. Whether Apple will ever utilize such technology again in a [[handheld device]] remains to be seen. In June 2004, Apple CEO Steve Jobs indicated that he was proud that Apple resisted pressure to market a new handheld computer. While a small group of Mac faithful consumers have lobbied Apple to sell such a device, the worldwide market for PDAs was in a decline at the time, and Apple chose not to develop the device because demand would have been inadequate. ==Newton models== * MessagePad (also known as the H1000, OMP or Original MessagePad) * MessagePad 100 (Supported newer Newton OS) * MessagePad 110 (slightly longer and narrower, with integrated flip cover and retracting stylus) * MessagePad 120 (Up to 2MB RAM, versus 1MB) * MessagePad 130 (backlit) * [[eMate 300]] (backlit with built-in keyboard) * MessagePad 2000 (a significant upgrade; much faster (162MHz StrongARM versus 20MHz ARM 610, larger form factor) * MessagePad 2100 (raised internal RAM to 4MB) The NewtonOS was also licensed to a number of third party developers including Sharp and Motorola who developed additional PDA devices that used the operating system. Motorola added added wireless connectivity to the unit, and renamed it the Marco[http://www.msu.edu/~luckie/gallery/marco.htm]. A possible Newton revival has been a common source of speculation among the Macintosh user base; when patents for a tablet based Macintosh were applied for (http://www.appleinsider.com/article.php?id=600), rumor sites jumped at the possibility of a new [[Tablet PC]] style Macintosh. ==Appearances in popular culture== * The Newton was featured in the movie ''[[Under Siege 2: Dark Territory|Under Siege 2]],'' where the main character, played by [[Steven Seagal]], uses it to fax a call for help from a phone on a passenger train. * In early episodes of the series ''[[The X-Files]]'', the FBI agents use Newtons. * In the end scene of Larry Laffer ''Leisure Suit Larry 6: Shape Up or Slip Out!'' the woman says "I even had a Newton". * The character of Kate Libby in ''[[Hackers (movie)|Hackers]]'' has a MessagePad which is seen in a number of scenes. * The hacker in the film ''[[Jurassic Park]]'' has a Newton on his desk. * [[Gary Sinise]] uses one as the hostage taker in the 1996 film ''Ransom'' starring [[Mel Gibson]]. * Daniel Brühl uses one in the German film ''[[The Edukators]]''. The handwriting recognition software was ridiculed on several occasions: * [[Garry Trudeau]] ridiculed it in a series of episodes of his popular comic, ''[[Doonesbury]]''. The last panel of one strip, which shows a character reading the words "egg freckles?" from his Newton [http://images.ucomics.com/comics/db/1993/db930827.gif], became an [[Easter egg (virtual)|Easter egg]] in the Newton operating system itself (version 2.0 and earlier). It can be seen by writing the words ''egg freckles'' then highlighting them and tapping the Assist button. * In an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' titled "[[Lisa on Ice]]", which first aired [[November 13]], [[1994]], school bully Kearny has his buddy Daulph take a memo on a Newton. When Daulph writes "Beat up Martin" on the screen, the handwriting recognition turns it into "Eat up Martha." Kearny throws the Newton at [[Martin Prince|Martin]] instead. [http://www.snpp.com/episodes/2F05.html] * In 2004, [[CNET]] elected the Apple Newton one of the "Top 10 tech we miss" [http://www.cnet.com/4520-11136_1-6259955.html], mentioning the device's amusing willingness to translate nearly any stroke on the screen to text, allowing the user to generate surreal ''Newton Poetry'' from random scribbles. ==Other Uses== There were a number of projects that used the Newton as a portable information device in cultural settings such as museums. For example, Visible Interactive created a walking tour in San Francisco's Chinatown but the most significant effort took place in Malaysia at the Petronas Discovery Center, known as Petrosains.[http://www.petrosains.com.my/] In 1995, an exhibit design firm, DMCD Inc. [http://www.dmcd.com]was awarded the contract to design a new 100,000 square foot science museum in the Petronas towers in Kuala Lumpur. A major factor in the award was the concept that visitors would use a Newton to access additional information, find out where they were in the museum, listen to audio, see animations, control robots and other media, and to bookmark information for printout at the end of the exhibit. The device became known as the ARIF, a Malay word for "wise man" or "seer" and it was also an acronym for A Resourceful Informative Friend. Some 400 ARIFS were installed and over 250 are still in use today. The development of the ARIF system was extremely complex and required a team of hardware and software engineers, designers, and writers. The exhibition design and ARIF coordination team was led by Scott Guerin, the hardware/software team by Ted Paschkis, and the writers and interface designers included Paul Trapido and Michael Callan. Mssrs. Guerin and Paschkis went on to found Wivid Systems which specializes in multimedia tour guides for museums. [http://www.wivid.com] ARIF is an ancestor of the PDA systems used in museums today and it boasted features that have not been attempted since. For example it was used as an exploration tool in a large exhibit about exploring for oil. A visitor's success completing one task influenced the success or failure of a subsequent task. At the conclusion of the exhibit, the ARIF was docked at an IR port where it was used to control a robotic arm that placed equipment at locations influenced by the users previous lessons. In another exhibit, up to eight devices could be used at to activate a 60 foot diameter model of prehistoric Malaysia; volcano eruptions, animal sounds, lighting effects, and wind are among the many effects. This task was accomplished by docking the ARIF at a computer terminal and using it as the input device. There are no touch screens in Petrosains, all interactive systems were controlled by the ARIF. The Newton was "married" to a primitive packet switching radio system in order to determine its location as the visitor passed through electronic "gateways." When the visitor entered a new room, the radio triggered an automatic area introduction. The radio also delivered time-synch'd audio in two languages to a group of users when they watched a video. In addition to being dual language in all audio and text, the ARIF stored bookmarked information such that at the end of the exhibit, users could choose several items of most interest to be printed out, including a souvenir photograph of themselves superimposed on one of several stage sets. ==Jokes== * A popular [[lightbulb joke]] circled the internet briefly, ostensibly from the [[newsgroup]] comp.sys.newton.misc. *: Q: How many Newtons does it take to screw in a lightbulb? *: A: Foux! There to eat lemons, axe gravy soup. ==External links== * [http://lowendmac.com/orchard/06/0207.html Birth of the Newton] * [http://www.chuma.org/newton/faq/ Newton FAQ] * [http://www.msu.edu/~luckie/newtgal.htm Newton Gallery] * [http://www.crmloyalty.com/hknug Hong Kong Newton User Group] * Larry Yaeger's page on the [http://homepage.mac.com/larryy/larryy/ANHR.html development] of the Rosetta recogniser engine * [http://arstechnica.com/journals/apple.ars/2005/6/12/504 An interview with Larry Yaeger] touching on the development of the Newton and its HWR * [http://www.a-in-a-circle.com/newton/ Newton Secrets], with photos of prototypes * [http://www.uzes.net/newton Newton Cadillac prototype info] * [http://osopinion.com/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=4556 Think you know the Apple Newton's History? Think again] * [http://www.unna.org/ Newton Software] * [http://www.newtontalk.net/ The NewtonTalk mailing list] * [http://tools.unna.org/wikiwikinewt/ The NewtonWiki], HowTos, tricks and manuals * [http://www.newtonsearch.net/ NewtonSearch], a searchable index of Newton websites * [http://www.newtonsales.com NewtonRepair], Apple has discontinued support for the Newton platform -- however, repairs and upgrades are still available at this site * [http://www.pda-soft.de/ European Newton Repairs], feat. disassembling and repair instructions for most models and reviews of new spare parts and hardware * [http://www.pda-soft.de/programmingbooks.html Newton programming books and references in PDF form] * [http://www.kallisys.com/newton/einstein/en Einstein Project], a Newton emulator in development * [http://www.newtonslibrary.org/ Newton's Library], the largest actively maintained Newton [[ebook]] repository * [http://www.stillnewt.org/library/ Temporary Newton Library] -- actively maintained Newton [[ebook]] repository of [[public domain]] and [[creative commons]] licensed titles * [http://www.upenn.edu/computing/printout/archive/v10/4/newton.html My man Newton: Six months with a personal digital assistant], a report of Newton usage with an example of ''Newton Poetry'' * [http://www.kevinfreitas.net/journal/20040921/ Newton Poetry], some info on and some attemps of ''Newton Poetry'' [[Category:Failed Apple initiatives|Newton]] [[Category:Apple hardware]] [[Category:PDAs]] [[de:Newton (PDA)]] [[fr:Newton PDA]] [[ko:&#45684;&#53556; (&#52980;&#54504;&#53552;)]] [[nl:Apple Newton]] [[no:Apple Newton]] [[pl:Newton (komputer)]] [[ja:&#12450;&#12483;&#12503;&#12523;&#12539;&#12491;&#12517;&#12540;&#12488;&#12531;]] [[it:Famiglia Newton (Apple)]] [[sv:Newton (PDA)]] 888 41644022 2006-02-28T19:25:36Z Mr Frosty 276295 /* External links */ -- alpha. categories '''Alfred Elton van Vogt''' ([[Winnipeg]], [[Canada]], [[April 26]], [[1912]] - [[Los Angeles]], [[United States|USA]], [[January 26]], [[2000]]) was a renowned [[Canada|Canadian]]-born [[science fiction author]] widely regarded as one of the most prolific, yet complex, writers from the mid-twentieth century '[[Golden Age of Science Fiction|Golden Age]]' of the genre. [[Image:vanvogt.jpg|frame|van Vogt receiving Grand Master prize]] ==Science Fiction's Golden Age== Van Vogt was one of the most popular and highly esteemed science fiction writers of the [[1940s]], during the ascent of the genre's Golden Age. After starting his writing career by writing for 'true confession' style [[pulp magazines]] like ''True Story'', van Vogt decided to switch to writing something he enjoyed, [[science fiction]]. Van Vogt's first published SF story, "Black Destroyer" (''[[Analog Science Fiction|Astounding Science Fiction]]'', [[July]] [[1939]]), was inspired by ''[[The Origin of Species]]'' by [[Charles Darwin]]. The story depicted a fierce, carnivorous [[Extraterrestrial_life|alien]] stalking the crew of an exploration spaceship. It was the cover story of the issue of ''Astounding'' which ushered in the Golden Age of science fiction. The story became an instant classic and eventually served as the inspiration for a number of science fiction movies. In 1950 it was combined with "War of Nerves" ([[1950]]), "Discord in Scarlet" (1939) and "M33 in Andromeda" ([[1943]]) to form the novel ''[[The Voyage of the Space Beagle]]'' ([[1950]]) Many fans of that era would have named van Vogt, [[Robert A. Heinlein]], and [[Isaac Asimov]] as the three greatest science fiction writers. In [[1941]] van Vogt decided to become a full time writer, quitting his job at the Canadian Department of National Defence. Extremely prolific for a few years, van Vogt wrote a large number of [[short stories]]. In the 1950s, many of them were retrospectively patched together into novels, or "[[fixup|fixups]]" as he called them, a term which entered the vocabulary of science fiction criticism. Sometimes this was successful (''[[The War against the Rull]]'') while other times the disparate stories thrown together made for a less coherent plot (''[[Quest for the Future]]''). One of van Vogt's best novels of this period is ''[[Slan]]'', which appeared in ''Astounding Sicence Fiction'' in [[1940]]. Using what became one of van Vogt's recurring themes, it told the story of a 9-year-old [[superman]] living in a world in which his kind are slain by [[Homo sapiens]]. ==A post-war philosopher== In [[1944]], van Vogt moved to [[Hollywood, California]], where his writing took on new dimensions after [[World War II]]. Van Vogt was always interested in the idea of all-encompassing systems of knowledge (akin to modern [[meta-systems]]), the characters in his very first story used a system called 'Nexialism' to analyze the alien's behaviour, and he became interested in the [[General Semantics]] of [[Alfred Korzybski]]. And he was profoundly affected by revelations of [[totalitarian]] [[police state|police states]] that emerged after [[World War II]]. He wrote a mainstream novel that was set in Communist [[China]], ''The Angry Man'' ([[1962]]); he said that prior to this he had read 100 books about China. He subsequently wrote three novels merging these overarching themes, ''[[The World of Null-A]]'' and ''[[The Pawns of Null-A]]'' in the late [[1940s]], and ''[[Null-A Three]]'' in the early [[1980s]]. ''Null-A'', or [[non-Aristotelian logic]], refers to the capacity for, and practice of, using [[intuitive]], inductive reasoning ([[fuzzy logic]]), rather than reflexive, or conditioned, deductive logic. [[Image:Linn.jpg|thumb|220px|First edition of ''[[The Wizard of Linn]]'' ([[1956]])]] Van Vogt systematized his writing method, using scenes of 800 words or so where a new complication was added or something resolved. Several of his stories hinge upon temporal [[Conundrum|conundrums]], a favorite theme. He stated that he acquired many of his writing techniques from books on writing by [[Thomas Uzzell]]. He said many of his ideas came from dreams, and indeed his stories at times had the incoherence of dreams, but at their best, as in the fantasy novel ''[[The Book of Ptath]]'', his works had all the vision and power a dream can impart. Throughout his writing life he arranged to be awakened every 90 minutes during his sleep period so he could write down his dreams. In the [[1950s]], van Vogt briefly became involved in [[L. Ron Hubbard|L. Ron Hubbard's]] [[Dianetics]]. Van Vogt operated a storefront, for the secular precursor to Hubbard's [[Scientology]] [[sect]], in the [[Los Angeles]] area for a time, before winding up at odds with Hubbard and his methods. His writing more or less stopped for some years, a period in which he bitterly claimed to have been harassed and intimidated by Hubbard's followers. In this period he limited to collect old short stories to form notable [[fixup|fixups]] like: ''[[The Mixed Men]]'' ([[1952]]), ''[[The War Against the Rull]]'' ([[1959]]), ''[[The Beast]]'' ([[1963]]) and the two novels of the "Linn" cyle, which were inspired by fall of the [[Roman Empire]]. He resumed writing again in the [[1960s]], mainly through [[Frederik Pohl]]'s invitation, while remaining in Hollywood with his second wife, Lydia Bereginsky, who took care of him through his declining years. In this period his stories were born since the very beginning as whole novels, but in general show van Vogt's difficulties in keeping pace with the evolution of science fiction. ==Recognition== In [[1946]], van Vogt and his first wife, [[Edna Mayne Hull]], were co-Guests of Honor at the fourth [[World Science Fiction Convention]], In [[1980]], van Vogt received a "Casper Award" (precursor to the Canadian [[Aurora Award]]s) for Lifetime Achievement. In [[1995]] he was awarded the [[Damon Knight Memorial Grand Master Award]]. In [[1996]], van Vogt was recognized on two occasions: the [[World Science Fiction Convention]] presented him with a Special Award ''for six decades of golden age science fiction'', and the [[Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame]] included him among its initial four inductees. ===Critical praise=== Famous science fiction author [[Philip K. Dick]] has said that van Vogt's stories spurred his interest in science fiction with their strange sense of the unexplained, that something more was going on than the protagonists realized. In a review of ''Transfinite: The Essential A.E. van Vogt'', science fiction writer [[Paul Di Filippo]] said: :''Van Vogt knew precisely what he was doing in all areas of his fiction writing. There's hardly a wasted word in his stories... His plots are marvels of interlocking pieces, often ending in real surprises and shocks, genuine paradigm shifts, which are among the hardest conceptions to depict. And the intellectual material of his fictions, the conceits and tossed-off observations on culture and human and alien behavior, reflect a probing mind...Each tale contains a new angle, a unique slant, that makes it stand out.'' <br> (DiFilippo, Paul, (2003) ''[http://www.scifi.com/sfw/issue326/books2.html Off The Shelf]'', Retrieved [[9 January]] [[2003]]). ===Criticism=== Van Vogt's style has been criticized as confused and incoherent. Writer and critic [[Damon Knight]] wrote in [[1945]] that "van Vogt is not a giant as often mantained. He's only a pygmy using a giant typewriter". His technical knowledge seems questionable. Examples: *In ''Cosmic Encounter'', one result of the crash of an alien spaceship is the generation of a temperature of minus 50,000 degrees, well below [[absolute zero]]. *The title of his story collection ''M33 in Andromeda'' is incorrect; M33 is in [[Triangulum]], M31 (the [[Andromeda Galaxy]]) is in [[Andromeda (constellation)|Andromeda]]. *The popular short story ''Vault of the Beast'' hinges on the concept of the largest [[prime number]]; it was demonstrated as far back as [[Ancient Greece]] that the series of primes is infinite. ==Bibliography== ===Novels=== * ''[[Slan]]'' ([[1946]]) * ''[[The Book of Ptath]]'' ([[1947]]) * ''[[The World of Null-A]]'' ([[1948]]) * ''[[The House That Stood Still]]'' ([[1950]]) * ''[[Masters of Time]]'' ([[1950]]) * ''[[The Voyage of the Space Beagle]]'' ([[1950]]) * ''[[The Weapon Shops of Isher]]'' (1951) * ''[[Mission to the Stars]]'' ([[1952]]) * ''[[The Universe Maker]]'' ([[1953]]) * ''[[Planets for Sale]]'' ([[1954]]) (with [[Edna Mayne Hull]]) * ''[[The Players of Null-A]]'' ([[1956]]) also published as ''The Pawns of Null-A'' * ''[[The Mind Cage]]'' ([[1957]]) * ''[[Empire of the Atom]]'' ([[1957]]) * ''[[Siege of the Unseen]]'' ([[1959]]) * ''[[The War against the Rull]]'' ([[1959]]) * ''[[Earth's Last Fortress]]'' ([[1960]]) * ''[[The Wizard of Linn]]'' ([[1962]]) * ''[[The Violent Man]]'' ([[1962]]) * ''[[The Beast (novel)|The Beast]]'' ([[1963]]) * ''[[The Twisted Men]]'' ([[1964]]) * ''[[Rogue Ship]]'' ([[1965]]) * ''[[The Winged Man]]'' ([[1966]]) * ''[[Moonbeast]]'' ([[1969]]) * ''[[The Silkie]]'' ([[1969]]) * ''[[Children of Tomorrow]]'' ([[1970]]) * ''[[Quest for the Future]]'' ([[1970]]) * ''[[The Battle of Forever]]'' ([[1971]]) * ''[[More Than Superhuman]]'' ([[1971]]) * ''[[The Darkness on Diamondia]]'' ([[1972]]) * ''[[Future Glitter]]'' ([[1973]]) * ''[[The Man with a Thousand Names]]'' ([[1974]]) * ''[[The Secret Galactics]]'' ([[1974]]); also published as ''Earth Factor X'' * ''[[Supermind (novel)|Supermind]]'' ([[1974]]) * ''[[The Anarchistic Colossus]]'' ([[1977]]) * ''[[The Enchanted Village]]'' ([[1979]]) (chapbook) * ''[[Renaissance (novel)|Renaissance]]'' ( [[1979]]) * ''[[Cosmic Encounter (novel)|Cosmic Encounter]]'' ([[1980]]) * ''[[Computerworld (novel)|Computerworld]]'' ([[1983]]) * ''[[Computer Eye]]'' ([[1983]]) * ''[[Null-A Three]]'' ([[1985]]) * ''[[To Conquer Kiber]]'' ([[1987]]) ===Collections=== * ''M33 in Andromeda'' ([[1943]]) * ''Out of the Unknown'' ([[1948]]) (with [[Edna Mayne Hull]]) * ''Away and Beyond'' ([[1952]]) * ''Destination: Universe!'' ([[1952]]) * ''The Far-Out Worlds of A. E. van Vogt'' ([[1956]]) * ''Monsters'' ([[1965]]) * ''The Van Vogt Omnibus'' (omnibus - [[1967]]) * ''The Sea Thing and Other Stories'' ([[1970]]) * ''The Proxy Intelligence and Other Mind Benders'' ([[1971]]) * ''The Van Vogt Omnibus 2'' (omnibus - [[1971]]) * ''The Book of Van Vogt'' ([[1972]]) * ''Far Out Worlds of Van Vogt'' ([[1973]]) * ''The Three Eyes of Evil Including Earth's Last Fortress'' ([[1973]]) * ''The Best of A. E. van Vogt'' ([[1974]]) * ''[[The Gryb]]'' ([[1976]]) (with [[Edna Mayne Hull]]) * ''[[Pendulum (novel)|Pendulum]]'' ([[1978]]) * ''The Best of A. E. van Vogt 1949-1968'' ([[1979]]) * ''Lost: Fifty Suns'' ([[1979]]) * ''The Best of A E van Vogt 1940-1948'' ([[1979]]) * ''Futures Past: The Best Short Fiction of A.E. Van Vogt'' ([[1999]]) * ''Essential A.E. van Vogt'' ([[2002]]) ===Non-fiction=== * ''The Hypnotism Handbook'' ([[1956]]) (with [[Charles Edward Cooke]]) * ''The Money Personality'' ([[1975]]) * ''Reflections of A. E. Van Vogt: The Autobiography of a Science Fiction Giant'' ([[1979]]) * ''A Report on the Violent Male'' ([[1992]]) ==Reference== * [http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/ea.cgi?A._E._van_Vogt ISFDB.org] - 'A. E. van Vogt - Summary Bibliography (Long Works)', Internet Speculative Fiction Database ==External links== * [http://www.home.earthlink.net/~icshi/ Earthlink.net] - 'Icshi: the A.E. van Vogt information site' * [http://www.locusmag.com/2000/News/News01e.html LocusMag.com] - 'A.E. van Vogt, 1912 - 2000: Golden Age SF writer A.E. van Vogt died Wednesday, January&nbsp;26 of complications of pneumonia' * [http://www.mmedia.is/vanvogt/ MMedia.is] - 'Weird Worlds of A. E. van Vogt: 1912-2000' * [http://nicollsbooks.com/vanvogt/index.html NicollsBooks.com] - 'Al's van Vogt pages', Alan Nicoll * [http://scifan.com/writers/vv/VanVogt.asp SciFan.com] - 'Writers: A. E. van Vogt (1912 - 2000, Canada)' (bibliography) * [http://www.scifi.com/sfw/issue326/books2.html SciFi.com] - 'Transfinite: The Essential A.E. van Vogt: Vast conceptions, startling actions and average people rendered into tomorrow's supermen', Paul Di Filippo * [http://www.smartgroups.com/group/group.cfm?GID=1768914 SmartGroups.com] - 'vanvogt' (van Vogt discussion group) * [http://home.kc.rr.com/bobfahey/vanvogt.htm Fansite] * [http://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/~susan/sf/books/v/aevanvgt.htm list of works] [[Category:1912 births|Van Vogt, A. E.]] [[Category:2000 deaths|Van Vogt, A. E.]] [[Category:American writers|Van Vogt, A. E.]] [[Category:Canadian science fiction writers|Van Vogt, A. E.]] [[Category:Nebula Grand Masters|Van Vogt, A. E.]] [[bg:Алфред ван Вогт]] [[de:Alfred Elton van Vogt]] [[es:A. E. van Vogt]] [[eo:Alfred Elton VAN VOGT]] [[fr:A. E. van Vogt]] [[it:Alfred Elton van Vogt]] [[nl:A.E. van Vogt]] [[ja:A・E・ヴァン・ヴォークト]] [[pl:Alfred Elton van Vogt]] [[ru:Ван Вогт, Альфред]] [[sv:A. E. van Vogt]] [[th:เอ.อี. แวน โวกท์]] [[zh:范·沃格特]] 889 37780926 2006-02-02T02:40:44Z 218.188.0.150 /* External links */ +zh: Every [[April Fool's Day]] ([[1 April]]) since [[1989]], the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] has published one or more humorous [[Request for Comments|RFC]] documents, following in the path blazed by the June [[1973]] RFC titled '''ARPAWOCKY'''. The following list also includes [[humor]]ous RFCs published on other dates. == List of April 1st RFCs and other humorous RFCs == * RFC 527 &mdash; '''ARPAWOCKY'''. R. Merryman, [[University of California, San Diego|UCSD]]. [[22 June]] [[1973]]. A [[Lewis Carroll]] [[pastiche]]. * RFC 748 &mdash; '''[[Telnet|TELNET]] RANDOMLY-LOSE option'''. M.R. Crispin. [[1 April]] [[1978]]. A parody of the [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] documentation style. * RFC 968 &mdash; '''Twas the night before start-up'''. V.G. Cerf, [[1 December]] [[1985]]. * RFC 1097 &mdash; '''[[Telnet|TELNET]] SUBLIMINAL-MESSAGE option'''. B. Miller. [[1 April]] [[1989]]. * RFC 1149 &mdash; '''Standard for the transmission of [[IP over Avian Carriers|IP datagrams on Avian Carriers]]'''. D. Waitzman. [[1 April]] [[1990]]. Updated by RFC 2549; see below. A deadpan skewering of standards-document [[legalese]], describing protocols for transmitting Internet data packets by [[carrier pigeon]]. ** Fun fact: In [[2001]], RFC 1149 was actually implemented [http://www.blug.linux.no/rfc1149/] by members of the [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen (Norway)]] [[Linux]] User Group. * RFC 1216 &mdash; '''Gigabit Network Economics and Paradigm Shifts'''. Poorer Richard, Prof. Kynikos. [[1 April]] [[1991]]. * RFC 1217 &mdash; '''Memo from the Consortium for Slow Commotion Research (CSCR)'''. [[Vint Cerf]]. [[1 April]] [[1991]]. * RFC 1313 &mdash; '''Today's Programming for KRFC AM 1313 Internet Talk Radio'''. C. Partridge. [[1 April]] [[1992]]. Certain portions of this RFC are obsolete: [[Doppler effect|Doppler shift]] while flying on the [[Concorde]] is no longer a problem. * RFC 1437 &mdash; '''The Extension of [[MIME]] Content-Types to a New Medium'''. N. Borenstein, M. Linimon. [[1 April]] [[1993]]. * RFC 1438 &mdash; '''[[Internet Engineering Task Force]] Statements Of Boredom (SOBs)'''. A. Lyman Chapin, C. Huitema. [[1 April]] [[1993]]. * RFC 1605 &mdash; '''[[Synchronous optical networking|SONET]] to [[Sonnet]] Translation'''. [[William Shakespeare]]. [[1 April]] [[1994]]. * RFC 1606 &mdash; '''A Historical Perspective On The Usage Of IP Version 9'''. J. Onions. [[1 April]] [[1994]]. * RFC 1607 &mdash; '''A VIEW FROM THE 21ST CENTURY'''. [[Vint Cerf]]. [[1 April]] [[1994]]. * RFC 1776 &mdash; '''The Address is the Message'''. [[Steve Crocker]]. [[1 April]] [[1995]]. Without content, would we need [[information security]]? * RFC 1924 &mdash; '''A Compact Representation of IPv6 Addresses'''. R. Elz. [[1 April]] [[1996]]. * RFC 1925 &mdash; '''The Twelve Networking Truths'''. R. Callon. [[1 April]] [[1996]]. * RFC 1926 &mdash; '''An Experimental Encapsulation of IP Datagrams on Top of ATM'''. J. Eriksson. [[1 April]] [[1996]]. * RFC 1927 &mdash; '''Suggested Additional MIME Types for Associating Documents'''. C. Rogers. [[1 April]] [[1996]]. * RFC 2100 &mdash; '''The Naming of Hosts'''. [[User:Baylink|J. Ashworth]]. [[1 April]] [[1997]]. * RFC 2321 &mdash; '''RITA -- The Reliable Internetwork Troubleshooting Agent'''. A. Bressen. [[1 April]] [[1998]]. * RFC 2322 &mdash; '''Management of IP numbers by peg-dhcp'''. K. van den Hout et al. [[1 April]] [[1998]]. * RFC 2323 &mdash; '''IETF Identification and Security Guidelines'''. A. Ramos. [[1 April]] [[1998]]. * RFC 2324 &mdash; '''[[Hyper Text Coffee Pot Control Protocol]] (HTCPCP/1.0)'''. L. Masinter. [[1 April]] [[1998]]. * RFC 2325 &mdash; '''Definitions of Managed Objects for Drip-Type Heated Beverage Hardware Devices using SMIv2'''. M. Slavitch. [[1 April]] [[1998]]. * RFC 2549 &mdash; '''[[IP over Avian Carriers]] with Quality of Service'''. D. Waitzman. [[1 April]] [[1999]]. Updates RFC 1149, listed above. * RFC 2550 &mdash; '''Y10K and Beyond'''. S. Glassman, M. Manasse, J. Mogul. [[1 April]] [[1999]]. * RFC 2551 &mdash; '''The Roman Standards Process -- Revision III'''. S. Bradner. [[1 April]] [[1999]]. * RFC 2795 &mdash; '''The Infinite Monkey Protocol Suite (IMPS)'''. S. Christey. [[1 April]] [[2000]]. * RFC 3091 &mdash; '''Pi Digit Generation Protocol'''. H. Kennedy. [[1 April]] [[2001]]. * RFC 3092 &mdash; '''Etymology of "Foo"'''. D. Eastlake 3rd, C. Manros, [[Eric S. Raymond|E. Raymond]]. [[1 April]] [[2001]]. * RFC 3093 &mdash; '''Firewall Enhancement Protocol (FEP)'''. M. Gaynor, S. Bradner. [[1 April]] [[2001]]. * RFC 3251 &mdash; '''Electricity over IP'''. B. Rajagopalan. [[1 April]] [[2002]]. * RFC 3252 &mdash; '''''B''inary ''L''exical ''O''ctet ''A''d-hoc ''T''ransport'''. H. Kennedy. [[1 April]] [[2002]]. * RFC 3514 &mdash; '''The Security Flag in the IPv4 Header (Evil Bit)'''. S. Bellovin. [[1 April]] [[2003]]. * RFC 3751 &mdash; '''Omniscience Protocol Requirements'''. S. Bradner [[1 April]] [[2004]]. * RFC 4041 &mdash; '''Requirements for Morality Sections in Routing Area Drafts'''. A. Farrel. [[1 April]] [[2005]]. * RFC 4042 &mdash; '''[[UTF-9 and UTF-18]] Efficient Transformation Formats of Unicode'''. M. Crispin. [[1 April]] [[2005]]. == Source == {{FOLDOC}} ==External links== * [http://cio.co.nz/cio.nsf/0/ab70aab0de0cba74cc256fd2007ff140?OpenDocument&More=Special%20Feature&Click= CIO Magazine commentary] on RFC 3751 and [[1 April]] RFCs in general [[Category:April Fool's Day]] [[ko:만우절 RFC]] [[is:RFC aprílgabb]] [[ru:Первоапрельские RFC]] [[zh:惡搞RFC]] 890 41766222 2006-03-01T16:20:09Z Cactus.man 264914 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.132.172.213|64.132.172.213]] to last version by Dunne409 [[Image:Anna Kournikova.jpg|thumb|right|260px|Anna Kournikova on the cover of [[Maxim (magazine)|''Maxim'' magazine]] in 2004.]] '''Anna Sergeyevna Kournikova''' ([[Russian (language)|Russian]]: '''Анна Сергеевна Курникова''', ''Ánna Sergéyevna Kúrnikova;'' born [[June 7]], [[1981]]) was a professional [[tennis]] player. She was one of the best known tennis players, even among those who do not follow the game. Anna was born in [[Moscow]], [[Russia]] to Alla and Sergei Kournikov; her family later emigrated to the [[United States]], and she currently resides in [[Miami, Florida]]. Anna's major-league tennis career has been curtailed for the past several years by serious back & spinal problems, and this might be the end of it. Anna has had some success at the singles game, but her specialty has been doubles, where she has become the world's #1 doubles player at times, and she has won Grand Slam titles in [[Australia]] in 1999 and 2002, with [[Martina Hingis]] as her partner. With Anna's being taller than the average tennis player, and being strong at the net and at the serve, she fits well into doubles. [Other comparable players have been [[Pam Shriver]] and [[Peter Fleming]], with numerous doubles championships to their credit, playing with shorter partners, such as [[Martina Navratilova]] and [[John McEnroe]]. With their skill and good looks, Anna and Martina jestingly called themselves "The Spice Girls of Tennis". ==Tennis career== [[Image:Anna Kournikova plait.jpg|thumb|left|Playing tennis.]] Kournikova dazzled the world at age 13 and 14 in international junior tennis, winning several tournaments including the [[1995]] [[Rome Masters|Italian Open]]. Kournikova was 14 years old when she ended 1995 as Junior European Champion Under 18 and ITF Junior World Champion Under 18. Kournikova debuted in professional tennis at age 14 in the [[Fed Cup]] for Russia, the youngest player ever to participate and win. At age 15, she reached the fourth round of the 1996 [[U.S. Open (tennis)|U.S. Open]], only to be stopped by then-top ranked player [[Steffi Graf]]. Kournikova was a member of the Russian delegation to the [[1996 Olympic Games]] in [[Atlanta, Georgia]]. In 1997, as a 16-year old, she reached the semi-finals of [[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]], where she lost to the eventual champion, [[Martina Hingis]] by a score of 6-3, 6-2. 1998 was her breakthrough year, when she broke into the [[Women's Tennis Association|WTA]]'s top 20 rankings for the first time and scored impressive victories over [[Martina Hingis]], [[Lindsay Davenport]], and [[Steffi Graf]]. Kournikova's two [[Grand Slam in tennis|Grand Slam]] doubles titles came in [[1999]] and [[2002]], both at the [[Australian Open]] in the Women's Doubles event with partner [[Martina Hingis]], with whom she played frequently starting in 1999. Kournikova proved a successful doubles player on the professional circuit, winning 16 tournament doubles titles, including two Australian Opens and being a finalist in mixed doubles at the [[U.S. Open]] and at Wimbledon, and reaching #1 ranking in doubles in the [[Women's Tennis Association]] tour rankings. Her pro career doubles record was 200-71. However, her singles career plateaued after 1999. For the most part, she managed to retain her ranking between #10 and #15 (her career high singles ranking was #8), but her expected finals breakthrough failed to occur; she only reached four finals out of 130 singles tournaments, never in a Grand Slam event, and never won one. One contributing factor might have been her habit of entering high-profile events with strong fields of elite players. As a player, Kournikova was noted for her excellent footspeed and aggressive baseline play; however, her flat, high-risk groundstrokes tended to produce high numbers of errors and her serve was sometimes unreliable in singles. [Anyone who wins big at doubles MUST serve well.] She had a record of 209-129 as a singles player. Her final playing years were marred by a string of injuries, especially back injuries, which saw her ranking gradually erode. Kournikova has not played on the WTA tour since 2003, but still plays exhibition matches for charitable causes. In late 2004, she participated in three events organized by [[Elton John]] and by fellow tennis stars and good friends [[Serena Williams]] and [[Andy Roddick]]. In January [[2005]], she played in a doubles charity event for the [[Indian Ocean tsunami]] with [[John McEnroe]], Roddick, and [[Chris Evert]]. Anna was also a member of the Newport Beachbreakers in the World Team Tennis (WTT) competition in July and November 2005, playing doubles only. In November 2005 she teamed up with [[Martina Hingis]] playing against [[Lisa Raymond]] and [[Samantha Stosur]] in the WTT finals for charity. In a feature for ''[[Elle]]'' magazine's July 2005 issue, Kournikova stated that if she were 100% fit, she would like to come back and compete again. ==Media publicity== [[Image:anna12.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Kournikova on the July, 2000 cover of [[Sports Illustrated]]]]Much of Anna's fame -- more, many have argued, than she ever gained in her tennis career -- has come from the publicity surrounding her personal life as well as numerous modeling shoots. During her debut at the 1996 U.S. Open 1996 at the age of 15, Kournikova's physical beauty was noticed by the world and soon pictures of her appeared in numerous magazines all over the planet. Anna has fine facial features and an attractive body, topped off by long blonde hair, sometimes braided into a meter-long queue (pony tail). Many media outlets have reported that Kournikova was very briefly married to NHL hockey star [[Sergei Fedorov]] during the summer of 2001, though her agent and family deny this claim. A number of her relationships with other [[celebrity|celebrities]], including involvements with [[pop music|pop star]] [[Enrique Iglesias]] (whose video, ''Escape'', she appeared in) and hockey player [[Pavel Bure]], have also featured prominently in the [[tabloid|tabloid press]]. In 2000 Anna became the new face for [[Berlei]]'s shock absorber sports bras range, and appeared in the highly successful "only the ball should bounce" bill board campaign. Photographs of her scantily-clad form have appeared in various [[List of men's magazines|men's magazine]]s, including more than one much-publicized [[Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue]]s (2004-05), where she posed in bikinis and swimsuits, and in other popular men's publications such as ''[[FHM]]'' and ''[[Maxim (magazine)|Maxim]]''. So far, she has not posed topless or nude for any publications. Kournikova was named one of ''[[People (magazine)|People]]'''s 50 Most Beautiful People in [[1998]], [[2000]], [[2002]], and [[2003]]. She has also been voted "hottest female athlete" and "hottest couple" (with Iglesias) on [[ESPN.com]] and 2003's "sexiest woman in the world" by worldwide [[FHM]] readers for. By contrast, [[ESPN]] -- citing the degree of hype as compared to actual accomplishments as a singles player -- ranked Anna 18<sup>th</sup> in its "25 Biggest Sports Flops of the Past 25 Years". Kournikova had a small role (as a motel manager) in the 2000 film ''[[Me, Myself and Irene]]'', starring [[Jim Carrey]]. ==Books== *''Anna Kournikova'' by Susan Holden (2001) *''Anna Kournikova (Women Who Win)'' by Connie Berman ==External links== *[http://www.kournikova.com/ Official web site] :*[http://www.kournikova.com/journal/ Her weblog] *{{imdb name|id=0468045|name=Anna Kournikova}} *[http://sports.quickfound.net/anna_kournikova_biography_index.html Comprehensive biography] *[http://www.celebrityworld.tv/anna_kournikova.html Anna's Photos] *[http://www.askmaki.com/anna_kournikova_video.html Anna Kournikova calendar shoot video] [[Category:1981 births|Kournikova, Anna]] [[Category:Living people|Kournikova, Anna]] [[Category:Russian tennis players|Kournikova, Anna]] [[Category:Russian bloggers|Kournikova, Anna]] [[Category:Russian models|Kournikova, Anna]] [[Category:Russian film actors|Kournikova, Anna]] [[Category:Australian Open champions|Kournikova, Anna]] [[bg:Анна Курникова]] [[da:Anna Kournikova]] [[de:Anna Sergejewna Kurnikowa]] [[fr:Anna Kournikova]] [[he:אנה קורניקובה]] [[nl:Anna Kournikova]] [[ja:アンナ・クルニコワ]] [[no:Anna Kournikova]] [[pl:Anna Kurnikowa]] [[pt:Anna Kournikova]] [[ru:Курникова, Анна Сергеевна]] [[fi:Anna Kurnikova]] [[sv:Anna Kournikova]] [[bs:Ana Kurnikova]] 891 15899404 2005-02-05T20:49:16Z 24.73.149.165 #REDIRECT [[Accountancy]] 892 41774975 2006-03-01T17:37:05Z 68.225.130.131 '''Alfons Maria Jakob''' ([[July 2]], [[1884]] &ndash; [[October 17]], [[1931]]) was a [[Germany|German]- Jewish] [[neurologist]]. He was the first to recognize and describe [[Alper's disease]] and [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] (the latter with [[Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt]]) and helped greatly in the description of various other neurological illnesses. {{med-bio-stub}} [[Category:1884 births|Jakob, Alfons Maria]] [[Category:1931 deaths|Jakob, Alfons Maria]] [[Category:Neurologists|Jakob, Alfons Maria]] [[de:Alfons Maria Jakob]] [[nl:Alfons Maria Jakob]] 893 move=:edit= 42140957 2006-03-04T02:18:13Z JuniorMuruin 410029 /* Types and typologies of atheism */ {{redirect|Atheist|the band|[[Atheist (band)]]}} '''Atheism''', in its broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the existence of [[deity|gods]]. This definition includes as atheists both those who assert that there are no gods, and those who make no claim about whether gods exist or not. Narrower definitions, however, often only qualify those who assert there are no gods as atheists, labeling the others as [[nontheism|nontheists]] or [[Agnosticism|agnostics]]. Although atheists often share common concerns regarding [[empiricism|empirical]] evidence and the [[scientific method]] of investigation and a large number are [[scientific skepticism|skeptics]], there is no single [[ideology]] that all atheists share. Additionally, there are certain individuals whose [[Religion|religious]] or [[spirituality|spiritual]] beliefs some might describe as atheistic, though those holding such beliefs do not normally describe themselves as atheists. Atheism should not be confused with the related, but not equivalent, position of [[antitheism]], as many atheists do not directly oppose theism. ==Etymology== In early [[Ancient Greek]], the adjective ''atheos'' (from [[privative a|privative ''a-'']] + ''theos'' "gods") meant "without gods" or "lack of belief in gods". The word acquired an additional meaning in the [[5th century BCE]], expressing a total lack of relations with the gods; that is, "denying the gods, godless, ungodly", with more active connotations than ''asebēs'', "impious". Modern translations of classical texts sometimes translate ''atheos'' as "atheistic". As an abstract noun, there was also ''atheotēs'': "atheism". [[Cicero]] transliterated ''atheos'' into [[Latin]]. The discussion of ''atheoi'' was pronounced in the debate between early Christians and pagans, who each attributed atheism to the other. A.B. Drachmann (1922) notes: <blockquote>Atheism and atheist are words formed from Greek roots and with Greek derivative endings. Nevertheless they are not Greek; their formation is not consonant with Greek usage. In Greek they said ''atheos'' and ''atheotes''; to these the English words ungodly and ungodliness correspond rather closely. In exactly the same way as ungodly, ''atheos'' was used as an expression of severe censure and moral condemnation; this use is an old one, and the oldest that can be traced. Not till later do we find it employed to denote a certain philosophical creed. (p.5)</blockquote> In [[English language|English]], the term ''atheism'' is the result of the adoption of the [[French language|French]] ''athéisme'' in about 1587. The term ''atheist'' in the sense of "one who denies or disbelieves" actually predates atheism, being first attested in about 1571 (the phrase ''Italian atheoi'' is recorded as early as 1568). ''Atheist'' in the sense of practical godlessness was first attested in 1577. The French word is derived from ''athée'', "godless, atheist", which in turn is from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''atheos''. The words ''deist'' and ''theist'' entered English after ''atheism'', being first attested in 1621 and 1662, respectively, with ''[[theism]]'' and ''[[deism]]'' following in 1678 and 1682, respectively. ''Deism'' and ''theism'' exchanged meanings around 1700 due to the influence of ''atheism''. ''Deism'' was originally used with a meaning comparable to today's ''theism'', and vice-versa. The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] also records an earlier irregular formation, ''atheonism'', dated from about 1534. The later and now obsolete words ''athean'' and ''atheal'' are dated to 1611 and 1612, respectively. ==Types and typologies of atheism== Many people have disagreed on how best to characterize atheism, and much of the literature on the subject is erroneous or confusing. There are many discrepancies in the use of terminology between proponents and opponents of atheism, and even divergent definitions among those who share near-identical beliefs. Among proponents of atheism and neutral parties, there are two major traditions in defining atheism and its subdivisions. The first tradition understands atheism very broadly, as including both those who believe gods don't exist (''[[strong atheism]]'') and those who are simply not theists (''[[weak atheism]]''). [[George H. Smith]], [[Michael Martin (philosopher)|Michael Martin]], and (formerly) [[Antony Flew]] fall into this tradition, though they do not use the same terminology. (Flew has recently adopted a form of [[deism]].) The second tradition understands atheism more narrowly, as the conscious rejection of theism, and does not consider absence of theistic belief or suspension of judgment concerning theism to be forms of atheism. [[Ernest Nagel]], [[Paul Edwards (philosopher)|Paul Edwards]] and [[Kai Nielsen]] are prominent members of this camp. Using this definition of atheism, "[[Atheism#Implicit and explicit atheism|implicit atheism]]", lack of theism without the conscious rejection of it, may not be regarded as atheistic at all, and the umbrella term ''[[nontheism]]'' may be used in its place. A third tradition, more common among laypeople, understands atheism even more narrowly than that. Here, atheism is defined in the strongest possible terms, as the belief that there is no god. Such usage is not exclusive to laypeople, however--atheist philosopher Theodore Drange uses the narrow definition [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/theodore_drange/defending.html]. ===Atheism as lack of theism=== Among modern atheists, the view that atheism means "without [or, polemically, "free of"] theistic beliefs" has a great deal of currency. This very broad definition is justified by reference to etymology as well as consistent usage of the word by atheists. However, this definition of atheism has not gone unchallenged. Although, over the last few hundred years, atheism has evolved and broadened beyond the narrow meaning of "wickedness", impiety, heresy and religious denial, as well as [[pantheism]] and similar beliefs, it is less commonly understood to include everything not explicitly theistic. Whether a writer's definition of atheism as an "absence" or "lack" of theistic belief is in fact intended to mean "not theistic" in the widest possible sense, or just refers to particular forms of the rejection of theism (see below), is often ambiguous. However, while this definition of atheism is frequently disputed, it is not a recent invention; this use has a history spanning over 230 years. Two atheist writers who are clear in defining atheism so broadly that uninformed children are counted as atheists are d'Holbach (1772) ("All children are born Atheists; they have no idea of God" [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/gsens10.txt]) and George H. Smith (1979). According to Smith, <blockquote>The man who is unacquainted with theism is an atheist because he does not believe in a god. This category would also include the child without the conceptual capacity to grasp the issues involved, but who is still unaware of those issues. The fact that this child does not believe in god qualifies him as an atheist. (p.14) [http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/smith.htm] </blockquote> One atheist writer who explicitly disagrees with such a broad definition is Ernest Nagel (1965): <blockquote>Atheism is not to be identified with sheer unbelief... Thus, a child who has received no religious instruction and has never heard about God, is not an atheist - for he is not denying any theistic claims. (p.460-461)</blockquote> For Nagel, atheism is the ''rejection'' of theism, not just the absence of theistic belief. However, this definition leaves open the question of what term can be used to describe those who lack theistic belief, but do not necessarily reject theism. The obsolete word ''atheous'', first recorded in the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] as a synonym of atheism or impiety, is sometimes used to mean "not dealing with the existence of a god" in a purely privative sense, as distinguished from the negative ''atheistic''. This 1880 coinage captures some of what is intended by the broad definition of atheism, though it is hard to sustain the claim that the philosophical rejection of theism can be characterized in such terms. ====Implicit and explicit atheism==== [[Image:Atheismimplicitexplicit2.PNG|thumb|230px|A chart showing the relationship between the weak/strong (positive/negative) and implicit/explicit dichotomies. Strong atheism is always explicit, and implicit atheism is always weak.]] The terms ''implicit atheism'' and ''explicit atheism'' were coined by George H. Smith (1979, p.13-18). Implicit atheism is defined by Smith as "the absence of theistic belief without a conscious rejection of it." Explicit atheism is defined as "the absence of theistic belief due to a conscious rejection of it", which, according to Smith, is sometimes called ''antitheism'' (see below). For Smith, explicit atheism is subdivided further according to whether or not the rejection is on rational grounds. The term ''critical atheism'' is used to label the view that belief in god is irrational, and is itself subdivided into a) the view usually expressed by the statement "I do not believe in the existence of a god or supernatural being"; b) the view usually expressed by the statement, "god does not exist" or "the existence of god is impossible"; and c) the view which "refuses to discuss the existence or nonexistence of a god" because "the concept of a god is unintelligible" (p.17). Although Nagel rejects Smith's definition of atheism as merely "lack of theism", acknowledging only explicit "atheism" as true atheism, his tripartite classification of ''rejectionist atheism'' (commonly found in the philosophical literature) is identical to Smith's ''critical atheism'' typology. The difference between Nagel on the one hand and d'Holbach and Smith on the other has been attributed to the different concerns of professional philosophers and layman proponents of atheism (see Smith (1990, Chapter 3, p.51-60 [http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/smithdef.htm]), for example, but also alluded to by others). Everitt (2004) makes the point that professional philosophers are more interested in the grounds for giving or withholding assent to propositions: <blockquote>We need to distinguish between a ''biographical'' or ''sociological'' enquiry into why some people have believed or disbelieved in God, and an ''epistemological'' enquiry into whether there are any good reasons for either belief or unbelief... We are interested in the question of what ''good reasons'' there are for or against God's existence, and no light is thrown on that question by discovering people who hold their beliefs without having good reasons for them. (p.10) </blockquote> So, in philosophy (Flew and Martin notwithstanding), atheism is commonly defined along the lines of "rejection of theistic belief". This is often misunderstood to mean only the view that there is no God, but it is conventional to distinguish between two or three main sub-types of atheism in this sense (writers differ in their characterization of this distinction, and in the labels they use for these positions). The terms ''weak atheism'' and ''strong atheism'' (or ''negative atheism'' and ''positive atheism'') are often used as synonyms of Smith's less-well-known ''implicit'' and ''explicit'' categories. However, the original and technical meanings of implicit and explicit atheism are quite different and distinct from weak and strong atheism, having to do with conscious rejection and unconscious rejection of theism rather than with positive belief and negative belief. People who do not use the broad definition of atheism as "lack of theism", but instead use the most common definition "disbelief in or denial of the existence of God or gods" [http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=atheism] would not recognize mere absence of belief in deities (implicit atheism) as a type of atheism at all, and would tend to use other terms, such as "skeptic" or "agnostic" or "non-atheistic nontheism", for this position. ===Atheism as immorality=== The first attempts to define or develop a typology of atheism were in religious apologetics. These attempts were expressed in terminologies and in contexts which reflected the religious assumptions and prejudices of the writers. A diversity of atheist opinion has been recognized at least since [[Plato]], and common distinctions have been established between ''practical atheism'' and ''speculative'' or ''contemplative atheism''. ====Practical atheism==== Practical atheism was said to be caused by moral failure, hypocrisy, willful ignorance and infidelity. Practical atheists ''behaved'' as though God, morals, ethics and social responsibility did not exist. Maritain's typology of atheism (1953, Chapter 8) proved influential in Catholic circles; it was followed in the ''New Catholic Encyclopedia'' (see Reid (1967)). He identified, in addition to practical atheism, ''pseudo-atheism'' and ''absolute atheism'' (and subdivided theoretical atheism in a way that anticipated Flew). For an atheist critique of Maritain, see Smith (1979, Chapter 1, Section 5) [http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/smith.htm]. According to the French Catholic philosopher Étienne Borne (1961, p.10), "Practical atheism is not the denial of the existence of God, but complete godlessness of action; it is a moral evil, implying not the denial of the absolute validity of the moral law but simply rebellion against that law." According to [[Karen Armstrong]] (1999): <blockquote> During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the word 'atheist' was still reserved exclusively for polemic... In his tract ''Atheism Closed and Open Anatomized'' (1634), John Wingfield claimed: "the hypocrite is an Atheist; the loose wicked man is an open Atheist; the secure, bold and proud transgressor is an Atheist: he that will not be taught or reformed is an Atheist". For the [[Wales|Welsh]] poet [[William Vaughan]] (1577 [sic]-1641), who helped in the colonisation of [[Newfoundland]], those who raised rents or enclosed commons were obvious atheists. The English dramatist [[Thomas Nashe]] (1567-1601) proclaimed that the ambitious, the greedy, the gluttons, the vainglorious and prostitutes were all atheists. The term 'atheist' was an insult. Nobody would have dreamed of calling ''himself'' an atheist. (p.331-332) </blockquote> On the other hand, the existence of serious speculative atheism was often denied. That anyone might ''reason'' their way to atheism was thought to be impossible. Thus, speculative atheism was collapsed into a form of practical atheism, or conceptualized as hatred of God, or a fight against God. This is why Borne finds it necessary to say, "to put forward the idea, as some apologists rashly do, that there are no atheists except in name but only 'practical atheists' who through pride or idleness disregard the divine law, would be, at least at the beginning of the argument, a rhetorical convenience or an emotional prejudice evading the real question." (p.18) Martin (1990, p.465-466) suggests that practical atheism would be better described as ''alienated theism''. ====Other pejorative definitions of atheism==== When denial of the existence of "speculative" atheism became unsustainable, atheism was nevertheless often repressed and criticized by narrowing definitions, applying charges of dogmatism, and otherwise misrepresenting atheist positions. One of the reasons for the popularity of euphemistic alternative terms like [[secularism|secularist]], [[empiricism|empiricist]], [[agnosticism|agnostic]], or [[bright (noun)|bright]] is that ''atheism'' still has pejorative connotations arising from attempts at suppression and from its association with practical atheism (''godless'' is still used as an abusive epithet). Mynga Futrell and Paul Geisert, the originators of the term ''Bright'', made this explicit in an essay published in 2003: <blockquote>Our personal frustration regarding labels reached culmination last fall when we were invited to join a march on Washington as "Godless Americans." The causes of the march were worthy, and the march itself well planned and conducted. However, to unite for common interests under a disparaging term like godless (it also means "wicked") seemed ludicrous! Why accept and utilize the very derogatory language that so clearly hampers our own capacity to play a positive and contributing role in our communities and in the nation and world? [http://www.the-brights.net/vision/essays/futrell_geisert_nix.html]</blockquote> Gaskin (1989) abandoned the term ''atheism'' in favour of ''unbelief'', citing "the pejorative associations of the term, its vagueness, and later the tendency of religious apologists to define atheism so that no one could be an atheist..." (p.4) Despite these considerations, for others ''atheist'' has always been the preferred name. [[Charles Bradlaugh]] once said (in debate with [[George Jacob Holyoake]], [[10 March]] [[1870]], cited in Bradlaugh Bonner (1908)): <blockquote>I maintain that the opprobrium cast upon the word Atheism is a lie. I believe Atheists as a body to be men deserving respect... I do not care what kind of character religious men may put round the word Atheist, I would fight until men respect it. (p.334) </blockquote> For more on repressive definitions of atheism, see Berman (1982), (1983), (1990). ===Weak and strong atheism=== :''Main articles: [[Weak atheism]], [[Strong atheism]]'' ''[[Weak atheism]]'', sometimes called ''soft atheism'', ''negative atheism'' or ''neutral atheism'', is the absence of belief in the existence of [[deity|deities]] without the positive assertion that deities do not exist. ''[[Strong atheism]]'', also known as ''hard atheism'' or ''positive atheism'', is the belief that no deities exist. While the terms ''weak'' and ''strong'' are relatively recent, the concepts they represent have been in use for some time. In earlier philosophical publications, the terms ''negative atheism'' and ''positive atheism'' were more common; these terms were used by [[Antony Flew]] in 1972, although [[Jacques Maritain]] (1953, Chapter 8, p.104) used the phrases in a similar, but strictly Catholic apologist, context as early as 1949 [http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/jm3303.htm]. Although explicit atheists ([[nontheism|nontheists]] who consciously reject theism), may subscribe to either ''weak'' or ''strong'' atheism, weak atheism also includes implicit atheists - that is, nontheists who have not consciously rejected theism, but lack theistic belief, arguably including infants. Theists claim that a single deity or group of deities exists. Weak atheists do not assert the contrary; instead, they only refrain from assenting to theistic claims. Some weak atheists are without any opinion regarding the existence of deities, either because of a lack of thought on the matter, a lack of interest in the matter (see [[apatheism]]), or a belief that the arguments and evidence provided by both theists and strong atheists are equally unpersuasive. Others (explicit weak atheists) may doubt or dispute claims for the existence of deities, while not actively asserting that deities do not exist, following [[Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein's]] famous dictum, "Whereof one cannot speak thereof one must remain silent." Some weak atheists feel that theism and strong atheism are equally untenable, on the grounds that faith is required both to assert and to deny the existence of deities, and as such both theism and strong atheism have the burden of proof placed on them to prove that a god does or doesn't exist. Some also base their belief on the notion that it is impossible to prove a negative. While a weak atheist might consider the nonexistence of deities likely on the basis that there is insufficient evidence to justify belief in a deity's existence, a strong atheist has the additional view that positive statements of nonexistence are merited when evidence or arguments indicate that a deity's nonexistence is certain or probable. Strong atheism may be based on arguments that the concept of a deity is self-contradictory and therefore impossible (positive [[ignosticism]]), or that one or more of the properties attributed to a deity are incompatible with what we observe in the world. Examples of this may be found in quantum physics, where the existence of mutually exclusive data negates the possibility of omniscience, usually a core attribute of monotheistic conceptions of deity. ''[[Agnosticism]]'' is distinct from strong atheism, though many weak atheists may be agnostics, and those who are strong atheists with regard to a particular deity might be weak atheists or agnostics with regard to other deities. ===Ignosticism=== :''Main article: [[Ignosticism]]'' Ignosticism is the view that the question of whether or not deities exist is inherently meaningless. It is a popular view among many [[logical positivism|logical positivists]] such as [[Rudolph Carnap]] and [[A. J. Ayer]], who hold that talk of gods is literally [[nonsense]]. According to ignostics, "Does a god exist?" has the same logical status as "What color is Saturday?"; they are both nonsensical, and thus have no meaningful answers. Ignostics commonly hold that statements about religious or other transcendent experiences cannot have any truth value, often because theological statements lack [[falsifiability]], because of an [[epistemology|epistemological]] view that renders the [[ontological argument]] nonsensical, or because the terminology being used has not been properly or consistently defined &mdash; the latter view is known as [[theological noncognitivism]]. The use of the word "god" is thus solely a matter of [[semantics]] to ignostics, dealing with word use and technicalities rather than with existence and reality. In ''Language, Truth and Logic'', Ayer stated that theism, atheism and agnosticism were equally meaningless, insofar as they treat the question of the existence of God as a real question. However, there are varieties of atheism and agnosticism which do not necessarily agree that the question is meaningful, especially using the "lack of theism" definition of atheism. Despite Ayer's criticism of atheism (perhaps using the definition typically associated with [[strong atheism]]), Ignosticism is usually counted as a form of atheism; Ayer (1966) was clear on his position: <blockquote>I do not believe in God. It seems to me that theists of all kinds have very largely failed to make their concept of a deity intelligible; and to the extent that they have made it intelligible, they have given us no reason to think that anything answers to it. (p226) </blockquote> The ignostic position is mentioned (though the term ''ignostic'' is not used) as one of the three forms of "critical atheism" (in Smith) or "rejectionist atheism" (in Nagel). Active disbelief in god or supernatural beings is one other type of critical/rejectionist atheism. Finally, the third type is the positive claim that deities do not exist. Since critical/rejectionist atheism is a type of explicit atheism, if follows that ignosticism is a type of explicit atheism. There is some debate over whether it should be classified as [[weak atheism]] or [[strong atheism]]. Ignosticism is distinct from apatheism in that while ignostics hold ''questions'' and ''discussions'' of whether deities exist to be meaningless, apatheists hold that even a hypothetical ''answer'' to such questions would be completely irrelevant to human existence. ===Gnostic and agnostic atheism=== :''Main article: [[Agnostic atheism]]'' Agnostic atheism is a fusion of atheism or [[nontheism]] with [[agnosticism]], the [[epistemology|epistemological]] position that the existence or nonexistence of deities is unknown ([[weak agnosticism]]) or unknowable ([[strong agnosticism]]). Agnostic atheism is typically contrasted with [[agnostic theism]], the belief that deities exist even though it is impossible to know that deities exist, and with gnostic atheism, the belief that there is enough information to determine that deities do not exist. ''Agnostic atheism'''s definition varies, just as the definitions of agnosticism and atheism do. It may be a combination of lack of theism with [[strong agnosticism]], the view that it is impossible to know whether deities exist to any reliable degree. It may also be a combination of lack of theism with [[weak agnosticism]], the view that there is not currently enough information to decide whether or not a deity exists, but that there may be enough in the future. ''Gnostic atheism'' is a more rarely used term, because often anyone who is not labeled as agnostic is assumed to be gnostic by default. Gnostic atheism also has varying meanings. When nontheism is combined with strong gnosticism, it denotes the belief that it is rational to be absolutely certain that deities do not, and perhaps cannot, exist. When it is with weak gnosticism, it denotes the belief that there is enough information to be reasonably sure that deities do not exist, but not absolutely certain. The term should not be confused with [[Gnosticism]]. ''Gnostic atheism'' is also sometimes used as a synonym of [[strong atheism]], and thus ''agnostic atheism'' is occasionally a synonym for [[weak atheism]]. This is similar to the more common confusion of the terms ''implicit atheism'' and ''explicit atheism'' with strong and weak atheism. [[Apatheism]] often overlaps with agnostic atheism, such as with [[apathetic agnosticism]], a fusion of apatheism with strong agnostic atheism. ===Atheism in philosophical naturalism=== Many, if not most, atheists have preferred to say that atheism is a lack of a belief, rather than a belief in its own right (see, for example, Krueger (1998, p.22-24); Smith (1979, p.15-16)). This keeps the burden of proof on the theist (see Flew (1984b)), as the only one making any positive assertions. "Belief" also has other connotations that many atheists may wish to avoid. Nevertheless, some atheist writers identify atheism with the [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalistic world view]], and defend it on that basis. The case for naturalism is used as a positive argument for atheism. See, for example, Thrower (1971), Harbour (2001), [[Kai Nielsen|Nielsen]] (2001) and [[Julian Baggini|Baggini]] (2003). See also Everitt's discussion of an anti-atheist argument against naturalism (2004, Chapter 9, p.178-190). According to Thrower, <blockquote>Much atheism... can be understood only in the light of the current theism which it was concerned to reject. Such atheism is relative. There is, however, a way of looking at and interpreting events in the world, whose origins... can be seen as early as the beginnings of speculative thought itself, and which I shall call naturalistic, that is atheistic per se, in the sense that it is incompatible with any and every form of supernaturalism... naturalistic or absolute atheism is both fundamentally more important, and more interesting, representing as it does one polarity in the development of the human spirit. (p.3-4) </blockquote> [[Julian Baggini]] argues that, "atheism can be understood not simply as a denial of religion, but as a self-contained belief system, if it is seen as a commitment to the view that there is only one world and this is the world of nature" (p.74). For Baggini, therefore, <blockquote>the evidence for atheism is to be found in the fact that there is a plethora of evidence for the truth of naturalism and an absence of evidence for anything else. 'Anything else' of course includes God, but it also includes goblins, hobbits, and truly everlasting gobstoppers. There is nothing special about God in this sense. God is just one of the things that atheists don't believe in, it just happens to be the thing that, for historical reasons, gave them their name. (p.17) </blockquote> Baggini's position is that "an atheist does not usually believe in the existence of immortal souls, life after death, ghosts, or supernatural powers. Although strictly speaking an atheist could believe in any of these things and still remain an atheist... the arguments and ideas that sustain atheism tend naturally to rule out other beliefs in the supernatural or transcendental" (p.3-4). [[Michael Martin (philosopher)|Michael Martin]] (1990, p.470) notes that the view that "naturalism is compatible with nonatheism is true only if 'god' is understood in a most peculiar and misleading way", but he also points out that "atheism does not entail naturalism". ===Antitheism=== :''Main article: [[Antitheism]]'' ''Antitheism'' (sometimes hyphenated) typically refers to a direct opposition to [[theism]]. In this use, it is a form of critical [[strong atheism]]. Antitheism may sometimes overlap with [[ignosticism]], the view that theism is inherently meaningless, and may directly contradict [[apatheism]], the view that theism is irrelevant rather than dangerous. However, ''antitheism'' is also sometimes used, particularly in religious contexts, to refer to opposition to [[God]] or [[divine]] things, rather than to the belief in God. Using the latter definition, it may be possible &mdash; or perhaps even necessary &mdash; to be an antitheist without being an atheist or nontheist. Antitheists may believe that theism is actually harmful, or may simply be atheists who have little tolerance for views they perceive as [[irrationality|irrational]]. Strong atheists who are not antitheists may believe positively that deities do not exist, but not believe that theism is directly harmful or necessitates opposition. ==History== {{main|History of atheism}} Although the actual term ''atheism'' originated in 16th Century [[France]], ideas that would be recognized as atheistic today existed even before [[Classical Antiquity]]. [[Epicurus]] proposed theories that can be classified as atheistic, such as a lack of belief in an afterlife, though he remained ambiguous concerning the actual existence of deities. Before him, [[Socrates]] was [[Trial of Socrates|sentenced to death]] partly on the grounds that he was an atheist, although he did express belief in several forms of divinity, as recorded in [[Plato]]'s ''[[Apology (Plato)|Apology]]''. This criminal connotation attached to atheistic ideas ([[heresy]]) would remain, at varying levels of severity, until [[the Renaissance]], when criticism of the Church became more prevalent and tolerated. Atheism disappeared from the philosophy of the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]] traditions as [[Christianity]] gained influence. During the [[Age of Enlightenment]], the concept of atheism re-emerged as an accusation against those who questioned the religious [[status quo]], but by the late 18th century it had become the philosophical position of a growing minority. By the 20th century, along with the spread of [[rationalism]] and [[secular humanism]], atheism had become common, particularly among [[scientist|scientists]] (see [[#International survey of contemporary atheism|international survey of contemporary atheism]]). In the 20th Century, atheism also became a staple of the various [[Communism|Communist]] regimes, helping return some of the negative connotations of atheism, especially in the [[United States]], where the term became synonymous with being unpatriotic during the [[Cold War]]. ==Distribution of atheists== Though atheists are a minority group in most countries, they are relatively common in [[Western Europe]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Canada]], in former and present [[communist state]]s, and, to a lesser extent, in the [[United States]]. Atheism is particularly prevalent among [[scientist]]s, a tendency already quite marked at the beginning of the 20th century, developing into a dominant one during the course of the century. In 1914, [[James H. Leuba]] found that 58% of 1,000 randomly selected U.S. [[natural science|natural scientists]] expressed "disbelief or doubt in the existence of God". The same study, repeated in 1996, gave a similar percentage of 60.7%; this number is 93% among the members of the [[National Academy of Sciences]]. Expressions of positive disbelief rose from 52% to 72%. [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/news/file002.html] (See also [[The relationship between religion and science]]). ===Atheism in the United Kingdom=== A poll in 2004 by the [[BBC]] put the number of people who do not believe in God to be 40% [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/wtwtgod/3518375.stm], while a [[YouGov]] poll in the same year put the percentage of non-believers at 35% with 21% uncertain [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/graphics/2004/12/27/nfaith27big.gif]. In the YouGov poll men were less likely to believe in god than women and younger people were less likely to believe in god than older people. In early 2004, it was announced that atheism would be taught during religious education classes in the [[United Kingdom]]. [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/politics/story/0,6903,1148578,00.html] A spokesman for the [[Qualifications and Curriculum Authority]] stated: "There are many children in England who have no religious affiliation and their beliefs and ideas, whatever they are, should be taken very seriously." There is also considerable debate in the U.K. on the status of [[faith-based schools]], which use religious as well as academic selection criteria. The decision was based on a Parliament decision ruling that, while questionable in moral standing, Atheism is a legitimate religion (although atheism is not a religion in any sense, this indicates that atheism should be treated the same as theism). Atheism is championed by many scientists and [[philosophers]] in the [[United Kingdom]] including [[Richard Dawkins]]. ===Atheism in the United States=== A [[Gallup poll]] in 2005 showed 5% of the US population feel that God does not exist [http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1001659292]. A poll in 2004 by the [[BBC]] showed the number of people who don't believe in God to be larger, at 10% [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/wtwtgod/3518375.stm]. However, unbelief in God does not imply self-identification as an atheist. Atheists are ostensibly legally protected from discrimination in the United States. They have been among the strongest advocates of the legal [[separation of church and state]]. American courts have regularly, if controversially, interpreted the constitutional requirement for separation of church and state as protecting the freedoms of non-believers, as well as prohibiting the establishment of any state religion. Atheists often sum up the legal situation with the phrase: "Freedom of religion also means freedom ''from'' religion." [http://www.au.org/] In [[Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet]][http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=000&invol=U10355], Justice Souter wrote in the opinion for the Court that: "government should not prefer one religion to another, or religion to [[irreligion]]." [http://supct.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/93-517.ZS.html] [[Everson v. Board of Education]] established that "''neither a state nor the Federal Government can''...'' pass laws which aid one religion, aid all religions, or prefer one religion over another''". This applies the Establishment Clause to the states as well as the federal government. [http://atheism.about.com/library/decisions/religion/bl_l_BoEEverson.htm] However, several state constitutions make the protection of persons from religious discrimination conditional on their acknowledgement of the existence of a deity, apparently making freedom of religion in those states inapplicable to atheists. These state constitutional clauses have not been tested. Additionally, some state constitutions (namely, [[Arkansas Constitution|Arkansas]] and [[South Carolina Constitution|South Carolina]]) disallow atheists to hold public office, although most agree that, if challenged, these requirements would be ruled unconstitutional under [[Article Six of the United States Constitution]] which bans such qualifications. Civil rights cases are typically brought in federal courts; so such state provisions are mainly of symbolic importance. In the [[Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow|Newdow case]], after a father challenged the phrase "under God" in the United States [[Pledge of Allegiance]], the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals found the phrase unconstitutional. Although the decision was stayed pending the outcome of an appeal, there was the prospect that the pledge would cease to be legally usable without modification in schools in the western United States, over which the Ninth Circuit has jurisdiction. This resulted in political furor, and both houses of Congress passed resolutions condemning the decision, nearly unanimously. A very large group consisting of almost the entire Senate and House was televised standing on the steps of Congress, hands over hearts, swearing the pledge and shouting out "under God". The Supreme Court subsequently reversed the decision, ruling that [[Michael Newdow]] did not have standing to bring his case, thus disposing of the case without ruling on the constitutionality of the pledge. ==Atheism studies and statistics== As some governments have strongly promoted atheism, whilst others have strongly condemned it, atheism may be either over-reported or under-reported for different countries. There is a great deal of room for debate as to the accuracy of any method of estimation, as the opportunity for misreporting (intentionally or not) a belief system without an organized structure is high. Also, many surveys on religious identification ask people to identify themselves as "agnostics" or "atheists", which is potentially confusing, since these terms are interpreted differently by many different people, with some identifying themselves as being both atheist and agnostic. Additionally, many of these surveys only gauge the number of [[irreligion|irreligious]] people, not the number of actual atheists, or group the two together. The following surveys are in chronological order, but as they are different studies with different methodologies it would be inaccurate to infer trends on the prevalence of atheism from them: *A 1995 survey [http://www.zpub.com/un/pope/relig.html] attributed to the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] indicates that the non-religious are about 14.7% of the world's population, and atheists around 3.8%. *The 2001 [http://www.gc.cuny.edu/faculty/research_briefs/aris/key_findings.htm ARIS report] found that while 29.5 million U.S. Americans (14.1%) describe themselves as "without religion", only 902,000 (0.4%) positively claim to be atheist, with another 991,000 (0.5%) professing agnosticism. *In the 2001 Australian Census [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9658217eba753c2cca256cae00053fa3?OpenDocument] 15.5% of respondents ticked "no religion", and a further 11.7% either did not state their religion or were deemed to have described it inadequately (there was a popular and successful campaign at the time to have people describe themselves as [[Jedi census phenomenon|Jedi]]). *The 2001 [[New Zealand]] census [http://www.stats.govt.nz/products-and-services/Articles/census-snpsht-cult-diversity-Mar02.htm] showed that 40% of the respondents claimed "no religion". *In 2001, the [http://www.czso.cz/csu/edicniplan.nsf/o/4110-03--skladba_obyvatelstva_podle_nabozenskeho_vyznani,_pohlavi_a_podle_veku Czech Statistical Office] provided census information on the ten million people in the [[Czech Republic]]. 59% had no religion, 32.2% were religious, and 8.8% did not answer. This suggests that the Czech Republic is probably the most atheistic country in the world. *In 2002 survey in [[Demographics of Russia|Russia]], 32% self-described as atheist. Of the 58% self-describing as Russian Orthodox Christian, 42% said they had never been in a church. *A 2002 survey by Adherents.com [http://adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html] estimates the proportion of the world's people who are "secular, non-religious, agnostics and atheists" as about 14%. *In a 2003 poll in [[France]], 54% of those polled identified themselves as "faithful", 33% as atheist, 14% as agnostic, and 26% as "[[apatheism|indifferent]]". [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35454.htm] *A 2004 survey by the BBC [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/wtwtgod/3518375.stm] in 10 countries showed the proportion of the population "who don't believe in God" varying between 0% and 44%, with an average close to 17% in the countries surveyed. About 8% of the respondents stated specifically that they consider themselves to be atheists. *A 2004 survey by the CIA in the World Factbook [http://cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/xx.html#People] estimates about 12.5% of the world's population are non-religious, and about 2.4% are atheists. *A 2004 survey by the [[Pew Research Center]] [http://people-press.org/reports/display.php3?PageID=757] showed that in the United States, 12% of people under 30 and 6% of people over 30 could be characterized as non-religious. *A 2005 poll by AP/Ipsos [http://www.ipsos-na.com/news/pressrelease.cfm?id=2694] surveyed ten countries. Of the developed nations, people in the [[United States]] had most certainty about the existence of god or a higher power (2% atheist, 4% agnostic), while [[France]] had the most skeptics (19% atheist, 16% agnostic). On the religion question, [[South Korea]] had the greatest percentage without a religion (41%) while [[Italy]] had the smallest (5%). * A 2006 survey in the Norwegian newspaper [[Aftenposten]] (on [[February 17]]), saw 1006 inhabitants of [[Norway]] answering the question "What do you believe in?". 29% answered "I believe in a god or deity", 23% answered "I believe in a higher power without being certain of what", 26% answered "I don't believe in god or higher powers", and 22% answered "I am in doubt". Depending on the definition of atheism, Norway thus has between 49% and 71% atheists. Still, some 85% of the population are members of the Norwegian state's official [[Lutheran]] [[Protestant]] church. Parts of this deviance is due to the fact that all non-affilated Norwegians were signed into this church a few years before (without being asked), and that signing out, if they are even aware of being signed in, is a time-consuming, bureaucratic affair yielding no immediate gains. ===Statistical problems=== Statistics on atheism are often difficult to accurately represent for a variety of reasons. ====Atheism is nonexclusive==== Atheism is a position compatible with other forms of identity. Some atheists also consider themselves [[Agnosticism|Agnostic]], [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], [[Jainism|Jains]] or hold other related philosophical beliefs. Therefore, given limited poll options, some may use other terms to describe their identity. ====Misrepresentation==== Some politically motivated organizations that report or gather population statistics may, intentionally or unintentionally, misrepresent atheists. Survey designs may bias results due to the nature of elements such as the wording of questions and the available response options. Also, many atheists, particularly former Catholics, are still counted as [[Christianity|Christian]]s in church rosters, although surveys generally ask samples of the population and do not look in church rosters. Some Christians believe that ''"once a person is <nowiki>[truly]</nowiki> saved, that person is always saved"'', a doctrine known as [[Perseverance of the saints|eternal security]]. [http://www.evangelicaloutreach.org/eternalsecurity1.htm]. ====Attitudes toward religion==== Statistics are generally collected on the assumption that religion is a categorical variable. As terms such as ''weak atheism'' and ''strong atheism'' suggest, however, people vary in terms of the strength of their convictions. Instruments have been designed to measure attitudes toward religion, including one that was used by [[L. L. Thurstone]]. This may be a particularly important consideration among people who have neutral attitudes, as it is more likely prevailing social norms will influence the responses of such people on survey questions which effectively force respondents to categorize themselves either as belonging to a particular relgion or belonging to no religion. ====Misunderstanding and external pressure==== A negative perception of atheists and pressure from family and peers may also cause some atheists to disassociate themselves from atheism. Misunderstanding of the term may also be a reason some label themselves differently. ====Discrimination==== Legal and social discrimination against atheists in some places may lead some to deny or conceal their atheism due to fears of persecution. For example, in the 20th century, atheists, socialists and communists were persecuted alongside Jews by the Nazis, who lumped all of these terms into one complex issue or theme ('the Jewish-Bolshevik world conspiracy', as addressed in [[Joseph Goebbels]]' 1935 speech "Communism with the Mask Off", in which Christian civilization -national socialism- was described as antithetical to Jewish Communism). ==Religion and atheism== ===Spiritual and religious atheism=== Although atheistic beliefs are often accompanied by a total lack of [[supernatural]] beliefs, this is not an aspect, or even a necessary consequence, of atheism. Indeed, there are many atheists who are not [[irreligion|irreligious]] or [[secularism|secular]]. These are most common in spiritualities like [[Buddhism]] and [[Taoism]], but they also exist in sects of religions that are usually very theistic by nature, such as [[Christianity]], especially in some [[Religious Society of Friends|Liberal Quaker]] groups. A number of atheistic churches have been established, such as the [http://thomasinechurch.org/ Thomasine Church], [[Naturalistic pantheism|naturalistic pantheists]], [[Brianism]], and the [[Fellowship of Reason]]. There is also an atheist presence in [[Unitarian Universalism]], an extremely [[inclusivism|inclusivist]] religion. ====Belief in God as a non-being==== In English, believers usually refer to the [[monotheism|monotheistic]] Abrahamic god as "[[God]]". In many abstract or esoteric interpretations of monotheism or [[henotheism]], God is not thought of as a supernatural being, as a deity or god. Rather, God becomes a philosophical category: the All, the One, the [[Ultimate]], the [[Absolute Infinite]], the [[Transcendent]], the Divine Ground, [[Being]] or [[Existence]] itself, etc. For example, such views are typical of [[pantheism]], [[panentheism]], and religious [[monism]]. Attributing [[anthropomorphic]] characteristics to God may be regarded as idolatry, blasphemy, or symbolism by some. Some theists may not believe in, or may even deny, the existence of deities as supernatural beings, while maintaining a belief in god as so conceived. For example, the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] theologian [[Paul Tillich]] described God as the "ground of Being", the "power of Being", or as "Being itself", and caused controversy by making the statement that "God does not exist", resulting in him occasionally being labelled as an atheist. Nevertheless, for [[Tillich]], God is not "a" being that exists among other beings, but is Being itself. For him, God does not "exist" except as a concept or principle; God is the basis of Being, the [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] power by which Being triumphs over non-Being. However, most atheists who deny the existence of deities as supernatural beings would also deny this and similar conceptions of God, or simply consider them incomprehensible. Even the broadest definitions of atheism often do not include belief in a conceptual or metaphysical God, categorizing this under theism instead. ===Judaism=== In general, formulations of [[Jewish principles of faith]] require a belief in God (represented by Judaism's paramount prayer, the [[Shema]]). In many modern movements in Judaism, rabbis have generally considered the behavior of a Jew to be the determining factor in whether or not one is considered an adherent of Judaism. Within these movements it is often recognized that it is possible for a Jew to strictly practise [[Judaism]] as a faith, while at the same time being an agnostic or atheist, giving rise to the joke: "Q: What do you call a Jew who doesn't believe in God? A: A Jew." It is also worth noting that [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionism]] does not require any belief in a deity, and that certain popular [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] prayer books, such as ''Gates of Prayer'', offer some services without mention of God. Rabbi [[Abraham Isaac Kook]] [http://www.vbm-torah.org/archive/rk16-kook.htm][http://www.vbm-torah.org/archive/rk17-kook.htm], first Chief Rabbi of the Jewish community in pre-state Israel, held that atheists were not actually denying God: rather, they were denying one of man's many images of God. Since any man-made image of God can be considered an idol, Kook held that, in practice, one could consider atheists as helping true religion burn away false images of God, thus in the end serving the purpose of true monotheism. Some Jewish atheists reject Judaism, but wish to continue identifying themselves with the Jewish people and culture. See, for example, Levin (1995). Jewish atheists who practice [[Humanistic Judaism]] embrace Jewish culture and history, rather than belief in a supernatural god, as the sources of their Jewish identity. ===Christianity=== By necessity, Christianity, as a [[theist|theistic]] and [[proselyte|proselytising]] religion views atheism as sinful. According to [[Psalm 14:1]], "The fool hath said in his heart, there is no God." According to John 3:18-19, all who reject Christianity (and presumably its attendant theism) do so "because their deeds are evil". A famous but idiosyncratic atheistic belief is that of [[Thomas Altizer]]. His book ''The Gospel of Christian Atheism'' (1967) proclaims the highly unusual view that God has literally died, or self-annihilated. According to Altizer, this is nevertheless "a Christian confession of faith" (p.102). Making clear the difference between his position and that of both [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche's]] notion of the death of God and the stance of theological non-realists, Altizer says: <blockquote>To confess the death of God is to speak of an actual and real event, not perhaps an event occurring in a single moment of time or history, but notwithstanding this reservation an event that has actually happened both in a cosmic and in a historical sense.(p.103)</blockquote> However, many would dispute whether this is an atheist position at all, as belief in a dead God implies that God once existed and was alive. Atheism typically entails a lack of belief that any gods ''ever'' existed, as opposed to not existing currently. For further discussion, see Lyas (1970). Other, unrelated practitioners of Christian atheism may include [[Liberal Christianity|Liberal Christian]] atheists who follow the teaching of [[Jesus]], but who may not believe in the literal existence of god. In this case, however, many would dispute whether the atheists in question are truly [[Christianity|Christians]], though they certainly are by some of the looser definitions of the word. It should be noted that although Christianity as a ''faith'' has to be construed as irreconcilable with atheism, this is markedly not the case regarding the church institutions which currently are nominally Christian. Indeed the great [[Positivism|positivist]] luminaries in all earnestness encompassed a Catholic Church which would retain all it's ceremonies and ecclesiastical structures, whilst transforming into a purely atheistic church, much in the same way that christianity has co-opted the organisational traditions of the native faiths it has encountered around the world, and through the ages. ===Islam=== In [[Islam]], atheists are categorized as [[kafir]] (كافر), a term that is also used to describe polytheists, and that translates roughly as "denier" or "concealer". The noun ''kafir'' carries connotations of blasphemy and disconnection from the Islamic community. In Arabic, "atheism" is generally translated ''ilhad'' (إلحاد), although this also means "heresy". As the [[Sharia]] punishment for [[apostasy]] in Islam is [[death penalty|death]] and such apostasy is also widely socially disapproved of, atheists (as well as converts from Islam to other religions) in Islamic countries and communities frequently conceal their non-belief. The surveys mentioned above that indicate 100% religious belief in certain Islamic countries should be interpreted in light of this fact. ===Asian spirituality=== It is difficult to categorize the Eastern thought systems in distinct terms of theism or atheism. Therefore, it should be noted that even the thoughts that would be characterized as atheistic in the western sense, often have some theistic tendencies, and vice versa. [[Carvaka]] (also ''Charvaka'') was a [[materialist]] and atheist school of thought in [[India]], which is now known principally from fragments cited by its [[Hindu]] and [[Buddhist]] opponents. The proper aim of a Carvakan, according to these sources, was to live a prosperous, happy, productive life in this world (cf [[Epicureanism]]). There is some evidence that the school persisted until at least 1578. [[Buddhism]] is often described as atheistic, since Buddhist authorities and canonical texts do not affirm, and sometimes deny, the following: * The existence of a [[creation]], and therefore of a creator god * That a god, gods, or other divine beings are the source of moral imperatives * That human beings or other creatures are responsible to a god or gods for their actions Buddhists might also be deemed atheistic in anti-Buddhist Hindu polemic, since Buddhists opposed the authority of the [[Vedas]] and of Vedic priests, and the power of the rituals of [[Vedic religion]]. However, all canonical Buddhist texts that mention the subject accept the ''existence'' (as distinct from the ''authority'') of a great number of deities, including the Vedic deities. From the point of view of Western theism, certain concepts of the [[Buddha]] found in the [[Mahayana]] school of Buddhism, e.g. of [[Amitabha]] or the Adibuddha may seem to share characteristics with Western concepts of God. Other schools continue to consider themselves as fundamentally atheistic, in the strong sense of the term. [[Jainism]] is also sometimes classified as atheistic since Jains's believe that "In the most basic sense, God is not seen as a person, place or tangible thing, but as the ideal state of an individual soul's existence" [http://www.dd-b.net/~raphael/jain-list/msg01226.html]. [[Confucianism]] and [[Taoism]] are arguably atheistic in the sense that they do not explicitly affirm, nor are they founded upon a faith in, a higher being or beings. However, Confucian writings do have numerous references to 'Heaven,' which denotes a transcendent power, with a personal connotation. Neo-Confucian writings, such as that of [[Chu Hsi]], are vague on whether their conception of the Great Ultimate is like a personal deity or not. Also, although the Western translation of the [[Tao]] as 'god' in some editions of the [[Tao te Ching]] is highly misleading, it is still a matter of debate whether the actual descriptions of the [[Tao]] by [[Lao Zi]] has theistic or atheistic undertones. ==Reasons for atheism== Although not all atheists claim to have a rational justification for their stance, a majority of explicit atheists do assert that their stance has a rational basis, and there are some especially common reasons given by them. ===Philosophical reasons=== A majority of explicit atheists base their stance on rational or philosophical grounds, arguing that their position is based on logical analysis, and subsequent rejection, of theistic claims. These [[existence of God#Arguments_against_the_existence_of_God|arguments against the existence of deities]] consist of a number of different problems with theism. Chief among these problems is a perceived lack of evidence supporting theistic claims. <blockquote>"Within the framework of [[scientific]] [[rationalism]] one arrives at the belief in the nonexistence of God, not because of certain knowledge, but because of a sliding scale of methods. At one extreme, we can confidently rebut the personal Gods of creationists on firm [[empirical]] grounds: science is sufficient to conclude beyond reasonable doubt that there never was a worldwide flood and that the evolutionary sequence of the Cosmos does not follow either of the two versions of Genesis. The more we move toward a deistic and fuzzily defined God, however, the more scientific rationalism reaches into its toolbox and shifts from empirical science to [[logical]] philosophy informed by science. Ultimately, the most convincing arguments against a deistic God are [[Hume's dictum]] and [[Occam's razor]]. These are philosophical arguments, but they also constitute the bedrock of all of science, and cannot therefore be dismissed as non-scientific. The reason we put our trust in these two principles is because their application in the empirical sciences has led to such spectacular successes throughout the last three centuries." [http://psy.ucsd.edu/~eebbesen/Psych110/SciRelig.htm]</blockquote> Many atheists hold that as their view is merely the absence of a certain belief, the only defense that atheism needs is a good offense. If theism's arguments are refuted, nontheism, as the only alternative, becomes the default position. As such, many atheists have argued against the most famous "proofs" of God's existence for centuries. Whether all of the theistic arguments have been refuted is a matter in dispute. <blockquote>"Throughout the centuries, theistic philosophers have offered logical arguments in support of God's existence. Most of these can be divided into four major classes - ontological, cosmological, teleological, and moral" [http://www.ebonmusings.org/atheism/] </blockquote> In general, atheists contend that these have been refuted. There are also many atheists who attack specific forms of theism as being self-contradictory. One of the most common arguments against the existence of a specific God is the [[problem of evil]]. <blockquote>"The problem of evil is probably the most enduring and the most potent argument atheism has to offer against many varieties of theism. Christian apologist [[William Lane Craig]] aptly styled it ''atheism's killer argument''. In brief, it seeks to establish that the existence of evil in the world is logically incompatible with the existence of a benevolent God, and that it is more reasonable to conclude that God does not exist than that he does exist but does nothing to stop evil." [http://www.ebonmusings.org/atheism/allpossibleworlds.html]</blockquote> Other well-known positive arguments include [[theological noncognitivism]], [[incoherency argument]]s (which seek to prove contradictions within the nature of "god"), atheistic teleological arguments, and the [[Transcendental argument for the non-existence of God]]. ===Personal and social reasons=== As well as atheists with philosophical reasons, there are explicit atheists who cite social, psychological, practical, and other reasons for their beliefs. Some people hold atheistic beliefs on the grounds that it is conducive towards living a better life, such as the belief that atheism is more ethical or useful than theism. Such atheists may hold that searching for explanations through natural science is more beneficial than doing it through faith. Moral reasons for atheism include "cases where the requirement to do what is right favors being an atheist, or at the very least, not supporting certain sects or practices of theism.'''...''' Those who cannot accept the notion of an evil god must conclude that any immoral religion is necessarily false." Practical reasons for atheism include "reasons why accepting atheism over theism produces positive overall effects on a person's life." [http://www.ebonmusings.org/atheism/necessityofatheism.html] Arguments that theism promotes immorality often center around the contention that a great deal of violence, including [[war]], has been brought about by religious beliefs and practices. Some people are atheists at least partly because of growing up in an environment where atheism is relatively common, such as being raised by atheist parents. <blockquote>"Many people are atheists not because they've reasoned things out like that, but because of the way they were brought up or educated, or because they have simply adopted the beliefs of the culture in which they grew up." [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/atheism/reasons/index.shtml BBC].</blockquote> Most atheists contend that the same is true for many believers. For instance, most of the population in predominantly Jewish, Muslim, or Christian countries follow the religion that is more prevalent without much questioning. <!-- Cyclic logic. "More people believe in Christianity in places where more people believe in Christianity." --> Christian psychologist Paul Vitz (1999) argues that, "Many people have psychological reasons for atheism" [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/augustine/arch/frear/vitz.htm] and "neurotic psychological barriers to belief in God are of great importance" [http://www.origins.org/articles/vitz_psychologyofatheism.html]. See Vitz (1999) and, for a similar view, Rizzuto (1998). While it is common to point out the psychological reasons for not being an atheist, it is important to note that emotion and "feelings" play an important role for many people, not just theists. However, an understanding of the psychological origins for belief in a god may contribute to some atheists' lack of religious belief; see [[true believer syndrome]] and [[psychology of religion]]. ===Historical reasons=== Without even taking into account scientific research, some atheists have come to the conclusion that the existence of one or more gods can be dismissed due to historical reasons. Looking at very old civilizations such as [[Ancient Greece]] and [[Ancient Rome]], people believed in multiple gods, linking each of them to an unexplained physical reality, such as [[Hades]] the god of the dead, [[Helios]] the god of the sun, [[Zeus]] the god of thunder and [[Poseidon]] the god of earthquakes. These people could not explain a phenomenon using a [[scientific theory]] and thus invented a god to explain it, from fear of the unexplained. In our current times, all of these things, except one, have been explained scientifically. There are no significant group of people believing earthquakes are the direct action of a god shaking the [[Earth]]. The only item from the original gods that is still a near complete mystery is death, and as such only one god remains in most modern religions, and looking at the various religions, death (along with afterlife) is usually a central topic. Looking at [[Historical persecution by Christians|historical records]], one can also see how the fears that people have of unexplained phenomenons have been used by various religious leaders both to persecute other religions, and to gain more believers. It seems likely to some atheists, that if the result of death could someday be explained beyond a reasonable doubt by science, the last god would no longer be worshiped by a majority of people, just as was the case for every previous mythical god. ==Criticisms of atheism== {{main|Criticism of Atheism}} Atheists and atheism have received much criticism and opposition, chiefly from theistic sources, throughout human history. Opponents of atheism have frequently associated atheism with immorality and evil, often characterizing it as a willful and malicious rejection of gods. This, in fact, is the original definition and sense of the word, but changing sensibilities and the normalization of nonreligious viewpoints have caused the term to lose its negative connotations, at least in secular cultures. The most direct arguments against atheism are those in favor of the existence of deities, which would imply that atheism is simply untrue. For examples of this type of argument, see [[Existence of God#Arguments for the existence of God|Existence of God]]. Many common criticisms of atheism are rooted in a misunderstanding of what it is, or an incorrect assumption that all atheists are "strong" atheists who assert that there is no such thing as God anywhere in the universe. [[Ray Comfort]] exhibits this fallacy in "The Atheist Test" [http://ecclesia.org/truth/atheist.html]: ''"To say 'There is no God,' and to be correct in the statement, I must be omniscient. I must know how many hairs are upon every head, every thought of every human heart, every detail of history, every atom within every rock...nothing is hidden from my eyes...I know the intimate details of the secret love-life of the fleas on the back of the black cat of Napoleon's great-grandmother. To make the absolute statement 'There is no God.' I must have absolute knowledge that there isn't one."" Other criticisms of atheism are based in conceptions that it leads to poor morals or ethics, that it is impossible for a person to truly have faith in nothing, or that lack of belief in a god is as much (or more) a leap of faith than belief in a god. These criticisms have been answered to the satisfaction of many atheists. [http://www.infidels.org/news/atheism/intro.html] ==See also== * [[List of atheists]] * [[Strong atheism]] * [[Weak atheism]] ===Related concepts=== * [[Brights]] * [[Criticism of Religion]] * [[Existence of God]], [[Pascal's Wager]] * [[Faith and rationality]], [[Religiousness and intelligence]] * [[Freethinking]] * [[Irreligion]] * [[Nihilism]] * [[Objectivism]] * [[Pantheism]] * [[Rationalism]] * [[Religious freedom]] - freedom of religion ''and'' belief * [[Scientific skepticism]] * [[Secular Humanism]] * [[Secularism]] ===Organizations=== * [[Camp Quest]] * [[American Atheists]] * [[Atheist Foundation of Australia]] * [[Freedom From Religion Foundation]] * [[Rationalist International]] * [[Internet Infidels]] * [[Fellowship of Reason]] * [[Society of the Godless]] ===Satire=== * [[Apatheism]] * [[Evil Atheist Conspiracy]] * [[Flying Spaghetti Monster]] * [[Invisible Pink Unicorn]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} === Web sites === * Associations **[http://www.atheistalliance.org/ Atheist Alliance International] **[http://www.atheists.org/ American Atheists] **[http://www.ffrf.org/ Freedom From Religion Foundation] **[http://www.atheistfoundation.org.au/ Atheist Foundation of Australia] **[http://www.secularism.org.uk/ The National Secular Society (UK)] **[http://www.the-brights.net/ The Brights] **[http://idahoatheists.org/ Idaho Atheists] * Web communities **[http://www.frostcloud.com/forum/forumdisplay.php?f=9 FrostCloud.com] Discuss atheism. **[http://www.atheistparents.org/ Atheist Parents Group] **[http://www.booktalk.org BookTalk.org - the freethinker's book discussion community] **[http://www.churchofreality.org/wisdom/ Church of Reality] **[http://www.nobeliefs.com/ Freethinkers (NoBeliefs.com)] **[http://www.positiveatheism.org/ Positive Atheism] **[http://www.infidels.org/ The Secular Web] **[http://www.atheistcoalition.com/ The Atheist Coalition] **[http://www.faithless.org/ The Faithless Community] **[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/eudaimonistseuphoria/ Eudaimonist's Euphoria] * Internet radios **[http://www.atheistnetwork.com/ Atheist Network (Internet Radio)] **[http://www.infidelguy.com/index.php The Infidel Guy Radio Show] **[http://www.freethoughtradio.com Freethought Radio] - Internet Radio Station * Miscellaneous **{{About.com|topic=Atheism}} **[http://www.ebonmusings.org/atheism Ebon Musings: The Atheism Pages] **[http://www.exchristian.net/ ExChristian.net &mdash; Encouraging Ex-Christians] **[http://www.godlessgeeks.com/LINKS/Debate.html Links related to atheism] by [[Atheists of Silicon Valley]] **[http://www.cybamall.com/america/ Political and Atheist Thought] **[http://www.camp-quest.com/ Camp Quest: A Secular Summer Camp for Children] **[http://www.atheists.net/ Darwin Bedford, Atheist Messiah and Spiritual Reality Therapist] **[http://www.religioustolerance.org/atheist.htm religioustolerance.org] **http://www.qsmithwmu.com (Web site of [[Quentin Smith]], atheist philosopher) **http://www.abstractatom.com (Web site of [[Jeffrey Grupp]], atheist philosopher) === Articles === * History of **[http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/religious_criticism.htm A Historical Outline of Modern Religious Criticism in Western Civilization] - History of atheistic thought going back to the 1500s * Definitions **[http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/A/atheism.html AllRefer atheism article] - brief discussion of polemical usage **[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atheism-agnosticism/ "Atheism and Agnosticism"] by [[John Smart]] for [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] **[http://www.atheistfoundation.org.au/aboutus.htm "Definition of Atheism"] from Atheist Foundation of Australia Inc **[http://uberkuh.com/node/341 "Types of Atheistic Belief"] **[http://www.positiveatheism.org/faq/faq1111.htm#WHATISPOSATH "What Is Atheism?"] from Positive Atheism Magazine * Defence **[http://www.samharris.org The End of Faith] by [[Sam Harris (author)|Sam Harris]] **[http://kenneth.moyle.com/aa/atheism1.htm Atheism defended] **[http://atheisme.free.fr/Atheism.htm Atheism: The Capital Man] **[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1843/critique-hpr/intro.htm Introduction to A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right] &mdash; the source of the famous "[religion is] the opiate of the masses", by [[Karl Marx]] **[http://www.dlc.fi/~etkirja/LectureOnAtheism.htm Lecture on Atheism] by Erkki Hartikainen in The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, 2003 **[http://www.spunk.org/library/writers/goldman/sp001502.html The Philosophy of Atheism] by Emma Goldman (''[[Mother Earth (magazine)|Mother Earth]]'', 1916) **[http://www.godlessgeeks.com/WhyAtheism.htm Why Atheism?] **[http://www.truthdig.com/dig/item/200512_an_atheist_manifesto/ An Atheist Manifesto] by [[Sam Harris (author)|Sam Harris]] * Criticism **[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02040a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: "atheism"] **[http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2005/003/21.36.html The Twilight of Atheism] by [[Alister McGrath]], Christianity Today, March 2005. **[http://www.leaderu.com/truth/3truth02.html Theism, Atheism, and Rationality] by [[Alvin Plantinga]] **[http://www.origins.org/articles/plantinga_intellectualsophistication.html Intellectual Sophistication and Basic Belief in God] by Alvin Plantinga *Statistics **[http://www.pitzer.edu/academics/faculty/zuckerman/atheism.html Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns] atheism worldwide, by Phil Zuckerman ==References== *Altizer, Thomas J.J. (1967). ''The Gospel of Christian Atheism.'' London: Collins. [http://www.religion-online.org/showbook.asp?title=523 Electronic Text] *Armstrong, Karen (1999). ''A History of God.'' London: Vintage. ISBN 0099273675 *Ayer, A. J. (1966). ''What I Believe.'' '''in''' ''Humanist'', Vol 81 (8) August 1966, p.226-228. *Baggini, Julian (2003). ''Atheism: A very short introduction.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192804243. *Berman, David (1990). ''A History of Atheism in Britain: from Hobbes to Russell.'' London: Routledge. ISBN 0415047277. *Berman, David (1983). ''David Hume and the Suppression of Atheism.'' '''in''' ''Journal of the History of Philosophy'', Vol. 21 (3), July 1983, p.375-387. *Berman, David (1982). ''The Repressive Denials of Atheism in Britain in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries'' '''in''' ''Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy'', Vol. 82c, (9), p.211-246. *Borne, Étienne (1961). ''Atheism.'' New York: Hawthorn Books. [Originally published in France under the title ''Dieu n’est pas mort: essai sur l’atheisme contemporain.'' Librairie Arthème Fayard, 1959] *Bradlaugh Bonner, Hypatia (1908). ''Charles Bradlaugh: a record of his life and work.'' London: T. Fisher Unwin. *Buckley, M. J. (1987). ''At the origins of modern atheism.'' New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. *Cudworth, Ralph (1678). ''The True Intellectual System of the Universe: the first part, wherein all the reason and philosophy of atheism is confuted and its impossibility demonstrated''. *d'Holbach, P. H. T. (1772). ''Good Sense.'' [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/7319 Electronic Text] *d'Holbach, P. H. T. (1770). ''The system of nature.'' Electronic versions: **[http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/holbach/ ''complete text'' (pdf)] **[http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~freethought/holbach/system/0syscontents.htm ''complete text'' (html)] *de Mornay, Phillipe (1587). ''A woorke concerning the Trewnesse of the Christian Religion, written in French; Against Atheists, Epicures, Paynims, Iewes, Mahumetists''. London. *Drachmann, A. B. (1922). ''Atheism in Pagan Antiquity''. Chicago: Ares Publishers, 1977 ("an unchanged reprint of the 1922 edition"). ISBN 0890052018. *Everitt, Nicholas (2004). ''The Non-existence of God: An Introduction.'' London: Routledge. ISBN 0415301076. *[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/1018_041018_science_religion.html ''Evolution and Religion Can Coexist, Scientists Say''] *Flew, Antony (1966). ''God and Philosophy.'' London: Hutchinson & Co. *Flew, Antony (1984a). ''God, Freedom, and Immortality: A Critical Analysis.'' Buffalo, NY: Prometheus. ISBN 0879751274. *Flew, Antony (1984b). ''The Presumption of Atheism''. New York: Prometheus. **[http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/flew01.htm ''complete text'' (html)] *Flew, Antony (1972). ''The Presumption of Atheism''. '''in''' ''Canadian Journal of Philosophy'', 2, p.29-46 [reprinted in Flew 1984a and 1984b above] *Flint, Robert (1877). ''Anti-Theistic Theories: Being the Baird Lecture for 1877.'' London: William Blackwood and Sons. 5th ed, 1894. *Gaskin, J.C.A. (ed) (1989). ''Varieties of Unbelief: from Epicurus to Sartre.'' New York: Macmillan. ISBN 002340681X. *Harbour, Daniel (2001). ''An Intelligent Person's Guide to Atheism.'' London: Duckworth. ISBN 0715632299. *Hitchens, Christopher (2001). ''[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0465030327 Letters to a Young Contrarian]''. New York: Basic Books. *Krueger, D. E. (1998). ''What is atheism?: A short introduction.'' New York: Prometheus. ISBN 1573922145. *Le Poidevin, R. (1996). ''Arguing for atheism: An introduction to the philosophy of religion.'' London: Routledge. ISBN 0415093384. *Levin, S. (1995). ''Jewish Atheism.'' '''in''' ''New Humanist'', Vol 110 (2) May 1995, p.13-15. *Lyas, Colin (1970). ''On the Coherence of Christian Atheism.'' '''in''' ''Philosophy: the Journal of the Royal Institute of Philosophy.'' Vol. 45 (171), January 1970. pp.1-19. *Mackie, J. L. (1982). ''The Miracle of Theism: Arguments for and against the existence of God.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019824682X. *Maritain, Jacques (1953). ''The Range of Reason.'' London: Geoffrey Bles. [http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/etext/range.htm Electronic Text] **Note: Chapter 8, ''The Meaning of Contemporary Atheism'' (p.103-117, [http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/etext/range08.htm Electronic Text]) is reprinted from ''Review of Politics'', Vol. 11 (3) July 1949, p. 267-280 [http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/jm3303.htm Electronic Text]. A version also appears ''The Listener'', Vol. 43 No.1102, [[9 March]] [[1950]]. pp.427-429,432. *Martin, Michael (1990). ''Atheism: A philosophical justification.'' Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. ISBN 0877229430. *Martin, Michael, & Monnier, R. (Eds.) (2003). ''The impossibility of God.'' New York: Prometheus. *McGrath, A. (2005). ''The Twilight of Atheism : The Rise and Fall of Disbelief in the Modern World''. ISBN 0385500629 *McTaggart, John & McTaggart, Ellis (1927). ''The Nature of Existence.'' Volume 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. *McTaggart, John & McTaggart, Ellis (1930). ''Some Dogmas of Religion.'' London: Edward Arnold & Co., new edition. [First published 1906] *Mills, D. (2004). ''Atheist Universe'', Xlibris, ISBN 1413434819. *Müller, F. Max (1889). ''Natural Religion: The Gifford Lectures, 1888.'' London: Longmans, Green and Co. *Nagel, Ernest (1965). ''A Defence of Atheism.'' '''in''' Edwards, Paul and Pap, Arthur (eds), ''A Modern Introduction to Philosophy: readings from classical and contemporary sources.'' New York: Free Press. Rev ed. pp.460-472. *Nielsen, Kai (1985). ''Philosophy and Atheism.'' New York: Prometheus. ISBN 0879752890. *Nielsen, Kai (2001). ''Naturalism and religion.'' New York: Prometheus. *Reid, J.P. (1967). ''Atheism.'' '''in''' ''New Catholic Encyclopedia''. New York: McGraw-Hill. p.1000-1003. *Rizzuto, Ana-Maria (1998). ''Why did Freud reject God?: A psychoanalytic interpretation.'' Yale University Press. ISBN 0300075251. *Robinson, Richard (1964). ''An Atheist's Values.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press. *Sharpe, R.A. (1997). ''The Moral Case Against Religious Belief.'' London: SCM Press. ISBN 0334026806. *Smith, George H. (1990). ''Atheism, Ayn Rand, and Other Heresies''. New York: Prometheus. **[http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/smithdef.htm Excerpt: ''Defining atheism'' (html)] *Smith, George H. (1979). ''Atheism: The Case Against God''. Buffalo, New York: Prometheus. ISBN 087975124X. **[http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/smith.htm Excerpt: ''The Scope of Atheism'' (html)] *Sobel, Jordan H. (2004). ''Logic and theism: Arguments for and against beliefs in God.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. *Stenger, Victor J. (2003). ''Has science found God?.'' New York: Prometheus. *Stein, G. (Ed.) (1984). ''The Encyclopaedia of Unbelief'' (Vols. 1-2). New York: Prometheus. ISBN 0879753072. *Thrower, James (1971). ''A Short History of Western Atheism.'' London: Pemberton. ISBN 0301711011. *Vitz, Paul (1999). ''Faith of the fatherless: the psychology of atheism.'' Dallas, Texas: Spence. ISBN 1890626120. {{Philosophy navigation}} [[Category:Atheism]] [[Category:Philosophy of religion]] {{Link FA|de}} [[af:Ateïsme]] [[ar:إلحاد]] [[fa:بیخدایی]] [[be:Атэізм]] [[bg:Атеизъм]] [[bn:নাস্তিকবাদ]] [[br:Ateism]] [[bs:Ateizam]] [[ca:Ateisme]] [[cs:Ateismus]] [[da:Ateisme]] [[de:Atheismus]] [[eo:Ateismo]] [[es:Ateísmo]] [[fi:Ateismi]] [[fr:Athéisme]] [[he:אתאיזם]] [[hu:Ateizmus]] [[ia:Atheismo]] [[id:Atheisme]] [[it:Ateismo]] [[ja:無神論]] [[jv:Ateisme]] [[ko:무신론]] [[lb:Atheismus]] [[li:Atheïsme]] [[lt:Ateizmas]] [[lv:Ateisms]] [[ms:Atheis]] [[mt:Ateiżmu]] [[nl:Atheïsme]] [[no:Ateisme]] [[pl:Ateizm]] [[pt:Ateísmo]] [[ro:Ateism]] [[ru:Атеизм]] [[simple:Atheism]] [[sk:Ateizmus]] [[sr:Атеизам]] [[sv:Ateism]] [[uk:Атеїзм]] [[yi:אַטעיִסם]] [[zh:无神论]] 894 move=:edit= 42138240 2006-03-04T01:53:39Z El C 92203 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.249.89.93|69.249.89.93]] ([[User talk:69.249.89.93|talk]]) to last version by The tooth '''Agnosticism''' is the [[philosophy|philosophical]] view that the [[truth]] or falsity of certain claims—particularly [[theology|theological]] claims regarding the existence of [[Monotheism|God]] or [[Polytheism|gods]]—is unknown, unknowable, or incoherent. Some agnostics infer from this that these claims are irrelevant to [[Meaning of life|life]]. The term and the related ''agnostic'' were coined by [[Thomas Henry Huxley]] in [[1869]], and are also used to describe those who are unconvinced or noncommittal about the existence of deities as well as other matters of [[religion]]. The word agnostic comes from the Greek ''a'' (without) and ''[[gnosis]]'' (knowledge). Agnosticism, focusing on what can be known, is an [[epistemology|epistemological]] position (dealing with the nature and limits of human knowledge); while atheism and theism are [[ontology|ontological]] positions (a branch of metaphysics that deals with what types of entities exist). Agnosticism is not to be confused with a view specifically opposing the doctrine of [[gnosis]] and [[Gnosticism]]&mdash;these are religious concepts that are not generally related to agnosticism. Agnosticism is distinct from [[strong atheism]] (also called ''positive atheism'' or ''dogmatic atheism''), which denies the existence of any deities. However, the more general variety of [[atheism]], [[weak atheism]] (also called ''negative atheism'', and sometimes ''neutral atheism''), professes only a lack of belief in a god or gods, which is not equivalent to but is compatible with agnosticism. ''Critical atheism'' admits that a god or gods are meaningful concepts but the evidence for them is not in hand, so a default position of not believing in them must be taken in the interim. Agnostics may claim that it isn't possible to have ''absolute'' or ''certain'' spiritual knowledge or, alternatively, that while certainty ''may'' be possible, they personally have no such knowledge. In both cases, agnosticism involves some form of [[philosophical scepticism|skepticism]] towards religious statements. This is different from the simple [[irreligion]] of those who give no thought to the subject. ==Variations== Agnosticism has suffered more than most expressions of philosophical position from terminological vagaries. Data collection services [http://adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Nonreligious], [http://cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/fields/2122.html] often display the common use of the term, distinct from strong atheism in its lack of disputing the existence of deities. Agnostics are listed alongside [[secularism|secular]], [[irreligion|non-religious]], or other such categories. Other variations include: * [[Strong agnosticism]] (also called hard agnosticism, closed agnosticism, strict agnosticism, absolute agnosticism)—the view that the question of the existence of deities is unknowable by nature or that human beings are ill-equipped to judge the evidence. * [[Weak agnosticism]] (also called soft agnosticism, open agnosticism, empirical agnosticism, temporal agnosticism)—the view that the existence or nonexistence of God or gods is currently unknown but isn't necessarily unknowable, therefore one will withhold judgment until more evidence is available. * [[Apathetic agnosticism]]—the view that there is no proof either of God's existence or nonexistence, but since God (if there is one) appears unconcerned for the universe or the welfare of its inhabitants, the question is largely academic. * [[Ignosticism]]—the view that the concept of God as a being is meaningless because it has no verifiable consequences, therefore it cannot be usefully discussed as having existence or nonexistence. See [[scientific method]]. * Model agnosticism—the view that philosophical and metaphysical questions are not ultimately verifiable but that a model of malleable assumption should be built upon rational thought. This branch of agnosticism does not focus on a deity's existence. * [[Agnostic theism]]—the view of those who do not claim to ''know'' God's existence, but still ''believe'' in his existence. (''See [[Epistemology#Knowledge_and_belief|Knowledge Vs Beliefs]]'') Whether this is truly agnosticism is disputed. It may also imply the belief that although there is something that resembles (or would at least appear to us as) a god (or gods,) there remains doubt over their true nature, motives, or the validity of the claim to be 'God' rather than superior, supernatural being(s). * [[Agnostic spiritualism]]—the view that there may or may not be a god (or gods,) while maintaining a general personal belief in a spiritual aspect of reality, particularly without distinct religious basis, or adherence to any established doctrine or dogma. * [[Agnostic atheism]]—the view that God may or may not exist, but that his non-existence is more likely. Some agnostic atheists would at least partially base their beliefs on [[Occam's Razor]]. ==Some philosophical opinions== Among the most famous agnostics (in the original sense) have been [[Robert G. Ingersoll]], [[Thomas Henry Huxley]], and [[Charles Darwin]]. Some have argued from the works of [[David Hume]], especially ''Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion'', that he was an agnostic, but this remains subject to debate. ===Thomas Henry Huxley=== Agnostic views are as old as [[philosophical skepticism]], but the terms agnostic and agnosticism were created by Huxley to sum up his thoughts on contemporary developments of metaphysics about the "unconditioned" (Hamilton) and the "unknowable" ([[Herbert Spencer]]). It is important, therefore, to discover Huxley's own views on the matter. Though Huxley began to use the term "agnostic" in 1869, his opinions had taken shape some time before that date. In a letter of September 23, 1860, to Charles Kingsley, Huxley discussed his views extensively: :I neither affirm nor deny the immortality of man. I see no reason for believing it, but, on the other hand, I have no means of disproving it. I have no ''[[a priori]]'' objections to the doctrine. No man who has to deal daily and hourly with nature can trouble himself about ''a priori'' difficulties. Give me such evidence as would justify me in believing in anything else, and I will believe that. Why should I not? It is not half so wonderful as the conservation of force or the indestructibility of matter. . . . :It is no use to talk to me of analogies and probabilities. I know what I mean when I say I believe in the law of the inverse squares, and I will not rest my life and my hopes upon weaker convictions. . . . :That my personality is the surest thing I know may be true. But the attempt to conceive what it is leads me into mere verbal subtleties. I have champed up all that chaff about the ego and the non-ego, noumena and phenomena, and all the rest of it, too often not to know that in attempting even to think of these questions, the human intellect flounders at once out of its depth. And again, to the same correspondent, [[May 6]], [[1863]]: :I have never had the least sympathy with the ''a priori'' reasons against [[orthodoxy]], and I have by nature and disposition the greatest possible antipathy to all the atheistic and [[infidel]] school. Nevertheless I know that I am, in spite of myself, exactly what the [[Christian]] would call, and, so far as I can see, is justified in calling, atheist and infidel. I cannot see one shadow or tittle of evidence that the great unknown underlying the phenomenon of the universe stands to us in the relation of a Father [who] loves us and cares for us as Christianity asserts. So with regard to the other great Christian dogmas, immortality of soul and future state of rewards and punishments, what possible objection can I&mdash;who am compelled perforce to believe in the immortality of what we call Matter and Force, and in a very unmistakable present state of rewards and punishments for our deeds&mdash;have to these doctrines? Give me a scintilla of evidence, and I am ready to jump at them. Of the origin of the name agnostic to describe this attitude, Huxley gave (Coll. Ess. v. pp. 237-239) the following account: :So I took thought, and invented what I conceived to be the appropriate title of "agnostic." It came into my head as suggestively antithetic to the "gnostic" of Church history, who professed to know so much about the very things of which I was ignorant. To my great satisfaction the term took. Huxley's agnosticism is believed to be a natural consequence of the intellectual and philosophical conditions of the [[1860]]s, when clerical intolerance was trying to suppress scientific discoveries which appeared to clash with a literal reading of the [[Book of Genesis]] and other established [[Jewish]] and Christian doctrines. Agnosticism should not, however, be confused with [[natural theology]], [[deism]], [[pantheism]], or other science positive forms of [[theism]]. By way of clarification, Huxley states, "In matters of the intellect, follow your reason as far as it will take you, without regard to any other consideration. And negatively: In matters of the intellect, do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable" (Huxley, ''Agnosticism'', 1889). While A. W. Momerie has noted that this is nothing but a definition of [[honesty]], Huxley's usual definition goes beyond mere honesty to insist that these metaphysical issues are fundamentally unknowable. ===Bertrand Russell=== [[Bertrand Russell]]'s [[pamphlet]], ''Why I Am Not a Christian,'' based on a speech delivered in 1927 and later included in a book of the same title, is considered a classic statement of agnosticism. The essay briefly lays out Russell&#8217;s objections to some of the [[arguments for the existence of God]] before discussing his moral objections to Christian teachings. He then calls upon his readers to "stand on their own two feet and look fair and square at the world," with a "fearless attitude and a free intelligence." In 1939, Russell gave a lecture on ''The existence and nature of God'', in which he characterised himself as an agnostic. He said: :The existence and nature of God is a subject of which I can discuss only half. If one arrives at a negative conclusion concerning the first part of the question, the second part of the question does not arise; and my position, as you may have gathered, is a negative one on this matter. (Collected Papers, Vol 10, p.255) However, later in the same lecture, discussing modern non-anthropomorphic concepts of God, Russell states: :That sort of God is, I think, not one that can actually be disproved, as I think the omnipotent and benevolent creator can. (p.258) In Russell's 1947 pamphlet, ''Am I An Atheist Or An Agnostic?'' (subtitled ''A Plea For Tolerance In The Face Of New Dogmas''), he ruminates on the problem of what to call himself: :As a philosopher, if I were speaking to a purely philosophic audience I should say that I ought to describe myself as an Agnostic, because I do not think that there is a conclusive argument by which one prove that there is not a God. :On the other hand, if I am to convey the right impression to the ordinary man in the street I think I ought to say that I am an Atheist, because when I say that I cannot prove that there is not a God, I ought to add equally that I cannot prove that there are not the Homeric gods. In his 1953 essay, ''What Is An Agnostic?'' Russell states: :An agnostic thinks it impossible to know the truth in matters such as God and the future life with which Christianity and other religions are concerned. Or, if not impossible, at least impossible at the present time. However, later in the essay, Russell says: :I think that if I heard a voice from the sky predicting all that was going to happen to me during the next twenty-four hours, including events that would have seemed highly improbable, and if all these events then produced to happen, I might perhaps be convinced at least of the existence of some superhuman intelligence. He didn't say "supreme" or "supernatural" intelligence: these terms are metaphysically loaded. For Russell, then, agnosticism doesn't necessarily assert that it is ''in principle'' impossible to know whether or not there is a God. Moreover, "An Agnostic may think the Christian God as improbable as the Olympians; in that case, he is, for practical purposes, at one with the atheists." ===Logical positivism=== [[logical positivism|Logical positivists]], such as [[Rudolph Carnap]] and [[A. J. Ayer]], are sometimes thought to be agnostic. Using arguments reminiscent of [[Wittgenstein]]&#8217;s famous "Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent," they viewed any talk of god(s) as literally [[nonsense]]. For the logical positivists and adherents of similar schools of thought, statements about religious or other transcendent experiences could not have a truth value and were deemed to be without meaning. But this includes all utterances about god(s), ''even'' those agnostic statements that deny knowledge of God(s) are possible. In ''Language, Truth and Logic'' Ayer explicitly rejects agnosticism on the grounds that an agnostic, despite claiming that knowledge of god(s) are not possible, nevertheless holds that statements about god(s) have meaning. This position, however, is valid only in the case of agnostics who define their agnosticism in this fashion. ''[[Ignosticism|Ignostics]]'' define agnosticism in a manner consistent with the logical positivist view, holding theism to be ''incoherent.'' ==References== * ''Collected Essays'', Thomas Huxley, ISBN 1855069229 * ''Man's Place In Nature'', Thomas Huxley, ISBN 037575847X * ''Why I Am Not a Christian'', Bertrand Russell, ISBN 0671203231 * ''Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion'', David Hume, ISBN 0140445366 * ''Language, Truth, and Logic'', A.J. Ayer, ISBN 0486200108 ==See also== * [[List of agnostics]] * [[Religious freedom]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * {{gutenberg author| id=R.+G.+Ingersoll | name=Robert G. Ingersoll}} * [http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/humftp/E-text/Russell/agnostic.htm What Is An Agnostic?] by Bertrand Russell, [1953]. * [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-03 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Agnosticism * [http://www.iidb.org/vbb/index.php The Internet Infidels Discussion Forums''(Worldwide)'' ] * [http://www.infidels.org/index.shtml The Secular Web] * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atheism-agnosticism/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry] * [http://www.religioustolerance.org/agnostic.htm Religious Tolerance.org - Agnosticism] * [http://www.allaboutphilosophy.org/agnostic.htm Agnostic] * [http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/CE5/Agn-X.html "Agnosticism and Christianity" (1899)] by T. H. Huxley * [http://www.agnosis.org AGNOSIS: The History & Future of Agnosticism] {{Philosophy navigation}} [[Category:Agnosticism|*]] [[ar:لاأدرية]] [[bg:Агностицизъм]] [[ca:Agnosticisme]] [[cs:Agnosticismus]] [[da:Agnosticisme]] [[de:Agnostizismus]] [[et:Agnostitsism]] [[el:Αγνωστικισμός]] [[es:Agnosticismo]] [[eo:Agnostikismo]] [[fr:Agnosticisme]] [[gd:Adhbharachais]] [[id:Agnostisisme]] [[ia:Agnosticismo]] [[it:Agnosticismo]] [[he:אגנוסטיות]] [[jv:Agnostisisme]] [[ka:აგნოსტიციზმი]] [[lb:Agnostizismus]] [[hu:Agnoszticizmus]] [[nl:Agnosticisme]] [[ja:不可知論]] [[no:Agnostisisme]] [[pl:Agnostycyzm]] [[pt:Agnosticismo]] [[ro:Agnosticism]] [[ru:Агностицизм]] [[sh:Agnosticizam]] [[simple:Agnosticism]] [[sl:Agnosticizem]] [[sr:Агностицизам]] [[fi:Agnostismi]] [[sv:Agnosticism]] [[tr:Agnostisizm]] [[zh:不可知论]] 895 20455286 2005-08-07T04:53:53Z Tregoweth 7402 reinstating #REDIRECT [[Aluminium]] #REDIRECT [[Aluminium]] 896 41913727 2006-03-02T16:05:01Z Edgar181 491706 Revert to revision 41866142 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] {{this|a chemical element|Argon (disambiguation)}} {{Elementbox_header | number=18 | symbol=Ar | name=argon | left=[[chlorine]] | right=[[potassium]] | above=[[neon|Ne]] | below=[[krypton|Kr]] | color1=#c0ffff | color2=green }} {{Elementbox_series | [[noble gas]]es }} {{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=18 | period=3 | block=p }} {{Elementbox_appearance_img | Ar,18| colorless }} {{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-26 kg|39.948]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(1)]] }} {{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[neon|Ne]]&#93; 3s<sup>2</sup> 3p<sup>6</sup> }} {{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 8 }} {{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#c0ffff | color2=green }} {{Elementbox_phase | [[gas]] }} {{Elementbox_density_gplstp | 1.784 }} {{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=83.80 | c=-189.35 | f=-308.83 }} {{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=87.30 | c=-185.85 | f=-302.53 }} {{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 1.18 }} {{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 6.43 }} {{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 20.786 }} {{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | &nbsp; | 47 | 53 | 61 | 71 | 87 | comment= }} {{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#c0ffff | color2=green }} {{Elementbox_crystalstruct | cubic face centered }} {{Elementbox_oxistates | 0 }} {{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | no data }} {{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 1520.6 | 2665.8 | 3931 }} {{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-11 m|71]] }} {{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-11 m|71]] }} {{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-11 m|97]] }} {{Elementbox_vanderwaalsrad_pm | [[1 E-10 m|188]] }} {{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#c0ffff | color2=green }} {{Elementbox_magnetic | nonmagnetic }} {{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 17.72 m}} {{Elementbox_speedofsound_mps | (gas, 27 °C) 323 }} {{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-37-1 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=argon | color1=#c0ffff | color2=green }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=36 | sym=Ar | na=0.337% | n=18 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=37 | sym=Ar | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=35 [[day|d]] | dm=[[Electron capture|&epsilon;]] | de=? | pn=37 | ps=[[chlorine|Cl]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=38 | sym=Ar | na=0.063% | n=20 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=39 | sym=Ar | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E9 s|269]] [[year|y]] | dm=[[beta emission|&beta;<sup>-</sup>]] | de=0.565 | pn=39 | ps=[[potassium|K]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=40 | sym=Ar | na=99.600% | n=22 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=42 | sym=Ar | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=32.9 [[year|y]] | dm=&beta;<sup>-</sup> | de=0.600 | pn=42 | ps=[[potassium|K]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_end}} {{Elementbox_footer | color1=#c0ffff | color2=green }} '''Argon''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]]. It has the symbol '''Ar''' and [[atomic number]] 18. The third [[noble gas]], in group 18, argon makes up about 1% of the [[Earth's atmosphere]], making it the most common noble gas on Earth. == Notable characteristics == Argon is 2.5 times as [[solubility|soluble]] in water as [[nitrogen]] which is approximately the same solubility as [[oxygen]]. This highly stable chemical element is colorless and odorless in both its liquid and gaseous forms. There are few known true chemical compounds that contain argon, which is one of the reasons it was formerly called an inert gas. The creation of argon hydrofluoride (HArF), a highly unstable compound of argon with [[fluorine]], was reported by researchers at the [[University of Helsinki]] in 2000, but has not been confirmed as of yet. Although no ''chemical'' compounds of argon are presently confirmed, argon can form [[clathrates]] with [[water (molecule)|water]] when atoms of it are trapped in a lattice of the water molecules. Theoretical calculations on computers have shown several Argon compounds that should be stable but for which no synthesis routes are currently known. == Applications == It is used in lighting since it will not react with the filament in a [[lightbulb]] even under high temperatures and other cases where diatomic nitrogen is an unsuitable (semi-)[[inert]] gas. Other uses; *Argon is used as an inert gas shield in many forms of [[welding]], including [[metal inert gas welding|mig]] and [[Tungsten inert gas welding|tig]] (where the "'''I'''" stands for [[inert]]). *as a non-reactive blanket in the manufacture of [[titanium]] and other reactive elements. *as a protective atmosphere for growing [[silicon]] and [[germanium]] [[crystal]]s. *as a gas for use in [[plasma globe | plasma globes]]. *as a gas for use in energy efficient [[window]]s. *Argon-39 has been used for a number of applications, primarily [[ice core|ice coring]]. It has also been used for [[ground water]] dating. *[[Cryosurgery]] procedures such as [[cryoablation]] uses liquefied argon to destroy [[cancer]] cells. Argon is also used in technical [[SCUBA]] diving to inflate the dry suit, because it is inert and has low thermal conductivity. == History == Argon ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''argos'' meaning "inactive") was suspected to be present in air by [[Henry Cavendish]] in [[1785]] but was not discovered until [[1894]] by [[John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh|Lord Rayleigh]] and Sir [[William Ramsay]]. == Occurrence == This gas is isolated through liquid air fractionation since the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] contains only 0.934% volume of argon (1.29% mass). The [[Mars (planet)|Martian]] atmosphere in contrast contains 1.6% of Ar-40 and 5 [[part per million|ppm]] Ar-36. In 2005, the ''[[Cassini-Huygens|Huygens]]'' probe also discovered the presence of Ar-40 on [[Titan (moon)|Titan]], the largest moon of [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]] [http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMHB881Y3E_index_0.html]. == Compounds == Before 1962, argon and the other noble gases were generally considered to be chemically inert and not able to form compounds. However, since then, scientists have been able to force the heavier noble gases to form compounds. In 2000, the first argon compounds were formed by researchers at the [[University of Helsinki]]. By shining ultraviolet light onto frozen argon containing a small amount of hydrogen fluoride, they were able to form argon hydrofluoride (HArF): see http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/noblegases.html in its paragraph starting "''Many recent findings''". It is stable up to 40°[[kelvin|K]]. == Isotopes == The main [[isotope]]s of argon found on Earth are Ar-40, Ar-36, and Ar-38. Naturally occurring [[potassium|K]]-40 with a [[half-life]] of 1.250 x 10<sup>9</sup> years, decays to stable Ar-40 (11.2%) by [[electron capture]] and by [[positron emission]], and also transforms to stable Ca-40 (88.8%) via [[beta decay]]. These properties and ratios are used to determine the age of [[Rock (geology)|rock]]s. In the Earth's atmosphere, Ar-39 is made by [[cosmic ray]] activity, primarily with Ar-40. In the subsurface environment, it is also produced through [[neutron capture]] by K-39 or [[alpha decay|alpha emission]] by [[calcium]]. Argon-37 is created from the decay of calcium-40 as a result of subsurface [[nuclear testing|nuclear explosions]]. It has a half-life of 35 days. ==References== *[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/18.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Argon] == External links == {{Commons|Argon}} *[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ar/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Argon] *Diving applications: [http://www.decompression.org/maiken/Why_Argon.htm Why Argon?] *[http://www.uigi.com/argon.html Argon Ar Properties, Uses, Applications] *[http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Argon Computational Chemistry Wiki] [[Category:Chemical elements]] [[Category:Noble gases]] [[af:Argon]] [[ar:أرغون (عنصر)]] [[bg:Аргон]] [[bs:Argon]] [[ca:Argó]] [[cs:Argon]] [[cy:Argon]] [[da:Argon]] [[de:Argon]] [[et:Argoon]] [[es:Argón]] [[eo:Argono]] [[fr:Argon]] [[ko:아르곤]] [[hr:Argon]] [[io:Argono]] [[id:Argon]] [[is:Argon]] [[it:Argon]] [[he:ארגון (יסוד)]] [[lv:Argons]] [[lt:Argonas]] [[hu:Argon]] [[mi:Argon]] [[ms:Argon]] [[nl:Argon]] [[ja:アルゴン]] [[no:Argon]] [[nn:Argon]] [[oc:Argon]] [[pl:Argon]] [[pt:Argon]] [[ru:Аргон]] [[sh:Argon]] [[simple:Argon]] [[sl:Argon]] [[sr:Аргон]] [[fi:Argon]] [[sv:Argon]] [[th:อาร์กอน]] [[uk:Аргон]] [[vi:Agon]] [[zh:氩]] 897 42000482 2006-03-03T03:30:18Z Viriditas 101805 Revert to revision 41605710 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] {{Elementbox_header | number=33 | symbol=As | name=arsenic | left=[[germanium]] | right=[[selenium]] | above=[[phosphorus|P]] | below=[[antimony|Sb]] | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_series | [[metalloid]]s }} {{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=15 | period=4 | block=p }} {{Elementbox_appearance_img | As,33| metallic gray }} {{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|74.92160]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(2)]] }} {{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[argon|Ar]]&#93; 3d<sup>10</sup> 4s<sup>2</sup> 4p<sup>3</sup> }} {{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 5 }} {{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }} {{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 5.727 }} {{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 5.22 }} {{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=1090 | c=817 | f=1503 }} {{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=[[sublimation (physics)|subl.]] 887 | c=614 | f=1137 }} {{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | (gray) 24.44 }} {{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | ? 34.76 }} {{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 24.64 }} {{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 553 | 596 | 646 | 706 | 781 | 874 | comment= }} {{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_crystalstruct | rhombohedral }} {{Elementbox_oxistates | ±'''3''', 5<br />(mildly [[acid]]ic oxide) }} {{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 2.18 }} {{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 947.0 | 1798 | 2735 }} {{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|115]] }} {{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|114]] }} {{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|119]] }} {{Elementbox_vanderwaalsrad_pm | [[1 E-10 m|185]] }} {{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }} {{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 333 n}} {{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 50.2 }} {{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 8 }} {{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 22 }} {{Elementbox_mohshardness | 3.5 }} {{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 1440 }} {{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-38-2 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=arsenic | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=73 | sym=As | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E6 s|80.3]] [[day|d]] | dm1=[[electron capture|ε]] | de1=- | pn1=73 | ps1=[[germanium|Ge]] | dm2=[[Gamma radiation|γ]] | de2=0.05[[Delayed nuclear radiation|D]], 0.01D, [[Conversion electron|e]] | pn2= | ps2=- }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay4 | mn=74 | sym=As | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E6 s|17.78]] d | dm1=ε | de1=- | pn1=74 | ps1=[[germanium|Ge]] | dm2=[[Positron emission|β<sup>+</sup>]] | de2=0.941 | pn2=74 | ps2=[[germanium|Ge]] | dm3=γ | de3=0.595, 0.634 | pn3= | ps3=- | dm4=[[beta decay|β<sup>-</sup>]] | de4=1.35, 0.717 | pn4=74 | ps4=[[selenium|Se]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=75 | sym=As | na=100% | n=42 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_end}} {{Elementbox_footer | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }} '''Arsenic''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''As''' and [[atomic number]] 33. This is a notoriously poisonous [[metalloid]] that has three [[allotropy|allotropic]] forms; yellow, black and grey. Arsenic and its compounds are used as [[pesticides]], [[herbicide]]s, [[insecticide]]s and various [[alloy]]s. == Notable characteristics == Arsenic is very similar chemically to its predecessor [[phosphorus]], so much so that it will partly substitute for [[phosphorus]] in biochemical reactions and is thus [[poison]]ous. When heated it rapidly [[oxidation|oxidizes]] to [[arsenic trioxide]], which has a garlic odor. Arsenic and some arsenic compounds can also [[sublimation (chemistry)|sublime]] upon heating, converting directly to a gaseous form. Elemental arsenic is found in two solid forms: yellow and gray/metallic, with [[specific gravity|specific gravities]] of 1.97 and 5.73, respectively. == Applications == [[Lead hydrogen arsenate]] has been used, well into the [[20th century]], as an [[insecticide]] on [[fruit tree]]s (resulting in [[neurological damage]] to those working the sprayers), and [[Scheele's Green]] has even been recorded in the [[19th century]] as a [[food dye|coloring agent]] in [[sweets]]. In the last half century, [[monosodium methyl arsenate]] (MSMA), a less toxic organic form of arsenic, has replaced lead arsenate's role in agriculture. The application of most concern to the general public is probably that of [[wood]] which has been treated with [[chromated copper arsenate]] ("CCA", or "[[Tanalith]]", and the vast majority of older "[[lumber#Preservatives|pressure treated]]" wood). CCA timber is still in widespread use in many countries, and was heavily used during the latter half of the [[20th century]] as a structural, and outdoor [[building material]], where there was a risk of [[rot]], or [[insect]] infestation in untreated timber. Although widespread bans followed the publication of studies which showed low-level leaching from in-situ timbers (such as children's [[playground]] equipment) into surrounding [[soil]], the most serious risk is presented by the burning of CCA timber. Recent years have seen fatal animal poisonings, and serious human poisonings resulting from the ingestion - directly or indirectly - of wood ash from CCA timber (the lethal human dose is approximately 20 grams of ash - roughly a tablespoon). Scrap CCA construction timber continues to be widely burnt through ignorance, in both commercial, and domestic fires. Safe disposal of CCA timber remains patchy, and little practiced, there is concern in some quarters about the widespread [[landfill]] disposal of such timber. During the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, a number of arsenic compounds have been used as medicines, including [[arsphenamine]] (by [[Paul Ehrlich]]) and [[arsenic trioxide]] (by Thomas Fowler). Arsphenamine as well as [[Neosalvarsan]] was indicated for [[syphilis]] and [[trypanosomiasis]], but has been superseded by modern [[antibiotics]]. Arsenic trioxide has been used in a variety of ways over the past 200 years, but most commonly in the treatment of cancer. The [[FDA]] in 2000 approved this compound for the treatment of patients with [[acute promyelocytic leukemia]] that is resistant to [[all-trans retinoic acid|ATRA]].{{an|ArsTriChemo}} But arsenic isn't always good for [[cancer]]. Some studies show that if you use arsenic you have a high risk for cancer. Copper acetoarsenite was used as a green [[pigment]] known under many different names, including [[Paris Green]] and Emerald Green. It caused numerous [[arsenic poisoning]]s. Other uses; * Various [[agriculture|agricultural]] insecticides and poisons. * [[Gallium arsenide]] is an important [[semiconductor]] material, used in [[integrated circuit]]s. Circuits made using the compound are much faster (but also much more expensive) than those made in [[silicon]]. Unlike silicon it is [[direct bandgap]], and so can be used in [[laser diode]]s and [[LED]]s to directly convert [[electricity]] into [[light]]. * Arsenic trioxide is used in [[Australia]] for treating [[termite]] infestations in houses. * Also used in [[bronzing]] and [[pyrotechny]]. == History == The word ''arsenic'' is borrowed from the [[Persian language|Persian]] word زرنيخ ''Zarnikh'' meaning "yellow [[orpiment]]". ''Zarnikh'' was borrowed by [[Greek language|Greek]] as ''arsenikon''. Arsenic has been known and used in [[Iran|Persia]] and elsewhere since ancient times. As the symptoms of [[arsenic poisoning]] were somewhat ill-defined, it was frequently used for [[murder]] until the advent of the [[Marsh test]], a sensitive chemical test for its presence. (Another less sensitive but more general test is the [[Reinsch test]].) Due to its use by the ruling class to bump each other off and its incredible potency and discreetness, arsenic has been called the ''Poison of Kings and the King of Poisons''. During the Bronze Age, arsenic was often included in the bronze (mostly as an impurity), which made the alloy harder. [[Albertus Magnus]] is believed to have been the first to isolate the element in [[1250]]. In [[1649]] [[Johann Schroeder]] published two ways of preparing arsenic. [[image:arsenic-symbol.png|75px|right|Alchemical symbol for arsenic]]The [[alchemy|alchemical]] symbol for arsenic is shown opposite. In Victorian times, arsenic was mixed with [[vinegar]] and [[chalk]] and eaten by women to improve the [[complexion]] of their faces, making their skin more fair to show they did not work in the fields. Arsenic was also rubbed into the faces and arms of women to improve their complexion. There is a massive epidemic of arsenic poisoning in [[Bangladesh]]{{an|bangladesh}}, where it is estimated that approximately 57 million people are drinking [[groundwater]] with arsenic concentrations elevated above the [[World Health Organization]]'s standard of 50 [[Concentration#.22Parts-per.22 Notation|parts per billion]]. The arsenic in the groundwater is of natural origin, and is released from the sediment into the groundwater due to the anoxic conditions of the subsurface. This groundwater began to be used after western [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]s instigated a massive tube [[Water well|well]] drinking-water program in the late [[twentieth century]]. This program was designed to prevent drinking of bacterially-contaminated surface waters, but unfortunately failed to test for arsenic in the groundwater.(2) Many other countries in [[Southeast Asia|South East Asia]], such as [[Vietnam]], [[Cambodia]], and [[Tibet]], are thought to have geological environments similarly conducive to generation of high-arsenic groundwaters. == Occurrence == [[Image:Native arsenic.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Massive native arsenic]] [[Arsenopyrite]] also called mispickel ([[iron|Fe]][[sulfur|S]]As) is the most common [[mineral]] from which, on heating, the arsenic sublimes leaving ferrous sulfide. Other arsenic minerals include [[realgar]], [[mimetite]], [[cobaltite]] and [[erythrite]]. The most important compounds of arsenic are [[white arsenic]], its [[arsenic sulfide|sulfide]], [[Paris Green]], [[calcium arsenate]], and [[lead hydrogen arsenate]]. Paris Green, calcium arsenate, and lead arsenate have been used as [[agriculture|agricultural]] [[insecticide]]s and [[poison]]s. It is sometimes found native, but usually combined with [[silver]], [[cobalt]], [[nickel]], [[iron]], [[antimony]], or [[sulfur]]. In addition to the inorganic forms mentioned above, arsenic also occurs in various organic forms in the environment. Inorganic arsenic and its compounds, upon entering the [[food chain]], are progressively metabolised to a less toxic form of arsenic through a process of [[methylation]]. == Precautions == Arsenic and many of its compounds are especially potent poisons. Arsenic kills by [[allosteric inhibition]] of the metabolic [[enzyme]] [[lipothiamide pyrophosphate]], leading to death from multi-system [[organ failure]]. See [[arsenic poisoning]]. Arsenic and its compounds inhibit the , which is an important enzyme of metabolism. The [[post mortem]] reveals brick red colored [[mucosa]], due to severe [[haemorrhage]]. Elemental arsenic and arsenic compounds are classified as '''''[[toxic]]''''' and '''''dangerous for the environment''''' in the [[European Union]] under [[directive 67/548/EEC]]. <!-- INDEX 033-001-00-X (arsenic) R23/25-50/53; S1/2-20/21-28-45-60-61 --> <!-- INDEX 033-002-00-5 (other compounds) pareil --> The [[IARC]] recognizes arsenic and arsenic compounds as [[List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens|group 1 carcinogens]], and the EU lists [[arsenic trioxide]], [[arsenic pentoxide]] and [[arsenate]] salts as category 1 [[carcinogen]]s. Growing the [[Brake (fern)]] [[Pteris vittata]] will remove arsenic from the soil. == See also == * [[Aqua Tofana]] * [[Fowler's solution]] * [[Arsenicosis]] == Compounds == *[[Arsenic acid]] (H<sub>3</sub>AsO<sub>4</sub>) *[[Arsenous acid]] (H<sub>3</sub>AsO<sub>3</sub>) *[[Arsenic trioxide]] (As<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) *[[Arsine]] (Arsenic Trihydride AsH<sub>3</sub>) *[[Cadmium arsenide]] (Cd<sub>3</sub>As<sub>2</sub>) *[[Gallium arsenide]] (GaAs) *[[Lead hydrogen arsenate]] (PbHAsO<sub>4</sub>) ;See also [[:Category:Arsenic compounds]] == References == * [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/33.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Arsenic] == Endnotes == # {{anb|ArsTriChemo}} Antman, Karen H. (2001). [http://theoncologist.alphamedpress.org/cgi/content/full/6/suppl_2/1 The History of Arsenic Trioxide in Cancer Therapy]. Introduction to a supplement to ''The Oncologist''. '''6''' (Suppl 2), 1-2. PMID 11331433. # {{anb|bangladesh}} Andrew Meharg, Venomous Earth - How Arsenic Caused The World's Worst Mass Poisoning, [http://www.macmillanscience.com/1403944997.htm Macmillan Science], 2005. == External links == {{Commons|Arsenic}} {{wiktionary}} *[http://www.asmalldoseof.org/ A Small Dose of Toxicology] * [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HEC/CSEM/arsenic/ Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Arsenic Toxicity] * [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/11.html National Pollutant Inventory - Arsenic] * [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/As/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Arsenic] * [http://www.origen.net/arsenic.html origen.net &ndash; CCA wood and arsenic: toxicological effects of arsenic] * [http://www.clu-in.org/contaminantfocus/default.focus/sec/arsenic/cat/Overview/ Contaminant Focus: Arsenic] by the [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]]. * [http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc224.htm Environmental Health Criteria for Arsenic and Arsenic Compounds, 2001] by the [[World Health Organization|WHO]]. * [http://www.greenfacts.org/arsenic/arsenic-1.htm A summary of the above report] by [[GreenFacts]]. * [http://www-cie.iarc.fr/htdocs/monographs/vol23/arsenic.html Evaluation of the carcinogenicity of arsenic and arsenic compounds] by the [[IARC]]. [[Category:Metalloids]] [[Category:Pnictogens]] [[category:Toxicology]] [[Category:Chemical elements]] {{Link FA|de}} {{Link FA|id}} [[ar:زرنيخ]] [[bg:Арсен]] [[bs:Arsen]] [[ca:Arsènic]] [[cs:Arsen]] [[cy:Arsenig]] [[da:Arsen]] [[de:Arsen]] [[et:Arseen]] [[es:Arsénico]] [[eo:Arseno]] [[fa:آرسنیک]] [[fr:Arsenic]] [[ko:비소]] [[io:Arseno]] [[id:Arsenik]] [[is:Arsen]] [[it:Arsenico]] [[he:ארסן]] [[lv:Arsēns]] [[lt:Arsenas]] [[hu:Arzén]] [[nl:Arsenicum]] [[ja:ヒ素]] [[no:Arsen]] [[nn:Arsen]] [[oc:Arsenic]] [[pl:Arsen]] [[pt:Arsênio]] [[ru:Мышьяк]] [[sc:Arsènicu]] [[sl:Arzen]] [[sr:Арсен]] [[fi:Arseeni]] [[sv:Arsenik]] [[th:สารหนู]] [[uk:Арсен]] [[zh:砷]] 898 41659149 2006-02-28T21:45:26Z Hairy Dude 274535 {{distinguish2}} replacing ad hoc disambig notice {{distinguish2|[[antinomy|anti'''n'''o'''m'''y]], a type of [[paradox]]}} {{Elementbox_header | number=51 | symbol=Sb | name=antimony | left=[[tin]] | right=[[tellurium]] | above=[[arsenic|As]] | below=[[bismuth|Bi]] | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_series | [[metalloid]]s }} {{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=15 | period=5 | block=p }} {{Elementbox_appearance_img | Sb,51| silvery lustrous grey }} {{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|121.760]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(1)]] }} {{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[krypton|Kr]]&#93; 4d<sup>10</sup> 5s<sup>2</sup> 5p<sup>3</sup> }} {{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 18, 5 }} {{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }} {{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 6.697 }} {{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 6.53 }} {{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=903.78 | c=630.63 | f=1167.13 }} {{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=1860 | c=1587 | f=2889 }} {{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 19.79 }} {{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 193.43 }} {{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 25.23 }} {{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 807 | 876 | 1011 | 1219 | 1491 | 1858 | comment= }} {{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_crystalstruct | rhombohedral }} {{Elementbox_oxistates | &minus;3, '''3''', 5 }} {{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 2.05 }} {{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 834 | 1594.9 | 2440 }} {{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|145]] }} {{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|133]] }} {{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|138]] }} {{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }} {{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 417 n}} {{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 24.4 }} {{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 | 11.0 }} {{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 3420 }} {{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 55 }} {{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 20 }} {{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 42 }} {{Elementbox_mohshardness | 3.0 }} {{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 294 }} {{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-36-0 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=antimony | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=121 | sym=Sb | na=57.36% | n=70 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=123 | sym=Sb | na=42.64% | n=72 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=125 | sym=Sb | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=2.7582 [[year|y]] | dm=[[beta emission|Beta<sup>-</sup>]] | de=0.767 | pn=125 | ps=[[tellurium|Te]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_end}} {{Elementbox_footer | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }} '''Antimony''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Sb''' ([[Latin (language)|L.]] ''Stibium'') and [[atomic number]] 51. A [[metalloid]], antimony has four allotropic forms. The stable form of antimony is a blue-white metal. Yellow and black antimony are unstable non-metals. Antimony is used in flame-proofing, [[paint]]s, [[ceramic]]s, [[Vitreous enamel|enamel]]s, a wide variety of [[alloy]]s, [[electronics]], and [[rubber]]. == Notable characteristics == Antimony in its elemental form is a silvery white, [[brittle]], [[fusibility|fusible]], [[crystal|crystalline]] solid that exhibits poor electrical and heat [[conductivity]] properties and [[vaporize]]s at low [[temperature]]s. A [[metalloid]], antimony resembles a metal in its appearance and physical properties, but does not chemically react as a metal. It is also attacked by [[oxidation|oxidizing]] [[acid]]s and [[halogen]]s. Antimony and some of its alloys expand on cooling. Estimates of the abundance of antimony in the [[Earth]]'s crust range from 0.2 to 0.5 [[part per million|ppm]]. Antimony is geochemically categorized as a [[chalcophile]], occurring with [[sulfur]] and the [[heavy metals]] [[lead]], [[copper]], and [[silver]]. == Applications == Antimony is increasingly being used in the [[semiconductor]] industry in the production of [[diode]]s, [[infrared]] detectors, and [[Hall effect|Hall-effect]] devices. As an [[alloy]], this semi-metal greatly increases [[lead]]'s hardness and mechanical strength. The most important use of antimony metal is as a hardener in lead for storage batteries. Other uses; *[[Battery (electricity)|Batteries]], *antifriction alloys, *type metal, *small arms and tracer bullets, *cable sheathing, *matches, *medicines, *plumbing ("lead-free" solder contains 5% Sb), *main and big-end bearings in [[internal combustion engine]]s (as alloy). *used in the past to treat [[Schistosomiasis]], nowadays [[Praziquantel]] is universally used. Antimony compounds in the form of [[oxide]]s, [[sulfide]]s, sodium antimonate, and antimony trichloride are used in the making of flame-proofing compounds, [[ceramic]] enamels, [[glass]], [[paint]]s, and [[pottery]]. Antimony trioxide is the most important of the antimony compounds and is primarily used in flame-retardant formulations. These flame-retardant applications include such markets as children's clothing, toys, aircraft and automobile seat covers. Also, antimony sulfide is one of the ingredients of a modern match. == History == Antimony was recognized in antiquity ([[4th_millennium_BC|3000 BC]] or earlier) in various compounds, and it was prized for its fine [[casting]] qualities. It was first reported scientifically by [[Tholden]] in [[1450]], and was known to be a metal by the beginning of the [[17th century]]. The origin of the name "antimony" is not clear; the term may come from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words "anti" and "monos", which approximately means "opposed to solitude" as it was thought never to exist in its pure form, or from the [[Egyptian mythology|Pharaonic]] expression "Antos Amun", which could be translated as "bloom of the god [[Amun]]". [[image:antimony-symbol.png|frame|left|80px|Alchemical symbol for antimony]] The natural sulfide of antimony, [[stibnite]], was known and used in Biblical times as [[medicine]] and as a [[Cosmetics|cosmetic]]. Stibnite is still used in some developing countries as [[medicine]]. Antimony has been used for the treatment of [[schistosomiasis]]. Antimony attaches itself to [[sulfur]] atoms in certain [[enzyme]]s which are used both by the parasite and human host. Small doses can kill the parasite without causing damage to the patient. Antimony and its compounds are used in several[[ veterinary]] preparations like Anthiomaline or Lithium antimony thiomalate, which is used as a skin conditioner in ruminants. Antimony has a nourishing or conditioning effect on keratinized tissues, at least in animals. Tartar emetic is another antimony preparation which is used as an anti-schistosomal drug. The relationship between antimony's modern name and its symbol is complex; the [[Coptic language|Coptic]] name for the cosmetic powder antimony sulfide was borrowed by the [[Greece|Greeks]], which was in turn borrowed by [[Latin]], resulting in ''stibium''. The chemical pioneer [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]] used an abbreviation of this name for antimony in his writings, and his usage became the standard symbol. Treatments chiefly involving antimony have been called [[antimonial]]s. == Sources == [[Image:Antimony massive.jpg|200px|left|thumb|Native massive antimony with [[redox|oxidation]] products]] Even though this element is not abundant, it is found in over 100 [[mineral]] species. Antimony is sometimes found native, but more frequently it is found in the sulfide [[stibnite]] (Sb<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>) which is the predominant ore [[mineral]]. Commercial forms of antimony are generally ingots, broken pieces, granules, and cast cake. Other forms are powder, shot, and single crystals. {| border="1" ! Country !! Tonnes !! % of total |- |align="center" |[[People's Republic of China]] |align="center" |126 000 |align="center" |81.5 |- |align="center" |[[Russia]] |align="center" |12 000 |align="center" |7.8 |- |align="center" |[[South Africa]] |align="center" |5 023 |align="center" |3.3 |- |align="center" |[[Tadjikistan]] |align="center" |3 480 |align="center" |2.3 |- |align="center" |[[Bolivia]] |align="center" |2 430 |align="center" |1.6 |- |align="center" |''Top 5'' |align="center" |''148 933'' |align="center" |''96.4'' |- |align="center" |'''Total world''' |align="center" |'''154 538''' |align="center" |'''100.0''' |} <small>''Chiffres de [[2003]], métal contenue dans les minerais et concentrés, source : L'état du monde 2005''</small> == Precautions == Antimony and many of its compounds are [[toxic]]. Clinically, antimony poisoning is very similar to [[arsenic]] poisoning. In small doses, antimony causes [[headache]], [[dizziness]], and [[Depression (mood)|depression]]. Such small doses have in the past been reported in some acidic fruit drinks. The acidic nature of the drink is sufficient to dissolve small amounts of antimony oxide contained in the packaging of the drink; modern manufacturing methods prevent this occurrence. Larger doses cause violent and frequent vomiting, and will lead to death in few days. Very large doses will cause violent vomiting, causing the poison to be expelled from the body before any harm is done. == Compounds == [[Antimony pentafluoride]] SbF<sub>5</sub>, [[Antimony trioxide]] Sb<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, [[Stibine]] (Antimony Trihydride SbH<sub>3</sub>), [[Indium antimonide]] (InSb) ; see also [[:Category:Antimony compounds]] ==References== *[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/51.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Antimony] *[http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/phs23.html Public Health Statement for Antimony] ==See also== *[[antimonial]] == External links == {{Commons|Antimony}} * [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/10.html National Pollutant Inventory - Antimony and compounds] *[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Sb/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Antimony] * [http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/elem/sb.html Elementymology & Elements Multidict: Antimony] (by Peter van der Krogt) * [http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/antimony/antimony_table09.html World Mine Production of Antimony, by Country] [[Category:Chemical elements]] [[Category:Metalloids]] [[Category:Pnictogens]] [[ar:كحل]] [[bs:Antimon]] [[ca:Antimoni]] [[cs:Antimon]] [[de:Antimon]] [[et:Antimon]] [[es:Antimonio]] [[eo:Antimono]] [[fr:Antimoine]] [[ko:안티모니]] [[io:Antimonio]] [[is:Antimon]] [[it:Antimonio]] [[he:אנטימון]] [[ku:Stîbyûm]] [[lv:Antimons]] [[lt:Stibis]] [[lb:Antimon]] [[hu:Antimon]] [[nl:Antimoon]] [[ja:アンチモン]] [[no:Antimon]] [[nn:Antimon]] [[oc:Antimòni]] [[pl:Antymon]] [[pt:Antimônio]] [[ru:Сурьма]] [[sk:Antimón (nerast)]] [[sl:Antimon]] [[sr:Антимон]] [[fi:Antimoni]] [[sv:Antimon]] [[th:พลวง]] [[uk:Сурма]] [[zh:锑]] 899 41411929 2006-02-27T03:42:39Z Maveric149 62 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Polonium|Polonium]] ([[User talk:Polonium|talk]]) to last version by Orzetto {{Elementbox_header | number=89 | symbol=Ac | name=actinium | left=[[radium]] | right=[[thorium]] | above=[[lanthanum|La]] | below=[[Untriennium|Ute]] | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_series | [[actinide]]s }} {{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=3 | period=7 | block=f }} {{Elementbox_appearance | silvery }} {{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|(227)]] }} {{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[radon|Rn]]&#93; 6d<sup>1</sup> 7s<sup>2</sup> }} {{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 9, 2 }} {{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }} {{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 10 }} {{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=(circa) 1323 | c=1050 | f=1922 }} {{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=3471 | c=3198 | f=5788 }} {{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 14 }} {{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 400 }} {{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 27.2 }} {{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_crystalstruct | cubic face centered }} {{Elementbox_oxistates | 3<br />(neutral oxide) }} {{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.1 }} {{Elementbox_ionizationenergies2 | 499 | 1170 }} {{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|195]] }} {{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }} {{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 12 }} {{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-34-8 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=actinium | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=225 | sym=Ac | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E s|10 days]] | dm=[[alpha decay|&alpha;]] | de=5.935 | pn=221 | ps=[[francium|Fr]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay3 | mn=226 | sym=Ac | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E s|29.37 hours]] | dm1=[[beta emission|&beta;<sup>-</sup>]] | de1=1.117 | pn1=226 | ps1=[[thorium|Th]] | dm2=[[electron capture|&epsilon;]] | de2=0.640 | pn2=226 | ps2=[[radium|Ra]] | dm3=[[alpha decay|&alpha;]] | de3=5.536 | pn3=222 | ps3=[[francium|Fr]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=227 | sym=Ac | na=100% | hl=[[1 E s|21.773 years]] | dm1=[[beta emission|&beta;<sup>-</sup>]] | de1=0.045 | pn1=227 | ps1=[[thorium|Th]] | dm2=[[alpha decay|&alpha;]] | de2=5.042 | pn2=223 | ps2=[[francium|Fr]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_end}} {{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }} '''Actinium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol Ac and [[atomic number]] 89. ==Notable characteristics== Actinium is a silvery radioactive metallic element. Due to its intense radioactivity, Actinium glows in the dark with an eerie blue light. It is found only in traces in uranium ores as 227-Ac, an [[alpha radiation|&alpha;]] and [[beta radiation|&beta; emitter]] with a [[half-life]] of 21.773 years. One ton of [[uranium]] ore contains about a tenth of a gram of actinium. ==Applications== It is about 150 times as radioactive as radium, making it valuable as a [[neutron source]]. Otherwise it has no significant industrial applications. Actinium-225 is used in medicine to produce Bi-213 in a reusable generator or can be used alone as an agent for radio-immunotherapy. ==History== Actinium was discovered in [[1899]] by [[André-Louis Debierne]], a French chemist, who separated it from [[uraninite|pitchblende]]. [[Friedrich Otto Giesel]] independently discovered actinium in [[1902]]. The chemical behavior of actinium is similar to that of the rare earth [[lanthanum]]. The word actinium comes from the Greek ''aktis, aktinos'', meaning beam or ray. ==Occurrence== Actinium is found in trace amounts in uranium ore, but more commonly is made in milligram amounts by the neutron irradiation of 226-Ra in a nuclear reactor. Actinium metal has been prepared by the reduction of actinium fluoride with lithium vapor at about 1100 to 1300ºC. ==Isotopes== Naturally occurring actinium is composed of 1 radioactive [[isotope]]; <sup>227</sup>Ac. 36 [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized with the most stable being 227-Ac with a [[half-life]] of 21.772 [[years|y]], 225-Ac with a half-life of 10.0 [[day]]s, and 226-Ac with a half-life of 29.37 [[hours|h]]. All of the remaining [[radioactive decay|radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 10 hours and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 1 minute. The shortest-lived isotope of actinium is<sup>217</sup>Ac which decays through [[alpha decay]] and [[electron capture]]. It has a half-life of 69 [[nanoseconds|ns]]. Actinium also has 2 [[meta state]]s. Purified actinium-227 comes into equilibrium with its decay products at the end of 185 days, and then decays according to its 21.773-year half-life. The isotopes of actinium range in [[atomic weight]] from 206 [[atomic mass unit|amu]] (<sup>206</sup>actinium) to 236 amu (<sup>236</sup>Ac). ==Precautions== Actinium-227 is extremely radioactive, and in terms of its potential for radiation induced health effects, actinium-227 is about as dangerous as plutonium. Ingesting even small amounts of actinium-227 would present a serious health hazard. ==References== *[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/89.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Actinium] ==External links== {{Commons|Actinium}} *[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ac/index.html WebElements.com - Actinium] [[Category:Chemical elements]] [[Category:Actinides]] [[ar:أكتينيوم]] [[ca:Actini]] [[cs:Aktinium]] [[da:Actinium]] [[de:Actinium]] [[et:Aktiinium]] [[es:Actinio]] [[eo:Aktinio]] [[fr:Actinium]] [[he:אקטיניום]] [[hr:Aktinij]] [[ko:악티늄]] [[io:Aktiniumo]] [[it:Attinio]] [[la:Actinium]] [[lt:Aktinis]] [[hu:Aktínium]] [[nl:Actinium]] [[ja:アクチニウム]] [[no:Actinium]] [[nn:Actinium]] [[pl:Aktyn]] [[pt:Actínio]] [[ru:Актиний]] [[sr:Актинијум]] [[fi:Aktinium]] [[sv:Aktinium]] [[th:แอกทิเนียม]] [[uk:Актиній]] [[zh:锕]] 900 41411944 2006-02-27T03:42:46Z Maveric149 62 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Polonium|Polonium]] ([[User talk:Polonium|talk]]) to last version by Vary {{Elementbox_header | number=95 | symbol=Am | name=americium | left=[[plutonium]] | right=[[curium]] | above=[[europium|Eu]] | below=(Uqp) | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_series | [[actinide]]s }} {{Elementbox_periodblock | period=7 | block=f }} {{Elementbox_appearance | silvery white }} {{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|(243)]] }} {{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[radon|Rn]]&#93; 5f<sup>7</sup> 7s<sup>2</sup> }} {{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 32, 25, 8, 2 }} {{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }} {{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 12 }} {{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=1449 | c=1176 | f=2149 }} {{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=2880 | c=2607 | f=4725 }} {{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 14.39 }} {{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 62.7 }} {{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 1239 | 1356 | &nbsp; | &nbsp; | &nbsp; | &nbsp; | comment= }} {{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_crystalstruct | hexagonal }} {{Elementbox_oxistates | 6, 5, 4, '''3'''<br />([[amphoteric]] oxide) }} {{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.3 }} {{Elementbox_ionizationenergies1 | 578 }} {{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|175]] }} {{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }} {{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 10 }} {{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-35-9 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=americium | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=241 | sym=Am | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E10 s|432.2 y]] | dm1=[[spontaneous fission|SF]] | de1=- | pn1= | ps1=- | dm2=[[alpha decay|&alpha;]] | de2=5.638 | pn2=237 | ps2=[[neptunium|Np]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay3 | mn=242[[nuclear isomer|m]] | sym=Am | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=141 [[year|y]] | dm1=[[Isomeric transition|IT]] | de1=0.049 | pn1= | ps1=- | dm2=&alpha; | de2=5.637 | pn2=238 | ps2=[[neptunium|Np]] | dm3=SF | de3=- | pn3= | ps3=- }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=243 | sym=Am | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E11 s|7370 y]] | dm1=SF | de1=- | pn1= | ps1=- | dm2=&alpha; | de2=5.438 | pn2=239 | ps2=[[neptunium|Np]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_end}} {{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }} '''Americium''' is a [[synthetic element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol Am and [[atomic number]] 95. A [[radioactive decay|radioactive]] [[metal]]lic element, americium is an [[actinide]] that was obtained by bombarding [[plutonium]] with [[neutron]]s and was the fourth [[transuranic element]] to be discovered. It was named for the [[The Americas|America]]s, by analogy with [[europium]]. == Notable characteristics == Freshly prepared americium [[metal]] has a white and silvery [[luster]], at [[room temperature]]s it slowly tarnishes in dry air. It is more silvery than [[plutonium]] or [[neptunium]] and apparently more malleable than neptunium or [[uranium]]. [[Alpha emission]] from Am-241 is approximately three times [[radium]]. [[Gram]] quantities of Am-241 emit intense [[gamma ray]]s which creates a serious exposure problem for anyone handling the element. == Applications == This element can be produced in [[kilogram]] amounts and has some uses (mostly Am-241 since it is easier to produce relatively pure samples of this isotope). Americium has found its way into the household, where one type of [[smoke detector]] contains a tiny amount of Am-241 as a source of [[ionizing radiation]]. Am-241 has been used as a portable gamma ray source for use in [[radiography]]. The element has also been employed to gauge [[glass]] thickness to help create flat glass. Am-242 is a neutron emitter and has found uses in [[neutron radiography]]. However this isotope is extremely expensive to produce in usable quantities. == History == Americium was [[discovery of the chemical elements|first synthesized]] by [[Glenn T. Seaborg]], Leon O. Morgan, Ralph A. James, and [[Albert Ghiorso]] in late [[1944]] at the wartime Metallurgical Laboratory at the [[University of Chicago]] (now known as [[Argonne National Laboratory]]). The team created the [[isotope]] Am-241 by subjecting [[plutonium]]-239 to successive [[neutron capture]] reactions in a [[nuclear reactor]]. This created Pu-240 and then Pu-241 which in turn decayed into Am-241 via [[beta decay]]. Seaborg was granted [[patent]] 3,156,523 for "Element 95 and Method of Producing Said Element". The discovery of americium and [[curium]] was first announced informally on a children's quiz show in 1945. [http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/print/americiumprint.html] == Isotopes == 18 [[radioisotope]]s of americium have been characterized, with the most stable being Am-243 with a [[half-life]] of 7370 years, and Am-241 with a half-life of 432.2 years. All of the remaining [[radioactive decay|radioactive]] isotopes have half-lives that are less than 51 hours, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 100 minutes. This element also has 8 [[meta state]]s, with the most stable being Am-242m (t<sub>½</sub> 141 years). The isotopes of americium range in [[atomic weight]] from 231.046 [[atomic mass unit|amu]] (Am-231) to 249.078 amu (Am-249). == Chemistry == In aqueous systems the most common oxidation state is +3, it is very much harder to oxidise Am(III) to Am(IV) than it is to do the same oxidation for Pu(III). Currently the [[solvent extraction]] chemistry of americium is important as in several areas of the world [[scientists]] are working on reducing the medium term [[radiotoxicity]] of the waste from the reprocessing of used [[nuclear fuel]]. See [[liquid-liquid extraction]] for some examples of the solvent extraction of americium. Americium like other actinides readily forms a dioxide americyl core (AmO<sub>2</sub>)[http://fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/pubs/00818038.pdf]. In the environment, this americyl core readily complexes with carbonate as well as other oxygen moeities (OH<sup>-</sup>, NO<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup>, NO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>, and SO<sub>4</sub><sup>-2</sup>) to form charged complexes which tend to be readily mobile with low affinities to soil. *AmO<sub>2</sub>(OH)<sup>+1</sup> *AmO<sub>2</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub><sup>+2</sup> *AmO<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>1</sub><sup>+1</sup> *AmO<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub><sup>-1</sup> *AmO<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub><sup>-3</sup> ==References== *[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/95.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Americium] *''Guide to the Elements - Revised Edition'', Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1 * [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele095.html It's Elemental - Americium] == External links == {{Commons|Americium}} * [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Am/index.html WebElements.com - Americium] (also used as a reference) [[Category:Chemical elements]] [[Category:Actinides]] [[Category:Americium compounds]] [[ca:Americi]] [[cs:Americium]] [[da:Americium]] [[de:Americium]] [[et:Ameriitsium]] [[el:Αμερίκιο]] [[es:Americio]] [[eo:Americio]] [[fr:Américium]] [[ko:아메리슘]] [[io:Americio]] [[it:Americio]] [[he:אמריציום]] [[lt:Americis]] [[lb:Americium]] [[hu:Amerícium]] [[nl:Americium]] [[ja:アメリシウム]] [[nn:Americium]] [[pl:Ameryk]] [[pt:Amerício]] [[ru:Америций]] [[sr:Америцијум]] [[fi:Amerikium]] [[sv:Americium]] [[th:อะเมริเซียม]] [[tr:Amerikyum]] [[uk:Америцій]] [[zh:镅]] 901 41310430 2006-02-26T13:18:29Z Rune.welsh 240649 /* Notable characteristics */ this is a conditional clause {{Elementbox_header | number=85 | symbol=At | name=astatine | left=[[polonium]] | right=[[radon]] | above=[[iodine|I]] | below=([[Uus]]) | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_series | [[halogen]]s }} {{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=17 | period=6 | block=p }} {{Elementbox_appearance | metallic }} {{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|(210)]] }} {{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[xenon|Xe]]&#93; 4f<sup>14</sup> 5d<sup>10</sup> 6s<sup>2</sup> 6p<sup>5</sup> }} {{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 7 }} {{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }} {{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=575 | c=302 | f=576 }} {{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=? 610 | c=? 337 | f=? 639}} {{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | ca. 40 }} {{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 361 | 392 | 429 | 475 | 531 | 607 | comment= }} {{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_crystalstruct | no data }} {{Elementbox_oxistates | &plusmn;1, 3, 5, 7 }} {{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 2.2 }} {{Elementbox_ionizationenergies1 | (est.) 920 }} {{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }} {{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 1.7 }} {{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-68-8 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=astatine | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=210 | sym=At | na=100% | hl=8.1 [[hour|h]] | dm1=[[electron capture|Epsilon]] | de1=3.981 | pn1=210 | ps1=[[polonium|Po]] | dm2=[[alpha decay|Alpha]] | de2=5.631 | pn2=206 | ps2=[[bismuth|Bi]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_end}} {{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }} '''Astatine''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''At''' and [[atomic number]] 85. This [[radioactive]] element occurs naturally from [[uranium]] and [[thorium]] decay and is the heaviest of the [[halogen]]s. == Notable characteristics == This highly [[radioactive]] element has been confirmed by [[mass spectrometer]]s to behave chemically much like other [[halogen]]s, especially [[iodine]] (it would probably accumulate in the [[thyroid]] gland like iodine). Astatine is thought to be more [[metal]]lic than iodine. Researchers at the [[Brookhaven National Laboratory]] have performed experiments that have identified and measured elementary reactions that involve astatine. With the possible exception of [[francium]], astatine is the rarest naturally occurring element with the total amount in Earth's crust estimated to be less than 1 [[ounce|oz]] (28 g) at any one time; this amounts to less than one teaspoon of the element. The [[Guinness Book of Records]], however, has dubbed the element the rarest on Earth, stating: "Only around 0.9 oz (25 [[gram|g]]) of the element astatine (At) occurs naturally in the Earth's crust." == History == Astatine ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''astatos'' meaning "unstable") was first synthesized in [[1940]] by [[Dale R. Corson]], [[K. R. MacKenzie]], and [[Emilio Segrè]] of the [[University of California, Berkeley]] by barraging [[bismuth]] with [[alpha particle]]s. An earlier name for the element was ''alabamine'' (Ab). == Occurrence == Astatine is produced by bombarding bismuth with energetic alpha particles to obtain relatively long-lived At-209 - At-211, which can then be [[distillation|distilled]] from the target by heating in the presence of air. == Isotopes == Astatine has 41 known [[isotope]]s, all of which are [[radioactive]]; the longest-lived isotope is <sup>210</sup>At which has a [[half-life]] of 8.1 hours. The shortest-lived isotope is <sup>213</sup>At which has a half-life of 125 [[nanoseconds]]. == References == *[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/85.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Astatine] == External links == {{Commons|Astatine}} *[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/At/index.html WebElements.com - Astatine] [[Category:Chemical elements]] [[Category:Halogens]] [[bs:Astatin]] [[ca:Àstat]] [[cs:Astat]] [[da:Astat]] [[de:Astat]] [[et:Astaat]] [[es:Astato]] [[eo:Astato]] [[fr:Astate]] [[ko:아스타틴]] [[io:Astatino]] [[is:Astat]] [[it:Astato]] [[he:אסטטין]] [[lv:Astats]] [[lt:Astatas]] [[hu:Asztácium]] [[nl:Astatium]] [[ja:アスタチン]] [[no:Astat]] [[nn:Astat]] [[oc:Astat]] [[pl:Astat]] [[pt:Astato]] [[ru:Астат]] [[sl:Astat]] [[sr:Астат]] [[fi:Astatiini]] [[sv:Astat]] [[th:แอสทาทีน]] [[uk:Астат]] [[zh:砹]] 902 42039966 2006-03-03T11:17:30Z Iorek85 432424 /* External links */ remove bad link {{Redirect2|Atom|Atomic}} {{for|[[Atom (standard)|Atom feeds]] from Wikipedia|Wikipedia:Syndication}} {| border="1" cellspacing="0" align="right" cellpadding="2" style="margin-left:1em" |- ! bgcolor=gray | Atom |- | align="center" | [[image:Helium_atom_with_charge-smaller.jpg | align center | Model of the atom - 3-D Helium atom - ground state]] |- | align="center" | '''Helium atom model'''<br>Showing nucleus with two protons (blue) <br>and two neutrons (red), <br>orbited by two electrons (waves). |- ! bgcolor=gray | Classification |- | {| align="center" |- | Smallest recognised division of a [[chemical element]] |} |- | |- ! bgcolor=gray | Properties |- | |- | {| align="center" |- | [[atomic mass|Mass]]: || &asymp; 1.66 &times; 10{{smsup|−27}} to 4.52 &times; 10{{smsup|−25}} [[kg]] |- | [[Electric charge]]: || zero |- | Diameter: | [[1_E-11_m|10 pm]] to [[1_E-10_m|100 pm]] |} |} In [[chemistry]] and [[physics]], an '''atom''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''&#940;&#964;&#959;&#956;&#959;&#957;'' meaning "indivisible") is the smallest possible particle of a [[chemical element]] that retains its chemical properties. The word ''atom'' may also refer to the smallest possible indivisible [[fundamental particle]]. This definition must not be confused with that of chemical atoms, since chemical atoms (hereafter "atoms") are composed of smaller [[subatomic particle]]s. Most atoms are composed of three types of [[subatomic particle]]s which govern their external properties: * [[electron]]s, which have a negative [[electric charge|charge]] and are the least massive of the three; * [[proton]]s, which have a positive [[electric charge|charge]] and are about 1836 times more massive than electrons; and * [[neutron]]s, which have no [[electric charge|charge]] and are about 1838 times more massive than electrons. Protons and neutrons are both [[nucleon]]s and make up the dense, massive [[atomic nucleus]]. The electrons form the much larger [[electron cloud]] surrounding the nucleus. Atoms differ in the number of each of the subatomic particles they contain. The number of protons in an atom (called the [[atomic number]]) determines the [[chemical element|element]] of the atom. Within a single element, the number of neutrons may also vary, determining the [[isotope]] of that element. Atoms are electrically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons. Electrons that are furthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or even shared between atoms. Atoms which have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called [[ions]]. The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus may also change, via [[nuclear fusion]], [[nuclear fission]] or [[radioactive decay]]. Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of [[chemistry]], and are [[Law of Conservation of Matter|conserved]] in [[chemical reaction]]s. Atoms are able to [[chemical bond|bond]] into [[molecule]]s and other types of [[chemical compound]]s. Molecules are made up of multiple atoms; for example, a molecule of [[water]] is a combination of two [[hydrogen]] atoms and one [[oxygen]] atom. ==Properties of the atom== ===Subatomic particles=== :''see main article [[subatomic particle]]s Although the name "atom" was applied at a time when atoms were thought to be indivisible, it is now known that the atom can be broken down into a number of smaller components. The first of these to be discovered was the negatively charged [[electron]], which is easily ejected from atoms during [[ionization]]. The electrons orbit a small, dense body containing all of the positive charge in the atom, called the [[atomic nucleus]]. This nucleus is itself made up of [[nucleon]]s: positively charged [[proton]]s and chargeless [[neutron]]s. Before 1961, the subatomic particles were thought to consist of only protons, neutrons and electrons. However, protons and neutrons themselves are now known to consist of still smaller particles called [[quark]]s. In addition, the electron is known to have a nearly massless neutral partner called a [[neutrino]]. Together, the electron and neutrino are both [[lepton]]s. Ordinary atoms are composed only of quarks and leptons of the first [[generation (particle physics)|generation]]. The proton is composed of two [[up quark]]s and one [[down quark]], whereas the neutron is composed of one up quark and two down quarks. Although they do not occur in ordinary matter, two other heavier generations of quarks and leptons may be generated in [[high-energy physics|high-energy collisions]]. The subatomic [[force carrier|force carrying]] particles (called [[gauge boson]]s) are also important to atoms. Electrons are bound to the nucleus by [[photon]]s carrying the [[electromagnetic force]]. Protons and neutrons are bound together in the nucleus by [[gluon]]s carrying the [[strong nuclear force]]. ====Electron configuration==== :''see main article [[electron configuration]]'' The [[chemistry|chemical behavior]] of atoms is due to interactions between electrons. Electrons of an atom remain within certain, predictable [[electron configurations]]. These configurations are determined by the [[quantum mechanics]] of electrons in the [[electric potential]] of the atom; the [[principal quantum number]] determines particular [[electron shell]]s with distinct [[energy level]]s. Generally, the higher the energy level of a shell, the further away it is from the nucleus. The electrons in the outermost shell, called the [[valence electron]]s, have the greatest influence on chemical behavior. Core electrons (those not in the outer shell) play a role, but it is usually in terms of a secondary effect due to screening of the positive charge in the atomic nucleus. [[Image:HAtomOrbitals.png|frame|right|The [[atomic orbital]] [[wavefunction]]s of a [[hydrogen atom]]. The [[principal quantum number]] is at the right of each row and the [[azimuthal quantum number]] is denoted by letter at top of each column.]] An electron shell can hold up to 2''n''<sup>2</sup> electrons, where ''n'' is the principal quantum number of the shell. The occupied shell of greatest ''n'' is the valence shell, even if it only has one electron. In the most stable [[ground state]], an atom's electrons will fill up its shells in order of increasing energy. Under some circumstances an electron may be [[excited state|excited]] to a higher energy level (that is, it absorbs energy from an external source and leaps to a higher shell), leaving a space in a lower shell. An excited atom's electrons will [[spontaneous emission|spontaneously fall]] into lower levels, emitting excess energy as a [[photon]]s, until it returns to the ground state. In addition to its principal quantum number ''n'', an electron is distinguished by three other quantum numbers: the [[azimuthal quantum number]] ''l'' (describing the [[orbital angular momentum]] of the electron), the [[magnetic quantum number]] ''m'' (describing the direction of the angular momentum vector), and the [[spin quantum number]] ''s'' (describing the direction of the electron's [[spin (physics)|intrinsic angular momentum]]). Electrons with varying ''l'' and ''m'' have distinctive shapes denoted by [[spectroscopic notation]]. In the illustration, the letters '''s''', '''p''', '''d''' and '''f''' (corresponding to ''l''&nbsp;=&nbsp;0,&nbsp;1,&nbsp;2,&nbsp;3) describe the shape of the [[atomic orbital]]. In most atoms, orbitals of differing ''l'' are not exactly [[degenerate energy level|degenerate]] but separated into a [[fine structure]]. Orbitals of differing ''m'' are degenerate but may be separated by applying a [[magnetic field]], creating the [[Zeeman effect]]. Electrons with differing ''s'' have very slight energy differences called [[hyperfine splitting]]. ====Nucleon properties==== The constituent [[proton]]s and [[neutron]]s of the [[atomic nucleus]] are collectively called [[nucleon]]s. The nucleons are held together in the nucleus by the [[strong nuclear force]]. Nuclei can undergo transformations that affect the number of protons and neutrons they contain, a process called [[radioactive decay]]. When nuclei transformations take place spontaneously, this process is called [[radioactivity]]. Radioactive transformations proceed by a wide variety of modes, but the most common are [[alpha decay]] (emission of a [[helium]] nucleus) and [[beta decay]] (emission of an electron). Decays involving electrons or [[positron]]s are due to the [[weak nuclear interaction]]. In addition, like the electrons of the atom, the nucleons of nuclei may be pushed into [[excited state]]s of higher energy. However, these transitions typically require thousands of times more energy than electron excitations. When an excited nucleus emits a photon to return to the [[ground state]], the photon has very high energy and is called a [[gamma ray]]. Nuclear transformations also take place in [[nuclear reaction]]s. In [[nuclear fusion]], two light nuclei come together and merge into a single heavier nucleus. In [[nuclear fission]], a single large nucleus is divided into two or more smaller nuclei. ===Atom size and speed=== Atoms are much smaller than the [[wavelength]]s of [[light]] that human vision can detect, so atoms cannot be seen in any kind of optical [[microscope]]. However, there are ways of detecting the positions of atoms on the surface of a solid or a [[thin film]] so as to obtain images. These include: [[electron microscope]]s (such as in [[scanning tunneling microscopy]] (STM)), [[atomic force microscopy]] (AFM), [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] (NMR) and [[x-ray microscopy]]. Since the [[electron cloud]] does not have a sharp cutoff, the size of an atom is not easily defined. For atoms that can form solid [[crystal]] [[crystal lattice|lattice]]s, the distance between the centers of adjacent atoms can be easily determined by [[x-ray diffraction]], giving an estimate of the atoms' size. For any atom, one might use the radius at which the electrons of the [[valence shell]] are most likely to be found. As an example, the size of a [[hydrogen]] atom is estimated to be approximately 1.0586&times;10{{smsup|−10}}&nbsp;m (twice the [[Bohr radius]]). Compare this to the size of the [[proton]] (the only particle in the nucleus of the hydrogen atom), which is approximately 10{{smsup|−15}}&nbsp;m. So the ratio of the size of the hydrogen atom to its nucleus is about 100,000:1. If an atom were the size of a [[stadium]], the nucleus would be the size of a [[marbles|marble]]. Nearly all the mass of an atom is in its nucleus, yet almost all the space in an atom is filled by its electrons. Atoms of different [[chemical element|elements]] do vary in size, but the sizes do not scale linearly with the mass of the atom. Their sizes are roughly the same to within a factor of 2. The reason for this is that heavy elements have large positive charge on their nuclei, which strongly attract the electrons to the center of the atom. This contracts the size of the [[electron shell]]s, so that more electrons fit in the only a slightly greater volume. The [[temperature]] of a collection of atoms is a measure of the average energy of motion of those atoms; at 0 [[kelvin]]s ([[absolute zero]]) atoms would have no motion. As the temperature of the system is increased, the kinetic energy of the particles in the system is increased, and their speed of motion increases. At [[room temperature]], atoms making up gases in the air move at a speed of 500&nbsp;m/s (about 1100 mph or 1800 km/h). ===Elements, isotopes and ions=== Atoms are generally classified by their [[atomic number]] ''Z'', which corresponds to the number of protons in the atom. The atomic number determines which [[chemical element]] the atom is. For example, [[carbon]] atoms are atoms containing six protons. All atoms with the same atomic number share a wide variety of physical properties and exhibit the same [[chemical properties]]. The elements may be sorted according to the [[periodic table]] in order of increasing atomic number. The [[atomic mass]] ''A'', atomic mass number, or nucleon number of an element is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom of that element, so-called because each proton and neutron has a mass of about 1&nbsp;[[amu]]. The number of neutrons ''A''−''Z'' in an atom has no effect on which element it is. Each element can have numerous kinds of atoms with the same number of protons and electrons but varying numbers of neutrons. Each has the same atomic number but a different mass number. These are called the [[isotope]]s of an element. When writing the name of an isotope, the element name is followed by the mass number. For example, [[carbon-14]] contains 6 protons and 8 neutrons in each atom, for a total mass number of 14. The atomic mass listed for each element in the periodic table is an average of the isotope masses found in nature, [[weighted average|weighted]] by their [[abundance of the chemical elements|abundance]]. The simplest atom is the [[hydrogen]] isotope [[protium]], which has atomic number 1 and atomic mass number 1; it consists of one proton and one electron. The hydrogen isotope which also contains one neutron so is called [[deuterium]] or hydrogen-2; the hydrogen isotope with two neutrons is called [[tritium]] or hydrogen-3. Tritium is an unstable isotope which decays through a process called [[radioactivity]]. Almost all isotopes of each element are radioactive; only a few are [[stable isotope|stable]]. The elements with atomic number 84 ([[polonium]]) and heavier have no stable isotopes and are all radioactive. Virtually all elements heavier than hydrogen and [[helium]] were created through [[stellar nucleosynthesis]] and [[supernova nucleosynthesis]]. Most of the elements lighter than [[uranium]] (''Z''=92) have stable-enough isotopes to occur naturally on [[Earth]] (with the notable exception of [[technetium]] ''Z''=43). Several elements that do not occur on Earth have been found to be present in [[star]]s. Elements not normally found in nature have been artificially created by [[synthetic element|nuclear bombardment]]; [[as of 2006]], elements have been created through atomic number 116 (given the temporary name [[ununhexium]]). These ultra-heavy elements are generally highly unstable and decay quickly. Atoms that have either lost or gained electrons are called atomic [[ion]]s (with either positive(+) or negative charge(−), respectively). ===Valence and bonding=== :''see main article [[valence electron]]s and [[chemical bond]]'' The number of electrons in an atom's outermost shell (the [[valence shell]]) governs its bonding behavior. Therefore, elements with the same number of valence electrons are [[periodic table group|group]]ed together in the columns of the [[periodic table]] of the elements. [[Alkali metal]]s contain one electron on their outer shell; [[alkaline earth metal]]s, two electrons; [[halogen]]s, seven electrons; and various others. Every atom is most stable with a full valence shell. This means that atoms with full valence shells (the [[noble gas]]es) are very unreactive. Conversely, atoms with few electrons in their valence shell are more [[reactivity|reactive]] it is. Alkali metals are therefore very reactive, with [[caesium]], [[rubidium]], and [[francium]] being the most reactive of all metals. Also, atoms that need only few electrons (such as the halogens) to fill their valence shells are reactive. [[Fluorine]] is the most reactive of all elements. Atoms may fill their valence shells by [[chemical bond]]ing. This can be achieved one of two ways: an atom can either share electrons with other atoms (a ''[[covalent bond]]''), or it can remove electrons from (or donate electrons to) other atoms (an ''[[ionic bond]]''). The formation of a bond causes a strong attraction between two atoms, creating [[molecule]]s or [[ionic compound]]s. Many other types of bonds exist, including: *[[polar covalent bond]]s; *[[coordinate covalent bond]]s; *[[metallic bond]]s; *[[hydrogen bond]]s; and *[[van der Waals bond]]s. ===Atomic spectrum=== :''see main article [[Atomic spectroscopy]]'' Since each element in the [[periodic table]] consists of an atom in a unique configuration with different numbers of [[proton]]s and [[electron]]s, each element can also be uniquely described by the [[energy level|energies]] of its [[atomic orbital]]s and the number of electrons within them. Normally, an atom is found in its lowest-energy [[ground state]]; states with higher energy are called [[excited state]]s. An electron may move from a lower-energy orbital to a higher-energy orbital by absorbing a [[photon]] with energy equal to the difference between the energies of the two levels. An electron in a higher-energy orbital may drop to a lower-energy orbital by emitting a photon. Since each element has a unique set of energy levels, each creates its own [[light]] pattern unique to itself: its own spectral signature. If a set of atoms is heated (such as in an [[arc lamp]]), their electrons will move into excited states. When these atoms fall back toward the ground state, they will produce an [[emission spectrum]]. If a set of atoms is illuminated by a [[continuous spectrum]], it will only absorb specific [[wavelength]]s (energies) of photon that correspond to the differences in its energy levels. The resulting pattern of gaps is called the [[absorption spectrum]]. In spectroscopic analysis, scientists can use a [[spectrometer]] to study the atoms in [[star]]s and other distant objects. Due to the distinctive spectral lines that each element produces, they are able to tell the chemical composition of distant [[planet]]s, stars and [[nebula]]e. Not all parts of the atomic spectrum are in visible light part of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]]. For example, the [[hyperfine transition]]s (including the important [[21 cm line]]) produce low-energy [[radio wave]]s. When electrons deep inside large atoms are knocked out (for example by [[beta radiation]]), replacement atoms fall deep into the [[electric potential]] of the [[nucleus]], producing high-energy [[x-ray]]s. ==Atoms and antimatter== :''see main article [[antimatter]] [[Antimatter]] can also form atoms, composed of [[positron]]s, antiprotons, and antineutrons. Since antimatter is very difficult to produce and store, only a small amount [[antihydrogen]] has ever existed on Earth. This was produced at [[CERN]] in the [[ATHENA]] and [[ATRAP]] experiments using the [[Antiproton Decelerator]]. ==Atoms and the Big Bang== In models of the [[Big Bang]], [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]] predicts that within one to three minutes of the Big Bang almost all atomic material in the universe was created. During this process, [[nucleus|nuclei]] of [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]] formed abundantly, but almost no elements heavier than [[lithium]]. Hydrogen makes up approximately 75% of the atoms in the universe; helium makes up 24%; and all other elements make up just 1%. However, although nuclei (fully-[[ion]]ized atoms) were created, neutral atoms themselves could not form in the intense heat. Big Bang chronology of the atom continues to approximately 379,000 years after the Big Bang when the cosmic temperature had dropped to just 3,000&nbsp;[[kelvin|K]]. It was then cool enough to allow the nuclei to capture [[electron]]s. This process is called [[recombination]], during which the first neutral atoms took form. Once atoms become neutral, they only absorb [[photon]]s of a discrete [[absorption spectrum]]. This allows most of the photons in the universe to travel unimpeded for billions of years. These photons are still detectable today in the [[cosmic microwave background]]. After Big Bang nucleosynthesis, no heavier elements could be created until the [[star formation|formation of the first stars]]. These stars [[nuclear fusion|fused]] heavier elements through [[stellar nucleosynthesis]] during their lives and through [[supernova nucleosynthesis]] as they died. The seeding of the [[interstellar medium]] by heavy elements eventually allowed the formation of [[terrestrial planet]]s like the [[Earth]]. ==History of atomic theory== {{main|Atomic theory}} ===Early atomism=== From the [[6th century BC]], [[Hindu]], [[Buddhist]] and [[Jain]]a philosophers in [[ancient India]] developed the earliest atomic theories. The first philosopher who formulated ideas about the atom in a systematic manner was [[Kanada]] who lived in the 6th century BC. Another Indian philosopher, Pakudha Katyayana who also lived in the 6th century BC and was a contemporary of [[Gautama Buddha]], had also propounded ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world. Indian atomists believed that an atom could be one of upto six elements, with each element having upto 24 properties. They developed detailed theories of how atoms could combine, react, vibrate, move, and perform other actions, and had particularly elaborate theories of how atoms combine, which explains how atoms first combine in pairs, and then group into trios of pairs, which are the smallest visible units of matter. This parallels with the structure of modern atomic theory, in which pairs or triplets of supposedly fundamental quarks combine to create most typical forms of matter. They had also suggested the possibility of splitting an atom which, as we know today, is the source of atomic energy. (See [[Atomism#Indian atomism|Indian atomism]] for more details.) [[Democritus]] and [[Leucippus]], [[Greek philosophers]] in the [[5th century BC]], presented a theory of atoms. (See [[Atomism]] for more details.) The Greeks believed that atoms were all made of the same material but had different shapes and sizes, which determined the physical properties of the material. For instance, the atoms of a [[liquid]] were thought to be smooth, allowing them to slide over each other. None of these ideas, however, were founded in [[scientific method|scientific experimentation]]. During the [[Middle Ages]] (the [[Islamic Golden Age]]), [[Islam]]ic atomists develop atomic theories that represent a synthesis of both Greek and Indian atomism. (See [[Atomism|Islamic atomism]] for more details.) Older Greek and Indian ideas were further developed by Islamic atomists, along with new Islamic ideas, such as the possibility of there being particles smaller than an atom. As Islamic influence began spreading through Europe, the ideas of Islamic atomism, along with the older ideas of Greek and Indian atomism, spread throughout Europe by the end of the Middle Ages, where modern atomic theories began taking shape. ===Birth of modern atomic theory=== In 1808, [[John Dalton]] proposed that an [[element]] is composed of atoms of a single, unique type, and that although their shape and structure was immutable, atoms of different elements could combine to form more complex structures ([[chemical compound]]s). He deduced this after the experimental discovery of the [[law of multiple proportions]] — that is, if two elements form more than one compound between them, then the ratios of the masses of the second element which combine with a fixed mass of the first element will be ratios of small [[whole number]]s. The experiment in question involved combining [[nitrous oxide]] (NO) with [[oxygen]] (O<sub>2</sub>). In one combination, these gases formed [[dinitrogen trioxide]] (N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>), but when he repeated the combination with double the amount of oxygen (a ratio of 1:2), they instead formed [[nitrogen dioxide]] (NO<sub>2</sub>). 4NO + O<sub>2</sub> &rarr; 2N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> 4NO + 2O<sub>2</sub> &rarr; 4NO<sub>2</sub> Atomic theory conflicted with the theory of [[infinite divisibility]], which states that [[matter]] can always be divided into smaller parts. In 1827, biologist [[Robert Brown]] observed that pollen grains floating in water constantly jiggled about for no apparent reason. In 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] theorised that this [[Brownian motion]] was caused by the water molecules continuously knocking the grains about, and developed a mathematical theory around it. This theory was validated experimentally in 1911 by French physicist [[Jean Perrin]]. ===Discovery of subatomic particles=== For much of this time, atoms were thought to be the smallest possible division of matter. However, in 1897, [[J.J. Thomson]] published his work proving that [[cathode ray]]s are made of negatively charged particles ([[electron]]s). Since cathode rays are emitted from matter, this proved that atoms are made up of [[subatomic particles]] and are therefore divisible, and not the indivisible ''atomos'' postulated by [[Democritus]]. Physicists later invented a new term for such indivisible units, "[[elementary particle]]s", since the word atom had come into its common modern use. ===Study of atomic structure=== At first, it was believed that the electrons were distributed more or less uniformly in a sea of positive charge (the [[plum pudding model]]). However, an experiment conducted in 1909 by colleagues of [[Ernest Rutherford]] demonstrated that atoms have a most of their mass and positive charge concentrated in a [[nucleus]]. In the [[gold foil experiment]], [[alpha particle]]s (emitted by [[polonium]]) were shot through a sheet of [[gold]]. Rutherford observed that most of the particles passed straight through the sheet with little deflection (striking a [[fluorescence|fluorescent screen]] on the other side). About 1 in 8000 of the alpha particles, however, were heavily deflected (by more than 90 degrees). This led to the planetary model of the atom in which pointlike electrons orbited in the space around a massive compact nucleus like planets orbiting the Sun. The nucleus was later discovered to contain [[proton]]s, and further experimentation by Rutherford found that the nuclear mass of most atoms surpassed that of the protons it possessed; this led him to postulate the existence of [[neutron]]s, whose existence would be proven in 1932 by [[James Chadwick]]. The planetary model of the atom still had shortcomings. Firstly, a moving [[electric charge]] emits [[electromagnetic wave]]s; according to [[classical electromagnetism]], an orbiting charge would steadily lose energy and spiral towards the nucleus, colliding with it in a tiny fraction of a second. Secondly, the model did not explain why excited atoms emit light only in certain [[emission spectrum|discrete spectra]]. [[Quantum theory]] revolutionized physics at the beginning of the 20<sup>th</sup> century when [[Max Planck]] and [[Albert Einstein]] postulated that light energy is emitted or absorbed in fixed amounts known as [[quanta]]. In 1913, [[Niels Bohr]] used this idea in his [[Bohr model]] of the atom, in which the electrons could only orbit the nucleus in particular circular orbits with fixed [[angular momentum]] and energy. They were not allowed to spiral into the nucleus, because they could not lose energy in a continuous manner; they could only make [[quantum leap]]s between fixed [[energy level]]s. Bohr's model was extended by [[Arnold Sommerfeld]] in 1916 to include elliptical orbits, using a quantization of [[generalized momentum]]. The ad hoc Bohr-Sommerfeld model was extremely difficult to use, but it made impressive predictions in agreement with certain spectral properties. However, the model was unable to explain multielectron atoms, predict [[transition rate]]s or describe [[fine structure|fine]] and [[hyperfine structure]]. In 1925, [[Erwin Schrödinger]] developed a full theory of quantum mechanics, described by the [[Schrödinger equation]]. Together with [[Wolfgang Pauli]]'s [[Pauli exclusion principle|exclusion principle]], this allowed study of atoms with great precision when digital computers became available. Even today, these theories are used in the [[Hartree-Fock]] [[quantum chemistry|quantum chemical]] method to determine the energy levels of atoms. Further refinements of quantum theory such as the [[Dirac equation]] and [[quantum field theory]] made smaller impacts on the theory of atoms. Another model of historical interest, proposed by [[Gilbert N. Lewis]] in 1916, had [[cubical atom]]s with electrons statically held at the corners. The cubes could share edges or faces to form chemical bonds. This model was created to account for chemical phenomena such as bonding, rather than physical phenomena such as atomic spectra. ==See also== * [[Atomism]] * [[Basic quantum mechanics]] * [[Chemical bond]] * [[Exotic atom]] * [[Infinite divisibility]] * [[List of particles]] * [[Radioactive isotope]] * [[Superatom]] * [[Super-heavy atom]] * [[Transuranium element]] ==References== * Kenneth S. Krane, ''Introductory Nuclear Physics'' (1987) == External links == * [http://www.howstuffworks.com/atom.htm How Atoms Work] * [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/FHSST_Physics_Atom:The_Atom Wikibooks FHSST Physics Atom:The Atom] * [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Atomic_structure Wikibooks Atomic structure] {{composite}} [[Category:Atoms| ]] [[af:Atoom]] [[ar:ذرة (علوم)]] [[an:Atomo]] [[ast:Átomu]] [[bg:Атом]] [[bs:Atom]] [[br:Atom]] [[ca:Àtom]] [[cs:Atom]] [[da:Atom]] [[de:Atom]] [[et:Aatom]] [[es:Átomo]] [[eo:Atomo]] [[fa:اتم]] [[fr:Atome]] [[gl:Átomo]] [[ko:원자]] [[hr:Atom]] [[io:Atomo]] [[id:Atom]] [[ia:Atomo]] [[is:Frumeind]] [[it:Teoria atomica]] [[he:אטום]] [[kn:ಅಣು]] [[ka:ატომი]] [[la:Atomus]] [[lv:Atoms]] [[lt:Atomas]] [[hu:Atom]] [[mk:Атом]] [[ms:Atom]] [[nl:Atoom]] [[nds:Atom]] [[ja:原子]] [[no:Atom]] [[nn:Atom]] [[pl:Atom]] [[pt:Átomo]] [[ro:Atom]] [[ru:Атом]] [[simple:Atom]] [[sk:Atóm]] [[sl:Atom]] [[sr:Атом]] [[su:Atom]] [[fi:Atomi]] [[sv:Atom]] [[tl:Atomo]] [[ta:அணு]] [[th:อะตอม]] [[vi:Nguyên tử]] [[tr:Atom]] [[bug:Atong]] [[uk:Атом]] [[zh:原子]] 903 41774993 2006-03-01T17:37:10Z Rjgibb 868299 links [[image:040719_172_dorset_marnhull.jpg|thumb|220px|Modern arable agriculture typically uses large [[field (agriculture)|fields]] like this one in [[Dorset]], [[England]].]] In [[geography]], '''arable land''' (from [[Latin]] ''arare'', to [[plough]] ) is a form of [[agriculture|agricultural]] [[land use]], meaning [[land (economics)|land]] that can be (and is) used for growing [[agriculture|crops]]. [[David Ricardo]] incorporated the idea of arable land into [[economic]] [[theory]]. Of the earth's 57 million square miles (148,000,000&nbsp;km&sup2;) of land, more than 12 million square miles (31,000,000&nbsp;km&sup2;) are arable. Most of the arable land on earth is around the largest rivers on earth. Some examples are: the [[Nile]] River, the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] Rivers, the [[Yellow River]], the [[Amazon River]], the [[Ganges]] and the [[Rhine]] River. These rivers flood regularly, overspilling their banks. When the flood is over, the rivers recede, leaving behind rich [[silt]]. This silt is excellent fertilizer for [[crops]]. Even if the land is overfarmed, and all the [[nutrient]]s are depleted from the soil, the land renews its fertility when the next flood comes. Rivers and streams can make desert land arable. ==Unarable land== On unarable land, farming is nearly impossible unless more advanced methods of [[agriculture]] are used. Unarable land usually has no source of fresh water, and is often too hot (desert), too cold (arctic), too rocky, too mountainous, too salty, too rainy, too snowy, or too cloudy. Clouds block the sunlight plants need for [[photosynthesis]] (making sunlight into food). The plants starve without light. [[Starvation]] and [[nomad]]ism often exist on unarable land. Unarable land is sometimes called 'wastes', 'badlands', 'worthless' or 'no man's land'. Sometimes, unarable land can be turned into arable land. New arable land makes more food, and can prevent [[starvation]], saving lives. This also makes the country more [[self-sufficient]] and politically independent, because the country doesn't have to buy food from other countries. Making unarable land arable often involves digging new irrigation canals and new wells, aquaducts, [[desalination]] plants, planting trees for shade in the desert, [[hydroponic]]s, fertilizer, nitrogen fertilizer, [[pesticide]]s, [[reverse osmosis]] water processors, [[mylar]] insulation or other insulation against heat and cold, digging ditches and hills for protection against the wind, and greenhouses with internal light and heat for protection against the cold outside and to provide light in cloudy areas. Some examples of infertile '''unarable''' land being turned into fertile '''arable''' land are: * Aran Island: This island off the west coast of Ireland, (not to be confused with the [[Isle of Arran]] in [[Scotland]]'s [[Firth of Clyde]]), was unarable because it was too rocky. The people covered the island with a shallow layer of seaweed and sand from the ocean. This made it arable. Today, they grow crops there. * [[Israel]]: Israel was mostly unarable desert until [[desalination]] plants were built on the coast. The plants turn salt water into fresh water for farming, drinking, and washing. They created their own large fresh water source. Some examples of fertile '''arable''' land being turned into infertile '''unarable''' land are: * Droughts like the '[[dust bowl]]' of the [[Great Depression]] in the U.S. turned farmland into desert. * [[Rainforest]] Deforestation: The fertile tropical forests turn into infertile desert land. * [[Roman Republic|Roman]]s' destruction of [[Carthage]]: At the end of the [[Punic War]]s, the victorious Romans sowed the earth with salt, to symbolize total victory. The Roman symbol meant that Carthage would never grow back - their civilization ended. Crops won't generally grow in salty soil. This is why salt water from the ocean can't be used to water crops. * Each year more arable land is lost to desertification and [[erosion]] from human industrial activities. Irrigation of farm land also increases the [[sodium]], [[calcium]], and [[magnesium]] in the soil. This process steadily concentrates salt in the ground, decreasing productivity for crops that are not salt-tolerant. * [[Urban sprawl]]: In the United States, about 2.2 million acres (8,900 km²) of land was added to urban areas between 1992 and 2002, much of it farm land now paved. == See also == *[[List of environment topics]] ==External links== *[http://pages.prodigy.net/jhonig/bignum/qland2.html Surface Area of the Earth] *[http://www.cnie.org/pop/conserving/landuse.htm Conserving Land: Population and Sustainable Food Production] [[Category:Agriculture]] [[Category:Horticulture]] 904 move=:edit= 42089447 2006-03-03T19:30:52Z UkPaolo 269651 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.144.119.56|66.144.119.56]] ([[User talk:66.144.119.56|talk]]) to last version by Spaully {{Elementbox_header | number=13 | symbol=Al | name=aluminium | left=[[magnesium]] | right=[[silicon]] | above=[[boron|B]] | below=[[gallium|Ga]] | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_series | [[poor metal]]s }} {{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=13 | period=3 | block=p }} {{Elementbox_appearance_img | Al,13| silvery }} {{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-26 kg|26.9815386]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(8)]] }} {{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[neon|Ne]]&#93; 3s<sup>2</sup> 3p<sup>1</sup> }} {{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 3 }} {{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }} {{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 2.70 }} {{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 2.375 }} {{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=933.47 | c=660.32 | f=1220.58 }} {{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=2792 | c=2519 | f=4566 }} {{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 10.71 }} {{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 294.0 }} {{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 24.200 }} {{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 1482 | 1632 | 1817 | 2054 | 2364 | 2790 | comment= }} {{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_crystalstruct | cubic face centered }} {{Elementbox_oxistates | 3<br />([[amphoteric]] oxide) }} {{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.61 }} {{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 577.5 | 1816.7 | 2744.8 }} {{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|125]] }} {{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|118]] }} {{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|118]] }} {{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_magnetic | [[paramagnetism|paramagnetic]] }} {{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 26.50 n}} {{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 237 }} {{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 | 23.1 }} {{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsatrt | (rolled) 5000 }} {{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 70 }} {{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 26 }} {{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 76 }} {{Elementbox_poissonratio | 0.35 }} {{Elementbox_mohshardness | 2.75 }} {{Elementbox_vickershardness_mpa | 167 }} {{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 245 }} {{Elementbox_cas_number | 7429-90-5 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=aluminium | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay3 | mn=26 | sym=Al | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E13 s|7.17&times;10<sup>5</sup>]][[year|y]] | dm1=[[Positron emission|&beta;<sup>+</sup>]] | de1=1.17 | pn1=26 | ps1=[[magnesium|Mg]] | dm2=[[electron capture|&epsilon;]] | de2=- | pn2=26 | ps2=[[magnesium|Mg]] | dm3=[[Gamma radiation|&gamma;]] | de3=1.8086 | pn3= | ps3=- }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=27 | sym=Al | na=100% | n=14 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_end}} {{Elementbox_footer | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }} '''Aluminium''' or '''aluminum''' (see the [[#Spelling|spelling]] section below) is the chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol '''Al''' and atomic number 13. It is a silvery and ductile member of the [[poor metal]] group of [[chemical element]]s. Aluminium is found primarily as the ore [[bauxite]] and is remarkable for its resistance to corrosion (due to the phenomenon of [[passivation]]) and its light weight. Aluminium is used in many industries to make millions of different products and is very important to the [[world economy]]. Structural components made from aluminium and its alloys are vital to the [[aerospace]] industry and very important in other areas of [[transport]]ation and building in which light weight, durability, and strength are needed. ==Properties== [[Image:Aluminum_Metal.jpg|thumb|left|A piece of aluminium metal about 15 centimetres long.]] Aluminium is a soft and lightweight metal with a dull silvery appearance, due to a thin layer of [[oxidation]] that forms quickly when it is exposed to air. Aluminium is nontoxic (as the metal), non-magnetic, and non-sparking. Pure aluminium has a tensile strength of about 49 megapascals (MPa) and 400 MPa if it is formed into an alloy. Aluminium is about one-third as dense as [[steel]] or [[copper]]; is [[Malleability|malleable]], [[Ductility|ductile]], and easily machined and cast; and has excellent [[corrosion]] resistance and durability due to the protective oxide layer. Aluminium mirror finish has the highest reflectance of any metal in the 200-400 nm (UV) , and the 3000-10000 nm (far IR) regions, while in the 400-700 nm visible range it is slightly outdone by [[silver]], and in the 700-3000 (near IR) by silver, [[gold]] and copper. It is the second most malleable metal (after gold) and the sixth most [[ductile]]. Aluminium is a good heat [[conductor]] which is why it is used to make saucepans. [[Image:Bohr2.gif|thumb|Caption|[[Bohr]] Diagram.]] ==Applications== Whether measured in terms of quantity or value, the use of aluminium exceeds that of any other metal except [[iron]], and it is important in virtually all segments of the world economy. Pure aluminium has a low [[tensile strength]], but readily forms [[alloy]]s with many elements such as copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese and silicon (e.g.[[duralumin]]). Today almost all materials that claim to be aluminium are actually an alloy thereof. Pure aluminium is encountered only when corrosion resistance is more important than strength or hardness. Conversely, the term "alloy" in general use today usually means aluminium alloy. When combined with thermo-mechanical processing aluminium [[alloy]]s display a marked improvement in mechanical properties. Aluminium alloys form vital components of [[aircraft]] and [[rocket]]s as a result of their high strength to weight ratio. When aluminium is evaporated in a [[vacuum]] it forms a coating that reflects both [[visible light]] and [[infrared]]. These coatings form a thin layer of protective aluminium oxide that does not deteriorate as [[silver]] coatings do. In particular, nearly all modern [[mirror]]s are made using a thin reflective coating of aluminium on the back surface of a sheet of [[float glass]]. [[Telescope]] mirrors are also coated with a thin layer of aluminium, but are front coated to avoid internal reflections even though this makes the surface more susceptible to damage. [[Image:Diet Coke.jpg|thumb|150px|left|An [[aluminium can]] used for the [[soft drink]] [[Diet Coke]].]] Some of the many uses for aluminium are in: *Transportation ([[automobile]]s, [[airplane]]s, [[truck]]s, [[railroad car]]s, marine vessels, [[bicycle]]s etc.) *Packaging ([[aluminum can|cans]], [[aluminium foil|foil]], etc.) *Water treatment *Construction ([[window]]s, [[door]]s, siding, building wire, etc. *Consumer durable goods (appliances, [[cooking utensil]]s, etc.) *[[electricity|Electrical]] [[transmission lines]] (aluminium components and wires are less dense than those made of copper and are lower in price [http://www.metalprices.com], but also present higher electrical resistance. Many localities prohibit the use of aluminum in residential wiring practices because of its higher resistance and thermal expansion value.) *Machinery *[[MKM steel]] and [[Alnico]] magnets, although non-[[magnet]]ic itself *Super purity aluminium (SPA, 99.980% to 99.999% Al), used in electronics and [[compact disc|CD]]s. *[[Powder]]ed aluminium, a commonly used [[silvering]] agent in [[paint]]. Aluminium flakes may also be included in undercoat paints, particularly wood [[primer (paint)|primer]] &mdash; on drying, the flakes overlap to produce a water resistant barrier. *[[Anodising|Anodised]] aluminium is more stable to further oxidation, and is used in various fields of construction, as well as [[heat sink]]ing. *Most electronic appliances that require cooling of their internal devices (like transistors, [[Central processing unit|CPU]]s - semiconductors in general) have [[heat sink]]s that are made of aluminium due to its ease of manufacture and good heat conductivity. [[Copper]] heat sinks are smaller although more expensive and harder to manufacture. *Aluminium oxide, [[alumina]], is found naturally as [[corundum]] ([[ruby|rubies]] and [[sapphire]]s), [[emery (mineral)|emery]], and is used in [[glass]] making. Synthetic ruby and sapphire are used in [[laser]]s for the production of [[coherent light]]. *Aluminium oxidises very energetically and as a result has found use in [[solid rocket]] fuels, [[thermite]], and other [[pyrotechnic]] compositions. Aluminium is also a [[superconductor]], with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 [[kelvin]]s. ===Engineering use=== Aluminium alloys with a wide range of properties are used in engineering structures. Alloy systems are classified by a number system ([[ANSI]]) or by names indicating their main alloying constituents ([[DIN]] and [[ISO]]). Selecting the right alloy for a given application entails considerations of strength, [[ductility]], formability, [[weldability]] and [[corrosion]] resistance to name a few. A brief historical overview of alloys and manufacturing technologies is given in Ref. <ref name=sanders>R.E. Sanders, Technology Innovation in Aluminum Products, ''The Journal of The Minerals'', 53(2):21-25, 2001. [http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/0102/Sanders-0102.html Online ed.]</ref>. Improper use of aluminium can result in problems, particularly in contrast to [[iron]] or [[steel]], which appear "better behaved" to the intuitive designer, mechanic, or technician. The reduction by two thirds of the weight of an aluminium part compared to a similarly sized iron or steel part seems enormously attractive, but it should be noted that it is accompanied by a reduction by two thirds in the stiffness of the part. Therefore, although direct replacement of an iron or steel part with a duplicate made from aluminium may still give acceptable strength to withstand peak loads, the increased flexibility will cause three times more deflection in the part. Where failure is not an issue but excessive flex is undesirable due to requirements for precision of location or efficiency of transmission of power, simple replacement of steel tubing with similarly sized aluminium tubing will result in a degree of flex which is undesirable; for instance, the increased flex under operating loads caused by replacing steel bicycle frame tubing with aluminium tubing of identical dimensions will cause misalignment of the power-train as well as absorbing the operating force. To increase the rigidity by increasing the thickness of the walls of the tubing increases the weight proportionately, so that the advantages of lighter weight are lost as the rigidity is restored. Aluminium can best be used by redesigning the part to suit its characteristics; for instance making a bicycle of aluminium tubing which has an oversize diameter rather than thicker walls. In this way, rigidity can be restored or even enhanced without increasing weight. The limit to this process is the increase in susceptibility to what is termed "[[buckling]]" failure, where the deviation of the force from any direction other than directly along the axis of the tubing causes folding of the walls of the tubing. The latest models of the [[Corvette]] automobile, among others, are a good example of redesigning parts to make best use of aluminium's advantages. The aluminium chassis members and suspension parts of these cars have large overall dimensions for stiffness but are lightened by reducing cross-sectional area and removing unneeded metal; as a result, they are not only equally or more durable and stiff as the usual steel parts, but they possess an airy gracefulness which most people find attractive. Similarly, aluminium bicycle frames can be optimally designed so as to provide rigidity where required, yet have flexibility in terms of absorbing the shock of bumps from the road and not transmitting them to the rider. The strength and durability of aluminium varies widely, not only as a result of the components of the specific alloy, but also as a result of the particular manufacturing process; for this reason, it has from time to time gained a bad reputation. For instance, a high frequency of failure in many early aluminium bicycle frames in the [[1970]]s resulted in just such a poor reputation; with a moment's reflection, however, the widespread use of aluminium components in the [[aerospace]] and automotive high performance industries, where huge stresses are undergone with vanishingly small failure rates, proves that properly built aluminium bicycle components should not be unusually unreliable, and this has subsequently proved to be the case. Similarly, use of aluminium in automotive applications, particularly in engine parts which must survive in difficult conditions, has benefited from development over time. An [[Audi]] engineer commented about the V12 engine, producing over 500 horsepower (370 kW), of an [[Auto Union#The Auto Union racing cars |Auto Union race car]] of the [[1930s]] which was recently restored by the Audi factory, that the aluminium alloy of which the engine was constructed would today be used only for lawn furniture and the like. Even the aluminium [[cylinder head]]s and [[crankcase]] of the [[Corvair]], built as recently as the [[1960s]], earned a reputation for failure and stripping of [[thread]]s in holes, even as large as [[spark plug]] holes, which is not seen in current aluminium cylinder heads. Often, aluminium's sensitivity to heat must also be considered. Even a relatively routine workshop procedure involving heating is complicated by the fact that aluminium, as opposed to steels, will melt without first turning red. Forming operations where a [[blow torch]] is used therefore requires some expertise since no visual signs reveal how close the material is to melting. Aluminium also will accumulate internal stresses and strains under conditions of overheating; while not immediately obvious, the tendency of the metal to "creep" under sustained stresses results in delayed distortions, for instance the commonly observed warping or cracking of aluminium automobile cylinder heads after an engine is overheated, sometimes as long as years later, or the tendency of welded aluminium bicycle frames to gradually twist out of alignment from the stresses accumulated during the welding process. For this reason, many uses of aluminium in the aerospace industry avoid heat altogether by joining parts using [[adhesive]]s; this was also used for some of the early aluminium bicycle frames in the 1970s, with unfortunate results when the aluminium tubing corroded slightly, loosening the bond of the adhesive and leading to failure of the frame. Stresses from overheating aluminium can be relieved by heat-treating the parts in an oven and gradually cooling, in effect [[annealing (metallurgy)|annealing]] the stresses; this can also result, however, in the part becoming distorted as a result of these stresses, so that such heat-treating of welded bicycle frames, for instance, results in a significant fraction becoming misaligned. If the misalignment is not too severe, once cooled they can be bent back into alignment with no negative consequences; of course, if the frame is properly designed for rigidity (see above), this will require enormous force. ====Household wiring==== Because of its high conductivity and relatively low price compared to [[copper]] at the time, aluminium was introduced for household electrical wiring to a large degree in the United States in the 1960s. Unfortunately, many of the wiring fixtures at the time were not designed to accept aluminium wire. More specifically: * The greater [[coefficient of thermal expansion]] of aluminium, causes the wire to expand and contract relative to the dissimilar metal [[screw]] connection, eventually loosening the connection. * Pure aluminium has a tendency to "creep" under steady sustained pressure (to a greater degree as the temperature rises), again producing a degree of looseness in an initially tight connection. * [[Galvanic cell#Galvanic corrosion|Galvanic corrosion]] from the dissimilar metals increases the electrical resistance of the connection. In combination, these properties caused connections between electrical fixtures and aluminium wiring to overheat which resulted in several fires. As a result, aluminium household wiring has become unpopular, and in many jurisdictions it is not permitted in very small sizes in new construction. However, aluminium wiring can be safely used with fixtures whose connections are designed to avoid loosening and overheating. Older fixtures of this type are marked "Al/Cu", and newer ones are marked "CO/ALR". Otherwise, aluminium wiring can be terminated by [[crimp (metalworking)|crimping]] it to a short "[[pigtail]]" of copper wire, which can be treated as any other copper wire. A properly done crimp, requiring high pressure produced by the proper tool, is tight enough not only to eliminate any thermal expansion of the aluminium, but also to exclude any atmospheric oxygen and thus prevent corrosion between dissimilar metals. New alloys are used for aluminium building wire today in combination with aluminium terminations. Connections made with these standard industry products are as safe and reliable as copper connections. :''See also'':[[Aluminium wire]] ==History== The ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] used salts of this metal as dyeing [[mordant]]s and as astringents for dressing wounds, and [[alum]] is still used as a [[styptic]]. Further [[Joseph Needham]] suggested finds in 1974 showed the ancient Chinese used aluminium (''see "notes" linked above''). In 1761 [[Guyton de Morveau]] suggested calling the base alum 'alumine'. In 1808, [[Humphry Davy]] identified the existence of a metal base of alum, which he named (''see [[#Spelling|Spelling]] section''). [[Friedrich Woehler|Friedrich Wöhler]] is generally credited with isolating aluminium ([[Latin]] ''alumen'', [[alum]]) in 1827 by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium. However, the metal had been produced for the first time two years earlier in an impure form by the Danish physicist and chemist [[Hans Christian Ørsted]]. Therefore almanacs and chemistry sites often list Ørsted as the discoverer of aluminium.[http://www.chemicalelements.com/elements/al.html#isotopes] Still it would further be P. Berthier who discovered aluminium in bauxite ore and successfully extracted it. The Frenchman [[Henri Saint-Claire Deville]] improved Wöhler's method in 1846 and described his improvements in a book in 1859, chief among these being the substitution of sodium for the considerably more expensive potassium. The American [[Charles Martin Hall]] of [[Oberlin, OH]] applied for a [[patent]] (400655) in 1886 for an electrolytic process to extract aluminium using the same technique that was independently being developed by the Frenchman [[Paul Héroult]] in Europe. The invention of the [[Hall-Heroult process|Hall-Héroult process]] in 1886 made extracting aluminium from minerals cheaper, and is now the principal method in common use throughout the world. The Hall-Heroult process cannot produce Super Purity Aluminium directly. Upon approval of his patent in 1889, Hall, with the financial backing of [[Alfred E. Hunt]] of [[Pittsburgh, PA]], started the Pittsburgh Reduction Company, renamed to Aluminum Company of America in 1907, later shortened to [[Alcoa]]. [[Image:Eros-piccadilly-circus.jpg|thumb|right|The statue known as ''Eros'' in [[Piccadilly Circus]] London, was made in 1893 and is one of the first statues to be cast in aluminium.]] Aluminium was selected as the material to be used for the apex of the [[Washington Monument]], at a time when one [[ounce]] cost twice the daily wages of a common worker in the project. [http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/9511/Binczewski-9511.html] Germany became the world leader in aluminium production soon after [[Adolf Hitler]] seized power. By 1942, however, new hydroelectric power projects such as the [[Grand Coulee Dam]] gave the United States something Nazi Germany could not hope to compete with, namely the capability of producing enough aluminium to manufacture sixty thousand warplanes in four years. [http://www.phpsolvent.com/wordpress/?page_id=341] ==Natural occurrence== Although aluminium is the most abundant metallic element in Earth's crust (believed to be 7.5% to 8.1%), it is very rare in its free form and was once considered a [[precious metal]] more valuable than [[gold]]. [[Napoleon III of France]] had a set of aluminium plates reserved for his finest guests. Others had to make do with gold ones. Aluminium has been produced in commercial quantities for just over 100 years. Aluminium was, when it was first discovered, extremely difficult to separate from its ore. Aluminium is among the most difficult metals on Earth to refine, despite the fact that it is one of the planet's most common. The reason is that aluminium is oxidised very rapidly and that its oxide is an extremely stable compound that, unlike rust on iron, does not flake off. The very reason for which aluminium is used in many applications is why it is so hard to produce. Recovery of this metal from scrap (via [[recycling]]) has become an important component of the aluminium industry. Recycling involves simply melting the metal, which is far less expensive than creating it from ore. Refining aluminium requires enormous amounts of [[electricity]]; recycling it requires only 5% of the energy to produce it. A common practice since the early [[20th century|1900s]], aluminium recycling is not new. It was, however, a low-profile activity until the late 1960s when the exploding popularity of aluminium [[beverage can]]s finally placed recycling into the public consciousness. Other sources for recycled aluminium include automobile parts, windows and doors, appliances, containers and other products. Aluminium is a reactive metal and it is hard to extract it from its ore, [[aluminium oxide]] (Al<sub>2</sub>[[oxygen|O]]<sub>3</sub>). Direct reduction, with [[carbon]] for example, is not economically viable since aluminium oxide has a melting point of about 2000 °C. Therefore, it is extracted by [[electrolysis]] &mdash; the aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten [[cryolite]] and then reduced to the pure metal. By this process, the actual operational temperature of the reduction cells is around 950 to 980 °C. Cryolite was originally found as a mineral on Greenland, but has been replaced by a synthetic cryolite. Cryolite is a mixture of aluminium, [[sodium]], and [[calcium]] [[fluoride]]s: (Na<sub>3</sub>AlF<sub>6</sub>). The aluminium oxide (a white powder) is obtained by refining [[bauxite]], which is red since it contains 30 to 40% iron oxide. This is done using the so-called [[Bayer process]]. Previously, the [[Deville process]] was the predominant refining technology. The electrolytic process replaced the [[Wöhler process]], which involved the reduction of anhydrous [[aluminium chloride]] with [[potassium]]. Both of the [[electrode]]s used in the electrolysis of aluminium oxide are [[carbon]]. Once the ore is in the molten state, its ions are free to move around. The reaction at the negative [[cathode]] is :Al<sup>3+</sup> + 3 e<sup>-</sup> &rarr; Al Here the aluminium ion is being reduced (electrons are added). The aluminium metal then sinks to the bottom and is tapped off. At the positive electrode ([[anode]]) oxygen gas is formed: :2 O<sup>2-</sup> &rarr; O<sub>2</sub> + 4 e<sup>-</sup> This carbon [[anode]] is then oxidised by the oxygen. The anodes in a reduction must therefore be replaced regularly, since they are consumed in the process: :O<sub>2</sub> + C &rarr; CO<sub>2</sub> Contrary to the anodes, the cathodes are not consumed during the operation, since there is no oxygen present at the cathode. The carbon cathode is protected by the liquid aluminium inside the cells. Cathodes do erode, mainly due to electrochemical processes. After 5 to 10 years, depending on the current used in the electrolysis, a cell has to be reconstructed completely, because the cathodes are completely worn. Aluminium [[electrolysis]] with the [[Hall-Héroult]] process consumes a lot of energy, but alternative processes were always found to be less viable economically and/or ecologically. The world-wide average specific energy consumption is approximately 15±0.5 [[kilowatt-hour]]s per kilogram of aluminium produced (52 to 56 [[megajoule|MJ]]/kg). The most modern smelters reach approximately 12.8 kW·h/kg (46.1 MJ/kg). Reduction line current for older technologies are typically 100 to 200 kA. State-of-the-art smelters operate with about 350 kA. Trials have been reported with 500 kA cells. Electric power represents about 20 to 40% of the cost of producing aluminium, depending on the location of the aluminium smelter. Smelters tend to be located where electric power is plentiful and inexpensive, such as [[South Africa]], the [[South Island]] of [[New Zealand]], [[Australia]], [[China]], [[Middle-East]], [[Russia]], [[Iceland]] and [[Quebec]] in [[Canada]]. In 2004, [[China]] was the top world producer of aluminium. [[Suriname]] depends on aluminium exports for 70% of its export earnings.[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ns.html#Econ] ; see also [[:category:Aluminium minerals]] ==Isotopes== Aluminium has nine [[isotope]]s, whose mass numbers range from 23 to 30. Only <sup>27</sup>Al ([[stable isotope]]) and <sup>26</sup>Al ([[radioactive_decay|radioactive]] isotope, [[half life|''t''<sub>1/2</sub>]] = 7.2 &times; 10<sup>5</sup> [[year|y]]) occur naturally, however <sup>27</sup>Al has a natural abundance of 100%. <sup>26</sup>Al is produced from [[argon]] in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] by [[spallation]] caused by [[cosmic-ray]] [[proton]]s. Aluminium isotopes have found practical application in dating [[ocean|marine]] sediments, [[manganese]] nodules, glacial ice, [[quartz]] in [[Rock (geology)|rock]] exposures, and [[meteorite]]s. The ratio of <sup>26</sup>Al to <sup>10</sup>[[beryllium|Be]] has been used to study the role of transport, deposition, [[sediment]] storage, burial times, and erosion on 10<sup>5</sup> to 10<sup>6</sup> year time scales. [[Cosmogenic]] <sup>26</sup>Al was first applied in studies of the [[Moon]] and meteorites. Meteorite fragments, after departure from their parent bodies, are exposed to intense cosmic-ray bombardment during their travel through space, causing substantial <sup>26</sup>Al production. After falling to Earth, atmospheric shielding protects the meteorite fragments from further <sup>26</sup>Al production, and its decay can then be used to determine the meteorite's terrestrial age. Meteorite research has also shown that <sup>26</sup>Al was relatively abundant at the time of formation of our planetary system. Possibly, the energy released by the decay of <sup>26</sup>Al was responsible for the remelting and [[planetary differentiation|differentiation]] of some [[asteroids]] after their formation 4.6 billion years ago. ===Clusters=== In the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' of [[14 January]] [[2005]] it was reported that clusters of 13 aluminium atoms (Al<sub>13</sub>) had been made to behave like an [[iodine]] atom; and, 14 aluminium atoms (Al<sub>14</sub>) behaved like an [[alkaline earth]] atom. The researchers also bound 12 iodine atoms to an Al<sub>13</sub> cluster to form a new class of polyiodide. This discovery is reported to give rise to the possibility of a new characterisation of the [[periodic table]]: [[superatom]]s. The research teams were led by Shiv N. Khanna ([[Virginia Commonwealth University]]) and A. Welford Castleman Jr ([[Penn State University]]). [http://www.science.psu.edu/alert/Castleman1-2005.htm] ==Precautions== Aluminium is one of the few abundant elements that appears to have no beneficial function in living cells, but a few percent of people are allergic to it &mdash; they experience [[contact dermatitis]] from any form of it: an itchy [[rash]] from using [[styptic]] or antiperspirant products, digestive disorders and inability to absorb nutrients from eating food cooked in aluminium pans, and vomiting and other symptoms of poisoning from ingesting such products as [[Rolaids]] , Amphojel, and [[Maalox]] ([[antacid]]s). In other people, aluminium is not considered as toxic as heavy metals, but there is evidence of some toxicity if it is consumed in excessive amounts, although the use of aluminium cookware, popular because of its corrosion resistance and good [[heat conduction]], has not been shown to lead to aluminium toxicity in general. Excessive consumption of [[antacid]]s containing aluminium compounds and excessive use of aluminium-containing [[antiperspirant]]s are more likely causes of [[toxicity]]. It has been suggested that aluminium may be linked to [[Alzheimer's disease]], although that research has recently been refuted; aluminium accumulation may be a consequence of the Alzheimer's damage, not the cause. In any event, if there is any toxicity of aluminium it must be via a very specific mechanism, since total human exposure to the element in the form of naturally occurring clay in soil and dust is enormously large over a lifetime. Care must be taken to prevent aluminium from coming into contact with certain chemicals that can cause it to [[corrode]] quickly. For example, just a small amount of [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] applied to the surface of a piece of aluminium can break up the aluminium oxide barrier usually present. Within a few hours, even a heavy structural beam can be significantly weakened. For this reason, mercury [[thermometer]]s are not allowed on many [[airliner]]s, as aluminium is a common structural component in aircraft. ==Spelling== ===Etymology/Nomenclature history=== In [[1808]], [[Humphry Davy]] originally proposed the name ''alumium'' while trying to isolate the new metal electrolytically from the mineral ''[[alumina]]''. In [[1812]] he changed the name to ''aluminum'' to match its [[Latin]] root. The same year, an anonymous contributor to the ''Quarterly Review'' objected to ''aluminum'', and proposed the name ''aluminium''. <blockquote> Aluminium, for so we shall take the liberty of writing the word, in preference to aluminum, which has a less classical sound. (Q. Review VIII. 72, 1812) </blockquote> This had the advantage of conforming to the -ium suffix precedent set by other newly discovered elements of the period: [[potassium]], [[sodium]], [[magnesium]], [[calcium]], and [[strontium]] (all of which Davy had isolated himself). Nevertheless, -um spellings for elements were not unknown at the time: [[platinum]], which had been known to Europeans since the 16th century, [[molybdenum]], which was discovered in 1778, and [[tantalum]], which was discovered in 1802, all have spellings ending in -um. The United States adopted the -ium for most of the [[19th century]] with ''aluminium'' appearing in [[Noah Webster|Webster]]'s Dictionary of 1828. However in 1892 [[Charles Martin Hall]] used the -um spelling in an advertising handbill for his new efficient electrolytic method for the production of aluminium, despite using the -ium spelling in all of his patents filed between 1886 and 1903. It has consequently been suggested that the spelling on the flyer was a simple spelling mistake rather than a deliberate choice to use the -um spelling. Hall's domination of production of the metal ensured that the spelling ''aluminum'' became the standard in North America, even though the ''Webster Unabridged Dictionary'' of 1913 continued to use the -ium version. In 1926, the [[American Chemical Society]] officially decided to use ''aluminum'' in its publications, and American dictionaries typically label the spelling ''aluminium'' as a British variant. ===Present-day spelling=== In the English-speaking world, the spellings (and associated pronunciations) ''aluminium'' and ''aluminum'' are both in common use in scientific and nonscientific contexts. In the United States, the spelling ''aluminium'' is largely unknown, and the spelling ''aluminum'' predominates. Elsewhere in the English-speaking world the spelling ''aluminium'' predominates, and the spelling ''aluminum'' is largely unknown. However, in Canada both spellings are common, due to the multiple influences on the language of its proximity to the United States, its British colonial past and the large number of native French speakers. Outside English, the "ium" spelling is widespread: the word is ''aluminium'' in [[French language|French]], ''Aluminium'' in [[German language|German]], and identical or similar forms are used in many other languages. Consequently it is the more common of the two spellings in global terms, even though there may be more users of ''aluminum'' in the English-speaking world. The [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] (IUPAC) adopted ''aluminium'' as the standard international name for the element in 1990, but three years later recognised ''aluminum'' as an acceptable variant. Hence their periodic table includes both, but places aluminium first [http://www.iupac.org/reports/periodic_table/index.html]. IUPAC officially prefers the use of aluminium in its internal publications, although several IUPAC publications use the spelling ''aluminum.''[http://www.iupac.org/cgi-bin/htsearch?sort=score&restrict=www.iupac.org%2Fpublications%2Fci&config=htdig&restrict=&exclude=www.iupac.org%2Fgoldbook%2F&words=aluminum&submit=] ==Chemistry== ===Oxidation state 1=== *AlH is produced when aluminium is heated at 1500 °C in an atmosphere of [[hydrogen]]. *Al<sub>2</sub>O is made by heating the normal oxide, Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, with [[silicon]] at 1800 °C in a [[vacuum]]. *Al<sub>2</sub>S can be made by heating Al<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub> with aluminium shavings at 1300 °C in a vacuum. It quickly disproportionates to the starting materials. The selenide is made in a parallel manner. *AlF, AlCl and AlBr exist in the gaseous phase when the tri-halide is heated with aluminium. ===Oxidation state 2=== *Aluminium suboxide, AlO can be shown to be present when aluminium powder burns in oxygen. ===Oxidation state 3=== *[[Fajans rules]] show that the simple trivalent cation Al<sup>3+</sup> is not expected to be found in anhydrous salts or binary compounds such as Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>. The hydroxide is a weak base and aluminium salts of weak bases, such as carbonate, can't be prepared. The salts of strong acids, such as nitrate, are stable and soluble in water, forming hydrates with at least six molecules of [[water of crystallization]]. *Aluminium hydride, (AlH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>n</sub>, can be produced from [[trimethylaluminium]] and an excess of hydrogen. It burns explosively in air. It can also be prepared by the action of [[aluminium chloride]] on lithium hydride in ether solution, but cannot be isolated free from the solvent. *Aluminium carbide, Al<sub>4</sub>C<sub>3</sub> is made by heating a mixture of the elements above 1000 °C. The pale yellow crystals have a complex lattice structure, and react with water or dilute acids to give [[methane]]. The acetylide, Al<sub>2</sub>(C<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>, is made by passing [[acetylene]] over heated aluminium. *Aluminium nitride, AlN, can be made from the elements at 800 °C. It is hydrolysed by water to form [[ammonia]] and aluminium hydroxide. *Aluminium phosphide, AlP, is made similarly, and hydrolyses to give [[phosphine]]. *Aluminium oxide, Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, occurs naturally as [[corundum]], and can be made by burning aluminium in oxygen or by heating the hydroxide, nitrate or sulfate. As a [[gemstone]], its hardness is only exceeded by [[diamond]], [[boron nitride]] and [[carborundum]]. It is almost insoluble in water. *Aluminium hydroxide may be prepared as a gelatinous precipitate by adding ammonia to an aqueous solution of an aluminium salt. It is [[amphoteric]], being both a very weak acid, and forming aluminates with [[alkali]]s. It exists in various crystalline forms. *Aluminium sulfide, Al<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>, may be prepared by passing [[hydrogen sulfide]] over aluminium powder. It is [[polymorphic]]. *Aluminium fluoride, AlF<sub>3</sub>, is made by treating the hydroxide with HF, or can be made from the elements. It consists of a giant molecule which sublimes without melting at 1291 °C. It is very inert. The other trihalides are dimeric, having a bridge-like structure. *Organo-metallic compounds of empirical formula AlR<sub>3</sub> exist and, if not also giant molecules, are at least [[dimer]]s or trimers. They have some uses in [[organic synthesis]], for instance [[trimethylaluminium]]. *Alumino-hydrides of the most electropositive elements are known, the most useful being [[lithium aluminium hydride]], Li[AlH<sub>4</sub>]. It decomposes into lithium hydride, aluminium and hydrogen when heated, and is hydrolysed by water. It has many uses in organic chemistry, particularly as a reducing agent. The aluminohalides have a similar structure. ==Aluminium in popular culture== * In the film ''[[Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home]]'', [[Montgomery Scott|Scotty]] devises the fictional material [[transparent aluminum]]. ==See also== * [[List of alloys#Alloys of aluminium|Alloys of aluminium]]. ==References== <references/> *[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/13.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Aluminum] *[http://www.worldwidewords.org/articles/aluminium.htm World Wide Words] A history of the spelling of aluminium from a British viewpoint. *[[Oxford English Dictionary]] Entries "aluminum" and "aluminium", available by subscription. [http://www.oed.com] ==External links== {{Commons|Aluminium}} *[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Al/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Aluminium] *[http://www.world-aluminium.org/ World Aluminium] *[http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/aluminum/aluminum_table12.html World production of primary aluminum, by country] *[http://www.saanet.org/kashipur/docs/seenalum.htm Social and Environmental Impact of the Aluminium Industry] *[http://sam.davyson.com/as/physics/aluminium/normal/redirect.html Sam's Aluminium Information Site] *[http://www.world-aluminium.org/history/index.html History of Aluminium] '''Patents''' *US[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=400664.WKU.&OS=PN/400664&RS=PN/400664 400664] – ''Process of reducing aluminum from its floride salts by electrolysis'' – C. M. Hall [[Category:Chemical elements]] [[Category:Poor metals]] [[Category:Inorganic pigments]] [[Category:Pyrotechnic chemicals]] [[Category:Rocket fuels]] [[Category:Structural engineering]] {{Link FA|fr}} [[af:Aluminium]] [[ar:ألمنيوم]] [[bs:Aluminijum]] [[ca:Alumini]] [[cs:Hliník]] [[cy:Alwminiwm]] [[da:Aluminium]] [[de:Aluminium]] [[et:Alumiinium]] [[es:Aluminio]] [[eo:Aluminio]] [[fr:Aluminium]] [[gd:Alman]] [[gl:Aluminio (elemento)]] [[ko:알루미늄]] [[hr:Aluminij]] [[io:Aluminio]] [[id:Aluminium]] [[is:Ál]] [[it:Alluminio]] [[he:אלומיניום]] [[ku:Bafûn]] [[la:Aluminium]] [[lv:Alumīnijs]] [[lt:Aliuminis]] [[lb:Aluminium]] [[hu:Alumínium]] [[mi:Konumohe]] [[nl:Aluminium]] [[ja:アルミニウム]] [[no:Aluminium]] [[nn:Aluminium]] [[pl:Glin]] [[pt:Alumínio]] [[ru:Алюминий]] [[simple:Aluminium]] [[sl:Aluminij]] [[sr:Алуминијум]] [[fi:Alumiini]] [[sv:Aluminium]] [[th:อะลูมิเนียม]] [[vi:Nhôm]] [[uk:Алюміній]] [[zh:铝]] 905 40787499 2006-02-23T00:40:33Z Bobby1011 278977 Discography added. '''Advanced Chemistry''' are a German [[hip hop music|hip hop]] [[band (music)|band]] from Heidelberg. Members include [[Toni L]], [[Linguist (rapper)|Linguist]], [[Torch (rapper)|Torch]]; affiliated: [[Boulevard Bou]]. ==Discography== * [[1992]] - Fremd im eigenen Land (12"/MCD, MZEE) * [[1993]] - Welcher Pfad führt zur Geschichte (12"/MCD, MZEE) * [[1994]] - Operation § 3 (12"/MCD) * [[1994]] - Dir fehlt der Funk! (12"/MCD) * [[1995]] - Advanced Chemistry (2xLP/CD) {{Germany-band-stub}} [[Category:Hip hop groups]] [[Category:German musical groups]] [[als:Advanced Chemistry]] [[de:Advanced Chemistry]] 906 39146722 2006-02-11T00:34:19Z Tokle 199106 +no {{Wiktionary|abdication}} '''Abdication''' (from the [[Latin]] ''abdicatio'', disowning, renouncing, from ''ab'', from, and ''dicare'', to declare, to proclaim as not belonging to one) is the act of renouncing and resigning from a formal office, especially from the supreme office of [[state]]. (In [[Roman law]] the term was also applied to the disowning of a family member, as the disinheriting of a son.) A similar term for an elected or appointed official is [[resignation]]. ==Abdications in Classical Antiquity== Among the most memorable abdications of antiquity were those of [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]] the [[Roman Dictator|Dictator]] in [[79 BC]], [[Roman Emperor|Emperor]] [[Diocletian]] in [[305|AD 305]], and Emperor [[Romulus Augustus]] in [[476|AD 476]]. ==The British Crown== Probably the most famous abdication in recent memory is that of King [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom]] in [[1936]]. Edward abdicated the British throne in order to marry American divorcée [[Wallis Simpson]], over the objections of the British establishment, the governments of the [[Commonwealth]], the royal family and the [[Church of England]]. (''See'' [[Abdication Crisis of Edward VIII]].) This was also the first time in history that the British crown was surrendered entirely voluntarily. [[Richard II of England]], for example, was forced to abdicate after the throne was seized by his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, while Richard was out of the country. When [[James II of England]], after throwing the [[Great Seal of the Realm]] into the [[Thames]], fled to [[France]] in [[1688]], he did not formally resign the crown, and the question was discussed in Parliament whether he had forfeited the throne or had abdicated. The latter designation was agreed upon, for in a full assembly of the Lords and Commons, met in convention, it was resolved in spite of James's protest "''that King James II having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, by breaking the original contract between king and people, and, by the advice of [[Jesuits]] and other wicked persons, having violated the fundamental laws, and having withdrawn himself out of this kingdom, has abdicated the government, and that the throne is thereby vacant.''" The [[Scottish parliament]] pronounced a decree of [[forfeiture]] and [[deposition]]. Because the title to the Crown depends upon [[statute]], particularly the [[Act of Settlement 1701]], a Royal Abdication can only be effected by an [[Act of Parliament]]. To give legal effect to the abdication of King [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom]], His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 was passed. ==Modern abdications== Historically, if a monarch abdicated it was seen as a profound and shocking abandonment of royal duty. As a result, abdications usually only occurred in the most extreme circumstances of political turmoil or violence. This has changed in a small number of countries: the monarchs of the [[Netherlands]], [[Luxembourg]] and [[Cambodia]] have abdicated as a result of old age. Prince [[Hans-Adam II of Liechtenstein]] recently made his son [[regent]], an act which amounted to an abdication in fact if not in law. ==List== The following is a list of the important abdications: {| border="0" cellpadding="0" |- | align="left" | [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]] | align="right" | [[79 BC]] |- | align="left" | [[Diocletian]] || align="right" | [[305|AD 305]] |- | align="left" | [[Pope Benedict IX]] | align="right" | 1048 |- | align="left" | [[Isaac I Comnenus]] || align="right" | 1059 |- | align="left" | [[Emperor Huizong of Song China]] | align="right" | [[January 18]], [[1126]] |- | align="left" | [[Stephen II of Hungary]] | align="right" | 1131 |- | align="left" | [[Albert I of Brandenburg]] | align="right" | 1169 |- | align="left" | [[Ladislaus III]] of [[Poland]] | align="right" | 1206 |- | align="left" | [[Pope Celestine V]] | align="right" | [[December 13]], [[1294]] |- | align="left" | [[John Baliol of Scotland]] | align="right" | 1296 |- | align="left" | [[John Cantacuzene]], emperor of the East | align="right" | 1355 |- | align="left" | [[Richard II of England]] | align="right" | [[September 29]], [[1399]] |- | align="left" | [[Antipope John XXIII|Baldassare Cossa, Antipope John XXIII]] | align="right" | 1415 |- | align="left" | [[Eric VII of Denmark|Eric VII of Denmark or Erik XIII of Sweden]] | align="right" | 1439 |- | align="left" | [[Amadeus VIII of Savoy]] | align="right" | 1440 |- | align="left" | [[Murad II]], [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Sultan | align="right" | 1444 and 1445 |- | align="left" | [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]] <sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup> | align="right" | 1555-[[1556]] |- | align="left" | [[Christina of Sweden]] | align="right" | [[June 6]], [[1654]] |- | align="left" | [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary Queen of Scots]] | align="right" | [[July 24]], [[1567]] |- | align="left" | [[John II of Poland|John Casimir of Poland]] | align="right" | 1668 |- | align="left" | [[James II of England]] | align="right" | 1688 |- | align="left" | [[Frederick Augustus I of Poland|Frederick Augustus of Poland]] | align="right" | 1706 |- | align="left" | [[Philip V of Spain]] | align="right" | 1724 |- | align="left" | [[Victor Amadeus II of Savoy|Victor Amadeus]] of [[Sardinia]] | align="right" | 1730 |- | align="left" | Ahmed III, Ottoman Sultan | align="right" | 1730 |- | align="left" | Charles of Naples (on accession to throne of Spain) | align="right" | 1759 |- | align="left" | [[Stanislaus II of Poland]] | align="right" | 1795 |- | align="left" | [[Qianlong Emperor of China]] | align="right" | [[February 9]], [[1796]] |- | align="left" | [[Charles Emmanuel IV of Savoy|Charles Emanuel IV]] of [[Sardinia]] | align="right" | [[June 4]], [[1802]] |- | align="left" | [[Charles IV of Spain]] | align="right" | [[March 19]], [[1808]] |- | align="left" | Joseph Bonaparte of Naples | align="right" | [[June 6]], [[1808]] |- | align="left" | [[Gustav IV of Sweden]] | align="right" | [[March 29]], [[1809]] |- | align="left" | Louis Bonaparte of [[Kingdom of Holland|Holland]] | align="right" | [[July 2]], [[1810]] |- | align="left" | [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon I, French Emperor]] | align="right" | [[April 4]], [[1814]], and [[June 22]], [[1815]] |- | align="left" | [[Victor Emmanuel I of Savoy|Victor Emanuel]] of [[Sardinia]] | align="right" | [[March 13]], [[1821]] |- | align="left" | [[Charles X of France]] | align="right" | [[August 2]], [[1830]] |- | align="left" | [[Peter IV of Portugal|Pedro IV of Portugal]] <sup>[[#Notes|2]]</sup> | align="right" | [[May 28]], [[1826]] |- | align="left" | [[Peter I of Brazil|Pedro I of Brazil]] <sup>[[#Notes|2]]</sup> | align="right" | [[April 7]], [[1831]] |- | align="left" | [[Miguel of Portugal]] | align="right" | [[May 26]], [[1834]] |- | align="left" | [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]] of the [[Netherlands]] | align="right" | [[October 7]], [[1840]] |- | align="left" | [[Louis-Philippe of France|Louis Philippe, King of the French]] | align="right" | [[February 24]], [[1848]] |- | align="left" | [[Ludwig I of Bavaria|Louis Charles of Bavaria]] | align="right" | [[March 21]], [[1848]] |- | align="left" | [[Ferdinand I of Austria|Ferdinand of Austria]] | align="right" | [[December 2]], [[1848]] |- | align="left" | [[Charles Albert of Savoy|Charles Albert]] of [[Sardinia]] | align="right" | [[March 23]], [[1849]] |- | align="left" | Leopold II of [[Tuscany]] | align="right" | [[July 21]], [[1859]] |- | align="left" | [[Isabella II of Spain]] | align="right" | [[June 25]], [[1870]] |- | align="left" | [[Amadeus I of Spain]] | align="right" | [[February 11]], [[1873]] |- | align="left" | [[Alexander of Bulgaria]] | align="right" | [[September 7]], [[1886]] |- | align="left" | [[Milan II of Serbia|Milan of Serbia]] | align="right" | [[March 6]], [[1889]] |- | align="left" | [[Liliuokalani|Lili{{okina}}uokalani of Hawai{{okina}}i]] | align="right" | [[January 17]], [[1893]] (monarchy abolished) |- | align="left" | [[Ai-xin-jue-luo Pu-yi|Xuantong Emperor of China]] | align="right" | [[February 12]], [[1912]] (monarchy abolished) |- | align="left" | [[Nicholas II of Russia]] | align="right" | [[March 15]], [[1917]] (monarchy abolished) |- | align="left" | [[Wilhelm II of Germany]] | align="right" | [[November 9]], [[1918]] (monarchy abolished) |- | align="left" | [[Prajadhipok|Prajadhipok of Siam]] | align="right" | [[March 2]], [[1935]] |- | align="left" | [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom]] | align="right" | [[December 11]], [[1936]] |- | align="left" | [[Carol II of Romania]] | align="right" | [[September 6]], [[1940]] |- | align="left" | [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy]] | align="right" | [[May 9]], [[1946]] |- | align="left" | [[Wilhelmina of the Netherlands]] | align="right" | [[September 4]], [[1948]] |- | align="left" | [[Léopold III of Belgium|Léopold III, King of the Belgians]] | align="right" | [[July 16]], [[1951]] |- | align="left" | [[Farouk I of Egypt]] | align="right" | [[July 26]], [[1952]] |- | align="left" | [[Fuad II of Egypt]] | align="right" | [[June 18]], [[1953]] (Monarchy abolished) |- | align="left" | [[Juliana of the Netherlands]] | align="right" | [[April 30]], [[1980]] |- | align="left" | [[Jean of Luxembourg]] | align="right" | [[October 7]], [[2000]] |- | align="left" | [[Hans-Adam II of Liechtenstein]]<sup>[[#Notes|3]]</sup> | align-"right" | [[August 15]], [[2004]] (Made his son regent) |- | align="left" | [[Norodom Sihanouk]] of [[Cambodia]] | align="right" | [[October 7]], [[2004]] |- | align="left" | [[Saad Al-Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah]] of [[Kuwait]] | align="right" | [[January 23]], [[2006]] |} ==Notes== <sup>1</sup>Charles abdicated as lord of the [[Netherlands]] ([[October 25]], [[1555]]) and king of [[Spain]] ([[January 16]], [[1556]]), in favor of his son [[Philip II of Spain]]. Also in 1556 he separately voluntarily abdicated his German possessions and the title of [[Holy Roman Emperor]].<br /> <sup>2</sup>Pedro IV of Portugal and Pedro I of Brazil were the same person. He was already Emperor of Brazil when he succeeded to the throne of Portugal in 1826, but abdicated it at once in favour of his daughter [[Maria II of Portugal]]. Later he abdicated the throne of Brazil in favor of his son [[Pedro II of Brazil|Pedro II]]. <br /> <sup>3</sup>Hans-Adam II made his son [[Alois of Liechtenstein|Alois]] regent, effectively abdicating; however, he still remains the formal Head of State. ==See also== {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abdication}} *[[Lists of incumbents]] *[[List of monarchs who lost their thrones or abdicated in the 20th century]] *[[Papal abdication]] *[[The Great Abdication]] ==References== * Public domain 1911 edition of ''The New Century Book of Facts'' published by the King-Richardson Company, Springfield, Massachusetts. [[Category:Monarchy]] [[bg:Абдикация]] [[de:Abdikation]] [[eo:Abdiko]] [[es:Abdicación]] [[fr:Abdication]] [[hr:Abdikacija]] [[nl:Abdicatie]] [[no:Abdikasjon]] [[pl:Abdykacja]] [[ru:Абдикация]] [[sv:Abdikation]] 907 15899420 2002-11-04T17:01:04Z Malcolm Farmer 135 #REDIRECT [[AWK programming language]] 908 15899421 2003-06-08T23:53:32Z Eloquence 52 #REDIRECT [[Nomic]] 909 41933843 2006-03-02T18:53:26Z Batmanand 131948 /* What holds the Communion together? */ removed "- -" [[Image:CompassRose.gif|thumb|The Anglican Communion uses the [[compass rose]] as its symbol, signifying its worldwide reach and decentralized nature. It is surmounted, like ecclesiastical coats of arms, by a bishop's [[mitre]]; in the center is a [[St. George's cross | cross of St. George]] recalling the communion's origins in the [[Church of England]]. The [[Greek language | Greek]] motto, &#7977; &#7936;&lambda;&#942;&theta;&epsilon;&iota;&alpha; &#7952;&lambda;&epsilon;&upsilon;&theta;&epsilon;&rho;&#974;&sigma;&epsilon;&iota; &#8017;&mu;&#8118;&sigmaf; ("The truth will set you free") is a quotation from [[Gospel of John|John]] 8:32.]] The '''Anglican Communion''' is a world-wide organisation of [[Anglican]] Churches. There is no single "Anglican Church" since each national or regional church has full autonomy; as the name suggests, rather, the Anglican ''Communion'' is an association of these churches in [[full communion]] with each other and particularly with the [[Church of England]], which may be regarded as the "mother church" of the worldwide communion. As a result, all [[rite]]s conducted in one member church are recognised by the others. Some of these churches are known as Anglican, explicitly recognising the link to England; others, such as the American and Scottish [[Episcopal Church| Episcopal]] churches, or the [[Church of Ireland]], prefer a specific name. Each church has its own [[doctrine]] and [[liturgy]], based in most cases on that of the Church of England; and each church has its own legislative process and overall episcopal leadership from a local [[primate (religion) | primate]]. The [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], religious head of the Church of England, has no formal authority outside that country; but is recognised as a symbolic head for the worldwide communion. Among the other primates, he is ''primus inter pares'', or "[[first among equals]]." If the Archbishop of Canterbury is compared with other religious leaders such as the [[Pope]], therefore, it is only because of his prominent figurehead role in the media. He has no formal authority outside his own province. Although they are not considered members, some non-Anglican bodies have entered into communion with the Anglican Communion despite having non-Anglican origins and traditions. There are also a number of Anglican-type bodies which separated from a member church of the Anglican Communion and thus are no longer in communion with the Church of England. They tend to call themselves "[[Anglican continuing churches|continuing churches]]." ==What holds the Communion together?== {{Anglicanism}} The Anglican Communion has no official legal existence nor any formal governing structure. (There is an "[[Anglican Communion Office]]" in London, under the aegis of the Archbishop of Canterbury; but it serves merely a supporting and organisational role.) Some have asked what holds the communion together. The first attempt at an answer was the [[Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral]] of [[1888]]. Proposed by the American Episcopal Church in 1886 and adopted by the [[Lambeth Conference]] of 1888, it set out four principles for future Christian unity. Although wider union has not followed, the quadrilateral has been useful within the communion itself. The quadrilateral, according to the wording adopted in Lambeth ([http://anglicansonline.org/basics/Chicago_Lambeth.html]), consists of: # "The Holy Scriptures of the [[Old Testament | Old]] and [[New Testament]]s, as 'containing all things necessary to salvation', and as being the rule and ultimate standard of faith." # "The [[Apostles' Creed]], as the Baptismal Symbol; and the [[Nicene Creed]], as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith." # "The two [[Sacrament]]s ordained by Christ Himself - Baptism and the Supper of the Lord - ministered with unfailing use of Christ's words of Institution, and of the elements ordained by Him." # "The Historic [[bishop|Episcopate]], locally adapted in the methods of its administration to the varying needs of the nations and peoples called of God into the Unity of His Church." This, then, is the theoretical basis for unity. But what holds it together organisationally? In the last few years people have began to refer to four "Instruments of Unity", which are effectively symbols to which all the churches of the communion can feel tied. In order of antiquity, they are: * The [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (''ab origine'') * The [[Lambeth Conference]] (first held in [[1867]]) * The [[Anglican Consultative Council]] (first met in [[1971]]) * The [[Anglican Communion Primates' Meeting | Primates' Meeting]] (first met in [[1979]]) Since each province is legally independent and free to chart its own course, the stress on these instruments of unity can easily be imagined. In recent years, for example, some Anglicans (particularly in Africa and Asia) have been displeased with the American and Canadian branches, upset by their welcoming attitudes towards homosexuals, and by the confident way the changes have been made &mdash; the conservatives condemned the action as unilateral and called for wider consultation within the communion before such steps were taken. After the North American churches reaffirmed their belief that their actions had been righteous and "prophetic", they were asked to withdraw their delegates from the 2005 meeting of the Anglican Consultative Council, although it is not clear under whose authority or by what law. They were eventually permitted at the meeting with voice, but no vote. They have not been expelled or suspended from the ''communion''; indeed, no church ever has. It is unclear how such an expulsion could ever be carried out, since the communion is not a disciplinary entity but a spiritual construct based entirely on the New Testament concept of [[koinonia]]. ==Provinces of the Anglican Communion== The term "province" in this context refers to national churches, many of which themselves contain several provinces in the sense of groups of dioceses presided over by an archbishop. According to the Secretariat of the Anglican Communion, currently the member churches of the Anglican Communion are as follows: *The [[Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia]] *The [[Anglican Church of Australia]] *The [[Church of Bangladesh]] *The [[Episcopal Anglican Church of Brazil]] *The [[Anglican Church of Burundi]] *The [[Anglican Church of Canada]] *The Church of the Province of Central Africa *The Anglican Church in the Central Region of America *The Church of the Province of the Congo *The [[Church of England]] *Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui *The Church of the Province of the Indian Ocean *The [[Church of Ireland]] *The Nippon Sei Ko Kai (The Anglican Communion in Japan) *The [[Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and The Middle East]] *The [[Anglican Church of Kenya]] *The Anglican Church of Korea *The [[Church of the Province of Melanesia]] *The [[Anglican Church of Mexico]] *The Church of the Province of Myanmar (Burma) *The [[Church of Nigeria]] *The [[Church of North India]] *The [[Church of Pakistan]] *The [[Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea]] *The Episcopal Church in the Philippines *The Episcopal Church of Rwanda *The [[Scottish Episcopal Church]] *Church of the Province of South East Asia *The [[Church of South India]] *The [[Church of the Province of Southern Africa]] *The Anglican Church of the Southern Cone of the Americas *The Episcopal Church of the Sudan *The Anglican Church of Tanzania *The Church of the Province of Uganda *The [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]] *The [[Church in Wales]] *The Church of the Province of West Africa *The Church in the Province of the West Indies *The [[Church of Ceylon]] (Extra-Provincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury) *The Episcopal Church of Cuba *Bermuda (Extra-Provincial to Canterbury) *The [[Lusitanian Catholic Apostolic Evangelical Church]] of [[Portugal]] (Extra-Provincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury) *The Reformed Episcopal Church of Spain (Extra-Provincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury) *Falkland Islands (Extra-Provincial to Canterbury) ==History== ''Main article: see [[History of the Anglican Communion]]'' The Anglican Communion is a relatively recent concept. Ever since the [[Church of England]] (which until the [[20th century]] included the [[Church in Wales]]) broke from [[Roman Catholic Church | Rome]] in the reign of [[Henry VIII of England | Henry VIII]], it has thought of itself not as a new foundation but rather as a reformed continuation of the ancient "English church" and a reassertion of that church's rights. As such it was a distinctly local phenomenon. Thus the only members of the present Anglican Communion existing by the late 18th century were the Church of England, its closely-linked sister church, the [[Church of Ireland]] (which also broke from Rome under Henry VIII), and the [[Scottish Episcopal Church]], which for parts of the [[17th century | 17th]] and [[18th century | 18th centuries]] was partially underground (it was suspected of [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] sympathies). However, the enormous expansion in the 18th and 19th centuries of the [[British Empire]] brought the church along with it. At first all these colonial churches were under the jurisdiction of the [[Bishop of London]]. After the [[American Revolution]], the parishes in the newly independent country found it necessary to break formally from a church whose earthly head was (and remains) the [[British monarchy | British monarch]]. Thus they formed their own dioceses and national church, the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]], in a mostly amicable separation. At about the same time, in the colonies which remained linked to the crown, the Church of England began to appoint colonial bishops. In 1787 a bishop of [[Nova Scotia]] was appointed with a jurisdiction over all of British North America; in time several more colleagues were appointed to other cities in present-day [[Canada]]. In [[1814]] a bishop of [[Calcutta]] was made; in [[1824]] the first bishop was sent to the [[West Indies]] and in [[1836]] to [[Australia]]. By 1840 there were still only ten colonial bishops for the Church of England; but even this small beginning greatly facilitated the growth of Anglicanism around the world. In [[1841]] a "Colonial Bishoprics Council" was set up and soon many more dioceses were created. In time, it became natural to group these into provinces, and a [[metropolitan bishop | metropolitan]] appointed for each province. Although it had at first been somewhat established in many colonies, in [[1861]] it was ruled that, except where specifically established, the Church of England had just the same legal position as any other church. Thus a colonial bishop and colonial diocese was by nature quite a different thing from their counterparts back home. In time bishops came to be appointed locally rather than from England, and eventually national synods began to pass ecclesiastical legislation independent of England. A crucial step in the development of the modern communion was the idea of the [[Lambeth Conferences]]. In [[1867]], at the suggestion of the Canadian [[synod]], the then Archbishop of Canterbury, [[Charles Thomas Langley]], invited a great conference of bishops to meet with him at [[Lambeth Palace]]. By inviting the bishops of the Churches of England and Ireland, those of the semi-autonomous colonial churches, and those of the fully autonomous [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]], he set a precedent that they all could meet together despite the absence of universal legal ties. Some bishops were initially reluctant to attend, fearing that the meeting would declare itself a council with power to legislate for the church; but it agreed to pass only advisory resolutions. These Lambeth Conferences have been held decennially since 1878 (the second such conference), and remain the most visible coming-together of the whole communion. ==Recent controversies== Recent disagreements over homosexuality have strained the unity of the communion as well as its relationships with other Christian denominations; see [[Anglican views of homosexuality]]. ==Relationship with the Roman Catholic Church== Efforts have been underway at least since 1966 to effect a reconciliation with the [[Roman Catholic Church]], focusing on theological issues [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/angl-comm-docs/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_19660324_paul-vi-ramsey_en.html] and ways "to further the convergence on authority in the Church. Without agreement in this area we shall not reach the full visible unity to which we are both committed." [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/angl-comm-docs/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_19961205_jp-ii-carey_en.html] ==See also== *[[Thirty-Nine Articles]] *[[Book of Common Prayer]] *[[Anglican Use]] *[[Anglican Communion Network]] *[[Affirming Catholicism]] *[[Sydney Anglicans]] ==External links== *[http://www.anglicancommunion.org/ Official website] *[http://anglican.org/church/NoCentral.html Decentralised nature of worldwide Anglicanism] *[http://www.gshep.org/information/vocabulary.htm Comprehensive Anglican vocabulary] *[http://www.anglican.tk/ the conservative ''Classical Anglican Net News'' website] *[http://www.anglicansonline.org/ Anglicans Online] *[http://www.anglicancommunion.org/index.cfm Anglican Communion Official Website] {{Template:Anglican Churches}} [[Category:Anglicanism]] [[Category:Christian group structuring]] [[de:Anglikanische Kommunion]] [[fr:Communion anglicane]] [[he:הכנסייה האנגליקנית]] [[ja:アングリカン・コミュニオン]] [[it:Comunione anglicana]] [[nl:Anglicaanse Kerk]] [[sh:Anglikanska crkva]] [[sr:Англиканство]] [[sv:Anglikanska kyrkogemenskapen]] [[vi:Anh giáo]] [[zh:普世聖公宗]] 910 37295775 2006-01-30T01:57:10Z D6 75561 adding [[category:Living people]] '''Arne Kaijser''' (born [[1950]]) is a professor of History of Technology at the [[Royal Institute of Technology]] in [[Stockholm]], and the head of the university's department of [[History of science and technology]]. Kaijser has published two books in [[Swedish language|Swedish]]: ''Stadens ljus. Etableringen av de första svenska gasverken'' and ''I fädrens spår. Den svenska infrastrukturens historiska utveckling och framtida utmaningar'', and has co-edited several anthologies. Kaijser is also a member of the editorial board of two scientific journals: ''[[Journal of Urban Technology]]'' and ''[[Centaurus (journal)|Centaurus]]''. Lately, he has been occupied with the history of [[Large Technical System]]s. == External links == * [http://www.indek.kth.se/indek/medarbetare/index.php?module=pnAddressBook&func=viewDetail&id=85&cat_id=16&prfx=0&lname=Kaijser&fname=Arne&sortname=Kaijser%2C+Arne&title=Professor&company=&sortcompany=&img=arnekaijser.jpg&zip=&city=&address1=&address2=&state=&country=&contact_1=&contact_2=&contact_3=&contact_4=&contact_5=&c_label_1=1&c_label_2=2&c_label_3=3&c_label_4=4&c_label_5=5&c_main=0&note=&user=91&private=0&date=1087393206&formcall=edit&authid=6cf17d59bec57532a03e9ae26c3ee526&catview=0&sortview=0&formsearch=&all=1&menuprivate=0&total=94&page=1&char= Homepage] *{{sv icon}} [http://www.indek.kth.se/indek/medarbetare/index.php?module=ContentExpress&func=display&ceid=11&bid=21&btitle=Personliga%20sidor&meid=19 Extended homepage] [[Category:1950 births|Kaijser, Arne]] [[Category:Living people|Kaijser, Arne]] [[Category:Swedish scholars|Kaijser, Arne]] 911 41732236 2006-03-01T10:13:33Z ChongDae 243919 +ko An '''archipelago''' is a [[landform]] which consists of a chain or cluster of [[island|islands]]. Archipelagoes usually occur in the open sea; less commonly a large [[land mass]] may neighbour them. Archipelagoes are often [[volcano|volcanic]], forming along [[ocean ridge]]s or [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspots]], but there are many other processes involved in their construction, including [[erosion]] and [[deposition (geology)|deposition]]. The word comes from the [[Aegean Sea]] ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''&#945;&#961;&#967;&#953;&#960;&#941;&#955;&#945;&#947;&#959;&#962;'', [[Italian language|Italian]] ''Arcipelago''), which literally means "chief sea", from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''arkhi'' (leader) and ''pelagos'' ([[sea]]). The Aegean Sea is located between [[Greece]] in the west and [[Turkey]] in the east. In the Aegean, the [[Venice|Venetian]] [[Duchy of the Archipelago|Dukes of the Archipelago]] ruled from [[Naxos, Greece|Naxos]], [[1210]]&ndash;[[1566]]. The [[Archipelago Exchange]] is a fully electronic [[stock exchange]] that agreed to merge with the [[New York Stock Exchange]] in April 2005 to form the for-profit NYSE Group. ==List of archipelagoes== *[[ABC islands]] *[[Aegean islands]] **[[Cyclades]] **[[Dodecanese]] *[[Aleutian Islands]] *[[Alexander Archipelago]] *[[Andaman Islands]] *[[Antilles]] (West Indies) **[[Greater Antilles]] ***[[Islands of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican Islands]] **[[Lesser Antilles]] ***[[Leeward Islands]] ***[[Windward Islands]] *[[Azores]] *[[Bahama Islands]] **[[Turks and Caicos Islands]] *[[Balearic Islands]] *[[Baltic Sea]] archipelagoes **[[Stockholm archipelago]] **[[Archipelago_Sea|Turku archipelago]] **[[Åland Islands]] ** Bermuda Islands *[[Bight of Bonny]] islands *[[British Isles]] **[[Channel Islands]] **[[Hebrides]] **[[Isles of Scilly]] **[[Orkney Islands]] **[[Shetland Islands]] *[[Canadian Arctic islands]] **[[Belcher Islands]] **[[Queen Elizabeth Islands]] *[[Chagos Archipelago]] *[[Channel Islands of California]] *[[Chausey]] *[[Chonos Archipelago]] *[[Comoro Islands]] *[[Diego Ramírez Islands]] *[[Falkland Islands]] (Malvinas) *[[Faroe Islands]] *[[Florida Keys]] *[[Fox Islands]] *[[Franz Josef Land]] *[[Frisian Islands]] (or Wadden Islands) **[[East Frisian Islands]] **[[North Frisian Islands]] **[[West Frisian Islands]] *[[Furneaux Group]] *[[Galápagos Islands]] (Colón *[[Gothenburg archipelago]] *[[Guayaneco Archipelago]] *[[Japanese Archipelago]] *[[Juan Fernández Islands]] *[[Kerguelen Islands]] *[[Kermadec Islands]] *[[Kornati]] *[[Lakshadweep]] (Laccadives) *[[Lofoten]] *[[Los Roques]] *[[Macaronesia]] **[[Canary Islands]] **[[Cape Verde Islands]] ***[[Barlavento]] ***[[Sotavento]] **[[Madeira Islands]] *[[Magdalen Islands]] *[[Malay archipelago]] (the world's largest) **[[Maluku Islands]] **[[Philippine Islands]] ***[[Luzon#Island_Group_of_Luzon|Luzon Group]] ***[[Mindanao#Island_Group_of_Mindanao|Mindanao Group]] ****[[Sulu Archipelago]] ***[[Visayas]] **[[Sunda Islands]] ***[[Greater Sunda Islands]] ***[[Lesser Sunda Islands]] *[[Maldives]] *[[Maltese islands]] *[[Mascarene Islands]] **[[Seychelles Islands]] ***[[Aldabra Group]] ***[[Amirante Islands]] ***[[Farquhar Group]] *[[Melanesia]] **[[Bismarck Archipelago]] **[[Fiji Islands]] **[[New Caledonia]] (Kanaky) ***[[Loyalty Islands]] **[[Solomon Islands]] **[[Vanuatu]] (New Hebrides) *[[Mergui Archipelago]] *[[Micronesia]] **[[Caroline Islands]] **[[Gilbert Islands]] (Kiribati) **[[Line Islands]] **[[Mariana Islands]] **[[Marshall Islands]] ***[[Ralik Chain]] ***[[Ratak Chain]] **[[Palau]] **[[Phoenix Islands]] *[[New Siberian Islands]] *[[Nicobar Islands]] *[[New England]] and [[New York]] islands ([[Manhattan]], [[City Island]], [[Long Island]], [[Rikers Island]], [[Roosevelt Island]], [[Staten Island]], [[Block Island]], [[Nantucket]], [[Martha's Vineyard]], [[Liberty Island]], [[Ellis Island]], [[Governors Island]], [[Long Beach Island]], [[Elizabeth Islands]]) *[[Novaya Zemlya]] islands *[[Polynesia]] **[[Cook Islands]] (Hervey Islands) **[[French Polynesia]] ***[[Austral Islands]] ***[[Gambier Islands]] ***[[Marquesas]] ***[[Society Islands]] ****[[Windward Islands (Society Islands)|Îles du vent]] (Windward Islands) ****[[Leeward Islands (Society Islands)|Îles sous le vent]] (Leeward Islands) ***[[Tuamotus]] **[[Hawaiian Islands]] (Sandwich Islands) **[[Islands of New Zealand|New Zealand]] islands (Aotearoa) **[[Pitcairn Islands]] **[[Samoan Islands]] (Navigators' Islands) ***[[American Samoa]] ([[Eastern Samoa]]) ***[[Samoa]] ([[Western Samoa]]) **[[Tonga Islands]] (Friendly Islands) **[[Tokelau]] (Union Islands) **[[Tuvalu]] (Ellice Islands) **[[Wallis and Futuna Islands]] ***[[Horne Islands]] *[[Pontine Islands]] *[[Queen Charlotte Islands]] (Haida Gwaii) *[[Saint Helena]] islands *[[San Juan Islands]] *[[Severnaya Zemlya]] *[[Solentiname Islands]] *[[South China Sea Islands]] **[[Paracel Islands]] **[[Spratly Islands]] *[[South Orkney Islands]] *[[South Sandwich Islands]] *[[South Shetland Islands]] *[[Svalbard]] *[[Thousand Islands]] *[[Tierra del Fuego]] *"[[The World (archipelago)|The World]]", an archipelago of [[artificial island]]s being constructed off [[Dubai]] *[[Tuscan Archipelago]] *[[Venice]] islands *[[Virgin Islands]] ==See also== *[[Island arc]] *[[Geography]] *[[Earth science]] *[[Geomorphology]] *[[Landform|List of landforms]] *[[Plate tectonics]] Lists of islands: *[[List of islands of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean]] *[[List of islands in the Arctic Ocean]] *[[List of islands of Asia]] *[[List of islands in the Atlantic Ocean]] *[[List of islands of Australia]] *[[List of islands of Canada]] *[[List of islands in the Caribbean]] *[[List of islands in the Indian Ocean]] *[[List of islands of New Zealand]] *[[List of islands of North America]] *[[Pacific Islands|List of islands in the Pacific]] *[[List of islands of South America]] *[[List of islands in the United States]] [[Category:Archipelagoes| ]] [[an:Archipielago]] [[ar:أرخبيل]] [[bg:Архипелаг]] [[da:Arkipelag]] [[de:Archipel]] [[et:Saarestik]] [[es:Archipiélago]] [[fr:Archipel]] [[gl:Arquipélago]] [[io:Archipelago]] [[id:Kepulauan]] [[is:Eyjaklasi]] [[it:Arcipelago]] [[ko:군도]] [[he:ארכיפלג]] [[nl:Archipel]] [[ja:列島]] [[pl:Archipelag]] [[pt:Arquipélago]] [[ru:Архипелаг]] [[fi:Saaristo]] [[sv:Skärgård]] [[tl:Kapuluan]] [[zh:群島]] 912 15899425 2002-05-04T08:54:35Z 64.26.98.90 *combined material into &quot;Ann Arbor, Michigan&quot; and redirected #REDIRECT [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]] 913 42026562 2006-03-03T08:14:18Z Bota47 341052 robot Adding: ar [[Image:Conan doyle.jpg|thumb|right|Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]] '''Sir Arthur Ignatius Conan Doyle''' ([[May 22]] [[1859]] &ndash; [[July 7]] [[1930]]) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] author most famously known for his stories about the [[Detective fiction|detective]] [[Sherlock Holmes]], which are generally considered a major innovation in the field of [[crime fiction]]. He was a prolific writer whose other works include [[science fiction]] stories, [[historical novel]]s, plays and romances, poetry, and non-fiction. Conan was originally a [[middle name]] but he used it as part of his surname in his later years. ==Life== Arthur Conan Doyle was born in 1859 in [[Edinburgh]] to [[Charles Altamont Doyle|Charles]] and Mary Doyle. He was sent to the [[Jesuits|Jesuit]] [[preparatory school]] Stonyhurst at the age of nine, and by the time he left the school in [[1875]] he rejected [[Christianity]] to become an [[agnosticism|agnostic]]. From [[1876]] to [[1881]] he studied medicine at the [[University of Edinburgh]], including a period working in the town of [[Aston]] (now a district of [[Birmingham]]). Following his term at University he served as a ship's doctor on a voyage to the West [[Africa]]n coast, and then in [[1882]] he set up a practice in [[Plymouth]]. He achieved his doctorate in 1885. His medical practice was unsuccessful; while waiting for patients he began writing stories. His first literary experience came in ''Chambers's Edinburgh Journal'' before he was 20. It was only after he subsequently moved his practice to [[Southsea]] that he began to indulge more extensively in literature. His first significant work was ''A Study in Scarlet'' which appeared in ''Beeton's Christmas Annual'' for [[1887]] and featured the first appearance of Sherlock Holmes who was modelled after Doyle's former University professor, [[Joseph Bell]]. Interestingly, [[Rudyard Kipling]] congratulated Doyle on his success, asking "Could this be my old friend, Dr. Joe?". While living in Southsea he helped form [[Portsmouth F.C.|Portsmouth Football Club]] and played as the club's first [[goalkeeper]]. In [[1885]] he married Louise Hawkins, who suffered from [[tuberculosis]] and eventually died in [[1906]]. He married Jean Leckie in [[1907]], whom he had first met and fallen in love with in [[1897]] but had maintained a [[Platonic love|platonic relationship]] with her out of loyalty to his first wife. Doyle had five children, two with his first wife (Mary and Kingsley), and three with his second wife ([[Jean Conan Doyle|Jean]], Denis, and [[Adrian Conan Doyle|Adrian]]). In [[1890]] Doyle studied the eye in [[Vienna]], and in [[1891]] moved to [[London]] to set up a practice as an [[Ophthalmology|oculist]]. This also gave him more time for writing, and in November 1891 he wrote to his mother: "I think of slaying Holmes... and winding him up for good and all. He takes my mind from better things." In December 1893, he did so in order to dedicate more of his time to more "important" works (namely his historical novels), pitting Holmes against his arch-nemesis [[Professor Moriarty]]. They apparently plunged to their deaths together down a waterfall in the story "The Final Problem". Public outcry led him to bring the character back&mdash;Doyle returned to the story in "The Adventure of the Empty House", with the ingenious explanation that only Moriarty had fallen, but, since Holmes had other dangerous enemies, he had arranged to be temporarily "dead" also. Holmes eventually appears in a total of 56 [[short story|short stories]] and four Doyle novels (he has since appeared in many novels and stories by other authors). Following the [[Second Boer War|Boer War]] in [[South Africa]] at the turn of the 20th century and the condemnation from around the world over Britain's conduct, Doyle wrote a short pamphlet titled ''The War in South Africa: Its Cause and Conduct'' which justified Britain's role in the Boer war and was widely translated. Doyle believed that it was this pamphlet that resulted in his being knighted and appointed as Deputy-Lieutenant of [[Surrey]] in [[1902]]. He also wrote the longer book ''The Great Boer War'' in [[1900]]. During the early years of the 20th century Sir Arthur twice ran for Parliament as a [[Liberal Unionist Party|Liberal Unionist]], once in Edinburgh and once in the Border Burghs, but although he received a respectable vote he was not elected. [[Image:conandoylestatue.jpg|thumb|right|Arthur Conan Doyle statue in Crowborough]]Conan Doyle was involved in the campaign for the reform of the [[Congo Free State]], led by the journalist [[E. D. Morel]] and the diplomat [[Roger Casement]]. He wrote [[The Crime of the Congo]] in [[1909]], a long pamphlet in which he denounced the horrors in Congo. He become acquainted with Morel and Casement, taking inspiration from them for two of the main characters of the novel [[The Lost World (Arthur Conan Doyle)|The Lost World]] (1912). He broke with both when Morel (who was rather left-wing) became one of the leaders of the pacifist movement during the [[World War I|First World War]], and Casement committed treason against Britain out of conviction for his [[Ireland|Irish]] nationalist views. Doyle tried, unsuccessfully, to save Casement from the death penalty, arguing that he had been driven mad and was not responsible for his actions. Doyle was also a fervent advocate of justice, and personally investigated two closed cases, which led to two imprisoned men being released. The first case, in 1906, involved a shy half-British, half-Indian lawyer named [[George Edalji]], who had allegedly penned threatening letters and mutilated animals. Police were dead set on Edalji's conviction, even though the mutilations continued even after their suspect was jailed. It was partially as a result of this case that the [[Court of Criminal Appeal]] was established in [[1907]], so not only did Conan Doyle help George Edalji, his work helped to establish a way to correct other [[miscarriages of justice]]. The story of Conan Doyle and Edalji is told in fictional form in [[Julian Barnes]]'s 2005 [[novel]], [[Arthur & George]]. The second case&mdash;that of [[Oscar Slater]], a German Jew and gambling-den operator convicted of bludgeoning an 82-year-old woman in [[Glasgow]] in [[1908]]&mdash;excited Doyle's curiosity because of inconsistencies in the prosecution case and a general sense that Slater was framed. In his later years, Doyle became involved with [[Spiritualism]], to the extent that he wrote a [[Professor Challenger]] novel on the subject, ''The Land of Mist''. One of the odder aspects of this period of his life was his book ''The Coming of the Fairies'' ([[1921]]). He was apparently totally convinced of the veracity of the [[Cottingley Fairies|Cottingley fairy]] photographs, which he reproduced in the book, together with theories about the nature and existence of fairies and spirits. His work on this topic was one of the reasons that one of his short story collections, [[The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes]], was banned in the [[Soviet Union]] in [[1929]] for supposed [[occult]]ism. This ban was later removed. Doyle was friends for a time with the American magician [[Harry Houdini]], a prominent opponent of the Spiritualist movement. Although Houdini insisted that Spiritualist mediums employed trickery (and consistently attempted to expose them as frauds), Doyle became convinced that Houdini himself possessed supernatural powers, a view expressed in Doyle's ''The Edge of the Unknown''. Houdini was apparently unable to convince Doyle that his feats were simply magic tricks, leading to a bitter, public falling out between the two. [[Richard Milner]], an [[United States|American]] historian of science, has presented a case that Doyle may have been the perpetrator of the [[Piltdown man]] hoax of [[1912]], creating the counterfeit [[hominid]] [[fossil]] that fooled the scientific world for over 40 years. Milner says that Doyle had a motive, namely revenge on the scientific establishment for debunking one of his favourite psychics, and that ''The Lost World'' contains several encrypted clues regarding his involvement in the hoax. [http://www.arts.telegraph.co.uk/htmlContent.jhtml;jsessionid=JXWTHVY1DHO5NQFIQMGSNAGAVCBQWJVC?html=/archive/1997/03/20/npil20.html] [[Samuel Rosenberg]]'s [[1974]] book ''[[Naked is the Best Disguise]]'' purports to explain how Doyle left, throughout his writings, open clues that related to hidden and suppressed aspects of his mentality. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle died of a [[heart attack]] in [[1930]] and is buried in the Church Yard at [[Minstead]] in the [[New Forest]], [[Hampshire]], [[England]]. A statue has been erected in Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's honour. It may be seen at Crowborough Cross in [[Crowborough]], [[East Sussex]], [[England]], where Sir Arthur lived for 23 years. There is also a statue of [[Sherlock Holmes|Sherlock Holmes]] in Picardy Place, [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]] - close to the house where Conan Doyle was born. ==Selected bibliography== ===[[Sherlock Holmes]] Stories=== *[[A Study in Scarlet]] (1887) *[[The Sign of Four]] (1890) *[[The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes]] (1892) *[[The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes]] (1894) *[[The Hound of the Baskervilles]] (1902) *[[The Return of Sherlock Holmes]] (1904) *[[The Valley of Fear]] (1914) *[[His Last Bow]] (1917) *[[The Case Book of Sherlock Holmes]] (1927) ===[[Professor Challenger]] Stories=== *[[The Lost World (Arthur Conan Doyle)|The Lost World]] (1912) *[[The Poison Belt]] (1913) *[[The Land of Mists]] (1926) *[[The Disintegration Machine]] (1927) *[[When the World Screamed]] (1928) ===Historical novels=== *[[The White Company]] (1891) *[[Micah Clarke]] (1888) *[[The Great Shadow]] (1892) *[[The Refugees]] (publ. 1893, written 1892) *[[Uncle Bernac]] (1897) *[[Sir Nigel]] (1906) ===Other works=== *[[J. Habakuk Jephson's Statement]] (1883), a story about the fate of the ship [[Mary Celeste]] *[[Mystery of Cloomber]] (1889) *[[The Captain of the Polestar, and other tales]] (1890) *[[The Doings Of Raffles Haw]] (1891) *[[Beyond the City]] (1892) *[[Round The Red Lamp]] (1894) *[[The Parasite]] (1894) *[[The Stark Munro Letters]] (1895) *[[Rodney Stone]] (1896) *[[Songs of Action]] (1898) *[[The Tragedy of The Korosko]] (1898) *[[A Duet]] (1899) *[[The Great Boer War]] (1900) *[[The Exploits of Brigadier Gerard ]] (1903) *[[Through the Magic Door]] (1907) *[[The Crime of the Congo]] (1909) *[[The New Revelation]] (1918) *[[The Vital Message]] (1919) *[[Tales of Terror & Mystery]] (1923) *[[The History of Spiritualism]] (1926) ==See also== *[[Toronto Public Library]] *[[William Gillette]] Personal friend. Performed the most famous stage-version of ''Sherlock Holmes''. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{wikisource}} * {{gutenberg author|id=Arthur_Conan_Doyle|name=Arthur Conan Doyle}} *[http://www.sherlockholmesonline.org Official site of Doyle's estate] - includes lengthy biography, history of the estate, bibliography, and more. *[http://www.bakerstreet221b.de/canon/ The Complete Sherlock Holmes] *[http://www.classic-literature.co.uk/scottish-authors/arthur-conan-doyle/ Sir Arthur Conan Doyle] - The majority of his works in easy to read HTML format. *[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/aut/doyle_arthur_conan.html Works available online] *[http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/doyle Doyle in Birmingham] *[http://quotesandpoem.com/literature/ListofLiteraryWorks/Doyle__Sir_Arthur_Conan Searchable Works and Quotes of Arthur Conan Doyle] *[http://www.siracd.com/ The Chronicles of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle] - Site includes articles, quotes, games and little-known facts *[http://www.theplebeian.net/ Conan Doyle and the Parson's Son -The George Edalji case] *[http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/edalji The George Edalji Case] *[http://www.crimefiction.com/slater.htm The Oscar Slater Case] *[http://www.visitdunkeld.com/barnbougle-castle.htm The true legend of the Hound of the Baskervilles; see 'Sir Roger de Mowbray'] [[Category:1859 births|Doyle, Arthur Conan]] [[Category:1930 deaths|Doyle, Arthur Conan]] [[Category:Arthur Conan Doyle|*]] [[Category:Freemasons|Doyle]] [[Category:Knights Commander of St Michael and St George|Doyle, Arthur Conan]] [[Category:Old Stonyhurst|Doyle, Arthur Conan]] [[Category:Sherlock Holmes| ]] [[af:Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]] [[ar:آرثر كونان دويل]] [[bg:Артър Конан Дойл]] [[ca:Arthur Conan Doyle]] [[cs:Arthur Conan Doyle]] [[da:Arthur Conan Doyle]] [[de:Arthur Conan Doyle]] [[et:Arthur Conan Doyle]] [[es:Arthur Conan Doyle]] [[eo:Arthur Conan DOYLE]] [[fa:آرتور کونان دویل]] [[fr:Arthur Conan Doyle]] [[hr:Arthur Conan Doyle]] [[id:Arthur Conan Doyle]] [[it:Arthur Conan Doyle]] [[he:ארתור קונאן דויל]] [[nl:Arthur Conan Doyle]] [[ja:アーサー・コナン・ドイル]] [[no:Arthur Conan Doyle]] [[pl:Arthur Conan Doyle]] [[pt:Arthur Conan Doyle]] [[ro:Arthur Conan Doyle]] [[ru:Конан Дойль, Артур]] [[sco:Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]] [[simple:Arthur Conan Doyle]] [[fi:Arthur Conan Doyle]] [[sv:Arthur Conan Doyle]] [[th:อาร์เทอร์ โคนัน ดอยล์]] [[uk:Дойл Артур Конан]] [[zh:阿瑟·柯南·道尔]] 914 40424417 2006-02-20T13:06:41Z Cacumer 625255 fixing concept, hopefuly {{otheruses}} An '''author''' is the person who creates a written work, such as a [[book]], story, article or the like. This can be short or long, fiction or nonfiction, [[poetry]] or prose, technical or [[literature]]. Since [[capitalism]], the '''author''' also needs to do it for [[payment]] (as a [[service]]). ==Role in critical theory== One key issue in [[literary theory]] is the relationship between the meaning of a literary [[text]] and its author's conscious intent. * The phrase "[[death of the author|Death of the Author]]" was popularized by [[Roland Barthes]] in his [[1968]] essay with the same name. It is used to convey the idea that [[Text|texts]] have meaning and an independent existence outside that intended by the author, depending on the context and reader. * The death of the author is in self-conscious opposition to the [[New Criticism]], a literary critical movement popular in England and America in the first half of the 20th century. According to this movement, the author's intent is assumed to be quite clear to the author and it becomes the critic's task to understand this intent. ==See also== * [[Novel|novelist]] * [[writer]] * [[Lists of authors]] * [[Lists of poets]] * [[List of novelists]] [[Category:Media occupations]] [[Category:Literary criticism]] [[cs:Autor]] [[da:Forfatter]] [[de:Autor]] [[es:Autor]] [[eo:Aŭtoro]] [[fr:Écrivain]] [[gl:Autor]] [[he:סופר]] [[nl:Auteur]] [[id:Penulis]] [[ja:作者]] [[no:Forfatter]] [[pt:Autor]] [[ru:Автор]] [[sv:Författare]] [[zh:&#20316;&#23478;]] 915 36527423 2006-01-24T18:35:43Z Stevertigo 4099 :''This is an article about Russian mathematician Andrey Markov. For [[ice hockey]] player Andrei Markov, see [[Andrei Markov (hockey player)]].'' '''Andrey Andreyevich Markov''' (Андрей Андреевич Марков) ([[June 14]], [[1856]] [[N.S.]] - [[July 20]], [[1922]]) was a [[Russia|Russian]] [[mathematician]]. Markov was born in [[Ryazan]]. He studied at [[Saint Petersburg State University|St. Petersburg University]] in [[1874]] under the tutelage of [[Pafnuty Chebyshev|Chebyshev]]. In [[1886]], he became a member of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences|St. Petersburg Academy of Science]]. He is best known for his work on theory of [[stochastic process]]es. His research later became known as [[Markov chain]]s. ==See also== * [[Markov chain]] * [[Gauss-Markov theorem]] * [[Hidden Markov model]] * [[Markov number]] * [[Markov property]] * [[Markov's inequality]] == References == * А. А. Марков. "Распространение закона больших чисел на величины, зависящие друг от друга". "Известия Физико-математического общества при Казанском университете", 2-я серия, том 15, ст. 135-156, 1906. * A.A. Markov. "Extension of the limit theorems of probability theory to a sum of variables connected in a chain". reprinted in Appendix B of: R. Howard. ''Dynamic Probabilistic Systems, volume 1: Markov Chains''. John Wiley and Sons, 1971. == External links == * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Markov}} * [http://mac03-204ha.math.ncsu.edu/~langville/naoumov.pdf The Life and Work of AA Markov] * [http://logic.pdmi.ras.ru/Markov/ Andrey Andreevich Markov (1903-1979)] ''(biography of Markov's son, located at the Steklov Institute of Mathematics at St.Petersburg)'' <br>{{mathbiostub}} [[Category:1856 births|Markov, Andrei Andreevich]] [[Category:1922 deaths|Markov, Andrei Andreevich]] [[Category:Russian mathematicians|Markov, Andrey]] [[de:Andrei Andrejewitsch Markow]] [[es:Andrei Markov]] [[fr:Andrei Markov (mathématicien)]] [[it:Andrej Andreevic Markov (padre)]] [[pl:Andriej Markow (starszy)]] [[pt:Andrei Andreyevich Markov]] [[ru:Марков, Андрей Андреевич (старший)]] [[uk:Марков Андрій Андрійович]] [[zh:安德雷·马尔可夫]] 917 27589147 2005-11-07T03:57:39Z Curpsbot-unicodify 397664 2 &<name>; → Unicode #redirect [[Anders Jonas Ångström]] 918 15899430 2004-05-18T05:26:54Z 82.80.10.110 #REDIRECT [[Anti-Semitism]] 919 15899431 2002-04-06T16:34:58Z Bryan Derksen 66 redirect #REDIRECT [[Anti-Semitism]] 920 40636250 2006-02-21T23:51:24Z Michael Hardy 4626 Alumnus status is a RELATIONSHIP between the person and the school. <!-- So far we have a dictionary definition and a discussion of the correct use of the term --> An '''alumnus''' (masculine) or '''alumna''' (feminine) of a [[colleges and universities|college, university]], or school is a former student. Informal equivalents are '''alum''' and '''alumn''' (with a silent "n"). The term is often mistakenly thought of as synonymous with "graduate." Alumni/ae [[reunion]]s are popular events at many institutions. They are usually organized by [[alumni association]]s and are often social occasions for [[fundraising]]. In [[Latin]], ''alumnus'' is the masculine singular form and ''alumna'' the feminine singular form. (The words are derived from the Latin verb ''alere'', "to nourish," and literally mean "nourished one" or "nursling.") Although these terms are recommended by leading [[English language|English-language]] [[dictionary|dictionaries]], their use can be limited because they are [[non-sexist language|gender-specific]]. The Latin plural is '''alumni''' for men and mixed groups and '''alumnae''' for women. The gender-neutral English term ''alum''/''alumn'', created by [[clipping#Linguistics|clipping]] the ending from ''alumnus'', is also used, along with its plural '''alums'''/'''alumns'''. Recently, the definition of "alum" has expanded to include people who have "[[matriculation|matriculated]] at" or exited from any kind of organization or process. As such, one can potentially be a "corporate alum" of XYZ Company, or an alum of a military branch, [[non-profit organization]], or training process. Educational institutions tend to follow Latin usage: ''alumnus'' for males, ''alumna'' for females, and ''alumni'' for mixed groups. All-women colleges use ''alumna'' and ''alumnae''. Some institutions, such as [[Texas A&M University]], do not refer to their graduates as "alumni" or even "graduates," choosing to use the term ''former students''. In the [[United Kingdom]] and, to a lesser extent, [[Australia]], the phrases '''old boy''' and '''old girl''' are traditionally used for former school pupils, and '''old member''' for former university students. Some private schools in [[Canada]], such as [[Upper Canada College]] and the [[Bishop Strachan School]] also use '''old boy''' and '''old girl'''. The term '''old student''' can nowadays refer to the graduates of either schools or universities. In Scotland, the term ''Former Pupil'' (FP) is also used, especially when referring to sports teams of a school. ==See also== * [[Alma mater]] * [[Old boy network]] * [[Alumni association]] [[Category:Academia]] [[Category:People by educational institution| ]] [[de:Alumnus]] [[nl:Alumnus]] [[nb:Alumni]] [[sv:Alumn]] 921 39192226 2006-02-11T10:22:25Z Ronline 126381 {{otheruses}} {{emotion}} '''''Angst''''' is a [[German language|German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[North Germanic language|North Germanic]] word for [[fear]] or [[anxiety]]. It is used in English to describe an intense feeling of internal emotional strife. A different but related meaning is attributed to [[Denmark|Danish]] philosopher [[Søren Kierkegaard]] ([[1813]]&ndash;[[1855]]). Kierkegaard used the word ''angst'' (Danish, meaning "dread") to describe a profound and deep-seated [[spirituality|spiritual]] condition of insecurity and [[despair]] in the free [[human being]]. Where the animal is a slave to its God-given instincts but always confident in its own actions, Kierkegaard believed that the freedom given to mankind leaves the human in a constant fear of failing its responsibilities to [[God]]. Kierkegaard's concept of angst is considered to be an important stepping stone for 20th-century [[existentialism]]. While Kierkegaard's feeling of angst is fear of actual responsibility to [[god (monotheism)|God]], in modern use, angst is broadened to include general frustration associated with the conflict between actual responsibilities to self, one's principles, and others (possibly including God). Still, the angst in alternative music may be more accessible to most audiences than the esoteric tradition of [[existentialism]]. The term "angst" is now widely used with a negative and derisive connotation that mocks the expression of a common adolescent experience of malaise. ==Angst in contemporary music== Angst, in contemporary connotative use, most often describes the intense frustration and other related emotions of [[teenager]]s and the mood of the music with which they identify. [[Punk rock]], [[grunge]], [[emo (music)|emo]], and virtually any [[Alternative Rock]] dramatically combining elements of discord, [[melancholy]] and excitement may be said to assert angst. There is an obvious connection to this music and the various subjugation of its proponent youth or racial or sociopolitical minority [[subculture]]. Angst was probably first discussed in relation to contemporary music in the mid to late 1980s and 1990s. In the 1980s "teen angst" was expressed in music to a certain extent in the rise of "punk", but the word "angst" is currently more associated with, and was probably first used in reference to, the grunge movement and the band [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]]. Nirvana themselves seem to have been aware of this, as evidenced by the first line of [[Serve the Servants]] in which [[Kurt Cobain]] describes the success of writing songs dealing with the subject (''Teenage angst has paid off well | Now I'm bored and old...''). ==See also== {{wiktionarypar|angst}} * [[List of English words of German origin|English words of German origin]] * [[Anxiety]] * [[Suffering]] * [[Anomie]] * [[Alienation]] * [[Ennui]] [[Category:Emotion]] [[Category:Existentialism]] [[Category:German loanwords]] [[fr:Angoisse]] [[io:Angoro]] [[it:Angoisse]] [[nl:Faalangst]] [[pl:Angoisse]] [[sv:Ångest]] 922 42093043 2006-03-03T19:59:12Z Monkeyman 79245 /* External links */ Removed spam. '''Anxiety''' refers to a complex combination of negative emotions that includes [[fear]], apprehension and worry, and is often accompanied by physical sensations such as [[Palpitation| palpitations]], chest pain and/or shortness of breath. Anxiety is often described as having [[cognitive]], [[somatic]], [[emotion]]al and [[behavior]]al components (Seligman, Walker & Rosenhan, 2001). The cognitive component entails expectation of a diffuse and uncertain danger. Somatically the body prepares the organism to deal with threat (known as an emergency reaction); [[blood pressure]] and [[heart rate]] are increased, sweating is increased, bloodflow to the major muscle groups is increased, and [[immune system|immune]] and [[Digestion|digestive]] system functions are inhibited. Externally, somatic signs of anxiety may include pale skin, sweating, trembling and [[Mydriasis|pupillary dilation]]. Emotionally, anxiety causes a sense of dread or panic, nausea and chills. Behaviorally, both voluntary and involuntary behaviors may arise directed at escaping or avoiding the source of anxiety. These behaviors are frequent and often maladaptive, being most extreme in [[anxiety disorder]]s. However, anxiety is not always pathological or maladaptive: it is a common emotion along with fear, anger, sadness and happiness, and it has a very important function in relation to survival. Neural circuitry involving the [[amygdala]] and [[hippocampus]] is thought to underlie anxiety (Rosen & Schulkin, 1998). When confronted with unpleasant and potentially harmful stimuli such as foul odors or tastes, [[Positron emission tomography|PET-scans]] show increased bloodflow in the amygdala (Zald & Pardo, 1997; Zald, Hagen & Pardo, 2002). In these studies, the participants also reported moderate anxiety. This might indicate that anxiety is a protective mechanism designed to prevent the organism from engaging in potentially harmful behaviors such as feeding on rotten food. A chronically recurring case of anxiety that has a serious effect on a person's life may be clinically diagnosed as an anxiety disorder. The most common are [[generalized anxiety disorder]], [[panic disorder]], [[social anxiety disorder]], [[phobia]]s, [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]], and [[posttraumatic stress disorder|posttraumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD). ==Diagnosis== A good assessment is essential for the initial diagnosis of an anxiety disorder, preferably using a standardised interview or questionnaire procedure alongside expert evaluation and the views of the person themselves. There should be a medical examination in order to identify possible medical conditions that can cause the symptoms of anxiety. A family history of anxiety disorders is suggestive of the possibility of an anxiety disorder. ==Diagnosis using a blood test== In 2005 a research team from the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] developed a method for potentially detecting raised anxiety by performing a simple blood test. This is only an early unreplicated study of a possible screening tool. [http://www.isracast.com/tech_news/101005_tech.htm] ==Generalized anxiety disorder== {{main|General anxiety disorder}} Generalized anxiety disorder is a common chronic disorder that affects twice as many women as men and can lead to considerable impairment (Brawman-Mintzer & Lydiard, 1996, 1997). As the name implies, generalized anxiety disorder is characterized by long-lasting anxiety that is not focused on any particular object or situation. In other words it is unspecific or free-floating. People with this disorder feel afraid of something but are unable to articulate the specific fear. They fret constantly and have a hard time controlling their worries. Because of persistent muscle tension and autonomic fear reactions, they may develop headaches, heart palpitations, dizziness, and insomnia. These physical complaints, combined with the intense, long-term anxiety, make it difficult to cope with normal daily activities. ==Panic disorder== {{main|Panic disorder}} In panic disorder, a person suffers brief attacks of intense terror and apprehension that cause trembling and shaking, dizziness, and difficulty breathing. One who is often plagued by sudden bouts of intense anxiety might be said to be afflicted by this disorder. The American Psychiatric Association (2000) defines a panic attack as fear or discomfort that arises abruptly and peaks in 10 minutes or less. Although panic attacks sometimes seem to occur out of nowhere, they generally happen after frightening experiences, prolonged stress, or even exercise. Many people who have panic attacks (especially their first one) think they are having a heart attack and often end up at the doctor or ER. Even if the tests all come back normal the person will still worry, with the physical manifestations of anxiety only reinforcing their fear that something is wrong with their body. Extreme awareness of every little thing that happens or changes with their body can make for a stressful time. Normal changes in heartbeat, such as when climbing a flight of stairs will be noticed by a panic sufferer and lead them to think something is wrong with their heart or they are about to have another panic attack. Some begin to worry excessively and even quit jobs or refuse to leave home to avoid future attacks. Panic disorder can be diagnosed when several apparently spontaneous attacks lead to a persistent concern about future attacks. A common complication of panic disorder is [[agoraphobia]] -- anxiety about being in a place or situation where escape is difficult or embarrassing (Craske, 2000; Gorman, 2000). ==Phobia== {{main|Phobia}} This category involves a strong, irrational fear and avoidance of an object or situation. The person knows the fear is irrational, yet the anxiety remains. Phobic disorders differ from generalized anxiety disorders and panic disorders because there is a specific stimulus or situation that elicits a strong fear response. Imagine how it would feel to be so frightened by a spider that you would try to jump out of a speeding car to get away from it. This is how a person suffering from phobia might feel. People with phobias have especially powerful imaginations, so they vividly anticipate terrifying consequences from encountering such feared objects as knives, bridges, blood, enclosed places, or certain animals. These individuals recognize that their fears are excessive and unreasonable but are generally unable to control their anxiety. In addition to specific phobias, such as fears of knives, rats or spiders, there is another category of phobias known as social phobias. Individuals with this disorder experience intense fear of being negatively evaluated by others or of being publicly embarrassed because of impulsive acts. Almost everyone experiences "stage fright" when speaking or performing in front of a group. But people with social phobias become so anxious that performance is out of the question. In fact, their fear of public scrutiny and potential humiliaton becomes so pervasive that normal life is impossible (den Boer 2000; Margolis & Swartz, 2001). Another social phobia is [[love-shyness]], which most adversely affects certain men. Those afflicted find themselves unable to initiate intimate adult relationships (Gilmartin 1987). ==Obsessive-compulsive disorder== {{main|Obsessive-compulsive disorder}} Obsessive compulsive disorder is a type of anxiety disorder characterized by obsessions and/or compulsions. Obsessions are distressing, repetitive thoughts or images that the individual often realizes are senseless. Compulsions are repetitive behaviors that the person feels forced or compelled into doing, in order to relieve anxiety. One example would be the obsession of extreme cleanliness and fear of contamination, which may lead to the compulsion of having to wash one's hands hundreds of times a day. Another example may be the obsession that one's door is unlocked, which may lead to the constant checking and rechecking of doors. ==Treatment overview== Mainstream treatment for anxiety consists of the prescription of [[anxiolytic]] agents and/or referral to a [[Cognitive therapy|cognitive-behavioral]] therapist. There are indications that a combination of the two can be more effective than either one alone. ===Prescription medication=== The acute symptoms of anxiety are most often controlled with anxiolytic agents such as [[benzodiazepine]]s. [[Diazepam]] (valium) was one of the first such drugs. Today we see a wide range of anti-anxiety agents that are based on benzodiazepines, although only two have been approved for panic attacks, [[Clonazepam|Klonopin]] and [[Alprazolam|Xanax]]. All benzodiazepines are physically addictive, and extended use should be carefully monitored by a physician, preferably a psychiatrist. It is very important that once placed on a regimen of regular benzodiazepine use, the user should not abruptly discontinue the medication. Some of the [[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor|SSRI]]s (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) have been used with varying degrees of success to treat patients with chronic anxiety, the best results seen with those who exhibit symptoms of clinical depression and non-specific anxiety or general anxiety disorder concurrently. [[Beta blockers]] are also sometimes used to treat the somatic symptoms associated with anxiety, especially the shakiness of "stage fright." Many scientists believe that the benzodiazepines and other antianxiety drugs are greatly overprescribed and potentially addictive. See, for example, [[Fred Leavitt]]'s ''The REAL Drug Abusers'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2003). The addicitive nature of the benzodiazepine class became apparent in the mid 1960's when Valium (Diazepam), the first drug in the class to win FDA approval, resulted in thousands of people who quickly showed the classic symptoms of addiction when used for more than a week or two consistently. The most addictive of the benzodiazepines appears to be [[Alprazolam|Xanax]] due to its rapid onset and short half life in the blood stream. Xanax also has the dubious distinction of being the only benzodiazepine that often requires hospitalization for discontinuation as a precaution against dangerous and sometimes fatal seizures as part of the detoxification process. No other medications in this class have shown this fatal side effect, although abrupt discontinuation of virtually any benzodiazepine can result in cravings, stomach pains, cramps, increased anxiety, insomnia and other signs of withdrawal. ===Cognitive-behavioral therapy === [[Cognitive-behavioral therapy]] (CBT) is the most popular and effective form of [[psychotherapy]] used to treat anxiety. The goal of the cognitive-behavioral therapist is to decrease avoidance behaviors and help the patient develop coping skills. This may entail: * Challenging false or self-defeating beliefs. * Developing a positive self-talk skill. * Developing negative thought replacement. * Systematic [[desensitization]], also called ''exposure'' (used for [[agoraphobia]] and [[OCD]] mainly). * Providing knowledge that will help the patient cope. (For example, someone who suffers from panic may be informed that fast, prolonged, heart palpitations are in themselves harmless). Unlike prescription medication, the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy depends on various subjective factors, such as therapist competence. In addition to conventional therapy, there are at-home cognitive-behavioral programs sufferers can use as part of their treatment. ===Other coping strategies=== A variety of over the counter supplements and medications are also used for their alleged anti-anxiety properties, however there is little scientific evidence to back up these claims. [[Kava Kava]] is a popular herbal treatment; small doses either taken regularly through the day or when early symptoms are noticed by the patient. [[Valerian root]] is also reputed to have anti-anxiety and sedative properties, as are [[passion fruit]], [[passion flower]], [[St. John's wort]], [[hops]], and [[chamomile]]. Popular nutritional supplements for dealing with anxiety include [[magnesium]] and [[B vitamins|B-complex]] vitamins. Self help and relaxation techniques also play an important role in relieving anxiety symptoms. Self help includes: * Proper diet - This includes reduction in consumption of caffeine, sugar, and generally an improvement of eating habits. Caffeine reduction should be gradual. Some anxiety sufferers report considerable reductions in their anxiety just from taking these measures. * Exercise - Some exercise is thought to relieve stress. Anxiety sufferers should note that rapid heart palpitations during exercise can trigger a panic attack, so it is probably better to gradually develop an exercise routine while on a cognitive-behavioral program. * Laughing * Breathing techniques and proper breathing - A diaphragmic breathing technique is often recommended (as opposed to chest breathing). * Proper sleep. * Relaxation techniques - A state of relaxation can be achieved with the help of relaxation tapes, [[Yoga]] or [[relaxation therapy]]. * Stress management.- This may entail changes in lifestyle and time management. There are a number of books specialized in stress management. * Panic attack coping strategies - Specific strategies for dealing with panic episodes have been proposed, such as slow abdominal breathing and use of reassuring self-talk. * Search for meaning and purpose - Some experts have indicated that residual generalized anxiety can be the result of a sort of "[[boredom]]" about existence. They recommend looking for an occupation the sufferer finds meaningful. [[Alcoholic beverage|Alcoholic drinks]] are probably the most widely used substance for the alleviation of anxiety. Anxiety sufferers are cautioned that alcohol is also a powerful depressant and has a plethora of dangerous and uncomfortable side effects in addition to being highly addictive. ==Anxiety in palliative care== Some research has strongly suggested that treating anxiety in [[cancer]] patients improves their quality of life. The treatment generally consists of counselling, relaxation techniques or pharmacologically with benzodiazepines. ==Anxiety and alternative medicine== A 2002 [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] [http://nccam.nih.gov/news/camsurvey.htm survey (see table 3 on page 9)] found that [[complementary and alternative methods]] were used to treat anxiety/[[clinical depression|depression]] by 4.5 percent of U.S. adults who used CAM. ==Existential anxiety== Theologians like [[Paul Tillich]] and psychologists like [[Sigmund Freud]] have characterized anxiety as the reaction to what Tillich called, "The trauma of nonbeing." That is, the human comes to realize that there is a point at which they might cease to be (die), and their encounter with reality becomes characterized by anxiety. [[Religion]], according to both Tillich and Freud, then becomes a carefully-crafted coping mechanism in response to this anxiety. ==Test anxiety== Test anxiety is the uneasiness, apprehension, or nervousness felt by students who have a fear of failing an exam. Students suffering from test anxiety may experience any of the following: the association of grades with personal worth, embarrassment by a teacher, taking a class that is beyond their ability, fear of alienation from parents or friends, time pressures, or feeling a loss of control. Emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and physical components can all be present in test anxiety. Sweating, dizziness, headaches, racing heartbeats, nausea, fidgeting, and drumming on a desk are all common. An optimal level of arousal is necessary to best complete a task such as an exam; however, when the anxiety or level of arousal exceeds that optimum, it results in a decline in performance. ==See also== * [[Angst]] * [[Social anxiety]] == References == * Bourne, E. J. ''Anxiety and phobia workbook'' * Rosen, J.B. & Schulkin, J. (1998): "From normal fear to pathological anxiety". ''Psychological Review''. '''105'''(2); 325-350. * Seligman, M.E.P., Walker, E.F. & Rosenhan, D.L. (2001). ''Abnormal psychology'', (4th ed.) New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. * Zald, D.H., Hagen, M.C. & Pardo, J.V. (2002). "Neural correlates of tasting concentrated quinine and sugar solutions". ''J. Neurophysiol.'' '''87'''(2), 1068-75. * Zald, D.H. & Pardo, J.V. (1997). "Emotion, olfaction, and the human amygdala: amygdala activation during aversive olfactory stimulation." ''Proc Nat'l Acad Sci'' USA. '''94'''(8), 4119-24. == External links == * [http://www.healthyplace.com/Communities/Anxiety/index.asp HealthyPlace.com Anxiety Community] - Comprehensive information on anxiety and panic, from causes of anxiety disorders to anxiety medications and alternative remedies. Anxiety tests, boards, journals, support groups. * [http://infobank.35sites.net/r.php?cat=07&sub=anxiety Informative Articles About Anxiety] * [http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic35.htm eMedicine article on anxiety] * [http://www.isracast.com/tech_news/101005_tech.htm Blood test for anxiety] - An article * [http://www.anxietytreatment.com Anxiety] - Anxiety Information and Support * [http://www.mediets.com/anxiety.htm Anxiety disorders] [[Category:Symptoms]] [[Category:Motivation]] [[cs:�zkost]] [[de:Angst]] [[es:Ansiedad]] [[fr:Anxi�t�]] [[io:Anxio]] [[is:Kv��i]] [[nl:Faalangst]] [[no:Angst]] [[pt:Ansiedade]] [[pl:L?k]] [[sv:�ngest]] 923 15899435 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[A. A. Milne]] 924 40715805 2006-02-22T14:49:31Z Tv316 523572 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/141.51.76.140|141.51.76.140]] to last version by DabMachine [[Image:A._A._Milne.jpg|thumb|right| A.A. Milne.]] '''Alan Alexander Milne''' ([[January 18]], [[1882]] &ndash; [[January 31]], [[1956]]), also known as '''A. A. Milne''', was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[author]], best known for his [[book]]s about the animated [[teddy bear]], [[Winnie the Pooh|Winnie-the-Pooh]], and for various children's poems. Milne had made several reputations, most notably as a playwright, before the huge success of Pooh overshadowed all his previous work. ==Biography== Milne was born in [[Scotland]] but raised in [[London]] at a small private school in Kilburn run by his father John Vine Milne. One of his teachers was [[H. G. Wells]]. He attended [[Westminster School]] and [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] where he studied on a [[mathematics]] [[scholarship]]. While there, he edited and wrote for ''[[Granta]]'', a student magazine. He collaborated with his brother Kenneth and their articles appeared over the initials AKM. Milne's work came to the attention of the leading British humour magazine Punch, where Milne was to become a contributor and later assistant editor of ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]''. His son [[Christopher Robin Milne|Christopher Robin]] was born in [[1920]]. Milne joined the [[British Army]] in [[World War I]] but after the war wrote a denunciation of war titled ''[[Peace with Honour]]'' ([[1934]]) (which he retracted somewhat in [[1940]] with ''[[War with Honour]]''). During the war, Milne was one of the most prominent critics of English comic writer [[P.G. Wodehouse]], who was captured at his country home in [[France]] by the [[Nazism|Nazis]] and imprisoned for a year. Wodehouse made radio broadcasts about his internment, which were broadcast from Berlin. Although the lighthearted broadcasts made fun of the Germans, Milne accused Wodehouse of committing an act of near [[treason]] by cooperating with his country's enemy. Wodehouse got some revenge by creating fatuous parodies of the Christopher Robin poems in some of his later stories. In [[1925]], Milne bought a country home, [[Cotchford Farm]], in [[Hartfield]], [[East Sussex]]. He retired to the farm after brain surgery in [[1952]] left him an invalid. == Literary career == Milne is most famous for his Pooh books about a boy named [[Christopher Robin]], after his son, and various characters inspired by his son's stuffed animals, most notably the bear named [[Winnie the Pooh|Winnie-the-Pooh]]. (Reputedly, a [[Canada|Canadian]] [[American Black Bear|black bear]] named Winnie (after [[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]]), used as a military mascot by the Royal Winnipeg Rifles, a Canadian Infantry Regiment in World War I and left to [[London Zoo]] after the war, is the source of the name.) [[E. H. Shepard]] illustrated the original Pooh books, using his own teddy, Growler ("a magnificent bear") as the model; Christopher Robin's own toys are now under glass in New York. The overwhelming success of his children's books was to become a source of considerable annoyance to Milne, whose self-avowed aim was to write whatever he pleased, and who until then had found a ready audience for each change of direction: he had freed pre-war Punch from its ponderous facetiousness; he had made a considerable reputation as a playwright (like his idol [[JM Barrie]]) on both sides of the Atlantic; he had produced a durable, character-led and witty piece of detective writing in ''The Red House Mystery'' -- indeed, his publisher was displeased when he announced his intention to write poems for children -- and he had never lacked an audience. But once Milne had, in his own words, "said Goodbye to all that in 70,000 words", the approximate length of the four children's books, he had no intention of producing a copy of a copy, given that one of the sources of inspiration, his son, was growing older. His reception remained warmer in America than Britain, and he continued to publish novels and short stories, but by the late 1930s the audience for Milne's grown-up writing had largely vanished: he observed bitterly in his autobiography that a critic had said that the hero of his latest play ("God help it") was simply "Christopher Robin grown up ... what an obsession with me children are become!" Even his old home, ''Punch'', where the ''When We Were Very Young'' verses had first appeared, was ultimately to reject him, as Christopher Milne details in his autobiography ''The Enchanted Places'', though Methuen continued to publish whatever Milne wrote, including the long poem 'The Norman Church' and an assembly of articles entitled ''Year In, Year Out'' (which Milne likened to a benefit night for the author). After Milne's death, the rights to the Pooh characters were sold by his widow, Daphne to [[the Walt Disney Company]], which has made a number of Pooh cartoon movies, as well as a large amount of Pooh-related merchandise. She also destroyed his papers. Milne also wrote a number of poems, including ''Vespers'', ''They're Changing Guard at [[Buckingham Palace]]'', and ''King John's Christmas'', which were published in the books ''[[When We Were Very Young]]'' and ''[[Now We Are Six]]''. His poems have been parodied many times, including the books When We Were Rather Older and ''[[Now We Are Sixty]]''. He also adapted [[Kenneth Grahame]]'s novel ''[[The Wind in the Willows]]'' for the stage as ''[[Toad of Toad Hall]]''. The title was an implicit admission that such chapters as ''The Piper at the Gates of Dawn'' could not survive translation to the theater. == Biographies == Milne's friend Frank Swinnerton's book ''The Georgian Literary Scene'' contains a substantial section about him; his son has written several books of autobiography: ''The Enchanted Places'', in particular, is an account of his attempt to escape from the shadow of a famous father and a burdensome name; ''The Path Through the Trees'' continues the story into adult life. Ann Thwaites' ''AA Milne: His Life'' is an excellent and detailed biography, although it gives little space to the plays; a spin-off book tells the story for a younger readership, concentrating on Pooh. ==Works== ===Novels=== * ''[[Lovers in London]]'', ([[1905]]) (Some consider this more of a [[short story]] collection; Milne didn't like it and considered ''[[The Day's Play]]'' as his first book) * ''[[Once on a Time]]'', ([[1917]]) [a fairytale with an adult slant] * ''[[Mr. Pim Passes By]]'', ([[1921]]) * ''[[The Red House Mystery]]'', ([[1921]]) * ''[[Two People]]'', ([[1931]]) (Inside jacket claims this is Milne's first attempt at a novel.) * ''[[Four Days Wonder]]'', ([[1933]]) * ''[[Chloe Marr]]'', ([[1946]]) ===Non-Fiction=== * ''[[Peace with Honour]]'', ([[1934]]) * ''[[It's Too Late Now]]'', ([[1939]]) (autobiography) * ''[[War with Honour]]'', ([[1940]]) * ''[[Year In, Year Out]]'', ([[1952]]) Punch articles: * ''[[The Day's Play]]'', ([[1910]]) * ''[[Once a Week]]'', ([[1914]]) * ''[[The Holiday Round]]'', ([[1912]]) * ''[[The Sunny Side]]'', ([[1921]]) * ''[[Those Were the Days (A. A. Milne)|Those Were the Days]]'', ([[1929]] [selection of Punch pieces from the above four books] Selections of newspaper articles and introductions to books by others: * ''[[Not That It Matters]]'', ([[1920]]) * ''[[By Way of Introduction]]'', ([[1929]]) ===Story Collections for Children=== * ''[[Gallery of Children]]'', ([[1925]]) * ''[[Winnie-the-Pooh]]'', ([[1926]]) * ''[[The House at Pooh Corner]]'', ([[1928]]) Short Stories A Table by the Band ===Poetry=== For the Luncheon Interval [poems from Punch] * ''[[When We Were Very Young]]'', ([[1924]]) * ''[[Now We Are Six]]'', ([[1927]]) * ''[[Behind the Lines]]'', ([[1940]]) * ''[[The Norman Church]]'', ([[1948]]) ===Plays=== Milne wrote over 25 plays including: * ''[[Wurzel-Flummery]]'', ([[1917]]) * ''[[Belinda (play)|Belinda]]'', ([[1918]]) * ''[[The Boy Comes Home]]'', ([[1918]]) * ''[[Make-Believe (play)|Make-Believe]]'', ([[1918]]) [a play for children] * ''[[The Camberley Triangle]]'', ([[1919]]) * ''[[Mr. Pim Passes By]]'', ([[1919]]) * ''[[The Red Feathers]]'', ([[1920]]) * ''[[The Romantic Age]]'', ([[1920]]) * ''[[The Stepmother (play)|The Stepmother]]'', ([[1920]]) * ''[[The Truth about Blayds]]'', ([[1920]]) * ''[[The Dover Road]]'', ([[1921]]) * ''[[The Lucky One]]'', ([[1922]]) * ''[[The Artist: a Duologue]]'', ([[1923]]) * ''[[Give Me Yesterday]]'', ([[1923]]) [aka Success in the UK] * ''[[The Great Broxopp]]'', ([[1923]]) * ''[[Ariadne]]'', ([[1924]]) * ''[[The Man in the Bowler Hat]]'', ([[1924]]) [one act] * ''[[To Have the Honour]]'', ([[1924]]) * ''[[Portrait of a Gentleman in Slippers]]'', ([[1926]]) * ''[[Success; a play in three acts]]'', ([[1926]]) * ''[[Miss Marlow at Play]]'', ([[1927]]) * ''[[The Fourth Wall]] or [[The Perfect Alibi]]'', ([[1928]]) * ''[[The Ivory Door]]'', ([[1929]]) * ''[[Toad of Toad Hall]]'', ([[1929]]) (Adaptation of [[The Wind in the Willows]]) * ''[[Other People's Lives]]'', ([[1933]]) [aka They Don't Mean Any Harm] * ''[[Miss Elizabeth Bennett]]'' (based on [[Pride and Prejudice]]?, ([[1936]]) * ''[[Sarah Simple]]'', ([[1937]]) * ''[[Gentleman Unknown]]'', ([[1938]]) * ''[[The Ugly Duckling (play)|The Ugly Duckling]]'' ([[1946]]) * ''[[Before the Flood (A. A. Milne)|Before the Flood]]'', ([[1951]]) * ''[[Michael and Mary]]'' == Books on Pooh and Milne == * Crews, Frederick, ''The Pooh Perplex'', Chicago & London, University of Chicago Press, 2003 (1st ed. 1963) ISBN 0226120589 * Crews, Frederick, ''Postmodern Pooh'', New York, North Point Press, 2001 ISBN 0865476543 * [[Benjamin Hoff|Hoff, Benjamin]], ''[[The Tao of Pooh]]'', New York, Penguin, 1983 ISBN 0140067477 * [[Benjamin Hoff|Hoff, Benjamin]], ''[[The Te of Piglet]]'', New York, Dutton Adult, 1992 ISBN 0525934960 * Milne, Christopher Robin and A. R. Melrose (ed.), ''Beyond the World of Pooh: Selections from the Memoirs of Christopher Milne'', New York, Dutton, 1998 ISBN 0525458883 * Thwaite, Ann, ''A. A. Milne: His Life'', New York, Random House, 1990 ISBN 0394587243 * Tyerman Williams, John, ''Pooh and the Philosophers: In Which It Is Shown That All of Western Philosophy Is Merely a Preamble to Winnie-The-Pooh'', London, Methuen, 1995 ISBN 0525455205 * Wullschlager, Jackie, ''Inventing Wonderland: The Lives and Fantasies of Lewis Carroll, Edward Lear, J. M. Barrie, Kenneth Grahame and A. A. Milne'', New York & Detroit, The Free Press, 1996 ISBN 0684822865 == Films == * ''The Fourth Wall'' was made into a film called ''[[The Perfect Alibi (film)|The Perfect Alibi]]'' * ''[[Michael and Mary (film)|Michael and Mary]]'' was filmed in 1932 == External links == {{wikiquote}} * {{gutenberg author|id=A._A._Milne|name=A. A. Milne}} * [http://books.guardian.co.uk/extracts/story/0,,1667391,00.html Milne extract in the Guardian] [[Category:1882 births|Milne, A. A.]] [[Category:1956 deaths|Milne, A. A.]] [[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge|Milne, A. A.]] [[Category:British Army officers|Milne, A. A.]] [[Category:British novelists|Milne, A. A.]] [[Category:British children's writers|Milne, A. A.]] [[Category:Old Westminsters|Milne, A. A.]] [[Category:Winnie-the-Pooh|Milne, A. A.]] [[bg:Алън Милн]] [[cs:Alexander A. Milne]] [[de:A. A. Milne]] [[es:Alan Alexander Milne]] [[eo:A. A. MILNE]] [[it:Alan Alexander Milne]] [[he:אלן אלכסנדר מילן]] [[nl:A.A. Milne]] [[ja:A・A・ミルン]] [[no:A. A. Milne]] [[pl:Alan Alexander Milne]] [[ru:Милн, Алан Александр]] [[fi:A. A. Milne]] [[sv:A.A. Milne]] 925 33789294 2006-01-04T00:59:13Z Dmlandfair 296817 #REDIRECT [[Alumnus/a]] 926 33791606 2006-01-04T01:18:24Z Dmlandfair 296817 un-double redirect #REDIRECT [[alumnus/a]] 927 42142122 2006-03-04T02:29:08Z Onealej 1009778 /* Criticism */ {{redirect|Addictive|the song by [[Truth Hurts]]|[[Addictive (song)]]}} '''Addiction''' is a [[compulsion]] to repeat a behaviour regardless of its consequences. A person who is addicted is sometimes called an '''addict'''. There is a lack of consensus as to what may properly be termed 'addiction.' Some within the medical community maintain a rigid definition of addiction and contend that the term is only applicable to a process of escalating drug or alcohol use as a result of repeated exposure. However, addiction is often applied to compulsive [[behavior]]s other than drug use, such as overeating or gambling. In all cases, the term addiction describes a chronic pattern of behaviour that continues despite the direct or indirect adverse consequences that result from engaging in the behavior. It is quite common for an addict to express the desire to stop the behaviour, but find himself or herself unable to cease. Addiction is often characterized by a craving for more of the drug or behavior, increased [[physiological tolerance]] to exposure, and [[withdrawal]] symptoms in the absence of the stimulus. Many drugs and behaviours that provide either pleasure or relief from pain pose a risk of addiction or [[chemical dependency|dependency]]. ==Terminology and usage== The medical community now makes a careful theoretical distinction between ''physical dependence'' (characterized by symptoms of [[withdrawal]]) and ''psychological addiction'' (or simply ''addiction''). Addiction is now narrowly defined as "uncontrolled, compulsive use despite harm"; if there is no harm being suffered by, or damage done to, the patient or another party, then clinically it may be considered compulsive, but within this narrow definition it is not categorized as "addiction". In practice, however, the two kinds of addiction are not always easy to distinguish. Addictions often have both physical and psychological components. There is also a lesser known situation called [[pseudo-addiction]], where a patient will exhibit drug-seeking behaviour reminiscent of psychological addiction, however in this case, the patients tend to have genuine pain or other symptoms that have been undertreated. Unlike true psychological addiction, however, these behaviours tend to stop as soon as their pain is adequately treated. The term "''[[dry drunk]]''" is sometimes attached to patterns of behavior that persist after an object of dependence and/or misuse has been removed from daily living routines. This type of behaviour is fairly common in early recovery for those recovering from substance misuse. The obsolete term ''physical addiction'' is deprecated, because of its connotations. In modern pain management with opioids: physical dependence is nearly universal but addiction is rare. Some of the highly addictive drugs (''[[hard drug]]s''), such as [[cocaine]], induce relatively little physical dependence. Not all doctors do agree on what addiction or dependency is*, particularly because traditionally, addiction has been defined as being possible only to a psychoactive substance (for example [[alcoholism|alcohol]], [[Tobacco smoking|tobacco]], or [[drug addiction|drugs]]), which is ingested, crosses the [[blood-brain barrier]], and alters the natural chemical behaviour of the brain temporarily. Many people, both psychology professionals and laypersons, now feel that there should be accommodation made to include psychological dependency on such things as [[gambling]], [[overeating|food]], [[hypersexuality|sex]], [[pornography addiction|pornography]], [[computer addiction|computers]], [[workaholic|work]], and [[shopping]] / spending. However, these are things or tasks which, when used or performed, cannot cross the blood-brain barrier and hence, do not fit into the traditional view of addiction. Symptoms mimicking withdrawal may occur with abatement of such behaviours; however, it is said by those who adhere to a traditionalist view that these withdrawal-like symptoms are not strictly reflective of an addiction, but rather of a behavioural disorder. In spite of traditionalist protests and warnings that overextension of definitions may cause the wrong treatment to be used (thus failing the person with the behavioural problem), popular media, and some members of the field, do represent the aforementioned behavioural examples as addictions. *note: the Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM IVR) specifically spells out criteria to define abuse and dependence conditions. ==Varied forms of addiction== ===Physical dependency=== ''Physical dependency'' on a substance is defined by the appearance of characteristic [[withdrawal]] symptoms when the drug is suddenly discontinued. While opioids, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, alcohol and nicotine are all well known for their ability to induce physical dependence, other drugs share this property that are not considered addictive: cortisone, [[beta-blockers]] and most antidepressants are examples. So while physical dependency can be a major factor in the psychology of addiction, the primary attribute of an addictive drug is its ability to induce euphoria while causing harm. Some drugs induce [[withdrawal|physical dependence]] or [[physiological tolerance]] - but not addiction - for example many [[laxative]]s, which are not psychoactive; nasal [[decongestants]], which can cause rebound congestion if used for more than a few days in a row; and some [[antidepressants]], most notably [[Effexor]] and [[Paxil]], as they have quite short [[half-lives]], so stopping them abruptly causes a more rapid change in the neurotransmitter balance in the brain than many other antidepressants. Many non-addictive prescription drugs should not be suddenly stopped, so a doctor should be consulted before abruptly discontinuing them. The speed with which a given individual becomes addicted to various substances varies with the substance, the frequency of use, the means of ingestion, and the individual. Some [[alcoholic]]s report they exhibited alcoholic tendencies from the moment of first intoxication, while most people can drink socially without ever becoming addicted. Because of this variation, some people hypothesise that physical dependency and addiction are in large part genetically moderated. [[Nicotine]] is one of the most addictive [[psychoactive]] substances: although 35 million smokers make an attempt to quit every year, less than 7% achieve even one year of abstinence.* While [[eating disorders]], like other behavioral addictions, are usually considered primarily psychological disorders, they are sometimes treated as addictions, especially if they include elements of addictive behavior. Sufferers may experience withdrawal or withdrawal-like symptoms if they alter their diet suddenly. This suggests that some common food substances, especially [[chocolate]], [[sugar]], [[salt]] and white flour may have the potential for addiction. In addition, frequent [[Wiktionary:overeat|overeat]]ing can also be considered an addiction. * From the NIDA research report on nicotine addiction. ===Psychological addiction=== ''[[Psychological addictions]]'' are a dependency of the mind, and lead to psychological withdrawal symptoms. Addictions can theoretically form for any rewarding behavior, or as a habitual means to avoid undesired activity, but typically they only do so to a clinical level in individuals who have emotional, social, or [[Mental illness|psychological dysfunctions]], taking the place of normal positive stimuli not otherwise attained (see [[Rat Park]]). == Addiction and drug control legislation == Most countries have legislation which brings various drugs and drug-like [[substance]]s under the control of licensing systems. Typically this legislation covers any or all of the opiates, cannabinoids, cocaine, barbiturates, hallucinogens and a variety of more modern synthetic drugs, and unlicensed production, supply or possession is a criminal offence. Usually, however, drug classification under such legislation is not related simply to addictiveness. The substances covered often have very different addictive properties. Some are highly prone to cause physical dependency, whilst others rarely cause any form of compulsive need whatsoever. Also, although the legislation may be justifiable on moral or public health grounds, it can make addiction or dependency a much more serious issue for the individual: reliable supplies of a drug become difficult to secure, and the individual becomes vulnerable to both criminal abuse and legal punishment. ==Methods of care== Early editions of the [[American Psychiatric Association|American Psychiatric Association's]] ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' (DSM) described addiction as a physical dependency to a substance that resulted in withdrawal symptoms in its absence. Recent editions, including DSM-IV, have moved toward a diagnostic instrument that classifies such conditions as dependency, rather than addiction. The [[American Society of Addiction Medicine]] recommends treatment for people with chemical dependency based on [[patient placement criteria]] (currently listed in PPC-2), which attempt to match levels of care according to clinical assessments in six areas, including: * Acute intoxication and/or withdrawal potential * Biomedical conditions or complications * Emotional/behavioral conditions or complications * Treatment acceptance/resistance * [[Relapse]] potential * Recovery environment Some medical systems, including those of at least 15 states of the United States, refer to an [[Addiction Severity Index]] to assess the severity of problems related to substance use. The index assesses problems in six areas: medical, employment/support, alcohol and other drug use, legal, family/social, and psychiatric. While addiction or dependency is related to seemingly uncontrollable urges, and may have roots in genetic predisposition, treatment of dependency is always classified as behavioral medicine. Early treatment of acute withdrawal often includes medical detoxification, which can include doses of [[anxiolytic]]s to reduce symptoms of withdrawal. In chronic opiate addiction, a surrogate drug such as [[methadone]] is sometimes offered as a form of [[opiate replacement therapy]]. But treatment approaches universally focus on the individual's ultimate choice to pursue an alternate course of action. Therapists often classify patients with chemical dependencies as either interested or not interested in changing. Treatments usually involve planning for specific ways to avoid the addictive stimulus, and therapeutic interventions intended to help a client learn healthier ways to find satisfaction. Clinical leaders in recent years have attempted to tailor intervention approaches to specific influences that effect addictive behavior, using therapeutic interviews in an effort to discover factors that led a person to embrace unhealthy, addictive sources of pleasure or relief from pain. {| class="prettytable" Cellpadding=4 width=60% align=center bgcolor="FOF8FF" |- style="background-color:#AFEEEE;font-size:large" !colspan=3|'''Treatment Modality Matrix''' |- style="background-color:#BFEFFF" !'''''Behavioral Pattern''''' !'''''Intervention''''' !'''''Goals''''' |- |Low self esteem, anxiety, verbal hostility |Relationship therapy, client centered approach |Increase self esteem, reduce hostility and anxiety |- |Defective personal constructs, ignorance of interpersonal means |Cognitive restructuring including directive and group therapies |Insight |- |Focal anxiety such as fear of crowds |Desensitization |Change response to same cue |- |Undesirable behaviors, lacking appropriate behaviors |Aversive conditioning, operant conditioning, counter conditioning |Eliminate or replace behavior |- |Lack of information |Provide information |Have client act on information |- |Difficult social circumstances |Organizational intervention, environmental manipulation, family counseling |Remove cause of social difficulty |- |Poor social performance, rigid interpersonal behavior |Sensitivity training, communication training, group therapy |Increase interpersonal repertoire, desensitization to group functioning |- |Grossly bizarre behavior |Medical referral |Protect from society, prepare for further treatment |- style="text-align:center;font-size:small" |colspan=3|Adapted from: ''Essentials of Clinical Dependency Counseling'', Aspen Publishers |} ==Diverse explanations== Several explanations (or "models") have been presented to explain addiction: *The ''[[moral]] model'' states that addictions are the result of human weakness, and are defects of [[moral character|character]]. Those who advance this model do not accept that there is any biological basis for addiction. They often have scant sympathy for people with serious addictions, believing either that a person with greater moral strength could have the force of will to break an addiction, or that the addict demonstrated a great moral failure in the first place by starting the addiction. The moral model is widely applied to dependency on illegal substances, perhaps purely for social or political reasons, but is no longer widely considered to have any therapeutic value. Elements of the moral model, especially a focus on individual choices, have found enduring roles in other approaches to the treatment of dependencies. *The ''[[opponent-process]] model'' generated by Richard Soloman states that for every psychological event A will be followed by its opposite psychological event B. For example, the pleasure one experiences from heroin is followed by an opponent process of withdrawal, or the terror of jumping out of an airplane is rewarded with intense pleasure when the parachute opens. This model is related to the opponent process color theory. If you look at the color red then quickly look at a gray area you will see green. There are many examples of opponent processes in the nervous system including taste, motor movement, touch, vision, and hearing. Opponent-processes occurring at the sensory level may translate "down-stream" into addictive or habit-forming behavior. *The ''[[disease]] model'' holds that addiction is an illness, and comes about as a result of the impairment of healthy [[neurochemistry|neurochemical]] or behavioral processes. While there is some dispute among clinicians as to the reliability of this model, it is widely employed in therapeutic settings. Most treatment approaches involve recognition that dependencies are behavioral dysfunctions, and thus involve some element of physical or mental disease. *The ''[[genetics|genetic]] model'' posits a genetic predisposition to certain behaviors. It is frequently noted that certain addictions "run in the family," and while researchers continue to explore the extent of genetic influence, there is strong evidence that genetic predisposition is often a factor in dependency. Researchers have had difficulty assessing differences, however, between social causes of dependency learned in family settings and genetic factors related to [[heredity]]. *The ''[[culture|cultural]] model'' recognizes that the influence of culture is a strong determinant of whether or not individuals fall prey to certain addictions. For example, alcoholism is rare among [[Saudi Arabia]]ns, where obtaining alcohol is difficult and using alcohol is prohibited. In North America, on the other hand, the incidence of [[gambling]] addictions soared in the last two decades of the [[20th century]], mirroring the growth of the gaming industry. Half of all patients diagnosed as alcoholic are born into families where alcohol is used heavily, suggesting that familiar influence, genetic factors, or more likely both, play a role in the development of addiction. *The ''blended model'' attempts to consider elements of all other models in developing a therapeutic approach to dependency. It holds that the mechanism of dependency is different for different individuals, and that each case must be considered on its own merits. *The ''[[habit]] model'' proposed by [[Thomas Szasz]] questions the very concept of "addiction." He argues that addiction is a metaphor, and that the only reason to make the distinction between habit and addiction "is to persecute somebody." [http://www.szasz.com/drugsandfreedom1973.html (Szasz, 1973)] *The genetic neurobiological model called Hypoism. Read about the science behind this and its implications at http://www.nvo.com/hypoism. The scientific argument is at: http://www.nvo.com/hypoism/hypoismhypothesis/ ==Neurobiological basis== The development of addiction is thought to involve a simultaneous process of 1) increased focus on and engagement in a particular behavior and 2) the attenuation or "shutting down" of other behaviors. For example, animals allowed the unlimited ability to self-administer psychoactive drugs will show such a strong preference that they will forgo food, sleep, and sex for continued access. The neuro-anatomical correlate of this that the brain regions involved in driving goal-directed behavior grow increasingly selective for particular motivating stimuli and rewards, to the point that the brain regions involved in the inhibition of behavior can no longer effectively send "stop" signals. A good analogy is to imagine flooring the gas pedal in a car with very bad brakes. In this case, the limbic system is thought to be the major "driving force" and the orbitofrontal cortex is the substrate of the top-down inhibition. A specific portion of the limbic circuit known as the mesolimbic dopaminergic system is hypothesized to play an important role in translation of motivation to motor behavior- and reward-related learning in particular. It is typically defined as the [[ventral tegmental area]] (VTA), the nucleus accumbens, and the bundle of dopamine-containing fibres that connecting them. This system is commonly implicated in the seeking out and consumption of rewarding stimuli or events, such as sweet-tasting foods or sexual interaction. However, ita importance to addiction research goes beyond its role in "natural" motivation: while the specific site or mechanism of action may differ, all known drugs of abuse have the common effect in that they elevate the level of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens. This may happen directly, such as through blockade of the dopamine re-uptake mechanism (see [[cocaine]]). It may also happen indirectly, such as through stimulation of the dopamine-containing neurons of the VTA that synapse onto neurons in the accumbens (see [[opiates]]). The euphoric effects of drugs of abuse are thought to be a direct result of the acute increase in accumbal dopamine. The human body has a natural tendency to maintain [[homeostasis]], and the central nervous system is no exception. Chronic elevation of dopamine will result in a decrease in the number of dopamine [[Transmembrane receptor|receptors]] available in a process known as [[downregulation]]. The decreased number of receptors changes the permeability of the cell membrane located post-synaptically, such that the post-synaptic neuron is less excitable- ie, less able to respond to chemical signalling with an electrical impulse, or [[action potential]]. It is hypothesized that this dulling of the responsiveness of the brain's reward pathways contributes to the inability to feel pleasure, known as [[anhedonia]], often observed in addicts. The increased requirement for dopamine to maintain the same electrical activity is the basis of both [[physiological tolerance]] and [[withdrawal]] associated with addiction. Downregulation can be classically conditioned. If a behavior consistently occurs in the same environment or contigently with a particular cue, the brain will adjust to the presence of the conditioned cues by decreasing the number of available receptors in the absence of the behavior. It is thought that many drug overdoses are not the result of a user taking a higher dose than is typical, but rather that the user is administering the same dose in a new environment. In cases of physical dependency on [[depressant]]s of the [[central nervous system]] such as opioids, [[barbiturate]]s, or alcohol, the absence of the substance can lead to symptoms of severe physical discomfort. Withdrawal from alcohol or sedatives such as barbiturates or benzodiazepines (valium-family) can result in seizures and even death. By contrast, withdrawal from opioids, which can be extremely uncomfortable, is rarely if ever life-threatening. In cases of dependence and withdrawal, the body has become so dependent on high concentrations of the particular chemical that it has stopped producing its own natural versions (endogenous ligands) and instead produces opposing chemicals. When the addictive substance is withdrawn, the effects of the opposing chemicals can become overwhelming. For example, chronic use of sedatives (alcohol, [[barbiturate]]s, or benzodiazepines) results in higher chronic levels of stimulating [[neurotransmitter]]s such as glutamate. Very high levels of glutamate kill nerve cells (called excitatory neurotoxicity). ==Criticism== [[Levi Bryant]] has criticized the term and concept of ''addiction'' as counterproductive in psychotherapy as it defines a patient's identity and makes it harder to become a ''non-addict''. "The signifier 'addict' doesn't simply describe what I am, but initiates a way of relating to myself that informs how I relate to others." A stronger form or criticism comes from [[Thomas Szasz]], who denies that addiction is a psychiatric problem. In many of his works, he argues that addiction is a choice, and that a drug addict is one who simply prefers a socially taboo substance rather than, say, a low risk lifestyle. In 'Our Right to Drugs', Szasz cites the biography of [[Malcolm X]] to corroborate his economic views towards addiction: Malcolm claimed that quitting cigarettes was harder than shaking his heroine addiction. Szasz postulates that humans always have a choice, and it is foolish to call someone an 'addict' just becuase they prefer a [[drug]] induced [[euphoria]] to a more popular and socially welcome lifestyle. A similar conclusion to that of Thomas Szasz may also be reached through very different [[reasoning]]. This is the somewhat extreme, yet tenanable, view that humans do not have [[free will]]. From this perspective, being 'addicted' to a substance is no different than being 'addicted' to a job that you work everyday. Without the assumption of free will, every human action is the result of the naturally occuring reactions of particle matter in the physical brain, and so there is no longer room for the concept of 'addiction', since, in this view, choice is an illusion of the [[human]] experience. ==Casual addiction== The word addiction is also sometimes used colloquially to refer to something a person has a passion for. Such "addicts" include: *[[Bibliophilia|Biblioholics]] *[[Chocoholic]]s *[[Workaholic]]s ==See also== * [[12-step programs]] * [[Alcoholics Anonymous]] * [[Narcotics Anonymous]] * [[Moderation Management]] * [[Cold turkey]] * [[Junkie]] * [[Love-hate relationship]] * [[Tanha]] * [[YES Recovery]] * [[Higher order desire]] * [[Sexual addiction]] * [[Drug addiction]] * [[Computer addiction]] ==External links== * [http://www.nvo.com/hypoism/hypoismhypothesis/ Hypoism Hypothesis] * [http://www.nature.com/neuro/focus/addiction/index.html nature neurosience - Focus on Neurobiology of addiction] (freely available online through January 2006) * [http://www.nida.nih.gov/ National Institute on Drug Abuse] * [http://www.asam.org/pain/definitions2.pdf Definitions Related to the Use of Opioids for the Treatment of Pain] (2001) - a joint statement by the American Academy of Pain Medicine, the American Pain Society, and the American Society of Addiction Medicine * [http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/terminology/who_lexicon/en/ World Health Organization terminology for substance use and dependence] * [http://www.narecovery.org/ Narcotics Anonymous Help for Addicts by addicts] * [http://www.alcoholicsanonymous.com/ Alcoholics Anonymous] * [http://my-addiction.info/Four_Stages_of_Breaking_an_Addiction_Caryl_Ehrlich.html Four Stages of Breaking an Addiction] * [http://www.marijuana-anonymous.org Marijuana Anonymous] * [http://www.Methadone-Anonymous.org Methadone Anonymous World Services, Inc.] * [http://www.MethadoneSupport.org Methadone & Methadone Anonymous Support] * [http://www.nicd.us/ National Institute on Chemical Dependency] *[http://navisite.collegeclub.com/servlet/channels.ChannelArticleServlet?articleid=4461&areaid=8&grid-messageboard-page=1 Harrowing Heroin by Geoff Morton] * [http://www.addictioninfo.org/ AddictionInfo contemporary addiction information] * [http://www.drugabuse.gov/researchreports/nicotine/nicotine.html/ NIDA research report on Nicotine Addiction] [[Category:Addiction|*]] [[Category:Motivation]] [[Category:Unsolved problems in neuroscience]] [[ca:Addicció]] [[cs:Závislost]] [[de:Sucht]] [[es:Adicción]] [[fr:Addiction]] [[ko:중독]] [[hr:Ovisnost]] [[is:Fíkn]] [[he:התמכרות]] [[nl:Verslaving]] [[ja:依存症]] [[pl:Uzależnienie]] [[sv:Beroende]] 928 41064244 2006-02-24T20:53:35Z 141.210.100.235 {{otheruses}} In [[epistemology]], an '''axiom''' is a [[self-evidence|self-evident]] truth upon which other knowledge must rest, from which other knowledge is built up. Not all [[epistemologist]]s agree that any axioms, understood in that sense, exist. In [[mathematics]], an '''axiom''' is ''not'' necessarily a ''self-evident'' truth, but rather a formal logical expression used in a deduction to yield further results. Mathematics distinguishes two types of axioms: [[#Logical axioms|logical axioms]] and [[#Non-logical axioms|non-logical axioms]]. ==Etymology== The word ''axiom'' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word &alpha;&xi;&iota;&omega;&mu;&alpha; (''axioma''), which means that which is deemed worthy or fit or that which is considered [[self-evidence|self-evident]]. The word comes from &alpha;&xi;&iota;&omicron;&epsilon;&iota;&nu; (''axioein''), meaning to deem worthy, which in turn comes from &alpha;&xi;&iota;&omicron;&sigmaf; (''axios''), meaning worthy. Among the [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[philosopher]]s an axiom was a claim which could be seen to be true without any need for proof. ==Mathematics== In the field of [[mathematical logic]], a clear distinction is made between two notions of axioms: '''logical axioms''' and '''non-logical axioms'''. ===Logical axioms=== These are certain [[Mathematical logic#Definition:Formula|formulas]] in a [[Mathematical logic#Definition:FirstOrderLanguage|language]] that are [[Mathematical logic#Definition:ValidFormula|universally valid]], that is, formulas that are [[Mathematical logic#Definition:Satisfaction|satisfied]] by every [[Mathematical logic#Definition:Structure|structure]] under every [[Mathematical logic#Definition:VariableAssignmentFunction|variable assignment function]] . In colloquial terms, these are statements that are ''true'' in any possible universe, under any possible interpretation and with any assignment of values. Usually one takes as logical axioms some minimal set of tautologies that is sufficient for proving all [[tautology|tautologies]] in the language. ====Examples==== In the [[propositional calculus]] it is common to take as logical axioms all formulas of the following forms, where <math>\phi</math>, <math>\psi</math>, and <math>\chi</math> can be any formulas of the language: #<math>\phi \to (\psi \to \phi)</math> #<math>(\phi \to (\psi \to \chi)) \to ((\phi \to \psi) \to (\phi \to \chi))</math> #<math>(\lnot \phi \to \lnot \psi) \to (\psi \to \phi)</math> Each of these patterns is an ''[[axiom schema]]'', a rule for generating an infinite number of axioms. For example, if <math>A</math>, <math>B</math>, and <math>C</math> are propositional variables, then <math>A \to (B \to A)</math> and <math>(A \to \lnot B) \to (C \to (A \to \lnot B))</math> are both instances of axiom schema 1, and hence are axioms. It can be shown that with only these three axiom schemata and ''[[modus ponens]]'', one can prove all tautologies of the propositional calculus. It can also be shown that no pair of these schemata is sufficient for proving all tautologies with ''modus ponens''. These axiom schemata are also used in the [[predicate calculus]], but additional logical axioms are needed. <div style="border-left: 3px double #CCCCCC; padding-left: 5px; "> '''Example.''' Let <math>\mathfrak{L}\,</math> be a first-order language. For each variable <math>x\,</math>, the formula <center> <math>x = x</math> </center> is universally valid. </div> This means that, for any [[Mathematical logic#Definition:FirstOrderLanguage|variable symbol]] <math>x\,</math>, the formula <math>x = x\,</math> can be regarded as an axiom. Also, in this example, for this not to fall into vagueness and a never-ending series of "primitive notions", either a precise notion of what we mean by <math>x = x\,</math> (or, for all what matters, "to be equal") has to be well established first, or a purely formal and syntactical usage of the symbol <math>=\,</math> has to be enforced, and [[mathematical logic]] does indeed do that. Another, more interesting example, is that which provides us with what is known as '''universal instantiation''': <div style="border-left: 3px double #CCCCCC; padding-left: 5px; "> '''Example.''' Given a formula <math>\phi\,</math> in a first-order language <math>\mathfrak{L}\,</math>, a variable <math>x\,</math> and a [[Mathematical logic#Definition:Term|term]] <math>t\,</math> that is [[Mathematical logic#Definition:VariableSubstitutionInFormula|substitutable]] for <math>x\,</math> in <math>\phi\,</math>, the formula <center> <math>\forall x. \phi \to \phi^x_t</math> </center> is universally valid. </div> In informal terms, this example allows us to state that, if we know that a certain property <math>P\,</math> holds for every <math>x\,</math> and that if <math>t\,</math> stands for a particular object in our structure, then we should be able to claim <math>P(t)\,</math>. Again, ''we are claiming that the formula'' <math>\forall x. \phi \to \phi^x_t</math> ''is valid'', that is, we must be able to give a "proof" of this fact, or more properly speaking, a ''metaproof''. Actually, these examples are ''metatheorems'' of our theory of mathematical logic since we are dealing with the very concept of ''proof'' itself. Aside from this, we can also have '''existential generalization''': <div style="border-left: 3px double #CCCCCC; padding-left: 5px; "> '''Axiom scheme.''' Given a formula <math>\phi\,</math> in a first-order language <math>\mathfrak{L}\,</math>, a variable <math>x\,</math> and a term <math>t\,</math> that is substitutable for <math>x\,</math> in <math>\phi\,</math>, the formula <center> <math>\phi^x_t \to \exists x. \phi</math> </center> is universally valid. </div> ===Non-logical axioms=== '''Non-logical axioms''' are formulas that play the role of theory-specific assumptions. Reasoning about two different structures, for example the [[natural number]]s and the [[integer]]s, may involve the same logical axioms; the non-logical axioms aim to capture what is special about a particular structure (or set of structures, such as [[group (algebra)|groups]]). Thus non-logical axioms, unlike logical axioms, are not ''tautologies''. Another name for a non-logical axiom is ''postulate''. Almost every modern [[mathematical theory]] starts from a given set of non-logical axioms, and it was thought that in principle every theory could be axiomatized in this way and formalized down to the bare language of logical formulas. This turned out to be impossible and proved to be quite a story (''[[#role|see below]]''). Non-logical axioms are often simply referred to as ''axioms'' in mathematical discourse. This does not mean that it is claimed that they are true in some absolute sense. For example, in some [[group (algebra)|groups]], the group operation is [[commutative]], and this can be asserted with the introduction of an additional axiom, but without this axiom we can do quite well developing (the more general) group theory, and we can even take its negation as an axiom for the study of non-commutative groups. Thus, an ''axiom'' is an elementary basis for a formal logic system that together with the [[rules of inference]] define a '''deductive system'''. ====Examples==== This section gives examples of mathematical theories that are developed entirely from a set of non-logical axioms (axioms, henceforth). A rigorous treatment of any of these topics begins with a specification of these axioms. Basic theories, such as [[arithmetic]], [[real analysis]] (sometimes referred to as ''the theory of functions of one real variable''), [[linear algebra]], and [[complex analysis]] (a.k.a. ''complex variables''), are often introduced non-axiomatically in mostly technical studies, but any rigorous course in these subjects always begins by presenting its axioms. ''Geometries'' such as [[Euclidean geometry]], [[projective geometry]], [[symplectic geometry]]. Interestingly one of the results of the fifth Euclidean axiom being a non-logical axiom is that the three angles of a triangle do not by definition add to 180°. Only under the umbrella of Euclidean geometry is this always true. The study of topology in mathematics extends all over through [[point set topology]], [[algebraic topology]], [[differential topology]], and all the related paraphernalia, such as [[homology theory]], [[homotopy theory]]. The development of ''abstract algebra'' brought with itself [[group theory]], [[ring (mathematics)|rings]] and [[field (mathematics)|fields]], [[Galois theory]]. This list could be expanded to include most fields of mathematics, including [[axiomatic set theory]], [[measure theory]], [[ergodic theory]], [[probability]], [[representation theory]], and [[differential geometry]]. =====Arithmetic===== The [[Peano axioms]] are the most widely used ''axiomatization'' of [[arithmetic]]. They are a set of axioms strong enough to prove many important facts about [[number theory]] and they allowed Gödel to establish his famous [[Gödel's second incompleteness theorem|second incompleteness theorem]]. We have a language <math>\mathfrak{L}_{NT} = \{0, S\}\,</math> where <math>0\,</math> is a constant symbol and <math>S\,</math> is a [[unary function]] and the following axioms: # <math>\forall x. \lnot (Sx = 0) </math> # <math>\forall x. \forall y. (Sx = Sy \to x = y) </math> # <math>((\phi(0) \land \forall x.\,(\phi(x) \to \phi(Sx))) \to \forall x.\phi(x)</math> for any <math>\mathfrak{L}_{NT}\,</math> formula <math>\phi\,</math> with one free variable. The standard structure is <math>\mathfrak{N} = \langle\N, 0, S\rangle\,</math> where <math>\N\,</math> is the set of natural numbers, <math>S\,</math> is the [[successor function]] and <math>0\,</math> is naturally interpreted as the number 0. =====Euclidean geometry===== Probably the oldest, and most famous, list of axioms are the 4 + 1 [[Euclid's postulates]] of [[plane geometry]]. This set of axioms turns out to be incomplete, and many more postulates are necessary to rigorously characterize his geometry ([[David Hilbert|Hilbert]] used 23). The axioms are referred to as "4 + 1" because for nearly two millennia the [[parallel postulate|fifth (parallel) postulate]] ("through a point outside a line there is exactly one parallel") was suspected of being derivable from the first four. Ultimately, the fifth postulate was found to be independent of the first four. Indeed, one can assume that no parallels through a point outside a line exist, that exactly one exists, or that infinitely many exist. These choices give us alternative forms of geometry in which the interior [[angle]]s of a [[triangle]] add up to less than, exactly, or more than a straight line respectively and are known as [[elliptic geometry|elliptic]], [[Euclidean geometry|Euclidean]], and [[hyperbolic geometry|hyperbolic]] geometries. =====Real analysis===== The object of study is the [[real numbers]]. The real numbers are uniquely picked out (up to [[isomorphism]]) by the properties of a ''complete ordered field''. However, expressing these properties as axioms requires use of [[second-order logic]]. The [[Löwenheim-Skolem theorem]]s tell us that if we restrict ourselves to [[first-order logic]], any axiom system for the reals admits other models, including both models that are smaller than the reals and models that are larger. Some of the latter are studied in [[non-standard analysis]]. ===<span id="role">Role in mathematical logic</span>=== ====Deductive systems and completeness==== A '''deductive system''' consists, of a set <math>\Lambda\,</math> of logical axioms, a set <math>\Sigma\,</math> of non-logical axioms, and a set <math>\{(\Gamma, \phi)\}\,</math> of ''rules of inference''. A desirable property of a deductive system is that it be '''complete'''. A system is said to be complete if, for all formulas <math>\phi</math>, <center> if <math>\Sigma \models \phi</math> then <math>\Sigma \vdash \phi</math> </center> that is, for any statement that is a ''logical consequence'' of <math>\Sigma</math> there actually exists a ''deduction'' of the statement from <math>\Sigma\,</math>. This is sometimes expressed as "everything that is true is provable", but it must be understood that "true" here means "made true by the set of axioms", and not, for example, "true in the intended interpretation". [[Gödel's completeness theorem]] establishes the completeness of a certain commonly-used type of deductive system. Note that "completeness" has a different meaning here than it does in the context of [[Gödel's first incompleteness theorem]], which states that no ''recursive'', ''consistent'' set of non-logical axioms <math>\Sigma\,</math> of the Theory of Arithmetic is ''complete'', in the sense that there will always exist an arithmetic statement <math>\phi\,</math> such that neither <math>\phi\,</math> nor <math>\lnot\phi\,</math> can be proved from the given set of axioms. There is thus, on the one hand, the notion of '''''completeness of a deductive system''''' and on the other hand that of '''''completeness of a set of non-logical axioms'''''. The completeness theorem and the incompleteness theorem, despite their names, do not contradict one another. ===Further discussion=== Early [[mathematician]]s regarded axiomatic geometry as a model of [[physical space]], and obviously there could only be one such model. The idea that alternative mathematical systems might exist was very troubling to mathematicians of the 19th century and the developers of systems such as [[Boolean algebra]] made elaborate efforts to derive them from traditional arithmetic. [[Évariste Galois|Galois]] showed just before his untimely death that these efforts were largely wasted, but that the grand parallels between axiomatic systems could be put to good use, as he algebraically solved many classical geometrical problems. Ultimately, the abstract parallels between algebraic systems were seen to be more important than the details and [[abstract algebra|modern algebra]] was born. In the modern view we may take as axioms any set of formulas we like, as long as they are not known to be inconsistent. ==See also== * [[Axiomatic system]] * [[Peano axioms]] * [[Axiom of choice]] * [[Axiom of countability]] * [[Axiomatic set theory]] * [[Parallel postulate]] * [[Continuum hypothesis]] * [[Axiomatization]] * [[List of axioms]] ==External links== * [http://us.metamath.org/mpegif/mmset.html#axioms ''Metamath'' axioms page] [[Category:Mathematical axioms|*]] [[Category:Logic]] [[bg:Аксиома]] [[be:Аксіёма]] [[ca:Axioma]] [[cs:Axiom]] [[da:Aksiom]] [[de:Axiom]] [[et:Aksioom]] [[es:Axioma]] [[eo:Aksiomo]] [[fa:اصل موضوع]] [[fr:Axiome]] [[ko:공리]] [[hr:Aksiom]] [[io:Axiomo]] [[id:Aksioma]] [[it:Assioma (matematica)]] [[he:אקסיומה]] [[lt:Aksioma]] [[hu:Axióma]] [[nl:Axioma]] [[ja:公理]] [[no:Aksiom]] [[pl:Aksjomat]] [[pt:Axioma]] [[ru:Аксиома]] [[sl:Aksiom]] [[sr:Аксиома]] [[fi:Aksiooma]] [[sv:Axiom]] [[vi:Tiên đề]] [[tr:Aksiyom]] [[uk:Аксіома]] [[zh:公理]] 929 41077797 2006-02-24T22:27:49Z Unyoyega 460372 fixing interwikis +: als {{Table_Greekletters|letter=alpha}} {{WikisourceEBD1897|A (entry)}} :''For other uses, see [[Alpha]].'' '''Alpha''' (uppercase Α, lowercase α) is the first letter of the [[Greek alphabet]]. In the system of [[Greek numerals]] it has a value of 1. It derives from the [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] letter [[Aleph (letter)|'Aleph]][[Image:phoenician_aleph.png|20px|Aleph]]. Letters that arose from Alpha include the Latin [[A]] and the Cyrillic letter [[A (Cyrillic)|A]]. [[Plutarch]] in ''[[Moralia]]'' presents a discussion on the question of why the letter alpha stands first in the alphabet. Plutarch's speaker suggests that [[Cadmus]], the [[Phoenician]] who reputedly settled in [[Thebes]] and introduced the alphabet to Greece, "placed ''alpha'' first because it is the Phoenician name for [[ox]], which they, like [[Hesiod]], considered not the second or third, but the first of necessities." This refers to a passage in ''[[Works and Days]]'' by Hesiod, who advised the early Greek farmers, "First get an ox, then a woman." A simpler explanation is that it was the first letter in the Phoenician alphabet. According to Plutarch's natural order of attribution of the [[vowel]]s to the [[planet]]s, alpha was connected with the [[Moon]]. Oxen were also associated with the Moon in both early [[Sumerian]] and [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] religious symbolism due to the crescent shape of their horns. Alpha, both as a symbol and term, is used to refer to or describe a variety of things, including the first or most significant occurrence of something. [[Jesus]] declares himself to be the "Alpha and [[Omega]], the beginning and the end, the first and the last." ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 22:13, KJV, and see also 1:8). The uppercase letter alpha is not generally used as a symbol because it tends to be rendered identically to the uppercase [[A|latin A]]. The lower-case letter α is used as the symbol for the following in physics: * [[Angular acceleration]]. * The [[alpha particle]] and [[alpha decay]]. * Molecular polarisability. ==Other uses== Alpha is also used to describe the strongest male in a pack of animals, known as the alphamale. [[Category:Greek letters]] [[als:Α]] [[an:Alfa]] [[ast:Alpha]] [[ca:Alfa]] [[da:Alfa (bogstav)]] [[de:Alpha]] [[el:Άλφα]] [[es:Α]] [[fr:Alpha]] [[ga:Alfa]] [[gl:Alfa (letra)]] [[ko:Α]] [[id:Alpha]] [[he:אלפא]] [[la:Alpha]] [[nl:Alfa (letter)]] [[nds:Alpha]] [[ja:Α]] [[no:Alfa]] [[pl:Alfa]] [[pt:Α]] [[ru:Альфа (буква)]] [[sk:Alfa (písmeno)]] [[sl:Alfa]] [[sr:Алфа]] [[fi:Alfa]] [[sv:Alfa]] [[zh:Α]] 930 42090219 2006-03-03T19:37:03Z 81.132.116.185 [[Image:Alvin_toffler.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Alvin Toffler]] '''Alvin Toffler''' (born [[October 3]], [[1928]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[writer]] and [[futures studies|futurist]], known for his works discussing the [[digital revolution]], [[communications revolution]], [[corporate revolution]] and [[technological singularity]]. A former associate editor of ''[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]'' magazine, his early work focused on technology and its impact (through effects like [[information overload]]). Then he moved to examining the reaction of and [[Social change|changes in society]]. His later focus has been on the increasing power of [[21st century]] military hardware, weapons and technology proliferation, and [[capitalism]]. He is married to [[Heidi Toffler]], also a writer and futurist. == His ideas == Toffler explains, "Society needs people who take care of the elderly and who know how to be compassionate and honest. Society needs people who work in hospitals. Society needs all kinds of skill that are not just cognitive; they're emotional, they're affectional. You can't run the society on data and computers alone." In his book ''The Third Wave'' Toffler describes three types of societies, based on the concept of 'waves' - each wave pushes the older societies and cultures aside. *First Wave is the society after [[agrarian revolution]] and replaced the first [[hunter-gatherer]] cultures. *The main components of the Second Wave society are [[nuclear family]], factory-type education system and the [[corporation]]. Toffler writes: "The Second Wave Society is industrial and based on [[mass production]], [[mass distribution]], [[mass consumption]], [[mass education]], [[mass media]], [[mass recreation]], [[mass entertainment]], and [[weapons of mass destruction]]. You combine those things with [[standardization]], [[centralization]], concentration, and synchronization, and you wind up with a style of [[organization]] we call [[bureaucracy]]." *Third Wave is the [[post-industrial]] society. Toffler would also add that since late 1950s most countries are moving away from a Second Wave Society into what he would call a Third Wave Society. He coined lots of words to describe it and mentions names invented by other people, like the [[Information Age]]. In this post-industrial society, there is a lot of diversity in [[lifestyle]]s ("subcults"). [[Adhocracy|Adhocracies]] (fluid organizations like, say, the [[Wikipedia community]]) adapt quickly to [[change]]s. [[Information]] can substitute most of the material resources (see [[ersatz]]) and becomes the main material for workers ([[cognitarian]]s instead of [[proletarian]]s), who are loosely affiliated. [[Mass customization]] offers the possibility of cheap, personalized, production catering to small niches (see [[Just In Time]] production). The gap between producer and consumer is bridged by technology. "[[Prosumer]]s" can fill their own needs (see [[open source]], [[assembly kit]], [[freelance]] work). Since the 1960s, people have been trying to make sense of the impact of new technologies and social change. Toffler's writings have been influential beyond the confines of scientific, economic and public policy discussions. [[Techno music]] pioneer [[Juan Atkins]] cites Toffler's phrase "techno rebels" in ''Future Shock'' as inspiring him to use the word "techno" to describe the [[musical genre|musical style]] he helped to create. Toffler's works and ideas have been subject to various criticism, usually with the same argumentation used against [[future studies|futurology]], that is that foreseeing the future is nigh impossible. In the 1990s, his ideas were publicly lauded by [[Newt Gingrich]]. == His books == A few of his well-known works are: * ''[[Future Shock]]'' ([[1970]]) Bantam Books ISBN 0553277375 * ''[[The Eco-Spasm Report]]'' ([[1975]]) Bantam Books ISBN 055314474X * ''[[The Third Wave (book)|The Third Wave]]'' ([[1980]]) Bantam Books ISBN 0553246984 * ''[[Previews & Premises]]'' ([[1983]]) * ''[[Powershift|Powershift: Knowledge, Wealth and Violence at the Edge of the 21st Century]]'' ([[1990]]) Bantam Books ISBN 0553292153 * ''[[War and Anti-War|War and Anti-War]]'' ([[1995]]) Warner Books ISBN 0446602590 ''[[The Shockwave Rider]]'' is a science-fiction novel inspired by his ''Future Shock''. ==See also== *[[Daniel Bell]] *[[Norman Swan]] *The [[National Committee For U.S.-China Relations]] *The [[U.S. Committee for Unifem]] *The [[United Nations Fund for Women]] (UNIFEM) *The [[RAND|RAND Corporation]] *The [[Progress and Freedom Foundation]] *The [[Institute for Policy Studies]] *The [[United Nations]] *The [[World Trade Organization]] *The [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]] *[[Techno]] [[Category:1928 births|Toffler, Alvin]] [[Category:Living people|Toffler, Alvin]] [[Category:American writers|Toffler, Alvin]] [[af:Alvin Toffler]] [[de:Alvin Toffler]] [[es:Alvin Toffler]] [[it:Alvin Toffler]] [[ro:Alvin Toffler]] [[ru:Тоффлер, Элвин]] [[sv:Alvin Toffler]] 931 41875373 2006-03-02T07:52:39Z 85.107.165.6 : ''The Amazing Spider-Man is a comics series. For other uses see [[The Amazing Spider-Man (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:Firstissue.jpg|thumb|Cover to ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' #1 (Volume 1), March 1963, by [[Steve Ditko]].]] '''''The Amazing Spider-Man''''' is the title of a [[comic book]] published by [[Marvel Comics]], a [[television program]] and a daily [[newspaper]] [[comic strip]]. All three feature the adventures of the [[superhero]] [[Spider-Man]]. ==Comic book == Spider-Man originally appeared in issue #15 of the comic book ''[[Amazing Fantasy]]'', its final issue. The series was cancelled with that issue, but response to the character was so positive that the new title, ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' was launched, issue #1 appearing in March 1963. The character was created by writer/editor [[Stan Lee]] and artist/cowriter [[Steve Ditko]], and the pair produced 38 issues of ''Amazing''. A disagreement over a story led to Ditko leaving the title after that point. He was replaced by penciller [[John Romita, Sr.|John Romita]] who illustrated Lee's stories for several years. Although many fans thought that the writing quality almost instantly plummeted, the series became still more popular. Many writers and artists have taken over the monthly comic over the years chronicling the adventures of Marvel's most identifiable hero. The title was published continuously until 1998 when Marvel Comics decided to begin anew by renumbering the title with a new issue #1 published in January, 1999. In 2003 this new title reverted to using the numbering of the original series, at issue #500. As of October 2005, ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' is participating in "[[Spider-Man: The Other|The Other]]", a 12-part crossover, which will conclude in January 2006. [[Image:Blackissue.jpg|thumb|Cover to ''The Black Issue'' which is just a black background.]] ===Black Issue=== An issue of Amazing Spider-Man (Vol. 2) called "The Black Issue" explores how Spider-Man and other heroes would react to the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] written by [[J. Michael Straczynski]] and penciled by [[John Romita, Jr]]. It starts with a double page spread of the devastation and of Spidey holding his head in pain/anguish/disbelief, his only word "...God..." The issue continues as Spidey swings down to help in the aftermath. Joining with other heroes in the rescue efforts, Spidey explores the wreckage and the broken hearts and his thoughts drive on, thinking through it all. At some point his thoughts become Straczynski's reflections and response. The script journeys from horror, pain and loss to end on strength. See also [[List of The Amazing Spider-Man comics|List of ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' comics]] ==Television program== {{main|The Amazing Spider-Man (TV series)}} Spidey got his shot at live-action TV stardom in April 1977, when he debuted in the "Amazing Spider-Man" TV series. Nicholas Hammond portrayed Peter Parker/Spider-Man in the short-lived series, which had started out as a slew of TV-movies, obviously made to capitalize on the [[The Incredible Hulk]] television series. The show was canceled a year after its debut. ==Newspaper comic strip== The daily newspaper comic strip began on [[January 3]], [[1977]]. It was first written by Spider-Man co-creator [[Stan Lee]] and illustrated by [[John Romita, Sr.|John Romita]]. The strip was surprisingly successful in an era with few serialized adventure strips. The strip slowly grew in circulation and [[as of 2006]] is still being published. Lee's brother [[Larry Lieber]] illustrated and later wrote the strip for much of its run. While the strip and the comic book feature the same characters, they do not share the same [[Continuity (fiction)|continuity]], and the strip has had a decreased emphasis on [[supervillain]] enemies. A rare exception was the 1987 wedding of [[Peter Parker]] and [[Mary Jane Watson]] which occurred in both the comic book and the comic strip. Guest stars in the newspaper strip include [[Wolverine (comics)|Wolverine]] and [[Dr. Strange]]. Villains include [[Dr. Doom]], [[Kraven the Hunter]], and [[The Rhino]]. Stories from the strip have been reprinted in paperback and in [[Comics Revue]] magazine. ==Video and computer games== {{see details|Spider-Man (games)}} Numerous video and computer games have been released whereby the player controlled Spider-Man and had to do battle with various enemies. ==Trivia== The 2004 movie ''[[Spider-Man 2]]'' was at one point tentatively titled ''The Amazing Spider-Man''. ==External links== *[http://www.spyder-25.com Spyder-25.com :: Ultimate Resource For Spider-Man Fans] *[http://www.spidermancrawlspace.com Spider-Man Crawl Space: All Spidey, All The Time] *[http://www.kingfeatures.com/features/comics/spidermn/about.htm The Amazing Spider-Man comic strip] {{spiderman}} [[Category:Spider-Man titles]] [[Category:Comic strips|Amazing Spider-Man, The]] [[fr:Amazing Spider-man]] 932 40125139 2006-02-18T08:44:27Z Lightdarkness 130135 disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]]) '''Archie''' may refer to: * [[Archie Andrews (puppet)]] -- Ventriloquist's puppet * [[Archie Bunker]] -- a [[sitcom]] character from the [[1970s]]. * [[Archie Comics]] -- a comic book publisher specializing in teen humor ** [[Archie Andrews (comics)]] -- Main character in Archie Comics * [[Archie search engine]] -- a [[search engine]] for [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] sites, named after the comic series, launched in the early [[1990s]]. * [[Archie, Missouri]] -- city located in Cass County, Missouri. * A slang term for [[Anti-aircraft warfare|anti-aircraft fire]] used by the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Royal Flying Corps]] and [[Royal Air Force]]. * [[Archie_(Linux)|Archie Linux]] -- a [[LiveCD]] version of [[Arch Linux]] * [[Archie (Pokémon)|Archie]] -- leader of [[Team Aqua]] in the [[Pokémon]] series * [[Archie MacPherson]] -- Scottish sports broadcaster. {{disambig}} 933 40944561 2006-02-24T01:05:58Z Mzajac 61482 sort {{wiktionarypar4|AM|A.M.|Am|am}} '''AM''' may refer to: * [[AM broadcasting]], radio broadcasting using [[Amplitude Modulation]] * [[AM (fictional computer)]], a fictional evil supercomputer in the short story ''I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream'' * ''[[Ante Meridiem]]'', in 12-hour clock notation, Latin for "before noon" * ''[[Anno Mundi]]'', a Calendar era counting from the creation of the world * [[Armenia]] (ISO country code AM) * [[Anguilla]] (MARC country code am) * [[Aeroméxico]] (IATA airline designator) * [[Air Marshal]], a military rank in the Royal Air Force and many Commonwealth air forces * [[Air Medal]], a military decoration * [[Airmail]] * [[Artium Magister]], alternative abbrevation for a Master's degree in Arts * [[Amazonas State, Brazil]] * [[Americium]], a chemical element with symbol Am * [[Amharic language]] (ISO 639-1 language code am) * [[Amran Governorate]], Yemen (ISO 3166-2:YE) * ''[[Anno Martyrum]]'', used in the Coptic calendar * [[Arkansas and Missouri Railroad]], a short-line railroad headquartered in Springdale, Arkansas * [[Arthur-Merlin protocol]], an interactive proof system in computational complexity theory * [[Asia Miles]], a Cathay Pacific travel reward programme * [[Attometre]] (am), a unit of length (equal to 10<sup><small>–18</small></sup> m) * [[Automated Mathematician]], an artificial intelligence program * [[Minesweeper (ship)]], U.S. Navy 1921 warship classification code * [[Order of Australia]] member (postnominal) * A-minor (Am), a [[minor chord]] in music * Assembly Member of the [[National Assembly for Wales]] or [[London Assembly]] * "Away message", see [[status message (IM)]] {{disambig}} [[ca:Am]] [[da:AM (flertydig)]] [[de:Am]] [[es:Am]] [[fr:AM]] [[ko:AM]] [[it:Am]] [[nl:Am]] [[ja:AM]] [[pl:AM]] [[pt:AM]] [[sl:Am]] [[sv:AM]] [[vi:AM]] 935 15899447 2004-11-30T06:37:19Z Chuq 3861 [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]] #REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]] 936 15899448 2004-11-30T06:37:15Z Chuq 3861 [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]] #REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]] 937 15899449 2004-11-30T06:37:10Z Chuq 3861 [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]] #REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]] 938 15899450 2004-11-30T06:36:47Z Chuq 3861 [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]] #REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]] 939 15899451 2004-11-30T06:37:07Z Chuq 3861 [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]] #REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]] 940 15899452 2004-11-30T06:36:59Z Chuq 3861 [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]] #REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]] 941 15899453 2004-11-30T06:37:03Z Chuq 3861 [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]] #REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]] 942 15899454 2004-11-30T06:36:51Z Chuq 3861 [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]] #REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]] 943 15899455 2004-11-30T06:36:44Z Chuq 3861 [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]] #REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]] 944 15899456 2004-11-30T06:36:38Z Chuq 3861 [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]] #REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]] 945 15899457 2004-11-30T06:36:35Z Chuq 3861 [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]] #REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]] 946 15899458 2004-11-30T06:36:40Z Chuq 3861 [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]] #REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]] 948 33600503 2006-01-02T14:50:04Z Itomi Bhaa 745300 [[Category:1996 books]] [[Category:Alice derived works]] '''Automated Alice''' is a novel by [[Jeff Noon]], written 1996. Noon presents it as a ''trequel'' to the [[Lewis Carroll]] books, ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' and ''[[Through the Looking-Glass]]''. This illustrated novella follows Alice's journey to a future Manchester populated by Newmonians, Civil Serpents and a vanishing cat named Quark. 951 41463576 2006-02-27T14:45:26Z Sanmartin 114509 rvv {{Antigua and Barbuda infobox}} '''Antigua and Barbuda''' is an [[island nation]] located in the eastern [[Caribbean Sea]] on the boundary with the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. [[Antigua]] ({{IPA2|ænˈtiːgə}}) and [[Barbuda]] ({{IPA2|bɑrˈbjuːdə}})are located in the middle of the [[Leeward Islands]] in the Eastern [[Caribbean]], roughly 17 degrees north of the equator. Antigua and Barbuda are part of the [[Lesser Antilles]] [[archipelago]] with the archipelago of [[Guadeloupe]] to the south, [[Montserrat]] to the southwest, [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]] to the west and [[Saint Barthélemy]] and [[Saint Martin]] to the northwest. == History == ''Main article: [[History of Antigua and Barbuda]]'' Pre-ceramic [[Amerindian]]s were the first to inhabit the islands of Antigua and [[Barbuda]] in [[2400 BC]]. Later [[Arawak]] and [[Carib]] [[Amerindian]] tribes populated the islands. The island of Antigua was originally named Wadadli by the natives. [[Christopher Columbus]] landed on his second voyage in 1493 and gave the island the name Antigua. Early settlements by the [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[France|French]] were succeeded by the [[United Kingdom|English]] who formed a [[colony]] in 1667 by transporting [[Irish Catholic]] slaves to Antigua. [[Slavery]], established to run the [[sugar]] plantations on Antigua, was abolished in 1834. The islands became an independent state within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] on [[1 November]] [[1981]], and [[Vere Bird]] became the first [[prime minister]]. == Politics == ''Main article:'' [[Politics of Antigua and Barbuda]] Antigua and Barbuda is a [[Commonwealth Realm]] and the [[head of state]] is [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], who is represented in Antigua and Barbuda by a [[governor general]]. [[executive branch|Executive power]] is in the hands of the [[prime minister]], who is also the [[head of government]]. The prime minister is usually the leader of the winning party of the elections for the [[House of Representatives of Antigua and Barbuda|House of Representatives]] (17 members), held every five years. The other chamber of the [[Parliament of Antigua and Barbuda|parliament]], the [[Senate of Antigua and Barbuda|Senate]], has 17 members which are appointed by the governor general. Its current prime minister is [[Baldwin Spencer]] ([[24 March]] [[2004]]-). == Administrative Divisions == ''Main article: [[Parishes and dependencies of Antigua and Barbuda]]'' The island of Antigua is divided into six [[parish]]es:- {| | *<small>1</small> [[Saint George Parish, Antigua and Barbuda|Saint George]] *<small>2</small> [[Saint John Parish, Antigua and Barbuda|Saint John]] *<small>3</small> [[Saint Mary Parish, Antigua and Barbuda|Saint Mary]] | *<small>4</small> [[Saint Paul Parish, Antigua and Barbuda|Saint Paul]] *<small>5</small> [[Saint Peter Parish, Antigua and Barbuda|Saint Peter]] *<small>6</small> [[Saint Philip Parish, Antigua and Barbuda|Saint Philip]] | [[Image:Antigua_parishes_numbered.png|right|px150|The Parishes of Antigua]] |} The island of [[Barbuda]] and the uninhabited island of [[Redonda]] each enjoy dependency status. == Geography == [[Image:Antigua and Barbuda map.png|250px|thumb|right| ]] :''Main article: [[Geography of Antigua and Barbuda]]'' The country consists of a number of islands, of which Antigua is the largest one, and the most populated. [[Barbuda]], just north of Antigua is the other main island. The islands have a warm, tropical [[climate]], with fairly constant temperatures year round. The un-inhabited island of [[Redonda]] also belongs to the nation of Antigua and Barbuda. The islands are mostly low-lying, with the highest point being [[Boggy Peak]], at 402 [[metre]]s (1,319 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). The small country's main town is the capital [[St. John's, Antigua and Barbuda|Saint John's]] on Antigua; Barbuda's largest town is [[Codrington]]. == Economy == ''Main article: [[Economy of Antigua and Barbuda]]'' [[Tourism]] dominates its economy, accounting for more than half of its [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]. Weak tourist arrival numbers since early 2000 have slowed the economy, however, and pressed the government into a tight fiscal corner. The dual-island nation's [[agriculture|agricultural]] production is focused on the domestic market and constrained by a limited [[water supply]] and a [[labour (economics)|labour]] shortage stemming from the lure of higher wages in tourism and construction work. [[Manufacturing]] comprises enclave-type assembly for export with major products being bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components. Prospects for [[economic growth]] in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialised world, especially in the [[United States]], which accounts for about one-third of all tourist arrivals. == Demographics == ''Main article: [[Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda]]'' Most of the population are descendants of the slaves that used to work in the sugar plantations, but there are also groups of Europeans, notably [[Irish ethnicity|Irish]], British and [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]. While the official language is [[English language|English]], most of the locals speak [[patois]], a form of [[Creole language#English Creole|Creole English]]. Almost all Antiguans are [[Christianity|Christians]], with the [[Anglican Church]] (about 44%) being the largest denomination. ==Foreign relations== ''Main article: [[Foreign relations of Antigua and Barbuda]]'' Antigua and Barbuda is a member of the [[Caribbean Community]], [[United Nations]], [[World Trade Organization]], [[Commonwealth of Nations]], [[Organization of American States]], [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]], and the Eastern Caribbean's [[Regional Security System]]. == Miscellaneous topics == * [[Communications in Antigua and Barbuda]] * [[Culture of Antigua and Barbuda]] ** [[Music of Antigua and Barbuda]] * [[Military of Antigua and Barbuda]] * [[Transportation in Antigua and Barbuda]] ==See also== * [[Caribbean Community]] * [[Lesser Antilles]] * [[List of sovereign states]] ==References== *"[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ac.html Antigua and Barbuda]"</cite>. [[CIA World Factbook]], accessed [[28 February]] [[2005]]. == External links == {{wiktionary}} *[http://www.ab.gov.ag The Official Website of the Government of Antigua and Barbuda] *[http://www.antigua-barbuda.org/index.html Antigua & Barbuda], its Department of Tourism website *[http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/antigua/antigua.html Antigua and Barbuda], United States Library of Congress Portals on the World *[http://www.gksoft.com/govt/en/ag.html Governments on the WWW: Antigua and Barbuda] *[http://www.insideantigua.com Inside Antigua], Antigua news & weather *[http://www.antigua-barbuda.com The High Commission of Antigua and Barbuda]. Tourism, business, history and culture, politics - an up to date website. *[http://www.antiguacarnival.com Antigua Carnival] - with great photo galleries. *[http://antigua-guide.info/ Antigua & Barbuda Vacation Guide] - includes articles on accommodations, transportation, dining, and weather. {{West_Indies}} {{Caricom}} <br> {{Commonwealth Realms}} [[Category:Antigua_and_Barbuda|*]] [[Category:Island nations]] [[Category:CARICOM_member_states]] [[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:Former British colonies]] <!--interwiki--> [[an:Antigua y Barbuda]] [[bg:Антигуа и Барбуда]] [[zh-min-nan:Antigua kap Barbuda]] [[bn:এন্টিগুয়া এবং বার্বুডা]] [[bs:Antigva i Barbuda]] [[ca:Antigua i Barbuda]] [[cs:Antigua a Barbuda]] [[da:Antigua og Barbuda]] [[de:Antigua und Barbuda]] [[et:Antigua ja Barbuda]] [[es:Antigua y Barbuda]] [[eo:Antigvo-Barbudo]] [[fr:Antigua-et-Barbuda]] [[gl:Antiga e Barbuda - Antigua and Barbuda]] [[ko:앤티가 바부다]] [[hr:Antigva i Barbuda]] [[io:Antiga e Barbuda]] [[id:Antigua dan Barbuda]] [[is:Antígva og Barbúda]] [[it:Antigua e Barbuda]] [[he:אנטיגואה וברבודה]] [[lv:Antigva un Barbuda]] [[lt:Antigva ir Barbuda]] [[hu:Antigua és Barbuda]] [[ku:Antigûa û Berbûda]] [[ms:Antigua dan Barbuda]] [[na:Antigua me Barbuda]] [[nl:Antigua en Barbuda]] [[nds:Antigua un Barbuda]] [[ja:アンティグア・バーブーダ]] [[no:Antigua og Barbuda]] [[nn:Antigua og Barbuda]] [[pl:Antigua i Barbuda]] [[pt:Antígua e Barbuda]] [[ro:Antigua şi Barbuda]] [[ru:Антигуа и Барбуда]] [[sa:अंटीग्वा]] [[sq:Antigua dhe Barbuda]] [[simple:Antigua and Barbuda]] [[sk:Antigua a Barbuda]] [[sl:Antigva in Barbuda]] [[sr:Антигва и Барбуда]] [[fi:Antigua ja Barbuda]] [[sv:Antigua och Barbuda]] [[tl:Antigua at Barbuda]] [[tr:Antigua ve Barbuda]] [[uk:Антигуа і Барбуда]] [[zh:安提瓜和巴布达]] 952 42063055 2006-03-03T15:30:59Z 24.15.135.55 /* Quotation */ {{Infobox Film | name = A Man for All Seasons, TV and cinematic films | image = A Man for All Seasons DVD cover.jpg | caption = A Man for All Seasons | director = [[Fred Zinnemann]] | producer = Fred Zinnemann | writer = [[Robert Bolt]] | starring =[[Paul Scofield]]<br>[[Wendy Hiller]]<br>[[Leo McKern]] | music =[[Georges Delerue]] | cinematography = | editing = | distributor = [[Columbia Pictures]] | released = [[December 12]], [[1966]] | runtime = 120 min | language = English | budget = $3,900,000 (estimated) | imdb_id = 0060665 }} '''''A Man for All Seasons''''' is a play by [[Robert Bolt]], first performed in [[London]] on [[July 1]] [[1960]]. It has subsequently been made into a feature film and a television movie. {{spoiler}} The plot is based on the true story of Sir [[Thomas More]], the [[16th century|16th-century]] Chancellor of [[England]], who refuses to endorse or denounce the [[monarch|king's]] wish to divorce his aging wife so that he can marry his mistress. The King is [[Henry VIII of England]] and his wife is [[Catherine of Aragon]], the first of an eventual six. The play portrays More as a man of principle, envied by rivals such as [[Thomas Cromwell]] and loved by the common people and by his family. [[Image:A Man for All Seasons.jpg|left|250px|thumb|Thomas More ([[Paul Scofield]]) is accused of [[high treason]] by Cromwell ([[Leo McKern]]) - 1966 film]] [[Paul Scofield]], who played the leading role in the [[West End]], reprised it on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in [[1962]], winning a [[Tony Award]], and played More again in the first of two film versions ([[1966]]), winning an [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Oscar]] in the process. The film also stars [[Robert Shaw (actor)|Robert Shaw]] as Henry VIII, [[Orson Welles]] as [[Thomas Cardinal Wolsey|Wolsey]], a young [[John Hurt]] as More's nemesis [[Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich|Richard Rich]], and an older [[Wendy Hiller]] as More's second wife. It was directed by [[Fred Zinnemann]]. In addition to the [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor Oscar]] won by Scofield, the film won [[Academy Awards]] for screenplay, [[Academy Award for Best Cinematography|cinematography]], costume design, [[Academy Award for Directing|Best Director]], and [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]]. The [[1988]] version stars [[Charlton Heston]] (who also directed it) as More, [[Vanessa Redgrave]] (who appeared briefly in the [[1966]] version as [[Anne Boleyn]]) as More's wife, and Sir [[John Gielgud]] as Cardinal Wolsey. More recently, the play has been staged in London's West End at the [[Theatre Royal]], Haymarket starring [[Martin Shaw]] and produced by [[Bill Kenwright]]. It closes on [[1 April]] [[2006]]. ==Quotation== [[Image:man4all.JPG|thumb|200px]] '''Alice:''' Arrest him! '''More:''' Why, what has he done? '''Margaret:''' He's bad! '''More:''' There is no law against that. '''Roper:''' There is! God's law! '''More:''' Then God can arrest him. '''Roper:''' Sophistication upon sophistication. '''More:''' No, sheer simplicity. The law, Roper, the law. I know what's legal, not what's right. And I'll stick to what's legal. '''Roper:''' Then you set man's law above God's! '''More:''' No, far below; but let me draw your attention to a fact -- I'm not God. The currents and eddies of right and wrong, which you find such plain sailing, I can't navigate. I'm no voyager. But in the thickets of the law, oh, there I'm a forrester.I doubt if there's a man alive who could follow me there, thank God. '''Alice:''' While you talk, he's gone! '''More:''' And go he should, if he was the Devil himself, until he broke the law! '''Roper:''' So now you'd give the Devil benefit of law! '''More:''' Yes. What would you do? Cut a great road through the law to get after the Devil? '''Roper:''' I'd cut down every law in England to do that! '''More:''' Oh? And when the last law was down, and the Devil turned round on you, where would you hide, Roper, the laws all being flat? This country's planted thick with laws from coast to coast -- man's laws, not God's -- and if you cut them down -- and you're just the man to do it -- do you really think you could stand upright in the winds that would blow then? Yes, I'd give the Devil benefit of law, for my own safety's sake. ---- '''More:''' It profits a man nothing to give his soul for the whole world ... but for Wales, Richard? ==Redirections== [[A Man for All Seasons, play]] [[A Man for All Seasons, film]] ==External links== * {{imdb title|id=0060665|title=The 1966 film}} * {{imdb title|id=0095578|title=The 1988 film}} *[http://thebestnotes.com/booknotes/Man_For_All_Seasons/Man_For_All_Seasons01.html Free Study Guide for "A Man for All Seasons"] at [http://thebestnotes.com TheBestNotes.com] *''[http://artsandfaith.com/t100/2005/entry.php?film=49 A Man for All Seasons]'' (1966) at the [http://artsandfaith.com/top100/ Arts & Faith Top100 Spiritually Significant Films] list *[http://www.kenwright.com Current London stage production]. {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[Academy Award for Best Picture]] | years=1966 | before=''[[The Sound of Music]]'' | after=''[[In the Heat of the Night]]'' }} {{end}} {{Template:AcademyAwardBestPicture}} [[Category:Films based on plays|Man for All Seasons, A]] <!-- Paul Scofield --> <!-- Robert Shaw --> <!-- Wendy Hiller --> [[Category:1966 films|Man for All Seasons, A]] [[Category:1988 films|Man for All Seasons, A]] [[Category:Film remakes|Man for All Seasons, A]] [[Category:Best Actor Oscar (film)|Man for All Seasons, A]] [[Category:Best Picture Oscar|Man for All Seasons, A]] [[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee (film)|Man for All Seasons, A]] [[Category:Best Supporting Actress Oscar Nominee (film)|Man for All Seasons, A]] [[Category:British films|Man for All Seasons, A]] [[Category:British plays|Man for All Seasons, A]] [[Category:Films directed by Fred Zinnemann|Man for All Seasons, A]] 953 37220201 2006-01-29T15:33:33Z TheFEARgod 381244 :''For other uses of Agincourt, see [[Agincourt]].'' '''Azincourt''' (sometimes: '''Agincourt''') is a village and [[commune in France|commune]] of northern [[France]] in the [[Pas-de-Calais]] ''[[départment]]'', 14 miles to the north-west of [[Saint-Pol-sur-Ternoise]] by road, famous on account of the victory, on [[October 25]] [[1415]], of [[Henry V of England]] over the French in the [[Battle of Agincourt]]. Population (1999): 276. The original museum of the battle featuring model knights fabricated from [[Action Man]] has given way to a more professional space with slide shows, audio commentary's and some interactive elements. The museum building is itself modelled on the [[English longbow]] of the English soldiers. [[Category:Communes of Pas-de-Calais]] {{PasdeCalais-geo-stub}} [[fr:Azincourt]] [[it:Azincourt]] [[nl:Azincourt]] [[pl:Azincourt]] [[sr:Азенкур]] [[sv:Agincourt]] 954 42134522 2006-03-04T01:22:13Z Clngre 30878 rv accidently to wrong version for last rv :''For the son of Albert Speer, also an architect, see [[Albert Speer (the younger)]]'' [[Image:speer portrait.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Albert Speer]] {{Audio|De-Albert_Speer.ogg|'''Albert Speer'''}} ([[March 19]], [[1905]] &ndash; [[September 1]], [[1981]]) was born ''Berthold Konrad Hermann Albert Speer'' in [[Mannheim]], [[Germany]], the second of three sons. He is sometimes called 'the first architect of the [[Third Reich]]'. He was [[Hitler|Hitler's]] chief [[architect]] in [[Nazi Germany]] and in [[1942]] became Hitler's minister of armaments, when he had considerable success in reforming and streamlining Germany's war production. After the war he was tried at [[Nuremberg trials|Nuremberg]] where he expressed remorse and was sentenced to 20 years in prison. After his release, he became a successful author, writing a number of semi-autobiographical works until his death in 1981 from a [[cerebral hemorrhage]]. ==Early years== Although Speer originally wanted to become a [[mathematics|mathematician]] when he was young, he ended up following in the footsteps of his father and grandfather and studied architecture. He began his architectural studies at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology; his decision to study locally instead of at one of the more prestigious institutes was dictated by the inflation of 1923. In 1924 when the inflation had stabilised, Speer transferred his studies to the more esteemed Munich Institute of Technology. In 1925 he transferred again, this time to the Berlin Institute of Technology. It was there that he was under the tutelage of [[Heinrich Tessenow]], Speer had a high regard for Tessenow and when he passed his exams in 1927 he became Tessenow's assistant. His duties as assistant involved teaching seminar classes three days a week. Although Tessenow himself never agreed with [[Nazism]], a number of his students did, and it was they who persuaded Speer to attend a [[Nazi Party]] rally in a Berlin beer-hall in December 1930. Speer claims to have been apolitical as a young man; nevertheless, he did attend the rally. He was surprised to find Hitler dressed in a neat blue suit, rather than the brown uniform seen on Nazi Party posters. Speer claimed to have been quite affected, not only with Hitler's proposed solutions to the threat of communism and his renunciation of the [[Treaty of Versailles]], but also with the man himself. Several weeks later he attended another rally, though this one was presided over by [[Goebbels|Joseph Goebbels]]. Speer was disturbed by the way he had whipped the crowd into a frenzy, playing on their hopes. Although Goebbels' performance offended Speer, he could not shake the impressions Hitler made on him. The next day he joined the Nazi Party as member number 474,481. In this same year ([[1931]]) he married [[Margarete Weber]]. Speer's first major commission as a Party member came in [[1932]] when [[Karl Hanke]] (whose [[villa]] Speer previously worked on) recommended him to Goebbels to help renovate the new District Headquarters in [[Berlin]], and, later, to renovate Goebbels' [[Propaganda]] Ministry. Goebbels was impressed with his work and recommended him to Hitler, who assigned him to help [[Paul Troost]] renovate the Chancellery in Berlin. Speer's most notable work on this assignment was the addition of the famous balcony from which Hitler often presented himself to crowds that assembled below. Speer subsequently became a prominent member of Hitler's inner circle and a very close friend to him, winning a special place with Hitler that was unique amongst the Nazi leadership. Hitler, according to Speer, was very contemptuous towards anybody he viewed as part of the [[bureaucracy]], and prized fellow artists like Speer whom he felt a certain kinship with, especially as Hitler himself had previously entertained architectural ambitions. ==First Architect of the Reich== When Troost died in [[1934]], Speer was chosen to replace him as the Party's chief architect. One of his first commissions after promotion was perhaps the most familiar of his designs: the [[Zeppelintribune]], the [[Nuremberg]] parade grounds seen in [[Leni Riefenstahl]]'s propaganda masterpiece, ''[[Triumph of the Will]]''. In his autobiography, Speer claimed that, upon seeing the original design, he made a derogatory remark to the effect that the parade ground would resemble a "rifle club" meet. He was then challenged to create a new design. The grounds were based on ancient [[Doric order|Doric]] architecture of the [[Pergamon Altar]] in [[Anatolia]], but magnified to an enormous scale, capable of holding two hundred and forty thousand people. At the 1934 Party rally on the parade grounds, Speer surrounded the site with one hundred and thirty [[anti-aircraft]] [[searchlight|searchlights]]. This created the effect of a "cathedral of light," (which referenced [[columns]]) or, as it was called by [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Ambassador|Ambassador]] [[Sir Neville Henderson]], a "cathedral of ice". Nuremberg was also to be the site of many more official Nazi buildings, most of which were never built; for example, the German Stadium would have held another four hundred thousand spectators as the site of the [[Aryan Games]], a proposed replacement for the [[Olympic Games]]. While planning these buildings, Speer invented the theory of "[[ruin value]]." According to this theory, enthusiastically supported by Hitler, all new buildings would be constructed in such a way that they would leave aesthetically pleasing ruins thousands of years in the future. Such ruins would be a testament to the greatness of the [[Third Reich]], just as ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] or [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] ruins were symbols of the greatness of their civilizations. <!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:German pavilion 1937 exhibition.jpg|frame|right|Speer's German pavilion at the [[Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne (1937)|1937 international exposition in Paris]].]] --> In [[1937]] Speer designed the [[Germany|German]] Pavilion for the [[Exposition Internationale de Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne (1937)|1937 international exposition in Paris]]. Speer's work was located directly across from the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] Pavilion and was designed to represent a massive defense against the onslaught of [[communism]]. Both pavilions were awarded gold medals for their designs. Speer was also directed to make plans to rebuild Berlin, which was to become the [[capital]] of a "Greater Germany" &mdash; [[Welthauptstadt Germania]]. The first step in these plans was the [[Olympic Stadium, Berlin|Olympic Stadium]] for the [[1936 Summer Olympics]], designed by [[Werner March]]. Speer also designed the [[new German Reichs Chancellery|new Reichs Chancellery]], which included a vast hall designed to be twice as long as the [[Hall of Mirrors]] in the [[Palace of Versailles]]. Hitler wanted him to build a third, even larger Chancellery, although it was never begun. The second Chancellery was damaged by the [[Battle of Berlin]] in [[1945]] and was eventually demolished by the Soviet occupiers after the war. [[Image:Adolf Hitler in Paris.jpg|thumb|left|210px|Speer (left) with Hitler and [[Arno Breker]] in Paris, [[June 23]], [[1940]].]] Almost none of the other buildings planned for Berlin were ever built. Berlin was to be reorganized along a central three-mile-(five km) long avenue. At the north end, Speer planned to build the ''[[Volkshalle]]'' &mdash; an enormous [[dome|domed]] building, based on [[St. Peter's Basilica]] in [[Rome]]. The dome of the building would have been impractically large; it would be over seven hundred feet (over two hundred meters) high and eight hundred feet (three hundred meters) in diameter, sixteen times larger than the dome of St. Peter's. At the southern end of the avenue would be an [[arch]] based on the [[Arc de Triomphe]] in Paris, but again, much larger; it would be almost four hundred feet (120 m) high, and the Arc de Triomphe would have been able to fit inside its opening. The outbreak of [[World War II]] in [[1939]] led to the abandonment of these plans. During his involvement in the rebuilding of Berlin, he was allegedly responsible for the forced evictions of [[Jew]]s from their houses to make room for his grand plans, and for re-housing German citizens affected by this work. He was also listed as being present at the 1943 [[Posen Conference]], a charge Speer later contested by saying that he had in fact left early. Speer did have an architectural rival: [[Hermann Giesler]], whom Hitler also favored. There were frequent clashes between the two in regard to architectural matters and in closeness to Hitler. ==Minister of Armaments== Hitler was always a strong supporter of Speer, in part because of Hitler's own frustrated artistic and architectural visions. A strong affinity developed between Hitler and the ambitious young architect early in their professional relationship. For Speer, serving as architect for the head of the German state and being given virtual ''carte blanche'' as to expenses, presented a tremendous opportunity. For Hitler, Speer seemed to be capable of translating Hitler's grandiose visions into tangible designs which expressed what Hitler felt were [[Nazism|National Socialist]] principles. After Minister of Armaments and War Production [[Fritz Todt]] was killed in an airplane crash in [[1942]], Hitler appointed Speer as his successor in all of his posts. Hitler's affinity for Speer and the architect's efficiency and avoidance of party squabbling are believed to have been considerations in Speer's promotion. In his autobiography, Speer recounts that the power-hungry but lazy [[Hermann Göring]] raced to Hitler's headquarters upon word of Todt's death, hoping to claim the office. Hitler instead presented Göring with the ''fait accompli'' of Speer's appointment. Faced with this new responsibility, Speer tried to put the German economy on a war footing comparable to that of the [[Allied]] nations, but found himself incessantly hindered by party politics and lack of cooperation from the Nazi hierarchy. Nevertheless, by slowly centralizing almost all industry control and cutting through the dense [[bureaucracy]], he succeeded in multiplying war production four times over the next two and a half years, with it actually reaching its peak in 1944 during the height of the [[Allied]] [[Strategic bombing during World War II | strategic bombing campaign]]. Another big hurdle in his way was the Nazi policy excluding women from factory work, a serious hindrance in war production and a problem unknown to Germany's enemies, who all made full use of the female workforce. To fill this gap, Speer made heavy use of foreign labor, a considerable portion of it [[forced labor]]. Speer was considered one of the more "rational" members of the Nazi hierarchy, in contrast to the raging [[Hitler]], grotesque [[Hermann Göring|Göring]], fanatical [[Goebbels]], and perverse [[Himmler]]. Speer's name was found on the list of members of a post-Hitler government envisioned by the [[July 20 plot]] to kill Hitler. However, the list had an annotation "if possible" by his name, which Speer credits with helping save his life from the extensive purges that followed the scheme's failure. By his own account, Speer considered [[assassin|assassinating]] Hitler in [[1945]] by releasing poison gas into the air intake vent on the [[Führerbunker]], but backed down for a number of reasons. Independent evidence for this is sparse. Some credit his revelation of this plan at the [[Nuremberg trials]] as being pivotal in sparing him the [[death sentence]], which the [[Soviet]]s had pushed for. Hitler continued to consider Speer trustworthy, though this trust waned near the war's end as Speer, at considerable risk, campaigned clandestinely to prevent the implementation of Hitler's [[scorched earth]] policy on both German soil and occupied territories. Speer worked in association with General [[Gotthard Heinrici]], whose troops fighting in the east retreated to the American-held lines and surrendered there instead of following Hitler's orders to make what would have been a suicidal effort to hold off the Soviets from Berlin. Speer even confessed to Hitler shortly before the dictator's suicide that he had disobeyed, and indeed actively hindered, Hitler's "scorched-earth" decree. According to Speer's autobiography, Speer visited the [[Führerbunker]] towards the end and stated gently but bluntly to Hitler that the war was lost and expressed his opposition to the systematic destruction of Germany while reaffirming his affection and faith in Hitler. This conversation, it is said, brought Hitler to tears. In disfavor, Speer was excluded from the new cabinet Hitler outlined in his [[Last will and testament of Adolf Hitler | final political testament]], where Speer was to be replaced by his subordinate, [[Karl-Otto Saur]]. ==After the war== [[Image:Albert-Speer-72-929.jpg|thumb|left|230px|Speer at the Nuremberg Trials]] ===Nuremberg trials=== Immediately after the war, there seemed to be little indication that Speer would be charged with [[war crimes]]. Speer traveled unprotected and openly participated in the so-called [[Flensburg government]] for weeks, in the presence of Allied officers. Upon request, he actually held a series of widely-attended lectures for officials of the Allied occupying powers on various topics, including the mistakes made by the Nazi government in industrial and economic affairs (although he never during these lectures spoke about slave labor) and the effectiveness of the Allied [[strategic bombing]] campaigns. Some [[journalists]] and spectators even expected that Speer would be appointed by the occupying powers to help restore Germany's economy. However, any such speculation ended when, after one of these lectures, he was arrested and sent to Nuremberg for trial. At the [[Nuremberg trials]] after the war Speer was one of the few officials to express remorse and plead guilty, but was sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment in [[Spandau Prison]], [[West Berlin]], largely for his use of slave labor. At the trials, the prosecution introduced as evidence a photograph of Speer visiting the [[Mauthausen]] [[concentration camp]], where he is clearly shown surrounded by emaciated prisoners. The prosecution claimed this proved Speer was well aware of [[The Holocaust|the Holocaust]]. However, Speer held that he was only given a "V.I.P." tour of the concentration camp, meaning he was never shown the more vile side of the camp's purpose. According to interviews after his imprisonment, as well as his memoirs, Speer adopted a "see no evil" attitude towards the Nazi atrocities. For example, through one of his friends, [[Karl Hanke]], he learned of [[Auschwitz (concentration camp)|Auschwitz]] and the large number of deaths taking place there. He then purposely avoided visiting the camp or trying to get more information on what was taking place. In his autobiography, he claims that he had no direct involvement or knowledge of the Holocaust, although he faults himself for blinding himself to its existence. He certainly was aware, at least, of harsh conditions for the slave labor and some critics believe that his books understate his role in the atrocities of the era. [http://news.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/05/11/wspeer11.xml Newly released documents] suggest that Speer knew a lot more about the atrocities than he was telling, but hard evidence for that remains very thin. One problem with assessments of Speer's complicity in the Holocaust comes from his status in post-war Germany - he became a symbol for people who were involved with the Nazi regime yet did not have (or claimed not to have had) any part in the regime's atrocities. Even today, German historians such as [[Joachim Fest]] tend to have a high opinion of him, while non-German historians take a lower view. As [[film director]] [[Heinrich Breloer]] remarked in the above-linked article: ::''[Speer created] a market for people who said "believe me, I didn't know anything about [the Holocaust]. Just look at the Führer's friend, he didn't know about it either."'' ===Imprisonment=== :''Main article: [[Spandau Prison]]'' His time in prison, painstakingly documented in his secret prison diary which was later released as ''[[The Spandau Diaries]]'', was described as consisting mainly of a mind-numbing and pedantically enforced daily routine, incessant petty personal rivalry between the seven prisoners, a pervasive and bloated prison [[bureaucracy]], and the passing of many false hopes of premature release. After some time Speer, and most of the others, had established secret lines of communication to the outside world via sympathetic prison staff. Speer made full use of this by, amongst other things, writing innumerable letters to his family (which were restricted to one outgoing page per month under official regulation) and even having money spent on his behalf from a special bank account for a variety of benign purposes. Speer, as recounted in his diary, made a deliberate effort to make as productive use of his time as possible. In the first decade, this took the form of putting on paper the first draft of his tell-all [[memoirs]], an act Speer considered to be his "duty" to history and his people, he being the sole surviving member of Hitler's inner circle and in possession of knowledge and a degree of objectivity that no other had. As the prison directors both forbade the writing of a memoir and recorded each sheet of paper given to the prisoners, he wrote much of his memoir secretly on toilet paper, tobacco wrappings, and any other material he could get his hands on, and then had the pages systematically smuggled out. All the while Speer devoted much of his energy and time towards reading books from the prison library, which was organized by fellow prisoner and ex-[[Grand Admiral]] [[Erich Raeder]]. Speer was, more so than the others, a voracious reader and he completed well over 500 books in the first three years alone.{{ref|spandau}} His tastes ranged from Greek drama to famous plays to architectural books and journals, partly from which he collected information for a book he intended to write on the history and function of windows in architecture. Later, Speer took to the prison garden for enjoyment and work. Heretofore the garden was divided up into small personal plots for each prisoner with the produce of the garden being used in the prison kitchen. When regulations began to slacken in this regard, Speer was allowed to build an ambitious garden, complete with a meandering path, [[rock garden]], and a wide variety of flowers. The garden was even, humorously, centered around a "north-south axis", which was to be the core design element of Speer and Hitler's new Berlin. Speer then took up a "walking tour of the world" by ordering geography and travel books from the local library and walking laps in the prison garden visualizing his journey. Meticulously calculating every metre traveled, he began in northern Germany, went through the [[Balkans]], [[Iran|Persia]], [[India]], and [[Siberia]], then crossed the [[Bering Strait]] and continued southwards, finally ending his sentence in central [[Mexico]]. ===Release=== His release from prison in [[1966]] was a world-wide media event. He then revised and published the several semi-[[autobiography|autobiographical]] books he had begun in prison. His books, most notably ''[[Inside the Third Reich]]'' and ''The Spandau Diaries'', which were secretly written during his incarceration and systematically smuggled out, provide a unique and personal look into the personalities of the Nazi era and have become much valued by historians. Speer died of a [[cerebral hemorrhage]] in [[London]], [[England]], on [[September 1]], [[1981]] — exactly 42 years after World War II began. Speer's son, also named Albert, became a successful [[architect]] in his own right, and was responsible for the design of [[Expo 2000]] (the [[world exposition]] that took place in [[Hanover]] in the year 2000), design of the [[Shanghai]] International Automobile City and the Beijing Olympic complex. His daughter [[Hilde Schramm]] became a noted left-wing parliamentarian. ==See also== * [[Inside the Third Reich]] * [[List of Adolf Hitler books]] * [[Nazi architecture]] ==Notes== #{{note|spandau}}{{cite book | last = Fishman | first = Jack | title=Long Knives and Short Memories: The Spandau Prison Story | publisher=Breakwater Books | year=1986 | id=ISBN 0920911005 | pages = pg 129 }} ==Resources== ===Works=== * {{cite book | last = Speer | first = Albert | authorlink = Albert Speer | year = 1970 | title = [[Inside the Third Reich]] | publisher = Simon & Schuster | id = ISBN 0684829495 }} * {{cite book | last = Speer | first = Albert | authorlink = Albert Speer | year = 1976 | title = Spandau: The Secret Diaries | publisher = Macmillan | id = ISBN 0026995018 }} * {{cite book | last = Speer | first = Albert | authorlink = Albert Speer | year = 1981 | title = Infiltration: How [[Heinrich Himmler]] Schemed to Build an SS Industrial Empire | publisher = Macmillan | id = ISBN 0026128004 }} ===Biographies=== * {{cite book | author = [[Joachim Fest]], [[Ewald Osers]] (translator), [[Alexandra Dring]] | year = 2002 | title = Speer: The Final Verdict | publisher = Harcourt | id = ISBN 0151005567 }} * {{cite book | first = Dan | last = van der Vat | authorlink = Dan van der Vat | year = 1997 | title = The Good Nazi: The Life and Lies of Albert Speer | publisher = George Weidenfeld & Nicholson | id = ISBN 0297817213 }} * {{cite book | first = Gitta | last = Sereny | authorlink = Gitta Sereny | year = 1995 | title = Albert Speer: His Battle With Truth | publisher = Knopf | id = ISBN 0394529154 }} * {{cite book | first = Matthias | last = Schmidt | authorlink = Matthias Schmidt | year = 1984 | title = Albert Speer: The End of a Myth | publisher = St Martins Press | id = ISBN 031201709X }} ==External links== {{Commons|Albert Speer}} *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/audiointerviews/profilepages/speera1.shtml BBC - BBC Four - Audio Interviews - Albert Speer] *[http://www.dataphone.se/~ms/speer/welcom2.htm A tribute to Speer's architecture] *[http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Holocaust/speer.html Testimony of Albert Speer at us-israel.org] *[http://www.speer-und-er.de/ ''Speer und Er''] German docudrama broadcast in May 2005, presenting new incriminating evidence of Speer's role, e.g. in the construction of Auschwitz. In German *[http://www.neue-reichskanzlei.de 3d animated Reich Chancellery] {{Bunker}} [[Category:1905 births|Speer, Albert]] [[Category:1981 deaths|Speer, Albert]] [[Category:German World War II people|Speer, Albert]] [[Category:Nazi leaders|Speer, Albert]] [[Category:German architects|Speer, Albert]] [[Category:Nazi architecture]] [[Category:Fascist/Nazi era scholars and writers|Speer, Albert]] [[Category:People convicted in the Nuremberg Trials|Speer, Albert]] [[br:Albert Speer]] [[da:Albert Speer]] [[de:Albert Speer]] [[el:Άλμπερτ Σπερ]] [[es:Albert Speer]] [[fr:Albert Speer (senior)]] [[it:Albert Speer]] [[he:אלברט שפאר]] [[ka:შპეერი, ალბერტ]] [[hu:Albert Speer]] [[nl:Albert Speer]] [[ja:アルベルト・シュペーア]] [[no:Albert Speer]] [[pl:Albert Speer (ojciec)]] [[pt:Albert Speer]] [[ru:Шпеер, Альберт]] [[sl:Albert Speer]] [[fi:Albert Speer]] [[sv:Albert Speer]] 955 39719977 2006-02-15T10:36:27Z Espetkov 52780 {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Alliaceae | image = Ipheion uniflorum5.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = ''Ipheion uniflorum'' | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Liliopsida]] | ordo = [[Asparagales]] | familia = '''Alliaceae''' | subdivision_ranks = Genera | subdivision = See text. }} '''Alliaceae''' is a [[Family (biology)|family]] of herbaceous [[perennial]] plants. They are [[monocot]]s, part of [[Order (biology)|order]] [[Asparagales]]. Genus ''[[Allium]]'' includes several important food plants, including [[onion]]s (''Allium cepa''), [[chives]] (''A. schoenoprasum''), [[garlic]] (''A. sativum'' and ''A. scordoprasum''), and [[Leek (vegetable)|leek]]s (''A. porrum''). The Alliaceae are closely related to two other families in the order Asparagales, the amaryllis family ([[Amaryllidaceae]]) and the family [[Agapanthaceae]], which includes the single genus ''[[Agapanthus]]''. Based on the close relationship between the three families, the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] recognizes the alternative of including the Amaryllidaceae and the Agapanthaceae in family Alliaceae. == Genera == Several genera that were historically classified in the Alliaceae, including ''[[Androstephium]]'', ''[[Bessera]]'', ''[[Bloomeria]]'', ''[[Brodiaea]]'', ''[[Dandya]]'', ''[[Dichelostemma]]'', ''[[Milla]]'', ''[[Petronymphe]]'', ''[[Triteleia]]'', and ''[[Triteleiopsis]]'', are now increasingly thought to represent a separate family, [[Themidaceae]]. ''[[Allium]]''<br /> ''[[Ancrumia]]''<br /> ''[[Caloscordum]]''<br /> ''[[Erinna]]''<br /> ''[[Garaventia]]''<br /> ''[[Gethyum]]''<br /> ''[[Gilliesia]]''<br /> ''[[Ipheion]]''<br /> ''[[Leucocoryne]]''<br /> ''[[Miersia]]''<br /> ''[[Milula]]''<br /> ''[[Muilla]]''<br /> ''[[Nectaroscordum]]''<br /> ''[[Nothoscordum]]''<br /> ''[[Solaria (genus)]]''<br /> ''[[Speea]]''<br /> ''[[Trichlora]]''<br /> ''[[Tristagma]]''<br /> ''[[Tulbhagia]]''<br /> ''[[Zoelnerallium]]''<br /> [[Category:Plant families]] [[Category:Asparagales]] [[bg:Лукови]] [[da:Løg-familien]] [[de:Zwiebelgewächse]] [[fr:Alliaceae]] [[lt:Česnakiniai augalai]] [[nl:Uienfamilie]] [[pt:Alliaceae]] 956 41495585 2006-02-27T19:27:19Z AshishG 172488 /* Uses */ ''nectar'' disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]]) {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Sunflowers | image = Aster-alpinus.JPG | image_width = 250px | image_caption = ''Aster alpinus'' | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Asterales]] | familia = '''Asteraceae''' | familia_authority = [[Martynov]], 1820 | synonyms = ''Compositae'' <small>[[Giseke]]</small> | diversity = About 900 genera and 13,000 species | diversity_link = List of Asteraceae genera | subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies | subdivision = [[Barnadesioideae]]<br> [[Cichorioideae]]<br> :Tribe [[Arctotidae]]<br> :Tribe [[Cardueae]]<br> :Tribe [[Eremothamneae]]<br> :Tribe [[Lactuceae]]<br> :Tribe [[Liabeae]]<br> :Tribe [[Mutisieae]]<br> :Tribe [[Tarchonantheae]]<br> :Tribe [[Vernonieae]]<br> [[Asteriodeae]]<br> :Tribe [[Anthemideae]]<br> :Tribe [[Astereae]]<br> :Tribe [[Calenduleae]]<br> :Tribe [[Eupatorieae]]<br> :Tribe [[Gnaphalieae]]<br> :Tribe [[Helenieae]]<br> :Tribe [[Heliantheae]]<br> :Tribe [[Inuleae]]<br> :Tribe [[Plucheae]]<br> :Tribe [[Senecioneae]]<br> '''See also [[List of Asteraceae genera]]''' }} The family '''Asteraceae''' or, alternatively, family '''Compositae''', known as the '''aster''', '''daisy''' or '''sunflower family''', is a taxon of [[dicot|dicotyledonous]] [[flowering plant]]s. The family name is derived from the genus ''[[Aster (flower)|Aster]]'' and refers to the [[star]]-shaped flower head of its members, typified well by the [[daisy]]. The Asteraceae is the second largest family in the Division [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]], with some 1,100 genera and over 20,000 recognized species. Only the orchid family ([[Orchidaceae]]) is larger, with about 25,000 described species. Plants belonging to the Asteraceae must share ALL the following characteristics (Judd et al., 1999). None of these traits, taken separately, can be considered [[Synapomorphy|synapomorphic]]. * [[Inflorescence]]: a capitulum or flower head * Syngenesious [[anther]]s, i.e. with the stamens fused together at their edges by the anthers, forming a tube * [[Ovary]] with basal arrangement of the ovules * [[Ovule]]s one per ovary * Pappus (a tuft of hairs on a fruit) * The fruit is an [[achene]] * [[Terpene|Sesquiterpenes]] present in the essential oils, but iridoids lacking. [[Image:Bidens_flwr.jpg|thumb|left|A typical Asteraceae flower head (here ''[[Bidens torta]]'') showing the individual flowers]] The most common characteristic of all these plants, is that what in common parlance might be called a "flower", is an inflorescence or '''flower head'''; a densely packed cluster of many small, individual [[flowers]], usually called '''florets''' (meaning "small flowers"). Plants in the family Asteraceae typically have one or both of two kinds of ''florets''. The outer perimeter of a flower head like that of a [[sunflower]] is composed of florets possessing a long strap-like [[petal]], termed a '''ligule'''; these are the '''ray florets'''. The inner portion of the flower head (or ''disc'') is composed of small flowers with tubular [[petal|corolla]]s; these are the '''disc florets'''. The composition of asteraceous inflorescences varies from all ray flowers (like [[dandelion]]s, genus ''Taraxacum'') to all disc flowers (like [[pineapple weed]]s). The composite nature of the inflorescences of these plants led early taxonomists to call this family the Compositae. Although the rules governing naming conventions for plant families state that the name should come from the [[biological type|type genus]], in this case ''Aster'' and thus Asteraceae. However, the long prevailing name Compositae is also authorized as an alternative family name ([[ICBN]] Art. 18.6). The numerous genera are divided into about 13 tribes. Only one of these, Lactuceae, is considered distinct enough to be a subfamily (subfamily Cichorioideae); the remainer, which are mostly overlapping, are put in the subfamily Asteroideae (Wagner, Herbst, and Sohmer, 1990). ==Uses== Commercially important plants in the Asteraceae include the food crops [[lettuce]], [[chicory]], [[globe artichoke]], [[sunflower]], and [[Jerusalem artichoke]]. [[Guayule]] is a source of [[hypoallergenic]] [[latex]]. Many members of Asteracae are copious [[nectar (plant)|nectar]] producers and are useful for evaluating [[pollinator]] populations during their bloom. ''Centaurea'' (knapweed), ''Helianthus annuus'' (domestic sunflower), and some species of ''Solidago'' (goldenrod) are major "[[honey]] plants" for [[beekeeper]]s. ''Solidago'' produces relatively high protein [[pollen]], which helps [[honeybee]]s overwinter. Many members of the family are grown as ornamental plants for their flowers, e.g., [[chrysanthemums]] and some are important ornamental crops for the cut flower industry. Some Asteraceae are economically important in the sense that they are considered noxious [[weeds]], e.g., [[dandelions]]. <br clear = all /> [[Image:Ray.floret01.jpg|thumb|left|Ray floret : <small>A = ovary; B = pappus; C = theca; D = ligule; E = style with stigma </small>]] [[Image:Disc floret01.jpg|left|thumb|Disc floret : <small> A = ovary; B = tube of corolla with teeth of the corolla; C = theca; D = style with stigma </small>]] <br clear= all /> == References == * [http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=35420 ITIS report 2002-09-10] * International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN, St. Louis Code). 1999. [http://www.bgbm.fu-berlin.de/iapt/nomenclature/code/SaintLouis/0000St.Luistitle.htm website] (Published as ''Regnum Vegetabile 138''. Koeltz Scientific Books, Königstein. ISBN 3904144227) * Walters, Dirk R. and David J. Keil (1996). ''Vascular plant taxonomy''. 4th ed. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. Dubuque, Iowa. * Wagner,W.L., D.R. Herbst, and S.H. Sohmer. 1990. ''Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai&lsquo;i'', Vol. I. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 988 pp. * Judd, W.S., C.S. Campbell, E.A. Kellogg, and P.F. Stevens. 1999. Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA. [[Image:Gnaphalium supinum0.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''Helichrysum petiolare'']] {{commonscat|Asteraceae}} [[Category:Plant families]] [[Category:Asteraceae| ]] <!--[[en:Asteraceae]]--> [[cs:Hvězdnicovité]] [[da:Kurvblomst-familien]] [[de:Korbblütengewächse]] [[es:Asteraceae]] [[eo:Asteracoj]] [[fr:Asteraceae]] [[it:Asteraceae]] [[la:Asteraceae]] [[lt:Astriniai augalai]] [[mi:Asteraceae]] [[nl:Composietenfamilie]] [[ja:キク科]] [[no:Kurvplantefamilien]] [[nn:Korgplantefamilien]] [[pl:Astrowate]] [[pt:Asteraceae]] [[sv:Korgblommiga växter]] [[vi:Họ Cúc]] [[zh:菊科]] 957 41545057 2006-02-28T01:40:36Z Berton 549980 + link {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Carrot family | image = QALace2675.JPG | image_width = 240px | image_caption = Flower of Wild Carrot (''Daucus carota'') | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Apiales]] | familia = '''Apiaceae''' or '''Umbelliferae''' | subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]] | subdivision = See text<br /> Ref: [http://hortiplex.gardenweb.com/plants/p1/gw3000704.html Hortiplex 2003-11-14] }} The '''Apiaceae''' or '''Umbelliferae''' (both names are allowed by the [[International Code of Botanical Nomenclature|ICBN]]) are a family of usually aromatic [[plant]]s with hollow stems, including [[parsley]], [[carrot]], and other relatives. It is a large family with about 300 [[genus|genera]] and more than 3,000 [[species]]. The earlier name Umbelliferae derives from the [[inflorescence]] being in the form of a compound "umbel". The small flowers are radially symmetrical with 5 small [[sepal]]s, 5 [[petal]]s and 5 [[stamen]]s. The family contains some highly [[toxic]] plants, such as [[hemlock]], which was used to execute [[Socrates]] and also used to poison arrow tips. It also contains some highly useful plants, such as carrots, parsley, [[caraway]], and [[fennel]]. Many plants in this family, such as [[wild carrot]] have [[estrogen]]ic properties, and have been used as [[folk medicine]] for [[birth control]]. Most notable for this use is the extinct giant fennel, [[silphium]]. Notable members include: *''Anethum graveolens'' - [[Dill]] *''Anthriscus cerefolium'' - [[Chervil]] *''Angelica'' spp. - [[Angelica]] *''Apium graveolens'' - [[Celery]] *''Carum carvi'' - [[Caraway]] *''Centella asiatica'' - [[Gotu kola]] (pennywort) *''Conium maculatum'' - [[Conium|Poison hemlock]] *''Coriandrum sativum'' - [[Coriander]] *''Cuminum cyminum'' - [[Cumin]] *''Daucus carota'' - [[Carrot]] *''Eryngium'' spp. - [[Sea holly]] *''Foeniculum vulgare'' - [[Fennel]] *''Myrrhis odorata'' - [[Cicely]] *''Pastinaca sativa'' - [[Parsnip]] *''Petroselinum crispum'' - [[Parsley]] *''Pimpinella anisum'' - [[Anise]] *''Levisticum officinale'' - [[Lovage]] ==Genera== *''[[Aciphylla]]'' *''[[Actinotus]]'' *''[[Aegopodium]]'' *''[[Aethusa]]'' *''[[Aletes (genus)|Aletes]]'' *''[[Ammi (genus)|Ammi]]'' *''[[Ammoselinum]]'' *''[[Anethum]]'' *''[[Angelica]]'' *''[[Anthriscus]]'' *''[[Apiastrum]]'' *''[[Apium]]'' *''[[Arracacia]]'' *''[[Astrantia]]'' *''[[Athamantha]]'' *''[[Azorella]]'' *''[[Berula]]'' *''[[Bifora]]'' *''[[Bolax]]'' *''[[Bowlesia]]'' *''[[Bunium]]'' *''[[Bupleurum]]'' *''[[Carum]]'' *''[[Caucalis]]'' *''[[Centella]]'' *''[[Chaerophyllum]]'' *''[[Ciclospermum]]'' *''[[Cicuta]]'' *''[[Cnidium]]'' *''[[Coelopleurum]]'' *''[[Conioselinum]]'' *''[[Conium]]'' *''[[Conopodium]]'' *''[[Coriandrum]]'' *''[[Crithmum]]'' [[Image:Apiaceae Pimpinella anisum.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Anise (''Pimpinella anisum'') <br /> from ''Medical botany by William Woodville''. London, James Phillips, 1793]] *''[[Cryptotaenia]]'' *''[[Cuminum]]'' *''[[Cyclospermum]]'' *''[[Cymopterus]]'' *''[[Cynosciadium]]'' *''[[Daucosma]]'' *''[[Daucus]]'' [[carrot]] *''[[Dorema]]'' *''[[Erigenia]]'' *''[[Eryngium]]'' *''[[Eurytaenia]]'' *''[[Falcaria]]'' *''[[Ferula]]'' *''[[Foeniculum]]'' *''[[Glehnia]]'' *''[[Harbouria]]'' *''[[Heracleum]]'' *''[[Hydrocotyle]]'' (is now classified under [[Araliaceae]]) *''[[Laser (plant)|Laser]]'' *''[[Laserpitium]]'' *''[[Levisticum]]'' *''[[Ligusticum]]'' *''[[Lilaeopsis]]'' *''[[Limnosciadium]]'' *''[[Lomatium]]'' *''[[Meum]]'' *''[[Monizia]]'' *''[[Musineon]]'' *''[[Myrrhis]]'' *''[[Neoparrya]]'' *''[[Oenanthe (plant)|Oenanthe]]'' *''[[Oreomyrrhis]]'' *''[[Oreonana]]'' *''[[Oreoxis]]'' *''[[Orogenia]]'' *''[[Osmorhiza]]'' *''[[Oxypolis]]'' *''[[Pastinaca]]'' *''[[Perideridia]]'' *''[[Petroselinum]]'' *''[[Peucedanum]]'' *''[[Pimpinella]]'' *''[[Pleurospermum]]'' *''[[Podistera]]'' *''[[Polytaenia]]'' *''[[Prangos]]'' *''[[Pseudocymopterus]]'' *''[[Pteryxia]]'' *''[[Ptilimnium]]'' *''[[Sanicula]]'' *''[[Scandix]]'' *''[[Selinum]]'' *''[[Seseli]]'' *''[[Shoshonea]]'' *''[[Silaum]]'' *''[[Sison]]'' *''[[Sium]]'' *''[[Smyrnium]]'' *''[[Spermolepis]]'' *''[[Sphenosciadium]]'' *''[[Sympholoma]]'' *''[[Synelcosciadium]]'' *''[[Taenidia]]'' *''[[Tauschia]]'' *''[[Thapsia]]'' *''[[Thaspium]]'' *''[[Tilingia]]'' *''[[Tordylium]]'' *''[[Torilis]]'' *''[[Trachymene]]'' *''[[Trachyspermum]]'' *''[[Trepocarpus]]'' *''[[Turgenia]]'' *''[[Yabea]]'' *''[[Zizia]]'' ==External links== *[http://herbarium.uvsc.edu/Virtual/default.asp?table=Family&f=310&t=Apiaceae UVSC Herbarium - Apiaceae] *[http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/URC/frames.html?http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/URC/urchomepage.html Umbellifer Resource Centre] [[Category:Plant families]] [[Category:Apiaceae|*]] [[cs:Miříkovité]] [[da:Skærmplante-familien]] [[de:Doldenblütler]] [[es:Apiaceae]] [[eo:Apiacoj]] [[fr:Apiaceae]] [[la:Apiaceae]] [[lt:Salieriniai]] [[hu:Ernyősvirágúak]] [[nl:Schermbloemenfamilie]] [[ja:セリ科]] [[no:Skjermplantefamilien]] [[nn:Skjermplantefamilien]] [[pl:Selerowate]] [[fi:Sarjakukkaiskasvit]] [[sv:Flockblommiga växter]] [[vi:Họ Hoa tán]] [[zh:伞形科]] 958 41988547 2006-03-03T01:47:24Z 68.211.228.234 An '''axon''', or '''nerve fiber''', is a long slender projection of a nerve cell, or [[neuron]], that conducts [[action potential|electrical impulses]] away from the neuron's [[cell body]] or soma. Axons are in effect the primary transmission lines of the [[nervous system]], and as bundles they help make up [[nerve]]s. Individual axons are microscopic in diameter - typically about one [[micrometre]] across - but may extend to [[macroscopic]] lengths. The longest axons in the human body, for example, are those of the [[sciatic nerve]], which run from the base of the [[spine (anatomy)|spine]] to the big toe of each foot. These single-cell fibers may extend a meter or even longer. In [[vertebrate]]s, the axons of many neurons are sheathed in [[myelin]], which is formed by either of two types of [[glia|glial cells]]: [[Schwann cell]]s ensheathing [[PNS|peripheral]] neurons and [[oligodendrocyte]]s insulating those of the [[central nervous system]]. Along myelinated nerve fibers, gaps in the sheath known as [[nodes of Ranvier]] occur at evenly-spaced intervals, enabling an especially rapid mode of electrical impulse propagation called [[saltatory conduction|saltation]]. The demyelination of axons is what causes the multitude of neurological symptoms found in the disease [[Multiple Sclerosis]]. The axons of some neurons branch to form [[axon collateral]]s, along which the bifurcated impulse travels simultaneously to signal more than one other cell. ==Growth & Development== Growing axons move through their environment via the [[growth cone]], which is at the tip of the axon. The growth cone has a broad sheet like extension called [[lamellipodia]] which contain protrusions called [[filopodia]]. The filopodia are the mechanism by which the entire process adheres to surfaces and explores the surrounding environment. [[Actin]] plays a major role in the mobility of this system. Environments with high levels of [[cell adhesion molecule]]s or CAM's create an ideal environment for axonal growth. This seems to provide a "sticky" surface for axons to grow along. Examples of CAM's specific to neural systems include [[N-CAM]], neuroglial CAM or [[NgCAM]], [[TAG-1]], [[MAG]], and [[Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide|DCC]], all of which are part of the [[immunoglobulin]] superfamily. Another set of molecules called [[extracellular matrix adhesion molecule]]s also provide a sticky substrate for axons to grow along. Examples of these molecules include [[laminin]], [[fibronectin]], [[tenascin]], and [[perlecan]]. Some of these are surface bound to cells and thus act as short range attractants or repellants. Others are difusible ligands and thus can have long range effects. Cells called [[guidepost cells]] assist in the guidance of neuronal axon growth. These cells are typically other, sometimes immature, neurons. ==History== Some of the first intracellular recordings in a nervous system were made in the late 1930's by K. Cole and H. Curtis. [[Alan Hodgkin]] and [[Andrew Huxley]] also employed the [[squid giant axon]] (1939) and by 1952 they had obtained a full quantitative description of the ionic basis of the action potential. Hodgkin and Huxley were awarded jointly the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] for this work in 1963. ==See also== *[[Neuron]] *[[Dendrite]] *[[Synapse]] *[[Axon guidance]] *[[Electrophysiology]] == External links == * http://www.sfn.org/wrensite/projects/patch_clamp/index.htm [[Category:Neurons]] [[Category:Neurophysiology]] [[da:Akson]] [[de:Axon]] [[es:Axón]] [[fr:Axone]] [[he:אקסון (סיב עצבי)]] [[lt:Aksonas]] [[nl:Axon]] [[pt:Axónio]] [[ru:Аксон]] [[fi:Aksoni]] [[sv:Axon]] 959 15899470 2005-01-26T00:33:36Z Nohat 13661 #REDIRECT [[velar nasal]] 960 42121463 2006-03-03T23:33:58Z No Guru 44087 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.41.164.15|68.41.164.15]] to last version by PlatypeanArchcow {{alphabet}} The '''Aramaic alphabet''' is an [[abjad]] alphabet designed for writing the [[Aramaic language]]. As with other abjads, the letters all represent [[consonant]]s; a few [[matres lectionis]] are consonants that also represent long [[vowel]]s. The earliest inscriptions in the [[Aramaic language]] use the [[Phoenician alphabet]]. In time, the alphabet developed into the form shown below. The use of Aramaic as a [[lingua franca]] throughout the [[Middle East]] from the [[8th century BCE]] led to the gradual adoption of the Aramaic alphabet for writing [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. Formerly, Hebrew had been written using an alphabet closer in form to that of [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] (the [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet]]). The [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] and [[Nabataean alphabet|Nabataean]] alphabets are little changed in style from the Aramaic alphabet. The development of [[cursive]] versions of Aramaic led to the creation of the [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]], [[Palmyrenean alphabet|Palmyrenean]] and [[Mandaic alphabet|Mandaic]] alphabets. These scripts formed the basis of the [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], [[Sogdian alphabet|Sogdian]], [[Orkhon script|Orkhon]] and [[Mongolian alphabet|Mongolian]] alphabets. Controversially, it is claimed that the Aramaic alphabet may be the forebear of the [[Indic alphabets]]. Today, [[Biblical Aramaic]], Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialects and the [[Aramaic language]] of the [[Talmud]] are written in the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. [[Syriac language|Syriac]] and Christian Neo-Aramaic dialects are written in the [[Syriac alphabet]]. [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]] is written in the [[Mandaic alphabet]]. == Imperial Aramaic alphabet == Redrawn from ''A Grammar of Biblical Aramaic'', Franz Rosenthal; forms are as used in Egypt, [[5th century BCE]]. Names are as in [[Biblical Aramaic]]. {| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" |- !Letter name ta !Letter form !Equivalent [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] !Pronunciation |- |Aleph |[[image:ialeph.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1488; |[[glottal stop]]; &#257;, &#275; |- |Beth |[[image:ibeth.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1489; |b, v |- |Gimel |[[image:igimel.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1490; |g, gh |- |Daleth |[[image:idaleth.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1491; |d, dh |- |Heh |[[image:ihe.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1492; |h |- |Waw |[[image:iwaw.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1493; |w; &#333;, &#363; |- |Zayin |[[image:izayin.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1494; |z |- |Heth |[[image:iheth.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1495; |[ħ] ([[voiceless pharyngeal fricative]]) |- |Teth |[[image:iteth.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1496; |[[emphatic consonant|emphatic]] [tˁ] |- |Yodh |[[image:iyod.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1497; |y; &#299;, &#275; |- |Kaph |[[image:ikaph.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1498; / &#1499; |k |- |Lamed |[[image:ilamed.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1500; |l |- |Mem |[[image:imem.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1501; / &#1502; |m |- |Nun |[[image:inun.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1503; / &#1504; |n |- |Samekh |[[image:isamekh.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1505; |s |- |Ayin |[[image:iayin.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1506; |[[voiced pharyngeal fricative]]</td></tr> |- |Pe |[[image:ipe.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1507; / &#1508; |p, f |- |Sade |[[image:isade.png]], [[image:isade2.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1509; / &#1510; |[[emphatic consonant|emphatic]] s |- |Qoph |[[image:iqoph.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1511; |q ([[voiceless uvular plosive]]) |- |Resh |[[image:iresh.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1512; |r |- |Sin/Shin |[[image:ishin.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1513; |usually š; in some words s (probably originally from a [[Proto-Semitic]] [[lateral fricative]]) |- |Taw |[[image:itaw.png]] |style="font-size: 33px;"|&#1514; |t, th |} == See also == * [[Abjad]] * [[Alphabet]] * [[Aramaic language]] * [[Syriac language]] * [[Mandaic language]] * [[List of writing systems]] ==External links== * [http://www.sakkal.com/Arab_Calligraphy_Art3.html Comparison of Aramaic to related alphabets] [[Category:Abjad writing systems]] [[Category:Aramaic languages]] [[ar:آرامية عتيقة (كتابة)]] [[bg:Арамейска азбука]] [[cs:Aramejské písmo]] [[de:Aramäische Schrift]] [[es:Alfabeto arameo]] [[eo:Aramea skribo]] [[fr:Alphabet araméen]] [[gl:Alfabeto arameo]] [[ja:アラム文字]] [[pl:Alfabet aramejski]] [[pt:Alfabeto aramaico]] [[ru:Арамейская письменность]] [[fi:Aramean kirjaimisto]] 963 42078550 2006-03-03T17:57:14Z Freakofnurture 77511 rm rfd #REDIRECT [[Existence of God]] 964 24206475 2005-09-28T02:12:04Z Antandrus 57658 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.95.19.75|65.95.19.75]] to last version by Cavrdg '''AWK''' may refer to *[[AWK programming language ]] *The [[National Rail]] code for [[Adwick railway station]], [[United Kingdom]]. External links: {{Sildb prim|AWK|station information}}; {{Mmukpcloc|DN6|7AQ}}; {{Brldb prim|AWK|live departures and arrivals}}. {{TLAdisambig}} 965 41838062 2006-03-02T01:50:40Z 200.203.21.111 {{mergeto|Memex}} [[Vannevar Bush]]'s essay '''''As We May Think''''', first published in ''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]'' in July [[1945]], argued that as humans turned from war, scientific efforts should shift from increasing physical abilities to making all previous collected [[human]] [[knowledge]] more accessible. The article was a reworked and expanded version of his 1939 ''Mechanization and the Record''. The system, which he called [[memex]], was described as based on what was thought, at the time, to be the wave of the future: Ultra high resolution [[microfilm]] reels, coupled to multiple screen viewers and cameras, by electromechanical controls. The ''Atlantic Monthly'' article was followed, in November [[1945]], by a [[Life magazine]] article which showed illustrations of the proposed memex desk and automatic typewriter. ''As We May Think'' predicted many kinds of technology invented after its publication, including [[hypertext]], [[personal computers]], the [[Internet]], the [[World Wide Web]], [[speech recognition]], and [[online encyclopedia]]s such as Wikipedia: "Wholly new forms of encyclopedias will appear, ready-made with a mesh of associative trails running through them, ready to be dropped into the memex and there amplified." ==External links== *[http://graphics.cs.brown.edu/html/info/vannevar_bush.html "As We May Think" - A Celebration of Vannevar Bush's 1945 Vision, at Brown University] ===Online versions=== *[http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194507/bush ''As we may think'' from the ''Atlantic Monthly'' archives] *[http://www.ps.uni-sb.de/~duchier/pub/vbush/vbush-all.shtml The text of ''As we may think''] (accessible without subscription and with permission of ''Atlantic Monthly'') *[http://www.cs.sfu.ca/CC/365/mark/material/notes/Chap1/VBushArticle/ Another permitted copy of the article] [[Category:Essays]] [[da:As We May Think]] [[fr:As We May Think]] [[pl:As We May Think]] [[pt:As We May Think]] 966 38701577 2006-02-08T01:40:25Z Can't sleep, clown will eat me 603177 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.200.116.195|207.200.116.195]] to last version by Jahsonic "'''American shot'''" is a translation of a phrase from [[France|French]] [[film criticism]], "''plan Americain''" and refers to a medium-long ("knee") [[Shot (film)|film shot]] of a group of characters, who are arranged so that all are visible to the camera. The usual arrangement is for the actors to stand in an irregular line from one side of the screen to the other, with the actors at the end coming forward a little and standing more in profile than the others. The purpose of the composition is to allow complex [[dialogue]] scenes to be played out without changes in camera position. In some literature, this is simply referred to as a 3/4 shot. The French critics thought it was characteristic of [[Cinema of the United States|American film]]s of the [[1930s]] or [[1940s]]; however, it was mostly characteristic of ''cheaper'' American movies, such as [[Charlie Chan]] mysteries where people collected in front of a fireplace or at the foot of the stairs in order to explain what happened a few minutes ago. [[Category:Film techniques]] [[de:Einstellungsgröße]] [[fr:Plan américain]] 967 41970338 2006-03-02T23:25:50Z Arcadian 104523 clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]] {{DiseaseDisorder infobox | Name = Acute disseminated encephalitis | ICD10 = G04.0 | ICD9 = {{ICD9|323}} | }} '''Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis''' ('''ADEM''') is an immune mediated [[disease]] of [[human brain|brain]]. It usually occurs following a [[virus (biology)|viral]] [[infection]] or [[vaccination]], but it may also appear spontaneously. There are multiple inflammatory cell deposits in the brain, particularly in the section called [[white matter]]. Although it occurs in all ages, most reported cases are in children and [[Adolescence|adolescents]]. It has an abrupt onset and a monophasic course. Symptoms usually begins 1-3 weeks after infection or vaccination. Major symptoms are [[fever]], [[headache]], drowsiness, [[seizure]]s and [[coma]]. Although initially the symptoms are usually mild, later in the course of the disease patients may even die, if they are not treated properly. Some patients recover completely, while others have permanent neurological impairments. The first treatment is usually [[steroid]]s and [[intensive care]] is often required. == External links == * [http://www.myelitis.org/adem.htm Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis (ADEM)] [[Category:Autoimmune diseases]] [[Category:Neurological disorders]] [[de:Akute disseminierte Enzephalomyelitis]] 968 15899478 2002-05-22T15:56:19Z 129.109.159.253 * #REDIRECT [[Adrenoleukodystrophy]] 969 39430487 2006-02-13T02:12:34Z Robotico 367893 {{otheruses}} '''Ataxia''' (from [[Greek (language)|Greek]] ''ataxiā'', meaning failure to put in order) is unsteady and clumsy motion of the [[limb]]s or [[torso|trunk]] due to a failure of the gross coordination of [[muscle]] movements. Ataxia often occurs when parts of the nervous system that control movement are damaged. People with ataxia experience a failure of muscle control in their arms and legs, resulting in a lack of balance and coordination or a disturbance of gait. While the term ataxia is primarily used to describe this set of symptoms, it is sometimes also used to refer to a family of disorders. It is not, however, a specific diagnosis. Most disorders that result in ataxia cause cells in the part of the brain called the [[cerebellum]] to degenerate, or atrophy. Sometimes the spine is also affected. The phrases ''cerebellar degeneration'' and ''spinocerebellar degeneration'' are used to describe changes that have taken place in a person’s nervous system; neither term constitutes a specific diagnosis. Cerebellar and spinocerebellar degeneration have many different causes. The age of onset of the resulting ataxia varies depending on the underlying cause of the degeneration. Many ataxias are hereditary and are classified by chromosomal location and pattern of inheritance: autosomal dominant, in which the affected person inherits a normal gene from one parent and a faulty gene from the other parent; and autosomal recessive, in which both parents pass on a copy of the faulty gene. Among the more common inherited ataxias are [[Friedreich's ataxia]] and Machado-Joseph disease. Sporadic ataxias can also occur in families with no prior history. Ataxia can also be acquired. Conditions that can cause acquired ataxia include [[stroke]], [[multiple sclerosis]], tumors, [[lesion]]s of the [[central nervous system]] or spinal cord, alcoholism, peripheral neuropathy, metabolic disorders, and vitamin deficiencies. [[Dysdiadochokinesia]] is a sign of cerebellar ataxia. [[University of Minnesota]] researchers suggested in 2006 that [[Abraham Lincoln]] may have suffered from spinocerebellar ataxia type 5, thus accounting for his clumsy gait.[http://www.startribune.com/1244/story/198437.html][http://www.breitbart.com/news/2006/01/27/D8FD29HG0.html] == See also == * [[Spinocerebellar ataxia]] * [[Sensory ataxia]] * [[Gait abnormality]] == External links == * [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/ataxia/ataxia.htm National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)] * [http://www.ataxia.org National Ataxia Foundation] * [http://www.ataxia.org.uk Ataxia UK] [[Category:Neurological disorders]] [[Category:Symptoms]] [[de:Ataxie]] [[es:Ataxia]] [[fr:Ataxie]] [[it:Atassia]] [[hu:Ataxia]] [[nl:Ataxie]] [[pl:Ataksja]] [[fi:Ataksia]] 970 15899480 2002-10-09T13:55:02Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Ambient calculus]] #REDIRECT [[Ambient calculus]] 972 41651630 2006-02-28T20:30:09Z Fouad Bey 346146 '''Abdul Alhazred''', or the '''Mad Arab''', is a [[fictional character]] created by the horror writer [[H. P. Lovecraft]]. The term "Mad Arab" in reference to Alhazred is always capitalised and used in the manner of an official title such as another person would be called "Prince" or "Sir" and the term can actually be used in lieu of Alhazred's name as a synonym. ''Abdul Alhazred'' is not a real [[Arabic name]], and seems to contain the Arabic definite article morpheme twice in a row (rather anomalous in terms of Arabic grammar). The more proper Arabic form might be ''Abd-el-Hazred'' or simply ''Abdul Hazred'' (with a single definite article), although these are still anomalous, as ''Hazred'' is not one of the [[99 Names of God]]. In [[Arabic language|Arabic]] translations, his name has appeared as ''Abdullah Alḥaẓred'' (عبدالله الحظرد). While this Arabic-alphabet spelling of ''Alhazred'' has no real meaning in the Arabic language, it is reminiscent of the verb [[triliteral|root]] ح ظ ر meaning "to forbid." According to Lovecraft's "History of the [[Necronomicon]]" (written [[1927]], first published [[1938]]), Alhazred was: :[A] mad poet of [[Sanaá]], in [[Yemen]], who is said to have flourished during the period of the [[Umayyad | Ommiade]] caliphs, circa [[700]] A.D. He visited the ruins of [[Babylon]] and the subterranean secrets of [[Memphis, Egypt |Memphis]] and spent ten years alone in the great southern desert of [[Arabia]] &mdash; the [[Rub' al Khali|Roba el Khaliyeh]] or "Empty Space" of the ancients &mdash; and "Dahna" or "Crimson" desert of the modern Arabs, which is held to be inhabited by protective evil spirits and monsters of death. Of this desert many strange and unbelievable marvels are told by those who pretend to have penetrated it. In his last years Alhazred dwelt in [[Damascus]]. In [[730]], while still living in Damascus, Alhazred supposedly authored in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] a book of ultimate evil, ''al Azif'', which would later become known as the ''[[Necronomicon]]''. {{spoiler}} Those who have any dealings with the Necronomicon usually come to an unpleasant end, and Alhazred was no exception. Again according to Lovecraft: :Of his final death or disappearance ([[738]] A.D.) many terrible and conflicting things are told. He is said by [[Ibn Khallikan]] ([[13th century]] biographer) to have been seized by an invisible monster in broad daylight and devoured horribly before a large number of fright-frozen witnesses. Of his madness many things are told. He claimed to have seen fabulous [[Irem of the Pillars|Irem]], or City of Pillars, and to have found beneath the ruins of a certain [[The Nameless City|nameless desert town]] the shocking annals and secrets of a race older than mankind. He was only an indifferent [[Muslim|Moslem]], worshipping unknown entities whom he called [[Yog-Sothoth]] and [[Cthulhu]]. [[August Derleth]] later made alterations to the biography of Alhazared. One change was redating Alhazared's death to [[731]]. Derleth further wrote on the final fate of Alhazred in his story "[[The Keeper of the Key]]", first published in May, [[1951]]. In this story [[Dr. Laban Shrewsbury]] (a recurring Derleth character) and his assistant at the time, [[Naylan Colum]], discovered Alhazred's burial site. More specifically they were heading a caravan from [[Salalah]], [[Oman]], and crossed the border into [[Yemen]]. There they found the unexplored desert area the Necronomicon names as "Roba el Ehaliyeh" or "Roba el Khaliyeh" -- perhaps a form of "Rabia al-Awliya" which, again, is not proper Arabic, but could be an allusion to the Sufi Saint Rabia (pure conjecture). More likely it refers the [[Empty Quarter]] or "Rub al Khali". At the center of the area they discovered [[The Nameless City|the Nameless City]], a domain of [[Hastur]]. Shrewsbury, as an old agent of Hastur and devoted enemy of his half-brother [[Cthulhu]], crossed its gates in search of Alhazred's burial site. He indeed found the gate of Alhazred's burial chamber and learned of his fate. Alhazred was kidnapped in Damascus and brought to the Nameless City, where he had earlier studied and learned some of Necronomicon's secrets. As punishment for his betrayal of their secrets, Alhazred was tortured. Then they blinded him and severed his tongue, and finally executed him. The entrance to the chamber warned against disturbing him. But Shrewbury proceeded in entering the chamber and opening the sarcophagus. Though only rugs, bones and dust remained of Alhazred, the sarcophagus also contained an incomplete personal copy of the Necronomicon, written in the [[Arabic alphabet]]. Then Shrewsbury used [[Necromancy]] to recall Alhazred's spirit and ordered it to draw a map of the world as he knew it. After obtaining the map, which revealed the location of [[R'lyeh]] and other secret places, Shrewsbury finally let Alhazred return to his eternal rest. ==Pop culture== [[Roberta Williams]] used the name "Abdul Alhazred" as the name of the villain in [[King's Quest 6]]. Marvel comics has also used the name Abdul Alhazred as a supervillian working for Apocalypse. ==See also== *[[Cthulhu mythos biographies]] [[Category:Cthulhu mythos]] [[Category:Fictional Arabs|Alhazred, Abdul]] [[Category:Fictional writers|Alhazred, Abdul]] [[es:Abdul Alhazred]] [[fr:Abdul al-Hazred]] [[ja:アブドル・アルハズラット]] [[pl:Abdul Alhazred]] [[sv:Abdul Alhazred]] 973 18021014 2005-07-02T17:24:33Z Jyril 39573 avoid double redirect #REDIRECT [[Knowledge]] 974 41616123 2006-02-28T15:15:49Z Schutz 27196 Rvv by 168.9.44.2 [[Image:Ada Lovelace 1838.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ada Lovelace]] '''Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace''' ([[December 10]], [[1815]] &ndash; [[November 27]], [[1852]]) is mainly known for having written a description of [[Charles Babbage]]'s early mechanical general-purpose computer, the [[analytical engine]]. == Life == Ada was the only legitimate child of the poet [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]] and his wife, [[Anne Isabella Milbanke|Annabella Milbanke]]. Ada was named after Byron's [[half-sister]], [[Augusta Leigh]], by whom he was rumoured to have fathered a child. It was Augusta who encouraged Byron to marry to avoid scandal, and he reluctantly chose Annabella. On [[January 16]], [[1816]], Annabella left Byron, taking 1-month old Ada with her. On [[April 21]], Byron signed the Deed of Separation and left England for good a few days later. He was never allowed to see either again. Ada lived with her mother, as is apparent in her father's correspondence concerning her. Lady Byron was also highly interested in mathematics (Lord Byron once called her "the queen of parallelograms"), which dominated her life, even after marriage. Her obsession with rooting out any of the insanity of which she accused Lord Byron was one of the reasons why Annabella taught Ada [[mathematics]] at an early age. Ada was privately schooled in [[mathematics]] and [[science]], one of her tutors being [[Augustus De Morgan]]. An active member of [[London]] society, she was a member of the [[Bluestockings]] in her youth. [[Image:Ada Lovelace.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Ada Lovelace]] In 1835 she married [[William King, 1st Earl of Lovelace|William King, 8th Baron King]], later [[Earl of Lovelace|1st Earl of Lovelace]]. They had three children; Byron born [[12 May]] [[1836]], Annabella ([[Lady Anne Blunt]]) born [[22 September]] [[1837]] and Ralph Gordon born [[2 July]] [[1839]]. The family lived at Ockham Park, at [[Ockham, Surrey]]. Her full name and title for most of her married life was '''The Right Honourable Augusta Ada, Countess of Lovelace'''. She is widely known in modern times simply as '''Ada Lovelace'''. She knew [[Mary Somerville]], noted researcher and scientific author of the [[19th century]], who introduced her in turn to [[Charles Babbage]] on [[June 5]], [[1833]]. Other acquaintances were [[David Brewster|Sir David Brewster]], [[Charles Wheatstone]], [[Charles Dickens]] and [[Michael Faraday]]. During a nine-month period in 1842-1843, Ada translated for Italian mathematician [[Luigi Menabrea]]'s memoir on Babbage's newest proposed machine, the Analytical Engine. With the article, she appended [[Ada Byron's notes on the analytical engine|a set of Notes]] which specified in complete detail a method for calculating [[Bernoulli numbers]] with the Engine, recognized by historians as the world's first [[computer program]]. Biographers note, however, that the programs were written by Babbage himself, and Lovelace simply found a mistake in the program for calculating Bernoulli numbers and sent it back for amendment. The evidence and correspondence between Lovelace and Babbage indicate that he wrote all of the programs in the notes appended to the Menebrea translation. Her prose acknowledged some possibilities of the machine which Babbage never published, such as speculating that "the Engine might compose elaborate and scientific pieces of music of any degree of complexity or extent." Ada Lovelace died at 36 after being [[Bloodletting|bled]] to death by her physicians, who were trying to treat her [[uterine cancer]]. Thus, she died, ironically, not only at the same age as her father did, but even of the same cause - the mistaken custom of bloodletting. She left two sons and a daughter, [[Lady Anne Blunt]], famous in her own right as a traveller in the [[Middle East]] and a breeder of [[Arabian horse]]s. At her own request, Lovelace was buried next to the father she never knew at the [[Church of St. Mary Magdalene, Hucknall|Church of St. Mary Magdalene]] in [[Hucknall]], [[Nottingham]]. == Controversy over attribution == Biographers have noted that Lovelace struggled with mathematics, and there is some debate as to whether Lovelace understood deeply the concepts behind programming Babbage's engine, or was more of a figurehead used by Babbage for [[public relations]] purposes. As an early woman in computing, Lovelace occupies a politically sensitive space in the canon of historical figures in [[computer science]], and therefore the extent of her contribution versus Babbage's remains difficult to assess based on current sources. == Trivia == * On [[December 10]], [[1980]], (Ada's birthday), the [[U.S. Defense Department]] approved the reference manual for their new computer [[programming language]], called "[[Ada programming language|Ada]]". * The U.S. [[Defense Standard|Department of Defense Military Standard]] for Ada (MIL-STD-1815) was assigned a number to commemorate the year of her birth. * On the math-mystery cartoon, ''[[Cyberchase]]'', she appears as the animated character Lady Ada Lovelace, voiced by ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' comedian [[Jane Curtin]]. The episode is "Hugs and Witches" (#201) which premiered February 14, 2002 on [[PBS Kids GO!]]. * She is one of the main characters in the [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternate history]] novel ''[[The Difference Engine]]'' by [[Bruce Sterling]] and [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]], which posits a world in which Babbage's machines were [[mass production|mass produced]] and the computer age started a century early. * ''Lord Byron's Novel'' by [[John Crowley]] is a pastiche of a novel supposedly by Byron (in real life he did begin writing one, but is not known to have completed it), discovered after his death by his daughter, edited and with commentary by her. * Her image can be seen on the [[Microsoft]] product authenticity [[hologram]] stickers. == See also == * [[Ada Byron's notes on the analytical engine]] * [[Women in computing]] * [[Ada programming language]] == External links == *[http://www.sdsc.edu/ScienceWomen/lovelace.html Ada Lovelace: Founder of Scientific Computing (SDSC Women in Science)] * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Lovelace}} *[http://web.archive.org/web/20010710002229/http://vms.www.uwplatt.edu/~wise/lovelace/lovelace.html WISE Project biography] ([[Internet Archive|archive]] link, was [[Dead link|dead]]) *[http://www.cs.yale.edu/homes/tap/ada-lovelace.html A page of (mostly broken) links to biographies, etc] *[http://www.cs.yale.edu/homes/tap/Files/ada-lovelace-notes.html Ada Lovelace's ''Notes'' and ''The Ladies Diary''] *[http://www.educause.edu/pub/er/review/reviewArticles/31240.html Ada &amp; the Analytical Engine] *[http://www.cs.kuleuven.ac.be/~dirk/ada-belgium/pictures.html Ada Picture Gallery includes freely copyable pictures of Ada] *[http://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage/sketch.html Full text of translation of "Sketch of the Analytical Engine" by L. F. Menabrea with Ada's notes and extensive commentary] *[http://www.techtv.com/news/culture/story/0,24195,3316503,00.html An article on the Ada controversy], and [http://www.techtv.com/news/culture/jump/0,24196,3316508,00.html Was Ada really the first programmer?] *[http://www.newyorker.com/critics/books/?010305crbo_Holt_Books_C Jim Holt's "The Ada Perplex," from the New Yorker] *[http://www.scottlan.edu/lriddle/women/love.htm A brief biography of Ada Augusta, Countess of Lovelace with links to other resources related to Ada] * [http://www.hucknall-parish-church.org.uk/ada.htm Hucknall Parish Church, Ada's final resting place] [[Category:1815 births|Lovelace, Ada]] [[Category:1852 deaths|Lovelace, Ada]] [[Category:Computer pioneers|Lovelace, Ada]] [[Category:British mathematicians|Lovelace, Ada]] [[Category:Women mathematicians|Lovelace, Ada]] [[Category:British scientists|Lovelace, Ada]] [[Category:Women computer scientists|Lovelace, Ada]] [[Category:British women|Lovelace, Ada]] [[cs:Augusta Ada King]] [[da:Ada Lovelace]] [[de:Ada Lovelace]] [[es:Ada Lovelace]] [[fa:ایدا لاولیس]] [[fr:Ada Lovelace]] [[gl:Ada Augusta Lovelace]] [[hr:Ada Lovelace]] [[it:Ada Lovelace]] [[he:עדה לאבלייס]] [[nl:Ada Lovelace]] [[ja:エイダ・ラブレス]] [[no:Ada Byron Lovelace]] [[pl:Ada Lovelace]] [[pt:Ada Lovelace]] [[ru:Лавлейс, Ада]] [[fi:Ada Lovelace]] [[sv:Ada Lovelace]] [[th:เอดา ไบรอน]] [[vi:Ada Lovelace]] 975 15899485 2002-04-24T01:17:13Z 193.49.30.34 * #REDIRECT [[Ambient calculus]] 978 33143179 2005-12-29T17:54:57Z Allan McInnes 647621 /* Informal description */ sectioning In [[Computer science|computer science]], the '''ambient calculus''' is a [[Process calculi|process calculus]] devised by [[Luca Cardelli]] and [[Andrew D. Gordon]] in [[1998]], and used to describe and theorise about [[concurrent systems]] that include ''mobility''. Here ''mobility'' means both computation carried out on mobile devices (''i.e.'' networks that have a dynamic topology), and mobile computation (''i.e.'' executable code that is able to move around the network). The ambient calculus provides a unified framework for modeling both kinds of mobility {{ref_harvard|Cardelli1998|Cardelli 1998|-}}. It is used to model interactions in such [[concurrent systems]] as the [[Internet]]. Since its inception, the ambient calculus has grown into a family of closely related [http://xdguan.freezope.org/wiki/AmbientCalculiOnline ''ambient calculi'']. == Informal description == ===Ambients=== The fundamental primitive of the ambient calculus is the ''ambient''. An ambient is informally defined as a ''bounded'' place in which computation can occur. The notion of boundaries is considered key to representing mobility, since a boundary defines a contained computational agent that can be moved in its entirety {{ref_harvard|Cardelli1998|Cardelli 1998|-}}. Examples of ambients include: * a web page (bounded by a file) * a virtual address space (bounded by an addressing range) * a Unix file system (bounded within a physical volume) * a single data object (bounded by “self”) * a laptop (bounded by its case and data ports) The key properties of ambients within the Ambient calculus are: * Ambients have names, which are used to control access to the ambient * Ambients can be nested inside other ambients (representing, for example, administrative domains) * Ambients can be moved as a whole ===Operations=== Computation is represented as the crossing of boundaries, ''i.e.'' the movement of ambients. There are three basic operations (or capabilities) on ambients {{ref_harvard|Cardelli1998|Cardelli 1998|-}}: * <math>in\;m.P</math> instructs the surrounding ambient to enter some sibling ambient <math>m</math>, and then proceed as <math>P</math> * <math>out\;m.P</math> instructs the surrounding ambient to exit its parent ambient <math>m</math> * <math>open\;m.P</math> instructs the surrounding ambient to dissolve the boundary of an ambient <math>m</math> located at the same level The Ambient calculus provides a reduction semantics that formally defines what the results of these operations are. Communication ''within'' (''i.e.'' local to) an ambient is anonymous and asynchronous. Output actions release names or capabilities into the surrounding ambient. Input actions capture a value from the ambient, and bind it to a variable. ''Non-local'' I/O can be represented in terms of these local communications actions by a variety of means. One approach is to use mobile “messenger” agents that carry a message from one ambient to another (using the capabilities described above). Another approach is to emulate channel-based communications by modeling a channel in terms of ambients and operations on those ambients {{ref_harvard|Cardelli1998|Cardelli 1998|-}}. The three basic ambient primitives, namely '''in''', '''out''', and '''open''' are expressive enough to simulate name-passing channels in the [[Pi-calculus|&pi;-calculus]]. == Criticisms == Some people believe that the synchronous nature of the three ambient actions ('''in''', '''out''', and '''open''') may make it difficult to adopt the ambient calculus as the programming language core for mobile and [[distributed computing]]. A counter-argument to this criticism is that the ambient calculus is not intended to act as a language core, but rather to provide general capabilities for formally modelling and analyzing complex concurrent systems that may consist of components written in a variety of languages. == See also == * [[process calculi]] * [[programming language]] * [[theoretical computer science]] * [[lambda calculus]] * [[type theory]] ==External links== *[http://xdguan.freezope.org/wiki/AmbientCalculiOnline Collection of online resources for ambient calculi] *[http://www.luca.demon.co.uk/Ambit/Ambit.html Mobile Computational Ambients] by Luca Cardelli == References == * {{note_label|Cardelli1998|Cardelli 1998|-}} Cardelli, L. and Gordon, A. D. 1998: ''Mobile Ambients'', Proceedings of the First international Conference on Foundations of Software Science and Computation Structure (March 28 - April 04, 1998). M. Nivat, Ed. Lecture Notes In Computer Science, vol. 1378. Springer-Verlag, London, 140-155. {{comp-sci-stub}} [[Category:Process calculi]] 980 36184803 2006-01-22T05:49:56Z Jdcooper 202051 {{mergefrom|List of works by August Derleth}} '''August William Derleth''' ([[February 24]] [[1909]] &ndash; [[July 4]] [[1971]]) was an American writer and anthologist. The son of William Julius Derleth and his wife Rose Louise Volk, he resided in [[Sauk City, Wisconsin]]. At the age of 16, he sold his first story to ''[[Weird Tales]]'' magazine. Derleth wrote all throughout his four years at the [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]] and received a [[Bachelor's Degree|B.A.]] in 1930. During this time he served briefly as [[editor]] of ''[[Mystic Magazine]]''. In the mid-1930s he organised a Ranger's Club for young people, served as clerk and president of the local [[Board of Education]], served as a parole officer, organised a local Men&rsquo;s Club and a [[Parent-Teacher Association|parent-teacher association]]. He also lectured in American Regional Literature at the University of Wisconsin. Derleth was a contemporary and friend of [[H. P. Lovecraft]] &mdash; when Lovecraft wrote about "le Comte d'Erlette" in [[List of Works by H. P. Lovecraft|his fiction]] it was in homage to Derleth. After Lovecraft's death he took a number of that author's unfinished stories and rewrote or finished them for publication in ''Weird Tales'' and later in book form. In the process, he invented the term [[Cthulhu Mythos]] to describe the invented [[mythology]] that seemed to lie behind much of Lovecraft's fiction. Derleth codified the Mythos to bring it more in line with his own [[Christianity|Christian]] conception of the battle between good and evil and, as other authors had done before him, added new gods and creatures to the stories. When Lovecraft died in [[1937]], Derleth and [[Donald Wandrei]] put together a collection of that author's [[short story|stories]] and tried to get them published. With existing publishers showing little interest, they founded [[Arkham House]] in 1939 to do it themselves. The name of the company comes from Lovecraft's [[fictional town]] of [[Arkham]], [[Massachusetts]], which featured in many of his stories. In [[1939]] Arkham House published ''[[The Outsider and Others]]'', a huge collection that contained most of Lovecraft's short stories then known to exist. Derleth and Wandrei soon decided to expand Arkham House and began a regular publishing schedule after its second book, ''[[Someone in the Dark]]'' in [[1941]], a collection of some of Derleth's own [[horror stories]]. In [[1941]] he became literary editor of ''[[The Capital Times]]'' newspaper in [[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]], a post he held until his resignation in [[1960]]. Derleth was married [[April 6]] [[1953]] to Sandra Evelyn Winters, and they were divorced six years later in [[1959]]. He retained custody of their two children, April Rose and Walden William. In [[1960]], Derleth began editing and publishing a magazine called ''Hawk and Whippoorwill'', dedicated to [[poetry|poems]] of man and nature. He died on [[July 4]] [[1971]] and is buried in [[St. Aloysius]] Cemetery, [[Sauk City]], Wisconsin. Derleth wrote more than 150 short stories and more than 100 books during his lifetime. Included among that number were several novels about a British detective named [[Solar Pons]], who was quite similar in many respects to [[Sherlock Holmes]]. Derleth, however, lacked the knowledge to make the details of those stories authentic, as he had never been to [[England]]. He also wrote under the [[pseudonym|pseudonyms]] Stephen Grendon, Kenyon Holmes and Tally Mason. ==See also== [[August derleth bibliography | Derleth Bibliography]] ==External links== *[http://www.derleth.org/ The August Derleth Society] *[http://www.waldeneast.fsnet.co.uk/adp1.htm A more detailed biography] *[http://www.arkhamhouse.com/augustderleth.htm A short autobiography] *[http://lovecraft.cjb.net "The Ultimate Cthulhu Mythos Book List"] - Listing of all mythos novels, anthologies, collections, comic books, and more. [[Category:1909 births|Derleth, August]] [[Category:1971 deaths|Derleth, August]] [[Category:American short story writers|Derleth, August]] [[Category:American mystery writers|Derleth, August]] [[Category:American novelists|Derleth, August]] [[Category:Cthulhu mythos|Derleth, August]] [[Category:Horror writers|Derleth, August]] [[Category:People from Wisconsin|Derleth, August]] [[de:August Derleth]] [[fr:August Derleth]] [[ja:オーガスト・ダーレス]] [[pl:August Derleth]] [[sv:August Derleth]] 981 41456986 2006-02-27T13:34:58Z Perconte 111314 + digital images :''This article is about the Alps in Europe. For other mountain ranges see [[Alps (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:Alps in the Chamonix Valley, near the Mer de Glace.jpg|thumb|275px|right|The West face of the Petit Dru above the [[Chamonix]] valley near the [[Mer de Glace]].]] [[Image:Alpenrelief 01.jpg|thumb|275px|Digital relief of the Alps]] The '''Alps''' (Alpi in Italian) is the name for one of the great [[mountain range]] systems of [[Europe]], stretching from [[Austria]], [[Italy]] and [[Slovenia]] in the east, through [[Italy]], [[Switzerland]], [[Liechtenstein]] and [[Germany]] to [[France]] in the west. The word "Alps" was taken via [[French language|French]] from [[Latin]] ''Alpes'' (meaning "the Alps"), which may be influenced by the Latin words ''albus'' (white) or ''altus'' (high), or a [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] word. The highest mountain in the Alps is [[Mont Blanc]] at 4810&nbsp;[[metre|m]] on the French-Italian border. All the main peaks of the Alps can be found in the [[list of mountains of the Alps]] and [[list of Alpine peaks by prominence]]. ==Geography== :''Main article: [[Geography of the Alps]]'' ===Subdivision=== [[Image:Alpenrelief 02.jpg|thumb|275px|the Alps with the Borders of the Countries]] [[Image:Italian alps1.jpg|thumb|right|275px|The Italian Alps - Taken from an airplane]] The Alps are generally divided into [[Western Alps]] and [[Eastern Alps]]. The division is along the line between [[Lake Constance]] and [[Lake Como]], following the [[Rhine]]. The Western Alps are located in [[Italy]], [[France]] and [[Switzerland]], the Eastern Alps in [[Austria]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Switzerland]]. The highest peak of the Western Alps is [[Mont Blanc]], 4810 m. The highest peak in the Eastern Alps is [[Piz Bernina]], 4052 meters. The Eastern Alps are commonly subdivided according to the different geological composition of the more central parts of the Alps and the groups at its northern and southern fringes: [[Northern Limestone Alps]], [[Central Eastern Alps]] and [[Southern Limestone Alps]]. The border between the [[Central Eastern Alps]] and the [[Southern Limestone Alps]] is the [[Periadriatic Seam]]. The [[Northern Limestone Alps]] are separated from the [[Central Eastern Alps]] by the [[Grauwacken Zone]]. The [[Western Alps]] are commonly subdivided into the following: *[[Ligurian Alps]] *[[Maritime Alps]] *[[Cottian Alps]] *[[Dauphiné Alps]] *[[Graian Alps]] *[[Pennine Alps]] *[[Bernese Alps]] *[[Lepontine Alps]] *[[Glarus Alps]] *[[North-Eastern Swiss Alps]] Series of lower mountain ranges run parallel to the main chains of the Alps, including the [[French Prealps]]. ===Main chains=== :''Main article: [[Main chain of the Alps]]'' [[Image:alps.space.300pix.jpg|thumb|right|The European Alps from space in May 2002.]] The "main chain of the Alps" follows the watershed from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the [[Wienerwald]], passing over many of the highest and most famous peaks in the Alps. From the Colle di Cadibona to [[Col de Tende]] it runs westwards, before turning to the north-west and then, near the [[Colle della Maddalena]], to the north. Upon reaching the Swiss border, the line of the main chain heads approximately east-north-east, a heading it follows until its end near [[Vienna]]. ===Principal passes=== :''Main article: [[Principal passes of the Alps]]'' The Alps do not form an impassable barrier; they have been traversed for [[war]] and [[commerce]], and later by [[pilgrim]]s, [[student]]s and [[tourist]]s. Crossing places by [[road]], [[train]] or foot are called passes, these are depressions in the mountains to which a valley leads from the plains and hilly pre-mountainous zones. ==Climate== :''Main article: [[Climate of the Alps]]'' The ''climate of the Alps'' is the [[climate]], or average [[weather]] conditions over a long time, of the central Alpine region of [[Europe]]. As we rise from [[sea level]] into the upper regions of the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], the [[temperature]] [[adiabatic lapse rate|decreases]]. The effect of [[mountain]] chains on prevailing [[wind]]s is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone, where it expands in [[volume]] at the cost of a proportionate loss of [[heat]], often accompanied by the [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] of moisture in the form of [[snow]] or [[rain]]. ==Geology== :''Main article: [[Geology of the Alps]]'' The Alps arose as a result of the pressure exerted on [[sediment]]s of the [[Tethys Ocean]] basin as its [[Mesozoic]] and early [[Cenozoic]] [[Stratum|strata]] were pushed against the stable [[Eurasia]]n landmass by the northward-moving [[Africa]]n landmass. Most of this occurred during the [[Oligocene]] and [[Miocene]] epochs. The pressure formed great recumbent folds, or ''nappes'', that rose out of what had become the [[Tethys Sea]] and pushed northward, often breaking and sliding one over the other to form gigantic thrust [[Geologic fault|fault]]s. [[Crystal]]line rocks, which are exposed in the higher central regions, are the rocks forming [[Mont Blanc]], the [[Matterhorn]], and high peaks in the Pennine Alps and Hohe Tauern. The landscape seen today is mostly formed by [[glaciation]] during the past two million years. At least five [[ice age]]s have done much to remodel the region, scooping out the lakes and rounding off the limestone hills along the northern border. [[Glaciers]] have been retreating during the past 10,000 years, leaving large granite boulders scattered in the forests in the region. As the last ice age ended, it is believed that the [[climate]] changed so rapidly that the glaciers retreated back into the mountains in a span of about 200 to 300 years. ==Political history== :''Main article: [[Political history and modern state of the inhabitants of the Alps]]'' Little is known of the early dwellers in the Alps, save from the scanty accounts preserved by [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[historian]]s and [[geographer]]s. A few details have come down to us of the conquest of many of the Alpine tribes by [[Augustus]]. The successive emigration and occupation of the Alpine region by various [[Germanic peoples|Teutonic tribes]] from the [[5th century|5th]] to the [[6th century|6th centuries]] are known only in outline, because to them, as to the [[Frankish]] kings and emperors, the Alps offered a route from one place to another rather than a permanent residence. It is not until the final breakup of the [[Carolingian Empire]] in the [[10th century|10th]] and [[11th century|11th centuries]] that it becomes possible to trace out the local history of the Alps. ==Exploration== :''Main article: [[Exploration of the High Alps]]'' The higher regions of the Alps were long left to the exclusive attention of the men of the adjoining valleys, even when Alpine travellers (as distinguished from Alpine climbers) began to visit these valleys. The two men who first explored the regions of ice and snow were H.B. de Saussure (1740-1799) in the [[Pennine Alps]], and the Benedictine monk of [[Disentis]], Placidus a Spescha (1752-1833), most of whose ascents were made before 1806, in the valleys at the sources of the [[Rhine]]. ==Flora== A natural vegetation limit with altitude is given by the presence of the chief [[deciduous]] [[tree]]s &mdash; [[oak]], [[beech]], [[Ash tree|ash]] and [[sycamore maple]]. These do not reach exactly to the same elevation, nor are they often found growing together; but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the wild [[herb]]aceous vegetation. This limit usually lies about 1200 m above the sea on the north side of the Alps, but on the southern slopes it often rises to 1500 m, sometimes even to 1700 m. It must not be supposed that this region is always marked by the presence of the characteristic trees. The interference of man has in many districts almost removed them, and, excepting the beech forests of the [[Austria]]n Alps, a considerable wood of deciduous trees is rare. In many districts where such woods once existed, their place has been occupied by the [[Scots pine]] and [[Norway spruce]], which suffer less from the ravages of goats, the worst enemies of tree vegetation. The mean annual temperature of this region differs little from that of the [[British Islands]]; but the climate conditions are widely different. Here snow usually lies for several months, till it gives place to a spring and summer considerably warmer than the average of British seasons. '''Typical plants found in the Alps:''' <gallery> Image:Leontopodium alpinum1.jpg|Edelweiss<br />(''[[Edelweiss|Leontopodium alpinum]]'') Image:Gentiana acaulis.jpg|stemless gentian<br />(''[[Gentiana acaulis]]'') Image:RostblaettrigeAlpenrose.jpg|rusty-leaved Alpenrose<br />(''[[Rhododendron ferrugineum]]'') Image:Chamorchis_alpina_230705b.jpg|Alpine dwarf orchid<br />(''[[Chamorchis alpina]]'') Image:Ranunculus_glacialis.jpg|glacier buttercup<br />(''[[Ranunculus glacialis]]'') Image:Kosodrzewina (Sosna górska) Pinus mugo mugo.jpg|mountain pine<br />(''[[Mountain Pine|Pinus mugo]]'') Image:Pulsatilla_alpina_schneebergensis.jpg|Alpine pasque-flower<br />(''[[Pulsatilla alpina]]'') Image:Androsace alpina02.jpg|Alpine rock-jasmine (''[[Androsace alpina]]'') </gallery> ==Fauna== [[:Category:Fauna of the Alps|Species common to the Alps]]. These are most numerously found in the 15% of the Alps protected in parks and reserves. <gallery> Image:Plochacz 3001xx.jpg|<center>[[Alpine Accentor]]</center> Image:Chamois Kleinwalsertal 1997.jpg|<center>[[Chamois]]</center> Image:Alpenkauw2.jpg|<center>[[Alpine Chough]]</center> Image:Goldie.JPG|<center>[[Golden Eagle]]</center> Image:Alpine ibex.jpg|<center>[[Alpine Ibex|Ibex]]</center> Image:Corvus monedula2.jpg|<center>[[Jackdaw]]</center> Image:Marmota marmota Alpes2.jpg|<center>[[Alpine Marmot|Marmot]]</center> Image:Arctic Hare.jpg|<center>[[Mountain Hare]]</center> Image:Ptarmigan9.jpg|<center>[[Ptarmigan]]</center> Image:Elk4.jpg|<center>[[Red Deer]]</center> Image:Aegolius-funereus-001.jpg|<center>[[Tengmalm's Owl]]</center> </gallery> ==See also== {{commons|Category:Alps}} *[[Paganism in the Eastern Alps]] *[[Alpinism]] ==External links== * [http://gridk1ach.grid.unep.ch/preAC/en/soia.htm System for Observation of and Information on the Alps], established in 1991 by the [[Alpine Convention]] * [http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/gallery/individual.php?db_date=2005-09-17 Satellite photo of the Alps], taken on [[August 31]], [[2005]] by [[MODIS]] aboard [[Terra (satellite)|Terra]] * [http://www.eumetsat.int/en/area5/iotm/19930503_convection/19930503_convection.html Convection over the Alps], a satellite photo taken on [[May 3]], [[1993]] by [[Meteosat]]-4, with analysis *[http://www2.snowfactory.com/portal/modules.php?name=WebCAM_Belalp SNOWFactory.com] The live webcam locate in the swiss alps. More than 50'000 images since summer 2003. *[http://www.snownews.de Winter holidays in the european Alps] *[http://www.via-ferrata.de Hiking and climbing in the ALps] * [http://www.travel-france-vacation.com/south-riviera-france/southern-nice-provence.htm Visit Alps and Rhone valley] [[Category:Alps| ]] [[Category:Mountains of Europe]] [[Category:Mountains of Austria]] [[Category:Mountains of France]] [[Category:Mountains of Germany]] [[Category:Mountains of Switzerland]] [[Category:Mountains of Slovenia]] ==References== *{{1911}} [[af:Alpe]] [[als:Alpen]] [[ar:ألب]] [[bg:Алпи]] [[ca:Alps]] [[cs:Alpy]] [[da:Alperne]] [[de:Alpen]] [[et:Alpid]] [[el:Άλπεις]] [[es:Alpes]] [[eo:Alpoj]] [[eu:Alpeak]] [[fr:Alpes]] [[ga:Sliabh Alpa]] [[ko:알프스 산맥]] [[hr:Alpe]] [[is:Alpafjöll]] [[it:Alpi]] [[he:הרי האלפים]] [[la:Alpes]] [[lt:Alpės]] [[nl:Alpen]] [[ja:アルプス山脈]] [[no:Alpene]] [[nn:Alpane]] [[pl:Alpy]] [[pt:Alpes]] [[ro:Alpi]] [[ru:Альпы]] [[sk:Alpy]] [[sl:Alpe]] [[sr:Алпи]] [[fi:Alpit]] [[sv:Alperna]] [[tr:Alpler]] [[uk:Альпи]] [[zh:阿尔卑斯山]] 982 15899492 2005-05-15T20:16:19Z Kzollman 166829 #REDIRECT [[Knowledge]] 983 42036634 2006-03-03T10:29:44Z 84.159.110.243 [[Image:camus-albert.gif|thumb|right|Albert Camus]] '''Albert Camus''' (pronounced Kam-oo, [[IPA]]: ka.mʉ̟ː) ([[November 7]], [[1913]] &ndash; [[January 4]], [[1960]]) was a [[France|French]] [[author]] and [[philosopher]] and one of the principal luminaries (with [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]) of [[absurdism]]. Camus was the second youngest-ever recipient of the [[Nobel Prize for Literature]] (after [[Rudyard Kipling]]) when he received the award in 1957. He is also the [[List of Nobel Prize in Literature winners by longevity|shortest-lived of any literature laureate]] to date, having died in a car crash three years after receiving the award. ==Early years== Albert Camus was born in [[Mondovi, Algeria]] to a French Algerian ([[pied noir]]) settler family. His mother was of Spanish extraction. His father, Lucien, died in the [[First Battle of the Marne|Battle of the Marne]] in [[1914]] during the [[World War I|First World War]], while serving as a member of the [[Zouave]] infantry regiment. Camus lived in poor conditions during his childhood in the Belcourt section of [[Algiers]]. In [[1923]], Camus was accepted into the [[lycée]] and eventually to the [[University of Algiers]]. However, he contracted [[tuberculosis]] in [[1930]], which put an end to his [[football (soccer)|football]] activities (he had been a [[goalkeeper]] for the university team) and forced him to make his studies a part-time pursuit. He took odd jobs including private [[tutor]], car parts clerk, and work for the Meteorological Institute. He completed his ''licence de philosophie'' ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]]) in [[1935]]; in May of [[1936]], he successfully presented his thesis on [[Plotinus]], ''Néo-Platonisme et Pensée Chrétienne'' for his ''diplôme d'études supérieures'' (roughly equivalent to an M.A. by thesis). {{French literature (small)}} Camus joined the [[French Communist Party]] in 1934, apparently for concern over the political situation in [[Spain]] (which eventually resulted in the [[Spanish Civil War]]) rather than support for [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] doctrine. In 1936, the independence-minded Algerian Communist Party (PCA) was founded. Camus joined the activities of [[Le Parti du Peuple Algérien]], which got him into trouble with his communist party comrades. As a result, he was denounced as "[[Trotskyism|Trotskyite]]", which did not endear him to Stalinist communism. In 1934, he [[Married|married]] Simone Hie, a [[morphine]] addict, but the marriage ended due to Simone's infidelity. In 1935, he founded ''Théâtre du Travail'' &mdash; "Worker's Theatre" &mdash; (renamed ''Théâtre de l'Equipe'' ("Team's Theatre") in [[1937]]), which survived until 1939. From 1937 to 1939, he wrote for a socialist paper, ''Alger-Republicain'', and his work included an account of the peasants who lived in [[Kabylie]] in poor conditions, which apparently cost him his job. From 1939 to 1940, he briefly wrote for a similar paper, ''Soir-Republicain''. He was rejected from the French army because of his [[tuberculosis]]. In 1940, Camus married Francine Faure, a pianist and mathematician. Francine gave birth to twins Catherine and Jean Camus on September 5th, 1945. Also in this year, Camus began to work for ''[[Paris-Soir]]'' magazine. In the first stage of [[World War II]], the so-called [[Phony War]] stage, Camus was a [[pacifism|pacifist]]. However, he was in [[Paris]] to witness how the [[Wehrmacht]] took over. On [[December 15]], [[1941]], Camus witnessed the execution of [[Gabriel Peri]], an event which Camus later said crystallized his revolt against the Germans. Afterwards he moved to [[Bordeaux]] alongside the rest of the staff of ''Paris-Soir''. In this year he finished his first books, ''[[The Stranger (novel)|The Stranger]]'' and ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]''. He returned briefly to [[Oran]], Algeria in 1942. == Literary career == During the war Camus joined the [[French Resistance]] cell ''Combat'', which published an underground newspaper of the same name. This group worked against the Nazis, and in it Camus assumed the [[moniker]] "Beauchard". Camus became the paper's editor in 1943, and when the Allies liberated Paris Camus reported on the last of the fighting. He eventually resigned from ''Combat'' in 1947, when it became a commercial paper. It was here that he became acquainted with [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. [[Image:camus-albert.jpg|thumb|right|Albert Camus]] After the war, Camus became one member of Sartre's entourage and frequented ''[[Café de Flore]]'' on the [[Boulevard St. Germain]] in [[Paris]]. Camus also toured the [[United States]] to lecture about French existentialism. Although he leaned [[left-wing politics|left]] politically, his strong criticisms of communist doctrine did not win him any friends in the communist parties and eventually also alienated Sartre. In 1949 his tuberculosis returned and he lived in seclusion for two years. In 1951 he published ''[[The Rebel]]'', a philosophical analysis of rebellion and revolution which made clear his rejection of communism. The book upset many of his colleagues and contemporaries in France and led to the final split with Sartre. The dour reception depressed him and he began instead to translate plays. Camus's most significant contribution to philosophy was his idea of the absurd, the result of our desire for clarity and meaning within a world and condition that offers neither, which he explained in ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'' and incorporated into many of his other works, such as ''[[The Plague]]''. Some would argue that Camus is better described not as an [[existentialist]] (a label he would have rejected) but as an [[absurdist]]. In the 1950s Camus devoted his efforts to [[human rights]]. In 1952 he resigned from his work for [[UNESCO]] when the [[UN]] accepted [[Spain]] as a member under the leadership of [[Francisco Franco|General Franco]]. In 1953 he was one of the few leftists who criticized [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] methods to crush a worker's strike in [[East Berlin]]. In 1956 he protested similar methods in [[Hungary]]. He maintained his pacifism and resistance to [[capital punishment]] everywhere in the world. One of his most significant contributions was an essay collaboration with [[Arthur Koestler|Koestler]], the writer, intellectual, and founder of the League Against Capital Punishment. When the [[Algerian War of Independence]] began in 1954 it presented a moral dilemma for Camus. He identified with [[pied-noir]]s, and defended the French government on the grounds that revolt of its North African colony was really an integral part of the 'new Arab imperialism' led by Egypt and an 'anti-Western' offensive orchestrated by Russia to 'encircle Europe' and 'isolate the United States' (Actuelles III: Chroniques Algeriennes, 1939-1958). Although favouring greater Algerian [[self-governance|autonomy]] or even [[federation]], though not full-scale independence, he believed that the pied-noirs and Arabs could co-exist. During the war he advocated civil truce that would spare the civilians, which was rejected by both sides who regarded it as foolish. Behind the scenes, he began to work clandestinely for imprisoned Algerians who faced the death penalty. From 1955 to 1956 Camus wrote for [[L'Express]]. In [[1957]] he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in literature]], officially not for his novel ''[[The Fall]]'', published the previous year, but for his writings against capital punishment in the essay "Réflexions Sur la Guillotine". When he spoke to students at the [[University of Stockholm]], he defended his apparent inactivity in the Algerian question and stated that he was worried what could happen to his mother who still lived in Algeria. This led to further ostracism by French left-wing intellectuals. Camus died on [[January 4]], [[1960]] in a car accident near [[Sens]], in a place named "Le Grand Frossard" in the small town of Villeblevin. Ironically, Camus had uttered a remark earlier in his life that the most absurd way to die would be in a car accident. [[Image:Camus Monument in Villeblevin France 17-august-2003.1.JPG|thumb|left|The monument to the French writer and philosopher Albert Camus (1913-1960), built in the small town of Villeblevin (France) where he died in a car crash on January 4, 1960]] [[Image:Camus Monument in Villeblevin France 17-august-2003.4.JPG|thumb|left|The bronze plaque on the monument to the French writer and philosopher Albert Camus (1913-1960), built in the small town of Villeblevin (France). The plaque says: "From the Yonne area's local council, in tribute to the writer Albert Camus who was watched over in the Villeblevin town hall in the night of the 4th to the 5th of January 1960"]] The driver of the [[Facel Vega]], [[Michel Gallimard]] -- his publisher and close friend -- also perished in the accident. Camus was interred in the Lourmarin Cemetery, [[Lourmarin]], [[Vaucluse]], [[Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur]], [[France]]. He was survived by his twin children, Catherine and Jean, who hold the copyrights to his work. After his death, two of Camus's works were published posthumously. The first was an earlier version of ''[[The Stranger (novel)|The Stranger]]'' entitled ''[[A Happy Death]]'' and was published in [[1970]]. The second work was an unfinished novel, ''[[The First Man]]'', that Camus was writing before he died. The novel was an [[autobiographical]] work about his childhood in [[Algeria]] and was published in [[1995]]. {{-}} ==Summary of Absurdism== [[Image:20041113-002 Lourmarin Tombstone Albert Camus.jpg|thumb|Albert Camus' gravestone]] Many writers have written on the Absurd, each with his or her own interpretation of what the Absurd actually is and their own ideas on the importance of the Absurd. For example, Sartre does little more than acknowledge it while Kierkegaard bases the existence of the God on the fact of the absurd. Camus was not the originator of Absurdism and regretted the continued reference to him as a ''philosopher of the absurd''. He shows less and less interest in the Absurd shortly after publishing ''Le Mythe de Sisyphe'' (The Myth of Sisyphus). To distinguish Camus's ideas of the Absurd from those of other philosophers, people sometimes refer to the '''Paradox of the Absurd''', when referring to ''Camus's Absurd''. His early thoughts on the Absurd appeared in his first collection of essays, ''L'Envers et l'endroit'' (The Wrong Side and the Right Side) in 1937. Absurd themes appeared with more sophistication in his second collection of essays, ''Noces'' (Nuptials), in 1938. In these essays Camus does not offer a philosophical account of the Absurd, or even a definition; rather he reflects on the experience of the Absurd. In 1942 he published the story of a man living an Absurd life as ''L'Étranger'' (The Stranger/Outsider), and in the same year releases ''Le Mythe de Sisyphe'' (The Myth of Sisyphus), a literary essay on the Absurd. He had also written a play about a Roman Emperor, Caligula, pursuing an Absurd logic. However, the play was not performed until 1945. The turning point in Camus's attitude to the Absurd occurs in a collection of letters to a fictitious German friend, published in the newspaper ''Combat''. ===Camus' ideas on the Absurd=== In the essays Camus presented us with dualisms; happiness and sadness, dark and light, life and death, etc. He wanted us to face up to the fact that happiness is fleeting and that we will die. He did this not to be morbid, but so we can love life and enjoy our happiness when it occurs. In ''Le Myth'', this dualism became a paradox; we value our lives and existence so greatly, but at the same time we know we will eventually die, and ultimately our endeavours are meaningless. Whilst we can live with a dualism (''I can accept periods of unhappiness, because I know I will also experience happiness to come''), we cannot live with the paradox (''I think my life is of great importance, but I also think it is meaningless''). In ''Le Myth'', Camus was interested in how we experience the Absurd and how we live with it. Our life must have meaning for us to value it. If we accept that life has no meaning and therefore no value, should we kill ourselves? Meursault, the Absurdist hero of ''L'Étranger'', is a murderer who is executed for his crimes. Caligula ends up admitting his Absurd logic was wrong and is killed by an assassination he has deliberately brought about. However, Camus, while obviously suggesting that Caligula's Absurd reasoning is wrong, exalts Meursault as the only Messiah we deserve. ''Le Mythe de Sisyphe'' raises questions it cannot satisfactorily answer. Camus' work on the Absurd was intended to promote a public debate. His various offerings entice us to think about the Absurd and offer our own contribution. Concepts such as cooperation, joint effort and solidarity are of key importance to Camus. In the essay ''Enigma'', Camus expressed his frustration at being labeled a philosopher of the absurd. None of his previous work was intended to be a definitive account of his thoughts on the Absurd, although the ''Le Mythe de Sisyphe'' is often mistaken as such. Camus made a significant contribution to our understanding of the Absurd, but was not himself an Absurdist. "If nothing had any meaning, you would be right. But there is something that still has a meaning." ''Second Letter to a German Friend'', December 1943. ==Famous works== ===Novels=== *''[[The Stranger (novel)|The Stranger]]'' (''L'Étranger'', also translated as ''The Outsider) (1942) *''[[The Plague]]'' (''La Peste'') (1947) *''[[The Fall]]'' (''La Chute'') (1956) *''[[A Happy Death]]'' (''La Mort heureuse'') (early version of ''The Stranger'', published posthumously 1970) *''[[The First Man]]'' (''Le premier homme'') (incomplete, published posthumously 1995) ===Short stories=== *''[[Exile and the Kingdom]]'' (''L'exil et le royaume'') (1957) *''[[The Guest]]'' (1957) *''[[La Femme Adultère]]'' (1954) ===Non-fiction=== *''[[Betwixt and Between]]'' (''L'envers et l'endroit'', also translated as ''The Wrong Side and the Right Side'') (collection, 1937) *''[[Neither Victim Nor Executioner]]'' (''Combat'') (1946) *''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'' (''Le Mythe de Sisyphe'') (1942) *''[[The Rebel]]'' (''L'Homme révolté'') (1951) *''Notebooks 1935-1942'' (''Carnets, mai 1935 -- fevrier 1942'') (1962) *''Notebooks 1943-1951'' (1965) *''[[Nuptials]]'' (''Noces'') ===Plays=== *''[[Caligula (play)|Caligula]]'' (performed 1945, written 1938) *''[[The Misunderstanding]]'' (''Le Malentendu'') (1944) *''[[State of Siege]]'' (''L'État de siège'') (1948) *''[[The Just Assassins]]'' (''Les Justes'') (1949) ===Collections=== *Youthful Writings *''[[Resistance, Rebellion, and Death]]'' (1961 - Collection of essays selected by the author) *Between Hell and Reason: Essays from the Resistance Newspaper "Combat", 1944-1947 (1991) *Camus at "Combat": Writing 1944-1947 (2005) ==Adaptations== ===Movies=== *[[Luchino Visconti]] made [[The Stranger (1967 movie)|a movie of ''The Stranger'']] in 1967, starring [[Marcello Mastroianni]]. *[[Luis Puenzo]] and [[Felix Monti]] were responsible for a modern day rendition of ''The Plague'' in 1991. The film starred [[William Hurt]]. ==Further Reading== ===Bibliography=== *Heiner Wittmann, Albert Camus. ''Kunst und Moral. Dialoghi/Dialogues. Literatur und Kultur Italiens und Frankreichs.'' Hrsg. Dirk Hoeges, Peter Lang, Frankfurt/M u.a. 2002 {{start box}} {{succession box | before = [[Halldor Laxness]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1957 | after = [[Boris Pasternak]] }} {{end box}} ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * [http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1957/ Nobel Prize in Literature (1957) Link] * [http://www.tameri.com/csw/exist/camus.shtml Existentialism and Albert Camus] * [http://archive.salon.com/books/feature/2004/11/01/camus/print.html "The Rebel" at Salon.com] * [http://www.che-lives.com/home/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=125 The Absurd Hero & The Ruthless Critic] * [http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20040405&s=jacoby&c=1 "Accidental Friends" the story of the Camus-Sartre friendship and very public breakup] * http://www.romanistik.info/camus.html (in German) * [http://ceh.kitoba.com/hook/camus.html Camus's Choice: An Existential (Humanist) Antiplot] * [http://www.3ammagazine.com/litarchives/2003/jan/interview_catherine_camus.html Interview with daughter Catherine - 3AM] * [http://www.spikemagazine.com/0397camu.php Another interview with daughter Catherine - Spike] * [http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/dbanach/sisyphus.htm The Myth of Sysiphus] * [http://atheisme.free.fr/Biographies/Camus_e.htm Biography and quotes of Albert Camus] * [http://www.camus-society.com Albert Camus Society UK] <!-- interwiki --> [[Category:1913 births|Camus, Albert]] [[Category:1960 deaths|Camus, Albert]] [[Category:20th century philosophers|Camus, Albert]] [[Category:Algerian writers|Camus, Albert]] [[Category:Atheist philosophers|Camus, Albert]] [[Category:Existentialists|Camus, Albert]] [[Category:French dramatists and playwrights|Camus, Albert]] [[Category:French journalists|Camus, Albert]] [[Category:French novelists|Camus, Albert]] [[Category:French Resistance members|Camus, Albert]] [[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Camus, Albert]] [[Category:Pied-noirs|Camus, Albert]] [[Category:Polymaths|Camus, Albert]] [[Category:Road accident victims|Camus, Albert]] [[af:Albert Camus]] [[ast:Albert Camus]] [[ca:Albert Camus]] [[cs:Albert Camus]] [[da:Albert Camus]] [[de:Albert Camus]] [[et:Albert Camus]] [[es:Albert Camus]] [[eo:Albert CAMUS]] [[fa:آلبر کامو]] [[fr:Albert Camus]] [[gd:Albert Camus]] [[gl:Albert Camus]] [[ko:알베르 카뮈]] [[hr:Albert Camus]] [[ilo:Albert Camus]] [[id:Albert Camus]] [[is:Albert Camus]] [[it:Albert Camus]] [[he:אלבר קאמי]] [[la:Albertus Camus]] [[lv:Albērs Kamī]] [[lt:Alberas Kamiu]] [[hu:Albert Camus]] [[nl:Albert Camus]] [[ja:アルベール・カミュ]] [[no:Albert Camus]] [[pl:Albert Camus]] [[pt:Albert Camus]] [[ro:Albert Camus]] [[ru:Камю, Альбер]] [[sh:Alber Kami]] [[sk:Albert Camus]] [[sr:Албер Ками]] [[fi:Albert Camus]] [[sv:Albert Camus]] [[vi:Albert Camus]] [[tr:Albert Camus]] [[uk:Камю Альбер]] [[zh:阿尔贝·加缪]] 984 41969359 2006-03-02T23:17:59Z 72.141.37.206 /* Biography */ [[Image:Agatha christie.png|right|thumb|180px|Agatha Christie]] '''Agatha Mary Clarissa Christie''', [[Order of the British Empire|DBE]] ([[September 15]], [[1890]] &ndash; [[January 12]], [[1976]]), was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[crime fiction]] writer. She also wrote romances under the name '''Mary Westmacott'''. Agatha Christie is the world's best-known mystery writer and, apart from [[William Shakespeare]], is the all-time best-selling author of any genre. Her books have sold over two billion copies in the [[English language]] and another billion in over 45 foreign languages (as of 2003). As an example of her broad appeal, she is the all-time best-selling author in France, with over 40 million copies sold in [[French language|French]] (as of 2003) versus 22 million for [[Émile Zola]], the nearest contender. She is famously known as the 'Queen of Crime' and is, arguably, the most important and innovative writer in the development of the English mystery novel. Her [[Play|stage play]] ''[[The Mousetrap]]'' holds the record for the longest run ever in London, opening at the Ambassadors Theatre on [[November 25]], [[1952]], and as of 2006 is still running after more than 20,000 performances. Christie published over eighty novels and stageplays, mainly [[Whodunit|whodunnit]]s and [[locked room mystery|locked room mysteries]], many of these featuring one of her main series characters, [[Hercule Poirot]] or [[Miss Marple]]. Although she delighted in twisting the established [[detective fiction]] form - one of her early books, ''[[The Murder of Roger Ackroyd]]'', is renowned for its surprise denouement - she was scrupulous in "playing fair" with the reader by making sure information for solving the [[puzzle]] was given. Most of her books and [[short story|short stories]] have been filmed, some many times over (''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]'', ''[[Death on the Nile]]'', ''[[4.50 From Paddington|4.50 from Paddington]]''). The [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] has produced television and radio versions of most of the Poirot and Marple stories. A later series of Poirot dramatizations starring [[David Suchet]] was made by [[Granada Television]]. In 2004, the Japanese broadcasting company [[NHK|Nippon Housou Kyoukai]] turned Poirot and Marple into animated characters in the [[anime]] series ''[[Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple]]'', introducing Mabel West (daughter of Miss Marple's mystery-writer nephew Raymond West, a [[canon (fiction)|canon]]ical Christie character) and her duck Oliver as new characters. ==Biography== [[Image:Agatha Christie plaque, Torre Abbey.jpg|thumb|A plaque from the Agatha Christie Mile at [[Torre Abbey]] in [[Torquay]].]] Christened '''Agatha May Clarissa Miller''', in [[Torquay]], [[Devon]], [[England]], she was the daughter of a [[United States]]-born father and a British mother. (However, she never held U.S. citizenship.) Christie's first marriage, an unhappy one, was in 1914 to Colonel Archibald Christie, an aviator in the [[Royal Flying Corps]]. The couple had one daughter, [[Rosalind Hicks]], and divorced in 1928. During [[World War I]] she worked at a hospital and then a pharmacy, a job that also influenced her work: many of the murders in her books are carried out with [[poison]]. In December 1926 she disappeared for eleven days, causing quite a storm in the press. Her car was found abandoned in a chalk pit. She was eventually found staying at a hotel in [[Harrogate]], where she claimed to have suffered [[amnesia]] due to a [[nervous breakdown]] following the death of her mother and her husband's confessed infidelity. Opinions are still divided as to whether this was a [[publicity stunt]] or not. A 1979 film, ''[[Agatha (film)|Agatha]]'', starring [[Vanessa Redgrave]] as Christie, recounted a fictionalised version of the disappearance. In 1930, Christie married (despite her divorce) a Roman Catholic, Sir [[Max Mallowan]], a British [[Archaeology|archaeologist]] 14 years her junior, and her travels with him contributed background to several of her novels set in the [[Middle East]]. Other novels (such as [[And Then There Were None]]) were set in and around [[Torquay]], [[Devon]], where she was born. In 1971 she was granted the title of [[Order of the British Empire|Dame Commander of the British Empire]]. Agatha Christie died on [[January 12]], [[1976]], at age 85 from natural causes, at [[Winterbrook House]], [[Cholsey]] near [[Wallingford]], [[Oxfordshire]]. She is buried at St. Mary's Churchyard in Cholsey, Oxon. Christie's only child, [[Rosalind Hicks]], died on [[October 28]], [[2004]], also aged 85, from natural causes. Christie's grandson, Matthew Prichard, now owns the royalties to his grandmother's works. {{spoiler}} Two of her novels were written at the height of her career but held back until after her death: they were the last cases of Poirot and Miss Marple. In the final Poirot novel ''[[Curtain (novel)|Curtain]]'', Christie killed her creation and explained in her diary that she had always found him insufferable. She had a great fondness for Miss Marple, who was based largely on Christie's own grandmother, so she allowed Miss Marple to solve one more mystery in ''[[Sleeping Murder]]'' and return to the solitude of her village. However, since ''Sleeping Murder'' had been written quite a while previously, at least one character (Colonel Arthur Bantry, husband of Jane Marple's friend, Dolly) who had been declared deceased in earlier-released mysteries reappeared alive and well. ==Works== * 1920 ''[[The Mysterious Affair at Styles]]'' (her first book, which introduced [[Hercule Poirot]], [[Chief Inspector Japp]] and [[Arthur Hastings|Captain Hastings]]) * 1922 ''[[The Secret Adversary]]'' (introduced [[Tommy and Tuppence]]) * 1923 ''[[Murder on the Links]]'' * 1924 ''[[The Man in the Brown Suit]]'' * 1924 ''[[Poirot Investigates]]'' (eleven short stories) * 1925 ''[[The Secret of Chimneys]]'' * 1926 ''[[The Murder of Roger Ackroyd]]'' * 1927 ''[[The Big Four (novel)|The Big Four]]'' * [[1928 in literature|1928]] ''[[The Mystery of the Blue Train]]'' ISBN 0425130266 * 1929 ''[[Partners in Crime (novel)|Partners in Crime]]'' (fifteen short stories) * 1929 ''[[The Seven Dials Mystery]]'' * 1930 ''[[The Murder at the Vicarage]]'' (introduced [[Miss Marple|Jane Marple]]) * 1930 ''[[The Mysterious Mr. Quin]]'' (introduced Mr. Harley Quin, short stories) * 1931 ''[[The Sittaford Mystery]]'' * 1932 ''[[Peril at End House]]'' * 1933 ''[[The Hound of Death]]'' (twelve short mysteries) * 1933 ''[[Lord Edgware Dies]]'' (also known as ''Thirteen at Dinner'') * 1933 ''[[The Thirteen Problems]]'' (Thirteen short mysteries, featuring Miss Marple) * [[1934 in literature|1934]] ''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]'' ISBN 0425200450 * 1934 ''[[Parker Pyne Investigates]]'' (twelve short mysteries) (introduced [[Parker Pyne]] and [[Ariadne Oliver]]) * 1934 ''[[The Listerdale mystery]]'' (twelve short mysteries) * 1935 ''[[Three Act Tragedy]]'' (also known as ''Murder in Three Acts'') * 1935 ''[[Why Didn't They Ask Evans?]]'' (also known as ''The Boomerang Clue'') * 1935 ''[[Death in the Clouds]]'' (also known as ''Death in the Air'') * 1936 ''[[The A.B.C. Murders]]'' (also known as ''The Alphabet Murders'') * 1936 ''[[Murder in Mesopotamia]]'' * 1936 ''[[Cards on the Table]]'' * 1937 ''[[Death on the Nile]]'' * 1937 ''[[Dumb Witness]]'' (also known as ''Poirot Loses a Client'') * 1937 ''[[Murder in the Mews]]'' (Four short stories, featuring Hercule Poirot) * 1938 ''[[Appointment with Death]]'' * [[1939 in literature|1939]] ''[[And Then There Were None]]'' (first published as ''Ten Little Niggers'', also known as ''Ten Little Indians'') ISBN 0312979479 * [[1939 in literature|1939]] ''[[Murder is Easy]]'' (also known as ''Easy to Kill'') * [[1939 in literature|1939]] ''[[Hercule Poirot's Christmas]]'' ISBN 0425177416 * [[1939 in literature|1939]] ''[[The Regatta Mystery|Regatta Mystery and Other Stories]]'' (Nine short stories) * 1940 ''[[Sad Cypress]]'' * 1941 ''[[Evil Under the Sun]]'' * 1941 ''[[N or M?]]'' * 1941 ''[[One, Two, Buckle My Shoe]]'' (also known as ''An Overdose of Death'') * 1942 ''[[The Body in the Library]]'' * 1942 ''[[Five Little Pigs]]'' (also known as ''Murder in Retrospect'') * 1942 ''[[The Moving Finger]]'' * 1944 ''[[Towards Zero]]'' * 1944 ''[[Sparkling Cyanide]]'' (also known as ''Remembered Death'') * 1945 ''[[Death Comes as the End]]'' * 1946 ''[[The Hollow]]'' (also known as ''Murder After Hours'') * 1947 ''[[The Labours of Hercules]]'' (twelve short mysteries featuring Hercule Poirot) * 1948 ''[[Taken at the Flood]]'' (also known as ''There is a Tide'') * 1948 ''[[Witness for the Prosecution and Other Stories]]'' * 1949 ''[[Crooked House]]'' * 1950 ''[[A Murder is Announced]]'' * 1950 ''[[Three Blind Mice and Other Stories]]'' * 1951 ''[[They Came to Baghdad]]'' * 1951 ''[[The Under Dog and Other Stories]]'' (Nine short stories) * 1952 ''[[Mrs McGinty's Dead]]'' (also known as ''Blood Will Tell'') * 1952 ''[[They Do It with Mirrors]]'' * 1953 ''[[A Pocket Full of Rye]]'' * 1953 ''[[After the Funeral]]'' (also known as ''Funerals are Fatal'') * 1955 ''[[Hickory Dickory Dock (novel)|Hickory Dickory Dock]]'' (also known as ''Hickory Dickory Death'') * 1955 ''[[Destination Unknown (novel)|Destination Unknown]]'' (also known as ''So Many Steps to Death'') * 1956 ''[[Dead Man's Folly]]'' * 1957 ''[[4.50 From Paddington|4.50 from Paddington]]'' (also known as ''What Mrs. McGillycuddy Saw'') * 1957 ''[[Ordeal by Innocence]]'' * 1959 ''[[Cat Among the Pigeons]]'' * 1960 ''[[The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding]]'' (Six short stories) * 1961 ''[[The Pale Horse (novel)|The Pale Horse]]'' * 1962 ''[[The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side]]'' * 1963 ''[[The Clocks (novel)|The Clocks]]'' * 1964 ''[[A Caribbean Mystery]]'' * 1965 ''[[At Bertram's Hotel]]'' * 1966 ''[[Third Girl]]'' * 1967 ''[[Endless Night]]'' * 1968 ''[[By the Pricking of My Thumbs (novel)|By the Pricking of My Thumbs]]'' * 1969 ''[[Hallowe'en Party]]'' * 1970 ''[[Passenger to Frankfurt]]'' * 1971 ''[[Nemesis (Christie)|Nemesis]]'' * 1971 ''[[The Golden Ball and Other Stories]]'' (Fifteen short stories) * 1972 ''[[Elephants Can Remember]]'' * 1973 ''[[Akhnaton (play)|Akhnaton - A play in three acts]]'' * 1973 ''[[Postern of Fate]]'' (final Tommy and Tuppence, last novel Christie wrote) * 1974 ''[[Poirot's Early Cases]]'' (eighteen short mysteries) * 1975 ''[[Curtain (novel)|Curtain]]'' (Poirot's last case, written four decades earlier) * 1976 ''[[Sleeping Murder]]'' (Miss Marple's last case, written four decades earlier) * 1979 ''[[Miss Marple's Final Cases and Two Other Stories]]'' * 1997 ''[[While the Light Lasts and Other Stories]]'' (also known as ''The Harlequin Tea Set and Other Stories'') Co-authored works: * 1931 ''[[The Floating Admiral]]'' written together with [[G. K. Chesterton]], [[Dorothy L. Sayers]] and certain other members of the [[Detection Club]]. Plays adapted into novels by Charles Osborne: * 1998 ''[[Black Coffee (book)|Black Coffee]]'' * 2001 ''[[The Unexpected Guest]]'' * 2003 ''[[The Spider's Web]]'' Works written as Mary Westmacott: * 1930 ''[[Giant's Bread]]'' * 1934 ''[[Unfinished Portrait (novel)|Unfinished Portrait]]'' * 1944 ''[[Absent in the Spring]]'' * 1948 ''[[The Rose and the Yew Tree]]'' * 1952 ''[[A Daughter's a Daughter]]'' * 1956 ''[[The Burden (novel)|The Burden]]'' Plays: * 1928 ''[[Alibi]]'' * 1930 ''[[Black Coffee (play)|Black Coffee]]'' * 1936 ''[[Love from a Stranger]]'' * [[1937 or 1939]] ''[[A Daughter's a Daughter]]'' (Never Performed) * 1940 ''[[Peril at End House]]'' * 1943 ''[[And Then There Were None|Ten Little Indians]]'' * 1945 ''[[Appointment With Death]]'' * 1946 ''[[Murder on the Nile/Hiddon Horizon]]'' * 1949 ''[[Murder at the Vicarage]]'' * 1951 ''[[The Hollow]]'' * 1952 ''[[The Mousetrap]]'' * 1953 ''[[Witness for the Prosecution]]'' * 1954 ''[[The Spider's Web]]'' * 1956 ''[[Towards Zero]]'' * 1958 ''[[Verdict]]'' * 1958 ''[[The Unexpected Guest]]'' * 1960 ''[[Go Back for Murder]]'' * 1962 ''[[Rule of Three]]'' * 1972 ''[[Fiddler's Three]]'' (Originally written as Fiddler's Five. Never Published. Final play she wrote.) * 1973 ''[[Aknaton]]'' (Written in 1937) * 1977 ''[[Murder is Announced]]'' * 1981 ''[[Cards on the Table]]'' * 1993 ''[[Murder is Easy]]'' * 2000? ''[[And Then There Were None]]'' Radio Plays: * 1937 ''[[The Yellow Iris]]'' * 1947 ''[[Three Blind Mice]]'' * 1948 ''[[Butter In a Lordly Dish]]'' * 1960 ''[[Personal Call]]'' Television Plays: * 1937 ''[[Wasp's Nest]]'' ==Movie Adaptions== Agatha Christie is no stranger to the cinema. Over the last 78 years, Poirot, Miss Marple, Tommy and Tuppence, Mr. Quin, Parker Pyne, and many others have been portrayed on numerous occasions: * 1928 ''[[Die Abenteuer G. m. b. H]]'' (The Secret Adversary) * 1928 ''[[The Passing of Mr. Quinn]]'' * 1931 ''[[Alibi]]'' * 1931 ''[[Black Coffee (film)|Black Coffee]]'' * 1934 ''[[Lord Edgware Dies]]'' * 1937 ''[[Love From A Stranger]]'' * 1945 ''[[And Then There Were None]]'' * 1947 ''[[Love From A Stranger]]'' * 1957 ''[[Witness for the Prosecution]]'' * 1960 ''[[The Spider's Web]]'' * 1962 ''[[Murder, She Said]]'' (Based on [[4.50 From Paddington]]) * 1963 ''[[Murder at the Gallop]]'' (Based on [[After The Funeral]]) * 1964 ''[[Murder Most Foul]]'' (Based on [[Mrs. McGinty's Dead]]) * 1964 ''[[Murder Ahoy!]]'' (An original Movie, not based on any of the books) * 1966 ''[[And Then There Were None|Ten Little Indians]]'' * 1966 ''[[The Alphabet Murders]]'' (Based on The ABC Murders) * 1972 ''[[Endless Night]]'' * 1974 ''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]'' * 1975 ''[[And Then There Were None|Ten Little Indians]]'' * 1978 ''[[Death on the Nile]]'' * 1980 ''[[The Mirror Crack'd]]'' * 1982 ''[[Evil Under the Sun]]'' * 1984 ''[[Ordeal by Innocence]]'' * 1988 ''[[Appointment with Death]]'' * 1989 ''[[And Then There Were None|Ten Little Indians]]'' ==Television Plays== * 1938 ''[[Love from a Stranger]]'' * 1947 ''[[Love from a Stranger]]'' * 1949 ''[[And Then There Were None|Ten Little Indians]]'' * 1959 ''[[And Then There Were None|Ten Little Indians]]'' * 1970 ''[[Murder at the Vicarage]]'' * 1980 ''[[Why Didn't They Ask Evans?]]'' * 1982 ''[[The Spider's Web]]'' * 1982 ''[[The Seven Dials Mystery]]'' * 1982 ''[[The Agatha Christie Hour]]'' * 1982 ''[[Murder is Easy]]'' * 1982 ''[[The Witness for the Prosecution]]'' * 1983 ''[[Partners in Crime]]'' * 1983 ''[[A Caribbean Mystery]]'' * 1983 ''[[Sparkling Cyanide]]'' * 1984 ''[[The Body in the Library]]'' * 1985 ''[[Murder With Mirrors]]'' * 1985 ''[[The Moving Finger]]'' * 1985 ''[[A Murder Is Announced]]'' * 1985 ''[[A Pocket Full of Rye]]'' * 1985 ''[[Thirten At Dinner]]'' * 1986 ''[[Dead Man's Folly]] * 1986 ''[[Murder in Three Acts]]'' * 1986 ''[[Murder at the Vicarage]]'' * 1987 ''[[Sleeping Murder]]'' * 1987 ''[[At Bertram's Hotel]]'' * 1987 ''[[Nemesis (Christie)|Nemesis]]'' * 1987 ''[[4.50 From Paddington]]'' * 1989 ''[[The Man In The Brown Suit]]'' * 1989 ''[[Agatha Christie's Poirot]] * 1989 ''[[A Caribbean Mystery]]'' * 1990 ''[[Peril at End House]]'' * 1990 ''[[The Mysterious Affair at Styles]]'' * 1991 ''[[They Do It With Mirrors]]'' * 1992 ''[[The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side]]'' * 1994 ''[[Hercule Poirot's Christmas]]'' * 1995 ''[[Murder on the Links]]'' * 1995 ''[[Hickory Dickory Dock]]'' * 1996 ''[[Dumb Witness]]'' * 1997 ''[[The Pale Horse]]'' * 2000 ''[[The Murder of Rodger Ackroyd]]'' * 2000 ''[[Lord Edgware Dies]]'' * 2001 ''[[Evil Under The Sun]]'' * 2001 ''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]'' * 2001 ''[[Murder in Mesopotamia]]'' * 2003 ''[[Sparkling Cyanide]]'' * 2004 ''[[Five Little Pigs]]'' * 2004 ''[[Death On The Nile]]'' * 2004 ''[[Sad Cypress]]'' * 2004 ''[[The Hollow]]'' * 2004 ''[[Marple]]'' * 2004 ''[[The Body in the Library]]'' * 2004 ''[[Murder at the Vicarage]]'' * 2004 ''[[Appointment with Death]]'' * 2005 ''[[A Murder is Announced]]'' * 2005 ''[[The Mystery of the Blue Train]]'' * 2005 ''[[Cards on the Table]]'' * 2005 ''[[Sleeping Murder]]'' * 2005 ''[[Taken at the Flood]]'' * 2006 ''[[After the Funeral]]'' * 2006 ''[[The Moving Finger]]'' * 2006 ''[[By the Pricking of my Thumbs]]'' * 2006 ''[[The Sittaford Mystery]]'' * 2007 ''[[Hercule Poirot's Christmas]]'' (A french film adaption) ==Video Games== * 2005 ''[[And Then There Were None]]'' ==Agatha Christie in fiction== Dame Agatha appears as one of the title characters, with [[Dorothy L. Sayers]], in the fictional murder mystery ''[[Dorothy and Agatha]]'' by [[Gaylord Larsen]]. ''[[The Poisoned Chocolates Case]]'' by [[Anthony Berkeley]] contains characters based on Christie, Sayers, [[John Dickson Carr|Carr]], and [[Chesterton]]. The movie [[Agatha]]; which was released in 1979, was about a fictional solution to the real mystery of Agatha Christie's disappearance in 1926. Her chracter was played by [[Vanessa Redgrave]]. Other cast members included [[Dustin Hoffman]] and [[Timothy Dalton]]. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.agathachristie.com/ Official Agatha Christie site] * [http://www.classiccrimefiction.com/christiebib.htm Agatha Christie Bibliography ] first editions - illustrated *[http://librivox.org/the-mysterious-affair-at-styles-by-agatha-christie/ Free Audiobook] of '' The Mysterious Affair at Styles'' at [http://librivox.org/ LibriVox] * {{gutenberg author| id=Agatha+Christie | name=Agatha Christie}} * [http://samvak.tripod.com/christie.html Historical and cultural background to Christie's mystery novels] [[Category:1890 births|Christie, Agatha]] [[Category:1976 deaths|Christie, Agatha]] [[Category:Natives of Devon|Christie, Agatha]] [[Category:Autodidacts|Christie, Agatha]] [[Category:British crime writers|Christie, Agatha]] [[Category:English mystery writers|Christie, Agatha]] [[Category:English dramatists and playwrights|Christie, Agatha]] [[Category:English short story writers|Christie, Agatha]] [[Category:Dames Commander of the British Empire|Christie, Agatha]] [[Category:Agatha Christie|*]] [[ar:أجاثا كريستي]] [[bg:Агата Кристи]] [[cs:Agatha Christie]] [[cy:Agatha Christie]] [[da:Agatha Christie]] [[de:Agatha Christie]] [[es:Agatha Christie]] [[eo:Agatha CHRISTIE]] [[fr:Agatha Christie]] [[fy:Agatha Christie]] [[hr:Agatha Christie]] [[id:Agatha Christie]] [[it:Agatha Christie]] [[la:Agatha Christie]] [[he:אגאתה כריסטי]] [[hu:Agatha Christie]] [[nl:Agatha Christie]] [[ja:アガサ・クリスティ]] [[no:Agatha Christie]] [[pl:Agatha Christie]] [[pt:Agatha Christie]] [[ru:Кристи, Агата]] [[sq:Agatha Christie]] [[sk:Agatha Christie]] [[sr:Агата Кристи]] [[fi:Agatha Christie]] [[sv:Agatha Christie]] [[zh:阿加莎·克里斯蒂]] 985 15899495 2004-04-15T23:31:30Z LarryGilbert 47080 #REDIRECT [[The Stranger (novel)]] 986 41590765 2006-02-28T09:53:28Z That Guy, From That Show! 419920 Reverted edits by [[User:195.188.51.100|195.188.51.100]] ([[User talk:195.188.51.100|t]]) ([[Special:Contributions/195.188.51.100|c]]) to last version by That Guy, From That Show! :''For other uses, see [[Plague|Plague (disambiguation)]].'' '''''The Plague''''' (''[[French language|fr]].'' '''''La Peste''''') is a [[novel]] by [[Albert Camus]], published in [[1947]], that tells the story of medical workers finding solidarity in their labor as the [[Algeria|Algerian]] city of [[Oran]] is swept by a [[pandemic|plague]]. It asks a number of questions relating to the nature of destiny and the human condition. The characters in the book, ranging from doctors to vacationers to fugitives, all help to show the effects the plague has on a populace. {{spoiler}} Generally taken as a metaphoric treatment of the [[French resistance]] to [[Nazi]] occupation during [[World War II]], ''The Plague'' is interpreted to mean much more. Camus uses extreme hardships (e.g., pain, suffering, and death) to represent our human world. The story is told through the narrative of the main character, Dr. Rieux, whose decidedly existential account of events in the story is not only helpful in exploring the philosophy of existentialism, but also in making this a metaphor of the nature of life and suffering. Although his approach in the book is severe, he emphasizes the ideas that we ultimately have no control, irrationality of life is inevitable, and he further illustrates the human reaction towards the ‘absurd’. ''The Plague'' represents how the world deals with the philosophical notion of the [[Absurdism|Absurd]], a theory which Camus himself helped to define. ==Main Characters== *Dr. Bernard Rieux *Jean Tarrou -- a man vacationing in Oran *Raymond Rambert -- visiting journalist *Cottard -- a fugitive *Joseph Grand -- municipal worker who desires to be an author *Father Paneloux -- a priest ==Minor Characters== *Brakeley *Castel *Mme. Rieux *M. Othon and his family *The old man (Cat-spitting guy) *Asthma patient *Gonzalas *Richard *Prefect *Marcel and Louis [[Category:Existentialism|Plague, The]] [[Category:French novels|Plague, The]] [[Category:1947 books|Plague, The]] {{philos-novel-stub}} [[de:Die Pest]] [[es:La peste (novela)]] [[fr:La Peste]] [[he:הדבר]] [[pl:Dżuma (powieść)]] [[fi:Rutto (romaani)]] [[vi:Dịch hạch (truyện)]] [[uk:Чума (роман)]] [[zh:鼠疫 (小说)]] 988 40026706 2006-02-17T16:22:30Z Phil Boswell 24373 [[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}} '''Applied ethics''' takes a theory of [[ethics]], such as [[utilitarianism]], [[social contract theory]], or [[deontology]], and applies its major principles to a particular set of circumstances and practices. Typical examples include applied fields such as [[medical ethics]], [[legal ethics]], [[environmental ethics]], [[computer ethics]], [[corporate social responsibility]], or [[business ethics]]. Many considerations of applied ethics also come into play in [[human rights]] discussions. The chief difficulty with formal, applied ethics is the potential for disagreement over what constitutes the proper theory or principles to apply, which is bound to result in solutions to specific problems that are not universally acceptable to all participants. For example, a strict deontological approach would never permit us to deceive a patient about his condition, whereas a utilitarian approach would have us consider the consequences of doing so. A deontologist will often come up with a very different solution than would a utilitarian, given the same facts. One modern approach attempting to address this is [[casuistry]]. Casuistry attempts to establish a plan of action to respond to particular facts - a form of [[case-based reasoning]]. By doing so in advance of actual investigation of the facts, it can reduce influence of interest groups. By focusing on action and not the rationale, it increases the possibility of agreement between prior bodies of precedent and explicit moral codes. ==List of subfields of applied ethics== * [[Medical ethics]] / [[bioethics]] * [[Business ethics]] * [[Environmental ethics]] (e.g. [[global warming]]) * [[Human rights]] issues (e.g. [[gender ethics]] / [[sexism]], [[racism]], [[death penalty]]) * [[Animal rights]] issues * [[Legal ethics]] * [[Computer ethics]] * [[Media ethics]] / [[journalism ethics]] * [[Research ethics]] * Education ethics * Sports ethics * Military ethics * International ethics (e.g. [[world hunger]]) ==See also== *[[Ethics]] *[[Ethical code]]s *[[List of ethics topics]] ==Bibliography== <!-- Useful templates {{cite book | first= | last= | year= | title= | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher= | id= | url= | authorlink= }} {{Journal reference | Author= | Title= (required) | Journal= | Year= | Volume= | Issue= | Pages= &ndash; | URL= }} {{News reference |firstname= |lastname= |pages= |title= |date= |org= |url= }} --> * {{cite book | first=R.F. | last=Chadwick | year=1997 | title=Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=London: Academic Press | id=ISBN 0122270657 | url= | authorlink= }} * {{cite book | first=Peter | last=Singer | year=1993 | title=[[Practical Ethics]] | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Cambridge University Press| id=ISBN 052143971X | url= | authorlink= }} (monograph) ===Anthologies=== * {{cite book | first=Peter | last=Singer | year=1986 | title=Applied Ethics | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Oxford University Press| id=ISBN 0198750676 | url= | authorlink= }} * {{cite book | first=R.G. | last=Frey | year=2004 | title=A Companion to Applied Ethics | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Blackwell | id=ISBN 1405133457 | url= | authorlink= }} ===Journals=== * [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/ET/home.html Ethics] (since 1890) * [http://www.kluweronline.com/issn/1382-4554/contents The Journal of Ethics] * [http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=0264-3758 Journal of Applied Philosophy] * [http://www.pdcnet.org/ijap.html International Journal of Applied Philosophy] * [http://www.aspcp.org/ijpp/html/contents.html International Journal of Philosophical Practice] ==External links== * [http://www.scu.edu/ethics Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University] * [http://www.ethics.ubc.ca W. Maurice Young Centre for Applied Ethics at the University of British Columbia] * [http://www.indiana.edu/~appe Association for Practical and Professional Ethics at the University of Indiana] [[Category:Ethics]] [[de:Praktische Ethik]] [[fr:Éthique appliquée]] [[sv:Tillämpad etik]] 989 41893618 2006-03-02T12:32:45Z 129.187.244.28 /* Early life */ [[Image:OldEichmann.jpg|225px|thumb|Adolf Eichmann, Germany 1940 Photo from [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] Photo Archives.]] '''Adolf Otto Eichmann''' ([[March 19]], [[1906]] &ndash; [[June 1]], [[1962]]), born '''Karl Adolf Eichmann''', was a high-ranking official in [[Nazi Germany]] and served as an ''[[Obersturmbannführer]]'' in the [[Schutzstaffel|S.S.]] He was largely responsible for the logistics of the extermination of millions of people during [[the Holocaust]], in particular [[Jew]]s, which was called the "[[final solution]]" (''Endlösung''). He organized the identification and transportation of people to the various [[concentration camp]]s. Therefore, he is often referred to as the 'Chief Executioner' of the [[Third Reich]]. ==Early life== Born in [[Solingen]], [[Germany]], Adolf Eichmann was the son of a moderately successful businessman and industrialist. In 1914, his family moved to [[Linz]], [[Austria]], and during the [[World War I|First World War]], Eichmann's father served in the [[Austro-Hungarian Army]]. At the war's conclusion, Eichmann's father returned to the family business in Linz. In 1920, Eichmann's family moved to Germany. ==Pre-Nazi years== [[Image:YoungEichmann.jpg|left|thumb|125px|Adolf Eichmann in 1932]] When Eichmann came of age in 1925, he returned to Austria to study mechanical engineering. Being a poor student, however, he soon dropped out of college. Eichmann then tried to follow in his father's footsteps in business, working as a travelling salesman which brought him back to Germany in 1930. Eichmann's first contact with the [[Nazi Party]] was when he joined the [[Wandervogel]] movement, which has been described as "a peasant Aryan brotherhood based on Anti-Semitic ideals". There is evidence, however, that some of the ''Wandervogel'' groups had Jewish members, and anti-Semitism may have existed in only some parts of the movement. In 1932, Eichmann returned again to Austria and formally joined the Austrian Nazi Party at the age of twenty-six. ==Nazi Party and the SS== [[Image:SSEichmann.jpg|thumb|125px|SS-[[Scharführer]] Adolf Eichmann in 1933]] On the advice of old family friend [[Ernst Kaltenbrunner]], Eichmann joined the Austrian branch of the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]], enlisting on [[April 1]] [[1932]], as an ''SS-[[Anwärter]]''. He was accepted as a full SS member that November, appointed an ''SS-[[Mann (military rank)|Mann]]'', and assigned the SS number 45326. For the next year, Eichmann was a member of the part time [[Allgemeine-SS]] and served in a mustering formation operating from Salzburg. In 1933 when the Nazis came to power in Germany, Eichmann returned to that country and submitted an application to join the full time SS. This was accepted, and in November of 1933, Eichmann was promoted to ''[[Scharführer]]'' and assigned to the administrative staff of the [[Dachau concentration camp]]. By 1934, Eichmann had chosen to make the SS a career and requested transfer into the ''[[Sicherheitspolizei]]'' (Security Police) which had, by that time, become a very powerful and feared organization. Eichmann's transfer was granted in November of 1934, as he was promoted to the rank of ''[[Oberscharführer]]'' and assigned to the headquarters of the [[Sicherheitsdienst]] (SD) in Berlin. Eichmann became a model administrator in the SD and quickly became noticed by his superiors. He was promoted to ''[[Hauptscharführer]]'' in 1935 and, in 1937, commissioned as an ''SS-[[Untersturmführer]]''. In 1937 Eichmann was sent to [[British mandate of Palestine|Palestine]] with his superior [[Herbert Hagen]] to assess the possibilities of massive Jewish emigration from Germany to Palestine. They landed in [[Haifa]] but could only obtain a transit visa so they went on to [[Cairo]]. In Cairo they met [[Feival Polkes]], an agent of the [[Haganah]], who discussed with them the plans of the Zionists and tried to enlist their assistance in facilitating Jewish emigration from Europe. According to an answer Eichmann gave at his trial, he had also planned to meet Arab leaders in Palestine; this never happened because entry to Palestine was refused by the British authorities. Afterwards Eichmann and Hagen wrote a report recommending against large-scale emigration to Palestine for economic reasons and because it contradicted the German policy of preventing the establishment of a Jewish state there. This episode is sometimes seen as an important step towards the Nazi abandonment of emigration as the preferred "solution to the Jewish problem". In 1938, Eichmann was assigned to Austria to help organize SS Security Forces in Vienna after the [[Anschluss]] of Austria into Germany. Through this effort, Eichmann was promoted to ''SS-[[Obersturmführer]]'', and by the end of 1938, Adolf Eichmann had been selected by the SS leadership to form the [[Central Office for Jewish Emigration]], which was in charge of forcibly deporting and expelling Jews from Austria. Through this work, Eichmann became a student of Judaism, finding the religion fascinating while also developing deep [[Anti-Semitic]] values and a hatred of the Jewish faith. ==World War II== [[Image:Eichmann1942.jpg|right|thumb|145px|Adolf Eichmann in 1942]] At the start of the [[World War II|Second World War]], Eichmann had been promoted to ''SS-[[Hauptsturmführer]]'' and had made a name for himself with his Office for Jewish Emigration. Through this work Eichmann made several contacts in the [[Zionist]] movement which he worked with to speed up Jewish Emigration from the Reich. Eichmann returned to Berlin in 1939 after the formation of the Reich Central Security Office ([[RSHA]]). In December 1939, he was assigned to head ''RSHA Referat IV D4'', the RSHA department that dealt with Jewish affairs and evacuation. In August 1940, he released his ''[[Madagascar Plan|Reichssicherheitshauptamt: Madagaskar Projekt]]'' (Reich Central Security Office: Madagascar Project), a plan for forced Jewish deportation that never materialized. He was promoted to the rank of ''SS-[[Sturmbannführer]]'' in late [[1940]], and less than a year later to ''[[Obersturmbannführer]]''. In 1942, [[Reinhard Heydrich]] invited Eichmann to attend the [[Wannsee Conference]] where Germany's anti-Jewish measures were set down into an official policy of [[genocide]]. To this "Final Solution of the Jewish Question" Eichmann was tasked as "Transportation Administrator", which put him in charge of all the trains which would carry Jews to the Death Camps in [[Poland]]. For the next two years, Eichmann performed his duties with incredible zeal, often bragging that he had personally sent over five million Jews to their deaths by way of his trains. Eichmann's work had been noticed, and in [[1944]], he was sent to [[Hungary]] after Germany had occupied that country in fear of a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] invasion. Eichmann at once went to work deporting Jews and was able to send four hundred thousand Hungarians to their deaths in the Nazi gas chambers. By [[1945]], Eichmann's world was collapsing, as Reich Leader [[Heinrich Himmler]] had ordered that Jewish extermination be halted and evidence of the Final Solution be destroyed. Eichmann blatantly turned against Himmler and continued his work in Hungary against official orders. Eichmann was also working to avoid being called up in the last ditch German military effort, since a year before he had been commissioned as a Reserve ''Untersturmführer'' in the [[Waffen-SS]] and was now being ordered to active combat duty. Eichmann fled Hungary in 1945 as the Russians invaded, and he returned to Austria where he met up with his old friend [[Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]. Kaltenbrunner, however, refused to associate with Eichmann since Eichmann's duties as an extermination administrator had left him a marked man by the Allies. ==Post World War II== At the end of World War II, Eichmann was captured by the US Army, who did not know that this man who presented himself as "Otto Eckmann" was in fact a much bigger fish. Early in 1946, he escaped from US custody and hid in various parts of Germany for a few years. In 1948 he obtained a landing permit for [[Argentina]], but did not seek to use it immediately. At the beginning of 1950, Eichmann went to [[Italy]], where he posed as a refugee named Ricardo Klement. With the help of a Franciscan monk who had connections with archbishop [[Alois Hudal]], Eichmann obtained an [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] humanitarian passport and an [[Argentina|Argentinian]] visa. He arrived by ship in Argentina on [[July 14]], [[1950]]. For the next ten years, he worked in several odd jobs in the [[Buenos Aires]] area (from factory foreman, to junior water engineer and professional rabbit farmer). Eichmann also brought his family to Argentina. Argentina at the time was a haven for many Nazis. ==Capture== [[Image:Adold Eichmann.jpg|thumb|125px|left|Adolf Eichmann during his 1961 trial in Jerusalem.]] Throughout the 1950s many Jews and other victims of the Holocaust dedicated themselves to finding Eichmann and other Nazi [[war crimes|war criminals]]. Among them was [[Nazi hunter]] [[Simon Wiesenthal]]. In 1954, Wiesenthal's suspicions that Eichmann was in Argentina were sparked upon receiving a postcard from an associate who had moved to [[Buenos Aires]]. "I saw that dirty pig Eichmann," the letter read in part, "He lives near Buenos Aires and works for a water company". With this (and other) information collected by Wiesenthal, the [[Israel]]is had solid leads regarding Eichmann's whereabouts. [[Isser Harel]], the then-head of [[Mossad]] (Israeli intelligence agency), later claimed in an unpublished manuscript that Wiesenthal "'had no role whatsoever' in Eichmann's apprehension but in fact had endangered the entire Eichmann operation and aborted the planned capture of Auschwitz doctor [[Josef Mengele]]." (Schachter, Jonathan "Isser Harel Takes On Nazi-Hunter. Wiesenthal 'Had No Role' In Eichmann Kidnapping." The Jerusalem Post [[7 May]] [[1991]]) Also instrumental in exposing Eichmann's identity was [[Lothar Hermann]], a worker of Jewish descent who fled to Argentina from Germany following his incarceration in the [[Dachau concentration camp]], where Eichmann had served as an administrator. By the 1950s, Hermann had settled into life in Buenos Aires with his family; daughter Sylvia became acquainted with the Eichmann family and romantically involved with Klaus, the oldest Eichmann son. Due to Klaus's boastful remarks about his father's life as a Nazi and direct responsibility for the [[Holocaust]], Hermann knew he had struck gold in 1957 after reading a newspaper report about German war criminals - of which Eichmann was one. Soon after, he sent Sylvia to the Eichmanns' home on a fact-finding mission. She was met at the door by Eichmann himself, and after unsuccessfully asking for Klaus, she inquired as to whether she was speaking to his father. Eichmann confirmed this fact. Excited, Hermann soon began a correspondence with [[Fritz Bauer]], chief [[prosecutor]] for the [[West Germany|West German]] state of [[Hesse]], and provided details about Eichmann's person and life. Bauer knew that Germany, served by former employees of the Nazi regime, would do little to serve justice to Eichmann. He contacted Israeli officials, who worked closely with Hermann over the next several years to learn about Eichmann and to formulate a plan to capture him. In 1960, the [[Mossad]] discovered that Eichmann was in [[Argentina]] and began an effort to locate his exact whereabouts when, through relentless surveillance, it was confirmed that Ricardo Klement was, in fact, Adolf Eichmann. The Israeli government then approved an operation to capture Eichmann and bring him to [[Jerusalem]] for trial as a war criminal. He was captured by a team of Mossad agents on [[May 11]], [[1960]], as part of a [[covert operation]]. He was flown aboard an [[El Al]] airliner from Argentina to [[Israel]] on [[May 21]], [[1960]]. For some time the Israeli government denied involvement in Eichmann's capture, claiming that he had been taken by Jewish volunteers. Eventually, however, the pretense was dropped, and then prime minister [[David Ben Gurion]] announced Eichmann's capture to the [[Knesset]] (Israel's national legislature) on [[May 23]] [[1960]], receiving a standing ovation in return. [[Isser Harel]], head of the Mossad at the time of the operation, wrote a book about Eichmann's capture entitled ''The House on Garibaldi Street''; some years later a member of the capture team, [[Peter Malkin]], authored ''Eichmann in my Hands'', a book that contains fascinating insights into Eichmann's character and motivations, but whose veracity has been attacked. ==Trial== [[Image:Eichmann_trial_1961_in_glass_box.jpg|right|thumb|Eichmann and a bulletproof glass booth during the open trial.]] Eichmann's trial in front of an Israeli court in [[Jerusalem]] started on [[April 11]], [[1961]]. He was indicted on 15 criminal charges, including charges of [[crimes against humanity]], crimes against the Jewish people and membership of an outlawed organization. As in Israeli criminal procedure, his trial was presided over by three judges. [[Gideon Hausner]], the Israeli attorney general, personally acted as chief prosecutor. The trial caused huge international controversy as well as an international sensation. The Israeli government allowed news programs all over the world to broadcast the trial live with few restrictions. [[Television]] viewers saw a nondescript man sitting in a [[bulletproof glass]] booth while witnesses, including many [[the Holocaust|Holocaust]] survivors, testified against him and his role in transporting victims to the extermination camps. During the whole trial, Eichmann insisted that he was only "following orders" - the same defense used by the Nazi war criminals during the 1945-1946 [[Nuremberg Trials]]. He explicitly declared that he had abdicated his [[consciousness]] in order to follow the ''[[Führerprinzip]]''. This defense in turn promoted the [[Milgram experiment]]. After 14 weeks of testimony with more than 1,500 documents, 100 prosecution witnesses (90 of whom were Nazi concentration camp survivors) and dozens of defense depositions delivered by diplomatic couriers from 16 different countries, the Eichmann trial ended on [[August 14]], [[1961]] where the judges were then left to deliberate. On [[December 11]] the three judges announced their verdict where Eichmann was convicted on all counts. He was then sentenced to death on [[December 15]], [[1961]]. Eichmann appealed the verdict, mostly relying on legal arguments about Israel's jurisdiction and the legality of the laws under which he was charged. He also claimed that he was protected by the principle of "Acts of State" and repeated his "superior orders" defence. On [[May 29]], [[1962]] Israel's Supreme Court, sitting as a Court of Criminal Appeal, rejected the appeal and upheld the District Court's judgment on all counts. On [[May 31]], Israeli president [[Itzhak Ben-Zvi]] turned down Eichmann's petition for mercy. Eichmann was [[hanging|hanged]] a few minutes after midnight on [[ June 1]], [[1962]], at [[Ramla]] prison, officially the only civil [[execution (legal)|execution]] ever carried out in [[Israel]]. Eichmann allegedly refused a last meal, preferring instead a bottle of [[Carmel]], a dry red Israeli wine of which he consumed about half of the bottle. He also refused to don the traditional black hood for his execution. His last words were, reportedly, "Long live Germany. Long live Austria. Long live Argentina. These are the countries with which I have been most closely associated and I shall not forget them. I had to obey the rules of war and my flag. I am ready."{{fact}} His body was cremated and ashes scattered at sea the very next morning, so that no nation would serve as Adolf Eichmann's final resting place. ==Eichmann analysis== In the 40 years since Eichmann's death, historians have speculated on certain facts regarding his life. The most important question is how responsible Eichmann was for the implementation of [[the Holocaust]]. Most agree that Eichmann knew exactly what he was doing; however, some "Eichmann Defenders" (his son included) state that he was unfairly judged and that he was only doing his duty as a German soldier. A third - and highly controversial - analysis came from political theorist [[Hannah Arendt]], a Jew who fled Germany before Hitler's rise, and who reported on Eichmann's trial for ''[[The New Yorker]]'' magazine. In ''[[Eichmann in Jerusalem]]'', a book formed by this reporting, Arendt concluded that, aside from a desire for improving his career, Eichmann showed no trace of [[anti-Semitism]] or [[psychological]] damage. She called him the embodiment of the "banality of [[evil]]," as he appeared at his trial to have an ordinary and common personality, displaying neither guilt nor hatred. She suggested that this most strikingly discredits the idea that the Nazi criminals were manifestly [[psychopath]]ic and different from ordinary people. (Many concluded from this and similar observations that even the most ordinary of people can commit horrendous crimes if placed in the right situation, and given the correct incentives, but Arendt disagreed with this interpretation.) Eichmann's involvement with the SS Underground Group [[ODESSA]] is also a mystery, as there is evidence that Eichmann had contact with the group but did not actively participate in ODESSA activities. Rumours also abound as to whether or not Eichmann personally knew [[Josef Mengele]] and whether or not the two [[war crimes|war criminals]] ever worked together in South America. Mossad was convinced that Eichmann was a contact for Mengele and had planned to conduct a dual-capture operation in 1961 had Eichmann revealed Mengele's whereabouts. A footnote to Eichmann's SS career focuses on the point as to why he was never promoted to the rank of full SS-Colonel, known as ''[[Standartenführer]]''. With Eichmann's record and responsibilities, he would have been a prime candidate for advancement, yet after 1941, his SS record contains no evidence that he was ever even recommended for another promotion. Many have speculated that [[Ernst Kaltenbrunner]] may have seen Eichmann as a dangerous man, rising through the SS ranks, and had curbed his SS career to prevent Eichmann from becoming too powerful. {{multi-video start}} {{multi-video item|filename=Eichmann trial news story.ogg|title= "Guilty! Eichmann to Hang"|description= U.S. news story on the Eichmann trial, from National Archives|format=[[Theora]]}} {{multi-video end}} ==Books== * [[Hannah Arendt]], ''[[Eichmann in Jerusalem]]: A Report on the Banality of Evil'' (1963) * [[David Cesarani]], ''Eichmann: His Life and Times'' (2004) * [[Harry Mulisch]], ''Case 40/61; report on the Eichmann trial'' (1963) * Moshe Pearlman: ''The Capture of Adolf Eichmann'', 1961. (cited in Hannah Arendt: ''Eichmann in Jerusalem'', Penguin, 1994, p.235) * Pierre de Villemarest, ''Untouchable—Who protected [[Martin Bormann|Bormann]] & [[Heinrich Müller|Gestapo Müller]] after 1945...,'' Aquilion, 2005, ISBN 1904997023 (Gestapo Müller was one of the chiefs of Adolf Eichmann) ==External links== * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/wwtwo/eichmann_01.shtml BBC: ''Adolf Eichmann: The Mind of a War Criminal''] * [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/eichcap.html ''The Capture of Adolf Eichmann''] from the [[Jewish Virtual Library]] * [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB150/index.htm Declassified CIA names file on Adolf Eichmann] - Provided by the ''[[National Security Archive]]'' * [http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/people/e/eichmann-adolf/transcripts/ Eichmann trial: The complete transcripts] - Provided by the ''[[Nizkor Project]]'' <!--Interlanguage links--> [[Category:1906 births|Eichmann, Adolf]] [[Category:1962 deaths|Eichmann, Adolf]] [[Category:Natives of North Rhine-Westphalia|Eichmann, Adolf]] [[Category:War criminals|Eichmann, Adolf]] [[Category:Executed Nazi leaders|Eichmann, Adolf]] [[Category:Holocaust|Eichmann, Adolf]] [[Category:Lieutenant colonels|Eichmann, Adolf]] [[Category:SS Officers|Eichmann, Adolf]] [[Category:Nazi leaders|Eichmann, Adolf]] [[ar:أدولف أيخمان]] [[bg:Адолф Айхман]] [[da:Adolf Eichmann]] [[de:Adolf Eichmann]] [[eo:Adolf EICHMANN]] [[es:Adolf Eichmann]] [[fi:Adolf Eichmann]] [[fr:Adolf Eichmann]] [[he:אדולף אייכמן]] [[hr:Adolf Eichmann]] [[hu:Adolf Eichmann]] [[it:Adolf Eichmann]] [[ja:アドルフ・アイヒマン]] [[ka:აიხმანი, ადოლფ]] [[ko:아돌프 아이히만]] [[nl:Adolf Eichmann]] [[no:Adolf Eichmann]] [[pl:Adolf Eichmann]] [[pt:Adolf Eichmann]] [[ru:Эйхман, Адольф]] [[sk:Adolf Eichmann]] [[sr:Адолф Ајхман]] [[sv:Adolf Eichmann]] [[zh:阿道夫·艾希曼]] 991 41279961 2006-02-26T06:34:28Z Kieff 56905 /* Notes */ In [[mathematics]], the '''absolute value''' (or '''modulus'''<sup id="ref_Argand"><small>[[#endnote_Argand|1]]</small></sup>) of a [[real number]] is its numerical value without regard to its [[sign]]. So, for example, 3 is the absolute value of both 3 and &minus;3. In computers, the [[mathematical function]] used to perform this calculation is usually given the name '''abs()'''. Generalizations of the absolute value for real numbers occur in a wide variety of mathematical settings. For example an absolute value is also defined for the [[complex number]]s, the [[quaternion]]s, [[ordered ring]]s, [[Field (mathematics)|field]]s and [[vector space]]s. The absolute value is closely related to the notions of [[magnitude (mathematics)|magnitude]], [[distance]], and [[norm (mathematics)|norm]] in various mathematical and physical contexts. [[Image:Absolute value.png|frame|The graph of the absolute value function for real numbers.]] ==Real numbers== For any [[real number]] <math>a,</math> the '''absolute value''' or '''modulus''' of <math>a,</math> is denoted <sup id="ref_Wolfram"><small>[[#endnote_Wolfram|2]]</small></sup> <math>|a|,</math> and is defined as :<math>|a| := \begin{cases} a, & \mbox{if } a \ge 0 \\ -a, & \mbox{if } a < 0. \end{cases} </math> As can be seen from the above definition, the absolute value of <math>a</math> is always either [[positive number|positive]] or [[0 (number)|zero]], never [[negative and non-negative numbers|negative]]. From a geometric point of view, the absolute value of a real number is the [[distance]] along the [[real number line]] of that number from zero, and more generally the absolute value of the difference of two real numbers is the distance between them. Indeed the notion of an abstract [[distance function]] in mathematics can be seen to be a generalization of the properties of the absolute value (see [[#Distance|"Distance"]] below). The following proposition, gives an [[identity (mathematics)|identity]] which is sometimes used as an alternative (and equivalent) definition of the absolute value: '''PROPOSITION 1''': :<math>|a| = \sqrt{a^2}</math> The absolute value has the following four fundamental properties: '''PROPOSITION 2''': :{| cellpadding=10 |- |<math>|a| \ge 0 </math> |Non-negativity |- |<math>|a| = 0 \iff a = 0 </math> |Positive-definiteness |- |<math>|ab| = |a||b|\,</math> |[[Multiplicativeness]] |- |<math>|a+b| \le |a| + |b| </math> |[[Subadditivity]] |} Other important properties of the absolute value include: '''PROPOSITION 3''': :{| cellpadding=10 |- |<math>|-a| = |a|\,</math> |[[Symmetry]] |- |<math>|a - b| = 0 \iff a = b </math> |Identity of indiscernibles (equivalent to positive-definiteness) |- |<math>|a - b| \le |a - c| +|c - b| </math> |[[Triangle inequality]] (equivalent to subadditivity) |- |<math>|a/b| = |a| / |b| \mbox{ (if } b \ne 0) \,</math> |Preservation of division (equivalent to multiplicativeness) |- |<math>|a-b| \ge |a| - |b| </math> |(equivalent to subadditivity) |} Two other useful inequalities are: :<math>|a| \le b \iff -b \le a \le b </math> :<math>|a| \ge b \iff a \le -b \mbox{ or } b \le a </math> The above are often used in solving inequalities; for example: :{| |- |<math>|x-3| \le 9 </math> |<math>\iff -9 \le x-3 \le 9 </math> |- | |<math>\iff -6 \le x \le 12 </math> |} == Complex numbers == <div style="float:right; margin-left:3px; margin-right:3px" title="Graphic Representation"> [[image:complex.png]] </div> Since the [[complex number]]s are not [[ordered set|ordered]], the definition given above for the real absolute value cannot be directly generalized for a complex number. However the identity given in Proposition 1: :<math>|a| = \sqrt{a^2}</math> can be seen as motivating the following definition. For any [[complex number]] :<math>z = x + iy\,</math> the '''absolute value''' or '''modulus''' of <math>z</math> is denoted <math>|z|,</math> and is defined as :<math>|z| := \sqrt{x^2 + y^2}.</math> It follows that the absolute value of a real number ''x'' is equal to its absolute value considered as a complex number since: :<math> |x + i0| = \sqrt{x^2 + 0^2} = \sqrt{x^2} = |x|.</math> Similar to the geometric interpretation of the absolute value for real numbers, it follows from the [[Pythagorean theorem]] that the absolute value of a complex number is the distance in the [[complex plane]] of that complex number from the [[origin (mathematics)|origin]], and more generally, that the absolute value of the difference of two complex numbers is equal to the distance between those two complex numbers. The complex absolute value shares all the properties of the real absolute value given in Propositions 2 and 3 above. In addition, If :<math> z = x + \mathrm{i}y = r (\cos \phi + \mathrm{i}\sin \phi ) \,</math> and :<math>\bar{z} = x - iy</math> is the [[complex conjugate]] of <math>z</math>, then it is easily seen that :<math>|z| = r\,</math> :<math>|z|=|\bar{z}|</math> :<math>|z| = \sqrt{z\bar{z}}</math> == Absolute value functions== The real absolute value function is [[continuous function|continuous]] everywhere. It is [[derivative|differentiable]] everywhere except for ''x'' = 0. It is [[monotonic function|monotonically decreasing]] on the interval <nowiki>(-&infin;, 0]</nowiki> and [[monotonic function|monotonically increasing]] on the interval <nowiki>[0, &infin;)</nowiki>. Since a real number and its negative have the same absolute value, it is an [[even function]], and is hence not [[invertible]]. The [[complex number|complex]] absolute value function is continuous everywhere but differentiable ''nowhere'' (One way to see this is to show that it does not obey the [[Cauchy-Riemann equations]]). Both the real and complex functions are [[idempotent]]. ==Ordered rings== The definition of absolute value given for real numbers above can easily be extended to any [[ordered ring]]. That is, if <math>a</math> is an element of an ordered ring <math>R</math>, then the '''absolute value''' of <math>a</math>, denoted by <math>|a| </math>, is defined to be: :<math>|a| := \begin{cases} a, & \mbox{if } a \ge 0 \\ -a, & \mbox{if } a < 0, \end{cases} </math> where <math>-a</math> is the [[additive inverse]] of <math>a</math>, and <math>0</math> is the additive [[identity element]]. == Distance== The absolute value is closely related to the idea of distance. As noted above, the absolute value of a real or complex number is the [[distance]] from that number to the origin, along the real number line, for real numbers, or in the complex plane, for complex numbers, and more generally, the absolute value of the difference of two real or complex numbers is the distance between them. The standard [[Euclidean distance]] between two points :<math>a = (a_1, a_2, \cdots , a_n) </math> and :<math>b = (b_1, b_2, \cdots , b_n) </math> in [[Euclidean space|Euclidean ''n''-space]] is defined as: :<math>\sqrt{(a_1-b_1)^2 + (a_2-b_2)^2 + \cdots + (a_n-b_n)^2}. </math> This can be seen to be a generalization of <math>|a - b|,</math> since if <math>a,</math> <math>b </math> are real, then by Proposition 1, :<math>|a - b| = \sqrt{(a - b)^2}</math> while if :<math> a = a_1 + i a_2 \,</math> and :<math> b = b_1 + i b_2 \,</math> are complex numbers, then :{| cellpadding=10 |- |<math>|a - b| \,</math> |<math> = |(a_1 + i a_2) - (b_1 + i b_2)|\,</math> |- | |<math> = |(a_1 - b_1) + i(a_2 - b_2)|\,</math> |- | |<math> = \sqrt{(a_1 - b_1)^2 + (a_2 - b_2)^2}</math> |} The above shows that the "absolute value" distance for the real numbers or the complex numbers, agrees with the standard Euclidean distance they inherit as a result of considering them as the one and two-dimensional Euclidean spaces respectively. The properties of the absolute value of the difference of two real or complex numbers: non-negativity, identity of indiscernibles, symmetry and the triangle inequality given in Propositions 2 and 3 above, can be seen to motivate the more general notion of a [[distance function]] as follows: A real valued function <math>d</math> on a set <math>X \times X</math> is called a '''distance function''' (or a '''metric''') for <math>X</math>, if it satisfies the following four axioms: :{| cellpadding=10 |- |<math>d(a, b) \ge 0 </math> |Non-negativity |- |<math>d(a, b) = 0 \iff a = b </math> |Identity of indiscernibles |- |<math>d(a, b) = d(b, a) \,</math> |Symmetry |- |<math>d(a+b) \le d(a, c) + d(c, b) </math> |Triangle inequality |} ==Fields== The fundamental properties of the absolute value for real numbers given in Proposition 2 above, can be used to generalize the notion of absolute value to an arbitrary field, as follows. A real-valued function <math>v</math> on a [[field (mathematics)|field]] <math>F</math> is called an '''absolute value''' (also a ''modulus'', ''magnitude'', ''value'', or ''valuation'') if it satisfies the following four axioms: :{| cellpadding=10 |- |<math>v(a) \ge 0 </math> |Non-negativity |- |<math>v(a) = 0 \iff a = 0 </math> |Positive-definiteness |- |<math>v(ab) = v(a) v(b) \,</math> |Multiplicativeness |- |<math>v(a+b) \le v(a) + v(b) </math> |Subadditivity or the triangle inequality |} It follows from the above that <math>v(1) = 1</math>, where <math>1</math> denotes the multiplicative [[identity element]] of <math>F</math>. The real and complex absolute values defined above are examples of absolute values for an arbitrary field. If <math>v</math> is an absolute value on <math>F</math>, then the function <math>d</math> on <math>F \times F</math>, defined by <math>d(a, b) = v(a - b) </math>, is a metric, and if <math> e </math> is the multiplicative identity in <math>F</math>, then the following are equivalent: * <math>d</math> satisfies the [[ultrametric]] inequality <math> d(x, y) \le \mathrm{max}\{d(x, z), d(y, z)\}. </math> * <math> \big\{ v\Big(\sum_{k=1}^n e\Big) : n \in \mathbb{N} \big\} </math> is [[bounded set|bounded]] in '''R'''. * <math> v\Big(\sum_{k=1}^n e\Big) \le 1</math> for every <math> n \in \mathbb{N}.</math> * <math> v(a + b) \le \mathrm{max}\{v(a), v(b)\} </math> for all <math> a, b \in F.</math> An absolute value which satisfies any (hence all) of the above conditions is said to be '''non-Archimedean''', otherwise it is said to be [[Archimedean field|Archimedean]].<sup id="ref_Schechter"><small>[[#endnote_Schechter|3]]</small></sup> == Vector spaces == Again the fundamental properties of the absolute value for real numbers, can be used, with a slight modification, to generalize the notion to an arbitrary vector space. A real valued function ||&middot;|| on a [[vector space]] <math>V</math> a over a field <math>F</math>, is called an '''absolute value''' (or more usually a '''[[norm (mathematics)|norm]]''') if it satisfies the following axioms: For all <math>a</math> in <math>F</math>, and <math>\mathbf{v}</math>, <math>\mathbf{u}</math> in <math>V</math>, :{| cellpadding=10 |- |<math>\|\mathbf{v}\| \ge 0 </math> |Non-negativity |- |<math>\|\mathbf{v}\| = 0 \iff \mathbf{v} = 0</math> |Positive-definiteness |- |<math>\|a \mathbf{v}\| = |a| \|\mathbf{v}\| </math> |Positive homogeneity or positive scalability |- |<math>\|\mathbf{v} + \mathbf{u}\| \le \|\mathbf{v}\| + \|\mathbf{u}\| </math> |Subadditivity or triangle inequality |} The norm of a vector is also called its ''length'' or ''magnitude''. In the case of [[Euclidean space]] '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup>, the function :<math>\|(x_1, x_2, \cdots , x_n) \| = \sqrt{\sum_{i=1}^{n}(x_i)^2}</math> is a norm called the [[Euclidean norm]]. When the real numbers '''R''' are considered as the one-dimensional [[vector space]] [[Euclidean space|'''R'''<sup>1</sup>]], the absolute value is a [[Norm (mathematics)|norm]], and is the [[Norm (mathematics)#Examples|''p''-norm]] for any ''p''. In fact the absolute value is the "only" norm in '''R'''<sup>1</sup>, in the sense that, for every norm ||&middot;|| in '''R'''<sup>1</sup>, ||''x''||=||1||&middot;|''x''|. The complex absolute value is a special case of the [[norm (mathematics)|norm]] in an [[inner product space]]. It is identical to the Euclidean norm, if the [[complex plane]] is identified with the [[Euclidean plane]] '''R'''<sup>2</sup>. == Algorithms == In the [[C programming language]], the <code>abs()</code>, <code>labs()</code>, <code>llabs()</code> (in C99), <code>fabs()</code>, <code>fabsf()</code>, and <code>fabsl()</code> functions compute the absolute value of an operand. Coding the integer version of the function is trivial, ignoring the boundary case where the largest negative integer is input: int abs(int i) { if (i < 0) return -i; else return i; } The [[floating-point]] versions are trickier, as they have to contend with special codes for [[infinity]] and [[not-a-number]]s. Using [[assembly language]], it is possible to take the absolute value of a [[processor register|register]] in just three instructions (example shown for a 32-bit register on an [[x86]] architecture, [[Intel]] syntax): cdq xor eax, edx sub eax, edx <code>cdq</code> extends the sign bit of <code>eax</code> into <code>edx</code>. If <code>eax</code> is nonnegative, then <code>edx</code> becomes zero, and the latter two instructions have no effect, leaving <code>eax</code> unchanged. If <code>eax</code> is negative, then <code>edx</code> becomes 0xFFFFFFFF, or -1. The next two instructions then become a [[two's complement]] inversion, giving the absolute value of the negative value in <code>eax</code>. == References == * Nahin, Paul J.; [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0691027951/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-5443484-7306247#reader-link ''An Imaginary Tale'']; Princeton University Press; (hardcover, 1998). ISBN 0691027951 * O'Connor, J.J. and Robertson, E.F.; [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Argand.html "Jean Robert Argand"] * Schechter, Eric; ''Handbook of Analysis and Its Foundations'', pp 259-263, [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0126227608/103-5443484-7306247?v=search-inside&keywords=absolute%20value "Absolute Values"], Academic Press (1997) ISBN 0126227608 * Weisstein, Eric W.; [[MathWorld]]: [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/AbsoluteValue.html "Absolute Value"] == Notes == <div id="endnote_Argand"><sup><small>[[#ref_Argand|1]]</small></sup> [[Jean-Robert Argand]], is credited with introducing the term "modulus" in [[1806]], see: [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0691027951/ref=sib_vae_pg_73/103-5443484-7306247?%5Fencoding=UTF8&keywords=modulus&p=S02K&twc=4&checkSum=0BsRgLAMFNMXnqArYGxr33gLjR56d%2Bc2nsSoQnGOEKE%3D#reader-page Nahin], [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Argand.html O'Connor and Robertson], and [http://functions.wolfram.com/ComplexComponents/Abs/35/ functions.Wolfram.com].</div> <div id="endnote_Wolfram"><sup><small>[[#ref_Wolfram|2]]</small></sup> [http://functions.wolfram.com/ComplexComponents/Abs/35/ functions.Wolfram.com] credits [[Karl Weierstrass]] with introducing the notation |''x''| in [[1841]].</div> <div id="endnote_Schechter"><sup><small>[[#ref_Schechter|3]]</small></sup> [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0126227608/103-5443484-7306247?v=search-inside&keywords=absolute%20value Schechter, p 260-261]. </div> [[Category:Numeration]] [[cs:Absolutní hodnota]] [[de:Absoluter Betrag]] [[es:Valor absoluto]] [[eo:Absoluta valoro]] [[fr:Valeur absolue]] [[gl:Valor absoluto]] [[is:Algildi]] [[it:Valore assoluto]] [[he:ערך מוחלט]] [[nl:Absolute waarde]] [[ja:絶対値]] [[pl:Wartość bezwzględna]] [[pt:Valor absoluto]] [[ru:Абсолютная величина]] [[sk:Absolútna hodnota]] [[sl:Absolutna vrednost]] [[sr:Апсолутна вредност]] [[fi:Itseisarvo]] [[sv:Absolutbelopp]] [[th:ค่าสัมบูรณ์]] [[vi:Giá trị tuyệt đối]] [[tr:Mutlak değer]] [[uk:Абсолютна величина]] [[zh:绝对值]] 992 41037453 2006-02-24T17:25:12Z NekoDaemon 239574 Robot: [[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:National parks of the United States]] → [[Category:National Parks of the United States]]. Requested change by [[User:Kbdank71|]] {{Infobox_protected_area | name = Arches National Park | iucn_category = II | image = US_Locator_Blank.svg | caption = | locator_x = 70 | locator_y = 84 | location = [[Utah]], [[United States|USA]] | nearest_city = [[Moab, Utah]] | lat_degrees = 38 | lat_minutes = 41 | lat_seconds = 0 | lat_direction = N | long_degrees = 109 | long_minutes = 34 | long_seconds = 0 | long_direction = W | area = 76,358.98 acres<br><font size="-2">&nbsp; (76,193.01 federal)</font><br>309.01 km² | established = [[April 12]], [[1929]] | visitation_num = 733,131 | visitation_year = 2004 | governing_body = [[National Park Service]] }} '''Arches National Park''' preserves over 2,000 [[natural arch|natural sandstone arches]], including the world-famous [[Delicate Arch]], in addition to a variety of unique geological resources and formations. The park is located near [[Moab, Utah]], and is 119 square miles ([[1 E8 m²|309 km²]]) in size. Its highest elevation is 5,653 feet (1,723 m) at Elephant Butte and its lowest elevation is 4,085 feet (1,245 m) at the [[visitor center]]. It receives 10 inches (250 mm) of rain a year on average. The area, administered by the [[National Park Service]], was originally designated as a [[U.S. National Monument|national monument]] on [[April 12]], [[1929]]. It was redesignated a [[U.S. National Park|national park]] on [[November 12]], [[1971]]. More than 730,000 people visited it in 2004. ==Features== [[Image:North_&_South_Window_Arches_1.jpg|left|thumb|250px|North Window and South Window Arches]] Among the notable features of the park are: * [[Delicate Arch]], a lone-standing arch which has become a symbol of Utah * [[Balanced Rock]], a large balancing rock * [[Double Arch]], two arches located close to each other * [[Landscape Arch]], a very thin, long arch over 300 feet (100 m), the largest in the park * [[Fiery Furnace (park)|Fiery Furnace]], an area of maze-like narrow passages and tall rock columns * [[Devil's Garden]], with many arches and columns scattered along a ridge * [[Dark Angel (park)|Dark Angel]], a free-standing column of dark stone at the end of the Devil's Garden trail * [[Courthouse Towers]], a collection of tall columns * [[Petrified dunes]], petrified remnants of [[sand dunes]] blown from the ancient lakes that covered the area ==Geology== [[Image:Delicate arch 3d.jpg|right|thumb|175px|Delicate Arch, one of the most famous arches in the park. (USGS){{3d_glasses}}]] The national park lies atop an underground salt bed, which is basically responsible for the arches and spires, balanced rocks, sandstone fins, and eroded monoliths in the area. Thousands of feet thick in places, this salt bed was deposited over the [[Colorado Plateau]] some 300 million years ago when a sea flowed into the region and eventually evaporated. Over millions of years, the salt bed was covered with residue from floods and winds and the oceans that came in intervals. Much of this debris was compressed into rock. At one time this overlying earth may have been one mile thick. Salt under pressure is unstable, and the salt bed below Arches was no match for the weight of this thick cover of rock. Under such pressure it shifted, buckled, liquefied, and repositioned itself, thrusting the Earth layers upward into domes. Whole sections dropped into cavities. In places they turned almost on edge. [[Geologic fault|Faults]] occurred. The result of one such 2,500-foot displacement, the [[Moab Fault]], is seen from the visitor center. As this subsurface movement of salt shaped the Earth, surface erosion stripped away the younger rock layers. Except for isolated remnants, the major formations visible in the park today are the salmon-colored [[Entrada Sandstone]], in which most of the arches form, and the buff-colored [[Navajo Sandstone]]. These are visible in layer cake fashion throughout most of the park. Over time water seeped into the superficial cracks, joints, and folds of these layers. Ice formed in the fissures, expanding and putting pressure on surrounding rock, breaking off bits and pieces. Winds later cleaned out the loose particles. A series of free-standing fins remained. Wind and water attacked these fins until, in some, the cementing material gave way and chunks of rock tumbled out. Many damaged fins collapsed. Others, with the right degree of hardness and balance, survived despite their missing sections. These became the famous arches. This is the geologic story of Arches - probably. The evidence is largely circumstantial. ==History== [[Image:Turret_Arch_1.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Turret Arch]] Humans have occupied the region since the last [[ice age]] 10,000 years ago. [[Fremont people]] and [[Ancient Pueblo People]] lived in the area up until about 700 years ago. Spanish missionaries encountered Ute and Paitue tribes in the area when they first came through in [[1775]], but the first European-Americans to attempt settlement in the area were the [[Mormon]] [[Elk Mountain Mission]] in [[1855]], but then soon abandoned the area. Ranchers, farmers, and prospectors later settled Moab in the neighboring riverine valley in the 1880s. Word of the beauty in the surrounding [[rock formations]] spread beyond the settlement as a possible tourist destination. The Arches area was first brought to the attention of the National Park Service by Frank A. Wadleigh, passenger traffic manager of the [[Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad]]. Wadleigh, accompanied by railroad photographer George L. Beam, visited the area in September 1923 at the invitation of Alexander Ringhoffer, a [[Hungary|Hungarian]]-born [[prospector]] living in Salt Valley. Ringhoffer had written to the railroad in an effort to interest them in the tourist potential of a scenic area he had discovered the previous year with his two sons and a son-in-law, which he called the "Devil's Garden" (known today as the "Klondike Bluffs"). Wadleigh was impressed by what Ringhoffer showed him, and suggested to Park Service director Stephen T. Mather that the area be made a national monument. The following year additional support for the monument idea came from Laurence M. Gould, a University of Michigan graduate student studying the geology of the nearby La Sal mountains, who was shown the scenic area by retired local physician Dr. J.W. "Doc" Williams. [[image:Landscape arch 20030917 093317 1.1504x807.jpg|left|250px|thumb|Landscape Arch]] A succession of government investigators examined the area, in part due to confusion as to the precise location. In the process the name "Devil's Garden" was transposed to an area on the opposite side of Salt Valley, and Ringhoffer's original discovery was omitted, while another area nearby, known locally as "The Windows", was included. Designation of the area as a national monument was supported by the Park Service from [[1926]], but was resisted by President [[Calvin Coolidge]]'s Interior Secretary. Finally in April [[1929]], shortly after his inauguration, President [[Herbert Hoover]] signed a presidential proclamation creating Arches National Monument, consisting of two comparatively small, disconnected sections. The purpose of the reservation under the 1906 [[Antiquities Act]] was to protect the arches, spires, balanced rocks, and other sandstone formations for their scientific and educational value. The name "Arches" was suggested by Frank Pinkely, superintendent of the Park Service's southwestern national monuments, following a visit to the Windows section in 1925. In late [[1938]], President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] signed a proclamation which enlarged the Arches to protect additional scenic features and permit development of facilities to promote tourism. A small adjustment was made by President [[Dwight Eisenhower]] in [[1960]] to accommodate a new road alignment. In early [[1969]], just before leaving office, President [[Lyndon Johnson]] signed a proclamation substantially enlarging the Arches. Two years later President [[Richard Nixon]] signed legislation enacted by Congress which significantly reduced the area of Arches, but changed its status to a National Park. ==Publicity== American writer [[Edward Abbey]] was a [[park ranger]] at Arches National Monument when he kept journals that became his book ''Desert Solitaire''. The success of this book, as well as the rise in [[adventure tourism|adventure-based recreation]], has drawn many [[hikers]], [[mountain bike|mountain-bikers]], and [[off-road]] enthusiasts to the area, but activities are limited within park boundaries: camping, foot hiking (along designated trails), and driving only along marked roads. The opening scenes of the movie ''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade]]'' were filmed at the park. ==Reference== * ''The National Parks: Index 2001–2003''. Washington: [[United States Department of the Interior|U.S. Department of the Interior]]. ==External links== {{Commons|Arches National Park|Arches National Park}} * [http://www.nps.gov/arch/index.htm Arches National Park Official site] * {{Wikitravel}} *[http://www.terragalleria.com/parks/np.arches.html Photos of Arches National Park - Terra Galleria] *[http://www.entradautah.com/arches Arches National Park] *[http://www.UntraveledRoad.com/USA/Parks/Arches.htm Photographic virtual tour of Arches National Park] {{Geolinks-US-cityscale|38.750555|-109.566944|10}} {{National parks of the United States}} [[Category:Archaeological sites in the United States]] [[Category:Grand County, Utah]] [[Category:National Parks of the United States]] [[Category:Natural arches]] [[Category:Utah landmarks]] [[da:Arches Nationalpark]] [[de:Arches-Nationalpark]] [[es:Parque Nacional Arches]] [[fr:Arches National Park]] [[pl:Park Narodowy Arches]] 993 39666041 2006-02-15T00:58:58Z 144.139.85.151 An '''analog''' or '''analogue''' signal is any variable signal [[continuous function|continuous]] in both time and amplitude. It differs from a [[digital signal]] in that small fluctuations in the signal are meaningful. Analog is usually thought of in an [[electricity|electrical]] context, however mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also use analog signals. The word "analog" implies an [[analogy]] between cause and effect, voltage in and voltage out, current in and current out, sound in and frequency out. An analog signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signal's information. For example, an [[aneroid barometer]] uses rotary position as the signal to convey pressure information. Electrically, the property most commonly used is [[voltage]] followed closely by [[frequency]], [[Current (electricity)|current]], and [[electric charge|charge]]. Any information may be conveyed by an analog signal, often such a signal is a measured [[response]] to changes in physical phenomena, such as [[sound]], [[light]], [[temperature]], [[position]], or [[pressure]], and is achieved using a [[transducer]]. For example, in an analog sound recording, the variation in [[pressure]] of a [[sound]] striking a [[microphone]] creates a corresponding variation in the voltage amplitude of a current passing through it. An increase in the volume of the sound causes the fluctuation of the current's voltage amplitude to increase while keeping the same rhythm. The primary disadvantage of analog signalling is that any system has [[Noise (physics)|noise]]&mdash;that is, random variations&mdash;in it. As the signal is copied and re-copied, or transmitted over long distances, these random variations become dominant. Electrically these losses are lessened by shielding, good connections, and several cable types such as coax and twisted pair. The effects of [[signal noise|noise]] make signal loss and distortion impossible to recover, since amplifying the signal to recover attenuated parts of the signal amplifies the noise as well. Another method of conveying an analog signal is to use [[modulation]]. In this, some base signal (e.g., a [[sinusoidal]] [[carrier wave]]) has one of its properties modulated: [[amplitude modulation]] involves altering the amplitude of a sinusoidal voltage [[wave]]form by the source information, [[frequency modulation]] changes the [[frequency]]. Other techniques, such as changing the [[phase (waves)|phase]] of the base signal also work. Analog circuits do not involve [[quantisation]] of information into digital format. The concept being measured over the circuit, whether sound, light, pressure, temperature, or an exceeded limit, remains from end to end. [[Clock]]s with hands are called analog; those that display digits are called digital. However, many analog clocks are actually digital since the hands do not move in a smooth continuous motion, but in small steps every second or half a second, or every minute with a loud CLUNK. See [[digital]] for a discussion of ''digital vs. analog''. Sources: Some of an earlier version of this article was originally taken from [[Federal Standard 1037C]] in support of [[MIL-STD-188]]. ==See also== * [[Analog computer]] * [[Analog to digital converter]] * [[Digital to analog converter]] * [[Analog television]] * [[Analog synthesizer]] * [[Analog photocopier]] * [[telautograph|Analog fax machine]] [[Category:Sound]] [[Category:Electronic design]] [[da:Analog]] [[de:Analogsignal]] [[es:Señal analógica]] [[eo:Analoga]] [[fr:Analogique]] [[ko:아날로그]] [[it:Analogico]] [[nl:Analoog]] [[ja:アナログ]] [[pt:Sinal analógico]] [[ru:Аналоговый сигнал]] [[fi:Analoginen]] [[zh:模拟信号]] 994 25086937 2005-10-08T21:44:55Z Eugene van der Pijll 22016 redirect order to monotypic member family #REDIRECT [[Arecaceae]] 999 41684029 2006-03-01T01:16:19Z Carfanatic 589587 [[Image:AndThenThereWereNoneDVDCover.jpg|right|thumb|The 1945 film version, showing (left to right) [[Barry Fitzgerald]], [[June Duprez]] and [[Walter Huston]].]] '''''And Then There Were None''''' (also known as '''''Ten Little Indians''''' and originally as '''''Ten Little Niggers''''') is a [[detective fiction|detective novel]] by [[Agatha Christie]] first published in [[1939]]. ==Plot== {{spoiler}} The story focuses on ten strangers who are all (but one) brought, by misleading information, to an [[Burgh Island|island]] off the coast of [[Devon]], in southern [[England]]. The characters are: *Vera Claythorne, a young teacher in a third class school *Philip Lombard, a down-on-his luck explorer/mercenary *William Blore, a retired police inspector, now a private investigator *Dr. Edward Armstrong, a private physician *Justice Lawrence Wargrave, a bitter, cynical retired judge *Emily Brent, an elderly spinster and a religious zealot of extreme proportions *Rogers, the butler *General Macarthur, a lonely, retired army man *Mrs. Rogers, the housekeeper, Rogers' wife *Anthony Marston, a reckless playboy On their first night, the ten realize that they have been brought to the island under false pretenses, but now have no means of getting away. A mysterious gramophone recording informs them that all ten of them are guilty of "murders," though in this case the killings cannot be dealt with by law. On the first night, Anthony Marston dies of posioning. In the morning, Mrs. Rogers fails to wake up and it is determined that she probably had a fatal overdose of sleeping drugs. At lunch the next day, General Macarthur is found dead by a blow to the back of his head. After searching the island for the murderer or possible hiding spots, the survivors realize that the murderer can only be one of them, and whoever it is, is playing a game - killing them in manners poetically similar to a nursery rhyme, and also removing one of ten little figurines in the dining room after each death. The survivors have a meeting and discover that none of them have an alibi for any of the deaths. The next morning Rogers is found dead in the woodshed, having been killed with a giant axe that was nearby. Later that day, Emily Brent dies from an injection of [[potassium cyanide]]. The five remaining - Dr. Armstrong, Justice Wargrave, Philip Lombard, Vera Claythorne, and Inspector Blore - become increasingly paranoid. Later, Justice Wargrave is found dead, having been shot through the head. That night, Dr. Armostrong leaves the house, and when the rest of the survivors search for him they cannot find him. Vera, Inspector Blore, and Philip Lombard go outside. Blore decides to go back to the house to get some sustinance, and a dull thud is heard. When Vera and Philip check to see what happened, they find Blore crushed to death by a heavy marble clock. They assume Doctor Armstrong did it and decide to stay out of the house. The two survivors get back to the beach only to find Armstrong's body washed up on the shore. Vera and Lombard they realise that they are the only two left. Even though they could not possibly have mudered the Inspector, the never ending suspicion has driven them to a breaking point and they assume each other as the murderers. Philip Lombard reaches for he revolver, only to discover that Vera Claythorne pickpoketed it. She shoots him and then returns to the house, thinking she is finally safe. When Vera gets to her room, she discovers a noose hanging there, and having been finally driven crazy by the entire experience, she hangs herself, thus fullfilling the rhyme upon which the murders were based. So, by the novel's end, all ten guests are dead, leaving a "[[locked room mystery]]." A police investigation, though thorough, cannot find any satisfactory explanation. It is resolved when a letter in a bottle, tossed into the ocean and recovered by a trawler, is delivered to the police, which was written by the murderer. ==Film and Theater== Christie had been disappointed in previous adaptations of her novels. As she had written a play before, she decided to adapt her own book herself. She decided that the staging of a play required the survival of two characters in order to carry the plot exposition. Consequently the resolution of the play is very different from that of the book (though the identity of the killer remains the same). This stage version dates from [[1943]]. All but one of the films followed the play's humourous tone & ending, rather than the book's dark tone and downbeat resolution. The story was adapted for the cinema as ''And Then There Were None'' in [[1945]] and again in [[1974]]; and also filmed as ''Ten Little Indians'' in [[1959]] (as truncated television recording of the play), [[1965]], [[1974]], [[1989]] and as ''Ten Little Niggers'' in [[1987]]. The 1945 & 1987 film versions were the most successful and took fewer liberties with Christie's plot than some of the other versions. The 1945 film was [[film director|directed]] by [[Rene Clair]] from a [[screenplay]] by [[Dudley Nichols]]. The 1987 film was written, produced and directed by renowed [[Russia|Russian]] [[filmmaker]], [[Stanislav Govorukhin]]. The 1987 version was an extremely faithful-to-the-novel film adaptation made in [[Russia]], the title of which (''"Desyat Negrityat"'') translates directly to the novel's original title, ''Ten Little Niggers'' (since the novel's title was never altered in most of the world outside of [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom]].) The Russian version is the only adaptation that didn't change any of the characters or the ending of the book. It is most famous in Russia for having a legendary ensemble cast of the most famous and talented actors in Russia. Arguably, the Russian production is even more star-studded than any of the [[Hollywood]] versions. These film versions usually feature all-star casts and are set in different locations, such as the [[Austria|Austrian]] [[Alps]], the [[Iran|Iranian]] desert, and the [[Africa|African]] jungle. The only ones to keep the island as the location were the [[1945]] and the [[1987]] versions. The basic concept of the plot has been recycled countless times, often without crediting Christie (who herself recycled numerous story concepts.) The most recent example is probably the 2004 [[crime]] [[thriller]] ''[[Mindhunters]]'', which includes many elements of Christie's original story, including an island and various plot twists. In 2005 a new version of ''And Then There Were None'' was performed in London's [[West End theatre|West End]]. Written by [[Kevin Elyot]] and directed by [[Steven Pimlott]], it is based on the novel rather than on Christie's drama. ===List of movie adaptations=== * ''[[And Then There Were None (1945 film)]]'' - directed by [[René Clair]] ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0037515/ IMDb listing]) * ''[[Ten Little Indians (1959 film)]]'' - live television presentation, directed by [[Paul Bogart]], [[Philip F. Falcone]], [[Leo Farrenkopf]] and [[Dan Zampino]] ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0278766/ IMDb listing]) * ''[[Ten Little Indians (1965 film)]]'' - directed by [[George Pollack (film director)|George Pollock]] ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0061075/ IMDb listing]) * ''[[And Then There Were None (1974 film)]]'' - directed by [[Peter Collinson]] ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0072263/ IMDb listing]) * ''[[Desyat negrityat]]'' (1987) - directed by [[Stanislav Govorukhin]] ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0092879/ IMDb listing]) * ''[[Ten Little Indians (1989 film)]]'' - directed by [[Alan Birkinshaw]] ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0098454/ IMDb listing]) ==The rhyme== The book's original title "Ten Little Niggers" was taken from the chorus of an [[United States|American]] [[comic song]], written by [[Septimus Winner]] in [[1868]]; there are many variants of the lyrics, of which "Ten Little [[Injuns]]" is probably the most familiar to modern audiences. The song is now considered by many to be [[racist]] and offensive. The rhyme used in the novel is as follows: <!--This needs transwiki-ing to wikisource --> :Ten little Indian boys going out to dine; ::One choked his little self and then there were nine. :Nine little Indian boys sat up very late; ::One overslept himself and then there were eight. :Eight little Indian boys traveling in Devon; ::One said he'd stay and then there were seven. :Seven little Indian boys chopping up sticks; ::One chopped himself into halves and then there were six. :Six little Indian boys playing with a hive; ::A [[bumblebee]] stung one and then there were five. :Five little Indian boys going in for law; ::One got in [[Chancery]] and then there were four. :Four little Indian boys going out to sea; ::A [[red herring]] swallowed one and then there were three. :Three little Indian boys walking in the zoo; ::A big bear hugged one and then there were two. :Two little Indian boys sitting in the sun; ::One got frizzled up and then there was one. :One little Indian boy left all alone; ::He went and hanged himself and then there were none. ==Ten Little Indians and 'and then there was one' in Popular Culture== The [[meme]]s 'Ten Little Indians' and 'and then there was one' have been used many times in modern days to refer to situations in stories - oftentimes [[slasher film]]s, other [[horror film]]s, and [[disaster film]]s - in which the characters die off one by one. This is how many films of those genres are structured, in order to provide gory scenes periodically, and to ultimately force the [[main character]] to face off against the [[villain]] alone. This main character in slasher films is often the '[[Final Girl]].' ==Trivia== * "And Then There Were None" was adapted from [[Agatha Christie]]'s book into a video game in 2005 by [[The Adventure Company | The Adventure Company]]. It was released in November of that year to mixed reviews, most of the slack going to changing the "Indians" to "Sailors," in a case of political correctness gone awry, and altering the killer's motive & identity, though it is possible to see the original novel's ending when one finishes a puzzle after completing the main game. Four further books are to be adapted. * "Ten Little Indians" is a song by [[The Yardbirds]] along the same lines with the rhyme, although more dismal. In the song, the death of each "Indian" is related to breaking one of the [[Ten Commandments]]. * A Japanese [[doujin]] game, [[Embodiment of Scarlet Devil]], features an extra stage of a girl having the spell card named "And Then Will There be None?", and a theme music named "Is she the U.N.Owen?". (U.N.Owen is the killer's alias used in the novel, play, and films.) * "Zehn Kleine [[Jägermeister]]" (Ten Little "Jägermeister") is a song by the German band [[Die Toten Hosen]], along the same lines as the rhyme, but with funny or satirical things happening to the characters (taking drugs, being arrested for tax evasion, dying of [[Mad Cow Disease]] etc) * Polish 2003 film [[Show (film)|Show]], starring [[Cezary Pazura]], tells the story of a reality show located on a remote island. Suddenly, the competitors start to die one after another. One of the competitors even mention Agatha Christies' novel. {{Agatha Christie}} [[Category:1939 books]] [[Category:Agatha Christie novels]] [[fr:Dix petits nègres]] [[pl:Dziesięciu małych Murzynków]] [[pt:And Then There Were None]] [[fi:Kymmenen pientä neekeripoikaa]] [[sv:Tio små negerpojkar]] 1000 41079633 2006-02-24T22:43:39Z Dinsdagskind 93722 [[Image:David_Suchet_is_Hercule_Poirot.jpg|framed|[[David Suchet]] as Poirot]] '''Hercule Poirot''' (pronounced {{IPA|[ɛʀkyl pwaʀo]}}) is a [[fictional character]], the primary detective of [[Agatha Christie]]'s novels. He appears in over 30 novels and over 50 short stories and is probably one of the most famous characters ever made. The character was born in [[Spa, Belgium|Spa]], [[Belgium]], and has worked as a Belgian police officer, notably in [[Brussels]], but moved to [[England]] during [[World War I]] and started a second career as a [[private investigator|private detective]]. Poirot is remarkable for his small stature and egg-shaped head, his cat-like green eyes, his meticulous moustache, his dandified dressing habits, his absolute obsession with order and neatness, and his disdain for detective methods that include crawling on hands and knees and looking for clues. He prefers to examine the psychology of a crime to discover more evidence, once even betting his best friend and sometime partner, [[Arthur Hastings]], that he could solve a case simply by sitting in an easy chair and using his "little grey cells." Like a large number of detectives of the early days of mystery fiction (including [[Miss Marple]], [[Sherlock Holmes (character)|Sherlock Holmes]], and [[Father Brown]]), Poirot is unmarried. The love of his life, Countess Vera Rossakoff, appears in the short stories "The Double Clue" and "The Capture of Cerberus" and the novel ''The Big Four''. His fictional address (from his business card) is 56B Whitehaven Mansions, Sandhurst Square, London W1. The building used in the series can be found on Charterhouse Square - City of London. ==Major novels== The Poirot books take readers through the whole of his life in England, from the first book (''[[The Mysterious Affair at Styles]]''), where he is a refugee staying at Styles, to the last Poirot book (''[[Curtain (novel)|Curtain]]''), where he visits Styles once again before his death. In between, Poirot solves cases outside England as well, including his most famous case, ''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]'' (1934). Hercule Poirot became famous with the publication, in [[1926]], of ''[[The Murder of Roger Ackroyd]]'', whose surprising solution proved controversial. The novel is still among the most famous of all detective novels: [[Edmund Wilson]] alludes to it in the title of his well-known attack on detective fiction, "Who Cares Who Killed Roger Ackroyd?" Aside from ''Roger Ackroyd'', the most critically-acclaimed Poirot novels appeared from [[1932]] to [[1942]], including such acknowledged classics as ''Murder on the Orient Express'', ''[[The ABC Murders]]'' (1935), ''[[Cards on the Table]]'' (1936), and ''[[Death on the Nile]]'' (1937). The last of these, a tale of multiple homicide upon a Nile steamer, was judged by the celebrated detective novelist [[John Dickson Carr]] to be among the ten greatest mystery novels of all time. The [[1942]] novel ''[[Five Little Pigs]]'' (aka ''Murder in Retrospect''), in which Poirot investigates a murder committed sixteen years before by analyzing various accounts of the tragedy, is a ''[[Rashomon (movie)|Rashomon]]''-like performance that critic and mystery novelist Robert Barnard called the best of the Christie novels. ==Recurring characters== While the majority of the supporting cast in the Poirot stories is always different, some characters do show up more often. [[Arthur Hastings]], whom Poirot met almost immediately after arriving in England, becomes his life-long partner and appears in many of the novels and stories. Other frequently recurring characters include the detective novelist [[Ariadne Oliver]], Agatha Christie's humorous self-caricature, and Poirot's secretary, Miss Lemon. [[Chief Inspector Japp]] of Scotland Yard appears in many of the stories, as well. The mysterious [[Russia]]n Countess Vera Rossakoff, Poirot's only known love interest, appears in three stories. ==Books featuring Hercule Poirot== ''[[Short story]] collections listed as ss'' * ''[[The Mysterious Affair at Styles]]'' ([[1920]]) * ''[[Murder on the Links]]'' ([[1923]]) * ''[[Poirot Investigates]]'' ([[1924]], ''ss'') * ''[[The Murder of Roger Ackroyd]]'' ([[1926]]) * ''[[The Big Four (novel)|The Big Four]]'' ([[1927]]) * ''[[The Mystery of the Blue Train]]'' ([[1928]]) * ''[[Peril at End House]]'' ([[1932]]) * ''[[Lord Edgware Dies]]'' ([[1933]]) * ''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]'' ([[1934]]) * ''[[Three Act Tragedy]]'' ([[1935]]) * ''[[Death in the Clouds]]'' (1935) * ''[[The A.B.C. Murders]]'' ([[1936]]) * ''[[Cards on the Table]]'' (1936) * ''[[Murder in Mesopotamia]]'' (1936) * ''[[Death on the Nile]]'' ([[1937]]) * ''[[Dumb Witness]]'' (1937) * ''[[Murder in the Mews]]'' (1937, ''ss'') * ''[[Appointment with Death]]'' ([[1938]]) * ''[[Hercule Poirot's Christmas]]'' ([[1939]]) * ''[[One, Two, Buckle My Shoe]]'' ([[1940]]) * ''[[Sad Cypress]]'' (1940) * ''[[Evil Under the Sun]]'' ([[1941]]) * ''[[Five Little Pigs]]'' ([[1942]]) * ''[[The Hollow]]'' ([[1946]]) * ''[[The Labours of Hercules]]'' ([[1947]]) * ''[[Taken at the Flood]]'' ([[1948]]) also published as ''There Is a Tide'' * ''[[Mrs McGinty's Dead]]'' ([[1952]]) * ''[[After the Funeral]]'' ([[1953]]) also published as ''Funerals are Fatal'' * ''[[Hickory Dickory Dock (novel)|Hickory Dickory Dock]]'' ([[1955]]) * ''[[Dead Man's Folly]]'' ([[1956]]) * ''[[Cat Among the Pigeons]]'' ([[1959]]) * ''[[The Clocks (novel)|The Clocks]]'' ([[1963]]) * ''[[Third Girl]]'' ([[1966]]) * ''[[Hallowe'en Party]]'' ([[1969]]) * ''[[Elephants Can Remember]]'' ([[1972]]) * ''[[Poirot's Early Cases]]'' ([[1974]], ss) * ''[[Curtain (novel)|Curtain]]'' (written about 1940, published [[1975]]) ==Hercule Poirot on screen and stage== [[Image:Ustinov_is_Poirot.jpg|framed|[[Peter Ustinov]] as Poirot]] {{sect-stub}} Hercule Poirot has been played by several actors. The character first appeared onscreen in [[1931]], played by [[Austin Trevor]]. Perhaps the most notable portrayals have been by [[Albert Finney]] in the cinematic version of ''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]'', and [[David Suchet]] in a long series of television productions. The role has also been played more than once by [[Peter Ustinov]] and by [[Tony Randall]], [[Ian Holm]], and [[Alfred Molina]]. In 2004, [[NHK]] (a Japanese TV network) produced a 39 episode [[anime]] series titled ''[[Agatha Christie's Famous Detectives Poirot and Marple]] (Agatha Christie no Meitantei Poirot to Marple)'', as well as a manga series by the same title released starting in 2005. The series ran from [[July 4]], [[2004]] through [[May 15]], [[2005]], and is now being shown as [[rerun]]s on NHK and other networks in Japan. Poirot was voiced by [[Kōtarō Satomi]] (Satomi Kōtarō) and Miss Marple was voiced by [[Kaoru Yachigusa]] (Yachigusa Kaoru). {{Agatha Christie}} [[Category:Agatha Christie|Poirot, Hercule]] [[Category:Fictional detectives|Poirot, Hercule]] [[Category:Fictional Belgians|Poirot, Hercule]] [[cs:Hercule Poirot]] [[da:Hercule Poirot]] [[de:Hercule Poirot]] [[eo:Hercule POIROT]] [[fa:هرکول پوآرو]] [[fr:Hercule Poirot]] [[id:Hercule Poirot]] [[it:Hercule Poirot]] [[he:הרקול פוארו]] [[nl:Hercule Poirot]] [[ja:エルキュール・ポアロ]] [[pl:Herkules Poirot]] [[pt:Hercule Poirot]] [[ru:Эркюль Пуаро]] [[fi:Hercule Poirot]] [[sv:Hercule Poirot]] [[zh:赫丘勒·白羅]] 1002 40408541 2006-02-20T09:20:47Z GrinBot 411872 robot Adding: hu [[Image:Joan_Hickson_is_Miss_Marple.jpg|thumb|[[Joan Hickson]] as '''Miss Marple''']] '''Jane Marple''', usually known as '''Miss Marple''', is a [[fictional character]] appearing in many [[Agatha Christie]] novels. She lives in the little village of [[St. Mary Mead]]. She looks like an ordinary [[spinster]], in [[Harris Tweed|tweed]] and with a curiosity as wide as the world, but when it comes to solving mysteries, she turns out to have a sharp logical mind. In the best [[detective fiction|detective story]] tradition, she often embarrasses the local "professional" police, usually by making an analogy with some village occurrence or character. ==Personality== When we first meet Jane Marple she is very much the stereotypical spinster of the last century — blue-eyed and frail, wearing a black lace cap and mittens, and constantly knitting. She is also a gleeful gossip and not especially nice. The first Marple novel, ''[[The Murder at the Vicarage]]'' sees a markedly different Marple to the one who would appear in later books, as she modernized and became nicer over the years. Miss Marple's nephew, the "well-known author" Raymond West and his wife Joan (who first appeared as Joyce), a modern artist, were introduced in 1933 in ''[[The Thirteen Problems]]''. Raymond, in particular, is overconfident of himself and dismissive of Miss Marple's mental powers, though she continually upstages him in the end. ''[[A Murder is Announced]]'' ([[1950]]), Agatha Christie's fiftieth novel, is regarded by some as the best Miss Marple novel, and one of the best of Christie's [[whodunit]]s. Miss Marple is able to solve difficult crimes not only because of her shrewd intelligence, but because St. Mary Mead, over her lifetime, has put on a pageant of human depravity rivaled only by that of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]]. No crime can arise without reminding Miss Marple of some parallel incident in the history of her time. As with her other famous detective [[Hercule Poirot]], Christie wrote a concluding novel to her Marple series, ''Sleeping Murder'', in [[1940]] and saved it for her old age, causing some embarrassing discrepancies as people who were written off as dead (such as Dolly Bantry's husband, Colonel Arthur Bantry) by the time her mystery "Nemesis" was published, which was the preceding Marple mystery '''but actually the last one written''', appear alive in ''Sleeping Murder'' having been resurrected from the fictional dead. ''Sleeping Murder'' was published in [[1976]], shortly after Christie's death, and was the last of her novels to be published, although, again, it was written in [[1940]]. ==Books featuring Miss Marple== * ''[[The Murder at the Vicarage]]'' ([[1930]]) * ''[[The Body in the Library]]'' ([[1942]]) * ''[[The Moving Finger]]'' ([[1943]]) * ''[[A Murder is Announced]]'' ([[1950]]) * ''[[They Do It with Mirrors]], or Murder With Mirrors'' ([[1952]]) * ''[[A Pocket Full of Rye]]'' ([[1953]]) * ''[[4.50 from Paddington|4.50 from Paddington, or What Mrs. McGillicuddy Saw!]]'' ([[1957]]) * ''[[The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side]]'' ([[1962]]) * ''[[A Caribbean Mystery]]'' ([[1964]]) * ''[[At Bertram's Hotel]]'' ([[1965]]) * ''[[Nemesis (Christie)|Nemesis]]'' ([[1971]]) * ''[[Sleeping Murder]]'' (written around [[1940]], published [[1976]]) ==Quotation== *"The young people think the old people are fools, but the old people ''know'' the young people are fools" &ndash; Miss Marple's motto, in several of the books and stories. ==[[Film|Movies]]== [[Image:Margaret_Rutherford_is_Miss_Marple.jpg|thumb|right|[[Margaret Rutherford]] as '''Miss Marple''']] Although popular from her first appearance in [[1930]], Jane Marple had to wait thirty-two years for her first big-screen appearance; when she made it, the results were disappointing to both Christie purists and Christie herself. ''[[Murder, She Said]]'' ([[1962]], directed by [[George Pollock]]) was the first of four British MGM productions starring Dame [[Margaret Rutherford]], a magnificent comic actress but too boisterous and loud for the prim and birdlike character Christie created. This first film was based on the [[1957]] novel ''4:50 from Paddington'' (U.S. title, ''What Mrs. McGillicuddy Saw!''), and the changes made in the plot were typical of the series. In the film, Mrs. McGillicuddy doesn't see anything because there is no Mrs. McGillicuddy. Miss Marple herself sees apparent murder committed on a train passing hers. Likewise, it is Miss Marple herself who poses as a maid to find out the facts of the case, not a young friend of hers who has made a business of it. The other Rutherford films (all directed by George Pollock) were ''Murder at the Gallop'' ([[1963]]), based on the [[1953]] Hercule Poirot novel ''[[After the Funeral]]''; ''Murder Most Foul'' ([[1964]]), based on the [[1952]] Poirot novel ''[[Mrs McGinty's Dead]]''; and ''Murder Ahoy'' ([[1964]]), not based on any Christie work. In [[1980]], [[Angela Lansbury]] played Miss Marple in ''The Mirror Crack'd'' (EMI, directed by [[Guy Hamilton]]), based on Christie's [[1962]] novel. However, Lansbury is only on screen for a short time, the bulk of the film being taken up with the machinations of an all-star cast that included [[Elizabeth Taylor]], [[Rock Hudson]], [[Geraldine Chaplin]], [[Tony Curtis]], and [[Kim Novak]]. [[Edward Fox]] appeared as Inspector Craddock, who did Miss Marple's legwork. American stage and screen legend [[Helen Hayes]] portrayed Miss Marple in two American made-for-TV movies, both for [[CBS]]: ''A Caribbean Mystery'' ([[1983]]) and ''Murder with Mirrors'' ([[1984]]). [[Sue Grafton]] contributed to the screenplay of the former. Hayes's Marple was benign and chirpy. ==Television and Radio== American TV was the setting for the first dramatic portrayal of Miss Marple. [[Gracie Fields]], a legendary British actress, played the geriatric sleuth in a [[1956]] episode of ''Goodyear TV Playhouse'' based on ''A Murder Is Announced'', the [[1950]] Christie novel. There was a long-running and popular [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] TV series in the [[1980s]] with [[Joan Hickson]], an octogenarian herself, who had appeared in a small role in the Rutherford film ''Murder, She Said''. The consensus among Christie devotees was that hers was the definitive performance. All twelve Miss Marple novels were dramatized: ''The Body in the Library''; ''The Moving Finger''; ''A Murder Is Announced''; ''A Pocket Full of Rye''; ''Murder at the Vicarage''; ''Sleeping Murder''; ''At Bertram's Hotel''; ''Nemesis''; ''4:50 from Paddington''; ''A Caribbean Mystery''; ''They Do It with Mirrors'' and ''The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side''. All these serializations were shown in the United States on the [[PBS]] ''[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/mystery/marple/index.html Mystery!]'' series. It was also televised in Germany. The television show followed the plots of the books considerably more closely than did the Rutherford films. [[BBC Radio 4]] also dramatised several of the books with [[June Whitfield]] as Miss Marple. [[Angela Lansbury]], after playing Miss Marple in ''The Mirror Crack'd'', went on to star in the TV series ''[[Murder, She Wrote]]'' as [[Jessica Fletcher]], a novelist who solves crimes. The character was to some degree based on Miss Marple and another Christie character, [[Ariadne Oliver]]. [[Image:Geraldine McEwan.jpg|thumb|right|Geraldine McEwan as Miss Marple]] In 2004, [[Granada Television]], in collaboration with [[Agatha Christie Limited]], produced four adaptations (namely ''The Body in the Library'', ''Murder in the Vicarage'', ''4.50 from Paddington'' and ''A Murder is Announced'') starring [[Geraldine McEwan]] in the title role, and also featuring [[Joanna Lumley]], [[Ian Richardson]], [[Zoe Wanamaker]], [[Miriam Margolyes]], [[Janet McTeer]], [[Derek Jacobi]], [[Claire Skinner]] and [[Stephen Tompkinson]] in supporting roles. In 2005 and 2006, four more mysteries are being made...but two of them aren't even Miss Marple books! They are [[Sleeping Murder]], [[The Moving Finger]], [[By the Pricking of My Thumbs (novel)]], and [[The Sittaford Mystery]]. In 2004, [[NHK]] (a Japanese TV network) produced a 39 episode [[anime]] series titled ''[[Agatha Christie's Famous Detectives Poirot and Marple]] (アガサ・クリスティーの名探偵ポワロとマープル, Agasa Kurisutii no Meitantei Powaro to Maapuru)'', as well as a manga series by the same title released starting in 2005. The series ran from [[July 4]], [[2004]] through [[May 15]], [[2005]], and is now being shown as [[rerun]]s on NHK and other networks in Japan. Poirot was voiced by [[Kōtarō Satomi]] (里見 浩太朗, Satomi Kōtarō) and Miss Marple was voiced by [[Kaoru Yachigusa]] (八千草 薫, Yachigusa Kaoru). {{Agatha Christie}} ==External links== *[http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/976602/index.html British Film Institute Screen Online (1980s TV adaptations)] [[Category:Fictional detectives|Marple, Miss]] [[Category:Crime television series]]<!-- until we get a separate article on the TV series --> [[Category:BBC television programmes]] [[Category:Television programs based on novels]] [[Category:Series of books]] [[Category:English cultural icons]] [[Category:Agatha Christie]] [[da:Miss Marple]] [[de:Miss Marple]] [[eo:Miss MARPLE]] [[fr:Miss Marple]] [[id:Miss Marple]] [[it:Miss Marple]] [[hu:Miss Marple]] [[nl:Miss Marple]] [[ja:ミス・マープル]] [[pl:Jane Marple]] [[pt:Miss Marple]] [[sl:Miss Marple]] [[sv:Miss Marple]] [[zh:珍·瑪波]] 1003 15899511 2003-06-30T01:13:13Z SimonP 1591 #REDIRECT [[Apple]] 1004 42000914 2006-03-03T03:34:31Z Anthonyken0109 906087 /* Trivia */ {{AprilCalendar}} {{wiktionarypar|April}} '''April''' is the [[fourth]] [[month]] of the [[year]] in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] and one of four with the length of 30 [[day]]s. April begins (astrologically) with the sun in the sign of [[Aries]] and ends in the sign of [[Taurus]]. Astronomically speaking, the sun begins in the constellation of [[Pisces]] and ends in the constellation of [[Aries]]. The derivation of the name ([[Latin]] ''aprillis'') is uncertain. The traditional etymology from the Latin ''aperire'', "to open," in allusion to its being the season when trees and flowers begin to "open," is supported by comparison with the modern Greek use of &alpha;&#788;&nu;&omicron;&iota;&xi;&iota;&sigmaf; (opening) for spring. Since all the Roman months were named in honour of divinities, and as April was sacred to Venus, the ''Festum Veneris et Fortunae Virilis'' being held on the first day, it has been suggested that Aprilis was originally her month Aphrilis, from her Greek name Aphrodite, or from the [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]] name ''Apru''. Jacob Grimm suggests the name of a hypothetical god or hero, ''Aper'' or ''Aprus'' The Anglo-Saxons called April ''Oster-monath'' or ''Eostur-monath'', the period sacred to ''Eostre'' or ''Ostara'', the pagan Saxon goddess of spring, from whose name is derived the modern Easter. St George's day is the twenty-third of the month; and St Mark's Eve, with its superstition that the ghosts of those who are doomed to die within the year will be seen to pass into the church, falls on the twenty-fourth. In China the symbolical ploughing of the earth by the emperor and princes of the blood takes place in their third month, which frequently corresponds to our April; and in Japan the feast of Dolls is celebrated in the same month. The "days of April" (''journées d'avril'') is a name appropriated in French history to a series of insurrections at Lyons, Paris and elsewhere, against the government of Louis Philippe in 1834, which led to violent repressive measures, and to a famous trial known as the ''procès d'avrill''. April was originally the second month of the [[Roman calendar]] and had 29 days. [[Julius Caesar]]'s calendar [[Julian calendar|reform]] in [[45 BCE]] resulted in April having 30 days and becoming the fourth month, as the year now began in [[January]]. ==The tragic month of April== Wars that started/ended in April include *[[U.S. Revolutionary War|American Revolution Started]] (Paul Revere's Ride: [[April 18]]-19 1775) *[[U.S. Civil War|American Civil War]] (Started April 1861, Ended April 1865, thus "Across 5 Aprils") *The [[Bosnian War]] began in the first days April 1992 *The [[Rwandan Genocide]] began in April 1994 Other Tragedies that have occurred in the month of April include *President [[Abraham Lincoln]]'s Assassination ([[April 14]] [[1865]]) *1906 [[San Francisco Earthquake]] ([[April 18]] [[1906]]) *The sinking of the [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] ([[April 14]]-15,1912) *The [[Armenian Genocide]] ([[April 24]] [[1915]]) *[[Martin Luther King Jr.]] Assassinated ([[April 4]] [[1968]]) *Super Tornado Outbreak ([[April 3]]-4, 1974) *[[Chernobyl]] nuclear accident ([[April 26]] [[1986]]) *The bloody end to the Branch Dividan siege in Waco, Texas ([[April 19]] [[1993]]) *The [[Oklahoma City Bombing]] ([[April 19]] [[1995]]) *In [[Lebanon]], 102 [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] civilians are killed when the [[Israel Defense Forces]] shell the [[UN]] compound at [[Qana]] (see [[Qana Massacre]]). ([[April 18]] [[1996]]) *[[Columbine High School]] shooting ([[April 20]] [[1999]]) ==Trivia== *April begins on the same day of week as July in all years and also January in leap years. *April's [[flower]] is the [[Bellis|daisy]] and [[sweet pea]]. *April's [[birthstone]] is the [[diamond]]. *April in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] is the seasonal equivalent to [[October]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] and vise versa. ==Events in Aprils== ===Monthlong events in April=== *Chocolate Eaters Month *Poetry Month *Cancer Control Month *Marcus H. Birthday (National Holiday in Australia) *Child Abuse Prevention Month *International Guitar Month *Mathematics Education Month *National Humor Month *National Welding Month *National Smile Month *National Pecan Month *VD Awareness Month *Stress Awareness Month *Alcohol Awareness Month *Autism Awareness Month *Keep America Beautiful Month ===Weeklong events in April=== 1st Week in April *Medic Alert Week *Cherry Blossom Festival *Publicity Stunt Week *National Birthparents Week *Week of the Young Child *Straw Hat Week *National Bake Week (begins 1st Mon) *Consider Christianity Week *National Reading a Road Map Week 2nd Week in April *Be Kind to Animals Week *Masters Golf Tournament *National Medical Laboratory Week *Private Property Week (10th-16th) *National Library Week *Harmony Week *National Garden Week *TV Turn-Off Week *National Guitar Week *National Building Safety Week *National Home Safety Week 3rd Week in April *National Police Week *Boys and Girls Club Week *National Coin Week *Bike Safety Week *National Bubblegum Week *Pan American Week *National Week of the Ocean *National Crime Victims’ Rights Week *National Volunteer Week *National Adult Films Week Last Week in April *Forest Week *National Lingerie Week *Canada-US Goodwill Week *Big Brothers/Sisters Appreciation Week *Consumer Protection Week *National TV-Free Week *Jewish Heritage Week *Keep America Beautiful Week *National YMCA Week *Professional Secretaries Week *Intergenerational Week *Reading Is Fun Week *Egg Salad Week *Teacher Appreciation Week (begins Last Mon) A Week in April *Astronomy Week (determined by 1st Quarter Moon) ===April movable daily holidays=== 1st Sunday *Set-Your Clock-Forward-Day (Daylight Saving Time begins in the United States; turn your clock ahead at 2:00 a.m.) *Budoha Day (Hawaii) *Vesak (Buddha's Birthday) 1st Saturday *Saturday Market Day (Oregon) 1st Saturday before 5th *Tax Saturday (UK) 1st Thursday *Glarus Festival (Switzerland) 1st Friday *Student Government Day (Massachusetts) Friday after 1st *Arbor Day (Apache, Navajo, Coconino, Mohave, Yavapai; Arizona) 2nd Friday *Audubon Day 3rd Sunday & Monday *Sechselauten (Six Ringing Festival; Switzerland) 3rd Monday *Patriot's Day (Maine, Massachusetts) *Boston Marathon Thursday between 19th & 26th *First Day of Summer (Iceland) Saturday nearest St. George's Day (23rd) *Peppercorn Day (Bermuda) Monday nearest Feast Day of St. George (23rd) *St. George's Day (Newfoundland) Sunday after 1st full moon after vernal equinox following Passover *Lambri (Bright Day; Greece) 3rd Monday *Patriots' Day (Maine, Massachusetts) 4th Monday *Fast Day (New Hampshire) 4th Thursday *Take Our Daughters (and Sons) to Work Day 4th Weekend *Just Pray No weekend Last Monday *Confederate Memorial Day (Alabama, Mississippi) Last Friday *Arbor Day *Bird Day Wednesday of Last Full Week *Administrative Professionals Day Last Saturday *[[National Sense of Smell Day]] ([[USA]]) ===April Indeterminate Holidays=== Full Moon Day of 6th Buddhist month (@ Apr/May) *Vesak Sun enters Aries *Solar New Year (Southeast Asia) *aka Thingyan (Burma) *aka Songkran (Thailand) 10th through 15th Day of 2nd lunar month *Paro Tsechu (Bhutan) During planting season (@ Apr/May) *Tyi Wara (Mali) Early April to late July (every 4 years) *Summer Olympics begin Late April or May *Alp Aufzug (Switzerland) Before 1st rainfall (@ Apr/May) *Bobo Masquerade (Burkina Faso) Sometime in April *World Championship Cow Chip Throwing Contest *Palm Sunday - Christian *Palm Sunday - Armenian Christian *Good Friday - Christian *Easter - Christian *Pesach (Passover) - Jewish ===Other special days=== *April Fools' Day ([[April 1]]) ==See also== * [[List of historical anniversaries]] * [[April-Fools' Day]] ==References== * Chambers's ''Book of Days'' * Grimm's ''Geschichte der deutschen Sprache''. Cap. "Monate" * {{1911}} {{months}} [[Category:Months]] [[af:April]] [[an:Abril]] [[ang:Ēastermōnaþ]] [[ar:إبريل]] [[ast:Abril]] [[be:Красавік]] [[bg:Април]] [[br:Ebrel]] [[bs:April]] [[ca:Abril]] [[cs:Duben]] [[csb:Łżëkwiôt]] [[cv:Ака]] [[cy:Ebrill]] [[da:April]] [[de:April]] [[el:Απρίλιος]] [[eo:Aprilo]] [[es:Abril]] [[et:Aprill]] [[eu:Apiril]] [[fa:آوریل]] [[fi:Huhtikuu]] [[fo:Apríl]] [[fr:Avril]] [[fur:Avrîl]] [[fy:April]] [[ga:Aibreán]] [[gl:Abril]] [[he:אפריל]] [[hr:Travanj]] [[hu:Április]] [[ia:April]] [[id:April]] [[ie:April]] [[ilo:Abril]] [[io:Aprilo]] [[is:Apríl]] [[it:Aprile]] [[ja:4月]] [[jv:April]] [[ka:აპრილი]] [[kn:ಎಪ್ರಿಲ್]] [[ko:4월]] [[ku:Avrêl]] [[kw:Mys Ebrel]] [[la:Aprilis]] [[lb:Abrëll]] [[li:April]] [[lt:Balandis]] [[lv:Aprīlis]] [[mi:Paenga-whāwhā]] [[mr:एप्रिल]] [[ms:April]] [[nap:Abbrile]] [[nl:April]] [[nn:April]] [[no:April]] [[oc:Abril]] [[pl:Kwiecień]] [[pt:Abril]] [[ro:Aprilie]] [[ru:Апрель]] [[scn:Aprili]] [[sco:Aprile]] [[se:Cuoŋománnu]] [[simple:April]] [[sk:Apríl]] [[sl:April]] [[sq:Prilli]] [[sr:Април]] [[sv:April]] [[ta:ஏப்ரல்]] [[th:เมษายน]] [[tl:Abril]] [[tpi:Epril]] [[tr:Nisan]] [[tt:Äpril]] [[uk:Квітень]] [[ur:اپريل]] [[vi:Tháng tư]] [[vo:Prilul]] [[wa:Avri]] [[zh:4月]] 1005 42001275 2006-03-03T03:38:27Z Anthonyken0109 906087 /* Trivia */ {{AugustCalendar}} '''August''' is the [[eighth]] month of the [[year]] in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] and one of seven Gregorian months with the length of 31 [[days]]. August begins (astrologically) with the sun in the sign of [[Leo]] and ends in the sign of [[Virgo]]. Astronomically speaking, the sun begins in the constellation of [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]] and ends in the constellation of [[Leo]]. August was named in honor of [[Augustus]]. The month reputedly has 31 days because Augustus wanted as many days as [[Julius Caesar]]'s [[July]]. Augustus placed the month where it is because that is when [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]] died. Before Augustus renamed August, it was called ''[[Sextilis]]'' in [[Latin]], since it was the sixth month in the [[Roman calendar]] which started in [[March]]. In the [[neopaganism|pagan]] [[wheel of the year]] August begins at or near [[Lughnasadh]] in the [[northern hemisphere]] and [[Imbolc]] in the [[southern hemisphere]]. In [[Ireland]], (in the [[Irish language]]) August is known as '''Lúnasa''', a modern rendition of [[Lughnasadh]], named after the god [[Lugh]] and [[August 1]], (Lá Lúnasa) in the [[Irish Calendar]] is still regarded as the first day of [[Autumn]]. The first Monday in August is one of the [[public holidays in the Republic of Ireland]]. In the [[Japanese calendar|old Japanese calendar]], the month is called ''hatsuki'' (&#33865;&#26376;). In [[Finnish language|Finnish]], the month is called ''elokuu'', meaning "month of reaping". In the [[UK]], August is generally when all academic exam results are published, especially for [[GCSE]]s and [[A-Levels]] as well as other exams. Also, scholars and school workers such as teachers, have a holiday or non-contact time, and there are two bank holidays (UK). It is typically when people go on holiday due to the availability of time. During August 13 to 19, [[Philippines]] schools and theaters celebrate the National Week of the [[Tagalog|Filipino]] Language. In [[Spain]], August is the holiday month for most workers. In [[Brazil]], folk superstition associates bad luck to August, with the proverb ''"Agosto, o mês do desgosto"'' ("August, the month of misfortune") being often heard. This may come from the sinister memories of the [[Bartholomew|St. Bartholomew]]'s day (August 24), which is particularly dreaded in the Northeast of the country. August 24 is also, in the tradition of [[Candomblé]], the day of [[Eshu]], one of the most malevolent deities. Coincidentally, some unfortunate polical events took place in August, like the suicide of the then President [[Getúlio Vargas]]. [http://www.tvgazeta.com.br/todoseu/assuntos_programas_notas.php?v_id_notas=55&r_titulo=A] Every last Sunday of August, the [[Philippines]] celebrates National Heroes Day in commemoration of the First Cry of the Philippine Revolution on [[August 23]], [[1896]]. August is also the name of a Japanese [[visual novel]] company. ==Events & Months in August== * National Back To School Month * National Investors Month * Admit You're Happy Month * Women's Small Business Month ==Trivia== [[Image:Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry aout.jpg|right|thumb|August, from the ''Très riches heures du duc de Berry'']] *'''August''' begins on the same day of the week as '''February''' in a leap year. *August's [[flower]] is the [[poppy]]. *August's [[birthstone]] is the [[peridot]]. *August contains no [[United States]] holiday. *August in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] is the seasonal equivalent to [[February]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] and vise versa. {{wiktionary}} {{months}} [[Category:Months]] [[af:Augustus]] [[als:August]] [[ang:Wēodmōnaþ]] [[ar:أغسطس]] [[an:Agosto]] [[ast:Agostu]] [[bg:Август]] [[be:Жнівень]] [[bs:August]] [[br:Eost]] [[ca:Agost]] [[ceb:Agosto]] [[cv:Çурла]] [[cs:Srpen]] [[cy:Awst]] [[da:August]] [[de:August]] [[et:August]] [[el:Αύγουστος]] [[es:Agosto]] [[eo:Aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztu]] [[fa:اوت]] [[fo:August]] [[fr:Août]] [[fy:Augustus]] [[fur:Avost]] [[ga:Lúnasa]] [[gl:Agosto]] [[ko:8월]] [[hr:Kolovoz]] [[io:Agosto]] [[id:Agustus]] [[ia:Augusto]] [[ie:August]] [[is:Ágúst]] [[it:Agosto]] [[he:אוגוסט]] [[jv:Agustus]] [[kn:ಆಗಸ್ಟ್]] [[ka:აგვისტო]] [[csb:Zélnik]] [[kw:Mys Est]] [[ku:Gelawêj (meh)]] [[la:Augustus (mensis)]] [[lv:Augusts]] [[lt:Rugpjūtis]] [[lb:August]] [[li:Augustus (maond)]] [[hu:Augusztus]] [[mi:Here-turi-kōkā]] [[mr:ऑगस्ट]] [[ms:Ogos]] [[nap:Aùsto]] [[nl:Augustus (maand)]] [[ja:8月]] [[no:August]] [[nn:August]] [[oc:Agost]] [[pl:Sierpień]] [[pt:Agosto]] [[ro:August]] [[ru:Август]] [[se:Borgemánnu]] [[sco:August]] [[sq:Gushti]] [[scn:Austu]] [[simple:August]] [[sk:August]] [[sl:Avgust]] [[sr:Август]] [[su:Agustus]] [[fi:Elokuu]] [[sv:Augusti]] [[tl:Agosto]] [[ta:ஆகஸ்டு]] [[tt:August]] [[th:สิงหาคม]] [[vi:Tháng tám]] [[tpi:Ogas]] [[tr:Ağustos]] [[uk:Серпень]] [[ur:اگست]] [[vo:Gustul]] [[wa:Awousse]] [[zh:8月]] 1006 41885933 2006-03-02T10:28:34Z Waggers 878293 Revert to revision 41655597 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] :''For other uses of the word Aaron, see [[Aaron (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:GoldCalf.jpg|thumb|right|]] '''Aaron''' ('''&#1488;&#1463;&#1492;&#1458;&#1512;&#1465;&#1503;''', a word meaning "bearer of martyrs" in Hebrew (perhaps also, or instead, related to the [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] "Aha Rw," "Warrior Lion"), [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Aharon''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&#702;Ah&#259;r&#333;n'''), was one of two brothers who play a unique part in the history of the [[Hebrew people]]. He was the elder son of [[Amram]] and [[Jochebed]] of the tribe of [[Levi]]; [[Moses]], the other son, being three years younger, and [[Miriam]], their sister, several years older ([[Exodus]] 2:4; [[Exodus]] 6:16 ff.; [[Numbers]] 33:39). Aaron was the great-grandson of [[Levi]] ([[Exodus]] 6:16-20) and represented the priestly functions of his tribe. While [[Moses]] was receiving his education at the [[Egypt]]ian court and during his exile among the [[Midianites]], Aaron and his sister remained with their kinsmen in the eastern border-land of [[Egypt]]. Here he gained a name for eloquent and persuasive speech; so that when the time came for the demand upon [[Pharaoh]] to release Israel from captivity, Aaron became his brother’s ''nabi '', or spokesman, to his own people ([[Exodus]] 4:16) and, after their unwillingness to hear, to [[Pharaoh]] himself ([[Exodus]] 7:9). ==His function== Aaron’s function included the duties of speaker and implied personal dealings with the court on behalf of [[Moses]], who was always the central moving figure. The part played by Aaron in the events that preceded the [[Exodus]] was, therefore, ministerial, and not directive. He, along with [[Moses]], performed “signs” before his people which impressed them with a belief in the reality of the divine mission of the brothers ([[Exodus]] 4:15-16). At the command of [[Moses]] he stretched out his rod in order to bring on the first three plagues ([[Exodus]] 7:19, 8:1, 12). In the infliction of the remaining plagues he appears to have acted merely as the attendant of [[Moses]], whose outstretched rod drew the divine wrath upon [[Pharaoh]] and his subjects ([[Exodus]] 9:23, 10:13, 22). The potency of Aaron’s rod had already been demonstrated by its victory over the rods of the [[Egypt]]ian magicians, which it swallowed after all the rods alike had been turned into serpents ([[Exodus]] 7:9 ''et seq.''). During the journey in the wilderness Aaron is not always prominent or active; and he sometimes appears guilty of rebellious or treasonable conduct. At the battle with [[Amalek]] he is chosen with [[Hur]] to support the hand of [[Moses]] that held the “rod of [[God]]” ([[Exodus]] 17:9 ''et seq.''). When the revelation was given to [[Moses]] at [[Sinai]], he headed the elders of Israel who accompanied [[Moses]] on the way to the summit. [[Joshua]], however, was admitted with his leader to the very presence of [[the Lord]], while Aaron and [[Hur]] remained below to look after the people ([[Exodus]] 24:9-14). It was during the prolonged absence of [[Moses]] that Aaron yielded to the clamors of the people, and made a golden calf as a visible image of the divinity who had delivered them from [[Egypt]] ([[Exodus]] 32:1-6). At the intercession of [[Moses]], Aaron was saved from the plague which smote the people ([[Deuteronomy]] 9:20; [[Exodus]] 32:35), although it was to Aaron’s tribe of [[Levi]] that the work of punitive vengeance was committed ([[Exodus]] 32:26 ''et seq.''). ==Becomes priest of Israel== At the time when the tribe of [[Levi]] was set apart for the priestly service, Aaron was anointed and consecrated to the priesthood, arrayed in the robes of his office, and instructed in its manifold duties ([[Exodus]] 28 and 29). On the very day of his consecration his sons, [[Nadab|Nadav]] and [[Abihu|Avihu]], were consumed by fire from [[the Lord]] for having offered incense in an unlawful manner ([[Leviticus]] 10). ==Rebellion of [[Korah]]== From the time of the sojourn at [[Sinai]], where he became the anointed priest of Israel, Aaron ceased to be the minister of [[Moses]], his place being taken by [[Joshua]]. He is mentioned in association with [[Miriam]] in a jealous complaint against the exclusive claims of [[Moses]] as [[the Lord]]’s prophet. The presumption of the murmurers was rebuked, and [[Miriam]] was smitten with ''tzara'as''. Aaron entreated [[Moses]] to intercede for her, at the same time confessing the sin and folly that prompted the uprising. Aaron himself was not struck with the plague on account of sacerdotal immunity; and [[Miriam]], after seven days’ quarantine, was healed and restored to favor ([[Numbers]] 12). It is noteworthy that the prophet [[Micah]] (6:4) mentions [[Moses]], Aaron, and [[Miriam]] as the leaders of Israel after the [[Exodus]] (a judgment wholly in accord with the tenor of the narratives). In the present instance it is made clear by the express words of the oracle ([[Numbers]] 12:6-8) that [[Moses]] was unique among men as the one with whom [[the Lord]] spoke face to face. The failure to recognize or concede this prerogative of their brother was the sin of [[Miriam]] and Aaron. The validity of the exclusive priesthood of the family of Aaron was attested after the ill-fated rebellion of [[Korah]], who was a first cousin of Aaron. When the earth had opened and swallowed up the leaders of the insurgents ([[Numbers]] 16:25-35), [[Eleazar]], the son of Aaron, was commissioned to take charge of the censers of the dead priests. And when the plague had broken out among the people who had sympathized with the rebels, Aaron, at the command of [[Moses]], took his censer and stood between the living and the dead till the plague was stayed ([[Numbers]] 17:1-15, 16:36-50, Authorized Version). Another memorable transaction followed. Each of the tribal princes of Israel took a rod and wrote his name upon it, and the twelve rods were laid up over night in the tent of meeting. On the morrow Aaron’s rod was found to have budded and blossomed and borne ripe almonds ([[Numbers]] 17:8; see [[Aaron’s Rod]]). The miracle proved merely the prerogative of the tribe of [[Levi]]; but now a formal distinction was made in perpetuity between the family of Aaron and the other [[Levites]]. While all the [[Levites]] (and only [[Levites]]) were to be devoted to sacred services, the special charge of the sanctuary and the altar was committed to the Aaronites alone ([[Numbers]] 18:1-7). The scene of this enactment is unknown, nor is the time mentioned. ==Death== Aaron, like [[Moses]], was not permitted to enter [[Canaan]] with the successful invaders. The reason alleged is that the two brothers showed impatience at Meribah (Kadesh) in the last year of the desert pilgrimage ([[Numbers]] 20:12, 13), when they, or rather [[Moses]], brought water out of a rock to quench the thirst of the people. The action was construed as displaying a want of deference to [[the Lord]], since they had been commanded to speak to the rock, whereas [[Moses]] struck it with the wonder-working rod ([[Numbers]] 20:7-11). Of the death of Aaron we have two accounts. The principal one gives a detailed statement to the effect that, soon after the above incident, Aaron, with his son [[Eleazar]] and [[Moses]], ascended [[Mount Hor]]. There [[Moses]] stripped him (Aaron) of his priestly garments, and transferred them to [[Eleazar]]. Aaron died on the summit of the mountain, and the people mourned for him thirty days ([[Numbers]] 20:22-29; compare 33:38, 39). The other account is found in [[Deuteronomy]] 10:6, where [[Moses]] is reported as saying that Aaron died at [[Mosera]] and was buried there. Some scholars think that [[Mosera]] is not on [[Mount Hor]], since the itinerary in [[Numbers]] 33:31-37 records seven stages between [[Moseroth]] ([[Mosera]]) and [[Mount Hor]]. ==Typical signification in apocryphal and rabbinical literature== The older prophets and prophetical writers beheld in their priests the representatives of a religious form inferior to the prophetic truth; men without the spirit of [[God]] and lacking the will-power requisite to resist the multitude in its idolatrous proclivities. Thus Aaron, the typical priest, ranks far below [[Moses]]: he is but his mouthpiece, and the executor of the will of [[God]] revealed through [[Moses]], although it is pointed out (Sifra, Wa-yiḳra, 1) that it is said fifteen times in the Pentateuch that “[[the Lord]] spoke to [[Moses]] ''and'' Aaron.” Under the influence of the priesthood which shaped the destinies of the nation under [[Persians|Persian]] rule, a different ideal of the priest was formed, as is learned from [[Malachi]] 2:4-7; and the prevailing tendency was to place Aaron on a footing equal with [[Moses]]. “At times Aaron, and at other times [[Moses]], is mentioned first in Scripture—this is to show that they were of equal rank,” says Mekilta בא, 1; and [[Ecclesiasticus]] ([[Sirach]]), 44:6-24, expressly infers this when introducing in his record of renowned men the glowing description of Aaron’s ministration. ==[[Moses]] and Aaron compared== According to Tanḥuma (ed. Buber, 2:12), Aaron’s activity as a prophet began earlier than that of [[Moses]]. The writer of the Testaments of the Patriarchs, however, hesitates to rank [[Moses]] the faithful, “him that speaks with [[God]] as with a father,” as equal with Aaron (Testament of [[Levi]], 8:17). The rabbis are still more emphatic in their praise of Aaron’s virtues. Thus Hillel, who in Herod’s time saw before him mainly a degenerate class of priests, selfish and quarrelsome, held Aaron of old up as a mirror, saying: “Be of the disciples of Aaron, loving peace and pursuing peace; love your fellow creatures and draw them nigh unto the Law!” (Abot, 1:12). This is further illustrated by the tradition preserved in Abot de-Rabbi Natan 12, Sanhedrin 6b, and elsewhere, according to which Aaron was an ideal priest of the people, far more beloved for his kindly ways than was [[Moses]]. While [[Moses]] was stern and uncompromising, brooking no wrong, Aaron went about as peacemaker, reconciling man and wife when he saw them estranged, or a man with his neighbor when they quarreled, and winning evil-doers back into the right way by his friendly intercourse. The mourning of the people at Aaron’s death was greater, therefore, than at that of [[Moses]]; for whereas, when Aaron died the whole house of Israel wept, including the women ([[Numbers]] 20:29), [[Moses]] was bewailed by “the sons of Israel” only ([[Deuteronomy]] 34:8). Even in the making of the Golden Calf the rabbis find extenuating circumstances for Aaron (Sanhedrin 7a). His fortitude and silent submission to the will of [[God]] on the loss of his two sons are referred to as an excellent example to men how to glorify [[God]] in the midst of great affliction (Zebaḥim 115b; [[Josephus]], “[[Antiquities of the Jews]]” 3:8, § 7). Especially significant are the words represented as being spoken by [[God]] after the princes of the [[Twelve Tribes]] had brought their dedication offerings into the newly reared Tabernacle: “Say to thy brother Aaron: Greater than the gifts of the princes is thy gift; for thou art called upon to kindle the light, and, while the sacrifices shall last only as long as the Temple lasts, thy light of the Law shall last forever” (Tanḥuma, ed. Buber, בהעלותך, 6). ==Death of Aaron== In fulfillment of the promise of peaceful life, symbolized by the pouring of oil upon his head ([[Leviticus]] Rabbah 10, Midrash Tehilim 133:1), Aaron’s death, as described in the Haggadah, was of a wonderful tranquillity. Accompanied by [[Moses]], his brother, and by [[Eleazar]], his son, Aaron went to the summit of [[Mount Hor]], where the rock suddenly opened before him and a beautiful cave lit by a lamp presented itself to his view. “Take off thy priestly raiment and place it upon thy son [[Eleazar]]!” said [[Moses]]; “and then follow me.” Aaron did as commanded; and they entered the cave, where was prepared a bed around which angels stood. “Go lie down upon thy bed, my brother,” [[Moses]] continued; and Aaron obeyed without a murmur. Then his soul departed as if by a kiss from [[God]]. The cave closed behind [[Moses]] as he left; and he went down the hill with [[Eleazar]], with garments rent, and crying: “Alas, Aaron, my brother! thou, the pillar of supplication of Israel!” When the Israelites cried in bewilderment, “Where is Aaron?” angels were seen carrying Aaron’s bier through the air. A voice was then heard saying: “The law of truth was in his mouth, and iniquity was not found on his lips: he walked with me in righteousness, and brought many back from sin” ([[Malachi]] 2:6, 7). He died, according to Seder ‘Olam R. 9, Rosh ha-Shanah 2, 3a, and [[Josephus]], “[[Antiquities of the Jews]]” 4:4, § 7, on the first of Ab. [[Josephus]] says also that “he died while the multitude looked upon him.” The pillar of cloud which proceeded in front of Israel’s camp disappeared at Aaron’s death (see Seder ‘Olam, 9 and Rosh ha-Shanah 2b-3a). The seeming contradiction between [[Numbers]] 20:22 ''et seq.'' and [[Deuteronomy]] 10:6 is solved by the rabbis in the following manner: Aaron’s death on [[Mount Hor]] was marked by the defeat of the people in a war with the king of Arad, in consequence of which the Israelites fled, marching seven stations backward to [[Moseroth|Mosera]], where they performed the rites of mourning for Aaron; wherefore it is said: “There [at [[Moseroth|Mosera]]] died Aaron.” See Mekilta, Beshallaḥ, Wayassa’, 1; Tanḥuma, Huḳḳat, 18; Yerushalmi Soṭah, 1:17c, and Targum Yerushalmi [[Numbers]] and [[Deuteronomy]] on the above-mentioned passages. The rabbis also dwell with special laudation on the brotherly sentiment which united Aaron and [[Moses]]. When the latter was appointed ruler and Aaron high priest, neither betrayed any jealousy; instead they rejoiced in one another’s greatness. When [[Moses]] at first declined to go to [[Pharaoh]], saying: “O my Lord, send, I pray thee, by the hand of him whom thou wilt send” ([[Exodus]] 4:13), he was unwilling to deprive Aaron, his brother, of the high position the latter had held for so many years; but [[the Lord]] reassured him, saying: “Behold, when he seeth thee, he will be glad in his heart” ([[Exodus]] 4:14). Indeed, Aaron was to find his reward, says Simon ben Yoḥai; for that heart which had leaped with joy over his younger brother’s rise to glory greater than his was decorated with the Urim and Thummim, which were to “be upon Aaron’s heart when he goeth in before [[the Lord]]” (Canticles Rabbah 1:10). [[Moses]] and Aaron met in gladness of heart, kissing each other as true brothers ([[Exodus]] 4:27; compare [[Song of Songs]], 8:1), and of them it is written: “Behold how good and how pleasant [it is] for brethren to dwell together in unity!” ([[Psalms]] 133:1). Of them it is said ([[Psalms]] 85:10): “Mercy and truth are met together; righteousness and peace have kissed [each other]”; for [[Moses]] stood for righteousness, according to [[Deuteronomy]] 33:21, and Aaron for peace, according to [[Malachi]] 2:6. Again, mercy was personified in Aaron, according to [[Deuteronomy]] 33:8, and truth in [[Moses]], according to [[Numbers]] 12:7 (Tanḥuma, Shemot, ed. Buber, 24-26). When [[Moses]] poured the oil of anointment upon the head of Aaron, Aaron modestly shrank back and said: “Who knows whether I have not cast some blemish upon this sacred oil so as to forfeit this high office.” Then the Holy Spirit spake the words: “Behold the precious ointment upon the head, that ran down upon the beard of Aaron, that even went down to the skirts of his garment, is as pure as the dew of [[Hermon]]” ([[Psalms]] 133:2, 3, ''Heb''.; Sifra, Shemini, Milluim; Tanḥuma, [[Korah]], ed. Buber, 14).
 ==Genetics== Recently, the tradition that [[Kohanim]] are actually descended from Aaron was supported by [[genetic testing]] (Skorecki et al., 1997). Since all direct male lineage shares a common [[Y chromosome]], testing was done across sectors of the Jewish population to see if there was any commonality between their Y chromosomes. There was proven to be certain distinctions among the [[Cohen modal haplotype]], implying that the Kohanim do share some common ancestry. This information was used to support the claim of the [[Lemba]] (a [[sub-Saharan]] tribe) that they were in fact, a tribe of Jews. ==According to the documentary hypothesis== The Biblical representation of his character, negative and shadowy compared with Moses's, may be viewed in several ways. A clue to the seemingly contradictory delineations of Aaron (other than the obvious explanation that he is a complex character) is found in the framework of documentary analysis (see also ''[[Hexateuch]]''), which is accepted by some but not all scholars. According to those who accept the [[documentary hypothesis]], the following portions of text belong to (1) [[Elohist|E]], (2) [[Jahwist|J]], (3) [[Deuteronomist|D]], and (4) [[Priestly source|P]] sources, respectively, with the fifth item being from ''[[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]]''. #'''Aaron as fallible'''. These passages do not represent Aaron as a sacrosanct [[priest]]. He comes to meet Moses (''Exodus'' 4:14), supports him in war (Exodus 17:12) and jurisprudence (Exodus 24:14). He yields to the people and makes the [[Golden Calf|calf]] (Exodus 32), and, with [[Miriam]], [[Snow-white Miriam|criticises Moses]] for marrying a [[Cush]]ite woman. Miriam is subsequently punished (''Numbers'' 12). He is present at the sacrificial covenant meal between [[Israel]] and the [[Kenite]]s (Exodus 18:12). In this aspect, [[Joshua]], instead of Aaron, serves in the Tent (Exodus 33:11). #'''Aaron as Moses's prophet'''. This representation concerns the covenant meal on [[Sinai]] (Exodus 24:1, 2, 9-11) and the vague charge that Aaron "let the people loose" (Exodus 32:25). Aaron seems to be an afterthought in the plague narrative (Exodus 8:25). In both this and the last view, Moses is the viceregent of God and Aaron is Moses' prophet (Exodus 4:16, 7:1). #'''Aaron as idolatrous'''. In ''[[Deuteronomy]]'' 9, Aaron is partly responsible for the building of the [[Golden Calf]]. The story says that [[Yahweh]] is so angry toward Aaron that he was about to destroy him. It appears that it is only Moses's intercessory prayer and his destruction of the Golden Calf which saves Aaron. The account of his death in Deuteromy 10:6 is different from that in Numbers 20:22. According to Deuteronomy it occurred at [[Moseroth|Moserah]], seven stations from [[Mount Hor]] (Numbers 33:30), in the early months of the wandering because of the sign of the Golden Calf. The only other passage in reference to Aaron in Deuteronomy merely states that he is the brother of Moses (Deuteronomy 32:50). #'''Aaron as subordinate'''. The first three, simpler, plagues Aaron brings on at Moses' command; thereafter Moses himself is the actor. In the narratives (Numbers 16, 17) it is Moses in each case who vindicates him. Aaron dies at Mount Hor in the fortieth year of the Exodus (Numbers 20:22, 33:38), because of rebellion at [[Meribah]] (cf. Deuteronomy as above). #'''Aaron as non-priestly'''. In ''[[Leviticus]]'' 17-26, Aaron appears only in redactional passages connecting the [[Law of Holiness]] with its present context. In ''Ezekiel'' 40-48 Zadok, not Aaron, is the eponym of the priestly line (44:15, etc.). ==In the Qur’an== In the [[Qur'an]] he is known as [[Harun]]. ==References== *''[[Numbers]] Rabbah'' 9 *''[[Leviticus]] Rabbah'' 10
 *''Midrash Peṭirat Aharon'' in Jellinek’s ''Bet ha-Midrash'', 1:91-95
 *''Yalḳuṭ [[Numbers]]'' 764
 *Baring-Gould, ''Legends of Old Testament Characters''
 *''Chronicles of Jerahmeel'', ed. M. Gaster, pp. cx1:130-133
 *B. Beer, in Wertheimer’s ''Jahrb.'', 1855
 *Hamburger, ''Der Geist der Haggada'', pp. 1-8
 *the same, ''Realencyklopädie für Bibel und Talmud'', s. v. *{{JewishEncyclopedia}} *{{1911}} ==See also== {{Wikisource1911Enc|Aaron}} * [[Kohen]] * [[Y-chromosomal Aaron]] * [[Documentary Hypothesis]] - theories on the alternate meaning of Aaron's presence in the Torah. [[Category:1597 BC births]] [[Category:1474 BC deaths]] [[Category:Torah people]] [[ang:Aaron]] [[ar:Aaaron]] [[bg:Аарон (библия)]] [[ca:Aaró]] [[de:Aaron (biblische Person)]] [[et:Aaron]] [[eo:Aaron]] [[fr:Aaron (personnage biblique)]] [[gl:Aharón - אהרן]] [[ia:Aaron]] [[he:אהרן הכהן]] [[nl:Aäron]] [[pl:Aaron (Biblia)]] [[pt:Aarão]] [[ru:Аарон Леви]] [[sv:Aron]] 1007 42016591 2006-03-03T06:07:05Z 65.148.101.160 /* Deaths */ added Faith Domergue <!-- Language links at bottom --> {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=4}} |} '''April 4''' is the 94th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (95th in [[leap year]]s). There are 271 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1581]] - [[Francis Drake]] completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. *[[1721]] - Sir [[Robert Walpole]] enters office as the first [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] under [[George I of Great Britain|King George I]]. *[[1812]] - U.S. President [[James Madison]] enacted a ninety-day [[embargo]] on trade with the [[United Kingdom]]. *[[1814]] - [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] abdicates for the first time. *[[1818]] - The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] adopts the [[flag of the United States]] as having 13 red and white stripes and one star for each state (20 stars) with additional stars to be added whenever a new state is added to the Union. *[[1841]] - President [[William Henry Harrison]] dies of [[pneumonia]] becoming the first [[President of the United States]] to die in office and at one month, the elected president with the shortest term served. *[[1850]] - [[Los Angeles, California]] is incorporated as a city. *[[1859]] - [[Bryant's Minstrels]] debut "[[Dixie (song)|Dixie]]" in [[New York City]] in the finale of a [[blackface]] [[minstrel show]]. *[[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: A day after [[United States|Union]] forces capture [[Richmond, Virginia]], U.S. President [[Abraham Lincoln]] visits the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] capital. *[[1866]] - [[Alexander II of Russia]] narrowly escapes an assassination attempt in the city of Kiev. A design for a city gate to commemorate his escape was the inspiration for [[Modest Mussorgsky|Mussorgsky's]] ''The Great Gate of Kiev'' from ''[[Pictures at an Exhibition]]''. *[[1887]] - [[Argonia, Kansas]] elects [[Susanna M. Salter]] as the first female mayor in the [[United States]]. *[[1905]] - In [[India]], an [[earthquake]] near [[Kangra]] kills 370,000. *[[1918]] - [[World War I]]: [[Second Battle of the Somme]] ends. *[[1939]] - [[Faisal II of Iraq|Faisal II]] becomes King of [[Iraq]]. *[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: American troops liberate [[Ohrdruf death camp]] in [[Germany]]. *1945 - World War II: Soviet Army liberates [[Hungary]]. *[[1949]] - Twelve nations sign The [[North Atlantic Treaty]] creating the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]]. *[[1964]] - [[The Beatles]] occupy all of the top five positions on the Billboard singles chart in the United States. *[[1968]] - [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] assassinated in Memphis. * 1968 - [[Apollo program]]: [[NASA]] launches [[Apollo 6]]. *[[1969]] - Dr. [[Denton Cooley]] implants the first temporary [[artificial heart]]. * 1969 - The ''[[Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour]]'' is cancelled after the brothers failed to submit an episode before its broadcast date. *[[1973]] - The [[World Trade Center]] in [[New York, New York|New York]] is officially dedicated. *[[1974]] - [[Hank Aaron]] of the [[Atlanta Braves]] ties [[Babe Ruth]]'s home run record of 714 in the first inning against the [[Cincinnati Reds]]. *[[1975]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Operation Baby Lift]] - A [[United States Air Force]] [[C-5 Galaxy|C-5A Galaxy]] crashes near [[Saigon]], [[South Vietnam]] shortly after takeoff, transporting orphans. 172 people are killed. *[[1976]] - Prince [[Norodom Sihanouk]] resigns as leader of [[Cambodia]] and is placed under house arrest. *[[1979]] - President [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] of [[Pakistan]] is executed. *[[1981]] - In [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]], [[Bucks Fizz (band)|Bucks Fizz]] win the twenty-sixth [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for the [[United Kingdom]] singing "Making Your Mind Up". *[[1983]] - Space Shuttle ''[[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]]'' makes its maiden voyage into space. *[[1984]] - President [[Ronald Reagan]] calls for an international ban on [[chemical weapon]]s. *[[1988]] - [[List of Governors of Arizona|Governor]] [[Evan Mecham]] of [[Arizona]] is convicted in his [[impeachment]] trial and removed from office. *[[1991]] - Senator [[John Heinz]] of [[Pennsylvania]] and six others are killed when a helicopter collides with their plane over [[Merion, Pennsylvania]]. *[[1994]] - [[Netscape Communications Corporation]] is founded (under the name "Mosaic Communications Corporation") by [[Marc Andreessen]] and [[James H. Clark|Jim Clark]]. *[[2003]] - [[Sammy Sosa]] becomes the 18th member of the [[500 home run club]] with a [[Home run|home run]] at [[Great American Ball Park]] in [[Cincinnati, Ohio]]. *[[2004]] - [[Muqtada al-Sadr]]'s [[Mahdi Army]] stage an uprising in several towns and cities in Iraq after the Coalition's closure of Sadr's [[al-Hawza]] newspaper. ==Births== *[[186]] - [[Caracalla]], Roman emperor (d. [[217]]) *[[1492]] - [[Ambrosius Blarer]], German reformer (d. [[1564]]) *[[1593]] - [[Edward Nicholas]], English statesman (d. [[1669]]) *[[1646]] - [[Antoine Galland]], French archaeologist (d. [[1715]]) *[[1648]] - [[Grinling Gibbons]] Dutch-born woodcarver (d. [[1721]]) *[[1688]] - [[Joseph-Nicolas Delisle]], French astronomer (d. [[1768]]) *[[1718]] - [[Benjamin Kennicott]], English churchman and Hebrew scholar (d. [[1783]]) *[[1785]] - [[Bettina von Arnim]], German writer (d. [[1859]]) *[[1802]] - [[Dorothea Dix]], American social activist (d. [[1887]]) *[[1819]] - Queen [[Maria II of Portugal]] (d. [[1853]]) *[[1826]] - [[Zénobe Gramme]], Belgian engineer (d. [[1901]]) *[[1846]] - [[Comte de Lautréamont]], French writer (d. [[1870]]) *[[1875]] - [[Pierre Monteux]], French conductor (d. [[1964]]) *[[1876]] - [[Maurice de Vlaminck]], French painter (d. [[1958]]) *[[1884]] - [[Isoroku Yamamoto]], Japanese naval commander (d. [[1943]]) *[[1888]] - [[Tris Speaker]], baseball player (d. [[1958]]) *[[1895]] - [[Arthur Murray]], American dance teacher (d. [[1991]]) *[[1898]] - [[Agnes Ayres]], American actress (d. [[1940]]) *[[1902]] - [[Louise Leveque de Vilmorin]], French actress (d. [[1969]]) *[[1906]] - [[Bea Benaderet]], American actress (d. [[1968]]) *1906 - [[John Cameron Swayze]], American journalist and television host (d. [[1995]]) *[[1911]] - [[Max Dupain]], [[Australian]] photographer (d. 1992) *[[1913]] - [[Frances Langford]], American actress (d. [[2005]]) *[[1914]] - [[Marguerite Duras]], French writer (d. [[1996]]) *[[1915]] - [[Muddy Waters]], American musician (d. [[1983]]) *[[1920]] - [[Éric Rohmer]], French film director *[[1922]] - [[Elmer Bernstein]], American composer (d. [[2004]]) *[[1924]] - [[Gil Hodges]], baseball player (d. [[1972]]) *[[1928]] - [[Maya Angelou]], American writer *[[1931]] - [[Bobby Ray Inman]], American admiral and intelligence director *[[1932]] - [[Anthony Perkins]], American actor (d. [[1992]]) *1932 - [[Andrei Tarkovsky]], Russian film director (d. [[1986]]) *1932 - [[Richard Lugar]], American politician *[[1934]] - [[Clive Davis]], American record producer *[[1938]] - [[A. Bartlett Giamatti]], American university president and baseball commissioner *[[1939]] - [[Hugh Masekela]], South African musician *[[1940]] - [[Sharon Sheeley]], American songwriter *[[1942]] - [[Kitty Kelley]], American writer *[[1944]] - [[Craig T. Nelson]], American actor *[[1945]] - [[Daniel Cohn-Bendit]], French political activist *[[1946]] - [[Dave Hill]], English guitarist ([[Slade]]) *[[1947]] - [[Luke Halpin]], American actor *1947 - [[Wiranto]], Indonesian general *[[1948]] - [[Dan Simmons]], American writer *1948 - [[Abdullah Öcalan]], Kurdish leader *1948 - [[Derek Thompson]], Northern Irish actor *[[1950]] - [[Christine Lahti]], American actress *[[1951]] - [[Hun Sen]], Prime Minister of Cambodia *[[1952]] - [[Rosemarie Ackermann]], German athlete *[[1953]] - [[Robert Bertrand]], Canadian politician *[[1956]] - [[David E. Kelley]], American writer and television producer *[[1957]] - [[Aki Kaurismäki]], Finnish film director *1957 - [[Nobuyoshi Kuwano]], Japanese television performer and musician ([[Rats & Star]]) *[[1958]] - [[Mary-Margaret Humes]], American actress *[[1960]] - [[Jane Eaglin]], English soprano *1960 - [[Hugo Weaving]], Australian actor *[[1963]] - [[Jack Del Rio]], American football player and coach *1963 - [[Graham Norton]], Irish talk show host *1963 - [[Dale Hawerchuk]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player *[[1965]] - [[Robert Downey Jr.]], American actor *[[1968]] - [[Jennifer Lynch]], American director *[[1970]] - [[Barry Pepper]], Canadian actor *[[1973]] - [[David Blaine]], American illusionist *[[1974]] - [[Dave Mirra]], American athlete *[[1975]] - [[Scott Rolen]], baseball player *1975 - [[Delphine Arnault]], billionaire French businesswoman *[[1979]] - [[Heath Ledger]], Australian actor *1979 - [[Natasha Lyonne]], American actress *[[1980]] - [[Björn Wirdheim]], Swedish race car driver *[[1991]] - [[Jamie Lynn Spears]], American television show host ==Deaths== *[[397]] - [[Ambrose|St. Ambrose]], Bishop of Milan *[[896]] - [[Pope Formosus]] (b. [[816]]) *[[1284]] - King [[Alfonso X of Castile]] (b. [[1221]]) *[[1292]] - [[Pope Nicholas IV]] (b. [[1227]]) *[[1305]] - [[Jeanne of Navarre]], queen of [[Philip IV of France]] *[[1536]] - [[Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach]] (b. [[1460]]) *[[1588]] - King [[Frederick II of Denmark]] (b. [[1534]] *[[1609]] - [[Charles de L'Ecluse]], Flemish botanist (b. [[1526]]) *[[1617]] - [[John Napier]], Scottish mathematician (b. [[1550]]) *[[1643]] - [[Simon Episcopius]], Dutch theologian (b. [[1583]]) *[[1661]] - [[Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven]], Scottish soldier *[[1701]] - [[Joseph Haines]], entertainer and author *[[1743]] - [[Daniel Neal]], English historian (b. [[1678]]) *[[1761]] - [[Theodore Gardelle]], Swiss painter and enameler (b. [[1722]]) *[[1766]] - [[John Taylor (1704-1766)|John Taylor]], English classical scholar (b. [[1704]]) *[[1774]] - [[Oliver Goldsmith]], English writer (b. [[1728]]) *[[1792]] - [[James Sykes (1725-1792)|James Sykes]], American politician (b. [[1725]]) *[[1807]] - [[Joseph Jérôme Lefrançais de Lalande]], French astronomer (b. [[1732]]) *[[1817]] - [[André Masséna]], French marshal (b. [[1758]]) *[[1841]] - [[William Henry Harrison]], 9th [[President of the United States]] (b. [[1773]]) *[[1842]] - [[Jean Moufot]], French philosopher and mathematician (b. [[1784]]) *[[1846]] - [[Solomon Sibley]], Senator from Michigan Territory (b. [[1769]]) *[[1861]] - [[John McLean]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice (b. [[1785]]) *[[1870]] - [[Heinrich Gustav Magnus]], German chemist and physicist (b. [[1802]]) *[[1874]] - [[Charles Ernest Beulé]], French archaelogist and politician (b. [[1826]]) *[[1879]] - [[Heinrich Wilhelm Dove]], German physicist (b. [[1803]]) *[[1884]] - [[Marie Bashkirtseff]], Russian artist and diarist (b. [[1860]]) *[[1890]] - [[Edmond Hébert]], French geologist (b. [[1812]]) *[[1919]] - Sir [[William Crookes]], English chemist and physicist (b. [[1832]]) *[[1923]] - [[John Venn]], British mathematician (b. [[1834]]) *[[1932]] - [[Wilhelm Ostwald]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1853]]) *[[1951]] - [[Al Christie]], Canadian film director and producer (b. [[1881]]) *1951 - [[George Albert Smith]], president of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (b. [[1870]]) *[[1953]] - King [[Carol II of Romania]] (b. [[1893]]) *[[1967]] - [[Héctor Scarone]], Uruguayan footballer (b. [[1898]]) *[[1968]] - Rev. [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], American civil rights activist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (assassinated) (b. [[1929]]) *[[1972]] - [[Adam Clayton Powell Jr.]], American politician (b. [[1908]]) *1972 - [[Stefan Wolpe]], German-born composer (b. [[1902]]) *[[1979]] - [[Ali Bhutto]], President and [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]] (b. [[1928]]) *1979 - [[Edgar Buchanan]], American actor (b. [[1903]]) *[[1983]] - [[Gloria Swanson]], American actress (b. [[1897]]) *[[1984]] - [[Oleg Antonov]], Russian airplane engineer (b. [[1906]]) *[[1987]] - [[C.L. Moore]], American writer (b. [[1911]]) *[[1991]] - [[Max Frisch]], Swiss writer (b. [[1911]]) *1991 - [[H. John Heinz III]], U.S. Senator (plane crash) (b. [[1938]]) *1991 - [[Forrest Towns]], American hurdler (b. [[1914]]) *[[1995]] - [[Priscilla Lane]], American singer, actress *[[1996]] - [[Barney Ewell]], American athlete (b. [[1918]]) *1996 - [[Larry LaPrise]], American songwriter (b. [[1913]]) *[[1999]] - [[Early Wynn]], baseball player (b. [[1920]]) *1999 - [[Faith Domergue]] American actor (b. [[1924]]) *[[2001]] - [[Ed Roth|Ed "Big Daddy" Roth]], American custom car designer (b. [[1932]]) *[[2002]] - [[Harry L. O'Connor]], Czech-born film stuntman *[[2003]] - [[Resortes]], Mexican comedian (b. [[1916]]) *[[2004]] - [[Casey Sheehan]], American soldier, son of [[Cindy Sheehan]] (b. 1979) *[[2005]] - [[Edward Bronfman]], Canadian Businessmen (b. [[1924]]) ==Holidays and observances== * [[Lesotho]] - Heroes' Day ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/4 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050404.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] * [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Apr&day=04 On This Day in Canada] ----- [[April 3]] - [[April 5]] - [[March 4]] - [[May 4]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:4 April]] [[ang:4 Ēastermōnaþ]] [[ar:4 إبريل]] [[an:4 d'abril]] [[ast:4 d'abril]] [[bg:4 април]] [[be:4 красавіка]] [[bs:4. april]] [[ca:4 d'abril]] [[ceb:Abril 4]] [[cv:Ака, 4]] [[co:4 d'aprile]] [[cs:4. duben]] [[cy:4 Ebrill]] [[da:4. april]] [[de:4. April]] [[et:4. aprill]] [[el:4 Απριλίου]] [[es:4 de abril]] [[eo:4-a de aprilo]] [[eu:Apirilaren 4]] [[fo:4. apríl]] [[fr:4 avril]] [[fy:4 april]] [[ga:4 Aibreán]] [[gl:4 de abril]] [[ko:4월 4일]] [[hr:4. travnja]] [[io:4 di aprilo]] [[ilo:Abril 4]] [[id:4 April]] [[ia:4 de april]] [[ie:4 april]] [[is:4. apríl]] [[it:4 aprile]] [[he:4 באפריל]] [[jv:4 April]] [[ka:4 აპრილი]] [[csb:4 łżëkwiôta]] [[ku:4'ê avrêlê]] [[lt:Balandžio 4]] [[lb:4. Abrëll]] [[li:4 april]] [[hu:Április 4]] [[mk:4 април]] [[ms:4 April]] [[nap:4 'e abbrile]] [[nl:4 april]] [[ja:4月4日]] [[no:4. april]] [[nn:4. april]] [[oc:4 d'abril]] [[os:4 апрелы]] [[pl:4 kwietnia]] [[pt:4 de Abril]] [[ro:4 aprilie]] [[ru:4 апреля]] [[se:Cuoŋománu 4.]] [[sco:4 Aprile]] [[sq:4 Prill]] [[scn:4 di aprili]] [[simple:April 4]] [[sk:4. apríl]] [[sl:4. april]] [[sr:4. април]] [[fi:4. huhtikuuta]] [[sv:4 april]] [[tl:Abril 4]] [[tt:4. Äpril]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 4]] [[th:4 เมษายน]] [[vi:4 tháng 4]] [[tr:4 Nisan]] [[uk:4 квітня]] [[ur:4 اپریل]] [[wa:4 d' avri]] [[war:Abril 4]] [[zh:4月4日]] [[pam:Abril 4]] 1008 41651235 2006-02-28T20:26:54Z Enochlau 36424 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.154.148.18|66.154.148.18]] ([[User talk:66.154.148.18|talk]]) to last version by Shanes {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=6}} |} '''[[April 6]]''' is the 96th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (97th in [[leap year]]s). There are 269 days remaining. ==Events== *[[648 BC]] - Earliest [[solar eclipse]] recorded by the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]]. *[[402]] - [[Stilicho]] stymies the [[Visigoths]] under [[Alaric I|Alaric]] in the [[Battle of Pollentia]] *[[1320]] - The [[Scotland|Scots]] reaffirm their independence by signing the [[Declaration of Arbroath]]. *[[1327]] - The poet [[Petrarch]] first saw his idealized love Laura in the church of [[Saint Clare]] in [[Avignon]]. *[[1652]] - [[Netherlands|Dutch]] sailor [[Jan van Riebeeck]] establishes a resupply camp at the [[Cape of Good Hope]], which will eventually develop into [[Cape Town]]. *[[1782]] - [[Rama I]] succeeds King [[Taksin]] of [[Thailand]], who was overthrown in a [[coup d'état]]. *[[1808]] - [[John Jacob Astor]] incorporates the [[American Fur Company]]. *[[1830]] - [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] is formed by [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] at [[Fayette, New York]]. *[[1832]] - [[Indian Wars]]: [[Black Hawk War]] begins - The [[Sauk]] warrior [[Black Hawk]] enters into war with the [[United States]]. *[[1841]] - [[John Tyler]] is inaugurated as the 10th [[President of the United States]]. *[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Shiloh]] begins - In [[Tennessee]], forces under [[United States|Union]] General [[Ulysses S. Grant]] meet [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] troops led by General [[Albert Sidney Johnston]] at [[Shiloh, Tennessee|Shiloh]]. *[[1865]] - American Civil War: [[Battle of Sayler's Creek]] - Confederate General [[Robert E. Lee]]'s [[Army of Northern Virginia]] fights its last major battle while in retreat from [[Richmond, Virginia]]. *[[1869]] - [[Celluloid]] is patented. *[[1886]] - [[Vancouver, British Columbia]] is incorporated as a city. *[[1893]] - [[Salt Lake Temple]] of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints]] dedicated by [[Wilford Woodruff]]. *[[1895]] - [[Oscar Wilde]] is arrested after losing a [[libel]] case against the [[John Sholto Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry]]. *[[1896]] - In [[Athens]], the opening of the [[1896 Summer Olympics|first modern Olympic Games]] after 1,500 years after being banned by Roman Emperor [[Theodosius I]]. *[[1903]] - The [[Kishinev pogrom]] in Kishinev (Bessarabia) began, forcing tens of thousands of Jews to later seek refuge in Israel and the west. *[[1909]] - [[Robert Edwin Peary|Robert Peary]] allegedly reaches the [[North Pole]]. *[[1911]] - Dedë Gjon Luli Dedvukaj, Leader of the Malësori Albanians raises the Albanian flag in the town of [[Tuzi]], [[Montenegro]] for the first time after [[Gjergj Kastrioti]] (Skenderbeg). *[[1917]] - [[World War I]]: [[United States]] declares war on [[Germany]] (see [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_declares_war_on_Germany Wilson's address to Congress]). *[[1926]] - [[Walter Varney]] Airlines makes first commercial flight from [[Pasco, Washington]], to [[Elko, Nevada]]. Varney is the root company of [[United Airlines]]. *[[1930]] - Gandhi raised a lump of mud and salt (some say just a pinch, some say just a grain) and declared, "With this, I am shaking the foundations of the British Empire." Thus he started Salt Satyagraha. *1930 - Hostess [[Twinkie]]s are invented. *1930 - [[Will Rogers]] starts broadcasting ''[[The Will Rogers Program]]'' on [[radio]]. *[[1931]] - ''[[Little Orphan Annie]]'' debuts on the Blue Network of [[NBC]]. *[[1936]] - [[Tupelo-Gainesville Outbreak]]: Another tornado from the same storm system as the Tupelo tornado hits [[Gainesville, Georgia]], killing 203. *[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Castigo]] begins - [[Germany]] invades [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]] and [[Greece]]. *[[1965]] - [[Early Bird]], the first communications [[satellite]] to be placed in synchronous orbit, is launched. *[[1968]] - In [[London, United Kingdom]], [[Massiel]] wins the thirteenth [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for [[Spain]] singing "La, la, la." *[[1970]] - Four [[California Highway Patrol]] officers die in one of the worst cop killings in the CHP's history; this is known as the [[Newhall Incident]]. *[[1972]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Easter Offensive]] - The first day of clear weather in three days allows [[United States|American]] forces to start sustained air strikes and naval bombardments. *[[1973]] - Launch of ''[[Pioneer 11]]'' [[spacecraft]]. *[[1974]] - The [[California Jam]] Rock concert begins. *1974 - In [[Brighton|Brighton, United Kingdom]], [[ABBA]] wins the nineteenth [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for [[Sweden]] singing "Waterloo." *[[1984]] - Members of [[Cameroon]]'s Republican Guard from country's northern region attack various government buildings in an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the government headed by [[Paul Biya]]. *[[1987]] - [[Sugar Ray Leonard]] takes the middleweight [[boxing]] title from [[Marvin Hagler]]. *[[1993]] - Russian [[nuclear accident]] at [[Tomsk 7]]. *[[1994]] - The [[Rwandan Genocide]] begins when the aircraft carrying Rwandan president [[Juvénal Habyarimana]] and Burundian president [[Cyprien Ntaryamira]] is shot down by extremists. *[[1998]] - [[Pakistan]] tests medium-range missiles capable of hitting [[India]]. *1998 - The [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] gains 49.82 to close at 9,033.23 -- its first-ever close above 9,000. *[[2001]] - [[Miller Park]] opens in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]]. *[[2004]] - [[Rolandas Paksas]] becomes the first president of [[Lithuania]] to be peacefully removed from the post by [[impeachment]]. ==Births== *[[1483]] - [[Raphael]], Italian painter and architect (d. [[1520]]) *[[1651]] - [[André Dacier]], French classical scholar (d. [[1722]]) *[[1664]] - [[Arvid Horn]], Swedish statesman (d. [[1742]]) *[[1671]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Rousseau]], French poet (d. [[1741]]) *[[1725]] - [[Pasquale Paoli]], Corsican patriot and military leader (d. [[1807]]) *[[1812]] - [[Alexander Herzen]], Russian writer (d. [[1870]]) *[[1815]] - [[Robert Volkmann]], German composer (d. [[1883]]) *[[1818]] - [[Aasmund Olavsson Vinje]], Norwegian poet (d. [[1870]]) *[[1820]] - [[Nadar]], French photographer (d. [[1910]]) *[[1823]] - [[Joseph Medill]], Mayor of Chicago (d. [[1899]]) *[[1826]] - [[Gustave Moreau]], French painter (d. [[1898]]) *[[1849]] - [[John William Waterhouse]], British painter (d. [[1917]]) *[[1866]] - [[Butch Cassidy]], American outlaw (d. [[1909]]) *[[1878]] - [[Erich Mühsam]], German author (d. [[1934]]) *[[1884]] - [[Walter Huston]], Canadian-born actor (d. [[1950]]) *[[1890]] - [[Anthony Fokker]], Dutch designer of aircraft (d. [[1939]]) *[[1892]] - [[Donald Wills Douglas, Sr.]], American industrialist (d. [[1981]]) *1892 - [[Lowell Thomas]], American travel writer (d. [[1981]]) *[[1902]] - [[Veniamin Kaverin]], Russian writer (d. [[1989]]) *[[1903]] - [[Mickey Cochrane]], baseball player (d. [[1962]]) *1903 - [[Doc Edgerton]], American electrical engineer (d. [[1990]]) *[[1911]] - [[Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen]], German biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1979]]) *[[1920]] - [[Edmond H. Fischer]], Swiss-American biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] *[[1926]] - [[Sergio Franchi]], Italian-born singer and actor (d. [[1990]]) *1926 - [[Gil Kane]], Latvian-born cartoonist (d. [[2000]]) *1926 - [[Ian Paisley]], Northern Irish politician *[[1927]] - [[Gerry Mulligan]], American musician (d. [[1996]]) *[[1928]] - [[James D. Watson]], American geneticist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] *[[1929]] - [[André Previn]], German-born composer and conductor *[[1931]] - [[Ivan Dixon]], American actor and director *[[1933]] - [[Roy Goode]], British lawyer *[[1934]] - [[Anton Geesink]], Dutch judoka *[[1937]] - [[Merle Haggard]], American musician *1937 - [[Billy Dee Williams]], American actor *[[1938]] - [[Paul Daniels]], English magician *1938 - [[Roy Thinnes]], American actor *[[1941]] - [[Phil Austin]], American comedian *1941 - [[Zamfir]], Romanian musician *[[1942]] - [[Barry Levinson]], American film producer and director *[[1944]] - [[Felicity Palmer]], English soprano *[[1947]] - [[John Ratzenberger]], American actor *[[1949]] - [[Horst Ludwig Störmer]], German-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate *[[1951]] - [[Bert Blyleven]], Dutch [[Major League Baseball]] player *[[1952]] - [[Udo Dirkschneider]], German singer ([[Accept]] and [[U.D.O.]]) *1952 - [[Marilu Henner]], American actress *[[1954]] - [[Thom Bray]], American actor *[[1955]] - [[Michael Rooker]], American actor *[[1965]] - [[Frank Black]], American singer and songwriter ([[Pixies]]) *[[1969]] - [[Bison Dele]], American basketball player (disappeared [[2002]]) *1969 - [[Ari Meyers]], Puerto Rican-born American actress *[[1970]] - [[Olaf Kölzig]], South African hockey player *[[1973]] - [[Donnie Edwards]], American football player *1973 - [[Rie Miyazawa]], Japanese actress and singer *[[1975]] - [[Zach Braff]], American actor *[[1976]] - [[Candace Cameron]], American actress *[[1985]] - [[Garrett Zablocki]], American guitarist ([[Senses Fail]]) ==Deaths== *[[1199]] - King [[Richard I of England]] (killed in battle) (b. [[1157]]) *[[1362]] - [[James I, Count of La Marche]], French soldier (b. [[1319]]) *[[1490]] - King [[Matthias Corvinus of Hungary]] *[[1520]] - [[Raphael]], Italian painter and architect (b. [[1483]]) *[[1528]] - [[Albrecht Dürer]], German artist (b. [[1471]]) *[[1551]] - [[Joachim Vadian]], Swiss humanist (b. [[1484]]) *[[1571]] - [[John Hamilton (of Scotland)|John Hamilton]], Scottish prelate and politician *[[1590]] - [[Francis Walsingham]], English spymaster *[[1605]] - [[John Stow]], English historian *[[1655]] - [[David Blondel]], French protestant clergyman (b. [[1591]]) *[[1686]] - [[Arthur Annesley, 1st Earl of Anglesey]], English royalist statesman (b. [[1614]]) *[[1707]] - [[Willem van de Velde, the younger]], Dutch painter (b. [[1633]]) *[[1755]] - [[Richard Rawlinson]], English minister and antiquarian (b. [[1690]]) *[[1829]] - [[Niels Henrik Abel]], Norwegian mathematician (b. [[1802]]) *[[1838]] - [[José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva]], Brazilian statesman and geologist (b. [[1763]]) *[[1862]] - [[Albert Sidney Johnston]], American Confederate general (b. [[1803]]) *[[1883]] - [[Benjamin Wright Raymond|Benjamin Raymond]], Mayor of Chicago (b. [[1801]]) *[[1906]] - [[Alexander Kielland]], Norwegian author (b. [[1849]]) *[[1935]] - [[Edwin Arlington Robinson]], American poet (b. [[1869]]) *[[1961]] - [[Jules Bordet]], Belgian immunologist and microbiologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1870]]) *[[1963]] - [[Otto Struve]], Russian-born astronomer (b. [[1897]]) *[[1970]] - [[Sam Sheppard]], American accused murderer (b. [[1923]]) *[[1971]] - [[Igor Stravinsky]], Russian composer (b. [[1882]]) *[[1974]] - [[Willem Marinus Dudok]], Dutch architect (b. [[1884]]) *[[1986]] - [[Raimundo Orsi]], Argentine-Italian footballer *[[1992]] - [[Isaac Asimov]], Russian-born author (b. [[1920]]) *[[1994]] - [[Juvénal Habyarimana]], [[President of Rwanda]] (b. [[1937]]) *1994 - [[Cyprien Ntaryamira]], [[President of Burundi]] (b. [[1956]]) *[[1996]] - [[Greer Garson]], Irish actress (b. [[1904]]) *[[1998]] - [[Wendy O. Williams]], American musician ([[Plasmatics]]) (b. [[1949]]) *1998 - [[Tammy Wynette]], American musician (b. [[1942]]) *[[2000]] - [[Habib Bourguiba]], [[President of Tunisia]] (b. [[1903]]) *[[2003]] - [[David Bloom]], American reporter (pulmonary embolism) (b. [[1963]]) *2003 - [[Babatunde Olatunji]], Nigerian drummer (b. [[1927]]) *[[2004]] - [[Larisa Bogoraz]], Soviet dissident (b. [[1929]]) *[[2005]] - [[Rainier III, Prince of Monaco]] (b. [[1923]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Feast day]] of St. Sixtus and [[Marcellinus of Carthage]] in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. * The start of the [[tax year]] in the [[United Kingdom]] (arising from the 11 day correction to [[March 25]] at the adoption of the [[Gregorian calendar]] in [[1752]]). *[[Tartan Day]], a day set aside for the celebration of the [[Scotland|Scottish]] influence on [[United States|America]]. *The date of organization of the [[Church of Christ (Mormonism)|Church of Christ]], and the start of the Restoration Movement by Joseph Smith Junior, from which are various off shoots such as the [[Community of Christ]] and the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], officially organized on April 6th [[1830]]. ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/6 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/6 Today in History: April 6] ----- [[April 5]] - [[April 7]] - [[March 6]] - [[May 6]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:6 April]] [[an:6 d'abril]] [[ar:6 ابريل]] [[ast:6 d'abril]] [[be:6 красавіка]] [[bg:6 април]] [[bs:6. april]] [[ca:6 d'abril]] [[ceb:Abril 6]] [[cs:6. duben]] [[csb:6 łżëkwiôta]] [[cy:6 Ebrill]] [[da:6. april]] [[de:6. April]] [[el:6 Απριλίου]] [[eo:6-a de aprilo]] [[es:6 de abril]] [[et:6. aprill]] [[eu:Apirilaren 6]] [[fi:6. huhtikuuta]] [[fr:6 avril]] [[fy:6 april]] [[ga:6 Aibreán]] [[gl:6 de abril]] [[he:6 באפריל]] [[hr:6. travnja]] [[hu:Április 6]] [[ia:6 de april]] [[id:6 April]] [[ie:6 april]] [[io:6 di aprilo]] [[is:6. apríl]] [[it:6 aprile]] [[ja:4月6日]] [[ka:6 აპრილი]] [[ko:4월 6일]] [[ku:6'ê avrêlê]] [[lb:6. Abrëll]] [[li:6 april]] [[lt:Balandžio 6]] [[mk:6 април]] [[nl:6 april]] [[nn:6. april]] [[no:6. april]] [[oc:6 d'abril]] [[pl:6 kwietnia]] [[pt:6 de Abril]] [[ro:6 aprilie]] [[ru:6 апреля]] [[scn:6 di aprili]] [[se:Cuoŋománu 5.]] [[simple:April 6]] [[sk:6. apríl]] [[sl:6. april]] [[sq:6 Prill]] [[sr:6. април]] [[sv:6 april]] [[th:6 เมษายน]] [[tl:Abril 6]] [[tr:6 Nisan]] [[tt:6. Äpril]] [[uk:6 квітня]] [[ur:6 اپریل]] [[vi:6 tháng 4]] [[wa:6 d' avri]] [[zh:4月6日]] 1009 41649582 2006-02-28T20:13:48Z CorbinSimpson 641043 reverting vandalism {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=12}} |} '''April 12''' is the [[102 (number)|102]]nd day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (103rd in [[leap year]]s). There are 263 days remaining. ==Events== *[[467]] - [[Anthemius]] is elevated to [[Roman emperor|Emperor of the Western Roman Empire]] *[[1606]] - The [[Union Jack]] is adopted as the national flag of [[Great Britain]]. *[[1633]] - The formal interrogation by the [[Inquisition]] of [[Galileo Galilei]] begins. *[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: The [[war]] begins with [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] forces firing on [[Fort Sumter]], in the harbor of [[Charleston, South Carolina]]. *[[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Fort Pillow massacre]] -- [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] forces under General [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]] kill most of the [[African American]] soldiers who had surrendered at [[Fort Pillow]], [[Tennessee]] *[[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Mobile, Alabama]], falls to the [[Union Army]]. *[[1877]] - The [[United Kingdom]] annexes the [[Transvaal]]. *[[1923]] - [[Kandersteg International Scout Centre]] came into existence. *[[1926]] - By a vote of 45 to 41, the [[United States Senate]] unseats [[Iowa]] Senator [[Smith W. Brookhart]] and seats [[Daniel F. Steck]], after Brookhart had already served for over one year. *[[1937]] - Sir [[Frank Whittle]] ground-tests the first [[jet engine]] designed to power an aircraft, at the [[British Thomson-Houston]] factory in [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby, England]] *[[1945]] - President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] dies, and [[Harry S. Truman]] is inaugurated as the 33rd [[President of the United States]]. *[[1946]] - [[Syria]] gains independence from [[France]]. *[[1954]] - [[Bill Haley and His Comets]] record "[[Rock Around the Clock]]" in [[New York City]]. Initially unsuccessful, the recording would help launch the [[rock and roll]] revolution a year later. *[[1955]] - The [[polio]] [[vaccine]], developed by Dr. [[Jonas Salk]], is declared safe and effective. *[[1961]] - [[Yuri Gagarin]] becomes the first man to fly in space. *[[1968]] - [[Nerve gas]] accident at [[Skull Valley, Utah]]. *[[1975]] - [[Khmer Rouge]] troops capture [[Phnom Penh]], [[Cambodia]]. *[[1980]] - [[Terry Fox]] began his trans-[[Canada]] [[marathon (sport)|marathon]] to raise money for [[cancer research]] (''[[Marathon of Hope]]'') by dipping his [[Artificial limb|artificial leg]] in the [[Atlantic Ocean]] at [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's]], [[Newfoundland]], aiming to dip it again in the [[Pacific Ocean]] at [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]]. *[[1981]] - The first launch of a [[Space Shuttle]]: [[Space Shuttle Columbia|''Columbia'']] launches on the [[STS-1]] mission. *[[1984]] - LiSARS is created *[[1989]] - TV show ''[[Fast Forward]]'' starts on the [[ATN-7]] Network ([[Australia]]). *[[1990]] - [[Christian Bernard]], F.R.C., becomes Imperator of [[AMORC]]. *[[1992]] - [[Euro Disneyland]] opens in [[Marne-la-Vallee]], [[France]]. *[[1994]] - [[Canter & Siegel]] post the first commercial mass [[Usenet]] [[Newsgroup spam|spam]]. *[[1996]] - [[Yahoo!]] had its [[initial public offering]], selling 2.6 million shares at $13 each. *[[1998]] - Catastrophical [[earthquake]] in [[Slovenia]] in Posočje 5,6 on the Richter scale. *[[2002]] - [[Coup d'Etat]] against [[Hugo Chávez]] in [[Venezuela]]. *[[2005]] - In [[Canada]], a motion by the opposition [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative Party]] to kill legislation opening the door for legalized [[same sex marriage]] is defeated 164-132. ==Births== *[[599 BC]] - [[Mahavira]], Indian founder of Jainism (d. [[527 BC]]) *[[812]] - [[Muhammad at-Taqi]], Arabian Shia Imam (d. [[835]]) *[[1484]] - [[Antonio da Sangallo the Younger]], Italian architect (d. [[1546]]) *[[1500]] - [[Joachim Camerarius]], German classical scholar (d. [[1574]]) *[[1526]] - [[Muretus]], French humanist (d. [[1585]]) *[[1550]] - [[Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford]], English politician (d. [[1604]]) *[[1577]] - King [[Christian IV of Denmark]] (d. [[1648]]) *[[1713]] - [[Guillaume Thomas François Raynal]], French writer (d. [[1796]]) *[[1722]] - [[Pietro Nardini]], Italian composer (d. [[1793]]) *[[1724]] - [[Lyman Hall]], American signer of the Declaration of Independence (d. [[1790]]) *[[1726]] - [[Charles Burney]], English music historian (d. [[1814]]) *[[1748]] - [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu]], French botanist (d. [[1836]]) *[[1777]] - [[Henry Clay]], American statesman and five-time Presidential candidate (d. [[1852]]) *[[1794]] - [[Germinal Pierre Dandelin]], Belgian mathematician (d. [[1847]]) *[[1799]] - [[Henri Druey]], Swiss Federal Councilor (d. [[1855]]) *[[1823]] - [[Alexandr Ostrovsky]], Russian dramatist (d. [[1886]]) *[[1839]] - [[Nikolai Przhevalsky]], Russian explorer (d. [[1888]]) *[[1856]] - [[William Martin Conway]], English art critic and mountaineer (d. [[1937]]) *[[1869]] - [[Henri Désiré Landru]], French serial killer (d. [[1922]]) *[[1884]] - [[Otto Meyerhof]], German-born biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1951]]) *[[1887]] - [[Harold Lockwood]], American silent film actor (d. [[1918]]) *[[1888]] - [[Heinrich Neuhaus]], Soviet pianist (d. [[1964]]) *[[1892]] - [[Johnny Dodds]], American jazz clarinetist (d. [[1940]]) *[[1893]] - [[Robert Harron]], American actor (d. [[1920]]) *[[1898]] - [[Lily Pons]], American soprano (d. [[1976]]) *[[1902]] - [[Louis Beel]], [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands]] (d. [[1977]]) *[[1903]] - [[Sally Rand]], American dancer and actress (d. [[1979]]) *1903 - [[Jan Tinbergen]], Dutch economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (d. [[1994]]) *[[1907]] - [[Felix de Weldon]], Austrian-born sculptor (d. [[2003]]) *[[1908]] - [[Lionel Hampton]], American musician (d. [[2002]]) *[[1912]] - [[Walt Gorney]], American actor (d. [[2004]]) *[[1916]] - [[Beverly Cleary]], American writer *[[1917]] - [[Helen Forrest]], American singer (d. [[1999]]) *[[1922]] - [[Tiny Tim]], American musician (d. [[1996]]) *[[1923]] - [[Ann Miller]], American actress and dancer (d. [[2004]]) *[[1928]] - [[Hardy Krüger]], German actor *1928 - [[Jean-François Paillard]], French conductor *[[1932]] - [[Dennis Banks]], American activist *1932 - [[Lakshman Kadirgamar]], Sri Lankan Politician (assassinated) (d. [[2005]]) *[[1933]] - [[Montserrat Caballe|Montserrat Caballé]], Catalan soprano *[[1935]] - [[Johnny Bucyk]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player *[[1939]] - [[Alan Ayckbourn]], English writer *[[1940]] - [[Herbie Hancock]], American pianist and composer *[[1941]] - [[Bobby Moore]], English footballer (d. [[1993]]) *[[1944]] - [[John Kay (musician)|John Kay]], German-born musician ([[Steppenwolf (band)|Steppenwolf]]) *[[1946]] - [[Ed O'Neill]], American actor *[[1947]] - [[Tom Clancy]], American author *1947 - [[David Letterman]], American talk show host *[[1948]] - [[Jeremy Beadle]], British television presenter *1948 - [[Joschka Fischer]], Foreign Minister of Germany *1948 - [[Sandra "Lois" Reeves]], American singer ([[Martha & the Vandellas]]) *[[1949]] - [[Scott Turow]], American writer *[[1950]] - [[David Cassidy]], American singer and actor *1950 - [[Kari Palaste]], Finnish architect *[[1952]] - [[Ralph Wiley]], American sports journalist (d. [[2004]]) *[[1954]] - [[Pat Travers]], Canadian musician *[[1956]] - [[Andy Garcia]], Cuban-born actor *1956 - [[Herbert Grönemeyer]], German singer, pianist, and actor *[[1957]] - [[Vince Gill]], American musician *[[1961]] - [[Lisa Gerrard]], Australian singer and film composer *[[1962]] - [[Art Alexakis]], American musician ([[Everclear (band)|Everclear]]) *[[1964]] - [[Amy Ray]], American musician ([[Indigo Girls]]) *[[1970]] - [[Nick Hexum]], American musician ([[311 (band)|311]]) *[[1971]] - [[Nicholas Brendon]], actor *1971 - [[Shannen Doherty]], American actress *[[1978]] - [[Guy Berryman]], British musician ([[Coldplay]]) *1978 - [[Riley Smith]], American actor *[[1979]] - [[Claire Danes]], American actress *1979 - [[Mateja Kežman]], Serbian footballer *[[1982]] - [[Deen]], Bosnian singer *[[1985]] - [[Hitomi Yoshizawa]], Japanese singer ([[Morning Musume]]) ==Deaths== *[[65]] - [[Seneca the Younger]], Roman philosopher, statesman and dramatist *[[238]] - [[Gordian I]], [[Roman Emperor]] (suicide) *238 - [[Gordian II]], heir to the Roman Empire (killed in battle) *[[1443]] - [[Henry Chichele]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] *[[1550]] - [[Claude, Duke of Guise]], French soldier (b. [[1496]]) *[[1555]] - [[Juana of Castile]], queen of [[Philip I of Castile]] (b. [[1479]]) *[[1687]] - [[Ambrose Dixon]], Virginia Colony pioneer *[[1704]] - [[Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet]], French bishop and writer (b. [[1627]]) *[[1748]] - [[William Kent]], English architect *[[1782]] - [[Metastasio]], Italian poet and librettist (b. [[1698]]) *[[1788]] - [[Carlo Antonio Campioni]], French-born composer (b. [[1719]]) *[[1795]] - [[Johann Kaspar Basselet von La Rosée]], Bavarian general (b. [[1710]]) *[[1814]] - [[Charles Burney]], English music historian (b. [[1726]]) *[[1850]] - [[Adoniram Judson]], American Baptist missionary (b. [[1788]]) *[[1902]] - [[Marie Alfred Cornu]], French physicist (b. [[1842]]) *[[1912]] - [[Clara Barton]], American nurse and Red Cross advocate (b. [[1821]]) *[[1938]] - [[Feodor Chaliapin]], Russian bass (b. [[1873]]) *[[1945]] - [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], 32nd [[President of the United States]] (b. [[1882]]) *[[1962]] - [[Sir Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya]], Indian politician and engineer (b. [[1861]]) *[[1971]] - [[Igor Tamm]], Russian physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1895]]) *1971 - [[Ed Lafitte]], American baseball player (b. [[1871]]) *[[1975]] - [[Josephine Baker]], American dancer (b. [[1906]]) *[[1980]] - [[Clark McConachy]], New Zealand billiards and snooker player (b. [[1895]]) *1980 - [[William R. Tolbert, Jr.]], [[President of Liberia]] (b. [[1913]]) *[[1981]] - [[Joe Louis]], American boxer (b. [[1914]]) *[[1986]] - [[Valentin Kataev]], Russian writer (b. [[1897]]) *[[1988]] - [[Alan Paton]], South African novelist (b. [[1903]]) *[[1989]] - [[Gerald Flood]], British actor (b. [[1927]]) *1989 - [[Abbie Hoffman]], American radical leader (b. [[1936]]) *1989 - [[Sugar Ray Robinson]], American boxer (b. [[1921]]) *[[1997]] - [[George Wald]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1903]]) *[[1999]] - [[Boxcar Willie]], American singer (b. [[1931]]) *[[2003]] - [[Cecil H. Green]], American manufacturer (b. [[1900]]) ==Holidays and observances== *The [[Rome|Roman]] holiday of [[Cerealia]] begins. *[[Yuri's Night]], an international celebration of the first human in space, [[Yuri Gagarin]]. ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/12 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/12 Today in History: April 12] ---- From "Lines in Praise of a Date Made Praiseworthy Solely by Something Very Nice That Happened to It", by [[Ogden Nash]]: :"As through the calendar I delve :I pause to rejoice in April twelve. :Yea, be I in sickness or be I in health :My favorite date is April twealth. :..." ---- [[April 11]] - [[April 13]] - [[March 12]] - [[May 12]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:12 April]] [[ar:12 ابريل]] [[an:12 d'abril]] [[ast:12 d'abril]] [[bg:12 април]] [[be:12 красавіка]] [[bs:12. april]] [[ca:12 d'abril]] [[ceb:Abril 12]] [[cv:Ака, 12]] [[co:12 d'aprile]] [[cs:12. duben]] [[cy:12 Ebrill]] [[da:12. april]] [[de:12. April]] [[et:12. aprill]] [[el:12 Απριλίου]] [[es:12 de abril]] [[eo:12-a de aprilo]] [[eu:Apirilaren 12]] [[fo:12. apríl]] [[fr:12 avril]] [[fy:12 april]] [[ga:12 Aibreán]] [[gl:12 de abril]] [[ko:4월 12일]] [[hr:12. travnja]] [[io:12 di aprilo]] [[id:12 April]] [[ia:12 de april]] [[ie:12 april]] [[is:12. apríl]] [[it:12 aprile]] [[he:12 באפריל]] [[jv:12 April]] [[ka:12 აპრილი]] [[csb:12 łżëkwiôta]] [[ku:12'ê avrêlê]] [[lt:Balandžio 12]] [[lb:12. Abrëll]] [[li:12 april]] [[hu:Április 12]] [[mk:12 април]] [[ms:12 April]] [[nap:12 'e abbrile]] [[nl:12 april]] [[ja:4月12日]] [[no:12. april]] [[nn:12. april]] [[oc:12 d'abril]] [[pl:12 kwietnia]] [[pt:12 de Abril]] [[ro:12 aprilie]] [[ru:12 апреля]] [[se:Cuoŋománu 12.]] [[sco:12 Aprile]] [[sq:12 Prill]] [[scn:12 di aprili]] [[simple:April 12]] [[sk:12. apríl]] [[sl:12. april]] [[sr:12. април]] [[fi:12. huhtikuuta]] [[sv:12 april]] [[tl:Abril 12]] [[tt:12. Äpril]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 12]] [[th:12 เมษายน]] [[vi:12 tháng 4]] [[tr:12 Nisan]] [[uk:12 квітня]] [[ur:12 اپریل]] [[wa:12 d' avri]] [[war:Abril 12]] [[zh:4月12日]] [[pam:Abril 12]] 1010 42118985 2006-03-03T23:13:46Z Nigosh 221949 rm redlink <!-- Language links at bottom --> {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=15}} |} '''April 15''' is the 105th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (106th in [[leap year]]s). There are 260 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1450]] - [[Battle of Formigny]]; Toward the end of the [[Hundred Years' War]], the [[France|French]] attack and nearly annihilate [[England|English]] forces, ending English domination in northern France. *[[1632]] - [[Battle of Rain]]; [[Sweden|Swedes]] under [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustavus Adolphus]] defeat the [[Holy Roman Empire]] during the [[Thirty Years' War]]. *[[1738]] - Premiere in [[London]] of [[Serse]], an [[Italy|Italian]] [[opera]] by[[George Frideric Handel]]. *[[1755]] - [[Samuel Johnson]]'s ''[[A Dictionary of the English Language]]'' published in London. *[[1783]] - Preliminary articles of peace ending [[Revolutionary War]] ratified. *[[1802]] - [[William Wordsworth]] and his sister, [[Dorothy Wordsworth|Dorothy]] come across a "long belt" of [[daffodil]]s, inspiring the former to pen ''[[I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud]]''. *[[1865]] - [[Abraham Lincoln]] dies after being shot the previous evening by [[John Wilkes Booth]]. * 1865 - [[Andrew Johnson]] becomes the 17th [[President of the United States]]. *[[1892]] - The [[General Electric Company]] is formed through the merger of the Edison General Electric Company and the Thomson-Houston Company. *[[1912]] - The British passenger liner [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] sinks at about 2:20 a.m. after hitting an iceberg in the North Atlantic almost three hours earlier. *[[1915]] - The [[Armenian Genocide]] began when the [[Ottoman Empire]] undertook the systematic annihilation of [[Armenian people|Armenian]] intellectuals and entrepreneurs within the city of [[Constantinople]] and later the entire Armenian population of the Empire. *[[1920]] - [[Anarchism|Anarchist]]s [[Sacco and Vanzetti]] allegedly murder two security guards while robbing a shoe store. *[[1923]] - [[Insulin]] first became generally available for use by [[diabetes mellitus|diabetics]]. *[[1924]] - [[Rand McNally]] publishes its first [[road atlas]]. *[[1927]] - [[Douglas Fairbanks]], [[Mary Pickford]] and [[Norma Talmadge|Norma]] and [[Constance Talmadge]] become the first celebrities to leave their footprints in cement at [[Grauman's Chinese Theater]] in [[Hollywood]]. *[[1940]] - The [[Allies]] start their attack on the [[Norway|Norwegian]] town of [[Narvik]] which was occupied by [[Nazi Germany]]. *[[1942]] - [[George Cross]] awarded to "to the island fortress of [[Malta]] - its people and defenders" by [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]]. *[[1945]] - The [[Bergen-Belsen concentration camp|Bergen-Belsen]] [[concentration camp]] is liberated. *[[1947]] - [[Jackie Robinson]] debuts for the [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]] [[baseball]] team, breaking that sport's color line. *[[1955]] - The first [[McDonald's]] restaurant opens in [[Des Plaines, Illinois]]. *[[1983]] - [[Tokyo Disneyland]] opens. *[[1985]] - [[Marvin Hagler]] defeats [[Thomas Hearns]] by a knockout in round three to retain [[boxing]]'s world [[Middleweight]] championship in a fight nicknamed ''[[The War (boxing)|The War]]''. *[[1989]] - [[Hillsborough disaster]]: A human [[stampede]] occurs at [[Hillsborough (stadium)|Hillsborough]], a football stadium in [[Sheffield, England]], resulting in the loss of 96 lives. * 1989 - Upon [[Hu Yaobang]]'s death, the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]] begin in the [[People's Republic of China]]. *[[1994]] - Representatives of 124 countries and the [[European Communities]] sign the [[Marrakesh Agreement]]s revising the [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]] and setting up the [[World Trade Organization]] (effective [[January 1]] [[1995]]). *[[1997]] - Fire sweeps through a campsite of [[Muslim]]s making the [[Hajj]] [[pilgrimage]]; the official death toll is 343. *[[2002]] - An [[Air China]] [[Boeing 767]]-200, [[flight CA129]] crashes into hillside during heavy rain and fog near [[Pusan]], [[South Korea]], killing 128. ==Births== *[[1452]] - [[Leonardo da Vinci]], Italian artist (d. [[1519]]) *[[1489]] - [[Sinan]], Ottoman architect (d. [[1588]]) *[[1552]] - [[Pietro Cataldi]], Italian mathematician (d. [[1626]]) *[[1580]] - [[George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore]], English politician and colonizer *[[1588]] - [[Claudius Salmasius]], French classical scholar (d. [[1653]]) *[[1641]] - [[Robert Sibbald]], Scottish physician and antiquarian (d. [[1722]]) *[[1642]] - [[Suleiman II]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (d. [[1691]]) *[[1646]] - King [[Christian V of Denmark]] (d. [[1699]]) *[[1684]] - [[Catherine I of Russia]] (d. [[1727]]) *[[1688]] - [[Johann Friedrich Fasch]], German composer (d. [[1758]]) *[[1707]] - [[Leonhard Euler]], Swiss mathematician (d. [[1783]]) *[[1710]] - [[William Cullen]], Scottish physician and chemist (d. [[1790]]) *[[1721]] - [[Prince William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland]], English military leader (d. [[1765]]) *[[1772]] - [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]], French naturalist (d. [[1844]]) *[[1793]] - [[Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve]], German astronomer (d. [[1864]]) *[[1794]] - [[Jean Pierre Flourens]], French physiologist (d. [[1867]]) *[[1800]] - [[James Clark Ross]], English explorer (d. [[1862]]) *[[1809]] - [[Hermann Grassmann]], German mathematician and physicist (d. [[1877]]) *[[1832]] - [[Wilhelm Busch]], German poet and artist (d. [[1908]]) *[[1843]] - [[Henry James]], American author (d. [[1916]]) *[[1858]] - [[Émile Durkheim]], French sociologist (d. [[1917]]) *[[1861]] - [[Bliss Carman]], Canadian poet (d. [[1929]]) *[[1874]] - [[Johannes Stark]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1957]]) *[[1878]] - [[Robert Walser (writer)|Robert Walser]], Swiss writer (d. [[1956]]) *[[1879]] - [[Melville Henry Cane]], American lawyer and poet (d. [[1980]]) *[[1883]] - [[Stanley Bruce]], eighth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1967]]) *[[1886]] - [[Nikolay Gumilyov]], Russian poet (d. [[1921]]) *[[1889]] - [[Thomas Hart Benton (painter)|Thomas Hart Benton]], American muralist (d. [[1975]]) * 1889 - [[A. Philip Randolph]], American activist (d. [[1979]]) *[[1894]] - [[Bessie Smith]], American blues singer (d. [[1937]]) *[[1895]] - [[Clark McConachy]], New Zealand billiards and snooker player (d. [[1980]]) *[[1896]] - [[Nikolay Nikolayevich Semyonov]], Russian chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1986]]) *[[1901]] - [[Joe Davis]], English snooker player (d. [[1978]]) *[[1902]] - [[Fernando Pessa]], Portuguese journalist (d. [[2002]]) *[[1907]] - [[Nikolaas Tinbergen]], Dutch ornithologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1988]]) *[[1912]] - [[Kim Il Sung]], [[President of North Korea]] (d. [[1994]]) *[[1916]] - [[Alfred S. Bloomingdale]], American businessman (d. [[1982]]) *[[1917]] - [[Hans Conried]], American actor (d. [[1982]]) *[[1920]] - [[Richard von Weizacker|Richard von Weizäcker]], [[President of Germany]] *[[1921]] - [[Georgi Beregovoi]], cosmonaut (d. [[1995]]) *[[1922]] - [[Michael Ansara]], Syrian-American actor * 1922 - [[Harold Washington]], Mayor of Chicago (d. [[1987]]) *[[1924]] - Sir [[Neville Marriner]], English conductor and violinist *[[1927]] - [[Robert Mills (physicist)|Robert Mills]], American physicist (d. [[1999]]) *[[1930]] - [[Vigdis Finnbogadottir|Vigdís Finnbogadóttir]], [[President of Iceland]] *[[1933]] - [[Roy Clark]], American musician * 1933 - [[Elizabeth Montgomery]], American actress (d. [[1995]]) * 1933 - [[Boris and Arkady Strugatsky|Boris Strugatsky]], Russian author *[[1939]] - [[Claudia Cardinale]], Tunisian-born actress *[[1940]] - [[Jeffrey Archer, Baron Archer of Weston-super-Mare|Jeffrey Archer]], British author and Member of Parliament * 1940 - [[Robert Walker Jr.]], American actor *[[1942]] - [[Francis Xavier Dilorenzo|Francis X. DiLorenzo]], American Catholic prelate *1942 - [[Walt Hazzard]], American basketball player *[[1944]] - [[Dzhokhar Dudaev]], Chechen leader (d. [[1996]]) *1944 - [[Dave Edmunds]], Welsh musician *[[1947]] - [[Lois Chiles]], American actress *1947 - [[Mike Chapman (record producer)|Mike Chapman]], songwriter (with [[Nicky Chinn]]) and producer ([[Suzi Quatro]], [[Sweet (band)|Sweet]], [[Blondie]]) *[[1948]] - [[Michael Kamen]], American composer (d. [[2003]]) *[[1949]] - [[Tonio K]], American singer *1949 - [[Alla Pugacheva]], Russian singer *[[1950]] - [[Amy Wright]], American actress *[[1951]] - [[Heloise (columnist)|Heloise]], American newspaper columnist *[[1954]] - [[Seka]], American actress *[[1955]] - [[Dodi Al-Fayed]], Egyptian businessman (d. [[1997]]) *[[1957]] - [[Evelyn Ashford]], American athlete *[[1958]] - [[Benjamin Zephaniah]], British writer and musician *[[1959]] - [[Emma Thompson]], English actress * 1959 - [[Thomas F. Wilson]], American actor *[[1960]] - [[Tony Jones]], English snooker player *[[1962]] - [[Nawal El Moutawakel]], Morrocan hurdler *[[1963]] - [[Bobby Pepper]], American journalist *[[1965]] - [[Linda Perry]], American musician *[[1966]] - [[Samantha Fox]], English singer and model *[[1967]] - [[Frankie Poullain]], British bassist ([[The Darkness]]) *1967 - [[Dara Torres]], American swimmer *[[1968]] - [[Ed O'Brien]], British musician ([[Radiohead]]) *1968 - [[Stacey Williams]], American model *[[1970]] - [[Flex Alexander]], American actor *[[1972]] - [[Arturo Gatti]], Canadian boxer *[[1974]] - [[Danny Pino]], American actor *1974 - [[Josh Todd]], musician and singer ([[Buckcherry]]) *[[1977]] - [[Chandra Levy]], American Congressional intern (d. [[2001]]) *[[1980]] - [[Raúl López]], Spanish basketball player *[[1981]] - [[Andrés d'Alessandro]], Argentine football player *[[1983]] - [[Ilya Kovalchuk]], Russian hockey player *[[1986]] - [[Quincy Owusu-Abeyie]], Dutch footballer *[[1990]] - [[Emma Watson]], English actress *[[1992]] - [[Amy Diamond]], Swedish pop singer ==Deaths== *[[1053]] - [[Godwin, Earl of Wessex]] *[[1220]] - [[Adolf of Altena]], Archbishop of Cologne *[[1415]] - [[Manuel Chrysoloras]], Greek humanist *[[1446]] - [[Filippo Brunelleschi]], Italian architect (b. [[1377]]) *[[1610]] - [[Robert Parsons]], English Jesuit priest (b. [[1546]]) *[[1621]] - [[John Carver]], first governor of Plymouth Colony *[[1641]] - [[Domenico Zampieri]], Italian painter (b. [[1581]]) *[[1659]] - [[Simon Dach]], German poet (b. [[1605]]) *[[1704]] - [[Johann van Waveren Hudde]], Dutch mathematician (b. [[1628]]) *[[1719]] - [[Françoise d'Aubigné, marquise de Maintenon]], second wife of [[Louis XIV of France]] (b. [[1635]]) *[[1754]] - [[Jacopo Riccati]], Italian mathematician (b. [[1676]]) *[[1761]] - [[Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll]], Scottish politician (b. [[1682]]) *1761 - [[William Oldys]], English antiquarian and bibliographer (b. [[1696]]) *[[1764]] - [[Madame de Pompadour]], mistress of King [[Louis XIV of France]] (b. [[1721]]) *[[1765]] - [[Mikhail Lomonosov]], Russian scientist and writer (b. [[1711]]) *[[1788]] - [[Giuseppe Bonno]], Austrian composer (b. [[1711]]) *[[1793]] - [[Ignacije Szentmartony]], Croatian Jesuit missionary and geographer (b. [[1718]]) *[[1804]] - [[Charles Pichegru]], French general (strangled in prison) (b. [[1761]]) *[[1843]] - [[Noah Webster]], American lexicographer (b. [[1758]]) *[[1854]] - [[Arthur Aikin]], English chemist, mineralogist, and scientific writer (b. [[1773]]) *[[1865]] - [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[President of the United States]] (b. [[1809]]) *[[1888]] - [[Matthew Arnold]], English poet (b. [[1822]]) *1888 - [[Father Damien]], Belgian missionary (b. [[1840]]) *[[1898]] - [[Kepa Te Rangihiwinui]], Maori military leader *[[1912]] - Victims of the [[RMS Titanic|RMS Titanic]] **[[Edward Smith]], Captain of the Titanic (b. [[1850]]) **[[John Jacob Astor IV]], American businessman (b. [[1864]]) **[[Benjamin Guggenheim]], American businessman (b. [[1865]]) *[[1938]] - [[César Vallejo]], Peruvian poet (b. [[1892]]) *[[1942]] - [[Robert Musil]], German novelist (b. [[1880]]) *[[1949]] - [[Wallace Beery]], American actor (b. [[1885]]) *[[1962]] - [[Clara Blandick]], American actress (b. [[1881]]) *[[1964]] - [[Rachel Carson]], American biologist and author (b. [[1907]]) *[[1969]] - [[Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg]], Queen of Spain (b. [[1887]]) *[[1971]] - [[Dan Reeves (NFL Owner)|Dan Reeves]] - Owner of the [[St. Louis Rams|Cleveland/Los Angeles Rams]] (b. [[1912]]) *[[1974]] - [[Giovanni D'Anzi]], Italian songwriter (b.[[1906]]) *[[1975]] - [[Richard Conte]], American actor (b. [[1910]]) *[[1980]] - [[Raymond Bailey]], American actor (b. [[1904]]) *1980 - [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], French philosopher and writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (declined) (b. [[1905]]) *[[1982]] - [[Arthur Lowe]], British actor (b. [[1915]]) *[[1984]] - [[Tommy Cooper]], Welsh comedy magician (b. [[1921]]) *[[1986]] - [[Jean Genet]], French author (b. [[1910]]) *[[1988]] - [[Kenneth Williams]], English actor and comedian (b. [[1926]]) *1988 - [[Tony Mann]], Australian footballer *[[1989]] - [[Hu Yaobang]], leader of China (b. [[1915]]) *[[1990]] - [[Greta Garbo]], Swedish actress (b. [[1905]]) *[[1993]] - [[John Tuzo Wilson]], Canadian geologist (b. [[1908]]) *1993 - [[Leslie Charteris]], Singapore-born author (b. [[1907]]) *[[1994]] - [[John Curry]], English figure skater (b. [[1949]]) *[[1998]] - [[Pol Pot]], Cambodian dictator (b. [[1925]]) *[[2000]] - [[Edward Gorey]], American illustrator (b. [[1925]]) *[[2001]] - [[Joey Ramone]], American musician and singer ([[The Ramones]]) (b. [[1951]]) *[[2002]] - [[Damon Knight]], author (b. [[1922]]) *2002 - [[Byron White|Byron "Whizzer" White]], American football player and U.S. Supreme Court Justice (b. [[1917]]) *[[2003]] - [[Erin Fleming]], Canadian actress (b. [[1941]]) ==Holidays and observances== *In the United States, today is the official deadline for filing [[tax return]]s: all forms mailed to the [[Internal Revenue Service|IRS]] must be [[postmark]]ed no later than today, so [[post office]]s across the stay open until midnight to accommodate procrastinators (or those who owe tax and want to wait as late as possible to pay). (If this day falls on the weekend, as in 2006, the following Monday becomes the deadline.) *Ancient [[Latvia]] &mdash; [[Tipsa Diena]] was observed *[[Arirang Festival]] is held in [[North Korea]] to commemorate [[Kim Il-sung]]'s birth *[[Father Damien|Father Damien Day]] &mdash; celebrated annually in [[Hawaii|Hawai'i]] *[[Feast day]] of [[Saint Paternus]] *[[Roman Empire]] &mdash; the [[Fordicia]] was celebrated in honor of [[Gaia (mythology)|Terra]] *[[Major League Baseball]] celebrates "[[Jackie Robinson]] Day" each April 15 in all MLB ballparks ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/15 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050415.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] * [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Apr&day=15 On This Day in Canada] ---- [[April 14]] - [[April 16]] - [[March 15]] - [[May 15]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:15 April]] [[an:15 d'abril]] [[ar:15 إبريل]] [[ast:15 d'abril]] [[be:15 красавіка]] [[bg:15 април]] [[bs:15. april]] [[ca:15 d'abril]] [[ceb:Abril 15]] [[co:15 d'aprile]] [[cs:15. duben]] [[csb:15 łżëkwiôta]] [[cv:Ака, 15]] [[cy:15 Ebrill]] [[da:15. april]] [[de:15. April]] [[el:15 Απριλίου]] [[eo:15-a de aprilo]] [[es:15 de abril]] [[et:15. aprill]] [[eu:Apirilaren 15]] [[fi:15. huhtikuuta]] [[fo:15. apríl]] [[fr:15 avril]] [[fy:15 april]] [[ga:15 Aibreán]] [[gl:15 de abril]] [[he:15 באפריל]] [[hr:15. travnja]] [[hu:Április 15]] [[ia:15 de april]] [[id:15 April]] [[ie:15 april]] [[io:15 di aprilo]] [[is:15. apríl]] [[it:15 aprile]] [[ja:4月15日]] [[jv:15 April]] [[ka:15 აპრილი]] [[ko:4월 15일]] [[ku:15'ê avrêlê]] [[lb:15. Abrëll]] [[li:15 april]] [[lt:Balandžio 15]] [[mk:15 април]] [[ms:15 April]] [[nap:15 'e abbrile]] [[nl:15 april]] [[nn:15. april]] [[no:15. april]] [[oc:15 d'abril]] [[pam:Abril 15]] [[pl:15 kwietnia]] [[pt:15 de Abril]] [[ro:15 aprilie]] [[ru:15 апреля]] [[scn:15 di aprili]] [[sco:15 Aprile]] [[se:Cuoŋománu 15.]] [[simple:April 15]] [[sk:15. apríl]] [[sl:15. april]] [[sq:15 Prill]] [[sr:15. април]] [[sv:15 april]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 15]] [[th:15 เมษายน]] [[tl:Abril 15]] [[tr:15 Nisan]] [[tt:15. Äpril]] [[uk:15 квітня]] [[ur:15 اپریل]] [[vi:15 tháng 4]] [[wa:15 d' avri]] [[war:Abril 15]] [[zh:4月15日]] 1011 41950790 2006-03-02T21:04:29Z Durova 521374 /* Events */ adding <!-- Language links at bottom --> {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=30}} |} '''April 30''' is the 120th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (121st in [[leap year]]s), with 245 days remaining, as the last day in April. ==Events== *[[313]] - [[Roman emperor]] [[Licinius]] unifies the entire [[Eastern Roman Empire]] under his rule. *[[711]] - [[Moors|Moorish]] troops led by [[Tariq ibn-Ziyad]] land at [[Gibraltar]] to begin their [[invasion]] of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] ([[Al-Andalus]]). *[[1429]] - [[Joan of Arc]] arrives to relieve the [[Siege of Orléans]]. *[[1483]] - [[Orbit]]al calculations suggest that on this day [[Pluto]] moved inside [[Neptune]]'s orbit, making Neptune the furthest planet from the Sun until [[July 23]], [[1503]]. *[[1492]] - [[Spain]] gives [[Christopher Columbus]] his commission of exploration. *[[1671]] - [[Petar Zrinski]], the [[Croatia]]n [[Ban (title)|Ban]] from the [[Zrinski]] family, is [[capital punishment|executed]]. * [[1794]] - The [[Battle of Boulou (1794)|Battle of Boulou]] is fought, in which [[France|French]] forces defeated the [[Spain|Spanish]] under General Union. *[[1789]] - On the balcony of [[Federal Hall]] on [[Wall Street]] in [[New York City]], [[George Washington]] takes the oath of office to become the first elected [[President of the United States]]. *[[1803]] - [[Louisiana Purchase]]: The [[United States]] purchases the [[Louisiana]] Territory from [[France]] for $15 million, more than doubling &ndash; overnight &ndash; the size of the young nation. *[[1812]] - The [[Territory of Orleans]] becomes the 18th [[U.S. state]] under the name [[Louisiana]]. *[[1838]] - [[Nicaragua]] declares independence from the [[Central American Federation]] *[[1863]] - [[Mexican]] forces attacked the [[French Foreign Legion]] in Hacienda Camarón,[[Mexico]]. *[[1894]] - [[Coxey's Army]] reaches [[Washington, D.C.]] to protest the [[unemployment]] caused by the [[Panic of 1893]]. *[[1900]] - [[Hawaii]] becomes a territory of the [[United States]], with [[Sanford B. Dole]] as governor. * 1900 - [[Casey Jones]] dies attempting to save the runaway train [[Cannonball Express]]. *[[1904]] - The [[Louisiana Purchase Exposition]] [[World's Fair]] opens in [[Saint Louis, Missouri]]. *[[1920]] - [[Peru]] becomes a signatory to the [[Buenos Aires Convention|Buenos Aires]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]]. *[[1925]] - Automaker [[Dodge Brothers, Inc]] is sold to [[Dillon, Read & Company]] for [[USD]] $146 million plus $50 million for charity. *[[1927]] - The [[Federal Industrial Institute for Women]], opens in [[Alderson, West Virginia]], as the first women's federal prison in the [[United States]]. *[[1938]] - The [[animated cartoon]] short ''[[Porky's Hare Hunt]]'' debuts in movie theaters, introducing [[Bugs Bunny]]. *[[1939]] - [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] becomes the first [[President of the United States]] to appear on [[television]]. * 1939 - The [[1939 New York World's Fair]] opens. *[[1943]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Mincemeat]] &ndash; The submarine [[HMS Seraph (P219)|HMS ''Seraph'']] surfaces in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] off the coast of [[Spain]] to deposit a dead man planted with false invasion plans and dressed as a British military intelligence officer. *[[1945]] - [[Adolf Hitler]] and [[Eva Braun]] commit suicide after being married for one day. *[[1947]] - In [[Nevada]], the Boulder Dam is officially renamed [[Hoover Dam]] again. *[[1948]] - In [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]], the [[Organization of American States]] is established. *[[1966]] - [[Anton LaVey]] founds the [[Church of Satan]]. *[[1973]] - [[Watergate Scandal]]: President [[Richard Nixon]] announces that top [[White House]] aids [[H.R. Haldeman]], [[John Ehrlichman]], and others have resigned. *[[1975]] - Communist forces gains control of [[Saigon]]. The [[Vietnam War]] formally ends with the unconditional surrender of [[South Vietnam]]ese president [[Duong Van Minh]]. *[[1980]] - Accession of [[Beatrix of the Netherlands|Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands]]. *[[1983]] - [[Michael Jackson]]'s song "[[Beat It]]" hits number 1 on the [[Billboard magazine|Billboard]] music charts. *[[1988]] - In [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]], [[Celine Dion|Céline Dion]] wins the thirty-third [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for [[Switzerland]] singing "Ne partez pas sans moi" (Don't leave without me). *[[1991]] - A [[1991 Bangladesh cyclone|tropical cyclone]] hits [[Bangladesh]] killing an estimated 138,000 people. *[[1992]] - The last episode of the ''[[Cosby Show]]'' airs. *[[1993]] - The [[World Wide Web]] was born at [[CERN]] *[[1993]] - During a changeover at a [[tennis]] tournament in [[Hamburg, Germany]], [[Monica Seles]] is stabbed in the back by a deranged fan of rival [[Steffi Graf]]. Seles would not play competitively for more than two years after the incident. *[[1994]] - In [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]], [[Paul Harrington]] & [[Charlie McGettigan]] win the thirty-ninth [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for Ireland singing "Rock'n'Roll Kids". *[[1995]] - U.S. President [[Bill Clinton]] became the first U.S. President to visit [[Northern Ireland]]. *[[1997]] - [[Ellen DeGeneres]]'s character comes out of [[the closet]] on the sitcom [[Ellen (TV show)|Ellen]]. *[[1999]] - [[NATO]] membership expands by approving the admission of the [[Czech Republic]], [[Hungary]] and [[Poland]]. *1999 - [[Cambodia]] joins the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN) bringing the total members to 10. *1999 - [[Neo-nazi]] bomber [[David Copeland]] detonates his third bomb in front of the [[Admiral Duncan pub]] and is arrested the night after. *2001 - [[Chandra Levy]], a former intern to [[California]] Congressman [[Gary Condit]], is last seen in [[Washington, D.C.]] *[[2002]] - A [[referendum]] in [[Pakistan]] overwhelmingly approves the Presidency of [[Pervez Musharraf]] for another five years. * 2002 - The law N26-РЗ "On the [[Flag of Udmurtia|National Flag of the Udmurt Republic]]" has appeared. *[[2004]] - The last edition of [[National Public Radio|NPR]]'s ''[[Morning Edition]]'' with [[Bob Edwards]] as host airs. ==Births== *[[1586]] - [[Saint Rose of Lima]], Peruvian saint (d. [[1617]]) *[[1602]] - [[William Lilly]], English astrologer (d. [[1681]]) *[[1623]] - [[François de Laval]], first bishop of New France (d. [[1708]]) *[[1651]] - [[Jean-Baptiste de la Salle]], French educational reformer (d. [[1719]]) *[[1662]] - Queen [[Mary II of England]] (d. [[1694]]) *[[1664]] - [[François Louis, Prince of Conti]], French general (d. [[1709]]) *[[1710]] - [[Johann Kaspar Basselet von La Rosée]], Bavarian general (d. [[1795]]) *[[1723]] - [[Mathurin Jacques Brisson]], French naturalist (d. [[1806]]) *[[1721]] - [[Roger Sherman]], American signer of the Declaration of Independence (d. [[1793]]) *[[1777]] - [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], German mathematician, astronomer, and physicist (d. [[1855]]) *[[1829]] - [[Ferdinand von Hochstetter]], Austrian geologist (d. [[1884]]) *[[1857]] - [[Eugene Bleuler]], Swiss psychiatrist (d. [[1940]]) *[[1865]] - [[Max Nettlau]], German anarchist and historian (d. [[1944]]) *[[1870]] - [[Franz Lehar]], Austrian composer (d. [[1948]]) *[[1876]] - [[Orso Mario Corbino]], Italian physicist (d. [[1937]]) *[[1877]] - [[Alice B. Toklas]], American companion of [[Gertrude Stein]] (d. [[1967]]) *[[1883]] - [[Jaroslav Hasek|Jaroslav Ha&#353;ek]], Czech novelist (d. [[1923]]) *[[1893]] - [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]], Nazi foreign minister (d. [[1946]]) *[[1901]] - [[Simon Kuznets]], Ukrainian-born economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (d. [[1985]]) *[[1902]] - [[Theodore Schultz]], American economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1998]]) *[[1908]] - [[Bjarni Benediktsson]], Icelandic foreign and later prime minister (d. [[1970]]) *[[1909]] - Queen [[Juliana of the Netherlands]] (d. [[2004]]) *1909 - [[F. E. McWilliam]], Northern Irish sculptor (d. [[1992]]) *[[1910]] - [[Al Lewis]], American actor and politician (d. [[2006]]) *[[1916]] - [[Claude Shannon]], American engineer and mathematician (d. [[2001]]) *1916 - [[Robert Shaw (conductor)|Robert Shaw]], American conductor (d. [[1999]]) *[[1925]] - [[Johnny Horton]], American musician (d. [[1960]]) *[[1930]] - [[Lawton Chiles]], American politician (d. [[1998]]) *[[1933]] - [[Willie Nelson]], American musician, composer, and actor *[[1938]] - [[Larry Niven]], American author *[[1940]] - [[Burt Young]], American actor *[[1941]] - [[Johnny Farina]], American guitarist ([[Santo and Johnny]]) *[[1943]] - [[Bobby Vee]], American singer *[[1944]] - [[Jill Clayburgh]], American actress *[[1945]] - [[Annie Dillard]], American writer *1945 - [[Michael Smith (astronaut)|Michael Smith]], astronaut (d. [[1986]]) *[[1946]] - King [[Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden|Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden]] * 1946 - [[Don Schollander]], American swimmer *[[1947]] - [[Finn Kalvik]], Norwegian singer *[[1948]] - [[Perry King]], American actor *[[1949]] - [[Phil Garner]], baseball manager *1949 - [[Antonio Guterres]], [[Prime Minister of Portugal]] *[[1954]] - [[Jane Campion]], New Zealand film director *[[1955]] - [[Nicolas Hulot]], French journalist and author *[[1956]] - [[Jorge Chaminé]], Portuguese baritone *1956 - [[Lars von Trier]], Danish film director *[[1959]] - [[Stephen Harper]], Prime Minister of Canada *[[1961]] - [[Isiah Thomas]], American basketball player, coach, and team owner *[[1964]] - [[Barrington Levy]], Jamaican musician *[[1969]] - [[Paulo Jr.]], Brazilian bassist ([[Sepultura]]) *1969 - [[Clark Vogeler]], American guitarist ([[The Toadies]]) *[[1975]] - [[Elliott Sadler]], American race car driver *[[1981]] - [[John O'Shea (footballer)|John O'Shea]], Irish footballer *[[1982]] - [[Kirsten Dunst]], American actress, [[Justin Green]], National Football League fullback *[[1983]] - [[Troy Williamson]], American football player *[[1987]] - [[Nikki Webster]], Australian pop singer and entertainer ==Deaths== *[[65]] - [[Lucan (poet)|Lucan]], Roman poet (b. [[39]]) *[[1063]] - [[Emperor Renzong (Song Dynasty)|Emperor Renzong]] of China (b. [[1010]]) *[[1341]] - [[John III, Duke of Brittany]] (b. [[1285]]) *[[1439]] - [[Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick]], English military leader (b. [[1382]]) *[[1524]] - [[Pierre Terrail, seigneur de Bayard]], French soldier (b. [[1473]]) *[[1544]] - [[Thomas Audley, 1st Baron Audley of Walden]], [[Lord Chancellor|Lord Chancellor of England]] *[[1555]] - [[Pope Marcellus II]] (b. [[1501]]) *[[1632]] - [[Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly]], Bavarian general (b. [[1559]]) *[[1642]] - [[Dmitry Pozharsky]], Russian prince (b. [[1578]]) *[[1660]] - [[Petrus Scriverius]], Dutch writer (b. [[1576]]) *[[1655]] - [[Eustache Le Sueur]], French painter (b. [[1617]]) *[[1696]] - [[Robert Plot]], British naturalist (b. [[1640]]) *[[1712]] - [[Philipp van Limborch]], Dutch protestant theologian (b. [[1633]]) *[[1736]] - [[Johann Albert Fabricius]], German classical scholar and bibliographer (b. [[1668]]) *[[1758]] - [[François d'Agincourt]], French composer (b. [[1684]]) *[[1792]] - [[John Montagu]], Supposed inventor of the sandwich (b. [[1718]]) *[[1795]] - [[Jean-Jacques Barthélemy]], French writer and numismatist (b. [[1716]]) *[[1847]] - [[Archduke Charles]], Austrian general (b. [[1771]]) *[[1865]] - [[Robert Fitzroy]], English admiral and meteorologist (b. [[1805]]) *[[1875]] - [[Jean Frederic Waldeck]], French explorer, lithographer, and cartographer (b. [[1766]]) *[[1883]] - [[Édouard Manet]], French painter (b. [[1832]]) *[[1903]] - [[Emily Stowe]], Canadian physician and suffragist (b.[[1831]]) *[[1936]] - [[Alfred Edward Housman]], English poet (b. [[1859]]) *[[1943]] - [[Otto Jespersen]], Danish philologist (b. [[1860]]) *[[1945]] - [[Eva Braun]], [[Adolf Hitler]]'s new wife (suicide) (b. [[1912]]) *[[1945]] - [[Adolf Hitler]], Austrian dictator of Germany (suicide) (b. [[1889]]) *[[1956]] - [[Alben W. Barkley]], [[Vice President of the United States]] (b. [[1877]]) *[[1970]] - [[Inger Stevens]], Swedish actress (b. [[1934]]) *[[1974]] - [[Agnes Moorehead]], American actress (b. [[1900]]) *[[1980]] - [[Luis Muñoz Marín]], Puerto Rican poet, journalist, and politician (b. [[1898]]) *[[1982]] - [[Lester Bangs]], American music journalist, author, and musician (b. [[1949]]) *[[1983]] - [[George Balanchine]], Russian-born dancer and choreographer (b. [[1904]]) *[[1983]] - [[Muddy Waters]], American musician (b. [[1915]]) *[[1985]] - [[Charles Francis Richter]], American seismologist *[[1989]] - [[Masako Nashimoto|Yi, Bang-ja]], Crown Princess of Korea (b. [[1901]]) *[[1989]] - [[Sergio Leone]], Italian filmmaker (b. [[1929]]) *[[1994]] - [[Roland Ratzenberger]], Austrian race car driver (b. [[1960]]) *[[1998]] - [[Nizar Qabbani]], Syrian poet (b. [[1926]]) *[[2002]] - [[Charlotte von Mahlsdorf]], founder of the [[Gründerzeit]] Museum in Berlin-Mahlsdorf. (b. [[1928]]) *[[2003]] - [[Peter 'Possum' Bourne]], New Zealand race car driver (B. [[1956]]) *[[2003]] - [[Wim van Est]], Dutch cyclist (b. [[1923]]) *[[2003]] - [[Mark Berger]], [[University of Kentucky]] Professor *[[2005]] - [[Ron Todd]], [[TGWU]] General Secretary ([[1985]] - [[1992]]) (b. [[1927]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Scandinavia]] - The arrival of [[Spring (season)|spring]], [[Walpurgis Night]] *[[Sweden]] - [[Birthday]] of King [[Carl XVI Gustav of Sweden|Carl XVI Gustav]], an [[Flag days in Sweden|official flag day]] *The [[Netherlands]] - [[Queen's Day]] *[[Roman Empire]] - third day of the [[Floralia]] in honor of [[Flora (goddess)|Flora]] *[[Beltane|Bealtaine]] Eve (From either [[Irish language|Irish]] [[Beltane|Bealtaine]] or [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]). Originally a [[Celt]]ic [[Druidry|Druid]] holiday *[[Vietnam]] - [[Liberation Day]] *[[Feast day]] of the following [[saint]]s in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]: **[[Saint Maximus]], 3rd century martyr **[[Saint Louis]], Amator, and Peter, martyred by the [[Moors]] in [[855]] **[[Saint Marianus]] and James, martyrs in [[Numidia]] in [[259]] **[[Suitbert the Younger]] (d. [[807]]) **[[Catherine of Siena]] **[[Joseph Benedict Cottolengo]] **[[Pius V]], [[pope]] **[[Robert]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/30 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050430.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] * [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Apr&day=30 On This Day in Canada] ---- [[March 30]] - [[March 31]] - [[April 29]] - [[May 1]] - [[May 30]] - [[May 31]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[ceb:Abril 30]] [[nap:30 'e abbrile]] [[war:Abril 30]] [[pam:Abril 30]] [[af:30 April]] [[ar:30 أبريل]] [[an:30 d'abril]] [[ast:30 d'abril]] [[bg:30 април]] [[be:30 красавіка]] [[bs:30. april]] [[ca:30 d'abril]] [[cv:Ака, 30]] [[co:30 d'aprile]] [[cs:30. duben]] [[cy:30 Ebrill]] [[da:30. april]] [[de:30. April]] [[et:30. aprill]] [[el:30 Απριλίου]] [[es:30 de abril]] [[eo:30-a de aprilo]] [[eu:Apirilaren 30]] [[fo:30. apríl]] [[fr:30 avril]] [[fy:30 april]] [[ga:30 Aibreán]] [[gl:30 de abril]] [[ko:4월 30일]] [[hr:30. travnja]] [[io:30 di aprilo]] [[id:30 April]] [[ia:30 de april]] [[ie:30 april]] [[is:30. apríl]] [[it:30 aprile]] [[he:30 באפריל]] [[jv:30 April]] [[ka:30 აპრილი]] [[csb:30 łżëkwiôta]] [[ku:30'ê avrêlê]] [[la:30 Aprilis]] [[lt:Balandžio 30]] [[lb:30. Abrëll]] [[li:30 april]] [[hu:Április 30]] [[mk:30 април]] [[ms:30 April]] [[nl:30 april]] [[ja:4月30日]] [[no:30. april]] [[nn:30. april]] [[oc:30 d'abril]] [[pl:30 kwietnia]] [[pt:30 de Abril]] [[ro:30 aprilie]] [[ru:30 апреля]] [[sco:30 Aprile]] [[sq:30 Prill]] [[scn:30 di aprili]] [[simple:April 30]] [[sk:30. apríl]] [[sl:30. april]] [[sr:30. април]] [[fi:30. huhtikuuta]] [[sv:30 april]] [[tl:Abril 30]] [[tt:30. Äpril]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 30]] [[th:30 เมษายน]] [[vi:30 tháng 4]] [[tr:30 Nisan]] [[uk:30 квітня]] [[ur:30 اپریل]] [[wa:30 d' avri]] [[zh:4月30日]] 1012 42114981 2006-03-03T22:43:14Z Rklawton 754622 rv {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=22}} |} '''[[August 22]]''' is the 234th [[day]] of the [[year]] in the [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian Calendar]] (235th in [[leap year]]s), with 131 [[day]]s remaining. ==Events== *[[1485]] - The [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] decisively ends the [[Wars of the Roses]] *[[1559]] - Bartholome de Carranza, Spanish [[archbishop]], is arrested for [[heresy]] *[[1642]] - [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] calls the English Parliament traitors. Beginning of the [[English Civil War]] *[[1654]] - [[Jacob Barsimson]] arrives in [[New Amsterdam]]. He is the first [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Immigration|immigrant]] to what is later the [[United States]] *[[1717]] - Spanish troops land on [[Sardinia]] *[[1770]] - [[James Cook]]'s expedition lands on the east coast of [[Australia]] *[[1775]] - [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] declares the [[Thirteen Colonies|American colonies]] to be in open rebellion *[[1780]] - James Cook's ship ''Resolution'' returns to [[England]] (Cook having been killed on [[Hawaii]] during the voyage) *[[1791]] - Beginning of the [[Haiti]]an [[Haitian Revolution|Slave Revolution]] in [[Saint-Domingue]] *[[1798]] - French troops land in [[County Mayo]], Ireland to aid [[Theobald Wolfe Tone|Wolfe Tone]]'s [[Society of the United Irishmen|United Irishmen]]'s [[Irish Rebellion of 1798 |Irish Rebellion]] *[[1846]] - [[United States|The United States]] annexes [[New Mexico]] *[[1851]] - [[Gold]] is discovered in [[Australia]] *1851 - The first [[America's Cup]] is won by the [[yacht]] ''[[America (yacht)|America]]''. *[[1875]] - The [[Treaty of Saint Petersburg]] between [[Japan]] and [[Russia]] is ratified, providing for the exchange of [[Sakhalin]] for the [[Kuril Islands]]. *[[1864]] - Twelve [[nation]]s sign the First [[Geneva Conventions|Geneva Convention]]. The [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|Red Cross]] is formed. *[[1901]] - [[Cadillac|Cadillac]] Motor Company founded *[[1902]] - [[Theodore Roosevelt]] became the first [[President of the United States]] to ride in an automobile *[[1910]] - [[Japan]] annexes [[Korea]] with the signing of the [[Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty]]. The name Korea was abolished and replaced with the ancient name ''[[Joseon]]''. *[[1911]] - Theft of the ''[[Mona Lisa]]'' is discovered *[[1914]] - [[World War I]]: In [[Belgium]], British and German troops clash for the first time in the war. *[[1922]] - [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]], Commander-in-Chief of the [[Irish Free State]] Army is shot dead during an Anti-Treaty ambush at Beal na mBlath, County Cork, during the [[Irish Civil War]]. *[[1926]] - [[Gold]] discovered in [[Johannesburg]], [[South Africa]] *[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: German [[troop]]s reach [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]], leading to the [[siege of Leningrad]] *[[1942]] - World War II: [[Brazil]] declares [[war]] on the Axis powers ([[Germany]], [[Italy]] and [[Japan]]) *[[1944]] - World War II: Last transport of French Jews to [[concentration camp]]s in Germany *1944 - World War II: Thirty-two Spaniards & four French [[Maquis (World War II)|Maquis]] tackle a German column (1,300 men in 60 lorries, with 6 tanks & 2 self-propelled guns), at La Madeiline, France. Three Maquis are wounded, with 110 Germans killed and 200 wounded. *[[1950]] - [[Althea Gibson]] becomes the first black [[Competition|competitor]] in international [[tennis]] *[[1953]] - The [[Prison|jail]] on [[Devils Island|Devil's Island]] is closed *[[1962]] - An attempt to assassinate French president [[Charles de Gaulle|Charles De Gaulle]] fails *1962 - The [[NS Savannah|NS ''Savannah'']], the world's first [[Nuclear marine propulsion|nuclear-powered]] ship, completes its [[maiden voyage]] *[[1968]] - [[Pope Paul VI]] arrives in [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]]. It is the first visit of a [[pope]] to [[Latin America]] *[[1972]] - [[Rhodesia]] is expelled by the [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]] for its racist policies *[[1988]] - The Australian ''koala'', the first [[platinum]] coin, is issued *[[1989]] - The first ring of [[Neptune|Neptune]] is discovered * 1989 - [[Nolan Ryan]] strikes out [[Rickey Henderson]] to become the first [[Major League Baseball|major league baseball]] [[pitcher]] to record 5000 [[strikeout]]s. *[[1992]] - [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] [[Hostage Rescue Team|HRT]] sniper [[Lon Horiuchi]] shoots and kills Vicki Weaver during an 11-day siege at her home at [[Ruby Ridge]], [[Idaho]]. *[[2001]] - the [[Trojan room coffee pot]] is switched off for the last time. *[[2004]] - ''[[The Scream]]'', the painting by [[Edvard Munch]], is stolen at gunpoint from a museum in [[Oslo]], [[Norway]]. ==Births== *[[1601]] - [[Georges de Scudéry]], French writer (d. [[1667]]) *[[1624]] - [[Jean Renaud de Segrais]], French writer (d. [[1701]]) *[[1647]] - [[Denis Papin]], French physicist, mathematician, and inventor *[[1679]] - [[Pierre Guérin de Tencin]], French cardinal (d. [[1758]]) *[[1760]] - [[Pope Leo XII]] (d. [[1829]]) *[[1764]] - [[Charles Percier]], French architect (d. [[1838]]) *[[1771]] - [[Henry Maudslay]], English inventor and tool-maker (d. [[1831]]) *[[1800]] - [[William S. Harney]], U.S. general (d. [[1889]]) *[[1802]] - [[Gurdon Saltonstall Hubbard]], American land speculator (d. [[1886]]) *[[1834]] - [[Samuel Pierpont Langley]], American astronomer, physicist, inventor, aviation pioneer (d. [[1906]]) *[[1854]] - King [[Milan Obrenović IV|Milan I of Serbia]] (d. [[1901]]) *[[1860]] - [[Paul Gottlieb Nipkow|Paul Nipkow]], German inventor and television pioneer (d. [[1940]]) *[[1862]] - [[Claude Debussy]], French composer (d. [[1918]]) *[[1867]] - [[Maximilian Bircher-Benner]], Swiss physician and nutritionist (d. [[1939]]) *[[1873]] - [[Alexander Bogdanov]], Russian physician and philosopher (d. [[1928]]) *[[1874]] - [[Max Scheler]], German philosopher (d. [[1928]]) *[[1880]] - [[George Herriman]], American cartoonist (d. [[1944]]) *[[1893]] - [[Dorothy Parker]], American writer (d. [[1967]]) *[[1900]] - [[Sergei Ozhegov]], Russian lexicographer (d. [[1964]]) *[[1902]] - [[Leni Riefenstahl]], German film director (d. [[2003]]) *[[1904]] - [[Deng Xiaoping]], leader of the People's Republic of China (d. [[1997]]) *[[1908]] - [[Henri Cartier-Bresson]], French photographer (d. [[2004]]) *[[1915]] - [[Hugh Paddick]], British actor (d. [[2000]]) *1915 - [[Edward Szczepanik]], Polish economist and Prime Minister in exile (d. [[2005]]) *[[1917]] - [[John Lee Hooker]], American guitarist and singer (d. [[2001]]) *[[1920]] - [[Ray Bradbury]], American writer *1920 - [[Denton Cooley]], American heart surgeon *[[1928]] - [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]], German composer *[[1930]] - [[Gilmar]], Brazilian football player *[[1934]] - [[Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr.|Norman Schwarzkopf]], U.S. general *[[1935]] - [[E. Annie Proulx]], American author *[[1938]] - [[Paul Maguire]], American football player *[[1939]] - [[George Reinholt]], American actor *1939 - [[Carl Yastrzemski]], baseball player *[[1940]] - [[Valerie Harper]], American actress *[[1941]] - [[Bill Parcells]], American football coach *[[1942]] - [[The Lennon Sisters|Kathy Lennon]], American singer ([[The Lennon Sisters]]) *[[1945]] - [[Ron Dante]], American singer ([[The Archies]]), songwriter and record producer *[[1947]] - [[Cindy Williams]], American actress *[[1955]] - [[Will Shetterly]], writer *1955 - [[Chiranjeevi]], Telugu film actor *[[1956]] - [[Paul Molitor]], baseball player *[[1957]] - [[Steve Davis]], English snooker player *[[1958]] - [[Colm Feore]], American-born actor *1958 - [[Vernon Reid]], American musician ([[Living Colour]]) *[[1961]] - [[Roland Orzabal]], singer and guitarist ([[Tears for Fears]]) *[[1963]] - [[Tori Amos]], American singer, songwriter, and pianist *[[1964]] - [[Mats Wilander]], Swedish tennis player *[[1966]] - [[GZA]], American rapper *[[1967]] - [[Layne Staley]], American musician ([[Alice in Chains]]) (d. [[2002]]) *1967 - [[Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje]], British actor *[[1970]] - [[Charlie Connelly]], English writer *[[1973]] - [[Howie Dorough]], American singer ([[Backstreet Boys]]) *[[1977]] - [[Heiðar Helguson|Heidar Helguson]], Icelandic footballer *[[1978]] - [[Jeff Stinco]], Canadian musician ([[Simple Plan]]) *[[1981]] - [[Alex Holmes]], American football player ==Deaths== *[[408]] - [[Stilicho]], Roman general (b. [[359]]) *[[1155]] - [[Emperor Konoe]] of Japan (b. [[1139]]) *[[1188]] - King [[Ferdinand II of Leon]] *[[1241]] - [[Pope Gregory IX]] *[[1280]] - [[Pope Nicholas III]] *[[1286]] - [[Eric V of Denmark|Erik V Klipping]], King of Denmark (murdered) (b. [[1249]]) *[[1304]] - [[John II, Count of Hainaut]] (b. [[1247]]) *[[1350]] - King [[Philip VI of France]] (b. [[1293]]) *[[1485]] - King [[Richard III of England]] (killed in battle) (b. [[1452]]) *[[1553]] - [[John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland|John Dudley]], English admiral and politician (beheaded) (b. [[1501]]) *[[1584]] - [[Jan Kochanowski]], Polish writer (b. [[1530]]) *[[1599]] - [[Beatrice Cenci]], Italian noblewoman who conspired to murder her father (b. [[1577]]) *1599 - [[Luca Marenzio]], Italian composer *[[1607]] - [[Bartholomew Gosnold]], English explorer and privateer (b. [[1572]]) *[[1609]] - [[Judah Loew ben Bezalel|Maharal of Prague]], Jewish mystic and philosopher (b. [[1525]]) *[[1652]] - [[Jacob De la Gardie]], Swedish soldier and statesman (b. [[1583]]) *[[1680]] - [[John George II, Elector of Saxony]] (b. [[1613]]) *[[1701]] - [[John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath]], English royalist statesman (b. [[1628]]) *[[1711]] - [[Louis François, duc de Boufflers]], French marshal (b. [[1644]]) *[[1752]] - [[William Whiston]], English mathematician (b. [[1667]]) *[[1793]] - [[Louis, 4th duc de Noailles]], Marshal of France (b. [[1713]]) *[[1797]] - [[Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser]], Alsatian-born Austrian general (b. [[1724]]) *[[1806]] - [[Jean-Honoré Fragonard]], French artist (b. [[1732]]) *[[1818]] - [[Warren Hastings]], British Governor-General of India (b. [[1732]]) *[[1823]] - [[Lazare Carnot]], French general, politician, and mathematician (b. [[1753]]) *[[1828]] - [[Franz Joseph Gall]], Austrian neuroscientist (b. [[1758]]) *[[1850]] - [[Nikolaus Lenau]], Austrian poet (b. [[1802]]) *[[1861]] - [[Xianfeng Emperor|Xianfeng]], [[Emperor of China]] (b. [[1831]]) *[[1891]] - [[Jan Neruda]], Czech author (b. [[1834]]) *[[1903]] - [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (b. [[1830]]) *[[1904]] - [[Kate Chopin]], American author (b. [[1851]]) *[[1913]] - [[Bruno Pontecorvo]], Italian physicist (d. [[1993]]) *[[1918]] - [[Korbinian Brodmann]], German neurologist (b. [[1868]]) *[[1922]] - [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]], Irish revolutionary (ambushed) (b. [[1890]]) *[[1926]] - [[Charles_William_Eliot|Charles W. Eliot]], American President of Harvard University (b. [[1834]]) *[[1942]] - [[Michel Fokine]], Russian choreographer and dancer (b. [[1880]]) *[[1953]] - [[Jim Tabor]], baseball player (b. [[1916]]) *[[1958]] - [[Roger Martin du Gard]], French writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1881]]) *[[1976]] - [[Juscelino Kubitschek de Oliveira]], President of Brazil (b. [[1902]]) *[[1977]] - [[Sebastian Cabot (actor)|Sebastian Cabot]], English-born actor (b. [[1918]]) *[[1978]] - [[Jomo Kenyatta]], first Prime Minister of Kenya *[[1989]] - [[Huey P. Newton]], American activist (b. [[1942]]) *[[1991]] - [[Colleen Dewhurst]], Canadian actress (b. [[1924]]) *[[2003]] - [[Arnold Gerschwiler]], Swiss-born figure skating trainer (b. [[1914]]) *[[2004]] - [[Konstantin Aseev]], Russian chess player (b. [[1960]]) *[[2005]] - [[Luc Ferrari]], French composer (b. [[1929]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Calendar_of_saints|RC feasts]] - Mary queen of angels ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/22 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[August 21]] - [[August 23]] - [[July 22]] - [[September 22]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[ilo:Agosto 22]] [[af:22 Augustus]] [[ar:22 أغسطس]] [[an:22 d'agosto]] [[ast:22 d'agostu]] [[bg:22 август]] [[be:22 жніўня]] [[bs:22. august]] [[ca:22 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 22]] [[cv:Çурла, 22]] [[co:22 d'aostu]] [[cs:22. srpen]] [[cy:22 Awst]] [[da:22. august]] [[de:22. August]] [[et:22. august]] [[el:22 Αυγούστου]] [[es:22 de agosto]] [[eo:22-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 22]] [[fo:22. august]] [[fr:22 août]] [[fy:22 augustus]] [[ga:22 Lúnasa]] [[gl:22 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 22일]] [[hr:22. kolovoza]] [[io:22 di agosto]] [[id:22 Agustus]] [[ia:22 de augusto]] [[ie:22 august]] [[is:22. ágúst]] [[it:22 agosto]] [[he:22 באוגוסט]] [[jv:22 Agustus]] [[ka:22 აგვისტო]] [[csb:22 zélnika]] [[ku:22'ê gelawêjê]] [[la:22 Augusti]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 22]] [[lb:22. August]] [[li:22 augustus]] [[hu:Augusztus 22]] [[mk:22 август]] [[ms:22 Ogos]] [[nap:22 'e aùsto]] [[nl:22 augustus]] [[ja:8月22日]] [[no:22. august]] [[nn:22. august]] [[oc:22 d'agost]] [[pl:22 sierpnia]] [[pt:22 de Agosto]] [[ro:22 august]] [[ru:22 августа]] [[sco:22 August]] [[sq:22 Gusht]] [[scn:22 di austu]] [[simple:August 22]] [[sk:22. august]] [[sl:22. avgust]] [[sr:22. август]] [[fi:22. elokuuta]] [[sv:22 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 22]] [[tt:22. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 22]] [[th:22 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:22 tháng 8]] [[tr:22 Ağustos]] [[uk:22 серпня]] [[wa:22 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 22]] [[zh:8月22日]] [[pam:Agostu 22]] 1013 42122286 2006-03-03T23:40:10Z Joy Stovall 69412 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/84.132.56.20|84.132.56.20]] ([[User talk:84.132.56.20|talk]]) to last version by 64.132.59.83 {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=27}} |} '''[[August 27]]''' is the 239th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (240th in [[leap year]]s), with 126 days remaining. ==Events== *[[479 BC]] - [[Greco-Persian Wars]]: [[Persian Empire|Persian]] forces led by [[Mardonius]] are routed by [[Pausanias (general)|Pausanias]], the [[Sparta]]n commander of the Greek army in the [[Battle of Plataea]]. Along the with the Greek victory on the same day in the [[Battle of Mycale]], the Persian invasion of [[Ancient Greece|Greece]] ended. *[[55 BC]] - [[Julius Caesar]] lands in [[Great Britain|Britain]] for the first time. *[[410]] - [[Visigoth]] sack of [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] ends after three days. *[[1232]] - The [[Goseibai Shikimoku|Formulary of Adjudications]] is promulgated by [[Shikken|Regent]] [[Hojo Yasutoki]]. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: August 10, 1232) *[[1776]] - [[Battle of Long Island]], in present day [[Brooklyn, New York]], [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] forces under General [[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|William Howe]] defeat Americans under General [[George Washington]] *[[1813]] - [[Napoleon]] defeats the [[Austria]]ns, [[Russia]]ns and [[Prussia]]ns at the [[Battle of Dresden]] *[[1828]] - The Russians defeat the Turks at Akhaltzikke. *[[1859]] - [[Petroleum]] discovered in [[Titusville, Pennsylvania]]. World's first successful [[oil well]]. *[[1861]] - Union forces attack [[Cape Hatteras]], [[North Carolina]] *[[1883]] - [[Krakatoa]], an [[Indonesia]]n volcano, erupts. It is one of the most violent volcanic events in modern times. *[[1896]] - [[Anglo-Zanzibar War]]: the shortest [[war]] in world history (9:02 to 9:40) between the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Zanzibar]]. *[[1900]] - British defeat [[Boer]] commandos at [[Bergendal]] *[[1928]] - [[Kellogg-Briand Pact]], outlawing war, signed by sixty nations *[[1937]] - The automobile division of Toyoda Automatic Loom Works is spun off into the [[Toyota Motor Corporation]]. *[[1939]] - First [[jet aircraft]] flight *[[1952]] - Reparation negotiations between [[West Germany]] and [[Israel]] end in [[Luxembourg]]; West Germany to pay 3 billion [[Deutschmark]]s. *[[1962]] - [[Mariner 2]] launched *[[1969]] - The first installment of the [[Otoko wa tsurai yo|''Otoko wa Tsurai yo'']] (''It's Tough Being a Man'') movies is released in [[Japan]]. Director and screenplay writer [[Yoji Yamada]] went on to make 48 installments of the series, which is recognized in the [[Guinness Book of World Records]] as the longest running movie series. *[[1979]] - An [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] bomb kills [[Louis Mountbatten|Lord Mountbatten]] and 3 others on holiday in [[Sligo]], [[Republic of Ireland]]. Another near [[Warrenpoint]], [[Northern Ireland]] kills 18 [[British Army|British soldiers]]. *[[1985]] - The [[Nigeria]]n government is peacefully overthrown by Army Chief of Staff Maj. Gen. [[Ibrahim Babangida]]. *[[1990]] - The [[British Broadcasting Corporation]] launches [[BBC Radio Five Live]] at 9am GMT with a mixture of sports, news, and children's programming. The station broadcasts for eighteen hours per day. *[[1991]] - The [[European Community]] recognizes the independence of the [[Baltic state]]s: [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]]. *1991 - [[Moldova]] declares independence from the [[Soviet Union|USSR]]. *[[1993]] - The [[Florida]] DOT decides to cease producing its distinctive colored [[U.S. Highway shield|U.S. Highway shields]] so that it can make use of Federal funds for those signs. *1993 - The [[Rainbow Bridge (Tokyo)|Rainbow Bridge]], connecting [[Tokyo|Tokyo's]] [[Shibaura]] and the island of [[Odaiba]], is completed. *[[2000]] - [[Ostankino Tower]] in [[Moscow]] catches fire, three people are killed. *[[2003]] - [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] makes its closest approach to [[Earth]] in nearly 60,000 years, passing approximately 34,646,416 miles (55,758,006 kilometers) from Earth. ==Births== *[[1407]] - [[Ashikaga Yoshikazu]], Japanese shogun (d. [[1425]]) *[[1471]] - [[George, Duke of Saxony]] (d. [[1539]]) *[[1637]] - [[Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore]], Governor of the Province of Maryland (d. [[1715]]) *[[1665]] - [[John Hervey, 1st Earl of Bristol]], English politician (d. [[1751]]) *[[1677]] - [[Otto Ferdinand Graf von Abensperg und Traun]], Austrian field marshal (d. [[1748]]) *[[1724]] - [[John Joachim Zubly]], Swiss-born Continental Congressman (d. [[1781]]) *[[1730]] - [[Johann Georg Hamann]], German philosopher (d. [[1788]]) *[[1770]] - [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]], German philosopher (d. [[1831]]) *[[1809]] - [[Hannibal Hamlin]], [[Vice President of the United States of America]] (d. [[1891]]) *[[1858]] - [[Giuseppe Peano]], Italian mathematician (d. [[1932]]) *[[1865]] - [[James Henry Breasted]], American Egyptologist (d. [[1935]]) *1865 - [[Charles G. Dawes]], 30th [[Vice President of the United States]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1951]]) *[[1870]] - [[Amado Nervo]], Mexican poet (d. [[1919]]) *[[1871]] - [[Theodore Dreiser]], American author (d. [[1945]]) *[[1874]] - [[Carl Bosch]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1940]]) *[[1875]] - [[Katharine McCormick]], American women's rights activist (d. [[1967]]) *[[1886]] - [[Rebecca Clarke]], English composer and violist (d. [[1979]]) *1886 - [[Eric Coates]], English composer (d. [[1957]]) *[[1890]] - [[Man Ray]], photographer and artist (d. [[1976]]) *[[1899]] - [[C.S. Forester]], British author (d. [[1966]]) *1899 - [[Byron Foulger]], American character actor (d. [[1970]]) *[[1904]] - [[Norah Lofts]], British author (d. [[1983]]) *[[1906]] - [[Ed Gein]], American serial killer (d. [[1984]]) *[[1908]] - [[Sir Donald Bradman|Don Bradman]], Australian cricketer (d. [[2001]]) *1908 - [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], 36th [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1973]]) *1908 - [[Kurt Wegner]], German artist (d. [[1985]]) *[[1909]] - [[Lester Young]], American musician (d. [[1959]]) *[[1910]] - [[Mother Teresa]], Albanian missionary and humanitarian, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1997]]) *[[1911]] - [[Kay Walsh]], British actress (d. [[2005]]) *[[1915]] - [[Norman F. Ramsey]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate *[[1916]] - [[Martha Raye]], American actress (d. [[1994]]) *[[1921]] - [[Leo Penn]], American film director-actor (d. [[1998]]) *[[1926]] - [[Kristen Nygaard]], Norwegian mathematician, computer scientist, and politician (d. [[2002]]) *[[1928]] - [[Mangosuthu Buthelezi]], South African politician *[[1929]] - [[Ira Levin]], American author *[[1932]] - [[Antonia Fraser]], British author *[[1935]] - [[Frank Yablans]], American film producer *[[1937]] - [[Tommy Sands]], American actor and singer *[[1940]] - [[Sonny Sharrock]], American jazz guitarist (d. [[1994]]) *[[1942]] - [[B. J. Thomas]], American singer *[[1943]] - [[Tuesday Weld]], American actress *[[1945]] - [[G.W. Bailey]], American actor *[[1947]] - [[Barbara Bach]], American actress *1947 - [[Harry Reems]], American actor *[[1950]] - [[Charles Fleischer]], American actor *[[1951]] - [[Buddy Bell]], baseball player-manager *[[1952]] - [[Paul Reubens|Paul "Pee-Wee Herman" Reubens]], American actor *[[1953]] - [[Peter Stormare]], Swedish-born actor *[[1954]] - [[Derek Warwick]], British race car driver *[[1955]] - [[Diana Scarwid]], American actress *[[1957]] - [[Bernhard Langer]], German golfer *[[1958]] - [[Tom Lanoye]], [[Belgian]] author *1958 - [[Stalking Cat]], American body modificationist *[[1959]] - [[Gerhard Berger]], Austrian race car driver *[[1962]] - [[Adam Oates]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player *[[1963]] - [[Downtown Julie Brown]], Welsh television personality *[[1965]] - [[Wayne James]], Zimbabwe cricketer *[[1966]] - [[Juhan Parts]], [[Prime Minister of Estonia]] *[[1969]] - [[Reece Shearsmith]], British actor and comedian *[[1970]] - [[Peter Ebdon]], English snooker player *1970 - [[Tony Kanal]], American-British musician ([[No Doubt]]) *1970 - [[Jim Thome]], baseball player *[[1973]] - [[Dietmar Hamann]], German footballer *[[1974]] - [[Jose Vidro]], Puerto Rican [[Major League Baseball]] player *[[1974]] - [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1595731/ Mike Chrzanowski], American Game Designer *[[1975]] - [[Jonny Moseley]], American skier *[[1976]] - [[Sarah Chalke]], Canadian actress *1976 - [[Carlos Moya]], Spanish tennis player *1976 - [[Mark Webber]], Australian race car driver *[[1977]] - [[Deco]], Brazilian footballer *[[1979]] - [[Tian Liang]], Chinese diver *[[1988]] - [[Alexa Vega]], American actress ==Deaths== *[[1312]] - [[Arthur II, Duke of Brittany]] (b. [[1262]]) *[[1394]] - [[Chokei]], Emperor of Japan (b. [[1343]]) *[[1450]] - [[Reginald West, 6th Baron De La Warr]], English politician (b. [[1395]]) *[[1521]] - [[Josquin Des Prez]], Flemish composer *[[1545]] - [[Piotr Gamrat]], Polish Catholic archbishop (b. [[1487]]) *[[1572]] - [[Claude Goudimel]], French composer *[[1577]] - [[Titian]], Italian artist *[[1590]] - [[Pope Sixtus V]] (b. [[1521]]) *[[1635]] - [[Félix Lope de Vega]], Spanish poet and playwright (b. [[1562]]) *[[1664]] - [[Francisco Zurbarán]], Spanish painter (b. [[1598]]) *[[1748]] - [[James Thomson (Seasons)|James Thomson]], Scottish poet (b. [[1700]]) *[[1773]] - [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz]], Prussian general (b. [[1721]]) *[[1875]] - [[William Chapman Ralston]], American banker (b. [[1826]]) *[[1909]] - [[Emil Christian Hansen]], Danish fermentation physiologist (b. [[1842]]) *[[1929]] - [[Herman Potocnik|Herman Poto&#269;nik Noordung]], Slovenian rocket scientist (b. [[1892]]) *[[1931]] - [[Frank Harris]], Irish author and editor (b. [[1856]]) *1931 - [[Francis Marion Smith]], American borax magnate (b. [[1846]]) *[[1948]] - [[Charles Evans Hughes]], U.S. Supreme Court justice (b. [[1862]]) *[[1958]] - [[Ernest Lawrence]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1901]]) *[[1963]] - [[Garrett Morgan]], American inventor (b. [[1877]]) *1963 - [[W.E.B. DuBois]], American civil rights activist and scholar (b. [[1868]]) *[[1964]] - [[Gracie Allen]], American actress and comedienne *[[1965]] - [[Le Corbusier]], Swiss architect (b. [[1887]]) *[[1967]] - [[Brian Epstein]], English manager of [[The Beatles]] (b. [[1934]]) *[[1968]] - [[Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark|Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent]] (b. [[1906]]) *[[1969]] - [[Ivy Compton-Burnett]], English novelist (b. [[1884]]) *1969 - [[Erika Mann]], German writer and daughter of [[Thomas Mann]] (b. [[1905]]) *[[1971]] - [[Bennett Cerf]], American publisher and television personality (b. [[1898]]) *[[1975]] - [[Haile Selassie]] I, [[Emperor of Ethiopia]] (b. [[1892]]) *[[1976]] - [[Mukesh]], Indian playback singer (b. [[1923]]) *[[1979]] - [[Earl Mountbatten]], British admiral and statesman (assassinated) (b. [[1900]]) *[[1980]] - [[Douglas Kenney]], American humorist (b. [[1947]]) *[[1988]] - [[William Sargant]], British psychiatrist (b. [[1907]]) *[[1990]] - [[Stevie Ray Vaughan]], American guitarist (b. [[1954]]) *[[1997]] - [[Brandon Tartikoff]], American television producer (b. [[1949]]) *[[2002]] - [[Richard Ricci]], American handyman wrongly suspected of being a kidnapper in the Elizabeth Smart case (b. [[1953]]) *[[2003]] - [[Pierre Poujade]], French politician (b. [[1920]]) *[[2004]] - [[Willie Crawford]], baseball player (b. [[1946]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Roman festivals]] - [[Volturnalia]] held in honor of [[Volturnus]] *[[Calendar of Saints|RC Saints]] - Saint [[Monica of Hippo]] *[[Moldova]] - Independence Day (from the USSR, [[1991]]) ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/27 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[August 26]] - [[August 28]] - [[July 27]] - [[September 27]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:27 Augustus]] [[ar:27 أغسطس]] [[an:27 d'agosto]] [[ast:27 d'agostu]] [[bg:27 август]] [[be:27 жніўня]] [[bs:27. august]] [[ca:27 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 27]] [[cv:Çурла, 27]] [[co:27 d'aostu]] [[cs:27. srpen]] [[cy:27 Awst]] [[da:27. august]] [[de:27. August]] [[et:27. august]] [[el:27 Αυγούστου]] [[es:27 de agosto]] [[eo:27-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 27]] [[fo:27. august]] [[fr:27 août]] [[fy:27 augustus]] [[ga:27 Lúnasa]] [[gl:27 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 27일]] [[hr:27. kolovoza]] [[io:27 di agosto]] [[id:27 Agustus]] [[ia:27 de augusto]] [[ie:27 august]] [[is:27. ágúst]] [[it:27 agosto]] [[he:27 באוגוסט]] [[jv:27 Agustus]] [[ka:27 აგვისტო]] [[csb:27 zélnika]] [[ku:27'ê gelawêjê]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 27]] [[lb:27. August]] [[hu:Augusztus 27]] [[mk:27 август]] [[ms:27 Ogos]] [[nap:27 'e aùsto]] [[nl:27 augustus]] [[ja:8月27日]] [[no:27. august]] [[nn:27. august]] [[oc:27 d'agost]] [[pl:27 sierpnia]] [[pt:27 de Agosto]] [[ro:27 august]] [[ru:27 августа]] [[sco:27 August]] [[sq:27 Gusht]] [[scn:27 di austu]] [[simple:August 27]] [[sk:27. august]] [[sl:27. avgust]] [[sr:27. август]] [[fi:27. elokuuta]] [[sv:27 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 27]] [[tt:27. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 27]] [[th:27 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:27 tháng 8]] [[tr:27 Ağustos]] [[uk:27 серпня]] [[wa:27 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 27]] [[zh:8月27日]] [[pam:Agostu 27]] 1014 42102518 2006-03-03T21:15:39Z Jidan 258229 :''This article is about organic compounds containing -OH groups. For other uses, see [[Alcohol (disambiguation)]].'' In [[chemistry]], '''alcohol''' is any [[organic compound]] in which a [[hydroxyl]] [[Functional group|group]] (''-[[oxygen|O]][[hydrogen|H]]'') is bound to a [[carbon]] atom, which in turn is bound to other [[hydrogen]] and/or [[carbon]] atoms. The general formula for a simple [[acyclic]] alcohol is '''C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n+1</sub>OH'''. In general usage, '''alcohol''' refers almost always to [[ethanol]], also known as '''grain alcohol''', and often to any beverage that contains ethanol (see ''[[alcoholic beverage]]''). This sense underlies the term [[alcoholism]] ([[addiction]] to alcohol). As a [[Medication|drug]], ethanol is known to have a [[depressant|depressing effect]] that decreases the responses of the [[central nervous system]] (see [[effects of alcohol on the body]]). Other forms of alcohol are usually described with a clarifying adjective, as in ''[[isopropyl alcohol]]'' or by the suffix ''-ol'', as in ''isopropanol''. The word dates to the 16th century when it was used to refer to any chemical substance arrived at by sublimation. This derived from the [[Medieval Latin]] ''alcohol'' ("powdered ore of [[antimony]]"), originating from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''{{ArabDIN|al-kuḥūl}}'' ({{ar|&#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1581;&#1608;&#1604;}}), which is also the source of ''[[kohl (cosmetics)|kohl]]'' and related to the root ''k-ḥ-l'', attested in the [[Arabic]] word for eye makeup. == Structure == [[Image:alcohol_general.jpg|150px|right|An alcohol]] The [[functional group]] of an alcohol is a [[hydroxyl group]] bonded to an sp³ hybridized carbon. It can therefore be regarded as a derivative of [[water_(molecule)|water]], with an [[alkyl]] group replacing one of the hydrogens. If an [[aryl]] group is present rather than an alkyl, the compound is generally called a [[phenol]] rather than an alcohol. Also, if the [[hydroxyl group]] is bonded to one of the sp² hybridized carbons of an alkenyl group, the compound is referred to as an [[enol]]. The oxygen in an alcohol has a bond angle of around 109&deg; (c.f. 104.5&deg; in water), and two nonbonded electron pairs. The O-H bond in methanol (CH<sub>3</sub>OH) is around 96 pico[[metre]]s long. === Primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols === There are three major subsets of alcohols- 'primary' (1°), 'secondary' (2°) and 'tertiary' (3°), based upon the number of carbons the C-OH carbon (shown in red) is bonded to. [[Methanol]] is the simplest 'primary' alcohol. The simplest secondary alcohol is [[isopropanol]] (propan-2-ol), and a simple tertiary alcohol is ''tert''-[[butanol]] (2-methylpropan-2-ol). [[Image:alcohol_common.jpg|450px|Some common alcohols]] === Methanol & ethanol === The simplest and most commonly used alcohols are [[methanol]] and [[ethanol]] (common names [[methyl]] alcohol and [[ethyl]] alcohol, respectively), which have the structures shown above. Methanol was formerly obtained by the distillation of wood, and was called "wood alcohol". It is now a cheap commodity chemical produced by the high pressure reaction of [[carbon monoxide]] with [[hydrogen]]. In common usage, "alcohol" often refers simply to ethanol or "grain alcohol". [[Methylated spirits]] ("Meths"), also called "surgical spirits", is a form of ethanol rendered undrinkable by the addition of methanol. Aside from its major use in alcoholic beverages, ethanol is also used (though highly controlled) as an industrial solvent and raw material. == Uses == Alcohols are in wide use in industry and science as reagents, [[solvent]]s, and [[alcohol as a fuel|fuel]]s. Ethanol and methanol can be made to burn more cleanly than [[gasoline]] or [[diesel]]. Because of its low toxicity and ability to dissolve non-polar substances, ethanol is often used as a solvent in medical drugs, [[perfume]]s, and vegetable essences such as [[vanilla]]. In [[organic synthesis]], alcohols frequently serve as versatile intermediates. Ethanol is also commonly used in beverages after fermentation to promote flavor or induce a euphoric intoxication commonly known as "drunkenness" or "being drunk". The use of ethanol for this purpose is illegal in some jurisdictions. In such instances of consumption, alcohol is a [[Psychoactive drug|drug]], with immediate potential for overdose, toxic poisoning, and physiological dependency (known as [[alcoholism]]). Alcoholism has become one of the most common drug addictions (if not second to caffeine) in the world. The physiological dependency caused by alcoholism means that the user experiences physical withdrawal (in the form of a headache known as a "[[hangover]]," extremely high anxiety known as "the shakes," and restlessness or trouble sleeping) upon cessation or decrease of use. For the full article on this topic see [[effects of alcohol on the body]]. Because of such particular uses, historically, ethanol has been regulated by taxation. Those who manufacture it for other purposes often avoid this expense by "denaturing" it in a manner that renders it unfit for drinking. A common way to do this is by the addition of [[denatonium benzoate]]. "SD-40" and "SD Alcohol" sometimes followed by "40-B" are designations that were established by the [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms]] for this formulation. == Sources == Many alcohols can be created by [[fermentation]] of [[fruit]]s or [[cereal|grain]]s with [[yeast]], but only ethanol is commercially produced this way, chiefly for [[alcohol as a fuel|fuel]] and [[alcoholic beverage|drink]]. Other alcohols are generally produced by synthetic routes from [[natural gas]], [[petroleum]], or [[coal]] feed stocks, for example via acid catalyzed [[hydration reaction|hydration]] of [[alkene]]s. For more details see [[#Chemistry of alcohols|Chemistry of alcohols]] == Nomenclature == === Systematic names === In the [[IUPAC nomenclature|IUPAC]] system, the name of the alkane chain loses the terminal "e" and adds "ol", e.g. "methanol" and "ethanol". When necessary, the position of the hydroxyl group is indicated by a number between the alkane name and the "ol": [[propan-1-ol]] for CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH, [[Isopropyl alcohol|propan-2-ol]] for CH<sub>3</sub>CH(OH)CH<sub>3</sub>. Sometimes, the position number is written before the IUPAC name: 1-propanol and 2-propanol. If a higher priority group is present (such as an [[aldehyde]], [[ketone]] or [[carboxylic acid]]), then it is necessary to use the prefix "hydroxy", for example: 1-hydroxy-2-propanone (CH<sub>3</sub>COCH<sub>2</sub>OH). Some examples of simple alcohols and how to name them: [[Image:Alcohol_examples.gif|550px|Examples of alcohols & their names]] Common names for alcohols usually take the name of the corresponding [[alkyl]] group and add the word "alcohol", e.g. [[methyl]] alcohol, [[ethyl]] alcohol or [[Butyl|''tert''-butyl]] alcohol. [[Propyl]] alcohol may be ''n''-propyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol depending on whether the hydroxyl group is bonded to the 1st or 2nd carbon on the propane chain. Isopropyl alcohol is also occasionally called ''sec''-propyl alcohol. As mentioned above alcohols are classified as primary (1°), secondary (2°) or tertiary (3°), and common names often indicate this in the alkyl group prefix. For example (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>COH is a tertiary alcohol is commonly known as ''tert''-butyl alcohol. This would be named 2-methylpropan-2-ol under IUPAC rules, indicating a propane chain with methyl and hydroxyl groups both attached to the middle (#2) carbon. An alcohol with two hydroxyl groups is commonly called a "glycol", e.g. HO-CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>-OH is [[ethylene glycol]]. The IUPAC name is ethane-1,2-diol, "diol" indicating two hydroxyl groups, and 1,2 indicating their bonding positions. Geminal glycols (with the two hydroxyls on the same carbon atom), such as ethane-1,1-diol, are generally unstable. For three or four groups, "triol" and "tetraol" are used. === Etymology === The word "alcohol" almost certainly comes from the [[Arabic language]] (the "al-" prefix being the Arabic definite article); however, the precise origin is unclear. It was introduced into [[Europe]], together with the art of [[distillation]] and the substance itself, around the [[12th century]] by various European authors who translated and popularized the discoveries of [[Islamic]] [[alchemy|alchemists]]. A popular theory, found in many dictionaries, is that it comes from &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1581;&#1604; = ''ALKHL'' = ''al-kuhul'', originally the name of very finely powdered [[antimony]] [[sulfide]] [[antimony|Sb]]<sub>2</sub>[[sulfur|S]]<sub>3</sub> used as an [[antiseptic]] and [[eyeliner]]. The powder is prepared by [[sublimation (physics)|sublimation]] of the natural mineral [[stibnite]] in a closed vessel. According to this theory, the meaning of ''alkuhul'' would have been first extended to distilled substances in general, and then narrowed to ethanol. This conjectured etymology has been circulating in England since [[1672]] at least ([[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]]). However, this derivation is suspicious since the current Arabic name for alcohol, &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1581;&#1608;&#1604; = ''ALKHWL'' = ''al???'', does not derive from ''al-kuhul''. The [[Qur'an]] in verse 37:47 uses the word &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1608;&#1604; = ''ALGhWL'' = ''al-ghawl'' &mdash; properly meaning "spirit" ("[[spiritual being]]") or "[[demon]]" &mdash; with the sense "the thing that gives the wine its headiness". The word ''al-ghawl'' also originated the [[English language|English]] word "ghoul", and the name of the star [[Algol]]. This derivation would, of course, be consistent with the use of "spirit" or "spirit of wine" as synonymous of "alcohol" in most Western languages. (Incidentally, the etymology "alcohol" = "the devil" was used in the [[1930s]] by the [[United States|U.S.]] [[Temperance movement|Temperance Movement]] for propaganda purposes.) According to the second theory, the popular etymology and the spelling "alcohol" would not be due to generalization of the meaning of ''ALKHL'', but rather to Western alchemists and authors confusing the two words ''ALKHL'' and ''ALGhWL'', which have indeed been transliterated in many different and overlapping ways. == Physical and chemical properties == The [[hydroxyl group]] generally makes the alcohol molecule [[polar molecule|polar]]. Those groups can form [[hydrogen bond]]s to one another and to other compounds. Two opposing solubility trends in alcohols are: the tendency of the polar OH to promote solubility in water, and of the carbon chain to resist it. Thus, methanol, ethanol, and propanol are miscible in water because the hydroxyl group wins out over the short carbon chain. [[Butanol]], with a four-carbon chain, is moderately soluble because of a balance between the two trends. Alcohols of five or more carbons ([[amyl alcohol|Pentanol]] and higher) are effectively insoluble because of the hydrocarbon chain's dominance. Because of [[hydrogen bonding]], alcohols tend to have higher boiling points than comparable [[hydrocarbon]]s and [[ether]]s. All simple alcohols are miscible in organic solvents. This hydrogen bonding means that alcohols can be used as [[protic solvent]]s. The lone pairs of electrons on the oxygen of the hydroxyl group also makes alcohols nucleophiles. Alcohols, like water, can show either acidic or basic properties at the O-H group. With a [[pKa|pK<Sub>a</sub>]] of around 16-19 they are generally slightly weaker [[acid]]s than [[water (molecule)|water]], but they are still able to react with strong bases such as [[sodium hydride]] or reactive metals such as [[sodium]]. The salts that result are called '''[[alkoxide]]s''', with the general formula [[Alkyl|R]]O<sup>-</sup> [[Metal|M]]<sup>+</sup>. Alcohols conjugated to aromatic rings have a lower pKa (around 10). Electron-withdrawing groups also work to make alcohols more acidic. For example, Para-nitro phenol has a pKa of 7.15. Meanwhile the oxygen atom has [[lone pair]]s of nonbonded electrons that render it weakly [[Base_(chemistry)|basic]] in the presence of strong acids such as [[sulfuric acid]]. For example, with methanol: [[Image:methanol_acid_base.gif|500px|Acidity & basicity of methanol]] Alcohols can also undergo [[oxidation]] to give [[aldehyde]]s, [[ketone]]s or [[carboxylic acid]]s, or they can be dehydrated to [[alkene]]s. They can react to form [[ester compound]]s, and they can (if activated first) undergo [[nucleophilic substitution]] reactions. For more details see the [[#Chemistry of alcohols]] section below. == Toxicity == Alcohols often have an odor described as 'biting' that 'hangs' in the nasal passages. [[Ethanol]] in the form of [[alcoholic beverage]]s has been consumed by humans since pre-historic times, for a variety of hygienic, dietary, medicinal, religious, and recreational reasons. While infrequent consumption of ethanol in small quantities may be harmless or even beneficial, larger doses result in a state known as [[drunkenness]] or intoxication and, depending on the dose and regularity of use, can cause acute respiratory failure or death and with chronic use has medical repercussions. Other alcohols are substantially more poisonous than ethanol, partly because they take much longer to be metabolized, and often their metabolism produces even more toxic substances. Methanol, or ''wood alcohol'', for instance, is oxidized by [[alcohol dehydrogenase]] [[enzyme]]s in the liver to the poisonous [[formaldehyde]], which can cause blindness or death. An effective treatment to prevent formaldehyde toxicity after methanol ingestion is to administer ethanol. This will bind to alcohol dehydrogenase, preventing methanol from binding and thus acting as a [[substrate]]. Any formaldehyde will be converted to [[formic acid]] and excreted before it causes damage. == Preparation of alcohols == === Laboratory === Several methods exist for the preparation of alcohols in the laboratory. * Primary [[Alkyl halide]]s react with aqueous [[Sodium hydroxide|NaOH]] or [[Potassium hydroxide|KOH]] mainly to primary alcohols in [[nucleophilic aliphatic substitution]]. (Secondary and especially tertiary alkyl halides will give the elimination (alkene) product instead). * [[Aldehydes]] or [[ketone]]s are [[reduction|reduced]] with [[sodium borohydride]] or [[lithium aluminium hydride]]. (after an acidic workup) * [[Alkenes]] engage in a [[acid]] catalysed [[hydration reaction]] using concentrated [[sulfuric acid]] as a catalyst which gives usually secondary or tertiary alcohols. * The [[hydroboration-oxidation]] and [[oxymercuration-reduction]] of alkenes are more reliable in organic synthesis. * [[Grignard reagent]]s react with [[carbonyl]] groups to secondary and tertiary alcohols The formation of a secondary alcohol via reduction and hydratation is shown: [[Image:alcohol_prep.gif|center|350px|Preparation of a secondary alcohol]] === Industrial === Industrially alcohols are produced in several ways. * by [[fermentation]] using [[glucose]] produced from sugar from the [[hydrolysis]] of [[starch]], in the presence of yeast and temperature of less than 37°C to produce ethanol. For instance the conversion of [[invertase]] to [[glucose]] and [[fructose]] or the conversion of [[glucose]] to [[zymase]] and [[ethanol]]. * By direct [[hydration reaction|hydration]]: using [[ethene]] or other alkenes from [[cracking]] of fractions of distilled [[crude oil]]. Uses a catalyst of [[phosphoric acid]] under high temperature and pressure. * [[Methanol]] is producted from water gas: It is manufactured from [[Syngas|synthesis gas]], where [[carbon monoxide]] and 2 equivalents of hydrogen gas are combined to produce [[methanol]] using a [[copper]], [[zinc oxide]] and [[aluminium oxide]] catalyst at 250°C and a pressure of 50-100 atm. == Reactions of alcohols == === Deprotonation === Alcohols can behave as weak acids, undergoing deprotonation. The deprotonation reaction to produce an [[alkoxide]] salt is either performed with a strong base such as [[sodium hydride]] or [[butyllithium|''n''-butyllithium]], or with sodium or potassium metal. : 2 R-OH + 2 [[Sodium hydride|NaH]] &rarr; 2 R-O<sup>-</sup>Na<sup>+</sup> + [[Hydrogen|H<sub>2</sub>]]&uarr; : 2 R-OH + 2[[Sodium|Na]] &rarr; 2R-O<sup>&minus;</sup>Na<sup>+</sup> : e.g. 2 [[Ethanol|CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>-OH]] + 2 Na &rarr; 2 CH<sub>3</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>-O<sup>&minus;</sup>Na<sup>+</sup> Water is similar in [[pKa|pK<Sub>a</sub>]] to many alcohols, so with [[sodium hydroxide]] there is an equilibrium set up which usually lies to the left: : R-OH + [[Sodium hydroxide|NaOH]] <=> R-O<sup>-</sup>Na<sup>+</sup> + H<sub>2</sub>O (equilibrium to the left) It should be noted, though, that the bases used to deprotonate alcohols are strong themselves. The bases used and the alkoxides created are both highly moisture sensitive chemical reagents. === Nucleophilic substitution === The [[hydroxyl|OH]] group is not a good [[leaving group]] in [[nucleophilic substitution]] reactions, so neutral alcohols do not react in such reactions. However if the oxygen is first protonated to give R&minus;OH<sub>2</sub><sup>+</sup>, the leaving group ([[water_(molecule)|water]]) is much more stable, and nucleophilic substitution can take place. For instance, tertiary alcohols react with [[hydrochloric acid]] to produce tertiary [[alkyl halide]]s, where the [[hydroxyl group]] is replaced by a [[chlorine]] atom. If primary or secondary alcohols are to be reacted with [[hydrochloric acid]], an activator such as [[zinc chloride]] is needed. Alternatively the conversion may be performed directly using [[thionyl chloride]].<sup>[1]</sup> [[Image:Alcohol_reaction_examples.gif|550px|Some simple conversions of alcohols to alkyl chlorides]] Alcohols may likewise be converted to alkyl bromides using [[hydrobromic acid]] or [[phosphorus tribromide]], for example: : 3 R-OH + PBr<sub>3</sub> &rarr; 3 RBr + H<sub>3</sub>PO<sub>3</sub> In the [[Barton-McCombie deoxygenation]] an alcohol is deoxygenated to an [[alkane]] with [[organotin|tributyltin hydride]] or a [[organoborane|trimethylborane]]-water complex in a [[radical substitution]] reaction. === Dehydration === Alcohols are themselves nucleophilic, so R&minus;OH<sub>2</sub><sup>+</sup> can react with ROH to produce [[ether]]s and water in a [[dehydration reaction]], although this reaction is rarely used except in the manufacture of [[diethyl ether]]. More useful is the E1 [[elimination reaction]] of alcohols to produce [[alkene]]s. The reaction generally obeys [[Zaitsev's Rule]], which states that the most stable (usually the most substituted) alkene is formed. Tertiary alcohols eliminate easily at just above room temperature, but primary alcohols requre a higher temperature. This is a diagram of acid catalysed dehydration of ethanol to produce [[ethene]]: [[image:DehydrationOfAlcoholWithH-.png|550px]] === Esterification === To form an [[ester]] from an [[alcohol]] and a [[carboxylic acid]] the reaction, known as [[Fischer esterification]], is usually performed at [[reflux]] with a [[catalyst]] of concentrated [[sulfuric acid]]: : R-OH + R'-COOH <math>\Leftrightarrow</math> R'-COOR + H<sub>2</sub>O In order to drive the equilibrium to the right and produce a good [[yield_(chemistry)|yield]] of ester, water is usually removed, either by an excess of H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> or by using a [[Dean-Stark apparatus]]. Esters may also be prepared by reaction of the alcohol with an [[acid chloride]] in the presence of a base such as [[pyridine]]. Other types of ester are prepared similarly- for example [[tosyl]] (tosylate) esters are made by reaction of the alcohol with p-[[toluenesulfonyl]] chloride in pyridine. === Oxidation=== Primary alcohols generally give [[aldehyde]]s or [[carboxylic acid]]s upon [[organic oxidation|oxidation]], while secondary alcohols give [[ketone]]s. Traditionally strong [[Redox|oxidants]] such as the [[dichromate]] ion or [[potassium permanganate]] are used, under acidic conditions, for example: :3 [[Isopropanol|CH<sub>3</sub>-CH(-OH)-CH<sub>3</sub>]] + [[Potassium dichromate|K<sub>2</sub>Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub>]] + 4 [[Sulfuric acid|H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>]] &rarr; 3 [[Acetone|CH<sub>3</sub>-C(=O)-CH<sub>3</sub>]] + Cr<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub> + K<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> + 7 [[Water_(molecule)|H<sub>2</sub>O]] Frequently in [[aldehyde]] preparations these reagents cause a problem of over-oxidation to the [[carboxylic acid]]. To avoid this, other reagents such as [[Pyridinium chlorochromate|PCC]], [[Dess-Martin periodinane]], [[2-Iodoxybenzoic acid]], [[TPAP]] or methods such as [[Swern oxidation]] are now preferred. Alcohols with a [[methyl]] group attached to the alcohol carbon can also undergo a [[haloform reaction]] (such as the [[iodoform reaction]]) in the presence of the [[halogen]] and a base such as sodium hydroxide. Tertiary alcohols resist oxidation, but can be oxidised by reagents such as 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone. == See also == * [[Alcohol as a fuel]] * [[Alcoholic beverage]] * [[Effects of alcohol on the body]] * [[Transesterification]] * [[Sugar alcohol]]s * [[Fatty alcohol]]s == References == * [http://sci-toys.com/ingredients/alcohol.html Sci-toys website explanation of denatured alcohol designations] == External links == {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.french-paradox.net/fpbksb1.html What Is Alcohol, Anyway?] Interesting information about alcohols. [[Category:Alcohol|*]] [[Category:Alcohols|*]] [[Category:Drugs]] [[Category:Antiseptics]] [[Category:Arabic words]] [[Category:functional groups]] [[ar:أغوال ( كيمياء عضوية )]] [[bg:Алкохол]] [[be:Сьпірт]] [[ca:Alcohol]] [[cs:Alkohol]] [[da:Alkanol]] [[de:Alkohol (Chemie)]] [[et:Alkoholid]] [[es:Alcohol]] [[eo:Alkoholo]] [[fr:Alcool (chimie)]] [[gl:Alcohol]] [[ko:알코올]] [[id:Alkohol]] [[io:Alkoholo]] [[is:Alkóhól]] [[it:Alcoli]] [[he:כוהל]] [[hu:Alkohol]] [[mk:Алкохол]] [[nl:Alcohol (scheikunde)]] [[ja:アルコール]] [[no:Alkohol]] [[nn:Alkohol]] [[pl:Alkohol]] [[pt:Álcool]] [[ru:Спирт]] [[simple:Alcohol]] [[sk:Alkohol]] [[sl:Alkohol]] [[sr:Алкохол]] [[su:alkohol]] [[fi:Alkoholi]] [[tr:alkoller]] [[vi:Rượu (hoá học)]] [[zh:醇]] 1016 41553470 2006-02-28T02:51:12Z 216.99.214.56 /* History */ [[Image:Achill_Island.png|thumb|300px|Location of Achill Island]] [[Image:Achill_Ireland_Keem_bay.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Keem bay on Achill island is said to be one of the most beautiful beaches in Ireland.]] '''Achill Island''' ''([[Irish language|Irish]]; Acaill, Oileán Acla)'' in [[County Mayo]] is the largest island off [[Ireland]], and is situated off the west coast. It has a population of 2700. Its area is 57 [[square miles]] (146 [[square kilometres]]). Achill is attached to the mainland by [[Michael Davitt Bridge]], between the villages of [[Achill Sound]] and Polranny, so it is possible to drive onto the island. This is a [[swing bridge]] which allows the passage of small boats. A bridge was first completed here in 1886, and replaced by the current structure after [[World War II]]. Other centres of population include the villages of Keel, Dooagh, Dooega and Dugort. The island's [[Gaelic football|football]] pitch and two secondary schools are on the mainland at Polranny. Early settlements are believed to have been established on Achill around 3000 BCE. A paddle dating from this period was found at the [[crannog]] near Dookinella. The island is 87 per cent [[peat bog]]. The parish of Achill also includes the Corraun peninsula. The people of Corraun consider themselves Achill people, and most natives of Achill refer to this area as being "in Achill". In the summer of 1996, the [[RNLI]] decided to station a [[lifeboat]] at Kildownet. ==History== It is believed that at the end of the [[Neolithic Period]] (around 4000 BCE), Achill had a population of 500-1000 people. The island would have been mostly forest until the Neolithic people began crop cultivation. Settlememt increased during the [[Iron Age]], and the dispersal of small forts around the coast indicate the warlike nature of the times. [[Grace O'Malley|Granuaile]] maintained a castle at Kildownet in the [[sixteenth century]]. In the [[seventeenth century|seventeenth]] and [[eighteenth century|eighteenth]] centuries, there was much migration to Achill from other parts of Ireland, particularly [[Ulster]], due to the political and religious turmoil of the time. For a while there were two different [[dialect]]s of [[Irish language|Irish]] being spoken on Achill. This led to many townlands being recorded as having two names during the 1824 Ordnace Survey, and some maps today give different names for the same place. Achill Irish still has many traces of [[Ulster Irish]]. ==Sights== [[Image:Atlantic Drive.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Overlooking the west coast of Achill Island.]] Despite some unsympathetic development, the island retains some striking natural beauty. The cliffs of Croaghaun on the northern coast of the island are the highest sea cliffs in [[Europe]] but are inaccessible by road. On the western tip near Achill Head, Keem bay is arguably one of the most beautiful beaches on the Irish west coast. [[Image:Achill_Ireland_Keel.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Keel Strand.]]Keel beach is quite popular with tourists and some locals as a [[surfing]] location. Another extreme point of the island is Moytoge Head, which with its rounded appearance drops dramatically down to the ocean. An old [[United_Kingdom|British]] observation post, built during [[World War I]] to prevent the [[Germany|Germans]] landing arms for the [[Irish Republican Army]] separatist movement, is still standing on Moytoge. The mountain Slievemore (671 metres) rises dramatically in the centre of the island and the Atlantic drive (along the south/west of the island) has some dramatically beautiful views. On the slopes of Slievemore, there is an abandoned village ("The Deserted Village") The Deserted Village at Slievemore was once thought to be a remnant village from An Gorta Mór (The Great Hunger, see [[Great Famine]]). However, recent developments suggest that it is a Booley. Specifically, the people of Dooagh and Pollagh would migrate in the summer to Slievemore ([[Transhumance]]), and then go back to Dooagh in the fall. Just west of the deserted village is an old [[Martello tower]], again built by the British to warn of any possible [[France|French]] invasion. The area also boasts an approximately 5000-year old [[Neolithic tomb]]. Achillbeg (''Acaill Beag'', Little Achill) is a small island just off Achill's southern tip. Its inhabitants were resettled on Achill in the 1960's. There is a mural of a surfer on the gable of a pub in [[Cashel (Achill)|Cashel]]. ==Economy== While a number of attempts at setting up small industrial units on the island have been made, the economy of the island is largely dependent on [[tourism]]. Subventions from Achill people working abroad, in particular in [[England]], [[Scotland]] and the [[United States]] allowed many families to remain living in Achill throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Since the advent of [[Ireland]]'s "[[Celtic Tiger]]" [[Economy of Ireland|economy]] fewer Achill people are forced to look for work abroad. [[Agriculture]] plays a small role and is only profitable because of European subsidies. The fact that the island is mostly bog means that it is limited - largely to [[sheep farming]]. In the past, [[fishing]] was a significant activity but this aspect of the economy is small now. At one stage, the island was known for its shark fishing, [[basking shark]] in particular was fished for its valuable liver oil. There was a big spurt of growth in tourism in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] before which life was tough and difficult on the island. Since that heyday, the common perception is that tourism has been slowly declining. ==Architecture== [[Image:Achill_Slievemore_Deserted_Village.jpg|250px|thumb|The "Deserted Village" at the foot of Slievemore was a Booley village, see [[Transhumance]]]] Some of the recent building development on the island (over the last 40 years or so) has been contentious and in many cases is not as sympathetic to the landscape as the earlier style of [[whitewash|whitewashed]] [[barged roof]]ed [[cottage]]s. Because of the inhospitable climate, very few houses date from before the [[20th century|twentieth century]]. An example of the style of earlier housing can be seen in the "Deserted Village" ruins near the graveyard at the foot of Slievemore. Even the houses in this village represent a relatively comfortable class of dwelling as, even as recently as a hundred years ago, some people still used "Beehive" style houses (small circular single roomed dwellings with a hole in ceiling to let out smoke). Many of the oldest and most picturesque inhabitated cottages date from the activities of the [[Congested Districts Board for Ireland]] - a body set up around the turn of the twentieth century in Ireland to improve the welfare for inhabitants of small villages and towns. Most of the homes in Achill at the time were very small and tightly packed together in villages. The CDB subsidised the building of new, more spacious (though still small by modern standards) homes outside of the traditional villages. ==Famous people== The artist [[Paul Henry (painter)|Paul Henry]] stayed on the island for a number of years in the early 1900s and some of his most famous paintings are of the dramatic landscape of the island. The [[Nobel Prize]] winning author, [[Heinrich Böll]], visited the island and wrote of his experience in his "Irish Journal" (''Irisches Tagebuch''). The Bölls later bought a cottage near Dugort and lived in it periodically until 2001 when they donated it to be used as an artists' residence. [[Graham Greene]] also spent time on Achill Island. ==See also== *[[Connacht Irish]] ==External links== {{Wikisource1911Enc|Achill}} *[http://www.achill-island.com Achill Island web site] *[http://www.visitachill.com Visit Achill multilingual visitor's guide] *[http://www.achilltourism.com Achill Tourism web site] *[http://www.scoilacla.com Scoil Acla web site] *[http://www.achill-fieldschool.com Achill Field School web site] [[Category:Islands of Ireland]] [[da:Achill Island]] [[de:Achill Island]] [[fr:Île d'Achill]] [[ga:Acaill]] [[gl:Achill - Acaill]] [[it:Achill Island]] 1017 41767571 2006-03-01T16:31:23Z 132.241.245.49 /* Life */ [[Image:Ginsberg2.jpg|right|225|thumb|Allen Ginsberg in later life]] '''Irwin Allen Ginsberg''' ({{IPA2|ˈgɪnzˌbɝg}}) ([[June 3]], [[1926]] &ndash; [[April 5]] [[1997]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[Beat poet]] born in [[Newark, New Jersey]]. Ginsberg is best known for [[Howl]] ([[1956]]), a long poem about [[consumer]] [[society]]'s negative [[Values#Personal and cultural values|human values]]. ==Life== Ginsberg was born on [[June 3]], [[1926]] into a Jewish family in [[Newark, New Jersey]]. His father [[Louis Ginsberg]] was a poet and his mother was a high school teacher. Ginsberg's mother, Naomi Levy Ginsberg (who was affected by [[epileptic seizures]] and [[mental illness]]es such as [[paranoia]] {{ref|Modern}}) was also an active member of the [[Communist Party USA]] and often took Ginsberg and his brother Eugene to party meetings. Ginsberg later said that his mother "Made up bedtime stories that all went something like: 'The good king rode forth from his castle, saw the suffering workers and healed them.'"{{ref|BioProject}} As a teenager, Ginsberg began to write letters to ''The [[New York Times]]'' about political issues such as [[World War II]] and workers' rights.{{ref|BioProject2}} When he was a junior in high school, he accompanied his mother by bus to her therapist. The trip disturbed Ginsberg and he later described it, along with his relationship with his mother, in his long autobiographical poem ''[[Kaddish (poem)|''Kaddish for Naomi Ginsberg (1894-1956)]].''{{ref|Modern2}} In 1943 Ginsberg graduated from high school and briefly attended [[Montclair State University]] before entering [[Columbia University]] on a scholarship from the [[Young Men's Hebrew Association]] of Paterson. ([[1949]])[http://www.nytimes.com/books/01/04/08/specials/ginsberg-obit.html]. In his freshman year he met fellow undergraduate [[Lucien Carr]], who introduced him to a number of future Beat writers including [[Jack Kerouac]], [[William S. Burroughs]], and [[John Clellon Holmes]]. Carr also introduced Ginsberg to [[Neal Cassady]], one of the many that Ginsberg loved. Kerouac later described the meeting between Ginsberg and Cassady in the first chapter of his 1957 novel ''[[On the Road]].''{{ref|Modern3}} In [[1954]] Ginsberg met [[Peter Orlovsky]], a young man of 21 with whom he fell in love and who remained his life-long lover, and with whom he eventually shared his interest in Tibetan Buddhism. Later in his life, Ginsberg formed a bridge between the [[Beat_generation|Beat]] movement of the [[1950s]] and the [[hippies]] of the [[1960s]], befriending, among others, [[Timothy Leary]], [[Gregory Corso]], [[Bob Kaufman]], [[Herbert Huncke]], [[Rod McKuen]], and [[Bob Dylan]]. In 1965 Ginsberg was deported from Cuba for for publicaly protesting against Cuba's anti-marijuana stance and its penchant for throwing homosexuals in jail. The Cubans sent him to Czechoslovakia, Where one week after being named the King of a May Day parade, Ginsberg was labeled an "immoral menace" by the Czech government and deported. In 1982, he was featured on "Ghetto Defendant", a song by [[The Clash]], on their album "[[Combat Rock]]". Ginsberg died of cancer on [[April 5]], [[1997]]. ==Career== Ginsberg's [[poetry]] was strongly influenced by [[modernism]], [[romanticism]], the beat and cadence of [[jazz]], and his [[Kagyu]] [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] practice and [[Jew]]ish background. He considered himself to have inherited the visionary and [[homoeroticism|homoerotic]] poetic mantle handed from the English poet and artist [[William Blake]] on to [[Walt Whitman]]. The power of Ginsberg's verse, its searching, probing focus, its long and lilting lines, as well as its New World exuberance, all echo the continuity of inspiration which he claimed. Other influences included the American poet [[William Carlos Williams]]. Ginsberg's principal work, "[[Howl]]", is well-known to many for its opening line: "I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness". It was considered scandalous at the time of publication due to the rawness of the language, which is frequently explicit. Shortly after its [[1956]] publication by [[San Francisco]]'s [[City Lights Bookstore]], it was banned for obscenity. The ban became a [[cause célèbre]] among defenders of the [[First Amendment]], and was later lifted after judge Clayton W. Horn declared the poem to possess redeeming social importance. Ginsberg's [[leftist]] and generally anti-establishment politics attracted the attention of the [[FBI]], who regarded Ginsberg as a major security threat. [[Image:Ginsberg.jpg|right|175px|thumb|Allen Ginsberg]] Ginsberg's spiritual journey began early on with his reported spontaneous visions, and continued with an early trip to [[India]] and a chance encounter on a New York City street (they both tried to catch the same cab) with [[Chögyam Trungpa]], Rinpoche, a [[Tibetan Buddhist]] meditation master of the [[Vajrayana]] school, who became his friend and life-long teacher. Ginsberg helped found the [[Jack Kerouac]] School of Disembodied Poetics at [[Naropa University]] in [[Boulder, Colorado]], a school founded by Chögyam Trungpa, Rinpoche. Music and chanting were both important parts of his live delivery during poetry readings. He often accompanied himself on a handheld organ called a harmonium, and was often accompanied by a guitarist. Attendance to his poetry readings was generally standing room only for most of his career, no matter where in the world he appeared. Ginsberg won the National Book Award for his book "The Fall of America." In 1993, the French Minister of Culture awarded him with the medal of [[Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres]] (the Order of Arts and Letters). In [[1994]], when the [[International Lesbian and Gay Association]] successfully banished all connections to the [[North American Man-Boy Love Association]] in order to gain consultative status in the United Nations, Ginsberg opposed (together with modern gay rights founder [[Harry Hay]]). He said that he supported NAMBLA's right to [[free speech]] because the hysteria over [[pederasty]] reminded him of the hysteria over homosexuality itself while he was growing up. While his poetry praised the love of youths, his interests lay mostly in young men above the age of consent. ==Quotations== * "Our goal was to save the planet and alter human consciousness. That will take a long time, if it happens at all." * "Poetry is not an expression of the party line. It's that time of night, lying in bed, thinking what you really think, making the private world public, that's what the poet does." * "Pot is fun." * "The only thing that can save the world is the reclaiming of the awareness of the world. That's what poetry does." * "Master thyself and others will follow." * "First thought, best thought." (referring to his, and other Beat writers' unique style of writing poetry) * "The CIA and the Mafia are in cahoots" ==Bibliography== * ''[[Howl|Howl and Other Poems]]'' ([[1956]]) * ''[[Kaddish (poem)|Kaddish and Other Poems]]'' ([[1961]]) * ''Reality Sandwiches'' ([[1963]]) * ''[[The Yage Letters]]'' ([[1963]]) &ndash; with [[William S. Burroughs]] * ''Planet News'' ([[1968]]) * ''The Gates of Wrath: Rhymed Poems [[1948]]&ndash;[[1951]]'' ([[1972]]) * ''The Fall of America: Poems of These States'' ([[1973]]) * ''Iron Horse'' ([[1972]]) * ''Mind Breaths'' ([[1978]]) * ''Plutonian Ode: Poems [[1977]]&ndash;[[1980]]'' ([[1982]]) * ''Collected Poems: [[1947]]&ndash;[[1980]]'' ([[1984]]) * ''White Shroud Poems: [[1980]]&ndash;[[1985]]'' ([[1986]]) * ''Cosmopolitan Greetings Poems: [[1986]]&ndash;[[1993]]'' ([[1994]]) * ''Howl Annotated'' ([[1995]]) * ''Illuminated Poems'' ([[1996]]) * ''Selected Poems: [[1947]]&ndash;[[1995]]'' ([[1996]]) * ''Death and Fame: Poems [[1993]]&ndash;[[1997]]'' ([[1999]]) '''Further Reading''' *Miles, Barry. ''Ginsberg: A Biography.'' London: Virgin Publishing Ltd. (2001), paperback, 628 pages, ISBN 0753504863 *Schumacher, Michael (edt.). ''Family Business: Selected Letters Between a Father and Son.'' Bloomsbury (2002), paperback, 448 pages, ISBN 1582342164 *Schumacher, Michael. ''[[Dharma Lion: A Biography of Allen Ginsberg]].'' New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994. *Bullough, Vern L. "Before Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context." Harrington Park Press, 2002. pp 304-311. == Notes == <!-- Instructions for adding a footnote: NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] for details. 1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9. 2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote. 3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately proceeds yours in the article body. 4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3. 5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference will not work: you must insert two uniquely named footnotes. NOTE: It is important to add the Footnote in the right order in the list. --> <div style="font-size: 90%"> #{{note|Modern}} [http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/life.htm "Allen Ginsberg's Life" by Ann Charters.] Modern American Poetry website. Accessed 10/20/05. #{{note|BioProject}} [http://www.popsubculture.com/pop/bio_project/allen_ginsberg.html Biographical Notes on Allen Ginsberg] by Bonesy Jones on the Biography Project. Accessed 10/20/05. #{{note|BioProject2}} Ibid. #{{note|Modern2}} [http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/life.htm "Allen Ginsberg's Life" by Ann Charters.] Modern American Poetry website. Accessed 10/20/05. #{{note|Modern3}} Ibid. <!--READ ME!! PLEASE DO NOT JUST ADD NEW NOTES AT THE BOTTOM. See the instructions above on ordering. --> </div> ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * [http://wiredforbooks.org/allenginsberg/ 1985 audio interview with Allen Ginsberg by Don Swaim of CBS Radio, RealAudio] *[http://www.poets.org/agins Allen Ginsberg on Poets.org] With audio clips, poems, and related essays, from the Academy of American Poets *[http://www.heureka.clara.net/art/ginsberg.htm Allen Ginsberg] *[http://www.levity.com/digaland/celestial "Ginsberg's Celestial Homework"] *[http://www.ginzy.com/ "The clearing house for all things Ginsberg"] *[http://www.lichtensteiger.de/ginsberg.html On Allen Ginsberg] by Ralph Lichtensteiger *[http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/66nov/hoax.htm "The Great Marijuana Hoax &ndash; Allen Ginsberg"](the first half of which was written on marijuana) *[http://www.allenginsberg.org allenginsberg.org | MP3 files and much more] *[http://www.archive.org/audio/audio-details-db.php?collection=naropa&collectionid=naropa_allen_ginsberg&from=BA Naropa Audio Archives: Allen Ginsberg class (August 6th, 1976)] Streaming audio and 64 kbit/s MP3 ZIP *[http://www.archive.org/audio/audio-details-db.php?collection=naropa&collectionid=naropa_anne_waldman_and_allen_ginsberg&from=mostViewed Naropa Audio Archives: Anne Waldman and Allen Ginsberg reading, including Howl (August 9th, 1975)] Streaming audio and 64 kbit/s MP3 ZIP * [http://www.litkicks.com/BeatPages/page.jsp?what=AllenGinsberg Article on Allen Ginsberg @ Lit Kicks] *[http://www.cosmoetica.com/TOP102-DES99.htm Essay on Ginsberg’s In Back Of The Real] * [http://neonalley.org/ginsberg.html Blue Neon Alley &ndash; Allen Ginsberg directory] * [http://www.spikemagazine.com/0198gins.php Spike Magazine Interview] *[http://www.levity.com/corduroy/ginsberg.htm Ginsberg's Memorial Page] *[http://supervert.com/essays/art/allen_ginsberg Review of exhibit featuring photographs by Ginsberg] [[Category:1926 births|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:1997 deaths|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Allen Ginsberg|*Allen Ginsberg]] [[Category:American poets|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:American anarchists|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Anti-war people|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Beat Generation|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Beat writers|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Buddhists|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Columbia alumni|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Gay writers|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Greenwich Village Scene|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Jewish American writers|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Jewish anarchists|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Pederasty|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:People from New Jersey|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:Tax resisters|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[Category:American communists|Ginsberg, Allen]] [[bg:Алън Гинсбърг]] [[cs:Allen Ginsberg]] [[de:Allen Ginsberg]] [[el:Άλλεν Γκίνσμπεργκ]] [[es:Allen Ginsberg]] [[eo:Allen GINSBERG]] [[fr:Allen Ginsberg]] [[it:Allen Ginsberg]] [[he:אלן גינסברג]] [[nl:Allen Ginsberg]] [[ja:アレン・ギンズバーグ]] [[pl:Allen Ginsberg]] [[fi:Allen Ginsberg]] [[sv:Allen Ginsberg]] 1018 38168661 2006-02-04T17:48:13Z MathMartin 29707 links In [[mathematics]], a [[field (mathematics)|field]] <math>F</math> is said to be '''algebraically closed''' if every [[polynomial]] in one variable of degree at least <math>1</math>, with [[coefficient]]s in <math>F</math>, has a [[root (mathematics)|zero]] ([[root (mathematics)|root]]) in <math>F</math>. As an example, the field of [[real number]]s is not algebraically closed, because the polynomial equation :<math>3x^2+1=0</math> has no solution in real numbers, even though both of its coefficients (<math>3</math> and <math>1</math>) are real. The same argument proves that the field of [[rational number]]s is not algebraically closed. Also, no [[finite field]] <math>F</math> is algebraically closed, because if <math>a_1</math>, <math>a_2</math>, &hellip;, <math>a_n</math> are the elements of <math>F</math>, then the polynomial :<math>(x-a_1)(x-a_2)</math>&nbsp;&middot;&middot;&middot;&nbsp;<math>(x-a_n)+1</math> has no zero in <math>F</math>. By contrast, the field of [[complex number]]s is algebraically closed: this is stated by the [[fundamental theorem of algebra]]. Another example of an algebraically closed field is the field of [[algebraic number]]s. Given a field <math>F</math>, the assertion &ldquo;<math>F</math> is algebraically closed&rdquo; is equivalent to each one of the following: * Every polynomial <math>p(x)</math> of degree <math>n</math>&nbsp;&ge;&nbsp;<math>1</math>, with [[coefficient]]s in <math>F</math>, [[Factorization|splits into linear factors]]. In other words, there are elements <math>k</math>,&nbsp;<math>x_1</math>,&nbsp;<math>x_2</math>,&nbsp;&hellip;,&nbsp;<math>x_n</math> in <math>F</math> such that ::<math>p(x)=k(x-x_1)(x-x_2)</math>&nbsp;&middot;&middot;&middot;&nbsp;<math>(x-x_n)</math>. * The field <math>F</math> has no proper [[algebraic extension]]. * For each natural number <math>n</math>, every [[Linear map|linear map]] from <math>F^n</math> into itself has some [[Eigenvector|eigenvector]]. * Every [[Rational function|rational function]] in one variable <math>x</math>, with coefficients in <math>F</math>, can be written as the sum of a polynomial function with rational functions of the form <math>a/(x-b)^n</math>, where <math>n</math> is a natural number, and <math>a</math> and <math>b</math> are elements of <math>F</math>. If <math>F</math> is an algebraically closed field, <math>a</math> is an element of <math>F</math>, and <math>n</math> is a natural number, then <math>a</math> has an <math>n</math><sup>th</sup> root in <math>F</math>, since this is the same thing as saying that the equation <math>x^n-a=0</math> has some root in <math>F</math>. However, there are fields in which every element has an <math>n</math><sup>th</sup> root (for each natural number <math>n</math>) but which are not algebraically closed. In fact, even assuming that every polynomial of the form <math>x^n-a</math> splits into linear factors is not enough to assure that the field is algebraically closed. Every field <math>F</math> has an "[[algebraic closure]]", which is the smallest algebraically closed field of which <math>F</math> is a subfield. ==References== * [[S. Lang]], ''Algebra'', Springer-Verlag, 2004, ISBN 0-387-95385-X * [[B. L. van der Waerden]], ''Algebra I'', Springer-Verlag, 1991, ISBN 0-387-97424-5 [[Category:Abstract algebra]] [[de:Algebraisch abgeschlossen]] [[es:Cuerpo algebraicamente cerrado]] [[fr:Corps algébriquement clos]] [[it:Campo algebricamente chiuso]] [[pt:Corpo algebricamente fechado]] [[ru:&#1040;&#1083;&#1075;&#1077;&#1073;&#1088;&#1072;&#1080;&#1095;&#1077;&#1089;&#1082;&#1080; &#1079;&#1072;&#1084;&#1082;&#1085;&#1091;&#1090;&#1086;&#1077; &#1087;&#1086;&#1083;&#1077;]] 1019 move=:edit= 41533070 2006-02-28T00:05:55Z Gaius Cornelius 293907 Common typographical error 'battle of battle of'. See [[WP:LCM]]. {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=6}} |} '''August 6''' is the 218th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (219th in [[leap year]]s), with 147 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1538]] - [[Bogota, Colombia|Bogota]], [[Colombia]] founded by [[Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada]]. *[[1806]] - [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]], the last Holy Roman Emperor, abdicates, thus ending the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. *[[1819]] - [[Norwich University]] founded in [[Vermont]] as the first private military school in the [[United States]]. *[[1825]] - [[Bolivia]] gains independence from [[Spain]]. *[[1861]] - [[United Kingdom|British]] annexation of [[Lagos]], [[Nigeria]]. *[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: The [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] ironclad [[CSS Arkansas|CSS ''Arkansas'']] is scuttled on the [[Mississippi River]] after suffering damage in a battle with [[USS Essex (1856)|USS ''Essex'']] near [[Baton Rouge, Louisiana]]. *[[1890]] - At [[Auburn Prison]] in [[New York]], the first [[execution (legal)|execution]] by [[electric chair]] is performed, with murderer [[William Kemmler]] as the subject. *[[1901]] - [[Kiowa]] land in [[Oklahoma]] is opened for white settlement, effectively dissolving the contiguous [[Indian reservation|reservation]]. *[[1914]] - Ten [[Germany|German]] [[U-boats]] leave their base in [[Heligoland]] to attack [[Royal Navy]] warships in the [[North Sea]], beginning the [[First Battle of the Atlantic]]. *[[1915]] - [[World War I]]: The [[Battle of Sari Bair]] begins - The [[Allies]] mount a diversionary attack timed to coincide with a major Allied landing of reinforcements at [[Suvla Bay]]. *[[1926]] - [[Gertrude Ederle]] becomes first woman to swim across the [[English Channel]]. *1926 - In [[New York]], the [[Warner Brothers]]' [[Vitaphone]] system premieres with the movie ''[[Don Juan (movie)|Don Juan]]'' starring [[John Barrymore]]. *[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: the [[Atomic bombing of Hiroshima]]. An [[atomic bomb]] codenamed ''[[Little Boy]]'' is dropped by the American [[B-29]] [[Enola Gay]] on the city of [[Hiroshima]] in [[Japan]] at 8:16 a.m., killing 80,000 outright with another 60,000 dead by the end of the year due to [[Nuclear fallout|fallout]] sickness. Ultimately, about 200,000 die due to the atomic bomb. *[[1960]] - [[Cuban Revolution]]: In response to a [[United States]] embargo, [[Cuba]] nationalizes American and foreign-owned property in the nation. *[[1962]] - [[Jamaica]] becomes independent. *[[1965]] - [[President of the United States|US President]] [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] signs the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] into [[United States law]]. *[[1984]] - [[Pop music|Pop]] star [[Prince (artist)|Prince]] releases ''[[Purple Rain (album)|Purple Rain]]'', the album which would launch him to superstardom. *[[1986]] - A low-pressure system that redeveloped off the [[New South Wales]] coast dumps a record 328 millimetres (13 inches) of rain in a day on [[Sydney]]. *[[1988]] - "[[Police riot]]" in [[New York City]]'s [[Tompkins Square Park]] *[[1990]] - [[Gulf War]]: The [[United Nations Security Council]] orders a global [[trade embargo]] against [[Iraq]] in response to Iraq's invasion of [[Kuwait]] *[[1991]] - [[Tim Berners-Lee]] releases files describing his idea for the [[World Wide Web]]. *1991 - [[Doi Takako]], chair of the [[Social Democratic Party (Japan)]], becomes [[Japan|Japan's]] first female speaker of the [[House of Representatives of Japan|House of Representatives]]. *[[1993]] - [[Louis Freeh]] is confirmed by the [[United States Senate]] to be the director of the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] *1993 - ''[[The Fugitive (1993 film)|The Fugitive]]'' opens in theaters, starring [[Harrison Ford]] and [[Tommy Lee Jones]]. *[[1996]] - [[NASA]] announces that the [[ALH 84001]] meteorite, thought to originate from [[Mars (planet)|Mars]], contains evidence of primitive life-forms. *[[1997]] - [[Microsoft]] buys $150 million worth of shares of financially troubled [[Apple Computer]]. *1997 - [[Korean Air Flight 801]], a [[Boeing 747]]-300, crashes into the jungle on [[Guam]] on approach to airport, killing 228. *[[2000]] - The [[Roman Catholic Church]]'s [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]], under Prefect [[Pope Benedict XVI|Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger]], publishes ''[[Dominus Iesus]]'', notable for its lack of the [[filioque clause]] in the [[Latin]] text of the [[Nicene Creed]]. *[[2001]] - White House briefing entitled [[Bin Laden Determined to Strike in U.S.]] delivered to [[George W. Bush]]. This document foreshadowed the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]]. *[[2002]] - [[Marquis de la Fayette]] is made [[Honorary Citizen of the United States]] *2002 - [[Manindra Agrawal|Manindra Agrawal et al]] prove the long standing [[AKS primality test|number theory conjecture]] in the article entitled "Primes in P". ==Births== *[[1180]] - [[Emperor Go-Toba]] of Japan (d. [[1239]]) *[[1504]] - [[Matthew Parker]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (d. [[1575]]) *[[1619]] - [[Barbara Strozzi]], Italian singer and composer (d. [[1677]]) *[[1638]] - [[Nicolas Malebranche]], French philosopher (d. [[1715]]) *[[1644]] - [[Louise de la Vallière]], French mistress of [[Louis XIV of France]] (d. [[1710]]) *[[1656]] - [[Claude de Forbin]], French naval commander (d. [[1733]]) *[[1697]] - [[Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor]] (d. [[1745]]) *[[1715]] - [[Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues]], French writer (d. [[1747]]) *[[1766]] - [[William Hyde Wollaston]], English chemist (d. [[1828]]) *[[1768]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Bessières]], French marshal (d. [[1813]]) *[[1809]] - [[Alfred Lord Tennyson]], English poet (d. [[1892]]) *[[1844]] - [[James Henry Greathead]], British engineer (d. [[1896]]) *1844 - [[Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]] (d. [[1900]]) *[[1868]] - [[Paul Claudel]], French poet (d. [[1955]]) *[[1874]] - [[Charles Fort]], American writer and researcher (d. [[1932]]) *[[1877]] - [[Wallace H. White, Jr.]], U.S. Senator from Maine (d. [[1952]]) *[[1880]] - [[Hans Moser (actor)]], Austrian actor (d. [[1964]]) *[[1881]] - [[Leo Carrillo]], American actor (d. [[1961]]) *1881 - [[Alexander Fleming]], Scottish scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1955]]) *1881 - [[Louella Parsons]], American gossip columnist (d. [[1972]]) *[[1889]] - [[John Middleton Murry]], English poet (d. [[1957]]) *[[1892]] - [[Hoot Gibson]], American actor (d. [[1962]]) *[[1893]] - [[Wright Patman]], American politician (d. [[1976]]) *[[1900]] - [[Cecil H. Green]], American geophysicist and businessman (d.[[2003]]) *[[1902]] - [[Dutch Schultz]], American bootlegger and gangster (d. [[1935]]) *[[1911]] - [[Lucille Ball]], American actress and comedian (d. [[1989]]) *[[1916]] - [[Richard Hofstadter]], American historian (d. [[1970]]) *[[1917]] - [[Robert Mitchum]], American actor (d. [[1997]]) *[[1922]] - Sir [[Freddie Laker]], English entrepreneur *[[1923]] - [[Jess Collins]], American artist (d. [[2004]]) *[[1928]] - [[Andy Warhol]], American artist (d. [[1987]]) *[[1932]] - [[Howard Hodgkin]], British painter and print-maker *[[1934]] - [[Piers Anthony]], English writer *[[1937]] - [[Barbara Windsor]], English actress *[[1938]] - [[Paul Bartel]], American actor, writer, and director (d. [[2000]]) *[[1941]] - [[Lyle Berman]], American poker player *[[1943]] - [[Jon Postel]], Computer Scientist *[[1946]] - [[Roh Moo-hyun]], [[President of South Korea]] *1946 - [[Masaaki Sakai]], Japanese comedian *[[1949]] - [[Alan Campbell (pastor)|Alan Campbell]], Northern Irish clergyman *1949 - [[Clarence Richard Silva]], Catholic Bishop of Honolulu *[[1951]] - [[Daryl Somers]], Australian television personality *[[1957]] - [[Jim McGreevey]], Governor of New Jersey *[[1962]] - [[Michelle Yeoh]], Hong Kong actress *[[1963]] - [[Kevin Mitnick]], computer hacker *[[1965]] - [[Yuki Kajiura]], Japanese composer *[[1969]] - [[Elliott Smith]], American musician (d. [[2003]]) *[[1970]] - [[M. Night Shyamalan]], Indian-born film director, writer, producer, and actor *[[1971]] - [[Merrin Dungey]], American actress *[[1972]] - [[Geri Halliwell]], British singer *[[1973]] - [[Asia Carrera]], American actress *[[1976]] - [[Melissa George]], Australian actress *[[1978]] - [[Billy Klippert]], Canadian singer *[[1979]] - Steven McCrory, IP Solutions Specialist *[[1982]] - [[Adrianne Curry]], American reality television *[[1983]] - [[Robin van Persie]], Dutch football player *[[1990]] - [[JonBenét Ramsey]], American beauty queen and murder victim (d. [[1996]]) <!--Do not add yourself, or anyone else that does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list.--> ==Deaths== *[[258]] - Saint [[Pope Sixtus II]] *[[523]] - Saint [[Pope Hormisdas]] *[[1162]] - [[Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona]] *[[1195]] - [[Henry the Lion]], Duke of Saxony and Bavaria (b. [[1129]]) *[[1221]] - Saint [[Dominic de Guzman|Dominic]], Spanish founder of the Dominicans (b. [[1170]]) *[[1272]] - King [[Stephen V of Hungary]] *[[1414]] - King [[Ladislas of Naples]] (b. [[1377]]) *[[1458]] - [[Pope Callixtus III]] (b. [[1378]]) *[[1623]] - [[Anne Hathaway (Shakespeare's wife)]] (b. [[1556]]) *[[1628]] - [[Johannes Junius]], Mayor of Bamberg (b. [[1573]]) *[[1637]] - [[Ben Jonson]], English writer (b. [[1572]]) *[[1645]] - [[Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex]], English merchant (b. [[1575]]) *[[1660]] - [[Diego Velázquez]], Spanish painter (b. [[1599]]) *[[1679]] - [[John Snell]], English royalist (b. [[1629]]) *[[1695]] - [[François de Harlay de Champvallon]], French Catholic archbishop (b. [[1625]]) *[[1753]] - [[Georg Wilhelm Richmann]], Russian physicist (struck by lightning) (b. [[1711]]) *[[1759]] - [[Eugene Aram]], English philologist (b. [[1704]]) *[[1794]] - [[Henry Bathurst, 2nd Earl Bathurst]], British politician (b. [[1714]]) *[[1850]] - [[Edward Walsh]], Irish poet (b. [[1805]]) *[[1866]] - [[John Mason Neale]], English divine, scholar and hymnwriter (b. [[1818]]) *[[1904]] - [[Eduard Hanslick]], Austrian music critic (b. [[1825]]) *[[1914]] - [[Ellen Louise Wilson]], [[First Lady of the United States]], first wife of President [[Woodrow Wilson]] (b. [[1860]]) *[[1931]] - [[Bix Beiderbecke]], American musician (b. [[1903]]) *[[1942]] - [[Jonathan Campbell]], American film pioneer (b. [[1875]]) *[[1945]] - [[Wu, Prince of Korea|Prince Wu of Korea]] (b. [[1912]]) *[[1946]] - [[Tony Lazzeri]], baseball player (b. [[1903]]) *[[1959]] - [[Preston Sturges]], American playwright, screenwriter, and director (b. [[1898]]) *[[1964]] - Sir [[Cedric Hardwicke]], English actor (b. [[1893]]) *[[1966]] - [[Cordwainer Smith]], American writer (b. [[1913]]) *[[1969]] - [[Theodor Adorno]], German sociologist and philosopher (b. [[1903]]) *[[1973]] - [[Fulgencio Batista]], Cuban dictator (b. [[1901]]) *[[1974]] - [[Gene Ammons]], American jazz saxophonist (b. [[1925]]) *[[1976]] - [[Gregor Piatigorsky]], Russian cellist (b. [[1903]]) *[[1978]] - [[Pope Paul VI]] (b. [[1897]]) *[[1979]] - [[Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen]], German biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1911]]) *[[1983]] - [[Klaus Nomi]], German singer (b. [[1944]]) *[[1985]] - [[Forbes Burnham]], [[President of Guyana]] (b. [[1923]]) *[[1987]] - [[Quinn Martin]], American television producer (b. [[1922]]) *[[1991]] - [[Harry Reasoner]], American reporter (b. [[1923]]) *[[1993]] - [[Tex Hughson]], baseball player (b. [[1916]]) *[[1994]] - [[Domenico Modugno]], Italian singer and songwriter (b. [[1928]]) *[[1998]] - [[Andre Weil]], French mathematician (b. [[1906]]) *[[2001]] - [[Jorge Amado]] de Faria, Brazilian writer (b. [[1912]]) *[[2002]] - [[Edsger Dijkstra]], Dutch computer scientist (b. [[1930]]) *[[2004]] - [[Rick James]], American musician (b. [[1948]]) *[[2005]] - [[Keter Betts]], American jazz bassist (b. [[1928]]) *2005 - [[Robin Cook]], British politician (b. [[1946]]) *2005 - [[Ibrahim Ferrer]], Cuban musician ([[Buena Vista Social Club]]) (b. [[1927]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Christianity]] - Feast of the [[Transfiguration of Christ]] *[[Bolivia]] - Independence Day *[[Jamaica]] - Independence Day *[[United Arab Emirates]] - H.H. Sheikh [[Zayed Bin Sultan Al Nahyan]]'s Accession Day *[[Japan]] - [[Toro Nagashi]] (Hiroshima) - Floating lantern ceremony to honor those killed by the U.S. atomic bomb in Hiroshima. ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/6 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050806.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] ---- [[August 5]] - [[August 7]] - [[July 6]] - [[September 6]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:6 Augustus]] [[ar:6 أغسطس]] [[an:6 d'agosto]] [[ast:6 d'agostu]] [[bg:6 август]] [[be:6 жніўня]] [[bs:6. avgust]] [[ca:6 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 6]] [[cv:Çурла, 6]] [[co:6 d'aostu]] [[cs:6. srpen]] [[cy:6 Awst]] [[da:6. august]] [[de:6. August]] [[et:6. august]] [[el:6 Αυγούστου]] [[es:6 de agosto]] [[eo:6-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 6]] [[fo:6. august]] [[fr:6 août]] [[fy:6 augustus]] [[ga:6 Lúnasa]] [[gl:6 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 6일]] [[hr:6. kolovoza]] [[io:6 di agosto]] [[ilo:Agosto 6]] [[id:6 Agustus]] [[ia:6 de augusto]] [[ie:6 august]] [[is:6. ágúst]] [[it:6 agosto]] [[he:6 באוגוסט]] [[jv:6 Agustus]] [[ka:6 აგვისტო]] [[csb:6 zélnika]] [[ku:6'ê gelawêjê]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 6]] [[lb:6. August]] [[li:6 augustus]] [[hu:Augusztus 6]] [[mk:6 август]] [[ms:6 Ogos]] [[nap:6 'e aùsto]] [[nl:6 augustus]] [[ja:8月6日]] [[no:6. august]] [[nn:6. august]] [[oc:6 d'agost]] [[pl:6 sierpnia]] [[pt:6 de Agosto]] [[ro:6 august]] [[ru:6 августа]] [[sco:6 August]] [[sq:6 Gusht]] [[scn:6 di austu]] [[simple:August 6]] [[sk:6. august]] [[sl:6. avgust]] [[sr:6. август]] [[fi:6. elokuuta]] [[sv:6 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 6]] [[tt:6. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 6]] [[th:6 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:6 tháng 8]] [[tr:6 Ağustos]] [[uk:6 серпня]] [[wa:6 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 6]] [[zh:8月6日]] [[pam:Agostu 6]] 1020 41905623 2006-03-02T14:46:12Z Ryan Delaney 97276 /* Style */ rm original research [[Image:Anatoly Karpov.jpg|thumb|right|Anatoly Karpov]] '''Anatoli Yevgenyevich Karpov''' (Анато́лий Евге́ньевич Ка́рпов) (born [[May 23]], [[1951]]) is a [[Russia]]n [[chess]] [[International Grandmaster|grandmaster]] and former [[World Chess Championship|World Champion]]. He is the most successful tournament player of all time, and as of July 2005 he has 161 first-place finishes to his credit. From 1978 to 1998 he played in every [[FIDE]] World Championship match. His overall professional record is 1,118 wins, 287 losses, and 1,480 draws in 3,163 games. His peak [[ELO rating system|ELO rating]] is 2780. ==Grandmaster== Karpov was born on May 23, 1951 in [[Zlatoust]] in the former [[Soviet Union]] and learned to play chess at the age of 4. At age 12 he was accepted into [[Mikhail Botvinnik]]'s prestigious chess school. Ironically, Botvinnik had this to say about a young Karpov: "The boy doesn't have a clue about chess, and there's no future at all for him in this profession."{{fact}} Karpov proved him wrong by becoming the youngest [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] National Master in history at 15, and won in his first international chess tournament several months later. In 1967 he took 5th in the [[Soviet Junior Chess Championship]] and won the [[European Junior Chess Championship]] later that same year. In 1969 he became the first Soviet player since [[Boris Spassky]] (1955) to win the [[World Junior Chess Championship]] with a score of 10 out of 11. Soon afterwards he tied for 4th place at an international tournament in [[Caracas, Venezuela]] and became the world's youngest [[International Grandmaster|Grandmaster]]. ==Candidate== The 1970s showed a major improvement in his game. His [[ELO rating system|ELO rating]] shot up from 2540 in 1971 to 2660 in 1973, when he came in 2nd in the [[USSR Chess Championship]] and placed first in the [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]] [[Interzonal]] Tournament. The latter qualified him for the 1974 Candidates cycle, which determined who was allowed to challenge the reigning World Champion, [[Bobby Fischer]]. Karpov beat [[Lev Polugaevsky]] by +3=5 in the first Candidates match to face former World Champion [[Boris Spassky]] in the next round. Karpov was on record saying that he believed Spassky would easily beat him and win the Candidates cycle to face Fischer, and that he (Karpov) would win the following Candidates cycle in 1977. Most expected the Spassky-Karpov match to be a one-sided rout by the ex-champ Spassky. Although Spassky won the first game as black in good style, tenacious and aggressive play from Karpov secured him a win +4-1=6. Karpov was certainly not hurt by the fact that Spassky's chief opening analyst, 1955 [[USSR Chess Championship|Soviet Champion]] [[Efim Geller]], defected to Karpov's side several months before the match. The Candidates final was against fellow Russian [[Viktor Korchnoi]], a notable fighting player. Intense games were fought, including one "opening laboratory" win against the [[Sicilian Defense|Sicilian Dragon]]. Karpov went 3&ndash;0 up but tired towards the end and allowed Korchnoi two wins, but Karpov prevailed +3-2=19. Thus he won the right to challenge Fischer for the World Championship. Though the world championship match between the young Soviet prodigy and the incomparably dominant American Fischer was highly anticipated, the match never came about. Fischer drew up a list of ten demands, chief among them the provisions that draws wouldn't count, the first to ten victories wins, and if the score was tied 9&ndash;9 the champion would retain the crown. This means that candidate needed two wins more than the reigning champion because narrowest possible win for him is 10&ndash;8. The [[Fédération Internationale des Échecs|International Chess Federation]] (FIDE) flatly refused at first, but eventually conceded the first two. However, Fischer demanded all or nothing, and when FIDE refused to give into the third demand, Fischer resigned his crown, to the huge disappointment of the chess world. Karpov later attempted to set up another match with Fischer, but all the negotiations fell through. Fischer never did play Karpov (or [[Garry Kasparov|Kasparov]], for that matter) and scorned them as inferior players. This thrust the young Karpov into the role of World Champion without defeating the reigning champion, which lead some chess pundits to accuse Karpov of being a "paper world champion"&mdash;that he had earned the title in a ceremony, but not over a chessboard. When Kasparov was in a bitter struggle for the world championship with Karpov, he often reminded others that Karpov won the title by default. But while preparing a monumental book series ''Kasparov: On My Great Predecessors'', Kasparov argued that Karpov would have had the better chances, because he had beaten Spassky convincingly and was a new breed of tough professional, and indeed had higher quality games, while Fischer had been inactive for three years. Critics argue that Kasparov was trying to boost his own prestige by boosting that of the man he defeated. Spassky thought that Fischer would have won in 1975 but Karpov would have qualified again and beaten Fischer in 1978{{fact}}. [[Zsuzsa Polgar]] thinks Fischer would have won very narrowly in 1975 due to his greater experience.[http://www.chesscafe.com/text/polgar26.pdf] ==World champion== Shamed that he had become the twelfth world champion in this manner, and desperately trying to prove he was worthy of the crown, Karpov participated in nearly every major tournament for the next ten years. He created the most phenomenal streak of tournament wins against the strongest players in the world the chess world had ever seen. This tournament success even eclipsed the pre-war tournament record of [[Alexander Alekhine]]. He held the record for most consecutive tournament victories (9) until it was shattered by [[Garry Kasparov]] (14). In 1978, Karpov's first title defence was against Viktor Korchnoi, the opponent he defeated in the previous Candidates tournament. The situation was vastly different from the previous match, because in the intervening years Korchnoi had defected from the Soviet Union. The match was played in [[Baguio]] in the [[Philippines]], and a vast array of psychological tricks were used during the match, from Karpov's Dr. Zukhar who attempted to hypnotize Korchnoi during the game, to Korchnoi's mirror glasses to ward off the hypnotic stare, Korchnoi's offering to play under the [[Jolly Roger]] flag when he was denied the right to play under [[Switzerland]]'s, to Karpov's yogurt supposedly being used to send him secret messages, to Korchnoi inviting two local cult members (on trial for [[attempted murder]]) into the hall as members of his team. The off-board antics are better remembered than the actual chess match. Karpov took an early lead, but Korchnoi staged an amazing comeback very late in the match, and came very close to winning. Karpov narrowly won the last game to take the match 6&ndash;5, with 21 draws. Three years later Korchnoi re-emerged as the Candidates winner against [[Germany|German]] finalist Dr. [[Robert Huebner]] to challenge Karpov in [[Merano]], [[Italy]]. This time the psychological trick was the arrest of Korchnoi's son for evading [[conscription]]. Again the politics off the board overshadowed the games, but this time Karpov easily won (11&ndash;7, +6 -2 =10) in what is remembered to be the "Massacre of Merano". Karpov's tournament career also reached a peak at the exceptional [[Montreal]] "Super-Grandmaster" tournament in 1979, where he ended joint first with [[Mikhail Tal]] ahead of a field of superb grandmasters like [[Jan Timman]], [[Ljubomir Ljubojevic]], [[Boris Spassky]], and [[Lubomir Kavalek]]. Meanwhile, he had also won the prestigious [[Linares chess tournament|Linares tournament]] in 1981 (and again in 1994), the [[Tilburg]] tournament in 1977, 1979, 1980, 1982, and 1983, and the [[USSR Chess Championship|Soviet Championship]] in 1976 and 1983 (and again in 1988). To illustrate Karpov's dominance over his peers as champion, his score was +11 -2 =20 v Spassky, +5 =12 v [[Robert Hübner]], +6 -1 = 16 v [[Ulf Andersson]], +3 -1 =10 v [[Vasily Smyslov]], +1 =16 v [[Mikhail Tal]], +10 -2 =13 v Ljubojevic. <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Karkas1.jpg|thumbnail|The 1984 [[World Chess Championship]] was between [[Garry Kasparov]] (left) and Anatoly Karpov (right).]] --> Karpov had cemented his position as the world's best player and world champion when [[Garry Kasparov]] arrived on the scene. In their first World Championship match in 1984, Karpov quickly built a 4&ndash;0 lead, and needed only two more wins to keep his title. Instead, the next 17 games were drawn, and it took Karpov until Game 27 to finally win another game. In Game 31, Karpov had a winning position but failed to take advantage and settled for a draw. He lost the next game, but drew the next 14. In particular, Karpov held a solidly winning position in Game 41, but again blundered terribly and had to settle for a draw. After Kasparov suddenly won Game 47 and 48, Karpov suffered a physical collapse, having lost 10 kg (22 lb) over the course of the match. The FIDE President controversially terminated the match, which had lasted an unprecedented four months with five wins for Karpov, three for Kasparov, and a staggering forty draws. A rematch was set for the following year. In a hard fight, Karpov lost his title 11 to 13 in the 1985 match, ending his ten-year reign as champion. ==Rival== Karpov remained a formidable opponent for most of the [[1980s|eighties]]. He fought Kasparov in three more World Championship matches in 1986 (held in [[London]] and [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]]), 1987 (held in [[Seville]]), and 1990 (held in [[Lyon]] and [[New York City]]). All three matches were extremely close (the scores were 12.5 to 11.5, 12 to 12, and 12.5 to 11.5). In all three matches Karpov had winning chances up to the very last games. In particular, the 1987 Seville match featured an astonishing blunder by Kasparov in the 23rd game, and should have led to Karpov's winning the title. Instead, in the final game, needing only a draw to win the title, Karpov blundered on his 33rd and 64th moves and lost, ending the match in a draw and allowing Kasparov to keep the title. The overall game score between them stayed virtually even until the late 1990s, when the score shifted decisively towards Kasparov. Currently, in their 235 formal games played, Karpov has 23 wins, 33 losses, and an incredible 179 draws. In their five world championship matches, Karpov has 19 wins, 21 losses, and 104 draws in 144 games. Although twelve years older than Kasparov, Karpov still has the stamina and endurance to be a match for Kasparov. In 2002, he defeated Kasparov in a rapid time control match 2.5-1.5. Karpov is on record saying that had he had the opportunity to fight Fischer for the crown like Kasparov had the opportunity to fight him, he (Karpov) could have been a much better player as a result. Though the struggle for the world championship made them enemies, Karpov and Kasparov maintain a tremendous level of respect for each other{{fact}}. The two of them and their titanic struggles make up a chess rivalry that even surpassed that of [[Capablanca]] and [[Alekhine]]. ==FIDE Champion again== It came as a surprise, then, that Karpov lost a Candidates Match against [[Nigel Short]] in 1992. But in 1993, Karpov reacquired the FIDE World Champion title when Kasparov and Short split from FIDE. Karpov crushed [[Jan Timman]]&mdash;the loser of the Candidates final against Short. Once again he had become World Champion, and once again he did so controversially. He defended his title against [[Gata Kamsky]] (+6 -3 =9) in 1996. However, in 1998, FIDE largely scrapped the old system of Candidate Matches, instead having a large knock-out event in which a large number of players contested short matches against each other over just a few weeks. In the first of these events, champion Karpov was seeded straight into the final, defeating [[Viswanathan Anand]] (+4 -2 =2). But subsequently the champion had to qualify like other players. Karpov resigned his title in anger at the new rules in 1999, so the winner of the 1999 tournament ([[Alexander Khalifman]]) became FIDE World Champion. However, the FIDE champions were not recognized as such by the general public. The fact that the FIDE champions were regularly crushed by Kasparov in tournaments testified to his dominance. The FIDE matches received little public attention, while Kasparov's matches with the PCA and subsequently Braingames were widely reported in the media. For more details about these series of champions, see the [[World Chess Championship]] article. ==Towards Retirement?== In 1991 Karpov temporarily dropped to third in the FIDE ranking list, the first time since 1971. Though he quickly recovered, many said that Karpov had lost his edge, and that his playing level had declined. However, Karpov bounced back against the world's very strongest players (in the order of their finish, [[Garry Kasparov|Kasparov]], [[Alexei Shirov|Shirov]], [[Evgeny Bareev|Bareev]], [[Vladimir Kramnik|Kramnik]], [[Joel Lautier|Lautier]], [[Viswanathan Anand|Anand]], [[Gata Kamsky|Kamsky]], [[Veselin Topalov|Topalov]], [[Vassily Ivanchuk|Ivanchuk]], [[Boris Gelfand|Gelfand]], [[Miguel Illescas|Illescas]], [[Judit Polgar]], and [[Alexander Beliavsky|Beliavsky]]) in the landmark "super-strong" tournament [[Linares chess tournament|Linares]] 1994 (average [[ELO rating system|ELO rating]] 2685, the highest in history, meaning it was the first Category XVIII tournament ever held). Impressed by the strength of the tournament, Kasparov had said several days before the tournament that the winner could rightfully be called the world champion of tournaments. Perhaps spurred on by this comment, Karpov played the chess of his life and dramatically won the tournament. He was undefeated and earned 11 points out of 13 possible (the best world-class tournament winning percentage in 64 years), dominating second-place Kasparov and Shirov by a huge 2.5 points. Many of his wins were spectacular (in particular, his win over Topalov, detailed below, is considered possibly his finest throughout his career). This performance against the best players in the world put his [[ELO rating system|ELO rating]] tournament performance at 2985, the highest performance rating of any chess player in any tournament in all of chess history. Even recently, few players have surpassed Karpov's achievements. Since he dropped out of the top three players in the world on the FIDE rankings, only [[Garry Kasparov]], [[Viswanathan Anand]], [[Vladimir Kramnik]], and (as of January 2005) [[Veselin Topalov]] have been in the top three slots. In other words, Karpov is the last person to have been in the top three in the world before Kasparov, Anand, Kramnik, and Topalov. In addition, Karpov is the only player among these to ever have ranked number one in the world ahead of Kasparov. However, Karpov's outstanding classical tournament play has been seriously limited since 1995, since he prefers to be more involved in politics of his home country of Russia. He had been a member of the [[Supreme Soviet]] Commission for Foreign Affairs and the President of the Soviet Peace Fund before the Soviet Union broke up. In addition, he had been involved in several disputes with FIDE and became increasingly disillusioned with chess. In the October 2005 FIDE rating list, he is 33rd in the world with an ELO rating of 2672. However, more recently, because of his traditional strength at managing his thinking time, Karpov has instead begun revamping his style to specialize in rapid chess. == Sample game == {{Chess diagram|= |tright | |= 8 |rd|qd|rd| | | |kd| |= 7 | | | |ql|bd|pd| | |= 6 |pd| |nd| |pd| |pd| |= 5 | |pd|pd| | | | | |= 4 | | |pl| | |pl| | |= 3 | | |nl| | | |pl| |= 2 |pl|pl| | | |pl|bl| |= 1 |rl| | | |rl| |kl| |= a b c d e f g h |In this position, Karpov (white), already with a slight advantage, initiates the first of three rook offers}} This game, Anatoly Karpov v [[Veselin Topalov]], [[Linares]] 1994, given in [[algebraic notation]], played during one of his best tournaments, features Karpov offering a rook for capture three times, and eventually sacrificing two rooks for a scintillating victory. 1. d4 Nf6 2. c4 c5 3. Nf3 cxd4 4. Nxd4 e6 5. g3 Nc6 6. Bg2 Bc5 7. Nb3 Be7 8. Nc3 O-O 9. O-O d6 10. Bf4 Nh5 11. e3 Nxf4 12. exf4 Bd7 13. Qd2 Qb8 14. Rfe1! g6 15. h4 a6 16. h5 b5 17. hxg6 hxg6 18. Nc5 dxc5 19. Qxd7 Rc8 (see diagram) '''20. Rxe6!!''' Ra7 [20...fxe6 21.Bxc6 Ra7 22.Qxe6+ Kg7 23.Be4 and White is clearly better] '''21. Rxg6+!''' fxg6 22. Qe6+ Kg7 23. Bxc6 Rd8 24. cxb5 Bf6 25. Ne4 Bd4 26. bxa6 Qb6 27. Rd1 Qxa6 '''28. Rxd4!!''' Rxd4 [28...cxd4 29.Qf6+ Kh6 30.Qh4+ Kg7 31.Qxd8 Qxc6 32.Qxd4+ and White is better] 29. Qf6+ Kg8 30. Qxg6+ Kf8 31. Qe8+ Kg7 32. Qe5+ Kg8 33. Nf6+ Kf7 34. Be8+ Kf8 35. Qxc5+ Qd6 36. Qxa7 Qxf6 37. Bh5 Rd2 38. b3 Rb2 39. Kg2 1-0 == Further reading == * ''World chess champions'' by [[Edward G. Winter]], editor. 1981 ISBN 0080249041 * ''The World's Great Chess Games'' by [[Reuben Fine]], Dover; 1983. ISBN 0486245128 * ''Anatoly Karpov's Best Games'' by Anatoly Karpov, Batsford; 2003. ISBN 0713478438 * ''Karpov on Karpov: A Memoirs of a Chess World Champion'' by Anatoly Karpov, [[Simon & Schuster]]; 1992. ISBN 0689120605 * ''Curse of Kirsan: Adventures in the Chess Underworld'' by Sarah Hurst, Russell Enterprises, 2002. {{start box}} {{succession box | before= [[Bobby Fischer]] | title= [[World chess champion|World Chess Champion]] | years= 1975&ndash;1985 | after= [[Garry Kasparov]] }} {{succession box | before= [[Garry Kasparov]] | title= [[World chess champion|FIDE World Chess Champion]] | years= 1993&ndash;1999 | after= [[Alexander Khalifman]] }} {{end box}} == External links == {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.karpov.on.ru/ Karpov's official homepage] in Russian. * [http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chesscollection?cid=1001168 Karpov's Best Games at www.chessgames.com] * [http://www.chessmaniac.com/Games/MyChessViewer/karpov.htm View 3079 Anatoly Karpov Games at www.chessmaniac.com] * [http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=20719 Karpov's profile at www.chessgames.com] * [http://www.bobby-fischer.net/Karpov_on_fischer_11.htm Karpov on why Fischer wouldn't play him in the 1975 match] Video Clip * [http://www.wtharvey.com/karp.html 60 Crucial Positions from His Games] His "best" games: * [http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1067662 Anatoly Karpov vs Leonid Stein, Leningrad 1971] * [http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1068020 Stefano Tatai vs Anatoly Karpov, Las Palmas 1977] * [http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1069169 Anatoly Karpov vs Veselin Topalov, Linares 1994] [[Category:1951 births|Karpov, Anatoly]] [[Category:Living people|Karpov, Anatoly]] [[Category:Chess grandmasters|Karpov, Anatoly]] [[Category:World Chess Champions|Karpov, Anatoly]] [[Category:Russian chess players|Karpov, Anatoly]] [[cs:Anatolij Karpov]] [[de:Anatoli Jewgenjewitsch Karpow]] [[et:Anatoli Karpov]] [[el:Ανατόλι Κάρποβ]] [[es:Anatoli Karpov]] [[fa:آناتولی کارپف]] [[fr:Anatoli Karpov]] [[it:Anatoly Karpov]] [[he:אנטולי קרפוב]] [[nl:Anatoli Karpov]] [[ja:アナトリー・カルポフ]] [[no:Anatolij Karpov]] [[nn:Anatolij Karpov]] [[pl:Anatolij Karpow]] [[pt:Anatoly Karpov]] [[ru:Карпов, Анатолий Евгеньевич]] [[fi:Anatoli Karpov]] [[sv:Anatolij Karpov]] [[tr:Anatoli Karpov]] 1021 38283276 2006-02-05T08:29:38Z Ewlyahoocom 241538 moved [[Aspect ratio]] to [[Aspect ratio (disambiguation)]]: Redirecting main entry to [[Aspect ratio (image)]] The '''aspect ratio''' of a two-dimensional shape is the ratio of its longest dimension to its shortest dimension. {{Wiktionarypar|aspect ratio}} The term is most commonly used with reference to: *images (see [[aspect ratio (image)]]) *[[paper]] (see [[paper size]]) *the wing-plans of [[aircraft]] or [[bird]]s (see [[aspect ratio (wing)]]). ''See also'': [[Golden ratio]], [[Ratio]] [[ja:&#12450;&#12473;&#12506;&#12463;&#12488;&#27604;]] [[zh:&#32305;&#27243;&#27604;]] {{disambig}} 1022 42102467 2006-03-03T21:15:16Z Brian0918 90640 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.168.252.90|24.168.252.90]] ([[User talk:24.168.252.90|talk]]) to last version by BlankVerse '''Auto racing''' (also known as '''automobile racing''', '''autosport''' or '''motorsport''') is a [[sport]] involving [[racing]] [[automobile]]s. '''Motor racing''' or '''motorsport''' may also mean [[motorcycle racing]], and can include [[motorboat racing]] and [[air racing]]. It is one of the world's most popular [[spectator sport]]s and perhaps the most thoroughly [[commercialization|commercialized]]. == History == === The Start=== Auto racing began almost immediately after the construction of the first successful [[gasoline|petrol]]-fuelled autos. In [[1894]], the first contest was organized by Paris magazine ''[[Le Petit Journal]]'', a reliability test to determine best performance. A year later the first real race was staged, from [[Paris]], [[France]] to [[Bordeaux]], France. First over the line was [[Émile Levassor]] but he was disqualified because his car was not a required four-seater. An international competition began with the [[Gordon Bennett Cup in auto racing]]. The first auto race in the [[United States]], over a 54.36 mile (87.48 km) course, took place in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Illinois]] on [[November 2]], [[1895]], [[Frank Duryea]] winning in 10 h and 23 min, beating three petrol-fuelled cars and two electric. The first trophy awarded was the [[Vanderbilt Cup]]. === City to city racing === [[Image:Mors.jpg||thumb|340px|Fernand Gabriel driving a Mors in Paris-Madrid 1903]] With auto construction and racing dominated by [[France]], the French automobile club ACF staged a number of major international races, usually from or to Paris, connecting with another major city in Europe or France. These very successful races ended in [[1903]] when Marcel [[Renault]] was involved in a fatal accident near [[Angouleme]] in the Paris-Madrid race. Eight fatalities caused the French government to stop the race in [[Bordeaux]] and ban open-road racing. <!-- (much more on this) --> ===1910-1950=== The [[1930s]] saw the radical differentiation of racing vehicles from high-priced road cars, with [[Delage]], [[Auto Union]], [[Mercedes-Benz]], [[Delahaye]] and [[Bugatti]] constructing streamlined vehicles with engines producing up to 450 kW(612HP) with the aid of multiple superchargers. From [[1928]]-[[1930]] and again in [[1934]]-[[1936]], the maximum [[weight]] permitted was 750 kg(1654Lbs), a rule diametrically opposed to current racing regulations. Extensive use of aluminium alloys was required to achieve light weight, and in the case of the Mercedes, the paint was removed to satisfy the weight limitation, producing the famous [[Silver Arrows]]. :''See: [[Grand Prix motor racing]]'' == Categories == There are many categories of auto racing. === Single-seater racing === :''Main article: [[Open wheel racing]]'' [[Image:formula_one_car.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A modern Formula One car]] Single-seater ([[open-wheel]]) racing is perhaps the most well-known form of motorsport, with cars designed specifically for high-speed racing. The wheels are not covered, and the cars often have aerofoil wings front and rear to produce downforce and enhance adhesion to the track. Single-seater races are held on specially designed closed circuits or street circuits closed for the event. Many single-seater races in North America are held on "oval" circuits and the [[Indy Racing League]] races mostly on ovals. The best-known variety of single-seater racing is the [[Formula One]] World Championship, which involves an annual championship featuring major international car and engine manufacturers in an ongoing battle of technology and driver skill. Formula One is, by any measure, the most expensive sport in the world, with some teams spending in excess of 201 million US dollars per year. Formula One is widely considered to be the pinnacle of motorsports, and a seat in a Formula One car is undoubtedly the peak of any driver's racing career. In North America, the cars used in the [[American Championship Car Racing|National Championship]] (currently [[Champcars]] and the [[Indy Racing League]]) have traditionally been similar to [[F1 cars]] but with more restrictions on technology aimed at helping to control costs. Other single-seater racing series are [[GP2 Series|GP2]] (formerly known as [[Formula 3000]] and [[Formula Two]]), [[Formula Nippon]], [[Formula Nissan]] (also known as the Telefonica World Series), [[Formula Three]], [[Formula Atlantic]], and [[A1 Grand Prix]]. There are other categories of single-seater racing, including [[kart racing]], which employs a small, low-cost machine on small tracks. Many of today's top drivers started their careers in karts. === Rallying === :''Main article: [[Rallying]]'' [[Rallying]], or rally racing, involves highly modified production cars on (closed) public roads or off-road areas run on a point-to-point format where participants and their co-drivers “rally” to a set of points, leaving in regular intervals from start points. A rally is typically conducted over a number of stages of any terrain, which entrants are often allowed to scout beforehand. The co-driver uses the "pacenotes" to help the driver complete each stage as fast as possible, reading the detailed shorthand aloud over an in-car intercom system. Competition is based on lowest total elasped time over the course of an event. The top series is the [[World Rally Championship]] (WRC), but there also regional championships and many countries have their own national championships. Some famous rallies include the [[Monte Carlo Rally]] and [[Rally Argentina]]. Another famous event (actually best described as a "[[rally raid]]") is the [[Paris-Dakar Rally]]. There are also many smaller, club level, [[categories of rallies]] which are popular with amateurs, making up the "grass roots" of motorsports. === Ice Racing === :''Main article: [[Ice Racing]]'' === Touring car racing=== :''Main article: [[Touring car racing]]'' [[Image:11_murphy_leads.jpg|left|170px|thumb|V8 Supercar Touring car racing]] Touring car racing is a style of road racing that is run with production derived race cars. It often features exciting, full-contact racing due to the small speed differentials and large grids. The [[V8 Supercars]] originally from [[Australia]], [[Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters]] originally from [[Germany]], and the [[World Touring Car Championship]] held with 2 non-European races (previously the [[European Touring Car Championship]]) are the major touring car championships conducted worldwide. The [[Sports Car Club of America]]'s [[SPEED World Challenge]] Touring Car and GT championships are dominant in North America while the venerable [[British Touring Car Championship]] continues in [[Great Britain]]. America's historic [[Trans-Am Series]] is undergoing a period of transition, but is still the longest-running road racing series in the U.S. The [[National Auto Sport Association]] also provides a venue for amateurs to compete in home-built factory derived vehicles on various local circuits. ===Stock car racing=== [[Image:Riverside_Raceway.JPG|thumb|250px|right|One of the most famous NASCAR tracks was the old [[Riverside International Raceway]] in [[Riverside, California]].]] :''Main article: [[Stock car racing]]'' [[Stock car racing]] is the American variant of touring car racing. Usually conducted on ovals, the cars look like production cars but are in fact purpose-built racing machines which are all very similar in specifications. Early stock cars were much closer to production vehicles; the car to be raced was often driven from track to track. The main stock car racing series is [[NASCAR]] and among the most famous races in the series are the [[Daytona 500]] and [[Allstate 400 at The Brickyard]]. NASCAR also runs the [[Busch Series]] (a junior stock car league) and the [[Craftsman Truck Series]] ([[pickup truck]]s). NASCAR also runs the [[Featherlite]] series of "modified" cars which are heavily modified from stock form. With powerful engines, large tires, and light bodies. NASCAR's oldest series is considered by many to be its most exciting. There are also other stock car series like [[IROC]] in the United States and [[CASCAR]] in [[Canada]]. [[British Stock car racing]] is a form of Short Oval Racing This takes place on Shale or Tarmac tracks in either Clockwise or Anti-Clockwise direction, Depending on the class some of which are contact. Races are organised by local promoters and all drivers are registered with BRISCA and have their own race number. What classes exist depends on the promoters, so events in [[Scotland]] at Cowdenbeath can be very different from an event at [[Wimbledon Stadium]] in [[London]]. ''Formula Cars'' * F1 - Cars built to Specification normally utilising 5,6 or 7 Litre V8 engines * F2 - Specification built cars similar to F1 with 2 Litre Ford Pinto Engines These are the two main National forms of British Stock Car Racing, there are World Championships organised by the governing body [http://www.brisca.com/BRISCA] There are also local variants raced in some smaller tracks, they are usually similar to F2 Stock Cars. F1's race (in the UK) at the following venues: Belle Vue Stadium (Manchester), Owlerton Stadium (Sheffield), Skegness Stadium, Buxton, Hednesford, Birmingham, Northampton, Coventry, Kings Lynn, Ipswich, Cowdenbeath, Knockhill. They also race in Holland. ''Hot Rods'' * Local Variations on the concept of fibreglass cars that look like production models Non Contact ''Production Models'' *Modified Road cars, classes range from Non-Contact 2 Litre Hot Rods to Contact Banger Racing. Contact Classes can be identified by the inclusion of external side impact bars and large bumpers at either end made out of square section steel. ===Drag racing=== :''Main article: [[Drag racing]]'' In [[drag racing]], the objective is to complete a certain distance, traditionally 1/4 mile, (400 m), in the shortest possible time. The vehicles range from the everyday car to the purpose-built [[dragster]]. Speeds and elapsed time differ from class to class. A street car can cover the 1/4 mile (400 m) in 15 s whereas a [[top fuel dragster]] can cover the same distance in 4.5 s and reach 330 mph (530 km/h). Drag racing was organised as a sport by [[Wally Parks]] in the early [[1950s]] through the [[NHRA]] (National Hot Rod Association) which is the largest sanctioning motor sports body in the world. The NHRA was formed to prevent people from [[street racing]]. Illegal street racing is not drag racing. Launching its run to 330 mph (530 km/h), a top fuel dragster will accelerate at 4.5 ''[[Gee|g]]'' (44 m/s<sup>2</sup>), and when braking and parachutes are deployed, the driver experiences deceleration of 4 ''g'' (39 m/s<sup>2</sup>), more than space shuttle occupants. A single top fuel car can be heard over eight miles (13 km) away and can generate a reading of 1.5 to 2 on the [[Richter scale]]. (NHRA Mile High Nationals 2001, and 2002 testing from the National Seismology Center.) Drag racing is often head-to-head where two cars battle each other, the winner proceeding to the next round. Professional classes are all first to the finish line wins. Sportsman racing is handicapped (slower car getting a head start) using an index, and cars running faster than their index "break out" and lose. Drag racing is mostly popular in the [[United States]]. ===Sports car racing=== :''Main article: [[Sports car racing]]'' In [[sports car racing]], production versions of sports cars and purpose-built prototype cars compete with each other on closed circuits. The races are usually conducted over long distances, at least 1000 km, and cars are driven by teams of two or three drivers (and sometimes more in the US), switching every now and then. Due to the performance difference between production based sports cars and sports racing prototypes, one race usually involves many racing classes. In the US the [[American Le Mans]] Series was organized in 1999, featuring GT, GTS, and two prototype classes. Another series based on Le Mans began in 2004, the [[Le Mans Endurance Series]], which included four 1000 km races at tracks in Europe. A competing body, [[Grand-Am]], which began in 2000, sanctions its own set of endurance series, the [[Rolex Sports Car Series]] and the [[Grand-Am Cup]]. Grand-Am events typically feature many more cars and much closer competition than American Le Mans. Famous sports car races include the [[24 Hours of Le Mans]], the [[24 Hours of Daytona]] and the [[12 Hours of Sebring]]. ===Offroad racing=== :''Main article: [[Offroad racing]]'' In [[offroad racing]], various classes of specially modified vehicles, including cars, compete in races through off-road environments. In North America these races often take place in the desert, such as the famous [[Baja 1000]]. In Europe, "offroad" refers to events such as autocross or rallycross, while desert races and rally-raids such as the [[Paris-Dakar Rally|Paris-Dakar]], [[Master Rallye]] or European "bajas" are called Cross-Country Rallies. ===Hillclimbing=== :''Main article: [[Hillclimbing]]'' ===Kart racing=== :''Main article: [[Kart racing]]'' Although often seen as the entry point for serious racers into the sport, [[kart racing]], or karting, can be an economic way to try your luck at motorsport and is also a fully fledged international sport in its own right. World-famous F1-drivers like [[Michael Schumacher|Michael]] and [[Ralf Schumacher]] and most of the typical starting grid of a modern Grand Prix took up the sport at around the age of eight, with some testing from age three. Several former motorcycle champions have also taken up the sport, notably [[Wayne Rainey]], who was paralysed in a racing accident and now races a hand-controlled kart. As one of the cheapest ways to go racing, karting is seeing its popularity grow worldwide. Go-karts, or just "karts" - seem very distant from normal road cars, with dimunitive frames and wheels, but a small engine combined with very light weight make for a quick machine. The tracks are also on a much smaller scale, making kart racing more accessible to the people. ===Legend car racing=== :''Main article: [[Legend car racing]]'' ===Other categories=== *[[Autocross|Autocrossing]] *[[Autograss]] *[[Demolition Derby]] *[[Dirt speedway racing]] *[[Dirt track racing]] *[[Drifting (motorsport)|Drifting]] *[[Truck Racing|Grand Prix Truck Racing]] *[[Road racing]] *[[Short track motor racing]] *[[SoloMotorsport|Solo]] *[[Street racing]] *[[Rallycross]] *[[Folkrace]] ==Use of flags== ''Main article: [[Racing flags]]'' In open-wheel, stock-car and other types of circuit auto races, flags are displayed to indicate the general status of a race and to communicate instructions to competitors in a race. While the flags have changed from the first years (e.g. red used to start a race), these are generally accepted for today. {| ! Flag ! Displayed from start tower ! Displayed from observation post |- |[[Image:Auto Racing Green.svg|25px|Green flag]] |The race has started or resumed after a full caution or stop, or the race is proceeding normally. |End of hazardous section of track. |- |[[Image:Auto Racing Yellow.svg|25px|Yellow flag]] |Full course caution condition for ovals. On road courses, it means a local area of caution. Depending on the type of racing, either two yellow flags will be used for a full course caution or a sign with 'SC' ([[Safety car]]) will be used as the field follows the [[pace car|pace/safety car]] on track and no cars may pass. |Local caution condition — no cars may pass at the particular corner where being displayed. |- |[[Image:Auto Racing Oil.svg|25px|Yellow flag with red stripes]] |Debris or slippery patches on the track. |- |[[Image:Auto Racing Black.svg|25px|Black flag]] |The car with the indicated number must pit. |The session is halted; all cars on course must return to pit lane. |- |[[Image:Auto Racing Orange Circle.svg|25px|Meatball flag]] |The car with the indicated number has mechanical trouble. |- |[[Image:Auto Racing Black White.svg|25px|Black and white flag]] |The driver of the car with the indicated number has been penalized for misbehaviour. |- |[[Image:Auto Racing White Cross.svg|25px|White cross flag]] |The driver of the car with the indicated number is disqualified or will not be scored until they report to the pits. |- |[[Image:Auto Racing Blue.svg|25px|Blue flag with yellow stripe]] |A car must allow another car to pass if the flag is blue only. With an orange or yellow stripe, it simply serves as a warning that faster traffic is behind. |A car is being advised to give way to faster traffic approaching. |- |[[Image:Auto Racing Red.svg|25px|Red flag]] |The race is stopped—all cars must halt on the track or return to pit lane. |- |[[Image:Auto Racing White.svg|25px|White flag]] |One lap remains. |A slow vehicle is on the track. |- |[[Image:Auto Racing Chequered.svg|25px|Chequered flag]] |The race has concluded. |} ==Accidents== For the worst accident in racing history see [[Pierre Levegh]]. ==See also== * [[Engine tuning]] * [[Import scene]] * [[List of Auto Racing tracks]] * [[Race track]] * [[Racing game]] * [[Reading spark plugs for racing]] * [[Sim racing]] ==External links== * [http://www.nascarup.com Nascarup.com - NASCAR news on the Nextel Cup, Busch, and Craftsman Truck Series] * [http://www.formula1.com The Official Formula One Website with news, results and stats] * [http://www.grandamerican.com The official web site of the Grand American Road Racing Association] * http://www.trackbytes.com Full coverage of SPEED World Challenge and American Le Mans Series * http://www.autosport.com AutoSport Magazine * http://www.speedtv.com SPEED TV Network * http://www.motorstv.com Motors TV Network * [http://www.sportscarcup.com Sports Cars] Sports car pictures and specifications * http://www.rennleitung.de: Rennleitung * http://www.motorsport.com: Covering All Forms of Auto Racing * http://www.britishmotorracingsafetyfund.org Promoting safety and raising money for the Sport in the UK * [http://NHRA.com NHRA] * [http://IHRA.com IHRA] * [http://www.automotive.com/features/36/auto-racing/ Auto Racing News] * http://www.racerweek.com: F1, NASCAR & Rally racing forums * http://www.formula1review.com: F1 news, results, statistics, motorsports forum * [http://www.rinehartsracing.com Drag Racing Photos] * [http://www.inforally.sibiul.ro Rally News and Photo] *[http://www.the-paddock.net The-Paddock.net] covers a wide range of Sportscar-Racing series , including ALMS & Grand-AM * [http://www.F1Talk.org/ F1Talk] — F1 Talking * [http://www.f1stockcars.co.uk/ BriSCA F1 Stock Cars] <!-- interwiki --> [[Category:Auto racing|*]] [[af:Motorsport]] [[cs:Motorsport]] [[de:Automobilsport]] [[eo:Aŭtosporto]] [[es:Automovilismo]] [[et:Autosport]] [[fa:اتومبیل‌رانی]] [[fr:Compétition automobile]] [[hr:Automobilizam]] [[it:Automobilismo]] [[ja:モータースポーツ]] [[ko:자동차 경주]] [[lt:Autosportas]] [[mk:Моторни трки]] [[nl:Autosport]] [[no:Motorsport]] [[pl:Wyścig samochodowy]] [[pt:Automobilismo]] [[ro:Automobilism]] [[ru:Автоспорт]] [[uk:Автомобільні гонки]] [[zh:賽車]] 1023 41906789 2006-03-02T14:58:24Z 85.27.55.166 /* Criticisms by other radical capitalists */ [[Image:Libertatis Aequilibritas GFDL.jpg|150px|thumb|left|The ''Libertatis Æquilibritas'' is one [[Anarcho-capitalist_terminology_and_symbolism|symbol]] used by anarcho-capitalists {{fact}}]] {{Libertarianism}} '''Anarcho-capitalism''' (aka '''free market anarchism''') is a [[philosophy]] based on the idea of [[individual sovereignty]], and a prohibition against initiatory [[coercion]] and [[fraud]]. It sees the only just basis for [[law]] as arising from [[private property]] norms and an unlimited right of [[contract]] between sovereign individuals. From this basis, anarcho-capitalism rejects the [[state]] as an unjustified monopolist and systematic aggressor against sovereign individuals, and embraces [[anti-statist]] [[laissez-faire]] [[capitalism]]. Anarcho-capitalists would aim to protect [[individual liberty]] and [[property]] by replacing a government monopoly, which is involuntarily funded through [[taxation]], with private, competing businesses that use physical force only in defense of liberty and property against aggressors. Hence, they believe that all goods and services, including law, order, and security, should be supplied through the mechanism of a [[free market]]. The philosophy embraces [[anti-statism|stateless]] capitalism as one of its foundational principles. The first well-known version of anarcho-capitalism to identify itself thus was developed by economists of the [[Austrian School]] and [[libertarians]] [[Murray Rothbard]] and [[Walter Block]] in the mid-20th century, synthesizing elements from Austrian School [[economics]], [[classical liberalism]] and [[19th century|19th-century]] [[American individualist anarchism]]. While Rothbard bases his philosophy on [[natural law]], others, such as [[David Friedman]], take a pragmatic [[consequentialist]] approach by arguing that anarcho-capitalism should be implemented because such a system would have consequences superior to alternatives. Because of this embrace of capitalism, there is considerable tension between anarcho-capitalists and [[anarchist]]s who see the [[anti-capitalism|rejection of capitalism]] as being just as essential to anarchist philosophy as rejection of the state. Despite this tension, many anarcho-capitalists have identified their philosophy as evolving from the tradition of American individualist anarchists such as [[Benjamin Tucker]] and [[Lysander Spooner]]. Anarcho-capitalism can be considered a radical development of [[classical liberalism]]. Its grounding in liberalism stems from [[Gustave de Molinari]]. Many proponents of anarcho-capitalism, including Rothbard, argue that Molinari was the first anarcho-capitalist. However, Rothbard admitted that "Molinari did not use the terminology, and probably would have balked at the name" anarcho-capitalist. Nonetheless, Molinari did argue for a free market, privatization of security, and did not oppose profit. His thoughts were influential on Rothbard and his contemporaries. ==Philosophy== ===The nonaggression axiom=== {| align="right" class="box" style="margin-left: 15px; text-align: left; border: 3px solid #aaaaaa; padding: 2px; font-size: 80%; width: 25%;" |bgcolor="#dbeaff"| The term ''anarcho-capitalism'' was most likely coined in the mid-1950s by the economist [[Murray Rothbard]].<ref>Rothbard, Murray N. (1988) "What's Wrong with Liberty Poll; or, How I Became a Libertarian", Liberty, July 1988, p.53</ref> Other terms used for this philosophy include: *capitalist anarchism *anti-state capitalism *anarcho-liberalism *stateless capitalism *the private-law society<ref name=Hoppe-2001>[[Hans-Hermann Hoppe|Hoppe, Hans-Hermann]] (2001) [http://www.lewrockwell.com/hoppe/hoppe5.html "Anarcho-Capitalism: An Annotated Bibliography"] Retrieved [[23 May]] [[2005]]</ref> *radical capitalism<ref name=Hoppe-2001/> *right-anarchism<ref>Wall, Richard (2004) [http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/20040817.htm "Who's Afraid of Noam Chomsky?"] Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]</ref> *[[market anarchism]] *free market anarchism *private-property anarchy<ref name=Hoppe-2001/> *stateless liberalism *[[voluntaryism]] |} [[Image:Althing-stamp.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A postage stamp celebrating the thousand-year anniversary of the [[Althing|Icelandic parliament]]. According to a theory associated with the economist [[David Friedman]], [[Icelandic Commonwealth|medieval Icelandic society]] was anarcho-capitalist. Chieftancies could be bought and sold, and were not geographical monopolies; individuals could voluntarily choose membership in any chieftan's clan.]] {{main|non-aggression axiom}} Anarcho-capitalism, as formulated by Rothbard and others, holds strongly to the central [[libertarian]] ''nonaggression axiom'': :[...] The basic axiom of libertarian political theory holds that every man is a [[self-ownership|selfowner]], having absolute jurisdiction over his own body. In effect, this means that no one else may justly invade, or aggress against, another's person. It follows then that each person justly owns whatever previously unowned resources he appropriates or "mixes his labor with." From these twin axioms — self-ownership and "homesteading" — stem the justification for the entire system of property rights titles in a free-market society. This system establishes the right of every man to his own person, the right of donation, of bequest (and, concomitantly, the right to receive the bequest or inheritance), and the right of contractual exchange of property titles.<ref>Rothbard, Murray N. (1982) [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/lawproperty.pdf "Law, Property Rights, and Air Pollution"] Cato Journal 2, No. 1 (Spring 1982): pp. 55-99. Retrieved [[20 May]] [[2005]]</ref> In general, the nonaggression axiom can be said to be a prohibition against the initiation of force, or the threat of force, against persons (i.e., direct violence, [[assault]], [[murder]]) or property (i.e., fraud, [[burglary]], theft, taxation).<ref>Rothbard, Murray N. (1973) [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/newliberty.asp ''For a new Liberty''] Collier Books, A Division of Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York: pp.24-25. Retrieved [[20 May]] [[2005]]</ref> The initiation of force is usually referred to as [[aggression]] or [[coercion]]. The difference between anarcho-capitalists and other libertarians is largely one of the degree to which they take this axiom. [[Minarchist]] libertarians, such as most people involved in [[Libertarian Party|Libertarian political parties]], would retain the state in some smaller and less invasive form, retaining public [[police]], [[courts]] and [[military]]. In contrast, anarcho-capitalists reject any level of state intervention, defining the state as a coercive monopoly and, as the only entity in human society that derives its income from legal aggression, an entity that inherently violates the central axiom of libertarianism.<ref name=Rothbard-1982.2>Rothbard, Murray N. (1982) [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/ethics/ethics.asp ''The Ethics of Liberty''] Humanities Press ISBN 0814775063:p162 Retrieved [[20 May]] [[2005]]</ref> Some, such as Rothbard, accept the nonaggression axiom on an intrinsic moral or [[natural law]] basis. Others, such as Friedman, take a [[consequentialist]] or [[egoist]] approach; rather than maintaining that aggression is intrinsically immoral, they maintain that a law against aggression can only come about by contract between self-interested parties who agree to refrain from initiating coercion against each other. It is in terms of the non-aggression principle that Rothbard defined [[anarchism]]; he defined "anarchism as a system which provides no legal sanction for such aggression ['against person and property']" and said that "what anarchism proposes to do, then, is to abolish the State, i.e. to abolish the regularized institution of aggressive coercion." <ref>Rothbard, Murray N. (1975) [http://www.mises.org/journals/lf/1975/1975_01.pdf ''Society Without A State (pdf)''] ''Libertarian Forum'' newsletter (January 1975)</ref> In an interview with ''New Banner'', Rothbard said that "capitalism is the fullest expression of anarchism, and anarchism is the fullest expression of capitalism." <ref>[http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard103.html ''Exclusive Interview With Murray Rothbard''] The New Banner: A Fortnightly Libertarian Journal ([[25 February]] [[1972]])</ref> ===Original appropriation=== Central to anarcho-capitalism are the concepts of [[self-ownership]] and [[original appropriation]]: <blockquote>Everyone is the proper owner of his own physical body as well as of all places and nature-given goods that he occupies and puts to use by means of his body, provided only that no one else has already occupied or used the same places and goods before him. This ownership of "originally appropriated" places and goods by a person implies his right to use and transform these places and goods in any way he sees fit, provided only that he does not change thereby uninvitedly the physical integrity of places and goods originally appropriated by another person. In particular, once a place or good has been first appropriated by, in [[John Locke]]'s phrase, 'mixing one's labor' with it, ownership in such places and goods can be acquired only by means of a voluntary — contractual — transfer of its property title from a previous to a later owner.<ref name=Hoppe-2002>Hoppe, Hans-Hermann (2002) [http://www.lewrockwell.com/hoppe/hoppe7.html "Rothbardian Ethics"] Retrieved [[23 May]] [[2005]]</ref></blockquote> {| align="left" class="box" style="margin-right: 15px; text-align: left; border: 3px solid #aaaaaa; padding: 4px; font-size: 85%; width: 240px;" |bgcolor="#dbeaff"| Anarcho-capitalism uses the following terms in ways that may differ from common usage or various anarchist movements:: *'''Anarchism:''' any philosophy that opposes all forms of initiatory coercion (includes opposition to the State) *'''Contract:''' a voluntary binding agreement between persons *'''Coercion:''' physical force or threat of such against persons or property *'''Capitalism:''' economic system where the means of production are privately owned, and where investments, production, distribution, income, and prices are determined through the operation of a free market rather than by government *'''Free market:''' a market where all decisions regarding transfer of money, goods (including capital goods), and services are voluntary *'''Fraud:''' inducing one to part with something of value through the use of dishonesty *'''State:''' an organization that taxes and engages in regularized and instutionalized aggressive coercion *'''Voluntary:''' any action not influenced by coercion or fraud perpetrated by any human agency {{see also|Anarcho-capitalist terminology and symbolism}} |} This is the root of anarcho-capitalist [[property rights]], and where they differ from [[collectivism|collectivist]] forms of anarchism. Original appropriation allows an individual to claim any "unused" property, including land, and by improving or otherwise using it, own it with the same absolute right as his own body. According to Rothbard, original appropriation of land is not legitimate by merely claiming it or building a fence around it; it is only by ''using'' land — by mixing one's labor with it — that original appropriation is legitimized: "Any attempt to claim a new resource that someone does not use would have to be considered invasive of the property right of whoever the first user will turn out to be."<ref name=Rothbard-1962>Rothbard, Murray N. (1962) [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/mes/chap2d.asp ''Man, Economy & State with Power and Market''] Ludwig von Mises Institute ISBN 0945466307 ch2 Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]</ref> As a practical matter, in terms of the ownership of land, anarcho-capitalists recognize that there are few (if any) parcels of land left on Earth whose ownership was not at some point in time transferred as the result of coercion, usually through seizure by some form of state. However, unless records and titles exist to confirm the theft and the rightful individual owner most do not believe that this history de-legitimizes current ownerships which are based on consensual transactions. They believe it is wrong to attempt to remedy past coercion by the use of present coercion (i.e., seizure or eviction). By accepting an axiomatic definition of private property and property rights, anarcho-capitalists deny the legitimacy of a state on principle: :"For, apart from ruling out as unjustified all activities such as murder, homicide, [[rape]], trespass, robbery, burglary, theft, and fraud, the [[ethics]] of private property is also incompatible with the existence of a state defined as an agency that possesses a compulsory territorial monopoly of ultimate decision-making (jurisdiction) and/or the right to tax."<ref name=Hoppe-2002/> ===The contractual society=== The society envisioned by anarcho-capitalists has been called the ''Contractual Society''; "[...] a society based purely on voluntary action, entirely un­hampered by violence or threats of violence."<ref name=Rothbard-1962/> Because this system relies on voluntary agreements ([[contract]]s) between individuals as the only legal framework, it is difficult to predict precisely what the particulars of this society would look like. Those particulars are disputed both among anarcho-capitalists and between them and their critics. One particular ramification is that transfer of property and services must be voluntary on the part of ''both'' parties. No external entities can force an individual to accept or deny a particular transaction. An employer might offer [[insurance]] and [[death benefits]] to [[same-sex marriage|same-sex couples]]; another might refuse to recognize any union outside his or her own faith. Individuals would be free to enter into contractual agreements as they saw fit, allowing discrimination or favoritism based on language, [[race]], [[gender]], [[sexual orientation]], or any other categorization. Anarcho-capitalists maintain that the social structure would be self-regulating, since any disenfranchised group can avail themselves of [[boycott]] or [[protest]], and other entrepreneurs will see their own interests (i.e., profit) in servicing the group. Another important ramification is the fact that any social structure is permissible under anarcho-capitalism as long as it is formed by a contract between individuals. Therefore, radically different "governments" and subeconomies can form, creating a [[panarchism|panarchic]] society. Individuals could live in a privately owned [[democracy]], a [[republic]], or even a [[monarchy]] if they so choose. One social structure that is not permissible under anarcho-capitalism is one that attempts to claim greater [[sovereignty]] than the individuals that form it. The state is a prime example, but another is the modern [[corporation]] — defined as a legal entity that exists under a different legal code than individuals as a means to shelter the individuals who own and run the corporation from possible legal consequences of acts by the corporation. It is worth noting that Rothbard allows a narrower definition of a corporation: "Corporations are not at all monopolistic privileges; they are free associations of individuals pooling their capital. On the purely free market, such men would simply announce to their creditors that their liability is limited to the capital specifically invested in the corporation [...]."<ref name=Rothbard-1962/> However, this is a very narrow definition that only shelters owners from debt by creditors that specifically agree to the arrangement; it also does not shelter other [[liability]], such as from malfeasance or other wrongdoing. There are limits to the right to contract under some interpretations of anarcho-capitalism. Rothbard himself asserts that the right to contract is based in [[inalienable rights|inalienable human rights]],<ref name=Rothbard-1982.2/> and therefore any contract that implicitly violates those rights can be voided at will, which would, for instance, prevent a person from permanently selling himself into [[slavery]]. Other interpretations conclude that banning such contracts would in itself be an unacceptably invasive interference in the right to contract.<ref name=Nozick-1973>[[Robert Nozick|Nozick, Robert]] (1973) ''Anarchy, State, and Utopia''</ref> ===Private law and order=== Anarcho-capitalists only believe in collective defense of individual liberty (i.e., courts, military or police forces) insofar as such groups are formed and paid for on an explicitly voluntary basis. According to Molinari, "Under a regime of liberty, the natural organization of the security industry would not be different from that of other industries."<ref name=Molinari-1849>Molinari, Gustave de (1849) [http://www.gustavedemolinari.org/GM-PS.htm The Production of Security] ''(trans. J. Huston McCulloch)'' Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]</ref> Proponents point out that private systems of justice and defense ''already'' exist, naturally forming where the market is allowed to compensate for the failure of the state: private arbitration, security guards, neighborhood watch groups, and so on.<ref name=Friedman-1973>[[David Friedman|Friedman, David D.]] (1973) ''[[The Machinery of Freedom|The Machinery of Freedom: Guide to a Radical Capitalism]]'' Harper & Row ISBN 0060910100 [http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Libertarian/Machinery_of_Freedom/MofF_Chapter_29.html ch29]</ref> These private courts and police are sometimes referred to generically as Private Defense Agencies ([[PDA]]s.) The defense of those unable to pay for such protection might be financed by charitable organizations relying on voluntary donation rather than by state institutions relying on coercive taxation, or by cooperative self-help by groups of individuals. [[Retributive justice]], meaning retaliatory force, is often a component of the contracts imagined for an anarcho-capitalist society. Some believe [[prison]]s or [[indentured servitude]] would be justifiable institutions to deal with those who violate anarcho-capitalist property relations, while others believe [[exile]] or forced [[restitution]] are sufficient.<ref>O'Keeffe, Matthew (1989) [http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/legan/legan005.pdf "Retribution versus Restitution"] Legal Notes No.5, Libertarian Alliance ISBN 1870614224 Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]</ref> ===The use of force=== [[Image:Bunkertrumbull.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Many anarcho-capitalists admire the American Revolution and believe it is the only U.S. war that can be justified.]] The axiom of nonaggression is not necessarily a [[pacifism|pacifist]] doctrine; it is a prohibition against the '''initiation''' of (interpersonal) force. Like classical liberalism, anarcho-capitalism permits the use of force, as long as it is in the defense of persons or property. However, the permissible extent of this defensive use of force is an arguable point among anarcho-capitalists. Some argue that the initiator of any aggressive act should be subject to a retributive counterattack beyond what is solely necessary to repel the aggression. The counterargument is that such a counterattack is only legitimate insofar as it was defined in an agreement between the parties. Another controversial application of "defensive" aggression is the act of revolutionary violence against tyrannical regimes. Many anarcho-capitalists admire [[the American Revolution]] as the legitimate act of individuals working together to fight against [[tyranny|tyrannical]] restrictions of their liberties. In fact, according to Murray Rothbard, the American Revolutionary War was the only war involving the United States that could be justified.<ref>Rothbard, Murray N. (1973) [http://www.antiwar.com/orig/rothbard_on_war.html Interview] ''Reason'' Feb 1973, Retrieved [[10 August]] [[2005]]</ref> But, illustrating their general ambivalence toward war, these same people also sharply criticize the revolutionaries for the means used — taxes, [[conscription]], [[inflation|inflationary money]] — and the inadequacy of the result: a state. While some anarcho-capitalists believe forceful resistance and revolutionary violence against the state is legitimate, most believe the use of force is a dangerous tool at best, and that violent [[insurrection]] should be a last resort. ==Conflicts within anarcho-capitalist theory== There is dispute on whether anarcho-capitalism is properly justifiable on [[deontological]] or [[consequentialist]] grounds. Natural-law anarcho-capitalism (such as that advocated by Rothbard) holds that rights can be determined through natural law and that consequences are not relevant to their determination. Consequentialists such as Friedman disagree, maintaining that rights are merely human constructs that rational humans create through contract as a result of concluding what sort of system leads to the best consequences. Many anarcho-capitalists also hold a subjective theory of rights, maintaining that the lack of a [[positive right]] to aggress is sufficient to hold up the derivative claims of the nonaggression principle. Friedman describes an economic approach to anarcho-capitalism. His description differs with Rothbard's because it does not use moral arguments — i.e., it does not appeal to a theory of [[natural rights]] to justify itself. In Friedman's work, the economic argument is sufficient to derive the principles of anarcho-capitalism. Private defense or protection agencies and courts not only defend legal rights but supply the actual content of these rights and all claims on the free market. People will have the law system they pay for, and because of [[economic efficiency]] considerations resulting from individuals' utility functions, such law will tend to be libertarian in nature but will differ from place to place and from agency to agency depending on the tastes of the people who buy the law. Also unlike other anarcho-capitalists, most notably Rothbard, Friedman has never tried to deny the theoretical cogency of the neoclassical literature on "market failure," nor has he been inclined to attack economic efficiency as a normative benchmark.<ref name=Friedman-1973/> ==Anarchism and anarcho-capitalism== {{main|Anarchism and anarcho-capitalism}} ===Dispute over the name "anarchism"=== Many anarchists strongly argue that anarcho-capitalism is not a form of anarchism, since they believe capitalism to be inherently authoritarian. [[Joe Peacott]] has explicitly stated that individualist anarchism is anti-capitalist, and contrasts it to anarcho-capitalism.<ref>[[Joe Peacott|Peacott, Joe]] (2003), [http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/econn/econn097.htm] Libertarian Alliance ISBN 1856375641</ref> Individualist anarchist Daniel Burton says that anarcho-capitalism is a "type of individualist anarchism", but that most individualists are class-war anti-capitalists<ref>[http://www.spaz.org/~dan/individualist-anarchist/ac-vs-ia.html ''Individualist anarchists vs. Anarcho-capitalism'']</ref>. However, many individualists do not see their philosophy as a "class war" but a war against government repression of ''individual'' liberty.{{fact}} Murray Rothbard argues that an "anarchist society [is] one where there is no legal possibility for coercive aggression against the person or property of any individual." Whether anarcho-capitalism is a true form of anarchism may depend on the meaning of the words "anarchism" and "capitalism". Adherents of the traditional schools of anarchism reject the term "anarcho-capitalism". They oppose both the [[anti-statist|state]] and [[anti-capitalist|capitalism]] as coercive institutions, since "αναρχία" in Greek means "without rulers". Conversely, many, including capitalist [[libertarians]] and anarcho-capitalists, use the term "anarchism" with a definition that simply means "without the State". Also, there is some terminological disagreement regarding "capitalism". <!-- *** SOURCE GIVEN IS IRRELEVANT, DOES NOT MATCH CLAIM *** According to individualist anarchist Larry Gambone, when the traditional anarchists use the term "capitalism", they are referring to those who have "gained wealth from the use of governmental power or from privileges granted by government."<ref>Gambone, Larry (1998) [http://www.spunk.org/texts/pubs/tl/sp001872.html "What is Anarchism?"] ''Total Liberty'' Volume 1 Number 3 Autumn 1998, Retrieved [[10 August]] [[2005]]</ref> --> According to Wendy McElroy, when traditional individualist anarchists referred to "capitalism" they "meant ''state capitalism'', the alliance of government and business."<ref>McElroy, Wendy (1999) [http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=348&id=74 Anarchism: Two Kinds]</ref> However, modern individualist anarchists like Gambone believe that capitalism, as they define it, requires the presence of the state in order to function. Therefore, for the individualist anarchist, the concept of rejecting "state capitalism" would be equivalent to rejection of all capitalism. Hence, anarcho-capitalists depart from individualist anarchists on what constitutes concepts such as the "state", "capitalism", and a "free market". Jamal Hannah says that most anarchists and capitalists agree with the individualists in believing that capitalist economics require a state to defend private wealth.<ref>''Anarchy list", Hannah, Jamal (Dec 1999)</ref> Despite disagreeing on whether or not anti-state capitalism is a coherent concept, most anarchists oppose a state and support private defence of wealth. Morever, the common definition of capitalism has changed over time. Anarchist movements of early origin operated with a definition unlike contemporary definitions. For example, the 1909 [[Century Dictionary]] defined capitalism as "1. The state of having capital or property; possession of capital. 2. The concentration or massing of capital in the hands of a few; also, the power or influence of large or combined capital." In contrast, the contemporary [[Merriam-Webster]] Dictionary (unabridged) refers to capitalism as "an economic system characterized by private or corporation ownership of capital goods, by investments that are determined by private decision rather than by state control, and by prices, production, and the distribution of goods that are determined mainly in a free market." According to [http://www.anarchy.no/ai.html The Anarchist International], capitalism is an economic [[plutocracy]] that includes its own [[hierarchy]]. They place anarcho-capitalism outside of the anarchist movement, and into the classical liberal tradition "[[Plutarchy]] without statism = liberalism." Some, while accepting that anarcho-capitalism is a radical form of liberalism, question the coherence of such a statement, holding that if [[socialism]] and [[communism]] can have anarchist forms, then liberalism can as well.<ref>Garner, Richard A. (2002) [http://www.againstpolitics.com/market_anarchism/no_bogus_anarchy.htm On Peter Sabatini's "Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy"] ''Ifeminists Newsletter'' [[May 14]] [[2002]]</ref> Often, anarchist individualism is regarded as a form of socialism (for example, by individualist anarchists such as E. Armand<ref>Armand, E. (1907), Anarchist Individualism as Life and Activity</ref>). However, American individualist anarchism is sometimes regarded as a form of "liberal-anarchism."<ref>Weisbord, Albert (1937) [http://www.weisbord.org/conquest10.htm ''American Liberal-Anarchism''] from ''The Conquest of Power'' (1937)</ref><ref>http://www.bkmarcus.com/blog/2004/11/liberal-anarchism.html</ref><ref>http://homepage.mac.com/dmhart/ComteDunoyer/Ch1fn.html</ref> Also, as anarchists by definition favor voluntary interaction, anarcho-capitalists and their opponents disagree on whether certain actions are voluntary (see sidebar for definitions). Some anarchists espouse a form of [[labor theory of value]], which they put forth as one reason that [[profit]], [[Economic rent|rent]], and [[wage labour]] are [[exploitation|exploitive]]. While classical capitalists such as [[Adam Smith]] also accepted the labor theory of value, most modern economists, including anarcho-capitalists, argue that value is subjective and adhere to [[marginalism]]. ==="Left" and "Right" anarchism=== The divide between anarcho-capitalism and traditional anarchism has been termed as [[left anarchism]] versus [[right anarchism]] by some individuals, such as [[Ulrike Heider]], who placed anarcho-capitalism on the far right.<ref>Heider, Ulrike (1994) [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/books/other/anarchism.html ''Anarchism: Left, Right, and Green''] City Lights Books ISBN 0872862895 Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]</ref> Most contemporary anarcho-capitalists reject the standard [[Left-Right politics|linear model of ideologies]] in favor of a multidimensional model with a liberty-authority dimension, though some of their opponents maintain that anarchism itself is a left-wing ideology. ==History and influences== [[Image:molinari.jpg|thumb|right|[[Gustave de Molinari]] (1819–1912)]] ===Liberalism=== {{main|Liberalism}} Anarcho-capitalist philosophy has been influenced by many sources. The primary influence with the longest history is classical liberalism. Classical liberals have had two main themes since [[John Locke]] first expounded the philosophy: the liberty of man, and limitations of state power. The liberty of man was expressed in terms of [[natural rights]], while limiting the [[state]] was based (for Locke) on a [[consent theory]]. While Locke saw the state as evolving from society via a [[social contract]], later, more radical liberals saw a fundamental schism between society, the "natural" voluntary interactions of men, and state, the institution of brute force. In the 18th century, liberal revolutionaries in Britain and America had opposed [[statism]] without grounding it in theory, while some French economists had theorized it without endorsing it. In the 19th century, classical liberals led the attack against statism. One notable was [[Frederic Bastiat]] (''The Law''), who wrote, "The state is the great fiction by which everybody seeks to live at the expense of everybody else." [[Henry David Thoreau]]'s liberalism might be considered evolutionary anarchism, as he wrote, "I heartily accept the motto, 'That government is best which governs least'; and I should like to see it acted up to more rapidly and systematically. Carried out, it finally amounts to this, which also I believe, 'That government is best which governs not at all'; and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have."<ref>Thoreau, Henry David (1849) [http://www.cs.indiana.edu/statecraft/civ.dis.html Civil Disobedience]</ref> One of the first liberals to discuss the possibility of privatizing protection of individual liberty and property was France's [[Jakob Mauvillon]] in the 18th century. Later, in the 1840s, [[Julius Faucher]] and [[Gustave de Molinari]] advocated the same. Molinari, in his essay ''The Production of Security'', argued, "No government should have the right to prevent another government from going into competition with it, or to require consumers of security to come exclusively to it for this commodity." Molinari and this new type of anti-state liberal grounded their reasoning on liberal ideals and classical economics. Historian [[Ralph Raico]] asserts what that these liberal philosophers "had come up with was a form of individualist anarchism, or, as it would be called today, anarcho-capitalism or market anarchism."<ref>Raico, Ralph (2004) [http://www.mises.org/story/1787 ''Authentic German Liberalism of the 19th Century''] Ecole Polytechnique, Centre de Recherce en Epistemologie Appliquee, Unité associée au CNRS</ref> Unlike the liberalism of Locke, which saw the state as evolving from society, the anti-state liberals saw a fundamental conflict between the voluntary interactions of people — society — and the institutions of force — the State. This ''society versus state'' idea was expressed in various ways: natural society vs. artificial society, liberty vs. authority, society of contract vs. society of authority, and industrial society vs. militant society, just to name a few.<ref name=Molinari-1849/> The anti-state liberal tradition in Europe and the United States continued after Molinari in the early writings of [[Herbert Spencer]], as well as in thinkers such as [[Paul Émile de Puydt]] and [[Auberon Herbert]]. Later, in the early 20th century, the mantle of anti-state liberalism was taken by the "[[Old Right]]". These were minarchist, antiwar, anti-imperialist, and (later) anti-[[New Deal]]ers. Some of the most notable members of the Old Right were [[Albert Jay Nock]], [[Rose Wilder Lane]], [[Isabel Paterson]], [[Frank Chodorov]], [[Garet Garrett]], and [[H. L. Mencken]]. In the 1950s, the new "fusion conservatism", also called "[[cold war]] conservatism", took hold of the right wing in the U.S., stressing anti-communism. This induced the libertarian Old Right to split off from the right, and seek alliances with the (now left-wing) antiwar movement, and to start specifically libertarian organizations such as the (U.S.) Libertarian Party. ===American individualist anarchism=== [[Image:LysanderSpooner.jpg|thumb|left|[[Lysander Spooner]] (1808–87)]] :''Main articles: [[American individualist anarchism]], [[American individualist anarchism and anarcho-capitalism]]''{{Anarchism}} Anarcho-capitalism is influenced by the work of the 19th-century American individualist anarchists. Rothbard sought to meld the 19th-century individualist theory with the principles of Austrian economics: "There is, in the body of thought known as 'Austrian economics', a scientific explanation of the workings of the free market (and of the consequences of government intervention in that market) which individualist anarchists could easily incorporate into their political and social Weltanschauung" (''Egalitarianism''). The 19th-century individualist anarchists espoused a labor theory of value, while the anarcho-capitalists adhere to a subjective theory, leading to differences over the legitimacy of [[profit]]. Anarchist historian Peter Marshall believes that anarcho-capitalists selectively interpret individualist anarchists texts, overlooking egalitarian implications. <ref>http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/dward/newrightanarchocap.html</ref> However, Marshall may have overlooked that the most noted individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker explicitly supports the right to inequality in wealth and upholds it as the natural result of liberty<ref>[http://flag.blackened.net/daver/anarchism/tucker/tucker29.html ''Economic Rent'']</ref>. Tucker did, although, oppose vast concentrations of wealth which he believed were made possible by government intervention which protected monopoly. He believed the most dangerous intervention was the protection of a "banking monopoly" which concentrated capital in the hands of the privileged elite. Though, he also argued that harmful monopolies that were created by government intervention could be maintained in the absence of government protection because of the accumulation of great wealth (see [[predatory pricing]]). Anarcho-capitalists also oppose governmental restrictions on banking. They, like all Austrian economists, believe that monopoly can only come about through government intervention. Most modern individualists, following in the footsteps of historical counterparts, reject capitalism in the sense of government-backed privilege for capital. Individualists anarchists have long argued that monopoly on credit and land interferes with the functioning of a free market economy. Although anarcho-capitalists disagree on the critical topic of [[profit]], both schools of thought agree on other issues. Of particular importance to anarcho-capitalists and the individualists are the ideas of private property, "sovereignty of the individual", a market economy, and the opposition to [[collectivism]]. In addition, like the individualists, anarcho-capitalists believe that land may be originally appropriated by, and only by, occupation or use; however, most traditional individualists believe it must ''continually'' be in use to retain title. Notable 19th-century American individualist anarchists include [[Lysander Spooner]] and [[Benjamin Tucker]]. Lysander Spooner's articles, such as [http://www.lysanderspooner.org/notreason.htm ''No Treason''] and the [http://www.lysanderspooner.org/LetterToBayard.htm ''Letter to Thomas Bayard''], were widely reprinted in early anarcho-capitalist journals, and his ideas — especially his individualist critique of the state and his defense of the right to ignore or withdraw from it — were often cited by anarcho-capitalists. Spooner was staunchly opposed to government interference in economic matters, and supported a "right to acquire property [...] as one of the natural, inherent, inalienable rights of men [...] one which government has no power to infringe [...]".<ref>Spooner, Lysander (1843) [http://www.lysanderspooner.org/constitutionallaw.htm ''Constitutional law, Relative to Credit, Currency, and Banking''] Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]</ref> Like all anarchists, he opposed government regulation: "All legislative restraints upon the rate of interest are arbitrary and tyrannical restraints upon a man's natural capacity amid natural right to hire capital, upon which to bestow his labor."<ref>Spooner, Lysander (1846) [http://www.lysanderspooner.org/Poverty.htm ''Poverty: Its Illegal Causes and Cure''] Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]</ref> He was particularly vocal, however, in opposing any collusion between banks and government, and argued that the monopolistic privileges that the government granted to a few bankers were the source of many social and economic ills. Benjamin Tucker supported private ownership of the product of labor, which he believed entailed a rejection of both collective and capitalist ownership. He was a staunch advocate of the [[mutualist]] form of recompensing labor, which holds to "[[Cost the limit of price]]". He also advocated a free [[market economy]], which he believed was prohibited by capitalist monopoly of credit and land backed by the state. He believed that anyone who wishes should be allowed to engage in the banking business and issue their private currency without needing special permission from government, and that unused land should not be restricted to those who wished to use it. He believed that if these and other coercive actions were eliminated that profit in economic transactions would be rendered nearly impossible because of increased availability of capital to all individuals and resulting increased competition in business. Accepting the [[labor theory of value]] and the resulting "cost principle" as a premise marks one of mutualism's main conflicts with anarcho-capitalism. Although his self-identification as a socialist and sympathy for the [[labor movement]] led to hostility from some early anarcho-capitalists such as [[Robert LeFevre]], others, such as Murray Rothbard, embraced his critique of the state and claimed that he defined his "socialism" not in terms of opposition to a free market or private property, but in opposition to government privileges for business. However, individualists argue that capitalism cannot be maintained in the absence of the state. For example, Kevin Carson argues, "As a mutualist anarchist, I believe that expropriation of surplus value — i.e., capitalism — cannot occur without state coercion to maintain the privilege of usurer, landlord, and capitalist. It was for this reason that the free market mutualist Benjamin Tucker — from whom right-libertarians selectively borrow — regarded himself as a libertarian socialist." Tucker characterized the economic demands of Proudhon and Warren by saying, "though opposed to socializing the ownership of capital, they aimed nevertheless to socialize its effects by making its use beneficial to all instead of a means of impoverishing the many to enrich the few [...] Absolute Free Trade; free trade at home, as well as with foreign countries; the logical carrying out of the Manchester doctrine; ''laissez-faire'' the universal rule."<ref>[[Benjamin Tucker|Tucker, Benjamin]] (1888) [http://praxeology.net/BT-SSA.htm ''State Socialism and Anarchism: How Far They Agree, and Wherein They Differ''] Liberty 5.16, no. 120 ([[10 March]] [[1888]]), pp. 2-3.Retrieved [[20 May]] [[2005]]</ref> Anarcho-capitalism is sometimes viewed by those sympathetic to it as a form of individualist anarchism, despite the fact that the original individualist anarchists universally rejected capitalism (i.e., they opposed profit, which is seen as a fundamental characteristic of capitalism). Organizations such as mutualist.org remain dedicated to "free market anticapitalism," while individualists like [[Larry Gambone]] explicitly state that all capitalism is state capitalism. Nonetheless, anarcho-capitalist Wendy McElroy considers herself to be an individualist, while admitting that the original individualists were universally anticapitalist. In addition, historian Guglielmo Piombini refers anarcho-capitalism as a form of individualist anarchism, though he offers no support for this statement. Collectivist anarchist author Iain McKay and historian Peter Sabatini both argue that anarcho-capitalism is fundamentally opposed to individualist anarchism. The similarity to anarcho-capitalism in regard to private defense of liberty and property is probably best seen in a quote by 19th-century individualist anarchist [[Victor Yarros]]: <blockquote>Anarchism means no government, but it does not mean no laws and no coercion. This may seem paradoxical, but the paradox vanishes when the Anarchist definition of government is kept in view. Anarchists oppose government, not because they disbelieve in punishment of crime and resistance to aggression, but because they disbelieve in compulsory protection. Protection and taxation without consent is itself invasion; hence Anarchism favors a system of voluntary taxation and protection.<ref>Yarros, Victor ''Our Revolution; Essays and Interpretations'' p.80</ref></blockquote> ===The Austrian School === {{main|Austrian School}} [[Image:Murray Rothbard Smile.JPG|thumb|right| [[Murray Rothbard]] (1926–95)]] The Austrian School of economics was founded with the publication of [[Carl Menger]]'s 1871 book ''[[Principles of Economics]]''. Members of this school approach economics as an ''a priori'' system like logic or mathematics, rather than as an empirical science like geology. It attempts to discover axioms of human action (called "[[praxeology]]" in the Austrian tradition) and make deductions therefrom. Some of these praxeological axioms are: :*Humans act purposefully. :*Humans prefer more of a good to less. :*Humans prefer to receive a good sooner rather than later. :*Each party to a trade benefits ''[[ex ante]]''. These are macro-level generalizations, or [[heuristics]], which are true for the many, but not necessarily true for any particular person. Even in the early days, Austrian economics was used as a theoretical weapon against socialism and statist socialist policy. [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]], a colleague of Menger, wrote one of the first critiques of socialism ever written in his treatise ''The Exploitation Theory of Socialism-Communism''. Later, [[Friedrich Hayek]] wrote ''[[The Road to Serfdom]]'', asserting that a [[command economy]] destroys the information function of prices, and that authority over the economy leads to [[totalitarianism]]. Another very influential Austrian economist was [[Ludwig von Mises]], author of the praxeological work ''Human Action''. Murray Rothbard, a student of Mises, is the man who attempted to meld Austrian economics with classical liberalism and individualist anarchism, and is credited with coining the term "anarcho-capitalism". He was probably the first to use "libertarian" in its current (U.S.) pro-capitalist sense. He was a trained economist, but also knowledgeable in history and political philosophy. When young, he considered himself part of the [[Old Right]], an anti-statist and anti-[[interventionist]] branch of the [[Republican Party (United States)|U.S. Republican]] party. When interventionist [[cold warrior]]s of the ''[[National Review]]'', such as [[William Buckley]], gained influence in the Republican party in the 1950s, Rothbard quit that group and formed an alliance with [[left-wing]] [[antiwar]] groups. Later, Rothbard was a founder of the U.S. Libertarian Party. In the late 1950s, Rothbard was briefly involved with [[Ayn Rand]]'s [[objectivist philosophy|objectivism]] group, but later had a falling out. Rothbard's books, such as ''[[Man, Economy, and State]]'', ''[[Power and Market]]'', ''The Ethics of Liberty'', and ''For a New Liberty'', are considered by some to be classics of natural law libertarian thought. ''See also:'' Roberta Modugno Crocetta: [http://www.mises.org/journals/scholar/Modugno.PDF The anarcho-capitalist political theory of Murray N. Rothbard in its historical and intellectual context] <!-- All this is not cited. ===Objectivism=== Though [[Ayn Rand]] was opposed to anarcho-capitalism, some anarcho-capitalist and libertarian followers, including Rothbard, see Ayn Rand as one of their most vocal and visible champions. Through her philosophy of [[objectivist philosophy|objectivism]], Rand firmly grounded laissez-faire capitalism on her ethical system of Reason, Self-interest, and Individualism. She, however, explicitly rejected the idea of competing private defense institutions. Some anarcho-capitalists derive much of their philosophical inspirations from Rand's arguments. Rand was adamant that the government did play a necessary and important role in society, that of policing the society, protecting individual rights, and stepping into an aggressor role only in retaliation, self-defense or defense of the country. --> ==Anarcho-capitalism in the real world== [[Image:Law speaker.jpg|300px|right|thumb|[[19th-century]] interpretation of the [[Althing]] in the [[Icelandic Commonwealth]], which authors such as [[David Friedman]] and [[Roderick Long]] believe to have been a functioning anarcho-capitalist society.]] Anarcho-capitalism is largely theoretical, and even sympathetic critics say that it is unlikely ever to be more than a [[utopian]] ideal. Despite this, some anarcho-capitalist philosophers point to actual societies to support their claim that stateless capitalism can function in practice. ===Medieval Iceland=== According to [[David Friedman]], "[[Icelandic Commonwealth |Medieval Icelandic institutions]] have several peculiar and interesting characteristics; they might almost have been invented by a mad economist to test the lengths to which market systems could supplant government in its most fundamental functions."<ref name=Friedman-79>Friedman, David D. (1979) [http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Academic/Iceland/Iceland.html Private Creation and Enforcement of Law: A Historical Case], Retrieved [[12 August]] [[2005]]</ref> He argues that the Icelandic Commonwealth between 930 and 1262 had some of the features of an anarcho-capitalist society--while there was a single legal system, enforcement of law was entirely private--and so provides some evidence of how such a society would function. "Even where the Icelandic legal system recognized an essentially "public" offense, it dealt with it by giving some individual (in some cases chosen by lot from those affected) the right to pursue the case and collect the resulting fine, thus fitting it into an essentially private system."<ref name=Friedman-79/><ref>http://www.gettysburg.edu/academics/english/vikingstudies/jackson/researchdocument.html</ref> However, some disagree with this assessment, arguing that Medieval Iceland was a communal rather than individualist society - ''[p]eople of a communitarian nature... have reason to be attracted [to Medieval Iceland]... The economy barely knew the existence of markets. Social relations preceded economic relations. '' <ref>William Ian Miller, "Bloodtaking and Peacemaking: Feud, Law and Society in Saga Iceland", p. 306</ref> and that when a free market finally did arise, that it was the cause of the end of the republic - ''"During the 12th century, wealth and power began to accumulate in the hands of a few chiefs, and by 1220, six prominent families ruled the entire country. It was the internecine power struggle among these families, shrewdly exploited by King Haakon IV of Norway, that finally brought the old republic to an end."'' <ref>Hallberg Hallmundsson, an article on Iceland in the "Encyclopaedia Americana"</ref> ===Modern Somalia=== [[Image:Somalia_marketplace_2_DoD.JPG|300px|left|thumb|A marketplace in [[Somalia]], 1992, one year after the collapse of the government. Somalia is cited by some anarcho-capitalists as an example how stateless capitalism is possible.]] More recently, [[Somalia]] is cited by some as a real-world example of how a stateless capitalist economy and a legal system can develop organically. Since 1991, Somalia as a whole has had no functioning central government, and therefore no regulations or licensing requirements for businesses, and no taxes on businesses or individuals. One World Bank study reports that "it may be easier than is commonly thought for basic systems of finance and some infrastructure services to function where government is extremely weak or absent."<ref name=WorldBank-2004>Nenova, Tatiana and Harford, Tim (2004) [http://rru.worldbank.org/Documents/PapersLinks/280-nenova-harford.pdf Anarchy and Invention (PDF)] Public Policy Journal Note Number 280, Retrieved [[12 August]] [[2005]]</ref> Journalist Kevin Sites, after a recent trip to Somalia, reported: "Somalia, though brutally poor, is a kind of libertarian's dream. Free enterprise flourishes, and vigorous commercial competition is the only form of regulation. Somalia has some of the best telecommunications in Africa, with a handful of companies ready to wire home or office and provide crystal-clear service, including international long distance, for about $10 a month." One of the poorest countries in the world in 1991, Somalia remains a very poor country. However, wealth distribution appears to be more uniform than in other African countries. When extreme poverty was last measured in 1998 (percentage of individuals living on less than PPP$1 a day), it was faring better than wealthier West African and neighboring countries.<ref name=WorldBank-2004/> In the absence of a state and business regulations the private sector has flourished. One business sector that is said to be doing well is telecommunications. Abdullahi Mohammed Hussein of Telecom Somalia says "The government post and telecoms company used to have a monopoly but after the regime was toppled, we were free to set up our own business" ([http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4020259.stm according to a BBC report]). Also, in 1989, before the collapse of the government, the national airline had only one airplane. Now there are approximately 15 airlines, over 60 aircraft, 6 international destinations, and more domestic routes. Electricity is now furnished by entrepreneurs, who have purchased generators and divided cities into manageable sectors (''[http://www.somalianarchy.com/viewtopic.php?t=16 photo]''). With the collapse of the central government, the educations system is now private and includes universities such as [[Mogadishu University]]. A World Bank study reports "modest gains in education." As last measured in 2001, primary school enrollment, which stood at 17%, was nearly at prewar levels, and secondary school enrollment had been increasing since 1998. However, "adult literacy is estimated to have declined from the already low level of 24% in 1989 to 17.1% in 2001" ([http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/03/25/000112742_20040325090551/Rendered/PDF/282760Somalia0Country0reengagement0note.pdf ''WB study'']). A more recent 2003 study reported that the literacy rate had risen to 19% ([http://rru.worldbank.org/Documents/PapersLinks/280-nenova-harford.pdf ''WB study'']). A statistic from 2000 indicated that only 21% of the population had access to safe drinking water at that time. The impact of collapse of the government and ensuing civil war on human development in Somalia has been profound, resulting in the collapse of political institutions, the destruction of social and economic infrastructure, and massive internal and external migrations."<ref>World Bank Advisory Committee for Somalia [http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/03/25/000112742_20040325090551/Rendered/PDF/282760Somalia0Country0reengagement0note.pdf Country Re-Engagement Note (pdf)] (2003), retrived [[4 November]] [[2005]]</ref> An essential element of anarcho-capitalist theory is that private businesses should protect individual liberty and property rather than tax-funded institutions. As such, the Somali situation falls short of being anarcho-capitalism as it is it is severely lacking in such options. Though some urban areas such as Mogadishu have private police and are relatively safe<ref>[http://www.netnomad.com/crigler.html ''Return to Somalia'']</ref>, crime is rampant in other areas according to some [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/africa/2004/somalia/default.stm news reports]. Businessmen in Mogadishu have organized to fund private police that patrol the city streets for petty crime<ref>[http://www.petermaass.com/core.cfm?p=1&mag=51&magtype=1 ''Ayn Rand Comes to Somalia'']</ref>. There is a rudimentary legal system which has been called "a free market for the supply, adjudication and enforcement of law."<ref>van Notten, Michael (2000) [http://www.liberalia.com/htm/mvn_stateless_somalis.htm From Nation-State To Stateless Nation: The Somali Experience], Retrieved [[12 August]] [[2005]]</ref> It remains to be seen if private solutions develop to the point of providing high-quality security. While most of what was Somalia is a stateless area, two internationally unrecognized democratic states exist in its north. These are [[Somaliland]] and [[Puntland]], which are ruled by governments. These regions lack the armed competition in the more anarchic south, and the destruction this causes. Their people are correspondingly more prosperous on average. This is seen by many as evidence that competition in security should not be allowed. ==Criticisms of anarcho-capitalism== :''For critiques of libertarianism in general, see: [[Criticism of libertarianism]]'' :''For critiques of capitalism from an anarchist (libertarian socialist) perspective, see: [[Anarchism and capitalism]]'' :''For the spectrum of political ideologies in relation to capitalism see: [[Capitalism and related political ideologies]]'' Anarcho-capitalism is a radical development of liberalism. Therefore, the same general arguments for and against [[liberalism]], [[laissez-faire capitalism]] and [[capitalism]] apply, excepting those points (such as the justice system) where anarcho-capitalism diverges from the classical liberal tradition. ===Practical questions=== Critics often assert that anarcho-capitalism will degenerate into [[plutocracy]] or [[feudalism]] in practice. They argue that it is a rational economic decision for organizations with the ability to exert coercion (private police, security and military forces) to exploit groups with less power. In this kind of environment, [[piracy]], military [[imperialism]], and [[slavery]] can be very profitable. Taken to its logical extreme, this argument assumes that allowing such "security" organizations to exert coercive power will inevitably lead to their becoming a ''de facto'' state. The anarcho-capitalist would respond that in the absence of what they call "victim disarmament" ([[gun control]]), such domination would be expensive even for the most powerful, who would instead prefer peaceful trade with all. Skeptics often feel that anarcho-capitalists rely on "market solutions" to the point of ridiculousness.<ref>Chisari, Michael - "Anarchy List" [[5 October]] [[1999]]</ref> [[Image:Battle strike 1934.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Violence on a picket line. Critics of anarcho-capitalism argue that private ownership of capital and the pursuit of profit are exploitative, leading to class divisions and conflict.]] [[Minarchism|Minarchist]] and [[statism|statist]] critics often argue that the [[free rider problem]] makes anarcho-capitalism (and, by extension, any anti-statist political system) fundamentally unworkable in modern societies. They typically argue that there are some vital goods or services — such as civil or military defense, management of common environmental resources, or the provision of [[public good]]s such as roads or lighthouses — that cannot be effectively delivered without the backing of a government exercising effective territorial control, and so that abolishing the state as anarcho-capitalists demand will either lead to catastrophe or to the eventual re-establishment of monopoly governments as a necessary means to solving the [[coordination problem]]s that the abolition of the state created. One counterargument by free market economists, such as [[Alex Tabarrok]], emphasizes the private use of [[assurance contracts|dominant assurance contracts]]. Some anarcho-capitalists also contend that the "problem" of "public goods" is illusory and its invocation merely misunderstands the potential individual production of such goods. Others, such as David Friedman, point out that problems of market failure are the exception in private markets but the norm in the [http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Academic/mps_iceland_talk/Iceland%20MP%20talk.htm political markets] that control state action. [[Robert Nozick]] argued in ''Anarchy, State and Utopia'' that anarcho-capitalism would inevitably transform into a minarchist state, even without violating any of its own nonaggression principles, through the eventual emergence of a single locally dominant private defense and judicial agency that it is in everyone's interests to align with, because other agencies are unable to effectively compete against the advantages of the agency with majority coverage. Therefore, he felt that, even to the extent that the anarcho-capitalist theory is correct, it results in an unstable system that would not endure in the real world. ===Moral questions=== Anarcho-capitalists consider a choice or action to be "voluntary", in a moral sense, so long as that choice or action is not influenced by coercion or fraud perpetrated by another individual. They also believe that maintaining private property claims is always defensive so long as that property was obtained in a way they believe to be legitimate. Thus, so long as an employee and employer agree to terms, employment is regarded as voluntary regardless of the circumstances of property restriction surrounding it. Some critics say this ignores constraints on action due to both human and nonhuman factors, such as the need for food and shelter, and active restriction of both used and unused resources by those enforcing property claims. Thus, if a person requires employment in order to feed and house himself, it is said that the employer-employee relationship cannot be voluntary, because the employer restricts the use of resources from the employee in such a way that he cannot meet his needs. This is essentially a semantic argument over the term "voluntary". Anarcho-capitalists simply do not use the term in that latter sense in their philosophy, believing that sense to be morally irrelevant. Other critics argue that employment is involuntary because the distributions of wealth that make it necessary for some individuals to serve others by way of contract are supported by the enforcement of coercive private property systems. This is a deeper argument relating to [[distributive justice]]. Some of these critics appeal to an end-state theory of justice, while anarcho-capitalists (and [[propertarian]]s in general) appeal to an entitlement theory. Other critics regard private property itself to either be an aggressive institution or a potentially aggressive one, rather than necessarily a defensive one, and thus reject claims that relationships based on unequal private property relations could be "voluntary". Critics also point out that anarcho-capitalist ethics do not entail any positive moral obligation to help others in need (see ''[[altruism]]'', the ethical doctrine). Like other [[right libertarianism|right libertarians]], anarcho-capitalists may argue that no such moral obligation exists or argue that if a moral obligation to help others does exist that there is an overarching moral obligation to refrain from initiating coercion on individuals to enforce it. Anarcho-capitalists believe that helping others should be a matter of free personal choice, and do not recognize any form of social obligation arising from an individual's presence in a society. They, like all right libertarians, believe in a distinction between negative and positive rights in which [[negative rights]] should be recognized as being legitimate, and [[positive rights]] rejected. Critics often dismiss this stance as being unethical or selfish, or reject the legitimacy of the distinction between positive and negative rights. (Critics thereby redefine selfish to not include forcing other people to do what you want and disregarding the wishes of others.) [[Property]] ownership rights and their extent are a source of contention among different philosophies. Most see the rights as less absolute than anarcho-capitalists do. The main issues are what kinds of things are valid property, and what constitutes abandonment of property. The first is contentious even among anarcho-capitalists: there is disagreement over the validity of intellectual property<ref>McElroy, Wendy (1995) [http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/libhe/libhe014.htm Intellectual Property:The Late Nineteenth Century Libertarian Debate] Libertarian Heritage No. 14 ISBN 1856372812 Retrieved [[24 June]] [[2005]]</ref> — intangible goods that are not economically scarce. Some supporters of private property but critics of anarcho-capitalism may question whether unused land is valid property ([[Agorism]], [[Georgism]], [[geolibertarianism]], [[individualist anarchism]]). The second issue is a common objection among socialists who do not believe in absentee ownership. Anarcho-capitalists have strong abandonment criteria — one maintains ownership (more or less) until one agrees to trade or gift it. The critics of this view tend to have weaker abandonment criteria; for example, one loses ownership (more or less) when one stops personally using it. Also, the idea of original appropriation is anathema to most types of [[socialism]], as well as any philosophy that takes common ownership of land and [[natural resources]] as a premise. There are also philosophies that view any ownership claims on land and natural resources as immoral and illegitimate, thus rejecting anarcho-capitalism as a philosophy that takes private ownership of land as a premise. [[Utilitarianism|Utilitarian]] critics simply argue that anarcho-capitalism does not maximize utility, contending that it would fall far short of that goal. This kind of criticism comes from a variety of different political views and ideologies, and different critics have different views on which other system does or would do a better job of bringing the greatest benefits to the greatest number of people. Anarcho-capitalists consider the nonaggression axiom to be a "side-constraint" on civilized human action<ref name=Nozick-1973/>, or a necessary condition for human society to be beneficial ([[Herbert Spencer]], Murray Rothbard), and thus should not be used as a trade-off for vague utilitarian values. Another response, implied by [[Austrian economics]], is to argue that personal utility is not an [[additive]] quantity, therefore concluding that all utilitarian arguments, which invariably rely on aggregation of personal utilities, are logically and mathematically invalid. ==Anarcho-capitalist literature== {{main|Anarcho-capitalist literature}} ===Nonfiction=== The following is a partial list of notable nonfiction works discussing anarcho-capitalism. *[[Murray Rothbard]] Father of modern anarcho-capitalism: **''[http://www.mises.org/rothbard/mes.asp Man, Economy, and State]'' The ultimate Austrian economics book, **''[http://www.mises.org/rothbard/mes.asp Power and Market]'' Classification of State economic interventions, **''[http://www.mises.org/rothbard/ethics/ethics.asp The Ethics of Liberty]'' Moral justification of a free society *[[Frederic Bastiat]], ''[http://www.ozarkia.net/bill/anarchism/library/thelaw.html The Law]'' Radical classical liberalism *Davidson & Rees-Mogg, ''The Sovereign Individual'' Historians look at technology & implications *[[David Friedman]], ''[[The Machinery of Freedom]]'' Classic utilitarian defense of anarchism *[[Auberon Herbert]], ''[http://oll.libertyfund.org/ToC/0146.php The Right and Wrong of Compulsion by the State]'' *[[Albert Jay Nock]], ''[http://www.barefootsworld.net/nockoets0.html Our Enemy the State]'' Oppenheimer's thesis applied to early US history *Juan Lutero Madrigal, ''[http://www.geocities.com/johnfkosanke/anc_capm.htm anarcho-capitalism: principles of civilization]'' *[[Franz Oppenheimer]], ''[http://www.opp.uni-wuppertal.de/oppenheimer/st/state0.htm The State]'' Analysis of State; political means vs. economic means *[[Robert Nozick]], ''Anarchy, State, and Utopia'' Academic philosopher on libertarianism *[[Herbert Spencer]], ''[http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/LFBooks/Spencer0236/SocialStatics/0331_Bk.html Social Statics]'' Includes the essay "The Right to Ignore the State" *Morris & Linda Tannahill, ''The Market for Liberty'' Classic on PDAs (private defense agencies) ===Fiction=== Anarcho-capitalism has been examined in certain works of literature, particularly [[science fiction]]. an example being [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s 1966 novel ''[[The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress]]'', where he explores what he terms "rational anarchism." ==Notes== <div style="font-size: 85%"> <references/> </div> ==References== * [[Bruce Benson|Benson, Bruce]]: ''[[The Enterprise of Law: Justice Without The State]]'' * Hart, David M.: [http://homepage.mac.com/dmhart/Molinari/ Gustave de Molinari and the Anti-Statist Liberal Tradition] Retrieved [[14 September]] [[2005]] * [[Hans-Hermann Hoppe|Hoppe, Hans-Hermann]]: ''[[A Theory of Socialism and Capitalism]]'' * [[Hans-Hermann Hoppe|Hoppe, Hans-Hermann]]: ''[[Democracy: The God That Failed]]'' * [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard, Murray]]: ''[[For a New Liberty]]: The Libertarian Manifesto'' * [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard, Murray]]: ''[[The Ethics of Liberty]]'' * [[Lysander Spooner|Spooner, Lysander]]: (1867) [http://www.lysanderspooner.org/notreason.htm ''No Treason: The Constitution of No Authority''] Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]] * Tannehill, Linda and Morris: ''[[The Market For Liberty]]'' * [[Benjamin Tucker|Tucker, Benjamin]]: (1888) [http://praxeology.net/BT-SSA.htm ''State Socialism and Anarchism:How Far They Agree, and Wherein They Differ''] Liberty 5.16, no. 120 ([[10 March]] [[1888]]), pp. 2-3.Retrieved [[20 May]] [[2005]] * [[Benjamin Tucker|Tucker, Benjamin]]: (1926) [http://flag.blackened.net/daver/anarchism/tucker/tucker37.html ''Labor and its Pay''] Retrieved [[20 May]] [[2005]] * [[Michael van Notten|Van Notten, Michael]]: [http://home.arcor.de/danneskjoeld/X/Som/indenwr1.htm ''The Law of the Somalis''], 2005 ==See also== ===Books=== *[[Murray Rothbard]] Father of modern anarcho-capitalism: **''[http://www.mises.org/rothbard/mes.asp Man, Economy, and State]'' The ultimate Austrian economics book, **''[http://www.mises.org/rothbard/mes.asp Power and Market]'' Classification of State economic interventions, **''[http://www.mises.org/rothbard/ethics/ethics.asp The Ethics of Liberty]'' Moral justification of a free society *[[Frederic Bastiat]], ''[http://www.ozarkia.net/bill/anarchism/library/thelaw.html The Law]'' Radical classical liberalism *Davidson & Rees-Mogg, ''The Sovereign Individual'' Historians look at technology & implications *[[David Friedman]], ''[[The Machinery of Freedom]]'' Classic utilitarian defense of anarchism *[[Auberon Herbert]], ''[http://oll.libertyfund.org/ToC/0146.php The Right and Wrong of Compulsion by the State]'' *[[Albert Jay Nock]], ''[http://www.barefootsworld.net/nockoets0.html Our Enemy the State]'' Oppenheimer's thesis applied to early US history *Juan Lutero Madrigal, ''[http://www.geocities.com/johnfkosanke/anc_capm.htm anarcho-capitalism: principles of civilization]'' *[[Franz Oppenheimer]], ''[http://www.opp.uni-wuppertal.de/oppenheimer/st/state0.htm The State]'' Analysis of State; political means vs. economic means *[[Robert Nozick]], ''Anarchy, State, and Utopia'' Academic philosopher on libertarianism *[[Herbert Spencer]], ''[http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/LFBooks/Spencer0236/SocialStatics/0331_Bk.html Social Statics]'' Includes the essay "The Right to Ignore the State" *Morris & Linda Tannahill, ''The Market for Liberty'' Classic on PDAs (private defense agencies) ===Related subjects=== * [[Anarcho-capitalist literature]] * [[Anarcho-capitalist terminology and symbolism]] * [[Classical liberalism]] * [[Digital gold bug]] * [[Crypto-anarchism]] * [[Free market]] * [[Liberalism]] * [[Libertarianism]] * [[Market liberalism]] * [[Polycentric law]] * [[Private currency]] ===General=== * [[Anarchism]] * [[Anarchist law]] * [[Libertatia]] * [[Statism]] ==External links== ===Anarcho-capitalist websites=== * [http://www.anarchism.net/anarchism_anarchismcapitalismandanarchocapitalism.htm ''Anarchism, Capitalism, and Anarcho-Capitalism''] from anarchism.net * [http://home.arcor.de/danneskjoeld/ Ancapistan Network] comes with an ancap start-up, articles and links * [http://www.anti-state.com/ anti-state.com], has one of the more active forums and infrequent theoretical and practical articles, and hosts [http://www.anti-state.com/article.php?article_id=375 ''Private Property Anarchists and Anarcho-Socialists: Can We Get Along?''] by Gene Callahan * [http://lemennicier.bwm-mediasoft.com/index.php?none=1&&limba=en Bertrand Lemennicier], a renowned French anarcho-capitalist economist * [http://www.cuthhyra.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/ Cuthhyra] is a resource promoting anarcho-capitalism through essays, humour, quotes, links and more. * [http://www.catallarchy.net/blog Catallarchy] * Bryan Caplan's [http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/bcaplan/anarfaq.htm "Anarchism Theory FAQ"] is written from the perspective of an anarcho-capitalist. * [http://www.lewrockwell.com/ LewRockwell.com] is a widely read paleolibertarian news site, it also hosts [http://www.lewrockwell.com/kinsella/kinsella15.html ''What It Means To Be an Anarcho-Capitalist''] by Stephan Kinsella and [http://www.lewrockwell.com/block/block26.html "The Non-Aggression Axiom of Libertarianism"] by Walter Block * [http://www.geocities.com/vonchloride/anarchist-jesus.pdf "Jesus Is an Anarchist (A free-market, libertarian anarchist, that is—otherwise what is called an anarcho-capitalist)" by James Redford, [[November 9]] [[2005]]] (pdf), an article on the congruence of Jesus's biblical teachings and anarcho-capitalism * [http://praxeology.net/molinari.htm The Molinari Institute] * [http://www.mises.org/content/mnr.asp A Legacy of Liberty] and [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/newlibertywhole.asp ''For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto''] by Murray N. Rothbard * [http://www.panarchy.org/ Panarchy], another way of considering things that is considered by some ultimately equivalent to anarcho-capitalism. * [http://www.liberalia.com/ Liberalia], an anarcho-capitalist site * [http://www.blackcrayon.com/essays/intro/ A Brief Introduction to Philosophical Anarchism] from the viewpoint of an anarcho-capitalist * [http://samizdata.net/blog/ Samizdata] is a group blog by "...a varied group [ that includes ] wild-eyed anarcho-capitalists" * [http://www.sovereignlife.com/kickstart.html Sovereign Life] and [http://www.sovereignlife.com/sovereign-individual.html Sovereign Individual] at Sovereignlife.com * [http://www.strike-the-root.com/ Strike The Root] is an anarcho-capitalist news site with an atheistic slant. * [http://www.bureaucrash.com Bureaucrash] * [http://www.spaz.org/~dan/ias/index.html Individualist Anarchist Society at UC Berkeley] * [http://members.aol.com/VFTfiles/thesis/summary01.htm ''A Calvinist Defense of Anarcho-capitalism''] Argues that the Christian Bible supports anarcho-capitalism * [http://anarcap.blogspot.com Anarcho-Capitalism] Lifestyle guide for Anarcho-capitalists * [http://www.sumitdahiya.com/ Sumit Dahiya] "The home of the Anti-Government Pro-Enterprise Movement of India" ===Criticisms=== * [http://www.infoshop.org/faq/secFcon.html Section F - Is "anarcho"-capitalism a type of anarchism?] - "An Anarchist FAQ" from [[Infoshop.org]] * [http://www.anarchy.no/ai.html The Anarchist International Website] Retrieved [[20 May]] [[2005]] * [http://members.aol.com/_ht_a/anarchist817/anarcho_capitalism.html#top Anarcho-Capitalism Sucks!] - a collection of links to anti-anarcho-capitalist resources. * [http://www.spaz.org/~dan/individualist-anarchist/ac-vs-ia.html Anarcho-Capitalism vs. Individualist Anarchism] * Jeff Draughn's [http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/5065/between.html Between Anarchism and Libertarianism: Defining a New Movement] is a contemporary left anarchist critique of anarcho-capitalism * [http://anarchism.www7.50megs.com/10.html A critique of anarcho-capitalist claims to anarchist tradition] * [http://world.std.com/~mhuben/libindex.html The "Critiques Of Libertarianism" website] contains critiques of both libertarianism and anarcho-capitalism. *[http://directory.google.com/Top/Society/Politics/Liberalism/Libertarianism/Anarcho-Capitalism/Opposing_Views/ Collection of critical articles] * [http://www.spunk.org/library/otherpol/critique/sp001279.txt Ecology or "anarcho" capitalism] by Ian MacSaorsa * [http://www.zmag.org/chomsky/interviews/9612-anarchism.html Interview with Noam Chomsky] in which he discusses anarcho-capitalism * [http://a4a.mahost.org/huckster.html Anarcho-Hucksters] * [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/dward/newrightanarchocap.html The New Right and Anarcho-capitalism] from Chapter 36 of "Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism" by Peter Marshall ===Criticisms by other radical capitalists=== * Robert J. Binidotto's [http://www.vix.com/objectivism/Writing/RobertBidinotto/ContradictionInAnarchism.html The Contradiction in Anarchism] * Paul Birch's [http://www.paulbirch.net/AnarchoCapitalism1.html A Fatal Instability in Anarcho-Capitalism?] and [http://www.paulbirch.net/AnarchoCapitalism2.html Anarcho-Capitalism Dissolves into City States] * Tony Hollick's [http://www.la-articles.org.uk/FL-2-2-3.pdf Impossibility of anarcho-capitalism] * Capitalism.org's [http://capitalism.org/faq/anarchism.htm rejection of the anarchist title] * [http://www.peikoff.com/opar/anarchism.htm A short selection] by [[Leonard Peikoff]], [[Ayn Rand]]'s intellecutal heir, concerning anarchism * [http://www.fahayek.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=693&Itemid=1 ''The Anarcho-Libertarian Utopia — A Critique''] by Drieu Godefridi (Hayek Institute) ===Other=== * [http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig6/molyneux1.html''How can anarcho-capitalism function''] , by [[Stefan Molyneux]] * [http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig6/molyneux4.html''Disproving the state''], by [[Stefan Molyneux]] * [http://64.233.161.104/search?q=cache:Y6b4hmt1RicJ:rru.worldbank.org/PapersLinks/Open.aspx ''Anarchy and Invention: How Does Somalia's Private Sector Cope Without Government?''] Something resembling rudimentary anarcho-capitalism is developing organically in Somalia * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4020259.stm ''Telecoms thriving in lawless Somalia''] Somali telecommunications infrastructure without government. * [http://www.somalianarchy.com SomaliAnarchy - "Defending and Celebrating Somalis' Freedom and Prosperity"] Forum and news source for discussion of real-world approximation of anarcho-capitalism now functioning in [[Somalia]] * [http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/3_1/3_1_2.pdf ''The American Experiment in Anarcho-Capitalism: The Not so Wild, Wild, West''] Anarcho-capitalism in the old "Wild West" in the U.S. * [http://www.independent.org/issues/article.asp?id=10 ''American Anarchism''] 19th Century Individualist Anarchists influence on Anarcho-Capitalism * [http://www.weisbord.org/conquest10.htm American Liberal-Anarchism] from ''The Conquest of Power'', by Albert Weisbord * [http://www.isil.org/resources/introduction.html The Philosophy of Liberty] (animated) * [http://www.buildfreedom.com/economic/eco_4.html ''Economic Means to Freedom - Part IV: 25 Anarcho-Capitalist Things You Can Do Now!''], by [http://www.FrederickMann.org/ ''Frederick Mann''] * [http://spoirier.lautre.net/trick.html The liberal theory of power] : a solution to complete anarcho-capitalism with effective solutions to the public good problem and to practical implementation ; it is planned to be implemented by software on the web. * Peter Sabatini's [http://www.spunk.org/library/otherpol/critique/sp000713.txt Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy] * [http://www.againstpolitics.com/market_anarchism/no_bogus_anarchy.htm ''On Peter Sabatini's "Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy"''] by Richard A. Gardner * [http://freeweb.supereva.com/super.freeweb/libertarian/en/anarcho.htm?p ''Per l'Anarco-Capitalismo''] by Guglielmo Piombini * [http://216.239.51.104/u/Mises?q=cache:pRIqRC_6Nz8J:www.mises.org/journals/scholar/Modugno.PDF ''The anarcho-capitalist political theory of Murray N. Rothbard in its historical and intellectual context] by Roberta Modugno Crocetta == Anarcho-capitalist pod-casts == * [http://www.podfeed.net/category_item.asp?id=3476''Freedomain radio''], by [[Stefan Molyneux]] == Anarcho-capitalist blogs == * [http://www.lewrockwell.com''Lewrockwell''] * [http://freedomain.blogspot.com''Stefan Molyneyux''] * [http://www.bkmarcus.com/blog/''Lowercase liberty''] * [http://www.strike-the-root.com''Paul Murphy and others''] [[Category:Anarchism]] [[Category:Libertarianism]] [[Category:Political movements]] [[Category:Political theories]] [[Category:Economic ideologies]] {{Link FA|eo}} {{featured article}} [[ca:Anarcocapitalisme]] [[da:Anarko-kapitalisme]] [[de:Anarchokapitalismus]] [[et:Anarhokapitalism]] [[es:Anarco-capitalismo]] [[eo:Anarki-kapitalismo]] [[fr:Anarcho-capitalisme]] [[ko:아나키자본주의]] [[io:Anarkio-kapitalismo]] [[it:Anarco-capitalismo]] [[nl:Anarcho-kapitalisme]] [[pl:Anarchokapitalizm]] [[pt:Anarco-capitalismo]] [[fi:Anarkokapitalismi]] [[sv:Anarkokapitalism]] [[zh:無政府資本主義]] 1026 15899532 2002-04-06T13:52:55Z Bryan Derksen 66 redirect #REDIRECT [[anarcho-capitalism]] 1027 41932073 2006-03-02T18:38:20Z 213.153.42.89 /* Events */ {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=9}} |} '''August 9''' is the 221st day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (222nd in [[leap year]]s), with 144 days remaining. ==Events== *[[48 BC]] - [[Roman Civil War]]: [[Battle of Pharsalus]] - [[Julius Caesar]] decisively defeats [[Pompey]] at [[Pharsalus]] and Pompey flees to [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]]. *[[378]] - [[Battle of Adrianople (378)|Battle of Adrianople]]: A large [[Roman Empire|Roman]] army led by Emperor [[Valens]] is defeated by the [[Visigoths]] in present-day [[Turkey]]. Valens is killed along with 2/3 of his army. *[[681]] - [[Bulgaria]] is founded as a [[Khanate]] on the south bank of the [[Danube]], after defeating the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] armies of Emperor [[Constantine IV]] south of the [[Danube]] delta. *[[1048]] - [[Pope]] [[Damasus II]] dies in [[Rome]], after reigning for only 23 days. *[[1173]] - Construction of the (Leaning) [[Tower of Pisa]] begins, and it takes two centuries to complete. *[[1483]] - Opening of the [[Sistine Chapel]] *[[1842]] - [[Webster-Ashburton Treaty]] is signed, establishing the [[United States]]-[[Canada]] border east of the [[Rocky Mountains]]. *[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Cedar Mountain]] - At [[Cedar Mountain, Virginia]], [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] General [[Thomas J. Jackson|Stonewall Jackson]] narrowly defeats [[United States|Union]] forces under General [[John Pope (military officer)|John Pope]]. *[[1877]] - [[Indian Wars]]: [[Battle of Big Hole]] - A small band of [[Nez Percé]] Indians clash with the [[United States Army]]. *[[1892]] - [[Thomas Edison]] receives a [[patent]] for a two-way [[Telegraphy|telegraph]]. *[[1902]] - [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]] is crowned king of the [[United Kingdom]]. *[[1936]] - [[1936 Summer Olympics]]: [[Jesse Owens]] wins his fourth [[gold medal]] at the games becoming the first American to win four medals in one [[Olympics]]. *[[1942]] - [[India]]n leader, [[Mohandas Gandhi]] is arrested in [[Bombay]] by [[United Kingdom|British]] forces, launching the [[Quit India Movement]]. *[[1944]] - The [[United States Forest Service]] and the [[Wartime Advertising Council]] release posters featuring [[Smokey the Bear]] for the first time. *[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: An [[atomic bomb]] is dropped on the city of [[Nagasaki]], [[Japan]] killing an estimated 70,000-90,000. *[[1965]] - [[Singapore]] seceded from the newly-formed Federation of Malaysia. *1965 - [[Space disasters]]: A fire at a Titan missile base near [[Little Rock, Arkansas]] kills 53 construction workers. *[[1967]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Operation Cochise]] initiated - [[United States Marines]] begin a new operation in the [[Que Son Valley]]. *[[1969]] - Members of a [[cult]] led by [[Charles Manson]] murder five people. *[[1974]] - [[Richard Nixon]] becomes the first [[President of the United States]] to resign from office. His [[Vice President of the United States of America|Vice President]], [[Gerald Ford]], becomes president. *[[1983]] - [[Peter Jennings]] hosts his first broadcast of [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]'s [[ABC World News Tonight|World News Tonight]] as sole anchor. *[[1986]] - The [[Headington Shark]] is erected in [[Oxford]]. *[[1987]] - 9 people are shot dead and 17 more injured as 19-year old Julian Knight opens fire at random in the [[Hoddle Street Massacre]] in Clifton Hill *[[1988]] - [[Wayne Gretzky]] is traded from the [[Edmonton Oilers]] to the [[Los Angeles Kings]] in one of the most controversial transactions in [[ice hockey|hockey]] history. *[[1989]] - [[Kaifu Toshiki]] becomes [[Prime Minister of Japan]]. *[[1993]] - The [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party of Japan]] loses a 38-year hold on national leadership. *1993 - King [[Albert II of Belgium|Albert II]] of [[Belgium]] is sworn into office. *[[1995]] - [[Netscape Communications Corporation|Netscape]] launches IPO. *[[1999]] - [[Russia]]n President [[Boris Yeltsin]] fires his Prime Minister, [[Sergei Stepashin]], and for the fourth time fires his entire cabinet. *1999 - The [[Diet of Japan]] enacts a law establishing the [[Flag of Japan|Hinomaru]] and [[Kimi Ga Yo]] as the official [[national flag]] and [[national anthem]]. *[[2000]] - A [[The New Piper Aircraft|Piper]] Navajo and a Piper Seminole collide in mid-air over a housing development in [[Burlington, New Jersey]], killing 11 *[[2001]] - US President [[George W. Bush]] announces his support for federal funding of limited research on embryonic [[stem cell]]s. *2001 - In [[Jerusalem]], 15 people die and 130 wounded in the [[Sbarro restaurant suicide bombing]]. *[[2005]] - [[STS-114|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'']] makes successful touchdown at [[Edwards Air Force Base]], [[California]] ==Births== *[[1201]] - [[Arnold Fitz Thedmar]], English chronicler (d. [[1274]]) *[[1593]] - [[Izaak Walton]], English angler (d. [[1683]]) *[[1631]] - [[John Dryden]], English [[Poet Laureate]] (d. [[1700]]) *[[1648]] - [[Johann Michael Bach]], German composer (d. [[1694]]) *[[1653]] - [[John Oldham (poet)|John Oldham]], English poet (d. [[1683]]) *[[1674]] - [[František Maxmilián Kaňka]], Czech architect (d. [[1766]]) *[[1722]] - [[Augustus William, Prince of Prussia]] (d. [[1758]]) *[[1726]] - [[Francesco Cetti]], Italian Jesuit scientist (d. [[1778]]) *[[1757]] - [[Thomas Telford]], Scottish civil engineer (d. [[1834]]) *[[1776]] - [[Amedeo Avogadro]], Italian chemist (d. [[1856]]) *[[1797]] - [[Charles Robert Malden]], British naval officer (d. [[1855]]) *[[1805]] - [[Joseph Locke]], English railway and civil engineer (d. [[1860]]) *[[1845]] - [[Brother Andre]], Canadian religious figure (d. [[1937]]) *[[1871]] - [[Leonid Andreyev]], Russian writer (d. [[1919]]) *[[1872]] - [[Joseph August, Archduke of Austria]], Austrian field marshal (d. [[1962]]) *[[1874]] - [[Reynaldo Hahn]], Venezuelan composer and conductor (d. [[1947]]) *[[1896]] - [[Jean Piaget]], Swiss psychologist (d. [[1980]]) *1896 - [[Lev Vygotsky]], Russian psychologist (d. [[1934]]) *1896 - [[Erich Hückel]], German physicist (d. [[1980]]) *[[1899]] - [[P. L. Travers]], Australian author (d. [[1996]]) *[[1902]] - [[Zino Francescatti]], French violinist (d. [[1991]]) *[[1909]] - [[Adam von Trott zu Solz]], German diplomat opposing the Nazi regime (executed) (d. [[1944]]) *[[1911]] - [[William Alfred Fowler]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1996]]) *[[1914]] - [[Tove Jansson]], Finnish author (d. [[2001]]) *[[1919]] - [[Joop den Uyl]], [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands]] (d. [[1987]]) *1919 - [[Ralph Houk]], baseball player and manager *[[1921]] - [[J. James Exon]], Nebraska Senator and Governor *[[1922]] - [[Philip Larkin]], English poet (d. [[1985]]) *[[1927]] - [[Daniel Keyes]], American author *1927 - [[Robert Shaw (actor)|Robert Shaw]], English actor (d. [[1978]]) *[[1928]] - [[Bob Cousy]], American basketball player *[[1931]] - [[Mário Zagallo]], Brazilian football coach and player *[[1933]] - [[Tetsuko Kuroyanagi]], Japanese television personality and children's author *[[1938]] - [[Leonid Kuchma]], Ukrainian politician *1938 - [[Rod Laver]], Australian tennis player *[[1939]] - [[Romano Prodi]], Italian politician, [[President of the European Commission]] *1939 - [[Hércules Brito Ruas|Brito]], Brazilian football player *[[1944]] - [[Sam Elliott]], American actor *[[1945]] - [[Ken Norton]], American boxer *1945 - [[Posy Simmonds]], English cartoonist *[[1948]] - [[Bill Campbell (baseball player)|Bill Campbell]], American baseball player *[[1949]] - [[Jonathan Kellerman]], American writer *[[1952]] - [[Prateep Ungsongtham Hata]], Thai politician *[[1953]] - [[Robert Cray]], Blues musician *[[1957]] - [[Melanie Griffith]], American actress *[[1959]] - [[Stuart Hughes]], Canadian actor *[[1962]] - [[Kevin Mack]], American football player *[[1963]] - [[Whitney Houston]], American singer and actress *[[1964]] - [[Brett Hull]], Canadian-born hockey player *[[1967]] - [[Deion Sanders]], American football player *[[1968]] - [[Gillian Anderson]], American actress *1968 - [[Eric Bana]], Australian actor *[[1969]] - [[Troy Percival]], baseball player *[[1972]] - [[Juanes]], Colombian singer *[[1973]] - [[Kevin McKidd]], Scottish actor *[[1973]] - [[Filippo Inzaghi]], Italian footballer *[[1974]] - [[Matt Morris]], baseball player *[[1976]] - [[Jessica Capshaw]], American actress *1976 - [[Rhona Mitra]], English actress *[[1977]] - [[Chamique Holdsclaw]], American basketball player *1977 - [[Mikael Silvestre]], French footballer *[[1978]] - [[Audrey Tautou]], French actress ==Deaths== *[[117]] - [[Trajan]], [[Roman Emperor]] (b. [[53]]) *[[378]] - [[Valens]], [[Roman Emperor]] (killed in battle) (b. [[328]]) *[[803]] - [[Byzantine Empress Irene]] *[[1107]] - [[Emperor Horikawa]] of Japan (b. [[1079]]) *[[1250]] - King [[Eric IV of Denmark]] (b. [[1216]]) *[[1534]] - [[Cardinal Cajetan]], Italian theologian (b. [[1470]]) *[[1634]] - [[William Noy]], English jurist (b. [[1577]]) *[[1720]] - [[Simon Ockley]], English orientalist (b. [[1678]]) *[[1744]] - [[James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos]], English patron of the arts (b. [[1673]]) *[[1886]] - [[Samuel Ferguson]], Northern Irish poet and artist (b. [[1810]]) *[[1919]] - [[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]], Italian composer (b. [[1857]]) *[[1942]] - [[Edith Stein]], (St. Teresa Benedicta of the Cross) (executed) (b. [[1891]]) *[[1945]] - [[Harry Hillman]], American athlete (b. [[1881]]) *[[1962]] - [[Hermann Hesse]], German-born writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1877]]) *[[1967]] - [[Joe Orton]], English writer (b. [[1933]]) *[[1969]] - [[Abigail Folger]], American heiress (b. [[1943]]) *1969 - [[Wojciech Frykowski]], Polish writer (b. [[1936]]) *1969 - [[Cecil Frank Powell]], British physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1903]]) *1969 - [[Jay Sebring]], American hair stylist (b. [[1933]]) *1969 - [[Sharon Tate]], American actress (murdered) (b. [[1943]]) *[[1975]] - [[Dmitri Shostakovich]], Russian composer (b. [[1906]]) *[[1995]] - [[Jerry Garcia]], American guitarist ([[Grateful Dead]]) (b. [[1942]]) *[[2000]] - [[John Harsanyi]], Hungarian-born economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (b. [[1920]]) *[[2002]] - [[Peter Neville]], anarchist, sociologist, and peace activist *[[2003]] - [[Ray Harford]], English footballer and manager (b. [[1945]]) *2003 - [[Gregory Hines]], American actor and dancer (b. [[1946]]) *[[2005]] - [[Matthew McGrory]], American actor (b. [[1973]]) *2005 - [[Judith Rossner]], American novelist (b. [[1935]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Feast day]] of [[Jean Vianney]], [[Edith Stein]] and [[Saint Romanus Ostiarius]] in the [[Roman Catholic Church]] *Feast day of the great [[martyr]] [[Saint Panteleimon]] in Russian [[Orthodox Church]] *[[South Africa]]: [[National Women's Day - South Africa|National Women's Day]] *[[Singapore]]: [[National Day]] *[[India]]:[[Quit India Day]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/9 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050809.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] ---- [[August 8]] - [[August 10]] - [[July 9]] - [[September 9]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:9 Augustus]] [[ar:9 أغسطس]] [[an:9 d'agosto]] [[ast:9 d'agostu]] [[bg:9 август]] [[be:9 жніўня]] [[bs:9. avgust]] [[ca:9 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 9]] [[cv:Çурла, 9]] [[co:9 d'aostu]] [[cs:9. srpen]] [[cy:9 Awst]] [[da:9. august]] [[de:9. August]] [[et:9. august]] [[el:9 Αυγούστου]] [[es:9 de agosto]] [[eo:9-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 9]] [[fo:9. august]] [[fr:9 août]] [[fy:9 augustus]] [[ga:9 Lúnasa]] [[gl:9 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 9일]] [[hr:9. kolovoza]] [[io:9 di agosto]] [[ilo:Agosto 9]] [[id:9 Agustus]] [[ia:9 de augusto]] [[ie:9 august]] [[is:9. ágúst]] [[it:9 agosto]] [[he:9 באוגוסט]] [[jv:9 Agustus]] [[ka:9 აგვისტო]] [[csb:9 zélnika]] [[ku:9'ê gelawêjê]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 9]] [[lb:9. August]] [[li:9 augustus]] [[hu:Augusztus 9]] [[mk:9 август]] [[ms:9 Ogos]] [[nap:9 'e aùsto]] [[nl:9 augustus]] [[ja:8月9日]] [[no:9. august]] [[nn:9. august]] [[oc:9 d'agost]] [[pl:9 sierpnia]] [[pt:9 de Agosto]] [[ro:9 august]] [[ru:9 августа]] [[se:Borgemánu 9.]] [[sq:9 Gusht]] [[scn:9 di austu]] [[simple:August 9]] [[sk:9. august]] [[sl:9. avgust]] [[sr:9. август]] [[fi:9. elokuuta]] [[sv:9 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 9]] [[tt:9. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 9]] [[th:9 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:9 tháng 8]] [[tr:9 Ağustos]] [[uk:9 серпня]] [[wa:9 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 9]] [[zh:8月9日]] 1028 41173560 2006-02-25T15:07:01Z Vriullop 750481 iw +ca [[Image:Aristophanes.jpg|thumb|Bust of Aristophanes]] '''Aristophanes''' (c. [[448 BC]]-[[380 BC]]; [[Greek language|Greek]] ΄Αριστοφανης) was a [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] comic dramatist. The place and even exact date of his birth are unknown, but he was probably educated in [[Athens]]. He was from the Athenian deme of Kudathenaium. He is famous for writing comedies such as ''[[The Birds (play)|The Birds]]'' for the two Athenian festivals: the [[Dionysia]] and the [[Lenea]]. He wrote forty plays, eleven of which still survive, and his plays are the only surviving examples of [[Old Attic Comedy]]. Many of his plays were [[political]], and often [[satire|satirized]] the well-known citizens of Athens and their conduct in the [[Peloponnesian War]]. He is known to have been prosecuted for Athenian law's equivalent of [[libel]] more than once. A famous comedy, ''[[The Frogs]]'', was given the unprecedented honor of a second performance. According to a later biographer, he was also awarded a civic crown for "[[The Frogs]]". He appears in [[Plato]]'s ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]'', giving a humorous mythical account of the origin of [[Love]]. ''[[The Clouds]],'' a disastrous production resulting in a humiliating and long-remembered (cf. the revised parabasis of "[[The Clouds]]" and the parabasis of next year's "[[The Wasps]]") last place finish at the City Dionysia, satirizes the new, sophistic learning en vogue among the aristocracy at the time; [[Socrates]] was the principal target and in the play he emerges as a typical [[Sophist]], no matter how inaccurate the portrayal may be. ''[[Lysistrata]]'' was written during the [[Peloponnesian War]] between [[Athens]] and [[Sparta]] and presents a [[pacifism|pacifist]] theme in a comical manner: the women of the two states show off their bodies and deprive their husbands of [[sex]] until they stop fighting. This play was later illustrated at length by [[Pablo Picasso]]. ==Surviving plays== * ''[[The Acharnians]]'' ([[425 BC]]) * ''[[The Knights]]'' ([[424 BC]]) * ''[[The Clouds]]'' (Original [[423 BC]]Uncompleted revised version survives [[418-415 BC]]) * ''[[The Wasps]]'' ([[422 BC]]) * ''[[Peace (play)|Peace]]'' (first version, [[421 BC]]) * ''[[The Birds (play)|The Birds]]'' ([[414 BC]]) * ''[[Lysistrata]]'' ([[411 BC]]) * ''[[Thesmophoriazusae]]'' ("The Festival Women", first version, ca.[[410 BC]]) * ''[[The Frogs]]'' ([[405 BC]]) * ''[[Assemblywomen|Ecclesiazousae]]'' ("The Assemblywomen", ca.[[392 BC]]) * ''[[Plutus (play)|Plutus]]'' ("Wealth", second version, [[388 BC]]) ==Dated non-surviving plays== * ''Banqueters'' ([[427 BC]]) * ''Babylonians'' ([[426 BC]]) * ''Farmers'' ([[424 BC]]) * ''Merchant Ships'' ([[423 BC]]) * ''[[The Clouds]]'' (first version) ([[423 BC]]) * ''Proagon'' ([[422 BC]]) * ''Amphiaraos'' ([[414 BC]]) * ''[[Plutus (play)|Plutus]]'' ("Wealth", first version, [[408 BC]]) * ''Gerytades'' (uncertain, probably [[407 BC]]) * ''Koskalos'' ([[387 BC]]) * ''Aiolosikon'' (second version, [[386 BC]]) ==Undated non-surviving plays== * ''Aiolosikon'' (first version) * ''Anagyros'' * ''Broilers'' * ''Daidalos'' * ''Danaids'' * ''Dionysos Shipwrecked'' * ''Centaur'' * ''Niobos'' * ''Heroes'' * ''Islands'' * ''Lemnian Women'' * ''Old Age'' * ''Peace'' (second version) * ''Phoenician Women'' * ''Poetry'' * ''Polyidos'' * ''Seasons'' * ''Storks'' * ''Telemessians'' * ''Triphales'' * ''[[Thesmophoriazusae]]'' ("The Festival Women", second version) * ''Women Encamping'' ==See also== *[[Agathon]] *[[Greek literature]] *[[2934 Aristophanes|Asteroid 2934 Aristophanes]], named after the dramatist ==External links== *[http://www.greektexts.com/library/Aristophanes/index.html Aristophanes Texts] Biography and texts of Aristophanes *[http://www.textkit.com/view-author/author_id/8/ The texts of Aristophanes' plays (in translation)] * {{gutenberg author|id=Aristophanes|name=Aristophanes}} * [http://wiktionary.org/wiki/Lopadotemachoselachogaleokranioleipsanodrimhypotrimmatosilphioparaomelitokatakechymenokichlepikossyphophattoperisteralektryonoptekephalliokigklopeleiolagoiosiraiobaphetraganopterygon Contribution to the English Language] [[Category:448 BC births]] [[Category:380 BC deaths]] [[Category:Ancient Greek dramatists and playwrights]] [[Category:Ancient Athenians]] [[Category:Satirists|Aristophanes]] [[bg:Аристофан]] [[ca:Aristòfanes]] [[da:Aristofanes]] [[de:Aristophanes]] [[el:Αριστοφάνης]] [[es:Aristófanes]] [[fr:Aristophane]] [[ko:아리스토파네스]] [[it:Aristofane]] [[he:אריסטופאנס]] [[la:Aristophanes]] [[hu:Arisztophanész]] [[nl:Aristophanes]] [[ja:アリストパネス]] [[nn:Aristofanes]] [[no:Aristofanes]] [[pl:Arystofanes]] [[pt:Aristófanes]] [[ru:Аристофан]] [[sk:Aristofanes]] [[sl:Aristofan]] [[sr:Аристофан]] [[fi:Aristofanes]] [[sv:Aristofanes]] [[tr:Aristofanes]] [[uk:Арістофан]] [[zh:阿里斯托芬]] 1029 41225203 2006-02-25T22:27:17Z Dvavasour 55791 [[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up <!--Image missing [[Image:Schweitzer.jpg|thumb|Albert Schweitzer]] ---> [[Image:Albert Schweitzer, Etching by Arthur William Heintzelman.jpg|thumb|200px|Albert Schweitzer, Etching by Arthur William Heintzelman]] '''Albert Schweitzer''', [[Order of Merit|OM]], ([[January 14]], [[1875]] &ndash; [[September 4]], [[1965]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[theology|theologian]], [[musician]], [[philosopher]], and [[physician]]. He was born in [[Kaysersberg]], [[Elsass-Lothringen]], [[Germany]] (now in [[Haut-Rhin]], [[Alsace]], [[France]]). He received the [[1952]] [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in [[1953]]. ==Theology== As a young theologian his first major work, by which he gained a great reputation, was ''The Quest of the Historical Jesus'' (1906), in which he interpreted the life of [[Jesus]] in the light of Jesus' own [[eschatology|eschatological]] convictions. He established his reputation further as a [[New Testament]] scholar by other theological studies, like ''The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle'' (1930). In these studies he examined the eschatological beliefs of Paul and through this the message of the New Testament. During his tenure as a priest for St. Nicholas church in [[Strasbourg]], he blessed the wedding of [[Theodor Heuss]], who was to become the first [[President|President of Germany]] of the [[German Federal Republic]]. ==Music== Albert Schweitzer was a famous organist in his day, and was highly interested in the music of [[Johann Sebastian Bach]]. He developed a simple style of performance, which he thought to be closer to what Bach had meant it to be. He based his interpretation mainly on his reassessment of Bach's religious intentions. Through the book "Johann Sebastian Bach", the final version of which he completed in [[1908]], he advocated this new style, which has had great influence in the way Bach's music is now being treated. Albert Schweitzer was also a famous [[organ (music)|organ]] constructor. Recordings of Schweitzer playing the music of Bach are available on CDs. ==Philosophy== Schweitzer's worldview was based on his idea of ''Reverence for Life'', which he believed to be his greatest single contribution to humankind. His view was that Western civilization was in decay because of gradually abandoning its ethical foundations - those of affirmation of life. It was his firm conviction that the respect for life is the highest principle. In a similar kind of exaltation of life to that of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], a recently influential philosopher of the time, Schweitzer admittedly followed the same line as that of the Russian [[Leo Tolstoy]]. Some people in his days compared his philosophy with that of [[Francis of Assisi]], a comparison he did not object to. In his ''Philosophy of Civilisation'' (all quotes in this section from Chapter 26 of the same book), he wrote: <blockquote>True philosophy must start from the most immediate and comprehensive fact of consciousness: 'I am life that wants to live, in the midst of life that wants to live'. </blockquote> Life and love in his view are based on, and follow out of the same principle: respect for every manifestation of Life, and a personal, spiritual relationship towards the universe. Ethics, according to Schweitzer, consists in the ''compulsion'' to show to the will-to-live of each and every being the same reverence as one does to one's own. In circumstances where we apparently fail to satisfy this compulsion should not lead us to defeatism, since the will-to-live renews itself again and again, as an outcome of an evolutionary necessity and a phenomenon with a spiritual dimension. However, as Schweitzer himself pointed out, it is neither impossible nor difficult to spend a life of not following it: the history of world philosophies and religions clearly shows many instances of denial of the principle of reverence for life. He points to the prevailing philosophy in the European middle ages, and the Indian Brahminic philosophy. Nevertheless, this kind of attitude lacks in genuineness. Since we enter the world, it offers us a horrible drama: it consists in the fact that the will to live, looked as a sum of all the individual wills, is divided against itself. One existence is antagonised against another, one destroys another. Only in the thinking being has the will to live become conscious of other will to live, and desirious of solidarity with it. This solidarity, however, cannot be brought about, because human life does not escape the puzzling and horrible circumstance that it must live at the cost of other life. But as an ethical being one strives to escape whenever possible from this necessity, and to put a stop to this disunion of the Will to live, so far as it is within one's power. Schweitzer advocated the concept of reverence for life widely throughout his entire life. The historical [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] waned and corrupted itself, Schweitzer held, because it has not been well enough grounded in thought, but compulsively followed the ethical will-to live. Hence, he looked forward to a renewed and more profound [[Rennaisance]] and Enlightenment of humanity (a view he expressed in the Epilogue of his ''Out of My Life and Thought''). Albert Schweitzer nourished hope in a humankind that is more profoundly aware of its position in the Universe. His optimism was based in "belief in truth". "The spirit generated by [conceiving of] truth is greater than the force of circumstances." He persistently emphasized the necessity to think, rather than merely acting on basis of passing impulses or by following the most widespread opinions. <blockquote>Never for a moment do we lay aside our mistrust of the ideals established by society, and of the convictions which are kept by it in circulation. We always know that society is full of folly and will deceive us in the matter of humanity. [...] humanity meaning consideration for the existence and the happiness of individual human beings.</blockquote> Respect for life, resulting from contemplation on one's own conscious will to live, leads the individual to live in the service of other people and of every living creature. Schweitzer was very much respected for putting his theory into practice in his own life. Schweitzer died in [[Gabon]], [[Africa]] after years of serving others as a physician in Africa. ==Stance on racial relations== Schweitzer considered his work as a medical missionary in Africa to be his response to Jesus' call to become "fishers of men" but also as a small recompense for the historic guilt of European colonizers: "Who can describe the injustice and cruelties that in the course of centuries they [the coloured peoples] have suffered at the hands of Europeans? . . . If a record could be compiled of all that has happened between the white and the coloured races, it would make a book containing numbers of pages which the reader would have to turn over unread because their contents would be too horrible." [On the Edge of the Primeval Forest, p. 115]. Schweitzer was sometimes accused of being paternalistic or colonialist in his attitude towards Africans. For instance, he thought Gabonese independence came too early, without adequate education or accommodation to local circumstances. Edgar Berman quotes Schweitzer speaking these lines in 1960: "No society can go from the primeval directly to an industrial state without losing the leavening that time and an agricultural period allow." [In Africa With Schweitzer, p. 139]. [[Chinua Achebe]] has quoted Schweitzer as saying "The African is indeed my brother but my junior brother." <sup>[http://social.chass.ncsu.edu/wyrick/debclass/achcon.htm]</sup>, which Achebe criticized him for. ==Medicine== Albert Schweitzer spent most of his life in Lambaréné in what is now [[Gabon]], Africa. After his medical studies in [[1913]], he went there with his wife to establish a hospital near an already existing mission post. He treated and operated on literally thousands of people. He took care of hundreds of [[lepers|Leprosy]] and treated many victims of the African [[sleeping sickness]]. In [[1914]] [[World War I]] began and because he was a German on French territory, Schweitzer and his wife were taken captive and temporarily confined to their house. In [[1917]] they were interned in Garaison, France, and in [[1918]] in [[Saint Remy de Provence]]. There he studied and wrote as much as possible in preparation for among others his famous book ''Culture and Ethics'' (published in [[1923]]). In July 1918 he was a free man again, and while working as a medical assistant and assistant-pastor in [[Strasbourg]], he was able to finish the book. In the meantime he began to speak and lecture about his ideas wherever he was invited. Not only did he want his philosophy on [[culture]] and [[ethics]] to become widely known, it also served as a means to raise money for the hospital in Lambaréné, for which he had already emptied his own pockets. In [[1924]] he returned to Lambaréné, where he managed to rebuild the decayed hospital, after which he resumed his medical practices. Soon he was no longer the only medical doctor in the hospital, and whenever possible he went to Europe to lecture at universities. Gradually his opinions and concepts became acknowledged, not only in Europe, but worldwide. ==Later life== From [[1939]]-[[1948]] he stayed in Lambaréné, unable to go back to a Europe in war. Three years after the end of [[World War II]], in 1948, he returned for the first time to Europe and kept travelling back and forth (and once to the USA) as long as he could until his death in 1965. From 1952 until his death he worked against [[nuclear tests]] and [[nuclear weapon]]s with [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Bertrand Russell]] . In 1957 and 1958 he broadcast four speeches over Radio Oslo which were published in ''Peace or Atomic War''. In 1957, Schweitzer was one of the founders of [[SANE|The Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy]]. His life was portrayed in the 1952 movie ''Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer'', starring [[Pierre Fresnay]] as Albert Schweitzer and [[Jeanne Moreau]] as his nurse Marie. His cousin Anne-Marie Schweitzer Sartre was the mother of [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. He was [[chevalier]] of the [[Order of St Lazarus|Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem]]. He died on September 4, 1965 in [[Lambaréné]], [[Gabon]]. ==Selected bibliography== *''The Decay and the Restoration of Civilization'' ([[1923]]) *''Civilization and Ethics'' ([[1923]]) *''Indian Thought and Its Development'' ([[1935]]) *''The Kingdom of God and Primitive Christianity'' (publ.[[1967]]) *''My Life and Thought'' ([[1931]]) (autobiography. according to the preface of the reviewed edition: Henry Holt and Company, 1991, Schweitzer personally considered to be his most important book) *''Peace or Atomic War'' 1958 *''Out of My Life and Thought: An Autobiography by Albert Schweitzer'' ISBN 0801860970 *''The Quest Of The Historical Jesus; A Critical Study Of Its Progress From Reimarus To Wrede'' ==Timeline== * [[1893]] - Studied [[Philosophy]] and [[Theology]] at the Universities of [[Strasbourg|Strassburg]], [[Berlin]] and [[Paris]] * [[1900]] - Curate of the Church of St. Nicolas in Strassburg * [[1901]] - Principal of the Theological Seminary in Strassburg * [[1905]]-[[1913]] Studied medicine and surgery * [[1912]] - Married Helene Bresslau * [[1913]] - Physician in Lambaréné, Africa * [[1915]] - Developed his ethic ''Reverence for life'' * [[1917]] - Interned in France * [[1918]] - Medical assistant and assistant-pastor in Strassburg * [[1919]] - First major speech about ''Reverence for life'' at the [[University of Uppsala]], [[Sweden]] * [[1919]] - Birth of daughter, Rhena * [[1924]] - Return to Lambaréné as physician; frequent visits to Europe for speaking engagements * [[1939]]-[[1948]] Lambaréné * [[1949]] - Visit to the USA * [[1948]]-[[1965]] - Lambaréné and Europe. * [[1953]] - Nobel Peace Prize for the year 1952 * [[1957]] - [[1958]] - Four speeches against nuclear armament and tests ==See also== *[[Christian Eschatology]] ==References and external links== {{wikiquote}} {{commons|Category:Albert Schweitzer}} * ''Albert Schweitzer: a Biography'' by [[James Brabazon]] - the definitive biography *[http://www.albertschweitzer.info/ Albert Schweitzer] - information on Albert Schweitzer's life and thought *[http://www.albertschweitzer.org.uk/ Friends of Albert Schweitzer (UK)] - a charity promoting Reverence for Life *[http://home.pcisys.net/~jnf/ The Albert Schweitzer Page] *[http://www.schweitzerfellowship.org/ Albert Schweitzer Fellowship] *[http://www1.chapman.edu/schweitzer/reverence_readings.html Readings on Reverence for Life] *[http://medlem.spray.se/atarme/albert.html Biography information on the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize Laureate] *[http://www.peacemakersguide.org/peace/Peacemakers/Albert-Schweitzer.htm Bruderhof Peacemakers Guide profile on Albert Schweitzer] *[http://www.nobel.se/peace/laureates/1952/schweitzer-bio.html Page at the Nobel e-Museum] *[http://nobelprize.org/peace/laureates/1952/press.html#not_10 Schweitzer Nobel Presentation Speech by Gunnar Jahn] *[http://albert-schweitzer.com/ Schweitzerforlaget (Norwegian text only)] {{Persondata |NAME=Schweitzer, Albert |ALTERNATIVE NAMES= |SHORT DESCRIPTION=German theologian, musician, philosopher, and physician |DATE OF BIRTH=[[January 14]] [[1875]] |PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Kaysersberg]], [[Elsass-Lothringen]], [[Germany]] (now in [[Haut-Rhin]], [[Alsace]], [[France]]) |DATE OF DEATH=[[September 4]] [[1965]] |PLACE OF DEATH=[[Lambaréné]], [[Gabon]] }} [[Category:1875 births|Schweitzer, Albert]] [[Category:1965 deaths|Schweitzer, Albert]] [[Category:Biblical scholars|Schweitzer, Albert]] [[Category:Cat lovers|Schweitzer, Albert]] [[Category:German theologians|Schweitzer, Albert]] [[Category:Humanists|Schweitzer, Albert]] [[Category:Humanitarians]] [[Category:Members of the Order of Merit|Schweitzer, Albert]] [[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners|Schweitzer, Albert]] [[Category:Polymaths|Schweitzer, Albert]] [[Category:Unitarian Universalists|Schweitzer, Albert]] [[Category:Vegetarians|Schweitzer, Albert]] [[cs:Albert Schweitzer]] [[da:Albert Schweitzer]] [[de:Albert Schweitzer]] [[eo:Albert SCHWEITZER]] [[es:Albert Schweitzer]] [[fi:Albert Schweitzer]] [[fr:Albert Schweitzer]] [[he:אלברט שוויצר]] [[hr:Albert Schweitzer]] [[hu:Albert Schweitzer]] [[it:Albert Schweitzer]] [[ja:アルベルト・シュバイツァー]] [[nl:Albert Schweitzer]] [[nn:Albert Schweitzer]] [[no:Albert Schweitzer]] [[pl:Albert Schweitzer]] [[pt:Albert Schweitzer]] [[ru:Швейцер, Альберт]] [[sk:Albert Schweitzer]] [[sl:Albert Schweitzer]] [[sv:Albert Schweitzer]] [[uk:Швейцер Альберт]] 1030 41114897 2006-02-25T03:35:54Z 68.33.47.73 /* Major Austrian economists */ {{Template:Libertarianism}}The '''Austrian School''' is a school of [[history of economic thought|economic thought]] that rejects opposing economists' reliance on methods used in [[natural science]] for the study of human action, and instead bases its formalism of economics on relationships through logic or introspection called "[[praxeology]]". Its most famous adherents are [[Carl Menger]], [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]], [[Friedrich von Wieser]], [[Ludwig von Mises]], [[Friedrich Hayek]], [[Murray Rothbard]], [[Israel Kirzner]] and [[Hans-Hermann Hoppe]]. While often controversial, and standing to some extent outside of the mainstream of neoclassical theory &mdash; as well as being staunchly against much of [[John Maynard Keynes|Keynes]]' theory and its results &mdash; the Austrian School has been widely influential because of its emphasis on the creative phase of economic productivity and their questioning of the basis of the behavioral theory underlying [[neoclassical economics]]. The Austrian School is generally associated with groups that label themselves [[classical liberalism|classical liberals]] or [[libertarian]] in their ideas of social, political and economic organization. == History == [[Classical economics]] focused on the exchange theory of value. In late [[19th century]], however, there was a focus on the concept of the "marginal" cost and value. (See [[Marginalism]]). Carl Menger's [[1871]] book, ''[[Principles of Economics]],'' is considered one of the crucial works that began the period known as [[neoclassical economics]]. While marginalism was generally influential, there was also a more specific school that grew up around Menger, which came to be known as the "Vienna School" or "Austrian School". Austrian economics is currently closely associated with advocacy of radical ''[[laissez-faire]]'' views. However, earlier Austrian economists were more cautious compared to later economists such as [[Ludwig von Mises]], with [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]] saying that he feared that unbridled free competition would lead to "anarchism in production and consumption." However, the Austrian School, especially through the works of [[Friedrich Hayek]], would be influential in the revival of laissez-faire thought in the [[1980s]]. The school originated in [[Vienna]] and owes its name to members of the [[Historical School]] of [[economics]] who during the ''[[Methodenstreit]],'' where the Austrians defended the reliance that [[classical economics|classical economists]] placed on logic over observation. Their Prussian opponents derisively named them the "Austrian School" to emphasize a departure from mainstream German thought and to suggest a provincial approach. Menger's contributions were closely followed by [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]] and [[Friedrich von Wieser]]. [[Austria|Austrian]] economists developed a sense of themselves as a school distinct from [[neoclassical economics]] during the [[economic calculation debate]], with [[Ludwig von Mises]] and [[Friedrich von Hayek]] representing the Austrian position, where they contended that without monetary prices or private property, meaningful economic calculation was impossible. The Austrian economists were the first liberal economists to systematically challenge the [[Marxist]] school. This was partly a reaction to the ''[[Methodenstreit]]'' when they attacked the [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegelian]] doctrines of the [[Historical School]]. Though many Marxist authors have attempted to portray the Austrian school as a ''[[bourgeois]]'' reaction to Marx, such an interpretation is untenable: Menger wrote his ''[[Principles of Economics]]'' at almost the same time as [[Karl Marx|Marx]] was completing ''[[Das Kapital]].'' The Austrian economists were, however, the first to clash directly with Marxism, since both dealt with such subjects as money, [[capital (economics)|capital]], [[business cycle|business cycles]], and economic processes. Böhm-Bawerk wrote extensive critiques of Marx in the 1880s and 1890s, and several prominent Marxists &mdash; including [[Rudolf Hilferding]] &mdash; attended his seminar in 1905&ndash;06. In contrast, the classical economists had shown little interest in such topics, and many of them did not even gain familiarity with Marx's ideas until well into the twentieth century. The school was no longer centered in Austria after [[Hitler]] came to power. Austrian economics was ill-thought of by most economists after [[World War II]] due to its rejection of observational methods. Its reputation has lately risen with work by students of [[Israel Kirzner]] and [[Ludwig Lachmann]], as well as an interest in Hayek after he won the [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel]]. However, it remains a distinctly minority position, even in such areas as capital value. Austrian economics can be broken into two general trends. One, exemplified by Hayek, while distrusting of many neoclassical concepts, generally accepts their formulations, the other exemplified by the [[Ludwig von Mises Institute]], seeks a different formalism for [[economics]]. The primary areas of contention between neoclassical theory and the Austrian school are on the possibility of consumer indifference &mdash; neoclassical theory says it is possible, where as Mises rejected it as being "impossible to observe in practice" &mdash; and when Mises and his students argued that utility functions are ordinal, and not cardinal; that is, one can only rank preferences and not measure their intensity. Finally there are a host of questions about uncertainty raised by Mises and other Austrians, who argue for a different means of [[risk assessment]]. An area that is often overlooked is the influence that Austrian school ideas have had on Keynesian [[macroeconomics]]. The source of this influence is the period of time where the [[London School of Economics]] brought in Hayek and other "continental" economists. While their students "flew the coop", refusing to join the Austrian school, many of the concepts, particularly relating time to the value of capital and its importance, would find their way into the work of Keynesians such as [[John Hicks]]. [[Alan Greenspan]], speaking of the originators of the School, said in 2000, "the Austrian school have reached far into the future from when most of them practiced and have had a profound and, in my judgment, probably an irreversible effect on how most mainstream economists think in this country." The long-time U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman said he attended a seminar hosted by Ludwig von Mises. [http://www.usagold.com/gildedopinion/greenspan-gold.html] == Analytical framework == Austrian economists reject observation as a tool applicable to economics, saying that while it is appropriate in the natural sciences where factors can be isolated in laboratory conditions, acting human beings are too complex for this treatment. Instead one should isolate the logical processes of human action - a discipline named "[[praxeology]]" by [[Ludwig von Mises]]. Austrians view [[entrepreneurship]] as the driving force in [[economic development]], see [[private property]] as essential to the efficient use of resources, and often see government interference in market processes as counterproductive. As with neoclassical economists, Austrians reject [[classical economics|classical]] cost of production theories, most famously the [[labor theory of value]]. Instead they explain value by reference to the subjective preferences of individuals. This psychological aspect to Menger's economics has been attributed to the school's birth in turn of the century [[Vienna]]. [[Supply and demand]] are explained by aggregating over the decisions of individuals, following the precepts of [[methodological individualism]], which asserts that only individuals and not collectives make decisions, and [[marginalist]] arguments, which compare the costs and benefits for incremental changes. Contemporary neo-Austrian economists claim to adopt [[economic subjectivism]] more consistently than any other school of economics and reject many neoclassical formalisms. For example, while neoclassical economics formalizes the economy as an [[economic equilibrium|equilibrium]] system with supply and demand in balance, Austrian economists emphasize its dynamic, perpetually dis-equilibrated nature. The core of the Austrian framework can be summarized as taking a subjectivist approach to marginal economics, and a focus on the idea that theory should absolutely overrule observation. Austrians focus completely on the [[opportunity cost]] of goods, as opposed to balancing downside or disutility costs. It is an Austrian assertion that everyone is ''better'' off in a mutually voluntary exchange, or they would not have carried it out. A fuller explanation of this in more exact terms is [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/essays/margrev/oppcost.htm available at the New School's economic pages]. This focus on opportunity cost alone means that their interpretation of the [[time value]] of a good has a strict relationship: since goods will be as restricted by scarcity at a later point in time as they are now, the strict relationship between investment and time must also hold. A factory making goods next year is worth as much less as the goods it is making next year are worth. This means that the business cycle is driven by miscoordination between sectors of the same economy, caused by money not carrying incentive information correct about present choices, rather than within a single economy where money causes people to make bad decisions about how to spend their time. This means, in the Austrian context, the correct way to prevent imbalances in the economy is to make people want to buy the correct goods, rather than controlling when people buy goods. == Contributions == Some contributions of Austrian economists: * A theory of distribution in which factor [[price]]s result from the [[imputation (economics)|imputation]] of prices of consumer goods to goods of "higher order", that is goods used in the production of consumer goods (goods of the first order). * An emphasis on [[opportunity cost]] and reservation demand in defining [[marginal theory of value|value]], and a refusal to consider supply as an otherwise independent cause of value. (The British economist [[Philip Wicksteed]] adopted this perspective.) * An emphasis on the forward-looking nature of choice, seeing time as the root of uncertainty within economics (see also [[time preference]]). * A fundamental rejection of mathematical methods in economics seeing the function of economics as investigating the essences rather than the specific quantities of economic phenomena. This was seen as an evolutionary, or "genetic-causal", approach against the stresses of [[economic equilibrium|equilibrium]] and [[perfect competition]] found in mainstream Neoclassical economics (see also [[praxeology]]). * [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]]'s critique of [[Karl Marx|Marx]] centered around the untenability of the [[labor theory of value]] in the light of the [[transformation problem]]. There was also the connected argument that capitalists do not exploit workers; they accommodate workers by providing them with income well in advance of the revenue from the output they helped to produce. * [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]]'s capital theory, which equates [[capital intensity]] with the degree of [[roundaboutness]] of production processes. * The Mises-Hayek [[business cycle]] theory, which explains depression as a reaction to an intertemporal production structure fostered by [[monetary policy]] setting [[interest rate]]s inconsistent with individual time preferences. * Hayek's concept of [[intertemporal equilibrium]]. ([[John Hicks]] took over this theory in his discussion of temporary equilibrium in ''Value and Capital,'' a book very influential on the development of neoclassical economics after World War II.) * Mises and Hayek's view of prices as permitting agents to make use of [[dispersed knowledge|dispersed tacit knowledge]]. * The [[time preference theory of interest]], which explains interest rates through [[intertemporal choice]] - the different time preferences of the borrower or lender - rather than as a price paid for a [[factor of production]]. * Stressing uncertainty in the making of economic decisions, rather than relying on "[[Homo economicus]]" or the rational man who was fully informed of all circumstances impinging on his decisions. The fact that perfect knowledge never exists, means that all economic activity implies risk. * Seeing the entrepreneurs' role as collecting and evaluating information and acting on risks. * The [[economic calculation debate]] between Austrian and [[Marxist]] economists, with the Austrians claiming that Marxism is flawed because prices could not be set to recognize opportunity costs of factors of production, and so [[socialism]] could not calculate best uses in the same way [[capitalism]] does. == Major Austrian economists == {| | valign="top" | * [[Benjamin Anderson]] * [[Gérard Bramoullé]] * [[Walter Block]] * [[Peter Boettke]] * '''[[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]]''' * [[Gene Callahan]] * [[Tony Carilli]] * [[Jean-Pierre Centi]] * [[Christopher Coyne]] * [[Thomas DiLorenzo]] * [[Richard Ebeling]] * [[Frank Fetter]] * [[Jacques Garello]] | <hspace width="40px"> | | valign="top" | * [[Roger Garrison]] * [[David Gordon]] * '''[[Friedrich Hayek]]''' * [[Henry Hazlitt]] * [[Gottfried von Haberler]] * '''[[Hans-Hermann Hoppe]]''' * [[Steven Horwitz]] * [[Jorg Guido Hulsmann|Jörg Guido Hülsmann]] * [[William Harold Hutt]] * [[Israel Kirzner]] * [[Ludwig Lachmann]] * [[Don Lavoie]] * [[Peter T. Leeson]] * [[Henri Lepage]] | <hspace width="40px"> | | valign="top" | * [[Peter Lewin]] * [[Roderick Long]] * [[Juan De Mariana]] * '''[[Ludwig von Mises]]''' * [[Margit von Mises]] * [[Luis de Molina]] * [[Oskar Morgenstern]] * [[Fritz Machlup]] * '''[[Carl Menger]]''' * [[Gerald O'Driscoll]] * [[Ernest C. Pasour]] * [[Ralph Raico]] | <hspace width="40px"> | | valign="top" | * [[George Reisman]] * [[Mario Rizzo]] * [[Llewellyn Rockwell]] * '''[[Murray Rothbard]]''' * [[Mark Thornton]] * [[Joseph Salerno]] * [[Pascal Salin]] * [[Josef Síma]] * [[Jesus Huerta de Soto]] * [[Richard von Strigl]] * [[Phillip Wicksteed]] * [[Friedrich von Wieser]] |} == Other related economists == * [[Richard Cantillon]] * [[Frederic Bastiat]] (precursor) * [[Henry Hazlitt]] (introduced the Austrian School to the USA) * [[School of Salamanca]] (Renaissance precursors) * [[Étienne Bonnot de Condillac]] * [[Louis Say]] * [[Jean-Baptiste Say]] * [[Léon Walras]] * [[Jules Dupuit]] * [[Lionel Robbins]] * [[Wilhelm Röpke]] * [[Joseph Schumpeter]] * [[Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune|A.R.J. Turgot]] == Critics == * [[Bryan Caplan]] == Seminal works == * ''[[Principles of Economics]]'' by [[Carl Menger]] * ''[[Capital and Interest]]'' by [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]] * ''[[The Theory of Money and Credit]]'' by [[Ludwig von Mises]] * ''[[Socialism (book)|Socialism]]'' by [[Ludwig von Mises]] * ''[[Human Action]]'' by [[Ludwig von Mises]] * ''[[Man, Economy, and State]]'' by [[Murray Rothbard|Murray N. Rothbard]] * ''[[Individualism and Economic Order]]'' by [[Friedrich Hayek]] == See also == *[[Chicago school (economics)]] *[[Classical liberalism]] *[[Keynesian|Keynesian school]] *[[Neoclassical economics|Neoclassical school]] *[[Socialist economics|Socialist school]] *[[Supply-side economics]] *[[School of Salamanca#Economics|School of Salamanca (Renaissance pre-Austrians)]] == External links == *[http://www.mises.org/etexts/austrian.asp What is Austrian Economics?] Austrian School as defined by the [[Ludwig von Mises Institute]]. *[http://www.mises.org The Mises Institute - A large selection of online books, video/audio, journal archives, and research on Austrian economics] * [http://it.stlawu.edu/sdae Society for the Development of Austrian Economics] Largest professional organization of Austrian economists *[http://homepage.newschool.edu/het/schools/austrian.htm Austrian School on newschool.edu] &ndash; compare Austrian versus other Schools *[http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/bawerk/austrian The Austrian Economists by Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk 1891] *[http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/A%20Great%20Revolution%20in%20Economics.htm A Great Revolution in Economics - Vienna 1871 and after] by Houmanidis and Leen * [http://austrianforum.com/ Austrian Economics Forum] Discussion about the Austrian school and libertarianism by economics students and professors *[http://www.montpelerin.org/ The Mont Pelerin Society] *[http://www.gmu.edu/departments/ihs/hsr/s97hsr.html#austrian The Origins of the Austrian School of Economics by John Moser] *[http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Social_Sciences/Economics/Schools_of_Thought/Austrian_School/ Austrian School] Directory of links from the Open Source Directory *[http://www.againstpolitics.com/austrian_economics/ A list of academic critiques of Austrian economics] *[http://austrianecon.com Austrian Economics Forum] Discussion message board concerning Austrian economic theory * [[:fr:Pascal Salin|Pascal Salin]] (in French) * [[:fr:Jacques Garello|Jacques Garello]] (in French) * [[:fr:Jean-Pierre Centi|Jean-Pierre Centi]] (in French) * [[:fr:Gérard Bramoullé|Gérard Bramoullé]] (in French) * [[:fr:Henri Lepage|Henri Lepage]] (in French) * [http://austrianeconomists.typepad.com/ The Austrian Economists] * [http://austrianaddiction.rationalmind.net Austrian Addiction] {{macroeconomics-footer}} [[Category:Economic theories]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Austrian School|*]] [[cs:Rakouská škola]] [[da:Den østrigske skole]] [[de:Österreichische Schule]] [[et:Austria koolkond]] [[es:Escuela Austríaca de Economía]] [[eo:Aŭstria skolo de ekonomiko]] [[fr:École autrichienne d’économie]] [[he:האסכולה האוסטרית]] [[is:Austurrísku hagfræðingarnir]] [[nl:Oostenrijkse School]] [[ja:オーストリア学派]] [[pt:Escola austríaca]] [[sk:Rakúska škola]] [[fi:Itävaltalainen taloustiede]] 1032 38909172 2006-02-09T12:40:07Z Andrew73 410511 /* Perianal abscess */ wiki [[Image:Abszess.jpg|thumb|Abscess]] An '''abscess''' is a collection of [[pus]] collected in a cavity formed by the tissue on the basis of an [[infection|infectious]] process (usually caused by [[bacterium|bacteria]] or [[parasite]]s) or other foreign materials (e.g. splinters or bullet wounds). It is a [[immune system|defensive reaction]] of the tissue to prevent the spread of infectious materials to other parts of the body. The organisms or foreign materials that gain access to a part of tissue kill the local [[cell (biology)|cell]]s, release toxins and trigger an [[inflammation|inflammatory response]] by drawing huge amounts of [[white blood cell]]s to the area and increasing the regional [[blood]] flow. So, pus is a collection of local dead tissue cells, white blood cells, infecting organisms or foreign material and toxins released by both organisms and blood cells. The final structure of the abscess is an abscess wall that is formed by the adjacent healthy cells in an attempt to build a barrier around the pus that limits the infected material from neighbouring structures. ==Manifestations== The cardinal symptoms and signs of any kind of inflammatory process are redness, heat, swelling and pain. Abscesses may occur in any kind of solid tissue but most frequently on skin surface (where they may be superficial pustules ([[boil]]s) or deep skin abscesses), in the lungs, [[brain abscess|brain]], kidneys and tonsils. Major complications are spreading of the abscess material to adjacent or remote tissues and extensive regional tissue death ([[gangrene]]). Abscesses in most parts of the body rarely heal themselves, so prompt medical attention is indicated at the first suspicion of an abscess. ==Treatment== The abscess should be inspected to identify if foreign objects are a cause, requiring surgical removal. [[Surgery|Surgical]] drainage of the abscess (e.g. [[Lancing (Surgical Procedure)|lancing]]) is usually indicated once the abscess has developed from a harder serous inflammation to a softer [[pus]] stage. As ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' [[bacteria]] is a common cause, an anti-Staphylococcus antibiotic such as [[Flucloxacillin]] or [[dicloxacillin]] is used . It is important to note that [[antibiotic]] therapy alone without surgical drainage of the abscess is seldom effective. In critical areas where surgery presents a high risk (such as the [[brain]]), surgery may be delayed or used as a last resort. The drainage of the lung abscess may be performed by positioning the patient in a way that enables the contents to be discharged via the [[respiratory tract]]. Warm compresses and elevation of the limb may be beneficial for skin abscess. ==Perianal abscess== Perianal abscesses can be seen in patients with for example [[inflammatory bowel disease]] (such as [[Crohn's disease]]) or [[diabetes]]. Often the abscess will start as an internal wound caused by ulceration or hard stool. This wound typically becomes infected as a result of the normal presence of feces in the rectal area, and then develops into an abscess. This often presents itself as a lump of tissue near the [[anus]] which grows larger and more painful with the passage of time. Like other abscesses, perianal abscesses may require prompt medical treatment, such as an incision and debridement or [[Lancing (surgical procedure)|lancing]]. ==See also== *[[Boil]] *[[Sterile abscess]] [[Category:Infectious diseases]] [[de:Abszess]] [[es:Absceso]] [[fr:Pustule]] [[it:Ascesso]] [[ms:Bisul]] [[nl:Abces]] [[tl:Abseso]] ==External links== * [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001353.htm MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia - Abscess] * [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000863.htm MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia - Skin Abscess] 1033 41304442 2006-02-26T11:59:35Z 80.171.20.110 That has no place in this article The '''''Abwehr''''' was a [[Germany|German]] [[intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]] organization from [[1921]] to [[1944]]. The verb ''abwehren'' means "to ward off", implying [[counterespionage]]; this term was used as a concession to [[Allies of World War I|Allied]] demands that Germany's post-[[World War I]] intelligence activities be for "defensive" purposes only. After [[February 4]], [[1938]], its name in full was '''''Amt Ausland/Abwehr im Oberkommando der Wehrmacht''''' (Foreign Bureau/Defence of the Armed Forces High Command). Despite its name, the purpose of the Abwehr was to obtain military intelligence concerning nations of interest to the German government. Its headquarters were located at 76/78 Tirpitzufer in [[Berlin]], adjacent to the offices of the [[Oberkommando der Wehrmacht]] (OKW). ==The Abwehr before Canaris== The Abwehr was created in 1921 as part of the [[Ministry of Defence (Germany)|Ministry of Defence]] when Germany was allowed to form the [[Reichswehr]], the [[Armed Forces|military organization]] of the [[Weimar Republic]]. The first head was Major Friedrich Gempp, a former deputy to [[Walther Nicolai|Col. Walther Nicolai]], the head of German inteligence during World War I. At that time it was composed of only three officers and seven former officers plus a clerical staff. By the [[1920s]] it was organized into three sections: *I. [[Reconnaissance]] *II. [[Cipher]] and Radio Monitoring *III. Counterespionage The [[German Navy|German Navy's]] intelligence staff merged with the Abwehr in [[1928]]. In the [[1930s]], with the rise of the [[Nazi]] movement, the Ministry of Defence was reorganized; surprisingly, on [[June 7]], [[1932]], a naval officer, Capt. Konrad Patzig, was named chief of the Abwehr, despite the fact that it was staffed largely by Army officers. But perhaps not surprisingly, due to the small size of the organization and its limited importance at that time, it was unsuitable for a more ambitious Army officer. Another possible factor was that naval officers had more foreign experience than their Army counterparts and understood more of foreign affairs. However, all three services eventually developed their own intelligence staff. Because of Abwehr-sponsored reconnaissance flights across the border with [[Poland]], Patzig soon had confrontations with [[Heinrich Himmler]], head of the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]]. Army leaders feared that the flights would endanger the secret plans for an attack on Poland. Patzig was fired in January [[1935]] as a result, and was sent to command the new [[pocket battleship]] ''[[Admiral Graf Spee]]''; he later became Chief of Naval Personnel. His replacement was another Reichsmarine captain, [[Wilhelm Canaris]]. ==The Abwehr under Canaris== ===Before the War=== [[Image:Wilhelmcanaris.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Wilhelm Canaris]] Before he took over the Abwehr on [[January 1]], the soon-to-be Admiral Canaris was warned by Patzig of attempts by Himmler and [[Reinhard Heydrich]] to take over all German intelligence organs. Canaris, a master of backroom dealings which were so much a part of life, thought he knew how to deal with them. But even while he tried to maintain an at-least cordial relationship with them, the antagonism between the Abwehr and the SS did not stop with Canaris at the helm. It came to a head in [[1937]] when [[Adolf Hitler]] decided to help [[Josef Stalin]] in the latter's purge against the [[Red Army|Soviet military]]. Hitler ordered that the German Army staff should be kept in the dark about Stalin's intentions, for fear that they would warn their Soviet counterparts. Accordingly, special SS teams, accompanied by burglary experts from the criminal police, broke into the secret files of the General Staff and the Abwehr and removed documents related to German-Soviet collaboration. To conceal the thefts, fires were started at the break-ins, which included Abwehr headquarters. When Hitler replaced the [[Ministry of War]] with the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW), the Abwehr became its intelligence agency, although with some degree of independence therefrom. Canaris reorganized the agency in [[1938]], establishing the following major departments, which existed until its dissolution: * I. [[Espionage]] ** '''G''' false documents ** '''H West''' army west (Anglo-American intelligence) ** '''H Ost''' army east (Soviet intelligence) ** '''Ht''' army technical ** '''i''' communications ** '''L''' airforce ** '''M''' naval ** '''T/Lw''' technical air force ** '''W''' economics * II. [[Sabotage]] and special tasks * III. Counterespionage Both Army and Navy officers headed these sections. In this reorganizaton, Canaris took care to surround himself with a hand-picked staff, notably his second-in-command, [[Hans Oster]] and [[Erwin Lahousen|Erwin von Lahousen]], Section II Chief. All but one were not members of the Nazi party. The exception was Rudolf Bamler, who was appointed as chief of Section III to cement Himmler's trust in him, but Canaris made sure to keep a tight leash on him and gave him limited access to operational information. ===The Abwehr During World War II=== Under Canaris the Abwehr expanded and proved relatively efficient during the early years of the war. Its most notable success was [[Operation Nordpol]], which was an operation against the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] underground network, which at the time was supported by the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Special Operations Executive]]. In March [[1941]], the Germans forced a captured SOE radio operator to transmit messages to Britain in a code that the Germans had obtained. Even though the operator gave every indication that he was compromised, the receiver in Britain did not notice this. Thus the Germans had been able to penetrate the Dutch operation and maintained this state of affairs for two years, capturing agents that were sent and sending false intelligence and [[sabotage]] reports until the British caught on. But it was ineffective overall for several reasons. Much of its intelligence was deemed politically unacceptable to the German leadership. Moreover, it was in direct competition/conflict with SS intelligence activities under Reinhard Heydrich and [[Walter Schellenberg]]. The animosity between the SS and Abwehr did not stop there. Many of the Abwehr's operatives — including Canaris himself — were in fact anti-Nazi and were involved in many assassination attempts against Hitler, including the most serious one on [[July 20 Plot|July 20, 1944]]. Canaris even employed [[Jew]]s in the Abwehr and used the agency to help a small number of Jews to escape from Germany into [[Switzerland]]. But perhaps the biggest reason was that Canaris himself sought to undermine the Nazi cause. Despite the Abwehr's many intelligence coups, its effectiveness was more than negated by agents who — with Canaris's blessing — aided the Allies in whatever covert means were necessary. He personally gave false information which discouraged Hitler from invading [[Switzerland]]. He also persuaded [[Francisco Franco]] not to allow German forces to pass through Spain to invade [[Gibraltar]]. He even provided intelligence to the Allies on German intentions as well. The SS continually undermined the Abwehr by putting several Abwehr officers under investigation, believing them (correctly) to be involved in anti-Hitler plots. The SS also accused Canaris of being defeatist in his intelligence assessments, especially on the Russian campaign. One such briefing reportedly resulting in Hitler seizing Canaris by the lapels, and demanding to know whether the intelligence chief was insinuating that Germany would lose the war. ===The Frau Solf Tea Party and the End of the Abwehr=== {{main|Frau Solf Tea Party}} The incident which eventually resulted in the dissolution of the Abwehr came to be known as the "[[Frau Solf Tea Party]]", which took place on [[September 10]], [[1943]]. Frau Johanna (or Hanna) Solf, the widow of Dr. [[Wilhelm Solf]], a former Colonial Minister under [[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] and ex-[[Ambassador]] to [[Japan]], had long been involved in the anti-Nazi intellectual movement in Berlin. At a tea party hosted by her, a new member was included in the circle, an attractive young Swiss doctor named Reckse. It turned out that Dr. Reckse was an agent of the [[Gestapo]], to which he reported on the tea party and turned over several incriminating documents. The Solf circle was tipped off and had to flee for their lives, but they were all rounded up on [[January 12]], [[1944]]. Eventually everyone who was involved in the Solf Circle except Frau Solf and her daughter, the Countess [[Lagi Gräfin von Ballestrem]], were executed. One of those executed was Otto Kiep, an official in the Foreign Office, who had friends in the Abwehr, among whom were [[Erich Vermehren]] and his wife, the former [[Countess Elizabeth von Plettenberg]], who were stationed as agents in [[Istanbul]]. Both were summoned to Berlin by the Gestapo in connection with the Kiep case. Fearing for their lives, they contacted the British and defected. It was mistakenly believed in Berlin that the Vermehrens absconded with the Abwehr's secret codes and turned them over to the British. That proved to be the last straw for Hitler. Despite the efforts of the Abwehr to shift the blame to the SS or even to the Foreign Ministry, Hitler had had enough of Canaris and he told [[Heinrich Himmler|Himmler]] so twice. He summoned the chief of the Abwehr for a final interview and accused him of allowing the Abwehr to "fall into bits". Canaris quietly agreed that it was "not surprising", as Germany was already losing the war. Hitler fired Canaris on the spot, and on [[February 18]], [[1944]], Hitler signed a decree that abolished the Abwehr. Its functions were taken over by the [[RSHA]]. This action deprived the armed forces (and the anti-Nazi conspirators) of an intelligence service of its own and strengthened Himmler's control over the generals. Canaris, by this time a [[vice admiral]], was cashiered and given the empty position of chief of the Office of Commercial and Economic Warfare. He was arrested on [[July 23]], [[1944]] in the aftermath of the [[July 20 Plot]] against Hitler and executed shortly before the end of the war, along with Oster his deputy. The functions of the Abwehr were then totally absorbed by the ''[[Sicherheitsdienst]]'', a sub-office of the ''[[Schutzstaffel]]'' (SS) security command, the [[RSHA]]. ==Chiefs of the Abwehr== * Col. [[Friedrich Gempp]] ([[1921]]&ndash;[[1927]]) * Major [[Günther Schwantes]] (1927&ndash;[[1929]]) * Lt. Col. [[Ferdinand von Bredow]] (1929&ndash;[[1932]]) * Rear Adm. [[Konrad Patzig]] (1932&ndash;[[1935]]) * Vice Adm. [[Wilhelm Canaris]] (1935&ndash;[[1944]]) ==See also== * [[Hans Oster]], Canaris' deputy * [[Erwin Lahousen|Erwin von Lahousen]], chief of German sabotage * [[Nikolaus Ritter]] * [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]] * [[Oskar Schindler]], another Abwehr agent [[Category:German intelligence agencies]] [[Category:German loanwords]] [[de:Abwehr (Nachrichtendienst)]] [[fr:Abwehr]] [[he:אבווהר]] [[nl:Abwehr]] [[nb:Abwehr]] [[pl:Abwehra]] [[ru:Абвер]] [[sr:Абвер]] [[fi:Abwehr]] [[sv:Abwehr]] 1034 42103531 2006-03-03T21:22:50Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 Ced. [[Image:mesaverde_cliffpalace_20030914.752.jpg|thumb|300px|Cliff Palace, Mesa Verde National Park]] '''Ancient Pueblo People''', or '''Ancestral Puebloans''' is a preferred term for the cultural group of people often known as '''Anasazi''' who are the ancestors of the modern [[Pueblo people]]s. The ancestral Puebloans were a [[prehistoric]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] civilization centered around the present-day [[Four Corners (United States)|Four Corners]] area of the [[Southwest United States]]. [[Archaeology|Archaeologists]] still debate when a distinct [[culture]] emerged, but the current consensus, based on terminology defined by the [[Pecos Classification]], suggests their emergence around [[12th century BC|1200 B.C.]], the [[Pecos Classification#Early Basketmaker II Era|Basketmaker II Era]]. The civilization is perhaps best-known for the [[jacal]], [[adobe]] and [[sandstone]] dwellings that they built along cliff walls, particularly during the [[Pecos Classification#Pueblo II Era|Pueblo II]] and [[Pecos Classification#Pueblo III Era|Pueblo III]] eras. The best-preserved examples of those dwellings are in [[National parks (United States)|parks]] such as [[Chaco Canyon|Chaco Culture National Historical Park]], [[Mesa Verde National Park]], [[Hovenweep National Monument]], [[Bandelier National Monument]], and [[Canyon de Chelly National Monument]]. These [[village]]s, called [[pueblo]]s by [[Mexico|Mexican]] settlers, were often only accessible by rope or through [[rock climbing]]. The Ancestral Puebloans are also known for their unique style of [[pottery]], today considered valuable for their rarity. They also created many [[petroglyph]]s and [[pictograph]]s. The Ancestral Puebloans migrated from their ancient homeland for several complex reasons. These may include pressure from [[Numic]]-speaking peoples moving onto the Colorado Plateau as well as climate change which resulted in [[agriculture|agricultural]] failures. Confirming evidence for climatic change in North America is found in excavations of western regions in the Mississippi Valley between A.D. 1150 and 1350 which show long lasting patterns of warmer, wetter winters and cooler, dryer summers. Most modern Pueblo peoples (whether Keresans, Hopi, or Tanoans) and historians like James W. Loewen, in his book ''Lies Across America'', assert these people did not "vanish," as is commonly portrayed, but merged into the various pueblo peoples whose descendants still live in [[Arizona]] and [[New Mexico]]. This perspective is not new and was also presented in reports from early 20th century anthropologists, including [[Frank Hamilton Cushing]], [[J. Walter Fewkes]] and [[Alfred V. Kidder]]. Many modern Pueblo tribes trace their lineage from settlements in the Anasazi area and areas inhabited by their cultural neighbors, the [[Mogollon]]. For example, the San Ildefonso [[Pueblo people]] believe that their ancestors lived in both the [[Mesa Verde]] area and the current [[Bandelier National Monument|Bandelier]]. ==Anasazi as a cultural label== The term "Anasazi" was established in archaeological terminology through the Pecos Classification system in 1927. Archaeologist Linda Cordell discussed the word's etymology and use: :"''The name "Anasazi" has come to mean "ancient people," although the word itself is [[Navajo language|Navajo]], meaning "enemy ancestors."'' [The Navajo word is ''anaasází'' (<''anaa-'' "enemy", ''sází'' "ancestor").] ''It is unfortunate that a non-Pueblo word has come to stand for a tradition that is certainly ancestral Pueblo. The term was first applied to ruins of the Mesa Verde by [[Richard Wetherill]], a rancher and trader who, in 1888-1889, was the first Anglo-American to explore the sites in that area. Wetherill knew and worked with Navajos and understood what the word meant. The name was further sanctioned in archaeology when it was adopted by Alfred V. Kidder, the acknowledged dean of Southwestern Archaeology. Kidder felt that is was less cumbersome than a more technical term he might have used. Subsequently some archaeologists who would try to change the term have worried that because the Pueblos speak different languages, there are different words for "ancestor," and using one might be offensive to people speaking other languages.'' Some modern Pueblo peoples object to the use of the term ''Anasazi'', although there is still controversy among them on a native alternative. The modern Hopi use the word "''Hisatsinom''" in preference to Anasazi. However, Navajo Nation Historic Preservation Department (NNHPD) spokeman Ronald Maldonado has indicated the Navajo do not favor use of the term "Ancestral Puebloan." In fact, reports submitted for review by NNHPD are rejected if they include use of the term. ==Cultural divisions== Archaeological cultural units such as "Anasazi", [[Hohokam]], [[Patayan]] or Mogollon are used by [[archaeologists]] to define material culture similarities and differences that may identify prehistoric socio-cultural units which may be understood as equivalent to modern tribes, societies or peoples. The names and divisions are classificatory devices based on theoretical perspectives, analytical methods and data available at the time of analysis and publication. They are subject to change, not only on the basis of new information and discoveries, but also as attitudes and perspectives change within the scientific community. It should not be assumed that an archaeological division or culture unit corresponds to a particular language group or to a socio-political entity such as a ''tribe''. When making use of modern cultural divisions in the American Southwest, it is important to understand three limitations in the current conventions: *Archaeological research focuses on items left behind during people&#8217;s activities; fragments of pottery vessels, human remains, stone tools or evidence left from the construction of dwellings. However, many other aspects of the culture of prehistoric peoples are not tangible. [[Language]]s spoken by these people and their beliefs and behavior are difficult to decipher from physical materials. Cultural divisions are tools of the modern scientist, and so should not be considered similar to divisions or relationships the ancient residents may have recognized. Modern cultures in this region, many of whom claim some of these ancient people as ancestors, contain a striking range of diversity in lifestyles, social organization, language and religious beliefs. This suggests the ancient people were also more diverse than their material remains may suggest. *The modern term &#8220;style&#8221; has a bearing on how material items such as pottery or [[architecture]] can be interpreted. Within a people, different means to accomplish the same goal can be adopted by subsets of the larger group. For example, in modern Western cultures, there are alternative styles of [[clothing]] that characterized older and younger generations. Some cultural differences may be based on linear traditions, on teaching from one generation or &#8220;school&#8221; to another. Other varieties in style may have distinguished between arbitrary groups within a culture, perhaps defining [[status]], [[gender]], [[clan]] or [[guild]] affiliation, religious belief or cultural alliances. Variations may also simply reflect the different resources available in a given time or area. *Defining cultural groups, such as the Ancient Pueblo peoples, tends to create an image of territories separated by clear-cut boundaries, like modern state lines. These simply did not exist. ''Prehistoric people traded, worshipped and collaborated most often with other nearby groups. Cultural differences should therefore be understood as ''“clinal”'', "increasing gradually as the distance separating groups also increases."'' (Plog, p. 72.) Departures from the expected pattern may occur because of unidentified social or political situations or because of geographic barriers. In the Southwest, mountain ranges, rivers and, most obviously, the [[Grand Canyon]] can be significant barriers for human communities, likely reducing the frequency of contact with other groups. Current opinion holds that the closer cultural similarity between the Mogollon and Ancient Pueblos and their greater differences from the [[Hohokam]] and [[Patayan]] is due to both the geography and the variety of climate zones in the Southwest. ==References== *Cordell, Linda S. ''Ancient Pueblo Peoples''. St. Remy Press and Smithsonian Institution, 1994. ISBN 0-89599-038-5. *Fagan, Brian M. "Ancient North America: Tha Archaeology of a Continent (part five)." Thames and Hudson, Inc., New York, New York, 1991. ISBN 0-500-05075-9. *[[Plog, Stephen]]. ''Ancient Peoples of the American Southwest''. Thames and Hudson, London, England, 1997. ISBN 0-500-27939-X. *Sofaer, Anna , Director. "Mystery of Chaco Canyon." 1999. DVD/VHS. Bullfrog Films. Blurb: "Unveiling the ancient astronomy of southwestern Pueblo Indians." Sequel to "The Sun Dagger." ==See also== * [[Chaco Culture National Historical Park|Chacoans]] * [[Cliff Palace]] * [[Hopi]] * [[Kiva]] * [[Kokopelli]] * [[Matrilocality]] * [[Newspaper Rock State Historic Monument]] * [[Pueblo people]] * [[sipapu]] * [[Taos Pueblo]] * [[Zuni]] ==External links== * [http://www.co.blm.gov/ahc/ Homepage of the Anasazi Heritage Center] *[http://www.holmes.anthropology.museum/southwestpottery/index.html Southwest Pueblo Pottery] Holmes Anthropology Museum [[Category:Ancient peoples]] [[Category:Archaeological cultures]] [[Category:Native American culture]] [[Category:Native American history]] [[Category:Pottery]] [[de:Anasazi]] [[fa:مردمان باستانی پوئبلو]] [[fr:Anasazi]] [[it:Anasazi]] [[pl:Anasazi]] 1035 15899541 2005-03-28T09:29:04Z N.hong.phuc 216275 #REDIRECT [[AAL]] 1036 41621262 2006-02-28T16:00:51Z 62.25.109.194 [[Image:Olbo 2004 ubt.jpeg|thumb|right|300px|View of Aalborg railroad station from J.F. Kennedy's Square, 2004]] '''Aalborg''' is a municipality ([[Danish language|Danish]], ''[[Commune (subnational entity)|kommune]]'') in [[North Jutland County]] on the [[Jutland]] peninsula in northern [[Denmark]]. The municipality straddles the [[Limfjord]], the waterway which connects the [[North Sea]] and the [[Kattegat]] east-to-west, and which separates the main body of the Jutland peninsula from the island of [[Vendsyssel-Thy]] north-to-south. It is also the name of the municipality's main city and the site of its municipal council, as well as the name of a [[seaport]]. The municipality and the town have chosen to retain the traditional spelling of the name as ''Aalborg'', although the new spelling ''Ålborg'' is used in other contexts, such as Ålborg Bay (''Ålborg Bugt''), the body of water which lies to the east of the Jutland peninsula. The municipality, which includes the island of [[Egholm]], covers an area of 560 [[square kilometre|km²]], and has a total population of 192,353 (2005). The mayor of the municipality is Henning G. Jensen, a member of the [[Social Democrats (Denmark)|Social Democrats]] (''Socialdemokraterne'') [[Politics of Denmark|political party]]. Neighboring municipalities are [[Sejlflod]] and [[Hals]] to the east, [[Dronninglund]] and [[Brønderslev]] to the north, [[Aabybro]] and [[Nibe]] to the west, and [[Støvring]] and [[Skørping]] to the south. The waters splitting the municipality are called ''Langerak'' to the east and ''Gjøl Bredning'' to the west. The island of Egholm is located in ''Gjøl Bredning'', and is connected by [[ferry]] to the city of Aalborg at its southern shore. By [[January 1]], [[2007]] Aalborg municipality will, as the result of [[Municipalities of Denmark#Municipality Reform 2007|''Kommunalreformen'' ("The Municipality Reform" of 2007)]], be merged with existing [[Hals]], [[Nibe]], and [[Sejlflod]] municipalities to form the new Aalborg municipality. This will create a municipality with an area of 1,171 [[square kilometre|km²]]. The new municipality will belong to the new [[Region Nordjylland]] ("North Jutland Region"). ==Surroundings== The area is typical for the north of Jutland. To the west the Limfjord broadens into an irregular lake (salt water), with low, marshy shores and many islands. Northwest is [[Store Vildmose]] ("Greater Wild bog"), a swamp where a mirage is sometimes seen in summer. Southeast lies the similar [[Lille Vildmose]] ("Lesser Wild bog"). Store Vildmose was drained and farmed in the beginning of the 20th century, and Lille Vildmose is now the largest [[Bog|moor]] in Denmark. ==The city of Aalborg== The city of Aalborg is the fourth largest city in Denmark— after [[Copenhagen]], [[Aarhus]] and [[Odense]]. It is the location of [[Aalborg Air Base]], an important base of the [[Danish Air Force|Danish air force]], and is the seat of a [[Lutheran]] [[bishop]]. Railway connects Aalborg with [[Hjørring]], [[Frederikshavn]], and [[Skagen]] to the north, and with [[Aarhus]] and the lines from [[Germany]] to the south, as well as to [[Copenhagen]] in the east over the island of [[Funen]]. The harbour is good and safe, though fairly difficult to access. ===History=== Aalborg traces its history back over 1000 years. It was originally settled as a trading post, because of its position on the Limfjord. The sites of what were two settlements and a visible burial ground can be seen on [[Lindholm Høje]], a hill overlooking the city. The size of these settlements emphasise the significance of this place as a crossroads. The first mention of Aalborg under its original name ''Alabu'', is found on a coin dated to 1040. During the [[Middle Ages]], Aalborg prospered and became one of the largest cities in Denmark. This prosperity was further enhanced when in [[1516]] Aalborg was granted a [[monopoly]] in salt herring. Aalborg received town privileges in [[1342]] and the bishopric dates from [[1554]]. During the German invasion of Denmark in 1940, the Aalborg Aerodrome was captured by Nazi paratroopers very early in the action. ===Industry=== Aalborg is a growing industrial and commercial centre, exporting grain, cement and fish. It is home to [[De Danske Spritfabrikker]]'s ("Danish Distillers") [[akvavit|aquavit]] [[snaps]], production facility for the distillation of the Aalborg family of akvavits consisting of 17 different brands. Danish Distillers is Scandinavia's largest producer and supplier of spirits for consumption, and is the world's largest producer and exporter of aquavit, supplying over 140 geographic markets. It is also the centre of a growing telecomunications industry originating from the [[University of Aalborg|Aalborg University]]. [[Image:Aalborg NyTorv 2004 ubt.jpeg|thumb|300px|left|Nytorv, next to [[Limfjord]].]] ===Carnival in Aalborg=== The annual carnival takes place the last weekend in May. During the carnival, Aalborg receives about 100,000 people. Friday “The Battle of Carnival Bands” is an exciting and colourful evening with processions through the city when all the participating groups compete to be the leading carnival group. The carnival itself is the following Saturday – on this day the city centre is full of life. The streets are filled with gaily dressed people who are in a real spring mood. In Kilde Park concerts are given from various stages all day to midnight. The Carnival ends with a grand firework display on the harbour. ===Architecture and tourist attractions=== The old castle [[Aalborghus Castle]] (''Aalborghus Slot'') and some picturesque houses of the [[17th century]] remain in the center of the town. The [[Timber framing|half-timbered]] (''bindingsværk'') castle was built in 1550 by King [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]], and was converted to government administration offices in the 1950s. [[Budolfi Church]] cathedral dates mostly from the middle of the [[18th century]], while ''Vor Frue Kirke'' (Church of Our Lady) was partially burnt in [[1894]]. The foundations of both churches are from the [[14th century]] or earlier. There are also an ancient hospital and a museum of art and antiquities. On the north side of the Limfjord is [[Nørresundby]], which is connected to Aalborg by a road bridge, an iron railway bridge, as well as a motorway tunnel running under the Limfjord. Nørresundby is the site of the Lindholm Høje settlement and burial ground from the Germanic Iron Age and [[Viking]] times. There is also a museum on the site. [[Aalborgtårnet]]. A tripod tower erected in 1933. The tower still gives an exquisite view over the fjord and the city from its 105 m rise over the sea level. <!--==Famous residents of the municipality==--> ==Twinning== Aalborg maintains cultural, economic and educational ties with some 25 cities around the globe, among others [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]]. Thus, Aalborg has the most twin cities in Denmark. Every five years Aalborg gathers youth from the majority of its twin cities for a week of sports games, known as Ungdomslegene (The Youth Games). ==Other information== The city has a [[football (soccer)|football]] team playing in the Danish Superleague, [[Aalborg Boldspilklub]], which is known as AaB. The city has the highest number of [[hairdresser]] shops, [[tattoo]] shops, bars, night clubs, pubs and [[solariums]] per inhabitant in [[Denmark]]. == See Also == [[Aalborg_monastery]] ==External links== {{commons|Category:Aalborg municipality}} * [http://www.aalborg.dk/ Municipality's official website] * [http://www.detnyeaalborg.dk/ The new Aalborg municipality's website (Danish only)] * [http://www.visitaalborg.com/ Aalborg tourist office] * [http://www.aau.dk/ Aalborg University] * [http://www.aalborgakvavit.dk/ Aalborg Akvavit] * [http://www.aalborgtaarnet.com/ Ålborgtårnet] * [http://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&t=k&ll=57.039983,9.944344&spn=0.084614,0.299377&t=k Satellite image from Google Maps] * [http://www.interaalborg.dk/ InterAalborg.dk An independent guide and information of the city. Website made by Aalborg University students] ==References== {{Wikisource1911Enc|Aalborg}} * Municipal statistics: [http://www2.netborger.dk/Kommunefakta/ NetBorger Kommunefakta], delivered from [http://www.kmd.dk/ KMD] aka Kommunedata (Municipal Data) * Municipal mergers and neighbors: [http://kommune.eniro.dk/region/media/nyekommuner.shtml Eniro new municipalities map] [[Category:Municipalities of Denmark]] [[Category:Cities and towns in Denmark]] [[bg:Алборг]] [[da:Ålborg]] [[de:Aalborg]] [[es:Aalborg]] [[fr:Aalborg]] [[gl:Aalborg - Ålborg]] [[it:Aalborg]] [[hu:Aalborg]] [[nl:Aalborg]] [[no:Ålborg]] [[pl:Aalborg]] [[ro:Aalborg]] [[fi:Aalborg]] [[sv:Ålborg]] 1038 41652564 2006-02-28T20:37:37Z Sorenholm 1007597 /* Culture */ :''For the Aarhus convention on public participation, see [[Aarhus Convention]].'' [[Image:Århus Rådhus.jpg|thumb|right|The [[City hall]] of Aarhus.]] '''Aarhus''', also commonly known by its [[Danish language|Danish]] spelling '''Århus''', is the second largest city in [[Denmark]]. It is the principal [[port]] on the east coast of [[Jutland]]. Aarhus is also the location of the council of both [[Aarhus municipality]] and [[Aarhus County]]. ==Demographics== The city's population is 294,954 (July 2005) [http://www.aarhus.dk/statistik (1)]. The town lies at the junction of [[railway]] lines from all parts of the country in a low-lying, fertile, and well-wooded district. To the southwest (13 miles by rail), a picturesque region that contains the [[Gudenaa|Gudenå]] and several lakes extends west from the railway junction of [[Skanderborg]], and rises to ground exceeding 500 feet in the [[Himmelbjerget]]. The railway traverses this pleasant district of moorland and woodland to [[Silkeborg]], a modern town with one of the most attractive situations in the kingdom. The harbour is good and safe, and agricultural produce is exported, while [[coal]] and [[iron]] are among the chief imports. The bishopric of Aarhus dates back at least from [[951]]. Aarhus' [[13th century]] [[cathedral]], The [[Århus Domkirke]], is the largest church in Denmark, as well as the second largest in [[Northern Europe]], being only 1.5&nbsp;ft shorter than its counterpart in [[Trondheim]]. Aarhus is also home to one of the few [[ghetto]]s in Denmark: [[Gellerup]] One major tourist attraction in Aarhus is [[The_Old_Town,_Aarhus|The Old Town]] ([[Danish language|Danish]]: ''Den Gamle By''), which is not actually an old part of the city itself, but a collection of old buildings from Danish history gathered from all around the country. The [[Lord Mayor]] of Aarhus is [[Nicolai Wammen]] of the [[Social Democrats (Denmark)|Social Democrats]]. Aarhus is the home of [[University of Aarhus]], [[Aarhus School of Business]] and the [[University College of Aarhus]]. ==History== <!--Insert history intro here--> ===The name=== In [[medieval]] times, the city was called ''Arus'', and in Icelandic chronicles, it was known as ''Áróss''. It is a compound of the two words ''ār'', genitive of ''ā'' "river" (Modern Danish ''å'') and ''ōss'' "mouth" (obsolete in Modern Danish; in Modern Icelandic this word is still used for "river delta"). The city is located on the mouth of the small river Århus Å. Through regular sound development, Medieval Danish ''Arus'' became ''Aars'' or ''Oes'', a form, which persisted in the dialects of the surrounding parishes until the 20th century. In 1406 ''Aarhus'' became revalent in the written sources, and gradually became the norm in the [[17th century]]. ''Aarhus'' is probably a remodelling after the numerous Low German place names in ''-husen'', possibly as a result of the influence of German merchants. The city is mentioned the first time by [[Adam of Bremen]] who mentions that "Reginbrand, bishop of the church of Aarhus (Harusam)" participates in a church meeting in the city of [[Ingelham]] in [[Germany]]. {{fact}} ===Viking times=== The oldest [[Archaeology|archaelogical]] findings in Aarhus are glass pearls which date to the end of the [[7th century]]. Half buried [[Long houses]], used both as homes and workshops for the Vikings have also been found.{{fact}} In the houses and the adjoining archaelogical layers, combs, jewelry and basic multi-purpose tools have been found that indicate the settlement is from approximately year [[900]]. Digs in the spring of 2005 revealed a so-called city-ditch from the year [[850]] which might have marked the trade centre upon which the city is built. {{fact}} The finding of six [[rune stones]] in and around Aarhus indicates the city had some significance around year [[1000]] as only wealthy nobles traditionally used them. {{fact}} ===1600-1700=== During the wars of the 17th century, it is probable that the city suffered a great deal. Fortifications still exist south of the city as a reminder of the [[Germany|German]] imperial campaigns between [[1627]] and [[1629]]. In [[1644]], [[Sweden]] taxed the city harshly and between [[1657]] and [[1659]], it was occupied by Swedish troops on several occasions. {{fact}} In spite of these and other misfortunes, such as plague and city-wide fires, Aarhus was still quite a significant city in [[Denmark]] due to its favourable geographical position which was of significant importance for trading. Trade came mainly from the inland of [[Jutland]] but also from [[Norway]], [[Lübeck]], [[Amsterdam]], [[England]], [[France]] and [[Spain]]. In the middle of the 18th century the trade fleet consisted of approximately 100 ships.{{fact}} ===1800=== In the [[19th century]], the city gained more independence from the dominance of [[Copenhagen]] and [[Hamburg]]. While it had been the third largest city in Jutland during the early 19th century, its population surpassed [[Randers]] in [[1840]] and in [[1850]], [[Ålborg]], thus becoming the largest city in Jutland and the second largest in Denmark.{{fact}} The city's material prosperity continued to increase as the harbour expanded and the railway network grew. Culturally, it marketed itself as the "Capital of Jutland" and expanded many of its cultural institutions like the national library, universities, the [[Aarhus Theater]] and hospitals. ==Suburbs of Aarhus (listed by zip code)== * ''8000'' [[Århus C]] * ''8200'' [[Århus N]] * ''8210'' [[Århus V]] * ''8220'' [[Brabrand]] * ''8230'' [[Åbyhøj]] * ''8240'' [[Risskov]] * ''8250'' [[Egå]] * ''8260'' [[Viby J]] * ''8270'' [[Højbjerg]] * ''8310'' [[Tranbjerg J]] * ''8320'' [[Mårslet]] * ''8330'' [[Beder_(Danish_village)|Beder]] * ''8340'' [[Malling]] * ''8355'' [[Solbjerg]] * ''8361'' [[Hasselager]] * ''8380'' [[Trige]] * ''8381'' [[Tilst]] * ''8462'' [[Harlev]] * ''8471'' [[Sabro]] * ''8520'' [[Lystrup]] * ''8530'' [[Hjortshøj]] * ''8541'' [[Skødstrup]] ==Buildings and constructions== * [[Telecommunication Tower Arhus]] (Concrete tower with guyed mast on its top, not accessible for visitors) * [[Skejby Sygehus]] (the second largest hospital in Denmark) ==External links== {{commons|Århus}} {{Wikisource1911Enc|Aarhus}} ===Official websites=== * [http://www.aarhus.dk/aa/portal/borger/s_english Official city web portal] * [http://www.visitaarhus.com/show.asp?id=64 Visit Århus - the official tourism site of Århus] ===Educational institutions=== * [http://www.au.dk/en/ University of Aarhus] * [http://www.asb.dk Aarhus School of Business] * [http://www.iha.dk University College of Aarhus (''technical college'')] ===Culture=== * [http://www.aakb.dk/sw1379.asp?setlanguage=2 Århus Kommunes Biblioteker (''Aarhus Public Libraries'')] * [http://www.huset-aarhus.dk/?setlanguage=2 Kulturcenter HUSET (''Cultural Centre'')] * [http://www.aros.dk/?setlanguage=2 ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum (''museum of arts'')] * [http://www.dengamleby.dk/english.htm Den Gamle By (''The Old Town'')] * [http://moesgaard.hum.au.dk/my.php?top=13&language=1 Moesgård Museum (''archaeological and ethnographic museum'')] * [http://www.musikhusetaarhus.dk Musikhuset Aarhus (''concert hall'')] * [http://www.minority-report.dk/english/ (''Aarhus Festival of Contemporary Art 2004: Minority Report'')] [[Category:Aarhus]] [[Category:Cities and towns in Denmark]] [[bg:Орхус]] [[cs:Århus]] [[da:Århus]] [[de:Århus]] [[es:Århus]] [[eo:Arhuzo]] [[fr:Århus]] [[gl:Aarhus - Århus]] [[id:Aarhus]] [[it:Århus]] [[hu:Aarhus]] [[lv:Orhūsa]] [[nl:Aarhus]] [[ja:オーフス]] [[no:Århus]] [[pl:Århus]] [[ro:Århus]] [[sr:Архус]] [[fi:Århus]] [[sv:Århus]] [[tr:Orhus]] 1042 24813196 2005-10-05T14:22:21Z Kbdank71 197953 fix double redirect #REDIRECT [[Northern Cavefish]] 1043 37292545 2006-01-30T01:32:08Z Gdrbot 263608 nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}} {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Northern cavefish | status = {{StatusVulnerable}} | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Actinopterygii]] | ordo = [[Percopsiformes]] | familia = [[Amblyopsidae]] | genus = ''[[Amblyopsis]]'' | species = '''''A. spelea''''' | binomial = ''Amblyopsis spelea'' | binomial_authority = (DeKay, 1842) }} The '''Nothern Cavefish''' also know as the '''Northern Blindfish''', ''Amblyopsis spelea'' is found in caves through [[Kentucky]] and southern [[Indiana]]. It is listed as a threatened species in the United States and the [[IUCN]] lists the species as vulnerable. The [[White River (Indiana)|White River]], flowing east to west south of [[Bedford, Indiana]], delimits the northern range of ''Amblyopsis spelea''. These fish are not found in caves north of the White River. [[Category:Percopsiformes]] ==References== * {{FishBase_species|genus=Amblyopsis|species=spelea|year=2005|month=10}} {{fish-stub}} 1044 41712336 2006-03-01T05:55:35Z CanadianCaesar 290432 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.198.223.52|68.198.223.52]] ([[User talk:68.198.223.52|talk]]) to last version by Coolcaesar {{cleanup-date|August 2005}} {{Wiktionarypar|abandonment}} The term '''abandonment''' has a multitude of uses which can generally be broken into legal and extra-legal uses. This "signpost article" provides a guide to the various uses of the word via links to articles that deal with each of the distinct concepts at length. == Uses in law == '''Abandonment''' in law, the relinquishment of an interest, claim, privilege or possession. This broad meaning has a number of applications in different branches of law. *In [[Common law|common law]] jurisdictions, both ''common law abandonment'' and ''statutory abandonment'' of [[Property (ownership right)|property]] may be recognized. A common law abandonment may be generally defined as "the relinquishment of a right [in property] by the owner thereof without any regard to future possession by himself or any other person, and with the intention to foresake or desert the right...." 1 ''Corpus Juris Secundum'' “Abandonment” § 2 (1985) (emphasis added) [footnotes and citations omitted]. Common law abandonment is "the voluntary relinquishment of a thing by its owner with the intention of terminating his ownership, and without [the intention of] vesting ownership in any other person; the giving up of a thing absolutely, without reference to any particular person or purpose...." Id. (emphasis added) [footnotes and citations omitted]. An example of statutory abandonment in a common law jurisdiction is abandonment by a [[Bankruptcy in the United States|bankruptcy trustee]] under {{usc|11|554}}). *Abandonment of an action (see [[Judicature Acts#Specific changes in procedure|Judicature Acts]]), relates to a plaintiff's discontinuance of proceedings ongoing before the [[High Court of Justice of England and Wales]] and which procedure changed substantially as a result of reforms to the judiciary of the United Kingdom in 1875. *In [[marine insurance]] parlance, abandonment involves the surrender of a ship or goods to the insurer. *In the domain of [[copyright]]s, abandonment is recognized as the explicit release of material by a copyright holder into the [[public domain]]. However, statutory abandonment is a relatively unclear area of copyright law and the more common approach is to license work under a scheme that provides for public use rather than strictly abandoning copyright. For more information consult [[Public_domain#Disclaimer of interest|"disclaimer of interest"]]. *In the military practice and law, abandonment of a military post by a soldier can be called [[desertion]], and the condition of being away from that post can be called [[Desertion#AWOL: Away WithOut Leave|being "Away Without Leave"]]. *In family circumstances, [[child abandonment]] is often recognized as a crime, in which case the child is usually not physically harmed directly as part of the abandonment; distinct from this is the widely recognized crime of [[infanticide]]. <!-- '''Abandonment of wife and children''' is sometimes called ''[[desertion]],'' and is somewhat difficult to prove in court. The plaintiff must generally show his or spouse to have left for over a year and failed to pay support, as well as proving that the departure was not agreed upon and also not caused by the plaintiff. Because abandonment by a husband often left his wife and children destitute (and hence a burden upon the public purse), it used to be a [[felony]] in most [[U.S. state|American states]]. At present, nearly all states have abolished the felony of abandonment, but it remains in place in a few states like [[Massachusetts]]. The abandonment or exposure of a young child under the age of two, which is an indictable [[misdemeanor]], is commonly called ''cruelty to children.'' --> * '''Abandonment of domicile''' is the ceasing to reside permanently in a former domicile coupled with the intention of choosing a new domicile. The presumptions which will guide the court in deciding whether a former domicile has been abandoned or not must be inferred from the facts of each individual case. In the United States, a tenant is generally understood to have abandoned a property if he or she has fallen behind in rent and shown a lack of interest in continuing to live there. The landlord must then send notice of the intent to sell the property and wait a certain number of days to take action on it. How long the landlord has to wait depends on the value of the property; the landlord can keep the money up to the costs incurred as a result of the abandonment; the rest must be set aside for the former tenant, should she or he eventually return. * '''Abandonment of an easement''' is the relinquishment of some accommodation or right in another's land, such as right of way, free access of light and air, etc. See [[easement]]. * '''''Abandonment of railways''''' has a legal signification in England recognized by statute, by authority of which the [[Board of Trade]] may, under certain circumstances, grant a warrant to a [[railway]] authorizing the abandonment of its line or part of it. * '''Abandonment of trademark''' is understood to happen when a [[trademark]] is not used for three or more years, or when it is deliberately discontinued; trademark law protects only trademarks being actively used and defended. An example of an abandoned trademark is ''[[aspirin]]'', once a mark of the [[Bayer]] company, now considered a generic term. == Extra-legal uses == Outside of legal circles, '''abandonment''' has additional meanings and uses: * '''''Abandonment''''' is a play about love, death, identity and evolution. It is a complex mixture of social comedy and family drama, reminding us that the past is not as far away as we think. Written by [[Kate Atkinson]]. * '''[[Child abandonment]] in film and literature''': ** ''[[Bachelor Mother]]'' ([[Garson Kanin]]; US, 1939) * '''Abandonment of a patient''', in [[medicine]], is where a health care professional (usually a [[physician]], [[nurse]], [[dentist]], or [[paramedic]]) has already begun emergency treatment of a patient and then suddenly walks away while the patient is still in need, without securing the services of an adequate substitute, or giving the patient adequate opportunity to find one. It is a [[crime]] in many countries and can result in the loss of one's license to practice. Also, because of the [[public policy]] in favor of keeping people alive, the professional cannot defend himself or herself by pointing to the patient's inability to pay for services, the possibility of exposure to malpractice liability beyond one's insurance coverage, or the patient's inability to stop screaming (because of extreme pain). {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abandonment}} [[Category:Legal terms]] [[be:&#1040;&#1073;&#1072;&#1085;&#1076;&#1086;&#1085;]] [[da:Abandon]] [[de:Abandon]] [[it:Abbandono]] [[pl:Abandon]] [[ru:&#1040;&#1073;&#1072;&#1085;&#1076;&#1086;&#1085;]] 1046 42146295 2006-03-04T03:07:16Z Gflores 153556 rm cleanup {{wiktionary}} The word '''abatement''' has various meanings, many of them legal. The word came through French ''abattre'' from Latin ''ab'' + Late Latin ''battuere'' = "to beat" (which came from Germanic). It means a beating down or reducing or doing away with something. *[[Abatement of a nuisance]], the remedy allowed by law to a person or public authority injured by a public [[nuisance]], letting him destroy or remove it, if doing so causes no breach of the peace. In the case of private nuisances, abatement is also allowed if it causes no breach of the peace and no damage beyond what removing the nuisance requires. *Abatement of [[freehold (real property)|freehold]] happens where, after the person last seised dies, a stranger enters upon lands before the entry of the heir or devisee, and keeps the heir or devisee out of possession. **[[Intrusion]], an entry by a stranger when a tenant for life dies, to the prejudice of the reversioner or remainder man. **[[Disseisin]], the forcible or fraudulent expulsion of a person seised of the freehold. *[[Abatement of debts and legacies]], a common law doctrine of wills that holds that when the equitable assets of a deceased person are not sufficient to satisfy fully all the creditors, their debts must abate proportionately *[[Abatement in pleading]], or plea in abatement, was a [[plea]] by the defendant, defeating or quashing a legal action by some matter of fact, such as a defect in form or the personal incompetency of the parties suing. It did not involve the merits of the cause, but left the right of action subsisting. In criminal proceedings, a [[plea]] in abatement was at one time a common practice in answer to an indictment, and was set up to defeat the indictment as framed, by alleging that the defendant was wrongly named ("misnomer") or was otherwise wrongly described. Its effect for this purpose was nullified by the Criminal Law Act 1826, which required the court to amend according to the truth, and the Criminal Procedure Act 1851 (see [[Criminal Procedure]]), which rendered description of the defendant unnecessary. All pleas in abatement are now abolished (R.S.G. Order 21, r. 20). *[[Abatement in litigation]], in civil proceedings, no action abates because any of the parties marries or dies or becomes [[bankrupt]], if the cause of the action survives or continues, and does not become defective because any [[estate]] or [[title]] is assigned or created or [[devolution|devolved]] ''[[pendente lite]]'' (R.S.C. Order 17, r. 1). [[Criminal proceeding]]s do not abate on the death of the prosecutor, being in theory instituted by the crown; but the crown may terminate them without deciding on the merits and without the assent of the prosecutor. *Abatement of false lights, by the Merchant Shipping Act 1854, the general lighthouse authority has power to order the extinguishment or screening of any light which may be mistaken for a light proceeding from a lighthouse. *Abatement in commerce is a deduction sometimes made at a [[custom-house]] from the fixed duties on certain kinds of goods, on account of damage or loss sustained in [[warehouse]]s. The rate and conditions of such deductions are regulated, in England, by the Customs Consolidation Act 1853. (See also drawback and [[rebate (marketing)]].) *[[Abatement (heraldry)]] is a badge in coat-armour, indicating some kind of [[degradation]] or dishonour. It is also called rebatement. Though most abatements have existed only in theory, there has been at least one imposition of an abatement in Scotland. {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abatement}} [[Category:Legal terms]] {{disambig}} 1047 41582867 2006-02-28T08:00:12Z NongBot 817745 robot Modifying: th {{otheruses}} '''Ale''' is an ancient word for a [[fermentation|fermented]] [[alcoholic beverage]] obtained chiefly from [[malt|malted]] [[barley]]. Before the introduction of [[hop (plant)|hops]] into England from the [[Netherlands]] in the [[15th century]] the name "ale" was exclusively applied to unhopped fermented beverages, the term "[[beer]]" being gradually introduced to describe a brew with an infusion of hops. This distinction no longer applies. A modern ale is commonly defined by the strain of yeast used and the fermenting temperature. ''Strain of Yeast'': An ale yeast is normally considered to be a [[top-fermenting]] yeast, though a number of British brewers, such as [[Fullers]] and [[Weltons]], use ale yeast strains that settle at the bottom. Common features of ale yeasts regardless of top or bottom fermentation is that they ferment more quickly than lager yeasts, they convert less of the [[sugar]] into [[alcohol]] (giving a sweeter, fuller body) and they produce more [[esters]] (which give a fruity taste) and [[diacetyl]] (which gives a buttery taste). ''Fermenting Temperature'': Ale is typically fermented at higher temperatures than lager beer (15–23°C, 60–75°F). Ale yeasts at these temperatures produce significant amounts of esters and other secondary flavor and aroma products, and the result is a beer with slightly "fruity" compounds resembling but not limited to apple, pear, pineapple, banana, plum or prune. ''Stylistic Difference to [[Lager]]'': Stylistic differences between some ales and lagers can be difficult to categorize. [[Steam beer]], [[Kölsch]] and some modern British Golden Summer Beers are seen as hybrids, using elements of both lager and ale production, while Baltic Porter and Bière de Garde may be produced by either lager or ale methods or a combination of both. However, lager is commonly perceived to be cleaner tasting, drier and lighter in the mouth than ale. In a number of [[U.S. state]]s, especially in the [[western United States]], "ale" is the term mandated by state law for any beverage fermented from grain with an alcoholic strength above that which can legally be named "beer," without regard to the method of fermentation or the yeast used. This distinction is not obsolete, but it is idiosyncratic. In former times the [[Wales|Welsh]] and [[Scotland|Scots]] had two distinct kinds of ale, called ''common'' and ''spiced'' ales, the relative values of which (compared to [[mead]]) were appraised by law in the following terms: :''If a farmer have no mead, he shall pay two casks of spiced ale, or four casks of common ale, for one cask of mead.'' Ales are very common in [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[Germany]], the [[United States]], and [[Belgium]]; however, [[Lager]] - but please see the discussion page about the term lager - is the dominant style of beer in almost all countries, worldwide. ==Varieties of ale== ===British / Irish / American ales=== British and Irish ales are, worldwide, the most popular variety of beer fermented with top-fermented yeast. Most beers in this region typically are made with yeast strains that leave some [[ester]]s behind, producing flavors often described as "fruity" or "buttery". "Earthy" English hops are added, adding to the complexity. Within this region, a wide variety of substyles can be found, ranging from roasted malt ales (porter, stout), to highly hopped ales (India pale ale), to malt-balanced ales. Alcohol ranges from the very low (e.g. the English mild beer) to the very high (e.g. the English barley wine). American style ales rose out of the microbrewery / craft brewing revolution that began in the early 1980s. Typically, these ales are very similar to their British counterparts, but have cleaner yeast strains, and often have higher hop rates dominated by American varieties (such as the citrusy Cascade hop.) Any of these styles, when cask conditioned, can be termed [[cask ale]], and when unfiltered in the bottle can be termed [[bottle conditioned]]. [[CAMRA]] is a British organization that promotes [[real ale]]. *[[Amber ale|Amber/Red ale]] *[[Barleywine]] *[[Bitter (beer)|Bitter]] **[[Pale ale]] **[[India pale ale]] or Imperial pale ale or Strong pale ale **[[Light ale]] **[[Summer ale]] *[[Blonde ale|Blonde/Golden ale]] *[[Brown ale]] *[[Cream ale]] *[[Mild ale]] (or just "mild") *[[Old ale]] *[[Irish red ale]] *[[Scotch ale]] *[[porter (beer)|Porter]] **Robust Porter **Brown Porter *[[Stout]] **[[Irish stout]] or Dry stout **[[Imperial stout]] **[[Milk stout]] or Sweet stout **[[Oatmeal stout]] **[[Chocolate stout]] **[[Oyster stout]] **[[Coffee stout]] ===Belgian ales=== [[Belgium]] produces a wide variety of specialty ales that elude easy classification. In addition to making a variety of [[blonde ale]], common classifications for these specialty beers may be [[dubbel]] (malty-complex with a red hue) and [[tripel]] (a high-alcohol, lightly-gold colored beer). Some specialty beers are based on monastic brewing recipes. The best known among them are the [[Trappist_beer|Trappist]] beers, which are brewed under direct control of the monks themselves. Only six Trappist monasteries in [[Belgium]] and one in the [[Netherlands]] brew this beer. Similar styled ales, brewed by commercial breweries (sometimes under licence of an actual monastery) are called [[Abbey beer]]. ===German barley ales=== These are old-style ales fermented in Germany. A long, cold conditioning period yields a cleaner style, free of the esters that one finds in UK ales. *[[Altbier]] *[[Kölsch (beer)|Kölsch]] ===Wheat beer=== [[Wheat beer]] is found mostly in Germany, but examples can also be found in the United States and Belgium. German wheat beers are typically fermented with a yeast that yields [[esters]] with banana- and clovelike flavours. In contrast to most styles, these beers are typically served unfiltered (with the suspended yeast clouding the beverage, thus the German name 'heffe' for yeast). In American microbreweries, wheat beer is usually fermented with a clean yeast and filtered. Often this beer is combined with fruit flavors (e.g. raspberry wheat beers) to create a light, refreshing drink. *Belgian witbier/bière blanche *Weissbier, Hefeweizen and Dunkelweizen ===Specialty ales=== *[[Lambic]] &mdash; a sour ale fermented by wild yeast, sometimes flavored with fruit. *[[Berliner Weisse]] &mdash; a low-strength sour wheat ale originating in [[Berlin]]. *[[Flanders ale]] ([[Saison]], [[Oud bruin|Oud Bruin]], [[Bière de Garde]]) &mdash; a unique farmhouse style sour ale produced primarily in the [[Flanders]] region of Belgium and France. *[[Rauchbier]] &mdash; a style of beer made with smoked malt. While beers called Rauchbier may be ale, the classic examples are technically [[lager|lagers]]. [[Category:Beer]] <!-- The below are interlanguage links. --> [[da:Ale]] [[de:Ale (Bier)]] [[es:Ale]] [[fr:Ale]] [[nn:Ale]] [[pl:Ale]] [[fi:Ale]] [[sv:Ale (öltyp)]] [[th:เอล (เบียร์)]] 1049 38085486 2006-02-04T01:55:05Z Creidieki 68249 change wikilink to avoid plural redirect {{Wiktionarypar|amateur}} The word '''amateur''' has at least two [[connotation]]s. In the first, more widely used manner, it means someone performing some task without pay, in contrast to a "[[professional]]" who would be paid for the same task. In this sense, labeling someone an "amateur" can have a negative connotation. For example, amateur [[athlete]]s in sports such as [[basketball]] or [[Football games|football]] would not be regarded as having ability on par with professional athletes in those [[sport]]s. Where this can be interesting is in the case of the [[Olympic Games]]. Most Olympic events required that the athletes be amateurs, or non-professionals. To receive pay to perform the sport could have disqualified an athlete from an event, as in the case of [[Jim Thorpe]]. Such regulations are now nonexistent for all Olympic sports with the exception of [[boxing]]. Also in the areas of [[computer programming]] and [[open source]], as well as [[astronomy]] and [[ornithology]], many amateurs make very meaningful contributions equivalent to or exceeding those of the professionals. To many, description as an amateur is losing its negative meaning, and actually carries a badge of honor. The other, perhaps somewhat obsolescent usage, stems from the French form of the [[Latin]] root of the word meaning a "lover of". (''See [[amateurism]]''.) In this sense, retaining its French inflexion ("am-a-tEUR"), an amateur may be as competent as a paid professional, yet is motivated by a love or passion for the activity, like a ''[[connoisseur]]''. In the [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century|18th]] centuries ''[[virtuoso]]'' had similar connotations of passionate involvement. Indeed, another thriving example of such work is [[Amateur Dramatics]] - whether [[play]]s or [[musical theater]]. Often performed to high standards (but lacking the budgets of the professional [[West End theatre]]/[[Broadway theatre]]versions) and with an intense passion for the scene. It has been suggested that the crude, all or nothing categories of professional or amateur should be reconsidered. A historical shift is occurring with the rise of [[Pro-Ams]], a new category of people that are pursuing amateur activities to professional standards. == See also == * [[volunteer]] * [[hobby]], particularly for [[Amateur Radio]] (also known as ''ham radio''.) [[category:occupations]] [[da:Amatør]] [[de:Amateur]] [[es:Amateur]] [[fr:Amateur]] [[nl:Amateur]] [[ja:アマチュア]] [[no:Amatør]] [[sv:Amatör]] 1050 42142615 2006-03-04T02:33:50Z 70.232.93.170 '''Ambrose Gwinnett Bierce''' ([[June 24]], [[1842]]&ndash;[[1914]]?) was an American [[satire|satirist]], [[critic]], [[poet]], [[short story]] [[writer]], [[editor]], and [[journalist]].[[Image:Ambrose_bierce.jpg|thumb|A portrait of Ambrose Bierce, date unknown.]] His clear style and lack of sentimentality have kept him popular when many of his contemporaries have become obscure. His dark, sardonic views and vehemence as a critic, earned him the [[nickname]] "Bitter Bierce". Such was Bierce's venerable [[reputation]], that it was feared that his judgment on any contemporary fiction of the day could "make or break" a writer's career. ==Early life and military career== Born in a rural area of [[Meigs County]], [[Ohio]], Bierce resided during his adolescence in the town of [[Elkhart, Indiana|Elkhart]], [[Indiana]]. At the outset of the [[American Civil War]], Bierce enlisted in the Ninth Regiment, Indiana Volunteers, as part of the [[Union Army]]. In February [[1862]], he was commissioned as a first lieutenant and served on the staff of Gen. [[William Babcock Hazen]] as a topographical engineer, making maps of likely battlefields. He fought bravely in several of the war's most important battles, at one point receiving newspaper attention for his daring rescue under fire of a gravely wounded comrade at the battle of [[Girard Hill]], [[West Virginia]]. In June, [[1864]], he received a serious head wound at the [[Battle of Kennesaw Mountain]] and spent the rest of the summer on furlough, but returned to active duty in September, and was ultimately discharged from the army in January [[1865]]. His military career, however, resumed when, in the summer of [[1866]], he rejoined Gen. Hazen as part of the latter's [[expedition]] to inspect military outposts across the Western [[plains]]. The expedition proceeded by horseback and wagon from [[Omaha, Nebraska|Omaha]], [[Nebraska]], arriving in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] near the end of the year. ==Journalism== In San Francisco, Bierce resigned from the Army and received the rank of [[brevet (military)|brevet]] Major. He remained there for many years, eventually becoming famous as a contributor and/or editor for a number of local newspapers and periodicals, including ''The San Francisco News Letter'', ''The Argonaut'', and ''The Wasp''. Bierce lived and wrote in [[England]] from [[1872]] to [[1875]]. Returning to the [[United States]], he again took up residence in San Francisco. In [[1879]]&ndash;[[1880]], he went to [[Rockerville]] and [[Deadwood, South Dakota]], in the [[Dakota Territory]], to try his hand as local manager for a [[New York]] [[mining]] company, but when the company failed he returned to San Francisco and resumed his career in [[journalism]]. In [[1887]], he became one of the first regular columnists and editorialists to be employed on [[William Randolph Hearst]]'s newspaper, the ''[[San Francisco Examiner]]'', eventually becoming one of the most prominent and influential among the writers and journalists of the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]]. In December [[1899]], he moved to [[Washington, D.C.]], but continued his association with the [[Hearst newspapers]] until [[1906]]. ===The McKinley accusation=== Because of his penchant for biting social criticism and satire, Bierce's long newspaper career was often steeped in controversy. On several occasions his columns stirred up a storm of hostile reaction which created difficulties for Hearst. One of the most notable of these incidents occurred following the [[assassination]] of President [[William McKinley]] when Hearst's political opponents turned a [[satire|satirical]] [[poetry|poem]] Bierce had written in [[1900]] into a ''[[cause célèbre]]''. Bierce meant his poem, written on the occasion of the assassination of Governor-elect [[William Goebel]] of [[Kentucky]], to express a national mood of dismay and fear, but after McKinley was shot in [[1901]] it seemed to foreshadow the crime: :''The bullet that pierced Goebel's breast'' :''Can not be found in all the West;'' :''Good reason, it is speeding here'' :''To stretch McKinley on his bier.'' Hearst was (presumably) falsely accused by rival newspapers&mdash;and by then [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Elihu Root]]&mdash;of having called for McKinley's assassination. Despite a national uproar that ended his ambitions for the presidency (and even his membership in the [[Bohemian Club]]), Hearst neither revealed Bierce as the author of the poem, nor fired him. ==Literary works== His short stories are considered among the best of the [[19th century]]. He wrote realistically of the terrible things he had seen in the war in such stories as "[[An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge]]", "[[Killed at Resaca]]", and "[[Chickamauga]]". Bierce was reckoned a master of "pure" [[English language|English]] by his contemporaries, and virtually everything that came from his pen was notable for its judicious wording and economy of style. He wrote skillfully in a variety of literary genres, and in addition to his celebrated ghost and war stories he published several volumes of [[poetry]] and [[verse]]. His ''Fantastic Fables'' anticipated the ironic style of grotesquerie that turned into a genre in the [[20th century]]. One of Bierce's most famous works is his much-quoted book, ''[[The Devil's Dictionary]]'', originally a newspaper serialization which was first published in book form in 1906 as ''The Cynic's Word Book.'' It offers an interesting reinterpretation of the English language in which [[cant]] and political double-talk are neatly lampooned. Bierce's twelve-volume ''Collected Works'' were published in [[1909]], the seventh volume of which consists solely of "[[The Devil's Dictionary]]," the title Bierce himself preferred to "The Cynic's Word Book." ==Disappearance== In October [[1913]], the [[Ageing#Dividing the lifespan|septuagenarian]] Bierce departed Washington on a tour to revisit his old [[American Civil War|Civil War]] battlefields. By December, he had proceeded on through [[Louisiana]] and [[Texas]], crossing by way of [[El Paso, Texas|El Paso]] into [[Mexico]], which was then in the throes of [[Mexican Revolution|revolution]]. In [[Ciudad Juárez]], he joined the army of [[Pancho Villa]] as an observer, in which role he participated in the battle of [[Tierra Blanca]]. He is known to have accompanied Villa's army as far as the city of [[Chihuahua, Chihuahua]]. After a last letter to a close friend, sent from that city on [[December 26]], [[1913]], he vanished without a trace, becoming one of the most famous disappearances in American literary history. Subsequent investigations to ascertain his fate were fruitless and, despite many decades of speculation, his [[List of people who have disappeared|disappearance]] remains a mystery. In one of his last letters, Bierce wrote: :Good-by &mdash; if you hear of my being stood up against a Mexican stone wall and shot to rags please know that I think that a pretty good way to depart this life. It beats old age, disease, or falling down the cellar stairs. To be a [[Gringo]] in Mexico &mdash; ah, that is euthanasia ==Bierce in popular culture== [[Robert W. Chambers]] borrowed several terms and fictional locations (including, for instance, [[Carcosa]] and [[Hastur]]) from Bierce, for use in his book of horror short stories, [[The King in Yellow]]. The horror writer [[H.P. Lovecraft]] later incorporated these into his own work, as did other authors who later extended Lovecraft's characters and themes, collectively creating the [[Cthulhu Mythos]]. [[Robert Bloch]]'s short story "I Like Blondes" (published in [[Playboy]], [[1956]]) is constructed around a group of alien bodysnatchers frequenting Earth. The narrator's host body's "name was Beers...Ambrose Beers, I believe. He [[Ambrose Bierce#Disappearance|picked it up in Mexico a long time ago]]." At least three films have been made of Bierce's story ''An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge''. A silent movie version was made in the [[1920s]]. A French version called ''La Rivière du Hibou'', directed by Robert Enrico, was released in [[1962]] (available as of 2005). This is a black and white film, faithfully recounting the original narrative using voice-over. Another version, directed by Brian James Egan, was released in 2005. The story was also used for an episode of the [[television series]] ''[[The Twilight Zone]]'': ''[[An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge (The Twilight Zone)|An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge]]''. A copy of ''An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge'' appeared in the [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] television series ''[[Lost (TV series)|Lost]]'' (ep. "[[Episodes_of_Lost_%28season_2%29#The_Long_Con|The Long Con]]" - airdate [[February 8]], [[2006]]). [[Mexico|Mexican]] [[novelist]] [[Carlos Fuentes]] wrote [[Old Gringo|''Gringo Viejo'']] (''The Old Gringo''), a fictionalized account of Bierce's disappearance. Fuentes's keenly observed novel was later adapted as a [[film|motion picture]], with [[Gregory Peck]] in the title role. Bierce appears as a character in the [[2000]] movie ''From Dusk Till Dawn 3: The Hangman's Daughter'' (set in [[1913]], a [[prequel]] to the original ''[[From Dusk Till Dawn]]''). While traveling to join up with Villa, Bierce is first attacked by bandits, and then trapped in a bar filled with vampires bent on killing all the humans inside. This clearly fictional adventure also portrayed Bierce as an alcoholic. In that movie Ambrose Bierce was played by [[Michael Parks]]. Bierce appears as a character in [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s novella ''[[Lost Legacy]]'', (published in the short story collection ''[[Assignment in Eternity]]''). In the story, Bierce is one of a league of humans who have learned to use the unused portions of their brains and have advanced mental powers. Bierce appears as the main character and narrator in the story ''The Oxoxoco Bottle'' by [[Gerald Kersh]]. The bulk of the story purports to be a manuscript written by Bierce on his last journey in Mexico, and relates a very strange adventure. The manner of his death, however, remains a mystery at the end. Bierce is depicted as a detective in series of mystery novels by [[Oakley Hall]], including ''Ambrose Bierce and the Queen of Spades'' and ''Ambrose Bierce and the Death of Kings''. In [[DC Comics]]'s miniseries ''[[Stanley and His Monster]]'', Bierce (or at least a character claiming to be Bierce) appears as a sardonic trenchcoat-clad adventurer into the supernatual, very similar to [[John Constantine]]; although Bierce derides Constantine as a "clown," he admits that he and Constantine are but two of several trenchcoated occult adventurers at large in the world, perhaps an implication by the writer that the archetype of the sarcastic commentator on the occult, exemplified by Constantine, can be traced back to Bierce as narrator of his own horror stories. When the comic book Bierce learns that the boy Stanley's friend, the nameless Monster, is a demon, he considers vanquishing him but soon realizes that the Monster is a benevolent demon and instead helps Stanley and his friend against other demons. == Primary books == * Tales of Soldiers and Civilians (a.k.a., In the Midst of Life) (1892) * Can Such Things Be? (1893) * Collected Works (1909) == External links== {{wikiquote}} * [http://donswaim.com/ The Ambrose Bierce Site] * [http://www.biercephile.com The Ambrose Bierce Appreciation Society] * [http://www.ambrosebierce.org The Ambrose Bierce Project] * [http://ojinaga.com/bierce/ "Ambrose Bierce, 'the Old Gringo': Fact, Fiction and Fantasy"] * [http://www.rjgeib.com/thoughts/bierce/ambrose-bierce.html One of Bierce's last letters] * [http://atheisme.free.fr/Biographies/Bierce_e.htm Biography and quotes of Ambrose Bierce] * [http://bitterbierce.blogspot.com Waking Ambrose: Modern Adjustments of the Devil's Dictionary] * [http://alangullette.com/lit/bierce/ Ambrose Bierce] *{{gutenberg author|id=Ambrose_Bierce|name=Ambrose Bierce}} * [http://librivox.org/the-parenticide-club-by-ambrose-bierce/ Free audiobook of ''The Parenticide Club''] from [http://librivox.org LibriVox] * [http://librivox.org/present-at-a-hanging-by-ambrose-bierce/ Free audiobook of ''Present at a Hanging and Other Ghost Stories''] from [http://librivox.org LibriVox] * [http://librivox.org/short-story-collection-002/ Free audiobook of ''Baby Tramp''] from [http://www.librivox.org Librivox] * [http://www.authorsden.com/visit/viewarticle.asp?AuthorID=6714&id=19053 The Malignancy of Nature in Bierce's Horror Stories ] * [http://wiredforbooks.org/bierce/ A reading of "An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge" and a discussion of the life and writing of Ambrose Bierce - RealAudio] *[http://www.cosmoetica.com/B313-DES253.htm Essay on Bierce's short stories] *[http://alangullette.com/lit/bierce/ Alan Gulette's Bierce page] [[Category:1842 births|Bierce, Ambrose]] [[Category:American poets|Bierce, Ambrose]] [[Category:American journalists|Bierce, Ambrose]] [[Category:American columnists|Bierce, Ambrose]] [[Category:American satirists|Bierce, Ambrose]] [[Category:American horror writers|Bierce, Ambrose]] [[Category:American short story writers|Bierce, Ambrose]] [[Category:Disappeared people|Bierce, Ambrose]] [[Category:Hearst Corporation people|Bierce, Ambroce]] [[Category:People from Ohio|Bierce, Ambrose]] [[da:Ambrose Bierce]] [[de:Ambrose Bierce]] [[es:Ambrose Bierce]] [[eo:Ambrose BIERCE]] [[fr:Ambrose Bierce]] [[it:Ambrose Bierce]] [[hu:Ambrose Bierce]] [[nl:Ambrose Bierce]] [[ja:アンブローズ・ビアス]] [[pl:Ambrose Bierce]] [[pt:Ambrose Bierce]] [[ru:Бирс, Амброуз Гуиннетт]] [[th:แอมโบรส เบียร์ซ]] 1051 41982130 2006-03-03T00:58:01Z 67.151.66.33 /* Alleged influence on the rise of Islamism */ {{POV-check}} [[image:Alexis_Carrel.jpg|thumb|right|Alexis Carrel]] '''Alexis Carrel''' ([[June 28]] [[1873]] &ndash; [[November 5]] [[1944]]) was a French surgeon and biologist. He was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in [[1912]]. Born and educated in [[Lyon, France]]. He practiced in France and the United States (University of Chicago and the Rockefeller Institute). He developed new techniques in vascular sutures and was a pioneer in [[transplantology]] and [[thoracic surgery]]. He was a member of [[learned societies]] in the [[United States|United States of America]], [[Spain]], [[Russia]], [[Sweden]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Vatican City]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]] and [[Greece]] and received honorary doctorates from the Universities of [[Belfast]], [[Princeton University|Princeton]], [[California]], [[New York]], [[Brown University|Brown]] and [[Columbia University|Columbia]]. == Contributions to science == On January 17, [[1912]] he placed a part of chicken's embryo heart in fresh nutrient medium in a stoppered [[Pyrex]] flask of his design. Every forty-eight hours the tissue doubled in size and was transferred to a new flask. The tissue was still growing 20 years later, longer than life of the chicken itself. Carrel was honored in 1912 with a [[Nobel prize]] in medicine in recognition of his work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs. [http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1912/index.html] During the [[First World War]], Carrel and the English chemist, [[Henry Drysdale Dakin]], developed the Carrel-Dakin method of treating wounds with sutures, which prior to the development of widespread [[antibiotics]], was responsible for saving many lives. For this, Carrel was awarded the [[Légion d'honneur]]. He co-authored a book with [[Charles A. Lindbergh]], ''The Culture of Organs'', and worked with Lindbergh in the mid-1930s to create the "perfusion pump," which allowed living organs to exist outside of the body during surgery. The advance is said to have been a crucial step in the development of open-heart surgery and organ transplants, and to have laid the groundwork for the [[artificial heart]], which became a reality decades later. Some critics of Lindbergh claimed that Carrel overstated Lindbergh's role to gain media attention. (Wallace, ''American Axis'' p. 101). Both Lindbergh and Carrel appeared on the cover of [[Time (magazine)|Time magazine]] on [[June 13]], [[1938]]. In 1972, the Swedish Post Office honored Carrel with a stamp that was part of its Nobel stamp series. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel/stamps/1972.html] In 1979, the [[lunar crater]] [[Carrel (crater)|Carrel]] was named after him as a tribute to his scientific breakthroughs. == Relation to [[eugenics]] and [[fascism]] == In 1935, Carrel published a best-selling book titled ''L'Homme, cet inconnu '' (''Man The Unknown'') which advocated, in part, that mankind could better itself by following the guidance of an elite group intellectuals, and by implementing a regime of enforced [[eugenics]]. Roger Callois, writing in ''The Edge of Surrealism'', quotes and paraphrases ''L'Homme, cet inconnu '' as follows: " '(p)resent-day proletarians owe their status to inherited intellectual and physical defects' (sancta simplicitas). And he suggests that this state of affairs should be accenetuated through appropriate measures, so as to correlate social and biological inequalities more precisely. Society would then be directed by a hereditary aristocracy composed of descendants from the Crusaders, the heroes of the Revolution, the great criminals, the financial and industrial magnates" (p. 360). Carrel advocated the use of gas chambers to rid humanity of inferior stock. His endorsement of this idea began in the mid-1930's, prior to Nazi implementation of such practices. In the 1936 German introduction of his book, at the publishers request, he added the following praise of the Nazi regime which did not appear in the editions in other languages: "(t)he German government has taken energetic measures against the propagation of the defective, the mentally diseased, and the criminal. The ideal solution would be the suppression of each of these individuals as soon as he has proven himself to be dangerous." (quoted in Reggiani, p. 339). He also wrote: "(t)he conditioning of petty criminals with the whip, or some more scientific procedure, followed by a short stay in hospital, would probably suffice to insure order. Those who have murdered, robbed while armed with automatic pistol or machine gun, kidnapped children, despoiled the poor of their savings, misled the public in important matters, should be humanely and economically disposed of in small euthanasic institutions supplied with proper gasses. A similar treatment could be advantageously applied to the insane, guilty of criminal acts." (quoted in Szasz) In 1937, Carrel joined [[Jean Coutrot]]’s Centre d’Etudes des Problèmes Humains. (Coutrot’s aim was to develop what he called an ‘‘economic humanism’’ through "collective thinking.") In 1941, through connections to the [[Petain]] cabinet (specifically, French industrial physicians André Gros and Jacques Ménétrier) he went on to advocate for the creation of Fondation Française pour l’Etude des Problèmes Humains (French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems) which was created by decree of the collaborationist [[Vichy]] regime in 1941, and where he served as 'regent' (see Andrés Horacio Reggiani, ''Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics and Population Research under Vichy'', as well as Callois, p. 107). "The foundation was chartered as a public institution under the joint supervision of the ministries of finance and public health. It was given financial autonomy and a budget of forty million francs—roughly one franc per inhabitant—a true luxury considering the burdens imposed by the German Occupation on the nation’s resources. By way of comparison, the whole Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) was given a budget of fifty million francs." (Reggiani) [http://fhs.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/25/2/331] According to Par Gwen Terrenoire, writing in ''Eugenics in France (1913-1941) : a review of research findings'' (Joint Programmatic Commission UNESCO-ONG Science and Ethics, 2003) [http://ong-comite-liaison.unesco.org/ongpho/acti/3/2/document/8/pdfen.pdf] "The foundation was a puridisciplinary centre that employed around 300 researchers (mainly statisticians, psychologists, physicians) from the summer of 1942 to the end of the autumn of 1944. After the liberation of Paris, Carrel was suspended by the Minister of Health ; he died in November 1944, but the Foundation itself was "purged", only to reappear in a short time as the Institut national d’études démographiques (INED) that is still active." Scholars including Lucien Bonnafé, Patrick Tort and Max Lafont have accused Carrel of responsibility for the execution of thousands of mentally ill or impaired patients under Vichy. They argue that this policy was inspired by Carrel's advocacy. Other scholars state that Carrel merely provided intellectual cover for policies that would have been undertaken with or without his advocacy. All this eventually led many in France to accuse him of collaboration with the Nazis. This association with Vichy, and the harshness of his advocacy for eugenics, has led to his descent from fame to obscurity. In recent years, [[Jean-Marie le Pen]], the French neo-fascist politician, has become an advocate for Carrel, referring to him as "the first environmentalist, or, if you will, the first modern ecologist, precisely because he committed himself to defining the relationships of natural harmony." (le Pen, L'Espoir 133-134, cited in Golson, Fascism's Return). His writings on eugenics are studied "avidly in the training camps of the [[National Front]]". (Lucien Bonnafé and Patrick Tort, ''L'Homme, cet inconnu? Alexis Carrel, Jean-Marie le Pen et les chambres a gaz'' [http://www.amazon.fr/exec/obidos/ASIN/2907993143/403-4807364-1466832]) In the 1990's, the attention the [[National Front]]'s support brought to Carrel's fascist associations and advocacy for forced euthenasia created a series of controversies with respect to streets and institutions named in honor of Carrel. Over 20 French cities and towns, including Paris, renamed streets previously named for Carrel. The controvery came to a head in Lyon, his birhtplace, where a medical school was named in his honor. [[Lyon libération]] questioned the wisdom of this. In response to this, "(i)n May 1995, the Palais des Congrès of Lyon hosted a conference on Carrel and scientific racism at which several of the participants accused the inquiry commission of whitewashing the controversial scientist. In early 1996, after five years of embarrassing publicity, the governing board of the University of Lyon decided to rename its school of medicine after [[René Laënnec]], inventor of the stethoscope." [http://fhs.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/25/2/331] In the United States as well as France, the 1990's were not kind to Carrel's reputation. In an interview for PBS' The American Experience, historian Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. blamed Carrel for Charles Lindbergh's increasing racism in the 1930's. Schlesinger states in response to a question concerning the source of Lindbergh's beliefs on this subject: "I suppose he got a lot of it from Alexis Carrel, the French biologist who had a kind of racial mysticism of a sort." [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/lindbergh/filmmore/reference/interview/schlesinger03.html] == Alleged influence on the rise of Islamism == Carrel's eugenic ideas are alleged by some scholars to have had "superficial commonalities" with the thought of such early advocates of [[Islamism]] as [[Ali Shariati]] and Muslim Brotherhood propagandist [[Sayyed Qutb]]. Qutb, in fact, cites Carrel more than any other author. (Qutb was one of the key philosophers in the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] movement after the death of its founder in 1949 and Qutb's brother was [[bin Laden]]'s intellectual mentor at [[King Abdul Aziz University]] in [[Jeddah]], along with [[Abdullah Azzam]]). (For more on the Carrel / Islamist connection, see Tariq Ali, ''Clash of Fundamentalisms'', p. 274; Youssef Choueiri, ''Islamic Fundamentalism'' (London 1990) and Rudolph Walther, ''Die seltsamen Lehren des Doktor Carrel'', DIE ZEIT 31.07.2003 Nr.32) Tariq Ali, Youssef Choueiri, Abu-Rabi, and Aziz Al-Azmeh, as well as other scholars of Islamism, see Carrel as a primary (if unwitting) influence on the origin of Islamism. Quoting from Rudolf Walther's article in ''Die Zeit'': "(t)he superficial commonalities between Carrel and Qutb are plain: we meet the medical man's elite in a "scientific monastery" as Qutb's "avant garde," and the Carrel's "biological classes" are Qutb's "belief classes." Whether "civilization" (Carrel) or "barbarism" (Qutb) -- neither are "worthy of us," because they contradict "our true nature" (Carrel) or Qutb's "good, healthy nature." Both are in agreement in their goal to reconcile knowledge and belief. Qutb follows Carrel in making "human nature" the condition and measure of all thought and action. Because "human nature" is simultaneously posited as God-given, both immunize "human nature" against criticism, because God answers queries as little as "nature" does objections. The core of Qutb's supposed Middle Eastern Islamism is formed by a naturalistic logical error that is deeply rooted in European philosophy... Carrel writes: "The goal of life is to follow the laws of life. We decipher these laws from our bodies and our souls, not from philosophical systems and concepts." Thus ethical norms ("laws of life") are derived directly from biological facts and psychological diagnoses. Translated to Qutb's language, human freedom and thus a free, varied society are not possible, only obedience to the law of God. [...] What Qutb calls "the Islamic method," the integration of education, ethics, economics and politics to a unified system of "divine uniqueness," matches Carrel's "unification of all capabilities and their coordination to a single belief," the "super-science" in every detail ..." This influence is ironic, given that Carrel himself was a devoted Roman Catholic and Christian mystic. He mentions Islam in ''Man, the Unknown'' just once, and not in a complimentary manner. He notes of European Christian civilization, that, "(a)t the cost of immense efforts, we succeeded in thrusting back the sleep of Islamism." Throughout his book, he refers to European civilization as "Christendom." Moreover, he believed in the racial superiority of northern Europeans. These ideas would have been anathema to Qutb. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * [http://crishunt.8bit.co.uk/alexis_carrel.html Web page about Alexis Carrel] * [http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1912/press.html Nobel Prize presentation speech to Dr. Carrel] * [http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1912/carrel-bio.html Nobel Prize biography of Dr. Carrel] *[http://patrickpoole.blogspot.com/2005/10/alexis-carrel-and-sayyid-qutb.html Alexis Carrel and Sayyid Qutb] *[http://pages.prodigy.net/thomasn528/blog/2003_08_17_newsarcv.html#106125889084239517 Sayyid Qutb's French connection (Monday, August 18, 2003)] ==Sources== * Carrel, Alexis. ''Man, The Unknown.'' New York and London: Harper and Brothers. 1935. * Andrés Horacio Reggiani. ''Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics and Population Research under Vichy'' (FRENCH HISTORICAL STUDIES 25:2 SPRING 2002)[http://fhs.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/25/2/331] * Wallace, Max. ''The American Axis: Henry Ford, Charles Lindbergh, and the Rise of the Third Reich'' St. Martin's Press, New York, 2003. * Szasz, TS. ''The Theology of Medicine'' New York: Syracuse University Press, 1977. * Ali, Tariq. ''Clash of Fundamentalisms'' Verso, London, 2002 * Choueiri, Youssef. ''Islamic Fundamentalism'' Continuum International Publishing Group, London, 2002. * Walther, Rudolph. ''Die seltsamen Lehren des Doktor Carrel'', DIE ZEIT 31.07.2003 Nr.32 [http://www.zeit.de/2003/32/A-Carrel] * Bonnafé, Lucien and Tort, Patrick. ''L'Homme, cet inconnu? Alexis Carrel, Jean-Marie le Pen et les chambres a gaz'' Editions Syllepse, 1996. [http://www.amazon.fr/exec/obidos/ASIN/2907993143/403-4807364-1466832] * Abu-Rabi, Ibrahim M. ''Intellectual Origins of Islamic Resurgence'', SUNY Press, Albany, 1996 * Azmeh, Aziz (Aziz Al-Azmeh). ''Islams and Modernities'' Verso, London, 1993. * Berman, Paul. ''Terror and Liberalism'' W. W. Norton, 2003 * Mairowitz, David Zane. "Fascism a la mode: in France, the far right presses for national purity." Harper's Magazine; 10/1/1997 * Pioneers of Islamic Revival (edited by Ali Rahnema), Zed Books, London 1994 * Schneider, William. Quality and Quantity: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in Twentieth-Century France, Cambridge Studies in the History of Medicine (chap. 7 French eugenics in the thirties; and 10 Vichy and after) * Terrenoire, Par Gwen, CNRS. ''Eugenics in France (1913-1941) : a review of research findings'' Joint Programmatic Commission UNESCO-ONG Science and Ethics, March 24, 2003 [http://ong-comite-liaison.unesco.org/ongpho/acti/3/2/document/8/pdfen.pdf] [[Category:1873 births|Carrel, Alexis]] [[Category:1944 deaths|Carrel, Alexis]] [[Category:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners|Carrel, Alexis]] [[Category:Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences|Carrel]] [[Category:American physicians|Carrel]] [[de:Alexis Carrel]] [[es:Alexis Carrel]] [[fr:Alexis Carrel]] [[id:Alexis Carrel]] [[ja:アレクシス・カレル]] [[pl:Alexis Carrel]] [[pt:Alexis Carrel]] [[fi:Alexis Carrel]] [[tr:Alexis Carrel]] 1052 42049852 2006-03-03T13:21:24Z 194.83.172.67 /* Prime Minister */ {{Infobox BPM | name=[[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] Sir Anthony Eden, Earl of Avon | image=Eden.jpg | kingdom=the United Kingdom | term=[[7 April]] [[1955]] &ndash; [[9 January]] [[1957]] | before=[[Winston Churchill|Sir Winston Churchill]] | after=[[Harold Macmillan]] | date_birth=[[12 June]] [[1897]] | place_birth=[[Bishop Auckland]], [[Durham]] | date_death=[[14 January]] [[1977]] | place_death=[[Alvediston]], [[Salisbury]], [[Wiltshire]] | party=[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] }} '''Robert Anthony Eden, 1st Earl of Avon''', [[Order of the Garter|KG]], [[Military Cross|MC]], [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|PC]] ([[June 12]], [[1897]]&ndash; [[January 14]], [[1977]]), [[United Kingdom|British]] politician, was [[Foreign Secretary]] during [[World War II]] and [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] during the 1950s. He is remembered mainly for his role in the disastrous [[Suez Crisis]] of [[1956]]. In a 2004 poll [http://www.mori.com/polls/2004/leeds.shtml] of 139 political science academics organised by [[MORI]], Eden was voted the least successful British Prime Minister of the 20th Century. This echoed the outcome of an earlier survey by BBC Radio's ''The Westminster Hour'', ranking the British Prime Ministers of the 20th Century. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/575219.stm[2]] Winston Churchill came top, Eden bottom. ==Early career== Eden was born in [[Durham]], into a very conservative landowner family. His mother, Sybil Grey, was a member of the famous Grey family of [[Northumberland]] (see below). He studied at [[Eton College|Eton]] and [[Christ Church, Oxford]], where he graduated in oriental languages. (He was fluent in French, German and Persian. He also spoke Russian and Arabic). Following a military career during the [[World War I|First World War]], during which he received a [[Military Cross]], Eden entered politics in [[1923]] when he was elected [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Warwick and Leamington]], as a [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]. In that year also he married Beatrice Beckett. They had two sons, but the marriage was not a success and broke up under the strain of Eden's political career. Eden became Parliamentary Private Secretary at the [[Foreign Office]] in [[1926]]. In [[1931]] he was promoted to Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs. In [[1934]] he was appointed [[Lord Privy Seal]] and Minister for the [[League of Nations]] in [[Stanley Baldwin]]'s Government. Like many of his generation who had served in the First World War, Eden was strongly anti-war and strove to work through the League of Nations to preserve European peace. He was however among the first to recognise that peace could not be maintained by [[appeasement]] of [[Nazi Germany]] and [[fascist]] [[Italy]]. He privately opposed the policy of the Foreign Secretary, [[Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood|Sir Samuel Hoare]], of trying to appease [[Italy]] during its [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War|invasion of Abyssinia]] ([[Ethiopia]]) in [[1935]]. When Hoare resigned after the failure of the [[Hoare-Laval Pact]], Eden succeeded him as Foreign Secretary. At this stage in his career Eden was considered as something of a leader of fashion. He regularly wore a [[Homburg_(hat)|Homburg]] hat (similar to a [[bowler hat]] but with an upturned brim), which became forever known in Britain by his name. He had an elder brother called Timothy and a younger brother, Nicholas, who had been killed when the Indefatigable had been sunk at the Battle of Jutland in 1916. ==Foreign Secretary== Eden became Foreign Secretary at a time when Britain was having to adjust its foreign policy to face the rise of the fascist powers. He supported the policy of non-interference in the [[Spanish Civil War]], and supported [[Neville Chamberlain]] in his efforts to preserve peace through reasonable concessions to Germany. He did not protest when Britain and France failed to oppose [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler's]] reoccupation of the [[Rhineland]] in [[1936]]. But in February [[1938]], he resigned because he could not accept Chamberlain's opening of negotiations with Italy. This made him an ally of [[Winston Churchill]], then a rebel backbench Conservative MP and leading critic of appeasement. There was much speculation that Eden would become a rallying point for all the disparate opponents of Chamberlain, but instead he maintained a low profile, avoiding confrontation though he opposed the [[Munich Agreement]]. As a result Eden's position declined heavily amongst politicians, though he remained popular in the country at large. In September [[1939]], on the outbreak of war, Eden returned to Chamberlain's government as [[Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs]], but was not in the [[War Cabinet]]. As a result he was not considered a candidate for the Premiership when Chamberlain resigned after Germany invaded [[France]] in May [[1940]] and Churchill became Prime Minister. He appointed Eden [[Secretary of State for War]]. Later in [[1940]] he returned to the Foreign Office, and in this role became a member of the executive committee of the [[Political Warfare Executive]] in [[1941]]. Although he was one of Churchill's closest confidents, his role in wartime was restricted because Churchill conducted the most important negotiations, with [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and [[Joseph Stalin]], himself, but Eden served loyally as Churchill's lieutenant. Nevertheless he was in charge of handling much of the relations between Britain and [[Charles de Gaulle|de Gaulle]] during the last years of the war. In [[1942]] he was given the additional job of [[Leader of the House of Commons]]. After the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] won the [[1945]] elections, Eden went into opposition as Deputy Leader of the Conservative Party. Many felt that Churchill should have retired and allowed Eden to become party leader, but Churchill refused to consider this and Eden was too loyal to press him. He was in any case depressed during this period by the break-up of his first marriage and the death of his eldest son, Simon Eden, in the last days of the war. In [[1951]], the Conservatives returned to office and Eden became Foreign Secretary for a third time. Churchill was largely a figurehead in this government and Eden had effective control of British foreign policy for the first time, as the [[Cold War]] grew more intense. He dealt effectively with the various crises of the period, although Britain was no longer the world power it had been before the war. In [[1950]] he and Beatrice Eden were finally divorced and in [[1952]] he married Churchill's niece, Lady Clarissa Spencer-Churchill (b. 1920) -- a nominal Roman Catholic who was fiercely criticized by Catholic writer [[Evelyn Waugh]] for marrying a divorced man -- a marriage much more successful than his first had been. In [[1953]] Eden underwent a series of operations at Boston's Lahey Clinic to correct a minor gall bladder complaint. Unfortunately Eden's health never fully recovered; this was to undermine his subsequent career. In [[1954]] he was made a [[Knight of the Garter]]. ==Prime Minister== [[Image:Anthony-Eden-arms.PNG|thumb|right|150px|Arms of Anthony Eden]] In April [[1955]] Churchill finally retired, and Sir Anthony succeeded him as Prime Minister. Eden was a very popular figure, as a result of his long wartime service and also his famous good looks and charm. On taking office he immediately called a [[United Kingdom general election, 1955|general election]], at which the Conservatives were returned with an increased majority. But Sir Anthony had never held a domestic portfolio and had little experience in economic matters. He left these areas to his lieutenants such as [[Rab Butler]], and concentrated largely on foreign policy, forming a close alliance with U.S. President [[Dwight Eisenhower]]. His famous words "Peace comes first, always" added to his already substantial popularity. This alliance proved illusory, however, when in [[1956]] Sir Anthony, in conjunction with France, tried to prevent [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], President of [[Egypt]], nationalising the [[Suez Canal]], which had been owned since the 19th century by British and French shareholders in the Suez Canal Company. Sir Anthony, drawing on his experience in the 1930s, saw Nasser as another [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]]. Sir Anthony considered the two men aggressive nationalist socialists determined to invade other countries. Others believed that Nasser was acting from legitimate patriotic concerns. In October [[1956]], after months of negotiation and attempts at mediation had failed to dissuade Nasser, Britain and France, in conjunction with [[Israel]], invaded Egypt and occupied the Suez Canal Zone. But Eisenhower immediately and strongly opposed the invasion. The U.S. President was an advocate of [[decolonization|decolonisation]], because it would liberate colonies, strengthen U.S. interests, and presumably make other Arab and African leaders more sympathetic to the United States. Eden had ignored Britain's financial dependence on the U.S. in the wake of World War II, and was forced to bow to American pressure to withdraw. The [[Suez Crisis]] is widely taken as marking the end of Britain (along with France) as a World power. The Suez fiasco ruined Sir Anthony's reputation for [[statesmanship]] and led to a breakdown in his [[health]]. His Chancellor, [[Harold Macmillan]], despite having been one of the architects of Suez, manoeuvred Eden into resignation and succeeded him as Prime Minister in January [[1957]]. Eden retained his personal popularity and was made '''Earl of Avon''' in [[1961]]. ==Retirement== In retirement he lived quietly in Wiltshire with his second wife, and published a highly acclaimed personal memoir, ''Another World'', as well as several volumes of political memoirs. On a trip to the United States in [[1977]] his health rapidly deteriorated. At his request, [[James Callaghan]] sent the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] to fly him home to die. The Earl of Avon died from [[liver cancer]] in [[Salisbury, England|Salisbury]] in [[1977]] at the age of 79. From [[1945]]-[[1973]], Eden was [[Chancellor (education)|Chancellor]] of the [[University of Birmingham]], [[England]]. He was recently voted the least effective British Prime Minister of the twentieth century by a BBC poll, which was topped by rival [[Clement Attlee]]. Eden's surviving son, [[Nicholas Eden, 2nd Earl of Avon|Nicholas Eden]] ([[1930]]-[[1985]]), known as Viscount Eden until [[1977]], was also a politician and was a minister in the [[Margaret Thatcher|Thatcher]] government until his premature death from [[AIDS]] at the age of 54. The Papers of Eden are housed at the [[University of Birmingham]] Special Collections. ==The Eden Government== *Anthony Eden: Prime Minister *[[David Patrick Maxwell Fyfe, 1st Earl of Kilmuir|Lord Kilmuir]]: [[Lord Chancellor]] *[[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 5th Marquess of Salisbury|Lord Salisbury]]: [[Lord President of the Council]] *[[Harry Crookshank, 1st Viscount Crookshank|Harry Crookshank]]: [[Lord Privy Seal]] and [[Leader of the House of Commons]] *[[Rab Butler]]: [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] *[[Harold Macmillan]]: [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]] *[[Gwilym Lloyd George, 1st Viscount Tenby|Gwilym Lloyd George]]: [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]] *[[Alan Lennox-Boyd]]: [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]] *[[Alec Douglas-Home|Lord Home]]: [[Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations]] *[[Peter Thorneycroft]]: [[President of the Board of Trade]] *[[Frederick Marquis, 1st Earl of Woolton|Lord Woolton]]: [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]] *Sir [[David Eccles]]: Minister of Education *[[James Stuart, 1st Viscount Stuart of Findhorn|James Stuart]]: [[Secretary of State for Scotland]] *[[Derick Heathcoat Amory,1st Viscount Amory|Derick Heathcoat Amory]]: Minister of Agriculture *Sir [[Walter Turner Monckton]]: Minister of Labour and National Service *[[Selwyn Lloyd]]: Minister of Defence *[[Duncan Sandys]]: Minister of Housing and Local Government *[[Osbert Peake, 1st Viscount Ingleby|Osbert Peake]]: Minister of Pensions and National Insurance '''Changes'''<br/> *December [[1955]] - [[Rab Butler]] succeeds Harry Crookshank as Lord Privy Seal and Leader of the House of Commons. Harold Macmillan succeeds Butler as Chancellor of the Exchequer. Selwyn Lloyd succeeds Macmillan as Foreign Secretary. Sir Walter Monckton succeeds Lloyd as Minister of Defence. [[Iain Macleod]] succeeds Monckton as Minister of Labour and National Service. [[George Douglas-Hamilton, 10th Earl of Selkirk|Lord Selkirk]] succeeds Lord Woolton as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. The Minister of Public Works, [[Patrick Buchan-Hepburn]], enters the Cabinet. The Minister of Pensions and National Insurance leaves the Cabinet upon Peake's retirement. *October [[1956]]: Sir Walter Monckton becomes Paymaster-General. [[Anthony Henry Head]] succeeds Monckton as Minister of Defence. ==The Grey-Eden connection== [[Charles Grey, 1st Earl Grey]] = Elizabeth Grey | ------------------------------------------ | | [[Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey]] William Grey Prime Minister = Maria Shireff | Georgina Plowden = Sir William Grey | Sir William Eden = Sybil Grey | '''Anthony Eden''' Prime Minister {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[Lord Privy Seal]] | before=[[Stanley Baldwin]] | after=[[Charles Vane-Tempest-Stewart, 7th Marquess of Londonderry|The Marquess of Londonderry]] | years=1934&ndash;1935}} {{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] | before=[[Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood|Sir Samuel Hoare]] | after=[[Edward Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax|The Viscount Halifax]] | years=1935&ndash;1938}} {{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs]] | before=[[Thomas Inskip, 1st Viscount Caldecote|Sir Thomas Inskip]] | after=[[Thomas Inskip, 1st Viscount Caldecote|The Viscount Caldecote]] | years=1939&ndash;1940}} {{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for War|War Secretary]] | before=[[Oliver Stanley]] | after=[[David Margesson, 1st Viscount Margesson|David Margesson]] | years=1940}} {{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] | before=[[Edward Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax|The Viscount Halifax]] | after=[[Ernest Bevin]] | years=1940&ndash;1945}} {{succession box | title=[[Leader of the House of Commons]] | before=[[Stafford Cripps|Sir Stafford Cripps]] | after=[[Herbert Morrison (politician)|Herbert Morrison]] | years=1942&ndash;1945}} {{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] | before=[[Herbert Morrison (politician)|Herbert Morrison]] | after=[[Harold Macmillan]] | years=1951&ndash;1955}} {{succession box two to two| title1=[[Conservative Party (UK)|Leader of the British Conservative Party]] | title2=[[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] | before=[[Winston Churchill|Sir Winston Churchill]] | after=[[Harold Macmillan]] | years1=1955&ndash;1957 | years2=1955&ndash;1957}} {{end box}} {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[Earl of Avon]] | before=New Creation | after=[[Nicholas Eden, 2nd Earl of Avon|Nicholas Eden]] | years=}} {{end box}} ==External links== http://www.discoverychannel.co.uk/alteredstatesmen/feature3.shtml {{UKDeputyPrimeMinisters}} {{UKPrimeMinisters}} {{ConservativePartyLeader}} [[Category:1897 births|Avon]] [[Category:1977 deaths|Avon]] [[Category:British Army officers|Avon]] [[Category:British MPs|Avon]] [[Category:British Secretaries of State|Avon]] [[Category:Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Avon]] [[Category:Former students of Christ Church, Oxford|Avon]] [[Category:Knights of the Garter|Avon]] [[Category:Leaders of the British Conservative Party|Avon]] [[Category:Lords Privy Seal|Avon]] [[Category:members of the Privy Council|Avon]] [[Category:Old Etonians|Avon]] [[Category:Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom|Avon]] [[Category:World War II political leaders|Avon]] [[de:Anthony Eden]] [[es:Anthony Eden]] [[fr:Anthony Eden]] [[it:Anthony Eden]] [[nl:Anthony Eden]] [[ja:アンソニー・イーデン]] [[pl:Anthony Eden]] [[pt:Anthony Eden]] [[fi:Anthony Eden]] [[sv:Anthony Eden]] 1053 15899558 2002-05-22T19:01:20Z Maveric149 62 #redirect [[Amateur radio]] #redirect [[Amateur radio]] 1055 42078634 2006-03-03T17:58:03Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 Ced. Wikify dates {{Otheruses4|the religious holiday|the 2005 film|All Souls Day (film)|All Souls Day}} [[Image:Allsoul.jpg|thumb||300px|All Souls' Day by William Bouguereau]] '''All Souls' Day''' (formally, ''Commemoratio omnium Fidelium Defunctorum'' or Commemoration of all the Faithful Departed), also called '''Defuncts' Day''' in Mexico and Belgium, is the day set apart in the [[Roman Catholic Church]] for the commemoration of the [[afterlife|faithful departed]]. The celebration is based on the doctrine that the souls of the faithful which at death have not been cleansed from [[venial sin]]s, or have not atoned for past transgressions, cannot attain the [[beatific vision]], and that they may be helped to do so by [[prayer]] and by the sacrifice of the [[mass (liturgy)|mass]]. The feast falls on [[November 2]]. Traditionally, because [[Requiem]] [[Masses]] could not be celebrated on Sundays before Vatican II, the feast was transferred to [[November 3]] if [[November 2]] is a Sunday, but this is no longer observed in the [[Novus Ordo]]. ==Christian origin== The practice of setting apart a special day for intercession for certain of the faithful departed is very old. But the first feast of general intercession was first established by [[Odilo]], [[abbot]] of [[Cluny]] (d. 1048). The legend is given by [[Peter Damiani]] in his ''Life of St Odilo.'' According to this, a [[pilgrim]] returning from the [[Holy Land]] was cast by a [[storm]] on a desolate island. A hermit living there told him that amid the rocks was a chasm communicating with [[purgatory]], from which perpetually rose the groans of tortured souls. The hermit also claimed he had heard the [[demon]]s complaining of the efficacy of the prayers of the faithful, and especially the [[monk]]s of Cluny, in rescuing their victims. Upon returning home, the pilgrim hastened to inform the abbot of Cluny, who then set [[2 November]] as a day of intercession on the part of his community for all the souls in purgatory. The decree ordaining the celebration is printed in the Bollandist [[Acta Sanctorum]] (Saec. VI, pt. i. p. 585). From Cluny the custom spread to the other houses of the Cluniac order, was soon adopted in several [[diocese]]s in [[France]], and spread throughout the Western Church. In time the entire month of [[November]] became associated with prayer for the departed in the Western Catholic tradition. Nonetheless the [[2 November]] retained a special status as a day set apart for that purpose. ==Protestantism== At the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] the celebration of All Souls' Day was abolished in the [[Church of England]], though it was renewed in certain churches in connection with the "Catholic revival" of the 19th century. The observance was restored with the publication of the 1980 [[Alternative Service Book]], and it features in [[Common Worship]]. Among continental [[Protestantism|Protestant]]s its tradition has been more tenaciously maintained. Even [[Martin Luther (religious leader)|Luther]]'s influence was not sufficient to abolish its celebration in [[Saxony]] during his lifetime; and, though its Ecclesiastical sanction soon lapsed even in the [[Lutheran]] Church, its memory survives strong in popular custom. Just as it is the custom of [[French people]], of all ranks and creeds, to decorate the graves of their dead on the ''jour des morts'', so [[German people]] stream to the graveyards once a year with offerings of [[flower]]s. ==Pagan roots== Certain popular beliefs connected with All Souls' Day are of [[Paganism|pagan]] origin and immemorial antiquity. Thus the dead are believed by the peasantry of many Catholic countries to return to their former homes on All Souls' Night and partake of the food of the living. In [[Tyrol]], cakes are left for them on the table and the room kept warm for their comfort. In [[Brittany]], people flock to the cemeteries at nightfall to kneel bare-headed at the graves of their loved ones, and to toll the hollow of the [[tomb stone|tombstone]] with [[holy water]] or to pour libations of [[milk]] on it, and at bedtime the supper is left on the table for the souls. This tradition, though, certainly does not make Catholicism a pagan religion at all since it is the first Christian Church and denomination for over a 1,000 years. ==See also== * [[Office of the Dead]] * [[Samhain]] * [[Halloween]] * [[Day of the Dead]] * [[Zaduszki]] ==External links== * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01315b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: All Souls' Day] * [http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Saints/faqs.asp American Catholic - Saints FAQs, All Saints and All Souls Days] [[Category:Liturgical Calendar]] [[de:Allerseelen]] [[ja:死者の日]] [[la:Commemoratio Omnium Fidelium Defunctorum]] [[nl:Allerzielen]] [[pt:Dia dos fiéis defuntos]] 1056 31724752 2005-12-17T12:28:09Z 84.65.45.123 #REDIRECT [[Vesalius]] 1057 42022625 2006-03-03T07:24:02Z Zdravko mk 693044 /* Famous sayings */ {{French literature (small)}} '''Anatole France''' ([[April 16]], [[1844]] &ndash; [[October 12]], [[1924]]) was the [[pen name]] of French author '''Jacques Anatole François Thibault'''. He was born in [[Paris|Paris, France]], and died in [[Tours]], [[Indre-et-Loire]], [[France]]. In addition to being a celebrated author, Anatole was also documented to have a brain volume just two-thirds the normal size. In [[1896]], he was made a member of the [[Académie française]]. In the [[1920s]] France's writings were put on the [[Index of Forbidden Books]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. He was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in [[1921]]. ==Works, partial list== * ''[[Penguin Island (book)|Penguin Island]]'', ''L'Île des Pingouins'' * ''The Crime of Sylvestre Bonnard'', ''Le Crime de Sylvester Bonnard'' * ''Thaïs'' * ''The Human Tragedy'', ''L'Humaine Tragedie'' * ''The Queen Pedauque'', ''La Rotisserie de la Reine Pedauque'' * ''The Red Lily'', ''Le Lys Rouge'' * ''The Revolt of the Angels'', ''La Revolte des Anges'' * ''Crainquebille; Putois; Riquet; et Plusieurs Autres Recits Profitables'' * ''Les Sept Femmes de la Barbe-Bleue et Autres Contes Merveilleux'' * ''Monsieur Bergeret a Paris'' * ''Sur la Pierre Blanche'' * ''The Man Who Married A Dumb Wife'' play * ''The Gods Will Have Blood; The Gods Are A-Thirst'' * ''The Life of Joan of Arc'' 2 volumes * ''Mother of Pearl'' == Famous sayings == *"The law, in its majestic equality, forbids the rich as well as the poor to sleep under bridges, to beg in the streets, and to steal bread." *"I prefer the errors of enthusiasm to the indifference of wisdom." *"If fifty million people say a foolish thing, it is still a foolish thing." *"When a thing has been said, and said well, have no scruple. Take it and copy it." *"Let us give to men irony and pity as witnesses and judges." *"Make hatred hated." *"Never lend books, for no one ever returns them; the only books I have in my library are those that other people have lent me." *"To accomplish great things, we must not only act, but also dream; not only plan, but also believe." *"Without the utopians of other times, men would still live in caves, miserable and naked;...utopia is the principle of all progress, adn the essay into a better world." ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * {{gutenberg author| id=Anatole+France | name=Anatole France}} *[http://www.surlalunefairytales.com/bluebeard/fiction/anatolefrance.html The Seven Wives of Bluebeard (English) by Anatole France] *[http://www.surlalunefairytales.com/sleepingbeauty/fiction/anatolefrance.html The Story of the Duchess of Cicogne and of Monsieur de Boulingrin (English) by Anatole France] *[http://www.nobel-winners.com/Literature/anatole_france.html Anatole France Biography] {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Ferdinand de Lesseps]] | title=[[List of members of the Académie française#Seat 38|Seat 38]]<br>[[Académie française]] | years=1896&ndash;1924 | after=[[Paul Valéry]] }} {{end box}} {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Knut Hamsun]] | title=[[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years=1921 | after=[[Jacinto Benavente]] }} {{end box}} [[Category:1844 births|France, Anatole]] [[Category:1924 deaths|France, Anatole]] [[Category:Members of the Académie française|France, Anatole]] [[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|France, Anatole]] [[Category:French novelists|France, Anatole]] [[Category:French satirists|France, Anatole]] [[bg:Анатол Франс]] [[be:Анатоль Франс]] [[de:Anatole France]] [[et:Anatole France]] [[es:Anatole France]] [[eo:Anatole FRANCE]] [[fr:Anatole France]] [[hr:Anatole France]] [[it:Anatole France]] [[he:אנטול פרנס]] [[nl:Anatole France]] [[no:Anatole France]] [[ja:アナトール・フランス]] [[pl:Anatole France]] [[pt:Anatole France]] [[ru:Франс, Анатоль]] [[sk:Anatole France]] [[fi:Anatole France]] [[sv:Anatole France]] 1058 41443418 2006-02-27T09:56:49Z JoJan 58781 Elisabeth van Rysselberghe {{French literature (small)}} '''André Paul Guillaume Gide''' ([[November 22]], [[1869]] &ndash; [[February 19]], [[1951]]) was a [[France|French]] [[author]] and winner of the [[Nobel prize]] in literature in [[1947]]. Gide's career spanned from the [[symbolist]] movement to the advent of anticolonialism in-between the two [[World Wars]]. Gide's work can be seen as an investigation of freedom and empowerment in the face of moralistic and puritan constraints, and gravitates around his continuous effort to achieve intellectual honesty. His self-exploratory texts reflect his search of how to be fully oneself, even to the point of owning one's sexual nature, without at the same time betraying one's values. His political activity is informed by the same ethos, as suggested by his repudiation of [[communism]] after his [[1936]] voyage to the [[USSR]]. Known for his fiction as well as his autobiographical works, Gide exposes to public view the conflict and eventual reconciliation between the two sides of his personality, split apart by a straightlaced education and a narrow social moralism - as he perceives himself: the austere and refined [[Protestant]], and the divinely inspired - and no longer blushing - [[Pederasty|pederast]]. ==Early life== Gide was born in [[Paris]], France on [[November 22]], [[1869]]. His father was a Paris University professor of law and died [[1880]]. His uncle was the political economist [[Charles Gide]]. Gide was brought up in isolated conditions in [[Normandy]] and became a prolific writer at an early age, publishing in [[1891]] his first novel, ''The Notebooks of Andre Walter'' (French: ''Les Cahiers d'André Walter''). In [[1893]] and [[1894]] Gide traveled in northern [[Africa]]. He befriended [[Oscar Wilde]] in [[Algiers]] and there clearly recognized his own [[pederasty|pederastic]] orientation: :"But how can I describe my delirium at holding in my naked arms that perfect, savage little brown body, eager, lacivious? I spent a long time, after Mohammed had left me, in a state of trembling exaltation, and although I had reached the peak of pleasure five times with him, I re-lived my ecstasy again and again, and back at my room at the hotel prolonged the memories until dawn. At the first pale light I got up; and ran, yes really ran, in sandals, far beyond Mustapha; a kind of lightness of the body and soul did not leave me all day." (''Si Le Grain Ne Meurt''). Though sympathetic to the plight of homosexuals in his day, he never saw himself as one of them, claiming that, "I was never homosexual, in the sense of finding men attractive." ==The middle years== In [[1895]], after his mother's death, he married his cousin Madeleine Rondeaux but the marriage remained unconsummated. In [[1896]] he was mayor of [[La Roque-Baignard]], a [[Commune in France|commune]] in [[Normandy]]. In [[1908]] Gide helped found the literary magazine ''Nouvelle Revue française'' (''The New French Review''). In [[1916]] [[Marc Allégret]], 16, becomes his lover. He was the son of Elie Allegret, best man at Gide's wedding. Of Allegret's five children, Andre Gide adopted Marc. The two elope to London, in retribution for which his wife burns all his correspondence, "the best part of myself," as he was later to comment. In [[1918]] he met [[Dorothy Bussy]], who was his friend for over thirty years and who would translate all his works into English. In the [[1920s]] Gide became an inspiration for writers like [[Albert Camus]] and [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. In [[1923]] he published a book on [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]; however, when he defended homosexuality in the public edition of ''[[Corydon]]'' ([[1924]]) he received widespread condemnation. He later considered this his most important work. In 1923 he conceived a daughter named Catherine with another woman, Elisabeth van Rysselberghe, daughter of his friend, the Belgian neo-impressionist painter [[Théo van Rysselberghe]]. His wife Madeleine died in [[1938]]. Later he used the background of his unconsummated marriage in his novel ''Et Nunc Manet in Te.'' The novel included passages about ponies and bananas. These works were unconventional at the time, and became instant classics ([[1951]]). After [[1925]] he began to demand more humane conditions for criminals. In [[1926]] he published an autobiography, ''If it die'' (French: ''Si le grain ne meurt''). ==Africa== From July 1926 to May [[1927]], he travelled through the [[French Equatorial Africa]] [[colony]] with his lover [[Marc Allégret]]. He went successively in [[Middle Congo]] (now the [[Republic of the Congo]]), in [[Oubangui-Chari]] (now the [[Central African Republic]]), briefly in [[Chad]] and then in [[Cameroun]] before returning to France. He related his peregrinations in a journal called ''[[Travels in the Congo]]'' (French: ''Voyage au Congo'') and ''Return from Chad'' (French: ''Retour du Tchad''). In this published journal, he criticized the behavior of French business interests in the Congo and inspired reform. In particular, he strongly criticized the ''Large Concessions'' regime (French: ''régime des Grandes Concessions''), i.e. a regime according to which part of the colony was conceded to French companies and where these companies could exploit all area's [[natural resource]]s, in particular [[rubber]]. He related for instance how natives were forced to leave their village during several weeks to collect rubber in the forest, and went as far as comparing their exploitation to [[slavery]]. ==Russia== During the [[1930s]] he briefly became a [[communism|communist]], but became disillusioned after his visit to [[Soviet Union]]. His criticism of communism caused him to lose many of his [[socialism|socialist]] friends, especially when he made a clean break with it in ''Retour de L'U.R.S.S.'' in [[1936]]. He was also a contributor to ''[[The God That Failed]]''. ==The 1940s== Gide left France for [[Africa]] in [[1942]] and lived in [[Tunis]] until the end of [[World War II]]. In [[1947]], he received the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]. Gide died on [[February 19]], [[1951]]. ==Partial list of works== *''Les cahiers d'André Walter'' - 1891 *''Le traité du Narcisse'' - 1891 *''Les poésies d'André Walter'' - 1892 *''Le voyage d'Urien'' - 1893 *''La tentative amoureuse'' - 1893 *''Paludes'' - 1895 *''Réflexions sur quelques points de littérature'' - 1897 *''Les nourritures terrestres'' - 1897 *''Feuilles de route 1895-1896'' - 1897 *''El Hadj'' *''Le Prométhée mal enchaîné'' - 1899 *''Philoctète'' - 1899 *''Lettres à Angèle'' - 1900 *''De l'influence en littérature'' - 1900 *''Le roi Candaule'' - 1901 *''Les limites de l'art'' - 1901 *''L'immoraliste'' - 1902 *''Saül'' - 1903 *''De l'importance du public'' - 1903 *''Prétextes'' - 1903 *''Amyntas'' - 1906 *''Le retour de l'enfant prodigue'' - 1907 *''Dostoïevsky d'après sa correspondance'' - 1908 *''La porte étroite'' - 1909 *''Oscar Wilde'' - 1910 *''Nouveaux prétextes'' - 1911 *''Charles-Louis-Philippe'' - 1911 *''C. R. D. N.'' - 1911 *''Isabelle'' - 1911 *''Bethsabé'' - 1912 *''Souvenirs de la Cour d'Assises'' - 1914 *''Les caves du Vatican'' - 1914 *''La symphonie pastorale'' - 1919 *''Corydon'' - 1920 *''Numquid et tu . . .?'' - 1922 *''Dostoïevsky'' - 1923 *''Incidences'' - 1924 *''Caractères'' - 1925 *''Les faux-monnayeurs'' - 1925 *''Si le grain ne meurt'' - 1926 *''Le journal des faux-monnayeurs'' - 1926 *''Dindiki'' - 1927 *''Voyage au Congo'' - 1927 *''Le retour de Tchad'' - 1928 *''L'école des femmes'' - 1929 *''Essai sur Montaigne'' - 1929 *''Un esprit non prévenu'' - 1929 *''Robert'' - 1930 *''La séquestrée de Poitiers'' - 1930 *''L'affaire Redureau'' - 1930 *''Œdipe'' - 1931 *''Perséphone'' - 1934 *''Les nouvelles nourritures'' - 1935 *''Geneviève'' - 1936 *''Retour de l'U. R. S. S.'' - 1936 *''Retouches â mon retour de l'U. R. S. S.'' - 1937 *''Notes sur Chopin'' - 1938 *''Journal 1889-1939'' - 1939 *''Découvrons Henri Michaux'' - 1941 *''Thésée'' - 1946 *''Le retour'' - 1946 *''Paul Valéry'' - 1947 *''Le procès'' - 1947 *''L'arbitraire'' - 1947 *''Eloges'' - 1948 *''Littérature engagée'' - 1950 The Catholic Church placed his works on the [[Index of Forbidden Books]] in [[1952]]. ==See also== [[Historical pederastic couples]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *{{gutenberg author| id=André+Gide | name=André Gide}} *[http://www.andregide.org Center for Gidian Studies] *[http://www.gidiana.net/ Amis d'André Gide] ''In French'' *[http://www.bobpayne.com/ Alphabet Soup] {{start box}} {{succession box | before = [[Hermann Hesse]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1947 | after = [[Thomas Stearns Eliot]] }} {{end box}} [[Category:1869 births|Gide, André]] [[Category:1951 deaths|Gide, André]] [[Category:Parisians|Gide, André]] [[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Gide, André]] [[Category:French novelists|Gide, André]] [[Category:French essayists|Gide, André]] [[Category:French travel writers|Gide, André]] [[Category:Pederastic lovers|Gide, André]] [[Category:Gay writers|Gide, André]] [[Category:LGBT rights activists|Gide, André]] [[cs:André Gide]] [[de:André Gide]] [[et:André Gide]] [[es:André Gide]] [[eo:André GIDE]] [[fa:آندره ژید]] [[fr:André Gide]] [[hr:André Gide]] [[it:André Gide]] [[he:אנדרה ז'יד]] [[hu:André Gide]] [[ja:アンドレ・ジッド]] [[no:André Gide]] [[pl:André Gide]] [[pt:André Gide]] [[ru:Жид, Андре]] [[fi:André Gide]] [[sv:André Gide]] [[tr:André Gide]] [[zh:纪德]] 1059 35692261 2006-01-18T16:57:16Z Eric Sellars 314346 Removed broken link '''Applied statistics''' is the use of [[statistics]] and [[statistical theory]] in real-life situations. Anyone committed to empirical observation as a means of knowing the universe about us can apply statistics as a research tool. This obviously includes [[science]] but includes [[history]] and the [[art]]s as well. For example, [[econometrics]] makes heavy use of applied statistics to study the [[economics|economy]]. In each of these areas, we need to observe, recognize the potential for error in our observations, and plan our research to control the [[observational error]]. == See also == * [[List of publications in statistics#Applied statistics| Important publications in applied statistics]] == External links == * [http://mbhs.edu/~steind00/ Some applets about applied statistics] {{statistics-stub}} [[Category:Statistics]] [[pl:statystyka stosowana]] 1060 15899565 2003-01-13T23:26:40Z Ap 122 #REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]] 1061 15899566 2003-01-13T23:28:27Z Ap 122 redirect to [[Analysis of variance]] #REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]] 1062 15899567 2003-01-13T23:29:58Z Ap 122 redirecting to Analysis of variance #REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]] 1063 38008909 2006-02-03T15:47:51Z Mathbot 234358 Robot-assisted spelling. See [[User:Mathbot/Logged misspellings]] for changes. '''[[Algorithm]]s for calculating [[variance]]''' play a minor role in [[statistics|statistical]] computing. A key problem in the design of good algorithms for this problem is that formulas for the variance may involve sums of squares, which can lead to numerical instability as well as to [[arithmetic overflow]] when dealing with large values. == Algorithm I == A [[formula]] for calculating the variance of a [[statistical population|population]] of size ''n'' is: :<math>\sigma^2 = \frac {\sum_{i=1}^{n} x_i^2 - (\sum_{i=1}^{n} x_i)^2/n}{n}. \!</math> A formula for calculating an [[bias (statistics)|unbiased]] estimate of the population variance from a finite [[statistical sample|sample]] of ''n'' observations is: :<math>s^2 = \frac {\sum_{i=1}^{n} x_i^2 - (\sum_{i=1}^{n} x_i)^2/n}{n-1}. \!</math> Therefore a naive algorithm to calculate the estimated variance is given by the following [[pseudocode]]: long n = 0 double sum = 0 double sum_sqr = 0 foreach x in data: n += 1 sum += x sum_sqr += x * x end for double mean = sum / n double variance = (sum_sqr - sum * mean) / (n - 1) This algorithm can easily be adapted to compute the variance of a finite population: simply divide by ''n'' instead of <math>n-1</math> on the last line. == Algorithm II == The following formulas can be used to update the [[mean]] and (estimated) variance of the sequence, for an additional element <math>x_{\mathrm{new}}</math>. Here, ''m'' denotes the estimate of the population mean, ''s''<sup>2</sup> the estimate of the population variance, and ''n'' the number of elements in the sequence before the addition. :<math>m_{\mathrm{new}} = \frac{n \; m_{\mathrm{old}} + x_{\mathrm{new}}}{n+1} = m_{\mathrm{old}} + \frac{x_{\mathrm{new}} - m_{\mathrm{old}}}{n+1} \!</math> :<math>s^2_{\mathrm{new}} = \frac{(n-1) \; s^2_{\mathrm{old}} + (x_{\mathrm{new}} - m_{\mathrm{new}}) \, (x_{\mathrm{new}} - m_{\mathrm{old}})}{n} \!</math> A numerically stable algorithm is given below. It also computes the mean. This algorithm is due to Knuth<ref>[[Donald E. Knuth]] (1998). ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]'', volume 2: ''Seminumerical Algorithms'', 3rd edn., p. 232. Boston: Addison-Wesley.</ref>, who cites Welford<ref>B. P. Welford (1962). "Note on a method for calculating corrected sums of squares and products". ''Technometrics'' 4(3):419–420.</ref>. long n = 0 double mean = 0 double S = 0 foreach x in data: n += 1 double delta = x - mean mean += delta / n S += delta * (x - mean) // This expression uses the new value of mean end for double variance = S / (n - 1) == Example == Assume that all floating point operations use the standard [[IEEE 754#Double-precision 64 bit|IEEE 754 double-precision]] arithmetic. Consider the sample (4, 7, 13, 16) from an infinite population. Based on this sample, the estimated population mean is 10, and the estimated population variance is 30. Both algorithms compute these values correctly. Next consider the sample <math>(10^8+4, 10^8+7, 10^8+13, 10^8+16)</math>, which gives rise to the same estimated variance as the first sample. Algorithm II computes this variance estimate correctly, but Algorithm I returns 29.333333333333332 instead of 30. While this loss of precision may be tolerable and viewed as a minor flaw of Algorithm I, it is easy to find data that reveal a major flaw in the naive algorithm: Take the sample to be <math>(10^9+4, 10^9+7, 10^9+13, 10^9+16)</math>. Again the estimated population variance of 30 is computed correctly by Algorithm II, but the naive algorithm now computes it as &minus;170.66666666666666. This is a serious problem with Algorithm I, since the variance can, by definition, never be negative. == References == <references/> == External links == * {{MathWorld|title=Sample Variance Computation|urlname=SampleVarianceComputation}} [[Category:Statistics]] 1064 41661312 2006-02-28T22:19:43Z Michaelfavor 472990 combined similar sentences {{otheruses}} {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Almond | image = Almond blossoms branch.JPG | image_width = 250px | image_caption = Almond flowers | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Rosales]] | familia = [[Rosaceae]] | subfamilia = [[Prunoideae]] | genus = [[Prunus]] | species = '''''P. dulcis''''' | binomial = ''Prunus dulcis'' | binomial_authority = ([[Philip Miller|Mill.]]) D. A. Webb }} The '''Almond''' (''Prunus dulcis'', [[synonymy|syn.]] ''Prunus amygdalus'', or ''Amygdalus communis'') is a small [[deciduous]] [[tree]] belonging to the subfamily [[Prunoideae]] of the family [[Rosaceae]]. An ''almond'' is also the [[fruit]] of this tree. It is classified with the [[peach]] in the subgenus ''Amygdalus'' within ''[[Prunus]]'', distinguished from the other subgenera by the corrugated seed shell. The fruit lacks the sweet fleshy outer covering of other members of ''Prunus'' (such as the [[plum]] and [[cherry]]), this being replaced by a leathery coat, called a hull, which contains the edible kernel, commonly called a [[nut]], inside a hard shell. In botanical parlance, the reticulated hard stony shell is called an [[endocarp]], and the fruit, or [[exocarp]], is a [[drupe]], having a downy outer coat. The tree is probably a native of southwest [[Asia]] and north [[Africa]], but has been so extensively cultivated for so long over the warm temperate regions of the Old World that its original natural distribution is obscure. It can ripen fruit as far north as the [[British Isles]]. It is a tree of moderate size; the leaves are lanceolate, and serrated at the edges; and it flowers early in spring. ==Production== Global production of almonds is around 1.5 million tonnes, with a low of 1 million tonnes in 1995 and a peak of 1.85 million tonnes in 2002 [http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/Hort_Circular/2004/12-10-04/12-04%20Almonds.pdf FAO figures (pdf file)]. Major producers include [[Greece]], [[Iran]], [[Italy]], [[Morocco]], [[Portugal]], [[Spain]], [[Syria]], [[Turkey]], and the [[United States]]. In Spain, numerous commercial cultivars of sweet almond are produced, most notably the Jordan almond (imported from [[Málaga]]) and the [[Valencia]] almond. In the United States, production is concentrated in [[California]], with almonds being California's sixth leading argicultrual product and its top agricultural export. California exported almonds valued at 1.08 billion dollars in 2003, about 70% of total California almond crop. ==Pollination== {{ImageStackRight|200| [[image:Almond blossoms closeup.jpg|thumb|right|Almond flowers]] [[Image:Unripe almond on tree.jpg|thumb|Unripe almond on tree]] [[Image:Almonds_th.jpg|thumb|right|Almonds (in the shell and out of it)]]}} The [[pollination]] of California's almonds is the largest annual [[Pollination management|managed pollination]] event in the world, with close to one million hives (nearly half of all [[beehive (beekeeping)|beehives]] in the USA) being trucked in February to the almond groves. Much of the pollination is managed by pollination brokers, who contract with migratory [[beekeeper]]s from at least 38 states for the event. ==Sweet and bitter almond== There are two forms of the plant, one (often with white flowers) producing [[sweet]] almonds, and the other (often with pink flowers) producing [[Bitter (taste)|bitter]] almonds. The kernel of the former contains a fixed oil and emulsion. As late as the early 20th century the oil was used internally in medicine, with the stipulation that it must not be adulterated with that of the bitter almond; it remains fairly popular in [[alternative medicine]], particularly as a [[carrier oil]] in [[aromatherapy]], but has fallen out of prescription among doctors. The bitter almond is rather broader and shorter than the sweet almond, and contains about 50% of the fixed oil which also occurs in sweet almonds. It also contains a ferment emulsion which, in the presence of water, acts on a [[soluble]] [[glucoside]], [[amygdalin]], yielding [[glucose]], [[cyanide]] and the [[essential oil]] of bitter almonds or [[benzaldehyde]]. Bitter almonds may yield from 6 to 8% of prussic acid (also known as [[hydrogen cyanide]]). Extract of bitter almond was once used medicinally but even in small doses effects are severe and in larger doses can be deadly; the prussic acid must be removed before consumption. ==Almond oil== "Oleum Amygdalae", the fixed oil, is prepared from either variety of almond and is a glyceryl oleate, with slight odour and a nutty taste. It is almost insoluble in [[ethanol|alcohol]] but readily soluble in [[chloroform]] or [[diethyl ether|ether]]. It may be used as a substitute for [[olive oil]]. The sweet almond oil is obtained from the dried [[seed|kernel]] of the plant. This oil has been traditionally used by [[massage therapist]]s to lubricate the skin during a massage session, being considered by many to be an effective [[emollient]]. ==Culinary uses== While the almond is most often eaten raw, it is used in some dishes. It, along with other nuts, is often sprinkled over desserts, particularly sundaes and other ice cream based dishes. It is also used in [[Baklava]]. There is also almond butter, a spread similar to [[peanut butter]], popular with peanut allergy sufferers and for its less salty taste. The sweet almond itself contains practically no [[starch]] and may therefore be made into flour for cakes and biscuits for patients suffering from [[diabetes mellitus]] or any other form of [[glycosuria]]. Almond extract is also a popular substitute for [[vanilla]] extract among people with diabetes. Sweet almonds are used in [[marzipan]], [[nougat]], and [[macaroon]]s, as well as other desserts. Almonds are a rich source of [[Vitamin E]], containing 24 mg per 100 grammes [http://www.allaboutvision.com/nutrition/vitamin_e.htm]. They are also rich in [[monounsaturated fat]], one of the two "good" fats responsible for lowering [[LDL cholesterol]]. In China, almonds are used in a popular dessert when it is mixed with milk and then served hot. ==Cultural aspects== The almond is highly revered in some cultures. Among the [[Hebrews]], it was a symbol of watchfulness and promise due to its early flowering, while the [[China|Chinese]] consider it a symbol of enduring sadness and female beauty. In India, consumption of almonds is considered to be good for the brain. Christian symbolism often uses almond branches as a symbol of the [[Virgin Birth]] of [[Jesus]]; paintings often include almonds encircling the [[Child Jesus|baby Jesus]] and as a symbol of [[Mary]]. In the [[Bible]] ([[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] 17) [[Aaron]] is chosen among the other tribes of Israel by a rod that brought forth almond flowers. Today, Jews still carry rods of almond blossom to the synagogues on great festival days. The fruit of the almond supplied a model for certain kinds of ornamental carved work ([[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] 25:33-34; 37:19-20). In a similar legend, [[Pope Urban]] once declared that a man named [[Tannhäuser]] would not receive forgiveness until his wooden staff bloomed again. This occurred after three days, but Tannhauser could not be found. The nut of the tree has also been used as a preventative for [[ethanol|alcohol]] [[intoxication]]. Folklore claims that almonds are poisonous for [[fox]]es. The tree grows in [[Syria]] and [[Israel]], and is referred to in the [[Bible]] under the name of "Shaked", meaning "hasten". The word "Luz", which occurs in [[Book of Genesis|Genisis]] 30:37, and which some translations have as "hazel", is supposed to be another name for the almond. In Israel the tree flowers in January. The application of "Shaked" or "hasten" to the almond is similar to the use of the name "May" for the hawthorn, which usually flowers in that month in Britain. ==Etymology== The word 'almond' comes from the Old French ''almande'' or ''alemande'', late Latin ''amandola'', derived through a form ''amingdola'' from the Greek ''amugdale'', an almond; the al- for a- may be due to a confusion with the Arabic article ''al'', the word having first dropped the a- as in the Italian form ''mandorla''; the British pronunciation ''ar-mond'' and the modern French ''amande'' show the true form of the word. In parts of Northern California, where almonds are a main crop, the word is often pronounced with a unique regional accent. Rather than the usual American pronunciation of "Ahl-mond", with the soft A and L, it is pronounced with a hard A and nearly silent H, as in "Aah-men”. This method of pronunciation is particularly prevalent near the city of [[Chico, California|Chico]] in Butte County, but it is also heard in nearby Glenn, Colusa, and Tehama Counties. ==See also== * [[Almond milk]], a milky drink made from ground almonds, similar to soy milk * [[Almond Joy]], a [[candy bar]] * [[Fruit trees]] * [[Fruit tree forms]] * [[Pruning fruit trees]] * [[Fruit tree propagation]] * [[List of edible seeds]] ==External links== {{Commons|Prunus dulcis dulcis}} * [http://www.almondboard.com/ The Almond Board of California] * [http://almondboard.files.cms-plus.com/PDFs/CA%20Almond%20Facts%20Summer%202005.pdf The Almond Board of California - fact sheet] * [http://www.almondsarein.com/ "Almonds Are In" Health and Nutrition site (The Almond Board of California] [[Category:Rosaceae]] [[Category:Nuts and seeds]] [[Category:Pollination management]] [[be:Мігдалы]] [[ca:Ametller]] [[co:Amandula]] [[cy:Cneuen almon]] [[da:Mandel]] [[de:Mandel]] [[es:Prunus dulcis]] [[fr:Amandier]] [[gl:Amendoeira]] [[he:שקד מצוי]] [[nl:Amandel]] [[ja:アーモンド]] [[pl:Migdałowiec zwyczajny]] [[pt:Amendoeira]] [[ru:Миндаль]] [[sr:Бадем]] [[fi:Manteli]] 1068 15899573 2002-08-03T16:27:16Z Ellmist 2214 move to Geography of Antigua and Barbuda #REDIRECT [[Geography of Antigua and Barbuda]] 1069 15899574 2002-08-20T16:08:50Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda]] 1070 15899575 2002-08-04T11:40:30Z Ellmist 2214 move to Politics of Antigua and Barbuda #REDIRECT [[Politics of Antigua and Barbuda]] 1071 41530757 2006-02-27T23:48:58Z Gene.arboit 278325 fr: {{CIA}} '''[[Antigua and Barbuda]]'s [[economics|economy]]''' is service-based, with [[tourism]] and government services representing the key sources of employment and income. Tourism accounts directly or indirectly for more than half of [[gross domestic product|GDP]] and is also the principal earner of foreign exchange in Antigua and Barbuda. However, a series of violent [[hurricane]]s since 1995 resulted in serious damage to tourist [[infrastructure]] and periods of sharp reductions in visitor numbers. In 1999 the budding offshore financial sector was seriously hurt by financial sanctions imposed by the [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom]] as a result of the loosening of its money-laundering controls. The government has made efforts to comply with international demands in order to get the sanctions lifted. The dual island nation's agricultural production is mainly directed to the domestic market; the sector is constrained by the limited water supply and labor shortages that reflect the pull of higher wages in tourism and construction. Manufacturing comprises enclave-type assembly for export with major products being bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components. Prospects for economic growth in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialized world, especially in the US, which accounts for about one-third of all tourist arrivals. Estimated overall economic growth for 2000 was 2.5%. Inflation has trended down going from above 2 percent in the 1995-99 period and estimated at 0 percent in 2000. To lessen its vulnerability to natural disasters, Antigua has been diversifying its economy. Transportation, communications and financial services are becoming important. Antigua is a member of the [[Eastern Caribbean Currency Union]] (ECCU). The [[Eastern Caribbean Central Bank]] (ECCB) issues a common currency (the [[East Caribbean Dollar]]) for all members of the ECCU. The ECCB also manages monetary policy, and regulates and supervises commercial banking activities in its member countries. Antigua and Barbuda is a beneficiary of the U.S. [[Caribbean Basin Initiative]]. Its 1998 exports to the U.S. were valued at aboutUS $3 million and its U.S. imports totaled about US $84 million. It also belongs to the predominantly English-speaking [[Caribbean_Community|Caribbean Community (CARICOM]]). '''GDP:''' purchasing power parity - $524 million (1999 est.) '''GDP - real growth rate:''' 2.8% (1999 est.) '''GDP - per capita:''' purchasing power parity - $8,200 (1999 est.) '''GDP - composition by sector:''' <br>''agriculture:'' 4% <br>''industry:'' 12.5% <br>''services:'' 83.5% (1996 est.) '''Population below poverty line:''' NA% '''Household income or consumption by percentage share:''' <br>''lowest 10%:'' NA% <br>''highest 10%:'' NA% '''Inflation rate (consumer prices):''' 1.6% (1999 est.) '''Labor force:''' 30,000 '''Labor force - by occupation:''' commerce and services 82%, agriculture 11%, industry 7% (1983) '''Unemployment rate:''' 7% (1999 est.) '''Budget:''' <br>''revenues:'' $122.6 million <br>''expenditures:'' $141.2 million, including capital expenditures of $17.3 million (1997 est.) '''Industries:''' tourism, construction, light manufacturing (clothing, [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], household appliances) '''Industrial production growth rate:''' 6% (1997 est.) '''Electricity - production:''' 90 GWh (1998) '''Electricity - production by source:''' <br>''fossil fuel:'' 100% <br>''hydro:'' 0% <br>''nuclear:'' 0% <br>''other:'' 0% (1998) '''Electricity - consumption:''' 84 GWh (1998) '''Electricity - exports:''' 0 kWh (1998) '''Electricity - imports:''' 0 kWh (1998) '''Agriculture - products:''' [[cotton]], [[fruit]]s, [[vegetable]]s, [[banana]]s, [[coconut]]s, [[cucumber]]s, [[mango]]es, [[sugarcane]]; livestock '''Exports:''' $38 million (1998) '''Exports - commodities:''' [[petroleum]] products 48%, manufactures 23%, food and live [[animal]]s 4%, machinery and transport equipment 17% '''Exports - partners:''' OECS 26%, [[Barbados]] 15%, [[Guyana]] 4%, [[Trinidad and Tobago]] 2%, [[United States|US]] 0.3% '''Imports:''' $330 million (1998) '''Imports - commodities:''' food and live [[animal]]s, machinery and transport equipment, manufactures, chemicals, [[Petroleum]] '''Imports - partners:''' [[United States|US]] 27%, [[United Kingdom|UK]] 16%, [[Canada]] 4%, OECS 3% '''Debt - external:''' $357 million (1998) '''Economic aid - recipient:''' $2.3 million (1995) '''Currency:''' 1 East Caribbean dollar (EC$) = 100 cents '''Exchange rates:''' East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 - 2.7000 (fixed rate since 1976) '''Fiscal year:''' [[1 April]] - [[31 March]] == References == * {{CIAfb}}{{-}} * {{StateDept}} {{WTO}} [[Category:Economy of Antigua and Barbuda|*]] [[Category:Economies by country|Antigua and Barbuda]] [[Category:WTO members|Antigua and Barbuda]] [[fr:Économie d'Antigua-et-Barbuda]] [[he:כלכלת אנטיגואה וברבודה]] [[pt:Economia da Antígua e Barbuda]] 1072 15899577 2002-10-09T13:55:20Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Communications in Antigua and Barbuda]] #REDIRECT [[Communications in Antigua and Barbuda]] 1073 36641445 2006-01-25T13:58:34Z RussBot 279219 Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -"Transport in Antigua and Barbuda" +"Transportation in Antigua and Barbuda" #REDIRECT [[Transportation in Antigua and Barbuda]] 1074 15899579 2004-12-27T12:03:59Z Jiang 10049 #REDIRECT [[Royal Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force]] 1075 15899580 2002-10-09T13:56:00Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Antigua and Barbuda]] #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Antigua and Barbuda]] 1076 15899581 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z LA2 445 * #REDIRECT [[History of Antigua and Barbuda]] 1077 35300309 2006-01-15T19:26:40Z Electionworld 201260 +template {{Politics of Antigua and Barbuda}} [[Antigua and Barbuda]] maintains diplomatic relations with the [[United States]], [[Canada]] the [[United Kingdom]], and the [[People's Republic of China]], as well as with many Latin American countries and neighboring Eastern Caribbean states. It is a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], the [[Organization of American States]], the [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]], and the Eastern Caribbean's [[Regional Security System]] (RSS). As a member of [[CARICOM]], Antigua and Barbuda supported efforts by the United States to implement UN Security Council Resolution 940, designed to facilitate the departure of Haiti's de facto authorities from power. The country agreed to contribute personnel to the multinational force which restored the democratically elected government of Haiti in October 1994. In May 1997, Prime Minister Bird joined 14 other Caribbean leaders and President Clinton for the first-ever U.S.-regional summit in Bridgetown, Barbados. The summit strengthened the basis for regional cooperation on justice and counter-narcotics issues, finance and development, and trade. '''Disputes - international:''' none '''Illicit drugs:''' considered a minor transshipment point for narcotics bound for the US and Europe; more significant as a drug-money-laundering center ==Reference== ''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.'' [[Category:Antigua and Barbuda]] [[Category:Foreign relations by country|Antigua and Barbuda]] 1078 move=:edit= 41984309 2006-03-03T01:15:08Z Goodoldpolonius2 131285 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Huchimama|Huchimama]] ([[User talk:Huchimama|talk]]) to last version by 195.38.113.141 <!-- NOTE. Please first read the section [[#Etymology and usage]] below if you intend to insert corrections -->{{dablink|This article describes the development and history of traditional anti-Semitism. A separate article exists on the more recent concept of the [[New anti-Semitism]].}} [[Image:Der ewige jude.jpg|thumb|''[[Der ewige Jude|The Eternal Jew]]'': 1937 German poster. In his hands are "Zuckerbrot und Peitsche", or "cookies and knout", an allusion to a saying similar to that of "carrot and stick".]] '''Anti-Semitism''' (alternatively spelled '''antisemitism''') is hostility toward or [[prejudice]] against [[Jew]]s as a religious, ethnic, or racial group, which can range from individual [[hatred]] to institutionalized, violent [[persecution]]. The highly explicit [[Nuremberg laws|ideology]] of [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[Nazism]] was the most extreme example of this phenomenon, leading to a [[genocide]] of the European Jewry. Anti-Semitism has historically taken different forms: *[[Religion|Religious]] anti-Semitism, or [[anti-Judaism]]. Before the 19th century, most anti-Semitism was primarily religious in nature, based on [[Christian]] or [[Islam]]ic interactions with and interpretations of [[Judaism]]. Since Judaism was generally the largest [[minority]] religion in Christian [[Europe]] and much of the Islamic world, Jews were often the primary targets of religiously-motivated violence and persecution from Christian, and to a lesser degree, Islamic rulers. Unlike anti-Semitism in general, this form of prejudice is directed at the religion itself, and so generally does not affect those of Jewish [[kinship and descent|ancestry]] who have [[religious conversion|converted]] to another religion, although the case of [[Converso]]s in [[Spain]] was a notable exception. Laws banning Jewish religious practices may be rooted in religious anti-Semitism, as were the [[expulsion]]s of the Jews that happened throughout the [[Middle Ages]]. *[[Racism|Racial]] anti-Semitism. With its origins in the [[cultural anthropology|anthropological]] ideas of [[race]] that started during the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], racial anti-Semitism became the dominant form of anti-Semitism from the late 19th century through today. Racial anti-Semitism replaced the hatred of Judaism as a religion with the idea that the Jews themselves were a racially distinct group, regardless of their religious practice, and that they were inferior or worthy of animosity. With the rise of racial anti-Semitism, [[conspiracy theories]] about Jewish plots in which Jews were somehow acting in concert to dominate the world became a popular form of anti-Semitic expression. Some analysts and Jewish groups believe that there is a distinctly new form of late 20th century anti-Semitism, often called [[new anti-Semitism]], which borrows language and concepts from [[anti-Zionism]], but which attacks Jews as a group, rather than [[Zionism]] as a movement. A second group of observers [[Anti-Zionism#Anti-Zionism dictionary definitions|controversially]] identify anti-Zionism itself with anti-Semitism, arguing that anti-Zionism, "advocates denial of the right to self-determination of the Jewish people" (Matas 2005, p. 31). {{Jew}} == Etymology and usage == [[Image:Bookcover-1880-Marr-German uber Juden.jpg|left|thumb|120px|Cover page of Marr's ''The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism'', 1880 edition]] The word ''antisemitic'' (''{{lang|de|antisemitisch}}'' in German) was probably first used in 1860 by the Jewish [[scholar]] [[Moritz Steinschneider]] in the [[phrase]] "antisemitic prejudices" ({{lang-de|"antisemitische Vorurteile"}}). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterize [[Ernest Renan]]'s ideas about how "[[Semitic]] races" were inferior to "[[Aryan]] races." These pseudo-scientific theories had become quite widespread in Europe in the second half of the 19th century, especially as [[Prussia]]n nationalistic historian [[Heinrich von Treitschke]] did much to promote this form of racism. In Treitschke's writings ''Semitic'' was practically [[synonym|synonymous]] with ''Jewish''. German political agitator [[Wilhelm Marr]] coined the related [[German language|German]] word ''Antisemitismus'' in his book ''"The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism"'' in 1879. Marr used the phrase to mean ''Jew-hatred'' or ''Judenhass,'' and he used the new word ''antisemitism'' to make hatred of the Jews seem rational and sanctioned by scientific knowledge. Marr's book became very popular, and in the same year he founded the ''"League of Anti-Semites"'' ("Antisemiten-Liga"), the first [[Germany|German]] organization committed specifically to combatting the alleged threat to Germany posed by the Jews, and advocating their [[population transfer|forced removal]] from the country. So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published ''"Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte,"'' and [[Wilhelm Scherer]] used the term "Antisemiten" in the ''"Neue Freie Presse"'' of January. The related word ''[[semitism]]'' was coined around 1885. See also the coinage of the term "[[Definitions of Palestine and Palestinian#Referring to Jews in a national rather than religious sense|Palestinian]]" by Germans to refer to the nation or people known as [[Jew]]s, as distinct from the religion of [[Judaism]]. Despite the use of the prefix "anti," the terms ''Semitic'' and ''Anti-Semitic'' are not [[antonym]]s. To avoid the confusion of the [[misnomer]], many scholars on the subject (such as [[Emil Fackenheim]] of the [[Hebrew University]]) now favor the unhyphenated term ''antisemitism''. [[Yehuda Bauer]] articulated this view in his writings and lectures: (the term) "Antisemitism, especially in its [[hyphen]]ated spelling, is inane nonsense, because there is no [[Semitism]] that you can be [[anti]] to." [http://humwww.ucsc.edu/jewishstudies/docs/YBauerLecture.pdf], also in his ''A History of the Holocaust'', p.52) The term ''anti-Semitism'' has historically referred to prejudice towards [[Jew]]s alone, and this was the only use of this word for more than a century. It does not traditionally refer to prejudice toward other people who speak [[Semitic language]]s (e.g. [[Arab]]s or [[Syriacs]]). [[Bernard Lewis]], Professor of Near Eastern Studies Emeritus at Princeton University, says that "Anti-Semitism has never anywhere been concerned with anyone but Jews."[http://middleeastinfo.org/library/lewis_antisemitism.html] In recent decades some groups have argued that the term should be extended to include prejudice against Arabs, [[Anti-Arabism]], in the context of accusations of Arab anti-Semitism; further, some, including the [[Islamic Association of Palestine]], have argued that this implies that Arabs can not, ''by definition'', be anti-Semitic, despite the acknowledged high level of [[Arab anti-Semitism]]. The argument for such extension comes out of the claim that since the [[Semitic]] [[language family]] includes Arabic, Hebrew and Aramaic languages, and the historical term "Semite" refers to all those who consider themselves descendants of the Biblical [[Shem]], anti-Semitism should be likewise inclusive. This usage is not generally accepted. === Definitions of the term === [[Image:Antisemiticroths.jpg|thumb|left|Anti-semitic caricature (France, 1898)]] Though the general definition of anti-Semitism is hostility or prejudice towards [[Jew]]s, a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions. [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]] scholar and [[City University of New York]] professor Helen Fein's definition has been particularly influential. She defines anti-Semitism as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and imagery, and in actions – social or legal discrimination, political mobilisation against the Jews, and collective or state violence – which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews." Professor Dietz Bering of the [[University of Cologne]] further expanded on Professor Fein's definition by describing the structure of anti-Semitic beliefs. To anti-Semites: "Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character." There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to formally define anti-Semitism. The United States Department of State defines anti-Semitism in its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism as "hatred toward Jews—individually and as a group—that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity." In 2005, the [[European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia]] (EUMC), a body of the [[European Union]], developed a more detailed working definition: "Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities. In addition, such manifestations could also target the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity. Antisemitism frequently charges Jews with conspiring to harm humanity, and it is often used to blame Jews for 'why things go wrong'." The EUMC then listed "contemporary examples of anti-Semitism in public life, the media, schools, the workplace, and in the religious sphere." These included: Making mendacious, dehumanizing, demonizing, or stereotypical allegations about Jews; accusing Jews as a people of being responsible for real or imagined wrongdoing committed by a single Jewish person or group; denying the Holocaust; and accusing Jewish citizens of being more loyal to Israel, or to the alleged priorities of Jews worldwide, than to the interests of their own nations. The EUMC also discussed ways in which attacking Israel could be anti-Semitic, depending on the context (see [[#Anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism|anti-Zionism]] below). [http://eumc.eu.int/eumc/material/pub/AS/AS-WorkingDefinition-draft.pdf] ==Earliest Antisemitism== The earliest occurrence of antisemitism has been the subject of debate among scholars. Professor Peter Schafer of the Freie University of Berlin has argued that antisemitism was first spread by "the Greek retelling of ancient Egyptian prejudices". In view of the anti-Jewish writings of the Egyptian priest Manetho, Schafer suggests that anti-Semitism may have emerged "in Egypt alone". The hostility commonly faced by Jews in the Diaspora has been extensively described by John M. G. Barclay of the University of Durham. The ancient Jewish philosopher [[Philo of Alexandria]] described an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in ''Flaccus'', in which thousands of Jews died. In the analysis of Pieter W. Van Der Horst, the cause of the violence in Alexandria was that Jews had been portrayed as misanthropes. Gideon Bohak has argued that early animosity against Jews was not anti-Judaism unless it arose from attitudes held against Jews alone. Using this stricter definition, Bohak says that many Greeks had animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians. The 150 BCE suppression of Jewish religious practice by use of deadly force against civilians, as recounted in [[1 Maccabees]], then qualifies as anti-Judaism in a broader sense of the term than is used by Bohak. There are other examples of [[History of anti-Semitism#Ancient animosity towards Jews|ancient animosity towards Jews]] that are not considered by all to fall within the definition of anti-semitism. ==Religious Antisemitism== {{main|Christianity and anti-Semitism}} ===Anti-Judaism in the New Testament=== The New Testament is a collection of 'books' written by various authors. Most of this collection was written by the end of the first century. The majority of the New Testament was written by Jews who became followers of Jesus, and all but two books (Luke and Acts) are traditionally attributed to such Jewish followers. Nevertheless, there are a number of passages in the New Testament that some see as anti-Semitic, or have been used for anti-Semitic purposes, most notably: :Jesus speaking to a group of [[Pharisees]]: "''I know that you are descendants of Abraham; yet you seek to kill me, because my word finds no place in you. I speak of what I have seen with my Father, and you do what you have heard from your father. They answered him, "Abraham is our father." Jesus said to them, "If you were Abraham's children, you would do what Abraham did. ... You are of your father the devil, and your will is to do your father's desires. He was a murderer from the beginning, and has nothing to do with the truth, because there is no truth in him. When he lies, he speaks according to his own nature, for he is a liar and the father of lies. But, because I tell the truth, you do not believe me. Which of you convicts me of sin? If I tell the truth, why do you not believe me? He who is of God hears the words of God; the reason why you do not hear them is you are not of God.''" ([[Book of John|John]] 8:37-39, 44-47, [[Revised Standard Version|RSV]]) :[[Saint Stephen|Stephen]] speaking before a synagogue council just before his execution: "''You stiff-necked people, uncircumcised in heart and ears, you always resist the Holy Spirit. As your fathers did, so do you. Which of the prophets did not your fathers persecute? And they killed those who announced beforehand the coming of the Righteous One, whom you have now betrayed and murdered, you who received the law as delivered by angels and did not keep it.''" ([[Book of Acts|Acts]] 7:51-53, RSV) :"''Behold, I will make those of the synagogue of Satan who say that they are Jews and are not, but lie -- behold, I will make them come and bow down before your feet, and learn that I have loved you.''" ([[Revelation]] 3:9, RSV). Some biblical scholars point out that Jesus and Stephen are presented as Jews speaking to other Jews, and that their use of broad accusation against Israel is borrowed from Moses and the later Jewish prophets (e.g. Deut 9:13-14; 31:27-29; 32:5, 20-21; 2 Kings 17:13-14; Is 1:4; Hos 1:9; 10:9). Jesus once calls his own disciple Peter 'Satan' (Mk 8:33). Other scholars hold that verses like these reflect the Jewish-Christian tensions that were emerging in the late first or early second century, and do not originate with Jesus. Today, nearly all Christian denominations de-emphasize verses such as these, and reject their use and misuse by anti-Semites. Drawing from the Jewish prophet Jeremiah (Jer 31:31-34), the [[New Testament]] taught that with the death of Jesus a [[new covenant]] was established which rendered obsolete and in many respects superseded the first covenant established by Moses (Heb 8:7-13; Lk 22:20). Observance of the earlier covenant traditionally characterizes [[Judaism]]. This New Testament teaching, and later variations to it, are part of what is called [[supersessionism]]. However, the early Jewish followers of Jesus continued to practice circumcision and observe dietary laws, which is why the failure to observe these laws by the first Gentile Christians became a matter of controversy and dispute some years after Jesus' death (Acts 11:3; 15:1ff; 16:3). The New Testament holds that Jesus' (Jewish) disciple Judas Iscariot (Mk 14:43-46), the Roman Governor Pontius Pilate along with Roman forces (Jn 19:11; Acts 4:27) and Jewish leaders and people of Jerusalem were (to varying degrees) responsible for the death of Jesus (Acts 13:27); Diaspora Jews are not blamed for events which were clearly outside their control. After Jesus' death, the New Testament portrays the Jewish religious authorities in Jerusalem as hostile to Jesus' followers, and as occasionally using force against them. Stephen is executed by stoning (Acts 7:58). Before his conversion, Saul puts followers of Jesus in prison (Acts 8:3; Gal 1:13-14; 1 Tim 1:13). After his conversion, Saul is whipped at various times by Jewish authorities (2 Cor 11:24), and is accused by Jewish authorities before Roman courts (e.g., Acts 25:6-7). However, opposition from Gentiles is also cited repeatedly (2 Cor 11:26; Acts 16:19ff; 19:23ff). More generally, there are widespread references in the New Testament to suffering experienced by Jesus' followers at the hands of others (Rom 8:35;1 Cor 4:11ff; Gal 3:4; 2 Thess 1:5; Heb 10:32; 1 Pet 4:16; Rev 20:4). ===Early Christianity=== A number of early and influential Church works -- such as the dialogues of [[Justin Martyr]], the homilies of [[John Chrysostom]], and the testimonies of church father [[Cyprian]] -- are strongly anti-Jewish. During a discussion on the celebration of [[Easter]] during the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in AD 325, Roman emperor [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]] [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/25023.htm said] <blockquote> ...it appeared an unworthy thing that in the celebration of this most holy feast we should follow the practice of the Jews, who have impiously defiled their hands with enormous sin, and are, therefore, deservedly afflicted with blindness of soul. (...) Let us then have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd; for we have received from our Saviour a different way.</blockquote> Prejudice against Jews in the [[Roman Empire]] was formalized in 438, when the ''Code of [[Theodosius II]]'' established Roman Catholic Christianity as the only legal religion in the Roman Empire. The [[Justinian Code]] a century later stripped Jews of many of their rights, and Church councils throughout the sixth and seventh century, including the Council of Orleans, further enforced anti-Jewish provisions. These restrictions began as early as 305, when, in Elvira, (now [[Granada]]), a Spanish town in [[Andalusia]], the first known laws of any church council against Jews appeared. Christian women were forbidden to marry Jews unless the Jew first converted to Catholicism. Jews were forbidden to extend hospitality to Catholics. Jews could not keep Catholic Christian [[concubine]]s and were forbidden to bless the fields of Catholics. In 589, in Catholic Spain, the Third Council of Toledo ordered that children born of marriage between Jews and Catholic be baptized by force. By the Twelfth Council of Toledo (681) a policy of forced conversion of all Jews was initiated (Liber Judicum, II.2 as given in Roth). Thousands fled, and thousands of others converted to Roman Catholicism. === Anti-Semitism in the Middle Ages === [[Image:Talmudtrial.jpg|thumb|250px|1239. In the course of a [[disputation]], [[Pope Gregory IX]] ordered the [[Talmud]] burned (note a non-[[heretic]]al book floating above the fire). A 15th century painting by [[Pedro Berruguete]].]] In the [[Middle Ages]] a main justification of prejudice against Jews in Europe was religious. Though not part of [[Catholic]] [[dogma]], many Christians, including members of the clergy, have held the Jewish people collectively responsible for killing Jesus (see [[Deicide]]), a practice originated by [[Melito of Sardis]]. As stated in the Boston College Guide to Passion Plays, "Over the course of time, Christians began to accept... that the Jewish people as a whole were responsible for killing Jesus. According to this interpretation, both the Jews present at Jesus’ death and the Jewish people collectively and for all time, have committed the sin of deicide, or God-killing. For 1900 years of Christian-Jewish history, the charge of deicide has led to hatred, violence against and murder of Jews in Europe and America."[http://moses.creighton.edu/JRS/pdf/ViewersGuide.pdf] This accusation was repudiated in 1964, when the Catholic Church under [[Pope Paul VI]] issued the document [[Nostra Aetate]] as a part of [[Vatican II]]. As the [[Black Death]] [[epidemics]] devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, rumors spread that Jews caused it by deliberately [[well poisoning|poisoning wells]]. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by violence. "Never mind that Jews were not immune from the ravages of the [[bubonic plague|plague]]; they were tortured until they "confessed" to crimes that they could not possibly have committed. In one such case, a man named Agimet was ... coerced to say that Rabbi Peyret of Chambery (near [[Geneva]]) had ordered him to poison the wells in [[Venice]], [[Toulouse]], and elsewhere. In the aftermath of Agimet’s "confession," the Jews of [[Strasbourg]] were burned alive on February 14, 1349. (Source: ''Jews: The Essence and Character of a People'' by Arthur Hertzberg and Aron Hirt-Manheimer, p.84) Among socio-economic factors were restrictions by the authorities, local rulers and frequently church officials who closed many professions to the Jews, pushing them into marginal occupations considered socially inferior, such as local tax and rent collecting or moneylending, a necessary evil due to the increasing population and urbanization during the High Middle Ages. Catholic doctrine of the time held that moneylending for interest was a [[sin]], and as such Jews tended to dominate this business. This provided support for claims that Jews are insolent, greedy, engaged in [[usury]], and in itself contributed to a negative image. Natural tensions between creditors (typically Jews) and debtors (typically Christians) were added to social, political, religious and economic strains. Peasants who were forced to pay their taxes to Jews could personify them as the people taking their earnings while remaining loyal to the lords on whose behalf the Jews worked. ==== The demonizing of the Jews ==== From around the 12th century through the [[19th century|19th]] there were Christians who believed that some (or all) Jews possessed magical powers; some believed that they had gained these magical powers from making a deal with the [[devil]]. See also [[Judensau]], [[Judeophobia]]. ==== Blood libels ==== ''Main articles: [[blood libel]], [[list of blood libels against Jews]]'' On many occasions, Jews were accused of a [[blood libel]], the supposed drinking of blood of Christian children in mockery of the Christian [[Eucharist]]. According to the authors of these blood libels, the 'procedure' for the alleged sacrifice was something like this: a child who had not yet reached puberty was kidnapped and taken to a hidden place. The child would be tortured by Jews, and a crowd would gather at the place of execution (in some accounts the synagogue itself) and engage in a mock tribunal to try the child. The child would be presented to the tribunal naked and tied and eventually be condemned to death. In the end, the child would be crowned with thorns and tied or nailed to a wooden cross. The cross would be raised, and the blood dripping from the child's wounds would be caught in bowls or glasses. Finally, the child would be killed with a thrust through the heart from a spear, sword, or dagger. Its dead body would be removed from the cross and concealed or disposed of, but in some instances rituals of black magic would be performed on it. This method, with some variations, can be found in all the alleged Christian descriptions of ritual murder by Jews. The story of [[William of Norwich]] (d. 1144) is the first known case of ritual murder being alleged by a Christian monk while the story of [[Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln]] (d. 1255) said that after the boy was dead, his body was removed from the cross and laid on a table. His belly was cut open and his entrails removed for some occult purpose, such as a [[haruspex|divination ritual]]. The story of [[Simon of Trent]] (d. 1475) emphasized how the boy was held over a large bowl so all his blood could be collected. Simon was regarded as a saint, and was canonized by [[Pope Sixtus V]] in 1588. The cult of Simon was disbanded in 1965 by [[Pope Paul VI]], and the shrine erected to him was dismantled. He was removed from the calendar, and his future veneration was forbidden, though a handful of extremists still promote the narrative as a fact. In the 20th century, the [[Menahem Mendel Beilis|Beilis Trial]] in Russia and the [[Kielce pogrom]] represented incidents of blood libel in Europe, while more recently blood libel stories have appeared a number of times in the state-sponsored media of a number of Arab nations, in Arab television shows, and on websites. ==== Host desecration ==== [[Image:Descreationofhost.gif|thumb|right|150px|A 15th century German woodcut showing an alleged host desecration. In the first panel the hosts are stolen, in the second the hosts bleed when pierced by a Jew, in the third the Jews are arrested, and in the fourth they are burned alive.]] Jews were falsely accused of torturing consecrated host wafers in a reenactment of the [[Crucifixion]]; this accusation was known as ''[[host desecration]]''. === Disabilities and Restrictions === [[Image:BritLibCottonNeroD1Fol183vPersecutedJews.jpg|thumb|left|The yellow badge Jews were forced to wear can be seen in this marginal illustration from an English manuscript.]] Jews were subject to a wide range of legal restrictions throughout the Middle Ages, some of which lasted until the end of the 19th century. Jews were excluded from many trades, the list of excluded occupations varying in different communities, and being determined largely by the political influence of various non-Jewish competing interests. Frequently all occupations were barred against Jews, except money-lending and peddling—even these at times being prohibited. The number of Jews or Jewish families permitted to reside in different places was limited; they were concentrated in [[ghettos]], and were not allowed to own land; and they were subjected to discriminatory taxes on entering cities or districts other than their own, forced to swear special [[Oath More Judaico|Jewish Oaths]], and a variety of other measures, including restrictions on dress. ====Clothing==== ''Main article: [[yellow badge]], [[Judenhut]]'' The [[Fourth Lateran Council]] in 1215 was the first to proclaim the requirement for Jews to wear something that distinguished them as Jews. It could be a colored piece of cloth in the shape of a star or circle or square, a hat ([[Judenhut]]), or a robe. In many localities, members of the medieval society wore badges to distinguish their social status. Some badges (such as [[guild]] members) were prestigious, while others ostracized outcasts such as [[leper]]s, reformed [[heretic]]s and [[prostitute]]s. Jews sought to evade the [[Jewish badge|badges]] by paying what amounted to bribes in the form of temporary "exemptions" to kings, which were revoked and re-paid whenever the king needed to raise funds. === The Crusades === The '''[[Crusade]]s''' were a series of several military campaigns sanctioned by the [[Papacy]] that took place during the [[11th century|11th]] through [[13th century|13th centuries]]. They began as [[Catholic]] endeavors to capture [[Jerusalem]] from the [[Islam|Muslims]] but developed into territorial wars. The mobs accompanying the first three Crusades attacked the Jewish communities in Germany, France, and England, and put many Jews to death. Entire communities, like those of Treves, Speyer, Worms, Mayence, and Cologne, were slain during the first Crusade by a mob army. About 12,000 Jews are said to have perished in the Rhenish cities alone between May and July, 1096. Before the Crusades the Jews had practically a monopoly of trade in Eastern products, but the closer connection between Europe and the East brought about by the Crusades raised up a class of merchant traders among the Christians, and from this time onward restrictions on the sale of goods by Jews became frequent. The religious zeal fomented by the Crusades at times burned as fiercely against the Jews as against the Muslims, though attempts were made by bishops during the [[First crusade]] and the papacy during the [[Second Crusade]] to stop Jews from being attacked. Both economically and socially the Crusades were disastrous for European Jews. They prepared the way for the anti-Jewish legislation of [[Pope Innocent III]], and formed the turning-point in the medieval history of the Jews. [[Image:FirstCrusade.jpg|thumb|left|1250 French Bible illustration depicts Jews (identifiable by [[Judenhut]]) being massacred by Crusaders]] === The expulsions from England, France, Germany, and Spain === ''Only a few expulsions of the Jews are described in this section, for a more extended list see [[History of anti-Semitism]], and also the [[History of the Jews in England]], [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]], [[History of the Jews in Spain|Spain]], and [[History of the Jews in France|France]].'' The practice of expelling the Jews accompanied by confiscation of their property, followed by temporary readmissions for [[ransom]], was utilized to enrich the French crown during [[12th century|12th]]-[[14th century|14th]] centuries. The most notable such expulsions were: from [[Paris]] by [[Philip Augustus of France|Philip Augustus]] in 1182, from the entirety of France by [[Louis IX of France|Louis IX]] in 1254, by [[Charles IV of France|Charles IV]] in 1322, by [[Charles V of France|Charles V]] in 1359, by [[Charles VI of France|Charles VI]] in 1394. To finance his war to conquer [[Wales]], [[Edward I of England]] taxed the Jewish moneylenders. When the Jews could no longer pay, they were accused of disloyalty. Already restricted to a limited number of occupations, the Jews saw Edward abolish their "privilege" to lend money, choke their movements and activities and were forced to wear a [[Yellow badge|yellow patch]]. The heads of Jewish households were then arrested, over 300 of them taken to the [[Tower of London]] and executed, while others killed in their homes. The complete banishment of all Jews from the country in 1290 led to thousands killed and drowned while fleeing and the absence of Jews from England for three and a half centuries, until 1655, when [[Oliver Cromwell]] reversed the policy. In 1492, [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] and [[Isabella of Castile]] issued ''General Edict on the Expulsion of the Jews'' from [[Spain]] (''see also [[Spanish Inquisition]]'') and many [[Sephardi]] Jews fled to the [[Ottoman Empire]], some to the [[Land of Israel]]. In 1744, [[Frederick II of Prussia]] limited [[Breslau]] to only ten so-called "protected" Jewish families and encouraged similar practice in other [[Prussia]]n cities. In 1750 he issued ''Revidiertes General Privilegium und Reglement vor die Judenschaft'': the "protected" Jews had an alternative to "either abstain from marriage or leave Berlin" (quoting [[Simon Dubnow]]). In the same year, Archduchess of [[Austria]] [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]] ordered Jews out of [[Bohemia]] but soon reversed her position, on condition that Jews pay for readmission every ten years. This [[extortion]] was known as ''malke-geld'' (queen's money). In 1752 she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son. In 1782, [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]] abolished most of persecution practices in his ''Toleranzpatent'', on the condition that [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] are eliminated from public records and judicial autonomy is annulled. [[Moses Mendelssohn]] wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution". === Anti-Judaism and the Reformation === [[Image:1543 On the Jews and Their Lies by Martin Luther.jpg|thumb|180px|Luther's 1543 pamphlet ''On the Jews and Their Lies'']] {{main|Christianity and anti-Semitism}} [[Martin Luther]], an [[Augustinian]] [[monasticism|monk]] and an [[ecclesiastical]] reformer whose teachings inspired the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], wrote antagonistically about Jews in his book ''On the Jews and their Lies'', which describes the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriating them, and providing detailed recommendation for a [[pogrom]] against them and their permanent oppression and/or expulsion. According to [[Paul Johnson (journalist)|Paul Johnson]], it "may be termed the first work of modern anti-Semitism, and a giant step forward on the road to the Holocaust." (''A History of the Jews'', 1987, p.242) In his final sermon shortly before his death, however, Luther preached "We want to treat them with Christian love and to pray for them, so that they might become converted and would receive the Lord" (Weimar edition, Vol. 51, p. 195). Still, Luther's harsh comments about the Jews are seen by many as a continuation of medieval Christian anti-Semitism. ''See also [[Martin Luther and Antisemitism]]'' ===Anti-Semitism in 19th and 20th century Catholicism=== Throughout the 19th century and into the 20th, the Catholic Church still incorporated strong anti-Semitic elements, despite increasing attempts to separate anti-Judaism, the opposition to the Jewish religion on religious grounds, and racial anti-Semitism. [[Pope Pius VII]] (1800-1823) had the walls of the Jewish [[Ghetto]] in Rome rebuilt after the Jews were [[Napoleon and the Jews|released by Napoleon]], and Jews were restricted to the Ghetto through the end of the papacy of [[Pope Pius IX]] (1846-1878), the last Pope to rule Rome. Additionally, official organizations such as the Jesuits banned candidates "who are descended from the Jewish race unless it is clear that their father, grandfather, and great-grandfather have belonged to the Catholic Church" until 1946. Brown University historian [[David Kertzer]], working from the Vatican archive, has further argued in his book ''The Popes Against the Jews'' that in the 19th and 20th century the [[Roman Catholic Church]] adhered to a distinction between "good anti-Semitism" and "bad anti-Semitism". The "bad" kind promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent. This was considered un-Christian because the Christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity; anyone could become a Christian. The "good" kind criticized alleged Jewish conspiracies to control newspapers, banks, and other institutions, to care only about accumulation of wealth, etc. Many Catholic bishops wrote articles criticizing Jews on such grounds, and, when accused of promoting hatred of Jews, would remind people that they condemned the "bad" kind of anti-Semitism. Kertzer's work is not, therefore, without critics; scholar of Jewish-Christian relations [[Rabbi David G. Dalin]], for example, criticized Kertzer in the [[Weekly Standard]] for using evidence selectively. The [[Second Vatican Council]], the [[Nostra Aetate]] document, and the efforts of [[Pope John Paul II]] have helped reconcile Jews and Catholicism in recent decades, however. === Passion plays === [[Passion play]]s, dramatic stagings representing the trial and death of [[Jesus]], have historically been used in remembrance of Jesus' death during [[Lent]]. These plays historically blamed the Jews for [[deicide|the death of Jesus]] in a [[polemic]]al fashion, depicting a crowd of Jewish people condemning Jesus to [[crucifixion]] and a Jewish leader assuming eternal collective guilt for the crowd for the murder of Jesus, which, ''[[The Boston Globe]]'' explains, "for centuries prompted vicious attacks -- or [[pogrom]]s -- on Europe's Jewish communities".[http://www.boston.com/news/globe/living/articles/2004/04/10/in_poland_new_passion_plays_on_old_hatreds/] [[Time Magazine]] in its article ''[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1101030901-477956,00.html The Problem With Passion]'' explains that "such passages (are) highly subject to interpretation". Although modern scholars interpret the "blood on our children" (Matthew 27: 25) as "a specific group's oath of responsibility" some audiences have historically interpreted it as "an assumption of eternal, racial guilt". This last interpretation has often incited violence against Jews; according to the [[Anti-Defamation League]], "Passion plays historically unleashed the torrents of hatred aimed at the Jews, who always were depicted as being in partnership with the devil and the reason for Jesus' death".[http://www.adl.org/ADL_Opinions/Interfaith/oped_2004012_pbp.htm] The ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', in its article ''[http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0710/p11s01-lire.html?entryBottomStory Capturing the Passion]'' explains that "[h]istorically, productions have reflected negative images of Jews and the long-time church teaching that the Jewish people were collectively responsible for Jesus' death. Violence against Jews as 'Christ-killers' often flared in their wake." ''[[Christianity Today]]'' in ''[http://www.christianitytoday.com/history/newsletter/2004/feb20.html Why some Jews fear (Mel Gibson's) The Passion (of the Christ)]'' observed that "Outbreaks of Christian anti-Semitism related to the Passion narrative have been...numerous and destructive." In 2003 and 2004 some compared [[Mel Gibson]]'s recent film ''The Passion of the Christ'' to these kinds of passion plays, but this characterization is hotly disputed; an analysis of that topic is in the article on [[The Passion of the Christ]]. Despite such fears, there have been no publicized anti-Semitic incidents directly attributable to the movie's influence. ==Racial anti-Semitism == Racial anti-Semitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. In the context of the [[Industrial Revolution]], following the [[Jewish Emancipation|emancipation of the Jews]], Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious anti-Semitism, a combination of growing nationalism, the rise of [[eugenics]], and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist anti-Semitism. ===Nationalism and Anti-Semitism=== Racial anti-Semitism was preceded, especially in Germany, by anti-Semitism arising from [[Romantic]] [[nationalism]]. As racial theories developed, especially from the mid nineteenth-century onwards, these nationalist ideas were subsumed within them. But their origins were quite distinct from racialism. On the one hand they derived from an exclusivist interpretation of the 'Volk' ideas of [[Herder]]. This led to anti-Semitic writing and journalism in the second quarter of the 19th century of which [[Richard Wagner]]'s [[Das Judentum in der Musik]] (Jewry in Music) is perhaps the most notorious example. On the other hand, radical socialists such as [[Karl Marx]] identified Jews as being both victims and enforced perpetrators of the [[Capitalist]] system - e.g. in his article 'On the Jewish Question'. From sources such as these, and encouraged by the broad acceptance of racial theories as the century continued, anti-Semitism entered the vocabularies and policies of both the right and the left in political thought. ===The rise of racial anti-Semitism=== Modern European anti-Semitism has its origin in 19th century [[pseudo-science|pseudo-scientific]] theories that the Jewish people are a sub-group of Semitic peoples; Semitic people were thought by many Europeans to be entirely different from the [[Aryan]], or [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]], populations, and that they can never be amalgamated with them. In this view, Jews are not opposed on account of their [[religion]], but on account of their supposed hereditary or genetic [[racial characteristics]]: greed, a special aptitude for money-making, aversion to hard work, clannishness and obtrusiveness, lack of social tact, low cunning, and especially lack of [[patriotism]]. While enlightened European intellectual society of that period viewed prejudice against people on account of their religion to be declassé and a sign of ignorance, because of this supposed 'scientific' connection to [[genetics]] they felt fully justified in prejudice based on nationality or 'race'. In order to differentiate between the two practices, the term anti-Semitism was developed to refer to this 'acceptable' bias against Jews as a nationality, as distinct from the 'undesirable' prejudice against Judaism as a religion. Concurrently with this usage, [[Definitions of Palestine#Referring to Jews in a national rather than religious sense|some authors in Germany]] began to use the term 'Palestinians' when referring to Jews as a people, rather than as a religious group. As further proof of its pseudo-scientific nature, it is questionable whether [[Jew]]s in general looked significantly different from the populations conducting "racial" anti-Semitism. This was especially true in places like [[Germany]], [[France]] and [[Austria]] where the Jewish population tended to be more secular (or at least less Orthodox) than that of Eastern Europe, and did not wear clothing (such as a [[yarmulke]]) that would particularly distinguish their appearance from the non-Jewish population. Many anthropologists of the time such as [[Franz Boas]] tried to use complex physical measurements like the [[cephalic index]] and visual surveys of hair/eye color and skin tone of Jewish vs. non-Jewish European populations to prove that the notion of a separate "Jewish race" was a myth. The 19th and early 20th century view of race should be distinguished from the efforts of modern population genetics to trace the ancestry of various Jewish groups, see [[Y-chromosomal Aaron]]. The advent of racial anti-Semitism was also linked to the growing sense of [[nationalism]] in many countries. The nationalist context viewed Jews as a separate and often "alien" nation within the countries in which Jews resided, a prejudice exploited by the elites of many governments. ===Elites and the use of Anti-semitism=== [[Image:1889 French elections Poster for antisemitic candidate Adolf Willette.jpg|thumb|250px|1889 Paris, France elections poster for self-described "candidat antisémite" [[Adolphe Willette]]: "The Jews are a different race, hostile to our own... Judaism, there is the enemy!"]] Many analysts of modern anti-Semitism have pointed out that its essence is [[scapegoat]]ing: features of modernity felt by some group to be undesirable (e.g. materialism, the power of money, economic fluctuations, war, secularism, socialism, Communism, movements for racial equality, social welfare policies, etc.) are believed to be caused by the machinations of a conspiratorial people whose full loyalties are not to the national group. Traditionalists anguished at the supposedly decadent or defective nature of the modern world have sometimes been inclined to embrace such views. Indeed, it is a matter of historical record that many of the conservative members of the [[WASP]] establishment of the [[United States]] as well as other comparable Western elites (e.g. the [[British Foreign Office]]) have harbored such attitudes, and in the aftermath of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]], some xenophobic anti-Semites have imagined world [[Communism]] to be a Jewish conspiracy (''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups'' [1980], p. 590). The modern form of anti-Semitism is identified in the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica|1911 edition]] of the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] as a conspiracy theory serving the self-understanding of the European [[aristocracy]], whose social power waned with the rise of bourgeois society. The Jews of Europe, then recently emancipated, were relatively literate, entrepreneurial and unentangled in aristocratic patronage systems, and were therefore disproportionately represented in the ascendant [[bourgeois]] class. As the [[aristocracy]] (and its hangers-on) lost out to this new center of power in society, they found their scapegoat - exemplified in the work of [[Arthur de Gobineau]]. That the Jews were singled out to embody the 'problem' was, by this theory, no more than a symptom of the [[nobility]]'s own prejudices concerning the importance of breeding (on which its own [[legitimacy (political science)|legitimacy]] was founded). ===Dreyfus Affair=== [[Image:Degradation alfred dreyfus.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The treason conviction of [[Alfred Dreyfus]] demonstrated French anti-semitism.]] The [[Dreyfus affair]] was a political scandal which divided [[France]] for many years during the late 19th century. It centered on the 1894 treason conviction of [[Alfred Dreyfus]], a Jewish officer in the French army. Dreyfus was, in fact, innocent: the conviction rested on false documents, and when high-ranking officers realized this they attempted to cover up the mistakes. The writer [[Émile Zola]] exposed the affair to the general public in the literary newspaper ''L'Aurore'' (The Dawn) in a famous open letter to the [[President of France|Président de la République]] [[Félix Faure]], titled ''J'accuse !'' (I Accuse!) on January 13, 1898. The Dreyfus Affair split France between the ''Dreyfusards'' (those supporting Alfred Dreyfus) and the ''Antidreyfusards'' (those against him). The quarrel was especially violent since it involved many issues then highly [[controversial]] in a heated political climate. Dreyfus was pardoned in 1899, readmitted into the army, and made a knight in the [[Légion d'Honneur|Legion of Honour]]. An Austrian Jewish journalist named [[Theodor Herzl]] was assigned to report on the trial and its aftermath. The injustice of the trial and the anti-Semitic passions it aroused in France and elsewhere turned him into a determined and leading [[Zionism|Zionist]]; ultimately turning the movement into an international one. Also see [[Alfred Dreyfus]] and [[Dreyfus affair]]. ===Pogroms=== [[Image:Ekaterinoslav1905.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The victims, mostly Jewish children, of a 1905 [[pogrom]] in [[Dnipropetrovsk]].]] [[Pogrom]]s were a form of race riots, most commonly Russia and Eastern Europe, aimed specifically at Jews and often government sponsored. Pogroms became endemic during a large-scale wave of anti-Jewish riots that swept southern [[Russia]] in 1881, after Jews were wrongly blamed for the assassination of Tsar [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]]. In the 1881 outbreak, thousands of Jewish homes were destroyed, many families reduced to extremes of poverty; women sexually assaulted, and large numbers of men, women, and children killed or injured in 166 Russian towns. The new czar, [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]], blamed the Jews for the riots and issued a [[May Laws|series of harsh restrictions]] on Jews. Large numbers of pogroms continued until 1884, with at least tacit inactivity by the authorities. An even bloodier wave of pogroms broke out in 1903-1906, leaving an estimated 2,000 Jews dead, and many more wounded. A final large wave of 887 pogroms in Russia and Ukraine occurred during the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], in which between 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews were killed by riots led by various sides. During the early to mid-1900s, pogroms also occurred in Poland, Argentina, and throughout the Arab world. Extremely deadly pogroms also occurred during [[World War II]], including the Romanian [[Iaşi pogrom]] in which 14,000 Jews were killed, and the [[Jedwabne massacre]] in Poland which killed between 380 and 1,600 Jews. The last mass pogrom in Europe was the post-war [[Kielce pogrom]] of 1946. ===Anti-Jewish Legislation=== [[Image:Nurembergracechart.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Nuremberg Laws]] of 1935 used a pseudo-scientific basis for racial discrimination against Jews. People with four German grandparents (white circles) were of "German blood," while people were classified as Jews if they descended from three or more Jewish grandparents (black circles in top row right). One or more Jewish grandparents made someone "mixed blood." Since the racial differences between Jews and Germans are small, the Nazis used the religious observance of a person's grandparents to determine their "race." (1935 Chart from [[Nazi Germany]] used to explain the [[Nuremberg Laws]])]] Anti-semitism was officially adopted by the German Conservative Party at the [[Tivoli Congress]] in 1892, on the instigation of Dr. Klasing but in the teeth of opposition led by the moderate Werner [[von Blumenthal]]. Official [[anti-Semitic]] legislation was enacted in various countries, especially in Imperial Russia in the 19th century and in [[Nazi]] Germany and its Central European allies in the 1930s. These laws were passed against Jews as a group, regardless of their religious affiliation - in some cases, such as Nazi Germany, having a Jewish grandparent was enough to qualify someone as Jewish. In Germany, for example, the [[Nuremberg Laws]] of 1935 prevented marriage between any Jew and non-Jew, and made it that all Jews, even quarter- and half-Jews, were no longer citizens of their own country (their official title became "[[subject of the state]]"). This meant that they had no basic citizens' rights, e.g., to vote. In 1936, Jews were banned from all professional jobs, effectively preventing them having any influence in education, politics, higher education and industry. On 15 November of 1938, Jewish children were banned from going to normal schools. By April 1939, nearly all Jewish companies had either collapsed under financial pressure and declining profits, or had been persuaded to sell out to the Nazi government. This further reduced their rights as human beings; they were in many ways officially separated from the German populace. Similar laws existed in [[Hungary]], [[Romania]], and [[Austria]]. Even when anti-Semitism was not an official state policy, governments in the early to middle parts of the 20th century often adopted more subtle measures aimed at Jews. For example, the [[Evian Conference]] of 1938 delegates from thirty-two countries neither condemned Hitler's treatment of the Jews nor allowed more Jewish refugees to flee to the West. ===The Holocaust and Holocaust Denial=== {{main|Holocaust}} Racial anti-Semitism reached its most horrific manifestation in the [[Holocaust]] during [[World War II]], in which about 6 million [[Europe]]an [[Jew]]s, 1.5 million of them children, were systematically murdered. [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust deniers]] often claim that "the Jews" or "[[conspiracy theory|Zionist conspiracy]]" are responsible for the exaggeration or wholesale fabrication of the events of the Holocaust. Critics of such revisionism point to an overwhelming amount of physical and historical evidence that supports the mainstream historical view of the Holocaust. Almost all academics agree that there is no evidence for any such conspiracy. ===Anti-Semitic conspiracy theories=== [[Image:Protocols of the Elders of Zion 2005 Syria al-Awael.jpg|thumb|2005 [[Syria]]n edition of ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' includes a "historical and contemporary investigative study" that repeats the [[blood libel against Jews|blood libel]] and other anti-Semitic accusations, and argues that the Torah and Talmud encourage Jews "to commit treason and to conspire, dominate, be arrogant and exploit other countries".]] The rise of views of the Jews as a malevolent "race" generated anti-Semitic [[conspiracy theories]] that the Jews, as a group, were plotting to control or otherwise influence the world. From the early infamous Russian literary [[hoax]], [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]], published by the Tzar's secret police, a key element of anti-Semitic thought has been that Jews influence or control the world. In a recent incarnation, extremist groups, such as [[Neo-Nazism|Neo-Nazi]] parties and [[Islamism|Islamist]] groups, claim that the aim of [[Zionism]] is [[global domination]]; they call this the ''Zionist [[Conspiracy theory|conspiracy]]'' and use it to support anti-Semitism. This position is associated with [[fascism]] and [[Nazism]], though increasingly, it is becoming a tendency within parts of the [[Left wing politics|left]] as well. == Anti-Semitism and the Muslim world == ''Anti-Semitism within Islam is discussed in the article on [[Islam and anti-Semitism]]. Anti-Semitism in the Arab World is discussed in the article on [[Arabs and anti-Semitism]]'' The [[Qur'an]], [[Islam]]'s holy book, accuses the [[Jew]]s of corrupting the [[Hebrew Bible]]. Muslims refer to Jews and [[Christian]]s as a "[[People of the book]]"; Islamic law demands that when under Muslim rule they should be treated as [[dhimmi|dhimmis]] - from the Arab term ''ahl adh-dhimma''. The writer [[Bat Ye'or]] introduced the modern word ''Dhimmitude'' as a generic indication of this Islamic attitude. Dhimmis were granted protection of life (including against other Muslim states), the right to residence, worship, and work or trade, and were exempted from military service, and Muslim religious duties, personal law and tax. They were obligated to pay other taxes ([[jizyah]] and land tax), and subject to various other restrictions regarding the contradiction of Islam, the Qur'an or [[Muhammad]], [[proselyte|proselytizing]], and at times a number of other restrictions on dress, riding horses or camels, carrying arms, holding public office, building or repairing places of worship, mourning loudly, wearing shoes outside a Jewish ghetto, etc. Anti-Semitism in the [[Islamic world|Muslim world]] increased in the [[twentieth century]], as anti-Semitic motives and [[blood libel]]s were imported from [[Europe]] and as resentment against [[Zionism|Zionist]] efforts in [[British Mandate of Palestine]] spread. While anti-Semitism has certainly been heightened by the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]], there were an increasing number of [[pogrom]]s against Jews prior to the foundation of [[Israel]], including [[Nazi]]-inspired pogroms in [[Algeria]] in the 1930s, and massive attacks on the Jews in [[Iraq]] and [[Libya]] in the 1940s (see [[Farhud]]). George Gruen attributes the increased animosity towards Jews in the [[Arab world]] to several factors including: The breakdown of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and traditional [[Islamic]] society; domination by Western [[colonialism|colonial powers]] under which Jews gained a disproportionatly large role in the commercial, professional, and administrative life of the region; the rise of [[Arab nationalism]], whose proponents sought the wealth and positions of local Jews through government channels; resentment over Jewish [[nationalism]] and the Zionist movement; and the readiness of unpopular [[regime]]s to [[scapegoat]] local Jews for political purposes.[http://www.jcpa.org/jl/jl102.htm] [[Anti-Zionism|Anti-Zionist]] [[propaganda]] in the [[Middle East]] frequently adopts the terminology and symbols of [[the Holocaust]] to [[Demonization|demonize]] Israel and its leaders. At the same time, [[Holocaust denial]] and Holocaust minimization efforts have found increasingly overt acceptance as sanctioned historical discourse in a number of Middle Eastern countries. == Anti-semitism and specific countries == === United States === [[Image:KKK holocaust a zionist hoax.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The [[Ku Klux Klan|KKK]]: Nazi salute and Holocaust denial]] {{main|History of the Jews in the United States}} Jews were often condemned by [[populist]] politicians alternately for their left-wing politics, or their perceived wealth, at the turn of the century. Anti-semitism grew in the years leading up to America's entry into World War II, Father [[Charles Coughlin]], an anti-Semitic radio preacher, as well as many other prominent public figures, condemned "the Jews," and [[Henry Ford]] reprinted [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]] in his newspaper. In 1939 a [[Roper]] poll found that only thirty-nine percent of Americans felt that Jews should be treated like other people. Fifty-three percent believed that "Jews are different and should be restricted" and ten percent believed that Jews should be deported. [http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch22.htm] It has been estimated that 190 000 - 200 000 Jews could have been saved during the [[Second World War]] had it not been for bureaucratic obstacles to immigration deliberately created by [[Breckinridge Long]] and others.[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/holocaust/peopleevents/pandeAMEX90.html] Unofficial antisemitism was also widespread in the first half of the century. For example, to limit the growing number of Jewish students between 1919-1950s a number of private liberal arts universities and medical and dental schools employed [[Numerus clausus#Numerus clausus in the United States|Numerus clausus]]. These included [[Harvard University]], [[Columbia University]], [[Cornell University]], and [[Boston University]]. In 1925 [[Yale University]], which already had such admissions preferences as "character", "solidity", and "physical characteristics" added a program of [[legacy preference]] admission spots for children of Yale alumni, in an explicit attempt to put the brakes on the rising percentage of Jews in the student body. This was soon copied by other Ivy League and other schools, and admissions of Jews were kept down to 10% through the 1950s. Such policies were for the most part discarded during the early 1960s. American anti-Semitism underwent a modest revival in the late 20th century. The [[Nation of Islam]] under [[Louis Farrakhan]] claimed that Jews were responsible for slavery, economic exploitation of black labor, selling alcohol and drugs in their communities, and unfair domination of the economy. Jesse Jackson issued his infamous "Hymietown" remarks during the 1984 Presidential primary campaign. According to ADL surveys begun in 1964, African-Americans are "significantly more likely" than white Americans to hold anti-Semitic beliefs, although there is a strong correlation between education level and the rejection of anti-Semitic stereotypes. [http://www.adl.org/antisemitism_survey/survey_print.asp]. === Europe === The summary of a 2004 poll by the ''Pew Global Attitudes Project'' noted that "Despite concerns about rising anti-Semitism in Europe, there are no indications that anti-Jewish sentiment has increased over the past decade. Favorable ratings of Jews are actually higher now in France, Germany and Russia than they were in 1991. Nonetheless, Jews are better liked in the U.S. than in Germany and Russia."[http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=206] However, according to 2005 survey results by the ADL [http://www.adl.org/PresRele/ASInt_13/4726_13.htm], anti-Semitic attitudes remain common in Europe. Over 30% of those surveyed indicated that Jews have too much power in business, with responses ranging from lows of 11% in Denmark and 14% in England to highs of 66% in Hungary, and over 40% in Poland and Spain. The results of religious anti-Semitism also linger and over 20% of European respondents agreed that Jews were responsible for the death of Jesus, with France having the lowest percentage at 13% and Poland having the highest number of those agreeing, at 39%. [http://www.philosophistry.com/specials/europe/question_1.html] The Vienna-based European Union Monitoring Center (EUMC), for 2002 and 2003, identified France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Belgium, and The Netherlands as EU member countries with notable increases in incidents. As these nations keep reliable and comprehensive statistics on anti-Semitic acts, and are engaged in combating anti-Semitism, their data was readily available to the EUMC. Governments and leading public figures condemned the violence, passed new legislation, and mounted positive law enforcement and educational efforts. In Western Europe, traditional far-right groups still account for a significant proportion of the attacks against Jews and Jewish properties; disadvantaged and disaffected Muslim youths increasingly were responsible for most of the other incidents. In Eastern Europe, with a much smaller Muslim population, skinheads and others members of the radical political fringe were responsible for most anti-Semitic incidents. Anti-Semitism remained a serious problem in Russia and Belarus, and elsewhere in the former Soviet Union, with most incidents carried out by ultra-nationalist and other far-right elements. The stereotype of Jews as manipulators of the global economy continues to provide fertile ground for anti-Semitic aggression. ==== France ==== [[Image:FrenchCemetery103004-01.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Defacement of a Jewish cemetery in France, 2004.]] {{main|History of the Jews in France}} Anti-semitism was particularly virulent in [[Vichy France]] during [[World War II|WWII]] (1939 - 1945). The Vichy government openly collaborated with the Nazi occupiers to identify Jews for deportation and transportation to the death camps. Today, despite a steady trend of decreasing antisemitism among the population[http://www.tns-sofres.com/etudes/pol/080605_antisemitisme_r.htm], acts of antisemitism are a serious cause for concern [http://www.lexpress.fr/info/societe/dossier/juifsfr/dossier.asp], as is tension between the Jewish and Muslim populations of France, both the largest in Europe. According to the National Advisory Committee on human rights, antisemitic acts account for a majority (72% of all in 2003) of racist acts in France. (''See also the official statement of the French ministry of interior about antisemitic acts''[http://www.interieur.gouv.fr/rubriques/a/a5_communiques/2005_07_25_antisemite].) In 2005 the Israeli newspaper the [[Maariv]] found that 82% of French people questioned had favourable attitudes towards Jews, the second highest percentage of the countries questioned. The Netherlands was highest at 85%. [http://superfrenchie.com/?p=125#comments] ==== Poland ==== ''see [[History of the Jews in Poland]]'' In 1264, King [[Boleslaus V of Poland]] legislated a charter for Jewish residence and protection, hoping that Jewish settlement would contribute to the development of the Polish economy. This charter, which encouraged money-lending, was a slight variation of the 1244 charter granted by the King of [[Austria]] to the Jews. By the sixteenth century, Poland had become the center of European Jewry and the most tolerant of all European countries regarding the matters of faith, although there were still occasionally violent anti-Semitic incidents. At the onset of the seventeenth century, however, the tolerance began to give way to increased anti-Semitism. Elected to the Polish throne King [[Sigismund III]] of the Swedish [[House of Vasa]], a strong supporter of the [[counter-reformation]], began to undermine the principles of the [[Warsaw Confederation]] and the religious tolerance in the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], revoking and limiting privileges of all non-Catholic faiths. In 1628 he banned publication of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] books, including the [[Talmud]] [http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/Slavonic/staff/Polcen16c.html]. Acclaimed twentieth century historian [[Simon Dubnow]], in his ''[[magnum opus]]'' ''History of the Jews in Poland and Russia'', detailed: :"''At the end of the 16th century and thereafter, not one year passed without a blood libel trial against Jews in Poland, trials which always ended with the execution of Jewish victims in a heinous manner..."'' (ibid., volume 6, chapter 4). In the 1650s the Swedish invasion of the Commonwealth ([[The Deluge]]) and the [[Chmielnicki Uprising]] of the [[Cossack]]s resulted in vast depopulation of the Commonwealth, as over 30% of the ~10 million population has perished or emigrated. In the related 1648-55 pogroms led by the Ukrainian [[Haidamak]]s uprising against Polish nobility ([[szlachta]]), during which approximately 100,000 Jews were slaughtered, Polish and [[Ruthenian]] peasants often participated in killing Jews (''The Jews in Poland'', Ken Spiro, 2001). The besieged szlachta, who were also decimated in the territories where the uprising happened, typically abandoned the loyal peasantry, townsfolk, and the Jews renting their land, in violation of "rental" contracts. In the aftermath of the Deluge and Chmielnicki Uprising, many Jews fled to the less turbulent [[Netherlands]], which had granted the Jews a protective charter in 1619. From then until the [[Nazi]] deportations in 1942, the Netherlands remained a remarkably tolerant haven for Jews in Europe, excedeeing the tolerance extant in all other European countries at the time, and becoming one of the few Jewish havens until nineteenth century social and political reforms throughout much of Europe. Many Jews also fled to England, open to Jews since the mid-seventeenth century, in which Jews were fundamentally ignored and not typically persecuted. Historian Berel Wein notes: :"''In a reversal of roles that is common in Jewish history, the victorious Poles now vented their wrath upon the hapless Jews of the area, accusing them of collaborating with the [[Cossack]] invader!... The Jews, reeling from almost five years of constant hell, abandoned their Polish communities and institutions..."'' (''Triumph of Survival'', 1990). Throughout the sixteenth to eighteenth century, many of the szlachta mistreated peasantry, townsfolk and Jews. Threat of mob violence was a specter over the Jewish communities in [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] at the time. On one occasion in 1696, a mob threatened to massacre the Jewish community of Posin, [[Vitebsk]]. The mob accused the Jews of murdering a Pole. At the last moment, a peasant woman emerged with the victim's clothes and confessed to the murder. One notable example of actualized riots against Polish Jews is the rioting of 1716, during which many Jews lost their lives. Later, in 1723, the Bishop of [[Gdańsk]] instigated the massacre of hundreds of Jews. The legendary [[Abraham ben Abraham|Walentyn Potocki]], a Polish nobleman who converted to Judaism, is said to have been burned by [[auto da fe]] on May 24, 1749. In 1757, at the instigation of [[Jacob Frank]] and his followers, the Bishop of [[Kamianets-Podilskyi]] forced the Jewish rabbis to participate in a religious dispute with the quasi-Christian Frankists. Among the other charges, the Frankists claimed that the [[Talmud]] was full of heresy against Catholicism. The [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] judges determined that the Frankists had won the debate, whereupon the Bishop levied heavy fines against the Jewish community and confiscated and burned all Jewish Talmuds. Polish anti-Semitism during the seventeenth and eighteenth century was summed up by Issac de Pinto as follows: "''Polish Jews... who are deprived of all the privileges of society... who are despised and reviled on all sides, who are often persecuted, always insulted.... That contempt which is heaped on them chokes up all the seeds of virtue and honour....''" ([[Issac de Pinto]], philosopher and economist, in a 1762 letter to [[Voltaire]]). On the other hand, it should be noted that despite the mentioned incidents, the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] was a relative haven for Jews when compared to the period of the [[partitions of Poland]] and the PLC's destruction in 1795 (see [[Anti-Semitism#Russia and the Soviet Union|Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union]], below). Anti-Jewish sentiments continued to be present in Poland, even after the country regained its independence. One notable manifestation of these attitudes includes [[Numerus clausus#numerus clausus in Poland|numerus clausus]] rules imposed, by almost all Polish universities in the 1930's. [[William W. Hagen]] in his ''Before the "Final Solution": Toward a Comparative Analysis of Political Anti-Semitism in Interwar Germany and Poland'' article in ''Journal of Modern History (July, 1996): 1-31'', details: :"''In Poland, the semidictatorial government of [[Pilsudski]] and his successors, pressured by an increasingly vocal opposition on the radical and fascist right, implemented many anti-Semitic policies tending in a similar direction, while still others were on the official and semiofficial agenda when war descended in 1939.... In the 1930s the realm of official and semiofficial discrimination expanded to encompass limits on Jewish export firms... and, increasingly, on university admission itself. In 1921-22 some 25 percent of Polish university students were Jewish, but in 1938-39 their proportion had fallen to 8 percent.''" While there are many examples of Polish support and help for the Jews during World War II and the Holocaust, there are also numerous examples of anti-Semitic incidents, and the Jewish population was certain of the indifference towards their fate from the Christian Poles. The Polish Institute for National Memory identified twenty-four [[pogroms]] against Jews during World War II, the largest occurring at the village of [[Jedwabne]] in 1941 (see [[massacre in Jedwabne]]). After the end of World War II the remaining anti-Jewish sentiments were skillfully used at certain moments by communist party or individual politicians in order to achieve their assumed political goals, which pinnacled in the [[March 1968 events]]. These sentiments started to diminish only with the collapse of the [[communist]] rule in Poland in 1989, which has resulted in a re-examination of events between Jewish and Christian Poles, with a number of incidents, like the masscre at Jedwabne, being discussed openly for the first time. Violent anti-semitism in Poland in 21st century is marginal[http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2004/graph-7.jpg] compared to elsewhere, but there are very few Jews remaining in Poland. Still, according to recent (June 7, 2005) results of research by [[B'nai Brith]]s [[Anti-Defamation League]], Poland remains among the European countries (with others being Italy, Spain and Germany) with the largest percentages of people holding anti-Semitic views. Poland is actively trying to address concerns about anti-semitism. In 2004, the Polish government approved a National Action Program against racism, including anti-semitism. Additionally the Polish Catholic Church has widely distributed materials promoting the need for respect and cooperation with Judaism. ==== Germany ==== [[Image:dstsatan.jpeg|thumb|200px|Der St&uuml;rmer: "Satan". The caption reads: "The Jews are our misfortune."]] ''See main articles: [[History of the Jews in Germany]], [[Holocaust]]'' From the early Middle Ages to the 18th century, the Jews in Germany were subject to many persecutions as well as brief times of tolerance. Though the 19th century began with a series of riots and pogroms against the Jews, [[Jewish emancipation|emancipation]] followed in 1848, so that, by the early 20th century, the Jews of Germany were the most integrated in Europe. The situation changed in the early 1930's with the rise of the [[Nazi]]s and their explicity anti-Semitic program. [[Hate speech]] which referred to [[Jew]]ish citizens as "dirty Jews" became common in anti-Semitic pamphlets and [[newspaper]]s such as the ''[[Völkischer Beobachter]]'' and ''[[Der Stürmer]]''. Additionally, blame was laid on German Jews for having caused Germany's defeat in [[World War I]] (see ''[[Dolchstosslegende]]''). [[Image:Der Giftpilz - Gott des Juden - Nazi propaganda.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Nazi propaganda for German children from [[Julius Streicher]]'s publication [http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/thumb.htm ''Der Giftpilz'' (Toadstool)], 1938. The caption reads: "The God of the Jew is Money. And to gain money, he will commit the greatest crimes…."]] Anti-Jewish propaganda expanded rapidly. Nazi cartoons depicting "dirty Jews" frequently portrayed a dirty, physically unattractive and badly dressed "talmudic" Jew in traditional religious garments similar to those worn by [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic Jews]]. Articles attacking Jewish Germans, while concentrating on commercial and political activities of prominent Jewish individuals, also frequently attacked them based on religious dogmas, such as [[blood libel]]. The Nazi anti-Semitic program quickly expanded beyond mere speech. Starting in 1933, repressive laws were passed against Jews, culminating in the [[Nuremberg Laws]] which removed most of the rights of citizenship from Jews, using a racial definition based on descent, rather than any religious definition of who was a Jew. Sporadic violence against the Jews became widespread with the [[Kristallnacht]] riots, which targeted Jewish homes, businesses and places of worship, killing hundreds across Germany and Austria. The anti-Semitic agenda culminated in the [[genocide]] of the Jews of Europe, known as the [[Holocaust]]. ==== Russia and the Soviet Union ==== [[Image:Iudaism bez prikras 63-7.gif|right|thumb|"Judaism Without Embellishments" by Trofim Kichko, published by the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR in 1963: "It is in the teachings of Judaism, in the Old Testament, and in the Talmud, that the Israeli militarists find inspiration for their inhuman deeds, racist theories, and expansionist designs..."]] ''Main articles: [[History of the Jews in Russia and Soviet Union]], [[Pogrom]]'' The [[Pale of Settlement]] was the Western region of [[Imperial Russia]] to which Jews were restricted by the Tsarist [[Ukase]] of 1792. It consisted of the territories of former [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], annexed with the existing numerous Jewish population, and the [[Crimea]] (which was later cut out from the Pale). During 1881-1884, 1903-1906 and 1914-1921, waves of anti-Semitic [[pogrom]]s swept Russian Jewish communities. At least some pogroms are believed to have been organized or supported by the Russian [[okhranka]]; although there is no hard evidence for this, the Russian police and army generally displayed indifference to the pogroms (e.g. during the three-day [[Kishinev pogrom|First Kishinev pogrom]] of 1903), as well as to anti-Jewish articles in newspapers which often instigated the pogroms. During this period the [[May Laws]] policy was also put into effect, banning Jews from rural areas and towns, and placing strict quotas on the number of Jews allowed into higher education and many professions. The combination of the repressive legislation and pogroms propelled mass Jewish emigration, and by 1920 more than two million Russian Jews had emigrated, most to the [[United States]] while some made [[aliya]] to the [[Land of Israel]]. One of the most infamous anti-Semitic tractates was the Russian okhranka literary [[hoax]], ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'', created in order to blame the Jews for Russia's problems during the period of revolutionary activity. Even though many [[Old Bolsheviks]] were ethnically Jewish, they sought to uproot Judaism and Zionism and established the [[Yevsektsiya]] to achieve this goal. By the end of the 1940s the Communist leadership of the former USSR had liquidated almost all Jewish organizations, including Yevsektsiya. The anti-Semitic campaign of 1948-1953 against so-called "[[rootless cosmopolitans]]," destruction of the [[Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee]], the fabrication of the "[[Doctors' plot]]," the rise of "[[Zionology]]" and subsequent activities of official organizations such as the [[Anti-Zionist committee of the Soviet public]] were officially carried out under the banner of "anti-Zionism," but the use of this term could not obscure the anti-Semitic content of these campaigns, and by the mid-1950s the state persecution of Soviet Jews emerged as a major human rights issue in the West and domestically. See also: [[Jackson-Vanik amendment]], [[Refusenik (Soviet Union)|Refusenik]], [[Pamyat]]. Today, anti-Semitic pronouncements, speeches and articles are common in Russia, and there are a large number of anti-Semitic neo-Nazi groups in the republics of the former Soviet Union, leading Pravda to declare in 2002 that "Anti-semitism is booming in Russia"[http://english.pravda.ru/main/2002/07/30/33489.html]. Over the past few years there have also been bombs attached to anti-Semitic signs, apparently aimed at Jews, and other violent incidents, including stabbings, have been recorded. Though the government of [[Vladimir Putin]] takes an official stand against anti-semitism, some political parties and groups are explicitly anti-Semitic, in spite of a Russian law (Art. 282) against fomenting racial, ethnic or religious hatred. In 2005, a group of 15 [[Duma]] members demanded that Judaism and Jewish organizations be banned from Russia. In June, 500 prominent Russians, including some 20 members of the nationalist ''Rodina'' party, demanded that the state prosecutor investigate ancient Jewish texts as "anti-Russian" and ban Judaism &mdash; the investigation was actually launched, but halted amid international outcry. === Asia === ==== Japan ==== {{main|Antisemitism in Japan}} Originally Japan, with no Jewish population, had no anti-Semitism but Nazi ideology and propaganda left an influence on Japan during World War II, and the Protocols of the Elders of Zion were translated into Japanese. Today, anti-Semitism and belief in Jewish manipulation of Japan and the world remains despite the lack of any Jewish community in Japan. Books about Jewish conspiracies are best sellers. According to a 1988 survey, 8% of Japanese had read one of these books. == Anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism == [[Anti-Zionism]] is a term that has been used to describe several very different political and religious points of view (both historically and in current debates) all expressing some form of opposition to [[Zionism]]. A large variety of commentators - politicians, journalists, academics and others - believe that criticisms of Israel and Zionism are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and attribute this to anti-Semitism. In turn, critics of this view believe that associating anti-Zionism with anti-Semitism is intended to stifle debate, deflect attention from valid criticism, and taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies. This subject is discussed in the main article on [[Anti-Zionism]]. [[Image:Tishreen-Apr-30-2000.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Cartoon from the Syrian Arab daily newspaper Tishreen (Apr 30, 2000). Negative [[zoomorphism]] is commonly used in anti-Semitic discourse.]] === New anti-Semitism === {{main|New anti-Semitism}} In recent years some scholars of history, psychology, religion and representatives of Jewish groups, have noted what they describe as the ''new anti-Semitism'', which uses the language of anti-Zionism and criticism against Israel to attack the Jews more broadly. The European Commission on Racism and Intolerance formally defined some of the ways in which anti-Zionism may cross the line to anti-Semitism: "Examples of the ways in which anti-Semitism manifests itself with regard to the State of Israel taking into account the overall context could include: Denying the Jewish people right to [[self-determination]], e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor; applying double standards by requiring of it a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation; using the symbols and images associated with classic anti-Semitism (e.g. claims of Jews killing Jesus or blood libel) to characterize Israel or Israelis; drawing comparisons of contemporary Israeli policy to that of the Nazis; and holding Jews collectively responsible for actions of the State of Israel." == Anti-Semitism in the 21st century == According to the 2005 U.S. State Department Report on Global Anti-Semitism, anti-Semitism in Europe has increased significantly in recent years. Beginning in 2000, verbal attacks directed against Jews increased while incidents of vandalism (e.g. graffiti, fire bombings of Jewish schools, desecration of synagogues and cemeteries) surged. Physical assaults including beatings, stabbings and other violence against Jews in Europe increased markedly, in a number of cases resulting in serious injury and even death. On [[January 1]], [[2006]], Britain's chief [[rabbi]], Sir [[Jonathan Sacks]], warned that what he called a "[[tsunami]] of anti-Semitism" was spreading globally. In an interview with BBC's [[Radio Four]], Sacks said that anti-Semitism was on the rise in Europe, and that a number of his rabbinical colleagues had been assaulted, synagogues desecrated, and Jewish schools burned to the ground in France. He also said that: "People are attempting to silence and even ban Jewish societies on campuses on the grounds that Jews must support the state of Israel, therefore they should be banned, which is quite extraordinary because ... British Jews see themselves as British citizens. So it's that kind of feeling that you don't know what's going to happen next that's making ... some European Jewish communities uncomfortable." [http://www.guardian.co.uk/religion/Story/0,2763,1676509,00.html] Much of the new European anti-Semitic violence can actually be seen as a spill over from the long running Israeli-Arab conflict since the majority of the perpetrators are from the large immigrant Arab communities in European cities. According to ''The Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism and Racism'', most of the current anti-Semitism comes from militant Islamist and Muslim groups, and most Jews tend to be assaulted in countries where groups of young Muslim immigrants reside. [http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2004/general-analysis.htm] Similarly, in the Middle East, anti-Zionist propaganda frequently adopts the terminology and symbols of the Holocaust to demonize Israel and its leaders. This rhetoric often crosses the line separating the legitimate criticism of Israel and its policies to become anti-Semitic vilification posing as legitimate political commentary. At the same time, Holocaust denial and Holocaust minimization efforts find increasingly overt acceptance as sanctioned historical discourse in a number of Middle Eastern countries. The problem of anti-Semitism is not only significant in Europe and in the Middle East, but there are also worrying expressions of it elsewhere. For example, in Pakistan, a country without a Jewish community, anti-Semitic sentiment fanned by anti-Semitic articles in the press is widespread. This reflects the more recent phenomenon of anti-Semitism appearing in countries where historically or currently there are few or even no Jews. == See also == {{commons|Category:Anti-Semitism}} * [[Jew]]s and [[Judaism]] ** [[Jewish history]] * Other articles on anti-Semitism: ** [[History of anti-Semitism]] ** [[Christianity and anti-Semitism]] ** [[Christian opposition to anti-Semitism]] ** [[Anti-globalization and Anti-Semitism]] ** [[Arab anti-Semitism]] *** [[Saudi Arabia and anti-Semitism]] ** [[Islam and anti-Semitism]] ** [[New anti-Semitism]] ** [[Persecution of the Jews]] * Related topics: ** [[Allophilia]] ** [[Anti-Zionism]] ** [[Judeophobia]] ** [[Self-hating Jew]] ** [[Racism]] * Topics related to religious anti-Semitism: ** [[Anti-Judaism]] ** [[Spanish Inquisition]] ** [[Blood libel]] *** [[Menahem Mendel Beilis|Beilis trial]] in Russia ** [[Host desecration]] ** [[Edgardo Mortara]] * Anti-semitic laws, policies, and government actions ** [[Pogrom]]s in Russia ** [[May Laws]] in Russia ** [[March 1968 events]] in Poland ** [[Dreyfus affair]] in France ** [[Farhud]] in Iraq ** [[General Order No. 11]] in the United States ** [[Historical revisionism (political)]] * [[Nazi]] Germany and the [[Holocaust]] ** [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany]] * Anti-semitic websites ** [[Jew Watch]] ** [[Radio Islam]] ** [[Institute for Historical Review]] * Organizations working against anti-Semitism ** [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]] ** [[Anti-Defamation League]] **[[Jewish Defense League]][http://www.jdl.org.il] * Other concepts ** [[Religious Persecution]] ** [[Persecution of Christians]] ** [[Persecution of Muslims]] ** [[Persecution of Hindus]] ** [[Persecution of Atheists]] == References == *John M. G. Barclay, ''Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: From Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE-117 CE)''. University of California, 1999. *Pieter Willem Van Der Horst, ''Philo's Flaccus: the First Pogrom''. Philo of Alexandria Commentary Series. Brill. 2003. *Bodansky, Yossef. ''Islamic Anti-Semitism as a Political Instrument'', Freeman Center For Strategic Studies, 1999 *Gideon Bohak, "The Ibis and the Jewish Question: Ancient 'Anti-Semitism' in Historical Context" in Menachem Mor et al, ''Jews and Gentiles in the Holy Land in the Days of the Second Temple, the Mishna and the Talmud''. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi Press, 2003. p 27-43. *Carr, Steven Alan. ''Hollywood and anti-Semitism: A cultural history up to World War II'', Cambridge University Press 2001 *Cohn, Norman. ''Warrant for Genocide'', Eyre & Spottiswoode 1967; Serif, 1996. *Freudmann, Lillian C. ''Antisemitism in the New Testament'', University Press of America, 1994. *Gillan, Audrey. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/religion/Story/0,2763,1676509,00.html "Chief rabbi fears 'tsunami' of hatred"], ''The Guardian'', January 2, 2006 *Hilberg, Raul. ''[[The Destruction of the European Jews]]''. Holmes & Meier, 1985. 3 volumes *Lipstadt, Deborah. ''Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory'', Penguin, 1994. *Matas, David. ''Aftershock: Anti-Zionism and anti-Semitism''. Dundurn Press, 2005. *A M Roth, Norman Roth, Jews, Visigoths and Muslims in Medieval Spain, Brill Academic, 1994. *Selzer, Michael (ed). ''"Kike!" : A documentary history of anti-semitism in America'', New York 1972 *[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/40258.htm ''U.S. State Department Report on Global Anti-Semitism'', 2005.] *[http://www.adl.org/antisemitism_survey/survey_print.asp Anti-Semitism and Prejudice in America] *Peter Schafer. ''Judeophobia'', Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1997. p 208. == External links == *[http://www.aish.com/seminars/whythejews/ Why the Jews? A perspective on causes of anti-Semitism] *[http://www.antisemitism.org.il/ Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism] (with up to date calendar of anti-semitism today) *[http://har2.huji.ac.il:83/ALEPH/ENG/SAS/BAS/BAS/START Annotated bibliography of anti-Semitism] hosted by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA) *[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/antisem.html Anti-Semitism and responses] *[http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/ The Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary anti-Semitism and Racism] hosted by the Tel Aviv University - (includes an annual report) *[http://www.shma.com/nov02/pierre.htm Jews, the End of the Vertical Alliance, and Contemporary Antisemitism] *[http://www.masada2000.org/Who-Us.html An Israeli point of view on antisemitism, by Steve Plaut] *[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/article.asp?aid=11906035_1 The Anti-Semitic Disease] - an analysis of Anti-Semitism by [[Paul Johnson (journalist)|Paul Johnson]] in ''[[Commentary Magazine]]'' *[http://www.coe.int/t/E/human_rights/ecri/1-ECRI/2-Country-by-country_approach/ Council of Europe, ECRI Country-by-Country Reports] *[http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/classroom/J/ State University of New York at Buffalo, The Jedwabne Tragedy] *[http://www.cyberroad.com/poland/jews_today.html Jews in Poland today] *[http://www.adl.org/main_Anti_Semitism_International/Default.htm Anti-Defamation League's report on International Anti-Semitism] *[http://memri.org/ The Middle East Media Research Institute] - documents antisemitism in Middle-Eastern media. **[http://www.philosophistry.com/specials/europe/ Map of Attitudes Toward Jews in 12 European Countries] based on a [http://www.adl.org/main_Anti_Semitism_International/as_survey_2005.htm 2005 ADL Survey] *[http://www.zionism-israel.com/his/judeophobia.htm Judeophobia: A short course on the history of anti-Semitism] at [http://www.zionism-israel.com] Zionism and Israel Information Center. *[http://www.zionism.netfirms.com/ArabAntiZionism.htm Arab and Muslim Anti-Zionism and anti-Semitiem] A mini study with extensive links and resources. *[http://www.pinteleyid.com If Not Together, How?]: Research by April Rosenblum to develop a working definition of antisemitism, and related teaching tools about antisemitism, for activists. [[Category:Anti-Semitism|*]] <!-- interwiki --> [[ar:معاداة السامية]] [[bg:Антисемитизъм]] [[cs:Antisemitismus]] [[cy:Gwrth-Semitiaeth]] [[da:Antisemitisme]] [[de:Antisemitismus bis 1945]] [[et:Antisemitism]] [[el:Αντισημιτισμός]] [[es:Antisemitismo]] [[eo:Antisemitismo]] [[fr:Antisémitisme]] [[hr:Antisemitizam]] [[it:Antisemitismo]] [[he:אנטישמיות]] [[hu:Antiszemitizmus]] [[mk:Антисемитизам]] [[nl:Antisemitisme]] [[ja:反ユダヤ主義]] [[no:Antisemittisme]] [[pl:Antysemityzm]] [[pt:Anti-semitismo]] [[ro:Antisemitism]] [[ru:Антисемитизм]] [[simple:Anti-Semitism]] [[sr:Антисемитизам]] [[fi:Antisemitismi]] [[sv:Antisemitism]] [[uk:Антисемітизм]] [[zh:反犹太主义]] 1079 move=:edit= 19130408 2005-07-19T04:54:32Z Michael Snow 34289 #REDIRECT [[History of South Africa in the apartheid era]] 1080 15899585 2005-06-02T08:46:52Z Nohat 13661 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.19.225.34|65.19.225.34]] to last version by LA2 #REDIRECT [[History of Azerbaijan]] 1081 15899586 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z 128.227.167.135 * #REDIRECT [[Economy of Azerbaijan]] 1082 15899587 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z 128.227.167.135 * #REDIRECT [[Geography of Azerbaijan]] 1083 15899588 2002-08-20T15:34:25Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Azerbaijan]] 1084 15899589 2002-08-20T10:22:45Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Politics of Azerbaijan]] 1085 15899590 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z 128.227.167.135 * #REDIRECT [[Communications in Azerbaijan]] 1086 15899591 2002-10-09T13:56:27Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Transportation in Azerbaijan]] #REDIRECT [[Transportation in Azerbaijan]] 1087 15899592 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z 128.227.167.135 * #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Azerbaijan]] 1088 15899593 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z 128.227.167.135 * #REDIRECT [[Military of Azerbaijan]] 1089 15899594 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z 128.227.167.135 * #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Azerbaijan]] 1091 15899596 2002-08-03T16:41:54Z Ellmist 2214 move to Geography of Armenia #REDIRECT [[Geography of Armenia]] 1092 15899597 2002-08-21T09:35:26Z -- April 166 fix redir #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Armenia]] 1093 15899598 2002-08-21T09:36:11Z -- April 166 fix redir #REDIRECT [[Politics of Armenia]] 1094 15899599 2002-08-03T16:44:16Z Ellmist 2214 move to Economy of Armenia #REDIRECT [[Economy of Armenia]] 1095 15899600 2002-08-18T19:25:01Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Communications in Armenia]] 1096 15899601 2002-08-18T19:25:24Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Transportation in Armenia]] 1097 15899602 2002-08-04T10:20:33Z Ellmist 2214 move to Military of Armenia #REDIRECT [[Military of Armenia]] 1098 15899603 2002-08-18T19:26:07Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Armenia]] 1099 15899604 2002-08-03T16:32:47Z Ellmist 2214 move to Geography of Argentina #REDIRECT [[Geography of Argentina]] 1100 15899605 2002-08-21T09:45:12Z -- April 166 fix redir #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Argentina]] 1101 15899606 2002-08-18T19:29:16Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 cleaning up #REDIRECT [[Politics of Argentina]] 1102 15899607 2002-08-03T16:35:09Z Ellmist 2214 move to Economy of Argentina #REDIRECT [[Economy of Argentina]] 1103 15899608 2002-08-18T19:29:48Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 cleaning up #REDIRECT [[Communications in Argentina]] 1104 15899609 2002-08-18T19:30:00Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 cleaning up #REDIRECT [[Transportation in Argentina]] 1105 15899610 2002-08-18T19:30:31Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 cleaning up #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Argentina]] 1106 15899611 2002-08-03T16:37:46Z Ellmist 2214 move to Military of Argentina #REDIRECT [[Military of Argentina]] 1107 15899612 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z LA2 445 * #REDIRECT [[History of Argentina]] 1108 15899613 2002-08-03T16:38:45Z Ellmist 2214 move to Foreign relations of Argentina #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Argentina]] 1109 26994978 2005-10-31T18:53:26Z Marshman 16734 This article describes the '''[[geography]] of [[American Samoa]]'''. [[Image:aq-map.png|right|American Samoa]] [[Image:American Samoa.png|thumb|300px|Tutuila Island - NASA NLT Landsat 7 (Visible Color) Satellite Image]] ; Location: : Oceania, group of islands in the South [[Pacific Ocean]], about two thirds of the way from Hawaii to New Zealand ; Geographic coordinates: : {{coor dm|14|20|S|170|0|W|}} ; Map references: : Oceania ; Area: :* Total: 199 [[square kilometre|km²]] :* Land: 199 km&sup2; :* Water: 0 km&sup2; :* Note: Includes [[Rose Atoll]] and [[Swains Island]] ; Area - comparative: : Slightly larger than Washington, DC ; Land boundaries: : 0 km ; Coastline: : 116 km ; Maritime claims: :* [[Exclusive economic zone]]: 200 nm (370.4 km) :* [[Territorial sea]]: 12 nm (22.2 km) ; Climate: : Tropical marine, moderated by southeast [[trade wind]]s; annual rainfall averages about 3 m; [[rainy season]] from November to April, [[dry season]] from May to October; little seasonal temperature variation ; Island Names in order of size: : [[Tutuila]], [[Tau, Samoa|Ta&lsquo;&#363;]], [[Ofu-Olosega|Ofu]], [[Ofu-Olosega|Olosega]], [[Aunuu|Aunu&lsquo;u]], [[Swains Island]], [[Rose Atoll]] ; Terrain: : Five volcanic islands with rugged peaks and limited coastal plains, two coral atolls (Rose and Swains) ; Elevation extremes: :* Lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m :* Highest point: Lata 966 m ; Natural resources: : [[Pumice]], [[pumicite]] ; Land use: :* [[Arable land]]: 5% :* Permanent crops: 10% :* Permanent pastures: 0% :* Forests and woodland: 70% :* Other: 15% (1993 est.) ; [[Irrigated land]]: : NA km&sup2; ; Natural hazards: : Hurricane season from December to March; Hurricane Heta struck Tutuila and Manu`a January, 2004. : Landslides ; Environment - current issues: : Limited natural [[fresh water resources]]; the water division of the government has spent substantial funds in the past few years to expand well system, improve water catchments and pipelines ; Geography - note: : [[Pago Pago]] has one of the best natural deepwater harbors in the South Pacific Ocean, sheltered by shape from rough seas and protected by peripheral mountains from high winds; strategic location in the South Pacific Ocean {{maplr|-14.3|-170.7|American Samoa}} MapQuest zoom level 4 shows the location with respect to the state of Samoa. [[Category:American Samoa]] [[Category:Geography by country|American Samoa]] [[he:&#1490;&#1488;&#1493;&#1490;&#1512;&#1508;&#1497;&#1492; &#1513;&#1500; &#1505;&#1502;&#1493;&#1488;&#1492; &#1492;&#1488;&#1502;&#1512;&#1497;&#1511;&#1488;&#1497;&#1514;]] 1110 39372997 2006-02-12T19:08:22Z 83.121.2.141 disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] [[Image:Samoa American Demo.png|thumb|550px|center|Demographics of American Samoa, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]] '''[[Population]]:''' 57,902 (July 2004 est.) '''Age structure:''' <br>''0-14 years:'' 36.6% (male 10,983; female 10,208) <br>''15-64 years:'' 60.3% (male 18,010; female 16,933) <br>''65 years and over:'' 3.1% (male 699; female 1,069) (2004 est.) '''Population growth rate:''' 0.04% (2004 est.) '''[[Birth rate]]:''' 24.46 births/1,000 population (2004 est.) '''[[Death]] rate:''' 3.39 deaths/1,000 population (2004 est.) '''Net [[migration]] rate:''' -20.71 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2004 est.) '''Sex ratio:''' <br>''at birth:'' 1.06 male(s)/female <br>''under 15 years:'' 1.08 male(s)/female <br>''15-64 years:'' 1.06 male(s)/female <br>''65 years and over:'' 0.65 male(s)/female <br>''total population:'' 1.05 male(s)/female (2004 est.) '''[[Infant mortality]] rate:''' 9.48 deaths/1,000 live births (2004 est.) '''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:''' <br>''total population:'' 75.62 years <br>''male:'' 72.05 years <br>''female:'' 79.41 years (2004 est.) '''Total [[fertility]] rate:''' 3.41 children born/woman (2000 est.) '''[[Nationality]]:''' <br>''noun:'' American Samoan(s) <br>''adjective:'' American Samoan '''[[Ethnic group]]s:''' [[Samoa]]n ([[Polynesia]]n) 89%, [[whites|Caucasian]] 2%, [[Tonga]]n 4%, other 5% '''[[Religion]]s:''' [[Christian Congregationalist]] 50%, [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] 20%, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] and other 30% '''Languages:''' [[Samoan language|Samoan]] (closely related to [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] and other [[Polynesian languages]]), [[English language|English]] <br>''note:'' most people are bilingual '''[[Literacy]]:''' <br>''definition:'' age 15 and over can read and write <br>''total population:'' 97% <br>''male:'' 98% <br>''female:'' 97% (1980 est.) :''See also :'' [[American Samoa]] [[Category:American Samoa]] [[he:&#1491;&#1502;&#1493;&#1490;&#1512;&#1508;&#1497;&#1492; &#1513;&#1500; &#1505;&#1502;&#1493;&#1488;&#1492; &#1492;&#1488;&#1502;&#1512;&#1497;&#1511;&#1488;&#1497;&#1514;]] 1111 39337438 2006-02-12T13:07:49Z Warofdreams 20855 {{Oceania in topic|Politics of}} {{Politics of American Samoa}} '''Politics of American Samoa''' takes place in a framework of a [[presidential|presidential]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[dependency]], whereby the [[List of American Samoa Governors |Governor]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[American Samoa]] is a unincorporated and [[unorganized territory]] of the [[United States]], administered by the [[Office of Insular Affairs]], [[US Department of the Interior]]. Its constitution was ratified [[1966]] and came into effect [[1967]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in the two chambers of the legislature. The party system is a copy of the United States party system. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. ==Executive branch== {{office-table}} |President of the United States |[[George W. Bush]] |[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] |[[20 January]] [[2001]] |- |[[List of American Samoa Governors |Governor]] |[[Togiola Tulafono]] |[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] |[[26 March]] [[2003]] |} The [[governor]] and the [[lieutenant governor]] are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms. ==Legislative branch== The '''Legislature''' or ''Fono'' has two [[bicameralism|chambers]]. The [[American Samoa House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] has eighteen members, elected for a two year term, seventeen in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] and one by a public meeting on [[Swain Island]]. The [[American Samoa Senate|Senate]] has eighteen members, elected for a four year term by and from the chiefs of the islands. ==Political parties and elections== {{elect|List of political parties in American Samoa|Elections in American Samoa}} {{American Samoa governor election, 2004}} {{American Samoa legislative election, 2004}} At the [[2 November]] [[2004]] election Eni F. H. Faleomavaega of the [[Democratic Party (United States)]] defeated the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] candidate and was re-elected. ==Judicial branch== The High Court ([[chief justice]] and [[associate justices]] are appointed by the [[US Secretary of the Interior]]) ===International organization participation=== ESCAP (associate), Interpol (subbureau), IOC, SPC {{Oceania in topic|Politics of}} [[Category:Politics of American Samoa]] [[he:&#1508;&#1493;&#1500;&#1497;&#1496;&#1497;&#1511;&#1492; &#1513;&#1500; &#1505;&#1502;&#1493;&#1488;&#1492; &#1492;&#1488;&#1502;&#1512;&#1497;&#1511;&#1488;&#1497;&#1514;]] 1112 35304727 2006-01-15T20:06:58Z Natalya 154294 /* Numbers */ disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]]) '''Economy - overview:''' This is a traditional [[Polynesia]]n economy in which more than 90% of the land is communally owned. Economic activity is strongly linked to the [[United States|US]], with which American Samoa conducts the great bulk of its foreign trade. [[Tuna]] [[fishing]] and tuna processing plants are the backbone of the private sector, with canned tuna the primary export. Transfers from the [[US Government]] add substantially to American Samoa's economic well-being. Attempts by the government to develop a larger and broader economy are restrained by Samoa's remote location, its limited transportation, and its devastating hurricanes. Tourism, a developing sector, may be held back by the current financial difficulties in East Asia. ==Numbers== '''[[Gross domestic product|GDP]]:''' purchasing power parity - $500 million (2000 est.) '''GDP - real growth rate:''' NA% '''GDP - per capita:''' purchasing power parity - $8,000 (2000 est.) '''GDP - composition by sector:''' <br>''agriculture:'' NA% <br>''industry:'' NA% <br>''services:'' NA% (2002) '''Population below poverty line:''' NA% (2002 est.) '''Household income or consumption by percentage share:''' <br>''lowest 10%:'' NA% <br>''highest 10%:'' NA% '''Inflation rate (consumer prices):''' NA% (2003 est.) '''Labor force:''' 14,000 (1996) '''Labor force - by occupation:''' government 33%, tuna canneries 34%, other 33% (1990) '''Unemployment rate:''' 6% (2000) '''Budget:''' <br>''revenues:'' $121 million (37% in local revenue and 63% in US grants) <br>''expenditures:'' $127 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY96/97) '''Industries:''' tuna canneries (largely dependent on foreign fishing vessels), handicrafts '''Industrial production growth rate:''' NA% '''Electricity - production:''' 130 GWh (2001) '''Electricity - production by source:''' <br>''fossil fuel:'' 100% <br>''hydro:'' 0% <br>''nuclear:'' 0% <br>''other:'' 0% (2001) '''Electricity - consumption:''' 120.9 GWh (2001) '''Electricity - exports:''' 0 kWh (2001) '''Electricity - imports:''' 0 kWh (2001) '''Oil - production:''' 0 barrel/day (2001 est.) '''Oil - consumption:''' 3,800 barrel/day (604 m&sup3;/d) 2001 '''Oil - exports:''' NA '''Oil - imports:''' NA '''Agriculture - products:''' [[banana]]s, [[coconut]]s, vegetables, [[taro]], [[breadfruit]], [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]], [[copra]], [[pineapple]]s, [[papaya]]s; dairy products, livestock '''Exports:''' $30 million (2002) '''Exports - commodities:''' canned tuna 93% '''Exports - partners:''' [[Indonesia]] 70%, [[Australia]] 6.7%, [[Japan]] 6.7%, [[Samoa]] 6.7% (2002) '''Imports:''' $123 million (2002) '''Imports - commodities:''' materials for canneries 56%, food 8%, petroleum products 7%, machinery and parts 6% '''Imports - partners:''' [[Australia]] 36.6%, [[New Zealand]] 20.3%, [[South Korea]] 16.3%, [[Mauritius]] 4.9% (2002) '''Debt - external:''' $NA (2002 est.) '''Economic aid - recipient:''' $NA; note - important financial support from the US, more than $40 million in 1994 '''Currency:''' US dollar (USD) '''Currency code:''' USD '''Exchange rates:''' US dollar is used '''Fiscal year:''' [[1 October]] - [[30 September]] ==See also== *[[American Samoa]] [[Category:American Samoa]] [[Category:Economies by country|American Samoa]] [[he:&#1499;&#1500;&#1499;&#1500;&#1514; &#1505;&#1502;&#1493;&#1488;&#1492; &#1492;&#1488;&#1502;&#1512;&#1497;&#1511;&#1488;&#1497;&#1514;]] 1113 39121003 2006-02-10T21:20:43Z Bluemoose 178836 [[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up [[Image:Stamp-us-samoa.jpg|frame|Oceangoing canoe]] '''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:''' 15,000 (2001) '''Telephones - mobile cellular:''' 2,377 (1999) '''Telephone system:''' <br>''domestic:'' good [[teleprinter|telex]], telegraph, facsimile and cellular telephone services; domestic satellite system with 1 [[Comsat]] earth station <br>''international:'' country code - 1 684; satellite earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Pacific Ocean]]) '''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:''' AM 1, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1998) '''Radios:''' 57,000 (1997) '''[[Television]] broadcast stations:''' 1 (1997) '''Televisions:''' 14,000 (1997) '''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):''' Samoa Teleco '''[[Internet country code]]:''' .as '''[[Internet]] users:''' NA :''See also :'' [[American Samoa]] [[Category:American Samoa]] [[Category:Communications by country|American Samoa]] [[he:תקשורת בסמואה האמריקאית]] 1114 41267637 2006-02-26T04:32:08Z Rt66lt 275075 List of highways in AS {{CIA}} '''Railways:''' 0 km '''[[Highway]]s:''' <br>''total:'' 350 km <br>''paved:'' 150 km <br>''unpaved:'' 200 km '''Ports and [[harbor]]s:''' [[Aunuu|Aunu&lsquo;u]], [[Auasi]], [[Tau, Samoa|Fale&#257;sao]], [[Ofu]], [[Pago Pago]] '''[[Merchant marine]]:''' none (1999 est.) '''[[Airport]]s:''' 3 (2003 est.) '''Airports - with paved runways:''' <br>''total:'' 3 <br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 1 <br>''under 914 m:'' 2 (2005 est.) '''Airports - with unpaved runways:''' <br>''total:'' 0 :''See also :'' [[American Samoa]], [[List of highways in American Samoa]] {{Oceania in topic|Transport in}} [[Category:American Samoa]] [[Category:Transportation by country|American Samoa]] [[he:&#1514;&#1495;&#1489;&#1493;&#1512;&#1492; &#1489;&#1505;&#1502;&#1493;&#1488;&#1492; &#1492;&#1488;&#1502;&#1512;&#1497;&#1511;&#1488;&#1497;&#1514;]] 1116 15899620 2002-09-09T02:02:01Z -- April 166 merge with main page #REDIRECT [[American Samoa]] 1117 15899621 2002-08-04T10:23:36Z Ellmist 2214 move to Geography of Australia #REDIRECT [[Geography of Australia]] 1118 15899622 2002-08-21T10:43:17Z -- April 166 fix redirect #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Australia]] 1119 41231741 2006-02-25T23:16:51Z Grumpyyoungman01 846078 Added political blogs in australia to see also section [[Image:Ac.johnhoward.jpg|thumb|right|175px|[[John Howard]] MP, Prime Minister of Australia and leader of the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]]]] [[Image:ac.kimbeazleynew.jpg|thumb|175px|[[Kim Beazley]] MP, Leader of the Opposition and Leader of the [[Australian Labor Party]]]] The '''[[politics]] of [[Australia]]''' take place within the framework of [[democracy|parliamentary democracy]]. The government of Australia is a [[federation]], and Australians elect state and territory legislatures as well as a [[bicameral]] [[Parliament of Australia]] based on the [[Westminster System]]. At the national level, elections are held at least once every three years. The [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] can advise the Governor-General to call an election for the House of Representatives at any time, but Senate elections can only be held within certain periods prescribed in the [[Australian Constitution|Constitution]]. The last general election was in [[October]] [[2004]]. The [[Parliament of Australia|Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia]] consists of two [[bicameralism|chambers]]: * The [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] has 150 members, elected for a three year term in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] with a system of alternative vote known as [[instant-runoff voting | preferential voting]]. * The [[Australian Senate|Senate]] has 76 members, elected through a preferential system in 12-seat state [[constituency|constituencies]] and two-seat territorial [[constituency|constituencies]] with a system of single non-transferable vote. Electors choose territorial senators for a three-year term. The state senators serve for a six-year term, with half of the seats renewed every three years. ==Political parties and elections== {{elect|List of political parties in Australia|Elections in Australia}} {{Australian legislative election, 2004}} More info: [[Australian legislative election, 2004]]'' Three political parties dominate Australian politics. Of these, two govern together in a [[Coalition (Australia)|Coalition]]: *The [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]] is a party of the centre-right which broadly represents business, the suburban middle classes and many rural people. *Its junior coalition partner is the [[National Party of Australia]], formerly the Country Party and now known for electoral purposes as "The Nationals", a [[conservative]] party which represents rural interests. *The [[Australian Labor Party]] (ALP) is a [[Social democracy|social democratic]] party founded by the [[trade union]] movement and broadly represents the urban working class, although it increasingly has a base of middle class support. Minor parties include: *The [[Australian Democrats]], a party of middle-class [[liberals]] *The [[Australian Greens]], a [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] and [[environmentalism|environmentalist]] party *The [[Country Liberal Party]], a party which only represents the Northern Territory. It is part of the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]]/[[National Party of Australia|National]] [[Coalition (Australia)|Coalition]] *The [[Family First Party]], a party appealing to conservative [[Christianity|Christian]]s. The proportional representation system allows these parties to win seats in the [[Australian Senate]] and in the state upper houses, but they have usually been unable to win seats in the House of Representatives (the Greens won a House seat at a [[2002]] [[by-election]], but lost it in the [[Australian legislative election, 2004|2004 general election]]). The Liberal/National coalition came to power in the March [[1996]] election, ending 13 years of Labor government and making [[John Howard]] Prime Minister. He was subsequently re-elected in October [[1998]], November [[2001]] and October [[2004]]. The coalition now holds a comfortable majority in the House of Representatives. In the Senate, the Liberal/National coalition was in a minority until the [[Australian legislative election, 2004|2004 election]], but from July [[2005]] it has a working majority there. Until [[2004]], lacking a majority in the Senate, the Liberal/National coalition relied on negotiations with the smaller parties and independents to secure the passage of legislation. Since its election, Howard's conservative coalition has moved to reduce the government's fiscal deficit and the influence of [[Australian labour movement|organised labour]], placing more emphasis on [[Enterprise Bargaining Agreement|workplace-based collective bargaining]] for wages. The Howard government also accelerated the pace of privatisation of government-owned enterprises that began with the [[Bob Hawke|Hawke]] Labor government. During its first two terms, the government's most sweeping change was the introduction of a [[Goods and Services Tax (Australia)|goods and services tax]]. With the re-election of the Howard government in 2004, several significant and controversial bills have been passed, due to the government's newly-acquired Senate majority. These major changes have included a [[Australian industrial relations legislation, 2005|radical revamp of industrial relations laws]], an introduction of [[voluntary student unionism]], and the full privatisation of telecommunications company [[Telstra]]. These changes have sparked major debate within Australia, forcing many critics to question whether the Howard government has lived up to its promise to use its Senate majority wisely. The Howard government has reversed the foreign policy of its predecessor, placing renewed emphasis on relations with Australia's traditional allies, the [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and downgrading support for the [[United Nations]] in favour of bilateralism. Both major parties support maintaining good relations with regional powers such as [[China]], [[Japan]] and [[Indonesia]], although issues such as the independence of [[East Timor]] have sometimes made this difficult. Australia has become increasingly involved in the internal difficulties of its smaller neighbours, such as [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Solomon Islands]], [[Fiji]] and [[Nauru]]. The [[list of political parties in Australia]] comprises the names and federal leaders of significant political parties as well as the names of other parties, including formerly significant parties. ==Administrative divisions== In the [[States and territories of Australia|states and territories]], elections are held at least once every four years (except in [[Queensland]], which has three-year terms). In [[New South Wales]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[South Australia]] and the [[Australian Capital Territory]], election dates are fixed by legislation. However, the other [[Premiers of the Australian states|state premiers]] and territory Chief Ministers have the same discretion in calling elections as the Prime Minister at the national level. (See ''Main articles: [[Australian electoral system]], [[Electoral systems of the Australian states and territories]]''). Regional or local government within each state is handled by [[Local Government Area]]s and unlike other equivalent forms of local government such as those of the [[United States]], have relatively little power compared to the state governments (See ''Main article: [[Local government in Australia]]''). ==See also== {{portalpar|Politics}} *[[List of Australian politicians]] *[[Politics of Australia and Canada compared]] *[[Politics of Australia and New Zealand compared]] *[[Political blogs in Australia]] {{Politics of Australia}} {{Oceania in topic|Politics of}} [[Category:Politics of Australia|*]] [[lb:Politik vun Australien]] [[lt:Australijos politinė sistema]] [[pl:Ustrój polityczny Australii]] [[pt:Política da Austrália]] 1120 15899624 2002-08-04T10:26:41Z Ellmist 2214 move to Economy of Australia #REDIRECT [[Economy of Australia]] 1121 15899625 2002-08-20T10:15:55Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Communications in Australia]] 1122 15899626 2004-12-31T10:33:11Z Jguk 145867 #REDIRECT [[Transport in Australia]] 1123 15899627 2002-08-20T10:16:54Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Australia]] 1124 15899628 2005-05-01T07:08:55Z 212.100.250.225 [[WP:WS|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]] #REDIRECT [[Australian Defence Force]] 1125 15899629 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z LA2 445 * #REDIRECT [[History of Australia]] 1126 15899630 2002-08-04T10:29:31Z Ellmist 2214 move to Foreign relations of Australia #REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Australia]] 1127 15899631 2002-08-04T10:24:28Z Ellmist 2214 move to Music of Australia #REDIRECT [[Music of Australia]] 1129 42078785 2006-03-03T17:59:17Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 Wikify dates {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=13}} |} '''[[August 13]]''' is the 225th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (226th in [[leap year]]s), with 140 days remaining. ==Events== *[[3114 BC]] - According to the Lounsbury corollation, the [[Maya calendar]] starts. *[[523]] - [[Pope John I|John]] succeeds [[Hormisdas]] as [[Pope]]. *[[1099]] - [[Pope Paschal II|Paschal II]] elected [[Pope]]. *[[1315]] - [[Louis X of France]] marries Clemence d'Anjou. *[[1326]] - [[Aradia de Toscano]], according to legend/folklore, is initiated into a [[Diana (goddess)|Dianic]] [[witchcraft]] cult, subsequently founds the tradition of [[Stregheria]] later known as the [[Malandanti]]. *[[1415]] - [[Henry V of England]] lands at [[Chef-en-Caux]], [[France]] with 8000 men. *[[1516]] - [[Treaty of Noyon]] between [[France]] and [[Spain]] signed. In it, [[Francis I of France|Francis]] recognizes [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles]]'s claim to [[Naples]], and Charles recognizes Francis's claim to [[Milan]]. *[[1521]] - [[Tenochtitlán]] (present day [[Mexico City]]) falls to [[conquistador]] [[Hernán Cortés]] *[[1536]] - Buddhist monks from Kyoto's [[Enryaku-ji|Enryaku Temple]] set fire to 21 [[Nichiren Buddhism|Nichiren]] temples throughout [[Kyoto]] in the Tenbun Hokke Disturbance. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: [[July 27]] [[1536]]). *[[1553]] - [[Michael Servetus]] arrested by [[John Calvin]] in [[Geneva]] as a [[heresy|heretic]]. *[[1704]] - [[War of the Spanish Succession]]: [[Battle of Blenheim]] - English and Austrians victorious over French and Bavarians. *[[1814]] - The [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814|Convention of London]], a [[treaty]] between the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]], is signed in [[London]]. *[[1905]] - [[Norway]] holds [[referendum]] in favour of dissolving the union with [[Sweden]]. *[[1913]] - [[Otto Witte]], an acrobat, is crowned King of [[Albania]]. *1913 - Invention of [[stainless steel]] by [[Harry Brearley]]. *[[1918]] - Women enlist in the [[United States Marine Corps]] for the first time. [[Opha Mae Johnson]] is the first woman to enlist. *[[1920]] - [[Polish-Soviet War]]: [[Battle of Warsaw (1920)|Battle of Warsaw]] begins, lasts till [[August 25]]. The [[Red Army]] is defeated. *[[1923]] - First major sea-going ship arrives at [[Gdynia]], newly constructed [[Poland|Polish]] seaport. *[[1937]] - [[Battle of Shanghai (1937)]] begins. *[[1940]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Britain]] begins - The [[Luftwaffe]] launches a series of attacks on [[United Kingdom|British]] fighter bases and [[radar]] installations. *[[1942]] - [[Walt Disney]]'s fifth [[animated feature]], ''[[Bambi (1942 movie)|Bambi]]'', premiers. *[[1960]] - The [[Central African Republic]] declares independence from [[France]]. *[[1961]] - The [[German Democratic Republic]] closes the border between the eastern and western sectors of [[Berlin]], to thwart its inhabitants' attempts to escape to the [[Western countries|West]]. *[[1968]] - [[Alexandros Panagoulis]] attempts to assassinate the Greek dictator Colonel G. Papadopoulos in Varkiza, [[Athens]], [[Greece]]. *[[1987]] - U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]] assumes responsibility for his role in the [[Iran-Contra scandal]]. *[[1996]] - [[Marc Dutroux]], his wife Michelle Martin, and Michel Lelièvre are arrested on suspicion of [[kidnapping]]. All are found guilty on [[June 22]], [[2004]], with sentences of life, 30, and 25 years, respectively. *[[1997]] - ''[[South Park]]'' debuts on [[Comedy Central]]. *[[2004]] - The 28th [[Summer Olympics]] opens in [[Athens, Greece]]. *2004 - [[Hurricane Charley]], a Category 4 storm, strikes the [[Fort Myers, Florida]], area. *2004 - [[Black Friday (Maldives)|Black Friday]] crackdown by [[National Security Service (Maldives)|NSS]] on a peaceful protest in the capital city of [[Maldives]], [[Malé]]. *2004 - 156 [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congolese]] [[Tutsi]] refugees massacred at the [[Gatumba]] [[refugee camp]] in [[Burundi]]. *2004 - [[Adam Curry]]'s first [[Daily Source Code]] is created, launching [[podcasting]]. ==Births== *[[582]] - [[Arnulf of Metz]], French bishop and saint (d. [[640]]) *[[1311]] - King [[Alfonso XI of Castile]] and Leon (d. [[1350]]) *[[1313]] - [[Aradia de Toscano]], Italian insurrectionist, teacher, and witch *[[1584]] - [[Theophilus Howard, 2nd Earl of Suffolk]], English politician (d. [[1640]]) *[[1625]] - [[Rasmus Bartholin]], Danish physician, mathematician, and physicist (d. [[1698]]) *[[1662]] - [[Charles Seymour, 6th Duke of Somerset]], English politician (d. [[1748]]) *[[1666]] - [[William Wotton]], English scholar (d. [[1727]]) *[[1700]] - [[Heinrich, count von Brühl]], German statesman (d. [[1763]]) *[[1717]] - [[Louis François I, Prince of Conti]], French military leader (d. [[1776]]) *[[1721]] - [[Jacques Lelong]], French bibliographer (b. [[1665]]) *[[1792]] - [[Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen]], queen of [[William IV of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1849]]) *[[1803]] - [[Vladimir Odoevsky]], Russian philosopher and writer (d. [[1869]]) *[[1814]] - [[Anders Jonas Ångström]], Swedish physicist (d. [[1874]]) *[[1818]] - [[Lucy Stone]], American suffragette (d. [[1893]]) *[[1819]] - [[George Gabriel Stokes]], French physicist (d. [[1903]]) *[[1820]] - Sir [[George Grove]], English music historian (d. [[1900]]) *[[1823]] - [[Goldwin Smith]], English-born historian and journalist (d. [[1910]]) *[[1851]] - [[Felix Adler]], German-born educator (d. [[1933]]) *[[1860]] - [[Annie Oakley]], American sharpshooter (d. [[1926]]) *[[1866]] - [[Giovanni Agnelli]], Italian industrialist (d. [[1945]]) *[[1872]] - [[Richard Willstätter]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1942]]) *[[1879]] - [[John Ireland]], English composer (d. [[1962]]) *[[1887]] - [[Julius Freed]], American inventor and banker (d. [[1952]]) *[[1888]] - [[John Logie Baird]], Scottish television pioneer (d. [[1946]]) *[[1895]] - [[Bert Lahr]], American actor (d. [[1967]]) *[[1899]] - [[Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock]], English film director (d. [[1980]]) *[[1902]] - [[Felix Wankel]], German engineer and inventor (d. [[1988]]) *[[1904]] - [[Charles 'Buddy' Rogers]], American actor (d. [[1999]]) *[[1907]] - Sir [[Basil Spence]], Scottish architect (d. [[1976]]) *[[1912]] - [[Ben Hogan]], American golfer (d. [[1997]]) *1912 - [[Salvador Luria]], Italian-born biologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1991]]) *[[1913]] - [[Fred Davis]], English snooker player (d. [[1998]]) *[[1918]] - [[Frederick Sanger]], English chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Pirze]] laureate *[[1919]] - [[George Shearing]], British musician *[[1920]] - [[Neville Brand]], American actor (d. [[1992]]) *[[1926]] - [[Fidel Castro]], Cuban revolutionary and politician *[[1930]] - [[Don Ho]], American musician *[[1933]] - Doctor [[Joycelyn Elders]], [[United States Surgeon General]] *[[1941]] - [[Erin Fleming]], Canadian actress (d. [[2003]]) *[[1944]] - [[Kevin Tighe]], American actor *[[1948]] - [[Kathleen Battle]], American soprano *[[1949]] - [[Bobby Clarke]], Canadian hockey player *[[1951]] - [[Dan Fogelberg]], American singer *[[1952]] - [[Herb Ritts]], American photographer (d. [[2004]]) *[[1959]] - [[Danny Bonaduce]], American actor *[[1961]] - [[Sandra Miranda]], Puerto Rican Hair Stylist and Entrepeneur *[[1967]] - [[Amélie Nothomb]], Belgian writer *[[1969]] - [[Midori Ito]], Japanese figure skater *[[1970]] - [[Matthew Hyson]], American professional wrestler *1970 - [[Alan Shearer]], English footballer *[[1971]] - [[Nichola Holt]], contestant in [[Big Brother UK series 1]] and porn actress *[[1972]] - [[Hani Hanjour]], [[September 11, 2001]] pilot and terrorist *[[1973]] - [[Brittany Andrews]], American model and actress *[[1975]] - [[Joe Perry (snooker player)|Joe Perry]], English snooker player *[[1977]] - [[Michael Klim]], Australian swimmer *[[1979]] - [[Taizo Sugimura]], Japanese politician *[[1982]] - [[Shani Davis]], American speed skater ==Deaths== *[[586]] - [[Radegund]], queen of [[Clotaire I]] *[[900]] - [[Zwentibold]], last King of Lotharingia (b. [[870]]) *[[1382]] - [[Eleanor of Aragon]], queen of [[John I of Castile]] (b. [[1358]]) *[[1523]] - [[Gerard David]], Flemish painter *[[1617]] - [[Johann Jakob Grynaeus]], Swiss protestant clergyman (b. [[1540]]) *[[1667]] - [[Jeremy Taylor]], Irish author and bishop (b. [[1613]]) *[[1686]] - [[Louis Maimbourg]], French-born historian (b. [[1610]]) *[[1744]] - [[John Cruger]], Dutch-born Mayor of New York (b. [[1678]]) *[[1749]] - [[Johann Elias Schlegel]], German critic and poet (b. [[1719]]) *[[1755]] - [[Francesco Durante]], Italian composer (b. [[1684]]) *[[1826]] - [[René Laënnec]], French physician (b. [[1781]]) *[[1863]] - [[Eugène Delacroix]], French painter (b. [[1798]]) *[[1865]] - [[Ignaz Semmelweis]], Austro-Hungarian physician (b. [[1818]]) *[[1910]] - [[Florence Nightingale]], English nurse (b. [[1820]]) *[[1912]] - [[Jules Massenet]], French composer (b. [[1842]]) *[[1917]] - [[Eduard Buchner]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1860]]) *[[1946]] - [[H. G. Wells]], English writer (b. [[1866]]) *[[1958]] - [[Otto Witte]], acrobat and King of Albania (b. [[1868]]) *[[1965]] - [[Ikeda Hayato]], [[Prime Minister of Japan]] (b. [[1899]]) *[[1984]] - [[Tigran Petrosian]], Georgian chess player (b. [[1929]]). *[[1989]] - [[Tim Richmond]], American race car driver (b. [[1955]]) *[[1994]] - [[Elias Canetti]], Bulgarian-born writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1905]]) *[[1995]] - [[Jan Kresadlo|Jan K&#345;esadlo]], Czech-born writer (b. [[1926]]) *1995 - [[Mickey Mantle]], baseball player (b. [[1931]]) *[[1996]] - [[David Tudor]], American pianist and composer (b. [[1926]]). *[[1999]] - [[Jaime Garzón]], [[Colombia]]n [[journalist]] and [[comedian]], murdered (b. [[1960]]) *[[2003]] - [[Ed Townsend]], American songwriter and producer (b. [[1929]]). *[[2004]] - [[Julia Child]], American chef and television personality (b. [[1912]]) *[[2005]] - [[David Lange]], [[Prime Minister of New Zealand]] (b. [[1942]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Roman festivals]] - [[Vertumnalias]] in honor of [[Vertumnus]], and also Diana, on the [[Aventine]] hill *[[Calendar of saints|RC saints]] - [[Pontian|Pontianus]] and [[Hippolytus (writer)|Hippolytus]], [[Radegund|Radegunde]] (help against the pox), [[Cassian|Cassianus of Imola]] (patron of shorthand-writers) *[[International Lefthanders Day]] * In Brasil, Friday [[13 August]] (''agosto'') is considered to be especially filled with sorrow (''desgosto'') ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/13 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[August 12]] - [[August 14]] - [[July 13]] - [[September 13]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:13 Augustus]] [[ar:13 أغسطس]] [[an:13 d'agosto]] [[ast:13 d'agostu]] [[bg:13 август]] [[be:13 жніўня]] [[bs:13. august]] [[ca:13 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 13]] [[cv:Çурла, 13]] [[co:13 d'aostu]] [[cs:13. srpen]] [[cy:13 Awst]] [[da:13. august]] [[de:13. August]] [[et:13. august]] [[el:13 Αυγούστου]] [[es:13 de agosto]] [[eo:13-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 13]] [[fo:13. august]] [[fr:13 août]] [[fy:13 augustus]] [[ga:13 Lúnasa]] [[gl:13 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 13일]] [[hr:13. kolovoza]] [[io:13 di agosto]] [[id:13 Agustus]] [[ia:13 de augusto]] [[ie:13 august]] [[is:13. ágúst]] [[it:13 agosto]] [[he:13 באוגוסט]] [[jv:13 Agustus]] [[ka:13 აგვისტო]] [[csb:13 zélnika]] [[ku:13'ê gelawêjê]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 13]] [[lb:13. August]] [[li:13 augustus]] [[hu:Augusztus 13]] [[mk:13 август]] [[ms:13 Ogos]] [[nap:13 'e aùsto]] [[nl:13 augustus]] [[ja:8月13日]] [[no:13. august]] [[nn:13. august]] [[oc:13 d'agost]] [[pl:13 sierpnia]] [[pt:13 de Agosto]] [[ro:13 august]] [[ru:13 августа]] [[sco:13 August]] [[sq:13 Gusht]] [[scn:13 di austu]] [[simple:August 13]] [[sk:13. august]] [[sl:13. avgust]] [[sr:13. август]] [[fi:13. elokuuta]] [[sv:13 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 13]] [[tt:13. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 13]] [[th:13 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:13 tháng 8]] [[tr:13 Ağustos]] [[uk:13 серпня]] [[wa:13 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 13]] [[zh:8月13日]] [[pam:Agostu 13]] 1130 41797752 2006-03-01T20:45:08Z Zmmz 944720 consistent with britannica, columbia, merriam-webster etc. [[Image:AvicennaPersian.jpg|thumb|The works of Avicenna, the greatest of the medieval Islamic physicians, played a crucial role in the [[European Renaissance]].]] '''Abū ‘Alī al-Ḥusayn ibn ‘Abd Allāh ibn Sīnā''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''أبو علي الحسين بن عبد الله بن سينا''') often refered to by his [[Latinized]] name '''Avicenna''' was a [[Persian]] [[Muslim]] [[physician]], [[philosopher]], and [[scientist]] who was born in [[980]] in [[Kharmaithen]] near [[Bukhara]], now in [[Uzbekistan]] (then [[Iran]]), and died June [[1037]] in [[Hamadan]], [[Iran]]. He was the [[author]] of 450 books on a wide range of subjects. Many of these concentrated on [[philosophy]] and [[medicine]]. He is considered by many to be "the father of modern medicine." [[George Sarton]] called Ibn Sina "the most famous scientist of [[Islam]] and one of the most famous of all races, places, and times." His most famous works are ''[[The Book of Healing]]'' and ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', also known as the ''Qanun'' (full title: ''al-qanun fil-tibb''). ==Early life== His life is known to us from authoritative sources. An autobiography covers his first thirty years, and the rest are documented by his disciple al-Juzajani, who was also his secretary and his friend. He was born in 370 (AH) / 980 (AD) in Afshana, his mother's home, a small city now part of [[Uzbekistan]] (then part of the Islamic [[Caliphate]]) and his Father from [[Balkh]] now part of [[Afghanistan]] (then also part of the Islamic [[Caliphate]]). His native language was Persian. His father, an official of the Samanid administration, had him very carefully educated at Bukhara. Although traditionally influenced by the [[Ismaili]] branch of Islam, his independent thought was served by an extraordinary intelligence and memory, which allowed him to overtake his teachers at the age of fourteen. [[Ibn Sina]] was put under the charge of a tutor, and his precocity soon made him the marvel of his neighbours; he displayed exceptional [[intellect]]ual behaviour and was a [[Child prodigy|child prodigy]] who had memorized the [[Koran]] by the age of 10 and a great deal of [[Arabic poetry]] as well. From a greengrocer he learned [[arithmetic]], and he began to learn more from a wandering scholar who gained a livelihood by curing the sick and teaching the young. However he was greatly troubled by [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] problems and in particular the works of [[Aristotle]]. So, for the next year and a half, he also studied [[philosophy]], in which he encountered greater obstacles. In such moments of baffled inquiry, he would leave his books, perform the requisite ablutions, then go to the [[mosque]], and continue in prayer till light broke on his difficulties. Deep into the night he would continue his studies, stimulating his senses by occasional cups of goat's milk, and even in his dreams problems would pursue him and work out their solution. Forty times, it is said, he read through the ''Metaphysics'' of [[Aristotle]], till the words were imprinted on his memory; but their meaning was hopelessly obscure, until one day they found illumination, from the little commentary by [[Farabi]], which he bought at a bookstall for the small sum of three dirhems. So great was his joy at the discovery, thus made by help of a work from which he had expected only mystery, that he hastened to return thanks to God, and bestowed alms upon the poor. He turned to [[medicine]] at 16, and not only learned medical theory, but by gratuitous attendance on the sick had, according to his own account, discovered new methods of [[treatment]]. The teenager achieved full status as a physician at age 18 and found that "Medicine is no hard and thorny science, like [[mathematics]] and [[metaphysics]], so I soon made great progress; I became an excellent doctor and began to treat patients, using approved remedies." The youthful physician's fame spread quickly, and he treated many patients without asking for payment. His first appointment was that of physician to the [[emir]], who owed him his recovery from a dangerous illness ([[997]]). Ibn Sina's chief reward for this service was access to the royal [[library]] of the [[Samanids]], well-known patrons of scholarship and scholars. When the library was destroyed by fire not long after, the enemies of Ibn Sina accused him of burning it, in order for ever to conceal the sources of his knowledge. Meanwhile, he assisted his father in his financial labours, but still found time to write some of his earliest works. When Ibn Sina was 22 years old, he lost his father. The [[Samanid dynasty]] came to its end in December [[1004]]. Ibn Sina seems to have declined the offers of [[Mahmud of Ghazni]], and Ibn Sina proceeded westwards to [[Urgench]] in the modern [[Uzbekistan]], where the [[vizier]], regarded as a friend of scholars, gave him a small monthly stipend. The pay was small, however, so Ibn Sina wandered from place to place through the districts of [[Nishapur]] and [[Merv]] to the borders of [[Khorasan]], seeking an opening for his talents. [[Shams al-Ma'äli Qäbtis]], the generous ruler of [[Dailam]], himself a poet and a scholar, with whom Ibn Sina had expected to find an asylum, was about that date ([[1052]]) starved to death by his own revolted soldiery. Ibn Sina himself was at this season stricken down by a severe illness. Finally, at [[Gorgan]], near the [[Caspian Sea]], Ibn Sina met with a friend, who bought a dwelling near his own house in which Ibn Sina lectured on [[logic]] and [[astronomy]]. For this patron, several of Ibn Sina's treatises were written; and the commencement of his ''Canon of Medicine'' also dates from his stay in [[Hyrcania]]. [[image:Avicenna2.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Poland commemorated Avicenna's life and work in this postage stamp]] Ibn Sina subsequently settled at [[Ray, Iran|Rai]], in the vicinity of the modern [[Tehran]], (present day capital of Iran), the home town of [[Rhazes]]; where [[Majd Addaula]], a son of the last [[emir]], was nominal ruler under the regency of his mother ([[Seyyedeh Khatun]]). At Rai about thirty of his shorter works are said to have been composed. Constant feuds which raged between the regent and her second son, [[Amir Shamsud-Dawala]], compelling the scholar to quit the place. After a brief sojourn at [[Qazvin]], he passed southwards to Hamadãn, where that prince had established himself. At first, Ibn Sina entered into the service of a high-born lady; but the emir, hearing of his arrival, called him in as medical attendant, and sent him back with presents to his dwelling. Ibn Sina was even raised to the office of vizier. The amir consented that he should be banished from the country. Ibn Sina, however, remained hidden for forty days in a [[shaikh|sheikh]]'s house, till a fresh attack of illness induced the emir to restore him to his post. Even during this perturbed time, Ibn Sina prosecuted his studies and teaching. Every evening, extracts from his great works, the ''Canon'' and the ''Sanatio'', were dictated and explained to his pupils; among whom, when the lesson was over, he spent the rest of the night in festive enjoyment with a band of singers and players. On the death of the amir, Ibn Sina ceased to be vizier and hid himself in the house of an [[apothecary]], where, with intense assiduity, he continued the composition of his works. Meanwhile, he had written to [[Abu Ya'far]], the [[prefect]] of the dynamic city of [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], offering his services. The new emir of Hamadan, hearing of this correspondence and discovering where Ibn Sina's was hidden, incarcerated him in a fortress. War meanwhile continued between the rulers of Isfahan and Hamadãn; in [[1024]] the former captured Hamadan and its towns, expelling the Turkish [[mercenary|mercenaries]]. When the storm had passed, Ibn Sina returned with the amir to Hamadan, and carried on his literary labours. Later, however, accompanied by his brother, a favourite pupil, and two slaves, Ibn Sina escaped out of the city in the dress of a [[Sufi|Sufite]] [[ascetic]]. After a perilous journey, they reached Isfahan, receiving an honourable welcome from the prince. Avicenna also introduced medical herbs. ==Late life== The remaining ten or twelve years of Avicenna's life were spent in the service of [[Abu Ya'far 'Ala Addaula]], whom he accompanied as physician and general literary and scientific adviser, even in his numerous campaigns. During these years he began to study [[literature|literary]] matters and [[philology]], instigated, it is asserted, by criticisms on his style. But amid his restless study Ibn Sina never forgot his love of enjoyment. Unusual bodily vigour enabled him to combine severe devotion to work with facile indulgence in sensual pleasures. Versatile, lighthearted, boastful and pleasure-loving, he contrasts with the nobler and more intellectual character of [[Averroes]]. His bouts of pleasure gradually weakened his constitution; a severe [[colic]], which seized him on the march of the army against Hamadãn, was checked by remedies so violent that Ibn Sina could scarcely stand. On a similar occasion the disease returned; with difficulty he reached Hamadãn, where, finding the disease gaining ground, he refused to keep up the regimen imposed, and resigned himself to his fate. His friends advised him to slow down and take life moderately. He refused, however, stating that: ''"I prefer a short life with width to a narrow one with length"''. On his deathbed remorse seized him; he bestowed his goods on the poor, restored unjust gains, freed his slaves, and every third day till his death listened to the reading of the Qur'an. He died in June [[1037]], in his fifty-eighth year, and was buried in [[Hamedan]], [[Iran]]. ==Works== Ibn Sina is comparable to such greats as [[Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi]]. However, despite such glorious tributes to his work, Ibn Sina is rarely remembered in the West today and his fundamental contributions to medicine and the European reawakening go largely unrecognised. Ibn Sina is usually considered as a great philosopher and physician. His philosophical disciple is not a live school in western philosophy today. Unfortunately, the West only pays attention to some portion of his philosophy, which is known as the ''Latin Avicennaian School,'' and his other significant philosophical contribution, which had been hailed by [[Suhrawardi]], is still unknown to West. This notable part is called '''حكمت مشرقيه''' (''hikmat-al-mashriqqiyya'') by him. In some of his writings, he mentions this to his disciples as his major achievement. Heavily influenced by Ibn Sina, [[Suhrawardi]] made philosophical contributions which have developed much from Ibn Sina's work, later founding [[illuminationist philosophy]] and believing to have finished what Ibn Sina began. Ibn Sina also wrote extensively on the subjects of [[philosophy]], [[logic]], [[ethics]], [[metaphysics]] and other disciplines. All his works were written in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] - which was the ''de facto'' scientific [[language]] of that time, and some were written in the Persian language. Of linguistic significance even to this day are a few books that he wrote in nearly pure Persian language[citation needed]. Unlike [[Aquinas]] who more or less sanctified Aristotle as church dogma, Ibn Sina corrected him often, encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of [[ijtihad]]. Accordingly he is one of the earliest pioneers of the scientific process of [[peer review]] as we know it today, his influence on that process being profound at least, and perhaps even decisive. About 100 treatises were ascribed to Ibn Sina. Some of them are tracts of a few pages, others are works extending through several volumes. The best-known amongst them, and that to which Ibn Sina owed his European reputation, is his 14-volume ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', which was a standard medical text in Western Europe for seven centuries. It classifies and describes diseases, and outlines their assumed causes. [[Hygiene]], simple and complex medicines, and functions of parts of the body are also covered. It asserts that [[tuberculosis]] was contagious, which was later disputed by Europeans, but turned out to be true. It also describes the symptoms and complications of [[diabetes]]. An Arabic edition of the ''Canons'' appeared at Rome in [[1593]], and a Hebrew version at Naples in [[1491]]. Of the Latin version there were about thirty editions, founded on the original translation by [[Gerard of Cremona]]. The [[15th century]] has the honour of composing the great commentary on the text of the ''Canon'', grouping around it all that theory had imagined, and all that practice had observed. Other medical works translated into Latin are the ''Medicamenta Cordialia'', ''Canticum de Medicina'', and the ''Tractatus de Syrupo Acetoso''. It was mainly accident which determined that from the [[12th century|12th]] to the [[17th century]] Ibn Sina should be the guide of medical study in European universities, and eclipse the names of Rhazes, [[Ali ibn al-Abbas]] and [[Averroes]]. His work is not essentially different from that of his predecessor Rhazes, because he presented the doctrine of [[Galen]], and through Galen the doctrine of [[Hippocrates]], modified by the system of Aristotle. But the ''Canon'' of Avicenna is distinguished from the ''Al-Hawi'' (Continens) or ''Summary'' of Rhazes by its greater method, due perhaps to the logical studies of the former. The work has been variously appreciated in subsequent ages, some regarding it as a treasury of wisdom, and others, like [[Averroes]], holding it useful only as waste paper. In modern times it has been more criticized than read. The vice of the book is excessive classification of bodily faculties, and over-subtlety in the discrimination of diseases. It includes five books; of which the first and second treat of [[physiology]], [[pathology]] and [[hygiene]], the third and fourth deal with the methods of treating disease, and the fifth describes the composition and preparation of remedies. This last part contains some personal observations. He is, like all his countrymen, ample in the enumeration of symptoms, and is said to be inferior to Ali in practical medicine and [[surgery]]. He introduced into medical theory the four causes of the [[Peripatetic]] system. Of [[natural history]] and [[botany]] he pretended to no special knowledge. Up to the year [[1650]], or thereabouts, the ''Canon'' was still used as a textbook in the universities of [[Leuven]] and [[Montpellier]]. Scarcely any member of the Arabian circle of the sciences, including [[theology]], [[philology]], [[mathematics]], [[astronomy]], [[physics]], and [[music]], was left untouched by the treatises of Ibn Sina, many of which probably varied little, except in being commissioned by a different patron and having a different form or extent. He wrote at least one treatise on [[alchemy]], but several others have been falsely attributed to him. His book on [[animal]]s was translated by [[Michael Scot]]. His ''Logic'', ''Metaphysics'', ''Physics'', and ''De Caelo'', are treatises giving a synoptic view of Aristotelian doctrine. The ''Logic'' and ''Metaphysics'' have been printed more than once, the latter, e.g., at Venice in [[1493]], [[1495]], and [[1546]]. Some of his shorter essays on medicine, logic, &c., take a poetical form (the poem on logic was published by Schmoelders in [[1836]]). Two encyclopaedic treatises, dealing with philosophy, are often mentioned. The larger, [[Al-Shifa']] (''Sanatio''), exists nearly complete in manuscript in the [[Bodleian Library]] and elsewhere; part of it on the ''De Anima'' appeared at Pavia ([[1490]]) as the ''Liber Sextus Naturalium'', and the long account of Ibn Sina's philosophy given by [[Shahrastani]] seems to be mainly an analysis, and in many places a reproduction, of the Al-Shifa'. A shorter form of the work is known as the [[An-najat]] (''Liberatio''). The Latin editions of part of these works have been modified by the corrections which the monastic editors confess that they applied. There is also a ''Philosophia Orientalis'', mentioned by [[Roger Bacon]], and now lost, which according to Averroes was pantheistic in tone. In the museum at [[Bukhara]], there are displays showing many of his writings, surgical instruments from the period and paintings of patients undergoing treatment. In Iran, he is considered a Persian hero. He is often regarded as one of the greatest Persians who have ever lived. Many of his portraits and statues remain in Iran today. An impressive monument to the life and works of the man who is known as the 'doctor of doctors' still stands outside the Bukhara museum and his portrait hangs in the Hall of the Faculty of Medicine in the [[University of Paris]]. Ibn Sina was interested in the effect of the [[mind]] on the [[body]], and wrote a great deal on [[psychology]], likely influencing [[Ibn Tufayl]] and [[Ibn Bajjah]]. Along with [[Rhazes]], [[Ibn Nafis]], [[Al-Zahra]] and [[Al-Ibadi]], he is considered an important compiler of [[Early Muslim medicine]]. There is a crater on the moon called [[Avicenna (crater)|Avicenna]] which was named after him. ==References== * For Ibn Sina's life, see [[Ibn Khallikan]]'s ''Biographical Dictionary'', translated by [[de Slane]] (1842); [[F. Wüstenfeld]]'s ''Geschichte der arabischen Aerzte und Naturforscher'' (Gottingen, 1840). * For his medicine, see [[Sprengel]], ''Histoire de la Medecine'' * For his philosophy, see ** [[Shahrastani]], German translation, vol. ii. 213-332 ** [[K. Prantl]], ''Geschichte der Logik im Abendland'', ii. 318-361 ** [[Albert Stöckl]], ''Philosophie des Mittelalters'', ii. ~3-58 ** [[Salomon Munk]], ''Mélanges'', 352-366; [[B. Haneberg]] in the ''Abhandungen der philosophische-philologisches Classifikation der bayerischen Academie'' (1867); ** [[Carra de Vaux]], ''Avicenne'' (Paris, 1900). * For a list of extant works, [[C. Brockelmann]]'s ''Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur'' (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 452-458. (XV. W.; G. W. T.) * For an overview of his career see [[Shams Inati]], "Ibn Sina" in ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', ed. [[Hossein Seyyed Nasr]] and [[Oliver Leaman]], New York:Routledge (1996). ==See also== *[[List of Persian scientists]] *[[Iranian philosophy]] *[[History of medicine]] *[[Early Muslim medicine]] *[[Muslim philosophy]] *[[Islamic scholars]] *[[Al-Qumri]] ==External links== *[http://www.farhangsara.com/ibn_sina.htm Biography of Avicenna (in English)] *[http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/sina/default.htm Ibn Sina] *[http://www.ummah.net/history/scholars/ibn_sina/ Biography of Avicenna] *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02157a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Avicenna] * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Avicenna}} *[http://www.formalontology.it/avicenna.htm The Ontology of Ibn Sina (Avicenna)] ==Source== * {{1911}} * History of Islamic Philosophy by [[Henry Corbin]] {{Link FA|fr}} [[Category:Persian people|Avicenna]] [[Category:Medieval philosophers]] [[Category:Aristotelian philosophers]] [[Category:Muslim philosophers]] [[Category:Persian philosophers]] [[Category:History of medicine]] [[Category:Alchemists]] [[Category:980 births]] [[Category:1037 deaths]] [[Category:Iranian scientists|Avicenna]] [[Category: Polymaths]] [[Category:Muslim scientists]] [[als:Ibn Sina]] [[ar:ابن سينا]] [[bg:Авицена]] [[bs:Ibn Sina]] [[ca:Avicena]] [[cs:Avicenna]] [[da:Ibn Sina]] [[de:Avicenna]] [[es:Avicena]] [[eo:Aviceno]] [[fa:ابن سینا]] [[fr:Avicenne]] [[gl:Avicena]] [[hr:Ibn Sina]] [[id:Ibnu Sina]] [[it:Avicenna]] [[he:אבן סינא]] [[la:Avicenna]] [[ms:Abu Ali Al-Hussain Ibn Abdallah Ibn Sina]] [[nl:Avicenna]] [[ja:イブン＝スィーナー]] [[no:Avicenna]] [[pl:Avicenna]] [[pt:Avicena]] [[ro:Avicenna]] [[ru:Авиценна]] [[sk:Ibn Síná Abu-Ali]] [[fi:Avicenna]] [[sv:Avicenna]] [[tr:İbn-i Sina]] [[uk:Авіцена]] [[zh:阿维森纳]] 1132 move=:edit= 42036366 2006-03-03T10:25:53Z Mjpieters 86312 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.30.31.17|212.30.31.17]] to last version by Jess Cully {{dablink|For the rugby league series between Great Britain and Australia see [[Rugby League Ashes]]; for the "Women's Ashes" Test series for female players between England and Australia see [[Women's Ashes]].}} [[Image:Ashes_urn.jpg|right|frame|The Ashes [[urn]] is reputed to contain a set of burnt [[bail (cricket)|bails]] symbolising the death of English cricket.]] '''The Ashes''' is a [[biennial]] [[Test cricket]] contest played between [[English cricket team|England]] and [[Australian cricket team|Australia]]. The Ashes is one of cricket's fiercest and most celebrated rivalries, and certainly the oldest such in international cricket, dating back to 1882. The [[The 2005 Ashes|2005 Ashes series]] was played in [[England]], and was won by England. Australia had held the Ashes for 16 years prior to that. The next Ashes series will be in [[Australia]] in 2006-07; the next series in England will be in 2009. The series is named after a [[satire|satirical]] [[obituary]] published in ''The Sporting Times'' in 1882 following the match at [[The Oval]], in which Australia beat England in [[England]] for the first time. The obituary stated that English cricket had died, and ''the body will be cremated and the ashes taken to Australia''. The English media dubbed the next English tour to [[Australia]] as ''the quest to regain The Ashes''. A small [[terra cotta|terracotta]] urn was presented to the [[English cricket captains|England captain]] [[Ivo Bligh]] by a group of [[Melbourne]] women after England's victory in the Test series. The urn is reputed to contain a set of burnt [[bail (cricket)|bails]] symbolising "the ashes of English cricket". While the urn has come to symbolise the Ashes series, the name ''The Ashes'' predates the existence of the urn. The urn is not used as a [[trophy]] for the Ashes series, and whichever side "holds" the Ashes, the urn remains in the [[Marylebone Cricket Club|MCC]] Museum at [[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]]. Since the 1998-99 Ashes series, a [[Waterford crystal]] trophy has been presented to the winners. Notable Ashes series took place in 1932-33 (the [[Bodyline]] tour), 1948 ([[Donald Bradman|Sir Donald Bradman's]] "[[The Invincibles (cricket)|Invincibles]]" Australian side), 1981 (in which an England team spearheaded by [[Ian Botham]] won a thrilling series), and 2005 (when England eventually won the Ashes back, after a 'drought' of 16 years). ==The obituary== [[Image:DeathofEnglishCricket.jpg|250px|thumb|The obituary notice that appeared in ''The Sporting Times''.]] The first Test match between England and Australia had been played in 1877, but the Ashes legend dates back only to their ninth Test match, played in 1882. On the 1882 tour, the Australians played only one Test, at [[The Oval]] in [[London]]. It was a low-scoring game on a difficult [[Cricket pitch|pitch]]. Australia made only 63 runs in their first [[innings]], and England, led by [[Monkey Hornby]], took a 38-run lead with a total of 101. In the second innings, Australia made 122, leaving England to score only 85 [[The result in cricket|runs to win]]. Australian bowler [[Fred Spofforth]] refused to give in, declaring, "This thing can be done". He devastated the English batting, taking the final four wickets while conceding only two runs, to leave England a mere seven runs short of victory in one of the closest and most nail-biting finishes in [[history of cricket|cricket history]]. When England's last batsman went in the team needed only 10 runs to win, but the final batsman Peate scored only 2 before being bowled by Boyle. The astonished crowd fell silent, not believing that England could possibly have lost by 7 runs. When what had happened had sunk in, the crowd cheered the Australians. When Peate returned to the Pavilion he was reprimanded by [[WG Grace]] for not allowing his partner at the wicket [[Charles Studd]] to get the runs. Despite Studd being one of the best batsman in England, Peate replied, "I had no confidence in Mr Studd, sir, so thought I had better do my best." The defeat was widely recorded in the English press. The most notable report was a mock obituary, written by [[Reginald Shirley Brooks]], printed in ''[[The Sporting Times]]'' on the following Saturday, [[September 2]] [[1882]]. The obituary read as follows: :"In Affectionate Remembrance of ENGLISH CRICKET, which died at the Oval on 29th&nbsp;AUGUST, 1882, Deeply lamented by a large circle of sorrowing friends and acquaintances R.I.P. :N.B. &mdash; The body will be cremated and the ashes taken to Australia." The English media played up the subsequent tour to Australia in 1882-83 (which had been arranged before this defeat) as a quest to "regain the Ashes". ==The Ashes urn== After the third game of the 1882-83 tour, the English team, led by [[Ivo Bligh]] were guests of Sir William Clarke, at his property "[[Rupertswood]]" at [[Sunbury, Victoria]]. A group of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]n ladies headed by Lady Clarke burned what has variously been called a ball, bail or veil {{ref|Terminology}}, and presented the resulting ashes to Bligh in an [[urn]] together with a velvet bag, which was made by Mrs Ann Fletcher, the daughter of Joseph Hines Clarke and Marion Wright, both of [[Dublin]]. She said, "What better way than to actually present the English captain with the very 'object' &mdash; albeit mythical &mdash; he had come to Australia to retrieve?" Bligh later married another of these [[Melbourne|Melburnian]] ladies, Florence Morphy. When he died in 1927, his widow presented the urn to the [[Marylebone Cricket Club]]. The urn itself is made of [[terracotta]] and is about four&nbsp;[[inch]]es (10&nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]]) tall. A poem was presented to Bligh with the urn and appears on it {{ref|poem}}: :''When [[Ivo Bligh|Ivo]] goes back with the urn, the urn;'' :''[[Studd brothers|Studds]], [[Allan Steel|Steel]], [[Walter Read|Read]] and [[Edward Tylecote|Tylecote]] return, return;'' :''The welkin will ring loud,'' :''The great crowd will feel proud,'' :''Seeing [[Dick Barlow|Barlow]] and [[Billy Bates|Bates]] with the urn, the urn;'' :''And the rest coming home with the urn.'' The Ashes urn itself is never physically awarded to either England or Australia, but is kept permanently in the MCC Cricket Museum at [[Lord's Cricket Ground]], where it can be seen together with a specially-made red and gold velvet bag and the scorecard of the 1882 match. The urn has been back to Australia once, in 1988 for a museum tour as part of Australia's [[Bicentennial]] celebrations. In the 1990s, given Australia's long dominance of the Ashes series, the idea was mooted that the victorious team in an Ashes series should be awarded the urn as a trophy and allowed to retain it until the next series. The MCC, considering the urn too fragile to transport to Australia, instead began commissioning a larger-scale replica trophy in [[Waterford Crystal]] to award to the winning team of each series. In 2002, Bligh's great-great-grandson (Lord Clifton, the heir-apparent to the [[Earl of Darnley|Earldom of Darnley]]) argued that the Ashes urn should not be returned to Australia as it was essentially the property of his family and only given to the MCC for safe-keeping. ==The matches== ''See also: [[List of Ashes series]] for a full listing of all the Ashes series since 1882.'' ===First Ashes quest=== ''See also: [[History of Test cricket (to 1883)#The Ashes legend|History of Test cricket (to 1883): The Ashes legend]]'' The [[Honourable Ivo Bligh]] led the expedition to Australia to "recover the Ashes" against the side that had beaten England earlier in 1882. Publicity surrounding the series was intense, and it was at some time during this series that the Ashes urn was crafted. Australia won the first Test by [[The result in cricket|nine wickets]], but in the next two England were victorious. At the end of the third Test, the four-inch urn was presented to Bligh by some Melburnian ladies, England having been generally considered to have "won back the Ashes" 2&ndash;1. A fourth match was in fact played, against a "United Australian XI", which was stronger than the Australian side that had competed in the previous matches; this game, however, is not considered part of the Ashes series. ===English dominance ends=== After this series followed an extended period of English dominance. The tours were shorter in the 1880s and 1890s than people have grown accustomed to in more recent years, possibly owing to the extended travelling time (the sea journey between the two countries took at least a month). Thus, England only lost four Ashes Tests in the 1880s, out of 23 played, and they won all the seven series contested. There was also more chopping and changing in the teams, there was no official board of selectors for each country (at times, two competing sides toured a nation), and popularity with the fans varied. The 1890s games were more closely fought, Australia taking their first series win since the match that sparked the legend in 1891-92 with a 2&ndash;1 victory. England still dominated, winning the next three series despite continued player disputes. Towards the end of the decade, though, the Australians got more of a foothold, winning four successive series from 1897-98 to 1902. ===Repopularising of the Ashes=== After what the [[Marylebone Cricket Club|MCC]] saw as the problems of the earlier professional and amateur series, they decided to take control of organising tours themselves, and this led to the first MCC tour of Australia in 1903-1904. England won it against the odds, and [[Plum Warner]], the England captain, wrote up his version of the tour in his book ''How We Recovered The Ashes''. This book repopularised the Ashes myth in England, which continues to this day. England and Australia shared the spoils for the next few years. The entrance of [[South African cricket team|South Africa]] onto the world cricketing scene meant less time for Ashes series, but even so there were four played after Plum Warner's series, each of the sides taking two victories. England won the last series in 1911-1912 by four matches to one, [[Jack Hobbs|Sir Jack Hobbs]] establishing himself as a regular with three centuries. England then retained the Ashes when they won the Triangular tournament, which also featured [[South African cricket team|South Africa]], in 1912. England looked as if they had established themselves as the dominating force by the time [[World War I]] intervened and brought a halt to all international cricket. After the war, however, Australia took firm control of both the Ashes and world cricket. They recorded thumping victories both in England and on home soil, and England only won one Test out of fifteen from the end of the war until 1925. In a rain-hit series in 1926, however, England managed to eke out a 1&ndash;0 victory with a win in the final Test at the Oval, and despite the appearance of Donald Bradman, Australia could not win the next series either, losing 4&ndash;1. Bradman won the next series almost by himself, however, as one of the best batting line-ups of all time began to form in the early 1930s, including Bradman himself, [[Stan McCabe]] and [[Bill Ponsford]]. It was the prospect of bowling at this line-up that caused England's captain [[Douglas Jardine]] to think up the [[Bodyline]] tactic. ===Bodyline=== {{main|Bodyline}} [[Image:4th Test Fingleton.jpg|220px|right|thumb| [[Bill Woodfull]] evades a ball from [[Harold Larwood]] with [[Bodyline]] field settings.]] In 1932, after Bradman's routing of the English team in the previous series, [[Douglas Jardine]] developed a tactic of instructing his [[fast bowling|fast bowlers]] to bowl at the bodies of the Australian batsmen, with the goal of forcing them to defend their bodies with their bats, and provide easy catches to a stacked [[leg side]] field. The tactic was descriptively dubbed Bodyline. Although this won England the Ashes, it caused such a furore in Australia that diplomats had to intervene to prevent serious harm to Anglo-Australian relations, and the [[Marylebone Cricket Club|MCC]] eventually changed the [[laws of cricket]] to prevent anyone from using the tactic again. Jardine's comments summed up England's views: "I've not travelled 6,000&nbsp;miles to make friends. I'm here to win the Ashes." On the batting-friendly [[pitch|wickets]] that prevailed in the late 1930s, most Tests up to the war still gave results, although many batting records were set in this era. [[Len Hutton]] scored 364 at [[The Oval]] to save a draw in the 1938 series, a world record [[innings]], while [[Jack Fingleton]] and Bradman set a sixth-wicket [[partnership (cricket)|partnership]] record of 346 runs in the Third Test at [[Melbourne Cricket Ground|Melbourne]] that stands to this day. The series were surprisingly competitive, though, considering England's desperation in the early 30s. ===''The Invincibles''=== {{main|The Invincibles (cricket)}} Australia's first tour of England after [[World War II]], in 1948, was led by the 39-year-old Bradman in his last appearance representing Australia. His team has gone down in cricketing legend as ''[[The Invincibles (cricket)|The Invincibles]]'', as they played 36 matches including five Tests, and remained unbeaten on the tour. They won 27 matches, drawing only 9, including of course the 4&ndash;0 Ashes series victory. This series is also known for one of the most poignant moments in cricket history, as Bradman batted for Australia in the fifth Test at The Oval &mdash; his last &mdash; needing to score only 4 runs to maintain a career [[batting average]] of 100. [[Eric Hollies]] bowled him second ball for a duck, denying those 4 runs and sending Bradman into retirement with a career average of 99.94. Australia gradually weakened after 1948, allowing England back into the fray in the early 1950s when they won three successive Ashes series, from 1953 to 1956 to be arguably the best Test side in the world at the time. A see-sawing series in 1956 also saw a record that will probably never be beaten: the spinner [[Jim Laker|Jim Laker's]] monumental effort at [[Old Trafford (cricket)|Old Trafford]] when he bowled 68 of 191 overs to take nineteen out of twenty possible Australian wickets. Never has the phrase "He won the match single-handedly" been more appropriate. England's dominance was not to last, however. Australia thumped them 4&ndash;0 when they next toured in 1958-59, having found a good bowler of their own in [[Richie Benaud]] who took 31 wickets in the 5-Test series. England failed to win any series during the 1960s, a period dominated by draws as teams found it more prudent to save face with a draw than risk losing. Of a total of 25 Ashes Tests playing during this decade, Australia won seven and England three. In the first series of the 1970s, however, England managed to win 2&ndash;0, much thanks to the efforts of [[Geoffrey Boycott]] who scored four fifties and three centuries in the series, but in the mid-1970s Australia regained ascendancy with fast bowler [[Dennis Lillee]] taking English wickets all too consistently. However, both teams had their victories, England enjoying an emphatic 5&ndash;1 win in 1978-79 while Australia took a non-Ashes series (with the [[World Series Cricket|WSC]] players returning) 3&ndash;0 a year later. Most would say that the two sides were evenly matched, but no one knew just how evenly they would be matched in the next one. ===Botham's Ashes=== Australia took a 1&ndash;0 lead in the first two Tests of the 1981 series, and looked to make it 2&ndash;0 in the third Test at Headingley when they forced England to follow-on 227 runs behind. Famously, an English bookmaker offered odds of 500&ndash;1 for an English victory, and Australian players [[Dennis Lillee]] and [[Rod Marsh]] laid a small bet. This came back to haunt them as England, reduced to 135 for 7 wickets, produced a second innings of 356, [[Ian Botham]] scoring an unbeaten 149, and adding 221 for the last three wickets in partnerships with [[Graham Dilley]], [[Chris Old]] and their fast bowler [[Bob Willis]]. Chasing 130, Australia were dismissed for 111, with a devastating spell of 8&ndash;43 by Willis giving England a miraculous victory by 18 runs. Lillee and Marsh were reprimanded for betting on the outcome of a game, but not suspended. The fourth Test at Edgbaston was a similarly inspired comeback victory for England. [[Ian Botham]] this time starred with the ball, taking five for 11, including a spell of five wickets for a solitary run, in Australia's second innings of 121 to give England victory by 29 runs. England also went on to win the fifth Test at Old Trafford to retain the Ashes&nbsp;&mdash; the sixth Test at the Oval was drawn. ===Australian dominance=== England were the better team of the early 1980s, although it was close: Australia won the 1982-83 series, but England then took two victories in 1985 and 1986-87. After those wins, however, a period of extended Australian dominance began, and England did not win an Ashes series again until 2005. Australia won the 1989 series 4&ndash;0, and an England side weakened by Test bans following the [[Mike Gatting|Gatting]] tour to apartheid [[South African cricket team|South Africa]] lost 3&ndash;0 in 1990-91. The Australians underlined their superiority in the contest by winning the 1993, 1994-95, 1997, 1998-99 and 2001 series &mdash; all by convincing margins. Australia's record since 1989 has impacted upon the overall statistics between the two sides. Before the 1989 series began, Australia had won 36.9% of all Tests played against England, England 33.5% with 29.7% of matches ending in draws. Previous to the 2005 series, Australia had won 40.8% of all Tests, England 31% with 28.1% drawn.{{Ref|stats1}} In the period between 1989 and the beginning of the 2005 series, the two sides had played 43 times. Australia winning 28 times, England 7 times, with 8 draws.{{Ref|stats2}} ===Steve Waugh's last Ashes=== {{main|England in Australia in 2002-3}} After playing in nine successive Ashes series, the 2002-03 rubber was to be Australian captain [[Steve Waugh|Steve Waugh's]] last against England, and was to prove one of the most emphatic victories he enjoyed against the English. The series began with what many regard in hindsight as one of the worst captaincy decisions of all time, as [[Nasser Hussain]] won the toss for England in the first Test and sent Australia in to bat. By the end of the first day, Australia had amassed a staggering 364/2, and placed a stamp of authority on the series that would not be undone as they raced to victory by 384 runs. This was followed by two innings victories to Australia, and a fairly comfortable five-wicket win. England only managed to save some face with a 225-run victory in the final Test. The series' most memorable moment came on the second day of the Fifth Test at the [[Sydney Cricket Ground]]. Leading into the match Waugh had been heavily scrutinised by selectors and the media over his advancing age and lack of recent form, having not posted a Test century since 2001. As this was the last match of the series and last Test of the Australian summer, Waugh was likely to be dropped from the team if he failed again in this match. Asked before the match about the defining moment of a career likely to soon be over, Waugh predicted gamely "It might be yet to come." In a stunning display of determination and defiance, he then fulfilled this prophesy by scoring a chanceless century on the second afternoon. He had entered the final over of the day on 95 not out, and hit a boundary off the last ball (bowled by English off spinner [[Richard Dawson (cricketer)|Richard Dawson]]) to bring up his ton. Waugh left the ground to an emotional standing ovation, his Test career saved. It came to be known as his 'Perfect Day'. ===The 2005 series=== {{main|The 2005 Ashes}} England were undefeated in Test matches in the 2004 calendar year, which took the team to second in the [[LG ICC Test Championship]] and raised hopes that the [[The 2005 Ashes|2005 Ashes series]] would be closely fought. In fact, the series proved to be even more competitive than most commentators had predicted. The first Test was played at [[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]] from [[21 July]] to [[24 July]], and was won convincingly by Australia by 239 runs. However, England fought back in the remaining four matches, which were all tense and closely fought. The second Test, played at [[Edgbaston Stadium|Edgbaston]] from [[4 August]] to [[7 August]] was won by England by 2 runs, the smallest runs victory margin in Ashes history, and the second closest runs victory margin in all Tests. The rain-affected third Test, played at [[Old Trafford (cricket)|Old Trafford]] from [[11 August]] to [[15 August]], ended with the final two Australian batsmen holding out to claim a draw. The fourth Test, played at [[Trent Bridge]] from [[25 August]] to [[28 August]], was won by England by three wickets after Australia was forced to [[follow on]] for the first time in 191 Tests. England earned a draw at the fifth and final Test match, played at [[The Oval]] from [[8 September]] to [[12 September]], to win an Ashes series for the first time in 18 years. From the start the 2005 Ashes series was played at a very high intensity and the tension did occasionally lead to mistakes on both sides with many dropped catches, run outs and other errors. Australia were unlucky with the injury to a key bowler [[Glenn McGrath]] (who missed the two matches when Australia was beaten) and the loss of form of others such as [[Jason Gillespie]], [[Adam Gilchrist]] and [[Matthew Hayden]], whereas England were able to pick the same eleven until [[Simon Jones (cricketer)|Simon Jones]] sustained an ankle injury midway through the Fourth Test, forcing him out of the series decider. However many consider the series to have been the most exciting in living memory, providing enthralling viewing to those lucky enough to get the very scarce tickets for the matches, or those watching on television. Respected commentator [[Richie Benaud]] is reported by BBC correspondent Bob Chaundry {{Ref|Benaud}} as having said: "In the past two years, I've seen the best cricket I've ever watched. This current Ashes series shades even the great one of 1981." At the end of the series, [[Andrew Flintoff]] was awarded the inaugural [[Compton-Miller medal]] as the player of the series for his [[all-rounder|batting and bowling]] efforts. Flintoff was also chosen as "Man of the Series" by the Australian coach and his English counterpart chose [[Shane Warne]], who took 40 wickets in the five matches and batted skilfully down the order. England will travel to Australia in the winter of 2006-2007 in the hope to retain the Ashes. ==Summary of results and statistics== :''See also: [[List of Ashes series]] for a full listing of all the Ashes series since 1882.'' {{Ashes timeline}} [[image:Ashesmatcheschart.png|thumb|200px|Chart of the matches won between the two sides.]] A team must win a series to gain the right to hold the Ashes. A drawn series results in the previous holders retaining the Ashes. To date, a total of 62 Ashes series have been played with Australia winning 30, England winning 27. The remaining five series were drawn, with Australia retaining the Ashes four times and England retaining it once. Ashes series have generally been played over five Test matches, although there have been four match series (1938; 1975) and six match series (1970-71; 1974-75; 1978-79; 1981; 1985; 1989; 1993 and 1997). 293 matches have been played, with Australia winning 115 times, England 92 times, and 86 draws. Australians have made 264 [[century|centuries]] in Ashes Tests, twenty-three of them over 200, while Englishmen have scored 212 centuries, of which ten have been scores over 200. On 41 occasions, individual Australians have taken ten [[wicket]]s in a match. Englishmen have performed that feat 38 times. ==The Ashes today== The Ashes is one of the most fiercely contested competitions in cricket today, rivalling the intensity of the other great international cricket rivalry between [[Indian cricket team|India]] and [[Pakistani cricket team|Pakistan]] . The failure of England to regain the Ashes for 16 years from 1989, coupled with the global dominance of the Australian team, had dulled the lustre of the series in recent years. But the close results in the [[The 2005 Ashes|2005 Ashes series]], and the overall high quality and competitiveness of the cricket, have boosted the popularity of the sport in Britain and considerably enhanced the profile of the Ashes around the world. Whilst the tension of the matches has caused an occasional angry moment, the matches were generally played with good spirit, and [[sportsmanship]] of the players of both sides has been high, with commentators often highlighting [[Andrew Flintoff]] consoling [[Brett Lee]] at the end of the second Test as epitomising this. In interviews following the final match, players from both sides were quick to congratulate their opponents, both the individual players and the team as a whole. ==Match venues== The series alternate between England and Australia, and within each country each of the (usually) five matches is held at a different [[List of Test cricket grounds|cricket ground]]. In '''Australia''', the grounds currently used are the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] (first staged an England-Australia Test in the 1876-77 season), the [[Sydney Cricket Ground]] (1881-82), [[Adelaide Oval]] (1884-85), [[Brisbane Cricket Ground|The Gabba]] (1932-33) and [[WACA|The WACA, Perth]] (1970-71). One Test was held at the [[Exhibition Ground|Brisbane Exhibition Ground]] in 1928-29. In '''England''' the grounds used are [[The Oval]] (since 1880), [[Old Trafford (cricket)|Old Trafford]] (1884), [[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]] (1884), [[Trent Bridge]] (1899), [[Headingley Stadium|Headingley]] (1899) and [[Edgbaston Stadium|Edgbaston]] (1902). One Test was held at [[Bramall Lane|Bramall Lane, Sheffield]] in 1902. ==The Ashes outside cricket== The popularity and reputation of the cricket series has led to many other events taking the name for England against Australia contests. The best-known and longest-running of these events is the [[rugby league]] contest between [[Great Britain national rugby league team|Great Britain]] and [[Australia national rugby league team|Australia]] (see [[Rugby League Ashes]]). The contest first started in 1908, the name being suggested by the touring Australians. Another example is in the British television show ''[[Gladiators]]'', where two series were based around the Australia&ndash;England contest. The trophy is also featured in the [[science-fiction]] [[comedy]] [[novel]] ''[[Life, the Universe and Everything]]'', the third "[[Hitchhiker's Guide To The Galaxy]]" book by [[Douglas Adams]]. In the cinema, the Ashes featured in the [[film]] ''The Final Test'', released in 1953, based on a television play by [[Terence Rattigan]]. It stars [[Jack Warner]] as an England cricketer playing the last Test of his career, which is the last of an Ashes series; the film contains cameo appearances from prominent contemporary Ashes cricketers including [[Jim Laker]] and [[Denis Compton]]. ==See also== *[[History of Test cricket (to 1883)]] *[[History of Test cricket (1884 to 1889)]] *[[History of Test cricket (1890 to 1900)]] *[[Portal:Cricket]] &mdash; for more coverage of all things Cricket. ==Notes== # {{note|Terminology}} In 1998, Lord Darnley’s 82-year-old daughter-in-law said they were the remains of her mother-in-law’s veil, not a bail. Other evidence suggests a ball. The precise origin of the ashes, therefore, is the subject of some dispute. # {{note|poem}} [http://www.334notout.com/ashes/ashbegin.htm Ashes &mdash; The Beginning], [http://www.334notout.com/ 334 Not out] #{{note|stats1}} Statistics obtained from Cricinfo at [http://stats.cricinfo.com/guru?sdb=team;team=AUS;class=testteam;filter=basic;opposition=ENG;notopposition=0;decade=0;homeaway=0;continent=0;country=0;notcountry=0;groundid=0;season=0;startdefault=1877-03-15;start=1877-03-15;enddefault=2005-03-29;end=2005-03-29;tourneyid=0;finals=0;daynight=0;toss=0;scheduledovers=0;scheduleddays=0;innings=0;followon=0;result=0;seriesresult=0;captainid=0;recent=;viewtype=summary;runslow=;runshigh=;wicketslow=;wicketshigh=;ballslow=;ballshigh=;overslow=;overshigh=;bpo=0;batevent=;conclow=;conchigh=;takenlow=;takenhigh=;ballsbowledlow=;ballsbowledhigh=;oversbowledlow=;oversbowledhigh=;bpobowled=0;bowlevent=;submit=1;.cgifields=viewtype] #{{note|stats2}} Statistics obtained from Cricinfo at [http://stats.cricinfo.com/guru?sdb=team;team=AUS;class=testteam;filter=basic;opposition=ENG;notopposition=0;decade=0;homeaway=0;continent=0;country=0;notcountry=0;groundid=0;season=0;startdefault=1877-03-15;start=1877-03-15;enddefault=2005-03-29;end=2005-03-29;tourneyid=0;finals=0;daynight=0;toss=0;scheduledovers=0;scheduleddays=0;innings=0;followon=0;result=0;seriesresult=0;captainid=0;recent=;viewtype=series;runslow=;runshigh=;wicketslow=;wicketshigh=;ballslow=;ballshigh=;overslow=;overshigh=;bpo=0;batevent=;conclow=;conchigh=;takenlow=;takenhigh=;ballsbowledlow=;ballsbowledhigh=;oversbowledlow=;oversbowledhigh=;bpobowled=0;bowlevent=;submit=1;.cgifields=viewtype] #{{note|Benaud}}Bob Chaundry (2005) "So Long Sport", ''BBC News Magazine'' [online]<br> Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4227822.stm. [Accessed [[14 September]] [[2005]]]. = = References = = * {{cite book | last = Birley | last = D. | year = 2003 | title = A Social History of English Cricket | location = London | publisher = Aurum Press | id = ISBN 1-85410-941-3 }} * {{cite book | last = Frith | last = D. | year = 1990 | title = Australia versus England: a pictorial history of every Test match since 1877 | location = Victoria (Australia) | publisher = Penguin Books | id = ISBN 0-670-90323-X }} * {{cite book | last = Gibb | last = J. | year = 1979 | title = Test cricket records from 1877 | location = London | publisher = Collins | id = ISBN 0-00411-690-9 }} * {{cite book | last = Gibson | last = A. | year = 1989 | title = Cricket Captains of England | location = London | publisher = Pavilion Books | id = ISBN 1-85145-395-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Green | last = B. | year = 1979 | title = Wisden Anthology 1864-1900 | location = London | publisher = M & J/QA Press | id = ISBN 0-356-10732-9 }} * {{cite book | last = Munns | last = J. | year = 1994 | title = Beyond reasonable doubt - Rupertswood, Sunbury - the birthplace of the Ashes | location = Australia | publisher = Joy Munns | id = ISBN 0-646-22153-1 }} * {{cite book | last = Warner | last = P. | year = 1987 | title = Lord's 1787-1945 | location = London | publisher = Pavilion Books | id = ISBN 1-85145-112-9 }} * {{cite book | last = Warner | last = P. | year = 2004 | title = How we recovered the Ashes : MCC Tour 1903-1904 | location = London | publisher = Methuen | id = ISBN 0-413-77399-X }} * {{cite book | last = Wynne-Thomas | last = P. | year = 1989 | title = The complete history of cricket tours at home and abroad | location = London | publisher = Hamlyn | id = ISBN 0-600-55782-0 }} '''Other''' *''Wisden's Cricketers Almanack'' (various editions) ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{portalpar|Cricket}} *[http://www.abcofcricket.com/A_Legend_Is_Born/a_legend_is_born.htm Ashes Series, A Legend is Born] *[http://www.cricinfo.com Cricinfo] *[http://www.cricketarchive.com Cricket Archive] *[http://www.games.telegraph.co.uk/sport/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=&xml=/sport/2005/04/23/smmix23.xml Six Curiosities from the MCC Museum, by Ricky Ponting in the Telegraph] *[http://www.lawsonmenzies.com.au/pr15.html The Ashes Tray] *[http://www.xan.co.uk/volume_28.php England Win The Ashes]Crowd sounds and interviews with supporters. Recorded at The Oval, London, Monday, [[12 September]] [[2005]] [[Category:Australian culture|Ashes, The]] [[Category:British culture|Ashes, The]] [[Category:Cricket in Australia|Ashes, The]] [[Category:Cricket in England|Ashes, The]] [[Category:History of cricket|Ashes, The]] [[Category:International cricket competitions|Ashes]] [[Category:The Ashes| ]] [[Category:Australian sporting events|Ashes, The]] [[de:Ashes]] [[fr:Les Ashes]] [[scn:The Ashes]] [[sv:The Ashes]] {{featured article}} 1133 42037562 2006-03-03T10:44:20Z KenL 465210 Added more info on her name. [[Image:AC LgPic Gen2.jpg|thumb|Anne Rice]] '''Anne Rice''' (born [[October 4]], [[1941]]) is a best-selling [[United States|American]] author of horror/fantasy books. She was born '''Howard Allen O'Brien''', the second daughter in a Catholic Irish-American family. Rice's works have had a major influence on the "[[Goth]]" movement, and she has also published a number of works with [[sado-masochistic]] themes. She was married to the late poet [[Stan Rice]] and is the mother of novelist [[Christopher Rice]]. Her daughter, Michele, was born on [[September 21]], [[1966]] and died of [[leukemia]] on [[August 5]] [[1972]]. Anne's sister, [[Alice Borchardt]], is also a noted genre author. Rice was born and spent most of her life in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]], the city that forms the background against which most of her stories take place. About her unusual given name, Rice said: "My birth name is Howard Allen because apparently my mother thought it was a good idea to name me Howard. My father's name was Howard, she wanted to name me after Howard, and she thought it was a very interesting thing to do. She was a bit of a Bohemian, a bit of mad woman, a bit of a genius, and a great deal of a great teacher. And she had the idea that naming a woman Howard was going to give that woman an unusual advantage in the world. " Anne became "Anne" on her first day of school, when a nun asked her what her name was. She blurted out "Anne" immediately, and her mother, who was with her, let it go without correcting her, knowing how self-conscious her daughter was of her real name Known for her avid interest in art and culture, Anne and her family occasionally took trips overseas to study the art later mentioned in her stories. More recently, following the death of her husband Stan Rice, she has relocated to the [[Coachella Valley]], California area to be nearer her son, Christopher. After spending most of her adult life as a self described [[atheist]], Rice returned to the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in 1998, and she is currently working on a trilogy about the life of [[Jesus]]. Rice has also published erotica under the [[pen name]]s '''Anne Rampling''' and '''A.N. Roquelaure''', the latter of which was used primarily for more adult-oriented material. Her fiction is often described as lush and descriptive, and her characters' sexuality is fluid, often displaying homoerotic feelings towards each other. She also deals with philosophical and historic themes, weaving them in to the dense pattern of her books, and giving them a highly intellectual, if not highly literary, content. To her admirers, Rice's books are among the best in modern [[popular fiction]], considered by some to possess those elements that create a lasting presence in the literary canon. To her critics, her novels are baroque, "low-brow pulp" and redundant. A critical analysis of Rice's work can be found in [[S. T. Joshi]]'s book ''The Modern Weird Tale'' (2001). === Conversion to a Christian Novelist=== In October of 2005, Rice announced in a [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9785289/site/newsweek/ Newsweek article] that she would "write only for the Lord". Her first novel in the genre is called ''[[Christ the Lord: Out of Egypt]]'' and is the first in a trilogy that will chronicle the life of Christ. ===The Vampire Chronicles=== She completed her first book, ''[[Interview with the Vampire]]'', in 1973 and published it in 1976. ''Interview with the Vampire'' can also be viewed as an example of [[psychedelic literature]]. Rice herself has denied ever having experimented with [[LSD]]. "I'm a totally conservative person. In the middle of [[Haight-Ashbury]] in the 1960s, I was typing away while everybody was dropping acid and smoking grass. I was known as my own square." (''[[New York Times]]'', Nov 7, 1988) Her protagonist Louis, however, describes a heightened awareness after being transformed into a vampire which does mirror the LSD experience to some extent. Rice has said that Claudia, the young girl in the book, was inspired by her late daughter. ===Film Adaptations=== In [[1994]], [[Neil Jordan]] directed a [[motion picture]] adaption of [[Interview with the Vampire]], based on the story, but with some minor changes. A second movie was later made, inspired by the second and third books in the original ''Vampire Chronicles'' series. The title was that of the third book, ''[[The Queen of the Damned]]''. The storyline chosen by the producers of the second film is controversial among many fans of her books. Major plot points of both books were altered, and it has been rumoured that the second film's theatrical release was based solely on its producers' wish to capitalize on the death of [[Aaliyah]]. Another rumor being that [[Warner Bros.]] was already into its last year of owning motion picture rights to the first three [[The Vampire Chronicles|Vampire Chronicles]] books, which would then have transferred back to author Anne Rice once this period was over. Once back in her ownership, she could then sell the rights to another company of her choosing. Knowing what little time they had left, despite the fact they've had the rights and opportunity to make the latter two movies for over seven years, Warner Bros. hastily hired writers to condense the books "''[[The Vampire Lestat]]''" and "''[[The Queen of the Damned]]''" into one movie in order to profit from their initial rights purchase. A film named ''Exit to Eden'' based loosely on Rice's book of the same name starred [[Rosie O'Donnell]] and [[Dan Aykroyd]]. The plot was seriously altered, with the work transformed from a love story into a police comedy, possibly due to the explicit [[S&M]] nature of the book. ===Health=== Rice has Type 1 [[diabetes]]. This was discovered when she went into a [[diabetic coma]] in December 1998. She is an advocate for people to get tested for diabetes. Because of a lifelong battle with her weight as well as depression due to the long illness and subsequent death of her husband, Rice's weight ballooned to 254 pounds. Tired of dealing with [[sleep apnea]], limited mobility, and other weight-related problems, she had [[gastric bypass]] surgery on [[January 15], [[2003]]. ===Leaving New Orleans=== On [[ January 30]], [[2004]] Rice announced her plans to leave New Orleans to move the suburb of [[Jefferson Parish, Louisiana]]. She had already put the largest of her three homes in [[Uptown New Orleans]] up for sale, and plans to sell the other two. She cited living alone since the death of her husband and her son's moving out of state as the reasons. "Simplifying my life, not owning so much, that's the chief goal", said Rice. "I'll no longer be a citizen of New Orleans in the true sense." In spring 2005 Anne Rice moved to [[La Jolla]], [[California]]. She calls her new home "Paradise West". Some have speculated that Rice also wished for more privacy from the constant attentions of her fans, who were known to camp out in front of her house. Sometimes, up to 200 or more would gather to see her leave for [[church]] on Sundays. ===Fanfiction Stance=== Rice is very adamant about preventing any [[fan fiction]] of her books-- on [[April 7]], [[2000]], she released a statement on her website that prohibited all fanfiction involving her work. This caused the removal of thousands of fanfics from the popular [[Fanfiction.Net]] website. ===Amazon incident=== On [[September 6]], [[2004]], Rice posted a reply to a number of negative reviews that had appeared on [[Amazon.com]] regarding ''[[Blood Canticle]]''. She titled her reply, [http://www.amazon.com/gp/community-content-search/document/102-0196178-4104136?%5Fencoding=UTF8&documentId=R1FLRHCYSK13PB&index=community-reviews-realtime&query=ASIN%3A037541200X%20from%20the%20author%20to "From the Author to the Some of the Negative Voices Here."] This post generated a great deal of publicity online -- partly because authors rarely post or respond to reviews on Amazon, and partly because of the tone and nature of her text. Many previous reviews had criticized the quality of writing in ''Blood Canticle'' as lazy or shoddy; so when Rice replied by posting a 1,200-word paragraph wherein she proudly dismisses the utility of editors, the incident became fodder for [[weblog]]s and [[Internet]] sites. ===Books=== '''[[The Vampire Chronicles]]:''' *''[[Interview with the Vampire]]'' (1976) *''[[The Vampire Lestat]]'' (1985) *''[[The Queen of the Damned]]'' (1988) *''[[The Tale of the Body Thief]]'' (1992) *''[[Memnoch The Devil]]'' (1995) *''[[The Vampire Armand]]'' (1998) *''[[Merrick (novel)|Merrick]]'' (2000) *''[[Blood and Gold]]'' (2001) *''[[Blackwood Farm]]'' (2002) *''[[Blood Canticle]]'' (2003) '''[[New Tales of the Vampires]]:''' ''(Other vampire tales that are not within the main sequence, but in the same fictional world)'' *''[[Pandora (book)|Pandora]]'' (1998) *''[[Vittorio the Vampire]]'' (1999) '''[[The Mayfair Witches|Lives of The Mayfair Witches]]:''' *''[[The Witching Hour]]'' (1990) *''[[Lasher]]'' (1993) *''[[Taltos]]'' (1994) '''Single Novels:''' *''[[The Feast of All Saints]]'' (1979) *''[[Cry to Heaven]]'' (1982) *''[[The Mummy (novel)|The Mummy]]'', or ''Ramses the Damned'' (1989) *''[[Servant of the Bones]]'' (1996) *''[[Violin (book)|Violin]]'' (1997) '''The Christ Series:''' *''[[Christ the Lord: Out of Egypt]]'' (2005) - Anne has suggested that there will be three sequels to this work '''Short Fiction:''' *''October 4th, 1948'' *''Nicholas and Jean'' *''The Master of Rampling Gate'' (Vampire Story) '''Work written under the pseudonym Anne Rampling:''' *''[[Exit to Eden]]'' (1985) *''[[Belinda (Anne Rice novel)|Belinda]]'' (1986) '''Erotica written under the pseudonym A. N. Roquelaure:''' *''[[The Claiming of Sleeping Beauty]]'' (1983) *''[[The Claiming of Sleeping Beauty|Beauty's Punishment]]'' (1984) *''[[The Claiming of Sleeping Beauty|Beauty's Release]]'' (1985) == See also == * [[List of bestselling novels in the United States]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *[http://www.annerice.com Anne Rice's official website] *[http://www.amazon.com/gp/cdp/member-reviews/AB4F6UHL20U95/ Reviews written by Anne Rice on amazon.com] *[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0375412018 Anne Rice's new book ''Christ the Lord: Out of Egypt''] *[http://wiredforbooks.org/annerice/ Two audio interviews (1985 and 1988) of Anne Rice by Don Swaim of CBS Radio - RealAudio] *[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/04/opinion/04rice.html?ei=5090&en=ce2f33f8719dba9c&ex=1283486400&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss&pagewanted=print Anne Rice: Do You Know What It Means to Lose New Orleans?] (regarding Hurricane Katrina) *[http://www.twoop.com/people/archives/2005/10/anne_rice.html Anne Rice Timeline] *[http://www.freeinfosociety.com/site.php?postnum=605 Bio and Pictures] [[Category:1941 births|Rice, Anne]] [[Category:Living people|Rice, Anne]] [[Category:American fantasy writers|Rice, Anne]] [[Category:American horror writers|Rice, Anne]] [[Category:Irish-Americans|Rice, Anne]] [[Category:New Orleanians|Rice, Anne]] [[Category:People opposed to fan fiction|Rice, Anne]] [[Category:Roman Catholic writers|Rice, Anne]] [[bg:Ан Райс]] [[da:Anne Rice]] [[de:Anne Rice]] [[es:Anne Rice]] [[fr:Anne Rice]] [[is:Anne Rice]] [[it:Anne Rice]] [[nl:Anne Rice]] [[ja:アン・ライス]] [[no:Anne Rice]] [[pl:Anne Rice]] [[pt:Anne Rice]] [[fi:Anne Rice]] [[sv:Anne Rice]] 1134 40763791 2006-02-22T21:39:46Z KSchutte 295931 {{wiktionarypar|analysis}} '''Analysis''' generally means ''the action of taking something apart in order to study it.'' It may refer to: In '''philosophy''': * [[Philosophical analysis]], a general term for the techniques used by philosophers * ''[[Analysis (journal)|ANALYSIS]]'' is the name of a prominent journal in philosophy. In '''mathematics''': * [[Mathematical analysis]], the generic name given to any branch of mathematics which depends upon the concepts of limits and convergence ** [[Complex analysis]] ** [[Functional analysis]] ** [[Harmonic analysis]] ** [[Non-standard analysis]] ** [[Real analysis]] In '''statistics''': * [[Analysis of variance]], a collection of statistical models and their associated procedures which compare means by splitting the overall observed variance into different parts * [[Meta-analysis]], combines the results of several studies that address a set of related research hypotheses * [[Time-series analysis]], methods that attempt to understand a sequence of data points spaced apart at uniform time intervals In '''computer science''': * [[Analysis of algorithms]] * [[Competitive analysis]], shows how on-line algorithms perform and demonstrates the power of randomization in algorithms * [[Computer program analysis]], the process of automatically analysing the behavior of computer programs * [[Lexical analysis]], the process of procesing an input sequence of characters and producing as output a sequence of symbols * [[Numerical analysis]], the study of algorithms for the problems of continuous mathematics * [[Object-oriented analysis and design]], ala Booch * [[Semantic analysis (computer science)]] * [[Static code analysis]], the analysis of computer software that is performed without actually executing programs built from that software * [[Structured Systems Analysis and Design Methodology]], ala Yourdon * [[Syntax analysis]], a process in compilers that recognizes the structure of programming languages, also known as parsing In '''music''': * [[Musical analysis]], a process attempting to answer the question "how does this music work?" ** [[Schenkerian analysis]] In '''psychotherapy''': * [[Psychoanalysis]], seeks to elucidate connections among unconscious components of patients' mental processes ** [[Transactional analysis]] In '''cryptography''': * [[Cryptanalysis]], the study of methods for obtaining the meaning of encrypted information * [[Frequency analysis]], a method to decompose a function, wave, or signal into its frequency components In '''economics''': * [[Financial analysis]], the analysis of the accounts and the economic prospects of a firm * [[Fundamental analysis]], a stock valuation method that uses financial analysis * [[Principal components analysis]], a technique that can be used to simplify a dataset * [[Technical analysis]], the study of price action in securities markets in order to forecast future prices In '''linguistics''': * [[Discourse analysis]], a general term for the analysis of language use above the sentence or clause level * [[Semantic analysis (linguistics)]], the process of unpacking clause, sentence and paragraph structure * [[Voice analysis]], the study of speech sounds for purposes other than linguistic content In '''signal processing''': * [[Finite element analysis]], a computer simulation technique used in engineering analysis * [[Independent component analysis]] * [[Link quality analysis]], the analysis of signal quality * [[Path quality analysis]] In '''literary criticism''': * [[Analysis (Homer)]], an influential school of thought in Homeric scholarship in the 19th-20th centuries It may also refer to: * [[Aura analysis]], a technique in which supporters of the method claim that the body's aura, or energy field is "analyzed" * [[Bowling analysis]], a notation summarising a cricket bowler's performance * [[Category analysis]] * [[Chemical analysis]], the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure * [[Dimensional analysis]], a conceptual tool to understand physical situations involving a mix of different kinds of physical quantities * [[Isotope analysis]], the identification of isotopic signature, the distribution of certain stable isotopes and chemical elements within chemical compounds * [[Life cycle cost analysis]], calculates the cost of a system or product over its entire life span * [[Lithic analysis]], the analysis of stone tools using basic scientific techniques * [[Neutron activation analysis]], a technique used to very accurately determine the concentrations of elements in a sample * [[Protocol analysis]], a means for extracting persons' thoughts while they are performing a task * [[System analysis]], the branch of electrical engineering that characterizes electrical systems and their properties * [[Systems analysis]], the science dealing with analysis of complex, large scale systems and the interactions within those systems ==See also== *[[Analytic]] *[[Synthesis]] *[[Scientific method]] {{disambig}} [[cs:Analýza]] [[da:Analyse]] [[de:Analyse]] [[es:Análisis]] [[fr:Analyse]] [[io:Analizo]] [[ko:해석학]] [[lb:Analys]] [[mk:Анализа]] [[nl:Analyse]] [[pl:Analiza]] [[simple:Analyse]] 1135 41932237 2006-03-02T18:39:49Z Hlj 36708 reword [[Image:AbnerDoubleday.jpeg|thumb|Abner Doubleday]] '''Abner Doubleday''' ([[June 26]], [[1819]] &ndash; [[January 26]], [[1893]]), was a career [[U.S. Army]] officer and [[Union army|Union]] general in the [[American Civil War]]. He fired the first shot in defense of [[Battle of Fort Sumter|Fort Sumter]], the opening battle of the war. Although he himself made no such claim, some believe he should be credited with the invention of [[baseball]]. ==Early years== Doubleday was born in [[Ballston Spa, New York]]. His grandfather had fought in the [[Revolutionary War]] and his father served four years in the [[U.S. Congress]]. Abner practiced as a civil engineer for two years before entering the [[U.S. Military Academy]], from which graduated in 1842 and was commissioned a [[second lieutenant]] in the 3rd U.S. Artillery. ==Military career== Doubleday served in the [[Mexican-American War]] and [[Seminole Wars]]. At the start of the Civil War, he was a captain in the garrison at [[Fort Sumter]] in [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston Harbor]], under [[Major Robert Anderson]]. He aimed the cannon that fired the first return shot in answer to the [[Confederate States Army | Confederate]] bombardment on [[April 12]], [[1861]], starting the war. Doubleday served in the [[Shenandoah Valley]] from June to August, 1861. He was appointed [[brigadier general]] of volunteers on [[February 3]], [[1862]], and led the 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, [[III Corps (ACW)|III Corps]] at the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]]. He took command of the division on [[August 30]] when its commander was wounded. He again led the division at [[Battle of South Mountain|South Mountain]], [[Battle of Antietam|Antietam]] (where he was wounded by a shell exploding nearby), and [[Battle of Fredericksburg|Fredericksburg]] (where his division mostly sat idle). Doubleday was promoted to [[major general]] of volunteers on [[November 9]], [[1862]], and commanded 3rd Division, [[I Corps (ACW)|I Corps]], at [[Battle of Chancellorsville|Chancellorsville]], and took over corps command for a day when General [[John F. Reynolds]] was killed in opening of the [[Battle of Gettysburg]], [[July 9]], [[1863]]. Army commander [[George G. Meade]] replaced Doubleday with [[John Newton (ACW) | John Newton]], a more junior major general from another corps, after the first day of battle, one in which the I Corps was overwhelmed by a Confederate assault. Meade had a long history of disdain for Doubleday's combat effectiveness, dating back to South Mountain. Doubleday was humiliated by this snub and held a lasting grudge against Meade. He was wounded in the neck on the second day of the battle and assumed mostly administrative duties in the defenses of [[Washington, D.C.]], including the attack by [[Jubal A. Early]] in the [[Valley Campaigns of 1864]]. ==Later life== After the Civil War, Doubleday retired from the Army in 1873 and moved to [[San Francisco]], where he obtained a charter for the [[cable car (railway)|cable car]] railway that still runs there. By 1878, he was living in [[Mendham, New Jersey]], from where, that year, he became a prominent member of the [[Theosophical Society]]. When two of the founders of that society, [[Helena Blavatsky]] and [[Henry Steel Olcott]], moved to India at the end of that year, he was constituted as the President of the American body. Doubleday died in Mendham, and is buried in [[Arlington National Cemetery]] in Arlington, Virginia. ==Legacy== Although Doubleday was a competent, if colorless, combat general with experience in many important Civil War battles, the lore of baseball credits Doubleday with inventing the game, supposedly in [[Elihu Phinney]]'s cow pasture in [[Cooperstown, New York]], in 1839. The Mills Commission was appointed in 1905 to determine the origin of baseball. The committee's final report, on [[December 30]], [[1907]], stated, in part, that "the first scheme for playing baseball, according to the best evidence obtainable to date, was devised by Abner Doubleday at [[Cooperstown, New York]], in 1839." However, there is [[Origins of baseball#Did Abner Doubleday invent baseball?|considerable evidence]] to dispute this claim. At his death, Doubleday left many letters and papers, none of which describe baseball, or give any suggestion that he considered himself a prominent person in the evolution of the game. An encyclopedia article about Doubleday published in 1911 makes no mention of the game. He was a cadet at [[West Point]] in the year of the alleged invention and there is no record he requested leave to travel to Cooperstown. Doubleday published two important works on the Civil War: ''Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie'' (1876), and ''Chancellorsville and Gettysburg'' (1882), the latter being a volume of the series ''Campaigns of the Civil War''. Doubleday's indecision as a commander earned him the uncomplimentary nickname "Forty-Eight Hours". {{libship honor|name=Abner Doubleday|type=his}} ==See also== *[[Origins of baseball#Did Abner Doubleday invent baseball?|Origins of baseball]] ==References== * Eicher, John H., & Eicher, David J., ''Civil War High Commands'', Stanford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8047-3641-3. * Tagg, Larry, [http://www.rocemabra.com/~roger/tagg/generals/ ''The Generals of Gettysburg''], Savas Publishing, 1998, ISBN 1-882810-30-9. * {{1911}} ==External links== *[http://www.findagrave.com/pictures/4830.html Grave Site] *[http://baseballhalloffame.org/about/history.htm Baseball Hall of Fame] *[http://www.blavatskyarchives.com/doubledaygeneralindefense.htm ''Defense of Madame Blavatsky''] *[http://www.theosophy-nw.org/theosnw/theos/th-tsgom.htm ''Abner Doubleday and Theosophy''] *[http://www.baseballhalloffame.com/about/history.htm Baseball Hall of Fame] {{Template:Theosophy}} [[Category:1819 births|Doubleday, Abner]] [[Category:1893 deaths|Doubleday, Abner]] [[Category:West Point graduates|Doubleday]] [[Category:United States Army generals|Doubleday, Abner]] [[Category:American Civil War Generals|Doubleday, Abner]] [[Category:Mexican-American War people|Doubleday, Abner]] [[Category:Burials at Arlington National Cemetery|Doubleday, Abner]] 1136 15899639 2004-11-21T01:26:55Z D6 75561 adding [[Category:1911 books]] '''''Americas National Game''''' is a book by [[Albert Spalding]], published in [[1911]] detailing the early history of the [[game]] of [[baseball]]. Much of the story is told first hand, since Spalding had been involved in the game, first as a player and later an administrator, since the 1850s. In addition to his personal recollections he had access to the records of [[Henry Chadwick]], the game's first statistician and archivist. Spalding was, however, known to aggrandise his role in the major moments in baseball's history. See also: [[History of baseball]] [[Category:1911 books]] 1138 15899641 2004-11-09T05:28:08Z TPK 35188 oops #REDIRECT [[Australian rules football]] 1140 42117400 2006-03-03T23:01:39Z Colonies Chris 577301 links '''Amplitude modulation''' ('''AM''') is a form of [[modulation]] in which the [[amplitude]] of a [[carrier wave]] is varied in direct proportion to that of a modulating signal. (Contrast this with [[frequency modulation]], in which the [[frequency]] of the carrier is varied; and [[phase modulation]], in which the [[Phase (waves)|phase]] is varied.) AM is commonly used at [[Radio frequency|radio frequencies]] and was the first method used to [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] commercial [[radio]]. The term "AM" is sometimes used generically to refer to the AM broadcast ([[mediumwave]]) [[Band (electronics)|band]] (see [[AM radio]]). == Applications in radio == [[Image:Amplitude-modulation.png|right|frame|An example of amplitude modulation. The top diagram shows the modulating signal superimposed on the carrier wave. The bottom diagram shows the resulting amplitude-modulated signal. Notice how the peaks of the modulated output follow the contour of the original, modulating signal.]] A basic AM radio [[transmitter]] works by first [[Direct current|DC]]-shifting the modulating signal, then multiplying it with the [[carrier wave]] using a [[frequency mixer]]. The output of this process is a signal with the same frequency as the carrier but with peaks and troughs that vary in proportion to the strength of the modulating signal. This is [[amplifier|amplified]] and fed to an [[antenna (radio)|antenna]]. ===AM vs. FM=== AM radio's main limitation is its susceptibility to atmospheric [[interference]], which is heard as [[white noise|static]] from the receiver. The narrow [[bandwidth]] traditionally used for AM broadcasts further limits the quality of sound that can be received. Since the 1970s, [[wideband]] [[FM]] has been preferred for musical broadcasts, due to its higher audio fidelity and noise-suppression characteristics. The fact that signals can be decoded using very simple equipment is one of the primary advantages of amplitude modulation. This was especially important in the early days of commercial radio, when [[Electronics|electronic]] components were still quite expensive. This simplicity and affordability helped make AM one of the most popular methods for sending voice and music over radio during the 20th century. An AM [[receiver (radio)|receiver]] consists primarily of a tunable [[Filter (signal processing)|filter]] and an [[envelope detector]], which in simpler sets is a single [[diode]]. Its output is a signal at the carrier frequency, with peaks that trace the amplitude of the unmodulated signal. Unlike other modulation techniques, this is all that is needed to recover the original audio. In practice, a [[capacitor]] is used to undo the DC shift introduced by the transmitter and to eliminate the carrier frequency by connecting the signal peaks. The output is then fed to an [[audio amplifier]]. [[Image:Am_radio.png|thumb|left|A network [[schematic]] of a simple AM receiver. A diode functions as the [[envelope detector]], with the recovered audio fed directly to an [[earphone]].]] To make a good AM receiver an [[automatic gain control]] loop is essential; this requires good design. To make a good FM receiver a large number of [[Radio frequency|RF]] amps which are driven into limiting are required to create a receiver which can take advantage of the [[capture effect]], one of the biggest advantages of FM. With valved (tube) systems it is more expensive to make active stages than it is to make the same number of stages with solid state parts, so for a valved [[superhet]] it is simpler to make an AM receiver with the automatic gain control loop while for a solid state receiver it is simpler to make an FM unit. Hence even while the idea of FM was known before [[WWII]] its use was rare because of the cost of valves - in the UK the government had a [[valve holder tax]] {{fact}} which encouraged radio receiver designers to use as few active stages as possible, - but when solid state parts became available FM started to gain favour. <!-- By Horst Rebein --> == Forms of AM == In its basic form, amplitude modulation produces a signal with power concentrated at the carrier frequency and in two adjacent [[sideband]]s. Each sideband is equal in [[bandwidth]] to that of the modulating signal and is a mirror image of the other. Thus, most of the power output by an AM transmitter is effectively wasted: half the power is concentrated at the carrier frequency, which carries no useful information (beyond the fact that a signal is present); the remaining power is split between two identical sidebands, only one of which is needed. To increase transmitter efficiency, the carrier can be removed (suppressed) from the AM signal. This produces a [[reduced-carrier transmission]] or ''double-sideband suppressed carrier'' (DSBSC) signal. If the carrier is only partially suppressed, a '''double-sideband reduced carrier''' (DSBRC) signal results. DSBSC and DSBRC signals need their carrier to be regenerated (by a [[beat frequency oscillator]], for instance) to be demodulated using conventional techniques. Even greater efficiency is achieved&mdash;at the expense of increased transmitter and receiver complexity&mdash;by completely suppressing both the carrier and one of the sidebands. This is [[single-sideband modulation]], widely used in [[amateur radio]] due to its efficient use of both power and bandwidth. A simple form of AM often used for [[digital]] communications is ''[[on-off keying]]'', a type of ''[[amplitude-shift keying]]'' by which [[Binary numeral system|binary]] data is represented as the presence or absence of a carrier wave. This is commonly used at radio frequencies to transmit [[Morse code]], referred to as [[continuous wave]] (CW) operation. == Example == Suppose we wish to modulate a simple sine wave on a carrier wave. The equation for the carrier wave of frequency <math>\omega_c</math>, taking its phase to be a reference phase of zero, is :<math>c(t) = C \sin(\omega_c t)</math>. The equation for the simple sine wave of frequency <math>\omega_m</math> (the signal we wish to broadcast) is :<math>m(t) = M \sin(\omega_m t + \phi)</math>, with <math>\phi</math> its phase offset relative to <math>c(t)</math>. Amplitude modulation is performed simply by adding <math>m(t)</math> to <math>C</math>. The amplitude-modulated signal is then :<math>y(t) = (C + M \sin(\omega_m t + \phi)) \sin(\omega_c t)</math> The formula for <math>y(t)</math> above may be written :<math>y(t) = C \sin(\omega_c t) + M \frac{\cos(\phi - (\omega_m - \omega_c) t)}{2} - M \frac{\cos(\phi + (\omega_m + \omega_c) t)}{2}</math> The broadcast signal consists of the carrier wave plus two sinusoidal waves each with a frequency slightly different from <math>\omega_c</math>, known as sidebands. For the sinusoidal signals used here, these are at <math>\omega_c + \omega_m</math> and <math>\omega_c - \omega_m</math>. As long as the broadcast (carrier wave) frequencies are sufficiently spaced out so that these side bands do not overlap, stations will not interfere with one another. ===A more general example=== :''This relies on knowledge of the [[Fourier Transform]]. The discussion of the figure may prove more useful for a quicker understanding.'' Consider a general modulating signal <math>m(t)</math>, which can now be anything at all. The same basic rules apply: :<math>\,y(t) = [C + m(t)]\cos(\omega_c t)</math>. Or, in [[complex]] form: :<math>y(t) = [C + m(t)]\frac{e^{j\omega_c t} + e^{-j\omega_c t}}{2}</math> Taking Fourier Transforms, we get: :<math>|Y(\omega)| = \pi{}C\delta(\omega - \omega_c) + \frac{1}{2}M(\omega - \omega_c) + \pi{}C\delta(\omega + \omega_c) + \frac{1}{2}M(\omega + \omega_c)</math>, where <math>\delta(x)</math> is the [[Paul Dirac|Dirac]] [[delta function]] &mdash; a unit impulse at <math>x</math> &mdash; and capital functions indicate Fourier Transforms. This has two components: one at positive [[frequency|frequencies]] (centered on <math>+\omega_c</math>) and one at negative frequencies (centered on <math>-\omega_c</math>). There is nothing mathematically wrong with negative frequencies, and they need to be considered here &mdash; otherwise one of the sidebands will be missing. Shown below is a graphical representation of the above equation. It shows the modulating signal's [[spectral density|spectrum]] on top, followed by the full spectrum of the modulated signal. [[Image:AM spectrum.png|thumb|center|500px|The (2-sided) spectrum of an AM signal.]] This makes clear the two sidebands that this modulation method yields, as well as the carrier signals that go with them. The carrier signals are the impulses. Clearly, an AM signal's spectrum consists of its original (2-sided) spectrum shifted up to the carrier frequency. The negative frequencies are a mathematical nicety, but are essential since otherwise we would be missing the lower sideband in the original spectrum! As already mentioned, if multiple signals are to be transmitted in this way (by [[frequency division multiplexing]]), then their carrier signals must be sufficiently separated that their spectra do not overlap. This analysis also shows that the transmission bandwidth of AM is twice the signal's original ([[baseband]]) bandwidth &mdash; since both the positive and negative sidebands are 'copied' up to the carrier frequency, but only the positive sideband is present originally. Thus, double-sideband AM (DS-AM) is spectrally inefficient. The various suppression methods in [[#Forms of AM|Forms of AM]], can be seen clearly in the figure &mdash; with the carrier suppressed there will be no impulses and with a sideband suppressed, the transmission bandwidth is reduced back to the original, baseband, bandwidth &mdash; a significant improvement in spectrum usage. An analysis of the power consumption of AM reveals that DS-AM with its carrier has an efficiency of about 33% &mdash; very poor. The forms of AM with suppressed carriers are found to be 100% power efficient, since no power is wasted on the carrier signal which conveys no information. ==Modulation index== As with other [[modulation index|modulation indices]], in AM, this quantity, also called ''modulation depth'', indicates by how much the modulated variable varies around its 'original' level. For AM, it relates to the variations in the carrier amplitude and is defined as: :<math>h = \frac{\mathrm{peak\ value\ of\ } m(t)}{C}</math>. So if <math>h=0.5</math>, the carrier amplitude varies by 50% above and below its unmodulated level, and for <math>h=1.0</math> it varies by 100%. Modulation depth greater than 100% is generally to be avoided - practical transmitter systems will usually incorporate some kind of limiter circuit, such as a [[VOGAD]], to ensure this. Variations of modulated signal with percentage modulation are shown below. In each image, the maximum amplitude is higher than in the previous image. Note that the scale changes from one image to the next. <center>[[Image:AM signals.svg]]</center> == Amplitude modulator designs == ===Circuits=== A wide range of different circuits have been used for AM, but one of the simplest circuits uses anode or collector modulation applied via a [[transformer]]. While it is perfectly possible to create good designs using solid-state electronics, [[thermionic valve|valved]] (tube) circuits are shown here. In general, valves are able to easily yield RF powers far in excess of what can be achieved using solid state. Most high-power broadcast stations still use valves. [[Image:ammodstage.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Anode modulation using a transformer. The [[tetrode]] is supplied with an anode supply (and screen grid supply) which is modulated via the transformer. The resistor R1 sets the grid bias, both the input and outputs are tuned [[LC circuit]]s which are tapped into by inductive coupling]] Modulation circuit designs can be broadly divided into low and high level. === Low level === Here a small [[Sound|audio]] stage is used to [[modulation|modulate]] a low power stage, the output of this stage is then amplified using a [[Linear amplifier|linear]] RF amplifier. * Advantages The advantage of using a linear RF amplifier is that the smaller early stages can be modulated, which only requires a small [[audio amplifier]] to drive the modulator. * Disadvantages The great disadvantage of this system is that the amplifer chain is less [[electrical efficiency|efficient]], because it has to be linear to preserve the modulation. Hence [[Electronic amplifier#Class C|Class C amplifiers]] cannot be employed. An approach which marries the advantages of low-level modulation with the efficiency of a Class C power amplifier chain is to arrange a feedback system to compensate for the substantial distortion of the AM envelope. A simple detector at the transmitter output (which can be little more than a loosely coupled [[diode]]) recovers the audio signal, and this is used as [[negative feedback]] to the audio modulator stage. The overall chain then acts as a linear amplifier as far as the actual modulation is concerned, though the RF amplifier itself still retains the Class C efficiency. This approach is widely used in practical medium power transmitters, such as AM [[radiotelephone]]s. === High level === ; Advantages One advantage of using class C amplifiers in a broadcast AM transmitter is that only the final stage needs to be modulated, and that all the earlier stages can be driven at a constant level. These class C stages will be able to generate the drive for the final stage for a smaller [[Direct current|DC]] power input. However in many designs in order to obtain better quality AM the penultimate RF stages will need to be subject to modulation as well as the final stage. ; Disadvantages A large audio amplifer will be needed for the modulation stage, at least equal to the power of the transmitter output itself. Traditionally the modulation is applied using an audio transformer, and this can be bulky. Direct coupling from the audio amplifier is also possible (known as a [[cascode]] arrangement), though this usually requires quite a high DC supply voltage (say 30V or more), which is not suitable for mobile units. == See also == * [[AM radio]] also referred to as [[Mediumwave]] * [[shortwave radio]] almost universally uses AM modulation, narrow FM occurring above 25 MHz. * [[Modulation]], for a list of other modulation techniques * [[AMSS]] Amplitude Modulation Signalling System, a digital system for adding low bitrate information to an AM signal. * [[Sideband]], for some explanation of what this is. ==References== * Newkirk, David and Karlquist, Rick (2004). Mixers, modulators and demodulators. In D. G. Reed (ed.), ''The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications'' (81st ed.), pp. 15.1&ndash;15.36. Newington: ARRL. ISBN 0-87259-196-4. [[Category:Radio modulation modes]] [[de:Amplitudenmodulation]] [[es:Amplitud Modulada]] [[fr:Modulation d'amplitude]] [[ko:진폭 변조]] [[he:איפנון משרעת]] [[nl:Amplitudemodulatie]] [[ja:振幅変調]] [[no:Amplitudemodulasjon]] [[pl:Modulacja amplitudy]] [[pt:Modulação em Amplitude]] [[fi:AM]] [[zh:振幅調變]] 1141 40664957 2006-02-22T03:55:14Z 69.168.254.200 /* Researches */ :''For the lighting instrument, see [[Fresnel lantern]]. [[Image:Afresnel.jpg|thumb|right|Augustin Fresnel]] '''Augustin-Jean Fresnel''' (pronounced [{{IPA|fre&#618; 'nel}}] in [[American English|AmE]], [{{IPA|f&#641;&#603; n&#603;l}}] in [[French language|French]]) ([[May 10]], [[1788]] &ndash; [[July 14]], [[1827]]), was a [[France|French]] [[physics|physicist]] who contributed significantly to the establishment of the theory of [[wave|wave optics]]. Fresnel studied the behaviour of light both theoretically and experimentally. ==Biography== Fresnel was the son of an architect, born at [[Broglie, Eure|Broglie]] ([[Eure]]). His early progress in learning was slow, and he still could not read when he was eight years old. At thirteen he entered the École Centrale in [[Caen]], and at sixteen and a half the [[École Polytechnique]], where he acquitted himself with distinction. From there he went to the [[École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées|École des Ponts et Chaussées]]. He served as an engineer successively in the departments of [[Vendée]], [[Drôme]] and [[Ille-et-Vilaine]]; but having supported the [[Bourbon house|Bourbons]] in [[1814]] he lost his appointment on [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon's]] return to power. On the second restoration of the monarchy, he obtained a post as engineer in [[Paris]], where much of his life from that time was spent. His researches in optics, continued until his death, appear to have been begun about the year [[1814]], when he prepared a paper on the [[aberration of light]], which, however, was not published. In [[1818]] he wrote a memoir on [[diffraction]] for which in the ensuing year he received the prize of the [[French Academy of Sciences|Académie des Sciences]] at Paris. He was in [[1823]] unanimously elected a member of the academy, and in [[1825]] he became a member of the [[Royal Society of London]], which in [[1827]], at the time of his last illness, awarded him the [[Rumford Medal]]. In [[1819]] he was nominated a commissioner of [[lighthouse]]s, for which he was the first to construct a special type of lens, now called a [[Fresnel lens]], as substitutes for mirrors. He died of [[tuberculosis]] at [[Ville-d'Avray]], near Paris. His labours in the cause of optical science received during his lifetime only scant public recognition, and some of his papers were not printed by the Académie des Sciences till many years after his decease. But, as he wrote to Young in [[1824]], in him "that sensibility, or that vanity, which people call love of glory" had been blunted. "All the compliments," he says, "that I have received from Arago, [[Pierre Simon, Marquis de Laplace|Laplace]] and [[Jean-Baptiste Biot|Biot]] never gave me so much pleasure as the discovery of a theoretic truth, or the confirmation of a calculation by experiment." ==Researches== His discoveries and mathematical deductions, building on experimental work by [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]], extended the [[Huygens' principle|wave theory]] of [[light]] to a large class of [[optical phenomenon|optical phenomena]]. His use of two plane mirrors of metal, forming with each other an angle of nearly 180°, allowed him to avoid the diffraction effects caused (by the apertures) in the experiment of [[Francesco Maria Grimaldi|FM Grimaldi]] on [[interference]]. This allowed him to conclusively account for the phenomena of interference in accordance with the wave theory. With [[François Arago]] he studied the laws of the interference of [[polarization|polarized]] rays. He obtained circularly polarized light by means of a rhombus of glass, known as "Fresnel's rhomb", having obtuse angles of 126° and acute angles of 54°. He is perhaps best known as the inventor of the [[Fresnel lens]], first adopted in [[lighthouse]]s while he was a French commissioner of lighthouses, and found in many applications today. ==See also== *[[Fresnel equations]] *[[Fresnel integral]] *[[Fresnel lantern]] *[[Fresnel lens]] *[[Fresnel rhomb]] *[[Fresnel zone]] *[[zone plate|Fresnel zone plate]] ==External link and reference== * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Fresnel}} * {{1911}} [[Category:1788 births|Fresnel, Augustin-Jean]] [[Category:1827 deaths|Fresnel, Augustin-Jean]] [[Category:French physicists|Fresnel, Augustin-Jean]] [[Category:Alumni_of_the_École_Polytechnique|Fresnel, Augustin-Jean]] [[Category:Normans|Fresnel, Augustin-Jean]] [[ca:Augustin Jean Fresnel]] [[de:Augustin Jean Fresnel]] [[fr:Augustin Fresnel]] [[hr:Augustin Jean Fresnel]] [[io:Augustin Fresnel]] [[nl:Augustin-Jean Fresnel]] [[ja:ジャン・フレネル]] [[pl:Augustin Jean Fresnel]] 1142 41059535 2006-02-24T20:19:49Z Unyoyega 460372 fixing interwikis ~: it {{otherplaces}} [[Image:AbbevilleCollégialeStVulfran2004-04-27.jpg|thumb|Collégiale St Vulfran]] [[Image:Abbeville_Beffroi_2005-09-29.jpg|thumb|Beffroi]] '''Abbeville''' is a city in the [[Picardie]] ''[[Région in France|région]]'', in the north of [[France]]. ==Location== Abbeville is located on the [[Somme River]], 12 m. from its modern mouth in the [[English Channel]], and 28 m. northwest of [[Amiens]]. In the medieval period, it was the lowest crossing point on the Somme and it was nearby that [[Edward III of England|Edward III's]] army crossed shortly before the [[Battle of Crécy]] in [[1346]]. ==Administration== Abbeville was the chief town of the [[Provinces of France|former province]] of [[Ponthieu]]. Today, it is one of the three ''[[sous-préfecture]]s'' of the [[Somme]] ''[[département in France|département]]''. It is twinned with the town of [[Burgess Hill]] in [[West Sussex]]. ==Prehistory == The name Abbeville has been adopted to name a category of early stone tools. These stone tools are also known as [[handaxes]]. Various handaxes were found near Abbeville by [[Jacques Boucher de Perthes]] during the 1830's and he was the first to desribe the stones in detail, pointing out in the first publication of its kind, that the stones were chipped deliberately by early man, so as to form a tool. These earliest stone tools found in Europe were chipped on both sides so as to form a sharp edge, are now known as [[Abbevillian]] handaxes or [[bifaces]] . The earlier form of stone tools, not found in Europe is known as [[Oldewan]] choppers . A more refined and later version of handax production was also found in the Abbeville/Somme River district. The more refined handax became known as the [[Acheulean]] industry, named after [[Saint Acheul]], today a suburb of [[Amiens]] . ==History== Abbeville first appears in history during the [[9th century]]. At that time belonging to the [[abbey]] of [[St Riquier]], it was afterwards governed by the [[Ponthieu|Counts of Ponthieu]]. Together with that county, it came into the possession of the [[Alençon]] and other French families, and afterwards into that of the house of [[Castile]], from whom by marriage it fell in [[1272]] to King [[Edward I of England]]. French and English were its masters by turns till [[1435]] when, by the [[treaty of Arras]], it was ceded to the [[Duke of Burgundy]]. In [[1477]] it was annexed by King [[Louis XI of France]], and was held by two illegitimate branches of the royal family in the 16th and 17th centuries, being in [[1696]] reunited to the crown. In 1514, the town saw the marriage of [[Louis XII of France]] to [[Mary Tudor (queen consort of France)|Mary Tudor]], the daughter of [[Henry VII of England]]. Abbeville was fairly important in the [[18th century]], when the Van Robais Royal Manufacture (one of the first major factories in France) brought great prosperity (but some class controversy) to the town. [[Voltaire]], among others, wrote about it. He also wrote about a major incident of intolerance in which a young impoverished lord, the [[Chevalier de la Barre]], was executed there for impiety (supposedly because he did not [[salute]] a procession for [[Corpus Christi]], though the story is far more complex than that and revolves around a mutilated cross.) Historical population: :1901: 18,519 :1906: 18,971 ==Sights== The city was very picturesque until the early days of [[World War II]], when it was bombed mostly to rubble in one night by the Germans. The town overall is now mostly modern and rebuilt. Several of the town's attractions remain, including: * [[Saint Wulfram|St. Vulfran]]'s church, erected in the [[15th century|15th]], [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th]] centuries. The original design was not completed. The [[nave]] has only two bays and the choir is insignificant. The facade is a magnificent specimen of the flamboyant [[Gothic style]], flanked by two Gothic towers. ==See also== {{commons|Abbeville|Abbeville}} {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbeville}} * [[Abbevillian]] ==Reference== * {{1911}} ---- ''The following text, from a turn of the century [[encyclopedia]] should be updated, wikified and incorporated into the above article:'' It lies in a pleasant and fertile valley, and is built partly on an island and partly on both sides of the river, which is canalized from this point to the estuary. The streets are narrow, and the houses are mostly picturesque old structures, built of wood, with many quaint gables and dark archways. The most remarkable building is the church of St Vulfran. Abbeville has several other old churches and an [[Hotel de Ville]], with a [[belfry (architecture)|belfry]] of the [[13th century]]. Among the numerous old houses, that known as the Maison de [[Francis I of France|Francois I]], which is the most remarkable, dates from the [[16th century]]. There is a statue of [[Admiral Courbet]] (d. [[1885]]) by [[Alexandre Falguière]] in the chief square. The public institutions include tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, and a communal college. Abbeville is an important industrial centre; in addition to its old-established manufacture of cloth, hemp-spinning, sugar-making, ship-building and [[locksmithing|locksmith]]s' work are carried on; there is active commerce in grain, but the port has little trade. [[Category:Archaeological sites in France]] [[Category:Communes of Somme]] [[cs:Abbeville]] [[da:Abbeville]] [[de:Abbeville]] [[et:Abbeville]] [[fr:Abbeville]] [[gl:Abbeville]] [[it:Abbeville (Francia)]] [[nl:Abbeville]] [[pl:Abbéville]] [[ro:Abbeville]] [[ru:Абвиль]] [[sv:Abbeville]] 1143 41890472 2006-03-02T11:42:03Z Fastifex 411070 /* Protestantism */ {{otheruses}} [[Image:Prepozyt.png|right|300px|thumb|Abbot's coat of arms]] The word abbot, meaning father, has been used as a Christian clerical title in various, mainly monastic, meanings. ==Origins== The title had its origin in the [[monastery|monasteries]] of [[Syria]], spread through the eastern [[Mediterranean]], and soon became accepted generally in all languages as the designation of the head of a monastery. Originally, the word, meaning father, was applied to various priests, e.g. at the court of the Frankish monarchy the ''Abbas palatinus'' ('of the palace') and ''Abbas castrensis'' ('of the camp) were chaplains to the Merovingian/ Carolingian sovereign's court viz. to his army. At first it was employed as a respectful title for any monk, but it was soon restricted by canon law to certain priestly superiors. The name "abbot" came in fairly general use in western [[Christian monasticism|monastic]] [[order (religious)|orders]] whose members (or the 'full' level at least) are ordained priest. However, various congregations chose other titles for their superiors, e.g. among the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]], [[Carmelites]], [[Augustinian]]s, etc., ''Praepositus'', ''Provost'', and ''Prior''; among the [[Franciscan]]s, ''Custos,'' "guardian"; and by the monks of [[Camaldolese|Camaldoli]], "Major." ==Monastic History== An '''abbot''' (from the Hebrew ''ab,'' "a father", through the Syriac ''abba,'' Latin ''abbas'' (genitive form, ''abbatis''), Old English ''abbad,'' ; German ''Abt;'' French ''abbé'') is the head and chief governor of a community of [[monk]]s, called also in the East ''hegumenos'' or ''archimandrite.'' The [[English language|English]] version for a female monastic head is '''[[abbess]]'''. In [[Egypt]], the first home of monasticism, the jurisdiction of the abbot, or archimandrite, was but loosely defined. Sometimes he ruled over only one community, sometimes over several, each of which had its own abbot as well. [[Cassian]] speaks of an abbot of the [[Thebaid]] who had 500 monks under him. By the [[Rule of St Benedict]], which, until the reform of [[Abbey of Cluny|Cluny]], was the norm in the West, the abbot has jurisdiction over only one community. The rule, as was inevitable, was subject to frequent violations; but it was not until the foundation of the [[Abbey of Cluny|Cluniac]] Order that the idea of a supreme abbot, exercising jurisdiction over all the houses of an order, was definitely recognized. Monks, as a rule, were laymen, nor at the outset was the abbot any exception. For the reception of the [[sacraments]], and for other religious offices, the abbot and his monks were commanded to attend the nearest church. This rule proved inconvenient when a monastery was situated in a desert or at a distance from a city, and necessity compelled the [[ordination]] of some monks. This innovation was not introduced without a struggle, [[ecclesiology|ecclesiastical]] dignity being regarded as inconsistent with the higher [[spirituality|spiritual]] life, but, before the close of the [[5th century]], at least in the East, abbots seem almost universally to have become [[deacon]]s, if not priests. The change spread more slowly in the West, where the office of abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of the [[7th century]]. The ecclesiastical leadership exercised by abbots despite their frequent lay status is proved by their attendance and votes at ecclesiastical councils. Thus at the [[first Council of Constantinople]], AD [[448]], 23 [[archimandrite]]s or abbots sign, with 30 [[bishop]]s. The [[second Council of Nicaea]], AD [[787]], recognized the right of abbots to ordain their monks to the inferior orders below the [[deacon|diaconate]], a power usually reserved to bishops. Abbots were originally subject to [[bishop|episcopal]] jurisdiction, and continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the 11th century. The [[Code of Justinian]] (lib. i. tit. iii. de Ep. leg. xl.) expressly subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight. The first case recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot from episcopal control is that of Faustus, abbot of Lerins, at the council of Arles, AD [[456]]; but the exorbitant claims and exactions of bishops, to which this repugnance to episcopal control is to be traced, far more than to the arrogance of abbots, rendered it increasingly frequent, and, in the 6th century, the practice of exempting religious houses partly or altogether from episcopal control, and making them responsible to the pope alone, received an impulse from [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory the Great]]. These exceptions, introduced with a good object, had grown into a widespread evil by the 12th century, virtually creating an ''imperium in imperio,'' and depriving the bishop of all authority over the chief centres of influence in his [[diocese]]. In the 12th century the abbots of Fulda claimed precedence of the [[archbishopric of Cologne|archbishop of Cologne]]. Abbots more and more assumed almost episcopal state, and in defiance of the prohibition of early councils and the protests of St Bernard and others, adopted the episcopal insignia of [[mitre]], ring, gloves and sandals. It has been maintained that the right to wear mitres was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the 11th century, but the documents on which this claim is based are not genuine (J. Braun, ''Liturgische Gewandung'', p. 453). The first undoubted instance is the bull by which [[Pope Alexander II|Alexander II]] in [[1063]] granted the use of the mitre to Egelsinus, abbot of the monastery of St Augustine at Canterbury. The '''mitred abbots''' in England were those of [[Abingdon, England|Abingdon]], [[St Albans Abbey|St Alban's]], Bardney, Battle, [[Bury St. Edmunds Abbey|Bury St Edmund's]], St Augustine's Canterbury, Colchester, [[Croyland]], [[Evesham, Worcestershire|Evesham]], [[Glastonbury]], [[Gloucester]], St Benet's Hulme, Hyde, [[Malmesbury]], [[Peterborough]], [[Ramsey]], [[Reading Abbey|Reading]], [[Selby]], [[Shrewsbury]], [[Tavistock]], [[Thorney]], [[Westminster]], [[Winchcombe]], St Mary's [[York]]. Of these the precedence was originally yielded to the abbot of Glastonbury, until in AD [[1154]] [[Pope Adrian IV|Adrian IV]] (Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the abbot of St Alban's, in which monastery he had been brought up. Next after the abbot of St Alban's ranked the abbot of Westminster. To distinguish abbots from bishops, it was ordained that their mitre should be made of less costly materials, and should not be ornamented with gold, a rule which was soon entirely disregarded, and that the crook of their [[crosier|pastoral staff]] should turn inwards instead of outwards, indicating that their jurisdiction was limited to their own house. The adoption of certain episcopal insignia ([[pontificalia]]) by abbots was followed by an encroachment on episcopal functions, which had to be specially but ineffectually guarded against by the [[First Council of the Lateran|Lateran council]], AD [[1123]]. In the East, abbots, if in priests' orders, with the consent of the bishop, were, as we have seen, permitted by the [[Second Council of Nicaea|second Nicene council]], AD [[787]], to confer the [[tonsure]] and admit to the order of reader; but gradually abbots, in the West also, advanced higher claims, until we find them in AD [[1489]] permitted by [[Pope Innocent IV|Innocent IV]] to confer both the subdiaconate and diaconate. Of course, they always and everywhere had the power of admitting their own monks and vesting them with the religious habit. When a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese chose the abbot out of the monks of the [[abbey|convent]], but the right of election was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks themselves, reserving to the bishop the confirmation of the election and the benediction of the new abbot. In [[abbey]]s exempt from the (arch)bishop's diocesan jurisdiction, the confirmation and [[benediction]] had to be conferred by the pope in person, the house being taxed with the expenses of the new abbot's journey to [[Rome]]. It was necessary that an abbot should be at least 25 years of age, of legitimate birth, a monk of the house, unless it furnished no suitable candidate, when a liberty was allowed of electing from another convent, well instructed himself, and able to instruct others, one also who had learned how to command by having practised obedience. In some exceptional cases an abbot was allowed to name his own successor. Cassian speaks of an abbot in Egypt doing this; and in later times we have another example in the case of St Bruno. Popes and sovereigns gradually encroached on the rights of the monks, until in Italy the pope had usurped the nomination of all abbots, and the king in France, with the exception of Cluny, Premontre and other houses, chiefs of their order. The election was for life, unless the abbot was canonically deprived by the chiefs of his order, or when he was directly subject to them, by the pope or the bishop. The ceremony of the formal admission of a [[Benedictine]] abbot in medieval times is thus prescribed by the [[consuetudinary]] of Abingdon. The newly elected abbot was to put off his shoes at the door of the church, and proceed barefoot to meet the members of the house advancing in a procession. After proceeding up the [[nave]], he was to kneel and pray at the topmost step of the entrance of the choir, into which he was to be introduced by the bishop or his [[commissary]], and placed in his stall. The monks, then kneeling, gave him the kiss of peace on the hand, and rising, on the mouth, the abbot holding his [[staff of office]]. He then put on his shoes in the [[vestry]], and a [[chapter (religion)|chapter]] was held, and the bishop or his delegate preached a suitable sermon. The power of the abbot was paternal but absolute, limited, however, by the [[canon law]]. One of the main goals of monasticism was the purgation of self and selfishness, and obedience was seen as a path to that perfection. It was sacred duty to execute the abbot's orders, and even to act without his orders was sometimes considered a transgression. Examples among the Egyptian monks of this submission to the commands of the superiors, exalted into a virtue by those who regarded the entire crushing of the individual will as a goal, are detailed by Cassian and others, e.g. a monk watering a dry stick, day after day, for months, or endeavouring to remove a huge rock immensely exceeding his powers. ==General Information== Before the late modern era, the abbot was treated with the utmost reverence by the brethren of his house. When he appeared either in church or chapter all present rose and bowed. His letters were received kneeling, as were those of the pope and the king. No monk might sit in his presence, or leave it without his permission, reflecting the hierarchical etiquette of families and society. The highest place was assigned to him, both in church and at table. In the East he was commanded to eat with the other monks. In the West the [[Rule of St Benedict]] appointed him a separate table, at which he might entertain guests and strangers. This permission opening the door to luxurious living, the council of Aachen, AD [[817]], decreed that the abbot should dine in the [[refectory]], and be content with the ordinary fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a guest. These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffectual to secure strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature abounds with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the inordinate extravagance of the tables of the abbots. When the abbot condescended to dine in the refectory, his [[chaplain]]s waited upon him with the dishes, a servant, if necessary, assisting them. When abbots dined in their own private hall, the Rule of St Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table, provided there was room, on which occasions the guests were to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk and idle gossiping. The ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be the same as that of the monks. But by the 10th century the rule was commonly set aside, and we find frequent complaints of abbots dressing in silk, and adopting sumptuous attire. They sometimes even laid aside the monastic habit altogether, and assumed a secular dress. With the increase of wealth and power, abbots had lost much of their special religious character, and become great lords, chiefly distinguished from lay lords by [[clerical celibacy|celibacy]]. Thus we hear of abbots going out to hunt, with their men carrying bows and arrows; keeping horses, dogs and huntsmen; and special mention is made of an abbot of [[Leicester]], c. [[1360]], who was the most skilled of all the nobility in hare hunting. In magnificence of equipage and [[retinue]] the abbots vied with the first nobles of the realm. They rode on mules with gilded bridles, rich saddles and housings, carrying hawks on their wrist, followed by an immense train of attendants. The bells of the churches were rung as they passed. They associated on equal terms with laymen of the highest distinction, and shared all their pleasures and pursuits. This rank and power was, however, often used most beneficially. For instance, we read of Whiting, the last abbot of [[Glastonbury Abbey|Glastonbury]], judicially murdered by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], that his house was a kind of well-ordered court, where as many as 300 sons of noblemen and gentlemen, who had been sent to him for virtuous education, had been brought up, besides others of a lesser rank, whom he fitted for the universities. His table, attendance and officers were an honour to the nation. He would entertain as many as 500 persons of rank at one time, besides relieving the poor of the vicinity twice a week. He had his country houses and fisheries, and when he travelled to attend parliament his retinue amounted to upwards of 100 persons. The abbots of [[Cluny]] and [[Vendome|Vendôme]] were, by virtue of their office, [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]s of the Roman church. In process of time the title abbot was extended to [[clergy#Catholic clergy|clerics]] who had no connection with the monastic system, as to the principal of a body of parochial clergy; and under the [[Charlemagne|Carolingians]] to the chief chaplain of the king, ''Abbas Curiae,'' or military chaplain of the emperor, ''Abbas Castrensis.'' It even came to be adopted by purely secular officials. Thus the chief magistrate of the republic at [[Genoa]] was called ''Abbas Populi''. [[Lay abbot]]s (M. Lat. ''defensores'', ''abbacomites'', ''abbates laici'', ''abbates milites'', ''abbates saeculares'' or ''irreligiosi'', ''abbatiarii'', or sometimes simply ''abbates'') were the outcome of the growth of the [[Feudalism | feudal]] system from the [[8th century]] onwards. The practice of [[commendation]], by which--to meet a contemporary emergency--the revenues of the community were handed over to a lay lord, in return for his protection, early suggested to the emperors and kings the expedient of rewarding their warriors with rich abbeys held ''in [[commendam]].'' During the Carolingian epoch the custom grew up of granting these as regular heritable [[fiefdom|fiefs]] or [[benefice]]s, and by the [[10th century]], before the great [[Cluny | Cluniac]] reform, the system was firmly established. Even the [[Saint Denis Basilica|abbey of St Denis]] was held in commendam by [[Hugh Capet]]. The example of the kings was followed by the feudal nobles, sometimes by making a temporary concession permanent, sometimes without any form of commendation whatever. In England the abuse was rife in the 8th century, as may be gathered from the acts of the council of Cloveshoe. These lay abbacies were not merely a question of overlordship, but implied the concentration in lay hands of all the rights, immunities and jurisdiction of the foundations, i.e. the more or less complete secularization of spiritual institutions. The lay abbot took his recognized rank in the feudal hierarchy, and was free to dispose of his fief as in the case of any other. The enfeoffment of abbeys differed in form and degree. Sometimes the monks were directly subject to the lay abbot; sometimes he appointed a substitute to perform the spiritual functions, known usually as [[dean (religion)|dean]] (decanus), but also as abbot (''abbas legitimas'', ''monasticus'', ''regularis''). When the great reform of the 11th century had put an end to the direct jurisdiction of the lay abbots, the honorary title of abbot continued to be held by certain of the great feudal famines, as late as the 13th century and later, the actual head of the community retaining that of dean. The connection of the lesser lay abbots with the abbeys, especially in the south of France, lasted longer; and certain feudal families retained the title of abbes chevaliers (abbates milltes) for centuries, together with certain rights over the abbey lands or revenues. The abuse was not confined to the West. John, [[patriarch of Antioch]], at the beginning of the 12th Century, informs us that in his time most monasteries had been handed over to laymen, ''bencficiarii,'' for life, or for part of their lives, by the emperors. [[Giraldus Cambrensis]] reported (''Itinerary'', ii.iv) the common customs of lay abbots in the late 12th-century Church of Wales: :"for a bad custom has prevailed amongst the clergy, of appointing the most powerful people of a parish stewards, or, rather, patrons, of their churches; who, in process of time, from a desire of gain, have usurped the whole right, appropriating to their own use the possession of all the lands, leaving only to the clergy the altars, with their tenths and oblations, and assigning even these to their sons and relations in the church. Such defenders, or rather destroyers, of the church, have caused themselves to be called abbots, and presumed to attribute to themselves a title, as well as estates, to which they have no just claim." In conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied the place of the abbot, the functions usually devolving on the superior of the monastery were performed by a prior. ==Abbatial hierarchy== In several orders, there exists a pyramidal relationship between a major abbey (often the old mother of several others, especially if it was the place from where a monastic reform was launched, which in other cases even lead to breaking away as a new order of congregation) and other ones (often younger daughters), even when these are not (or no longer) [[priories]] but have their own abbot. As a daughter could often become a mother in a next phase, the 'family tree' can become very complex, but often the grandmother remains the only one with acknowledged seniority.(because she is old ...) Sometimes a very real hold was maintained, so the Abbot of [[Abbey of Cluny|Cluny]] had such vast income from the network of filial monasteries that he was one of the most powerful men in the church, and a real [[papabile]]. In other cases the precedence is little more than a honorary status. In several cases, the senior abbot is entitled to '''a specific style''', such as [[Abbot general]], [[abbot president]], [[abbot primate]] and [[archabbot]]. Such titles may also apply to the presidents of federation of monasteries, not necessarily reserved for one abbey. ==Modern Abbots not as Superior== The title [[abbé]] (French; Ital. ''abbate''), as commonly used in the Catholic church on the European continent, is the equivalent of the English "Father" (parallel etymology), being loosely applied to all who have received the [[tonsure]]. This use of the title is said to have originated in the right conceded to the king of France, by the [[concordat]] between [[Pope Leo X]] and [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] (1516), to appoint ''abbes commendataires'' to most of the abbeys in France. The expectation of obtaining these [[sinecure]]s drew young men towards the church in considerable numbers, and the class of abbés so formed--''abbes de cour'' they were sometimes called, and sometimes (ironically) ''abbes de sainte esperance'', abbés of St Hope--came to hold a recognized position. The connection many of them had with the church was of the slenderest kind, consisting mainly in adopting the name of abbe, after a remarkably moderate course of theological study, practising [[celibacy]] and wearing a distinctive dress--a short dark-violet coat with narrow collar. Being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, many of the class found admission to the houses of the French nobility as tutors or advisers. Nearly every great family had its abbé. The class did not survive the [[French Revolution|Revolution]]; but the [[courtesy title]] of abbé, having long lost all connection in people's minds with any special ecclesiastical function, remained as a convenient general term applicable to any clergyman. ==Protestant abbots== In the [[Evangelical Church in Germany|German Evangelical Church]] the German title of ''Abt'' (abbot) is sometimes bestowed, like the French ''abbé'', as an honorary distinction, and survives to designate the heads of some monasteries converted at the Reformation into collegiate foundations. Of these the most noteworthy is the abbey of Lokkum in [[Hanover]], founded as a [[Cistercian]] house in 1163 by Count Wilbrand of Hallermund, and reformed in 1593. The abbot of Lokkum, who still carries a pastoral staff, takes precedence of all the clergy of Hanover, and was ''ex officio'' a member of the [[consistory]] of the kingdom. The governing body of the abbey consists of the abbot, prior and the "convent" of ''[[Stiftsherr]]en'' (canons). In the [[Church of England]], the [[Bishop of Norwich]], by royal decree given by [[Henry VIII]], also holds the honorary title of "Abbot of St. Benēt." This title hails back to England's separation from Rome, when King Henry, as supreme head of the newly independent church, took over all of the monastaries, mainly for their possessions, except for St. Benēt, which he spared because the abbot and his monks possesed no wealth, and lived like simple beggers, disposing the incumbent Bishop of Norwich and seating the abbot in his place, thus the dual title still held to this day. ==See also== *[[List of historical abbots]] *[[Hegumen]] *[[Archimandrite]] ==Sources and References== {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbot}} *[http://www.google.com/custom?domains=NewAdvent.org&q=abbot&sitesearch=NewAdvent.org&client=pub-8168503353085287&forid=1&ie=ISO-8859-1&oe=ISO-8859-1&safe=active&cof=GALT%3A%23008000%3BGL%3A1%3BDIV%3A%23336699%3BVLC%3A663399%3BAH%3Acenter%3BBGC%3AFFFFFF%3BLBGC%3A336699%3BALC%3A0000FF%3BLC%3A0000FF%3BT%3A000000%3BGFNT%3A0000FF%3BGIMP%3A0000FF%3BFORID%3A1%3B&hl=en| 999 occurrences in the [[Catholic Encyclopaedia]]] *{{1911}} [[Category:Abbots]] [[category: Ecclesiastical titles]] [[Category:Organisation of Catholic religious orders]] [[Category:Christian leaders]] [[Category:Religious work]] [[Category:Religious executives]] [[ang:Abbod]] [[ca:Abat]] [[cs:Opat]] [[da:Abbed]] [[de:Abt]] [[es:Abad]] [[eo:Abato]] [[fr:Abbé]] [[gl:Abade]] [[ia:Abba]] [[it:Abate]] [[li:Abdis]] [[hu:Apát]] [[nl:Abt (abdij)]] [[nds:Abt]] [[no:Abbed]] [[pl:Opat]] [[pt:Abade]] [[ru:Аббат]] [[fi:Apotti]] [[sv:Abbot]] 1144 40359090 2006-02-20T01:16:10Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 External links per MoS. {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Ardipithecus | fossil_range = [[Pliocene]] | image = Ardipithecus ramidus tooth.jpg | image_width = 200px | image_caption = ''Ardipithecus ramidus'' teeth | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammal]]ia | ordo = [[Primate]]s | familia = [[Hominid]]ae | subfamilia = [[Homininae]] | tribus = [[Hominini]] | genus = '''''Ardipithecus''''' | genus_authority = [[Tim White (anthropologist)|White]], [[1994]] | subdivision_ranks = [[Species]] | subdivision =''Ardipithecus kadabba''<br /> ''Ardipithecus ramidus'' }} '''''Ardipithecus''''' is a very early [[hominin]] [[genus]] ([[subfamily]] [[Homininae]]). Because it shares several traits with the African [[great ape]]s (genus ''[[chimpanzee|Pan]]'' and genus ''[[Gorilla]]''), it is considered by some to be on the [[chimpanzee]] rather than [[human]] branch, but most consider it a [[proto-human]] because of a likeness in teeth with ''[[Australopithecus]]''. ''A. ramidus'' lived about 5.4 and 4.2 million years ago during the early [[Pliocene]]. Two [[species]] have been described, ''Ardipithecus ramidus'' and ''Ardipithecus kadabba''. The latter was initially described as a [[subspecies]] of ''A. ramidus'', but on the basis of teeth recently discovered in [[Ethiopia]] has been raised to species rank. ''A. kadabba'' is dated to have lived between 5.8 million to 5.2 million years ago. The [[canine teeth]] show primitive features that distinguish them from those of more recent hominines. ''A. kadabba'' is believed to be the earliest organism yet identified that lies in the human line following its split from the lineage that gave rise to the two modern chimpanzee species. On the basis of bone sizes, ''Ardipithecus'' species are believed to have been about the size of a modern chimpanzee. The toe structure of ''A. ramidus'' suggests that the creature walked upright, and this poses problems for current theories of the origins of hominid [[bipedalism]]: ''Ardipithecus'' is believed to have lived in shady forests rather than on the savannah, where the faster running permitted by bipedalism would have been an advantage. The forest lifestyle poses problems for the current theories regarding the development of bipedalism, most of which focus on the savanna. New thought will be necessary in order to reconcile these savanna theories with the current knowledge of early forest-dwelling hominids. ==External links== *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4187991.stm BBC News: Amazing hominid haul in Ethiopia] {{Human_Evolution}} [[Category:early hominids]] [[Category:Pliocene]] [[de:Ardipithecus ramidus]] [[eu:Ardipithecus]] [[es:Ardipithecus ramidus]] [[fr:Ardipithecus ramidus]] [[it:Ardipithecus kadabba]] [[lb:Ardipithecus]] [[nl:Ardipithecus]] [[pl:Ardipithecus ramidus]] 1146 41872264 2006-03-02T07:12:34Z 129.22.33.101 /* History of the assembly line */ An '''assembly line''' is a [[manufacturing]] process in which interchangeable parts are added to a product in a sequential manner to create an end product. ==History of the assembly line== Until the 19th century, a single craftsman or team of craftsmen would create each part of a product individually, and assemble them together into a single item, making changes in the parts so that they would fit together - the so-called [[English System]] of manufacture. [[Eli Whitney]] developed the [[American system of manufacturing|American System]] of manufacturing in 1799, using the ideas of ''[[division of labor]]'' and of ''[[Tolerance (engineering)|engineering tolerance]]'', to create assemblies from parts in a repeatable manner. [[Ransom Eli Olds]] patented the first assembly line concept which he put to work in his Olds Motor Vehicle Company factory in 1901, becoming the first company in America to mass-produce automobiles. By contrast, [[Henry Ford]] is often credited with the invention of the assembly line but in actuality only applied the idea of using the [[conveyer belt]] to Olds' idea of the assembly line. ==Sociological problems with the assembly line== In early industrial times, the assembly line ran smoothly, but as competition increased, the workers had to work faster and longer hours, therefore increasing the rate at which workplace injuries occurred. Many workers were unhappy with the assembly line, because most never had the satisfaction of seeing the finished product (in [[Sociology|sociological]] terms, they felt [[Alienation|alienated]] from the product of their work), and they were also frustrated with the unsafe, exhausting working conditions. Because workers had to stand in the same place for hours and repeat the same motion hundreds of times per day, they often suffered from what are now called [[Repetitive strain injury|repetitive stress injuries]]. ==See also== *[[Henry Ford]] *[[Ransom Eli Olds]] *[[Manufacturing]] [[Category:Manufacturing]][[category:Production and manufacturing]] [[de:Fließbandfertigung]] [[he:פס ייצור]] 1147 40391488 2006-02-20T05:55:10Z Spasage 472206 {{merge|ARY DIGITAL}} {{Infobox TV channel| name= ARY Digital| launch= December 2000| owner= [[ARY Group]] | former names= The Pakistani Channel| web= [http://www.arydigital.tv/ www.arydigital.tv] | terr avail=Not Available| sat serv 1=[[Sky Digital]]| sat chan 1=Channel 812| sat serv 2=[[Astra]]| sat chan 2=11.9973 GHz| sat serv 3=[[Hotbird]]| sat chan 3=12.476 GHz| sat serv 4=[[PAS-10]]| sat chan 4=3864 MHz| cable serv 1= [[Telewest]]| cable chan 1= Channel 818| cable serv 2= [[NTL]]| cable chan 2= Channel 847| dummy parameter=| |}} [[Image:Sidelogo.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|The ARY Digital Logo]] '''ARY Digital''' is a popular South Asian [[television]] network based in [[Dubai]], [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]]. It also has studios in [[London]] and [[Pakistan]]. Most programmes cater to the needs of South Asians, especially the [[Pakistan|Pakistani]] community. The channel also brings [[Urdu language|Urdu]] programmes and Urdu songs by Pakistani singers who rock the South Asian subcontinent. == History == The network was formerly known as '''The Pakistani Channel''', which was owned by a charismatic business man, who started it as a medium of social responsibility while bridging the gap between Asians abroad and in Pakistan. Its name was changed when it was purchased by the [[ARY Group]]. ARY Digital specialises in popular live English and Urdu programming, such as VIDEO MIX shown on Sundays and presented by Yassir and Zaina. == External links == *[http://www.arydigital.tv/ ARY Digital Official Website] *[http://www.arydigital.tv/corporate.php Corporate Profile] [[Category:ARY Digital]] [[Category:Television stations in Pakistan]] 1148 move=:edit= 41965329 2006-03-02T22:48:37Z 203.220.36.62 {{otheruses}} <!-- BEGIN INFOBOX --> {{Infobox Australian City| name = Adelaide | image_map = Adelaide locator-MJC.png | name = Adelaide | latd=34|latm=55|latNS=S|longd=138|longm=36|longEW=E| jurisdiction = [[South Australia]] | area = 1,826.9 | time_zone= [[UTC9:30|ACST]] | utc_offset= +9:30 | time_zone_DST= [[UTC10:30|ACDT]] | utc_offset_DST= +10:30 | population_estimate_year = 2004 | population_estimate = 1,124,315 | population_estimate_rank = 5th | population_density = 615 | }} <!-- END INFOBOX --> '''Adelaide''' is the [[List of Australian capital cities|capital]] and most populous city of the [[Australia]]n [[States and territories of Australia|state]] of [[South Australia]], and is the fifth largest city in Australia with a population of over 1.1 million. Adelaide is a coastal city beside the [[Southern Ocean]] and is situated on the [[Adelaide Plains]], north of the [[Fleurieu Peninsula]], between the [[Gulf Saint Vincent|Gulf St. Vincent]] and the low lying [[Mount Lofty Ranges]]. It is a roughly [[linear city]] 20 km from the coast to the foothills, but stretches 90 km from [[Gawler, South Australia|Gawler]] at its northern extent to [[Aldinga, South Australia|Aldinga]] in the south. Named in honour of [[Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen|Queen Adelaide]], the [[consort]] of [[William IV of the United Kingdom|King William IV]], the city was founded in [[1836]] as the [[new town|planned capital]] for the only freely-settled British [[province]] established in Australia. [[William Light|Colonel William Light]], one of Adelaide's founding fathers, designed the city and chose its location close to the [[River Torrens]]. Inspired by [[William Penn]] and the [[garden city movement]], Light's design set Adelaide out in a grid layout, interspaced by wide boulevards and large public squares, and entirely surrounded by [[Adelaide Parklands|parkland]]. Early Adelaide was shaped by religious freedom and a commitment to political [[progressivism]] and civil liberties which led to world-first reforms. Adelaidean society remained largely [[puritan]] up until the 1970s, when a set of social reforms under the [[Premier of South Australia|premiership]] of [[Don Dunstan]] resulted in a cultural revival. Today Adelaide is known for its many [[:Category:Festivals in Adelaide|festivals]] as well as for its wine, arts and sports. As South Australia's seat of government and commercial centre, Adelaide is the site of many governmental and financial institutions. Most of these are concentrated in the city centre along the cultural boulevard of [[North Terrace, Adelaide|North Terrace]] and in various districts of the metropolitan area. ==History== {{Main|History of Adelaide}} Prior to European settlement, the Adelaide area was inhabited by the [[Kaurna]] [[Australian Aborigine|Aboriginal]] tribe. Acknowledged Kaurna country comprised the Adelaide Plains and surrounding regions - from [[Cape Jervis]] in the south, and to [[Port Wakefield, South Australia|Port Wakefield]] in the north. Among their unique customs were burn-offs (controlled [[bushfires]]) in the Adelaide Hills which the early Europeans spotted before the Kaurna people were pushed out by settlement. By 1852, the total population (by census count) of the Kaurna was 650 in the Adelaide region and steadily decreasing. During the winter months, they moved into the [[Adelaide hills]] for better shelter and firewood. {{ref|cathuni}} {{ref|placenames}} [[Image:Adelaide North Tce 1839.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Adelaide in [[1839]], looking south-east from [[North Terrace, Adelaide|North Terrace]]]] South Australia was officially settled as a new [[United Kingdom|British]] [[province]] on [[December 28]], [[1836]]. This day is now commemorated as a [[public holiday]], [[Proclamation Day]] in South Australia. The site of the colonies capital city was surveyed and laid-out by Colonel [[William Light]], the first Surveyor-General of South Australia. Light chose, not without opposition, a site on rising ground close to the [[River Torrens]], which became the chief early water supply for the fledgling colony. "[[Light's Vision]]", as it has been termed, has meant that the initial design of Adelaide required little modification as the city grew and prospered. Usually in an older city, it would be necessary to accommodate larger roads and add parks, whereas Adelaide had them from the start. Adelaide was established as the centre of a [[New town|planned colony]] of free immigrants, promising civil liberties and freedom from religious persecution and as such does not share the [[convict]] settlement history of other Australian cities, like [[Sydney]] and [[Hobart]]. Adelaide's early history was wrought by economic uncertainty and incompetent leadership. The first governor of South Australia, [[John Hindmarsh|Hindmarsh]], clashed frequently with Col Light. The rural area surrounding Adelaide city was surveyed by Light in preparation to sell, a total of over 405 km² of land. Adelaide's early economy started to get on its feet in 1838 with the arrival of livestock from [[New South Wales]] and [[Tasmania]]. The wool industry served as a early basis for the South Australian economy. Light's survey was completed in this period, and land was promptly offered to sale to early colonists. Wheat farms ranged from [[Encounter Bay]] in the south to [[Clare, South Australia|Clare]] in the north by 1860. [[George Gawler|Governor Gawler]] took over from Hindmarsh in late 1838 and promptly oversaw construction of a governor's house, [[gaol]], police barracks, hospital, and customs house and a wharf at [[Port Adelaide]]. In addition houses for public officials and missionaries, and outstations for police and surveyors were also constructed during Gawler's governorship. Adelaide had also become economically self-sufficent during this period but at heavy cost: the colony was heavily in [[debt]] and relied on bail-outs from London to stay afloat. Gawler was recalled and replaced by [[George Edward Grey|Governor Grey]] in 1841. Grey slashed public expenditure against heavy opposition, yet its impact was negligible at this point: Silver was discovered in [[Glen Osmond, South Australia|Glen Osmond]] that year, agricultural industries were well underway and other mines sprung up all over the state, aiding Adelaide's commercial development. The city exported meat, wool, wine, fruit and wheat by the time Grey left in 1845, contrasting with a low point in 1842 when one-third of Adelaide houses were abandoned. [[Image:Adelaide town hall 1950.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Adelaide General Post Office in 1950]] Trade links with the rest of the Australian states were established with the navigation of the [[Murray River]] being successfully navigated in 1853 by Francis Cadell, an Adelaide resident. Adelaide saw South Australia become a [[Self-governing colony]] in 1856 with the [[ratification]] of a new [[constitution]] by the British parliament. [[Secret ballot]]s were introduced, and a [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] parliament was elected on 9 March 1857, by which time 109 917 people lived in the province. In 1860 the Thorndon Park reservoir was opened, finally providing an alternative water source to the [[Turbidity|turbid]] River Torrens. In 1867 gas [[street light]]ing was implemented, the [[University of Adelaide]] was founded in 1874, the [[South Australian Art Gallery]] opened in 1881 and the [[Happy Valley Reservoir]] opened in 1896. In the 1890s Australia was affected by a severe [[Depression (economics)|economic depression]], ending a hectic era of land booms and tumultuous expansionism. Financial institutions in [[Melbourne]] and banks in [[Sydney]] closed. The national [[fertility rate]] fell and immigration was reduced to a trickle. The value of South Australia's exports nearly halved. [[Drought]] and poor harvests from 1884 compounded the problems with some families leaving for [[Western Australia]]. Adelaide was not as badly hit as the larger gold-rush cities of Sydney and Melbourne, and silver and [[lead]] discoveries at [[Broken Hill]] provided some relief. Only one year of [[deficit]] was recorded but the price paid was retrenchments and lean public spending. [[Wine]] and copper were the only industries not to suffer a downturn. Electric street lighting was introduced in 1900 and electric [[tram]]s were transporting passengers in 1909. 28 000 men were sent to fight in [[World War I]]. Adelaide enjoyed a post-war boom but with the return of droughts, entered the [[Great Depression|depression]] of the 1930s, later returning to prosperity with strong government leadership. [[Secondary sector of industry|Secondary industries]] helped reduce the state's dependence on [[primary sector of industry|primary industries]]. The 1933 census recorded the state population at 580 949 which was less of an increase than other states due to the state's economic limitations. [[World War II]] brought industrial stimulus and diversification to Adelaide under the [[Thomas Playford IV|Playford]] Government, which advocated Adelaide as a safe place for manufacturing due to its less vulrenable location. 70 000 men and women enlisted and shipbuilding was expanded at the nearby port of [[Whyalla, South Australia|Whyalla]]. [[Image:Rundle Mall.jpg|280px|thumb|left|Rundle Mall circa 1988 with the famous ''Spheres'' sculpture (colloquially ''Mall's Balls'') clearly visible.]] The South Australian Government in this period built on former wartime manufacturing industries. International manufacturers like General Motors [[Holden]] and Chrysler make use of these factories around Adelaide completing its transformation from an agricultural service centre to a twentieth century city. A pipeline from [[Mannum, South Australia|Mannum]] brought [[River Murray]] water to Adelaide in 1954 and an [[airport]] opened at [[West Beach, South Australia|West Beach]] in 1955. An assisted migration scheme brought 215,000 immigrants of all nationalities to South Australia between 1947 and 1973. The Dunstan Government in the 1970s saw something of an Adelaide 'cultural revival' - establishing a wide array of social reforms and overseeing the city becoming a centre of the arts. Adelaide hosted the [[Australian Grand Prix]] between 1985 and 1996 on a street circuit in the city's east parklands, before losing it in a controversial move to [[Melbourne]]. The 1992 [[State Bank of South Australia|State Bank]] collapse plunged both Adelaide and South Australia into economic recession, and its effects can still be felt today. Recent years have seen the [[Clipsal 500]] [[V8 Supercar]] race make use of the former Formula One circuit and renewed economic confidence under the [[Mike Rann|Rann]] Government. ==Geography== [[Image:Satellite_image_of_Adelaide_South_Australia.jpg|right|frame|Satellite image of Adelaide]] Adelaide is located north of the [[Fleurieu Peninsula]], on the Adelaide plains between the [[Gulf Saint Vincent|Gulf St Vincent]] and the low lying [[Mount Lofty Ranges]]. The city stretches from the town of [[Gawler, South Australia|Gawler]] at its most northern, to [[Aldinga, South Australia|Aldinga]] in the south. According to the [[Australian Bureau of Statistics]], the Adelaide Metropolitan Region has a total land area of 870 km², which is at an average elevation of 50 metres above sea level. [[Mount Lofty]] is located east of the Adelaide metropolitan region in the [[Adelaide Hills]] at an elevation of 727 metres. It is the tallest point in its [[Mount Lofty Ranges|namesake]] range. Much of Adelaide was originally bushland before European settlement, with some variation - swamps and marshlands were prevalent around the coast. However, much of the original vegetation has been cleared with the remainder remaining in reserves such as the [[Adelaide Parklands]], [[Cleland Conservation Park]] and [[Belair National Park]]. A number of creeks and rivers flow through the Adelaide region. The largest are the [[River Torrens|Torrens]] and [[Onkaparinga River National Park|Onkaparinga]] catchments. Adelaide relies on its many reservoirs for water supply, with [[Mount Bold Reservoir]] and [[Happy Valley Reservoir]] together supplying around 50% of Adelaide's requirements. ===Climate=== {{Main|Climate of Adelaide}} Adelaide has a [[Mediterranean climate]], where most of the rain falls in the winter months. Of the Australian capital cities, Adelaide is the driest. Rainfall is unreliable, light and infrequent throughout summer. In contrast, the winter has fairly reliable rainfall with June being the wettest month of the year, averaging around 80 mm. [[Frost]]s are rare, with the most notable occurrences having occurred in July 1908 and July 1982. There is usually no appreciable [[snow|snowfall]], except at [[Mount Lofty]] and some places in the [[Adelaide Hills]]. {| class="wikitable" style="width: 75%; margin: 0 auto 0 auto;" |+ '''Climate Table''' |- ! ! Jan ! Feb ! Mar ! Apr ! May ! Jun ! Jul ! Aug ! Sep ! Oct ! Nov ! Dec !Year |- ! Mean daily maximum temperature ([[Celsius|°C]]) |28.8 |29.4 |26.1 |22.4 |18.9 |16.1 |15.3 |16.5 |18.8 |21.5 |24.8 |26.8 |22.1 |- ! Mean daily minimum temperature ([[Celsius|°C]]) |16.8 |17.2 |15.0 |12.2 |10.1 |8.2 |7.4 |8.2 |9.6 |11.3 |13.8 |15.5 |12.1 |- ! Mean total rainfall ([[Millimetre|mm]]) |19.2 |13.7 |26.2 |38.7 |62.6 |83.1 |77.8 |68.1 |63.6 |48.5 |29.6 |26.8 |558.1 |- ! Mean number of rain days |4.3 |3.4 |5.7 |7.9 |12.3 |15.4 |16.2 |16.4 |13.2 |10.8 |8.1 |6.7 |120.5 |- | colspan="15" style="text-align: center;" | <small>'''Source:''' [http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_023090.shtml Bureau of Meteorology]</small> |} ===Urban Layout=== {{Main|Light's Vision}} [[Image:Karte_Adelaide_MKL1888.png|thumb|136px|right|1888 Map of Adelaide, showing the gradual development of its urban layout]] Adelaide is a planned city, designed by the first surveyor-general of South Australia, Colonel [[William Light]]. His plan, now known as '''Light's Vision''', arranged Adelaide in a grid, with five squares in the inner City of Adelaide and a ring of parks known as the [[Adelaide Parklands]] surrounding it. Light's design was initially unpopular with the early settlers, as well as South Australia's first Governor, [[John Hindmarsh]]. Light persisted with his design against this initial opposition. The benefits of Light's design are numerous; Adelaide has had wide multi-lane roads from its beginning, an easily-navigable grid layout and a beautiful green ring around the city center. There are two sets of 'ring roads' in Adelaide that have resulted from the original design. The inner ring route borders the parklands and the outer route completely bypasses the inner city through (in clockwise order) [[Grand Junction Road]], Hampstead Road, Ascot Avenue, [[Portrush Road]], Cross Road and [[South Road, Adelaide|South Road]]. {{ref|ringroute}} The inevitable urban expansion has to some extent outgrown Light's original plan. Numerous satellite cities were built in the latter half of the 20th century notably [[Salisbury, South Australia|Salisbury]] and [[Elizabeth, South Australia|Elizabeth]] on the city's northern fringes, which have now been enveloped by its [[urban sprawl]]. New developments in the [[Adelaide Hills]] region facilitated the construction of the [[South Eastern Freeway]] to cope with growth. Similarly, the booming development in Adelaide's [[City of Onkaparinga|South]] made the construction of the [[Southern Expressway]] a necessity. New roads have not only been used to cope with the urban growth, however - the [[Adelaide O-Bahn]] is an example of a unique solution to [[Tea Tree Gully, South Australia|Tea Tree Gully's]] transport woes in the 1980's.{{ref|ozroads}} The development of the nearby suburb of [[Golden Grove, South Australia|Golden Grove]] in the late [[1980s]] is possibly an example of well-though-out urban planning. The newer urban areas as a whole, however, are not as integrated into the urban layout as much as older areas, and therefore place more stress on Adelaide's transportation system - although not on a level comparable with [[Melbourne]] or [[Sydney]]. [[Image:Adel panorama.jpg|thumb|center|598px|<div style=text-align:"right">Panoramic view over the [[Adelaide Parklands]] of the ''Square Mile'' (central business district) from [[Montefiore Hill]] in [[North Adelaide]]. The historic [[Adelaide Oval]] is visible in the centre foreground.</div>]] ==Governance== {{Main|Government of South Australia}} [[Image:Adelaide_parliament_house.JPG|right|thumb|280px|[[Parliament House, Adelaide]] on [[North Terrace, Adelaide|North Terrace]] houses the [[Parliament of South Australia]].]] The [[City of Adelaide]] is responsible only for the "Square Mile", which is the [[central business district]] (CBD), [[North Adelaide]] and the surrounding [[Adelaide Parklands]]. It is the oldest [[municipal]] authority in Australia and was established in 1840, when Adelaide and Australia's first mayor, [[James Hurtle Fisher]], was elected. From 1919 onwards, the City has had a [[List of Mayors and Lord Mayors of Adelaide|Lord Mayor]], the current being Lord Mayor [[Michael Harbison]]. The City of Adelaide has a population of approximately 18,000 people in an area of 15.57 km². The population of the [[inner city]] has dwindled from its peak of about 250,000 as the metropolitan area has expanded. The entire metropolitan region, including the city proper, has a population of 1,080,990 people (2001 census) in an area of 870km², and is divided into 18 autonomous [[local government areas]]. However, as South Australia's capital and most populous city, the State Government co-operates extensively with the City of Adelaide - a relationship manifest in the Capital City Committee {{ref|capcity}}, which is primarily concerned with the planning of Adelaide's urban development and growth. ==Demographics== [[Image:Rundle Mall.JPG|right|thumb|280px|Rundle Mall- Adelaide's main shopping street]] [[Image:Adelaide City Torrens.JPG|right|thumb|280px|Adelaide skyline from the [[River Torrens]]]] As of [[June 2004]], Adelaide had a metropolitan population of more than 1,124,315, making it Australia's fifth largest city. In the 2002-2003 period the population grew by 0.6%, while the national average was 1.2%. Some 70.3% of the population of South Australia is resident within the metropolitan area, making South Australia one of the most centralised states. Major areas of population growth in recent years were in outer suburbs such as [[Mawson Lakes, South Australia|Mawson Lakes]] and [[Golden Grove, South Australia|Golden Grove]]. Adelaide's inhabitants occupy 325,000 houses, 57,000 detached, row terrace or town houses and 49,000 flats, apartments and caravans. Major areas of population growth in recent years were in outer suburbs such as [[Mawson Lakes, South Australia|Mawson Lakes]] and [[Golden Grove, South Australia|Golden Grove]]. Overseas born Adelaideans composed 24.6% (242, 092) of the total population. The North-Eastern Suburbs (such as Golden Grove and [[Salisbury, South Australia|Salisbury]]) and suburbs close to the CBD had a higher ratio of overseas born residents. Wealthier and more well-educated Adelaideans are concentrated on the coastal suburbs (such as [[Brighton, South Australia|Brighton]] and [[Hallett Cove, South Australia|Hallett Cove]]) and South-Eastern suburbs (such as [[Burnside, South Australia|Burnside]] and [[Waterfall Gully, South Australia|Waterfall Gully]]). Almost a fifth (17.9%) of the population had university qualifications. The number of Adelaideans with vocational qualifications (such as tradespersons) fell from 62.1% of the labour force in the 1991 census to 52.4% in the 2001 census. Overall, Adelaide is ageing much more rapidly than other Australian capital cities. Just under a quarter (24.1%) of Adelaide's population is aged 55 years or older, in comparison to the national average of 19.9%. To further compound the situation, Adelaide has the lowest number of children (under-15 year olds), which composed 18.7% of the population, compared to the national average of 20.4%. In regards to three highest ancestries, 38% of the population identified themselves as [[English people|English]], 34% as Australian (which is most likely primarily of [[Anglo-Celtic]] background) and 8.4% as [[Irish people|Irish]]. The three most-spoken languages other than [[Australian English|English]] were: 3.5% for [[Italian Language|Italian]], 2.3% for [[Greek Language|Greek]] and 1.2% for [[Vietnamese Language|Vietnamese]]. {{ref|adelabsstats}} ==Economy== Adelaide's economy is primarily based around manufacturing, defence technology and research, commodity export and corresponding service industries. It has large [[manufacturing]], [[Defense (military)|defence]] and [[research]] [[Zoning|zones]]. They contain car manufacturing plants for [[Holden|General Motors Holden]] and [[Mitsubishi Motors Corporation|Mitsubishi]], and plants for medical equipment and [[electronic component]] production. Almost half of all cars produced in Australia are made in Adelaide.{{ref|carmanufacture}} The global media conglomerate [[News Corporation]] was founded in and until 2004 incorporated in Adelaide and is still considered its 'spiritual' home by [[Rupert Murdoch]]. Australia's largest oil company, [[Santos Limited|Santos]] (South Australia Northern Territory Oil Search) and the prominent South Australian brewery, [[Coopers Brewery|Coopers]] calls Adelaide their home. The collapse of the [[State Bank of South Australia|State Bank]] in 1992 resulted in large levels of state [[Public debt|debt]] (as much as A$4 billion). The collapse had meant that successive governments had enacted lean budgets, cutting [[Public finance|spending]], which had been a setback to the further [[Economic development|development]] of the city and state. The debt has recently been reduced with the State Government once again receiving a AAA+ Credit Rating.{{ref|creditrating}} The South Australian economy (very closely tied to Adelaide's) still enjoys a trade surplus and has higher per capita growth than Australia as a whole. {{ref|growth}} [[Image:HMAS Rankin SSK-78.jpg|left|thumb|280px|The Adelaide-built [[Collins class submarine|Collins Class]] submarine HMAS Rankin]] Adelaide is home to a large proportion of Australia's defence industries which contribute over AUD$1 billion to South Australia's Gross State Product. 70% of Australian defence companies are located in Adelaide. The principal government military research institution, the [[Defence Science and Technology Organisation]], and other defence technology organisations such as [[Tenix Defence Systems|Tenix]] are located in [[Salisbury, South Australia|Salisbury]] near [[RAAF Base Edinburgh]] and others near [[Technology Park, Adelaide|Technology Park]]. The [[Australian Submarine Corporation]], based in the industrial suburb of [[Osborne, South Australia|Osborne]] was charged with constructing Australia's [[Collins class submarine|Collins Class]] [[Submarines]] and recently won a AUD$6 billion contract to construct the [[Royal Australian Navy|Royal Australian Navy's]] new air-warfare destroyers. {{ref|defencestate}} There are 466 829 employed people in Adelaide, with 62.3% employed full-time and 35.1% employed part-time. In recent years there has been a growing trend towards part-time (which includes casual) employment, increasing from only 11.6% of the workplace in 1991, to over a third today. 15% of workers are employed in manufacturing, 5% in construction, 15% in retail trade, 11% in business services, 7% in education and 12% in health and community services. The median weekly individual income for people aged 15 years and over is $300-$399 per week. The median family income is $800-$999 per week.{{ref|adelabsstats}} Adelaide's housing and living costs are substantially lower than that of other Australian cities, with housing being notably cheaper. The median Adelaide house price is half that of [[Sydney]] and two-thirds that of [[Melbourne]]. The unemployment rate (as of October 2005) was 4.8%. {{ref|livingcost}} ==Education== :''Main article: [[South Australia#Education|Education in South Australia]]'' [[Image:Art Gallery of South Australia.JPG|280px|right|thumb|Art Gallery of South Australia]] Adelaide is home to campuses of all three of South Australia's universities. The [[University of Adelaide]] is a member of the [[Group of Eight (Australian universities)|Group of Eight]] and was founded in 1874, making it the third oldest university in Australia. It has five campuses in the Adelaide area; one being its primary campus on [[North Terrace, Adelaide|North Terrace]] and another being the [[National Wine Centre of Australia|National Wine Centre]]. The [[University of South Australia]] was formed in 1991 from a merger between the South Australian Institute of Technology and the South Australian Colleges of Advanced Education. Four of its six campuses are located in Adelaide, with two in the CBD itself. [[Flinders University]], located in [[Bedford Park, South Australia|Bedford Park]] is named after British navigator and explorer [[Matthew Flinders]] and was founded in 1966. It is a mid-sized institution with a medical school at the adjacent [[Flinders Medical Centre]]. Leading US private university, [[Carnegie Mellon University|Carnegie Mellon]], is to establish two Adelaide campuses offering both Australian and US [[Academic degree|degrees]] in 2006. The Heinz School will specialise in [[Information technology|IT]] and government management and be based in [[Victoria Square, Adelaide|Victoria Square]], while another campus at [[Light Square, Adelaide|Light Square]] will specialise in new media and entertainment . These institutions attract students from across Australia and around the world, earning Adelaide’s international recognition as a [http://www.adelaide.sa.gov.au/council/publications/Brochures/IAEC_Adelaide_brochure_web.pdf &#8216;City of Education&#8217;]. School education in Adelaide is provided by a variety of public and private schools, which are the responsibility of the State Government. These schools operate under the [[South Australian Certificate of Education]] (SACE), with [[International Baccalaureate]]s (IB) offered at many as well. The [[Tertiary education|Tertiary Education]] system in Adelaide is extensive, with five out of eight centres of [[TAFE South Australia]] in the city itself, including the Douglas Mawson institute of Technology. They specialise in non-university higher education offering a viable alternative. ==Culture== [[Image:Adel Convention Centre.jpg|280px|right|thumb|Adelaide Convention Centre, situated next to the [[River Torrens]].]] [[Image:St Peters Cathedral.JPG|280px|right|thumb|St. Peters Cathedral, Adelaide]] Adelaide is sometimes referred to as the 'City of Churches', although this is a reflection more on Adelaide's past than its present. Rumour has it that for every church that was built in Adelaide, a [[public house|pub]] was also built to serve the less pious. From its earliest, Adelaide attracted [[immigrant|immigrants]] from many countries, particularly German migrants escaping religious persecution. They brought with them the [[vine]] cuttings that founded the acclaimed wineries of the [[Barossa Valley]]. After the [[World War II|Second World War]] Italians, Greeks, Dutch, Polish, and possibly every other European nationality came to make a new start. An influx of Asian immigrants following the Vietnam War added to the mix. These new arrivals have blended to form a rich and diverse cuisine and vibrant restaurant culture. Adelaide's [[The Arts|arts]] scene flourished in the 1970's under the leadership of premier [[Don Dunstan]], removing some of the more [[puritan|puritanical]] restrictions on cultural activities then prevalent around Australia. Now the city is home to events such as the Barossa Music Festival, the [[Adelaide Festival of Arts]], [[Adelaide Film Festival]], [[Adelaide Festival of Ideas]], [[Come Out]] youth arts festival, the [[Adelaide Fringe Festival|Fringe Festival]], among others. [[WOMADelaide]], Australia's premier [[world music]] event, is now annually held in the scenic surrounds of [[Adelaide Botanic Gardens|Botanic Park]], emphasising Adelaide's dedication to the arts which has prevailed since the days of Don Dunstan. The annual [[Royal Adelaide Show]], first held in 1840, began as a simple event for the state's farmers to show off their produce. Over time, it grew into a more general commercial [[fair]] held in early September in the inner suburb of [[Wayville, South Australia|Wayville]], with [[amusement ride|carnival ride]]s, food and entertainment surrounding the more traditional agricultural exhibitions and competitions. The [[music of Adelaide]] has produced various musicians who have achieved both national and worldwide fame. Notably the [[Adelaide Symphony Orchestra]], the [[Adelaide Youth Orchestra]], [[The Mark of Cain]], [[The Superjesus]], [[Testeagles]], [[Cold Chisel]] and [[Eric Bogle]]. American artist [[Ben Folds]] considers Adelaide his second home, epitomised in his song "Adelaide" and resides here with his Adelaide-born wife for a number of months each year. The first [[Australian Idol]] winner, [[Guy Sebastian]] hails from the Adelaide suburb of [[Golden Grove, South Australia|Golden Grove]] and the popular Australian hip-hop outfit [[Hilltop Hoods]] reside in [[O'Halloran Hill, South Australia|O'Halloran Hill]]. ===Media=== Newspapers in Adelaide are dominated by [[News Corp]] tabloid publications. The only South Australian daily newspaper is ''[[The Advertiser (Australia)|The Advertiser]]'', published by News six days per week, while the Sunday paper is the ''[[Sunday Mail (Adelaide)|Sunday Mail]]''. There are eleven suburban community newspapers published weekly, known collectively as the ''[[Messenger Newspapers]]'', also published by a subsidiary of News Corp. A recent addition to the print medium in the city is "[[The Independent Weekly]]", providing one alternative view. Two national daily newspapers are circulated in the city - ''[[The Australian]]'' (Monday&ndash;Friday) and its weekend publication, ''The Weekend Australian'' (Saturday), also published by News Corp., and ''[[The Australian Financial Review]]'' published by [[John Fairfax Holdings|Fairfax]]. ''[[The Adelaide Review]]'' is a free paper published fortnightly and other independent magazine-style papers are published, but are not as widely available. All of the five Australian national networks broadcast both [[Analog television|analogue]] [[PAL]] and [[widescreen]] [[Digital television|digital]] services in Adelaide. They share three transmission towers on the ridge near the summit of [[Mount Lofty]]. The two government-funded stations are ''[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]]'' and ''[[Special Broadcasting Service|SBS]]''. The ''[[Seven Network]]'' and ''[[Network Ten]]'' both own their Adelaide stations ([[SAS-7]] and [[ADS-10]] respectively). Adelaide's [[NWS-9]] is affiliated with the ''[[Nine Network]]'' but is actually owned by [[Southern Cross Broadcasting]]. Adelaide also has a [[community television]] station, [[Channel 31]]. The [[Foxtel]] [[pay TV]] service is available as [[cable television]] in a few areas, as is [[satellite television]] to the entire metropolitan area. It is resold by a number of other brands, mostly telephone companies. ===Sport=== [[Image:Clipsal 500.jpg|280px|right|thumb|The annual Adelaide [[Clipsal 500]] race.]] Adelaide hosted the [[Formula 1]] [[Australian Grand Prix]] from 1985 to 1995 on a [[Adelaide Street Circuit|street circuit]] in the city's eastern parklands. The Grand Prix became a source of pride and losing the Grand Prix to Melbourne in a surprise announcement left a void that has since been filled with the highly successful [[Adelaide 500|Clipsal 500]] [[V8 Supercar]] race event, held on a modified version of the same street circuit. Adelaide is the home of two [[Australian Football League]] teams: the [[Adelaide Crows]] and the [[Port Adelaide Football Club|Port Adelaide Football Club]]. A local [[Australian Rules Football]] league, the [[South Australian National Football League|SANFL]], is made up of nine teams from around Adelaide. Adelaide's professional [[football (soccer)|soccer]] team [[Adelaide United]] play in the [[A-League]], at [[Hindmarsh Stadium]], one of the few purpose built football stadiums in Australia. The [[Adelaide 36ers]] and the [[Adelaide_Fellas | Adelaide Fellas]] play in national basketball competitions, with home games at the Distinctive Homes Dome and the [[Adelaide Thunderbirds]] play in the national netball competition, with home games at [[ETSA Park]]. Most large sporting events take place at either [[AAMI Stadium]] (formerly Football Park) or the historic [[Adelaide Oval]], home of the [[Southern Redbacks]] Cricket Team. Adelaide hosts an international cricket test every summer, along with a number of [[one day international]] cricket matches. Adelaide has hosted the annual [[Tour Down Under]] bicycle race since 1999, an event which has gradually built an international reputation with each successive year it has been held. It is also host to the popular [[Bay to Birdwood]] run, featuring vintage and veteran cars from around the world. ==Infrastructure== ===Health=== Adelaide's first hospital was the [[Royal Adelaide Hospital]] (RAH), founded in [[1840]], it is one of the major hospitals in Adelaide and is a [[teaching hospital]] of the [[University of Adelaide]]. It has a capacity of 500 beds. Two other RAH campuses specialising in specific patient services located in the suburbs of Adelaide - the Hampstead Rehabilitation Centre in [[Northfield, South Australia|Northfield]], and the [[Glenside, South Australia|Glenside]] Campus Mental Health Service. The other two largest hospitals in the Adelaide area are the [[Women's and Children's Hospital, Adelaide|The Women's and Children's Hospital]] (305 beds), which is located on King William Road in [[North Adelaide]] and the Flinders Medical Centre (500 beds), which is located in [[Bedford Park, South Australia|Bedford Park]], [[South Australia]]. These hospitals are also associated with medical schools - the Women and Children's with the [[University of South Australia]]'s Adelaide Campus and the Flinders Medical Centre with [[Flinders University]]. ===Transport=== {{Main|Transport in Adelaide}} [[Image:Mountosmondinterechange_sefreeway.JPG|right|280px|thumb|The [[Mount Osmond, South Australia|Mount Osmond]] Interchange on the [[South Eastern Freeway]].]] Being centrally located on the Australian mainland, Adelaide forms something of a strategic transport hub for east-west and north-south routes. The city itself has a limited [[public transport]] system, which is managed by and known as the [[Adelaide Metro]]. The Adelaide Metro consists of a contracted bus system including the [[Adelaide O-Bahn]] (a [[guided busway]]), metropolitan railways, and the historic Adelaide-[[Glenelg Tram]]. Road transport in Adelaide has historically been comparatively easier than many of the other Australian cities, with a well-defined city layout and wide multiple-lane roads from the beginning of its development. Historically, Adelaide was known as a "twenty-minute city", with commuters having being able to travel from metropolitan outskirts to the city proper in roughly twenty minutes. However, these roads are now inadequate to cope with Adelaide's growing road traffic. {{ref|20mincity}} The [[Adelaide International Airport]], located at [[West Beach, South Australia|West Beach]], is Australia's newest and most advanced airport terminal and is designed to serve in excess of 5.4 million passengers annually. The new dual international/domestic terminal was to replace the old and ageing terminals known locally as the 'tin sheds', and incorporates new state-of-the-art features, such as glass aerobridges and the ability to cater for the new Airbus A380. The airport is designed to handle 27 aircraft simultaneously and it is capable of processing 3,000 passengers per hour. ===Utilities=== Adelaide has three major energy companies, which provide gas and electricity to the population. ETSA Utilities is the former government-owned company (sold off by the [[John Olsen|Olsen]] Government in the 1990s) and the major player in the Adelaide electicity market. There are other smaller providers, [[AGL]], [[Energy Australia]] and [[Origin Energy]] who provide services in electricity and natural gas. There has been substantial criticism in recent years of the suburban electricity network due to its inability to cope with high-usage periods. Adelaide derives its electricity from a coal-fired plant at [[Torrens Island, South Australia|Torrens Island]] and connections to the national grid. Adelaide's water supply is gained from its reservoirs: [[Mount Bold Reservoir|Mount Bold]], [[Happy Valley Reservoir|Happy Valley]], Myponga, Millbrook, Hope Valley, Little Para and South Para. Further water demands result in the pumping of water from the [[River Murray]]. The provider of water services is by the government-owned [[SA Water]]. ==Notes and References== <div style="font-size: 90%"> # {{note|cathuni}} ''Adelaide Council Naming Practices, courtesy Catholic University'' [http://online.cesanet.adl.catholic.edu.au/docushare/dsweb/GetRendition/Document-2903/html] # {{note|placenames}} ''South Australian Place Names. courtesy Government of South Australia'' [http://www.placenames.sa.gov.au/pno/pnores.phtml?recno=SA0076000] #{{note|ringroute}} ''Adelaide's Inner and Outer Ring Routes, courtesy South Australian Department of Transport'' [http://www.transport.sa.gov.au/transport_network/projects/better_roads/adelaides_inner_outer_ring_routes.asp] #{{note|ozroads}} ''Adelaide's Freeways - A History from MATS to the Port River Expressway, courtesy Ozroads'' [http://www.ozroads.com.au/SA/freeways.htm] #{{note|capcity}} ''Capital City Committee'' [http://www.capcity.adelaide.sa.gov.au/] #{{note|adelabsstats}} ''Adelaide (Statistical Division), courtesy Australian Bureau of Statistics'' [http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@census.nsf/ddc9b4f92657325cca256c3e000bdbaf/6663e40d8994aa22ca256bbf000144a3!OpenDocument] #{{note|carmanufacture}} ''South Australia Fact Sheet: Automotive, courtesy Business South Australia'' [http://www.southaustralia.biz/fact_sheets/fact_automotive.biz.pdf] ''(.pdf)'' #{{note|creditrating}} ''South Australia's Credit Rating the Highest, courtesy Business South Australia'' [http://www.southaustralia.biz/news/sa_creditrating.htm] #{{note|growth}} ''South Australia's Economic Performance Update, courtesy Business South Australia'' [http://www.southaustralia.biz/PDFs/economic_performance_update_dec05.pdf] ''(.pdf)'' #{{note|defencestate}} ''South Australia: The Defence Industry Choice, courtesy Defence SA'' [http://www.defence-sa.com/] #{{note|livingcost}} ''Adelaide Cost of Living, courtesy Business South Australia'' [http://factsheet.southaustralia.biz/public/content/default.asp?xcid=52] #{{note|20mincity}} ''Metro Malcontent - The Twenty Minute City No More, courtesy RAA'' [http://www.raa.net/download.asp?file=documents\document_677.pdf] ''(.pdf)'' </div> ==Sister cities== Adelaide has several [[sister city|sister cities]]. They are: {| | valign="top" | *{{flagicon|USA}} - [[Austin, Texas]], [[United States]] - [[1983]] *{{flagicon|New Zealand}} - [[Christchurch]], [[New Zealand]] - [[1972]] | valign="top" | *{{flagicon|Malaysia}} - [[George Town, Penang|George Town]], [[Penang]]/[[Malaysia]] - [[1973]] *{{flagicon|Japan}} - [[Himeji]], [[Japan]] - [[1982]] |} ==See also== *[[Tallest Buildings in Adelaide]] *[[People of Adelaide]] *[[List of Adelaide railway stations]] *[[List of Adelaide suburbs]] *[[List of churches in Adelaide]] *[[List of sports clubs in Adelaide]] ==Further reading== *Kathryn Gargett; Susan Marsden, ''Adelaide: A Brief History''. Adelaide: State History Centre, History Trust of South Australia in association with Adelaide City Council, 1952. ISBN 0730801160 *Derek Whitelock et al, ''Adelaide : a sense of difference''. Melbourne: Arcadia, 2000. ISBN 0875606571 ==External links== {{commonscat|Adelaide}} {{sisterlinks|Adelaide}} {{Mapit-AUS-suburbscale|long=138.601|lat=-34.929}} *{{wikitravel}} *[http://www.adelaidecitycouncil.com/ City of Adelaide] *[http://www.sacentral.sa.gov.au/ SA Central] **[http://www.sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm?u=57&area=2&path=4873,4913,4917&listMode=listLinks City highlights] **[http://www.sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm?u=57&area=2&path=4873,4913,4915&listMode=listLinks Metropolitan highlights] *[http://www.sensational-adelaide.com Sensational Adelaide] <br clear="all"> {{AustralianCapitalCities}} [[Category:Adelaide| ]] [[Category:Australian capital cities]] [[Category:Cities in South Australia]] [[Category:Coastal cities in Australia]] [[bg:Аделаида]] [[da:Adelaide (Australien)]] [[de:Adelaide]] [[eo:Adelajdo]] [[es:Adelaida]] [[fa:آدلاید]] [[fi:Adelaide]] [[fr:Adélaïde (Australie)]] [[gl:Adelaida - Adelaide]] [[he:אדלייד]] [[hu:Adelaida]] [[id:Adelaide]] [[is:Adelaide]] [[it:Adelaide (Australia)]] [[ja:アデレード]] [[nl:Adelaide]] [[pl:Adelajda]] [[pt:Adelaide]] [[ru:Аделаида]] [[simple:Adelaide]] [[sv:Adelaide]] [[uk:Аделаїда]] [[vi:Adelaide]] 1149 15899651 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Australian Football League]] 1150 41819899 2006-03-01T23:24:14Z Schmiteye 523205 /* Present */ fix redirect {| class="infobox" style="width: 25em; font-size: 95%;" |+ style="font-size: larger;" | '''Australian Football League''' |- | align="center" colspan="2" | [[Image:Australian Football League.svg|200px]] |- ! colspan="2" bgcolor="#b0c4de" | '''General Information''' |- style="vertical-align: top;" | '''Founded''' | [[1989]], [[Melbourne, Australia|Melbourne]] |- | '''Previous Names''' | [[VFL/AFL|Victorian Football League]] or [[VFL/AFL|VFL]] (1897-1988) |- | '''Current Clubs''' | [[Adelaide Crows|Adelaide]]<br>[[Brisbane Lions]]<br>[[Carlton Football Club|Carlton]]<br>[[Collingwood Football Club|Collingwood]]<br>[[Essendon Football Club|Essendon]]<br>[[Fremantle Football Club|Fremantle]]<br>[[Geelong Football Club|Geelong]]<br>[[Hawthorn Football Club|Hawthorn]]<br>[[Kangaroos Football Club|Kangaroos]]<br>[[Melbourne Football Club|Melbourne]]<br>[[Port Adelaide Football Club|Port Adelaide]]<br>[[Richmond Football Club|Richmond]]<br>[[St Kilda Football Club|St Kilda]]<br>[[Sydney Swans|Sydney]]<br>[[West Coast Eagles|West Coast]]<br>[[Western Bulldogs]] |- style="vertical-align: top;" | '''Defunct Clubs''' | [[Fitzroy Football Club|Fitzroy]]<br> [[Melbourne University Football Club|University]]<br> |- | '''Stadiums''' | [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]]<br>[[Telstra Stadium]]<br>[[Telstra Dome]] <br>[[AAMI Stadium]]<br>[[Sydney Cricket Ground]]<br>[[Subiaco Oval]]<br>[[Brisbane Cricket Ground|The Gabba]]<br>[[Skilled Stadium]]<br>[[Aurora Stadium]]<br>[[Manuka Oval]]<br>[[Marrara Oval]]<br>[[Carrara Stadium]] |- ! colspan="2" bgcolor="#b0c4de" | '''2005 Season''' |- style="vertical-align: top;" | '''Premiers''' | '''[[Sydney Swans|Sydney]]''' 8.10 (58) defeated [[West Coast Eagles|West Coast]] 7.12 (54) |- | '''Minor Premiers''' | [[Adelaide Crows|Adelaide]] |- | '''Wooden Spoon''' | [[Carlton Blues|Carlton]] |- | '''NAB Cup/Wizard Cup Premiers''' | [[Carlton Blues|Carlton]] |- | '''Brownlow Medalist''' | [[Ben Cousins]] |- | '''Coleman Medalist''' | [[Fraser Gehrig]] |- | '''Total Attendance''' | 6,283,788 |- | '''Average Match Attendance''' | 35,703 |- |- style="vertical-align: top;" |} ''This is a page about the national league in Australian Rules Football. For information about the rules and history of the game see the [[Australian Rules Football]] page.'' The '''Australian Football League''' is the national competition in [[Australian Rules Football]]. It was formed through the expansion of the [[Victorian Football League]], during the 1980s and 1990s. In 2005 it had a total regular season attendance of 6,283,788, and the average attendance of 35,703 was the [[sports league attendances|third highest]] of any professional sports league in the world. ==Administration== ===AFL=== *'''CEO''': [[Andrew Demetriou]] *'''General Manager- Broadcasting, Strategy & Major Projects''': [[Ben Buckley]] *'''General Manager- Football Operations''': [[Adrian Anderson]] ===[[AFL Players' Association]]=== *'''President''': [[Peter F. Bell|Peter Bell]] *'''Vice President''': [[Nathan Buckley]] *'''CEO''': [[Brendon Gale]] ===AFL Tribunal=== ====AFL Tribunal==== *'''Chairman''': David Jones (replacing [[Brian Collins]]) *'''Members''':<br>John Hassett<br>Will Houghton QC<br>Andrew Tinney<br>Emmett Dunne<br>[[Michael Sexton]]<br>[[Wayne Schimmelbusch]]<br>Richard Loveridge ====AFL Appeals Board==== *'''Chairman''': [[Peter O'Callaghan]] *'''Members''':<br>[[Brian Collis]] QC<br>Brian Bourke<br>[[John Schultz]]<br>[[Michael Gree]] ====AFL Grievance Tribunal==== *'''Chairman''': Jack Rush QC *'''Members''':<br>Kevin Power<br>Michael Moncrieff<br>Darren Baxter<br>James Dowsley<br>Roger Berryman ====AFL Match Review Panel==== *'''Chairman''': [[Peter Schwab]] *'''Members''':<br>[[Peter Carey]]<br>[[Andrew McKay]] ===Season/Tournaments=== ====Toyota AFL Premiership Season==== The ''Toyota AFL Premiership Season'' lasts for 22 rounds and begins in late March, contested between 16 teams from around Australia. At the end of the 22 rounds, the top eight teams compete in the ''[[Toyota AFL Finals Series]]'', in which teams compete in a Qualifying Final or Elimination Final, depending on the teams ladder position. At this stage, only six teams remain, and the bottom four teams play in a Semi Final, in which two teams are eliminated. The remaining four teams play in one of two Preliminary Finals, and the last two teams standing play in the Grand Final. The winners of the Grand Final become the premiers of that year. The Grand Final is always held at the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]],even if two non-[[Victoria (Australia)|Victorian]] teams are playing.The only recent exception was [[Waverley Park]] in 1991 while the MCG was undergoing redevelopment. ====NAB Cup==== Before the premiership season commences, a knock-out Cup competition is played. It has had several incarnations as the Escort Cup, the Fosters Cup, the [[Ansett Australia]] Cup, the [[Wizard Cup]], and as of the 2006 season it will be known as the [[NAB Cup]]. ===AFL Strongholds=== Australian Rules Football is the dominant football code in every state and territory in Australia, except [[New South Wales]] and [[Queensland]], where [[Rugby League]] dominates, and in [[Australian Capital Territory|A.C.T.]], where [[Rugby Union]] dominates. In [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[South Australia]], [[Western Australia]], and [[Tasmania]] massive crowds attend many of the games and AFL is the dominant sport on television, print and radio news. ==Clubs== (for more information go to [[List of Australian Rules Football Clubs]]) ===Present=== {| class="wikitable" |- bgcolor=#efefef ! Club ! Logo ! City ! Home Ground* |- | [[Adelaide Crows]] | [[Image:Adelaide Crows logo.png|80px]] | [[Adelaide]], [[South Australia]] | [[AAMI Stadium]] |- | [[Brisbane Lions]] | [[Image:Brisbane Lions logo.gif|80px]] | [[Brisbane]], [[Queensland]] (merger of [[Brisbane Bears]] and defunct [[Fitzroy Football Club]] in 1996) | [[Brisbane Cricket Ground]] (The 'Gabba) |- | [[Carlton Football Club|Carlton FC]] | [[Image:Carltonfc.png|80px]] | [[Carlton, Victoria|Carlton]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Telstra Dome]]<br>[[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] |- | [[Collingwood Football Club|Collingwood FC]] | [[Image:Collingwood Football Club logo.gif|80px]] | [[Collingwood, Victoria|Collingwood]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]],[[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] |- | [[Essendon Football Club|Essendon FC]] | [[Image:Essendonfc logo small.png|80px]] | [[Essendon, Victoria|Essendon]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Telstra Dome]] |- | [[Fremantle Football Club|Fremantle FC]] | [[Image:Fremantle Dockers logo.gif|80px]] | [[Fremantle, Western Australia|Fremantle]], [[Western Australia]] | [[Subiaco Oval]] |- | [[Geelong Football Club|Geelong FC]] | [[Image:Geelong Football Club.png|80px]] | [[Geelong, Victoria|Geelong]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Skilled Stadium]] |- | [[Hawthorn Football Club|Hawthorn FC]] | [[Image:Hawthorn Football Club logo.jpg|80px]] | [[Hawthorn, Victoria|Hawthorn]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]]<br>[[Aurora Stadium]] |- | [[Kangaroos Football Club|Kangaroos FC]] | [[Image:Kangaroos FC.svg|80px]] | [[North Melbourne, Victoria|North Melbourne]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Telstra Dome]]<br>[[Melbourne Cricket Ground]]<br>[[Manuka Oval]] |- | [[Melbourne Football Club|Melbourne FC]] | [[Image:Melbourne_Football_Club.png|80px]] | [[Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] |- | [[Port Adelaide Football Club|Port Adelaide FC]] | [[Image:Port Adelaide Power logo.png|80px]] | [[Port Adelaide]], [[Adelaide]], [[South Australia]] || [[AAMI Stadium]] |- | [[Richmond Football Club|Richmond FC]] | [[Image:Richmond_afl_logo.png|80px]] | [[Richmond, Victoria|Richmond]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] |- | [[St_Kilda Football Club|St. Kilda FC]] | [[Image:Saint_Kilda_Football_Club_logo.png|80px]] | [[St Kilda, Victoria|St Kilda]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Telstra Dome]]<br>[[Aurora Stadium]] |- | [[Sydney Swans]] | [[Image:SydneySwansLogo.png|80px]] | [[Sydney]], [[New South Wales]] (relocated from [[South Melbourne, Victoria|South Melbourne]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] in 1982) | [[Sydney Cricket Ground]]<br>[[Telstra Stadium]] |- | [[West Coast Eagles FC]] | [[Image:West Coast Eagles.svg|80px]] | [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], [[Western Australia]] | [[Subiaco Oval]] |- | [[Western Bulldogs]] | [[Image:WesternBulldogsLogo.png|80px]] | [[Footscray, Victoria|Footscray]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Telstra Dome]]<br>[[Marrara Oval]] |} ''(Note: Many clubs play several "home" matches at alternate grounds.)'' ===Former Teams=== {| class="wikitable" |- bgcolor=#efefef ! Club ! Logo ! Home City ! Last Home Ground ! Reason |- |- | [[Fitzroy Football Club|Fitzroy FC]] | [[Image:Fitzroy_logo.gif|80px]] | [[Fitzroy, Victoria|Fitzroy]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Whitten Oval]] | merged with the [[Brisbane Bears]] to become the [[Brisbane Lions]] in [[1996]] |- |- |- | [[South Melbourne Football Club]] | [[Image:Smfc.gif|80px]] | [[Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Lake Oval]] | relocated to Sydney in [[1982]] and changed trading name to the Sydney Swans |- | [[University Football Club|University FC]] | | [[Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] | [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] | folded [[1915]], merged with [[Melbourne FC]] |} ==[[VFL/AFL]] Records== * '''Highest score'''<br>Geelong- 37.17 (239)<br>[[Carrara Oval]], [[May 3]], [[1992]]. * '''Highest winning margin'''<br>Fitzroy- 190 points<br>[[Waverley Park]], [[July 28]], [[1979]]. * '''Largest crowd'''<br>Carlton v Collingwood - 121,696 <br>[[Melbourne Cricket Ground|MCG]], [[September 26]], [[1970]] (Grand Final) * '''Largest Home & Away crowd'''<br>Melbourne v Collingwood - 99,346 <br>[[Melbourne Cricket Ground|MCG]], [[1958]] * '''Largest Non-Victorian crowd'''<br>Sydney v West Coast Eagles - 91,898 <br>[[Melbourne Cricket Ground|MCG]], [[September 24]], [[2005]] * '''Largest International crowd'''<br>Melbourne v Sydney- 32,789<br>[[B.C. Place]], [[Vancouver]], [[Canada]], [[1987]] * '''Most premierships'''<br> Carlton/Essendon 16 * '''Most wooden spoons'''<br> St Kilda 26, most recent 2000 * '''Most consecutive premierships'''<br>Collingwood- 4<br>[[1927]]-[[1930]] * '''Most games won in a season'''<br>Essendon- 24<br>[[2000]] * '''Most consecutive wins'''<br>Geelong- 23<br>[[1952]]-[[1953]] * '''Most games played in a career'''<br>[[Michael Tuck]] (Hawthorn)- 426 games * '''Most goals in a career'''<br>[[Tony Lockett]] (St Kilda/Sydney)- 1,360 goals * '''Most goals in a game'''<br>[[Fred Fanning]] (Melbourne)- 18 goals * '''Most consecutive matches'''<br>[[Jim Stynes]] (Melbourne)- 244 * '''Most consecutive matches from debut'''<br>[[Jared Crouch]] (Sydney)- 182 * '''Tallest player'''<br>[[Aaron Sandilands]] (Fremantle)- 211cm * '''Shortest player'''<br>[[Danny Craven]] (St Kilda/Brisbane)- 162cm * '''Heaviest player'''<br>[[Aaron Sandilands]] (Fremantle)- 124kg * '''Longest kick'''<br>[[Albert Thurgood]] (Essendon)- 98.48m (109 yards, 1 foot, 3.2 inches) ==Team Rivalries== Games in which teams with rivalries typically draw large crowds and interest regardless of both teams positions on the ladder. Collingwood is a famous club in the league because it is a rival of almost all other traditional clubs and also known as the 'team people love to hate'. ===Traditional Rivals=== * [[Carlton Football Club | Carlton]] v [[Collingwood Football Club | Collingwood]]<br>Arguably the greatest and longest standing rivalry in the competition. Two working class clubs in close proximity, fuelled by the 1970 Grand Final in which Carlton extinguished hopes of Collingwood breaking a premiership drought. Games between these two clubs regularly attract large crowds regardless of whether they are both at the bottom of the ladder. * [[Richmond Football Club | Richmond]] v [[Collingwood Football Club | Collingwood]] <br>Arising from the fact that the two areas neighbour each other,and that Richmond supporters often mocked Collingwood suppoters whom they thought were "feral". also Richmond and Collingwood were both highly successful in the late 1920's to the early 1930's, meeting each other in several grand finals . * [[Melbourne Football Club | Melbourne]] v [[Collingwood Football Club | Collingwood]] <br>As per Richmond vs Collingwood but additionally fuelled by a narrow loss to Collingwood which stopped Melbourne from winning a fourth flag in a row in 1958. And the fact that Melbourne played half their premierships against them. * [[Essendon Football Club | Essendon]] v [[Collingwood Football Club | Collingwood]]<br>Arising from the inaugural [[ANZAC Day]] clash and Essendon's loss to Collingwood in the 1990 Grand Final. Games between these sides draw large crowds. * [[Essendon Football Club | Essendon]] v [[Carlton Football Club | Carlton]] <br>As is the case with two successful sides in any competition, fans of each club love to defeat the other. === Local Derbies=== * [[Adelaide Football Club | Adelaide]] v [[Port Adelaide Football Club | Port Adelaide]] <br>Known as The Showdown * [[West Coast Eagles | West Coast]] v [[Fremantle Football Club | Fremantle]] <br>Known as The [[Western Derby]] ===More Recent Rivals=== * [[Brisbane Lions|Brisbane]] v [[Sydney Swans | Sydney]] <br>Two frontier states for the AFL, the AFL uses the [[Rugby League]] [[State of Origin]] rivalry between [[Queensland]] and [[New South Wales]] to draw crowds to games between these teams. * [[Melbourne Football Club|Melbourne]] v [[Geelong Football Club | Geelong]] <br> The first 2 clubs in the league. Melbourne CEO [[Steve Harris]] once made comments about how Melbourne people never like to travel to Geelong, with this rivalry being manufactured by the AFL in the recent [[AFL Rivalry Round]] concept. * [[Essendon Football Club|Essendon]] v [[Hawthorn Football Club | Hawthorn]] <br> The clubs contested the Grand Final on several occasions in the 1980s. * [[Brisbane Lions|Brisbane]] v [[Essendon Football Club|Essendon]] <br> The two sides who clashed in the 2001 Grand Final, has since developed into a great rivalry thanks to respective coaches Leigh Matthews (Brisbane) and Kevin Sheedy (Essendon), with several famous clashes already. * [[Brisbane Lions|Brisbane]] v [[Collingwood Football Club|Collingwood]] <br> The Brisbane Lions defeated Collingwood in the 2002 and 2003 Grand Final, which caused Grand Final Rematches and great rivalry between the two teams. This continued onwards with many Lions fans disliking Collingwood, and their President [[Eddie McGuire]]. * [[Brisbane Lions|Brisbane]] v [[Port Adelaide Power|Port Adelaide]] <br> The two sides who dominated the AFL from 2001-2004, they had identical winning percentages over the four years. The Lions won three consecutive titles (2001-2003), while Port developed a reputation as chokers in big matches until they won the 2004 title, defeating Brisbane in that decieder. Matches between the two are always hard fought encounters. The two sides have also drawn on two occasions, in 1997 and 1998. * [[West Coast Eagles|West Coast]] v [[Essendon Football Club|Essendon]] <br> The rivalry started when Essendon coach Kevin Sheedy celebrated a victory by running down from the coaches box to the ground waving his jacket around his head. Now the fans of the victorious team in these clashes celebrate the victory by waving their jackets. * [[St Kilda Football Club|St Kilda]] v [[Geelong Football Club|Geelong]] <br>Currently Victoria's two best teams. Both have reasonably young teams making their mark in AFL. ===Past Rivals=== * [[St Kilda Football Club|St Kilda]] v [[South Melbourne Football Club|South Melbourne]] <br>These clubs shared the same geographical area until the Swans moved to Sydney. These teams played for the 'Lake Trophy'. * [[Collingwood Football Club|Collingwood]] v [[Fitzroy Football Club | Fitzroy]] <br>As with St Kilda and South Melbourne, these clubs shared the same geographical area until Fitzroy folded (and was absorbed by Brisbane) and began a new rivalry with Collingwood from successive Grand Final encounters. ===Rivalries which remain "untapped"=== * [[Richmond Football Club | Richmond]] v [[Fremantle Dockers | Fremantle]] <br>Richmond was Fremantle's first opponent in 1995, and later in the season became the first team to play the Dockers twice. Comedian [[Trevor Marmalade]] joked at the time that this made the two teams "traditional rivals". Interestingly, many matches between the two teams have been close contests, but neither side seems to consider the other a closely-matched rival. ==Future== Several areas have been discussed as expansion possibilities, most often [[Tasmania]], western [[Sydney]], North [[Queensland]], the [[Gold Coast, Queensland|Gold Coast]], [[Canberra]], [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]] and even [[New Zealand]] or [[South Africa]], but the AFL have an aim to keep the competition to 16 teams. It is generally thought that if the AFL expands into a new area, one of the less financially well-off Victorian clubs will re-locate, rather than an entirely new club being formed. The Western Bulldogs and Kangaroos are most often considered candidates for re-location, and some theorise that their respective name changes in the 1990s were in anticipation of such a move. Having experimented with home games in Western [[Sydney]], the Kangaroos play regular premiership season games at [[Manuka Oval]] in Canberra, and the Bulldogs have played in [[Cairns, Queensland|Cairns]] and [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]], leading to more speculation that they are attempting to build a supporter base in those areas for future re-location. Mergers have also been an option for the AFL, as was seen with the Brisbane Bears and the defunct Fitzroy Lions in 1996. If two Victorian teams merge, then it makes room for a 16th team to come from an interstate city - the likely candidates for this are the [[Southport Sharks]] or a Tasmanian team based in [[Hobart]] or [[Launceston]]. However, that since the 1996 [[Melbourne Hawks]] merger attempt, the AFL has been less willing to actively persue the amalgamation of two Victorian-based clubs as an option. ==Hall of Fame== For the centenary of the VFL/AFL in 1996, the [[Australian Football Hall of Fame]] was formed. Its members not only consist of those who have contributed to the VFL/AFL, but from Australian football in general (in such leagues as the [[SANFL]] and [[West Australian Football League|WAFL]]). That year 136 Australian Rules identities were inducted, including 100 players, 10 coaches, 10 umpires, 10 administrators and 6 media representatives. ===Legends of the Game=== In 1996, thirteen Hall of Fame members were declared ''Legends of the Game''. Now, each year another member of the Hall of Fame is declared a legend. The following is a list of ''Legends of the Game''. *[[Ron Barassi|Ron Barassi Junior]] ''(added 1996)'' *[[Haydn Bunton Senior]]''(added 1996)'' *[[Roy Cazaly]] ''(added 1996)'' *[[John Coleman]] ''(added 1996)'' *[[Gordon Coventry]] ''(added 1996)'' *[[Jack Dyer]] ''(added 1996)'' *[[Graham Farmer]] ''(added 1996)'' *[[Leigh Matthews]] ''(added 1996)'' *[[John Nicholls]] ''(added 1996)'' *[[Bob Pratt]] ''(added 1996)'' *[[Dick Reynolds]] ''(added 1996)'' *[[Bob Skilton]] ''(added 1996)'' *[[E.J. 'Ted' Whitten|Ted Whitten Senior]] ''(added 1996)'' *[[Ian Stewart (Australian footballer)|Ian Stewart]] ''(added 1997)'' *[[Gordon Coventry]] ''(added 1998)'' *[[Peter Hudson]] ''(added 1999)'' *[[Kevin Bartlett]] ''(added 2000)'' *[[Barry Robran]] ''(added 2001)'' *[[Bill Hutchison]] ''(added 2003)'' *[[Jock McHale]] ''(added 2005)'' ==Team of the Century== To celebrate the 100th season of the AFL, the "AFL Team of the Century" was named in 1996. {{Aussie rules team | title = AFL Team of the Century | backpocket1 = [[Bernie Smith]] (Geelong) | fullback = [[Stephen Silvagni]] (Carlton) | backpocket2 = [[John Nicholls]] (Carlton) | halfbackflank1 = [[Bruce Doull]] (Carlton) | centrehalfback = [[Ted Whitten]] (Footscray) | halfbackflank2 = [[Kevin Murray]] (Fitzroy) | wing1 = [[Keith Greig]] (North Melbourne) | centre = [[Ian Stewart (Australian footballer)|Ian Stewart]] (St Kilda, Richmond) | wing2 = [[Francis Bourke]] (Richmond) | halfforwardflank1 = [[Alex Jesaulenko]] (Carlton, St Kilda) | centrehalfforward = [[Royce Hart]] (Richmond) | halfforwardflank2 = [[Dick Reynolds]] (Essendon) | forwardpocket1 = [[Leigh Matthews]] (Hawthorn) | fullforward = [[John Coleman]] (Essendon) | forwardpocket2 = [[Haydn Bunton Senior]] (Fitzroy) | ruck = [[Graham Farmer]] (Geelong) | ruckrover = [[Ron Barassi]] (Melbourne, Carlton) | rover = [[Bob Skilton]] (South Melbourne) | interchange1 = [[Gary Ablett]] (Hawthorn, Geelong) | interchange2 = [[Jack Dyer]] (Richmond) | interchange3 = [[Greg Williams]] (Geelong, Sydney, Carlton) | interchange4 = | interchange5 = | interchange6 = | coach = [[Norm Smith]] }} [[Jim Elder]] was declared the ''Umpire of the Century'' was to coincide with the Team of the Century. Since the naming of this side, all AFL clubs have nominated their own teams of the century. An [[Indigenous Team of the Century]] was also selected in 2005, featuring the best Aboriginal players of the previous 100 years. ==Corporate Relations== ===Membership=== The AFL sells membership that entitle subscribers to reserve seats for matches at the [[Telstra Dome]] and [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] in Melbourne and priority access to finals. AFL Members can nominate a club to get priority Grand Final tickets. ===Broadcasting=== ====Television==== The official television broadcast partners of the AFL are: [[Nine Network]], [[Network Ten]], and [[Foxtel]] ([[Fox Footy Channel]]). As of [[2007]] the official Free to Air television brodcast partners will be: the [[Seven Network]] and [[Network Ten]]. The Pay TV partner, if any, is yet to be confirmed. Before [[2001]], the [[Seven Network]] had broadcast the AFL for 45 years. The only year they didn't hold the rights was 1987, when the rights were bought by Sportsplay, a satellite channel, who then onsold the rights to the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]. In 1997, the Seven Network's main rivals created a consortium to snatch the rights from the network. Seven, however, did purchase a guaranteed last rights bid which in the future proved to be handy for the network. In January 2006, shortly after the death of media magnate [[Kerry Packer]], a Seven/Ten alliance used Seven's last rights bid to match Nine's offer of $AUD 780 million for broadcast rights in what was the biggest sport broadcasting deal in Australian history. =====International Broadcasting===== *[[ABC Asia Pacific]] currently broadcasts the full AFL Premiership season to more than 39 countries. *AFL is broadcast in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], but not free-to-air. In the 1980s, [[ESPN]] played a highlights package called ''Fosters Australian Rules''. The [[AFANA]] is an organisation aimed at increasing coverage in North America. Currently, [[Fox Soccer Channel]] (in the USA) and [[Fox Sports World Canada]] show a game of the week and a weekly one-hour recap show. The AFL Grand Final is broadcast live. The recap show also airs on various regional affiliates of [[Fox Sports Net]]. *Although Australian rules is not shown in [[Ireland]], [[Setanta]] airs [[International Rules]] matches. ====Radio==== The official radio broacast partners of the AFL are [[Triple M]], [[3AW]], [[ABC Local Radio]], [[DMG Radio Australia|FiveAA]], [[Southern Cross Broadcasting|6PR]], [[K-Rock]], and the [[National Indigenous Radio Service]]. ====Publishing and Print==== The official print broadcast partner of the AFL is [[News Limited]]. The [[AFL Record]] is a print publication that is read by around 225,000 people each week [http://www.aflpublishing.com.au/]. ====Internet==== The official internet/3G broadcast partner of the AFL is [[Bigpond]]. The AFL also provides exclusive broadband content including streaming video for international fans via its website. ===Merchandising=== The AFL run a chain of stores that sell various merchandise from all teams, and the merchandise is also available from other retailers. ====Hall of Fame and Sensation==== A modern museum called the Hall of Fame and Sensation opened in Melbourne in 2003 to celebrate the culture of the AFL and the [[Australian Football Hall of Fame]]. The museum, a licenced spin-off of the AFL was originally touted for the MCG, the Hall of Fame failed to get support of the Melbourne Cricket Club, so the new QV shopping centre on Swanston Street was chosen as the location next to one of the busiest AFL shops. Later controversy surrounded the appoint meant of an administration as the museum began running at a loss. Many blamed high entry prices which were subsequently reduced and the museum remains open to the public. Hall of Fame and Sensation features various honour boards and artefacts as well as a range of innovative interactive displays designed to emerse fans and visitors in the experience of elite aussie rules. ====Video Games==== :''Main Article: [[List of Australian rules football computer games]].'' These are computer/video games that were licensed to use the AFL / Australian Football sports brand: *''[[Australian Rules (video game)|Australian Rules]]'' ([[1987]]) [[Commodore 64|C64]] *''[[Aussie Rules Footy]]'' ([[1991]]) [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]] *''[[AFL Finals Fever]]'' ([[1996]]) [[IBM PC compatible|PC]] *''[[AFL '98]]'' ([[1999]]) [[IBM PC compatible|PC]]/[[PlayStation |PSX]] ([[PAL]]) *''[[AFL '99]]'' ([[2000]]) [[IBM PC compatible|PC]]/[[PlayStation |PSX]] ([[PAL]]) *''[[Aussie Rules Coach]]'' ([[2001]]) [[IBM PC compatible|PC]] *''[[Kevin Sheedy Coach]]'' ([[2002]]) [[IBM PC compatible|PC]] *''[[AFL Live 2003]]'' ([[2003]]) [[IBM PC compatible|PC]]/[[PlayStation 2|PS2]]/[[Xbox]] ([[PAL]]) *''[[AFL Live 2004]]'' ([[2004]]) [[IBM PC compatible|PC]]/[[PlayStation 2|PS2]]/[[Xbox]] ([[PAL]]) *''[[AFL Premiership 2005]]'' ([[2005]]) [[IBM PC compatible|PC]]/[[PlayStation 2|PS2]]/[[Xbox]] ([[PAL]]) ====Gambling==== The AFL is the subject of [[footy tipping]] and betting competitions around Australia run by individuals, syndicates, workplaces and bookmakers. ==See also== * [[Australian Rules Football]] * [[:Category:VFL/AFL players|AFL Footballers]] * [[List of Australian Football League premiers|AFL Premiers]] * [[Brownlow Medal]] * [[Coleman Medal]] * [[Leigh Matthews Trophy]] * [[Sports attendances]] * [[List of Celebrity Supporters of AFL Clubs]] * [[WP:AFL|WikiProject AFL]] ==External links== *[http://www.afl.com.au AFL Official Site] *[http://www.aflpublishing.com.au/ AFL Publishing] *[http://www.afl-online.com AFL Online Forum] *[http://bomberblitz.com/~rmered/clubs.htm History of AFL/VFL jumpers] *[http://afl.com.au/cp2/c2/webi/article/233594ae.xls Season 2006 Interactive Fixture] *[http://stats.rleague.com/afl/afl_index.html Complete VFL/AFL results] *[http://www.myafl.com/forum/ AFL Fan Forum] *[http://www.gamerwithin.com/?view=article&article=575 AFL Premiership 2005 Review (PS2 Game)] *[http://www.aussierulesinternational.com Aussie Rules International] *[http://www.footballaustralien.com The French footy teams site] *[http://footystats.freeservers.com/Daily/Diary.html/ FootyStats Diary] *[http://www.heraldsun.news.com.au/footy/ Herald Sun Footy News] *[http://www.allthestats.com AlltheStats] *[http://www.worldfootynews.com World Footy News] {{AFL}} [[Category:Australian Football League]] [[Category:Australian rules football competitions]] [[Category:Sports_governing_bodies_in_Australia]] [[Category:Australian_Rules_football_grounds]] [[cs:AFL]] [[scn:AFL]] [[sv:AFL]] [[fr:Australian Football League]] 1151 15899653 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[AK-47]] 1152 38212435 2006-02-04T23:06:12Z D6 75561 adding [[category:Living people]] '''Alan Garner''' (born [[Congleton]] [[October 17]], [[1934]]) is an English writer whose work is firmly rooted in his local [[Cheshire]]. His very early writing was marketed mainly for [[Children's literature|children]] and could be described as [[fantasy fiction|fantasy]], though he himself rejects the label of "children's writer": :I do not write for children, but for myself. Adolescents read my books. By adolescence, I mean an arbitrary age somewhere between 10 and 18. This group of people is the most important of all. His more recent work (''Strandloper'', ''Thursbitch'') is more specifically intended for adult readers, while the earlier ''[[The Stone Book Quartet]]'' (which received the [[Phoenix Award]] in 1996) is poetic in style and inspiration. Garner pays particular attention to language, and strives to render the cadence of the Cheshire tongue in modern English. This he explains by the sense of anger he felt on reading "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight": the footnotes would not have been needed by his father. This and other aspects of his writing are the subject of Neil Philip's ''[[A Fine Anger]], (Collins, 1981)'', which offers a detailed analysis of his work. His most recent novel is ''Thursbitch''. Other works have won the Guardian Award, the Carnegie Medal,and the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award, as well as the Chicago International Film Festival 1st Prize for his educational film "Images." His collection of essays and public talks, ''[[The Voice That Thunders]]'', contains much autobiographical material, as well as critical reflection upon folklore and language, literature and education, the nature of myth and time. Garner is an accomplished public speaker. The author [[Philip Pullman]] is a strong admirer, and ''[[The Weirdstone of Brisingamen]]'' is an acknowledged classic of children's literature. He was awarded the [[Officer of the Order of the British Empire|OBE]] for services to literature in the [[2001]] [[British honours system|New Year's Honours list]]. == Works == His best known works are: * ''[[The Weirdstone of Brisingamen]]'' * ''[[The Moon of Gomrath]]'' * ''[[Elidor]]'' * ''[[The Owl Service]]'' * ''[[Red Shift (novel)|Red Shift]]'' * ''[[The Stone Book Quartet]]'' * ''[[The Voice That Thunders]]'' * ''[[Strandloper]]'' * ''[[Thursbitch]]'' He has also edited a collection of stories about fools, ''The Guizer'' (1975). [[Category:1934 births|Garner, Alan]] [[Category:Living people|Garner, Alan]] [[Category:British short story writers|Garner, Alan]] [[Category:British children's writers|Garner, Alan]] [[Category:English fantasy writers|Garner, Alan]] [[Category:Guardian award winners|Garner, Alan]] [[Category:Officers of the British Empire|Garner, Alan]] [[de:Alan Garner]] [[ja:アラン・ガーナー]] 1153 15899655 2002-11-28T08:29:11Z 134.95.200.164 double redirect #REDIRECT [[Amhrán_na_bhFiann]] 1154 42064608 2006-03-03T15:46:27Z Rklawton 754622 rv bad data {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=2}} |} '''[[August 2]]''' is the 214th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (215th in [[leap year]]s), with 151 days remaining. ==Events== *[[338 BC]] - [[History of Ancient Greece#The_Rise_of_Macedon|Rise of Macedon]]: [[Philip II of Macedon]] crushes [[Athens]] and [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]] in the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Battle of Chaeronea]]. *[[216 BC]] - [[Punic Wars]]: In the [[Battle of Cannae]], [[Hannibal]] destroys the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] army of [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus]] and [[Gaius Terentius Varro]] in what is considered one of the great masterpieces of the tactical art. *[[461]] - [[Majorian]] resigns as [[Western Roman Emperor]]; shortly afterwards [[Libius Severus]] is declared western [[Roman Empire|Roman]] emperor by [[Ricimer]] *[[1610]] - [[Henry Hudson]] sails into what it is now known as [[Hudson Bay]], thinking he had made it through the [[Northwest Passage]] and reached the [[Pacific Ocean]]. *[[1776]] - Delegates to the [[Continental Congress]] begin signing the [[United States Declaration of Independence]]. *[[1790]] - The first [[US Census]] is conducted. *[[1798]] - [[Second Coalition]]: The [[Battle of the Nile]] between [[France|French]] and [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] navies ends with a British victory. *[[1869]] - [[Japan|Japan's]] [[samurai]], [[farmer]], [[artisan]], [[merchant]] class system is abolished as part of the [[Meiji Restoration]] reforms. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: June 25, 1869). *[[1870]] - [[Tower Subway]], the world's first [[metro|underground tube railway]], opens in [[London]]. *[[1903]] - [[Fall of the Ottoman Empire]]: Unsuccessful uprising of the [[Bulgarians]] against [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Turkey]], also known as the [[Ilinden uprising]]. *[[1916]] - [[World War I]]: Austrian sabotage causes the sinking of the Italian battleship [[Italian battleship Leonardo da Vinci|''Leonardo da Vinci'']] in [[Taranto]]. *[[1918]] - [[Japan]] announces that it is deploying troops to [[Siberia]] in the aftermath of [[World War I]]. *[[1934]] - [[Gleichschaltung]]: [[Adolf Hitler]] becomes [[Führer]] of [[Germany]]. *[[1943]] - [[PT-109]], with future president of the United States Lieutenant [[John F. Kennedy]] aboard, sinks. *[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: [[Potsdam Conference]], in which the [[Allied Powers]] discuss the future of defeated [[Germany]], concludes. *[[1950]] - The [[New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures]] is released in a public event held in [[Yankee Stadium]] in [[New York City]]. *[[1955]] - [[Velcro]] is patented. *[[1964]] - [[North Vietnam]] allegedly fires on a US destroyer in the [[Gulf of Tonkin Incident]]. *[[1967]] - The second [[Blackwall Tunnel]] opens in [[Greenwich, London]]. *[[1975]] - In [[New Orleans, Louisiana]], the [[Superdome]] officially opens with an [[American football|NFL football]] game between the [[New Orleans Saints]] and [[Houston Oilers]]. *[[1976]] - An intruder breaks into [[Priscilla Davis]]' mansion in [[Fort Worth, Texas]] and kills [[Andrea Wilborn]] and [[Stan Farr]]. *[[1979]] - New York Yankees catcher [[Thurman Munson]] dies in a plane crash. An avid pilot, he was practicing takeoffs and landings in his new Cessna Citation jet. The official cause of the crash was determined to be pilot error. *[[1980]] - A [[Bologna Massacre|bomb explodes]] at the [[Bologna Central Station|railway station]] in [[Bologna]], [[Italy]], killing 85 people and wounding more than 200. *[[1985]] - A [[Delta Air Lines]] [[Lockheed L-1011]] [[TriStar]] crashes at [[Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport]] in [[Texas]], killing 137. *[[1990]] - [[Iraq]] invades [[Kuwait]], eventually leading to the [[Gulf War]]. *[[1994]] - Popular Japanese television and movie actor [[Beat Takeshi]] is seriously injured in a motorcycle accident. *[[2004]] - [[Monday demonstrations, 2004|Monday demonstrations]] against social cutbacks began in [[Germany]] *[[2005]] - [[Air France Flight 358]] skids off the runway at [[Toronto Pearson International Airport]] outside [[Toronto]], [[Canada]], destroying the plane but resulting in no loss of life. ==Births== *[[1533]] - [[Theodor Zwinger]], Swiss scholar (d. [[1588]]) *[[1672]] - [[Johann Jakob Scheuchzer]], Swiss scholar (d. [[1733]]) *[[1674]] - [[Philip II, Duke of Orléans]], regent of France (d. [[1723]]) *[[1696]] - [[Mahmud I]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (d. [[1754]]) *[[1703]] - [[Lorenzo Ricci]], Italian Jesuit leader (d. [[1775]]) *[[1754]] - [[Pierre Charles L'Enfant]], French-born architect and city planner (d. [[1825]]) *[[1788]] - [[Leopold Gmelin]], German chemist (d. [[1853]]) *[[1815]] - [[Adolf Friedrich von Schack]], German writer (d. [[1894]]) *[[1834]] - [[Frédéric Bartholdi]], French sculptor (d. [[1904]]) *[[1835]] - [[Elisha Gray]], American inventor and entrepreneur (d. [[1901]]) *[[1854]] - [[Milan I]], [[King of Serbia]] (d. [[1901]]) *[[1865]] - [[Irving Babbitt]], American literary critic (d. [[1933]]) *[[1868]] - King [[Constantine I of Greece]] (d. [[1923]]) *[[1871]] - [[John French Sloan]], American artist (d. [[1951]]) *[[1892]] - [[Jack Warner]], Canadian film producer (d. [[1978]]) *[[1897]] - [[Max Weber (politician)|Max Weber]], Swiss Federal Councilor (d. [[1974]]) *[[1900]] - [[Helen Morgan]], American actress (d. [[1941]]) *[[1905]] - [[Karl Amadeus Hartmann]], German composer (d. [[1963]]) *1905 - [[Myrna Loy]], American actress (d. [[1993]]) *[[1912]] - [[Vladimir Zerjavic]], Croatian statistician (d. [[2001]]) *[[1914]] - [[Beatrice Straight]], American actress (d. [[2001]]) *[[1915]] - [[Gary Merrill]], American actor (d. [[1990]]) *[[1924]] - [[James Baldwin (writer)|James Baldwin]], American author (d. [[1987]]) * 1924 - [[Carroll O'Connor]], American actor (d. [[2001]]) *[[1925]] - [[Jorge Rafael Videla]], Argentinian dictator * 1925 - [[Alan Whicker]], British journalist and broadcaster (“Whicker’s World”) *[[1930]] - [[Vali Myers (artist)]], (d. [[2003]]) *[[1932]] - [[Peter O'Toole]], Irish-born actor *[[1934]] - [[Valery Bykovsky]], cosmonaut *[[1935]] - [[Hank Cochran]], country music singer and songwriter *[[1937]] - [[Garth Hudson]], Canadian musician ([[The Band]]) *[[1939]] - [[Wes Craven]], American film director *[[1941]] - [[Doris Coley]], American singer ([[Shirelles]]) (d. [[2000]]) *[[1942]] - [[Isabel Allende]], Chilean author *[[1945]] - [[Alex Jesaulenko]], [[Australian rules football|Australian Rules footballer]] *[[1947]] - [[Massiel]], Spanish singer and [[Eurovision Song Contest]] winner *[[1948]] - [[Dennis Prager]], American radio talk show host and author *[[1950]] - [[Lance Ito]], American judge *[[1951]] - [[Andrew Gold]], American singer, musician and songwriter *[[1953]] - [[Butch Patrick]], American actor *[[1954]] - [[Sammy McIlroy]], Northern Irish footballer and football manager *[[1957]] - [[Mojo Nixon]], American musician and actor *[[1959]] - [[Apollonia Kotero]], American singer and actress *[[1961]] - [[Linda Fratianne]], American figure skater *[[1964]] - [[Mary-Louise Parker]], American actress *[[1969]] - [[Fernando Couto]], Portuguese footballer *1969 - [[Richard Hallebeek]], Dutch guitarist *[[1970]] - [[Tony Amonte]], American hockey player *1970 - [[Kevin Smith]], American actor, director, and screenwriter *[[1971]] - [[Michael Hughes (footballer)|Michael Hughes]], Northern Irish footballer *[[1972]] - [[Justyna Steczkowska]], Polish singer *[[1974]] - [[Jeremy Castle]], American singer and songwriter *[[1975]] - [[Xu Huaiwen]], Chinese-born badminton player *[[1977]] - [[Edward Furlong]], American actor *1977 - [[Dave Farrel]], American musician *[[1982]] - [[Hélder Postiga]], Portuguese footballer *[[1985]] - [[Jeff Healy]], Canadian musician *[[1992]] - [[Hallie Kate Eisenberg]], American actress ==Deaths== *[[686]] - [[Pope John V]] *[[1100]] - King [[William II of England]] *[[1222]] - Count [[Raymond VI of Toulouse]] (b. [[1156]]) *[[1511]] - [[Andrew Barton]], Scottish naval leader *[[1589]] - King [[Henry III of France]] (b. [[1551]]) *[[1611]] - [[Kiyomasa Kato|Kato Kiyomasa]], Japanese warlord and samurai (b. [[1562]]) *[[1696]] - [[Robert Campbell of Glenlyon]], Scottish military commander at the Massacre of Glencoe (b. [[1630]]) *[[1769]] - [[Daniel Finch, 8th Earl of Winchilsea]], English politician (b. [[1689]]) *[[1776]] - [[Louis François I, Prince of Conti]], French military leader (b. [[1717]]) *[[1788]] - [[Thomas Gainsborough]], English artist (b. [[1727]]) *[[1815]] - [[Guillaume Marie Anne Brune]], French marshal (murdered) (b. [[1763]]) *[[1859]] - [[Horace Mann]], American educator and abolitionist (b. [[1796]]) *[[1876]] - [[Wild Bill Hickok|James Butler "Wild Bill" Hickok]], American gunfighter (b. [[1837]]) *[[1890]] - [[Louise-Victorine Ackermann]], French poet (b. [[1813]]) *[[1903]] - [[Edmond Nocard]], French veterinarian (b. [[1850]]) *[[1921]] - [[Enrico Caruso]], Italian tenor (b. [[1873]]) *[[1922]] - [[Alexander Graham Bell]], Scottish-born inventor (b. [[1847]]) *[[1923]] - [[Warren G. Harding]], 29th [[President of the United States]] (b. [[1865]]) *[[1934]] - [[Paul von Hindenburg]], German general and politician (b. [[1847]]) *[[1936]] - [[Louis Bleriot|Louis Blériot]], French aviation pioneer (b. [[1872]]) *[[1939]] - [[Harvey Spencer Lewis]], American Rosacrucian mystic (b. [[1883]]) *[[1945]] - [[Pietro Mascagni]], Italian composer (b. [[1863]]) *[[1976]] - [[Fritz Lang]], Austrian film director (b. [[1890]]) *[[1978]] - [[Carlos Chávez]], Mexican composer (b. [[1899]]) *[[1979]] - [[Thurman Munson]], baseball player (b. [[1947]]) *[[1986]] - [[Roy Cohn]], American politician (b. [[1927]]) *[[1988]] - [[Raymond Carver]], American writer (b. [[1938]]) *[[1990]] - [[Norman Mclean]], American writer (b. [[1902]]) *[[1997]] - [[William S. Burroughs]], American writer (b. [[1914]]) *[[1998]] - [[Shari Lewis]], American puppeteer (b. [[1933]]) *[[2003]] - [[Don Estelle]], British actor (b. [[1933]]) *2003 - [[Mike Levey]], American television personality (b. [[1948]]) *[[2004]] - [[Don Tosti]], musician (b. [[1923]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Costa Rica]] - [[Our Lady of the Angels]] *[[Bulgaria]]/[[Republic of Macedonia]] - [[Ilinden]] (St. Ilya Day), a day of remembrance of the [[Ilinden Uprising]] *Feast day of Ilya the Prophet in Russian [[Orthodox Church]] *Feast day of St [[Peter Julian Eymard]] [[Roman Catholic Church]] *Day of [[airborne forces]] in [[Russia]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/2 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050802.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] * [http://www.historychannel.com/tdih/tdih.jsp?category=leadstory ''This Day In History'': History Channel] ---- [[August 1]] - [[August 3]] - [[July 2]] - [[September 2]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[ceb:Agosto 2]] [[ilo:Agosto 2]] [[nap:2 'e aùsto]] [[pam:Agostu 2]] [[war:Agosto 2]] [[af:2 Augustus]] [[ar:2 أغسطس]] [[an:2 d'agosto]] [[ast:2 d'agostu]] [[bg:2 август]] [[be:2 жніўня]] [[bs:2. avgust]] [[ca:2 d'agost]] [[cv:Çурла, 2]] [[co:2 d'aostu]] [[cs:2. srpen]] [[cy:2 Awst]] [[da:2. august]] [[de:2. August]] [[et:2. august]] [[el:2 Αυγούστου]] [[es:2 de agosto]] [[eo:2-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 2]] [[fo:2. august]] [[fr:2 août]] [[fy:2 augustus]] [[ga:2 Lúnasa]] [[gl:2 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 2일]] [[hr:2. kolovoza]] [[io:2 di agosto]] [[id:2 Agustus]] [[ia:2 de augusto]] [[ie:2 august]] [[is:2. ágúst]] [[it:2 agosto]] [[he:2 באוגוסט]] [[jv:2 Agustus]] [[ka:2 აგვისტო]] [[csb:2 zélnika]] [[ku:2'ê gelawêjê]] [[la:2 Augusti]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 2]] [[lb:2. August]] [[li:2 augustus]] [[hu:Augusztus 2]] [[mk:2 август]] [[ms:2 Ogos]] [[nl:2 augustus]] [[ja:8月2日]] [[no:2. august]] [[nn:2. august]] [[oc:2 d'agost]] [[pl:2 sierpnia]] [[pt:2 de Agosto]] [[ro:2 august]] [[ru:2 августа]] [[sco:2 August]] [[sq:2 Gusht]] [[scn:2 di austu]] [[simple:August 2]] [[sk:2. august]] [[sl:2. avgust]] [[sr:2. август]] [[fi:2. elokuuta]] [[sv:2 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 2]] [[tt:2. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 2]] [[th:2 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:2 tháng 8]] [[tr:2 Ağustos]] [[uk:2 серпня]] [[ur:2 اگست]] [[wa:2 d' awousse]] [[zh:8月2日]] 1155 40351937 2006-02-20T00:20:04Z Botteville 347079 addition '''Atlantic''' may mean: *The [[Atlantic Ocean]], a major [[ocean]] in the world * [[Atlantic Canada]], consisting of the four Canadian provinces on the Atlantic Ocean * [[Atlantic, Iowa]] * [[Atlantic, Pennsylvania]] * [[Atlantic, Virginia]] * [[Atlantic City, New Jersey]] * [[Atlantic County, New Jersey]] * [[Atlantic Beach, Florida]] * [[Atlantic Beach, North Carolina]] * [[Atlantic Beach, New York]] * [[Atlantic Records]], a rock and R&B music label * [[RMS Atlantic]], a [[steamship]] that sank off [[Halifax, Nova Scotia|Halifax]] in [[1873]] killing 546 people. *''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]'', a monthly magazine published in the United States * Atlantic, a [[steam locomotive]] with a [[4-4-2 (locomotive)|4-4-2]] [[wheel arrangement]] *The ''[[Atlantic (passenger train)]]'', a named passenger train operated by [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] and later [[VIA Rail]] * The Atlantic Alliance, another name for [[NATO]]. * The [[Atlantic Revolutions]], included the [[American Revolution|American]] and [[French Revolution]]s * The [[Atlantic (period)|Atlantic period]] of palaeoclimatology {{disambig}} [[de:Atlantic]] [[fo:Atlantic]] [[fr:Atlantic]] 1157 15899658 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[ANZUS]] 1158 40171455 2006-02-18T18:40:46Z MathMartin 29707 link In [[mathematics]], an '''algebraic number''' relative to a [[field (mathematics)|field]] <math>F</math> is any element <math>x</math> of a given field <math>K</math> containing <math>F</math> such that <math>x</math> is a solution of a [[polynomial]] [[equation]] of the form: ''a''_''n''''x''^''n'' + ''a''_{''n''&minus;1}''x''^{''n''&minus;1} + ··· + ''a''₁''x'' + ''a''₀ = 0 where ''n'' is a [[positive integer]] called the ''degree'' of the polynomial, every coefficient ''a''_''i'' is an element of ''F'', and ''a''_''n'' is nonzero. If the field ''F'' is the field '''Q''' of [[rational number]]s and ''K'' is an [[algebraically closed field]] then the algebraic numbers relative to '''Q''' are simply called '''algebraic numbers'''. The [[algebraically closed field]] in which these numbers lie can be the [[complex number]]s '''C''', but sometimes other fields are used. Any such [[algebraic closure]] is unique [[up to]] field [[isomorphism]], but may differ in topological properties. Considered purely as a field it is unique, and it is either this abstract field devoid of topology or the closure of the rationals in the complex numbers which is most often called the field of algebraic numbers. All rationals are algebraic. A [[real number|real]] number that is not rational may or may not be algebraic; for example [[irrational number]]s such as 2^1/2 (the [[square root]] of 2) and 3^1/3/2 (half the [[cube root]] of 3) are also algebraic because they are the solutions of ''x''²&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;2&nbsp;=&nbsp;0 and 8''x''³&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;3&nbsp;=&nbsp;0, respectively. But most real numbers are not algebraic; examples of this are [[Pi|&pi;]] and ''[[e (mathematical constant)|e]]''. If a complex number is not an algebraic number then it is called a [[transcendental number]]. So, for instance ''i'', the [[imaginary unit]], is an algebraic number since it satisfies ''x''²&nbsp;+&nbsp;1&nbsp;=&nbsp;0; however <math>i^i</math> is transcendental by the [[Gelfond-Schneider theorem]]; one branch of this number is e^-&pi;/2, which shows that e^&pi; is also transcendental. If an algebraic number satisfies such an equation as given above with a [[polynomial]] of degree ''n'' and not such an equation with a lower degree, then the number is said to be an ''algebraic number of degree n''. ==The field of algebraic numbers== {{main|algebraic number field}} The sum, difference, product and quotient of two algebraic numbers is again algebraic, and the algebraic numbers therefore form a [[field (mathematics)|field]]. It can be shown that, if we allow the coefficients <math>a_i</math> to be any algebraic numbers, then every solution of the equation will again be an algebraic number. This can be rephrased by saying that the field of algebraic numbers is [[algebraically closed field|algebraically closed]]. In fact, it is the smallest algebraically closed field containing the rationals, and is therefore called the [[algebraic closure]] of the rationals. ==Numbers defined by radicals== All numbers which can be obtained from the integers using a [[finite]] number of [[addition]]s, [[subtraction]]s, [[multiplication]]s, [[division (mathematics)|division]]s, and ''n''^th roots (where ''n'' is a positive integer) are algebraic. The converse, however, is not true: there are algebraic numbers which cannot be written in this manner. All of these numbers are solutions to polynomials of degree &ge;&nbsp;5, (see [[Quintic equation]]s and the [[Abel–Ruffini theorem]]). This is a result of [[Galois theory]]. An example of such a number would be the unique real root of ''x''⁵&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;x&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1&nbsp;=&nbsp;0. ==Algebraic integers== {{main|algebraic integer}} An algebraic number which satisfies a [[polynomial equation]] of degree ''n'' with leading coefficient ''a''_''n''&nbsp;=&nbsp;1 (that is, a [[monic polynomial]]) and all other coefficients ''a''_''i'' belonging to the set '''Z''' of [[integer]]s, is called an '''[[algebraic integer]]'''. Examples of algebraic integers are 3&radic;{{overline|2}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;5 and 6''i''&nbsp;-&nbsp;2. The sum, difference and product of algebraic integers are again algebraic integers, which means that the algebraic integers form a [[ring (algebra)|ring]]. The name ''algebraic integer'' comes from the fact that the only rational numbers which are algebraic integers are the integers, and because the algebraic integers in any [[algebraic number field|number field]] are in many ways analogous to the integers. If ''K'' is a number field, its '''ring of integers''' is the subring of algebraic integers in ''K'', and is frequently denoted as ''O''_K. ==Special classes of algebraic number== *[[Gaussian integer]] *[[Eisenstein integer]] *[[Quadratic irrational]] *[[Fundamental unit]] *[[Root of unity]] *[[Gaussian period]] *[[Pisot-Vijayaraghavan number]] *[[Salem number]] [[Category:Abstract algebra]] [[Category:Algebra]] [[Category:Algebraic numbers|*]] [[Category:Number theory]] [[cs:Algebraické číslo]] [[da:Algebraiske tal]] [[de:Algebraische Zahl]] [[es:Número algebraico]] [[fa:اعداد جبری]] [[fr:Nombre algébrique]] [[gl:Número alxebraico]] [[he:מספר אלגברי]] [[it:Numero algebrico]] [[ja:代数的数]] [[ko:대수적 수]] [[nl:Algebraïsch getal]] [[pl:Liczby algebraiczne]] [[pt:Número algébrico]] [[ru:Алгебраическое число]] [[zh:代數數]] 1159 41606822 2006-02-28T13:40:08Z Daibhid C 47619 /* Public holidays */ {| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" align="right" width="325" style="margin-left:0.5em;" |align="center" colspan="2" | '''Ankh-Morpork'''<br />(Modern Morporkian)<br /> '''Ankhius et Morporkia'''<br /> ([[Minor Discworld concepts#Latatian|Latatian]], the Old Language)<br /> |- |align="center" colspan="2" | [[Image:Discworld-ankh-morpork-amoswolfe.png|300px|center|Coat of arms of Ankh-Morpork]] [[Coat of arms]]: A shield, quartered by a river (the [[Ankh (river)|Ankh]]) and tower (the Tower of Art). The quarters bear two moneybags, a field of [[cabbage]]s and the unmarked black field of the [[Havelock Vetinari|Vetinaris]]. <br /> The shield is supported by two hippopotami and crested with a [[morepork|morpork]] holding an [[ankh]]. |- |align="center" colspan="2" | [[motto]]s: ''Quanti canicula ille in fenestra''<br /> (Latatian: How much is that small dog in the window)<br /> ''Merus in pectum et in aquam''<br />(Latatian: Pure in heart and water) |- |Official [[language]] || Morporkian is [[de facto]] |- |Patrician || Lord [[Havelock Vetinari]] |- |[[Area]] || Approx 50 mile&sup2; (130 km&sup2; including surrounding fiefdom |- |[[Population]] || Approx. 1,000,000 (including surrounding fiefdom) |- |Establishment || Founded 2564 years before AM dating <br /> Modern city-state established 4th Grune 1688 AM |- |[[Currency]] || Ankh-Morpork Dollar |- |[[National anthem]] || ''[[We can rule you wholesale|We Can Rule You Wholesale]]'' |} '''Ankh-Morpork''' is a [[fiction]]al [[city-state]] which features in [[Terry Pratchett]]'s ''[[Discworld]]'' series of fantasy novels. As cities go, it is on the far side of corrupt and polluted, and is subject to outbreaks of comedic violence and brou-ha-ha on a fairly regular basis. It is home to the [[Unseen University]], a centre of magical learning. Ankh-Morpork is also the mercantile capital of the [[Discworld (world)|Discworld]], and the books give an excellent flavour of a "working" quasi-medieval city. Even when it is under attack from a [[European dragon|dragon]], the vegetable carts still have to come in. In ''[[The Art of Discworld]]'' Pratchett explains that the city is similar to [[Tallinn]] and central [[Prague]], but adds that it has elements of 18th century [[London]], 19th century [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] and modern [[New York, New York|New York]]. He also states that since the creation of ''The Streets of Ankh-Morpork'', he has tried to ensure that the descriptions of character movements and locations in the books match the Ankh-Morpork map; this has allowed him, and fans of the series, to visualise the story more clearly. Ankh-Morpork is also referred to as "The Big Oyster", or "The Big Wahooni" on occasions, further increasing the bond with "The Big Apple", New York. ==Geography== Ankh-Morpork lies on the River Ankh (the most polluted waterway on the Discworld), where the fertile loam of the [[Sto Plains]] (similar to [[Western Europe]]) meets the [[Circle Sea]] (the Discworld's version of the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]]). This, naturally, puts it in an excellent trading position. Lying approximately equidistant from the cold Hub and tropical Rim, Ankh-Morpork is in the Discworld's equivalent of the [[temperate]] zone. The name "Ankh-Morpork" refers to both the city itself, a [[defensive wall|walled city]] about a mile (1.6 km) across, and the surrounding suburbs and farms of its [[fiefdom]]. The central city divides more or less into Ankh (the posh part) and Morpork (the humble part, which includes the slum area known as "the Shades"), which are separated by the River Ankh. Ankh-Morpork is built on black loam, broadly, but mostly what it is built on is more Ankh-Morpork. Because of the nature of the Ankh-Morpork citizenry and the flooding of the River Ankh, they figured it was simply easier to build on top of the existing buildings when the sediment grew too high, rather than excavate them out. This has resulted in two things: Firstly, many people own basements and have no idea they do. Secondly, there is a "cave network" below Ankh-Morpork made up of old streets and abandoned sewers &ndash; these "unknown basements" allow people to get around relatively unimpeded. The city's [[dwarf]] population have extended this into a complex network of tunnels, which has recently been made municipal property. ===The River Ankh=== Even before it enters Ankh-Morpork, the River Ankh is full of [[silt]] from the plains; by the time it gets to the seaward side of the city, "even an [[agnostic]] could walk across it". The citizens of the city are strangely proud of this fact, even going so far as to say that "it is easier to suffocate than drown in the Ankh." They also claim it to be the purest water on the Disc, as "Anything that's passed through so many kidneys has to be very pure indeed." Owing to the build-up of centuries, the bed of the river is higher than some parts of the city. When winter snows swell the flow, the low-rent areas of Morpork flood. In spring some parts catch fire, and others sprout small trees. In the times when the city catches fire, the river gates are closed, and the river rises and smothers the flames. In both ''[[Men At Arms]]'' and the computer game ''[[Discworld Noir]]'', the Ankh is described as "the only river in the world on which you could draw a chalk outline". ==History== According to legend, the first city of Ankh-Morpork was founded thousands of years ago by twin brothers who were raised by a [[hippopotamus]] (an allusion to the myth of [[Romulus and Remus]]). It is in memory of this that the hippo is the royal animal of Ankh. The original city was little more than a walled keep, surrounding the Tower of Art, a building of mysterious origin. At one point it had an empire, similar to the [[Roman Empire]], that covered half the continent including the neighbouring country of [[Klatch]]. These were the days of the "Pax Morporkia," another reference to Rome and their [[Pax Romana]]. The empire was largely the creation of General [[Minor Discworld characters#General Tacticus|Tacticus]] (an obvious pun or [[word play|play on word]]s), the greatest military mind in history. Tacticus refused to accept that the Empire was growing too big to control, and was finally shipped off to be king of [[Genua]]. As king he decided that the greatest threat to Genua was the Empire, and [[Declaration of war|declared war]] on it. This was a [[Golden Age]], ruled by the Kings of Ankh, who are recalled in legend as wise, noble and fair. The line died out approximately 2000 years before the present, giving way to real kings who were realistically corrupt and peverse and ultimately leading to the collapse of the empire. Shortly before this, however, the mage [[Albert (Discworld)|Alberto Malich]] had founded Unseen University in the Tower of Art, and Ankh-Morpork continued as a service town for the wizards. Royalty became extremely debased and the later kings of Ankh-Morpork are recalled in history as power-mad and corrupt, or just mad; some are mentioned by name in ''[[Men at Arms]]'': *Queen Alguinna IV *King Artorollo (a contemporary of Alberto Malich) *King Cirone IV *Queen Coanna *King Loyala the Aaargh (Had a 1.13 second rule from coronation to assassination) - ''[[The Discworld Companion]]'' *King Ludwig the Tree (Known to issue royal proclamations on the need to develop a new type of frog and similar important matters, and also responsible for the city motto "Quanti Canicula Ille In Fenestra")- ''[[The Discworld Companion]]'' *King Paragore *King Tyrril (ruled circa AM 907) *King Veltrick III *Webblethorpe the Unconscious The last and worst - the euphemistically-remembered Lorenzo the Kind (the full extent of whose infamy is not revealed, save that he was said to be "very fond of children" and had in his dungeons "machines for . . .") - was overthrown in the Ankh-Morpork Civil War of 1688 (dating from the founding of UU). The question of what to do with the deposed king (no judge would try him) was settled when he was executed by the then Commander of the City Watch, Suffer-Not-Injustice [[Samuel Vimes|Vimes]]. Known as "Old Stoneface," his regicide resulted in his being banned from bearing arms (These events parallel the [[English Civil War]] of the [[1640s]], and the execution of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] by [[Oliver Cromwell]]). Afterwards "Old Stoneface" (an ancestor of the current City Watch Commander [[Samuel Vimes]]) and his Ironheads ( a play on "[[Roundheads]]") attempted to introduce [[democracy]], but the people voted against it. After "Old Stoneface" himself was overthrown, Ankh-Morpork reverted to a non-hereditary [[oligarchy|oligarchic]] system, where the leaders are still ruthless tyrants, but don't have the audacity to invoke divine right. It is, however, rumoured that the royal blood line continued and that the true king, Ironfoundersson, walks the streets of the city on a nightly basis. The [[Havelock Vetinari|Patrician]] rules the city, and operates a specialised form of "One Man, One Vote" democracy: the Patrician is the Man, and he has the Vote. Under the Patricians the city has become the mercantile and [[political capital]] of the Discworld, so much so that the Sto Plains operates under a new Pax Morporkia, which operates not on the principle of "If you fight, we will kill you," but on the principle of "If you fight, we will call in your mortgages." The current Patrician has opened the city to [[dwarfs (Discworld)|dwarfs]], [[trolls (Discworld)|trolls]], [[gnomes (Discworld)|gnome]]s, humans from across the Disc and even the [[undead (Discworld)|undead]], making a truly [[multiculturalism|multicultural]] society, with both the advantages and problems that suggests. (The current Patrician's own, typically pragmatic, view on multiculturalism is "[[Alloys]] are stronger.") In recent years, the city has seen numerous changes. Most notable are: the rise of the [[semaphore (communication)|semaphore]] network (the "[[clacks (Discworld)|clacks]]"), the invention of the newspaper (with the help of the [[iconograph]]), and the revitalisation of the [[Ankh-Morpork City Watch|City Watch]] and the [[Ankh-Morpork Post Office]]. Civic symbols include Morporkia, a woman in a cabbage-spangled cloak and an old-fashioned helmet, carrying a shield with the civic [[heraldry|coat of arms]] and a toasting-fork symbolising "something or other" (compare [[Britannia]], [[Historical Columbia|Columbia]]). ==Politics== The succession of the Patrician is normally either by assassination or revolution. It has been known for Patricians to resign, but it is very much the exception. Power is to some degree shared with the many [[Guilds of Ankh-Morpork]] (including legalised [[Theft|Thieves]], [[Assassin|Assassins]] and "[[prostitute|Seamstresses]]") and the surviving nobility. They form a sort of city council, but the Patrician has the only vote at meetings. The current office-holder is Lord [[Havelock Vetinari]], a former [[Assassin]]. The nearest surviving relative of the former [[royal family]] seems to be Captain [[Carrot Ironfoundersson]], technically a dwarf. However, he has gone to some effort to keep this as quiet as possible. The origin of Corporal [[Nobby Nobbs]] remains shrouded in mystery. At one point he was identified as being a descendant of the Earl of Ankh (and therefore the next in line), but this was (probably) a deliberate deception. A Patrician has almost absolute power over the affairs of the city and works together with the leaders of the city's [[Guilds of Ankh-Morpork|Guilds]], who are the ones who unofficially elect him in the first place. Eligible for election are members of rich and influential families. Unfortunately, almost all of the people who have held the post through the years proved once in office to be little different from a king, except that power did not pass automatically to their descendants. They were despotic, oppressive and fairly often mad. Past Patricians have included: *Mad Lord Snapcase (preceded Vetinari) *Homicidal Lord Winder (preceded Snapcase) *Deranged Lord Harmoni *Laughing Lord Scapula *Frenzied Earl Hargath *Nersh the Lunatic *Giggling Lord Smince *[[Olaf Quimby II]] ==Public holidays== {| class="wikitable" |- ! Date || Name |- | 1 Ick|| Hogswatch Day ([[New Year]], [[Christmas]]) |- | [[28 April]] || The [[Terry Pratchett|Creator's]] birthday |- | [[1 May]] || [[May Day]] (also called May Blossom Day) |- | [[25 May]] || The Twenty-Fifth Of May (commemorates the last Ankh-Morpork revolution, but only if you participated) |- | 6 Grune || Patrician's Day (in reality [[Stephen Briggs]]' birthday) |- | The first [[Tuesday]], [[Wednesday]] and [[Thursday]] after the last half moon in Sektober || Soul Cake Days |- | [[31 December]] || Hogswatch Eve |- | [[32 December]] || [[Minor Discworld concepts#Hogswatchnight|Hogswatchnight]] |} ==External links== * [http://www.lspace.org/ The L-Space Web], possibly the definitive Discworld web site * [http://www.avidgamers.com/Otherside/ When Dragons Belch and Hippos Flee], an Ankh-Morpork roleplaying site, where you can be your favorite character. ==Real-World Connections== Ankh-Morpork is twinned with the town of [[Wincanton]] in [[Somerset]], in the south-west [[United Kingdom]] on the spherical [[planet]] [[Earth]] (also known as [[Minor Discworld concepts#Roundworld|Roundworld]]). The town is home to a Discworld shop called [http://www.artificer.co.uk/ The Cunning Artificer] which is named after a street in Ankh-Morpork. The fact that [[Witches (Discworld)|witches]], [[Rincewind|wizards]] and even [[The Luggage]] have been seen in the vicinity of the shop suggests that it may be one of the [[Minor Discworld concepts#Wandering_Shops|wandering shops]] encountered in ''[[The Light Fantastic]]'' and ''[[Soul Music]]''. ==References== *Pratchett, Terry (1983). ''[[The Colour of Magic]]''. Colin Smythe. *Pratchett, Terry (1989). ''[[Guards! Guards!]]''. Gollancz. *Pratchett, Terry (1993). ''[[Men At Arms]]''. Gollancz. *Pratchett, Terry (1996). ''[[Feet of Clay]]''. Gollancz. *Pratchett, Terry (1997). ''[[Jingo (novel)|Jingo]]''. Gollancz. *Pratchett, Terry (2000). ''[[The Truth (novel)|The Truth]]''. Gollancz. *Pratchett, Terry (2002). ''[[Night Watch (novel)|Night Watch]]''. Gollancz. *Pratchett, Terry & Briggs, Stephen (1993). ''The Streets Of Ankh Morpork''. Corgi. *Pratchett, Terry & Briggs, Stephen (2003). ''The Discworld Companion'' (3rd ed.). Gollancz. *Pratchett, Terry & Pearson, Bernard (2004). ''The Discworld Almanak''. Doubleday. *Pratchett, Terry & Kidby, Paul (2004). ''The Art of Discworld'' ISBN 0575075112. Gollancz. {{Discworld}} [[Category:Discworld locations]] [[Category:Fictional towns and cities]] [[bg:Анкх-Морпорк]] [[cs:Ankh-Morpork]] [[de:Ankh-Morpork]] [[fr:Ankh-Morpork]] [[nl:Ankh-Meurbork]] [[sv:Ankh-Morpork]] 1160 38358177 2006-02-05T20:48:26Z Tosha 37304 /* Reference */ ru In [[mathematics]], an '''automorphism''' is an [[isomorphism]] from a mathematical object to itself. It is, in some sense, a [[symmetry]] of the object, and a way of [[map (mathematics)|mapping]] the object to itself while preserving all of its structure. The set of all automorphisms of an object forms a [[group (mathematics)|group]], called the '''automorphism group'''. It is, loosely speaking, the [[symmetry group]] of the object. == Definition == The exact definition of an automorphism depends on the type of "mathematical object" in question and what, precisely, constitutes an "isomorphism" of that object. The most general setting in which these words have meaning is an abstract branch of mathematics called [[category theory]]. Category theory deals with abstract objects and [[morphism]]s between those objects. In category theory, an '''automorphism''' is an [[endomorphism]] (i.e. a [[morphism]] from an object to itself) which is also an [[Category theory#Types of morphisms|isomorphism]] (in the categorical sense of the word). This is a very abstract definition since, in category theory, morphisms aren't necessarily functions and objects aren't necessarily sets. In most concrete settings, however, the objects will be sets with some additional structure and the morphisms will be functions preserving that structure. In the context of [[abstract algebra]], for example, a mathematical object is an [[algebraic structure]] such as a [[group (mathematics)|group]], [[ring (mathematics)|ring]], or [[vector space]]. An isomorphism is simply a [[bijective]] [[homomorphism]]. (Of course, the definition of a homomorphism depends on the type of algebraic structure; see, for example: [[group homomorphism]], [[ring homomorphism]], and [[linear operator]]). == Automorphism group == The set of automorphisms of an object ''X'' form a [[group (mathematics)|group]] under composition of [[morphism]]s. This group is called the '''automorphism group''' of ''X''. That this is indeed a group is simple to see: * [[Closure (binary operation)|Closure]]: composition of two endomorphisms is another endomorphism. * [[Associativity]]: morphism composition is associative by definition. * [[Identity element|Identity]]: the identity is the identity morphism from an object to itself which exists by definition. * [[Inverse element|Inverses]]: by definition every isomorphism has an inverse which is also an isomorphism, and since the inverse is also an endomorphism of the same object it is an automorphism. The automorphism group of an object ''X'' in a category ''C'' is denoted Aut_''C''(''X''), or simply Aut(''X'') if the category is clear from context. == Examples == *In [[set theory]], an automorphism of a set ''X'' is an arbitrary [[permutation]] of the elements of ''X''. The automorphism group of ''X'' is also called the [[symmetric group]] on ''X''. *A group automorphism is a [[group isomorphism]] from a group to itself. Informally, it is a permutation of the group elements such that the structure remains unchanged. For every group ''G'' there is a natural group homomorphism ''G'' &rarr; Aut(''G'') whose [[kernel (algebra)|kernel]] is the [[center of a group|center]] of ''G''. Thus, if ''G'' is centerless it can be embedded into its own automorphism group. (See the discussion on inner automorphisms below). *In [[linear algebra]], an endomorphism of a [[vector space]] ''V'' is a [[linear transformation|linear operator]] ''V'' &rarr; ''V''. An automorphism is an invertible linear operator on ''V''. The automorphism group of ''V'' is just the [[general linear group]], GL(''V''). *A field automorphism is a [[bijection|bijective]] [[ring homomorphism]] from a [[field (mathematics)|field]] to itself. In the case of the [[rational number]]s, '''Q''', or the [[real number]]s, '''R''', there are no nontrivial field automorphisms (this follows from the fact that such automorphisms are [[Monotonic function|order-preserving]]). In the case of the [[complex number]]s, '''C''', there is a unique nontrivial automorphism that sends '''R''' into '''R''': [[complex conjugate|complex conjugation]], but there are infinitely many "wild" automorphisms (see the paper by Yale cited below). Field automorphisms are important to the theory of [[field extension]]s, in particular [[Galois extension]]s. In the case of a Galois extension ''L''/''K'' the [[subgroup]] of all automorphisms of ''L'' fixing ''K'' pointwise is called the [[Galois group]] of the extension. *The set of [[integer]]s, '''Z''', considered as a group under addition, has a unique nontrivial automorphism : negation. Considered as a [[ring (mathematics)|ring]], however, it has only the trivial automorphism. Generally speaking, negation is an automorphism of any [[abelian group]], but not of a ring or field. *In [[graph theory]] an automorphism of a graph is a permutation of the nodes that preserves edges and non-edges. In particular, if two nodes are joined by an edge, so are their images under the permutation. *In [[order theory]], see [[order automorphism]]. *An automorphism of a differentiable [[manifold]] ''M'' is a [[diffeomorphism]] from ''M'' to itself. The automorphism group is sometimes denoted Diff(''M''). *In [[Riemannian geometry]] an automorphism is a self-[[isometry]]. The automorphism group is also called the [[isometry group]]. *In the category of [[Riemann surface]]s, an automorphism is a bijective [[holomorphic function|holomorphic]] map (also called a [[conformal map]]), from a surface to itself. For example, the automorphisms of the [[Riemann sphere]] are [[Möbius transformation]]s. == Inner and outer automorphisms == In some categories&mdash;notably [[group (mathematics)|group]]s, [[ring (mathematics)|ring]]s, and [[Lie algebra]]s&mdash;it is possible to separate automorphisms into two classes. In the case of groups: The [[inner automorphism]]s are the conjugations by the elements of the group itself. For each element ''a'' of a group ''G'', conjugation by ''a'' is the operation &phi;_''a'' : ''G''&nbsp;&rarr;&nbsp;''G'' given by &phi;_''a''(''g'') = ''aga''^&minus;1. One can easily check that conjugation by ''a'' is actually a group automorphism. They form a [[normal subgroup]] of Aut(''G''), denoted by Inn(''G''). The other automorphisms are called [[outer automorphism]]s. The [[quotient group]] Aut(''G'')&nbsp;/&nbsp;Inn(''G'') is usually denoted by Out(''G''); the non-trivial elements are the cosets containing the outer automorphisms. The same definition holds in any [[unital]] [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] or [[algebra over a field|algebra]] where ''a'' is any [[Unit (ring theory)|invertible element]]. For [[Lie algebra]]s the definition is slightly different. == See also == *[[endomorphism]] *[[endomorphism ring]] *[[antiautomorphism]] *[[Frobenius automorphism]] == Reference == Yale, Paul B. ''Mathematics Magazine''. "Automorphisms of the Complex Numbers". Vol 39. Num. 3. May, 1966. pp. 135-141. Available via http://www.jstor.org [[Category:Abstract algebra]] [[Category:Algebra]] [[Category:Category theory]] [[Category:Symmetry]] <!--[[en:Automorphism]]--> [[de:Automorphismus]] [[es:Automorfismo]] [[fr:Automorphisme]] [[nl:Automorfisme]] [[pl:Automorfizm]] [[ru:Автоморфизм]] 1162 41876968 2006-03-02T08:15:31Z Mikkalai 28438 /* External links */ {{commonscat|accordions}} {{SpecialChars}}[[Image:Accordion.png|thumb|right|A button accordion]]An '''accordion''' is a [[musical instrument]] of the handheld [[bellows]]-driven [[free reed aerophone]] family, sometimes referred to as [[squeezebox]]es. The accordion is played by compression and expansion of a bellows, which generates air flow across [[reed (music)|reeds]]; a [[Musical keyboard|keyboard]] controls which reeds receive air flow and therefore the tones produced. :''For a full description of the sound-producing mechanism, see '''[[Free reed aerophone]]'''.'' == Physical description == Modern accordions consists of a body in two parts, each generally rectangular in shape, separated by a bellows. On each part of the body is a [[Musical keyboard|keyboard]] containing buttons, levers or [[piano]]-style keys. When pressed, the buttons travel in a direction perpendicular to the motion of the bellows (towards the performer). Most, but not all modern accordions also have buttons capable of producing entire [[chord (music)|chords]], whereas concertinas' buttons produce only single notes. The related [[concertina]] differs in that its buttons never produce chords and travel parallel to the travel of the bellows (towards the opposite end of the instrument); there are also differences in the internal materials, construction, mechanics, and [[tone color]], but the basic principles of sound production are identical. == History == The accordion is one of several [[Europe]]an inventions of the early [[19th century]] that used free reeds driven by a bellows; notable among them were: *The [[Aeoline]], by German Bernhard Eschenbach (and his cousin, Caspar Schlimbach), [[1810]]. **Was a piano with added aeoline register. **Aeoline Harmonika and Pysharmonika are very similar names at that time. *** Aeoline and Aura ware first without bellows or keyboard. *The [[Hand Physhamonika]] [[Anton Haeckel]] [[1818]] Hand type mentioned in music newspaper [[1821]]. *The [[flutina]], by Pichenot Jeune, ca. [[1831]] *The [[concertina]], patented in two forms (perhaps independently): **[[Carl Friedrich Uhlig]], [[1834]]. **[[Sir Charles Wheatstone]], examples built after 1829, but not patented until [[1844]] An instrument called '''accordion''' was first patented in [[1829]] by Cyrill Demian in [[Vienna]]. (Interestingly, the original patent shows the name "eoline" crossed out and replaced with "accordion" in different handwriting). Demian's instrument bore little resemblance to modern instruments: It only had a left hand keyboard; the right hand simply operated the bellows. One key feature for which Damian sought the patent was the sounding of an entire chord by depressing one key. His instrument also could sound two different chords with the same key: one for each bellows direction (press, draw); this is called a ''bisonoric'' action. At that time in Vienna, mouth harmonicas with "Kanzellen" (chambers) had already been available for many years, along with bigger instruments driven by hand bellows. The diatonic key arrangement was also already in use on mouth-blown instruments. Demian's patent thus covered an accompanying instrument: an accordion played with the left hand, opposite to the way that comtemporary chromatic hand harmonicas were played, small and light enough to for travellers to take with them and use to accompany singing. The patent also described instruments with both bass and treble sections, although Demian preferred the bass-only instrument owing to its cost and weight advantages. The musician Adolph Müller described a great variety of instruments in his [[1833]] "Schule für Accordion". At the time, Vienna and London had a close musical relationship, with musicians often performing in both cities in the same year, so it is possible that Wheatstone was aware of this type of instrument and may have used them to put his key-arrangement ideas into practice. Jeune's flutina resembles Wheatstone's concertina in internal construction and [[tone color]], but it appears to complement Demian's accordion functionally. The flutina is a one-sided bisonoric melody-only instrument whose keys are operated with the right hand while the bellows is operated with the left. When the two instruments are combined, the result is quite similar to diatonic button accordions still manufactured today. Further innovations followed and continue to the present: Various keyboard systems have been developed; voicings (the combination of multiple tones at different octaves) have been developed, with mechanisms to switch between different voices during performance; different methods of internal construction to improve tone, stability and durability, and so on. == Piano accordions == [[Image:KlavierAccordeon.jpg|thumbnail|right|a piano accordion]] The '''piano accordion''' is the instrument most often indicated by the term "accordion", but it is one of the most recent inventions among accordion types, appearing late in the 19th century and not accepted worldwide until the early [[20th century]]. It has a right-hand [[keyboard (music)|keyboard]] similar to a [[piano]]; this facilitates learning for musicians already familiar or proficient on the piano. The left hand keyboard is usually configured in the [[#Stradella bass system|Stradella system]], a combination of chords and single notes, arranged in a uniform series by harmonic relationship. Occasionally a ''free bass'' left hand is used, which has a series of single buttons in an arrangement similar to the chromatic button accordion. The free bass system facilitates the playing of bass melodies and counterpoint. It also allows for chord inversion and invention of chords not present in the Stradella system. ''Converter'' bass systems allow an instrument to be readily converted from a Stradella system to a free-bass system with a switch. The instrument was popularized in the United States by Count [[Guido Deiro]] who was the first piano accordionist to perform in [[Vaudeville]]. He is credited with making the first recordings of the instrument in [[1908]], making the first [[radio]] broadcast of the accordion in [[1921]] and the first sound [[film|motion picture]] featuring the accordion, for [[Vitaphone]], in [[1928]]. == Button accordions == [[Image:C-Griff.svg|thumb|Chromatic button system (type C)]] [[Image:B-Griff.svg|thumb|Chromatic button system (type B)]] On '''button accordions''' the [[melody]]-side [[Musical keyboard|keyboard]] consists of a series of [[button]]s (rather than [[piano]]-style keys.) There exists a wide variation in keyboard systems, tuning, action and construction of these instruments. '''Diatonic button accordions''' have a [[melody]]-side keyboard that is limited to the notes of [[diatonic]] [[scale (music)|scales]] in a small number of [[key (music)|keys]] (sometimes only one). The [[bass (music)|bass]] side usually contains the principal [[chord (music)|chords]] of the instrument's key and the root notes of those chords. [[Image:Busking_Accordionist.jpg|thumb|Garmon' player]]Almost all diatonic button accordions (e.g.: [[melodeon]]) are bisonoric, meaning each button produces two notes: one when the [[bellows]] is compressed, another while it is expanded; a few instruments (e.g.: [[garmon']]) are unisonoric, with each button producing the same note regardless of bellows direction; still others have a combination of the two types of action: ''See [[#Hybrids|Hybrids]] below.'' A '''chromatic button accordion''' is a type of button accordion where the melody-side keyboard consists of uniform rows of buttons arranged so that the pitch increases [[chromatic scale|chromatically]] along diagonals. The bass-side keyboard is usually the Stradella system, one of the various free-bass systems, or a converter system. Included among chromatic button accordions is the [[Russia]]n [[Bayan (accordion)|bayan]]. Sometimes an instrument of this class is simply called a '''chromatic accordion''', although other types, including the piano accordion, are fully chromatic as well. There can be 3 to 5 rows of treble buttons. In a 5 row chromatic, two additional rows repeat the first 2 rows to facilitate options in fingering. Chromatic button accordions are preferred by many [[European classical music|classical music]] performers, since the treble keyboard with diagonally arranged buttons allows a greater range than a piano keyboard configuration. Various cultures have made their own versions of the accordion, adapted to suit their own music. [[Russia]] alone has several, including the [[Bayan]], [[Garmon]], [[Livenka]], and [[Saratovskaya Garmonika]]. Various '''hybrids''' have been created between instruments of different keyboards and actions. Many remain curiosities, only a few have remained in use. Some notable examples are: *The [[Schrammel accordion]], used in [[Vienna|Viennese]] [[chamber music]] and [[Klezmer]], which has the treble keyboard of a chromatic button accordion and a bisonoric bass keyboard, similar to an expanded diatonic button accordion. *The [[schwyzerörgeli]] or [[Switzerland|Swiss]] organ, which has a (usually) 3-row diatonic treble and 18 unisonoric bass buttons in a bass/chord arrangement (actually a subset of the Stradella system), that travel parallel to the bellows motion. *The [[trikitixa]] of the [[Basque people]] has a 2-row diatonic, bisonoric treble and a 12-button diatonic unisonoric bass. *In [[Scotland]], the favoured diatonic accordion is, paradoxically, the instrument known as the [[British Chromatic Accordion]]. While the right hand is bisonoric, the left hand follows the Stradella system. The elite form of this instrument is generally considered to be the German manufactured "Shand Morino", produced by Hohner with the input of the late Sir Jimmy Shand. {{Ref|Howard98}} ==Stradella bass system== [[Image:Acchords.png|thumb|right|250px|Stradella bass layout]] The '''Stradella Bass System''' uses rows of buttons arranged in a [[circle of fifths]]; this places the principal major chords of a key in three adjacent rows. Each row contains, in order: A major third (the "counter-bass" note), the root note, the major chord, the minor chord, the seventh chord, and the diminished seventh chord. Depending on the price, size or origin of the instrument, some rows may be missing completely or in different positions. In most Russian layouts the diminished seventh chord row is moved by one button, so that the C diminished seventh chord is where the F diminished seventh chord would be in a standard Stradella layout; this is done in order to achieve a better reachability with the forefinger. Common configurations are: *"12 Bass" accordion: Fundamental Bass goes from B&#9837; to A (the third to eighth column in the picture above), and only has Fundamental Bass and major chords. *"24 Bass" goes from A&#9837; to A, and has Fundamental Bass, major and minor chords *"32 Bass" goes from E&#9837; to E, and has FB, major, minor and seventh chords *"48 Bass" goes from E&#9837; to E, and has all six rows *"72 Bass" goes from D&#9837; to F&#9839;, and has all six rows *"80 Bass" goes from C&#9837; to G&#9839;, and has everything except diminished *"96 Bass" is as 80 Bass, but with all six rows *"120 Bass" goes from A&#9837;&#9837; (i.e. low G) to A&#9839; &mdash; that's 20 columns &mdash; with all six rows. == Free bass systems == There are various free bass systems in use; most consist of a rotated version or mirror image of one of the melody layouts used in chromatic button accordions. One notable exception is the Titano line of converter bass, which repeats the first two bass rows of the Stradella system one and two octaves higher moving outward from the bellows. Skillfull use of the free bass system enabled the performance of classical piano music, rather than music arranged specifically for the accordion's standard chorded capability. Beginning in the 1960s, competitive performance on the accordion of classical piano compositions, by the great masters of music, occurred. Although never mainstreamed in the larger musical scene, this convergence with traditional classical music propelled young accordionists to an ultimate involvement with classical music heretofore not experienced. Many modern and [[avant-garde]] composers (such as [[Sofia Gubaidulina]], [[Luciano Berio]] and [[Magnus Lindberg]]) have written for the free bass accordion and the instrument is becoming more frequently integrated into [[new music]] chamber and improvisation groups. == Audio samples == *{{Listen|filename=accordian_chords-01.ogg|title=Accordion chords|description=Chords being played on an accordion &mdash; 145 KB |format=[[Ogg]]}} ==Related instruments== === Squeezeboxes === *[[Concertina]] *[[Bandoneon]] *[[Flutina]] === Other free-reeds === *[[Harmonica]] *[[Harmonium]] *[[Melodica]] *[[Sheng]] *[[Khene]] ==Trivia== *Despite the popularity of the accordion, especially in [[polka]] music by artists such as [[Lawrence Welk]], [[Myron Floren]], [[Frankie Yankovic]] and [["Weird Al" Yankovic]] (no relation), the instrument does have its critics. An oft-reprinted cartoon in ''[[The Far Side]]'' is a split panel in which the upper half is captioned, "Welcome to Heaven... here's your harp!" while the lower panel is captioned, "Welcome to Hell... here's your accordion!" ==References== #{{Note|Howard98}}p.98, Howard, Rob (2003) ''An A to Z of the Accordion and related instruments'' Stockport:Robaccord Publications ISBN 0-9546711-0-4 ==External links== {{commonscat|accordions}} *[http://www.mcrow.net/Accordion%20Virus.htm Accordion synth software for Reaktor] {{Squeezebox}} [[Category:Free reed aerophones]] [[Category:Keyboard instruments]] [[Category:Sets of free reeds]] [[de:Akkordeon]] [[es:Acordeón]] [[eo:Akordiono]] [[fr:Accordéon]] [[gl:Acordeón]] [[ia:Accordion]] [[it:Fisarmonica]] [[he:אקורדיון]] [[nl:Accordeon]] [[ja:アコーディオン]] [[no:Trekkspill]] [[nn:Trekkspel]] [[pl:Akordeon]] [[pt:Sanfona]] [[ru:Гармонь]] [[fi:Harmonikka]] [[sv:Dragspel]] [[uk:Акордеон]] [[zh:手风琴]] 1164 42052332 2006-03-03T13:48:33Z Tailpig 312490 Revert to revision 42030028 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] {{portal}} [[Image:HONDA ASIMO.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Honda's intelligent humanoid robot]] {{Redirect|AI}} '''Artificial intelligence''' ('''AI''') is defined as [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] exhibited by an [[artificial]] entity. Such a system is generally assumed to be a [[computer]]. Although AI has a strong [[science fiction]] connotation, it forms a vital branch of [[computer science]], dealing with intelligent [[behavior]], [[learn]]ing and [[adaptation]] in [[machine]]s. [[Research]] in AI is concerned with producing machines to automate tasks requiring intelligent behavior. Examples include [[control system|control]], [[Automated planning and scheduling|planning and scheduling]], the ability to answer diagnostic and consumer questions, [[handwriting recognition|handwriting]], [[speech recognition|speech]], and [[facial recognition system|facial recognition]]. As such, it has become a [[scientific]] discipline, focused on providing solutions to real life problems. AI systems are now in routine use in [[economics]], [[medicine]], [[engineering]] and the [[military]], as well as being built into many common home computer [[Computer software|software]] applications, traditional strategy games like [[computer chess]] and other [[video games]]. ==Schools of thought== AI divides roughly into two schools of thought: Conventional AI and [[Computational Intelligence]] (CI). Conventional AI mostly involves methods now classified as [[machine learning]], characterized by [[formalism]] and [[statistical analysis]]. This is also known as [[symbolic]] AI, [[logical]] AI, [[Neats|neat AI]] and [[GOFAI|Good Old Fashioned Artificial Intelligence (GOFAI)]]. (Also see [[semantics]].) Methods include: *[[Expert system]]s: apply reasoning capabilities to reach a conclusion. An expert system can process large amounts of known information and provide conclusions based on them. *[[Case based reasoning]] *[[Bayesian network]]s *[[Behavior based AI]]: a modular method of building AI systems by hand. Computational Intelligence involves [[iterative]] development or learning (e.g. parameter tuning e.g. in [[connectionist]] systems). Learning is based on [[empirical]] data and is associated with non-symbolic AI, [[Scruffies|scruffy AI]] and [[soft computing]]. Methods mainly include: *[[Neural network]]s: systems with very strong [[pattern recognition]] capabilities. *[[Fuzzy system]]s: techniques for [[reasoning under uncertainty]], has been widely used in modern industrial and consumer product control systems. *[[Evolutionary computation]]: applies biologically inspired concepts such as [[population]]s, [[mutation]] and [[survival of the fittest]] to generate increasingly better solutions to the problem. These methods most notably divide into [[evolutionary algorithm]]s (e.g. [[genetic algorithm]]s) and [[swarm intelligence]] (e.g. [[ant colony optimization|ant algorithm]]s). With [[hybrid intelligent system]]s attempts are made to combine these two groups. Expert inference rules can be generated through neural network or [[production rule]]s from statistical learning such as in [[ACT-R]]. ==History== {{main|History of artificial intelligence}} Early in the 17th century, [[René Descartes]] proposed that bodies of animals are nothing more than complex machines. [[Blaise Pascal]] created the first mechanical digital calculating machine in [[1642]]. In the 19th century, [[Charles Babbage]] and [[Ada Lovelace]] worked on programmable mechanical calculating machines. [[Bertrand Russell]] and [[Alfred North Whitehead]] published ''[[Principia Mathematica]]'', which revolutionized formal logic. [[Warren McCulloch]] and [[Walter Pitts]] published "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" in [[1943]] laying foundations for [[neural network]]s. The 1950s were a period of active efforts in AI. The first working AI programs were written in 1951 to run on the Ferranti Mark I machine of the University of Manchester (UK): a draughts-playing program written by Christopher Strachey and a chess-playing program written by Dietrich Prinz. [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|John McCarthy]] coined the term "artificial intelligence" in the first conference devoted to the subject, in 1956. He also invented the [[Lisp programming language]]. [[Alan Turing]] introduced the "[[Turing test]]" as a way of operationalizing a test of intelligent behavior. [[Joseph Weizenbaum]] built [[ELIZA]], a [[chatterbot]] implementing [[Rogerian psychotherapy]]. During the 1960s and 1970s, [[Joel Moses]] demonstrated the power of symbolic reasoning for integration problems in the Macsyma program, the first successful knowledge-based program in mathematics. [[Marvin Minsky]] and [[Seymour Papert]] publish ''Perceptrons'', demonstrating limits of simple neural nets and [[Alain Colmerauer]] developed the [[Prolog]] computer language. [[Ted Shortliffe]] demonstrated the power of rule-based systems for [[knowledge representation]] and inference in medical diagnosis and therapy in what is sometimes called the first expert system. [[Hans Moravec]] developed the first computer-controlled vehicle to [[autonomous vehicle|autonomously]] negotiate cluttered obstacle courses. In the 1980s, neural networks became widely used with the [[backpropagation]] algorithm, first described by [[Paul John Werbos]] in [[1974]]. The 1990s marked major achievements in many areas of AI and demonstrations of various applications. Most notably [[Deep Blue]], a chess-playing computer, beat [[Garry Kasparov]] in a famous six-game match in 1997. [[Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency|DARPA]] stated that the costs saved by implementing AI methods for scheduling units in the first [[Gulf War]] have repaid the US government's entire investment in AI research since the 1950s. ==Philosophy== {{portalpar|Mind and Brain}} ''Main article: [[Philosophy of artificial intelligence]]'' The [[strong AI]] vs. weak AI debate is still a hot topic amongst AI [[philosopher]]s. This involves [[philosophy of mind]] and the [[mind-body problem]]. Most notably [[Roger Penrose]] in his book ''[[The Emperor's New Mind]]'' and [[John Searle]] with his "[[Chinese room]]" [[thought experiment]] argue that true [[consciousness]] can not be achieved by [[formal logic]] systems, while [[Douglas Hofstadter]] in ''[[Gödel, Escher, Bach]]'' and [[Daniel Dennett]] in ''[[Consciousness Explained]]'' argue in favour of [[Functionalism (philosophy of mind)|Functionalism]]. In many strong AI supporters’ opinion, [[artificial consciousness]] is considered as the [[list of holy grails|holy grail]] of artificial intelligence. ==Science fiction== In [[science fiction]] AI is commonly portrayed as an upcoming power trying to overthrow human authority as in [[HAL 9000]], [[Skynet]], [[Colossus: The Forbin Project|Colossus]] and [[The Matrix]] or as service [[humanoid]]s like [[C-3PO]], [[Data (Star Trek)|Data]], the [[Bicentennial Man]], the ''Mechas'' in [[A.I. (film)|A.I.]] or Sonny in [[I, Robot (film)|I, Robot]]. <!--this is not a list of your favorite sci-fi AI, keep it short and use only famous and clear examples--> The inevitability of AI world domination, sometimes called "[[Technological singularity|the Singularity]]", is also argued by some science writers like [[Isaac Asimov]], [[Vernor Vinge]] and [[Kevin Warwick]]. In works such as the Japanese [[manga]] ''[[Ghost in the Shell (manga)|Ghost in the Shell]]'', the existence of intelligent machines questions the definition of life as organisms rather than a broader category of autonomous entities, establishing a notional concept of systemic intelligence. ''See [[list of fictional computers]] and [[list of fictional robots and androids]].'' ==See also== {{wikibookspar||Artificial Intelligence}} *[[Philosophy of artificial intelligence]] *[[Strong Artificial Intelligence]] *[[Functionalism]] - a philosophical theory of mind which allows for artificial intelligence Typical problems to which AI methods are applied: *[[Pattern recognition]] **[[Optical character recognition]] **[[Handwriting recognition]] **[[Speech recognition]] **[[Facial recognition system|Face recognition]] *[[Natural language processing]], [[Translation]] and [[Chatterbot]]s *[[Non-linear control]] and [[Robotics]] *[[Computer vision]], [[Virtual reality]] and [[Image processing]] *[[Game theory]] and [[Strategic planning]] *[[Game AI]] and [[Computer game bot]] *[[Artificial Creativity]] Other fields in which AI methods are implemented: *[[Automation]] *[[Bio-inspired computing]] *[[Cybernetics]] *[[Hybrid intelligent system]] *[[Intelligent agent]] *[[Intelligent control]] *[[Automated reasoning]] *[[Data mining]] *[[Behavior-based robotics]] *[[Cognitive robotics]] *[[Developmental robotics]] *[[Evolutionary robotics]] *[[Chatbot]] *[[Knowledge Representation]] == Links to researchers, projects & institutions == *[[:Category:Artificial intelligence researchers|List of AI researchers]] *[[List of Artificial Intelligence projects|List of AI projects]] *[[List of important publications in computer science#Artificial intelligence|List of important AI publications]] == External links== *[http://www.aaai.org/ American Association for Artificial Intelligence] *[http://agiri.org/ AGIRI - Artificial General Intelligence Research Institute] *[http://www.eccai.org/ European Coordinating Committee for Artificial Intelligence] *[http://www.dfki.de/ German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence, DFKI] *[http://www.cild.iastate.edu/ Center for Computational Intelligence, Learning, and Discovery @ Iowa State University] *[http://ai-news.elzemozgurce.net/ Artificial Intelligence News] *[http://www.auai.org/ Association for Uncertainty in Artificial Intelligence] *[http://www.singinst.org Singularity Institute for Artificial Intelligence] *[http://www.aisb.org.uk/ The Society for the Study of AI and Simulation of Behaviour] *[http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~russell/ai.html University of California at Berkeley AI Resources] links to 868 AI resource pages *[http://www.loebner.net/Prizef/loebner-prize.html Loebner Prize website]. *[http://commonsense.media.mit.edu/cgi-bin/search.cgi/ OpenMind CommonSense] *[http://sourceforge.net/softwaremap/trove_list.php?form_cat=133 SourceForge Open Source AI projects] - 1139 projects *[http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/html/ethics.html Ethical and Social Implications of AI en Computerization] *[http://www.geocities.com/fhzeya20042000/lisp.htm A tutorial on AI programming language LISP] *[http://web.media.mit.edu/~minsky/ Marvin Minsky's Homepage] *[http://www.csail.mit.edu/ MIT's Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Lab] *[http://www.isi.edu/divisions/div3/ AI research group at Information Sciences Institute] *[http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/pages/Reference%20Articles/What%20is%20AI.html What is Artificial Intelligence?] *[http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/cs.AI/0601052 Artificial and biological intelligence] *[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ai/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Logic and Artificial Intelligence] *[http://www.ai-junkie.com/ AI-Junkie: Genetic Algorithm and Neural Network tutorials] *[http://www-ai.cs.uni-dortmund.de/ Artificial Intelligence Group] @ University of Dortmund, Germany <!--This is not a list of your pet website or article, or favorite AI software & books. please add those to the appropriate links in the see also section. Keep this list short and use only famous and clear examples--> [[Category:Artificial intelligence]] [[Category:Computer science]] [[ar:ذكاء اصطناعي]] [[bg:Изкуствен интелект]] [[bs:Vještačka inteligencija]] [[ca:Intel·ligència artificial]] [[cs:Umělá inteligence]] [[da:Kunstig intelligens]] [[de:Künstliche Intelligenz]] [[et:Tehisintellekt]] [[es:Inteligencia artificial]] [[eo:Artefarita inteligenteco]] [[eu:Adimen artifiziala]] [[fa:هوش مصنوعی]] [[fr:Intelligence artificielle]] [[gl:Intelixencia artificial]] [[ko:인공 지능]] [[hi:आर्टिफिशियल इंटेलिजेंस]] [[hr:Umjetna inteligencija]] [[io:Artifical inteligenteso]] [[id:Kecerdasan Buatan]] [[is:Gervigreind]] [[it:Intelligenza artificiale]] [[he:בינה מלאכותית]] [[lt:Dirbtinis intelektas]] [[hu:Mesterséges intelligencia]] [[nl:Kunstmatige intelligentie]] [[ja:人工知能]] [[no:Kunstig intelligens]] [[pl:Sztuczna inteligencja]] [[pt:Inteligência artificial]] [[ro:Inteligenţă artificială]] [[ru:Искусственный интеллект]] [[simple:Artificial intelligence]] [[sk:Umelá inteligencia]] [[sl:Umetna inteligenca]] [[fi:Tekoäly]] [[sv:Artificiell intelligens]] [[th:ปัญญาประดิษฐ์]] [[vi:Trí tuệ nhân tạo]] [[tr:Yapay zeka]] [[uk:Штучний інтелект]] [[zh:人工智能]] 1166 41181483 2006-02-25T16:26:09Z 24.200.133.131 fr The '''Afro Celt Sound System''' is a [[band (music)|musical group]] which fuses modern [[dance music|dance]] rhythms ([[trip-hop]], [[techno music|techno]], etc.) with [[Celtic music|Celtic]] and [[Africa]]n influences. It was formed by [[Grammy]]-nominated producer-guitarist [[Simon Emmerson]], and is considered to be somewhat of a [[world music]] [[supergroup (bands)|supergroup]], often having a wide range of guest artists on their albums. Their albums have been released through [[Peter Gabriel]]'s [[Real World Records]], and they are also reportedly the best-selling band on the label, only exceeded in sales by Gabriel himself, and their striking live performances have often become the highlights of the [[WOMAD]] concert festivals. They signed a contract with Real World obliged to release five albums, of which the 2005 release ''Anatomic'' is the last; at this writing it is unclear what path the band will take in the future. In 2003 they changed their name to the simpler '''Afro Celts'''; however, two of their latest albums, ''Pod'', a compilation of new mixes of songs from the first four albums, and their fifth studio album ''Anatomic'' uses the long and familiar form. This decision is apparently affected by the fact that they seem much more well-known as ''Afro Celt Sound System'' around the world. ==Band members== When Afro Celts began their musical journey in the mid-1990s during the [[Real World Records|Real World]] Recording Week the difference between a guest artist and a band member was virtually non-existent, though as time has passed a following combination of people is most often associated with the name Afro Celt Sound System: ''(Please note that the new release Anatomic only lists Simon, James, Iarla and Martin as regulars)'' # [[Simon Emmerson]] (guitar, producing) # [[N'Faly Kouyate]] ([[kora (instrument)|kora]], [[balaphon]], [[n'goma]], vocals) # [[Moussa Sissokho]] ([[djembe]], [[talking drum]]) # [[James McNally (musician)|James McNally]] (ex-[[Pogues]]; [[Bodhrán]], [[accordion]], [[Tin whistle|whistle]]) # [[Johnny Kalsi]] (the [[Dhol drum]]) # [[Iarla Ó Lionáird]] (vocals) # [[Emer Maycock]] ([[tin whistle]], [[flute]], [[uillean pipes]]) # [[Martin Russell]] (keyboards, producing, engineering, programming) ==Discography== # ''[[Sound Magic (album)|Volume 1: Sound Magic]]'' (1996) # ''[[Release (album2)|Volume 2: Release]]'' (1999) # ''[[Further In Time (album)|Volume 3: Further in Time]]'' (2001) # ''[[Seed (album)|Seed]]'' (2003) # ''[[Pod (album2)|Pod]]'' (2004) # ''[[Anatomic (album)|Volume 5: Anatomic]]'' (2005) ==Related links== [http://www.realworldrecords.com/afrocelts/ Afro Celts on Real World Records] [http://www.afrocelts.org/ An Afro Celts Fan Website] [[Category:World music groups]] [[ast:Afro Celts]] [[fi:Afro Celt Sound System]] [[fr:Afro Celt Sound System]] 1167 37485671 2006-01-31T07:20:53Z Pschemp 110252 Reversion to revision 35648191 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] {{histphil}} This page lists some links to '''ancient philosophy''', although for Western thinkers prior to Socrates, see [[Pre-Socratic philosophy]]. In Europe, the spread of Christianity through the Roman world marked the end of [[Hellenistic]] philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of [[Medieval philosophy]]. ==Classical== ===Greek=== * [[Pericles]] (495-429) * [[Aspasia]] (469-406) * [[Socrates]](469-399) * [[Euclid of Megara]] (450-380) * [[Antisthenes]] (445-360) * [[Aristippus]] (435-356) * [[Plato]] (429-347) * [[Xenophon]] (429-355) * [[Speusippus]] (407-339) * [[Diogenes of Sinope]] (400-325) * [[Xenocrates]] (396-314) * [[Aristotle]] (384-322) * [[Stilpo]] (380-300) * [[Theophrastus]] (370-288) * [[Pyrrho]] (365-275) * [[Epicurus]] (341-270) * [[Zeno of Citium]] (365-263) * [[Cleanthes]] (331-232) * [[Timon (philosopher)|Timon]] (320-230) * [[Arcesilaus]] (316-232) * [[Menippus]] (3rd century BC) * [[Archimedes]] (circa 287 BC - 212 BC) * [[Chrysippus]] (280-207) * [[Carneades]] (214-129) * [[Philo of Larissa]] (160-80) * [[Posidonius]] (135-51) * [[Aenesidemus]] (1st century BC) * [[Philo of Alexandria]] (30 BC - 45 AD) * [[Plutarch]] (45-120) ===Roman=== * [[Cicero]] (106-43) * [[Lucretius]] (94-55 BC) * [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] (4 BC - 65 AD) * [[Musonius Rufus]] (30 AD - 100) * [[Epictetus]] (55-135) * [[Marcus Aurelius]] (121-180) * [[Clement of Alexandria]] (150-215) * [[Alcinous]] (2nd century AD) * [[Sextus Empiricus]] (3rd century AD) * [[Alexander of Aphrodisias]] (3rd century AD) * [[Ammonius Saccas]] (3rd century AD) * [[Plotinus]] (205-270) * [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] (232-304) * [[Iamblichus (philosopher)|Iamblichus]] (242-327) * [[Themistius]] (317-388) * [[Augustine of Hippo]] (354-430) * [[Proclus]] (411-485) * [[Damascius]] (462-540) * [[Boethius]] (472-524) * [[Simplicius of Cilicia]] (490-560) ==Schools of thought in the [[Hellenistic]] period== *[[Cynicism]] *[[Epicureanism]] *[[Hedonism]] *[[Eclecticism]] *[[Neo-Platonism]] *[[Skepticism]] *[[Stoicism]] ==Vedic philosophy== In the east, Indian philosophy begins with the [[Vedas]] where questions related to laws of nature, the origin of the universe and the place of man in it are asked. In the famous [[Rigveda|Rigvedic]] ''Hymn of Creation'' the poet says: "Whence all creation had its origin, he, whether he fashioned it or whether he did not, he, who surveys it all from highest heaven, he knows--or maybe even he does not know." In the [[Vedic religion|Vedic]] view, creation is ascribed to the self-consciousness of the primeval being (''Purusha''). This leads to the inquiry into ''the one being'' that underlies the diversity of empirical phenomena and the origin of all things. Cosmic order is termed ''rta'' and causal law by ''karma''. Nature (''prakriti'') is taken to have three qualities (''[[sattva]]'', ''[[rajas]]'', and ''[[tamas]]''). *[[Vedas]] *[[Upanishads]] *[[Hinduism]] ==Classical Indian philosophy== In classical times, these inquiries were systematized in six schools of philosophy. The questions asked were: *What is the ontological nature of consciousness? *How is cognition itself experienced? *Is mind (''chit'') intentional or not? *Does cognition have its own structure? The six schools of [[Indian philosophy]] are: *[[Mimamsa]] *[[Samkhya]] *[[Yoga]] *[[Vaisheshika]] *[[Nyaya]] *[[Vedanta]] ==Old Iranian philosophy== While there are ancient relations between the Indian [[Vedas]] and the Iranian [[Avesta]], the two main families of the Indo-Iranian philosophical traditions were characterized by fundamental differences in their implications for the human being's position in society and their view on the role of man in the universe. The first charter of [[human rights]] by [[Cyrus the Great]] is widely seen as a reflection of the questions and thoughts expressed by [[Zarathustra]] and developed in zoroastrian schools of thought. *[[Avesta]] *[[Gathas]] *[[Zarathustra]] *[[Zoroastrianism]] *[[Mazdakism]] *[[Manichaeism]] ==Chinese philosophy== In China, less emphasis was put upon materialism as a basis for reflecting upon the world and more on conduct, manners and social behaviour, as evidenced by [[Taoism]] and [[Confucianism]]. *[[Chinese philosophy]] -- [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]] *[[Buddhist philosophy]] arose in India but contributions to it were made in [[China]], [[Japan]], and [[Korea]] also. *[[Eastern philosophy]] == External links == *[http://www.epistemelinks.com/Main/Topics.aspx?TopiCode=Anci Internet sources] {{Philosophy navigation}} [[Category:Ancient philosophy| ]] [[be:Філязофія антычнасьці]] [[de:Philosophie der Antike]] [[eo:Greka filozofio]] [[eu:Kategoria:Haraitzinako filosofia]] [[fr:Origine de la philosophie]] [[it:Filosofia antica]] [[he:פילוסופיה עתיקה]] [[nl:Klassieke filosofie]] [[pl:Filozofia starożytna]] [[ru:Античная философия]] [[fi:Antiikin filosofia]] [[sv:Antikens filosofi]] [[zh:古希腊哲学家]] 1168 41581865 2006-02-28T07:44:20Z Zirland 335898 interwiki [[Image:Anaximander.jpg|thumb|right|Anaximander|200px]] '''Anaximander''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '''&#913;&#957;&#945;&#958;&#943;&#956;&#945;&#957;&#948;&#961;&#959;&#962;''')(c.610 BC&ndash;c. [[546 BC]]) also known as '''Aniximander''', was the second of the physical philosophers of [[Ionia]], a citizen of [[Miletus]], a companion or pupil of [[Thales]], and teacher of [[Anaximenes of Miletus]]. Little is known of his life and work. [[Aelian]] makes him the leader of the Milesian colony to [[Amphipolis]], and hence some have inferred that he was a prominent citizen. The computations of [[Apollodorus of Athens]] have fixed his birth in 611, and his death shortly after 547 B.C. Ancient sources represent him as a successful student of [[astronomy]] and [[geography]], and an early proponent of [[exact science]]. He has also been said to have introduced such astronomical instruments as the [[sundial]] and the [[gnomon]] to ancient [[Greece]]. Furthermore, he is credited with having created the first map of the world, which was circular in form and showed the known lands of the world grouped around the Aegean Sea at the center and all of this was surrounded by the ocean. ==Cosmology and the ''apeiron''== Anaximander's reputation is due mainly to a cosmological work, little of which remains. From the few extant fragments, we learn that he believed the beginning or first principle (''[[arche]],'' a word first found in Anaximander's writings, and which he probably invented) is an endless, unlimited mass ([[apeiron]]), subject to neither old age nor decay, which perpetually yields fresh materials from which everything we can perceive is derived. He never defined this principle precisely, and it has generally (e.g. by [[Aristotle]] and [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]) been understood as a sort of primal [[Chaos_(mythology)|chaos]]. It embraced the opposites of hot and cold, wet and dry, and directed the movement of things, by which there grew up all of the host of shapes and differences which are found in "all the worlds"--as he believed there were many. Out of the vague and limitless body there sprang a central mass &mdash; this earth of ours, cylindrical in shape, poised equidistant from surrounding orbs of fire, which had originally clung to it like the bark round a tree, until their continuity was severed, and they parted into several wheel-shaped and fire-filled bubbles of air. Man himself and the animals had come into being by like transmutations. Mankind was supposed by Anaximander to have sprung from some other species of animals, probably aquatic. For, he thought, man with his extended infancy could not have survived, originally, in the manner he does presently. For this, even though he had no theory of [[natural selection]], some people consider him to be [[evolution]]ary theory's most ancient proponent. Anaximander offered up the theory of the apeiron in direct response to the earlier theory of his teacher, [[Thales]], who had claimed that the primary substance was [[water]]. Anaximander reasoned that water cannot embrace all of the opposites found in nature &mdash; for example, water can only be wet, never dry &mdash; and therefore, it can not be the one primary substance. Nor could any of the other candidates, so Anaximander postulated the [[apeiron]] as a substance that, although it could not be perceived directly, could explain the opposites he could clearly see around him. ---- The one surviving fragment of Anaximander was transmitted as a quote by [[Simplicius_of_Cilicia|Simplicius]] and could be translated as <h3 align="center">Whence things have their origin,<br> Thence also their destruction happens, <br> As is the order of things; <br> For they execute the sentence upon one another<br> - The condemnation for the crime -<br> In conformity with the ordinance of Time. </h3> == Interpretations == [[Bertrand Russell]] in ''The History of Western Philosophy'' interprets the above quote as an assertion of the necessity of an appropriate balance between earth, fire, and water elements, all of which may be independently seeking to aggrandize their proportions relative to the others. Anaximander seems to express his belief that a natural order ensures balance between these elements, that where there was fire, ashes (earth) now exist. Anaximander's Greek peers echoed this sentiment with their belief of natural boundaries that not even their Gods could operate beyond. [[Nietzsche]], in his ''[[Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks]]'', claimed that Anaximander was a pessimist. Anaximander asserted that the primal being of the world was state of indefiniteness. In accordance with this, anything definite has to eventually pass back into indefiniteness. In other words, Anaximander viewed "...all coming-to-be as though it were an illegitimate emancipation from eternal being, a wrong for which destruction is the only penance." (''Ibid.'', § 4) The world of individual objects, in this way of thinking, has no worth and should perish. == Known Works == ''On Nature'', circa ? :; Subject : Philosophy :; Referenced in : [[Simplicius_of_Cilicia|Simplicius]] in Phys., p. 24, 13sq. :; Authenticity : Likely Map, circa ? (lost) :; Subject : (First?) Map of his Known World :; Referenced in : [[Agathemerus]], [[Geographie informatio]] :; Authenticity : Likely Some of Anaximander's ideas were also preserved in [[Theophrastus]]'s (lost) history of philosophy, and re-quoted by later authors. ==Honors== * [[Anaximander (crater)|Anaximander crater]] on the [[Moon]], at 66N, 48W, is named after him. For a picture, see: * http://www.dirkcouprie.nl/Anaximander.html * The [[asteroid]] [[6006 Anaximandros]] is also named after him. ==References== Dirk L.Couprie, Roobert Hahn, and Gerard Naddaf, 2003. 'Anaximander in Context: New Studies in the Origins of Greek Philosophy', Albany N.Y.: State University of New York Press ==See also== *[[Milesian school]] ==External links== * "http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/anaximan.htm" Anaximander from The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. * "http://www.dirkcouprie.nl/Anaximander-bibliography.htm" for an extensive bibliography. {{1911}} {{Presocratics}} [[Category:610 BC births]] [[Category:609 BC births]] [[Category:547 BC deaths]] [[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers]] [[Category:Presocratic philosophers]] [[ar:أناكسيماندر]] [[bg:Анаксимандър]] [[bs:Anaksimandar]] [[ca:Anaximandre de Milet]] [[cs:Anaximandros]] [[da:Anaximander]] [[de:Anaximander]] [[el:Αναξίμανδρος]] [[es:Anaximandro]] [[eo:Anaksimandro]] [[eu:Anaximandros]] [[fa:آناکسیماندر ملطی]] [[fr:Anaximandre]] [[gl:Anaximandro de Mileto]] [[hr:Anaksimandar]] [[id:Anaximander]] [[is:Anaxímandros]] [[it:Anassimandro]] [[he:אנכסימנדרוס]] [[la:Anaximander]] [[lv:Anaksimandrs]] [[hu:Anaximandrosz]] [[nl:Anaximandros]] [[ja:アナクシマンドロス]] [[no:Anaximander]] [[nn:Anaximander]] [[pl:Anaksymander]] [[pt:Anaximandro de Mileto]] [[ro:Anaximandru]] [[ru:Анаксимандр]] [[sk:Anaximandros]] [[sl:Anaksimander]] [[sr:Анаксимандар]] [[fi:Anaksimandros]] [[sv:Anaximander]] [[tr:Anaksimandros]] [[zh:阿那克西曼德]] 1169 38930486 2006-02-09T16:18:44Z 194.39.218.10 '''APL''' is an [[abbreviation]], [[Acronym and initialism|acronym]], or [[Acronym and initialism|initialism]] that may refer to: *[[Acute promyelocytic leukemia]], a subtype of [[acute myelogenous leukemia]] *[[American President Lines]], a [[Singapore]]-based container transportation and shipping company *[[American Protective League]], a WWI era pro-war organization *[[Association of Pension Lawyers]] *[[APL programming language]], an [[array programming]] language invented in 1962 *The [[Adaptive Public License]] *The [[Apple Public License]] *The [[AROS Public License]] *Applied Physics Letters (a journal published by [[American Institute of Physics]], [http://scitation.aip.org/aplo/ website]) *The [[Applied Physics Laboratory|Applied Physics Laboratory]] at [[Johns Hopkins University]] *The [[Applied Physics Laboratory (University of Washington)|Applied Physics Laboratory]] at the [[University of Washington]] *The [[United States Navy]] [[hull classification symbol]] for Barracks Craft *[[Australian Pork Limited]] *The rap singer [[Allan Pineda Lindo]] *The [[metadata]] format for [[Monkey's Audio]] files *[[average picture level]] {{TLAdisambig}} [[da:APL (flertydig)]] [[de:APL]] [[fr:APL]] 1170 42018152 2006-03-03T06:27:24Z Jamesandra 991772 /* Notable Schools of Architecture */ {{otheruses}} [[Image:Architect.png|thumb|Architect at his drawing board, 1893]] An '''architect''' is a person involved in the [[planning]], [[Design|designing]] and oversight of a [[Building|building's]] [[construction]]. The most basic definition of an architect is a professional who is qualified to design and provide advice - functional, aesthetic and technical - on built objects in our public and private landscapes. More generally, an architect is the designer of a scheme or plan. "Architect" is derived from Latin: ''architectus'', and from Greek: ''arkhitekton'' (master builder), ''arkhi'' (chief) + ''tekton'' (builder, carpenter). [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=architect&searchmode=none] In the broadest sense, an '''architect''' is a person who interfaces between the end user of a planned structure and the [[builder]]. That is, the architect translates the user's needs into the builder's requirements. The architect must be completely conversant with the user's environment, that is, the area of business or industry for which the structure is to be used, so that s/he can fully and completely understand the image of the final result that the user is trying to convey. Equally as important, the architect must thoroughly understand the building and operational codes with which the builder must conform and, upon completion, during use of the structure. That degree of knowledge is necessary so that s/he is not apt to omit any necessary requirements, or produce improper, conflicting, ambiguous, or confusing requirements. S/he must understand the various methods available to the builder for building the user's structure, so that s/he can negotiate with the user to produce a best possible compromise of the results desired within explicit cost and time boundaries. Architects are professionals considered on par with doctors, engineers, and lawyers, and they must frequently make building design and planning decisions that affect the safety and well being of the general public. Architects are required to obtain specialized education and documented work experience to obtain professional licensure, similar to the requirements for other [[professional]]s, with requirements for practice varying greatly from place to place (see below). The most prestigious award a living architect can receive is the [[Pritzker Prize]]. It is considered the equivalent of the [[Nobel Prize]] for [[architecture]]. Other awards for excellence in architecture are given by national and regional professional associations such as the [[American Institute of Architects]] and [[Royal Institute of British Architects]]. <!--If you would like to describe someone who is not an architect, please consider adding another entry (or at least creating another paragraph). This one is intended to define the professional term Architect, which has a legal definition in most areas.--> <!--This is not a legal dictionary--> Although '''architect''' may be a specific term referring to a licensed professional, the word is frequently used in the broader sense noted above to define someone who brings order to the built or unbuilt environment through the use of rational constructs using (engineering) design tools. ['''Note:''' someone who brings order to the built and/or unbuilt environment through the use of rational '''or irrational''' constructs and '''who may or may not use''' design tools is normally referred to as an [[artist]]. Although structures described by [[architectures]] may often be said to contain [[artistic]] features, as a whole they are rarely referred to as works of [[art]]. Similarly, works of [[art]] are rarely referred to as having an [[architecture]].] For example, '''naval architects, software architects,''' etc., and graduates of schools of architecture not doing regulated project/construction documents are often called '''architects.''' However, '''non-licensed architects''' and designers working in the [[construction industry]] are prohibited from referring to themselves as '''architects''' in most countries. ==Canada== In [[Canada]], architects are required to belong to provincial architectural associations that require them to complete an accredited degree in architecture, finish a multi-year internship process, pass a series of exams, and pay an annual fee to acquire and maintain a license to practice. The [[Royal Architectural Institute of Canada]] [http://www.raic.org/] aims to be "the voice of Architecture and its practice in Canada." Architects who are members of this organization are permitted to use the suffix MRAIC after their names. All members of the RAIC hold accredited degrees in architecture, but not all Canadian architects are members of the RAIC. ==UK== Architects in the [[UK]] qualify through courses and exams recognized by the [[Royal Institute of British Architects]] (RIBA) and prescribed by the [[Architects_Registration_Board|Architects Registration Board]] (ARB). Typically the sequence of education leading to full [[professional certification|qualification]] and registration takes seven years and is: * Three-year degree course * RIBA Part 1 exam * One year’s professional experience * Further two-year course * RIBA Part 2 exam * Another year’s professional experience * RIBA Part 3 exam The title ‘architect’ has legal protection in the United Kingdom; under the [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1997/97022--f.htm#20 Architects Act 1997] it is against the law for people who are not registered to practise or carry on business under any name, style or title that contains the word. However, [[draughtsmen]] and [[architectural technologists]] (previously architectural technicians), as well as many who have chosen not to register, may also provide architectural services. ==USA== In the [[United States]], people wishing to become licensed architects (interns) are required to have a degree from a school accredited by the [[#External Links|NAAB]] and pass a series of exams administered by the National Council of Architectural Registration Boards (NCARB), referred to as the [[Architect Registration Exam]]ination (the ARE). In addition, interns must have a minimum of 3 years of documented, practical work experience (quantity depends on type of educational experience and type of educational degree earned) working under a licensed Architect before they may become eligible to take the ARE. Although the ARE is a national exam, each state has specific requirements and issues their own licenses (including California and Hawaii), due to varying environmental conditions in each region. Other states have reciprocity agreements, so licenses may be easily transferred between certain states. Schooling is not always required in such states as New York, for someone who works at least 10 years under an accredited architect is eligible for a licensing test. There are three types of accredited ("professional") degrees in architecture in the United States; a Bachelor of Architecture, a Master of Architecture, or a Doctor of Architecture (abbreviated as B.Arch., M.Arch., and D.Arch., respectively). These are called professional degrees as they are required to enter the profession. A Bachelor of Arts in Architecture (BA), Bachelor of Fine Arts in Architecture (BFA Arch), Bachelor of Science in Architecture (BS), or Bachelor of Environmental Design (B.Envd) typically takes four years - as opposed to five for a B. Arch degree - and is considered a pre-professional degree. However a professional degree may still be required (to take the ARE and to practice) and the programs are often combined usually leading to an M.Arch degree. A pre-professional degree is not necessary to enter a professional degree program, but accelerates completion. It is possible to become licensed as an Architect in other ways: reciprical licensure for over-seas architects and working under an architect as an intern for an extended period of time. Following graduation from a professional program, documented apprenticeship (typically 3 year internship) is required before the individual is eligible to take the ARE and become licensed. The [[American Institute of Architects]] [http://www.aia.org] is a professional organization dedicated to offering a network of services to architects in the United States. Architects who are members of this organization are permitted to use the suffix AIA after their names. All architects who are licensed by their respective states have professional status as Registered Architects (RA), which is the suffix used if the architect is not also a member of the AIA. ==Hong Kong== In [[Hong Kong]] to be an architect, one must be a graduate of a university specified by the HKIA plus a two year internship, then take the architect registration examination. Architects from U.K. and U.S.A. with 10 years experience aren't required to take the examination, but are required to attend an interview just as a formality. Architects in Hong Kong are not authorized to submit building plans but use it as a 'title' only, unlike in most of the western world which carries a statutory obligation. To be able to submit building plans, architects, engineers or surveyors must go through another step by passing an authorized personal interview. Contrary to popular thought, most of the famous buildings in Hong Kong are designed by well-known international 'brand' architects and local architects act only as facilitators. ==Australia== In [[Australia]] the title architect is legally protected and architects are registered through state boards. These boards are affiliated through the [http://www.aaca.org.au/index.html Architects Accreditation Council of Australia]. The AACA also provides accrediation for schools and assessments for architects with overseas qualifications for the purposes of migration. There are three key requirements for registration. The first is a professional degree from a school of architecture accredited by the AACA. This is generally a Bachelor of Architecture degree of five or six years duration. The second is at least two years of practical experience and the third is the completion of the architectural practice examination. Architects may also belong to the [http://www.architecture.com.au Royal Australian Institute of Architects] which is the professional organisation and members use the suffix RAIA after their name. ==Famous architects== The architects in the [[List of architects|list of famous architects]] are in chronological order of when they did their most important work (or emerged), and alphabetized within each time period. ==Notable Schools of Architecture== *[[Architectural Association School of Architecture]], [[London]] *The Bartlett School of Architecture [http://www.bartlett.ucl.ac.uk/architecture/programmes/bsc.htm], Faculty of the Built Environment (London, UK) *[[Berlage Institute]] [http://www.berlage-institute.nl/], [[Rotterdam]] *[[Bauhaus]]: [[Weimar, Germany|Weimar]], [[Dessau]], and [[Berlin]] *[[Columbia University]] [http://www.columbia.edu/], Grad. School of Architecture Planning and Preservation ([[GSAPP]]) [http://www.arch.columbia.edu/] *The School of Art, Architecture and Planning [http://www.architecture.cornell.edu/] at [[Cornell University]] in Ithaca, New York *[[Dalhousie University]] (TUNS) School of Architecture [http://architectureandplanning.dal.ca/architecture/index.shtml] in Halifax, NS, Canada *[[École Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Versailles]], [[Versailles]], [[France]] [http://www.versailles.archi.fr] *[http://www.arch.ethz.ch/ ETH Zurich], [[Switzerland]] *[[Glasgow School of Art]], [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]] *[[Harvard Graduate School of Design]] * University Institute of Architecture, [[Venice]], Italy * The School of Architecture[http://www.mcgill.ca/architecture/] at [[McGill University]] *[http://www.design.upenn.edu/index.php Penn Design] at the [[University of Pennsylvania]] in [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]] *[[Politecnico di Milano]], [[Milan]], Italy *[[Rhode Island School of Design]] [http://www.risd.edu/] *[[Rural Studio]] [http://www.ruralstudio.org], of [[Auburn University]], [[Alabama]] *[http://arch.rwth-aachen.de/ RWTH Aachen], [[Germany]] *[[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]] College of Environmental Design *[[University of Texas at Austin]] School of Architecture *[[University of Washington]] [[College of Architecture and Urban Planning]] *[http://www.architecture.uwaterloo.ca/ School of Architecture] at the [[University of Waterloo]], Canada *[http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/archi/ Welsh School of Architecture], [[Cardiff University]], [[Cardiff]], [[UK]] *[[Yale University|Yale]] School of Architecture [http://www.architecture.yale.edu/] in New Haven, Connecticut *[[CCNY]] School of Architecture [http://www1.ccny.cuny.edu/prospective/architecture/] in New York City ==See also== *[[Architecture]] *[[Architectural Designer]] *[[Architectural technologists]] *[[Building design]] *[[Civil engineer]] *[[Civil engineering]] *[[Clerk of the Works]] *[[Landscape architect]] *[[Landscape architecture]] *[[Naval architect]] *[[Project manager|Project Manager]] (PM) *[[Project Architect]] (PA) *[[Regional planning]] *[[Structural engineer]] *[[Structural engineering]] *[[Urban planning]] *[[Urban planner]] *[[Vernacular Architecture]] ==External links== *[http://www.riba.org/ Royal Institute of British Architects] - Professional association for architects in the United Kingdom *[http://www.raic.org/ Royal Architectural Institute of Canada] - Professional association for architects in Canada *[http://www.aia.org/ American Institute of Architects] - Professional association for architects in the United States *[http://www.ncarb.org/ National Council of Architectural Registration Boards] - Administers professional registration testing in the United States *[http://www.naab.org/ National Architectural Accrediting Board] - Professional degree programs in architecture schools in the United States *[http://www.architecture.com.au Royal Australian Institute of Architects] - Professional association for architects in Australia *[http://architect.architecture.sk/ Famous architects] Biographies of well-known architects, almost all of the Modern Movement. [[Category:Architects| ]] [[Category:Architecture and engineering occupations]] [[Category:Professions|Architect]] [[Category:Professional certification]] [[da:Arkitekt]] [[de:Architekt]] [[fi:Arkkitehti]] [[fr:Architecte]] [[he:אדריכל]] [[id:Arsitek]] [[io:Arkitekto]] [[it:Architetto]] [[nl:Architect]] [[ja:建築家]] [[nn:Arkitekt]] [[pl:Architekt]] [[pt:Arquiteto]] [[uk:Архітектор]] [[zh:建筑师]] 1171 42059270 2006-03-03T14:54:36Z Manop 292857 adding th {{mergefrom|Apocopation}} '''Abbreviation''' (from [[Latin]] ''brevis'' "short") is strictly a shorter form of a word, but more particularly, an ''abbreviation'' is a letter or group of letters, taken from a word or words, and employed to represent them for the sake of brevity. For example, the word "abbreviation" can be abbreviated as "abbr." or "abbrev." == Types of abbreviations == Apart from the common form of shortening one word, there are other types of abbreviations. These include [[acronym and initialism]] (including [[TLA]]), [[apocopation]] (that is, apocope), [[clipping (phonetics)]], [[elision]], [[syncope]], syllabic abbreviation, [[portmanteau]]. === Syllabic abbreviation === A syllabic abbreviation (SA) is an abbreviation formed from (usually) initial [[syllable]]s of several [[Word (linguistics)|word]]s, such as ''[[Interpol]]'' for '''''Inter'''national '''pol'''ice''. SAs are usually written in [[lower case]], sometimes starting with a [[capital letter]], and are always [[pronunciation|pronounced]] as words rather than letter by letter. SAs should be distinguished from [[portmanteau]]x. ==== Use in different languages ==== Syllabic abbreviations are not widely used in [[English language|English]] or [[French language|French]], but are common in [[German language|German]]. They prevailed in [[Nazi Germany|Germany under the Nazis]] and in the [[Soviet Union]] for naming the plethora of new bureaucratic organizations. For example, ''[[Gestapo]]'' stands for '''''Ge'''heime '''Sta'''ats-'''Po'''lizei'', or "secret state police". This has given SAs a negative connotation, even though SAs were used in Germany before the Nazis, e.g., ''[[:de:Schupo|Schupo]]'' for ''Schutzpolizei''. Even now Germans call part of their police ''[[Kripo]]'' for ''Kriminalpolizei''. SAs were also typical of German language used in the [[German Democratic Republic]], e.g. ''[[Stasi]]'' for ''Staatssicherheit'' ("state security", the secret police) or ''Vopo'' for ''Volkspolizist'' ("people's policeman"). [[East Asia]]n languages whose writing uses [[Chinese language|Chinese]]-originated [[ideogram]]s instead of an alphabet form abbreviations similarly by using key [[Chinese character|character]]s from a term or phrase. For example, in [[Japanese language|Japanese]] the term for the [[United Nations]], ''kokusai reng&#333;'' (&#22269;&#38555;&#36899;&#21512;) is often abbreviated to ''kokuren'' (&#22269;&#36899;). Another classic example is ''[[shogun]]''. Such abbreviations are called [[:ja:&#30053;&#35486;|ryakugo]] (&#30053;&#35486;) in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. SAs are frequently used for names of universities: for instance, ''Beida'' (北大, Běidà) for [[Peking University]] ([[Beijing]]) and '''Tōdai'' (東大) for the [[University of Tokyo]]. ==== Usage of syllabic abbreviations in organisations ==== Syllabic abbreviations are preferred by the US [[Navy]] as it increases readability amidst the large number of [[initialism]]s that would otherwise have to fit into the same [[acronym]]s. Hence ''[[DESRON]] 6'' is used (in the full capital form) to mean "Destroyer Squadron 6," while ''[[COMNAVFORLANT]]'' would be "Commander, Naval Force (in the) Atlantic." ==Style conventions== In [[modern English]] there are several conventions for abbreviations and the choice may be confusing. The only rule universally accepted is that one should be ''consistent,'' and to this end publishers express their preferences in a [[style guide]]. Questions which arise include the following: * Use of upper or lower case letters. If the original word was capitalised, then the first letter of its abbreviation should retain the capital, for example Lev. for Leviticus. When abbreviating words spelled with lower case letters, there is no consistent rule. * Use of periods (full stops) and spaces, for example when abbreviating United States, should one write "US", "U.S." or "U.&nbsp;S."? Spaces are generally not used between single letter abbreviations of words in the same phrase, so one almost never encounters "U.&nbsp;S.". In [[American English]], the period is usually added if the abbreviation may be interpreted as a word, though some American writers do not use a period here. There is no stop/period between letters of the same word, for example St. and not S.t. for Saint. While users of [[British English]] often abbreviate in the same manner, it is more common in formal writing that abbreviations are written with full stops if the word has been cut at the point of abbreviation (''e.g.,'' "Street" &ndash; "St[reet]" &ndash; becomes "St."), but not otherwise (''e.g.,'' "Saint" &ndash; "S[ain]t" &ndash; becomes "St"); a third standard removes the full stops from all abbreviations (''e.g.,'' both "Saint" and "Street" become "St"). Thus in the [[United Kingdom]], titles such as "Doctor", "Mister" and "Mis'ess" are commonly abbreviated as "Dr", "Mr", and "Mrs" respectively, they are also frequently written, as in Canada and the U.S., as "Dr.", "Mr." and "Mrs." <!--British English does not have a single standard. See [[American and British English differences]]--> * [[Acronym]]s that were originally capitalized (with or without periods) but have since "stood the test of time" by entering the vocabulary as generic words are no longer abbreviated with capital letters nor with any periods&mdash;''e.g.,'' [[sonar]], [[radar]], [[ladar]], [[laser]], and [[scuba]]. * Whether to add an apostrophe for a plural where the plural is not formed by doubling up the last letter: should one write CDs or CD's? The apostrophe is not needed grammatically but sometimes is added to make it clear that the ''s'' is not part of the abbreviation. Because the apostrophe most often represents possession or a contraction, some style guides prefer that it not be used at all with abbreviations, but only with individual ''letters''&mdash;"Dot all your i's and cross all your t's!" or "Mind your p's and q's!"&mdash;or ''numbers''&mdash;"The dyslexic student mixes up his S's and 5's." Thus numbers, such as decades, that are understood to ''represent'' other concepts, are not written with apostrophes either&mdash;''e.g.,'' "The U.S. enjoyed an economic boom in the 1990s and the Roaring ’20s", referring to decades, or "I am going to the bank to exchange four 5's for two 10's", where the 5's and 10's refer to banknotes. Conventions followed by publications and newspapers: * Publications based in the United States tend to follow the style guides of the [[Chicago Manual of Style]] and the [[Associated Press]]. The [[U.S. Government]] follows a style guide published by the [[U.S. Government Printing Office]]. ** There is some inconsistency in abbreviation styles, however, as they are not rigorously defined by style guides. Some two-word abbreviations, like "United Nations", are abbreviated with uppercase letters and periods, and others, like "personal computer" (PC) and "compact disc" (CD), are not; rather, they are typically abbreviated without periods and in uppercase letters. A third variation is to use lowercase letters with periods; this is used by Time Magazine in abbreviating "public relations" (p.r.). Moreover, even three-word abbreviations (most U.S. publications use uppercase abbreviations without periods) are sometimes not consistently abbreviated, even within the same article. ** ''[[The New York Times]]'' is unique in having a consistent style by always abbreviating with periods: P.C., I.B.M., P.R. This is in contrast with the trend of British publications to completely make do without periods for convenience. * Many British publications follow some of these guidelines in abbreviation: ** For the sake of convenience, many British publications, including the [[BBC]] and ''[[The Guardian]]'', have completely done away with the use of full stops or periods in all abbreviations. These include: *** Social titles, like Ms or Mr (though these would not have had full stops in any case &mdash; see above) Capt, Prof, ''etc.;'' *** Two-letter abbreviations for countries (US, not U.S.); *** Words are seldom abbreviated with lower case letters (PR, instead of p.r., or pr) *** Abbreviations beyond three letters (full caps for all except initialisms); *** Names (''e.g.,'' FW de Klerk, GB Whiteley, Park JS). A notable exception is the ''Economist'' (''e.g.,'' Mr F. W. de Klerk) *** Scientific units. ** [[Acronym]]s are referred to with only the first letter of the abbreviation capitalised. For instance, the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] can be abbreviated as Nato, and [[Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome]] as Sars. [[Initialism]]s (which are similar to acronyms but which are not pronounced as words) are always written in capitals, for instance the British Broadcasting Corporation is abbreviated to BBC, never Bbc. ** When abbreviating scientific units, no space is added between the number and unit (''e.g.,'' 100mph, 100m, 10cm, 10ºC). Miscellaneous and general rules * Plurals are often formed by doubling up the last letter of the abbreviation. Most of these deal with writing and publishing: MS=manuscript, MSS=manuscripts; l=line, ll=lines; p=page, pp=pages; s=section, ss=sections; op.=opus, opp.=opera). This form, derived from [[Latin]] is used in Europe in many places: dd=[[didot]]s. "The following (lines or pages)" is denoted by ff. One example that does not concern printing is hh=[[hand (unit)|hand]]s. * A doubled letter also appears in abbreviations of some Welsh names, as in [[Welsh language|Welsh]] the double "l" is a separate sound: "Ll. George" for (British prime minister) [[Lloyd George]]. * Some titles, such as "Reverend" and "Honourable", are spelt out when preceded by "the", rather than as "Rev." or "Hon." respectively. This is true for most British publications, and some in the United States. * It is usually advised to spell out the abbreviation where it is new or unfamiliar to the reader (''e.g.,'' UNESCO in a magazine about ''music,'' because it more frequently refers to another entity in another context, the <u>U</u>nited <u>N</u>ations <u>E</u>ducational, <u>S</u>cientific and <u>C</u>ultural <u>O</u>rganization). ==History== After [[World War II]], the British greatly reduced their use of the full stop and other punctuations after abbreviations in at least semi-formal writing, while the Americans more readily kept its use until more recently, and still maintain it more than Britons. The classic example, considered by their American counterparts quite curious, was the maintenance of the internal comma in a British organization of secret agents called the "Special Operations, Executive" &ndash; "S.O.,E." &ndash; which is not found in histories written after about 1960. But before that, many Britons were more scrupulous at maintaining the French form. In [[French language|French]], the period only follows an abbreviation if the last letter in the abbreviation is ''not'' the last letter of its antecedent: "M." is the abbreviation for "''monsieur''" while "Mme" is that for "''Madame''" and "Mlle" for "''Mademoiselle''". Like many other cross-[[English Channel|channel]] linguistic acquisitions, many Britons readily took this up and followed this rule themselves, while the Americans took a simpler rule and applied it rigorously. Over the years, however, the lack of convention in some style guides has made it difficult to determine which two-word abbreviations should be abbreviated with periods and which should not. The U.S. media tend to abbreviate two-word abbreviations like United States (U.S.), but surprisingly, not personal computer (PC) or television (TV), which is a source of confusion. Many British publications have gradually done away with the use of periods in abbreviations completely. ==Examples== *[[List of classical abbreviations]] *[[List of mediaeval abbreviations]] *[[List of abbreviations in use in 1911]] *[[List of acronyms and initialisms]] *[[Wiktionary:Wiktionary:Abbreviations in Webster|The abbreviations used in the 1913 edition of Webster's dictionary]] ==See also== *[[List of syllabic abbreviations]] *[[Neologism]], word, term, or phrase which has been recently created *[[Internet slang]], [[list of computing and IT abbreviations]], [[list of medical abbreviations]], [[list of government and military acronyms]], [[Wikipedia:Abbreviations used in CIA World Factbook|abbreviations used in CIA World Factbook]], *[[ISO language code]], [[ISO country code]]. *[[Ditloid]] == External links == {{wiktionarypar|abbreviation}} {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbreviation}} * [http://www.abbreviationz.com/ AbbreviationZ] acronyms, abbreviations & Initialisms directory. * [http://www.acronyma.com/ Acronyma]&mdash;large database of acronyms and abbreviations (over 450,000 entries) * [http://www.acronymfinder.com/ Acronym Finder]&mdash;searchable acronyms and abbreviations site (over 470,000 entries) * [http://www.special-dictionary.com/acronyms/ Special Dictionary]&mdash;large abbreviation, acronym and initialism database with lookup function. * [http://www.aresearchguide.com/comabb.html Common, Uncommon and Specialized Abbreviations] [[Category:Abbreviations]] [[cs:Zkratka]] [[da:Forkortelse]] [[de:Abkürzung]] [[es:Abreviatura]] [[eo:Mallongigo]] [[fr:Abréviation]] [[is:Skammstöfun]] [[la:Abbreviatio]] [[lb:Ofkierzung]] [[hu:Rövidítés]] [[nl:Afkorting]] [[ja:&#30053;&#35486;]] [[nds:Afk]] [[no:Forkortelse]] [[pl:Skrót]] [[ro:Abreviere]] [[ru:Аббревиатура]] [[simple:Abbreviation]] [[sl:Kratica]] [[sv:Förkortning]] [[th:อักษรย่อ]] 1173 41063296 2006-02-24T20:47:00Z Paul August 87355 grammar :''This article is about the branch of mathematics. For other uses of the term "algebra" see [[algebra (disambiguation)]].'' '''Abstract algebra''' is the field of [[mathematics]] concerned with the study of [[algebraic structure]]s such as [[group (mathematics)|groups]], [[ring (mathematics)|rings]], [[field (mathematics)|fields]], [[module (mathematics)|modules]], [[vector space]]s, and [[algebra over a field|algebras]]. Many of these structures were defined formally in the nineteenth century, and, indeed, the study of abstract algebra was motivated by the need for more rigor in mathematics. The study of abstract algebra has brought into full view intricacies of the logical assumptions on which the whole of mathematics and the natural sciences are built, and today there is scarcely a branch of mathematics which doesn't utilize the results of algebra. What's more, in the course of study, algebraists discovered that apparently diverse logical structures can very often be brought by analogy to a very small core of axioms. This grants the mathematician who has learned algebra a deep sight, and empowers him broadly. The term ''abstract algebra'' is used to distinguish the field from "[[elementary algebra]]" or "high school algebra", which teach the correct rules for manipulating formulas and algebraic expressions involving [[real numbers|real]] and [[complex number]]s, and [[unknown]]s. Abstract algebra was at times in the first half of the [[twentieth century]] known as '''modern algebra'''. The term '''abstract algebra''' is sometimes used in [[universal algebra]] where most authors use simply the term "algebra". == History and examples == Historically, algebraic structures usually arose first in some other field of mathematics, were specified axiomatically, and were then studied in their own right in abstract algebra. Because of this, abstract algebra has numerous fruitful connections to all other branches of mathematics. Examples of algebraic structures with a single [[binary operation]] are: * [[magma (algebra)|magmas]], * [[quasigroup]]s, * [[monoid]]s, [[semigroup]]s and, most important, [[group (mathematics)|groups]]. More complicated examples include: * [[ring (mathematics)|rings]] and [[field (mathematics)|fields]] * [[module (mathematics)|modules]] and [[vector space]]s * [[algebra over a field|algebras over fields]] * [[associative algebra]]s and [[Lie algebra]]s * [[lattice (order)|lattice]]s and [[Boolean algebra]]s In [[universal algebra]], all those definitions and facts are collected that apply to all algebraic structures alike. All the above classes of objects, together with the proper notion of [[homomorphism]], form [[category theory|categories]], and category theory frequently provides the formalism for translating between and comparing different algebraic structures. ==An example== The systematic study of algebra has allowed mathematicians to bring under a common logical description apparently disparate conceptions. For example, consider two rather distinct operations: the composition of [[function composition|functions]], f(g(x)), and the multiplication of [[matrix multiplication|matrices]], AB. These two operations are, in fact, the same. To see this, think about multiplying two square matrices (AB) by a one-column vector, x. This, in fact, defines a function that is equivalent to composing Ay with Bx: Ay = A(Bx) = (AB)x. Functions under composition and matrices under multiplication form sets called [[monoid]]s; a monoid under an operation is associative for all its elements ( (ab)c = a(bc) ) and contains an element e such that, for any a, ae = ea = a. ==See also== * [[List of publications in mathematics#Abstract algebra| Important publications in abstract algebra]] ==Further reading== * {{cite book | author=Sethuraman, B. A. | title=Rings, Fields, Vector Spaces, and Group Theory: An Introduction to Abstract Algebra via Geometric Constructibility | publisher=Springer | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0-387-94848-1}} ==External links== {{book}} * John Beachy: ''[http://www.math.niu.edu/~beachy/aaol/contents.html Abstract Algebra On Line]'', Comprehensive list of definitions and theorems. * Joseph Mileti: ''Mathematics Museum: [http://www.math.uchicago.edu/~mileti/museum/algebra.html Abstract Algebra]'', A good introduction to the subject in real-life terms. {{Mathematics-footer}} [[Category:Abstract algebra|*Abstract algebra]] [[ar:جبر تجريدي]] [[da:Abstrakt algebra]] [[de:Abstrakte Algebra]] [[es:Álgebra abstracta]] [[fa:جبر مجرد]] [[fr:Algèbre abstraite]] [[ko:추상대수학]] [[io:Abstrakta algebro]] [[it:Algebra astratta]] [[he:אלגברה מופשטת]] [[nl:Abstracte algebra]] [[no:Abstrakt algebra]] [[nn:Abstrakt algebra]] [[pt:Álgebra abstrata]] [[ru:Абстрактная алгебра]] [[fi:Abstrakti algebra]] [[sv:Abstrakt algebra]] [[th:พีชคณิตนามธรรม]] [[vi:Đại số trừu tượng]] [[zh:抽象代数]] 1174 42027051 2006-03-03T08:20:20Z Haukurth 16226 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.138.180.35|202.138.180.35]] ([[User talk:202.138.180.35|talk]]) to last version by Adam Bishop <!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Aphrodite (Greek Mythology).jpg|thumb|Aphrodite, [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] goddess of love and beauty,and the patroness of physical love.]] --> {{otheruses}} '''Aphrodite''' ([[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (pronunciation)/IPA vs. other pronunciation symbols#Chart|World Book]] ''«AF roh DY tee»'') ( {{unicode|&#x1F08;}}&#966;&#961;&#959;&#948;&#943;&#964;&#951;, "risen from sea-foam") is the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] [[goddess]] of [[love]] and [[beauty]]. == Worship == {{Greek myth (Olympian)}} The epithet ''Aphrodite Acidalia'' was occasionally added to her name, after the spring she used to bathe in, located in [[Boeotia]] ([[Virgil]] I, 720). She was also called ''Kypris'' or ''Cytherea'' after her alleged birth-places in [[Cyprus]] and [[Cythera]], respectively. The island of Cythera was a center of her cult. She was associated with [[Hesperia]] and frequently accompanied by the [[Oread]]s, [[nymph]]s of the mountains. Aphrodite had a festival of her own, the Aphrodisiac, which was celebrated all over Greece but particularly in [[Athens, Greece|Athens]] and [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]]. In Corinth, intercourse with her priestesses was considered a method of worshipping Aphrodite. Aphrodite was associated with, and often depicted with [[dolphin]]s, [[dove]]s, [[swan]]s, [[pomegranate]]s,[[apples]], [[myrtle]], [[rose]] and [[Lime (Citrus aurantifolia)|lime]] trees. Her Roman analogue is [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]]. Her [[Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian]] counterpart was [[Ishtar]]. Her Egyptian counterpart is [[Hathor]], and her Syro-Palestinian counterpart was [[`Ashtart|&#8216;Ashtart]] (in standard Greek spelling ''Astarte''); her [[Etruscan mythology|Etruscan]] equivalent was [[Turan (mythology)|Turan]]. Venus was often referred to with epithet [[Venus Erycina]] ("of the heather") after [[Mount Eryx]], [[Sicily]], one of the centers of her cult. == Birth == [[Image:Bouguereau venus detail.jpg|115px|thumb|right|Aphrodite rising from the sea foam in birth, crowned with luxuriant tresses, as depicted in the [[19th century]] by [[William-Adolphe Bouguereau]] in his [[1879]] ''Birth of Venus'' (the [[Rome|Roman]] name for Aphrodite).]] "Foam-arisen" Aphrodite was born of the sea foam near [[Paphos]], Cyprus after [[Cronus]] cut off [[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]]' genitals and Cronus threw the penis into the sea. [[Hesiod's Theogony]] described that the genitals "were carried over the sea a long time, and white foam arose from the immortal flesh; with a girl grew" to become Aphrodite. Thus Aphrodite is of an older generation than Zeus. ''[[Iliad]]'' (Book V) expresses another version of her origin, by which she was considered a daughter of [[Dione (mythology)|Dione]], who was the original oracular goddess ("Dione" being simply "the goddess," etymologically an equivalent of "[[Diana (mythology)|Diana]]") at [[Dodona]]. In Homer, Aphrodite, venturing into battle to protect her son, [[Aeneas]], who has been wounded by [[Diomedes]] and returns to her mother, to sink down at her knee and be comforted. "Dione" seems to be an equivalent of Rhea, the [[Earth Mother]], whom Homer has relocated to Olympus. After this story, Aphrodite herself was sometimes referred to as "Dione". Once [[Zeus]] had usurped the oak-grove oracle at Dodona, some poets made him out to be the father of Aphrodite. Aphrodite's chief center of worship remained at Paphos, on the south-western coast of Cyprus, where the goddess of desire had long been worshipped as [[Ishtar]] and [[Ashtaroth]]. It is said that she first tentatively came ashore at [[Cytherea]], a stopping place for trade and culture between [[Crete]] and the [[Peloponnese|Peloponesus]]. Thus perhaps we have hints of the track of Aphrodite's original cult from the [[Levant]] to mainland [[Greece]]. In [[Plato]]'s ''[[Symposium]]'' the speech of Pausanias distinguishes two manifestations of Aphrodite, represented by the two stories: Aphrodite Ourania ("heavenly" Aphrodite), and Aphrodite Pandemos ("Common" Aphrodite). These two manifestations represented her role in homosexuality and heterosexuality, respectively. Alternatively, Aphrodite was a daughter of [[Thalassa]] (for she was born of the Sea) and [[Zeus]]. == Adulthood == Aphrodite, in many of the myths involving her, is characterized as vain, ill-tempered and easily offended. Though she is one of the few gods of the [[List of Greek mythological characters|Greek Pantheon]] to be actually married, she is frequently unfaithful to her husband. [[Hephaestus]], of course, is one of the most even-tempered of the Hellenic deities; Aphrodite seems to prefer [[Ares]], the volatile god of war. In [[Homer]]'s [[Iliad]] she surges into battle to save her son, but abandons him (in fact, drops him as she flies through the air) when she herself is hurt (Ares does much the same thing<!-- I doubt this tidbit, originally included really happened: , and [[Zeus]] eventually sends him to his room without supper -->). And she is the original cause of the [[Trojan War]] itself: not only did she start the whole affair by offering [[Helen]] of [[Troy]] to [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]], but the abduction was accomplished when Paris, seeing Helen for the first time, was inflamed with desire to have her&mdash;which is Aphrodite's realm. Her domain may involve love, but it does not involve [[Romantic_love|romance]]; rather, it tends more towards [[lust]], the human irrational longing. === Marriage with Hephaestus === Due to her immense beauty, Zeus was frightened she'd be the cause of violence between the other gods. He married her off to [[Hephaestus]], the dour, humorless god of smithing. Hephaestus was overjoyed at being married to the goddess of beauty and forged her beautiful jewelry, including the cestus, a [[girdle]] that made her even more irresistible to men. Her unhappiness with her marriage caused Aphrodite to seek out companionship from others, most frequently [[Ares]], but also [[Adonis]], [[Anchises]] and more. Hephaestus once cleverly caught Ares and Aphrodite in bed with finely wrought chains, and brought all the other Olympian gods together to mock the pair (however, the "goddesses stayed at home, all of them for shame.") Hephaestus would not free them until [[Poseidon]] promised Hephaestus that Ares would pay reparations, but both escaped as soon as the chains were lifted and their promise was not kept. === Aphrodite and Psyche === Aphrodite was jealous of the beauty of a mortal woman named [[Psyche]]. She asked [[Eros (mythology)|Eros]] to use his golden arrows to cause Psyche to fall in love with the ugliest man on earth. Eros agreed but then fell in love with Psyche on his own, or by accidentally pricking himself with a golden arrow. Meanwhile, Psyche's parents were anxious that their daughter remained unmarried. They consulted an [[oracle]] who told them she was destined for no mortal lover, but a monster who lived on top of a particular mountain. Psyche was resigned to her fate and climbed to the top of the mountain. There, [[Zephyrus]], the west wind, gently floated her downwards. She entered a cave on the appointed mountain, surprised to find it full of jewellery and finery. Eros visited her every night in the cave and they made love; he demanded only that she never light any lamps because he did not want her to know who he was (having wings made him distinctive). Her two sisters, jealous of Psyche, convinced her to do so one night and she lit a lamp, recognizing him instantly. A drop of hot lamp oil fell on Eros' chest and he awoke, then fled. When Psyche told her two jealous elder sisters what had happened; they rejoiced secretly and each separately walked to the top of the mountain and did as Psyche described her entry to the cave, hoping Eros would pick them instead. Zephyrus did not pick them and they fell to their deaths at the base of the mountain. Psyche searched for her lover across much of Greece, finally stumbling into a temple to [[Demeter]], where the floor was covered with piles of mixed grains. She started sorting the grains into organized piles and, when she finished, Demeter spoke to her, telling her that the best way to find Eros was to find his mother, Aphrodite, and earn her blessing. Psyche found a temple to Aphrodite and entered it. Aphrodite assigned her a similar task to Demeter's temple, but gave her an impossible deadline to finish it by. Eros intervened, for he still loved her, and caused some ants to organize the grains for her. Aphrodite was outraged at her success and told her to go to a field where golden sheep grazed and get some golden wool. Psyche went to the field and saw the sheep but was stopped by a river-god, whose river she had to cross to enter the field. He told her the sheep were mean and vicious and would kill her, but if she waited until noontime, the sheep would go the shade on the other side of the field and sleep; she could pick the wool that stuck to the branches and bark of the trees. Psyche did so and Aphrodite was even more outraged at her survival and success. Finally, Aphrodite claimed that the stress of caring for her son, depressed and ill as a result of Psyche's unfaithfulness, had caused her to lose some of her beauty. Psyche was to go to [[Hades]] and ask [[Persephone]], the queen of the underworld, for a bit of her beauty in a black box that Aphrodite gave to Psyche. Psyche walked to a tower, deciding that the quickest way to the underworld would be to die. A voice stopped her at the last moment and told her a route that would allow her to enter and return still living, as well as telling her how to pass [[Cerberus]], [[Charon (mythology)|Charon]] and the other dangers of the route. She pacified Cerberus, the three-headed dog, with a sweet honey-cake and paid Charon an [[obolus]] to take her into Hades. On the way there, she saw hands reaching out of the water. A voice told her to toss a honey cake to them. Once there, Persephone said she would be glad to do do Aphrodite a favor. She once more paid Charon, threw the cake out to the hands, and gave one to Cerberus. Psyche left the underworld and decided to open the box and take a little bit of the beauty for herself, thinking that if she did so Eros would surely love her. Inside was a "[[Wiktionary:stygian|Stygian]] sleep" which overtook her. Eros, who had forgiven her, flew to her body and wiped the sleep from her eyes, then begged Zeus and Aphrodite for their consent to his wedding of Psyche. They agreed and Zeus made her immortal. Aphrodite danced at the wedding of Eros and Psyche and their subsequent child was named Pleasure, or (in the Roman mythology) [[Volupta]]. === Adonis === Aphrodite was [[Adonis]]' lover and had a part in his birth. She urged [[Myrrha]] or Smyrna to commit [[incest]] with her father, [[Theias]], the King of [[Assyria]]. Another version says Myrrha's father was [[Cinyras]] of [[Cyprus]]. Myrrha's nurse helped with the scheme. When Theias discovered this, he flew into a rage, chasing his daughter with a knife. The gods turned her into a [[myrrh]] tree and Adonis eventually sprang from this tree. Alternatively, Aphrodite turned her into a tree and Adonis was born when Theias shot the tree with an arrow or when a boar used its tusks to tear the tree's bark off. Once Adonis was born, Aphrodite took him under her wing, seducing him with the help of [[Helene (mythology)|Helene]], her friend, and was entranced by his unearthly beauty. She gave him to [[Persephone]] to watch over, but Persephone was also amazed at his beauty and refused to give him back. The argument between the two goddesses was settled either by [[Zeus]] or [[Calliope]], with Adonis spending four months with Aphrodite, four months with Persephone and four months of the years with whomever he chose. He always chose Aphrodite because Persephone was the cold, unfeeling goddess of the underworld. Adonis was eventually killed by a jealous [[Ares]]. Aphrodite was warned of this jealousy and was told that Adonis would be killed by a bull that Ares transformed into. She tried to persuade Adonis to stay with her at all times, but his love of hunting was his downfall. While Adonis was hunting, Ares found him and gored him to death. Aphrodite arrived just in time to hear his last breath. It is also said that Aphrodite bore a daughter to Adonis, [[Beroe]]. === The [[Judgement of Paris]] === The gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the marriage of [[Peleus]] and [[Thetis]] (the eventual parents of [[Achilles]]). Only the goddess [[Eris]] (Discord) was not invited, but she arrived with a golden [[apple]] inscribed with the words "to the fairest," which she threw among the goddesses. Aphrodite, [[Hera]], and [[Athena]] all claimed the apple, and the matter was put before [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]], the most handsome mortal. Hera tried to bribe Paris with an earthly kingdom, while Athena offered great military skill, but Aphrodite was judged most beautiful when she offered Paris the most beautiful mortal woman as a wife. This woman was [[Helen]], and her abduction by Paris led to the [[Trojan War]]. === Pygmalion and Galatea === [[Pygmalion (mythology)|Pygmalion]] was a sculptor who had never found a woman worthy of his love. Aphrodite took pity on him and decided to show him the wonders of love. One day, Pygmalion was inspired by a dream of Aphrodite to make a woman out of [[ivory]] resembling her image, and he called her [[Galatea (mythology)|Galatea]]. He fell in love with the statue and decided he could not live without her. He prayed to Aphrodite, who carried out the final phase of her plan and brought the exquisite sculpture to life. Pygmalion loved Galatea and they were soon married. Another version of this myth tells that the women of the village in which Pygmalion lived grew angry that he had not married. They all asked Aphrodite to force him to marry. Aphrodite accepted and went that very night to Pygmalion, and asked him to pick a woman to marry. She told him that if he did not pick one, she would do so for him. Not wanting to be married, he begged her for more time, asking that he be allowed to make a sculpture of Aphrodite before he had to choose his bride. Flattered, she accepted. Pygmalion spent a lot of time making small clay sculptures of the Goddess, claiming it was needed so he could pick the right pose. As he started making the actual sculpture he was shocked to discover he actually wanted to finish, even though he knew he would have to marry someone when he finished. The reason he wanted to finish it was that he had fallen in love with the sculpture. The more he worked on it, the more it changed, until it no longer resembled Aphrodite at all. At the very moment Pygmalion stepped away from the finished sculpture Aphrodite appeared and told him to choose his bride. Pygmalion chose the statue. Aphrodite told him that could not be, and asked him again to pick a bride. Pygmalion put his arms around the statue, and asked Aphrodite to turn him into a statue so he could be with her. Aphrodite took pity on him and brought the statue to life instead. === Other Stories === In one version of the story of [[Hippolytus (mythology)|Hippolytus]], Aphrodite was the catalyst for his death. He scorned the worship of Aphrodite for [[Artemis]] and, in revenge, Aphrodite caused his step-mother, [[Phaedra]], to fall in love with him, knowing Hippolytus would reject her. In the most popular version of the story, the play "Hippolytus" by [[Euripides]], Phaedra seeks revenge against Hippolytus by killing herself and, in her [[suicide note]], telling [[Theseus]], her husband and Hippolytus' father, that Hippolytus had raped her. Theseus then murdered his own son before Artemis told him the truth. King [[Glaucus]] of Corinth angered Aphrodite and she made her horses angry during the funeral games of King [[Pelias]]. They tore him apart. His ghost supposedly frightened horses during the [[Isthmian Games]]. Aphrodite was often accompanied by the [[Charites]]. In book III of [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'', Aphrodite saves [[Paris]] when he is about to be killed by [[Menelaos]]. Aphrodite was very protective of her son, Aeneas, who fought in the [[Trojan War]]. [[Diomedes]] almost killed Aeneas in battle but Aphrodite saved him. Diomedes wounded Aphrodite and she dropped her son, fleeing to [[Mt. Olympus]]. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by [[Artemis]], who took him to [[Pergamos (Troy)|Pergamos]], a sacred spot in [[Troy]]. [[Apollo]] healed Aeneas there. She turned [[Abas]] to stone for his pride. She turned [[Anaxarete]] to stone for reacting so dispassionately to [[Iphis]]' pleas to love him, even after his suicide. Aphrodite helps [[Hippomenes]] to win a footrace against [[Atalanta]] to win Atalanta's hand in marriage, giving him three golden apples to distract her with. However, when the couple fails to thank Aphrodite, she has them turned into lions (in other accounts they are turned into lions when either [[Zeus]] or [[Cybele]] find them having sex in their temple). ==Aphrodite in Neopaganism== In many modern [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] [[sect]]s, particularly [[New Age]] ''Hellenistic'' sects in the [[United States]], Aphrodite takes on the role of the goddess of passion. Not all passion Aphrodite inspires is lustful, much of it is believed to take the form of artistic passion and even passion in argument. Worship of Aphrodite is uncommon and is typically held by individual writers and artists. How she is worshipped often depends on what other gods a sect includes. For example, sects that worship [[Hera]] and/or [[Themis]] may include worship of Aphrodite, but encourage monogamy and stress her role in committed relationships and marriage. Sects that worship [[Dionysus]] and Aphrodite may be entirely hedonistic and include orgiastic rituals (such sects are often considered cults even by Neopagan standards). As such worship of Aphrodite varies between sects. ==Consorts and children== * Deities ** [[Ares]] *** [[Anteros]] *** [[Eros (mythology)|Eros]] (Love) *** [[Harmonia (Greek_goddess)|Harmonia]] (Harmony) *** [[Himeros]] ***[[Deimos (mythology)|Deimos]] (Dread) ***[[Phobos (mythology)|Phobos]] (Fright) ** [[Dionysus]] *** [[Charites]] **** [[Aglaea]] **** [[Euphrosyne]] **** [[Thalia]] *** [[Hymenaios]] *** [[Priapus]] ** [[Hephaestus]] ** [[Hermes]] *** [[Eunomia]] *** [[Hermaphroditus]] *** [[Peitho]] *** [[Rhodos]] *** [[Tyche]] * Mortals ** [[Adonis]] ** [[Anchises]] *** [[Aeneas]] ** [[Butes]] *** [[Eryx]] ==Other names== *''Acidalia'' *''Anadyomene'' - the emerging as in ''Aphrodite Anadyomene'', a painting by [[Apelles]] *''[[Cytherea]]'' *''Despina'' *''Kypris'' ==See also== *[[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] *[[Aphrodite of Knidos]] *[[Venus de Milo]] {{commons|Aphrodite}} [[Category:Greek goddesses]] [[Category:Love and lust goddesses]] [[Category:Characters in the Iliad]] <!-- interwiki --> [[ar:أفروديت]] [[bg:Афродита]] [[be:Афрадыта]] [[bs:Afrodita]] [[ca:Afrodita]] [[cs:Afrodíté]] [[da:Afrodite]] [[de:Aphrodite]] [[et:Aphrodite]] [[el:Αφροδίτη (μυθολογία)]] [[es:Afrodita]] [[eo:Afrodita]] [[fr:Aphrodite]] [[gl:Afrodita]] [[ko:아프로디테]] [[hr:Afrodita]] [[ia:Aphrodite]] [[is:Afródíta]] [[it:Afrodite]] [[he:אפרודיטה]] [[la:Aphrodite]] [[lt:Afroditė]] [[lv:Afrodīte]] [[lb:Aphrodite]] [[hu:Aphrodité]] [[nl:Aphrodite]] [[ja:アプロディテ]] [[no:Afrodite]] [[pl:Afrodyta]] [[pt:Afrodite]] [[ro:Afrodita]] [[ru:Афродита]] [[simple:Aphrodite]] [[sk:Afrodita]] [[sl:Afrodita]] [[sr:Афродита]] [[fi:Afrodite]] [[sv:Afrodite]] [[tl:Aphrodite]] [[uk:Афродіта]] [[zh:阿佛洛狄德]] 1175 41835935 2006-03-02T01:31:38Z Mikkalai 28438 /* Holidays and observances */ <!-- Language links at bottom --> {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=1}} |} '''April 1''' is the [[91 (number)|91st]] day of the year (92nd in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian calendar]], with 274 days remaining. ==Events== *[[527]] - [[Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine Emperor]] [[Justin I]] names his nephew [[Justinian I]] as co-ruler and successor to the throne. *[[1318]] - [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]] is captured by the [[Scotland|Scottish]] from the [[England|English]] *[[1572]] - The [[Geuzen|Watergeuzen]] succeeded in capturing [[Brielle|Den Briel]], effectively sealing off the [[Meuse River]] from the [[Spanish Empire|Spaniards]]. *[[1789]] - In [[New York City]], the [[United States House of Representatives]] holds its first quorum and elects [[Frederick Muhlenberg]] of [[Pennsylvania]] as its first House Speaker. *[[1826]] - [[Samuel Morey]] patents the [[internal combustion engine]]. *[[1854]] - ''[[Hard Times]]'' begins serialisation in [[Charles Dickens]] magazine, ''Household Words''. *[[1857]] - [[Herman Melville]] publishes ''[[The Confidence-Man]]''. *[[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Five Forks]] - In [[Petersburg, Virginia]], Confederate General [[Robert E. Lee]] begins his final offensive. *[[1867]] - [[Singapore]] becomes a British [[crown colony]]. *[[1868]] - [[Hampton University|Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute]] is established in [[Hampton, Virginia]] *[[1873]] - The [[United Kingdom|British]] steamer [[SS Atlantic|SS ''Atlantic'']] sinks off [[Nova Scotia]], killing 547. *[[1891]] - The [[Wrigley Company]] is founded in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. *[[1918]] - The [[Royal Flying Corps]] is replaced by the [[Royal Air Force]]. *[[1924]] - [[Adolf Hitler]] is sentenced to five years in [[jail]] for his participation in the "[[Beer Hall Putsch]]." However, he spends only nine months in jail, during which he writes the book ''[[Mein Kampf]]''. *1924 - First revenue flight for [[Belgium]]'s [[Sabena]] Airlines *[[1933]] - The recently elected [[Nazism|Nazis]] under [[Julius Streicher]] organize a one-day boycott of all Jewish-owned businesses in [[Germany]], ushering in the series of [[anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]] acts that will be known as the [[Holocaust]]. *[[1934]] - [[Bonnie and Clyde]] kill two young highway patrolmen near [[Grapevine, Texas]]. *[[1937]] - [[Aden]] becomes a British [[crown colony]]. *[[1941]] - The [[Blockade Runner Badge]] for German navy is instituted. *[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Okinawa|Operation Iceberg]] - [[United States]] troops land on [[Okinawa]] in the last campaign of the war. *[[1946]] - [[Aleutian Island earthquake]]: A 7.8 magnitude [[earthquake]] near the [[Aleutian Islands]] creates a [[tsunami]] that strikes the [[Hawaiian Islands]] killing 159 (mostly in [[Hilo, Hawaii]]). *1946 - Formation of the [[Malayan Union]]. *[[1948]] - [[Cold War]]: [[Berlin Airlift]] - [[Military forces]], under direction of the Soviet-controlled government in [[East Germany]], set-up a land blockade of [[West Berlin]]. *1948 - [[Faroe Islands]] receive [[self-governance|autonomy]] from [[Denmark]] *[[1949]] - [[Newfoundland]] becomes the tenth Province of [[Canada]] *1949 - [[Chinese Civil War]]: [[Communist Party of China]] hold unsuccessful peace talks with the [[Kuomintang]] in [[Beijing]], after three years of fighting. *1949 - The twenty-six counties of the [[Irish Free State]] become the [[Republic of Ireland]]. *1949 - Founding of the [[Tokyo Stock Exchange]] *[[1954]] - President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] authorizes the creation of the [[United States Air Force Academy]] in [[Colorado]]. *[[1955]] - The [[EOKA]] rebellion starts in [[Cyprus]], aiming at the island´s independence from [[Great Britain]]. *[[1967]] - The [[United States Department of Transportation]] begins operation. *[[1969]] - The [[Hawker-Siddeley Harrier]] enters service with the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]]. *[[1970]] - [[Phil Spector]] finishes the orchestral [[overdub]]s for the upcoming [[Beatles]] album, ''[[Let It Be (album)|Let It Be]]'', including the songs "[[Let It Be (song)|Let It Be]]", "[[Across the Universe]]", and "[[The Long and Winding Road]]". This causes controversy among [[Beatles]] fans who feel that [[Phil Spector]] has overproduced the album. *1970 - President [[Richard Nixon]] signs the [[Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act]] into law banning [[cigarette]] advertisements in the [[United States]] starting on [[January 1]], [[1971]]. *1970 - [[American Motors]] introduces the [[AMC Gremlin|Gremlin]]. *[[1973]] - [[Project Tiger]], a [[tiger]] conservation project, is launched in the [[Corbett National Park]], [[India]]. *[[1974]] - In the [[United Kingdom]], new [[administrative counties]] come into being. *[[1976]] - [[Apple Computer]] Company is formed by [[Steve Jobs]] and [[Steve Wozniak]]. *1976 - The [[Central Railroad of New Jersey]] goes bankrupt and [[Conrail]] takes over its operations. *[[1979]] - [[Iran]]'s government becomes an [[Islamic Republic]] by a 98% vote, overthrowing the [[Shah]] officially. *[[1980]] - [[New York City]]'s [[Transit Worker Union 100]] goes on [[1980 transit strike|strike]], which continues for 11 days. *[[1985]] - [[Villanova University]] defeats [[Georgetown University]] 66-64 to win [[NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship]]. *[[1996]] - [[University of Kentucky]] team wins [[NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship]]. *[[1999]] - [[Nunavut]] is established as a [[Canada|Canadian]] territory carved from the eastern part of the [[Northwest Territories]]. *[[2001]] - An [[EP-3E]] [[United States Navy]] plane collides with a Chinese [[People's Liberation Army]] [[fighter jet]]. The Navy crew makes an emergency landing in [[Hainan]], [[People's Republic of China]] and is detained. *2001 - Former president of [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] [[Slobodan Milošević]] surrenders to police [[special forces]], to be tried on charges of [[war crime]]s. *2001 - The first legal [[same-sex marriage in the Netherlands]] is celebrated. *[[2002]] - The [[Netherlands]] legalizes [[euthanasia]], becoming the only nation in the world to do so. *[[2004]] - [[George W. Bush]] signs the [[Unborn Victims of Violence Act]], which makes an attack that leads to the death of a mother and her [[unborn child]] two criminal charges. *2004 - The first legal [[same-sex marriage in Canada|same-sex marriage in the Canadian province]] of [[Quebec]]: [[Michael Hendricks and René Leboeuf]] wed in [[Montreal]]. *2004 - [[Gmail]], an email service from [[Google]] launches. ==Births== *[[1220]] - [[Emperor Go-Saga]] of Japan (d. [[1272]]) *[[1543]] - [[François de Bonne, duc de Lesdiguières]], Constable of France (d. [[1626]]) *[[1578]] - [[William Harvey]], English physician (d. [[1657]]) *[[1610]] - [[Charles de Saint-Évremond]], French soldier (d. [[1703]]) *[[1640]] - [[Georg Mohr]], Danish mathematician (d. [[1697]]) *[[1647]] - [[John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester]], English poet (d. [[1680]]) *[[1732]] - [[Franz Josef Haydn]], Austrian composer (d. [[1809]]) *[[1765]] - [[Luigi Schiavonetti]], Italian engraver (d. [[1810]]) *[[1776]] - [[Sophie Germain]], French mathematician (d. [[1831]]) *[[1815]] - [[Otto von Bismarck]], German politician (d. [[1898]]) *1815 - [[Edward Clark]], Governor of Texas (d. [[1880]]) *[[1834]] - [[Big Jim Fisk]], American entrepreneur (d. [[1872]]) *[[1854]] - [[Bill Traylor]], American artist (d. [[1949]]) *[[1856]] - [[Acacio Gabriel Viegas]], Indian physician (d. [[1933]]) *[[1865]] - [[Richard Adolf Zsigmondy]], Austrian-born chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1929]]) *[[1866]] - [[Ferruccio Busoni]], Italian pianist and composer (d. [[1924]]) *[[1873]] ([[Gregorian calendar|N.S.]]) - [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]], Russian composer, pianist, and conductor (d. [[1943]]) *[[1875]] - [[Edgar Wallace]], English writer (d. [[1932]]) *[[1883]] - [[Lon Chaney, Sr.]], American actor (d. [[1930]]) *[[1885]] - [[Wallace Beery]], American actor (d. [[1949]]) *[[1895]] - [[Alberta Hunter]], American singer (d. [[1984]]) *[[1897]] - [[Nita Naldi]], American actress (d. [[1961]]) *[[1898]] - [[William James Sidis]], eccentric genius and child prodigy (d. [[1944]]) *[[1899]] - [[Gustavs Celmins]], Latvian politician (d. [[1968]]) *[[1900]] - [[Robert McDowell]], Mayor of [[Maryborough, Queensland]] (d. [[1988]]) *[[1901]] - [[Whittaker Chambers]], American writer, editor, and defector (d. [[1961]]) *[[1906]] - [[Alexander Sergeyevich Yakovlev]], Russian engineer and airplane designer (d. [[1989]]) *[[1908]] - [[Abraham Maslow]], American psychologist (d. [[1970]]) *[[1914]] - [[Jerome L. Walton]], Canadian author *[[1915]] - [[Otto Wilhelm Fischer]], Austrain actor (d. [[2004]]) *[[1919]] - [[Joseph Murray]], American surgeon, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] *[[1920]] - [[Toshiro Mifune]], Japanese actor (d. [[1997]]) *[[1922]] - [[William Manchester]], American writer (d. [[2004]]) *[[1924]] - [[Brendan Byrne]], Governor of New Jersey *[[1926]] - [[Charles Bressler]], American tenor *1926 - [[Anne McCaffrey]], American author *[[1928]] - [[George Grizzard]], American actor *[[1929]] - [[Milan Kundera]], Czech writer *1929 - [[Jane Powell]], American dancer, actress, and singer *1929 - [[Bo Schembechler]], American football coach *[[1930]] - [[Grace Lee Whitney]], American actress *[[1931]] - [[Rolf Hochhuth]], German writer *[[1932]] - [[Gordon Jump]], American television actor (d. [[2003]]) *1932 - [[Debbie Reynolds]], American actress *[[1933]] - [[Claude Cohen-Tannoudji]], French physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate *[[1934]] - [[Don Hastings]], American actor *1934 - [[Rod Kanehl]], baseball player (d. [[2004]]) *[[1935]] - [[Larry McDonald]], American politician (d. [[1983]]) *[[1938]] - [[Ali MacGraw]], American actress *1938 - [[John Quade]], American actor *[[1939]] - [[Phil Niekro]], American baseball pitcher *[[1940]] - [[Wangari Maathai]], Kenyan environmentalist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] *[[1942]] - [[Samuel R. Delany]], American author *1942 - [[Annie Nightingale]], British disc jockey *[[1946]] - [[Ronnie Lane]], British musician ([[The Small Faces]] and [[The Faces]]) (d. [[1997]]) *[[1947]] - [[Alain Connes]], French mathematician *[[1948]] - [[Jimmy Cliff]], Jamaican musician *[[1949]] - [[Gérard Mestrallet]], French businessman *1949 - [[Gil Scott-Heron]], American musician and composer *1949 - [[Sammy Nelson]], Northern Irish footballer *[[1950]] - [[Samuel Alito]], Associate Justice of the [[United States Supreme Court]] *[[1952]] - [[Annette O'Toole]], American actress *[[1953]] - [[Barry Sonnenfeld]], producer and director *[[1964]] - [[Erik Breukink]], Dutch cyclist and manager *1964 - [[Scott Stevens]], Canadian ice hockey player *[[1965]] - [[Mark Jackson (basketball)|Mark Jackson]], American basketball player *[[1965]] - [[Robert Steadman]], English composer *[[1970]] - [[Sung Hi Lee]], Korean-born model *[[1971]] - [[Method Man]], American musician *[[1972]] - [[Hughes Brothers|Allen and Albert Hughes]], American film directors *[[1973]] - [[Stephen Fleming]], New Zealand cricketer *[[1975]] - [[George Bastl]], Swiss tennis player *[[1976]] - [[Clarence Seedorf]], Surinamese-Dutch footballer player *[[1980]] - [[Randy Orton]], American professional wrestler *1980 - [[Yūko Takeuchi]], Japanese actress *[[1981]] - [[Hannah Spearritt]], British singer ([[S Club 7]]) *[[1982]] - [[Sam Huntington]], American actor *[[1983]] - [[Ólafur Ingi Skúlason]], Icelandic footballer *1983 - [[Sean Taylor]], American football player ==Deaths== *[[1085]] - [[Emperor Shenzong]] of China (b. [[1048]]) *[[1204]] - [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]], queen of [[Henry II of England]] *[[1205]] - King [[Amalric II of Jerusalem]] (b. [[1145]]) *[[1528]] - [[Francisco de Peñalosa]], Spanish composer *[[1580]] - [[Alonso Mudarra]], Spanish composer *[[1621]] - [[Cristofano Allori]], Italian painter (b. [[1577]]) *[[1637]] - [[Niwa Nagashige]], Japanese warlord (b. [[1571]]) *[[1682]] - [[Franz Egon of Fürstenberg]], Bishop of Strassburg (b. [[1625]]) *[[1684]] - [[Roger Williams (theologian)|Roger Williams]], English theologian and colonist (b. [[1603]]) *[[1787]] - [[Floyer Sydenham]], English classical scholar (b. [[1710]]) *[[1839]] - [[Benjamin Pierce (governor)|Benjamin Pierce]], Governor of New Hampshire (b. [[1757]]) *[[1872]] - [[Frederick Maurice]], English theologian (b. [[1805]]) *[[1878]] - [[John Corry Wilson Daly]], Canadian politician (b. [[1796]]) *[[1914]] - [[Rube Waddell]], baseball player (b. [[1876]]) *[[1917]] - [[Scott Joplin]], American musician and composer (b. [[1868]]) *[[1922]] - Emperor [[Karl I of Austria]] (b. [[1887]]) *[[1946]] - [[Noah Beery]], American actor (b. [[1882]]) *[[1947]] - King [[George II of Greece]] (b. [[1890]]) *[[1950]] - [[Charles R. Drew]], American physician (b. [[1904]]) *[[1966]] - [[Flann O'Brien]], Irish humorist (b. [[1911]]) *[[1968]] - [[Lev Davidovich Landau]], Russian physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1908]]) *[[1976]] - [[Max Ernst]], German artist (b. [[1891]]) *[[1984]] - [[Marvin Gaye]], American singer (b. [[1939]]) *[[1986]] - [[Erik Bruhn]], Danish ballet dancer, choreographer (b. [[1928]]) *[[1988]] - [[Joe Besser]], American actor and comedian (b. [[1907]]) *[[1991]] - [[Martha Graham]], American dancer and choreographer (b. [[1894]]) *[[1993]] - [[Alan Kulwicki]], American race car driver (b. [[1954]]) *[[1998]] - [[Rozz Williams]], American musician ([[Christian Death]]) (b. [[1963]]) *1998 - [[Gene Evans]], American actor (b. [[1922]]) *[[2001]] - [[Olivia Barclay]], British astrologer (b. [[1919]]) *2001 - [[Trinh Cong Son]], Vietnamese composer (b. [[1939]]) *[[2003]] - [[Leslie Cheung]], Hong Kong actor and singer (b. [[1956]]) *[[2004]] - [[Carrie Snodgress]], American actress (b. [[1946]]) *[[2005]] - [[Harald Juhnke]], German entertainer (b. [[1929]]) *2005 - [[Jack Keller (songwriter)|Jack Keller]], songwriter (leukemia) (b. [[1936]]) *2005 - [[Robert Coldwell Wood]], American university president and political appointee (b. [[1923]]) ==Holidays and observances== * April 1 is known as [[April Fool's Day]] or All Fools' Day in many countries. * [[Feast day]] of [[Hugh of Grenoble|Saint Hugh]] in the [[Roman Catholic Church]] calendar * [[Roman Empire]] - [[Veneralia]] celebrated to honor [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] * [[Japan]] - The official start of school years in most universities and schools. Also, the official First Day of Work at companies and offices for new university graduates hires, marked by welcoming ceremonies and speeches. * [[Canada]] - Beginning of government's [[fiscal year]] * [[India]] - Start of [[financial year]]. * [[Brielle]] celebrates victory of [[1572]] over Spaniards. * In [[San Marino]], two [[Captains Regent]], elected by Parliament, take office for six months * Date that [[bobhouse]]s, used for ice-fishing, must be taken off frozen lakes in [[New Hampshire]]. * [[International Day of the Birds]] * In [[England and Wales]], local government reorganisations traditionally happen on April 1. * [[Pigasus Award]] announcement ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/1 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050401.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] * [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Apr&day=01 On This Day in Canada] ---- [[March 31]] - [[April 2]] - [[March 1]] - [[May 1]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:1 April]] [[ar:1 إبريل]] [[an:1 d'abril]] [[ast:1 d'abril]] [[bg:1 април]] [[be:1 красавіка]] [[bs:1. april]] [[ca:1 d'abril]] [[ceb:Abril 1]] [[cv:Ака, 1]] [[co:1 d'aprile]] [[cs:1. duben]] [[cy:1 Ebrill]] [[da:1. april]] [[de:1. April]] [[et:1. aprill]] [[el:1 Απριλίου]] [[es:1 de abril]] [[eo:1-a de aprilo]] [[eu:Apirilaren 1]] [[fo:1. apríl]] [[fr:1er avril]] [[fy:1 april]] [[ga:1 Aibreán]] [[gl:1 de abril]] [[ko:4월 1일]] [[hr:1. travnja]] [[io:1 di aprilo]] [[ilo:Abril 1]] [[id:1 April]] [[ia:1 de april]] [[ie:1 april]] [[is:1. apríl]] [[it:1 aprile]] [[he:1 באפריל]] [[jv:1 April]] [[ka:1 აპრილი]] [[csb:1 łżëkwiôta]] [[ku:1'ê avrêlê]] [[lt:Balandžio 1]] [[lb:1. Abrëll]] [[li:1 april]] [[hu:Április 1]] [[mk:1 април]] [[ms:1 April]] [[nap:1 'e abbrile]] [[nl:1 april]] [[ja:4月1日]] [[no:1. april]] [[nn:1. april]] [[oc:1 d'abril]] [[pl:1 kwietnia]] [[pt:1 de Abril]] [[ro:1 aprilie]] [[ru:1 апреля]] [[sco:1 Aprile]] [[sq:1 Prill]] [[scn:1 di aprili]] [[simple:April 1]] [[sk:1. apríl]] [[sl:1. april]] [[sr:1. април]] [[fi:1. huhtikuuta]] [[sv:1 april]] [[tl:Abril 1]] [[tt:1. Äpril]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 1]] [[th:1 เมษายน]] [[vi:1 tháng 4]] [[tr:1 Nisan]] [[uk:1 квітня]] [[ur:1 اپریل]] [[wa:1î d' avri]] [[war:Abril 1]] [[zh:4月1日]] [[pam:Abril 1]] 1176 41074394 2006-02-24T22:03:45Z Wasseralm 389528 de: In [[mathematics]], a [[binary relation]] ''R'' on a [[set]] ''X'' is '''antisymmetric''' if, for all ''a'' and ''b'' in ''X'', if ''a'' is related to ''b'' and ''b'' is related to ''a'', then ''a''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''b''. In [[mathematical notation]], this is: :<math>\forall a, b \in X,\ a R b \and b R a \; \Rightarrow \; a = b</math> [[inequality|Inequalities]] are antisymmetric, since for different numbers ''a'' and ''b'' not both ''a &le; b'' and ''a &ge; b'' can be true. Note that 'antisymmetric' is not the logical negative of '[[symmetric relation|symmetric]]' (whereby ''aRb'' implies ''bRa''). (N.B.: Both are properties of relations expressed as universal statements about their members; their logical negations must be existential statements.) Thus, there are relations which are both symmetric and antisymmetric (e.g., [[equality (mathematics)|the equality relation]]) and there are relations which are neither symmetric nor antisymmetric (e.g., [[divisibility]] on the [[integer]]s). Antisymmetry is different from [[Asymmetric relation|asymmetry]]. According to one definition of '''asymmetric''', anything that fails to be symmetric is asymmetric; the definition of antisymmetry is more specific than this. Another definition of '''asymmetric''' makes asymmetry equivalent to antisymmetry plus [[reflexive relation|irreflexivity]]. ==Examples== * [[Equality (mathematics) |Equality]] * "... is even, ... is odd" ::::::[[Image:Evenandodd.PNG]] ==Properties containing antisymmetry== * [[Partial order]] - An antisymmetric relation that is also [[transitive relation|transitive]] and [[reflexive relation|reflexive]]. * [[Total_order|total order]] - An antisymmetric relation that is also [[transitive relation|transitive]] and [[total relation|total]]. ==See also== * [[Symmetry in mathematics]] * [[Symmetric relation]] [[Category:Set theory]] [[cs:Antisymetrická relace]] [[de:Antisymmetrie]] [[es:Relación antisimétrica]] [[he:אנטי סימטריות]] [[ko:반대칭관계]] [[pl:Relacja antysymetryczna]] [[sk:Antisymetrická relácia]] [[zh:反对称关系]] 1177 42059129 2006-03-03T14:53:06Z Pacula 111499 /* Mountaineering */ minor rewording for clarity [[Image:Aleister Crowley.jpg|thumb|right|235px|Aleister Crowley]] '''Aleister Crowley''', born '''Edward Alexander Crowley''' ([[12 October]] [[1875]] – [[1 December]] [[1947]]) was an [[occult]]ist, [[mystic]], [[sexual revolution]]ary, and drug user (especially [[opium]]). Other interests and accomplishments were wide-ranging (he was a [[chess master]], [[mountain climber]], [[poet]], [[writer]], [[painter]], [[astrologer]] and social [[critic]]). He was quite notorious during his life, and was dubbed "The Wickedest Man In the World"; the term first appeared in [[1928]] in ''[[John Bull (disambiguation)|John Bull]]'', a [[tabloid]] pictorial of the day. ==Biography== Edward Alexander Crowley was born in [[Royal Leamington Spa]], [[Warwickshire]], [[England]], between 11:00pm and 12 midnight on [[12 October]] [[1875]]. His father, Edward Crowley, once maintained a lucrative family [[brewery]] business and was retired at the time of Aleister's birth. His mother, Emily Bertha Bishop, drew roots from a [[Devon]] and [[Somerset]] family. Aleister grew up in a staunch [[Plymouth Brethren]] household. His father, after retiring from his daily duties as a brewer, took up the practice of [[preaching]] at a fanatical pace. Daily Bible studies and private tutoring were mainstays in young Aleister's childhood; however, after his father's death, his mother's efforts at indoctrinating her son in the Christian faith only served to provoke Aleister's [[scepticism]]. As a child, young Aleister's constant rebellious behaviour displeased his devout mother to such an extent she would chastize him by calling him "The Beast" (from the Book of Revelation), an epithet that Crowley would later happily adopt for himself. He objected to the labelling of what he saw as life's most worthwhile and enjoyable activities as "sinful". In response, Crowley created his own philosophical system, ''Scientific Illuminism'' — a synthesis of various Eastern [[mysticism|mystical]] systems (including [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Tantra]], the predecessor to Western sex magick, [[Zoroastrianism]] and the many systems of Yoga) fused with the Western occult sciences of the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]] and the many reformed rituals of [[Freemasonry]] he later reformulated within the [[Ordo Templi Orientis]] (O.T.O). This system also appeals to scientific and philosophical [[scepticism]]. His undergraduate studies in [[chemistry]] at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] helped forge the [[scientific scepticism]] that later culminated in the many-volumed and unparalleled occult publication, ''[[The Equinox]].'' Following the death of his father, the young Aleister (then "Alec" or "Alick") turned to a form of [[Satanism]] in grief. However, within a few years he abandoned this for [[atheism]] and [[hedonism]], or in his words, "began to behave like a normal, healthy human being." During the year [[1897]], he slowly came to view earthly pursuits as useless and began his lifelong exploration of esoteric matters. A number of events contributed to this change. (The [[Aleister Crowley#Chess|section on chess]] in this article gives one example.) Involved as a young adult in the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]], he first studied mysticism with and made enemies of [[William Butler Yeats]] and [[Arthur Edward Waite]]. Like many in occult circles of the time, Crowley voiced the view that Waite was a pretentious bore through searing critiques of Waite's writings and editorials of other authors' writings. His friend and former Golden Dawn associate [[Allan Bennett]] introduced him to the ideas of [[Buddhism]], while [[MacGregor Mathers|Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers]], acting leader of the Golden Dawn organization, acted as his early mentor in western magick but would later become his enemy. Several decades after Crowley's participation in the Golden Dawn, Mathers claimed copyright protection over a particular ritual and sued Crowley for infringement after Crowley's public display of the ritual. In a book of fiction entitled ''[[Moonchild]],'' Crowley portrayed Mathers as the primary villain, including him as a character named SRMD, using the abbreviation of Mathers' magical name. Arthur Edward Waite also appeared in ''Moonchild'' as a villain named Arthwaite, while Bennett appeared in ''Moonchild'' as the main character's wise mentor, Simon Iff. While he did not officially break with Mathers until [[1904]], Crowley lost faith in this teacher's abilities soon after the [[1900]] schism in the Golden Dawn (if not before). Later that year, Crowley travelled to Mexico and continued his magical studies in isolation. AC's writings suggest that he discovered the word ''[[Abracadabra|Abrahadabra]]'' during this time. (The article on this word explains the spelling.) In October of [[1901]], after practising [[Raja Yoga]] for some time, he said he had reached a state he called [[dhyana]] — one of many states of unification in thoughts that are described in ''MAGICK Book IV'' (See [[egolessness|Crowley on egolessness]]). [[1902]] saw him writing the essay ''Berashith'' (the first word of [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]]), in which he gave [[meditation]] (or restraint of the mind to a single object) as the means of attaining his goal. The essay describes [[ceremony|ceremonial]] magic as a means of training the will, and of constantly directing one's thoughts to a given object through ritual. In his 1903 essay, ''Science and Buddhism'', Crowley urged an [[empirical]] approach to Buddhist teachings. He said that a mystical experience in [[1904]] while on vacation in [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]], led to his founding of the [[philosophy of religion|religious philosophy]] known as [[Thelema]]. Aleister's wife Rose started to behave in an odd way, and this led him to think that some entity had made contact with her. At her instructions, he performed an invocation of the Egyptian god [[Horus]] on [[March 20]] with (he wrote) "great success". According to Crowley, the god told him that a new magical Aeon had begun, and that A.C. would serve as its prophet. Rose continued to give information, telling Crowley in detailed terms to await a further revelation. On [[8 April]] and for the following two days at exactly noon he heard a voice, dictating the words of the text, ''Liber AL vel Legis,'' or ''[[The Book of the Law]],'' which Crowley wrote down. The voice claimed to be that of Aiwass (or Aiwaz "the minister of Hoor-paar-kraat," or Horus, the god of force and fire, child of [[Isis and Osiris]]) and self-appointed conquering lord of the New Aeon, announced through his chosen scribe "the prince-priest the Beast." Portions of the book are in numerical [[cipher]], which Crowley claimed the inability to decode (Setian [[Michael Aquino]] later claimed to be able to decode them). Thelemic dogma (to the extent that Thelema has dogma) explains this by pointing to a warning within the ''Book of the Law'' — the speaker supposedly warned that the scribe, Ankh-af-na-khonsu (Aleister Crowley), was never to attempt to decode the ciphers, for to do so would end only in folly. The later-written ''The Law is For All'' sees Crowley warning everyone not to discuss the writing amongst fellow critics, for fear that a [[dogma|dogmatic]] position would arise. While he declared a "new Equinox of the Gods" in early 1904, supposedly passing on the revelation of [[March 20]] to the occult community, it took years for Crowley to fully accept the writing of the ''Book of the Law'' and follow its doctrine. Only after countless attempts to test its writings did he come to embrace them as the official doctrine of the New Aeon of [[Horus]]. The remainder of his professional and personal careers were spent expanding the new frontiers of scientific [[illuminism]]. Rose and Aleister had a daughter, whom AC named Nuit Ma Ahathoor Hecate Sappho Jezebel Lilith Crowley, in July of 1904. This child died in [[1906]]. They had another daughter, Lola Zaza, in the summer of that year, and AC devised a special ritual of thanksgiving for her birth. He performed a thanksgiving ritual before his first claimed success in the [[Abramelin]] operation, on [[October 9]], 1906. The events of that year gave the Abramelin book a central role in Crowley's system. He described the primary goal of the "Great Work" using a term from this book: "the Knowledge and Conversation of the [[Holy Guardian Angel]]." An essay in the first number of ''The Equinox'' gives several reasons for this choice of names: :''1. Because Abramelin's system is so simple and effective.'' :''2. Because since all theories of the universe are absurd it is better to talk in the language of one which is patently absurd, so as to mortify the metaphysical man.'' :''3. Because a child can understand it.'' Crowley was notorious in his lifetime — a frequent target of attacks in the [[tabloid press]], which labelled him "The Wickedest Man in the World" to his evident amusement. At one point, he was expelled from [[Italy]] after having established a sort of [[commune (intentional community)|commune]], the organization of which was based on his personal philosophies, the [[Abbey of Thelema]], at Cefalu, [[Sicily]]. In [[1934]] Crowley was declared bankrupt after losing a court case in which he sued the artist [[Nina Hamnett]] for calling him a black magician in her [[1932]] book, ''Laughing Torso.'' In addressing the jury, Mr Justice Swift said: "I have been over forty years engaged in the administration of the law in one capacity or another. I thought that I knew of every conceivable form of wickedness. I thought that everything which was vicious and bad had been produced at one time or another before me. I have learnt in this case that we can always learn something more if we live long enough. I have never heard such dreadful, horrible, blasphemous and abominable stuff as that which has been produced by the man (Crowley) who describes himself to you as the greatest living poet." Aleister Crowley died of a respiratory infection in a [[Hastings]] [[boarding house]] on [[December 1]], [[1947]], at the age of 72. According to some accounts he died on [[December 5]], [[1947]]. He was penniless and [[addict]]ed to [[opium]], which had been prescribed for his [[asthma]] and [[bronchitis]], at the time. Biographer Lawrence Sutin passes on various stories about AC's death and last words. Frieda Harris supposedly reported him saying, "I am perplexed," though she did not see him at the very end. According to John Symonds, a Mr Rowe witnessed Crowley's death along with a nurse, and reported his last words as, "Sometimes I hate myself." Biographer Gerald Suster accepted the version of events he received from a "[[Mr. W.H.|Mr W.H.]]" in which Crowley dies pacing in his living-room. Supposedly Mr W.H. heard a crash while polishing furniture on the floor below, and entered Crowley's rooms to find him dead on the floor. Patricia "Deirdre" MacAlpine, the mother of his son, denied all this and reports a sudden gust of wind and peal of thunder at the (otherwise quiet) moment of his death. According to MacAlpine, Crowley remained bedridden for the last few days of his life, but was in light spirits and conversational. Readings at the cremation service in nearby Brighton included one of his own works, ''Hymn to Pan,'' and newspapers referred to the service as a [[black mass]]. [[Brighton]] council subsequently resolved to take all necessary steps to prevent such an incident occurring again. ==Chess== Crowley learnt to play chess at the age of six and first competed on the Eastbourne College chess team (where he was taking classes in [[1892]]). He showed immediate competence, beating the adult champion in town and even editing a chess column for the local newspaper, the Eastbourne Gazette (Sutin, p.33), which he often used to criticise the Eastbourne team. He later joined the university chess club at [[Cambridge]], where he beat the president in his freshman year and practised two hours a day towards becoming a champion — "My one serious worldly ambition had been to become the champion of the world at chess" (Confessions, p.193). However, he gave up his chess aspirations in [[1897]] when attending a chess conference in Berlin: <blockquote> But I had hardly entered the room where the masters were playing when I was seized with what may justly be described as a mystical experience. I seemed to be looking on at the tournament from outside myself. I saw the masters — one, shabby, snuffy and blear-eyed; another, in badly fitting would-be respectable shoddy; a third, a mere parody of humanity, and so on for the rest. These were the people to whose ranks I was seeking admission. "There, but for the grace of God, goes Aleister Crowley," I exclaimed to myself with disgust, and there and then I registered a vow never to play another serious game of chess. I perceived with preternatural lucidity that I had not alighted on this planet with the object of playing chess. (Confessions, Ch.16). </blockquote> ==Mountaineering== In the summer of [[1902]], [[Oscar Eckenstein]] and Crowley undertook the first attempt to scale Chogo Ri (known in the west as [[K2]]), located in [[Pakistan]]. The Eckenstein-Crowley Expedition consisted of Eckenstein, Crowley, [[Guy Knowles]], H. Pfannl, V. Wesseley, and Dr [[Jules Jacot-Guillarmod]]. During this trip he won a world record for his hardships on the [[Baltoro Glacier]], sixty-eight straight days of glacial life. In May [[1905]], he was approached by Dr [[Jules Jacot-Guillarmod]] ([[1868]] - [[1925]]) to accompany him on the first expedition to [[Kanchenjunga]] in [[Nepal]], the third largest mountain in the world. Guillarmod was left to organize the personnel while Crowley left to get things ready in [[Darjeeling]]. On [[July 31]] Guillarmod joined Crowley in Darjeeling, bringing with him two countrymen, Charles-Adolphe Reymond and Alexis Pache. Meanwhile, Crowley had recruited a local man, Alcesti C. Rigo de Righi, to act as Transport Manager. The team left Darjeeling on [[August 8]], [[1905]], and used the [[Singalila Ridge]] approach to Kangchenjunga. At [[Chabanjong]] they ran into the rear of the 135 [[coolie]]s who had been sent ahead on [[July 24]] and [[July 25]], who were carrying food rations for the team. The trek was led by Aleister Crowley, but four members of that party were killed in an avalanche. Some claims say they reached around 21,300 feet before turning back, however Crowley's autobiography claims they reached about 25,000 feet. Crowley was sometimes famously scathing about other climbers, in particular [[O. G. Jones]], whom he considered a risk-taking self-publicist, and his 'two photographers' ([[George and Ashley Abraham]]). ==Science, magic, and sexuality== Crowley claimed to use a [[scientific method]] to study what people at the time called "spiritual" experiences, making "The Method of Science, the Aim of Religion" the catchphrase of his magazine ''The Equinox''. By this he meant that mystical experiences should not be taken at [[face value]], but critiqued and experimented with in order to arrive at their underlying religious meaning. In this he may be considered to foreshadow Dr. [[Timothy Leary]], who at one point sought to apply the same method to [[psychedelic drug]] experiences. Yet like Leary's, Crowley's method has received little "scientific" attention outside the circle of Thelema's practitioners. Crowley's magical and initiatory system has amongst its innermost reaches a set of teachings on sex "magick." He frequently expressed views about sex that were radical for his time, and published numerous poems and tracts combining pagan religious themes with sexual imagery both heterosexual and homosexual. [[Sex Magick]] is the use of the sex act—or the energies, passions or arousal states it evokes—as a point upon which to focus the will or magical desire for effects in the non-sexual world. In this, Crowley was inspired by [[Paschal Beverly Randolph]], an American author writing in the [[1870s]] who wrote (in his book ''Eulis!'') of using the "nuptive moment" (orgasm) as the time to make a "prayer" for events to occur. ==Women== During March [[1899]] Crowley met, at one of the semi-public performances of MacGregor Mathers' [[Rites of Isis]], an American [[soprano]] by the name of [[Susan Strong]] ([[3 August]], [[1870]] - [[11 March]], [[1946]]). Susan was the daughter of [[Dennis Strong]], an American Congressman and mayor of [[Brooklyn]]. She had gone to the [[United Kingdom|UK]] at the age of 21 and had enrolled in the [[Royal College of Music]], [[London]] under the tutelage of the famous Hungarian musician [[Francis Korbay]]. Crowley met up with her again in London when she sang the part of Venus in ''[[Tannhäuser (Wagner)|Tannhäuser]]'' on [[22 June]] [[1899]]. A torrid romance followed during which Susan swore to divorce her American husband and devote herself to Crowley. However on her return to the US, around October [[1899]], she apparently cooled in ardour. Crowley followed her to [[New York]] in June of the following year, but by then she was already on her way back to the [[United Kingdom|UK]] to appear in performances of the [[Royal Opera House]], [[Covent Garden]]. During [[1900]], while in Mexico City, Crowley experienced an [[epiphany (feeling)|epiphany]], during which he transcribed his play, titled ''[[Tannhäuser]]''. He attributed the inspiration of this play to his romance with Susan Strong. ==Thelema== *''see also [[Thelema]]'' The religious or mystical system which Crowley founded, into which most of his writings fall, he named '''[[Thelema]]'''. Thelema combines a radical form of philosophical [[libertarianism]], akin in some ways to [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]], with a mystical initiatory system derived in part from the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn|Golden Dawn]]. Chief among the precepts of Thelema is the [[sovereignty of the individual]] will: "Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law." Crowley's idea of ''will,'' however, is not simply the individual's desires or wishes, but also incorporates a sense of the person's destiny or greater purpose: what he termed the "Magick Will." Much of the initiatory system of Thelema is focused on discovering one's true will, true purpose, or [[higher self]]. Much else is devoted to an Eastern-inspired dissolution of the individual [[ego]], as a means to that end (see [[Choronzon]]). The second precept of Thelema is "Love is the law, love under will" — and Crowley's meaning of "Love" is as complex as that of "Will". It is frequently sexual: Crowley's system, like elements of the Golden Dawn before him, sees the dichotomy and tension between the male and female as fundamental to existence, and sexual "magick" and metaphor form a significant part of Thelemic ritual. Thelema draws on numerous older sources and, like many other [[new religious movement]]s of its time, combines "Western" and "Eastern" traditions. Its chief Western influences include the Golden Dawn and elements of [[Freemasonry]]; Eastern influences include aspects of [[yoga]], [[Taoism]], [[Kabbalah]] and [[Tantra]]. ==Writings== Within the subject of occultism Crowley wrote widely, penning commentaries on the [[Tarot]] ''([[The Book of Thoth]])'', [[yoga]] ''(Book Four)'', the [[Kabbalah]] ''(Sepher Sephiroth)'', [[astrology]] ''(The General Principles of Astrology)'', and numerous other subjects. He also wrote a Thelemic "translation" of the ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'', based on earlier English translations since he knew little or no Chinese. Like the Golden Dawn mystics before him, Crowley evidently sought to comprehend the entire human religious and mystical experience in a single philosophy. He self-published many of his books, expending the majority of his inheritance to disseminate his views. Many of his fiction works, such as the "Simon Iff" detective stories and ''[[Moonchild]]'' have not received significant notice outside of occult circles. However his fictional work ''[[Diary Of A Drug Fiend]]'' has received acclaim from those involved in the field of [[substance-abuse rehabilitation|substance abuse rehabilitation]]. Crowley's most grandiose work is ''[[The Equinox]]'', a large bi-annual periodical that served as the official organ of the [[Argenteum Astrum]] (A∴A∴), and, later, the [[O.T.O.]] It was subtitled "The Review of Scientific Illuminism" and remains one of the definitive works on [[occultism]]. Crowley's other major works include: * ''[[The Book of Lies]]'' * ''[[The Holy Books of Thelema]]'' * ''[[Konx om Pax]]'' He also wrote a short, highly readable introduction to [[yoga]] (''Eight Lectures on Yoga'') and a [[polemic]] arguing against [[George Bernard Shaw]]'s interpretation of the [[Gospels]] in his preface to ''[[Androcles and the Lion]]''. Crowley's piece was edited by [[Francis King]] and published as ''Crowley on Christ'', and shows him at his erudite and witty best. Crowley had a peculiar sense of humour. In his ''Book Four'' he includes a chapter purporting to illuminate the Qabalistic significance of [[Mother Goose]] [[nursery rhyme]]s. ''In re'' [[Humpty Dumpty]], for instance, he recommends the occult authority "Ludovicus Carolus" -- better known as [[Lewis Carroll]]. In a footnote to the chapter he admits that he had invented the alleged meanings, to show that one can find occult "Truth" in everything. The title to chapter [[69 (number)|69]] is given as "The Way to Succeed - and the Way to Suck Eggs!" a pun, as the chapter concerns the [[69 sex position]] as a mystical act. Many Crowley biographies relate the story of [[L. Ron Hubbard]] and [[Jack Parsons]] and their attempt to create a "moonchild" (from Crowley's novel of that name). In Crowley's own words, "Apparently Parsons and Hubbard or somebody is producing a moonchild. I get fairly frantic when I contemplate the idiocy of these louts." Clearly the admiration Hubbard had for Crowley was not reciprocated. More famously still, he baited [[Christianity|Christians]] by naming himself [[To Mega Therion]], or "The Great Beast" of the [[Book of Revelation]]. Crowley was also a published, if minor, poet. He wrote the [[1929]] ''Hymn to Pan'' [http://www.paganlibrary.com/music_poetry/crowleys_pan_invocation.php], perhaps his most widely read and anthologized poem. Three pieces by Crowley, "The Quest [http://www.bartleby.com/236/314.html]", "The Neophyte [http://www.bartleby.com/236/315.html]", and "The Rose and the Cross [http://www.bartleby.com/236/316.html]", appear in the [[1917]] collection ''[[The Oxford Book of English Mystical Verse]]''. Crowley's unusual sense of humour is on display in ''White Stains'' [http://www.rahoorkhuit.net/library/crowley/stain.html], an [[1898]] collection of [[pornography|pornographic]] verse pretended to be "the literary remains of George Archibald Bishop, a neuropath of the Second Empire;" the volume is prefaced with a notice that says that " The Editor hopes that Mental Pathologists, for whose eyes alone this treatise is destined, will spare no precaution to prevent it falling into other hands." ==Miscellany== *Crowley also tried to mint a number of new terms instead of the established ones he felt inadequate. For example he spelled [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] "[[magick]]" and renamed [[theurgy]] "high magick" and [[thaumaturgy]] "low magick". *"In World War I Aleister Crowley ingratiated himself with a Hermetic sect in order to reveal to the Americans that its head was a highly dangerous German agent. In World War II it was well known in British Intelligence that many leading Nazis were interested in the occult and especially in astrology. Crowley did some work for [[MI5]], but his project for dropping occult information by leaflet on the enemy was rejected by the authorities." - Richard Deacon, Spyclopaedia ==Crowley in popular culture== :''See [[Crowley in popular culture]]'' ==See also== * The [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]] * [[Homunculus]] * [[Argenteum Astrum]] (A∴A∴) * [[Ordo Templi Orientis]] * [[William Breeze]] * [[The Equinox]] * [[Thoth Tarot]] * [[Thelemapedia]] * [[Grady McMurtry]] * [[Jack Parsons]] * [[Lon Milo Duquette]] ==References== * Carroll, Robert Todd (2004). "[http://skepdic.com/crowley.html Aleister Crowley (1875-1947)]". The Skeptic's Dictionary. Retrieved [[30 December]] [[2004]]. * Crowley, Aleister(1990) "[http://deoxy.org/taowley.htm The Tao Teh King, Liber CLVII: THE EQUINOX Vol. III. No. VIII. ASCII VERSION]". Retrieved [[30 December]] [[2004]]. * [http://www.egnu.org/thelema/ Free Encyclopedia of Thelema] (2005). * [http://www.egnu.org/thelema/index.php/The_Equinox The Equinox]. Retrieved [[24 March]] [[2005]]. * A biography of Crowley by Lawrence Sutin, ''Do What Thou Wilt'' (2000) ISBN 0312288972. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{Wikisource author}} *http://www.aleistercrowley.com/ * {{gutenberg author| id=Aleister+Crowley | name=Aleister Crowley}} *[http://www.93beast.fea.st/files/ The most complete resource for books of Crowley in PDF format] *[http://www.newaeonfilms.com A site dedicated to a film being made on Crowley's life] *[http://altreligion.about.com/library/faqs/bl_crowleyfaq.htm Crowley Controversy FAQ] *[http://www.thelemapedia.org/index.php/Aleister_Crowley Aleister Crowley on Thelemapedia] *[http://www.rotten.com/library/bio/religion/aleister-crowley/ Aleister Crowley - The Rotten Library] *[http://www.rinf.com/e-books/Aleister-Crowley.html Aleister Crowley Ebooks] *[http://www.oxygenee.com/absinthe-BOOKS10.html Aleister Crowley and the Green Goddess] [[Category:1875 births|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:1947 deaths|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:Astrologers|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:Bisexual writers|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:British chess players|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:English astrologers|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:English mountain climbers|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:English novelists|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:English occultists|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:Freemasons|Crowley]] [[Category:Hermeticism|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:Lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender people|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:Occultists|Crowley, Aleister]] [[Category:Thelema|Crowley, Aleister]] [[af:Aleister Crowley]] [[cs:Aleister Crowley]] [[de:Aleister Crowley]] [[es:Aleister Crowley]] [[fr:Aleister Crowley]] [[it:Aleister Crowley]] [[nl:Aleister Crowley]] [[ja:アレイスター・クロウリー]] [[no:Aleister Crowley]] [[pl:Aleister Crowley]] [[pt:Aleister Crowley]] [[ru:Кроули, Алистер]] [[simple:Aleister Crowley]] [[fi:Aleister Crowley]] [[sv:Aleister Crowley]] 1178 41839865 2006-03-02T02:05:47Z ZAROVE 446619 /* Logical arguments */ Most religions do not assert this. :''For the Japanese film, see [[After Life]]. For the British television drama, see [[Afterlife (television)]]. For the PC game see [[Afterlife (game)]].'' The '''afterlife''' (or '''life after death''') is a generic term referring to a '''continuation''' of [[existence]], typically [[spirituality|spiritual]] and experiential, beyond this world, or after death. This article is about current generic and widely held or reported concepts of afterlife. ''See also: [[Underworld]], for a comprehensive catalog of specific traditions about afterlife.'' ==Afterlife as a belief== Many people believe in an afterlife. It is generally described as a non-verifiable and non-falsifiable [[belief]] within a [[religion]], because it is generally accepted as beyond the experiential knowledge or casual accessibility of most people (see [[esoteric knowledge]]). As a result, the popular mind relies on various sources for concepts about afterlife, arranged below in presumed order of reliability: *Testimony of individuals who claim experiential knowledge of facets of afterlife **by having died and then been sent back to this life ([[near-death experience]]s) **by having visited the afterlife during a period of unconsciousness ([[out-of-body experience]]s) **by having seen the afterlife during a revelatory vision **by a unique personal gift of remembering an afterlife (before-life) existence **by having communicated with (or received a message from) someone who has passed over ([[after death communication]] or [[electronic voice phenomenon|electronic voice phenomena]]) *Testimony of individuals who are presumed to have special insights into the afterlife **holy ones **miracle workers **spectacular converts *Claimed testimony of visitors from the afterlife **God **Angels **Spirits *Human intuitions of goodness assumed to emanate from the afterlife *Speculation and extrapolation *Concoction While there is information available from all of the above sources, a preponderance of concoctions, speculations, and extrapolations have arguably historically characterized formal descriptions of afterlife. Religious traditions have historically formalized and codified ideas about afterlife in widely divergent forms. Though the onset of the [[information age]] is bringing to light increasing consistency and uniformity of beliefs about afterlife from across and without religious boundaries, most afterlife conceptions continue to follow traditional descriptions, often viewed as rationally weak by skeptics who -- particularly [[atheism|atheists]] and [[agnosticism|agnostics]] of a secular humanist mindset -- may hold that we entirely cease to exist. However, it should be pointed out that not all atheists and agnostics necessarily rule out the existence of an afterlife. For example, many [[buddhism|Buddhists]] neither confirm nor deny the existence of the supernatural (gods, demons, heavens, hells, etc.), while simultaneously embracing the concept of [[rebirth (Buddhist)|rebirth]]. For those who do believe in an afterlife, the various conceptions about it differ in their answer to the following questions: * Is the afterlife a normal life, or a different type of existence? * Are afterlife conditions a consequence of good and bad actions during life? * Is afterlife eternal? * Is it possible to reincarnate as a human or other form of life? * What happens at the moment of death? * Are [[ghost]]s and other [[undead]] a proof of an afterlife? ==Afterlife as an individual existence== For an afterlife to exist, there must be something that survives the body when death occurs. This something is usually believed to be extraphysical and is usually called [[soul]] or spirit. Philosophers have long debated whether such an extraphysical substance can exist; see [[Mind-body problem]]. == Afterlife as reward or punishment == One notion of afterlife which is common to [[Judaism]] (see [[Jewish eschatology#The afterlife and olam haba (the world to come)|the afterlife and ''olam haba'' ["world to come"] ]]), most sects of [[Christianity]], and [[Islam]] is that human [[soul]]s go on for [[eternity]] to a place of [[happiness]] or [[torment]], such as [[heaven]], [[hell]], or [[purgatory]] or [[limbo]]. Many [[religion|religions]] hold that after death people get reward or punishment based on their deeds or faith. The [[Christian Bible]], for example, contains the words of Jesus: "The measure you give will be the measure you get." ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 4:24). Some Christians, however, assert that Christianity does not hold to the doctrine that entry into Heaven can be earned, rather that it is a gift that is solely God's to give. A common line of reasoning for this is as follows: The Christian Bible states that "all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God," ([[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 3:23) meaning nobody has ever managed to live their life without sinning at least once, and this precludes any sort of afterlife reward. Furthermore, "the wages of sin is death...the gift of God is eternal life in Jesus Christ our Lord." ([[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 6:23) "Eternal life" is traditionally accepted to mean life in Heaven, after death. These passages lead some to believe that Christianity may be the only religion that does not hold to the doctrine that entry into Heaven can be earned, as nobody could ever earn it, and it is a gift that is solely God's to give. For many, belief in an afterlife is a consolation in connection with death of a beloved one or the prospect of one's own death. On the other hand, [[fear]] of hell etc. may make death worse. In the informal folk beliefs of many Christians, the souls of virtuous people ascend to Heaven and are converted into [[angels]] upon their deaths. However, a more literal reading of scripture suggests that the dead wait until the [[Last Judgment]], which is followed by resurrection for the faithful. More formal Christian theology makes a sharp distinction between ''angels'', who were created by [[God]] before the creation of humanity, and ''saints'', who are virtuous people who have received immortality from the grace of [[God]]. In view of the eternity of afterlife, some consider regular life as relatively unimportant, except for determining whether afterlife follows, and/or what kind. It is just a provisional situation, and the [[metaphor]] of a [[tent]] as provisional housing facility is used as quoted below: :''For we know that if our earthly house of this [[tabernacle]] were dissolved, we have a [[building]] of God, a [[house]] not made with hands, eternal in the heavens.''(Bible, 2 Corinthians 5:1) In what we know of [[Egyptian religion]], afterlife is very important. The believer had to act well and know the rituals explained in the [[Egyptian Book of the Dead]]. If the corpse was properly [[embalm]]ed and entombed in a [[mastaba]], the defunct would relive in the [[Fields of Yalu]] and accompany the Sun god on its daily ride. If, during the [[psychomachia]], the souls<!-- ka or ba? --> of the defunct were found faulty, the [[Devourer]] monster would eat them. Others, including some Universalists, believe in [[universalism]] which holds that all will eventually be rewarded regardless of what they have done or believed. Life after death, however, is in no way a universal belief; for example, Jehovah's Witnesses interpret Ecclesiastes 9:5 as precluding an afterlife: :''For the living know that they shall die: but the dead know not any thing, neither have they any more a reward;for the memory of them is forgotten.'' They believe that a resurrection in the flesh at some future date will be a reward and that death (non-existence) is a punishment. == Afterlife as reincarnation == Another afterlife concept which is found among [[Hinduism|Hindus]], [[Buddhism|Buddhists]], and [[Wicca|Wiccans]] is [[reincarnation]], whether as humans, [[animal]]s, or as spiritual beings. One consequence of the Hindu and Buddhist beliefs is that our current lives are also an afterlife, and both Hindus and Buddhists interpret events in our current life as being consequences of actions taken in previous lives, or [[Karma]]. Some [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]] believe in personal reincarnation, whereas some believe that the energy of one's soul reintegrates with a continuum of such energy which is recycled into other living things as they are born. == Afterlife and modern science== Other conceptions of an afterlife do not depend as heavily on [[religion]]. Certain scientific fields developed in the [[20th century|20th]] and [[21st century|21st centuries]], that were previously either unknown or purely theoretical, support interesting speculation and questions regarding the afterlife. For instance, the [[special theory of relativity]], known to many people at least in part through its most famous [[equation]] ([[Energy|E]]=[[mass|m]][[speed of light|c]]²), implies that neither [[matter]] nor [[energy]] can be created nor destroyed. This implies that the fundamental quantities that our [[brain]]s are comprised of cannot actually be destroyed. However, it is certainly observed that the specific composition of those quantities which produces the [[electromagnetic]] [[Electric current|current]]s and [[field (physics)|fields]] thought to comprise [[consciousness]] and [[cognition]] do change after death to forms that no longer produce these currents and fields, which presents the question: Is consciousness a sole result of the specific configuration of matter of a living brain, or do some forms of consciousness or experience remain present in the matter and energy that used to be a living brain? If the latter is true, even in part, then it is not certain that the subjective experience of a being's consciousness ends at the time of death, which could be strongly interpreted as a form of afterlife. Also, the nature of consciousness and [[sentience]] itself is a subject of wide debate, and not agreed upon by any means. The emerging field of [[cognitive science]] attempts to study the nature of consciousness, sentience, and cognition. It is now possible to study the brain at moments closer to death than ever before, which may lead to insights regarding the cesstion of cognition, and possibly even insights into the subjective experience of consciousness at those times. Greater understanding of these concepts, and the processes that produce them, might have wide-ranging consequences for conceptions of an afterlife. In a social-sciences sense, the increasing globalization of the world has exposed many people to new religions and [[philosophy|philosophies]]. While the major monotheistic religions of the world ([[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], and their offshoots) almost universally preach some form of [[Cartesian dualism|mind-body dualism]], many "Eastern" religions, such as the many branches of [[Buddhism]] and [[Taoism]] do not contain any such claims, and may in fact preach ideologies that are opposed to it. [[Zen Buddhism]] in particular is famous for [[koan]]s and parables that are meant to teach that the nature of consciousness is transient and/or [[illusion|illusory]], with some schools going so far as to say that even the concept of a "self" is fundamentally flawed. Philosophical conceptions such as these, which reject mind-body dualism and contain ideas of life and existence separate from a "self" or unique [[soul]], remove in large part one of the major criticisms of scientific individuals regarding the afterlife - namely, that an individual must have a soul in order to experience consciousness after death. The emerging field of [[artificial intelligence]] in [[computing]] presents interesting questions regarding an experience of afterlife, as well: If a [[robot]] is created which possesses cognition and problem-solving comparable to a human, is that robot considered conscious or "alive"? If so, can he, she, or it "die"? The memories of such robots, if they are ever constructed, could theoretically be composed of some form of electronic storage and stored on devices identical in purpose to modern [[hard drive]]s, which can be completely copied in a matter of seconds or hours. If a [[backup]] is made of such a theoretical robot's memory at some point, and that robot's current memory then is damaged, destroyed, or rendered inoperable, and then restored from the backup, in what sense, if any, does the newly restored robot's experience constitute [[resurrection]] - especially if, for instance, a [[wireless network]] is used to back up the robot's memory to the exact moment of destruction? Assuming that artificial intelligence [[research]] continues at the rapid pace it has shown so far, these and related questions may become quite meaningful in the future. Finally, though it is not a traditional conception of an afterlife by any means, one particular (and controversial) interpretation of [[quantum physics]] actually implies that a conscious soul may be [[immortal]] in a certain sense - see [[quantum immortality]]. (Though, admittely, in this theory, the organism does not strictly ever "die", so the term "afterlife" may be inappropriate.) ==Related studies== In philosophy, the study of views of the afterlife is a concern of [[Eschatology]], which deals with the soul, the [[resurrection]] of the dead, the messianic era, and the end of the world. The question of whether there is life after death is closely related to [[the mind-body problem]], and like that problem is one of the classic problems of so-called [[rational psychology]] and hence of one (now largely outdated) notion of the scope of [[metaphysics]]. The later works of [[Emanuel Swedenborg]] present one of the most comprehensive and systematic descriptions of the spiritual world, including [[heaven]] and [[hell]]. ==Criticism== Upon death, [[brain]] activity ceases and a person's body begins to [[decompose]]. This marks the end of the individual's [[mind]] in the physical world. The fundamental belief of an afterlife is that there exists a non-physical means (a soul or spirit) for the mind to survive the brain's destruction and continue to function in a non-physical world. [[Occam's Razor]] is used by skeptics as a counter to this belief. There are two basic alternatives to be compared: *When you die, your mind ceases to function and your body decomposes. *When you die, your mind continues to function despite the physical destruction of your brain, continuing its existence in a non-physical world. The first belief is simple and well-supported. Much available scientific evidence indicates that the mind is the product of the brain's activity, and that destruction of the brain also destroys the mind. Therefore, some people conclude that believing in an afterlife (at least in a logically-consistent way) requires the additional [[assumption]]s that: *There exists a non-physical entity associated with a person (the soul or spirit). *The mind can continue to operate in the absence of the brain, being somehow supported by the soul. *The soul exists in a non-physical [[Plane (cosmology)|dimension]] that we are unable to perceive in a measurable way. Despite there being some objective evidence to support these beliefs, skeptics assert that science cannot prove the existence of an afterlife. The fact that these beliefs are nevertheless widely held may be explained by [[wishful thinking]]. Humans instinctively fear death as we know that our eventual deaths are inevitable. Therefore it is unsurprising that a belief system which promises an escape from death would be strongly embraced. People often suspend their better judgment when presented with "too good to be true" promises (consider [[Advance fee fraud|Nigerian scams]] and similar instances of fraud), and an escape from death is considered by some to be the ultimate promise. The philosophical belief of [[materialism]] holds that only the physical universe exists. Though not all materialists would argue that this precludes belief in an afterlife, a great number of them do hold this viewpoint. [[Atheism]] and materialism are closely related, and most atheists do not believe in any sort of afterlife. === Logical arguments === If one accepts the afterlife, one also has to accept the concept of a [[soul]], since when someone dies, the physical body [[decompose]]s. Some religions assert that only humans have a soul (although some religions say that some other life forms, such as animals, also do). The question remains as to why would monkeys, which have been shown to be intelligent, not have a soul while humans would. Also, since at the [[subatomic]] level, all things are made of the same elements, why would other animals, plants--or even rocks--not have a soul? If intelligence is the criteria to have a soul, where would the line be drawn as far as mentally challenged people, or very smart animals? (This topic appears often in the work of [[Peter Singer]]) Another argument is that historically, many religions consider women lower than men in many walks of life. These discriminatory themes were also applied against black people in [[USA|America]], or earlier against [[Muslim]]s during the [[crusade]]s, where some human beings were described as having no soul, or going straight to [[Hell]]. It therefore seems that each argument, while based on a sacred ancient text of some sort (the [[Bible]], the [[Qur'an]], etc), are adapted to fit the modern world.{{fact}} A last logical argument is that if all humans have an afterlife, and go to [[Heaven]] or [[Hell]], then their behavior in those places may be [[determinism|determined]], rather than willfully exerted. People either have free will, or don't. Free will is considered by many to be necessary to have a soul. If they do, then surely there should be evil in Heaven, and good in Hell. === Philosophical arguments === Some non-believers in an afterlife, influenced by [[positivism (philosophy)]], have argued that claims of an afterlife are [[unverifiable]] and [[unfalsifiable]], and therefore cognitively [[meaningless]]. Some have argued that, on the contrary, particular claims concerning the nature of the afterlife are verifiable and falsifiable: all one has to do to verify/falsify them is die. On the other hand, they argue, the belief in the absence of an afterlife can be attacked as vacuous on the grounds that the statement "I cease to exist" is unverifiable, unfalsifiable, and therefore by the same token cognitively meaningless. In particular, the concept of our own non-existence is inconceivable (what experience corresponds to your own non-existence? none.) Other philosophical issues about the idea of an afterlife can be expressed in thought experiments. Johnny is shot and ceases existence for five minutes ( allow, for the sake of the thought experiment, regardless of your beliefs, that he does not experience any form of afterlife in this time.) Then, five minutes later Johnny is cloned, an exact replica is made, possessing all of the factual knowledge, beliefs, values, intentional states and emotions etc he had at the time of death. Is this being the same Johnny that was killed? The result of this thought experiment is arguably very important to some religious groups. Now, imagine that in accordance with the doctrines of some religious groups, that a person X dies and is ressurected after a period of death and essential non-existence (lack of awareness). Is this X the same X that died? The issue at stake is essentially whether identity is continuity over time, or a set of traits, i.e complexes of memory, personality, a soul etc. ==See also== {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} * [[Akhirah]] * [[Animism]] * [[Atheism]] * [[Death]] * [[Doomsday]] * [[Electronic voice phenomenon]] * [[Elysium]] * [[Enlightenment (concept)|Enlightenment]] * [[Eschatology]] * [[Eternity]] * [[Ghost]]s * [[Heaven]] * [[Hell]] {{col-break}} * [[Immortality]] * [[Jewish eschatology]] * [[Life]] * [[Near-death experience]] * [[Out-of-body experience]] * [[Pre-Birth communication]] * [[Reincarnation]] * [[Salvation]] * [[Soul]] * [[Undead]] * [[Valhalla]] {{col-end}} ==External links== *[http://www.victorzammit.com/ A Lawyer Presents the Case for the Afterlife] *[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-76 Dictionary of the History of Ideas: ''Death and Immortality''] *[http://www.spiritualtravel.org/OBE/afterdeath.html A Tibetian Buddhist View of the Afterlife] *[http://www.unexplainedstuff.com/Afterlife-Mysteries/index.html Encyclopedia of Afterlife Theories] *[http://www.near-death.com/ Near-Death Experiences and the Afterlife] *[http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/michael_martin/heaven.html Common problems with the concept of Heaven] *[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0465024602/002-4685174-0810466?n=283155 The Problem of the Soul: Two Visions of Mind and How to Reconcile Them (Hardcover)] *[http://sedna.no.sapo.pt/death_scresearch/index.htm International Scientific Research into 'the Survival after physical death'] [[Category:Religious philosophy and doctrine]] [[Category:Death]] [[Category:Jewish mysticism]] [[Category:Christian eschatology]] [[Category:Life after death]] [[de:Ewiges Leben]] [[es:Más allá]] [[fr:Vie éternelle]] [[la:Vita aeterna]] [[ja:来世]] [[simple:Afterlife]] [[sv:Livet efter detta]] [[vi:Thế giới sau khi chết]] 1179 15899678 2003-06-06T01:31:54Z Camembert 3113 fix double redir #REDIRECT [[Karl Dönitz]] 1181 41673112 2006-02-28T23:54:46Z 62.104.129.223 {{unsourced}} [[Image:Interferometric astrometry.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Illustration of the use of optical wavelength interferometry to determine precise positions of stars. ''Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech''.]] '''Astrometry''' is a branch of [[astronomy]] that deals with the positions of [[star]]s and other [[celestial body|celestial bodies]], their distances and movements. It is one of the oldest subfields of the [[science]], the successor to the more qualitative study of [[positional astronomy]]. Astrometry dates back at least to [[Hipparchus (astronomer)|Hipparchus]], who compiled the first [[Star catalogue|catalogue of stars]] visible to him and in doing so invented the [[Apparent magnitude|brightness scale]] basically still in use today. Modern astrometry was founded by [[Friedrich Bessel]] with his ''Fundamenta astronomiae'', which gave the mean position of 3222 stars observed between 1750 and 1762 by [[James Bradley]]. Apart from the fundamental function of providing [[Astronomer]]s with a [[reference frame]] to report their observations in, astrometry is also fundamental for fields like [[celestial mechanics]], [[stellar dynamics]] and [[galactic astronomy]]. In [[observational astronomy]], astrometric techniques help identify stellar objects by their unique motions. It is instrumental for keeping [[time]], in that [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] is basically the [[International Atomic Time|atomic time]] synchronized to [[Earth]]'s rotation by means of exact observations. Astrometry is also involved in creating the [[cosmic distance ladder]] because it is used to establish [[parallax]] distance estimates for stars in the [[Milky Way]]. == Advances in astrometry == * [[Sundial]]s were effective at measuring time. * [[Astrolabe]]s were invented for measuring celestial angles. * Astrometric applications led to the development of [[spherical geometry]] * Careful measurement of [[planetary motion]]s by [[Tycho Brahe]], followed by analysis by [[Johannes Kepler]] proved the [[Copernican principle]], that Earth revolves about the [[Sun]]. * The [[sextant]] dramatically improved measurement of celestial [[angle]]s. * [[James Bradley]] measured [[aberration of light|stellar aberration]] with a precise transit telescope. * The development of [[charge coupled device]]s (CCDs), and their adoption by astronomers in the 1980s, improved the precision of professional astrometric work. * The development of inexpensive CCDs, software, and telescopes allowed for large-scale [[amateur astronomy|amateur astrometric]] observation of [[minor planet]]s. * From 1989 to 1993, the European Space Agency's [[Hipparcos]] satellite performed astrometric measurements resulting in a catalogue of positions accurate to 20-30 milliarcsec for over a million stars. Astronomers use astrometric techniques for the tracking of [[near-Earth objects]]. It has been also been used to detect [[extrasolar planets]] by measuring the displacement they cause in their parent star's apparent position on the sky, due to their mutual orbit around the center of mass of the system. NASA's planned [[Space Interferometry Mission]] ([[SIM PlanetQuest]]) will utilize astrometric techniques to detect [[terrestrial planets]] orbiting 200 or so of the nearest [[solar-type stars]]. Astrometric measurements are used by [[astrophysicist]]s to constrain certain models in [[celestial mechanics]]. By measuring the velocities of [[pulsar]]s, it is possible to put a limit on the [[asymmetry]] of [[supernova]] explosions. Also, astrometric results are used to determine the distribution of [[dark matter]] in the galaxy. == Astrometrics == '''Astrometrics''' is the [[science]] of [[star|stellar]] [[measurement]]s and [[motion]]. Astrometrics was used, during the [[1990]]s, to detect [[extrasolar planet|extrasolar]] [[gas giant]]s [[orbit]]ing various [[solar system]]s. This was done by observing the "[[stellar wobble]]" of a star and calculating what kinds of [[gravity|gravitational]] [[force]]s would cause such motion; it was then determined that [[planet]]ary forces must be affecting the stars in question. == Other references == In the [[fiction]]al ''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]'', the '''Astrometrics''' lab is the [[set (drama)|set]] for various [[scene]]s. == See also == * [[Astrometric binary]] * [[Ephemeris]] * [[Gaia probe|Gaia Probe]] (ESA -- Planned for 2009-14) * [[Hipparcos|Hipparcos Space Astrometry Mission]] (ESA -- 1989-93) * [[Spherical astronomy]] {{Astronomy-footer}} [[Category:Astrometry| ]] [[Category:Astronomy]] [[eo:astrometrio]] [[de:Astrometrie]] [[fr:Astrométrie]] [[id:Astrometri]] [[it:Astrometria]] [[nl:Astrometrie]] [[pl:Astrometria]] [[pt:Astrometria]] [[ro:Astrometrie]] [[ru:Астрометрия]] [[sl:astrometrija]] [[sr:Астрометрија]] [[fi:Astrometria]] 1182 41950341 2006-03-02T21:01:09Z 172.160.197.182 /* Erichthonius */ :''This article is about the goddess Athena. For other uses see [[Athena (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:Athena.png|right|thumb|200px|Drawing from a sculpture of Athena at the Louvre.]] '''Athena''', ([[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|Ἀθηνᾶ}} Athēnâ or {{polytonic|Ἀθήνη}} Athénē; [[Doric Greek|Doric]]: {{polytonic|Ἀσάνα}} Asána), the [[Greece|Greek]] [[goddess]] of [[wisdom]], [[strategy]], [[crafts]] and [[war]] associated by the [[Etruria|Etruscan]]s with their [[Etruscan mythology|goddess]] [[Menrva]] and later by the Romans as [[Minerva]], is attended by an [[Little Owl|owl]], wore a goatskin breastplate called the [[Aegis]] given to her by her father and is accompanied by the goddess of victory, [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]]. Athena is also a goddess associated with mentoring heroes. Athena is an armed warrior goddess, never a child, always a [[virgin]] (''parthenos''); she is said to have found the advances of men to be childish. The [[Parthenon]] at Athens, Greece is her most famous shrine. She never had a consort or lover, although once [[Hephaestus]] tried and failed.[[Herodotus]] and [[Plato]] incorrectly identified '''Athena''' with the [[Libyan (Ancient people)|Libyan]] (modern [[Berber]]s) goddess [[Neith]]. According to [[Plato]], Athena was derived from ''A-θεο-νόα'' (A-theo-noa) or ''H-θεο-νόα'' (E-theo-noa) meaning the mind of God ([[Cratylus|Crat.407b]]). ==History== [[Image:Athena head.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Athena from the east pediment of the Afea temple in [[Aegina]]]] Athena was probably a goddess in the Aegean in the prehistoric times, although her name is not attested in [[Eteocretan]]. She has been compared to [[Anatolian]] mother goddesses like [[Cybele]], her name possibly of [[Lydian]] origin (G. Neumann, ''Kadmos'' 6, 1967), and her byname ''Pallas'' has been compared to Hittite ''palahh'', a divine raiment [http://www.dainst.org/index_79_en.html]. In [[Mycenaean Greek]], ''A-ta-na-po-ti-ni-ja'' ''/Athana potniya/'' (Mistress Athena) is referred to in the [[Knossos]] [[Linear B]] text V 2. and ''A-ta-no-dju-wa-ja'' ''/Athana diwya/'', the final part being the Linear B spelling of what we know from ancient Greek as ''Diwia'' (Mycenaean ''di-u-ja'' or ''di-wi-ja'') "divine" (see [[dyeus]]). There is evidence that in early times, Athena was an [[owl]] herself, or a [[bird goddess]] in general. In book 3 of the [[Odyssey]], she takes the form of a [[sea-eagle]]. Her tassled [[aegis]] may be the remnants of wings [http://www.fjkluth.com/athena.html]. Athena is associated with [[Athens]], a plural name because it was the place where she presided over her sisterhood, the Athenai, in earliest times. In the [[List of Greek mythological characters|Olympian pantheon]], Athena was remade as the favorite daughter of [[Zeus]], born from his forehead. The story of her birth comes in several versions. In the one most commonly cited, Zeus lay with [[Metis (mythology)|Metis]], the goddess of crafty thought, but immediately feared the consequences. It had been prophesied that Metis would bear children more powerful than Zeus himself. In order to forestall these dire consequences, Zeus transformed Metis into a fly and swallowed her immediately after lying with her. He was too late: Metis had already conceived a child. Metis immediately began making a helmet and robe for her fetal daughter. The hammering as she made the helmet caused Zeus great pain and [[Prometheus]], [[Hephaestus]], [[Hermes]] or [[Palaemon]] (depending on the sources examined) cleaved Zeus's head with the double-headed Minoan axe ([[labrys]]). Athena leaped from Zeus's head, fully grown and armed, and Zeus was none the worse for the experience. Athena was patron of the art of weaving and other crafts, wisdom and battle. Unlike [[Ares]], who was hot-headed and undependable in battle, Athena's domain was strategy and tactics. Having taken the side of the Greeks in the war against [[Troy]], Athena assisted the wily [[Odysseus]] on his journey home. === Athena in art === [[Image: AttalusICorrected.jpg|thumb|200px|right|'''Athena''' was depicted on the obverse side of the [[Coin]] of [[Attalus I]], depicting the head of Attalus' great uncle [[Philetaerus]].]] Athena is classically portrayed wearing full armor, carrying a lance and a shield with the head of the [[gorgon]] [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]] mounted on it. It is in this posture that she was depicted in [[Phidias]]'s famous gold and ivory statue of her, the [[Athena Parthenos]], now lost to history, in the [[Parthenon]] on the Athenian [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis]]. Athena is also often depicted with an [[owl]] (a symbol of wisdom) sitting on one of her shoulders. The [[Mourning Athena]] is a relief sculpture that dates around 460 BC and portrays a tired, emotional Athena. In earlier, archaic portraits of Athena in [[vase-painting]]s, the goddess retains some of her Minoan character, such as great birdwings. === Appellations === Homer's most common [[epithets in Homer|epithet]] for Athena, ''γλαυκώπις'' (glaukopis) is usually translated "bright-eyed" and is a combination of ''γλαύκος'' (glaukos) (which can be translated as "gleaming," "silvery," and later as "bluish-green" or "gray") and ''ώψ'' (ôps - "eye," or sometimes, "face"). It is interesting to note that ''γλαύξ'' (glaux - owl) is from the same root, presumably because of its own distinctive eyes. The bird which sees in the night is closely associated with the goddess of wisdom: in archaic images, she is frequently depicted with an owl perched on her head. In earlier times, Athena may well have been a [[bird goddess]], similar to [[Lilith|Lilitu]] and/or the goddess depicted with owls, wings and bird talons on the [[Burney relief]]. In her role as judge at [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]]' trial on the murder of his mother, [[Clytemnestra]] (which he won), Athena won the epithet "Athena Areia." Athena was often associated with the local [[Aegina|Aeginian]] goddess, ''Αφαία'' ([[Aphaea]]). She had the epithet "Athena Ergane" as the patron of craftsmen and artisans. She was often referred to with the epithet "Παλλάς Αθηνά" (Pallas Athena). [[Pallas]] was an ambiguous figure, sometimes male sometimes female, never imagined apart from Athena. She killed Pallas in a mistake, and ever after wore her/his goatskin fringed with [[chthonic]] serpents, as the protective [[aegis]]. With the epithet "[[Athena Parthenos]]" ("virgin"), Athena was worshipped at the [[Parthenon]]. With the epithet "Athena Promachos" she led in battle. With the epithet "Athena Polias" ("of the city"), Athena was the protectress of Athens and the Acropolis. In the [[Homeric Hymns]] and in [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Theogony]]'', she is described with the curious epithet "Tritogeneia." The exact meaning of this term is unclear. It seems to mean "[[Triton (mythology)|Triton]]-born," perhaps indicating that the sea-god was her father according to some early myths, or that she was born near Lake Triton in [[Africa]]. Another possible meaning is "triple-born" or "third-born," which may refer to her status as the third daughter of Zeus. ==Episodes== === Erichthonius === According to [[Apollodorus]], [[Hephaestus]] attempted to [[rape]] Athena but was unsuccessful. His [[semen]] fell on the ground, and [[Erichthonius of Athens|Erichthonius]] was born from the earth. Athena then raised the baby as a foster mother. Alternatively, the semen landed on Athena's leg, and she wiped it off with a piece of wool which she tossed on the ground. Erichthonius arose from the ground and the wool. Another version says that Hephaestus wanted Athena to marry him but she disappeared on his bridal bed; he ejaculated onto the ground instead. Athena gave three sisters, [[Herse]], [[Pandrosus]] and [[Aglaulus]] the baby in a small box and warned them to never open it. Aglaulus and Herse opened the box which contained the infant and future-king, Erichthonius. The sight caused Herse and Aglaulus to go insane and they threw themselves off the [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis]]. An alternative version of the same story is that while Athena was gone to bring a mountain to use in the Acropolis, the two willful sisters opened the box. A crow witnessed the opening and flew away to tell Athena, who fell into a rage and dropped the mountain (now [[Mt. Lykabettos]]). Once again, Herse and Aglaulus went insane and threw themselves to their deaths off a cliff. Erichthonius later became [[King of Athens]] and implemented many beneficial changes to Athenian culture. During this time, Athena frequently protected him. === Athens === Athena competed with [[Poseidon]] to be the patron deity of [[Athens, Greece|Athens]]. They agreed that each would give the Athenians one gift and the Athenians would choose whichever gift they preferred. Poseidon struck the ground with his [[trident]] and a spring sprung up; the water was salty and not very useful, whereas Athena offered them the first domesticated [[olive tree]]. The Athenians (or their king, [[Cecrops]]) accepted the olive tree and along with it Athena as their patron, for the olive tree brought wood, oil and food. This is thought to remember a clash between the inhabitants during [[Mycenae]]an times and newer immigrants. It is interesting to note that Athens at its height was a significant sea power, defeating the [[Iran|Persia]]n fleet at the [[Battle of Salamis]] near [[Salamis Island]] in [[480 BC]]. Athena was also the patron goddess of several other cities, notably [[Sparta]]. In an alternate version, Poseidon invents the first horse. Athena's gift is still chosen. === Arachne === A woman named Αράχνη ([[Arachne]]) once boasted that she was a superior weaver to Athena, the goddess of weaving. Athena appeared to her disguised as an old woman and told Arachne to repent for her [[hubris]] but Arachne instead challenged Athena to a contest. The old woman threw off her disguise and the contest began. Athena wove a depiction of the conflict with Poseidon over Athens, while Arachne wove a depiction of Zeus' many romantic exploits. Athena was furious at her skill (the contest was never decided) and her choice of subject. Enraged, she destroyed Arachne's work and struck the girl's head with the shuttle. As she could not bear to endure the pain, Arachne unsuccessfully tried to [[hanging|hang]] herself, but was transformed by Athena into the first [[spider]], which forever weaves its [[silk]] for food. ===Perseus and Medusa=== Athena guided [[Perseus (mythology)|Perseus]] in eliminating [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]], a dangerous unreformed relic of the old pre-Olympian order, and she was awarded the grisly trophy that turned men to stone, for her shield. === Heracles === Athena instructed [[Heracles]] how to remove the skin from the [[Nemean Lion]], by using the lion's own claws to cut through its thick hide. The lion's hide became Heracles' signature garment, along with the olive-wood club he used in the battle. Athena also assisted Heracles on a few other labors. She also helped Heracles defeat the [[Stymphalian Birds]], along with [[Hephaestus]]. === [[Tiresias]] and [[Chariclo]] === Athena blinded [[Tiresias]] after he stumbled onto her bathing naked. His mother, [[Chariclo]], begged her to undo her curse, but Athena couldn't; she gave him prophecy instead. == Miscellaneous == Athena (Minerva) is the subject of the $50 1915-S Panama-Pacific [[commemorative coin]]. At 2.5 troy oz (78 g) gold, this is the largest (by [[weight]]) coin ever produced by the [[United States Mint|U.S. Mint]]. This was the first $50 coin issued by the U.S. Mint and no higher was produced until the production of the $100 platinum coins in [[1997]]. Of course, in terms of face-value in adjusted dollars, the [[1915]] is the highest denomination ever issued by the U.S. Mint. A [[Parthenon (Nashville)|full-scale replica of the Parthenon]] has stood in [[Nashville, Tennessee]], which is known as the Athens of the South, for over a century. In [[1990]], a great [[Athena Parthenos|replica of Phidias' statue]] of the goddess was added, over 41 feet (12.5 m) tall and gilded. Athena had a childhood friend named Pallas. During one of their outings, Athena accidentally shot Pallas with an arrow, fatally wounding her. Athena then decided to put Pallas's name before hers so that Pallas would always be remembered. Athena is also featured prominently in various modern pop culture creations including a Japanese animation called [[Saint Seiya]]. Saint Seiya was originally created by Japanese manga artist [[Masami Kurumada]]. Athena had been given birth by Zeus "the father of gods" and Metis. Zeus had been told that any children he had by Metis would be very powerful and someday dethrone him. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{commons|Athena}} *[http://fury.com/galleries/road_trip_2003/index-Pages/Image6.html Nashville's Athena statue] *[http://www.nashville.gov/parthenon/index.htm The Nashville Parthenon] *[http://www.anistor.co.hol.gr/english/enback/e023 Minoan Origins of Athena] by Virginia Hicks {{Greek myth (Olympian)2}} [[Category:Greek goddesses]] [[Category:Smithing goddesses]] [[Category:War goddesses]] [[Category:Wisdom goddesses]] [[Category:Characters in the Iliad]] [[ar:آثينا]] [[bg:Атина (митология)]] [[bs:Atena]] [[ca:Atena]] [[cs:Athéna]] [[da:Athene (gudinde)]] [[de:Athene]] [[el:Αθηνά (μυθολογία)]] [[es:Atenea]] [[eo:Atena]] [[fr:Athéna]] [[gl:Atenea]] [[ko:아테나]] [[id:Dewi Athena]] [[it:Atena]] [[he:אתנה]] [[la:Athena]] [[lt:Atėnė]] [[lv:Atēna]] [[hu:Athéné]] [[nl:Pallas Athene]] [[ja:アテナ]] [[no:Athene]] [[pl:Atena]] [[pt:Atena]] [[ro:Atena (zeiţă)]] [[ru:Афина]] [[sl:Atena]] [[sr:Атина (митологија)]] [[fi:Pallas Athene]] [[sv:Athena]] [[tl:Athena]] [[tr:Athena]] [[uk:Афіна]] [[zh:雅典娜]] 1183 40025276 2006-02-17T16:08:57Z Percy Snoodle 163840 return nbsps {{infobox RPG |title= Amber&nbsp;Diceless&nbsp;Roleplaying&nbsp;Game |image= [[Image:Amber_DRPG.jpg|200px]] |caption= Cover of the main ''Amber DRPG'' rulebook |designer= [[Erick Wujcik]] |publisher= [[Phage Press]]<br>[[Guardians of Order]] |date= 1991 |genre= [[Fantasy]] |system= Custom (direct comparison of statistics without dice) |footnotes= }} The '''Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game''' is a [[role-playing game]] created and written by [[Erick Wujcik]], set in the [[fictional universe]] created by author [[Roger Zelazny]] for his [[Chronicles of Amber]]. The game is unusual in that no [[dice]] are used in resolving conflicts or player actions; instead a simple system of comparative ability, and narrative description of the action by the players and [[gamemaster|game referee]], is used to determine how situations are resolved. Amber DRPG was created in the [[1980s]], and is much more focused on relationships and roleplaying than most of the roleplaying games of that era. Most Amber characters are members of the two ruling classes in the Amber [[multiverse]], and are much more advanced in matters of strength, endurance, psyche, warfare and sorcery than ordinary beings. This means that the only individuals who are capable of opposing a character are from his or her family, a fact that leads to much suspicion and intrigue. ==History== The original 256-page game book was published in 1991 by [[Phage Press]], covering material from the first five novels (the "[[The Chronicles of Amber#The Corwin Cycle|Corwin Cycle]]") and some details - sorcery and the [[Logrus]] - from the remaining five novels (the "[[The Chronicles of Amber#The Merlin Cycle|Merlin Cycle]]"), in order to allow players to roleplay characters from the Courts of Chaos. Some details were changed slightly to allow more player choice - for example, players can be full Trump Artists without having walked the Pattern or the Logrus, which [[Merlin (The Chronicles of Amber)|Merlin]] says is impossible; and players' [[psychic]] abilities are far greater than those shown in the books. [[Image:Shadow Knight.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Cover of Shadow Knight]] A 256-page companion volume, ''Shadow Knight'', was published in 1993. book includes the remaining elements from the Merlin novels, such as Broken Patterns, and allows players to create Constructs such as Merlin's Ghostwheel. The book presents the second series of novels not as additions to the series' [[Continuity (fiction)|continuity]] but as an example of a [[Campaign (role-playing games)|roleplaying campaign]] with Merlin, Luke, Julia, Jurt and Coral as the PCs. The remainder of the book is a colection of essays on the game, statistics for the new characters and an update of the older ones in light of their appearance in the second series, and (perhaps most usefully for GMs) plot summaries of each of the ten books. The book includes some material from the short story [[Amber Short Stories#The Salesman's Tale|The Salesman's Tale]], and some unpublished material from [[Prince of Chaos]], notably Coral's pregnancy by Merlin. A third book, ''Rebma'', was promised and pre-orders were taken, but it never arrived, leading to accusations that it was [[vaporware]]. Wujcik also expressed a desire to create a book giving greater detail to the Courts of Chaos[http://www.sjgames.com/pyramid/sample.html?id=640]. However, the publishing rights to the Amber DRPG games were acquired in 2004 by [[Guardians of Order]], who took over sales of the game and announced their intention to release a new edition of the game, but since their restructuring no further news of the new edition has been forthcoming. The two existing books have been made available as [[Portable Document Format|PDF]] downloads (see [[#External links|External links]]). ==Setting== {{main|The Chronicles of Amber}} The game is set in the [[multiverse]] described in Zelazny's Chronicles of Amber. The first book assumes that gamemasters will set their campaigns after the patternfall war; that is, after the end of the fifth book in the series, [[The Courts of Chaos]], but uses material from the following books to describe those parts of Zelazny's cosmology that were featured there in more detail. Briefly, the Amber multiverse consists of '''Amber''', a city at one pole of the universe wherein is found [[the Pattern]], the symbol of [[Order]]; The '''Courts of Chaos''', an assembly of worlds at the other pole where can be found [[the Logrus]], the manifestation of [[Chaos]], and the Abyss, the source of all reality; and '''Shadow''', the collection of all possible [[universe]]s (shadows) between and around them. Inhabitants of either pole can use one or both of the Pattern and the Logrus to travel through Shadow. It is assumed that players will portray the children of the main characters from the books - the ruling family of Amber, known as the Elder Amberites - or a resident of the Courts. However, since some feel that being the children of the main characters is too limiting, it is fairly common to either start with King Oberon's death ''before'' the book begins and roleplay the Elder Amberites as they vie for the throne; or to populate Amber from scratch with a different set of Elder Amberites. The former option is one presented in the book; the latter is known in the Amber community as an "[[Amethyst]]" game. A third option is to have the players portray [[Corwin (The Chronicles of Amber)|Corwin]]'s children, in an amber-like city built around Corwin's pattern; this is sometimes called an "Argent" game, since one of Corwin's heraldic colours is [[Silver]]. ==System== ===Attributes=== Characters in Amber DRPG are represented by four [[attribute (role-playing games)|attributes]]: ''Psyche'', ''Strength'', ''Endurance'' and ''Warfare''. *'''Psyche''' is used for feats of willpower or magic. *'''Strength''' is used for feats of strength or unarmed combat. *'''Endurance''' is used for feats of endurance. *'''Warfare''' is used for armed combat, from duelling to commanding armies The attributes run from -25 (normal human level), through -10 (normal level for a denizen of the Courts of Chaos) and 0 (normal level for an inhabitant of Amber), upwards without limit. Scores above 0 are "ranked", with the highest score being ranked 1st, the next-highest 2nd, and so on. The character with 1st rank in each attribute is considered "superior" in that attribute, being considered to be substantially better than the character with 2nd rank even if the difference in scores is small. ====The Attribute Auction==== A character's ability scores are purchased during [[character generation]] in an [[auction]]; players get 100 [[character point]]s, and bid on each attribute in turn. Unlike conventional auctions, bids are non-refundable; if one player bids 65 for psyche and another wins with a bid of 66, then the character with 66 is "superior" to the character with 65 even though there is only one bid difference. After the auction, players can secretly pay extra points to raise their ranks, but they can only pay to raise their scores to an existing rank. Further, a character with a bid-for rank is considered to have a slight advantage over character with a bought-up rank. ====Psyche in Amber DRPG compared to the Chronicles==== Characters with high psyche are presented as having strong [[telepathic]] abilities, being able to [[hypnotise]] and even mind-[[rape]] any character with lesser psyche with whom they can make eye-contact. This is likely due to two scenes in the Chronicles: first, when [[Corwin (The Chronicles of Amber)|Corwin]] faces the demon Strygwalldir, it is able to wrestle mentally with him when their gazes meet; and second, when Fiona is able to keep Brand immobile in the final battle at the Courts of Chaos. However, in general, the books only feature mental battles when there is some reason for mind-to-mind contact (for example, Trump contact) and magic is involved in both the above conflicts, so it is not clear whether Zelazny intended his characters to have such a power when it would have almost certainly assured Brand of victory. ===Powers=== Characters in Amber DRPG have access to the powers seen in the Chronicles of Amber: '''Pattern''', '''Logrus''', '''Shape-shifting''', '''Trump Artistry''', and magic. A character who has walked the pattern can walk in shadow to any possible universe, and while there can manipulate probability. A character who has mastered the Logrus can send out Logrus tendrils and pull themself or objects through shadow. Shape-shifters can alter their physical form, and Trump Artists can create Trumps, a sort of [[tarot]] card which allows mental communication and travel. Three types of magic are detailed: '''Power Words''', with a quick, small effect; '''Sorcery''', with pre-prepared spells as in many other game systems; and '''Conjuration''', the creation of small objects. Each of the first three powers is available in an advanced form. ===Artifacts, Personal shadows and Constructs=== While a character with Pattern, Logrus or Conjuration can acquire virtually any object, players can choose to spend character points to obtain objects with particular virtues - unbreakability, or a mind of their own. Since they have paid points for the items, they are a part of the character, and cannot lightly be destroyed. Similarly, a character can find any possible universe, but they can spend character points to know of or inhabit shadows which are (in some sense) "real" and therefore useful. The expansion, ''Shadow knight'', adds Constructs - artifacts with connections to shadows. ===Stuff=== Unspent character points become '''good stuff''' - a good luck for the character. Players are also allowed to overspend (in moderation), with the points becoming '''bad stuff''' - bad luck which the Gamemaster should inflict on the character. As well as representing luck, stuff can be seen as representing a character's outlook on the universe: characters with good stuff seeing the multiverse as a cheerful place, while characters with bad stuff see it as hostile. ===Conflict resolution=== In any given fair conflict between two characters, the character with the higher score in the relevant attribute will eventually win. The key word here is ''fair'' - if characters' ranks are close, and the weaker character has obtained some advantage, then the weaker character can prevail. This concept has been developed further in [[John Wick]]'s ''Advantage system''. Alternatively, if characters' attribute ranks are close, the weaker character can try to change the relevant attribute by changing the nature of the conflict. For example, if two characters are wrestling the relevant attribute is Strength; a character could reveal a weapon, changing it to Warfare; they could try to overcome the other character's mind using a power, changing it to Psyche; or they could concentrate their strength on defense, changing it to Endurance. This concept is similar to the concept of ''escalation'' in [[Dogs in the Vineyard]]. If there is a substantial difference between characters' ranks, the conflict is generally over before the weaker character can react. ===The Golden Rule=== Amber DRPG advises gamemasters to change rules as they see fit - even to the point of adding or removing powers or attributes. ==Trivia== The book features Trump portrait of each of the elder Amberites. The trump picture of Corwin is executed in a subtly different style - and has features very similar to Roger Zelazny's. ==References== * Erick Wujcik ''Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game'' (Phage Press, 1991) ISBN 1880494000 * Erick Wujcik ''Shadow Knight'' (Phage Press, 1993) ISBN 1880494019 * Roger Zelazny ''The Great Book of Amber'' ([[Eos Press]], 1999) ISBN 0380809060 == External links == *[http://www.phagepress.com/ Phage Press]'s homepage for the game *Guardians of Order's [http://www.guardiansorder.com/boards/forumdisplay.php?f=21 Amber DRPG forum] and [http://www.guardiansorder.com/store/amber.php store] *[http://drivethrurpg.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=1447 Amber DRPG] and [http://drivethrurpg.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=1448 Shadow Knight] as PDF downloads *[http://calwestray.tripod.com/amber.htm Westray], an Amber DRPG fansite *[http://www.chorazin.org/gcircle/ The Golden Circle], and Amber [[webring]] with many Amber DRPG sites. [[Category:The Chronicles of Amber]] [[Category:Fantasy role-playing games]] [[Category:Universal role-playing games]] [[fr:Ambre (jeu de rôle)]] [[it:Ambra (gioco)]] [[pl:Amber (gra fabularna)]] 1184 15899682 2002-05-19T17:18:35Z AxelBoldt 2 * #REDIRECT [[Athena]] 1186 15899683 2002-06-12T02:07:16Z Bryan Derksen 66 removed old copy of article from below the redirect #REDIRECT [[Aphex Twin]] 1187 41729565 2006-03-01T09:40:48Z 165.21.154.117 '''Alloy''' is a combination, either in [[solution]] or [[chemical compound|compound]], of two or more [[chemical element|elements]], which has a combination of at least one [[metal]], and where the resultant material has [[metallic]] properties. An alloy with two components is called a binary alloy; one with three is a ternary alloy; one with four is a quaternary alloy. The result is a metallic substance with properties different from those of its components. Alloys are usually designed to have properties that are more desirable than those of their components. For instance, [[steel]] is stronger than [[iron]], one of its main elements, and [[brass]] is more durable than [[copper]], but more attractive than [[zinc]]. Unlike pure metals, many alloys do not have a single [[melting point]]. Instead, they have a melting range in which the material is a mixture of [[solid]] and [[liquid]] phases. The temperature at which melting begins is called the [[solidus]], and that at which melting is complete is called the [[liquidus]]. Special alloys can be designed with a single melting point, however, and these are called [[eutectic]] mixtures. Sometimes an alloy is just named for the base metal, as 14 [[Carat (purity)|karat]] (58%) [[gold]] is an alloy of gold with other elements. The same holds for [[silver]] used in [[jewellery]], and [[aluminium]] used structurally. The term "alloy" is frequently used in everyday speech as an alternative to "aluminium alloy." Many engineers find this convention offensive, since all steels and most other metals in practical use are also alloys. A typical example of such usage is "alloy wheels" fitted to an automobile. ==See also== * [[List of alloys]] * [[Intermetallics]] {{Wiktionary}} [[Category:Alloys|*]] [[uk:Лігатура]] [[af:Legering]] [[bg:Сплав]] [[ca:Aliatge]] [[cs:Slitina]] [[da:Legering]] [[de:Legierung]] [[es:Aleación]] [[eo:Alojo]] [[fr:Alliage]] [[ko:합금]] [[io:Aloyo]] [[id:Aloy]] [[is:Málmblanda]] [[it:Lega (metallurgia)]] [[he:סגסוגת]] [[mk:Легура]] [[ms:Aloi]] [[nl:Legering]] [[ja:合金]] [[no:Legering]] [[nn:Legering]] [[pl:Stop metali]] [[pt:Liga metálica]] [[ru:Сплав]] [[simple:Alloy]] [[sl:Zlitina]] [[sr:Легура]] [[fi:Lejeerinki]] [[sv:Legering]] [[ta:கலப்புலோகம்]] [[th:โลหะผสม]] [[vi:Hợp kim]] [[zh:合金]] 1189 38406727 2006-02-06T03:02:23Z 65.34.202.199 Changed to six (vs. seven) articles by combining afterlife and Judgment in order to maintain consistency and clarity. '''Articles of faith''' are formal [[creeds]], or lists of beliefs, sometimes numbered, and often beginning with "We believe...", which attempt to more or less define the fundamental [[theology]] of a given [[religion]] and/or [[church]]. Articles of faith are common in both [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]]. == Catholicism == The [[Nicene Creed]] and the shorter [[Apostles' Creed]] are articles, or professions of Faith said by members of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. The Nicene is predominantly recited during the Catholic [[Mass (liturgy)|mass]] while the Apostle's is typically used for other occasions. == Mormonism == {{main|Articles of Faith (Mormonism)}} The ''Articles of Faith'' of [[Mormonism]] are a [[creed]] composed by [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] as part of a [[1842]] [[The_Wentworth_Letter|letter]] sent to [[John Wentworth (mayor)|"Long" John Wentworth]], editor of the ''[[Chicago Democrat]]''. It is a concise listing of thirteen fundamental doctrines of [[Mormonism]]. Most [[Latter Day Saint]] denominations view the articles as an authoritative statement of basic theology. Some denominations, such as [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], have adopted the articles as scripture (see ''[[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)]]''). == Protestantism == In [[Protestantism]], several denominations have articles of faith. The [[Anglican]] articles of faith are the [[Thirty-Nine Articles]], which were issued by the Convocation of clergy of the [[Church of England]] in [[1571]]. These articles were adapted by [[John Wesley]] as the [[Articles of Religion (Methodist)|Articles of Religion]], which are the defining articles of [[Methodism]]. == Islam == Traditionally, there are six basic beliefs of Muslims, of which include a belief in: # Oneness of God # Angels # Prophets # Scriptures # [[Last Judgment|The Day of Judgment]] and the [[Akhirah]] or afterlife # [[Predestination]] In Sahih [[Al-Muslim]] and [[Al-Bukhari]], [[Muhammad]] explains, "It (Al-Iman/faith) is to affirm your faith in Allah, [[Angels in Islam|His angels]], His Books [[Prophets of Islam|His Messengers]] and the Last Day, and to believe in the Divine Destiny whether it be good or bad." Retrieved from [[Aqidah]] [[Category:Christianity]] [[Category:Christian texts]] [[Category:Latter Day Saint texts]] 1190 40323664 2006-02-19T20:43:53Z KnightRider 430793 warnfile Modifying: es :''For the [[speculative fiction]] subgenre, see [[alternate history (fiction)]] '''Alternative history''' or '''alternate history''' develops out of historiography to identify historical points of view that have been ignored, overlooked, or unseeable. It usually denotes a [[history]] told from an alternative viewpoint, rather than from the view (actual or ascribed, obvious or inferred) of imperialists, conquerors or explorers. For example ''[[A People's History of the United States]]'' offers a view sympathetic to people [[Native Americans (Americas)|indigenous to the Americas]], while the term ''[[Herstory]]'' was coined to denote history presented from a feminist perspective. This falls into two major categories: * [[Historical revisionism]] is the reexamination of the accepted facts and interpretations of history, with an eye towards updating it with newly discovered, more accurate, less biased or differently biased information. * When revisionism takes on a partisan tone, it is usually called [[Historical revisionism (political)|political historical revisionism]] i.e. a construction of past events which is refuted by well documented, verifiable, and very broadly accepted sources. Such histories may tend to blame their lack of scholarship or documentation on a [[conspiracy theory|conspiracy]] to erase such evidence. Other alternative histories include: * The genre of speculative fiction includes the subgenre of [[Alternate history (fiction)|fictitious alternative history]], set in worlds in which history has diverged from history as it actually happened. The term [[uchronia]] refers to a hypothetical time period in such a divergent world. * [[Failed history]] covers events that have been predicted and had items created in the expectation that they would occur, but then in fact did not occur. * [[Virtual history]] (also known as ''counterfactual history'') is a form of history which attempts to answer "what if" questions. It is an academic extrapolation of alternate outcomes of historical events. {{hist-stub}} [[Category:Alternate history|*]] [[de:Alternativgeschichte]] [[es:Historia alterna]] 1191 34100212 2006-01-06T11:40:35Z Oliver Lineham 83708 Redirect to most common usage #REDIRECT [[Application_programming_interface]] 1192 34326659 2006-01-08T04:29:23Z Sparkit 194762 [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted disambiguation from [[Renoir]] to [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]] Throughout history, forms of [[art]] have gone through periodic abrupt changes called '''artistic revolutions'''. Movements have come to an end to be replaced by a new movement markedly different in striking ways. See also [[cultural movement]]s. == Artistic revolution and cultural/political revolutions == The role of fine art has been to simultaneously express values of the current culture while also offering criticism, balance, or alternatives to any such values that are proving no longer useful. So as times change, art changes. If changes were abrupt they were deemed revolutions. The best artists have predated society's changes due not to any prescenience, but because sensitive perceptivity is part of their 'talent' of seeing. Artists have had to 'see' issues clearly in order to satisfy their current clients, yet not offend potential patrons. For example, paintings glorified aristocracy in the early 1600's when leadership was needed to nationalize small political groupings, but later as leadership became oppressive, satirization increased and subjects were less concerned with leaders and more with more common plights of mankind. Examples of revoutionary art in conjunction with cultural/political movements: *[[Trotskyist]] & [[Diego Riveria]] *[[Black Panther Party]] & Emory Douglas *Cuban [[Poster Art]] *[[Social Realism]] & [[Ben Shahn]] *[[Feminist]] Art & the [[Guerrilla Girls]] *[[Industrial Workers of the World]] & [[Woody Guthrie]] == Artistic revolution of style == But not all artistic revolutions were political. Revolutions of style have also abruptly changed the art of a culture. For example, when the careful, even tedious, art techniques of French neo-classicism became oppressive to artists living in more exuberant times, a stylistic revolution known as "[[Impressionism]]" vitalized brush strokes and color. [[Degas]], [[Monet]], [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir|Renoir]] burst onto the French culture, effecting a revolution with a style that has become commonplace today. An artistic revolution can be begun by a single artist, but unless that artist gains some understanding, he becomes an iconoclast. The first [[Abstract Expressionists]] were considered madmen to give up their brushes and rely on the sheer force of energy to leave an image, but then the import of atomic bombs, all atomic energy, became realized, and art found no better way of expressing its power. [[Jackson Pollack]] is the artist best known for starting that revolution. {{art-stub}} [[Category:Art history]] 1193 40325398 2006-02-19T20:56:20Z RafaelG 698764 '''Agrarianism''' is a [[social philosophy|social ]] and [[political philosophy]]. In his introduction to his 1969 book ''Agrarianism in American Literature'', [[M. Thomas Inge]] defines '''''agrarianism''''' by the following basic tenets: *Cultivation of the soil provides direct contact with nature; through the contact with nature the agrarian is blessed with a closer relationship to God. Farming has within it a positive spiritual good; the farmer acquires the virtues of "honor, manliness, [[self-reliance]], courage, moral integrity, and hospitality" and follows the example of God when creating order out of chaos. *The farmer "has a sense of identity, a sense of historical and religious tradition, a feeling of belonging to a concrete family, place, and region, which are psychologically and culturally beneficial." The harmony of this life checks the encroachments of a fragmented, alienated modern society which has grown to inhuman scale. *In contrast, farming offers total independence and [[self-sufficiency]]. It has a solid, stable position in the [[world order]]. But urban life, [[capitalism]], and technology destroy our independence and dignity while fostering vice and weakness within us. The agricultural community can provide checks and balances against the imbalances of modern society by its fellowship of labor and cooperation with other agrarians, while obeying the rhythms of nature. The agrarian community is the model society for mankind. Agrarianism is not identical with the back to the earth movement, but it can be helpful to think of it in those terms. The agrarian philosophy is not to get people to reject progress, but rather to concentrate on the fundamental goods of the earth, communities of more limited economic and political scale than in modern society, and on simple living--even when this shift involves questioning the "progressive" character of some recent social and economic developments. Thus agrarianism is not [[industrial farming]], with its specialization on products and industrial scale. The name "agrarian" is properly applied to figures from [[Horace]] and [[Virgil]] through [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[Transcendentalism|Transcendentals]] like [[Ralph Waldo Emerson|Emerson]] and [[Henry David Thoreau|Thoreau]], the [[Southern Agrarians]] movement of the 1920s and 1930s (also known as the [[Vanderbilt University|Vanderbilt]] Agrarians) and present-day authors [[Wendell Berry]], [[Alan Carlson]], [[Victor Davis Hanson]], and Michael Bunker. In the 1910s and 1920s, agrarianism garnered significant popular attention, but was eclipsed in the postwar period. It revived somewhat in conjunction with the 1960s [[environmentalist movement]], and has been drawing an increasing number of adherents. Recent agrarian thinkers are sometimes referred to as neo-Agrarian. ==See also== * [[Junker]]s German landed aristocracy * The [[Amish]] and [[Mennonite]]s *[[Agrarian society]] *[[Alberta Progressive Conservatives]] *[[Back to the land]] ==External links== *"[http://www.newpantagruel.com/issues/2.3/agrarianism.php Agrarianism]" in ''American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia'' *[http://www.pastoralfarms.com/agrarian/ Christian Agrarianism] *[http://www.biblicalagrarianism.com Biblical Agrarianism] *[http://www.newagrarian.com The New Agrarian] *[http://www.theagrarianfoundation.com The Agrarian Foundation] [[Category:Political theories]] 1194 38497271 2006-02-06T19:21:39Z Ewlyahoocom 241538 #REDIRECT [[Atom]] #REDIRECT [[Atom]] 1195 15899691 2002-05-19T16:45:51Z AxelBoldt 2 fix redir #REDIRECT [[Allotropy]] 1196 42071377 2006-03-03T16:55:46Z Henrygb 30415 reflex angles ''This article is about angles in geometry. For other articles, see [[Angle (disambiguation)]]'' ---- An '''Angle''' (from the Lat. ''angulus'', a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, ''angus'', does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the [[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|&#7936;γκύλος}} ''(angulοs)'' crooked, curved; both connected with the Aryan or Indo-European root ''ank''-, to bend) is the figure formed by two [[Ray_(geometry)|rays]] sharing a common [[endpoint]], called the [[vertex]] of the angle. Angles provide a means of expressing the difference in [[slope]] between two rays meeting at a vertex without the need to explicitly define the slopes of the two rays. Angles are studied in [[geometry]] and [[trigonometry]]. [[Euclid]] defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, of two lines which meet each other, and do not lie straight with respect to each other. According to [[Proclus]] an angle must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. The first concept was used by [[Eudemus]], who regarded an angle as a deviation from a straight line; the second by [[Carpus of Antioch]], who regarded it as the interval or space between the intersecting lines; Euclid adopted the third concept, although his definitions of right, acute, and obtuse angles are certainly quantitative. ==Units of measure for angles== In order to measure an angle, a [[circle]] centered at the vertex is drawn. Since the circumference of a circle is always directly proportional to the length of its radius, the measure of the angle is independent of the size of the circle. Note that angles are dimensionless, since they are defined as the ratio of lengths. *The ''[[radian]] measure'' of the angle is the length of the arc cut out by the angle, divided by the circle's radius. The [[SI]] system of units uses [[radian]]s as the (derived) unit for angles. This is also roughly subdivided into the [[angular_mil|mil]], which has several definitions in practice. Because of the relationship to arc length, radians are a special unit. Sines and cosines whose argument is in radians have particular analytic properties, just as do exponential functions in the base ''[[e (mathematical constant)|e]]''. (As we've discovered, this is no coincidence). *The ''[[degree (angle)|degree]] measure'' of the angle is the length of the arc, divided by the circumference of the circle, and multiplied by 360. The symbol for degrees is a small superscript circle, as in 360°. 2&pi; radians is equal to 360° (a full circle), so one radian is about 57° and one degree is &pi;/180 radians. Degrees are further broken down into ''minutes of arc'' and ''seconds of arc'', which are 1/60th and 1/3600th of a degree, respectively. Minutes of arc are commonly encountered in discussions of [[external ballistics]], as a minute of arc covers almost exactly 1 inch at 100 yards (1 m at 1200 m). A [[rifle]] capable of shooting "1 MOA", one minute of arc, can place all shots within 1 inch at 100 yards, 2 inches at 200 yards, etc. Minutes of arc were also used in [[navigation]], and a [[nautical mile]] is roughly defined as one minute of arc of the earth's surface. *The ''[[grad (angle)|grad]]'', also called grade, gradian or gon, is an angular measure where the arc is divided by the circumference, and multiplied by 400. It is used mostly in [[triangulation]]. *The ''point'' is used in [[navigation]], and is defined as 1/32 of a circle, or exactly 11.25°. *The ''full circle'' or ''full [[Turn (geometry)|turn]]s'' represents the number or fraction of complete full turns. For example, &pi;/2 radians = 90° = 1/4 full circle ==Conventions on measurement== A convention universally adopted in mathematical writing is that angles given a sign are '''positive angles''' if measured [[Clockwise_and_counterclockwise|counterclockwise]], and '''negative angles''' if measured [[Clockwise_and_counterclockwise|clockwise]], from a given line. If no line is specified, it can be assumed to be the [[x-axis]] in the [[Cartesian plane]]. In [[navigation]], [[bearing (navigation)|bearings]] are measured from north, increasing clockwise, so a bearing of 45 is north-east. Negative bearings are not used in navigation, so north-west is 315. In mathematics radians are assumed unless specified otherwise because this removes the arbitrariness of the number 360 in the degree system and because the [[trigonometric function]]s can be developed into particularly simple [[Taylor series]] if their arguments are specified in radians. == Types of angles == An angle of [[pi|&pi;]]/2 radians or 90°, one-quarter of the full circle is called a '''right angle'''. Two [[line segment]]s, rays, or lines (or any combination) which form a right angle are said to be either '''[[perpendicular]]''' or '''[[orthogonality|orthogonal]]''': {| |- style="vertical-align: top;" |[[Image:Right_angle.svg|thumb|134px|Right angle]] |[[Image:Angle obtuse acute straight.svg|thumb|240px|Acute, obtuse, and straight angles (''a'', ''b'', ''c''). Here, ''a'' and ''b'' are [[Supplementary angles|supplement angles]].]] |} <!-- old images | [[image:angle acute.png|thumb|150px|Acute angle]] | [[image:angle obtuse.png|thumb|200px|Obtuse angle]] | [[image:angle straight.png|thumb|200px|Straight angle]] --> *Angles smaller than a right angle are called '''acute angles''' (less than 90 degrees) *Angles larger than a right angle are called '''obtuse angles''' (more than 90 degrees, less that 180). *Angles equal to two right angles are called '''straight angles''' (equal to 180 degrees). *Angles large than two right angles are called '''relex angles''' (more than 180 degrees). *The difference between an acute angle and a right angle is termed the '''complement''' of the angle *The difference between an angle and two right angles is termed the '''supplement''' of the angle. ==Some facts== In [[Euclidean geometry]], the inner angles of a [[triangle (geometry)|triangle]] add up to &pi; radians or 180°; the inner angles of a [[quadrilateral]] add up to 2&pi; radians or 360°. In general, the inner angles of a [[polygon|simple polygon]] with ''n'' sides add up to (''n''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;2)&nbsp;&times; &nbsp; &pi; radians or (''n''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;2)&nbsp; &times; &nbsp;180°. If two [[straight line]]s intersect, four angles are formed. Each one has an equal measure to the angle across from it; these congruent angles are called vertical angles. If a straight [[transversal line]] intersects two [[Parallel (geometry)|parallel]] lines, corresponding (alternate) angles at the two points of intersection are equal; [[adjacent angles]] are [[supplementary angles|supplementary]], that is they add to &pi; radians or 180°. ==A formal definition== A Euclidean angle is completely determined by the corresponding right triangle. In particular, if <math>\theta</math> is a Euclidean angle, it is true that :<math>\cos \theta = \frac{x}{\sqrt{x^2 + y^2}}</math> and :<math>\sin \theta = \frac{y}{\sqrt{x^2 + y^2}}</math> for two numbers <math>x</math> and <math>y</math>. So an angle can be legitimately given by two numbers <math>x</math> and <math>y</math>. To the ratio <math>\frac{y}{x}</math> there correspond two angles in the geometric range <math>0 < \theta < 2\pi </math>, since :<math>\frac{\sin \theta }{\cos \theta } = \frac{\frac{y}{\sqrt{x^2 + y^2}}}{\frac{x}{\sqrt{x^2 + y^2}}} = \frac{y}{x} = \frac{-y}{-x} = \frac{\sin (\theta + \pi)}{\cos (\theta + \pi) } </math> ==Angles in different contexts== In the [[Euclidean space|Euclidean plane]], the angle &theta; between two [[vector (spatial)|vector]]s '''u''' and '''v''' is related to their [[dot product]] and their lengths by the formula :<math>\mathbf{u} \cdot \mathbf{v} = \cos(\theta)\ \|\mathbf{u}\|\ \|\mathbf{v}\|.</math> This allows one to define angles in any real [[inner product space]], replacing the Euclidean dot product · by the [[Hilbert space]] inner product <·,·>. The angle between a line and a [[curve]] (mixed angle) or between two intersecting curves (curvilinear angle) is defined to be the angle between the [[tangent]]s at the point of intersection. Various names (now rarely, if ever, used) have been given to particular cases:&#8212;amphicyrtic (Gr. &#7936;&#956;&#966;&#8055;, on both sides, &#954;&#965;&#961;&#964;&#8057;&#963;, [[convex]]) or cissoidal (Gr. &#954;&#953;&#963;&#963;&#8057;&#963;, ivy), biconvex; xystroidal or sistroidal (Gr. &#958;&#965;&#963;&#964;&#961;&#8055;&#963;, a tool for scraping), concavo-convex; amphicoelic (Gr. &#954;&#959;&#8055;&#955;&#951;, a hollow) or angulus lunularis, biconcave. Two intersecting [[plane (mathematics)|planes]] form an angle, called their '''[[dihedral angle]]'''. It is defined as the angle between two lines normal to the planes. Also a plane and an intersecting line form an angle. This angle is equal to [[pi|&pi;]]/2 radians minus the angle between the intersecting line and the line that goes through the point of intersection and is [[perpendicular]] to the plane. ==Angles in Riemannian geometry== In [[Riemannian geometry]], the [[metric tensor]] is used to define the angle between two [[tangent]]s. Where ''U'' and ''V'' are tangent vectors and ''g''<sub>''ij''</sub> are the components of the metric tensor ''G'', :<math> \cos \theta = \frac{g_{ij}U^iV^j} {\sqrt{ \left| g_{ij}U^iU^j \right| \left| g_{ij}V^iV^j \right|}}. </math> ==Angles in astronomy== In [[astronomy]], one can measure the ''angular separation'' of two [[star]]s by imagining two lines through the [[Earth]], each one intersecting one of the stars. Then the angle between those lines can be measured; this is the angular separation between the two stars. Astronomers also measure the [[apparent size]] of objects. For example, the [[full moon]] has an angular measurement of approximately 0.5°, when viewed from Earth. One could say, "The Moon subtends an angle of half a degree." The [[small-angle formula]] can be used to convert such an angular measurement into a distance/size ratio. ==Angles in maritime navigation== The modern format of angle used to indicate [[longitude]] or [[latitude]] is '''hemisphere degree minute.decimal''', where there are 60 minutes in a degree, for instance '''N 51 23.438''' or '''E 090 58.928'''. The obsolete (but still commonly used) format of angle used to indicate [[longitude]] or [[latitude]] is '''hemisphere degree minute' second"''', where there are 60 minutes in a degree and 60 seconds in a minute, for instance '''N 51 23&prime;26&Prime;''' or '''E 090 58&prime;57&Prime;''' ==See also== *[[Central angle]] *[[Complementary angles]] *[[Inscribed angle]] *[[Supplementary angles]] *[[solid angle]] for a concept of angle in three dimensions. *[[Astrological aspect]] ==External links== * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/triangle/ABisector.shtml Angle Bisectors] at [[cut-the-knot]] * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Geometry/PerpBiInQuadri.shtml Angle Bisectors and Perpendiculars in a Quadrilateral] at [[cut-the-knot]] * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Geometry/CyQuadri.shtml Angle Bisectors in a Quadrilateral] at [[cut-the-knot]] * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/triangle/TriangleFromBisectors.shtml Constructing a triangle from its angle bisectors] at [[cut-the-knot]] [[Category:Elementary geometry]] [[Category:Trigonometry]] [[Category:Angle|*]] {{Link FA|nl}} [[ar:زاوية]] [[bg:Ъгъл]] [[ca:Angle]] [[cs:Úhel]] [[da:Vinkel (matematik)]] [[de:Winkel (Geometrie)]] [[es:Ángulo]] [[eo:Angulo]] [[fa:زاویه]] [[fr:Angle]] [[ko:각도]] [[io:Angulo]] [[is:Bogagráða]] [[it:Angolo]] [[he:זווית]] [[nl:Hoek (meetkunde)]] [[ja:角度]] [[pl:Kąt]] [[pt:Ângulo]] [[ru:Угол]] [[simple:Angle]] [[sl:Kot]] [[sr:Угао (математика)]] [[fi:Kulma]] [[sv:Vinkel]] [[ta:கோணம்]] [[vi:Góc]] [[zh:角]] 1197 40967640 2006-02-24T04:18:50Z Royalbroil 299408 '''Asa''' may be any of the following: *'''[[Asa of Judah]]''', king of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], the son of [[Abijam]], and grandson of [[Rehoboam]]. *Asa, god of the '''[[Akamba]]''' people of [[Kenya]]. *'''[[Asa Dotzler]]''', the founder and coordinator of [[Mozilla]]'s Quality Assurance and Testing Program. *Ása - the [[genitive]] of '''[[Æsir]]''', the predominant group among the [[Norse mythology|Norse]] gods. *[[United States Army Security Agency]] *[[United States]] [[Adult Soccer Association]] *[[American Speed Association]], was a second-tier [[stock car racing]] circuit in the [[United States]] ''See also'': [[ASA]] {{disambig}} 1198 41752280 2006-03-01T14:14:24Z 158.111.4.26 /* Measurement methods */ '''Acoustics''' is a branch of [[physics]] and is the study of [[sound]], mechanical [[wave]]s in [[gas]]es, [[liquid]]s, and [[solid]]s. A [[scientist]] who works in the field of acoustics is an '''acoustician'''. The application of acoustics in [[technology]] is called [[acoustical engineering]]. There is often much overlap and interaction between the interests of acousticians and acoustical engineers. "... acoustics is characterized by its reliance on combinations of physical principles drawn from other sources; and that the primary task of modern physical acoustics is to effect a fusion of the principles normally adhering to other sciences into a coherent basis for understanding, measuring, controlling, and using the whole gamut of vibrational phenomena in any material Phillip." ''Origins in Acoustics''. F.V. Hunt. Yale University Press, 1978 The main sub-disciplines of acoustics are * [[Aeroacoustics]] is the study of aerodynamic [[sound]], generated when a fluid flow interacts with a solid surface or with another flow. It has particular application to [[aeronautics]], examples being the study of sound made by jets and the physics of [[shock wave]]s ([[sonic boom]]s). * [[Architectural acoustics]] is the study of how sound and buildings interact including the behavior of sound in [[concert hall]]s and auditoriums but also in office buildings, factories and homes. * [[Bioacoustics]] is the study of the use of sound by [[animal]]s such as [[whale]]s, [[dolphin]]s and [[bat]]s. * [[Biomedical acoustics]] is the study of the use of sound in [[medicine]], for example the use of [[ultrasound]] for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. * [[Loudspeaker acoustics]] is an engineering discipline behind the design of the [[loudspeaker]] * [[Psychoacoustics]] is the study of how people react to sound, [[hearing (sense)|hearing]], [[perception]], and [[sound localization|localization]]. * [[Psychological Acoustics]] is the study of the mechanical, electrical and biochemical function of [[hearing (sense)|hearing]] in living organisms. * [[Physical acoustics]] is the study of the detailed interaction of sound with materials and fluids and includes, for example, [[sonoluminescence]] (the emission of light by bubbles in a liquid excited by sound) and [[thermoacoustics]] (the interaction of sound and heat). * [[Speech communication]] is the study of how [[speech]] is produced, the analysis of speech signals and the properties of speech transmission, storage, recognition and enhancement. * [[Vibration acoustics]] ''Structural Acoustics and Vibration'' is the study of how sound and mechanical structures interact; for example, the transmission of sound through walls and the [[radiation of sound]] from [[vehicle]] panels. * [[Ultrasonics]] is the study of high [[frequency]] sound, beyond the range of human hearing. * [[Wolffian Acousitics]] is the study of salient features of pediatric ultrasound insofar as it reviews technologic factors, technique, and the normal anatomy used to evaluate the pediatric tract for abnormality. * [[Musical acoustics]] is the study of the physics of [[musical instruments]] * [[Underwater acoustics]] is the study of the [[propagation of sound]] in the [[ocean]]s. Closely associated with [[sonar]] research and development. * [[Acoustic engineering]] is the study of how sound is generated and measured by [[loudspeaker]]s, [[microphone]]s, [[sonar projector]]s, [[hydrophone]]s, [[ultrasonic transducer]]s, [[sensor]]s, [[Electro Acoustics]], and all other topics on this list. (see external links) A sound wave is characterized by its speed, its [[wavelength]] and its amplitude. The [[speed of sound]] depends on the medium through which the sound travels and also depends on [[temperature]] and not on the air pressure. The speed of sound is about 340 m/s in air and 1500 m/s in water. The wavelength is the distance from one wave peak to the next. The wavelength, <math>\lambda</math> of a sound wave is related to the speed of sound <math>c</math> and its frequency <math>f</math> by :<math> \lambda = \frac{c}{f} </math>. == Sound pressure level (SPL)== The [[amplitude]] of a sound wave is usually characterized by its [[sound pressure]]. In a normal working environment, a very wide range of [[pressure]]s can occur and it is therefore a convention that sound pressure is measured on a [[logarithmic scale]] using the [[Decibel#Acoustics|decibel]]. If <math>p</math> is the [[root mean square|rms]] sound pressure amplitude then the [[sound pressure level]] (SPL) is defined as 20 times the logarithm of the ratio of the pressure to some reference pressure. '''[[Sound pressure level]] SPL''' is calculated in [[decibel]]s as :<math> L_p =20\, \log_{10}\left(\frac{p_1}{p_0}\right)=10\, \log_{10}\left(\frac{p_1^2}{p_0^2}\right)\mbox{ dB} SPL </math> The reference sound pressure in air is by convention the [[threshold of hearing]]: :<math>p_0 = 2 \cdot 10^{-5} \mbox{ Pa}</math> :'''= 20 µPa in air and 1 µPa in water. (Pa = [[pascal]] = N / m²; N = [[newton]])''' When speaking of sound levels, one must be sure to differentiate between [[sound pressure level]]s and sound power levels. Sound pressure levels are recorded by [[microphone]]s and other devices. This is a measurement of the amount of pressure in the air being sensed at a given location. It follows that its value can be determined through direct experimentation. In comparison, sound [[power (physics)|power]] levels are a measurement of the actual [[energy]] being put into use by a given device to create [[noise (environmental)|noise]]. Because of environmental factors, and other influences, the amount of energy a device devotes to creating sound may not be equal to the actual level of the sound as it's perceived. It can be useful to express sound pressure in this way when dealing with [[hearing (sense)|hearing]], as the perceived loudness of a sound correlates roughly logarithmically to its sound pressure. Both microphones and eardrums respond to the sound pressure level. They cannot convert the [[sound intensity]]. Sound power measurements cannot be directly measured, and must be inferred through other data. ==Measurement methods== There are two popular ways for scientists to perform sound power level measurements. They include a "direct method", and a "comparison method". The direct method computes sound power levels by computing an equation of environmental factors (such as room [[temperature]], [[humidity]], [[reverberation]] time, etc.) and sound pressure levels. A more precise implementation of this method can be found in the [[ISO3745]] acoustics standard. The comparison method however, is conducted by measuring sound pressure levels from a [[reference]] sound source which emits a known, constant, sound power level, and then comparing that level with the sound pressure level of the object being recorded. Each way is equally valid and accurate. ==Reverberation and anechoic rooms== Experiments such as the two methods mentioned above are sometimes performed in [[reverberation room]]s, or in some cases, [[anechoic room]]s. The design of a reverberation room is to create long lasting reflections, or [[echo (phenomenon)|echo]]es, of sound waves. This helps create a highly averaged and [[omnidirectional]] sound level throughout the entire chamber. A typical example of rooms with characteristics similar to reverberation rooms are concrete tunnels, caves, etc. Anechoic rooms, such as [[hemi-anechoic]] rooms, or fully anechoic rooms are created to simulate what is called a ''[[free field]]''. A free field is the representation of a theoretical [[infinite space]], in which no sound wave [[Reflection (physics)|reflection]]s, or echoes, take place. In rooms such as these, the only sounds which exist are being emitted directly from the source, and are not reflected from another part of the chamber. Anechoic rooms have the characteristic of being muted and muffled. ==Helmholtz resonator== A Helmholtz resonator is a container with an open hole or neck. It is sometimes used as a passive noise control device. It behaves essentially as a mass-spring-damper system, and its resonant frequency can be calculated as follows: *''f'' = resonant frequency *''s'' = speed of sound in air *''r'' = radius of neck *''a'' = area of neck *''l'' = length of neck *''L''&prime; = effective length of neck :''L''&prime; = ''l'' + 1.7''r'' (outer end flanged) :''L''&prime; = ''l'' + 1.4''r'' (outer end unflanged) *''v'' = volume :<math>f = (s/2 \pi)(\sqrt{a/(L' \cdot v)})</math> (A container with a hole, rather than a neck, behaves as being flanged, with a neck length of 0.) The Helmholtz resonator is an example of the [[lumped component]] model of acoustic systems which is useful when the [[wavelength]] of interest is significantly larger than the physical dimensions of the system. Familiar examples of Helmholtz resonators include blowing across the top of a bottle, [[whistling]], and the [[ocarina]]. ==Rectangular boxes== *''f'' = frequency of standing wave of a rectangular box *''s'' = speed of sound in air *''x'', ''y'', ''z'' = dimensions of box *''N''<sub>''x''</sub>, ''N''<sub>''y''</sub>, ''N''<sub>''z''</sub> = any integers :<math>f = (s/2)(\sqrt{(N_x/x)^2+(N_y/y)^2+(N_z/z)^2})</math> ==See also== More specialized areas of acoustics include, but are not limited to, [[tonal analysis]], [[sound quality assessment]]s, and [[noise control]]. Subfields and related fields of acoustics: * [[Acoustic theory]] * [[Structural acoustics]] * [[Noise control]] * [[Outdoor sound propagation]] * [[Room acoustics]] * [[Concert hall acoustics]] * [[Musical instrument]]s * [[Underwater acoustics]] * [[Audio signal processing]] ** [[Audio storage]] ** [[Sound synthesis]] ** [[Speech processing]] * [[Psychoacoustics]] * [[list of publications in physics#Acoustics|Important publications in acoustics]] ==External links== *[http://www.isvr.soton.ac.uk/SPCG/Tutorial/Tutorial/StartCD.htm Acoustics - Educational site with great animations] *[http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus/Rudolf_Koenig_Apparatus/Helmholtz_Resonator/Helmholtz_Resonator.html Helmholtz Resonator] *[http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/Helmholtz.html Helmholtz Resonance] *[http://www.physics.umd.edu/lecdem/services/demos/demosh3/h3-41.htm Helmholtz Resonator with oscilloscope] *[http://www.fci.uach.cl/escuela/ingacustica/index.htm Acoustic Engineering at Universidad Austral de Chile] *[http://www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/schools/index.htm Sounds Amazing: a learning resource for sound and waves] *[http://www.fe.up.pt/~carvalho/igrejase.htm Church Acoustics] [[Category:Acoustics| ]] [[Category:Building engineering]] [[az:Akustika]] [[bg:Акустика]] [[ca:Acústica]] [[cs:Akustika]] [[da:Akustik]] [[de:Akustik]] [[es:Acústica]] [[eo:Akustiko]] [[fr:Acoustique]] [[gl:Acústica]] [[ko:음향학]] [[hr:Akustika]] [[io:Akustiko]] [[it:Acustica]] [[he:אקוסטיקה]] [[lb:Akustik]] [[nl:Akoestiek]] [[ja:音響学]] [[pl:Akustyka]] [[pt:Acústica]] [[ru:Акустика]] [[sl:Akustika]] [[fi:Akustiikka]] [[sv:Akustik]] [[ta:ஒலியியல்]] [[th:สวนศาสตร์]] [[tr:Akustik]] [[zh:声学]] 1199 15899695 2003-07-18T04:38:50Z Adam Bishop 13008 Redirecting to Angles...both existed, this one seemed the more unnecessary #REDIRECT [[Angles]] 1200 39868446 2006-02-16T12:17:31Z Hede2000 284384 +da: '''Atomic physics''' (or '''atom physics''') is the field of [[physics]] that studies the [[electron]] hull of [[atom]]s. Lay people often associate the term ''atomic physics'' with [[nuclear power]] and [[nuclear bomb]]s, obviously due to the [[synonym]]ous use of ''atomic'' and ''nuclear'' in [[standard English]]. However, physicists distinguish between atomic physics (dealing with the effects of the [[electron]] hull and the nucleus's overall [[Spin_(physics)|spin]] and [[electric charge]]) and [[nuclear physics]] (dealing with the forces within [[atomic nucleus|atomic nuclei]] and reactions that alter, fuse or split them). The beginning of atomic physics is marked by the discovery and scrutinious study of [[spectral line]]s. These are sharply defined lines in the spectrum of illuminated or (hot, hence ionized (see [[flame]]) and hence) light-emitting free atoms. ("Free" meaning that they are a [[gas]] or [[vapour]] and therefore not close to or interacting with other atoms.) The study of these lines led to the [[Bohr atom model]] and on to our present understanding of the electron hull of the atom as described by the [[atomic orbital model]] which is the basis of all understanding of [[chemistry]]. These conclusions are, however, not at all straightforward, but rather were required by more than a century of research, which has succeeded in putting chemistry on a sound fundament but also gave rise to many other applications. == See also == * [[Atomic clock]]: a typical application of atom physics * [[Energy level]]: a list of quantum mechanical effects important in atom physics * [[Quantum optics]]: a field that has lot of overlap with atom physics == External links == * [http://plasma-gate.weizmann.ac.il/API.html Atomic Physics on the Internet] [[Category:Atomic physics| ]] [[Category:Atomic, molecular, and optical physics]] <!-- Interlanguage links --> [[ar:فيزياء ذرية]] [[da:Atomfysik]] [[de:Atomphysik]] [[es:Física atómica]] [[id:Fisika atom]] [[he:פיזיקה אטומית]] [[lb:Atomphysik]] [[nl:Atoomfysica]] [[ja:原子物理学]] [[pl:Fizyka atomowa]] [[pt:Física atômica]] [[sv:Atomfysik]] [[ta:அணுவியல்]] [[zh:原子物理学]] 1201 41640776 2006-02-28T18:57:10Z BillFlis 846916 {{Infobox Language |name=American Sign Language |nativename=ASL |states=[[United States]], [[Canada]] and [[Mexico]] |region=Anglophone [[North America]] |signers=500,000 to 2 million in the USA alone (others unknown) |family=emerging primarily from [[Old French Sign Language]], with significant input from [[Martha's Vineyard Sign Language]] and various [[home sign]] systems |iso3=ase }} '''American Sign Language''' ('''ASL''', also '''Amslan''' obs., '''Ameslan''' obs.) is the dominant [[sign language]] in the [[United States]], [[anglophone|English-speaking]] [[Canada]], and parts of [[Mexico]], used particularly in the [[Deaf community]]. Although the United Kingdom and the United States share English as a spoken language, [[British Sign Language]] (BSL) is quite different from ASL, and not mutually intelligible. ASL is also used (sometimes alongside indigenous sign languages) in the [[Philippines]], [[Singapore]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Haiti]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Ghana]], [[Togo]], [[Benin]], [[Nigeria]], [[Chad]], [[Gabon]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Mauritania]], [[Kenya]], [[Madagascar]], and [[Zimbabwe]]. Like other sign languages, its [[grammar]] and [[syntax]] are distinct from any [[spoken language]] in its area of influence. While there has been no reliable survey of the number of people who use ASL as their primary language, estimates range from 500,000 to 2 million in the U.S.A. alone [http://library.gallaudet.edu/dr/faq-asl-rank.html]. American Sign Language has been said (by Trudy Suggs in her book) to be the third-most-used language in America after English and Spanish. ==History of ASL== In the [[United States]], as in most of the world, hearing families with deaf children often employ ad-hoc [[home sign]] for simple communications. Today though, ASL classes are offered in many secondary and postsecondary schools. ASL is a language distinct from spoken English—replete with its own syntax and grammar and supporting its own culture. The origin of modern ASL is ultimately tied to the confluence of many events and circumstances, including historical attempts at [[deaf education]]; possibly the sign used by the indigenous nations of North America; the unique situation present on a small island in Massachusetts; the attempts of a father to enlist a local minister to help educate his deaf daughter; and in no small part the ingenuity and genius of people (in this case deaf people) for language itself. Standardized sign languages have been used in Italy since the [[17th century]] and in France since the [[18th century]] for the instruction of the deaf. [[Old French Sign Language]] was developed and used in [[Paris]] by the [[Abbé de l'Épée]] in his school for the deaf. These languages were always modeled after the natural sign languages already in use by the deaf cultures in their area of origin, often with additions to show aspects of the grammar of the local spoken languages. American Plains Indians used [[Plains Indian Sign Language]] as an [[interlanguage]] for communication between people/tribes not sharing a common spoken language; its influence on ASL, if any, is unknown. Off the coast of [[Massachusetts]], on the island of [[Martha's Vineyard]] in the 18th century, the population had a much higher rate of deafness than the general population of the continental United States because of the [[founder effect]] and the island's isolation. [[Martha's Vineyard Sign Language]] was well known by almost all islanders since so many families had deaf members. It afforded almost everyone the opportunity to have frequent contact with ASL while at an age most conducive to effortlessly learning a language. Congregationalist minister and deaf educator [[Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet]] is credited with popularizing the signing technique in North America. At the behest of a father who was interested in educating his deaf daughter, [[Alice Cogswell]], he was enlisted to investigate methods of teaching the deaf. In the early 1800s he visited the Abbé de l'Épée's school in Paris and convinced one of the teachers, [[Laurent Clerc]], to return with him to America. In [[1817]] they founded the American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb (now the [http://www.asd-1817.org/ American School for the Deaf]), in [[Hartford, Connecticut]], to teach sign language to American deaf students. It was at this school that all these influences would intermingle, interact and what would become ASL was born. Many of the school's students were from Martha's Vineyard, and they mixed their "native" sign language with Clerc's OFSL. Other students probably brought their own highly localized sign language or "home sign" systems to the mix. Undoubtedly, spontaneous lexicon developed at the school as well. If there was any influence from sign language of [[Native American|indigenous people]], it may have been here that it was absorbed into the language. Interestingly, because of the early influence of the sign language of France upon the school, the vocabularies of ASL and modern [[French Sign Language]] are approximately 60% shared, whereas ASL and [[British Sign Language]], for example, are almost completely dissimilar. From its synthesis at this first public school for the deaf in North America, the language went on to grow. Many of the graduates of this school went on to found schools of their own in many other states, thus spreading the methods of Gallaudet and Clerc and serving to expand and standardize the language; as with most languages though, there are regional variations. After being strongly established in this country there was a bitter fight between those who supported [[oralism]] over [[manualism]] in the late 1800s. Many notable individuals of high standing contributed to this row, such as [[Alexander Graham Bell]]. The oralists won many battles and for a long time the use of sign was suppressed, socially and pedagogically. Many considered sign to not even be a language at all. This situation was changed by [[William Stokoe]], a professor of English hired at [[Gallaudet University]] in 1955. He immediately became fascinated by ASL and began serious study of it. Eventually, through publication in linguistics journals of articles containing detailed linguistic analysis of ASL, he was able to convince the scientific mainstream that ASL was indeed a natural language on a par with any other. The language continues to grow and change like any living language. In particular, ASL constantly adds new signs in an attempt to keep up with constantly changing technology. ==Linguistics== ASL is a [[natural language]] as proved to the satisfaction of the linguistic community by [[William Stokoe]], and contains [[phonology]], [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], [[semantics]], [[syntax]] and [[pragmatics]] just like [[spoken languages]]. It is a [[manual language]] meaning that the information is expressed not with combinations of sounds but with combinations of handshapes, palm orientations, movements of the hands, arms and body, and facial expressions. It is used natively and predominantly by the [[Deaf]] and [[hard-of-hearing]] of the United States and Canada. ===Iconicity=== Although it often seems as though the signs are meaningful of themselves, in fact they can be as arbitrary as words in spoken language. For example, hearing children often make the mistake of using "you" to refer to themselves, since others refer to them as "you." Children who acquire the sign YOU (pointing at one's interlocutor) make similar mistakes&nbsp;&ndash; they will point at others to mean themselves, indicating that even something as seemingly explicit as pointing is an arbitrary sign in ASL, like words in a spoken language. However, Edward Klima and Ursula Bellugi have modified the common theory that signs can be self-explanatory by grouping signs into three categories: *Transparent: Non-signers can usually correctly guess the meaning *Translucent: Meaning makes sense to non-signers once it is explained *Opaque: Meaning cannot be guessed by non-signers Klima and Bellugi used American Sign Language in formulating that classification. The theory that signs are self-explanatory can be conclusively disproved by the fact that non-signers cannot understand fluent, continuous sign language. The majority of signs are opaque. Generally, signs that are "Transparent" are signs of objects or words that became popular after the basics of ASL were established. There are, of course, exceptions to this. ===Grammar=== The grammar of ASL uses spatial locations, motion, and context to indicate [[syntax]]. For example: * The primary sentence structure in ASL is Topic-Comment and Object-Subject-Verb. For example, in the sentence "I want the book," I is the subject, ''Book'' is the object, and ''want'' is the verb. The sentence, therefore, would be signed as "BOOK, ME WANT." To add a time element, such as "I want the book tomorrow", the time component is placed at the beginning of the sentence, making it look like this: "TOMORROW BOOK ME WANT." In addition, [[prosody]] can alter sentence structure. * ASL also relies heavily on Time Sequenced Ordering. Since ASL is a visual language, when signing a sentence or a story one signs it in the order in which events occurred. For example, in the case of the sentence "I'm going to be late tonight because my boss handed me a huge stack of work after lunch," one would sign "LUNCH FINISH, BOSS GIVE-ME BIG-STACK WORK, WILL ARRIVE LATE." In the case of stories, however, Time Sequenced Ordering can be a little more malleable since one could choose to sign information either in the order in which events occurred or in the order in which one found out about events. * If a signer signs a noun and then points to a certain spot, he or she can refer back to that noun by pointing again to the same spot. This is also known as ''setting up'' something. For instance, if you point to a spot over your right shoulder in talking about your grandmother in another city, then when you mention her again, instead of signing "GRANDMOTHER," you can just point back to the same spot. * Within ASL there is a class of ''directional'' verbs. These include the signs for ''pay'', ''give'', ''show'', ''invite'', ''send'', and several others. Depending on which way the hand moves, either away from the body or towards, distinguishes between the subject and object of the sentence, which are both included within the one sign. For example, to sign "I GIVE YOU", the hand in the shape of a flattened "O" moves away from the signer's body. In signing "YOU GIVE ME" the same handshape is drawn toward the body. * To intensify the meaning of a verb or adjective (e.g., to say "very calm" instead of "calm"), the signer modulates the way it is expressed. Certain short words, such as "sad" or "mad" might be fingerspelled rather than signed. Other words can be repeated or slowed down, emphasizing their importance or degree. Some signs may be enlarged, so that they take up more body space. This can also involve a back and forth scissoring motion of the arms to indicate that the sign ought to be larger, but one is physically incapable of stretching the arms any farther than they already are. Moving the whole body and adding facial expressions are also useful modifiers. * Raised eyebrows can indicate a yes-or-no question, while lowered eyebrows indicate a 'wh-question' or one that requests more information such as those that would use the question words: who, what, when, where, or why. * To ask a rhetorical question, the eyebrows are raised to give the cue not to reply. Such as, "I don't like [what?] (raised eyebrows), garlic". * Like some spoken languages, ASL does not use the linking verb "to be" (either as a '[[copula]]' or a [[auxiliary verb|helping verb]]). An example of a copula is the English phrase "My hair is wet", which when translated into ASL would be transliterated as, "MY HAIR, WET". (The comma indicates a short pause and raised eyebrow to topicalize "my hair".) An example of a helping verb is translating the English phrase "We are going to the store tomorrow", some possible ASL sentences, literally translated, could be **"TOMORROW, STORE WE GO." (Topicalization, TOMORROW is the focus) **"STORE, WE GO TOMORROW." (Topicalization, STORE is the focus) * In ASL, a signer might not use the word "because", but instead break down the sentence into a [[rhetorical question]]. This is often used for clarity or emphasis. For instance, "I love to eat [[pasta]] because I am [[Italian people|Italian]]" would be translated into "I LOVE EAT PASTA, WHY? I ITALIAN." Rhetorical questions do not replace the word "because". Rather, they are used only when the speaker deems it necessary. * Some signs can be executed in different locations for contextual reasons. The sign for "PAIN" - two pointed index fingers aimed at each other moved towards then away from each other - can be signed over one's leg to show that there is pain in the leg, or over the belly to indicate abdominal pain. * Facial expression is also key in ASL. In signing "ANGRY", a facial expression of anger should be put on. Without expressions like this, the effect would be similar to listening to someone who was speaking in extremely monotone spoken English, or it would be taken as an indication of sarcasm or some other departure from the usual meaning of the sign. * ASL also makes use of mouth morphemes, certain sounds or mouth configurations that add meaning to a sign. For example, one could sign "HE TALL" and communicate that a man is reasonably tall, but by adding the mouth morpheme "Cha," the sentence would then be understood as "He's ENORMOUS!!!" ==Writing systems== ASL is often glossed with English words written in all capital letters. This is however a method used simply to teach the structure of the language. ASL is a visual language not a written language. There is no one-to-one correspondence between words in ASL and English, and much of the inflectional modulation of ASL signs is lost. There are two true writing systems in use for ASL: a [[phoneme|phonemic]] [[Stokoe notation]], which has a separate symbol or diacritic mark for every phonemic hand shape, motion, and position (though it leaves something to be desired in the representation of facial expression), and a more popular iconic system called [[SignWriting]], which represents each sign with a rather abstract illustration of its salient features. SignWriting is commonly used for student newsletters and similar purposes. =="Baby Sign"== {{main|Baby Sign}} In recent years, it has been shown that exposure to sign language has a positive impact on the socialization of hearing children. When infants are taught to sign, parents are able to converse with them at a [[Child development|developmental stage]] when they are not yet capable of producing verbal speech, which requires fine control of both breathing and the vocal tract. The ability of a child to actively communicate earlier than would otherwise be possible appears to accelerate language development and to decrease the frustrations of communication. Many parents use a collection of simplified or ''ad hoc'' signs called "baby sign", as infants do not have the dexterity required for true ASL. However, parents can learn to recognize their baby's approximations of adult ASL signs, just as later on they will learn to recognize their approximations of verbal language, so teaching an infant ASL is also possible. Typically young children will make an ASL sign in the correct location and use the correct hand motion, but may be able only to approximate the handshape, for example, using one finger instead of three in signing ''water''. ==Primate usage== ASL has allegedly been taught to both species of [[chimpanzee]], the [[bonobo]] and [[common chimpanzee]], as well as to [[gorilla]]s. Several of the animals have been said to have mastered more than one hundred signs, though not all agree with the ability of the [[primate]]s to sign. For example, when the [[washoe (chimpanzee)|Washoe]] research team asked the handlers of the chimp to write signs down whenever they witnessed them being produced by Washoe, the hearing people on the team turned in long lists of signs while the only deaf [[native speaker]] of ASL on the team turned in blank lists, explaining that what she saw were not signs at all, but simply gestures. Further fomenting the controversy, the researchers in the studies of [[Koko (gorilla)|Koko]] and Washoe refused to share their raw data with the [[scientific community]]. The theory that non-human primates have learned ASL, or that they are even capable of learning ASL or any other natural language, is not currently accepted by linguists&mdash;including linguists who accept similar but better documented claims of rudimentary human language acquisition by birds. Despite this, however, research on the ability of primates to learn symbol systems continues and receives occasional publicity in the media. ==See also== *[[American Sign Language alphabet]] *[[British Sign Language]] *[[Signing Exact English]] *[[Gallaudet University]] *[[Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf]] ==External links== * [http://home.bluemarble.net/~langmin/miniatures/asl.htm Silent Eloquence: The sophistication of American Sign Language] * [http://home.bluemarble.net/~langmin/miniatures/interrogsign.htm Going to Read This?: Sign languages and that rise in the voice] * [http://www.bu.edu/asllrp/ The American Sign Language Linguistics Research Project] ** [http://www.bu.edu/asllrp/publications.html Publications of the ASLLRP] ** [http://www.bu.edu/asllrp/asllrpr12.pdf The Syntactic Organization of American Sign Language: A Synopsis] (.pdf) *[http://www.lifeprint.com/ ASL Resource Site] Free online lessons, ASL dictionary, and resources for teachers, students, and parents. *[http://www.handspeak.com/ HandSpeak] a leading online website on ASL, International Sign, Gestures, Baby Sign, and more. *[http://www.deaflibrary.org/asl.html About ASL] - article at [http://www.deaflibrary.org deaflibrary.org] *[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=ase Ethnologue entry on ASL] *[http://commtechlab.msu.edu/sites/aslweb/browser.htm Videos Dictionary of ASL] *[http://newportwebs.com/thomas/ Chimpanzees & Sign Language] - article focusing on chimpanzee communication through sign language. * [http://ling.ucsc.edu/Jorge/fernald.html Athabaskan Satellites & ASL Ion-Morphs] *[http://www.vengefulstapler.com/serious/aslfl.html American Sign Language is a Foreign Language] - a research/argumentative paper for the consideration of ASL to fulfill University foreign language requirements. ==References== * {{cite book|author=Groce, Nora Ellen|year=1988|title=Everyone Here Spoke Sign Language: Hereditary Deafness on Martha's Vineyard|publisher=Cambridge: [[Harvard University Press]]|id=ISBN 067427041X}} * {{cite book|author=Klima, Edward, and Bellugi, Ursula|year=1979|title=The Signs of Language|publisher=Cambridge: [[Harvard University Press]]|id=ISBN 0674807952}} * [[Harlan Lane|Lane, Harlan L.]] (1984). ''When the mind hears: A history of the deaf''. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-3945-0878-5. * Padden, Carol; & Humphries, Tom. (1988). ''Deaf in America: Voices from a culture''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-6741-9423-3. * [[Oliver Sacks|Sacks, Oliver W.]] (1989). ''Seeing voices: A journey into the land of the deaf''. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-5200-6083-0. * {{cite book|author=Stokoe, William C.|year=1976|title=Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles|publisher=Linstok Press|id=ISBN 0932130011}} * [[William Stokoe|Stokoe, William C.]] (1960). ''Sign language structure: An outline of the visual communication systems of the American deaf''. Studies in linguistics: Occasional papers (No. 8). Buffalo: Dept. of Anthropology and Linguistics, University of Buffalo. [[Category:Sign languages]] [[Category:Deaf culture]] [[Category:Languages of the United States]] [[Category:Languages of Canada]] [[Category:Languages of Mexico]] [[de:American Sign Language]] [[eo:Usona signolingvo]] [[nl:Amerikaanse Gebarentaal]] [[ja:アメリカ手話]] [[fi:Amerikkalainen viittomakieli]] [[zh:美國手語]] 1202 42069143 2006-03-03T16:32:39Z Gerbrant 190376 sp An '''applet''' is a software component that runs in the context of another program, for example a [[web browser]]. An applet usually performs a very narrow function that has no independent use. Hence, it is an ''app''lication ''[[-let]]''. The term was introduced in [[AppleScript]] in 1993. An applet is distinguished from "subroutine" by several features. First, it executes only on the "client" platform environment of a system, as contrasted from "servlet." As such, an applet provides functionality or performance beyond the default capabilities of its container (the browser). Also, in contrast with a subroutine, certain capabilities are restricted by the container. An applet is written in a language that is different from the scripting or [[HTML]] language which invokes it. The applet is written in a compiled language, while the scripting language of the container is an interpreted language, hence, the greater performance or functionality of the applet. Unlike a "subroutine," a complete web component can be implemented as an applet. == Attributes == Unlike a [[program]], an applet cannot run independently; an applet usually features display and graphics and often interacts with the human user. However, they are usually stateless and have restricted security privileges. The applet must run in a [[container]], which is provided by a host program, through a [[plugin]], or a variety of other applications including mobile devices that support the applet programming model. == Interfaces == Applets usually have some form of [[user interface]] or perform a particular piece of the overall user interface in a web page. This distinguishes them from a program written in a [[scripting programming language]] (such as [[JavaScript]]) that also runs in the context of a larger, client program, but which would not be considered an applet. Applets generally have the capability of interacting with and/or influencing their host program, through the restricted security privileges, although they are generally not required to do so. == Examples == Common examples of applets are [[Java applet]]s and [[SWF|Flash movies]]. Another example is the [[Windows Media Player]] applet that is used to display embeded video files in [[Internet Explorer]] (and other [[Web browser|browsers]] that support the plugin). Some plugins also allow for displaying various 3D model formats in a web browser, via an applet that allow the view of the model to be rotated and zoomed. Many [[browser game]]s are applet-based, though some may develop into fully functional applications that require installation. == See also == * [[Java applet]] * [http://www-math.mit.edu/daimp Some mathematics applets, at MIT] [[da:Applet]] [[de:Applet]] [[es:Applet]] [[fr:Applet]] [[he:יישומון]] [[it:Applet]] [[ja:アプレット]] [[nl:Applet]] [[pl:Aplet]] [[pt:Applet]] [[ru:Апплет]] [[sv:Applet]] [[zh:Applet]] [[Category:Programming paradigms]] [[Category:Technology neologisms]] 1203 41551155 2006-02-28T02:32:18Z 208.222.71.17 Birmingham's POD--result is three worlds, not just two (phrase added) {{Speculative fiction}} '''Alternate history''' or '''alternative history''' is a [[subgenre]] of [[speculative fiction]] (or some would say of [[science fiction]]), that is set in a world in which [[history]] has [[Point of divergence|diverged]] from history as it is generally known; more simply put, alternate history asks the question, "What If history had developed differently?" Most works that employ this rubric are set in factful historical contexts, yet feature several social, geopolitical or industrial circumstances that developed differently or at a different pace from our own, sometimes as a result of [[progress]] in [[technology|technological]] or [[society|social]] [[paradigms]] that were accomplished via the understanding already present in the given [[zeitgeist]]. While to some extent all [[fiction]] can be described as alternate history, the subgenre proper comprises fiction in which a change happens that causes history to diverge from our own. Since the 1950s this type of fiction has to a large extent merged with science fictional framings involving (a) cross-time, or paratime, travel between alternate histories/universes (or some kind of psychic awareness of the existence of "our" universe by the people in the other, as in Nabokov and Dick; see below); or (b) ordinary voyaging uptime or downtime that results in a world splitting into two or more new timelines. So close have the cross-time, time-splitting and alternate history themes been interwoven that it is impossible to discuss them fully apart from one another. Thus, cross-time and time-splitting stories will be an important part of this article <i>insofar as they portray one or more alternate histories that diverged from a common past</i>. In [[French (language)|French]], alternate history novels are called ''uchronie''. This [[neologism]] is based on the word ''utopia'' (a place that doesn't exist) and the Greek for time, ''chronos''. An ''uchronie'', then, is defined as a time that doesn't exist. == History of alternate history fiction == === Antiquity === The earliest example of alternate history appears to be Book IX, sections 17-19, of [[Livy]]'s ''History of Rome from Its Foundation''. He contemplates the possibility of [[Alexander the Great]] expanding his father's empire westward instead of eastward and attacking Rome in the [[4th century BC]]. === 19th century === The earliest alternate history published as a complete work, rather than an aside or digression in a longer work, is believed to be [[Louis Napoléon Geoffroy-Château]]'s French nationalist tale, ''Napoléon et la conquête du monde, 1812-1823'' ([[1836]]) &ndash; in English ''Napoleon and the Conquest of the World''. In this book, Geoffroy-Château postulates that [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] turns away from [[Moscow]] before the disastrous winter of [[1812]]. Without the severe losses he suffered historically, Napoleon is able to conquer the world. Geoffroy-Château's book must have been popular in [[France]], for the subsequent years saw many similar novels published. In the [[English language]], the first known complete alternate history is [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]]'s [[short story]] "P.'s Correspondence", published in [[1846]] and which recounts the tale of an apparent madman and his purported encounters with various literary and political figures of the 1840s. At novel length, the first alternate history in English would seem to be [[Castello Holford]]'s ''Aristopia'' ([[1895]]). While not as nationalistic as ''Napoléon et la conquête du monde, 1812-1823'', ''Aristopia'' is another attempt to portray a utopian society which never existed. In ''Aristopia'', the earliest settlers in [[Virginia]] discover a reef made of solid [[gold]] and are able to build a [[Utopia|utopian]] society in [[North America]]. === Early 20th century and the era of the pulps=== Although a number of alternate history stories and novels appeared in the late 1800s and early 1900s, the next major work is perhaps the strongest anthology of alternate history ever assembled. In [[1932]], British historian [[Sir John Squire]] collected a series of essays, many of which could be considered stories, in ''If It Had Happened Otherwise'' from some of the leading historians of the period. In this work, scholars from major universities as well as important non-university-based authors turned their attention to such questions as "If the Moors in Spain Had Won" and "If [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] Had Had an Atom of Firmness." The essays range from serious scholarly efforts through [[Henrik Van Loon]]'s fanciful and satiric portrayal of an independent 20th century Dutch city state on the island of Manhattan. Four of the fourteen pieces examined the two most popular themes in alternate history prior to the [[World War II|Second World War]]: Napoleon's victory and the [[American Civil War]]. One of the entries in Squire's volume was [[Winston Churchill]]'s "If Lee Had Not Won the Battle of Gettysburg", written from the viewpoint of a historian in a world where the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] had won the [[American Civil War]], considering what would have happened if the North <!-- Please do not change this, North is correct --> had been victorious. (This kind of speculative work which posts from the point of view of an alternate history is variously known as a "recursive alternate history", a "double-blind what-if" or an "alternate-alternate history".) Other authors appearing in Squire's book included [[Hilaire Belloc]] and [[André Maurois]]. Another example of alternate history from this period (and arguably the first to explicitly posit cross-time travel from one universe to another as anything more than a visionary experience) was [[H.G. Wells]]' ''[[Men Like Gods]]'' (1923) in which several British politicians are transferred via an accidental encounter with a cross-time machine into an alternate universe in which Britain had changed course in earlier centuries and developed into a seemingly pacifistic and utopian society. When the politicians from our world try to seize power, the utopians simply point a ray gun at them and send them on to someone else's universe. Wells works out the entire multiverse-pancake framing complete with paratime travel machines that would become popular with U.S. pulp writers (see below), but since his hero experiences only a single alternate world this story is not very different from conventional alternate history (the intruders from our world cause no significant change in the world they enter and are really just a device for examining the results of a past divergence between Wells' utopia and our own world). The 1930s would see alternate history move into a new arena. The December [[1933]] issue of ''[[Astounding (magazine)|Astounding]]'' published [[Nat Schachner]]'s "Ancestral Voices". This was quickly followed by [[Murray Leinster]]'s "Sidewise in Time". While earlier alternate histories examined reasonably straight-forward divergences, Leinster attempted something completely different. In his "world gone mad", pieces of Earth traded places with their analogs from different timelines. The story follows [[Robinson College (fictitious)|Robinson College]] Professor Minott as he wanders through these analogs, each of which features remnants of worlds which followed a different history. === Time travel as a means of creating historical divergences === This period also saw the publication of the [[time travel]] novel ''[[Lest Darkness Fall]]'' by [[L. Sprague de Camp]], which was similar to [[Mark Twain]]'s ''[[A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court]]'' but sent an American academic to the [[Italy]] of the [[Ostrogoths]] at the time of the Byzantine invasion led by [[Belisarius]]. De Camp's work is concerned with the historical changes wrought by his time traveler, Martin Padway, thereby making the work an alternate history. Padway is depicted as making permament changes and implicitly forming a new time branch (in contrast to Twain's hero, who ultimately fails, with the result that history reverts to its "normal" course). Time travel as the cause of a point of divergence (creating two histories where before there was one, or simply replacing the future that existed before the time traveling event) has continued to be a popular theme over the decades. In [[Bring the Jubilee]], by [[Ward Moore]], the hero, who lives in a backward world in which the South won the Civil War, travels through time and brings about an alternate history in which the North won at Gettysburg. [[Ray Bradbury]]'s [[A Sound of Thunder]] creates a scenario in which the time travelers inadvertently destroy all history as we know it. When a story's assumptions about the nature of time necessitate, as in the Bradbury tale, a replacement of the visited historical time's future rather than just the creation of a new time line, the next step is obviously the founding of a time patrol (a device that is <i>not</i> to be confused with the paratime police, see below). Such an agency has the grim task of saving civilization every day, every hour, with patrol members--depicted most notably in [[Poul_Anderson#Time_Patrol|Poul Anderson's Time Patrol]]--racing uptime and downtime to preserve the "correct" history. Of course not all time travel stories involve alternate histories. The writer may ignore the possibility of change, or have the cause-and-effect work out so that the time traveler's actions cause the future he remembers, as in [[Harry Harrison]]'s [[Technicolor Time Machine]]. === The Connecticut Yankee wins at last! === A recent time travelling splitter variant involves entire communities (and not just individuals like Twain's [[A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court|Connecticut Yankee]]) being shifted uptime to be the founding fathers of new time branches. These communities are transported either from the present or the near-future to the past via a natural disaster, the action of technologically advanced aliens, or a human experiment gone wrong. [[S.M. Stirling]] has written the ''[[Island in the Sea of Time]]'' trilogy, in which [[Nantucket]] Island and all its modern inhabitants are transported to [[Bronze Age]] times to become the world's first superpower. In [[Eric Flint]]'s [[1632 series]], a small town in [[West Virginia]] is transported to 17th century Europe and leads a revolution against the [[Hapsburgs]]. [[John Birmingham]]'s [[Axis of Time]] trilogy, deals with the culture shock when a United Nations naval task force from 2021 finds itself back in 1942 helping the Allies against the [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] and the [[Nazi Germany|Germans]] (and doing almost as much harm as good in spite of its advanced weapons). === Cross-time stories === H.G. Wells' "cross-time"/"many universes" variant (see above) was fully developed by De Camp in his 1940 short story "The Wheels of If" (''[[Unknown Fantasy Fiction]]'', October 1940), in which the hero is repeatedly shifted from one alternate history to another, each more remote from our own than the last. This subgenre was used early on for purposes far removed from quasi-academic examination of alternative outcomes to historical events. [[Fredric Brown]] employed it to satirize the s-f pulps and their adolescent readers--and fears of foreign invasion--in the classic ''[[What Mad Universe]]'' (1949). In [[Clifford Simak]]'s ''[[Ring Around the Sun]]'' (1953), the hero ends up in an alternate earth of thick forests in which humanity never developed (the ultimate divergence) but where a band of mutants is establishing a colony; the story line appears to frame the author's anxieties regarding [[McCarthyism]] and the [[Cold War]]. === Introducing the paratime patrol === Also in the late 1940s and the 1950s, however, writers such as [[H. Beam Piper]], [[Sam Merwin Jr.]] and [[Andre Norton]] wrote thrillers set in a [[multiverse]] in which all alternate histories are co-existent and travel between them occurs via a technology involving portals and/or paratime capsules. These authors established the convention of a secret paratime trading empire that exploits and/or protects worlds lacking the paratime technology via a network of James Bond style secret agents (Piper called them the "paratime police"). This concept provided a convenient framing for packing a smorgasbord of historical alternatives (and even of timeline "branches") into a single novel, either via the hero chasing or being chased by the villain(s) through multiple worlds or (less artfully) via discussions between the paratime cops and their superiors (or between paratime agents and new recruits) regarding the histories of such worlds. Paratime thrillers published in recent decades often cite the [[Many-worlds interpretation|many-worlds interpretation]] of [[Quantum mechanics|quantum mechanics]] (first formulated by [[Hugh Everett III]] in 1957) to account for the differing worlds. Prior to Everett, science-fiction writers drew on cruder fringe-science and Ouspenskian speculations to explain their characters' cross-time jauntings. The popular theme was further developed in the 1960s by [[Keith Laumer]] in the first two volumes of his ''Imperium'' trilogy, which would be completed in ''Zone Yellow'' (1990). Piper's politically more sophisticated variant was adopted and adapted by [[Michael Kurland]] and [[Jack Chalker]] in the 1980s; Chalker's ''[[God, Inc.]]'' trilogy (1987-89), featuring paratime detectives Sam and Brandy Horowitz, marks the first attempt at merging the paratime thriller with the police procedural. Kurland's ''[[Perchance]]'' (1988), the first volume of the never completed "Chronicles of Elsewhen", presents a multiverse of secretive empires that utilize a variety of means for cross-time travel, ranging from high-tech capsules to mutant powers. The concept of a cross-time version of a world war, involving rival paratime empires, was developed in [[Richard C. Meredith]]'s ''Timeliner'' trilogy in the 1970s, [[Michael McCollum]]'s ''A Greater Infinity'' (1982) and [[John Barnes (author)|John Barnes]]' ''Timeline Wars'' trilogy in the 1990s. Given the limitless fictional possibilities of paratime travel themes, and the fact that both [[string theory]] and the many-worlds theory of quantum physics provide a highly plausible hard-science-fiction foundation for such stories, it is probable that this variant will continue to flourish in tandem with the more "conventional" alternate history stories described below. === Development of more sophisticated framings === Most of the early cross-time thrillers depicted the multiverse in Euclidean terms (pancake universes stretching to left and right of any given zero universe with the divergence point being earlier and earlier, and the differences greater and greater, the farther one moved in either direction from the zero point). McCollum and some later writers, however, have posited a pseudo-Einsteinian paratime in which universes are constantly shifting around, moving closer or farther from each other, with time dilating or contracting from one universe to another in unpredicable ways. This framing device expands the potential for using cross-time fiction to compare different outcomes uptime, downtime and crosstime all at once. === Major U.S. writers explore alternate histories === In [[1962]], [[Philip K. Dick]] published [[The Man in the High Castle]], an alternate history in which [[Nazi Germany]] and [[imperial Japan]] won [[World War II]]. This book, widely regarded as Dick's masterpiece, has enhanced the prestige of alternate history in mainstream literary circles, although Dick was not yet recognized beyond s-f circles when it was first published. Dick's book also contained an example of "alternate-alternate" history, in that one of its characters is the author of a book in which the Allies won the war. It was followed by [[Vladimir Nabokov]]'s ''[[Ada]]'' (1969) (full title, ''Ada, or Ardor: A Family Chronicle''), a story of incest that takes place within an alternate North America settled in part by Czarist Russia, and that borrows from Dick's idea of "alternate-alternate" history (the world of Nabokov's hero is wracked by rumors of a "counter-earth" that apparently is ours). Some critics believe that the references to a counter-earth suggest that the world portrayed in "Ada" is a delusion in the mind of the hero (another favorite theme of Dick's novels). But even if the Ada-world is regarded as a delusion, it is still alternate history, since Nabokov describes it in detail and makes it come alive artistically. (Since all AH works are imaginative fiction, it really matters little if the AH is presented as the author's fiction alone or as the author's fiction mediated through a delusional character.) ''[[The Plot Against America]]'' ([[2004]]) by [[Philip Roth]] looks at an America where [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] is defeated in 1940 in his bid for a third term as President of the United States, and [[Charles Lindbergh]] is elected, leading to increasing [[fascism]] in the U.S. === Contemporary alternate history in popular literature, including the s-f genre === The late 1980s and the 1990s saw a boom in popular-fiction versions of alternate history, fueled by the emergence of [[Harry Turtledove]], the [[steampunk]] genre and two series of anthologies&mdash; the "What Might Have Been" series edited by [[Gregory Benford]] and the "Alternate ..." series edited by [[Mike Resnick]]. This period also saw alternate history works by [[S.M. Stirling]], [[Kim Stanley Robinson]], [[Harry Harrison]] and others. Since the late 1990s, Harry Turtledove has been the most prolific practitioner of alternate history. His books include a series in which [[Confederate States of America|the South]] won the [[American Civil War]] and another in which aliens invade Earth during the [[World War II|Second World War]]. Other stories by this author include one with the premise that [[the Americas|America]] had not been colonized from [[Asia]] during the last [[ice age]]; as a result, the continent still has living [[mammoth]]s and a [[hominid]] species other than [[homo sapiens]]. Most recently (2005) he has begun a series in which the Japanese not only bomb [[Pearl Harbor]] but also invade and occupy the Hawaiian Islands. He has also launched an alternate history series for teenagers that utilizes a version of H. Beam Piper's paratime-trading-empire framing. Perhaps the most incessantly explored theme in popular alternate history focusses on worlds in which the Nazis won World War Two. In some versions, the Nazis conquer the entire world; in others, they conquer most of the world but a "Fortress America" exists under siege. ''[[Fatherland (novel)|Fatherland]]'' (1992) by [[Robert Harris]], set in Europe following the [[Nazi]] victory, has been widely praised for portraying a more believable society and series of events than most other novels set in a Nazified world or Nazified Eurasia. Several writers have posited points of departure for such a world but then have injected time splitters from the future or paratime travel (for instance, [[James P. Hogan]]'s ''The Proteus Operation'' (1986) and [[Michael P. Kube-McDowell]]'s ''Alternities'' (1988)). === Alternate history in the contemporary fantasy genre === Many fantasies and science fantasies are set in a world that has a history somewhat similar to our own world, but with magic added. Since the existence of magic implies different laws of nature it is difficult to imagine a credible point of divergence: The effects of divergence would have existed throughout human history and indeed throughout all evolution of life (unless one posits sudden changes in the laws of nature in medieval or modern times brought about by aliens, a time-space warp, etc.). One example of a universe that is in part historically recognizable but also obeys different physical laws is [[Poul Anderson]]'s ''Three Hearts and Three Lions'' in which the [[Matter of France]] is history, and the fairy folk are real and powerful. A partly familiar European history for which the author attempts to provide a logic-defying point of divergence is [[Randall Garrett]]'s "Lord Darcy" series. Whether a POD is hypothesized or not, it is probably best to regard such stories as depicting a kind of pseudo-alternity. [[Jonathan Strange and Mr Norrell]] takes place in an alternate version of England where a separate Kingdom ruled by the Raven King and founded on magic existed for some time in Northumbria. In [[Patricia Wrede]]'s Regency fantasies, Great Britain has a Royal Society of Wizards, and in [[Poul Anderson]]'s ''A Midsummer's Tempest'' [[William Shakespeare]] is remembered as the Great Historian, with the novel itself taking place in the era of [[Cromwell]] and [[Charles I]]--and a premature [[Industrial Revolution]]. When the magical version of our world's history is set in contemporary times, one must clearly differentiate between alternate history on the one hand and secret history (as exemplified by [[Roswell]] saucers in an Air Force hanger or the [[Philadelphia Experiment]]) on the other. In works such as [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s "Magic, Incorporated" where a construction company can use magic to rig up stands at a sporting event and [[Poul Anderson]]'s ''Operation Chaos'' and its sequel ''Operation Luna'', where djinns are serious weapons of war -- with atomic bombs -- the use of magic throughout the United States and other modern countries makes it clear that this is not secret history or the result of a mere POD. Indeed, whenever the effects of the fantasical elements are so powerful and pervasive that they cannot plausibly be explained via secret machinations or a point of departure caused by human decisions, then the history depicted should be regarded as a pseudo-alternity. (This should apply not just to fantasy alternities but to satiric ones in which highly improbable events occur, as in ''What Mad Universe''.) [[Philip Pullman]] mined both pseudo-alternate history and cross-time themes in ''[[His Dark Materials]]'' (1996-2000), a science-fantasy trilogy for young adults. Most notable is his variant version of Elizabethan England in the first volume, although given the different (magical) laws of nature there could be no credible point of departure, nor does Pullman attempt to provide one. A fantasy version of the paratime police was developed by children's writer [[Diana Wynne Jones]] in her [[Chrestomanci]] quartet (1977-1988), with wizards taking the place of high tech secret agents. Among the novels in this series, ''[[Witch Week]]'' stands out for its vivid depiction of a history alternate to that of Chrestomanci's own world rather than our own (and yet with a specific POD that turned it away from the "normal" history of most worlds visited by the wizard). Although [[J.K. Rowling]] does not deal explicitly with cross-time or alternate history themes in her [[Harry Potter]] books (outside of the "time turner" used in book three), her world of wizards who coexist quasi-invisibly with the [[Muggles]] can be seen as an eccentric variant in which two subuniverses/subhistories co-exist as subsets of a larger universe/history (or one can regard [[Hogwarts]] and other magical locales as merely being pocket universes within a primary Muggles universe). Of course, if Rowling were to spell this out it would spoil much of the charm of her fictional world. == Elements of Alternate History == There are certain elements which are common to all alternate histories, whether they deal with history on the micro-level (personal alternate histories) or the macro-level (world-changing events). These elements include: *A point of change from the history of our world prior to the time at which the author is writing; *A change which would alter history as it is known; and *An examination of the ramifications of that change. Alternate histories do not: *Need to be set in the past; *Need to spell out the point of divergence; *Need to deal with world changing events; or *Need to include famous people. == The boundaries of alternate history == This leads to readers encountering stories which read ''as though'' they were alternate history, but which are not. An example would be [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s ''[[The Man Who Sold the Moon]]''. Written in the 1940s, it posits that the first moon launch is run by a private organization rather than a government agency in the 1960s. New readers encountering the book may well presume that this is alternate history since it is clearly a counter-factual depiction of the first moon launch, now almost 40 years in the past. However, ''when written'', the first moon launch was nearly 30 years in the ''future''. Thus, ''The Man Who Sold the Moon'' is [[science fiction]], not alternate history. The point of divergence happened after the time at which the author was writing. Also one should not confuse the AH subgenre with [[secret history]], which gives an account of history at odds with our general understanding &mdash; presenting its own account as having been concealed or suppressed by an elite. AH also should not be mistaken for mythical history--a history which supposedly has been forgotten through the passage of time, not through conspiratorial suppression. The works of [[Robert Howard]] and [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] are excellent examples of fiction based on a lost-history framing, but they do not and cannot specify a point of departure from our own history, since there is no historical, archaeological or paleontological record on which such a POD could be based. Given the lack of any continuity with our world (and the lack of any kind of multiverse framing) such worlds are merely fantasy worlds and cannot be regarded as alternate history even in a borderline sense. It is also possible to have novels that explore Points of Divergence (the key concept in alternate history) without actually being works of alternate history themselves. One good example is [[Marge Piercy]]'s critically acclaimed ''Woman on the Edge of Time'' (1976) in which a patient in a mental hospital is able to travel into two alternate futures--one an ecotopia run by reformed Weather Underground types and the other a fascist dystopia run by people-hating robots. Decisions she must make to resist an insidious new type of brain operation will determine which future wins. This is a time travel story, a cross-time story, a Christopher Priest style delusional alternate reality story and a POD story all rolled into one but it is <i>not</i> alternate history because the POD occurs in the present (or perhaps the near future) not in the past. Less obvious is the difference between alternate history and "what if" stories. The latter subgenre extrapolates, from the present, a concrete near-future possibility that is often an expression of current public fears (hence the alternate term "cautionary tale" used by Sackville-West, see below). For instance, beginning in the 1870s the British reading public was treated to a number of what-if books about a German or French invasion of an unready British Isles. During the [[Great Depression]], [[Sinclair Lewis]] wrote of a [[fascism | fascist]] takeover in the United State in his classic ''[[It Can't Happen Here]]'' ([[1935]]). During the early years of [[World War II]], [[Vita Sackville-West]] penned the science fantasy ''Grand Canyon'' ([[1942]]) in which the Germans invade a woefully unprepared United States. One could define such tales as borderline alternate history, since they are usually set in a time that is only shortly after the time of writing and the events described could not have occurred without a branching of history before, if only slightly before, the book was written. The boundary, like many in literature, is a broad line with grey edges (not unlike the fog around the alternate universe portals in science-fiction stories of fifty years ago). Would a 2005 author writing a story set in [[1970]] in Heinlein's universe, or [[Jules Verne]]'s ''[[Captain Nemo]]'' universe be writing SF or AH? Opinions differ. == Alternate history in other media == Several films have been made that exploit the concepts of alternate history, most notably [[Kevin Brownlow]]'s ''[[It Happened Here]]''. Another such film is ''[[2009 Lost Memories]]'', a Korean film supposing that [[Hirobumi Ito]] was not assassinated by [[An Jung-geun]] in Harbin, China, in [[1909]]. A few movies about alternate pasts, however, focus on individuals rather than historical events and some students of AH would say these are '''not''' alternate histories (e.g., [[Frank Capra]]&#8217;s ''[[It's a Wonderful Life]]'', and more recently the films ''[[Sliding Doors]]'' and ''[[The Butterfly Effect]]''). However, in the Capra film the angel shows [[Jimmy Stewart]] an alternate history in which he was never born--the changes in his home town are serious and far-reaching, creating a much darker reality for his neighbors. Thus if one posits, as Capra does, that changes in personal lives create a ripple effect in the larger history, then such stories do qualify as a type of alternate history (one could call them "alternative local history" or "alternative interpersonal history"). Such worlds with relatively small (and sometimes almost undiscernable) changes in personal lives were given the name "cognate universes" by [[Jack Vance]] in the novelette "Rumfuddle" (1973). The [[science fiction]] [[television show]] ''[[Sliders]]'' presented alternate histories under the science-inspired guise of quantum-navigating the [[multiverse]]. The alternate Americas in most episodes are nasty [[dystopias]], although sometimes this is not evident at first. Another such television show, a South Korean drama, [[Gung]] presents an point of divergence where the Korean monarchy is restored after the Independance from the Japanese Empire even up to the 21st Century.[http://www.imbc.com/broad/tv/drama/gung/index.html] (Note: This website is in Korean) The dramatic possibilities of alternate history provide a diverse genre for exploration in [[role-playing game]]s. [[List of role-playing games#Period_Adventure.2FAlternate_History_Genres|Many games]] use an alternate historical background for their campaigns. In particular, [[GURPS]] uses a setting containing multiple different alternate histories as its default campaign setting. ==Points of divergence== The key change between our history and the alternate history is known as the "[[Point of divergence]]" (POD). In [[Philip K. Dick]]'s ''[[The Man in the High Castle]]'', the POD is the attempted assassination of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] in [[Miami]] in [[1933]]. In reality, this attempt failed. Another alternate history with a point of divergence connected to Roosevelt is the backdrop to [[Philip Roth]]'s novel [[The Plot Against America]], in which Roosevelt is defeated in the [[1940]] [[United States presidential election, 1940|US presidential election]] by the isolationist [[Charles Lindbergh]], who reaches an accommodation with the [[Axis powers]] in [[World War II]] and keeps the [[United States]] out of the war. In Robert Harris's [[Fatherland (novel)|Fatherland]], the POD occurs when a German attack into the [[Caucasus]] succeeds in the Nazis seizing vital oil and cutting off supplies to the [[Red Army]]. This forces the USSR to surrender, enabling the Axis Powers to bring the remaining Allies to the peace table, one by one. Some variants of the theory of the [[multiverse]] posit that PODs occur every instant, springing off [[parallel universe (fiction)|parallel universe]]s for each instance. Even mainstream [[science fiction]] stories are known to have points of divergence - the ''[[Star Trek]]'' franchise, for example, diverts from ours in that several key [[space disaster]]s never occurred, resulting in a much faster and smoother development of rocketry than in our timeline. ==Counterfactual and virtual history== ''See main articles: [[historical revisionism]], [[virtual history]]'' [[Historian]]s also speculate in this manner; this type of speculation is known commonly as "counterfactual history" or "[[virtual history]]". There is considerable debate within the community of historians about the validity and purpose of this type of speculation. For alternate histories which some assert to be factual rather than speculative, see [[conspiracy theory]] and [[historical revisionism]]. ==Sidewise Award for Alternate History== In [[1995]], the [[Sidewise Award for Alternate History]] was established to recognize best Long Form (novels and series) and best short form (stories) within the genres. The award is named for [[Murray Leinster]]'s story "Sidewise in Time." == Published alternate histories == Literally thousands of alternate history stories and novels have been published. Following is a somewhat random sampling: * ''[[Weapons of Choice: Axis of Time series]]'' by [[John Birmingham]], which is part Alternate History, part Science Fiction. Its point of divergence is 1942 when an American-led UN Multinational Force arrives uptime from 2021 via a wormhole that was accidentally generated as a byproduct of a scientific experiment. Of course one could say there is also a downtime point of divergence--the point at which the UN force disappears from its "normal" time. (In other words, within the framing logic of parallel universe science fiction, the fictional experiment creates two new worlds or histories, while presumably leaving unchanged the future of a third world--the one in which the wormhole was never generated.) * ''[[Lighter than a Feather]]'' (1971) by [[David Westheimer]], a story of the American invasion of Japan, [[Operation Olympic]], which was to have taken place in November 1945. The novel is seen from the point of view of both low-level Japanese military and civilian and American military members. * ''[[Pastwatch: The Redemption of Christopher Columbus]]'' by [[Orson Scott Card]], in which scientists from the future travel back to the 15th century to prevent the European colonisation of the Americas. * ''[[Alvin Maker]]'' by [[Orson Scott Card]], in which Card imagines North America where people wield magic, or knacks, and the revolution was only partly successful. * ''[[Bring the Jubilee]]'' by [[Ward Moore]], in which the South was not defeated in the [[American Civil War]] because it won the [[Battle of Gettysburg]]. * ''[[The Man in the High Castle|The Man in the High Castle]]'' by [[Philip K. Dick]] set in a world where the [[Axis powers]] won [[World War II]]. * ''[[Fatherland (novel)|Fatherland]]'' by [[Robert Harris]] is also set in the 1960s in a Germany which won World War II. *In "The Forfeited Birthright of the Abortive Far Western Christian Civilization," [[Arnold J. Toynbee]] describes a world in which the Franks lost to the Muslims at the [[Battle of Tours]] in [[732]]. * ''[[SS-GB]]'' by [[Len Deighton]] is a detective novel set in 1941 Britain in which the Germans have successfully occupied the country. * ''If Hitler Had Invaded England'', by [[C.S. Forester]], found in his collection of published short stories, ''Gold from Crete''. The story is a fictionalized account of a German invasion of Britain in 1940, based on what Forester saw as realistic projections of German and British capabilities. The German invasion fails short of reaching London due to continued British supremacy at sea and in the air. The resulting lack of river transport capability leads to an Allied victory. * ''Pavane'', by [[Keith Roberts]], assumes that Queen [[Elizabeth I of England]] was assassinated, and in the ensuing disorder, the [[Spanish Armada]] was successful in suppressing [[Protestantism]]; the novel (actually a series of shorter pieces) is set in a 20th century where technology has advanced less than in our world, and where the [[Inquisition]] still has power. * "[[The Last Article]]" is a [[short story]] by [[Harry Turtledove]], in which [[Mohandas Gandhi]] attempts to use [[non-violent resistance]] against India's [[Nazi]] occupiers. * ''The Alteration'' by [[Kingsley Amis]] is set in a world very similar to that of ''Pavane''. In this world, [[Martin Luther]], rather than beginning the [[Protestant Reformation]], became [[pope]]. The novel concerns the attempt to prevent a young boy with a perfect singing voice from being recruited to the [[Holy See|Vatican's]] [[eunuch]] choir. There are a number of in-jokes, where famous works of [[fantasy and science fiction]] appear, under slightly different titles: 'The Wind in the Cloisters' and 'The Lord of the Chalices' for example. * The "[[Lord Darcy]]" [[fantasy]] series by [[Randall Garrett]]; a number of short stories and one novel (''Too Many Magicians'') based on the premise that King [[Richard I of England|Richard I]] of [[England]] returned safely from [[France]] and that [[Roger Bacon]] had systematised the laws of [[magic (paranormal)|magic]]. The stories are a series of traditional [[detective fiction]]-style [[murder mystery|murder mysteries]] with forensic magic being used in the investigation. * The "[[Western Lights]]" [[science fantasy]] series by [[Jeffrey Barlough]] posits a cataclysmic event that has "sundered" [[Western Europe]] from the rest of the world. The series features somewhat [[Steampunk]] [[Victorian era|Victorian]] technology and society juxtaposed with [[Ice Age]]-era creatures such as [[mastodon]] and [[saber-toothed tiger]]s. Titles include ''Dark Sleeper'', ''The House in the High Wood'', and ''Strange Cargo''. * ''[[GURPS Alternate Earths]]'' (ISBN 1-55634-318-3) and ''[[GURPS Alternate Earths II]]'' (ISBN 1-55634-399-X) a pair of "What might have been" supplements for the Third Edition of the [[GURPS]] role-playing game. Includes a world with a surviving Confederacy, a Nazi/Japanese Empire world, an Aztecs-rule-America scenario, a Viking empire and a unique "[[Hugo Gernsback|Gernsback]]" world in which the dreams of mad scientists and [[Doc Savage]] have become reality. The conflict between the [[Infinity Patrol (GURPS)|Infinity Patrol]] and [[Centrum (GURPS)|Centrum]] across the multiplicity of parallel Earths detailed in these supplements (and originating in ''[[GURPS Time Travel]]'') was made central to the Fourth Edition of GURPS as the default setting in the Basic Set and in the supplement ''[[GURPS Infinite Worlds]]''. * ''[[The Difference Engine]]'' by [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]] and [[Bruce Sterling]] is a [[steampunk]] novel which deals with a Victorian society in which [[Charles Babbage]]'s [[Analytical Engine]] takes on the roles of modern computers a century early. * ''[[Arrowdreams: An Anthology of Alternate Canadas]]'', edited by [[Mark Shainblum]] and [[John Dupuis]] features stories by [[Eric Choi]], [[Dave Duncan (writer)|Dave Duncan]], [[Glenn Grant]], [[Paula Johanson]], [[Nancy Kilpatrick]], [[Laurent McAllister]], the late [[Keith Scott]], [[Shane Simmons]], [[Michael Skeet]], [[Edo van Belkom]] and [[Allan Weiss]]. The collection garnered an [[Aurora Award]] in the "Best Other Work in English" category, while Edo van Belkom's short story "Hockey's Night in Canada" captured another for "Best Short-Form Work in English." * ''[http://www.incunabula.org/ebooks.html Ong's Hat]'' by [[Ong's Hat, New Jersey]] is an Internet legend that deals with a group of renegade scientists from Princeton that developed a means of travel to parallel universes and fled this Universe to found a colony in another world. * ''[[How Few Remain]]'' by [[Harry Turtledove]] is set twenty years after a Southern victory in the [[American Civil War]] established the [[Confederate States of America]]. This novel is followed by the [[Great War (Harry Turtledove)|Great War]] trilogy, set in the 1910s, the [[American Empire (Harry Turtledove)|American Empire]] trilogy, taking the timeline up through the 1920s and 30s, and the [[Settling Accounts (Harry Turtledove)|Settling Accounts]] trilogy, detailing an alternate World War II. * ''[[The Two Georges]]'' by [[Harry Turtledove]] and actor [[Richard Dreyfuss]] is set in modern times under the assumption that [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] of Great Britain and [[George Washington]] reached a settlement where the 13 Colonies remained within the British Empire with increased autonomy and virtually all of their grievances redressed. The book follows two Royal American Mounted Police officers attempting to recover the famous painting of the meeting between the Two Georges by [[Thomas Gainsborough]] after it had been stolen by anti-British terrorists. The painting had become a national treasure and the principal symbol of the unification between Britain and America. * ''[[Making History]]'' (1996) by British actor, comedian and novelist [[Stephen Fry]] is set in a [[parallel world]] in which [[Adolf Hitler]] was never conceived, let alone born. * ''[[For Want of a Nail]]'' (1973) by American business historian [[Robert N. Sobel]] - details a world in which the [[American Revolution]] failed. The British colonies become the Confederation of North America (CNA), while the defeated rebels go into exile in Spanish Tejas, eventually founding the United States of Mexico (USM) - a bitter rival to the CNA. The gigantic [[multinational corporation]] Kramer Associates, originally from Mexico but later based in [[Taiwan]], is the third world power, and the first power to detonate an [[atomic bomb]]. This book is of particular interest because it is written in the format of a standard popular history, complete with footnotes and discussions of differing historical interpretations, and for the fact that for many years, at least one major municipal library (the Denver Public Library) had this book filed in its history collection rather than as fiction. * ''[[The Domination]]'' by [[S. M. Stirling]] - after the [[United States]] conquers [[Canada]] in the [[War of 1812]], the Loyalists move to [[South Africa]], where they join with the [[Boers]] to set up a [[slavery]]-based empire called the Domination of the [[Draka]]. The story tells of the struggle between the Domination and the [[free world]]. As the Draka come to dominate the world, they create a superhuman race. * ''Conquistador'' by S.M. Stirling - an interdimensional gateway is discovered in California, which gives access to an alternate Earth in which the empire of [[Alexander the Great]] flourished, and where Europeans never discovered America. * ''[[Wild Cards]]'' edited by [[George R. R. Martin]] - A series of collaborations based on the premise that an [[alien race]] released a virus just after the WWII that gave some people [[superpower]]s and others terrible deformities. * ''[http://www.baen.com/library/0671319728/0671319728.htm 1632]'' by [[Eric Flint]] - (found online at the [[Baen Free Library|Baen Books free library]] in various ebook formats.) Its sequels, starting with ''[http://www.webscription.net/10.1125/Baen/0743435427/0743435427.htm 1633]'' are available for sale. A series based on the premise that an entire modern [[West Virginia]] town is transported in time and space to Germany during the [[Thirty Years War]]. *''Rivers of War'' by [[Eric Flint]] is an alternate history of the American frontier. It posits that [[Sam Houston]] was not injured at the beginning of the War of 1812, and substantially revises the history of the [[Trail of Tears]]. * ''1945'' by [[Newt Gingrich]] and [[William R. Forstchen]] assumes that the Germans perfected long-range [[jet aircraft]] by the end of [[World War II]] and conducted successful raids in North America against the US nuclear program. * ''The Probability Broach'' by [[L. Neil Smith]] One single word in the [[Declaration of Independence]] differs and the US becomes the North American Confederation, a [[libertarian]] society. In the present some scientist will invent the Probability Broach and make contact with other universes. **''The Venus Belt'' **''Their Majesties' Bucketeers'' **''The Nagasaki Vector'' **''Tom Paine Maru'' **''The Gallatin Divergence'' *''The Indians Won'' (ISBN 0843910127) by [[Martin Cruz Smith]] imagines that the [[Native Americans (U.S.)|Native Americans]] had won the [[Indian Wars|Indian wars]] and kept their land. * ''The Coming of the Demons'' by [[Gwenyth Hood]] imagines if the execution of [[Conradin|Conradin Hohenstaufen]] in Naples on [[October 29]], [[1268]] was averted by the arrival of the Pelezitereans, exiled alien wanderers from another galaxy, seeking an uninhabited planet on which to reestablish their advanced culture. * ''[[1901]]'' by [[Robert Conroy]] depicts a hypothetical war between Germany and the United States at the start of [[William McKinley]]'s second term as President. *[[Mamoru Oshii]]'s [[manga]] ''Kerebos'', a.k.a ''Hellhounds Panzer Cops'' in the United States, and the [[film]] [[Jin-Roh: The Wolf Brigade]], both of which take place in a 1960's Japan that was defeated and occupied by the Germans. * [[Kim Stanley Robinson]]'s ''[[The Years of Rice and Salt]]'' imagines a world in which [[the Black Death]] of the 14th century kills 99% of the people in Europe. Over the next seven centuries, [[China]] and the [[Islamic world]] come to dominate the planet as they colonize a North America whose native peoples have all united in the Hodenosaunee League under the [[Iroquois]], clash in India (a place of many scientific innovations), and the Muslims resettle a depopulated Europe. * [[Robert Silverberg]]'s ''[[Roma Eterna]]'' is set in a world where the [[Red Sea]] did not part before [[Moses]]. As a result, the [[Roman Empire]] grew and prospered without the influence of [[Christianity]]. The novel is a series of short stories set in the same alternate history, up to [[2000|2753]] [[ab urbe condita|AUC]]. * [[Terry Pratchett]]'s ''[[Strata (novel)|Strata]]'' is set in a world where [[Remus]] won the right to name the city and not [[Romulus]]. As a result, the [[Roman Empire]] is known as the ''Remen empire''. Other changes result from this. * [[John M. Ford]]'s ''[[The Dragon Waiting]]'' is set in a Europe where the Emperor Julian lived long enough to re-establish paganism in the Roman Empire. * ''[[The Shadow of the Lion]]'' and ''[[This Rough Magic]]'', a collaboration between [[Mercedes Lackey]], [[Eric Flint]] and [[Dave Freer]], is set in a renaissance Europe where the [[Library of Alexandria]] was not destroyed by a Christian mob and the now sainted [[Hypatia of Alexandria]] and [[John Chrysostom]] shaped religious thought, significantly altering how the Church developed. The novels center around the [[Republic of Venice]]. * The [[Belisarius series]] of novels by [[David Drake]] and [[Eric Flint]] take place when opposing factions from the future influence early times through intermediaries for their own purposes: the 'good' side operating through the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] general [[Belisarius]] and the 'evil' side operating through the Indian state of [[Malwa]]. * [[Michael Moorcock]]'s ''[[The Nomad of the Time-Streams]]'' trilogy (aka ''The Nomad of Time''), a series of novels featuring a grown-up version of [[E. Nesbit]]'s [[Oswald Bastable]] (from [[The Treasure Seekers]] and other books) who experiences a variety of alternate realities that have diverged from his own time-line. **''The War Lord of the Air'' **''The Land Leviathan'' **''The Steel Tsar'' == Online alternate histories == ''[[soc.history.what-if]]'' is a [[Usenet]] [[newsgroup]] devoted to discussing alternate histories. This newsgroup has spawned a number of interesting alternate timelines, including an online [[role playing game]] which has run continuously since [[2000]] called SHWI-ISOT with a [[POD]] in [[1800]] and in which the characters are based on the players being sent from the 21st century back to an alternate early 19th Century, where they have started altering history. The concept was inspired by [[S.M. Stirling]]'s "Island on the Sea of Time" books. In online alternate history, the timeline is usually referred to by the abbreviation ''ATL'' (Alternate Time Line), as contrasted with ''OTL'' (Our Time Line) which refers to real history. * ''[http://www.butteredcat.com/ 1933]'' an alternative view of the 20th century post-1933 in which [[Adolf Hitler]] succeeds in creating an alliance between Nazi Germany and the British Empire resulting in the invasion and conquests of France and the Soviet Union, and the resulting long and prolonged cold war between the Anglo-German alliance and the United States. * ''[http://www.alternatehistory.com/foralltime/ For All Time]'' ("President Chester A. Arthur" or Mike Davis) is a [[dystopia]]n post-WWII scenario resulting from the death of Roosevelt shortly after the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], featuring horrific three-way [[race riot]]s in the [[United States]] between white, black and Jewish gangs, and frequent usage of [[nuclear weapon]]s around the world. * ''[http://www.shatteredworld.net Shattered World]'' (Bobby Hardenbrook) is a devastating alternate [[World War II]], resulting from a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] invasion of [[Poland]] in [[1937]]. The timeline currently continues up to the autumn of [[1948]]. Some terminology is clearly inspired by [[The Domination]], as there is an "Alliance for Democracy" (which however does not include the United States) and a "Eurasian War", which is an Axis-Soviet war which precedes the main World War II. * ''[http://www.geocities.com/wmlives/ALB1.html A Loose Bandage]'' (Beck Reilly) is an alternate 20th century following the failed assassination of [[William McKinley]]. * ''[http://www.geocities.com/drammos/sealion1.html Sealion Fails]'' (Steven Rogers) is an alternate World War II in which Germany invades England, but the invasion is defeated. * ''[http://www.quarryhouse.free-online.co.uk/ed/ASHATW.htm A Shot Heard Around the World]'' (Ed Thomas) follows from the [[assassin]]ation of the [[Prince of Wales]] in [[1900]] (who in OTL became King [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]]), preventing the [[Entente Cordiale]]. Without Britain as an ally France and Russia are easily defeated by the [[Central Powers]]. After the war [[Charles de Gaulle]] seizes power in France, and plans a war of vengeance against the Germans. * ''[http://www.angelfire.com/gundam/japanese_empire/ Dai Nippon Teikoku: An Alternate History]'' is a history of a Japan which loses its territories on the Asian mainland in a war with the [[Soviet Union]]. As a result, Japan never goes to war with the [[United States]], and thus retains [[Karafuto]] and [[Micronesia]]. * ''[http://www.alternatehistory.com/decadesofdarkness/ Decades of Darkness]'' ("Kaiser Wilhelm III") suggests the early death of President [[Thomas Jefferson]] leading to the secession of [[New England]], resulting in a [[United States|United States of America]] dominated by [[slavery|slave owners]]. * ''[http://www.kebe.com/for-all-nails/ For All Nails]'' is an ongoing, collaborative online continuation of ''For Want of a Nail'', which ended in [[1971]], the year the book had been written. The authors believed the world depicted at the end of ''For Want of a Nail'' was an unpleasant one &#8212; hence the name inspired by Chet's ''For All Time''. * ''[http://www.clockworksky.net/puritan_world/ah_pw_top.html Puritan World]'' (Tony Jones). A different [[English Civil War]] results in a much earlier and much nastier [[American Revolution]]. Britain never becomes a world power. By 1996, the New Commonwealth, a [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] [[Puritan]] [[theocracy]] controlling all of North America, Britain, Australia and most of Japan, has recently begun a [[world war]] against the combined European powers of the Octuple Alliance. * ''[[Ill Bethisad]]'' is an ongoing, collaborative project with currently ca. 45 participants, originally created by [http://hobbit.griffler.co.nz/ Andrew Smith] from [[New Zealand]]. * ''[http://shwi.alternatehistory.com/Mr%20Hughes%20Goes%20to%20War.txt Mr. Hughes Goes to War]'' An alternate history where [[Charles Evans Hughes]] is elected [[President of the United States]] in [[1916]] * ''[http://www2.gilemon.com:8080/mediawiki/index.php/Main_Page WikiDusk]'' is an Open Source novel - Wiki-editable - where on [[December 27]] [[2004]], a [[Starquake (star)|huge explosion halfway across the galaxy]] had packed even more power. [http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/050718_star_quake.html] [[Eric Flint]]'s rare policy of supporting [[fanfiction]] based on his [[1632 (novel)|1632 novel]] universe has created a vibrant forum section at [[Baen's Bar]], discussing the consequences of an event in which the fictional modern American town is transported back in time into the middle of the [[Thirty Years' War]], in the German province of [[Thuringia]]. ==Further Reading== *Chapman, Edgar L., and Carl B. Yoke (eds.). ''Classic and Iconoclastic Alternate History Science Fiction''. Mellen, [[2003]] *Collins, William Joseph. ''Paths Not Taken: The Development, Structure, and Aesthetics of the Alternative History''. University of California at Davis [[1990]] *Gevers, Nicholas. ''Mirrors of the Past: Versions of History in Science Fiction and Fantasy''. University of Cape Town, [[1997]] *Hellekson, Karen. ''The Alternate History: Refiguring Historical Time''. [[Kent State University]] Press, [[2001]] *McKnight, Edgar Vernon, Jr. Alternative History: The Development of a Literary Genre. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill [[1994]] *Snider, Adam. "Thinking Sidewise: Tips for building an Alternate History collection". ''School Library Journal'' April [[2004]][http://www.schoollibraryjournal.com/article/CA406675] ==See also== * [[Parallel universe (fiction)]] * [[Virtual history]] * [[Invasion literature]] * [[Time travel in fiction]] ==External links== *[http://groups-beta.google.com/group/soc.history.what-if soc.history.what-if] is the [[usenet]] [[newsgroup]] on alternate history *[http://games.groups.yahoo.com/group/SHWI-ISOT/ SHWI-ISOT] is an online [[Role playing game|RPG]] set in an alternate early 19th Century where people from the early 21st Century have been sent back and are altering history *[http://www.shadesofblack.org/wikisot/index.php?title=Main_Page WIKISOT] is the wiki record of history and events for the SHWI-ISOT online [[Role playing game|RPG]] *[http://www.uchronia.net/ Uchronia] has a good [http://www.uchronia.net/intro.html introduction to the topic], and lists over 2000 works of alternate history. *[http://www.alternatehistory.com/discussion Alternate History Discussion] is a moderated forum devoted to discussing alternate history. *[http://www.uchronia.net/sidewise The Sidewise Award for Alternate History] lists all the winners and nominees for the award since its inception and provides information for recommending works for consideration. *[http://althistory.blogspot.com/ Today in Alternate History], a daily-updated blog, featuring "Important Events In History That Never Occurred Today" in several recurring timelines. *[http://www.othertimelines.com/ This Day in Alternate History], not to be confused with the above. *[http://www.histalt.com/ Histalt.com] is author [[Richard J. (Rick) Sutcliffe]]'s collection of Alternate History links. *[http://www.paulkincaid.co.uk/article04.htm "How to change the world" - on Alternative histories] *[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/alternate-history mailing list about Alternate History] *[http://althistory.wikicities.com/wiki/Main_Page The Alternate History Wiki] *[http://www.johnreilly.info/althis.htm John Reilly's Alternative History] *[http://www.changingthetimes.net/ Changing The Times], is an Alternate History Electronic Magazine written and maintained by Alternate Historians. *[http://www.giampietrostocco.it/english.html Giampietro Stocco's thinking counterfactual], an Italian uchronic novelist's English homepage. [[Category:Science fiction themes]] [[Category:Alternate history| ]] [[Category:Science fiction genres]] [[bg:Алтернативна история]] [[cs:Alternativní historie]] [[de:Alternativweltgeschichte]] [[es:Ucronía]] [[fr:Uchronie]] [[it:Ucronia]] [[no:Kontrafaktisk historie]] [[nl:Alternatieve geschiedenis]] [[pl:Historia alternatywna]] [[sv:Alternativvärld Historia]]--> 1204 40100111 2006-02-18T03:16:22Z 66.71.60.92 deleted "Joan Baez" you stupid losers [[Image:AGSatellite609.png|thumb|300px|Audiogalaxy Satellite 0.609]] '''Audiogalaxy''' was a [[file sharing]] system located at http://www.audiogalaxy.com/ that indexed [[MP3]] files. Founded by [[Michael Merhej]] and sporting a web-based [[search engine]], always-on searching for requested files, auto-resume and low system impact, it quickly gained ground among file sharers abandoning [[Napster]] in [[2001]]. Some observing the previous downfall of Napster via lawsuit were shocked at the design of Audiogalaxy, which was in some ways more centralized than Napster. *"I don't get it- why do you guys still come here? lol"- Famous quote by Michael Merhej who posted on the GD board!!! * In May of 2001, Audiogalaxy implemented "groups" which allowed group members to send songs to everyone in the group. Clever hackers used this backdoor to circumvent the "blocked songs" restriction, where Audiogalaxy could deny transfer of specific copyrighted songs. * For those curious, here is how blocked songs could be downloaded, Not quite "hacking" but a clever workaround: "You need 2 accounts, so sign up for a second if you only have one. create a group with your 1st a/c and get your 2nd a/c to join it, go into your 2nd a/c & click the song with the X you want 2 download, it will tell you its copyrighted look at the url in the address bar & take note of the numbers at the end, paste this into the address bar & add the numbers (and go to that url): http://www.audiogalaxy.com/groups/sendSong.php?&g= click send to group go back into your 1st a/c & run the satellite the copyrighted song will start downloading!" * On [[May 9]], [[2002]], Audiogalaxy required songs to be in the sender's shared folder to be sent. Previously, one could send any song to anyone by editing the [[Common Gateway Interface|CGI]] parameters. This protection was quickly defeated by creating a "dummy" file in one's shared folder, and sending a song with the same name -- due to Audiogalaxy's [[checksum]] [[hash function|hashing]], the correct file was always sent despite the dummy. * Even though Audiogalaxy claimed that they were trying to cooperate with the [[music industry]] and block [[copyright]]ed songs from their network, they continued to offer illegal MP3s and were sued by [[RIAA]], on [[May 24]], [[2002]]. On this day, Audiogalaxy blocked sending of all blocked songs. * On [[June 17]], [[2002]], Audiogalaxy reached an [[out-of-court settlement]] with the RIAA. The settlement reached would allow Audiogalaxy to operate a "filter-in" system, which required that for any music available, the songwriter, music publisher, and/or recording company must first consent to the use and sharing of the work. * On [[September 8]], [[2002]], Audiogalaxy licensed and re-branded a for-pay streaming service called ''[[Rhapsody (online music service)|Rhapsody]]'' from [[Listen.com]] and discontinued its famous web-based P2P service. * On [[December 25]], [[2002]], Martin Rieder wrote a preliminary form of a database-backed backwards-compatible Audiogalaxy server, dubbed OpenAG Server. Audiogalaxy's stated mission was to facilitate sharing of music, though much more appears to have grown from its legacy. It was notable for its strong community due to such features as chat-enabled groups and per-artist [[internet forum]]s. Although music is no longer shared, some message boards are still moderately active. Some of the more active forums include the Radiohead, Rush, and General Discussion boards. Files of any type could easily be shared via Audiogalaxy by renaming a file in a certain way. For example, cdrwin37.zip would be shared by renaming it to cdrwin37<space>zip<space>.mp3 In August 2005, an imitation Audiogalaxy site was set up for discussion boards: http://www.agelesscommunity.com == External links == *[http://www.riaa.com/PR_story.cfm?id=522 RIAA, NMPA Reach Settlement With Audiogalaxy.com] *[http://www.audiogalaxy.com/getRhapsody Audiogalaxy's Rhapsody service:] *[http://web.archive.org/web/20041128094621/http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2002/6/21/171321/675 R.I.P Audiogalaxy] - Kennon Ballou's story of Audiogalaxy (an Audiogalaxy programmer) - Now on web.archive.org [[Category:File sharing networks]] [[Category:File sharing programs]] [[Category:Virtual communities]] [[de:Audiogalaxy]] [[es:Audiogalaxy]] [[fr:Audiogalaxy]] [[pt:Audiogalaxy]] 1205 15899701 2004-12-18T04:35:48Z Smack 10888 #REDIRECT [[Atomic orbital]] #REDIRECT [[Atomic orbital]] 1206 41797829 2006-03-01T20:45:43Z Karol Langner 60759 wikilink [[Image:Electron orbitals.png|right|thumb|350px|[[Electron]] atomic and [[molecular orbital|molecular]] orbitals]] '''Atomic orbitals''' are the [[quantum state]]s of the individual electrons in the [[electron cloud]] around a single atom. Classically, the atomic orbitals can be thought of as similar to the orbits of the planets around the Sun. However, it is important to note that the atomic orbitals cannot actually be described classically. In fact, explaining the behaviour of the electrons that orbit an atom was one of the driving forces behind quantum mechanics. In quantum mechanics, the atomic orbitals are the quantum states that electrons surrounding an atom may exist in. These can be described as a [[wave function]] over space, as shown in the diagram on the right, by the ''n'', ''l'', and ''m'' [[quantum numbers]] of the orbital, or by the names of the orbitals, as used in [[electron configuration]]s. == Historical Background == See the article [[atomic orbital model]] for details on how the current model of atomic orbitals was developed. This article also gives a less technical description of the model. == Formal Quantum Mechanical Definition == In [[quantum mechanics]], the state of an atom, i.e. the [[eigenstate]]s of the atomic [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]], are expanded (see [[configuration interaction]] expansion and [[basis (linear algebra)]]) into [[linear combination]]s of anti-symmetrized products ([[Slater determinant]]s) of one-[[electron]] functions. The spatial components of these one-electron functions are called '''atomic orbitals'''. (When one considers also their [[spin (physics) | spin]] component, one speaks of '''atomic spin orbitals'''.) In [[atomic physics]], the [[atomic spectral line]]s correspond to transitions ([[quantum leap]]s) between [[quantum state]]s of an [[atom]]. These states are labelled by a set of [[quantum number]]s summarized in the [[term symbol]] and usually associated to particular [[electron configuration]]s, i.e. by occupations schemes of '''atomic orbitals''' (e.g. <math>1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 </math> for the ground state of [[neon]] -- term symbol: <math>{}^1S_0</math>). This notation means that the corresponding [[Slater determinant]]s have a clear higher weight in the [[configuration interaction]] expansion. The atomic orbital concept is therefore a key concept for visualizing the excitation process associated to a given transition. One can say for example for a given transition that it corresponds to the excitation of an electron from an occupied orbital to a given unoccupied orbital. Nevertheless one has to keep in mind that electrons are [[fermion]]s ruled by [[Pauli exclusion principle]] and cannot be distinguished from the other electrons in the atom. Moreover, it sometimes happens that the configuration interaction expansion converges very slowly and that one cannot speak about simple one-determinantal wave function at all. This is the case when [[electron correlation]] is large. == Hydrogen-like atoms == {{main|Hydrogen-like atom}} The simplest atomic orbitals are those that occur in an atom with a single electron, such as the [[hydrogen atom]]. In this case the atomic orbitals are the eigenstates of the hydrogen Hamiltonian. They can be obtained analytically (see [[Hydrogen atom]]). An atom of any other element [[ion]]ized down to a single electron is very similar to hydrogen, and the orbitals take the same form. For atoms with two or more electrons, the governing equations can only be solved with the use of methods of iterative approximation. Orbitals of multi-electron atoms are ''qualitatively'' similar to those of hydrogen, and in the simplest models, they are taken to have the same form. For more rigorous and precise analysis, the numerical approximations must be used. A given (hydrogen-like) atomic orbital is identified by unique values of three [[quantum number]]s: [[Principal quantum number|''n'']], [[Azimuthal quantum number|''l'']], and [[magnetic quantum number|''m<sub>l</sub>'']]. The rules restricting the values of the quantum numbers, and their energies (see below), explain the [[electron configuration]] of the atoms and the [[periodic table]]. The stationary states ([[quantum state]]s) of the hydrogen-like atoms are its atomic orbital. However, in general, an electron's behavior is not fully described by a single orbital. Electron states are best represented by time-depending "mixtures" ([[linear combination]]s) of multiple orbitals. See [[Linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method]]. The quantum number ''n'' first appeared in the [[Bohr model]]. It determines, among other things, the distance of the electron from the nucleus; all electrons with the same value of ''n'' lay at the same distance. Modern quantum mechanics confirms that these orbitals are closely related. For this reason, orbitals with the same value of ''n'' are said to comprise an "[[electron shell|shell]]". Orbitals with the same value of ''n'' and also the same value of ''l'' are even more closely related, and are said to comprise a "[[electron subshell|subshell]]". == Qualitative characterization == === Limitations on the quantum numbers === An atomic orbital is uniquely identified by the values of the three quantum numbers, and each set of the three quantum numbers corresponds to exactly one orbital, but the quantum numbers only occur in certain combinations of values. The rules governing the possible values of the quantum numbers are as follows: The [[principal quantum number]] ''n'' is always a [[positive integer]]. In fact, it can be any positive integer, but for reasons discussed below, large numbers are seldom encountered. Each atom has, in general, many orbitals associated with each value of ''n''; these orbitals together are sometimes called a ''[[Electron shell|shell]]''. The [[azimuthal quantum number]] <math>\ell</math> is a non-negative integer. Within a shell where ''n'' is some integer ''n''<sub>0</sub>, <math>\ell</math> ranges across all (integer) values satisfying the relation <math>0 \le \ell \le n_0-1</math>. For instance, the ''n'' = 1 shell has only orbitals with <math>\ell=0</math>, and the ''n'' = 2 shell has only orbitals with <math>\ell=0</math>, and <math>\ell=1</math>. The set of orbitals associated with a particular value of <math>\ell</math> are sometimes collectively called a ''subshell''. The [[magnetic quantum number]] <math>m_\ell</math> is also always an integer. Within a subshell where <math>\ell</math> is some integer <math>\ell_0</math>, <math>m_\ell</math> ranges thus: <math>-\ell_0 \le m_\ell \le \ell_0</math>. The above results may be summarized in the following table. Each cell represents a subshell, and lists the values of <math>m_\ell</math> available in that subshell. Empty cells represent subshells that do not exist. {| class="wikitable" |- ! ! <math>l=0</math> ! 1 ! 2 ! 3 ! 4 ! ... |- ! <math>n=1</math> | <math>m_l=0</math> | || || || || |- ! 2 | 0 || -1, 0, 1 | || || || |- ! 3 | 0 || -1, 0, 1 || -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 | || || |- ! 4 | 0 || -1, 0, 1 || -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 || -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 | || |- ! 5 | 0 || -1, 0, 1 || -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 || -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 || -4, -3, -2 -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 | |- ! ... | ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... |} Subshells are usually identified by their <math>n</math>- and <math>\ell</math>-values. <math>n</math> is represented by its numerical value, but <math>\ell</math> is represented by a letter as follows: 0 is represented by 's', 1 by 'p', 2 by 'd', 3 by 'f', and 4 by 'g'. For instance, one may speak of the subshell with <math>n=2</math> and <math>\ell=0</math> as a '2s subshell'. === The shapes of orbitals === Any discussion of the shapes of electron orbitals is necessarily imprecise, because a given electron, regardless of which orbital it occupies, can at any moment be found at any distance from the nucleus and in any direction due to the [[Uncertainty Principle]]. However, the electron is much more likely to be found in certain regions of the atom than in others. Given this, a ''boundary [[surface]]'' can be drawn so that the electron has a high probability to be found anywhere within the surface, and all regions outside the surface have low values. The precise placement of the surface is arbitrary, but any reasonably compact determination must follow a pattern specified by the behavior of <math>\psi^2</math>, the square of the wavefunction. This boundary surface is what is meant when the "shape" of an orbital is mentioned. Generally speaking, the number <math>n</math> determines the size and energy of the orbital: as <math>n</math> increases, the size of the orbital increases. Also in general terms, <math>\ell</math> determines an orbital's shape, and <math>m_\ell</math> its orientation. However, since some orbitals are described by equations in [[complex number]]s, the shape sometimes depends on <math>m_\ell</math> also. <math>s</math>-orbitals (<math>\ell=0</math>) are shaped like spheres. <math>p</math>-orbitals have the form of two [[ellipsoid]]s with a [[point of tangency]] at the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] (sometimes referred to as a dumbbell). The three <math>p</math>-orbitals in each shell are oriented at right angles to each other, as determined by their respective values of <math>m_\ell</math>. Four of the five <math>d</math>-orbitals look similar, each with four pear-shaped balls, each ball tangent to two others, and the centers of all four lying in one plane, between a pair of axes. Three of these planes are the <math>xy</math>-, <math>xz</math>-, and <math>yz</math>-planes, and the fourth has the centres on the <math>x</math> and <math>y</math> axes. The fifth and final <math>d</math>-orbital consists of three regions of high probability density: a [[torus]] with two pear-shaped regions placed symmetrically on its <math>z</math> axis. == Orbital energy == In atoms with a single electron (essentially the [[hydrogen atom]]), the energy of an orbital (and, consequently, of any electrons in the orbital) is determined exclusively by <math>n</math>. The <math>n=1</math> orbital has the lowest possible energy in the atom. Each successively higher value of <math>n</math> has a higher level of energy, but the difference decreases as <math>n</math> increases. For high <math>n</math>, the level of energy becomes so high that the electron can easily escape from the atom. In atoms with multiple electrons, the energy of an electron depends not only on the intrinsic properties of its orbital, but also on its interactions with the other electrons. These interactions depend on the detail of its spatial probability distribution, and so the [[energy level]]s of orbitals depend not only on <math>n</math> but also on <math>\ell</math>. Higher values of <math>\ell</math> are associated with higher values of energy; for instance, the 2''p'' state is higher than the 2''s'' state. When <math>\ell</math> = 3, the increase in energy of the orbital becomes so large as to push the energy of orbital above the energy of the ''s''-orbital in the next higher shell; when <math>\ell</math> = 4 the energy is pushed into the shell two steps higher. The energy order of the first 24 subshells is given in the following table. Each cell represents a subshell with <math>n</math> and <math>\ell</math> given by its row and column indices, respectively. The number in the cell is the subshell's position in the sequence. Empty cells represent subshells that either do not exist or stand farther down in the sequence. {| class="wikitable" |- ! ! <math>s</math> ! <math>p</math> ! <math>d</math> ! <math>f</math> ! <math>g</math> |- ! 1 | 1 || || || || |- ! 2 | 2 || 3 || || || |- ! 3 | 4 || 5 || 7 || || |- ! 4 | 6 || 8 || 10 || 13 || |- ! 5 | 9 || 11 || 14 || 17 || 21 |- ! 6 |12 || 15 || 18 || 22 || |- ! 7 |16 || 19 || 23 || || |- ! 8 |20 || 24 || || || |} == Electron placement and the periodic table == Several rules govern the placement of electrons in orbitals (''[[electron configuration]]''). The first dictates that no two electrons in an atom may have the same set of values of quantum numbers (this is the [[Pauli exclusion principle]]). These quantum numbers include the three that define orbitals , as well as (the hitherto unmentioned) [[Spin quantum number|''s'']]. Thus, two electrons may occupy a single orbital, so long as they have different values of <math>s</math>. However, ''only'' two electrons, because of their spin, can be associated with each orbital. Additionally, an electron always tries to occupy the lowest possible energy state. It is possible for it to occupy any orbital so long as it does not violate the Pauli exclusion principle, but if lower-energy orbitals are available, this condition is unstable. The electron will eventually lose energy (by releasing a [[photon]]) and drop into the lower orbital. Thus, electrons fill orbitals in the order specified by the energy sequence given above. This behavior is responsible for the structure of the [[periodic table]]. The table may be divided into several rows (called 'periods'), numbered starting with 1 at the top. The presently known elements occupy seven periods. If a certain period has number <math>i</math>, it consists of elements whose outermost electrons fall in the <math>i</math>th shell. The periodic table may also be divided into several numbered rectangular 'blocks'. The elements belonging to a given block have this common feature: their highest-energy electrons all belong to the same <math>\ell</math>-state (but the <math>n</math> associated with that <math>\ell</math>-state depends upon the period). For instance, the leftmost two columns constitute the 's-block'. The outermost electrons of Li and Be respectively belong to the 2s subshell, and those of Na and Mg to the 3s subshell. The number of electrons in a neutral atom increases with the [[atomic number]]. The electrons in the outermost shell, or ''[[valence electron]]s'', tend to be responsible for an element's chemical behavior. Elements that contain the same number of valence electrons can be grouped together and display similar chemical properties. ===See also=== * [[List of Hund's rules]] * [[Electron configuration]] * [[Atomic electron configuration table]] * [[Molecular orbital]] * [[Energy level]] == External links == *[http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/602/616516/Chapter_07.html Covalent Bonds and Molecular Structure] * [http://www.shef.ac.uk/chemistry/orbitron/ The Orbitron], a visualization of all common and uncommon atomic orbitals, from 1s to 7g * David Manthey's [http://www.orbitals.com/orb/index.html Orbital Viewer] renders orbitals with ''n''&nbsp;&le;&nbsp;30 * [http://www.falstad.com/qmatom/ Java orbital viewer applet] == References == * Tipler, Paul & Ralph Llewellyn (2003). ''Modern Physics'' (4th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-4345-0 [[Category:Chemical bonding]] [[Category:Atomic physics]] [[ca:Orbital atòmic]] [[de:Orbital]] [[es:Orbital atómico]] [[fa:اوربیتال]] [[fr:Orbitale atomique]] [[he:אורביטל]] [[nl:Orbitaal]] [[pl:Orbital]] [[pt:Orbital]] [[ru:Атомная орбиталь]] [[sl:Orbitala]] [[fi:Orbitaali]] [[zh:原子轨道]] 1207 41581786 2006-02-28T07:43:10Z BorisTM 198330 129.130.214.183 and Atemperman, next time take the discussion to the [[Talk:Amino_acid|Amino acid talk page]] In [[chemistry]], an '''amino acid''' is any [[molecule]] that contains both [[amino]] and [[carboxylic acid]] [[functional group|functional groups]]. In [[biochemistry]], this shorter and more general term is frequently used to refer to alpha amino acids: those amino acids in which the amino and carboxylate functionalities are attached to the same [[carbon]], the so-called [[alpha carbon|&alpha;&ndash;carbon]]. An '''amino acid residue''' is what is left of an amino acid once a molecule of [[water]] has been lost (an [[hydrogen ion|H<sup>+</sup>]] from the nitrogenous side and an [[hydroxyl ion|OH<sup>-</sup>]] from the carboxylic side) in the formation of a [[peptide bond]]. ==Overview== Amino acids are the basic structural building units of [[protein]]s. They form short [[polymer]] chains called [[peptide]]s or [[polypeptides]] which in turn form structures called [[protein]]s. The process of such formation is known as [[translation (biology)|translation]], which is part of [[protein synthesis]]. [[Image:Phe-stick.png|thumb|[[Phenylalanine]] is one of the standard amino acids.]] Twenty amino acids are encoded by the standard [[genetic code]] and are called [[proteinogenic]] or '''standard amino acids'''. At least two others are also coded by DNA in a non-standard manner as follows: * [[Selenocysteine]] is incorporated into some proteins at a UGA [[codon]], which is normally a stop codon. * [[Pyrrolysine]] is used by some [[methanogen]]s in [[enzyme]]s that they use to produce [[methane]]. It is coded for similarly to selenocysteine but with the codon UAG instead. Other amino acids contained in proteins are usually formed by [[post-translational modification]], which is modification after translation in protein synthesis. These modifications are often essential for the function of the protein. [[Proline]] is the only proteinogenic amino acid whose side group is cyclic and links to the a-amino group, forming a secondary amino group. Formerly, proline was misleadingly called an [[imino acid]]. Over one hundred amino acids have been found in nature. Some of these have been detected in [[meteorite]]s, especially in a type known as [[carbonaceous chondrite]]s. [[Microorganism]]s and [[plant]]s often produce very uncommon amino acids, which can be found in peptidic [[antibiotics]] (e.g., [[nisin]] or [[alamethicin]]). [[Lanthionine]] is a sulfide-bridged alanine dimer which is found together with [[saturation (chemistry)|unsaturated]] amino acids in [[lantibiotics]] (antibiotic peptides of microbial origin). [[1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid|1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC)]] is a small disubstituted cyclic amino acid and a key intermediate in the production of the plant [[hormone]] [[ethylene]]. In addition to protein synthesis, amino acids have other biologically-important roles. [[Glycine]] and [[glutamate]] are [[neurotransmitter]]s as well as standard amino acids in proteins. Many amino acids are used to synthesize other molecules, for example: * [[tryptophan]] is a precursor of the neurotransmitter [[serotonin]] * [[glycine]] is one of the reactants in the synthesis of [[porphyrins]] such as [[heme]]. Numerous non-standard amino acids are also biologically-important: [[Gamma-aminobutyric acid]] is another neurotransmitter, [[carnitine]] is used in [[lipid]] transport within a [[cell (biology)|cell]], [[ornithine]], [[citrulline]], [[homocysteine]], [[hydroxyproline]], [[hydroxylysine]], and [[sarcosine]]. Some of the 20 standard amino acids are called [[essential amino acid]]s because they cannot be [[synthesize]]d by the [[human body|body]] from other [[chemical compound|compound]]s through [[chemical reaction]]s, but instead must be taken in with food. In [[human]]s, the essential amino acids are [[lysine]], [[leucine]], [[isoleucine]], [[methionine]], [[phenylalanine]], [[threonine]], [[tryptophan]], [[valine]]. [[Histidine]] and [[arginine]] are generally considered essential only in children, because of their inability to synthesise them given their undeveloped metabolisms. The phrase "branched-chain amino acids" is sometimes used to refer to the aliphatic amino acids: leucine, isoleucine and valine. ==General structure== The general structure of proteinogenic alpha amino acids is: <i>R</i> | H<sub>2</sub>N-C-COOH | H Where <i>R</i> represents a ''side chain'' specific to each amino acid. Amino acids are usually classified by the [[chemical property|properties]] of the side chain into four groups. The side chain can make them behave like a [[weak acid|weak]] [[acid]], a [[weak base|weak]] [[basic (chemistry)|base]], a [[hydrophile]], if they are [[polar molecule|polar]], and [[hydrophobe]] if they are [[nonpolar]]. ===Isomerism=== Except for [[glycine]], where <i>R</i> = H, amino acids occur in two possible [[optical isomerism|optical isomers]], called D and L. Using the newer [[Cahn Ingold Prelog priority rules]] for designating the configuration of optical isomers, the L isomer would assigned the letter S and the D isomer would be assigned the letter R. The L (or S) amino acids represent the vast majority of amino acids found in [[protein]]s. D (or R) amino acids are found in some proteins produced by exotic sea-dwelling organisms, such as [[cone snail]]s. They are also abundant components of the [[cell wall]]s of [[bacterium|bacteria]]. The L- and D- conventions for amino acid do not refer to their own optical activity, but rather to the optical activity of glyceraldehyde as an analogue of the amino acids. S-glyceraldehyde is levorotary, and R-glyceraldehyde is dexterorotary, and so S- amino acids are called "L-" even if they are not levorotary, and R- amino acids are likewise called "D-" even if they are not dexterorotary. ==Reactions== Proteins are created by [[polymerization]] of amino acids by [[peptide bond]]s in a process called [[translation (biology)|translation]]. This [[condensation]] reaction yields the newly formed peptide bond and a molecule of water. [[image:amino_acids_1.png|none|Peptide bond formation]] <small><center>''Peptide bond formation<br />1. Amino acid; 2, [[zwitterion]] structure; 3, two amino acids forming a peptide bond. (See also [[Chemical bond|bond]].)''</center></small> ==List of standard amino acids== ===Structures=== Structures and symbols of the 20 amino acids present in genetic code. <gallery> Image:L-Alanine.png|[[Alanine]] (Ala / A) Image:L-Arginine.png|[[Arginine]] (Arg / R) image:L-Asparagine.png|[[Asparagine]] (Asn / N) image:L-Aspartic Acid.png|[[Aspartic acid|Aspartic Acid]] (Asp / D) image:L-Cysteine.png|[[Cysteine]] (Cys / C) image:L-Glutamic Acid.png|[[Glutamic Acid]] (Glu / E) image:L-Glutamine.png|[[Glutamine]] (Gln / Q) image:Glycine2.png|[[Glycine]] (Gly / G) image:L-Histidine.png|[[Histidine]] (His / H) image:L-Isoleucine.png|[[Isoleucine]] (Ile / I) image:L-Leucine.png|[[Leucine]] (Leu / L) image:L-Lysine.png|[[Lysine]] (Lys / K) image:L-Methionine.png|[[Methionine]] (Met / M) image:L-Phenylalanine.png|[[Phenylalanine]] (Phe / F) image:L-Proline.png|[[Proline]] (Pro / P) image:L-Serine.png|[[Serine]] (Ser / S) image:L-Threonine.png|[[Threonine]] (Thr / T) image:L-Tryptophan.png|[[Tryptophan]] (Trp / W) image:L-Tyrosine.png|[[Tyrosine]] (Tyr / Y) image:L-Valine.png|[[Valine]] (Val / V) </gallery> ===Chemical properties=== Following is a table listing the one letter symbols, the three-letter symbols, and the chemical properties of the side chains of the standard amino acids. The mass listed is the weighted average of all common isotopes, and includes the mass of H<sub>2</sub>O. The one-letter symbol for an undetermined amino acid is ''X''. The three-letter symbol ''Asx'' or one-letter symbol ''B'' means the amino acid is either [[asparagine]] or [[aspartic acid]], whereas ''Glx'' or ''Z'' means either [[glutamic acid]] or [[glutamine]]. The three-letter symbol ''Sec'' or one-letter symbol ''U'' refers to [[selenocysteine]]. The letters ''J'' and ''O'' are not used. {| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" |- ! colspan="2" | Abbrev. ! Full Name ! Side chain type ! Mass ! [[Isoelectric point|pI]] ! [[dissociation constant|pK]]<sub>1</sub><br>(α-COOH) ! pK<sub>2</sub><br>(α-<sup>+</sup>NH<sub>3</sub>) ! pKr (R) ! Remarks |- | A | Ala | [[Alanine]] | [[hydrophobic]] | 89.09 | 6.01 | 2.35 | 9.87 | | Very abundant, very versatile. More stiff than glycine, but small enough to pose only small steric limits for the protein conformation. It behaves fairly neutrally, can be located in both hydrophilic regions on the protein outside and the hydrophobic areas inside. |- | C | Cys | [[Cysteine]] | hydrophobic (Nagano, 1999) | 121.16 | 5.05 | 1.92 | 10.70 | 8.18 | The sulfur atom binds readily to [[heavy metals|heavy metal]] ions. Under oxidizing conditions, two cysteines can join together by a [[disulfide bond]] to form the amino acid [[cystine]]. When cystines are part of a protein, [[insulin]] for example, this enforces [[tertiary structure]] and makes the protein more resistant to unfolding and [[denaturation (biochemistry)|denaturation]]; disulphide bridges are therefore common in proteins that have to function in harsh environments, digestive enzymes (e.g., [[pepsin]] and [[chymotrypsin]]), structural proteins (e.g., [[keratin]]), and proteins too small to hold their shape on their own (eg. [[insulin]]). |- | D | Asp | [[Aspartic acid]] | [[acidic]] | 133.10 | 2.85 | 1.99 | 9.90 | 3.90 | Behaves similarly to glutamic acid. Carries a hydrophilic acidic group with strong negative charge. Usually is located on the outer surface of the protein, making it water-soluble. Binds to positively-charged molecules and ions, often used in enzymes to fix the metal ion. When located inside of the protein, aspartate and glutamate are usually paired with arginine and lysine. |- | E | Glu | [[Glutamic acid]] | acidic | 147.13 | 3.15 | 2.10 | 9.47 | 4.07 | Behaves similar to aspartic acid. Has longer, slightly more flexible side chain. |- | F | Phe | [[Phenylalanine]] | hydrophobic | 165.19 | 5.49 | 2.20 | 9.31 | | [[essential amino acid|Essential]] for humans. Phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan contain large rigid [[aromaticity|aromatic]] group on the side chain. These are the biggest amino acids. Like isoleucine, leucine and valine, these are hydrophobic and tend to orient towards the interior of the folded protein molecule. |- | G | Gly | [[Glycine]] | hydrophobic | 75.07 | 6.06 | 2.35 | 9.78 | | Because of the two hydrogen atoms at the α carbon, glycine is not [[optical isomerism|optically active]]. It is the tiniest amino acid, rotates easily, adds flexibility to the protein chain. It is able to fit into the tightest spaces, e.g., the triple helix of [[collagen]]. As too much flexibility is usually not desired, as a structural component it is less common than alanine. |- | H | His | [[Histidine]] | [[basic (chemistry)|basic]] | 155.16 | 7.60 | 1.80 | 9.33 | 6.04 |In even slightly acidic conditions [[protonation]] of the nitrogen occurs, changing the properties of histidine and the polypeptide as a whole. It is used by many proteins as a regulatory mechanism, changing the conformation and behavior of the polypeptide in acidic regions such as the late [[endosome]] or [[lysosome]], enforcing conformation change in enzymes. However only a few histidines are needed for this, so it is comparatively scarce. |- | I | Ile | [[Isoleucine]] | hydrophobic | 131.17 | 6.05 | 2.32 | 9.76 | | [[essential amino acid|Essential]] for humans. Isoleucine, leucine and valine have large aliphatic hydrophobic side chains. Their molecules are rigid, and their mutual hydrophobic interactions are important for the correct folding of proteins, as these chains tend to be located inside of the protein molecule. |- | K | Lys | [[Lysine]] | basic | 146.19 | 9.60 | 2.16 | 9.06 | 10.54 | [[essential amino acid|Essential]] for humans. Behaves similarly to arginine. Contains a long flexible side-chain with a positively-charged end. The flexibility of the chain makes lysine and arginine suitable for binding to molecules with many negative charges on their surfaces. E.g., [[deoxyribonucleic acid|DNA]]-binding proteins have their active regions rich with arginine and lysine. The strong charge makes these two amino acids prone to be located on the outer hydrophilic surfaces of the proteins; when they are found inside, they are usually paired with a corresponding negatively-charged amino acid, e.g., aspartate or glutamate. |- | L | Leu | [[Leucine]] | hydrophobic | 131.17 | 6.01 | 2.33 | 9.74 | | [[essential amino acid|Essential]] for humans. Behaves similar to isoleucine and valine. See isoleucine. |- | M | Met | [[Methionine]] | hydrophobic | 149.21 | 5.74 | 2.13 | 9.28 | | [[essential amino acid|Essential]] for humans. Always the first amino acid to be incorporated into a protein; sometimes removed after translation. Like cysteine, contains sulfur, but with a methyl group instead of hydrogen. This methyl group can be activated, and is used in many reactions where a new carbon atom is being added to another molecule. |- | N | Asn | [[Asparagine]] | hydrophilic | 132.12 | 5.41 | 2.14 | 8.72 | | Neutralized version of aspartic acid. |- | P | Pro | [[Proline]] | hydrophobic | 115.13 | 6.30 | 1.95 | 10.64 | | Contains an unusual ring to the N-end amine group, which forces the CO-NH amide sequence into a fixed conformation. Can disrupt protein folding structures like [[alpha helix|α helix]] or [[beta sheet|β sheet]], forcing the desired kink in the protein chain. Common in [[collagen]], where it undergoes a [[posttranslational modification]] to [[hydroxyproline]]. Uncommon elsewhere. |- | Q | Gln | [[Glutamine]] | hydrophilic | 146.15 | 5.65 | 2.17 | 9.13 | | Neutralized version of glutamic acid. Used in proteins and as a storage for [[ammonia]]. |- | R | Arg | [[Arginine]] | basic | 174.20 | 10.76 | 1.82 | 8.99 | 12.48 | Functionally similar to lysine. |- | S | Ser | [[Serine]] | hydrophilic | 105.09 | 5.68 | 2.19 | 9.21 | | Serine and threonine have a short group ended with a [[hydroxyl]] group. Its hydrogen is easy to remove, so serine and threonine often act as hydrogen donors in enzymes. Both are very hydrophylic, therefore the outer regions of soluble proteins tend to be rich with them. |- | T | Thr | [[Threonine]] | hydrophilic | 119.12 | 5.60 | 2.09 | 9.10 | | [[essential amino acid|Essential]] for humans. Behaves similarly to serine. |- | V | Val | [[Valine]] | hydrophobic | 117.15 | 6.00 | 2.39 | 9.74 | | [[essential amino acid|Essential]] for humans. Behaves similarly to isoleucine and leucine. See isoleucine. |- | W | Trp | [[Tryptophan]] | hydrophobic | 204.23 | 5.89 | 2.46 | 9.41 | | [[essential amino acid|Essential]] for humans. Behaves similarly to phenylalanine and tyrosine (see phenylalanine). Precursor of [[serotonin]]. |- | Y | Tyr | [[Tyrosine]] | hydrophobic | 181.19 | 5.64 | 2.20 | 9.21 | 10.46 | Behaves similarly to phenylalanine and tryptophan (see phenylalanine). Precursor of [[melanin]], [[epinephrine]], and [[thyroid hormone]]s. |} {| border="1" bordercolor="black" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" |- ! Amino acid ! Abbrev. ! Side chain ! Hydro- phobic ! Polar ! [[Electric charge|Charged]] ! Small ! Tiny ! [[Aromaticity|Aromatic]] or [[Aliphatic]] ! [[van der Waals]] volume | align="center" | '''[[Genetic code|Codon]]''' | align="center" | '''Occurrence in proteins (%)''' |- align="center" | align="left" | [[Alanine]] | Ala, A | -CH<sub>3</sub> | X | - | - | X | X | - | align="center" | 67 | GCU, GCC, GCA, GCG | 7.8 |- align="center" | align="left" | [[Cysteine]] | Cys, C | -CH<sub>2</sub>[[Sulfur|S]]H | X | - | - | X | - | - | align="center" | 86 | UGU, UGC | align="center" | 1.9 |- align="center" | align="left" | [[Aspartate]] | Asp, D | -CH<sub>2</sub>COOH | - | X | negative | X | - | - | align="center" | 91 | GAU, GAC | align="center" | 5.3 |- align="center" | align="left" | [[Glutamate]] | Glu, E | -CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>COOH | - | X | negative | - | - | - | align="center" | 109 | GAA, GAG | align="center" | 6.3 |- align="center" | align="left" | [[Phenylalanine]] | Phe, F | -CH<sub>2</sub>C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub> | X | - | - | - | - | [[Aromaticity|Aromatic]] | align="center" | 135 | UUU, UUC | 3.9 |- align="center" | align="left" | [[Glycine]] | Gly, G | -H | X | - | - | X | X | - | align="center" | 48 | GGU, GGC, GGA, GGG | 7.2 |- align="center" | align="left" | [[Histidine]] | His, H | -CH<sub>2</sub>-[[imidazole|C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>3</sub>N<sub>2</sub>]] | - | X | positive | - | - | [[Aromaticity|Aromatic]] | align="center" | 118 | CAU, CAC | 2.3 |- align="center" | align="left" | [[Isoleucine]] | Ile, I | -CH(CH<sub>3</sub>)CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub> | X | - | - | - | - | [[Aliphatic]] | align="center" | 124 | AUU, AUC, AUA | 5.3 |- align="center" | align="left" | [[Lysine]] | Lys, K | -(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>4</sub>NH<sub>2</sub> | - | X | positive | - | - | - | align="center" | 135 | AAA, AAG | 5.9 |- align="center" | align="left" | [[Leucine]] | Leu, L | -CH<sub>2</sub>CH(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub> | X | - | - | - | - | [[Aliphatic]] | align="center" | 124 | UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC, CUA, CUG | 9.1 |- align="center" | align="left" | [[Methionine]] | Met, M | -CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>[[Sulfur|S]]CH<sub>3</sub> | X | - | - | - | - | - | align="center" | 124 | AUG | 2.3 |- align="center" | align="left" | [[Asparagine]] | Asn, N | -CH<sub>2</sub>CONH<sub>2</sub> | - | X | - | X | - | - | align="center" | 96 | AAU, AAC | 4.3 |- align="center" | align="left" | [[Proline]] | Pro, P | -CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>- | X | - | - | X | - | - | align="center" | 90 | CCU, CCC, CCA, CCG | 5.2 |- align="center" | align="left" | [[Glutamine]] | Gln, Q | -CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>CONH<sub>2</sub> | - | X | - | - | - | - | align="center" | 114 | CAA, CAG | 4.2 |- align="center" | align="left" | [[Arginine]] | Arg, R | -(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>NH-C(NH)NH<sub>2</sub> | - | X | positive | - | - | - | align="center" | 148 | CGU, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, AGG | 5.1 |- align="center" | align="left" | [[Serine]] | Ser, S | -CH<sub>2</sub>OH | - | X | - | X | X | - | align="center" | 73 | UCU, UCC, UCA, UCG, AGU,AGC | 6.8 |- align="center" | align="left" | [[Threonine]] | Thr, T | -CH(OH)CH<sub>3</sub> | X | X | - | X | - | - | align="center" | 93 | ACU, ACC, ACA, ACG | 5.9 |- align="center" | align="left" | [[Valine]] | Val, V | -CH(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub> | X | - | - | X | - | [[Aliphatic]] | align="center" | 105 | GUU, GUC, GUA, GUG | 6.6 |- align="center" | align="left" | [[Tryptophan]] | Trp, W | -CH<sub>2</sub>[[indole|C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>6</sub>N]] | X | - | - | - | - | [[Aromaticity|Aromatic]] | align="center" | 163 | UGG | 1.4 |- align="center" | align="left" | [[Tyrosine]] | Tyr, Y | -CH<sub>2</sub>-C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>OH | X | X | - | - | - | [[Aromaticity|Aromatic]] | align="center" | 141 | UAU, UAC | 3.2 |} == Hydrophilic and hydrophobic amino acids == Depending on how [[polar molecule|polar]] the side chain, aminoacids can be [[hydrophilic]] or [[hydrophobic]] to various degree. This influences their interaction with other structures, both within the protein itself and within other proteins. The distribution of hydrophilic and hydrophobic aminoacids determines the [[tertiary structure]] of the protein, and their physical location on the outside structure of the proteins influences their [[quaternary structure]]. For example, soluble proteins have surfaces rich with polar aminoacids like [[serine]] and [[threonine]], while [[integral membrane protein]]s tend to have outer ring of hydrophobic aminoacids that anchors them to the [[lipid bilayer]], and proteins anchored to the membrane have a hydrophobic end that locks into the membrane. Similarly, proteins that have to bind to positive-charged molecules have surfaces rich with negatively charged aminoacids like glutamate and aspartate, while proteins binding to negative-charged molecules have surfaces rich with positively charged chains like lysine and arginine. Hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions of the proteins do not have to rely only on aminoacids themselves. By various [[posttranslational modification]]s other chains can be attached to the proteins, forming hydrophobic [[lipoprotein]]s or hydrophylic [[glycoprotein]]s. == Nonstandard amino acids == Aside from the twenty standard amino acids and the two special amino acids, [[selenocysteine]] and [[pyrrolysine]], already mentioned above, there is a vast number of "nonstandard amino acids" which are not used in the body's regular manufacturing of proteins. Examples of nonstandard amino acids include the [[sulfur]]-containing [[taurine]] and the neurotransmitters [[GABA]] and [[dopamine]]. Other examples are [[lanthionine]], [[2-aminoisobutyric acid]], [[dehydroalanine]], [[dehydro-amino-butyric acid]], Nonstandard amino acids are usually formed through modifications to standard amino acids. For example, taurine can be formed by the [[decarboxylation]] of cysteine, while dopamine is synthesized from tyrosine and [[hydroxyproline]] is made by a [[posttranslational modification]] from [[proline]]. ==Uses of substances derived from amino acids== * [[Aspartame]] (aspartyl-phenylalanine-1-methyl ester) is an artificial sweetener. * [[5-HTP]] (5-hydroxytryptophan) has been used to treat neurological problems associated with [[PKU]] (phenylketonuria), as well as depression (as an alternative to L-Tryptophan). * [[L-DOPA]] (L-dihydroxyphenylalanine) is a drug used to treat [[Parkinsonism]]. * [[Monosodium glutamate]] is a [[food additive]] to enhance flavor. ==See also== *[[Essential amino acids]] *[[Strecker amino acid synthesis]] ==References== *Doolittle, R.F. (1989) Redundancies in protein sequences. In ''Predictions of Protein Structure and the Principles of Protein Conformation'' (Fasman, G.D. ed) Plenum Press, New York, pp. 599-623 *David L. Nelson and Michael M. Cox, ''Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry'', 3rd edition, 2000, Worth Publishers, ISBN 1572591536 * [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T36-3XB0N6H-H&_coverDate=09%2F10%2F1999&_alid=241945989&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=4938&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=3cb10a335716303532fc517906a12b3a On the hydrophobic nature of cysteine.] ==External links== * [http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/aminoacids/index.html Molecular Expressions: The Amino Acid Collection] - Has detailed information and microscopy photographs of each amino acid. *[http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/aminoacd.htm 22nd amino acid] - Press release from Ohio State claiming discovery of a 22nd amino acid. [[Category:Amino acids]] [[Category:Nitrogen metabolism]] [[th:กรดอะมิโน]] [[bg:Аминокиселина]] [[ca:Aminoàcid]] [[cs:Aminokyselina]] [[da:Aminosyre]] [[de:Aminosäuren]] [[et:Aminohapped]] [[es:Aminoácido]] [[eo:Aminoacido]] [[fa:اسیدهای آمینه]] [[fr:Acide aminé]] [[gl:Aminoácido]] [[ko:아미노산]] [[io:Amin-acido]] [[it:Amminoacidi]] [[he:חומצת אמינו]] [[lt:Aminorūgštis]] [[lv:Aminoskābe]] [[lb:Aminosaier]] [[hu:Aminosav]] [[mk:Амино киселина]] [[nl:Aminozuur]] [[ja:アミノ酸]] [[no:Aminosyre]] [[nn:Aminosyre]] [[pl:Aminokwas]] [[pt:Aminoácido]] [[ru:Аминокислоты]] [[sl:Aminokislina]] [[sr:Аминокиселина]] [[su:Asam amino]] [[fi:Aminohappo]] [[sv:Aminosyra]] [[th:กรดอะมิโน]] [[tr:Aminoasit]] [[uk:Амінокислота]] [[zh:氨基酸]] 1208 41467421 2006-02-27T15:22:09Z GilliamJF 506179 /* Turing in fiction */ dab agent [[Image:Alan Turing.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Alan Turing is often considered the father of modern [[computer science]].]] '''Alan Mathison Turing''' ([[June 23]], [[1912]] &ndash; [[June 7]], [[1954]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[mathematician]], [[logician]], and [[cryptographer]]. Turing is often considered to be a father of modern [[computer science]]. With the [[Turing Test]], Turing made a significant and characteristically provocative contribution to the debate regarding [[artificial intelligence]]: whether it will ever be possible to say that a machine is [[consciousness|conscious]] and can [[thought|think]]. He provided an influential formalisation of the concept of [[algorithm]] and computation with the [[Turing machine]], formulating the now widely accepted "Turing" version of the [[Church–Turing thesis]], namely that any practical computing model has either the equivalent or a subset of the capabilities of a Turing machine. During [[World War II]], Turing worked at [[Bletchley Park]], Britain's [[cryptanalysis|codebreaking]] centre and was for a time head of [[Hut 8]], the section responsible for German Naval cryptanalysis. He devised a number of techniques for breaking German ciphers, including the method of the [[bombe]], an electromechanical machine which could find settings for the [[Enigma machine]]. After the war, he worked at the [[National Physical Laboratory]], creating one of the first designs for a stored-program computer, although it was never actually built. In 1947 he moved to the [[Victoria University of Manchester|University of Manchester]] to work, largely on software, on the [[Manchester Mark I]] then emerging as one of the world's earliest true computers. In [[1952]], Turing was convicted of acts of gross indecency after admitting to a sexual relationship with a man in Manchester. He was placed on probation and required to undergo [[hormone therapy]]. When Alan Turing died in [[1954]], an inquest found that he had committed suicide by eating an apple laced with [[cyanide]]. == Childhood and youth == Turing was conceived in 1911 in Chatrapur, [[India]]. His father, Julius Mathison Turing, was a member of the Indian civil service. Julius and wife Ethel (''née'' Stoney) wanted Alan to be brought up in [[United Kingdom|Britain]], so they returned to [[Paddington]], [[London]]. His father's civil service commission was still active, and during Turing's childhood years his parents travelled between [[Guildford]], [[England]] and [[India]], leaving their two sons to stay with friends in England, rather than risk their health in the British colony. Very early in life, Turing showed signs of the genius he was to display more prominently later. He is said to have taught himself to read in three weeks, and to have shown an early affinity for numbers and puzzles. His parents enrolled him at St. Michael's, a day school, at six years of age. The headmistress recognized his genius early on, as did many of his subsequent educators. In 1926, at the age of 14, he went on to [[Sherborne School]] in [[Dorset]]. His first day of term coincided with a [[general strike]] in England, and so determined was he to attend his first day that he rode his bike unaccompanied over sixty miles from [[Southampton]] to school, stopping overnight at an [[inn]] &mdash; a feat reported in the local press. Turing's natural inclination toward mathematics and science did not earn him respect with the teachers at Sherborne, a famous and expensive [[public school (England)|public school]] (a British private school with charitable status), whose definition of education placed more emphasis on the [[classics]]. His headmaster wrote to his parents: "I hope he will not fall between two schools. If he is to stay at Public School, he must aim at becoming ''educated''. If he is to be solely a ''Scientific Specialist'', he is wasting his time at a Public School".{{rf|1|Hodges.26}} But despite this, Turing continued to show remarkable ability in the studies he loved, solving advanced problems in 1927 without having even studied elementary [[calculus]]. In 1928, aged sixteen, Turing encountered [[Albert Einstein]]'s work; not only did he grasp it, but he extrapolated Einstein's questioning of [[Newton's laws of motion]] from a text in which this was never made explicit. [[Image:KingsCollegeChapel.jpg|thumb|320px|The computer room at King's is now named after Turing, who became a student there in 1931 and a Fellow in 1935.]] Turing's hopes and ambitions at school were raised by his strong feelings for his friend Christopher Morcom, with whom he fell in love, though the feeling was not reciprocated. Morcom died only a few weeks into their last term at Sherborne, from complications of [[bovine]] [[tuberculosis]], contracted after drinking infected cow's milk as a boy. Turing was heart-broken. == University and his work on computability == Due to his unwillingness to work as hard on his classical studies as on science and mathematics, Turing failed to win a scholarship to [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], and went on to the college of his second choice, [[King's College, Cambridge]]. He was an undergraduate from 1931 to 1934, graduating with a distinguished degree, and in 1935 was elected a Fellow at King's on the strength of a dissertation on the Gaussian [[error function]]. [[Image:Turingbus.jpg|thumb|320px|Alan Turing, on the steps of the bus, with members of the Walton Athletic Club, 1946.]] In his momentous paper "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem" (submitted on [[May 28]], [[1936]]), Turing reformulated [[Kurt Gödel]]'s [[1931]] results on the limits of proof and computation, substituting Gödel's universal arithmetics-based formal language by what are now called [[Turing machine]]s, formal and simple devices. He proved that such a machine would be capable of performing any conceivable mathematical problem if it were representable as an [[algorithm]], even if no actual Turing machine would be likely to have practical applications, being much slower than alternatives. Turing machines are to this day the central object of study in [[computation|theory of computation]]. He went on to prove that there was no solution to the ''[[Entscheidungsproblem]]'' by first showing that the [[halting problem]] for Turing machines is uncomputable: it is not possible to algorithmically decide whether a given Turing machine will ever halt. While his proof was published subsequent to [[Alonzo Church]]'s equivalent proof in respect to his [[lambda calculus]], Turing's work is considerably more accessible and intuitive. It was also novel in its notion of a "Universal (Turing) Machine," the idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any other machine. The paper also introduces the notion of [[definable number]]s. Most of 1937 and 1938 he spent at [[Princeton University]], studying under Alonzo Church. In 1938 he obtained his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] from Princeton; his dissertation introduced the notion of [[hypercomputation]] where Turing machines are augmented with so-called [[oracle machine|oracles]], allowing a study of problems that cannot be solved algorithmically. Back in Cambridge in 1939, he attended lectures by [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] about the [[foundations of mathematics]]. The two argued and disagreed vehemently, with Turing defending formalism and Wittgenstein arguing that mathematics is overvalued and does not discover any absolute truths (Wittgenstein 1932/1976). == Cryptanalysis == [[Image:Bombe-rebuild.jpg|thumbnail|300px|Replica of a bombe machine]] During [[World War II]], Turing was a major participant in the efforts at [[Bletchley Park]] to break German ciphers. Turing's codebreaking work was kept secret until the [[1970s]]; not even his close friends knew about it. He contributed several mathematical insights into breaking both the [[Enigma machine]] and the [[Lorenz SZ 40/42]] (a teletype cipher attachment codenamed "Tunny" by the British), and was, for a time, head of Hut 8, the section responsible for reading German Naval signals. [[Image:Turing_flat.jpg|thumb|240px|left|Two cottages in the stable yard at Bletchley Park. Turing worked here from 1939&ndash;1940 until he moved to Hut 8.]] Since September 1938, Turing had been recruited to work part-time for the [[Government Code and Cypher School]]. Turing reported to [[Bletchley Park]] when war was declared in September 1939. To break Enigma, Turing devised an electromechanical machine which searched for the correct settings of the Enigma rotors. The machine was called the [[bombe]], named after the Polish-designed ''[[Bomba (cryptography)|bomba]]''. Using a bombe, it was possible to ignore the effect of the Enigma plugboard and consider the settings of its rotors alone, and eliminate most of them from consideration. For each possible setting, a chain of logical deductions was implemented electrically, and it was possible to detect when a contradiction had occurred and rule out that setting. Turing's bombe was first installed on [[18 March]] [[1940]], and, with an enhancement suggested by mathematician [[Gordon Welchman]], was the primary tool used to read Enigma traffic. Over 200 bombes were in operation by the end of the war. In December 1940, Turing solved the naval Enigma indicator system, which was more complex than the indicator systems used by the other services. Turing also invented a [[Bayesian]] statistical technique termed "[[Banburismus]]" to assist in breaking Naval Enigma. Banburismus could rule out certain orders of the Enigma rotors, reducing time needed to test settings on the bombes. Against the Lorenz cipher, Turing devised a technique termed ''Turingismus'' or ''Turingery'', although other methods were also used. In the spring of 1941, Turing proposed marriage to fellow Hut 8 co-worker [[Joan Clarke]], although the engagement was broken off by mutual agreement in the summer. In late November 1942, Turing visited the US to work on [[secure speech]] devices and Naval Enigma, returning in March 1943. During his absence, [[Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander|Hugh Alexander]] had assumed the position of head of Hut 8, although Alexander had been ''de facto'' head for some time, Turing having little interest in the day-to-day running of the section. Turing became a general consultant for cryptanalysis at Bletchley Park. In the latter part of the war, teaching himself electronics at the same time, Turing undertook (assisted by engineer [[Donald Bayley]]) the design of a portable machine codenamed ''[[Delilah (secure speech)|Delilah]]'' to allow [[secure voice]] communications. Intended for different applications, Delilah lacked capability for use with long-distance radio transmissions, and was completed too late to be used in the war. Though Turing demonstrated it to officials by encrypting/decrypting a recording of a [[Winston Churchill]] speech, Delilah was not adopted for use. In 1945, Turing was awarded the [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] for his sterling wartime services. == Early computers and the Turing Test == [[Image:Turingrunning.jpeg|frame|left|Turing achieved world-class [[Marathon (sport)|Marathon]] standards. His best time of 2 hours, 46 minutes, 3 seconds, was only 11 minutes slower than the winner in the [[1948 Summer Olympics|1948 Olympic Games]].]] From 1945 to 1947 he was at the [[National Physical Laboratory]], where he worked on the design of [[ACE (computer)|ACE]] (Automatic Computing Engine). He presented a paper on February 19, 1946, which was the first complete design of a [[Von Neumann architecture|stored-program computer]]. Although he succeeded in designing the ACE, there were delays in starting the project and he became disillusioned. In late 1947 he returned to Cambridge for a 'sabbatical' year. While he was at Cambridge, work on building the ACE stopped before it was ever begun. In 1949 he became deputy director of the computing laboratory at the [[Victoria University of Manchester|University of Manchester]], and worked on software for one of the earliest true computers &mdash; the [[Manchester Mark I]]. During this time he continued to do more abstract work, and in "[[Computing machinery and intelligence]]" (Mind, October 1950), Turing addressed the problem of [[artificial intelligence]], and proposed an experiment now known as the [[Turing test]], an attempt to define a standard for a machine to be called "sentient". In 1948, Turing, working with his former undergraduate colleague, [[D.G. Champernowne]], began writing a chess program for a computer that did not yet exist. In 1952, lacking a computer powerful enough to execute the program, Turing played a game in which he simulated the computer, taking about half an hour per move. [http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1356927 The game] was recorded; the program lost to a colleague of Turing, [[Alick Glennie]], however, it is said that the program won a game against Champernowne's wife. == Pattern formation and mathematical biology == Turing worked from 1952 until his death in 1954 on [[mathematical biology]], specifically [[morphogenesis]]. He published one paper on the subject called "The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis" in 1952. His central interest in the field was understanding [[Leonardo of Pisa|Fibonacci]] phyllotaxis, the existence of [[Fibonacci number]]s in plant structures. He used reaction-diffusion equations which are now central to the field of [[pattern formation]]. Later papers went unpublished until 1992 when ''Collected Works of A.M. Turing'' was published. == Prosecution for homosexuality and Turing's death == Turing was a homosexual man during a period when homosexuality was illegal. In 1952, his lover, Arnold Murray, helped an accomplice to break into Turing's house, and Turing went to the police to report the crime. As a result of the police investigation, Turing acknowledged a sexual relationship with Murray, and they were charged with gross indecency under [[Criminal_Law_Amendment_Act_of_1885#Section_11|Section 11]] of the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1885. Turing was unrepentant and was convicted. Although he could have been sent to prison, he was placed on probation, conditional on him undergoing [[hormone|hormonal]] [[chemical castration|treatment]] designed to reduce [[libido]]. He accepted the [[estrogen|oestrogen]] hormone injections, which lasted for a year, with side effects including the [[gynecomastia|development of breasts]]. His conviction led to a removal of his security clearance and prevented him from continuing consultancy for [[GCHQ]] on cryptographic matters. In 1954, he died of [[cyanide]] [[poisoning]], apparently from a cyanide-laced apple he left half-eaten. The apple itself was never tested for contamination with cyanide, and cyanide poisoning as a cause of death was established by a post-mortem. Most believe that his death was intentional, and the death was ruled a [[suicide]]. It is rumoured that this method of self-poisoning was in tribute to Turing's beloved film ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]''. His mother, however, strenuously argued that the ingestion was accidental due to his careless storage of laboratory chemicals. Friends of his have said that Turing may have killed himself in this ambiguous way quite deliberately, to give his mother some plausible deniability. The possibility of assassination has also been suggested, owing to Turing's involvement in the secret service and the perception of Turing as a security risk due to his homosexuality. In the book, ''Zeroes and Ones'', author [[Sadie Plant]] speculates that the [[rainbow]] [[Apple Computer#Logo|Apple logo]] with a bite taken out of it was an homage to Turing. This seems to be an [[urban legend]] as the Apple logo was designed in 1976, two years before Gilbert Baker's [[rainbow flag|rainbow pride flag]]. :''See also'': [[Sodomy law]], [[:Category:LGBT civil rights]] == Recognition == Since 1966, the [[Turing Award]] has been given by the [[Association for Computing Machinery]] to a person for technical contributions to the computing community. It is widely considered to be the equivalent of the [[Nobel Prize]] in the computing world. In 1994 a stretch of the [[Manchester]] city ring road was named Alan Turing Way. On [[23 June]] [[1998]], on what would have been Turing's 86th birthday, [[Andrew Hodges]], his biographer, unveiled an official [[English Heritage]] [[Blue Plaque]] on his childhood home in Warrington Crescent, [[London]], now the Colonnade hotel [http://www.turing.org.uk/bio/oration.html], [http://www.blueplaque.com/detail.php?plaque_id=348]. [[Image:Alan Turing Memorial Closer.jpg|left|thumbnail|200px|Alan Turing memorial statue in Sackville Park]] A [[Alan Turing Memorial|statue of Turing]] was unveiled in [[Manchester]] <!-- by [[English Heritage]] I am unsure whether this is true or not - the sculptor who made the statute was commissioned by the Alan Turing Memorial Fund Seek http://www.btinternet.com/~glynhughes/sculpture/turing.htm --> on [[June 23]] [[2001]]. It is in [[Sackville Park]], between the [[University of Manchester]] building on Whitworth Street and the [[Canal Street, Manchester|Canal Street]] [[gay village]]. To mark the 50th anniversary of his death, a memorial plaque was unveiled at his former residence, Hollymeade, in Wilmslow on [[June 7]] [[2004]]. [[Image:Turing_Plaque.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Plaque marking Turing's home]] The [[Alan Turing Institute]] was initiated by [[UMIST]] and [[Victoria University of Manchester|University of Manchester]] in Summer 2004. A celebration of Turing's life and achievements was held at the [[Victoria University of Manchester|University of Manchester]] on [[5 June]] [[2004]]; it was arranged by the [[British Logic Colloquium]] and the [[British Society for the History of Mathematics]]. On [[October 28]] [[2004]] a bronze statue of Alan Turing sculpted by [[John W. Mills]] was unveiled at the [[University of Surrey]] [http://portal.surrey.ac.uk/press/oct2004/281004a/]. The statue marks the 50th anniversary of Turing's death. It portrays Turing carrying his books across the campus. [[Holtsoft]] produces a [[Turing programming language|programming language]] named for Turing. The language is designed for beginner programmers and has no direct access to the hardware. The [[Polytechnic University of Puerto Rico]] named a computer laboratory for graduate studies the [[Turing Lab]]. == Turing biographies == * Andrew Hodges wrote a definitive biography ''Alan Turing: The Enigma'' in 1983 (see references below). * The play ''Breaking the Code'' by Hugh Whitemore is about the life and death of Turing. In the original [[West End]] and [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] runs, the role of Turing was played by [[Derek Jacobi]], who also played Turing in a 1995 television adaptation of the play. *{{cite book | author=Leavitt, David | title=The Man Who Knew Too Much: Alan Turing and the Invention of the Computer | publisher=New York: W. W. Norton | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0393052362}} == Turing in fiction== * Turing appears as a character in [[Neal Stephenson]]'s ''[[Cryptonomicon]]''. * In another one of Stephenson's books, ''[[The Diamond Age]]'', there is an intuitive explanation of recursion, important to Turing's and related work on computability, put into the format of a child's book. * "Turing Police" (Artificial Intelligence law enforcers) appear in [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]]'s ''[[Neuromancer]]''. *In White Wolf Game Studio's [[World of Darkness]] role-playing universe, Turing was a leading member of the [[Mage: The Ascension|mage]] faction known as the [[Virtual Adepts]]. * An [[FBI]] [[Special agent|agent]] named Alan Turing made an appearance in the [[webcomic]] ''[[Questionable Content]]'' as a homage to Turing. * Appears in ''[[Enigma (novel)|Enigma]]'' by [[Robert Harris]] * A young Alan Turing introduces the title character to [[Kurt Gödel|Gödel]]'s first [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem|incompleteness theorem]] in [[Apostolos Doxiadis]]'s novel ''[[Uncle Petros and Goldbach's Conjecture]]''. * In the 1989 ''[[Doctor Who]]'' serial ''[[The Curse of Fenric]]'', the character of Dr. Judson is based on Turing. Turing himself is a narrator of the [[Doctor Who spin-offs#Original fiction|''Doctor Who'' spin-off]] [[Eighth Doctor Adventures|novel]] ''The Turing Test'' by Paul Leonard. * [[Greg Egan]]'s novella, ''[http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/MISC/ORACLE/Oracle.html Oracle]'', is about an alternate universe version of Turing * In [[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s [[2010: Odyssey Two]], the sequel to [[2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)|2001: A Space Odyssey]], the stoic [[Dr. Chandra]], the programmer who created [[HAL 9000]], has a completely spartan cubicle except for a photo of Turing beside his computer screen. == See also == * [[List of gay, lesbian or bisexual people]] * [[Alan Turing's Unorganized Machines]] == References == * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Turing|title=Alan Mathison Turing}} * Copeland, B. Jack (2004) "Colossus: Its Origins and Originators". ''[[IEEE Annals of the History of Computing]]'', 26(4):38&ndash;45. * Copeland, B. Jack (editor, 2004) ''[http://www.oup.co.uk/isbn/0-19-825079-7 The Essential Turing]''. [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0-19-825079-7 (hardback) and ISBN 0-19-825080-0 (paperback). * Copeland, B. Jack (editor, 2005), ''[http://www.oup.co.uk/isbn/0-19-856593-3 Alan Turing's Automatic Computing Engine]''. [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0-19-856593-3. * Hodges, Andrew (1983/2000). ''Alan Turing: The Enigma''. [[Simon & Schuster]], 1983, ISBN 0-671-49207-1. Also: Walker Publishing Company, 2000. * [[Christof Teuscher]] (editor 2004), ''Alan Turing: Life and Legacy of a Great Thinker''. [[Springer-Verlag]], ISBN 3540200207. * Yates, David M. (1997) ''Turing's Legacy: A history of computing at the National Physical Laboratory 1945&ndash;1995''. London: [[Science Museum, London|Science Museum]], ISBN 0-901805-94-7. * [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] (1932/1976) ''Wittgenstein's Lectures on the Foundations of Mathematics (1932-1935)''. Edited by Cora Diamond. Cornell University Press. * [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/18/books/review/18johnson.html Johnson, George (2005) "Enigmatic"]. New York Times Book Review (12/18/2005). Review of David Leavitt, <cite>The Man Who Knew Too Much: Alan Turing and the Invention of the Computer (2005)</cite>. * [http://www.newyorker.com/critics/books/articles/060206crbo_books Holt, Jim (2006) "CODE-BREAKER The life and death of Alan Turing."]. The New Yorker (1/30/2006). Review of David Leavitt, <cite>The Man Who Knew Too Much: Alan Turing and the Invention of the Computer (2005)</cite>. ==Note== {{ent|1|Hodges.26}} Hodges p. 26. == External links == {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.turing.org.uk/turing/ Alan Turing Home Page] by Andrew Hodges including a [http://www.turing.org.uk/bio/part1.html short biography] * [http://www.alanturing.net/ AlanTuring.net Turing Archive for the History of Computing] by Jack Copeland * [http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/turing.html A short biography] * [http://www.systemtoolbox.com/article.php?history_id=3 Alan Turing &ndash; Towards a Digital Mind: Part 1] * [http://www.loebner.net/Prizef/TuringArticle.html Computing machinery and intelligence] &mdash; full text of article. * [http://www.skyscraper.org.uk Skyscraper song inspired by Alan Turing] * [http://www.5xm.com/turing/ Hollymeade unveiling of memorial plaque marking 50th anniversary of Turing's untimely death] * [http://www.swintons.net/jonathan/turing.htm Alan Turing and morphogenesis] * [http://www.turingarchive.org The Turing Archive] * [http://www.teuscher.ch/turingday Turing Day 2002] * [http://www.maths.man.ac.uk/logic/turing2004/ Turing 2004: A celebration of his life and achievements] * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/turing/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry] * [http://www.adeptis.ru/vinci/m_part1_2.html Photos] {{Link FA|es}} [[Category:1912 births|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:1954 deaths|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:20th century mathematicians|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:20th century philosophers|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:Alan Turing|Alan Turing]] [[Category:Alumni of King's College, Cambridge|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:British World War II veterans|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:British computer scientists|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:British cryptographers at Bletchley Park|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:Computer designers|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:Computer pioneers|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:Computer scientists|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:English inventors|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:English mathematicians|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:Formal methods people|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:LGBT history of the United Kingdom|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:Lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender people|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:Suicides|Turing, Alan]] [[Category:Old Shirburnians|Turing, Alan]] [[af:Alan Turing]] [[ast:Alan Turing]] [[bg:Алън Тюринг]] [[bs:Alan Turing]] [[ca:Alan Turing]] [[cs:Alan Turing]] [[de:Alan Turing]] [[et:Alan Turing]] [[el:Άλαν Τούρινγκ]] [[es:Alan Mathison Turing]] [[eo:Alan TURING]] [[fa:آلن تورینگ]] [[fr:Alan Mathison Turing]] [[gl:Alan Turing]] [[ko:앨런 튜링]] [[hr:Alan Turing]] [[io:Alan Turing]] [[id:Alan Turing]] [[is:Alan Turing]] [[it:Alan Turing]] [[he:אלן טיורינג]] [[lt:Alanas Tiuringas]] [[lb:Alan M. Turing]] [[li:Alan Turing]] [[hu:Alan Turing]] [[nl:Alan Turing]] [[ja:アラン・チューリング]] [[no:Alan Turing]] [[nn:Alan Turing]] [[pl:Alan Mathison Turing]] [[pt:Alan Turing]] [[ro:Alan Turing]] [[ru:Тьюринг, Алан Матисон]] [[sh:Alan Turing]] [[scn:Alan Turing]] [[simple:Alan Turing]] [[sk:Alan Mathison Turing]] [[sr:Алан Тјуринг]] [[fi:Alan Turing]] [[sv:Alan Turing]] [[th:แอลัน ทัวริง]] [[vi:Alan Turing]] [[tr:Alan Turing]] [[uk:Т'юрінґ Алан Метісон]] [[zh:艾伦·图灵]] 1209 41919041 2006-03-02T16:48:44Z Oleg Alexandrov 153314 revert inappropriate links :''This article explains the meaning of area as a [[physical quantity]]. The article [[area (geometry)]] is more mathematical. See also [[area (disambiguation)]].'' '''Area''' is a physical [[quantity]] expressing the size of a part of a [[surface]]. '''Surface area''' is the summation of the areas of the exposed sides of an [[object (philosophy)|object]]. == Units == Units for measuring surface area include: :[[square metre]] = [[SI derived unit]] :[[are]] = 100 square metres :[[hectare]] = 10,000 square metres :[[square kilometre]] = 1,000,000 square metres :square megametre = 10<sup>12</sup> square metres [[Imperial unit]]s, as currently defined from the metre: :[[square foot]] (plural square feet) = 0.09290304 square metres :[[square yard]] = 9 square feet = 0.83612736 square metres :square [[perch]] = 30.25 square yards = 25.2928526 square metres :[[acre]] = 160 square perches or 43,560 square feet = 4046.8564224 square metres :[[square mile]] = 640 acres = 2.5899881103 square kilometres Old European area units, still in used in some private matters (e.g. land sale advertisements) :square [[fathom]]or fahomia in some sources = 3.5967 square metres :[[cadastral]] moon(acre) = 1600� square fathoms = 5755 square metres The article [[Orders of magnitude]] links to lists of [[orders of magnitude (area)|objects of comparable surface area]]. ==Useful formulas== *Area of a [[rectangle]] (and, in particular, a [[square (geometry)|square]]): [[length]] &times; [[width]] *Area of a [[triangle]]: [[½]] &times; [[base]] &times; [[height]] *Area of a [[disk (mathematics)|disk]]: [[pi|&pi;]] &times; [[radius|r]]² *Area of an [[ellipse]]: [[pi|&pi;]] &times; [[semi-major axis|a]] &times; [[semi-minor axis|b]] *Area of a [[sphere]]: 4 &times; [[pi|&pi;]] &times; [[radius|r]]² = &pi; &times; [[diameter|d]]² (which is the first [[derivative]] of the [[formula]] for [[volume]] of a [[sphere]]) *Area of a [[trapezoid]]: If a and b are the two parallel sides and h is the distance (height) between the parallels, the area formula is as below: :<math>A=\frac{1}{2}(a+b)h</math> or <math>A=\frac{h(a+b)}{2}</math> *Total surface area of a [[right circular cylinder]]: 2 &times; [[pi| &pi;]] &times; [[radius|r]] &times; ([[height|h]] + [[radius|r]]) *Lateral surface area of a [[right circular cylinder]]: 2 &times; [[pi| &pi;]] &times; [[radius|r]] &times; [[height|h]] *Total surface area of a [[right circular cone]]: [[pi| &pi;]] &times; [[radius|r]] &times; ([[slant height|l]] + [[radius|r]]) *Lateral surface area of a [[right circular cone]]: [[pi| &pi;]] &times; [[radius|r]] &times; [[slant height|l]] <!--The total surface area and lateral surface area of a right circular cylinder and cone formulae were taken from R.S. Aggarwal's Mathematics for Class 8--> <!-- a table of areas<->diameters isn't exactly very relevant here. and statements of currents are meaningless without information on the cable type ambient temperature and installation conditions. ==Cross sectional area (CSA) of electrical wire== Rough figures for the cross sectional area of copper conductor: CSA (mm²) diameter (mm) current (A) 1.0 2.8 13 1.5 3.5 17 2.5 4.2 24 4.0 4.8 32 6.0 5.4 41 10.0 6.8 55 16.0 8.0 74 25.0 9.8 97 --> [[Category:Area|*]] [[als:Fläche]] [[ar:مساحة]] [[bg:Площ]] [[be:Плошча]] [[ca:Àrea]] [[cs:Povrch]] [[da:Areal]] [[de:Fläche]] [[et:Pindala]] [[el:Έκταση]] [[eo:Areo]] [[fa:مساحت]] [[fi:Pinta-ala]] [[fo:Vídd]] [[fr:Superficie]] [[gu:ક્ષેત્રફળ]] [[he:שטח]] [[hr:Površina]] [[ia:Superficie]] [[io:Areo]] [[is:Flatarmál]] [[ja:面積]] [[ka:ფართობი]] [[ko:면적]] [[la:Area]] [[lv:Platība]] [[lt:Plotas]] [[li:Oppervlak]] [[mg:Velarantany]] [[nl:Oppervlakte]] [[nn:Flatevidd]] [[no:Areal]] [[pl:Powierzchnia]] [[pt:Área]] [[ru:Площадь]] [[simple:Area]] [[sl:Površina]] [[sv:Ytmått]] [[th:พื้นที่]] [[uk:Площа]] [[vi:Diện tích]] [[zh:面积]] [[zh-min-nan:Bīn-chek]] 1210 41421590 2006-02-27T05:16:45Z Jeffrey O. Gustafson 158658 /* History */ punctpov The '''astronomical unit''' ('''AU''' or '''au''' or '''a.u.''' or sometimes '''ua''') is a unit of [[distance]], approximately equal to the [[mean]] distance between [[Earth]] and [[Sun]]. The currently accepted value of the AU is 149 597 870 691 ± 30 metres (about 150 million kilometres or 93 million miles). The symbol "ua" is recommended by the [[Bureau International des Poids et Mesures]] [http://www.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/chapter4/table7.html], but in the United States and other anglophone countries the reverse usage is more common. The [[International Astronomical Union]] recommends "au" [http://www.iau.org/IAU/Activities/nomenclature/units.html] and [[international standard]] [[ISO 31-1]] uses "AU". == The distance == Earth's [[orbit]] is not a [[circle]] but an [[ellipse]]; originally, the AU was defined as the [[length]] of the [[semimajor axis]] of said orbit. For greater precision, the International Astronomical Union in [[1976]] defined the AU as the distance from the Sun at which a [[test particle|particle]] of negligible [[mass]], in an unperturbed circular orbit, would have an [[orbital period]] of 365.256 898 3 days (a [[Gaussian year]]). More accurately, it is the distance such that the heliocentric [[gravitational constant]] (the product GM<sub>&#9737;</sub>) is equal to (0.017 202 098 95)² AU³/d². ==History== [[Aristarchus of Samos]] estimated the distance to the Sun to be about 20 times the distance to the moon, whereas the true ratio is about 390. His estimate was based on the angle between the half moon and the sun, which he estimated as 87&deg;. According to [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] in the ''[[Praeparatio Evangelica]]'', [[Eratosthenes]] found the distance to the sun to be "σταδιων μυριαδας τετρακοσιας και οκτωκισμυριας" (literally "of stadia myriads 400 and 80000"). This has been translated either as 4,080,000 [[stadia]] (1903 translation by [[E. H. Gifford]]), or as 804,000,000 stadia (edition of [[Edouard des Places]], dated 1974-1991). Using the Greek stadium of 185 metres, the former translation comes to a far-too-low 755,000 km, whereas the second translation comes to a very accurate 149 million km. At the time the AU was introduced, its actual value was very poorly known, but planetary distances in terms of AU could be determined from heliocentric geometry and [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion]]. The value of the AU was first estimated by [[Jean Richer]] and [[Giovanni Domenico Cassini]] in [[1672]]. By measuring the [[parallax]] of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] from two locations on the Earth, they arrived at a figure of about 140 million kilometers. A somewhat more accurate estimate can be obtained by observing the [[transit of Venus]]. This method was devised by [[Edmond Halley]], and applied to the transits of Venus observed in [[1761]] and [[1769]], and then again in [[1874]] and [[1882]]. Another method involved determining the constant of [[aberration of light|aberration]], and [[Simon Newcomb]] gave great weight to this method when deriving his widely accepted value of 8.80" for the [[solar parallax]] (close to the modern value of 8.794 148"). The discovery of the [[near-Earth asteroid]] [[433 Eros]] and its passage near the Earth in [[1900]]&ndash;[[1901]] allowed a considerable improvement in parallax measurement. More recently very precise measurements have been carried out by [[radar]] and by [[telemetry]] from [[space probe]]s. While the value of the astronomical unit is now known to great precision, the value of the mass of the Sun is not, because of uncertainty in the value of the [[gravitational constant]]. Because the gravitational constant is known to only five or six significant digits while the positions of the planets are known to 11 or 12 digits, calculations in celestial mechanics are typically performed in solar masses and astronomical units rather than in kilograms and kilometres. This approach makes all results dependent on the gravitational constant. A conversion to [[SI]] units would separate the results from the gravitational constant, at the cost of introducing additional uncertainty by assigning a specific value to that unknown constant. It is known that the mass of the Sun is very slowly decreasing, and therefore the orbital period of a body at a given distance is increasing. This implies that the AU is getting smaller (by about one centimetre per year) over time. == Examples == The distances are approximate mean distances. It has to be taken into consideration that the distances between [[astronomical object|celestial bodies]] change in [[time]] due to their [[orbit]]s and other factors. * The [[Earth]] is 1.00 ± 0.02 AU from the [[Sun]]. * The [[Moon]] is 0.0026 ± 0.0001 AU from the Earth. * [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] is 1.52 ± 0.14 AU from the Sun. * [[Jupiter]] is 5.20 ± 0.05 AU from the Sun. * [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]] is 39.5 ± 9.8 AU from the Sun. * [[90377 Sedna]]'s orbit ranges between 76 and 942 AU from the Sun; Sedna is currently ([[as of 2006]]) about 90 AU from the Sun. * As of November 2005, [[Voyager 1]] (the farthest [[human]]-made object) is 97 AU from the Sun. * The mean diameter of the [[Solar system]], including the [[Oort cloud]], is approximately 10<sup>5</sup> AU. * [[Proxima Centauri]] (the nearest [[star]]) is ~268 000 AU away from the Sun. * The mean diameter of [[Betelgeuse]] is 2.57 AU. * The distance from the Sun to the centre of the [[Milky Way]] is approximately 1.7×10<sup>9</sup> AU. Some conversion factors: * 1 AU = 149 597 870.691 ± 0.030 km &#8776; 92 955 807 miles &#8776; 8.317 [[light-year|light minutes]] &#8776; 499 [[light-second]]s * 1 [[light-second]] &#8776; 0.002 AU * 1 [[light-minute]] &#8776; 0.120 AU * 1 [[light-hour]] &#8776; 7.214 AU * 1 [[light-day]] &#8776; 173 AU * 1 [[light-year]] &#8776; 63 241 AU * 1 [[parsec|pc]] &#8776; 206 265 AU == See also == * [[Conversion of units]] * [[Light year]] * [[Orders of magnitude]] * [[Parsec]] == References == * E. Myles Standish. "Report of the IAU WGAS Sub-group on Numerical Standards". In ''Highlights of Astronomy'', I. Appenzeller, ed. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1995. ''(Complete report available online: [http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/iau-comm4/iausgnsrpt.ps PostScript]. Tables from the report also available: [http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/astro_constants.html Astrodynamic Constants and Parameters])'' * D. D. McCarthy ed., IERS Conventions (1996), IERS Technical Note 21, Observatoire de Paris, July 1996 == External links == * [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/outside.html Units outside the SI] ''(at the [[NIST]] web site)'' * [http://www.iau.org/IAU/Activities/nomenclature/units.html Recommendations concerning Units] ''(at the [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]] web site)'' * [http://home.comcast.net/~pdnoerd/SMassLoss.html Solar Mass Loss, the Astronomical Unit, and the Scale of the Solar System] ''(a discussion of the relation between the AU and other quantities)'' [[Category:Celestial mechanics]] [[Category:Astronomical units of length]] [[bg:Астрономическа единица]] [[be:Астранамічная адзінка]] [[ca:Unitat astronòmica]] [[cs:Astronomická jednotka]] [[cy:Uned seryddol]] [[da:Astronomisk enhed]] [[de:Astronomische Einheit]] [[et:Astronoomiline ühik]] [[el:Αστρονομική μονάδα]] [[es:Unidad astronómica]] [[eo:Astronomia unuo]] [[eu:Unitate astronomiko]] [[fr:Unité astronomique]] [[gl:Unidade astronómica]] [[ko:천문 단위]] [[hr:Astronomska jedinica]] [[io:Astronomiala unajo]] [[id:Unit astronomi]] [[it:Unità Astronomica]] [[he:יחידה אסטרונומית]] [[lt:Astronominis vienetas]] [[lb:Astronomesch Eenheet]] [[hu:Csillagászati egység]] [[nl:Astronomische eenheid]] [[ja:天文単位]] [[no:Astronomisk enhet]] [[nn:Astronomisk eining]] [[pl:Jednostka astronomiczna]] [[pt:Unidade astronômica]] [[ro:Unitatea astronomică]] [[ru:Астрономическая единица]] [[scn:Unità astrunomica]] [[sk:Astronomická jednotka]] [[sl:Astronomska enota]] [[sr:Астрономска јединица]] [[fi:Astronominen yksikkö]] [[sv:Astronomisk enhet]] [[th:หน่วยดาราศาสตร์]] [[vi:Đơn vị thiên văn]] [[zh:天文單位]] [[zh-min-nan:Thian-bûn tan-ūi]] 1212 41253429 2006-02-26T02:12:51Z Dianawild 992393 {{wiktionary}} {{wikiquote}} '''Artist''' is a descriptive term applied to a person who engages in an activity deemed to be an [[art]]. It is also used in a qualitative sense of a person [[creativity|creative]] in, [[innovation|innovative]] in, or adept at, an artistic practice. Most often, the term describes those who create within a context of 'high culture', activities such as [[drawing and painting]], [[sculpture]], [[acting]], [[dancing]], [[writing]], [[filmmaking]] and [[music]] &mdash; people who use imagination, and talent or skill, to create works that can be judged to have an [[aesthetic]] value. [[Art history|Art historians]] and [[Art critic| critics]] will define as artists those who produce [[art]] within a recognised or recognisable discipline. The term is also used to denote highly skilled people in non-"arts" activities, as well &mdash; crafts, medicine, alchemy, mechanics, mathematics, defense (martial arts) and architecture, for example. The designation is applied to illegal activities, like a "scam artist". The term 'artist' could also refer to a con artist. There is no consensus about what constitutes "art" or who is, or is not, an "artist". Often, discussions on the subject focus on the differences between "artist" and "[[Technician|technician]]" or "[[Entertainer|entertainer]]," or "[[Artisan|artisan]]," "[[fine arts|fine art]]" and "[[Applied art|applied art]]," or what constitutes art and what does not. In addition, the [[French language|French]] word '''artiste''' (which in French, simply means "artist") has been imported into the [[English language]]; in English-usage it has connotations (some of them derogatory) which differ somewhat from the English term [[artist]]. The Oxford English dictionary, cites broad meanings of the term "artist," :* A learned person or Master of Arts. :* One who pursues a practical science, traditionally medicine, astrology, alchemy, chemistry. :* A follower of a pursuit in which skill comes by study or practice - the opposite of a theorist. :* A follower of a manual art, such as a mechanic. :* One who makes their [[craft]] a fine art. :* One who cultivates one of the fine arts - traditionally the arts presided over by the [[muses]]. (referenced from: {{cite book | author=C. T. Onions | title=The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary | publisher=Clarendon Press Oxford | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0-19-861126-9}}) In Greek the word "techn&#283;" is often mistranslated into "art." In actuality, "techn&#283;" implies mastery of a craft (any craft.) The Latin-derived form of the word is "tecnicus", from which the English words [[technique]], [[technology]], [[technical]] are derived. Our word art is derived from the Latin "ars", which, though literally defined means "skill method" or "technique", holds a connotation of [[beauty]]. Many contemporary definitions of "artist" and "art" are highly contingent on [[culture]], resisting aesthetic prescription, in much the same way that the features constituting [[beauty]] and the beautiful cannot be easily standardized without corruption into [[kitsch]]. == Examples of art and artist == *[[Actor]]: [[Laurence Olivier]] *[[Architect]]: [[Antoni Gaudí]] *[[Ballet]]: [[Vaslav Nijinsky]] *[[Calligraphy]]: [[Hokusai]] *[[Choreographer]]: [[Martha Graham]] *[[Composer]]: [[Giuseppe Fortunino Francesco Verdi]] *[[Conceptual Art]]: [[Vanessa Beecroft]] *[[Dancer]]: [[Isadora Duncan]] *[[Entertainer]]: [[PT Barnum]] *[[Fashion designer]]: [[Pierre Cardin]] *[[Figure Skating|Figure Skater]]:[[Michelle Kwan]] *[[Game designer]]: [[Shigeru Miyamoto]] *[[Horticulture]]: [[André le Nôtre]] *[[Illusionist]]: [[Houdini]] *[[Industrial designer]]: [[Pininfarina]] *[[Jeweller]]: [[Fabergé]] *[[Movie director]]: [[Sergei Eisenstein]] *[[Muralist]]: [[Diego Rivera]] *[[Musician]]: [[Niccolo Paganini]] *[[Novelist]]: [[Dostoevsky]] *[[Musical instrument|Musical instrument maker]]: [[Stradivari]] *[[Orator]]: [[Cicero]] *[[Painter]]: [[Pablo Ruiz Picasso]] *[[Photographer]]: [[Robert Mapplethorpe]] *[[Pianist]]: [[Glenn Gould]] *[[Playwright]]: [[Harold Pinter]] *[[Poet]]: [[William Shakespeare]] *[[Potter]]: [[Peter Voulkos]] *[[Singer]]: [[Nico]] *[[Sculpture|Sculptor]]: [[Michelangelo Buonarotti]] *[[Storyteller]]: [[1001_Arabian_Nights|el-Gahshigar]] [[Category:Artists| ]] [[Category:Art and design workers]] [[Category:Aesthetics]] [[cs:Umělec]] [[cy:Arlunydd]] [[de:Künstler]] [[eo:Artisto]] [[fr:Artiste]] [[ko:미술가]] [[id:Artis]] [[iu:ᑕᑯᒥᓇᖅᓕᐅᖅᑎᑦ]] [[he:אמן]] [[lt:Artistas]] [[mi:Kaitito]] [[ms:Artis]] [[nl:Artiest]] [[ja:美術家]] [[sq:Artisti]] [[fi:Taiteilija]] [[sv:Konstnär]] [[uk:Художник]] [[zh:艺术家]] 1213 41064001 2006-02-24T20:51:50Z Unyoyega 460372 fixing interwikis +: lb [[Image:Aktation, Nordisk familjebok.png|thumb|Actaeon and his dogs]] In [[Greek mythology]], '''Actaeon''' (or '''Aktaion'''), son of [[Aristaeus]] and [[Autonoe]] in [[Boeotia]], was a hunter who suffered the wrath of [[Artemis]]. Artemis was bathing in the woods near Boeotian [[Orchomenus (town)|Orchomenos]] when the hunter Actaeon stumbled across her, thus seeing her naked. He stopped and stared, amazed at her ravishing beauty. When she saw him, Artemis punished him by declaring that he must never speak again — if he tried to speak, he would be changed into a [[Deer (mythology)|stag]] — for his unlucky profanation of her virgin's mysteries. Upon hearing his hunting group calling to him, he cried out to them and immediately was changed into a stag. His own hounds turned upon him instantly and killed him. He was torn apart. The hounds were so upset with their master's death, that [[Chiron]] made a statue so lifelike that the hounds thought it was Actaeon. There are various other versions: [[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Apollodorus]] states that his offence was that he was a rival of [[Zeus]] for [[Semele]] (who was also his aunt), while in [[Euripedes]] ''Bacchae'' he boasts that he is better hunter than Artemis. <table><tr><td> :ὁρᾷς τὸν Ἀκτέωνος ἄθλιον μόρον, :ὃν ὠμόσιτοι σκύλακες ἃς ἐθρέψατο :διεσπάσαντο, κρείσσον' ἐν κυναγίαις :Ἀρτέμιδος εἶναι κομπάσαντ', ἐν ὀργάσιν. <td> :Look at Actaeon's wretched fate :who by the man-eating hounds he had raised, :was torn apart, better at hunting :than Artemis he had boasted to be, in the meadows. </table> [[Diodorus Siculus]] has it that Actaeon wanted to marry Artemis. Other authors say the hounds were Artemis' own. == Actaeon in art == {{Commonscat|Actaeon}} Actaeon torn by his hounds is a common theme in [[5th century BC]] Greek art: in some [[red-figure pottery|vase painting]]s he is shown wearing a deerskin, in others antlers sprout from his head. Pictures of Artemis surprised by Actaeon while bathing are found among [[Pompeii|Pompeian]] wall paintings. <!--[[Image:Tizian 001.jpg|thumb|Titian: ''Diana suprised by Actaeon while bathing'']]--> The theme was one of many revived in the [[Renaissance]]. See for example: *[http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/cgi-bin/WebObjects.dll/CollectionPublisher.woa/wa/work?workNumber=NG6420 ''The Death of Actaeon''], by [[Titian]] ==References== * ''The [[Oxford Classical Dictionary]]'', ''s.v.'' "Actaeon" * [[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'', 3.138ff * [[Euripedes]], ''[[The Bacchae|Bacchae]]'', 337–40 * [[Diodorus Siculus]] 4.81.4 [[Category:Shapeshifting]] [[Category:Greek mythological people]] [[ca:Acteó]] [[de:Aktaion]] [[et:Aktaion]] [[es:Acteón]] [[fr:Actéon]] [[gl:Acteón]] [[it:Atteone]] [[lt:Aktaeonas]] [[lb:Aktaion]] [[nl:Actaeon]] [[pl:Akteon (mitologia)]] [[ru:Актеон]] [[sv:Aktaion]] [[uk:Актеон]] 1214 42155455 2006-03-04T04:37:43Z Paul foord 240061 /* See also */ wl fix {{christianity}} The term '''''Anglican''''' (from [[Anglia]], the [[Latin (language)|Latin]] name for England) describes the people and churches that follow the religious traditions developed by the [[state religion|established]] [[Church of England]]. The [[Anglican Communion]] codifies the Anglican relationship to the Church of England as a theologically broad and often diverging community of churches, which holds the English church as its mother institution. Adherents of Anglicanism within the [[Anglican Communion]] (that is in communion with the [[See of Canterbury]]) worldwide number around 70 million but there are numerous denominations which consider themselves Anglican but which are out of the Communion. The issue of [[Catholic]] and [[Protestantism|Protestant]] affiliation is often confusing. Whilst many Anglicans regard themselves as being within the Protestant tradition, many other Anglicans, especially [[Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholics]], do not consider themselves as Protestants. The Church of England claims explicitly that the Church "upholds the catholic faith." (The Athanasian Creed states "And the catholic faith is this: That we worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; Neither confounding the persons, nor dividing the substance." The phrase "catholic church" by definition means the universal Christian Church but also holds the sense of the "church in its fullness" ). Ultimately, the Anglican Church considers itself as being both catholic (stressing its continuity with the ancient Church), and Reformed / Protestant (noting that the Church does not accept the universal infallible authority of the Pope). The conduct of eucharistically-centred worship services is in keeping with the catholic liturgical tradition and the Communion emphasises its status of [[full communion]] with the [[Old Catholic Church|Old-Catholic Utrecht Union]] &mdash; a small community of churches which split from the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in [[1870]] over the doctrine of papal infallibility. On the other hand, the development of Anglicanism as a distinctive theological tradition is also deeply connected with the [[Protestant Reformation]]. As with the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] and [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] churches (but unlike most Protestant churches), Anglicans claim authority within the church through [[apostolic succession]] from the first followers of [[Jesus]]. The Anglican-Roman Catholic International Consultation actually reached agreement on the doctrine of the ministry in their Elucidation of 1979 [http://www.prounione.urbe.it/dia-int/arcic/doc/e_arcic_elucid_min.html], but the [[Roman Catholic Church]] continues to hold that Anglican Orders are not "valid." In contrast, Anglican Orders are recognized as valid by the [[Old Catholic Church|Old-Catholics]] and [[Lutheran]]s, communions which also consider themselves "the Catholic Church." Anglicans traditionally date their church back at least to its first Archbishop of Canterbury, [[Augustine of Canterbury|Saint Augustine of Canterbury]], in the 6th century and even centuries earlier to the [[Roman Britain|Roman occupation]]. Many Anglicans point out that Christian missionaries existed in the British lands from the 1st century, with bishops established at Glastonbury by commission from the Apostle Philip. They consider [[Celtic Christianity]] a prefix of their faith, since many Celtic elements remained, even after the Synod of Whitby conformed to Roman customs (well after the establishment of the Canterbury See). They also point out that bishops from the British Isles participated in the early Ecumenical Councils - most significantly [[Pelagius]], the monk who was almost successful in stopping [[Original Sin]] from becoming an official Church doctrine. == Origins == ''See also: [[History of the Church of England]]'' While Anglicans acknowledge that the [[schisms|schism]] from papal authority under [[Henry VIII of England]] led to the Church of England existing as a separate entity, they also stress its continuity with the pre-Reformation Church of England. The organisational machinery of the Church of England was in place by the time of the Synod of Hertford in 672-673 AD when the English bishops were for the first time able to act as one body under the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury. Since the [[Elizabethan Religious Settlement]] the [[Church of England]] has enjoyed a heritage that is both Catholic and Protestant with the British monarch as its [[Supreme Governor]]. Contrary to much popular belief, the British monarch is not the constitutional "Head" of the Church of England and it is incorrect to refer to the monarch as such. The monarch has no constitutional role in Anglican churches in other parts of the world although the prayer books of several countries maintain prayers for "Our Sovereign Lady Elizabeth," and the versicle at [[Morning Prayer]] "O Lord save the Queen," which in the United States prayer book, for example, is altered to "O Lord save the state." {{Anglicanism}} Nonetheless, the [[English Reformation]] was initially driven by the dynastic goals of [[Henry VIII of England]], who, in his quest for a queen to bear him a male heir, found it necessary and profitable to replace the [[Papacy]] with the English crown. Henry's need for a legitimate male heir was real. England's previous experience in the twelfth century of rule by a queen had been a disaster that no-one wished to see repeated. (see [[Empress Matilda]]) It was not Henry's intention to found a new church. He was well informed enough about history to know that the powers he was claiming were those which had been exercised by European monarchs over the church in their dominions since the time of Constantine and that what had changed since then had been the growth of papal power. The [[Act of Supremacy]] put Henry at the head of the church in [[1534]], while acts such as the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]] put huge amounts of church land and property into the hands of [[the Crown]] and ultimately into those of the English nobility. These created vested interests which made a powerful material incentive to support a separate Christian church in England under the rule of the Monarch. The theological justification for Anglican distinctiveness was begun by the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] [[Thomas Cranmer]] and continued by other thinkers such as [[Richard Hooker (theologian)|Richard Hooker]] and [[Lancelot Andrewes]]. Cranmer had studied in Europe and was influenced by the ideas of the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] and had also married despite being a priest. Because Cranmer and other leaders of the Church of England had been ordained by bishops in the [[Apostolic Succession]], and passed on that ordination to their successors, Anglicans consider that they have retained the historic apostolic succession, but differ as to how significant this is. During the short reign of [[Edward VI of England |Edward VI]], Henry's son, Cranmer was able to move the Church of England significantly towards a more Protestant [[Calvinist]] position. The first [[Book of Common Prayer]] dates from this period. This reform was reversed abruptly in the subsequent reign of [[Mary I of England|Queen Mary]]. Only under [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]] was the English church established as a reformed Catholic church that was accepting of Calvinistic and Evangelical theology. In the 16th century religious life was an important part of the cement which held society together. Differences in religion were likely to lead to civil unrest at the very least, with treason and foreign invasion possibly thrown in as well. Elizabeth's solution to the problem of minimising bloodshed over religion in her dominions was a [[Elizabethan Religious Settlement|religious settlement]] which prescribed a fixed, sparer form of worship, in the vernacular, in which everyone was expected to take part, i.e. ''common prayer'', but a belief system formulated in a way that would allow people with different understandings of what the Bible taught to give assent. The Protestant principle that all things must be proved by scripture was endorsed in article VI of the [[Thirty-nine Articles]], so that no one could be required to believe anything unless it could be clearly proved from the Scriptures. This did recognise that there were areas where the Bible did not give clear cut teaching, where differences of opinion among Christians were legitimate. The bulk of the population was willing to go along with Elizabeth's religious settlement, but extremists at both ends of the theological spectrum would have nothing to do with it, and cracks in the façade of religious unity in England were appearing. For the next century there were significant swings back and forth between the [[Puritan]]s and those with a less Reformed understanding of Anglicanism. It must be understood that the concept of religious freedom was in those days neither understood nor accepted by many people, and that the groups involved in the struggle were aiming for control, not freedom. By continental standards the level of violence over religion was not high, but among the casualties were a king ([[Charles I of England|Charles I]]) and an Archbishop of Canterbury ([[William Laud]]). The final outcome in [[1660]] after the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] was not too far removed from the Elizabethan ideal. One difference was that the ideal of encompassing all the people of England in one religious organisation, taken for granted by the [[Tudors]], had to be abandoned. The religious landscape of England assumed its present form, with an Anglican established church occupying the middle ground, and the two extremes, Roman Catholic and those Puritans who dissented from the establishment, too strong to be suppressed altogether, having to continue their existence outside the national church, rather than controlling it. The English Reformation may be said to have ended at this point. The Elizabethan settlement failed in that it was never able to gain the assent of the entire English people. Yet as the Anglican form of Christianity is now flourishing in many parts of the world far away from England it may possibly have succeeded beyond the wildest expectations of anybody alive in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. ==Leadership== The [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] has a precedence of honour over the other archbishops of the Anglican Communion. He is recognised as [[primus inter pares]], or first amongst equals. The Archbishop of Canterbury, however, does not exercise any direct authority in the provinces outside England. The current Archbishop of Canterbury, [[Rowan Williams]], as former [[Archbishop of Wales]], is the first primate appointed from outside the Church of England since the Reformation. All Anglican priests have Apostolic Succession. Since the reign of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] ultimate authority in the [[Church of England]] has been vested in the reigning monarch. Since the time of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] the sovereign's title has been 'Supreme Governor' rather than 'Head' of the Church of England. In practice this means that the monarch has the responsibility of seeing that the administrative machinery of the church is running smoothly, and in particular that new bishops are appointed when needed. Today this responsibility is discharged by the Prime Minister. Anglican churches outside England do not have this relationship with the British monarch, however it remains the case that the Archbishop of Canterbury, leader of the worldwide Anglican Communion, is appointed by [[the Crown]] of the United Kingdom (in theory; in practice by the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]]). ==Churches== Anglicanism is most commonly identified with the established [[Church of England]], but Anglican churches exist in most parts of the world. In some countries (e.g., the [[United States]], [[Scotland]]) the Anglican church is known as Episcopal, from the Latin ''episcopus'', "[[bishop]]", which comes from a [[Greek language|Greek]] word literally meaning an "overseer." Some Anglican churches are not in communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury but consider themselves ''Anglican'' because they retain practices of the Church of England and the [[Book of Common Prayer]]. Each [[national church]] or [[province (Anglican)|province]] is headed by a [[Primate (religion)|Primate]] called a [[Primus of Scotland|Primus]] in the [[Scottish Episcopal Church]], an [[Archbishop]] in most countries, a [[Presiding Bishop]] in the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal Church USA]] and a Prime Bishop in the Philippine Episcopal Church. These churches are divided into a number of dioceses, usually corresponding to state or metropolitan divisions. There are three orders of the ordained ministry: [[deacon]], [[priest]] and [[bishop]]. No requirement is made for [[clerical celibacy]] and women may be ordained as deacons in almost all provinces, as priests in some, and as bishops in a few provinces. Religious orders of monks, brothers, sisters and nuns were suppressed in England during the Reformation but have made a reappearance in Victorian times and thrive today. Those Anglican churches "in [[full communion|communion]]" with the See of [[Canterbury, Kent|Canterbury]] constitute the [[Anglican Communion]], a formal organisation made up of churches at the national level. However, there are a large number of denominations (albeit insignificant in terms of number of adherents) which call themselves Anglican that are known as the "[[Anglican continuing churches|continuing church]]" movement and do not acknowledge the Anglican Communion. They are generally conservative-to-traditionalist and, to a varying degree [[Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholic]] in their doctrinal orientation, but tend to side politically with [[Evangelicalism|Evangelicals]] of the right; some, however, are at the extreme evangelical end of the churchmanship spectrum, such as the [[Church of England in South Africa]] (not in communion in Canterbury but in communion with the [[Diocese of Sydney]]), and the [[Reformed Episcopal Church]]. They consider the Church of England and the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]], as well as some other member churches of the Anglican Communion, to have departed from the historic faith by ordaining women, by ordaining openly gay people, by altering the theological emphases of the 1928 [[Book of Common Prayer]] of the Episcopal Church of the United States or the 1662 Book of Common Prayer of the Church of England, and by loosening the Church's traditional regulations concerning sexual and marital matters. There are also those independent jurisdictions, such as The National Anglican Catholic Church of the United States - which uses Anglican, Catholic and Lutheran principles in their doctrine. In the Indian subcontinent Anglican churches have entered into formal union with evangelical protestant denominations while remaining part of the Anglican Communion and indeed bringing their Presbyterian and other historically non-Anglican fellows along with them. As a percentage of the total population these united churches are not significant but numerically they are very substantial other than in Bangladesh. See [[Church of North India]], [[Church of South India]], [[Church of Pakistan]] and [[Church of Bangladesh]]. ==Doctrine== Anglicans look for authority (in the formula of [[Richard Hooker (theologian)|Richard Hooker]]) in the experience of Scripture, Reason, and Tradition (the practices and writings of the historical church). While it is often taught that these three are of equal value (using an image of a three-legged stool), the Anglican formularies have always pointed out that: ::"Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation: so that whatsoever is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not to be required of any man, that it should be believed as an article of the Faith, or be thought requisite or necessary to salvation." (Article VI, The [[Thirty-nine Articles|Anglican Thirty-nine Articles of Religion]]). Historically, Anglicans have regarded the [[Bible]], the three Creeds ([[Nicene Creed]], [[Apostles' Creed]], and [[Athanasian Creed]]), the [[Thirty-Nine Articles]] of Religion and the [[Book of Common Prayer]] (1662) as the principal norms of doctrine. Thus, some have said that the Anglican Church retains much of the liturgy of the Roman Catholic Church, but is tolerant of [[Reformed]] doctrine. This state of affairs is a consequence of the [[Elizabethan Religious Settlement]]. The traditional liturgy of Anglicanism, the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, has been considered "too Catholic" by those of Puritan leanings in the 16th century and Evangelicals in later periods, and "too Evangelical" by those of [[Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholic]] leanings. This distinction is routinely a matter of debate both within specific Anglican Churches and throughout the Anglican Communion by members themselves. Since the [[Oxford Movement]] of the mid-19th century, many churches of the Communion have embraced and extended liturgical and pastoral practices dissimilar with most Reformed Protestant theology. This extends beyond the ceremony of [[High Church]] services to even more theologically significant territory. Some Anglican clergy practise all seven of the [[sacraments]] in a marked way, in departure from the teaching of early Protestant thinkers like [[John Calvin]] and [[Martin Luther]], even though opinions vary about the best way to understand these "sacramental rites". For example, some Anglican clergy will hear private confessions from their parishioners, a practice widely discontinued in Protestant denominations. Nevertheless, while Anglo-Catholic practices, particularly liturgical ones, have become much more mainstream within the denomination over the last century, there remain many areas where practices and beliefs remain on the more Protestant or Evangelical side of the debate. ==Churchmanship== Anglicanism has always been characterised by diversity in theology and the ceremonial (or lack thereof) of the liturgy. Different individuals, groups, parishes, dioceses, and national churches may identify more with Catholic traditions and theology or, alternatively, with the principles of Evangelicalism. Some Anglicans follow such devotional practices common among Roman Catholics as solemn benediction of the reserved sacrament, use of the [[rosary]], or of [[anglican prayer beads]], and prayer to the departed saints, which is contrary to the teaching of some of the English Reformers. Some give greater weight to the [[deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical]] books of the Bible. (See [[Biblical canon]].) Officially, Anglican teaching is that these books may be read in church for their instruction in morals, but not used to establish any doctrine. In recent years, prayer books (or "alternate services" books) of several countries have, out of deference to a greater agreement with Eastern [[Conciliarism]] (and a perceived greater respect accorded Anglicanism by Eastern Orthodoxy than by Roman Catholicism), instituted a number of historically Eastern and [[Oriental Orthodox]] elements in their liturgies, including replacing the [[Gloria in excelsis]] with the [[Trisagion]] and deleting the [[filioque]] from the [[Creed]]. For their part, those Anglicans who emphasise the Reformed-Protestant nature of the Church stress the Reformation themes of [[Salvation#Christian views of salvation|salvation]] by grace through faith, the two dominical sacraments of the Gospel, and Scripture as containing all that is necessary to salvation in an explicit sense. The range of Anglican belief and practice became particularly divisive during the 19th century, as the [[Anglo-Catholicism | Anglo-Catholic]] and [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] movements emphasised the more Catholic or the more Reformed sides of Anglican Christianity. These groups or "parties" are still often equated with the terms "High Church" and "Low Church", and these terms are commonly used to speak of the level of ceremony that is favoured. These terms are also used to discuss the theological place of the organised church within the Body of Christ. The spectrum of Anglican beliefs and practice is too large to be fit into these labels. Most Anglicans are broadly Evangelical and Catholic and, in fact, stress that Anglicanism, rightly understood, is western Christianity's "[[Via Media]]" (middle way) between what were considered medieval "excesses" of Roman Catholicism and the "excesses" of the fervent European Continental Protestantism, represented strongly by Geneva. Via Media may also be understood as underscoring Anglicanism's preference for a communitarian and methodological approach to theological issues rather than either total relativism on the one hand or dogmatic absolutism on the other. The nineteenth century saw new heights of intellectual activity in the Anglican Church. Since that time, the theological contributions of the Church to the wider spectrum of Christian thought have declined somewhat, though there is some resurgence on Anglicanism's theological left. Another recent trend has been the emergence of fundamentalism in some strands of Anglicanism. Fundamentalism, seen as an anti-intellectual movement, rejects all but the most literal readings of the Bible. This controversial doctrine is regarded by most as highly divisive, rejecting all prior tradition and is seen by its critics as a reactionary measure by those who cannot cope with the relativisation of truth that has been a predominant feature of the post-modernist epoch. Traditionally, Anglicanism had been associated with the English university systems and hence, the literary criticism produced in those organisations has been applied to the study of ancient scriptures, although not uncritically. ==Social issues== A question of whether or not Christianity is a pacifist religion has remained a matter of debate for Anglicans. In 1937, the Anglican Pacifist Fellowship emerged as a distinct reform organisation, seeking to make pacifism a clearly defined part of Anglican theology. The group rapidly gained popularity amongst Anglican intellectuals, including [[Vera Brittain]], [[Evelyn Underhill]] and former British political leader [[George Lansbury]]. Whilst never actively endorsed by the Anglican Church, many Anglicans unofficially have adopted the Augustinian "[[the Just War Theory|Just War]]" doctrine. The Anglican Pacifist Fellowship remain highly active and rejects this doctrine. The Fellowship seeks to reform the Church by reintroducing the [[pacifism]] inherent in the beliefs of many of the earliest Christians and present in their interpretation of Christ's [[Sermon on the Mount]]. Confusing the matter all the more however, is that the 37th Article of Religion states clearly that "it is lawful for Christian men, at the commandment of the Magistrate, to wear weapons, and serve in the wars." ==Religious life== A small yet influential aspect of Anglicanism is its [[religious order]]s of [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s. Shortly after the beginning of the revival of the [[Anglo-Catholicism|Catholic Movement]] in the Church of England, there was felt to be a need for some Anglican [[Sisters of Charity]]. In the 1840s Mother [[Priscilla Lydia Sellon]] became the first woman to take the vows of religion in communion with the [[Province of Canterbury]] since the Reformation, and a series of letters were exchanged publically between her and the Rev. James [[Spurrell]], Vicar of Great Shelford, Cambs., who criticised Miss Sellon's Sisters of Mercy. From the 1840s and throughout the next hundred years, religious orders for both men and women proliferated in the [[UK]], the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and [[India]], as well as in various countries of [[Africa]], [[Asia]], and the [[Pacific]]. Anglican religious life at one time boasted hundreds of orders and communities, and thousands of [[religious]]. An important aspect of Anglican religious life is that most communities of both men and women lived their lives consecrated to [[God]] under the [[vow]]s of [[poverty]], [[sexual abstinence|chastity]] and [[obedience]] (or in [[Benedictine]] communities, Stability, Conversion of Life, and Obedience) by practicing a mixed life of reciting the full eight services of the [[Breviary]] in choir, along with a daily [[Eucharist]], plus service to the poor. The mixed life, combining aspects of the [[contemplative order]]s and the [[active order]]s remains to this day a hallmark of Anglican religious life. Since the 1960s there has been a sharp falling off in the numbers of religious in most parts of the Anglican Communion, just as in the Roman Catholic Church. Many once large and international communities have been reduced to a single convent or monastery comprised of elderly men or women. In the last few decades of the 20th century, novices have for most communities been few and far between. Some orders and communities have already become extinct. There are however, still several thousand Anglican religious working today in approximately 200 communities around the world. The most significant growth has been in the [[Melanesia]]n countries of the [[Solomon Islands]], [[Vanuatu]] and [[Papua New Guinea]]. The [[Melanesian Brotherhood]], founded at [[Tabalia]], [[Guadalcanal (Pacific Ocean island)|Guadalcanal]], in [[1925]] by Ini Kopuria, is now the largest Anglican Community in the world with over 450 [[monk|brother]]s in the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea, the [[Philippines]] and the United Kingdom. The [[Sisters of the Church]], started by Mother Emily Ayckbown in England in 1870, has more [[nun|sisters]] in the Solomons than all their other communities. The [[Community of the Sisters of Melanesia]], started in 1980 by Sister Nesta Tiboe, is a growing community of women throughout the Solomon Islands. The [[Society of Saint Francis]], founded as a union of various [[Franciscan]] orders in the 1920s, has experienced great growth in the Solomon Islands. Other communities of religious have been started by Anglicans in Papua New Guinea and in Vanuatu. Most Melanesian Anglican religious are in their early to mid 20s -- vows may be temporary and it is generally assumed that brothers, at least, will leave and marry in due course -- making the average age 40 to 50 years younger than their brothers and sisters in other countries. This growth is especially surprising because celibacy was not regarded as a Melanesian virtue; on the other hand, it is perhaps more accurate to conceptualise Melanesian religious as youth volunteers than as monastic orders on the medieval European model. == Bibliography == * {{cite book | first = Norman | last = Doe | year = 1998 | title = Canon Law in the Anglican Communion: A Worldwide Perspective | location = [[Oxford]] | publisher = Clarendon Press | id = ISBN 0198267827 }} * {{cite book | author = Hein, David (compiler) | authorlink = David Hein | year = 1991 | title = Readings in Anglican Spirituality | location = Cincinnati | publisher = Forward Movement Publications | id = ISBN 0880281251 }} * {{cite book | author = Hein, David, and Gardiner H. Shattuck Jr. | year = 2005 | title = The Episcopalians | location = New York | publisher = Church Publishing }} * {{cite book | first = R.C.D. | last = Jasper | authorlink = R.C.D. Jasper | year = 1989 | title = The Development of the Anglican Liturgy, 1662-1980 | location = London | publisher = SPCK }} * {{cite book | author = More and Cross | title = Anglicanism }} * {{cite book | first = Stephen | last = Neill | authorlink = Stephen Neill | title = Anglicanism }} * {{cite book | first = William L. | last = Sachs | authorlink = William L. Sachs | year = 1993 | title = The Transformation of Anglicanism: From State Church to Global Community | location = [[Cambridge]] | publisher = Cambridge University Press }} * {{cite book | author = [[Stephen Sykes|Sykes, Stephen]], [[John Booty|Booty, John]], & [[Jonathan Knight (theologist)|Knight, Jonathan]], (eds.) | title = The Study of Anglicanism | location = Minneapolis, MN | publisher = Fortress Press }} * {{cite book | first = William | last = Temple | authorlink = William Temple | title = Doctrine in the Church of England }} ==See also== *[[Marian exiles]] *[[Congregationalism]] *[[Continuing Anglican Movement]] *[[Anglican Use]] *[[Anglican prayer beads]] *[[Anglican Church of Canada]] *[[Anglican Church of Australia]] *[[Sydney Anglicans]] *[[Christianity]] *[[Christian apologetics]] *[[Morning Prayer]] *[[Evensong]] *[[Methodism]] *[[Presbyterianism]] *[[Puritans]] *[[Baptists]] *[[Episcopal Church in the United States]] *[[United and uniting churches]] **[[Church of South India]] **[[Church of North India]] **[[Church of Pakistan]] **[[Church of Bangladesh]] == External links == *[http://www.anglicancommunion.org Anglican Communion] - The official site of the Anglican Communion. *[http://www.cofe.anglican.org/faith/anglican/ What it means to be an Anglican: Official CofE site] *[http://www.anglicansonline.org Anglicans Online] - An unofficial site of the Anglican Communion. One of the biggest resources of Anglicanism in the world. *[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/pc/ Anglican historical texts] *[http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/denominations/anglicanism.htm Anglicanism: ReligionFacts.com] - Articles on Anglican history, ritual, and organisation, plus an image gallery of people and places. *[http://www.anglicanpeacemaker.org.uk/ Anglican Pacifist Fellowship] - The official site of the Anglican Church's peace movement. {{Anglican Churches}} [[Category:Anglicanism|*]] [[Category:Religion in the United Kingdom]] [[Category:Christian denominations]] [[Category:Protestantism]] [[ca:Anglicanisme]] [[cs:Anglikánství]] [[de:Anglikanismus]] [[es:Anglicanismo]] [[eo:Anglikanismo]] [[fr:Anglicanisme]] [[ko:성공회]] [[ia:Anglicanismo]] [[it:Anglicanesimo]] [[he:אנגליקניות]] [[nl:Anglicaanse Kerk]] [[ja:聖公会]] [[no:Den anglikanske kirke]] [[pl:Anglikanizm]] [[ru:Англиканская церковь]] [[fi:Anglikaanikirkko]] [[scn:Chiesa Anglicana]] [[sv:Anglikanska kyrkogemenskapen]] [[vi:Anh giáo]] [[zh:聖公會]] 1215 40510443 2006-02-21T02:28:42Z Ceyockey 150564 revisions for style The term '''airplane''' typically refers to any [[fixed-wing aircraft]], also known internationally as ''aeroplane''. '''Airplane''' has several additional meanings: * ''[[Airplane!]]'', a 1980 American comedy film * [[Jefferson Airplane]], often referred to as "Airplane", an American rock music band {{Wiktionarypar2|aeroplane|airplane}} {{disambig}} 1216 41947106 2006-03-02T20:37:05Z 217.9.28.30 /* 20th century architecture in Athens */ {{dablink|This is an article about the capital of Greece. For other uses see [[Athens (disambiguation)]].}} {{Infobox Town GR |name = Athens |name_local = Αθήνα |image_coa = |image_map = GreeceAttica.png |periph = [[Attica]] |prefec = [[Athens Prefecture|Athens]] |province = |population = 745,514 |population_as_of = 2001 |population_ref = [http://www.statistics.gr/gr_tables/S1100_SAP_1_monimos2001.htm source] |pop_dens = 19,133 |area = 39.0 |elevation = 70 |lat_deg = 38 |lat_min = 0 |lat_hem = N |lon_deg = 23 |lon_min = 43 |lon_hem = E |postal_code = 10x xx, 11x xx, 120 xx |area_code = 210 |licence = Y, Z |mayor = Theodoros Mpehrakis |website = [http://www.cityofathens.gr www.cityofathens.gr] }} '''Athens''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Αθήνα ''Athína'' [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/a'θina/}}) is the [[capital]] of [[Greece]] and one of the most famous cities in the world. Modern Athens is a large and cosmopolitan city; Ancient Athens was a powerful [[city-state]] and renowned centre of learning. It was named after its goddess from ancient Greek mythology, [[Athena]]. Athens is located at {{coor dm|38|00|N|23|43|E|}} (38.00°, 23.72°). The metropolitan area of Athens is home to some 3.9 million people. Currently the city (metropolitan area) is growing northwards and eastwards across [[Attica]] (Greater Athens). Athens is the dominant centre of economic, cultural, and political life in Greece today. Ancient Athens has often been called the cradle of [[Western civilization]] due to the impact of its cultural and political achievements during the 4th and 5th centuries BC. This heritage has left it with a number of ancient buildings, monuments and artworks, the most famous being the [[Parthenon]] on the [[Acropolis]], widely regarded as one of the finest examples of Classical Greek art and architecture. Many of these cultural landmarks were renovated for the [[2004 Olympic Games]]. [[image:ac.parthenon5.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Parthenon]] seen from the hill of the Pnyx to the west]] ==Name== {{nameWikt}} In [[ancient Greek|ancient]] [[Greek language|Greek]], the name of Athens was '''{{Polytonic|&#7944;θ&#8134;ναι}}'''-''Athenai'', plural of {{Polytonic|&#7944;θηνά}}-''Athene'', the Greek name of the Goddess [[Athena]]. The city's name was used in the plural like those of {{Polytonic|Θ&#8134;βαι}}-''Thebai'' ([[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]]) and {{Polytonic|Μυκ&#8134;ναι}}-''Mykenai'' ([[Mycenae]]) because it consisted of several parts. In the [[19th century]], this name was formally re-adopted as the city's name. Since the official abandonment of [[Katharevousa]] Greek in the [[1970s]], however, the popular form ''Athínai'' has become the city's official name. See also a list of [[Names of European cities in different languages#A|alternative names]] for Athens. ==History== ''Main article: [[History of Athens]]'' [[Image:Map Athens MKL1888.png|thumb|1888 German map of Athens]] Athens was the leading city in Greece during the greatest period of Greek civilization during the [[1st millennium BC]]. During the "Golden Age" of Greece (roughly [[500 BC]] to [[300 BC]]) it was the world's leading cultural, commercial and intellectual center, and indeed it is in the ideas and practices of ancient Athens that what we now call "Western civilization" has its origins. In 431 B.C, Athens went to war with another city-state, Sparta. Due to its losses during a plague, Athens was defeated by Sparta, and its walls were pulled down. The schools of philosophy were closed in AD [[529]] by the Christian [[Byzantine Empire]], which disapproved of the schools' [[Paganism|pagan]] thinking. During the Byzantine era, Athens gradually lost a great deal of status and, by the time of the [[Crusades]], it was already reduced to a provincial town. It faced a crushing blow between the 13th and 15th centuries, when the city was fought over by the Greek Byzantines and the 'French' and Italian [[Crusaders]]. In [[1458]] the city fell to the [[Ottoman Empire]] under Sultan [[Mehmed II|Mehmet II the Conqueror]]. As the Emperor entered the city, he was greatly struck by the beauty of its ancient monuments and issued a [[firman]] (imperial decree) that Athens' ruins not be disturbed, on pain of death. The [[Parthenon]] was in fact converted into a [[mosque]] and therefore preserved. Despite the Sultan's good intentions to preserve Athens as a model Ottoman provincial capital, the city's population went into decline and conditions worsened as the Ottoman Empire declined from the late 17th Century. As time went by, the Ottoman administration slackened its care for Athens' old buildings; the Parthenon/Mosque was used as a warehouse for ammunition during the Venetian siege of Athens in [[1687]], and consequently the temple was severely damaged when a Venetian [[projectile|shell]] targeted the site and set off several casks of gunpowder stored inside the Parthenon/Mosque. The Ottoman Empire relinquished control of Athens after the [[Greek War of Independence]]. The city was inhabited by just around 5,000 people at the time it was adopted as the capital of the newly established Kingdom of Greece on [[18 September]] [[1834]]. During the next few decades the city was rebuilt into a modern city adhering mainly to the [[neoclassical architecture|Neoclassic style]]. In [[1896]] Athens became the first host city of the revived [[1896 Summer Olympics]].The next large expansion occurred in the [[1920s]] when suburbs were created to house Greek refugees from [[Asia Minor]]. During [[World War II]] the city was occupied by [[Germany]] and fared badly in the war's later years. After the war the city started to grow again, this time into a concrete jungle, seeing the near total destruction of its Neoclassical heritage. ==Location and setting== <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:ZAPPION.jpg|thumb|left|The Zappion; a conference centre designed by [[Theofil Hansen]] in 1870, is surrounded by extensive gardens]] --> [[Image:Mk01n101.jpg|thumbnail|The Academy, designed by [[Theofil Hansen]] and completed in 1885, is flanked by the National Library and the University of Athens.]] Along with its numerous suburbs, Athens has a population of about 3.9 million representing approximately one third of the total population of Greece. Athens grew rapidly in the years following [[World War II]] until ca. 1980 and suffered from overcrowding and traffic congestion. Greek entry into the [[EEC]] in [[1981]] brought new, unprecedented investment into the city along with problems of increasingly worsening industrial congestion and air pollution. Throughout the 1990s the city's authorities undertook a series of decisive measures in order to combat the smog which used to form over the city, particularly during the hottest days of the year. Even though Athens is considered the most polluted capital in Europe, those measures proved to be successful and nowadays smog or ''nefos'' in Greek is less of an issue for Athens, even when temperatures soar above 40 C. As far as the situation with the traffic congestion is concerned, the latter has been considerably improved, even though it is not resolved as yet. Part of this improvement is attributed both to the transformation of the once highly problematic Kiffissos Avenue into a modern, 8 lane urban motorway that stretches for more than 11 km along the ancient [[Kifissos]] River, linking many of Athens' western suburbs, from [[Peristeri]] to the port of [[Piraeus]] and to the construction of the [[Attiki Odos]] motorway. Nevertheless Athens is still not a driver-friendly city. Today Athens is a vibrant metropolis with improved infrastructure, world-class ancient monuments and museums, a legendary nightlife and increasing number of shopping malls. Athens sprawls across the central plain of [[Attica]], which is bound by Mount [[Aegaleo]] in the west, Mount [[Parnitha]] in the north, Mount [[Penteli]] in the northeast, Mount [[Hymettus]] in the east, and the [[Saronic Gulf]] in the southwest. Athens has expanded to cover the entire plain making it difficult to significantly grow further in size in the future due to the forementioned existing natural boundaries. The geomorphology of the city frequently causes the so called [[temperature inversion]] phenomenon that was partly responsible for the air pollution problems Athens faced in the recent past. ([[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] has similar geomorphology and similar problems). The ancient site of the city is centered on the rocky hill of the [[Acropolis]]. In ancient times the port of [[Piraeus]] (modern name Pireas) was a separate city, but it has now been absorbed into greater Athens. The centre of the city is [[Syntagma Square]] (Constitution Square), site of the former Royal Palace, now the [[Hellenic Parliament|Greek Parliament]] and other 19th century public buildings. This is essentially the core of the city, the place where most of the famous ancient monuments are located, all within a radius of 2 km. [[Image:Panorama_of_Athens.jpg|thumbnail|320px|Panorama of Athens, showing the [[Acropolis]] and other ancient sites.]] Athens was the host of the [[2004 Summer Olympics]]. Athens was also the host of the [[1896 Summer Olympics]] and of the [[1906 Summer Olympics|1906 Intercalated Games]]. ==Tourist attractions== Athens has been a popular [[tourist destination]] even since antiquity. Visitors from all over the globe have always been eager to visit its famous ancient monuments. Over the past decade, the infrastructure and social amenities of Athens have been radically improved as a result of the city's successful bid to stage the [[2004]] [[Olympic Games]]. The Greek state, aided by the [[European Union|E.U.]], has poured money into infrastructure projects such as the new, state of the art [[Eleftherios Venizelos Airport|"Eleftherios Venizelos" International Airport]], the massive expansion of the [[Athens Metro|Metro]] system, and the new [[Attiki Odos]] ring-road. As a result, the numbers of international visitors are only expected to rise even further in the coming years. Currently, Athens is the 6th most visited capital in Europe. Athens is home to a vast number of 5 and 4 star hotels, some of which were refurbished ahead of the 2004 Olympics. Entire parts of the downtown area have also been redeveloped under a masterplan called "Unification of Archaeological Sites of Athens" [http://www.astynet.gr/index.asp]. In one of the most important projects of the scheme, the famous Dionysiou Aeropagitou street has been pedestrianized thus forming a fascinating scenic route. The route starts from the [[Temple of Olympian Zeus]] at Vasilissis Olgas Avenue, continues under the southern slopes of the [[Acropolis]] near [[Plaka]] and finishes just outside the [[Temple of Hephaestus]] in [[Theseum]]. This remarkable route provides the visitors breathtaking views of the [[Parthenon]] and the [[ancient Agora of Athens|Agora]] (the meeting point of ancient Athenians), away from the bustle and hustle of the city centre. Near Syntagma Square (described above) stands the highly impressive [[Kallimarmaro]] Stadium, the place where the first modern [[1896 Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]] took place in [[1896]]. It is a replica of the ancient Athens Stadium. It holds a special interest, not only for romantic reasons but also because it is the only major stadium (60,000 spectators) made entirely of white marble from [[Penteli]], the same as the one used for the construction of the Parthenon. <!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Kallimarmaron.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Kallimarmaro Stadium of Athens]] --> The city's classic museums like the National Archaeological [[Museum]] at Patission Street (which holds the world's greatest collection of [[Greek art]]), the Benaki Museum in Piraeus Street (including its new Islamic Art branch) [http://www.benaki.gr], the Byzantine Museum, or the Museum of Cycladic Art in the Kolonaki district (strongly recommended for its collection of elegant white metamodern figures, more than 3,000 years old) [http://www.cycladic-m.gr], were all renovated ahead of the 2004 Olympics. A new Acropolis Museum is being built [http://www.culture.gr/2/21/215/21502/e21509c.html] in the central Makriyanni district according to a design by acclaimed Swiss-french architect [[Bernard Tschumi]]. Not to be missed is also the very impressive Athens [[Planetarium]] [http://www.eugenfound.edu.gr], considered to be among the world's best. The old campus of the [[University of Athens]], located in the middle section of Panepistimiou Avenue, is one of the finest buildings in the city. This combined with the adjacent National Library and the Athens Academy form the imposing "Athens Trilogy", built in the mid-19th century. However, most of the university's functions have been moved to a much larger, modern campus located in the eastern suburb of [[Zografou|Zográfou]]. The second most significant academic institution of the city is the [[National Technical University of Athens|Athens Polytechnic School]] (''Ethniko Metsovio Politechnio''), located in Patission Street. More than 20 students were killed inside the School in [[November 17]],[[1973]] during the [[Athens Polytechnic Uprising]] against the military junta that ruled the nation from [[April 21]], [[1967]] untill [[July 23]], [[1974]]. '''Entertainment''' and '''night life''': Athens is full of possibilities, catering for most tastes and cultures. To begin with, it has a large number of multiplex, but especially unique, open air garden cinemas; it enjoys more theatres than any other European city (including ancient marble ones that are home to the Athens Festival [http://www.hellenicfestival.gr/site/index_en.htm] from May to October) and many music venues including a state of the art [[music]] hall known as the "Megaron Moussikis" [http://www.megaron.gr] that attracts world-famous artists all year round. The Athens coastline, extending from the major commercial port of [[Piraeus]] to the southernmost suburb of Vouliagmeni for more than 25 km, is also connected to the city centre with a (very slow) tram and it boasts a series of high class restaurants, cafes, exciting music venues and sports facilities. In addition, Athens is packed with trendy and fashionable bars and nightclubs that are literally crowded by the city's youth on a daily basis. Especially during the summer, the southern elegant suburbs of [[Glyfada]], [[Voula]] and [[Vouliagmeni]] become home to countless such places, situated all along Poseidonos and Alkyonidon Avenues. Turning now to the city centre, the Psiri neighborhood - aka Athens' 'meat packing district'- has acquired many new mainstream bars, thus becoming a hotspot for many glitratti. It also features a number of live music restaurants called "rebetadika", after [[rebetiko]], a unique kind of music that blossomed in [[Syros]] and Athens from the 1920's till the 1960's. [[Rebetiko]] is admired by many, therefore virtually every night rebetadika get crammed by people of all ages that will sing, dance and drink wine until the dawn. [[Plaka]] remains the traditional top tourist destination, with many [[taverna]]s featuring 'traditional' music, but the food, though very good, is often more expensive compared to other parts of the city. Plaka, lying just beneath the Acropolis, is famous for its numerous neoclassic buildings, making it one of the most scenic districts in central Athens. Monastiraki, on the other hand, is famous for its string of small tourist shops as well as its crowded flea market and the tavernas that specialize in [[souvlaki]]. Another district notably famous for its student-crammed, stylish cafes is [[Theseum]], lying just west of [[Monastiraki]]. Theseum, or Thission is home to the remarkable ancient [[Temple of Hephaestus]], standing on top of a small hill. The Gazi area, one of the latest in full redevelopment, is located around a historic gas factory in downtown Athens, that has been converted into the ''Technopolis'' (Athens's new cultural multiplex) for all the family and has a number of expensive small clubs, bars and restaurants as well as Athens' nascent gay ;village'. The chic [[Kolonaki]] area, near Syntagma Square, is full of boutiques catering to well-heeled customers by day and bars and restaurants by night. Ermou Street, an approximately 1 km pedestrian road connecting [[Syntagma Square]] to [[Monastiraki]], has traditionally been considered a consumer paradise for both the Athenians and foreign tourists. Full of fashion shops and shopping centers featuring most international brands, it has become one of the most expensive roads in [[Europe]]. Huge malls such as the "Attica" mall in Panepistimiou Avenue and "The Mall Athens" [http://www.themallathens.gr] located in the classy northern suburb of [[Maroussi]] also offer an enormous variety of international selections that can totally satisfy even the most demanding customer. Some central areas (mostly just south of [[Omonoia Square]]) are mainly peopled by immigrants and are therefore full of colorful ethnic restaurants and shops. [[Image:Lykavittos uncropped.jpg|thumb|right|A panoramic view of Athens from the Lykavittos Hill.]] Casinos operate on both Mount Parnitha, some 30 km from downtown Athens (accessible by car or cable car) and the nearby town of [[Loutraki]] (accessible by car via the Athens - Corinth National Highway or the suburban railway). An entirely new attraction is the massively upgraded main Olympic Complex (known by its Greek acronym OAKA). The whole area has been redeveloped under designs by the Spanish architect [[Santiago Calatrava]] with steel arches, lanscaped gardens, fountains, futuristic passages and a landmark new blue glass roof which was added to the main Stadium. A second olympic complex, next to the sea at the beach of [[Kallithea]] (Faliron), also boasts futuristic stadiums, shops and an elevated esplanade. Many of Athens' southern suburbs (such as [[Alimos]], [[Palaio Faliro]], [[Elliniko]], [[Voula]], [[Vouliagmeni]] and [[Vari]]) host a number of beautiful, sandy beaches, most of which are operated by the Hellenic Tourism Organization [http://www.gnto.gr]. This means that one has to pay a fee in order to get in. None the less, this fee is not expensive in most cases and it includes a number of related, convenient services like parking facilities, coctail drinks and umbrellas. These beaches are extremely popular in the summer by both Athenians and foreign tourists. The city is also surrounded by four easily accessible mountains (Parnitha and Penteli to the north, Hemmettus to the southeast and Egaleo to the west). Mount Parnitha, in particular, is the tallest of all (1,453 m) and it has been declared a protected National Park. It has tens of well-marked paths, gorges, springs, torrents and caves and you may even meet deer or bears while exploring its dense forests. Hiking and mountain biking in all four mountains have been and still remain popular outdoor activities for many Athenians. What is more, [[Lykavittos]] is the tallest hill of the city that, according to an ancient legend, was actually a boulder thrown down by Goddess Athena. Located in the city center, near Alexandras' and Vassilisis Sofia's Avenues, it offers magnificent, literally breathtaking views of sprawling Athens that lies underneath. On top of it, stands the picturesque St. George's church which is definitely a must-see. The nearby islands of [[Salamis Island|Salamina]], [[Aegina|Aigina]], [[Poros]], [[Hydra, Saronic Islands|Hydra]] and [[Spetses]] are also sites of spectacular natural beauty and historical architecture. Work is underway to transform the grounds of the old Athens Airport - named [[Ellinikon International Airport|Hellinikon]] - in the southern suburbs into a massive landscaped park (considered to be the largest in Europe when ready). The Athens municipality maintains a site of tourist interest: http://www.cityofathens.gr/ === 20th century architecture in Athens === *East terminal by [[Eero Saarinen]], at former Hellenikon airport, 1960-63 *American embassy by [[Walter Gropius]], at Vassilis Sophias Avenue, 1961 *[[Athens Olympic Sports Complex]], by [[Santiago Calatrava]] ([[2001]]-[[2004]]) ([http://users.auth.gr/~lvorgias/ sketches and models]) *National Bank at Aiolou Str./Sopholeous Str. by [[Mario Botta]] in 2002 *Bridge at Metro-station Katehaki by [[Santiago Calatrava]] ([[2004]]) *New Acropolis Museum by [[Bernard Tschumi]] ([[2001]]-[[2006]]) ==Transportation== [[Image:Athens-Transport-Map-All.png|thumb|right|A Greek map of the greater Athens area shows the metro, tram, and suburban railway lines as well as the Eleftherios Venizelos Airport and the various Olympic facilities.]] <!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Athens_airport_new.jpg|right|thumb|200px|New Athens Airport named after the politician [[Eleftherios Venizelos]]]] --> <!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Attiki_odos_flyover.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Attiki Odos Motorway]] --> The [[public transport]] system in Athens consists of [[bus]][http://www.oasa.gr], [[metro]][http://www.ametro.gr/], [[tram]][http://linuxweb.internet.gr/tramsa/html/gr/index.php] and suburban railway [http://www.proastiakos.gr] services. The [[Athens Metro]] is one of the most modern and efficient systems in the world. It has four lines, three of which are distinguished by the colours used in maps and signs (green, blue and red). The green line, which is the oldest and for the most part runs on the ground, connects [[Piraeus]] to [[Kifissia]]. The other two lines were constructed mainly during the 1990s and the first sections opened in [[January]] [[2000]]. They run entirely underground. The blue line runs from [[Monastiraki]] to [[Doukissis Plakentias]] and the [[Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport]], and the red line from [[Aghios Antonios]] to [[Aghios Dimitrios]]. Extensions to both lines are under construction, most notably westwards to Egaleo and eastwards to the Old Hellinikon Airport East Terminal (future Metropolitan Park). The fourth line is the Proastiakos (suburban) which runs from the [[Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport]] to Athens Central train station. The whole network is managed by three different companies (ISAP line 1)[http://www.isap.gr], Attiko Metro (lines 2 & 3) and Proastiakos (line 4). The whole Metro system of Athens is currently 91 km long. The mass transport system in Athens has been drastically improved and expanded in the recent years, up until [[1999]] the length of the system was of just 25 km (23 stations) and comprised of only one line. It's expected that by 2009 it will reach 124 km (72 stations), after the construction of the current phase of expansions is completed. The bus service consists of a network of lines on which normal buses, [[trolley bus|electric buses]], and natural gas buses run (the largest fleet of natural gas run buses in Europe). There are plenty of bus lines serving Athens and the suburbs, and they link the centre of the city with most of the suburbs and neighborhoods. The tram runs from Syntagma Square to [[Palaio Faliro]], where the line splits in two branches, towards [[Glyfada]] and Neo Faliro. Both Syntagma - Palaio Faliro - Neo Faliro and the Glyfada branch opened on [[19 July]] [[2004]]. Further extensions are planned towards [[Piraeus]] and Vouliagmeni. There are many [[taxicab|taxis]] in Athens, which can be recognised by the yellow colour of the vehicles. They are quite cheap and during rush hours it is considered normal to hail a taxi even when it is in service (although, strictly speaking, this is forbidden); in that case, if the one halting it happens to go to the same direction as the customer and the customer does not mind (although this is never brought up or an issue), he is also allowed in, and each one pays normally as if they were the only customer. Athens is served, since [[March]] [[2001]], by the [[Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport]] at [[Spata]], east of the city, about a 45-minute taxi ride from the city centre. There is also an express bus service connecting the airport to the metro system and 2 express bus services connecting the airport to [[Piraeus]] port and the city centre respectively. Athens is also the hub of the Greek National Railway System, and ferries from [[Piraeus]] Port travel to all Greek islands. There are two motorways that travel to the west towards [[Patra]]: ([[Greece Interstate 8A|GR-8A]], [[E94]]) and to the north towards [[Thessaloniki]] ([[Greece Interstate 1|GR-1]], [[E75]]). In [[2001]]-[[2004]] a ring road toll-motorway ([[Attiki Odos]]) was gradually completed, which extends from [[Eleusis|Elefsina]] on the west to the airport after circling the city from the north, plus another from [[Kaisariani]] to [[Glyka Nera]] where it meets the main road for [[Eleusis]] and the airport. Its total length is now about 70 km, up from 18 km in March 2001 when the first section opened to traffic. There are about 21 exits and 4 junctions, up from 8. See [[Athens Mass Transit System]] for more on this topic. ==Municipality== [[Image:Athens_seal.jpg|thumb|100px||right|'''Municipality of Athens''' Seal]] The modern city of Athens consists of what were formerly distinct towns and villages which gradually expanded and merged into a single large metropolis; most of this expansion occurred in the second half of the 20th century. Greater Athens is now divided into 54 municipalities, the largest of which is the '''Municipality of Athens''' or ''Dimos Athinaion'', with about 750,000 people (the next largest are [[Piraeus|Municipality of Piraeus]], [[Peristeri|Municipality of Peristeri]] and [[Peristeri|Municipality of Kallithea]]). ''Athens'' can therefore refer either to the entire metropolitan area or to the Municipality of Athens. Each of the municipalities of Athens has an elected district council and a directly elected mayor. Mrs. [[Dora Bakoyanni]] of the conservative [[New Democracy]] party was [[Mayor of Athens]] from [[1 January]] [[2003]] until [[15 February]] [[2006]], when she joined Greek Cabinet as Minister of Foreign affairs. She was the 76th Mayor of Athens and the first female to hold the post in the history of the city. She was replaced by Theodoros Mpehrakis. The Municipality of Athens is divided into 7 ''municipal districts'' or ''demotika diamerismata''. The 7-district division however is mainly used for administrative purposes , while for Athenians the most popular way of dividing the city proper is through its ''neighborhoods'' (usually referred to as areas in English), each with its own distinct history and characteristics. For someone unfamiliar with Athens, getting to know about these ''neighborhoods'' can often come very handy for exploring and understanding the city. <br clear="all"> ==Olympics 2004== <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:ceremony4.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Scene from the opening ceremony of the Athens Olympics 2004]] --> [[Image:3D View of Athens.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Simulated view of Athens from above]] Athens was awarded the [[2004 Summer Olympics]] on [[September 5]], [[1997]] in [[Lausanne]], [[Switzerland]], after having lost a previous bid to host the [[1996 Summer Olympics]], the celebration of the 100th anniversary of the modern [[Olympic Games]], to [[Atlanta]], [[USA]]. It was to be the second time Athens had hosted the Olympic Games, the first being in [[1896]]. In [[1997]], Athens made an improved bid based largely on an appeal to Olympic history. In the last round of voting, Athens defeated [[Rome]], 66 [[vote]]s to 41. Before this, [[Buenos Aires]], [[Stockholm]], and [[Cape Town]], had already been eliminated from consideration after receiving fewer votes. In the first three years of preparations, the [[International Olympic Committee]] repeatedly expressed concerns over the status of progress of construction work of the new Olympic venues. In [[2000]] the Organizing Committee's president was replaced by [[Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki]], who was the president of the Bidding Committe back in [[1997]], and preparations began at an accelerated pace. Although the heavy cost was criticized, as is not unusual with Olympic preparations, Athens was transformed into a modern city that enjoys state-of-the-art technology in transportation and urban development. Some of the most modern sporting venues in the world were created, almost all of which were fully ready on schedule. The 2004 Games were adjudged a huge success, as both security and organization were exceptionally good and only a few visitors reported minor problems, mainly concerning transportation or accommodation issues. Essentially, the only notable problem was a somewhat sparse attendance of some preliminary events, during the first days of competition. Eventually, however, a total of more than 3.2 million tickets were sold [http://216.239.59.104/search?q=cache:nBu-MEzPTloJ:www.worldmayor.com/results05/profile_bakoyannis.html+2004+athens+olympics+tickets+3.2+million&hl=en], which was higher than any other Olympics with the exception of [[Sydney]] (more than 5 million tickets were sold there in [[2000]]). ==See also== * [[Athens Metro]] * [[Eurovision Song Contest 2006]] * [[Hellenic civilization]] * [[Politics of Greece]] * [[University of Athens]] ==Cities nicknamed "Athens"== ''See [[Athens (disambiguation)]] for other cities named "Athens".'' * Athens of the East - [[Madurai|Madurai, India]] * Athens of the West - [[Berkeley, California]] * Athens of the South - [[Nashville, Tennessee]] * Athens of the North - [[Edinburgh|Edinburgh, Scotland]] * Athens of America - [[Boston, Massachusetts]] * Spree Athens - [[Berlin]], Germany * Athens on the Isar - [[Munich]], Germany * Athens of Latin America - [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]] * Athens of Finland - [[Jyväskylä]], Finland * Serbian Athens - [[Novi Sad|Novi Sad, Serbia and Montenegro]] * Athens of Ireland - [[Cork]], [[Ireland]] ==External links== *[http://www.cityofathens.gr City of Athens official website] *[http://www.athensguide.org/pictures-of-athens.html Pictures of Athens] *[http://www.athens-today.com/ Take a long virtual tour of Athens] *[http://www.culture2000.tee.gr/ Athens contemporary architecture and suggested walking routes] *[http://www.timeoutathens.gr/englishnew/default.asp/ TimeOut Athens - Find out what's on in Athens] *[http://www.athinorama.gr/ ''Athenorama'': the city's oldest weekly entertainment guide (in Greek)] *[http://www.oasa.gr/ Journey planner by the city's transport authority] *[http://www.athens2004.com/ 2004 Olympics official website] *[http://www.chem.uoa.gr/Location/AthensMap/Athensmap.htm Interactive Map of Central Athens] *[http://www.transport.ntua.gr/map/en/ Real time traffic map of Athens] *[http://www.constitution.org/ari/athen_00.htm The Athenian Constitution, Aristotle] *[http://earthfromspace.photoglobe.info/spc_athens_greece.html Earth from Space] - Athens {| width ="75%" border = 2 align="center" |- | width ="35%" align="center" | | width ="30%" align="center" | '''North:''' [[Galatsi]], [[Filothei]] | width ="35%" align="center" | |- | width ="10%" align="center" | '''West:''' [[Peristeri]], [[Aigaleo]], [[Tavros]], [[Kallithea]] | width ="35%" align="center" | '''Athens''' | width ="30%" align="center" | '''East:''' [[Zografou]] |- | width ="35%" align="center" | | width ="30%" align="center" | '''South:''' [[Dafni]], [[Ymittos]] | width ="35%" align="center" | |} <!-- The below are interlanguage links. --> {{Olympic Summer Games Host Cities}} {{placeopedia}} [[Category:Athens| ]] [[Category:Archaeological sites in Greece]] [[Category:Capitals in Europe|Greece]] [[Category:Cities and towns in Greece]] [[Category:Coastal cities]] [[Category:Greek prefectural capitals]] [[Category:Host cities of the Summer Olympic Games]] [[Category:Eurovision host cities]] {{Link FA|el}} [[ar:أثينا]] [[an:Atenas]] [[roa-rup:Athena]] [[be:Атэны]] [[bg:Атина]] [[zh-min-nan:Athína]] [[bs:Atina]] [[ca:Atenes]] [[cs:Athény]] [[da:Athen]] [[de:Athen]] [[et:Ateena]] [[el:Αθήνα]] [[es:Atenas]] [[eo:Ateno]] [[eu:Atenas]] [[fo:Athen]] [[fr:Athènes]] [[fy:Atene]] [[ga:An Aithin]] [[gl:Atenas - Αθήνα]] [[ko:아테네]] [[io:Athina]] [[id:Athena]] [[is:Aþena]] [[it:Atene]] [[he:אתונה]] [[ka:ათენი]] [[la:Athenae]] [[lv:Atēnas]] [[lt:Atėnai]] [[lb:Athen]] [[hu:Athén]] [[mk:Атина]] [[nl:Athene]] [[nds:Athen]] [[ja:アテネ]] [[no:Athen]] [[nn:Aten]] [[pl:Ateny]] [[pt:Atenas]] [[ro:Atena]] [[ru:Афины]] [[scn:Ateni]] [[simple:Athens]] [[sk:Atény]] [[sl:Atene]] [[sr:Атина]] [[fi:Ateena]] [[sv:Aten]] [[tl:Athína]] [[ta:ஏதென்ஸ்]] [[th:เอเธนส์]] [[tr:Atina]] [[uk:Афіни]] [[zh:雅典]] 1217 41671601 2006-02-28T23:44:00Z Phil Boswell 24373 migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]] :''See [[Anguillidae]] for the zoological genus.'' {| class="infobox" width="300" |+ <big>'''Anguilla'''</big> |- |style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2"| {| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" |- |align="center" width="140px"|[[Image:Flag of Anguilla.svg|125px|Flag of Anguilla]] |align="center" width="140px"|[[Image:Coat of Arms of Anguilla.png|90px|Coat of Arms of Anguilla]] |- |align="center" width="140px"|([[Flag of Anguilla|Full Size]]) |align="center" width="140px"|([[Coat of arms of Anguilla|In Detail]]) |} |- |align="center" colspan=2 style="border-bottom:3px solid gray;"|<font size="-1">''National [[motto]]:<br/> Each Endeavouring, All Achieving''</font> |- |align=center colspan=2|[[Image:LocationAnguilla.png]] |- |width="115px"|[[Official language]]||[[English language|English]] |- |[[Political status]] || Non-[[sovereignty|sovereign]], [[Overseas territory]] of the [[U.K]] |- |[[Capital]]||[[The Valley, Anguilla|The Valley]] |- |[[Governor of Anguilla|Governor]]||[[Alan Huckle]] |- |[[Chief Minister of Anguilla|Chief Minister]] ||[[Osbourne Fleming]] |- |[[Area]]<br/>&nbsp;- Total <br/><br/>&nbsp;- % water||[[List of countries by area|Ranked n/a]]<br>[[1 E7 m²|91 km&sup2;]]<br> 35 mi²<br>Negligible |- |[[Population]]<br> &nbsp;- Total (2002)<br> &nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]] |<br><br> 12,800<br> 140/km&sup2;<br> 363/mi² |- |[[Currency]]||[[East Caribbean dollar]] |- |[[Time zone]]||[[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -4 |- |[[National Song]]||God Bless Anguilla {{ref|national_song}} |- |[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]||[[.ai]] |- |[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]||[[Area code 264|1-264]] |} '''Anguilla''' is a [[British overseas territory]] in the [[Caribbean]], the most northerly of the [[Leeward Islands]] in the [[Lesser Antilles]]. It consists of 5 islands, with the capital, [[The Valley, Anguilla|The Valley]] situated on the main island of Anguilla. The total area of the territory is 102 square kilometres (39.4 [[square mile|mi²]]), with a population of approximately 14,000 in 2005. ==History== {{main|History of {{PAGENAME}}}} First colonized by English settlers in 1650, Anguilla was incorporated into a single British dependency along with the neighbouring islands of [[Saint Kitts]] and [[Nevis]] in the early 19th century, much to the objections of many Anguillans. In 1980, however, Anguilla formally withdrew from the territory, becoming a separate British dependency, which it remains. ==Politics== {{main|Politics of {{PAGENAME}}}} Executive authority is invested in [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|The Queen]], who is represented in the territory by the [[Governor of Anguilla|Governor]]. The Governor is appointed by the Queen on the advice of the British Government. Defence and Foreign Affairs remain the responsibility of the [[United Kingdom]]. The constitution of Anguilla came into force in 1982, amended in 1990. The head of the government is the [[Chief Minister of Anguilla|Chief Minister]] who is appointed by the Governor. The legislative branch consists of a [[unicameral parliament]], the House of Assembly, made up of 11 members. Elections are held for 7 seats in the House of Assembly, 2 members being ex-offcio and 2 appointed. The current Governor is [[Alan Huckle]], appointed in May 2004. The current Chief Minister is [[Osbourne Fleming]] following the victory of the United Front in elections held during February 2005. ==Geography== {{main|Geography of {{PAGENAME}}}} Anguilla is a collection of flat and low-lying islands and [[cay]]s of coral and limestone in the Caribbean Sea, east of Puerto Rico. The islands and cays in the territory of Anguilla(besides the largest, Anguilla itself) include: * [[Anguillita Island]] * [[Dog Island]] * [[Little Scrub Island]] * [[Prickly Pear Cays]] * [[Sandy Island, Anguilla|Sandy Island]] * [[Scrub Island]] * [[Seal Island]] * [[Sombrero, Anguilla|Sombrero]] ==Economy== {{main|Economy of {{PAGENAME}}}} [[Image:Anguilla map.png|thumb|250px|Map of Anguilla]] The island's main industries are fishing and tourism, with offshore banking playing an increasing role in the economy. ==Demographics== {{main|Demographics of {{PAGENAME}}}} The majority of Anguillans are [[Protestant]] and are of [[Africa]]n descent. ==Culture== {{main|Culture of {{PAGENAME}}}} == Miscellaneous topics == *[[Communications in {{PAGENAME}}]] *[[Transportation in {{PAGENAME}}]] ==Reference== #{{note|national_song}} {{cite web | url = http://www.gov.ai/national_song.htm | title = National Song of Anguilla | work = Official Website of the Government of Anguilla | accessyear = 2005 | accessdate = October 12 }} #{{note | UN_decolonisation }} {{cite web | url = http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/decolonization/trust3.htm | title = Non-Self-Governing Territories listed by General Assembly in 2002 | work = United Nations Special Committee of 24 on Decolonization | accessyear = 2005 | accessdate = March 10 }} ==External links== * [http://www.freeanguilla.com/ Free Anguilla - A Network of Anguilla Forums (non partisan discussion) * [http://www.anguillanews.com/ Anguilla News] (News, People profiles, Talk, Carnival and more) * [http://www.gov.ai/ Government of Anguilla] (Official web site) * [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/anguilla/anguilla.html Library of Congress Portals on the World - Anguilla] * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/av.html CIA - The World Factbook -- Anguilla] - [[CIA]]'s Factbook on Anguilla * [http://www.caribbeandiving.com/resources/Anguilla.html Anguilla] Resources * [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/ag/agmap.shtml Map of Anguilla] [[Image:Sandy_Ground_Anguilla.jpg|thumb|465px|left|Overlooking Sandy Ground, Anguilla]] {{West Indies}} {{Caricom}} {{British dependencies}} [[Category:Anguilla]] [[Category:Caribbean islands]] [[Category:Special territories of the European Union]] [[ca:Anguilla]] [[de:Anguilla]] [[el:Ανγκουίλα]] [[eo:Angvilo]] [[es:Anguila (dependencia)]] [[et:Anguilla]] [[fi:Anguilla]] [[fr:Anguilla]] [[gl:Anguila - Anguilla]] [[he:אנגווילה]] [[hu:Anguilla]] [[id:Anguilla]] [[io:Anguila]] [[is:Angvilla]] [[it:Anguilla (isola)]] [[ja:アンギラ]] [[ko:앵귈라]] [[lt:Angilija]] [[lv:Angiļa]] [[nds:Anguilla]] [[nl:Anguilla (eiland)]] [[no:Anguilla]] [[pl:Anguilla]] [[pt:Anguilla]] [[ro:Anguilla]] [[simple:Anguilla]] [[sl:Angvila]] [[sr:Ангиља]] [[sv:Anguilla]] [[tr:Anguilla]] [[uk:Ангілья]] [[zh:安圭拉]] [[zh-min-nan:Anguilla]] 1218 15899714 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z LA2 445 * #REDIRECT [[History of Anguilla]] 1219 15899715 2002-08-03T16:20:50Z Ellmist 2214 move to Geography of Anguilla #REDIRECT [[Geography of Anguilla]] 1220 15899716 2002-10-11T06:49:20Z Jeronimo 108 redirect #REDIRECT [[Anguilla]] 1221 25373041 2005-10-12T19:11:11Z JesseW 33352 snap double link #REDIRECT [[Anguilla]] 1222 24813234 2005-10-05T14:23:00Z Kbdank71 197953 fix double redirect #REDIRECT [[Transport in Anguilla]] 1223 15899719 2002-08-07T17:09:45Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 correct redirect #REDIRECT [[Communications in Anguilla]] 1224 15899720 2002-08-03T16:22:48Z Ellmist 2214 move to Economy of Anguilla #REDIRECT [[Economy of Anguilla]] 1225 15899721 2002-08-04T11:29:34Z Ellmist 2214 move to Politics of Anguilla #REDIRECT [[Politics of Anguilla]] 1226 15899722 2002-08-20T15:32:56Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Demographics of Anguilla]] 1227 38450213 2006-02-06T11:19:58Z JackofOz 33566 completely separate from the NT generally speaking (it may be deemed part of the NT for particular purposes only); the Dept changed its name at least 7 years ago [[Image:AshmoreandCartierIslands.png|frame|Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] The '''Territory of Ashmore and Cartier Islands''' are two groups of small low-lying uninhabited tropical [[island]]s in the [[Indian Ocean]] situated on the edge of the [[continental shelf]] north-west of [[Australia]] and south of the [[Indonesia]]n island of [[Rote Island|Roti]] at {{coor dm|12|14|S|123|5|E|}}. The territory includes '''Ashmore Reef''' (West, Middle, and East Islets) and '''Cartier Island''' (70 km east) with, a total area of 199.45 km<sup>2</sup> within the reefs and including the [[lagoons]], and 114,400 m<sup>2</sup> of dry land. While they have a total of 74.1 km of shoreline, measured along the outer edge of the reef, there are no ports or harbors, only offshore anchorage. Nearby '''Hibernia Reef''', 42 km Northeast of Ashmore Reef, is not part of the territory. It has no permanently dry land area, although large parts of the reef become exposed during low tide. *Ashmore Reef 155.40 km<sup>2</sup> area within reef (including lagoon) **West Islet, 51,200 m&sup2; land area; **Middle Islet, 21,200 m&sup2; land area; **East Islet, 25,000 m&sup2; land area; *Cartier Reef (44.03 km<sup>2</sup> area within reef (including lagoon) **Cartier Island, 17,000 m&sup2; land area; There is an automatic weather station on West Islet. The territory is administered from [[Canberra]] by the Australian Department of the Environment and Heritage. The data code is AT. Defence is the responsibility of Australia, with periodic visits by the [[Royal Australian Navy]] and [[Royal Australian Air Force]]. The islands are visited by seasonal caretakers. The '''Ashmore Reef Marine National Nature Reserve''' was established in August [[1983]]. It is of significant [[biodiversity]] value as it is in the flow of the [[Indonesian throughflow]] [[ocean current|current]] from the [[Pacific Ocean]] through the [[Malay archipelago|Indonesian Archipelago]] to the [[Indian Ocean]]. It is also in a surface current west from the [[Arafura Sea]] and [[Timor Sea]]. There are 14 distinct species of [[sea snake]] in the area, more than in any other area. There is also an unusually high level of [[species diversity]] of [[coral]], [[mollusk]]s, and [[fish]]. A memorandum of understanding between the Australian and Indonesian governments allows Indonesian fishermen access to their traditional fishing grounds within the region, subject to limits. '''Cartier Island Marine Reserve''' includes the entire sand cay of Cartier Island, the reef surrounding it, the ocean for a 7.2 km radius around the island, and 1000 m below the seafloor. It was proclaimed in [[2000]]. There is no economic activity in the Territory. As Ashmore Reef is the closest point of Australian territory to Indonesia, it has been a popular target for [[people smugglers]] to take [[asylum seekers]] to Australia. They were transported at great personal risk and expense in leaky fishing boats and dumped on the island, expecting to be rescued by Australia and granted [[refugee]] status there. As Australia was not the [http://refugeethesaurus.org/hms/refugee_obj.php?type=terms&id=2143 country of first asylum] for these "[[boat people]]", Australia did not consider it had a responsibility to accept them. A number of things were done to discourage the practice such as attempting to have the people smugglers arrested in Indonesia; [[Mandatory detention in Australia|mandatory detention]] of all arrivals until their status could be determined; the so-called [[Pacific Solution]] of processing them in third countries; and finally excising these and many other small islands from the [[Australian migration zone]]. <br clear=all> ==External link== * [http://ea.gov.au/coasts/mpa/cartier/ Cartier Island Marine Reserve] * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/at.html CIA - The World Factbook&mdash;Ashmore and Cartier Islands] - [[CIA]]'s Factbook on Ashmore and Cartier Islands * [http://www.ga.gov.au/education/facts/dimensions/externalterr/ashmore.htm Geoscience Australia&mdash;Ashmore and Cartier Islands] * [http://www.deh.gov.au/coasts/mpa/ashmore/ Department of the Environment and Heritage&mdash;Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve] {{Australia}} [[Category:Australian states and territories]] [[Category:Islands]] [[de:Ashmore- und Cartier-Inseln]] [[es:Islas Ashmore y Cartier]] [[eo:Aŝmora kaj Kartia Insuloj]] [[fr:Îles Ashmore et Cartier]] [[gl:Illas Ashmore e Cartier]] [[it:Isole Ashmore e Cartier]] [[he:איי אשמור וקרטייה]] [[hu:Ashmore- és Cartier-szigetek]] [[nl:Ashmore- en Cartiereilanden]] [[ja:アシュモア・カルティエ諸島]] [[pl:Wyspy Ashmore i Cartiera]] [[pt:Ilhas Ashmore e Cartier]] [[fi:Ashmore ja Cartiersaaret]] [[zh:阿什莫尔和卡捷岛]] 1228 15899724 2002-08-31T18:16:37Z The Epopt 30 #REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] -- merged #REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] 1229 15899725 2002-08-20T16:55:53Z Koyaanis Qatsi 90 #REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] 1230 15899726 2002-08-31T18:16:35Z The Epopt 30 #REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] -- merged #REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] 1231 15899727 2002-08-31T18:16:30Z The Epopt 30 #REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] -- merged #REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] 1232 15899728 2002-08-31T18:16:32Z The Epopt 30 #REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] -- merged #REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] 1233 15899729 2002-08-31T18:16:27Z The Epopt 30 #REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] -- merged #REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] 1234 26709978 2005-10-28T14:55:39Z Bluebot 527862 Fixed See also/External links error(s). [[Category:Fluid dynamics]] '''Acoustic theory''' is the field relating to mathematical description of [[sound]] [[waves]]. It is derived from [[fluid dynamics]]. See [[acoustics]] for the [[engineering]] approach. The propagation of sound waves in air can be modeled by an equation of motion (conservation of [[momentum]]) and an equation of continuity (conservation of [[mass]]). With some simplifications, in particular constant density, they can be given as follows: : <math>\rho_0 \frac{\partial}{\partial t} \mathbf{v}(\mathbf{x}, t) + \nabla p(\mathbf{x}, t) = 0</math> : <math>\frac{\partial}{\partial t} p(\mathbf{x}, t) + \rho_0 c^2 \nabla \cdot \mathbf{v}(\mathbf{x}, t) = 0</math> where <math>p(\mathbf{x}, t)</math> is the acoustic pressure and <math>\mathbf{v}(\mathbf{x}, t)</math> is the acoustic fluid velocity vector, <math>\mathbf{x}</math> is the vector of spatial coordinates <math>x, y, z</math>, <math>t</math> is the time, <math>\rho_0</math> is the static density of air and <math>c</math> is the speed of sound in air. ==See also== * [[Transfer function]] * [[Sound pressure]] * [[Acoustic impedance]] * [[Acoustic resistance]] * [[Gas Laws|law of gases]] * [[Frequency]] * [[Fourier analysis]] * [[Instrumental acoustics]] * [[Music theory]] * [[Voice production]] * [[Formant]] * [[Speech synthesis]] * [[Loudspeaker acoustics]] * [[Lumped component]] model 1235 42099118 2006-03-03T20:49:38Z Fawcett5 132013 {{dablink|For other people called ''Alexander Mackenzie'' see [[Alexander Mackenzie (disambiguation)]]}} {{Infobox PM | name=The Hon. Alexander Mackenzie | image=Alexander_mackenzie.jpg | country=Canada | term=[[November 7]], [[1873]] &ndash; [[October 8]], [[1878]] | before=[[John A. Macdonald]] | after=[[John A. Macdonald]] | date_birth=[[January 28]], [[1822]] | place_birth=[[Logierait]], [[Scotland]] | date_death=[[April 17]], [[1892]] | place_death=[[Toronto]], [[Ontario]] | party=[[Liberal Party of Canada]] }} '''Alexander Mackenzie''', [[Queen's Privy Council for Canada|PC]] ([[January 28]], [[1822]] &ndash; [[April 17]], [[1892]]), a building contractor and writer, was the second [[Prime Minister of Canada]] from [[November 7]], [[1873]] to [[October 8]], [[1878]]. He was born in [[Logierait]], [[Perth and Kinross]], [[Scotland]]. He [[emigrate]]d to [[Canada]] in [[1842]] after completing an education in [[public schools]] at [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]], [[Moulin]], and [[Dunkeld]], Scotland. Mackenzie married Helen Neil ([[1826]]-[[1852]]) in [[1845]] and with her had three children, with only one girl surviving infancy. In [[1853]], he married [[Jane Sym]] ([[1825]]-[[1893]]). When the [[John A. Macdonald|Macdonald]] government fell due to the [[Pacific scandal]] in 1873, the [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]], [[Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava|Lord Dufferin]], had to call on someone to form a government. There was no clear leader of the [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal Party]]. Mackenzie was the fourth person called upon, and the first to accept, the post of Prime Minister. Mackenzie formed a government and then asked the Governor General to call an [[Canadian federal election, 1874|election for January 1874]]. The Liberals won, and Mackenzie remained prime minister until the [[Canadian federal election, 1878|1878 election]] when Macdonald's [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservatives]] returned to power with a [[majority government]]. As Prime Minister, Alexander Mackenzie strove to reform and simplify the machinery of government. He introduced the [[secret ballot]]; created the [[Supreme Court of Canada]]; established the [[Royal Military College]] of Canada in [[Kingston, Ontario]] in [[1874]]; created the Office of the Auditor General in 1878; and struggled to launch the [[Canadian Pacific Railway|national railway]]. After his government's defeat, Mackenzie remained [[Leader of the Opposition (Canada)|Leader of the Opposition]] until [[1880]], when he relinquished the party leadership to [[Edward Blake]]. At the time, it was customary for the [[British monarch]] to [[knight]] all Canadian Prime Ministers. Alexander Mackenzie declined all offers of a British [[knighthood]]. He died in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], from a stroke that resulted from hitting his head during a fall. He is buried in the Lakeview Cemetery, [[Sarnia, Ontario]]. == Supreme Court Appointments == Mackenzie appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of Canada]]: * Sir [[William Buell Richards]] ([[Chief Justice of Canada|Chief Justice]]) - ([[September 30]], [[1875]] - [[January 10]], [[1879]]) * Sir [[William Johnstone Ritchie]] - ([[September 30]], [[1875]] - [[September 25]], [[1892]]) * Sir [[Samuel Henry Strong]] - ([[September 30]], [[1875]] - [[November 18]], [[1902]]) * [[Jean-Thomas Taschereau]] - ([[September 30]], [[1875]] - [[October 6]], [[1878]]) * [[Telesphore Fournier]] - ([[September 30]], [[1875]] - [[September 12]], [[1895]]) * [[William Alexander Henry]] - ([[September 30]], [[1875]] - [[May 3]], [[1888]]) * Sir [[Henri Elzear Taschereau]] - ([[October 7]], [[1878]] - [[May 2]], [[1906]]) == Helen Neil Mackenzie == '''Helen Neil Mackenzie''' ([[October 21]], [[1826]]-[[January 4]], [[1852]]) was the first wife of Alexander Mackenzie. She had three children, and died after being married to Mackenzie for seven years. Helen and Alexander only had one child (two other children died in infancy), a girl, named Mary Mackenzie. It was because of Helen, who previously emigrated to Canada with her family, that Alexander himself came to Canada. == External links == {{wikiquote}} *[http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=40374 Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online''] {{start box}} {{succession box| before=[[George Brown (Canadian politician)|George Brown]]| title=[[Liberal Party of Canada|Leader of the Liberal Party of Canada]]| after=[[Edward Blake]]| years=1873-1880 }} {{succession box| before=''vacant''| title=[[Leader of the Opposition (Canada)|Leader of the Opposition]]| after=[[John A. Macdonald|Sir John A. Macdonald]]| years=1873 }} {{succession box| before=[[John A. Macdonald|Sir John A. Macdonald]]| title=[[Prime Minister of Canada]]| years=1873&ndash;1878| after=[[John A. Macdonald|Sir John A. Macdonald]] }} {{succession box| before=[[John A. Macdonald|Sir John A. Macdonald]]| title=[[Leader of the Opposition (Canada)|Leader of the Opposition]]| after=[[Edward Blake]]| years=1878&ndash;1880 }} {{end box}} {{start box}} {{succession box| before=None| title=[[Lambton (electoral district)|MP for Lambton, ON]]| after=Abolished| years=1867&ndash;1882 }} {{succession box| before=[[Alfred Boultbee]]| title=[[York East|MP for York East, ON]]| after=[[William F. McLean]]| years=1882&ndash;1892 }} {{end box}} {{canPM}} {{Liberal Leaders}} <!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] --> {{Persondata |NAME=Mackenzie, Alexander |ALTERNATIVE NAMES= |SHORT DESCRIPTION=2nd Prime Minister of Canada ([[1873]]-[[1878]]) |DATE OF BIRTH=[[January 28]], [[1822]] |PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Logierait]], [[Perthshire]], [[Scotland]] |DATE OF DEATH=[[April 17]], [[1892]] |PLACE OF DEATH=[[Toronto]] }} [[Category:1822 births|Mackenzie, Alexander]] [[Category:1892 deaths|Mackenzie, Alexander]] [[Category:Canadian businesspeople|Mackenzie, Alexander]] [[Category:Canadian writers|Mackenzie, Alexander]] [[Category:Leaders of the Liberal Party of Canada|Mackenzie]] [[Category:Natives of Perth and Kinross|Mackenzie, Alexander]] [[Category:Prime Ministers of Canada|Mackenzie, Alexander]] [[Category:Sarnians|Mackenzie, Alexander]] [[Category:Scottish Canadians|Mackenzie, Alexander]] [[Category:Scottish business people|Mackenzie, Alexander]] [[Category:Scottish writers|Mackenzie, Alexander]] [[Category:Teetotalers|Mackenzie, Alexander]] [[Category:Pre-Confederation Ontario people|Mackenzie, Alex]] [[de:Alexander Mackenzie (Politiker)]] [[fr:Alexander Mackenzie (politicien)]] [[pl:Alexander Mackenzie (premier Kanady)]] [[pt:Alexander Mackenzie]] 1237 41784233 2006-03-01T18:56:01Z Rmhermen 835 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.213.67.178|24.213.67.178]] ([[User talk:24.213.67.178|talk]]) to last version by Arre '''Annexation''' ([[Latin]] ''ad'', to, and ''nexus'', joining) is the legal incorporation of some territory into another geo-political entity (either adjacent or non-contiguous). Usually, it is implied that the territory and population being ''annexed'' is the smaller, more peripheral or weaker of the two merging entities. It can also imply a certain measure of coercion, [[expansionism]] or [[unilateralism]] on the part of the stronger of the merging entities. Because of this, more positive words like [[political union]] or [[reunification]] are sometimes preferred. == More detailed overview == Annexation may be the consequence of a voluntary cession from one state to another through purchase or other treaty, or of conversion from a protectorate or sphere of influence, or occupation through military conquest. A [[city]] might annex unincorporated areas or a [[country]] might annex other [[disputed territories]]. The assumption of a protectorate over another state, or of a [[sphere of influence]], is not strictly annexation, the latter implying the complete displacement in the annexed territory of the government or state by which it was previously ruled. In [[international relations]] the term ''annexation'' is usually applied when the emphasis is placed on the fact that territorial possession is achieved by force and unilaterally rather than through [[treaty|treaties]] or negotiations. The cession of [[Alsace-Lorraine]] to [[Germany]] by [[France]], although brought about by the war of 1870, was for the purposes of international law a voluntary cession. Under the treaty of [[December 17]], [[1885]], between the French Republic and the queen of [[Madagascar]], a French protectorate was established over this island. In 1896 this protectorate was converted by France into an annexation, and Madagascar then became "French territory." The formal annexation of [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]] by [[Austria]] ([[October 5]], [[1908]]) was an unauthorized conversion of an "occupation" authorized by the [[Treaty of Berlin, 1878|Treaty of Berlin]] (1878), which had, however, for years operated as a ''de facto'' annexation. A case of conquest was that effected by the [[South African War]] (Second Boer War) of 1899–1902, in which the [[Transvaal Republic]] and the [[Orange Free State]] were extinguished, first ''de facto'' by occupation of the whole of their territory, and then ''[[de jure]]'' by terms of surrender entered into by the [[Boer]] generals acting as a government. By annexation, as between civilized peoples, the annexing state takes over the whole succession with the rights and obligations attaching to the ceded territory, subject only to any modifying conditions contained in the treaty of cession. These, however, are binding only as between the parties to them. In the case of the annexation of the territories of the Transvaal republic and Orange Free State, a rather complicated situation arose out of the facts, on the one hand, that the ceding states closed their own existence and left no recourse to third parties against the previous ruling authority, and, on the other, that, having no means owing to the ''de facto'' [[United Kingdom|British]] occupation, of raising money by taxation, the dispossessed governments raised money by selling certain securities, more especially a large holding of shares in the [[South African Railway Company]], to neutral purchasers. The [[British government]] repudiated these sales as having been made by a government which the British government had already displaced. The question of at what point, in a war of conquest, the state succession becomes operative is one of great delicacy. As early as [[January 6]], [[1900]], the high commissioner at [[Cape Town]] issued a proclamation giving notice that the British government would "not recognize as valid or effectual" any conveyance, transfer or transmission of any property made by the government of the Transvaal republic or Orange Free State subsequently to [[October 10]], [[1899]], the date of the commencement of the war. A proclamation forbidding transactions with a state which might still be capable of maintaining its independence could obviously bind only those subject to the authority of the state issuing it. Like paper [[blockade]]s and fictitious occupations of territory, such premature proclamations are viewed by international jurists as not being ''jure gentium''. The proclamation was succeeded, on [[March 9]], [[1900]], by another of the high commissioner at Cape Town, reiterating the notice, but confining it to "lands, railways, mines or mining rights." And on [[September 1]], [[1900]] Lord Roberts proclaimed at [[Pretoria]] the annexation of the territories of the Transvaal republic to the British dominions. That the war continued for nearly two years after this proclamation shows how fictitious the claim of annexation was. The difficulty which arose out of the transfer of the South African Railway shares held by the Transvaal government was satisfactorily terminated by the purchase by the British government of the total capital of the company from the different groups of [[shareholder]]s (see on this case, Sir Thomas Barclay, ''[[Law Quarterly Review]]'', July 1905; and Professor Westlake, in the same ''Review'', October 1905). In a judgment of the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] in 1899 (''Cook'' v. ''Sprigg'', A.C. 572), [[Lord Chancellor]] Halsbury made an important distinction as regards the obligations of state succession. The case in question was a claim of title against the [[Crown]], represented by the government of [[Cape Colony]]. It was made by persons holding a concession of certain rights in eastern [[Pondoland]] from a native chief. Before the grantees had taken up their grant by acts of possession, Pondoland was annexed to Cape Colony. The colonial government refused to recognize the grant on different grounds, the chief of them being that the concession conferred no legal rights before the annexation and therefore could confer none afterwards, a sufficiently good ground in itself. The judicial committee, however, rested its decision chiefly on the allegation that the acquisition of the territory was an act of state and that "no municipal court had authority to enforce such an obligation" as the duty of the new government to respect existing titles. "It is no answer," said Lord Halsbury, "to say that by the ordinary principles of international law private property is respected by the sovereign which accepts the cession and assumes the duties and legal obligations of the former sovereign with respect to such private property within the ceded territory. All that can be meant by such a proposition is that according to the well-understood rules of international law a change of sovereignty by cession ought not to affect private property, but no municipal tribunal has authority to enforce such an obligation. And if there is either an express or a well-understood bargain between the ceding potentate and the government to which the cession is made that private property shall be respected, that is only a bargain which can be enforced by sovereign against sovereign in the ordinary course of diplomatic pressure." In an editorial note on this case the ''Law Quarterly Review'' of January 1900 (p. 1), dissenting from the view of the judicial committee that "no municipal tribunal has authority to enforce such an obligation," the writer observes that "we can read this only as meant to lay down that, on the annexation of territory even by peaceable cession, there is a total abeyance of justice until the will of the annexing power is expressly made known; and that, although the will of that power is commonly to respect existing private rights, there is no rule or presumption to that effect of which any court must or indeed can take notice." So construed the doctrine is not only contrary to international law, but according to so authoritative an exponent of the common law as Sir F. Pollock, there is no warrant for it in English [[common law]]. An interesting point of [[United States]] constitutional law arose out of the [[cession]] of the [[Philippines]] to the United States, through the fact that the [[Constitution of the United States|federal constitution]] does not lend itself to the exercise by the federal congress of unlimited powers, such as are vested in the [[British parliament]]. The sole authority for the powers of the [[United States Congress|federal congress]] is a written constitution with defined powers. Anything done in excess of those powers is null and void. The [[Supreme Court of the United States]], on the other hand, declared that, by the constitution, a government is ordained and established "for the United States of America" and not for countries outside their limits (''Ross's Case'', 140 U.S. 453, 464), and that no such power to legislate for annexed territories as that vested in the British [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Crown in Council]] is enjoyed by the president of the United States (''Field'' v. ''Clark'', 143 U.S. 649, 692). Every detail connected with the administration of the territories acquired from [[Spain]] under the [[Treaty of Paris]] ([[December 10]], [[1898]]) gave rise to minute discussion. == Examples of annexation == === Hawai'i === In 1898, [[Hawaii]] (having moved from a [[Kingdom of Hawaii|Kingdom]] to a [[Republic of Hawaii|Republic]] five years earlier in the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani) was annexed into the United States. === Texas === {{main|Texas Annexation}} In 1836, the people of [[Texas]] voted to request that the United States annex Texas. Concerned with [[United States Constitution|the constitutionality]] of annexation and for fear of offending the controlling power, [[Mexico]], however, the [[Martin Van Buren|Van Buren Administration]] rejected the request, which was eventually withdrawn. In 1843, the United States became concerned with [[United Kingdom|British]] designs on Texas. A new president, [[John Tyler]], became a proponent of annexation. Following acceptance of the terms of annexation by the people of Texas, the young nation became a part of the United States in 1846. === Ohio City === [[Ohio City (Cuyahoga County), Ohio|Ohio City]], a suburb and fierce rival of [[Cleveland, Ohio]] was peacefully annexed to the city on [[June 5]], [[1854]]. === City of Atlanta === In 1909 the [[United States|U.S.]] city of [[Atlanta]], then located only in [[Fulton County, Georgia|Fulton County]], annexed into part of neighboring [[DeKalb County, Georgia|DeKalb County]] (from which Fulton County had originally been divided). The situation continues to provide some problems, such as when police arrest suspects on charges set forth in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] [[U.S. state|state]] law, and city police must determine which county's jail they must be taken to. === Jerusalem === In the aftermath of the 1967 [[Six Day War]], in which [[Israel]] had occupied East [[Jerusalem]] as well as the [[West Bank]], [[Gaza]] and the [[Golan Heights]], Israel declared East and West Jerusalem one united city, incorporating the eastern part into one municipality, but soon after declaring to the UN that its measures were not annexation. In 1980 Israel passed the Jerusalem law, which redeclared the unity of Jerusalem as Israel's capital, but did not declare its borders. Some consider the latter act annexation, but without explict declaration of sovereignty this is in doubt. Israel's measures are not internationally recognized. === Golan === In 1981, Israel extended its "laws, jurisdiction and administration" to the [[Golan Heights]] (including the [[Shebaa Farms]]), which it captured from [[Syria]] in the 1967 [[Six Day War]]. This not entirely clear "annexation" declaration was declared "null and void and without international legal effect" by the [[United Nations]]. === Kuwait === After being allied with [[Iraq]] during the [[Iran-Iraq War|Iran–Iraq War]] (largely due to desiring Iraqi protection from Islamic [[Iran]]), [[Kuwait]] was invaded and annexed by Iraq (under [[Saddam Hussein]]) in August 1990. Hussein's primary justifications included a charge that Kuwaiti territory was in fact an Iraqi province, and that annexation was retaliation for "economic warfare" Kuwait had waged through [[slant drilling]] into Iraq's oil supplies. The monarchy was deposed after annexation, and an Iraqi governor installed. Though initially ambiguous toward a potential annexation of Kuwait by Iraq,{{fact}} US President [[George H. W. Bush]] ultimately condemned Hussein's actions, and moved to drive out Iraqi forces. Authorized by the [[UN Security Council]], an [[United States|American]]-led coalition of 34 nations fought the [[Persian Gulf War]] to reinstate the Kuwaiti [[Emir]]. Hussein's invasion (and annexation) was deemed illegal and Kuwait remains an independent nation today. === Western Sahara === In 1975, [[Morocco]] invaded the former [[Spain|Spanish]] colony of [[Western Sahara]] and proclaimed it part of the kingdom. This has never been recognized internationally, and a nationalist movement, the [[Polisario Front]], representing the evicted [[Sahrawi]] native population, persists in claiming the area for an exiled [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic|Sahrawi republic]]. A [[United Nations]] peace process was initiated in 1991, but it has been stalled, and the resumption of hostilities remain a possibility. === Wales === [[Wales]] was annexed to the legal system of [[England]] by the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542|Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542]] to create a single jurisdiction, but references in legislation for 'England' were still taken as excluding Wales. The [[Wales and Berwick Act 1746]] meant that in all future laws, 'England' would by default include Wales (and [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]]). In 1967 the Wales and Berwick Act insofar as it applied to Wales was repealed. For many administrative and judicial purposes they are still treated as the single entity [[England and Wales]]. === Korea === On [[August 22]], [[1910]], [[Korea]] was officially annexed by [[Japan]] with the [[Korea-Japan Annexation Treaty|Korea–Japan Annexation Treaty]] signed by [[Lee Wan-Yong]], [[Prime Minister of Korea]], and [[Masatake Terauchi]], Japanese Resident-General in Korea who became the [[Governor-General of Korea]]. Korea continued to be ruled by [[Japan]] until Japan's surrender to the Allied Forces on [[15 August]] [[1945]]. See [[Korea under Japanese rule]] for further information. ===Austria=== On [[March 12]], [[1938]], [[Nazi Germany]] annexed [[Austria]] in the ''[[Anschluss]]''. Austria's annexation marked the first major steps in [[Adolf Hitler]]'s long-desired expansion of Germany. The country was liberated from Nazi power at the end of [[World War II]] by the [[Allies of World War II|Allied Forces]]. ===Ethiopia=== On [[May 9]], [[1936]], [[Ethiopia]] was annexed by [[Italy]], only to be liberated during the Allied [[East African Campaign]]. ==See also== *[[Expansionism]] *[[Fait accompli]] *[[Status quo ante bellum]] *[[Lebensraum]] *[[Irredentism]] *[[Revanchism]] *[[Reunification]] *Canadian [[Annexationist Movement]] ==References== * Carman F. Randolph, ''Law and Policy of Annexation'' (New York and London, 1901) * Charles Henry Butler, ''Treaty-making Power of the United States'' (New York, 1902), vol. i. p. 79 ''et seq''. * {{1911}} [[Category:International law]] [[Category:Political geography]] [[bg:Анексия]] [[cs:Anexe]] [[de:Annexion]] [[et:Anneksioon]] [[eo:Anekso]] [[hr:Aneksija]] [[nl:Annexatie]] [[pl:Aneksja]] [[ru:Аннексия]] [[sv:Annexion]] 1238 15899734 2005-04-28T04:40:32Z 80.191.221.15 #REDIRECT [[Nuclear weapon]] 1239 41901762 2006-03-02T14:08:10Z BrownHairedGirl 754619 /* Embrace of Buddhism */ disambig servant {{dablink|For other meanings, see [[Ashoka (disambiguation)]].}} [[Image:Ashoka2.jpg|thumb|200px|Emperor Ashoka (a possible picturisation)]] '''Ashoka the Great''' ([[Devanagari language|Devanagari]]: &#2309;&#2358;&#2379;&#2325;; [[IAST|IAST transliteration]]: ''{{IAST|Aşoka}}'') was the emperor of the [[Mauryan Empire]] from [[273 BCE]] to [[232 BCE]]. After a number of military conquests, Ashoka reigned over most of [[South Asia]] and beyond, from present-day [[Afghanistan]] to [[Bengal]] and as far south as [[Mysore]]. An early supporter of [[Buddhism]], Ashoka established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of [[Shakyamuni Buddha]], and according to Buddhist tradition was closely involved in the preservation and transmission of Buddhism. In his edicts he is reffered to as "Devaanaampriya" or "The Beloved Of The Gods" The name "Ashoka" means "without sorrow" in [[Sanskrit]]. Ashoka was the first ruler of ancient [[Bharatavarsha]] ([[India]]), after the famed [[Mahabharata]] rulers, to unify such a vast territory under his empire, which in retrospect exceeds the boundaries of the present-day [[Republic of India]]. The [[British literature|British author]] [[H.G. Wells]] wrote of Ashoka: ''"In the history of the world there have been thousands of kings and emperors who called themselves 'their highnesses,' 'their majesties,' and 'their exalted majesties' and so on. They shone for a brief moment, and as quickly disappeared. But Ashoka shines and shines brightly like a bright star, even unto this day."'' ==Historical sources== Information about the life and reign of Ashoka primarily comes from a relatively small number of Buddhist sources. In particular, the [[Sanskrit]] ''[[Avadana|Ashoka Avadana]]'' ('Story of Ashoka') and the two [[Pāli]] chronicles of [[Sri Lanka]] (the [[Dipavamsa]] and [[Mahavamsa]]) provide most of the currently known information about Asoka. Additional information is contributed by the [[Edicts of Asoka]], whose authorship was finally attributed to the Ashoka of Buddhist legend after the discovery of dynastic lists that gave the name used in the edicts ('''Priyadarsi'''- meaning 'good looking', or 'favored by the Gods') as a title or additional name of Ashoka Mauriya. The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, and the interpretations of his edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist monastic institution. Later scholars have tended to question this assessment. The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources- the Ashokan edicts- make only a few references to Buddhism directly, despite many references to the concept of [[dharma]] (Sanskrit: [[dharma]]). Some interpreters have seen this as an indication that Ashoka was attempting to craft an inclusive, poly-religious civil religion for his empire that was centered on the concept of ''dharma'' as a positive moral force, but which did not embrace or advocate any particular philosophy attributable to the religious movements of Ashoka's age (such as the [[Jain]]s, Buddhists, orthodox [[Brahmanism|Brahmanists]], and [[Ajivika]]s). Most likely, the complex religious environment of the age would have required careful diplomatic management in order to avoid provoking religious unrest. Modern scholars and adherants of the traditional Buddhist perspective both tend to agree that Ashoka's rule was marked by tolerance towards a number of religious faiths. ==Early life== Ashoka was the son of the [[Maurya|Mauryan]] emperor [[Bindusara]] by a relatively lower ranked Queen known as Dharma. Dharma, it is said was the daughter of a poor Brahmin, who was introduced into the harem by her father as it was predicted that her son would be a great king. Understandably, her status in the harem was very low. Ashoka had several elder half-brothers and just one younger sibling, Vitthashoka, another son of Dharma. The Buddhist sources also indicate that he was quite ugly. ==Rise to power== Developing into an impeccable warrior general and a shrewd statesman, Ashoka went on to command several [[regiment]]s of the Mauryan army. His growing popularity across the empire made his elder brothers wary of his chances of being favoured by [[Bindusara]] to become the next emperor. The eldest of them, Prince [[Susima]], the traditional heir to the throne, persuaded Bindusara to send Ashoka to quell an uprising in the city of [[Takshashila]] in the north-west province of [[Sindh]], of which Prince Susima was the governor. Takshashila was a highly volatile place because of the war-like [[Indo-Greek]] population and mismanagement by Susima himself. This had led to the formation of different [[militia]]s causing unrest. Ashoka complied and left for the troubled area. As news of Ashoka's visit with his army trickled in, he was welcomed by the revolting militias and the uprising ended without a fight. (The province revolted once more during the rule of Ashoka, but this time the uprising was crushed with an iron fist). Ashoka's success made his half-brothers more wary of his intentions of becoming the emperor, and more incitements from Susima led Bindusara to send Ashoka into exile. He went into [[Orissa|Kalinga]] and stayed incognito there. There he met a fisherwoman named [[Kaurwaki]], with whom he fell in love; recently found inscriptions indicate that she went on to become his second or third queen. Meanwhile, there was again a violent uprising in [[Ujjain]]. Emperor Bindusara summoned Ashoka back after an exile of two years. Ashoka went into Ujjain and in the ensuing battle was injured, but his generals quelled the uprising. Ashoka was treated in hiding so that loyalists of the Susima group could not harm him. He was treated by Buddhist monks and nuns. This is where he first learned the teachings of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], and it is also where he met Devi, who was his personal nurse and the daughter of a merchant from adjacent [[Vidisha]]. After recovering, he married her. Ashoka, at this time, was already married to Asandhimitra who was to be his much loved chief queen for many years till her death. She seems to have stayed on in Patliputra all her life. The following year passed quite peacefully for him and Devi was about to deliver his first child. In the meantime, Emperor Bindusara took ill and was on his death bed. A clique of ministers lead by Radhagupta, who hated Susima, summoned Ashoka to take the crown, though Bindusara preferred Susima. As the Buddhist lore goes, in a fit of rage, Prince Ashoka attacked [[Pataliputra]] (modern day [[Patna]]), and killed all his brothers, including Susima, and threw their bodies in a well in Pataliputra. It is not known if Bindusara was already dead at this time. At that stage of his life, many called him '''Chanda Ashoka''' meaning murderer and heartless Ashoka.The Buddhist legends paint a gory picture of his sadistic activities at this time. Most are incredible, and must be read as supporting background to highlight the transformation Buddhism brought about later. Ascending the throne, Ashoka expanded his empire over the next eight years, expanding it from the present-day boundaries of [[Bangladesh]] and the state of [[Assam]] in India in the east to the territory of present-day [[Iran]] and [[Afghanistan]] in the west; from the [[Pamir Knots]] in the north to the almost peninsular part of [[southern India]]. At that stage of his life, he was called '''Chakravarti''' which literally translates to "he for whom the wheel of law turns" (broadly meaning the emperor). ====Conquest of Kalinga==== [[Image:ashokan_empire.gif|right|thumb|250px|After the battle of Kalinga, Ashoka ruled most of the Indian subcontinent]] While the early part of Ashoka's reign was apparently quite bloodthirsty, he became a follower of the Buddha's teaching after his conquest of Kalinga, on the east coast of India in the present-day state of [[Orissa]]. Kalinga was a state that prided itself on its [[sovereignty]] and [[democracy]]; with its monarchical-cum-parliamentary democracy, it was quite an exception in ancient Bharata, as there existed the concept of [[Rajdharma]], meaning the duty of the rulers, which was intrinsically entwined with the concept of bravery and [[Kshatriya dharma]]. The pretext for the start of the [[Kalinga War]] ([[265 BC]] or [[263 BC]]) is uncertain. One of Susima's brothers might have fled to Kalinga and found official refuge there. This enraged Ashoka immensely. He was advised by his ministers to attack Kalinga for this act of treachery. Ashoka then asked Kalinga's royalty to submit before his supremacy. When they defied this ''[[diktat]]'', Ashoka sent one of his generals to Kalinga to make them submit. The general and his forces were, however, completely routed through the skilled tactics of Kalinga's commander-in-chief. Ashoka, baffled at this defeat, attacked with the greatest invasion ever recorded in Indian history until then. Kalinga put up a stiff resistance, but they were no match for Ashoka's brutal strength. The whole of Kalinga was plundered and destroyed: Ashoka's later edicts say that about 100,000 people were killed on the Kalinga side and 10,000 from Ashoka's army; thousands of men and women were deported. ==Embrace of Buddhism== As the legend goes, one day after the war was over, Ashoka ventured out to roam the city and all he could see were burnt houses and scattered corpses. This sight made him sick and he cried the famous quotation, "What have I done?" The brutality of the conquest led him to adopt [[Buddhism]] and he used his position to propagate the relatively new philosophy to new heights, as far as ancient [[Rome]] and [[Egypt]]. From that point Ashoka, who had been described as "the cruel Ashoka" (''Chandashoka''), started to be described as "the pious Ashoka" (''Dharmashoka''). He propagated the Vibhajjvada school of Buddhism and preached it within his domain and worldwide from about [[250 BC]]. Emperor Ashoka undoubtedly has to be credited with the first serious attempt to develop a Buddhist [[polity]]. [[Image:MauryanCoin.JPG|thumb|300px|Silver punch-mark coins of the '''Mauryan empire''', bear Buddhist symbols such as the [[dharma wheel]], the elephant (previous form of the Buddha), the tree under which enlightenment happened, and the burial mound where the Buddha died (obverse). [[3rd century BC]].]] Prominent in this cause were his son Venerable [[Mahindra]] and daughter [[Sanghamitra]] (whose name means "friend of the [[Sangha]]"), who established Buddhism in [[Ceylon]] (now [[Sri Lanka]]). He built thousands of [[stupa]]s and [[Vihara]]s for Buddhist followers. The Stupas of [[Sanchi]] are world famous and the stupa named Sanchi Stupa 1 was built by Emperor Ashoka. During the remaining portion of Ashoka's reign, he pursued an official policy of [[nonviolence]] or [[ahimsa]]. Even the unnecessary slaughter or mutilation of animals was immediately abolished. [[Wildlife]] became protected by the king's law against [[sport]] [[hunting]] and [[branding]]. Limited hunting was permitted for consumption reasons but Ashoka also promoted the concept of [[vegetarianism]]. Ashoka also showed mercy to those imprisoned, allowing them outside one day each year. He attempted to raise the professional ambition of the common man by building [[university|universities]] for study and water transit and [[irrigation]] systems for [[trade]] and [[agriculture]]. He treated his subjects as equals regardless of their religion, politics and [[caste]]. The kingdoms surrounding his, so easily overthrown, were instead made to be well-respected allies. He is acclaimed for constructing [[hospital]]s for animals and renovating major roads throughout [[India]]. Dharmashoka defined the main principles of ''dharma'' (''dharma'' in [[Pāli]]) as nonviolence, [[tolerance]] of all [[sect]]s and opinions, [[obedience]] to parents, [[respect]] for the [[Brahman]]s and other religious teachers and [[priest]]s, [[liberal]] towards friends, humane treatment of [[servant (domestic)|servant]]s, and [[generosity]] towards all. These principles suggest a general ethic of behavior to which no religious or social group could object. [[Image:AsokaKandahar.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Bilingual edict ([[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Aramaic]]) by king Ashoka, from [[Kandahar]]. [[Kabul]] Museum.]] Some critics say that Ashoka was afraid of more wars, but among his neighbors, including the [[Seleucid Empire]] and the [[Greco-Bactrian]] kingdom established by [[Diodotus I]], none could match his strength. He was a contemporary of both [[Antiochus I Soter]] and his successor [[Antiochus II Theos]] of the [[Seleucid dynasty]] as well as Diodotus I and his son [[Diodotus II]] of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. If his [[inscription]]s and [[edict]]s are well studied, one finds that he was familiar with the [[Hellenic world]] but never in awe of it. The [[Edicts of Ashoka]], which talk of friendly relations, give the names of both Antiochus of the Seleucid empire and [[Ptolemy III]] of [[Egypt]]. But the fame of the Mauryan empire was widespread from the time that Ashoka's grandfather [[Chandragupta Maurya]] defeated [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus Nicator]], the founder of the [[Seleucid Dynasty]]. The [[Pillars of Ashoka|Ashoka Pillar]] at [[Sarnath]] is the most popular of the relics left by Ashoka. Made of [[sandstone]], this pillar records the visit of the emperor to Sarnath, in the [[3rd century BC]]. It has a [[Lion Capital of Asoka|four-lion capital]] (four lions standing back to back) which was adopted as the [[National emblem|emblem]] of the modern Indian republic. The lion symbolises both Ashoka's imperial rule and the kingship of the Buddha. In translating these monuments, historians learn the bulk of what is assumed to have been true fact of the Mauryan Empire. It is difficult to determine whether certain events ever happened, but the stone etchings depict clearly of how Ashoka wanted to be thought and how he wanted to be remembered. Ashoka's own words as known from his Edicts are: "All men are my children. I am like a father to them. As every father desires the good and the happiness of his children, I wish that all men should be happy always." Edward D'Cruz interprets the Ashokan ''dharma'' as a "religion to be used as a symbol of a new imperial unity and a cementing force to weld the diverse and heterogeneous elements of the empire". '''See also''': [[Edicts of Ashoka]] ==Death and legacy== [[Image:Asoka1.gif|thumb|right|200px|Ashoka's first rock inscription at [[Girnar]]]] Emperor Ashoka ruled for an estimated forty years, and after his death, the Maurya dynasty lasted just fifty more years. Ashoka had many wives and children, but their names are lost to time. [[Mahindra]] and [[Sanghamitra]] were twins born by his fourth wife, [[Devi]], in the city of [[Ujjain]]. He had entrusted to them the job of making his state religion, Buddhism, more popular across the known and the unknown world. [[Mahindra]] and [[Sanghamitra]] went into [[Sri Lanka]] and converted the King, the Queen and their people to Buddhism. So they were naturally not the ones handling state affairs after him. In his old age, he seems to have come under the spell of his youngest wife Tishyarakshita. It is said that she had got his son Kunala, the regent in Takshashila, blinded by a wily stratagem. When Ashoka discovered this he had Kunala's son Samprati declared the successor. But his rule did not last long after Ashoka's death. [[Image:AshokaCapital.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The [[Emblem of India]] is a replica of [[Ashoka Pillar]]]] The reign of Emperor Ashoka Maurya could easily have disappeared into history as the ages passed by, and would have, if he had not left behind a record of his trials. The testimony of this wise king was discovered in the form of magnificently sculpted pillars and boulders with a variety of actions and teachings he wished to be published etched into the stone. What Ashoka left behind was the first written language in India since the ancient city of [[Harappa]]. Rather than Sanskrit, the language used for inscription was the current spoken form called [[Prakrit]]. In the year [[185 BC]], about fifty years after Ashoka's death, the last Mauryan ruler, [[Brhadrata]], was brutally murdered by the commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, [[Pusyamitra Sunga]], while he was taking the Guard of Honor of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga founded the [[Sunga dynasty]] ([[185 BC]]-[[78 BC]]) and ruled just a fragmented part of the Mauryan Empire. Not until some 2,000 years later under [[Akbar|Akbar the Great]] and his great-grandson [[Aurangzeb]] would as large a portion of the [[subcontinent]] as that ruled by Ashoka again be united under a single ruler. When India gained independence from the [[British Empire]] it adopted Ashoka's emblem for its own, placing the [[dharma wheel]](The Wheel of Rightious Duty) that crowned his many columns on the [[Flag of India|flag]] of the newly independent state. Ashoka was ranked #53 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]]. A semi-fictionalized portrayal of Ashoka's life was produced as a motion picture recently under the title [[Asoka (film)|Asoka]]. ===Ashoka and Buddhist Kingship=== One of the more enduring legacies of Ashoka Maurya was the model that he provided for the relationship between Buddhism and the state. Throughout Theravada Southeast Asia, the model of rulership embodied by Ashoka replaced the Brahmanist notion of divine kingship that had previously dominated (in the [[Angkor]] kingdom, for instance). Under this model of 'Buddhist kingship', the king sought to legitimize his rule not through descent from a divine source, but by supporting and earning the approval of the Buddhist ''[[sangha]]''. Following Ashoka's example, kings established monasteries, funded the construction of stupas, and supported the ordination of monks in their kingdom. Many rulers also took an active role in resolving disputes over the status and regulation of the sangha, as Ashoka had in calling a conclave to settle a number of contentious issues during his reign. This development ultimately lead to a close association in many Southeast Asian countries between the monarchy and the religious hierarchy, an association that can still be seen today in the state-supported [[Buddhism in Thailand|Buddhism of Thailand]] and the traditional role of the Thai king as both a religious and secular leader. Ashoka also said that all his courtiers were true to their self and governed the people in a moral manner ==Ashoka in popular culture== * ''[[Asoka (film)|Asoka]]'' is a [[film]] based on his life. * ''Asoka ki chinta'' is a famous hindi poem by [[Jaishankar Prasad]]. The poem portrays Asoka's mindset during [[Kalinga War]]. * In some [[conspiracy theories]] Ashoka is mentioned as the founder of a powerful secret society called the [[Nine Unknown Men]]. * Ashoka is a character in the turn-based strategy game [[Civilization 4]]. ==Sources== Swearer, Donald. ''Buddhism and Society in Southeast Asia''. Anima Books. Chambersburg, PA. 1981. ISBN 0890120234. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} [http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/king_asoka.pdf King Asoka and Buddhism. Historical and Literary studies] {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[Mauryan dynasty|Mauryan ruler]] | before=[[Bindusara]]|after=[[Dasaratha_Maurya|Dasaratha]]|years=[[272 BC|272]]-[[232 BC]]}} {{end box}} {{Indian selected article}} [[Category:Mauryan dynasty]] [[Category:Buddhists]] [[Category:Indian monarchs|Ashoka]] [[Category:Theravada Buddhism]] [[Category:History of Orissa]] [[de:Ashoka]] [[es:Ashoka]] [[fa:آشوکا شاه]] [[fr:Ashoka]] [[id:Asoka]] [[hu:Asóka]] [[nl:Asoka]] [[ja:アショーカ王]] [[pl:Aśoka]] [[pt:Asoka]] [[ru:Ашока]] [[fi:Ashoka]] [[sv:Ashoka]] [[vi:A-dục vương]] [[zh:阿育王]] 1240 41711512 2006-03-01T05:47:16Z 63.24.31.63 Be a pal and give some links to these terms {{Taxobox | color = darkgray | name = Archaea | domain = '''Archaea''' | domain_authority = [[Carl Woese|Woese]], [[Otto Kandler|Kandler]] & [[Mark Wheelis|Wheelis]], 1990 | subdivision_ranks = Phyla / Classes | subdivision = Phylum [[Crenarchaeota]]<br /> Phylum [[Euryarchaeota]]<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[Halobacteria]]<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[Methanobacteria]]<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[Methanococci]]<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[Methanopyri]]<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[Archaeoglobi]]<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[Thermoplasmata]]<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[Thermococci]]<br /> Phylum [[Korarchaeota]]<br /> Phylum [[Nanoarchaeum|Nanoarchaeota]] }} The '''Archaea''' ({{IPA2|ɑːˌkiːə}}), also called '''Archaebacteria''' ({{IPA2|ˈɑːkɪbakˌtɪərɪə}}), are a major division of [[life|living]] [[organism]]s. Although there is still uncertainty in the exact [[phylogeny]] of the groups, Archaea, [[Eukaryote]]s and [[Bacteria]] are the fundamental classifications in what is called the [[three-domain system]]. Archaea are, like bacteria, single-cell organisms lacking [[cell nucleus|nuclei]] and are therefore classified as [[prokaryote]]s &mdash; known as [[Monera]] in the five-[[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]] [[Linnaean taxonomy | taxonomy]]. They were originally described in [[extremophile | extreme]] environments, but have since been found in all types of [[habitat]]s. == History == Archaea were identified in [[1977]] by [[Carl Woese]] and George Fox based on their separation from other prokaryotes on 16S [[rRNA]] [[phylogenetic tree]]s. These two groups were originally named the Archaebacteria and Eubacteria, treated as [[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]]s or subkingdoms. Woese argued that they represented fundamentally different branches of living things. He later renamed the groups Archaea and [[Bacteria]] to emphasize this, and argued that together with [[Eukarya]] they comprise [[three-domain system|three domains]] of living things. == Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotes== Archaea are similar to other prokaryotes in most aspects of [[Cell (biology)|cell]] structure and [[metabolism]]. However, their genetic [[transcription (genetics)|transcription]] and [[translation (genetics)|translation]] &mdash; the two central processes in [[molecular biology]] &mdash; do not show the typical bacterial features, but are extremely similar to those of [[eukaryote]]s. For instance, archaean translation uses eukaryotic initiation and elongation factors, and their transcription involves TATA-binding proteins and TFIIB as in eukaryotes. Several other characteristics also set the Archaea apart. Like bacteria and eukaryotes, archaea possess [[glycerol]] based [[phospholipids]]. However, three features of the archaeal lipids are unusual: *The archaeal lipids are unique because the stereochemistry of the glycerol is the reverse of that found in bacteria and eukaryotes. This is strong evidence for a different biosynthetic pathway. *Most bacteria and eukaryotes have membranes composed mainly of glycerol-[[ester]] [[lipid]]s, whereas archaea have membranes composed of glycerol-''[[ether]]'' lipids. Even when bacteria have ether-linked lipids, the stereochemistry of the glycerol is the bacterial form. This differences may be an adaptation on the part of Archaea to [[hyperthermophile|hyperthermophily]]. However, it is worth noting that even mesophilic archaea have ether-linked lipids. *Archaeal lipids are based upon the [[isoprene|isoprenoid]] sidechain. This is a five-carbon unit that is also common in rubber and as a component of some vitamins common in bacteria and eukaryotes. However, only the archaea incorporate these compounds into their cellular lipids, frequently as C-20 (four monomers) or C-40 (eight monomers) sidechains. In some archaea, the C-40 isoprenoid side-chain is actually long enough to span the membrane, forming a monolayer for a [[cell membrane]] with glycerol phosphate moieties on both ends. Although dramatic, this adaptation is most common in the extremely thermophilic archaea. Although not unique, the archaeal cell walls are also unusual. For instance, the cell walls of most archaea are formed by surface layer proteins or an S-layer. S-layers are common in bacteria, where they serve as the sole cell wall component in some organisms (like the Planctomyces) or an outer layer in many organisms with peptidoglycan. With the exception of one group of methanogens, archaea lack a [[peptidoglycan]] wall. Even in this case, the peptidoglycan is very different from the type found in bacteria. Archaeans also have [[flagellum|flagella]] that are notably different in composition and development from the superficially similar flagella of bacteria. [[image:PhylogeneticTree.jpg|thumb|left|320px|A phylogenetic tree based on [[rRNA]] data, showing the separation of bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes.]] ==Habitats== Many archaeans are [[extremophile]]s. Some live at very high temperatures, often above 100&deg;C, as found in [[geyser]]s and [[black smoker]]s. Others are found in very cold habitats or in highly-[[salt|saline]], [[acid]]ic, or [[alkaline]] water. However, other archaeans are [[mesophile]]s, and have been found in environments like [[marsh]]land, [[sewage]], and [[soil]]. Many [[methanogen]]ic archaea are found in the digestive tracts of animals such as [[ruminant]]s, [[termite]]s, and humans. Archaea are usually harmless to other organisms and none are known to cause disease. ==Form== Individual archaeans range from 0.1 &mu;m to over 15 &mu;m in diameter, and some form aggregates or filaments up to 200 &mu;m in length. They occur in various shapes, such as spherical, rod-shape, spiral, lobed, or rectangular. They also exhibit a variety of different types of metabolism. Of note, the [[halobacteria]] can use light to produce [[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]], although no Archaea conduct [[photosynthesis]] with an electron transport chain, as occurs in other groups. ==Evolution and classification== Archaea are divided into two main groups based on rRNA trees, the [[Euryarchaeota]] and [[Crenarchaeota]]. Two other groups have been tentatively created for certain environmental samples and the peculiar species ''[[Nanoarchaeum|Nanoarchaeum equitans]]'', discovered in 2002 by [[Karl Stetter]], but their affinities are uncertain. Woese argued that the bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes each represent a primary line of descent that diverged early on from an ancestral ''[[progenote]]'' with poorly-developed genetic machinery. This hypothesis is reflected in the name Archaea, from the Greek ''archae'' or ancient. Later he treated these groups formally as [[three-domain system|domain]]s, each comprising several kingdoms. This division has become very popular, although the idea of the progenote itself is not generally supported. Some biologists, however, have argued that the archaebacteria and eukaryotes arose from specialized eubacteria. The relationship between Archaea and Eukarya remains an important problem. Aside from the similarities noted above, many genetic trees group the two together. Some place eukaryotes closer to Eurarchaeota than Crenarchaeota are, although the membrane chemistry suggests otherwise. However, the discovery of archaean-like genes in certain [[bacterium|bacteria]], such as ''Thermotoga'', makes their relationship difficult to determine. Some have suggested that eukaryotes arose through fusion of an archaean and eubacterium, which became the nucleus and cytoplasm, which accounts for various genetic similarities but runs into difficulties explaining cell structure. Single gene [[sequencing]] for [[systematics]] has led to whole [[genome sequencing]]; currently 24 archaeal genomes have been completed with 22 partially completed [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genomes/lproks.cgi]. ==External links== * [http://www.microbe.org/microbes/archaea.asp Archaea] * [http://www.archaea.unsw.edu.au/ ArchaeaWeb - by UNSW - Information about Archaea] * [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/archaea/archaea.html Introduction to the Archaea, ecology, systematics and morphology] * [http://www.mediscover.net/Extremophiles.cfm Extremophiles Bioprospecting for antimicrobials, Dr Sarah Maloney] Citat: "...Ground breaking research on extremophiles continues to this day, with the recently-discovered 22nd genetically-encoded [[amino acid]] &ndash; [[pyrrolysine]] &ndash; from the archaeon, ''Methanosarcina barkeri'', (Hao et al., 2002; Srinivasan et al., 2002)...." * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/399972.stm BBC News July 21, 1999: Toughest bug reveals genetic secrets] Citat: "...It [''Pyrococcus abyssi''] likes conditions that the vast majority of other organisms would find impossible to live in. It thrives best at temperatures of about 103 degrees [Celsius] and under pressures of about 200 atmospheres...." * [http://www.genoscope.cns.fr/Pab/ Pyrococcus abyssi Home page at Genoscope] ==References== * {{cite book | author=Howland, John L. | title=The Surprising Archaea: Discovering Another Domain of Life | publisher=Oxford: Oxford University Press | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0-19-511183-4}} * {{cite journal | author=Lake, J.A. | title=Origin of the eukaryotic nucleus determined by rate-invariant analysis of rRNA sequences | journal=Nature | year=1988 | volume=331 | pages=184–186}} * {{cite journal | author=Woese, Carl R.; Fox, George E. | title=Phylogenetic Structure of the Prokaryotic Domain: The Primary Kingdoms | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | year=1977 | issue=11 | volume=74 | pages=5088–5090}} * {{cite journal | author = Woese, Carl R., Kandler, Otto, Wheelis, Mark L | title = Towards a natural system of organisms: Proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | year = 1990 | issue = 12 | volume = 87 | pages = 4576–4579}} [[Category:Archaea| ]] [[Category:Extremophiles]] [[ca:Arqueobacteri]] [[cs:Archea]] [[cy:Archaea]] [[da:Archaea]] [[de:Archaeen]] [[et:Arhed]] [[es:Archaea]] [[eo:Arkio]] [[fr:Archaea]] [[ko:고세균]] [[he:חיידקים קדומים]] [[la:Archaea]] [[lb:Archaeën]] [[nl:Archaea]] [[nds:Archaeen]] [[ja:古細菌]] [[no:Arkebakterier]] [[pl:Archeowce]] [[pt:Archaea]] [[sl:Arheja]] [[fi:Arkkieliöt]] [[sv:Arkéer]] [[vi:Archaea]] [[zh:古細菌]] 1241 41992568 2006-03-03T02:20:29Z Che829 401724 /* The alternatives */ {{pov}} '''''American''''', when used as an adjective, most frequently is used to mean "of the [[United States|United States of America]]" in the English language. Less frequently, in a United States context, it means "of or relating to [[the Americas]]." When used as a noun, it most frequently is used to mean "United States [[citizen]]." Less frequently, "residing in the Americas," or "[[American English]]." ==''American'' in the Americas== The word [[The Americas|America]] was [[The Americas#Naming of America|derived]] by [[Holy Roman Empire|German]] cartographer [[Martin Waldseemüller]] from the Latinized version of the name of [[Amerigo Vespucci]] (''Americus Vespucius''), an [[Italy|Italian]] merchant and cartographer whose exploratory journeys in the late 1400s and early 1500s brought him to the eastern coastline of [[South America]] and to the [[Caribbean]]. The term ''American'' was subsequently used as an adjective describing the [[New World]] and its native people. Starting by 1700 the word "American" was used by Europeans for the Indians in the New World. In 1765 came the first use to describe the British colonists. That usage was widespread by 1774, and in 1776 the [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|Declaration of Independence]] proclaimed a new country, "The United States of America." At that time "America" was also used to designate continents in atlases published in Europe, but very few people ever saw those books. The [[American Revolution]] was closely followed in Europe, and the term became common for the inhabitants of the new nation. Since 1776, the term ''American'' has gained universal usage in reference to residents of the [[United States of America]]. Controversy has arisen over whether this usage is appropriate, or whether the term should only be used as an adjective covering the whole of [[North America]] and [[South America]]. Geographers disagree among themselves: English language atlases display two continents, "North America" and "South America" while Spanish language atlases display one continent, "America." Proponents of the usage of ''American'' as a lexical attachment to 'America' broadly defined as the continent/s of North and South America argue that current usage is at best inaccurate, historically incorrect and at worst redolent of perceived US [[imperialism]]. They add that the main purpose of clear language is to avoid ambiguity. Proponents of the usage of ''American'' to refer to the United States argue that the USA is the only sovereign nation in the world with the word ''America'' in its official name. Additionally, other nations, including Mexico presently and Brazil in the past, have or have had the term "United States" in their official names. Thus, to many, referring to U.S. citizens as ''Americans'' is convenient and legitimate, while using ''U.S.'' could in fact be ambiguous. Also, there is tradition to consider as the term has been applied to residents of the U.S. from the very beginning of that country. Critics opposed to the change say that [[essentialism]] regarding words is an error. Lexicographers tell how people use the word; they do not issue edicts that say "America" can only refer to geographical continents rather than a country. Every major dictionary makes clear that "American" applied to residents of the U.S. is standard usage, and has been for over 200 years in every Anglophone country. In [[Canada]], the term "American" is widely understood to refer exclusively to citizens of the U.S., and Canadians do not refer to themselves as Americans. On the other hand, in [[Spain]], people who have lived in the Western Hemisphere but now live in Spain may be called, in Spanish, ''americanos'' (translated into English as "Americans"). In discussions of geography, one might specify North America, Central America, or South America when the reference is to a continent or region. Residents of the Western Hemisphere rarely call themselves "North American" or "South American"; the term "Central American" is more common. Many alternative [[neologism]]s to ''American'' have been proposed to refer to the United States of America, but they have failed to garner widespread acceptance. This has given rise to terms like "[[Mexican-American]]" or "Canadian-American" to refer to people of Mexican or Canadian origin living in the United States—either as first-generation immigrants or their descendants. These terms are never used to refer to natives of Mexico or Canada. Geo-politically speaking, such terms are redundant. [[Canadian identity|Canadians]] in particular have devoted a great deal of attention to proclaiming that they are not-Americans -meaning US citizens-, both in their own cultural products and when they travel outside the region and are frequently mistaken as coming from the United States. ===American in the US Census=== [[Image:American1346.gif|thumb|"American" ancestry in US counties.]] In the United States census, millions of people describe their (main) [[ethnic origin]] as "American", particularly those belonging in southern states. This region has a high percentage of people who trace their descent to the colonial origins of the United States and often lack records of the particular, but generally, British countries of their ancestor's origins. ==''American'' in cultural usages== '''American''', culturally, generally refers to things which originated within the United States of America. Some foods, such as hamburgers, are seen as [[American cuisine]]. Some sports, such as [[baseball]] or [[American football]], are seen as American, even though they may be played in other countries. Some music, such as [[jazz]], [[country music]], or [[American folk music]] are seen as American, even though they may be popular in other countries. ==''American'' in other languages== [[English language|English]] speakers commonly use ''American'' to refer to the United States only. In the [[United Kingdom]], the use of 'US' as an adjective is preferred where it can be comfortably used, and is prevalent in media and government house-styles. In [[Spanish language|Spanish]], ''americano'' tends to refer to any resident of the Americas and not from the United States; English spoken in Latin America often makes this distinction as well. ''US-American'' is another option, and is the dominant demonym in German (''US-Amerikaner''). Latin Americans also have the [[euphemism]] ''norteamericano'' (''North American'', which itself conflates the USA and Canada and possibly Mexico). ''United Statian'' is awkward in English, but it exists in Spanish (''estadounidense'') and occasionally in German (''Vereinigten Staatler''), and in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] (both in [[Portugal]] and [[Brazil]]), where the term ''estadunidense'' is growing and it is considered more appropriate than the common term ''norte-americano''. The word [[Gringo]] is widely used in all of [[Latin America]], particularly in Mexico, to make a reference to U.S. residents, not necessarily in a pejorative way. ''Yanqui'' (''[[Yankee]]'') is also very common in some regions. There have been a number of attempts to [[neologism|coin]] an alternative to "[[American (disambiguation)|American]]" as an adjective (a [[demonym]]) for a citizen of the [[United States]], that would not simultaneously mean a citizen of the Americas. With the [[1994]] passage of the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]], the following words were used to label the ''United States Section'' of that organization: in [[Canadian French]], ''étatsunien''; in Spanish, ''estadounidense''. ==Seeking alternate names== Many people use the word "American" to indicate any inhabitant of [[the Americas]] (which many people in other parts of the world tend to consider a single continent, called America) rather than specifically a citizen of the United States; and perceive the latter usage of "American" to be potentially ambiguous, and perhaps aggressive in tone or imperialistic, a rather widespread view in Latin America. However, many in the US assert that the word "America" in "United States of America" denotes the country's proper name, and is not a geographical indicator. They argue that the interpretation of ''United States '''of''' America'' to mean a country named ''United States'' located in the continent of ''America'' is mistaken. Instead, they argue that the preposition ''of'' is equivalent to the ''of'' in ''Federative Republic '''of''' Brazil'', ''Commonwealth '''of''' Australia'', ''Federal Republic '''of''' Germany''. That is, the ''of'' indicates the name of the state. In addition, other countries use "United" or "States" in their names as well. Indeed, the formal name of [[Mexico]] is ''Estados Unidos Mexicanos'', currently officially translated as "United Mexican States" had in the past been translated as "United States of Mexico." Regardless, many question a nation's right to formally appropriate the name of a continent for itself, citing the fact that America existed long before the United States ''of'' America. Indeed, [[Amerigo Vespucci]] (who travelled extensively throughout the Caribbean basin) never set foot on present US territory. Some U.S. citizens and Latin Americans alike have no problem with the simultaneous usage of "American" as an adjective for all inhabitants of the Americas, and make the distinction between the demonym for a country and the demonym for a continent (or continents). They argue that there is no reason the two cannot share the term if it is used in distinct but equally legitimate contexts. In other cases, the motivation is not so much political as it is academic, to avoid a perceived ambiguity. For instance, in legal circles a citizen of the United States is usually referred to as a 'U.S. citizen,' not an 'American citizen,' which could arguably apply to citizens of other American nation states as well. A modern alternative term used by Latin speakers to reffer the people from the United Sates in their language is "USen," situable short for "United States Citizen." ==The alternatives== Attempts to create such a name have failed to gain widespread use. Proposals have included: *Americanite *Appalacian (now only considered an accurate term for the people of [[Appalachia]]) *Colonican *Columbard *[[Historical Columbia|Columbia]]n (hence the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]]) *Frede or Fredonian *[[Nacirema]] *Statesider *Uesican (pronounced {{IPA|[juˈɛsɪkən]}}) or Uessian (pronounced {{IPA|[juˈɛsiən]}}) *Unisan or Unisian *United States American, United Stater, United Stateser, United Statian, United Statesian, or United Statesman *USAian, U.S. American, Usan, USAn, Usanian, Usian (pronounced {{IPA|[ˈjuʒən]}}), U-S-ian, or [[Usonia]]n (pronounced {{IPA|[juˈsoʊniən]}}) *USen *Vespuccino *Washingtonian. References to these words have been around since the early days of the republic, but ''American'' has become by far the most common term. ''[[Usonia]]n'' is used in architectural circles, and ''Washingtonian'' remains as the adjective for the state of [[Washington]] and the city of [[Washington, D.C.]]. Several of these terms have direct parallels in languages other than [[English language|English]]. Many languages have already created their own distinct word for a citizen of the United States: *''United Statian'' directly parallels the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] term ''estadounidense''. *''Norteamericano'' (North American) is common in [[Latin America]], but suffers from the same kind of ambiguity as ''American'', since Canadians and Mexicans, amongst others, are also North Americans. * In [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], ''norte-americano'' is the most commonly used term. ''Estadunidense'' is gaining some popularity, specifically in [[Brazil]], where its usage traditionally rises during times of tension with the USA. *''Amerikan'' is a derogatory spelling, after the Eastern European spelling made popular in the West by Franz Kafka's 1946 novel. *''Usonian'', from [[Usonia]], a term [[Frank Lloyd Wright]] used to describe his vision for American [[architecture]], homes, and cities, and used by [[John Dos Passos]] in his [[U.S.A. trilogy]]. * The [[Esperanto]] term for the [[United States|United States of America]] is ''Usono''. This is generally thought to come from "[[Usonia]]." In Esperanto, one forms the word for a citizen of a given country using the suffix "-an" which means "member of." Therefore a citizen of the United States is ''usonano''. (Such derived words are not capitalized.) Esperanto terms for the American geographic regions and their people are ''Ameriko/amerikano'', ''Norda Ameriko/nordamerikano'', ''Meza Ameriko/mezamerikano'', and ''Suda Ameriko/sudamerikano''. *''Usanian'' is derived from the [[Ido]] word ''Usana''. *''[[Yankee]]'', often shortened to ''Yank'', is used all over the world in an informal manner similar to the use of the Mexican word ''[[Gringo]]''. Both terms may occasionally be used in an affectionate or pejorative sense. On occasion some U.S. citizens will take offense at the term ''Yankee'', particularly Southerners (residents of the [[Southeastern United States]]), who use ''Yankee'' to refer to Northerners (residents of the [[Northeastern United States]]), sometimes in a derogatory way. (Some people from [[Scotland]] or [[Wales]] may use ''Yankee'' as a deliberate riposte to people from the US who refer to them as English, from the enduring misconception that [[England]] is coterminous with the [[United Kingdom]].) **The colloquial term ''Yank'' for a U.S citizen, used in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and [[Australia]], is a derivative of ''Yankee''. In Australia, the [[Cockney]] [[Cockney rhyming slang|rhyming slang]] term ''Sepo'' survives, derived from ''septic tank''. * In [[French language|French]], ''États-Unien(ne)'', ''Étatsunien(ne)'', or ''Étasunien(ne)'' are gaining some popularity. * In [[Italian language|Italian]] the term ''Statunitense'' (from 'Stati Uniti' = 'United States') is quite widespread, especially referring to sporting events. * In [[German language|German]], ''US-Amerikaner'' may be used to avoid ambiguity or to be [[politically correct]], but it may come across as pedantic if used conversationally. ''Amerikaner'' is in general usage in German, and is widely accepted to refer to the United States. ''Ami'' is a colloquialism which unambiguously refers to US citizens. The German usage of ''Ami'' is akin to the Mexican usage of ''[[Gringo]]'', in that it can be neutral, patronizing, or perhaps even affectionate. * In [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] the term ''Bandaríkjamenn'' is quite widespread, Bandaríkin (United States) and menn for (people/persons) ==Less serious alternatives== Less serious terms that have been popular on the Internet at various times include *Leftpondian - from the fact that the USA is on the left side of the Atlantic Ocean (the "pond") as seen on a map with north at the top. This term is often used to include Canadians as well. *Merkin - from the way some Americans pronounce the word "American", but also playing on the word's [[merkin|other meaning]]. == See also == * [[Americas (terminology)]] * [[Alternative words for British]] ==Scholarly sources== * [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=58426145 Allen, Irving L. ''The Language of Ethnic Conflict: Social Organization and Lexical Culture'' (1983).] * Herbst, Philip H. ''Color of Words: An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Ethnic Bias in the United States'' (1997) ISBN 1877864978. ==External links== * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Columnists/Column/0,,234240,00.html "The trouble with Americans"] by [[The Guardian]] on the use of the word "American" meaning "US citizen" ([[September 7]], [[1998]]) [[Category:American culture]] [[es:El uso de la palabra americana/o]] 1242 41939950 2006-03-02T19:42:31Z ManuelGR 36220 {{Infobox programming language |name = Ada |logo = [[Image:Ada Lovelace.jpg|157px]] |paradigm = [[multi-paradigm programming language|multi-paradigm]]: [[Concurrent programming language|concurrent]], [[Distributed programming|distributed]], [[Generic programming|generic-programming]], [[Imperative programming|imperative]], [[object-oriented programming|object-oriented]] |year = 1983, last revised 2005 |designer = [[Jean Ichbiah]] |typing = [[Datatype#Static_and_dynamic_typing|static]], [[Datatype#Strong_and_weak_typing|strong]], [[Datatype#safely_and_unsafely_typed|safe]], [[Datatype#Nominative_vs_structural_typing|nominative]] |implementations = [[GNAT]] |dialects = Ada&nbsp;83, Ada&nbsp;95, Ada&nbsp;2005 |influenced_by = [[ALGOL]], [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]], [[C++]] (Ada&nbsp;95), [[Smalltalk]] (Ada&nbsp;95) |influenced = [[C++]] }} '''Ada''' is a [[Structured programming|structured]], [[statically typed]] [[Imperative programming|imperative]] [[computer programming|computer]] [[programming language]] designed by a team led by [[Jean Ichbiah]] of [[Groupe Bull|CII Honeywell Bull]] during [[1977]]&ndash;[[1983]]. It addresses many of the same tasks as [[C programming language|C]] or [[C++]], but with one of the best [[Type safety|type-safety]] systems available in a [[statically typed]] programming language. Ada was named after [[Ada Lovelace]], often credited as the first computer programmer. == Features == Ada was originally targeted at [[embedded system|embedded]] and [[real-time]] systems, and is still commonly used for those purposes. The Ada&nbsp;95 revision, designed by [[Tucker Taft|S. Tucker Taft]] of [[Intermetrics]] between [[1992]] and [[1995]], improved support for systems, numerical, and financial programming. Notable features of Ada include [[strongly typed languages|strong typing]], [[modularity (programming)|modularity mechanisms]] (packages), [[run-time checking]], [[parallel processing]] (tasks), [[exception handling]], and [[generic programming|generic]]s. Ada&nbsp;95 added support for [[object-oriented programming]], including [[dynamic dispatch]]. Ada supports run-time checks in order to protect against access to unallocated memory, [[buffer overflow]] errors, [[off by one errors]], array access errors, and other avoidable bugs. These checks can be disabled in the interest of efficiency, but can often be compiled efficiently. It also includes facilities to help program verification. For these reasons, it is very widely used in critical systems like [[avionics]], weapons and spacecraft. It also supports a large number of compile-time checks to help avoid bugs that would not be detectable until run-time in some other languages or would require explicit checks to be added to the source code. Ada's dynamic [[memory management]] is safe and high-level, like Java and unlike C. The specification does not require any particular implementation. Though the semantics of the language allow automatic [[garbage collection (computer science)|garbage collection]] of inaccessible objects, most implementations do not support it. Ada does support a limited form of [[region-based storage management]]. Invalid accesses can always be detected at run time (unless of course the check is turned off) and sometimes at compile time. The Ada language definition is unusual among [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] standards in that it is [[free content]]. One result of this is that the standard document (known as the ''Ada Reference Manual'' or ''ARM'') is the usual reference Ada programmers resort to for technical details, in the same way as a particular standard textbook serves other programming languages. == History == In the [[1970s]], the [[United States Department of Defense|US Department of Defense]] (DoD) was concerned by the number of different programming languages being used for its projects, many of which were obsolete or hardware-dependent, and none of which supported safe modular programming. In [[1975]] the [[Higher Order Language Working Group]] (HOLWG) was formed with the intent of reducing this number by finding or creating a programming language generally suitable for the department's requirements; the result was Ada. The total number of high-level programming languages in use for such projects fell from over 450 in [[1983]] to 37 by [[1996]]. {{Wikisource|Steelman language requirements}} The [[working group]] created a series of language requirements documents&mdash;the Strawman, Woodenman, Tinman, Ironman and [[Steelman language requirements|Steelman]] documents. Many existing languages were formally reviewed, but the team concluded in [[1977]] that no existing language met the specifications. Requests for proposals for a new programming language were issued and four contractors were hired to develop their proposals under the names of Red ([[Intermetrics]] led by [[Benjamin Brosgol]]), Green ([[CII Honeywell Bull]], led by [[Jean Ichbiah]]), Blue ([[SofTech]], led by [[John Goodenough]]), and Yellow ([[SRI International]], led by [[Jay Spitzen ]]).<!-- Though Intermetrics and Bull have previous links, I am including them for parallelism. --> In April 1978, after public scrutiny, the Red and Green proposals passed to the next phase. In May of [[1979]], the Green proposal, designed by Jean Ichbiah at CII Honeywell Bull, was chosen and given the name Ada&mdash;after [[Ada Lovelace|Augusta Ada, Countess of Lovelace]]. This proposal was influenced by the programming language [[LIS programming language|LIS]] that Ichbiah and his group had developed in the [[1970s]]. The preliminary Ada reference manual was published in ACM SIGPLAN Notices in June 1979. The Military Standard reference manual was approved on [[December 10]], [[1980]] ([[Ada Lovelace]]'s birthday), and given the number MIL-STD-1815 in honor of Ada Lovelace's birth year. [[Image:Ada Lovelace 1838.jpg|right|caption|thumbnail|157px|[[Ada Lovelace|Augusta Ada King]], Countess of Lovelace.]] In [[1987]], the US Department of Defense began to require the use of Ada (the ''Ada mandate'') for every software project where new code was more than 30% of result, though exceptions to this rule were often granted. This requirement was effectively removed in [[1997]], as the DoD began to embrace COTS ([[commercial off-the-shelf]]) technology. Similar requirements existed in other [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] countries. Because Ada is a strongly-typed language, it has been used outside the military in commercial aviation projects, where a software bug can mean fatalities. The fly-by-wire system in the [[Boeing 777]] runs software written in Ada. The language became an [[ANSI]] standard in [[1983]] ([http://archive.adaic.com/standards/83lrm/html/Welcome.html ANSI/MIL-STD 1815A], and without any further changes became an [[International standard|ISO standard]] in [[1987]] (ISO-8652:1987). This version of the language is commonly known as Ada&nbsp;83, from the date of its adoption by ANSI, but is sometimes referred to also as Ada&nbsp;87, from the date of its adoption by ISO. Ada&nbsp;95, the joint ISO/ANSI standard ([http://www.adaic.org/standards/95lrm/html/RM-TTL.html ISO-8652:1995]) is the latest standard for Ada. It was published in February [[1995]] (making Ada&nbsp;95 the first ISO standard object-oriented programming language). To help with the standard revision and future acceptance, the [[US Air Force]] funded the development of the [[GNAT]] [[Compiler]]. Nowadays the GNAT Compiler is part of the [[GNU Compiler Collection]]. Work continues on improving and updating the technical content of the Ada programming language. A Technical Corrigendum to Ada&nbsp;95 was published in October [[2001]]. Presently, more work is being done to produce the roughly once-a-decade major update to Ada, expected in [[2007]] (see [http://www.open-std.org/JTC1/SC22/WG9/projects.htm#AMD official schedule]). This new version is commonly known as Ada&nbsp;2005, just as Ada&nbsp;95 was commonly known as Ada&nbsp;94 prior to its publication. == "Hello, world!" in Ada == A common example of a language's [[syntax]] is the [[Hello world program]]: '''with''' Ada.Text_IO; '''procedure''' Hello '''is''' '''begin''' Ada.Text_IO.Put_Line("Hello, world!"); '''end''' Hello; There are shortcuts available for <tt>Ada.Text_IO.Put_Line</tt>, needing less typing, however they are not used here for better understanding. For a detailed explanation see [[Wikibooks:Ada Programming/Basic]]. == The Ariane 5 failure == A commonly encountered myth blames the loss of [[Ariane 5 Flight 501]], a [[European Space Agency]] [[Ariane 5]] rocket, on a bug in an Ada program or on disabling Ada's runtime checks. For the [[Ariane 4]] it had been proven that those runtime checks weren't needed. Although range checks and appropriate exception handlers on all type conversions might have trapped the problem, the problem itself was a design decision to reuse a part and its software from the [[Ariane 4]] rocket without adequate analysis of its suitability or tests on [[Ariane 5]] data. == See also == === Online tutorials === Ada has always been a very open language, and there are many online tutorials available. The following sites have link collections to Ada tutorials * [[wikibooks:Programming:Ada:Tutorials|Wikibook tutorial for programming in Ada]] - needs some additions * [http://www.adahome.com/Tutorials at Adahome] - not updated very recently however * [http://www.adaworld.com/tutorialsmain.html at adaworld] - this site is very good * [http://www.computer-books.us/ada95.php at Computer-Books.us] - A collection of Ada books available for free download. === Organizations === *[[Ada Information Clearinghouse]] *[[SIGAda]] - [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] Special Interest Group on Ada *[[Ada-Europe]] - European organization to promote the use of Ada === Compilers === * [[GNAT]] - [[GNAT Modified General Public License|Free]] compiler based on [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]] * [[JGNAT]] - [[GNAT]]-based compiler for the [[Java Runtime Environment]] * [[MGNAT]] - [[GNAT]]-based compiler for the [[.NET Framework]] Environment ([[A Sharp (.NET)|A#]] project) * [[ObjectAda]] === Tools === * [[Aunit]] * [[AdaGIDE]] (A free GNAT Ada [[Integrated Development Environment]] for Windows) * [[GNAT Programming Studio]] (GPS) * [[GNAVI]] (Ada Visual RAD) * [[GNATCOM]] (Ada binding for Microsoft [[Component Object Model|COM]] spec.) * [[GtkAda]] (Ada binding for [[GTK+]]) * [[PolyORB]] * [[XML-Ada|XML/Ada]] and [[XML4Ada95]] * [[XIA/XPath In Ada]] (An Ada binding to the [[XPath]] 1.0 spec.) * [http://www.prismtechnologies.com/section-item.asp?sid4=&sid3=187&sid2=10&sid=18&id=389 OrbRiver Ada] === Related programming languages === * [[SPARK programming language|SPARK]] - High integrity language based on an Ada subset * [[VHDL]] === See also === * [[High Integrity System]]s * [[Ravenscar profile]] == References == === International Standards === * [[ISO 8652|ISO/IEC 8652]]: Information technology &mdash; Programming languages &mdash; Ada * [[ISO 15291|ISO/IEC 15291]]: Information technology &mdash; Programming languages &mdash; Ada Semantic Interface Specification ([[wiktionary:ASIS|ASIS]]) * [[ISO 18009|ISO/IEC 18009]]: Information technology &mdash; Programming languages &mdash; Ada: Conformity assessment of a language processor ([[wiktionary:ACATS|ACATS]]) * [[IEEE 1003|IEEE Standard 1003.5b-1996]], the [[POSIX]] Ada binding * [http://www.omg.org/technology/documents/formal/ada_language_mapping.htm Ada Language Mapping Specification], the [[CORBA]] [[Interface description language|IDL]] to Ada mapping === Books === {{wikibookspar||Ada Programming}} * [[Jan Skansholm]]: ''Ada&nbsp;95 From the Beginning'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-40376-5 * [[John Barnes (computer scientist)|John Barnes]]: ''Programming in Ada plus Language Reference Manual'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-56539-0 * [[John Barnes (computer scientist)|John Barnes]]: ''Programming in Ada&nbsp;95'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-34293-6 * [[John Barnes (computer scientist)|John Barnes]]: ''High Integrity Ada: The SPARK Approach'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201175177 * [[John Barnes (computer scientist)|John Barnes]]: ''High Integrity Software: The SPARK Approach to Safety and Security'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-321-13616-0 * [[Dean W. Gonzalez]]: ''Ada Programmer's Handbook'', Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company, ISBN 0805325298 * [[M. Ben-Ari]]: ''Ada for Software Engineers'', John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-97912-0 * [[Norman Cohen]]: ''Ada as a Second Language'', McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math, ISBN 0-0-7011607-5 * [[Alan Burns]], [[Andy Wellings]]: ''Real-Time Systems and Programming Languages. Ada&nbsp;95, Real-Time Java and Real-Time POSIX.'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-72988-1 * [[Alan Burns]], [[Andy Wellings]]: ''Concurrency in Ada'', Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-62911-X * [[Colin Atkinson]]: ''Object-Oriented Reuse, Concurrency and Distribution: An Ada-Based Approach'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201565277 * [[Grady Booch]], [[Doug Bryan]]: ''Software Engineering with Ada'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0805306080 * [[Daniel Stubbs]], [[Neil W. Webre]]: ''Data Structures with Abstract Data Types and Ada'', Brooks Cole, ISBN 0-534-14448-9 * [[Pascal Ledru]]: ''Distributed Programming in Ada with Protected Objects'', Dissertation.com, ISBN 1-58112-034-6 * [[Fintan Culwin]]: ''Ada, a Developmental Approach'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0132646803 * [[John English]], [[Fintan Culwin]]: ''Ada&nbsp;95 the Craft of Object Oriented Programming'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-1-3230350-7 * [[David A. Wheeler]]: ''Ada&nbsp;95'', Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-94801-5 * [[David R. Musser]], [[Alexander Stepanov]]: ''The Ada Generic Library: Linear List Processing Packages'', Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0387971335 * [[Michael B. Feldman]]: ''Software Construction and Data Structures with Ada&nbsp;95'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201887959 * [[Simon Johnston]]: ''Ada&nbsp;95 for C and C++ Programmers'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201403633 *[[Michael B. Feldman]], [[Elliot B. Koffman]]: ''Ada&nbsp;95'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-36123-X * [[Nell Dale]], [[Chip Weems]], [[John McCormick]]: ''Programming and Problem Solving with Ada&nbsp;95'', Jones & Bartlett Publishers, ISBN 0763702935 * [[Nell Dale]], [[Susan Lilly]], [[John McCormick]]: ''Ada Plus Data Structures: An Object-Based Approach'', Jones & Bartlett Publishers, ISBN 0669416762 * [[Bruce C. Krell]]: ''Developing With Ada: Life-Cycle Methods'', Bantam Dell Pub Group, ISBN 0553091026 * [[Judy Bishop]]: ''Distributed Ada: Developments and Experiences'', Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39251-9 * [[Bo Sanden]]: ''Software Systems Construction With Examples in Ada'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 013030834X * [[Bruce Hillam]]: ''Introduction to Abstract Data Types Using Ada'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0130459496 * [[David Rudd]]: ''Introduction to Software Design and Development With Ada'', Brooks Cole, ISBN 0314028293 * [[Ian C. Pyle]]: ''Developing Safety Systems: A Guide Using Ada'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0132042983 * [[Louis Baker]]: ''Artificial Intelligence With Ada'', McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0070033501 * [[Alan Burns]], [[Andy Wellings]]: ''HRT-HOOD: A Structured Design Method for Hard Real-Time Ada Systems'', North-Holland, ISBN 0444821643 * [[Walter Savitch, Charles Peterson]]: ''Ada: An Introduction to the Art and Science of Programming'', Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company, ISBN 0805370706 * [[Mark Allen Weiss]]: ''Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis in Ada'', Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company, ISBN 0805390553 == Ada Wikis == === General Info === * [http://ada.krischik.com Ada@Krischik] * [[wiktionary:ACATS]] * [[wiktionary:Ada]] * [[wiktionary:ASIS]] === Tutorials === * [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ada_Programming Ada Programming] * [http://es.wikibooks.org/wiki/Programación_en_Ada Programación en Ada] * [http://fr.wikibooks.org/wiki/Programmation_Ada Programmation Ada] === Projects === * [http://adacl.sourceforge.net/index.php AdaCL] * [http://booch95.sourceforge.net/pmwiki.php The Ada&nbsp;95 Booch Components] * [http://gnuada.sourceforge.net The GNU Ada Compiler] * [http://gnat-asis.sourceforge.net ASIS] * [http://gnat-glade.sourceforge.net GLADE] * [http://gnat-florist.sourceforge.net Florist] * [http://wikibook-ada.sourceforge.net Wikibook Ada Programming] == External links == * [http://adaworld.com/ Ada World] * [http://adapower.com/ AdaPower] * [http://www.sigada.org/ ACM SIGAda] * [http://www.ada-europe.org/ Ada-Europe Organization] * [http://www.adaic.com/ Ada Information Clearinghouse] * [http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg9/ ISO Home of Ada Standards] * [http://www.computer-books.us/ada95.php Ada&nbsp;95 Books Available Online] * [http://www.ada-auth.org/ Ada Rapporteur Group (evolution of standard)] * [http://www.ada-answers.com/ Ada Answers - Building better software with Ada] * [http://citeseer.org/cs?q=%22Ada%22 Citations from CiteSeer] * [news:comp.lang.ada Forum] * [http://oopweb.com/Ada/Documents/Lovelace/Volume.html Ada Tutorial] * [http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~mfeldman/ada-project-summary.html Projects Using Ada] * [http://www.cs.kuleuven.ac.be/~dirk/ada-belgium/events/ Conference announcements for the international Ada community] === GNAT - Free Ada compiler === * [http://www.adacore.com/academic.php Ada Academic Initiative] * [http://libre.adacore.com/ "Libre" Ada Software] * [http://gnuada.sourceforge.net The GNU Ada Project] * [http://www.gnuada.org/ GNU Ada Homepage] * [http://www.gnat.com/ GNAT] * [http://www.usafa.af.mil/df/dfcs/bios/mcc_html/adagide.cfm AdaGIDE, the Ada GNAT Integrated Development Environment for Windows] * [http://www.gnavi.org/ GNAVI Ada Visual RAD] * [http://www.martincarlisle.com/a_sharp.html A#: Ada on .NET] {{Major programming languages small}} [[Category:.NET programming languages]] [[Category:Ada programming language|*Ada]] [[Category:Algol programming language family]] [[Category:ANSI standards]] [[Category:Concurrent programming languages]] [[Category:Imperative programming languages]] [[Category:ISO standards]] [[Category:Multi-paradigm programming languages]] [[Category:Object-oriented programming languages]] [[Category:Procedural programming languages]] [[Category:Programming languages]] [[Category:Statically-typed programming languages]] [[Category:Systems programming languages]] [[bg:Ada]] [[ca:Ada]] [[cs:Ada]] [[da:Ada (programmeringssprog)]] [[de:Ada (Programmiersprache)]] [[es:Lenguaje de programación Ada]] [[fi:Ada]] [[fr:Ada (langage)]] [[gl:Ada]] [[he:עדה (שפת תכנות)]] [[it:Ada]] [[ja:Ada]] [[nl:Ada]] [[nn:programmeringsspråket Ada]] [[no:Ada]] [[pl:Ada (informatyka)]] [[pt:Linguagem de programação Ada]] [[ru:Ада (язык программирования)]] [[sk:Ada (programovací jazyk)]] [[sl:Ada (programski jezik)]] [[sv:Ada (programspråk)]] [[th:ภาษา Ada]] [[tr:Ada programlama dili]] [[uk:Мова програмування Ada]] [[zh:Ada]] 1245 15899740 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Trelvis 15 moving content to better name #REDIRECT [[Alpha particle]] 1246 38220756 2006-02-04T23:56:29Z D6 75561 adding [[category:Living people]] '''Alfonso Arau''' (born [[January 11]], [[1932]]) is a [[Mexico|Mexican]] director of such films as ''[[Zapata: The Dream of a Hero]]'', ''[[Like Water for Chocolate]]'' (Mexico, 1992) (the novel of which was, somewhat [[Irony|ironically]], written by his wife, [[Laura Esquivel]]), and ''[[A Walk in the Clouds]]'', which starred [[Keanu Reeves]] and [[Anthony Quinn]]. He is also an actor. Among others, he had the antagonic role of "El Guapo" in ¡[[Three Amigos]]! (USA, 1986), a comedy with [[Martin Short]], [[Steve Martin]], and [[Chevy Chase]]. He also played Captain Herrera in [[Sam Peckinpah]]'s 1969 western, [[The Wild Bunch]]. In 1973 he acted and directed ''Calzónzin Inspector'', a movie based on a Mexican comic called ''Los Supermachos'', of great Mexican cartoonist [[Rius]], although Rius disapproved the movie. The movie is about two indigenous Mexicans who are confused for government inspectors from the capital by the corrupt mayor of a small town, and is an humorous political critique, aimed squarely at then ruling party [[Partido Revolucionario Institucional|PRI]] and its [[cacique|caciques]], in a time when freedom of speech in regard to political matters was highly restricted. There are at least two versions of the movie, the shorter one having some scenes deleted, the most notable one shows the killing of a renegade farmer by a policeman shooting at his back. A notable movie was ''El rincón de las vírgenes'' (Mexico, 1972), "The Virgins' Corner" where he plays the helper to a fake mystical doctor travelling town to town, remembering their travels when a group of women intend to propose the doctor for sainthood. The movie is set in the 1920's in rural Mexico. In December 2004 the Santa Fe Film Festival bestowed its Luminaria Award for lifetime achievement in cinema to Alfonso Arau as a cornerstone to its five-day festival. Jon Bowman, executive director of the Santa Fe Film Festival said, "Arau is truly a renaissance artist, with a deep and innate understanding of all phases of the cinematic medium." ==External links== *[http://aarau.8m.com Alfonso Arau Web Site] *{{imdb name|id=0000778|name=Alfonso Arau}} *[http://www.tvtome.com/tvtome/servlet/PersonDetail/personid-165003/ Alfonso Arau TV Tome Guide] *[http://santafefilmfestival.com/ Santa Fe Film Festival] [[Category:1932 births|Arau, Alfonso]] [[Category:Living people|Arau, Alfonso]] [[Category:Mexican film directors|Arau, Alfonso]] 1247 40408375 2006-02-20T09:19:04Z Tskoge 174597 rv. [[Wikipedia:External links|MoS]] and simple math [[Image: Acuaron.jpg|200px|thumb|Alfonso Cuaron]]'''Alfonso Cuarón Orozco''' (born [[November 28]], [[1961]] in [[Mexico City]], [[Mexico]]) is a Mexican [[film director]]. Alfonso Cuarón grew up in the city as well; he went on to study both filmmaking and philosophy at the [[National Autonomous University of Mexico]]. After graduating, Cuaron began working in television in Mexico, first as a technician and then as a director. Cuaron's television work led to assignments as an assistant director for several [[Latin American]] film productions (including ''[[Gaby: A True Story]]'' and ''[[Romero]]''), and in 1991, he landed his first big-screen directorial assignment. ''[[Solo con tu pareja]]'' was a dark comedy about a womanizing businessman who learns he's contracted [[AIDS]]; the film was a massive hit in Mexico, and was enthusiastically received around the world. Director [[Sydney Pollack]] was impressed enough with ''[[Solo con tu pareja]]'' that he hired Cuaron to direct an episode of ''[[Fallen Angels]]'', a series of neo-noir stories produced for the Showtime premium cable network in 1993; other directors who worked on the series included [[Steven Soderbergh]], [[Jonathan Kaplan]], [[Peter Bogdanovich]], and [[Tom Hanks]]. In 1995, Cuarón released his first feature film produced in the United States, ''[[A Little Princess (1995 film)|A Little Princess]]'', an adaptation of [[Frances Hodgson Burnett]]'s classic novel. Cuaron's next feature was also a literary adaptation, a modernized version of [[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[Great Expectations]]'' starring [[Ethan Hawke]], [[Gwyneth Paltrow]], and [[Robert De Niro]]. Cuarón's next project found him making a severe left turn; shot in [[Mexico]] with a Spanish-speaking cast, ''[[Y tu mamá también]]'' was a funny, provocative, and controversial road comedy about two sexually obsessed teenagers who take an extended road trip with an attractive woman in her thirties. The film's open portrayal of sexuality and frequent rude humor, as well as the politically and socially relevant asides, made the film an international hit and a major success with critics. He also directed the third film in the successful ''[[Harry Potter]]'' series, ''[[Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (movie)|Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban]]''. Cuarón has faced criticism amongst the more puritanical Potter fans for "ruining" the Prisoner of Azkaban film; given that the first two instalments, helmed by [[Chris Columbus]], had adhered stringently to the books, Cuarón's rather more individualistic film (which brought with it a far darker tone, costume changes, omitted subplots and other changes to the accepted continuity) came as something of a shock to many fans. However, author [[J.K. Rowling]] has said that this movie is so far her personal favorite from the series, and remained the most critically lauded of the blockbuster series. His next feature will be ''[[The Children of Men (film)|The Children of Men]]'' an adaptation of the [[P.D. James]] novel of the [[The Children of Men|same name]]. == Filmography == * ''[[The Children of Men (film)|The Children of Men]]'' (2006) * ''[[Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (movie)|Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban]]'' (2003) * ''[[Y tu mamá también]]'' (2001) * ''[[Great Expectations (film)|Great Expectations]]'' (1998) * ''[[A Little Princess (1995 film)|A Little Princess]]'' (1995) * ''[[Solo con tu pareja]]'' (1991) == External link == * {{imdb name|id=0190859|name=Alfonso Cuarón}} [[Category:1961 births|Cuaron, Alfonso]] [[Category:Living people|Cuaron, Alfonso]] [[Category:Mexican film directors|Cuaron, Alfonso]] [[Category:UNAM alumni|Cuaron, Alfonso]] [[Category:People from Mexico City|Cuaron, Alfonso]] [[Category:Writing Original Screenplay Oscar Nominee|Cuaron, Alfonso]] [[de:Alfonso Cuarón]] [[es:Alfonso Cuarón]] [[fr:Alfonso Cuarón]] [[ja:&#12450;&#12523;&#12501;&#12457;&#12531;&#12477;&#12539;&#12461;&#12517;&#12450;&#12525;&#12531;]] [[no:Alfonso Cuarón]] 1251 41683017 2006-03-01T01:08:37Z Habsfannova 90869 /* Opposition leader */ {{Infobox PM | name=Rt. Hon. Arthur Meighen | image=ArthurMeighenheadshot.jpg | country=Canada | term=[[July 10]], [[1920]] &ndash; [[December 29]], [[1921]]<br>[[June 29]], [[1926]] &ndash; [[September 25]], [[1926]] | before=[[Robert Laird Borden|Robert Borden]]<br>[[William Lyon Mackenzie King|Mackenzie King]] | after=[[William Lyon Mackenzie King|Mackenzie King]] | date_birth=[[June 16]], [[1874]] | place_birth=[[Anderson, Ontario|Anderson]], [[Ontario]] | date_death=[[August 5]], [[1960]] | place_death=[[Toronto]], [[Ontario]] | party=[[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative]], [[Unionist Party (Canada)|Unionist]] }} '''Arthur Meighen''', [[Queen's Privy Council for Canada|PC]] , [[Queen's Counsel|QC]] , [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] , [[Doctor of Laws|LL.D]] ([[June 16]], [[1874]] – [[August 5]], [[1960]]) was the ninth [[Prime Minister of Canada]] from [[July 10]], [[1920]], to [[December 29]], [[1921]], and [[June 29]] to [[September 25]], [[1926]]. He was the first Prime Minister from [[Western Canada]] and the only, so far, from the Province of [[Manitoba]]. Both of his terms were brief, and the second was unprecedented and arose partially out of conflicts between the [[Governor General of Canada]] and Meighen's rival, [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]]. ==Background== Meighen was born in [[Anderson, Ontario|Anderson]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]. He graduated from the [[University of Toronto]], earning a B.A. in [[Mathematics]] in [[1896]]. In [[1904]] he married [[Isabel J. Cox]] ([[1882]] - [[1985]]) with whom he had two sons and one daughter. In 1990, one of his grandsons, [[Michael Meighen]] was appointed to the [[Canadian Senate]] on the recommendation of Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]]. Meighen experimented in several professions, including those of teacher, lawyer and businessman, before becoming involved in politics as a member of the [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservatives]]. In public, Meighen was a top class debater, and was known for his sharp wit. ==Cabinet== He was first elected to the [[Canadian House of Commons]] in [[1908]], defeating incumbent [[John Crawford]] in the [[Manitoba]] riding of [[Portage La Prairie]]. He was re-elected in 1908 and [[1911]], and again in 1913 after being appointed [[Solicitor-General]] (at the time, newly appointed Ministers had to seek re-election). Meighen served as Solicitor-General from [[June 26]], [[1913]], until [[August 25]], [[1917]], when he was appointed [[Minister of Mines]] and [[Secretary of State for Canada]]. In 1917, he was mainly responsible for implementing [[Conscription Crisis of 1917|conscription]]. Noteworthy was the government's decision to give votes to conscription supporters (soldiers and their families), while denying that right to potential opponents of conscription such as immigrants. He was again shifted on [[October 12]], [[1917]], this time to the positions of [[Minister of the Interior]] and [[Superintendent of Indian Affairs]]. As Minister of the Interior, he steered the largest piece of legislation ever enacted in the British Commonwealth through Parliament - creating the Canadian National Railway Company, which continues today. Meighen was re-appointed [[Minister of Mines]] on the last day of [[1920]]. In [[1919]], as acting [[Minister of Justice (Canada)|Minister of Justice]] and senior Manitoban in the government of Sir [[Robert Laird Borden]], Meighen helped put down the [[Winnipeg General Strike of 1919|Winnipeg General Strike]] by force. ==First Term== Meighen became leader of the [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative]] and [[Unionist Party (Canada)|Unionist]] Party and [[Prime Minister]] on [[July 7]], [[1920]], when Borden resigned. He would quickly call an election. Meighen fought the [[Canadian federal election, 1921|1921 election]] under the banner of the [[National Liberal and Conservative Party]] in an attempt to keep the allegiance of Liberals who had supported the [[World War I|wartime]] Unionist government. However, his actions in implementing Conscription hurt his party's already-weak support in Quebec, while the Winnipeg General Strike and farm tariffs made him unpopular among labour and farmers alike. The party was defeated by the [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberals]] led by [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], and Meighen was personally defeated in [[Portage La Prairie]], falling to third place behind the newly-formed Progressive Party. He continued to lead the Conservative Party (which had reverted to its traditional name), and returned to parliament in [[1922]] for the eastern [[Ontario]] riding of [[Grenville County, Ontario|Grenville]]. ==Opposition leader== [[Image:Meighen biopg1 large.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Meighen was cast by opponents, especially in Quebec, as beholden to Britain's colonial actions.]] Meighen's term as opposition leader would be most marked by his response to the [[Chanak Affair|crisis at Chanak]], in which Colonial secretary [[Winston Churchill]] leaked to the newspapers that the Dominions may be called upon to help British forces in the area. King refused to commit to sending troops, resenting the way Churchill went above the Dominion leader's heads. King used the rationale that Parliament should decide, and that the matter was not important enough to recall Parliament. Meighen strongly condemned his action, saying in a Toronto hotel, "When Britain's messgage came, then Canada should have said, 'Ready, aye ready, we stand by you.'" When the crisis died down within days, Meighen was left with a reputation as blindly in favour of Britain's interests. Meighen and King, unlike Laurier and Borden, had a very personal distrust and hatred for each other. Megihen looked down on King, whom he called "Rex" (King's old University nickname), and considered him unprinicpled. The Liberal government of Mackenzie King was soon beset with scandals and corruption. Much of this was uncovered in a Royal Commission established to probe wrongdoing in Quebec, and in particular, in connection with building the Beauharnois Canal. The [[Tories]] won a plurality of seats in the [[Canadian federal election, 1925 |inconclusive election of 1925]], but King was able to hold onto to power until [[1926]] through an alliance with the [[Progressive Party of Canada|Progressives]]. Meighen denounced King staying in power, saying he was holding on to office like a "lobster with lockjaw." ==Second term== A scandal in the Customs department was soon found, making the Progressives wary of supporting King. When King was on the verge of losing a vote in the Commons in 1926, he asked the Governor General, [[Julian H.G. Byng, Viscount Byng of Vimy|Lord Byng]], to call an election. Despite every effort to cling to power, Mackenzie King's shaky government was defeated in the House of Commons. King resigned and Meighen was invited to form a government, having secured a measure of support from the opposition farm parties. This became known as the "[[King-Byng Affair]]", an attack by Mackenzie King on the Governor General's right to refuse an election where an alternative government is capable of commanding the support of the House of Commons. Because of the possibility of losing a vote in Commons while Megihen and his ministers were re-elected (a relic of British law dating to 1701 that was repealed in Canada in 1938), Meighen made his ministers "acting" ones, and did not give them the oath of office. King made an uproar about the situation, attracting Progressive support to take down the government. The government would lose confidence by one vote. There being no other Parliamentary grouping to call upon, Byng called an election. Meighan's party was swept from office, and Meighen was again defeated in [[Portage La Prairie]]. He resigned as Conservative Party leader shortly thereafter. ==Afterward== [[Image:Meighen56.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Meighen in 1956.]] Meighen was appointed to the [[Senate of Canada|Senate]] in 1932 by [[R.B. Bennett]]. He served as Leader of the Government in the Senate and Minister without Portfolio from [[February 3]], [[1932]], to [[October 22]], [[1935]]. In 1941, Meighen was prevailed upon to become leader of the Conservative Party again. He resigned his Senate seat on [[January 16]], [[1942]], and campaigned in a by-election for the [[Toronto]] riding of [[York South]]. According to custom, the Liberals would not run a candidate in the riding. But King, still harbouring a deep hatred for Meighen and thinking that the ardently conscriptionist Meighen coming back into Commons would further imflame the [[Conscription Crisis of 1944|conscription crisis]], would send resources to the [[Cooperative Commonwealth Federation|CCF]]'s [[Joseph Noseworthy]]. Meighen would go down to defeat, and once again withdrew from public life. Arthur Meighen died in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], aged 86, on [[August 5]], [[1960]], and was buried in St. Mary's Cemetery, St. Mary's, Ontario, near his birthplace. == External links == *[http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=42122 Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online''] *[http://www.freewebtown.com/stmarysont/ Arthur Meighen Statue, St. Mary's, Ontario] {{start box}} {{succession box three to two | title1=[[Prime Minister of Canada]] | before=[[Robert Laird Borden|Robert Borden]] | years1=1920&ndash;1921 | after1=[[William Lyon Mackenzie King|Mackenzie King]] | title2=[[Secretary of State for External Affairs (Canada)|Secretary of State for External Affairs]] | years2=1920 &ndash; 1921 | title3=[[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Leader of the Conservative Party]] | years3=1920 &ndash; 1926 | after2=[[Hugh Guthrie]]}} {{succession box two to two | title1=[[Prime Minister of Canada]] | before=[[William Lyon Mackenzie King|Mackenzie King]] | years1=1926 | after=[[William Lyon Mackenzie King|Mackenzie King]] | title2=[[Secretary of State for External Affairs (Canada)|Secretary of State for External Affairs]] | years2=1926}} {{succession box| before=[[John Alexander Macdonald (Canadian Senator)|John Alexander Macdonald]]| title=[[Leader of the Government in the Senate (Canada)|Government Leader in the Senate]]| after=[[Raoul Dandurand]]| years=1932 &ndash; 1935 }} {{succession box | title=[[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Leader of the Conservative Party]] | before=[[Richard Hanson]] | years=1941&ndash;1942 | after=[[John Bracken]]}} {{end box}} {{start box}} {{succession box| before=John Crawford| title=[[Portage la Prairie (electoral district)|MP for Portage la Prairie, MB]]| after=Harry Leader| years=1908 &ndash; 1921 }} {{succession box| before=Azra Casselman| title=[[Grenville (electoral district)|MP for Grenville, ON]]| after=Abolished| years=1922 &ndash; 1925 }} {{succession box| before=Harry Leader| title=[[Portage la Prairie (electoral district)|MP for Portage la Prairie, MB]]| after=Ewen Alexander McPherson| years=1925 &ndash; 1926 }} {{end box}} {{canPM}} {{Conservative Leaders}} [[Category:1874 births|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:1960 deaths|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:Canadian lawyers|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:Historical Members of the Canadian Senate|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:Leaders of the Conservative Party of Canada|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:Manitoba politicians|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:Members of the Canadian House of Commons from Manitoba|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:Members of the Canadian House of Commons from Ontario|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:People from Manitoba|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:Prime Ministers of Canada|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:University of Toronto alumni|Meighen, Arthur]] [[Category:Irish Canadians|Meighen, Arthur]] {{Persondata |NAME=Meighen, Arthur |ALTERNATIVE NAMES= |SHORT DESCRIPTION=9th Prime Minister of Canada (1920 - 1921, 1926) |DATE OF BIRTH=[[June 16]], [[1874]] |PLACE OF BIRTH=[[[[Anderson, Ontario]] |DATE OF DEATH=[[August 5]], [[1960]] |PLACE OF DEATH=[[Toronto, Canada]] }} [[fr:Arthur Meighen]] [[pl:Arthur Meighen]] [[pt:Arthur Meighen]] 1252 39247296 2006-02-11T20:55:44Z Str1977 244946 {{Christianity}} :'' This article is about theological views like those of Arius. [[Aryan]] is an unrelated ethnic concept.'' :''Arians may also refer to [[Polish brethren]].'' '''Arianism''' was a [[Christology|Christological]] view held by followers of [[Arius]], a Christian priest who lived and taught in [[Alexandria]], Egypt, in the early [[4th century]]. Arius taught that [[God the Father#God the Father in Christianity|God the Father]] and [[Godhead (Christianity)|the Son]] were not co-eternal, seeing the [[Incarnation#As used in the Christian tradition|pre-incarnate]] [[Jesus]] as a divine being but nonetheless created by (and consequently inferior to) the Father at some point, before which the Son did not exist. In English-language works, it is sometimes said that Arians believe that Jesus is or was a "creature"; in this context, the word is being used in its original sense of "created being." The conflict between Arianism and the [[Trinitarianism|Trinitarian]] beliefs was the first major doctrinal confrontation in the Church after the legalization of Christianity by Emperor [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine I]]. Controversy over Arianism extended over the greater part of the fourth century and involved most church members, simple believers and monks as well as bishops and emperors. While Arianism did dominate for several decades in the family of the Emperor, the Imperial nobility and higher ranking clergy, in the end it was Trinitarianism which prevailed theologically and politically at the end of the fourth century, and which has since been a virtually uncontested doctrine in all major branches of the Eastern and Western Church. Arianism, which had been taught by the Arian missionary [[Ulfilas]] to the Germanic tribes, did linger for some centuries among several Germanic tribes in western Europe, especially [[Goths]] and [[Langobards]] but did not play any significant theological role thereafter. ==Beliefs== Because most contemporary written material on Arianism was written by its opponents, the nature of Arius' teachings are difficult to define precisely today. The letter of [[Auxentius]][http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/texts/auxentius.trans.html], a [[4th century]] Arian [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan|bishop of Milan]], regarding the missionary [[Ulfilas]], gives the clearest picture of Arian beliefs on the nature of the [[Trinity]]: God the Father ("unbegotten"), always existing, was separate from the lesser Jesus Christ ("only-begotten"), born before time began and creator of the world. The Father, working through the Son, created the Holy Spirit, who was subservient to the Son as the Son was to the Father. The Father was seen as "the only true God." I Corinthians 8:5-6 was cited as proof text: :"Indeed, even though there may be so-called gods in heaven or on earth — as in fact there are many gods and many lords — yet for us there is one God (''theos''), the Father, from whom are all things and for whom we exist, and one Lord (''kyrios''), Jesus Christ, through whom are all things and through whom we exist." (NRSV) == The Council of Nicea and its aftermath == In [[321]] Arius was denounced by a [[synod]] at Alexandria for teaching a heterodox view of the relationship of Jesus to God the Father. Because Arius and his followers had great influence in the schools of Alexandria &mdash; counterparts to modern universities or seminaries &mdash; their theological views spread, especially in the eastern Mediterranean. By [[325]] the controversy had become significant enough that Emperor Constantine called an assembly of bishops, the [[First Council of Nicea|First]] [[Ecumenical council|Council]] of [[Nicaea]] (modern Iznik, Turkey), which condemned Arius' doctrine and formulated the [[Nicene Creed]], which is still recited in [[Catholicism|Catholic]], [[Orthodox]], and some [[Protestant]] services. The Nicene Creed's central term, used to describe the relationship between the Father and the Son, is [[ousia|homoousios]], meaning "of the same substance" or "of one being". (The [[Athanasian Creed]] is less often used but is a more overtly anti-Arian statement on the Trinity.) Constantine exiled those who refused to accept the Nicean creed &mdash; Arius himself, the deacon [[Euzoios]], and the Libyan bishops [[Theonas of Ptolemais]] and [[Secundus of Mamarica]] &mdash; and also the bishops who signed the creed but refused to join in Arius' condemnation, [[Eusebius of Nicomedia]] and [[Theognis of Nicea]]. The Emperor also ordered all copies of the ''Thalia'', the book in which Arius had expressed his teachings, to be [[Book burning|burned]]. This ended the open theological dispute for a few years, though under the surface opposition to the Nicean creed remained. Though he was committed to maintaining what the church had defined at Nicea, Constantine was also bent on pacifying the situation and eventually became more lenient towards those condemned and exiled at the council. First he allowed Eusebius of Nicomedia, who was a prot&eacute;g&eacute; of his sister, and Theognis to return once they had signed an ambiguous statement of faith. The two, and other friends of Arius, worked for Arius' rehabilitation. At the synod of Tyre in [[335]] they brought accusations against Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, the primary opponent of Arius; after this, Constantine had [[Athanasius]] banished, since he considered him an impediment to reconciliation. In the same year, the synod of Jerusalem readmitted Arius to communion, and in [[336]], Constantine allowed Arius to return to his hometown. Arius, however, died on the day he was scheduled to depart from Constantinople. Eusebius and Theognis remained in the Emperor's favour, and when Constantine, who had been a [[catechumen]] much of his adult life, accepted [[baptism]] on his deathbed, it was from Eusebius of Nicomedia. == The theological debates reopen == The Council of Nicea had not ended the controversy, as many bishops of the Eastern provinces disputed the ''homoousios'', the central term of the Nicene creed, as it had been used by [[Paul of Samosata]], who had advocated a [[Monarchianism|monarchianist]] [[Christology]]. Both the man and his teaching, including the term ''homoousios'', had been condemned by synods in Antioch in [[269]]. Hence, after Constantine's death in [[337]], open dispute resumed again. Constantine's son Constantius II, who had become Emperor of the eastern part of the Empire actually encouraged the Arians and set out to reverse the Nicene creed. His advisor in these affairs was Eusebius of Nicomedia, who had already at the Council of Nicea been the head of the Arian party, who also was made bishop of Constantinople. Constantius used his power to exile bishops adhering to the Nicene creed, especially [[Athanasius]] of Alexandria, who fled to Rome. In [[355]] Constantius became the sole Emperor and extended his pro-Arian policy towards the western provinces, frequently using force to push through his creed, even exiling [[Pope Liberius]]. As debates raged in an attempt to come up with a new formula, three camps evolved among the opponents of the Nicene creed. The first group mainly opposed the Nicene terminology and preferred the term ''homoiousios'' (alike in substance) to the Nicene ''homoousios'', while they rejected Arius and his teaching and accepted the equality and coeternality of the persons of the Trinity. Because of this centrist position, and despite their rejection of Arius, they were called "semi-Arians" by their opponents. The second group also avoided invoking the name of Arius, but in large part followed Arius' teachings and, in another attempted compromise wording, described the Son as being like (''homoi'') the Father. A third group explicitly called upon Arius and described the Son as unlike (''anhomoi'') the Father. Constantius wavered in his support between the first and the second party, while harshly persecuting the third. The debates between these groups resulted in numerous synods among them [[Sardica]] in [[343]], the council of Sirmium in [[358]] and the double council of Rimini and Selecia in [[359]], and no less than fourteen further creed formulas between 340 and 360, and the pagan observer Ammianus Marcellinus commented sarcastically: "The highways were covered with galloping bishops." None of these attempts were acceptable to the defenders of Nicene orthodoxy: writing about the latter councils, Saint [[Jerome]] remarked that the world "awoke with a groan to find itself Arian." After Constantius' death in [[361]], his successor [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]], a devotee of [[Paganism|Rome's pagan gods]], declared that he would no longer attempt to favor one church faction over another, and allowed all exiled bishops to return; this had the objective of further increasing dissension among Christians. The Emperor [[Valens]], however, revived Constantius' policy and supported the "Homoian" party, exiling bishops and often using force. During this persecution many bishops were exiled to the other ends of the Empire, (e.g., [[Hilarius of Poitiers]] to the Eastern provinces). These contacts and the common plight subsequently led to a rapprochement between the Western supporters of the Nicene creed and the ''homoousios'' and the Eastern semi-Arians. After Valens' death in the [[Battle of Adrianople (378)|Battle of]] [[Adrianople]] in [[378]], the accession of [[Theodosius I]], who adhered to the Nicene creed, allowed for settling the dispute in [[381]]: at the [[Second Ecumenical Council]] in Constantinople, a group of mainly Eastern bishops assembled and accepted the Nicene Creed, which was supplemented in regard to the [[Holy Spirit]]. This is generally considered the end of the dispute about the Trinity and the end of Arianism among the Roman, non-Germanic peoples. == Nicene Christianity becomes the state religion of Rome == {{cleanup-merge}} In the 4th century, the Christian Church in the Roman Empire was wracked with controversy over the nature of the [[Trinity]]. In 325 AD, the [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicea]] had condemned the teachings of the theologian [[Arius]]: that Jesus was a created being and inferior to God the Father, and that the Father and Son were of a similar substance (''homoiousion'' in Greek) but not identical. The Council of Nicea had formulated the [[Nicene Creed]], which declared that Jesus and God the Father were of the same substance (''[[ousia|homoousion]]'' in Greek, a term which was condemned at the Council of Antioch in 264-268). The Council of Nicea did not settle these controversies, and by the time of Theodosius' accession, there were still several different church factions that sought to impose their views on Christianity as a whole. While no mainstream churchmen within the Empire explicitly adhered to Arius or his teachings, there were those who still used the ''homoiousion'' formula, as well as those who attempted to bypass the debate by merely saying that Jesus was like (''homoi'' in Greek) God the Father. All these non-Nicenes were frequently labeled as [[Arians]] (i.e., followers of Arius) by their opponents, though they would not have identified themselves as such. (For a succinct survey of the situation just before Theodosius' accession, see ''Failure of Empire,'' Noel Lenski (U. of California Press, 2002, ISBN 0520233328) pp. 235-237) The emperor Valens had favored the group who used the ''homoi'' formula; this theology was prominent in much of the East and had under the sons of Constantine the Great gained a foothold in the west. Theodosius, on the other hand, cleaved closely to the Nicene Creed: this was the line that predominated in the West and was held by the important Alexandrian church. Two days after Theodosius arrived in Constantinople, [[November 24]], [[380]], Theodosius expelled the non-Nicene bishop, [[Demophilus of Constantinople]], and surrendered the churches of that city to [[Gregory Nazianzus]], the leader of the small Nicene community there, an act which provoked rioting. Theodosius had just been baptized, by bishop Acholius of Thessalonica, during a severe illness, as was common in the early Christian world. In February he and Gratian published an edict that all their subjects should profess the faith of the bishops of Rome and Alexandria (i.e., the Nicene faith). Although much of the church hierarchy in the East had held non-Nicene positions in the decades leading up to Theodosius' accession, he managed to impose Nicene uniformity during his reign. Later Nicene writers took special glee in the ignominious death of Valens, the Arians' protector, and indeed his defeat probably damaged the standing of the Homoian faction. For the first part of his rule, Theodosius seems to have ignored the semi-official standing of the Christian bishops; in fact he had voiced his support for the preservation of temples or pagan statues as useful public buildings. Then, in a series of decrees called the '''Theodosian decrees''' he progressively declared that those pagan feasts that had not yet been rendered Christian ones were now to be workdays (in [[389]]). In [[391]], he outlawed [[Animal sacrifice|blood sacrifice]] and decreed "no one is to go to the sanctuaries, walk through the temples, or raise his eyes to statues created by the labor of man". The temples that were thus closed could be declared "abandoned" as Bishop [[Theophilus of Alexandria]] immediately noted in applying for permission to demolish a site and cover it with a Christian church, an act that must have received general sanction, for [[Mithraism|mithraea]] forming crypts of churches and temples forming the foundations of 5th century churches appear throughout the former Roman Empire. Theodosius participated in actions by Christians against major cult sites: the destruction of the gigantic [[Serapeum]] of Alexandria and its library by a mob in around [[392]], authorized by Theodosius (''extirpium malum'') and described in exultant detail by Christian propagandists, was only the most spectacular such occasion (Peter Brown, ''The Rise of Western Christendom,'' 2003, p. 73-74). The destruction of the greatest temple in Alexandria gave encouragement to Christian vigilantism and mob action in other centers, often spurred on by the local bishops, as early hagiographies proudly relate. By decree in 391, Theodosius ended the subsidies that had still trickled to some remnants of Greco-Roman civic paganism too. The [[Sacred fire of Vesta|eternal fire]] in the [[Vesta|Temple of Vesta]] in the [[Roman Forum]] was extinguished, and the [[Vestal Virgins]] were disbanded. Taking the auspices and practicing witchcraft were to be punished. Pagan members of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] in Rome appealed to him to restore the [[Altar of Victory]] in the Senate House; he refused. After the last [[Ancient Olympic Games|Olympic Games]] in [[393]], Theodosius cancelled the much-diminished games, and the reckoning of dates by [[Olympiad]]s soon came to an end. Now Theodosius portrayed himself on his coins holding the [[labarum]]. The apparent change of policy that resulted in the "Theodosian decrees" has often been credited to the increased influence of [[Ambrose]], [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan|bishop of Milan]]. The personal piety of Theodosius cannot be assessed. It is worth noting that in 390 Ambrose had excommunicated Theodosius, who had recently ordered the massacre of several thousand inhabitants of [[Thessalonica]], in response to the assassination of his military governor stationed in the city and that Theodosius performed several months of public penance. The specifics of the decrees were superficially limited in scope, specific measures in response to various petitions and accusations from the increasingly militant Christians throughout his administration. In 391 or 392 he officially sanctioned the destruction of the most famous of the temples in the East, the [[Serapeum]] at Alexandria. Bands of monks and Christian officials had long been accustomed to take the law into their own hands and destroy various centers of pagan worship, but the destruction of the Serapeum seemed to confirm that such actions enjoyed the emperor's tacit approval at least, and served to encourage such action in the future. Theodosius had been effectively manipulated into sanctioning the destruction of the Serapeum by local officials who had essentially engineered the crisis there for this very purpose. Ambrose preached a [[panegyric]] at Theodosius' [[funeral]]. == Arianism in the early medieval Germanic kingdoms == However, during the time of Arianism's flowering in [[Constantinople]], the [[Goths|Goth]] convert [[Ulfilas]] (later the subject of the letter of Auxentius cited above) was sent as a missionary to the Gothic barbarians across the [[Danube River|Danube]], a mission favored for political reasons by emperor [[Constantius]]. Ulfilas' initial success in converting this Germanic people to an Arian form of Christianity was strengthened by later events. When the Germanic peoples entered the [[Roman Empire]] and founded successor-kingdoms in the western part, most had been Arian Christians for more than a century. The conflict in the 4th century had seen Arian and Nicene factions struggling for control of the Church; in contrast, in the kingdoms these Arian Germans established on the wreckage of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, there were entirely separate Arian and Nicene Churches with parallel hierarchies, each serving different sets of believers, the Germanic elites being Arians and the majority population being trinitarian. Many scholars see the persistence of the Germans' Arian religion as a strategy to differentiate the Germanic elite from the local inhabitants and maintain their group identity against the local culture. While most Germanic tribes in general were tolerant regarding the trinitarian beliefs of their subjects, the Vandals tried for several decennia to force their Arian belief on their North African trinitarian subjects, exiling trinitarian clergy, dissolving monasteries and exercising heavy pressure on non-conforming Christians. For more information on these Arian kingdoms, see the articles on the [[Ostrogoths]], [[Visigoths]], [[Vandals]], [[Burgundians]], and [[Lombards]]. (The [[Franks]] were unique among the Germanic peoples in that they entered the empire as pagans and converted to Nicene Christianity directly.) By the beginning of the [[8th century]], these kingdoms had either been conquered by Nicene neighbors (Ostrogoths, Vandals, Burgundians) or their rulers had accepted Nicene Christianity (Visigoths, Lombards). == "Arian" as a polemical epithet == In many ways, the conflict around Arian beliefs in the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries helped firmly define the centrality of the Trinity in mainstream Christian theology. As the first major intra-Christian conflict after Christianity's legalization, the struggle between Nicenes and Arians left a deep impression on the institutional memory of Nicene churches. Thus, over the past 1,500 years, some Christians have used the term ''Arian'' to refer to those groups that see themselves as worshipping Jesus Christ or respecting his teachings, but do not hold to the [[Nicene creed]]. Like the Arians, many groups have embraced the belief that Jesus is not the one God, but a separate being subordinate to the Father, and that Jesus at one time did not exist. Some of these profess, as the Arians did, that God made all things through the pre-existent Christ. Some profess that Jesus became divine, through exaltation, just as the Arians believed. Drawing a parallel between these groups and Arians can be useful for distinguishing a type of unbelief in the Trinity. But, despite the frequency with which this name is used as a polemical label, there has been no historically continuous survival of Arianism into the modern era. The groups so labelled do not hold beliefs identical to Arianism. For this reason, they do not use the name as a self-description, even if they acknowledge that their beliefs are at points in agreement with, or in broad terms similar to, Arianism. Those whose religious beliefs have been compared to or labeled as Arianism include: *[[Unitarianism|Unitarians]], who believe that God is one as opposed to a Trinity, and many of whom believe in the moral authority, but not the deity, of Jesus. *[[Jehovah's Witnesses]], who hold that at one point in time Jesus did not exist. *[[Christadelphians]], who believe that Jesus' pre-natal existence was conceptual, as the "Logos", rather than literal. *Followers of the various churches of the [[Latter Day Saint movement]], who believe in the unity in purpose of the Godhead but that Jesus is a divine being separate from and subordinate to God the Father. *[[Islam|Muslims]], who believe that Jesus (generally called [[Isa]]), was a prophet of the one God, but not himself divine. For more on the theology of these groups, see their respective articles. ==See also== * [[Germanic Christianity]] * [[Protestantism]] * [[Semi-Arianism]] * [[Anomoean]], extreme sect of pure Arians * [[Christology]] == Bibliography == * [[Athanasius of Alexandria]], ''History of the Arians'' [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-47.htm Part I] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-48.htm Part II] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-49.htm Part III] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-50.htm Part IV] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-51.htm Part V] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-52.htm Part VI] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-53.htm Part VII] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-54.htm Part VIII] * Ivor J. Davidson, ''A Public Faith'', Volume 2 of Baker History of the Church, 2005, ISBN 0801012759 * J.N.D. Kelly, ''Early Christian Doctrines'', 1978, ISBN 006064334X * William C. Rusch, ''The Trinitarian Controversy'', (Sources of Early Christian Thought), 1980, ISBN 0800614100 * [[John Henry Newman]], ''[http://www.newmanreader.org/works/arians/index.html Arians of the Fourth Century]'', 1871 * [[Philip Schaff|Schaff, Philip]] ''[http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/history/3_ch09.htm Theological Controversies and the Development of Orthodoxy]'', History of the Christian Church, Vol III, Ch. IX ==External links== *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01707c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Arianism] *[http://mb-soft.com/believe/txo/arianism.htm Believe: Arianism] [[Category:Ancient Christian Denominations]] [[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]] [[Category:Antitrinitarianism]] [[Category:Arianism]] [[Category:Christian theology]] [[Category:Heresy]] [[Category:Late Antiquity]] [[bg:Арианство]] [[cs:Ariánství]] [[da:Arianisme]] [[de:Arianismus]] [[eo:Arianismo]] [[es:Arrianismo]] [[fi:Areiolaisuus]] [[fr:Arianisme]] [[gl:Arianismo]] [[he:המינות האריאנית]] [[ia:Arianismo]] [[it:Arianesimo]] [[ja:アリウス派]] [[nl:Arianisme]] [[no:Arianisme]] [[pl:Arianizm]] [[pt:Arianismo]] [[ru:Арианство]] [[sv:Arianism]] [[zh:阿里烏教派]] 1254 41892543 2006-03-02T12:16:13Z Furry 461810 /* Births */ Added birth of Lionel Bart in 1930. {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=1}} |} '''August 1''' is the 213th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (214th in [[leap year]]s), with 152 days remaining. ==Events== *[[30 BC]] - [[Octavian]] (later known as [[Augustus]]) enters [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]], bringing it under the control of the [[Roman Republic]]. *[[527]] - [[Justinian I]] becomes [[Byzantine Emperor]]. *[[607]] - [[Ono no Imoko]] is dispatched as envoy to the [[Sui Dynasty|Sui]] court in [[China]] (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: July 3, 607). *[[1291]] - The [[Switzerland|Swiss Confederation]] is formed. *[[1461]] - [[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]] is crowned king of [[England]]. *[[1492]] - [[Ferdinand V of Spain|Ferdinand]] and [[Isabella of Castile|Isabella]] drive the [[Jew|Jews]] out of [[Spain]]. *[[1498]] - [[Christopher Columbus]] becomes the first European to visit [[Venezuela]]. *[[1619]] - First African [[slavery|slave]]s arrive in [[Jamestown, Virginia]]. *[[1664]] - The [[Ottoman Empire]] is defeated in the [[Battle of Saint Gotthard]] by an [[Habsburg Monarchy|Austria]]n army led by [[Raimondo Montecuccoli]], resulting in the [[Peace of Vasvár]]. *[[1774]] - The element [[oxygen]] is discovered by [[Carl Wilhelm]] and [[Joseph Priestley]]. *[[1798]] - [[Battle of the Nile]] starts between French and British fleets. *[[1820]] - [[London]]'s [[Regent's Canal]] opens. *[[1831]] - [[London Bridge]] opens. *[[1832]] - The [[Black Hawk War]] ends. *[[1834]] - [[Slavery]] is abolished in the [[British Empire]]. *[[1838]] - Slaves in [[Trinidad and Tobago]] are emancipated. *[[1864]] - The [[Elgin Watch Company]] is founded in [[Elgin, Illinois]] *[[1876]] - [[Colorado]] is admitted as the 38th [[U.S. state]]. *[[1894]] - The [[Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)|First Sino-Japanese War]] erupts between [[Japan]] and [[China]] over [[Korea]]. *[[1902]] - The [[United States]] buys the rights to the [[Panama Canal]] from [[France]]. *[[1907]] - First [[Scouting|Scout]] camp opens on [[Brownsea Island]]. It was set up on July 29th and ran until August 9th. *[[1914]] - [[Germany]] declares war on [[Russia]] at the opening of [[World War I]]. *[[1927]] - The [[Nanchang Uprising]] marks the first significant battle in the [[Chinese Civil War]] between the [[Kuomintang]] and [[Communist Party of China]]. This day is commemorated as the anniversary of the founding of the [[People's Liberation Army]]. *[[1936]] - The [[Berlin]] [[Olympic Games]] open. *[[1937]] - [[Tito]] reads the resolution "[[Manifesto]] of constitutional [[congress]] of KPH" to the constitutive [[congress]] of KPH ([[Croatian Communist Party]]) in woods near [[Samobor]]. *[[1941]] - The first [[Jeep]] is produced. *[[1944]] - [[Anne Frank]] makes the last entry in her [[diary]]. *1944 - [[Warsaw Uprising]] against the [[Nazi]] occupation breaks out in [[Warsaw]], [[Poland]]. *[[1945]] - [[Mel Ott]] becomes the third member of the [[500 home run club]] with a [[Home run|home run]] at the [[Polo Grounds]] in [[New York, New York]]. *[[1946]] - The Japanese Federation of Trade Unions is formed. *[[1948]] - The [[U.S. Air Force Office of Special Investigations]] is founded. *[[1957]] - The United States and [[Canada]] form the North American Air Defense Command ([[North American Aerospace Defense Command|NORAD]]). *[[1960]] - [[Dahomey]] (later renamed [[Benin]]) declares independence from [[France]] ** [[Communist party|Communist]] [[Party of Independence and Work|PAI]] is banned in [[Senegal]]. *[[1961]] - [[Six Flags Over Texas]], the first [[Six Flags]] [[amusement park|park]], opens. *[[1965]] - Princess [[Beatrix of the Netherlands|Beatrix]] of the [[Netherlands]] announces her engagement to [[Claus von Amsberg]]. *[[1966]] - [[Charles Whitman]] kills 15 people shooting from a tower at the [[University of Texas at Austin]] before being killed by the police. *1966 - Purges of intellectuals and imperialists becomes official [[People's Republic of China]] policy at the beginning of the [[Cultural Revolution]]. *[[1967]] - [[Israel]] annexes East [[Jerusalem]]. *[[1970]] - [[Powder Ridge Rock Festival]] *[[1971]] - [[George Harrison]]'s [[The Concert for Bangladesh|Concert for Bangladesh]] in New York City features, among others, [[Bob Dylan]], [[Eric Clapton]], [[Ringo Starr]] and [[Leon Russell]]. *[[1975]] - [[CSCE Final Act]] creates the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|Conference for Security and Co-operation in Europe]]. *[[1977]] - [[Frank H.T. Rhodes]] is elected President of [[Cornell University]], a post he would hold for 18 years. *[[1981]] - First broadcasts by [[MTV]]. The first video played was "[[Video Killed The Radio Star]]" by the [[Buggles]]. *[[1994]] - [[Michael Jackson]] and [[Lisa Marie Presley]] confirm rumors that they had married eleven weeks earlier. *[[1996]] - [[Olympic Games]]: [[Michael Johnson (athlete)|Michael Johnson]] wins the 200-meter dash in 19.32 seconds, beating the old world record by over 0.3 seconds. *1996 - [[MTV2]] makes its first broadcasts. The first video played was [[Beck]]'s "[[Where It's At]]". *[[2001]] - An agreement is reached on the position of the minority [[Albanian language]] in the [[Republic of Macedonia]]. *2001 - [[Bulgaria]], [[Cyprus]], [[Latvia]], [[Malta]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Slovakia]] join the [[European Environment Agency]]. *2001 - Alabama Supreme Court Chief Justice [[Roy Moore]] has a 2-1/2 ton [[Ten Commandments]] monument installed in the rotunda of the judiciary building, leading to a [[Glassroth v. Moore|lawsuit]] to have it removed and his own removal from office. *[[2004]] - A supermarket fire kills 215 people and injures 300 in [[Asunción]], [[Paraguay]]. *[[2005]] - [[German spelling reform of 1996]] is formally implemented *2005 - [[Disneyland Resort Line]] of the [[Hong Kong]] [[MTR]] opens to the public. ==Births== *[[10 BC]] - [[Claudius]], [[Roman Emperor]] (d. [[54]]) *[[126]] - [[Pertinax]], [[Roman Emperor]] (d. [[193]]) *[[1313]] - [[Emperor Kogon]] of Japan (d. [[1364]]) *[[1377]] - [[Emperor Go-Komatsu of Japan]] (d. [[1433]]) *[[1545]] - [[Andrew Melville]], Scottish theologian and religious reformer (b. [[1622]]) *[[1555]] - [[Edward Kelley]], English spirit medium (d. [[1597]]) *[[1579]] - [[Luís Vélez de Guevara]], Spanish writer (d. [[1644]]) *[[1630]] - [[Thomas Clifford, 1st Baron Clifford of Chudleigh]], English statesman (d. [[1673]]) *[[1713]] - [[Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]] (d. [[1780]]) *[[1714]] - [[Richard Wilson (painter)|Richard Wilson]], Welsh painter (d. [[1782]]) *[[1744]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]], French scientist (d. [[1829]]) *[[1770]] - [[William Clark]], American explorer (d. [[1838]]) *[[1779]] - [[Francis Scott Key]], American lawyer and lyricist (d. [[1843]]) *1779 - [[Lorenz Oken]], German naturalist (d. [[1851]]) *[[1815]] - [[Richard Henry Dana, Jr.]], American lawyer, politician, and author (d. [[1882]]) *[[1818]] - [[Maria Mitchell]], American astronomer (d. [[1889]]) *[[1819]] - [[Herman Melville]], American writer (d. [[1891]]) *[[1858]] - [[Hans Rott]], Austrian composer (d. [[1884]]) *[[1885]] - [[George de Hevesy]], Hungarian chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1966]]) *[[1889]] - [[Walter Gerlach]], German physicist (d. [[1979]]) *[[1891]] - [[Karl Kobelt]], Swiss politician (d. [[1968]]) *[[1921]] - [[Jack Kramer (tennis player)|Jack Kramer]], American tennis player *[[1922]] - [[Pat McDonald]], Australian actress (d. [[1990]]) *[[1924]] - [[Georges Charpak]], Ukrainian-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate *[[1925]] - [[Ernst Jandl]], Austrian writer (d. [[2000]]) *[[1927]] - [[Raymond Leppard]], English conductor *[[1930]] - [[Pierre Bourdieu]], French sociologist (d. [[2002]]) * 1930 - [[Lionel Bart]], English song-writer (d. [[1999]]) *[[1932]] - [[Meir Kahane]], American orthodox rabbi and founder of the Jewish Defense League (d. [[1990]]) *[[1933]] - [[Dom DeLuise]], American actor and comedian *[[1936]] - [[Yves Saint Laurent]], French fashion designer *[[1937]] - [[Al D'Amato]], U.S. Senator from New York *[[1942]] - [[Jerry Garcia]], American guitarist, lyricist, and singer (The [[Grateful Dead]]) (d. [[1995]]) *[[1945]] - [[Douglas D. Osheroff]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate *[[1946]] - [[Fiona Stanley]], Australian epidemiologist *[[1949]] - [[Kurmanbek Bakiyev]], President of Kyrgyzstan *[[1950]] - [[Jim Carroll]], American poet and actor *[[1952]] - [[Zoran Đinđić]], [[Prime Minister of Serbia]] (d. [[2003]]) *[[1953]] - [[Robert Cray]], American singer *[[1955]] - [[Trevor Berbick]], Jamaican boxer *[[1956]] - [[Tom Leykis]], American radio personality *[[1958]] - [[Adrian Dunbar]], Northern Irish actor *[[1959]] - [[Joe Elliott]], English musician ([[Def Leppard]]) *[[1960]] - [[Chuck D]], American rapper ([[Public Enemy]]) *1960 - [[Richard Roeper]], American newspaper columnist and film critic *[[1962]] - [[Robert Clift]], British field hockey player *[[1963]] - [[Coolio]], American rapper *[[1965]] - [[Sam Mendes]], British stage and film director *[[1970]] - [[David James (footballer)|David James]], English footballer *[[1973]] - [[Tempestt Bledsoe]], American actress *[[1978]] - [[Edgerrin James]], American football player ==Deaths== *[[371]] - [[St Eusebius of Vercelli]], Italian bishop *[[1137]] - King [[Louis VI of France]] (b. [[1081]]) *[[1227]] - [[Shimazu Tadahisa]], Japanese warlord (b. [[1179]]) *[[1402]] - [[Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York]], son of [[Edward III of England]] (b. [[1341]]) *[[1457]] - [[Lorenzo Valla]], Italian humanist *[[1464]] - [[Cosimo de' Medici]], ruler of Florence (b. [[1386]]) *[[1541]] - [[Simon Grynaeus]], German theologian (b. [[1493]]) *[[1546]] - [[Peter Faber]], French Jesuit theologian (b. [[1506]]) *[[1557]] - [[Olaus Magnus]], Swedish writer (b. [[1490]]) *[[1580]] - [[Albrecht Giese IV]], German politician and diplomat (b. [[1524]]) *[[1589]] - [[Jacques Clément]], French assassin of [[Henry III of France]] (b. [[1567]]) *[[1598]] - [[Abraham Ortelius]], Belgian cartographer (b. [[1527]]) *[[1714]] - Queen [[Anne of Great Britain]] (b. [[1665]]) *[[1787]] - [[Alphonsus Liguori]], Italian founder of the Redemptionist order (b. [[1696]]) *[[1796]] - [[Robert Pigot]], British army officer (b. [[1720]]) *[[1798]] - [[François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers]], French admiral (killed in battle) (b. [[1853]]) *[[1851]] - [[William Joseph Behr]], German writer (b. [[1775]]) *[[1866]] - [[John Ross (Cherokee chief)]], Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation (b. [[1790]]) *[[1917]] - [[Frank Little]], American labor organizer (lynched) (b. [[1879]]) *[[1918]] - [[John Riley Banister]], American cowboy and Texas Ranger (b. [[1854]]) *[[1920]] - [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]], Indian nationalist leader (b. [[1856]]) *[[1964]] - [[Johnny Burnette]], American singer (b. [[1934]]) *[[1967]] - [[Richard Kuhn]], Austrian chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1900]]) *[[1970]] - [[Frances Farmer]], American actress (b. [[1913]]) *1970 - [[Otto Heinrich Warburg]], German physician and physiologist, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1883]]) *[[1973]] - [[Gian Francesco Malipiero]], Italian composer (b. [[1882]]) *[[1977]] - [[Gary Powers]], American spy plane pilot (b. [[1929]]) *[[1981]] - [[Paddy Chayefsky]], American writer (b. [[1923]]) *[[1989]] - [[John Ogdon]], English pianist (b. [[1937]]) *[[1990]] - [[Norbert Elias]], German sociologist (b. [[1897]]) *1990 - [[Graham Young]], British serial killer (b. [[1947]]) *[[1996]] - [[Frida Boccara]], French singer (b. [[1940]]) *1996 - [[Tadeus Reichstein]], Polish chemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1897]]) *[[1997]] - [[Sviatoslav Richter]], Ukrainian pianist (b. [[1915]]) *[[1999]] - [[Nirad C. Chaudhuri]], Indian-born writer (b. [[1897]]) *[[2001]] - [[Korey Stringer]], American football player (b. [[1974]]) *[[2003]] - [[Guy Thys]], Belgian football coach (b. [[1922]]) *2003 - [[Marie Trintignant]], French actress (b. [[1962]]) *[[2004]] - [[Philip Hauge Abelson]] American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1913]]) *[[2005]] - [[Al Aronowitz]], American music journalist (b. [[1928]]) *2005 - King [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia]] (b. [[1923]]) *2005 - [[Constant Nieuwenhuys]], Dutch painter (b. [[1920]]) *2005 - [[Wim Boost|Wibo]], Dutch cartoonist (b. [[1918]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox Christianity]] - [[Procession of the Cross]] *[[Angola]] - [[Armed Forces Day]] *[[Barbados]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]] - [[Emancipation Day]] *[[Benin]] - [[National Day]] *[[People's Republic of China]] - Anniversary of the Founding of the [[People's Liberation Army]] *[[Democratic Republic of Congo]] - Parent's Day *[[Nicaragua]] - [[Fiesta Day]] *[[Rastafari movement]] - Celebration of the liberation of [[Haile Selassie]] from [[slavery]] *[[Switzerland]] - [[National Day]] *[[Bahá'í Faith]] - [[Feast of Kamál]] (Perfection) - First day of the eighth month of the [[Bahá'í Calendar]] *[[Lughnasadh]] - Lá Lúnasa, the traditional first day of [[Autumn]] in [[Ireland]]. *[[Lammas]] - [[Neopagan]] festival of [[Lammas]] *[[Lebanon]] - Army's Day ([[Eid al-Jaysh]]) *[[Yorkshire]], [[United Kingdom]] - [[Yorkshire Day]] *[[Citizenship Day]] in the [[United States]]. ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/1 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050801.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] ---- [[July 31]] - [[August 2]] - [[July 1]] - [[September 1]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:1 Augustus]] [[als:1. August]] [[ar:1 اغسطس]] [[an:1 d'agosto]] [[ast:1 d'agostu]] [[bg:1 август]] [[be:1 жніўня]] [[bs:1. avgust]] [[ca:1 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 1]] [[cv:Çурла, 1]] [[co:1 d'aostu]] [[cs:1. srpen]] [[cy:1 Awst]] [[da:1. august]] [[de:1. August]] [[et:1. august]] [[el:1 Αυγούστου]] [[es:1 de agosto]] [[eo:1-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 1]] [[fo:1. august]] [[fr:1er août]] [[fy:1 augustus]] [[ga:1 Lúnasa]] [[gl:1 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 1일]] [[hr:1. kolovoza]] [[io:1 di agosto]] [[ilo:Agosto 1]] [[id:1 Agustus]] [[ia:1 de augusto]] [[ie:1 august]] [[is:1. ágúst]] [[it:1 agosto]] [[he:1 באוגוסט]] [[jv:1 Agustus]] [[ka:1 აგვისტო]] [[csb:1 zélnika]] [[ku:1'ê gelawêjê]] [[la:1 Augusti]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 1]] [[lb:1. August]] [[li:1 augustus]] [[hu:Augusztus 1]] [[mk:1 август]] [[ms:1 Ogos]] [[nap:1 'e aùsto]] [[nl:1 augustus]] [[ja:8月1日]] [[no:1. august]] [[nn:1. august]] [[oc:1 d'agost]] [[pl:1 sierpnia]] [[pt:1 de Agosto]] [[ro:1 august]] [[ru:1 августа]] [[sco:1 August]] [[sq:1 Gusht]] [[scn:1 di austu]] [[simple:August 1]] [[sk:1. august]] [[sl:1. avgust]] [[sr:1. август]] [[fi:1. elokuuta]] [[sv:1 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 1]] [[tt:1. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 1]] [[th:1 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:1 tháng 8]] [[tr:1 Ağustos]] [[uk:1 серпня]] [[wa:1î d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 1]] [[zh:8月1日]] [[pam:Agostu 1]] 1255 15899748 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z -- April 166 make redirect #redirect [[Astronomical unit]] 1256 40695888 2006-02-22T10:33:10Z Panairjdde 2400 [[Image:Antonius Pius 01.jpg|thumb|right|Emperor Antoninus Pius]] [[Image:Sesterius-Antoninus Pius-Italia-RIC 0746a.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[Sestertius]] of Antoninus Pius, with the personification of [[Italia (Roman province)|Italia]] on reverse. Antoninus had been entrusted with the government of this province as [[proconsul]].]] '''Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus Pius''' ([[September 19]], [[86]]&ndash;[[March 7]] [[161]]) was [[Roman Emperors|Roman emperor]] from [[138]] to [[161]]. He was the fourth of the [[Five Good Emperors]] and a member of the [[Aurelii]]. He was the son of [[Titus Aurelius Fulvus]], [[consul]] in [[89]] whose family came from [[Nemausus]] (modern-day [[Nîmes]]), and was born near [[Lanuvium]]. After the death of his father, he was brought up under the care of [[Arrius Antoninus]], his maternal grandfather, a man of integrity and culture, and a friend of [[Pliny the Younger]]. Having filled with more than usual success the offices of [[quaestor]] and [[praetor]], he obtained the consulship in [[120]]; he was next appointed by the Emperor [[Hadrian]] as one of the four [[proconsul]]s to administer [[Italia (Roman province)|Italia]], then greatly increased his reputation by his conduct as [[proconsul]] of [[Asia Province|Asia]]. He acquired much favour with the Emperor Hadrian, who adopted him as his son and successor on [[February 25]], 138, after the death of his first adopted son [[Aelius Verus]], on the condition that he himself would adopt Marcus Annius Verus, the son of his wife's brother, and Lucius, son of Aelius Verus, who afterwards became the emperors [[Marcus Aurelius]] and [[Lucius Verus|Lucius Aelius Verus]] (colleague of Marcus Aurelius). Antoninus in many ways was the ideal of the landed gentleman praised not only by ancient Romans, but also by later scholars of classical history, such as [[Edward Gibbon]] or the author of the article on Antoninus Pius in the ninth edition of the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica|Encyclopedia Britannica]]: : A few months afterwards, on Hadrian's death, he was enthusiastically welcomed to the throne by the Roman people, who, for once, were not disappointed in their anticipation of a happy reign. For Antoninus came to his new office with simple tastes, kindly disposition, extensive experience, a well-trained intelligence and the sincerest desire for the welfare of his subjects. Instead of plundering to support his prodigality, he emptied his private treasury to assist distressed provinces and cities, and everywhere exercised rigid economy (hence the nickname &kappa;&upsilon;&mu;&iota;&nu;&omicron;&pi;&rho;&iota;&sigma;&tau;&eta;&sigmaf; "cummin-splitter"). Instead of exaggerating into treason whatever was susceptible of unfavorable interpretation, he spurned the very conspiracies that were formed against him into opportunities for demonstrating his clemency. Instead of stirring up persecution against the Christians, he extended to them the strong hand of his protection throughout the empire. Rather than give occasion to that oppression which he regarded as inseparable from an emperor's progress through his dominions, he was content to spend all the years of his reign in Rome, or its neighbourhood. Of the public transactions of this period we have scant information, but, to judge by what we possess, those twenty-two years were not remarkably eventful in comparison to those before and after his; the surviving evidence is not complete enough to determine whether we should interpret, with older scholars, that he wisely curtailed the activities of the Roman Empire to a careful minimum, or perhaps that he was uninterested in events away from Rome and [[Italy]] and his inaction contributed to the pressing troubles that faced not only Marcus Aurelius but also the emperors of the [[third century]]. [[Image:RomaForoRomanoTempioAntoninoFaustina.JPG|thumb|Temple of Antoninus and [[Faustina the Elder|Faustina]] in the [[Roman forum]] (now the church of [[San Lorenzo in Miranda]]). The emperor and his ''[[Augusta (honorific)|Augusta]]'' were deified after their death by [[Marcus Aurelius]].]] One of his first acts as Emperor was to persuade the [[Roman Senate |Senate]] to grant divine honours to Hadrian, which they had at first refused; his efforts to persuade the Senate to grant these honours is one of the reasons given for his title of ''Pius'' (dutiful in affection; compare ''[[pietas]]''). Two other reasons for this title are that he would support his aged father-in-law with his hand at Senate meetings, and that he had saved those men that Hadrian, during his period of ill-health, had condemned to death. He built temples, theaters, and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and salaries upon the teachers of [[rhetoric]] and [[philosophy]]. His reign was comparatively peaceful; there were several military disturbances throughout the Empire in his time, in [[Mauretania]], [[Iudaea (Roman province)|Iudaea]], and amongst the [[Brigantes]] in [[Roman Britain|Britannia]], but none of them are considered serious. The unrest in Britannia is believed to have led to the construction of the [[Antonine Wall]] from the [[Firth of Forth]] to the [[Firth of Clyde]], although it was soon abandoned. In his domestic relations Antoninus was not so fortunate. His wife, [[Faustina the Elder]], has almost become a byword for her lack of womanly virtue; but she seems to have kept her hold on his affections to the last. On her death in the third year of his reign, he honoured her memory by the foundation of a [[charity]] for orphan girls, who bore the name of ''Alimentariae Faustinianae'', following the practice of prior emperors in endowing an ''[[alimentaria]]'' to promote the welfare of children and an increased population. He had by her two sons and two daughters; but they all died before his elevation to the throne, except [[Annia Faustina]], who became the wife of Marcus Aurelius. Antoninus died of fever at [[Lorium]] in [[Etruria]], about twelve miles from Rome, on [[March 7]] 161, giving the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered when the [[tribune]] of the night-watch came to ask the password &mdash; "aequanimitas". The only account of his life handed down to us is that of Julius Capitolinus, one of the ''[[Scriptores Historiae Augustae]]''. ===Contacts with China=== The [[Hou Hanshu]] (History of the Later Han [[China|Chinese]] dynasty) recounted the first of several [[Roman embassies to China]] sent out by Emperor Antoninus Pius. The mission came from the South, and therefore probably by sea, entering China by the frontier of [[Jinan]] or [[Tonkin]], bringing presents of [[rhinoceros]] horns, ivory, and [[tortoise shell]] which had probably been acquired in [[Southern Asia]]. The emperor was most likely [[Marcus Aurelius]], who was the reigning emperor. Antoninus Pius died in 161, while the convoy arrived in [[166]]. The confusion arises because Marcus Aurelius took as additional names, those of his predecessor as a mark of respect. He is referred to in Chinese history as "An Tun" (= Antoninus), hence the confusion. The mission reached the Chinese capital of [[Luoyang]] in 166 and was met by [[Emperor Huan of Han China|Emperor Huan]] of the [[Han Dynasty]]. About the same time, and possibly through this embassy, the Chinese acquired a treatise of [[astronomy]] from [[Daqin]] (Rome). == References == * Bossart-Mueller, ''Zur Geschichte des Kaisers A.'' (1868) * Lacour-Gayet, ''A. le Pieux et son Temps'' (1888) * Bryant, ''The Reign of Antonine'' (Cambridge Historical Essays, 1895) * P. B. Watson, ''Marcus Aurelius Antoninus'' (London, 1884), chap. ii. * {{1911}} {{Commons|Antoninus Pius}} {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[List of Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]]|before=[[Hadrian]]|after=[[Marcus Aurelius]] and [[Lucius Verus]]|years=138&ndash;161}} {{succession box|title=[[Five Good Emperors]]|before=[[Hadrian]]|after=[[Marcus Aurelius]]|years=96&ndash;180}} {{end box}} [[Category:86 births]] [[Category:161 deaths]] [[Category:Roman emperors]] [[Category:Nerva-Antonine Dynasty]] [[Category:Adoptive parents]] [[bg:Антонин Пий]] [[da:Antoninus Pius]] [[de:Antoninus Pius]] [[et:Antoninus Pius]] [[es:Antonino Pío]] [[eo:Antonino Pia]] [[eu:Antonino Pio]] [[fr:Antonin le Pieux]] [[ko:안토니누스 피우스]] [[hr:Antonin Pio]] [[it:Antonino Pio]] [[he:אנטונינוס פיוס]] [[ka:ანტონინუს პიუსი]] [[la:T. Aurelius Fulvius Boionius Arrius Antoninus Pius]] [[hu:Antoninus Pius]] [[nl:Antoninus Pius]] [[ja:アントニヌス・ピウス]] [[no:Antoninus Pius]] [[pl:Antoninus Pius]] [[pt:Antonino Pio]] [[ro:Antoninus Pius]] [[ru:Антонин Пий]] [[fi:Antoninus Pius]] [[sv:Antoninus Pius]] [[uk:Антоній Пій]] [[zh:安敦宁·毕尤]] 1257 40436655 2006-02-20T15:12:47Z Neddyseagoon 883252 /* External links */ [[Image:DSCF0062.JPG|thumb|200px|right|The Antonine Wall, looking east, from Barr Hill between Twechar and [[Croy, North Lanarkshire|Croy]]]] [[Image:DSCF0051.JPG|thumb|200px|right|The Antonine Wall, remains of Roman fortlet, Barr Hill, near Twechar]] [[Image:Hadrians Wall map.png|thumb|300px|right]] {{commons|Antonine Wall}} The '''Antonine Wall''' is a [[rock (geology)|stone]] and [[sod|turf]] [[fortification]], built by the [[Roman Empire|Roman]]s across what is now the [[central belt]] of [[Scotland]]. Construction of the Antonine Wall began in [[142]] CE during the reign of [[Antoninus Pius]], and was completed in [[144]]. The wall stretches 60 [[kilometre]]s (37 [[mile]]s) from [[Old Kirkpatrick, Scotland|Old Kirkpatrick]] in [[West Dunbartonshire]] on the [[Firth of Clyde]] to [[Bo'ness]], [[Falkirk (council area)|Falkirk]], on the [[Firth of Forth]]. The wall was intended to replace [[Hadrian's Wall]] 160 km (100 miles) to the south, as the frontier of ''[[Roman Britain|Britannia]]'', but while the Romans did establish temporary forts and camps north of the wall, they did not conquer the [[Caledonians]], and the Antonine Wall suffered many attacks. The Romans called the land north of the wall ''[[Caledonia]]''. The Antonine Wall was inferior to Hadrian's Wall in terms of scale and construction, but it was still an impressive achievement, considering that it was completed in only two years, at the northern edge of the Roman [[empire]] in what they perceived as a cold and hostile land. The wall was typically an earth bank, about four metres high, with a wide [[ditch]] on the north side, and a [[Roman road|military way]] or road on the south. The Romans initially planned to build forts every six miles, but this was soon revised to every two miles, resulting in a total of 19 forts along the wall. The wall was abandoned after only 20 years, when the [[Roman legion]]s withdrew to Hadrian's Wall in AD [[164]]. After a series of attacks in AD [[197]], Emperor [[Septimius Severus]] arrived in Scotland in AD [[208]] to secure the frontier, and repaired parts of the wall. Although this re-occupation only lasted a few years, the wall is sometimes referred to (by later Roman historians) as the '''Severan Wall'''. Although most of the wall has been destroyed over time, sections of the wall can still be seen in [[Bearsden]], [[Kirkintilloch]], [[Twechar]], [[Croy, North Lanarkshire|Croy]], [[Falkirk, Scotland|Falkirk]] and [[Polmont, Scotland|Polmont]]. ==See also== * [[History of Scotland]] * [[Historic Sites in Scotland]] * [[Roman Britain]] * [[Trimontium]] * [[List of walls]]. ==External links== * http://www.athenapub.com/antwall1.htm * http://www.athenapub.com/britsite/hillfoot.htm * http://www.roman-britain.org/frontiers/antonine.htm * http://www.almac.co.uk/FalkirkTCM/Rome.htm * http://www.kilsyth.org.uk/ [[Category:Ancient Roman architecture]] [[Category:Archaeological sites in Scotland]] [[Category:Fortification]] [[Category:Nerva-Antonine Dynasty]] [[Category:Roman military occupation in southern Scotland]] [[Category:Roman sites in Scotland]] [[Category:Separation barriers]] [[Category:Walls]] [[Category:Roman frontiers]] {{Scotland-stub}} {{UK-hist-stub}} [[cs:Antoninův val]] [[de:Antoninuswall]] [[es:Muro de Antonino]] [[fr:Mur d'Antonin]] [[no:Den antoninske mur]] [[fi:Antoninuksen valli]] [[zh:安多宁长城]] 1259 41773404 2006-03-01T17:23:35Z Rklawton 754622 /* Births */ removed Ram Suri - no matching article {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=3}} |} '''[[August 3]]''' is the 215th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (216th in [[leap year]]s), with 150 days remaining. ==Events== *[[8]] - Roman general [[Tiberius]] defeats [[Dalmatians]] on the river Bathinus. * [[435]] - Deposed [[Patriarch of Constantinople]] [[Nestorius]], considered the originator of the [[Christology|Christological]] "[[heresy]]" (at the time) known as [[Nestorianism]], was exiled by [[List of Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine Emperor]] [[Theodosius II]] to a [[monastery]] in [[Egypt]]. *[[1492]] - [[Christopher Columbus]] sets sail from [[Palos de la Frontera]], [[Spain]]. *1492 - The [[Jew]]s of [[Spain]] are expelled by the [[Catholic Monarchs]]. *[[1527]] - First known letter was sent from North America by [[John Rut]] while at [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's]], [[Newfoundland]]. *[[1635]] - The third of the [[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa shoguns]], [[Tokugawa Iemitsu|Iemitsu]], establishes the system of alternate attendance by which the feudal [[daimyo|daimyō]] are required to spend one year at [[Edo Castle]] in [[Tokyo]] and one year back home at their feudal manor, while their families remained in [[Tokyo]] as virtual political hostages. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese Date]]: June 21, 1635). *[[1645]] - The [[Battle of Nördlingen (1645)|Second Battle of Nördlingen]] is fought between the forces of [[France]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. *[[1678]] - [[Robert LaSalle]] builds the ''[[Griffon (ship)|Griffon]]'', the first known ship built in America. *[[1783]] - [[Mount Asama]] erupts in [[Japan]], killing 35,000 people. *[[1860]] - The [[Second Maori War]] begins in [[New Zealand]]. *[[1900]] - [[Firestone Tire]] & Rubber Company founded. *[[1914]] - [[World War I|First World War]]: [[Germany]] declares war against [[France]]. *[[1916]] - First World War: The [[Battle of Romani]] is fought between forces of the [[British Empire]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]]. *[[1923]] - [[Calvin Coolidge]] is inaugurated as the 30th [[President of the United States]]. *[[1940]] - [[World War II|Second World War]]: [[Italy]] invades [[British Somaliland]]. *[[1946]] - [[National Basketball Association]] is founded in the [[United States]]. *[[1948]] - [[Whittaker Chambers]] accuses [[Alger Hiss]] of being a [[communist]] and a [[secret agent|spy]] for the [[Soviet Union]]. *[[1958]] - The [[Nuclear energy|nuclear]] [[submarine]] [[USS Nautilus (SSN-571)|USS ''Nautilus'']] travels beneath the [[Arctic Ocean|Arctic]] ice cap. *[[1960]] - [[Niger]] gains independence from [[France]]. *[[1972]] - [[United States|U.S.]] Senate ratifies the [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]]. *[[1973]] - [[R&B]] singer [[Stevie Wonder]] releases the classic album ''[[Innervisions]]''. *[[1975]] - A privately chartered [[Boeing]] 707 impacts the mountainside near [[Agadir]], [[Morocco]] killing 188. *[[1977]] - [[United States Senate]] Hearing on [[MKULTRA]]. *[[1981]] - In the United States, Professional [[Air traffic controller|Air Traffic Controllers]] Organization walks off the job. All 13,000 members will eventually be fired by President [[Ronald Reagan]]. *1981 - [[Senegal]]ese opposition parties, under the leadership of [[Mamadou Dia]], launches the [[Antiimperialist Action Front-Suxxali Reew Mi]]. *[[1990]] - The highest temperature recorded in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] until [[10 August]], [[2003]] - 37.1°C (98.8°F) at [[Cheltenham]] in [[Gloucestershire]]. *[[1997]] - [[Oued El-Had and Mezouara massacre]] in [[Algeria]]; 40-76 villagers killed. *[[2004]] - The pedestal of the [[Statue of Liberty]] reopens after being closed since [[September 11, 2001]]. *[[2005]] - [[President]] [[Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya]] of [[Mauritania]] is overthrown in a [[military coup]] while attending the [[funeral]] of [[King Fahd]] in [[Saudi Arabia]]. ==Births== *[[1509]] - [[Étienne Dolet]], French scholar and printer (d. [[1546]]) *[[1604]] - [[John Eliot (missionary)|John Eliot]], English missionary (d. [[1690]]) *[[1692]] - [[John Henley]], English clergyman (d. [[1759]]) *[[1770]] - King [[Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia]] (d. [[1840]]) *[[1801]] - [[Joseph Paxton]], English gardener and architect (d. [[1865]]) *[[1808]] - [[Hamilton Fish]], American politician (d. [[1893]]) *[[1811]] - [[Elisha Graves Otis]], American inventor (d. [[1861]]) *[[1817]] - [[Archduke Albert (1817-1895)|Archduke Albert]], Austrian general (d. [[1895]]) *[[1832]] - [[Ivan Zajc]], Croatian composer (d. [[1914]]) *[[1856]] - [[Alfred Deakin]], second [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1919]]) *[[1860]] - [[W.K. Dickson]], Scottish inventor (d. [[1935]]) *[[1867]] - [[Stanley Baldwin]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1947]]) *[[1872]] - King [[Haakon VII of Norway]] (d. [[1957]]) *[[1887]] - [[Rupert Brooke]], English poet (d. [[1915]]) *[[1894]] - [[Harry Heilmann]], baseball player (d. [[1951]]) *[[1900]] - [[Ernie Pyle]], American war correspondent (d. [[1945]]) *1900 - [[John T. Scopes]], American defendant (d. [[1970]]) *[[1901]] - [[Stefan Wyszynski]], Polish Catholic prelate (d. [[1981]]) *[[1903]] - [[Habib Bourguiba]], Tunisian Politician (d. [[2000]]) *[[1904]] - [[Clifford D. Simak]], American author (d. [[1988]]) *[[1905]] - [[Dolores del Rio]], Mexican-born actress (d. [[1983]]) *1905 - Cardinal [[Franz König]], Austrian Catholic archbishop (d. [[2004]]) *[[1916]] - [[José Manuel Moreno]], Argentine footballer (d. [[1978]]) *[[1918]] - [[Sidney Gottlieb]], American Central Intelligence Agency official (d. [[1999]]) *[[1920]] - [[P.D. James]], English novelist *[[1923]] - [[Shenouda III of Alexandria]], Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church *[[1924]] - [[Leon Uris]], American novelist (d. [[2003]]) *[[1925]] - [[Marv Levy]], American football coach *[[1926]] - [[Tony Bennett]], American singer * 1926 - [[Anthony Sampson]], British journalist and biographer (d. [[2004]]) *[[1927]] - [[Gordon Scott]], American actor (Tarzan) *[[1935]] - [[Georgi Shonin]], cosmonaut (d. [[1997]]) *[[1936]] - [[Edward Petherbridge]], English actor *[[1937]] - [[Steven Berkoff]], British actor * 1937 - [[Diane Wakoski]], American poet *[[1938]] - [[Terry Wogan]], Irish radio and television presenter *[[1940]] - [[Lance Alworth]], American football player * 1940 - [[Martin Sheen]], American actor *[[1941]] - [[Beverly Lee]], American singer ([[Shirelles]]) * 1941 - [[Martha Stewart]], American publisher and media personality *[[1946]] - [[Jack Straw (politician)|Jack Straw]], British politician *[[1948]] - [[Jean-Pierre Raffarin]], [[Prime Minister of France]] *[[1950]] - [[John Landis]], American film director *[[1951]] - [[Marcel Dionne]], Canadian hockey player * 1951 - [[Jay North]], American actor *[[1952]] - [[Osvaldo Ardiles]], Argentine footballer and coach *[[1959]] - [[Martin Atkins]], English drummer * 1959 - [[Koichi Tanaka]], Japanese scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] *[[1963]] - [[James Hetfield]], American singer and guitarist ([[Metallica]]) *[[1970]] - [[Gina G]], British singer *[[1977]] - [[Tom Brady]], American football player *[[1979]] - [[Evangeline Lilly]], Canadian actress and fashion model ==Deaths== *[[1181]] - [[Pope Alexander III]] (c. [[1105]]) *[[1460]] - King [[James II of Scotland]] (b. [[1430]]) *[[1546]] - [[Antonio da Sangallo the Younger]], Italian architect (b. [[1484]]) *1546 - [[Étienne Dolet]], French scholar and printer (b. [[1509]]) *[[1604]] - [[Bernardino de Mendoza]], Spanish military commander *[[1621]] - [[Guillaume du Vair]], French writer (b. [[1556]]) *[[1667]] - [[Francesco Borromini]], Swiss sculptor and architect (b. [[1599]]) *[[1712]] - [[Joshua Barnes]], English scholar (b. [[1654]]) *[[1720]] - [[Anthonie Heinsius]], Dutch statesman (b. [[1641]]) *[[1721]] - [[Grinling Gibbons]], Dutch-born woodcarver (b. [[1648]]) *[[1761]] - [[Johann Matthias Gesner]], German classical scholar (b. [[1691]]) *[[1773]] - [[Stanisław Konarski]], Polish writer (b. [[1700]]) *[[1780]] - [[Étienne Bonnot de Condillac]], French philosopher (b. [[1715]]) *[[1792]] - [[Richard Arkwright]], English industrialist and inventor (b. [[1732]]) *[[1797]] - [[Jeffrey Amherst]], British military commander (b. [[1717]]) *[[1805]] - [[Christopher Anstey]], English writer (b. [[1724]]) *[[1857]] - [[Eugène Sue]], French novelist (b. [[1804]]) *[[1867]] - [[Philipp August Böckh]], German scholar and antiquarian (b. [[1785]]) *[[1877]] - [[William Butler Ogden]], first Mayor of Chicago (b.[[1805]]) *[[1879]] - [[Joseph Severn]], English painter (b. [[1793]]) *[[1916]] - Sir [[Roger Casement]], Irish rebel (hanged) (b. [[1864]]) *[[1924]] - [[Joseph Conrad]], Polish-born writer (b. [[1857]]) *[[1929]] - [[Emil Berliner]], German-born telephone and recording pioneer (b. [[1851]]) *1929 - [[Thorstein Veblen]], American economist (b. [[1857]]) *[[1942]] - [[Richard Willstätter]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1872]]) *[[1954]] - [[Colette]], French writer (b. [[1873]]) *[[1964]] - [[Flannery O'Connor]], American writer (b. [[1925]]) *[[1966]] - [[Lenny Bruce]], American comedian (b. [[1925]]) *[[1973]] - [[Richard Marshall]], U.S. Army general (b. [[1895]]) *[[1977]] - [[Alfred Lunt]], American actor (b. [[1892]]) *1977 - Archbishop [[Makarios]] of Cyprus (b. [[1913]]) *[[1979]] - [[Bertil Ohlin]], Swedish economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1899]]) *[[1983]] - [[Carolyn Jones]], American actress (b. [[1929]]) *[[1995]] - [[Ida Lupino]], English actress and director (b. [[1914]]) *1995 - [[Edward Whittemore]], American writer (b. [[1933]]) *[[1998]] - [[Alfred Schnittke]], Russian composer (b. [[1934]]) *[[2001]] - [[Christopher Hewett]], British actor (b. [[1922]]) *[[2002]] - [[Carmen Silvera]], British actress (b. [[1922]]) *[[2003]] - [[Roger Voudouris]], American singer and songwriter (b. [[1954]]) *[[2004]] - [[Henri Cartier-Bresson]], French photographer (b. [[1908]]) *[[2005]] - [[Françoise d'Eaubonne]], French feminist (b. [[1920]]) *2005 - [[Steven Vincent]], American journalist (b. [[1955]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Equatorial Guinea]] - [[Armed Forces Day]] *[[Niger]] - [[Independence Day]] == External links == * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/3 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050803.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] ---- [[August 2]] - [[August 4]] - [[July 3]] - [[September 3]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[ilo:Agosto 3]] [[af:3 Augustus]] [[ar:3 أغسطس]] [[an:3 d'agosto]] [[ast:3 d'agostu]] [[bg:3 август]] [[be:3 жніўня]] [[bs:3. avgust]] [[ca:3 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 3]] [[cv:Çурла, 3]] [[co:3 d'aostu]] [[cs:3. srpen]] [[cy:3 Awst]] [[da:3. august]] [[de:3. August]] [[et:3. august]] [[el:3 Αυγούστου]] [[es:3 de agosto]] [[eo:3-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 3]] [[fo:3. august]] [[fr:3 août]] [[fy:3 augustus]] [[ga:3 Lúnasa]] [[gl:3 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 3일]] [[hr:3. kolovoza]] [[io:3 di agosto]] [[id:3 Agustus]] [[ia:3 de augusto]] [[ie:3 august]] [[is:3. ágúst]] [[it:3 agosto]] [[he:3 באוגוסט]] [[jv:3 Agustus]] [[ka:3 აგვისტო]] [[csb:3 zélnika]] [[ku:3'ê gelawêjê]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 3]] [[lb:3. August]] [[li:3 augustus]] [[hu:Augusztus 3]] [[mk:3 август]] [[ms:3 Ogos]] [[nap:3 'e aùsto]] [[nl:3 augustus]] [[ja:8月3日]] [[no:3. august]] [[nn:3. august]] [[oc:3 d'agost]] [[pl:3 sierpnia]] [[pt:3 de Agosto]] [[ro:3 august]] [[ru:3 августа]] [[sco:3 August]] [[sq:3 Gusht]] [[scn:3 di austu]] [[simple:August 3]] [[sk:3. august]] [[sl:3. avgust]] [[sr:3. август]] [[fi:3. elokuuta]] [[sv:3 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 3]] [[tt:3. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 3]] [[th:3 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:3 tháng 8]] [[tr:3 Ağustos]] [[uk:3 серпня]] [[wa:3 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 3]] [[zh:8月3日]] [[pam:Agostu 3]] 1260 41635903 2006-02-28T18:12:56Z Ciphergoth 9493 express that differently - move AddRoundKey to the front {{Infobox Block Ciphers| fullName = AES | image = AES-SubBytes.png | caption = The <tt>SubBytes</tt> step, one of four stages in a round of AES.| yearPublished = [[1998]] | derivedFrom = [[Square (cipher)]] | derivedTo = [[Crypton (cypher)]], [[Anubis (cipher)]], [[GRAND CRU]] | designers = [[Vincent Rijmen]] and [[Joan Daemen]] | blockSize = 128 bits [[Advanced_Encryption_Standard#blocksize|note]]| keySize = 128, 192 or 256 bits [[Advanced_Encryption_Standard#keysize|note]]| cipherStructure = [[Substitution-permutation network]] | rounds = 10, 12 and 14 (for the respective key sizes) | cryptanalysis = A [[related-key attack]] can break up to 9 rounds of 256-bit AES. A [[chosen-plaintext attack]] can break 8 rounds of 192- and 256-bit AES, and 7 rounds of 128-bit AES. (Ferguson et al, 2000). | |}} In [[cryptography]], the '''Advanced Encryption Standard''' ('''AES'''), also known as '''Rijndael''', is a [[block cipher]] adopted as an [[encryption]] standard by the [[United States|US]] government. It is expected to be used worldwide and analysed extensively, as was the case with its predecessor, the [[Data Encryption Standard]] (DES). AES was adopted by [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST) as US [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS]] PUB 197 in [[November]] [[2001]] after a 5-year standardisation process (see [[Advanced Encryption Standard process]] for more details). The cipher was developed by two [[Belgium|Belgian]] cryptographers, [[Joan Daemen]] and [[Vincent Rijmen]], and submitted to the AES selection process under the name "Rijndael", a [[portmanteau]] comprising the names of the inventors. Rijndael can be pronounced "Rhine dahl", a long "[[i]]" and a silent "[[e]]" ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[&#633;aindal]}}). In the sound file linked below, it is pronounced {{IPA|[r&#688;aindau]}}. ==Development== Rijndael was a refinement of an earlier design by Daemen and Rijmen, [[Square (cipher)|Square]]; Square was a development from [[Shark (cipher)|Shark]]. Unlike its predecessor DES, Rijndael is a [[substitution-permutation network]], not a [[Feistel network]]. AES is fast in both [[computer software|software]] and [[hardware]], is relatively easy to implement, and requires little [[computer memory|memory]]. As a new encryption standard, it is currently being deployed on a large scale. <br clear="all"> ==Description of the cipher== {| align="right" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em;" width="325px" | [[Image:AES-AddRoundKey.png|right|320px|thumbnail|In the <tt>AddRoundKey</tt> step, each byte of the state is combined with a byte of the round subkey using the [[XOR]] operation (&oplus;).]] |- | [[Image:AES-SubBytes.png|right|320px|thumbnail|In the <tt>SubBytes</tt> step, each byte in the state is replaced with its entry in a fixed 8-bit lookup table, ''S''; ''b<sub>ij</sub>'' = ''S(a<sub>ij</sub>)''.]] |- | [[Image:AES-ShiftRows.png|right|320px|thumbnail|In the <tt>ShiftRows</tt> step, bytes in each row of the state are shifted cyclically to the left. The number of places each byte is shifted differs for each row.]] |- | [[Image:AES-MixColumns.png|right|320px|thumbnail|In the <tt>MixColumns</tt> step, each column of the state is multiplied with a fixed polynomial ''c(x)''.]] |- |} Strictly speaking, AES is not precisely Rijndael (although in practice they are used interchangeably) as Rijndael supports a larger range of [[block size (cryptography)|block]] and [[key size]]s; AES has a fixed block size of 128 [[bit]]s and a key size of 128, 192 or 256 bits, whereas Rijndael can be specified with key and block sizes in any multiple of 32 bits, with a minimum of 128 bits and a maximum of 256 bits. The key is expanded using [[Rijndael key schedule|Rijndael's key schedule]]. Most of AES calculations are done in a special [[Finite field arithmetic|finite field]]. AES operates on a 4&times;4 array of [[byte]]s, termed the ''state'' (versions of Rijndael with a larger block size have additional columns in the state). For encryption, each round of AES (except the last round) consists of four stages: # <tt>AddRoundKey</tt> &mdash; each byte of the state is combined with the round key; each round key is derived from the cipher key using a [[key schedule]]. # <tt>SubBytes</tt> &mdash; a non-linear substitution step where each byte is replaced with another according to a [[Rijndael S-box|lookup table]]. # <tt>ShiftRows</tt> &mdash; a transposition step where each row of the state is shifted cyclically a certain number of steps. # <tt>MixColumns</tt> &mdash; a mixing operation which operates on the columns of the state, combining the four bytes in each column using a linear transformation. The final round replaces the <tt>MixColumns</tt> stage with another instance of <tt>AddRoundKey</tt>. ===The <tt>AddRoundKey</tt> step=== In the <tt>AddRoundKey</tt> step, the subkey is combined with the state. For each round, a subkey is derived from the main [[key (cryptography)|key]] using the [[Rijndael key schedule|key schedule]]; each subkey is the same size as the state. The subkey is added by combining each byte of the state with the corresponding byte of the subkey using bitwise [[XOR]]. ===The <tt>SubBytes</tt> step=== In the <tt>SubBytes</tt> step, each byte in the array is updated using an 8-bit [[Rijndael S-box|S-box]]. This operation provides the non-linearity in the [[cipher]]. The S-box used is derived from the [[inverse function]] over '''[[Finite field|GF]]'''(''2<sup>8</sup>''), known to have good non-linearity properties. To avoid attacks based on simple algebraic properties, the S-box is constructed by combining the inverse function with an invertible [[affine transformation]]. The S-box is also chosen to avoid any fixed points (and so is a [[derangement]]), and also any opposite fixed points. The S-box is more fully described in the article [[Rijndael S-box]]. ===The <tt>ShiftRows</tt> step=== The <tt>ShiftRows</tt> step operates on the rows of the state; it cyclically shifts the bytes in each row by a certain offset. For AES, the first row is left unchanged. Each byte of the second row is shifted one to the left. Similarly, the third and fourth rows are shifted by offsets of two and three respectively. In this way, each column of the output state of the <tt>ShiftRows</tt> step is composed of bytes from each column of the input state. (Rijndael variants with a larger block size have slightly different offsets). ===The <tt>MixColumns</tt> step=== In the <tt>MixColumns</tt> step, the four bytes of each column of the state are combined using an invertible linear transformation. The <tt>MixColumns</tt> function takes four bytes as input and outputs four bytes, where each input byte affects all four output bytes. Together with <tt>ShiftRows</tt>, <tt>MixColumns</tt> provides [[diffusion (cryptography)|diffusion]] in the cipher. Each column is treated as a polynomial over '''GF'''(''2<sup>8</sup>'') and is then multiplied modulo <math>x^4+1</math> with a fixed polynomial <math>c(x) = 3x^3 + x^2 + x + 2</math>. The <tt>MixColumns</tt> step can also be viewed as a matrix multiply in [[Finite field arithmetic|Rijndael's finite field]]. This process is described further in the article [[Rijndael mix columns]]. ===Optimization of the cipher=== On systems with 32-bit or larger words, it is possible to speed up execution of this cipher by converting the <tt>SubBytes</tt>, <tt>ShiftRows</tt> and <tt>MixColumns</tt> transformations into tables. One then has four 256-entry 32-bit tables, which utilizes a total of four kilobytes (4096 bytes) of memory--a kilobyte for each table. A round can now be done with 16 table lookups and 12 32-bit exclusive-or operations, followed by four 32-bit exclusive-or operations in the <tt>AddRoundKey</tt> step. If the resulting four kilobyte table size is too large for a given target platform, the table lookup operation can be performed with a single 256-entry 32-bit table by the use of circular rotates. ==Security== [[As of 2006]], the only successful attacks against AES have been [[side channel attack]]s. The [[National Security Agency]] (NSA) reviewed all the AES finalists, including Rijndael, and stated that all of them were secure enough for [[US Government]] non-classified data. In June 2003, the US Government announced that AES may be used for [[classified information]]: :"''The design and strength of all key lengths of the AES algorithm (i.e., 128, 192 and 256) are sufficient to protect classified information up to the SECRET level. TOP SECRET information will require use of either the 192 or 256 key lengths. The implementation of AES in products intended to protect national security systems and/or information must be reviewed and certified by NSA prior to their acquisition and use.''" &mdash; [http://www.cnss.gov/Assets/pdf/cnssp_15_fs.pdf] This marks the first time that the public has had access to a cipher approved by NSA for TOP SECRET information. It is interesting to note that many public products use 128-bit secret keys by default; it is possible that NSA suspects a fundamental weakness in keys this short, or they may simply prefer a safety margin for top secret documents (which may require security decades into the future). The most common way to attack block ciphers is to try various attacks on versions of the cipher with a reduced number of rounds. AES has 10 rounds for 128-bit keys, 12 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 14 rounds for 256-bit keys. [[As of 2006]], the best known attacks are on 7 rounds for 128-bit keys, 8 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 9 rounds for 256-bit keys (Ferguson et al, 2000 {{ref|improved}}). Some cryptographers worry about the security of AES. They feel that the margin between the number of rounds specified in the cipher and the best known attacks is too small for comfort. The risk is that some way to improve these attacks might be found and that, if so, the cipher could be broken. In this meaning, a [[cryptanalysis|cryptographic]] "break" is anything faster than an [[brute force attack|exhaustive search]], so an attack against 128-bit key AES requiring 'only' 2<sup>120</sup> operations would be considered a break even though it would be, now, quite infeasible. In practical application, any break of AES which is only this 'good' would be irrelevant. For the moment, such concerns can be ignored. The largest publicly-known brute-force attack has been against a 64 bit [[RC5]] key by [[distributed.net]] (finishing in 2002; [[Moore's Law]] implies that this is roughly equivalent to an attack on a 66-bit key today). Another concern is the [[mathematics|mathematical]] structure of AES. Unlike most other block ciphers, AES has a very neat mathematical description [http://www.macfergus.com/pub/rdalgeq.html], [http://www.isg.rhul.ac.uk/~sean/]. This has not yet led to any attacks, but some researchers are worried that future attacks may find a way to exploit this structure. In [[2002]], a theoretical attack, termed the "[[XSL attack]]", was announced by [[Nicolas Courtois]] and [[Josef Pieprzyk]], showing a potential weakness in the AES algorithm. Several cryptography experts have found problems in the underlying mathematics of the proposed attack, suggesting that the authors may have made a mistake in their estimates. Whether this line of attack can be made to work against AES remains an open question. For the moment, the XSL attack against AES appears speculative; it is unlikely that anyone could carry out the current attack in practice. ===Side channel attacks=== Side channel attacks do not attack the underlying cipher, but attack implementations of the cipher on systems which inadvertently leak data. In April 2005, [[Daniel J. Bernstein|D.J. Bernstein]] announced a [http://cr.yp.to/papers.html#cachetiming cache timing attack] that he used to break a custom server that used [[OpenSSL]]'s AES encryption. The custom server was designed to give out as much timing information as possible, and the attack required over 200 million chosen plaintexts. Some say the attack is not practical against real-world implementations [http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=42620794%40news.cadence.com]; [[Bruce Schneier]] called the research a "nice timing attack." [http://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2005/05/aes_timing_atta_1.html] In October 2005, Adi Shamir and two other researchers presented a paper demonstrating several [http://www.wisdom.weizmann.ac.il/~tromer/papers/cache.pdf cache timing attacks]([[PDF]] file) against AES. One attack was able to obtain an entire AES key after only 800 writes, in 65 milliseconds. These attacks require the attacker to be able to run programs on the same system that is performing AES encryptions. ==See also== * [[Advanced Encryption Standard process]] * [[List of applications that use AES]] ==External links== * [http://www.esat.kuleuven.ac.be/~rijmen/rijndael/ The Rijndael Page (Forwards automaticaly to the AES Lounge use old version link to browse)] * [http://www.iaik.tu-graz.ac.at/research/krypto/AES/old/%7Erijmen/rijndael/ The Rijndael Page (old version)] * [http://www.iaik.tu-graz.ac.at/research/krypto/AES/ Literature survey on AES] <!-- Broken link * [http://rijndael.info/audio/rijndael_pronunciation.wav Recordings of the pronunciation of "Rijndael"] (85 KB [[wav]] file)--> * [http://csrc.nist.gov/encryption/aes/ The archive of the old official AES website] * [http://www.csrc.nist.gov/publications/fips/fips197/fips-197.pdf FIPS PUB 197: the official AES standard] ([[Portable_Document_Format|PDF]] file) <!-- The following is a dead link 2005/05/15 * [http://www.nstissc.gov/Assets/pdf/fact%20sheet.pdf The C.N.S.S. announcement regarding the use of AES for classified data] ([[Portable_Document_Format|PDF]] file)--> * [http://www.quadibloc.com/crypto/co040401.htm John Savard's description of the AES algorithm] ===Implementations=== * [http://www.cs.eku.edu/faculty/styer/460/Encrypt/JS-AES.html A Javascript AES calculator showing intermediate values] * [http://fp.gladman.plus.com/cryptography_technology/rijndael/ Brian Gladman's BSD licensed implementations of AES] * [http://www.esat.kuleuven.ac.be/~rijmen/rijndael/rijndael-fst-3.0.zip Paulo Barreto's public domain C implementation of AES] * [http://cr.yp.to/mac.html D.J. Bernstein's public-domain implementation of AES] * [http://www.lysator.liu.se/~nisse/nettle/ The GPL-licensed Nettle library also includes an AES implementation] ==Notes== * <div id=blocksize>Block sizes of 128, 160, 192, 224, and 256 bits are supported by The Rijndael algorithm, but only the 128-bit block size is specified in the AES standard.</div> * <div id=keysize> Key sizes of 128, 160, 192, 224, and 256 bits are supported by The Rijndael algorithm, but only the 128, 192, and 256 bit key sizes are specified in the AES standard.</div> ==References== * Nicolas Courtois, Josef Pieprzyk, "Cryptanalysis of Block Ciphers with Overdefined Systems of Equations". pp267&ndash;287, ASIACRYPT 2002. * Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen, "The Design of Rijndael: AES - The Advanced Encryption Standard." Springer-Verlag, 2002. ISBN 3540425802. * {{note|improved}} [[Niels Ferguson]], [[John Kelsey]], [[Stefan Lucks]], [[Bruce Schneier]], [[Mike Stay]], [[David Wagner]], and [[Doug Whiting]], ''Improved Cryptanalysis of Rijndael'', [[Fast Software Encryption]], 2000 pp213&ndash;230 [http://www.schneier.com/paper-rijndael.html] [[Category:Block ciphers]] [[Category:Type 1 encryption algorithms]] [[Category:Free ciphers]] {{Block_ciphers}} [[da:Advanced Encryption Standard]] [[de:Advanced Encryption Standard]] [[es:AES]] [[fr:Standard de chiffrement avancé]] [[it:Advanced Encryption Standard]] [[nl:Advanced Encryption Standard]] [[ja:AES暗号]] [[no:Advanced Encryption Standard]] [[pl:AES]] [[pt:Padrão de Encriptação Avançada]] [[sv:Advanced Encryption Standard]] [[tr:AES]] 1261 41491787 2006-02-27T18:55:29Z PFHLai 63672 /* Events */ + * [[1805]] - '''[[United States Marines]]''' captured '''[[Derne, Tripoli]]''' under the command of '''[[First Lieutenant Presley N. O'Bannon]]'''. Moved from the SelAnniv template <!-- Language links at bottom --> {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=26}} |} '''[[April 26]]''' is the 116th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (117th in [[leap year]]s). There are 249 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1478]] - The [[Pazzi]] attack [[Lorenzo de' Medici]] and kill his brother [[Giuliano di Piero de' Medici|Giuliano]] during High Mass in the [[Florence]] Cathedral. *[[1607]] - [[England|English]] colonists of the [[Jamestown settlement]] make landfall at [[Cape Henry]], [[Virginia]]. *[[1802]] - A general amnesty signed by [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] allowed all but about one thousand of the most notorious [[émigré]]s of the [[French Revolution]] to return to [[France]], as part of a reconciliary gesture to make peace with the various factions of the [[Ancien Regime]] that would ultimately consolidate his own rule. * [[1805]] - [[United States Marines]] captured [[Derne, Tripoli]] under the command of First Lieutenant [[Presley N. O'Bannon]]. *[[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] General [[Joseph Johnston]] surrenders his army to General [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] at the [[Bennett Place]] near [[Durham, North Carolina]]. *[[1865]] - Union cavalry troopers corner [[John Wilkes Booth]], [[Abraham Lincoln|President Lincoln]]'s assassin, in a [[Barn (building)|barn]] in [[Virginia]]. Booth is shot dead by cavalryman [[Boston Corbett]]. *[[1925]] - [[Paul von Hindenburg]] defeats [[Wilhelm Marx]] in the second round of the [[German presidential election, 1925|German presidential election]] to become the first directly elected [[Reichspräsident]], the [[head of state]] of the [[Weimar Republic]]. *[[1933]] - The [[Gestapo]], the official [[secret police|secret police force]] of [[Nazi Germany]], is established. *[[1937]] - [[Spanish Civil War]]: [[Guernica]], [[Spain]] is bombed by [[Germany|German]] [[Luftwaffe]]. *[[1942]] - The worst-ever mining accident in history kills 1,549 [[miner]]s in an [[explosion]] at the [[Honkeiko Colliery]], [[Manchuria]]. *[[1946]] - [[Father Divine]], a controversial religious leader who claims to be [[God]], marries the much-younger [[Edna Rose Ritchings]], a celebrated anniversary in the [[International Peace Mission movement]]. *[[1954]] - The [[Geneva Conference (1954)|Geneva Conference]], an effort to restore peace in [[Indochina]] and [[Korea]], begins. *[[1962]] - [[NASA]]'s [[Ranger 4]] spacecraft crashes into the [[Moon]]. *[[1964]] - [[Tanganyika]] and [[Zanzibar]] merge to form [[Tanzania]]. *[[1986]] - In [[Ukraine]], a nuclear reactor at the [[Chernobyl]] [[nuclear plant]] [[Chernobyl accident|explodes]], creating the world's worst [[nuclear disaster]]. *[[1991]] - Seventy tornadoes break out in the central [[United States]]. Before its end, [[Andover, Kansas]], would record the year's only [[Fujita scale|F5]] tornado (see [[Andover, Kansas Tornado Outbreak]]). *[[1994]] - [[South Africa]] holds its first multiracial elections. *[[1994]] - A [[China Airlines]] [[Airbus A-300]]-600R crashes at [[Nagoya Airport]], [[Japan]] killing 264. *[[2002]] - 19-year-old Robert Steinhäuser [[Erfurt_massacre|shoots and kills 17 people]] at his school in Erfurt, [[Germany]]. *[[2005]] - Under international pressure, [[Syria]] withdraws the last of its 14,000 troop military garrison in [[Lebanon]], ending its 29-year military domination of that country. *[[2005]] - [[Setanta Sports]] launches a US television channel on [[DirecTV]]. ==Births== *[[121]] - [[Marcus Aurelius]], [[Roman Emperor]] (d. [[180]]) *[[1538]] - [[Gian Paolo Lomazzo]], Italian painter (d. [[1600]]) *[[1573]] - [[Marie de' Medici]], queen of [[Henry IV of France]] (d. [[1642]]) *[[1564]] (baptized) - [[William Shakespeare]], English writer (d. [[1616]]) *[[1648]] - King [[Peter II of Portugal]] (d. [[1706]]) *[[1710]] - [[Thomas Reid]], Scottish philosopher (d. [[1796]]) *[[1711]] - [[David Hume]], Scottish philosopher and historian (d. [[1776]]) *[[1718]] - [[Esek Hopkins]], American Revolutionary War admiral (d. [[1802]]) *[[1765]] - [[Emma, Lady Hamilton]], English mistress of [[Horatio Nelson]] (d. [[1815]]) *[[1774]] - [[Christian Leopold von Buch]], German geologist (d. [[1853]]) *[[1785]] - [[John James Audubon]], French-American naturalist and illustrator (d. [[1851]]) *[[1787]] - [[Ludwig Uhland]], German poet (d. [[1862]]) *[[1798]] - [[James Beckwourth]], American explorer (d. [[1867]]) *1798 - [[Eugène Delacroix]], French painter (d. [[1863]]) *[[1812]] - [[Alfred Krupp]], German industrialist (d. [[1887]]) *[[1822]] - [[Frederick Law Olmsted]], American landscape architect (d. [[1903]]) *[[1826]] - [[George Hull Ward]], American general (d. [[1863]]) *[[1826]] - [[Ambrose R. Wright]], American Civil War General (d. [[1872]] *[[1879]] - [[Owen Willans Richardson]], British physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1959]]) *[[1886]] - [[Ma Rainey]], American singer (d. [[1939]]) *[[1888]] - [[Anita Loos]], American writer (d. [[1981]]) *[[1889]] - [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], Austrian-born philosopher (d. [[1951]]) *[[1894]] - [[Rudolf Hess]], Nazi official (d. [[1987]]) *[[1896]] - [[Ernst Udet]], German World War II pilot (d. [[1941]]) *[[1897]] - [[Eddie Eagan]], American sportsman (d. [[1967]]) *1897 - [[Douglas Sirk]], German-born film director (d. [[1987]]) *[[1898]] - [[Vicente Aleixandre]], Spanish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1984]]) *1898 - [[John Grierson]], Scottish filmmaker (d. [[1972]]) *[[1900]] - [[Charles Richter]], American geophysicist and inventor (d. [[1985]]) *[[1911]] - [[Marianne Hoppe]], German actress (d. [[2002]]) *[[1912]] - [[A. E. van Vogt]], Canadian writer (d. [[2000]]) *[[1914]] - [[Bernard Malamud]], American author (d. [[1986]]) *1914 - [[James W. Rouse]], American real estate investor, activist, and philanthropist (d. [[1996]]) *[[1916]] - [[Morris West]], Australian writer (d. [[1999]]) *[[1917]] - [[I.M. Pei]], Chinese-born architect *[[1918]] - [[Fanny Blankers-Koen]], Dutch athlete (d. [[2004]]) *1918 - [[Stafford Repp]] American actor (d. [[1974]]) *[[1925]] - [[Jørgen Ingmann]], Danish musician (d. [[1990]]) *[[1926]] - [[Michael Mathias Prechtl]], German illustrator (d. [[2003]]) *[[1932]] - [[Michael Smith (chemist)|Michael Smith]], English-born chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[2000]]) *[[1933]] - [[Carol Burnett]], American singer, actress, and comedian *1933 - [[Arno Allan Penzias]], German-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate *[[1934]] - [[Alan Arkin]], American actor *[[1936]] - [[Lane Smith]], American actor *[[1938]] - [[Duane Eddy]], American musician *[[1940]] - [[Giorgio Moroder]], German composer *[[1942]] - [[Claudine Auger]], French actress *1942 - [[Michael Kergin]], Canadian diplomat *1942 - [[Bobby Rydell]], American singer *[[1943]] - [[Gary Wright]], American singer *1943 - [[Peter Zumthor]], Swiss architect *[[1946]] - [[Vladimir Zhirinovsky]], Russian politician *[[1949]] - [[Carlos Bianchi]], Argetinian football coach and player *[[1956]] - [[Koo Stark]], American actress *[[1958]] - [[Jeffrey Guterman]], American mental health counselor *[[1960]] - [[Roger Andrew Taylor|Roger Taylor]], English musician ([[Duran Duran]]) *[[1961]] - [[Joan Chen]], Chinese-born actress *[[1963]] - [[Jet Li]], Chinese martial artist and actor *[[1965]] - [[Kevin James]], American comedian and actor *[[1967]] - [[Glen Jacobs]], American professional wrestler *[[1970]] - [[Tionne Watkins]], American singer ([[TLC]]) *[[1973]] - [[Chris Perry (footballer)|Chris Perry]], English footballer *[[1975]] - [[Joey Jordison]], American musician ([[Slipknot (band)|Slipknot]]) *[[1976]] - [[Jose Pasillas]], American musician ([[Incubus (band)|Incubus]]) *[[1977]] - [[Tom Welling]], American actor *[[1980]] - [[Jordana Brewster]], American actress *[[1982]] - [[Joanne Gobure]], Nauruan poet *[[1983]] - [[Jessica Lynch]], American P.O.W. captured and rescued in Iraq in 2003 *[[1984]] - [[Mija Martina]], Bosnian singer ==Deaths== *[[1192]] - [[Emperor Go-Shirakawa]] of Japan (b. [[1127]]) *[[1444]] - [[Robert Campin]], Flemish painter (b. [[1378]]) *[[1478]] - [[Giuliano di Piero de' Medici]], ruler of Florence (assassinated) (b. [[1453]]) *[[1489]] - [[Ashikaga Yoshihisa]], Japanese shogun (b. [[1465]]) *[[1716]] - [[John Somers, 1st Baron Somers]], Lord Chancellor of England (b. [[1651]]) *[[1784]] - [[Nano Nagle]], Irish convent founder (b. [[1718]]) *[[1789]] - Count [[Petr Ivanovich Panin]], Russian soldier (b. [[1721]]) *[[1865]] - [[John Wilkes Booth]], American actor and assassin (shot) (b. [[1838]]) *[[1892]] - Sir [[Provo Wallis]], British Admiral and naval hero (b. [[1791]]) *[[1910]] - [[Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson]], Norwegian author, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1832]]) *[[1920]] - [[Srinivasa Ramanujan]], Indian mathematician (b. [[1887]]) *[[1932]] - [[Hart Crane]], American poet (suicide) (b. [[1899]]) *1932 - [[William Lockwood]], English cricketer (b. [[1868]]) *[[1938]] - [[Edmund Husserl]], Austrian philosopher (b. [[1859]]) *[[1940]] - [[Carl Bosch]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b.g [[1874]]) *[[1951]] - [[Arnold Sommerfeld]], German physicist (b. [[1868]]) *[[1956]] - [[Edward Arnold (actor)|Edward Arnold]], American actor (b. [[1890]]) *[[1964]] - [[E. J. Pratt]], Canadian poet born Newfoundland (b. [[1882]]) *[[1969]] - [[Morihei Ueshiba]], Japanese martial artist (b. [[1883]]) *[[1970]] - [[Gypsy Rose Lee]], American actress (b. [[1911]]) *[[1973]] - [[Irene Ryan]], American actress (b. [[1902]]) *[[1976]] - [[Sid James]], British comedian (b. [[1913]]) *[[1981]] - [[Jim Davis (actor)|Jim Davis]], American actor (b. [[1909]]) *[[1984]] - [[Count Basie]], American musician and composer (b. [[1904]]) *[[1986]] - [[Broderick Crawford]], American actor (stroke) (b. [[1911]]) *1986 - [[Dechko Uzunov]], Bulgarian painter (b. [[1899]]) *[[1988]] - [[James McCracken]], American tenor (b. [[1926]]) *[[1989]] - [[Lucille Ball]], American actress and comedian (b. [[1911]]) *[[1991]] - [[Carmine Coppola]], American composer and conductor (b. [[1910]]) *1991 - [[Emily McLaughlin]], American actress (b. [[1930]]) *[[1996]] - [[Stirling Silliphant]], American writer and producer (b. [[1918]]) *[[1999]] - [[Jill Dando]], British television presenter (b. [[1961]]) *[[2002]] - [[Lisa Lopes]], American singer (b. [[1971]]) *[[2003]] - [[Rosemary Brown (politician)|Rosemary Brown]], Canadian politician (b. [[1930]]) *2003 - [[Edward Max Nicholson|Max Nicholson]], Irish environmentalist (b. [[1904]]) *2003 - [[Peter Stone]], American writer (b. [[1930]]) *[[2004]] - [[Hubert Selby Jr.]], American author (b. [[1928]]) *[[2005]] - [[Mason Adams]], American actor (b. [[1919]]) *2005 - [[Blade Icewood]], American rapper (b. [[1977]]) *2005 - [[Maria Schell]], Austrian-born actress (b. [[1926]]) ==Holidays and observances== * [[Feast day]] of the following [[saint]]s in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]: **[[Saint Alda]] (d. 1309) **[[Richarius]] or Riquier (d. 643) **[[Radbertus|Paschasius]] (d. 865) **Saint Cletus ([[Pope Anacletus]]) and [[Marcellinus]] ([[Pope]]s and [[martyr]]s) **[[Lucidius]] (4th century) **[[Trudpert]] ([[Ireland|Irish]] [[monk]] martyred in [[Germany]] in [[607]]). * [[Tanzania]] - [[Union Day]] * [[Shi'a Islam]] - [[Mawlid]], [[Muhammad]]'s [[birthday]] ([[2005]]) * [[Florida]] and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia, USA]] - [[Confederate Memorial Day]] * [[Intellectual property]] - [[World Intellectual Property Day]] (since [[2001]]) ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/26 BBC: On This Day] ==Other Facts== This date is reffered to in the [[Alec Empire]] song "[[2641998]]" (26/4/1998) ---- [[April 25]] - [[April 27]] - [[March 26]] - [[May 26]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[ceb:Abril 26]] [[nap:26 'e abbrile]] [[war:Abril 26]] [[pam:Abril 26]] [[af:26 April]] [[ar:26 أبريل]] [[an:26 d'abril]] [[ast:26 d'abril]] [[bg:26 април]] [[be:26 красавіка]] [[bs:26. april]] [[ca:26 d'abril]] [[cv:Ака, 26]] [[co:26 d'aprile]] [[cs:26. duben]] [[cy:26 Ebrill]] [[da:26. april]] [[de:26. April]] [[et:26. aprill]] [[el:26 Απριλίου]] [[es:26 de abril]] [[eo:26-a de aprilo]] [[eu:Apirilaren 26]] [[fo:26. apríl]] [[fr:26 avril]] [[fy:26 april]] [[ga:26 Aibreán]] [[gl:26 de abril]] [[ko:4월 26일]] [[hr:26. travnja]] [[io:26 di aprilo]] [[id:26 April]] [[ia:26 de april]] [[ie:26 april]] [[is:26. apríl]] [[it:26 aprile]] [[he:26 באפריל]] [[jv:26 April]] [[ka:26 აპრილი]] [[csb:26 łżëkwiôta]] [[ku:26'ê avrêlê]] [[lt:Balandžio 26]] [[lb:26. Abrëll]] [[li:26 april]] [[hu:Április 26]] [[mk:26 април]] [[ms:26 April]] [[nl:26 april]] [[ja:4月26日]] [[no:26. april]] [[nn:26. april]] [[oc:26 d'abril]] [[pl:26 kwietnia]] [[pt:26 de Abril]] [[ro:26 aprilie]] [[ru:26 апреля]] [[sco:26 Aprile]] [[sq:26 Prill]] [[scn:26 di aprili]] [[simple:April 26]] [[sk:26. apríl]] [[sl:26. april]] [[sr:26. април]] [[fi:26. huhtikuuta]] [[sv:26 april]] [[tl:Abril 26]] [[tt:26. Äpril]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 26]] [[th:26 เมษายน]] [[vi:26 tháng 4]] [[tr:26 Nisan]] [[uk:26 квітня]] [[ur:26 اپریل]] [[wa:26 d' avri]] [[zh:4月26日]] 1262 42089985 2006-03-03T19:34:55Z Polylerus 111744 '''Argot''' is primarily slang used by various groups, including but not limited to thieves and other criminals, to prevent outsiders from understanding their conversations. ''Argot'' is [[French language|French]] for [[slang]]. See also [[Cant (language)]] and [[cryptolect]]. ==See also== *[[Barallete]] *[[Bron (language)|Bron]] *[[Broun (language)|Broun]] *[[Caló]] *[[Cant (language)|Cant]] *[[Fala dos arxinas]] ([[Verbo dos arginas]]) *[[Gacería]] *[[Gail language|Gail]] *[[Klezmer-loshn]] *[[Language game]] *[[Langue verte]] *[[Louchebem]] *[[Pig Latin]] *[[Polari]] *[[Rotwelsch]] *[[Šatrovački]] *[[slang]] *[[Variety (linguistics)]] *[[Verlan]] *[[Xíriga]] [[Category:Cant languages]] [[Category:Folklore]] [[bg:Таен говор]] [[da:Argot]] [[de:Argot]] [[es:Germanía]] [[fr:Argot]] [[ja:業界用語]] [[ru:Арго]] [[sk:Argot]] [[sv:Argot]] 1264 41768292 2006-03-01T16:38:10Z 81.168.72.184 /* External links */ {{wiktionarypar|anisotropy}} [[image:WMAP.jpg|thumb|300px|[[WMAP]] image of the anisotropic background cosmic radiation]] '''Anisotropy''' (the opposite of [[isotropy]]) is the property of being directionally dependent. In the field of [[computer graphics]], an anisotropic surface will change in appearance as it is rotated about its geometric [[surface normal|normal]], as is the case with [[velvet]]. Anisotropic scaling occurs when something is scaled by different amounts in different directions. An example is down-scaling a 64&times;64-pixel [[texture]] to cover a 12&times;34-pixel [[rectangle]]; this is [[anisotropic filtering]]. An anisotropic [[filter]], on the other hand, is a filter with increasingly smaller [[interstitial]] spaces in the direction of filtration so that the [[proximal]] [[region]]s filter out larger particles and [[distal]] regions increasingly remove smaller particles, resulting in greater flow-through and more efficient filtration. [[Cosmologists]] use the term to describe the fluctuations in the [[background radiation]] left over after the [[big bang]]. The term refers to the difference in the temperature of the [[cosmic microwave background radiation]] with direction. An anisotropic liquid is one which has the fluidity of a normal liquid, but, unlike water or [[chloroform]], which contain no structural ordering of the molecules, they have an average structural order relative to each other along their molecular axis. [[Liquid crystals]] are examples of anisotropic liquids. Some materials [[heat conduction|conduct heat]] in a way that is isotropic, that is independent of spatial orientation around the heat source. It is more common for heat conduction to be anisotropic, which implies that detailed geometric modeling of typically diverse materials being thermally managed is required. The materials used to transfer and reject heat from the heat source in [[electronics]] are often anisotropic. [[Geological]] formations where distinct layers of sedimentary material are disposited can exhibit electrical anisotropy. That is electrical [[conductivity]] in one direction e.g. parallel to a layer, is different to that in another e.g. perpendicular to a layer. This property is used in the gas and [[oil exploration]] industry to identify hydrocarbon-bearing sands in sequences of [[sand]] and [[shale]]. Sand bearing [[hydrocarbon]] assets have high resistivity (relatively low conductivity) whereas shales are much more conductive. [[Formation evaluation]] instruments measure this conductivity and [[resistivity]] and the results are used to help best site oil and gas wells. Many [[crystal]]s are anisotropic to [[light]], and exhibit properties such as [[birefringence]]. [[Crystal optics]] describes light propagation in these media. == External links == *[http://baker-atlas.bakerhughesdirect.com/oil-and-gas-exploration/ Baker Atlas - Formation Evaluation] *[http://baker-atlas.bakerhughesdirect.com/anisotropy-and-resistivity-measurements/ Baker Atlas - Anisotropy and Resistivity Measurements] [[Category:Anisotropy| ]] [[ca:Anisotropia]] [[de:Anisotropie]] [[fr:Anisotrope]] [[it:Anisotropia]] [[pl:Anizotropia]] [[ru:Анизотропия]] [[sk:Anizotropia]] [[sv:Anisotrop]] 1265 15899757 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Trelvis 15 redirect to full article #REDIRECT [[Alpha particle]] 1266 15899758 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Trelvis 15 redirect to full article #REDIRECT [[Alpha particle]] 1267 41615194 2006-02-28T15:06:54Z Racoontje 407719 An alpha particle is the same thing as a helium *nucleus*, not a helium *atom* {{Nuclear_processes}} '''Alpha decay''' is a form of [[radioactivity|radioactive]] decay in which an [[atomic nucleus]] ejects an [[alpha particle]] through the electromagnetic force and transforms into a nucleus with [[atomic weight|mass number]] 4 less and [[atomic number]] 2 less. For example: :<math> {}^2{}^{38}_{92}\hbox{U}\;\to\;{}^2{}^{34}_{90}\hbox{Th}\;+\;{}^4_2\hbox{He}^{2+}, </math> although this is usually written as: :<math> {}^{238}\hbox{U}\;\to\;^{234}\hbox{Th}\;+\;\alpha. </math> Note that an [[alpha particle]] is a [[helium]] nucleus, and that both mass number and atomic number are conserved. Alpha decay can essentially be thought of as [[nuclear fission]] where the parent nucleus splits into two daughter nuclei. Alpha decay is fundamentally a [[quantum tunneling]] process. Unlike [[beta decay]], alpha decay is governed by the [[strong nuclear force]]. Alpha particles with their typical kinetic energy of 5 MeV (that is ≈0.13% of their total energy, i.e. 110 TJ/kg), have a speed of 15,000 km/s. Because of alpha decay, virtually all of the [[helium]] produced in the [[United States]] and elsewhere comes from trapped underground deposits associated with minerals containing [[uranium]] or [[thorium]], and brought to the surface as a by-product of [[natural gas]] production. [[Alpha particles]] emitted by radioactive nuclei are among the most hazardous forms of [[ionizing radiation|radiation]], if these nuclei are incorporated within a human body. As any heavy charged particle, alpha particles lost their energy in very short distance in dense media, causing significant damage to surrounding biomolecules. On the other hand, the external alpha irradiation cannot cause any damages because alphas are completely absorbed by a very thin ([[micrometer]]s) dead layer of [[skin]] as well as by few centimeters of air. However, if a substance radiating alpha particles is injected, ingested or inhaled by an organism it may become a risk, potentially inflicting very serious damage to the [[organism]]s' [[genetics|genetic]] makeup. <!--Interwiki--> <!--Categories--> [[Category:Radioactivity]] [[de:Alphazerfall]] [[fr:Radioactivité α]] [[ko:알파 붕괴]] [[is:Alfasundrun]] [[it:Decadimento alfa]] [[he:קרינת אלפא]] [[hu:Alfa-részecske]] [[ja:アルファ崩壊]] [[pl:Rozpad alfa]] [[ru:Альфа-распад]] [[sl:Razpad alfa]] [[sv:Alfasönderfall]] [[zh:Α衰变]] 1268 25762433 2005-10-17T19:36:09Z BrokenSegue 101451 Artificial intelligence is probably a better place to redirect to #REDIRECT [[Artificial intelligence]] {{R from abbreviation}} 1270 40129712 2006-02-18T09:58:20Z Cantus 46083 /* See also */ '''Extreme poverty''' is the most severe state of [[poverty]], where people have minimal or very limited access to basic necessities, such as [[food]], [[clothing]], [[shelter]], [[education]] and [[health care]]. The [[World Bank Group|World Bank]] defines extreme poverty as living on US $1 or less per day, and estimates that 1.1 billion people currently live under these conditions. Eradiction of extreme poverty and [[hunger]] by [[2015]] is a [[Millennium Development Goals|Millennium Development Goal]]. Extreme poverty is most common in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]. ==See also== *[[List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty]] *[[Income inequality metrics]] *[[Make Poverty History]] *[[Poverty line]] *[[Poverty reduction]] ==References== *Sachs, Jeffrey (2005). ''The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities for Our Time'' Penguin Press Hc ISBN 1594200459 {{expand list}} ==External links== *[http://topics.developmentgateway.org/poverty/rc/BrowseContent.do~source=RCContentUser~folderId=3330 Poverty Indicators, Statistics & Measurement] *[http://www.census.gov/hhes/poverty/povmeas/papers/elastap4.html Is There Such a Thing as an Absolute Poverty Line Over Time?] * [http://aspe.hhs.gov/poverty/papers/relabs.htm New Light on the Behavior of Poverty Lines Over Time] *[http://www.whiteband.org/ WhiteBand.org - Global Call to Action Against Poverty] {{econ-stub}} 1271 41777238 2006-03-01T17:56:10Z 70.226.135.121 Remove vandalism from 199.248.201.204 The '''analytical engine''', an important step in the [[history of computers]], is the design of a mechanical modern general-purpose [[computer]] by the British professor of mathematics [[Charles Babbage]]. It was first described in [[1837]], but Babbage continued to work on the design until his death in [[1871]]. Because of financial, political, and legal issues, the engine was never actually built. General-purpose computers that were logically comparable to the analytical engine did not come into existence until about 100 years later. Some believe that the technological limitations of the time were a further obstacle to the construction of the machine; others believe that the machine could have been built successfully with the technology of the era if funding and political support had been stronger. ==Design== Charles Babbage's first attempt at a mechanical computing device was the [[difference engine]], a special-purpose computer designed to tabulate [[logarithm]]s and [[trigonometric function]]s by evaluating approximate [[polynomial]]s. As this project faltered for personal and political reasons, he realized that a much more general design was possible, he started work designing the analytical engine. The analytical engine was to be powered by a [[steam engine]] and would have been over 30 meters long and 10 meters wide. The input (programs and data) was to be provided to the machine on [[punch card]]s, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical [[loom|looms]]. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. It employed ordinary base-10 fixed-point arithmetic. There was a store (i.e., a memory) capable of holding 1,000 numbers of 50 digits each. An arithmetical unit (the "mill") would be able to perform all four arithmetical operations. The programming language to be employed was akin to modern day [[assembly language|assembly languages]]. Loops and conditional branching were possible and so the language as conceived would have been [[Turing-complete]]. Three different types of punch cards were used: one for arithmetical operations, one for numerical constants, and one for load and store operations, transferring numbers from the store to the arithmetical unit or back. There were three separate readers for the three types of cards. In 1842, the Italian mathematician [[Federico Luigi, Conte Menabrea|Luigi Menabrea]], whom Babbage had met while travelling in Italy, wrote a description of the engine in French. In [[1843]], the description was translated into English and extensively annotated by [[Ada Lovelace|Ada King, Countess of Lovelace]], who had become interested in the engine ten years earlier. In recognition of [[Ada Byron's notes on the analytical engine|her additions to Menabrea's paper]], she has been described as the first computer [[programmer]]. The modern computer programming language [[Ada programming language|Ada]] is named in her honor. ==Partial construction== In [[1878]], a committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science recommended against constructing the analytical engine, which sank Babbage's efforts for government funding. In [[1910]], Babbage's son Henry P. Babbage reported that a part of the mill and the printing apparatus had been constructed and had been used to calculate a (faulty) list of multiples of [[pi]]. This constituted only a small part of the whole engine; it was not programmable and had no storage. ==Influence== ===Computer science=== The analytical engine was then all but forgotten with three known exceptions. [[Percy Ludgate]] wrote about the engine in 1915 and even designed his own analytical engine (it was drawn up in detail but never built). Ludgate's engine would be much smaller than Babbage's of about 8 cubic feet (230 L) and hypothetically would be capable of multiplying two 20-decimal-digit numbers in about 6 seconds. [[Leonardo Torres y Quevedo]] and [[Vannevar Bush]] also knew of Babbage's work, though the three inventors likely did not know of each other. Closely related to Babbage's work on the analytical engine was the work of [[George Stibitz]] of [[Bell Laboratories]] in [[New York]] just prior to [[World War II|WWII]] and [[Howard Aiken|Howard Hathaway Aiken]] at [[Harvard]], during and just after WWII. They both built electromechanical (i.e. relay-and-switch) computers which were closely related to the analytical engine, though neither was (quite) a modern programmable computer. Aiken's machine was largely financed by [[IBM]] and was called the [[Harvard Mark I]]. From Babbage's autobiography: :''As soon as an Analytical Engine exists, it will necessarily guide the future course of the science. '' ===Fiction=== The [[cyberpunk]] novelists [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]] and [[Bruce Sterling]] co-authored a [[steampunk]] novel of [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternative history]] entitled ''[[The Difference Engine]]'' in which Babbage's difference and analytical engines became available to Victorian society. The novel explores the consequences and implications of the early introduction of computational technology. ==External links== *[http://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage The Analytical Engine at Fourmilab] * L. F. Menabrea, Ada Augusta, [http://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage/sketch.html Sketch of the Analytical Engine], Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève, Number 82, October 1842. * [[Brian Randell|Randell, Brian]], [http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/research/pubs/articles/papers/398.pdf From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush], ''[[Annals of the History of Computing]]'', Volume 4, Number 4, October 1982. [[Category:History of computing]] [[Category:Early computers]] [[Category:English inventions]] [[Category:One-of-a-kind computers]] [[Category:Mathematical tools]] [[Category:Mechanical calculators]] [[de:Analytical Engine]] [[es:Máquina analítica]] [[fi:Analyyttinen kone]] [[ja:解析機関]] [[sv:Den analytiska maskinen]] 1273 42120054 2006-03-03T23:22:23Z 68.12.208.244 /* Select Bibliography */ [[Image:Statue-Augustus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The famous statue of Octavian at the Prima Porta ([[Vatican Museums]])]] '''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] [[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]''' ([[Latin]]:<small>Imperator Caesari Divi Filius Augustus</small>) [[#Notes|&sup1;]] ([[23 September]] [[63 BC]] &ndash; [[19 August]] [[14|AD&nbsp;14]]), known to modern historians as '''Octavian''' for the period of his life prior to [[27 BC]], is considered the first and one of the most important [[Roman Emperors]], though he downplayed his own position by preferring the traditional Republic title of ''[[princeps]],'' usually translated as "first citizen". Although he preserved the outward form of the [[Roman Republic]], he ruled as an [[autocrat]] for more than 40 years and his rule is the dividing line between the Republic and the [[Roman Empire]]. He ended a century of [[Civil war|civil wars]] and gave Rome an era of peace, prosperity, and imperial greatness, known as the ''[[Pax Romana]]'', the Roman peace. He was married to [[Livia Drusilla]] for 51 years. ==Early life== Augustus was born in Rome with the name '''Gaius Octavius'''. His father, also [[Gaius Octavius]], came from a respectable but undistinguished family of the [[equestrian (Roman)|equestrian]] order and was governor of [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]]. Shortly after Octavius's birth, his father gave him the surname of '''Thurinus''', possibly to commemorate his victory at [[Thurii]] over a rebellious band of slaves. His mother, [[Atia|Atia Balba Caesonia]], was the niece of [[Julius Caesar]], soon to be Rome's most successful general and [[Dictator]] for Life. He spent his early years in his grandfather's house near Veletrae (modern [[Velletri]]). In [[58 BC]], when he was four, his father died. He spent most of his childhood in the house of his stepfather, [[Lucius Marcius Philippus]]. In [[51 BC]], aged eleven, he delivered the funeral oration for his grandmother [[Julia Caesaris]]. He put on the ''[[toga virilis]]'' at fifteen, and was elected to the [[College of Pontiffs]]. Caesar requested that Octavius join his staff for his campaign in [[Africa (province)|Africa]], but Atia protested that he was too young. The following year, [[46 BC]], she consented for him to join Caesar in [[Hispania]], but he fell ill and was unable to travel. When he had recovered, he sailed to the front, but was shipwrecked; after coming ashore with a handful of companions, he made it across hostile territory to Caesar's camp, which impressed his great-uncle considerably. Caesar and Octavius returned home in the same carriage, and Caesar secretly changed his will. ==Rise to power== [[Image:aug11_01.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Bust of Caesar Augustus.]] When [[Julius Caesar#Assassination|Caesar was assassinated]] in March 44 BC, Octavius was studying in Apollonia, in what is now [[Albania]]. When Caesar's will was read it revealed that, having no legitimate children, he had adopted his great-nephew as his son and main heir. By virtue of his [[adoption in Rome|adoption]], Octavius assumed the name Gaius Julius Caesar. Roman tradition dictated that he also append the surname ''Octavianus'' to indicate his biological family, from which historians derive the name ''Octavian''; however, no evidence exists that he ever used the name ''Octavianus''. [[Mark Antony]] later charged that he had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favors, though [[Suetonius]] describes Antony's accusation as political slander.{{ref|slander}} Octavian, as he is now conventionally called, recruited a small force in Apollonia. Crossing over to Italy, he bolstered his personal forces with Caesar's veteran legionaries, gathering support by emphasizing his status as heir to Caesar. Only eighteen years old, he was consistently underestimated by his rivals for power. In Rome, he found Marcus Antonius ([[Mark Antony]]) in control. After a tense standoff, and a war in Gaul after Antony tried to take control of the province from [[Decimus Brutus]], he formed an uneasy alliance with [[Mark Antony]] and [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]], Caesar's principal colleagues. The three formed a [[junta]] called the [[Second Triumvirate]], an explicit grant of special powers lasting five years and supported by law, unlike the unofficial [[First Triumvirate]] of [[Pompey]], Caesar and [[Marcus Licinius Crassus|Crassus]].{{ref|2ndTri}} The triumvirs then set in motion proscriptions in which three hundred senators and two thousand ''[[Equestrian (Roman)|equites]]'' were deprived of their property and, for those who failed to escape, their lives, going beyond a simple purge of those allied with the assassins, and probably motivated by a need to raise money to pay their troops.{{ref|pros}} Antony and Octavian then marched against Brutus and Cassius, who had fled to the east. At [[Philippi]] in [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]], the Caesarian army was victorious and Brutus and Cassius committed [[suicide]] ([[42 BC]]). While Octavian returned to Rome, Antony went to [[Egypt]] where he allied himself with Queen [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]], the ex-lover of Julius Caesar and mother of Caesar's infant son, [[Caesarion]]. While in Egypt, Antony had an affair with Cleopatra that resulted in the birth of three children, [[Alexander Helios]], [[Cleopatra Selene (II)|Cleopatra Selene]], and [[Ptolemy Philadelphus (Cleopatra)|Ptolemy Philadelphus]]. Antony later left Cleopatra to make a strategic marriage with Octavian's sister [[Octavia]] in [[40 BC]]. During their marriage Octavia gave birth to two daughters, both named [[Antonia]]. In [[37 BC]] Antony deserted Octavia and went back to Egypt to be with Cleopatra. The Roman dominions were then divided between Octavian in the west and Antony in the east. Antony occupied himself with military campaigns in the east and a romantic affair with Cleopatra; Octavian built a network of allies in Rome, consolidated his power, and spread [[propaganda]] implying that Antony was becoming less than Roman because of his preoccupation with Egyptian affairs and traditions. The situation grew more and more tense, and finally, in [[32 BC]], Octavian declared war. It was quickly decided: in the bay of [[Battle of Actium|Actium]] on the western coast of Greece, after Antony's men began deserting, the fleets met in a great battle in which many ships burned and thousands on both sides lost their lives. Octavian defeated his rivals who then fled to Egypt. He pursued them, and after another defeat, Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra also committed suicide after her upcoming role in Octavian's triumph was "carefully explained to her" and [[Caesarion]], the supposed son of Julius Caesar by Cleopatra, was "butchered without compunction". Augustus supposedly said "two Caesars are one too many" as he ordered Caesarion's death.{{ref|suicide}}. It is said that Cleopatra used a snake to kill herself. ==Octavian becomes Augustus: the creation of the Principate== [[Image:Caesar augustus.jpg|right|thumb|200px|<small>Augustus as a magistrate</small>]] The Western half of the Empire had sworn allegiance to Octavian prior to Actium in [[30 BC]], and after Actium and the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra, the Eastern half of the Empire followed suit, placing Octavian in the position of ruler of the entire Empire. Years of civil war had left [[Rome]] in a state of near-lawlessness, but the Republic was not prepared to accept the control of Octavian as a [[despot]]. At the same time, Octavian could not simply give up his authority without risking further civil wars amongst the Roman generals, and even if he desired no position of authority whatsoever, his position demanded that he look to the well-being of the City and provinces. Disbanding his personal forces, Octavian held elections and took up the position of [[consul]]; as such, though he had given up his personal armies, he was now legally in command of the legions of Rome. ===The First Settlement=== In [[27 BC]] he officially returned power to the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] of Rome, and offered to relinquish his own military supremacy over [[Egypt]]. Reportedly, the suggestion of Octavian's stepping down as consul led to rioting amongst the Plebeians in Rome. A compromise was reached between the Senate and Octavian's supporters, known as the First Settlement. Octavian was given proconsular authority over the Western half of the empire and [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] &mdash; the provinces that, combined, contained almost 70% of the Roman legions. The Senate also gave him the titles ''[[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]'' and ''[[Princeps]]''. ''Augustus'' was a title of religious rather than political authority. In the mindset of contemporary religious beliefs, it would have cleverly symbolized a stamp of authority over humanity that went beyond any constitutional definition of his status. Additionally, after the harsh methods employed in consolidating his control, that the change in name would also serve to separate his benign reign as Augustus from his reign of terror as Octavian. ''Princeps'' translates to "first-citizen" or "first-leader". It had been a title under the Republic for those who had served the state well; for example, [[Gnaeus Pompey]] had held the title. In addition, and perhaps the most dangerous innovation, Augustus was granted the right to wear the Civic Crown of laurel and oak. This crown was usually held above the head of a Roman general during a [[Roman Triumph|Triumph]], with the individual holding the crown charged to continually repeat, "Remember, thou art mortal," to the triumphant general. The fact that not only was Augustus awarded this crown but awarded the right to actually wear it upon his head is perhaps the clearest indication of the creation of a [[monarchy]]. However, it must be noted that none of these titles, or the Civic Crown, granted Octavian any additional powers or authority; for all intents and purposes the new Augustus was simply a highly-honored Roman citizen, holding the consulship. These actions were highly abnormal from the Roman Senate, but this was not the same body of patricians that had murdered Caesar. Both Antony and Octavian had purged the Senate of suspect elements and planted it with their loyal partisans. How free a hand the Senate had in these transactions, and what backroom deals were made, remain unknown. ===The Second Settlement=== In [[23 BC]] Augustus renounced the consulship, but retained his consular ''[[imperium]]'', leading to a second compromise between Augustus and the Senate known as the Second Settlement. Augustus was granted the power of a [[tribune]] (''tribunicia potestas''), though not the title, which allowed him to convene the Senate and people at will and lay business before it, veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate, preside over elections, and the right to speak first at any meeting. Also included in Augustus' tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the Roman [[censor]]; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure they were in the public interest, as well as the ability to hold a [[census]] and determine the membership of the Senate. No Tribune of Rome ever had these powers, and there was no precedent within the Roman system for combining the powers of the Tribune and the Censor into a single position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of Censor. Whether censorial powers were granted to Augustus as part of his ''tribunician'' authority, or he simply assumed these responsibilities, is still a matter of debate. In addition to tribunician authority, Augustus was granted sole ''imperium'' within the city of Rome itself: all armed forces in the city, formerly under the control of the [[Prefect|Praefects]], were now under the sole authority of Augustus. Additionally, Augustus was granted ''imperium proconsulare maius'', or "imperium over all the proconsuls", which translated to the right to interfere in any province in the Roman Empire and override the decisions of any governor. With ''maius imperium,'' Augustus was the only individual able to receive a triumph as he was ostensibly the head of every Roman army. Many of the political subtleties of the Second Settlement seem to have evaded the comprehension of the Plebeian class. When in [[22 BC]] Augustus failed to stand for election as consul, fears arose once again that Augustus, seen as the great "defender of the people", was being forced from power by the aristocratic Senate. In [[22 BC|22]], [[21 BC|21]], and [[20 BC]] the people rioted in response, and only allowed a single consul to be elected for each of those years, ostensibly to leave the other position open for Augustus. Finally in [[19 BC]] the Senate voted to allow Augustus to wear the consul's insignia in public and before the Senate, sometimes known as the Third Settlement. This seems to have assuaged the populace; regardless of whether or not Augustus was actually a consul, the importance was that he appeared as one before the people. With these powers in mind, it must be understood that all forms of permanent and legal power within Rome officially lay with the Senate and the people; Augustus was given extraordinary powers, but only as a pronconsul and magistrate under the authority of the Senate. Augustus never presented himself as a king or autocrat, once again only allowing himself to be addressed by the title ''[[Princeps]]''. After the death of Lepidus in [[13 BC]] he additionally took up the position of [[pontifex maximus]]. Later Roman Emperors would generally be limited to the powers and titles originally granted to Augustus, though often, in order to display humility, newly appointed Emperors would often decline one or more of the honorifics given to Augustus. Just as often, as their reign progressed, Emperors would appropriate all of the titles, regardless of whether they had actually been granted by the Senate. The Civic Crown, consular insignia, and later the purple robes of a Triumphant general (''[[toga picta]]'') became the imperial insignia well into the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] era, and were even adopted by many Germanic tribes invading the former Western empire as insignia of their right to rule. ==Reign== Having gained power by means of great audacity, Augustus ruled with great prudence. In exchange for near absolute power, he gave Rome 40 years of civic peace and increasing prosperity, celebrated in history as the [[Pax Romana]], or ''Roman Peace''. ===Military reforms=== He created Rome's first permanent army and navy and stationed the [[Roman legion|legions]] along the Empire's borders, where they could not meddle in politics. A special unit, the [[Praetorian Guard]], garrisoned Rome and protected the Emperor's person. He also reformed Rome's finance and tax systems. Augustus channeled the enormous wealth brought in from the Empire to keeping the army happy with generous payments. ===Provincial reforms and imperial expansion=== The Roman Empire expanded enormously during the reign of Augustus. [[Cantabrian Wars|A war in the mountains of northern Hispania]] from [[26 BC]] to [[19 BC]] finally resulted in that territory's conquest. After [[Gauls|Gallic]] raids, the [[Alps|Alpine]] territories were conquered. Rome's borders were advanced to the natural frontier of the [[Danube]], and the province of [[Galatia]] was occupied. Further west, an attempt to advance into [[Germany]] ended with the defeat at the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]] in [[9|AD 9]]. Thereafter Augustus and his successors accepted the [[Rhine]] as the Empire's permanent border. In the east, he satisfied himself with establishing Roman control over [[Armenia]] and the [[Transcaucasus]]. He left the [[Parthia|Parthian Empire]] alone maintaining generally good relations with them, arranging with them to return the standards lost to them by [[Crassus]], an event portrayed on the breastplate of the ''Prima Porta Augustus''. ====Britain==== The Res Gestae says he received two kings of Britain. He considered [[Roman conquest of Britain#Aborted invasions|invasion]] on occasions but called it off. ====India==== There was an Indian in his retinue ([[Plutarch]], Life of Alexander, 69.9), and he claimed in the Raes Gestae to have received fealty from 'kings' of India. ===Civil reforms, innovations and entertainments in Rome=== He founded a ministry of [[transport]] that built an extensive network of roads &mdash; enabling improved communication, trade, and [[mail]]. Augustus also founded the world's first [[fire brigade]], and created a regular [[Cohortes urbanae|police]] force for Rome. He channeled the enormous wealth brought in from the Empire to keeping the army happy with generous payments, and keeping the citizens of Rome happy by staging magnificent games. His use of games and special events to celebrate himself and his family cemented his popularity. ===Building programmes in Rome=== He famously boasted that he "found Rome [[brick]] and left it [[marble]]" (though that hardly applied to the rickety flats of the [[Subura]]). He built *a new home or [[Curia]] for the Senate *the [[Forum of Augustus]] *new temples to **[[Apollo]] **Divine Julius **[[Temple of Mars Ultor|Mars Ultor]] in his new [[Forum of Augustus|forum]] *a shrine near the [[Circus Maximus]]. He restored *the [[Capitoline Temple]] *the Theater of [[Pompey]] These are recorded as his projects, but his name was deliberately uncredited. He also encouraged others to carry out building projects, such as [[Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor)]] and the [[Museo Nazionale Romano#Crypta Balbi|Crypta Balbi]]. ===Economic policy=== Roman rulers understood little about [[economics]], and Augustus was no exception. Like all the Emperors, he overtaxed agriculture and spent the revenue on armies, temples, and games. However, wages and prices moved freely and allowed efficient markets to operate. When the Empire stopped expanding, and had no more loot coming in from conquests, its economy began to stagnate and eventually decline. The reign of Augustus is thus seen in some ways as the high point of Rome's power and prosperity. Augustus settled retired soldiers on the land in an effort to revive agriculture, but the capital remained dependent on grain imports from Egypt. ===Religious reforms=== Augustus also strongly supported worship of [[Roman gods]], especially [[Apollo]], and depicted Roman defeat of Egypt as Roman gods defeating [[Egyptian mythology|Egypt's]]. ===Harking back to Rome's heritage=== He sponsored Virgil's [[Aeneid]] in the hopes that it would increase pride in Roman heritage (one of the titles he had refused in favour of Augustus was [[Romulus]], as a 'second founder' of Rome). ===His own image=== [[Image:ac.augustus.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Bronze statue of Augustus, Archaeological Museum, Athens]] [[Image:Statue-Augustus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The 'Prima Porta Augustus'([[Vatican Museums]])]] He made a concerted campaign to have a standard version of his image reproduced throughout the empire as a focus of loyalty and, sometimes, [[Imperial cult (Ancient Rome)#From Julius Caesar to Hadrian|worship]]. Even when he was old, he was portrayed this way. As a result, his image is the most recognizable of all the emperors in museums across the world, including * *[[British Museum]] (eg head from [[Meroe]][http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/hixclient.exe?_IXDB_=compass&_IXSR_=df9&_IXSS_=_IXFPFX_%3dgraphical%252ffull%252f%26_IXNOMATCHES_%3dgraphical%252fno_matches%252ehtml%26%2524%2b%2528with%2bv2_searchable_index%2529%2bsort%3d%252e%26_IXDB_%3dcompass%26%257bUPPER%257d%253av2_free_text_tindex%3dAugustus%26_IXsearchterm%3dAugustus&_IXFIRST_=9&_IXMAXHITS_=1&_IXSPFX_=graphical/full/&_IXsearchterm=Augustus&submit-button=summary] * *[[Museo Nazionale Romano#Palazzo Massimo]], Via Labicana type, found on the [[Via Labicana]], Augustus as a [[Pontifex Maximus]] * *[[Vatican Museums]], Prima Porta Augustus. See The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus, Paul Zanker. ===Moral crusade=== Augustus also launched a morality crusade, promoting marriage, family, and childbirth while discouraging luxury, unrestrained sex (including [[prostitution]] and [[homosexuality]]), and adultery. It was largely unsuccessful (indeed, his own daughter and - possibly in connection to her - Ovid were both banished due to it.) ===Cultural patronage=== As a patron of the arts, Augustus showered favors on poets, artists, sculptors, and architects. His reign is considered the Golden Age of [[Roman literature]]. [[Horace]], [[Livy]], [[Ovid]], and [[Virgil]] flourished under his protection, but in return, they had to pay tribute to his genius and adhere to his standards. (Ovid was banished from Rome for violating Augustus's morality codes.) ===Conclusion=== He eventually won over most of the Roman intellectual class, although many still pined in private for the Republic. His use of games and special events to celebrate himself and his family cemented his popularity. By the time Augustus died, a return to the old system was unimaginable. The only question was who would succeed him as sole ruler. ==Succession== Augustus' control of power throughout the Empire was so absolute that it allowed him to name his successor, a custom that had been abandoned and derided in Rome since the foundation of the Republic. At first, indications pointed toward his sister's son [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus (Julio-Claudian dynasty)|Marcellus]], who had been married to Augustus' daughter [[Julia Caesaris]]. However, Marcellus died of food poisoning in 23 BC. Reports of later historians that this poisoning, and other later deaths, were caused by Augustus' wife [[Livia Drusilla]] are inconclusive at best. After the death of Marcellus, Augustus married his daughter to his right hand man, [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Marcus Agrippa]]. This union produced five children, three sons and two daughters: [[Gaius Caesar]], [[Lucius Caesar]], [[Vipsania Julia]], [[Agrippina the Elder]], and [[Postumus Agrippa]], so named because he was born after Marcus Agrippa died. Augustus' intent to make the first two children his heirs was apparent when he adopted them as his own children. Augustus also showed favor to his stepsons, Livia's children from her first marriage, [[Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus]] and [[Tiberius|Tiberius Claudius]], after they had conquered a large portion of [[Germany]]. After Agrippa died in [[12 BC]], Livia's son Tiberius divorced his own wife and married Agrippa's widow. Tiberius shared in Augustus' tribune powers, but shortly thereafter went into retirement. After the early deaths of both Gaius and Lucius in [[4|AD 4]] and [[2|AD 2]] respectively, and the earlier death of his brother Drusus ([[9 BC]]), Tiberius was recalled to Rome, where he was adopted by Augustus. On [[August 19]], [[14|AD 14]], Augustus died. Postumus Agrippa and Tiberius had been named co-heirs. However, Postumus had been banished, and was put to death around the same time. Who ordered his death is unknown, but the way was clear for Tiberius to assume the same powers that his stepfather had. ==Augustus's legacy== [[Image:Hw-augustus.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Portrait drawing of Augustus: a detail of the famous statue found at Prima Porta]] Augustus was deified soon after his death, and both his borrowed surname, Caesar, and his title ''Augustus'' became the permanent titles of the rulers of Rome for the next 400 years, and were still in use at [[Constantinople]] fourteen centuries after his death. In many languages, ''caesar'' became the word for ''emperor'', as in German (''[[Kaiser|Kaiser]]''), in Dutch (''keizer''), and in Russian (''[[Tsar|tsar]]''). The cult of the Divine Augustus continued until the state religion of the Empire was changed to [[Christianity]] in the [[4th century]]. Consequently, there are many excellent statues and busts of the first, and in some ways the greatest, of the emperors. Augustus' mausoleum also originally contained bronze pillars inscribed with a record of his life, the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti]]''. Caesar Augustus is mentioned in Luke 2:1. Many consider Augustus to be Rome's greatest emperor; his policies certainly extended the empire's life span and initiated the celebrated ''[[Pax Romana]]'' or ''Pax Augusta''. He was handsome, intelligent, decisive, and a shrewd politician, but he was not perhaps as charismatic as Julius Caesar or Marc Antony. Nevertheless, his legacy proved more enduring. The month of [[August]] (Latin ''Augustus'') is named after Augustus; until his time it was called [[Sextilis]] (the sixth month of the [[Roman calendar]]). Commonly repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Augustus wanted his month to match the length of Julius Caesar's [[July]], but this is an invention of the 13th-century scholar [[Johannes de Sacrobosco]]. Sextilis in fact had 31 days before it was renamed, and it was not chosen for its length (see [[Julian calendar]]). In looking back on the reign of Augustus and its legacy to the Roman world, its longevity should not be overlooked as a key factor in its success. People were born and reached middle age without knowing any form of government other than the Principate. Had Augustus died earlier (in 23 BC, for instance), matters may have turned out differently. The attrition of the civil wars on the old Republican oligarchy and the longevity of Augustus, therefore, must be seen as major contributing factors in the transformation of the Roman state into a de facto monarchy in these years. Augustus' own experience, his patience, his tact, and his political acumen also played their parts. He directed the future of the empire down many lasting paths, from the existence of a standing professional army stationed at or near the frontiers, to the dynastic principle so often employed in the imperial succession, to the embellishment of the capital at the emperor's expense. Augustus' ultimate legacy was the peace and prosperity the empire enjoyed for the next two centuries under the system he initiated. His memory was enshrined in the political ethos of the Imperial age as a paradigm of the good emperor, and although every emperor adopted his name, Caesar Augustus, only a handful, such as [[Trajan]], earned genuine comparison with him. His reign laid the foundations of a regime that lasted for 250 years. ==Augustus in popular culture== In the [[Home Box Office|HBO]] television series "[[Rome (TV series)|Rome]]", young Octavian is portrayed by [[Max Pirkis]]. Augustus was ranked #18 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]]. Augustus was portrayed in the famous [[BBC]] [[miniseries]] [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0074006/?fr=c2l0ZT1kZnx0dD0xfGZiPXV8cG49MHxrdz0xfHE9SSBjbGF1ZGl1c3xmdD0xfG14PTIwfGxtPTUwMHxjbz0xfGh0bWw9MXxubT0x;fc=1;ft=21;fm=1 ''I, Claudius''] by [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000306/ Brian Blessed]. (1975) Augustus was portrayed in the movie [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0340529/ ''Imperium: Augustus''] (part of the [[Imperium (movie)|Imperium]] movie series) by [[Peter O'Toole]]. ==See also== *[[Augustus (honorific)]] *[[Julio-Claudian Family Tree]] ==Notes == # {{note|slander}} [[Suetonius]], ''Augustus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#68 68], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#71 71] # {{note|2ndTri}} From the Gracchi to Nero: HH Scullard p163 # {{note|pros}} From the Gracchi to Nero: HH Scullard p164 # {{note|suicide}} Alexander to Actium: Peter Green pp 697 ==External links== {{commons|Augustus}} {{wikiquote|Augustus}} ===Primary sources=== a *[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/home.html The Res Gestae Divi Augusti] (The Deeds of Augustus, ''his own account'': complete Latin and Greek texts with facing English translation) * [http://www.usask.ca/antharch/cnea/DeptTransls/ResGest.html Selections from the Res Gestae] (in a different English translation) * [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html Suetonius' biography of Augustus, Latin text with English translation] * [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/home.html#45 Cassius Dio's Roman History: Books 45&#8209;56, English translation] * [http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html Life of Augustus] by [[Nicolaus of Damascus]] ===Secondary material=== * [http://www.roman-emperors.org/auggie.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis] (A good detailed biography) * [http://janusquirinus.org/Octavian/OctavianHome.html Octavian / Augustus] *[http://www.jerryfielden.com/essays/augustus.htm Augustus and the Roman army &#8211; Mutual Loyalty and Rewards] ==Select Bibliography== * ''The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus'', Paul Zanker. * ''Augustan Culture'', Karl Galinsky. {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[List of Roman consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Republic]]|before=[[Gaius Julius Caesar]] and [[Marc Antony|Marcus Antonius]]||after=[[Aulus Hirtius]] and [[Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus]] |years=[[44 BC]]}} {{succession box|title=[[List of Roman consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Republic]]|before=[[Aemilius Lepidus Paullus]]||after=[[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (1st century BC)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]] and [[Gaius Sosius]] |years=[[33 BC]]}} {{succession box|title=[[Julio-Claudian Dynasty]]|before=&mdash;|after=[[Tiberius]]|years=63 BC &ndash;14 AD}} {{succession box|title=[[Roman Emperor]]| before=&mdash; | CoEmperor= | after=[[Tiberius]]|years=27 BC-14 AD}} {{end box}} [[Category:63 BC births|Augustus, Caesar]] [[Category:14 deaths|Augustus, Caesar]] [[Category:Natives of Rome|Augustus, Caesar]] [[Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty|Augustus, Caesar]] [[Category:Deified Roman Emperors|Augustus, Caesar]] [[Category:Adoptive parents|Augustus, Caesar]] [[Category:Historical figures portrayed by Shakespeare]] [[bg:Октавиан Август]] [[ca:August]] [[cs:Augustus]] [[da:Cæsar Augustus]] [[de:Augustus]] {{Link FA|de}} [[et:Augustus]] [[es:César Augusto]] {{Link FA|es}} [[eo:Aŭgusto Cezaro]] [[eu:Zesar Augusto]] [[fr:Auguste]] [[ko:아우구스투스]] [[hr:August]] [[it:Augusto (imperatore romano)]] [[he:אוגוסטוס קיסר]] [[la:G. Iulius Caesar Octavianus Augustus]] [[hu:Augustus]] {{Link FA|hu}} [[nl:Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Augustus)]] [[ja:アウグストゥス]] [[no:Augustus]] [[pl:Oktawian August]] [[pt:César Augusto]] [[ro:Caesar Augustus]] [[ru:Гай Юлий Цезарь Октавиан Август]] [[scn:Cesari Augustu]] [[simple:Caesar Augustus]] [[sl:Gaj Avgust Oktavijan]] [[sh:August]] [[fi:Augustus]] [[sr:Октавијан Август]] [[sv:Augustus]] [[tl:Caesar Augustus]] [[uk:Октавіан Авґуст]] [[zh:屋大维]] 1274 39866053 2006-02-16T11:44:46Z William M. Connolley 8072 +/- ???: plus! [[Image:Booth_Island.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Photo of [[Booth Island]] in [[Antarctica]]]] [[Image:Antarctica2.jpg|250px|thumb|right|[http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/corps/images/big/corp2359.jpg] higher resolution copy]] [[Image:Lake Fryxell.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Blue ice (glacial)|Blue ice]] covering [[Lake Fryxell]], in the Transantarctic Mountains, comes from [[glacier|glacial]] meltwater from the [[Canada Glacier]] and other smaller glaciers. The fresh water stays on top of the lake and freezes, sealing in briny water below.]] The continent of [[Antarctica]] is located mostly south of the [[Antarctic Circle]]. Physically Antarctica is divided in two by mountains close to the neck between the [[Ross Sea]] and the [[Weddell Sea]]. The portion of the continent west of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called [[Western Antarctica]] and the remainder [[Eastern Antarctica]], since they correspond roughly to the eastern and western hemispheres relative to the [[Prime Meridian|Greenwich meridian]]. This usage has been regarded as [[Eurocentrism|Eurocentric]] by some, and the alternative terms Lesser Antarctica and Greater Antarctica (respectively) are sometimes preferred. Western Antarctica is covered by the [[West Antarctic Ice Sheet]]. There has been some concern about this [[ice sheet]], because there is a small chance that it will collapse. If it does, ocean levels would rise by a few metres in a very short period of time. In some areas, the ice sheet rests on bedrock below sea level [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/aedc/bedmap/examples/bed10.gif]. ==Statistics== ; Area: :* Total: [[1 E13 m²|14 million sq km]] :* Land: 14 million km² ([[1 E11 m²|280,000 sq km]] ice-free, 13.72 million km² ice-covered) (est.) :* Note: Fifth-largest continent, following [[Asia]], [[Africa]], [[North America]], and [[South America]], but larger than [[Australia]] and the subcontinent of [[Europe]] ; Land boundaries: : None ; Coastline: : [[1 E7 m|17,968 km]] ; Maritime claims: : None ; Climate: : Severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate; higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing ; Terrain: : About 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average elevations [[1 E3 m|between 2,000 and 4,000 meters]]; mountain ranges up to 5,140 meters; ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern [[Victoria Land]], [[Wilkes Land]], the [[Antarctic Peninsula]] area, and parts of [[Ross Island]] on [[McMurdo Sound]]; [[glacier]]s form ice shelves along about half of the coastline, and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of the continent. The dry valleys of Antarctica are a particularly interesting region of Antarctica. Due to extreme winds and lack of precipitation, this area is devoid of any snow and barren earth is visible. ; Elevation extremes: :* Lowest point: [[Southern Ocean]] 0 [[metre|m]], although in some areas the bedrock under the ice sheet is below sea level. :* Highest point: [[Vinson Massif]] 4,897 m ([[Ellsworth Mountains]]) ; Natural resources: : None presently exploited; [[iron]] ore, [[chromium]], [[copper]], [[gold]], [[nickel]], [[platinum]] and other minerals, and [[coal]] and [[hydrocarbons]] have been found in small, uncommercial quantities ; Land use: :* Other: 100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%) ; Irrigated land: : 0 km² (1993) ; Natural hazards: : [[katabatic wind|Katabatic]] (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high interior; frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move clockwise along the coast; volcanism on [[Deception Island]] and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity rare and weak ; Environment - current issues: : [[Ozone hole]], [[sea level rise]] ; Geography - note: : The coldest, windiest, highest (2,300 m on average), and driest continent; during summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface at the [[South Pole]] than is received at the [[Equator]] in an equivalent period; mostly uninhabitable. ==Volcanoes== There are four [[volcano]]es on the mainland of Antarctica that are considered to be active on the basis of observed fumarolic activity or "recent" tephra deposits: [[Mount Melbourne]] (2,730 m) (74°21'S., 164°42'E.), a stratovolcano; [[Mount Berlin]] (3,500 m) (76°03'S., 135°52'W.), a stratovolcano; Mount Kauffman (2,365 m) (75°37'S., 132°25'W.), a stratovolcano; and [[Mount Hampton]] (3,325 m) (76°29'S., 125°48'W.), a volcanic caldera. Several volcanoes on offshore islands have records of historic activity. [[Mount Erebus]] (3,795m), a stratovolcano on [[Ross Island]] with 10 known eruptions and 1 suspected eruption. On the opposite side of the continent, [[Deception Island]] (62°57'S., 60°38'W.), a volcanic caldera with 10 known and 4 suspected eruptions, have been the most active. [[Buckle Island]] in the [[Balleny Islands]] (66°50'S., 163°12'E.), [[Penguin Island (South Shetland Islands)|Penguin Island]] (62°06'S., 57°54'W.), Paulet Island (63°35'S., 55°47'W.), and Lindenberg Island (64°55'S., 59°40'W.) are also considered to be active. ==See also== * [[List of antarctic and sub-antarctic islands]] ==External links== * [http://sd-www.jhuapl.edu/FlareGenesis/Antarctica/1999/pictures/antarctica_pol_map.jpg Political Claims Map] * [http://terraweb.wr.usgs.gov/TRS/projects/Antarctica/AVHRR.html USGS TerraWeb: Satellite Image Map of Antarctica] * [http://erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/factsheets/fs05101.html United States Antarctic Resource Center (USARC)] * [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/aedc/bedmap/ BEDMAP] [[Category:Geography of Antarctica| ]] [[nl:Aardrijkskunde van Antarctica]] 1275 39280180 2006-02-12T01:40:14Z Circeus 98785 '''[[Antarctica]]''' has no indigenous inhabitants, but there are seasonally staffed research stations. Approximately 29 nations, all signatory to the [[Antarctic Treaty]], send personnel to perform seasonal (summer) and year-round research on the continent and in its surrounding oceans; the population of persons doing and supporting science on the continent and its nearby islands south of 60 degrees south latitude (the region covered by the Antarctic Treaty) varies from approximately 4,000 in summer to 1,000 in winter; in addition, approximately 1,000 personnel including ship's crew and scientists doing onboard research are present in the waters of the treaty region. At least three children have been born in Antarctica. The first was [[Emilio Marcos Palma]], born [[January 7]], [[1978]] to [[Argentina|Argentine]] parents on the Argentine Base [[Esperanza Base|Esperanza]], near the tip of the Antarctic peninsula. In [[1986]], [[Juan Pablo Camacho]] was born at the Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva Base, becoming the first [[Chile]]an born in Antarctica. Soon after a girl, Gisella, was born at the same station. {|class="wikitable" |- ! Nation ! Summer <br />(January) <br /> population <br /> 3,687 total <br /> (1998-9) ! Winter <br />(July) <br />population <br /> 964 total <br /> (1998-9) ! Year-round<br /> Stations <bR> 42 total <br /> (1998-9) ! Summer-only <br /> Stations <br /> 32 total <br /> (1998-9) |- | [[Argentina]] || 302 || 165 || 6 || 7 |- | [[Australia]] || 201 || 75 || 4 || 4 |- | [[Belgium]] || 13 || - || - || - |- | [[Brazil]] || 80 || 12 || 1 || - |- | [[Bulgaria]] || 16 || - || - || 1 |- | [[Chile]] || 352 || 129 || 4 || 7 |- | [[China]] || 70 || 33 || 2 || - |- | [[Finland]] || 11 || - || 1 || - |- | [[France]] || 100 || 33 || 1 || - |- | [[Germany]] || 51 || 9 || 1 || 1 |- | [[India]] || 60 || 25 || 1 || 1 |- | [[Italy]] || 106 || - || 1 || - |- | [[Japan]] || 136 || 40 || 1 || 3 |- | [[South Korea]] || 14 || 14 || 1 || - |- | [[Netherlands]] || 10 || - || - || - |- | [[New Zealand]] || 60 || 10 || 1 || 1 |- | [[Norway]] || 40 || - || 1 || - |- | [[Peru]] || 28 || - || - || 1 |- | [[Poland]] || 70 || 20 || 1 || - |- | [[Russia]] || 254 || 102 || 6 || 3 |- | [[South Africa]] || 80 || 10 || 1 || - |- | [[Spain]] || 43 || - || 1 || - |- | [[Sweden]] || 20 || - || - || 2 |- | [[Ukraine]] || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || 1 || - |- | [[United Kingdom|UK]] || 192 || 39 | 2 || 5 |- | [[United States|US]] || 1,378 || 248 | 3 || - |- | [[Uruguay]] || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || 1 || - |} In addition, during the austral summer some nations have numerous occupied locations such as tent camps, summer-long temporary facilities, and mobile traverses in support of research (July 2000 est.) ==See also== *[[Argentine Antarctica]] [[Category:Antarctica]] 1276 38845359 2006-02-09T00:32:30Z Arvedui 126848 clarification of awkward wording No [[economics|economic]] activity is conducted at present in [[Antarctica]], except for [[fishing]] off the coast and small-scale [[tourism]], both based abroad. Antarctic fisheries in [[1998]]-[[1999]] ([[July 1]]- [[June 30]]) reported landing 119,898 metric tons. Unregulated [[fishing]] landed five to six times more than the regulated fishery, and allegedly illegal fishing in antarctic waters in [[1998]] resulted in the seizure (by [[France]] and [[Australia]]) of at least eight fishing ships. A total of 10,013 tourists visited in the [[1998]]-[[1999]] summer, up from the 9,604 who visited the previous year. Nearly all of them were passengers on 16 commercial (nongovernmental) ships and several [[yacht]]s that made 116 trips during the summer. Most tourist trips lasted approximately two weeks. Small-scale tourism has existed since 1957. Since 1969, over 30,000 tourists have been to Antarctica.[http://www.knet.co.za/antarctica/political.htm] As of 2006, several ships transport people to Antarctica to visit specific scenic locations. Sight-seeing flights also used to take people from Australia and New Zealand over Antarctica and back again, until the fatal crash of [[Air New Zealand Flight 901]] near [[Mount Erebus]] late in 1979. {{economics-stub}} {{Antarctica-geo-stub}} [[Category:Antarctica]] [[Category:Economies by region]] 1277 22973613 2005-09-10T13:45:56Z Citylover 406359 "#REDIRECT [[Antarctic Treaty System]]" added #REDIRECT [[Antarctic Treaty System]] 1278 38491058 2006-02-06T18:23:44Z Gflores 153556 '''Telephones - main lines in use:''' 0 <br />(note: information for US bases only (2001)) '''Telephones - mobile cellular:''' NA; [[Iridium (satellite)|Iridium]] system in use '''[[Telephone]] system:''' <br />''general assessment:'' local systems at some research stations <br />''domestic:'' NA <br />''international:'' via satellite from some research stations '''[[Radio]] broadcast stations:''' AM: NA, FM: 2, shortwave: 1 <br />(note: information for US bases only (2002)) '''Radios:''' NA '''[[Television]] broadcast stations:''' 1 (cable system with six channels; American Forces Antarctic Network-McMurdo) <br />(note: information for US bases only (2002)) '''Televisions:''' several hundred at McMurdo Station (US) <br />(note: information for US bases only (2001)) '''[[Internet]] Service Providers (ISPs):''' a fiber cable on polar plateau planned to finish in [[2009]] [1] '''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top level domain):''' AQ ''Information from [[CIA World Factbook]], [[as of 2002|2002]] edition'' Argentine bases in general: Marambio base has wireless internet and 2 mobile phones servers :''See also:'' [[Antarctica]] ==External links== * [http://www.anetstation.com ANetStation] - radio station in Antarctica [[Category:Communications by country|Antarctica]] [[Category:Antarctica]] 1279 40663199 2006-02-22T03:40:01Z Abracadabrantesque 972037 french article '''Transportation in Antarctica''' is usually done over sea or plane, and requires special measures against the cold. ==Ports and harbors== [[Antarctica]]'s only harbour is at [[McMurdo Station]]. Most coastal stations have offshore anchorages, and supplies are transferred from ship to shore by small boats, barges, and helicopters. A few stations have a basic wharf facility. All ships at port are subject to inspection in accordance with Article 7, [[Antarctic Treaty]]; offshore anchorage is sparse and intermittent. [[McMurdo Station]] ({{coor dm|77|51|S|166|40|E|}}), [[Palmer Station]] ({{coor dm|64|43|S|64|03|W|}}); government use only except by permit (see Permit Office under "Legal System"). ==Airports== Antarctica has 20 airports, but there are no developed public-access airports or landing facilities. 30 stations, operated by 16 national governments party to the [[Antarctic Treaty]], have landing facilities for either [[helicopter]]s and/or fixed-wing [[aircraft]]; commercial enterprises operate two additional air facilities. Helicopter pads are available at 27 stations; runways at 15 locations are gravel, sea-ice, blue-ice, or compacted snow suitable for landing wheeled, fixed-wing aircraft; of these, 1 is greater than 3 km in length, 6 are between 2 km and 3 km in length, 3 are between 1 km and 2 km in length, 3 are less than 1 km in length, and 2 are of unknown length; snow surface skiways, limited to use by [[ski]]-equipped, fixed-wing aircraft, are available at another 15 locations; of these, 4 are greater than 3 km in length, 3 are between 2 km and 3 km in length, 2 are between 1 km and 2 km in length, 2 are less than 1 km in length, and data is unavailable for the remaining 4. Antarctic airports are subject to severe restrictions and limitations resulting from extreme seasonal and geographic conditions; they do not meet [[ICAO]] standards, and advance approval from the respective governmental or nongovernmental operating organization is required for landing (1999 est.) '''Airports - with unpaved runways:''' *''total:'' 20 *''over 3,047 m:'' 6 *''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 3 *''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 1 *''914 to 1,523 m:'' 4 *''under 914 m:'' 6 (2003 est.) '''Heliports:''' 27 stations have restricted helicopter landing facilities (helipads) (2003 est.) [[Category:Antarctica]] [[Category:Transportation by country|Antarctica]] [[fr:Transport en Antarctique]] 1280 15899771 2004-12-27T12:01:41Z Jiang 10049 merge due to nonexisten subject #REDIRECT[[Antarctica]] 1282 15899772 2002-05-05T00:23:16Z Maveric149 62 *#redirect [[History of Antarctica]] #redirect [[History of Antarctica]] 1285 38356684 2006-02-05T20:37:51Z Psmith 25471 /* Physical Features */ rv vandalism [[image:Physio-al.jpg|right|float|frame|Physiographic Regions in Alabama]] ==Physical Features== The surface of [[Alabama]] in the N. and N.E., embracing about two-fifths of its area, is diversified and picturesque; the remaining portion is occupied by a gently undulating plain having a general incline south-westward toward the [[Mississippi River]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. Extending entirely across the state of Alabama for about 20 m. S. of its N. boundary, and in the middle stretching 60 m. farther S., is the ''Cumberland Plateau'', or ''Tennessee Valley'' region, broken into broad table-lands by the dissection of rivers. In the N. part of this plateau, W. of [[Jackson County, Alabama|Jackson county]], there are about 1000 sq. m. of level highlands from 700 to 800 ft. above the sea. South of these highlands, occupying a narrow strip on each side of the [[Tennessee River]], is a country of gentle rolling lowlands varying in elevation from 500 to 800 ft. To the N.E. of these highlands and lowlands is a rugged section with steep mountain-sides, deep narrow coves and valleys, and flat mountain-tops. Its elevations range from 400 to 1800 ft. In the remainder of this region, the S. portion, the most prominent feature is Little Mountain, extending about 80 m. from E. to W. between two valleys, and Asing precipitouslyon the N. side 500 ft. above them or 1000ft. above the sea. Adjoining the Cumberland Plateau region on the S.E. is the ''Appalachian Valley'' (locally known as Coosa Valley) region, which is the S. extremity of the great [[Appalachian Mountains]], and occupies an area within the state of about 8000 sq. m. This is a [[limestone]] belt with parallel hard rock ridges left standing by erosion to form mountains. Although the general direction of the mountains, ridges and valleys is N.E. and S.W., irregularity is one of the most prominent characteristics. In the N.E. are several flat-topped mountains, of which Raccoon and [[Lookout Mountain|Lookout]] are the most prominent, having a maximum elevation near the [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] line of little more than 1800 ft. and gradually decreasing in height toward the S.W., where Sand Mountain is a continuation of Raccoon. South of these the mountains are marked by steep N.W. sides, sharp crests and gently sloping S.E. sides. South-east of the Appalachian Valley region, the ''Piedmont Plateau'' also crosses the Alabama border from the N.E. and occupies a small triangular-shaped section of which [[Randolph County, Alabama|Randolph]] and [[Clay County, Alabama|Clay]] counties, together with the N. part of [[Tallapoosa County, Alabama|Tallapoosa]] and [[Chambers County, Alabama|Chambers]], form the principal portion. Its surface is gently undulating and has an elevation of about 1000 ft. above the sea. The Piedmont Plateau is a lowland worn down by erosion on hard crystalline rocks, then uplifted to form a plateau. The remainder of the state is occupied by the ''Coastal Plain''. This is crossed by foot-hills and rolling prairies in the central part of the state, where it has a mean elevation of about 600 ft., becomes lower and more level toward the S.W., and in the extreme S. is flat and but slightly elevated above the sea. The Cumberland Plateau region is drained to the W.N.W. by the [[Tennessee River]] and its tributaries; all other parts of the state are drained to the S.W. In the Appalachian Valley region the Coosa is the principal river; and in the Piedmont Plateau, the Tallapoosa. In the Coastal Plain are the Tombigbee in the W., the Alabama (formed by the Coosa and Tallapoosa) in the W. central, and in the E. the Chattahoochee, which forms almost half of the Georgia boundary. The [[Tombigbee River|Tombigbee]] and [[Alabama River|Alabama]] unite near the S.W. corner of the state, their waters discharging into [[Mobile Bay]] by the [[Mobile River|Mobile]] and Tensas rivers. The Black Warrior is a considerable stream which joins the Tombigbee from the E. The valleys in the N. and N.E. are usually deep and narrow, but in the Coastal Plain they are broad and in most cases rise in three successive terraces above the stream. The harbour of Mobile was formed by the drowning of the lower part of the valley of the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers as a result of the sinking of the land here, such sinking having occurred on other parts of the Gulf coast. The fauna and flora of Alabama are similar to those of the Gulf states in general and have no distinctive characteristics. ==Climate and Soil== The [[climate]] of Alabama is temperate and fairly uniform. The heat of summer is tempered in the south by the winds from the [[Gulf of Mexico]], and in the north by the elevation above the sea. The average annual temperature is highest in the southwest along the coast (where the climate is [[subtropical]]), and lowest in the northeast among the highlands. Thus at Mobile the annual mean is 67°F (19°C), the mean for the summer 81°F (27°C), and for the winter 52°F (11°C); and at Valley Head, in De Kalb county, the annual mean is 59°F (15°C), the mean for the summer 75°F (24°C), and for the winter 41°F (5°C). At Montgomery, in the central region, the average annual temperature is 66°F (19°C), with a winter average of 49°F (9°C), and a summer average of 81°F (27°C). The average winter minimum for the entire state is 35°F (2°C), and there is an average of 35 days in each year in which the thermometer falls below the freezing-point. At extremely rare intervals the thermometer has fallen below zero (-18°F), as was the case in the remarkable cold wave of the 12th-13th of February [[1899]], when an absolute minimum of -17°F (-29°C) was registered at [[Valley Head, Alabama|Valley Head]]. The highest temperature ever recorded was 109°F (43°C) in [[Talladega County, Alabama|Talladega]] county in [[1902]]. The amount of precipitation is greatest along the coast (62 inches/1,574 mm) and evenly distributed through the rest of the state (about 52 inches/1,320 mm). During each winter there is usually one fall of snow in the south and two in the north; but the snow quickly disappears, and sometimes, during an entire winter, the ground is not covered with snow. [[Hailstorm]]s occur occasionally in the spring and summer, but are seldom destructive. Heavy [[fog]]s are rare, and are confined chiefly to the coast. [[Thunderstorm]]s occur throughout the year, but are most common in the summer. The prevailing winds are from the south. [[Tropical cyclone|Hurricane]]s are quite common in the state, especially in the southern part, and major hurricanes occasionally strike the coast which can be very destructive. As regards its soil, Alabama may be divided into four regions. Extending from the Gulf northward for about 150 miles (240 km) is the outer belt of the Coastal Plain, also called the ''Timber Belt,'' whose soil is sandy and poor, but responds well to fertilization. North of this is the inner lowland of the Coastal Plain, or the ''Black Prairie,'' which includes some 13,000 square miles and seventeen counties. It receives its name from its soil (weathered from the weak underlying limestone), which is black in colour, almost destitute of sand and loam, and rich in limestone and marl formations, especially adapted to the production of cotton; hence the region is also called the ''Cotton Belt.'' Between the ''Cotton Belt'' and the [[Tennessee Valley]] is the [[mineral]] region, the ''Old Land'' area -- a region of resistant rocks -- whose soils, also derived from weathering in silu, are of varied fertility, the best coming from the granites, sandstones and limestones, the poorest from the gneisses, schists and slates. North of the mineral region is the ''Cereal Belt,'' embracing the Tennessee Valley and the counties beyond, whose richest soils are the red clays and dark loams of the river valley; north of which are less fertile soils, produced by siliceous and sandstone formations. ==Public lands== Alabama includes several types of public use lands: * [[List of Alabama state parks|Alabama State Parks]] Alabama has four national forests and one national preserve within its borders. They provide over 25% of the state's public recreation land. There is a national seashore that runs along the gulf coast, encompassing several islands and beachfront areas. * [[United States National Monument|National Monument]]s ** [[Little River Canyon National Preserve]] ** [[Russell Cave National Monument]] * [[National Forest]]s ** [[Conecuh National Forest]] ** [[Talladega National Forest]] ** [[Tuskegee National Forest]] ** [[William B. Bankhead National Forest]] * [[U.S. Wilderness Area|Wilderness Area]]s ** [[Cheaha Wilderness]] ** [[Dugger Mountain Wilderness]] ** [[Sipsey Wilderness]] * [[National Scenic Trail]] ** [[Natchez Trace Trail]] * [[National Recreation Trail]] ** [[Pinhoti National Recreation Trail]] * [[National Wildlife Refuge]] ** [[Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge]] ** [[Cahaba River National Wildlife Refuge]] ** [[Choctaw National Wildlife Refuge]] ** [[Eufaula National Wildlife Refuge]] ** [[Fern Cave National Wildlife Refuge]] ** [[Key Cave National Wildlife Refuge]] ** [[Mountain Longleaf National Wildlife Refuge]] ** [[Sauta Cave National Wildlife Refuge]] ** [[Watercress Darter National Wildlife Refuge]] ** [[Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge]] * [[National Seashore]] ** [[Gulf Islands National Seashore]] ==See also== * [[Alabama]] * [[Geography of the United States]] == External links == * [http://www.gsa.state.al.us/ State of Alabama Geological Survey] * [http://tapestry.usgs.gov/states/alabama.html USGS - Tapestry of Time - Alabama] * [http://www.al.com/parks/north.html Summary of Alabama Park & Recreation Sites] * [http://www.stateparks.com/al.html Interactive Map of Park & Recreation Sites] [[Category:Geography of Alabama| ]] 1286 40359107 2006-02-20T01:16:18Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 External links per MoS. The following is a list of the territorial and state governors of [[Alabama]]. ==Governor of [[Alabama Territory]]== [[William Wyatt Bibb]], served [[1817]]-[[1819]] ==Governors of the State== <br clear="all"> {| cellpadding=4 cellspacing=2 |- bgcolor=#cccccc !Name!!Served!!Party |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[William Wyatt Bibb]]<sup>1</sup> |1819&ndash;[[1820]] |[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Thomas Bibb]]<sup>2</sup> |1820&ndash;[[1821]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Israel Pickens]] |1821&ndash;[[1825]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[John Murphy (Alabama)|John Murphy]] |1825&ndash;[[1829]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Gabriel Moore]] |1829&ndash;[[1831]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Samuel B. Moore]]<sup>3</sup> |1831 |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[John Gayle]] |1831&ndash;[[1835]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Clement C. Clay]] |1835&ndash;[[1837]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Hugh McVay]]<sup>4</sup> |1837 |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Arthur P. Bagby]] |1837&ndash;[[1841]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Benjamin Fitzpatrick]] |1841&ndash;[[1845]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Joshua L. Martin]] |1845&ndash;[[1847]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Reuben Chapman]] |1847&ndash;[[1849]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Henry W. Collier]] |1849&ndash;[[1853]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[John A. Winston]] |1853&ndash;[[1857]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Andrew B. Moore]] |1857&ndash;[[1861]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[John Gill Shorter]] |1861&ndash;[[1863]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Thomas H. Watts]] |1863&ndash;[[1865]] |Democratic |- |[[Lewis E. Parsons]]<sup>5</sup> |1865 |Provisional |- bgcolor=#FFE8E8 |[[Robert M. Patton]] |1865&ndash;[[1867]] |[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] |- |[[Wager Swayne]]<sup>6</sup> |1867&ndash;[[1868]] |Military |- bgcolor=#FFE8E8 |[[William H. Smith]] |1868&ndash;[[1870]] |Republican |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Robert B. Lindsay]] |1870&ndash;[[1872]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#FFE8E8 |[[David P. Lewis]] |1872&ndash;[[1874]] |Republican |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[George S. Houston]] |1874&ndash;[[1878]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Rufus W. Cobb]] |1878&ndash;[[1882]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Edward A. O'Neal]] |1882&ndash;[[1886]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Thomas Seay]] |1886&ndash;[[1890]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Thomas G. Jones]] |1890&ndash;[[1894]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[William C. Oates]] |1894&ndash;[[1896]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Joseph F. Johnston]] |1896&ndash;[[1900]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[William D. Jelks]]<sup>7</sup> |1900 |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[William J. Samford]] |1900&ndash;[[1901]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[William D. Jelks]] |1901&ndash;[[1907]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Russell Cunningham]]<sup>8</sup> |[[1904]]&ndash;[[1905]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[B. B. Comer]] |1907&ndash;[[1911]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Emmet O'Neal]] |1911&ndash;[[1915]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Charles Henderson]] |1915&ndash;[[1919]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Thomas Kilby]] |1919&ndash;[[1923]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[William W. Brandon]] |1923&ndash;[[1927]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Charles McDowell]]<sup>9</sup> |[[1924]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Bibb Graves]] |1927&ndash;[[1931]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Benjamin M. Miller]] |1931&ndash;[[1935]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Bibb Graves]] |1935&ndash;[[1939]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Frank M. Dixon]] |1939&ndash;[[1943]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Chauncey Sparks]] |1943&ndash;[[1947]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Jim Folsom|James E. Folsom Sr.]] |1947&ndash;[[1951]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Gordon Persons]] |1951&ndash;[[1955]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Jim Folsom|James E. Folsom Sr.]] |1955&ndash;[[1959]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[John Malcom Patterson|John Patterson]] |1959&ndash;[[1963]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[George Wallace]] |1963&ndash;[[1967]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Lurleen Wallace]]<sup>10</sup> |1967&ndash;[[1968]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Albert Brewer]] |1968&ndash;[[1971]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[George Wallace]] |1971&ndash;[[1979]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Jere Beasley]]<sup>11</sup> |[[1972]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Fob James|Forrest H. "Fob" James Jr.]] |1979&ndash;[[1983]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[George Wallace]] |1983&ndash;[[1987]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#FFE8E8 |[[H. Guy Hunt]] |1987&ndash;[[1993]] |Republican |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Jim Folsom, Jr.|James E. Folsom Jr.]]<sup>12</sup> |1993&ndash;[[1995]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#FFE8E8 |[[Fob James|Forrest H. "Fob" James Jr.]] |1995&ndash;[[1999]] |Republican |- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[Don Siegelman]] |1999&ndash;[[2003]] |Democratic |- bgcolor=#FFE8E8 |[[Bob Riley (Alabama)|Robert R. Riley]] |2003&mdash; |Republican |} ==Notes== #William Wyatt Bibb was appointed as territorial governor; he was then elected first governor in 1819. #William Wyatt Bibb died in 1820, and his brother Thomas Bibb, then president of the state senate, filled the unexpired term. #In 1831, Governor Moore was elected to the [[United States Senate]], and Samuel Moore, the president of the state senate, filled the unexpired term. #In 1837, Governor Clay was appointed to the [[United States Senate]], and Hugh McVay, the president of the state senate, filled the unexpired term. #Lewis Parsons was appointed provisional governor by the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] occupation. #Wager Swayne was appointed military governor during [[Reconstruction]]. #William Samford was out of state for 26 days at the beginning of his term seeking medical treatment, so William D. Jelks was acting governor. #Russell Cunningham was governor for nearly a year when governor William D. Jelks was out of state for medical treatment. #William W. Brandon was out of state for 21 days in 1924, and since the state constitution require the lieutenant governor to act as governor if the governor is out of the state for 20 days, Charles McDowell served two days as governor. #Lurleen Wallace, wife of George Wallace, died in 1968. Albert Brewer, the lieutenant governor, filled the unexpired term. #While campaigning for [[President of the United States]] in 1972, George Wallace was shot in an assassination attempt. After a few months of recovery in a [[Maryland]] hospital, Wallace resumed his duties as governor. Lieutenant Governor Jere Beasley served as governor for a month after Wallace had been out of the state for more than 20 days, as per the constitution. #H. Guy Hunt was removed from office upon conviction of illegally using campaign and inagural funds to pay personal debts. Lieutenant Governor [[Jim Folsom, Jr.|James E. Folsom Jr.]] filled the unexpired term. Until 1845, the term of state officials was one year, from then until 1901 it was two years, and since 1901 it has been four years. ==External links== [http://www.archives.state.al.us/govslist.html The Alabama Department of Archives & History's List of Alabama Governors] {| border="1" align="center" style="text-align:center;" |- |width="30%"|Preceded by:<br>'''-''' |width="40%"|'''[[Lists of United States Governors]]''' |width="30%"|Succeeded by:<br>'''[[List of Governors of Alaska]]''' |} [[Category:Lists of United States governors|Alabama]] [[Category:Governors of Alabama|*]] [[de:Liste der Gouverneure von Alabama]] [[fr:Liste des gouverneurs de l'Alabama]] [[nl:Lijst van gouverneurs van Alabama]] [[pl:Gubernatorzy stanu Alabama]] [[sl:Seznam guvernerjev Alabame]] 1287 15899777 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z LA2 445 *redirect to avoid subpages #REDIRECT [[History of Alabama]] 1288 42145193 2006-03-04T02:56:47Z ASDamick 153752 rv {{christianity}} '''Apocrypha''' is a [[Greek language|Greek]] word (απόκρυφα, neuter plural of απόκρυφος), from αποκρυπτειν, to hide away. Thus it connotes the idea of "closed" or "hidden." (In this sense apocrypha is in contrast with [[apocalypse]], which means "opened," "revealed," or "uncovered.") '''Apocryphon''' is the singular noun, '''apocrypha''' the plural noun, and '''apocryphal''' the adjective. These words are used to describe the character of a certain class of religiously oriented ancient writings. By an analogy the term is extended to non-religious contexts to refer to questionable sources. ==Non-religious usage== <!-- I placed this small section on top, since the whole rest is religious subject --> In everyday conversation, '''''apocryphal''''' typically denotes "of highly questionable or no authenticity", when describing a story nevertheless frequently told and widely believed. In [[literature]], '''''apocrypha''''' are works that purport to have been created by somebody other than their real author, usually a famous figure, as in the case of the [[Ossian|Ossianic]] cycle invented by [[James Macpherson]]. ==Religious usage== In [[Judeo-Christian]] [[theology]], the word '''apocrypha''' refers to texts that are not considered [[Biblical canon|canonical]], part of [[Scripture|the Bible]], but are of roughly similar style and age as the accepted canonical Scriptures. [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] and [[Orthodox Christianity|Orthodox Christian]] Bibles typically contain several texts not included in the Biblical canon by other Christians or by Judaism, who see them as apocryphal. Catholics and Orthodox consider these texts equally canonical as other books of the Bible, with Catholics terming them ''[[deuterocanon]]ical'' (from [[Greek language|Greek]]: "second canon," or "measuring rule"). R.M. Wilson wrote: :"The Greek word ''apocryphos'' did not always have the disparaging sense which later became attached to it. In [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] circles it was used of books the contents of which were too sacred to be divulged to the common herd, and it was in fact the [[heresy|heretical]] associations which it thus came to possess which led to its use as a term of disparagement. In the [[Nag Hammadi library]], for example, one document bears the title Apocryphon or Secret Book of John, another that of Apocryphon of James, and several Gnostic gospels contain solemn warnings against imparting their contents to any save the deserving, or for the sake of material gain." :&mdash;from ''Studies in the Gospel of Thomas'' (the "apocryphal" [[Gospel of Thomas]])</blockquote> Apart from the broad sense mentioned in the first paragraph above, Protestants use the word "apocrypha", in a narrow sense, of those books that they exclude from their canon of Scripture, but that other Churches view as canonical and venerate as divinely inspired, written under the influence of the Holy Spirit. Disagreement between Christian Churches is almost non-existent about the canon of the [[New Testament]], but the inclusion of some books in the [[Old Testament]] canon is disputed. Since many now considered these books to be of late composition, Protestant scholars sometimes call them "intertestamental", i.e. intermediate between the Old and New Testaments, and hold that God imposed a period of silence, with no prophecy or Scripture, to prepare for the coming of [[Jesus]]. The [[Church of England]] takes an intermediate position; its 6th article of religion says of them "the Church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners; but yet doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine". The books that come under the description "apocrypha" in the broad sense but not in this narrow sense are called apocrypha by Catholics and Jews, but Protestants usually call them [[Pseudepigrapha]]. Many of them have [[Apocalypse|apocalyptic]] themes. The history of the earlier usage of the term "Apocrypha" is not free from obscurity. We shall therefore enter at once on a short account of the origin of this literature in [[Judaism]], of its adoption by early [[Christianity]], of the various meanings which the term "apocryphal" assumed in the course of its history, and having so done we shall proceed to classify and deal with the books that belong to this literature. The word most generally denotes writings which claimed to be, or were by certain sects regarded as, sacred scriptures although excluded from the canonical scriptures. ===Apocrypha in Judaism=== Certain circles in Judaism, as the [[Essenes]] in Palestine (Josephus, ''B.J.'' ii. 8. 7) and the [[Therapeutae]] (Philo, ''De Vita Contempl.'' ii. 475, ed. Mangey) in Egypt possessed a secret literature. But such literature was not confined to the members of these communities, but had been current among the [[Chasids]] and their successors the [[Pharisees]]. (Judaism was long accustomed to lay claim to an esoteric tradition. Thus though it insisted on the exclusive canonicity of the 24 books, it claimed the possession of an [[oral law]] handed down from [[Moses]], and just as the apocryphal books overshadowed in certain instances the canonical scriptures, so often the oral law displaced the written in the regard of Judaism.) To this literature belong essentially the [[apocalyptic literature|apocalypses]] which were published in fast succession from [[Daniel]] onwards. These works bore, perforce, the names of ancient Hebrew worthies in order to procure them a hearing among the writers' real contemporaries. To reconcile their late appearance with their claims to primitive antiquity the alleged author is represented as "shutting up and sealing" (Dan. xii. 4, 9) the book, until the time of its fulfilment had arrived; for that it was not designed for his own generation but for far-distant ages (Ass. Mos. i. 16, 17). It is not improbable that with many Jewish enthusiasts this literature was more highly treasured than the canonical scriptures. Indeed, we have a categorical statement to this effect in 4 Ezra xiv. 44 sqq., which tells how Ezra was inspired to dictate the sacred scriptures which had been destroyed in the overthrow of Jerusalem: "In forty days they wrote ninety-four books: and it came to pass when the forty days were fulfilled that the Highest spake, saying: the first that thou hast written publish openly that the worthy and unworthy may read it; but keep the seventy last that thou mayst deliver them only to such as be wise among the people; for in them is the spring of understanding, the fountain of wisdom and the stream of knowledge." Such esoteric books are apocryphal in the original conception of the term. In due course the Jewish authorities drew up a canon or book of sacred scriptures in response to Christianity; they marked other books off from those which claimed to be such without justification. The true scriptures, according to the Jewish canon (Yad. iii. 5; Toseph. Yad. ii. 3), were those which defiled the hands of such as touched them. But other scholars, such as Zahn, Schürer, Porter, state that the secret books with which we have been dealing formed a class by themselves and were called "Genuzim" (גנוזים), and that this name and idea passed from Judaism over into the Greek, and that αποκρυφα βιβλια is a translation of ספרים גנוזים. But the Hebrew verb does not mean "to hide" but "to store away," and is only used of things in themselves precious. Moreover, the phrase is unknown in Talmudic literature. The derivation of this idea from Judaism has therefore not yet been established. Whether the Jews had any distinct name for these esoteric works we do not know. For writings that stood wholly without the pale of sacred books such as the books of heretics or Samaritans they used the designation Hisonim, Sanh. x. I (ספרים חצונים and ספרי המינים. To this class in later times even Sirach was relegated, and indeed all books not included in the canon (Midr. r. Num. 14 and on Koheleth xii. 12; cf. Jer. Sabb. 16). (See Porter in Hastings' ''Bible Dict.'' i. 113) In Aqiba's time Sirach and other apocryphal books were not reckoned among the Hisonim; for Sirach was largely quoted by rabbis in Palestine till the 3rd century A.D. ===Apocrypha in Christianity=== Christianity from [[Jesus]] had no secret or [[esoteric]] teaching. It was essentially the revelation or manifestation of the truth of God. But as Christianity took its origin from Judaism, it is not unnatural that a large body of Jewish ideas was incorporated in the system of Christian thought. The bulk of these in due course underwent transformation either complete or partial, but there was always a residuum of incongruous and inconsistent elements existing side by side with the essential truths of Christianity. This was no isolated phenomenon; for in every progressive period of the history of religion we have on the one side the doctrine of God advancing in depth and fullness: on the other we have [[cosmology|cosmological]], [[eschatology|eschatological]] and other survivals, which, however justifiable in earlier stages, are in unmistakable antagonism with the theistic beliefs of the time. The eschatology of a nation--and the most influential portion of Jewish and Christian apocrypha are eschatological--is always the last part of their religion to experience the transforming power of new ideas and new facts. The contemporary religious literature of Judaism outside the canon was composed of apocryphal books, the bulk of which bore an apocalyptic character, and dealt with the coming of the Messianic kingdom. These naturally became the popular religious books of the rising Jewish-Christian communities, and were held by them in still higher esteem, if possible, than by the Jews. Occasionally these Jewish writings were re-edited or adapted to their new readers by Christian additions, but on the whole it was found sufficient to submit them to a system of reinterpretation in order to make them testify to the truth of Christianity and foreshadow its ultimate destinies. Christianity, moreover, moved by the same apocalyptic tendency as Judaism, gave birth to new Christian apocryphs, though, in the case of most of them, the subject matter was to a large extent traditional and derived from Jewish sources. Another prolific source of apocryphal gospels, acts and apocalypses was Gnosticism. While the characteristic features of apocalyptic literature were derived from Judaism, those of Gnosticism sprang partly from Greek philosophy, partly from oriental religions. They insisted on an allegorical interpretation of the apostolic writings: they alleged themselves to be the guardians of a secret apostolic tradition and laid claim to prophetic inspiration. With them, as with the bulk of the Christians of the 1st and 2nd centuries, apocryphal books as such were highly esteemed. They were so designated by those who valued them. It was not till later times that the term became one of reproach. We have remarked above that the Jewish apocrypha--especially the apocalyptic section and the host of Christian apocryphs--became the ordinary religious literature of the early Christians. And this is not strange seeing that of the former such abundant use was made by the writers of the New Testament. (The New Testament shows undoubtedly an acquaintance with several of the apocryphal books. Thus James i. 19 shows dependence on Sirach v. II, Hebrews i. 3 on Wisdom vii. 26, Hebrews xi. 35 on II Maccabees vi., Romans ix. 21 on Wisdom xv. 7, 2 Cor. v. 1, 4 on Wisdom ix. 15, &c.) Thus [[Book of Jude|Jude]] quotes the [[Book of Enoch]] by name, while undoubted use of this book appears in the four gospels and 1 Peter. The influence of the [[Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs]] is still more apparent in the Pauline Epistles and the Gospels, and the same holds true of Jubilees and the Assumption of Moses, though in a very slight degree. The genuineness and inspiration of Enoch were believed in by the writer of the Ep. of Barnabas, [[Irenaeus]], [[Tertullian]] and [[Clement of Alexandria]], and much of the early church. But the high position which apocryphal books occupied in the first two centuries was undermined by a variety of influences. All claims to the possession of a secret tradition were denied (Irenaeus ii. 27. 2, iii. 2. 1, 3. 1; Tertullian, ''Praescript.'' 22-27): true inspiration was limited to the apostolic age, and universal acceptance by the church was required as a proof of apostolic authorship. Under the action of such principles apocryphal books tended to pass into the class of spurious and heretical writings. ==== Esoteric writings ==== Turning now to the consideration of the word "apocryphal" itself, we find that in its earliest use it was applied in a laudatory sense to writings,which were kept secret because they were the vehicles of esoteric knowledge which was too profound or too sacred to be imparted to any save the initiated. Thus it occurs in a magical book of Moses, which has been edited from a Leiden papyrus of the 3rd or 4th century by Dieterich (Abraxas, 109). This book, which may be as old as the 1st century, is entitled: "A holy and secret Book of Moses, called eighth, or holy" (Μωυσεως ἱερα βιβλος αποκρυφος επικαλουμενη ογδοη ἡ ἁγια). The disciples of the Gnostic Prodicus boasted (Clem. Alex. ''Strom.'' i. 15. 69) that they possessed the secret (αποκρυφους) books of Zoroaster. 4 Ezra is in its author's view a secret work whose value was greater than that of the canonical scriptures (xiv. 44 sqq.) because of its transcendent revelations of the future. It is in a like laudatory meaning that Gregory reckons the New Testament apocalypse as εν αποκρυφοις (''Oratio in suam ordinationem'', iii. 549, ed. Migne; cf. Epiphanius, ''Haer.'' li. 3). The word enjoyed high consideration among the Gnostics (cf. Acts of Thomas, 10, 27, 44). ==== Questionable writings ==== But the word was applied to writings that were kept from public circulation not because of their transcendent, but of, their secondary or questionable value. Thus Origen distinguishes between writings which were read by the churches and apocryphal writings; γραφη μη φερομενη με&nu εν τοις κοινοις και δεδημοσιευμενοις βιβλιοις εικος δ ὁτι εν αποκρυφοις φερομενη (Origen's ''Comm. in Matt.'', x. 18, on Matt. xiii. 57, ed. Lommatzsch iii. 49 sqq.). Cf. ''Epist. ad Africam'', ix. (Lommatzsch xvii. 31): Euseb. ''H.E.'' ii. 23, 25; iii. 3, 6. See Zahn, ''Gesch. Kanons'', i. 126 sqq. Thus the meaning of αποκρυφος is here practically equivalent to "excluded from the public use of the church," and prepares the way for the third and unfavourable sense of this word. ==== Spurious writings ==== The word came finally to mean what is false, spurious, bad, heretical. If we may trust the text, this meaning appears in Origen (''Prolog, in Cant. Cantic.'', Lommatzsch xiv. 325): "De scripturis his, quae appellantur apocryphae, pro eo quod multa in iis corrupta et contra fidem veram inveniuntur a majoribus tradita non placuit iis dari locum nec admitti ad auctoritatem." ==== Other meanings ==== In addition to the above three meanings strange uses of the term appear in the western church. Thus the Gelasian Decree includes the works of Eusebius, Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria, under this designation. Augustine (''De Civ. Dei'', xv. 23) explains it as meaning obscurity of origin, while Jerome (''Protogus Galeatus'') declares that all books outside the Hebrew canon belong to this class of apocrypha. Jerome's practice, however, did not square with his theory. The western church did not accept Jerome's definition of apocrypha, but retained the word in its original meaning, though great confusion prevailed. Thus the degree of estimation in which the apocryphal books have been held in the church has varied much according to place and time. As they stood in the Septuagint or Greek canon, along with the other books, and with no marks of distinction, they were practically employed by the Greek Fathers in the same way as the other books; hence Origen, Clement and others often cite them as "scripture," "divine scripture," "inspired," and the like. On the other hand, teachers connected with Palestine, and familiar with the Hebrew canon, rigidly exclude all but the books contained there. This view is reflected, for example, in the canon of Melito of Sardis, and in the prefaces and letters of Jerome. Augustine, however (''De Doct. Christ''. ii. 8), attaches himself to the other side. Two well-defined views in this way prevailed, to which was added a third, according to which the books, though not to be put in the same rank as the canonical scriptures of the Hebrew collection, yet were of value for moral uses and to be read in congregations,--and hence they were called "ecclesiastical"--a designation first found in Rufinus (''ob''. 410). Notwithstanding the decisions of some councils held in Africa, which were in favour of the view of Augustine, these diverse opinions regarding the apocryphal books continued to prevail in the church down through the ages till the great dogmatic era of the Reformation. At that epoch the same three opinions were taken up and congealed into dogmas, which may be considered characteristic of the churches adopting them. In 1546 the council of Trent adopted the canon of Augustine, declaring "He is also to be anathema who does not receive these entire books, with all their parts, as they have been accustomed to be read in the Catholic Church, and are found in the ancient editions of the Latin Vulgate, as sacred and canonical." The whole of the books in question, with the exception of 1st and 2nd Esdras, and the Prayer of Manasses, were declared canonical at Trent. On the other hand, the Protestants universally adhered to the opinion that only the books in the Hebrew collection are canonical. Already Wycliffe had declared that "whatever book is in the Old Testament besides these twenty-five (Hebrew) shall be set among the apocrypha, that is, without authority or belief." Yet among the churches of the Reformation a milder and a severer view prevailed regarding the apocrypha. Both in the German and English translations (Luther's, 1537; Coverdale's, 1535, &c.) these books are separated from the others and set by themselves; but while in some confessions, ''e.g''. the Westminster, a decided judgment is passed on them, that they are not "to be any otherwise approved or made use of than other human writings," a milder verdict is expressed regarding them in many other quarters, ''e.g''. in the "argument" prefixed to them in the Geneva Bible; in the Sixth Article of the Church of England, where it is said that "the other books the church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners," though not to establish doctrine; and elsewhere. == Old Testament apocryphal books == We shall now proceed to enumerate the apocryphal books: first the Apocrypha Proper, and next the rest of the Old and New Testament apocryphal literature. === The Apocrypha Proper === or the apocrypha of the Old Testament as considered by English-speaking Protestants, consists of the following books: 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras, Tobit, Judith, Additions to Esther, Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus (Sirach), Baruch, Epistle of Jeremiah, Additions to Daniel (Prayer of Azariah, Song of the Three Holy Children, History of Susannah, and Bel & the Dragon), Prayer of Manasseh, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees. Thus the Apocrypha Proper constitutes the surplusage of the Vulgate or Bible of the Roman Catholic Church over the Hebrew Old Testament. Since this surplusage is in turn derived from the Septuagint, from which the old Latin version was translated, it thus follows that the difference between the Protestant and the Catholic Old Testament is, roughly speaking, traceable to the difference between the Palestinian and the Alexandrian canons of the Old Testament. But this is only true with certain reservations; for the Latin Vulgate was revised by Jerome according to the Hebrew, and, where Hebrew originals were wanting, according to the Septuagint. Furthermore, the Vulgate rejects 3 and 4 Maccabees and Psalm cli., which generally appear in the Septuagint, while the Septuagint and Luther's Bible reject 4 Ezra, which is found in the Vulgate and the Apocrypha Proper. Luther's Bible, moreover, rejects also 3 Ezra. It should further be observed that the Vulgate adds the Prayer of Manasses and 3 and 4 Ezra after the New Testament as apocryphal. It is hardly possible to form any classification which is not open to some objection. In any case the classification must be to some extent provisional, since scholars are still divided as to the original language, date and place of composition of some of the books which must come under our classification. (Thus some of the additions to Daniel and the Prayer of Manasseh are most probably derived from a Semitic original written in Palestine, yet in compliance with the prevailing opinion they are classed under Hellenistic Jewish literature. Again, the Slavonic [[Book of Enoch|Enoch]] goes back undoubtedly in parts to a Semitic original, though most of it may have been written by a Greek Jew in Egypt.) We may, however, discriminate * the Palestinian and * the Hellenistic literature of the Old Testament, though even this distinction is open to serious objections. The former literature was generally written in Hebrew or Aramaic, and seldom in Greek; the latter naturally in Greek. Next, within these literatures we shall distinguish three or four classes according to the nature of the subject with which they deal. Thus the books of which we have to treat will be classed as: * Historical, * Legendary (Haggadic), * Apocalyptic, * Didactic or Sapiential. The Apocrypha Proper then would be classified as follows:-- *Palestinian Jewish Literature **Historical ***1 (i.e. 3) Ezra. ***1 Maccabees. **Legendary ***Book of [[Baruch]] ***[[Book of Judith]] **Apocalyptic ***2 (i.e. 4) Ezra (see also [[Apocalyptic literature]]) **Didactic ***Sirach (see [[Ecclesiasticus]]) ***Tobit *Hellenistic Jewish Literature:-- **Historical and Legendary ***Additions to [[Daniel]] ***Additions to [[Esther]] ***[[Epistle of Jeremy]] ***[[2 Maccabees]] ***Prayer of [[Manasses]] **Didactic ***[[Book of Wisdom]] Since all these books are dealt with in separate articles, they call for no further notice here. === References === Texts: * Holmes and Parsons, ''Vet. Test. Graecum cum var. lectionibus'' (Oxford, 1798-1827) * Swete, ''Old Testament in Greek'', i.-iii. (Cambridge, 1887-1894) * Fritzsche, ''Libri Apocryphi V. T. Graece'' (1871). Commentaries:-- * O. F. Fritzsche and Grimm, ''Kurzgef. exeget. Handbuch zu den Apok. des A.T''. (Leipzig, 1851-1860) * E. C. Bissell, ''Apocrypha of the Old Testament'' (Edinburgh, 1880) * Zockler, ''Apok. des A.T.'' (Munchen, 1891) * Wace, ''The Apocrypha'' ("Speaker's Commentary") (1888). Introduction and General Literature: * E. Schürer, ''Geschichte des jud. Volkes'', vol. iii. 135 sqq., and his article on "Apokryphen" in Herzog's ''Realencykl''. i. 622-653 * Porter in Hastings' ''Bible Dic''. i. 111-123. == Other Old Testament apocryphal literature == * Historical ** History of Johannes Hyrcanus. * Legendary ** Book of Jubilees ** Paralipomena Jeremiae, or the Rest of the Words of Baruch ** Martyrdom of Isaiah ** Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum ** Books of Adam ** Jannes and Jambres ** Joseph and Asenath. * Apocalyptic ** (See [[Apocalyptic literature]]) === Historical === ==== History of Johannes Hyrcanus ==== The ''History of Johannes Hyrcanus'' is mentioned in 1 Macc. xvi. 23-24, but no trace has been discovered of its existence elsewhere. It must have early passed out of circulation, as it was unknown to Josephus. === Legendary === ==== Book of Jubilees ==== The ''Book of Jubilees'' was written in Hebrew between the year of the accession of Hyrcanus to the high-priesthood in 135 and his breach with the Pharisees some years before his death in 105 B.C. ''Jubilees'' was translated into Greek and from Greek into Ethiopic and Latin. It is preserved in its entirety only in Ethiopic. ''Jubilees'' is the most advanced pre-Christian representative of the midrashic tendency, which was already at work in the Book of Chronicles. This is a rewriting of the book of Genesis and the early chapters of Exodus. His work constitutes an enlarged targum on these books, and its object is to prove the everlasting validity of the law, which, though revealed in time, was superior to time. Writing in the palmiest days of the Maccabean dominion, he looked for the immediate advent of the Messianic kingdom. This kingdom was to be ruled over by a Messiah sprung not from Judah but from Levi, that is, from the reigning Maccabean family. This kingdom was to be gradually realized on earth, the transformation of physical nature going hand in hand with the ethical transformation of man. (For a fuller account see [[Book of Jubilees]].) ==== ''Paralipomena Jeremiae'', or the ''Rest of the Words of Baruch'' ==== This book has been preserved in Greek, Ethiopic, Armenian and Slavonic. The Greek was first printed at Venice in 1609, and next by Ceriani in 1868 under the title ''Paralipomena Jeremiae''. It bears the same name in the Armenian, but in Ethiopic it is known by the second title. (See [[Baruch]].) ==== Martyrdom of Isaiah ==== This Jewish work has been in part preserved in the ''Ascension of Isaiah''. To it belong i. 1, 2a, 6b-13a; ii. 1-8, 10-iii. 12; v. 1c-14 of that book. It is of Jewish origin, and recounts the martyrdom of Isaiah at the hands of Manasseh. (See [[Ascension of Isaiah]]) ==== Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum ==== Though the Latin version of this book was thrice printed in the 16th century (in 1527, 1550 and 1599), it was practically unknown to modern scholars till it was recognized by [[F. C. Conybeare]] and discussed by Cohn in the ''Jewish Quarterly Review'', 1898, pp. 279-332. It is an Haggadic revision of the Biblical history from Adam to the death of Saul. Its chronology agrees frequently with the LXX. against that of the Massoretic text, though conversely in a few cases. The Latin is undoubtedly translated from the Greek. Greek words are frequently transliterated. While the LXX. is occasionally followed in its translation of Biblical passages, in others the Massoretic is followed against the LXX., and in one or two passages the text presupposes a text different from both. On many grounds Cohn infers a Hebrew original. The eschatology is similar to that taught in the similitudes of the [[Book of Enoch]]. In fact, Eth. En. li. 1 is reproduced in this connexion. Prayers of the departed are said to be valueless. The book was written after A.D. 70; for, as Cohn has shown, the exact date of the fall of Herod's temple is predicted. ==== Life of Adam and Eve ==== Writings dealing with this subject are extant in Greek, Latin, Slavonic, Syriac, Armenian and Arabic. They go back undoubtedly to a Jewish basis, but in some of the forms in which they appear at present they are christianized throughout. The oldest and for the most part Jewish portion of this literature is preserved to us in Greek, Armenian, Latin and Slavonic, # The Greek Διηγησις περι Αδαμ και Ευας (published under the misleading title Αποκαλυψις Μωυσεως in Tischendorf's ''Apocalypses Apocryphae'', 1866) deals with the Fall and the death of Adam and Eve. Ceriani edited this text from a Milan MS. (''Monumenta Sacra et Profana'', v. i). This work is found also in Armenian, and has been published by the Mechitharist community in Venice in their ''Collection of Uncanonical Writings of the Old Testament'', and translated by Conybeare (''Jewish Quarterly Review'', vii. 216 sqq., 1895), and by Issaverdens in 1901. # The ''Vita Adae et Evae'' is closely related and in part identical with the Διηγησις. It was printed by W. Meyer in ''Abh. d. Münch. Akad.'', Philos.-philol. Cl. xiv., 1878. # The Slavonic Adam book was published by Jajic along with a Latin translation (''Denkschr. d. Wien. Akad. d. Wiss.'' xlii., 1893). This version agrees for the most part with the Διηγησις. It has, moreover, a section, §§ 28-39, which though not found in the Διηγησις is found in the ''Vita''. # :Before we discuss these three documents we shall mention other members of this literature, which, though derivable ultimately from Jewish sources, are Christian in their present form, # ''The Book of Adam and Eve'', also called the [[Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan]], translated from the Ethiopic (1882) by Malan. This was first translated by Dillmann (''Das christl. Adambuch des Morgenlandes'', 1853), and the Ethiopic book first edited by Trump (''Abh. d. Münch. Akad.'' xv., 1870-1881). # A Syriac work entitled ''Die Schalzhöhle'' translated by Bezold from three Syriac MSS. in 1883 and subsequently edited in Syriac in 1888. This work has close affinities to the Conflict, but is said by Dillmann to be more original, Armenian books on the ''Death of Adam'' (''Uncanonical Writings of O.T.'' pp. 84 sqq., 1901, translated from the Armenian), ''Creation and Transgression of Adam'' (op. cit. 39 sqq.), ''Expulsion of Adam from Paradise'' (op. cit. 47 sqq.), ''Penitence of Adam and Eve'' (op. cit. 71 sqq.) are mainly later writings from Christian hands. Returning to the question of the Jewish origin of Διηγησις, ''Vita'', Slavonic Adam book, we have already observed that these spring from a common original. As to the language of this original, scholars are divided. The evidence, however, seems to be strongly in favour of Hebrew. How otherwise are we to explain such Hebraisms (or Syriacisms) as ευω ῥεει το ἑλαιον εξ αυτο&upsilon (§ 9), οὑ ειπεν... μη φαγειν απ αυτου (§ 21). For others see §§ 23, 33. Moreover, as Fuchs has pointed out, in the words ἑση εν ματαιοις addressed to Eve (§ 25) there is a corruption of חבליס into הבליס. Thus the words were: "Thou shalt have pangs." In fact, Hebraisms abound throughout this book. (See Fuchs, ''Apok. u. Pseud, d. A.T.'' ii. 511; ''Jewish Encyc.'' i. 179 sq.) ==== Jannes and Jambres ==== These two men are referred to in 2 Tim. iii. 8 as the Egyptian magicians who withstood Moses. The book which treats of them is mentioned by Origen (''ad Matt.'' xxiii. 37 and xxvii. 9 [''Jannes et Mambres Liber'']), and in the Gelasian Decree as the ''Paenitentia Jamnis et Mambre''. The names in Greek are generally Ιαννησ και Ιαμβρης (=יניס וימבריס) as in the Targ.-Jon. on Exod. i. 15; vii. ii. In the Talmud they appear as יוחני וממרא. Since the western text of 2 Tim. iii. 8 has Μαμβρης, Westcott and Hort infer that this form was derived from a Palestinian source. These names were known not only to Jewish but also to heathen writers, such as Pliny and Apuleius. The book, therefore, may go back to pre-Christian times. (See Schürer iii. 292-294; ''Ency. Biblica'', ii. 2327-2329.) ==== Joseph and Asenath ==== The statement in Gen. xli. 45, 50 that Joseph married the daughter of a heathen priest naturally gave offence to later Judaism, and gave rise to the belief that Asenath was really the daughter of Shechem and Dinah, and only the foster-daughter of Potipherah (''Targ.-Jon.'' on Gen. xli. 45; Tractat. ''Sopherim'', xxi. 9; ''Jalkut Shimoni'', c. 134. See Oppenheim, ''Fabula Josephi et Asenethae'', 1886, pp. 2-4). Origen also was acquainted with some form of the legend (''Selecta in Genesin'', ad Gen. xli. 45, ed. Lommatzsch, viii. 89-90). The Christian legend, which is no doubt in the main based on the Jewish, is found in Greek, Syriac, Armenian, Slavonic and Medieval Latin. Since it is not earlier than the 3rd or 4th century, it will be sufficient here to refer to Smith's ''Dict. of Christ. Biog.'' i. 176-177; Hastings' ''Bible Dict.'' i. 162-163; Schürer, iii. 289-291. === Didactic or Sapiential === ==== Pirke Aboth ==== The ''Pirke Aboth'', a collection of sayings of the Jewish Fathers, are preserved in the 9th Tractate of the Fourth Order of the Mishnah. They are attributed to some sixty Jewish teachers, belonging for the most part to the years A.D. 70-170, though a few of them are of a much earlier date. The book holds the same place in rabbinical literature as the Book of Proverbs in the Bible. The sayings are often admirable. Thus in iv. 1-4, "Who is wise? He that learns from every man.... Who is mighty? He that subdues his nature.... Who is rich? He that is contented with his lot.... Who is honoured? He that honours mankind." (See further [[Pirke Aboth]].) == New Testament apocryphal literature == [[New Testament apocrypha]] &mdash; books similar to those in the [[New Testament]] but rejected by Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants &mdash; include several gospels and lives of apostles. Some of them were clearly produced by [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] authors or members of other groups later defined as [[heresy|heterodox]]. Many were discovered in the [[19th century|19th]] and [[20th century|20th centuries]], and produced lively speculation about the state of affairs in early [[Christianity]]. Though Protestants, Catholics and, in general, Orthodox agree on the canon of the [[New Testament]], the [[Ethiopian Orthodox]] are reported by some scholars to add [[Epistles of Clement|I & II Clement]], and [[Shepherd of Hermas]] to the [[New Testament]]. Others deny this. See [http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Bible/Text/Canon/ethiopican.html this link] for details. [[Martin Luther (religious leader)|Martin Luther]] considered the [[Epistle of James]] apocryphal, because he highly doubted its authorship by any of the several New Testament figures named James, and because it contains a statement that seemed to contradict his teachings of [[Salvation#Christian views of salvation|Salvation]] by faith alone: "Faith without works is dead" (2:26). He had a similar feeling about the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]], the [[Epistle of Jude]] and the [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]], and relegated those four books to an appendix in his Bible. Later [[Lutherans]] included these books as full parts in their New Testament, but kept them behind all the other books. The Lutheran New Testament (at least in [[German language|German]]) is thus arranged slightly differently from that of most other Churches. The New Testament apocryphal book that is most famous today is the [[Gospel of Thomas]], the only complete text of which was found in [[Nag Hammadi]] along with other works, most of which were New Testament apocrypha. The entry on [[Gnosticism]] lists more recovered texts considered to be of Gnostic origin. While the New Testament apocrypha are not seen as divinely inspired, artists and theologians have drawn on them for such matters as the names of [[Dismas]] and [[Gestas]] and details about the [[Three Wise Men]]. The first explicit expression on the [[perpetual virginity of Mary]] is found in the pseudepigraphical [[Infancy Gospel of James]]. An extensive online archive of New Testament Apocrypha is available at [http://www.comparative-religion.com/christianity/apocrypha/ www.comparative-religion.com/christianity/apocrypha/] and comprises more than 80 works, including fragments. Among the New Testament Apocrypha are the following: * Gospels ** Uncanonical sayings of the Lord in Christian and Jewish writings. ** [[Gospel according to the Egyptians]]. ** [[Gospel according to the Hebrews]]. ** [[Protevangel of James]]. ** [[Gospel of Nicodemus]]. ** [[Gospel of Peter]]. ** [[Gospel of Thomas]]. ** [[Gospel of the Twelve]]. ** Gnostic gospels of [[Saint Andrew|Andrew]], [[Apelles]], [[Barnabas]], [[Bartholomew]], [[Basilides]], [[Cerinthus]] and some seventeen others. * Acts and Teachings of the Apostles ** [[Acts of Andrew]] and later forms of these Acts. ** [[Acts of John]]. ** [[Acts of Paul]]. ** [[Acts of Peter]]. ** [[Preaching of Peter]]. ** [[Acts of Thomas]]. ** [[Teaching of the Twelve Apostles]]. ** Apostolic constitutions. * Epistles ** [[The Abgar Epistles]]. ** [[Epistle of Barnabas]]. ** [[Epistle of Clement]]. ** "Clement's" [[2nd Epistle of the Corinthians]]. ** "Clement's" [[Epistles on Virginity]]. ** "Clement's" [[Epistles to James]]. ** [[Epistles of Ignatius]]. ** [[Epistle of Polycarp]]. ** Pauline Epp. to the Laodiceans and Alexandrians. ** 3 Pauline Ep. to the Corinthians. * Apocalypses ** see under [[Apocalyptic literature]] ''See also: '' [[New Testament Apocrypha]], a listing of books rejected by most Christians. === Gospels === ==== Uncanonical Sayings of the Lord in Christian and Jewish Sources ==== ''Main Article: [[Agrapha]]'' Under the head of canonical sayings not found in the Gospels only one is found, i.e. that in Acts xx. 35. The uncanonical sayings have been collected by Preuschen (''Reste der ausserkanonischen Evangelien'', 1901, pp. 44-47) and Hennecke (''NTliche Apok.'' 9-11). The same subject is dealt with in the elaborate volumes of Resch (''Aussercanonische Paralleltexte zu den Evangelien'', vols. i.-iii., 1893-1895). To this section belongs also the ''Fayum Gospel Fragment'' and the ''Logia'' published by Grenfell and Hunt. [These editors have discovered (1907) a gospel fragment of the 2nd century which represents a dialogue between our Lord and a chief priest--a Pharisee.] The former contains two sayings of Christ and one of Peter, such as we find in the canonical gospels, Matt. xxvi. 31-34, Mark xiv. 27-30. The papyrus, which is of the 3rd century, was discovered by [[Gustav Bickell]] among the Rainer collection, who characterized it (''Z. f. kath. Theol.'', 1885, pp. 498-504) as a fragment of one of the primitive gospels mentioned in Luke i. 1. On the other hand, it has been contended that it is merely a fragment of an early patristic homily. (See [[Zahn]], ''Gesch. Kanons'', ii. 780-790; [[Harnack]], ''Texte und Untersuchungen'', v. 4; [[Preuschen]], op. cit. p. 19.) The ''[[Logia]]'' is the name given to the sayings contained in a papyrus leaf, by its discoverers Grenfell and Hunt. They think the papyrus was probably written about A.D. 200. According to Harnack, it is an extract from the ''Gospel of the Egyptians''. All the passages referring to Jesus in the Talmud are given by [[Laible]], ''Jesus Christus im Talmud'', with an appendix, "Die talmudischen Texte," by [[Gustaf Dalman]] (2nd ed. 1901). The first edition of this work was translated into English by [[A. W. Streane]] (''Jesus Christ in the Talmud'', 1893). In [[Hennecke]]'s ''NTliche Apok. Handbuch'' (pp.47-71) there is a valuable study of this question by [[A. Meyer]], entitled ''Jesus, Jesu Jünger und das Evangelium im Talmud und verwandten jüdischen Schriften'', to which also a good bibliography of the subject is prefixed. ==== Gospel according to the Egyptians ==== This gospel is first mentioned by [[Clem. Alex.]] (''Strom.'' iii. 6. 45; 9. 63, 66; 13. 92), subsequently by [[Origen]] (''Hom. in Luc.'' i.) and [[Epiphanius]] (''Haer.'' lxii. 2), and a fragment is preserved in the so-called 2 Clem. Rom. xii. 2. It circulated among various heretical circles; amongst the [[Encratites]] (Clem. ''Strom.'' iii. 9), the [[Nassenes]] (Hippolyt. ''Philos.'' v. 7), and the [[Sabellians]] (Epiph. ''Haer.'' lxii. 2). Only three or four fragments survive; see [[Lipsius]] (Smith and [[Wace]], ''Dict. of Christ. Biog.'' ii. 712, 713); Zahn, ''Gesch. Kanons'', ii. 628-642; Preuschen, ''Reste d. ausserkanonischen Evangelien'', 1901, p. 2, which show that it was a product of [[pantheistic]] [[Gnosticism]]. With this pantheistic Gnosticism is associated a severe asceticism. The distinctions of sex are one day to come to an end; the prohibition of marriage follows naturally on this view. Hence Christ is represented as coming to destroy the work of the female (Clem. Alex. ''Strom.'' iii. 9. 63). Lipsius and Zahn assign it to the middle of the 2nd century. It may be earlier. ==== Protevangel of James ==== This title was first given in the 16th century to a writing which is referred to as ''The Book of James'' (ἡ βιβλος Ιακοβωυ) by Origen (tom. xi. ''in Matt.''). Its author designates it as Ἱστορια. For various other designations see [[Tischendorf]], ''Evang. Apocr.'' 1 seq. The narrative extends from the Conception of the Virgin to the Death of Zacharias. Lipsius shows that in the present form of the book there is side by side a strange "admixture of intimate knowledge and gross ignorance of Jewish thought and custom," and that accordingly we must "distinguish between an original Jewish Christian writing and a Gnostic recast of it." The former was known to Justin (''Dial.'' 78, 101) and Clem. Alex. (''Strom.'' vii. 16), and belongs at latest to the earliest years of the 2nd century. The Gnostic recast Lipsius dates about the middle of the 3rd century. From these two works arose independently the ''Protevangel'' in its present form and the Latin pseudo-Matthaeus (''Evangelium pseudo-Matthaei''). The ''Evangelium de Nativitate Mariae'' is a redaction of the latter. (See Lipsius in Smith's ''Dict. of Christ. Biog.'' ii. 701-703.) But if we except the Zachariah and John group of legends, it is not necessary to assume the Gnostic recast of this work in the 3rd century as is done by Lipsius. The author had at his disposal two distinct groups of legends about Mary. One of these groups is certainly of non-Jewish origin, as it conceives Mary as living in the temple somewhat after the manner of a vestal virgin or a priestess of Isis. The other group is more in accord with the orthodox gospels. The book appears to have been written in Egypt, and in the early years of the 2nd century. For, since Origen states that many appealed to it in support of the view that the brothers of Jesus were sons of Joseph by a former marriage, the book must have been current about A.D. 200. From Origen we may ascend to Clem. Alex. who (''Strom.'' vi. 93) shows acquaintance with one of the chief doctrines of the book--the perpetual virginity of Mary. Finally, as Justin's statements as to the birth of Jesus in a cave and Mary's descent from David show in all probability his acquaintance with the book, it may with good grounds be assigned to the first decade of the 2nd century. (So Zahn, ''Gesch. Kanons'', i. 485, 499, 502, 504, 539; ii. 774-780.) For the Greek text see Tischendorf, ''Evang. Apocr.'' 1-50; B. P. Grenfell, ''An Alexandrian erotic Fragment and other Papyri'', 1896, pp. 13-17: for the Syriac, Wright, ''Contributions to Apocryphal Literature of the N.T.'', 1865, pp. 3-7; A. S. Lewis, ''Studia Sinaitica'', xi. pp. 1-22. See literature generally in Hennecke, ''NTliche Apok. Handbuch'', 106 seq. ==== Gospel of Nicodemus ==== This title is first met with in the 13th century. It is used to designate an apocryphal writing entitled in the older MSS. ὑπονηματα του Κυριου ἡμων Ιησου Χριστου πραχθεντα επι Ποντιου Πιλατου: also "Gesta Salvatoris Domini... inventa Theodosio magno imperatore in Ierusalem in praetorio Pontii Pilati in codicibus publicis." See Tischendorf, ''Evang. Apocr.'' pp. 333-335. This work gives an account of the Passion (i.-xi.), the Resurrection (xii.-xvi.), and the ''Descensus ad Inferos'' (xvii.-xxvii.). Chapters i.-xvi. are extant, in the Greek, Coptic, and two Armenian versions. The two Latin versions and a Byzantine recension of the Greek contain i.-xxvii. (see Tischendorf, ''Evangelia Apocrypha'', pp. 210-458). All known texts go back to A. D. 425, if one may trust the reference to Theodosius. But this was only a revision, for as early as 376 Epiphanius (''Haer.'' i. 1.) presupposes the existence of a like text. In 325 Eusebius (''H.E.'' ii. 2) was acquainted only with the heathen ''Acts of Pilate'', and knew nothing of a Christian work. Tischendorf and Hofmann, however, find evidence of its existence in Justin's reference to the Ἁκτα Πιλατου (''Apol.'' i. 35, 48), and in Tertullian's mention of the ''Acta Pilati'' (''Apol.'' 21), and on this evidence attribute our texts to the first half of the 2nd century. But these references have been denied by Scholten, Lipsius, and Lightfoot. Recently Schubert has sought to derive the elements which are found in the Petrine Gospel, but not in the canonical gospels, from the original ''Acta Pilati'', while Zahn exactly reverses the relation of these two works. Rendel Harris (1899) advocated the view that the Gospel of Nicodemus, as we possess it, is merely a prose version of the Gospel of Nicodemus written originally in Homeric centones as early as the 2nd century. Lipsius and Dobschütz relegate the book to the 4th century. The question is not settled yet (see Lipsius in Smith's ''Dict. of Christ. Biography'', ii. 708-709, and Dobschütz in Hastings' ''Bible Dictionary'', iii. 544-547). ==== Gospel according to the Hebrews ==== This gospel was cited by Ignatius (''Ad Smyrnaeos'', iii.) according to Jerome (''Viris illus.'' 16, and ''in Jes.'' lib. xviii.), but this is declared to be untrustworthy by Zahn, op. cit. i. 921; ii. 701, 702. It was written in Aramaic in Hebrew letters, according to Jerome (''Adv. Pelag.'' iii. 2), and translated by him into Greek and Latin. Both these translations are lost. A collection of the Greek and Latin fragments that have survived, mainly in Origen and Jerome, will be found in Hilgenfeld's ''NT extra Canonem receptum'', Nicholson's ''Gospel according to the Hebrews'' (1879), Westcott's ''Introd. to the Gospels'', and Zahn's ''Gesch. des NTlichen Kanons'', ii. 642-723; Preuschen, op. cit. 3-8. This gospel was regarded by many in the first centuries as the Hebrew original of the canonical Matthew (Jerome, ''in Matt.'' xii. 13; ''Adv. Pelag.'' iii. 1). With the canonical gospel it agrees in some of its sayings; in others it is independent. It circulated among the Nazarenes in Syria, and was composed, according to Zahn (op. cit. ii. 722), between the years 135 and 150. Jerome identifies it with the ''Gospel of the Twelve'' (''Adv. Pelag.'' iii. 2), and states that it was used by the Ebionites (''Comm. in Matt.'' xii. 13). Zahn (op. cit. ii. 662, 724) contests both these statements. The former he traces to a mistaken interpretation of Origen (''Hom. I. in Luc.''). Lipsius, on the other hand, accepts the statements of Jerome (Smith and Wace, ''Dict. of Christian Biography'', ii. 709-712), and is of opinion that this gospel, in the form in which it was known to Epiphanius, Jerome and Origen, was "a recast of an older original," which, written originally in Aramaic, was nearly related to the Logia used by St Matthew and the Ebionitic writing used by St Luke, "which itself was only a later redaction of the Logia." According to the most recent investigations we may conclude that the Gospel according to the Hebrews was current among the Nazarenes and Ebionites as early as 100-125, since Ignatius was familiar with the phrase "I am no bodiless demon"--a phrase which, according to Jerome (''Comm. in Is.'' xviii.), belonged to this Gospel. The name "Gospel according to the Hebrews" cannot have been original; for if it had been so named because of its general use among the Hebrews, yet the Hebrews themselves would not have used this designation. It may have been known simply as "the Gospel." The language was Western Aramaic, the mother tongue of Jesus and his apostles. Two forms of Western Aramaic survive: the Jerusalem form of the dialect, in the Aramaic portions of Daniel and Ezra; and the Galilean, in isolated expressions in the Talmud (3rd century), and in a fragmentary 5th century translation of the Bible. The quotations from the Old Testament are made from the Massoretic text. This gospel must have been translated at an early date into Greek, as Clement and Origen cite it as generally accessible, and Eusebius recounts that many reckoned it among the received books. The gospel is synoptic in character and is closely related to Matthew, though in the Resurrection accounts it has affinities with Luke. Like Mark it seems to have had no history of the birth of Christ, and to have begun with the baptism. (For the literature see Hennecke, ''NTliche Apok. Handbuch'', 21-23.) ==== [[Gospel of Peter]] ==== Before 1892 we had some knowledge of this gospel. Thus Serapion, bishop of Antioch (A.D. 190-203) found it in use in the church of Rhossus in Cilicia, and condemned it as Docetic (Eusebius, ''H.E.'' vi. 12). Again, Origen (''In Matt.'' tom. xvii. 10) says that it represented the brethren of Christ as his half-brothers. In 1885 a long fragment was discovered at Akhmim, and published by Bouriant in 1892, and subsequently by Lods, Robinson, Harnack, Zahn, Schubert, Swete. ==== Gospel of Thomas ==== This gospel professes to give an account of Christ's boyhood. It appears in two recensions. The more complete recension bears the title Θωμα Ισραηλιτου Φιλοσοφου ῥητα εις τα παιδικα Κυριυ, and treats of the period from the 7th to the 12th year (Tischendorf, ''Evangelia Apocrypha'', 1876, 140-157). The more fragmentary recension gives the history of the childhood from the 5th to the 8th year, and is entitled Συγγραμμα του ἁγιου αποστολου Θωμα περι της παιδικης αναστροφης του Κυριου (Tischendorf, op. cit. pp. 158-163). Two Latin translations have been published in this work by the same scholar--one on pp. 164-180, the other under the wrong title, ''Pseudo-Matthaei Evangelium'', on pp. 93-112. A Syriac version, with an English translation, was published by Wright in 1875. This gospel was originally still more Docetic than it now is, according to Lipsius. Its present form is due to an orthodox revision which discarded, so far as possible, all Gnostic traces. Lipsius (Smith's ''Dict. of Christ. Biog.'' ii. 703) assigns it to the latter half of the 2nd century, but Zahn (''Gesch. Kan.'' ii. 771), on good grounds, to the earlier half. The latter scholar shows that probably it was used by Justin (''Dial.'' 88). At all events it circulated among the Marcosians (Irenaeus, ''Haer.'' i. 20) and the Naasenes (Hippolytus, ''Refut.'' v. 7), and subsequently among the Manichaeans, and is frequently quoted from Origen downwards (''Hom. I. in Luc.''). If the stichometry of Nicephorus is right, the existing form of the book is merely fragmentary compared with its original compass. For literature see Hennecke, ''NTliche Apokryphen Handbuch'', 132 seq. ==== Gospel of the Twelve ==== This gospel, which Origen knew (''Hom. I. in Luc.''), is not to be identified with the ''Gospel according to the Hebrews'' (see above), with Lipsius and others, who have sought to reconstruct the original gospel from the surviving fragments of these two distinct works. The only surviving fragments of the ''Gospel of the Twelve'' have been preserved by Epiphanius (''Haer.'' xxx. 13-16, 22: see Preuschen, op. cit. 9-11). It began with an account of the baptism. It was used by the Ebionites, and was written, according to Zahn (op. cit. ii. 742), about A.D. 170. ==== Other gospels mainly Gnostic and almost all lost ==== ===== Gospel of Andrew ===== This is condemned in the Gelasian Decree, and is probably the gospel mentioned by Innocent (1 Ep. iii. 7) and Augustine (''Contra advers. Leg. et Proph.'' i. 20). ===== Gospel of Apelles ===== Mentioned by Jerome in his ''Prooem. ad Matt.'' ===== Gospel of Barnabas ===== Condemned in the Gelasian Decree (see under [[Barnabas]] ''ad fin''.). ===== Gospel of Bartholomew ===== Mentioned by Jerome in his ''Prooem. ad Matt.'' and condemned in the Gelasian Decree. ===== Gospel of Basilides ===== Mentioned by Origen (''Tract. 26 in Matt.'' xxxiii. 34, and in his ''Prooem. in Luc.''); by Jerome in his ''Prooem. in Matt.'' (See Harnack i. 161; ii. 536-537; Zahn, ''Gesch. Kanons'', i. 763-774.) ===== Gospel of Cerinthus ===== Mentioned by Epiphanius (''Haer.'' li. 7). ===== Gospel of the Ebionites ===== A fragmentary edition of the canonical Matthew according to Epiphanius (''Haer.'' xxx. 13), used by the Ebionites and called by them the Hebrew Gospel. ===== Gospel of Eve ===== A quotation from this gospel is given by Epiphanius (''Haer.'' xxvi. 2, 3). It is possible that this is the Gospel of Perfection which he touches upon in xxvi. 2. The quotation shows that this gospel was the expression of complete pantheism. ===== Gospel of James the Less ===== Condemned in the Gelasian Decree. ===== Wisdom of Jesus Christ ===== This third work contained in the Coptic MS. referred to under ''Gospel of Mary'' gives cosmological disclosures and is presumably of Valentinian origin. ===== Apocryph of John ===== This book, which is found in the Coptic MS. referred to under ''Gospel of Mary'' and contains cosmological disclosures of Christ, is said to have formed the source of Irenaeus' account of the Gnostics of Barbelus (i. 29-31). Thus this work would have been written before 170. ===== Gospel of Judas Iscariot ===== References to this gospel as in use among the Cainites are made by Irenaeus (i. 31. 1); Epiphanius (xxxviii. 1. 3). ===== Gospel, The Living (Evangelium Vivum) ===== This was a gospel of the Manichaeans. See Epiphanius, ''Haer''. lxvi. 2; Photius, ''Contra Manich''. i. ===== Gospel of Marcion ===== On this important gospel see Zahn, ''Gesch. Kanons'', i. 585-718. ===== Descent of Mary (Τεννα Μαριας) ===== This book was an anti-Jewish legend representing Zacharias as having been put to death by the Jews because he had seen the God of the Jews in the form of an ass in the temple (Epiphanius, ''Haer''. xxvi. 12). ===== Questions of Mary (Great and Little) ===== Epiphanius (''Haer''. xxvi. 8) gives some excerpts from this work. ===== Gospel of Mary ===== This gospel is found in a Coptic MS. of the 5th century. According to Schmidt's short account, ''Sitzungsberichte d. preuss. Akad. d. Wiss. zu. Berlin'' (1896), pp. 839 sqq., this gospel gives disclosures on the nature of matter (ὑλη) and the progress of the Gnostic soul through the seven planets. ===== Gospel of Matthias ===== Though this gospel is attested by Origen (''Horm. in Luc.'' i.), Eusebius, ''H.E.'' iii. 25. 6, and the List of Sixty Books, not a shred of it has been preserved, unless with Zahn ii. 751 sqq. we are to identify it with the ''Traditions of Matthias'', from which Clement has drawn some quotations. ===== Gospel of Perfection (Evangelium perfectionis) ===== Used by the followers of Basilides and other Gnostics. See Epiphanius, ''Haer.'' xxvi. 2. ===== Gospel of Philip ===== This gospel described the progress of a soul through the next world. It is of a strongly Encratite character and dates from the 2nd century. A fragment is preserved in Epiphanius, ''Haer''. xxvi. 13. In Preuschen, ''Reste'', p. 13, the quotation breaks off too soon. See Zahn ii. 761-768. ===== Gospel of Thaddaeus ===== Condemned by the Gelasian Decree. ===== Gospel of Thomas ===== Of this gospel only one fragment has been preserved in Hippolytus, ''Philos''. v. 7, pp. 140 seq. See Zahn, ''op. cit.'' i. 746 seq.; ii. 768-773; Harnack ii. 593-595. ===== Gospel of Truth ===== This gospel is mentioned by Irenaeus i. 11. 9, and was used by the Valentinians. See Zahn i. 748 sqq. === Acts and Teachings of the Apostles === ==== Acts of Andrew ==== These Acts, which are of a strongly Encratite character, have come down to us in a fragmentary condition. They belong to the earliest ages, for they are mentioned by Eusebius, ''H.E.'' iii. 25; Epiphanius, ''Haer.'' xlvii. 1; lxi. 1; lxiii. 2; [[Philastrius]], ''Haer.'' lxviii., as current among the Manichaeans and heretics. They are attributed to [[Leucius]], a Docetic writer, by Augustine (''c. Felic. Manich.'' ii. 6) and [[Euodius]] (''De Fide c. Manich.'' 38). Euodius in the passage just referred to preserves two small fragments of the original Acts. On internal grounds the section recounting Andrew's imprisonment (Bonnet, ''Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha'', ii. 38-45) is also probably a constituent of the original work. As regards the martyrdom, owing to the confusion introduced by the multitudinous Catholic revisions of this section of the Acts, it is practically impossible to restore its original form. For a complete discussion of the various documents see Lipsius, ''Apokryphen Apostelgeschichte'', i. 543-622; also James in Hastings' ''Bible Dict.'' i. 92-93; Hennecke, ''NT. Apokryphen'', ''in loc.'' The best texts are given in Bonnet's ''Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha'', 1898, II. i. 1-127. These contain also the ''Acts of Andrew and Matthew'' (or Matthias) in which Matthew (or Matthias) is represented as a captive in the country of the anthropophagi. Christ takes Andrew and his disciples with Him, and effects the rescue of Matthew. The legend is found also in Ethiopic, Syriac and Anglo-Saxon. Also the ''Acts of Peter and Andrew'', which among other incidents recount the miracle of a camel passing through the eye of a needle. This work is preserved partly in Greek, but in its entirety in Slavonic. ==== Acts of John ==== Clement of Alexandria in his ''Hypotyposes'' on 1 John i. 1 seems to refer to chapters xciii. (or lxxxix.) of these Acts. Eusebius (''H.E.'' iii. 25. 6), Epiphanius (''Haer.'' xlvii. 1) and other ancient writers assign them to the authorship of Leucius Charinus. It is generally admitted that they were written in the 2nd century. The text has been edited most completely by Bonnet, ''Acta Apostol. Apocr.'', 1898, 151-216. The contents might be summarized with Hennecke as follows:--Arrival and first sojourn of the apostle in Ephesus (xviii.-lv.); return to Ephesus and second sojourn (history of Drusiana, lviii.-lxxxvi.); account of the crucifixion of Jesus and His apparent death (lxxxvii.-cv.); the death of John (cvi.-cxv.). There are manifest gaps in the narrative, a fact which we would infer from the extent assigned to it (i.e. 2500 stichoi) by Nicephorus. According to this authority one-third of the text is now lost. Many chapters are lost at the beginning; there is a gap in chapter xxxvii., also before lviii., not to mention others. The encratite tendency in these Acts is not so strongly developed as in those of Andrew and Thomas. James (''Anecdota'', ii. 1-25) has given strong grounds for regarding the Acts of John and Peter as derived from one and the same author, but there are like affinities existing between the Acts of Peter and those of Paul. For a discussion of this work see Zahn, ''Gesch. Kanons'', ii. 856-865; Lipsius, ''Apok. Apostelgesch.'' i. 348-542; Hennecke, ''NT. Apokryphen'', 423-432. For bibliography, Hennecke, ''NT. Apok. Handbuch'', 492 sq. ==== Acts of Paul ==== The discovery of the Coptic translation of these Acts in 1897, and its publication by C. Schmidt (''Acta Pauli aus der Heidelberger koptischen Papyrushandschrift herausgegeben'', Leipzig, 1894), have confirmed what had been previously only a hypothesis that the Acts of Thecla had formed a part of the larger Acts of Paul. The Acts therefore embrace now the following elements:- * Two quotations given by Origen in his ''Princip.'' i. 2. 3 and his comment on John xx. 12. From the latter it follows that in the Acts of Paul the death of Peter was recounted, * ''Apocryphal 3rd Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians'' and ''Epistle from the Corinthians to Paul''. These two letters are connected by a short account which is intended to give the historical situation. Paul is in prison on account of Stratonice, the wife of Apollophanes. The Greek and Latin versions of these letters have for the most part disappeared, but they have been preserved in Syriac, and through Syriac they obtained for the time being a place in the Armenian Bible immediately after 2 Corinthians. Aphraates cites two passages from 3 Corinthians as words of the apostle, and Ephraem expounded them in his commentary on the Pauline Epistles. They must therefore have been regarded as canonical in the first half of the 4th century. From the Syriac Bible they made their way into the Armenian and maintained their place without opposition to the 7th century. On the Latin text see Carrière and Berger, ''Correspondance apocr. de S. P. et des Corinthiens'', 1891. For a translation of Ephraem's commentary see Zahn ii. 592-611 and Vetter, ''Der Apocr. 3. Korinthien'', 70 sqq., 1894. The Coptic version (C. Schmidt, ''Acta Pauli'', pp. 74-82), which is here imperfect, is clearly from a Greek original, while the Latin and Armenian are from the Syriac. * ''The Acts of Paul and Thecla''. These were written, according to Tertullian (''De Baptismo'', 17) by a presbyter of Asia, who was deposed from his office on account of his forgery. This, the earliest of Christian romances (probably before A.D. 150), recounts the adventures and sufferings of a virgin, Thecla of Iconium. Lipsius discovers Gnostic traits in the story, but these are denied by Zahn (''Gesch. Kanons'', ii. 902). See Lipsius, ''op. cit.'' ii. 424-467; Zahn (''op. cit.'' ii. 892-910). The best text is that of Lipsius, ''Acta Apostol. Apocr.'', 1891, i. 235-272. There are Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopic and Slavonic versions. As we have seen above, these Acts are now recognized as belonging originally to the Acts of Paul. They were, however, published separately long before the Gelasian Decree (496). Jerome also was acquainted with them as an independent work. Thecla was most probably a real personage, around whom a legend had already gathered in the 2nd century. Of this legend the author of the Acts of Paul made use, and introduced into it certain historical and geographical facts, * The healing of Hermocrates of dropsy in Myra. Through a comparison of the Coptic version with the Pseudo-Cyprian writing "Caena," Rolffs (Hennecke, ''NT. Apok.'' 361) concludes that this incident formed originally a constituent of our book, * The strife with beasts at Ephesus. This event is mentioned by Nicephorus Callistus (''H.E.'' ii. 25) as recounted in the περιοδοι of Paul. The identity of this work with the Acts of Paul is confirmed by a remark of Hippolytus in his commentary on Daniel iii. 29. 4, ed. Bonwetsch 176 (so Rolffs). * Martyrdom of Paul. The death of Paul by the sentence of Nero at Rome forms the close of the Acts of Paul. The text is in the utmost confusion. It is best given by Lipsius, ''Acta Apostol. Apocr.'' i. 104-117. Notwithstanding all the care that has been taken in collecting the fragments of these Acts, only about 900 stichoi out of the 3600 assigned to them in the Stichometry of Nicephorus have as yet been recovered. The author was, according to Tertullian (''De Baptism.'' 17), a presbyter in Asia, who out of honour to Paul wrote the Acts, forging at the same time 3 Corinthians. Thus the work was composed before 190, and, since it most probably uses the martyrdom of Polycarp, after 155. The object of the writer is to embody in St Paul the model ideal of the popular Christianity of the 2nd century. His main emphasis is laid on chastity and the resurrection of the flesh. The tone of the work is Catholic and anti-Gnostic. For the bibliography of the subject see Hennecke, ''NT. Apok.'' 358-360. ==== Acts of Peter ==== These acts are first mentioned by Eusebius (''H.E.'' iii. 3) by name, and first referred to by the African poet Commodian about A.D. 250. Harnack, who was the first to show that these Acts were Catholic in character and not Gnostic as had previously been alleged, assigns their composition to this period mainly on the ground that Hippolytus was not acquainted with them; but even were this assumption true, it would not prove the non-existence of the Acts in question. According to Photius, moreover, the Acts of Peter also were composed by this same Leucius Charinus, who, according to Zahn (''Gesch. Kanons'', ii. 864), wrote about 160 (''op. cit.'' p. 848). Schmidt and Ficker, however, maintain that the Acts were written about 200 and in Asia Minor. These Acts, which Ficker holds were written as a continuation and completion of the canonical Acts of the Apostles, deal with Peter's victorious conflict with Simon Magus, and his subsequent martyrdom at Rome under Nero. It is difficult to determine the relation of the so-called Latin ''Actus Vercellenses'' (which there are good grounds for assuming were originally called the Πραξεις Πετρου) with the Acts of John and Paul. Schmidt thinks that the author of the former made use of the latter, James that the Acts of Peter and of John were by one and the same author, but Ficker is of opinion that their affinities can be explained by their derivation from the same ecclesiastical atmosphere and school of theological thought. No less close affinities exist between our Acts and the Acts of Thomas, Andrew and Philip. In the case of the Acts of Thomas the problem is complicated, sometimes the Acts of Peter seem dependent on the Acts of Thomas, and sometimes the converse. For the relation of the ''Actus Vercellenses'' to the "Martyrdom of the holy apostles Peter and Paul" (''Acta Apostol. Apocr.'' i. 118-177) and to the "Acts of the holy apostles Peter and Paul" (''Acta Apostol. Apocr.'' i. 178-234) see Lipsius ii. 1. 84 sqq. The "Acts of Xanthippe and Polyxena," first edited by James (''Texts and Studies'', ii. 3. 1893), and assigned by him to the middle of the 3rd century, as well as the "Acts of the Disputation of Archelaus, bishop of Mesopotamia, and the Heresiarch Manes" ("Acta Disputationis Archelai Episcopi Mesopotamiae et Manetis Haeresiarchae," in Routh's ''Reliquiae Sacrae'', v. 36-206), have borrowed largely from our work. The text of the ''Actus Vercellenses'' is edited by Lipsius, ''Acta Apostol. Apocr.'' i. 45-79. An independent Latin translation of the "Martyrdom of Peter" is published by Lipsius (''op. cit.'' i. 1-22), ''Martyrium beati Petri Apostoli a Lino episcopo conscriptum''. On the Coptic fragment, which Schmidt maintains is an original constituent of these Acts, see that writer's work: ''Die alten Petrusakten im Zusammenhang der apokryphen Apostelliteratur nebst einem neuentdeckten Fragment'', and ''Texte und Untersuch''. N.F. ix. 1 (1903). For the literature see Hennecke, ''Neutestamentliche Apokryphen Handbuch'', 395 sqq. ==== Preaching of Peter ==== This book (Πετρου κηρυγμα) gave the substance of a series of discourses spoken by one person in the name of the apostles. Clement of Alexandria quotes it several times as a genuine record of Peter's teaching. Heracleon had previously used it (see Origen, ''In Evang. Johann.'' t. xiii. 17). It is spoken unfavourably of by Origen (''De Prin.'' Praef. 8). It was probably in the hands of Justin and Aristides. Hence Zahn gives its date as 90-100 at latest; Dobschütz, as 100-110; and Harnack, as 110-130. The extant fragments contain sayings of Jesus, and warnings against Judaism and Polytheism. They have been edited by Hilgenfeld: ''Nov. Test. extra Can.'', 1884, iv. 51-65, and by von Dobschütz, ''Das Kerygma Petri'', 1893. Salmon (''Dict. Christ. Biog.'' iv. 329-330) thinks that this work is part of a larger work, ''A Preaching of Peter and a Preaching of Paul'', implied in a statement of Lactantius (''Inst. Div.'' iv. 21); but this view is contested by Zahn, see ''Gesch. Kanons'', ii. 820-834, particularly pp. 827-828; Chase, in Hastings' ''Bible Dict.'' iv. 776. ==== Acts of Thomas ==== This is one of the earliest and most famous of the Gnostic Acts. It has been but slightly tampered with by orthodox hands. These Acts were used by the Encratites (Epiphanius, ''Haer.'' xlvii. 1), the Manichaeans (Augustine, ''Contra Faust''. xxii. 79), the Apostolici (Epiphanius lxi. 1) and Priscillianists. The work is divided into thirteen Acts, to which the Martyrdom of Thomas attaches as the fourteenth. It was originally written in Syriac, as Burkitt (''Journ. of Theol. Studies'', i. 278 sqq.) has finally proved, though Macke and Nöldeke had previously advanced grounds for this view. The Greek and Latin texts were edited by Bonnet in 1883 and again in 1903, ii. 2; the Greek also by James, ''Apoc. Anec.'' ii. 28-45, and the Syriac by Wright (''Apocr. Acts of the Gospels'', 1871, i. 172-333). Photius ascribes their composition to Leucius Charinus--therefore to the 2nd century, but Lipsius assigns it to the early decades of the 3rd. (See Lipsius, ''Apokryphen Apostelgeschichten'', i. 225-347; Hennecke, ''N.T. Apokryphen'', 473-480.) ==== Teaching of the Twelve Apostles (Didache) ==== This important work was discovered by Philotheos Bryennios in Constantinople and published in 1883. Since that date it has been frequently edited. The bibliography can be found in Schaff's and in Harnack's editions. The book divides itself into three parts. The first (i.-vi.) contains a body of ethical instruction which is founded on a Jewish and probably pre-Christian document, which forms the basis also of the ''Epistle of Barnabas''. The second part consists of vii.-xv., and treats of church ritual and discipline; and the third part is eschatological and deals with the second Advent. The book is variously dated by different scholars: Zahn assigns it to the years A.D. 80-120; Harnack to 120-165; Lightfoot and Funk to 80-100; Salmon to 120. (See Salmon in ''Dict. of Christ. Biog.'' iv. 806-815, also article [[Didache]].) ==== Apostolical Constitutions ==== For the various collections of these ecclesiastical regulations--the Syriac ''Didascalia, Ecclesiastical Canons of the Holy Apostles'', &c.--see separate article [[Apostolical Constitutions]]. === Epistles === ==== The Abgar Epistles ==== These epistles are found in Eusebius (''H.E.'' i. 3), who translated them from the Syriac. They are two in number, and purport to be a petition of Abgar Uchomo, king of Edessa, to Christ to visit Edessa, and Christ's answer, promising after his ascension to send one of his disciples, who should "cure thee of thy disease, and give eternal life and peace to thee and all thy people." Lipsius thinks that these letters were manufactured about the year 200. (See ''Dict. Christ. Biog.'' iv. 878-881, with the literature there mentioned.) The above correspondence, which appears also in Syriac, is inwoven with the legend of Addai or Thaddaeus. The best critical edition of the Greek text will be found in Lipsius, ''Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha'', 1891, pp. 279-283. (See also [[Abgar]].) ==== Epistle of Barnabas ==== The special object of this epistle was to guard its readers against the danger of relapsing into Judaism. The date is placed by some scholars as early as 70-79, by others as late as the early years of the emperor Hadrian, 117. The text has been edited by Hilgenfeld in 1877, Gebhardt and Harnack in 1878, and Funk in 1887 and 1901. In these works will be found full bibliographies. (See further [[Barnabas]].) ==== Epistle of Clement ==== The object of this epistle is the restoration of harmony to the church of Corinth, which had been vexed by internal discussions. The epistle may be safely ascribed to the years 95-96. The writer was in all probability the bishop of Rome of that name. He is named an apostle and his work was reckoned as canonical by Clement of Alexandria (''Strom.'' iv. 17. 105), and as late as the time of Eusebius (''H.E.'' iii. 16) it was still read in some of the churches. Critical editions have been published by Gebhardt and Harnack, ''Patr. Apost. Op.'', 1876, and in the smaller form in 1900, Lightfoot, 1890, Funk, 1901. The Syriac version has been edited by Kennet, ''Epp. of St Clement to the Corinthians in Syriac'', 1899, and the Old Latin version by Morin, ''S. Clementis Romani ad Corinthios epistulae versio Latina antiquissima'', 1894. ==== "Clement's" 2nd Ep. to the Corinthians ==== This so-called letter of Clement is not mentioned by any writer before Eusebius (''H. E.'' iii. 38. 4). It is not a letter but really a homily written in Rome about the middle of the 2nd century. The writer is a Gentile. Some of his citations are derived from the Gospel to the Egyptians. ==== Clement's Epistles on Virginity ==== These two letters are preserved only in Syriac which is a translation from the Greek. They are first referred to by Epiphanius and next by Jerome. Critics have assigned them to the middle of the 2nd century. They have been edited by [[Ian Theodor Beelen]], Louvain, 1856. ==== Clement's Epistles to James ==== On these two letters which are found in the Clementine Homilies, see Smith's ''Dict. of Christian Biography'', i. 559, 570, and Lehmann's monograph, ''Die Clementischen Schriften'', Gotha, 1867, in which references will be found to other sources of information. ==== Epistles of Ignatius ==== There are two collections of letters bearing the name of Ignatius, who was martyred between 105 and 117. The first consists of seven letters addressed by Ignatius to the Ephesians, Magnesians, Trallians, Romans, Philadelphians, Smyrnaeans and to Polycarp. The second collection consists of the preceding extensively interpolated, and six others of Mary to Ignatius, of Ignatius to Mary, to the Tarsians, Antiochians, Philippians and Hero, a deacon of Antioch. The latter collection is a pseudepigraph written in the 4th century or the beginning of the 5th. The authenticity of the first collection also has been denied, but the evidence appears to be against this contention. The literature is overwhelming in its extent. See Zahn, ''Patr. Apost. Op.'', 1876; Funk, ''Die apostol. Väter'', 1901; Lightfoot, ''Apostolic Fathers'', 1889. ==== Epistle of Polycarp ==== The genuineness of this epistle stands or falls with that of the Ignatian epistles. See article in Smith's ''Dictionary of Christian Biography'', iv. 423-431; Lightfoot, ''Apostolic Fathers'', i. 629-702; also [[Polycarp]]. ==== Pauline Epistles to the Laodiceans and the Alexandrians ==== The first of these is found only in Latin. This, according to Lightfoot (see ''Colossians'', 272-298) and Zahn, is a translation from the Greek. Such an epistle is mentioned in the Muratorian canon. See Zahn, ''op. cit.'' ii. 566-585. The Epistle to the Alexandrians is mentioned only in the Muratorian canon (see Zahn ii. 586-592). For the ''Third Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians'', and ''Epistle from the Corinthians to Paul'', see under "Acts of Paul" above. ===The Council of Jamnia === At least until the [[Council of Jamnia]] in [[92]] AD, [[Jew]]s did not have a single unified [[Biblical canon#Jewish canon|canon]] of Scripture. Some ancient Jewish sects (including the [[Essenes]], as evidenced in the [[Dead Sea scrolls]]) included as Scripture much that modern Jews consider non-canonical. The Council explicitly excluded certain books for reasons that included their late composition or because they were not written in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] (although some parts of the [[Hebrew Bible]] or [[Tanakh]] itself are in [[Biblical Aramaic]]). The word Apocrypha means hidden writing, and it was given to such books by the Jews to distinguish them from the books which they accepted as canonical. Gentiles continued to use a Greek translation made in the period from the [[3rd century BC|third]] to the [[1st century BC|first]] centuries BC, in [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]]. This work, which became known as the [[Septuagint]], included several books that were rejected at Jamnia. While Jews do not accept these books, saying they lack the unction of the prophetic books of the canon, they regard them as consistent, for most part, with the wisdom which rests on the fear of God and loyalty to His law, and some Jews have at various times drawn from them as a legitimate part of Jewish literary creativity, even using elements from them as the basis for two important parts of the Jewish liturgy. In the [[Mahzor]] (High Holy Day prayer book), a medieval Jewish poet used the book of [[Sirach]] as the basis for a beautiful poem, Ke'Ohel HaNimtah. A closing [[piyyut]] in the [[Seder Avodah]] section, in the [[Yom Kippur]] Musaf begins: :"How glorious indeed was the High Priest, when he safely left the Holy of Holies.<br /> :Like the clearest canopy of Heaven was the dazzling countenance of the priest." <!-- (This can be seen, for example, on page 828 of the Birnbaum edition of the Mahzor.) --> Mahzor replaces the medieval [[piyyut]] with the relevant section from Ben Sira, which is more direct. Apocrypha have even formed the basis of the most important of all Jewish prayers, the [[Amidah]] (the Shemonah Esrah). Sirach provides the vocabulary and framework for many of the Amidah's blessings, which were instituted by the men of the Great Assembly. The description of the origins of [[Hanukkah]] is also to be found in the books rejected at Jamnia. While the texts themselves may not be accepted as canonical, some of their contents are regarded as historical truth. In particular, [[1 Maccabees]] is cited by Jewish scholars as highly reliable history and was used by [[Josephus]] in his history of the Maccabean revolt. ===Majority Christian usage=== The [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] Churches (thus the great majority of Christians) accept as part of the Old Testament some books excluded from the Jewish canon. Roman Catholics refer to them as [[deuterocanonical books]], a term first used by [[Sixtus of Siena]] in 1566, signifying that definitive recognition of their canonical status came later than that of the other books. Catholics and Orthodox do not call these books "apocrypha", a term they apply only to other books that fall within the definition given in the first paragraph of this article. The deuterocanonical books are ''[[Book of Tobit|Tobit]]'', ''[[Book of Judith|Judith]]'', ''[[1 Maccabees]]'', ''[[2 Maccabees]]'', ''[[Wisdom of Solomon]]'', ''[[Sirach|Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)]]'', and ''[[Book of Baruch|Baruch]]'', as well as some parts of ''[[Book of Esther|Esther]]'' and ''[[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]''. Eastern Orthodox Churches sometimes also consider ''[[3 Maccabees]]'', ''[[4 Maccabees]]'', ''[[1 Esdras]]'' and/or ''[[2 Esdras]]'' to be deuterocanonical and include [[Psalm 151]] with the ''[[Psalms]]'', while the [[Ethiopian Orthodox]] venerate additional books, such as ''[[Jubilees]]'', ''[[Book of Enoch|Enoch]]'', and the ''[[Rest of the Words of Baruch]]''. The inclusion of Enoch is justified on the grounds that the ''Book of [[Jude]]'' quotes it as Scripture. See [http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Bible/Text/Canon/ethiopican.html here] for conflicting accounts on what is actually included in the Ethiopian canon. Since there was no fixed canon even among Jews until the Council of Jamnia (c.70-90 CE), it is not surprising that, historically, there have been hesitations among Christians, especially in the early centuries, about which [[Old Testament]] books to consider canonical. The inability of Christians to use in controversy with Jews books that the latter did not accept as divinely inspired was one reason why some attributed lesser authority to these books. St Jerome explicitly denied the canonical character of any Old Testament book not included in the Hebrew Bible; but later, in his Preface to the Book of Tobit (PL 29, 24-25), stated that he translated the deuterocanonical books into Latin as a concession to the authority of the bishops; and in [[402]] CE declared he had not really denied the inspiration of these books, but had only given the opinion of the Jews (''Apol. contra Ruf.'' 11, 33. PL 23, 476). In view of that controversy, a list of canonical books (with the deuterocanonical books included) was drawn up at councils in Africa and approved (though not in ''ex cathedra'' form, which would have been anachronistic, in any event) by the Pope of the time. This was generally accepted in the West, while in the East, particularly in Syria, general agreement was reached only in the seventh century. Within the Roman Catholic Church, individual leaders and scholars, even at a later date, sometimes expressed contrary views, but the matter was definitively settled in [[1546]], when the [[Council of Trent]], reacting to the views of the Protestant Reformers, declared that it accepted all the books of the Old and New Testaments with equal feelings of piety and reverence, and named them in accordance with the list of the fifth-century African councils. The [[First Vatican Council]] reaffirmed this declaration. === Protestant views === [[Martin Luther (religious leader)|Martin Luther]] rejected the books that do not appear in the Jewish Tanakh, partly because of the stress the Reformers laid on translating from the original text, and partly because some passages contradicted his views, especially where [[2 Maccabees]] speaks, by implication, of [[purgatory]]: "It is therefore a holy and wholesome thought to pray for the dead, that they may be loosed from sins." (12:46). Protestants called the deuterocanonical books apocrypha. Luther and the Anglican Church regarded them as useful for edification, but not to be relied upon for doctrine, while Calvin and in general his followers attached no value to them beyond that of any other human writing, and objected to any use of them in church. In [[1615]], the Archbishop of Canterbury imposed a year’s imprisonment for publishing Bibles without the "Apocrypha"; but in later printings of the Bible in English these books were omitted more and more. In the early nineteenth century, the Edinburgh Bible Society denounced them as superstitious and absurd, and soon all the Bible Societies decided not to publish them. More recently, in spite of the expense involved, Protestant Bibles in English have again sometimes included them, placing them in a separate section either between the Old Testament and the New or at the end. What most Christians consider to be integral parts of Esther and Daniel are in some instances counted by Protestants as additional books. In the book of Esther, it is difficult to separate these from the rest, since they are tightly integrated into the Greek text, and even the common parts of the book contain small variations from the Hebrew text. Protestant Bibles therefore sometimes give the entire book of Esther in two versions, one, based on the Hebrew text, as part of the Protestant Old Testament, and one, translated from the Greek, in the "Apocrypha" section. Not all Protestants have omitted the deuterocanonical books. For example, all Luther Bibles in the Lutheran areas of [[Germany]] included them until [[World War II]]. Only after the war, when American [[Bible Society|Bible Societies]] offered funding on condition that the Apocrypha were omitted, they began to be dropped from most editions. Additionally, the original edition of the KJV (1611) included them between the Old and New Testaments. ''See also: '' [[Books of the Bible]], a side-by-side comparison of the Jewish, Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox canons. ===Latter Day Saint views=== Adherents of [[Latter Day Saint]] denominations believe that [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], as a prophet, received a revelation from [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]] in answer to a question about the validity of the (Protestant) Apocrypha at [[Kirtland, Ohio]] on [[March 9]], [[1833]], which is now [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/91 Section 91] of the [[Doctrine and Covenants]]. The section reads in part: :There are many things contained therein that are true, and it is mostly translated correctly; there are many things contained therein that are not true, which are interpolations by the hands of men&mdash;Therefore, whoso readeth it, let him understand, for the Spirit manifesteth truth; And whoso is enlightened by the Spirit shall obtain benefit therefrom. This echoes the sentiment of most American Protestants of his day. Although the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS), the largest Latter Day Saint denomination, typically uses editions of the [[King James Version]] (KJV) of the Bible that do not currently include the Apocrypha, these have been used by members and leaders in the past, especially when such editions were more readily available. In non-English-speaking lands, Latter Day Saints use Bibles other than the KJV, some of which include the Apocrypha. The LDS Church plays a part in distributing such Bibles. Latter Day Saints generally believe that "The Apocrypha" are of questionable authenticity, but have some value. However, they place more emphasis on other hidden records which have been revealed and are believed to be reliable, such as the [[Book of Mormon]], the [[Joseph Smith Translation]], [[Book of Abraham]], a translation of writings of John (see [[Doctrine and Covenants]] 93:6-18 [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/93/6-18#6] and other ancient records or "hidden books" which will come forth in time and be revealed as mankind are ready to accept new knowledge. ==References== * {{1911}} ==External links== *[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/ Extensive research into NT Apocrypha] Good research resource and timeline *[http://www.comparative-religion.com/christianity/apocrypha Complete NT Apocrypha] The largest claimed collection of NT apocrypha online *[http://www.pseudepigrapha.com Major collection of pseudepigrapha] Large number of NT and OT apocrypha and general pseudepigrapha *[http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/nt-apokrypha.html German Apocrypha research] Scholarly research site on individual manuscripts. *[http://st-takla.org/pub_Deuterocanon/Deuterocanon-Apocrypha_El-Asfar_El-Kanoneya_El-Tanya__0-index.html Deuterocanonical books] - Full text from Saint Takla Haymanot Church Website (also available the full text in Arabic) *[http://www.atmajyoti.org/ul_unknown_lives_forward.asp The Unknown Lives of Jesus and Mary] from the Apocrypha and other little known sources. *[http://scriptures.lds.org/bda/apcryph LDS Bible Dictionary > Apocrypha] Definition & LDS POV, including brief book descriptions. *[http://www.riseisrael.com/apocrypha.htm Read the Apocrypha] * [http://discordia.loveshade.org/apocrypha/apocrypha2.pdf ''Apocrypha Discordia, De Seconde Edityon''] (1.1M [[Portable Document Format|PDF]]) *[http://wesley.nnu.edu/biblical_studies/noncanon/index.htm Noncanonical Literature] [[Category:Apocrypha|Apocrypha]] [[Category:Christian texts]] [[Category:Judaism]] [[ca:Llibres apòcrifs]] [[cs:Apokryf]] [[da:Apokryfe skrifter]] [[de:Apokryphen]] [[el:Απόκρυφα]] [[es:Textos apócrifos]] [[et:Apokrüüfid]] [[fr:Apocryphe]] [[hu:Apokrif]] [[it:Apocrifo]] [[ja:外典]] [[ko:경외성서]] [[la:Apocrypha]] [[nl:Apocrief]] [[no:Apokryfer]] [[pl:Apokryf]] [[pt:Livros apócrifos]] [[ru:Апокрифы]] [[simple:Apocrypha]] [[sv:Apokryferna]] [[uk:Апокрифи]] [[zh:偽經]] 1289 36006465 2006-01-20T21:31:34Z 81.234.119.136 :''For the Emperor, see [[Augustus]]. For his (last) wife, see [[Julia Augusta]]'' {{Roman government}} '''''Augustus''''' (plural '''''augusti''''') is [[Latin]] for "majestic" or "venerable". The feminine form is '''''Augusta'''''. The Greek equivalent is [[sebastos]], or a mere grecization (by changing of the ending) ''augustos''. ==Origin and nature== Although the use of the ''[[Roman naming convention|cognomen]]'' "Augustus" as part of one's name is generally understood to identify the [[Caesar Augustus|Emperor Augustus]], this is somewhat misleading; "Augustus" was the most significant name associated with the Emperor, but it did not actually represent any sort of constitutional office. The Imperial dignity was not an ordinary office, but rather an extraordinary concentration of ordinary powers in the hands of one man; "Augustus" was the name that unambiguously identified that man. *The first "Augustus" (and first man counted as a [[Roman Emperor]]) was [[Caesar Augustus|Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus]], who was given that name by the [[Roman Senate]] on [[January 16]], [[27 BC]]; over the next forty years, Caesar Augustus (as he is now known) literally set the standard by which subsequent Emperors could be recognised, by accumulating various offices and powers and making his own name ("Augustus") identifiable with the consolidation of powers. Although the name signified nothing in constitutional theory, it was recognised as representing all the powers that Caesar Augustus had accumulated. As ''[[princeps senatus]]'' (lit., "prince of the senate", "first man of the senate") he was the parliamentary leader of the house in the Senate and received diplomatic embassages on behalf of that body; as ''[[pontifex maximus]]'' (lit. "greatest bridgemaker") he was the chief priest of the Roman state religion; as bearing [[consul]]ar ''[[imperium]]'' he had [[authority]] equal to the official chief (and [[eponym]]ous) magistrates within [[Rome]] and as bearing ''imperium maius'' he had authority greater than theirs outside Rome (because of this, he outranked all provincial governors and was also supreme commander of all Roman [[legion]]s); as bearing ''[[tribune|tribunicia potestas]]'' ("tribunician power") he had personal inviolability (''sacrosanctitas'') and the right to [[veto]] any act or proposal by any magistrate within Rome. In a famous passages of ''Res Gestae'', Augustus claims for him, as ''princeps'', ''[[auctoritas]]'', has underlined philosopher [[Giorgio Agamben]]. This concentration of powers became the model by which all subsequent Emperors ruled Rome in constitutional theory (in practice this systematic and sophisticated theory gradually lost any resemblance to reality in the [[3rd century|III]] and [[4th century|IV centuries]], when the Emperors became rather more reminiscent of oriental despots than "first among equals"). *Octavian "Caesar Augustus" also set the standard by which Roman Emperors were named. The three titles used by the majority of Roman Emperors -- "''[[imperator]]''", "''[[Caesar (title)|caesar]]''" and "''augustus''" -- were all used personally by Caesar Augustus (he officially styled himself "Imperator Caesar Augustus"); of these names, only "Augustus" was unique to the Emperor himself, as others could and did bear the titles "Imperator" and "Caesar" (it should be noted, however, that the Emperor's mother or wife could bear the name "Augusta"). It became customary for an Emperor-designate to adopt the name ''NN. Caesar'' (where NN. is the individual's personal name) or later ''NN. Nobilissimus Caesar'' ("NN. Most Noble Caesar"), and occasionally to be awarded the title ''Princeps Iuventutis'' ("Prince of Youth"). Upon accession to the purple, the new Emperor usually adopted the name ''Imperator Caesar NN. Augustus'' (later Emperors took to inserting ''Pius Felix'', "Pious and Blest", and ''Invictus'', "Unconquered", between their personal names and ''Augustus''). In this usage, by signifying the complete assumption of all Imperial powers, "''Augustus''" is roughly analogous to "[[Emperor]]", though a modern reader should be careful not to project onto the ancients a modern, monarchical understanding of what an emperor is. As noted, there was no constitutional office associated with the imperial dignity; the Emperor's personal authority (''dignitas'') and influence (''[[auctoritas]]'') derived from his position as ''princeps senatus'', and his legal authority derived from his ''consulari imperium'' and ''tribunicia potestas''; in Roman constitutional theory, one might consider "''augustus''" as being shorthand for "''princeps senatus et pontifex maximus consulari imperio et tribuniciae potestate''" (loosely, "Leader of the House and Chief Priest with Consular ''Imperium'' and Tribunician Power"). In many ways, "''augustus''" is comparable to the [[United Kingdom|British]] dignity of [[prince]]; it is a personal title, dignity, or attribute rather than a title of nobility such as [[duke]] or king. The Emperor was most commonly referred to as ''princeps'' (''[[basileus]]'', "[[sovereign]]", in Greek). ==Women of the Imperial dynasty== Originally, the title '''Augusta''' was only exceptionally bestowed on women of the Imperial dynasties: for these women it meant a fortification of their worldly power, and a status near to divinity. There was no qualification with higher prestige. The first woman to receive it was [[Livia Drusilla]], by the last will of her husband [[Emperor Augustus]] (14 AD). Hence she was known as [[Julia Augusta]]. As much as Augustus was the model for all further Augustusses, Julia Augusta was the model for all further Augustas. A model that included scheming for a son to become successor to the throne, and falling in disgrace under the new Emperor if the scheming had been successful. [[Agrippina minor]], becoming "Augusta" under her last husband [[Claudius]], would oblige to the model, being sent to death by her son [[Nero]], a few years after he had become Emperor. If ''Augustus'' as honorific could be compared to the title of ''Prince'' in moderner societies, then ''Augusta'' would not so much be ''Princess'' than rather something more exceptional like ''[[Princess Royal]]'', deliberately given by the reigning monarch in rare cases, to a relative that received by this title prominence among other members of the royal household. Of course, it's only a partial comparison: ''Princess Royal'' was a title most often received by younger women, while ''Augusta'' was rather reserved for the aged - in this sense ''Augusta'' has something of the connotation of ''[[Queen mum]]'' too. Further, the "akin to divinity" does not really translate in any of these moderner titles or understood honorifics. ==In the Divided Roman Empire== Later, under the [[Tetrarchy]], the rank of "''augustus''" referred to the two senior Emperors (in East and West), while "''caesar''" referred to the junior sub-Emperors. The aforementioned three principal titles of the emperors -- "''imperator''", "''caesar''", and "''augustus''" -- were rendered as ''[[autocrat|autokratôr]]'', ''kaisar'', and ''augustos'' (or ''sebastos'') in Greek. The Greek title continued to be used in the [[Byzantine Empire]] until its extinction in [[1453]], although "''sebastos''" lost its Imperial exclusivity: persons who were not the Emperor could receive titles formed from "''sebastos''", and "''autokratôr''" became the exclusive title of the Emperor. ==Legacy== The Latin title of the [[Holy Roman Emperor]]s was usually "''Imperator Augustus''", which conveys the modern understanding of "emperor" rather than the original Roman sense (i.e., the "first citizen" of the Republic). Ironically, although the [[German language|German]] word for "emperor" is "''Kaiser''", a clear derivative of "''caesar''", that was the only one of the three principal titles of the Latin- and Greek-speaking Roman Emperors that was not regularly used in Latin by the German-speaking Holy Roman Emperors. == See also == * ''[[Archons]]'' * ''[[Auctoritas]]'' * ''[[Basileus]]'' * ''[[Imperium]]'' [[Category:Roman Empire]] [[Category:Ancient Roman titles]] [[Category:Honorifics]] [[Category:Roman law]] [[de:Augustus]] [[el:Αύγουστος (τίτλος)]] [[et:Augustus (lisanimi)]] [[he:אוגוסטוס (תואר)]] [[pl:August (tytu&#322;)]] [[pt:Augusto]] [[ro:Augustus]] [[no:Augustus (tittel)]] [[nl:Augustus (titel)]] [[zh:&#22885;&#21476;&#26031;&#37117;]] [[sv:Augustus (titel)]] 1290 15899780 2003-01-17T05:41:36Z Ellmist 2214 #REDIRECT [[Antarctic_Treaty_System]] #REDIRECT [[Antarctic_Treaty_System]] 1291 41965140 2006-03-02T22:47:27Z Bota47 341052 robot Adding: cs {| align="right" |{{International ownership conventions}} |} The '''Antarctic Treaty''' and related agreements, collectively called the '''Antarctic Treaty System''' or '''ATS''', regulate the [[international relations]] with respect to [[Antarctica]], [[Earth]]'s only uninhabited [[continent]]. For the purposes of the [[treaty]] system, Antarctica is defined as all land and [[ice shelf|ice shelves]] south of the southern 60th [[Circle of latitude|parallel]]. The treaty was signed by 12 countries, including the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[United States]], and set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation and banned military activity on that [[continent]]. This was the first [[arms control]] agreement established during the [[Cold War]]. [[Image:Flag of Antarctica.svg|thumb|200px|right|Graham Bertram (NAVA) 1996 conceptual flag for Antarctica]] == The Antarctic Treaty System == [[Image:Antarctica.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Research stations and territorial claims in Antarctica (2002).]] === The (Main) Antarctic Treaty === The main treaty was opened for signature on [[December 1]], [[1959]], and officially entered into force on [[June 23]], [[1961]]. The original signatories were the 12 countries active in Antarctica during the [[International Geophysical Year]] of 1957-58 and willing to accept a US invitation to the conference at which the treaty was negotiated. These countries were [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Belgium]], [[Chile]], [[France]], [[Japan]], [[New Zealand]], [[Norway]], [[South Africa]], the U.S.S.R., the [[United Kingdom]] and the United States (which opened the [[Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station]] for the [[International Geophysical Year]]). ==== Articles of the Antarctic Treaty ==== *'''Article 1''' - area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose; *'''Article 2''' - freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue; *'''Article 3''' - free exchange of information and personnel in cooperation with the [[United Nations]] and other international agencies; *'''Article 4''' - does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force; *'''Article 5''' - prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes; *'''Article 6''' - includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south; *'''Article 7''' - treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance notice of all activities and of the introduction of military personnel must be given; *'''Article 8''' - allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states; *'''Article 9''' - frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations; *'''Article 10''' - treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty; *'''Article 11''' - disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the [[International Court of Justice]]; *'''Articles 12, 13, 14''' - deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations. The main objective of the ATS is to ensure <cite> in the interests of all mankind that Antarctica shall continue forever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or object of international discord </cite>. The treaty forbids <cite> any measures of a military nature</cite>, but not the presence of military personnel per se. It also defers the question of territorial claims asserted by some nations and not recognized by others. === Other agreements === [[Image:wiki_antarctictreaty.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Stamp, [[USA]], [[1991]]]] Other agreements - some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments - include: * [[Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora]] (1964) (entered into force in 1982) * The [[Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals]] (1972) * The [[Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources]] (1980) * The [[Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities]] (1988) (although it was signed in 1988, it was subsequently rejected and never entered into force) * The [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]] was signed [[4 October]] [[1991]] and entered into force [[14 January]] [[1998]]; this agreement prevents development and provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through five specific annexes on marine pollution, fauna, and flora, environmental impact assessments, waste management, and protected areas. It prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific research. ==Meetings== The Antarctic Treaty System's yearly ''Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCM)'' are the international forum for the administration and management of the region. Only 28 of the 45 parties to the agreements have the right to participate in these meetings. These parties are the ''Consultative Parties'' and, in addition to the twelve original signatories, include 16 countries that have demonstrated their interest in Antarctica by carrying out substantial scientific activity there. ==Members== [[Image:Antarctic Treaty.png|400px|center|thumb| {{legend|brown|signatory, ''consulting'', [[Antarctic territories|territorial]] [[land claim|claim]]}} {{legend|orange|signatory, ''consulting'', [[Antarctic Treaty System|reserved right for territorial claim]]}} {{legend|lightgreen|signatory, ''consulting''}} {{legend|yellow|signatory, ''acceding'' status}} {{legend|gray|non-signatory}}]]<br clear="all" /> {|class="wikitable" !Country!!Original signatory!!Consultative!!Acceding |- |[[Argentina]] [[Argentine Antarctica|''claim'']]* |colspan="2"|[[1961-06-26]] | |- |[[Australia]] [[Australian Antarctic Territory|''claim'']] |colspan="2"|[[1961-06-23]] | |- |[[Austria]] | | |style="background:lightgray;"|[[1987-08-25]] |- |[[Belgium]] |colspan="2"|[[1960-07-26]] | |- |[[Brazil]] | |[[1983-09-12]] |[[1975-05-16]] |- |[[Bulgaria]] | |[[1998-05-25]] |[[1978-09-11]] |- |[[Canada]] | | |style="background:lightgray;"|[[1988-05-04]] |- |[[Chile]] [[Magallanes y la Antártica Chilena|''claim'']]* |colspan="2"|[[1961-06-23]] | |- |[[People's Republic of China|China]] | |[[1985-10-07]] |[[1983-06-08]] |- |[[Colombia]] | | |style="background:lightgray;"|[[1989-01-31]] |- |[[Cuba]] | | |style="background:lightgray;"|[[1984-08-16]] |- |[[Czech Republic]] ([[Czechoslovakia]]) | | |style="background:lightgray;"|[[1962-06-14]] |- |[[Denmark]] | | |style="background:lightgray;"|[[1965-05-20]] |- |[[Ecuador]] | |[[1990-11-19]] |[[1987-09-15]] |- |[[Estonia]] | | |style="background:lightgray;"|[[2001-05-17]] |- |[[Finland]] | |[[1989-10-09]] |[[1984-05-15]] |- |[[France]] [[Adélie Land|''claim'']] |colspan="2"|[[1960-09-16]] | |- |[[Germany]]<br /> ''[[East Germany]]'' | |[[1981-03-03]]<br /> ''[[1987-10-05]]'' |[[1979-02-05]]<br /> ''[[1974-11-19]]'' |- |[[Greece]] | | |style="background:lightgray;"|[[1987-01-08]] |- |[[Guatemala]] | | |style="background:lightgray;"|[[1991-07-31]] |- |[[Hungary]] | | |style="background:lightgray;"|[[1984-01-27]] |- |[[India]] | |[[1983-09-12]] |[[1983-08-19]] |- |[[Italy]] | |[[1987-10-05]] |[[1981-03-18]] |- |[[Japan]] |colspan="2"|[[1960-08-04]] | |- |[[Netherlands]] | |[[1990-11-19]] |[[1967-03-30]] |- |[[New Zealand]] [[Ross Dependency|''claim'']] |colspan="2"|[[1960-11-01]] | |- |[[North Korea]] | | |style="background:lightgray;"|[[1987-01-21]] |- |[[Norway]] [[Dronning Maud Land|''claim'']] |colspan="2"|[[1960-08-24]] | |- |[[Papua New Guinea]] | | |style="background:lightgray;"|[[1981-03-16]] |- |[[Peru]] | |[[1989-10-09]] |[[1981-04-10]] |- |[[Poland]] | |[[1977-07-29]] |[[1961-06-08]] |- |[[Romania]] | | |style="background:lightgray;"|[[1971-09-15]] |- |[[Russia]] ([[Soviet Union]])** |colspan="2"|[[1960-11-02]] | |- |[[Slovak Socialist Republic|Slovak Republic]] ([[Czechoslovakia]]) | | |style="background:lightgray;"|[[1962-06-14]] |- |[[South Africa]] |colspan="2"|[[1960-06-21]] | |- |[[South Korea]] | |[[1989-10-09]] |[[1986-11-28]] |- |[[Spain]] | |[[1988-09-21]] |[[1982-03-31]] |- |[[Sweden]] | |[[1988-09-21]] |[[1984-03-24]] |- |[[Switzerland]] | | |style="background:lightgray;"|[[1990-11-15]] |- |[[Turkey]] | | |style="background:lightgray;"|[[1996-01-25]] |- |[[Ukraine]] | |[[2004-05-27]] |[[1992-10-28]] |- |[[United Kingdom]] [[British Antarctic Territory|''claim'']]* |colspan="2"|[[1960-05-31]] | |- |[[United States]]** |colspan="2"|[[1960-08-18]] | |- |[[Uruguay]] | |[[1985-10-07]] |[[1980-01-11]] |- |[[Venezuela]] | | |style="background:lightgray;"|[[1999-05-24]] |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Claims overlap.<br /> <nowiki>**</nowiki> Reserved the right to claim areas. At the end of 2004, there were 45 treaty member nations: 28 consultative and 17 acceding. Consultative (voting) members include the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national territory. The 20 nonclaimant nations do not recognize the claims of others. == Legal system == Antarctica has no [[government]]. Various countries claim areas of it, but most countries do not recognize those claims. The area between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west is the only land on Earth not claimed by any country. ===Argentina and Chile=== According to Argentine regulations, any crime committed within 50 [[kilometer]]s of any Argentine base is to be judged in [[Ushuaia]] (as capital of [[Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica, and South Atlantic Islands]]). In the part of [[Argentine Antarctica]] that is also claimed by Chile, the person to be judged can ask to be transferred there. ===United States=== The [[law of the United States]], including certain criminal offenses by or against U.S. nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries. To this end, the United States now stations special deputy [[United States Marshal|U. S. Marshals]] in Antarctica to provide a law enforcement presence. [http://www.usmarshals.gov/history/antarctica/] Some U.S. laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the [[Antarctic Conservation Act]], 16 [[U.S.C.]] section 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by regulation of [[statute]]: *the taking of native mammals or birds; *the introduction of nonindigenous plants and animals; *entry into specially protected or scientific areas; *the discharge or disposal of pollutants; *the importation into the U.S. of certain items from Antarctica Violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and one year in prison. The Departments of [[United States Department of the Treasury|Treasury]], [[United States Department of Commerce|Commerce]], [[United States Department of Transportation|Transportation]], and [[United States Department of the Interior|Interior]] share enforcement responsibilities. Public Law 95-541, the Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, requires expeditions from the U.S. to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the [[Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs]] of the [[United States Department of State|State Department]], which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty. Further information is provided by the [[Office of Polar Programs]] of the [[National Science Foundation]]. == See also == {{Antarctica claims}} == External links == {{Wikisource|The Antarctic Treaty}} * [http://www.70south.com/resources/treaty/ 70South: Info on the Antarctic Treaty] * [http://www.ats.aq Antarctic Treaty Secretariat] * [http://www.nsf.gov/od/opp/antarct/anttrty.jsp Full Text of the Antarctic Treaty] * [http://www.nsf.gov/dir/index.jsp?org=OPP National Science Foundation - Office of Polar Programs] * [http://www.ats.aq/meetings.php List of all Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings] * [http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20050825/news_lz7e25koreas.html An Antarctic Solution for the Koreas] San Diego Union-Tribune, August 25, 2005 (Both South Korea and [[North Korea are members of the Antarctic Treaty) [[Category:Antarctica]] [[Category:Cold War treaties]] [[Category:New Zealand and the Antarctic]] [[Category:Treaties]] [[cs:Antarktický smluvní systém]] [[de:Nationales Antarktisprogramm]] [[es:Tratado Antártico]] [[fr:Traité sur l'Antarctique]] [[ko:남극 조약]] [[nl:Antarctisch Verdrag]] [[ja:南極条約]] [[no:Antarktis-traktaten]] [[pl:Traktat Antarktyczny]] [[pt:Tratado da Antártida]] [[simple:Antarctic Treaty System]] [[sv:Antarktisfördraget]] [[uk:Антарктичний договір]] 1292 40556504 2006-02-21T11:49:57Z AndrewMcQ 87960 details of birth [[Image:Swinburne.jpg|thumb|150px|Algernon Swinburne, Portrait by [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti|Rossetti]] ]] '''Algernon Charles Swinburne''' ([[April 5]], [[1837]] &ndash; [[April 10]], [[1909]]) was a [[Victorian era]] [[England|English]] poet. His [[poetry]] was highly controversial in its day, much of it containing recurring themes of [[sadomasochism]], death-wish, [[lesbian|lesbianism]] and anti-[[Christianity|Christian]] sentiments. Swinburne was born in [[London]], and raised on the [[Isle of Wight]], and at [[Capheaton Hall]], near [[Wallington Hall|Wallington]], [[Northumberland]]. He was associated with the [[Pre-Raphaelite]] movement, and counted among his best friends [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]]. He is considered a ''[[Decadence|decadent]]'' poet, albeit that he professed to perhaps rather more vice than he actually indulged in, a fact which [[Oscar Wilde]] notably and acerbically commented upon. Many of his early and still admired poems evoke the Victorian fascination with the [[Middle Ages]], and some of them are explicitly [[medieval_(term)|medieval]] in style, tone and construction, these representatives notably being "The Leper," "Laus Veneris," and "St Dorothy". He was an [[Alcoholism|alcoholic]] and a highly excitable character. His health suffered as a result, until he finally broke down and was taken into care by his friend [[Theodore Watts]], who looked after him for the rest of his life in [[Putney]]. Thereafter he lost his youthful rebelliousness and developed into a figure of social respectability. His [[vocabulary]], [[rhyme]] and [[Meter (poetry)|metre]] arguably make him one of the best poets of the [[English language]]; but his poetry has been criticized as overly flowery and meaningless, choosing words to fit the rhyme rather than to contribute towards meaning. Works include: ''Atalanta in Calydon'', ''Poems and Ballads'' (series I, II and III -- these contain most of his more controversial works), ''Songs Before Sunrise'', ''Lesbia Brandon'' (novel published posthumously). He also wrote poems in favour of the unification of [[Italy]]. He was a student at [[Balliol College, Oxford]], and his work in his day was very popular among undergraduates at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], though today it has largely gone out of fashion. This, at least, is the current popular and even the academic view of the decline of Swinburne's reputation, but it contains some distortion. In fact Swinburne's ''Poems and Ballads, First Series'' and his ''Atalanta in Calydon'' have never been out of critical favor. It was Swinburne's misfortune that the two works, published when he was nearly 30, soon established him as England's premier poet, the successor to [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]] and [[Robert Browning]]. This was a position he held in the popular mind until his death, but sophisticated critics like [[A. E. Housman]] felt, rightly or wrongly, that the job of being one of England's very greatest poets was beyond him. Swinburne may have felt this way himself. He was a highly intelligent man and in later life a much-respected critic, and he himself believed that the older a man was, the more cynical and less trustworthy he became. Swinburne may have been one of the first people not to trust anyone over thirty. This of course created problems for him after he himself passed that age. After the first ''Poems and Ballads'', Swinburne's later poetry is devoted more to politics and philosophy. He does not utterly stop writing love poetry, but he is far less shocking. His versification, and especially his rhyming technique, remain masterful to the end. He is the virtual star of the third volume of [[George Saintsbury]]'s famous ''History of English Prosody'', and Housman, a more measured and even somewhat hostile critic, devoted paragraphs of praise to his rhyming ability. It should also be noted that Swinburne continues to impact today's culture though in small degree. In the [[Cradle of Filth]] song "The Forest Whispers My Name" from the album The Principle Of Evil Made Flesh (1994) the following selection from Swinburne's ''The Garden of Proserpine'' can be found: "Pale, beyond porch and portal, Crowned with leaves, she stands, Who gathers all things mortal, With cold immortal hands, Her languid lips are sweeter, Than love's who fears to greet her, To men that mix and meet her, From many times and lands." The other lyrics of Cradle of Filth also follow a similar vein as the writings of Swinburne. Themes of romance, love lost, mythical imagery and the macabre are frequent and a clear Swinburne influence is apparent. Some of his poems: *[[Hymn to Proserpine]] *[[The Triumph of Time]] ==Further Reading== {{wikisource author}} A modern study of his religious attitudes: *''Swinburne and His Gods: the Roots and Growth of an Agnostic Poetry'' by Margot Kathleen Louis (ISBN 0773507159) ==Trivia== '''Ernest Wheldrake''' was a fictional character invented by Swinburne, who reviewed imaginary works by him. This was as a satire on the [[spasmodic poets]]. Wheldrake is also a character used by [[Michael Moorcock]] in his fiction. == External links == * {{gutenberg author| id=Algernon+Charles+Swinburne | name=Algernon Swinburne}} [[Category:1837 births|Swinburne, Algernon Charles]] [[Category:1909 deaths|Swinburne, Algernon Charles]] [[Category:English poets|Swinburne, Algernon]] [[Category:Old Etonians|Swinburne, Algernon]] [[de:Algernon Swinburne]] [[fr:Algernon Swinburne]] [[sv:Algernon Swinburne]] 1293 40673630 2006-02-22T05:16:13Z 66.73.169.108 '''Alfred William Lawson''' ([[1869]]-[[1954]]) was a professional [[baseball]] player from 1887 through 1908 and went on to play a pioneering role in the US aircraft industry, publishing an early aviation trade journal. During this time he also wrote a novel, Born Again, clearly inspired by the popular Utopian fantasy [[Looking Backward]] by [[Edward Bellamy]], an early harbinger of the metaphysical turn his career would take. He is frequently cited as the inventor of the [[airliner]] and claimed to have been the first to deliver air mail on a schedule. However, his several attempts at building his own airplanes all ended in crashes which discouraged investors. In the 1920s he promoted [[vegetarianism]] and claimed to have found the secret of living to 200. He also developed his own highly unusual theories of physics, according to which such concepts as "penetrability" and "zig-zag-and-swirl" were discoveries on par with [[Einstein]]'s [[Theory of Relativity]]. Numerous books confidently expounding on these concepts flowed from his pen, all set in the distinctive typography which makes Lawson publications recognizable at 50 paces. Most of the books confidently predict the worldwide adoption of Lawsonian principles by the year 2000. He later propounded his own philosophy [[Lawsonomy]], and the [[Lawsonian religion]]. He also developed during the [[Great Depression]] the [[populist]] economic theory of [[direct credit]]s, according to which banks are the cause of all economic woe, the oppressors of both capital and labour. Lawson believed that the government should replace banks as the provider of loans to business and workers. His rallies and lectures attracted thousands of listeners in the early 30s, mainly in the upper midwest, but by the late 30s the crowds had dwindled. In 1943 he founded the so-called University of Lawsonomy in Des Moines to spread his teachings and offer the degree of "Knowlegian," but after various IRS and other investigations it was closed and finally sold in 1954, the year of Lawson's death. Lawson's financial arrangements remain mysterious to this day and in later years he seems to have owned little property, moving from city to city as a guest of his farflung acolytes. A 1952 attempt to haul him before a Senate investigative committee and get to the bottom of his operation ended with the cagey old gentleman leaving the senators outwitted and baffled. A farm near Racine, Wisconsin is the only remaining university facility, although a tiny handful of churches may yet survive in places such as Wichita, Kansas. He has been described as the "[[Leonardo da Vinci]] of kooks". ==Quotation== *"When I look into the vastness of space and see the marvelous workings of its contents... I sometimes think I was born ten or twenty thousand years ahead of time." -- Alfred Lawson ==External links== *[http://www.rcls.org/lawson/intro.htm Lawson's Progress] an elaborate web tribute *[http://www.lawsonomy.org/Lawsonomy11.html The three volumes of Lasonomy], written by Lawson [[Category:1869 births|Lawson, Alfred]] [[Category:1954 deaths|Lawson, Alfred]] 1295 35507250 2006-01-17T05:53:49Z William Allen Simpson 580725 {4LA} {4LC} ;ALCS * [[American League Championship Series]], in American baseball * [[ALCS transaction monitor]], a transaction processing monitor for the airline industry {{4LC}} 1297 15899786 2004-01-13T01:32:23Z UtherSRG 33145 #REDIRECT [[Tanakh]] 1298 42158089 2006-03-04T05:06:52Z 12.215.83.96 [[Image:Bales of hay.jpg|thumb|right|Bales of hay on a farm near Ames, Iowa]] '''Ames''' is a city located in [[Story County, Iowa|Story County]], [[Iowa]]. As of the [[United States 2000 Census|2000 Census]], the city had a total population of 50,731. The city was named after [[19th century]] [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. congressman]] [[Oakes Ames]] of [[Massachusetts]], who was influential in the building of the [[First transcontinental railroad (North America)|transcontinental railroad]]. Ames was founded near a location that was deemed favorable for a railroad crossing of the [[Skunk River]]. It is located roughly 30 miles (48 km) north of the state capital [[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]]. Two small rivers run through the town: the Skunk River and [[Squaw Creek (Iowa)|Squaw Creek]]. Ames is home of [[Iowa State University]] of Science & Technology, a [[space grant colleges|space grant college]], at its founding, the state's (Morrill Act) [[land-grant university]], formerly known as the Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. Ames is the home of the closely allied U.S Department of Agriculture's National Animal Disease Center, and the main offices of the Iowa state Department of Transportation. State and Federal institutions are the largest employers in Ames. Other area employers include a [[3M]] manufacturing plant; [[Sauer-Danfoss]], a hydraulics manufacturer; [[Barilla]], a pasta manufacturer; [[Pella (company)|Pella]] a window manufacturer; and [[Ball Corporation|Ball]], a manufacturer of canning jars and plastic bottles. == Geography == [[Image:IAMap-doton-Ames.PNG|right|Location of Ames, Iowa]] Ames is located at 42&deg;1'38" North, 93&deg;37'54" West (42.027335, -93.631586){{GR|1}}. According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 55.9 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (21.6 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 55.9 km&sup2; (21.6 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 0.1 km&sup2; (0.04 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 0.09% water. Ames is located on Interstate 35, US Highways 30 & 69, and the cross country line of the the Union Pacific Railroad. == Demographics == As of the [[United States 2000 Census|2000 Census]], there are 50,731 people, 18,085 households, and 8,970 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 908.1/km&sup2; (2,352.3/mi&sup2;). There are 18,757 housing units at an average density of 335.7/km&sup2; (869.7/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 87.34% White, 7.70% [[Asia|Asian]], 2.65% [[African American]], 1.98% [[Hispanic American]] or [[Latino]] of any race, 0.15% [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]], 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.76% from other races, and 1.36% from two or more races. There are 18,085 households out of which 22.3% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.0% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 5.3% have a female householder with no husband present, and 50.4% are non-families. 28.5% of all households are made up of individuals and 5.9% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.30 and the average family size is 2.85. In the city the population is spread out with 14.6% under the age of 18, 40.0% from 18 to 24, 23.7% from 25 to 44, 13.9% from 45 to 64, and 7.7% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 24 years. For every 100 females there are 109.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 109.9 males. A large number of Ames residents are university students. In 2004, for example, there were 26,390 students enrolled at Iowa State. The median income for a household in the city is $36,042, and the median income for a family is $56,439. Males have a median income of $37,877 versus $28,198 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $18,881. 20.4% of the population and 7.6% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 9.2% of those under the age of 18 and 4.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. == Important events == Prof. [[John_Vincent_Atanasoff | John V. Atanasoff]] and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, are now credited with the creation of the first true electronic digital computer in the basement of the physics department during the years 1937-1942. The Atanasoff/Berry computer used binary arithmetic circuits, regenerative memory, and logic circuits. These seminal ideas were communicated by Atanasoff to John Mauchly during a visit to Iowa State in the 1940s who then used them in the design of the better-known ENIAC built some years later. Ames has been selected to host the first National Special Olympics in 2006 (summer). Ames has regularly hosted numerous statewide athletic events such as the Iowa Games and Iowa Shrine Bowl. Ada Hayden Heritage Park opened in summer of 2004. It lies west of [[US 69]] just north of Ames. It is a large park complex featuring two connected lakes (former quarries) and walking/biking trails. == Points of interest == * [[Reiman Gardens]] * [[Jack Trice Stadium]] Farm House Museum, Brunnier Art Museum, Art on Campus Collection, Iowa State University. For more information visit www.museums.iastate.edu == People == * [[Neal Stephenson]], Author, grew up in Ames, Iowa * [[Peter Schickele]], Musician, was born in Ames, Iowa * [[George Washington Carver]], Inventor, was an alumni and a professor at ISU. Billy Sunday, evangelist and major league baseball player, born in Ames Fred Hoiberg, NBA basketball player, native of Ames and ISU graduate Carrie Chapman Catt, women's rights activist, ISU graduate Ted Kooser, U.S. Poet Laureate, was raised in Ames, Iowa and attended Iowa State University. == External links == {{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.027335|-93.631586}} *[http://ortho.gis.iastate.edu/ Maps from ISU GIS Support and Research Facility] *[http://urj.net/congs/ia/ia003/ Ames Jewish Congregation] - [[Union for Reform Judaism]] *[http://www.bridgewayofames.org/ Bridgeway Congregation] - [[Reformed Church in America]] *[http://chefmoz.org/United_States/IA/Ames/ Ames Dining Guide] on [[Chefmoz]] *[http://www.mainstreetculturaldistrict.com/ The Main Street Cultural District] *[http://www.dragonartsames.com/ Dragon Arts Martial Arts and Cultural Center] [[Category:Cities in Iowa]] [[Category:Story County, Iowa]] [[Category:University towns]] [[es:Ames]] [[gl:Ames]] [[io:Ames, Iowa]] [[nl:Ames]] [[pl:Ames (Iowa)]] [[pt:Ames]] [[zh:艾姆斯]] 1299 15899788 2002-05-19T16:47:02Z AxelBoldt 2 * #REDIRECT [[Abbadid]] 1300 41304303 2006-02-26T11:57:35Z Captainbeefart 727376 Beefart typo. Genus has initial capital :''For other uses, see [[Abalone (disambiguation)]].'' [[image:abalone.jpg|thumb|right|A piece of abalone shell]] [[Image:AbaloneOutside.jpg|thumb|right|The outside of an abalone shell]] [[Image:AbaloneInside.jpg|thumb|right|The inside surface of an abalone shell]] [[Image:AbaloneMeat.jpg|thumb|right|The raw meat of abalone]] '''Abalone''' is the [[American English]] variant of the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] name ''Abulón'' used for various species of [[shellfish]] ([[mollusk]]s) from the [[Haliotidae]] family ([[genus]] ''Haliotis''). The abalones belong to the large class of gastropods ([[Gastropoda]]). There is only one genus in the family Haliotidae, and about four to seven subgenera. The taxonomy is somewhat confused. The number of species range from about 100 to about 130 species (due to the occurrence of [[hybrid]]s), characterized by a richly coloured (on the inside&mdash;the outside is rough and mostly brown) shell yielding [[mother-of-pearl]]. This is also commonly called ''ear-shell,'' in [[Guernsey]] ''ormer'' (Fr. ''ormier'', for ''oreille de mer''), ''perlemoen'' in [[South Africa]] and ''pāua'' in [[New Zealand]]. Abalone is also prevalent in [[Australia]]n and [[South Africa]]n coastal waters and is highly valued. The meat of an abalone is also considered an expensive delicacy in certain parts of South-East and East Asia, especially in [[Japan]], although it has a high cholesterol content. ==Distribution and characteristics== The Haliotid family has a worldwide distribution, along the coastal waters of every continent, except South America and the eastern coast of the USA. Most abalones are found off the Southern Hemisphere coasts of New Zealand, South Africa and Australia, and Western North America and Japan in the Northern Hemisphere. The family has unmistakable characteristics : the shell is rounded to oval, with two to three whorls, and the last one [[auriform]] (= grown into a large ‘ear’), giving rise to the common name ‘ear-shell’. The [[body whorl]] has a series of holes (four to ten depending on the species), near the anterior margin. There is no [[Operculum (gastropod)|operculum]]. The back is convex, ranging from highly arched to very flattened. These shells cling solidly with their muscular foot to rocky surfaces at [[sublittoral]] depths. The color is very variable from species to species. The inside of the shell consists of iridiscent, silvery white to greenred [[mother-of-pearl]] through to ''Haliotis Iris'' which can comprise of; pinks and reds with predominant deep blues, greens and purples. Abalones reach maturity at a small size. Their fertility is high and increases with size (from 10,000 to 11 million eggs at a time). The larvae feed on plankton. The adults are herbivores and feed on macroalgae, preferring red algae. Sizes vary from 20 mm (''Haliotis pulcherrima'') to 200 mm (or even more) (''Haliotis rufescens''). ==Abalone diving in California== Sport harvesting of Red Abalone is permitted with a California fishing license and an abalone stamp card. Abalone may only be taken while free diving (as opposed to scuba diving). Taking of abalone is not permited south of the mouth of the San Francisco Bay. There is a size minimum of seven inches measured across the shell and a quantity limit of three per day and 24 per year. Abalone may only be taken in season. Transportation of abalone may only legally occur while the abalone is still in the shell. Sale of sport obtained abalone is illegal (including the shell). Only Red Abalone may be taken; black, white, pink, and flat abalone are protected by law. An abalone diver is normally equipped with a very thick wetsuit, including a hood, booties, and gloves. He or she would also wear a mask, snorkel, weight belt, abalone iron, and abalone gauge. It is common to dive for abalone in water six to 20+ feet deep. Abalone are normally found on rocks in kelp beds (they eat kelp). The abalone iron is used to pry the abalone from the rock before it can fully clamp down. Visibility is normally five to ten feet. Divers commonly dive out of boats, kayaks, tube floats, and directly off shore. An eight inch abalone is considered a good catch, nine inches extremely good, and a ten inch plus (250 mm) abalone would be a trophy catch. Rock picking is a separate method from diving where the rock picker feels underneath rocks at low tides for abalone. There has been a trade in [[diving]] to catch abalones off parts of the USA coast from before 1939. In [[World War II]], many of these abalone divers were recruited into the USA [[armed forces]] and trained as [[frogman|frogmen]]. ==Abalone diving in New Zealand== [[Image:Abalone-farm1web.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Abalone farm]] There is an extensive global [[black market]] in the collection and export of abalone meat. In New Zealand, where abalone is called '''pāua''' in the [[Māori language]], this can be a particularly awkward problem where the right to harvest pāua can be granted legally under [[Māori]] customary rights. When such permits to harvest are abused, it is frequently difficult to police. The legal recreational daily limit is 10 pāua per diver with a minimum shell length of 125 mm. The limit is strictly enforced by roving Ministry of Fisheries officers with the backing of the Police force. Pāua 'poaching' is a major industry in New Zealand with many thousands being taken illegally, often undersized. Convictions have resulted in seizure of diving gear, boats and motor vehicles as well as fines and in rare cases; imprisonment. The Ministry of Fisheries expects in the year 2004/05, nearly 1000 tons of pāua will be poached, with 75% of that being undersized.[http://www.fish.govt.nz/information/corp-docs/soi-04-08/pau2-industry-association.pdf] Highly polished [[New Zealand]] pāua shells are extremely popular as souvenirs with their striking blue, green and purple iridescence. The [[muscle]] tissue of the [[mollusk]] is often eaten, and the [[gonad]]s of the abalone are delicacies in [[China]] and [[Japan]]. ==Ormers in the Channel Islands== Ormers (''Haliotis tuberculata'') are considered a delicacy in the Channel Islands and are pursued with great alacrity by the locals. Unfortunately, this has led to a dramatic depletion in numbers since the latter half of the 19th century, and 'ormering' is now strictly regulated in order to preserve stocks. The gathering of ormers is now restricted to a number of 'ormering tides', from the [[January 1]] to [[April 30]], which occur on the full or new moon and two days following. No ormers may be taken from the beach that are under 8 cm in shell length. Diving is strictly prohibited. Any breach of these laws is a criminal offence and can lead to a heavy fine. The demand for ormers is such that they led to the world's first underwater arrest, when a Mr Kempthorne-Leigh of Guernsey was arrested by a police officer in full diving gear when illegally diving for ormers. ==Abalone shell== In addition, material scientists at the [[University of California, San Diego]] are studying abalone's strong [[calcium carbonate]] tiled structure for insight into a new wave of bullet-proof [[body armor]]. ==List of species with common name== [[Image:Pinkabalone 300.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Pink Abalone (''Haliotis corrugata'')]] *''Haliotis ancile '' : [[Shield Abalone]]. *''Haliotis aquatilis'' : [[Japanese Abalone]]. *''Haliotis asinina'' : [[Ass’s ear Abalone]]. *''Haliotis assimilis'' : [[Threaded Abalone]]. *''Haliotis australis'' : [[Australian Abalone]], Austral Abalone. *''Haliotis brazieri '': [[Brazier’s Abalone]]. *''Haliotis coccoradiata '' : [[Reddish-rayed Abalone]]. *''Haliotis conicopora '' : [[Conical Pore Abalone]], Brownlip Abalone *''Haliotis corrugata '' : [[Pink Abalone]]. *''Haliotis crachedorii'' : [[Black Abalone]]. [[Image:Whiteabalone 300.jpg|thumb|right|250px|White Abalone (''Haliotis sorenseni'')]] *''Haliotis crebrisculpta '' : [[Close Sculptures Abalone]]. *''Haliotis cyclobates '' : [[Whirling Abalone]]. *''Haliotis dalli'' : [[Dall’s Abalone]]. *''Haliotis discus'' : [[Disk Abalone]]. *''Haliotis diversicolor '' : [[Variously Coloured Abalone]]. *''Haliotis dohrniana '' : [[Dhorn’s Abalone]]. *''Haliotis elegans'' : [[Elegant Abalone]]. *''Haliotis emmae'' : [[Emma’s Abalone]]. *''Haliotis ethologus'' : [[Mimic Abalone]]. *''Haliotis fulgens'' : [[Green Abalone]]. *''Haliotis gigantea'' : [[Giant Abalone]]. *''Haliotis glabra'' : [[Glistening Abalone]]. *''Haliotis hargravesi'' : [[Hargraves’s Abalone]]. *''Haliotis howensis'' : [[Lord Howe Abalone]]. *''Haliotis iris'' : [[Blackfoot Abalone]]. *''Haliotis iris'' : [[Rainbow Abalone]], Paua Abalone. *''Haliotis jacnensis '' : [[Jacna Abalone]]. *''Haliotis kamschatkana'' : [[Pinto Abalone]]. *''Haliotis laevigata smooth'' : [[Australian Abalone]], Greenlip Abalone. *''Haliotis melculus'' : [[Honey Abalone]]. *''Haliotis midae'' : [[Midas Ear Abalone]], Perlemoen Abalone. *''Haliotis multiperforata'' : [[Many-holed Abalone]]. *''Haliotis ovina'' : [[Oval Abalone]], Sheep's Ear Abalone *''Haliotis parva'' : [[Canaliculate Abalone]]. *''Haliotis planata'' : [[Planate Abalone]]. *''Haliotis pourtalesii'' : [[Pourtale’s Abalone]]. *''Haliotis pulcherrima'' : [[Most Beautiful Abalone]]. *''Haliotis queketti'' : [[Quekett’s Abalone]]. *''Haliotis roei'' : [[Roe's Abalone]] *''Haliotis rosacea'': [[Rosy Abalone]]. *''Haliotis rubra'' : [[Ruber Abalone]]. *''Haliotis rufescens'': [[Red Abalone]]. *''Haliotis scalaris'' : [[Staircase Abalone]], Ridged Ear Abalone. *''Haliotis semiplicata'' : [[Semiplicate Abalone]]. *''Haliotis sorenseni'' : [[White Abalone]]. *''Haliotis spadicea'' : [[Blood-spotted Abalone]]. *''Haliotis speciosa'' : [[Splendid Abalone]]. *''Haliotis squamata'' : [[Scaly Australian Abalone]]. *''Haliotis squamosa'' : [[Squamose Abalone]]. *''Haliotis tuberculata '': [[European Edible Abalone]], Tube Abalone, Tuberculate Ormer. *''Haliotis varia'' : [[Variable Abalone]]. *''Haliotis venusta'' : [[Lovely Abalone]]. *''Haliotis virginea'' : [[Virgin Abalone]]. *''Haliotis walallensis'' : [[Northern Green Abalone]], [[Flat Abalone]]. '''Other species :''' ''Haliotis clathrata, Haliotis barbouri, Haliotis crebrisculpta, Haliotis dissona, Haliotis exigua, Haliotis fatui, Haliotis kamtschatkana assimilis, Haliotis kamtschatkana kamtschatkana, Haliotis madaka, Haliotis mariae, Haliotis patamakanthini, Haliotis pustulata, Haliotis roberti, Haliotis rubiginosa, Haliotis rubra, Haliotis rugosa, Haliotis thailandis, Haliotis unilateralis''. ==Research== {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abalone}} *Lin, A., and Meyers, M.A. 2005. Growth and structure in abalone shell, ''Materials Science and Engineering A'' '''390'''(Jan. 15):27–41 (see [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TXD-4DH2DRS-1&_coverDate=01%2F15%2F2005&_alid=256050522&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=5588&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=f4efd0a3d7cf3b4a0b8f9861cff4514d abstract]) *[http://www.dfg.ca.gov/mrd/ab_info.html California Red Abalone] *[http://www.isa.org/InTechTemplate.cfm?Section=InTech&template=/ContentManagement/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=41313 Bullet proof abalone] *[http://www.seapulse.com/gallery/details.php?image_id=7 Abalone Varieties] ==External links== {{Commons|Category:Haliotidae}} * [http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,49847,00.html Abalone Farming on a Boat] *[http://www.ocde.k12.ca.us/sciencek12/Tidepool7/index.htm Abalone biology] * [http://texts.cdlib.org/dynaxml/servlet/dynaXML?docId=kt738nb1zx&doc.view=frames&chunk.id=d0e112&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e112&query=0 Online Archive of California] * [http://www.conchology.be/availableShells/SearchspeciesGallery.php?family=HALIOTIDAE&species=&index=true Conchology] * [http://www.specimenshells.net/5266.htm Specimen shells; many pictures.] * [http://manandmollusc.net/links_gastropoda.html Man and Mollusk : many links] * [http://www.homepages.paradise.net.nz/ljhill/ Natural Abalone "horn" Pearls : Sample photos] * [http://web.uct.ac.za/depts/zoology/abnet/species.html Imagemap of worldwide abalone distribution] [[Category:Gastropods]] [[Category:Chinese cuisine]] [[Category:Seafood]] [[Category:Tree of Life cleanup]] [[de:Seeohren]] [[ja:アワビ]] [[tr:Denizkulağı (Hayvan)]] [[uk:Абалон]] [[zh:鮑魚]] 1301 41813052 2006-03-01T22:38:09Z JeffW 927455 not a people category An '''Abbess''' ([[Latin]] ''abbatissa,'' fem. form of ''abbas,'' [[abbot]]) is the female [[religious superior|superior]], or [[Mother Superior]], of an [[abbey]] or [[abbey|convent]] of [[nun]]s. The mode of election, position, rights and authority of an abbess correspond generally with those of an [[abbot]]. The office is elective, the choice being by the secret votes of the sisters from their own body. The abbess is solemnly admitted to her office by [[episcopal]] [[benediction]], together with the conferring of a staff and pectoral cross, and holds for life, though liable to be deprived for misconduct. The [[council of Trent]] fixed the qualifying age at forty, with eight years of profession. Abbesses have a right to demand absolute obedience of their nuns, over whom they exercise discipline, extending even to the power of expulsion, subject, however, to the [[bishop]]. As a female an abbess is incapable of performing the spiritual functions of the priesthood belonging to an abbot. She cannot ordain, confer the veil, nor excommunicate. In England abbesses attended ecclesiastical councils, e.g. that of Becanfield in [[694]], where they signed before the [[presbyter]]s. By [[Celtic Christianity|Celtic]] usage abbesses presided over joint-houses of monks and nuns. This custom accompanied Celtic monastic missions to France and Spain, and even to Rome itself. At a later period, A.D. [[1115]], Robert, the founder of [[Fontevraud Abbey]] near [[Chinon]] and [[Saumur]], [[France]] committed the government of the whole order, men as well as women, to a female superior. In the German Evangelical church the title of abbess (''Äbtissin'') has in some cases--e.g. Itzehoe--survived to designate the heads of abbeys which since the Protestant [[Reformation]] have continued as ''Stifte,'' i.e. collegiate foundations, which provide a home and an income for unmarried ladies, generally of noble birth, called canonesses (''Kanonissinen'') or more usually ''Stiftsdamen.'' This office of abbess is of considerable social dignity, and was sometimes filled by princesses of the reigning houses. {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbess}} {{1911}} [[Category:Religious work]] [[Category:Religious executives]] [[Category:Roman Catholic Church offices]] [[Category:1911 Britannica]] [[da:Abbedisse]] [[it:Badessa]] [[gl:Abadesa]] [[ru:Аббатиса]] [[fi:Abbedissa]] [[sv:Abbedissa]] 1302 41551531 2006-02-28T02:35:14Z Shadowcaster 736084 Removed image. picture was unproffesional to be included. The human abdomen (from the [[Latin]] word meaning "belly") is the part of the body between the [[pelvis]] and the [[thorax]]. Anatomically, the abdomen stretches from the thorax at the [[thoracic diaphragm]] to the pelvis at the [[pelvic brim]]. The '''pelvic brim''' stretches from the [[lumbosacral angle]] (the [[intervertebral disk]] between L5 and S1) to the [[pubic symphysis]] and is the edge of the [[pelvic inlet]]. The space above this inlet and under the thoracic diaphragm is termed the [[abdominal cavity]]. The boundary of the abdominal cavity is the abdominal wall in the front and the peritoneal surface at the rear. Functionally, the human abdomen is where most of the [[alimentary tract]] is placed and so most of the absorption and digestion of food occurs here. The alimentary tract in the abdomen consists of the lower [[oesophagus]], the [[stomach]], the [[duodenum]], the [[jejunum]], [[ileum]], the [[cecum]] and the [[Vermiform appendix|appendix]], the [[ascending colon|ascending]], [[transverse colon|transverse]] and [[descending colon|descending colons]], the [[sigmoid colon]] and the [[rectum]]. Other vital organs inside the abdomen include the [[liver]], the [[kidneys]], the [[pancreas]] and the [[spleen]]. The '''abdominal wall''' is split into the posterior (back), lateral (sides) and anterior (front) walls. There is a common set of layers covering and forming all the walls: the deepest being the [[extraperitoneal fat]], the [[parietal peritoneum]], and a layer of [[fascia]] which has different names over where it covers (eg transversalis, psoas fascia). Superficial to these, but ''not'' present in the posterior wall are the three layers of muscle, the [[transversus abdominus]] (tranvserse abdominal muscle), the [[internal oblique|internal]] (obliquus internus) and the [[external oblique]] (obliquus externus). ==Muscles of the abdominal wall== [[Image:Grays_Anatomy_image392.png|thumb|RIGHT|200px|''Henry Gray (1825–1861). Anatomy of the Human Body.'']] The obliquus externus ([[external oblique muscle|external oblique]]) [[muscle]] is the outermost muscle covering the side of the abdomen. It is broad, flat, and irregularly quadrilateral. It originates on the lower eight [[rib]]s, and then curves down and forward towards its insertion on the outer anterior crest of the [[Ilium (disambiguation)|ilium]] and (via the sheath of the [[rectus abdominus]] muscle) the midline [[linea alba]]. The obliquus internus ([[internal oblique muscle|internal oblique]]) muscle is triangularly shaped and is smaller and thinner than the external oblique muscle that overlies it. It originates from [[Poupart's ligament]]/[[inguinal ligament]] and the inner anterior crest of the ilium. The lower two-thirds of it insert, in common with fibers of the external oblique and the underlying transversus abdominus, into the [[linea alba]]. The upper third inserts into the lower six ribs. The transversus abdominus muscle is flat and triangular, with its fibers running horizontally. It lies between the internal oblique and the underlying transversalis fascia. It originates from Poupart's ligament, the inner lip of the ilium, the lumbar fascia and the inner surface of the [[cartilage]]s of the six lower ribs. It inserts into the linea alba behind the [[rectus abdominis]]. The [[rectus abdominis muscle]]s are long and flat. They originate at the [[pubic bone]], run up the abdomen on either side of the linea alba, and insert into the cartilages of the fifth, sixth, and seventh ribs. The muscle is crossed by three [[tendon|tendinous]] intersections called the [[linae transversae]]. The rectus abdominus is enclosed in a thick sheath formed, as described above, by fibers from each of the three muscles of the lateral abdominal wall. The [[pyramidalis muscle]] is small and triangular. It is located in the lower abdomen in front of the rectus abdominis. It originates at the pubic bone and is inserted into the linea alba half way up to the [[umbilicus]] (belly button). == Abdominal organs == [[Image:Gray1120.png|thumb|RIGHT|200px|The relations of the viscera and large vessels of the abdomen.]] The abdomen contains most of the tubelike organs of the digestive tract, as well as several solid organs. Hollow abdominal organs include the [[stomach]], the [[small intestine]], and the [[colon (anatomy)|colon]] with its attached [[Vermiform appendix|appendix]]. Organs such as the [[liver]], its attached [[gallbladder]], and the [[pancreas]] function in close association with the digestive tract and communicate with it via ducts. The [[spleen]], [[kidney]]s, and [[adrenal gland]]s also lie within the abdomen, along with many blood vessels including the [[aorta]] and [[venae cavae|inferior vena cava]]. Anatomists may consider the [[urinary bladder]], [[uterus]], [[fallopian tube]]s, and [[ovary|ovaries]] as either abdominal organs or as pelvic organs. Finally, the abdomen contains an extensive membrane called the [[peritoneum]]. A fold of peritoneum may completely cover certain organs, whereas it may cover only one side of organs that usually lie closer to the abdominal wall. Anatomists call the latter type of organs ''retroperitoneal.'' == Surface landmarks of the abdomen == In the mid-line a slight furrow extends from the ensiform cartilage/[[xiphoid process]] above to the [[symphysis pubis]] below, representing the [[linea alba]] in the abdominal wall. At about its midpoint sits the umbilicus or navel. On each side of it the broad recti muscles stand out in muscular people. The outline of these muscles is interrupted by three or more transverse depressions indicating the [[lineae transversae]]. There is usually one about the [[ensiform cartilage]], one at the [[umbilicus]], and one between. It is the combination of the linea alba and the linea transversae which form the abdominal "six-pack" sought by body builders. The upper lateral limit of the abdomen is the subcostal margin formed by the cartilages of the false ribs (8, 9, 10) joining one another. The lower lateral limit is the anterior crest of the [[ilium]] and [[Poupart's ligament]], which runs from the anterior superior spine of the ilium to the spine of the [[pubis]]. These lower limits are marked by visible grooves. Just above the pubic spines on either side are the external abdominal rings, which are openings in the muscular wall of the abdomen through which the [[spermatic cord]] emerges in the male, and through which an [[inguinal hernia]] may rupture. One method by which the location of the abdominal contents can be appreciated is to draw three horizontal and two vertical lines. The highest of the former is the [[transpyloric line]] of C. Addison, which is situated half-way between the [[suprasternal notch]] and the top of the symphysis pubis, and often cuts the pyloric opening of the stomach an inch to the right of the mid-line. The [[hilum]] of each [[kidney]] is a little below it, while its left end approximately touches the lower limit of the [[spleen]]. It corresponds to the first lumbar vertebra behind. The second line is the subcostal, drawn from the lowest point of the [[subcostal arch]] (tenth rib). It corresponds to the upper part of the third lumbar vertebra, and it is an inch or so above the umbilicus. It indicates roughly the [[transverse colon]], the lower ends of the kidneys, and the upper limit of the transverse (3rd) part of the [[duodenum]]. The third line is called the intertubercular, and runs across between the two rough [[tubercle]]s, which can be felt on the outer lip of the crest of the ilium about two and a half inches (60 mm) from the anterior superior spine. This line corresponds to the body of the fifth lumbar vertebra, and passes through or just above the [[ileo-caecal valve]], where the [[small intestine]] joins the [[large intestine|large]]. The two vertical or mid-Poupart lines are drawn from the point midway between the anterior superior spine and the pubic symphysis on each side, vertically upward to the costal margin. The right one is the most valuable, as the [[ileo-caecal valve]] is situated where it cuts the intertubercular line. The orifice of the [[vermiform appendix]] lies an inch lower, at [[McBurney's point]]. In its upper part, the vertical line meets the transpyloric line at the lower margin of the ribs, usually the ninth, and here the [[gallbladder]] is situated. The left mid-Poupart line corresponds in its upper three-quarters to the inner edge of the [[descending colon]]. The right subcostal margin corresponds to the lower limit of the [[liver]], while the right nipple is about half an inch above the upper limit of this [[viscus]]. These three horizontal and two vertical lines divide the abdomen into nine "regions." These regions are: the left and right [[hypchondria]] the left and right lateral regions, the left and right [[inguinal]] regions, the [[epigastrium]], the umbilical region, and the pubic region. ==See also== * [[Waist]] * [[List of muscles of the human body]] * [[Alimentary canal]] * [[Abdominal pain]] ==References== *Tortora, Gerard J., Anagnostakos, Nicholas P. (1984) ''Principles of Anatomy and Physiology'', Harper & Row Publishers, New York ISBN 0-06-046656-1 *Gray, Henry, (1977) ''Anatomy, Descriptive and Surgical (Gray's Anatomy)'' Bounty Books *Taber, Clarence Wilber, (1981) ''Taber's Cyclopedic medical dictionary 14 Edition'', F.A Davis Company, Philadelphia ISBN 0-8036-8307-3 [[Category:Abdomen]] [[Category:Human anatomy]] {{human anatomical features}} [[de:Abdomen]] [[es:Abdomen]] [[fr:Abdomen]] [[gl:Abdome]] [[it:Addome]] [[he:בטן]] [[lt:Pilvelis]] [[nl:Buik]] [[pl:Odwłok]] [[pt:Abdómen]] [[simple:Abdomen]] [[tl:Abdomen]] 1303 29398876 2005-11-27T18:37:15Z Nephron 321400 +gen surg The term '''''abdominal surgery''''' broadly covers surgical procedures that involve opening the [[abdomen]]. Surgery of each abdominal organ is dealt with separately in connection with the description of that organ (see [[stomach]], [[kidney]], [[liver]], etc.) Diseases affecting the abdominal cavity are dealt with generally under their own names (e.g. [[appendicitis]]). The three most common abdominal surgeries are described below. *Exploratory [[Laparotomy]] -- This refers to the opening of the [[abdominal cavity]] for direct examination of its contents, for example, to locate a source of bleeding or [[Physical trauma|trauma]]. It may or may not be followed by repair or removal of the primary problem. *[[Appendectomy]] -- Surgical opening of the abdominal cavity and removal of the [[vermiform appendix|appendix]]. Typically performed as definitive treatment for [[appendicitis]], although sometimes the appendix is prophylactically removed incidental to another abdominal procedure. *[[Laparoscopy]] -- A [[minimally invasive]] approach to abdominal surgery where rigid tubes are inserted through small incisions into the abdominal cavity. The tubes allow introduction of a small camera, surgical instruments, and gases into the cavity for direct or indirect visualization and treatment of the abdomen. The abdomen is inflated with carbon dioxide gas to facilitate visualization and, often, a small video camera is used to show the procedure on a monitor in the operating room. The surgeon manipulates instruments within the abdominal cavity to perform procedures such as cholecystectomy (gallbladder removal), the most common laparoscopic procedure. The laparoscopic method speeds recovery time and reduces blood loss and infection as compared to the traditional "open" [[cholecystecomy]]. Complications of abdominal surgery include [[hemorrhage|bleeding]], [[infection]], [[shock]], and ileus (short-term paralysis of the bowel.) Sterile technique, [[aseptic]] post-operative care, [[antibiotics]], and vigilant post-operative [[monitoring]] greatly reduce the risk of these complications. Planned surgery performed under sterile conditions is much less risky than that performed under emergency or unsterile conditions. The contents of the bowel are unsterile, and thus leakage of bowel contents, as from [[trauma]], substantially increases the risk of infection. {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abdominal surgery}} ==See also== *[[Abdominoplasty]] *[[General Surgery]] [[Category:Types of surgery]] 1304 39531714 2006-02-14T03:05:05Z Dcfleck 81021 Removing redlink {{Wiktionarypar|abduction}} '''Abduction''' may refer to: * [[Kidnapping]], as a near synonym in criminal law, but sometimes used particularly in cases involving a woman or child * [[Abduction (physiology)]], a type of movement involving a change in organ or limb position * [[Abductive reasoning]], a method of reasoning in logic * [[Child abduction]], the abduction or kidnapping of a young child (or baby) by an older person * [[Abduction phenomenon]], an umbrella term used to describe a number of hypotheses, claims or assertions stating that extraterrestrial creatures kidnap individuals * [[North Korean abductions of Japanese]] or [[North Korean abductions of South Koreans]], a policy of abduction during the 1970s and 1980s pursued by the North Korean government * [[Abduction: The Megumi Yokota Story]], a 2005 American documentary film {{disambig}} [[ca:abducció]] [[de:Verschleppung]] [[fr:Abduction]] [[nl:Ontvoering]] [[ja:拉致]] [[ru:Абдукция]] [[tl:Abduksyon]] 1305 38478174 2006-02-06T16:36:35Z Tsca.bot 601940 robot adding: nl, pl '''Abensberg''' is a town in [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]]. It used to be a spa town located at {{coor dm|48|49|N|11|51|E|type:city(12500)_region:DE-BY}}, on the Abens, a tributary of the [[Danube]], 18 m. S.W. of [[Regensburg]], with which it is connected by rail and motorway (A93). Pop. (2004) about 12500. It has a small spa, and its sulphur baths are resorted to for the cure of rheumatism and gout. The water is not used any more. The town is the Castra Abusina of the Romans, and Roman remains exist in the neighbourhood. Here, in the [[Battle of Abensberg]] on the 20th of April 1809, [[Napoleon]] gained a signal victory over the Austrians under the Archduke Louis and General Hiller. Abensberg is the birthplace of [[Johannes Aventinus]]. Abensberg is also a [[seal district]] of the [[Hallertau]] [[hop (plant)|hop-planting]] area. ==References== {{1911}} [[Category:Towns in Bavaria]] [[Category:Spa towns]] pl:Abensberg]] [[de:Abensberg]] [[fr:Abensberg]] [[gl:Abensberg]] [[nl:Abensberg]] [[pl:Abensberg]] [[ru:Абенсберг]] [[sv:Abensberg]] 1306 42141869 2006-03-04T02:26:45Z David Schroder 937976 (1) Changes based on peer review - mostly minor; (2) combination of the two alternative views on election into one uniform view (see talk) {{Arminianism}} :''For the Armenian nationality, see [[Armenia]] or the [[Armenian language]].'' :''For the theological doctrines of [[Arius]], see [[Arianism]].'' '''Arminianism''' is a school of [[Soteriology|soteriological]] thought in [[Protestant]] [[Christian theology]] founded by the Dutch theologian [[Jacobus Arminius]]. Its acceptence stretches through much of mainstream [[Protestantism]], particularly [[Evangelicalism]]. Due to the influence of [[John Wesley]], it is perhaps most prominent in the [[Methodism|Methodist movement]]. Arminianism is historically viewed as the primary opponent of [[Calvinism]]. Its main tenets hold that: * All men are naturally unable to make any effort towards salvation * God's election is conditional on faith in Jesus * Jesus' atonement was potentially for all people * God's grace does not act in a deterministic fashion * Salvation can be lost, as continued salvation is conditional upon continued faith Within the broad scope of [[History of Christianity | church history]], Arminianism and Calvinism are closely related. Nonetheless, debates from respective followers are often so heated and public that direct references to both doctrines appear frequently in [[Culture of the United States | American culture]]. Arminianism is most accurately used to define those who affirm the original beliefs of Jacobus Arminius himself, but the term can also be understood as an umbrella for a larger grouping of ideas including those of [[Hugo Grotius]], [[John Wesley]], [[Clark Pinnock]], and others. There are two primary perspectives on how the system is applied in detail: Classical Arminianism, which sees Arminius as its figurehead, and Wesleyan Arminianism, which (as the name suggests) sees John Wesley as its figurehead. Wesleyan Arminianism is sometimes synonomous with Methodism. Additionally, Arminianism is understood by its critics to also include [[Pelagianism]], though supporters from both primary perspectives deny this vehemently. ==History== :''Main artcle: [[History of Calvinist-Arminian Debate]]'' Jacobus Arminius was a Dutch pastor and theologian in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. He was taught by Theodore Beza, Calvin's hand-picked successor, but he rejected his teacher's theology as making God the author of sin. Instead Arminius proposed that the election of God was ''of believers'', thereby making it [[Conditional election | conditional on faith]]. Arminius's views were challenged by the Dutch Calvinists, but Arminius died before a national synod could occur. Arminius followers, not wanting to adopt their leader's name, called themselves the [[Remonstrants]]. When Arminius died before he could satisfy Holland's State General's request for a 14-page paper outlining his views, the Remonstrants replied in his stead crafting the [[Five articles of Remonstrance]]. After some political manuevering, the Dutch Calvinists were able to convince [[Maurice de Nassau | Prince Maurice of Nassau]] deal with the situation. Maurice systematically removed Arminian magistrates from office and called a national synod at Dordrecht. This [[Synod of Dort]] was open primarily to Dutch Calvinists (Arminians were excluded) with token Calvinist representatives from other countries, and in 1618 published a condemnation of Arminius and his followers as heretics. Part of this publication was the famous [[Five points of Calvinism]] in response to the five articles of Remonstrance. Arminians across Holland were removed from office, imprisoned, banished, and sworn to silence. Twelve years later Holland officially granted Arminianism protection as a religion, although animosity between Arminians and Calvinists continued. The debate between Calvin's followers and Arminius' followers is distinctive of post-Reformation church history. The heated discussions between friends and fellow [[Methodist]] ministers [[John Wesley]] and [[George Whitfield]] were characteristic of many similar debates. Wesley was a champion of Arminius' teachings, defending his [[soteriology]] in a periodical titled ''The Arminian'' and writing articles such as ''Predestination Calmly Considered''. He defended Arminius against charges of [[semi-Pelagianism]], holding strongly to beliefs in original sin and total depravity. At the same time, Wesley attacked the [[determinism]] that he claimed characterized unconditional election and maintained a belief in the [[Conditional Preservation of the Saints | ability to lose salvation]]. Wesley also clarified the doctrine of [[prevenient grace]] and preached the ability of Christians to attain to [[Christian perfection | perfection]]. ==Current landscape== Advocates of both Arminianism and Calvinism find a home in many Protestant denominations. Denominations leaning in the Arminian direction include Anglicans, [[Methodism | Methodists]], General Baptists, Pentecostals, and Charismatics. Denominations leaning in the Calvinist direction include Particular Baptists, Reformed Baptists, Presbyterians, and Congregationalists. The majority of [[Southern Baptists]], including [[Billy Graham]], accept Arminianism with an exception allowing for [[Perseverance of the saints | perseverance of the saints]]{{Ref|1-BFM}}, {{Ref|2-Harmon}}, {{Ref|3-Walls}} although many see Calvinism as growing in acceptance.{{Ref|4-Walls}} The majority of [[Lutherans]] hold to a mediating view taught by [[Philip Melanchthon]]. The current scholarly support for Arminianism is wide and varied. One particular thrust is a return to the teachings of Arminius - a system termed ''Classical'' Arminianism by F. Leroy Forlines (author of ''The Quest for Truth: Answering Life's Inescapable Questions''). Stephen Ashby (professor at Ball State University and contributor to ''Four Views on Eternal Security'') and Robert Picirilli (pastor, former academic dean and professor at Free Will Baptist Bible College, and author of ''Grace, Faith, and Free Will'') are two of the more prominent supporters. Through [[Methodism]], Wesley's teachings also inspire a large scholarly following, with vocal proponents including [[J. Kenneth Grider]], [[Stanley Hauerwas]], and [[William Willimon]]. Recent influence of the [[New Perspective on Paul]] movement has also strongly influenced Arminianism - primarily through a view of corporate election. Proponents of this movement include [[James Dunn (theologian) | James Dunn]] and [[Tom Wright (theologian) | N.T. Wright]]. Other Arminian theologians holding similar perspectives but not directly aligned with the New perspectives movement include Robert Shank (author of 'Elect in the Son'), [[David Pawson]] (British teacher/theologian and author of ''Once Saved, Always Saved?''), Paul Marston and Roger Forster (co-authors of ''God's Strategy in Human History''), Jerry Walls and Joseph Dongell (professors at [[Asbury Theological Seminary]] and co-authors of ''Why I Am Not a Calvinist''). ==Theology== Arminian theology usually falls into one of two groups - Classical Arminianism, drawn from the teaching of Jacobus Arminius - and Wesleyan Arminian, drawing primarily from Wesley. Both groups overlap substantially. In addition, ===Classical Arminianism=== [[Image:Arminius.jpg|thumbnail|300px|right|Portrait of [[Jacobus Arminius]].]] Classical Arminianism (sometimes titled Reformed Arminianism or Reformation Arminianism) is the theological system that was presented by [[Jacobus Arminius]] and maintained by the [[Remonstrants]]{{ref|5-Ashby}}; its influence serves as the foundation for all Arminian systems. A list of beliefs is given below: *'''Depravity is [[Total depravity | total]]''': Arminius states "In this [fallen] state, the free will of man towards the true good is not only wounded, infirm, bent, and weakend; but it is also imprisoned, destroyed, and lost. And its powers are not only debilitated and useless unless they be assisted by grace, but it has no powers whatever except such as are excited by Divine grace."{{ref|6-Arminius}} *'''Atonement is intended [[Unlimited atonement | for all]]''': Jesus' death was for all people, Jesus draws all people to himself, and all people have opportunity for salvation through faith.{{ref|7-Arminius}} *'''Jesus' death [[Atonement (Satisfaction view) | satisfies]] God's justice''': The penalty for the sins of the elect are paid in full through Jesus' work on the cross. Thus Christ's atonement is intended for all, but requires faith to be effected. Arminius states "Justification, when used for the act of a Judge, is either purely the imputation of righteoussness through mercy...or that man is justified before God...according to the rigour of justice without any forgiveness."{{ref|8-Arminius}} Stephen Ashby clarifies "Arminius allowed for only two possible ways in which the sinner might be justified: (1) by our absolute and perfect adherence to the law, or (2) purely by God's imputation of Christ's righteousness."{{ref|9-Ashby}} *'''Grace is resistible''': God takes initiative in the salvation process and His grace comes to all people. This grace (often called ''[[Prevenient Grace | prevenient]]'' or pre-regenerating grace) acts on all people to convict them of the Gospel, draw them strongly towards salvation, and enable the possibility of sincere faith. Picrilli states "indeed this grace is so close to regeneration that it inevitably leads to regeneration unless finally resisted." {{ref|10-Picirilli}} The offer of salvation through grace does not act irresistably in a purely cause-effect, deterministic method but rather in an influence-and-response fashion that can be both freely accepted and freely denied.{{ref|11-Forlines}} *'''Man has free will to respond or resist''': Free will is limited by God's sovereignty, but God sovereignly allows all men the choice to accept the Gospel of Jesus through faith, simultaneously allowing all men to resist. *'''Election is [[Conditional election | conditional]]''': Arminius defined ''election'' as "the decree of God by which, of Himself, from eternity, He decreed to justify in Christ, believers, and to accept them unto eternal life."{{ref|12-Arminius}} God alone determines who will be saved and his determination is that all who believe Jesus through faith will be justified. According to Arminius, "God regards no one in Christ unless they are engrafted in him by faith."{{ref|13-Arminius}} *'''God predestines the elect to a glorious future''': Predestination is not the predetermination of who will believe, but rather the predetermination of the believer's future inheritance. The elect are therefore predestined to sonship through adoption, glorification, and eternal life.{{ref|14-Pawson}} *'''Eternal security is also [[Conditional Preservation of the Saints | conditional]]''': All believers have full assurance of salvation with the condition that they remain in Christ. Salvation is conditioned on faith, therefore perseverance is also conditioned.{{ref|15-Picirilli}} Apostasy (turning from Christ) is only commited through a deliberate, willful rejection of Jesus and renouncement of belief.{{ref|16-Picirilli}} The [[Five articles of Remonstrance]] that Arminius' followers formulated in 1610 state the above beliefs regarding (I) conditional election, (II) unlimited atonement, (III) total depravity, (IV) total depravity and resistable grace, and (V) possibility of apostasy. Note, however, that the five articles completely denied perseverance of the saints; Arminius, himself, said that "I never taught that a true believer can...fall away from the faith...yet I will not conceal, that there are passages of Scripture which seem to me to wear this aspect; and those answers to them which I have been permitted to see, are not of such as kind as to approve themselves on all points to my understanding."{{Ref|17-Arminius}} The core beliefs of Jacobus Arminius and the Remonstrants are summarized as such by theologian Stephen Ashby: :1. Prior to being ''drawn and enabled'', one is ''unable to believe...able only to resist.''<br> :2. Having been ''drawn and enabled'', but prior to regeneration, one is ''able to believe...able also to resist.''<br> :3. After one ''believes'', God then regenerates; one is ''able to continue believing...able also to resist.''<br> :4. Upon ''resisting'' to the point of ''unbelief'', one is ''unable again to believe...able only to resist.''{{Ref|18-Ashby}}<br> ===Wesleyan Arminianism=== :''See also: [[Methodism]]'' Apart from Arminius himself, John Wesley has historically been the strongest proponent of Arminianism. Wesley thoroughly agreed with the vast majority of what Arminius taught, maintaining strong doctrines of original sin, total depravity, conditional election, prevenient grace, unlimited atonement, and possibly apostasy. [[Image:John_Wesley.jpg|thumbnail|350px|right|Portrait of [[John Wesley]].]] Wesley departs from tradition and forges into new theological territory on three issues primarily. * '''Atonement''' - Wesley's atonement is a hybrid of the [[Atonement (Satisfaction view) | penal substitution theory]] and [[Hugo Grotius]]' (a lawyer and one of the Remonstrants) [[Atonement (Governmental view) | governmental theory]]. Steven Harper states "Wesley does not place the substitionary element primarily within a legal framework...rather it is the need to bring into proper relationship the 'justice' between God's love for persons and God's hatred of sin...it is not the satisfaction of a legal demand for justice so much as it is an act of mediated reconciliation." {{ref|19-Harper}} * '''Possibility of apostasy''' - Wesley fully acknowledges the possibility that Christians could apostasize and lose their salvation. Wesley's sermon ''A call to backsliders'' is one of his more influential sermons, and Harper summarizes as follows: "the act of committing sin is not in itself ground for the loss of salvation...the loss of salvation is much more related to experiences that are profound and prolonged. Wesley sees two primary pathways that could result in a permanent fall from grace: unconfessed sin and the actual expression of apostasy." {{Ref|20-Harper}} Wesley disagrees with Arminius, however, in maintaining that apostasy was not final; Wesley himself, when talking about those who have made "shipwrecks" of their faith (1 Tim 1:19), claims that "not one, or a hundred only, but I am persuaded, several thousands...Innumerable are the instances of this kind, of those who had fallen but now stand upright."{{Ref|21-Wesley}} * '''[[Christian perfection]]''' - Christian perfection, according to Wesley, is “purity of intention, dedicating all the life to God” and “the mind which was in Christ, enabling us to walk as Christ walked.” It is “loving God with all our heart, and our neighbor as ourselves”. {{ref|22-Wesley}} It is 'a restoration not only to the favour, but likewise to the image of God,” our “being filled with the fullness of God".{{ref|23-Wesley}} Wesley was clear that Christian perfection did not imply perfection of bodily health or an infallibility of judgment. It also does not mean we no longer violate the will of God, for involuntary transgressions remain. Perfected Christians remain subject to temptation, and have continued need to pray for forgiveness and holiness. It is not an absolute perfection but a perfection in love. Furthermore, Wesley did not teach a salvation by perfection, but rather says that, "Even perfect holiness is acceptable to God only through Jesus Christ."{{Ref|24-Wesley}} ===Other variations=== Since the time of Arminius, his name has come to represent a very large variety of beliefs. Some of these beliefs, such as Pelagianism (see [[Arminianism#Pelagianism | below]]) are not considered to be within Arminianism orthodoxy and are dealt with elsewhere. Some doctrines, however, do adhere to the Arminian foundation and, while minority views, are highlighted below. ====Open theism==== :''Main article: [[Open theism]]'' The doctrine of open theism states that God is not all-powerful, all-knowing, all-present, but is rather ''most''-powerful, ''most''-knowing, ''most''-present. As such, open theists resolve the issue of human free will and God's sovereignty by claiming that God is not logically capable of predetermining human choices - salvation or otherwise. [[Clark Pinnock]] is one of the most well-known propenents. Some Arminians, such as professor and theologian Robert Picirilli, reject the doctrine of open theism as a "deformed Arminianism".{{Ref|25-Picirilli}} Joseph Dongell stated that "open theism actually moves beyond classical Arminianism towards process theology."{{Ref|26-Dongell}} The majority Arminian view accepts [[Classical Theism | classical theism]] - the belief that God's power, knowledge, and presence have no limits outside of His divine character. Most Arminians reconcile human free will with God's sovereignty and foreknowledge by holding three points: * Human free will is limited by original sin, though God's [[prevenient grace]] restores to humanity the ability to accept God's call of salvation.{{ref|27-Picirilli}} * God purposely exercises his sovereignty in ways that do not illustrate its extent - in other words, He has the power and authority to predetermine salvation but he chooses to apply it through different means.{{ref|28-Ashby}} * God's foreknowledge of the future is exhaustive and complete, and therefore the future is certain and not contingent on human action. God does not determine the future, but He does know it. God's certainty and human contingency are compatible.{{ref|29-Picirilli}} ====Corporate view of election==== :''See also: [[Conditional election]]'' The majority Arminian view is that election is individual and based on God's foreknowledge of faith, but a second perspective deserves merit. These Arminians reject the concept of individual election entirely, prefering to understand the doctrine in corporate terms. According to this corporate election, God never chose individuals to elect to salvation, but rather He chose to elect the believing Church to salvation. Dutch Reformed theologian Herman Ridderbos says "[The certainty of salvation] does not rest on the fact that the church belongs to a certain "number", but that it belongs to Christ, from before the foundation of the world. Fixity does not lie in a hidden decree, therefore, but in corporate unity of the Church with Christ, whom it has come to know in the gospel and has learned to embrace in faith."{{ref|30-Ridderbos}} Corporate election draws support from a similar concept of corporate election found in the Old Testament and Jewish law. Indeed most Biblical scholarship is in agreement that Judeo-Greco-Roman thought in the 1st century was opposite of the Western world's "individual first" mantra - it was very collectivist in nature.{{ref|31-Abasciano}} Identity stemmed from membership in a group more than individuality.{{ref|32-Abasciano}} According to Romans 9-11, supporters claim, Jewish election as the chosen people ceased with their national rejection of Jesus as Messiah. As a result of the new covenant, God's chosen people are now the corporate body of Christ, the church (sometimes called ''spiritual Israel'' - see also [[Covenant theology]]). Pastor and theologian Dr. Brian Abasciano claims "What Paul says about Jews, Gentiles, and Christians, whether of their place in God’s plan, or their election, or their salvation, or how they should think or behave, he says from a corporate perspective which views the group as primary and those he speaks about as embedded in the group. These individuals act as members of the group to which they belong, and what happens to them happens by virtue of their membership in the group."{{ref|33-Abasciano}} These scholars also maintain that Jesus was the only human ever elected and that individuals must be "in Christ" (Eph 1:3-4) through faith to be part of the elect. Joseph Dongell, professor at Asbury Theological Seminary, states "the most conscipuous feature of Ephesians 1:3-2:10 is the phrase 'in Christ', which occurs twelve times in Ephesians 1:3-4 alone...this means that Jesus Christ himself is the chosen one, the predestined one. Whenever one is incorporated into him by grace through faith, one comes to share in Jesus' special status as chosen of God."{{ref|34-Dongell}} Markus Barth illustrates the inter-connectedness: "Election in Christ must be understood as the election of God's people. Only as members of that community do individuals share in the benefits of God's gracious choice."{{ref|35-Barth}} ==Comparison to other views== Understanding Arminianism is aided by understanding the theological alternatives - Pelagianism and Calvinism. Arminianism, like any major belief system, is frequently misunderstood both by critics and would-be supporters. Listed below are a few common misconceptions. ===Common misconceptions=== * '''Arminianism supports works-based salvation''' - No well-known system of Arminianism denies salvation "by faith alone" and "by faith first to last". This misconception is often directed at the Arminian possibility of apostasy, which critics maintain requires continual good works to achieve final salvation. To Arminians, however, both intial salvation ''and'' eternal security are "by faith alone"; hence "by faith first ''to last''". Belief through faith is the condition for entrance into the Kingdom of God; unbelief is the condition for exit from the Kingdom of God - not a lack of good works.{{ref|36-Pawson}} {{ref|37-Picirilli}} {{ref|38-Ashby}} * '''Arminianism denies original sin and total depravity''' - No system of Arminianism founded on Arminius or Wesley denies original sin or total depravity;{{ref|39-Ashby}} both Arminius and Wesley ''strongly'' affirmed that man's basic condition is one in which he cannot be righteous, understand God, or seek God.{{ref|40-Arminius}} See the comparison to Calvinism below for where the two systems diverge. * '''Arminianism denies Jesus' substitutionary payment for sins''' - Both Arminius and Wesley believed in the necessity and sufficiency of Christ's atonement through substitution.{{ref|41-Picirilli}} Arminius held that God's justice was satisfied [[Atonement (Satisfaction view) | individually]]{{ref|42-Ashby}} while Hugo Grotius and many of Wesley's followers taught that it was satisfied [[Atonement (Governmental view) | corporately]].{{ref|43-Picirilli}} ===Comparison to Pelagianism=== :''Main article: [[Pelagianism]]. See also: [[Semi-Pelagianism]], and [[History of Calvinist-Arminian Debate]]'' [[Pelagius]] was a British monk and opponent of [[Augustine of Hippo]] and [[St. Jerome | Jerome]] in the early 5th Century AD. When he arrived in Christian Rome from Britain, Pelagius was appalled at the lack of holiness he found. Pelagius preached justification through faith alone, but also believed salvation was finished through good works and moral uprightness. Furthermore, Pelagius completely denied the [[Predestination | double predestination]] and [[irresistible grace]] affirmed by Augustine. Several of his students - notably [[Caelestius]] - went further than their teacher and rejected justification by faith. Through the influence of Augustine and Jerome, the teachings of Pelagius and Caelestius were rejected by the Papacy as heretical. Historically [[Pelagianism]] has come to to represent any system that denies original sin, holds that by nature humans are capable of good, and maintains morality and works are part of the equation that yields salvation. [[Semi-Pelagianism]] is a variation on the original more akin to Pelagius' own thought - that justification is through faith, but that Adam's original sin was merely a bad example, humans can naturally seek God, and salvation is completed through works. Both systems reject a Calvinist understanding of predestination. Many critics of Arminianism, both historically and currently, claim that Arminianism condones, accepts, or even explicitly supports Pelagianism of either variety. Arminius refered to Pelagianism as "the grand falsehood" and stated that he "must confess that I detest, from my heart, the consequences [of that theology]."{{ref|44-Arminius}} David Pawson, a British pastor/theologian, decries this association as "libelous" when attributed to Arminius' or Wesley's doctrine.{{ref|45-Pawson}} Indeed most Arminians reject all accusations of Pelagianism; nonetheless, partially due to Calvinist opponents,{{ref|46-Pawson}} {{ref|47-Picirilli}} the two terms remain intertwined in popular usage. Listed below are similarities and contrasts between Arminianism and Pelagianism. :'''Similarities:''' Both systems reject doctrines of Calvinistic predestination and irresistible grace. Both systems accept the Biblical importance of works, morality, and striving to become more holy. :'''Differences:''' Arminianism maintains original sin, total depravity, substitutionary atonement, and salvation through faith alone. Arminianism maintains that works and holiness, while important, have no determining effect on salvation at any point in the process. ===Comparison to Calvinism=== {{Methodism}} :''Main article: [[Calvinism]]'' Ever since Arminius and his followers revolted against Calvinism in the early 17th century, soteriology has been largely divided between Calvinism and Arminianism. On the conservative side of Calvinism is [[Hyper-Calvinism]] and on the liberal side of Arminianism is [[Pelagianism]], but the overwhelming majority of [[Protestantism | Protestant]], [[Evangelicalism | evangelical]] pastors and theologians hold to one of these two systems or somewhere in between. ====Similarities==== *'''[[Total depravity]]''' - Arminians affirm with Calvinists the doctrine of total depravity. The differences come in the understanding of how God remedies this depravity. *'''[[Substitutionary_atonement | Substitutionary effect of atonement]]''' - Arminians also affirm with Calvinists the substitutionary effect of Christ's atonement and that this effect is limited only to the elect. Classical Arminians would agree with Calvinists that this substitution was an individual [[Atonement (Satisfaction view) | penal satisfaction]] for all of the elect, while most Wesleyan Arminians would maintain that the substitution was corporate and [[Atonement (Governmental view) | governmental]] in nature. ====Differences==== * '''Extent of Atonement''' - Arminians hold to a universal drawing and [[Unlimited atonement | universal extent of atonement]] instead of the specific drawing and [[limited atonement | limited extent]] held by Calvinism. Ashby states: ::"God could have sovereignly chosen to remedy humanity's situation differently than by the particularistic, cause-and-effect means proposed by Calvinism. In other words, when God saw his fallen human race in as bad a condition as it could possibly be in -'' 'dead in sins' ''and'' 'unable to do the least spiritual good' ''- logically, nothing would have precluded him from sovereignly choosing to reach out to all people with enabling grace (often referred to as prevenient grace). In fact, the Apostle Paul says that 'the grace of God that brings salvation has appeared to all men' (Titus 2:11)"{{ref|48-Ashby}} * '''Nature of Grace''' - Arminians believe that through God's [[prevenient grace]], he restores free will concerning salvation to all humanity. Individuals, therefore, are able either to accept the Gospel call through faith or resist it through unbelief. Calvinists hold that an individual's response to the Gospel call is determined by God, not man; thus God's grace is [[Irresistible grace | irresistible]]. Ashby continues: ::"The Calvinist recoils and says, 'if all are enabled and all are drawn, then universalism must surely result - all would be saved.' To which I would say, 'Yes, ''if'' God's grace were irresistable grace.' Once again, however, God can sovereignly choose that his salvation is not going to proceed along the lines of a deterministic, cause-and-effect relationship. Rather, he is going to allow the sinner to resist the offer of grace, which grace he has sovereignly enabled the sinner to accept." {{ref|49-Ashby}} * '''Conditionality of Election''' - Arminians hold that election to eternal salvation comes through (within) Jesus and therefore has the [[Conditional election| condition of faith]] attached. The Calvinist doctrine of [[unconditional election]] states that salvation cannot be earned and therefore has no human conditions - faith is not a condition, but rather a means. Jerry Dongell uses an illustration of a terrorist prison camp, with the sinner securely tied, blindfolded, gagged, and drugged and contrasts the two versions of Divine rescue offered: ::"The Calvinist view of the divine invasion is simple. God invades the camp, carries the prisoner out, strips the prisoner of her shackles and blinders, and injects "faith" into the prisoner's veins. The former prisoner, having already been rescued from prison and positioned outside the walls, now trusts the Deliverer because of the potency of the administered faith serum. God has been the lone actor throughout, in the sense that the human response of faith is directly and irresistibly caused by God... ::"The classical Arminian believes that God steals into the prison and makes it to the bedside of the victim. God injects a serum that begins to clear the prisoner's mind of delusions and quell her hostile reactions. God removes the gag from the prisoner's mouth and shines a flashlight around the pitch-black room. The prisoner remains mute as the Rescuer's voice whispers "Do you know where you are? Let me tell you! Do you know who you are? Let me show you!" And the wooing begins, divine truth begins to dawn on the prisoner's heart and mind; the Savior holds up a small mirror to show the prisoner her sunken eyes and frail body. "Do you see what they've done to you, and do you see how you've given yourself to them?" Even in the dim light, the prisoner's weakened eyes are beginning to focus. The rescuer continues "Do you know who I am, and that I want you for myself?" Perhaps the prisoner makes no obvious advance but does not turn away. The questions keep coming: "Can I show you pictues of who you once were and the wondrous plans I have for you in the years to come?" The prisoner's heartbeat quickens as the Savior presses on: "I know that part of you suspects that I have come to harm you. But let me show you something - my hands, they're a bit bloody. I crawled through the awful tangle of barbed wire to get you." Now here in this newly created sacred space, in this moment of new possibility, the Savior whispers "I want to carry you out of here right now! Give me your heart! Trust me!"{{ref|50-Dongell}} * '''Perseverance''' - Arminians believe that future salvation and eternal life is secured in Christ and protected from all external forces, but is [[Conditional Preservation of the Saints | conditional on remaining in Christ]] and can be lost through apostasy. This conditional perseverance is in contrast to the doctrine of [[Perseverance of the Saints]] and concept of "once saved, always saved". Pawson comments: ::"The Arminian position is accurately portrayed by someone throwing a lifeline to a drowning man and saying 'grab hold of this and keep holding on tightly until I pull you to safety.' I would maintain that no one rescued in this way would dream that he had saved himself or even made a 'contribution' which merited his rescue. He would be filled with gratitude towards his rescuer."{{ref|51-Pawson}} ==See also== {| | valign="top" | '''Doctrine''' * [[Total depravity]] * [[Prevenient grace]] * [[Unlimited atonement]] * [[Substitutionary atonement]] ** [[Atonement (Satisfaction view) | Penal satisfaction atonement]] ** [[Atonement (Governmental view) | Governmental atonement]] * [[Free will]] * [[Conditional election]] * [[Conditional preservation of the Saints]] | valign="top" | '''People, History, Denominations''' * [[Jacobus Arminius]] * [[Hugo Grotius]] * [[Remonstrants | The Remonstrants]] * [[Methodism]] ** [[John Wesley]] ** [[Charles Wesley]] * [[Anglicanism]] * [[Pentecostalism]] & [[Charismatics]] * [[Baptist | General & Free Will Baptists]] * [[History of Calvinist-Arminian Debate]] | valign="top" | '''Opposing Views''' * [[Calvinism]] ** [[Five points of Calvinism]] ** [[John Calvin]] ** [[Unconditional election]] ** [[Limited atonement]] ** [[Irresistible grace]] ** [[Perseverance of the Saints]] * [[Pelagianism]] ** [[Pelagius]] ** [[Semi-Pelagianism]] |} ==Further reading== ''Pro'' *Ashby, Stephen M (contributor) and Harper, Steven (contributor) ''Four Views on Eternal Security'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002) ISBN 0310234395 - Stephen Ashby and Steven Harper present and defend their cases for Reformed Arminianism (classical) and Wesleyan Arminianism respectively against Michael Horton (Classical Calvinism), Norman Geisler (Moderate Calvinism) and each other. *Forlines, Leroy F., Pinson, Matthew J. and Ashby, Stephen M. ''The Quest for Truth: Answering Life's Inescapable Questions'' (Nashville: Randall House Publications, 2001) ISBN 0892658649 - Forlines and his co-authors present a comprehensive systematic theology of salvation from an Arminian perspective. *Forster, Roger and Marston, Paul ''God's Strategy in Human History'' 2nd ed. (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2000) ISBN 1579102735 - The authors take a deep look at the grammatical and historical contexts of New Testament passages dealing with predestination and election, along with historical sources from the first 300 years A.D., and come to Arminian conclusions. *Pawson, David ''Once Saved, Always Saved? A Study in Perseverance and Inheritance'' (London: Hodder & Staughton, 1996) ISBN 0340610662 - British pastor and theologian takes a deeper look at the Scriptural, historical, and theological arguments against the doctrine of "once saved, always saved". *Picirilli, Robert ''Grace, Faith, Free Will: Contrasting Views of Salvation: Calvinism and Arminianism'' (Nashville: Randall House Publications, 2002) ISBN 0892656484 - Picirilli takes a closer look at the life and views of Jacobus Arminius and presents his historical and theological argument for Reformation Arminianism (classical). *Shank, Dr. Robert ''Elect in the Son'' (Bethany House Publishers, 1989) ISBN 1556610920 - The classic defense of Arminianism. First published in the mid-20th century, it remains one of the primary defenses of Arminian thought. *Walls, Jerry L. and Dongell, Joseph R. ''Why I Am Not a Calvinist'' (Downer's Grove: Intervarsity Press, 2004) ISBN 0830832491 - Walls and Dongell present their Scriptural and philosophical arguments against Calvinism, focusing primarily on the nature of human freedom, divine sovereignty, self-consistency, and the Christian life. ''Con'' *Grudem, Wayne ''Systematic Theology'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995) ISBN 0310286700 - A well-reasoned and Scriptural systematic theology that presents a Calvinist view. *Peterson, Robert A. and Williams, Michael D. ''Why I Am Not an Arminian'' (Downer's Grove: Intervarsity Press, 2004) ISBN 0830832483 - The counterpoint to ''Why I Am Not a Calvinist'' presents a Scriptural and philosophical case against Arminianism. *White, James R. ''The Potter's Freedom'' (Calvary Press, 2000) ISBN 1879737434 - A Calvinist response to Norman Geisler's ''Chosen but Free'' (in which Geisler presents a "moderate Calvinism" that only holds to perseverance of the Saints), it is widely considered by both supporters and opponents to be a strong, consistent portrayal of Calvinism. ==Notes== <div style="font-size:smaller;"> '''History''' <br>''see [[History of Calvinist-Arminian Debate]] for additional notes'' <br> (1) {{note|1-BFM}} "The Baptist Faith and Message, 2000 Revision" (http://www.sbc.net/bfm/bfm2000.asp#iv) <br> (2) {{note|2-Harmon}} Harmon, Richard W. ''Baptists and Other Denominations'' (Nashville: Convention Press, 1984) 17-18, 45-46 <br> (3) {{note|3-Walls}} Walls, Jerry and Dongell, Joseph ''Why I Am Not a Calvinist'' (Downer's Grove: Intervarsity Press, 2004) 12-13, 16-17 <br> (4) {{note|4-Walls}} Ibid., 7-20 <br>'''Classical Arminianism''' <br> (5) {{note|5-Ashby}} Ashby, Stephen "Reformed Arminianism" ''Four Views on Eternal Security'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002), 137 <br> (6) {{note|6-Arminius}} Arminius, James ''The Writings of James Arminius'' (three vols.), tr. James Nichols and W.R. Bagnall (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1956), I:252 <br> (7) {{note|7-Arminius}} Ibid., I:316 <br> (8) {{note|8-Arminius}} Ibid., III:454 <br> (9) {{note|9-Ashby}} Ashby ''Four Views'', 140 <br> (10) {{note|10-Picirilli}} Picirilli, Robert ''Grace, Faith, Free Will: Contrasting Views of Salvation: Calvinism and Arminianism'' (Nashville: Randall House Publications, 2002), 154ff <br> (11) {{note|11-Forlines}} Forlines, Leroy F., Pinson, Matthew J. and Ashby, Stephen M. ''The Quest for Truth: Answering Life's Inescapable Questions'' (Nashville: Randall House Publications, 2001), 313-321 <br> (12) {{note|12-Arminius}} Arminius ''Writings'', III:311 <br> (13) {{note|13-Arminius}} Ibid. <br> (14) {{note|14-Pawson}} Pawson, David ''Once Saved, Always Saved? A Study in Perseverance and Inheritance'' (London: Hodder & Staughton, 1996), 109ff <br> (15) {{note|15-Picirilli}} Picirilli ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'' 203 <br> (16) {{note|16-Picirilli}} Ibid., 204ff <br> (17) {{note|17-Arminius}} Arminius ''Writings'', I:254 <br> (18) {{note|18-Ashby}} Ashby ''Four Views'', 159 <br>'''Wesleyan Arminianism''' <br> (19) {{note|19-Harper}} Harper, Steven "Wesleyan Arminianism" ''Four Views on Eternal Security'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002) 227ff <br> (20) {{note|20-Harper}} Ibid., 239-240 <br> (21) {{note|21-Wesley}} Wesley, John "A Call to Backsliders" ''The Works of John Wesley'', ed. Thomas Jackson, 14 vols. (London: Wesley Methodist Book Room, 1872; repr, Grand Rapids: Baker, 1986) 3:211ff <br> (22) {{note|22-Wesley}} Wesley, John "A Plain Account of Christian Perfection", ''Works'' <br> (23) {{note|23-Wesley}} Wesley, John "The End of Christ’s Coming", ''Works'' <br> (24) {{note|24-Wesley}} Wesley, John "A Plain Account of Christian Perfection", ''Works'' <br>'''Other Variations''' <br> (25) {{note|25-Picirilli}} Picirilli, ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'', 40 - Picirilli actually objects so strongly to the link between Arminianism and Open theism that he devotes an entire section to his objections. See 59ff <br> (26) {{note|26-Dongell}} Dongell, Joseph and Walls, Jerry ''Why I Am Not a Calvinist'', 45 <br> (27) {{note|27-Picirilli}} Picirilli, ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'', 42-43, 59ff <br> (28) {{note|28-Ashby}} Ashby, ''Four Views on Eternal Security'', 146-147 <br> (29) {{note|29-Picirilli}} Picirilli, ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'', 40 <br> (30) {{note|30-Ridderbos}} Ridderbos, Herman ''Paul: An Outline of His Theology'' trans. John Richard de Witt (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975), 350-351 <br> (31) {{note|31-Abasciano}} Abasciano, Brian ''Paul’s Use of the Old Testament in Romans 9:1-9: An Intertextual and Theological Exegesis'' (T&T Clark Publishers, 2006), ISBN 0567030733 <br> (32) {{note|32-Abasciano}} Ibid. <br> (33) {{note|33-Abasciano}} Ibid. <br> (34) {{note|34-Dongell}} Dongell, Joseph and Walls, Jerry ''Why I am Not a Calvinist'', 76 <br> (35) {{note|35-Barth}} Barth, Markus ''Ephesians'' (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1974), 108 <br>'''Comparison to Opposing Views''' <br> (36) {{note|36-Pawson}} Pawson ''Once Saved, Always Saved?'' 121-124 <br> (37) {{note|37-Picirilli}} Picirilli ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'' 160ff <br> (38) {{note|38-Ashby}} Ashby ''Four Views on Eternal Security'' 142ff <br> (39) {{note|39-Ashby}} Ibid., 138-139 <br> (40) {{note|40-Arminius}} Arminius, ''Writings'' 2:192 <br> (41) {{note|41-Picirilli}} Picirilli ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'' 104-105, 132ff <br> (42) {{note|42-Ashby}} Ashby ''Four Views on Eternal Security'' 140ff <br> (43) {{note|43-Picirilli}} Picirilli ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'' 132 <br> (44) {{note|44-Arminius}} Arminius ''Writings'', II:219ff (the entire treatise occupies pages 196-452) <br> (45) {{note|45-Pawson}} Pawson ''Once Saved, Always Saved?'', 106 <br> (46) {{note|46-Pawson}} Ibid., 97-98, 106 <br> (47) {{note|47-Picirilli}} Picirilli ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'', 6ff <br> (48) {{note|48-Ashby}} Ashby ''Four Views on Eternal Security'' 146-147 <br> (49) {{note|49-Ashby}} Ibid. <br> (50) {{note|50-Dongell}} Dongell, Joseph and Walls, Jerry ''Why I Am Not a Calvinist'' <br> (51) {{note|51-Pawson}} Pawson ''Once Saved, Always Saved?'' 106 </div> ==External links== * [http://wesley.nnu.edu/arminianism/Arminius/index.htm The Works of Arminius] * [http://gbgm-umc.org/Umhistory/Wesley/arminian.stm What is an Arminian?] by John Wesley * [http://gbgm-umc.org/Umhistory/Wesley/sermons/serm-058.stm Sermon #58: "On Predestination"] by John Wesley * [http://wesley.nnu.edu/wesleyan_theology/theojrnl/16-20/17-12.htm The Nature of Wesleyan Theology] by J. Kenneth Grider * [http://www.biblical-theology.com/security/eternal.htm Eternal Security] by Gordon Olson * [http://www.biblical-theology.com/security/ues.htm Eternal Security] by Daniel Corner * [http://www.biblicaladvancedbasics.com/Security.pdf Eternal Security] by Frederick E. Lewis * [http://www.affcrit.com/pdfs/2003/01/03_01_wr.pdf The Perseverance of the Saints] - PDF article showing the differences and similarities between Arminian and Calvinist viewpoints on the perseverance of the saints while arguing for assurance of salvation * [http://wesley.nnu.edu/wesleyan_theology/theojrnl/21-25/22-06.htm Characteristics of Wesley's Arminianism] by Luke L. Keefer, Jr. * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01740c.htm Arminianism] from the Catholic Encyclopedia * [http://www.monergism.com/thethreshold/articles/topic/arminianism.html A Comparison of Arminian Theology with the Calvinist Tradition] (from a conservative Calvinist perspective) * [http://www.gotquestions.org/arminianism.html Is Arminianism Biblical?] (from a Calvinist perspective) * [http://www.the-highway.com/Arminianism_Exposed2.html Armininaism Exposed] by Mark Herzer (from a Calvinist perspective) [[Category:Christian theology]] [[Category:Methodism]] [[Category:Protestantism]] [[Category:Reformation]] [[Category:Theology]] [[Category:Arminianism]] [[de:Remonstranten]] [[es:Arminianismo]] [[fr:Arminianisme]] [[ia:Arminianismo]] [[nl:Remonstranten]] [[ja:&#12450;&#12523;&#12511;&#12491;&#12454;&#12473;&#20027;&#32681;]] [[pl:Arminianizm]] [[sv:Arminianism]] 1307 40663533 2006-02-22T03:42:54Z That Guy, From That Show! 419920 [[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] formatting and related '''The Alan Parsons Project''' was a British [[progressive rock]] and pop group active between 1975 and 1987 founded by [[Alan Parsons]] and [[Eric Woolfson]]. Most of their titles, especially the early work, share common traits (likely influenced by [[Pink Floyd]]'s ''[[Dark Side of the Moon]]'', on which Parsons was the [[audio engineer]] in [[1973 in music|1973]]): they were [[concept album]]s, they tended to begin with an instrumental introduction which faded into the first song, often had an instrumental piece in the middle of the second [[gramophone record|LP]] side, and concluded with a quiet, sad, or powerful song. (The opening instrumental was largely done away with by 1980; no later Project album except "Eye In The Sky" featured one.) The group was also unusual for its lack of a single lead vocalist. Lead vocal duties alternate between Woolfson (mostly for slow or sad songs) and a stream of guest vocalists chosen by their vocal style to complement each song. Woolfson sang lead on many of the group's hits (including "Time" and "Eye In The Sky") and the record company pressured Parsons to use him more, but Parsons preferred "real" singers, which Woolfson admitted he was not. In addition to Woolfson, Chris Rainbow, Lenny Zakatek, and Colin Blunstone made regular appearances. Other singers, such as Ambrosia's David Pack, Vitamin Z's Geoff Barradale, and Procol Harum's Gary Brooker, have recorded only once or twice with the Project. Parsons himself only sang lead on one song ("The Raven") and can be heard singing backup on another ("To One in Paradise"). Both of those songs appeared on the group's first record, ''[[Tales of Mystery and Imagination]]'', an album containing music based on the stories and poetry of [[Edgar Allan Poe]]. Although the vocalists varied, a small number of musicians worked with the Alan Parsons Project regularly. They, and Parsons' production, are the reason listeners can instantly recognize a song as a Project work even with an unfamiliar singer. Andrew Powell (composer and arranger of orchestral music throughout the life of the Project), Ian Bairnson (guitar) and Richard Cottle (synthesizer and saxophone) were integral parts of the Project's sound. Powell is also notable for having composed a [[film score]] in the Project style for [[Richard Donner]]'s film ''[[Ladyhawke]]''. Behind the revolving lineup and the regular sidemen, the true core of the Project was the duo of Parsons and Woolfson. Eric Woolfson was a lawyer by profession, but is a classically-trained composer and pianist as well. Alan Parsons was a successful producer and accomplished engineer. Both worked together to craft noteworthy songs with impeccable fidelity, and almost all songs on Project albums are credited to "Woolfson/Parsons." == Members == * [[Alan Parsons]], keyboards, production, engineering; * [[Eric Woolfson]], keyboards, executive production * [[Andrew Powell]], keyboards, orchestral arrangements; * [[Ian Bairnson]], guitars *Bass: [[David Paton]] (1975-1985); Laurie Cottle (1985-1987) *Drums, Percussion: [[Stuart Tosh]] (1975-1977); Stuart Elliott (1977-1987) *Saxophones, Keyboards: [[Mel Collins]] (1980-1984); Richard Cottle (1984-1987) *Vocals: [[Eric Woolfson]], Lenny Zakatek, [[John Miles (musician)|John Miles]], [[Chris Rainbow]], [[Colin Blunstone]], [[David Paton]], and many others including [[Arthur Brown (musician)|Arthur Brown]]. ==Trivia== *In the [[Austin Powers]] movie ''[[Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me|The Spy who Shagged Me]]'', [[Dr. Evil]]'s laser was called "The Alan Parsons Project," after the "noted Cambridge physicist Dr. Parsons" *The project for developing a new site for the [[National Library for the Blind]] is officially called "The Alan Parsons Project" *"Sirius", the instrumental piece that opens ''Eye In The Sky,'' is popular in the [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] as background music during player introductions. It is perhaps best remembered as playing this role for all six [[Chicago Bulls]] championship teams of the 1990s. *"Sirius" and ''Eye In The Sky'''s other instrumental, "Mammagamma", were used as music-under for a [[1987]] [[The Weather Channel|Weather Channel]] special on thunderstorms (this was far before the network engaged in regular non-live programming), alongside the music of [[Jean-Michel Jarre]]. * In [[The Simpsons]] episode 3F21 [[Homerpalooza]], Homer thought that The Alan Parsons Project was "some sort of hovercraft". * [[Grandaddy]]'s promo-only single "[[Alan Parsons In A Winter Wonderland|Alan Parsons in a Winter Wonderland]]" is a humourous cover of the Christmas song [[Winter Wonderland]], with lyrics altered to make the song about Alan Parsons. == Discography == * [[1975 in music|1975]] ''[[Tales of Mystery and Imagination]]'' - based on stories by the writer [[Edgar Allan Poe]]. The later reissue on CD (in 1987) was remixed from the original master tapes, enhancing some of the tracks and restoring the [[Orson Welles]] narration (recorded a few weeks before his death) that was left off the original due to record company 'concerns'. * [[1977 in music|1977]] ''[[I Robot (album)|I Robot]]'' - The title quotes [[Isaac Asimov]]'s [[I, Robot|work]], "a view of tomorrow through the eyes of today". Includes minor hits "I Wouldn't Want to Be Like You" and "Breakdown." * [[1978 in music|1978]] ''[[Pyramid (album)|Pyramid]]'' - [[Ancient Egypt]] surfaces repeatedly, the album is called "a view of yesterday through the eyes of today". * [[1979 in music|1979]] ''[[Eve (album)|Eve]]'' - about [[woman|women]]; this is the only Project album to feature female lead vocalists - and even then only on two tracks. * [[1980 in music|1980]] ''[[The Turn of a Friendly Card]]'' - about [[gambling]], literally and figuratively. Includes their hits "Time" and "Games People Play." * [[1982 in music|1982]] ''[[Eye in the Sky]]'' - presumably about surveillance, [[Life]] and the [[Universe]], but some insist it is about "forgotten and lost values". Album contains their most famous single, "Eye in the Sky." * [[1984 in music|1984]] ''[[Ammonia Avenue]]'' - although this album has no discernable theme, it is their most "radio-friendly" album. Includes "Don't Answer Me" and "You Don't Believe" (the latter first appeared on a 1983 "best of" collection). * [[1984 in music|1984]] ''[[Vulture Culture]]'' - a critique of consumerism and, in particular, American popular culture. Includes "Let's Talk About Me." * [[1985 in music|1985]] ''[[Stereotomy]]'' - The effect of fame and fortune on various people - singers, actors, etc. * [[1987 in music|1987]] ''[[Gaudi (album)|Gaudi]]'' - songs inspired by the life of Catalan architect [[Antoni Gaudí]], with a song named after his most famous work, [[Sagrada familia|La Sagrada Familia]]. After those albums, Parsons released other titles under his name (''[[Try Anything Once]]'', ''[[On Air]]'', ''[[The Time Machine (album)|The Time Machine]]'', and ''[[A Valid Path]]''), while Woolfson made [[concept albums]] named ''Freudiana'' (about [[Sigmund Freud]]'s work on [[psychology]]) and ''[[Poe - More Tales of Mystery and Imagination]]'' (continuing from the Alan Parsons Project's first album about [[Edgar Allan Poe]]'s literature). Although the studio version of ''Freudiana'' was produced by Alan Parsons (and featured the regular Project backing musicians, making it an 'unofficial' Project album), it was primarily Eric Woolfson's idea to turn it into a musical. This eventually led to a rift between the two artists. While Alan Parsons pursued his own solo career and took many members of the Project on the road for the first time in a successful worldwide tour, Eric Woolfson went on to produce musical plays influenced by the Project's music. ''Freudiana'', ''Gaudi'' and ''Gambler'' were three musicals that included some Project songs like "Eye in the Sky", "Time", "Inside Looking Out," and "Limelight." The live music from ''Gambler'' was only distributed at the performance site (in [[Cologne]], Germany). A collection called ''The Instrumental Works'' (1990; now out of print) includes many of the Project's instrumental tracks. [[Category:English musical groups|Alan Parsons Project, The]] [[Category:Progressive rock groups|Alan Parsons Project, The]] [[de:The Alan Parsons Project]] [[es:Alan Parsons Project]] [[nl:The Alan Parsons Project]] [[no:Alan Parsons Project]] [[pl:Alan Parsons Project]] [[pt:The Alan Parsons Project]] [[ru:The Alan Parsons Project]] [[sv:Alan Parsons Project]] 1308 41423702 2006-02-27T05:37:05Z Folkor 244426 '''Alan Parsons''' (born [[December 20]], [[1949]]) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] musician. He began his musical career as a staff engineer at EMI Studios, and first garnered significant industry exposure via his work on the [[Beatles]]' 1969 masterpiece ''[[Abbey Road (album)|Abbey Road]]''. Parsons subsequently worked with [[Paul McCartney]] on several of [[Wings (band)|Wings]]' earliest albums; he also oversaw recordings from [[Al Stewart]], [[Cockney Rebel]], [[Pilot]], [[Ambrosia (band)|Ambrosia]], and the [[Hollies]], but solidified his reputation by working on [[Pink Floyd]]'s ''[[Dark Side of the Moon]]''. Alan Parsons was known for going beyond what one would consider the normal scope of a recording engineer. He considered himself to be a recording [[Film director|director]] and was known to compare what he did with albums to what [[Stanley Kubrick]] did on film. This is obvious in his work with Al Stewart's "[[Year of the Cat]]", where Parsons added the [[saxophone]] part and transformed the original folk concept into the [[jazz]] influenced [[ballad]] that put Al Stewart onto the charts. It is also seen in Parson's influence on the Hollies "[[He Ain't Heavy, He's My Brother]]" and "[[The Air That I Breathe]]", sharp departures from their 60s pop "Stay", "Just One Look", "Stop, Stop, Stop", [[Bus Stop (song)|"Bus Stop"]], or [[Betty Everett|"It's in His Kiss"]]. Although an accomplished [[vocalist]] and [[flutist]], Parsons only sang infrequent and incidental parts on his albums. Recordings featuring his [[flute]] are virtually unknown. Influenced by his work on Stewart's concept album ''[[Time Passages]]'', Parsons decided to begin creating his own thematic records; along with songwriter [[Eric Woolfson]], he soon founded [[The Alan Parsons Project]]. Although Parsons played keyboards and infrequently sang on his records, the Project was designed primarily as a forum for a revolving collection of vocalists and session players — among them [[Arthur Brown]], ex-Zombie [[Colin Blunstone]], [[Cockney Rebel]]'s [[Steve Harley]], the [[Hollies]]' [[Allan Clarke]] and guitarist [[Ian Bairnson]] — to interpret and perform Parsons and Woolfson's conceptually-linked, lushly-synthesized music. The Project debuted in 1976 with ''[[Tales of Mystery and Imagination]]'', a collection inspired by the work of [[Edgar Allen Poe]]. The album was remixed for release on CD and includes narration by [[Orson Wells]] which was left off the vinyl version. Similarly, the science fiction of [[Isaac Asimov]] served as the raw material for 1977's follow-up ''[[I Robot (album)|I Robot]]''. With 1980s ''[[The Turn of a Friendly Card]]'', a meditation on gambling, the [[Alan Parsons Project]] scored a Top 20 hit, "[[Games People Play]]". 1982's ''[[Eye in the Sky]]'' was their most successful effort, and notched a Top Three hit with its title track. While 1984's ''[[Ammonia Avenue]]'' went gold, the Project's subsequent LPs earned little notice, although records like 1985's ''[[Vulture Culture]]'' and 1987's ''[[Gaudi]]'' found favor with longtime fans. Following the breakup of The Project, he went on to create several solo albums: *[[1993]] ''[[Try Anything Once]]'', *[[1996]] ''[[On Air]]'' - includes CD-ROM containing some history of [[aviation]], *[[1999]] ''[[The Time Machine (album)|The Time Machine]]'', *2004 ''[[A Valid Path]]'', with [[David Gilmour]] on "Return to [[Tunguska]]". ==External links== *[http://www.alanparsonsmusic.com/ Official Site] [[Category:1949 births|Parsons, Alan]] [[Category:Living people|Parsons, Alan]] [[Category:British record producers|Parsons, Alan]] [[de:Alan Parsons]] [[fr:Alan Parsons]] [[nl:Alan Parsons]] [[pl:Alan Parsons]] [[pt:Alan Parsons]] {{UK-musician-stub}} 1309 38589079 2006-02-07T08:07:37Z Scott Ritchie 105861 Note there are an infinite number of primes (to contrast with usage of "all but finitely many") In [[mathematics]], the phrase '''almost all''' has a number of specialised uses. "Almost all" is sometimes used synonymously with "all but [[finite]]ly many"; see [[almost]]. In [[number theory]], if ''P''(''n'') is a property of positive [[integer]]s, and if ''p''(''N'') denotes the number of positive integers ''n'' less than ''N'' for which ''P''(''n'') holds, and if :''p''(''N'')/''N'' &rarr; 1 as ''N'' &rarr; &infin; (see [[limit]]), then we say that "''P''(''n'') holds for almost all positive integers ''n''" and write :<math>(\forall^\infty n) P(n)</math>. For example, the [[prime number theorem]] states that the number of [[prime numbers]] less than or equal to ''N'' is asymptotically equal to ''N''/ln ''N''. Therefore the proportion of prime integers is roughly 1/ln ''N'', which tends to 0. Thus, ''almost all'' positive integers are composite, however there are still an infinite number of primes. Occasionally, "almost all" is used in the sense of "[[almost everywhere]]" in [[measure theory]], or in the closely related sense of "[[almost surely]]" in [[probability theory]]. ==See also== *[[Sufficiently large]] [[Category:Mathematical terminology]] [[Category:Mathematical notation]] 1311 39325297 2006-02-12T10:10:48Z Lambiam 745100 ref. to otherwise ununderstandable "Baum" In [[1846]] [[Charles Babbage]] was invited to give a seminar at the [[University of Turin]] about his [[analytical engine]]. [[Federico Luigi, Conte Menabrea|Luigi Menabrea]], a young [[Italy|Italian]] [[engineer]] wrote up Babbage's lecture in [[French language|French]], and this transcript was subsequently published in the [[Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève]] in [[1842]]. Babbage asked [[Ada Lovelace]] (born Ada Byron) to translate Menabrea's paper into English. He then further asked Lady Ada to augment the notes she had added to the translation, and she spent most of a year doing this. These notes, which are more extensive than Menabrea's paper, were then published in ''The Ladies Diary'' and ''Taylor's Scientific Memoirs'' (under the initialism A.A.L.). Her notes were labelled A, B, C, D, E, F and G, the last one being the longest. In note G Ada describes an [[algorithm]] for the [[analytical engine]] to compute [[Bernoulli number]]s. It is generally considered the first algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a [[computer]], and for this reason she is considered by many to be the first [[programmer|computer programmer]]. Note G could possibly also be said to be the first expression of the modern computer phrase "[[Garbage In, Garbage Out]]". Lovelace writes: :''"The Analytical Engine has no pretensions whatever to originate anything. It can do whatever we know how to order it to perform. It can follow analysis; but it has no power of anticipating any analytical relations or truths.''" On the other hand, proponents of [[Artificial intelligence]] would dismiss the above quote as nonsense: [[Automated theorem proving]] could be cited as a counterexample. According to Linda Talisman on [http://www.cs.yale.edu/homes/tap/Files/ada-lovelace-notes.html]: "Baum <nowiki>[</nowiki>Baum, Joan. ''The Calculating Passion of Ada Byron''. Archon Books, Hamden, Conn., 1986. ISBN 0208021191<nowiki>]</nowiki> cites: *Perl, Teri. The Ladies Diary or Woman's Almanac, 1704-1841, Historica Mathematica 6 (1979): 36-53 *Wallis, Ruth and Peter. Female Philomaths, Historica Mathematica 7, (1980), 57-64 <blockquote> There were indeed women in mid-century England who signed their names to mathematical articles in popular journals, and there were influential periodicals, such as the [[Edinburgh Review]], that lent intellectual women psychological support.... Although the [[Ladies Diary]] ..., the most popular of the mathematical periodicals, encouraged women to join wit with beauty, it attracted serious amateurs of both sexes... [it] was a respectable place to pose mathematical problems and sustain debate... since there were few science periodicals in England until the 1830s, technical articles often appeared in general periodicals like the Ladies Diary. It may have been something similar that originally sparked [[Mary Fairfax Somerville|Mrs. Somerville's]] interest in mathematics. At a tea party one afternoon, she recalled years later, young Mary Fairfax had been given a ladies' fashion magazine that contained a puzzle, the answer to which was given in strange symbols. These symbols turned out to be [[algebra]]. And that magazine became her introduction to the world of [[Euclidean geometry]] and number. </blockquote> Baum, p. 35". ==External links== *[http://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage/sketch.html ''Sketch of The Analytical Engine Invented by Charles Babbage'' by L. F. Menabrea with notes upon the Memoir by the translator Ada Augusta, Countess of Lovelace] *[http://www.cs.yale.edu/homes/tap/Files/ada-lovelace-notes.html ''Ada Lovelace's Notes and The Ladies Diary''] [[Category:History of computing]] 1312 42116803 2006-03-03T22:56:57Z 86.49.59.222 +cs + de interwiki links '''Augustine''' may refer to: '''Saints:''' * [[Augustine of Hippo]], (354-430) theologian, author of ''The City of God'', ''Confessions'' * [[Augustine of Canterbury]], (d. 604) first [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] '''Or:''' *[[Augustinians]], an order of Catholic monk named after Augustine of Hippo *[[Augustine Volcano]] on [[Augustine Island]] in [[Alaska]] *[[St. Augustine, Florida]], a city in the United States *[[James Augustine]], a Power Forward and Center for the [[Illinois Fighting Illini|University of Illinois]] Men's Basketball Team {{disambig}} [[cs:Augustin]] [[de:Augustin]] [[ko:아우구스티누스]] [[pl:Augustyn]] [[ru:Августин]] 1313 42037537 2006-03-03T10:43:58Z Chobot 259798 robot Adding: ar, he, ko An '''aromatic hydrocarbon''' (abbreviated as AH), or '''arene''' is a [[hydrocarbon]], the [[molecular structure]] of which incorporates one or more planar sets of six [[carbon]] atoms that are connected by [[delocalised electron]]s numbering the same as if they consisted of alternating single and double [[Covalent bond|covalent bonds]]. After the simplest possible [[aromatic]] hydrocarbon, [[benzene]], such a configuration of six carbon atoms is known as a [[benzene ring]]. == Benzene ring model == [[image:toluene.png|100px|right|thumb| [[Toluene]] ]]{{main|aromaticity}} Each carbon atom in the hexagonal cycle has four electrons to share. One goes to the hydrogen atom, and one each to the two neighboring carbons. This leaves one to share with one of its two neighboring carbon atoms, which is why the benzene molecule is drawn with alternating single and double bonds around the hexagon. Many chemists just draw a circle around the inside of the ring to show that there are six electrons floating around in delocalized molecular orbitals the size of the ring itself. This also accurately represents the equivalent nature of the six bonds all of [[bond order]] ~1.5. This equivalency is well explained by [[Resonance (chemistry)|resonance form]]s. The electrons float above and below the ring, and the electromagnetic fields they generate keep the ring flat. In modern terminology, benzene rings can be described as compounds in which a continuous, closed system of rings contains separate sets of [[VSEPR#Sigma_Bonds|sigma]] and [[VSEPR#Pi_Bonds|pi electron]]s. The [[atomic orbital]]s forming the sigma system are sp<sup>2</sup> [[orbital hybridisation|hybridized]], and those forming the pi system are pure p orbitals. * Properties: # They have close conjugation. # The Carbon atoms are sp<sup>2</sup> hybridized, and therefore have a trigonal planar structure. # The Carbon-Hydrogen ratio is very large. # [[Hückel's rule]]s apply # They burn with a sooty yellow flame because of the high carbon-hydrogen ratio. # They undergo [[electrophilic substitution reaction]]s == Benzene and derivatives of benzene == [[image:Benzene-structure.png|75px|right|thumb| [[Benzene]] ]]{{main|benzene}} Aromatic hydrocarbons can be ''monocyclic'' or ''polycyclic''. [[Benzene]], C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>6</sub>, is the simplest AH and was recognized as the first aromatic hydrocarbon, with the nature of its bonding first being recognized by [[Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz]] in the [[19th century]]. ==PAHs== {{main|Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon}} [[image:napthalene.png|100px|right|thumb| [[Naphthalene]] ]]Some important arenes are the '''polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons''' (PAH); they are also called '''polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons'''. They are composed of more than one aromatic ring. The simplest PAH is [[benzocyclobutene]] ([[Carbon|C]]<sub>8</sub>[[Hydrogen|H]]<sub>6</sub>). == PAHs and the origins of life == {{main|PAH world hypothesis}} In January 2004 (at the 203rd Meeting of the [[American Astronomical Society]]), it was reported (as cited in Battersby, 2004) that a team led by A. Witt of the [[University of Toledo|University of Toledo, Ohio]] studied ultraviolet light emitted by the [[Red Rectangle nebula]] and found the spectral signatures of [[anthracene]] and [[pyrene]]. (No other such complex molecules had ever before been found in space.) This discovery was considered confirmation of a hypothesis that as nebulae of the same type as the Red Rectangle approach the ends of their lives, convection currents cause carbon and hydrogen in the nebulae's core to get caught in stellar winds, and radiate outward. As they cool, the atoms supposedly bond to each other in various ways and eventually form particles of a million or more atoms. Witt and his team inferred (as cited in Battersby, 2004) that since they discovered PAHs&mdash;which may have been vital in the formation of early life on Earth&mdash;in a nebula, nebulae, by necessity, are where they originate. == External links == * [http://www.pca.state.mn.us/programs/pubs/qa-pahs.pdf Carcinogenic FAC list] in [[Portable Document Format]]. * [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp69.html Toxicological profiles of PAH]. * [http://books.nap.edu/books/POD088/html/385.html#pagetop LIST of PAH]. * [http://www.aapg.org/explorer/2002/11nov/abiogenic.cfm Abiogenic Gas Debate 11:2002 (EXPLORER)] == References == *American Astronomical Society. (n.d.). Meeting program contents. Retrieved January 11, 2004 from http://www.aas.org/meetings/aas203/ *Battersby, S. (2004). Space molecules point to organic origins. Retrieved January 11, 2004 from http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99994552 [[Category:Aromatic hydrocarbons]] [[Category:Hydrocarbons]] [[Category:Origin of life]] [[ar:أروماتية]] [[de:Aromaten]] [[et:Areenid]] [[es:Hidrocarburo aromático]] [[fr:Hydrocarbure aromatique]] [[ko:방향족 탄화수소]] [[he:ארומטיות]] [[lv:Aromātiskie ogļūdeņraži]] [[nl:Aromatische verbinding]] [[ja:芳香族炭化水素]] [[pl:Węglowodór aromatyczny]] [[ru:Арены]] [[sv:Aromatiska kolväten]] [[zh:芳烃]] 1314 15899803 2002-04-20T23:13:27Z Maveric149 62 *#redirect[[Abbadid]] #redirect[[Abbadid]] 1315 41349281 2006-02-26T19:42:44Z Dragonix 976685 /* [[Benedictine abbey]]s */ :''This article is about an '''abbey''' as a Christian [[monastery|monastic community]]. For other uses, see [[Abbey (disambiguation)]]''. {{christianity}} An '''abbey''' (from the [[Latin]] ''abbatia,'' which is derived from the [[Syriac language|Syriac]] ''abba,'' "father"), is a [[Christianity|Christian]] '''[[monastery]]''' or '''convent''', under the government of an [[Abbot]] or an [[Abbess]], who serve as the spiritual father or mother of the community. A '''[[priory]]''' only differed from an abbey in that the superior bore the title of [[prior]] instead of abbot. Priories were originally offshoots from the larger abbeys, to the abbots of which they continued subordinate; however, the actual distinction between abbeys and priories was lost by the [[Renaissance]]. Do not confuse the term ''convent'' with the term monastery. Both nuns and monks live in monasteries. Sisters, members of active orders, live in convents. Nuns who are cloistered live in monasteries. The earliest known Christian monastic communities (see [[Monasticism]]) consisted of groups of cells or huts collected about a common centre, which was usually the house of some hermit or anchorite famous for holiness or singular asceticism, but without any attempt at orderly arrangement. Such communities were not an invention of Christianity. The example had been already set in part by the [[Essenes]] in [[Judea]] and perhaps by the [[Therapeutae]] in [[Egypt]]. In the earliest age of Christian [[monasticism]] the [[ascetic]]s were accustomed to live singly, independent of one another, not far from some village church, supporting themselves by the labour of their own hands, and distributing the surplus after the supply of their own scanty wants to the poor. Increasing religious fervour, aided by persecution, drove them farther and farther away from the civilization into mountain solitudes or lonely deserts. The deserts of Egypt swarmed with the "cells" or huts of these anchorites. [[Anthony the Great]], who had retired to the Egyptian Thebaid during the persecution of [[Maximian]], A.D. [[312]], was the most celebrated among them for his austerities, his sanctity, and his power as an exorcist. His fame collected round him a host of followers imitating his asceticism in an attempt to imitate his sanctity. The deeper he withdrew into the wilderness, the more numerous his disciples became. They refused to be separated from him, and built their ceils round that of their spiritual father. Thus arose the first monastic community, consisting of anchorites living each in his own little dwelling, united together under one superior. Anthony, as Neander remarks (Church History, vol. iii. p. 316, Clark's trans.), "without any conscious design of his own, had become the founder of a new mode of living in common, Coenobitism." By degrees order was introduced in the groups of huts. They were arranged in lines like the tents in an encampment, or the houses in a street. From this arrangement these lines of single cells came to be known as Laurae, Laurai, "streets" or "lanes." {{TOCleft}} The real founder of cenobitic (''koinos,'' common, and ''bios,'' life) monasteries in the modern sense was [[Pachomius]], an Egyptian of the beginning of the [[4th century]]. The first community established by him was at Tabennae, an island of the [[Nile]] in [[Upper Egypt]]. Eight others were founded in the region during his lifetime, numbering 3,000 monks. Within fifty years from his death his societies could claim 50,000 members. These coenobia resembled villages, peopled by a hard-working religious community, all of one sex. The buildings were detached, small and of the humblest character. Each cell or hut, according to [[Sozomen]] (H.R. iii. 14), contained three monks. They took their chief meal in a common refectory or dining hall at 3 P.M., up to which hour they usually fasted. They ate in silence, with hoods so drawn over their faces that they could see nothing but what was on the table before them. The monks spent the time not devoted to religious services or study in manual labour. [[Palladius]], who visited the Egyptian monasteries about the close of the [[4th century]], found among the 300 members of the coenobium of [[Panopolis]], under the [[Pachomius|Pachomian]] rule, 15 tailors, 7 smiths, 4 carpenters, 12 cameldrivers and 15 tanners. Each separate community had its own ''oeconomus'' or steward, who was subject to a chief steward stationed at the head establishment. All the produce of the monks' labour was committed to him, and by him shipped to [[Alexandria]]. The money raised by the sale was expended in the purchase of stores for the support of the communities, and what was over was devoted to charity. Twice in the year the superiors of the several [[coenobia]] met at the chief monastery, under the presidency of an archimandrite ("the chief of the fold," from ''miandra'', a sheepfold), and at the last meeting gave in reports of their administration for the year. The coenobia of Syria belonged to the Pachomian institution. We learn many details concerning those in the vicinity of [[Antioch]] from [[Chrysostom]]'s writings. The monks lived in separate huts, ''kalbbia,'' forming a religious hamlet on the mountain side. They were subject to an abbot, and observed a common rule. (They had no refectory, but ate their common meal, of bread and water only, when the day's labour was over, reclining on strewn grass, sometimes out of doors.) Four times in the day they joined in [[prayer]]s and [[psalms]]. ===Santa Laura, Mount Athos=== The necessity for defence from hostile attacks (for monastic houses tended to accumulate rich gifts), economy of space and convenience of access from one part of the community to another, by degrees dictated a more compact and orderly arrangement of the buildings of a monastic coenobium. Large piles of building were erected, with strong outside walls, capable of resisting the assaults of an enemy, within which all the necessary edifices were ranged round one or more open courts, usually surrounded with [[cloister]]s. The usual Eastern arrangement is exemplified in the plan of the convent of the [[Holy Laura]], [[Mount Athos]]. <br /> {| align="right" |+ '''Monastery of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Lenoir)''' |- | [[image:abbey_01.png]] || :A. Gateway :B. Chapels :C. Guest-house :D. Church :E. Cloister :F. Fountain :G. Refectory :H. Kitchen :I. Cells :K. Storehouses :L. Postern Gate :M. Tower |} This monastery, like the oriental monasteries generally, is surrounded by a strong and lofty blank stone wall, enclosing an area of between 3 and 4 acres (12,000 and 16,000 m&sup2;). The longer side extends to a length of about 500 feet. There is only one main entrance, on the north side (A), defended by three separate iron doors. Near the entrance is a large tower (M), a constant feature in the monasteries of the Levant. There is a small postern gate at L. The enceinte comprises two large open courts, surrounded with buildings connected with cloister galleries of wood or stone. The outer court, which is much the larger, contains the granaries and storehouses (K), and the kitchen (H) and other offices connected with the refectory (G). Immediately adjacent to the gateway is a two-storied guest-house, opening from a cloister (C). The inner court is surrounded by a cloister (EE), from which open the monks' cells (II). In the centre of this court stands the [[catholicon]] or conventual church, a square building with an apse of the cruciform domical Byzantine type, approached by a domed [[narthex]]. In front of the church stands a marble fountain (F), covered by a dome supported on columns. Opening from the western side of the cloister, but actually standing in the outer court, is the refectory (G), a large cruciform building, about 100 feet (30 m) each way, decorated within with frescoes of saints. At the upper end is a semicircular recess, recalling the triclinium of the Lateran Palace at Rome, in which is placed the seat of the hegumenos or abbot. This apartment is chiefly used as a hall of meeting, the oriental monks usually taking their meals in their separate cells. The annexed plan of a [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic]] monastery, from Lenoir, shows a church of three aisles, with cellular apses, and two ranges of cells on either side of an oblong gallery. {| align="right" |+ '''Plan of Coptic Monastery''' |- | [[image:abbey_02.png]] || :A. Narthex :B. Church :C. Corridor, with cells on each side :D. Staircase |} == [[Benedictine abbey]]s == Monasticism in the West owes its extension and development to [[Benedict of Nursia]] (born A.D. [[480]]). His rule was diffused with miraculous rapidity from the parent foundation on [[Monte Cassino]] through the whole of [[western Europe]], and every country witnessed the erection of monasteries far exceeding anything that had yet been seen in spaciousness and splendour. Few great towns in Italy were without their Benedictine convent, and they quickly rose in all the great centres of population in [[England]], [[France]] and [[Spain]]. The number of these monasteries founded between A.D. [[520]] and [[700]] is amazing. Before the [[Council of Constance]], A.D. [[1415]], no fewer than 15,070 abbeys had been established of this [[order (religious)|order]] alone. The buildings of a Benedictine abbey were uniformly arranged after one plan, modified where necessary (as at Durham and Worcester, where the monasteries stand close to the steep bank of a river) to accommodate the arrangement to local circumstances. We have no existing examples of the earlier monasteries of the Benedictine order. They have all yielded to the ravages of time and the violence of man. But we have fortunately preserved to us an elaborate plan of the great Swiss monastery of St Gall, erected about A.D. [[820]], which puts us in possession of the whole arrangements of a monastery of the first class towards the early part of the 9th century. This curious and interesting plan has been made the subject of a memoir both by [[Keller]] ([[Zürich]], [[1844]]) and by Professor [[Robert Willis]] (''Arch. Journal,'' 1848, vol. v. pp. 86-117. To the latter we are indebted for the substance of the following description, as well as for the plan, reduced from his elucidated transcript of the original preserved in the archives of the convent. The general appearance of the convent is that of a town of isolated houses with streets running between them. It is evidently planned in compliance with the Benedictine rule, which enjoined that, if possible, the monastery should contain within itself every necessary of life, as well as the buildings more intimately connected with the religious and social life of its inmates. It should comprise a [[mill (factory)|mill]], a [[bakehouse]], [[stable]]s, and [[cattle|cow]]-houses, together with accommodation for carrying on all necessary mechanical arts within the walls, so as to obviate the necessity of the monks going outside its limits. [[Image:Jumièges.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Abbey of Jumièges, [[Normandy]]]] The general distribution of the buildings may be thus described:-The church, with its cloister to the south, occupies the centre of a quadrangular area, about 430 feet square. The buildings, as in all great monasteries, are distributed into groups. The church forms the nucleus, as the centre of the religious life of the community. In closest connection with the church is the group of buildings appropriated to the monastic line and its daily requirements---the refectory for eating, the dormitory for sleeping, the common room for social intercourse, the chapter-house for religious and disciplinary conference. These essential elements of monastic life are ranged about a cloister court, surrounded by a covered arcade, affording communication sheltered from the elements between the various buildings. The infirmary for sick monks, with the physician's house and physic garden, lies to the east. In the same group with the infirmary is the school for the novices. The outer school, with its headmaster's house against the opposite wall of the church, stands outside the convent enclosure, in close proximity to the abbot's house, that he might have a constant eye over them. The buildings devoted to hospitality are divided into three groups,--one for the reception of distinguished guests, another for monks visiting the monastery, a third for poor travellers and pilgrims. The first and third are placed to the right and left of the common entrance of the monastery,---the hospitium for distinguished guests being placed on the north side of the church, not far from the abbot's house; that for the poor on the south side next to the farm buildings. The monks are lodged in a guest-house built against the north wall of the church. The group of buildings connected with the material wants of the establishment is placed to the south and west of the church, and is distinctly separated from the monastic buildings. The kitchen, buttery and offices are reached by a passage from the west end of the refectory, and are connected with the bakehouse and brewhouse, which are placed still farther away. The whole of the southern and western sides is devoted to workshops, stables and farm-buildings. The buildings, with some exceptions, seem to have been of one story only, and all but the church were probably erected of wood. The whole includes thirty-three separate blocks. The church (D) is cruciform, with a nave of nine bays, and a semicircular apse at either extremity. That to the west is surrounded by a semicircular colonnade, leaving an open "paradise" (E) between it and the wall of the church. The whole area is divided by screens into various chapels. The high altar (A) stands immediately to the east of the transept, or ritual choir; the altar of [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]] (B) in the eastern, and that of [[St Peter]] (C) in the western apse. A cylindrical campanile stands detached from the church on either side of the western apse (FF). The `cloister court', (G) on the south side of the nave of the {| width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="center" |+ '''Ground plan of St. Gall''' |- | align="center" colspan="2" | [[image:st_gall_plan.jpg]] | valign="top" | <pre> CHURCH. A. High altar. B. Altar of St Paul. C. Altar of St Peter. D. Nave. E. Paradise. FF. Towers. MONASTIC BUILDINGS G. Cloister. H. Calefactory, with dormitory over. I. Necessary. J. Abbot's house. K. Refectory. L. Kitchen. M. Bakehouse and brewhouse. N. Cellar. O. Parlour. (over. P1. Scriptorium with library k, P2. Sacristy and vestry. Q. House of Novices--1.chapel; 2. refectory; 3. calefactory; 4. dormitory; 5. master's room 6. chambers. R. Infirmary--1--6 as above in the house of novices. S. Doctor's house. T. Physic garden. U. House for blood-letting. V. School. W. Schoolmaster's lodgings. X1X1. Guest-house for those of superior rank X2X2. Guest-house for the poor. Y. Guest-chamber for strange monks. MENIAL DEPARTMENT. Z. Factory. a. Threshing-floor b. Workshops. c, c. Mills. d. Kiln. e. Stables. f Cow-sheds. g. Goat-sheds. h. Pig-sties. i. Sheep-folds. k, k. Servants' and workmen's sleeping-chambers. l. Gardener's house m,m. Hen and duck house. n. Poultry-keeper's house. o. Garden. q. Bakehouse for sacramental s, s, s. Kitchens. t, t, t. Baths. </pre> |} church has on its east side the "[[pisalis]]" or "[[calefactory]]", (H), the common sitting-room of the brethren, warmed by flues beneath the floor. On this side in later monasteries we invariably find the [[chapter house]], the absence of which in this plan is somewhat surprising. It appears, however, from the inscriptions on the plan itself, that the north walk of the cloisters served for the purposes of a chapter-house, and was fitted up with benches on the long sides. Above the calefactory is the "[[dormitory]]" opening into the south transept of the church, to enable the monks to attend the nocturnal services with readiness. A passage at the other end leads to the "[[necessarium]]" (I), a portion of the monastic buildings always planned with extreme care. The southern side is occupied by the "refectory" (K), from the west end of which by a vestibule the kitchen (L) is reached. This is separated from the main buildings of the monastery, and is connected by a long passage with a building containing the bake house and brewhouse (M), and the sleeping-rooms of the servants. The upper story of the refectory is the "vestiarium," where the ordinary clothes of the brethren were kept. On the western side of the cloister is another two story building (N). The cellar is below, and the [[larder]] and store-room above. Between this building and the church, opening by one door into the cloisters, and by another to the outer part of the monastery area, is the "parlour" for interviews with visitors from the external world (O). On the eastern side of the north transept is the "[[scriptorium]]" or writing-room (P1), with the library above. To the east of the church stands a group of buildings comprising two miniature conventual establishments, each complete in itself. Each has a covered cloister surrounded by the usual buildings, i.e. refectory, dormitory, etc., and a church or chapel on one side, placed back to back. A detached building belonging to each contains a bath and a kitchen. One of these diminutive convents is appropriated to the "[[oblati]]" or novices (Q), the other to the sick monks as an "[[infirmary]]" (R). The "residence of the physicians" (S) stands contiguous to the infirmary, and the physic garden (T) at the north-east corner of the monastery. Besides other rooms, it contains a drug store, and a chamber for those who are dangerously ill. The "house for bloodletting and purging" adjoins it on the west (U). The "outer school," to the north of the convent area, contains a large schoolroom divided across the middle by a screen or partition, and surrounded by fourteen little rooms, termed the dwellings of the scholars. The head-master's house (W) is opposite, built against the side wall of the church. The two "[[hospitia]]" or guest-houses for the entertainment of strangers of different degrees (X1 X2) comprise a large common chamber or refectory in the centre, surrounded by sleeping-apartments. Each is provided with its own brewhouse and bakehouse, and that for travellers of a superior order has a kitchen and storeroom, with bedrooms for their servants and stables for their horses. There is also an "hospitium" for strange monks, abutting on the north wall of the church (Y). Beyond the cloister, at the extreme verge of the convent area to the south, stands the "factory" (Z), containing workshops for [[shoemaker]]s, saddlers (or shoemakers, sellarii), cutlers and grinders, [[trencher]]-makers, [[tanner]]s, curriers, fullers, [[smith]]s and [[goldsmith]]s, with their dwellings in the rear. On this side we also find the farm buildings, the large granary and threshing-floor (a), mills (c), malthouse (d). Facing the west are the stables (e), ox-sheds (f), goatstables (gl, piggeries (h), sheep-folds (i), together with the servants' and labourers' quarters (k). At the south-east corner we find the hen and duck house, and poultry-yard (m), and the dwelling of the keeper (n). Hard by is the kitchen garden (o), the beds bearing the names of the vegetables growing in them, onions, garlic, celery, lettuces, poppy, carrots, cabbages, etc., eighteen in all. In the same way the physic garden presents the names of the medicinal herbs, and the cemetery (p) those of the trees, apple, pear, plum, quince, etc., planted there. <!-- ==[[Canterbury Cathedral]]== --> ==[[Westminster Abbey]]== Westminster Abbey is another example of a great Benedictine abbey, identical in its general arrangements, so far as they can be traced, with those described above. The cloister and monastic buildings lie to the south side of the church. Parallel to the nave, on the south side of the cloister, was the refectory, with its lavatory at the door. On the eastern side we find the remains of the dormitory, raised on a vaulted substructure and communicating with the south transept. The chapter-house opens out of the same alley of the cloister. The small cloister lay to the south-east of the larger cloister, and still farther to the east we have the remains of the infirmary with the table hall, the refectory of those who were able to leave their chambers. The abbot's house formed a small courtyard at the west entrance, close to the inner gateway. Considerable portions of this remain, including the abbot's parlour, celebrated as "the Jerusalem Chamber," his hall, now used for the Westminster King's Scholars, and the kitchen and butteries beyond. ==York== [[St Mary's Abbey, York]], of which the ground-plan is annexed, exhibits the usual Benedictine arrangements. The precincts are surrounded by a strong fortified wall on three sides, the river [[Ouse]] being sufficient protection on the fourth side. The entrance was by a strong gateway (U) to the north. Close to the entrance was a chapel, where is now the church of St Olaf (W), in which the new-comers paid their devotions immediately on their arrival. Near the gate to the south was the guest-hall or hospitium (T). The buildings are completely ruined, but enough remains to enable us to identify the grand cruciform church (A), the cloister-court with the chapterhouse (B), the refectory (I), the kitchen-court with its offices (K, O, O) and the other principal apartments. The infirmary has perished completely. FIG. 4 St Mary's Abbey, York (Benedictine).--Churton's Monnastic Ruins. A. Church. O. Offices. B. Chapter-house. P. Cellars. C. Vestibule to ditto. Q. Uncertain. E. Library or scriptorium. R. Passage to abbot's house. F. Calefactory. S. Passage to common house. G. Necessary. T. Hospitium. H. Parlour. U. Great gate. I. Refectory. V. Porter's lodge. K. Great kitchen and court. W. Church of St Olaf. L. Cellarer's office. X. Tower. M. Cellars. Y. Entrance from Bootham. N. Passage to cloister. The history of monasticism is one of alternate periods of decay and revival. With growth in popular esteem came increase in material wealth, leading to luxury and worldliness. The first religious ardour cooled, the strictness of the rule was relaxed, until by the [[10th century]] the decay of discipline was so complete in France that the monks are said to have been frequently unacquainted with the rule of St Benedict, and even ignorant that they were bound by any rule at all. The reformation of abuses generally took the form of the establishment of new monastic orders, with new and more stringent rules, requiring a modification of the architectural arrangements. One of the earliest of these reformed orders was the Cluniac. This order took its name from,the little village of Cluny, 12 miles N.W. of Macon, near which, about A.D. [[909]], a reformed Benedictine abbey was founded by William, duke of Aquitaine and count of Auvergne, under Berno, abbot of Beaume. He was succeeded by Odo, who is often regarded as the founder of the order. The fame of Cluny spread far and wide. Its rigid rule was adopted by a vast number of the old Benedictine abbeys, who placed themselves in affiliation to the mother society, while new foundations sprang up in large numbers, all owing allegiance to the "archabbot," established at Cluny. By the end of the 12th century the number of monasteries affiliated to Cluny in the various countries of western Europe amounted to 2000. The monastic establishment of Cluny was one of the most extensive and magnificent in France. We may form some idea of its enormous dimensions from the fact recorded, that when, in A.D. [[1245]], [[Pope Innocent IV]], accompanied by twelve cardinals, a patriarch, three archbishops, the two generals of the Carthusians and Cistercians, the king (St Louis), and three of his sons, the queen mother, Baldwin, count of Flanders and emperor of Constantinople, the duke of Burgundy, and six lords, visited the abbey, the whole party, with their attendants, were lodged within the monastery without disarranging the monks, 400 in number. Nearly the whole of the abbey buildings, including the magnificent church, were swept away at the close of the 18th century. When the annexed ground-plan was taken, shortly before its destruction, nearly all the monastery, with the exception of the church, had been rebuilt. The church, the ground-plan of which bears a remarkable resemblance to that of Lincoln Cathedral, was of vast dimensions. It was 656 ft. high. The nave (G) had double vaulted aisles on either side. Like Lincoln, it had an eastern as well as a western transept, each furnished with apsidal chapels to the east. The western transept was 213 ft. long, and the eastern 123 ft. The choir terminated in a semicircular apse (F), surrounded by five chapels, also semicircular. The western entrance was approached by an ante-church, or narthex (B), itself an aisled church of no mean dimensions, flanked by two towers, rising from a stately flight of steps bearing a large stone cross. To the south of the church lay the cloister-court (H), of immense size, placed much farther to the west than is usually the case. On the south side of the cloister stood the refectory (P), an immense building, 100 ft (30 m) long and 60 ft (18 m) wide, accommodating six longitudinal and three transverse rows of tables. It was adorned with the portraits of the chief benefactors of the abbey, and with Scriptural subjects. The end wall displayed the Last Judgment. We are unhappily unable to identify any other of the principal buildings (N). The abbot's residence (K), still partly standing, adjoined the entrance-gate. The guest-house (L) was close by. The bakehouse (M), also remaining, is a detached building of immense size. ==English Cluniac== The first English house of the Cluniac order was that of [[Lewes]], founded by the earl of Warren, c. A.D. 1077. Of this only a few fragments of the domestic buildings exist. The best preserved Cluniac houses in England are Castle Acre, Norfolk, and Wenlock, Shropshire. Ground-plans of both are given in Britton's Architectural Antiquities. They show several departures from the Benedictine arrangement. In each the prior's house is remarkably perfect. All Cluniac houses in England were French colonies, governed by priors of that nation. They did not secure their independence nor become "abbeys" till the reign of Henry VI. The Cluniac revival, with all its brilliancy, was but short-lived. The celebrity of this, as of other orders, worked its moral ruin. With their growth in wealth and dignity the Cluniac foundations became as worldly in life and as relaxed in discipline as their predecessors, and a fresh reform was needed. ==Cistercian== [[Image:Abbey-of-senanque-provence-gordes.jpg|thumb||200px|right|Cistercian Abbey of Senanque]] The next great monastic revival, the [[Cistercian]], arising in the last years of the 11th century, had a wider diffusion, and a longer and more honourable existence. Owing its real origin, as a distinct foundation of reformed [[Benedictines]], in the year [[1098]], to [[Stephen Harding]] (a native of [[Dorset]], educated in the monastery of Sherborne), and deriving its name from Citeaux (Cistercium), a desolate and almost inaccessible forest solitude, on the borders of [[Champagne, France|Champagne]] and [[Burgundy]], the rapid growth and wide celebrity of the order are undoubtedly to be attributed to the enthusiastic piety of St Bernard, abbot of the first of the monastic colonies, subsequently sent forth in such quick succession by the first Cistercian houses, the far-famed abbey of [[Clairvaux]] (de Clara Valle), A.D. [[1116]]. The rigid self-abnegation, which was the ruling principle of this reformed congregation of the Benedictine order, extended itself to the churches and other buildings erected by them. The characteristic of the Cistercian abbeys was the extremest simplicity and a studied plainness. Only one tower--a central one --was permitted, and that was to be very low. Unnecessary pinnacles and turrets were prohibited. The [[triforium]] was omitted. The windows were to be plain and undivided, and it was forbidden to decorate them with stained glass. All needless ornament was proscribed. The crosses must be of wood; the candlesticks of iron. The renunciation of the world was to be evidenced in all that met the eye. The same spirit manifested itself in the choice of the sites of their monasteries. The more dismal, the more savage, the more hopeless a spot appeared, the more did it please their rigid mood. But they came not merely as ascetics, but as improvers. The Cistercian monasteries are, as a rule, found placed in deep well-watered valleys. They always stand on the border of a stream; not rarely, as at Fountains, the buildings extend over it. These valleys, now so rich and productive, wore a very different aspect when the brethren first chose them as the place of their retirement. Wide swamps, deep morasses, tangled thickets, wild impassable forests, were their prevailing features. The "bright valley," Clara Vallis of St Bernard, was known as the "valley of Wormwood," infamous as a den of robbers. "It was a savage dreary solitude, so utterly barren that at first Bernard and his companions were reduced to live on beech leaves."-(Milman's Lat. Christ. vol. iii. p. 335.) ===Abbey Church of St.-Denis=== ''See'' [[Abbey Church of Saint Denis|Abbey Church of St.-Denis]]. ===Clairvaux Abbey=== ''See'' [[Clairvaux Abbey]]. ===Citeaux Abbey=== ''See'' [[Citeaux Abbey]]. ===Kirkstall Abbey=== ''See'' [[Kirkstall Abbey]]. ===Fountains Abbey=== ''See'' [[Fountains Abbey]]. ==Austin Canons== The buildings of the Austin [[canon (priest)|canons]] or Black canons (so called from the colour of their habit) present few distinctive peculiarities. This order had its first seat in [[England]] at [[Colchester, England|Colchester]], where a house for Austin canons was founded about A.D. [[1105]], and it very soon spread widely. As an order of regular clergy, holding a middle position between monks and secular canons, almost resembling a community of parish priests living under rule, they adopted naves of great length to accommodate large congregations. The choir is usually long, and is sometimes, as at Llanthony and Christchurch (Twynham), shut off from the aisles, or, as at Bolton, Kirkham, etc., is destitute of aisles altogether. The nave in the northern houses, not unfrequently, had only a north aisle, as at Bolton, Brinkburn and [[Lanercost Priory|Lanercost]]. The arrangement of the monastic buildings followed the ordinary type. The prior's lodge was almost invariably attached to the S.W. angle of the nave. {| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%" |+ ===Bristol Cathedral=== |- | align="center" | [[image:bristol_abbey.png]] | align="left" | <pre> FIG. 11.--St Augustine's Abbey, Bristol (Bristol A. Church. B. Great cloister. C. Little cloister. D. Chapter-house. E. Calefactory. F. Refectory. G. Parlour. H. Kitchen. I. Kitchen court. K. Cellars. L. Abbot's hall. P. Abbot's gateway. R. Infirmary. S. Friars' lodging. T. King's hall. V. Guest-house. W. Abbey gateway. X. Barns, stables, etc Y. Lavatory. </pre> |} The above plan of the [[Abbey of St Augustine]]'s at [[Bristol]], now the [[Bristol Cathedral|cathedral church of that city]], shows the arrangement of the buildings, which departs very little from the ordinary Benedictine type. The Austin canons' house at Thornton, in Lincolnshire, is remarkable for the size and magnificence of its gate-house, the upper floors of which formed the guest-house of the establishment, and for possessing an octagonal chapter-house of Decorated date. ==Premonstratensians== The Premonstratensian regular canons, or White canons, had as many as 35 houses in England, of which the most perfect remaining are those of [[Easby, Yorkshire]], and [[Bayham, Kent]]. The head house of the order in England was Welbeck. This order was a reformed branch of the Austin canons, founded, A.D. [[1119]], by Norbert (born at [[Xanten]], on the [[Lower Rhine]], c. [[1080]]) at Premontre, a secluded marshy valley in the forest of [[Coucy]] in the diocese of [[Laon]]. The order spread widely. Even in the founder's lifetime it possessed houses in [[Syria]] and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. It long maintained its rigid austerity, until in the course of years wealth impaired its discipline, and its members sank into indolence and luxury. The Premonstratensians were brought to England shortly after A.D. [[1140]], and were first settled at Newhouse, in Lincolnshire, near the [[Humber]]. The ground-plan of Easby Abbey, owing to its situation on the edge of the steeply sloping banks of a river, is singularly irregular. The cloister is duly placed on the south side of the church, and the chief buildings occupy their usual positions round it. But the cloister garth, as at Chichester, is not rectangular, and all the surrounding buildings are thus made to sprawl in a very awkward fashion. The church follows the plan adopted by the Austin canons in their northern abbeys, and has only one aisle to the nave--that to the north; while the choir is long, narrow and aisleless. Each transept has an aisle to the east, forming three chapels. The church at Bayham was destitute of aisles either to nave or choir. The latter terminated in a three-sided apse. This church is remarkable for its exceeding narrowness in proportion to its length. Extending in longitudinal dimensions 257 ft., it is not more than 25 ft. broad. Stern Premonstratensian canons wanted no congregations, and cared for no possessions; therefore they built their church like a long room. The Premonstratension order still exists and a small group of these Chanones de Premontre now run the former Benedictine Abbey at Conques in South West France, which has become well known as a refuge for pilgrims travelling the Way of Saint James, from Le Puy en Velay in Auvergne, to Santiago de Compostella in Galicia, Spain. ==Carthusian== The [[Carthusian]] order, on its establishment by [[Bruno of Cologne|St Bruno]], about A.D. [[1084]], developed a greatly modified form and arrangement of a monastic institution. The principle of this order, which combined the coenobitic with the solitary life, demanded the erection of buildings on a novel plan. This plan, which was first adopted by St Bruno and his twelve companions at the original institution at [[Chartreux]], near [[Grenoble]], was maintained in all the Carthusian establishments throughout [[Europe]], even after the ascetic severity of the order had been to some extent relaxed, and the primitive simplicity of their buildings had been exchanged for the magnificence of decoration which characterizes such foundations as the [[Certosa]]s of [[Pavia]] and [[Florence]]. According to the rule of St Bruno, all the members of a Carthusian brotherhood lived in the most absolute solitude and silence. Each occupied a small detached cottage, standing by itself in a small garden surrounded by high walls and connected by a common corridor or cloister. In these cottages or cells a Carthusian monk passed his time in the strictest asceticism, only leaving his solitary dwelling to attend the services of the Church, except on certain days when the brotherhood assembled in the refectory. The peculiarity of the arrangements of a Carthusian monastery, or charter-house, as it was called in England, from a corruption of the French chartreux, is exhibited in the plan of that of [[Clermont]], from [[Viollet-le-Duc]]. ==Clermont== The whole establishment is surrounded hy a wall, furnished at intervals with watch towers. The enclosure is divided into two courts, of which the eastern court, surrounded by a cloister, from which the cottages of the monks open, is musch the larger. The two courts are divided by the main buildings of the monastery, including the church, the sanctuary, divided from the monks' choir, by a screen with two altars, the smaller cloister to the south surrounded by the chapter-house, the refectory and the chapel of Pontgibaud. The kitchen with its offices lies behind the refectory, accessible from the outer court without entering the cloister. To the north of the church, beyond the [[sacristy]], and the side chapels, there is the cell of the sub-prior, with its garden. The lodgings of the prior occupy the centre of the outer court, immediately in front of the west door of the church, and face the gateway of the convent. A small raised court with a fountain is before it. This outer court also contains the guest-chambers, the stables and lodgings of the [[lay brothers]], the barns and granaries, the [[dovecot]] and the bakehouse. There is also a prison. In this outer court, in all the earlier foundations, as at Witham, there was a smaller church in addition to the larger church of the monks.) The outer and inner courts are connected by a long passage, wide enough to admit a cart laden with wood to supply the cells of the brethren with fuel. The number of cells surrounding the great cloister is 18. They are all arranged on a uniform plan. Each little dwelling contains three rooms: a sitting-room warmed by a stove in winter; a sleeping-room furnished with a bed, a table, a bench, and a bookcase; and a closet. Between the cell and the cloister gallery is a passage or corridor, cutting off the inmate of the cell from all sound or movement which might interrupt his meditations. The superior had free access to this corridor, and through open niches was able to inspect the garden without being seen. There is a hatch or turn-table, in which the daily allowance of food was deposited by a brother appointed for that purpose, affording no view either inwards or outwards. The above arrangements are found with scarcely any variation in all the charter-houses of western Europe. The [[Yorkshire]] [[Charterhouse]] of [[Mount Grace]], founded by [[Thomas Holland]], the young duke of Surrey, nephew of Richard II. and marshal of England, during the revival of the popularity of the order, about A.D. [[1397]], is the most perfect and best preserved English example. It is characterized by all the simplicity of the order. The church is a modest building, long, narrow and aisleless. Within the wall of enclosure are two courts. The smaller of the two, the south, presents the usual arrangement of church, refectory, etc., opening out of a cloister. The buildings are plain and solid. The northern court contains the cells, 14 in number. It is surrotmded by a double stone wall, the two walls being about 30 ft. or 40 ft. apart. Between these, each in its own garden, stand the cells; low-built two-storied cottages, of two or three rooms on the ground-floor, lighted by a larger and a smaller window to the side, and provided with a doorway to the court, and one at the back, opposite to one in the outer wall, through which the monk may have conveyed the sweepings of his cell and the refuse of his garden to the "eremus" beyond. By the side of the door to the court is a little hatch through which the daily pittance of food was supplied, so contrived by turning at an angle in the wall that no one could either look in or look out. A very perfect example of this hatch---an arrangement belonging to all Carthusian houses--exists at [[Miraflores]], near [[Burgos]], which remains nearly as it was completed in 1480. There were only nine Carthusian houses in England. The earliest was that at [[Witham]] in [[Somerset]], founded by [[Henry II of England|Henry II]], by whom the order was first brought into England. The wealthiest and most magnificent was that of Sheen or Richmond in [[Surrey]], founded by [[Henry V of England|Henry V]] about [[1414]]. The dimensions of the buildings at Sheen are stated to have been remarkably large. The great court measured 300 by 250 ft (91 by 76 m); the cloisters were a square of 500 ft (152 m); the hall was 110 ft (34 m) in length by 60 ft (18 m) in breadth. ==Mendicant Friars== An article on monastic arrangements would be incomplete without some account of the convents of the Mendicant or Preaching Friars, including the Black Friars or [[Dominican Order|Dominican]]s, the Grey or [[Franciscan]]s, the White or [[Carmelites]], the Eremite or [[Augustinians|Augustinian]], Friars. These orders arose at the beginning of the 13th century, with the growth of towns and cities. Whereas Benedictines and their various branches had worked to achieve self-sufficient agricultural estates, the Mendicant Friars operated differently. Planting themselves, as a rule, in large towns, and by preference in the poorest and most densely populated districts, the Preaching Friars were obliged to adapt their buildings to the requirements of the site. Regularity of arrangement, therefore, was not possible, even if they had studied it. Their churches, built for the reception of large congregations of hearers rather than worshippers, form a class by themselves, totally unlike those of the elder orders in ground-plan and character. They were usually long parallelograms unbroken by transepts. The nave very usually consisted of two equal bodies, one containing the stalls of the brotherhood, the other left entirely free for the congregation. The constructional choir is often wanting, the whole church forming one uninterrupted structure, with a continuous range of windows. The east end was usually square, but the Friars Church at [[Winchelsea]] had a polygonal apse. We not unfrequently find a single transept, sometimes of great size, rivalling or exceeding the nave. This arrangement is frequent in [[Ireland]], where the numerous small friaries afford admirable exemplifications of these peculiarities of ground-plan. The friars' churches were at first destitute of towers; but in the 14th and 15th centuries, tall, slender towers were commonly inserted between the nave and the choir. The Grey Friars at Lynn, where the tower is hexagonal, is a good example. The arrangement of the monastic buildings is equally peculiar and characteristic. We miss entirely the regularity of the buildings of the earlier orders. At the Jacobins at Paris, a cloister lay to the north of the long narrow church of two parallel aisles, while the refectory--a room of immense length, quite detached from the cloister--stretched across the area before the west front of the church. At Toulouse the nave also has two parallel aisles, but the choir is apsidal, with radiating chapel. The refectory stretches northwards at right angles to the cloister, which lies to the north of the church, having the chapter-house and sacristy on the east. ==Norwich, Gloucester == As examples of English friaries, the Dominican house at [[Norwich]], and those of the Dominicans and Franciscans at Gloucester, may be mentioned. The church of the Black Friars of Norwich departs from the original type in the nave (now St Andrew's Hall), in having regular aisles. In this it resembles the earlier examples of the Grey Friars at Reading. The choir is long and aisleless; an hexagonal tower between the two, like that existing at Lynn, has perished. Thc cloister and monastic buildings remain tolerably perfect to the north. The Dominican convent at Gloucester still exhibits the cloister-court, on the north side of which is the desecrated church. The refectory is on the west side and on the south the dormitory of the 13th century. This is a remarkably good example. There were 18 cells or cubicles on each side, divided by partitions, the bases of which remain. On the east side was the prior's house, a building of later date. At the Grey or Franciscan Friars, the church followed the ordinary type in having two equal bodies, each gabled, with a continuous range of windows. There was a slender tower between the nave and the choir. ==Hulne== Of the convents of the Carmelite or White Friars we have a good example in the Abbey of Hulne, near Alnwick, the first of the order in England, founded A.D. [[1240]]. The church is a narrow oblong, destitute of aisles, 123 ft. long by only 26 ft. wide. The cloisters are to the south, with the chapter-house, etc., to the east, with the dormitory over. The prior's lodge is placed to the west of the cloister. The guest-houses adjoin the entrance gateway, to which a chapel was annexed on the south side of the conventual area. The nave of the church of the Austin Friars or Eremites in London is still standing. It is of Decorated date, and has wide centre and side aisles, divided by a very light and graceful arcade. Some fragments of the south walk of the cloister of the Grey Friars remained among the buildings of [[Christ's Hospital]] (the Blue-Coat School), while they were still standing. Of the Black Friars all has perished but the name. Taken as a whole, the remains of the establishments of the friars afford little warrant for the bitter invective of the Benedictine of St Alban's, Matthew Paris: "The friars who have been founded hardly 40 years have built residences as the palaces of kings. These are they who, enlarging day by day their sumptuous edifices, encircling them with lofty walls, lay up in them their incalculable treasures, imprudently transgressing the bounds of poverty and violating the very fundamental rules of their profession." Allowance must here be made for jealousy of a rival order just rising in popularity. ==Cells== Every large monastery had depending upon it smaller foundations known as cells or priories. Sometimes these foundations were no more than a single building serving as residence and farm offices, while other examples were miniature monasteries for 5 or 10 monks. The outlying farming establishments belonging to the monastic foundations were known as villae or granges. They were usually staffed by [[lay-brothers]], sometimes under the supervision of a single monk. ==Abbots and abbesses as rulers== Some cities were ruled by heads of a certain abbey. For more information, see [[abbey-principality]]. ==Nunnery== A '''nunnery''' is a convent of nuns. The first nunnery in England was built at [[Folkestone]] in about 635 by [[Eadbald of Kent|King Eadbald]]. ==See also== * [[List of abbeys and priories]] ==External links== {{Commons|Abbey}} *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01010a.htm Abbey] Catholic Encyclopedia *[http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/A10_ADA/ABBEY_Lat_abbatia_from_Syr_abb.html Abbey] ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' (1911) *[http://www.sacred-destinations.com/sacred-sites/christian-monasteries.htm Abbeys and Monasteries Index] Sacred Destinations *[http://www.sacred-destinations.com/france/abbeys-of-france.htm Abbeys of France] Sacred Destinations [[Category:Abbeys|*]] [[Category:Art history]] [[ca:Abadia]] [[de:Abtei]] [[es:Abadía]] [[fr:Abbaye]] [[gl:Abadía]] [[it:Abbazia]] [[lb:Abtei]] [[nl:Abdij]] [[pl:Opactwo]] [[pt:Abadia]] [[ru:Аббатство]] 1316 40578874 2006-02-21T16:05:19Z 213.190.157.130 The '''Annales School''' is a school of historical writing named after the French scholarly journal ''[[Annales d'histoire économique et sociale]]'' (later called ''[[Annales. Economies, sociétés, civilisations]]'', then renamed in [[1994]] as ''[[Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales]]'') where it was first expounded. Annales school history is best known for incorporating [[social science|social scientific]] methods into history. The Annales was founded and edited by [[Marc Bloch]] and [[Lucien Febvre]] in [[1929]], while they were teaching at the [[University of Strasbourg]]. These authors quickly became associated with the distinctive Annales approach, which combined geography, history, and the sociological approaches of the [[Annee Sociologique]] (many members of which were their colleagues at Strasbourg) to produce an approach which rejected the predominant emphasis on politics, diplomacy and war of many 19th century historians. Instead, they pioneered an approach to a study of long-term historical structures (''[[la longue durée]]'') over events. Geography, material culture, and what later Annalistes called ''mentalities'' or the psychology of the epoch are also characteristic areas of study. An eminent member of this school, [[Georges Duby]], wrote in the forward of his book "Le dimanche de Bouvines" that the history he is teaching "rejected on the sidelines the sensational, was reluctant to the simple acounting of events, strived on the contrary to pose and solve problems and, neglecting the surface trepidations, wanted to observe on the long and medium term the evolution of economy, society and civilisation." Bloch was shot by the [[Gestapo]] during the German occupation of France in [[World War II]], and Febvre carried on the Annales approach in the 1940s and 1950s. It was during this time that he trained [[Fernand Braudel]], who would become one of the best known exponents of this school. Braudel's work came to define a 'second' era of Annales historiography and was very influential throughout the 1960s and 1970s, especially for his work on the Mediterranean region in the era of Philip II of Spain. While authors such as [[Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie]] and [[Jacques Le Goff]] continue to carry the Annales banner, today the Annales approach has been less distinctive as more and more historians do work in [[cultural history]] and [[economic history]]. ''See also:'' [[Historiography]] ==References== * [http://www.strath.ac.uk/Departments/History/s_adams/annales.htm Fernand Braudel and the Annales School by David Moon] ==Further reading== *Peter Burke. ''The French Historical Revolution: The Annales School, 1929-1989''. Stanford University Press. 1991. *François Dosse. ''The New History in France: The Triumph of the Annales''. University of Illinois Press. 1994. *Lynn Hunt and Jacques Revel (eds). ''Histories: French Constructions of the Past''. The New Press. 1994. (A collection of essays with many pieces from the Annales--the long introduction is excellent, and contains many good references). [[Category:Historiography]] [[Category:Historiosophy]] [[cs:Škola Annales]] [[de:Annales-Schule]] [[es:Escuela de los Annales]] [[fr:École des Annales]] [[it:Scuola delle Annales]] [[ja:アナール学派]] [[lt:Analų mokykla]] [[pl:Szkoła Annales]] [[pt:Escola dos Annales]] [[fi:Annalistinen koulukunta]] [[sv:Annales-skolan]] [[zh:年鑑學派]] 1317 42074510 2006-03-03T17:23:36Z Lynch82 1016163 /* Artificial production */ minor changes :''For the [[physics]] of antimatter, see the article on [[antiparticle]]s; for the [[Cubanate]] album, see [[Antimatter (album)]].'' {{Antimatter}} '''Antimatter''' or '''contra-terrene matter''' is [[matter]] that is composed of the [[antiparticle]]s of those that constitute normal matter. If a particle and its antiparticle come in contact with each other, the two [[Annihilation|annihilate]] and produce a burst of [[energy]], which results in the production of other particles and antiparticles or [[electromagnetic radiation]]. In these reactions, [[rest mass]] is not conserved, although (as in any other reaction) energy ([[E=mc²]]) is conserved. == History == In 1928 [[Paul Dirac]] developed a [[theory of relativity|relativistic]] equation for the [[electron]], now known as the [[Dirac equation]]. Curiously, the equation was found to have negative energy solutions in addition to the normal positive ones. This presented a problem, as electrons tend toward the lowest possible energy level; energies of negative infinity are nonsensical. As a way of getting around this, Dirac proposed that the vacuum can be considered a "sea" of negative energy, the [[Dirac sea]]. Any electrons would therefore have to sit on top of the sea. Thinking further, Dirac found that a "hole" in the sea would have a positive charge. At first he thought that this was the [[proton]], but [[Hermann Weyl]] pointed out the hole should have the same mass as the electron. The existence of this particle, the [[positron]], was confirmed experimentally in 1932 by [[Carl D. Anderson]]. Today's [[standard model]] shows that every particle has an antiparticle, for which each additive [[quantum number]] has the negative of the value it has for the normal matter particle. The sign reversal applies only to quantum numbers (properties) which are additive, such as [[charge]], but not to [[mass]], for example. The [[positron]] has the opposite charge but the same mass as the electron. An [[atom]] of [[antihydrogen]] is composed of a negatively-charged [[antiproton]] being [[atomic orbital|orbited]] by a positively-charged [[positron]] . == Antimatter production == ===Artificial production=== The artificial production of antimatter (specifically [[antihydrogen]]) first became a reality in the early 1990s. [[Charles Munger]] of the [[SLAC]], and associates at [[Fermilab]], realised that an [[antiproton]], travelling at [[relativistic speeds]] and passing close to the [[nucleus]] of an [[atom]], would have the potential to force the creation of an [[electron]]-[[positron]] pair. It was postulated that under this scenario the antiproton would have a small chance of pairing with the positron (ejecting the electron) to form an antihydrogen atom. In [[1995]] [[CERN]] announced that it had successfully created 9 antihydrogen atoms by implementing the SLAC/Fermilab concept during the [[PS210 experiment]]. The experiment was preformed using the Low-Energy Antiproton Ring ([[LEAR]]), and was lead by [[Walter Oelert]] and [[Mario Macri]]. Fermilab soon confirmed the CERN findings by producing approximately 100 antihydrogen atoms at their facilities. The antihydrogen atoms created during PS210, and subsequent experiments (at both CERN and Fermilab) were extremely energetic ("hot") and were not well suited to study. To resolve this hurdle, and to gain a better understanding of antihydrogen, two collaborations were formed in the late 1990s - [[ATHENA]] and [[ATRAP]]. The primary goal of these collaborations is the creation of less energetic ("cold") antihydrogen, better suited to study. In [[1999]] CERN activated the [[Antiproton Decelerator]], a device capable of decelerating antiprotons from 3.5 GeV/c to 5.3 MeV – still too "hot" to produce study effective antihydrogen, but a huge leap forward. In late [[2002]] the ATHENA project announced that they had created the worlds first "cold" antihydrogen. The antiprotons used in the experiment were 'cooled' sufficiently by decelerating them (using the Antiproton Decelerator), passing them through a thin sheet of foil, and finally capturing them in a [[Penning Trap]]. The antiprotons also underwent [[stochastic cooling]] at several stages during the process. The ATHENA team's antiproton cooling process is effective, but highly inefficient. Approximately 25 million antiprotons leave the Antiproton Decelerator; roughly 10 thousand make it to the Penning Trap. In early 2004 ATHENA researchers released data on a new method of creating low energy antihydrogen. The technique involves slowing antiprotons using the Antiproton Decelerator, and injecting them into a Penning trap (specifically a Penning-Malmberg trap). Once trapped the antiprotons are mixed with electrons that have been cooled to an energy potential significantly less than the antiprotons; the resulting Coulomb collisions cool the antiprotons while warming the electrons until the particles reach an equilibrium of approximately 4 K. While the antiprotons are being cooled in the first trap, a small cloud of positron plasma is injected into a second trap (the mixing trap). Exciting the resonance of the mixing trap’s confinement fields can control the temperature of the positron plasma; but the procedure is more effective when the plasma is in thermal equilibrium with the trap’s environment. The positron plasma cloud is generated in a positron accumulator prior to injection; the source of the positrons is usually radioactive sodium. Once the antiprotons are sufficiently cooled, the antiproton-electron mixture is transferred into the mixing trap (containing the positrons). The electrons are subsequently removed by a series of fast pulses in the mixing traps electrical field. When the antiprotons reach the positron plasma further Coulomb collisions occur, resulting in further cooling of the antiprotons. When the positrons and antiprotons approach thermal equilibrium antihydrogen atoms begin to form. Being electrically neutral the antihydrogen atoms are not effected by the trap and can leave the confinement fields. Using this method ATHENA researchers predict they will be able to create to 100 antihydrogen atoms per operational second. ATHENA and ATRAP are now seeking to further 'cool' the antihydrogen atoms by subjecting them to an [[inhomogeneous field]]. While antihydrogen atoms are electrically neutral, their spin produces [[magnetic moments]]. These magnetic moments vary depending on the [[spin direction]] (up or down) of the atom, and can be deflected by inhomogeneous fields regardless of electrical charge. The biggest limiting factor in the production of antimatter is the availability of antiprotons. Recent data released by CERN states that when fully operational their facilities are capable of producing <math>10^7</math> antiprotons per second. Assuming an optimal conversion of antiprotons to antihydrogen (which is far from true) it would take two billion years (give or take a few thousand) to produce 1 gram of antihydrogen. Another limiting factor to antimatter production is storage. As stated above there is no known way to effectively store antihydrogen. The ATHENA project has managed to keep antihydrogen atoms from annihilation for 10s of seconds - just enough time to briefly study their behaviour. Antimatter/matter reactions have practical applications in medical imaging, such as [[positron emission tomography]] (PET). In some kinds of [[beta decay]], a nuclide loses surplus positive charge by emitting a positron (in the same event, a proton becomes a neutron, and [[neutrino]]s are also given off). Nuclides with surplus positive charge are easily made in a [[cyclotron]] and are widely generated for medical use. ===Naturally occurring production=== Antiparticles are created everywhere in the [[universe]] where high-energy particle collisions take place. High-energy [[cosmic ray]]s impacting Earth's atmosphere (or any other matter in the [[solar system]]) produce minute quantities of antimatter in the resulting [[particle jet]]s, which is immediately destroyed by contact with nearby matter. It may similarly be produced in regions like the center of the [[Milky Way Galaxy]], where very energetic celestial events occur. The presence of the resulting antimatter is detected by the gamma rays produced when it annihilates with nearby matter. Antiparticles are also produced in any environment with a sufficiently high temperature (mean particle energy greater than the [[pair production]] threshold). The region of space near a [[black hole]]'s [[event horizon]] can be thought of as being such an environment, with the resulting matter and antimatter being a component of [[Hawking radiation]]. During the period of [[baryogenesis]], when the universe was extremely hot and dense, matter and antimatter were continually produced and annihilated. The presence of remaining matter, and absence of detection of remaining antimatter{{ref|BigBang}}, is attributed to [[CP-violation|violation]] of the [[CP-symmetry]] relating matter and antimatter. The exact mechanism of this violation during baryogenesis remains a mystery. == Notation == Physicists need a notation to distinguish particles from antiparticles. One way is to denote an antiparticle by adding a bar (or [[macron]]) over the symbol for the particle. For example, the proton and antiproton are denoted as <math>\mathrm{p}\,</math> and <math>\bar{\mathrm{p}}</math>, respectively. Another convention is to distinguish particles by their [[electric charge]]. Thus, the electron and positron are denoted simply as e^&minus; and e⁺. Adding a bar over the e⁺ symbol would be redundant and is not done. == Antimatter as fuel == In antimatter-matter collisions, the entire rest [[mass]] of the particles is converted to [[energy]]. The [[Energies per unit mass|energy per unit mass]] is about 10 orders of magnitude greater than chemical energy, and about 2 orders of magnitude greater than nuclear energy that can be liberated today using chemical reactions or nuclear fission/fusion. The reaction of 1 [[kilogram|kg]] of antimatter with 1 kg of matter would produce 1.8&times;10¹⁷ [[joule|J]] (180 petajoules) of energy (by the equation ''[[E=mc²]]''). In contrast, burning a kilogram of [[petrol|gasoline]] produces 4.2&times;10⁷ J, and [[nuclear fusion]] of a kilogram of hydrogen would produce 2.6&times;10¹⁵ J. Not all of that energy can be utilized by any realistic technology, because as much as 50% of energy produced in reactions between nucleons and antinucleons is carried away by [[neutrinos]], so, for all intents and purposes, it can be considered lost.{{ref|Reactions}} The scarcity of antimatter means that it is not readily available to be used as fuel, although it could be used in [[antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion]]. Generating a single antiproton is immensely difficult and requires particle accelerators and vast amounts of energy&mdash;millions of times more than is released after it is annihilated with ordinary matter, due to inefficiencies in the process. Known methods of producing antimatter from energy also produce an equal amount of normal matter, so the theoretical limit is that half of the input energy is converted to antimatter. Counterbalancing this, when antimatter annihilates with ordinary matter, energy equal to twice the mass of the antimatter is liberated&mdash;so energy storage in the form of antimatter could (in theory) be 100% efficient. Antimatter production is currently very limited, but has been growing at a nearly geometric rate since the discovery of the first antiproton in 1955.{{ref|History}} The current antimatter production rate is between 1 and 10 nanograms per year, and this is expected to increase dramatically with new facilities at [[CERN]] and [[Fermilab]]. With current technology, it is considered possible to attain antimatter for [[United States dollar|US$]]25 million per gram by optimizing the collision and collection parameters (given current electricity generation costs). Antimatter production costs, in mass production, are almost linearly tied in with electricity costs, so economical pure-antimatter thrust applications are unlikely to come online without the advent of such technologies as [[deuterium]]-tritium [[fusion power]]. However, it should be noted that in 2004, the annual production of antiprotons at CERN was several picograms at a cost of $20 million. This means to produce 1 gram of antimatter, CERN would need to spend 100 million trillion dollars and run the antimatter factory for 100 billion years. Several [[NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts]]-funded studies are exploring whether the antimatter that occurs naturally in the [[Van Allen belt]]s of Earth, and ultimately, the belts of gas giants like [[Jupiter]], might be able to be collected with magnetic scoops, at hopefully a lower cost per gram.{{ref|VanAllenBelts}} Since the energy density is vastly higher than these other forms, the thrust to weight equation used in [[antimatter rocket]]ry and [[spacecraft]] would be very different. In fact, the energy in a few grams of antimatter is enough to transport an unmanned spacecraft to [[Mars]] in about a month&mdash;the [[Mars Global Surveyor]] took eleven months to reach Mars. It is hoped that antimatter could be used as [[fuel]] for [[interplanetary travel]] or possibly [[interstellar travel]], but it is also feared that if humanity ever gets the capabilities to do so, there could be the construction of [[antimatter weapon]]s. == The Antiuniverse == Dirac himself was the first to consider the existence of antimatter in an astronomical scale. But it was only after the confirmation of his theory, with the discovery of the positron, antiproton and antineutron that real speculation began on the possible existence of an antiuniverse. In the following years, motivated by basic [[symmetry]] principles, it was believed that the [[universe]] must consist of both matter and antimatter in equal amounts. If, however there were an isolated system of antimatter in the universe, free from interaction with ordinary matter, no earthbound observation could distinguish its true content, as photons (being their own antiparticle) are the same whether they are in a “universe” or an “antiuniverse”. But assuming large zones of antimatter exist, there must be some boundary where antimatter atoms from the antimatter [[galaxies]] or [[stars]] will come into contact with normal atoms. In those regions a powerful flux of [[gamma rays]] would be produced. This has never been observed despite deployment of very sensitive instruments in space to detect them. It is now thought that symmetry was broken in the early universe when [[charge]] and [[parity]] symmetry was violated ([[CP-violation]]). Standard [[Big Bang]] cosmology tells us that the universe initially contained equal amounts of matter and antimatter: however particles and [[antiparticle]]s evolved slightly differently. It was found that a particular heavy unstable particle, which is its own antiparticle, decays slightly more often to positrons (e⁺) than to electrons (e^-). How this accounts for the preponderance of matter over antimatter has not been completely explained. The [[Standard Model]] of [[particle physics]] does have a way of accommodating a difference between the evolution of matter and antimatter, but it falls short of explaining the net excess of matter in the universe by about 10 orders of magnitude. After Dirac, the sci-fi writers had a field day with visions of antiworlds, antistars and antiuniverses, all made of antimatter, and it is still a common [[plot device]], however suppositions of the existence a coeval, antimatter duplicate of this universe are not taken seriously in modern [[cosmology]]. : ''See also: [http://www2.slac.stanford.edu/tip/special/cp.htm What is direct CP-violation?]'' == Antimatter in popular culture == The extremely large amount of energy released by matter/antimatter annihilation has inspired many appearances in fiction: *A famous fictional example of antimatter in action is in the [[science fiction]] franchise ''[[Star Trek]]'', where it is a common energy source for [[starship]]s; large reactors generate power by mixing supercooled deuterium and antideuterium, with the annihilation reaction regulated by [[dilithium]] crystals. It is also used as a weapon, as in [[photon torpedo]]es. *Antimatter engines also appear in various books of the ''[[Dragonriders of Pern]]'' series by [[Anne McCaffrey]]. *In [[Larry Niven|Niven's]] ''[[Ringworld]]'' series, antimatter appears as a weapon useful against even the super-dense matter [[scrith]]. *[[Dan Brown]] explores the use of antimatter as a [[weapon]] in his novel ''[[Angels and Demons]]'', where terrorists threaten to destroy the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] with potentially unstable antimatter stolen from [[CERN]]. *In ''[[The Night's Dawn Trilogy]]'' by [[Peter F. Hamilton]], antimatter is characterized as the most dangerous substance imaginable and outlawed across the Galaxy. *Antimatter is briefly referenced in the 1966 movie ''[[Batman: The Movie]],'' (several evil henchmen are turned into antimatter when they are revived using "heavy water" from the batcave), but the concept remains completely unexplained in this example. *In the episode of ''[[Doctor Who]]'', "The Planet of Evil," the scientist Dr. Sorenson is transformed into an 'antiman' due to exposure to antimatter. *Late in ''[[The Rocky Horror Picture Show]]'', Riff confirms to Dr. Furter that the pitchfork-like weapon he has pointed at him is "a [[laser]], capable of emitting a beam of pure antimatter." This misuse of the term led to the audience-response line, "Then it's not a laser." *In [[comic books]] produced by [[DC Comics]], the notion of an antiuniverse, or in DC's parlance Anti-Matter Universe, was first utilized in the ''[[Green Lantern]]'' series in the [[1960s]]. The Anti-Matter Universe contains a world known as [[Qward]], home to the [[Green Lantern Corps]]' sworn enemies, the Weaponers of Qward. *In the ''[[City of Heroes]]'' comic book, the [[superhero]] [[Positron (City of Heroes)|Positron]] is capable of generating anti-matter, and utilizing it as a weapon. *In 1985, a powerful, twisted denizen of the Anti-Matter Universe known as the [[Anti-Monitor]] succeeded in destroying most of the DC [[Multiverse]] during the events of the twelve-issue [[limited series]] ''[[Crisis on Infinite Earths]]''. *The [[Protoss]] race of [[Starcraft]] uses antimatter for both propulsion and weaponry. == See also == * [[Gravitational interaction of antimatter]] * [[Elementary particle]] * [[Positron]] == References == * {{cite book | first=Paul | last=Tipler | coauthors=Ralph Llewellyn | title=Modern Physics | edition=4th ed. | publisher=W. H. Freeman | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0716743450}} === Footnotes === # {{note | BigBang }} {{cite web | year = 2000 | url = http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2000/ast29may_1m.htm | title = "What's the Matter with Antimatter? | publisher = NASA Science News | accessdate = January 3 | accessyear = 2006 }} # {{note | Reactions }} {{cite web | author = Stanley K. Borowski | year = 1987 | url = http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov/reports/1996/TM-107030.pdf | title = Comparison of Fusion/Antiproton Propulsion Systems for Interplanetary Travel | format = PDF | publisher = [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] | accessdate = December 7 | accessyear = 2005 }} # {{note | History }} {{cite web | author = Tyler Freeman | year = 2003 | url = http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/212_fall2003.web.dir/tyler_freeman/history.htm | title = The History of Antimatter | work = Antimatter: The Science Fact | accessdate = December 7 | accessyear = 2005 }} # {{note | VanAllenBelts }} {{cite web | author = Jim Bickford | url = http://www.niac.usra.edu/files/studies/abstracts/1071Bickford.pdf | title = Extraction of Antiparticles in Planetary Magnetic Fields | format = PDF | publisher = NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts | accessdate = December 7 | accessyear = 2005 }} == External links and references == * [http://livefromcern.web.cern.ch/livefromcern/antimatter/webcast/AM-webcast06.html CERN Webcasts (Realplayer required)] * [http://www.positron.edu.au/faq.html What is Antimatter?] (from the Frequently Asked Questions at the Center for Antimatter-Matter Studies) * [http://public.web.cern.ch/Public/Content/Chapters/Spotlight/SpotlightAandD-en.html Some interesting FAQs from CERN] that contain lots of information about antimatter aimed at the general reader [[Category:Antimatter| ]] [[Category:Matter]] [[Category:Quantum field theory]] [[Category:Particle physics]] [[Category:Physics in fiction]] [[bg:Антиматерия]] [[ca:Antimatèria]] [[cs:Antihmota]] [[da:Antistof (fysik)]] [[de:Antimaterie]] [[el:Αντιύλη]] [[es:Antimateria]] [[fi:Antimateria]] [[fr:Antimatière]] [[gl:Antimateria]] [[he:אנטי-חומר]] [[hr:Antimaterija]] [[hu:Antianyag]] [[it:Antimateria]] [[ja:反物質]] [[lt:Antimaterija]] [[nl:Antimaterie]] [[no:Antimaterie]] [[pl:Antymateria]] [[pt:Antimatéria]] [[ru:Антивещество]] [[simple:Antimatter]] [[sk:Antihmota]] [[sl:Antimaterija]] [[sr:Антиматерија]] [[sv:Antimateria]] [[uk:Антиматерія]] [[vi:Phản vật chất]] [[zh:反物质]] 1318 15899807 2003-11-22T17:57:37Z Minesweeper 7279 #REDIRECT [[Antoni Gaudí]] 1320 29513755 2005-11-28T19:53:12Z RussBot 279219 Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -"Palau Guell" +"Palau Güell" #REDIRECT [[Palau Güell]] 1321 41885593 2006-03-02T10:23:30Z RobertG 232051 fix double redirect #REDIRECT [[Sagrada Família]] 1322 38094883 2006-02-04T03:32:14Z Dogears 733091 + category {| border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align=right |- | [[Image:Jfader batto facade.jpg|250px|thumb|The Casa Batlló in Barcelona]] |- | [[Image:Jfader batto roof.jpg|thumb|250px|The arched roof and complex chimney detailing]] |} '''Casa Batlló''' (pronounce Casa Batyo) is a building designed by [[Antoni Gaudi]] and built in years [[1905]]&ndash;[[1907]]; located at 43, Passeig de Gràcia (''passeig'' is [[Catalan language|Catalan]] for promenade or [[avenue]]), part of the [[Illa de la Discòrdia]] in the ''[[Eixample]]'' district of [[Barcelona]], [[Catalonia]], [[Spain]]. The local name for the building is ''Casa dels ossos'' (house of bones), and indeed it does have a [[viscera]]l, [[skeleton|skeletal]] organic quality. It was originally designed for a [[middle-class]] family and situated in a prosperous district of Barcelona. The building looks very remarkable &mdash; like everything Gaudi designed, only identifiable as [[Art Nouveau]] in the broadest sense. The ground floor, in particular, is rather astonishing with tracery, irregular oval windows and flowing sculpted stone work. It seems that the goal of the designer was to avoid straight lines completely. Much of the [[façade]] is decorated with a [[mosaic]] made of broken ceramic tiles that starts in shades of golden orange moving into greenish blues. The roof is [[arch]]ed and was likened to the back of a [[European dragon|dragon]] or [[dinosaur]]. A common theory about the building is that the rounded feature to the left of centre, terminating at the top in a turret and cross, represents the sword of [[Saint George]], which has been plunged into the back of the dragon. ==External links== *[http://www.casabatllo.es The official website of La Casa Batlló] *[http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Casa_Batllo.html Casa Batlló on GreatBuildings.com] *[http://www.barcelona-tourist-guide.com/albums-en/gaudi-casa-batllo/index.html Casa Batlló pictures] *[http://www.op.net/~jmeltzer/Gaudi/batllo.html Casa Batlló description] [[Category:Buildings and structures in Barcelona]] [[Category:Modernisme]] [[Category:Antoni Gaudí buildings]] [[ca:Casa Batlló]] [[de:Casa Batlló]] [[es:Casa Batlló]] [[fr:Casa Batlló]] [[gl:Casa Batlló]] [[nl:Casa Batlló]] [[sr:Каза Батљо]] 1323 15899812 2002-10-09T13:58:43Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Casa_Milà]] #REDIRECT [[Casa Milà]] 1324 42074345 2006-03-03T17:22:09Z Rhobite 82899 la -> the [[image:Parcguell.jpg|right|frame|The entrance to the park]] '''Park Güell''' is a garden complex with [[Architecture|architectural]] elements situated on the hill of [[El Carmel]] in the [[Gràcia]] district of [[Barcelona]], [[Spain]]. It was designed by the [[Catalan]] [[architect]] [[Antoni Gaudi|Antoni Gaudí]] and built in the years [[1900]] to [[1914]]. It is one of the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]]. The Park was originally part of a commercially unsuccessful housing site. The idea of Count [[Eusebio de Guell]]. It was inspired by British developments, hence the original English name ''Park''. It has been converted into a municipal garden. It can be reached by underground, although the stations are at a certain distance, by the regular buses, or best by the tourist buses. While the Park is free, Gaudí's house &mdash; containing furniture that he designed &mdash; can be visited at a cost. [[image:Park Guell Terrace.JPG|left|thumb|[[Gaudí]]'s mosaic work on the main terrace]] The design of the Park is clearly the work of an architect and Gaudí's unique style is also easily distinguishable. Wavy, lava-like shapes, at places tree-like or in form of Doric columns or stalactites, sometimes lavishly decorated with ornaments of [[trencadís|broken ceramic fragments, a Catalan technique]]. The landscaping of the Park is largely in tune with the natural terrain; steep slopes and cliffs have been allowed to remain, with winding paths, cuttings and grottoes adding to the natural feel. Although it sounds unlikely, the place is skillfully designed and composed to bring the peace and calm that one would expect from a park. The buildings, though very original and remarkable, are relatively inconspicuous, considering other buildings designed by Gaudí. They have fantastically shaped roofs with unusual pinnacles. The focal point of the park is the main terrace, surrounded by a long bench in the form of a [[sea serpent]]. Gaudí used a naked man, sitting in clay, to design the bench. The curves form a number of enclaves, creating a more social atmosphere. The large cross at the Park's high-point offers the most complete view of Barcelona. It is possible to view the main city in panaroma, with the [[Sagrada Familia]] and the [[Montjuïc]] area visible at a distance. ==External links== * [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=41.414048,2.150187&spn=0.003677,0.007522&t=k Park Güell at Google Maps] *[http://www.gardenvisit.com/ge/guel.htm Parque Guell Barcelona - Gardens Guide] * [http://www.barcelona-tourist-guide.com/albums-en/gaudi-park-guell/index.html Park Güell Photo Gallery] {{commons|Parc Güell|Parc Güell}} [[Category:Barcelona]] [[Category:Modernisme]] [[Category:Parks in Spain|Guell]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites in Spain]] [[Category:Antoni Gaudí buildings]] [[ca:Parc Güell]] [[de:Park Güell]] [[es:Parque Güell]] [[fr:Parc Güell]] [[nl:Parc Güell]] [[ja:グエル公園]] [[ro:Parc Güell]] [[sl:Park Güell]] [[sr:Парк Гуел]] [[sv:Parc Güell]] 1325 38981191 2006-02-09T22:46:08Z Jahsonic 5720 [[Image:Casamila.jpg|right|thumb|Casa Milà, Barcelona.]] [[Image:LaPedreraParabola.jpg|thumb|Image:LaPedreraParabola.jpg|[[Parabola|Parabolic]] or [[catenary]] [[arch]]es under the terrace of Casa Milà.]] '''Casa Milà''', better known as '''La Pedrera''' (Catalan for 'The Quarry'), is a building designed by the Catalan [[architect]] [[Antoni Gaudi|Antoni Gaudí]] and built in the years [[1905]] to [[1907]]. It is located at 92, Passeig de Gràcia ('passeig' is Catalan for promenade or avenue) in the ''[[Eixample]]'' district of [[Barcelona]], [[Catalonia]], [[Spain]]. It was built for Roger Segimon de Milà. It is one of the UNESCO [[World Heritage Sites]]. The building does not have any straight lines. Most people consider it magnificent and overwhelming -- some say it is like waves of lava or a sand-dune. This building seems to break our understanding of conventional [[architecture]]. The most astonishing part is the roof with an almost lunar appearance and dreamlike landscape. The building can be considered more of a sculpture than a regular building. Critics remark on its detachment from usefulness, but others consider it to be art. The Barcelonese of the time considered it ugly, hence the "quarry" nickname, but today it is a landmark of Barcelona. Casa Milà was a predecessor of some buildings with a similar [[biomorphism|biomorphic]] appearance: * the 1921 [[Einstein Tower]] in [[Potsdam]], designed by [[Erich Mendelsohn]] * [[Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum]] in [[New York]], designed by [[Frank Lloyd Wright]] * [[Chapelle Notre Dame du Haut]], [[Ronchamp]], [[France]], designed by [[Le Corbusier]] * the [[Hundertwasserhaus]] and other words by Austrian architect [[Friedensreich Hundertwasser]] * Disney Concert Hall in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], by [[Frank Gehry]] Free exhibitions are often held on the first floor, which also provides some opportunity to see the interior design. There is a charge of €7 for entrance to the apartments and roof. ==Casa Milà in the media== * A scene in ''[[Professione: reporter]]'', a film directed by Michelangelo Antonioni, was filmed on the building's roof. [[Image:Casa_Mila_roof.jpg|right|thumb|Stylized stairway entrances on the roof]] ==See also== * [[List of buildings]] * [[List of museums]] <!-- [[Image:Model Gaudi Pedrera Kunsthal mei 2005.jpg|left|thumb|Scale model of a floor with apartments]] --> ==External links== * [http://www.lapedreraeducacio.org/ La Pedrera Educació] * [http://www.lodgephoto.com/galleries/spain/barcelona/lapedrera-casamila/ Photographs of Casa Mila / La Pedrera] * [http://www.barcelona-tourist-guide.com/albums-en/gaudi-pedrera/index.html Photos of La Pedrera] [[Category:Buildings and structures in Barcelona]] [[Category:Modernisme]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites in Spain]] [[Category:Antoni Gaudí buildings]] [[ca:Casa Milà]] [[de:Casa Milà]] [[es:Casa Milà]] [[fr:Casa Milà]] [[nl:Casa Milà]] [[ro:Casa Milà]] [[sv:Casa Milà]] 1327 41809972 2006-03-01T22:16:31Z 80.42.113.233 /* Experiment */ {{Template:Antimatter}} Corresponding to each kind of [[particle physics|particle]], there is an associated '''antiparticle''' with the same [[mass]] and [[Spin (physics)|spin]]. Some particles, such as the [[photon]], are identical to their antiparticle; such particles must have no [[electric charge]], but not all charge-neutral particles are of this kind. The laws of nature were thought to be symmetric between particles and antiparticles until [[CP violation]] experiments found that [[time-reversal symmetry]] is violated in nature. The observed excess of [[baryon]]s over anti-baryons in the universe is one of the primary [[Unsolved problems in physics|unsolved problems]] in [[cosmology]]. Particle-antiparticle pairs can annihilate each other if they are in appropriate [[quantum state]]s. They can also be produced in various processes. These processes are used in today's [[particle accelerator]]s to create new particles and to test theories of [[particle physics]]. High energy processes in nature can create antiparticles. These are visible in [[cosmic ray]]s and in certain [[nuclear reaction]]s. The word [[antimatter]] properly refers to (elementary) antiparticles, composite antiparticles made with them (such as [[antihydrogen]]) and to larger assemblies of either. == History == === Experiment === In [[1932]], soon after the prediction of [[positron]]s by [[Paul Dirac]], [[Carl D. Anderson]] found that cosmic-ray collisions produced these particles in a [[cloud chamber]]&mdash; a [[particle detector]] in which moving [[electron]]s (or positrons) leave behind trails as they move through the gas. The [[electric charge]]-to-[[mass]] ratio of a particle can be measured by observing the curling of its cloud-chamber track in a [[magnetic field]]. Originally, positrons, because of the direction that their paths curled, were mistaken for electrons travelling in the opposite direction. The antiproton and antineutron were found by [[Emilio Segrè]] and [[Owen Chamberlain]] in [[1955]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]]. Since then the antiparticles of many other subatomic particles have been created in particle accelerator experiments. In recent years, complete atoms of [[antimatter]] have been assembled out of antiprotons and positrons, collected in electromagnetic traps. === Hole theory === <blockquote> ... the development of quantum field theory made the interpretation of antiparticles as holes unnecessary, even though unfortunately it lingers on in many textbooks. &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; [[Steven Weinberg]] in ''The quantum theory of fields'', Vol I, p 14, ISBN 0521550017 </blockquote> Solutions of the [[Dirac equation]] contained negative energy quantum states. As a result, an electron could always radiate energy and fall into a negative energy state. Even worse, it could keep radiating infinite amount of energy because there were infinitely negative energy states available. To prevent this unphysical situation from happening, Dirac proposed that a "sea" of negative-energy electrons fills the universe, already occupying all of the lower energy states so that, due to the [[Pauli exclusion principle]] no other electron could fall into them. Sometimes, however, one of these negative energy particles could be lifted out of this [[Dirac sea]] to become a positive energy particle. But when lifted out, it would leave behind a ''hole'' in the sea which would act exactly like a positive energy electron with a reversed charge. These he interpreted as the [[proton]], and called his paper of 1930 ''A theory of electrons and protons''. Dirac was aware of the problem that his picture implied an infinite negative charge for the universe. Dirac tried to argue that we would perceive this as the normal state of zero charge. Another difficulty was the difference in masses of the electron and the proton. Dirac tried to argue that this was due to the electromagnetic interactions with the sea, until [[Hermann Weyl]] proved that hole theory was completely symmetric between negative and positive charges. Dirac also predicted a reaction <b>e&nbsp;+&nbsp;p&nbsp;→&nbsp;γ&nbsp;+&nbsp;γ</b> (electron and proton annihilate to give two [[photon]]s). [[Robert Oppenheimer]] and [[Igor Tamm]] proved that this would cause ordinary matter to disappear too fast. A year later, in 1931, Dirac modified his theory and postulated the [[positron]], a new particle of the same mass as the electron. The discovery of this particle the next year removed the last two objections to his theory. However, the problem of infinite charge of the universe remains. Also, as we now know, [[bosons]] (if they exist) also have antiparticles, but since they do not obey the Pauli exclusion principle, hole theory doesn't work for them. A unified interpretation of antiparticles is now available in [[quantum field theory]], which solves both these problems. == Particle-antiparticle annihilation == ''Main article: [[Annihilation]]''. [[Image:kkbar had.png|frame|An example of a virtual [[pion]] pair which influences the propagation of a [[kaon]] causing a neutral kaon to ''mix'' with the antikaon. This is an example of [[renormalization]] in [[quantum field theory]]&mdash; the field theory being necessary because the number of particles changes from one to two and back again.]] If a particle and antiparticle are in the appropriate quantum states, then they can '''annihilate''' each other and produce other particles. Reactions such as <b>e⁺ &nbsp;+&nbsp; e^- &nbsp;→&nbsp; γ &nbsp;+&nbsp; γ</b> (the two-photon annihilation of an electron-positron pair) is an example. The single-photon annihilation of an electron-positron pair, <b>e⁺ &nbsp;+&nbsp; e^- &nbsp;→&nbsp; γ</b> cannot occur because it is impossible to conserve energy and momentum together in this process. The reverse reaction is also impossible for this reason. However, in [[quantum field theory]] this process is allowed as an intermediate quantum state for times short enough that the violation of energy conservation can be accommodated by the [[uncertainty principle]]. This opens the way for '''virtual pair''' production or annihilation in which a one particle quantum state may ''fluctuate'' into a two particle state and back. These processes are important in the [[vacuum state]] and [[renormalization]] of a [[quantum field theory]]. It also opens the way for [[neutral particle mixing]] through processes such as the one pictured here: which is a complicated example of [[mass renormalization]]. == Properties of antiparticles == [[Quantum state]]s of a particle and an antiparticle can be interchanged by applying the [[C-symmetry|charge conjugation]] (<b>C</b>), [[P-symmetry|parity]] (<b>P</b>), and [[T-symmetry|time reversal]] (<b>T</b>). If <b>|p,σ,n></b> denotes the quantum state of a particle (<b>n</b>) with momentum <b>p</b>, spin <b>J</b> whose component in the z-direction is σ, then one has ::<b>CPT |p,σ,n> &nbsp;=&nbsp; (-1)^J-σ |p,-σ,n^c>,</b> where <b>n^c</b> denotes the charge conjugate state, ie, the antiparticle. This behaviour under <b>CPT</b> is the same as the statement that the particle and its antiparticle lie in the same [[irreducible representation]] of the [[Poincare group]]. Properties of antiparticles can be related to those of particles through this. If <b>T</b> is a good symmetry of the dynamics, then ::<b>T |p,σ,n> &nbsp;α&nbsp; |-p,-σ,n></b> ::<b>CP |p,σ,n> &nbsp;α&nbsp; |-p,σ,n^c></b> ::<b>C |p,σ,n> &nbsp;α&nbsp; |p,σ,n^c>,</b> where the proportionality sign indicates that there might be a phase on the right hand side. In other words, particle and antiparticle must have *the same mass <b>m</b> *the same spin state <b>J</b> *opposite [[electric charge]]s <b>q</b> and <b>-q</b>. == Quantum field theory == <i>This section draws upon the ideas, language and notation of [[canonical quantization]] of a [[quantum field theory]].</i> One may try to quantize an electron [[field (physics)|field]] without mixing the annihilation and creation operators by writing ::<b>ψ(x) &nbsp;=&nbsp; ∑_k u_k(x) a_k e^{-i E(k)t},</b> where we use the symbol <b>k</b> to denote the quantum numbers <b>p</b> and σ of the previous section and the sign of the energy, <b>E(k)</b>, and <b>a_k</b> denotes the corresponding annihilation operators. Of course, since we are dealing with [[fermion]]s, we have to have the operators satisfy canonical anti-commutation relations. However, if one now writes down the [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]] ::H &nbsp;=&nbsp; ∑_k E(k) a⁺_k a_k,</b> then one sees immediately that the expectation value of <b>H</b> need not be positive. This is because <b>E(k)</b> can have any sign whatsoever, and the combination of creation and annihilation operators has expectation value 1 or 0. So one has to introduce the charge conjugate ''antiparticle'' field, with its own creation and annihilation operators satisfying the relations ::<b>b_k' &nbsp;=&nbsp; a⁺_k</b> and <b>b⁺_k' &nbsp;=&nbsp; a_k</b> where <b>k'</b> has the same <b>p</b>, and opposite σ and sign of the energy. Then one can rewrite the field in the form ::<b>ψ(x) &nbsp;=&nbsp; ∑_k(+) u_k(x) a_k e^{-i E(k)t} &nbsp;+&nbsp; ∑_k(-) u_k(x) b⁺_k e^{-i E(k)t},</b> where the first sum is over positive energy states and the second over those of negative energy. The energy becomes ::<b>H &nbsp;=&nbsp; ∑_k(+) E(k) a⁺_k a_k &nbsp;+&nbsp; ∑_k(-) |E(k)| b⁺_k b_k &nbsp;+&nbsp; E₀,</b> where <b>E₀</b> is an infinite negative constant. The [[vacuum state]] is defined as the state with no particle or antiparticle, ie, <b>a_k |0> = 0</b> and <b>b_k |0> = 0</b>. Then the energy of the vacuum is exactly <b>E₀</b>. Since all energies are measured relative to the vacuum, <b>H</b> is positive definite. Analysis of the properties of <b>a_k</b> and <b>b_k</b> shows that one is the annihilation operator for particles and the other for antiparticles. This is the case of a [[fermion]]. This approach is due to [[Vladimir Fock]], [[Wendell Furry]] and [[Robert Oppenheimer]]. If one quantizes a real [[scalar field]], then one finds that there is only one kind of annihilation operator; therefore real scalar fields describe neutral [[boson]]s. Since complex scalar fields admit two different kinds of annihilation operators, which are related by conjugation, such fields describe charged [[boson]]s. === The Feynman-Stueckelberg interpretation === [[Image:antiparticle.png|thumb|350 px|left|Observer 1 sees two particles, one propagating inside the light cone, the other outside the light cone. Observer 2, moving at a uniform velocity with respect to the first observer, could then see the second particle as moving back in time, and with reversed charge: hence as an antiparticle. However, the mass and lifetime of such a particle would remain unchanged, as a consequence of relativity.]] By considering the propagation of the positive energy half of the electron field backward in time, [[Richard Feynman]] showed that [[causality]] is violated unless one allows some particles to travel faster than [[light]]. However, if particles are allowed to do that, then from the point of view of another [[inertial observer]] it would look like it was travelling backward in [[time]] with the opposite [[charge]]. Hence Feynman reached a pictorial understanding of the fact that the particle and antiparticle have equal mass <b>m</b> and spin <b>J</b> but opposite charges. This allowed him to rewrite [[perturbation theory (quantum mechanics)|perturbation theory]] precisely in the form of diagrams, called [[Feynman diagram]]s, of particles propagating back and forth in time. This technique now is the most widespread method of computing amplitudes in [[quantum field theory]]. This picture was independently developed by [[Ernst Stueckelberg]], and has been called the '''Feynman-Stueckelberg interpretation''' of antiparticles. == See also == * [[Gravitational interaction of antimatter]] * [[Parity (physics)|Parity]], [[charge conjugation]] and [[time reversal symmetry]]. * [[CP violation]]s and the [[baryon asymmetry of the universe]]. * [[Quantum field theory]] and the [[list of particles]] * [[Baryogenesis]] == References == *Feynman, Richard P. "The reason for antiparticles", in ''The 1986 Dirac memorial lectures'', R.P. Feynman and S. Weinberg. Cambridge University Press, 1987. ISBN 0521340004. *Weinberg, Steven. ''The quantum theory of fields, Volume 1: Foundations''. Cambridge University Press, 1995. ISBN 0521550017. [[Category:Antimatter|Antimatter]] [[ca:Antipartícula]] [[cs:Antičástice]] [[de:Antiteilchen]] [[fr:Antiparticule]] [[he:אנטי-חלקיק]] [[hu:Antirészecske]] [[ja:反粒子]] [[ru:Античастицы]] [[uk:Античастинка]] [[zh:反粒子]] 1328 37356754 2006-01-30T13:41:38Z RussBot 279219 Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -"AD" +"Anno Domini" #REDIRECT [[Anno Domini]] 1330 15899819 2002-06-26T09:56:27Z 217.99.105.223 making redirection #REDIRECT [[Art Nouveau]] 1331 40884082 2006-02-23T17:28:58Z Urthogie 106482 fix category '''Arabian Prince''' (born '''Mik Lezan''') is an [[electro hop]] and [[hip hop music|hip hop]] [[rapping|rapper]] from [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]. He started his career at [[RapSur Records]], a label setup by Russ Parr, and released some electro classics like "Innovator" & "Strange Life". A couple of years later he joined the Compton, CA, rap group [[Niggaz with Attitude]] (N.W.A.). The Arabian Prince found the going tough when he departed the group for a solo career in 1988. His debut Brother Arab on Orpheus barely scraped the bottom of the R&B and pop charts in 1989. His first solo releases are in high demand nowadays. His credit albums include ''[[Brother Arab]]'' and ''[[Where's My Bytches]]'', as well as work on [[N.W.A.]]'s ''[[Straight Outta Compton]]'' and [[record producer|production]] for various other [[West Coast rap|West Coast hip hop]] artists. Arabian Prince has reappeared testing [[Computer and video games|video games]] for [[FOX Interactive]] around the year [[2000]] and currently runs a [[3d animation]] studio. ==External links== *[http://www.compton.8m.com/arab The Underworld of the Arabian Prince] [[Category:American rappers]] 1332 40864386 2006-02-23T14:44:03Z Doesitbetter 966706 {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=7}} |} '''August 7''' is the 219th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (220th in [[leap year]]s), with 146 days remaining. There are 94 days in North Hemisphere summer, South Hemisphere winter. The Northern Hemisphere is considered to be halfway through the [[summer]] on [[August 7]]. ==Events== *[[1679]] - The [[brigantine]] [[Le Griffon]], commissioned by [[René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle]], is towed to the southern end of the [[Niagara River]], to become the first ship to sail the upper [[Great Lakes]] of [[North America]]. *[[1782]] - [[George Washington]] orders the creation of the [[Badge of Military Merit]] to honor soldiers wounded in battle. It is later renamed to the more poetic [[Purple Heart]]. *[[1789]] - The [[United States War Department]] is established. *[[1794]] - [[Whiskey Rebellion]] begins: Farmers in the [[Monongahela Valley]] of [[Pennsylvania]] rebel against the federal tax on [[liquor]] and distilled drinks. *[[1819]] - [[Simón Bolívar]] triumphs over [[Spain]] in the [[Battle of Boyacá]]. *[[1879]] - The opening of the [[Poor Man's Palace]] in [[Manchester]]. *[[1927]] - The [[Peace Bridge]] opens, between [[Fort Erie, Ontario]] and [[Buffalo, New York]]. *[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Guadalcanal]] begins - [[U.S. Marines]] initiate the first American offensive of the war with a landing on [[Guadalcanal (Pacific Ocean island)|Guadalcanal]] in the [[Solomon Islands]]. *[[1944]] - [[IBM]] dedicates the first program-controlled [[calculator]], the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (known best as the [[Harvard Mark I]]). *[[1945]] - President [[Harry Truman]] announces the successful bombing of [[Hiroshima]] with an [[nuclear weapon|atomic bomb]] while returning from the [[Potsdam Conference]] aboard the heavy cruiser [[USS Augusta (CA-31)]] in the middle of the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. *[[1947]] - [[Thor Heyerdahl]]'s [[balsa wood]] raft the [[Kon-Tiki]], smashes into the [[reef]] at [[Raroia]] in the [[Tuamotu Islands]] after a 101-day, 7000-km (4375-mile) journey across the [[Pacific Ocean]] proving that pre-historic peoples could have traveled from [[South America]]. *1947 - The [[Bombay Municipal Corporation]] formally takes over the [[Bombay Electric Supply and Transport]] (BEST). *[[1955]] - Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering, the precursor to [[Sony]], begins selling its first [[Transistor radio|transistor radios]] in [[Japan]]. *[[1959]] - [[Explorer program]]: The [[United States]] launches [[Explorer 6]] from the Atlantic Missile Range in [[Cape Canaveral, Florida]]. *[[1960]] - [[Côte d'Ivoire]] becomes independent. *[[1964]] - [[Vietnam War]]: The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passes the [[Gulf of Tonkin Resolution]] giving US President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] broad war powers to deal with [[North Vietnam]]ese attacks on American forces. *[[1965]] - [[Singapore]] is expelled and separated from the [[Federation of Malaysia]]. *[[1966]] - [[Race riot]]s occur in [[Lansing, Michigan]]. *[[1967]] - Vietnam War: The [[People's Republic of China]] agrees to give [[North Vietnam]] an undisclosed amount of aid in the form of a grant. *[[1970]] - California Judge [[Harold Haley]] is taken hostage in his courtroom and killed during in an effort to free [[George Jackson (Black Panther)|George Jackson]] from police custody. *[[1973]] - [[NBC]] airs the final day of the [[Watergate hearings]] on U.S. daytime television. *[[1976]] - [[Viking program]]: [[Viking 2]] enters into orbit around [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]. *[[1978]] - United States [[President]] [[Jimmy Carter]] declares a federal emergency at [[Love Canal]]. *[[1981]] -''[[The Washington Star]]'' ceases all operations after 128 years of publication. *[[1985]] - [[Takao Doi]], [[Mamoru Mohri]] and [[Chiaki Mukai]] are chosen to be [[Japan|Japan's]] first [[astronaut|astronauts]]. *[[1988]] - Rioting in [[New York City]]'s [[Tompkins Square Park]] *[[1989]] - [[U.S. Congress|U.S. Congressman]] [[Mickey Leland]] (D-[[Texas|TX]]) and 15 others die in a [[plane crash]] in [[Ethiopia]]. *[[1990]] - At 12:34:56 (both AM and PM) the time and date by British reckoning was 12:34:56 7/8/90 i.e. 1234567890. *[[1995]] - [[Operation Storm]] is officialy declared over in [[Croatia]], resulting in total Croat victory over rebel Serb forces. *[[1997]] - [[Fine Air]] Flight 101, a cargo flight from Miami to Santo Domingo crashes onto NW 72nd Ave near [[Miami International Airport]], killing five people. *[[1998]] - [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings]]: Bombing of the United States embassies in [[Dar es Salaam]], [[Tanzania]], and [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]], kill 224 people and injure over 4,500. *[[1999]] - A group of [[India]]n army veterans launch the [[political party]] [[Rashtriya Raksha Dal]]. *[[2000]] - [[deviantART]].com is created by [[Scott Jarkoff]], Matteo Stevens, and Angelo Sortia. *[[2005]] - [[Russia]]n [[Priz class]] mini-submarine [[AS-28]] and its seven crewmembers are rescued off the Pacific coast * 2005 - Singer [[Marc Cohn]] is shot in the head during a [[carjacking]] attempt in [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]]; he survives. ==Births== *[[1400]] - [[Guillaume Dufay]], French composer (d. [[1474]]) *[[1533]] - [[Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga]], Basque soldier and poet (d. [[1595]]) *[[1560]] - [[Elizabeth Báthory]], Hungarian serial killer (d. [[1614]]) *[[1574]] - [[Robert Dudley, styled Earl of Warwick]], English writer (d. [[1649]]) *[[1598]] - [[Georg Stiernhielm]], Swedish poet (d. [[1672]]) *[[1726]] - [[James Bowdoin]], American Revolutionary leader and politician (d. [[1790]]) *[[1742]] - [[Nathanael Greene]], American Revolutionary general (d. [[1786]]) *[[1779]] - [[Louis de Freycinet]], French explorer (d. [[1842]]) *1779 - [[Carl Ritter]], German geographer (d. [[1859]]) *[[1844]] - [[Auguste Michel-Lévy]], French geologist (d. [[191]]) *[[1860]] - [[Alan Leo]], British astrologer (d. [[1917]]) *[[1867]] - [[Emil Nolde]], German painter (d. [[1956]]) *[[1876]] - [[Mata Hari]], Dutch spy (d. [[1917]]) *[[1877]] - [[Ulrich Salchow]], Swedish figure skater (d. [[1949]]) *[[1885]] - [[Billie Burke]], American actress (d. [[1970]]) *[[1904]] - [[Ralph Bunche]], American diplomat, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1971]]) *[[1925]] - [[M. S. Swaminathan]], Indian scientist *1925 - [[Felice and Boudleaux Bryant|Felice Bryant]], American country songwriter and singer (d. [[2003]]) *[[1926]] - [[Stan Freberg]], American voice comedian *[[1928]] - [[James Randi]], Canadian magician *[[1929]] - [[Don Larsen]], baseball player *[[1932]] - [[Abebe Bikila]], Ethiopan athlete *[[1936]] - [[Rahsaan Roland Kirk]], American saxophonist *[[1940]] - [[Jean-Luc Dehaene]], [[Prime Minister of Belgium]] *[[1942]] - [[Garrison Keillor]], American writer and radio host *1942 - [[B.J. Thomas]], American singer *[[1943]] - [[Dino Valente]], American musician [[Quicksilver Messenger Service]] (d. [[1994]]) *[[1944]] - [[David Rasche]], American actor *[[1945]] - [[Alan Page]], American football player *[[1948]] - [[Greg Chappell]], Australian test cricket player, captain and coach *[[1949]] - [[Walid Jumblatt]], leader of the Lebanese Druze *[[1952]] - [[Alexei Sayle]], British 'alternate' comedian *[[1955]] - [[Vladimir Sorokin]], Russian writer *[[1958]] - [[Bruce Dickinson]], English singer ([[Iron Maiden]]) *[[1960]] - [[David Duchovny]], American actor *[[1963]] - [[Harold Perrineau Jr.]], American actor *[[1964]] - [[Michael Weishan]], American TV host, author *[[1966]] - [[Jimmy Wales]], American founder of Wikipedia *[[1973]] - [[Danny Graves]], American baseball player *[[1975]] - [[David Hicks]], Australian alleged terrorist *1975 - [[Charlize Theron]], South African actress *[[1978]] - [[Jamey Jasta]], American Singer ([[Hatebreed]]) *[[1982]] - [[Yana Klochkova]], Ukrainian swimmer *[[1987]] - [[Sidney Crosby]], Canadian hockey player ==Deaths== *[[461]] - [[Majorian]], [[Roman Emperor]] (assassinated) (b. [[420]]) *[[479]] - [[Emperor Yuryaku|Emperor Yūryaku]] of Japan *[[1106]] - [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1050]]) *[[1485]] - [[Alexander Stewart, 1st Duke of Albany]], English prince *[[1613]] - [[Thomas Fleming (judge)|Thomas Fleming]], English judge (b. [[1544]]) *[[1616]] - [[Vincenzo Scamozzi]], Italian architect (b. [[1548]]) *[[1635]] - [[Friedrich von Spee]], German writer (b. [[1591]]) *[[1661]] - [[Jin Shengtan]], Chinese editor, writer and critic (b. [[1608]]) *[[1817]] - [[Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours]], French industrialist (b. [[1739]]) *[[1834]] - [[Joseph Marie Jacquard]], French weaver and inventor (b. [[1752]]) *[[1848]] - [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]], Swedish chemist (b. [[1779]]) *[[1855]] - [[Mariano Arista]], [[President of Mexico]] (b. [[1802]]) *[[1912]] - [[François-Alphonse Forel]], Swiss hydrologist (b. [[1841]]) *[[1941]] - [[Rabindranath Tagore]], Indian author, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1861]]) *[[1957]] - [[Oliver Hardy]], American comedian and actor (b. [[1892]]) *[[1974]] - [[Rosario Castellanos]], Mexican poet (b. [[1925]]) *[[1989]] - [[Mickey Leland]], [[U.S. Congress|U.S. Congressman]] (D-[[Texas|TX]]) (b. [[1944]]) *[[1995]] - [[Brigid Brophy]], British author (b. [[1929]]) *[[1999]] - [[Brion James]], American actor (b. [[1945]]) *[[2004]] - [[Red Adair]], American firefighter (b. [[1915]]) *2004 - [[Colin Bibby]], English ornithologist (b. [[1948]]) *[[2005]] - [[Peter Jennings]], Canadian-born news anchor (b. [[1938]]) ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/7 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050807.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] ---- [[August 6]] - [[August 8]] - [[July 7]] - [[September 7]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[ilo:Agosto 7]] [[af:7 Augustus]] [[ar:7 أغسطس]] [[an:7 d'agosto]] [[ast:7 d'agostu]] [[bg:7 август]] [[be:7 жніўня]] [[bs:7. avgust]] [[ca:7 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 7]] [[cv:Çурла, 7]] [[co:7 d'aostu]] [[cs:7. srpen]] [[cy:7 Awst]] [[da:7. august]] [[de:7. August]] [[et:7. august]] [[el:7 Αυγούστου]] [[es:7 de agosto]] [[eo:7-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 7]] [[fo:7. august]] [[fr:7 août]] [[fy:7 augustus]] [[ga:7 Lúnasa]] [[gl:7 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 7일]] [[hr:7. kolovoza]] [[io:7 di agosto]] [[id:7 Agustus]] [[ia:7 de augusto]] [[ie:7 august]] [[is:7. ágúst]] [[it:7 agosto]] [[he:7 באוגוסט]] [[jv:7 Agustus]] [[ka:7 აგვისტო]] [[csb:7 zélnika]] [[ku:7'ê gelawêjê]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 7]] [[lb:7. August]] [[li:7 augustus]] [[hu:Augusztus 7]] [[mk:7 август]] [[ms:7 Ogos]] [[nap:7 'e aùsto]] [[nl:7 augustus]] [[ja:8月7日]] [[no:7. august]] [[nn:7. august]] [[oc:7 d'agost]] [[pl:7 sierpnia]] [[pt:7 de Agosto]] [[ro:7 august]] [[ru:7 августа]] [[sco:7 August]] [[sq:7 Gusht]] [[scn:7 di austu]] [[simple:August 7]] [[sk:7. august]] [[sl:7. avgust]] [[sr:7. август]] [[fi:7. elokuuta]] [[sv:7 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 7]] [[tt:7. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 7]] [[th:7 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:7 tháng 8]] [[tr:7 Ağustos]] [[uk:7 серпня]] [[wa:7 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 7]] [[zh:8月7日]] [[pam:Agostu 7]] 1333 41774686 2006-03-01T17:34:33Z Rklawton 754622 /* Deaths */ added birth year {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=8}} |} '''August 8''' is the 220th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (221st in [[leap year]]s), with 145 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1509]] - The Emperor [[Krishnadevaraya|Krishnadeva Raya]] is crowned, marking the beginning of the regeneration of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]]. *[[1585]] - [[John Davis (English explorer)|John Davis]] enters [[Cumberland Sound]] in quest for the [[Northwest Passage]]. *[[1588]] - [[Battle of Gravelines]] ends, marking the end of the [[Spanish Armada]]'s attempt to invade England. *[[1605]] - The city of [[Oulu]], [[Finland]], is founded by [[Charles IX of Sweden]]. *[[1647]] - [[Battle of Dangan Hill]] - [[Ireland|Irish]] forces are defeated by [[Great Britain|British]] [[Parliament]]ary forces. *[[1786]] - [[Mont Blanc]] in [[Switzerland]] is climbed for the first time by [[Jacques Balmat]] and Dr [[Michael-Gabriel Paccard]]. *[[1839]] - [[Beta Theta Pi]] is founded in [[Oxford, Ohio]]. *[[1844]] - The [[Quorum of Twelve]], headed by [[Brigham Young]], is created as the leading body of the [[Mormon]] Church. *[[1863]] - [[American Civil War]]: Following his defeat in the [[Battle of Gettysburg]], General [[Robert E. Lee]] sends a letter of resignation to [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] President [[Jefferson Davis]] (which is refused upon receipt). *[[1876]] - [[Thomas Edison]] receives a patent for his [[mimeograph]]. *[[1911]] - [[Public Law 62-5]] sets the number of representatives in the [[United States House of Representatives]] at 435. The law will take effect in [[1913]]. *[[1918]] - [[World War I]]: [[Battle of Amiens]] - [[Canada|Canadian]] troops, backed by [[Australia]]ns, begin a string of almost continuous victories with a push through the [[Germany|German]] front lines. *[[1929]] - The [[Germany|German]] airship ''[[LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin|Graf Zeppelin]]'' begins a round-the-world flight. *[[1930]] - [[Betty Boop]] premieres in the animated film ''Dizzy Dishes''. *[[1938]] - The [[Mauthausen concentration camp]] opens. *[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: In [[Washington, DC]], six [[Germany|German]] would-be saboteurs are executed. *1942 - [[Quit India]] resolution was passed by the [[Bombay]] session of the AICC, which leads to the start of a civil disobedience movement across [[India]] *[[1945]] - World War II - The [[Soviet Union]] declares war on [[Japan]] and invades [[Manchuria]]. *1945 - The [[United Nations Charter]] is ratified by the [[United States]], which becomes the third nation to join. *[[1949]] - [[Bhutan]] becomes independent *[[1962]] - Elizabeth Ann Duncan becomes the last woman to be executed in the [[United States]] prior to the reintroduction of [[capital punishment]] in 1977. *[[1963]] - [[The Great Train Robbery of 1963|Great Train Robbery]]: In [[England]], a gang of 15 [[train robbery|train robbers]] steal 2.6 million pounds in bank notes. *[[1967]] - The [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN) is founded. *[[1968]] - Jurō Wada successfully performs [[Japan|Japan's]] first [[Organ transplant|heart transplant]]. *[[1969]] - An iconic [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:AbbeyRoad.jpg picture] of [[the Beatles]] is taken to be used on their album [[Abbey Road (album)|Abbey Road]]. *[[1972]] - [[Richard Nixon]] accepts the nomination as candidate for the [[President of the United States|presidency]]. *[[1973]] - U.S. Vice President Spiro Agnew goes on television to denounce accusations he had taken [[kickbacks]] while governor of Maryland. *1973 - [[Kim Dae-Jung]], a [[South Korea|South Korean]] politician and later president of South Korea, is [[1973 Kidnapping of Kim Dae-Jung|kidnapped]]. *[[1974]] - [[Watergate scandal]]: U.S. President [[Richard Nixon]] announces his resignation, effective the next day. *[[1976]] - [[Boston_(album)|Boston]], by the rock band [[Boston_(band)|Boston]] is released. It will become the #1 best-selling debut album in history. *[[1988]] - General [[Ne Win]], ruler of [[Burma]] since [[1962]], suddenly resigns. *1988 - Chicago's [[Wrigley Field]] installs lights and attempts to play first game at night. *[[1989]] - [[STS-28]]: The [[Space Shuttle Columbia]] takes off on a secret five-day military mission. *[[1991]] - Collapse of [[Warsaw radio mast]], the tallest construction ever built *1991 - [[John McCarthy]], British Journalist held hostage in Lebanon for more than five years by [[Islamic Jihad]], is released. *[[1999]] - The series finale of ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'' airs on the [[Sci-Fi Channel]]. *[[2000]] - [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] submarine ''[[H.L. Hunley]]'' is raised to the surface after 136 years on the ocean floor. *[[2008]] - The opening ceremony of the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] is scheduled to begin at 8 o'clock (08-08-08-08) ==Births== *[[1079]] - [[Emperor Horikawa]] of Japan (d. [[1107]]) *[[1602]] - [[Gilles de Roberval]], French mathematician (d. [[1675]]) *[[1605]] - [[Cæcilius Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore]], colonial Governor of Maryland (d. [[1675]]) *[[1646]] - [[Godfrey Kneller]], German-born painter (d. [[1723]]) *[[1673]] - [[John Ker]], Scottish spy (d. [[1726]]) *[[1693]] - [[Laurent Belissen]], French composer (d. [[1762]]) *[[1694]] - [[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Francis Hutcheson]], Irish philosopher (d. [[1746]]) *[[1720]] - [[Carl Fredrik Pechlin]], Swedish politician (d. [[1796]]) *[[1814]] - [[Esther Hobart Morris|Esther Morris]], suffragist and the first U. S. woman judge (d. [[1902]]) *[[1839]] - [[Nelson Miles]], U.S. general (d. [[1925]]) *[[1866]] - [[Matthew Henson]], Arctic explorer (d. [[1955]]) *[[1875]] - [[Artur da Silva Bernardes]], President of Brazil (d. [[1955]]) *[[1879]] - [[Emiliano Zapata]], Mexican revolutionary (d. [[1919]]) *[[1880]] - [[Earle Page]], eleventh [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1961]]) *[[1891]] - [[Adolf Busch]], German violinist (d. [[1952]]) *[[1892]] - [[Rafael Moreno Aranzadi]], Spanish footballer (d. [[1922]]) *[[1896]] - [[Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings]], American author (d. [[1953]]) *[[1901]] - [[Ernest O. Lawrence]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1958]]) *[[1902]] - [[Paul Dirac]], English physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1984]]) *[[1905]] - [[André Jolivet]], French composer (d. [[1974]]) *[[1907]] - [[Benny Carter]], American musician and arranger (d. [[2003]]) *[[1908]] - [[Arthur Goldberg]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice (d. [[1980]]) *[[1910]] - [[Sylvia Sidney]], American actress (d. [[1999]]) *[[1911]] - [[Rosetta LeNoire]], American actress (d. [[2002]]) *[[1915]] - [[Jumbo Elliott|James "Jumbo" Elliott]], American track coach (d. [[1981]]) *[[1919]] - [[Dino De Laurentiis]], Italian film producer *[[1920]] - [[Leo Chiosso]], Italian lyricist *[[1921]] - [[William Asher]], American film producer *1921 - [[John Herbert Chapman]], British physicist *1921 - [[Webb Pierce]], American singer (d. [[1991]]) *1921 - [[Vulimiri Ramalingaswami]], Indian medical scientist *1921 - [[Esther Williams]], American actress and swimmer *[[1922]] - [[Rory Calhoun]], American actor (d. [[1999]]) *1922 - [[Rudi Gernreich]], Austrian-born fashion designer (d. [[1985]]) *[[1925]] - [[Alija Izetbegovic]], President of Bosnia-Herzegovina (d. [[2003]]) *[[1927]] - [[Johnny Temple]], baseball player (d. [[1994]]) *[[1928]] - [[Don Burrows]], Australian jazz musician *[[1929]] - [[Larisa Bogoraz]], Soviet dissident (d. [[2004]]) *1929 - [[Ronald Biggs]], British criminal *[[1931]] - Sir [[Roger Penrose]], British physicist *[[1932]] - [[Mel Tillis]], American singer *[[1035]] - [[John Laws]], Australia radio personality *[[1936]] - [[Donald P. Bellisario]], American television producer *[[1936]] - [[Keith Barron]], English actor *[[1937]] - [[Dustin Hoffman]], American actor *[[1938]] - [[Connie Stevens]], American singer and actress *[[1939]] - [[Alexander Watson]], American ambassador and diplomat *[[1944]] - [[Peter Weir]], Australian film director *1944 - [[Uli Derickson]], Czech-born flight attendant *1944 - [[Brooke Bundy]], American actress *[[1949]] - [[Keith Carradine]], American actor *[[1951]] - [[Mamoru Oshii]], Japanese film director *[[1952]] -[[Jostein Gaarder]], Norwegian author *1952 - [[Robin Quivers]], American radio personality *[[1953]] - [[Don Most]] American actor *[[1954]] - [[Nigel Mansell]], English race car driver *[[1955]] - [[Herbert Prohaska]], Austrian footballer *[[1956]] - [[Branscombe Richmond]], American actor *[[1958]] - [[Deborah Norville]], American reporter and television host *[[1961]] - [[David Howell Evans|The Edge]], Irish guitarist ([[U2]]) *[[1966]] - [[Chris Eubank]], English boxer *[[1973]] - [[Scott Stapp]], American singer ([[Creed (band)|Creed]]) *[[1974]] - [[Ulises De la Cruz]], Ecuadoran footballer *[[1976]] - [[J.C. Chasez]], American singer ([[*NSYNC]]) *1976 - [[Drew Lachey]], American singer *[[1978]] - [[Louis Saha]], French footballer *[[1979]] - [[Richard Harwood]], British cellist *[[1980]] - [[Sabine Klaschka]], German tennis player *1980 - [[Pat Noonan]], American soccer player *[[1981]] - [[Vanessa Amorosi]], Australian singer and songwriter *1981 - [[Roger Federer]], Swiss tennis player *[[1988]] - [[Princess Beatrice of York]] *[[1989]] - [[Sesil Karatantcheva]], Bulgarian tennis player <!-- Please do not add your own birthday to this list. Thank you. --> ==Deaths== *[[869]] - [[Lothair II of Lotharingia]] (b. [[825]]) *[[1445]] - [[Oswald von Wolkenstein]], Austrian composer *[[1553]] - [[Girolamo Fracastoro]], Italian physician (b. [[1478]]) *[[1588]] - [[Alonso Sánchez Coello]], Spanish painter *[[1604]] - [[Horio Tadauji]], Japanese warlord (b. [[1578]]) *[[1684]] - [[George Booth, 1st Baron Delamer]] (b. [[1622]]) *[[1694]] - [[Antoine Arnauld]], French philosopher and mathematician (b. [[1612]]) *[[1759]] - [[Carl Heinrich Graun]], German composer *[[1828]] - [[Carl Peter Thunberg]], Swedish naturalist (b. [[1743]]) *[[1879]] - [[Immanuel Hermann Fichte]], German philosopher (b. [[1797]]) *[[1887]] - [[Alexander William Doniphan]], American lawyer and soldier (b. [[1808]]) *[[1898]] - [[Eugène Boudin]], French painter (b. [[1824]]) *[[1902]] - [[James Tissot]], French artist (b. [[1836]]) *[[1911]] - [[William P. Frye]], American politician (b. [[1830]]) *[[1933]] - [[Adolf Loos]], Austrian architect (b. [[1870]]) *[[1940]] - [[Johnny Dodds]], American musician (b. [[1892]]) *[[1944]] - [[Chaim Soutine]], Russian painter (b. [[1894]]) *[[1965]] - [[Shirley Jackson]], American author (b. [[1916]]) *[[1972]] - [[Andrea Feldman]], American actor (b. [[1948]]) *[[1975]] - [[Julian "Cannonball" Adderley]], American jazz saxophonist (b. [[1928]]) *[[1985]] - [[Louise Brooks]], American actress (b. [[1906]]) *[[1987]] - [[Danilo Blanuša]], Croatian mathematician (b. [[1903]]) *[[1991]] - [[James Irwin]], astronaut (b. [[1930]]) *[[1996]] - [[Nevill Mott]], English physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] (b. [[1905]]) *[[2004]] - [[Fay Wray]], American actress (b. [[1907]]) *[[2005]] - [[Barbara Bel Geddes]], American actress (b. [[1922]]) *2005 - [[John H. Johnson]], African-American publisher; billionaire (b. [[1918]]) *2005 - [[Gene Mauch]], American athlete and manager (b. [[1925]]) *2005 - [[Monica Sjoo]], Swedish artist (cancer) (b. [[1938]]) *2005 - [[Ilse Werner]], German actress (b. [[1921]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Republic of China|Taiwan]]: [[Father's Day]]. (In [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]], Ba Ba means father and 8-8, or August 8). *[[Sweden]] - Namesday of Queen [[Silvia Sommerlath|Silvia]], an [[Flag days in Sweden|Official Flag Day]]. ==Religious observances== *[[Roman Catholic Church]]: Memorial of [[St Dominic de Guzman]], priest, (1170-1221). ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/8 BBC: On This Day] *[http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050808.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] * [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Aug&day=08 On This Day in Canada] ---- [[August 7]] - [[August 9]] - [[July 8]] - [[September 8]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:8 Augustus]] [[ar:8 أغسطس]] [[an:8 d'agosto]] [[ast:8 d'agostu]] [[bg:8 август]] [[be:8 жніўня]] [[bs:8. august]] [[ca:8 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 8]] [[cv:Çурла, 8]] [[co:8 d'aostu]] [[cs:8. srpen]] [[cy:8 Awst]] [[da:8. august]] [[de:8. August]] [[et:8. august]] [[el:8 Αυγούστου]] [[es:8 de agosto]] [[eo:8-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 8]] [[fo:8. august]] [[fr:8 août]] [[fy:8 augustus]] [[ga:8 Lúnasa]] [[gl:8 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 8일]] [[hr:8. kolovoza]] [[io:8 di agosto]] [[ilo:Agosto 8]] [[id:8 Agustus]] [[ia:8 de augusto]] [[ie:8 august]] [[is:8. ágúst]] [[it:8 agosto]] [[he:8 באוגוסט]] [[jv:8 Agustus]] [[ka:8 აგვისტო]] [[csb:8 zélnika]] [[ku:8'ê gelawêjê]] [[la:8 Augusti]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 8]] [[lb:8. August]] [[li:8 augustus]] [[hu:Augusztus 8]] [[mk:8 август]] [[ms:8 Ogos]] [[nap:8 'e aùsto]] [[nl:8 augustus]] [[ja:8月8日]] [[no:8. august]] [[nn:8. august]] [[oc:8 d'agost]] [[pl:8 sierpnia]] [[pt:8 de Agosto]] [[ro:8 august]] [[ru:8 августа]] [[sq:8 Gusht]] [[scn:8 di austu]] [[simple:August 8]] [[sk:8. august]] [[sl:8. avgust]] [[sr:8. август]] [[fi:8. elokuuta]] [[sv:8 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 8]] [[tt:8. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 8]] [[th:8 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:8 tháng 8]] [[tr:8 Ağustos]] [[uk:8 серпня]] [[wa:8 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 8]] [[zh:8月8日]] [[pam:Agostu 8]] 1334 42092785 2006-03-03T19:57:12Z 81.48.151.33 (m) interwiki br <!-- Language links at bottom --> {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=16}} |} [[April 16]] is the 106th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (107th in [[leap year]]s). There are 259 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1178 BC]] - A [[solar eclipse]] may mark the return of [[Odysseus]], legendary King of [[Ithaca]], to his kingdom after the [[Trojan War]]. *[[1071]] - [[Bari]] falls to [[Robert Guiscard]], ending [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] rule in [[Italy]]. *[[1521]] - [[Martin Luther|Martin Luther's]] first appearance before the [[Diet of Worms]] to be examined by the [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor Charles V]] and the rest of the estates of the empire. *[[1746]] - [[Second Jacobite Rebellion]]: The [[Battle of Culloden]], the last battle of the [[Jacobitism|Jacobite Uprising]] is fought, ultimately leading to the destruction of the [[Highland clan]]s. *[[1780]] - The [[University of Münster]] in [[Münster]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], [[Germany]] is founded *[[1799]] - [[Napoleonic Wars]]: [[Battle of Mount Tabor]] &ndash; [[Napoleon]] drives [[Ottoman Turks]] across the [[River Jordan]] near [[Acre]]. *[[1853]] - The first passenger rail opens in [[India]], from [[Bori Bunder]], [[Bombay]] to [[Thane]]. *[[1863]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Siege of Vicksburg]] &ndash; 12 ships led by [[United States|Union]] Admiral [[David Dixon Porter]] move through heavy [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] artillery fire on approach to [[Vicksburg, Mississippi]]. Only one ship is lost. *[[1881]] - In [[Dodge City, Kansas]], [[Bat Masterson]] fights his last gun battle. *[[1912]] - [[Harriet Quimby]] becomes the first woman to fly an [[Aircraft|airplane]] across the [[English Channel]]. *[[1917]] - [[Vladimir Lenin]] returns to [[Petrograd]] (present-day Saint Petersburg) from exile in [[Finland]]. *[[1919]] - [[Mohandas Gandhi]] organizes a day of "prayer and fasting" in response to the [[United Kingdom|British]] slaughter of [[India]]n protestors in the [[Amritsar Massacre]]. *[[1922]] - The [[Treaty of Rapallo, 1922|Treaty of Rapallo]], in which [[Germany]] and the [[Soviet Union]] re-establish diplomatic relations between [[Berlin]] and [[Moscow]], is signed. *[[1926]] - ''[[Lolly Willows]]'' by [[Sylvia Townsend Warner]] is distributed as the first [[Book-of-the-Month Club]] selection. *[[1935]] - [[Radio]] program ''[[Fibber McGee and Molly]]'' debuts. *[[1943]] - Dr. [[Albert Hofmann]] discovers the psychedelic effects of [[LSD]]. *[[1945]] - [[World War II|WWII]]: The [[Red Army]] begins the final assault on [[Germany|German]] forces around [[Berlin]]. *1945 - The [[United States Army]] liberates [[Nazi]] ''Sonderlager'' (high security) [[Prisoner of war camp|Prisoner of War camp]] Oflag IVc ([[Colditz Castle]]). *1945 - German ship [[Goya (ship)|Goya]] sinks, killing more than 7,000 people. *[[1947]] - [[Texas City Disaster]]: An explosion on board a freighter in port causes the city of [[Texas City, Texas]], to catch fire, killing almost 600. *1947 - [[Bernard Baruch]] coins the term "[[Cold War]]" to describe the relationship between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]]. *[[1949]] - [[Dave Garroway]] moves from [[radio]] to [[television]] to host the musical-variety show ''[[Garroway at Large]]''. *[[1963]] - [[Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.]] pens his famous [[Letter From a Birmingham Jail]] while incarcerated in [[Birmingham, Alabama]] for protesting against segregation''. *[[1972]] - [[Apollo program]]: [[Apollo 16]] launches toward the [[Moon]] from [[Cape Canaveral, Florida]]. *1972 - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Nguyen Hue Offensive]] &ndash; Prompted by the [[North Vietnam]]ese offensive, the [[United States]] resumes bombing of [[Hanoi]] and [[Haiphong]]. *[[1988]] - In [[Forlì]] ([[Italy]]), [[Red Brigades]] kill Italian senator [[Roberto Ruffilli]], an advisor of [[Prime Minister of Italy|Prime Minister]] [[Ciriaco de Mita]]. *[[1992]] - The [[Katina P.]] runs aground off of [[Maputo]], [[Mozambique]]. 60,000 tons of crude oil spill into the ocean. *[[1996]] - [[France Télécom]] introduces its [[Wanadoo]] [[Internet]] service. *[[1998]] - One of the most serious urban [[tornado]]es in history does significant damage to downtown [[Nashville, Tennessee]] (see [[Nashville Tornado of 1998]]). *[[2000]] - Protests against the [[World Bank]] and [[IMF]] in [[Washington, DC]]. *[[2001]] - First [[3G]] voice call on [[Vodafone]] UK's 3G network. *[[2003]] - [[Makobo Modjadji]] is crowned the new [[Rain Queen]] of [[Balobedu]]. *2003 - [[The Accession Treaty]] is signed in Athens admitting 10 new member states to the [[European Union]]. *[[2005]] - The [[BBC]] announces [[David Tennant]]'s casting as the [[Tenth Doctor]] in the long-running [[science-fiction]] [[television]] series, ''[[Doctor Who]]''. ==Births== *[[778]] - King [[Louis the Pious]] (d. [[840]]) *[[1319]] - King [[John II of France]] (d. [[1364]]) *[[1495]] - [[Petrus Apianus]], German mathematician (d. [[1557]]) *[[1646]] - [[Jules Hardouin Mansart]], French architect (d. [[1708]]) *[[1660]] - [[Hans Sloane]], British collector and physician (d. [[1753]]) *[[1661]] - [[Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax]], English poet and statesman (d. [[1715]]) *[[1682]] - [[John Hadley]], inventor (d. [[1744]]) *[[1728]] - [[Joseph Black]], Scottish chemist (d. [[1799]]) *[[1730]] - [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Henry Clinton]], British general (d. [[1795]]) *[[1755]] - [[Elisabeth Vigee-Lebrun]], French painter (d. [[1842]]) *[[1800]] - [[George Bingham, 3rd Earl of Lucan]], British soldier (d. [[1888]]) *[[1823]] - [[Ferdinand Eisenstein]], German mathematician (d. [[1852]]) *[[1844]] - [[Anatole France]], French writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1924]]) *[[1865]] - [[Henry George Chauvel]], Australian general (d. [[1945]]) *[[1867]] - [[Wilbur Wright]], American aviation pioneer (d. [[1912]]) *[[1871]] - [[John Millington Synge]], Irish writer (d. [[1909]]) *[[1878]] - [[Tip Foster]], English cricketer (d. [[1914]]) *[[1886]] - [[Ernst Thälmann]], German politician (d. [[1944]]) *[[1889]] - [[Charles Chaplin]], English actor, writer, and film producer (d. [[1977]]) *[[1904]] - [[Fifi D'Orsay]], Canadian actress (d. [[1983]]) *[[1905]] - [[Frits Philips]], Dutch businessman (d. [[2005]]) *[[1912]] - [[Garth Williams]], American illustrator (d. [[1996]]) *[[1918]] - [[Spike Milligan]], British comedian (d. [[2002]]) *[[1919]] - [[Merce Cunningham]], American dancer and choreographer *[[1921]] - [[Peter Ustinov]], English writer, actor, and film director (d. [[2004]]) *[[1922]] - [[Kingsley Amis]], English author (d. [[1995]]) *[[1924]] - [[Henry Mancini]], American composer (d. [[1994]]) *[[1927]] - [[Edie Adams]], American actress *1927 - [[Pope Benedict XVI]] *1927 - [[Peter Mark Richman]], American actor *[[1928]] - [[Dick Lane|Dick "Night Train" Lane]], American football player (d. [[2002]]) *[[1930]] - [[Herbie Mann]], American jazz flute player (d. [[2003]]) *[[1933]] - [[Joan Bakewell]], British broadcaster *[[1935]] - [[Sarah Kirsch]], German poet *1935 - [[Bobby Vinton]], American singer *[[1937]] - [[Joseph Whipp]], American actor *[[1939]] - [[Dusty Springfield]], English singer (d. [[1999]]) *[[1940]] - Queen [[Margaret II of Denmark]] *[[1946]] - [[Margot Adler]], American journalist *[[1947]] - [[Kareem Abdul-Jabbar]], American basketball player *1947 - [[Gerry Rafferty]], British musician and songwriter *[[1951]] - [[Pierre Toutain-Dorbec]], French photographer, painter, sculptor *1951 - [[Ioan Mihai Cochinescu]], Romanian writer and photographer *1951 - [[Björgvin Halldórsson]], Icelandic singer *[[1952]] - [[Bill Belichick]], American football coach *1952 - [[Billy West]], American voice actor *[[1953]] - [[J. Neil Schulman]], American writer and activist *[[1954]] - [[Ellen Barkin]], American actress *[[1955]] - [[Bruce Bochy]], baseball player and manager *[[1956]] - [[Lise-Marie Morerod]], Swiss skier *[[1959]] - [[Alison Ramsay]], Scottish field hockey player *[[1960]] - [[Rafael Benitez]], Spanish football manager *[[1961]] - [[Doris Dragović]], Croatian singer *[[1962]] - [[Ian MacKaye]], American musician ([[fugazi]] and [[Minor Threat]]) *[[1965]] - [[Jon Cryer]], American actor *1965 - [[Martin Lawrence]], American actor, comedian, and producer *[[1971]] - [[Selena Quintanilla|Selena]], American singer (d. [[1995]]) *[[1975]] - [[Sean Maher]], American actor *[[1976]] - [[Lukas Haas]], American actor *[[1977]] - [[Fredrik Ljungberg]], Swedish footballer *[[1978]] - [[Matthew Lloyd]], Australian football player *[[1979]] - [[Howlin' Pelle Almqvist]], Swedish musician [[The Hives]] *[[1994]] - [[Liliana Mumy]], American actress ==Deaths== *[[69]] - [[Otho]], [[Roman Emperor]] (b. [[32]]) *[[744]] - [[al-Walid II]], Umayyad caliph *[[924]] - [[Berengar of Friuli]], King of Italy *[[1113]] - [[Sviatopolk II of Kiev]], Russian prince (b. [[1050]]) *[[1118]] - [[Adelaide del Vasto]], queen of [[Roger II of Sicily]] *[[1198]] - Duke [[Frederick I of Austria (Babenberg)|Frederick I of Austria]] *[[1645]] - [[Tobias Hume]], English composer *[[1687]] - [[George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham]], English statesman (b. [[1628]]) *[[1689]] - [[Aphra Behn]], English dramatist *[[1783]] - [[Christian Mayer]], Czech astronomer (b. [[1719]]) *[[1788]] - [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon]], French naturalist (b. [[1707]]) *[[1828]] - [[Francisco Goya|Francisco de Goya]], Spanish painter (b. [[1746]]) *[[1846]] - [[Domenico Dragonetti]], Italian composer (b. [[1763]]) *[[1859]] - [[Alexis de Tocqueville]], French historian (b. [[1805]]) *[[1888]] - [[Zygmunt Florenty Wróblewski]], Polish physicist (b. [[1845]]) *[[1904]] - [[Samuel Smiles]], Scottish writer and reformer (b. [[1812]]) *[[1914]] - [[George William Hill]], American astronomer (b. [[1838]]) *[[1915]] - [[Nelson W. Aldrich]], U.S. Senator from Rhode Island (b. [[1841]]) *[[1938]] - [[Steve Bloomer]], English footballer (b. [[1874]]) *[[1946]] - [[Arthur Chevrolet]], Swiss-born race car driver and automobile designer (b. [[1884]]) *[[1958]] - [[Rosalind Franklin]], British chemist (b. [[1920]]) *[[1968]] - [[Edna Ferber]], American author (b. [[1885]]) *[[1972]] - [[Kawabata Yasunari]], Japanese writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1899]]) *[[1978]] - [[Lucius Clay]], American general (b. [[1897]]) *[[1985]] - [[Scott Brady]], American actor (b. [[1924]]) *[[1991]] - [[David Lean]], British film director (b. [[1908]]) *[[1992]] - [[Neville Brand]], American actor (b. [[1920]]) *[[1994]] - [[Ralph Ellison]], American writer (b. [[1914]]) *[[1997]] - [[Doris Angleton]], American socialite (b. [[1951]]) *1997 - [[Roland Topor]], French illustrator (b. [[1938]]) *[[1998]] - [[Fred Davis]], English snooker player (b. [[1913]]) *[[2001]] - [[Michael Ritchie]], American film director (b. [[1920]]) *[[2002]] - [[Ruth Fertel]], American restaurateur (b. [[1927]]) *2002 - [[Robert Urich]], American actor (b. [[1946]]) *[[2003]] - [[Graham Stuart Thomas]], English author and garden designer (b. [[1909]]) *[[2005]] - [[Kay Walsh]], British actress (b. [[1911]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Feast day]]s: **[[Benedict Joseph Labre]] in the [[Roman Catholic Church]] **[[Bernadette Soubirous|Saint Bernadette]] **[[Paternus|Saint Paternus]] **[[Saint Cecilia]] **[[Fructuosus|Saint Fructuosus]] **[[Turibius|Saint Turibius]] **Saints Martial, Urban, Eventius, Caecilian, Julia, and their companions [[martyr]]s of [[304]] **[[Drogo|Saint Drogo]] *Birthday of the Queen celebrated in [[Greenland]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/16 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[April 15]] - [[April 17]] - [[March 16]] - [[May 16]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:16 April]] [[ar:16 إبريل]] [[an:16 d'abril]] [[ast:16 d'abril]] [[bg:16 април]] [[be:16 красавіка]] [[br:16 Ebrel]] [[bs:16. april]] [[ca:16 d'abril]] [[ceb:Abril 16]] [[cv:Ака, 16]] [[co:16 d'aprile]] [[cs:16. duben]] [[cy:16 Ebrill]] [[da:16. april]] [[de:16. April]] [[et:16. aprill]] [[el:16 Απριλίου]] [[es:16 de abril]] [[eo:16-a de aprilo]] [[eu:Apirilaren 16]] [[fo:16. apríl]] [[fr:16 avril]] [[fy:16 april]] [[ga:16 Aibreán]] [[gl:16 de abril]] [[ko:4월 16일]] [[hr:16. travnja]] [[io:16 di aprilo]] [[id:16 April]] [[ia:16 de april]] [[ie:16 april]] [[is:16. apríl]] [[it:16 aprile]] [[he:16 באפריל]] [[jv:16 April]] [[ka:16 აპრილი]] [[csb:16 łżëkwiôta]] [[ku:16'ê avrêlê]] [[lt:Balandžio 16]] [[lb:16. Abrëll]] [[li:16 april]] [[hu:Április 16]] [[mk:16 април]] [[ms:16 April]] [[nap:16 'e abbrile]] [[nl:16 april]] [[ja:4月16日]] [[no:16. april]] [[nn:16. april]] [[oc:16 d'abril]] [[pl:16 kwietnia]] [[pt:16 de Abril]] [[ro:16 aprilie]] [[ru:16 апреля]] [[se:Cuoŋománu 16.]] [[sq:16 Prill]] [[scn:16 di aprili]] [[simple:April 16]] [[sk:16. apríl]] [[sl:16. april]] [[sr:16. април]] [[fi:16. huhtikuuta]] [[sv:16 april]] [[tl:Abril 16]] [[tt:16. Äpril]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 16]] [[th:16 เมษายน]] [[vi:16 tháng 4]] [[tr:16 Nisan]] [[uk:16 квітня]] [[ur:16 اپریل]] [[wa:16 d' avri]] [[war:Abril 16]] [[zh:4月16日]] [[pam:Abril 16]] 1335 41129832 2006-02-25T06:01:17Z Melchoir 454640 fix cat sorting :''This article is about associativity in [[mathematics]]. For ''associativity'' in central processor unit memory cache architecture see [[CPU cache]].'' In [[mathematics]], '''associativity''' is a property that a [[binary operation]] can have. It means that the order of evaluation is immaterial if the operation appears more than once in an expression. Put another way, no [[parentheses]] are required for an associative operation. Consider for instance the equation :(5+2)+1 = 5+(2+1) Adding 5 and 2 gives 7, and adding 1 gives an end result of 8 for the left hand side. To evaluate the right hand side, we start with adding 2 and 1 giving 3, and then add 5 and 3 to get 8, again. So the equation holds true. In fact, it holds true for ''all'' [[real number]]s, not just for 5, 2 and 1. We say that "addition of real numbers is an associative operation". Associative operations are abundant in mathematics, and in fact most [[algebraic structure]]s explicitly require their binary operations to be associative. However, many important and interesting operations are non-associative; one common example would be the [[vector cross product]]. ==Definition== Formally, a binary operation <math>*</math> on a [[set]] ''S'' is called '''associative''' if it satisfies the '''associative law''': :<math>(x*y)*z=x*(y*z)\qquad\mbox{for all }x,y,z\in S.</math> The evaluation order does not affect the value of such expressions, and it can be shown that the same holds for expressions containing ''any'' number of <math>*</math> operations. Thus, when <math>*</math> is associative, the evaluation order can therefore be left unspecified without causing ambiguity, by omitting the parentheses and writing simply: :<math>x*y*z.</math> ==Examples== Some examples of associative operations include the following. *In [[arithmetic]], [[addition]] and [[multiplication]] of [[real number]]s are associative; i.e., ::<math> \left. \begin{matrix} (x+y)+z=x+(y+z)=x+y+z\quad \\ (x\,y)z=x(y\,z)=x\,y\,z\qquad\qquad\qquad\quad\ \ \, \end{matrix} \right\} \mbox{for all }x,y,z\in\mathbb{R}. </math> *Addition and multiplication of [[complex number]]s and [[quaternion]]s is associative. Addition of [[octonion]]s is also associative, but multiplication of octonions is non-associative. *The [[greatest common divisor]] and [[least common multiple]] functions act associatively. ::<math> \left. \begin{matrix} \operatorname{gcd}(\operatorname{gcd}(x,y),z)= \operatorname{gcd}(x,\operatorname{gcd}(y,z))= \operatorname{gcd}(x,y,z)\ \quad \\ \operatorname{lcm}(\operatorname{lcm}(x,y),z)= \operatorname{lcm}(x,\operatorname{lcm}(y,z))= \operatorname{lcm}(x,y,z)\quad \end{matrix} \right\}\mbox{ for all }x,y,z\in\mathbb{Z}. </math> *[[Matrix multiplication]] is associative. Because [[linear transformation]]s can be represented by matrices, one can immediately conclude that linear transformations compose associatively. *Taking the [[intersection (set theory)|intersection]] or the [[union (set theory)|union]] of [[set]]s: ::<math> \left. \begin{matrix} (A\cap B)\cap C=A\cap(B\cap C)=A\cap B\cap C\quad \\ (A\cup B)\cup C=A\cup(B\cup C)=A\cup B\cup C\quad \end{matrix} \right\}\mbox{for all sets }A,B,C. </math> *If ''M'' is some set and ''S'' denotes the set of all functions from ''M'' to ''M'', then the operation of [[functional composition]] on ''S'' is associative: ::<math>(f\circ g)\circ h=f\circ(g\circ h)=f\circ g\circ h\qquad\mbox{for all }f,g,h\in S.</math> *Slightly more generally, given four sets ''M'', ''N'', ''P'' and ''Q'', with ''h'': ''M'' to ''N'', ''g'': ''N'' to ''P'', and ''f'': ''P'' to ''Q'', then ::<math>(f\circ g)\circ h=f\circ(g\circ h)=f\circ g\circ h</math> :as before. In short, composition of maps is always associative. ==Non-associativity== A binary operation <math>*</math> on a set ''S'' that does not satisfy the associative law is called '''non-associative'''. Symbolically, :<math>(x*y)*z\ne x*(y*z)\qquad\mbox{for some }x,y,z\in S.</math> For such an operation the order of evaluation ''does'' matter. [[Subtraction]], [[division (mathematics)|division]] and [[exponentiation]] are well-known examples of non-associative operations: :<math> \begin{matrix} (5-3)-2\ne 5-(3-2)\quad \\ (4/2)/2\ne 4/(2/2)\qquad\qquad \\ 2^{(1^2)}\ne (2^1)^2.\quad\qquad\qquad \end{matrix} </math> In general, parentheses must be used to indicate the order of evaluation if a non-associative operation appears more than once in an expression. However, [[mathematician]]s agree on a particular order of evaluation for several common non-associative operations. This is simply a syntactical convention to avoid parentheses. A '''left-associative''' operation is a non-associative operation that is conventionally evaluated from left to right, i.e., :<math> \left. \begin{matrix} x*y*z=(x*y)*z\qquad\qquad\quad\, \\ w*x*y*z=((w*x)*y)*z\quad \\ \mbox{etc.}\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\ \ \, \end{matrix} \right\} \mbox{for all }w,x,y,z\in S </math> while a '''right-associative''' operation is conventionally evaluated from right to left: :<math> \left. \begin{matrix} x*y*z=x*(y*z)\qquad\qquad\quad\, \\ w*x*y*z=w*(x*(y*z))\quad \\ \mbox{etc.}\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\ \ \, \end{matrix} \right\} \mbox{for all }w,x,y,z\in S </math> Both left-associative and right-associative operations occur; examples are given below. ==More examples== Left-associative operations include the following. *Subtraction and division of real numbers: ::<math>x-y-z=(x-y)-z\qquad\mbox{for all }x,y,z\in\mathbb{R};</math> ::<math>x/y/z=(x/y)/z\qquad\qquad\quad\mbox{for all }x,y,z\in\mathbb{R}\mbox{ with }y\ne0,z\ne0.</math> Right-associative operations include the following. *[[Exponentiation]] of real numbers: ::<math>x^{y^z}=x^{(y^z)}.</math> :The reason exponentiation is right-associative is that a repeated left-associative exponentiation operation would be less useful. Multiple appearances could (and would) be rewritten with multiplication: ::<math>(x^y)^z=x^{(yz)}.</math> Non-associative operations for which no conventional evaluation order is defined include the following. *Taking the pairwise [[average]] of real numbers: ::<math>{(x+y)/2+z\over2}\ne{x+(y+z)/2\over2}\ne{x+y+z\over3}\qquad\mbox{for some }x,y,z\in\mathbb{R}.</math> *Taking the [[complement (set theory)|relative complement]] of sets: ::<math>(A\backslash B)\backslash C\ne A\backslash (B\backslash C)\qquad\mbox{for some sets }A,B,C.</math> ::<div style="width: 360px; float:left; margin:0em 2em 0em 0em; text-align: left;">[[image:RelativeComplement.png|Venn diagram of the relative complements (A\B)\C and A\(B\C)]]</div> The green part in the left [[Venn diagram]] represents (''A''\''B'')\''C''. The green part in the right Venn diagram represents ''A''\(''B''\''C'') <br style="clear:both;"/> ==See also== *A [[semigroup]] is a set with an associative binary operation. *[[Commutativity]] and [[distributivity]] are two other frequently discussed properties of binary operations. *[[Power associativity]] and [[alternativity]] are weak forms of associativity. [[Category:Abstract algebra]] [[Category:Elementary algebra]] [[Category:Binary operations|*Associativity]] [[bg:Асоциативност]] [[cs:Asociativita]] [[da:Associativitet]] [[de:Assoziativgesetz]] [[es:Asociatividad]] [[eo:Asocieco]] [[fr:Associativité]] [[ko:결합법칙]] [[it:Associatività]] [[he:אסוציאטיביות]] [[nl:Associativiteit]] [[ja:結合法則]] [[pl:Łączność (matematyka)]] [[ru:Ассоциативная операция]] [[sk:Asociatívna operácia]] [[sl:Asociativnost]] [[sv:Associativitet]] [[zh:结合律]] 1336 41407130 2006-02-27T03:00:03Z Catapult 792235 [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 20|CFD]]: removing deleted category[[user:freakofnurture|...]] The '''Apache Software Foundation''' (ASF) is a non-profit corporation (classified as 501(c)3 in the United States) to support Apache software projects, including the [[Apache HTTP Server]]. The ASF was formed from the Apache Group and [[Delaware corporation|incorporated in Delaware]], USA, in June, 1999. The Apache Software Foundation is a decentralized community of developers. The software they produce is distributed under the terms of the [[Apache License]] and are therefore [[free software]] / [[open source software]]. The Apache projects are characterized by a collaborative, consensus based development process and an open and pragmatic software license. Each project is managed by a self-selected team of technical experts who are active contributors to the project. The ASF is a [[meritocracy]], implying that membership to the foundation is granted only to volunteers who have actively contributed to Apache projects. Among the ASF's objectives are to provide legal protection to volunteers working on Apache projects, and to prevent the ''Apache'' brand name from being used by other organizations without permission. The ASF also holds several [http://www.apachecon.com/ ApacheCon] conferences each year, highlighting Apache projects, related technology, and allowing Apache developers to gather together. ==Projects== Formally recognized Apache projects include: *[[Apache HTTP Server]]: [[Web server]] *[[Apache Ant|Ant]]: [[Java programming language|Java]]-based build tool *[[Apache Portable Runtime|APR]]: Apache Portable Runtime, a portability library written in [[C programming language|C]] *[[Apache Beehive|Beehive]]: A Java visual object model *[[Apache Cocoon|Cocoon]]: [[XML]] publishing framework *[[Apache DB|DB]]: [[database]] solutions **[[Apache Derby]]: A pure [[Java programming language|Java]] [[Relational database management system]] *[[Apache Directory Server|Directory]]: A directory server supporting [[Lightweight Directory Access Protocol|LDAP]] and other protocols *[[Apache Excalibur]]: [[Inversion of Control]] container named [[Fortress]] and related components *[[Apache Forrest]]: documentation framework based upon Cocoon *[[Geronimo Application Server]]: a [[Java EE]] server *[[Apache Gump]]: [[integration]], [[dependencies]], and [[versioning]] management *[[Apache Incubator|Incubator]]: for aspiring ASF projects *[[Jakarta Project|Jakarta]]: server side [[Java programming language|Java]] (including its own set of sub-projects) *[[Apache James]]: [[Java programming language|Java]] [[electronic mail|email]] and [[usenet|news]] server *[[Apache Lenya|Lenya]]: [[content management system]] *[[Data logging|Logging]]: logging services for application debugging and auditing, including [[log4j]] *[[Lucene]]: text search engine library written entirely in [[Java programming language|Java]] *[[Apache_Maven|Maven]]: [[Java programming language|Java]] [[project management]] and comprehension tool *[[MyFaces]]: [[JavaServer Faces]] implementation *[[mod_perl]]: dynamic websites using [[Perl]] *[[Apache Portals]]: [[web portal]] related software *[[SpamAssassin]]: email filter used to identify [[e-mail spam|spam]]. *[[Apache Struts|Struts]]: [[Java programming language|Java]] web applications framework *[[Apache TCL|TCL]]: dynamic websites using [[Tool Command Language]] *[[Apache Tomcat|Tomcat]]: a [[web container]] for serving servlets and JSP *[[Apache Web Services|Web services]]: [[Web service]] related systems *[[Apache XML|XML]]: [[XML]] solutions for the web *[[XMLBeans]]: [[XML]]-[[Java programming language|Java]] binding tool *[[XML Graphics]]: conversion of [[XML]] formats to graphical output ==Board of Directors== The current board of directors includes: * [[Ken Coar]] * [[Justin Erenkrantz]] * [[Dirk-Willem van Gulik]] * [[Jim Jagielski]] * [[Ben Laurie]] * [[Stefano Mazzocchi]] * [[Sam Ruby]] * [[Greg Stein]] (chairman) * [[Sander Striker]] ==History== The history of the Apache Software Foundation is linked to the Apache HTTP Server, the work on which started in [[1994]]. A group of eight developers started working on enhancing the [[National Center for Supercomputing Applications|NCSA]] [[HTTPd]] daemon. They were [[Brian Behlendorf]], [[Roy Fielding]], [[Rob Hartill]], [[David Robinson]], [[Cliff Skolnick]], [[Randy Terbush]], [[Robert S. Thau]] and [[Andrew Wilson]] with additional contributions from [[Eric Hagberg]], [[Frank Peters]] and [[Nicolas Pioch]]. The enhanced product called the Apache server was released in April [[1995]]. In [[1999]], members of the Apache Group formed the Foundation to provide support for the Apache HTTP Server. The ASF has a membership of 151 members and approximately 1000 committers as of 2005. ==External links== *http://www.apache.org *http://wiki.apache.org/general *http://wiki.apache.org/ApacheCon/FrontPage [[Category:Free and Open Source software Foundations]] [[Category:Nonprofit Technology]] [[da:Apache Software Foundation]] [[de:Apache Software Foundation]] [[es:Apache Software Foundation]] [[fr:Apache Software Foundation]] [[id:Apache Software Foundation]] [[it:Apache Software Foundation]] [[he:קרן התוכנה Apache]] [[nl:Apache Software Foundation]] [[ja:Apacheソフトウェア財団]] [[pl:Apache Software Foundation]] [[ru:Apache Software Foundation]] [[sv:Apache Software Foundation]] [[tr:Apache]] 1337 15899826 2002-05-19T16:47:46Z AxelBoldt 2 * #REDIRECT [[Americans_with_Disabilities_Act_of_1990]] 1338 39218933 2006-02-11T16:23:25Z Famspear 600513 Expand citation. {{POV}} The '''Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990''' is the short title of [[United States]] Public Law 101-336, 104 Stat. 327 (July 26, 1990), codified at {{usc|42|12101}} et seq., [[List of United States federal legislation|signed into law]] on [[July 26]], [[1990]] by President [[George H. W. Bush|George H. W. Bush]]. It is a wide-ranging [[civil rights]] law that prohibits [[discrimination]] based on [[disability]]. It affords similar protections against discrimination to [[Americans with disabilities]] as the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964|Civil Rights Act]] of [[1964]], which made discrimination based on [[race]], [[religion]], [[gender|sex]], national origin, and other characteristics illegal. Certain specific conditions are excluded, including [[alcoholism]] and [[transsexual|transsexuality]]. ==Structure== The Americans with Disabilities Act, commonly referred to as the '''ADA''', consists of three introductory sections and five titles: *Introductory Sections **Table of Contents **Findings and Purposes **Definitions *Main Section **Title I - Employment **Title II - Public Services (and public transportation) **Title III - Public Accommodations (and Commercial Facilities) **Title IV - Telecommunications **Title V ==Groups who worked to pass the ADA== The ADA is notable because many disparate groups, many of which had never worked before, came together for a common purpose. In addition, other [[civil rights]] groups outside the disability community helped. *[[AIDS Action Council]] *[[AIDS National InterFaith Network]] *[[American Civil Liberties Union]] *[[American Foundation for the Blind]] *[[Americans Disabled for Accessible Public Transit]] (ADAPT) *[[Association for Education and Rehabilitation of the Blind and Visually Handicapped]] *[[Association for Retarded Citizens]] *[[Consortium for Citizens with Disabilities]] *[[Disability Rights Education and Defense Fund]] *[[Dole Foundation]] *[[Eastern Paralyzed Veterans of America]] *[[Epilepsy Foundation of America]] *[[Human Rights Campaign]] Fund *[[Institution for Rehabilitation and Research]] *[[Leadership Conference on Civil Rights]] *[[Legal Action Center]] *[[Mental Health Law Project]] *[[National Association of Developmental Disabilities Councils]] *[[National Association of Protection and Advocacy Systems]] *[[National Center for Law and the Deaf]] *[[National Council of Independent Living]] *[[National Council on Disability]] *[[National Disability Action Center]] *[[National Easter Seals Society]] *[[National Organization Responding to AIDS]] *[[Paralyzed Veterans of America]] *[[President's Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities]] *[[Society for Accessible Travel & Hospitality]] *[[Spina Bifida Association of America]] *[[United Cerebral Palsy Association]] ==Quote== On signing the measure, George H. W. Bush said, <blockquote>"I know there may have been concerns that the ADA may be too vague or too costly, or may lead endlessly to litigation. But I want to reassure you right now that my administration and the United States Congress have carefully crafted this Act. We've all been determined to ensure that it gives flexibility, particularly in terms of the timetable of implementation; and we've been committed to containing the costs that may be incurred.... ''Let the shameful wall of exclusion finally come tumbling down.''" </blockquote> ==Controversy== ===Inherent flaws=== Some critics argue that enactment of the ADA has resulted in little progress in eliminating such discrimination because the remedies allowed under the law are primarily ''complaint-driven''. That is, individuals must make complaints of discrimination to the person or agency charged with handling such complaints, only after which the agency may take action. Each title of the Act created an agency to handle such complaints, ranging from bodies of the federal [[executive branch]] to local civil rights enforcement agencies. Further, individuals under each title have the "private right of action", that is, the right to privately [[lawsuit|sue]] the alleged discriminating person or body. Many of these lawsuits have helped to clarify provisions of the Act as the courts have interpreted the law in specific cases, creating a body of [[legal precedent]]. ===Criticism=== Although it has greatly improved the quality of life for people with severe physical disabilities, the ADA has also been heavily criticized for being overinclusive in its reach. In turn, the ADA allegedly serves as a legal haven for malingerers and so-called "professional plaintiffs" who make a living out of suing noncompliant businesses and collecting monetary damages. The ADA was the target of a vicious media backlash in mid-[[1997]] after the [[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]] published its ADA guidelines in March. For example, ''[[The Onion]]'' satirized the ADA with an article about the passage of the "Americans with No Abilities Act," and ''[[The Simpsons]]'' ran an episode in which [[Homer Simpson]] tried to become grossly obese so he would be exempt under the ADA from a mandatory workplace fitness program. The underlying debate is over whether the ADA should cover people with disabilities that are ''not'' totally and catastrophically disabling. Most people agree that a person with a severe physical disability like [[paraplegia]] should be accommodated. But they are less likely to agree when the disability in question is a [[mental illness]], like [[clinical depression]], or consists of minor neck or back pain (see [[neuropathy]]). Others believe that accommodation laws put too many restrictions on the [[free market]] and should be repealed. ==References== * Linda Hamilton Krieger, ed., ''Backlash Against the ADA: Reinterpreting Disability Rights'' (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003). * Switzer, Jacqueline Vaughn. ''Disabled Rights: American Disability Policy and the Fight for Equality''. Georgetown University Press, 2003. ==See also== *[[Accessibility]] *[[Disability rights movement]] *[[List of disability rights activists]] &mdash; includes a list of people who helped pass the ADA *[[List of anti-discrimination acts]] ** [[Disability discrimination act]] ===Related categories=== *[[:Category:Disability legislation]] *[[:Category:Rights of the disabled]] ===ADA constitutionality-related cases=== For cases determining the constitutionality of some of the ADA's provisions, see: *''[[Tennessee v. Lane]]'' *''[[Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett]]'' ==External links== * [http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/pubs/ada.txt Text of the Act] * [http://www.mises.org/freemarket_detail.asp?control=254&sortorder=articledate Mises.org article:What Is Disabled?] * [http://www.thedisabilitylawyer.net/act/index.html How ADA applies to Disability Discrimination] * [http://www.disabilitykey.com ADA Resource Center] * [http://www.ericdigests.org/2002-1/ada.html Overview of ADA, IDEA, and Section 504: Update 2001] * [http://www.ericdigests.org/1996-3/ada.htm Overview of ADA, IDEA, and Section 504] * [http://www.ericdigests.org/2004-1/people.htm Employment of People with Disabilities] * [http://www.ericdigests.org/2000-3/web.htm Accessible Web Design] * [http://www.ericdigests.org/1996-4/testing.htm Testing Students with Disabilities] [[Category:1990 in law]] [[Category:United States federal civil rights legislation]] [[Category:Disability legislation]] [[Category:Rights of the disabled]] [[ja:ADA&#27861;]] 1339 15899828 2002-09-26T07:55:16Z Jeronimo 108 only verbatim text, no real content - redirecting #REDIRECT [[Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990]] 1340 15899829 2002-09-26T07:55:24Z Jeronimo 108 only verbatim text, no real content - redirecting #REDIRECT [[Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990]] 1341 15899830 2002-09-26T07:55:35Z Jeronimo 108 only verbatim text, no real content - redirecting #REDIRECT [[Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990]] 1342 37356769 2006-01-30T13:41:50Z RussBot 279219 Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -"AD" +"Anno Domini" #REDIRECT [[Anno Domini]] 1343 15899832 2005-03-20T01:20:22Z 203.26.206.129 Added flashcards '''Active recall''' is a principle of efficient learning, which says that we need to actively stimulate [[memory]] in the learning process. It is an opposite to [[passive review]] in which the learning material is processed passively (e.g. by reading, watching, etc.). For example, when you read a text about [[George Washington]], this is passive review. If you answer a question "Who was the first US President?", this is active recall. Active recall is many times more efficient in consolidating [[long-term memory]]. This is why just reading your study notes before exam is not likely to leave a long-lasting memory trace. On the other hand, if you ask your colleague to test you on the same material, the results will be better in the long run. Because our recall of a memory may be influenced by its position within a sequence of self-test questions it can be advantageous to randomise the order of those questions. This could be done for instance by putting questions and answers in a [[spreadsheet]] and sorting them by values produced by a randomisation function. [[Flashcards]] are also often used to stimulate active recall in education. It is at the start of a learning task that active recall tasks need to be at their most frequent for retention. As long term memories form, rates of testing can be reduced. Recognition of this fact may aid efficient learning. For more information on improving memory see [[Mnemonics]]. [[Category:Memory]] [[Category:Mnemonics]] 1344 37254376 2006-01-29T20:39:47Z 66.23.219.26 Minor grammar correction. {| class ="wikitable" align="right" width=250 <!--{|border=1 align="right" cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width=250 style="margin-left:3em; margin-bottom: 2em; color: black; background: white;"--> |colspan=2|[[Image:Apple I.jpg|250px|Apple I computer]] |- !colspan=2 style="color: white; background: gray;"|Apple I |- |width="40%"|'''Manufacturer'''||[[Apple Computer]] |- |'''Type'''||[[Personal computer]] |- |'''Casing'''||Wood |- |'''Production'''||1976 |- |'''Discontinued'''||March, 1977 |- |'''CPU'''||[[MOS Technology 6502|MOS 6502]] @ [[megahertz|1 MHz]] |- |'''RAM'''||4 [[kilobyte|KB]] standard<br>expandable to 8 KB<br>or 48 KB using expansion cards |- |'''Graphics'''||40&times;24 characters<br>Hardware-implemented scrolling |} The '''Apple I''' was an early [[personal computer]], and the first to combine a [[computer keyboard|keyboard]] with a [[microprocessor]] and a connection to a [[computer display|monitor]]. The Apple I was designed by [[Steve Wozniak]] originally for personal use. Wozniak's friend [[Steve Jobs]] had the idea of selling the computer. It was sold as Apple's first product, beginning in April 1976. Its retail price was US$666.66. About 200 units were produced. Unlike other hobbyist computers of its day, which were sold as kits, the Apple I was a fully-assembled circuit board containing about 30 chips. However, to make a working computer, users still had to add a case, power supply, keyboard, and display. An optional board providing a cassette interface for storage was later released at a cost of $75. The Apple I is sometimes credited as the first personal computer to be sold in fully assembled form; however, some argue that the honour rightfully belongs to other machines, such as the [[Datapoint 2200]]. The Apple I's use of a [[computer keyboard|keyboard]] and [[computer display|monitor]] was distinctive. Competing machines such as the [[Altair 8800]] generally were programmed with front-mounted toggle switches and used indicator lights (red [[light-emitting diode|LED]]s, most commonly) for output, and had to be extended with separate hardware to allow connection to keyboards and monitors. This made the Apple I an innovative machine for its day, despite its lack of graphics or sound capabilities. It was discontinued in March 1977, when it was replaced with the [[Apple II]]. As of the [[as of 2005|turn of the millennium]], an estimated 30 to 50 Apple Is are still known to exist, making it a [[collector's item]]. An Apple I reportedly sold for $50,000 at auction in 1999; however, a more typical price for an Apple I is in the $14,000&ndash;$16,000 range. A software-compatible clone of the Apple I ([[Replica I]]) produced using modern components, was released in 2003 at a price of around $200. ==References== * Owad, Tom (2005). ''[http://www.applefritter.com/replica Apple I Replica Creation: Back to the Garage.]'' Rockland, MA: Syngress Publishing. Copyright © 2005. ISBN 1-931836-40-X. ==External links== * [http://www.applefritter.com/apple1 Apple I Owners Club] * [http://lowendmac.com/orchard/05/0509.html Macintosh Prehistory: The Apple I] * [http://www.brielcomputers.com The Replica-1] [[Category:Early microcomputers]] [[Category:Apple hardware]] [[Category:Apple II family|I]] [[de:Apple I]] [[es:Apple I]] [[eo:Apple I]] [[fr:Apple I]] [[it:Apple I]] [[nl:Apple I]] [[ja:Apple I]] [[pl:Apple I]] [[sk:Apple I]] [[zh:Apple I]] 1345 15899834 2003-01-02T03:20:13Z Wapcaplet 6264 #REDIRECT [[Apache HTTP Server]] 1346 40384795 2006-02-20T04:53:02Z Denniss 133598 /* Classification and history */ {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = ''Apatosaurus'' | status = {{StatusFossil}} | image = Apatosaurus.gif | image_width=240px | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Sauropsid|Sauropsida]] | superordo = [[Dinosaur|Dinosauria]] | ordo = [[Saurischia]] | subordo = [[Sauropodomorpha]] | infraordo = [[Sauropoda]] | familia = [[Diplodocidae]] | genus = '''''Apatosaurus''''' | genus_authority = [[Othniel Charles Marsh|Marsh]], 1877 | subdivision_ranks = [[Species]] | subdivision = ''Apatosaurus ajax''<br/> ''Apatosaurus excelsus''<br/> ''Apatosaurus louisae''<br/> }} '''''Apatosaurus''''' (ah-PAT-o-sawr-us) meaning "deceptive lizard", because its [[Chevron (anatomy)|chevron bones]] were like those of ''[[Mosasaurus]]'' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''apatelos'' = deceptive + ''sauros'' = lizard), often refered to as ''[[Brontosaurus]]'', is a [[genus]] of [[sauropod]] [[dinosaur]]s that lived about 140 [[million years ago]], during the [[Jurassic]] [[geologic period|period]]. They were some of the largest land [[animal]]s that ever existed, about 4.5 [[metre]]s (15 [[feet]]) tall at the hips, with a length of up to 25m (80 feet) and a mass up to 35 [[metric tonne]]s (40 [[short ton|ton]]s). The cervical vertebra and the bones in the legs were bigger and heavier than that of [[Diplodocus]], but they both had the long neck and tail. The skull was first identified in [[1975]], a century after it got its name. ''Apatosaurus'' had a large claw on its first digit (thumb). The tail was held above the ground during normal locomotion. ==Environment== Early on, it was believed that ''Apatosaurus'' was too massive to support its own weight on dry land, so it was theorized that the sauropod must have lived partly submerged in water, perhaps in a swamp. Recent findings do not support this. In fact, like its relative ''[[Diplodocus]]'', ''Apatosaurus'' was a [[grazing]] animal with a very long neck, and a long tail that served as a counterweight. Fossilized footprints indicate that it probably lived in herds. To aid in processing food, ''Apatosaurus'' may have swallowed gizzard stones ([[gastrolith]]s) the same way many birds do today &mdash; its jaws alone were not sufficient to chew tough plant fibers. ''Apatosaurus'' perhaps lumbered along in flocks on riverbanks with trees, eating off the top leaves. Scientists believe that these sauropods could not raise their neck to an angle of 90 degrees, as doing so would slow blood flow to the brain excessively; blood starting at the body proper would take two or more minutes to reach the brain. Furthermore, studies of the structure of the neck vertebrae have revealed that the neck was not as flexible as previously thought. No one knows how Apatosaurs ate enough food to satisfy their enormous bodies. They probably ate constantly, pausing only to cool off, drink or to remove parasites. They must have slept standing upright. If attacked by a predator, one could defend itself by swinging its tail from side to side, or stomping on the meat-eater. ==Classification and history== [[Image:Apatosaurus2.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Apatosaurus' correct head]] In 1877, [[Othniel Charles Marsh]] published notes on his discovery of ''Apatosaurus ajax'', and then in 1879 described another, more complete dinosaur species, which he speculated to represent a new genus and named ''Brontosaurus excelsus''. In 1903, it was discovered that ''Brontosaurus excelsus'' was in fact an adult ''Apatosaurus'', and the name ''Apatosaurus'', having been published first, was deemed to have priority as the official name; ''Brontosaurus'' was relegated to being a synonym. In the 1970s, it was proven that the traditional "Brontosaurus" image known to all was, in fact, an ''Apatosaurus excelsus'' with a ''[[Camarasaurus]]'' head mistakenly placed on its body. Fossils of this animal have been found in Nine Mile Quarry and Bone Cabin Quarry in [[Wyoming]], and at sites in [[Colorado]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Utah]], [[United States|USA]]. ===Species=== * ''A. ajax'' is the [[type species]] of the genera, and was named by the [[paleontologist]] [[Othniel Charles Marsh]] in 1877 after [[Telamonian Aias|Ajax]], the [[hero]] from [[Greek mythology]]. It is the [[holotype]] for the genera, and two partial skeletons have been found including part of a [[skull]]. * ''A. excelsus'' (originally ''Brontosaurus'') was named by Marsh in 1879. It is known from six partial skeletons, including part of a skull, which have been found in the [[United States]], in [[Oklahoma]], [[Utah]], and [[Wyoming]]. * ''A. louisae'' was named by [[William Holland]], in 1915. It is known from one partial skeleton, which was found in [[Colorado]], in the United States. [[Robert T. Bakker]] made ''A. yahnahpin'' the [[holotype|type]] species of a new genus, ''Eobrontosaurus'' in 1998, so it is now properly ''Eobrontosaurus yahnahpin''. It was named by Filla, James and Redman in 1994. One partial skeleton has been found in Wyoming. ==See also== *[[Brontosaurus]] [[Category:Sauropods]] [[Category:Jurassic dinosaurs]] [[de:Apatosaurus]] [[es:Apatosaurus]] [[fr:Brontosaure]] [[he:אפאטוזאור]] [[nl:Apatosaurus]] [[ja:アパトサウルス]] [[pt:Apatossauro]] [[sk:Apatosaurus]] [[fi:Apatosaurus]] [[sv:Apatosaurus]] [[uk:Апатозавр]] 1347 41553136 2006-02-28T02:48:37Z 129.170.119.237 /* External links */ <!-- Proposed Edit by 67.182.251.180 Allosaurus was a huge carnivore. Allosaurus probably ate herbivore dinosaurs, like stegosaurs and iguanadons. It could kill medium-sized sauropods, and sick or injured large saurpods like apatosaurs and others of its kind. Allosaurus may have been a scavenger. Allosaurus probably had competition with Ceratosaurus, though Allosaurus was much larger. Bones of big sauropods, like Camarasaurus, Diplodocus, and Apatosaurus have Allosaurus tooth marks. A huge sauropod was most likely to big for even one Allosaurus to kill, so scientists think Allosuarus probably hunted in packs to kill such big Plant-eaters. But maybe Allosaurus could’ve only gone after injured or sick dinosaurs, not risking being killed by a strong and healthy Sauropod, or a whack of a tail. A recent study found that Allosaurus’ powerful bite was not in the musles of its jaws, but its neck and reinforced skull. It would gape and cleave flesh from its prey by using its powerfully-muscled neck to wield its impact-resistant skull like an axe. This would have done far more damage than simply opening and closing its jaws. Allosaurus was a Carnosaur, and his intelligence was high. His EQ ( Enephalization Quotient, or how its brain measured to its body) was about 1.9 EQ. In 1998, a Allosaurus nest was discovered in Wyoming. Fossils of adults and young were found, along with tons of Herbivore bones. The bones had teeth marks from young and from grown Allosaurs. This shows that Allosaurs may have brought food back to the nests to feed to their young. It’s not determined that Allosaurs were able to communicate vocally besides a hiss. But because their closest living relatives, birds and crocodiles can, it probably means Allosaurus could too. It’s certain that Allosaurus used visual communication some what. The crest on its head is proof of this. Its crest was probably colorful. Communicating by bobbing the head was probably part of courting and telling of enemies. Showing its massive teeth was probably another way of warding of threats. During the Mesozoic era, the climate was warmer, the seasons were mild, the sea level was higher, and there was no polar ice. In the mid-Jurassic, Laurasia and Gondwanaland started forming because Pangaea was breaking apart. By the late Jurassic, the spreading of Laurasia and Gondwanaland was almost complete. The climate of the Jurassic period was hot and dry, but later changed, with no polar ice, warm and moist, and very much flooding in vast areas. Pterosaurs starting flying in the sky. The seas during the Jurassic period were home to tons of coral reefs, fish, ichthyosaurs, (fishlike reptiles), plesiosaurs, giant marine crocodiles, ammonites, squid, sharks, and rays. Triassic plant lines continued. Many palm-like trees, called Cycads were around. There was also many seed ferns, gingkos, and conifers in the subtropical forests. So far, more than sixty complete and partial Allosaurus skeletons have been found. They’ve been found in Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, Montana, South Dakota, Oklahoma, and possibly Portugal and Tanzania. In one quarry here in Utah, remains of at least 44 Allosaurs were found mixed together! The teeth of Allosaurus are the most common remains of theropods from the late Jurassic in the American West. In 1991 a 95% complete Allosaurus skeleton was found, and was later named Big Al. the skeleton was excavated near Shell, Wyoming by the Museum of the Rockies and the University of Wyoming Geological Museum. It was originally discovered by a Swiss team led by Kirby Siber. They later found a second Allosaurus, named “Big Al Two”. It’s the best preserved skeleton of Allosaurus yet. --> {{taxobox | color=pink | name=Allosaurus | image = Allosaurus-fossilized skull.jpeg | image_width = 225px | image_caption = [[Fossil]]ized ''Allosaurus'' [[skull]] | status = {{StatusFossil}} | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Reptile|Sauropsida]] | ordo = [[Saurischia]] | subordo = [[Theropoda]] | infraordo = [[Carnosauria]] | familia = [[Allosauridae]] | genus = '''''Allosaurus''''' | genus_authority = [[Othniel Charles Marsh|Marsh]] 1877 | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = ''?A. amplexus''<br/> ''?A. ferox''<br/> ''A. jimmadseni''<br/> ''A. fragilis'' ([[type species|type]])<br/> }} '''''Allosaurus''''' (AL-oh-sore-us) meaning “different lizard”, because its [[vertebrae]] were different from those of all other dinosaurs ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''allos'' = different + ''sauros'' = lizard), was a large [[carnivore|carnivorous]] [[dinosaur]] with a length of up to 12&nbsp;[[metre|m]] (39&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). It was the most common large predator in [[North America]], 155 to 145 [[million years ago]], in the [[Jurassic]] [[geologic period|period]]. ''Allosaurus'' is the official [[state fossil]] of [[Utah]], in the [[United States]]. == Description == [[Image:Allosaurus1.jpg|thumb|210px|left|A replica Allosaurus skeleton at a New Zealand museum]] ''Allosaurus'' is a classic big [[theropod]]: a large [[skull]] on a short [[neck]], a long [[tail]], and reduced forelimbs. Its most distinctive feature is a pair of blunt horns just above and in front of the eyes. Although short in comparison to the hindlimbs, the forelimbs are massive and bear large, eagle-like [[claw]]s. The skull shows evidence of being composed of separate modules, which could be moved in relation to one another, allowing large pieces of meat to be swallowed. The skeleton of ''Allosaurus'', like other theropods, shows [[bird]]like features like a wishbone and neck vertebrae hollowed by air sacs. It is thought that ''Allosaurus'' might have hunted in packs, allowing it to bring down the large sauropods of the time. Allosaurus was extremely light compared to other dinosaurs its size, which may have allowed it to leap onto its prey (something that only small dinosaurs could do) without sustaining severe injury. == Findings == ''Allosaurus'' is the most common theropod in the huge section of dinosaur-bearing rock in the [[American Southwest]] known as the [[Morrison Formation]]. Remains have been recovered in [[Montana]], [[Wyoming]], [[South Dakota]], [[Colorado]], [[Oklahoma]], [[New Mexico]], and Utah in the United States; and in [[Portugal]]. Curiously, ''Allosaurus'' shared the Jurassic landscape with several other theropods, including ''[[Ceratosaurus]]'' and the massive ''[[Torvosaurus]]''. A famous [[fossil]] bed can be found in the [[Cleveland Lloyd Quarry]] in Utah. This fossil bed contains over 10,000 bones, mostly of ''Allosaurus'', with other dinosaurs like ''[[Stegosaurus]]'' and ''[[Ceratosaurus]]'' thrown in. It is still a mystery how the remnants of so many animals can be found in one place: normally the ratio of fossils of carnivorous animals over fossils of plant eaters is very small. Findings like these can be explained by pack hunting, although this is difficult to prove. One of the more significant finds was the 1991 discovery of "[[Big Al]]" (MOR 593), a 95% complete, partially articulated, juvenile specimen that measured 8 meters (26 feet) in length. Nineteen bones were broken or showed signs of [[infection]], which probably contributed to Big Al's death. It was featured in "The Ballad of Big Al", a special programme in the [[BBC]]'s ''[[Walking with Dinosaurs]]'' series. The fossils were excavated near [[Shell, Wyoming]] by the [[Museum of the Rockies]] and the [[University of Wyoming]] Geological Museum. This skeleton was initially discovered by a Swiss team led by Kirby Siber, which later excavated a second Allosaurus "Big Al Two", which is the best preserved skeleton of its kind to date. == Classification and history == [[Image:Allo.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The Allosaurus Big Al]] The first ''Allosaurus'' [[fossil]] to be described was a "petrified [[horse]] hoof" given to [[Ferdinand Vandiveer Hayden]] in [[1869]] by the natives of Middle Park, near [[Granby, Colorado]]. It was actually a caudal [[vertebra]] (a tail bone), which [[Joseph Leidy]] tentatively assigned first to the ''[[Poicilopleuron]]'' [[genus]], and later to a new genus, ''[[Antrodemus]]''. However, it was [[Othniel Charles Marsh]] who gave the formal name ''Allosaurus fragilis'' to the genus and [[type species]] in [[1877]], based on much better material including a partial skeleton, from Garden Park, north of [[Canon City, Colorado]]. The name ''Allosaurus'' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''allos'', meaning "strange" or "different"; and ''sauros'', meaning "lizard" or "reptile". The species epithet ''fragilis'' is [[Latin]] for "fragile". Both refer to lightening features in the vertebrae. It is unclear how many species of ''Allosaurus'' there were. The material from the Cleveland-Lloyd ''Allosaurus'' is much smaller and more lightly built than the huge, robust ''Allosaurus'' from [[Brigham Young University]]'s [[Dry Mesa Quarry]]. Fossils resembling ''Allosaurus'' have been described from [[Portugal]]. ''Allosaurus'''s closest relative is probably the Lower Cretaceous ''[[Acrocanthosaurus]]''. == External links == * "[http://www.dinodata.net/Dd/Namelist/TABA/A078.htm ''Allosaurus'']". ''DinoData''. * [http://www.uwyo.edu/geomuseum/tour/allosaur.htm ''Allosaurus'', the story of "Big Al"], from the University of Wyoming Geological Museum in Laramie. * [http://pioneer.utah.gov/fossil.html Public Pioneer, Utah State Fossil, Allosaurus], from Utah.gov. * [http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/dino/allo2.htm?143,44 ''Allosaurus fragilis''], [[Smithsonian Institute|Smithsonian]] National Museum of Natural History, Department of Paleobiology. * [http://dml.cmnh.org/1995Nov/msg00278.html List of the many possible ''Allosaurus'' species...] [[Category:Theropods]] [[Category:Carnosaurs]] [[Category:Jurassic dinosaurs]] [[de:Allosaurus]] [[es:Allosaurus]] [[fr:Allosaurus]] [[he:אלוזאור שברירי]] [[it:Allosaurus]] [[ja:アロサウルス]] [[nl:Allosaurus]] [[pt:Alossauro]] [[sk:Allosaurus]] [[fi:Allosaurus]] [[sv:Allosaurus]] [[zh:跃龙属]] 1348 42100227 2006-03-03T20:58:40Z Bobblewik 51235 units {{Firearm| name=AK-47 |image=[[Image:Ak-47.gif|275px|Both sides of an AK-47]] |caption=Both sides of an AK-47 |nation=[[Soviet Union]], [[Russia]] |type=[[Assault rifle]] |inventor=[[Mikhail Kalashnikov]] |date=1947 |serv_date=1951–present |cartridge=[[7.62 x 39 mm|7.62 × 39 mm]] |action=[[Gas-operated]], [[rotating bolt]] |rof=600 round/min |velocity=710 m/s (~2,330 ft/s) |range=300 m |mass=4.3 kg |length=870 mm |barrel=415 mm |capacity=30-round detachable box; compatible w/ [[RPK]] 40-round box and 75-round [[drum magazine]] |sights=Adjustable [[iron sights]], optional mount required for optical sights |variant=AK-47, AKS, AKM [[GRAU|6P1]], AKMS, [[AK-74]], [[AK-101]], [[AK-102]], [[AK-103]], [[AK-104]], [[AK-105]], [[AK-107]], [[AK-108]] |num_built=Over 100 million |}} The '''AK-47''' ('''''A'''vtomat '''K'''alashnikova 19'''47 '''''; [[Russian language|Russian]]: Автомат Калашникова образца 1947 года) is a [[gas-operated]] [[assault rifle]] designed by [[Mikhail Kalashnikov]], produced by [[Russia]]n manufacturer [[IZH]], and used in many [[Eastern bloc]] nations during the [[Cold War]]. It was adopted and standardized in 1947. Compared to [[rifle]]s used in [[World War II]], the AK-47 was generally lighter, more compact, with a shorter range, a smaller [[7.62 x 39 mm|7.62 × 39 mm]] cartridge, and was capable of [[selective fire]]. It was one of the first assault rifles, and surely the most prolific. The AK-47 and its numerous variants have been produced in greater numbers than any other assault rifle in the 20th century, and it remains in production to this day. ==Development== During the Second World War, Germany had developed the concept of the assault rifle. This concept was based on the premise that most military engagements in modern warfare were happening at fairly close range with the majority happening within 100 meters. The power and range of ‘full-power’ rifle cartridges was simply overkill for a vast majority of engagements with small arms. As a result, a cartridge and firearm were sought that would combine the features of a submachinegun (high capacity magazine and fully-automatic capability) with an intermediate power cartridge that would be effective to a range of 300 meters. For the sake of manufacturing, this was done by shortening the 8 mm Mauser cartridge to 33 mm and using a lighter bullet. The resulting [[Sturmgewehr 44]] was not the first rifle to use these features; it was preceded by earlier [[Italy|Italian]], and [[Russia]]n, designs. The Germans were, however, the first to produce and field a sufficient number of the type to properly evaluate its utility. They fielded the weapon in large numbers against the Russians towards the end of the war. This experience deeply influenced Russian doctrine in the years following the war. [[Image:AKlash.jpg|thumb|right|Mikhail Kalashnikov]]According to the story, tank sergeant Mikhail Kalashnikov began imagining his weapon while still in the hospital, after being wounded in the battle of [[Bryansk]]. He had been informed that a new weapon was required for the 7.62 × 39 mm cartridge developed by Elisarov and Semin in 1943. Sudayev's [[PPS43]] submachine gun was preferred to Kalashnikov's design. Kalashnikov redesigned his losing design after examining a German [[Sturmgewehr 44|STG 44]] in 1946. It has been suggested that Kalashnikov was chosen to lead a team of designers more for propaganda value due to his war-hero status rather than for his expertise, following Soviet patterns in other industries. Despite circumstantial evidence, Mikhail Kalashnikov denies that his rifle was ''based'' on the German assault rifle. Internally the AK-47 owes much to the [[M1 Garand]] Rifle. The double locking lugs, unlocking raceway, and trigger mechanism are clearly derived from the earlier American design. This is not surprising as millions of Garand rifles had operated reliably in combat around the globe. Though mechanically similar to the Garand, the AK-47 clearly borrows its cartridge concept, weapon layout, gas system, and construction methods from the StG44. Where the Kalashnikov rifle differs is in its simplification of those contributing designs and adaptation to mass production by relatively unskilled labor. The AK-47 can be seen as a fusion of the best that the M1 Garand offered combined with the best aspects of the StG44 made by the best processes available in the Soviet Union at the time. There were many difficulties during the initial phase of production. The first production models had stamped sheet metal receivers. Alarmingly, these rifles were wearing out rapidly. Instead of halting production, a heavy machined receiver was substituted for the sheet metal receiver. This was a more costly process, but the use of machined receivers accelerated production as tooling and labor for the earlier [[Mosin-Nagant]] rifle's machined receiver were easily adapted. Partly because of these problems, the Soviets were not able to distribute large numbers of the new rifle to soldiers until 1956. Once manufacturing difficulties had been overcome, a redesigned version designated the AKM (''M'' for ''modernized'' or ''upgraded'') was introduced in 1959 . This new model used a stamped sheet metal receiver and featured a slanted device on the end of the barrel to compensate for muzzle rise under recoil. The AKM was exported around the world to aid in the spread of Communism. Licensed production of the Kalashnikov weapons abroad as well as unlicensed production was almost exclusively of the AKM. Despite this, rifles of this pattern are almost universally referred to as AK-47's. In 1978, the Soviet Union began replacing their AK-47 and AKM rifles with a newer design, the [[AK-74]]. This new rifle and cartridge had only started being exported to eastern European nations when the Soviet Union collapsed. [[Image:LCpl Cheema on the AK-47.JPG|right|thumb|280px|East Germany-made MPiKS 72, folding stock variant of AKM in the hands of a U.S. Marine]] ==Notable features== The AK-47 is simple and inexpensive to manufacture and easy to clean and maintain. Its ruggedness and reliability is legendary. The large gas piston, generous clearances between moving parts, and tapered cartridge case design allow the gun to endure large amounts of foreign matter and fouling without failing to cycle. This reliability comes at the cost of accuracy. The notched rear tangent iron sight is calibrated with each numeral denoting hundreds of meters. The front sight is a post adjustable for elevation in the field. Windage adjustment is done by the armory prior to issue. The battle setting places the round within a few centimeters above or below the point of aim out to approximately 250 meters. This "[[point-blank range]]" setting allows the shooter to fire the gun at any close target without adjusting the sights. Longer settings are intended for area suppression. These settings mirror the [[Mosin-Nagant]] and [[SKS]] rifles which the AK-47 replaced. This eased transition and simplified training. The [[bore]] and [[chamber]], as well as the gas piston and the interior of the [[gas cylinder]], are generally [[chromium]] plated. This plating dramatically increases the life of these parts by resisting corrosion and wear. Chrome plating of critical parts is now common on most modern military weapons. ==Ballistics== The standard AK-47 or AKM fires a [[7.62 x 39 mm|7.62 × 39 mm]] [[cartridge (weaponry)|round]] with a muzzle velocity of 710 m/s (2,329 ft/s). Muzzle energy is 1,990 [[joule]]s (1,467 ft•lbf). Cartridge case length is 38.6 mm, weight is 18.21 g. Projectile weight is normally 8 g (123 gr). The AK-47 and AKM, with the 7.62 × 39 mm cartridge, have an effective range of around 300 meters. For comparison, the [[7.62 x 54 mm R]] cartridge has a projectile of 12 g (185 gr) at a velocity of 818 m/s (2,683 ft/s) for approximately 4,000 joules (2,950 ft•lbf) of energy. ==Operating cycle== [[Image:AK-components.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A diagram showing the design of AKM.]] To fire, the operator inserts a loaded [[Magazine (firearm)|magazine]], moves the selector lever to the lowest position, pulls back and releases the charging handle, and then pulls the [[trigger]]. In this setting, the gun fires once requiring the trigger be released and depressed again for the next shot until the magazine is exhausted. With the selector in the middle position, the rifle continues to fire, automatically cycling fresh rounds into the chamber, until the magazine is exhausted or pressure is released from the trigger. Dismantling the gun involves the operator depressing the magazine catch and removing the magazine. The charging handle is pulled to the rear and the operator inspects the chamber to verify the gun is unloaded. The operator presses forward on the retainer button at the rear of the receiver cover while simultaneously lifting up on the rear of the cover to remove it. He then pushes spring assembly forward and lifts it from its raceway, withdrawing it out of the bolt carrier and to the rear. The operator must then pull the carrier assembly all the way to the rear, lift it and then pull it away. He removes the bolt by pushing it to the rear of the bolt carrier; rotating the bolt so the camming lug clears the raceway on the underside of the bolt carrier and then pulls it forward and free. When cleaning, the operator will pay special attention to the barrel, bolt face, and gas piston, then oil lightly and reassemble. [[Image:Misccaparms.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Small arms captured in [[Fallujah]], [[Iraq]] by the [[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marine Corps]] in 2004 include two AK-47s (first and third from the left)]] ==Legal status in the USA== Private ownership of fully-automatic AK-47 rifles is tightly regulated by the [[National Firearms Act]] of 1934. The [[Gun Control Act of 1968]] ceased import of foreign manufactured fully-automatic firearms for civilian sales and possession effectively halting further importation of civilian accessible AK-47 rifles. In [[1986]], an amendment to the [[Firearm Owners Protection Act]] stopped all future domestic manufacture of fully-automatic weapons for civilian use. However, machine guns manufactured domestically prior to 1986 and imported prior to 1968 may be transferred between civilians in accordance with federal and state law. Several Soviet and Chinese rifles made it into the U.S. during the mid-1960s when returning Vietnam Veterans brought them home after capture from enemy troops. Many of these were properly registered during the 1968 NFA amnesty. In addition, several states have laws on their books outlawing private possession of full-automatic firearms even with NFA approval. Certain [[semi-automatic]] AK-47 models were banned by the now-expired [[Federal assault weapons ban]] of 1994&ndash;2004. A semi-automatic rifle, similar externally to the AK-47 but operably identical to many hunting rifles, was used in a much publicized 1989 shooting in a [[Stockton, California]], schoolyard, and in the 1993 murders outside of the [[Langley, Virginia]], headquarters of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (see [[Mir Amir Kansi]]). Another much-publicized use of the AK-47 in the United States happened when bank robbers exchanged fire with police after a botched robbery. The [[North Hollywood shootout]] involved AK-47's that were illegal to possess. Ignoring the law while committing numerous other felonies, both assailants were shot and died at the scene. Citing these tragedies, gun control advocates lobbied for strict controls on military-style semi-automatic firearms even though most criminals do not buy their weapons legally. ==Cultural influence== [[Image:Coat_of_arms_of_Mozambique.png|thumb|right|200px|Coat of arms of [[Mozambique]]]] The AK-47 and its derivatives are favored by many non-[[Western world|West]]ern powers because of their ease of use, robustness, simplicity, and manufacturing cost effectiveness. Estimates for production range over 100 million units. During most of the [[Cold War]], the Soviet Union and China followed a military assistance program, supplying their arms and technical knowledge to numerous countries. In addition, another policy saw the supply of weapons, free of charge, to pro-communist fighters such as the [[Sandinistas]] and [[Viet-Cong]]. This policy was mirrored in the West, with the United States providing arms to such groups as the Afghan [[Mujahideen]]. The broad proliferation of this weapon is reflected by more than just its numbers. The AK-47 is included in the [[Mozambique]] flag and [[coat of arms]] (formerly also in [[Burkina Faso]] coat of arms) and the [[Hizballah]] flag. "[[Kalash]]", a shortened form of "[[Kalashnikov]]", is used as a name for boys in some African countries. Moreover, moviemakers who arm cinema terrorists, gang members (e.g. films like ''[[Boyz N The Hood]]''), and "bad guys" in general with AK-47s add much to the weapon's cultural mystique. Numerous computer and video games feature AK-47s. The weapon is used as a backdrop for reporters during Terrorism news stories. Fiction writers are also quick to arm their characters with the weapon. The sheer ubiquity of the AK-47, its iconography, the fact that it possesses easily the most distinguishable weapon outline, and its nefarious association with violent conflict will ensure a significant and conspicuous impact on society. [[Image:Far-sol-gas.jpg|thumb|right|280px|[[Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces]] armed with AK-47's, engaging in a training exercise]] ==Versions== Kalashnikov variants include: *'''AK-47 1948–51, 7.62 × 39 mm'''— the very earliest models had a stamped sheet metal receiver; now rare. *'''AK-47 1952, 7.62 × 39 mm'''— has a milled receiver and wooden buttstock and handguard. Barrel and chamber are chrome plated to resist corrosion. Rifle weight 4.2 kg. *'''AKS-47'''— featured a downward-folding metal stock similar to that of the German [[MP40]], for use in the restricted space in the [[BMP]] infantry combat vehicle. *'''[[RPK]] 7.62 × 39 mm'''— squad automatic rifle version with longer barrel and bipod. *'''AKM 7.62 × 39 mm'''— a simplified, lighter version of the AK-47; receiver is made from stamped and riveted sheet metal. A slanted muzzle device was added to counter climb in automatic fire. Rifle weight 3.61 kg. *'''AKMS 7.62 × 39 mm'''— folding-stock version of the AKM intended for [[airborne]] troops. *'''[[AK-74]] series 5.45 x 39 mm'''— see [[AK-74|main article]] for details. [[Image:000715-F-2829R-001.jpg|thumb|right|280px| A Romanian soldier aids a U.S. Marine in clearing an RPK during the weapons familiarization phase of [[Exercise Rescue Eagle 2000]] at Babadag Range, Romania, on July 15, 2000]] ==Other versions== The AK-47 and its descendants are or have been manufactured in the following countries: [[Egypt]], [[China]], [[North Korea]], [[East Germany]], [[Poland]], [[Yugoslavia]] (as the M70 and M80 series), [[Romania]], [[Hungary]] (as AMD-63 and AMD-65), [[Iraq]], and [[Bulgaria]]. Certainly more have been produced elsewhere, but the above list represents major producers. An updated AKM design is still produced in Russia. The basic design of the AK-47 has been used as the basis for other successful rifle designs such as the [[Finland|Finnish]] [[Rk 62|Valmet 62/76]], the [[Israel]]i [[Galil]], the [[India]]n [[INSAS]] and the Yugoslav [[Zastava (weapon)]] M76 and M77 and M77/82 (not to be confused with the [[Barrett]] [[M82 (rifle)|M82]]) rifles. Several [[bullpup]] designs have surfaced, although none have been produced in quantity. ==Quotes== Yuri Orlov, the protagonist from the ''[[Lord of War]]'' film: <blockquote>''Of all the weapons in the vast Soviet arsenal, nothing was more profitable than Avtomat Kalashnikova model of 1947. More commonly known as the AK-47, or Kalashnikov. It's the world's most popular assault rifle. A weapon all fighters love. An elegantly simple 9-pound amalgamation of forged steel and plywood. It doesn't break, jam, or overheat. It'll shoot whether it's covered in mud or filled with sand. It's so easy, even a child can use it; and they do. The Soviets put the gun on a coin. Mozambique put it on their flag. Since the end of the Cold War, the Kalashnikov has become the Russian people's greatest export. After that comes vodka, caviar, suicidal novelists. One thing is for sure, no one was lining up to buy their cars. [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0399295/quotes] </blockquote> Ordell Robbie, the protagonist from the film ''[[Jackie Brown]]'': <blockquote>''There it is, the AK-47. When you absolutely, positively, have to kill every single motherfucker in the room; accept no substitute.'' [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0119396/quotes] </blockquote> ==See also== * [[List of modern armament manufacturers]] * [[Civilian "Cousins" of the AK-47]] * [[Comparison of the AK-47 and M16]] * [[AK-74]] * [[AK-101]] * [[AK-103]] * [[AK-107]] includes AK-108 * [[Chinese Type 56 Assault Rifle]] * [[Karabinek-granatnik wz.1960]] ==References== * Fackler et al. (1984). "Wounding potential of the Russian AK-74 assault rifle", ''Journal of Trauma-Injury Infection & Critical Care.'' '''24''', 263-6. * Ezell, Edward Clinton (1986). ''The AK-47 Story: Evolution of the Kalashnikov Weapons.'' Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. ISBN 0811709167. (Prior to his death, Ezell was the curator of military history at the [[Smithsonian Museum]].) * ''[[Guinness Book of Records|Guinness World Records 2005]].'' ISBN 1892051222. ==External links== * [http://www.izhmash.ru/eng manufacturer site] * [http://www.sturmgewehr.com/bhinton/AK/ Buddy Hinton Collection / AK] * [http://kalashnikov.guns.ru/ AK Site &mdash; Kalashnikov Home Page] * [http://www.enemyforces.com/firearms/ak47.htm AK-47 Assault Rifle] * [http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=85766 AK-47@Everything2.com] * [http://www.us.imdb.com/title/tt0254151/ Automat Kalaschnikow] film documented the man and his machine * [http://www.milparade.com/kalashnikov/chapter9/09_15.shtml AK47S self-loading carbine (USA)] * Home of the [http://www.ak-47.net/ AK-47] on the Internet. * [http://www.sovietarmy.com/small_arms/ak-47.html AK-47 Assault rifle] [http://www.sovietarmy.com/ (SovietArmy.com)] * [http://www.nazarian.no/wep.asp?id=284&group_id=5&country_id=162&lang=0 Nazarian`s Gun`s Recognition Guide] *[http://world.guns.ru/ Modern Firearms] * [http://www.sovietarmy.com/small_arms/akm.html AKM Assault Rifle] [http://www.sovietarmy.com/ (SovietArmy.com)] * [http://www.pbase.com/the_kampfer/image/47449546 animation of an AK-47 action in operation] ==Video links== *[http://www.nazarian.no/wep.asp?id=284&group_id=5&country_id=162&lang=0&p=8 Nazarian's Gun's Recognition Guide (FILM) How AK47 Work Presentation (.Video clip)] *[http://www.nazarian.no/wep.asp?id=284&group_id=5&country_id=162&lang=0&p=7 Nazarian's Gun's Recognition Guide (FILM) AK-47 Presentation (.swf)] *[http://jardax.ethernet.cz/Gun/Video/ak47_slow.avi Kurzzeitmesstechnik Mehl Slow-Motion video of AK-47 action in operation (DivX Movie)] *[http://www.carfield.com.hk/fun/classic/machine/How_AK47_Work.avi Bruce Canfield animation of AK-47 action in operation.] ==Manual== *[http://www.nazarian.no/images/wep/284_US_Army_AK47.pdf Nazarian's Gun's Recognition Guide (MANUAL) AK 47 Manual (.pdf)] [[Category:7.62 mm firearms]] [[Category:Assault rifles]] [[Category:Cold War weapons of the Soviet Union]] [[bg:АК-47]] [[de:AK-47]] [[et:AK-47]] [[es:AK-47]] [[fa:کلاشنیکوف]] [[fr:AK-47]] [[gl:AK-47]] [[ko:AK-47]] [[id:AK-47]] [[it:AK-47]] [[he:AK-47]] [[ku:AK-47]] [[hu:AK-47]] [[ms:AK-47]] [[nl:AK-47]] [[ja:AK-47]] [[no:AK-47]] [[pl:Karabinek AK]] [[pt:AK-47]] [[sl:AK-47]] [[sr:АК-47]] [[fi:AK-47]] [[sv:AK-47]] [[vi:AK-47]] [[tr:Ak-47]] [[zh:АК-47]] 1349 40590582 2006-02-21T17:54:41Z 12.108.99.34 The '''Atanasoff-Berry Computer''' was the first electronic digital computer [http://www.cs.iastate.edu/jva/books/burks/overview.shtml] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ENIAC] and was a major step in the history of computing . It was built by [[John Vincent Atanasoff|Dr. John Vincent Atanasoff]] and [[Clifford E. Berry]] at [[Iowa State University]] during 1937-42. The Atanasoff-Berry Computer represented several innovations in computing, including a binary system of arithmetic, [[parallel processing]], [[DRAM|regenerative memory]], and a separation of memory and computing functions. It is sometimes referred to by its initials, ABC. John Vincent Atanasoff was awarded the [[National Medal of Technology]] by President [[George H. W. Bush]] in a Ceremony at the White House on November 13, 1990. [[Image:ABC.GIF|thumb|300px|]] The Atanasoff-Berry Computer, constructed in the basement of the Physics building at Iowa State University, took over two years to complete due to lack of funds. The prototype was first demonstrated in November of 1939. The computer weighed more than seven hundred pounds (320 kg). It contained approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) of wire, 280 dual-triode [[vacuum tube]]s, 31 [[thyratron]]s, and was about the size of a desk. It was not a [[Turing complete]] computer, which distinguishes it from later, more general machines, such as the 1946 [[ENIAC]], 1949 [[EDVAC]], the [[Victoria University of Manchester|University of Manchester]] designs, or [[Alan Turing]]'s post-War designs at [[National Physical Laboratory|NPL]] and elsewhere. Nor did it implement the [[stored program architecture]] that made practical fully general-purpose, reprogrammable computers. The machine was, however, the first to implement three critical ideas that are still part of every modern computer: #Using [[binary_numeral_system|binary]] digits to represent all numbers and data #Performing all calculations using [[electronics]] rather than wheels, ratchets, or mechanical switches #Organizing a system in which [[computation]] and [[computer storage|memory]] are separated. In addition, the computer pioneered the use of regenerative capacitor memory, as in the [[DRAM]] still widely used today. The memory of the Atanasoff-Berry Computer was a pair of drums, each containing 1600 [[capacitor]]s that rotated on a common shaft once per second. The capacitors on each drum were organized into 32 "bands" of 50 (30 active bands and 2 spares in case a capacitor failed), giving the machine a speed of 30 additions/subtractions per second. Data was represented as 50-bit binary fixed point numbers. The electronics of the memory and arithmetic units could store and operate on 60 such numbers at a time (3000 bits). The [[alternating current|AC]] power line frequency of 60 [[Hertz|Hz]] was the primary clock rate for the lowest level operations. The logic functions were fully electronic, implemented with vacuum tubes. The family of [[logic gates]] ranged from inverters to two and three input gates. The input and output levels and operating voltages were compatible between the different gates. Each gate consisted of one inverting vacuum tube amplifier, preceded by a resistor divider input network that defined the logical function. Although the Atanasoff-Berry Computer was an important step up from earlier computing machines, it was not a ''[[stored program]] computer''. An operator was needed to operate the control switches to set up its functions, much the way [[Booting|boot]] programs would be entered in later computers. Selection of the operation to be performed, reading, writing, converting to or from binary to decimal, or reducing a set of equations was made by front panel switches and in some cases jumpers. There were two forms of input and output. Primary user input and output and an intermediate results output and input. The intermediate results storage allowed operation on problems too large to be handled entirely within the electronic memory. Intermediate results were written onto paper sheets by electrostatically modifying the resistance at 1500 locations to represent 30 of the 50 bit numbers. Each sheet could be written or read in one second. The reliability of the system was limited to about 1 error in 100,000 calculations by these units, primarily attributed to lack of control of the sheets' material characteristics. In retrospect a solution could have been to add a parity bit to each number as written. This problem was not solved by the time Atanasoff left the university for war-related work. Primary user input was via standard [[punched card]]s and output via a front panel display. The ABC was designed for a fairly specific purpose, the solution of systems of simultaneous linear equations. It could handle systems with up to twenty-nine equations, which was large for the time. Problems of this scale were becoming common in physics, the department in which John Atanasoff worked. Basically, it could be fed two linear equations with up to twenty-nine variables and a constant term and eliminate one of the variables. This process would have to be repeated manually for each of the equations, which would result in a system of equations with one fewer variables. Then the whole process would have to be repeated to eliminate another variable. The initial funds to start development and demonstrate the circuits involved was from the [[Agronomy]] department which was also interested in such problems for economic and research analysis. Further funding to complete the machine came from [[Research Corporation]] of America, in [[New York]]. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly were the first to patent a digital computing device, their [[ENIAC]] computer. ABC had been examined by [[John Mauchly]] in June [[1941]], and is alleged to have influenced his later work on ENIAC, although Mauchly denied this. In [[1967]] [[Honeywell]] started a court case against Sperry Rand in an attempt to break their patent, based on the ABC being [[prior art]]. The court released its final judgement on October 19, 1973. In [http://www.cs.iastate.edu/jva/court-papers/ Sperry Rand Vs. Honeywell] the court voided the ENIAC patent as a derivative of John Atanasoff's invention. The decision was not appealed. Atanasoff was quite generous in stating, "there is enough credit for everyone in the invention and development of the electronic computer." Eckert and Mauchly received most of the credit for inventing the first electronic-digital computer. Historians now say that the Atanasoff-Berry computer was the first. The original ABC was eventually dismantled, when the University converted the basement to classrooms, and all of its pieces except for one memory drum were discarded. In [[1997]], a team of researchers from [[Ames Laboratory]] (located on the Iowa State campus) finished building a working replica of the Atanasoff-Berry Computer for a cost of $350,000. This replica dispelled any doubt over whether or not the ABC actually could perform the tasks it was designed to do. The new ABC is now on permanent display in the first floor lobby of the Durham Center for Computation and Communication at Iowa State University. ==See also== * [[History of computing hardware]] ==References== * Anthony Ralston and Edwin D. Reilly (ed), '' Encyclopedia of Computer Science, 3rd Ed. '', 1993, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York ISBN 0442276796 * [[Clark R. Mollenhoff]], ''Atanasoff: Forgotten Father of the Computer'', [[1988]], ISBN 0-8138-0032-3 ==External links== *[http://www.cs.iastate.edu/jva/jva-archive.shtml The Birth of the ABC] *[http://www.scl.ameslab.gov/ABC/ Rebuilding the ABC] *[http://www.scl.ameslab.gov/Projects/ABC/Trial.html The ENIAC patent trial] *[http://www.cbi.umn.edu/collections/inv/cbi00001.html Honeywell, Inc., Honeywell vs. Sperry Rand Records, 1846-1973] [[Category:Early computers]] [[Category:History of computing]] [[Category:One-of-a-kind computers]] [[Category:Iowa State University]] [[bg:Компютър на Атанасов-Бери]] [[de:Atanasoff-Berry-Computer]] [[es:Atanasoff Berry Computer]] [[it:Atanasoff Berry Computer]] [[ja:アタナソフ&ベリー・コンピュータ]] [[zh:阿塔纳索夫-贝瑞计算机]] 1350 15899839 2002-03-07T01:05:10Z Eclecticology 372 * #REDIRECT [[A Midsummer Night's Dream]] 1352 33944428 2006-01-05T06:45:32Z Netoholic 41995 plus now allowed The '''Association of C and C++ Users''' ('''ACCU''') is a worldwide organisation of people interested in programming languages. Originally, the association was primarily for [[C programming language|C]] programmers (it was then called the CUG), but it has since added [[C++]], [[C Sharp programming language|C#]], [[Java programming language|Java]], [[Perl]], and [[Python programming language|Python]] programmers to its membership. The long form of the organisation's name is thus historical and seldom used, the name '''ACCU''' is preferred. Members of ACCU include professional programmers and companies as well as amateur programmers. The association is operated by a volunteer [[committee]], which is responsible for the organisation of an ACCU [[conference]] each spring in or near Oxford, as well as the publication of a number of journals. The association has two types of membership: Regular membership provides access to the conferences and the association's principal journal, ''C Vu'', which contains articles, letters, and book reviews by members; Advanced membership additionally provides a subscription to ''Overload'', which is designed for more advanced programmers. Full-time students qualify for membership [[discount]]s. ==External links== * [http://www.accu.org/ ACCU Official Site] * [http://www.accu-usa.org/ ACCU Silicon Valley Chapter] [[Category:C programming language family]] 1353 42116594 2006-03-03T22:55:13Z Sesel 51623 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/86.134.6.147|86.134.6.147]] ([[User talk:86.134.6.147|talk]]) to last version by Tailpig {{Wiktionarypar|Andrew}} '''Andrew''' is an [[English language|English]] [[male]]'s [[personal name]]. For its meanings, etymology, pronunciation, and translations, see Wiktionary. People commonly known solely by the given name '''Andrew''' include: *[[Saint Andrew]] *[[Andrew I of Hungary]] *[[Andrew II of Hungary]] *[[Prince Andrew, Duke of York]] Things commonly known as '''Andrew''' include: *[[Andrew Project]] - [[Carnegie Mellon University]] computer project called "Andrew" *[[Hurricane Andrew]] - A strong [[Tropical cyclone|hurricane]] in [[1992]]. == See also == * [[Andrea]] *[[Saint Andrew's Cross]] *[[St Andrew's Cross spider]] *[[Androgen]] * [[Drew]] {{disambig}} [[da:Andreas]] [[de:Andreas]] [[el:Ανδρέας (Όνομα)]] [[eo:Andreo]] [[fr:André]] [[hu:András]] [[nl:Andreas]] [[pl:Andrzej]] [[ru:Андрей]] [[sk:Andrej]] [[sl:Andrej]] [[sv:Andreas]] 1354 42078925 2006-03-03T18:00:33Z RexNL 241337 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.39.1.140|24.39.1.140]] ([[User talk:24.39.1.140|talk]]) to last version by RexNL {{Otherusesabout|the mountain system in South America}} [[Image:Andes Chile Argentina.jpg|thumb|300px|The Andes between [[Chile]] and [[Argentina]]]] [[Image:Nasa_anden.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Computer generated image of the Andes, made from a [[digital elevation model]] with a resolution of 30 [[arcsecond]]s]] The '''Andes''' is a vast [[mountain range]] forming a continuous chain of highland along the western coast of [[South America]]. It is roughly [[1_E6_m|7,000 km]] (4,400&nbsp;miles) long, [[1_E5_m|500 km]] (300&nbsp;miles) wide in some parts (widest between 18° to 20°S latitude), and of an average height of about [[1_E3_m|4,000 m]] (13,000 feet). The Andean range is composed principally of two great chains separated by a deep intermediate [[depression (geology)|depression]], in which arise other chains of minor importance, the chief of which is [[Chile]]'s [[Cordillera de la Costa]]. Other small chains arise on the sides of the great chains. The ''Cordillera de la Costa'' starts from the southern extremity of the continent and runs in a northerly direction, parallel with the coast, being broken up at its beginning into a number of islands and afterwards forming the western boundary of the great central valley of Chile. To the north this coastal chain continues in small ridges or isolated hills along the [[Pacific Ocean]] as far as [[Venezuela]], always leaving the same valley more or less visible to the west of the western great chain. The mountains extend over seven countries: [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Peru]] and [[Venezuela]]. The Andes range is the highest mountain range outside Asia, with the highest peak, [[Aconcagua]], rising to 6,959 m (23,000 feet) [[above sea level]]. The summit of [[Mount Chimborazo]] in the Ecuadorean Andes is the point on the Earth's surface most distant from its center, because of the [[equatorial bulge]]. The Andes cannot match the [[Himalaya]] in height but do so in width and are more than twice as long. ==Physical features== ===Geology=== The formation of the Andes extends into the [[Paleozoic]] Era, when [[terrane]] accretion was the dominant process. It was during the [[Cretaceous]] Period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the uplifting, [[Fault (geology)|faulting]] and [[Fold (geology)|folding]] of [[sedimentary rocks|sedimentary]] and [[metamorphic rocks]] of the ancient [[craton]]s to the east. Tectonic forces along the [[subduction zone]] along the entire west coast of South America where the [[Nazca Plate]] and a part of the [[Antarctic Plate]] are sliding beneath the [[South American Plate]] continue to produce an ongoing [[Orogeny|orogenic event]] resulting in minor to major earthquakes and volcanic eruptions to this day. In the extreme south a major [[transform fault]] separates [[Tierra del Fuego]] from the small [[Scotia Plate]]. Across the 1,000&nbsp;km wide [[Drake Passage]] lie the mountains of the [[Antarctic Peninsula]] south of the Scotia Plate which appear to be a continuation of the Andes chain. The Andes range has many active volcanoes, the most famous being [[Cotopaxi]], one of the highest active volcanos in the world. The Andes can be divided into three sections: the Southern Andes in Argentina and Chile; the Central Andes, including the Chilean and Peruvian cordilleras; and the northern section in Venezuela, Colombia, and northern Ecuador consisting of two parallel ranges, the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Oriental. The term ''cordillera'' comes from the Spanish word meaning 'rope'. The Andes range is approximately 200&ndash;300&nbsp;km wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is 640&nbsp;km wide [http://www.andes.org.uk/andes-information-files/famous-andes-peaks.htm] [http://www.bartleby.com/65/co/Cotopaxi.html]. ===Climate=== The climate in the Andes varies greatly depending on location, altitude, proximity to the sea. The southern section is rainy and cool, the central Andes are dry. The northern Andes are typically rainy and warm, with an average temperature of 18&nbsp;°C in Colombia. The climate is known to change drastically. [[Tropical rainforest]]s exist just miles away from the snow covered peak, Cotopaxi. The mountains have a large effect on the temperatures of nearby areas. The [[snow line]] depends on the location. It is at between 4,500&ndash;4,800&nbsp;m in the tropical Ecuadorian, Colombian, Venezuelan, and northern Peruvian Andes, rising to 4,800&ndash;5,200&nbsp;m in the drier mountains of southern Peru south to northern Chile south to about 30°S, then descending to 4,500&nbsp;m on Aconcagua at 32°S, 2,000&nbsp;m at 40°S, 500&nbsp;m at 50°S, and only 300&nbsp;m in [[Tierra del Fuego]] at 55°S; from 50°S, several of the larger glaciers descend to sea level ([[Google Earth]] images). [[Image:andes - punta arenas.jpg|thumb|left|View of the mountains in the countryside just outside of [[Punta Arenas, Chile]].]] ===Plant and animal life=== [[Tropical rainforests]] encircle the northern Andes. The [[cinchona]], a source of [[quinine]] which is used to treat malaria, is found in the Bolivian Andes. The high-altitude ''[[Polylepis]]'' forests are present in the Andean areas of Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. The trees, Queñua, Yagual, Quinua and other names that local people use to call them, can be found at altitudes of 4,500&nbsp;m above sea level. Once abundant, the forests began disappearing during the Incan period when much of it was used for building material and cooking fuel. The trees are now considered to be highly endangered with only 10 percent of the original forests remaining [http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes_climate_page.htm]. The [[llama]] can be found living at high altitudes, predominantly in the Peru and Bolivia. The alpaca, a type of llama, is raised for its wool. The nocturnal [[chinchilla]], an endangered member of the [[rodent]] order, inhabits the Andes' alpine regions. The South American [[condor]] is the largest bird of its kind in the Western hemisphere. Other animals include the [[guemul]], [[puma]], [[camelids]] and, for birds, the [[partridge]], [[parina]], [[huallata]], and [[coot]]. Llamas and pumas play important roles in many Andean cultures. ==The people== {{sect-stub}} ===Transportation=== The people of the Andes are not well connected with the city. Due to the arduous terrain, vehicles are discouraged. People generally walk to their destinations, using the llama as their primary pack animal. ===Agriculture=== The ancient peoples of the Andes such as the Incas have practiced irrigation techniques for over 6,000 years. Because of the mountain slopes, terracing has been a common practice. Maize and barley were important crops for these people. Currently, tobacco, cotton and coffee are the main export crops. The potato holds a very important role as an internally consumed crop. By far the most important plant in terms of history and culture is coca, the leaves of which have been central to the Andean people for centuries. Coca has been a staple dietary supplement and cornerstone to Andean culture throughout much of its history. ===Mining=== Mining is quite prosperous in the Andes, with iron, gold, silver and copper being the main production minerals. The Andes are reputed to be one of the most important sources of these minerals in the world. ==Peaks== This is a partial listing of the major peaks in the Andes mountain range&mdash;typically 5 km or more in height. {{wrapper}} |[[Image:Licancabur.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Licancabur]], Bolivia/Chile]] |- |[[Image:Llullaillaco.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Llullaillaco]], Chile/Argentina]] |- |[[Image:Aconcagua - Argentina - January 2005 - by Sergio Schmiegelow.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Aconcagua]], Argentina]] |- |[[Image:Chimborazo from southwest.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Chimborazo]], Ecuador]] |- |[[Image:Alpamayo.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Alpamayo]], Peru]] |- |[[Image:El misti.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[El Misti]], Peru]] |- |[[Image:Huascaran.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Huascarán]], Peru]] |} ===Bolivia=== * [[Ancohuma]], 6,427 m * [[Cabaray]], 5,860 m * [[Chacaltaya]], 5,421 m * [[Huayna Potosí]], 6,088 m * [[Illampu]], 6,368 m * [[Illimani]], 6,438 m * [[Macizo de Larancagua]], 5,520 m * [[Macizo de Pacuni]], 5,400 m * [[Nevado Anallajsi]], 5,750 m * [[Nevado Sajama]], 6,542 m * [[Patilla Pata]], 5,300 m * [[Tata Sabaya]], 5,430 m ===Bolivia/Chile=== * [[Cerro Minchincha]], 5,305 m * [[Irruputuncu]], 5,163 m * [[Licancabur]], 5,920 m * [[Olca]], 5,407 m * [[Paruma]], 5,420 m * [[Pomerape]], 6,348 m ===Chile/Argentina=== * [[Aconcagua]], 6,962 m * [[Acotango]], 6,052 m * [[Cerro Bayo]], 5,401 m * [[Cerro Escorial]], 5,447 m * [[Cordón del Azufre]], 5,463 m * [[Falso Azufre]], 5,890 m * [[Lastarria]], 5,697 m * [[Llullaillaco]], 6,739 m * [[Maipo (volcano)|Maipo]], 5,264 m * [[Marmolejo]], 6110 m * [[Ojos del Salado]], 6,893 m * [[Olca]], 5,407 m * [[Parinacota]], 6,348 m * [[Monte Pissis | Pissis]], 6,795 m * [[Sierra Nevada de Lagunas Bravas]], 6,127 m * [[Socompa]], 6,051 m ===Colombia=== * [[Galeras]], 4,276 m * [[Nevado del Ruiz]], 5,389 m ===Ecuador=== * [[Antisana]], 5,753 m * [[Cayambe (volcano)|Cayambe]], 5,790 m * [[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]], 6,267 m * [[Corazón]], 4,790 m * [[Cotopaxi]], 5,897 m * [[El Altar]], 5,320 m * [[Illiniza]], 5,248 m * [[Pichincha (volcano)|Pichincha]], 4,784 m * [[Reventador]], 3,562 m * [[Sangay]], 5,230 m * [[Tungurahua]], 5,023 m ===Peru=== * [[Alpamayo]], 5,947 m * [[Carnicero]], 5,960 m * [[El Misti]], 5,822 m * [[El Toro (Andes)|El Toro]], 5,830 m * [[Huascarán]], 6,768 m * [[Jirishanca]], 6,094 m * [[Rasac]], 6,040 m * [[Rondoy]], 5,870 m * [[Sarapo]], 6,127 m * [[Seria Norte]], 5,860 m * [[Siula Grande]], 6,344 m * [[Yerupaja]], 6,635 m * [[Yerupaja Chico]], 6,089 m ==Suggested reading== {{sect-stub}} ==External links== {{commons|Andes}} *[http://www.photoglobe.info/db_merced/ PhotoGlobe: Andes around Mt. Mercedario] *[http://www.geo.arizona.edu/geo5xx/geo527/Andes/intro.html Andes geology Arizona Edu.] *[http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes_climate_page.htm Climate and animal life of the Andes] *[http://www.ancientperu.com/ Civilizations of Ancient Peru] [[Category:Mountain ranges]] [[Category:Mountains of South America]] [[ar:أنديز]] [[be:Анды]] [[bg:Анди]] [[ca:Andes]] [[cs:Andy]] [[da:Andesbjergene]] [[de:Anden]] [[es:Andes]] [[eo:Andoj]] [[eu:Andeak]] [[fr:Cordillère des Andes]] [[gl:Andes]] [[ko:안데스 산맥]] [[ia:Andes]] [[is:Andesfjöll]] [[it:Ande]] [[he:הרי האנדים]] [[la:Andes]] [[lv:Andi]] [[lt:Andai]] [[mk:Анди]] [[nl:Andes (gebergte)]] [[ja:アンデス山脈]] [[no:Andes]] [[nn:Andes]] [[pl:Andy]] [[pt:Cordilheira dos Andes]] [[ru:Анды]] [[simple:Andes]] [[sl:Andi]] [[sr:Анди]] [[fi:Andit]] [[sv:Anderna]] [[th:เทือกเขาแอนดีส]] [[uk:Анди]] [[zh:安地斯山脈]] 1355 42054031 2006-03-03T14:06:28Z Neddyseagoon 883252 Merge #redirect [[Pevensey Castle]] 1356 40207398 2006-02-18T23:34:02Z Aranae 135342 rvt {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Ancylopods | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammalia]] | ordo = [[Perissodactyla]] | superfamilia = '''Chalicotherioidea''' }} '''Ancylopoda''', is a group of [[mammal]]s in the [[Perissodactyla]] that show long, curved and [[cleft]] [[claw]]s. [[Morphology (biology)|Morphological]] evidence indicates the Ancylopoda diverged from the [[tapir]]s, [[rhinoceros]]es and [[horse]]s ([[Euperissodactyla]]) after the [[Brontotheria]], however earlier authoritites such as [[Osborn]] sometimes considered the Ancylopoda to be outside Perissodactyla or, as was popular more recently, to be related to [[Brontotheria]]. {{paleo-stub}} {{mammal-stub}} [[Category:Odd-toed ungulates]] 1357 37290056 2006-01-30T01:14:09Z Gdrbot 263608 nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}} {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = European anchovy | image = anchovy-thumbnail.jpg | image_caption = [[media:anchovy.jpg|''Original image'']] | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Actinopterygii]] | ordo = [[Clupeiformes]] | familia = [[Engraulidae]] | genus = '''''[[Engraulis]]''''' | species = '''''E. encrasicholus''''' | binomial = ''Engraulis encrasicholus'' | binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758 }} The '''European anchovy''' (''Engraulis encrasicholus'') is a [[fish]] somewhat related to the [[herring]]. Anchovies are placed in the family [[Engraulidae]]. It is easily distinguished by its deeply-cleft mouth, the angle of the gape being behind the eyes. The pointed snout extends beyond the lower jaw. The fish resembles a sprat in having a forked tail and a single dorsal fin, but the body is round and slender. The maximum length is 8 1/8 in. Anchovies are abundant in the [[Mediterranean]], and are regularly caught on the coasts of [[Sicily]], [[Turkey]], [[Italy]], [[France]] and Spain. The range of the species also extends along the Atlantic coast of Europe to the south of [[Norway]]. In winter it is common off Devon and Cornwall ([[Great Britain]]), but has not hitherto been caught in such numbers as to be of commercial importance. Formerly they were caught in large numbers off the coast of the [[Netherlands]] in summer when they entered the [[Wadden Sea]] and [[Zuider Zee]]. After the closing of the [[Zuider Zee]] they were still found in the Wadden Sea until the [[1960s]]. They were also caught in the estuary of the [[Scheldt]]. There is reason to believe that the anchovies found at the western end of the English Channel in November and December are those which annually migrated from the [[Zuider Zee]] and Scheldt in autumn, returning thither in the following spring; they were assumed to form an isolated stock, for none come up from the south in summer to occupy the [[English Channel]], though the species is resident on the coast of [[Portugal]]. The explanation appears to be that the shallow and landlocked waters of the Zuider Zee, as well as the sea on the Dutch coast, become raised to a higher temperature in summer than any part of the sea about the British coasts, and that therefore anchovies were able to spawn and maintain their numbers in these waters. Their reproduction and development were first described by a Dutch naturalist from observations made on the shores of the Zuider Zee. Spawning takes place in June and July, and the eggs, like those of the majority of marine fishes, are buoyant and transparent, but they are peculiar in having an elongated, sausage-like shape, instead of being globular. They resemble those of the sprat and [[pilchard]] in having a segmented yolk and there is no oil globule. The larva hatch two or three days after the fertilization of the egg, and are minute and transparent. In August young specimens 1&frac12; to 3&frac12; in. in length have been taken in the Zuider Zee, and these must derived from the spawning of the previous summer. There is no evidence to decide the question whether all the young anchovies as well as the adults leave the Zuider Zee in autumn, but, considering the winter temperature there, it is probable that they do. The eggs have also been obtained from the Bay of Naples, and near Marseilles, also off the coast of Holland, and once at least off the coast of Lancashire. The occurrence of anchovies in the English Channel has been carefully studied at the laboratory of the Marine Biological Association at Plymouth. They were most abundant in 1889 and 1890. In the former year considerable numbers were taken off Dover in drift nets of small mesh used for the capture of sprats. In the following December large numbers were taken together with sprats at Torquay. In November 1890 a thousand of the fish were obtained in two days from the pilchard boats fishing near Plymouth; these were caught near the Eddystone. [[Category:Anchovies]] [[ca:Aladroc]] [[es:Engraulis encrasicholus]] [[lt:Ančiuvis]] [[nl:Ansjovis]] [[ru:Анчоус]] [[tr:Hamsi]] 1358 40758594 2006-02-22T21:00:25Z Heron 2954 /* Modern designs */ sp. :''For alternate meanings see [[anchor (disambiguation)]]'' A ship's or boat's '''anchor''' is used to attach the vessel to the bottom at a specific point. There are two primary classes of anchors—temporary and permanent. A permanent anchor is often called a ''[[mooring]]'', and is rarely moved; it's quite possible the vessel cannot hoist it aboard but must hire a service to move or maintain it. A temporary anchor is usually carried by the vessel, and hoisted aboard whenever the vessel is under way. An anchor works by resisting the movement force of the vessel which is attached to it. There are two primary ways to do this - via sheer mass, and by "hooking" into the [[seabed]]. It may seem logical to think wind and currents are the largest forces an anchor must overcome, but actually the vertical movement of [[Ocean surface wave|waves]] develop the largest loads, and modern anchors are designed to use a combination of technique and shape to resist all these forces. [[Image:Anchor1.png|right|frame|A stocked ship's anchor.<small><br />a. Shank<br />b. Crown<br />c. Arm<br />d. Fluke<br />e. Point<br />f. & g. Eye and Ring<br />h. Stock<br />i. Fisherman's bend</small>]] The kind of anchor you probably envision is a temporary anchor, the kind which might be carried aboard a [[ship]] or a [[boat]]. A modern temporary anchor usually consists of a central bar called the ''shank'', and an armature with some form of flat surface (''fluke'' or ''palm'') to grip the bottom and a point to assist penetration of the bottom; the position at which the armature is attached to the shank is called the ''crown'', and the shank is usually fitted with a ring or shackle to attach it to the [[cable]]. There are many variations and additions to these basic elements—for example, the whole class of anchors which include a ''stock'' such as the [[anchor#Fisherman|fisherman]] and [[anchor#Fluke|fluke]] anchors. A permanent anchor, on the other hand, may come in a wide range of types and has no standard form. A slab of rock with an iron ''staple'' in it to attach a chain to serves very well, as does a Chevy long-block motor. Modern moorings may be anchored by sand screws which look and act very much like over-sized screws drilled into the seabed, or by barbed metal beams pounded in (or even driven in with explosives) like pilings, or a variety of other non-mass means of getting a grip on the bottom. One method of building a mooring is to use three or more temporary anchors laid out with short lengths of chain attached to a swivel, so no matter which direction the vessel moves one or more anchors will be aligned to resist the force. An interesting element of anchor jargon is the term ''under weigh'', which describes the anchor when it is hanging on the rope, not on the bottom; this is linked to the term ''to weigh anchor'', meaning to lift the anchor from the sea bed, allowing the ship or boat to move. Usually an anchor is described as ''under weigh'' when it has been broken out of the bottom and is being hauled up to the boat because all the weight of the anchor and rode (a term for the chain linking the anchor and the ship) are lifted, and when lifted from the water it becomes ''stowed''. Although the terms may be linked, ''under weigh'' should not be confused with ''under way'', which describes a vessel which is moving through the water, == Development == The earliest anchors were probably rocks and many rock anchors have been found dating from at least the [[Bronze Age]]. Many modern moorings still rely on a large rock as the primary element of their design. It simply works. However, using pure mass to resist the forces of a storm only works well as a permanent mooring; trying to move a large enough rock to another bay is nearly impossible. A simple anchor using a pair of wood arms under a rock mass is a primitive anchor which is still in use today. The wood arms are pointed to penetrate the bottom, and the mass will overcome normal movement forces. Together they comprise what may have been the first successful attempts to hook into the seabed and use the strength there to prevent a vessel from moving. Almost all future anchor developments combine these two elements—a penetrating point and a reasonable mass. In the western world the vast majority of anchors worked on the concept of the grappling hook—multiple points on arms such that at least one will be aimed toward the bottom. Suddenly the concept of the stock, a bar placed perpendicular to the hooking arm at the other end of the shank which would roll the anchor over so the point would penetrate the bottom, was developed and within a single century became the standard anchor type. In the East, however, another model of anchor had been known for some time which also used a stock, but with the stock located at the crown along with the arm. This successful model is still built today in virtually unchanged form. It also informed such modern designs as the [[US Navy]]'s stockless Mark IV and the [[anchor#Fluke|fluke-style anchor]]. == Designs of temporary anchors == The range of designs is wide, but there are actually trends in designs for modern anchors which allow them to be classed as ''hook, plow'', and ''fluke'' types, depending on the method by which they set. * ''Hook'' designs use a relatively small fluke surface on a heavy, narrow arm to penetrate deeply into problematic bottoms such as rocky, heavy kelp or eel grass, coral, or hard sand. Two of the more common versions of this design are the [[anchor#Fisherman|fisherman]] and the [[anchor#Grapnel|grapnel]]. * ''Plow'' designs are reminiscent of the antique farm plow, and are designed to bury themselves the bottom as force is applied to them, and are considered good in most bottom conditions from soft mud to rock. ''North sea'' designs are actually a variation of a plow in how they work; they bury into the bottom using their shape. * ''Fluke'' designs use large fluke surfaces to develop very large resistance to loads once they dig into the seabed. Although they have less ability to penetrate and are designed to reset rather than turn, their light weight makes them very popular. In the past 20 years or so, many new anchor designs have appeared. Driven by the popularity of private pleasure boats, these anchors are usually designed for small to medium sized vessels, and are usually not appropriate for large ships. See [[anchor#Modern_designs|modern designs]]. === Fisherman === [[Image:fisherman2-sm.jpg|thumb|left|A fisherman style anchor suspended against the bows]] A traditional design, the fisherman, also known as a ''kedge'', is familiar to people who've never used an anchor. The design is a non-burying type, with one arm penetrating the seabed and the other standing proud. The anchor is popular as the ultimate storm anchor, and has a good reputation for use in rock, hard bottoms, and kelp or eel grass covered bottoms. The three piece versions can be stowed quite compactly, and most versions include a folding stock so the anchor may be stowed flat on deck. [[Image:Walraversijde28.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Medieval kedge with double stock; ca. 1465]] The primary weakness of the design is its ability to foul the cable over changing tides. Once fouled the anchor is likely to drag. In comparison tests the fisherman design developed much less resistance than other anchors of similar weight. It is difficult to bring aboard without scarring the topsides, and does not stow in a hawse pipe or over an anchor roller. <br style="clear:both;" /> === Fluke === [[Image:Fluke anchor.gif|thumb|A fluke-style anchor]] The most common commercial brand is the Danforth, which is sometimes used as a generic name for the class. The fluke style uses a stock at the crown to which two large flat surfaces are attached. The stock is hinged so the flukes can orient toward the bottom (and on some designs may be adjusted for an optimal angle depending on the bottom type.) The design is a burying variety, and once well set can develop an amazing amount resistance. Its light weight and compact flat design make it easy to retrieve and relatively easy to store; some anchor rollers and hawse pipes can accommodate a fluke-style anchor. A few high-performance designs are available, such as the Fortress, which are lighter in weight for a given area and in tests have shown better than average results. The fluke anchor has difficulty penetrating kelp and weed-covered bottoms, as well as rocky and particularly hard sand or clay bottoms. If there is much current or the vessel is moving while dropping the anchor it may "kite" or "skate" over the bottom due to the large fluke area acting as a sail or wing. Once set, the anchor tends to break out and reset when the direction of force changes dramatically, such as with the changing tide, and on some occasions it might not reset but instead drag. === Grapnel === [[Image:Grapnel-sm.jpg|thumb|A grapnel-style anchor]] A traditional design, the grapnel style is simple to design and build. It has a benefit in that no matter how it reaches the bottom one or more tines will be aimed to set. The design is a non-burying variety, with one or more tines digging in and the remainder above the seabed. In coral it is often able to set quickly by hooking into the structure, but may be more difficult to retrieve. A grapnel is often quite light, and may have additional uses as a tool to recover gear lost overboard; its weight also makes it relatively easy to bring aboard. Grapnels rarely have enough fluke area to develop much hold in sand, clay, or mud. It is not unknown for the anchor to foul on its own rode, or to foul the tines with refuse from the bottom, preventing it from digging in. It is quite possible for this anchor to find such a good hook that, without a trip line, it is impossible to retrieve. The shape is generally not very compact, and is difficult to stow, although there are a few collapsing designs available. === North sea === [[Image:Anchor_Bruce.jpg|thumb|Small-boat version of the popular Bruce]] Designed originally for anchoring floating oil derricks in the [[North Sea]], this versatile design has become a popular option for smaller boaters as well. The burying design acts similarly to a large scoop, and is known for the speed with which it digs in. Although not an articulated design, it has the reputation of not breaking out with tide or wind changes, instead slowly turning in the bottom to align with the force. Some versions of the design, such as the Bruce, are reputed to be easy to retrieve once broken out of the bottom, and some anchor rollers can accommodate their shank. North sea designs may have difficulty penetrating weedy bottoms, rock, and coral. They can be particularly difficult to break out. Although they can be got aboard without scarring the topsides, they take up an inordinate amount of locker space. They cannot be used with hawse pipes. [[Image:Anchor_CQR.jpg|thumb|A CQR anchor]] === Plow === Several companies produce a plow-style design, and they are particularly popular with cruising sailors. Plows are generally good in all bottoms, but not exceptional in any. The CQR design has a hinged shank, allowing the anchor to turn with direction changes rather than breaking out, and also arranged to force the point of the plow into the bottom if the anchor lands on its side. Another commercial design, the Delta uses an unhinged shank and a plow with specific angles to develop very similar performance. Both can be stored in some anchor roller designs The plow is heavier than the average for the amount of resistance developed, and may take slightly longer pull to set thoroughly. It cannot be stored in a hawse pipe. === Modern designs === [[Image:Anchor_Rocna.jpg|thumb|The New Zealand designed Rocna is an example of modern anchor design]] In recent years there has been something of a spurt in anchor design. Primarily designed to set very quickly, then generate superior holding power, these anchors (mostly proprietary inventions still under patent) are finding homes with users of small to medium sized vessels. * The German designed ''Bügel'' has a sharp tip for penetrating weed, and features a roll-bar which orients the anchor to the correct attitude on the seabed * The ''Bulwagga'' is a unique design featuring three flukes instead of the regular two. It has performed well in tests by independent sources such as American boating magazine ''Practical Sailor''. [http://www.noteco.com/bulwagga/ Manufacturer's website] * The ''Spade'' is a French design particularly popular with sailors. Although relatively expensive, it performs well, and features a demountable shank and optional aluminium construction, which means a lighter and more easily stowable anchor * The New Zealand designed ''Rocna'' is a new anchor gaining popularity amongst cruisers. It too features a sharp toe for penetrating weed and grass, and has a particularly large fluke area. Its roll-bar is similar to that of the Bügel, and means the correct setting attitude is achieved without the need for extra weight to be inserted into the tip (an inefficiency common in other anchor types). [http://www.rocna.com/ Manufacturer's website] <br style="clear:both;" /> == Designs of permanent anchors == These are used where the vessel is permanently sited, for example in the case of [[lightvessel]]s or channel marker [[buoy]]s. The anchor needs to hold the vessel in all weathers, including the most severe [[storm]], but only occasionally, or never, needs to be lifted, only for example if the vessel is to be towed into port for maintenance. An alternative to using an anchor under these circumstances may be to use a pile driven into the seabed. === Mushroom === The mushroom anchor is suitable where the seabed is composed of silt or fine sand. It was invented by [[Robert Stevenson]], for use by an 82 ton converted fishing boat, ''Pharos'', which was used as a [[lightvessel]] between [[1807]] and [[1810]] near to [[Bell Rock]] whilst the [[lighthouse]] was being constructed. It was equipped with a 1.5 ton example. It is shaped like an inverted mushroom, the head becoming buried in the silt. A counterweight is often provided at the other end of the shank to lay it down before it becomes buried. A mushroom anchor will normally sink in the silt to the point where it has displaced its own weight in bottom material. These anchors are only suitable for a silt or mud bottom, since they rely upon suction and cohesion of the bottom material, which rocky or coarse sand bottoms lack. The holding power of this anchor is at best about twice its weight unless it becomes buried, when it can be as much as ten times its weight[http://www.inamarmarine.com/pdf/Moorings.pdf]. They are available in sizes from about 10 lb up to several tons. === Deadweight === This is an anchor which relies solely on being a heavy weight. It is usually just a large block of concrete or stone at the end of the chain. Its holding power is equal to its weight underwater (i.e. taking its buoyancy into account) regardless of the type of seabed, although suction can increase this if it becomes buried. Consequently deadweight anchors are used where mushroom anchors are unsuitable, for example in rock, gravel or coarse sand. An advantage of a deadweight anchor over a mushroom is that if it does become dragged, then it continues to provide its original holding force. The disadvantage of using deadweight anchors in conditions where a mushroom anchor could be used is that it needs to be around ten times the weight of the equivalent mushroom anchor.. == Anchoring techniques == [[Image:AS_HMAS Canberra_1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Naval anchor incorporated into [[HMAS Canberra (1927)]] memorial, [[Canberra]], [[Australia]]]] Heaving an anchor over the side is not good enough. There are several elements to anchor gear to be considered, and there are techniques to ensure a good ''set''. This article can discuss some of this information, but it is by no means a treatise for safe anchoring. === Anchoring gear === The elements of anchoring gear include the anchor, the cable (also called a ''rode''), the method of attaching the two together, the method of attaching the cable to the ship, charts, and a method of learning the depth of the water. Charts are vital to good anchoring. Knowing the location of potential dangers, as well as being useful in estimating the effects of weather and tide in the anchorage, is essential in choosing a good place to drop the hook. One can get by without referring to charts, but they are an important tool and a part of good anchoring gear, and a skilled mariner would not choose to anchor without them. The depth of water is necessary for determining ''scope'', which is the ratio of length of cable to the depth measured from the highest point (usually the anchor roller or bow chock) to the seabed. For example, if the water is 25ft (8m) deep, and the anchor roller is 3ft (1m) above the water, the scope is the ratio between the amount of cable let out and 28ft (9m). For this reason it is important to have a reliable and accurate method of measuring the depth of water. A cable or rode is the rope, chain, or combination thereof used to connect the anchor to the vessel. Neither rope nor chain is fundamentally superior as a cable or there would not be continued argument over the issue; each has its strengths and its weaknesses and it is not the purpose of this article to address these. === Anchoring === The four primary questions to be considered before actually anchoring: :# Is the anchorage protected? :# Is the seabed good holding ground? :# What is the depth, tidal range, and the current tide state? :# Is there enough room? ==== Is the anchorage protected? ==== A good anchorage offers protection from the current weather conditions, and will also offer protection from the expected weather. You should also consider if the anchorage will be suitable for other purposes, for example can you get safely to shore in your dinghy if that is one of your goals. And keep in mind comfort; a rolly harbor is no fun. ==== Is the seabed good holding ground? ==== You should have charts to indicate the kind of bottom, as well as a tool such as a [[sounding lead]] to collect a sample from the bottom. Generally speaking, most anchors will hold well in sandy mud, mud and clay, or firm sand. Loose sand and soft mud are not desirable bottoms, and especially soft mud which should be avoided if at all possible. Rock, coral, and shale prevent anchors from digging in, although some anchors are designed to hook into such a bottom. Grassy bottoms may be good holding, but only if the anchor can penetrate the bottom. ==== What is the depth, tidal range, and the current tide state? ==== If your anchorage is affected by [[tide]], you need to know the tide range and the times of high and low water. You need enough depth for your vessel throughout the range it might swing, at low tide, not just where you drop the anchor. This is also important when determining [[scope]], which should be figured for high tide and not the current tide state. ==== Is there enough room? ==== If your anchorage is affected by tide, you should keep in mind that the swing range will be larger at low tide than at high tide. However, no matter where you anchor you need to consider what the larges possible swing range will be, and what obstacles and hazards might be within that range. Keep in mind that other vessels in the anchorage may have a swing range which can overlap yours. Boats on permanent moorings, or shorter scope, may not swing as far as you expect them to, or may swing either more rapidly or more slowly than your vessel (all-chain cables tend to swing more slowly than all-rope or chain-and-rope cables.) There are techniques of anchoring to limit the swing of a vessel if the anchorage has limited room. === Methods === The basic anchoring consists of determining the location, dropping the anchor, laying out the scope, setting the hook, and assessing where the vessel ends up. After figuring out on the chart where a desirable location would be, the vessel need to actually see what the situation is like; there may be other boats who thought that would be a good spot, or weather conditions are different than expected, or even additional hazards not noted on the chart which make a planned location undesirable. If the location is good, the location to drop the anchor should be approached from down wind or down current, whichever is stronger. As the chosen spot is approached, the vessel should be stopped or even beginning to drift back. The anchor should be lowered quickly but under control until it is on the bottom. The vessel should continue to drift back, and the cable should be veered out under control so it will be relatively straight. Once the desired scope is laid out (a minimum of 8:1 for setting the anchor, and 5:1 for holding, though the preferred ratio is 10:1 for both setting, and holding power), the vessel should be gently forced astern, usually using the auxiliary motor but possibly by backing a sail. A hand on the anchor line may telegraph a series of jerks and jolts, indicating the anchor is dragging, or a smooth tension indicative of digging in. As the anchor begins to dig in and resist backward force, the engine may be throttled up to get a thorough set. If the anchor continues to drag, or sets after having dragged to far, it should be retrieved and moved back to the desired position (or another location chosen.) With the anchor set in the correct location, everything should be reconsidered. Is the location protected, now and for the forecast weather? Is the bottom a suitable holding ground, and is the anchor the right one for this type of bottom? Is there enough depth, both now and at low tide? Especially at low tide but also at all tide states, is there enough room for the boat to swing? Will another vessel swing into us, or will we swing into another vessel, when the tide or wind changes? Some other techniques have been developed to reduce swing, or to deal with heavy weather. :* [[Anchor#Forked moor|Forked moor]] :* [[Anchor#Bow and Stern|Bow and Stern]] :* [[Anchor#Bahamian moor|Bahamian moor]] :* [[Anchor#Backing an anchor|Backing an anchor]] ==== Forked moor ==== Using two anchors set approximately 45° apart, or wider angles up to 90°, from the bow is a strong mooring for facing into strong winds. To set anchors in this way, first one anchor is set in the normal fashion. Then, taking in on the first cable as the boat is motored into the wind and letting slack while drifting back, a second anchor is set approximately a half-scope away from the first on a line perpendicular to the wind. After this second anchor is set, the scope on the first is taken up until the vessel is lying between the two anchors and the load is taken equally on each cable. This moor also to some degree limits the range of a vessel's swing to a narrower oval. Care should be taken that other vessels will not swing down on the boat due to the limited swing range. ==== Bow and stern ==== Not to be mistaken with the '''[[Anchor#Bahamian moor|Bahamian moor]]''', below. In the ''Bow and Stern'' technique, an anchor is set off each the bow and the stern, which can severely limit a vessel's swing range and also align it to steady wind, current or wave conditions. One method of accomplishing this moor is to set a bow anchor normally, then drop back to the limit of the bow cable (or to double the desired scope, e.g. 8:1 if the eventual scope should be 4:1, 10:1 if the eventual scope should be 5:1, etc.) to lower a stern anchor. By taking up on the bow cable the stern anchor can be set. After both anchors are set, tension is taken up on both cables to limit the swing or to align the vessel. ==== Bahamian moor ==== Similar to the above, a ''Bahamian moor'' is used to sharply limit the swing range of a vessel, but allows it to swing to a current. One of the primary characteristics of this technique is the use of a swivel as follows: the first anchor is set normally, and the vessel drops back to the limit of anchor cable. A second anchor is attached to the end of the anchor cable, and is dropped and set. A swivel is attached to the middle of the anchor cable, and the vessel connected to that. The vessel will now swing in the middle of two anchors, which is acceptable in strong reversing currents but a wind perpendicular to the current may break out the anchors as they are not aligned for this load. ==== Backing an anchor ==== Also known as ''Tandem anchors'', in this technique two anchors are shackled to a single cable running crown-to-shank. With the leading anchor holding the cable down and the tension between the anchors taking load off, this technique can develop great holding power and has been used in "ultimate storm" circumstances. It does not limit swinging range, and might not be appropriate for crowded anchorages. === Kedging === ''Kedging'' is a technique for moving or turning a ship by using a relatively light anchor known as a ''kedge''. It was of particular relevance to sailing warships which used them to out-manoeuvre opponents when the wind had dropped but might be used by any vessel in confined, shoal water to place it in a more desirable position, provided she had enough manpower. == References == {{commons|anchor}} * Edwards, Fred; ''Sailing as a Second Language: An illustrated dictionary,'' 1988 Highmark Publishing; ISBN 0-87742-965-0 * Hinz, Earl R.; ''The Complete Book of Anchoring and Mooring, Rev. 2d ed.,'' 1986, 1994, 2001 Cornell Maritime Press; ISBN 0-87033-539-1 * Hiscock, Eric C.; ''Cruising Under Sail, second edition,'' 1965 Oxford University Press; ISBN 0-19-217522-X * Pardey, Lin and Larry; ''The Capable Cruiser,''; 1995 Pardey Boooks/Paradise Cay Publications; ISBN 0-9646036-2-4 * Rousmaniere, John; ''The Annapolis Book of Seamanship,'' 1983, 1989 Simon and Schuster; ISBN 0-671-67447-1 * Smith, Everrett; ''Cruising World's Guide to Seamanship: Hold me tight,'' 1992 New York Times Sports/Leisure Magazines == External links == * [http://www.northstarmarinesupplies.com/ North Star Marine Supplies]- Popular online anchoring store. * [http://www.inamarmarine.com/pdf/Moorings.pdf Inamar recommendations for safe moorings] * [http://www.nightbeacon.com/lighthouseinformation/articles/Lightship_Anchors.htm Lightship anchors] * [http://www.rocna.com/boat_anchors/new_gen_boat_anchors.html A Process of Evolution] — An essay on boat anchors by New Zealand boatbuilder, offshore cruiser, & consultant Peter Smith * [http://www.expressandstar.com/cgi-bin/artman/exec/view.cgi?archive=20&num=59220&printer=1 the titanic task that put the town on the map] * [http://titanic-model.com/articles/anchor/titanics_center_anchor.htm titanics centre anchor]. * [http://www.yampy.co.uk/netherton/article.php?article=yamp782.txt all about the anchor some good photos] * [http://www.newman.ac.uk/Students_Websites/~w.j.smith/history.html history of netherton] [[Category:Nautical terms]] [[Category:Ship construction]] [[Category:Sailing ship elements]] [[da:Anker (søfart)]] [[de:Anker]] [[es:ancla]] [[fa:لنگر]] [[fr:Ancre]] [[he:עוגן]] [[io:Ankro]] [[ja:錨]] [[la:Ancora]] [[lv:Enkurs]] [[nl:Anker (schip)]] [[pl:Kotwica]] [[pt:Âncora]] [[ru:Корабельный якорь]] [[fi:Ankkuri]] [[sv:Ankare]] [[zh:锚]] 1359 37226663 2006-01-29T16:36:13Z KI 701676 cleanup :''For the province of Iraq see [[al Anbar]]'' '''Anbar''', originally called '''Firuz Shapur''', or '''Perisapora''', a town founded about AD [[350]] by [[Shapur II of Persia|Shapur (Sapor) II]], [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid]] king of [[Persia]], on the east bank of the [[Euphrates]], just south of the Nahr Isa, or Sakhlawieh [[canal]], the northernmost of the canals connecting that river with the [[Tigris]], in lat. 33 deg. 22' N., long. 43 deg. 49' E. It was captured and destroyed by the emperor [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] in A.D. [[363]], but speedily rebuilt. It became a refuge for the [[Christianity|Christian]] and [[Jew]]ish colonies of that region, and there are said to have been 90,000 Jews in the place at the time of its capture by [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] in [[657]]. The Arabs changed the name of the town to Anbar ("[[granaries]]"). Abu al-Abbas as-Saffah, the founder of the [[Abbasid]] caliphate, made it his capital, and such it remained until the founding of [[Baghdad]] in [[762]]. It continued to be a place of much importance throughout the Abbasid period, but now it is now entirely deserted, occupied only by ruin mounds. Their great extent indicates the former importance of the city. ==References== *{{1911}} 1360 37553930 2006-01-31T19:18:09Z Vriullop 750481 interwiki +ca '''Anazarbus''' (med. '''Ain Zarba'''; mod. [[Anavarza]]) was an ancient [[Cilicia]]n city, situated in [[Anatolia]] in modern [[Turkey]], in the [[Aleian plain]] about 10 miles west of the main stream of the [[Pyramus river]] (Jihun) and near its tributary the [[Sempas Su]]. A lofty isolated ridge formed its [[acropolis]]. Though some of the masonry in the ruins is certainly pre-Roman, the [[Suda]]'s identification of it with [[Cyinda]], famous as a treasure city in the wars of [[Eumenes of Cardia]], cannot be accepted in the face of [[Strabo]]'s express location of Cyinda in western Cilicia. Under the early [[Roman empire]] the place was known as '''Caesarea''', and was the metropolis of [[Cilicia Secunda]]. Rebuilt by the emperor [[Justin I]] after an [[earthquake]], it became '''Justinopolis''' ([[525]]); but the old native name persisted, and when [[Thoros I of Armenia|Thoros I]], king of [[Lesser Armenia]], made it his capital early in the [[12th century]], it was known as '''Anazarva'''. Its great natural strength and situation, not far from the mouth of the [[Sis pass]], and near the great road which debouched from the [[Cilician Gates]], made Anazarbus play a considerable part in the struggles between the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the early [[Muslim]] invaders. It had been rebuilt by [[Harun al-Rashid]] in [[796]], refortified at great expense by [[Saif ad-Daula]], the [[Hamdanid]] (10th century) and sacked, and ruined by the crusaders. The present wall of the lower city is of late construction, probably Armenian. It encloses a mass of ruins conspicuous in which are a fine [[triumphal arch]], the colonnades of two streets, a [[gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]], etc. A stadium and a theatre lie outside on the south. The remains of the acropolis fortifications are very interesting, including roads and ditches hewn in the rock; but beyond ruins of two churches and a fine tower built by Thoros I. There are no notable structures in the upper town. For picturesqueness the site is not equalled in Cilicia, and it is worthwhile to trace the three fine [[aqueduct]]s to their sources. A visit in December, 2002 showed that the three aqueducts mentioned above have been nearly completely destroyed. Only small, isolated sections are left standing with the largest portion lying in a pile of rubble that stretches the length of where the aqueducts once stood. A powerful earthquake that struck the area in 1945 is thought to be responsible for the destruction. ---- {{1911}} [[Category: Anatolia]] [[ca:Anazarbe]] [[pl:Anazarbus]] [[de:Anazarba]] 1361 41464673 2006-02-27T14:55:54Z Brian0918 90640 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.66.123.13|71.66.123.13]] ([[User talk:71.66.123.13|talk]]) to last version by 205.210.253.10 An '''anagram''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''ana-'' = "back" or "again", and ''graphein'' = "to write") is a type of [[word play]], the result of rearranging the letters of a word or phrase to produce other words, using all the original letters exactly once. Anagrams are often expressed in the form of an equation, with the equals symbol (=) separating the original subject and the resulting anagram. ‘Earth = heart’ is an example of a simple anagram expressed so. In a more advanced, sophisticated form of anagramming, the aim is to ‘discover’ a result that has a linguistic meaning that defines or comments on the original subject in a humorous or ironic way; e.g., '''''Roll in the hay = Thrill a honey''''' (discovered by Tony Crafter). When the subject and the resulting anagram form a complete sentence, a tilde (~) is used instead of an equal sign; e.g., '''''[[Semolina]] ~ is no meal.''''' ==History== The construction of anagrams is an [[amusement]] of great [[Ancient history|antiquity]]. [[Jew]]s are often credited with the invention of anagrams, probably because later Hebrew writers, particularly [[Kabbalist]]s, were fond of it, asserting that "secret mysteries are woven in the numbers of letters". Anagrams were known to the [[ancient Greece|Greek]]s and also to the [[ancient Rome|Roman]]s, although the known [[Latin]] examples of words of more than one syllable are nearly all imperfect. The Romans called the art of finding anagrams the "ars magna" (great art). Interestingly, "ars magna" is a perfect anagram of the word "anagrams". They were popular throughout [[Europe]] during the [[Middle Ages]]. Indeed, the right to lampoon royalty and politicians via anagram was enshrined in English law in 1215, when King John, albeit under duress, signed the [[Magna Carta]] ''(Magna Carta = Anagram Act)'' at Runnymede, in Surrey, and later, particularly in [[France]], where an "Anagrammatist to the King" was appointed by [[Louis XIII of France|Louis XIII]]. W. Camden (''Remains,'' 7th ed., 1674) defines "Anagrammatisme" as "a dissolution of a name truly written into his letters, as his elements, and a new connection of it by artificial transposition, without addition, subtraction or change of any letter, into different words, making some perfect sense applyable (i.e., ''applicable'') to the person named." [[John Dryden|Dryden]] disdainfully called the pastime the "torturing of one poor word ten thousand ways" but many men and women of note have found amusement in it. A well-known anagram is the change of "Ave Maria, gratia plena, Dominus tecum" (''Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord [is] with you'') into "Virgo serena, pia, munda et immaculata" (''Bright virgin, pious, clean and spotless''). Among others are the anagrammatic answer to [[Pilate]]'s question, "Quid est veritas?" (''What is truth?''), namely, "Est vir qui adest" (''It is the man who is here''); and the transposition of "[[Horatio Nelson]]" into "Honor est a Nilo" (Latin = ''Honor is from the [[Nile]]''); and of "[[Florence Nightingale]]" into "Flit on, cheering angel". [[James I of England|James I]]'s courtiers discovered in "James Stuart" "a just master", and converted "Charles James Stuart" into "Claimes Arthur's seat". "Eleanor Audeley", wife of [[Sir John Davies]], is said to have been brought before the High Commission in 1634 for extravagances, stimulated by the discovery that her name could be transposed to "Reveale, O Daniel", and to have been laughed out of court by another anagram submitted by the [[Dean of Arches|dean of the Arches]], "Dame Eleanor Davies", "Never soe mad a ladie". ==Numerical anagrams== Numerical anagrams use [[Roman numeral]]s within words. These numeral letters, taken together according to their numerical values, express some epoch, such as the year of an event.{{ref label|1728|1|^}} An example of this kind is a [[distich]] of [[Godart]] on the birth of the [[List of French monarchs|French king]] [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], which occurred in the year 1638, on a day wherein there was an [[astrology|astrological]] [[conjunction]] of the [[Aquila (constellation)|Eagle]] with the [[Regulus|Lion's Heart]]: :"e'''X'''or'''I'''ens '''D'''e'''L'''ph'''I'''n aq'''VIL'''æ '''C'''or'''DI'''sq'''V'''e '''L'''eon'''I'''s :'''C'''ongress'''V''' ga'''LL'''os spe '''L'''æt'''I'''t'''I'''aq'''V'''e refe'''CI'''t." This roughly translates to, "On the conjunction of the eagle and the heart of the lion, the new [[Dauphin]] brings hope and happiness to the French." The highlighted Roman numerals sum to 1638.{{ref label|1728|1|^}} ==Pseudonyms== The [[pseudonym]]s adopted by [[author]]s are often transposed forms, more or less exact, of their names; thus "Calvinus" becomes "Alcuinus" ([[V]] = [[U]]); "[[Francois Rabelais]]" = "Alcofribas Nasier"; "[[Arrigo Boito]]" = "Tobia Gorrio"; "[[Edward Gorey]]" = "Ogdred Weary"; "[[Vladimir Nabokov]]" = "Vivian Darkbloom", = "Vivian Bloodmark" or = "Dorian Vivalcomb"; "[[Bryan Waller Proctor]]" = "Barry Cornwall, poet"; "Henry Rogers" = "R. E. H. Greyson"; "(Sanche) de Gramont" = "[[Ted Morgan]]", and so on. It is to be noted that several of these are "imperfect anagrams", letters having been left out in some cases for the sake of easy pronunciation. "Telliamed", a simple reversal, is the title of a well known work by "De Maillet". One of the most remarkable pseudonyms of this class is the name "[[Voltaire]]", which the celebrated [[philosopher]] assumed instead of his family name, François Marie Arouet, and which is now generally allowed to be an anagram of "Arouet, l[e] j[eune]", that is, "Arouet the younger". Anagramming may also be used to good effect in [[farce]] or [[parody]]. A writer might take an unpleasant person he knows, base a character in a book on him, and then transpose the letters in the source's name. For example, controversial Israeli Prime Minister [[Ariel Sharon]] might be satirized as, say, local greengrocer "Leon A. Shirra"&mdash;a rather inventive way to avoid a [[libel]] lawsuit. Anagrams have also shown up in [[rock music]]. [[The Doors]]' lead singer [[Jim Morrison]] invoked his name as "Mr. Mojo Risin'" on the song "[[L.A. Woman]]", the band Sad Café released an album called ''Facades'', [[Blur]] singer [[Damon Albarn]] uses the name Dan Abnormal for the title of a song on [[The Great Escape]] and all of the band adopt anagramed pseudonyms for the [[music video]] of [[M.O.R.]], the [[New Wave music|new wave]] band [[Missing Persons]] recorded an album called ''Spring Session M'', and Guns N' Roses lead singer [[Axl Rose]]'s stage name is an anagram of "[[oral sex]]". ==Astronomy== Perhaps the only practical use to which anagrams have been turned is to be found in the transpositions in which some of the [[astronomer]]s of the [[17th century]] embodied their discoveries with the design apparently of avoiding the risk that, while they were engaged in further verification, the credit of what they had found out might be claimed by others. Thus [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] announced his discovery that [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] had [[Moon phase|phase]]s like the [[Moon]] in the form "Haec immatura a me iam frustra leguntur&mdash;oy" (Latin: ''This immature (feminine) one has already been read in vain by me&mdash;oy'' (with a subject-verb number agreement error)), that is, "Cynthiae figuras aemulatur Mater Amorum" (Latin: ''The Mother of Loves [= Venus] imitates the figures of [[Cynthia]] [= the moon]''). Similarly, when [[Robert Hooke]] discovered [[Hooke's law]] in 1660, he first published it in anagram form. One might think of this as a primitive example of a [[zero-knowledge proof]]. There are also a few "natural" anagrams, English words unconsciously created by switching letters around. The French ''chaise longue'' ("long chair") became the American "[[chaise lounge]]" by metathesis (transposition of letters and/or sounds). This is an example of [[folk etymology]]. It has also been speculated that the English "curd" comes from the Latin ''crudus'' ("raw"). ==Methods== Before the computer age, anagrams were constructed using a pen and paper or lettered tiles, by playing with letter combinations and experimenting with variations. (Some individuals with prodigious talent have also been known to ‘see’ anagrams in words, unaided by tools.) Computers have enabled a new method of creating anagrams, the anagram server. An anagram server utilizes an exhaustive database of words. The anagrammist (one who creates anagrams) enters a word or phrase into the server’s search engine, and the server produces a list containing every possible combination of words or phrases from the input word or phrase. Anagram servers use advanced features to control the search results, by excluding or including certain words, limiting the number or length of words in each anagram, or limiting the number of results. When sharing their newly discovered anagrams with other enthusiasts, some anagrammists indicate the method they used. Anagrams constructed without aid of a computer are noted as having been done ‘manually’ or ‘by hand’; those made by utilizing a computer may be noted ‘by machine’ or ‘by computer’, or may indicate the name of the computer program (using ‘Anagram Genius’). Anagram servers are available on the Internet. Some examples are *[http://www.wordsmith.org/anagram/index.html Internet Anagram Server] *[http://www.anagramgenius.com/server.html Anagram Genius] *[http://www.anagramlogic.com/ Anagram Logic Anagram Finder] *[http://www.arrak.fi/ag/index_en.html Arrak Anagrams] There is also software to download and run locally, such as *[http://www.fourmilab.ch/anagram/ Fourmilab Anagram Finder] *[http://www.anagrammy.com/resources/anagram_artist.html Anagram Artist] ==Crosswords== [[Cryptic crossword]] puzzles frequently use anagrammatic clues, usually indicating that they are anagrams by the inclusion of a word like "confused" or "in disarray". An example would be '''Businessman burst into tears (9 letters)'''; the solution, '''Stationer''' is an anagram of '''into tears''', the letters of which have '''burst''' out of their original arrangement to form the name of a type of '''businessman'''. What is the most anagrammable name on record? There must be few names as deliciously workable as that of "[[Augustus de Morgan]]" who tells that a friend had constructed about 800 on his name (specimens of which are given in his ''Budget of Paradoxes'', p. 82)! ==See also== *[[List of anagrams]] *[[Anagram Indicators]] *[[anagramatic poem]] *the [[board game]] [[Anagrams]] *[[ambigram]] *[[blanagram]] *''[[The Da Vinci Code]]'', a book by [[Dan Brown]] *[[palindrome]] *[[pangram]] *[[constrained writing]] *[[letter bank]] *[[Dave Barry]] ===Literary=== *"To be or not to be: that is the question, whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer the slings and arrows of outrageous fortune." = "In one of the [[William Shakespeare|Bard]]'s best-thought-of [[tragedy|tragedies]], our insistent hero, [[Hamlet]], queries on two fronts about how life turns rotten." (discovered by Cory Calhoun) *Ivanhoe by Sir Walter Scott = A novel by a Scottish writer *[[Rocket Boys]] = [[October Sky]] *[[The Restaurant at the End of the Universe]] = Of [[Arthur Dent]], never the enthusiast, 'e eats ([http://www.thedavincigame.com]) *[[Tom Marvolo Riddle]] ([[Lord Voldemort]]'s real name) = I am Lord Voldemort (In the novel and the film of [[Harry Potter]] by [[J.K. Rowling]]) ==References== #{{note label|1728|1|^}}{{1728}} #{{note|Maddox1}} [http://maddox.xmission.com Anagram from Maddox's webpage]. ==External links== *[http://www.wineverygame.com/ Anagram oriented towards Scrabble] *[http://users.aol.com/s6sj7gt/ana.htm Anagrams, Long and Short] *[http://www.anagramgenius.com/ Anagram Genius software plus archive of thousands of example anagrams] *[http://users.aol.com/s6sj7gt/anabible.htm The Anagrammed Bible : Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon], ISBN 0970214804 *[http://www.wordsmith.org/anagram/index.html Internet Anagram Server (= I, rearrangement servant)] *[http://www.anagrammy.com The Anagrammy Awards] *[http://www.fourmilab.ch/anagram/ Anagram Finder (fourmilab.ch)] *[http://www.anagramlogic.com/ Anagram Logic Anagram Finder] *[http://www.anagramsite.com/ Anagram Site] *[http://cl4.org/comp/anapad/ AnaPad is a special text editor for anagrammatists: people who make anagrams. It is particularly useful for anagramming long texts, such as poems] [[Category:Puzzles]] [[Category:Surrealist games]] [[Category:Word games]] [[Category:Word play]] [[cs:Anagram]] [[da:Anagram]] [[de:Anagramm]] [[eo:Anagramo]] [[es:Anagrama]] [[fr:Anagramme]] [[he:אנגרמה]] [[hu:Anagramma]] [[ia:Anagramma]] [[io:Anagramo]] [[it:Anagramma]] [[ja:アナグラム]] [[lb:Anagramm]] [[nl:Anagram]] [[no:Anagram]] [[pl:Anagram]] [[ru:Анаграмма]] [[sl:Anagram]] [[sv:Anagram]] 1362 33469021 2006-01-01T10:48:26Z Tbonefin 222675 +fi '''Anadyr''' (''Ана́дырь'') is a [[river]] in the extreme northeast of [[Siberia]], [[Russia]]. The river, taking its rise in the [[Stanovoi Mountains]] as the Ivashki or Ivachno, about 67°N latitude and 173°E longitude, flows through the [[Chukotka]], at first southwest and then east, and enters the Gulf of Anadyr after a course of about 500 miles. The country through which it passes is thinly populated, and is dominated by [[tundra]], which is rich with a variety of plant life. Much of the region is folded in rugged mountains, and is a beautiful landscape. For nine months of the year the ground is covered with snow, and the frozen rivers become navigable roads. [[Reindeer]], upon which the inhabitants subsist, were once found in considerable numbers, but the domestic reindeer population has collapsed dramatically since the reorganization and privatization of state-run collective farms beginning in [[1992]]. As herds of domestic reindeer have declined, herds of wild [[caribou]] have increased. ==See also== * [[Anadyr, Russia|Anadyr]] (town) *[[Operation Anadyr]] ==References== * {{1911}} [[Category:Rivers of Russia]] [[de:Anadyr (Fluss)]] [[pl:Anadyr (rzeka)]] [[uk:Анадир (ріка)]] [[fi:Anadyr (joki)]] 1363 41832394 2006-03-02T01:03:02Z 158.158.240.230 deleted a random "hello" at the end of a paragraph {{Infobox Celebrity | name =André-Marie Ampère | image = André Marie Ampère.jpg | caption = | birth_date = [[January 20]], [[1775]] | birth_place = | death_date =[[June 10]], [[1836]] | death_place = [[Marseille]],[[France]] | occupation = [[Physicist]] | salary = | networth = | website = | footnotes = }} '''André-Marie Ampère''' ([[January 20]] [[1775]] &ndash; [[June 10]] [[1836]]), was a French [[physicist]] who is generally credited as one of the main discoverers of [[electromagnetism]]. The [[ampere]] unit of measurement of [[Current (electricity)|electric current]] is named after him. ==Early days== Ampère was born in [[Lyon]], near his father's country house in [[Poleymieux]] and, as a [[child prodigy]], took a passionate delight in the pursuit of knowledge from his very infancy, and is reported to have worked out long arithmetical sums by means of pebbles and biscuit crumbs before he knew the figures. His father began to teach him [[Latin]], but ceased on discovering the boy's greater inclination and aptitude for mathematical studies. The young Ampère, however, soon resumed his Latin lessons, to enable him to master the works of [[Leonhard Euler|Euler]] and [[Daniel Bernoulli|Bernoulli]]. In later life he was accustomed to say that he knew as much about mathematics when he was eighteen as ever he knew; but, a [[polymath]], his reading embraced nearly the whole round of knowledge &mdash; history, travels, poetry, philosophy and the natural sciences. In [[1796]] he met Julie Carron, and an attachment sprang up between them. In [[1799]] they were married. From about 1796 Ampère gave private lessons at Lyons in [[mathematics]], [[chemistry]] and languages; and in [[1801]] he removed to Bourg, as professor of [[physics]] and [[chemistry]], leaving his ailing wife and infant son ([[Jean Jacques Ampère]]) at Lyon. She died in 1804, and he never recovered from her death. In the same year he was appointed professor of mathematics at the ''[[lycée]]'' of Lyon. ==Contributions to physics and further studies== [[Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre]]'s recommendation obtained for him the Lyon appointment, and afterwards ([[1804]]) a subordinate position in the polytechnic school at Paris, where he was appointed professor of mathematics in 1809. Here he continued to pursue his scientific research and his diverse studies with unabated diligence. He was admitted as a member of the Institute in [[1814]]. Ampère's fame mainly rests on the service that he rendered to science in establishing the relations between electricity and magnetism, and in developing the science of electromagnetism, or, as he called it, electrodynamics. On [[September 11]], [[1820]] he heard of [[Hans Christian Ørsted|H. C. Ørsted's]] discovery that a magnetic needle is acted on by a voltaic current. Only a week later, on [[September 18]], he presented a paper to the Academy containing a far more complete exposition of that and kindred phenomena. ==Legacy and final days== The whole field thus opened up he explored with characteristic industry and care, and developed a mathematical theory which not only explained the electromagnetic phenomena already observed but also predicted many new ones. He died at [[Marseille]] and is buried in the [[Cimetière de Montmartre]], Paris. The great amiability and childlike simplicity of Ampère's character are well brought out in his ''Journal et correspondance'' (Paris, [[1872]]). Forty-five years later, mathematicians recognized him. ==References== *{{1911}} ==External links== * [http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr www.ampere.cnrs.fr - Ampere and the history of electricity], (Correspondence, bibliography, experiments, simulations, etc., edited by CNRS, France) * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Ampere}} [[Category:1775 births|Ampere, Andre Marie]] [[Category:1836 deaths|Ampere, Andre Marie]] [[Category:Electrostatics|Ampère, André-Marie]] [[Category:French physicists|Ampère, André-Marie]] [[Category:Alumni of the École Polytechnique|Ampère, André-Marie]] [[bn:আঁদ্রে মারি এম্পিয়ার]] [[ca:André-Marie Ampère]] [[de:André Marie Ampère]] [[es:André-Marie Ampère]] [[eo:André Marie AMPÈRE]] [[fr:André-Marie Ampère]] [[fy:André-Marie Ampère]] [[gl:André Marie Ampère]] [[ko:앙드레 마리 앙페르]] [[hr:André-Marie Ampère]] [[io:André Marie Ampère]] [[is:André-Marie Ampère]] [[it:André-Marie Ampère]] [[he:אנדרה מרי אמפר]] [[hu:André-Marie Ampère]] [[nl:André-Marie Ampère]] [[ja:アンドレ・マリー・アンペール]] [[nn:André-Marie Ampère]] [[pl:André Marie Ampère]] [[pt:André-Marie Ampère]] [[ro:André-Marie Ampère]] [[ru:Ампер, Андре Мари]] [[sk:André Marie Ampère]] [[sl:André-Marie Ampère]] [[fi:André-Marie Ampère]] [[sv:André-Marie Ampère]] [[vi:André-Marie Ampère]] [[uk:Ампер Анре Марі]] 1364 42144735 2006-03-04T02:52:23Z Bk0 65294 /* ''Amoeba'' in popular culture */ non-notable :''Alternate meanings: [[Amoeboid]], [[Amoebozoa]]'' :''For the operating system, see [[Amoeba distributed operating system]]. For the record store, see [[Amoeba Music]].'' {{Taxobox | color = khaki | name = ''Amoeba'' | image = Chaos diffluens.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = ''[[Amoeba proteus]]'' | regnum = [[Protist]]a | phylum = [[Amoebozoa]] | familia = [[Amoebidae]] | genus = '''''Amoeba''''' | genus_authority = Bery de St. Vincent 1822 }} '''''Amoeba''''' (also spelled '''''ameba''''') is a genus of [[protozoa]] that moves by means of temporary projections called [[pseudopods]], and is well-known as a representative unicellular organism. The word amoeba is variously used to refer to it and its close relatives, now grouped as the [[Amoebozoa]], or to all protozoa that move using pseudopods, otherwise termed [[amoeboid]]s. See those pages for further information. ''Amoeba'' itself is found in freshwater, typically on decaying vegetation from streams, but is not especially common in nature. However, because of the ease with which they may be obtained and kept in the lab, they are common objects of study, both as representative protozoa and to demonstrate cell structure and function. The cells have several lobose pseudopods, with one large tubular pseudopod at the anterior and several secondary ones branching to the sides. The most famous species, ''A. proteus'', is 700-800 &mu;m in length, but many others are much smaller. Each has a single [[cell nucleus|nucleus]], and a simple contractile [[vacuole]] which maintains its [[osmosis|osmotic]] pressure, as its most recognizable features. Early naturalists referred to ''Amoeba'' as the [[Proteus]] [[animalcule]], after a Greek god who could change his shape. The name "amibe" was given to it by Bery St. Vincent, from the Greek ''amoibe'', meaning change. A good method of collecting amoeba is to lower a jar upside down until it is just above the sediment surface. Then slowly let air escape so the top layer will be sucked into the jar. Try not to allow deeper sediment get sucked in. You can slowly move the jar when tilting it so you collect from a larger area. If no amoeba are found, one can try introducing some rice grains into the jar and waiting for them to start to rot. The bacteria eating the rice will be eaten by the amoeba, thus increasing the population and making them easier to find. ==''Amoeba'' in popular culture== * The North American writer [[Tom Robbins]] states, in the [[preface]] to his book [[Even Cowgirls Get the Blues]], that amoebas are [[cool]] because they [[reproduce]] by [[binary fission]], so the first amoeba is still alive to this day. * In the [[1984]] computer game [[Boulder Dash]], Rockford, the main character, is chased all the time by a constantly-growing amoeba. * In certain places of [[Brazil]], the term amoeba (in its [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] form: ''ameba'') is used as a [[derogatory]] [[slang]] for "slow, [[obtuse]] person". ==External links== * [http://wikibooks.org/wiki/Biology_Cell_biology_Introduction_Cell_size Wikibooks: compare size of cells] * [http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/sci/A0803647.html Amoeba info] [[Category:Protista]][[Category:Amoeboids]][[Category:Amoebozoa]] [[bg:Амеба]] [[da:Amøbe]] [[de:Amöbe]] [[es:Ameba]] [[fr:Amibe]] [[it:Ameba]] [[he:אמבה]] [[lt:Amebos]] [[nl:Amoebe]] [[ja:アメーバ]] [[pl:Ameba]] [[pt:Ameba]] [[sr:Амеба]] [[fi:Ameebat]] [[sv:Amöbor]] [[th:อะมีบา]] [[uk:Амеба]] [[zh:變形蟲]] 1365 41786249 2006-03-01T19:13:10Z Itub 426390 <!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --> {| align="right" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" style="margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; background: #FFFFFF; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: #C0C090;" ! {{chembox header}} | {{PAGENAME}} |- | align="center" colspan="2" | [[Image:Ammonia_lone_electron_pair.PNG|200px|{{PAGENAME}}]] |- | align="center" colspan="2" | [[Image:Ammonia3D.png|200px|{{PAGENAME}} 3D representation]] |- ! {{chembox header}} | General |- | [[IUPAC nomenclature|Systematic name]] | Ammonia<br/>Azane (''see text'') |- | Trivial names | Spirit of hartshorn<br/>Nitrosil<br/>Vaporole |- | [[Chemical formula|Molecular formula]] | NH₃ |- | [[Molar mass]] | 17.03 g/mol |- | Appearance | Colourless gas with <br>strong pungent odor |- | [[CAS registry number|CAS number]] | [7664-41-7] |- ! {{chembox header}} | Properties |- | [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)|phase]] | .6813 g/L, gas |- | [[Soluble|Solubility]] in [[Water_(molecule)|water]] | 54 g/100 ml |- | [[Melting point]] | -78.27 °C (195.42 K) |- | [[Boiling point]] | -33.49 °C (240.74 K) |- | [[Base dissociation constant|Basicity]] (p''K''_b) | 4.75 |- | [[Acid dissociation constant|Acidity]] (p''K''_a) | ''approx.'' 34 |- ! {{chembox header}} | Thermodynamic data |- | [[Standard enthalpy change of formation|Std enthalpy of<br/>formation]] Δ_f''H''°_gas | -45.92 kJ/mol |- | [[Standard molar entropy|Standard molar<br/>entropy]] ''S''°_gas | 192.77 J·K^&minus;1·mol^&minus;1 |- ! {{chembox header}} | Hazards <!-- INDEX n° 007-001-00-5, 007-001-01-2 --> |- | [[Directive 67/548/EEC|EU classification]] | [[#Safety precautions|''Conc. dependent.<br/>See text'']] |- | [[List of R-phrases|R-phrases]] | [[#Safety precautions|''Conc. dependent<br/>See text'']] |- | [[List of S-phrases|S-phrases]] | {{S1/2}}, {{S16}}, {{S36/37/39}},<br/>{{S45}}, {{S61}} |- | [[NFPA 704]] | [[Image:nfpa_h3.png]][[Image:nfpa_f1.png]][[Image:nfpa_r0.png]] |- ! {{chembox header}} | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)|Supplementary data page]] |- | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Structure and properties|Structure and<br/>properties]] | [[Refractive index|''n'']], [[Dielectric constant|''ε_r'']], etc. |- | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Thermodynamic properties|Thermodynamic<br/>data]] | Phase behaviour<br>Solid, liquid, gas |- | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Spectral data|Spectral data]] | [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV]], [[Infrared spectroscopy|IR]], [[NMR spectroscopy|NMR]], [[Mass spectrometry|MS]] |- | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Regulatory data|Regulatory data]] | [[Flash point]],<br/>[[RTECS|RTECS number]], etc. |- ! {{chembox header}} | Related compounds |- | Related [[Amine]]s | ''See'' [[Amine]] |- | Related [[Hydride]]s | [[Phosphine]]<br/>[[Arsine]] |- | Related compounds | [[Hydrazine]]<br/>[[Hydrazoic acid]]<br/>[[Hydroxylamine]]<br/>[[Chloramine]] |- | {{chembox header}} | <small>Except where noted otherwise, data are given for<br> materials in their [[standard state|standard state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa)]]<br/>[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Infobox disclaimer and references]]</small> |- |} '''Ammonia''' is a [[chemical compound|compound]] of [[nitrogen]] and [[hydrogen]] with the [[chemical formula|formula]] NH₃. At [[standard temperature and pressure]] ammonia is a [[gas]]. It is [[toxic]] and [[corrosive]] to some materials, and has a characteristic pungent [[odor]]. An ammonia molecule has a [[Trigonal pyramid (chemistry)|trigonal pyramid]] shape, as would be expected from [[VSEPR theory]]. This shape gives the molecule an overall [[dipole]] moment and makes it [[Polar molecule|polar]] so that ammonia very readily dissolves in [[Water (molecule)|water]]. The nitrogen atom in the molecule has a [[Lone pair|lone electron pair]], and ammonia acts as a [[Base (chemistry)|base]]. That means that, when in aqueous solution, it can take a [[proton]] from water; this produces a [[hydroxide]] [[anion]] and an [[ammonium]] [[cation]] (NH₄⁺), which has the shape of a regular tetrahedron. The degree to which ammonia forms the ammonium ion depends on the [[pH]] of the [[solution]]—at "physiological" pH (~7), about 99% of the ammonia molecules are protonated. The main uses of ammonia are in the production of [[fertilizer]]s, [[explosive]]s and [[polymer]]s. It is also an ingredient in certain household glass cleaners. Ammonia is found in small quantities in the atmosphere, being produced from the [[putrefaction]] of nitrogenous animal and vegetable matter. Ammonia and ammonium salts are also found in small quantities in rainwater, while [[ammonium chloride]] (sal-ammoniac) and ammonium sulfate are found in volcanic districts; crystals of [[ammonium bicarbonate]] have been found in [[Patagonia]]n [[guano]]. Ammonium salts also are found distributed through all fertile soil and in seawater. Substances containing ammonia or that are similar to it are called ammoniacal. == History == Salts of ammonia have been known from very early times; thus the term ''Hammoniacus sal'' appears in the writings of [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]], although it is not known whether the term is identical with the more modern ''sal-ammoniac''. In the form of sal-ammoniac, ammonia was known to the [[alchemy|alchemists]] as early as the [[13th century]], being mentioned by [[Albertus Magnus]]. It was also used by [[dyer]]s in the [[Middle Ages]] in the form of fermented [[urine]] to alter the colour of vegetable dyes. In the [[15th century]], [[Basilius Valentinus]] showed that ammonia could be obtained by the action of alkalis on sal-ammoniac. At a later period, when sal-ammoniac was obtained by distilling the hoofs and horns of oxen and neutralizing the resulting carbonate with [[hydrochloric acid]], the name '''Spirit of hartshorn''' was applied to ammonia. Gaseous ammonia was first isolated by [[Joseph Priestley]] in [[1774]] and was termed by him ''alkaline air''. In [[1777]] [[Karl Wilhelm Scheele]] showed that it contained [[nitrogen]], and [[Claude Louis Berthollet]], in about [[1785]], ascertained its composition. The [[Haber process]] to produce ammonia from the nitrogen contained in the air was developed by [[Fritz Haber]] and [[Carl Bosch]] in [[1909]] and patented in [[1910]]. It was first used on an industrial scale by the Germans during [[World War I]]. The ammonia was used to produce explosives to sustain their war effort. == Synthesis and production == Because of its many uses, ammonia is one of the most highly-produced inorganic chemicals. Today NH₃ is manufactured by the [[Haber process]]. In this process, N₂ and H₂ combine in the presence of an [[iron]] [[catalyst]] at a pressure of 200&nbsp;bar (20&nbsp;MPa, 3000&nbsp;lbf/in²) and a temperature of 500 °C. A molybdenum [[promoter]] may also be used. ::N₂ + 3H₂ → 2 NH₃ Compared to older methods, the feedstocks of the Haber process are relatively inexpensive&mdash;nitrogen makes up 78% of the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], while hydrogen is produced in situ from [[natural gas|CH₄]]. Thus, the industrial process entails heating air and natural gas, a by-product is CO₂. Before the start of WWI most ammonia was obtained by the dry [[distillation]] of nitrogenous vegetable and animal products; by the reduction of [[nitrous acid]] and [[nitrite]]s with [[hydrogen]]; and also by the decomposition of ammonium salts by alkaline hydroxides or by [[calcium oxide|quicklime]], the salt most generally used being the chloride ([[ammonium chloride|sal-ammoniac]]) thus ::2NH₄Cl + 2CaO → CaCl₂ + Ca(OH)₂ + 2NH₃ It can also been obtained by the hydrolysis of many metal nitrides, for example, ::Mg₃N₂ + 6H₂O → 3Mg(OH)₂ + 2NH₃ ==Biosynthesis== Ammonia is produced from atmospheric N₂ by enzymes called [[nitrogenase]]s. The overall process is called [[nitrogen fixation]]. Although it is unlikely that biomimetic methods will be developed that are competitive with the [[Haber process]], intense effort has been directed toward understanding the mechanism of biological nitrogen fixation. The scientific interest in this problem is motivated by the unusual structure of the active site of the enzyme, which consists of an Fe₇MoS₉ ensemble. Ammonia is also a metabolic product of [[amino acid]] [[deamination]]. In humans, it is quickly converted to [[urea]], which is much less toxic. This urea is a major component of the dry weight of [[urine]]. == Properties == Ammonia is a colourless [[gas]] with a characteristic pungent smell; it is [[lighter than air]], its density being 0.589 times that of [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]. It is easily liquefied and the [[liquid]] boils at -33.7 °C, and solidifies at -75 °C to a mass of white crystals. [[Liquid]] ammonia possesses strong [[ion]]izing powers ([[Dielectric constant|ε]] = 22), and [[solution]]s of [[salt]]s in liquid ammonia have been much studied. Liquid ammonia has a very high [[standard enthalpy change of vaporization]] (23.35&nbsp;kJ/mol, ''c.f.'' [[water (molecule)|water]] 40.65&nbsp;kJ/mol, [[methane]] 8.19&nbsp;kJ/mol, [[phosphine]] 14.6&nbsp;kJ/mol) and can therefore be used in laboratories in non-insulated vessels at room temperature, even though it is well above its boiling point. It is [[miscible]] with water. All the ammonia contained in an aqueous solution of the gas may be expelled by boiling. The [[water|aqueous]] solution of ammonia is [[Base (chemistry)|basic]]. The maximum concentration of ammonia in water (a [[saturation (chemistry)|saturated]] solution) has a [[density]] of 0.880 g cm^-3 and is often known as '.880 Ammonia'. It does not sustain [[combustion]], and it does not burn readily unless mixed with [[oxygen]], when it burns with a pale yellowish-green flame. At high temperature and in the presence of a suitable catalyst, ammonia is decomposed into its constituent elements. [[Chlorine]] catches fire when passed into ammonia, forming [[nitrogen]] and [[hydrochloric acid]]; unless the ammonia is present in excess, the highly explosive [[nitrogen trichloride]] (NCl₃) is also formed. The ammonia molecule readily undergoes [[nitrogen inversion]] at normal pressures, that is to say that the nitrogen atom passes through the plane of the three hydrogen atoms as if it were an umbrella turning inside out in a strong wind. The energy barrier to this inversion is 24.7&nbsp;kJ/mol in ammonia, and the [[resonance frequency]] is 23.79&nbsp;GHz, corresponding to [[microwave]] radiation of a [[wavelength]] of 1.260&nbsp;cm. The absorption at this frequency was the first [[Microwave spectroscopy|microwave spectrum]] to be observed (C.&nbsp;E.&nbsp;Cleeton&nbsp;& N.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;Williams, [[1934]]). === Formation of salts === One of the most characteristic properties of ammonia is its power of combining directly with [[acid]]s to form [[salt]]s; thus with [[hydrochloric acid]] it forms [[ammonium chloride]] (sal-ammoniac); with [[nitric acid]], [[ammonium nitrate]], etc. However perfectly dry ammonia will not combine with perfectly dry [[hydrogen chloride]], moisture being necessary to bring about the reaction.{{ref|NH4Cl}} ::NH₃ + [[Hydrochloric acid|HCl]] → [[Ammonium chloride|NH₄Cl]] The salts produced by the action of ammonia on acids are known as the [[:Category:Ammonium compounds|ammonium salts]] and all contain the [[ammonium]] [[ion]] (NH₄⁺). === Acidity === Although ammonia is well-known as a base, it can also act as an extremely weak [[acid]]. It is a protic substance, and is capable of dissociation into the '''amide''' (NH₂^&minus;) ion, for example when solid lithium nitride is added to liquid ammonia, forming a lithium amide solution: Li₃N(s)+ 2NH₃(l) &rarr; 3Li⁺(am) + 3NH₂^&minus;(am). This is a Bronsted-Lowry acid-base reaction in which ammonia is acting as an acid. === Formation of other compounds === Ammonia can act as a [[nucleophile]] in [[Nucleophilic substitution|substitution]] reactions. [[Amine]]s can be formed by the reaction of ammonia with [[alkyl halide]]s, although the resulting &ndash;NH₂ group is also nucleophilic and secondary and tertiary amines are often formed as by-products. Using an excess of ammonia helps minimise multiple substitution, and neutralises the hydrogen halide formed. [[Methylamine]] is prepared commercially by the reaction of ammonia with [[chloromethane]], and the reaction of ammonia with 2-bromopropanoic acid has been used to prepare [[racemic]] [[alanine]] in 70% yield. [[Ethanolamine]] is prepared by a ring-opening reaction with [[ethylene oxide]]: the reaction is sometimes allowed to go further to produce diethanolamine and triethanolamine. [[Amide]]s can be prepared by the reaction of ammonia with a number of [[carboxylic acid]] derivatives. [[Acyl chloride]]s are the most reactive, but the ammonia must be present in at least a two-fold excess to neutralise the [[hydrogen chloride]] formed. [[Ester]]s and [[anhydride]]s also react with ammonia to form amides. Ammonium salts of carboxylic acids can be dehydrated to amides so long as there are no thermally sensitive groups present: temperatures of 150&ndash;200 °C are required. The [[hydrogen]] in ammonia is capable of replacement by [[metal]]s, thus [[magnesium]] burns in the gas with the formation of [[magnesium nitride]] Mg₃N₂, and when the gas is passed over heated [[sodium]] or [[potassium]], sodamide, NaNH₂, and potassamide, KNH₂, are formed. Where necessary in [[IUPAC nomenclature|substitutive nomenclature]], [[IUPAC]] recommendations prefer the name '''azane''' to ammonia: hence [[chloramine]] would be named ''chloroazane'' in substitutive nomenclature, not ''chloroammonia''. === Ammonia as a ligand === Ammonia can act as a [[ligand]] in [[transition metal]] [[complex (chemistry)|complexes]]. It is a pure σ-donor, in the middle of the [[spectrochemical series]], and shows intermediate [[HSAB concept|hard-soft]] behaviour. For historical reasons, ammonia is named '''ammine''' in the nomenclature of [[coordination compound]]s. Some notable ammine complexes include: *'''Hexamminecopper(II)''', [Cu(NH₃)₆]²⁺, a characteristic dark blue complex formed by adding ammonia to solution of copper(II) salts. *'''Diamminesilver(I)''', [Ag(NH₃)₂]⁺, the active species in [[Tollens' reagent]]. Formation of this complex can also help to distinguish between precipitates of the different silver halides: [[Silver chloride|AgCl]] is soluble in dilute (2&nbsp;M) ammonia solution, [[Silver bromide|AgBr]] is only soluble in concentrated ammonia solution while [[Silver iodide|AgI]] is insoluble in aqueous solution of ammonia. Ammine complexes of [[chromium]](III) were known in the late 19th century, and formed the basis of [[Alfred Werner]]'s theory of coordination compounds. Werner noted that only two isomers (''fac''- and ''mer''-) of the complex [CrCl₃(NH₃)₃] could be formed, and concluded that the ligands must be arranged around the metal ion at the [[vertex|vertices]] of an [[octahedron]]. This has since been confirmed by [[X-ray crystallography]]. An ammine ligand bound to a metal ion is markedly more [[acid]]ic than a free ammonia molecule, although deprotonation in aqueous solution is still rare. One example is the [[Mercury(I) chloride|Calomel reaction]], where the resulting amidomercury(II) compound is highly insoluble. ::Hg₂Cl₂ + 2NH₃ → Hg + HgCl(NH₂) + NH₄⁺ + Cl^&minus; ==Uses== The most important single use of ammonia is in the production of [[nitric acid]]. A mixture of one part ammonia to nine parts air is passed over a [[platinum]] gauze [[catalyst]] at 850 °C, whereupon the ammonia is oxidized to [[nitric oxide]]. ::4NH₃ + 5O₂ → 4NO + 6H₂O The catalyst is essential, as the normal oxidation (or combustion) of ammonia gives [[Nitrogen|dinitrogen]] and water: the production of nitric oxide is an example of [[kinetic control]]. As the gas mixture cools to 200&ndash;250 °C, the nitric oxide is in turn oxidized by the excess of [[oxygen]] present in the mixture, to give [[nitrogen dioxide]]. This is reacted with water to give nitric acid for use in the production of [[fertilizer]]s and [[explosive]]s. In addition to serving as a fertilizer ingredient, ammonia can also be used directly as a fertilizer by forming a solution with irrigation water, without additional chemical processing. This later use allows the continuous growing of nitrogen dependent crops such as [[maize]] (corn) without [[agriculture|crop]] rotation but this type of use leads to poor [[soil]] health. Ammonia has thermodynamic properties that make it very well suited as a [[Refrigeration|refrigerant]], since it liquefies readily under pressure, and was used in virtually all refrigeration units prior to the advent of [[haloalkane]]s such as [[Freon]]. However, ammonia is a toxic irritant and its corrosiveness to any [[copper]] [[alloy]]s increases the risk that an undesirable leak may develop and cause a noxious hazard. Its use in small refrigeration units has been largely replaced by haloalkanes, which are not toxic irritants and are practically not [[flammable]]. (Note: [[Butane]] and [[isobutane]], which have very suitable thermodynamic properties for refrigerants, are extremely flammable.) Ammonia continues to be used as a [[refrigerant]] in large industrial processes such as bulk icemaking and industrial food processing. Ammonia is also useful as a component in [[Absorptive refrigeration|absorption-type refrigerators]], which do not use compression and expansion cycles but can exploit heat differences. Since the implication of haloalkane being major contributors to [[ozone depletion]], ammonia is again seeing increasing use as a refrigerant. Ammonia is a primary ingredient in old-style household cleaners. It is also sometimes added to drinking water along with [[chlorine]] to form [[chloramine]], a [[disinfectant]]. Unlike chlorine on its own, chloramine does not combine with organic (carbon containing) materials to form [[carcinogen|carcinogenic]] [[halomethane]]s such as [[chloroform]]. == Liquid ammonia as a solvent == :''See also: [[Inorganic nonaqueous solvent]]'' Liquid ammonia is the best-known and most widely studied non-aqueous ionizing solvent. Its most conspicuous property is its ability to dissolve alkali metals to form highly coloured, electrically conducting solutions containing solvated electrons. Apart from these remarkable solutions, much of the chemistry in liquid ammonia can be classified by analogy with related reactions in aqueous solutions. Comparison of the physical properties of NH₃ with those of water shows that NH₃ has the lower melting point, boiling point, density, [[viscosity]], [[dielectric constant]] and [[electrical conductivity]]; this is due at least in part to the weaker H bonding in NH₃ and the fact that such bonding cannot form cross-linked networks since each NH₃ molecule has only 1 lone-pair of electrons compared with 2 for each H₂O molecule. The ionic self-[[dissociation constant]] of liquid NH₃ at &minus;50 °C is approx. 10^-33 mol²·l^-2. === Solubility of salts === {| |- ! &nbsp; ! Solubility (g per 100 g) |- | [[Ammonium acetate]] | 253.2 |- | [[Ammonium nitrate]] | 389.6 |- | [[Lithium nitrate]] | 243.7 |- | [[Sodium nitrate]] | 97.6 |- | [[Potassium nitrate]] | 10.4 |- | [[Sodium fluoride]] | 0.35 |- | [[Sodium chloride]] | 3.0 |- | [[Sodium bromide]] | 138.0 |- | [[Sodium iodide]] | 161.9 |- | [[Sodium thiocyanate]] | 205.5 |- |} Liquid ammonia is an ionizing solvent, although less so than water, and dissolves a range of ionic compounds including many [[nitrate]]s, [[nitrite]]s, [[cyanide]]s and [[thiocyanate]]s. Most [[ammonium]] salts are soluble, and these salts act as [[acid]]s in liquid ammonia solutions. The solubility of [[halide]] salts increases from [[fluoride]] to [[iodide]]. A saturated solution of [[ammonium nitrate]] contains 0.83&nbsp;mol solute per mole of ammonia, and has a [[vapour pressure]] of less than 1&nbsp;bar even at 25 °C. === Solutions of metals === :''See also: [[Solvated electron]], [[metallic solution]]'' Liquid ammonia will dissolve the [[alkali metal]]s and other [[Electronegativity|electropositive]] metals such as [[Calcium|Ca]], [[Strontium|Sr]], [[Barium|Ba]] [[Europium|Eu]] and [[Ytterbium|Yb]]. At low concentrations (<&nbsp;0.06&nbsp;mol/L), deep blue solutions are formed: these contain metal cations and [[solvated electron]]s, free electrons which are surrounded by a cage of ammonia molecules. These solutions are very useful as strong reducing agents. At higher concentrations, the solutions are metallic in appearance and in electrical conductivity. At low temperatures, the two types of solution can coexist as [[Wiktionary:immiscible|immiscible]] phases. === Redox properties of liquid ammonia === {| |- ! &nbsp; ! ''E''° (V, ammonia) ! ''E''° (V, water) |- | Li⁺ + e^&minus; {{unicode|&#8652;}} Li | &minus;2.24 | &minus;3.04 |- | K⁺ + e^&minus; {{unicode|&#8652;}} K | &minus;1.98 | &minus;2.93 |- | Na⁺ + e^&minus; {{unicode|&#8652;}} Na | &minus;1.85 | &minus;2.71 |- | Zn²⁺ + 2e^&minus; {{unicode|&#8652;}} Zn | &minus;0.53 | &minus;0.76 |- | NH₄⁺ + e^&minus; {{unicode|&#8652;}} ½H₂ + NH₃ | 0.00 | &ndash; |- | Cu²⁺ + 2e^&minus; {{unicode|&#8652;}} Cu | +0.43 | +0.34 |- | Ag⁺ + e^&minus; {{unicode|&#8652;}} Ag | +0.83 | +0.80 |- |} The range of thermodynamic stability of liquid ammonia solutions is very narrow, as the potential for oxidation to [[Nitrogen|dinitrogen]], ''E''°&nbsp;(N₂ + 6NH₄⁺ + 6e^&minus; {{unicode|&#8652;}} 8NH₃), is only +0.04&nbsp;V. In practice, both oxidation to dinitrogen and reduction to [[Hydrogen|dihydrogen]] are slow. This is particularly true of reducing solutions: the solutions of the alkali metals mentioned above are stable for several days, slowly decomposing to the [[Amide|metal amide]] and dihydrogen. Most studies involving liquid ammonia solutions are done in reducing conditions: although oxidation of liquid ammonia is usually slow, there is still a risk of explosion, particularly if transition metal ions are present as possible catalysts. == Detection and determination == Ammonia and ammonium salts can be readily detected, in very minute traces, by the addition of [[Nessler's solution]], which gives a distinct yellow coloration in the presence of the least trace of ammonia or ammonium salts. [[Sulfur sticks]] are burnt to detect small leaks in industrial ammonia refrigeration systems. Larger quantities can be detected by warming the salts with a caustic alkali or with [[calcium oxide|quicklime]], when the characteristic smell of ammonia will be at once apparent. The amount of ammonia in ammonium salts can be estimated quantitatively by distillation of the salts with [[sodium hydroxide|sodium]] or [[potassium hydroxide]], the ammonia evolved being absorbed in a known volume of standard [[sulfuric acid]] and the excess of acid then determined [[volumetric analysis|volumetrically]]; or the ammonia may be absorbed in [[hydrochloric acid]] and the [[ammonium chloride]] so formed precipitated as [[ammonium hexachloroplatinate]], (NH₄)₂PtCl₆. == Safety precautions == === Toxicity === The toxicity of ammonia solutions does not usually cause problems for humans and other mammals, as a specific mechanism exists to prevent its build-up in the bloodstream. Ammonia is converted to [[carbamoyl phosphate]] by the enzyme [[carbamoyl phosphate synthase]], and then enters the [[urea cycle]] to be either incorporated into [[amino acid]]s or excreted in the urine. However [[fish]] and [[amphibian]]s lack this mechanism, as they can usually eliminate ammonia from their bodies by direct excretion. Ammonia even at dilute concentrations is highly toxic to aquatic animals, and for this reason it is [[Directive 67/548/EEC|classified]] as ''dangerous for the environment''. === Household use === Solutions of ammonia (5&ndash;10% by weight) are used as household cleaners, particularly for glass. These solutions are irritating to the eyes and [[mucous membrane]]s (respiratory and digestive tracts), and to a lesser extent the skin. They should '''never''' be mixed with [[chlorine]]-containing products, for example household [[bleach]], as a variety of toxic and [[carcinogen]]ic compounds are formed (''e.g.'', [[chloramine]], [[hydrazine]]). === Laboratory use of ammonia solutions === The hazards of ammonia solutions depend on the concentration: "dilute" ammonia solutions are usually 5&ndash;10% by weight (<5.62&nbsp;mol/L); "concentrated" solutions are usually prepared at >25% by weight. A 25% (by weight) solution has a density of 0.907&nbsp;g/cm³, and a solution which has a lower density will be more concentrated. The [[Directive 67/548/EEC|European Union classification]] of ammonia solutions is given in the table. <!-- EU Index no. 007-001-01-2 --> {| class="wikitable" |- ! [[Concentration]]<br/>by weight ! Molarity ! Classification ! [[List of R-phrases|R-Phrases]] |- | 5&ndash;10% | 2.87&ndash;5.62 mol/L | Irritant ('''Xi''') | {{R36/37/38}} |- | 10&ndash;25% | 5.62&ndash;13.29 mol/L | Corrosive ('''C''') | {{R34}} |- | >25% | >13.29 mol/L | Corrosive ('''C''')<br/>Dangerous for<br/>the environment ('''N''') | {{R34}}, {{R50}} |- |} :''[[List of S-phrases|S-Phrases]]: {{S1/2}}, {{S16}}, {{S36/37/39}}, {{S45}}, {{S61}}.'' The ammonia vapour from concentrated ammonia solutions is severely irritating to the eyes and the respiratory tract, and these solutions should only be handled in a fume hood. Saturated ("0.880") solutions can develop a significant pressure inside a closed bottle in warm weather, and the bottle should be opened with care: this is not usually a problem for 25% ("0.900") solutions. Ammonia solutions should not be mixed with [[halogen]]s, as toxic and/or explosive products are formed. Prolonged contact of ammonia solutions with [[silver (element)|silver]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]] or [[iodide]] salts can also lead to explosive products: such mixtures are often formed in [[qualitative analysis]], and should be acidified and diluted before disposal once the test is completed. === Laboratory use of anhydrous ammonia (gas or liquid) === <!-- EU index no. 007-001-00-5 --> <!-- R10, 23, 34, 50; S1/2, 9, 16, 26, 36/37/39, 45, 61 --> Anhydrous ammonia is classified as '''toxic''' ('''T''') and '''dangerous for the environment''' ('''N'''). The gas is flammable ([[autoignition temperature]]: 651 °C) and can form explosive mixtures with air (16&ndash;25%). The [[permissible exposure limit]] (PEL) in the United States is 50&nbsp;ppm (35&nbsp;mg/m³), while the [[IDLH]] concentration is estimated at 300&nbsp;ppm. Repeated exposure to ammonia lowers the sensitivity to the smell of the gas: normally the odour is detectable at concentrations of less than 0.5&nbsp;ppm, but desensitized individuals may not detect it even at concentrations of 100&nbsp;ppm. Ammonia reacts violently with the halogens, and causes the explosive polymerization of [[ethylene oxide]]. It also forms explosive compounds with compounds of [[gold (element)|gold]], silver, mercury, [[germanium]] or [[tellurium]], and with [[stibine]]. Violent reactions have also been reported with [[acetaldehyde]], [[hypochlorite]] solutions, [[potassium ferricyanide]] and [[peroxide]]s. Anhydrous ammonia corrodes [[copper (element)|copper]]- and [[zinc (element)|zinc]]-containing [[alloy]]s, and so [[brass]] fittings should not be used for handling the gas. Liquid ammonia can also attack rubber and certain plastics. == See also == *[[Ammonia (data page)]] *[[Chlorination]] *[[Water purification]] *[[Nitrogen metabolism]] == Reference == #{{note|NH4Cl}} Baker, H. B. (1894). ''J. Chem. Soc.'' '''65''': 612. == Bibliography == {{1911}} * {{cite book | author=Greenwood, N. N.; & Earnshaw, A. | title=Chemistry of the Elements | edition = 2nd Edn. | location =Oxford | publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0-7506-3365-4 }} * {{cite book | author=Housecroft, C. E.; & Sharpe, A. | title=Inorganic Chemistry | location =Harlow (UK) | publisher=Prentice Education | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0-582-31080-6 }} * {{cite book | author=Bretherick, L. (Ed.) | title=Hazards in the Chemical Laboratory | edition = 4th Edn. | location =London | publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry | year=1986 | id=ISBN 0-85186-489-9 }} == External links == *[http://www.cheresources.com/ammonia.shtml Ammonia: The Next Step] *[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc04/icsc0414.htm International Chemical Safety Card 0414] (anhydrous ammonia) *[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc02/icsc0215.htm International Chemical Safety Card 0215] (aqueous solutions) * [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/8.html National Pollutant Inventory - Ammonia] *[http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0028.html NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards] *{{ecb}} *{{PubChemLink|222}} *[http://www.inrs.fr Institut national de recherche et de securite] (''in French'') * [http://www.ammoniaspills.org Emergency Response to Ammonia Fertilizer Releases (Spills)] for the Minnesota Department of Agriculture *{{nist}} * [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Ammonia Computational Chemistry Wiki] [[Category:Nitrogen compounds]] [[Category:Hydrides]] [[Category:Bases]] [[Category:Nitrogen metabolism]] [[Category:Household chemicals]] [[Category:Refrigerants]] [[bg:Амоняк]] [[ca:Amoníac]] [[cs:Amoniak]] [[cy:Amonia]] [[da:Ammoniak]] [[de:Ammoniak]] [[es:Amoníaco]] [[fa:آمونیاک]] [[fr:Ammoniac]] [[hr:Amonijak]] [[io:Amoniako]] [[it:Ammoniaca]] [[he:אמוניה]] [[lv:Amonjaks]] [[mk:Амонијак]] [[ms:Ammonia]] [[nl:Ammoniak]] [[ja:アンモニア]] [[no:Ammoniakk]] [[nn:Ammoniakk]] [[pl:Amoniak]] [[pt:Amoníaco]] [[ru:Аммиак]] [[simple:Ammonia]] [[sr:Амонијак]] [[fi:Ammoniakki]] [[sv:Ammoniak]] [[th:แอมโมเนีย]] [[uk:Аміак]] [[zh:氨]] 1366 41252368 2006-02-26T02:02:59Z Vsmith 84417 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.8.110.18|68.8.110.18]] ([[User talk:68.8.110.18|talk]]) to last version by 85.157.107.161 {{Otheruses}} '''Amethyst''' (SiO₂) is a violet or purple variety of [[quartz]] often used as an [[ornamental stone|ornament]]. The name is generally said to be derived from the Greek ''a'', "not," and ''methuskein'', "to intoxicate," expressing the old belief that the stone protected its owner from [[drunkenness]]. It was held that wine drunk out of a cup of amethyst would not [[Intoxication|intoxicate]]. However, the word may probably be a corruption of an Oriental name for the stone. [[Image:Amethyst.bed.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A bed of amethyst crystals on base rock, 13cm (5in) long]] In the [[20th century]], the color of amethyst was attributed to the presence of [[manganese]]. However, since it is capable of being greatly altered and even discharged by heat, the color was believed by some authorities to be from an organic source. [[Iron|Ferric]] [[thiocyanate]] was suggested, and [[sulfur]] was said to have been detected in the mineral. As of 2005, impurity atoms are known to be responsible of the colour of the amethyst. On exposure to heat, amethyst generally becomes yellow, and much of the [[citrine]], [[cairngorm]], or yellow quartz of jewelry is said to be merely "burnt amethyst". Veins of amethystine quartz are apt to lose their color on the exposed outcrop. Amethyst is composed of an irregular superposition of alternate [[lamellar structure|lamellae]] of right-handed and left-handed quartz. It has been shown that this structure may be due to mechanical stresses. As a consequence of this composite formation, amethyst is apt to break with a rippled fracture, or to show "thumb markings", and the intersection of two sets of curved ripples may produce on the fractured surface a pattern something like that of "engine turning". Some mineralogists, following Sir [[David Brewster]], apply the name of amethyst to all quartz which exhibits this structure, regardless of color. [[Image:Amethyst cut.jpg|Amethyst|thumb|250px]] Amethyst was used as a [[gemstone]] by the ancient [[Egypt]]ians and was largely employed in antiquity for [[intaglio]]s. Beads of amethyst are found in [[Anglo-Saxon]] graves in [[England]]. It is a widely distributed [[mineral]], but fine, clear specimens that are suitable for cutting as ornamental stones are confined to comparatively few localities. Such [[crystal]]s occur either in the cavities of mineral-veins and in [[granite|granitic]] rocks, or as a lining in [[agate]] [[geode]]s. A huge geode, or "amethyst-grotto", from near Santa Cruz in southern [[Brazil]] was exhibited at the [[Düsseldorf]] Exhibition of [[1902]]. Many of the hollow agates of Brazil and [[Uruguay]] contain a crop of amethyst crystals in the interior. Much fine amethyst comes from [[Russia]], especially from near [[Mursinka]] in the [[Ekaterinburg]] district, where it occurs in drusy cavities in granitic rocks. Many localities in [[India]] yield amethyst; and it is found also in [[Sri Lanka]], chiefly as pebbles. [[Image:Srr046a.jpg|6 Carat Pear Shape Amethyst Ring|thumb|250px]] Due to its popularity as a gemstone, several descriptive terms have been coined in the gem trade to describe the varying colors of amethyst. "Rose de France" is usually a pale pinkish lavender or lilac shade (usually the least sought color). The most prized color is an intense violet with red flashes and is called "Siberian", although gems of this color may occur from several locations other than [[Siberia]], notably [[Uruguay]] and [[Zambia]]. In more recent times, certain gems (usually of Bolivian origin) that have shown alternate bands of amethyst purple with citrine orange have been given the name [[ametrine]]. Purple [[corundum]], or [[sapphire]] of amethystine tint, is called Oriental amethyst, but this expression is often applied by jewellers to fine examples of the ordinary amethystine quartz, even when not derived from eastern sources. Professional gemological associations, such as the [[Gemological Institute of America]] (GIA) or the [[American Gemological Society]] (AGS), discourage the use of the term "Oriental amethyst" to describe any gem, as it may be misleading. Amethyst occurs at many localities in the [[United States]], but these specimens are rarely fine enough for use in jewelry. Among these may be mentioned Amethyst Mountain, [[Texas]]; [[Yellowstone National Park]]; [[Delaware County, Pennsylvania]]; [[Haywood County, North Carolina]]; and Deer Hill, and Stow, [[Maine]]. It is found also in the [[Lake Superior]] district. Amethyst is relatively common in northwestern [[Ontario]], but uncommon elsewhere in [[Canada]]; it was selected as the provincial mineral of Ontario in 1975. ==Value== Traditionally included in the cardinal, or most valuable, gemstones (along with [[diamond]], [[sapphire]], [[ruby]] and [[emerald]]), amethyst has lost much of its substantial value due to the discovery of extensive deposits in locations such as [[Brazil]]. Even high-quality examples are often sold in large unfinished slabs, or as geodes, in everyday locations. ==Amethyst in folklore and astrology== Amethyst is the [[birthstone]] associated with February. It is also associated with the [[constellation]]s of [[Pisces]], [[Aries]] (especially the violet and purple variety), [[Aquarius]], and [[Sagittarius]]. It is a symbol of heavenly understanding, and of the pioneer in thought and action on the philosophical, religious, spiritual and material planes. Ranking members of the [[Catholic]] Church traditionally wear rings set with a large amethyst as part of their office. ==See also== {{Commons|Amethyst}} *[[List of minerals]] {{1911}} [[Category:Gemstones]] [[Category:Quartz varieties]] [[bg:Аметист]] [[ca:Ametista]] [[de:Amethyst]] [[es:Amatista]] [[fr:Améthyste]] [[ga:Aimitis]] [[he:אחלמה]] [[hu:Ametiszt]] [[nl:Amethist]] [[ja:アメジスト]] [[pl:Ametyst]] [[pt:Ametista]] [[ru:Аметист]] [[sk:Ametyst]] [[sl:Ametist]] [[fi:Ametisti]] [[sv:Ametist]] [[uk:Аметист]] 1367 41056732 2006-02-24T19:55:08Z Sheep81 911938 rearrangem,ent {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = ''Albertosaurus'' | fossil_range = [[Late Cretaceous]] | image = Albertosaurus model.jpg | image_width = 200px | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Archosaur|Archosauria]] | ordo = [[Saurischia]] | subordo = [[Theropod|Theropoda]] | familia = [[Tyrannosaurid|Tyrannosauridae]] | subfamilia = [[Albertosaurinae]] | genus = '''''Albertosaurus''''' | species = '''''A. sarcophagus''''' | binomial = ''Albertosaurus sarcophagus'' | binomial_authority = [[Henry Fairfield Osborn|Osborn]], 1905 }} '''''Albertosaurus''''' is a [[genus]] of [[tyrannosaurid]] [[theropod]] [[dinosaur]] from the [[Late Cretaceous]] Period of [[North America]]. It was a large [[bipedal]] [[predator]] with a massive head and tiny forelimbs, much like the better-known ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'', although not quite as big. Adults reached up to 30 feet (9 meters) in length. ==Etymology== The genus ''Albertosaurus'' can be translated as "Alberta lizard" and is named for the [[Canada|Canadian]] province of [[Alberta]], in which it was found. The name also incorporates the [[Greek language|Greek]] term ''sauros'', meaning "lizard," which is the most common suffix used in dinosaur names. There is one named [[species]] considered valid today (''A. sarcophagus''). This name has the same [[etymology]] as the [[sarcophagus|funeral container]] of the same name: a combination of the Greek words ''sarx'', meaning "flesh," and ''phagos'', meaning "to eat." This refers to its quite obvious carnivorous habits. Both genus and species were named by famous [[United States|American]] [[paleontologist]] [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]] in [[1905]]. ==Taxonomy== ''Albertosaurus'' is a member of the family [[Tyrannosauridae]] and is united with the closely related ''Gorgosaurus'' in the subfamily [[Albertosaurinae]]. Holtz (2004) also places the newly described ''[[Appalachiosaurus]]'' in this subfamily, while Carr et al. (2005) do not. ===Invalid Species=== Other species have been named. ''A. arctunguis'', also from Alberta, was found to be a [[junior synonym]] of ''A. sarcophagus'' by Russell (1970). ''A. megagracilis'' (later renamed ''[[Dinotyrannus]]''), is a smaller animal from the [[Hell Creek Formation]] of [[Montana]], and is now thought to be a juvenile ''Tyrannosaurus''. ===Synonymy with Gorgosaurus?=== In [[1970]], [[Dale Russell]] examined [[fossil]]s of both ''Albertosaurus'' and another tyrannosaurid, ''[[Gorgosaurus]]'', which comes from slightly older sediments, and found very few differences to separate them. While retaining the two as different species, he assigned them to the same genus. ''Gorgosaurus libratus'' was not named until [[1914]], so the name ''Albertosaurus'' retained [[ICZN|priority]] as the genus name since it was older, creating the new combination ''Albertosaurus libratus''. This name found common use for a few decades, but a recent reanalysis of tyrannosaurid [[skull]]s performed by influential paleontologist [[Phil Currie]] in [[2003]] found that the differences are more pronounced than previously thought, although the two species are still closely related. As ''Albertosaurus'' and ''Gorgosaurus'' are considered [[sister taxa]], and there is no commonly accepted definition of a genus in paleontology, Currie acknowledged that the difference between retaining them in one genus or separating them into two is largely arbitrary. However, he recommended separating them to allow more flexibility when naming new species in the future, and because there is no greater degree of difference between the two than there is between ''[[Daspletosaurus]]'' and ''[[Tyrannosaurus]]'', which are almost universally retained as different genera. Other paleontologists, with the exception of Carr et al. (2005), have largely followed Currie's recommendation on the subject and ''Gorgosaurus'' is now widely recognized as a separate genus. ==Location and Age== ''Albertosaurus'' is known mostly from the [[Horseshoe Canyon Formation]] of [[Alberta]], [[Canada]]. This [[geologic formation|formation]] is from the early [[Maastrichtian]] stage of the [[Late Cretaceous]] Period, about 73 to 70 million years ago. Many other dinosaurs have been found there, including [[ornithomimidae|ornithomimids]], ''[[Chirostenotes]]'', [[dromaeosaurid]]s, [[ankylosauria]]ns, [[ceratopsia]]ns, [[pachycephalosaur]]s, and [[hadrosaurids]]. Fossils of ''Albertosaurus'' have also been reported from the [[United States|American]] states of Montana and [[Wyoming]], but these are not recognizable to species level according to Currie (2003) and Holtz (2004). ==Remains== [[Image:Dd albertos 300.jpg|frame|Albertosaurus]] Currie (2003) recognized ten skulls which belong to ''A. sarcophagus'' with certainty, as well as seven skeletons of varying completeness. The [[holotype]] skull was found by famous Canadian [[geologist]] [[Joseph Tyrrell|Joseph B. Tyrrell]]. ===Bonebed in Alberta=== In addition, articulated remains of 12 more individuals of all different ages have been recovered from a [[bonebed]] locality in Alberta, providing a nearly complete sequence from juvenile to very old adults. This is now one of the most completely known tyrannosaurid species. It is possible that such a large number of individuals in one place represents some sort of [[social behavior]] among albertosaurs, but this is difficult to prove. ==References== #{{cite journal | author = Osborn, H.F. | year = 1905 | title = ''Tyrannosaurus'' and other Cretaceous carnivorous dinosaurs | journal = Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History | volume = 21 | pages = 259-265 }} [original description] #{{cite journal | author = Russell, D.A. | year = 1970 | title = Tyrannosaurs from the Late Cretaceous of western Canada | journal = National Museum of Natural Sciences, Publications in Paleontology | volume = 1 | pages = 1-34 }} [synonymization with ''Gorgosaurus''] #{{cite journal | author = Currie, P.J. | year = 2003 | title = Cranial anatomy of tyrannosaurids from the Late Cretaceous of Alberta | journal = Acta Palaeontologica Polonica | volume = 48(20) | pages = 191-226 }} [anatomy, re-separation from ''Gorgosaurus''] #{{cite journal | author = Currie, P.J., J.H. Hurum, & K. Sabath | year = 2003 | title = Skull structure and evolution in tyrannosaurid phylogeny | journal = Acta Palaeontologica Polonica | volume = 48(2) | pages = 227-234 }} [includes phylogeny] #{{cite book | author = Holtz, T.R. | year = 2004 | title = The Dinosauria | chapter = Chapter 5: Tyrannosauroidea. | editor = Weishampel, D.A., P. Dodson, & H. Osmolska, eds. | edition = Second Edition | pages = 111-136 | publisher = University of California Press | location = Berkeley }} [includes phylogeny] #{{cite journal | author = Carr, T.D., T.E. Williamson, & D.R. Schwimmer | year = 2005 | title = A new genus and species of tyrannosauroid from the Late Cretaceous (middle Campanian) Demopolis Formation of Alabama | journal = Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology | volume = 25(1) | pages = 119-143 }} [description of ''Appalachiosaurus'', includes phylogeny] [[Category:Cretaceous dinosaurs]] [[Category:Theropods]] [[Category:Tyrannosaurids]] [[de:Albertosaurus]] [[es:Albertosaurus]] [[fr:Albertosaurus]] [[he:&#1488;&#1500;&#1489;&#1512;&#1496;&#1493;&#1494;&#1488;&#1493;&#1512;]] [[ja:&#12450;&#12523;&#12496;&#12540;&#12488;&#12469;&#12454;&#12523;&#12473;]] [[sv:Albertosaurus]] [[nl:Albertosaurus]] [[pt:Albertossauro]] 1368 41739134 2006-03-01T11:42:47Z Akamad 292168 Revert to revision 41652522 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] '''Assembly language''' commonly called '''assembly''' or '''asm''', is a [[human-readable]] notation for the [[machine language]] that a specific [[computer architecture]] uses. Machine language, a pattern of bits encoding machine operations, is made readable by replacing the raw values with symbols called ''mnemonics''. For example, a computer with the appropriate processor will understand this [[x86]]/[[IA-32]] [[machine language]]: 10110000 01100001 For programmers, however, it is easier to remember the equivalent assembly language representation: mov al, 061h which means to move the [[hexadecimal]] value 61 (97 [[decimal]]) into the [[processor register]] with the name "al". The [[mnemonic]] "mov" is short for "move", and a comma-separated list of arguments or parameters follows it; this is a typical assembly language statement. Transforming assembly into machine language is accomplished by an [[assembler]], and the reverse by a [[disassembler]]. Unlike in [[high-level language]]s, there is usually a [[1-to-1]] correspondence between simple assembly statements and machine language instructions. However, in some cases an assembler may provide ''pseudoinstructions'' which expand into several machine language instructions to provide commonly needed functionality. For example, for a machine that lacks a "branch if greater or equal" instruction, an assembler may provide a pseudoinstruction that expands to the machine's "set if less than" and "branch if zero (on the result of the set instruction)". Every [[computer architecture]] has its own machine language, and therefore its own assembly language. Computers differ by the number and type of operations that they support. They may also have different sizes and numbers of registers, and different representations of data types in storage. While all general-purpose computers are able to carry out essentially the same functionality, the way they do it differs, and the corresponding assembly language must reflect these differences. In addition, multiple sets of [[mnemonic|mnemonics]] or assembly-language syntax may exist for a single instruction set. In these cases, the most popular one is usually that used by the manufacturer in their documentation. ==Machine instructions== Instructions in assembly language are generally very simple, unlike in a [[high-level language]]. Any instruction that references memory (for data or as a jump target) will also have an [[addressing mode]] to determine how to calculate the required memory address. More complex operations must be built up out of these simple operations. Some operations available in most instruction sets include: * moving ** set a [[processor register|register]] (a temporary "scratchpad" location in the CPU itself) to a fixed constant value ** move data from a memory location to a register, or vice versa. This is done to obtain the data to perform a computation on it later, or to store the result of a computation. ** read and write data from hardware devices * computing ** add, subtract, multiply, or divide the values of two registers, placing the result in a register ** perform [[bitwise operation]]s, taking the conjunction/disjunction (and/or) of corresponding bits in a pair of registers, or the negation (not) of each bit in a register ** compare two values in registers (for example, to see if one is less, or if they are equal) * affecting program flow ** jump to another location in the program and execute instructions there ** jump to another location if a certain condition holds ** jump to another location, but save the location of the next instruction as a point to return to (a ''call'') Some computers include one or more "complex" instructions in their instruction set. A single "complex" instruction does something that may take many instructions on other computers. Such instructions are typified by instructions that take multiple steps, may issue to multiple functional units, or otherwise appear to be a design exception to the simplest instructions which are implemented for the given processor. Some examples of such instruction include: * saving many registers on the stack at once * moving large blocks of memory * complex and/or floating-point arithmetic ([[sine]], [[cosine]], [[square root]], etc.) * performing an atomic [[test-and-set]] instruction * instructions that combine ALU with an operand from memory rather than a register A form of complex instructions that has become particularly popular recently are [[SIMD]] operations that perform the same arithmetic operation to multiple pieces of data at the same time, which have appeared under various trade names beginning with [[MMX]] and [[AltiVec]]. The design of instruction sets is a complex issue, with a simpler instruction set (generally grouped under the concept [[RISC]]) perhaps offering the potential for higher speeds, while a more complex one (traditionally called [[CISC]]) may offer particularly fast implementations of common performance-demanding tasks, may use memory (and thus [[cache]]) more efficiently, and be somewhat easier to program directly in assembly. See [[instruction set]] for a fuller discussion of this point. ==Assembly language directives== In addition to codes for machine instructions, assembly languages have extra directives for assembling blocks of data, and assigning address locations for instructions or code. They usually have a simple symbolic capability for defining values as symbolic expressions which are evaluated at assembly time, making it possible to write code that is easier to read and understand. Like most computer languages, comments can be added to the [[source code]]; these often provide useful additional information to human readers of the code but are ignored by the assembler and so may be used freely. They also usually have an embedded [[macro language]] to make it easier to generate complex pieces of code or data. In practice, the absence of comments and the replacement of symbols with actual numbers makes the human interpretation of disassembled code considerably more difficult than the original (high level) source would be. ==Usage of assembly language== Historically, a large number of programs have been written entirely in assembly language. A classic example was the early IBM PC [[spreadsheet]] program [[Lotus 123]]. Even into the 1990s, the majority of console video games were written in assembly language, including most games written for the [[Sega Genesis]] and the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System]]. The popular arcade game [[NBA Jam]] (1993) was also coded entirely using assembly language. There is some debate over the continued usefulness of assembly language. It is often said that modern compilers can render higher-level languages into codes that run as fast as hand-written assembly, but counter-examples can be made, and there is no clear consensus on this topic. It is reasonably certain that, given the increase in complexity of modern processors, effective hand-optimization is increasingly difficult and requires a great deal of knowledge. However, some discrete calculations can still be rendered into faster running code with assembly, and some [[Low-level programming language|low-level]] programming is actually easier to do with assembly. Some system-dependent tasks performed by [[operating system|operating systems]] simply cannot be expressed in high-level languages. In particular, assembly is often used in writing the low level interaction between the operating system and the hardware, for instance in [[device driver|device drivers]]. Many compilers also render high-level languages into assembly first before fully compiling, allowing the assembly code to be viewed for debugging and optimization purposes. It's also common, especially in relatively low-level languages such as [[C programming language|C]], to be able to embed assembly language into the source code with special syntax. Programs using such facilities, such as the [[Linux kernel]], often construct abstractions where different assembly language is used on each platform the program supports, but it is called by portable code through a uniform interface. Many [[embedded system|embedded systems]] are also programmed in assembly to obtain the absolute maximum functionality out of what is often very limited computational resources, though this is gradually changing in some areas as more powerful chips become available for the same minimal cost. Another common area of assembly language use is in the system [[BIOS]] of a computer. This low-level code is used to initialize and test the system hardware prior to booting the OS and is stored in [[Read-only memory|ROM]]. Once a certain level of hardware initialization has taken place, code written in higher level languages can be used, but almost always the code running immediately after power is applied is written in assembly language. This is usually due to the fact that system [[RAM]] may not yet be initialized at power-up and assembly language can execute without explicit use of memory, especially in the form of a [[stack (computing)|stack]]. Assembly language is also valuable in [[reverse engineering]], since many programs are distributed only in machine code form, and machine code is usually easy to translate into assembly language and carefully examine in this form, but very difficult to translate into a higher-level language. Tools such as the [[Interactive Disassembler]] make extensive use of disassembly for such a purpose. [[MenuetOS]], a floppy-based operating system with a fully functional GUI is written entirely in assembly. A 64bit version is also available. The author claims that only through assembly language could he produce his system in less than 1.4 megabytes.<!-- Lots of systems are programmed in assembler; why is MenuetOS notable? Because MenuetOS is written ENTIRELY in assembly, that's why. --> ==Example listing of assembly language source code== {| style="margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; border: solid 1px" |&bull; '''Addr''' |&bull; '''Label''' |&bull; '''Instruction''' &bull; |&bull; '''Object code''' &bull; |{{ref|Murdocca}} |- | | |<tt>.begin</tt> | |- | | |<tt>.org 2048</tt> | |- | |<tt>a_start</tt> |<tt>.equ 3000</tt> | |- |&nbsp;<tt>2048</tt> | |<tt>ld [length],&r1</tt> |<tt>11000010 00000000 00101000 00101100</tt> |- |&nbsp;<tt>2052</tt> | |<tt>ld [address],%r2 &nbsp;</tt> |<tt>11000100 00000000 00101000 00110000</tt> |- |&nbsp;<tt>2056</tt> | |<tt>addcc %r3,%r0,%r3 &nbsp;</tt> |<tt>10000110 10001000 11000000 00000000</tt> |- |&nbsp;<tt>2060</tt> |<tt>loop:</tt> |<tt>addcc %r1,%r1,%r0 &nbsp;</tt> |<tt>10000000 10001000 01000000 00000001</tt> |- |&nbsp;<tt>2064</tt> | |<tt>be done&nbsp;</tt> |<tt>00000010 10000000 00000000 00000110</tt> |- |&nbsp;<tt>2068</tt> | |<tt>addcc %r1,-4,%r1 &nbsp;</tt> |<tt>10000010 10000000 01111111 11111100</tt> |- |&nbsp;<tt>2072</tt> | |<tt>addcc %r1,%r2,%r4 &nbsp;</tt> |<tt>10001000 10000000 01000000 00000010</tt> |- |&nbsp;<tt>2076</tt> | |<tt>ld %r4,%r5 &nbsp;</tt> |<tt>11001010 00000001 00000000 00000000</tt> |- |&nbsp;<tt>2080</tt> | |<tt>ba loop &nbsp;</tt> |<tt>00010000 10111111 11111111 11111011</tt> |- |&nbsp;<tt>2084</tt> | |<tt>addcc %r3,%r5,%r3 &nbsp;</tt> |<tt>10000110 10000000 11000000 00000101</tt> |- |&nbsp;<tt>2088</tt> |<tt>done:</tt> |<tt>jmpl %r15+4,%r0 &nbsp;</tt> |<tt>10000001 11000011 11100000 00000100</tt> |- |&nbsp;<tt>2092</tt> |<tt>length:</tt> |<tt>20 &nbsp;</tt> |<tt>00000000 00000000 00000000 00010100</tt> |- |&nbsp;<tt>2096</tt> |<tt>address:</tt> |<tt>a_start &nbsp;</tt> |<tt>00000000 00000000 00001011 10111000</tt> |- | | |<tt>.org a_start &nbsp;</tt> | |- |&nbsp;<tt>3000</tt> |<tt>a:</tt> |<tt>25 &nbsp;</tt> |<tt>00000000 00000000 00000000 00011001</tt> |- |&nbsp;<tt>3004</tt> | |<tt>-10 &nbsp;</tt> |<tt>11111111 11111111 11111111 11110110</tt> |- |&nbsp;<tt>3008</tt> | |<tt>33 &nbsp;</tt> |<tt>00000000 00000000 00000000 00100001</tt> |- |&nbsp;<tt>3012</tt> | |<tt>-5 &nbsp;</tt> |<tt>11111111 11111111 11111111 11111011</tt> |- |&nbsp;<tt>3016</tt> | |<tt>7 &nbsp;</tt> |<tt>00000000 00000000 00000000 00000111</tt> |- | | |<tt>.end &nbsp;</tt> | |- |} Example of a selection of instructions (for a [[Universal Virtual Computer|virtual computer]] {{ref|wwwPOCA}}) with the corresponding [[Memory address|address]] in memory where each instruction will be placed. These addresses are not static, see [[memory management]]. Accompanying each instruction is the generated (by the assembler) object code that coincides with the virtual computer's architecture (or [[Instruction set|ISA]]). ==See also== * [[Assembler]] ==Books== *[http://cs.smith.edu/~thiebaut/ArtOfAssembly/artofasm.html The Art of Assembly Language Programming], by [[Randall Hyde]] *[http://www.computer-books.us/assembler.php Computer-Books.us], Online Assembly Language Books *[http://www.drpaulcarter.com/pcasm/redir.php?file=pcasm-book-pdf.zip PC Assembly Language] by [[Dr Paul Carter]]; *[http://drpaulcarter.com/pcasm/ PC Assembly Tutorial using NASM and GCC] by Paul Carter *[http://savannah.nongnu.org/projects/pgubook/ Programming from the Ground Up] by Jonathan Bartlett ==External links== {{Wikibookspar||Programming:Assembly}} *[http://www.menuetos.net/ MenuetOS - hobby Operating System for the PC written entirely in 64bit assembly language] * [http://home.comcast.net/~dtgm/asm_links.html List of resources; books, websites, newsgroups, and IRC channels] * [http://asm.sf.net Linux Assembly] * [http://www.int80h.org/ Unix Assembly Language Programming] * [http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?LearningAssemblyLanguage PPR: Learning Assembly Language] * [http://www.codeteacher.com CodeTeacher] * [http://www.azillionmonkeys.com/qed/asmexample.html Assembly Language Programming Examples] * [http://www.cs.cornell.edu/talc/ Typed Assembly Language (TAL)] * [http://www.grc.com/smgassembly.htm Authoring Windows Applications In Assembly Language] {{Major programming languages small}} [[Category:Assembly languages|*Assembly language]] [[Category:Programming languages]] <!-- interwiki --> [[bg:Асемблер]] [[cs:Assembler]] [[da:Assemblersprog]] [[de:Assemblersprache]] [[eo:Asembla lingvo]] [[es:Lenguaje ensamblador]] [[et:Assemblerkeel]] [[fi:Assembly (ohjelmointikieli)]] [[fr:Assembleur (langage)]] [[he:שפת_סף]] [[hr:Assembler]] [[it:Assembly]] [[ja:アセンブリ言語]] [[ko:어셈블리어]] [[nl:Programmeertaal Assembler]] [[no:Assembler]] [[pl:Asembler]] [[pt:Assembly]] [[ru:Ассемблер]] [[sl:zbirnik (programski jezik)]] [[th:ภาษาแอสเซมบลี]] [[zh:汇编语言]] 1369 42098456 2006-03-03T20:43:15Z Dan Austin 347811 {{Otheruses|the food or drink of the gods}} In ancient [[Greek mythology|mythology]], '''Ambrosia''' (Greek {{lang|el|&#945;&#787;&#956;&#946;&#961;&#959;&#963;&#953;&#769;&#945;}}) is sometimes the food, sometimes the drink, of the [[gods]]. The word has generally been derived from Greek ''a-'' ("not") and ''mbrotos'' ("mortal"); hence the food or drink of the immortals. [[Thetis]] anointed the infant [[Achilles]] with ambrosia and passed the child through the fire to make him immortal&mdash;a familiar [[Phoenicia]]n custom&mdash;but [[Peleus]], appalled, stopped her. In ''[[Iliad]]'' xvi, [[Apollo]] washed the black blood from the corpse of [[Sarpedon]] and anointed it with ambrosia, readied for its dreamlike return to Sarpedon's native [[Lycia]]. The classical scholar [[Arthur Woollgar Verrall]], however, denied that there is any clear example in which the word ''ambrosios'' necessarily means ''immortal'', and preferred to explain it as "fragrant," a sense which is always suitable. If so, the word may be derived from the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] ''MBR'' ("amber", compare "[[ambergris]]") to which Eastern nations attribute miraculous properties. In Europe, honey-colored [[amber]], sometimes far from its natural source, was already a grave gift in [[Neolithic]] times and was still worn in the [[7th century CE]] as a talisman by [[Druidry|druidic]] [[Frisia|Frisians]], though St. [[Eligius]] warned "No woman should presume to hang amber from her neck." [[W. H. Roscher]] thinks that both '''nectar''' and ambrosia were kinds of [[honey]], in which case their power of conferring immortality would be due to the supposed healing and cleansing power of honey, which is in fact aseptic, and because fermented honey ([[mead]]) preceded [[wine]] as an [[entheogen]] in the Aegean world: the Great Goddess of [[Crete]] on some Minoan seals had a [[bee]] face: compare [[Merope]] and [[Melissa]]. See also [[Ichor]]. One of the impieties of [[Tantalus]], according to [[Pindar]], was that he offered to his guests the ambrosia of the Deathless Ones, a theft akin to that of [[Prometheus]], [[Karl Kerenyi]] noted (in ''Heroes of the Greeks''). [[Circe]] mentioned to [[Odysseus]] that a flock of doves brought the ambrosia to Olympus. Derivatively, the word ''Ambrosia'' (neuter plural) was given to certain festivals in honour of [[Dionysus]], probably because of the predominance of feasting in connection with them. "Ambrosia" is related to the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[amrita]], a drink which conferred immortality on the gods. In [[Greek mythology]], one of the [[Hyades (mythology)|Hyades]]. Many modern scholars, including Danny Staples, relate ambrosia to the [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants | hallucinogen]]ic mushroom ''[[Amanita muscaria]].'' ==References== *[[Carl A. P. Ruck|Ruck, Carl A.P.]] and [[Danny Staples]], ''The World of Classical Myth'' 1994, p. 26 et seq. *[http://47.1911encyclopedia.org/A/AM/AMBROSIA.htm ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' 1911]: Ambrosia [[Category:Greek mythology]][[Category:Fictional beverages]] [[de:Ambrosia]] [[es:Ambrosía]] [[eo:Ambrozio]] [[fr:Ambroisie]] [[it:Ambrosia (mitologia)]] [[he:אמברוסיה]] [[lt:Ambrozija]] [[nl:Ambrozijn]] [[pt:Ambrósia]] [[sv:Ambrosia]] 1370 41486638 2006-02-27T18:11:40Z Bhadani 219828 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.195.132.2|66.195.132.2]] ([[User talk:66.195.132.2|talk]]) to last version by 65.30.184.44 {{dablink|For other people and things named '''Ambrose''', see [[Ambrose (disambiguation)]]}} [[Image:AmbroseOfMilan.jpg|thumb|Saint Ambrose, mosaic in church St. Ambrogio, Milan]] Saint '''Ambrose''', ([[Latin]]: ''Sanctus Ambrosius''; [[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Sant'Ambrogio'') (c [[340]]&ndash;[[4 April]] [[397]]), [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan|bishop of Milan]], was one of the most eminent bishops of the 4th century. Together with [[Augustine of Hippo]], [[Jerome]], and [[Gregory I]], he his counted one of the four [[doctors of the Church|doctors of the West]] of antique church history. ==Life== ===Worldly career=== [[Image:AmbroseStatue.png|thumb|left|Statue of St. Ambrose]] Ambrose was a citizen of [[Rome]], born about [[337]]&ndash;[[340]] in [[Trier]], [[Germany]], into a Christian family. His father was prefect of [[Gallia Narbonensis]], his mother was a woman of intellect and piety. There is a legend that as an infant, a swarm of [[bee]]s settled on his face while he lay in his cradle, leaving behind a drop of [[honey]]. His father considered this a [[Christian symbolism|sign]] of his future [[eloquence]] and honeyed-tongue. For this reason, bees and [[beehive (beekeeping)|beehives]] often appear in the [[Saint symbology|saint's symbology]]. After the early death of his father, Ambrose was destined to follow his father's career, and was accordingly educated in Rome, studying [[literature]], [[law]] and [[rhetoric]]. [[Praetor]] [[Anicius Probus]] first gave him a place in the council and then made him about 372 [[consular prefect]] of [[Liguria]] and [[Emilia]], with headquarters at [[Milan]], which was then beside Rome the second capital in Italy. Ambrose made an excellent administrator in this important position and became soon very popular. ===Bishop of Milan=== The diocese of Milan was at the time, like the rest of the church, deeply divided in the contest between Trinitarians and Arians. In [[374]], [[Auxentius]], bishop of Milan, died, and the [[Nicene]] and [[Arianism|Arian]] parties contended for the [[succession]]. The prefect went personally to the basilica where the election should take place, to prevent an uproar which was probable in this crisis. His address was interrupted by a call "Ambrose for bishop!" which was taken up by others upon which he was univocally elected bishop. Ambrose was a likely candidate in this situation, because he was known to Trinitarians as sympathizer, but also acceptable to Arians due to the theologically neutral position he took as politician. He himself refused at first energetically the office, for which he was in no way prepared - he was so far only [[catechumen]] with no theological training. Only by intervention of the emperor he gave in and got within a week baptism and ordination and was duly installed as bishop of [[Milan]]. As bishop, he immediately adopted an ascetic lifestyle, apportioned his money to the poor, settled his land on the church, making only provision for his sister [[Marcellina]], and committed the care of his family to his brother. According to legend, Saint Ambrose immediately and forcefully stopped heresy in Milan. Actually, he moved more realistically and deliberately, as he had not many arguments against Arianism which dominated especially among the clerics and higher levels of society. He started to study the basics of theology with [[Simplician]], a [[presbyter]] of Rome. Using to advantage his excellent knowledge of Greek, which was then rare in the West, he studied the Bible and Greek authors like [[Philo]], [[Origenes]], [[Athanasius]] and [[Basil of Caesarea]], with whom he was also exchanging letters [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.ix.cxcviii.html (See letter of Basil to Ambrose)]. He applied his new knowledge as preacher, concentrating especially on exegesis of the Old Testament and his impressive rhetorical abilities impressed Augustine of Hippo, who hitherto had thought poorly of Christian preachers. ===Ambrose and Arians=== In the confrontation with Arians, Ambrose applied theological and political means, using his eloquence as effectively as his political experience and his excellent political connections. [[Gratianus|Gratian]], the son of the elder [[Valentinian I]], was Trinitarian; but the younger [[Valentinian II|Valentinian]], who had now become his colleague in the empire, adopted the opinions of the [[Arians]], and all the arguments and eloquence of Ambrose could not reclaim the young prince to the orthodox faith. [[Theodosius I]], the emperor of the East, also professed the [[Nicene]] belief; but there were many adherents of [[Arius]] throughout his dominions, especially among the higher clergy. In this distracted state of religious opinion, two leaders of the Arians, [[Palladius]] and [[Secundianus]], confident of numbers, prevailed upon [[Gratian]] to call a general council from all parts of the empire. This request appeared so equitable that he complied without hesitation; but Ambrose, foreseeing the consequence, prevailed upon the emperor to have the matter determined by a council of the Western bishops. A [[synod]], composed of thirty-two bishops, was accordingly held at [[Aquileia]] in the year [[381]]. Ambrose was elected president; and Palladius, being called upon to defend his opinions, declined, insisting that the meeting was a partial one, and that, all the bishops of the empire not being present, the sense of the Christian church concerning the question in dispute could not be obtained. A vote was then taken, when Palladius and his associate Secundianus were deposed from the episcopal office. The increasing strength of the Arians proved a formidable task for Ambrose. In [[384]] the young emperor and his mother [[Justina]], along with a considerable number of [[clergy]] and [[laity]], especially military, professing the Arian faith, requested from the bishop the use of two churches, one in the city, the other in the suburbs of [[Milan]]. Ambrose refused, and was required to answer for his conduct before the council. He went, attended by a numerous crowd of people, whose impetuous zeal so overawed the ministers of Valentinian that he was permitted to retire without making the surrender of the churches. The day following, when he was performing divine service in the basilica, the prefect of the city came to persuade him to give up at least the Portian church in the suburbs. As he still continued obstinate, the court proceeded to violent measures: the officers of the household were commanded to prepare the [[Basilica]] and the Portian [[church]]es to celebrate divine service upon the arrival of the emperor and his mother at the ensuing [[festival]] of [[Easter]]. Perceiving the growing strength of the [[prelate]]'s interest, the court deemed it prudent to restrict its demand to the use of one of the churches. But all entreaties proved in vain, and drew forth the following characteristic declaration from the bishop: :"If you demand my person, I am ready to submit: carry me to [[prison]] or to [[death]], I will not resist; but I will never betray the church of [[Jesus|Christ]]. I will not call upon the people to succour me; I will die at the foot of the [[altar]] rather than desert it. The tumult of the people I will not encourage: but [[God]] alone can appease it." Circumstances never actually tried Ambrose's courage to this degree. ===Ambrose and emperors=== [[Image:AmbroseTheodosiusVanDyck.jpg|thumb|300px|van Dyck: Saint Ambrose and emperor Theodosius]] If the imperial court was displeased with the religious principles and conduct of Ambrose, it respected his great political talents; and when necessity required, his aid was solicited and generously granted. When [[Magnus Maximus]] usurped the supreme power in [[Gaul]], and was meditating a descent upon Italy, Valentinian sent Ambrose to dissuade him from the undertaking, and the embassy was successful. On a second attempt of the same kind Ambrose was again employed; and although he was unsuccessful, it cannot be doubted that, if his advice had been followed, the schemes of the usurper would have proved abortive; but the enemy was permitted to enter [[Italy]]; and [[Milan]] was taken. Justina and her son fled; but Ambrose remained at his post, and did good service to many of the sufferers by causing the plate of the church to be melted for their relief. Ambrose was equally zealous in combating the attempt made by the upholders of the old state religion to resist the enactments of Christian emperors. The pagan party was led by [[Quintus Aurelius Symmachus]], consul in [[391]], who presented to [[Valentinian II]] a forcible but unsuccessful petition praying for the restoration of the [[Altar of Victory]] to its ancient station in the hall of the [[Roman Senate]], the proper support of seven [[Vestal Virgin]]s, and the regular observance of the other pagan ceremonies. To this petition Ambrose replied in a letter to Valentinian, arguing that the devoted worshippers of [[idolatry|idols]] had often been forsaken by their [[list of deities|deities]]; that the native valour of the Roman soldiers had gained their victories, and not the pretended influence of pagan [[priest]]s; that these idolatrous worshippers requested for themselves what they refused to Christians; that voluntary was more honourable than constrained [[virginity]]; that as the Christian ministers declined to receive temporal emoluments, they should also be denied to pagan priests; that it was absurd to suppose that [[God]] would inflict a famine upon the empire for neglecting to support a religious system contrary to His will as revealed in the [[Holy Scripture]]s; that the whole process of nature encouraged innovations, and that all nations had permitted them even in religion; that heathen sacrifices were offensive to Christians; and that it was the duty of a Christian prince to suppress pagan ceremonies. In the epistles of Symmachus and of Ambrose both the petition and the reply are preserved. The turn of mind of Ambrose, and his rhetorical application of apparently logical processes are well displayed in his 40th and 41st ''Epistles''. A bishop was accused of instigating the burning of a synagogue by an [[anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]] mob, and Emperor Theodosius was preparing to order the bishop to rebuild it. Ambrose discouraged the Emperor from taking this step, not that the bishop in question had never encouraged fanatic destruction, but on the grounds that it would appear to show favoritism to the [[Jew]]s. He adduces recent instances of inaction: when houses of various wealthy individuals were burned in Rome; when the house of the Bishop of [[Constantinople]] was burnt; when several Christian basilicas were burnt during the reign of [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]], some of which were still not rebuilt, an action Ambrose attributes to the Jews. Ambrose asks that Christian monies not be used to build a place of worship for unbelievers, [[heretic]]s or Jews, and he reminds Theodosius that some Christian laity had said of Emperor [[Maximus]], "he has become a Jew" because of the edict Maximus issued regarding the burning of a Roman synagogue. Ambrose did not oppose punishing those directly responsible for burning the synagogue. To support the logic of his argument, Ambrose halted the celebration of the [[Eucharist]], essentially holding the Christian community hostage, until Theodosius agreed to abort the investigation without requiring reparations to be made by the bishop. [[Theodosius I]], the emperor of the East, espoused the cause of Justina, and regained the kingdom. Theodosius was threateded with excommunication by Ambrose for the massacre of 7,000 persons at [[Thessalonika|Thessalonica]] in [[390]], and was bidden imitate [[David]] in his repentance as he had imitated him in guilt - Ambrose readmitted the emperor only after several months of penance to the Eucharist. This incident shows the strong position of a bishop in the Western part of the empire, even when facing a strong emperor - the controversy of [[John Chrysostom]] with a much weaker emperor a few years later in Constantinople lead to a crushing defeat of the bishop. Ambrose's influence upon Theodosius is credited with eliciting the enactment of the "Theodosian decrees" of [[391]] (see entry [[Theodosius I]], which are more characteristic of the constant agenda of Ambrose than of Theodosius. In [[392]], after the assassination of [[Valentinian II]] and the usurpation of [[Eugenius]], Ambrose fled from Milan; but when Theodosius was eventually victorious, he supplicated the emperor for the pardon of those who had supported Eugenius. Soon after acquiring the undisputed possession of the [[Roman empire]], Theodosius died at Milan in [[395]], and two years later ([[April 4]], [[397]]) Ambrose also passed away. He was succeeded as bishop of Milan by [[Simplician]]. Ambrose's body may still be viewed in the church of S. Ambrogio in Milan, where it has been continuously venerated &#8212; along with the bodies identified in his time as being those of Sts. Gervase and Protase &#8212; and is one of the oldest extant bodies of historical personages known outside [[Egypt]]. ===Character=== Many circumstances in the history of Ambrose are characteristic of the general spirit of the times. The chief causes of his victory over his opponents were his great popularity and the reverence paid to the episcopal character at that period. But it must also be noted that he used several indirect means to obtain and support his authority with the people. He was liberal to the [[poor]]; it was his custom to comment severely in his preaching on the public characters of his times; and he introduced popular reforms in the order and manner of public worship. It is alleged, too, that at a time when the influence of Ambrose required vigorous support, he was admonished in a dream to search for, and found under the pavement of the church, the remains of two [[martyr|martyrs]], [[Gervasius]] and [[Protasius]]. The applause of the people was mingled with the derision of the court party. ==Theology== Though ranking with [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], [[Jerome]], and [[Gregory the Great]], as one of the [[Latin]] [[Doctor of the Church|Doctors of the Church]], he is most naturally compared with [[Hilary]], whom he surpasses in administrative excellence as much as he falls below him in [[theology|theological]] ability. Even here, however, his achievements are of no mean order, especially when we remember his juridical training and his comparatively late handling of [[Biblical]] and [[doctrinal]] subjects. His great spiritual successor, [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], whose conversion was helped by Ambrose's [[sermon]]s, owes more to him than to any writer except [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]. Ambrose's intense episcopal consciousness furthered the growing [[doctrine]] of the Church and its [[sacerdotal]] ministry, while the prevalent [[asceticism]] of the day, continuing the [[Stoicism|Stoic]] and [[Cicero]]nian training of his youth, enabled him to promulgate a lofty standard of Christian [[ethics]]. Thus we have the ''De officiis ministrorum'', ''De viduis'', ''De virginitate'' and ''De paenitentia''. ==Writings== In matters of [[exegesis]] he is, like Hilary, an [[Alexandrian]]. In [[dogma]] he follows [[Basil of Caesarea]] and other Greek authors, but nevertheless gives a distinctly Western cast to the speculations of which he treats. This is particularly manifest in the weightier emphasis which he lays upon human [[sin]] and [[divine grace]], and in the place which he assigns to [[faith]] in the individual Christian life. * ''De fide ad Gratianum Augustum'' * ''De Spiritu Sancto'' * ''De incarnationis Dominicae sacramento'' * ''De mysteriis'' * homiletic commentaries on the early [[Old Testament]] narratives, e.g., the ''[[Hexaemeron]]'' (Creation) and [[Abraham]], some of the ''[[Psalms]]'', and the ''[[Gospel according to Luke]]''. * several funeral orations * 91 letters * ''[[Ambrosiaster]]'' or the "pseudo-Ambrose" is a brief commentary on Paul's ''Epistles'', which was long attributed to Ambrose. See [[Ambrosiaster]]. ==Church Music== Catching the impulse from [[Hilary of Arles|Hilary]] and confirmed in it by the success of Arian [[psalmody]], Ambrose composed several [[hymn]]s, marked by dignified simplicity, which were not only effective in themselves but served as a fruitful model for later times. Each of these hymns has eight four-line [[stanza]]s and is written in strict iambic tetrameter. *''Deus Creator Omnium'' *''Aeterne rerum conditor'' *''Jam surgit hora tertia'' *''Veni redemptor gentium'' (a [[Christmas]] hymn) *[http://www.geocities.com/hashanayobel/christwrit/hymns.htm Text of some Ambrosian Hymns] St. Ambrose is considered as the first who introduced the [[Antiphon|antiphonant]] method of chanting, or one side of the choir alternately responding to the other; from whence that particular mode obtained the name of the "[[chant]]," while the [[plainsong]], introduced by [[Pope Gregory I|St. Gregory]], still practised in the Romish service, is called the "[[Gregorian chant|Gregorian]]," or "[[Romish chant]]." The works of St. Ambrose continue to be held in much respect, particularly the hymn of ''[[Te Deum]]'', which he is said to have composed when he baptised [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]], his celebrated convert. ==Ambrose and reading== Ambrose is the subject of a curious anecdote in [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]'s ''Confessions'' which bears on the history of [[reading (activity)|reading]]: :''When [Ambrose] read, his eyes scanned the page and his heart sought out the meaning, but his voice was silent and his tongue was still. Anyone could approach him freely and guests were not commonly announced, so that often, when we came to visit him, we found him reading like this in silence, for he never read aloud.'' The extraordinary aspect of this passage, of course, is that Augustine felt it noteworthy that Ambrose could read silently, implying that hardly anyone else could at the time. [[Alvin Toffler]] also quotes this story in [[Powershift]] :''"...Saint Augustine, writing in the 5th century, refers to his mentor, Saint Ambrose, the Bishop of Milan, who was so learned that he could actually read without moving his lips. For this astonishing feat he was regarded as the brainiest person in the world."'' For more on silent reading, see ''A History of Reading'' by Albert Manguel, Chapter 2, posted on line [http://www.stanford.edu/class/history34q/readings/Manguel/Silent_Readers.html here]. ==See also== *[[Ambrosians]] Several religious brotherhoods which have sprung up in and around Milan at various times since the [[14th century]] have been called Ambrosians. Their connection to Ambrose is tenuous. == External links == *[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/fathers/ambrose_letters_00_intro.htm Early Christian writings: Letters of St. Ambrose of Milan] *[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-10/TOC.htm Christian Classics Ethereal Library, Works of Ambrose of Milan] *[http://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/amb_hy00.html Hymni Ambrosii (latin)] *[http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/ambrose.php EarlyChurch.org.uk] Extensive bibliography. ==References== *{{1911}} [[category:Church Fathers]] [[Category:340s births]] [[Category:397 deaths]] [[Category:Saints]] [[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]] [[Category:Late Antiquity]] [[Category:Doctors of the Church]] [[de:Ambrosius von Mailand]] [[es:Ambrosio]] [[fr:Ambroise de Milan]] [[ko:암브로시우스]] [[id:Santo Ambrosius]] [[it:Sant'Ambrogio]] [[he:אמברוזיוס]] [[la:Ambrosius]] [[hu:Szent Ambrus]] [[nl:Ambrosius]] [[ja:アンブロジウス]] [[pl:Święty Ambroży]] [[pt:Ambrósio de Milão]] [[ro:Ambrozie]] [[sk:Ambrosius]] [[fi:Ambrosius]] [[sv:Ambrosius av Milano]] 1371 40205144 2006-02-18T23:16:20Z Deville 364144 Disambiguate [[Epirus]] to [[Epirus (region)]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] '''Ambracia''' (more correctly '''Ampracia''') was an ancient [[Corinth, Greece|Corinthian]] colony, situated about 7 miles from the [[Ambracian Gulf]] in [[Greece]], on a bend of the navigable river Aracthus (or Aratthus), in the midst of a fertile wooded plain. It was founded between [[650 BC|650]] and [[625 BC]] by [[Gorgus]], son of the Corinthian tyrant [[Cypselus]]. After the expulsion of Gorgus's son [[Periander]] its government developed into a strong democracy. The early policy of Ambracia was determined by its loyalty to Corinth (for which it probably served as an entrepot in the [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]] trade), its consequent aversion to [[Corcyra]], and its frontier disputes with the Amphilochians and Acarnanians. Hence it took a prominent part in the [[Peloponnesian War]] until the crushing defeat at [[Idomene]] ([[426 BC|426]]) crippled its resources. In the [[4th century BC|4th century]] it continued its traditional policy, but in [[338 BC|338]] surrendered to [[Philip II of Macedon]]. After forty-three years of autonomy under [[Macedon]]ian suzerainty it became the capital of [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]], king of Epirus, who adorned it with palace, temples and theatres. In the wars of [[Philip V of Macedon]] and the Epirotes against the [[Aetolia]]n league ([[220 BC|220]]-[[205 BC|205]]) Ambracia passed from one alliance to the other, but ultimately joined the latter confederacy. During the struggle of the Aetolians against [[Roman Republic|Rome]] it stood a stubborn [[siege]]. After its capture and plunder by [[M. Fulvius Nobilior]] in [[189 BC|189]], it fell into insignificance. The foundation by [[Augustus Caesar|Augustus]] of [[Nicopolis]], into which the remaining inhabitants were drafted, left the site desolate. In [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] times a new settlement took its place under the name of Arta. Some fragmentary walls of large, well-dressed blocks near this latter town indicate the early prosperity of Ambracia. {{1911}} [[Category:Corinthian colonies]] [[fr:Ambracie]] 1372 40267394 2006-02-19T10:21:31Z 71.112.165.14 /* History */ {{otheruses}} [[image:amber.pendants.800pix.050203.jpg|thumb|250px|Amber pendants. The oval pendant is 52 by 32 mm (2 by 1.3 inches).]] '''Amber''' is a [[fossil]] [[resin]] much used for the manufacture of ornamental objects. Although not mineralized it is sometimes considered and used as a [[gemstone]]. Most of the world's amber is in the range of 30&ndash;90 million years old. Semi-fossilized resin or sub-fossil amber is called [[copal]] ==History== The name comes from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] &#1593;&#1606;&#1576;&#1585;, ''&#699;anbar'', probably through [[Spanish language|Spanish]], but this word referred originally to [[ambergris]], which is an animal substance quite distinct from yellow amber. True amber has sometimes been called ''kahroba'', a word of [[Persian Language|Persian]] derivation signifying "that which attracts straw", in allusion to the power which amber possesses of acquiring an electric charge by friction. This property, first recorded by [[Thales|Thales of Miletus]], suggested the word "[[electricity]]", from the [[Greek language|Greek]], ''[[electrum|elektron]]'', a name applied, however, not only to amber but also to an [[alloy]] of [[gold]] and [[silver]]. By [[Latin]] writers amber is variously called ''[[electrum]]'', ''sucinum'' (''succinum''), and ''glaesum'' or ''glesum''. The [[Hebrew language|Old Hebrew]] &#1495;&#1513;&#1502;&#1500; ''hashmal'' seems to have meant amber, although Modern Hebrew uses Arabic-inspired &#1506;&#1504;&#1489;&#1512; ''`inbar''. The [[German language|German]] word is ''Bernstein''. Amber, which has no primitive uses, has been found at [[Neolithic]] sites far from its source on the shores of the [[Baltic sea]], mute witness, like [[obsidian]], to long-distance trade routes established before the [[Bronze Age]]. There is strong evidence for the theory that the Baltic coasts during the advanced civilization of the [[Nordic Bronze Age]] was the source of most amber in Europe, for example the amber jewelry found in graves from [[Mycenaean Greece]] has been found to originate from the Baltic Sea. Amber was mentioned by [[Homer]], [[Aristotle]], [[Plato]] and others. [[Pliny the Elder]] complains that a small statue of amber costs more than a healthy slave. [[Tacitus]] in his ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'' talks about the [[Aesti]] people as the only ones to gather amber from the [[Baltic Sea]]. During the 14th century, the [[Teutonic Knights]] controlled the production of amber in Europe, forbidding its unauthorised collection from beaches on the Baltic coastline under their jurisdiction, and punishing breakers of this ordinance with death. ==Composition== Amber is [[heterogeneous]] in composition, but consists of several [[resin]]ous bodies more or less soluble in [[ethanol|alcohol]], [[diethyl ether|ether]] and [[chloroform]], associated with an insoluble [[Bitumen|bituminous]] substance. Amber is a [[macromolecule]] by free [[radical polymerization]] of several precursors in the labdane family, communic acid, cummunol and biformene {{Ref|1}}. Labdanes are tetrameric [[terpene]]s (C<sub>20</sub>H<sub>32</sub>) and trienes which means that the organic skeleton has three [[alkene]] groups available for [[polymerization]]. As amber matures over the years, more polymerization will take place as well as [[isomerization]] reactions, [[Cross-link|crosslinking]] and cyclization. The average composition of amber leads to the general formula [[Carbon|C]]<sub>10</sub>[[Hydrogen|H]]<sub>16</sub>[[Oxygen|O]]. Heating amber will soften it and eventually it will burn, which is why the [[German language|German]] word for amber is ''bernstein''. Heated rather below 300°C, amber suffers decomposition, yielding an "oil of amber", and leaving a black residue which is known as "amber colophony", or "amber pitch"; when dissolved in oil of [[turpentine]] or in [[linseed oil]] this forms "amber varnish" or "amber lac". True amber yields on dry distillation [[succinic acid]], the proportion varying from about 3 to 8%, and being greatest in the pale opaque or ''bony'' varieties. The aromatic and irritating fumes emitted by burning amber are mainly due to this acid. True Baltic amber is distinguished by its yield of succinic acid, for many of the other fossil resins which are often termed amber contain either none of it, or only a very small proportion; hence the name ''succinite'' proposed by Professor [[James Dwight Dana]], and now commonly used in scientific writings as a specific term for the real Prussian amber. Succinite has a hardness between 2 and 3, which is rather greater than that of many other fossil resins. Its specific gravity varies from 1.05 to 1.10. An effective tool for Amber analysis is [[IR spectroscopy]]. It enables the distinction between baltic amber and non-Baltic varieties because of a specific [[carbonyl]] absorption and it can also detect the relative age of an amber sample. == Amber in Geology == The Baltic amber or succinite is found as irregular nodules in a marine glauconitic sand, known as ''blue earth,'' occurring in the Lower [[Oligocene]] strata of [[Sambia (Baltic)|Sambia]] in [[Kaliningrad Oblast]], where it is now systematically mined. It appears, however, to have been partly derived from yet earlier [[Tertiary]] deposits ([[Eocene]]); and it occurs also as a derivative [[mineral]] in later formations, such as the drift. Relics of an abundant flora occur as inclusions trapped within the amber while the resin was yet fresh, suggesting relations with the flora of Eastern [[Asia]] and the southern part of [[North America]]. [[H. R. Goppert]] named the common amber-yielding pine of the Baltic forests ''Pinites succiniter'', but as the wood, according to some authorities, does not seem to differ from that of the existing genus it has been also called ''Pinius succinifera''. It is improbable, however, that the production of amber was limited to a single species; and indeed a large number of conifers belonging to different genera are represented in the amber-flora.<!--antique text--> ==Amber inclusions == [[image:amber.insect.800pix.050203.jpg|thumb|250px|An insect trapped in amber. The amber piece is 10 mm (0.4 inches) long. In the enlarged picture, the insect's antennae are easily seen.]] The resin contains, in addition to the beautifully preserved plant-structures, numerous remains of insects, spiders, annelids, crustaceans and other small organisms which became enveloped while the exudation was fluid. In most cases the organic structure has disappeared, leaving only a cavity, with perhaps a trace of [[chitin]]. Even hair and feathers have occasionally been represented among the enclosures. Fragments of wood frequently occur, with the tissues well-preserved by impregnation with the resin; while leaves, flowers and fruits are occasionally found in marvellous perfection. Sometimes the amber retains the form of drops and stalactites, just as it exuded from the ducts and receptacles of the injured trees. The abnormal development of resin has been called ''succinosis''. Impurities are quite often present, especially when the resin dropped on to the ground, so that the material may be useless except for varnish-making, whence the impure amber is called ''firniss''. Enclosures of [[pyrites]] may give a bluish colour to amber. The so-called ''black amber'' is only a kind of [[Jet (lignite)|jet]]. ''Bony amber'' owes its cloudy opacity to minute bubbles in the interior of the resin. In the [[Dominican Republic]] exists a type of amber known as the [[Blue Amber]]. ==Locations and utilization== Although amber is found along the shores of a large part of the [[Baltic Sea]] and the [[North Sea]], the great amber-producing country is the promontory of [[Samland]], now part of [[Russia]]. Pieces of amber torn from the sea-floor are cast up by the waves, and collected at ebb-tide. Sometimes the searchers wade into the sea, furnished with nets at the end of long poles, by means of which they drag in the sea-weed containing entangled masses of amber; or they dredge from boats in shallow water and rake up amber from between the boulders. Divers have been employed to collect amber from the deeper waters. Systematic dredging on a large scale was at one time carried on in the Kurisches Haff by Messrs Stantien and Becker, the great amber merchants of [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]]. At the present time extensive mining operations are conducted in quest of amber. The ''pit amber'' was formerly dug in open works, but is now also worked by underground galleries. The nodules from the ''blue earth'' have to be freed from matrix and divested of their opaque crust, which can be done in revolving barrels containing sand and water. The sea-worn amber has lost its crust, but has often acquired a dull rough surface by rolling in sand. Amber is extensively used for beads and other ornaments, and for cigar-holders and the mouth-pieces of pipes. It is regarded by the [[Turkey|Turks]] as specially valuable, inasmuch as it is said to be incapable of transmitting infection as the pipe passes from mouth to mouth. The variety most valued in the East is the pale straw-coloured, slightly cloudy amber. Some of the best qualities are sent to [[Vienna]] for the manufacture of smoking appliances. In working amber, it is turned on the [[Lathe (tool)|lathe]] and polished with whitening and water or with rotten stone and oil, the final lustre being given by friction with flannel. During the working much electricity is developed. When gradually heated in an oil-bath, amber becomes soft and flexible. Two pieces of amber may be united by smearing the surfaces with [[linseed oil]], heating them, and then pressing them together while hot. Cloudy amber may be clarified in an oil-bath, as the oil fills the numerous [[pore]]s to which the turbidity is due. Small fragments, formerly thrown away or used only for varnish, are now utilized on a large scale in the formation of "ambroid" or "pressed amber". The pieces are carefully heated with exclusion of air and then compressed into a uniform mass by intense hydraulic pressure; the softened amber being forced through holes in a metal plate. The product is extensively used for the production of cheap jewellery and articles for smoking. This pressed amber yields brilliant interference colours in polarized light. Amber has often been imitated by other resins like [[copal]] and [[kauri]], as well as by [[celluloid]] and even [[glass]]. True amber is sometimes coloured artificially. Amber was much valued as an ornamental material in very early times. It has been found in [[Mycenae]]an tombs; it is known from lake-dwellings in [[Switzerland]], and it occurs with [[neolithic]] remains in [[Denmark]], whilst in [[England]] it is found with interments of the [[bronze age]]. A remarkably fine cup turned in amber from a bronze-age [[tumulus|barrow]] at [[Hove]] is now in the [[Brighton Museum]]. Beads of amber occur with [[Anglo-Saxon]] relics in the south of England; and up to a comparatively recent period the material was valued as an [[amulet]]. It is still believed to possess a certain medicinal virtue. Rolled pieces of amber, usually small but occasionally of very large size, may be picked up on the east coast of England, having probably been washed up from deposits under the North Sea. [[Cromer]] is the best-known locality, but it occurs also on other parts of the [[Norfolk, England|Norfolk]] coast, as well as at [[Great Yarmouth]], [[Southwold]], [[Aldeburgh]] and [[Felixstowe]] in [[Suffolk]], and as far south as [[Walton-on-the-Naze]] in [[Essex, England|Essex]], whilst northwards it is not unknown in [[Yorkshire]]. On the other side of the North Sea, amber is found at various localities on the coast of the [[Netherlands]] and Denmark. On the shores of the Baltic it occurs not only on the German and Polish coast but in the south of [[Sweden]], in [[Bornholm]] and other islands, and in southern [[Finland]]. Amber has indeed a very wide distribution, extending over a large part of northern Europe and occurring as far east as the [[Urals]]. Some of the amber districts of the Baltic and North Sea were known in prehistoric times, and led to early trade with the south of Europe. Amber was carried to [[Olbia]] on the [[Black Sea]], Massilia (today [[Marseille]]) on the [[Mediterranean]], and [[Hatria]] at the head of the [[Adriatic]]; and from these centres it was distributed over the [[Hellenic]] world. The [[Amber Room]] was a collection of chamber wall panels commissioned in [[1701]] for the king of [[Prussia]], then given to Tsar [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]]. The room was hidden in place from invading [[Nazi]] forces in 1941, who upon finding it in the Cathrine Palace, disassembled it and moved it to [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]]. What happened to the room beyond this point is unclear. It is presumed lost. It was [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3025833.stm re-created in 2003]. [[Image:amberroomdetail.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Amber Room]] was reconstructed from the [[Kaliningrad]] amber.]] Amber and certain similar substances are found to a limited extent at several localities in the [[United States]], as in the green-sand of [[New Jersey]], but they have little or no economic value. A fluorescent amber occurs in the southern state of Chiapas in [[Mexico]], and is used extensively to create eye-catching jewellery. Blue amber is recorded in the [[Dominican Republic]]. These Central American ambers are formed from the resins of Legume trees (Hymenea) and not conifers. ==Varieties== Besides succinite, which is the common variety of European amber, the following varieties also occur: * Gedanite, or ''brittle amber,'' closely resembling succinite, but much more brittle, not quite so hard, with a lower melting point and containing no succinic acid. It is often covered with a white powder easily removed by wiping. The name comes from Gedanum, the Latin name of [[Gda&#324;sk]] at the [[Baltic Sea]]. * Stantienite, a brittle, deep brownish-black resin, destitute of succinic acid. * Beckerite, a rare amber in earthy-brown nodules, almost opaque, said to be related in properties to gutta-percha. * Glessite, a nearly opaque brown resin, with numerous microscopic cavities and dusty enclosures, named from glesum, an old name for amber. * Krantzite, a soft amber-like resin, found in the lignites of [[Saxony]]. * Allingite, a [[fossil]] resin allied to succinite, from Switzerland. * Roumanite, or Romanian amber, a dark reddish resin, occurring with lignite in Tertiary deposits. The nodules are penetrated by cracks, but the material can be worked on the lathe. [[Sulfur|Sulphur]] is present to the extent of more than 1%, whence the smell of sulphuretted hydrogen when the resin is heated. According to [[Gheorghe Murgoci]] the Romanian amber is true succinite. * Simetite, or Sicilian amber, takes its name from the river [[Simeto]] or [[Giaretta]]. It occurs in [[Miocene]] deposits and is also found washed up by the sea near [[Catania]]. This beautiful material presents a great diversity of tints, but a rich hyacinth red is common. It is remarkable for its fluorescence, which in the opinion of some authorities adds to its beauty. Amber is also found in many localities in [[Emilia]], especially near the sulphur-mines of [[Cesena]]. It has been conjectured that the ancient [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] ornaments in amber were wrought in the Italian material, but it seems that amber from the Baltic reached the Etruscans at Hatria. It has even been supposed that amber passed from [[Sicily]] to northern Europe in early times - a supposition said to receive some support from the fact that much of the amber dug up in Denmark is red; but it must not be forgotten that reddish amber is found also on the Baltic, though not being fashionable it is used rather for varnish-making than for ornaments. Moreover, yellow amber after long burial is apt to acquire a reddish colour. The amber of Sicily seems not to have been recognized in ancient times, for it is not mentioned by local authorities like [[Diodorus Siculus]]. * Burmite is the name under which the Burmese amber is now described. Until the British occupation of [[Burma]] but little was known as to its occurrence, though it had been worked for centuries and was highly valued by the natives and by the Chinese. It is found in fiat rolled pieces, irregularly distributed through a blue clay probably of Miocene age. It occurs in the [[Hukawng]] valley, in the [[Nangotaimaw]] hills, where it is irregularly worked in shallow pits. The mines were visited some years ago by Dr [[Fritz Noetling]], and the mineral has been described by Dr [[Otto Helm]]. The Burmese amber is yellow or reddish, some being of ruby tint, and like the Sicilian amber it is fluorescent. Burmite and simetite agree also in being destitute of succinic acid. Most of the Burmese amber is worked at [[Mandalay]] into rosary-beads and ear-cylinders. Many other fossil resins more or less allied to amber have been described. Schraufite is a reddish resin from the [[Carpathian]] [[sandstone]], and it occurs with [[Jet (lignite)||jet]] in the [[Cretaceous]] rocks of the [[Lebanon]]; ambrite is a resin found in many of the [[coal]]s of [[New Zealand]]; retinite occurs in the lignite of [[Bovey Tracey]] in Devonshire and elsewhere; whilst copaline has been found in the London clay of [[Highgate]] in North London. Chemawinite or cedarite is an amber-like resin from the [[Saskatchewan river]] in [[Canada]]. == See also == * [[List of minerals]] * [[Ammolite]] * [[Dominican amber]] * [[Amber in British place names]] * [[Spirit of amber]] * [[Oil of amber]] == References == # {{Note|1}} ''Assignment of vibrational spectra of labdatriene derivatives and ambers: A combined experimental and density functional theoretical study'' Manuel Villanueva-García, Antonio Martínez-Richa, and Juvencio Robles [[Arkivoc]] (EJ-1567C) pp 449-458 [http://www.arkat-usa.org/ark/journal/2005/I06_Juaristi/1567/EJ-1567C.asp Online Article] ==External links== *[http://www.emporia.edu/earthsci/amber/amber.htm The World of Amber] A comprehensive website maintained by the Earth Science Department of Emporia State University, Emporia, Kansas (Accessed [[29 May]] [[2005]]) *[http://www.lariamber.com/mine.html Visit to an amber mine in the Dominican Republic] *[http://www.ambarazul.com/domamb.html Dominican Amber] *[http://www.amberemotion.com/faszination-bernstein.html Information about amber from Poland - Gdansk (German)] * [http://baltic-amber.amberizon.com/ Facts about Baltic Amber] [[Category:Fossils]] [[Category:Arabic words]] {{Link FA|de}} [[cs:Jantar]] [[cy:Ambr]] [[da:Rav]] [[de:Bernstein]] [[et:Merevaik]] [[es:Ámbar]] [[eo:Sukceno]] [[fr:Ambre]] [[ko:호박 (화석)]] [[io:Sucino]] [[is:Raf]] [[it:Ambra (resina)]] [[he:ענבר]] [[lt:Gintaras]] [[nl:Barnsteen]] [[ja:コハク]] [[no:Rav]] [[pl:Bursztyn]] [[pt:Âmbar]] [[ru:Янтарь]] [[sl:Jantar]] [[fi:Meripihka]] [[sv:Bärnsten]] [[vi:Hổ phách]] [[zh:琥珀]] 1373 39465994 2006-02-13T08:26:18Z 68.35.130.224 Castlevania references '''Amalaric''' or ''Amalarico'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (died [[531]]), king of the [[Visigoths]], son of [[Alaric II]], was a child when his father fell in battle against [[Clovis I]], king of the [[Franks]], in ([[507]]). [[Gesalec]] was chosen king and the child Amalaric was carried for safety into [[Hispania]], which country and [[Provence]] were thenceforth ruled by his maternal grandfather, [[Theodoric the Great|Theodoric]] the Ostrogoth, acting through his vice regent, [[Theudis]], an Ostrogothic nobleman. In [[522]] the young Amalaric was proclaimed king, and four years later, on Theodoric's death, he assumed full royal power in Hispania and that part of [[Languedoc]] called [[Septimania]], relinquishing [[Provence]] to his cousin [[Athalaric]]. He married [[Chrotilda]], daughter of Clovis; but his disputes with her, he being an [[Arianism|Arian]] and she a [[Catholicism|Catholic]], brought on him the penalty of a Frankish invasion by [[Childebert I]], king of [[Paris]], in which he lost his life in [[531]]. [[Konami]] has twice included flying, angelic [[Archery|archers]] enemies in its [[Castlevania]] series of games, tying them to the story of Amalaric's demise. In [[Castlevania: Symphony of the Night]], there is a blue-tinted angelic enemy known as "Sniper of Goth," whose description reads "Slew Amalaric of the Goths." In [[Castlevania: Dawn of Sorrow]], the enemy appears again and is functionally identical, although its name is now "Amalaric Sniper" and its description now reads "A fearsome archer and a fallen angel." ==References== *{{1911}} *Edward Gibbon, [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/gibbon/edward/g43d/chapter39.html ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''] Chapter 39 {{start box}} |width=25% align=center|'''Preceded by:'''<br>'''[[Gesalec]]''' |width=25% align=center|'''[[Visigoths#Kings_of_the_Visigoths|King of the Visigoths]]'''<br>511&ndash;531 |width=25% align=center|'''Succeeded by:'''<br>'''[[Theudis]]''' |- {{end box}} [[Category:531 deaths|Amalaric]] [[Category:Kings of the Visigoths]] [[de:Amalrich]] [[es:Amalarico]] [[pl:Amalaryk]] 1374 40326721 2006-02-19T21:06:47Z Missmarple 207003 fix some links [[image:Alphorn.JPG|thumb|D' Dieß'ner alphorn players]] '''Alpenhorn''' or '''alphorn''', a [[wind instrument]], consisting of a natural wooden horn of conical bore, having a cup-shaped [[mouthpiece]], used by mountain dwellers in Switzerland and elsewhere. The alphorn is carved from solid softwood, generally spruce but sometimes pine. In former times the alphorn maker would find a tree bent at the base in the shape of an alphorn, but modern makers piece the wood together at the base. A cup-shaped mouthpiece carved out of a block of hard wood is added and the instrument is complete. The alpenhorn has no lateral openings and therefore gives the pure natural harmonic series of the open pipe. The harmonics are the more readily obtained by reason of the small diameter of the bore in relation to the length. An alpenhorn made at Rigi-Kulm, Schwyz, and now in the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], measures 8 ft. in length and has a straight tube. [[Image:Swiss playing an alphorn.jpg|thumb|A Swiss playing alphorn near a mountain lake]] The well-known Ranz des Vaches is the traditional melody of the alpenhorn from French Switzerland. The song describes the time of bringing the cows to the high country at cheese making time. [[Gioacchino Rossini|Rossini]] introduced the melody into his opera ''William Tell.'' [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]] was clear that the inspiration for the great melody that opens the last movement of his First Symphony (played in the orchestra by the [[horn (instrument)|horn]]) was an alphorn melody he heard in the Rigi area of Switzerland. The Swiss alpenhorn varies in shape according to the locality, being curved near the bell in the Bernese Oberland. [[Michael Praetorius]] mentions the alpenhorn under the name of holzerni trummet in ''Syntagma Musicum'' (Wittenberg, 1615-1619). This is the horn featured in [[Ricola]] [[cough medicine|cough drop]] commercials. ==References== *{{1911}} ==Music for Alphorn== Among music composed for the alphorn: *'' Sinfonia Pastorella for Alphorn and String Orchestra'' by [[Leopold Mozart]] *''Concerto for alphorn and orchestra'' by Jean Daetwyler *''Concertino rustico'' by Ference Farkas == External links == * [http://www.jacaranda.de Jacaranda Ensemble] * [http://www.SwissAlphorn.com Swiss Alphorn Players, in German] * [http://www.alphorn.ca Rocky Mountain Alphorns, in English] [[Category:Wind instruments proper]] [[de:Alphorn]] [[fr:Cor des Alpes]] [[he:קרן האלפים]] [[nl:Alpenhoorn]] [[sv:Alphorn]] 1375 41999917 2006-03-03T03:25:11Z Zafiroblue05 284148 /* History of the Scientific Name */ caps {{Otherusesabout|a breed of domesticated ungulates}} {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Alpaca | status = {{StatusDomesticated}} | image = Alpaca2.jpg | image_width = 200px | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammal]]ia | ordo = [[Artiodactyla]] | familia = [[Camelidae]] | genus = ''[[Vicugna (genus)|Vicugna]]'' | species = '''''V. pacos''''' | binomial = ''Vicugna pacos'' | binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]]) }} The '''Alpaca''' (Vicugna pacos) is one of two domesticated breeds of South American [[camel]]-like [[ungulate|ungulates]], derived from the wild [[guanaco]]. It resembles a sheep in appearance, but is larger in size, and has a long erect neck with a handsome head. Alpacas are kept in large flocks that graze on the level heights of the [[Andes]] of southern [[Peru]], northern [[Bolivia]], and northern [[Chile]] at an altitude of between 3500 and 5000 meters above sea-level, throughout the year. They are not used as beasts of burden like [[llama|llamas]], but are valued only for their [[fiber]], of which Indian blankets and ponchos are made. The alpaca comes in 22 natural colours. In stature, the alpaca is considerably inferior to the llama, but has the same unpleasant habit of spitting. In the textile industry, "alpaca" is a name given to two distinct things. It is primarily a term applied to the wool, or rather hair, obtained from the Peruvian alpaca. It is, however, more broadly applied to a style of fabric originally made from alpaca fiber but now frequently made from a similar type of fiber, such as [[mohair]], [[Icelandic (sheep)|Icelandic sheep]] wool, or even some high-quality English wool. In trade, distinctions are made between alpacas and the several styles of mohairs and lustres. However, as far as the general purchaser is concerned, little or no distinction is made. ===Background=== Alpacas have been domesticated for thousands of years, and originate from Peru, Chile and Bolivia. There are no wild alpacas; it is believed that they are descended from the [[vicuna]], which is also native to South America. They are closely related to llamas, which are descended from the guanaco. These four species of animals are collectively called camelids. Of the four, the alpaca and the vicuña are the most valuable wool-bearing animals: the alpaca because of the quality and quantity of its wool, and the vicuña because of the softness, fineness and quality of its coat. Alpacas and llamas can (and do) successfully cross breed, the resulting offspring are called huarizo. There are two types of alpaca – huacaya (with crimpy sheep-like “wool”) and suri (with silky dreadlocks). Suris are much rarer than huacaya, estimated to make up between 6 and 10% of the alpaca population. The suri is probably rarer because it is less hardy in the harsh South American mountain climates, as the style of its fleece offers less insulation against the cold (the suri fleece parts along the spine, exposing the animal to the cold unlike the huacaya fleece which provides excellent cover over the backbone). Alpaca fleece is a luxurious fibre, similar to sheep’s wool in some respects, although it is lighter in weight, silkier to the touch, warmer and not as prickly. A big trade of alpace fleece exists in the countries where alpacas live, from very simple and not so expensive garments made by the aboriginal communities, to sophisticated products industrially made, that can have significantly high prices. White is the predominant colour of alpacas, both suri and huacaya. This is because selective breeding has favoured white – bulk white fleece is easier to market and can be dyed any colour. However, alpacas come in 22 natural colours, from a true blue black through browns and fawns to white, and there are silver greys and rose greys as well. Traditionally, alpaca meat has been eaten fresh, fried or in stews, by Andean inhabitants. There is a resurgent interest in alpaca meat in countries like Peru, where it is relatively easy to find it at upscale restaurants. ===Behaviour=== Alpacas are social herd animals and should always be kept with others of their kind. They are gentle and elegant, inquisitive and observant. As they are a prey animal, rather than a predator, they are cautious and will understandably be nervous if they feel threatened. They like their own space and don’t appreciate another alpaca (or human) getting too close, especially from behind. They will warn the intruder away by threatening to spit, or by spitting, or by kicking. Some alpacas kick, some don’t – but yes, they all spit. Spitting is reserved for other alpacas, not for humans, but sometimes the human can get in the line of fire, or the alpaca aims badly and misses the intended target. The spit is not pleasant: it is the contents of the stomach – green (regurgitated grass) – and smells foul. Alpacas don’t like their heads being touched. Once they know their owners, and feel confident around them, they will probably allow their backs and necks to be touched, but they won’t appreciate being grabbed, especially by boisterous children. If an owner need to catch an alpaca, the neck offers a good handle – and holding the neck firmly between the arms is the best way to restrain the animal. To help alpacas control their internal parasites they have a communal dung pile, which they do not graze. Generally, males have much tidier dung piles than females who tend to stand in a line and all go at once! Sheep baa, cows moo and alpacas hum. Different animals have different voices, but basically it is a "mmm" sound. However, they make other sounds as well as humming. When danger is present they sound the alarm call, a high pitched shriek, for instance. Some breeds are known to make a sound similar to a "Wark" noise when excited, and they stand proud with their tails sticking out and their ears in a very alert position. Strange dogs – and even cats – can trigger this reaction. (They recognise domestic cats for what they are – a relation of the puma, a natural predator of the alpaca in South America.) When males fight they also scream, a warbling bird-like cry, presumably intended to terrify the other combatant. Fighting is to determine dominance, and therefore the right to mate the females in the herd, and it is triggered by testosterone. This is why males are often kept in separate paddocks – when two dominant males get together war breaks out! A male in the act of mating, or hoping for a chance to mate, will “orgle.” This orgling will help to put the female in the mood, and it is believed that it also helps her to ovulate after the act of mating – very necessary for a pregnancy to take place! Pregnancies last eleven and a half months and the young are called crias. Soon after the cria is born the female will be ready to mate again, babies are therefore an annual event. A female is usually ready to mate for the first time at a year of age, but a male can often not work until he is two or even three years old. Alpacas generally live for more than 20 years – we think! Conditions and nutrition are better in the USA, Australia, New Zealand and Europe than in South America, so animals live longer and are healthier. One of the oldest alpacas in New Zealand (fondly known as Vomiting Violet) died at the end of 2005 at the ripe old age of 29. == History of the scientific name == In [[1758]] the four South American camelid species were assigned scientific names. At that time, the alpaca was assumed to be descended from the [[Lama glama|llama]], ignoring similarities in size, fleece and dentition between the alpaca and the [[Vicugna vicugna|vicu&ntilde;a]]. Classification was complicated by the fact that all four species of South American camelid can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. It was not until the advent of DNA technology that a more accurate classification was possible. Miss Great Aunt Edds started the first out of continent farm. She established the first Canadian Alpaca farm outside of Kingston Ontario. Originally started with only 4 alpacas, the farm grew to no less than 24 alpacas by 2005. The alpacas, originally raised for their fleece, now also serve the local restaurant industry, providing them with delicious alpaca steaks. In 2001 the alpaca genus classification changed from <i>Lama pacos</i> to <i>Vicugna pacos</i> following the presentation of a paper [http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/app/home/contribution.asp?wasp=bf588d8be995486f872cd4a9008b9f35&referrer=parent&backto=issue,12,18;journal,94,201;linkingpublicationresults,1:102024,1 Genetic analysis reveals the wild ancestors of the llama and the alpaca] on work by [[Dr Jane Wheeler]] et al on alpaca DNA to the [[Royal Society]] showing that the alpaca is descended from the vicuña, not the guanaco. The relationship between alpacas and vicuñas was disputed for many years, but Wheeler's DNA work proved it. However many academic sites have not caught up with this, so it is something well known to alpaca breeders who have read Dr Hoffman's book, and to Royal Society members who have access to the current classification data, but not more widely known. == Fiber == [[image:Alpaca_cuzco_peru.jpg|thumb|left|Alpaca]] Alpaca fiber is warmer than sheeps' wool and lighter in weight. It is soft and luxurious and lacks the "prickle" factor. However, as with all fleece producing animals, quality varies from animal to animal, and some alpaca produce fibre which is less than ideal. Alpaca have been bred in South America for hundreds of years (mainly Peru, but also Chile and Bolivia), but in recent years have been exported to other countries. In countries such as the USA, Australia and New Zealand breeders shear their animals annually, weigh the fleeces and test them for fineness. With the resulting knowledge they are able to breed heavier fleeced animals with finer fibre. Fleece weights vary, with the top stud males reaching annual shear weights up to 6kg. Two types of fleece are produced: huacaya and suri. It has been proposed that in fact these are two different breeds of animal, and that camelids come in five types - guanaco, vicuna, llama, huacaya (alpaca) and suri. This view is not commonly accepted however. In physical structure, alpaca is somewhat akin to (human?) hair, being very glossy, but its softness and fineness enable the [[spinning|spinner]] to produce satisfactory [[yarn]] with comparative ease. [[image:alpaca.png|180px|thumb|right|Alpaca]] ==Alpaca fiber industry== === History === The history of the manufacture of this fiber into cloth is one of the romances of commerce. The Indians of [[Peru]] used this fibre in the manufacture of many styles of fabrics for centuries before its introduction into Europe as a commercial product. The first European importations were into [[Spain]]. [[Spain]] transferred the fibre to [[Germany]] and [[France]]. Apparently alpaca yarn was spun in [[England]] for the first time about the year [[1808]]. It does not appear to have made any headway, however, and alpaca fiber was condemned as an unworkable material. In [[1830]] Benjamin Outram, of Greetland, near Halifax, appears to have reattempted the spinning of this fibre, and, for the second time, alpaca was condemned. These two attempts to use alpaca were failures owing to the style of fabric into which the yarn was woven &mdash; a species of [[camlet]]. It was not until the introduction of cotton warps into the [[Bradford, England|Bradford]] trade about [[1836]] that the true qualities of alpaca could be developed in the fabric. Where the [[cotton warp]] and [[mohair]] or alpaca weft plain-cloth came from is not known, but it was this simple yet ingenious structure which enabled [[Titus Salt]], then a young Bradford manufacturer, to use alpaca successfully. Bradford is still the great spinning and manufacturing centre for alpaca, large quantities of yarns and cloths being exported annually to the continent and to the [[United States]], although the quantities naturally vary in accordance with the fashions in vogue, the typical "alpaca-fabric" being a very characteristic "[[dress-fabric]]." [[Image:Alpaca_MidSomerset_210805.jpg|thumb|200px|right| Alpacas on show in the [[United Kingdom|UK]]]] Owing to the success in the manufacture of the various styles of alpaca cloths attained by Sir Titus Salt and other Bradford manufacturers, a great demand for alpaca wool arose, and this demand could not be met by the native product, for there seems to never have been any appreciable increase in the number of alpacas available. Unsuccessful attempts were made to acclimatize the alpaca in England, on the European continent and in Australia, and even to cross certain English breeds of [[domestic sheep|sheep]] with the alpaca. There is, however, a cross between the alpaca and the llama &mdash; a true [[hybrid]] in every sense &mdash; producing a material placed upon the Liverpool market under the name "Huarizo". Crosses between the alpaca and vicuña have not proved satisfactory. Current attempts to cross these two breeds are underway at farms in the United States. According to the Alpaca Owners and Breeders Association, alpacas are now being bred in the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, UK, and numerous other places. The preparing, combing, spinning, weaving and finishing process of alpaca and mohair are similar to that of [[wool]]. Farmers commonly quote the alpaca with the phrase 'love is in the fleece', which describes their love for the animal. === Prices === The price for alpacas can range from $200 to $360,000, depending on breeding history, sex, and color. One can raise up to 10 alpacas on one [[acre]] (4,047 m&sup2;) as they have a designated area for waste products and keep their eating area away from their waste area to avoid diseases. To get an idea of alpaca prices around the world see [http://www.alpacaseller.com AlpacaSeller] ==Trivia== *Major league baseball player [[Billy Wagner]] owns 38 Alpacas. [http://www.nydailynews.com/sports/baseball/mets/story/370266p-314976c.html] *An Alpaca has three stomaches. ==References== *{{1911}} *[http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/app/home/contribution.asp?wasp=bf588d8be995486f872cd4a9008b9f35&referrer=parent&backto=issue,12,18;journal,94,201;linkingpublicationresults,1:102024,1 Genetic analysis reveals the wild ancestors of the llama and the alpaca] paper by Dr Jane Wheeler presented to the [[Royal Society]] in 2001. *<i>The Complete Alpaca Book</i>, Dr Eric Hoffman, Bonny Doon Press, California, 2003 ==External links== *[http://www.elevage-de-garenne.com/ Elevage de Garenne : breeding of Alpacas Huacaya and Suri in France] *[http://www.alpacainfo.com/ The Alpaca Owners and Breeders Association] *http://www.surifarm.de {{Commons|Lama pacos|Alpaca}} *[http://www.alpacas.com/AlpacaLibrary/ Alpaca Library] {{Camelids}} [[Category:Fauna of Chile]] [[Category:Camelids]] <!-- Interwikis found using http://vs.aka-online.de/globalwpsearch/ --> <!-- Search for Lama pacos --> [[ar:ألبكة]] [[ca:Alpaca]] [[cs:Alpaka]] [[de:Alpaka (Kamel)]] [[es:Lama pacos]] [[eo:Alpako]] [[fr:Alpaga]] [[io:Alpako]] [[ia:Alpaca]] [[it:Lama pacos]] [[he:אלפקה]] [[lt:Alpaka]] [[nl:Alpaca (zoogdier)]] [[ja:アルパカ]] [[pl:Alpaka (zwierzę)]] [[pt:Alpaca]] [[sv:Alpacka (lama)]] [[uk:Альпака]] 1376 42071921 2006-03-03T17:01:00Z 66.4.80.129 /* See also */ '''Army''' (from [[French language|French]] ''armée'') can, in some countries, refer to any [[armed force]]. More commonly, however, it is only used specifically to refer to a land force of the [[military]]. Within a national army, an '''army''' can also refer to a large [[formation (military)|formation]], usually comprising one or more [[corps]]. '''Army''' is also often used in the description or title of military or [[paramilitary]] organisations which are not part of a country's official armed forces (and may well be illegal), such as the [[Irish Republican Army]], and also in some non-military organisations organised on a quasi-military basis, such as the [[Salvation Army]] and the [[Church Army]]. ==Field Army== A Field Army is composed of a headquarters, army troops, a variable number of corps, and a variable number of divisions. A battle is influenced at the Field Army level by transferring divisions and reinforcements from one corps to another to increase the pressure on the enemy at a critical point. == National land forces == A national army is usually the arm of the military service which conducts land-based warfare (for example, the [[United States Army]], or the [[France|French]] [[Armée de Terre]]). Most armed forces make considerable distinction between the army or land forces, the [[navy]], and the [[air force]], often maintaining three independent organizations. Many air forces were formerly part of an army; historically, the [[United States Air Force]] originated as part of the [[United States Army]], for example. Modern armies comprise several branches (also called ''services'', or ''[[administrative corps]]''). These may include the [[combat]] branches: [[infantry]], [[armoured]], [[artillery]], and [[combat engineers]], as well as the [[support]] branches: [[Military communications |communications]], [[Military intelligence |intelligence]], [[Combat medic |medics]], [[Military logistics |supply]], and [[army aviation]] (as opposed to a national air force). == Formations == An '''army''' can also be a large [[military organization]] ([[formation (military) |formation]]) comprising one or more [[corps]]. A particular army is named or numbered to distinguish it from military land forces in general&mdash;for example, the [[U.S. First Army]] and the [[Army of Northern Virginia]]. In the [[British Army]] it is normal to spell out the ordinal number of an army (e.g. First Army), whereas lower formations use figures (e.g. 1st Division). Armies (as well as [[army group]]s and [[Theater (military)|theater]]s) are large formations which vary significantly between armed forces in size, composition, and scope of responsibility. In the [[Soviet Union |Soviet]] [[Red Army]], "armies" were actually [[corps]]-sized formations, subordinate to an army-sized "[[Front (Soviet Army)|front]]" in wartime. In peacetime, a [[Army (Soviet Army)|Soviet army]] was usually subordinate to a [[military district]]. For the hierarchy of land force organizations, see [[military organization]]. == See also == * [http://www.polictera.com.my Ex-Police & Army Personnel Association of Malaysia] * [[List of armies]] * [[List of armies by name]] * [[List of armies by number]] * [[List of countries without an army]] * [[War]] * [[Military history]] * [[Military science]] * [[Marines]] * [[Citizen army]] * [[Murder]] [[Category:Military unit types]] [[Category:Armies| ]] [[Category:Types of military]] [[ca:Exèrcit]] [[cs:Armáda]] [[da:Hær]] [[de:Heer]] [[es:Ejército]] [[fa:&#1575;&#1585;&#1578;&#1588;]] [[fr:Armée]] [[he:&#1510;&#1489;&#1488;]] [[id:Militer]] [[io:Armeo]] [[nl:Leger]] [[ka:სახმელეთო ჯარები]] [[ja:&#38520;&#36557;]] [[no:Armé]] [[pl:Armia]] [[pt:Exército]] [[ro:Armată]] [[ru:&#1040;&#1088;&#1084;&#1080;&#1103;]] [[sq:Ushtria]] [[simple:Army]] [[sl:Vojska]] [[fi:Armeija]] [[sv:Armé]] [[zh:&#38470;&#20891;]] 1377 15899865 2004-09-10T16:03:50Z Neutrality 68411 #REDIRECT [[Air force]] #REDIRECT [[Air force]] 1379 40515065 2006-02-21T03:29:45Z Heja helweda 565030 '''Applied mathematics''' is a branch of [[mathematics]] that concerns itself with the application of mathematical knowledge to other domains. Such applications include [[numerical analysis]], [[mathematical physics]], mathematics of [[engineering]], [[linear programming]], [[Optimization (mathematics)|optimization]] and [[operations research]], [[continuous modelling]], [[control theory]], [[mathematical biology]] and [[bioinformatics]], [[information theory]], [[game theory]], [[probability]] and [[statistics]], [[mathematical economics]], [[financial mathematics]], [[actuarial science]], [[cryptography]] and hence [[combinatorics]] and even [[finite geometry]] to some extent, [[graph theory]] as applied to [[network theory|network analysis]], and a great deal of what is called [[computer science]]. The question of what is applied mathematics does not answer to logical classification so much as to the sociology of professionals who use mathematics. The mathematical methods are usually applied to the specific problem field by means of a [[mathematical model]] of the system. Engineering mathematics describes physical processes, and so is often indistinguishable from [[theoretical physics]]. Important subdivisions include: [[fluid dynamics]], [[acoustic theory]], [[Maxwell's equations]] that govern [[electromagnetism]], [[mechanics]], [[numerical relativity]], etc. Fundamental applied mathematics is taught at second-level in some countries, such as [[Ireland]], where it is a minority option at [[Leaving Certificate]]. == See also == *[[pure mathematics]] == External links == {{Wikibookspar|School of Mathematics|Applied Mathematics}} * The [http://www.siam.org/ Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics] is a professional society dedicated to promoting the interaction between mathematics and other scientific and technical communities. [[Category:Applied mathematics]] [[da:Anvendt matematik]] [[de:Angewandte Mathematik]] [[es:Matemática aplicada]] [[eo:Aplika matematiko]] [[fa:ریاضیات کاربردی]] [[fr:Mathématiques appliquées]] [[he:מתמטיקה שימושית]] [[pt:Matemática aplicada]] [[ro:Matematică aplicată]] [[ru:Прикладная математика]] [[su:Matematik terapan]] [[th:คณิตศาสตร์ประยุกต์]] [[vi:Toán học ứng dụng]] [[zh:应用数学]] 1380 38284009 2006-02-05T08:41:55Z Cuchullain 196153 {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Alligators and Caimans | image = alligator.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = [[American Alligator]] | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Reptile|Reptilia]] | ordo = [[Crocodilia]] | familia = '''Alligatoridae''' | familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1844 | subdivision_ranks = Genera | subdivision = ''Alligator'' <br /> ''Caiman'' <br /> ''Melanosuchus'' <br /> ''Paleosuchus'' }} '''Alligators''' and '''caimans''' are [[reptile]]s closely related to the [[crocodile]]s and forming the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Alligatoridae''' (sometimes regarded instead as the [[subfamily]] '''Alligatorinae'''). Together with the [[Gharial]] (family Gavialidae) they make up the [[order (biology)|order]] [[Crocodilia]]. [[Alligator]]s differ from crocodiles principally in having wider and shorter heads, with more obtuse snouts; in having the fourth, enlarged tooth of the under jaw received, not into an external notch, but into a pit formed for it within the upper one; in lacking a jagged fringe which appears on the hind legs and feet of the crocodile; and in having the toes of the hind feet webbed not more than half way to the tips. In general, the more dangerous crocodilians to human beings tend to be [crocodiles rather than alligators. [[Image:Florida Alligator.jpg|left|200px|Alligator]] Alligators proper occur in the fluvial deposits of the age of the [[Cretaceous|Upper Chalk]] in Europe, where they did not die out until the [[Pliocene]] age. The true alligators are now restricted to two species, ''[[American Alligator|A. mississippiensis]]'' in the [[Southern United States]], which grows up to 4 m (12 ft) in length, and the small ''[[Chinese Alligator|A. sinensis]]'' in the [[Yangtze River]], [[People's Republic of China]]. Their name derives from the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''el lagarto'', "the lizard"). In [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]] alligators are represented by five species of the [[genus]] ''[[Caiman]]'', which differs from the alligator by the absence of a bony septum between the nostrils, and the ventral armour is composed of overlapping bony scutes, each of which is formed of two parts united by a suture. Some authorities further divide this genus into three, splitting off the smooth-fronted caimans into a genus ''Paleosuchus'' and the Black Caiman into ''Melanosuchus''. ''C. crocodilus'', the Spectacled Caiman, has the widest distribution, from southern Mexico to the northern half of Argentina, and grows to a modest size of about 7 feet. The largest, attaining an enormous bulk and a length of 20 ft., is the near-extinct ''Melanosuchus niger'', the Jacare-assu, Large, or Black Caiman of the Amazon. The [[Black Caiman]] is the only member of the alligator family posing the same danger to humans as the larger species of the [[crocodile]] family. Although the Caiman has not been studied in-depth, it has been discovered that their mating cycles (previously thought to be spontaneous or year-round) are linked to the rainfall cycles and the river levels in order to increase their offspring's chances of survival. Some crocodiles can be found in salty water, but most alligators stay in fresh water. <br clear=left> ==Species== * '''ORDER [[Crocodilia]]''' ** '''Family Alligatoridae''' *** Genus ''[[Leidyosuchus]]'' (extinct) *** Genus ''[[Deinosuchus]]'' (extinct) *** '''Subfamily Diplocynodontinae''' **** Genus ''[[Tadzhikosuchus]]'' (extinct) **** Genus ''[[Baryphracta]]'' (extinct) **** Genus ''[[Diplocynodon]]'' (extinct) *** '''Subfamily Alligatorinae''' **** Genus ''[[Akantosuchus]]'' (extinct) **** Genus ''[[Albertochampsa]]'' (extinct) **** Genus ''[[Chrysochampsa]]'' (extinct) **** Genus ''[[Hassiacosuchus]]'' (extinct) **** Genus ''[[Navahosuchus]]'' (extinct) **** Genus ''[[Ceratosuchus]]'' (extinct) **** Genus ''[[Allognathosuchus]]'' (extinct) **** Genus ''[[Hispanochampsa]]'' (extinct) **** Genus ''[[Arambourgia]]'' (extinct) **** Genus ''[[Procaimanoidea]]'' (extinct) **** Genus ''[[Wannaganosuchus]]'' (extinct) **** Genus ''[[Alligator]]'' ***** ''[[Alligator prenasalis]]'' (extinct) ***** ''[[Alligator mcgrewi]]'' (extinct) ***** ''[[Alligator olseni]]'' (extinct) ***** [[Chinese Alligator]], ''Alligator sinensis '' ***** ''[[Alligator mefferdi]]'' (extinct) ***** [[American Alligator]], ''Alligator mississippiensis '' *** '''Subfamily Caimaninae''' **** Genus ''[[Necrosuchus]]'' (extinct) **** Genus ''[[Eocaiman]]'' (extinct) **** Genus ''[[Paleosuchus]]'' (extinct) ***** [[Cuvier's Dwarf Caiman]], ''Paleosuchus palpebrosus'' ***** [[Smooth-fronted Caiman]], ''Paleosuchus trigonatus'' **** Genus ''[[Parussaurus]]'' (extinct) **** Genus ''[[Mourasuchus]]'' (extinct) **** Genus ''[[Orthogenysuchus]]'' (extinct) **** Genus ''[[Caiman]]'' ***** [[Yacare Caiman]], ''Caiman yacare'' ***** [[Spectacled Caiman]], ''Caiman crocodilus crocodilus '' ****** Rio Apaporis Caiman, ''C. c. apaporiensis '' ****** Brown Caiman, ''C. c. fuscus'' ***** ''[[Caiman lutescans]]'' (extinct) ***** [[Broad-snouted Caiman]], ''Caiman latirostris '' **** Genus ''[[Melanosuchus]]'' ***** ''[[Melanosuchus fisheri]]'' (extinct) ***** [[Black Caiman]], ''Melanosuchus niger'' ==Cultural aspects== In [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] and [[African American]] [[folklore]], the alligator is revered, especially the teeth, which can be worn as a charm against [[witchcraft]] and [[poison]]. Often, it is the butt of practical jokes by [[trickster]]s like [[Brer Rabbit]]. An [[urban legend]] states that people buy baby alligators after visiting [[Florida]] or other places where they are native and flush them down the toilet once they get big. The story goes that full grown alligators exist in the sewers of cities like [[New York City]]. This is impossible, however, because without UV rays from sunlight, alligators cannot properly metabolize calcium, resulting in metabolic bone disease and eventually death. Small released alligators and caimans, though, are occasionally found in northern lakes. Alligator skin was once a highly prized [[leather]], and was farmed in some areas, as pictured in the panoramic image below. Alligator is sometimes eaten as an exotic meat. [[image:Largealligatorfarm_panorama.jpg|thumb|400px|none|South Beach Alligator Farm ([http://memory.loc.gov/pnp/pan/6a03000/6a03500/6a03511u.tif 5MB uncompressed tif]).]] ==Pop culture references== A top hit from [[1956 in music|1956]] was "[[See You Later Alligator]]", as sung by [[Bill Haley & His Comets]]. [[Category:Crocodiles]] [[ca:Caiman]] [[de:Alligatoren]] [[es:Alligatoridae]] [[fr:Alligatoridae]] [[he:קיימן]] [[la:Alligatoridae]] [[nl:Alligators]] [[pl:Aligatorowate]] [[pt:Jacaré]] [[sv:Alligatorer och kajmaner]] 1381 40070885 2006-02-17T22:46:13Z 205.188.116.5 /* History */ [[image:Aleutians_aerial.jpg|thumb|250px|Looking down the Aleutians from an airplane.]] The '''Aleutian Islands''' (possibly from [[Chukchi language|Chukchi]] ''aliat'', "[[island]]") are a chain of more than 300 small volcanic islands forming an [[island arc]] situated in the Northern [[Pacific Ocean]], occupying an area of 6,821 sq mi (17,666 sq km) and extending about 1,200 mi (1,900 km) westward from the [[Alaska Peninsula]] toward the [[Kamchatka Peninsula]]. Crossing longitude 180°, they are the westernmost part of the [[United States]] (and technically also the easternmost; ''see [[Extreme points of the United States]]''). Nearly all of the [[archipelago]] is part of [[Alaska]] and usually considered as being in the "[[Alaskan Bush]]", but the extreme western end is in [[Russia]]. The islands with their 57 volcanoes are located in the northern part of the [[Pacific Ring of Fire]]. ==Geography== [[Image:Aleutians-space.jpg|thumb|250px|Aleutians seen from space]] The islands, known before 1867 as the Catherine Archipelago, comprise four groups&mdash; the [[Fox Islands|Fox]], [[Andreanof Islands|Andreanof]], [[Rat Islands|Rat]] and [[Near Islands]]. They are all located between 52 degrees and 55 degrees North latitude and 172 degrees East and 163 degrees West longitude. The axis of the archipelago near the mainland of Alaska has a southwest trend, but near the 129th meridian its direction changes to the northwest. This change of direction corresponds to a curve in the line of [[volcanic]] fissures which have contributed their products to the building of the islands. Such curved chains are repeated about the Pacific Ocean in the [[Kuril Islands]], the [[Japan|Japanese]] chain and in the [[Philippines]]. All these island arcs are at the edge of the [[Pacific Plate]] and experience lots of [[seismic]] activity, but are still habitable; the Aleutians lie between the Pacific and North American [[plate tectonics|tectonic plates]]. The general elevation is greatest in the eastern islands and least in the western. The island chain is really a western continuation of the [[Aleutian Range]] on the mainland. [[Image:North-Pacific-air-routes.png|thumb|250px|left|Active Aleutian volcanoes]] The great majority of the islands bear evident marks of volcanic origin, and there are numerous volcanic cones on the north side of the chain, some of them active; many of the islands, however, are not wholly volcanic, but contain crystalline or sedimentary rocks, and also amber and beds of [[lignite]]. The coasts are rocky and surf-worn, and the approaches are exceedingly dangerous, the land rising immediately from the coasts to steep, bold mountains. The volcano [[Makushin]] (5691 ft/1,735 m) is visible from [[Unalaska, Alaska|Unalaska]], and the volcanic [[islet]]s [[Bogoslof]] and [[Grewingk]], which rose from the sea in 1796 and 1883 respectively, lie about 30 miles (48 km) west of the bay. <br clear=both> ==Climate== [[Image:AleutianIslands.jpg|thumb|310px|Aleutian Islands]] The climate of the islands is oceanic, with moderate and fairly uniform temperatures and heavy rainfall. Fogs are almost constant. The summers are much cooler than on the mainland at [[Sitka]], but the winter temperature of the islands and of the [[Alaska Panhandle]] is very nearly the same. The mean annual temperature for [[Unalaska]], the most populated island of the group, is about 38 degrees Fahrenheit (3.4 degrees Celsius), being about 30 °F (&minus;1.1 °C) for January and about 52 °F (11.1 °C) for August. The highest and lowest temperatures recorded on the islands are 78 °F (26 °C) and 5 °F (&minus;15 °C), respectively. The average annual amount of rainfall is about 80 in (2,030 mm), and Unalaska, with about 250 rainy days per year, is said to be the rainiest place within the territory of the [[United States]]. ==Economy== The growing season lasts about 135 days, from early in May till late in September, but agriculture is limited to the raising of a few vegetables. With the exception of some stunted [[willow]]s, the islands are practically destitute of trees, but are covered with a luxuriant growth of herbage, including [[Poaceae|grass]]es, [[sedge]]s and many flowering plants. On the less mountainous islands, the raising of [[domestic sheep|sheep]] and [[reindeer]] was believed to be practicable. People living in the Aleutian Islands developed fine skills in hunting and basketry. Hunters made their weapons and watercraft. The baskets are noted for being finely woven with carefully shredded stalks of [[beach rye]]. ==Demographics== The people refer to themselves as Unangan, and have been called "[[Aleut]]". The [[Aleut language]] is one of the two main branches of the [[Eskimo-Aleut_languages|Eskimo-Aleut]] language family. This family is not known to be related to any others. In the [[2000]] [[census]], there was a population of 8,162 on the islands, of which 4,283 were living in the main settlement of [[Unalaska, Alaska|Unalaska]]. ==History== Because of the location of the islands, stretching like a broken bridge from Asia to America, many anthropologists believe they were a route of the first human occupants of the Americas. The earliest known evidence of human occupation in the Americas is much further south, in [[New Mexico]] and [[Peru]]; the early human sites in Alaska have probably been submerged by rising waters during the current [[interglacial]] period. Explorers, traders, colonists, and missionaries arrived from [[Russia]] beginning in [[1741]]. In 1741 the Russian government sent out [[Vitus Bering]], a [[Denmark|Dane]] in the service of Russia, and [[Alexei Ilyich Chirikov|Alexei Chirikov]], a Russian, in the ships ''[[Saint Peter (ship)|Saint Peter]]'' (''Swiatoj Pietr'') and ''[[Saint Paul (ship)|Saint Paul]]'' on a voyage of discovery in the Northern [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]]. After the ships were separated by a storm, Chirikov discovered several eastern islands of the Aleutian group, and Bering discovered several of the western islands, finally being wrecked and losing his life on the island of the [[Komandorski Islands]] (Commander Islands) that now bears his name ([[Bering Island]]). The survivors of Bering's party reached the [[Kamchatka Peninsula]] in a boat constructed from the wreckage of their ship, and reported that the islands were rich in fur-bearing animals. Siberian fur hunters flocked to the Commander Islands and gradually moved eastward across the Aleutian Islands to the mainland. In this manner [[Russia]] gained a foothold on the northwestern coast of North America. The Aleutian Islands consequently belonged to Russia, until that country [[Alaska Purchase|transferred]] all its possessions in North America to the United States in [[1867]]. The Russians were ruthless in their expansion, using technology and cruelty to demand tribute and labor from the Aleuts, especially for [[sea otter]] hunting. The Russians captured otter pelts from the Aleutian Islands, through the [[Gulf of Alaska]], along the Alaska Panhandle, and south, even to [[California]]. Some Aleuts were moved to the [[Pribilof Islands]] so that fur seals could be captured there as well. By [[1760]], the Russian merchant [[Adriian Tolstykh]] had made a detailed census in the vicinity of [[Adak]] and extended Russian citizenship to the Aleuts. Despite some attempts to eliminate slavery and reduce cruel treatment in the [[1790s]], the [[Shelikov company]] depended on the labor of Aleut hunters to collect sea otter pelts. During his third and last voyage, in [[1778]], Captain [[James Cook]] surveyed the eastern portion of the Aleutian archipelago, accurately determined the position of some of the more important islands and corrected many errors of former navigators. One of the first [[Christianity|Christian]] missionaries to arrive in the Aleutian Islands was a monk named Herman, who arrived in [[1793]] with nine other [[Russian Orthodox]] monks and priests. Within two years, he was the only survivor of that party. He settled on [[Spruce Island]], near [[Kodiak Island]], and often defended the rights of the Aleuts against the Russian trading companies. He is now known in the Orthodox Church as St. [[Herman of Alaska]]. Another early Christian missionary of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] was Father Veniaminov who arrived in Unalaska in [[1824]]. He was named Bishop Innokentii in 1840 and moved to [[Sitka]]. He is now known in the Orthodox Church as [[Saint Innocent of Alaska]]. In [[1906]] a new volcanic cone rose between the islets of Bogoslof and Grewingk, near Unalaska, followed by another in [[1907]]. These cones were nearly demolished by an explosive eruption on [[1 September]] [[1907]]. The principal settlements were on Unalaska Island. The oldest was Iliuliuk (also called Unalaska), settled in 1760-1775, with a customs house, an [[Orthodox]] church, and a [[Methodist]] mission and orphanage, and the headquarters for a considerable fleet of United States [[revenue cutter]]s which patrol the [[sealing]] grounds of the [[Pribilof Islands]]. The first public school in Unalaska opened in 1883. Adjacent is [[Dutch Harbor]] (so named, it is said, because a Dutch vessel was the first to enter it), which is an important port for [[Bering Sea]] commerce. The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] extended American citizenship to all Indians (and this law has been held to include the indigenous peoples of Alaska) in [[1924]]. A hospital was built in Unalaska in [[1933]] by the US [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]]. During [[World War II]], small parts of the Aleutian islands were occupied by [[Japan]]ese forces when [[Attu Island|Attu]] and [[Kiska]] were invaded in order to divert American forces away from the main Japanese attack at [[Midway Atoll]]. The U.S. Navy, having broken the Japanese naval radio codes, knew that this was just a diversion, and it did not expend large amounts of effort in defending the islands. A few Americans were taken to Japan as prisoners of war. Most of the civilian population of the Aleutians were interned by the United States in camps in the [[Alaska Panhandle]]. American forces invaded Japanese-held Attu, defeated the Japanese there, and subsequently regained control of all the islands. See: [[Battle of the Aleutian Islands]]. Monday, [[June 3]], [[2002]] was celebrated as [[Dutch Harbor Remembrance Day]]. The governor of Alaska ordered state flags lowered to half-staff to honor the 78 soldiers who died during the two-day Japanese air attack in 1942. The [[Aleutians World War II Campaign National Historic Area]] Visitors Center opened in June 2002. The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act ([[ANCSA]]) became law in [[1971]]. In 1977, the [[Ounalashka Corporation]] (from Unalaska) declared a [[dividend]]. This was the first village corporation to declare and pay a dividend to its shareholders. ==Miscellaneous== The Aleutian Islands would likely be an important part of the [[National Missile Defense]] system proposed to defend the United States from small ballistic missile attacks. ==See also== *[[List of Aleutian Islands]] *[[List of Aleutian Island Volcanoes]] *[[Aleutians West Census Area, Alaska]] *[[Aleutians East Borough, Alaska]] *[[Peter the Aleut]] <center>[[Image:AleutianIslands.jpeg]]<br /><small>Western Aleutian Islands, from a 1916 map of the Alaska Territory</small></center> ==References== *{{1911}} ''Initial text from 1911 encyclopedia; has had some updating, revision, and Wikifying, but more is needed, especially on post-1945 history. Have added some civil history'' Total area of 6,821 sq mi from [http://www.britannica.com/ebi/article-9272796 Encyclopædia Britannica Online] {{region}} [[Category:Islands of Alaska]] [[Category:Archipelagoes]] [[de:Alëuten]] [[et:Aleuudid (saarestik)]] [[es:Islas Aleutianas]] [[eo:Aleutoj]] [[fr:Îles Aléoutiennes]] [[gl:Aleutianas]] [[ko:알류샨 열도]] [[is:Aleuteyjar]] [[it:Isole Aleutine]] [[lt:Aleutų salos]] [[hu:Aleut-szigetek]] [[nl:Aleoeten]] [[ja:アリューシャン列島]] [[pl:Aleuty]] [[pt:Aleutas]] [[fi:Aleutit (saaristo)]] [[sv:Aleuterna]] 1382 41017083 2006-02-24T14:39:03Z 132.236.75.81 {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Sialidae | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Arthropod]]a | classis = [[Insect]]a | ordo = [[Megaloptera]] | familia = '''Sialidae''' | familia_authority = [[William Elford Leach|Leach]], 1815 }} '''Alderfly''' is the name given to [[Neuroptera|neuropterous]] [[insect]]s of the family [[Sialidae]], related to the ant-lions, with long filamentous antennae and four large wings, of which the [[anterior]] pair is rather longer than the posterior. The females lay a vast number of eggs upon grass stems near water. The larvae are aquatic, active, armed with strong sharp mandibles, and breathe by means of seven pairs of abdominal branchial filaments. When full sized they leave the water and spend a quiescent [[pupa]]l stage on the land before [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]] into the sexually mature insect. ''Sialis lutaria'' is a well-known British example. In America they are called Fishflies and there are two genera, ''Sialis'' and ''Chauliodes.'' [[Category:Megaloptera]] [[Category:Insects]] [[nl:Sialidae]] 1383 41816746 2006-03-01T23:03:33Z CambridgeBayWeather 294180 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/205.155.32.10|205.155.32.10]] ([[User talk:205.155.32.10|talk]]) to last version by MPF {{Otherusesabout|the common name of a plant genus}} {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Alder | image = Tagalder8139.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = ''Alnus serrulata'' (Tag Alder)<br />Male catkins on right,<br />mature female catkins left<br />[[Johnsonville, South Carolina]] | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Fagales]] | familia = [[Betulaceae]] | genus = '''''Alnus''''' | genus_authority = [[Philip Miller|Mill.]] | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = About 20-30 species, see text. }} '''Alder''' is the common name of a [[genus]] of [[flowering plant]]s ('''''Alnus''''') belonging to the birch family (Family [[Betulaceae]]). The genus comprises about 30 [[species]] of [[Plant sexuality|monoecious]] [[tree]]s and [[shrub]]s, few reaching large size, distributed throughout the North Temperate zone, and in the [[New World]] also along the [[Andes]] southwards to [[Chile]]. The [[leaf|leaves]] are [[deciduous]] ([[evergreen]] or nearly so in a few species), alternate, simple, and serrated. The [[flower]]s are [[catkin]]s with elongate male catkins on the same plant as shorter female catkins, often before leaves appear; they are mainly wind-pollinated, but also visited by [[bee]]s to a small extent. They differ from the [[birch]]es (''Betula'', the other genus in the family) in that the female catkins are woody and do not disintegrate at maturity, opening to release the seeds in a similar manner to many [[Conifer cone|conifer cones]]. The best-known species is the Common or [[Black Alder]] (''A. glutinosa''), native to most of [[Europe]] and widely introduced elsewhere. The largest species is [[Red Alder]] (''A. rubra''), reaching 35 m (the tallest is 32 m) on the west coast of [[North America]], with Black Alder and [[Italian Alder]] (''A. cordata'') both reaching about 30 m. By contrast, the widespread [[Green Alder]] (''A. viridis'') is rarely more than a 5 m shrub. The common name ''alder'' is derived from an old [[Germanic_language|Germanic]] root. The botanic name ''Alnus'' is the original [[Latin]] name. ==Classification== The genus is divided into three subgenera: '''Subgenus ''Alnus''.''' Trees. Shoot buds stalked. Male and female catkins produced in autumn (fall) but staying closed over winter, pollinating in late winter or early spring. About 15-25 species, including: *''A. acuminata'' - [[Andean Alder]]. Andes Mountains, South America. *''A. cordata'' - [[Italian Alder]]. Italy. *''Alnus formosana'' -[[Formosan Alder]] *''A. glutinosa'' - [[Black Alder]]. Europe. *''A. incana'' - [[Grey Alder]]. Europe & Asia. **''A. oblongifolia'' (''A. incana'' subsp. ''oblongifolia'') - [[Grey Alder|Arizona Alder]]. Southwestern North America. **''A. rugosa'' (''A. incana'' subsp. ''rugosa'') - [[Grey Alder|Speckled Alder]]. Northeastern North America. **''A. tenuifolia'' (''A. incana'' subsp. ''tenuifolia'') - [[Grey Alder|Thinleaf Alder]] or Mountain Alder. Northwestern North America. *''A. japonica'' - [[Japanese Alder]]. Japan. *''A. jorullensis'' - [[Mexican Alder]]. Mexico, Guatemala. *''A. orientalis'' - [[Oriental Alder]]. Southern Turkey, northwest Syria, Cyprus. *''A. rhombifolia'' - [[White Alder]]. Interior western North America. *''A. rubra'' - [[Red Alder]]. West coastal North America. *''A. serrulata'' - Hazel alder, [[Tag Alder]] or Smooth alder. Eastern North America. *''A. subcordata'' - [[Caucasian Alder]]. Caucasus, Iran. '''Subgenus ''Clethropsis''.''' Trees or shrubs. Shoot buds stalked. Male and female catkins produced in autumn (fall) and expanding and pollinating then. Three species: *''A. maritima'' - [[Seaside Alder]]. East coastal North America, plus disjunct population in Oklahoma. *''A. nepalensis'' - [[Nepalese Alder]]. Eastern Himalaya, southwest China. *''A. nitida'' - [[Himalayan Alder]]. Western Himalaya. [[Image:Alnus serrulata leaves.jpg|right|thumb|Leaves of the [[Tag Alder]]]] '''Subgenus ''Alnobetula''.''' Shrubs. Shoot buds not stalked. Male and female catkins produced in late spring (after leaves appear) and expanding and pollinating then. One to four species: *''A. viridis'' - [[Green Alder]]. Widespread: **''A. viridis'' subsp. ''viridis''. Eurasia. **''A. viridis'' subsp. ''maximowiczii'' (''A. maximowiczii''). Japan. **''A. viridis'' subsp. ''crispa'' (''A. crispa''). Northern North America. **''A. viridis'' subsp. ''sinuata'' (''A. sinuata'', [[Sitka Alder]] or Slide Alder). Western North America, far northeastern Siberia. ==Uses== [[Image:Alder female 8519.JPG|right|thumb|''Alnus serrulata'' (Tag Alder), female catkins, [[Johnsonville, South Carolina]]]] Alders establish [[symbiosis|symbioses]] with the [[nitrogen]]-fixing [[Actinobacteria]] ''Frankiella alni''. This bacteria converts atmospheric nitrogen into soil-soluble [[nitrate]]s which can be utilised by the alder, and favorably enhances the soil fertility generally. Alders benefit other plants growing near them by taking nitrogen out of the air and depositing it in the soil in usable form; fallen alder leaves make very rich [[compost]]. Alder catkins are one of the first sources of pollen for [[bee]] species, especially [[honeybee]]s, which use it for spring buildup. Alder is a preferred wood for [[charcoal]] making, formerly used in the manufacture of [[gunpowder]], or for [[smelting]] [[metal]] [[ore]]s, now used primarily for [[cooking]]. The wood is also traditionally used for [[smoking (food)|smoking]] [[fish]] and [[meat]], though this usage has often been replaced by other woods such as [[oak]] and [[hickory]]. It is popular as a material for [[electric guitar]] bodies. Alders are sturdy and fast-growing, even in acidic and damaged sites such as burned areas and [[mining]] sites. Italian Alder is particularly useful on dry, infertile sites. Alders can be used as a producer of simple bio-mass, growing quickly in harsh environments. Alders are sometimes made into [[bonsai]]. Alder is used as a food plant by some [[Lepidoptera]] species, see [[list of Lepidoptera which feed on Alders]]. [[Image:Alnus-viridis.JPG|thumb|left|Green Alder (''Alnus viridis'')]] [[Image:Alnus incana rugosa leaves.jpg|thumb|left|Speckled Alder (''Alnus incana'' subsp. ''rugosa'') - leaves]] <br clear=left /> == External links == {{Wiktionarypar|Alder}} * [http://www.inmygarden.org/archives/2005/02/alder_the_nitro_1.html Alder: The nitrogen fix] from The Monday Garden * ''Section'' Eclectic herbal information ** [http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/kings/alnus.html Alnus serrulata (Tag Alder)] King's American Dispensatory @ Henriette's Herbal ** [http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/a/alder019.html Alder Tree, Common (Alnus glutinosa) ] Mrs. Grieve's "A Modern Herbal" @ Botanical.com ** [http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/a/alder021.html Alder, Tag (Alnus serrulata)] Mrs. Grieve's "A Modern Herbal" @ Botanical.com [[Category:Fagales]] [[cs:Olše (strom)]] [[da:Elleslægten]] [[de:Erlen (Botanik)]] [[es:Alnus]] [[eo:Alno]] [[fr:Aulne]] [[it:Alnus]] [[lt:Alksnis]] [[li:Aels (sjtroek)]] [[nl:Els (boom)]] [[pl:Olsza]] [[sq:Alnus]] [[sr:Јова]] [[fi:Lepät]] [[sv:Alar]] [[tr:Kızılağaç]] [[uk:Вільха]] [[zh:赤杨]] 1384 42078820 2006-03-03T17:59:40Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 Wikify dates [[Image:Amos_Bronson_Alcott.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A. Bronson Alcott]] '''Amos Bronson Alcott''' ([[November 29]], [[1799]] - [[March 4]], [[1888]]) was an [[United States|American]] teacher and writer. He is remembered for founding a short-lived and unconventional school as well as a [[utopia]]n community known as "[[Fruitlands]]", and for his association with [[Transcendentalism]]. Alcott was born on [[Spindle Hill]] in the town of [[Wolcott, Connecticut|Wolcott]], [[New Haven County, Connecticut|New Haven County]], [[Connecticut]]. His father, [[Joseph Chatfield Alcox]], was a [[farmer]] and [[mechanic]] whose ancestors, then bearing the name of Alcocke, had settled in eastern [[Massachusetts]] in colonial days. The son adopted the spelling "Alcott" in his early youth. Self-educated and early thrown upon his own resources, he began in 1814 to earn his living by working in a clock factory in [[Plymouth, Connecticut]], and for many years after 1815 he peddled books and merchandise, chiefly in the southern states. He began teaching in [[Bristol, Connecticut]] in 1823, and subsequently conducted schools in [[Cheshire, Connecticut]], in 1825-[[1827]], again in Bristol in 1827-1828, in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] in 1828-[[1830]], in Germantown, now part of [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], in 1831-[[1833]], and in Philadelphia in 1833. As a young teacher he was most convinced by the [[educational philosophy]] of the [[Swiss]] [[pedagogue]] [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]]. In 1830 he married [[Abby May]], the sister of [[Samuel J. May]] ([[1797]]-[[1871]]), the reformer and [[abolition]]ist. Alcott himself was a [[William Lloyd Garrison|Garrisonian]] [[abolitionist]], and pioneered the strategy of [[tax resistance]] to [[slavery]] which [[Thoreau]] made famous in ''[[Civil Disobedience]]''. Alcott publicly debated with Thoreau the use of force and passive resistance to slavery; along with Thoreau he was among the financial and moral supporters of [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]] and occasionally helped fugitive slaves escape on the [[Underground Railroad]]. In 1834 he opened the [[Temple School]] in Boston, which became famous because of his original methods. Alcott's plan was to develop self-instruction on the basis of self-analysis, with an emphasis on conversation rather than the lecture and drill which were prevalent in U.S. classrooms of the time. The subject matter was often the [[Gospel]]s, religious and moral principles; some of the school's conversations were published in Alcott's ''Conversations with Children on the Gospels''. Alcott refused [[corporal punishment]] as a means of disciplining his students; instead, he offered his own hand for an offending student to strike, saying that any failing was the teacher's responsibility. The shame and guilt this method induced, he believed, was far superior to the fear instilled by corporal punishment. As assistants in the school Alcott had two of [[nineteenth-century]] America's most talented women writers, [[Elizabeth Palmer Peabody]] (who published ''A Record of Mr. Alcott's School'' in 1835) and [[Margaret Fuller]]; as students he had the children of the Boston intellectual classes, including [[Josiah Quincy]], grandson of the president of [[Harvard]]. Alcott's methods were not well received; many in the church found his conversations on the Gospels close to blasphemous, and many in the public found his disciplinary measures ridiculous. The school was denounced in the press and rejected by most public opinion, and was not pecuniarily successful as the controversy caused many parents to remove their students. Finally Alcott alienated many of the remaining parents by admitting an [[African American]] child whom he then refused to expel from his classes. In 1839 the school was closed, although Alcott had won the affection of many of his pupils. His pedagogy was a forerunner of [[progressive education|progressive]] and [[democratic school]]ing. [[Image:The Wayside, Concord, Massachusetts.JPG|thumb|right|300px|[[The Wayside]], home in turn to the Alcott family, [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], and [[Margaret Sidney]].]] In 1840 Alcott removed to [[Concord, Massachusetts]]. After a visit to [[England]], in 1842, he started with two English associates, [[Charles Lane]] and [[Henry C. Wright]], at "Fruitlands", in the town of [[Harvard, Massachusetts]], a [[utopian]] [[socialist]] experiment in farm living and nature meditation as tending to develop the best powers of body and soul. The experiment quickly collapsed, and Alcott returned in 1844 to his Concord home "Hillside" (later renamed "[[The Wayside]]" by [[Nathaniel Hawthorne|Hawthorne]]) near that of [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]. Alcott removed to Boston four years later, and again back to Concord after 1857. He spoke, as opportunity offered, before the "[[lyceum]]s" then common in various parts of the United States, or addressed groups of hearers as they invited him. These "conversations" as he called them, were more or less informal talks on a great range of topics, spiritual, aesthetic and practical, in which he emphasized the ideas of the school of American [[Transcendentalist]]s led by Emerson, who was always his supporter and discreet admirer. He dwelt upon the illumination of the mind and soul by direct communion with the Creative Spirit; upon the spiritual and poetic monitions of external nature; and upon the benefit to man of a serene mood and a simple way of life. Alcott's philosophical teaching was, and is still, often thought inconsistent, hazy or abrupt. But though he formulated no system of [[philosophy]], and seemed to show the influence now of [[Plato]], now of [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], or of German thought as filtered through the brain of [[Coleridge]], he was, like Emerson, steadily optimistic, idealistic, and individualistic. The teachings of Dr. [[William Ellery Channing]] a little before had laid the groundwork for the work of most of the Concord Transcendentalists and contributors to ''The Dial'', of whom Alcott was one. In his last years, his daughter, the writer [[Louisa May Alcott]], provided for him. Alcott was gratified at being able to become the nominal, and at times the actual, head of a Concord "Summer School of Philosophy and Literature", which had its first session in 1879, and in which, in a building next to his house, listeners were addressed during a part of several successive summers on many themes in philosophy, religion and letters. Alcott's published books, all from late in his life, included ''Tablets'' (1868), ''Concord Days'' (1872), and ''Sonnets and Canzonets'' (1882). Earlier he had written a series of ''[[Orpheus|Orphic]] Sayings'' which were published in ''The Dial'' as examples of Transcendentalist thought. The sayings, though called [[oracle|oracular]], were considered sloppy, or vague by contemporary commentators as well as [[twentieth-century]] ones. He left a large collection of personal jottings and memorabilia, most of which remain unpublished. He died in Boston on [[4 March]] [[1888]]. ==References== * Alcott, Amos Bronson. ''Conversations with Children on the Gospels''. * [[Geraldine Brooks]]. "Orpheus at the Plough." ''[[The New Yorker]]'', [[January 10]], [[2005]], pp. 58-65. ([http://geraldinebrooks.com/march_alcott.shtml The New Yorker article ] is reproduced on author's website) {{1911}} [[Category:1799 births|Alcott, Amos Bronson]] [[Category:1888 deaths|Alcott, Amos Bronson]] [[Category:Alternative education|Alcott, Amos Bronson]] [[Category:Tax resisters|Alcott, Amos Bronson]] [[Category:Teachers|Alcott, Amos Bronson]] [[Category:Transcendentalism|Alcott, Amos Bronson]] [[de:Amos Bronson Alcott]] [[es:Amos Bronson Alcott]] [[gl:Amos Bronson Alcott]] 1385 41890958 2006-03-02T11:50:42Z Sabine's Sunbird 123079 references :''This article is about the bird family. For other uses, see [[Albatross (disambiguation)]].'' {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Albatross | image = Short tailed albatross.jpeg | image_width = 230px | image_caption = Short-tailed Albatross | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Bird|Aves]] | ordo = [[Procellariiformes]] | familia = '''Diomedeidae''' | familia_authority = [[George Robert Gray|G.R. Gray]], 1840 | subdivision_ranks = Genera | subdivision = ''[[Diomedea]]''<br /> ''[[Thalassarche]]''<br /> ''[[Phoebastria]]''<br /> ''[[Phoebetria]]'' }} The '''albatrosses''' are [[seabird]]s in the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Diomedeidae''', which is closely allied to the [[procellariidae|procellarid]]s, [[storm-petrel]]s and [[diving-petrel]]s in the order [[Procellariiformes]] (the tubenoses). They range widely in the [[Southern Ocean]] and the North [[Pacific]]. They are absent from the North [[Atlantic]] although [[fossil]] remains show they once occurred there too. Albatrosses are amongst the largest of [[bird flight|flying]] birds, and the great albatrosses from the [[genus]] ''Diomedea'' have the largest wingspans of any extant birds. Albatrosses are highly efficient in the air, using [[dynamic soaring]] and slope soaring to cover great distances with little exertion. They feed on [[squid]], [[fish]] and [[krill]] by either scavenging, surface seizing or diving. Albatrosses are [[seabird colony|colonial]], nesting for the most part on remote oceanic islands, often with several species nesting together. Breeding pairs form over several years and will remain together for life. A breeding season can take over a year from laying to [[fledge|fledging]], with a single [[egg (biology)|egg]] laid in each breeding season. Nineteen of the 21 species of albatrosses are threatened with [[extinction]]. Numbers of albatrosses have declined in the past due to harvesting for [[feather]]s, but today the albatrosses are threatened by [[introduced species]] such as [[rat]]s and [[feral cat]]s that attack eggs, chicks and nesting adults; by [[pollution]]; and by [[long-line fishing]]. Long-line fisheries pose the greatest threat, as feeding birds are attracted to the [[bait]] and become hooked on the lines and drown. Governments, conservation organisations and fishermen are all working towards reducing this by-catch. ==Albatross biology== ===Taxonomy and evolution=== The albatrosses comprise 21 [[species]] in 4 [[genus|genera]]. The four genera are the [[great albatross]]es (''Diomedea''), the [[mollymawk]]s (''Thalassarche''), the [[North Pacific albatross]]es (''Phoebastria''), and the [[sooty albatross]]es or sooties (''Phoebetria''). Of the four genera, the North Pacific albatrosses are considered to be a sister taxon to the great albatrosses, while the sooty albatrosses are considered closer to the mollymawks. The [[taxonomy]] of the albatross group has been a source of a great deal of debate. The [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]] places seabirds, [[bird of prey|birds of prey]] and many others in a greatly enlarged order [[Ciconiiformes]], whereas the ornithological organisations in North America, Europe, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand retain the more traditional order [[Procellariiformes]]. Within the family, the assignment of genera has been debated for over a hundred years. Originally placed into a single genus, ''Diomedea'', they were split into four different genera in 1852, then lumped back together and split again several times, acquiring 12 different genus names in total (though never more than 8 at one time) by 1965 (''Diomedea'', ''Phoebastria'', ''Thalassarche'', ''Phoebetria'', ''Thalassageron'', ''Diomedella'', ''Nealbutrus'', ''Rhothonia'', ''Julietata'', ''Galapagornis'', ''Laysanornis'', and ''Penthirenia''). By 1965, in an attempt to bring some order back to the classification of albatrosses they were lumped into two genera, ''Phoebetria'' (the 'primitive' sooty albatrosses which most closely seemed to resemble the procellarids) and ''Diomedea'' (the rest)<ref>Alexander, W. B., Fleming C. A., Falla R. A., Kuroda N. H., Jouanin C., Rowan M. K., Murphy R. C., Serventy D. L., Salomonsen F., Ticknell W. L. N., Voous K. H., Warham J., Watson G. E., Winterbottom J. M., and Bourne W. R. P. 1965. "Correspondence: The families and genera of the petrels and their names." ''Ibis'' '''107''': 401-5.</ref>. Though there was a case for the simplification of the family (particularly the nomenclature), the classification was pretty much the same as suggested by [[Elliott Coues]] in 1866, paid little attention to more recent studies and even ignored some of Coues's suggestions. More recent research by Gary Nunn of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] ([[1996]]) and other researchers around the world studied the [[mitochondrial DNA]] of all the 14 accepted species, finding that there were four, not two, monophyletic groups within the albatrosses<ref>Nunn, G. B., Cooper, J., Jouventin, P., Robertson, C. J. R. and Robertson G. G. (1996) "Evolutionary relationships among extant albatrosses (Procellariiformes: Diomedeidae) established from complete cytochrome-b gene sequences". ''Auk'' '''113''': 784-801. [http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v113n04/p0784-p0801.pdf]</ref>. They proposed the resurrection of two of the old genus names, ''Phoebastria'' for the North Pacific albatrosses and ''Thalassarche'' for the mollymawks, with the great albatrosses retaining ''Diomedea'' and the sooty albatrosses staying in ''Phoebetria''. Both the [[British Ornithologists' Union]] and the South African authorities split the albatrosses into four genera as Nunn suggested, and the change has been accepted by the majority of researchers as well. While there is some agreement on the number of genera, there is less agreement on the number of species. After his work on albatross genera, Nunn went on to propose 24 different species in 1998<ref>Robertson, C. J. R. and Nunn, G. B. (1998) "Towards a new taxonomy for albatrosses" in: ''Proceedings First International Conference on the Biology and Conservation of Albatrosses'', G.Robertson & R.Gales (Eds), Chipping Norton:Surrey Beatty & Sons, 13-19,</ref>, compared to the 14 then accepted. These changes were not universally accepted; some of his splits have been accepted while others have been rejected<ref>Burg, T.M., & Croxall, J.P., (2004) "Global population structure and taxonomy of the wandering albatross species complex". ''Molecular Ecology'' '''13''': 2345-2355. [http://biology.queensu.ca/~burgt/pdf/Burg&Croxall2004.pdf]</ref> and for the most part 21 species is the number accepted by the [[IUCN]] and many others (though by no means not all—two authors have called for the number of species to be returned to 14<ref>Penhallurick, J. and Wink, M. (2004). "Analysis of the taxonomy and nomenclature of the Procellariformes based on complete nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene." ''Emu'' '''104''': 125-147.</ref>}). The molecular study of the [[evolution]] of the bird families by [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy|Sibley and Ahlquist]] has put the [[Adaptive radiation|radiation]] of the [[Procellariiformes]] in the [[Oligocene]] period (35&ndash;30 million years ago), though the group has an older history, with a [[fossil]] attributed to the order, a seabird known as ''Tytthostonyx'', being found in late [[Cretaceous]] rocks (70 mya). The molecular evidence suggests that the storm-petrels were the first to diverge from the ancestral stock, and the albatrosses next, with the procellarids and diving petrels. The earliest fossil albatross was found in [[South Carolina]] in rocks dating from the Upper Oligocene, though it is uncertain which [[genus]] it should be attributed to. The four genera are believed to have split more recently; a fossil albatross attributed to the North Pacific albatrosses, ''Phoebastria californica'' was found in mid [[Miocene]] rocks in [[California]], showing the split between the great albatrosses and the North Pacific albatrosses occurred by 15 mya. Similar fossil finds in the southern hemisphere put the split between the sooties and mollymawks at 10 mya<ref name = "Brooke">Brooke, M. (2004). ''Albatrosses And Petrels Across The World'': Procellariidae. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK ISBN 0-19-850125-0</ref>. The fossil record of the albatrosses in the northern hemisphere is more complete than that of the southern, and many fossil forms of albatross have been found in the North [[Atlantic]], which today has no albatrosses. The remains of a colony of [[Short-tailed Albatross]]es have been uncovered on the island of [[Bermuda]], and the majority of fossil albatrosses from the North Atlantic have been of the genus ''Phoebastria'' (the North Pacific albatrosses), one, ''Phoebastria anglica'', has been found in deposits in both [[North Carolina]] and [[England]]. ===Morphology and flight=== [[Image:Black footed albatross.jpg|thumb|250px|Unlike most Procellariiformes, albatrosses, like this Black-footed Albatross, can walk well on land.]] The albatrosses are a group of large to very large [[bird]]s, amongst the largest of the seabirds, with very long narrow wings, which are aerodynamically highly efficient. The [[beak|bill]] is large, strong and sharp-edged, the upper mandible terminating in a large hook. This bill is composed of several horny plates, and along the sides are the two 'tubes', long nostrils that give the [[order (biology)|order]] its name. The tubes of all albatrosses are along the sides of the bill, unlike the rest of the [[Procellariiformes]] were the tubes run along the top of the bill. These tubes allow the albatrosses to have an acute sense of smell, an unusual ability for birds. Like other Procellariiformes they use this olfactory ability while foraging in order to locate potential food sources<ref>Lequette, B., Verheyden, C., Jowentin, P. (1989) "Olfaction in Subantarctic seabirds: Its phylogenetic and ecological significance" ''The Condor'' '''91''': 732-135. [http://scholar.google.com/url?sa=U&q=http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Condor/files/issues/v091n03/p0732-p0735.pdf]</ref>. The feet have no hind toe, and the three anterior toes are completely webbed. The legs are strong for Procellariiformes, in fact uniquely amongst the order in that they and the [[giant petrel]]s are able to walk well on land. The adult [[plumage]] of most of the albatrosses is usually some variation of dark upper-wing and back, white undersides, often compared to that of a [[gull]]. At one extreme the [[Wandering Albatross]] is almost completely white except for the ends of the wings, at the other the [[Amsterdam Albatross]] has an almost juvenile like breeding plumage with a great deal of brown, particularly a strong brown band around the chest. Several species of [[mollymawk]]s and [[North Pacific albatross]]es have face and head markings like eye patches or are grey or yellow instead of white. Three albatross species, the [[Black-footed Albatross]] and the two [[Sooty albatross]]es vary completely from the usual patterns and are almost entirely black (or dark grey in the case of the [[Sooty Albatross]]). Albatrosses take several years to get their full adult breeding plumage. The wingspans of the largest great albatrosses (genus ''Diomedea'') are the largest of any bird, exceeding 340 cm, although the other species' wingspans are considerably smaller. The wings are cambered, with thickened streamlined leading edges. Albatrosses travel huge distances with two techniques used by many long-winged seabirds, [[dynamic soaring]] and slope soaring. Dynamic soaring enables them to minimise the effort needed by gliding across wave fronts gaining [[energy]] from the vertical [[wind gradient]]. Slope soaring is more straightforward, the albatross turns to the wind, gaining height, from where it can then glide back down to the sea. Albatross have high glide ratios, around 22:23, meaning that for every metre they drop they can travel forwards 22 metres. They are aided in soaring by a shoulder-lock, a sheet of [[tendon]] that locks the wing when fully extended, allowing the wing to be kept up and out without any muscle expenditure, a morphological adaptation they share with the giant petrels<ref>Pennycuick, C. J. (1982). "The flight of petrels and albatrosses (Procellariiformes), observed in South Georgia and its vicinity". ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B'' '''300''': 75–106.</ref>. [[Image:Albatross_shape.png|thumb|left|200px|Slope soaring and dynamic soaring allow albatrosses to travel great distances with little exertion.]] Albatrosses combine these soaring techniques with the use of predictable [[weather]] systems; albatrosses in the southern hemisphere flying north from their colonies will take a clockwise route and those flying south will fly anticlockwise<ref name ="tick">Tickell, W.L.N. (2000). ''Albatrosses''. Sussex:Pica Press, ISBN 1-873403-94-1</ref>. Albatrosses are so well adapted to this lifestyle that their [[heart rate]]s while flying are close to their basal heart rate when resting. This efficiency is such that the most energetically demanding aspect of a foraging trip is not the distance covered, but the landings, takeoffs and hunting they undertake having found a food source<ref>Weimerskirch H, Guionnet T, Martin J, Shaffer SA, Costa DP. (2000) "Fast and fuel efficient? Optimal use of wind by flying albatrosses." ''Proc Biol Sci'' '''267''': (1455) 1869-74. </ref>. This efficient long distance travelling underlies the albatross's success as a long distance forager, covering great distances and expending little energy looking for patchily distributed food sources. ===Distribution and range at sea=== All albatrosses range in the southern hemisphere except for the four North Pacific albatrosses, of which three occur exclusively in the North Pacific, from Hawaii to Japan, California and Alaska; and one, the [[Waved Albatross]], breeds on the [[equator]] in the [[Galapagos Islands]] and feeds off the coast of [[South America]]. The need for wind in order to glide is the reason albatrosses are for the most part confined to higher latitudes, since they are unsuited to sustained flapping flight, and are usually incapable of crossing the [[doldrums]]. The exception to this rule is the Waved Albatross, which breeds and feeds in the equatorial waters around the Galapagos Islands, it is able to live there because of the cool waters of the [[Humboldt Current]]. It is not known for certain why the albatrosses became [[extinct]] in the North [[Atlantic]], although rising sea levels due to an [[interglacial]] warming period are thought to have submerged the Short-tailed Albatross colony found in Bermuda<ref>Olson, S.L., Hearty, P.J. (2003) "Probable extirpation of a breeding colony of Short-tailed Albatross (''Phoebastria albatrus'') on Bermuda by Pleistocene sea-level rise." ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Science'' '''100''': (22) 12825-12829.</ref>. Some southern species that have occasionally turned up as [[vagrancy (biology)|vagrants]] in the North Atlantic have essentially become exiled and can remain there for decades. One of these exiles, a [[Black-browed Albatross]], returned to [[gannet]] colonies in [[Scotland]] for many years in a lonely attempt to breed<ref name = "Brit">Cocker, M., & Mabey, R., (2005) ''Birds Britannica'' London:Chatto & Windus, ISBN 0-701-16907-9</ref>. The use of [[satellite tracking]] is teaching scientists a great deal about the way albatrosses forgae across the ocean in order to find food. They undertake no annual [[bird migration|migration]], but disperse widely after breeding, in the case of southern hemisphere species often undertaking circumpolar trips<ref>Croxall, J. P., Silk, J.R.D., Phillips, R.A., Afanasyev, V., Briggs, D.R., (2005) "Global Circumnaviagtions: Tracking year-round ranges of nonbreeding Albatrosses" ''Science'' '''307''': 249-250.</ref>. There is also evidence that there is separation the ranges of different species at sea. Comparing the foraging [[niche]]s of two related species that breed on [[Campbell Island]], the [[Campbell Albatross]] and the [[Grey-headed Albatross]], the Campbell Albatross primarily fed over the [[Campbell Plateau]] whereas the the Grey-Headed Albatross fed over oceanic waters. [[Wandering Albatross]]es also react strongly to [[bathymetry]], feeding only in waters deeper than 1000m; so rigidly did the satellite plots match this contour that one scientist remarked "it almost appears as if the birds notice and obey a 'No Entry' sign where the water shallows to less than 1000m"<ref name = "Brooke">Brooke, M. (2004). ''Albatrosses And Petrels Across The World'': Procellariidae. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK ISBN 0-19-850125-0</ref>. There is also evidence of differing ranges for the sexes of the same species, one study showed that male [[Wandering Albatross]]es forage further south than females. ===Diet=== The albatross diet is dominated by [[cephalopod]]s, [[fish]] and [[crustacean]]s, although they will also scavenge [[carrion]] and feed on other [[zooplankton]]<ref name ="tick">Tickell, W.L.N. (2000). ''Albatrosses''. Sussex:Pica Press, ISBN 1-873403-94-1</ref>. It should be noted that for most species a comprehensive understanding of diet is only known for the breeding season, when the albatrosses are on land and study is possible. The importance of each of these varies from species to species, and even from population to population, some concentrate on [[squid]] alone, others take more krill, or fish. Of the two albatross species found in [[Hawaii]], one, the [[Black-footed Albatross]] takes mostly fish while the [[Laysan Albatross|Laysan]] feeds on squid. The use of dataloggers at sea that record ingestion of water against time (providing a likely time of feeding) suggest that albatross predominantly feed during the day. Analysis of the squid beaks regurgitated by albatrosses has shown that many of the squid eaten are too large to have been caught alive<ref>Croxall, J.P. & Prince, P.A. (1994). "Dead or alive, night or day: how do albatrosses catch squid?" ''Antarctic Science'' '''6''': 155–162.</ref>, and include mid-water species likely to be beyond the reach of albatross, suggesting that, for some species (like the [[Wandering Albatross]]), scavenged squid may be an important part of the diet. The source of these dead squid is a matter of debate, some certainly comes from squid [[fisheries]], but in nature it probably came from the die-off that occurs after squid spawning and the vomit of squid-eating [[whale]]s ([[sperm whale]]s, [[pilot whale]]s and [[Southern Bottlenose Whale]]s), or possibly some other source. The diet of other species, like the [[Black-browed Albatross]] or the [[Grey-headed Albatross]], is rich with smaller species of squid that tend to sink after death, and scavenging is not assumed to play a large role in their diet. Until recently it was thought that albatross were predominantly surface feeders, swimming at the surface and snapping up squid and fish pushed to the surface by currents, other predators or death. The deployment of capillary depth recorders, which record the maximum dive depth undertaken by a bird (between attaching it to a bird and recovering it when it returns to land), has shown that while some species, like the [[Wandering Albatross]], do not dive deeper than a metre, some species, like the [[Light-mantled Sooty Albatross]], have a mean diving depth of almost 5m and can dive as deep as 12.5 m<ref>Prince, P.A., Huin, N., Weimerskirch, H., (1994) "Diving depths of albatrosses" ''Antarctic Science'' '''6''': (''3'') 353-354.</ref>. In addition to surface feeding and diving they have now also been observed plunge diving from the air to snatch prey<ref>Cobley, N.D., (1996) "An observation of live prey capture by a Black-browed Albatross ''Diomedea melanophrys'' " ''Marine Ornithology'' '''24''': 45-46.[http://www.marineornithology.org/PDF/24/24_10.pdf]</ref>. ===Breeding=== [[Image:Diomedea epomorpha (Mattern).jpg|thumb|230px|right|Southern Royal Albatrosses nest on remote islands as well as on the Otago Peninsula in the city of Dunedin, New Zealand]] Albatrosses are [[seabird colony|colonial]], usually nesting on isolated islands; where colonies are on larger landmasses they are found on exposed headlands with good approaches from the sea in several directions, like the colony on the [[Otago Peninsula]] in [[Dunedin, New Zealand]]. Colonies vary from the very dense aggregations favoured by the mollymawks ([[Black-browed Albatross]] colonies on the [[Falkland Islands]] have densities of 70 nests per 100 m²) to the much looser groups and widely spaced individual nests favoured by the sooty and great albatrosses. All albatross colonies are on islands that historically were free of land [[mammal]]s. Albatrosses are highly [[philopatry|philopatric]], meaning they will usually return to their natal colony to breed. This tendency to return is so strong that a study of [[Laysan Albatross]] showed that that average distance between hatching site and the site a bird established its own territory was 22 m<ref>Fisher, H.I., (1976) "Some dynamics of a breeding colony of Laysan Albatrosses. ''Wilson Bulletin'' '''88''': 121-142.</ref>. [[Image:Phoebastria irrorata NOAA mvey0649.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Bill clashing is one of the stereotyped actions of Waved Albatross breeding dances]] Like most seabirds, albatrosses are [[K-selected]] with regard to their life-history, meaning they live much longer than other birds, they delay breeding for longer, and invest more effort into fewer young. Albatrosses are very long lived. Most species survive upwards of 60 years, the oldest recorded being a [[Northern Royal Albatross]] that was [[Bird ringing|ringed]] as an adult and survived for another 51 years, giving it an estimated age of 61<ref>Robertson, C.J.R. (1993). "Survival and longevity of the Northern Royal Albatross ''Diomedea epomophora sanfordi'' at Taiaroa Head" 1937-93. ''Emu'' '''93''': 269-276.</ref>. Given that most albatross ringing projects are considerably younger than that, is seems likely that other species will prove to live that long and even longer. Albatrosses reach [[sexual maturity]] slowly, after about 5 years, but even once they have reached maturity they will not begin to breed for another couple of years (even up to 10 years for some species). Young non-breeders will still attend a colony prior to beginning to breed, spending many years practicing the elaborate breeding rituals and "dances" that the family is famous for<ref>Jouventin, P., Monicault, G. de & Blosseville, J.M. (1981) "La danse de l'albatros, ''Phoebetria fusca''". ''Behaviour'' '''78''': 43-80.</ref>. Birds arriving back at the colony for the first time already have the stereotyped behaviours that compose albatross [[language]], but can neither "read" that behaviour as exhibited by other birds nor respond appropriately<ref name ="tick">Tickell, W.L.N. (2000). ''Albatrosses''. Sussex:Pica Press, ISBN 1-873403-94-1</ref>. After a period of trial and error [[learning]], the young birds learn the [[syntax]] and perfect the dances. This language is mastered more rapidly if the younger birds are around older birds. The repertoire of behaviour involves synchronised performances of various actions such as [[preen]]ing, pointing, calling, bill clacking, staring, and combinations of such behaviours (like the sky-call)<ref>Pickering, S.P.C., & Berrow, S.D., (2001) "Courtship behaviour of the Wandering Albatross ''Diomedea exulans'' at Bird Island, South Georgia" ''Marine Ornithology'' '''29''': 29-37 [http://www.marineornithology.org/PDF/29_1/29_1_6.pdf]</ref>. As they progress the number of birds they interact with drops until they choose one partner. They then continue to perfect an individual language that will eventually be unique to that one pair. Having established a pair bond that will last for life, however, most of that dance will never be used ever again. The 'divorce' of a pair is a rare occurrence, usually only happening after several years of breeding failure. [[Image:Albatros_ceja_negra_-_paso_drake_-_noviembre_2005.jpg|thumb|250px|Black-browed albatross flying over the Drake Passage]] The reason for the elaborate and painstaking rituals is to ensure that the correct partner has been chosen, and to perfect recognition of their partner, as egg laying and chick rearing is a huge investment, and even species that can complete an egg-laying cycle in under a year seldom lay eggs in consecutive years<ref name = "Brooke">Brooke, M. (2004). ''Albatrosses And Petrels Across The World'': Procellariidae. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK ISBN 0-19-850125-0</ref>. The great albatrosses (like the [[Wandering Albatross]]) take over a year to raise a chick from laying to [[fledge|fledging]]. Albatrosses lay a single [[egg (biology)|egg]]; if the egg is lost to predators or accidentally broken then no further breeding attempts are made that year. All the southern albatrosses create large [[nest]]s for their egg, whereas the three species in the north Pacific make more rudimentary nests. The [[Waved Albatross]], on the other hand, makes no nest and will even move its egg around the pair's territory, as much as 50 m, sometimes causing it to lose the egg<ref>Anderson, D.J. & Cruz, F. (1998) "Biology and management of the Waved Albatross at the Galapagos Islands. Pp.105-109 in ''Albatross Biology and Conservation'' (Roberston , G. & Gales, R. eds) Chipping Norton:Surrey Beatty and & Sons ISBN: 0949324825 </ref>. In all albatrosses species both parents [[incubate]] the egg, in stints that last between one day to three weeks. Incubation lasts around 70&ndash;80 days (longer for the larger albatrosses), the longest incubation period of any bird. It can be an energetically demanding process, with the adult losing as much as 83 g of body weight a day<ref>Warham, J. (1990) ''The Petrels - Their Ecology and Breeding Systems'' London:Academic Press. </ref>. After hatching the chick is brooded and guarded for three weeks until it is large enough to defend and [[thermoregulation|thermoregulate]] itself. During this period the chick is fed regularly with small meals by its parents when they relieve each other from duty. After the brooding period is over the chick is fed in regular intervals by both parents. The parents adopt alternative patterns of short and long foraging trips, providing meals that weigh around 12% of their body weight (around 600 g). The meals are composed of both fresh [[squid]], [[fish]] and [[krill]], as well as [[stomach oil]], an [[food energy|energy]]-rich food that is lighter to carry than undigested prey items<ref>Warham, J. (1976) "The incidence, function and ecological significance of petrel stomach oils." ''Proceedings of the New Zealand Ecological Society'' '''24''': 84-93</ref>. This oil is created in a stomach organ known as a proventriculus from digested prey items by all tubenoses, and gives them their distinctive musty smell. Albatross chicks take a long time to fledge. In the case of the great albatrosses it can up to 280 days, even for the smaller albatrosses it takes anywhere between 170 and 140 days<ref name ="delhoyo">Carboneras, C. (1992) "Family Diomedeidae (Albatross)" in ''Handbook of Birds of the World'' Vol 1. Barcelona:Lynx Edicions, ISBN 84-87334-10-5</ref>. Like many seabirds, albatross chicks will actually gain enough weight to be heavier than their parents, and prior to fledging they use these reserves to build up body condition (particularly growing all their flight feathers), usually fledging at the same weight as their parents. Albatross chicks fledge on their own, and receive no further help from their parents, who will actually return to the nest after fledging, unaware their chick has left. Studies of juveniles dispersing at sea have suggested an innate migration behaviour, a genetically coded navigation route, that helps young birds first at sea<ref>Åkesson, S., & Weimerskirch, H., (2005) "Albatross Long-Distance Navigation: Comparing Adults And Juveniles" ''Journal of Navigation'' '''58''': 365-373.</ref>. ==Albatrosses and humans== ===Etymology=== The name albatross is derived from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''al-câdous'', (a [[pelican]]), which travelled to English via the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] form ''Alcatraz''. The [[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]] notes that the word ''alcatraz'' was originally applied to the [[frigatebird]]; the modification to ''albatross'' was perhaps influenced by [[Latin]] ''alba'' meaning "white", in contrast to frigatebirds which are black. They were once commonly known as '''Goonie birds''' or '''Gooney birds''', particularly those of the North [[Pacific]]. In the southern hemisphere the name '''mollymawk''' is still well established in some areas, which is a corrupted form of ''malle-mugge'', an old [[Dutch language|Dutch]] name for the [[Northern Fulmar]]. The name ''Diomedea'', assigned to the albatrosses by [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] references the mythical metamorphosis of the companions of the Greek warrior [[Diomedes]] into birds. ===Albatrosses and culture=== Albatrosses have been described as "the most legendary of all birds"<ref name ="delhoyo">Carboneras, C. (1992) "Family Diomedeidae (Albatross)" in ''Handbook of Birds of the World'' Vol 1. Barcelona:Lynx Edicions, ISBN 84-87334-10-5</ref>. They feature prominently in [[poetry]] such as the [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] poem ''[[The Rime of the Ancient Mariner]]''. In part due to the poem, there is a widespread [[urban legend|myth]] that sailors believe it disastrous to shoot or harm an albatross; in truth, however, sailors regularly killed and ate them<ref name = "Brit">Cocker, M., & Mabey, R., (2005) ''Birds Britannica'' London:Chatto & Windus, ISBN 0-701-16907-9</ref>. But they were often regarded as the souls of lost sailors. More recently they have become part of [[popular culture]], for example, in a [[Monty Python]] [[Albatross (Monty Python sketch)|sketch]], or the song [[Echoes (1971 song)|Echoes]] by [[Pink Floyd]]. In the movie ''[[Serenity_(film)|Serenity]]'', the character River was refered to as an albatross by The Operative, in the context of Coleridge's poem. ===Threats and conservation=== In spite of often being accorded legendary status by people albatrosses have not escaped both indirect and direct pressure from humanity. Early encounters with albatrosses by [[Polynesia]]ns and [[Aleut]] Indians resulted in hunting and in some cases expiration from some islands (such as [[Easter Island]]). As [[European]]s began sailing the world they too began to hunt albatross, "fishing" for them from boats to serve at the table or blasting them for sport<ref>Safina, C. (2002) ''Eye of the Albatross: Visions of Hope and Survival'' New York:Henry Holt & Company ISBN: 0805062297</ref>. This sport reached its peak on emigration lines bound for [[Australia]], and only died down when ships became too fast to fish from, and regulations stopped the discharge of weapons for safety reasons. In the 19th century, albatross colonies, particularly those in the North Pacific, were harvested for the feather trade, leading to the near extinction of the [[Short-tailed Albatross]]. According to the [[IUCN Red List]], 19 of the 21 albatross species are considered to have a [[conservation status]] as vulnerable or worse<ref>IUCN, 2004. [http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/search.php?freetext=Albatross&modifier=phrase&criteria=wholedb&taxa_species=1&redlistCategory%5B%5D=allex&redlistAssessyear%5B%5D=all&country%5B%5D=all&aquatic%5B%5D=all&regions%5B%5D=all&habitats%5B%5D=all&threats%5B%5D=all&Submit.x=104&Submit.y=16 Red List: Albatross Species]. Retrieved [[September 13]], [[2005]].</ref>, partially due to the impact of commercial [[long-line fishing]]<ref>Brothers NP. 1991. "Albatross mortality and associated bait loss in the Japanese longline fishery in the southern ocean." ''Biological Conservation'' '''55''': 255-268.</ref>, as the albatrosses and other [[seabird]]s are attracted to the set bait, become hooked on the lines and drown. The scale of the problem is made worse by [[pirate]] fisheries, and an estimated 100,000 albatross are killed a year in this fashion. Two species (as recognised by the IUCN) are considered critically [[endangered species|endangered]], the [[Amsterdam Albatross]] and the [[Chatham Albatross]]. Another threat to albatrosses is [[introduced species]], which can be predators, like rats or [[feral cat]]s, directly attacking the albatross or its chicks and eggs; or they can have indirect effects, cattle overgrazed essential cover on [[Amsterdam Island]]; on other islands introduced plants reduce potential nesting habitat. [[Image:albab.jpg|thumb|200px|Black-browed Albatrosses are one of the many species threatened by long-line fisheries]] Ingestion of floating [[plastic]] [[flotsam]] is another problem, one faced by many seabirds. The amount of plastic in the seas has increased dramatically since the first record in the 1960s, coming from waste discarded by ships, offshore dumping, litter on beaches and waste washed to sea by rivers. It is impossible to digest and takes up space in the stomach or [[gizzard]] that should be used for food, or can cause an obstruction that starves the bird directly. Studies of birds in the North Pacific have shown that ingestion of plastics results in declining [[body weight]] and body condition<ref>Spear, L.B., Ainley, D.G. & Ribic, C.A. (1995). "Incidence of plastic in seabirds from the tropical Pacific, 1984–91: relation with distribution of species, sex, age, season, year and body weight." ''Marine Environmental Research'' '''40''': 123–146. </ref>. This plastic is sometimes regurgitated and fed to chicks; a study of [[Laysan Albatross]] chicks on [[Midway Atoll]] showed large amounts of ingested plastic in naturally dead chicks compared to healthy chicks killed in accidents<ref>Auman, H.J., Ludwig, J.P., Giesy, J.P., Colborn, T., (1997) "Plastic ingestion by Laysan Albatross chicks on Sand Island, Midway Atoll, in 1994 and 1995." in ''Albatross Biology and Conservation'', (ed by G. Robinson and R. Gales). Surrey Beatty & Sons:Chipping Norton. Pp. 239-44 [http://www.mindfully.org/Plastic/Ocean/Albatross-Plastic-Ingestion1997.htm]</ref>. While not the direct cause of death, this plastic caused physiological stress and caused the chick to feel full during feedings, reducing its food intake and reducing the chances of survival. Scientists and conservationists (most importantly [[BirdLife International]] and their partners, who have run a Save the Albatross campaign) are working with governments and [[fishermen]] to find solutions to the threats albatrosses face. Techniques such as setting long-line bait at night, dying the bait blue, setting the bait underwater, increasing the amount of weight on lines and using bird scarers can all reduce the by-catch in seabirds by fishing fleets<ref>Food and Agriculture Organisation (1999) "The incidental catch of seabirds by longline fisheries: worldwide review and technical guidelines for mitigation. FAO Fisheries Circular No.937. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. [http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/W9817E/W9817E00.HTM]</ref>. For example, a collaborative study between scientists and fishermen in [[New Zealand]] successfully tested a underwater setting device for long-liners which set the lines below the reach of vulnerable albatross species<ref>O'Toole, Decland & Molloy, Janice (2000) "Preliminary performance assessment of an underwater line setting device for pelagic longline fishing" ''New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research'' '''34''': 455-461. [http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjmfr/2000/36.pdf]</ref>. The use of some of these techniques in the [[Patagonian Toothfish]] fishery in the [[Falkland Islands]] is thought to have reduced the number of [[Black-browed Albatross]] taken by the fleet in the last 10 years<ref>Reid, A.T., Sullivan, B.J., Pompert,J., Enticott, J.W., Black, A.D., (2004) "Seabird mortality associated with Patagonian Toothfish (''Dissostichus eleginoides'') longliners in Falkland Islands waters." ''Emu'' '''104''': (4) 317-325.</ref>. Conservationists have also worked on the field of [[island restoration]], removing introduced species that threaten native wildlife, which protects albatrosses from introduced predators. One important step towards protecting albatrosses and other [[seabird]] is the 2001 [[treaty]] the [[Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels]], which came into force in 2004 and has been ratified by eight countries, [[Australia]], [[Ecuador]], [[New Zealand]], [[Spain]], [[South Africa]], [[France]], [[Peru]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. This treaty requires specific actions to be taken by these countries to reduce by-catch, pollution and remove introduced species from nesting islands. The treaty has also been signed but not ratified by another three countries, [[Argentina]], [[Brazil]] and [[Chile]]. ==Species== Current thinking divides the albatrosses into four genera. The number of species is a matter of some debate, the [[IUCN]] and [[BirdLife International]] among others recognise 21 species, other authorities retain the more traditional 14 species: *[[Great albatrosses]] (''Diomedea'') **[[Wandering Albatross]] '' D. exulans'' **[[Antipodean Albatross]] ''D. (exulans) antipodensis'' **[[Amsterdam Albatross]] ''D. amsterdamensis'' **[[Tristan Albatross]] ''D. (exulans) dabbenena'' **[[Northern Royal Albatross]] ''D. (epomorpha) sanfordi'' **[[Southern Royal Albatross]] ''D. epomophora'' *[[North Pacific albatross]]es (''Phoebastria'') **[[Waved Albatross]] ''P. irrorata'' **[[Short-tailed Albatross]] ''P. albatrus'' **[[Black-footed Albatross]] ''P. nigripes'' **[[Laysan Albatross]] ''P. immutabilis'' *[[Mollymawk]]s (''Thalassarche'') **[[Black-browed Albatross]] ''T. melanophris '' **[[Campbell Albatross]] ''T. (melanophris) impavida'' **[[Shy Albatross]] ''T. cauta'' **[[Chatham Albatross]] ''T. (cauta) eremita'' **[[Salvin's Albatross]] ''T. (cauta) salvini'' **[[Grey-headed Albatross]] ''T. chrysostoma'' **[[Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross]] ''T. chlororhynchos'' **[[Indian Yellow-nosed Albatross]] ''T. (chlororhynchos) carteri'' **[[Buller's Albatross]] ''T. bulleri'' *[[Sooty albatross]]es (''Phoebetria'') **[[Dark-mantled Sooty Albatross]] ''P. fusca'' **[[Light-mantled Sooty Albatross]] ''P. palpebrata''. ==References== <references/> ==External links== * [http://www.birdonline.org/birds/albatross.htm Albatross resources from Bird Online] (North America) * [http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=174514 ITIS] (Follows the AOU classification.) * [http://web.uct.ac.za/depts/fitzpatrick/docs/listintro.html Roberts' VII Bird Species List] (South Africa.) * [http://www.birdsaustralia.com.au/hanzab/HANZAB_spp_list.pdf HANZAB complete species list] (Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds.) *[http://www.birdlife.net/action/campaigns/save_the_albatross/ Birdlife international Save the Albatross campaign] * [http://www.acap.aq/ The Agreement for the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP)] * [http://www.montereybay.com/creagrus/albatrosses.html Albatross: Don Roberson's family page] [[Category:Albatrosses|*]] [[Category:Heraldic birds]] [[Category:Seabirds]] [[ar:قطرس]] [[da:Albatrosser]] [[de:Albatrosse]] [[es:Albatros]] [[fr:Diomedeinae]] [[fy:Albatrossen]] [[io:Albatroso]] [[he:אלבטרוס לבן-כיפה]] [[lt:Albatrosiniai]] [[nl:Albatrossen]] [[ja:アホウドリ亜科 (Sibley)]] [[pl:Albatrosy]] [[pt:Diomedeidae]] [[fi:Albatrossit]] [[sv:Albatrosser]] [[tr:Albatros]] [[uk:Альбатросові]] [[zh:信天翁科]] 1386 41588408 2006-02-28T09:19:56Z 213.130.122.51 {{otheruses}} '''Arachnophobia''' is a [[specific phobia]], an abnormal fear of [[spider (animal)|spiders]]. It is among the most common phobias. The reactions of arachnophobics often seem irrational to others (and sometimes to sufferers themselves, as well). People with arachnophobia may stay away from any area they believe to be inhabited by numerous spiders or covered in spider webs. If they see a spider they may not enter the general vicinity until they overcome the panic attack that is often associated with it. Like most phobias the fear can be overcome by psychological treatments and through gradual exposure to the object. Another technique is 'flooding', in which the phobic person is suddenly exposed to a high intensity stimulus. Arachnophobia is, in many cases, the result of a traumatizing encounter with spiders in one's early childhood, though the experience may not be remembered. Then, considering the extreme diversity of phobias, always inexplicable and sometimes exceedingly strange, (fear of carrot – as such and not as food – fear of glitter powder, and others.) One hypothesis states that while some phobias are the result of a traumatic event, most are the result of a random brain wiring that causes inexplicable fear at the sight of a seemingly innocuous thing or animal. The main phobias, such as arachnophobia, fear of spiders, [[claustrophobia]], stand out by their prevalence because they would have given over thousands of years a survival edge to sufferers and their offspring. Spiders, for instance, being relatively small, don’t fit the usual criteria for a threat in the animal kingdom where size is a key factor, but most species are [[Venom (poison)|venomous]], and some are lethal. Arachnophobics will spare no effort to make sure that their wherabouts are spider-free, hence reducing sharply the risk of being bitten. ==Reference== *Stiemerling D. ''Analysis of a spider and monster phobia'', Z. Psychosom Med Psychoanal. 1973 Oct-Dec;19(4):327-45. (in German) [[Category:Phobias]] [[Category:Spiders]] [[da:Araknofobi]] [[de:Arachnophobie]] [[eo:Araneofobio]] [[fr:Arachnophobie]] [[he:&#1488;&#1512;&#1499;&#1504;&#1493;&#1508;&#1493;&#1489;&#1497;&#1492;]] [[nl:Arachnofobie]] [[pl:Arachnofobia]] [[pt:Aracnofobia]] [[sl:arahnofobija]] 1387 40961906 2006-02-24T03:31:53Z Dogears 733091 /* See also */ + category {| align=right |[[image:alabaster.whole.600pix.jpg|thumb|200px|A modern uplighter lamp made completely from Italian alabaster (white and brown types). The base is 5 inches (13 cm) in diameter]] |- |[[image:alabaster.base.600pix.jpg|thumb|200px|Detail of base of alabaster lamp]] |} '''Alabaster''' (sometimes called '''satin spar''') is a name applied to varieties of two distinct [[mineral]]s: [[gypsum]] (a [[hydroxy|hydrous]] [[sulfur|sulfate]] of [[calcium]]) and the [[calcite]] (a [[carbonate]] of calcium). The former is the alabaster of the present day; the latter is generally the alabaster of the ancients. The two kinds are readily distinguished from each other by their relative '''hardnesses'''. The gypsum kind is so soft as to be readily scratched by a finger-nail ([[Mohs scale of mineral hardness|hardness]] 1.5 to 2), while the calcite kind is too hard to be scratched in this way (hardness 3), though it does yield readily to a knife. Moreover, the calcite alabaster, being a [[carbonate]], effervesces on being touched with [[hydrochloric acid]], whereas the gypsum alabaster, when so treated, remains practically unaffected. ==Types== === Calcite Alabaster === This substance, the "alabaster" of the [[Bible]], is often termed ''Oriental alabaster'', since the early examples came from the [[Far East]]. The [[Greek language|Greek]] name ''alabastrites'' is said to be derived from the town of Alabastron, in [[Egypt]], where the stone was quarried, but the locality probably owed its name to the mineral; the origin of the mineral-name is obscure, and it has been suggested that it may have had an [[Arabic language|Arabic]] origin. This "Oriental" alabaster was highly esteemed for making small perfume-bottles or ointment vases called alabastra, and this has been conjectured to be a possible source of the name. Alabaster was also employed in Egypt for [[canopic jar]]s and various other sacred and sepulchral objects. A splendid [[sarcophagus]], sculptured in a single block of translucent calcite alabaster from Alabastron, is in the [[Soane Museum]], [[London]]. This was discovered by [[Giovanni Belzoni]] in [[1817]] in the tomb of [[Seti I]] near [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]]. It was purchased by Sir [[John Soane]], having previously been offered to the [[British Museum]]. When cut in thin sheets, alabaster is translucent enough to be used for small windows, and has been used so in [[medieval]] churches, especially in [[Italy]]. Large alabaster sheets are used extensively in the ''Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels'' (dedicated 2002) of the [[Roman Catholic Archbishop of Los Angeles|Los Angeles (California) Archdiocese]]. The cathedral incorporates special cooling to prevent the panes from overheating and turning opaque. Calcite alabaster is either a [[stalagmite|stalagmitic]] deposit, from the floor and walls of [[limestone]] [[cavern]]s, or a kind of [[travertine]], similarly deposited in springs of calcareous water. Its deposition in successive layers gives rise to the banded appearance that the marble often shows on cross-section, whence it is known as onyx-marble or alabaster-onyx, or sometimes simply as [[onyx]] &ndash; a term which should, however, be restricted to siliceous minerals. Egyptian alabaster has been extensively worked near [[Suez]] and near [[Assiut]]; there are many ancient quarries in the hills overlooking the plain of [[Tell el Amarna]]. The [[Algeria]]n onyx-marble has been largely quarried in the province of [[Oran]]. In [[Mexico]], there are famous deposits of a delicate green variety at [[La Pedrara]], in the district of [[Tecali]], near [[Puebla, Puebla|Puebla]]. Onyx-marble occurs also in the district of [[Tehuacán]] and at several localities in [[California]], [[Arizona]], [[Utah]], [[Colorado]] and [[Virginia]]. === Gypsum Alabaster === In the present day, when the term "alabaster" is used without any qualification, it invariably means a fine-grained variety of gypsum. This mineral, or alabaster proper, occurs in [[England]]. However, thousands of gypsum alabaster [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifact]]s dating to the late [[4th millennium BC]] have been found in [[Tell Brak]] (present day [[Nagar]]), in [[Syria]] [http://www.metmuseum.org/Works_of_Art/viewOne.asp?dep=3&item=1988.323.8&viewmode=0&isHighlight=1]. And in [[Mesopotamia]], a gypsum alabaster [[sculpture]], believed to represent the god [[Abu]], dates to the first half of the [[3rd millennium BC]] [http://www.metmuseum.org/Works_of_Art/viewOne.asp?dep=3&viewmode=0&item=40%2E156]. Mineral alabaster occurs in [[England]] in the [[Keuper]] [[marl]]s of the [[Midlands]], especially at [[Chellaston]] in [[Derbyshire]], at [[Fauld]] in [[Staffordshire]] and near [[Newark, England|Newark]] in [[Nottinghamshire]]. At all these localities it has been extensively worked. Indeed, in the [[15th century]] its carving into [[icons]] and [[altarpiece]]s, was a valuable local industry in these areas, as well as a major English export. Besides examples of these still in Britain (especially at the [[Nottingham Castle Museum]], [[British Museum]] and [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]), that trade in itself (rather than just the antiques trade) has scattered examples as far afield as the [[Musée de Cluny]] and ........... Alabaster is also found, though in subordinate quantity, at [[Watchet]] in [[Somerset]], near [[Penarth]] in [[Glamorganshire]], and elsewhere. In [[Cumbria]] it occurs largely in the New Red rocks, but at a lower geological horizon. The alabaster of Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire is found in thick nodular beds or "floors" in spheroidal masses known as "balls" or "bowls," and in smaller lenticular masses termed "cakes." At Chellaston, where the alabaster is known as "Patrick," it has been worked into ornaments under the name of "Derbyshire spar" &ndash; a term more properly applied to [[fluorspar]]. [[image:alabaster-satin spar.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Unlike the lamp, this fine alabaster sculpture is untreated: Its translucency and satiny lustre are preserved. Its base is of marble.]] The finer kinds of alabaster are largely employed as an [[ornamental stone]], especially for [[ecclesiastical]] decoration and for the rails of staircases and halls. Its softness enables it to be readily carved into elaborate forms, but its solubility in water renders it inapplicable to outdoor work. The purest alabaster is a snow-white material of fine tiniforni grain, but it is often associated with an oxide of [[iron]], which produces brown clouding and veining in the stone. The coarser varieties of alabaster are converted by calcination into [[plaster of Paris]], whence they are sometimes known as "plaster stone." On the continent of [[Europe]], the centre of the alabaster trade is [[Florence, Italy]]. [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] alabaster occurs in nodular masses embedded in limestone, interstratified with [[marl]]s of [[Miocene]] and [[Pliocene]] age. The mineral is largely worked by means of underground galleries,in the district of [[Volterra]]. Several varieties are recognized &ndash; veined, spotted, clouded, agatiform, and others. The finest kind, obtained principally from [[Castellina]], is sent to Florence for figure-sculpture, while the common kinds are carved at a very cheap rate locally into vases, clock-cases and various ornamental objects, in which a large trade is carried on, especially in Florence, [[Pisa]] and [[Livorno|Leghorn]]. In order to diminish the [[Translucent|translucenc]]y of the alabaster and to produce an opacity suggestive of true marble, the statues are immersed in a bath of water and gradually heated nearly to the boiling-point &ndash; an operation requiring great care, for if the temperature is not carefully regulated, the stone acquires a dead-white, chalky appearance. The effect of heating appears to be a partial dehydration of the gypsum. If properly treated, it very closely resembles true marble and is known as [[marmo di Castellina]]. It should be noted that sulphate of lime (gypsum) was used also by the ancients, and was employed, for instance, in Assyrian sculpture, so that some of the ancient alabaster is identical with the modern stone. Alabaster may be stained by digesting it, after being heated in various pigmentary solutions. In this way a good imitation of [[coral]] has been produced (alabaster coral). ''Black Alabaster'' is a rare form of the gypsum-based mineral found in only three veins in the world, one each in [[Oklahoma]] (USA), Italy and [[China]]. [[Alabaster Caverns State Park]], near [[Freedom, Oklahoma]] is home to a natural [[gypsum cave]] in which much of the gypsum is in the form of alabaster. There are several types of alabaster found at the site, including pink, white, and the rare black alabaster. == See also == * [[list of minerals]] *'''''Alabaster''' is also a city in [[Alabama]], [[United States|USA]]. See: [[Alabaster, Alabama]]'' *'''''Alabaster''' is also a township in [[Michigan]], [[United States|USA]]. See: [[Alabaster Township, Michigan]]'' {{1911}} [[Category:Minerals]] [[Category:Stone]] [[ca:Alabastre (mineral)]] [[de:Alabaster]] [[es:Alabastro]] [[fr:Albâtre]] [[it:Alabastro]] [[nl:Albast]] [[pl:Alabaster]] [[pt:Alabastro]] [[ru:Алебастр]] [[sl:Alabaster]] [[sv:Alabaster]] [[uk:Алебастр]] 1388 41556308 2006-02-28T03:14:51Z Elmer Clark 241098 fixed link '''Apostle''', or '''The Apostles''' can refer to: {{Wiktionarypar|apostle}} * The [[Twelve Apostles]], followers of [[Jesus]] * [[Apostle (Mormonism)]], a position within the [[Mormon church]] * ''[[The Apostle]]'', a 1997 film directed by and starring [[Robert Duvall]] * [[Cambridge Apostles]], a secret society at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] * [[The Apostles (band)|The Apostles]], a [[punk rock]] group from the 1980s * ''[[The Apostles (Elgar) | The Apostles]]'', a 1903 choral work by [[Edward Elgar]] * [[Apostle (production company) | Apostle]], a production company founded in 1994 by Jim Serpico and Denis Leary {{dab}} 1389 38565954 2006-02-07T03:45:06Z PiCo 437761 see discussion '''Ahab''' or '''Ach'av''' ('''&#1488;&#1463;&#1495;&#1456;&#1488;&#1464;&#1489;''' "Brother of the father", [[Standard Hebrew]] '''A&#7717;&#700;av''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&#700;A&#7717;&#259;&#700;&#257;&#7687;''', '''&#700;A&#7723;&#700;&#257;&#7687;''') was King of the [[Kingdom of Israel]] and the province of [[Samaria]], and the son and successor of [[Omri]] (''[[Books of Kings|1 Kings]]'' 16:29-34). [[William F. Albright]] has dated his reign to [[869 BC]]-[[850 BC]], while [[E. R. Thiele]] offers the dates [[874 BC]]-[[853 BC]]. He married [[Jezebel (biblical)|Jezebel]], the daughter of king [[Ithobaal I]] of [[Tyre]], and the alliance was doubtless the means of procuring him great riches, which brought pomp and luxury in their train. We read of his building an ivory palace (''1 Kings'' 22:39; ''[[Book of Amos|Amos]]'' 3:15), and founding new cities, the effect perhaps of a share in the flourishing commerce of [[Phoenicia]], who supplied the ivory for his palace. The material prosperity of his reign, which is comparable with that of [[Solomon]] a century before, was overshadowed by the religious changes which his marriage involved. Although he worshipped YHWH, as the names of his children prove (''1 Kings'' 22:5ff), his wife was firmly attached to the worship of the [[Melkart]] (the Tyrian [[Ba'al]]), and led by her he gave a great impulse to this cult by building a temple in honour of Baal in [[Samaria]]. This roused the indignation of the Jewish prophets and Priests whose aim it was to purify the worship of [[God]]. (See [[Elijah (prophet)|Elijah]]) During Ahab's reign [[Moab]], which had been conquered by his father, remained tributary; [[kingdom of Judah|Judah]], with whose king, [[Jehoshaphat]], he was allied by marriage, was probably his vassal; only with [[Damascus]] is he said to have had strained relations. The one event mentioned by external sources is the [[Battle of Karkar]] (perhaps at [[Apamea]]), where [[Shalmaneser III]] of [[Assyria]] fought a great confederation of princes from [[Cilicia]], Northern [[Syria]], Israel, [[Ammon]] and the tribes of the Syrian desert ([[853 BC]]). Here Ahab (''A-ha-ab-bu <sup>mat</sup>Sir-'i-la-a-a'' or "Ahab the Israelite") joined [[Baasha]], son of [[Ruhub]] (Rehob) of Ammon and nine others are allied with [[Hadadezer]] (''Bir-'idri''), Ahab's contribution being reckoned at 2,000 chariots and 10,000 men. The numbers are comparatively large and possibly include forces from [[Tyre]], Judah, [[Edom]] and [[Moab]]. The Assyrian king claimed a victory, but his immediate return and subsequent expeditions in [[849 BC]] and [[846 BC]] against a similar but unspecified coalition seem to show that he met with no lasting success. According to the [[Old Testament]], however, Ahab with 7,000 troops had previously overthrown [[Ben-hadad]] and his thirty-two kings, who had come to lay siege to Samaria, and in the following year obtained a remarkable victory over him at [[Aphek]], probably in the [[plain of Sharon]] (''1 Kings'' 20). A treaty was made whereby Ben-hadad restored the cities which his father had taken from Ahab's father (that is, Omri, but see 15:20, ''[[Books of Kings|2 Kings]]'' 13:25), and trading facilities between Damascus and Samaria were granted. A late popular story (20:35-42, akin in tone to 12:33-13:34) condemned Ahab for his leniency and foretold the destruction of the king and his land. Three years later, war broke out on the east of the [[Jordan River]], and Ahab with Jehoshaphat of Judah went to recover [[Battle of Ramoth-Gilead|Ramoth-Gilead]] and was mortally wounded (ch. 22). He was succeeded by his sons ([[Ahaziah]] and [[Jehoram]]). It is very difficult to obtain any clear idea of the order of these events (the [[Septuagint]] places ''1 Kings'' 21 immediately after 19). How the hostile kings of Israel and Syria came to fight a common enemy, and how to correlate the Assyrian and Biblical records, are questions which have perplexed all recent writers. The reality of the difficulties will be apparent from the fact that it has been suggested that the Assyrian scribe wrote "Ahab" for his son "Jehoram", and that the very identification of the name with Ahab of Israel has been questioned. Whilst the above passages from ''1 Kings'' view Ahab not unfavourably, there are others which are less friendly. The murder of [[Naboth]] (see [[Jezebel (biblical)|Jezebel]]), an act of royal encroachment, stirred up popular resentment just as the new cult aroused the opposition of certain of the prophets. The latter found their champion in Elijah, whose history reflects the prophetic teaching of more than one age. His denunciation of the royal dynasty, and his emphatic insistence on the worship of Yahweh and Him alone, form the keynote to a period which culminated in the accession of [[Jehu]], an event in which Elijah's chosen disciple [[Elisha]] was the leading figure. The allusions to the statutes and works of Omri and Ahab in ''[[Book of Micah|Micah]]'' 6:16 may point to legislative measures of these kings, and the reference to the incidents at the building of [[Jericho]] (''1 Kings'' 16:34) may be taken to show that foundation sacrifices, familiar in nearly all parts of the world, were not unknown in Israel at this period, which have in fact been confirmed by excavation in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. {| align="center" cellpadding="2" border="2" |- | width="30%" align="center" | Preceded by:<br />'''[[Omri]]''' | width="40%" align="center" | '''[[Kingdom of Israel|King of Israel]]''' | width="30%" align="center" | Succeeded by:<br />'''[[Ahaziah of Israel|Ahaziah]]''' |} Another '''Ahab''' is known only as an impious [[prophet]] in the time of the [[Babylonian captivity of Judah|Babylonian exile]] (''[[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]]'' 29:21). Another '''[[Captain Ahab|Ahab]]''' is the monomanical captain of the [[whaling]] [[ship]] ''[[Pequod (Moby-Dick)|Pequod]]'' in the novel [[Moby-Dick]]. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:853 BC deaths]] [[Category:850 BC deaths]] [[Category:Kings of ancient Israel]] [[ca:Acab]] [[de:Ahab (König)]] [[eo:Ahabo]] [[he:אחאב]] [[no:Akab]] [[sv:Ahab]] 1391 35924252 2006-01-20T06:55:52Z Botryoidal 814230 Robot: Automated text replacement (-{{4LA}} +{{4LC}}) The acronym '''ASIC''', depending on context, may stand for: * [[Application-specific integrated circuit]] * [[ASIC programming language]] * [[Australian Securities and Investments Commission]] {{4LC}} [[de:ASIC]] [[pt:ASIC (desambiguação)]] 1392 37289371 2006-01-30T01:09:14Z Gdrbot 263608 nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}} {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Dasyproctidae | fossil_range = Late [[Oligocene]] - Recent | image = Paka (Coelogenys Paca).png | image_width = 200px | image_caption = ''[[Agouti paca]]'' | regnum = [[Animal|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammal]]ia | ordo = [[Rodent]]ia | familia = '''Dasyproctidae''' | familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1825 | subdivision_ranks = Genera | subdivision = ''[[Dasyprocta]]<br />[[Myoprocta]]<br />[[Agouti]]'' }} The '''Dasyproctidae''' are a family of [[South America]]n [[rodent]]s, comprising three [[genus|genera]]. ==Classification== *'''Family Dasyproctidae''' **Genus ''[[Dasyprocta]]'' ***[[Azara's Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta azarae]]'' ***[[Coiban Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta coibae]]'' ***[[Crested Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta cristata]]'' ***[[Black Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta fuliginosa]]'' ***[[Orinoco Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta guamara]]'' ***[[Kalinowski Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta kalinowskii]]'' ***[[Brazilian Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta leporina]]'' ***[[Mexican Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta mexicana]]'' ***[[Black-rumped Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta prymnolopha]]'' ***[[Central American Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta punctata]]'' ***[[Ruatan Island Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta ruatanica]]'' **Genus ''[[Myoprocta]]'' ***[[Green Acouchi]], ''[[Myoprocta pratti]]'' ***[[Red Acouchi]], ''[[Myoprocta acouchy]]'' **Genus ''[[Agouti (genus)|Agouti]]'' ***[[Paca]], ''[[Agouti paca]]'' ***[[Mountain Paca]], ''[[Agouti taczanowskii]]'' The [[Pacas]] (''Agouti'' genus) are sometimes placed in a separate family ''Agoutidae'' or as the subfamily ''Agoutinae''. Note that the animals commonly known as Agoutis are not the same as those with the scientific name ''Agouti''. Adding to the confusion, the name Agoutis is sometimes used to refer to the whole family Dasyproctidae, including or excluding the ''Agouti'' genus. To avoid misunderstandings, some authors refer to the Pacas as the genus ''Cuniculus''. ==External links== *[http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/rodentia/rodentia.dasyproctidae.html Dasyproctidae at Johns Hopkins Univ.] *[http://www.junglephotos.com/amazon/amanimals/ammammals/agouti.shtml Black agouti photo and natural history] {{Rodents}} [[Category:Rodents]] [[Category:Hystricognath rodents]] [[de:Pakas und Agutis]] [[fr:Dasyproctidae]] [[lt:Agutiniai]] [[nl:Agoeti's en acouchi's]] [[pl:Aguti]] 1393 15899881 2005-04-27T21:22:46Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 #redirect [[Aesop]] 1394 38653070 2006-02-07T19:40:45Z RJHall 91076 link {{Otheruses}} {{Starbox begin | name=Beta Persei A/B/C }} {{Starbox image | image=[[Image:Position Beta Per.png|250px]] | caption=The position of Algol. }} {{Starbox observe | epoch=J2000 | ra=03<sup>h</sup> 08<sup>m</sup> 10.1<sup>s</sup> | dec=+40&deg; 57&prime; 20.3&Prime; | appmag_v=1.58 | constell=[[Perseus]] }} {{Starbox character | class=B5-8 V/K02 IV/A5 V | b-v=-0.05 | u-b=-0.37 | variable=[[Eclipsing binary]] }} {{Starbox astrometry | radial_v=3.7 | prop_mo_ra=2.39 | prop_mo_dec=-1.44 | parallax=35.14 | p_error=0.90 | dist_ly=92.8 | dist_pc=28.5 | absmag_v=-0.69 }} {{Starbox detail| mass=3.59/0.79/1.67 | radius=2.88/3.54/1.7 | luminosity=98/3.4/4.1 | temperature=12,500/4,500 | metal=? | rotation=65 km/sec. | age=? }} {{Starbox catalog | names=Algol, Gorgona, Gorgonea Prima, Demon Star, El Ghoul, 26 Per, [[Gliese-Jahreiss catalogue|GJ]] 9110, [[Harvard Revised catalogue|HR]] 936, [[Bonner Durchmusterung|BD]] +40&deg;673, [[Henry Draper catalogue|HD]] 19356, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes|GCTP]] 646.00, [[Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory|SAO]] 38592, FK5 111, Wo 9110, ADS 2362, WDS 03082+4057A, [[Hipparcos catalogue|HIP]] 14576. }} {{Starbox end}} '''Algol''' (&beta; Per / [[beta (letter)|Beta]] Persei) is a bright [[star]] in the [[constellation]] [[Perseus (constellation)|Perseus]]. It is one of the best known [[eclipsing binary|eclipsing binaries]], the first such star to be discovered, and also one of the first [[variable star]]s in general to be discovered. Algol's [[apparent magnitude|magnitude]] changes regularly between 2.3 and 3.5 over a period of 2 days, 20 hours and 49 minutes. As an eclipsing binary, it is actually two stars in close orbit around one another. Because the [[Orbital plane (astronomy)|orbital plane]] coincidentally matches the [[Earth]]'s line of sight, the dimmer star (Algol B) passes in front of the brighter star (Algol A) once per orbit, and the amount of light reaching Earth is temporarily decreased. To be more precise, however, Algol happens to be a triple star system: the eclipsing binary pair is separated by only 0.062 [[astronomical unit|AU]], while the third star (Algol C) is at an average distance of 2.69 AU from the pair and the mutual [[orbital period]] is 681 days (1.86 years). The total mass of the system is about 5.8 solar masses, and the mass ratios of A, B and C are about 4.5&nbsp;: 1&nbsp;: 2. The variability of Algol was first recorded in [[1670]] by [[Geminiano Montanari]], but it is probable that this property was noticed long before this time; the name Algol means "demon star," (from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] '''&#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1608;&#1604;''' ''al-gh&#363;l'', "the [[ghoul]]") which was probably given due to its peculiar behavior. In the [[constellation]] Perseus, it represents the eye of the [[Gorgon]] [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]]. Studies of Algol led to the '''Algol paradox''' in the theory of [[stellar evolution]]: although components of a binary star form at the same time, and massive stars evolve much faster than the less massive ones, it was observed that the more massive component Algol A is still in the [[main sequence]], while the less massive Algol B is a [[subgiant star]] at a later evolutionary stage. The paradox can be solved by [[mass transfer]]: when the more massive star became a subgiant, it filled its [[Roche lobe]], and most of the mass was transferred to the other star, which is still in the main sequence. In some binaries similar to Algol, a gas flow can actually be seen. Algol is 92.8 [[light year]]s from Earth; however, about 7.3 million years ago it passed within 9.8 light years and its [[apparent magnitude]] was approximately &minus;2.5, considerably brighter than [[Sirius]] is today. Because the total mass of the system is 5.8 solar masses, and despite the fairly large distance at closest approach, this may have been enough to slightly perturb the [[solar system]]'s [[Oort cloud]] and increase the number of [[comet]]s entering the inner solar system. However, the actual increase in net cratering rate is believed to have been quite small. [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJ/journal/issues/v117n2/980216/980216.html] [[Astrology|Astrologically]], Algol is considered the most [[luck|unfortunate]] star in the sky. In the [[Middle Ages]] it was one of the 15 [[Behenian fixed stars|Behenian stars]], associated with the [[diamond]] and [[hellebore]], and marked with the [[kabbalistic]] sign [[Image:Agrippa1531_caputAlgol.png]]. ==External links== * [http://skyscript.co.uk/algol.html Discusses the history of Algol] * [http://www.solstation.com/stars2/algol3.htm SolStation article] * [http://www.ari.uni-heidelberg.de/aricns/cnspages/4c02517.htm ARICNS entry] * [http://www.alcyone.de/SIT/mainstars/SIT000666.htm MainStars data] * [http://www.astro.uiuc.edu/~kaler/sow/algol.html Algol by Jim Kaler] [[Category:Bayer objects|Persei, Beta]] [[Category:Eclipsing binaries]] [[Category:Blue-white dwarfs]] [[Category:Orange subgiants]] [[Category:Perseus constellation]] [[Category:Variable stars]] [[Category:Arabic words]] [[de:Algol (Stern)]] [[es:Algol]] [[fr:Algol (étoile)]] [[gl:Algol, estrela]] [[ko:알골]] [[it:Algol (astronomia)]] [[nl:Algol (ster)]] [[ja:アルゴル]] [[pl:Algol (gwiazda w Perseuszu)]] [[pt:Beta Persei]] [[ru:Алголь]] [[sv:Algol (stjärna)]] [[zh:大陵五]] 1395 41336614 2006-02-26T18:01:13Z Metahacker 74726 /* Recordings */ +arlo here too {{otheruses}} '''"Amazing Grace"''' is one of the most well-known [[Christian]] [[hymn]]s. The words were written by [[John Newton]]; they form a part of the [[Olney Hymns]] that he worked on, with [[William Cowper]] and other hymnodists. ==History== John Newton ([[1725]]&ndash;[[1807]]) was the captain of a slave ship. On [[10 May]] [[1748]] returning home during a storm he experienced a "great deliverance". In his journal he wrote that the ship was in grave danger of sinking. He exclaimed "Lord have mercy upon us". He came to the light gradually and even continued to trade slaves after his conversion. Newton wrote the song "How Sweet the Name of Jesus Sounds" while waiting in an African harbor for a shipment of slaves. Later he renounced his profession, became a minister, and joined William Wilberforce in the fight against slavery. Newton may have borrowed an old tune sung by the slaves themselves, redeeming the song, just as he had been redeemed. The now familiar and traditional melody of the hymn was not composed by Newton, and the words were sung to a number of tunes before the now inseparable melody was chanced upon. There are two different tunes to the words. "New Britain" first appears in a [[shape note]] hymnal from [[1831]] called ''Virginia Harmony''. Any original words sung to the tune are now lost. The melody is believed to be [[Scotland|Scottish]] or [[Ireland|Irish]] in origin; it is [[pentatonic]] and suggests a [[bagpipe]] tune; the hymn is frequently performed on bagpipes and has become associated with that instrument. The other tune is the so-called "Old Regular Baptist" tune. It was sung by the Congregation of the Little [[Zion]] Church, Jeff, Kentucky on the album "The [[Jean Ritchie|Ritchie]] Family of Kentucky" on Folkways ([[1958]]). Newton's lyrics have become a favourite for [[Christianity|Christians]] of all [[religious denomination|denominations]], largely because the hymn vividly and briefly sums up the Christian doctrine of [[Divine grace]]. The lyrics are loosely based around the text of [[Ephesians]] 2:4-8. It has also become known as a favorite with supporters of freedom and human rights, both Christian and non-Christian, as it is believed by many to be a song against [[slavery]], as Newton was once a slave trader. He continued to be a slave trader for several years after his experience, but with more compassion. Later he became a clergyman. The song has been sung by many notable musical performers. The hymn was quite popular among both sides in the [[American Civil War]]. While on the [[trail of tears]], the [[Cherokee]] were not always able to give their dead a full burial. Instead, the singing of Amazing Grace had to suffice. Since then, Amazing Grace is often considered the Cherokee National Anthem. For this reason, many contemporary [[List of Native American musicians|Native American musicians]] have recorded this song. The name "Amazing Grace" was used as the title of a musical written by Mal Pope about the 1904 [[Wales|Welsh]] [[Revival]] and the life of [[Evan Roberts (minister)|Evan Roberts]]. ==Bagpipes== The association with bagpipes is a relatively modern phenomenon; for over a century the tune was nearly forgotten in the British Isles until the folk revival of the [[1960s]] began carrying traditional musicians both ways between the British Isles and the United States (where Amazing Grace had remained a very popular hymn). It was little known outside of church congregations or folk festivals until Arthur Penn's film "[[Alice's Restaurant]]" ([[1969]]). Lee Hays of the Weavers leads the worshipers in "Amazing Grace". ==Lyrics== :Amazing grace! (how sweet the sound) :That sav'd a wretch like me! :I once was lost, but now am found, :Was blind, but now I see. :'Twas grace that taught my heart to fear, :And grace my fears reliev'd; :How precious did that grace appear, :The hour I first believ'd! :Thro' many dangers, toils and snares, :I have already come; :'Tis grace has brought me safe thus far, :And grace will lead me home. :The Lord has promis'd good to me, :His word my hope secures; :He will my shield and portion be, :As long as life endures. :Yes, when this flesh and heart shall fail, :And mortal life shall cease; :I shall possess, within the veil, :A life of joy and peace. :The earth shall soon dissolve like snow, :The sun forbear to shine; :But God, who call'd me here below, :Will be forever mine. Some versions of the hymn include an additional verse: :When we've been there ten thousand years, :Bright shining as the sun, :We've no less days to sing God's praise :Than when we'd first begun. This verse is not by Newton. It was originally from a hymn called ''[[Jerusalem, My Happy Home]]''. It was added to a version of "Amazing Grace" by [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]], as it appears in her [[novel]] ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]''. Uncle Tom has pieced the lyrics of several hymns together; those who learned the lyrics from the novel have assumed that it belongs. Some versions include still another verse: :Shall I be wafted through the skies, :on flowery beds of ease, :where others strive to win the prize, :and sail through bloody seas. This verse has been recorded by [[Pete Seeger]] and [[Arlo Guthrie]]. The verse really belongs with the hymn, "Am I a Soldier of the Cross?" by [[Isaac Watts]]. ==Recordings== The hymn has been recorded by countless artists over the last century. Two versions have made the [[UK Singles Chart]]; between 1970 and 1972, a version by [[Judy Collins]] spent 67 weeks in the charts, a record for a female artist, and peaked at number 5. In 1972, an instrumental version by the Pipes and Drums and Military Band of the [[Royal Scots Dragoon Guards]] spent five weeks at number one, also reaching the top spot in Australia. Likewise another artist, [[Hayley Westenra]], released this song on her album [[Pure (album)| Pure]] and this album did incredibly well, selling 19,068 copies in its first week of sales alone. In addition to recording the hymn, [[Joan Baez]] also opened the US portion of [[Live Aid]], the legendary [[1985]] concert for [[African]] famine relief, with a performance of "Amazing Grace". Folk singer [[Arlo Guthrie]] closes many of his concerts with a version of "Amazing Grace" that includes a spoken retelling of its origin. The composer [[Frank Ticheli]] has written a version of Amazing Grace that is frequently performed by various wind ensembles throughout the United States. Celtic-influenced [[punk rock|punk]] band the [[Dropkick Murphys]] have made several recordings of Amazing Grace, all of which feature the use of bagpipes. [[Christian metal]] band [[Stryper]] recorded a [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] version of Amazing Grace, titled ''10,000 years'', which came out in their album 2005 album [[Reborn (album)|Reborn]] [[Chris Squire]] of [[Yes (band)|Yes]] also has recorded a bass solo version of Amazing Grace on the Rhino's rerelease of '[[Going For The One]]' album. Another version was used as the ending song for the Japanese drama series Shiroi Kyoto(2003-2004 version). {{multi-listen start}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Amazing grace.ogg|title=Amazing grace|description=from the Library of Congress' ''John and Ruby Lomax 1939 Southern States Recording Trip''; performed by Mr. and Mrs. N.V. Braley on [[5 May]] [[1939]] at the home of Beal D. Taylor near [[Medina, Texas]]|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Amazing grace2.ogg|title=Amazing grace|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Amazing Grace-organ.ogg|title=Amazing grace|description=Performed on an Organ|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen end}} ==External links== *[http://www.texasfasola.org/biographies/johnnewton.html Amazing Grace: The Story of John Newton] *[http://christianmusic.about.com/od/whosingsthat/qt/qtamazinggrace.htm Who Has Recorded Amazing Grace?] *[http://www.easybyte.org Easybyte] - free easy piano arrangement of Amazing Grace *[http://www.snopes.com/religion/amazing.htm Amazing Grace] myths at the [[Urban Legends Reference Pages]] *[http://artofthestates.org/cgi-bin/piece.pl?pid=288 Art of the States: Amazing Grace] variations on the hymn by composer John Harbison [[chr:ᎤᏁᎳᏅᎢᎤᏪᏥ]] [[de:Amazing Grace]] [[fr:Amazing Grace]] [[ja:&#12450;&#12513;&#12452;&#12472;&#12531;&#12464;&#12464;&#12524;&#12452;&#12473;]] [[sv:Amazing Grace]] [[Category:Christian hymns]] [[Category:British poems]] 1397 42160722 2006-03-04T05:35:03Z Ww2censor 631250 /* AOL users' reputation */ Claris Em@iler {{Infobox_Company | company_name = America Online | company_logo = [[Image:AOL logo.png]] | company_type = Jointly owned by [[Time Warner]] (95%) and [[Google]] (5%) | company_slogan = | foundation = 1985| location = [[Dulles, Virginia]]| key_people = [[Jonathan Miller (America Online)|Jonathan Miller]], [[Ted Leonsis]]| num_employees = about 20,000| industry = [[Internet]] & [[Telecommunication|Communications]]| products = [[Internet service provider|ISP]]| revenue = [[image:green up.png]]$8.7 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[2004]])| homepage = [http://aol.com www.aol.com] }} '''America Online''', or '''AOL''' for short, is a U.S.-based [[online service provider]], [[Internet service provider]], and media company operated by [[Time Warner]]. Based in [[Dulles, Virginia|Dulles]], [[Virginia]], a community in [[Loudoun County, Virginia]], with regional branches around the world, it is by far the most successful proprietary online service, with more than 32 million subscribers at one point in the [[United States of America|US]], [[Canada]], [[Germany]], [[France]], the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|United Kingdom]], [[Latin America]] (declared bankrupt in 2004), [[Japan]] and formerly [[Russia]]. In early 2005, AOL [[Hong Kong]] stopped its service. In the fall of 2004, AOL reported total subscribers had dropped to 24 million, a drop of over a quarter of its subscribers.[http://isp-planet.com/research/rankings/2003/usa_insight_q32003.html] In late 1996, AOL suspended all dialup service within [[Russia]] in the face of massive billing [[fraud]], forcing the company into a rare case of full market retreat. For many Americans through the mid to late [[1990s]], AOL ''was'' the Internet, but the rise of high-speed Internet access from cable and telephone companies as well as the increasing sophistication of the public in handling browsers and other Internet utilities has cut into its user base. In 2000 AOL and [[Time Warner]] announced plans to merge, and the deal was approved by the [[Federal Trade Commission]] on [[January 11]] [[2001]]. This merger was primarily a product of the Internet mania of the late 1990's, known as the [[Internet bubble]]. The subsequent massive decline in value of stocks such as AOL resulted in much recrimination over the merger. Also, the merger with AOL allowed for Time Warner to vote off WCW ( World Championship Wrestling ). News reports in the fall of 2005 indicated a renewed interest in buying out AOL. Suitors such as [[Microsoft]], [[Google]], [[Yahoo!|Yahoo]] and [[Comcast]] have had discussions with [[Time Warner]] about a possible purchase, and on [[December 16]], [[2005]], Time Warner and Google announced that they were starting exclusive talks for Google to purchase $1 billion in AOL stock, a 5% share. Although its dialup market is shrinking as more members switch to high-speed services, the success of its AOL for Broadband program has helped it to maintain members that would otherwise totally drop the AOL service. This combined with its growing advertising revenue through its relationship with Google, AOL collected 8.7 billion US dollars in revenue for 2004. ==History== [[Image:AOL.gif|thumbnail|The AOL logo used until late 2004|150 px|right]] AOL began as a short-lived venture called Control Video Corporation (or CVC), founded by [[William von Meister]]. Its sole product was an online service called [[Gameline]] for the [[Atari 2600]] [[video game console]] after von Meister's idea of buying music on demand was rejected by [[Warner Brothers]]. (Klein, 2003) Subscribers bought a [[modem]] from the company for $49.95 and paid a one-time $15 setup fee. Gameline permitted subscribers to temporarily download games and keep track of high scores, at a cost of approximately $1 an hour. In 1983 the company nearly went [[bankruptcy|bankrupt]], and an investor in Control Video, [[Frank Caufield]], had a friend of his, [[Jim Kimsey]], brought in as a manufacturing consultant. That same year, [[Steve Case]] was hired as a part-time consultant; later on that year, he joined the company as a full-time marketing employee upon the joint recommendations of von Meister and Kimsey. Kimsey went on to become the [[Chief Executive Officer]] (CEO) of the newly-renamed Quantum Computer Services in 1985 after von Meister was quietly dropped from the company. Case himself rose quickly through the ranks; Kimsey promoted him to vice-president of marketing not long after becoming CEO, and later promoted him further to executive vice-president in 1987. Kimsey soon began to groom Case to ascend to the rank of CEO when he himself retired, which Case did in 1991. Kimsey changed the company's strategy, and in 1985 launched a sort of mega-[[Bulletin board system|BBS]] for [[Commodore 64]] and [[Commodore 128|128]] computers, originally called [[Quantum Link]] ("Q-Link" for short). In May [[1988]], Quantum and Apple launched [[AppleLink]] Personal Edition for [[Apple II family|Apple II]] and [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] computers. After the two companies parted ways in October [[1989]], Quantum changed the service's name to America Online. [http://www.thocp.net/timeline/1989.htm], [http://apple2history.org/history/ah22.html] <!--both links retrieved Sep 24 2005--> In August [[1988]], Quantum launched [[PC Link]], a service for IBM-compatible [[personal computer|PC]]s developed in a joint venture with the [[Tandy Corporation]]. In February 1991 AOL for [[DOS]] was launched using a [[GeoWorks]] interface followed a year later by AOL for Windows. In October [[1991]], Quantum changed its name to America Online. These changes coincided with growth in pay-based BBS services, like [[Prodigy (ISP)|Prodigy]], [[CompuServe]], and [[GEnie]]. AOL discontinued Q-Link and PC Link in the fall of 1994. {| border="1" | colspan="2" | '''AOL release timeline''' |- | 1991 | AOL for [[MS-DOS|DOS]] launched |- | 1993 | AOL for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] launched |- | 1994 | AOL 2.0 launched |- | 1995 | AOL 3.0 launched |- | 1998 | AOL 4.0 launched |- | 1999 | AOL 5.0 launched |- | 2000 | AOL 6.0 launched |- | 2001 | AOL 7.0 launched |- | 2002 | AOL 8.0 launched |- | 2003 | AOL 9.0 Optimized launched |- | 2004 | AOL 9.0 SE launched |} == Massive growth == Case drove AOL as the online service for people unfamiliar with [[computer|computers]], in particular contrast to [[CompuServe]], which had long served the technical community. AOL was the first online service to require use of [[proprietary]] software, rather than a standard terminal program; as a result it was able to offer a [[graphical user interface]] (GUI) instead of command lines, and was well ahead of the competition in emphasizing communication among members as a feature. In particular was the Chat Room (borrowed from IRC), which allowed a large group of people with similar interests to convene and hold conversations in real time, including: *Private rooms &mdash; created by any user. Hold up to 27 people. *Conference rooms &mdash; created with permission of AOL. Hold up to 48 people and often moderated. *Auditoriums &mdash; created with permission of AOL. Consisted of a stage and an unlimited number of rows. What happened on the stage was viewable by everybody in the auditorium but what happened within individual rows, of up to 27 people, was viewable only by the people within those rows. There were also text games played in the chat rooms, known as [[AOL chatroom game]]. Under Case's guidance, AOL committed to including [[online games]] in its mix of products even when it was only a Commodore 64 service. It hosted the first [[Play-by-mail game|Play by email]] game from any service ''[[Quantum Space]]'' (1989-1991); the first graphical online community (''[[Habitat (video game)|Club Caribe]]'' from [[LucasArts]]); and the first graphical [[MMORPG]], ''[[Neverwinter Nights#History|Neverwinter Nights]]'' from [[Stormfront Studios]] (1991-1997) and the first chatroom-based text role-playing game Black Bayou, a horror role-playing game from Hecklers Online and [[ANTAGONIST, Inc.]] AOL quickly surpassed [[GEnie]], and by the mid-[[1990s]], it passed [[Prodigy (ISP)|Prodigy]] (which for several years allowed AOL advertising) and [[CompuServe]]. Originally, AOL charged its users an hourly fee, but in 1996 this changed and a flat rate of $19.99 a month was charged. Within three years, AOL's userbase would grow to 10 million people. During this time, AOL connections would be flooded with users trying to get on, and many canceled their accounts due to constant busy signals. Also, games which used to be paid for with the hourly fee migrated in droves to the internet. AOL was relatively late in providing access to the open Internet. Originally, only some Internet features were accessible through a proprietary interface but eventually it became possible to run other Internet software while logged in through AOL. They were the first online service to seamlessly integrate a web browser into content. AOL introduced the concept of [[Buddy List]]s, leveraging their one-on-one [[instant messaging]] technology. Since its merger with Time Warner, the value of AOL has dropped from its $200 billion high and it has seen a similar losses among its subscription rate. It has since attempted to reposition itself as a content provider similar to companies such as Yahoo! as opposed to an Internet service provider which delivered content only to subscribers in what was termed a "walled garden.". In 2005, AOL broadcast the [[Live 8]] concert live over the Internet, and thousands of users downloaded clips of the concert over the following months. More recently, AOL has announced plans to offer subscribers classic television programs for free with commercials inserted. Programs available include [[Wonder Woman (television series)|Wonder Woman]] and [[Eight is Enough]]. One of AOL's recently added premium services is AOL Total Talk, a VoiP Internet service. == CD-ROM distribution == {{seealso|AOL disk collecting}} AOL has tirelessly pushed itself through regularly mailing sign-up [[diskette]]s and [[CD-ROM]]s to over 100 million households, helping forge dominant growth. This campaign has been made particuarly effective by the way of these CDs offer free trials. In the early years of AOL's practice of offering free trials with CDs, the trials were usually only a few hours. The trial time has gradually increased, and now the CDs tend to offer a month's free trial. However this long campaign has produced a backlash, including a program called [[No More AOL CDs]] that seeks to gather one million unwanted AOL CDs and dump them at AOL headquarters. Other organizations have objected under both [[environmental]] and [[privacy]] grounds. Environmentalists say that AOL's CDs are largely unwanted and result in massive non-biodegradable plastic waste. However, AOL's mailings have never violated the law, and always interest some people. AOL has also always provided means for people to remove themselves from AOL mailing lists, though No More AOL CDs has documented claims that these removal attempts are sometimes ineffective. Others view [[AOL disk collecting|AOL disks]] as valuable [[collecting|collectible]] items due to the vast number of [[CD-ROM]] design variations. == AOL users' reputation == People using AOL (often referred to as "AOLers") have a reputation online for being excessively [[Newbie|noobish]]&mdash;ignorant of [[netiquette]]. This is in part due to the fact that AOL is aimed towards users who are new to the Internet. To a segment of the online population, an e-mail address ending in ''aol.com'' is a sign of ignorance, to be avoided at all costs. Some web, game, and chat servers even go as far as to ban the AOL hostmask, preventing AOL users from logging on. Additionally, the EFNET [[IRC]] chat network banned all AOL users for a time. However, this reputation doesn't stop ''aol.com'' addresses from being widely used, even in serious business contexts; it is still commonplace in advertisements in non-computer-related publications to see lines like "See our website at '''www.whatever.com''', or e-mail us at '''whatever@aol.com,'''" to the puzzlement of those who believe an address in the company's own domain would be more logical and professional. AOL further provoked disdain from other Internet users in 1994, when AOL began to provide access to the [[Usenet]] bulletin board system for its users. This led to a flood of relatively net-illiterate, commercial, young and immature users into what had previously been the almost exclusive domain of scientists, academics and technical personnel associated with universities and computer companies. The new AOL contingent immediately gained a reputation as pests in Usenet's numerous forums, making near-constant requests for pornography, bootlegged software and hacking information. (See: "[[Me too]].") In early [[2005]], AOL ceased providing newsgroup access, instead referring customers to the [[Google Groups]] site, stating "Google does a very good job of hosting newsgroups and the typical AOL user probably doesn't use newsgroups that often."[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/01/25/aol_cutsoff_newsgroups/] AOL e-mail accounts used to be only accessed using a nonstandard proprietary protocol not supported by other vendors' e-mail programs, compelling users, in the past, to use AOL's own mail program and be subject to its quirks and limitations. [[Claris Em@iler]] was the only third-party email software ever licenced to directly access AOL email until the recent opening of AOL to [[IMAP]] email access. One consequence of the past practice is that when people receive e-mails from AOL users, the address, not the name of the user, is displayed, since the user's real name is not added in the manner that most other mail programs do it. In instances where the AOL user has chosen an alphanumeric alias, eg: "'''jwds75@aol.com'''" rather than "'''John Smith'''", the identity of the user is less clear to the recipient. Also in the past, users of the AOL client software were unable to click on hyperlinks in the text. Many experienced Internet users remain unaware that these inherent limitations of the AOL software are not due to any possible lack of computer skills by AOL users. In a different vein, AOL users also have a reputation in some online communities for disruptive activities. AOL makes use of aggressive [[web cache|web caching]] [[proxy server]]s that effectively makes it impossible for a website, such as a [[wiki]], to block an abusive user without excluding large segments of the entire AOL community. Combined with the fact that their free service offers make it all too easy to join, many [[Internet troll]]s take advantage of this and choose AOL as a preferred means of hiding their true identity, in a manner that is almost as effective as using an [[anonymous proxy]]. This has only served to further harm the reputation of AOL users as a whole and is a large part of why some places implement a policy of banning all AOL users. ==Controversies== ===Community Leaders=== Prior to the middle of 2005, AOL used volunteers called [[America Online Community Leaders Program|Community Leaders]], or CLs, to monitor chatrooms, message boards, and libraries. Some community leaders were recruited for content design and maintenance using a proprietary language and interface called [[RAINMAN]], although most content maintenance was performed by partner and internal employees. In 1999, Kelly Hallissey and Brian Williams, former Community Leaders and founders of an anti-AOL website filed a [[class action lawsuit]] against AOL citing violations of U.S. labor laws in its usage of CLs. The [[Department of Labor]] investigated but came to no conclusions, closing their investigation in 2001. In light of these events, AOL drastically began reducing the responsibilities and privileges of its volunteers in 2000. The program was eventually ended on [[June 8]] [[2005]]. Current Community Leaders at the time were offered 12 months of credit on their accounts. Also for a time AOL had a bot named CATWATCH which would pop into user created private rooms where TOS violations MAY be occuring, and everyone in the room would be disconnected from AOL and get a TOS strike against their account. ===Billing disputes=== AOL has faced a number of lawsuits over claims that it has been slow to stop billing people after their accounts have been cancelled, either by the company or the user. In addition, AOL changed its method of calculating used minutes in response to a class action lawsuit. Previously, AOL would add fifteen seconds to the time a user was connected to the service and round up to the next whole minute (thus, a person who used the service for 11 minutes and 46 seconds would be charged for 13 minutes). AOL claimed this was to account for sign on/sign off time, but because this practice was not made known to its customers, the lawsuit won (some also pointed out that signing on and off did not always take 15 seconds, especially when connecting via another ISP). AOL disclosed its connection time calculation methods to all of its customers and credited them with extra free hours. In addition, the AOL software would notify the user of exactly how long they were connected and how many minutes they were being charged for. ===Account cancellation=== In response to approximately 300 consumer complaints, New York Attorney General [[Eliot Spitzer]]’s office began an inquiry of AOL’s customer service policies. The investigation revealed that the company had an elaborate system for rewarding employees who purported to retain or "save" subscribers who had called to cancel their Internet service. In many instances, such retention was done against subscribers’ wishes, or without their consent. Under the system, consumer service personnel received bonuses worth tens of thousands of dollars if they could successfully dissuade or "save" half of the people who called to cancel service. For several years, AOL had instituted minimum retention or "save" percentages, which consumer representatives were expected to meet. These bonuses, and the minimum "save" rates accompanying them, had the effect of employees not honoring cancellations, or otherwise making cancellation unduly difficult for consumers. Many consumers complained that AOL personnel ignored their demands to cancel service and stop billing. On August 24, 2005, America Online agreed to pay $1.25 million to the state of New York and reformed its customer service procedures. Under the agreement, AOL will no longer require its customer service representatives to meet a minimum quota for customer retention in order to receive a bonus. ===Software=== In 2000, AOL was served with an $8 billion lawsuit alleging that its (now dated) AOL 5.0 software caused significant difficulties for users attempting to use third-party Internet service providers. The lawsuit sought damages of up to $1000 for each user that had downloaded the software cited at the time of the lawsuit. AOL later agreed to a settlement of $15 million, without admission of wrongdoing. === Usenet newsgroups === When AOL gave clients access to [[Usenet]] in 1994, they hid at least one newsgroup in standard list view: ''alt.aol-sucks''. AOL did list the newsgroup in the alternative description view, but changed the description to "Flames and complaints about America Online". === Terms of Service (TOS) === There have been many complaints over rules that govern AOL's members conduct, call the Terms Of Service, which apply/applied to everyone who used AOL, regardless of age, or where an AOL member is on the internet. Claims are that these rules are too strict to follow, do not allow swearing, or a very flexible rule called room disruption. == Company purchases == As it grew, AOL purchased many other software companies, including: *[[BookLink]] bought in December 1994. *[[NaviSoft]]'s [[NaviServer]] (later to become [[AOLserver]]) in 1994. *[[ImagiNation Network|ImagiNation Network (I.N.N.)]] from [[AT&T]] in 1996. *[[CompuServe]] in February 1998. *[[Mirabilis (company)|Mirabilis]] (maker of [[ICQ]]) in 1998. *PLS text-search software in 1998, *[[Nullsoft]] (maker of [[Winamp]]), in 1999 for $86 million *[[Netscape Communications Corporation|Netscape]], in 1999 for $4.2 billion. *[[Mapquest]] in 1999. *[[Tegic]] in December 1999. *[[Singingfish]] search engine, November 2003. *[http://advertising.com Advertising.com], an Internet advertising agency, in June 2004. *[http://mailblocks.com MailBlocks], a personal, Web-based email service, in August 2004. *[http://wildseed.com Wildseed], a privately held mobile software vendor, in August 2005. *[http://xdrive.com Xdrive], a leading provider of online storage and file sharing services, also in August 2005. *[[Weblogs, Inc.]], a blogging network that runs such sites as [[Engadget]], [[Autoblog]], [[Cinematical]] and [[TVSquad]], in October 2005, for $30 million. *[[Truveo, Inc.]], a leading video search company, in December 2005, for an undisclosed value. ==Notable persons associated with AOL== *[[Jim Kimsey]] (former CEO and board chairman) *[[Steve Case]] (former CEO and board chairman) *[[Jan Brandt]] (former President of Marketing) *[[Justin Frankel]] (Nullsoft founder) *[[Ted Leonsis]] (Vice-Chairman, President AOL Audience Group) *[[Michael Powell]] (during merging with [[Time Warner]]) *[[Marc Andreessen]] (Netscape co-founder) *[[Jason Smathers]] (former AOL employee convicted of stealing the Internet provider's entire subscriber list -- over 30 million consumers, and their 90 million screen names -- and selling it to a known spammer.) *[[Jason Calacanis]] (Co-founder of Weblogs, Inc.) ==AOL Computer Checkup== AOL Computer Checkup is a service offered by AOL to AOL members. It is a performance and hardware analyzer, not unlike the scans in [[Norton Utilities]]. ==McAfee== AOL also included McAfee VirusScan and McAfee Firewall Express in some versions ==See also== * [[AOHell]] * [[AOHack programs]] * [[Sessions@AOL]] * [[AOL Browser]] * [[GAMEY]] * [[Ursine:AOL|AOL]] from [[Ursine:Main Page|Ursine]]'s [[Ursine:Jargon|Jargon Wiki]]. * [[Ursine:AOL!|AOL!]] from [[Ursine:Main Page|Ursine]]'s [[Ursine:Jargon|Jargon Wiki]]. ==References== *Klein, Alec (2003). ''Stealing Time: Steve Case, Jerry Levin, and the Collapse of AOL Time Warner''. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-5984-X. *Mehta, Stephanie N. & Vogelstein, Fred (Nov. 14, 2005). "AOL: The Relaunch". ''[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]'', p. 84&ndash;88. ==External links== *[http://www.aol.com/ AOL US] *[http://www.aol.com.br AOL Brasil] *[http://aol.ca AOL Canada] *[http://aol.de AOL Germany] *[http://aol.fr AOL France] *[http://www.aol.com.mx/ AOL México] *[http://aol.co.uk AOL UK] *[http://www.jp.aol.com AOL Japan] *[http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/Fall2000/McAtee/ AOL: A History] *[http://staff.jccc.net/lcline/index.htm AOL Disk Collection] *[http://www.jmusheneaux.com/8000c.htm Important Dates & A Look at AOL's Evolving Interface] *[http://www.nomoreaolcds.com/ The "No More AOL CDs" campaign] *[http://groups.google.com/group/alt.aol-sucks alt.aol-sucks: Anti-AOL Usenet group (via Google)] *[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/TECH/computing/02/02/aol.lawsuit.02/ CNN.com] Disgruntled AOL 5.0 users seek up to $8 billion in damages *[http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-golden27feb27,0,4045957.column?coll=la-home-business/ AOL fraud] {{Time Warner}} [[Category:America Online]] [[Category:Internet service providers]] [[Category:Online service providers]] [[Category:Time Warner subsidiaries]] [[de:America Online]] [[fr:America online]] [[it:America Online]] [[hu:America Online]] [[nl:America Online]] [[ja:AOL]] [[no:America Online]] [[pl:AOL]] [[pt:AOL]] [[sv:America Online]] [[tr:AOL]] [[zh:美国在线]] 1398 42045821 2006-03-03T12:35:31Z Nikai 9759 /* History */ sp {{Current-Math-COTW}} :''This article is about the branch of mathematics. For other uses of the term see [[algebra (disambiguation)]].'' '''Algebra''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: الجبر, ''al-jabr'') is a branch of [[mathematics]] which studies [[structure]] and [[quantity]]. [[Elementary algebra]] is often taught in high school and gives an introduction into the basic ideas of algebra: studying what happens when one adds and multiplies numbers and how one can make [[polynomial]]s and find their roots. Algebra is much broader than [[arithmetic]] and can be generalized. Rather than working on numbers, one can work over [[symbols]] or [[element (mathematics)|elements]]. Addition and multiplication are viewed as general [[operator|operations]], and their precise definitions lead to structures called [[group (mathematics)|groups]], [[ring (mathematics)|rings]] and [[field (mathematics)|fields]]. Together with [[geometry]] and [[mathematical analysis|analysis]], algebra is one of the three main branches of mathematics. ==Classification== Algebra may be roughly divided into the following categories: * '''[[elementary algebra]]''', in which the properties of operations on the [[real number|real number system]] are recorded using symbols as "place holders" to denote [[mathematical constant|constants]] and [[variable]]s, and the rules governing [[mathematical expression]]s and [[equation]]s involving these symbols are studied (note that this usually includes the subject matter of courses called ''intermediate algebra'' and ''college algebra''); * '''[[abstract algebra]]''', sometimes also called ''modern algebra'', in which [[algebraic structure]]s such as [[group (mathematics)|groups]], [[ring (mathematics)|rings]] and [[field (mathematics)|field]]s are [[axiomatization|axiomatically]] defined and investigated; * '''[[linear algebra]]''', in which the specific properties of [[vector space]]s are studied (including [[matrix (mathematics)|matrices]]); * '''[[universal algebra]]''', in which properties common to all algebraic structures are studied. In advanced studies, axiomatic algebraic systems like groups, rings, fields, and algebras over a field are investigated in the presence of a natural [[geometry|geometric]] structure (a [[topology]]) which is compatible with the algebraic structure. The list includes: * [[Normed linear space]]s * [[Banach space]]s * [[Hilbert space]]s * [[Banach algebra]]s * [[Normed algebra]]s * [[Topological algebra]]s * [[Topological group]]s ==Elementary algebra== '''Elementary algebra''' is the most basic form of [[algebra]] taught to students who are presumed to have no knowledge of [[mathematics]] beyond the basic principles of [[arithmetic]]. While in arithmetic only [[number]]s and their arithmetical operations (such as +, &minus;, &times;, ÷) occur, in algebra one also uses symbols (such as ''a'', ''x'', ''y'') to denote numbers. This is useful because: * It allows the general formulation of arithmetical laws (such as <math>a + b = b + a</math> for all ''a'' and ''b''), and thus is the first step to a systematic exploration of the properties of the [[real number|real number system]]. * It allows the reference to "unknown" numbers, the formulation of [[equation]]s and the study of how to solve these (for instance "find a number ''x'' such that <math>3x + 1 = 10</math>). * It allows the formulation of [[function (mathematics)|function]]al relationships (such as "if you sell ''x'' tickets, then your profit will be <math>3x - 10</math> dollars"). ==Abstract algebra== :''Main article: [[Abstract algebra]]; see also [[algebraic structures]]''. '''Abstract algebra''' extends the familiar concepts found in elementary algebra and [[arithmetic]] of [[numbers]] to more general concepts. '''[[Set]]s''': Rather than just considering the different types of [[number]]s, abstract algebra deals with the more general concept of ''sets'': a collection of objects called [[elements]]. All the familiar types of numbers are sets. Other examples of sets include the set of all two by two [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrices]], the set of all second degree [[polynomials]] (''ax''<sup>2</sup>+''bx''+''c''), the set of all two dimensional [[vectors]] in the plane, and the various [[finite groups]] such as the [[cyclic group]]s which are the group of integers modulo ''n''. [[Set theory]] is a branch of [[logic]] and not technically a branch of algebra. '''[[Binary operation]]s''': The notion of [[addition]] (+) is abstracted to give a ''binary operation'', * say. For two elements ''a'' and ''b'' in a set ''S'' ''a''*''b'' gives another element in the set, (technically this condition is called [[Closure (mathematics)|closure]]). [[Addition]] (+), [[subtraction]] (-), [[multiplication]] (&times;), and [[division]] (&divide;) are all binary operations as in addition and multiplication of matrices, vectors, and polynomials. '''[[Identity element]]s''': Zero and one are abstracted to give the notion of an ''identity element''. Zero is the identity element for addition and one is the identity element for multiplication. For a general binary operator * the identity element ''e'' must satisfy ''a''*''e''=''a'' and ''e''*''a''=''a''. This holds for addition as ''a''+0=''a'', and 0+''a''=''a'' and multiplication ''a''&times;''1''=''a'', 1&times;''a''=''a''. However, if we take the positive natural numbers and addition, there is no identity element. '''[[Inverse elements]]''': The negative numbers gives rise to the concept of an ''inverse elements''. For addition the inverse of ''a'' is ''-a'', and for multiplication the inverse is <sup>1</sup>/<sub>''a''</sub>. A general inverse element ''a''<sup>-1</sup> must satisfy the property that ''a''*''a''<sup>-1</sup>=''e'' and ''a''<sup>-1</sup>*''a''=''e''. '''[[Associativity]]''': The integers with addition have a property called associativity: (2+3)+4=2+(3+4). In general this becomes (''a''+''b'')+''c''=''a''+(''b''+''c''). This property is shared by most binary operations, but not subtraction or division. '''[[Commutative operation|Commutativity]]''': The integers with addition also have a property called commutativity: 2+3=3+2. In general this becomes ''a''+''b''=''b''+''a''. Only some binary operations have this property, it holds for the integers with addition and multiplication, but it does not hold for [[matrix multiplication]]. ===Groups=== :''Main article: [[group (mathematics)|group]]; see also [[group theory]], [[examples of groups]]'' Combining the above concepts gives one of the most important structures in mathematics: a '''[[group (mathematics)|group]]'''. A group consists of: *a set ''S'' of elements, *a(closed) binary operation (*) *an identity element exists, *every element has an inverse, *the operation is associative. If commutativity is included as well then we obtain an [[Abelian group]]. For example, the set of integers under the operation of addition is a group. In this group, the identity element is 0 and the inverse of any element ''a'' is its negation, -''a''. The associativity requirement is met since for any integers ''a'', ''b'' and ''c'', <math>(a+b)+c = a+(b+c)</math>. The non-zero [[rational number]]s form a group under multiplication. Here, the identity element is 1, since <math>1 \cdot a = a \cdot 1 = a</math> for any any rational number ''a''. The inverse of ''a'' is <math>\frac{1}{a}</math>, since <math>a \cdot {1 \over a}=1</math>. The integers under the multiplication operation, however, do not form a group. This is because, in general, the multiplicative inverse of an integer is not an integer. For example, 4 is an integer, but its multiplicative inverse is <sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub>, which is not an integer. The theory of groups is studied in [[group theory]]. A major result in this theory is the [[Classification of finite simple groups]] a vast body of work which classified all the is a vast body of work, mostly published between around [[1955]] and [[1983]], which is thought to classify all of the [[finite set|finite]] [[simple group]]s. {|class="wikitable" |- |colspan=11|Examples of groups |- !Set: |colspan=2|[[Natural numbers]] <math>\mathbb{N}</math> |colspan=2|[[Integers]] <math>\mathbb{Z}</math> |colspan=4|[[Rational numbers]] <math>\mathbb{Q}</math> (also [[Real numbers|real]] <math>\mathbb{R}</math> and [[Complex numbers|complex]] <math>\mathbb{C}</math> numbers) |Integers mod 3: {0,1,2} |- !operation | + (including zero) | &times; (excluding zero) | + | &times; (excluding zero) | + | &minus; | &times; (excluding zero) | &divide; (excluding zero) | + |- !Closed |Yes |Yes |Yes |Yes |Yes |Yes |Yes |Yes |Yes |- |identity |0 |1 |0 |1 |0 |NA |1 |NA |0 |- |inverse |NA |NA | -1 |NA | -1 |NA |<sup>1</sup>/<sub>''a''</sub> |NA |0,2,1 receptively |- |Associative |Yes |Yes |Yes |Yes |Yes |No |Yes |No |Yes |- |Commutative |Yes |Yes |Yes |Yes |Yes |No |Yes |No |Yes |- |Structure |[[Magma (algebra)|semigroup]] |[[quasigroup]] |Abelian group |[[Monoid]] |Abelian group |[[quasigroup]] |Abelian group |[[quasigroup]] |Abelian group |} Many other types of algebraic structures exist. Among the most common are [[Ring_(mathematics)|rings]], [[Field_(mathematics)|fields]], and [[Monoid|monoids]]. These different structures can be used to model different types of mathematical objects. Different algebraic structures are often related. For example, a group is a specific kind of monoid, and rings and fields are similar to groups, but with more operations. == Algebras == The word '''''algebra''''' is also used for various [[algebraic structures]]: * [[algebra over a field]] * [[algebra over a set]] * [[Boolean algebra]] * [[sigma-algebra]] * [[F-algebra]] and [[F-coalgebra]] in [[category theory]] ==History== [[Image:Euklid2.jpg|thumb|175px|Hellenistic mathematician [[Euclid]] details [[geometric]]al algebra in ''[[Euclid's Elements|Elements]]''.]] The origins of algebra can be traced to the ancient [[Egyptian mathematics|Egyptians]] and [[Babylonian mathematics|Babylonians]], who used an early type of algebra to solve [[linear equation|linear]], [[quadratic equation|quadratic]], and [[indeterminate (variable)|indeterminate]] equations more than 3,000 years ago. By contrast, most [[Indian mathematics|Indian]] and [[Greek mathematics|Greek]] mathematicians in the [[1st millennium BC]] usually solved such equations by [[geometry|geometric]] methods. *Circa [[100 BC]]: [[Algebraic equations]] are treated in the [[Chinese mathematics]] book ''[[Jiuzhang suanshu]]'' (''[[The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art]]''). *Circa [[100 BC]]: The ''[[Indian mathematics#Bakhshali Manuscript .28200_BC - 400 CE.29|Bakhshali Manuscript]]'' in [[ancient India]] contains algebraic solutions of [[linear equations]] with upto five unknowns, the general algebraic formula for the quadratic equation, quadratic indeterminate equations, and [[simultaneous equations]]. *Circa [[150|150 AD]]: [[Hellenized]] [[Egyptian]] mathematician [[Hero of Alexandria]], treats algebraic equations in three volumes of mathematics. *Circa [[200]]: Hellenized [[Babylonian]] mathematician [[Diophantus]], who lived in Egypt and is often considered as the "father of algebra", writes his famous ''[[Arithmetica]]'', a work featuring solutions of algebraic equations and on the theory of numbers. *[[499]]: Indian mathematician [[Aryabhata]], obtains whole number solutions to linear equations by a method equivalent to the modern one. *[[628]]: Indian mathematician [[Brahmagupta]], invents the method of solving indeterminate equations of the second degree, gives rules for solving linear and quadratic equations, and discovers negative solutions for the [[quadratic equation]]. [[Indian mathematicians]] at the time recognized that [[quadratic equation]]s have two [[root]]s, and included [[Negative and non-negative numbers|negative]] as well as [[irrational number|irrational]] roots. *[[820]]: The word ''algebra'' is derived from operations described in the treatise first written by [[Persian people|Persian]] [[Islamic mathematics|mathematician]] [[Al-Khwarizmi]] titled: ''[[Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah]]'' meaning ''The book of summary concerning calculating by transposition and reduction''. The word ''al-jabr'' means ''"reunion"''. Al-Khwarizmi is often considered as the "father of modern algebra", much of whose works on reduction was included in the book and added to many methods we have in algebra now. *Circa [[1000]]: [[Abu Bakr al-Karaji]], in his treatise ''al-Fakhri'', extends Al-Khwarizmi's methodology to incorporate integral powers and integral roots of unknown quantities. *[[1114]]: Indian mathematician [[Bhaskara II]], who wrote the text ''Bijaganita'' (''Algebra''), recognizes that a positive number has two [[square root]]s, and also solves quadratic indeterminate equations and quadratic equations with more than one unknown. *[[1202]]: Algebra is introduced to [[Europe]] largely through the work of [[Leonardo Fibonacci]] of [[Pisa]] in his work ''[[Liber Abaci]]'' . ==References== *Ziauddin Sardar, Jerry Ravetz, and Borin Van Loon, ''Introducing Mathematics'' (Totem Books, 1999). *Donald R. Hill, ''Islamic Science and Engineering'' (Edinburgh University Press, 1994). *George Gheverghese Joseph, ''The Crest of the Peacock : The Non-European Roots of Mathematics'' (Princeton University Press, 2000). ==See also== {{book}} * [[Fundamental theorem of algebra]] (which is really a theorem of [[mathematical analysis]], not of algebra) * [[Diophantus]], "father of algebra" * Mohammed [[al-Khwarizmi]], also known as "father of modern algebra". [http://www.math.umd.edu/~czorn/hist_algebra.pdf] * [[Computer algebra system]] ==External links== *[http://www.mathleague.com/help/algebra/algebra.htm Explanation of Basic Topics] *[http://www.sparknotes.com/math/#algebra1 Sparknotes' Review of Algebra I and II] *[http://www.jamesbrennan.org/algebra/ ''Understanding Algebra.''] An online algebra text by James W. Brennan. *[http://www.phy6.org/stargaze/Salgeb1.htm Algebra--the basic ideas] &nbsp; &nbsp; First of 6 parts in a short course on basic algebra at the high school level. * [http://www.ucs.louisiana.edu/~sxw8045/history.htm Highlights in the history of algebra] * [http://www.exampleproblems.com ExampleProblems.com] Example problems and solutions from [http://www.exampleproblems.com/wiki/index.php/Algebra basic] and [http://www.exampleproblems.com/wiki/index.php/Abstract_Algebra abstract] algebra. [[Category:Algebra]] [[Category:Arabic words]] [[af:Algebra]] [[ar:جبر]] [[ast:Álxebra]] [[bg:Алгебра]] [[bn:বীজগণিত]] [[ca:Àlgebra]] [[co:Algebra]] [[cs:Algebra]] [[cy:Algebra]] [[da:Algebra]] [[de:Algebra]] [[et:Algebra]] [[es:Álgebra]] [[eo:Algebro]] [[fa:جبر]] [[fr:Algèbre]] [[ko:대수학]] [[io:Algebro]] [[id:Aljabar]] [[is:Algebra]] [[it:Algebra]] [[he:אלגברה]] [[la:Algebra]] [[lt:Algebra]] [[mk:Алгебра]] [[ms:Algebra]] [[nl:Algebra]] [[ja:代数学]] [[no:Algebra]] [[pl:Algebra]] [[pt:Álgebra]] [[ru:Алгебра]] [[sco:Algebra]] [[simple:Algebra]] [[sk:Algebra]] [[sr:Алгебра]] [[fi:Algebra]] [[sv:Algebra]] [[tl:Aldyebra]] [[vi:Đại số]] [[tr:Cebir]] [[uk:Алгебра]] [[zh:代数]] 1399 35049757 2006-01-13T19:28:07Z Wknight94 352579 ADHD most often means the disorder. Will put a link to the band there #REDIRECT [[Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] 1400 41673027 2006-02-28T23:54:04Z Phil Boswell 24373 migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]] {{redirect|AD}} '''Anno Domini''' ("In the Year of the Lord"), abbreviated as '''AD''' or '''A.D.''' defines an [[epoch]] based on the traditionally-reckoned year of the birth (or actually [[Incarnation#Christianity|Incarnation]]) of [[Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]]. This is the designation used to number years in the '''Christian Era''', conventionally used with the [[Julian calendar|Julian]] and [[Gregorian calendar]]s. <br> "Before Christ", abbreviated as '''BC''' or '''B.C.''' is now usually used to denote years before Anno Domini years in [[English language]]. <br> More extensive, the years may be also designed by ''Anno Domini Nostri Iesu Christi,'' in English translation from [[Latin]]: "In the Year of Our Lord Jesus Christ". This Christian era is currently dominant all around the world in both commercial and scientific use. <br> Presently, it is the common, international standard, recognised by international institutions such as the [[United Nations]] and the [[Universal Postal Union]]. <br> This is due both to the [[tradition]] and to the fact that the solar [[Gregorian calendar]] has long time been considered to be astronomically correct.{{Ref|gregorian}} The English usage adheres to the traditional practice of placing the abbreviation before the year, as in Latin (e.g., 64 BC, but AD 2001). [[image:scriptorium.jpg|frame|[[Dionysius Exiguus]] invented ''Anno Domini'' years to [[computus|date Easter]].]] == Synonyms == === Common Era === Anno Domini is sometimes referred to as the [[Common Era]] (''CE'') instead. This term is often preferred by those who want to avoid the association with the Christian era. For example, Cunningham and Starr (1998) write that "B.C.E./C.E. ... do not presuppose faith in Christ and hence are more appropriate for interfaith dialog than the conventional B.C./A.D." When the [[People's Republic of China]] abolished the [[Republic of China]] era in [[1949]], it adopted Western years, calling that era ''gōngyuán'', 公元, which literally means Common Era. === Anno Salutis === Anno Salutis (often translated from [[Latin]] as ''in the year of salvation'') is a dating style used up until the eighteenth century, which like Anno Domini dates years from the birth of [[Christ]]. It can be explained in the context of Christian belief, where the birth of Jesus saved mankind from [[eternal damnation]]. It is often used in a more elaborate form such as Anno Nostrae Salutis (''in the year of our salvation''), Anno Salutis Humanae (''in the year of human well-being''), Anno Reparatae Salutis (''in the year of accomplished salvation''). == Numbering of years == Historians do not use a [[year zero]] — AD 1 is the first year or epoch of the Anno Domini era, and 1 BC immediately precedes it as the first year before the epoch. This is a problem with some calculations; so in [[astronomical year numbering]] a zero is added, and the 'AD' and 'BC' are dropped. In keeping with 'standard decimal numbering', a negative sign '−' is added for earlier years, so counting down from year 2 would give 2, 1, 0, −1, −2, and so on. This results in a one-year shift between the two systems (eg −1 equals 2 BC). This article, however, is about the civil usage without a year zero. == Earlier calendar epochs == ''Anno Domini'' dating was not adopted in Western Europe until the eighth century. Like the other inhabitants of the [[Roman Empire]], early Christians used one of several methods to indicate a specific year — and it was not uncommon for more than one to be used in the same document. This redundancy allows historians to construct parallel regnal lists for many kingdoms and polities by comparing chronicles from different regions, which include the same rulers. ===Consular dating=== The earliest and most common practice was Roman '[[consul]]ar' dating. This involved naming both ''consulares ordinares'' who had been appointed to this office on [[January 1]] of the civil year. Sometimes one or both consuls might not be appointed until November or December of the previous year, and news of the appointment may not have reached parts of the Roman empire for several months into the current year; thus we find the occasional inscription where the year is defined as "after the consulate" of a pair of consuls. ===Dating from the founding of Rome=== Another method of dating, rarely used, was to indicate the year ''[[ab urbe condita]]'', or "from the foundation of the City" (abbreviated AUC), where "the City" meant [[Rome]]. Several epochs were in use by Roman historians. Modern historians usually adopt the epoch of [[Varro]], which we place in 753 BC. About AD 400 the Iberian historian [[Orosius]] used the ''ab urbe condita'' era. Pope [[Boniface IV]] (about AD 600) may have been the first to use both the ''ab urbe condita'' era and the ''Anno Domini'' era (he put AD 607 = AUC 1360). ===Regnal years of Roman emperors=== Another system that is less commonly found than thought was to use the [[regnal year]] of the [[Roman emperor]]. At first, [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]] would indicate the year of his rule by counting how many times he had held the office of consul, and how many times the [[Roman Senate]] had granted him [[Tribune|Tribunican]] powers, carefully observing the fiction that his powers came from these offices granted to him, rather than from his own person or the many [[legion]]s under his control. His successors followed his practice until the memory of the [[Roman Republic]] faded (late in the second century or early in the third century), when they openly began to use their regnal year. ===Indiction cycles=== Another common system was to use the [[indiction]] cycle (15 indictions made up an agricultural tax cycle, an indiction being a year in duration). Documents and events began to be dated by the year of the cycle (e.g., "fifth indiction", "tenth indiction") in the fourth century, and was used long after the tax was no longer collected. This system was used in [[Gaul]], in [[Egypt]] until the [[History of early Arab Egypt | Islamic conquest]], and in the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] until its conquest in [[1453]]. ===Other dating systems=== A great many local systems or [[era]]s were also important, for example the year from the foundation of one particular city, the regnal year of the neighboring [[History of Persia | Persian emperor]], and eventually even the year of the reigning [[Caliph]]. The beginning of the numbered year also varied from place to place, and was not largely standardized in [[Europe]] (except [[England]]) as [[January 1]] until the sixteenth century. The most important of these include the [[Seleucid era]] (in use until the eighth century), and the [[Spanish era]] (in use in official documents in [[Aragon]], [[Valencia]], and in [[Castile]], into the fourteenth century. In 1422, [[Portugal]] became the last country of [[western Europe]] to adopt the ''Anno Domini'' era). == History of ''Anno Domini'' == Early Christians designated the year via a combination of consular dating, imperial regnal year dating, and Creation dating. Use of consular dating ended when the emperor [[Justinian I]] discontinued appointing consuls in the mid sixth century, shortly after he required that the use of imperial regnal dating. The last consul nominated was [[Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius]] in 541. The [[papacy]] was in regular contact throughout the [[Middle Ages]] with envoys of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] world, and had a clear idea — sudden deaths and deposals notwithstanding — of who was the [[Byzantine emperor]] at any one time. The ''Anno Domini'' system was developed by a [[Scythia]]n monk named [[Dionysius Exiguus]] in Rome in 525, as an outcome of his work on calculating the [[computus|date of Easter]]. Byzantine chroniclers like [[Theophanes]] continued to date each year in their world chronicles on a different Judaeo-Christian basis — from the notional [[Creation (theology)|creation]] of the World as calculated by Christian scholars in the first five centuries of the Christian era. These eras, sometimes called ''[[Anno Mundi]]'', "year of the world" (abbreviated AM), by modern scholars, had their own disagreements. No single Anno Mundi epoch was dominant. One popular formulation was that established by [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], a historian at the time of [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine I]]. The [[Latin]] translator [[Jerome]] helped popularize Eusebius's AM count in the West. Another formulation, dominant in the East during the early centuries of the Byzantine Empire, was developed by the [[Alexandria]]n monk [[Anninus of Alexandria|Anninus]]. === Accuracy=== Almost all [[Biblical]] scholars believe that Dionysius was incorrect in his calculation, and that the date claimed for Jesus' birth was between 8 BC and 4 BC. The birth of Christ is known to have preceded the death of [[Herod the Great]] which occurred in 4 BC according to [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]]. === Popularization === The first historian or chronicler to use Anno Domini as his primary dating mechanism was [[Victor of Tonnenna]], an African chronicler of the seventh century. A few generations later, the [[Anglo-Saxon]] historian [[Bede]], who was familiar with the work of Dionysius, also used Anno Domini dating in his ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People,'' finished in 731. In this same history, he was the first to use the Latin equivalent of ''before Christ'' and established the standard for historians of no [[year zero]], even though he used zero in his [[computus]]. Both Dionysius and Bede regarded Anno Domini as beginning at the incarnation, or conception, of Jesus, not his birth approximately nine months later (''[[Annunciation]] style''). On the continent of [[Europe]], Anno Domini was introduced as the era of choice of the [[Carolingian Renaissance]] by [[Alcuin]]. This endorsement by [[Charlemagne]] and [[List of Frankish Kings | his successors]] popularizing the usage of the epoch and spreading it throughout the [[Carolingian Empire]] ultimately lies at the core of the system's prevalence until present times. Outside the Carolingian Empire, Spain continued to date by the [[Era of the Caesars]], or [[Spanish Era]], well into the Middle Ages, which counted beginning with 38 BC. The [[Era of Martyrs]], which numbered years from the accession of [[Diocletian]] in [[284]], who launched the last yet most severe persecution of Christians, prevailed in the East and is still used officially by the [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic]] and used to be used by the [[Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian]] church. Another system was to date from the [[crucifixion]] of Jesus Christ, which as early as [[Hippolytus (writer)|Hippolytus]] and [[Tertullian]] was believed to have occurred in the consulate of the Gemini (AD 29), which appears in the occasional medieval manuscript. Even though Anno Domini was in widespread use by the ninth century, Before Christ (or its equivalent) did not become widespread until the late fifteenth century. == Other eras in official use == Some other eras were in official use in [[Modern Europe|modern times]] or are still in use in several countries alongside the current international Anno Domini era. === European attempts === * The [[French Revolution]] seriously attempted to displace the Anno Domini system by instead dating from 22 September 1792 = 1 vendémiaire an I (''an'' means year in [[French language|French]]) of the [[First French Republic]]. (''see'' [[French Revolutionary Calendar]]). Napoléon finally abolished the calendar effective [[1 January]] [[1806]], the day after 10 nivôse an XIV. * The [[Fascism|Italian Fascists]] used the standard system along with [[Roman numerals]] to denote the number of years since the establishment of the Fascist government in [[1922]]. Therefore, 1934, for example, was Year XII. This era was abolished with the fall of fascism in Italy on [[July 25]], [[1943]]. <br> ''Both attempts ultimately failed to replace the standard calendar.'' === Asian national eras === * The official [[Japanese era name|Japanese system]] numbers years from the accession of the current [[Emperor of Japan|emperor]], regarding the calendar year during which the accession occurred as the first year. * It is still very common in [[Taiwan]] to date events via the [[Republic of China]] era, whose first year is [[1912]]. * [[North Korea]] uses a system that starts in 1912 (= [[Juche]] 1), the year of the birth of their founder [[Kim Il-Sung]]. The year 2004 was "Juche 93". ''Juche'' means ''"[[autarchy]], self-reliance"''. * In [[Thailand]] in 1888 King [[Chulalongkorn]] decreed a National Thai Era since founding of [[Bangkok]] on 1782, April 6. In 1912 the New Year's Day was shifted to April 1. In [[1941]], the Prime Ministre [[Phibunsongkhram]] decided to count the years since B.C. 543. This is the so-called [[Thai solar calendar]] or Thailand Buddhist Era clearly relied on the western solar calendar. This is one of the versions of the [[Buddhist calendar]]. === Religious eras === * In [[Israel]], the traditional [[Hebrew calendar]], using an era [[Anno mundi|dating from Creation]], is in official use. * In the [[Islam]]ic world, traditional [[Islamic calendar|Islamic dating]] according to the ''Anno Hegiræ'' (in the year of the ''[[Hijra (Islam)|hijra]]'') era remains in use to a varying extent, especially for religious purposes. ==See also== {{wiktionarypar2|AD|Anno Domini}} * [[Calendar]] * [[Calendar era]] * [[Chronology]] ==References== * {{cite book | last = Declercq | first = Georges | title = Anno Domini: The origins of the Christian era | location = Turnhout | publisher = Brepols | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 2503510507 }} (despite beginning with 2, it is English) * ———. "Dionysius Exiguus and the Introduction of the Christian Era". ''Sacris Erudiri'' 41 (2002): 165–246. An annotated version of part of ''Anno Domini''. * {{cite book | last = Richards | first = E. G. | title = Mapping Time | location = Oxford | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0192862057 }} * {{cite web | author = John Riggs | year = January-February 2003 | url = http://www.ucc.org/ucnews/jan03/asiseeit.htm | title = Whatever happened to B.C. and A.D., and why? | publisher =United Church News | accessdate = December 19 | accessyear = 2005 }} * {{cite book | author = Philip A Cunningham | coauthors = Arthur F Starr | year = 1998 | title = Sharing Shalom: A Process for Local Interfaith Dialogue Between Christians and Jews | publisher = Paulist Press | id = ISBN 0809138352 }} == Note == * {{note|gregorian}} [1] The mean year of the Gregorian calendar is 365.2425 days. This approximated the mean tropical year more than five millennia ago. The real (mean) [[tropical year]] is now very close to 365.2421875 days i.e. 27s/year shorter. However, relative to the [[vernal equinox]] year, important for the determination of the date of Christian [[Easter]], the older [[Aloysius Lilius|Lilius]] definition of the year is and will be a very good value. The ''vernal equinox year'' and the ''mean tropical year'' have falsely been seen as identical even by many erudite persons of the 20th century. * The approximation of the year in the old [[Persian calendar]] attributed to [[Omar Khayyám]] is 365.24<font style="text-decoration: overline">24</font> days, which is very close to the vernal equinox year, but requires a 33-year cycle. * The definition of [[Milutin Milanković]], used in the "[[revised Julian calendar]]", is 365.24<font style="text-decoration: overline">22</font> days, which is very close to the mean tropical year, but uses unequal long-period cycles. ==External links== *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03738a.htm ''The Catholic Encyclopedia,'' s.v. "General Chronology"] {{featured article}} [[Category:Calendars]] [[Category:Christian history]] [[Category:Chronology]] [[Category:Latin religious phrases]] [[da:Anno Domini]] [[de:Anno Domini]] [[el:M.X.]] [[es:Era cristiana]] [[fi:Jälkeen Kristuksen]] [[fr:Anno Domini]] [[ga:Anno_Domini]] [[he:ספירת הנוצרים]] [[ja:西暦]] [[la:Anno Domini]] [[nl:Anno Domini]] [[pl:N.e.]] [[pt:A.C.]] [[sw:Baada ya Kristo]] [[th:คริสต์ศักราช]] [[vi:Công Nguyên]] [[zh:公元]] 1404 41960714 2006-03-02T22:16:40Z McCart42 71251 add approval voting '''AV''' may mean: *Adult video, see [[Pornography]] *[[AltaVista]], a search engine *[[Alterac Valley]], a [[player versus player]] [[instance dungeon]] in the [[MMORPG]] ''[[World of Warcraft]]'' *Alternative Vote, see [[Instant-runoff voting]] *[[Angela Via]], a singer *[[Anguilla]] ([[List of FIPS country codes|FIPS 10-4 code]] and obsolete [[NATO country code|NATO digram]]) *[[Antelope Valley]], a desert region of northern [[Los Angeles County, California]], in the [[United States|US]] *Anti-virus, see [[Anti-virus software]] *[[Artificial vagina]], a sex-toy *[[Audio-visual]], see [[Video]] *Authorised Version or [[King James Version of the Bible]] *[[Avatar (virtual reality)]], a representation of a user in virtual reality *Avenue, see [[Road]] ('''Ave.''' is more frequent) *[[Average]] *[[Avianca]]; AV is the [[IATA]] code for this airline *[[Arcade Volleyball]], an [[MS-DOS]] [[Computer and video games|computer game]] *[[Approval Voting]] '''Av''' may mean: * [[Av (month)|Av]], a month in the Hebrew calendar '''aV''' may mean: *[[atto]][[volt]], an SI unit of electromotive force '''av''' may mean: *[[Avar language]]; [[ISO 639-1]] code for this language {{2LCdisambig}} [[de:AV]] [[ko:AV]] [[it:Av]] [[ja:AV]] [[sl:AV]] [[zh:AV]] 1406 40631827 2006-02-21T23:19:16Z Hede2000 284384 +da: In [[chemistry]], especially in [[organic chemistry]] and [[biochemistry]], an '''amino group''' is an [[ammonia]]-like [[functional group]] composed of a [[nitrogen]] and two [[hydrogen]] atoms covalently linked. :-{{nitrogen}}{{hydrogen}}<sub>2</sub> It is a basic functional group that can give the [[free electron pair]] of the nitrogen atom to the proton of an [[acid]]. In this process, it becomes positively charged. A compound containing an amino group is called an [[amine]]. ==See also== * [[Amino acid]] * [[Amino Communications]] * [[Amino Software]] {{organic-compound-stub}} [[Category:Functional groups]] [[ca:Grup amino]] [[da:Amin]] [[de:Aminogruppe]] [[es:Grupo amino]] [[eo:Aminogrupo]] [[ja:&#12450;&#12511;&#12494;&#22522;]] [[ko:아미노기]] [[pl:Grupa aminowa]] [[ru:Аминогруппа]] 1407 15899892 2002-10-09T13:59:00Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]] #REDIRECT [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]] 1408 40414027 2006-02-20T10:30:52Z Xareu bs 380341 [[Image:Raban-Maur Alcuin Otgar.jpg|thumb|[[Rabanus Maurus]] (left), supported by Alcuin (middle), presents his work to Otgar of Mainz ]] '''Flaccus Albinus Alcuinus''' or '''Ealhwine''' (c. [[735]]-[[May 19]], [[804]]) was a [[Monasticism|monk]] from [[York, England]]. He was related to [[Willibrord]], [[Anglo-Saxon]] [[missionary]] to the [[Frisian]]s and the first [[bishop of Utrecht]], whose biography he afterwards wrote. Alcuin of York had a long career as a teacher and scholar first at the school at York (now known as St Peters School, York, founded AD [[627]]) and lastly as [[Charlemagne]]'s leading advisor on ecclesiastical and educational affairs. From [[796]] until his death he was [[abbot]] of the great [[monastery]] of [[Martin of Tours|St. Martin of Tours]]. He was educated at the cathedral school of York, under the celebrated master [[Ethelbert of York]], with whom he also went to [[Rome]] seeking [[manuscript]]s. When [[Ethelbert]] was appointed [[Archbishop of York]] in [[766]], Alcuin succeeded him in the headship of the episcopal school. He again went to [[Rome]] in [[780]], to fetch the ''[[pallium]]'' for Archbishop [[Eanbald I of York]], and at [[Parma]] met Charlemagne. Charlemagne persuaded him to come to his court and gave him the possession of the great abbeys of [[Ferrieres]] and [[Saint-Loup]] at [[Troyes]]. From [[782]] to [[790]], Alcuin had as pupils the king of the Franks, his kinsmen, the young men sent for their education to the court, and the young [[cleric]]s attached to the palace chapel; he was the life and soul of the Academy of the palace, and we have still, in the ''Dialogue of Pepin (son of Charlemagne) and Alcuin'', a sample of the intellectual exercises in which they indulged. One surviving tool of the drive to reform [[education]] is Charlemagne's circular letter ''De Litteris Colendis'', "On the Study of Letters", which Alcuin wrote. In [[790]] Alcuin went back to England, to which he had always been greatly attached, and dwelt there for some time; but Charlemagne invited him back to help in the fight against the [[Adoptionism|Adoptionist]] [[heresy]], which was at that time making great progress in Toledo [[Spain]], the old capital town of the [[Visigoths]] and still a major city for the Christians under Islamic rule in Spain. He is believed to have had contacts with [[Beato de Liébana]], from the [[Kingdom of Asturias]], who fighted against Adoptionism. At the [[Council of Frankfurt]] in [[794]], Alcuin upheld the [[orthodox]] doctrine, and obtained the condemnation of the ''heresiarch'' [[Felix of Urgel]]. After this victory he again went back to England, but on account of the disturbances which broke out there, and which led to the death of King [[Ethelred]] ([[796]]), he left it forever. Charlemagne had given him the great abbey of St. Martin at Tours, where he was to pass his last years. He made the abbey school into a model of excellence, and many students flocked to it; he had many manuscripts copied, the [[calligraphy]] of which is of outstanding beauty. He wrote many letters to his friends in England, to [[Arno, bishop of Salzburg]], and above all to Charlemagne. These letters, of which 311 are extant, are filled mainly with pious meditations, but they further form a mine of information as to the literary and social conditions of the time, and are the most reliable authority for the history of [[humanism]] in the [[Carolingian]] age. He also trained the numerous monks of the abbey in piety, and it was in the midst of these pursuits that he died. Alcuin is the most prominent figure of the [[Carolingian Renaissance]], in which three main periods have been distinguished: in the first of these, up to the arrival of Alcuin at the court, the [[Italy|Italian]]s occupy the central place; in the second, Alcuin and the Anglo-Saxons are dominant; in the third, which begins in [[804]], the influence of the [[Visigoth]] [[Theodulf]] is preponderant. Alcuin transmitted to the [[Franks]] the knowledge of Latin culture which had existed in England. We still have a number of his works. His letters have already been mentioned; his [[poetry]] is equally interesting. Besides some graceful epistles in the style of [[Fortunatus]], he wrote some long poems, and notably a whole history in verse of the church at York: ''Versus de patribus, regibus et sanctis Eboracensis ecclesiae''. We owe to him, too, some manuals used in his educational work; a [[grammar]] and works on [[rhetoric]] and [[dialectics]]. They are written in the form of [[dialogue]]s, and in the two last the interlocutors are Charlemagne and Alcuin. He also wrote several [[theological]] treatises: a ''De fide Trinitatis'', commentaries on the [[Bible]], etc. [[Alcuin College]], part of the [[University of York]], is named after him. == Further reading == *''Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools'' by Andrew Fleming West ISBN 083711635X ==External links== * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Alcuin}} {{wikiquote}} [[Category:804 deaths]] [[Category:Middle Ages]] [[Category:English theologians]] [[Category:Anglo-Saxon people]] [[Category:Roman Catholic monks]] [[bg:Алкуин]] [[da:Alcuin]] [[de:Alkuin]] [[es:Alcuino de York]] [[fr:Alcuin]] [[gl:Alcuino de York]] [[nl:Alcuinus]] [[ja:アルクィン]] [[pl:Alkuin]] [[pt:Alcuíno de Iorque]] [[sk:Alcuin]] [[fi:Alkuin]] [[uk:Алкуін]] 1409 41299126 2006-02-26T10:48:18Z Chris93 399696 '''Angilbert,''' (died [[February 18]], [[814]]), was a [[Franks|Frank]] who served [[Charlemagne]] as a diplomat, abbot, and semi-son-in-law. He was of noble Frankish parentage, and educated at the palace school under [[Alcuin]]. When Charlemagne sent his young son [[Pepin of Italy|Pepin]] to Italy as King of the [[Lombards]] Angilbert went along as ''primicerius palatii,'' a high administrator of the satellite court. As the friend and adviser of Pepin, he assisted for a while in the government of Italy. Angilbert delivered the document on [[Iconoclasm]] from the Frankish Synod of Frankfurt to [[Pope Adrian I]], and was later sent on three important embassies to the pope, in 792, 794 and 796. In [[790]] he was named abbot of Saint-Riquier in northern France (often called by its Roman name, Centula), where his brilliant rule gained for him later the renown of a saint. It was not uncommon for the [[Merovingian]], [[Carolingian]], or later kings to make laymen abbots of monasteries; the layman would often use the income of the monastery as his own and leave the monks a bare minimum for the necessary expenses of the foundation. Angilbert, in contrast, spent a great deal rebuilding Saint-Riquier, and when he completed it Charlemagne spent Easter of the year 800 there. Angilbert's non-sacramental relationship with Bertha was evidently recognized by the court - if she had not been the daughter of the King historians might refer to her as his ''concubine.'' They had at least two sons, one of whom, [[Nithard]], became a notable figure in the mid-9th century. Control of [[marriage]] and the meanings of legitimacy were hotly contested in the [[Middle Ages]]. Bertha and Angilbert are an example of how resistance to the idea of a sacramental marriage could coincide with holding church offices. His poems reveal the culture and tastes of a man of the world, enjoying the closest intimacy with the imperial family. He accompanied Charlemagne to Rome in 800 and was one of the witnesses to his will in 814. Angilbert was the [[Homer]] of the emperor's literary circle, and was the probable author of an [[epic poetry|epic]], of which the fragment which has been preserved describes the life at the palace and the meeting between Charlemagne and Leo III. It is a mosaic from [[Virgil]], [[Ovid]], [[Lucan]] and [[Fortunatus]], composed in the manner of Einhard's use of Suetonius, and exhibits a true poetic gift. Of the shorter poems, besides the greeting to Pippin on his return from the campaign against the [[Avars]] (796), an epistle to David (Charlemagne) incidentally reveals a delightful picture of the poet living with his children in a house surrounded by pleasant gardens near the emperor's palace. The reference to Bertha, however, is distant and respectful, her name occurring merely on the list of princesses to whom he sends his salutation. Angilbert's poems have been published by [[E. Dummler]] in the ''[[Monumenta Germaniae Historica]]''. For criticisms of this edition see [[Traube]] in ''Roederer's Schriften für germanische Philologie'' (1888). See also [[A. Molinier]], ''Les Sources de l'histoire de France''. {{1911}} [[Category:Frankish people]] [[Category:814 deaths]] [[de:Angilbert]] [[fr:Saint Angilbert]] 1410 15899895 2002-10-09T13:59:20Z Magnus Manske 4 #REDIRECT [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]] #REDIRECT [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]] 1412 42095651 2006-03-03T20:19:42Z V8rik 195918 By [[organic oxidation|oxidation]] to [[nitroso]] compounds, for instance [[Peroxymonosulfuric acid]]. [[image:ammonia.png|frame|Ammonia]] '''Amines''' are [[organic compound]]s and a type of [[functional group]] that contain [[nitrogen]] as the key atom. Structurally amines resemble [[ammonia]], wherein one or more [[hydrogen]] atoms are replaced by organic [[substituent]]s such as [[alkyl]] and [[aryl]] groups. An important exception to this rule is that compounds of the type RC(O)NR<sub>2</sub>, where the C(O) refers to a [[carbonyl group]], are called [[amide]]s rather than amines. Amides and amines have different structures and properties, so the distinction is chemically important. Somewhat confusing is the fact that amines wherein an N-H group has been replaced by an N-M group (M = metal) are also called amides. Thus (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>NLi is lithium dimethylamide. See the [[:Category:Amines]] for a list of types of amine and some real examples of this class of chemical. ==Introduction== ===Aliphatic Amines=== As displayed in the images below, '''primary amines''' arise when one of three hydrogen atoms in ammonia is replaced by an organic substituent. '''Secondary amines''' have two organic substituents bound to N together with one H. In '''tertiary amines''' all three hydrogen atoms are replaced by organic substituents. Note: the subscripts on the '''R''' groups are simply used to differentiate the organic substituents <!--superscripts are preferred-->. However, the number subscripts on the H atoms show how many H atoms there are in that group. {| border="0" spacing="5" align="center" |- valign="top" | '''Primary Amine:'''<br />[[image:amina1.png|75px|primary amine]] | '''Secondary Amine:'''<br />[[image:amina2.png|75px|secondary amine]] | '''Tertiary Amine:'''<br />[[image:amina3.png|75px|tertiary amine]] |} Similarly, an organic compound with multiple amino groups is called a '''diamine''' , '''triamine''', '''tetraamine''' and so forth. ===Aromatic amines=== Aromatic amines have the nitrogen atom connected to an [[aromatic]] ring as in [[aniline]]s. The aromatic ring strongly decreases the [[base (chemistry)|basicity]] of the amine, depending on its substituents. Interestingly, the presence of an amine group strongly increases the reactivity of the aromatic ring, due to an electron-donating affect. One [[organic reaction]] involving aromatic amines is the [[Goldberg reaction]]. ==Naming conventions== * the prefix "N-" shows substitution on the nitrogen atom (in the case of secondary, tertiary and quaternary amines) * as prefix: "amino-" * as suffix: "-amine" * remember that chemical compounds are not proper nouns, so lower case is indicated throughout. Systematic names for some common amines: {| border="0" align="center" spacing="5" |- valign="top" align="center" | Lower amines are named with the suffix ''-amine''.<br /> [[image:methylamine.png|100px]]<br /> '''methylamine''' | Higher amines have the prefix ''amino'' as a functional group.<br /> [[image:2-amino-pentane.png|150px]]<br /> '''2-aminopentane'''<br/>(or sometimes: ''pent-2-yl-amine'' or ''pentane-2-amine'') |} *Primary amines: 2-aminoethanol or [[ethanolamine]] *Secondary amines: [[dimethylamine]] *Tertiary amines: [[trimethylamine]] ==Physical properties== ===General properties=== * 1. [[Hydrogen bonding]] significantly influences the properties of primary and secondary amines as well as the protonated derivatives of all amines. Thus the [[boiling point]] of amines is higher than those for the corresponding [[phosphine]]s, but generally lower than the corresponding [[alcohol]]s. Alcohols, or alkanols, resemble amines but feature an -OH group in place of NR<sub>2</sub>. Since oxygen is more [[electronegative]] than nitrogen, RO-''H'' is typically more acidic than the related R<sub>2</sub>N-''H'' compound. * 2. Methyl, dimethyl, trimethyl, and ethyl amines are gases under standard conditions. Most common alkyl amines are liquids; high [[molecular weight]] amines are, of course, solids. * 3. Gaseous amines possess a characteristic ammonia smell, liquid amines have a distinctive "fishy" smell. * 4. Most aliphatic amines display some solubility in water, reflecting their ability to form hydrogen bonds. Solubility decreases with the increase in the number of carbon atoms, especially when the carbon atom number is greater than 6. * 5. Aliphatic amines display significant solubility in organic [[solvent]]s, especially polar organic solvents. Primary amines react with [[ketone]]s such as [[acetone]], and most amines are incompatible with [[chloroform]] and [[carbon tetrachloride]]. * 6. The aromatic amines have their lone pair electrons [[conjugated system|conjugated]] into the benzene ring, thus their tendency to engage in hydrogen bonding is diminished. Otherwise they display the following properties: ** Their boiling points are usually still high <!--"higher": than what?-->due to their larger size. ** Diminished solubility in water, although they retain their solubitity in suitable organic solvents only. ** They are toxic <!-- which one has: b.p.184 C?--> and are easily absorbed through the skin: thus hazardous. [[Image:Inversion_of_Amine.PNG|200px|right|amine inversion]] === Chirality=== Tertiary amines of the type NHRR' and NRR'R" are [[optical isomer|chiral]]: the nitrogen atom bears four distinct substituents counting the lone pair. The energy barrier for the [[Walden inversion|inversion]] of the stereocenter is relatively low, e.g. ~7 kcal/mol for a trialkylamine. The interconversion of the stereoisomers has been compared to the inversion of an open umbrella in to a strong wind. Because of this low barrier, amines such as NHRR' cannot be resolved optically and NRR'R" can only be resolved when the R, R', and R" groups are constrained in cyclic structures. ===Properties as bases=== Like ammonia, amines act as [[base (chemistry)|bases]] and are reasonably strong (see table for examples of [[conjugate acid]] K<sub>a</sub> values). The basicity of amines depends on: #The availability of lone pair on N. #The electronic properties of the substituents (alkyl groups enhance the basicity, aryl groups diminish it). #The degree of solvation of the protonated amine. The nitrogen atom features a [[lone electron pair]] that can bind H<sup>+</sup> to form an [[ammonium ion]] R<sub>3</sub>NH<sup>+</sup>. The lone electron pair is represented in this article by a two dots above or next to the N. The water [[solubility]] of simple amines is largely due to [[hydrogen bonding]] between protons on the water molecules and these lone electron pairs. * [[Inductive effect]] of alkyl groups {| class="toccolours" style="float: center; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0em 1em;" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" ! Ions of compound ! K<sub>b</sub> |- | [[Ammonia]] NH<sub>3</sub> | 1.8&middot;10<sup>-5</sup> M |- | [[Methylamine]] CH<sub>3</sub>NH<sub>2</sub> | 4.4&middot;10<sup>-4</sup> M |- | [[propylamine]] CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>NH<sub>2</sub> | 4.7&middot;10<sup>-4</sup> M |- | [[2-propylamine]] (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CHNH<sub>2</sub> | 5.3&middot;10<sup>-4</sup> M |- | [[diethylamine]] (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>NH<sub>2</sub> | 9.6&middot;10<sup>-4</sup> M |} : +I effect of alkyl groups raises the energy of the lone pair of electrons, thus elevating the basicity. * [[Mesomeric effect]] of aromatic systems {| class="toccolours" style="float: center; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0em 1em;" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" ! Ions of compound ! K<sub>b</sub> |- | [[Ammonia]] NH<sub>3</sub> | 1.8&middot;10<sup>-5</sup> M |- | [[Aniline]] C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>NH<sub>2</sub> | 3.8&middot;10<sup>-10</sup> M |- | [[4-methylphenylamine]] 4-CH<sub>3</sub>C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>NH<sub>2</sub> | 1.2&middot;10<sup>-9</sup> M |} : +M effect of aromatic ring delocalise the lone pair electron into the ring, resulting in decreased bascitiy. The degree of protonation of protonated amines: {| class="toccolours" style="float: center; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0em 1em;" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" ! Ions of compound ! Maximum number of H-bond |- | NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup> | 4 Very Soluble in H<sub>2</sub>O |- | RNH<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup> | 3 |- | R<sub>2</sub>NH<sub>2</sub><sup>+</sup> | 2 |- | R<sub>3</sub>NH<sup>+</sup> | 1 Least Soluble in H<sub>2</sub>O |} <!-- the following statement is incorrect or excessively vague: "Protonated ammonia is heavily solvated, making the cation most stable."--> == Synthesis == The following laboratory methods exist for the preparation of amines: * via the [[Gabriel synthesis]]: [[Image:Gabriel Synthesis Scheme.png|500px|center|The Gabriel synthesis]] * via [[azide]]s by the [[Staudinger reduction]]. * [[Allyl]]ic amines can be prepared from [[imine]]s in the [[Aza-Baylis-Hillman reaction]]. * via [[Hofmann rearrangement|Hoffmann degradation]] of amides.This reaction is valid for preparation of primary amines only. Gives good yields of primary amines uncontaminated with other amines. :[[Image:Hofmann Rearrangement Scheme.png|center|400px|The Hofmann rearrangment]] * Hoffmann elimination of quaternary ammonium salts :::R<sub>3</sub>N<sup>+</sup>CH<sub>2<sub>CH<sub>2</sub>R' + OH<sup>-</sup> &rarr; R<sub>3</sub>N + H<sub>2<sub>C=CHR' + H<sub>2<sub>O * [[Quaternary ammonium salt]]s upon treatment with strong base undergo the so-called [[Hofmann Elimination]] * Reduction of nitriles and amides [[Image:Nitrile.gif|center|Nitriles]] * [[Nitrile]]s are reduced to amines using hydrogen in the presence a nickel catalyst, although acidic or alkaline conditions should be avoided to avoid hydrolysis of -CN group. * LiAlH<sub>4</sub> is more commonly employed for the reduction of nitriles on the laboratory scale. <center>[[Image:Reduction-of-amide.gif]]</center> * Similarly, LiAlH<sub>4</sub> reduces amides to amines. * Nucleophilic substitution of haloalkanes. Primary amines can also be synthesized by alkylaton of ammonia.[[halogenoalkane|Haloalkane]]s react with amines to give a corresponding alkyl-substituted amine, with the release of a halogen acid. Such reactions, which are most useful for alkyl iodides and bromides, are rarely employed because the degree of alkylation is difficult to control. If the reacting amine is tertiary, a [[quaternary ammonium cation]] results. Many [[quaternary ammonium salt]]s can be prepared by this route with diverse R groups and many halide and pseudohalide anions. [[Image:Alkylation_of_Amine.PNG|center|Amine alkylation]] [[Image:Formation_of_Quat.PNG|center|Amine alkylation]] == Reactions == Amines react in a variety of ways: * By [[nucleophilic acyl substitution]]. [[Acyl chloride]]s and [[acid anhydride]]s react with primary and secondary amines in cold to form [[amide]]s. Tertiary amines cannot be acylated due to the absence of a replaceable hydrogen atom. With the much less active [[benzoyl chloride]], [[acylation]] can still be performed by the use of excess aqeous alkali to facilitate the reaction. [[Image:Amide_formation_from_amine.gif|center|Amide formation]] :Because amines are basic, they neutralize [[carboxylic acid]]s to form the corresponding ammonium carboxylate salts. Upon heating to 200&nbsp;&deg;C, the primary and secondary amine salts dehydrate to form the corresponding [[amide]]s. [[Image:Amine_plus_Carboxylic_Acid.PNG|center|Amine reaction with carboxylic acids]] * By ammonium salt formation. Amines R<sub>3</sub>N react with strong acids such as [[hydroiodic acid]], [[hydrobromic acid]] and [[hydrochloric acid]] in neutralization reactions forming [[ammonium salt]]s R<sub>3</sub>NH<sup>+</sup>. * By diazonium salt formation. [[Nitrous acid]] with formula HNO<sub>2</sub> is unstable, therefore usually a mixture of NaNO<sub>2</sub> and dilute [[hydrochloric acid]] or [[sulfuric acid]] is used to produce nitrous acid indirectly. Primary aliphatic amines with nitrous acid give very unstable diazonium salts which spontaneously decompose by losing N<sub>2</sub> to form carbonium ion. The carbonium ion goes on to produce a mixture of alkenes, alkanols or alkyl halides, with alkanols as the major product. This reaction is of lttle synthetic importance because the diazonium salt formed is too unstable, even at cold conditions. : NaNO<sub>2</sub> + HCl &rarr; HNO<sub>2</sub> + NaCl [[Image:Nitrous_acid_with_n-amine.gif|center|Nitrous acid reaction]] :Primary aromatic amines, such as [[aniline]] (phenylamine) forms a more stable [[diazonium]] ion at 0&ndash;5&nbsp;&deg;C. Above 5&nbsp;&deg;C, it will decompose to give [[phenol]] and N<sub>2</sub>. Diazonium salt can be isolated in the crystalline form but are usually used in solution and immediately after preparation, due to rapid decomposition on standing even in cold. Solid salt explosive on shock or on mild warming. [[Image:Aromatic_diazonium_salt.gif|center|Aromatic diazonium salts]] * By [[Alkylimino-de-oxo-bisubstitution|imine formation]]. Primary amines react with [[ketone]]s and [[aldehyde]]s to form [[imine]]s. In the case of [[formaldehyde]] (R' = H), these products are typically cyclic [[trimer]]s. : RNH<sub>2</sub> + R'<sub>2</sub>C=O &rarr; R'<sub>2</sub>C=NR + H<sub>2</sub>O :Secondary amines react with ketones and aldehydes to form [[enamine]]s : R<sub>2</sub>NH + R'(R"CH<sub>2<sub>)C=O &rarr; R"CH=C(NR<sub>2</sub>)R' + H<sub>2</sub>O * By [[organic oxidation|oxidation]] to [[nitroso]] compounds, for instance [[Peroxymonosulfuric acid]]. == Use of amines== === dyes === Primary aromatic amines are used as a starting material for the manufacture of [[azo dye]]s. It reacts with nitric(III) acid to form diazonium salt which can undergo coupling reaction to form azo compound.As azo-compounds are highly coloured, they are widely used in dyeing industries, such as: * [[Methyl orange]] * [[Direct brown 138]] * [[Sunset yellow]] FCF * [[Ponceau]] ===drugs=== * [[Chlorpheniramine]] is an antihistamine the helps to relief allergic disorders due to cold, hay fever, itchy skin, insect bites and stings. * [[Chlorpromazine]] is a tranquilliser that sedates without inducing sleep. It is used to relieve anxiety, excitement, restlessness or even mental disorder. * [[Acetaminophen]] is also known as paracetamol or p-acetaminophenol, an analgesic that relieves pains such as headaches. It is believed to be less corrosive to the stomach and is an alternative to aspirin. == See also == * [[IUPAC nomenclature]] for the official naming rules for amines. [[Category:Amines]] [[ar:أمين]] [[cs:Amin]] [[de:Amine]] [[es:Amina]] [[fr:Amine (chimie)]] [[he:אמין (כימיה)]] [[nl:Amine]] [[ja:アミン]] [[lv:Amīni]] [[pl:Amina]] [[pt:Amina]] [[ru:Амины]] [[fi:Amiini]] [[sv:Amin]] [[vi:Amin]] [[zh:胺类]] 1415 15899899 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Pope Adrian I]] 1416 42163647 2006-03-04T06:08:07Z Rklawton 754622 rv non-noteable - and please don't kick my a** <!-- Language links at bottom --> {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=29}} |} '''[[April 29]]''' is the 119th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (120th in [[leap year]]s). There are 246 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1672]] - [[Franco-Dutch War]]: [[Louis XIV of France]] invades the [[Netherlands]]. *[[1770]] - [[James Cook]] arrives at and names [[Botany Bay]], [[Australia]]. *[[1854]] - The [[Ashmun Institute]] is officially chartered, becoming the first college for [[African American]] students. *[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Maryland]]'s House of Delegates votes not to secede from the [[United States|Union]] *[[1862]] - American Civil War: [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] falls to [[United States|Union]] forces under Admiral [[David Farragut]]. *[[1895]] - Sir [[Malcolm Sargent]] (29 April [[1895]] – [[3 October]] [[1967]]) was a British conductor, organist and composer, born in [[Ashford]], [[Kent]], [[United Kingdom]]. *[[1903]] - A 30 million cubic-metre landslide kills 70 in [[Frank, Alberta]], [[Canada]]. *[[1910]] - [[Andrew Fisher]] becomes [[Prime Minister of Australia]] for the second time. *[[1916]] - [[Easter Rebellion]]: [[Martial law]] in [[Ireland]] is lifted and the rebellion is officially over with the surrender of Irish nationalists to British authorities in [[Dublin]]. *[[1944]] - "[[Dancing Romeo]]," the last [[Our Gang]] film, premiers. *[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Germany|German]] Army in [[Italy]] unconditionally surrenders to the [[Allies]]. *1945 - World War II: Start of [[Operation Manna]]. *1945 - [[Adolf Hitler]] marries his long-time partner [[Eva Braun]] in a [[Berlin]] bunker and designates Admiral [[Karl Dönitz]] as his successor. *1945 - [[Holocaust]]: The [[Dachau concentration camp]] is liberated by [[United States]] troops. *[[1946]] - Former [[Prime Minister of Japan]] [[Hideki Tojo]] and 28 former [[Japan]]ese leaders are indicted for [[war crime]]s. *[[1967]] - After refusing induction into the [[United States Army]] the day before (citing religious reasons), [[Muhammad Ali]] is stripped of his [[boxing]] title. *[[1969]] - [[Jazz]] musician [[Duke Ellington]] receives the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]]. *[[1970]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[United States]] and [[South Vietnam]]ese forces invade [[Cambodia]] to hunt [[Viet Cong]]. *[[1974]] - [[Watergate Scandal]]: President [[Richard Nixon]] announces the release of edited transcripts of [[White House]] tape recordings related to the scandal. *[[1975]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Operation Frequent Wind]] &ndash; The last [[United States|U.S.]] citizens begin evacuation from [[Saigon]] prior to an expected [[North Vietnam]]ese takeover. United States involvement in the war comes to an end. *[[1992]] - [[1992 Los Angeles riots]]: [[Riot]]s in [[Los Angeles, California]], follow the acquittal of [[police officer]]s charged with excessive force in the beating of [[Rodney King]]. Over the next three days 54 people are killed and hundreds of buildings are destroyed. *[[1997]] - The [[Chemical Weapons Convention]] of [[1993]] enters into force, outlaws the production, stockpiling and use of [[chemical weapon]]s among its signatories. *[[2002]] - The [[United States]] is re-elected to the [[United Nations Commission on Human Rights]], one year after losing the seat it had held for 50 years. *[[2004]] - [[Richard Cheney]] and [[George W. Bush]] testify before the [[9/11 Commission]] in a closed, unrecorded hearing in the [[Oval Office]]. *[[2004]] - Last [[Oldsmobile]] produced *[[2005]] - [[Apple Computer]] releases Mac OS X v10.4 Tiger to the public. ==Births== *[[1665]] - [[James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde]], Irish statesman and soldier (d. [[1745]]) *[[1667]] - [[John Arbuthnot]], English physician and satirist (d. [[1735]]) *[[1686]] - [[Peregrine Bertie, 2nd Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven]], English statesman (d. [[1742]]) *[[1727]] - [[Jean-Georges Noverre]], French dancer and ballet master (d. [[1810]]) *[[1762]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Jourdan]], French marshal (d. [[1833]]) *[[1780]] - [[Charles Nodier]], French writer (d. [[1844]]) *[[1837]] - [[Georges Boulanger]], French general and politician (d. [[1891]]) *[[1854]] - [[Henri Poincaré]], French mathematician and physicist (d. [[1912]]) *[[1863]] - [[William Randolph Hearst]], American publisher (d. [[1951]]) *[[1876]] - Empress [[Zauditu of Ethiopia]] (d. [[1930]]) *[[1879]] - Sir [[Thomas Beecham]], English conductor (d. [[1961]]) *[[1882]] - [[H.N. Werkman]], Dutch artist and printer (d. [[1945]]) *[[1885]] - [[Egon Erwin Kisch]], Czech journalist and author (d. [[1948]]) *[[1893]] - [[Harold Urey]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1981]]) *[[1895]] - [[Malcolm Sargent]], English conductor (d. [[1967]]) *[[1899]] - [[Duke Ellington]], American jazz pianist and bandleader (d. [[1974]]) *[[1901]] - [[Hirohito]], [[Emperor of Japan]] (d. [[1989]]) *[[1907]] - [[Fred Zinnemann]], Austrian-born American film director (d. [[1997]]) *[[1909]] - [[Tom Ewell]], American actor (d. [[1994]]) *[[1917]] - [[Celeste Holm]], American actress *[[1918]] - [[George Allen (football)|George Allen]], American football player and coach (d. [[1990]]) *[[1920]] - [[Harold Shapero]], American composer *[[1925]] - [[Ned Austin]], American character actor *[[1929]] - [[Walter Kempowski]], German author *1929 - [[Peter Sculthorpe]], Australian composer *[[1930]] - [[Jean Rochefort]], French actor *[[1931]] - [[Frank Auerbach]], German-born British painter *1931 - [[Lonnie Donegan]], Scottish musician (d. [[2002]]) *[[1933]] - [[Mark Eyskens]], [[Prime Minister of Belgium]] *1933 - [[Rod McKuen]], American poet and composer *[[1934]] - [[Luis Aparicio]], Venezuelan [[Major League Baseball]] player *1934 - [[Otis Rush]], American musician *[[1936]] - [[Zubin Mehta]], Indian-born American conductor *[[1937]] - [[Jill Paton Walsh]], English writer *[[1938]] - [[Fred Dibnah]], English television personality (d.[[2004]]) *[[1942]] - [[Klaus Voormann]], German illustrator and musician *1942 - [[Galina Kulakova]], Soviet cross country skier *[[1944]] - [[Richard Kline]], American actor and television director *[[1945]] - [[Tammi Terrell]], American singer (d. [[1970]]) *[[1946]] - [[John Waters (filmmaker)|John Waters]], American film director and writer *[[1947]] - [[Olavo de Carvalho]], Brazilian philosopher *1947 - [[Tommy James]], American musician *1947 - [[Jim Ryun]], American athlete and politician *[[1951]] - [[Dale Earnhardt]], American race car driver (d. [[2001]]) *[[1952]] - [[Nora Dunn]], American actress *1952 - [[David Icke]], British writer *[[1954]] - [[Jerry Seinfeld]], American comedian *[[1955]] - [[Kate Mulgrew]], American actress *[[1956]] - [[Ketil Stokkan]], Norwegian singer *[[1957]] - [[Daniel Day-Lewis]], Irish actor *[[1958]] - [[Michelle Pfeiffer]], American actress *1958 - [[Eve Plumb]], American actress *[[1960]] - [[Robert J. Sawyer]], Canadian writer *1960 - [[Phil King]], English bassist *[[1964]] - [[Federico Castelluccio]], Italian-American actor *[[1966]] - [[Phil Tufnell]], English cricketer *[[1967]] - [[Curtis Joseph]], Canadian hockey player *1967 - [[Master P]], American rapper, composer, actor, athlete, and sports agent *[[1968]] - [[Carnie Wilson]], American singer *[[1970]] - [[Andre Agassi]], American tennis player *1970 - [[Uma Thurman]], American actress *[[1974]] - [[Pascal Cygan]], French footballer *[[1975]] - [[Eric Koston]], Thai-born skateboarder *[[1977]] - [[Claus Jensen]], Danish footballer *[[1980]] - [[Kian Egan]], Irish musician ([[Westlife]]) *[[1981]] - [[George McCartney]], Northern Irish footballer ==Deaths== *[[1380]] - [[Catherine of Siena]], Italian saint (b. [[1347]]) *[[1594]] - [[Thomas Cooper (bishop)|Thomas Cooper]], English bishop, lexicographer, and writer *[[1630]] - [[Agrippa d'Aubigné]], French poet (b. [[1552]]) *[[1658]] - [[John Cleveland]], English poet (b. [[1613]]) *[[1676]] - [[Michiel de Ruyter]], Dutch admiral (b. [[1607]]) *[[1688]] - [[Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg]] (b. [[1620]]) *[[1698]] - [[Charles Cornwallis, 3rd Baron Cornwallis]], First Lord of the British Admiralty (b. [[1655]]) *[[1707]] - [[George Farquhar]], Irish dramatist (b. [[1678]]) *[[1743]] - [[Charles-Irénée Castel de Saint-Pierre]], French writer (b. [[1658]]) *[[1768]] - [[Georg Brandt]], Swedish chemist and minerologist (b. [[1694]]) *[[1776]] - [[Edward Wortley Montagu]], English traveler and writer (b. [[1713]]) *[[1793]] - [[Yechezkel Landau]], Polish rabbi and Talmudist (b. [[1713]]) *1793 - [[John Michell]], English scientist (b. [[1724]]) *[[1798]] - [[Nikolaus Poda von Neuhaus]], German entomologist (b. [[1723]]) *[[1854]] - [[Henry Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey]], English general (b. [[1768]]) *[[1933]] - [[Constantine P. Cavafy]], Greek poet (b. [[1863]]) *[[1937]] - [[William Gillette]], American actor (b. [[1853]]) *[[1944]] - [[Bernardino Machado]], [[President of Portugal]] (b. [[1851]]) *[[1951]] - [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], Austrian-born philosopher (b. [[1889]]) *[[1966]] - [[William Eccles]], English physicist and radio pioneer (b. [[1875]]) *[[1980]] - [[Alfred Hitchcock]], English film director (b. [[1899]]) *[[1988]] - [[James McCracken]], American tenor (b. [[1926]]) *[[1993]] - [[Mick Ronson]], British musician (b. [[1946]]) *[[1997]] - [[Mike Royko]], American columnist (b. [[1932]]) *[[2005]] - [[William J. Bell]], television writer and producer (b. [[1927]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] [[feast days]]: **[[Saint Catherine of Siena]] **[[Saint Robert]] **[[Wilfred the Younger]] **[[Peter of Verona]] **[[Hugh of Cluny]] *[[International Dance Day]] *[[Japan]] (public holiday since 1927, traditionally the start of the [[Golden Week]] holiday period.) **[[The Emperor's Birthday]] (1927-1988. Holiday of [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] [[Hirohito]]'s birthday until his death in [[1989]]) **[[Greenery Day]] (1989-2006) **[[Shōwa Day]] (2007- . Day of [[Showa_period]], which is reigned by Empelor Hirohito) *[[Roman Empire]] - second day of the [[Floralia]] in honor of [[Chloris|Flora]] *[[Bahá'í Faith]] - The ninth day of the Festival of [[Ridván]] ==Other== "April 29th 1992 (Miami)" is the title of a song by [[Sublime (band)|Sublime]] on their [[Sublime (album)|self-titled album]]. ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/29 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/29 Today in History: April 29] ---- [[April 28]] - [[April 30]] - [[March 29]] - [[May 29]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[ceb:Abril 29]] [[nap:29 'e abbrile]] [[war:Abril 29]] [[pam:Abril 29]] [[af:29 April]] [[ar:29 أبريل]] [[an:29 d'abril]] [[ast:29 d'abril]] [[bg:29 април]] [[be:29 красавіка]] [[bs:29. april]] [[ca:29 d'abril]] [[cv:Ака, 29]] [[co:29 d'aprile]] [[cs:29. duben]] [[cy:29 Ebrill]] [[da:29. april]] [[de:29. April]] [[et:29. aprill]] [[el:29 Απριλίου]] [[es:29 de abril]] [[eo:29-a de aprilo]] [[eu:Apirilaren 29]] [[fo:29. apríl]] [[fr:29 avril]] [[fy:29 april]] [[ga:29 Aibreán]] [[gl:29 de abril]] [[ko:4월 29일]] [[hr:29. travnja]] [[io:29 di aprilo]] [[id:29 April]] [[ia:29 de april]] [[ie:29 april]] [[is:29. apríl]] [[it:29 aprile]] [[he:29 באפריל]] [[jv:29 April]] [[ka:29 აპრილი]] [[csb:29 łżëkwiôta]] [[ku:29'ê avrêlê]] [[lt:Balandžio 29]] [[lb:29. Abrëll]] [[li:29 april]] [[hu:Április 29]] [[mk:29 април]] [[ms:29 April]] [[nl:29 april]] [[ja:4月29日]] [[no:29. april]] [[nn:29. april]] [[oc:29 d'abril]] [[pl:29 kwietnia]] [[pt:29 de Abril]] [[ro:29 aprilie]] [[ru:29 апреля]] [[sco:29 Aprile]] [[sq:29 Prill]] [[scn:29 di aprili]] [[simple:April 29]] [[sk:29. apríl]] [[sl:29. april]] [[sr:29. април]] [[fi:29. huhtikuuta]] [[sv:29 april]] [[tl:Abril 29]] [[tt:29. Äpril]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 29]] [[th:29 เมษายน]] [[vi:29 tháng 4]] [[tr:29 Nisan]] [[uk:29 квітня]] [[ur:29 اپریل]] [[wa:29 d' avri]] [[zh:4月29日]] 1417 41966608 2006-03-02T22:57:34Z 69.138.229.246 {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=14}} |} '''[[August 14]]''' is the 226th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (227th in [[leap year]]s), with 139 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1040]] - King [[Duncan I of Scotland]] is killed in battle against his cousin and successor [[Macbeth of Scotland|Macbeth]]. *[[1183]] - [[Taira no Munemori]] and the [[Taira]] clan take the young [[Emperor Antoku]] and the [[Imperial Regalia of Japan|three sacred treasures]] and flee to western Japan to escape pursuit by the [[Minamoto]] clan. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: Twenty-fifth Day of the Seventh Month of the Second Year of Juei). *[[1385]] - [[1383-1385 Crisis]]: [[Castilia]]ns are defeated by [[Portugal|Portuguese]] at the [[Battle of Aljubarrota]]. *[[1598]] - [[Ireland|Irish]] under [[Hugh O'Neill]], Earl of [[Tyrone]], destroy [[England|English]] force at the [[Battle of the Yellow Ford]]. *[[1842]] - [[Indian Wars]]: [[Seminole Wars|Second Seminole War]] ends, with the [[Seminole (tribe)|Seminoles]] forced from [[Florida]] to [[Oklahoma]]. *[[1846]] - The Cape &#65279;Girardeau meteorite, a 2.3 [[kilogram|kg]] chondrite-type [[meteorite]] strikes near the town of [[Cape Girardeau, Missouri|Cape Girardeau]] in [[Cape Girardeau County, Missouri]]. *[[1848]] - [[Oregon Territory]] organized by Act of [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]]. *[[1880]] - [[Cologne Cathedral]], the most famous landmark in [[Cologne]], [[Germany]], completed. *[[1885]] - [[Japan|Japan's]] first [[patent]] is issued to the inventor of a rust-proof paint. *[[1893]] - France introduces motor vehicle registration. *[[1900]] - A joint [[Europe]]an-[[Japan|Japanese]]-[[United States]] force occupies [[Beijing]], in campaign to end the [[Boxer Rebellion]] in [[China]]. *[[1901]] - The first claimed [[aviation|powered flight]], by [[Gustave Whitehead]] in his [[Number 21 (plane)|Number 21]]. *[[1908]] - First [[beauty contest]] held in [[Folkestone]], England *[[1911]] - [[United States Senate]] leaders [[Presidents pro tempore of the United States Senate, 1911-1913|agree to rotate the office]] of [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|Presdent pro tempore of the Senate]] among leading candidates to fill the vacancy left by [[William P. Frye]]'s death. *[[1912]] - [[United States]] [[U.S. Marines|Marines]] invade [[Nicaragua]] to support the U.S.-backed government installed there after [[José Santos Zelaya]] resigned three years earlier. *[[1921]] - [[Tannu Tuva]],later [[Tuvinian People's Republic]] is established as a completely independent country (which is supported by Russia). *[[1933]] - Loggers cause a [[forest fire]] in the [[Coast Range]] of [[Oregon]], later known as the first forest fire of the [[Tillamook Burn]]. It is extinguished on September 5, after destroying [[1 E8 m²|240,000 acres (970 km&sup2;)]]. *[[1936]] - [[Rainey Bethea]] is hanged in [[Owensboro, Kentucky]] in the last public [[capital punishment in the United States|execution in the United States]]. *[[1935]] - [[United States]] [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] Act passes, creating a government pension system for the retired. *[[1941]] - [[World War II]] - [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] sign the [[Atlantic Charter]] of war stating postwar aims. *[[1945]] - [[Japan]] accepts the Allied [[Japanese Instrument of Surrender|terms of surrender]] in [[World War II]] and the [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] records the [[Gyokuon-hoso|Imperial Rescript on Surrender]] ([[August 15]] in [[Japan standard time]]). *[[1947]] - [[Pakistan]] gains independence from the [[United Kingdom]]. *[[1967]] - [[United Kingdom|UK]] [[Marine Broadcasting Offences Act]] declares participation in offshore [[pirate radio]] illegal. *[[1969]] - [[United Kingdom]] troops deploy in [[Northern Ireland]]. *[[1971]] - [[Bahrain]] declares its independence from [[United Kingdom]]. *[[1972]] - An [[East Germany|East German]] [[Ilyushin Il-62]] crashes during takeoff from [[East Berlin]], killing 156. *[[1976]] - The [[Senegal]]ese [[political party]] ''[[African Independence Party-Renewal|PAI-Rénovation]]'' is legally recognized. PAI-Rénovation thus becomes the third legal party in the country. *[[1980]] - [[Lech Wałęsa]] leads strikes at [[Gdańsk]], [[Poland]] shipyards. *[[1994]] - [[Ilich Ramírez Sánchez]], the [[terrorism|terrorist]] known as "Carlos the Jackal", is captured. *[[2003]] - [[2003 North America blackout|Widescale power blackout]] in the northeast [[United States]] and [[Canada]]. *[[2004]] - [[Sales tax]] holiday in [[Massachusetts]]. All sales taxes are suspended on purchases of $2500 or less. *[[2005]] - [[Helios Airways Flight 522]] crashes north of Athens, killing the 121 on board. ==Births== *[[1297]] - [[Emperor Hanazono]], [[Emperor of Japan]] (d. [[1348]]) *[[1473]] - [[Margaret Pole, 8th Countess of Salisbury]], daughter of [[George, Duke of Clarence]] (d. [[1541]]) *[[1575]] - [[Robert Hayman]], English-born poet (d. [[1629]]) *[[1586]] - [[William Hutchinson]], Rhode Island colonist (d. [[1642]]) *[[1599]] - [[Méric Casaubon]], English classical scholar (d. [[1671]]) *[[1625]] - [[François de Harlay de Champvallon]], Archbishop of Paris (d. [[1695]]) *[[1642]] - [[Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany]] (d. [[1723]]) *[[1653]] - [[Christopher Monck, 2nd Duke of Albemarle]], English statesman (d. [[1688]]) *[[1688]] - [[Frederick William I of Prussia]] (d. [[1740]]) *[[1714]] - [[Claude Joseph Vernet]], French painter (d. [[1789]]) *[[1740]] - [[Pope Pius VII]] (d. [[1823]]) *[[1771]] - [[Sir Walter Scott]], Scottish historical novelist and poet (d. [[1832]]) *[[1777]] - King [[Francis I of the Two Sicilies]] (d. [[1830]]) *1777 - [[Hans Christian Ørsted]], Danish physicist (d. [[1851]]) *[[1840]] - [[Richard von Krafft-Ebing]], German psychologist (d. [[1902]]) *[[1851]] - [[Doc Holliday]], American gambler and gunfighter (d. [[1887]]) *[[1861]] - [[Herbert Putnam]], [[Librarian of Congress]] (d. [[1955]]) *[[1863]] - [[Ernest Thayer]], American poet (d. [[1940]]) *[[1865]] - [[Guido Castelnuovo]], Italian mathematician (d. [[1952]]) *[[1866]] - [[Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin]], Belgian mathematician (d. [[1962]]) *[[1867]] - [[John Galsworthy]], English writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1933]]) *[[1876]] - [[Aleksandar Obrenović]], [[monarch|King]] of [[Serbia]] *[[1881]] - [[Francis Ford (actor)]], American actor *[[1882]] - [[Gisela Richter]], English art historian (d. [[1972]]) *[[1910]] - [[Pierre Schaeffer]], French composer (d. [[1955]]) *[[1911]] - [[Vethathiri|Shri Vethathiri Maharishi]], Indian yogi *[[1916]] - [[Wellington Mara]], Co-Owner of the New York Football Giants *[[1925]] - [[Russell Baker]], American columnist *[[1926]] - [[René Goscinny]], French comic-strip author (d. [[1977]]) *1926 - [[Lina Wertmüller]], Italian film director *[[1930]] - [[Earl Weaver]], baseball manager *[[1933]] - [[Richard R. Ernst]], Swiss chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate *[[1935]] - [[John Brodie]], American football player *[[1940]] - [[Dash Crofts]], American musician ([[Seals and Crofts]]) *[[1941]] - [[David Crosby]], American guitarist and songwriter *[[1943]] - [[Jimmy Johnson (football coach)|Jimmy Johnson]], American football player and broadcaster *[[1945]] - [[Steve Martin]], American comedian and actor *1945 - [[Wim Wenders]], German-born film director *[[1946]] - [[Antonio Fargas]], American actor *1946 - [[Susan Saint James]], American actress *[[1947]] - [[Danielle Steel]], American novelist *[[1950]] - [[Bob Backlund]], American professional wrestler *1950 - [[Gary Larson]], American cartoonist *[[1952]] - [[Carl Lumbly]], American actor *1952 - [[Debbie Meyer]], American swimmer *[[1953]] - [[James Horner]], American composer *1953 - [[Cliff Johnson]], computer game author *[[1954]] - [[Mark Fidrych]], baseball player *[[1956]] - [[Rusty Wallace]], American race car driver *[[1959]] - [[Marcia Gay Harden]], American actress *1959 - [[Magic Johnson|Earvin "Magic" Johnson]], American basketball player *[[1960]] - [[Sarah Brightman]], English soprano *[[1961]] - [[Susan Olsen]], American actress *[[1964]] - [[Brannon Braga]], American scriptwriter and director *[[1965]] - [[Emmanuelle Béart]], French actress *[[1966]] - [[Halle Berry]], American actress *[[1968]] - [[Darren Clarke]], Northern Irish professional golfer *[[1973]] - [[Jared Borgetti]], Mexican footballer *1973 - [[Jay-Jay Okocha]], Nigerian footballer *1973 - [[Kieren Perkins]], Australian swimmer *[[1977]] - [[Juan Pierre]], baseball player *[[1983]] - [[Elena Baltacha]], Ukrainian-born tennis player *1983 - [[Mila Kunis]], Ukrainian-born actress *[[1986]] - [[Terin Humphrey]], American gymnast ==Deaths== *[[1167]] - [[Rainald of Dassel]], Archbishop of Cologne *[[1204]] - [[Minamoto no Yoriie]], Japanese shogun (b. [[1182]]) *[[1390]] - [[John FitzAlan, 2nd Baron Arundel]], English soldier (b. [[1364]]) *[[1430]] - [[Philip I, Duke of Brabant]] (b. [[1404]]) *[[1433]] - King [[John I of Portugal]] (b. [[1357]]) *[[1464]] - [[Pope Pius II]] (b. [[1405]]) *[[1573]] - [[Saito Tatsuoki]], Japanese warlord (b. [[1548]]) *[[1691]] - [[Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnel]], Irish rebel (b. [[1630]]) *[[1704]] - [[Roland Laporte]], French protestant leader (b. [[1675]]) *[[1727]] - [[William Croft]], English composer (b. [[1678]]) *[[1774]] - [[Johann Jakob Reiske]], German scholar and physician (b. [[1716]]) *[[1784]] - [[Nathaniel Hone]], Irish-born painter (b. [[1718]]) *[[1856]] - [[Constant Prévost]], French geologist (b. [[1787]]) *[[1860]] - [[André Marie Constant Duméril]], French zoologist (b. [[1774]]) *[[1905]] - [[Simeon Solomon]], British artist (b. [[1840]]) *[[1938]] - [[Hugh Trumble]], Australian Test Cricketer (b. [[1876]]) *[[1941]] - [[Paul Sabatier (chemist)|Paul Sabatier]], French chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1854]]) *[[1943]] - [[Joe Kelley]], baseball player (b. [[1871]]) *[[1951]] - [[William Randolph Hearst]], American newspaper magnate (b. [[1863]]) *[[1955]] - [[Herbert Putnam]], [[Librarian of Congress]] (b. [[1861]]) *[[1956]] - [[Bertolt Brecht]], German writer (b. [[1898]]) *[[1958]] - [[Frédéric Joliot]], French physicist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] (b. [[1900]]) *[[1972]] - [[Oscar Levant]], American actor, composer, and musician (b. [[1906]]) *[[1980]] - [[Dorothy Stratten]], Canadian actress and model (b. [[1960]]) *[[1981]] - [[Karl Böhm]], Austrian conductor (b. [[1894]]) *[[1984]] - [[J. B. Priestley]], English novelist and playwright (b. [[1894]]) *[[1985]] - [[Gale Sondergaard]], American actress (b. [[1899]]) *[[1988]] - [[Enzo Ferrari]], Italian car maker (b. [[1898]]) *[[2000]] - [[Alain Fournier]], French-born [[computer graphics]] researcher (b. [[1943]]) *[[2002]] - [[Dave Williams]], American singer ([[Drowning Pool]]) (b. [[1972]]) *[[2003]] - [[Helmut Rahn]], German footballer (b. [[1929]]) *[[2004]] - [[Czeslaw Milosz|Czes&#322;aw Mi&#322;osz]], Polish-born writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1911]]) *[[2005]] - [[Coo Coo Marlin]], American race car driver (b. [[1932]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Morocco]] - [[Allegiance]] of [[Oued Eddahab]] or [[Río de Oro]] *[[Calendar of saints|RC saints]] - [[Maximilian Kolbe]] (Polish Franciscan priest martyred by Nazis in [[1941]]) *[[Pakistan]] - [[Independence Day]] *[[United States]] - National [[Code talker|Code Talkers]] Day ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/14 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[August 13]] - [[August 15]] - [[July 14]] - [[September 14]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:14 Augustus]] [[ar:14 أغسطس]] [[an:14 d'agosto]] [[ast:14 d'agostu]] [[bg:14 август]] [[be:14 жніўня]] [[bs:14. august]] [[ca:14 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 14]] [[cv:Çурла, 14]] [[co:14 d'aostu]] [[cs:14. srpen]] [[cy:14 Awst]] [[da:14. august]] [[de:14. August]] [[et:14. august]] [[el:14 Αυγούστου]] [[es:14 de agosto]] [[eo:14-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 14]] [[fo:14. august]] [[fr:14 août]] [[fy:14 augustus]] [[ga:14 Lúnasa]] [[gl:14 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 14일]] [[hr:14. kolovoza]] [[io:14 di agosto]] [[id:14 Agustus]] [[ia:14 de augusto]] [[ie:14 august]] [[is:14. ágúst]] [[it:14 agosto]] [[he:14 באוגוסט]] [[jv:14 Agustus]] [[ka:14 აგვისტო]] [[csb:14 zélnika]] [[ku:14'ê gelawêjê]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 14]] [[lb:14. August]] [[li:14 augustus]] [[hu:Augusztus 14]] [[mk:14 август]] [[ms:14 Ogos]] [[nap:14 'e aùsto]] [[nl:14 augustus]] [[ja:8月14日]] [[no:14. august]] [[nn:14. august]] [[oc:14 d'agost]] [[pl:14 sierpnia]] [[pt:14 de Agosto]] [[ro:14 august]] [[ru:14 августа]] [[sco:14 August]] [[sq:14 Gusht]] [[scn:14 di austu]] [[simple:August 14]] [[sk:14. august]] [[sl:14. avgust]] [[sr:14. август]] [[fi:14. elokuuta]] [[sv:14 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 14]] [[tt:14. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 14]] [[th:14 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:14 tháng 8]] [[tr:14 Ağustos]] [[uk:14 серпня]] [[ur:14 اگست]] [[wa:14 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 14]] [[zh:8月14日]] [[pam:Agostu 14]] 1418 41558959 2006-02-28T03:38:40Z Melchoir 454640 rv; that didn't make sense '''Absolute zero''' is a fundamental lower bound on the [[temperature]] of any macroscopic [[system]]. It is a temperature of [[kelvin|0 K]], [[Celsius|&minus;273.15&deg;C]], <!-- Exactly! Celsius is defined as kelvin minus 273.15 these days. --> or [[Fahrenheit|&minus;459.67&deg;F]]. It is unachievable in practice but it exists as a limit for real [[physical phenomenon|physical phenomena]], and it was inferred by [[extrapolation]] from [[kinetic theory]], and from other considerations in [[theoretical physics]]. One would like to define it as the temperature at which all [[motion]] ceases, but even at absolute zero some motion remains due to the requirements of [[quantum mechanics]]. Alternate definitions are that absolute zero is the temperature at which no further [[energy]] can be extracted from a [[physical body]], or the temperature at which the [[entropy|entropies]] of perfect [[crystal]]s vanish, or the temperature at which the entropy change of an [[adiabatic]] [[process]] vanishes. A state of '''absolute zero''' was first proposed by [[Guillaume Amontons]] in [[1702]] who was investigating the relationship between [[pressure]] and temperature in [[gas]]es. He lacked accurate and precise [[thermometers]] so his results were only semi-[[quantitative]], but he established that the pressure of a gas increases by roughly one-third between "cold" temperatures and the [[boiling point]] of [[water]]. His work led him to speculate that a sufficient reduction in temperature would lead to the disappearance of pressure. The problem is that all [[ideal gas|real gases]] [[liquid|liquefy]] during the approach to absolute zero. In [[1848]], [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin]] proposed an [[thermodynamic temperature|absolute thermodynamic temperature]] scale in which equal reduction in measured temperature gave rise to equal reduction in the heat of a [[body]]. This freed the concept from the constraints of the [[gas laws]] and established absolute zero as the temperature at which no further heat could be removed from a body. Absolute zero has never been reached, and it appears it never will be. It may be [[asymptote|asymptotically]] approached like the [[speed of light]], but never attained. ==Kinetic theory and motion== According to [[kinetic theory]], there should be no movement of individual [[molecule]]s at absolute zero, so any material at this temperature would be solid. In a [[monatomic]] gas, most of the energy is in the form of translational motion, and the temperature can be measured in terms of the [[Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution|distribution of this motion]], with slower speeds corresponding to lower temperatures, perhaps even down to absolute zero. But this is contrary to [[experiment]]al evidence, and it is predicted that [[helium]] will never [[solid|solidify]], no matter how much it is cooled or compressed. Because of quantum-mechanical effects, the speed at absolute zero is larger than zero and depends, along with the energy, on the volume within which a particle is confined. At absolute zero, the [[molecule]]s and [[atom]]s in a system are all in their [[ground state]], the state of lowest possible energy, and a system has the least amount of kinetic energy allowed by the [[laws of physics]]. But the lowest possible [[zero-point energy]] for a ''confined'' [[particle in a box]] is not zero. Rather than being fixed and non-moving, the equation for the energy levels shows that no matter how low the temperature gets, even when the [[quantum number]] takes its minimum value of one, a particle still has some translational [[kinetic energy]] and motion. This is a reflection of [[Werner Heisenberg|Heisenberg's]] [[uncertainty principle]], which states that the [[dimension|position]] and the [[momentum]] of a particle cannot both be known precisely at any given time. Similarly, using the [[harmonic oscillator|harmonic]] approximation for the vibrations of a diatomic molecule, the [[quantum harmonic oscillator]] yields a positive zero-point energy even when the vibrational [[quantum number]] takes its minimum value of zero. For polyatomic molecules, and for bodies such as [[crystal]]s, whose [[normal mode]] motions can not be assigned to individual atoms or [[chemical bond]]s, the lowest-energy state is that of the system as a whole. [[Classical mechanics|Classically]], the absolute temperature ''T'' of a system of molecules at [[thermodynamic equilibrium]] assigns an average of 1/2&nbsp;''kT'' to each [[quadratic function|quadratic]] [[kinetic energy|kinetic]] and/or [[potential energy]] term in each mechanical [[degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)|degree of freedom]], where ''k'' is [[Boltzmann constant|Boltzmann's constant]]. (See [[Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)#Equipartition theorem|equipartition of energy]] and the role of the [[Boltzmann distribution]] in relating temperature to energy.) But quantum mechanics shows that this is obeyed only for temperatures such that ''kT''&nbsp;>&nbsp;''hν'', where ''h'' is [[Planck's constant]] and ν is a characteristic [[frequency]]. As ''T'' decreases, the assumption that energy is continuously variable fails whenever ''hν'' exceeds ''kT''. For [[normal mode|vibrational modes]] in crystals, this happens at [[room temperature]], which explains the deviation of the calculated [[specific heat capacity|specific heats]] of atomic crystals from the [[experiment]]al [[Dulong-Petit law]] value of 3''R''&nbsp;/mole, a fact which puzzled late [[19th century]] [[physics|physicists]] and [[physical chemistry|physical chemists]]. (Rushbrooke, p. 33) ==Cryogenics== It can be shown from the laws of [[thermodynamics]] that absolute zero can never be achieved, though it is possible to reach temperatures arbitrarily close to it through the use of [[cryocoolers]]. This is the same principle that ensures no [[machine]] can be 100% efficient. At very low temperatures in the vicinity of absolute zero, matter exhibits many unusual properties including [[superconductor|superconductivity]], [[superfluid|superfluidity]], and [[Bose-Einstein condensate|Bose-Einstein condensation]]. In order to study such [[phenomenon|phenomena]], [[scientist]]s have worked to obtain ever lower temperatures. *As of September 2003, the lowest temperature Bose-Einstein condensate achieved was 450&#160;[[1 E-12 K|pK]], or 4.5&#160;&#215;&#160;10<sup>-10</sup>&#160;K. This was performed by [[Wolfgang Ketterle]] and colleagues at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]].{{rf|1|Leanhardt}} *As of February 2003, the [[Boomerang Nebula]], with a temperature of 1.15&#160;K, is the coldest place known outside a laboratory. The [[nebula]] is [[1 E19 m|5000 light-years]] from [[Earth]] and is in the constellation [[Centaurus]].{{rf|2|Cauchi}} *As of November 2002, the coldest temperature produced was 100 pK during an experiment on [[nuclear magnetic ordering]] in the [[Helsinki University of Technology]]'s Low Temperature Lab.{{rf|3|Knuuttila}} ==Thermodynamics near absolute zero== At 0&nbsp;K, (nearly) all molecular motion ceases and Δ''S''&nbsp;=&nbsp;0 for any [[adiabatic process]]. Pure substances can (ideally) form perfect [[crystal]]s as ''T''&nbsp;→&nbsp;0. [[Max Planck|Planck's]] strong form of the [[third law of thermodynamics]] states that the [[entropy]] of a perfect crystal vanishes at absolute zero. However, if the lowest energy state is [[degenerate energy level|degenerate]] (more than one [[microstate (statistical mechanics)|microstate]]), this cannot be true. The original [[Walther Nernst|Nernst]] ''heat theorem'' makes the weaker and less controversial claim that the entropy ''change'' for any isothermal process approaches zero as ''T''&nbsp;→&nbsp;0 :<math> \lim_{T \to 0} \Delta S = 0 </math> which implies that the entropy of a perfect crystal simply approaches a constant value. <font color=maroon>''The Nernst postulate identifies the isotherm T&nbsp;=&nbsp;0 as coincident with the adiabat S&nbsp;=&nbsp;0, although other isotherms and adiabats are distinct. As no two adiabats intersect, no other adiabat can intersect the T&nbsp;=&nbsp;0 isotherm. Consequently no adiabatic process initiated at nonzero temperature can lead to zero temperature.''</font> (≈&nbsp;Callen, pp. 189-190) An even stronger assertion is that <font color=maroon>''It is impossible by any procedure to reduce the temperature of a system to zero in a finite number of operations.''</font> (≈&nbsp;Guggenheim, p. 157) A perfect crystal is one in which the internal [[lattice (group)|lattice]] structure extends uninterrupted in all directions. The perfect order can be represented by translational [[symmetry]] along three (not usually [[orthogonality|orthogonal]]) [[Cartesian coordinate system|axes]]. Every lattice element of the structure is in its proper place, whether it is a single atom or a molecular grouping. For [[chemical substance|substances]] which have two (or more) stable crystalline forms, such as [[diamond]] and [[graphite]] for [[carbon]], there is a kind of "chemical degeneracy". The question remains whether both can have zero entropy at ''T''&nbsp;=&nbsp;0 even though each is perfectly ordered. Perfect crystals never occur in practice; imperfections, and even entire amorphous materials, simply get "frozen in" at low temperatures, so transitions to more stable states do not occur. Using the [[Peter Debye|Debye]] model, the [[specific heat capacity|specific heat]] and entropy of a pure crystal are proportional to ''T''<sup>&nbsp;3</sup>, while the [[enthalpy]] and [[chemical potential]] are proportional to ''T''<sup>&nbsp;4</sup>. (Guggenheim, p. 111) These quantities drop toward their ''T''&nbsp;=&nbsp;0 limiting values and approach with ''zero'' slopes. For the specific heats at least, the limiting value itself is definitely zero, as borne out by experiments to below 10&nbsp;K. Even the less detailed [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] model shows this curious drop in specific heats. In fact, all specific heats vanish as absolute zero, not just those of crystals. Likewise for the coefficient of [[thermal expansion]]. [[Maxwell relations|Maxwell's relations]] show that various other quantities also vanish. These [[phenomenon|phenomena]] were unanticipated. Since the relation between changes in the [[Gibbs free energy]], the enthalpy and the entropy is :<math> \Delta G = \Delta H - T \Delta S \,</math> it follows that as ''T'' decreases, Δ''G'' and Δ''H'' approach each other (so long as Δ''S'' is bounded). [[Experiment]]ally, it is found that most [[chemical reaction]]s are [[exothermic reaction|exothermic]] and release heat ''in the direction'' they are found to be going, toward [[thermodynamic equilibrium|equilbirum]]. That is, even at [[room temperature]] ''T'' is low enough so that the fact that (Δ''G'')<sub>''T,P''</sub>&nbsp;<&nbsp;0 (usually) implies that Δ''H''&nbsp;<&nbsp;0. (In the opposite direction, each such reaction would of course absorb heat.) More than that, the ''slopes'' of the temperature derivatives of Δ''G'' and Δ''H'' converge and ''are equal to zero'' at ''T''&nbsp;=&nbsp;0, which ensures that Δ''G'' and Δ''H'' are nearly the same over a considerable range of temperatures, justifying the approximate [[empiricism|empirical]] [[Principle of Thomsen and Berthelot]], which says that <font color=maroon>''the equilibrium state to which a system proceeds is the one which evolves the greatest amount of heat''</font>, i.e., an actual process is the ''most exothermic one''. (Callen, pp. 186-187) ==Absolute temperature scales== As mentioned, absolute or [[thermodynamic temperature]] is conventionally measured in [[Kelvin]]s (Celsius-size degrees), and increasingly rarely in the [[Rankine]] scale (Fahrenheit-size degrees). Absolute temperature is uniquely determined up to a multiplicative constant which specifies the size of the "degree", so the ''ratios'' of two absolute temperatures, ''T''<sub>2</sub>/''T''<sub>1</sub>, are the same in all scales. The most transparent definition comes from the classical [[Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution]] over energies, or from the quantum analogs: [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]] (particles of half-integer [[spin (physics)|spin]]) and [[Bose-Einstein statistics]] (particles of integer spin), all of which give the relative numbers of particles as (decreasing) [[exponential function]]s of energy over ''kT''. On a [[macroscopic]] level, a definition can be given in terms of the efficiencies of "reversible" [[heat engine]]s operating between hotter and colder thermal reservoirs. ==Negative temperatures== {{main|Negative temperature}} Certain semi-isolated systems can achieve negative temperatures; however, they are not actually colder than absolute zero. ==References== * {{cite book | author=Herbert B. Callen | title=Thermodynamics, Chapter 10 | publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. | year=1960}} Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 60-5597. The clearest presentation of the logical foundations of the subject. * {{cite book | author=E.A. Guggenheim | title=Thermodynamics: An Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physicists, 5th ed. | publisher=North Holland; John Wiley & Sons, Inc. | year=1967}} Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 60-20003. A remarkably astute and comprehensive treatise. * {{cite book | author=G. S. Rushbrooke | title=Introduction to Statistical Mechanics | publisher=Oxford Univ. Press | year=1949}} The classic, compact introduction to the subject. ==Notes== {{ent|1|Leanhardt}} Leanhardt, A. ''et al.'' (2003) ''Science'' '''301''' 1513. [http://physicsweb.org/article/news/7/9/8 Physicsweb news report] {{ent|2|Cauchi}} [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/02/20/1045638427695.html Press report February 21 2003] {{ent|3|Knuuttila}} The experimental methods and results are presented in detail in T.A. Knuuttila’s Ph.D. thesis which can be downloaded [http://www.hut.fi/Yksikot/Kirjasto/Diss/2000/isbn9512252147/ here]. [http://ltl.hut.fi/Low-Temp-Record.html Low temperature Press release] [[Category:Temperature]] [[Category:Thermodynamics]] [[ar:صفر مطلق]] [[bg:Абсолютна нула]] [[ca:Zero absolut]] [[cs:Absolutní nula]] [[da:Absolut nulpunkt]] [[de:Absoluter Nullpunkt]] [[et:Absoluutne nulltemperatuur]] [[es:Cero absoluto]] [[fr:Zéro absolu]] [[gl:Cero absoluto]] [[ko:절대 영도]] [[is:Alkul]] [[it:Zero assoluto]] [[he:האפס המוחלט]] [[lv:Absolūtā nulle]] [[nl:Absoluut nulpunt]] [[ja:絶対零度]] [[no:Det absolutte nullpunkt]] [[pl:Zero bezwzględne]] [[pt:Zero absoluto]] [[ru:Абсолютный нуль температуры]] [[simple:Absolute zero]] [[sk:Absolútna nula]] [[sl:Absolutna ničla]] [[fi:Absoluuttinen nollapiste]] [[sv:Absoluta nollpunkten]] [[th:ศูนย์องศาสัมบูรณ์]] [[uk:Абсолютний нуль]] [[zh:绝对零度]] 1419 41634537 2006-02-28T18:00:59Z Joe Frickin Friday 843319 removed statement about absence of chemical processes (paragraph 2). :''This article covers adiabatic processes in [[thermodynamics]]. For adiabatic processes in [[quantum mechanics]], see [[adiabatic process (quantum mechanics)]]. For atmospheric adiabatic processes, see [[adiabatic lapse rate]].'' In [[thermodynamics]], an '''adiabatic process''' is a process in which no [[heat]] is transferred to or from working [[fluid]]. The term "adiabatic" literally means an absence of heat transfer; for example, an '''adiabatic boundary''' is a boundary that is impermeable to heat transfer and the system is said to be adiabatically (or thermally) insulated. An insulated wall approximates an adiabatic boundary. Another example is the [[adiabatic flame temperature]], which is the temperature that would be achieved by a [[fire|flame]] in the absence of heat loss to the surroundings. An adiabatic process which is also [[reversible process|reversible]] is called an [[isentropic process]]. The opposite extreme, in which the maximum heat transfer with its surroundings occurs, causing the temperature to remain constant, is known as an [[isothermal process]]. Since temperature is thermodynamically [[conjugate variables (thermodynamics)|conjugate]] to entropy, the isothermal process is conjugate to the adiabatic process for reversible transformations. A transformation of a thermodynamic system can be considered adiabatic when it is quick enough so that no significant [[heat transfer]] happens between the system and the outside. At the opposite, a transformation of a thermodynamic system can be considered [[isothermal process|isothermal]] if it is slow enough so that the system's temperature can be maintained by [[heat]] exchange with the outside. == Adiabatic heating and cooling == Adiabatic heating and cooling are processes that commonly occur due to a change in the [[pressure]] of a [[gas]]. Adiabatic heating occurs when the pressure of a gas is increased. An example of this is what goes on in a [[bicycle pump]]. After using a bicycle pump to inflate a pneumatic tyre or [[soccer ball]] the barrel of the pump is found to have heated up as a result of adiabatic heating. A common motorized [[air compressor]], operating at pressures up to 150 [[Pound-force per square inch|psi]], can reach outlet temperatures of several hundred degrees Fahrenheit. Adiabatic cooling occurs when the pressure of a gas is decreased, such as when it expands into a larger volume. An example of this is when the air is released from a pneumatic tire; the outlet air will be noticably cooler than the tire, and after all the air has escaped the valve stem will be cold to the touch. [[Diesel engines]] rely on adiabatic heating during their compression stroke to reach the high temperatures needed to ignite the fuel. Such temperature changes can be quantified using the [[ideal gas law]]. Adiabatic cooling does not have to involve a fluid. One technique used to reach very low temperatures (thousandths and even millionths of a degree above absolute zero) is [[adiabatic demagnetization|adiabatic demagnetisation]], where the change in [[magnetic field]] on a magnetic material is used to provide adiabatic cooling. ==Ideal gas== [[Image:Adiabatic.png|thumb|341px|For a simple substance, during an adiabatic process in which the volume increases, the [[internal energy]] of the working substance must necessarily decrease]] The mathematical equation for an [[ideal gas|ideal]] fluid undergoing an adiabatic process is : <math> P V^{\gamma} = \operatorname{constant} \qquad </math> where ''P'' is pressure, ''V'' is volume, and : <math> \gamma = {C_{P} \over C_{V}} = \frac{\alpha + 1}{\alpha}, </math> <math> C_{P} </math> being the [[molar specific heat]] for constant pressure and <math> C_{V} </math> being the molar specific heat for constant volume. <math> \alpha </math> comes from the number of degrees of freedom (3/2 for monatomic gas, 5/2 for diatomic gas, 3 for complex molecules). For a monatomic ideal gas, <math> \gamma = 5/3 </math>, and for a diatomic gas (such as [[nitrogen]] and [[oxygen]], the main components of [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]) <math> \gamma = 7/5 </math>. Note that the above formula is only applicable to classical ideal gases and not Bose-Einstein or Fermi gases. For adiabatic processes, it is also true that : <math> VT^\alpha = \operatorname{constant} </math> ''T'' is temperature in kelvins. ===Derivation of formula=== The definition of an adiabatic process is that heat transfer to the system is zero, <math>\delta Q=0 </math>. Then, according to the [[first law of thermodynamics]], :<math> d U + \delta W = \delta Q = 0 \qquad \qquad \qquad (1) </math> where ''dU'' is the change in the internal energy of the system and ''&delta;W'' is work done ''by'' the system. Any work (''&delta;W'') done must be done at the expense of internal energy ''U'', since no heat ''&delta;Q'' is being supplied from the surroundings. Pressure-volume work ''&delta;W'' done ''by'' the system is defined as :<math> \delta W = P dV. \qquad \qquad \qquad (2)</math> However, ''P'' does not remain constant during an adiabatic process but instead changes along with ''V''. It is desired to know how the values of <math> d P </math> and <math> d V </math> relate to each other as the adiabatic process proceeds. :<math> C_{V} = \alpha R\,</math> where ''R'' is the [[universal gas constant]]. Given <math> d P </math> and <math> d V </math> then <math> \delta W = P d V </math> and : <math> d E = \alpha n R d T = \alpha d (P V) = \alpha (P d V + V d P). \qquad (3)</math> Now substitute equations (2) and (3) into equation (1) to obtain : <math> -P d V = \alpha P d V + \alpha V d P \,</math> simplify, : <math> - (\alpha + 1) P d V = \alpha V d P \,</math> divide both sides by ''PV'', : <math> -(\alpha + 1) {d V \over V} = \alpha {d P \over P}. </math> From the differential calculus it is then known that : <math> -(\alpha + 1) d (\ln V) = \alpha d (\ln P) \,</math> which can be expressed as : <math> {\ln P - \ln P_0 \over \ln V - \ln V_0 } = -{\alpha + 1 \over \alpha} </math> for certain constants <math> P_0 </math> and <math> V_0 </math> of the initial state. Then : <math> {\ln (P/P_0) \over \ln (V/V_0)} = -{\alpha + 1 \over \alpha}, </math> : <math> \ln \left( {P \over P_0} \right) =\ln \left( {V \over V_0} \right)^{-{\alpha + 1 \over \alpha}}. </math> Exponentiate both sides, : <math> \left( {P \over P_0} \right) = \left( {V \over V_0} \right)^{-{\alpha + 1 \over \alpha}}, </math> eliminate the negative sign, : <math> \left( {P \over P_0} \right) = \left( {V_0 \over V} \right)^{\alpha + 1 \over \alpha}. </math> Therefore : <math> \left( {P \over P_0} \right) \left( {V \over V_0} \right)^{\alpha+1 \over \alpha} = 1 </math> and : <math> P V^{\alpha+1 \over \alpha} = P_0 V_0^{\alpha+1 \over \alpha} = P V^\gamma = \operatorname{constant}. </math> ==Graphing adiabats== Properties of adiabats on a P-V diagram are: #Every adiabat asymptotically approaches both the V axis and the P axis (just like isotherms). #Each adiabat intersects each isotherm exactly once. #An adiabat looks similar to an isotherm, except that during an expansion, an adiabat loses more pressure than an isotherm, so it has a steeper inclination (more vertical). #If isotherms are concave towards the "north-east" direction (45 &deg;), then adiabats are concave towards the "east north-east" (31 &deg;). #If adiabats and isotherms are graphed severally at regular changes of entropy and temperature, respectively (like altitude on a contour map), then as the eye moves outwards away from the axes (towards the north-east), it sees the density of isotherms stay constant, but it sees the density of adiabats drop. The exception is very near absolute zero, where the density of adiabats drops sharply and they become rare (see [[Nernst's theorem]]). The following diagram is a P-V diagram with a superposition of adiabats and isotherms: [[Image:Entropyandtemp.PNG]] The isotherms are the red curves and the adiabats are the black curves. The adiabats are isentropic. Volume is the [[abscissa]] (x-axis) and pressure is the [[ordinate]] (y-axis). == See also == * [[Cyclic process]] * [[First law of thermodynamics]] * [[Isobaric process]] * [[Isochoric process]] * [[Isothermal process]] * [[Thermodynamic entropy]] * [[Quasistatic equilibrium]] [[Category:Thermodynamics]] [[cs:Adiabatický děj]] [[da:Adiabatisk]] [[de:Adiabatische Zustandsänderung]] [[es:Proceso adiabático]] [[nl:Adiabatisch]] [[ja:断熱過程]] [[pl:Przemiana adiabatyczna]] [[sk:Adiabatický dej]] [[sl:Adiabatna sprememba]] [[fi:Adiabaattinen prosessi]] [[sv:Adiabatisk process]] [[uk:Адіабатичний процес]] 1420 15899904 2002-02-26T18:50:24Z Maveric149 62 #REDIRECT [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]] #REDIRECT [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]] 1422 37595258 2006-01-31T23:47:22Z V8rik 195918 moved text around, added some content, removed one or two lines that were unclear. [[Image:Amide.png|right|Amide functional group]]In [[chemistry]], an '''''amide''''' is either the [[organic chemistry|organic]] [[functional group]] characterized by a [[carbonyl]] group linked to a [[nitrogen]] atom or a compound that contains this functional group, or a particular [[inorganic]] [[anion]]. In organic chemistry, an amide is essentially an [[amine]] where one of the nitrogen [[substituent|substituents]] is a carbonyl group, represented generally by the formula: R<sub>1</sub>([[carbon|C]][[oxygen|O]])[[nitrogen|N]]R<sub>2</sub>R<sub>3</sub> where either or both of R<sub>2</sub> and R<sub>3</sub> may be [[hydrogen]]. Specifically, an amide can also be regarded as a derivative of a [[carboxylic acid]] in which the hydroxyl group has been replaced by an [[amine]] or [[ammonia]]. Compounds in which a [[hydrogen]] atom on nitrogen from [[ammonia]] or an [[amine]] is replaced by a [[metal]] [[cation]] are also known as amides or '''azanides'''. The inorganic amide anion is an extremely strong base, due to the extreme weakness of ammonia as a [[Brønsted acid]]. ==Amide synthesis== [[Image:Amide react.png|right|Amide bond formation]] *Amides are commonly formed from the reaction of a [[carboxylic acid]]s with an [[amine]].This is the reaction that forms [[peptide bond]]s between [[amino acid]]s. These amides can participate in [[hydrogen bond|hydrogen bonding]] as hydrogen bond acceptors and donors, but do not [[ion|ionize]] in aqueous solution, whereas their parent acids and amines are almost completely ionized in solution at neutral pH. Amide formation plays a role in the synthesis of some [[condensation polymer]]s, such as [[nylon]] and [[Kevlar]]. * Cyclic amides are synthesized in the [[Beckmann rearrangement]] from oximes. * Other amide forming reactions are the [[Passerini reaction]] and the [[Ugi reaction]] == Amide reactions == * Amide breakdown is possible via [[amide hydrolysis]]. * In the [[Vilsmeier-Haack reaction]] an amide is converted into an imine. == Amide Properties == An amide linkage is kinetically stable to [[hydrolysis]]. However, it can be hydrolysed in boiling alkali, as well as in strong acidic conditions. Unlike the hydrolysis of esters, the kinetics of amide hydrolysis is third order: first order with respect to the amide and second order with respect to hydroxide. Amide linkages in a [[biochemistry| biochemical]] context are called [[peptide link|peptide linkages]]. Amide linkages constitute a defining molecular feature of [[protein|proteins]], the [[secondary structure]] of which is due in part to the hydrogen bonding abilities of amides. ==Derivatives== [[Sulfonamide]]s are analogs of amides in which the atom double bonded to oxygen is [[sulfur]] rather than carbon. ==Naming Convertions == *Example: CH<sub>3</sub>CONH<sub>2</sub> is named [[acetamide]] or [[ethanamide]] *Other examples: propan-1-amide, N,N-dimethylpropanamide, [[acrylamide]] *For more detail see [[IUPAC_nomenclature#Amines_and_Amides]] ==External links == *[http://www.chemsoc.org/chembytes/goldbook/ IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology] [[Category:Amides]] [[Category:Functional groups]] [[ar:اميد]] [[da:Amid (funktionel gruppe)]] [[de:Amide]] [[es:Amida]] [[eo:Amido]] [[fr:Amide]] [[he:אמיד]] [[nl:Amide]] [[ja:アミド]] [[pl:Amid]] [[ru:Амиды]] 1423 41521068 2006-02-27T22:39:23Z CJLippert 445263 /* See also */ In [[religion]], the term '''"Animism"''' is used in a number of ways. *Animism (from ''animus'', or ''anima'', [[mind]] or soul), originally means the doctrine of [[spiritual beings]]. *It is often extended to include the belief that personalized, [[supernatural]] beings (or souls) endowed with [[reason]], [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] and [[volition]] inhabit ordinary objects as well as animate beings, and govern their existence ([[pantheism]] or [[animatism]]). More simply, the belief is that "[[everything]] is [[alive]]", "everything is [[conscious]]" or "everything has a soul". *It has been further extended to mean a belief that the world is a community of living [[persons]], only some of whom are human. It also refers to the culture or philosophy which these types of Animists live by, that is, to attempt to relate respectfully with the persons (human, rock, plant, animal, bird, ancestral, etc.) who are also members of the wider community of life. '''"Animism"''' can refer to the [[religion]] or [[beliefs]] or [[philosophy]] of the above interpretations. It can also refer to the [[culture]] and [[practice]]s related to Animism. "Animism" was the term used by [[anthropology | anthropologist]], Sir [[E. B. Tylor]], as a proposed theory of [[religion]], in his [[1871]] book, ''[[Primitive Culture]]''. He used it to mean a 'belief in spirits' (i.e. mystical, supernatural, non-empirical or imagined entities). Tylor's use of the term has since been widely criticized (see details below). Today the term is used with more respect. Today Animists live in significant numbers in countries such as [[Zambia]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Gabon]], the [[Republic of Guinea Bissau]], [[Indonesia]], [[Laos]], [[Myanmar]], [[Papua New Guinea]], the [[Philippines]], [[Russia]], [[Sweden]], [[Thailand]], and the [[United States of America]]. Modern [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]], especially Eco-Pagans, sometimes describe themselves as animists, meaning that they respect the diverse community of living beings with whom humans share the world/cosmos. Some, however, use the term to refer to the idea that the [[Mother goddess]] and [[Horned god]] consist of everything that exists. This [[Pantheism]] in which [[God]] is equated with [[existence]] is different from animism because it imputes value to individual living beings and/or objects because they might reveal a larger reality or divinity behind everything. Animists respect beings for their own sake - whether because they have or are souls (as in the original definition of the word) or because they are persons (the new definition). ==Overview== In some animistic worldviews found in [[hunter-gatherer]] cultures, the human being is often regarded as on a roughly equal footing with animals, plants, and natural forces. Therefore, it is morally imperative to treat these agents with respect. In this worldview, humans are considered a denizen, or part, of nature, rather than superior to or separate from it. In such societies, ritual is considered essential for survival as it wins the favor of the spirits of one's source of food, shelter, and fertility and wards off malevolent spirits. In more elaborate animistic religions, such as [[Shinto]], there is a greater sense of a special character to humans that sets them apart from the general run of animals and objects, while retaining the necessity of ritual to ensure good luck, favorable harvests, and so on. Most animistic belief systems hold that the spirit survives physical death. In some systems, the spirit is believed to pass to an easier world of abundant game or ever-ripe crops, while in other systems (''e.g.'', the [[Navajo Nation|Navajo]] religion), the spirit remains on earth as a [[ghost]], often malignant. Still other systems combine these two beliefs, holding that the soul must journey to the spirit world without becoming lost and thus wandering as a ghost. [[Funeral]], [[mourning]] rituals, and [[ancestor worship]] performed by those surviving the deceased are often considered necessary for the successful completion of this journey. Rituals in animistic cultures are often performed by [[shaman|shamans]] or [[priest|priests]], who are usually seen as possessing spiritual powers greater than or external to the normal human experience. The practice of [[shrunken head|head shrinking]] as found among [[headhunter]]s derives from an animistic belief that one's war enemies, if the spirit is not trapped within the head, can escape the body. After the spirit [[transmigrates]] to another body, they take the form of a [[predator]]y animal and exact revenge. Animism is the belief that objects and ideas including animals, tools, and natural phenomena have or are expressions of living [[spirit]]s. ==Origins== Early ideas on the subject of the soul, and at the same time the origin of them, can be illustrated by analysis of the terms applied to them. Readers of [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] know the idea that the dead have no shadows. This was no invention of the poet's but a piece of traditional lore. Among the [[Basutoland|Basutus]] it is held that a man walking by the brink of a river may lose his life if his shadow falls on the water, for a [[crocodile]] may seize it and draw him in. In [[Tasmania]], [[North America|North]] and [[South America]] and classical Europe is found the conception that the soul &#8212; &#963;&#954;&#953;&#8049;, ''umbra'' &#8212; is identical with the shadow of a person. More familiar to Europeans is the connection between the soul and the breath. This identification is found both in [[Indo-European languages | Indo-European]] and [[Semitic languages]]. In Latin we have ''spiritus'', in Greek ''pneuma'', in Hebrew ''ruach''. The idea is found extending other planes of culture in Australia, America and Asia. For some of the [[Native Americans (U.S.)|Native Americans]] and [[First Nations]] the [[Roman religion|Roman]] custom of receiving the breath of a dying man was no mere pious duty but a means of ensuring that his soul was transferred to a new body. Other familiar conceptions identify the [[soul]] with the [[liver]] (see [[omen]]) or the [[heart]], with the reflected figure seen in the [[pupil]] of the [[eye]], and with the [[blood]]. Although the soul is often distinguished from the vital principle, there are many cases in which a state of unconsciousness is explained as due to the absence of the soul. In [[South Australia]] ''wilyamarraba'' (without soul) is the word used for insensible. So too the [[autohypnosis|autohypnotic]] [[trance]] of the [[magician]] or ''[[shaman]]'' is regarded as due to their visit to distant regions or the [[netherworld]], of which they bring back an account. [[Telepathy]] or [[clairvoyance]], with or without [[trance]], may have operated to produce a conviction of the dual nature of man, for it seems possible that facts unknown to the [[automatism|automatist]] are sometimes discovered by means of [[crystal gazing]]. Sickness is often explained as due to the absence of the soul and means are sometimes taken to lure back the [[wandering soul]]. In [[China|Chinese]] tradition, when a person is at the point of death and their soul believed to have left their body, the patient's coat is held up on a long bamboo pole while a priest endeavours to bring the departed spirit back into the coat by means of [[incantation]]s. If the bamboo begins to turn round in the hands of the relative who is deputed to hold it, it is regarded as a sign that the soul of the [[moribund]] has returned (see [[automatism]]). More important perhaps than all these phenomena, because more regular and normal, was the daily period of [[sleep]] with its frequent fitful and incoherent ideas and images. The mere immobility of the body was sufficient to show that its state was not identical with that of waking. When, in addition, the sleeper awoke to give an account of visits to distant lands, from which, as modern [[psychic]]al investigations suggest, they may even have brought back veridical details, the conclusion must have been irresistible that in sleep something journeyed forth, which was not the body (see [[astral travel]]). In a minor degree, revival of [[memory]] during sleep and similar phenomena of the sub-conscious life may have contributed to the same result. [[Dreams]] are sometimes explained in animist cultures as journeys performed by the sleeper, sometimes as visits paid by other persons, by animals or objects to the sleeper. [[Hallucinations]], possibly more frequent in the lower stages of culture, must have contributed to fortify this interpretation, and the animistic theory in general. Seeing the [[phantasm]]ic figures of friends at the moment when they were, whether at the point of death or in good health, many miles distant, must have led people irresistibly to the [[dualistic theory]]. But hallucinatory figures, both in dreams and waking life, are not necessarily those of the living. From the reappearance of dead friends or enemies, primitive man was inevitably led to the belief that there existed an incorporeal part of man, which survived the dissolution of the body. The soul was conceived to be a facsimile of the body, sometimes no less material, sometimes more subtle but yet material, sometimes altogether impalpable and intangible. If the phenomena of dreams were, as suggested above, of great importance for the development of animism, the belief, which must originally have been a doctrine of human [[psychology]], cannot have failed to expand speedily into a general [[philosophy]] of [[nature]]. Not only human beings but animals and objects are seen in dreams and the conclusion would be that they too have souls. The same conclusion may have been reached by another line of argument. [[Folk psychology]] posited a spirit in a person to account, amongst other things, for their actions. A natural explanation of the changes in the external world would be that they are due to the operations and volitions of spirits. But apart from considerations of this sort, it is probable that animals must have been regarded as possessing souls, early in the history of animistic beliefs. We may assume that man attributed a soul to the beasts of the field almost as soon as he claimed one for himself. The animist may attribute to animals the same sorts of ideas, the same soul, the same mental processes as himself, which may also be associated with greater power, cunning, or magical abilities. Dead animals are sometimes credited with a knowledge of how their remains are treated, potentially with the power to take vengeance on the hunter if he is disrespectful. It is not surprising to find that many peoples respect and even worship animals (see ''[[totem]]'' or ''[[animal worship]]''), often regarding them as relatives. It is clear that widespread respect was paid to animals as the abode of dead ancestors, and much of the [[cult]]s to dangerous animals is traceable to this principle; though we need not attribute an animistic origin to it. With the rise of [[species]], [[deities]] and the cult of individual animals, the path towards [[anthropomorphization]] and [[polytheism]] is opened and the respect paid to animals tended to be reduced or lost entirely, especially in its strict animistic character. ==Plant souls== Just as human souls are assigned to animals, so too are [[tree]]s and [[plant]]s often credited with souls, both human and animal in form. All over the world [[agricultural]] peoples practise elaborate ceremonies explicable, as [[Wilhelm Mannhardt]] has shown, on animistic principles. In Europe the [[John Barleycorn | corn spirit]] sometimes [[immanent]] in the crop, sometimes a presiding [[deity]] whose life does not depend on that of the growing corn, is conceived in some districts in the form of an [[ox]], [[hare]] or [[cock]], in others as an old man or woman. In the [[East Indies]] and Americas the [[rice]] or [[maize mother]] is a corresponding figure; in [[classical Europe]] and the [[Eastern world |East]] we have in [[Ceres]] and [[Demeter]], [[Adonis]] and [[Dionysus]], and other deities, vegetation gods whose origin we can readily trace back to the rustic corn spirit. [[Forest]] [[tree]]s, no less than [[cereal]]s, may have their indwelling spirits. The [[faun]]s and [[satyr]]s of classical literature were [[goat]]-footed; in [[Russia]], the [[tree spirit]] of the Russian peasantry takes the form of a [[goat]]. In [[Bengal]] and the [[East Indies]] woodcutters endeavour to propitiate the spirit of the tree which they cut down. In many parts of the world trees are regarded as the abode of the spirits of the dead. Just as a process of [[syncretism]] has given rise to cults of animal gods, tree spirits tend to become detached from the trees, which are thenceforward only their abodes. Here again animism has begun to pass into [[polytheism]]. == Object souls == Some cultures do not make a distinction between [[animate]] and inanimate objects. Natural phenomenon, [[geographic]] features, everyday objects, and manufactured articles may also be attributed with souls. In the north of Europe, in [[ancient Greece]], in [[China]], the water or river spirit is [[horse]] or [[bull]]-shaped. The water monster in serpent shape is even more widely found, but it is less strictly the spirit of the water. The spirit of syncretism manifests itself in this department of animism too, turning the immanent spirit into the presiding [[djinn]] or [[local god]] of later times. == Animism and death== In many parts of the world it is held that the human body is the seat of more than one soul. On the island of [[Nias]] four are distinguished: the shadow and the intelligence, which die with the body, a [[tutelary]] spirit, termed ''begoe'', and a second spirit, which is carried on the head. Similar ideas are found among the [[Euahlayi]] of southeast Australia, the [[Dakota]]s and many other tribes. Just as in Europe the [[ghost]] of a dead person is held to haunt the churchyard or the place of death, so do other cultures assign different abodes to the multiple souls with which they credit man. Of the four souls of a Dakota, one is held to stay with the corpse, another in the village, a third goes into the air, while the fourth goes to the land of souls, where its lot may depend on its rank in this life, its [[sex]], mode of death or sepulture, on the due observance of [[funeral]] ritual, or many other points. From the belief in the survival of the dead arose the practice of offering food, lighting fires, etc., at the grave, at first, maybe, as an act of friendship or filial piety, later as an act of [[ancestor worship]]. The simple offering of food or shedding of blood at the grave develops into an elaborate system of [[sacrifice]]. Even where ancestor worship is not found, the desire to provide the dead with comforts in the future life may lead to the sacrifice of wives, slaves, animals, and so on, to the breaking or burning of objects at the grave or to the provision of the [[Charon (mythology)|ferryman]]'s toll: a coin put in the mouth of the corpse to pay the traveling expenses of the soul. But all is not finished with the passage of the soul to the land of the dead. The soul may return to avenge its death by helping to discover the murderer, or to wreak vengeance for itself. There is a widespread belief that those who die a violent death become malignant spirits and endanger the lives of those who come near the haunted spot. The woman who dies in childbirth becomes a [[pontianak]], and threatens the life of human beings. People resort to magical or religious means of repelling their spiritual dangers. == Evil spirits == Side by side with the doctrine of separable souls with which we have so far been concerned, exists the belief in a great host of unattached spirits. These are not immanent souls that have become detached from their abodes, but have instead every appearance of independent spirits. These spirits are at first mainly malevolent. Side by side with them we find the spirits of the dead as hostile beings. At a higher stage the spirits of dead kinsmen are no longer unfriendly, nor yet all non-human spirits. As [[fetish]]es, [[nagual]]s (see [[totem]]), [[familiar spirit]]s, gods or [[demi-gods]] (see also [[demonology]]), they enter into relations with man. On the other hand there still subsists a belief in innumerable evil spirits, which manifest themselves in the phenomena of [[possession]], [[lycanthropy]], disease, and so on. The fear of evil spirits has given rise to ceremonies of expulsion of evils (see [[exorcism]]), designed to banish them from the community. == Differences between animism and religion == Animism is commonly described as the most primitive form of [[religion]], but properly speaking it is not a religion at all. Animism is in the first instance an explanation of phenomena rather than an attitude of mind toward the cause of them, a [[philosophy]] rather than a religion. The term may, however, be conveniently used to describe the early stage of religion in which people endeavour to set up relations between themselves and the unseen powers, conceived as spirits, but differing in many particulars from the gods of [[polytheism]]. As an example of this stage in one of its aspects may be taken the European belief in the corn spirit, which is, however, the object of magical rather than religious rites. Sir James G. Frazer, in ''The Golden Bough'', has thus defined the character of the animistic pantheon: :''they are restricted in their operations to definite departments of nature; their names are general, not proper; their attributes are generic rather than individual; in other words, there is an indefinite number of spirits of each class, and the individuals of a class are much alike; they have no definitely marked individuality; no accepted traditions are current as to their origin, life and character.'' This stage of religion is well illustrated by the [[Native American (U.S.)|Native American]] custom of offering sacrifice to certain rocks, or whirlpools, or to the indwelling spirits connected with them. The rite is only performed in the neighbourhood of the object, it is an incident of a [[canoe]] or other voyage, and is not intended to secure any benefits beyond a safe passage past the object in question. The spirit to be propitiated has a purely local sphere of influence, and powers of a very limited nature. Animistic in many of their features too are the temporary gods of [[fetishism]], naguals or familiars, [[Genie | genii]] and even the dead who receive a cult. With the rise of a belief in departmental gods comes the age of polytheism. The belief in [[elemental spirits]] may still persist, but they fall into the background and receive no cult. == Animism and the origin of religion == Two animistic theories of the origin of [[religion]] have been put forward. The one, often termed the "ghost theory," mainly associated with the name of [[Herbert Spencer]], but also maintained by [[Grant Allen]], refers the beginning of religion to the cult of dead human beings. The other, put forward by Dr. E. B. [[Tylor]], makes the foundation of all religion animistic, but recognizes the non-human character of polytheistic gods. Although ancestor-worship, or, more broadly, the [[cult]] of the dead, has in many cases overshadowed other cults or even extinguished them, we have no warrant, even in these cases, for asserting its priority, but rather the reverse. In the majority of cases the pantheon is made up by a multitude of spirits in human, sometimes in animal form, which bear no signs of ever having been incarnate. [[Sun god]]s and [[moon goddess]]es, gods of fire, wind and water, gods of the sea, and above all gods of the sky, show no signs of having been ghost gods at any period in their history. They may, it is true, be associated with ghost gods. In Australia it cannot even be asserted that the gods are spirits at all, much less that they are the spirits of dead men. They are simply magnified magicians, super-men who have never died. We have no ground, therefore, for regarding the cult of the dead as the origin of religion in this area. This conclusion is the more probable, as ancestor-worship and the cult of the dead generally cannot be said to exist in Australia. The more general view that polytheistic and other [[gods]] are the elemental and other spirits of the later stages of animistic creeds, is equally inapplicable to Australia, where the belief seems to be neither animistic nor even animatistic in character. But we are hardly justified in arguing from the case of Australia to a general conclusion as to the origin of religious ideas in all other parts of the world. It is perhaps safest to say that the science of religions has no data on which to go, in formulating conclusions as to the original form of the objects of religious emotion. It must be remembered that not only is it very difficult to get precise information of the subject of the religious ideas of people of some other cultures, perhaps for the simple reason that the ideas themselves are far from precise, but also that, as has been pointed out above, the conception of spiritual often approximates very closely to that of material. Where the soul is regarded as no more than a finer sort of matter, it will obviously be far from easy to decide whether the gods are spiritual or material. Even, therefore, if we can say that at the present day the gods are entirely spiritual, it is clearly possible to maintain that they have been spiritualized ''pari passu'' with the increasing importance of the animistic view of nature and of the greater prominence of [[Eschatology | eschatological]] beliefs. The animistic origin of religion is therefore not proven. == Animism and mythology == Little need be said on the relation of animism and [[mythology]]. While a large part of mythology has an animistic basis, it is possible to believe, e.g. in a sky world, peopled by corporeal beings, as well as by spirits of the dead. The latter may even be entirely absent. The mythology of the Australians relates largely to corporeal, non-spiritual beings. Stories of transformation, [[deluge (mythology)]] and doom myths, or myths of the origin of death, have not necessarily any animistic basis. At the same time, with the rise of ideas as to a future life and spiritual beings, this field of mythology is immensely widened, though it cannot be said that a rich mythology is necessarily genetically associated with or combined with belief in many spiritual beings. == Animism in philosophy == The term "animism" has been applied to many different philosophical systems. It is used to describe [[Aristotle]]'s view of the relation of soul and body held also by the [[Stoics]] and [[Scholastics]]. On the other hand [[monadology]] ([[Leibniz]]) has also been termed animistic. The name is most commonly applied to [[vitalism]], a view mainly associated with [[Georg Ernst Stahl]] and revived by [[F. Bouillier]] ([[1813]]-[[1899]]), which makes life, or life and mind, the directive principle in evolution and growth, holding that all cannot be traced back to chemical and mechanical processes, but that there is a directive force which guides energy without altering its amount. An entirely different class of ideas, also termed animistic, is the belief in the world soul, held by [[Plato]], [[Schelling]] and others. == Tylor == Tylor argued that non-Western societies relied on animism to explain why things happen. He further argued that animism is the earliest form of religion, and reveals that humans developed religions in order to explain things. At the time that Tylor wrote, this theory was politically radical because it made the claim that non-Western peoples and in particular, non-Christian "heathens", in fact do have religion. However, since the publication of ''Primitive Culture'', Tylor's theories have come under criticism from three quarters. First, some have questioned whether the beliefs of diverse peoples living in different parts of the world and not communicating with one another can be lumped together as one kind of religion. Second, some have questioned whether the basic function of religion really is to "explain" the universe (critics like Marrett and [[Emil Durkheim]] argued that religious beliefs have emotional and social, rather than intellectual, functions). Finally, many now see Tylor's theories as [[ethnocentric]]. Not only was he imposing a contemporary and Western view of religion (that it explains the inexplicable) on non-Western cultures, he was also telling the story of a progression from religion (which provides poor explanations) to [[science]] (which provides good explanations) (see [[cultural evolution]]). ==List of phenomena believed to lead to animism== Lists of phenomena from the contemplation of which "the savage" was led to believe in animism have been given by Sir [[E. B. Tylor]], [[Herbert Spencer]], [[Andrew Lang]] and others; an animated controversy arose between the former as to the priority of their respective lists. Among these phenomena are: * [[Trance]] * [[Unconsciousness]] * [[Sickness]] * [[Death]] * [[Clairvoyance]] * [[Dream]]s * [[Apparition]]s of the [[dead]] * [[Wraith (entity)|Wraith]]s * [[Hallucination]]s * [[Echo]]es * [[Shadow]]s * [[Reflection]]s == The new animism == In an article entitled "Revisiting Animism", Nurit Bird-David builds on the work of Irving Hallowell by discussing the animist worldview and lifeway of the Nayaka of India. Hallowell had learnt from the Ojibwa of southern central Canada that the humans are only one kind of 'person' among many. There are also 'rock persons', 'eagle persons' and so on. Hallowell and Bird-David discuss the ways in which particular indigenous cultures know how to relate to particular persons (individuals or groups). There is no need to talk of metaphysics or impute non-empirical 'beliefs' in discussing animism. What is required is an openness to consider that humans are neither separate from the world nor distinct from other kinds of being in most significant ways. The new animism also makes considerably more sense of attempts to understand 'totemism' as an understanding that humans are not only closely related to other humans but also to particular animals, plants, etc. It also helps by providing a term for the communities among whom shamans work: they are animists not 'shamanists'. Shamans are employed among animist communities to engage or mediate with other-than-human persons in situations that would be fraught or dangerous for un-initiated, untrained or non-skillful people. The -ism of 'animism' should not suggest an overly systematic approach (but this is true of the lived reality of most religious people), but it is preferable to the term ''[[shamanism]]'' which has led many commentators to construct an elaborate system out of the everyday practices of animists and those they employ to engage with other-than-human persons. The new animism is most fully discussed in a recent book by Graham Harvey, ''Animism: Respecting the Living World''. But it is also significant in the 'animist realist' novels now being written among many indigenous communities worldwide. The term 'animist realism' was coined by Harry Garuba, a Nigerian scholar of literature, in comparison with 'magical realism' that describes works such as Marquez's ''[[One Hundred Years of Solitude]]''. == See also == * [[hylozoism|Hylozoism]] * [[Midewiwin]] * [[Monism]] * [[Panentheism]] * [[panpsychism|Panpsychism]] * [[Pantheism]] ==Suggested Reading== [[The Story of B]] By [[Daniel Quinn]] == References == * Bird-David, Nurit. 1991. "Animism Revisited: Personhood, environment, and relational epistemology", ''Current Anthropology'' 40, pp. 67-91. Reprinted in Graham Harvey (ed.) 2002. ''Readings in Indigenous Religions'' (London and New York: Continuum) pp.72-105. * Hallowell, A. Irving. "Ojibwa ontology, behavior, and world view" in Stanley Diamond (ed.) 1960. ''Culture in History'' (New York: Columbia University Press). Reprinted in Graham Harvey (ed.) 2002. ''Readings in Indigenous Religions'' (London and New York: Continuum) pp.17-49. * Harvey, Graham. 2005. ''Animism: Respecting the Living World'' (London: Hurst and co.; New York: Columbia University Press; Adelaide: Wakefield Press). * Thomas, Northcote Whitbridge. Animism. ''[[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' ==External links== * [http://www.starstuffs.com/animal_totems/ Animism and Totem Spirit Animals: Discovering Animal Totems, Dictionaries, Feathers] *[http://www.ishmael.org/interaction/qanda/qanda.cfm Ishmael.org FAQ] A database which includes many questions and answers regarding animism (and which conflicts greatly with the definition of the 'old' animism above while illustrating one version of the 'new' animism quite well) on the website of [[Daniel Quinn]], author of My Ishmael. Choose ''Animism'' from ''Topic''. *[http://www.animism.org.uk] is a new website devoted to the discussion of the new animism. It arises from the work of Graham Harvey whose book ''Animism: Respecting the Living World'' discusses the whole topic, its benefits and problems, in considerable detail. *[http://people.freenet.de/ishmael/animism.html] A personal view of animism *[http://www.actionintl.org/action/content/view/223/212/] Animism in Zambia [[Category:1911 Britannica]] [[Category:Animism]] [[Category:Religious faiths, traditions, and movements]] [[ca:Animisme]] [[da:Animisme]] [[de:Animismus]] [[es:Animismo]] [[et:Animism]] [[fi:Animismi]] [[fr:Animisme]] [[fy:Animisme]] [[he:אנימיזם]] [[ia:Animismo]] [[id:Animisme]] [[is:Andatrú]] [[it:Animismo]] [[ja:アニミズム]] [[li:Animisme]] [[ms:Animisme]] [[nl:Animistische religie]] [[oc:Animisme]] [[pl:Animizm]] [[sl:Animizem]] [[sv:Animism]] [[uk:Анімізм]] 1425 41668136 2006-02-28T23:17:40Z Blue-014 742110 :''For the two explorers who sailed into the Atlantic in 1291, see [[Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi]].'' [[Image:Vivaldi.jpg|right|thumb|210px|Unconfirmed portrait of Antonio Vivaldi]] '''Antonio Lucio Vivaldi''' ([[March 4]], [[1678]] &ndash; [[July 28]], [[1741]]), nicknamed '''Il Prete Rosso''', meaning "The Red Priest," was an [[Italy|Italian]] priest and [[baroque music]] composer. ==Biography== Antonio Lucio Vivaldi was born on [[March 4]], [[1678]] in [[Venice]], [[Italy]]. He was baptized immediately at his home by the midwife due to ''danger of death''. It is not determined what that means but it probably refered to an earthquake that shook the city that day or the infant's poor health. Vivaldi's official church baptism didn't take place until 2 months later. His father, Giovanni Battista, a [[barber]] before becoming a professional [[violinist]], taught him to play violin at first, then toured Venice playing violin with his father. Vivaldi had a medical problem which he called the ''tightening of the chest'' ([[asthma]]). His medical problem, however did not prevent him from learning to play the violin, compose and take part in any musical activities. At the age of 15 ([[1693]]) he began studying to become a priest. In [[1703]], 10 years later, at the age of 25, Vivaldi was ordained as a priest, soon nicknamed ''Il Prete Rosso'', "The Red Priest," probably because of his red hair. Not long after, in [[1704]], he was given a dispensation from celebrating the [[Holy Mass]] because of his ill-health (he apparently suffered from [[asthma]], a breathing disorder) and in late [[1706]] he withdrew from the priesthood and became ''maestro di violino'' at an orphanage for girls called the [[Pio Ospedale della Pietà]] in [[Venice]]. Shortly after his appointment, the orphans began to gain appreciation and esteem abroad too; Vivaldi wrote for them most of his concertos, cantatas, and sacred music. In [[1705]] the first collection (''[[raccolta]]'') of his works was published. Many others would follow. At the orphanage he covered several different duties, with the only interruption for his many travels. In [[1709]], he was let go for economic reasons, but in [[1711]], he was offered the job again and in [[1713]] became responsible for the musical activity of the institute. Vivaldi was promoted to ''maestro de' concerti'' in [[1716]]. It was during these years that Vivaldi wrote much of his music, including many operas and concertos. In [[1718]], Vivaldi began to travel. Despite his frequent travels, the Pietà paid him to write two concertos a month for the orchestra and to rehearse with them at least four times when in [[Venice]]. The Pietà's records show that he was paid for 140 concertos between [[1723]] and [[1729]]. Not so well known is the fact that most of his repertoire was re-discovered only in the first half of the [[20th century]] in [[Turin]] and [[Genoa]], but was published in the second half. Vivaldi's music is innovative, breaking a consolidated tradition in schemes; he gave brightness to the formal and the rhythmic structure of the concerto, repeatedly looking for [[harmonic]] contrasts, and invented innovative melodies and themes. Moreover, Vivaldi was able to compose non-academic music, particularly meant to be appreciated by the wide public, and not only by an intellectual minority. The joyful appearance of his music reveals in this regard a transmissible joy of composing. These are among the causes of the vast popularity of his music. This popularity soon made him famous also in countries like [[France]], at the time very independent in its musical taste. Vivaldi is considered one of the composers who brought [[Baroque Music|Baroque music]] (with its typical contrast among heavy sonorities) to evolve into a classical style. [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] was deeply influenced by Vivaldi's concertos and arias (recalled in his [[Passion]]s and [[cantata]]s). Bach transcribed a number of Vivaldi's concertos for solo keyboard, along with a number for orchestra, including the famous Concerto for Four Violins and Violoncello, Strings and Continuo ([[Ryom Verzeichnis|RV]] 580). However, not all musicians have shown the same enthusiasm: [[Igor Stravinsky]] provocatively said that Vivaldi had not written hundreds of concertos, but one concerto, hundreds of times. Despite his priestly status, he is supposed to have had possible love affairs, one of which was with the [[singer]] [[Anna Giraud]], with whom he was suspected of reusing materials from old Venetian operas, which he only slightly adapted to the vocal capabilities of his protegée. This business caused him some troubles with other musicians, like [[Benedetto Marcello]], who wrote a [[pamphlet]] against him. There is no concrete evidence, however, that links Vivaldi romantically to anyone. Vivaldi's life, like those of many composers of the time, ended in poverty. His compositions no longer held the high esteem they once did in Venice; changing musical tastes quickly made them outmoded, and Vivaldi, in response, chose to sell off sizeable numbers of his manuscripts at paltry prices to finance a migration to [[Vienna]]. Reasons for Vivaldi's departure from Venice are unclear, but it seems likely that he wished to meet [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI]], who adored his compositions (Vivaldi dedicated ''La Cetra'' to Charles in [[1727]]), and take up the position of royal composer in his Imperial Court. But shortly after Vivaldi's arrival at Vienna, Charles died. This tragic stroke of bad luck left the composer without royal protection and a source of income. Vivaldi had to sell off more manuscripts to make ends meet, and eventually died not long after, in [[1741]]. He was given an unmarked pauper's grave (the assumption that the young [[Joseph Haydn]] sang in the choir at Vivaldi's burial was based on the mistranscription of a primary source and has been proven wrong). Equally unfortunate, his music was to fall into obscurity until the [[20th century]]. His burial spot is next to the Karlskirche in Vienna, at the site of the Technical Institute. The house he lived in while in Vienna was torn down. In its place now stands the Hotel Sacher. Memorial plaques have been placed at both locations, as well as a Vivaldi "star" in the Viennese Musikmeile and a monument at the Rooseveltsplatz. ==Posthumous reputation== Vivaldi remained known for his published concerti, and largely ignored, even after the resurgence of interest in Bach, pioneered by [[Felix Mendelssohn|Mendelssohn]]. The resurrection of Vivaldi's unpublished works in the 20th century is mostly thanks to the efforts of [[Alfredo Casella]], who in [[1939]], organised the now historic ''Vivaldi Week'', in which the rediscovered ''Gloria in excelsis'' ([[Ryom Verzeichnis|RV]] 589) was first heard again. Discoveries continue to be made: a setting of ''Nisi Dominus'' (RV 803) was discovered as recently as 2003, in a German library among manuscripts of [[Galuppi]]; it was recorded in 2005. Following World war II Vivaldi's compositions have enjoyed almost universal success, and the advent of [[historically informed performance]]s has all but catapulted him to stardom once again. In [[1947]], the Venetian businessman [[Antonio Fanna]] founded the [[Istituto Italiano Antonio Vivaldi]], with the composer [[Gian Francesco Malipiero]] as its artistic director, with the purpose of promoting Vivaldi's music and putting out new editions of his works. Three films about Antonio Vivaldi are in production as of [[2005]]. One of them, with the working title ''Vivaldi'', will be directed by [[Catherine Hardwicke]] for Emagine Entertainment, while the second could have [[Ashley MacIsaac]] in the title role. A third, made by French/Italian producers with Stefano Dionisi as Vivaldi and Michel Serrault in the main roles, is scheduled to be completed in [[2005]]. Vivaldi's music, together with [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s, [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Tchaikovsky]]'s and [[Arcangelo Corelli|Corelli]]'s, has been included in the theories of [[Alfred Tomatis]] on the effects of music on human behaviour, and used in [[music therapy]]. The 11-movement "Dixit Dominus" for choir and soloists, uncovered in the German city of Dresden in early [[2005]], will be played there in full in [[2006]]. He was a prolific [[composer]] and is most well-known for composing: *over 500 [[Concerto|concertos]] (210 of which were for violin or violoncello ''solo''), *46 [[opera]]s, *sinfonias, *73 sonatas, *[[chamber music]] (even if some sonatas for [[flute]], as ''Il Pastor Fido'', have been erroneously attributed to him, but were composed by [[Chédeville]]) and *[[sacred music]] ("oratorio" ''Juditha Triumphans'', written for Pietà, two ''Glorias'', the ''Stabat Mater'', the ''Nisi Dominus'', the ''Beatus Vir'', the ''Magnificat'', the ''Dixit Dominus'' and others); *his most famous work is perhaps [[1723]]'s ''[[The Four Seasons (Vivaldi)|Le Quattro Stagioni]]'' (The Four Seasons). In essence, it resembled an early example of a [[tone poem]], where he attempted to capture all the moods of the four seasons without the use of [[percussion instrument|percussion]] to dramatize the effects he sought to portray. ==Major works== ===Published works in his lifetime=== * Opus 1, 12 Sonatas for 2 violins and basso continuo ([[1705]]) * Opus 2, 12 Sonatas for violin and basso continuo ([[1709]]) * Opus 3, L'estro armonico (Harmonic inspiration), 12 concertos for various combinations. Best known concerti are No. 6 in A minor for violin, No. 8 in A minor for two violins, and No. 10 in B minor for 4 violins ([[1711]]) * Opus 4, La stravaganza (The extraordinary), 12 violin concertos (c. [[1714]]) * Opus 5, (2nd part of Opus 2), 4 sonatas for violin and 2 sonatas for 2 violins and basso continuo ([[1716]]) * Opus 6, 6 violin concertos (1716-[[1721|21]]) * Opus 7, 2 oboe concertos and 10 violin concertos (1716-[[1721|21]]) * Opus 8, Il cimento dell'armonia e dell'inventione (The Contest between Harmony and Invention), 12 violin concertos, the first 4, in E, G minor, F, and F minor being known as The Four Seasons ([[The Four Seasons (Vivaldi)|Le quattro stagioni]]) ([[1725]]) * Opus 9, La cetra (The lyre), 12 violin concertos and 1 for 2 violins ([[1727]]) * Opus 10, 6 flute concertos (c. [[1728]]) * Opus 11, 5 violin concertos, 1 oboe concerto, the second in E minor, RV 277, being known as "Il favorito" ([[1729]]) * Opus 12, 5 violin concertos and 1 without solo ([[1729]]) * Opus 13, Il pastor fido (The Faithful Sheperd), 6 sonatas for musette, viela, recorder, flute, oboe or violin, and basso continuo ([[1737]], spurious works by Nicolas Chédeville). ===Operas=== * [[Ottone in villa]] ([[1713]]) * [[Orlando finto pazzo]] ([[1714]]) * L'incoronazione di Dario ([[1716]]) * Il Teuzzone ([[1719]]) * [[Tito Manlio]] ([[1719]]) * La verità in cimento ([[1720]]) * Ercole sul Termodonte ([[1723]]) * Il Giustino ([[1724]]) * [[Dorilla in Tempe]] ([[1726]]) * [[Farnace]] ([[1727]]) * Orlando furioso ([[1727]]) * Rosilena ed Oronta ([[1728]]) * La fida ninfa ([[1732]]) * [[L'Olimpiade]] ([[1734]]) * Bajazet (Tamerlano) ([[1735]]) * [[Griselda (Vivaldi)|Griselda]] ([[1735]]) * Catone in Utica ([[1737]]) * Rosmira ([[1738]]) === Concertos === Vivaldi wrote hundreds of concerti for various instruments. Concertos not published in his lifetime include: Mandolin: * Concerto in D major, RV 93 * [[Concerto for Mandoline]] in C major, RV 425 * Concerto for two Mandolins in G major, RV 532 Recorder: * Concerto in D major, RV 95, "La pastorella" * Concerto in C minor for Treble Recorder, RV 441 * Concerto in F major for Treble Recorder, RV 442 * Concerto in C major for Sopranino Recorder, RV 443 * Concerto in C major for Sopranino Recorder, RV 444 * Concerto in A minor for Sopranino Recorder, RV 445 Trumpet: * Concerto for Two Trumpets in C Major ===Sacred Works=== * Kyrie a 8, RV 587 * Gloria, RV 588 * [http://cftp.ist.utl.pt/~gonzalez/Music/Vivaldi.htm#Anchor-Glori-7342 Gloria], RV 588, RV 589 * Credo, RV 591 * Credo, RV 592 * Domine ad adiuvandum me, RV 593 * Beatus vir, RV 597 * Credidi propter quod, RV 605 * Laetatus sum, RV 607 * Magnificat, RV 610 * Stabat Mater, RV 621 * Introduzione al Gloria, RV 639 * Oratorio ''Juditha triumphans'', RV 644 * Nisi Dominus, RV 803 ==Media== {{multi-listen start}} {{multi-listen item|filename=01 - Vivaldi Spring mvt 1 Allegro - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Spring mvt 1: Allegro|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=02 - Vivaldi Spring mvt 2 Largo - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Spring mvt 2: Largo|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=03 - Vivaldi Spring mvt 3 Allegro - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Spring mvt 3: Allegro|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=04 - Vivaldi Summer mvt 1 Allegro non molto - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Summer mvt 1: Allegro non molto|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=05 - Vivaldi Summer mvt 2 Adagio - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Summer mvt 2: Adagio|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=06 - Vivaldi Summer mvt 3 Presto - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Summer mvt 3: Presto|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=07 - Vivaldi Autumn mvt 1 Allegro - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Autumn mvt 1: Allegro|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=08 - Vivaldi Autumn mvt 2 Adagio molto - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Autumn mvt 2: Adagio molto|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=09 - Vivaldi Autumn mvt 3 Allegro - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Autumn mvt 3: Allegro|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=10 - Vivaldi Winter mvt 1 Allegro non molto - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Winter mvt 1: Allegro non molto|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=11 - Vivaldi Winter mvt 2 Largo - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Winter mvt 2: Largo|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item|filename=12 - Vivaldi Winter mvt 3 Allegro - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Winter mvt 3: Allegro|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen end}} ==Selected historically informed performance ensembles specialising in Vivaldi== * ''[[Europa Galante]]'' * ''[[Concerto Italiano]]'' * ''[[Il Giardino Armonico]]'' ==References and further reading== * Eleanor Selfridge-Field ([[1994]]). ''Venetian Instrumental Music, from Gabrieli to Vivaldi.'' New York, Dover Publications. ISBN 0486281515 * [[Manfred Bukofzer]] ([[1947]]). ''Music in the Baroque Era''. New York, W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0393097455 ==External links== {{Commons|Antonio Vivaldi}} * [http://www.playbillarts.com/news/article/2341.html Two Vivaldi biopics may duel at the box office] * [http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20050809/en_nm/arts_vivaldi_australia_dc New Vivaldi work heard for first time in 250 years] * [http://www.pianoparadise.com/vivaldi.html Vivaldi biography and sheet music] * {{IckingArchive|idx=Vivaldi|name=Antonio Vivaldi}} * [http://www.kantoreiarchiv.de/archiv/choir_orchestra/gloria/vivaldi/ Gloria (Free sheet music)] * [http://www.kantoreiarchiv.de/archiv/choir_orchestra/magnificat/vivaldi/ Magnificat (Free sheet music)] [[Category:1678 births|Vivaldi]] [[Category:1741 deaths|Vivaldi]] [[Category:Baroque composers|Vivaldi]] [[Category:Classical violinists|Vivaldi]] [[Category:Italian composers|Vivaldi]] [[Category:Natives of Venice|Vivaldi]] [[Category:Opera composers|Vivaldi]] [[Category:Roman Catholic priests|Vivaldi]] [[ar:أنطونيو فيفالدي]] [[bg:Антонио Вивалди]] [[ca:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[cs:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[cy:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[da:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[de:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[es:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[eo:Antonio VIVALDI]] [[eu:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[fr:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[gl:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[ko:안토니오 비발디]] [[hr:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[id:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[is:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[it:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[he:אנטוניו ויוואלדי]] [[kn:ಆಂಟೋನಿಯೊ ವಿವಾಲ್ಡಿ]] [[la:Antonius Vivaldi]] [[lt:Antonijus Vivaldis]] [[hu:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[nl:Antonio Vivaldi (componist)]] [[ja:アントニオ・ヴィヴァルディ]] [[no:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[nn:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[pl:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[pt:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[ro:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[ru:Вивальди, Антонио]] [[sl:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[sr:Антонио Вивалди]] [[fi:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[sv:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[th:อานโตนิโอ วิวัลดิ]] [[tr:Antonio Vivaldi]] [[uk:Вівальді Антоніо]] 1426 15899910 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Pope Adrian II]] 1427 15899911 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Pope Adrian III]] 1428 38963719 2006-02-09T20:40:17Z Tedernst 3700 remove wikilink per [[MoS:DP]] '''Adrian''' can refer to: *[[Adrian, Ontario]], Canada *[[Hurricane Adrian]], a 2005 tropical cyclone *[[Adrian helmet]], French Army steel helmet Popes: *[[Adrian I]], Pope from 772 to 795 *[[Adrian II]], Pope from 867 to 872 *[[Adrian III]], Pope from 884 to 885 *[[Adrian IV]], Pope from 1154 to 1159 *[[Adrian V]], Pope in 1276 *[[Adrian VI]], Pope from 1522 to 1523 Other notable people: *[[Adrian of Nicomedia]], a saint martyred in the early 300s <!-- 303 or 304, it says --> *[[Adrian Dantley]] (born 1956), retired basketball player *[[Adrian Greenburg]] (1903-1959), costume designer best known for ''The Wizard of Oz'' *[[Adrian Griffin]] (born 1974), professional basketball player *[[Adrian Lamo]] (born 1981) journalist and convicted computer hacker. Places in the United States: *[[Adrian, Georgia]] *[[Adrian, Illinois]] *[[Adrian, Michigan]] *[[Adrian, Minnesota]] *[[Adrian, Missouri]] *[[Adrian, North Dakota]] *[[Adrian, New York]] *[[Adrian, Ohio]] *[[Adrian, Oregon]] *[[Adrian, Pennsylvania]] *[[Adrian, South Carolina]] *[[Adrian, Texas]] *[[Adrian, Virgin Islands]] *[[Adrian, Washington]] *[[Adrian, West Virginia]] *[[Adrian, Wisconsin]] *[[Adrian Township, Kansas]] *[[Adrian Township, Michigan]] *[[Adrian Township, Minnesota]] *[[Adrian Township, North Dakota]] *[[Adrian Township, South Dakota]] {{disambig}} [[de:Adrian]] [[el:Αδριανός]] [[fr:Adrien]] [[hu:Adrián]] [[io:Adrian]] [[la:Adrianus]] [[pl:Adrian]] [[ru:Адриан]] [[sk:Adrián]] [[sv:Adrian]] 1429 15899913 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Pope Adrian IV]] 1430 15899914 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Pope Adrian V]] 1431 15899915 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Pope Adrian VI]] 1432 15899916 2002-09-28T14:55:20Z Vicki Rosenzweig 59 reversing redirect #REDIRECT [[Adriatic Sea]] 1433 41034426 2006-02-24T17:03:44Z Mmounties 779931 Add Navigation Template {{Otherusesabout|a river in Switzerland}} The '''Aar''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Aare'') is the longest [[river]] that both rises and ends entirely within [[Switzerland]]. Its total length from its source to its junction with the [[Rhine]] comprises about 291 km (181 miles), during which distance it descends 1,565m (5,135 feet), draining an area of [[1 E10 m²|17,620 km²]] (6,804 square miles). The Aar rises in the great [[Aar glaciers]] in the [[Canton of Bern|canton of Bern]] and west of the [[Grimsel Pass]]. It runs east to the Grimsel [[Hospice]], and then northwestery through the [[Hasli]] valley, forming on the way the magnificent Handegg Waterfall, 46 m (151 feet), past [[Guttannen]], and piercing the limestone barrier of the Kirchet by a major [[Canyons of Switzerland|canyon]], before reaching [[Meiringen]], situated in a plain. A little past Mieringen, near [[Brienz]], the river expands into [[Lake Brienz]] where it becomes navigable. Near the west end of the lake it receives its first important affluent, the [[Lütschine]]. It then runs across the swampy plain of the Bödeli between [[Interlaken]] and [[Unterseen]] before expanding once again into [[Lake Thun]]. [[Image:Aare_river_in_Bern.jpg|thumb|right|Aare in Bern]] Near the west end of Lake Thun, the river receives the waters of the [[Kander]], which has just been joined by the [[Simme]]. On flowing out of the lake it passes [[Thun]], and then circles a lofty bluff on which stands the town of [[Bern]]. The river soon changes its northwesterly flow for a due westerly direction, but after receiving the [[Sanne|Saane or Sarine]] it turns north until it nears Aarberg. There, in one of the major Swiss engineering feats of the [[19th century]] the river, which had previously rendered the countryside north of Bern a swampland through frequent floodings, was diverted by the [[Hagneck Canal]] into [[Lake Biel]]. From the upper end of the lake the river issues through the Nidau Canal and then runs east to [[Büren]]. The lake absorbs huge amounts of eroded gravels and snowmelt thet the river brings from the Alps and the former swamps have become fruitful plains: they are known as the "vegetable garden of Switzerland". [[Image:Forest_route_near_Aare.jpg|thumb|left|Forest route near Aare]] From here the Aar flows northeast for a long distance, past the ambassador town [[Solothurn]] (below which the Grosse [[Emme]] flows in on the right), Aarburg (where it is joined by the Wigger), [[Olten]], [[Aarau]], near which is the junction with the Suhr, and Wildegg, where the Hallwiler Aa falls in on the right. A short distance further, below [[Brugg]] it receives first the [[Reuss River|Reuss]], and shortly afterwards the [[Limmat]]. It now turns due north, and soon becomes itself an affluent of the [[Rhine]], which it surpasses in volume when the two rivers unite at [[Koblenz, Switzerland|Coblenz (Switzerland)]], opposite [[Waldshut]], Germany. ==List of [[Tributary|Tributaries]]== *[[Limmat]] **[[Linth]] (main tributary of [[Lake Zürich]]) **[[Sihl]] *[[Reuss River]] **[[Kleine Emme]] **[[Sarner Aa]] **[[Engelberger Aa]] **[[Schächen]] **[[Furkareuss]] *[[Suhr]] *[[Wigger (river)|Wigger]] *[[Emme]] *[[Zihlkanal]] **[[Suze]] **[[Broye]] **[[Orbe]] *[[Saane]] (Sarine) **[[Sense]] *[[Kander]] **[[Simme]] **[[Allenbach]] *[[Lütschine]] ==External links== {{Wikisource1911Enc|Aar}} *[http://www.aareschlucht.ch/english/einfuehrung_e.htm Gorge of the Aar] {{Template:Rhine Tributaries}} [[Category:Rivers of Switzerland]] [[Category:Canyons of Switzerland]] [[ca:Aar]] [[da:Aare]] [[de:Aare]] [[et:Aare jõgi]] [[als:Aare]] [[es:Aar]] [[fr:Aar]] [[gl:Aar]] [[it:Aar (fiume)]] [[ja:アーレ川]] [[nl:Aare]] [[pl:Aare]] [[pt:Rio Aar]] [[ru:Ааре (река)]] [[fi:Aar]] [[sv:Aare]] [[zh:阿勒河]] 1434 39929202 2006-02-16T22:10:23Z Sebb-fr 896644 fr {{mergeto|Abgarus of Edessa}} '''Abgar''' or '''Agbar''' was the favored name among a dynasty of local rulers at [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] in northern Mesopotamia, the most famous of whom figured in the forged correspondence with Jesus, accepted as genuine in [[Eusebius of Caesarea]]'s ''Ecclesiastical History'' and extensively quoted. The story of the conversion of Abgar to Christianity is traditionally linked to [[Abgarus of Edessa|Abgar V]], but Walter Bauer made a case for the Abgarus who converted being Abgar IX. ==References== *[[Walter Bauer]], ''Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity'', 1934, (in English 1971) ([http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~humm/Resources/Bauer/bauer01.htm#FN1 On-line text] *Robert Eisenman, ''James the Brother of Jesus : The key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls,'' 1997 (Viking Penguin). Especially thje section "Thaddeus, Judas Thomas and the conversion of the [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Osrhoeans]]", pp 189ff. [[Category:Christian legend and folklore]] [[ru:Абгар]] [[fr:Abgar]] 1435 42056735 2006-03-03T14:31:55Z 217.150.108.178 [[Image:Abbotsford Morris edited.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Abbotsford in 1880.]] '''Abbotsford''' is a [[historic house]] in the region of [[Scottish Borders]] in the south of [[Scotland]], near [[Melrose, Scotland|Melrose]], on south bank of the [[River Tweed]]. It was formerly the residence of novelist [[Walter Scott]]. The nucleus of the estate was a small farm of 100 acres (0.4&nbsp;km&sup2;), called Cartleyhole, nicknamed Clarty (i.e., muddy) Hole, and bought by Scott on the lapse of his lease ([[1811]]) of the neighbouring house of Ashestiel. He at first built a small villa (now the western end of the house) and named it Abbotsford, creating the name from a ford near by where previously abbots of [[Melrose Abbey]] used to cross the river. Scott then built additions to the house and made it into a mansion, building into the walls many sculptured stones from ruined castles and abbeys of Scotland. In it he gathered a large library, and a collection of ancient [[furniture]], arms and armour, and other relics and curiosities, especially connected with [[Scottish history]]. The last and principal acquisition being that of Toftfield (afterwards named Huntlyburn), purchased in [[1817]]. The new house was then begun and completed in [[1824]]. The general ground-plan is a parallelogram, with irregular outlines, one side overlooking the Tweed; and the style is mainly the [[Scottish Baronial]]. Into various parts of the fabric were built relics and curiosities from historical structures, such as the doorway of the old Tolbooth in [[Edinburgh]]. Scott had only enjoyed his residence one year when ([[1825]]) he met with that reverse of fortune which involved the estate in debt. In [[1830]] the library and museum were presented to him as a free gift by the creditors. The property was wholly disencumbered in [[1847]] by Robert Cadell, the publisher, who cancelled the bond upon it in exchange for the family's share in the copyright of Sir Walter's works. [[Image:Wfm abbotsford.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Abbotsford House (north elevation)]] Scott's only son Walter did not live to enjoy the property, having died on his way from [[India]] in [[1847]]. Among subsequent possessors were Scott's son-in-law, J. G. Lockhart, J. R. Hope Scott, [[Q.C.]], and his daughter (Scott's great-granddaughter), the Hon. Mrs Maxwell Scott. Abbotsford gave its name to the "Abbotsford Club," a successor of the [[Bannatyne Club|Bannatyne]] and Maitland clubs, founded by W. B. D. D. Turnbull in [[1834]] in Scott's honour, for printing and publishing historical works connected with his writings. Its publications extended from [[1835]] to [[1864]]. The house continued to be occupied by Scott's descendents for several generations, and was opened to the public in recent times. However in 2005 it was announced that following the death of Dame Jean Maxwell Scott, the great, great, great grand-daughter of the writer the previous year, it was not possible for any family member to live at Abbotsford. [[Historic Scotland]] and the [[National Trust for Scotland]] are attempting to secure the house's future. However, Scottish Borders Council are considering an application by a property developer to build a housing estate on the opposite bank of the River Tweed from Abbotsford. If the council give this development the go ahead it will forever ruin the views Sir Walter enjoyed from his study. [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/newspaper/0,,173-1617987,00.html] [http://news.scotsman.com/scotland.cfm?id=2357362005] {{commonscat}} {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbotsford}} [[Category:Buildings and structures in the Scottish Borders]] [[Category:Scottish Borders history]] [[Category:Historic houses in Scotland]] [[fr:Abbotsford (Écosse)]] [[pl:Abbotsford]] 1436 42096872 2006-03-03T20:30:04Z 60.50.201.218 {{citation style}} {{Redirect|Abram}} '''Abraham''' ('''אַבְרָהָם''' "Father/Leader of many", (circa 1900 BCE) [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Avraham''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''{{IPA|ʾAḇrāhām}}'''; [[Arabic language|Arabic]] '''ابراهيم''' '''{{IPA|Ibrāhīm}}'''; [[Geez]] አብርሃም '''{{IPA|ʾAbrəham}}''') is regarded as a [[patriarch]] of Israelite religion, recognized by [[Judaism]] and later [[Christianity]], and a very important [[prophet]] in [[Islam]] as well as in the [[Baha'i Faith]]. Traditions regarding his life are given in the [[Book of Genesis]] and also in the [[Qur'an]]. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are sometimes referred to as the "[[Abrahamic religion]]s", because of the role Abraham plays in their holy books and beliefs. In the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the [[Qur'an]], Abraham is described as a patriarch blessed by God (the Jewish people called him "Father Abraham"), and [[promise]]d great things, father of the People of Israel through his son [[Isaac]]; the Muslims regard [[Ishmael]] as the father of the [[Arab]]s. In Islam, Abraham is considered to be one of the most important of the many prophets sent by God. In Christian belief, Abraham is a model of faith, and his intention to obey God by offering up Isaac is seen as a foreshadowing of God's offering of his son, [[Jesus]]. In Islamic belief, Abraham obeyed God by offering up Ishmael. His original name was '''Abram''' ('''אַבְרָם''' "High/Exalted father/leader", [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Avram''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''ʾAḇrām'''); he was the foremost of the [[Bible|Biblical]] [[Patriarchs (Bible)|patriarchs]]. Later in life he went by the name Abraham. There is no contemporary mention of his life, and no source earlier than ''Genesis'' mentions him. According to calculations derived from the [[Masoretic]] Hebrew [[Torah]], Abraham was born 1,948 years after creation and lived for 175 years, which would correspond to a life spanning from 1812 [[Common Era|BCE]] to 1637 [[Common Era|BCE]] by Jewish dating; or from 2166 [[Common Era|BCE]] to 1991 [[Common Era|BCE]] by other calculations. The figures in the [[book of Jubilees]] have Abraham born 1,876 years after creation, and 534 years before the Exodus; the ages provided in the [[Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan version of Genesis]] agree closely with those of Jubilees before the Deluge, but after the Deluge, they add roughly 100 years to each of the ages of the Patriarchs in the Masoretic Text, resulting in the figure of 2,247 years after creation for Abraham's birth. The Greek [[Septuagint]] version adds around 100 years to nearly ''all'' of the patriarchs' births, producing the even higher figure of 3,312 years after creation for Abraham's birth. [[Image:Abraham.jpg|thumb|300px|right|"Abraham Sacrificing Isaac" by Laurent de LaHire, 1650]] ==Abraham in Judaism== The account of his life is found in the Book of [[Genesis]], beginning in Chapter 11, at the close of a [[genealogy]] of the sons of [[Shem]] (which includes among its members [[Eber]], the [[eponym]] of the [[Hebrews]]). His father [[Terah]] came from [[Ur]] of the [[Chaldea|Chaldees]], popularly identified only since 1927 (thanks to Sir [[Charles Woolley]]) with the ancient city in southern [[Mesopotamia]] which was under the rule of the Chaldeans &mdash; although [[Josephus]], Islamic tradition and Jewish authorities like Maimonides all concur that [[Ur-Of-The-Khaldis]] was in Northern Mesopotamia (where is now [[Kurdistan]]) (Identified with [[Urartu]], [[Urfa]], and [[Kutha]] respectively). This is in keeping with the local tradition that Abraham was born in Urfa; or with the nearby [[Urkesh]], which others identify with "Ur of the Chaldees". They also say "Chaldees" refers to a group of gods called [[Khaldis]]. Abram migrated to [[Harran]], apparently the classical [[Carrhae]], on a branch of the [[Habor]]. Thence, after a short stay, he, his wife [[Sarah|Sarai]], [[Lot (biblical)|Lot]] (the son of Abram's brother [[Haran]]), and all their followers, departed for [[Canaan]]. There are two cities possibly identifiable with the biblical Ur, neither far from Haran: Ura and Urfa, a northern Ur also being mentioned in tablets at [[Ugarit]], [[Nuzi]], and [[Ebla]]. These possibly refer to Ur, Ura, and Urau (See ''BAR'' January 2000, page 16). Moreover, the names of Abram's forefathers [[Peleg]], [[Serug]], [[Nahor]], and Terah, all appear as names of cities in the region of Haran (''Harper's Bible Dictionary'', page 373). [[Yahweh]] called Abram to go to "the land I will show you", and promised to bless him and make him (though hitherto childless) a great nation. Trusting this promise, Abram journeyed down to [[Shechem]], and at the sacred tree (compare Gen. 25:4, [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 24:26, [[Book of Judges|Judges]] 9:6) received a new promise that the land would be given unto his seed (descendant or descendants). Having built an [[altar]] to commemorate the [[theophany]], he removed to a spot between [[Bethel]] and [[Ai (biblical)|Ai]], where he built another altar and called upon (i.e. invoked) the name of Yahweh (Gen. 12:1-9). Here he dwelt for some time, until strife arose between his herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram thereupon proposed to Lot that they should separate, and allowed his nephew the first choice. Lot preferred the fertile land lying east of the [[Jordan River]], while Abram, after receiving another promise from Yahweh, moved down to the oaks of [[Mamre]] in [[Hebron]] and built an altar. In the subsequent history of Lot and the destruction of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]], Abram appears prominently in a passage where he intercedes with Yahweh on behalf of Sodom, and is promised that if ten righteous men can be found therein, the city shall be preserved (18:16-33). Driven by a [[famine]] to take refuge in [[Egypt]] (26:11, 41:57, 42:1), Abram feared lest his wife's beauty should arouse the evil designs of the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] and thus endanger his own safety, and alleged that Sarai was his sister. This did not save her from the [[Pharaoh]], who took her into the royal [[harem]] and enriched Abram with herds and servants. But when Yahweh "plagued Pharaoh and his house with great [[Plagues of Egypt|plagues]]" Abram and Sarai left Egypt. There are two other parallel tales in Genesis of [[a wife confused for a sister]] (Genesis 20-21 and 26) describing a similar event at Gerar with the [[Philistine]] king Abimelech, though the latter attributing it to Isaac not Abraham. As Sarai was infertile, God's promise that Abram's seed would inherit the land seemed incapable of fulfillment. His sole heir was his servant, who was over his household, a certain [[Eliezer of Damascus]] (15:2). Abraham is now promised as heir one of his own flesh. The passage recording the ratification of the promise is remarkably solemn (see [[Genesis]] 15). Sarai, in accordance with custom, gave to Abram her Egyptian handmaid [[Hagar]], who, when she found she was with child, presumed upon her position to the extent that Sarai, unable to endure the reproach of barrenness (cf. the story of [[Hannah]], [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]] 1:6), dealt harshly with her and forced her to flee (16:1-14). Hagar is promised that her descendants will be too numerous to count, and she returns. Her son [[Ishmael]] thus was Abram's [[firstborn]] (and [[Islam]]ic doctrine holds that he was the rightful [[heir]]). Hagar and Ishmael were eventually driven permanently away from Abram by Sarah (chapter 21). The name ''Abraham'' was given to Abram (and the name [[Sarah]] to Sarai) at the same time as the covenant of [[circumcision]] (chapter 17), which is practiced in [[Judaism]] and [[Islam]] to this day. At this time Abraham was promised not only many descendants, but descendants through Sarah specifically, as well as the land where he was living, which was to belong to his descendants. The covenant was to be fulfilled through [[Isaac]], though God promised that Ishmael would become a great nation as well. The covenant of circumcision (unlike the earlier promise) was two-sided and conditional: if Abraham and his descendants fulfilled their part of the covenant, Yahweh would be their God and give them the land. The promise of a son to Abraham made Sarah "laugh," which became the name of the son of promise, Isaac. Sarah herself "laughs" at the idea, when Yahweh appears to Abraham at Mamre (18:1-15) and, when the child is born, cries "God hath made me laugh; every one that heareth will laugh at me" (21:6). In Genesis 18, Abraham pleads with God not to destroy [[Sodom]], and God agrees that he would not destroy the city if there were 50 righteous people in it, or 45, or 30, 20, even 10 righteous people. (Abraham's nephew [[Lot (biblical)|Lot]] had been living in Sodom.) Some time after the birth of Isaac, Abraham was commanded by God to offer his son up as a sacrifice in the land of [[Moriah]]. Proceeding to obey, he was prevented by an [[angel]] as he was about to sacrifice his son, and slew a [[Domestic sheep|ram]] which he found on the spot. As a reward for his obedience he received another promise of a numerous seed and abundant prosperity (22). Then he returned to [[Beersheba]]. The [[Binding of Isaac|near sacrifice of Isaac]] is one of the most challenging, and perhaps [[ethics|ethic]]ally troublesome, parts of the Bible. According to Josephus, Isaac is 25 years old at the time of the sacrifice or ''Akedah'', while the [[Talmud]]ic sages teach that Isaac is 37. In either case, Isaac is a fully grown man, old enough to prevent the elderly Abraham (who is 125 or 137 years old) from tying him up had he wanted to resist. The primary interest of the narrative now turns to Isaac. To his "only son" (22:2, 12) Abraham gave all he had, and dismissed the sons of his concubines to the lands outside [[Canaan]]; they were thus regarded as less intimately related to [[Isaac]] and his descendants (25:1-6). See also: [[Midianites]], [[Sheba]]. Sarah died at an old age, and was buried in the [[Cave of Machpelah]] near [[Hebron]], which Abraham had purchased, along with the adjoining field, from [[Ephron the Hittite]] (Genesis 23). Here Abraham himself was buried. Centuries later the tomb became a place of [[pilgrimage]] and [[Muslim]]s later built an [[Islam]]ic [[mosque]] inside the site. Abraham is considered the father of the Jewish nation, as their first Patriarch, and having a son (Isaac), who in turn begat [[Jacob]], and from there the [[Israelite|Twelve Tribes]]. To father the nation, God "tested" Abraham with ten tests, the greatest being his willingness to sacrifice his son Isaac. God promised the land of Israel to his children, and that is the first claim of the Jews to Israel. Judaism ascribes a special trait to each Patriarch. Abraham's had kindness. Because of this, Judaism considers kindness to be an inherent Jewish trait. Jewish tradition teaches the origins of Abraham's [[monotheism]]. His father Terah owned a store that sold idols. Abraham, at the age of three, started to question their authenticity. This culminated in Abraham destroying some idols. Abraham was then brought to the king, and sentenced to death, along with his brother Haran, unless they recanted their position. Abraham did not, and was thrown into a fire. When Abraham exited unscathed, Haran also would not recant, and was thrown into the fire. Haran, who did not truly believe, died in the fire. This is hinted at in Genesis 11:28. Abraham then went to the city of Haran with his father and brother. His father died there. God spoke to Abraham for the first time, and told him of great things He would give him if he would leave Haran. Abraham did. He was seventy-five during this time. Abraham started a school for teaching his beliefs in God, and some say he wrote the [[Sefer Yetzirah]]. == Abraham in Christianity == Abraham stands out prominently as the recipient of the promises (Gen. 12:2-7, 13:14-17, 15, 17, 18:17-19, 22:17-18, 24:7). In the [[New Testament]] Abraham is mentioned prominently as a man of [[faith]] (see e.g., [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] 11), and the apostle [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] uses him as an example of [[salvation]] by faith (in e.g. [[Epistle to Galatians|Galatians]] 3). Abraham also plays significantly in the theology of [[Paul]] as the progenator of the [[Christ]] (or [[Messiah]]) (see [[Galatians]] 3:16). Authors of the New Testament report that Jesus cited Abraham to support belief in the [[resurrection]] of the dead. "But concerning the dead, that they rise, have you not read in the book of [[Moses]], in the [[burning bush]] passage, how God spoke to him, saying, "I am the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob?" He is not the God of the dead, but the God of the living. You are therefore greatly mistaken." ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 12:26-27) "By faith Abraham, when he was tested, offered up Isaac, and he who had received the promises offered up his only begotten son, of whom it was said, "In Isaac your seed shall be called," concluding that God was able to raise him up, even from the dead, from which he also received him in a figurative sense." (''Hebrews'' 11:17-19) The [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]], [[Baptist]] and traditional [[Protestant]] view in Christianity is that the chief promise made to Abraham in ''Genesis'' 12 is that through Abraham's seed, all the people of earth would be blessed. This promise was fulfilled through Abraham's seed, Jesus. It is also a consequence of this promise that Christianity is open to people of all races and not limited to the Jews. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] calls Abraham "our father in Faith," in the [[Eucharistic prayer]] called the ''Roman Canon'', recited during the [[Mass]]. (See [[Abraham in Liturgy]]). Christian tradition sees Abraham as a figure of God, and Abraham's attempt to offer up [[Isaac]] is a foreshadowing of [[God]]'s offering of his Son, [[Jesus]] (Gen. 22:1-14; Heb. 11:17-19). Just as Isaac carried wood for the sacrifice up the mountain and willingly submitted to being offered, so Jesus carried his [[Cross]] up the hill and allowed himself to be [[crucified]]. ==Abraham in Islam== Abraham (called '''Ibrahim''') is very important in [[Islam]], both in his own right as prophet and as the father of the prophet [[Ishmael|Ismail]] (Ishmael), his firstborn son, who is considered the ''Father of the Arabs''. Abraham is considered one of the first and most important prophets of Islam, and is commonly termed ''Khalil Ullah'', Friend of God. (Islam regards most of the [[Old Testament]] "patriarchs" as [[prophets of Islam|prophets]] of God, and hence as Muslims.) The faith of Abraham is called [[Millat-e-Ibrahim]] in the [[Qur'an]]. Muslims believe that Abraham was a prophet of God, in accordance with the narrative of his life in the [[Qur'an]]. In the Qur'an, Muslims are instructed to pray facing in the direction of the [[Ka'bah]] in [[Mecca]], which is described as having been built by Abraham and his son Ismail ([[al-Baqara|Qur'an 2]]:125). Abraham also takes an important role in one of the [[Pillars of Islam]], the [[Hajj]], which is a pilgrimage to the Holy Mosque. A part of the Hajj is a commemoration of the sacrifice of the wife of Abraham, Hagar, for her son Ismail, when Abraham had settled his wife and son in the valley of Mecca by God's order to pioneer a civilization. (It was from this civilization that the final prophet of Islam, [[Muhammad]], was later born) Muslims have a specific ''[[dua]]'' that (in some traditions) they recite daily which asks God to bless both Abraham and [[Muhammad]]. Islamic prayer, [[Salat]], that occurs five times a day, also includes many parts that ask God for his blessings upon Abraham; the most in the prayer. According to Islamic tradition, he is buried in [[Hebron]]. In the [[Masjid al Haram]] in [[Mecca]], there is an area known as the "station of Ibrahim" (''Maqam Ibrahim'' مقام), which bears an impression of his footprints. There are numerous references to Abraham in the Qur'an. According to the Qur'an, Abraham is the spritual father of all the believers. He is mentioned as an upright person who was neither a polytheist nor a Christian or a Jew ([[Al Imran|Qur'an 3]]:67). An example is like the one below: <blockquote> ''O ye who believe! Bow down and prostrate yourselves, and worship your Lord, and do good, that haply ye may prosper And strive for Allah with the endeavor which is His right. He hath chosen you and hath not laid upon you in religion any hardship; the faith of your father Abraham (is yours). He hath named you Muslims of old time and in this (Scripture), that the messenger may be a witness against you, and that ye may be witnesses against mankind. So establish worship, pay the poor due, and hold fast to Allah. He is your Protecting Friend. A blessed Patron and a blessed Helper.'' ([[Al-Hajj|Qur'an 22]]:78) </blockquote> According to the Qur'an, Abraham reached the conclusion that anything subject to disappearance could not be worthy of worship, and thus became a [[monotheist]] ([[Al-An'am|Qura'n 6]]:76-83). While some Muslims &mdash; like Jews &mdash; believe that Azar who was an idol-maker was the father of Abraham, majority of the Muslims believe that Tarakh was his father and Azar was Abraham's uncle [http://al-islam.org/encyclopedia/chapter5a/8.html (Father of Ibrahim).] Abraham broke his uncle's idols, calling on his community to worship God instead. They then cast him into a fire, which miraculously failed to burn him ([[as-Saaffat|Qur'an 37]]:83-98). The well-known but wholly non-canonical ''Qisas al-Anbiya'' ([[Ibn Kathir]]) records considerably more detail about his life, which are commonly referred to in Islamic accounts of his life. Traditionally, Muslims believe that it was [[Ishmael]] rather than [[Isaac]] whom Abraham was told to sacrifice. In support of this, Muslims note that the text of [[Genesis (Hebrew Bible)|Genesis]], despite specifying Isaac, appears to state that Abraham was told to sacrifice his only son ("Take now thy son, thine only son, whom thou lovest, even Isaac," [http://www.breslov.com/bible/ Jewish Publication Society] translation, Genesis/Bereshit 22:2) to God. Since Isaac was Abraham's second son, it is arguable there was no time at which he would have been Abraham's "only son", and that this supports the Muslim belief that there was an original text that must have named Ishmael rather than Isaac as the intended sacrifice. The [[Qur'an]] itself does not specify by name which son Abraham nearly sacrificed saying only that it was his only son ([[As-Saaffat|Qur'an 37]]:99-111). Isaac ([[Ishaq]] in Islam) is also considered a prophet in Islam. Also, unlike Jewish belief, Muslims note that nowhere in the Qur'an does God say that it was He who told Abraham to sacrifice his son nor does God say He gave Abraham the dream of the sacrifice. The Qur'an teaches that God never advocates evil. Thus, it is said that for a father to slaughter his son, is an evil that cannot be coming from God; it can only come from [[Satan]]. Furthermore, Muslims state that God would not contradict Himself and, therefore, would not order Abraham to commit what he prohibited, even as a test. Since Abraham thought the dream was from God and he proceeded to sacrifice his son Ismail, God sent him the lamb to be sacrificed instead, and to save Ismail and the father-son sacred relationship. Furthermore, Muslims believe that God promised to protect His righteous believers from Satan's tricks, and he saved Abraham and his son, Ismail, from this exact test. It is believed that Ibrahim's dream was a test from God. And when Ibrahim told his dream to Ismail, it was Ismail who convinced Ibrahim to fulfill God's order. So this was test for both Ibrahim, whom had longed for a son for such a long time, and for Ismail. When the devil teased them before the sacrifice, Ibrahim and Ismail threw stones at the devil. This reincarnated as jumrah, one of the rites undertaken by Muslims making the Hajj (pilgrimage). The entire episode of the sacrifice is regarded as a trial that Abraham had to face from God. It is celebrated by Muslims on the day of [[Eid ul-Adha]]. ==Abraham in the Bahá'í Faith== Bahá'ís believe that Abraham was a "[[Manifestation of God]]," or one in a line of prophets who have revealed the Word of God progressively for a gradually maturing humanity. In this way, Abraham shares an exalted station with [[Moses]], [[Buddha]], [[Jesus]], [[Muhammad]], [[the Báb]], and the founder of the [[Bahá'í Faith]], [[Bahá'u'lláh]]. In addition, Bahá'u'lláh, a Persian, is claimed to be descended from Abraham through Abraham's wife [[Keturah]], asserting the Bahá'í Faith the same organic connection to Abraham that is claimed by Judaism and Christianity (through Sarah) and Islam (through Hagar). ==Abraham in the Hindu belief== Theories speculate that Abraham may also be connected with Hinduism, remembered as the god Brahma, or Ram (who could have been called "Ab Ram" or "Father Ram." Striking coincidences fuel this theory: Abraham, who was known earlier in life as "Abram" was married to Sarah, who had changed her name from Sarai. In Hindu belief, "Brahma" was married to "Saraisvati." Additionally, Abraham and Sarah were both relatives and spouses; the same was true of Brahma and Saraisvati. Abraham is also claimed to be the founder of the ancient Sabean religion. ==Abraham in philosophy== Abraham, as a man communicating with God or the divine, has inspired some fairly extensive discussion in some [[philosopher]]s, such as [[Søren Kierkegaard]] and [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. Kierkegaard goes into Abraham's plight in considerable detail in his work ''[[Fear and Trembling]]''. Sartre understands the story not in terms of Christian obedience or a "teleological suspension of the ethical", but in terms of mankind's utter behavioral and moral freedom. God asks Abraham to sacrifice his only son. Sartre doubts that Abraham can know that the voice he hears is really the voice of his God and not of someone else, or the product of a mental condition. Thus, Sartre concludes, even if there are signs in the world, humans are totally free to decide how to interpret them. ==Abraham and his descendants (Biblical Perspective) == ''For a full account of the '''historicity''' of Abrahamic stories in the book of'' [[Genesis]], ''see'' [[The Bible and history#The Patriarchs|Historicity of the Patriarchs]]. Biblical narratives represent Abraham as a wealthy, powerful and supremely virtuous man, but humanly flawed, and when afraid for himself, miscalculating, and a sometimes deceiver and an inconsiderate husband. But his central importance in the book of Genesis, and his portrait as a man favored by God, is unequivocal. Abraham's generations (Hebrew: ''[[toledoth]]'', translated to Greek: "Genesis") are presented as part of the crowning explanation of how the world has been fashioned by the hand of God, and how the boundaries and relationships of peoples were established by him. As the father of Isaac and Ishmael, Abraham is ultimately the common ancestor of the [[Israelites]] and their neighbours. As the father of [[Ishmael]], whose twelve sons became desert princes (most prominently, [[Nebaioth]] and [[Kedar]]), along with [[Midian]], [[Sheba]] and other [[Arab]]ian tribes (25:1-4), the book of Genesis gives a portrait of Isaac's descendants as being surrounded by kindred peoples, who are also oft-times enemies. It seems that some degree of kinship was felt by the [[Hebrews]] with the dwellers of the more distant south, and it is characteristic of the genealogies that the mothers (Sarah, the Egyptian Hagar, and [[Keturah]]) are in the descending scale, perhaps of purity of blood, or as of purity of relationship, or of connectedness to Sarah: Sarah, her servant, her husband's other wife (or concubine). The Bible says of the Hebrew people: "Your father was a wandering Syrian". As stated above, Abraham came from Ur in [[Babylonia]] to Haran and thence to [[Canaan]]. Late tradition supposed that the [[Migration (human)|migration]] was to escape Babylonian idolatry ([[Judith]] 5, [[Jubilees]] 12; cf. [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 24:2), and knew of Abraham's miraculous escape from death (an obscure reference to some act of deliverance in [[Isaiah]] 29:22). The route along the banks of the [[Euphrates]] from south to north was so frequently taken by migrating tribes that the tradition has nothing improbable in itself. It was thence that [[Jacob]], the father of the tribes of Israel, came, and the route to [[Shechem]] and [[Bethel]] is precisely the same in both. A twofold migration is doubted by some, but from what is known of the situation in [[Canaan]] in the [[15th century BC]], not at all impossible. Further, there is yet another parallel in the story of the conquest by Joshua, partly implied and partly actually detailed (cf. also Joshua 8:9 with Gen. 12:8, 13:3), whence it would appear that too much importance must not be laid upon any [[ethnological]] interpretation which fails to account for the three versions. That similar traditional elements have influenced them is not unlikely; but to recover the true historical foundation is difficult. The invasion or immigration of certain tribes from the east of the [[Jordan]]; the presence of [[Aramean]] blood among the Israelites; the origin of the sanctity of venerable sites &mdash; these and other considerations may readily be found to account for the traditions. Noteworthy coincidences in the lives of Abraham and Isaac, such as the strong parallels between two tales of [[a wife confused for a sister]], point to the fluctuating state of traditions in the oral stage, or suggest that Abraham's life has been built up by borrowing from the common stock of popular lore. More original is the parting of Lot and Abraham at Bethel. The district was the scene of contests between [[Moab]] and the Hebrews (cf. perhaps [[Judges]] 3), and if this explains part of the story, the physical configuration of the [[Dead Sea]] may have led to the legend of the destruction of inhospitable and vicious cities. ===Arab connection=== Although historians have no non-religious evidence for Abraham's connection to the Arabs, and the historicity of Biblical accounts is questioned by academics (see [[The Bible and history]]), some believe that the area outlined as the final destination of Ishmael and his descendants (from Havilah to Assyria) refers to Northern [[Arabia]]. The earliest known record of the connection of Abrahams son, Ishmael, to the Arabs is by the [[Jewish]] historian [[Josephus]], who approximately 2000 years after such events, asserted that Ishmael was the father of the "Arab nation" [http://www.blessedquietness.com/alhaj/append-1.htm]. Little other information exists to understand the basis for Josephus' statement or his understanding of what he meant by "Arab nation", although one line in the [[Book of Jubilees]] (20:13) also mentions the tradition. This has led to the notion of identifying Abraham as the father of the Arabs through Ishmael. In addition, Abraham's next wife, [[Keturah]], is said to have borne him a son named [[Midian]] who became father of the [[Midianites]][http://www.keyway.ca/htm2002/midian.htm]. The Midianites are also identified with the Arabs as they are said to have settled east of the [[Jordan River]][http://www.brow.on.ca/Books/Ishmael/Ishpost.htm]. In recent times some Christian polemical writers have insisted these claims are spurious and entirely made up by Muslims, although, they existed long before Islam arrived. Some have claimed that all of Ishmael's descendants in fact died out; and that most Arabs are descended from Joktan. The subject continues to be a source of controversy. ==Modern historical criticism== Writers have regarded the life of Abraham in various ways. He has been viewed as a [[chieftain]] of the [[Amorites]], as the head of a great [[Semitic]] migration from [[Mesopotamia]]; or, since Ur and Haran were seats of [[Moon]]-worship, he has been identified with a moon-god. From the character of the literary evidence and the locale of the stories it has been held that Abraham was originally associated with Hebron. The double name Abram/Abraham has even suggested that two personages have been combined in the Biblical narrative; although this does not explain the change from Sarai to Sarah. The narratives are not contemporary, and the interesting discovery of the name ''Abi-ramu'' (Abram) on Babylonian contracts of about [[2000 BC]] does not prove the Abram of the Old Testament to be an historical person, even as the fact that there were [[Amorites]] in Babylonia at the same period does not make it certain that the patriarch was one of their number. One remarkable chapter associates Abraham with kings of [[Elam]] and the east (''Genesis'' 14). No longer a peaceful sheikh but a warrior with a small army of 318 followers, he overthrows a combination of powerful monarchs who have ravaged the land. The genuineness of the narrative has been strenuously maintained, although upon insufficient grounds. On the assumption that a recollection of some invasion in remote days may have been current, considerable interest is attached to the names. Of these, [[Amraphel]], king of [[Shinar]] (i.e., Babylonia, ''Genesis'' 10:10), has been in the past identified with [[Hammurabi]], one of the greatest of the Babylonian kings (ca. 2000 BC), and since he claims to have ruled as far west as the [[Mediterranean Sea]], the equation has found considerable favour. Apart from chronological difficulties, the identification of the king and his country is far from certain, and at the most can only be regarded as possible. [[Arioch]], king of [[Ellasar]], has been connected with [[Eriaku of Larsa]] &mdash; the reading has been questioned &mdash; a contemporary with Hammurabi. [[Chedorlaomer]], king of Elam, bears what is doubtless a genuine [[Elamite]] name, Kudur-Lagamer. Finally, the name of [[Tid'al]], king of [[Goiim]], may be identical with a certain [[Tudhulu]], the son of Gazza, a warrior, but apparently not a king, who is mentioned in a Babylonian inscription, and has been connected by others with [[Tudhaliya]], a predynastic Hittite king. Goiim (the Hebrew for "gentiles" or "nations") may also stand for Gutim, the [[Guti]] being a people who lived to the east of [[Kurdistan]]. Nevertheless, there is as yet no monumental evidence for the genuineness of the story, and the most that can be said with certainty is that the author (of whatever date) has derived his names from a trustworthy source, and in representing an invasion of Canaan by Babylonian overlords, has given expression to a possible situation. It may be that only the bare outlines are historical. If it is a historical romance (cf., e.g., the book of Judith), it is possible that a writer who lived in the [[post-exilic]] age, and was acquainted with Babylonian history, decided to enhance the greatness of Abraham by exhibiting his military success against the monarchs of the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]], the high esteem he enjoyed in Canaan, and the practical character displayed in his brief exchange with [[Melchizedek]]. The historical section of the article [[Tithe]] provides more evidence on the historicity of the meeting with Melchizedek. Several minimalist professors of archaeology claim that many stories in the Old Testament, including important chronicles about Abraham, [[Moses]], and others, were actually made up by scribes hired by King [[Josiah]] ([[7th century BC]]) in order to rationalize monotheistic belief in Yahweh. Mimimalists claim that the neighboring countries that kept many written records, such as Egypt, Assyria, etc., have no writings about the stories of the Bible or its main characters before [[650 BC]], and vehemently dispute the validity of any evidence to the contrary. Such claims are detailed in "Who Were the Early Israelites?" by William G. Dever, (William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, MI, 2003). Another such book by Neil A. Silberman and colleagues is "The Bible Unearthed," (Simon and Schuster, New York, 2001). Of course, the historical annals and tributes to "great kings" are not well-served by preserving great defeats by their enemies (in this case, the Hebrews), and therefore, such records are understandably scanty. Also, many great kings did not long survive great defeats, as it was a sign to their followers that these "great leaders" had lost the favor of their God, gods and goddesses, and the kings were quickly assassinated and replaced. ==References== * [[1911 Encyclopedia Britannica]]. * [[Genesis]] * [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0814736548 Hoffman, Joel M. ''In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language''] ==See also== *[[Abrahamic religions]] *[[Abraham's bosom]] *[[List of founders of major religions]] ==External links== *[http://www.soundvision.com/info/hajj/abraham.asp Abraham in all three Abrahamic faiths] *[http://www.hajj.ca/Ismail.html Abraham's sacrifice: an Islamic perspective] *[http://www.GospelTruth.info/ GospelTruth] -- God's promises to Abraham according to Christian belief *[http://www.BiblicalArcheology.Net/ Biblical Archeology] -- Bible-related article about Abraham *[http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101020930/ The Legacy of Abraham] -- Time magazine cover story *[http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Tafsir/Tafsir%286-74_to_79%29.html Abraham's vision in the Qur'an] *[http://www.clearvision.com.pk/perspectives.php?func=show&id=8#_edn2 Millat-e-Ibrahim Abraham's Way] by [http://clearvision.com.pk ClearVisionPk] *[http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/2004/09/09_abraham/ Children of Abraham] -- episode of the weekly [[Minnesota Public Radio]] show ''[[Speaking of Faith]]'' * [http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_abraham.html ''Abraham'' by Rob Bradshaw] An extensive dictionary-style article. * [http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/epn.html A.R. Millard & D.J. Wiseman, eds., ''Essays on the Patriarchal Narratives''. Leicester: IVP, 1980. Hbk. ISBN: 0851117430.] {{1911}} [[Category:Abrahamic religions]] [[Category:Christian prophets]] [[Category:Islamic prophets]] [[Category:Torah people]] [[ar:ابراهيم]] [[ca:Abraham]] [[cs:Abrahám]] [[de:Abraham]] [[el:Αβραάμ]] [[eo:Abraham]] [[es:Abraham]] [[et:Aabraham]] [[fa:ابراهیم]] [[fi:Abraham]] [[fr:Abraham]] [[gl:Abraham]] [[he:אברהם אבינו]] [[hr:Abraham]] [[hu:Ábrahám]] [[ia:Abraham]] [[id:Nabi Ibrahim]] [[it:Abramo (Bibbia)]] [[ja:アブラハム]] [[ko:아브라함]] [[ku:Îbrahîm]] [[la:Abraham]] [[ms:Nabi Ibrahim a.s.]] [[nl:Abraham]] [[nn:Abraham]] [[no:Abraham]] [[pl:Abraham (Biblia)]] [[pt:Abraão]] [[ru:Авраам]] [[sk:Abrahám]] [[sr:Абрахам]] [[sv:Abraham (patriark)]] [[tl:Abraham]] [[zh:亞伯拉罕]] 1437 39605574 2006-02-14T16:43:30Z Msablic 8725 ref. to solar cycle (calendar), I don't really understand the text but it certainly does not refer to sunspots {{otheruses}} {{cleanup-date|August 2005}} [[image:Abraxas.png|frame|right|Engraving from an Abraxas stone.]] The word '''Abraxas''' (or '''Abrasax''' or '''Abracax''') was engraved on certain antique stones, called on that account '''Abraxas stones''', which were used as amulets or charms by [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] sects. It was believed that Abraxas was the name of a god who incorporated both Good and Evil (God and [[Demiurge]]) in one entity, and therefore representing the [[monotheistic]] [[God]], singular, but (unlike e.g. the Christian God) not [[eutheism|omni-benevolent]]. Abraxas has been claimed to be both an [[Egypt]]ian god and a [[demon]], sometimes even being associated with the dual nature of [[Satan]]/[[Lucifer]]. This is possibly the origin of the word [[abracadabra]], although other explanations exist. ==Meaning== :''"The bird fights its way out of the egg. The egg is the world. Who would be born first must destroy a world. The bird flies to God. That God's name is Abraxas"'' - [[Hermann Hesse]], ''[[Demian]]'' [[Image:Abraxas Artistic representationi.jpg|frame|left| Medieval Seal representing Abraxas]] Abraxas was an [[Archon]] with a [[Chimera (mythology)|Chimera]]-like appearance (somewhat resembling a [[basilisk]]): he had the head of a [[rooster]] (or sometimes a king), the body of a man, and legs fashioned like [[snake]]s and sometimes depicted with a whip in his hand - a form referred to as the [[Anguipede]]. Abraxas was redeemed and rose above the seven spheres and now reigns beyond the worlds. There are references to Abraxas in several gnostic writings. The letters of abraxas, in the [[Greek language|Greek]] notation, make up the number 365, and the [[Basilideans]] gave the name to the 365 orders of spirits which, as they conceived, emanated in succession from the Supreme Being. These orders were supposed to occupy 365 heavens, each fashioned like, but inferior to that above it; and the lowest of the heavens was thought to be the abode of the spirits who formed Earth and its inhabitants, and to whom was committed the administration of its affairs. In addition to the word Abraxas and other mystical characters, they have often cabalistic figures engraved on them. The commonest of these have the head of a fowl, and the arms and bust of a man, and terminate in the body and tail of a serpent. ===Text from the Catholic Encyclopedia=== The study of Abraxas is, at first sight, as discouraging as it is possible to imagine. The name has been given to a class of ancient stone articles, of small dimensions, inscribed with outlandish figures and formulas, sometimes wholly indecipherable, specimens of which are to be found in almost every museum and private collection. These, for the most part, have hitherto resisted all attempts at interpretation, though it would be rash to conclude that a fuller knowledge may not solve enigmas which remain closed to us. The true name, moreover, is Abrasax, and not, as incorrectly written, Abraxas, a reading due to the confusion made by the Latins between Sigma and Xi. Among the early Gnostics, Abrasax appears to have had various meanings. Basilides gave this title to Almighty God, and claimed that the [[isopsephy|numerical value of its letters]] gave the sum of 365, because the Abrasax is enclosed in the [[solar cycle (calendar)|solar cycle]]. Sometimes the number 365 signifies the series of the heavens. In view of such imaginings, it is easy to guess at the course taken by an untrammelled Gnostic fancy, whereby its adherents strove to discover the meaning of the mysterious word. It is, however, an error to give the name Abrasax to all stones of Gnostic origin, as has been done up to the present day. It is not the name which applies to talismans, any more than the names of Jupiter and Venus apply to all ancient statues indiscriminately. Abrasax is the name given by the Gnostics to the Supreme Deity, and it is quite possible that we shall find a clue to its etymological meaning in the influences of numbers. The subject is one which has exercised the ingenuity of many savants, but it may be said that all the engraved stones to which the name is commonly given fall into three classes: #Abrasax, or stones of Basilidian origin. #Abrasaxtes, or stones originating in ancient forms of worship, and adapted by the Gnostics to their peculiar opinions. #Abraxoïdes, or stones absolutely unconnected with the doctrine of Basilides. Bellermann, following Montfaucon, made a tentative classification of Gnostic stones, which, however, is nowadays looked upon as wholly inadequate. His mistake consisted in wishing, as it were, to make a frontal attack on Gnosticism. Kopp, endowed with greater skill and patience, seems to have realized in some measure how wide the problem actually is. Ad. Franck and, quite lately, Moses Schwab have made diligent researches in the direction of the [[Cabbala]] (or Kabbala). "The demonology devised by the Cabbalists"; according to the former writer, "was nothing more than a carefully thought out personification of the different degrees of life and intelligence which they perceived in external nature. All natural growths, forces, and phenomena are thus typified." The outline here furnished needs only to be extended indefinitely in order to take in quite easily the countless generations of Gnosticism. The whole moral and physical world, analyzed and classified with an inconceivable minuteness, will find place in it. Thence, also, will issue the bewildering catalogues of Gnostic personalities. The chief difficulty, however, arises from the nomenclature of Gnosticism, and here the "Sepher Raziel" supplies a first and valuable hint. "To succeed in the operations of divination", it says, "it is necessary to pronounce the mystic names of the planets or of the earth." In fact, stones of Gnostic origin often show designs made up out of the initial letters of the planets. Another parallel is still more suggestive. The [[Jew]]s, as is well known, would never pronounce the Ineffable Name, [[Jehovah]], but substituted either another name or a paraphrase; a rule which applied, not only to the Ineffable Name and its derivatives, but to others as well, ending, in order to evade the difficulty which arose, in a series of fantastic sounds which at first seem simply the outcome of a hopeless confusion. It became necessary to resort to permutations, to the use of other letters, to numerical and formal equivalents. The result was an outlandish vocabulary, only partially accounted for, yet one which nevertheless reveals in Gnosticism the existence of something more than mere incoherences. Very many secrets of Gnosticism remain unexplained, but it may be hoped that they will not always be shrouded in mystery. {{1911}} {{Catholic}} ===Quotes=== ====Tertullian :==== 'Afterwards broke out the heretic Basilides. He affirms that there is a supreme Deity, by name Abraxas, by whom was created Mind, which in Greek he calls Nous; that thence sprang the Word; that of Him issued Providence, Virtue, and Wisdom; that out of these subsequently were made Principalities, powers, and Angels; that there ensued infinite issues and processions of angels; that by these angels 365 heavens were formed, and the world, in honour of Abraxas, whose name, if computed, has in itself this number. Now, among the last of the angels, those who made this world, he places the God of the Jews latest, that is, the God of the Law and of the Prophets, whom he denies to be a God, but affirms to be an angel. To him, he says, was allotted the seed of Abraham, and accordingly he it was who transferred the sons of Israel from the land of Egypt into the land of Canaan; affirming him to be turbulent above the other angels, and accordingly given to the frequent arousing of seditions and wars, yes, and the shedding of human blood. Christ, moreover, he affirms to have been sent, not by this maker of the world, but by the above-named Abraxas; and to have come in a phantasm, and been destitute of the substance of flesh: that it was not He who suffered among the Jews, but that Simon was crucified in His stead: whence, again, there must be no believing on him who was crucified, lest one confess to having believed on Simon. Martyrdoms, he says, are not to be endured. The resurrection of the flesh he strenuously impugns, affirming that salvation has not been promised to bodies.' ====Carl Jung : The Seven Sermons to the Dead==== "Abraxas speaketh that hallowed and accursed word which is life and death at the same time. Abraxas begetteth truth and lying, good and evil, light and darkness in the same word and in the same act. Wherefore is Abraxas terrible." ====E. A. Wallis Budge : ==== "Abrasax represented the 365 Aeons or emanations from the First Cause, and as a Pantheus, i.e. All-God, he appears on the amulets with the head of a cock (Phoebus) or of a lion (Ra or Mithras), the body of a man, and his legs are serpents which terminate in scorpions, types of the Agathodaimon. In his right hand he grasps a club, or a flail, and in his left is a round or oval shield” ==External links== *[http://www.occultopedia.com/a/abraxas.htm Occultopedia entry] *[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=633&letter=A Jewish encyclopedia entry] *[http://altreligion.about.com/library/graphics/bl_abraxas.htm Images of Abraxas] *[http://www.gnosis.org/library/7Sermons.htm The Seven Sermons to the Dead] *[http://www.freewebs.com/navanath/seven_sermons.html SEPTEM SERMONES AD MORTUOS] == References == *[[Abraxas Foundation]] [[Category:Gnostic deities]] [[Category:Singular God]] [[de:Abraxas]] [[es:Abraxas]] [[fr:Abrasax]] [[it:Abraxas]] [[pl:Abraxas (mitologia)]] [[pt:Abraxas]] [[sv:Abraxas]] 1438 39859432 2006-02-16T10:00:21Z Gaurav1146 132290 fixed image size :''[[Absalom, Absalom!]] is also a novel by [[William Faulkner]].'' :''Absalom is also a name given by [[Dryden]] to the [[Duke of Monmouth]], son of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]]. See [[Absalom and Achitophel]]'' :"Absalom" is the name of a science fiction story by [[Henry Kuttner]] anthologized in the collection ''[[Tomorrow, the Stars]]''. [[Image:Absalom.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Hanging of Absalom - Weft-silk watercolor by Faith Robinson Trumbull (1718-1780)]] '''Absalom''' or '''Avshalom''' ('''&#1488;&#1463;&#1489;&#1456;&#1513;&#1473;&#1464;&#1500;&#1493;&#1465;&#1501;''' "Father/Leader of/is peace", [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Av&#X161;alom''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&#702;A&#7687;&#X161;&#257;lôm'''), in the [[Bible]], is the third son of [[David]], king of [[kingdom of Israel|Israel]]. He was deemed the handsomest man in the kingdom. His sister [[Tamar (biblical figure)|Tamar]] had been raped by David's eldest son, [[Amnon]], who was in love with her. Absalom, after waiting two years, revenged by sending his servants to murder Amnon at a feast to which he had invited all the king's sons (2 [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]] 13): "18. ''And she had a garment of divers colours upon her: for with such robes were the king's daughters that were virgins apparelled. Then his servant brought her out, and bolted the door after her.'' 19. ''And Tamar put ashes on her head, and rent her garment of divers colours that was on her, and laid her hand on her head, and went on crying''. 20. ''And Absalom her brother said unto her, Hath Amnon thy brother been with thee? but hold now thy peace, my sister: he is thy brother; regard not this thing. So Tamar remained desolate in her brother Absalom's house''.... 22. ''And Absalom spake unto his brother Amnon neither good nor bad: for Absalom hated Amnon, because he had forced his sister Tamar.'' 23. ''And it came to pass after two full years, that Absalom had sheepshearers in Baalhazor, which is beside Ephraim: and Absalom invited all the king's sons.'' 28. ''Now Absalom had commanded his servants, saying, Mark ye now when Amnon's heart is merry with wine, and when I say unto you, Smite Amnon; then kill him, fear not: have not I commanded you? be courageous, and be valiant.''" After this deed he fled to Talmai, "king" of [[Geshur]] (see Joshua 12:5 or 13:2), his maternal grandfather, and it was not until three years later that he was fully reinstated in his father's favour (see [[Joab]].) Four years after this he raised a revolt at [[Hebron]], the former capital. Absalom was now the eldest surviving son of David, and the present position of the narratives (15-20)--after the birth of [[Solomon]] and before the struggle between Solomon and Adonijah---may represent the view that the suspicion that he was not the destined heir of his father's throne excited the impulsive youth to rebellion. All Israel and Judah flocked to his side, and David, attended only by the [[Cherethites]] and [[Pelethites]] and some recent recruits from Gath, found it expedient to flee. The priests remained behind in Jerusalem, and their sons Jonathan and Ahimaaz served as his spies. Absalom reached the capital and took counsel with the renowned [[Ahithophel]]. The pursuit was continued and David took refuge beyond the [[Jordan River]]. A battle was fought in the "wood of Ephraim" (the name suggests a locality west of the Jordan) and Absalom's army was completely routed. He himself, having long hair, was caught by his hair in the boughs of an oak-tree, and as David had strictly charged his men to deal gently with the young man, Joab was informed. What a common soldier refused to do even for a thousand shekels of silver, the king's general at once undertook. Joab thrust three spears through the heart of Absalom as he struggled in the branches and his ten armour-bearers came around and slew him. Despite the revolt, David was overwhelmed with [[grief]] and ordered a great heap of stones to be erected where he fell, whilst another monument near [[Jerusalem]] (not the modern "Absalom Tomb" - "[[Yad Avshalom]]" which is of later origin was erected by Avshalom in his lifetime to perpetuate his name 2 Samuel 18: "18. ''Now Absalom in his lifetime had taken and reared up for himself a monument, which is in the king's dale: for he said, I have no son to keep my name in remembrance: and he called the pillar after his own name: and it is called unto this day, Absalom's monument''." [[Category:History of Jerusalem]] [[Category:Tanakh people]] [[da:Absalom]] [[de:Absalom]] [[eo:Abŝalom]] [[fr:Absalom]] [[gl:Abxalom]] [[ia:Absalom]] [[he:אבשלום בן דוד]] [[nl:Absalom]] [[ja:アブサロム]] [[pl:Absalon (imię)]] [[pt:Absalão]] [[fi:Absalom]] [[sv:Absalom]] 1439 33866377 2006-01-04T18:00:05Z BoboDS 753167 '''Abydos''' may mean: Egyptian Mythology - The holy city of [[Osiris]], who was buried there himself, as were many other [[pharaohs]]. * [[Abydos, Egypt]], one of the most ancient cities of Upper Egypt * [[Abydos, Hellespont]] (also "Ábydos"), an ancient city of Mysia, in Asia Minor * [[Abydos (music)]], a 2004 solo musical project of Andy Kuntz, member of [[Vanden Plas (band)|Vanden Plas]] * [[Abydos (Stargate)]], name of a fictional planet in the Stargate science fiction universe * [[Abydos (thema)]], a historical province of the [[Byzantine Empire]] '''Abidos''' may mean: * [[Abidos, Pyrénées-Atlantiques]], a commune of the [[Pyrénées-Atlantiques]] ''département'', in southwestern France {{disambig}} [[de:Abydos]] [[fr:Abydos]] [[it:Abydos]] 1440 40288578 2006-02-19T15:23:24Z DabMachine 922466 disambiguation from [[Coptic]] to [[Coptic Christianity]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]]) {{Hiero|1=Abydos|2=<hiero>Ab-b-Dw:O49</hiero>|align=right|era=egypt}} '''Abydos''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: أبيدوس), one of the most ancient cities of [[Upper and Lower Egypt|Upper Egypt]], stood about 11 km (6 miles) west of the [[Nile]] at latitude 26° 10' N. The [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] name was Abdju (technically, ''3b<u>d</u>w'', hieroglyphs shown to the right), "the hill of the symbol or reliquary," in which the sacred head of [[Osiris]] was preserved. Thence the Greeks named it Abydos, like the city on the [[Hellespont]]; the modern [[Arabic language|Arabic]] name is [[el-'Araba el Madfuna]] ({{lang-ar|العربة المدفنة}} ''al-ʿarabä al-madfanä''). ==History == The history of the city begins in the late prehistoric age, it having been founded by the rulers of the [[Predynastic Period of Egypt|Predynastic period]] ([[William Flinders Petrie]], ''Abydos'', ii. 64), whose town, temple and tombs have been found there. The kings of the [[First dynasty of Egypt|first dynasty]], and some of the second dynasty, were also buried here, and the temple was renewed and enlarged by them. Great forts were built on the desert behind the town by three kings of the [[Second dynasty of Egypt|Second dynasty]]. The temple and town continued to be rebuilt at intervals down to the times of the [[Thirtieth dynasty of Egypt|30th dynasty]], and the cemetery was used continuously. In the [[twelfth dynasty of Egypt|12th dynasty]] a gigantic tomb was cut in the rock by [[Senusret III]]. [[Seti I]], in the [[Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt|19th dynasty]], founded a great new temple to the south of the town in honour of the ancestral kings of the early dynasties; this was finished by [[Ramesses II]], who also built a lesser temple of his own. [[Merneptah]] added a great [[Hypogeum]] of Osiris to the temple of Seti. The latest building was a new temple of [[Nectanebo I]] in the 30th dynasty. From [[Ptolemaic Period|Ptolemaic]] times the place continued to decay and no later works are known (Petrie, ''Abydos'', i. and ii.). ==Worship == The worship here was of the jackal god [[Upuaut]] (Ophols, Wepwoi), who "opened the way" to the realm of the dead, increasing from the first dynasty to the time of the 12th dynasty and then disappearing after the 18th. [[Anhur]] appears in the eleventh dynasty; and [[Anubis]], the god of the western Hades, rises to importance in the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] and then vanishes in the 18th. The worship here of [[Osiris]] in his various forms begins in the 12th dynasty and becomes more important in later times, so that at last the whole place was considered as sacred to him (''Abydos'', ii. 47). ==Temples built== The temples successively built here on one site were nine or ten in number, from the 1st dynasty to the [[twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt|26th dynasty]]. The first was an enclosure, about 30 x 50 ft., surrounded by a thin wall of unbaked bricks. Covering one wall of this came the second temple of about 40 ft. square in a wall about 10 ft. thick. An outer ''temenos'' (enclosure) wall surrounded the ground. This outer wall was thickened about the 2nd or [[Third dynasty of Egypt|3rd dynasty]]. The old temple entirely vanished in the 4th dynasty, and a smaller building was erected behind it, enclosing a wide hearth of black ashes. Pottery models of offerings are found in the ashes, and these were probably the substitutes for sacrifices decreed by [[Khufu (pharaoh)|Khufu]] (or Cheops) in his temple reforms. A great clearance of temple offerings was made now, or earlier, and a chamber full of them has yielded the fine ivory carvings and the glazed figures and tiles which show the splendid work of the 1st dynasty. A vase of [[Menes]] with purple inlaid [[hieroglyphs]] in green glaze and the tiles with relief figures are the most important pieces. The noble statuette of Cheops in ivory, found in the stone chamber of the temple, gives the only portrait of this greatest ruler. The temple was rebuilt entirely on a larger scale by [[Pepi I Meryre|Pepi I]] in the [[Sixth dynasty of Egypt|6th dynasty]]. He placed a great stone gateway to the temenos, an outer temenos wall and gateway, with a colonnade between the gates. His temple was about 40 x 50 ft. inside, with stone gateways front and back, showing that it was of the processional type. In the [[Eleventh dynasty of Egypt|11th dynasty]] [[Mentuhotep I]] added a colonnade and altars. Soon after, [[Mentuhotep II]] entirely rebuilt the temple, laying a stone pavement over the area, about 45 feet square, besides subsidiary chambers. Soon after [[Senusret I]] in the 12th dynasty laid massive foundations of stone over the pavement of his predecessor. A great temenos was laid out enclosing a much larger area, and the temple itself was about three times the earlier size. ==18th dynasty== The [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|18th dynasty]] began with a large chapel of [[Ahmose]], and then [[Thutmose III]] built a far larger temple, about 130 x 200 ft. He made also a processional way past the side of the temple to the cemetery beyond, with a great gateway of granite. [[Rameses III]] added a large building; and [[Ahmose II]] in the 26th dynasty rebuilt the temple again, and placed in it a large monolith shrine of red granite, finely wrought. The foundations of the successive temples were comprised within about 18 ft. depth of ruins; these needed the closest examination to discriminate the various buildings, and were recorded by over 4000 measurements and 1000 levellings (Petrie, ''Abydos'', ii.). ==Other temples== The temple of Seti I was built on entirely new ground half a mile to the south of the long series of temples just described. This is the building best known as the Great Temple of Abydos, being nearly complete and an impressive sight. A principal object of it was the adoration of the early kings, whose cemetery, to which it forms a great funerary chapel, lies behind it. The long list of the kings of the principal dynasties carved on a wall is known as the "[[Table of Abydos]]". There were also seven chapels for the worship of the king and principal gods. At the back were large chambers connected with the Osiris worship (Caulfield, ''Temple of the Kings''); and probably from these led out the great Hypogeum for the celebration of the Osiris mysteries, built by Mineptah (Murray, ''Osireion''). The temple was originally 550 ft. long, but the forecourts are scarcely recognizable, and the part in good state is about 250 ft. long and 350 ft. wide, including the wing at the side. Excepting the list of kings and a [[panegyric]] on Ramesses II, the subjects are not historical but mythological. The work is celebrated for its delicacy and refinement, but lacks the life and character of that in earlier ages. The sculptures have been mostly published in hand copy, not facsimile, by [[Auguste Mariette]] in his ''Abydos'', i. The adjacent temple of Rameses II was much smaller and simpler in plan; but it had a fine historical series of scenes around the outside, of which the lower parts remain. A list of kings, similar to that of Seti I, formerly stood here; but the fragments were removed by the French consul and sold to the [[British Museum]]. == Tombs== The Royal Tombs of the earliest dynasties were placed about a mile back on the great desert plain, in a place now known as [[Umm el-Qa'ab]]. The earliest is about 10 x 20ft. inside, a pit lined with brick walls, and originally roofed with timber and matting. Others also before Menes are 15 x 25 ft. The tomb probably of Menes is of the latter size. After this the tombs increase in size and complexity. The [[tomb-pit]] is surrounded by chambers to hold the offerings, the actual [[sepulchre]] being a great wooden chamber in the midst of the brick-lined pit. Rows of small tomb-pits for the servants of the king surround the royal chamber, many dozens of such burials being usual. By the end of the 2nd dynasty the type changed to a long passage bordered with chambers on either hand, the royal burial being in the middle of the length. The greatest of these tombs with its dependencies covered a space of over 3000 square yards (2,500 m&sup2;). The contents of the tombs have been nearly destroyed by successive plunderers; enough remained to show that rich jewellery was placed on the mummies, a profusion of vases of hard and valuable stones from the royal table service stood about the body, the store-rooms were filled with great jars of wine, perfumed ointment and other supplies, and tablets of ivory and of ebony were engraved with a record of the yearly annals of the reigns. The sealings of the various officials, of which over 200 varieties have been found, give an insight into the public arrangements (Petrie, ''Royal Tombs'', i. and ii.). The cemetery of private persons begins in the 1st dynasty with some pit-tombs in the town. It was extensive in the 12th and 13th dynasties and contained many rich tombs. A large number of fine tombs were made in the 18th to 20th dynasties, and later ages continued to bury here till Roman times. Many hundred funeral steles were removed by Mariette's workmen, without any record of the burials (Mariette, ''Abydos'', ii. and iii.). Later excavations have been recorded by [[Ayrton]], Abydos, iii.; [[Maclver]], ''El Amrah and Abydos''; and [[Garstang]], ''El Arabah''. =="Forts"== The structures referred to as "forts" lay behind the town. Known as [[Shunet ez Zebib]] is about 450 x 250 ft. over all, and still stands 30 ft. high. It was built by [[Khasekhemwy]], the last king of the 2nd dynasty. Another nearly as large adjoined it, and is probably rather older. A third fort of a squarer form is now occupied by the [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic]] convent; its age cannot be ascertained (Ayrton, Abydos, iii.). ==Other== * In the TV series Stargate SG-1 Abydos is the name of a planet that is very similar to Ancient Egypt which also features a large pyramid/spaceship landing pad and a temple to the alien who posed as the sun god Ra. *Some of the heiroglyphics onsite depict objects which are debated to be a helicopter, submarine, and U.F.O. [http://www.enigmas.org/aef/lib/archeo/abydosm.shtml] ==See also== * [[Abydos offering formula]] ==References== *{{1911}} {{Ancient Egypt}} [[Category:Ancient Egypt]] [[ar:أبيدوس]] [[ca:Abidos]] [[da:Abydos]] [[de:Abydos (Ägypten)]] [[es:Abidos]] [[fr:Abydos]] [[gl:Abidos]] [[he:אבידוס (מצרים)]] [[lt:Abydosas]] [[nl:Abydos]] [[pl:Abydos]] [[ru:Абидос]] [[sv:Abydos]] 1441 30101947 2005-12-04T10:34:31Z 213.16.181.166 '''Abydos''', an ancient city of [[Mysia]], in [[Asia Minor]], situated at [[Nagara Point]] on the [[Hellespont]], which is here scarcely a mile broad. It probably was originally a [[Thrace|Thracian]] town, but was afterwards colonized by [[Miletus|Milesians]]. Here [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]] crossed the strait on his bridge of boats in 480 B.C. when he invaded [[Greece]]. Abydos is celebrated for the vigorous resistance it made against [[Philip V of Macedon]] ([[200 BC]]), and is famed in story for the loves of [[Hero and Leander]]. The town remained till late Byzantine times the toll station of the Hellespont, its importance being transferred to the [[Dardanelles]], after the building of the "Old Castles" by Sultan [[Mahommed II]] (c. 1456). ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Thrace]] [[de:Abydos (Kleinasien)]] [[he:אבידוס (יוון)]] [[sv:Abydos, Mindre Asien]] [[el:Άβυδος]] 1442 41893238 2006-03-02T12:27:17Z Shanes 94147 rv to Rklawton {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=15}} |} '''[[August 15]]''' is the 227th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (228th in [[leap year]]s), with 138 days remaining. ==Events== * [[778]] - The [[Battle of Roncevaux Pass]], in which [[Roland]] is killed * [[927]] - The [[Saracen]]s conquered and destroyed [[Taranto]] * [[1057]] - [[Macbeth of Scotland|King MacBeth]] of Scotland is killed during the [[Battle of Lumphanan]] by the forces of [[Malcolm III of Scotland|King Malcolm III]]. * [[1185]] - The cave city of [[Vardzia]] was consecrated by Queen [[Tamar of Georgia]] * [[1309]] - [[The city of Rhodes]] surrenders to the forces of the [[Knights of St. John]], completing their conquest of [[Rhodes]]. The knights establish their headquartes on the island, and rename themselves as the [[Knights of Rhodes]]. * [[1517]] - Seven [[Portugal|Portuguese]] armed vessels led by [[Fernao Pires de Andrade]] meet [[China|Chinese]] officials at the [[Pearl River estuary]]. * [[1519]] - [[Panama City, Panama]] is founded * [[1534]] - The [[Society of Jesus]] is founded by [[Ignatius of Loyola]] with [[Francis Xavier]] and other students * [[1535]] - [[Asuncion, Paraguay]] is founded * [[1540]] - [[Arequipa, Peru]] is founded * [[1549]] - [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] priest [[Francis Xavier]] comes ashore at [[Kagoshima]] (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: July 22, 1549). * [[1620]] - The ''[[Mayflower]]'' departs [[Southampton, England]]. * [[1824]] - Freed American slaves form [[Liberia]]. * [[1843]] - The [[Cathedral of Our Lady of Peace]] in [[Honolulu, Hawaii]] is dedicated. Now the cathedral of the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu]], it is the oldest [[Roman Catholic]] [[cathedral]] in continuous use in the [[United States]]. * 1843 - [[Tivoli Gardens]], one of the oldest still intact [[amusement park]]s in the world, opens in [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]]. * [[1863]] - The [[Satsuma Province|Satsuma]] war begins between the Satsuma clan and the [[United Kingdom]] (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: July 2, 1863). * [[1877]] - [[Thomas Edison]] makes the first-ever recording - "Mary Had a Little Lamb" * [[1894]] - [[Sante Jeronimo Caserio]] executed for the [[Marie Francois Sadi Carnot]] assesination * [[1914]] - The [[Panama Canal]] opens to traffic * [[1920]] - [[Polish-Soviet War]]: [[Battle of Warsaw (1920)|Battle of Warsaw]] - [[Poland|Poles]] defeat the [[Red Army]]. * [[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Pedestal]] - The [[SS Ohio|SS ''Ohio'']] reaches the island of [[Malta]] barely afloat carrying vital fuel supplies for the island defenses. * [[1944]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Anvil]] - Allied forces land in southern [[France]]. * [[1945]] - [[World War II]]: [[Victory over Japan Day]] - [[Japan]] surrenders. * 1945 - [[World War II]]: [[Korea]]n Liberation Day * [[1947]] - [[India]] gains independence from the United Kingdom. [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] takes office as the first [[Prime Minister of India]] * [[1948]] - The [[South Korea|Republic of Korea]] is established south of 38th Parallel * [[1960]] - [[Republic of the Congo]] ([[Brazzaville]]) declares its independence from [[France]] * [[1961]] - Construction begins on the [[Berlin Wall]], [[Conrad Schumann]] flees from [[East Germany]]. * [[1965]] - [[John Coltrane]] plays in [[Chicago, Illinois]] for the [[Downbeat]] [[Jazz Festival]] with [[Elvin Jones]] and [[McCoy Tyner]]. * [[1969]] - The [[Woodstock Music and Art Festival]] opens. * [[1971]] - President [[Richard Nixon]] ends convertibility of U.S. [[Dollar|dollar]] into gold * [[1973]] - [[Vietnam War]]: The [[United States]] bombing of [[Cambodia]] ends * [[1974]] - [[Yook Young-soo]], [[First Lady]] of [[South Korea]] is killed amid an apparent assassination attempt upon [[President]] of the [[South Korea]], [[Park Chung-hee]], during the anniversarial ceremony of the Liberation day. * [[1975]] - Military coup in [[Bangladesh]] * 1975 - [[Miki Takeo]] makes the first official pilgrimage to [[Yasukuni Shrine]] by a sitting [[Prime Minister of Japan|prime minister]] on the anniversary of the end of [[World War II]]. * [[1977]] - [[The Big Ear]], a [[radio telescope]] operated by The [[Ohio State University]] as part of the [[SETI]] project, receives a radio signal from deep space; the event is named the "[[Wow! signal]]" for notation made by a volunteer on the project. * [[1978]] - Foundation of [[Mirapuri]] - The City of Peace and Future Man * [[1995]] - In [[South Carolina]], [[Shannon Faulkner]] becomes the first female cadet matriculated at [[The Citadel (Military College)|The Citadel]], but drops out in less than a week. * [[1998]] - [[Omagh]] bomb in [[Northern Ireland]], becoming the worst [[terrorism|terrorist]] incident of [[The Troubles]] * [[1999]] - [[Beni Ounif massacre]] in [[Algeria]]; some 29 people killed at a false roadblock near the Moroccan border, leading to temporary tensions with [[Morocco]]. * [[2004]] - World famous Jam band [[Phish]] plays their last show in [[Coventry, Vermont]] after more than 20 active years. ==Births== *[[1001]] - King [[Duncan I of Scotland]] (d. [[1040]]) *[[1171]] - King [[Alfonso IX of Leon]] (d. [[1230]]) *[[1195]] - [[Anthony of Padua]], Portuguese saint (d. [[1231]]) *[[1432]] - [[Luigi Pulci]], Italian poet (d. [[1484]]) *[[1613]] - [[Gilles Ménage]], French scholar (d. [[1692]]) *[[1717]] - [[Blind Jack]], English roadbuilder (d. [[1810]]) *[[1769]] - [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], Emperor of France (d. [[1821]]) *[[1785]] - [[Thomas De Quincey]], English author (d. [[1859]]) *[[1813]] - [[Jules Grévy]], President of France (d. [[1891]]) *[[1856]] - [[Ivan Franko]], Ukrainian writer (d. [[1916]]) *[[1858]] - [[E. Nesbit]], English author (d. [[1924]]) *[[1872]] - [[Sri Aurobindo]], Indian writer, nationalist, philosopher, and guru (d. [[1950]]) *[[1875]] - [[Samuel Coleridge-Taylor]], English composer (d. [[1912]]) *[[1879]] - [[Ethel Barrymore]], American actress (d. [[1959]]) *[[1887]] - [[Edna Ferber]], American novelist (d. [[1968]]) *[[1883]] - [[Ivan Mestrovic|Ivan Me&#353;trovi&#263;]], Croatian sculptor (d. [[1962]]) *[[1890]] - [[Jacques Ibert]], French composer (d. [[1962]]) *[[1892]] - [[Louis, 7th duc de Broglie]], French physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1987]]) *[[1893]] - [[Leslie Comrie]], New Zealand astronomer and computing pioneer (d. [[1950]]) *[[1896]] - [[Gerty Cori]], Austrian-born biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1957]]) *1896 - [[Léon Theremin|Leon Theremin]], Russian inventor (d. [[1993]]) *[[1900]] - [[Jan Brzechwa]], Polish poet (d. [[1966]]) *[[1912]] - [[Julia Child]], American cook (d. [[2004]]) *1912 - Dame [[Wendy Hiller]], English actress (d. [[2003]]) *[[1916]] - [[Aleks Çaçi]], Albanian writer *[[1917]] - [[Jack Lynch]], fourth [[President of Ireland]] (d. [[1999]]) *[[1919]] - [[Huntz Hall]], American actor (d. [[1999]]) *[[1922]] - [[Lukas Foss]], German-born composer *[[1923]] - [[Rose Marie]], American actress *[[1924]] - [[Robert Bolt]], English screenwriter (d. [[1995]]) *[[1925]] - [[Mike Connors]], American actor *1925 - [[Willie Jones (baseball)|Willie Jones]], baseball player (d. [[1983]]) *1925 - [[Oscar Peterson]], Canadian jazz pianist *[[1928]] - [[Nicolas Roeg]], English film director *[[1933]] - [[Jim Lange]], American game show host *[[1935]] - [[Vernon Jordan Jr.]], U.S. Presidential advisor *1935 - [[Lionel Taylor]], American football player *[[1938]] - [[Janusz A. Zajdel]], Polish writer *[[1944]] - [[Linda Ellerbee]], American journalist *1944 - [[Sylvie Vartan]], French pop singer *[[1945]] - [[Mahamandaleshwar Paramhans Swami Maheshwarananda]], Indian guru *1945 - [[Begum Khaleda Zia]], [[Prime Minister of Bangladesh]] *[[1946]] - [[Jimmy Webb]], American musician and composer *[[1947]] - [[Raakhee Gulzar]], Indian actress *[[1948]] - [[Uschi Digard]], American actress and model *[[1949]] - [[Richard Deacon]], Welsh sculptor *[[1950]] - [[Anne, Princess Royal|Princess Anne of the United Kingdom]] *[[1951]] - [[Daba Diawara]], Malian politician *[[1957]] - [[Željko Ivanek]], American actor *[[1958]] - [[Victor Shenderovich]], Russian satirist *[[1965]] - [[Rob Thomas (writer)|Rob Thomas]], author and screenwriter *[[1968]] - [[Debra Messing]], American actress *[[1972]] - [[Ben Affleck]], American actor *[[1974]] - [[Natasha Henstridge]], Canadian actress *[[1975]] - [[Kara Wolters]], American basketball player *[[1976]] - [[Boudewijn Zenden]], Dutch football player *[[1977]] - [[Igor Cassina]], Italian gymnast *[[1978]] - [[Tim Foreman]], American bassist ([[Switchfoot]]) *1978 - [[Lilia Podkopayeva]], Ukrainian gymnast ==Deaths== *[[778]] - [[Roland]], Frankish commander (killed in battle) *[[1038]] - King [[ Stephen I of Hungary]] *[[1040]] - King [[Duncan I of Scotland]] (b. [[1001]]) *[[1057]] - King [[Macbeth I of Scotland]] *[[1118]] - [[Alexius I Comnenus]], [[Byzantine Emperor]] (b. [[1048]]) *[[1196]] - [[Conrad II, Duke of Swabia]] (b. [[1173]]) *[[1274]] - [[Robert de Sorbon]], French theologian and founder of the Sorbonne (b. [[1201]]) *[[1369]] - [[Philippa of Hainault]], queen of [[Edward III of England]] *[[1528]] - [[Odet de Foix, Vicomte de Lautrec]], French military leader (b. [[1485]]) *[[1552]] - [[Hermann of Wied]], German Catholic archbishop (b. [[1477]]) *[[1621]] - [[John Barclay (1582-1621)|John Barclay]], Scottish writer (b. [[1582]]) *[[1666]] - [[Johann Adam Schall von Bell]], German Jesuit missionary (b. [[1591]]) *[[1714]] - [[Constantin Brâncoveanu]], Prince of Wallachia (b. [[1654]]) *[[1728]] - [[Marin Marais]], French composer and viol player (b. [[1656]]) *[[1799]] - [[Giuseppe Parini]], Italian poet (b. [[1729]]) *[[1852]] - [[Johan Gadolin]], Finnish scientist (b. [[1760]]) *[[1907]] - [[Joseph Joachim]], Austrian violinist (b. [[1831]]) *[[1909]] - [[Euclides da Cunha]], Brazilian writer and sociologist (b. [[1866]]) *[[1935]] - [[Wiley Post]], American pilot (b. [[1898]]) *1935 - [[Will Rogers]], American humorist and actor (b. [[1879]]) *[[1936]] - [[Grazia Deledda]], Italian writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1871]]) *[[1951]] - [[Artur Schnabel]], Polish pianist (b. [[1882]]) *[[1953]] - [[Ludwig Prandtl]], German physicist (b. [[1875]]) *[[1959]] - [[Blind Willie McTell]], American singer (b. [[1901]] *[[1962]] - [[Lei Feng]], Chinese revolutionary (b. [[1940]]) *[[1967]] - [[René Magritte]], Belgian painter (b. [[1898]]) *[[1971]] - [[Paul Lukas]], Hungarian-born actor (b. [[1887]]) *[[1975]] - [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]], [[President of Bangladesh]] (b. [[1920]]) *1975 - [[Clay Shaw]], [[John F. Kennedy]] assassination investigator (b. [[1913]]) *[[1982]] - [[Hugo Theorell]], Swedish scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1903]]) *[[1990]] - [[Viktor Tsoi]], Russian musician (b. [[1962]]) *[[1995]] - [[John Cameron Swayze]], American journalist (b. [[1906]]) *[[1999]] - Sir [[Hugh Casson]], British architect and artist (b. [[1910]]) *[[2001]] - [[Richard Chelimo]], Kenyan athlete (brain tumour) (b. [[1972]]) *[[2003]] - [[Gösta Sundqvist]], Finnish songwriter and singer (heart attack) (b. [[1957]]) *[[2004]] - [[Sune Bergström]], Swedish biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1916]]) *2004 - [[Amarsinh Chaudhary]], Indian politician (b. [[1941]]) *[[2005]] - [[James Dougherty]], first husband of [[Marilyn Monroe]] ([[leukemia]]) ==Holidays and observances== * [[August 15 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)|Eastern Orthodoxy]] &ndash; Feast of the [[Dormition of the Theotokos|Dormition]] of the [[Theotokos]], the commemoration of the death of [[Mary, the mother of Jesus]]. * [[Calendar of Saints|RC Saints]] &ndash; Feast day of the [[Assumption of Mary]], the mother of Jesus, [[Holy Day of Obligation]]. Public Holiday in: [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Cameroon]], [[Chile]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Croatia]], [[Cyprus]], [[East Timor]], [[France]], [[Greece]], [[India]], [[Italy]], [[Lebanon]], [[Lithuania]], [[Malta]], [[Mauritius]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Seychelles]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Spain]]. *[[Acadie]] &ndash; National Day * [[Egypt]] &ndash; Flooding of the [[Nile]] Day * [[Hawaii]] &ndash; ''[[Toro Nagashi]]'' (Floating Lantern Ceremony) to commemorate the end of the [[World War II|second world war]] * [[Holidays in India|India]] &ndash; [[Independence Day]] (from the United Kingdom, [[1947]]) * [[Italy]] &ndash; "Ferragosto", remembrance of an ancient Roman holiday in honor of Augustus (Feriae Augusti) * [[Korea]] &ndash; Liberation Day * Ancient [[Latvia]] &ndash; [[Māras]] * [[Liechtenstein]] &ndash; Liechtenstein Day * [[Poland]] &ndash; Polish Armed Forces Day * [[Jamaica]]&ndash; Jamaican national dance Day(Bianca Day) * [[Tuva]] &ndash; Tuva Republic Day, [[Naadym]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/15 BBC: On This Day] [[August 14]] - [[August 16]] - [[July 15]] - [[September 15]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:15 Augustus]] [[ar:15 أغسطس]] [[an:15 d'agosto]] [[ast:15 d'agostu]] [[bg:15 август]] [[be:15 жніўня]] [[bs:15. august]] [[ca:15 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 15]] [[cv:Çурла, 15]] [[co:15 d'aostu]] [[cs:15. srpen]] [[cy:15 Awst]] [[da:15. august]] [[de:15. August]] [[et:15. august]] [[el:15 Αυγούστου]] [[es:15 de agosto]] [[eo:15-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 15]] [[fo:15. august]] [[fr:15 août]] [[fy:15 augustus]] [[ga:15 Lúnasa]] [[gl:15 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 15일]] [[hr:15. kolovoza]] [[io:15 di agosto]] [[id:15 Agustus]] [[ia:15 de augusto]] [[ie:15 august]] [[is:15. ágúst]] [[it:15 agosto]] [[he:15 באוגוסט]] [[jv:15 Agustus]] [[kn:ಆಗಸ್ತ ೧೫]] [[ka:15 აგვისტო]] [[csb:15 zélnika]] [[ku:15'ê gelawêjê]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 15]] [[lb:15. August]] [[li:15 augustus]] [[hu:Augusztus 15]] [[mk:15 август]] [[ml:ആഗസ്റ്റ്‌ 15]] [[ms:15 Ogos]] [[nap:15 'e aùsto]] [[nl:15 augustus]] [[ja:8月15日]] [[no:15. august]] [[nn:15. august]] [[oc:15 d'agost]] [[pl:15 sierpnia]] [[pt:15 de Agosto]] [[ro:15 august]] [[ru:15 августа]] [[se:Borgemánu 15.]] [[sco:15 August]] [[sq:15 Gusht]] [[scn:15 di austu]] [[simple:August 15]] [[sk:15. august]] [[sl:15. avgust]] [[sr:15. август]] [[fi:15. elokuuta]] [[sv:15 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 15]] [[tt:15. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 15]] [[th:15 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:15 tháng 8]] [[tr:15 Ağustos]] [[uk:15 серпня]] [[wa:15 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 15]] [[zh:8月15日]] [[pam:Agostu 15]] 1444 42060905 2006-03-03T15:11:01Z Shaolin128 653138 +fr '''Abu al-Fida''' (fully '''Abu Al-fida' Isma'il Ibn 'ali Al-malik Al-mu'ayyad 'imad Ad-din''', also [[transliterated]] '''Abulfeda''', '''Abu Alfida''', and other ways) (November [[1273]] &ndash; [[October 27]], [[1331]]) was an [[Arab]] [[historian]], [[geographer]], and local [[sultan]]. ==Life== Abulfeda was born at [[Damascus]], where his father [[Malik ul-Afdal]], brother of the prince of [[Hamah]], had fled from the [[Mongols]]. He was a descendant of [[Ayyub]], the father of [[Saladin]]. In his boyhood he devoted himself to the study of the ''[[Qur'an]]'' and the sciences, but from his twelfth year was almost constantly engaged in military expeditions, chiefly against the [[Crusades|crusaders]]. In [[1285]] he was present at the assault of a stronghold of the [[Knights of St. John]], and took part in the sieges of [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]], [[Akko|Acre]] and [[Qal'at ar-Rum]]. In [[1298]] he entered the service of the [[Mameluke]] [[Sultan]] [[Malik al-Nasir]] and after twelve years was invested by him with the governorship of [[Hamah]]. In [[1312]] he became prince with the title '''Malik us-Salhn''', and in [[1320]] received the hereditary rank of ''sultan'' with the title '''Malik ul-Mu'ayyad'''. For more than twenty years all together he reigned in tranquillity and splendour, devoting himself to the duties of government and to the composition of the works to which he is chiefly indebted for his fame. He was a munificent patron of men of letters, who came in large numbers to his court. He died in [[1331]]. ==Works== His chief historical work is ''An Abridgment of the History at the Human Race,'' in the form of [[annals]] extending from the creation of the world to the year [[1329]] ([[Constantinople]], 2 vols. [[1869]]). His geography is, like much of the history, founded on the works of his predecessors, and so ultimately on the work of [[Ptolemy]]. A long introduction on various geographical matters is followed by twenty-eight sections dealing in tabular form with the chief towns of the world. After each name are given the longitude, latitude, climate, spelling, and then observations generally taken from earlier authors. Parts of the work were published and translated as early as [[1650]] in [[Europe]]. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1273 births]] [[Category:1331 deaths]] [[Category:Arab historians]] [[Category:Arab geographers]] [[Category:Muslim scientists]] [[fr:Aboul Féda]] [[sl:Abulfeda]] 1445 42150188 2006-03-04T03:44:02Z Vuong Ngan Ha 225920 {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = ''Acacia'' | image = Acacia melanoxylon2.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = ''[[Acacia melanoxylon]]'' foliage and flowers | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Fabales]] | familia = [[Fabaceae]] | subfamilia = [[Mimosoideae]] | tribus = Acacieae | genus = '''''Acacia''''' | genus_authority = [[Gerrit Smith Miller|Miller]] | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = About 1,300; see [[List of Acacia species]] }} :''For Acacia Research Corporation, see [[Acacia Technologies]]. For Acacia Fraternity, see [[Acacia Fraternity]].'' '''''Acacia''''' is a genus of [[shrub]]s and [[tree]]s of [[Gondwana|Gondwanian]] origin belonging to the Subfamily [[Mimosoideae]] of the Pea Family (Family [[Fabaceae]]), first described from Africa by [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] in [[1773]]. There are roughly 1300 species of ''Acacia'' worldwide, about 950 of them native to [[Australia]], with the remainder spread around the dry tropical to warm-temperate regions of both hemispheres, including Africa, southern Asia, and the Americas. The Genus ''Acacia'' however is apparently not [[monophyletic]]. This discovery has led to the breaking up of ''Acacia'' into five new genera as discussed in [[List of Acacia species]]. The northernmost species in the genus is ''Acacia greggii'' ([[Catclaw Acacia]]), reaching 37°10' N in southern [[Utah]] in the [[United States]]; the southernmost are ''Acacia dealbata'' ([[Silver Wattle]]), ''Acacia longifolia'' ([[Coast Wattle]] or Sydney Golden Wattle), ''Acacia mearnsii'' ([[Black Wattle]]), and ''Acacia melanoxylon'' ([[Acacia melanoxylon|Blackwood]]), reaching 43°30' S in [[Tasmania]], Australia, while ''Acacia caven'' ([[Espinillo Negro]]) reaches nearly as far south in northeastern [[Chubut Province]] of [[Argentina]]. Australian species are usually called '''[[wattle]]s''', while African and American species tend to be known as '''acacias'''. The leaves of acacias are compound pinnate in general. In some species, however, more especially in the Australian and Pacific islands species, the leaflets are suppressed, and the leaf-stalks ('''[[petiole]]s''') become vertically flattened, and serve the purpose of leaves; these are known as '''[[phyllode]]s'''. The vertical orientation of the phyllodes protects them from intense sunlight, as with their edges towards the sky and earth they do not intercept light so fully as horizontally placed leaves. A few species (such as ''[[Acacia glaucoptera]]'') lack leaves or phyllodes altogether, but possess instead '''[[cladode]]s''', modified leaf-like photosynthetic stems functioning as leaves. The small [[flower]]s have five, very small petals, almost hidden by the long stamens, and are arranged in dense globular or cylindrical clusters; they are yellow or cream-colored in most species, whitish in some, even purple (as in ''[[Acacia purpureapetala]]'') or red (in the recently grown cultivar ''[[Acacia leprosa]] 'Scarlet Blaze'''). The plants often bear spines, especially those species growing in arid regions. These sometimes represent branches which have become short, hard and pungent, or sometimes leaf-stipules. ''Acacia armata'' is the [[Kangaroo-thorn]] of Australia, ''Acacia giraffae'', the [[Camelthorn]] of Africa. In the Central American ''Acacia sphaerocephala'' ([[Bullthorn Acacia]]) and ''[[Acacia spadicigera]]'', the large thorn-like stipules are hollow and afford shelter for [[ant]]s, which feed on a secretion of honey on the leaf-stalk and curious food-bodies at the tips of the leaflets; in return they protect the plant against leaf-eating insects. In common parlance the term "acacia" is occasionally misapplied to species of the Genus ''Robinia'', which also belongs in the pea family. ''Robinia pseudoacacia'', an American species locally known as [[Black locust]], is sometimes called "false acacia" in cultivation in Britain. In Australia, ''Acacia'' species are sometimes used as food plants by the [[larva]]e of [[Hepialidae|hepialid]] [[moth]]s of the genus ''[[Aenetus]]'' including ''A. ligniveren''. These burrow horizontally into the trunk then vertically down. Other [[Lepidoptera]] larvae which have been recorded feeding on ''Acacia'' include [[Brown-tail]], ''[[Endoclita|Endoclita malabaricus]]'' and [[Turnip Moth]]. The leaf-mining larvae of some [[Bucculatricidae|bucculatricid]] moths also feed on ''Acacia'': ''Bucculatrix agilis'' feeds exclusively on ''Acacia horrida'', ''Bucculatrix flexuosa'' feeds exclusively on ''Acacia nilotica''. == Uses == [[Image:Acaciaauriculiformis1web.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Earpod Wattle (''Acacia auriculiformis'')]] ===Industrial and medicinal uses=== Various species of acacia yield gum. True [[gum arabic]] is the product of ''[[Acacia senegal]]'', abundant in dry tropical west Africa from [[Senegal]] to northern [[Nigeria]]. ''[[Acacia arabica]]'' is the gum-arabic tree of India, but yields a gum inferior to the true gum-arabic. The bark of ''Acacia arabica'', under the name of '''babul''' or '''babool''', is used in Scinde for tanning. In [[Ayurvedic medicine]], babul is considered a remedy that is helpful for treating premature ejaculation. The bark of various Australian species, known as wattles, is very rich in tannin and forms an important article of export; important species include ''Acacia pycnantha'' (Golden Wattle), ''Acacia decurrens'' (Tan Wattle), ''Acacia dealbata'' (Silver Wattle) and ''Acacia mearnsii'' (Black Wattle). Black Wattle is grown in plantations in South Africa. The pods of ''[[Acacia nilotica]]'' (under the name of neb-neb), and of other African species are also rich in tannin and used by tanners. Some species afford valuable timber; such are ''Acacia melanoxylon'' (Blackwood) from [[Australia]], which attains a great size; its wood is used for furniture, and takes a high polish; and ''Acacia homalophylla'' ([[Myall Wood]], also Australian), which yields a fragrant timber, used for ornamental purposes. ''[[Acacia formosa]]'' supplies the valuable [[Cuba]]n timber called sabicu. ''[[Acacia seyal]]'' is thought to be the shittah tree of the [[Bible]], which supplied shittim-wood. This was used in the construction of the [[Ark of the Covenant]]. As a spiritual icon it is also one of the most powerful symbols in [[freemasonry]], representing the eternal soul and purity of the soul. ''[[Acacia heterophylla]]'' from [[Réunion]] island, and ''[[Koa|Acacia koa]]'' from the [[Hawaiian Islands]] are excellent timber trees. ''Acacia farnesiana'' is used in the perfume industry due to its strong fragrance. An astringent medicine, called [[catechu]] or cutch, is procured from several species, but more especially from ''[[Acacia catechu]]'', by boiling down the wood and evaporating the solution so as to get an extract. ===Ornamental uses=== A few species are widely grown as ornamentals in [[garden]]s; the most popular perhaps is ''Acacia dealbata'' (Silver Wattle), with its attractive glaucous to silvery leaves and bright yellow flowers; it is erroneously known as "mimosa" in some areas where it is cultivated, through confusion with the related genus ''[[Mimosa]]''. ===Culinary uses=== [[Acacia seed]]s are often used for food and a variety of other products. The seeds of ''[[Acacia niopo]]'', for instance, are roasted and used as [[snuff]] in [[South America]]. In [[Laos]] and [[Thailand]], the feathery shoots of ''[[Acacia pennata]]'' (common name ''cha-om'') are used in soups, curries, omelettes, and stir-fries. ===Pharmacological uses=== Many Acacia species contain some psychoactive alkaloids of which [[Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]] and [[N-methyltryptamine|NMT]] are the most prominent and useful. The leaves, stems and/or roots can be made into a brew together with some [[Monoamine oxidase inhibitor|MAOI]]-containing plant to obtain an effect when taken orally. This could be seen as a kind of ''[[Ayahuasca]]''. Maybe in relation to this effect, [[Egyptian mythology]] has associated the acacia tree with characteristics of the [[tree of life]] (cf. article on the [[Legend of Osiris and Isis]]). Alkaloids in different species, from ''[[TiHKAL]]'' (by [[Alexander Shulgin]]): <table> <tr> <td>''A. baileyana''</td><td>0.02% tryptamine and &beta;-carbolines, in the leaf</td> </tr><tr> <td>''A. maidenii''</td><td>DMT and NMT, in the stem bark</td> </tr><tr> <td>''A. albida''</td><td>DMT, in the leaf</td> </tr><tr> <td>''A. confusa''</td><td>DMT and NMT, in the leaf, stem and bark</td> </tr><tr> <td>''A. cultriformis''</td><td>tryptamine, in the leaf and stem</td> </tr><tr> <td>''A. laeta''</td><td>DMT, in the leaf</td> </tr><tr> <td>''A. mellifera''</td><td>DMT, in the leaf</td> </tr><tr> <td>''A. nilotica''</td><td>DMT, in the leaf</td> </tr><tr> <td>''A. phlebophylla''</td><td>DMT, in the leaf</td> </tr><tr> <td>''A. podalyriaefolia''</td><td>tryptamine, in the leaf</td> </tr><tr> <td>''A. senegal''</td><td>DMT, in the leaf</td> </tr><tr> <td>''A. seyal''</td><td>DMT, in the leaf</td> </tr><tr> <td>''A. sieberiana''</td><td>DMT, in the leaf) </tr><tr> <td>''A. simplicifolia''</td><td>DMT and NMT, in the leaf, stem and trunk bark</td> </tr><tr> <td>''A. vestita''</td><td>tryptamine, in the leaf and stem</td> </tr> </table> == Species == There are over 1,300 species of Acacia. See [[List of Acacia species]] for a complete listing. == External links == {{wikispecies|Acacia}} {{Commons|Acacia}} * [http://www.worldwidewattle.com/ World Wide Wattle] * [http://waynesword.palomar.edu/plaug99.htm Wayne's Word] on "The Unforgettable Acacias" [[Category:Acacia| ]] [[Category:Pantropical Flora]] [[Category:Australian plants]] [[Category:Argentine flora]] [[Category:Trees of Africa]] [[ar:طلح]] [[bg:Акация]] [[da:Akacie]] [[de:Akazien]] [[et:Akaatsia]] [[es:Acacia]] [[eo:Akacio]] [[fr:Acacia]] [[gl:Acacia]] [[ko:아카시아속]] [[it:Acacia]] [[nl:Acacia]] [[ja:アカシア]] [[pl:Akacja]] [[pt:Acácia]] [[sr:Акација]] [[uk:Акація]] [[vi:Chi Keo]] [[zh:金合欢]] 1446 41701158 2006-03-01T03:49:01Z Tyler Oderkirk 430856 Typo fix: "non" -> "none" : ''This article is about the city in Mexico; there is also a town called [[Acapulco, Peru|Acapulco]] in Peru.'' '''Acapulco''' (Officially: '''Acapulco de Juárez''') is a city and major [[sea port]] in the state of [[Guerrero]] on the Pacific coast of [[Mexico]], 300 km (190 miles) southwest from [[Mexico City]], at {{coor d|16.85|N|99.92|W|}}. Acapulco is located on a deep, semi-circular bay. Many consider it to be one of the best harbours on the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast of Mexico, and it is a port of call for shipping lines running between [[Panama]] and [[San Francisco, California]], [[United States|USA]]. In [[2003]] the estimated population was 638,000 people. [[Image:spring break.jpg||thumb|280px|right|Acapulco Beach]] [[Image:JLNYCAcapulcoBay.jpg|thumb|right|Acapulco]] ==Geography== The town is built on a narrow strip of low land, scarcely half a mile wide, between the shore line and the lofty mountains that encircle the bay. There is great natural beauty in the surroundings, mountains render the access to the town, though not difficult to access particularly since the construction of a 2-km-long tunnel to the waterfront from the hinterland in the [[1990s]]. An earlier effort to admit the cooling sea breezes by cutting through the mountains a passage called the Abra de San Nicolas had some beneficial effect. ==History== Acapulco has been well known as a traveler's crossroads for at least a millennium. Its name is a [[Nahuatl]] word, meaning "plain of dense reeds." The earliest local remains, stone metates and pottery utensils, were left in the [[3rd millennium BC]]. Much later, sophisticated artisans fashioned curvaceous female figurines. Some hypothesize that there was early Polynesian or Asian influences in Pacific Mexico as early as 1500 years before the arrival [[Christopher Columbus]]. Other artifacts resemble those found in highland Mexico. Although influenced by [[Tarascan]], [[Mixtec]], [[Zapotec]], and [[Aztec]] civilizations, sometimes paying tribute to them and frequented by their traders, Acapulco never came under their direct control, but instead remained subject to local caciques until the [[Spain|Spanish]] conquest. [[Image:Puerto_de_Acapulco_Boot_1628.png|right|thumb|A 1628 Spanish relief map of Acapulco Bay]] After conquering the Aztecs, [[Hernán Cortés]] sent expeditions south to build ships and find a route to [[China]]. The first explorers sailed from [[Zacatula]], near present-day [[Lázaro Cárdenas, Michoacán]], on the coast 400 km (250 miles) north-west of Acapulco. By a royal decree dated [[April 25]], [[1528]], "Acapulco and her land ... where the ships of the south will be built...." passed directly into the hands of the Spanish Crown. Voyages of discovery set sail from Acapulco for [[Peru]], the [[Sea of Cortez]], and to [[Asia]]. None returned across the Pacific, however, until Augustinian priest [[Andrés de Urdaneta]] discovered the northern Pacific tradewinds, which propelled him and his ship, loaded with Chinese treasure, to Acapulco in [[1565]]. For more than 200 years after that, a special yearly trading ship, known to the English as the [[Manila Galleon]], set sail from Acapulco for the [[Manila]] and the Orient. Its return started an annual merchant fair in Acapulco where traders bargained for the Galleon's cargo of silks, porcelain, ivory, and lacquerware. This trade connection, which persisted up to Mexican independence, was instrumental in placing the [[Philippines]] on the east side of the [[International Date Line]] until the end of [[1844]]. Acapulco's yearly treasure soon attracted marauders, too. In [[1579]], [[Francis Drake]] attacked but failed to capture the Galleon, but in [[1587]], off [[Cabo San Lucas]], [[Thomas Cavendish]] seized the ''Santa Anna''. The cash alone, 1.2 million [[gold]] pesos, severely depressed the [[London bullion market]]. After a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] fleet invaded Acapulco in [[1615]], the Spanish rebuilt their fort, which they christened ''Fort San Diego'' in [[1617]]. Destroyed by an [[earthquake]] in [[1776]], the fort was rebuilt by 1783. The [[Mexican War of Independence|War of Independence]] ([[1820]]-[[1821|21]]) stopped the Manila Galleon forever, sending Acapulco into a century-long slumber. The town suffered considerably from [[earthquake]]s in July and August [[1909]]. [[Miguel Aleman Valdes]] was the [[President of Mexico]] who put so much in the modernization and development of Acapulco. He did so much not only as President but also as the Head of Mexico's National Tourist Commission after he left office. Acapulco was devastated by [[Hurricane Pauline]] in [[October]] [[1997]]. ==Economy== There are exports of hides, [[wood]], and fruit, and the adjacent district of [[Tabares]] produces [[cotton]], [[tobacco]], [[cacao]], [[sugarcane]], Indian corn, beans, and [[coffee]]. ==Acapulco as a holiday resort== [[Image:Acapulco.jpg|thumb|right|View of the Pacific Ocean from an Acapulco hotel]] For many years Acapulco has been a popular resort for holiday makers. The city has had its star-spangled times, prompting none other than Old Blue Eyes [[Frank Sinatra]] to give the place a mention in his all time classic [[Come Fly With Me]]. Modern Acapulco still has a great appeal. The vast majority of the tourists now tend to come from the rest of Mexico but several other foreign nationals make appearances in the numerous bars and clubs dotted around the bay come sun down. In recent years, Acapulco has made some ground on [[Cancún]] for Spring Break's most popular resort destinations. Acapulco offers a relatively unknown experience and a larger international student crowd than Cancún. Due to a recent gun fight between drugdealers and police that left 4 drug dealers dead, the town has feared it might affect tourism this spring break.[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5228258][http://www.univision.com/content/content.jhtml?cid=784788][http://www.el-universal.com.mx/notas/327982.html][http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2006/01/28/003n1pol.php][http://www.cronica.com.mx/nota.php?idc=223266] ==Transportation== By the early [[20th century]], the town was chosen as the terminus for two railway lines seeking a Pacific port &ndash; the Interoceanic and the Mexican Central. The port city grew greatly in the 20th century. Acapulco is served by [[General Juan N. Álvarez International Airport]]. ==External links== * {{wikitravel}} * [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=16.870193,-99.875679&spn=0.166014,0.234180&t=k&hl=en Satellite picture from Google Local] ==References== *{{1911}} ==Sources== *[http://www.el-universal.com.mx/notas/327982.html Ejército y agentes federales sitian Acapulco tras balacera, January 29, 2006] *[http://www.univision.com/content/content.jhtml?cid=784788 Tiroteo en México dejó cuatro muertos, January 28, 2006] *[http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2006/01/28/003n1pol.php Balacera entre narcos y policías en Acapulco; versiones contradictorias, January 28, 2006] *[http://www.cronica.com.mx/nota.php?idc=223266 Narcos y policías se baten a balazos en Acapulco, January 28, 2006] ==See also== * [[Spring Break]] * [[Acafest]] [[Category:Cities in Guerrero]] [[Category:Coastal cities]] [[Category:Beaches of Mexico]] [[Category:Mexican Ports]] [[da:Acapulco]] [[de:Acapulco]] [[et:Acapulco]] [[es:Acapulco]] [[fr:Acapulco de Juárez]] [[gl:Acapulco]] [[ko:아카풀코]] [[nl:Acapulco de Juárez]] [[ja:アカプルコ]] [[pl:Acapulco]] [[pt:Acapulco]] [[ru:Акапулько]] [[fi:Acapulco]] [[sv:Acapulco]] [[uk:Акапулько]] 1447 41942083 2006-03-02T19:59:18Z NormanEinstein 176266 /* Name and etymology */ Mons Garganus -> Monte Gargano [[Image:Adriatic Sea.jpg|thumb|400px|right|The Adriatic Sea<br>''Source:'' [[NASA]]]] The '''Adriatic Sea''' is an arm of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] separating the [[Italian peninsula]] from the [[Balkan peninsula]], and the system of the [[Apennine Mountains]] from that of the [[Dinaric Alps]] and adjacent ranges. The western coast is [[Italy|Italian]], while the eastern coast runs along the countries of [[Slovenia]], [[Croatia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], and [[Albania]]. ==Name and etymology== [[Image:Adriatic Sea map.png|thumb|right|Map of the Adriatic Sea]] The name has existed since the antiquity; in [[Latin]] it was ''Mare Hadriaticum''. The name, derived from the town of [[Adria]] (or ''Hadria''), belonged originally only to the upper portion of the sea (Herodotus vi. 127, vii. 20, ix. 92; Euripides, ''Hippolytus,'' 736), but was gradually extended as the [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracusan]] colonies gained in importance. But even then the Adriatic in the narrower sense only extended as far as the [[Monte Gargano]], the outer portion being called the [[Ionian Sea]]: the name was sometimes, however, inaccurately used to include the Gulf of Tarentum (the modern-day [[Gulf of Taranto]]), the [[Sea of Sicily]], the [[Gulf of Corinth]] and even the sea between [[Crete]] and [[Malta]] (Acts xxvii. 27). The Adriatic Sea is east of Italy, a major tourist attraction. It was used by the ancient Romans to transport objects (including animals and [[slaves]]) to Ostia (the Roman port). These objects were used in various places in Rome. ==Extent== The Adriatic extends northwest from 40° to 45° 45' N., with an extreme length of about 770 km (415 [[nautical mile|nm]], 480 [[mile|mi]]). It has a [[arithmetic mean|mean]] breadth of about 160 km (85 [[nautical mile|nm]], 100 [[mile|mi]]), although the [[Strait of Otranto]], through which it connects at the south with the Ionian Sea, is only 45-55 [[nautical mile]]s wide (85-100 km). Moreover, the chain of islands which fringes the northern part of the eastern shore reduces the extreme breadth of open sea in this part to 145 km (78 nm, 90 mi). Its total surface area is about 60,000 square miles ([[1 E11 m²|160,000]] [[square kilometre|km²]]). The northern part of the sea is very shallow, and between the southern promontories of [[Istria]] and [[Rimini]] the depth rarely exceeds 46 m (25 [[fathom]]s). Between [[Sibenik|Šibenik]] and [[Ortona]] a well-marked depression occurs, a considerable area of which exceeds 180 m (100 fathoms) in depth. From a point between [[Korcula|Korčula]] and the north shore of the spur of [[Monte Gargano]] there is a ridge giving shallower water, and a broken chain of a few islets extends across the sea. The deepest part of the sea lies east of Monte Gargano, south of Dubrovnik, and west of [[Durrës]] where a large basin gives depths of 900 m (500 fathoms) and upwards, and a small area in the south of this basin falls below 1,460 m (800 fathoms). The mean depth of the sea is estimated at 240 m (133 fathoms). ==Coasts and islands== The west shore is generally low, merging, in the northwest, into the marshes and lagoons on either hand of the protruding delta of the river [[Po river|Po]], the [[sediment]] of which has pushed forward the coastline for several miles within historic times — Adria is now some distance from the shore. On islands within one of the lagoons opening from the [[Gulf of Venice]], [[Venice]] has its unique situation. Other notable cities on the Italian coast are [[Trieste]], [[Ravenna]], [[Rimini]], [[Ancona]], [[Pescara]], [[Bari]] and [[Brindisi]]. The east coast is generally bold and rocky, with many islands. South of the [[Istria|Istrian Peninsula]], which separates the Gulfs of Venice and [[Gulf of Trieste]] from the [[Bay of Kvarner]], the island-fringe of the east coast extends as far south as [[Dubrovnik]]. The islands, which are long and narrow (the long axis lying parallel with the coast of the mainland), rise rather abruptly to elevations of a few hundred feet, with the exception of a few larger islands like [[Brač]] (Vidova gora, 778 m) or the peninsula [[Pelješac]] (St. Ilija, 961 m). There are over a thousand islands in the Adriatic, 66 of which are inhabited. On the mainland, notably in the magnificent inlet of the [[Gulf of Kotor]] (Boka Kotorska, Bocche di Cattaro; named after the town of [[Kotor]]), lofty mountains often fall directly to the sea. The prevalent colour of the rocks is a light, dead grey, contrasting harshly with the dark vegetation, which on some of the islands is luxuriant. In fact, [[Montenegro]] (Black Mountain) was named after the [[European black pine|black pines]] that cover the coast there, and similarly the Greek name for the island of [[Korčula]] is ''Korkyra Melaina'' meaning "Black Corfu". Major cities on the northeastern coast include [[Trieste]] in Italy; [[Izola]], [[Koper]], [[Piran]] and [[Portorož]] in Slovenia; [[Pula]], [[Rovinj]], [[Poreč]], [[Rijeka]], [[Zadar]], [[Šibenik]], [[Trogir]], [[Split]], [[Dubrovnik]] in Croatia; [[Herceg Novi]], [[Bar, Serbia and Montenegro|Bar]], [[Ulcinj]] in Montenegro; and [[Durrës]] in Albania. ==Miscellaneous== The [[bora|''bora'' or ''bura'']] (northeast wind), and the prevalence of sudden squalls from this quarter or the southeast, are dangers to navigation in winter. Also notable are [[sirocco|''sirocco'' or ''jugo'']] (southern wind) which brings rain in the winter and ''[[maestral]]'' (western wind) which brings nice weather in the summer. Tidal movement is slight. The [[amphidromic point]] is just off the northwestern shore, near Ancona. Both coasts are popular [[tourism|tourist]] destinations. ==See also== * [[List of rivers of Europe#Mediterranean Sea|List of rivers of Europe]] * [[List of islands in the Adriatic]] == External links == * [http://www.geabios.com/html/services/maps/PublicMap.htm?lat=42.465&lon=15.876875&fov=8.66&title=Adriatic%20Sea Satellite images and maps of Adriatic Sea] from [[GeaBios]] GIS Public Service * [http://www.geabios.com/services/meteo/wv2.11/wv.htm Weather forecast for eastern coast] from [[GeaBios]] GIS Public Service [[Category:Seas of the Atlantic Ocean]] [[Category:Geography of Croatia]] [[ar:بحر أدرياتيكي]] [[bg:Адриатическо море]] [[bs:Jadransko more]] [[ca:Mar Adriàtica]] [[cs:Jaderské moře]] [[da:Adriaterhavet]] [[de:Adriatisches Meer]] [[et:Aadria meri]] [[el:Αδριατική θάλασσα]] [[es:Mar Adriático]] [[eo:Adriatiko]] [[eu:itsaso Adriatiko]] [[fr:Mer Adriatique]] [[gl:Mar Adriático]] [[ko:아드리아 해]] [[hr:Jadransko more]] [[id:Laut Adriatik]] [[is:Adríahaf]] [[it:Mare Adriatico]] [[he:הים האדריאטי]] [[la:Hadriaticum]] [[lt:Adrijos jūra]] [[hu:Adriai-tenger]] [[nl:Adriatische Zee]] [[ja:アドリア海]] [[no:Adriaterhavet]] [[pl:Morze Adriatyckie]] [[pt:Mar Adriático]] [[ro:Marea Adriatică]] [[ru:Адриатическое море]] [[sk:Jadranské more]] [[sl:Jadransko morje]] [[sr:Јадранско море]] [[sv:Adriatiska havet]] [[tl:Dagat Adriatiko]] [[uk:Адріатичне море]] [[zh:亚得里亚海]] 1448 40525836 2006-02-21T05:21:51Z 64.53.209.169 /* Births */ {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=16}} |} '''[[August 16]]''' is the 228th day of the year (229th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 137 days remaining. ==Events== * [[1777]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]: [[Battle of Bennington]] - [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] forces are defeated by [[United States|American]] troops. * [[1780]] - American Revolutionary War: [[Battle of Camden]] - The British defeat the Americans near [[Camden, South Carolina]]. * [[1812]] - [[War of 1812]]: American General [[William Hull]] surrenders [[Fort Detroit]] without a fight to the [[British Army]]. * [[1819]] - Eleven people die and 400 are injured by [[cavalry]] charges at the [[Peterloo Massacre]] at a public meeting at St. Peter's Field, Manchester, England. * [[1841]] - [[U.S. President]] [[John Tyler]] vetoes a bill which called for the re-establishment of the [[Second Bank of the United States]]. Enraged [[United States Whig Party|Whig Party]] members riot outside the [[White House]] in the most violent demonstration on White House grounds in U.S. history. * [[1858]] - U.S. President [[James Buchanan]] inaugurates the new [[transatlantic telegraph cable]] cable by exchanging greetings with Queen [[Victoria of the United Kingdom]]. However, a weak signal will force a shutdown of the service in a few weeks. * [[1868]] - Arica, Peru (now Chile) is devastated by a tsunami which followed a magnitude 8.5 earthquake in the Peru-Chile Trench off the coast. The earthquake and tsunami killed an estimated 25,000 people in Arica and perhaps 70,000 people in all. * [[1896]] - [[Skookum Jim Mason]], George Carmack and [[Dawson Charlie]] discover gold in the [[Klondike, Yukon|Klondike]] in [[Canada]]. * [[1913]] - Tōhoku Imperial University (modern day [[Tohoku University|Tōhoku University]]) admits its first female students. * [[1915]] - [[World War I]]: Should victory be achieved over the [[Central Powers]], the [[Triple Entente]] promises the Kingdom of [[Serbia]]: the Austro-Hungarian territories of [[Baranja]], [[Srem (region)|Srem]], [[Slavonia]], and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]; and the eastern 2/3 of [[Dalmatia]] (from the river of [[Krka]] to the city of [[Bar, Serbia and Montenegro|Bar]]). * [[1920]] - [[Ray Chapman]] of the [[Cleveland Indians]] is hit in the head by a [[fastball]] thrown by [[Carl Mays]] of the [[New York Yankees]], and dies early the next day. To date, Chapman is the only player to die from injuries sustained in a [[Major League Baseball]] game. * [[1928]] - Murderer [[Carl Panzram]] is arrested in [[Washington, DC]] after killing 20 people. * [[1930]] - The first color sound [[cartoon]], called ''Fiddlesticks'', is made by [[Ub Iwerks]] * [[1942]] - [[World War II]]: - The two-person crew of the U.S. naval blimp L-8 disappear without a trace on a routine anti-submarine patrol over the [[Pacific Ocean]]. The blimp drifts without her crew and crashlands in [[Daly City]], [[California]]. * [[1946]] - The Japan Business Federation, or [[Nihon Keidanren|Keidanren]], is established, and Ichirō Ishikawa is appointed its representative. * [[1954]] - ''[[Sports Illustrated]]'' magazine is first published. * [[1960]] - [[Cyprus]] gains its independence from the [[United Kingdom]]. * 1960 - [[Joseph Kittinger]] parachutes from a balloon over [[New Mexico]] at 102,800 feet (31,330 m), setting three records that still stand today: high-altitude jump, [[free-fall]], and fastest speed by a [[human]] without an aircraft. * [[1962]] - [[The Beatles]] fire drummer [[Pete Best]] and replace him with [[Ringo Starr]]. * [[1964]] - [[Vietnam War]]: A ''[[coup d'état]]'' replaces [[Duong Van Minh]] with General [[Nguyen Khanh]] as President of [[South Vietnam]]. A new [[constitution]] is established with aid from the [[U.S. Embassy]]. * [[1966]] - Vietnam War: The [[House Un-American Activities Committee]] begins investigations of Americans who have aided the [[Viet Cong]]. The committee intends to introduce legislation making these activities illegal. Anti-war demonstrators disrupt the meeting and 50 people are arrested. * [[1972]] - The [[Royal Moroccan Air Force]] mistakenly fires upon, but fails to bring down, [[Hassan II of Morocco]]'s plane while he is traveling back to [[Rabat]]. * [[1974]] - [[The Ramones]] play their first ever show at the [[CBGB's]]. * [[1984]] - Carmaker [[John De Lorean]] is acquitted of all eight counts of possessing and distributing [[cocaine]]. * [[1987]] - A [[McDonnell Douglas MD-82]] carrying [[Northwest Airlines flight 255]] crashes on takeoff from [[Detroit Metropolitan Airport]] killing 155 people onboard, with the sole survivor four-year old [[Cecelia Cichan]]). * [[1993]] - The [[Debian]] [[GNU/Linux distribution]] is founded by [[Ian Murdock]]. * [[1996]] - [[Sigma Beta Rho]] is founded at the University of Pennsylvania. * [[2003]] - [[U.S. Representative]] from [[South Dakota]] [[Bill Janklow]] hits and kills a motorcyclist with his car at a rural intersection near [[Trent, South Dakota]]; he will eventually be convicted of [[manslaughter]] and will resign from [[U.S. Congress|Congress]]. * [[2005]] - [[West Caribbean Airways Flight 708]] crashes near [[Machiques]], [[Venezuela]], killing the 160 aboard. ==Births== *[[1355]] - [[Philippa Plantagenet]], Countess of Ulster *[[1378]] - [[Hongxi Emperor]] of China (d. [[1425]]) *[[1557]] - [[Agostino Carracci]], Italian artist (d. [[1602]]) *[[1596]] - [[Frederick V, Elector Palatine]] (d. [[1632]]) *[[1645]] - [[Jean de La Bruyère]], French writer (d. [[1696]]) *[[1650]] - [[Vincenzo Coronelli]], Italian cartographer and encylopedist (d. [[1718]]) *[[1682]] - [[Louis, Duke of Burgundy]], heir to the throne of France (d. [[1712]]) *[[1832]] - [[Wilhelm Wundt]], German psychologist (d. [[1920]]) *[[1845]] - [[Gabriel Lippmann]], French physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1921]]) *[[1860]] - [[Jules Laforgue]], French poet (d. [[1887]]) *[[1862]] - [[Amos Alonzo Stagg]], American coach (d. [[1965]]) *[[1868]] - [[Bernarr McFadden]], American publisher (d. [[1955]]) *[[1884]] - [[Hugo Gernsback]], Luxembourg-born editor and publisher (d. [[1967]]) *[[1888]] - [[T. E. Lawrence]], English writer and soldier (d. [[1935]]) *1888 - [[Armand J. Piron]], American musician (d. [[1943]]) *[[1892]] - [[Otto Messmer]], American cartoonist (d. [[1983]]) *[[1894]] - [[George Meany]], American labor union leader (d. [[1980]]) *[[1895]] - [[Albert Cohen]], Swiss novelist (d. [[1981]]) *1895 - [[Liane Haid]], Austrian actress (d. [[2000]]) *[[1902]] - [[Georgette Heyer]], English novelist (d. [[1974]]) *[[1904]] - [[Wendell Meredith Stanley]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1971]]) *[[1911]] - [[E. F. Schumacher]], German economist and statistician (d. [[1977]]) *[[1912]] - [[Ted Drake]] English footballer (d. [[1995]]) *[[1913]] - [[Menachem Begin]], [[Prime Minister of Israel]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1992]]) *[[1920]] - [[Charles Bukowski]], American poet (d. [[1994]]) *[[1923]] - [[Millôr Fernandes]], Brazilian cartoonist and playwright *[[1924]] - [[Fess Parker]], American actor *[[1928]] - [[Ann Blyth]], American actress *[[1929]] - [[Helmut Rahn]], German footballer (d. [[2003]]) *[[1930]] - [[Robert Culp]], American actor *1930 - [[Frank Gifford]], American football player and announcer *[[1931]] - [[Eydie Gorme]], American singer *[[1933]] - [[Julie Newmar]], American actress *[[1939]] - [[Trevor Mcdonald]] [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]], Television Newsreader *[[1940]] - [[Bruce Beresford]], Australian film director *[[1946]] - [[Massoud Barzani]], Iraqi Kurdish politician *1946 - [[Lesley Ann Warren]], American actress *[[1950]] - [[Hasely Crawford]], Trinidad and Tobago athlete *[[1952]] - [[Reginald VelJohnson]], American actor *[[1953]] - [[Kathie Lee Gifford]], French-born singer and actress *[[1954]] - [[James Cameron]], Canadian film director *[[1957]] - [[Tim Farriss]], Australian lead guitarist (INXS) *[[1958]] - [[Angela Bassett]], American actress *1958 - [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]], American singer and actress *[[1960]] - [[Timothy Hutton]], American actor *[[1964]] - [[Jimmy Arias]], American tennis player *[[1967]] - [[Ulrika Jonsson]], Swedish-born television personality *[[1968]] - [[Mateja Svet]], Slovenian alpine skier *[[1972]] - [[Stan Lazaridis]], Australian footballer *[[1974]] - [[Robin Hull]], Finnish snooker player *1974 - [[Krisztina Egerszegi]], Hungarian swimmer *[[1976]] - [[Jonatan Johansson]], Finnish footballer *[[1980]] - [[Vanessa Carlton]], American singer, songwriter, and pianist *1980 - [[Robert Hardy (bassist)|Robert Hardy]], English bassist ([[Franz Ferdinand (band)|Franz Ferdinand]]) *[[1981]] - [[Taylor Rain]], American actress *[[1987]] - [[Kyal Marsh]], Australian actor ==Deaths== *[[1027]] - [[Giorgi I]], King of Georgia (b. [[998]]) *[[1327]] - [[Roch]], French saint *[[1358]] - Duke [[Albert II of Austria]] (b. [[1298]]) *[[1419]] - [[Wenceslaus, King of the Romans]], King of Bohemia (b. [[1361]]) *[[1443]] - [[Ashikaga Yoshikatsu]], Japanese shogun (b. [[1434]]) *[[1518]] - [[Loyset Compère]], French composer *[[1532]] - [[John, Elector of Saxony]] (b. [[1468]]) *[[1661]] - [[Thomas Fuller]], English churchman and historian (b. [[1608]]) *[[1678]] - [[Andrew Marvell]], English poet (b. [[1621]]) *[[1705]] - [[Jakob Bernoulli]], Swiss mathematician and scientist (b. [[1654]]) *[[1733]] - [[Matthew Tindal]], English deist (b. [[1657]]) *[[1791]] - [[Charles-François de Broglie, marquis de Ruffec]], French soldier and diplomat (b. [[1719]]) *[[1886]] - [[Ramakrishna | Sri Ramakrishna Paramahansa]], Indian guru (b. [[1836]]) *[[1893]] - [[Jean-Martin Charcot]], French neurologist (b. [[1825]]) *[[1899]] - [[Robert Wilhelm Bunsen]], German chemist (b. [[1811]]) *[[1907]] - [[James Hector]], Scottish geologist (b. [[1834]]) *[[1921]] - King [[Peter I of Serbia]] (b. [[1844]]) *[[1938]] - [[Robert Johnson]], American singer and guitarist (b. [[1911]]) *1938 - [[Andrej Hlinka]], Slovak politician and priest (b. [[1864]]) *[[1948]] - [[Babe Ruth]], baseball player (b. [[1895]]) *[[1949]] - [[Margaret Mitchell]], American novelist (b. [[1900]]) *[[1956]] - [[Bela Lugosi]], Hungarian actor (b. [[1882]]) *[[1957]] - [[Irving Langmuir]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1881]]) *[[1959]] - [[Wanda Landowska]], Polish harpsichordist (b. [[1879]]) *[[1973]] - [[Selman Waksman]], Ukrainain-born biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1888]]) *[[1975]] - [[Vladimir Kuts]], Ukrainian-born runner (b. [[1927]]) *[[1977]] - [[Elvis Presley]], American singer and actor (b. [[1935]]) *[[1979]] - [[John Diefenbaker]], thirteenth [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (b. [[1895]]) *[[1983]] - [[Earl Averill]], baseball player (b. [[1902]]) *[[1989]] - [[Amanda Blake]], American actress (b. [[1929]]) *[[2002]] - [[Abu Nidal]], Palestinian political leader (b. [[1937]]) *2002 - [[Jeff Corey]], American actor (b. [[1914]]) *[[2003]] - [[Idi Amin]], Ugandan dictator (b. [[1928]]) *[[2004]] - [[Ivan Hlinka]], Czech hockey coach (b. [[1950]]) *2004 - [[Robert Quiroga]], American boxer (b. [[1969]]) *[[2005]] - [[Frère Roger]] of Taizé, Swiss monk and mystic (b. [[1915]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Calendar of saints|RC saints]]: feast day of Saint [[Stephen I of Hungary]]; Saint [[Roch]] (helps against plague and skin diseases) *[[August 16 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)|Eastern Orthodox]]: commemoration of the translation of the [[Image of Edessa|Acheiropoietos icon]] (a.k.a. the ''Mandelion''; now lost) from Edessa to Constantinople on 16 August [[944]] *[[Palio di Siena|Palio dell'Assunta]] in [[Siena]] * USA: legal [[Holidays of the United States#State holidays |holiday]] in Vermont for the [[Battle of Bennington]] in [[1777]] (which actually took place in the state of New York) ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/16 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[August 15]] - [[August 17]] - [[July 16]] - [[September 16]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:16 Augustus]] [[ar:16 أغسطس]] [[an:16 d'agosto]] [[ast:16 d'agostu]] [[bg:16 август]] [[be:16 жніўня]] [[bs:16. august]] [[ca:16 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 16]] [[cv:Çурла, 16]] [[co:16 d'aostu]] [[cs:16. srpen]] [[cy:16 Awst]] [[da:16. august]] [[de:16. August]] [[et:16. august]] [[el:16 Αυγούστου]] [[es:16 de agosto]] [[eo:16-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 16]] [[fo:16. august]] [[fr:16 août]] [[fy:16 augustus]] [[ga:16 Lúnasa]] [[gl:16 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 16일]] [[hr:16. kolovoza]] [[io:16 di agosto]] [[id:16 Agustus]] [[ia:16 de augusto]] [[ie:16 august]] [[is:16. ágúst]] [[it:16 agosto]] [[he:16 באוגוסט]] [[jv:16 Agustus]] [[ka:16 აგვისტო]] [[csb:16 zélnika]] [[ku:16'ê gelawêjê]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 16]] [[lb:16. August]] [[li:16 augustus]] [[hu:Augusztus 16]] [[mk:16 август]] [[ms:16 Ogos]] [[nap:16 'e aùsto]] [[nl:16 augustus]] [[ja:8月16日]] [[no:16. august]] [[nn:16. august]] [[oc:16 d'agost]] [[pl:16 sierpnia]] [[pt:16 de Agosto]] [[ro:16 august]] [[ru:16 августа]] [[sco:16 August]] [[sq:16 Gusht]] [[scn:16 di austu]] [[simple:August 16]] [[sk:16. august]] [[sl:16. avgust]] [[sr:16. август]] [[fi:16. elokuuta]] [[sv:16 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 16]] [[tt:16. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 16]] [[th:16 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:16 tháng 8]] [[tr:16 Ağustos]] [[uk:16 серпня]] [[wa:16 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 16]] [[zh:8月16日]] [[pam:Agostu 16]] 1449 42107734 2006-03-03T21:51:20Z Gazpacho 74520 cat [[Image:Alan-Kay.jpg|thumb|right|Alan Kay during an interview.]] '''Alan Kay''', born [[May 17]], [[1940]], is an [[United States|American]] [[computer scientist]], known for his early work on [[object-oriented programming]] and user interface design. Until [http://blogs.siliconvalley.com/gmsv/2005/07/hewlettpackards.html recently] he was a Senior Fellow at [[HP Labs]], an Adjunct Professor of Computer Science at the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], a Visiting Professor at [[Kyoto University]], and an Adjunct Professor at [[MIT]]. He is also the president of the [[Viewpoints Research Institute]]. == Early life and work == Originally from [[Springfield, Massachusetts]], Kay earned a [[Bachelor's degree]] in Mathematics and Molecular Biology from the [[University of Colorado]], and another [[Master's degree]] and Ph.D. from the [[University of Utah]]. At the University of Utah in the 1960s, Kay worked with [[Ivan Sutherland]] on pioneering graphics applications including [[Sketchpad]]. Around this time, he also worked as a professional [[jazz]] guitarist. Kay joined [[Xerox]] Corporation's [[Palo Alto, California|Palo Alto]] Research Center ([[Xerox PARC|PARC]]) in 1970. In the seventies he was one of the key members there to develop prototypes of networked workstations using the programming language [[Smalltalk]]. These inventions were later commercialized by [[Apple Computer|Apple]] in the [[Apple Macintosh]]. Kay is one of the fathers of the idea of object-oriented programming, along with some colleagues at PARC and predecessors at the [[Norwegian Computing Centre]]. He is the conceiver of the [[Dynabook]] concept which defined the basics of the laptop computer and the tablet computer and he is also considered by some as the architect of the modern windowing [[graphical user interface]] (GUI). After 10 years at Xerox PARC, Kay became [[Atari]]'s chief scientist for three years. == Recent work and recognition == Starting in 1984, Kay was a Fellow at [[Apple Computer]] until [[Steve Jobs]] eliminated the company's R&D group. He then joined [[Walt Disney Imagineering]] as a [[Disney Fellow]] and remained there until Disney ended its Disney Fellow program. After Disney, Kay worked with a team at [[Applied Minds]], then became a Senior Fellow at [[Hewlett-Packard]] until HP disbanded the Advanced Software Research Team on July 20 2005. He is currently head of Viewpoints Research Institute. === Squeak and Croquet development === Kay collaborated with many others to start the open source [[Squeak]] dynamic media software in December 1995 when he was still at Apple, and he continues to work on it. More recently he started, along with [[David A. Smith]], [[David P. Reed]], Andreas Raab, [[Julian Lombardi]], and [[Mark McCahill]], the [[Croquet project]], which seeks to offer an open source networked 3D environment for collaborative work. ===$100 laptop=== At the [[World Summit on the Information Society]] in November 2005, the MIT research laboratories unveiled a new [[$100 laptop]] co-developed by Kay for students around the world. === Awards and honors === In 2001 Alan Kay received the [http://www.udk-berlin.de/doku/award.html UdK 01-Award] in [[Berlin]], [[Germany]] for pioneering the [[GUI]]. In 2003 he received the ACM [[Turing Award]] for his work on [[object oriented programming]]. In 2004 he received the [[Kyoto Prize]] and the [[Charles Stark Draper]] Prize along with [[Butler W. Lampson]], [[Robert W. Taylor]] and [[Charles P. Thacker]] In 2005 he received an honorary doctoral degree from the [[Georgia Institute of Technology]]. <!-- in 2004??, he became an honorary professor at the [[Berlin University of the Arts]]. --> == Personal Background== Kay is an avid and gifted musician who plays keyboards and guitar. He has a special interest in the baroque pipe organ, early keyboard instruments and guitar. He was a former professional jazz and rock and roll guitarist. He is married to [[Bonnie MacBird]], a writer/producer/actor/artist. == External links == {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.mprove.de/diplom/referencesKay.html Detailed Alan Kay bibliography] * [http://www.mrl.nyu.edu/~noah/nmr/book_samples/nmr-26-kay.pdf Personal Dynamic Media] &ndash; By Alan Kay and [[Adele Goldberg (computer scientist)|Adele Goldberg]] *[http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/feature_stories/2002/alankaybio.html Alan Kay's HP bio] *[http://www.fortune.com/fortune/fastforward/0,15704,661671,00.html ''A PC Pioneer Decries the State of Computing''] &ndash; By David Kirkpatrick, ''[[Fortune magazine]]'', [[8 July]] [[2004]] (Available for fee) *[http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=alan%20kay Doing with Images Makes Symbols: Communicating with Computers] Video lecture by Alan Kay with lots of examples of early graphic user interfaces *[http://www.educause.edu/LibraryDetailPage/666?ID=COM9802 The Computer "Revolution" Hasn't Happened Yet!] talk at EDUCOM 1998 (computers in education) *[http://www.ecotopia.com/webpress/futures.htm Predicting the Future] remarks from 1989 Stanford Computer Forum *[http://www.csupomona.edu/%7eitac/mediavision/streaming/tae/alan_kay.html Education in the Digital Age] talk *[http://acmqueue.com/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=273 A Conversation with Alan Kay] Big talk with the creator of Smalltalk—and much more. *[http://thinkubator.ccsp.sfu.ca/Dynabook From Dynabook to Squeak - A Study in Survivals] listof links tracing the evolution of Kay's vision *[http://gagne.homedns.org/~tgagne/contrib/EarlyHistoryST.html The Early History of Smalltalk] *[http://www.windley.com/archives/2006/02/alan_kay_is_com.shtml The Best Way to Predict the Future is to Prevent It] *[http://www.windley.com/archives/2006/02/alan_kay_the_10.shtml The $100 Laptop, Learners, and Powerful Ideas] [[Category:1940 births|Kay, Alan]] [[Category:Living people|Kay, Alan]] [[Category:American computer programmers|Kay, Alan]] [[Category:American computer scientists|Kay, Alan]] [[Category:Apple employees|Kay, Alan]] [[Category:Computer pioneers|Kay, Alan]] [[Category:Disney Imagineers|Kay, Alan]] [[Category:Hewlett-Packard people|Kay, Alan]] [[Category:Human-computer interaction notables|Kay, Alan]] [[Category:People from Massachusetts|Kay, Alan]] [[Category:Turing Award laureates|Kay, Alan]] [[de:Alan Kay]] [[eo:Alan KAY]] [[fr:Alan Kay]] [[it:Alan Kay]] [[ja:アラン・ケイ]] [[nl:Alan Kay]] [[pt:Alan Kay]] 1451 42006462 2006-03-03T04:26:22Z KymFarnik 170535 /* Calculation */ Drop Appears - wrong '''APL''' (for '''A Programming Language''') is an [[array programming]] language based on a notation invented in [[1957]] by [[Kenneth E. Iverson]] while at [[Harvard University]]. It originated in an attempt to provide consistent notation for the teaching and analysis of topics related to the application of computers. The notation was later used to describe the [[IBM]] [[System/360]] machine architecture, a description much more concise and exact than the existing documentation and revealing several previously unnoticed problems. Then, a [[IBM Selectric typewriter|Selectric]] typeball was made to write a linear representation of this notation. In [[1964]] a subset of the notation was implemented as a programming language. Dr. Iverson published his notation in [[1962]] in a book titled ''A Programming Language'' and APL got its name from the title of this book. Iverson received the [[Turing Award]] in [[1979]] for his work. As with all programming languages that have had several decades of continual use, APL has changed significantly from the notation described by Iverson in his book. One thing that has remained constant is that APL is [[interpreted programming language|interpretive]] and [[interactive]], features much appreciated by its users. Conversely, its initial lack of support for both [[structured programming|structured]] and [[modular programming|modular]] programming has been solved by all the modern APL incarnations. One much criticized aspect still remains, though: the use of a special character set (see [[APL programming language#Character set|Character set]] below.) These characters have all been incorporated into Unicode, which is now the base character set of several APL products. There is also a pure ASCII reworking of APL called [[J programming language|J]], with greatly increased expressive power. {{SpecialCharsNote}} ==Overview== Over a very wide set of problem domains (math, science, engineering, computer design, robotics, data visualization, actuarial science, traditional DP, etc.) APL is an extremely powerful, expressive and concise programming language, typically set in an interactive environment. It was originally created as a way to describe computers, by expressing [[mathematical notation]] in a rigorous way that could be interpreted by a computer. It is easy to learn but APL programs can take some time to understand. Unlike traditional structured programming languages, code in APL is typically structured as chains of [[monadic]] or [[dyadic]] [[function (programming)|function]]s and [[operator]]s acting on [[array]]s. Because APL has so many nonstandard ''primitives'' (functions, operators, or features built into the language and indicated by a single symbol or a combination of a few symbols), APL does not have function or [[operator precedence]]. The original APL did not have [[control flow|control structure]]s (loops, if-then-else), but the array operations it included could simulate [[structured programming]] constructs. For example, the iota function (which yields an array from 1 to N) can simulate for-loop [[iteration]]. More recent implementations of APL generally include explicit control structures, so that data structure and control-flow structure can be more clearly separated. The APL environment is called a ''workspace''. In a workspace the user can define programs and data, i.e. the data values exist also outside the programs, and the user can manipulate the data without the necessity to define a program, for example: :<math>N \leftarrow 4\ 5\ 6\ 7</math> Assign the [[coordinate vector|vector]] values 4 5 6 7 to N. :<math>N+4\,\!</math> Add 4 to all values (giving 8 9 10 11) and Print them (absence of the assignment arrow means "show"). :<math>+/N\,\!</math> Print the sum of N, i.e. 22. The user can save the workspace with all values, programs and execution status. In any case, the programs are usually not [[compiled language|compiled]] but [[interpreted language|interpreted]]. A commercial compiler was brought to market by STSC (now Manugistics). APL is well-known for its use of a set of non-[[ASCII]] symbols that are an extension of traditional arithmetic and algebraic notation. These cryptic symbols, some have joked, make it possible to construct an entire [[air traffic control]] system in two lines of code. Indeed, in some versions of APL, it is theoretically possible to express any computable function in one expression, that is in one line of code. You can use the other line for I/O, or constructing a GUI. Because of its condensed nature and non-standard characters, APL has sometimes been termed a "[[write-only language]]", and reading an APL program can at first feel like decoding an alien tongue. Because of the unusual [[character set]], many programmers used special APL [[computer keyboard|keyboard]]s in the production of APL code. Nowadays there are various ways to write APL code using only ASCII characters. Indeed most if not all modern implementations use the standard keyboard, displaying APL symbols by use of a particular font. Advocates of APL claim that the examples of "write-only" code are almost invariably examples of poor programming practice or novice mistakes, which can occur in any language. However, when implementing an APL module to be run using an interpreter (as was usual), a common tactic was to initially implement the module as separate, mostly understandable lines. Once the logic was verified, the lines would then be merged into one line for optimal processing in the interpreter. These APL one-liners, as they were called, were incomprehensible when viewed even a short time later. The accomplished APL programmer would document the function of the module in comments- if it had to be changed, the code would be discarded and re-implemented. APL has perhaps had an unusually high percentage of users who are subject-matter experts who know some APL, rather than professional programmers who know something about a subject. Iverson designed a successor to APL called [[J programming language|J]] which uses ASCII "natively". So far there is only a single source of J implementations: http://www.jsoftware.com/ Other programming languages offer functionality similar to APL. [http://www.aplusdev.org/ A+] is an [[open source]] programming language with many commands identical to APL. ==Examples== Here's how you would write a program that would [[sorting|sort]] a word list stored in matrix X according to word length: X[⍋X+.≠' ';] Here's a program that finds all [[prime number]]s from 1 to R: :<math>\left(\sim R \in R \circ . \times R\right)/R \leftarrow 1 \downarrow \iota R</math> Here's how to read it, from right to left: #<math>\iota\,\!</math> creates a vector containing [[integer]]s from 1 to R (if R = 6 at the beginning of the program, <math>\iota R\,\!</math> is 1 2 3 4 5 6) #Drop first element of this vector (<math>\downarrow</math> function), i.e. 1. So <math>1 \downarrow \iota R</math> is 2 3 4 5 6 #Set R to the vector (<math>\leftarrow</math>, assignment primitive) #Generate outer product of R multiplied by R, i.e. a matrix which is the ''[[multiplication table]]'' of R by R (<math>\circ . \times</math>function) #Build a vector the same length as R with 1 in each place where the corresponding number in R is in the outer product matrix (<math>\in</math>, set inclusion function), i.e. 0 0 1 0 1 #Logically negate the values in the vector (change zeros to ones and ones to zeros) (<math>\sim</math>, negation function), i.e. 1 1 0 1 0 #Select the items in R for which the corresponding element is 1 (<math>/\,\!</math> function), i.e. 2 3 5 ==Calculation== APL was unique in the speed with which it could perform complex matrix operations. For example, a very large matrix multiplication would take only a few seconds on a machine which was much less powerful than those today. There were some technical and other economic reasons for this advantage: * Commercial interpreters delivered highly-tuned linear algebra library routines. * Very low interpretive overhead was incurred per-array&mdash;not per-element. * APL response time compared favorably to the runtimes of early optimizing compilers. A widely cited paper "The APL Machine" perpetuated the myth that APL made pervasive use of [[lazy evaluation]] where calculations would not actually be performed until the results were needed and then only those calculations strictly required. Although this technique was used by just a few implementations, it embodies the language's best survival mechanism: not specifying the order of scalar operations. Even as eventually standardized by X3J10, APL is so highly data-parallel, it gives language implementers immense freedom to schedule operations as efficiently as possible. As computer innovations such as [[cache memory]], and [[SIMD]] execution became commercially available, APL programs ported with little extra effort spent re-optimizing low-level details. ==Terminology== APL makes a clear distinction between ''functions'' and ''operators''. Functions take values (variables or constants or expressions) as arguments, and return values as results. Operators take functions as arguments, and return related, derived, functions as results. For example the "sum" function is derived by applying the "reduction" operator to the "addition" function. Applying the same reduction operator to the "ceiling" function (which returns the larger of two values) creates a derived "maximum" function, which returns the largest of a group (vector) of values. In the J language, Iverson substituted the terms 'verb' and 'adverb' for 'function' and 'operator'. APL also identifies those features built into the language, and represented by a symbol, or a fixed combination of symbols, as ''primitives''. Most primitives are either functions or operators. Coding APL is largely a process of writing non-primitive functions and (in some dialects of APL) operators. However a few primitives are considered to be neither functions nor operators, most noticeably assignment. ==Character set== APL has always been criticized for its choice of a unique, non-standard character set. The fact that those who learn it usually become ardent adherents shows that there is some weight behind Iverson's idea that the notation used does make a difference. In the beginning, there were few terminal devices which could reproduce the APL character set &mdash; the most popular ones employing the [[IBM]] [[Selectric]] print mechanism along with a custom type element. With the popularization of the [[Unicode]] standard, which contains an APL character set, the eternal problem of obtaining the required particular fonts seems poised to go away. == APL symbols and keyboard layout== [[image:APL_keyboard.gif|center|frame|APL keyboard with special characters]] Note the mnemonics associating an APL character with a letter: ''question mark'' on ''Q'', ''power'' on ''P'', ''rho'' on ''R'', ''base value'' on ''B'', ''eNcode'' on ''N'', ''modulus'' on ''M'' and so on. This makes it easier for an English-language speaker to type APL on a non-APL keyboard providing one has visual feedback on one's screen. All APL symbols are present in [[Unicode]]:<br /> <small>It may be required to significantly reconfigure your browser in order to display Unicode fonts.</small> {| |- align=center |&#x27; || ( || ) || + ||, || - || . || / || : || ; || &lt; || = || &gt; || ? || [ || ] |- align=center | \ || _ ||&#xA8; || &#xAF; || &#xD7; || &#xF7; || &#x2190; || &#x2191; || &#x2192; || &#x2193; ||&#x2206; || &#x2207; || &#x2218; || &#x2223; || &#x2227; || &#x2228; |- align=center | &#x2229; || &#x222A; || &#x223C; || &#x2260; || &#x2264; || &#x2265; || &#x226C; || &#x2282; || &#x2283; || &#x2308; ||&#x230A; || &#x22A4; || &#x22A5; || &#x22C6; || &#9014; || &#9015; |- align=center | &#9016; || &#9017; || &#9018; || &#9019; || &#9020; || &#9021; || &#9022; || &#9023; || &#9024; || &#9025; || &#9026;||&#9027; || &#9028; || &#9029; || &#9030; || &#9031; |- align=center | &#9032; || &#9033; || &#9034; || &#9035; || &#9036; || &#9037; || &#9038; || &#9039; || &#9040; || &#9041; || &#9042; ||&#9043; || &#9044; || &#9045; || &#9046; || &#9047; |- align=center | &#9048; || &#9049; || &#9050; || &#9051; || &#9052; || &#9053; || &#9054; || &#9055; || &#9056; || &#9057; || &#9058; ||&#9059; || &#9060; || &#9061; || &#9062; || &#9063; |- align=center | &#9064; || &#9065; || &#9066; || &#9067; || &#9068; || &#9069; || &#9070; || &#9071; || &#9072; || &#9073; || &#9074; ||&#9075; || &#9076; || &#9077; || &#9078; || &#9079; |-align=center | &#9080; || &#9081; || &#9082; || &#x2395; || &#x25CB; |} ===See also:=== *[[APL function symbols]] for a list of built-in monadic and dyadic functions and their Unicode representation. *[[IBM]] [[3270]] [[Computer keyboard|Keyboard]] layout for '''APL'''[http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/pcomhelp/topic/com.ibm.pcomm.doc/kbd_reference05.htm#FIGTYPE1] ==Usage== APL has long had a small but fervent user base. It has been particularly popular in financial and insurance applications, in simulations, and in some mathematical applications. But APL has been used in a wide variety of contexts and for many and varied purposes. ==Standardization== APL has been standardized by the [[American National Standards Institute|ANSI]] [[working group]] X3J10 and [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]]/[[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]] Joint Technical Committee 1 Subcommittee 22 Working Group 3. The Core APL language is specified in ISO 8485:1989, and the Extended APL language is specified in ISO/IEC 13751:2001. ==Quotes== * "APL, in which you can write a program to simulate shuffling a deck of cards and then dealing them out to several players in four characters, none of which appear on a standard keyboard." ** [[David Given]] * "APL is a mistake, carried through to perfection. It is the language of the future for the programming techniques of the past: it creates a new generation of coding bums." ** [[Edsger Dijkstra]], [[1968]] * "By the time the practical people found out what had happened; APL was so important a part of how IBM ran its business that it could not possibly be uprooted." ** [[Micheal S. Montalbano]] [[1982]] (see [http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/APL-hist.html A Personal History of APL]) ==Awards== There is an annual award for contributions to APL, the [[Iverson Award]] named after the language's creator. == See also== * [[IBM 1130]]: APL \ 1130 was an early implementation (circa 1970) of APL on the IBM 1130 * [[J programming language|J]]: APL's successor, by [[Kenneth E. Iverson]] and [[Roger Hui]] * [[K programming language|K]]: an alternative APL successor, by Arthur Whitney * [[Nial]] == References == * ''A Programming Language'' (1962), by [[Kenneth E. Iverson]] * ''A formal description of SYSTEM/360'', IBM Systems Journal 3:3, New York: 1964 * ''[[History of Programming Languages]]'', chapter 14 == External links to articles == *[http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/sj/032/falkoff.pdf ''A Formal Description of SYSTEM/360''] (1964 article by Adin D. Falkoff, Kenneth E. Iverson, Edward H. Sussenguth) *[http://www.slac.stanford.edu/pubs/slacreports/slac-r-114.html ''An APL Machine''] (1970 Stanford doctoral dissertation by Philip Abrams) *[http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/rd/174/ibmrd1704F.pdf ''The Design of APL''] (1973 article by Adin D. Falkoff and [[Kenneth E. Iverson]]) *[http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/sj/304/ibmsj3004C.pdf ''The IBM Family of APL Systems''] (1991 article by Adin D. Falkoff) *[http://elliscave.com/APL_J/IversonAPL.htm ''A Personal view of APL''] by [[Kenneth E. Iverson]] == External links == *[http://www-306.ibm.com/software/awdtools/apl/ APL2 available from IBM] *[http://www.users.cloud9.net/~bradmcc/APL.html APL - A Programming Language] *[http://www.rexswain.com/aplinfo.html Rex Swain's APL info] *[http://www.acm.org/sigs/sigapl/ SIGAPL Home Page] *[http://www.apl2c.de/home/ APL2C Compiler] *Sam Sirlin's [http://home.earthlink.net/~swsirlin/apl.faq.html APL FAQ] ([[FAQ|Frequently Asked Questions]] list) *[http://www.classiccmp.org/bitsavers/pdf/ibm/apl/ Scanned manuals for early APL implementations] (APL \ 360 and APL \ 1130) *[http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/APL-hist.html A Personal History Of APL] by Micheal S. Montalbano *[http://42mag.com/michael/apl/index.html Conway's Game of Life in one line of APL] *[http://www.jsoftware.com/ J] is Iverson's reworking of APL to use the standard ASCII font *[http://www.aplusdev.org/ A+] is an open source programming language with many commands identical to APL {{Major programming languages small}} ==Special characters== {{SpecialChars}} [[Category:Programming languages]] [[Category:Array programming languages]] [[Category:Functional languages]] [[Category:Dynamic programming languages]] [[Category:APL programming language family]] [[da:APL]] [[de:APL (Programmiersprache)]] [[es:APL]] [[eo:APL]] [[fr:APL (langage)]] [[it:APL]] [[nl:APL]] [[ja:APL]] [[pl:APL (język programowania)]] [[ru:АПЛ (язык программирования)]] [[fi:APL (ohjelmointikieli)]] [[sv:APL]] [[zh:APL]] 1453 42020475 2006-03-03T06:57:11Z DNewhall 60806 Bolded keyword in code example. {{Otheruses2|Algol}} '''ALGOL''' (short for '''ALGO'''rithmic '''L'''anguage) is a family of [[imperative programming|imperative]] [[computer programming|computer]] [[programming language]]s originally developed in the mid [[1950s]] which became the ''de facto'' standard way to report algorithms in print for almost the next 30 years. It was designed to avoid some of the perceived problems with [[FORTRAN]] <!--using uppercase name because of the sentential context--> and eventually gave rise to many other programming languages (including [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]]). ALGOL uses bracketed statement blocks and was the first language to use '''begin''' '''end''' pairs for delimiting them. Fragments of ALGOL-like syntax are sometimes still used as a notation for [[algorithm]]s, so-called [[Pidgin Algol]]. There are three official main branches of ALGOL family: [[ALGOL 58]], '''ALGOL 60''', and [[ALGOL 68]]. Of these, ALGOL 60 was the most widely known in the [[United States]]. [[Niklaus Wirth]] based his own [[Algol-W]] on ALGOL 60, before moving to develop [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]]. [[Algol-W]] was intended to be the next generation ALGOL, but the [[ALGOL 68]] committee decided on a design that was more complex and advanced rather than a cleaned, simplified ALGOL 60. The official ALGOL versions are named after the year they were first published. ALGOL 58 was originally known as the '''IAL''' (for '''I'''nternational '''A'''lgorithmic '''L'''anguage.) ''Note: '' throughout its effective life, the name of the programming language ALGOL was always presented in all-uppercase letters, and this is the practice adopted here. ==History== ALGOL was developed jointly by a committee of European and American computer scientists. It specified three different syntaxes: a reference syntax, a publication syntax, and an implementation syntax. The different syntaxes permitted it to use different keyword names and conventions for decimal points (commas vs. periods) for different languages. [[John Backus]] developed the [[Backus normal form]] method of describing programming languages specifically for ALGOL 58. It was revised and expanded by [[Peter Naur]] to the [[Backus-Naur form]] for ALGOL 60. Both [[John Backus]] and [[Peter Naur]] served on the committee which created ALGOL 60, as did [[Wally Feurzeig]] who later created [[Logo programming language|Logo]]. ALGOL 60 inspired many languages that followed it; the canonical quote in this regard is [[C.A.R. Hoare]]'s "ALGOL 60 was a great improvement on its successors." The full quote is "Here is a language so far ahead of its time, that it was not only an improvement on its predecessors, but also on nearly all its successors", but the [[Aphorism|aphoristic]] version is far better known. It is sometimes erroneously attributed to [[Edsger Dijkstra]], also known for his pointed comments, who helped to implement an early ALGOL 60 [[compiler]]. (This statement was in part a criticism of the bloatedness of ALGOL 68.) The [[Burroughs Corporation]]'s [[B5000]] and its successors were [[stack machine]]s designed to be programmed in an extended variant of ALGOL 60, known as [[Elliott ALGOL]]; indeed their [[operating system]] the [[Master Control Program|MCP]], was written in Elliott ALGOL as far back as 1961. The [[Unisys Corporation]] still markets machines descended from the B5000 today, running the MCP and supporting a diverse set of Elliott ALGOL compilers. Another early implementation was [[Dartmouth ALGOL 30]] on the [[LGP-30]] computer. ==Properties== ALGOL 60 as officially defined had no I/O facilities; implementations defined their own in ways that were rarely compatible with each other. In contrast, ALGOL 68 offered an extensive library of ''transput'' (ALGOL 68 parlance for Input/Output) facilities. ALGOL 60 allowed for two [[evaluation strategy|evaluation strategies]] for [[Parameter (computer science)|parameter]] passing: the common call-by-value, and call-by-name. Call-by-name had certain limitations in contrast to call-by-reference, making it an undesirable feature in language design. For example, it is impossible in ALGOL 60 to develop a procedure that will swap the values of two parameters if the actual parameters that are passed in are an integer variable and an array that is indexed by that same integer variable. However, call-by-name is still beloved of ALGOL implementors for the interesting "[[thunk|thunks]]" that are used to implement it. ALGOL 68 was defined using a two-level grammar formalism invented by [[Adriaan van Wijngaarden]] and which bears his name. ''Van Wijngaarden grammars'' use a [[context-free grammar]] to generate an infinite set of productions that will recognize a particular ALGOL 68 program; notably, they are able to express the kind of requirements that in many other programming language standards are labelled "semantics" and have to be expressed in ambiguity-prone natural language prose, and then implemented in compilers as ''ad hoc'' code attached to the formal language parser. == Code sample (ALGOL 60) == (The way the bolded text has to be written depends on the implementation, e.g. 'INTEGER' (including the quotation marks) for '''integer'''.) '''procedure''' Absmax(a) Size:(n, m) Result:(y) Subscripts:(i, k); '''value''' n, m; '''array''' a; '''integer''' n, m, i, k; '''real''' y; '''comment''' The absolute greatest element of the matrix a, of size n by m is transferred to y, and the subscripts of this element to i and k; '''begin''' '''integer''' p, q; y := 0; i := k := 1; '''for''' p:=1 '''step''' 1 '''until''' n '''do''' '''for''' q:=1 '''step''' 1 '''until''' m '''do''' '''if''' abs(a[p, q]) > y '''then''' '''begin''' y := abs(a[p, q]); i := p; k := q '''end''' '''end''' Absmax Here's an example of how to produce a table using Elliott 803 ALGOL. FLOATING POINT ALGOL TEST' BEGIN REAL A,B,C,D' READ D' FOR A:= 0.0 STEP D UNTIL 6.3 DO BEGIN PRINT PUNCH(3),££L??' B := SIN(A)' C := COS(A)' PRINT PUNCH(3),SAMELINE,ALIGNED(1,6),A,B,C' END' END' PUNCH(3) sends output to the teleprinter rather than the tape punch.<br> SAMELINE suppresses the carriage return + line feed normally printed between arguments.<br> ALIGNED(1,6) controls the format of the output with 1 digit before and 6 after the decimal point.<br> ==Hello World== Since ALGOL 60 had no I/O facilities, there is no portable "Hello World" program in ALGOL. The following code could run on an ALGOL implementation for a Burroughs A-Series mainframe, and is taken from [http://www.engin.umd.umich.edu/CIS/course.des/cis400/algol/hworld.html this site]. BEGIN FILE F (KIND=REMOTE); EBCDIC ARRAY E [0:11]; REPLACE E BY "HELLO WORLD!"; WHILE TRUE DO BEGIN WRITE (F, *, E); END; END. An alternative example, using Elliott Algol I/O is as follows. In fact, Elliott Algol used different characters for 'open-string-quote' and 'close-string-quote', but [[ASCII]] does not allow these to be shown here. '''program''' HiFolks; '''begin''' '''print''' "Hello world"; '''end'''; Here's a version for the Elliott 803 Algol (A104) The standard Elliott 803 used 5 hole paper tape and thus only had upper case. The code lacked any quote characters so £ (UK Pound Sign) was used for open quote and ? (Question Mark) for close quote. Special sequencies were placed in double quotes e.g. ££L?? produced a new line on the teleprinter. HIFOLKS’ BEGIN PRINT £HELLO WORLD£L??’ END’ ==See also== * [[ALGOL 68]] * [[JOVIAL]] * [[VALGOL programming language]], a spoof of ALGOL mixed with [[Valley girl]] slang. == External links == * [http://www.masswerk.at/algol60/report.htm Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Algol 60] by Peter Naur, et al. ALGOL definition * A BNF [http://www.lrz.de/~bernhard/Algol-BNF.html syntax summary] of ALGOL 60 * [http://www.braithwaite-lee.com/opinions/p75-hoare.pdf "The Emperor's Old Clothes"] -- Hoare's 1980 ACM Turing Award speech, which discusses ALGOL history and his involvement * [http://www.billp.org/ccs/A104/ "803 ALGOL"] The manual for Elliott 803 ALGOL. * [http://rogerdmoore.ca/JOUR/ AN IMPLEMENTATION OF ALGOL 60 FOR THE FP6000] Discussion of some implementation issues. {{Major programming languages small}} [[Category:Imperative programming languages]] [[Category:Procedural programming languages]] [[Category:Programming languages]] [[Category:Structured programming languages]] [[bg:ALGOL]] [[da:ALGOL]] [[de:ALGOL]] [[es:Algol]] [[fr:Algol (langage)]] [[ko:알골 프로그래밍 언어]] [[it:ALGOL]] [[nl:Algol (programmeertaal)]] [[ja:ALGOL]] [[pl:Algol (język programowania)]] [[pt:ALGOL]] [[ru:Алгол]] [[sk:ALGOL]] [[sv:Algol (programspråk)]] [[tr:ALGOL]] 1456 41968591 2006-03-02T23:12:16Z DavidDouthitt 465615 /* Sample applications */ gave titles to examples; removed example which would be meaningless to majority of general populace and useless to most of the rest '''AWK''' is a general purpose [[computer language]] that is designed for processing text-based data, either in files or data streams. The name AWK is derived from the [[surname]]s of its authors — [[Alfred V. Aho|Alfred V. '''A'''ho]], [[Peter J. Weinberger|Peter J. '''W'''einberger]], and [[Brian Kernighan|Brian W. '''K'''ernighan]]; however, it is commonly pronounced "awk" and not as a string of separate letters. <tt>awk</tt>, when written in all lowercase letters, refers to the [[Unix]] program that runs other programs written in the AWK programming language. AWK is an example of a [[programming language]] that extensively uses the [[String (computer science)|string]] [[datatype]], [[associative array]]s (that is, arrays indexed by key strings), and [[regular expression]]s. The power, terseness, and limitations of AWK programs and [[sed]] scripts inspired [[Larry Wall]] to write [[Perl]]. Because of their dense notation, all these languages are often used for writing [[one-liner program]]s. AWK is one of the early tools to appear in [[Version 7 Unix]] and gained popularity as a way to add computational features to a Unix [[Pipeline (Unix)|pipeline]]. A version of the AWK language is a standard feature of nearly every modern [[Unix-like]] [[operating system]] available today. AWK is mentioned in the [[Single UNIX Specification]] as one of the mandatory utilities of a [[Unix]] [[operating system]]. Besides the [[Bourne shell]], AWK is the only other scripting language available in a [http://www.unix.org/version3/apis/cu.html standard Unix environment]. Implementations of AWK exist as installed software for almost all other operating systems. ==Structure of AWK programs== Generally speaking, two pieces of data are given to AWK: a command file and a primary input file. A command file (which can be an actual file, or can be included in the [[command line]] invocation of <tt>awk</tt>) contains a series of commands which tell AWK how to process the input file. The primary input file is typically text that is formatted in some way; it can be an actual file, or it can be read by <tt>awk</tt> from the standard input. A typical AWK program consists of a series of lines, each of the form /''pattern''/ { ''action'' } where ''pattern'' is a [[regular expression]] and ''action'' is a command. AWK looks through the input file; when it finds a line that matches ''pattern'', it executes the command(s) specified in ''action''. Alternate line forms include: ; <tt>BEGIN { ''action'' }</tt> : Executes ''action'' commands at the beginning of the script execution, i.e. before any of the lines are processed. ; <tt>END { ''action'' }</tt> : Similar to the previous form, but executes ''action'' ''after'' the end of input. ; <tt>/''pattern''/</tt> : Prints any lines matching ''pattern''. ; <tt>{ ''action'' }</tt> : Executes ''action'' for each line in the input. Each of these forms can be included multiple times in the command file. Lines in the command file are executed in order, so if there are two "BEGIN" statements, the first is executed, then the second, and then the rest of the lines. BEGIN and END statements do ''not'' have to be located before and after (respectively) the other lines in the command file. AWK was created as a broadbased replacement to [[C programming language|C]] algorithmic approaches developed to integrate text parsing methods. ==AWK commands== AWK commands are the statement that is substituted for ''action'' in the examples above. AWK commands can include function calls, variable assignments, calculations, or any combination thereof. AWK contains built-in support for many functions; many more are provided by the various flavors of AWK. Also, some flavors support the inclusion of [[dynamically linked library|dynamically linked libraries]], which can also provide more functions. For brevity, the enclosing curly braces ( ''{ }'' ) will be omitted from these examples. ===The ''print'' command=== The ''print'' command is used to output text. The simplest form of this command is print This displays the contents of the current line. In AWK, lines are broken down into ''fields'', and these can be displayed separately: ; <tt>print $1</tt> : Displays the first field of the current line ; <tt>print $1, $3</tt> : Displays the first and third fields of the current line, separated by a predefined string called the output field separator (OFS) whose default value is a single space character Although these fields (''$X'') may bear resemblance to variables (the $ symbol indicates variables in perl), they actually refer to the fields of the current line. A special case, ''$0'', refers to the entire line. In fact, the commands "<tt>print</tt>" and "<tt>print $0</tt>" are identical in functionality. The ''print'' command can also display the results of calculations and/or function calls: print 3+2 print foobar(3) print foobar(variable) print sin(3-2) Output may be sent to a file: print "expression" > "file name" ===Variables, et cetera=== Variable names can use any of the characters [A-Za-z0-9_], with the exception of language keywords. The operators ''+ - * /'' are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, respectively. For string concatenation, simply place two variables (or string constants) next to each other, optionally with a space in between. String constants are [[delimited]] by double quotes. Statements need not end with semicolons. Finally, comments can be added to programs by using ''#'' as the first character on a line. ===User-defined functions=== In a format similar to [[C programming language|C]], function definitions consist of the keyword <tt>function</tt>, the function name, argument names and the function body. Here is an example function: function add_three(number, temp) { temp = number + 3 return temp } This statement can be invoked as follows: print add_three(36) # prints '''39''' Functions can have variables that are in the local scope. The names of these are added to the end of the argument list, though values for these should be omitted when calling the function. It is convention to add some [[whitespace]] in the argument list before the local variables, in order to indicate where the parameters end and the local variables begin. ==Sample applications== ===Hello World=== Here is the ubiquitous "[[Hello world program]]" program written in AWK: BEGIN { print "Hello, world!"; exit } ===Print lines longer than 80 characters=== Print all lines longer than 80 characters. Note that the default action is to print the current line. length > 80 ===Print a count of words=== Count words in the input, and print lines, words, and characters (like ''wc'') { w += NF; c += length} END { print NR, w, c } ===Sum first column=== Sum first column of input { s += $1 } END { print s } ===Calculate word frequencies=== Word frequency, (uses [[associative array]]s) BEGIN { FS="[^a-zA-Z]+"} { for (i=1; i<=NF; i++) words[tolower($i)]++ } END { for (i in words) print i, words[i] } ==Self-contained AWK scripts== As with many other programming languages, self-contained AWK script can be constructed using the so-called "[[shebang (Unix)|shebang]]" syntax. For example, a UNIX command called <tt>hello.awk</tt> that prints the string "Hello, world!" may be built by going first creating a file named <tt>hello.awk</tt> containing the following lines: #!/usr/bin/awk -f BEGIN { print "Hello, world!"; exit } ==AWK versions and implementations== AWK was originally written in [[1977]], and distributed with [[Version 7 Unix]]. In [[1985]] its authors started expanding the language, most significantly by adding user-defined functions. The language is described in the book ''The AWK Programming Language'',published [[1988]], and its implementation was made available in releases of [[UNIX System V]]. To avoid confusion with the incompatible older version, this version was sometimes known as "new awk" or ''nawk''. This implementation was released under a [[free software license]] in [[1996]], and is still maintained by Brian Kernighan. [[GNU]] awk, or ''gawk'', is another free software implementation. It was written before the original implementation became freely available, and is still widely used. Almost every [[Linux distribution]] comes with a recent version of ''gawk'' and ''gawk'' is widely recognized as the de-facto standard implementation in the [[Linux]] world. xgawk is a SourceForge project based on ''gawk''. It extends ''gawk'' with dynamically loadable libraries. mawk is a very fast AWK implementation by Mike Brennan based on a [[byte code]] interpreter. Downloads and further information about these versions are available from the sites listed below. ==Digression== * The bird emblematic of AWK (a.o. on ''The AWK Programming Language'' book cover) is the [[Auk]]. ==Books== * {{cite book | author=[[Alfred V. Aho]], [[Brian W. Kernighan]], and [[Peter J. Weinberger]] | publisher=Addison-Wesley | year= 1988 | id=ISBN 0-201-07981-X | url=http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/awkbook/ | title=The AWK Programming Language }}. ''The book's webpage includes downloads of the original implementation of Awk and links to others.'' * {{cite book | author=[[Arnold Robbins]] | url=http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/awkprog3/index.html | edition=Edition 3 | title=Effective awk Programming }}. ''Arnold Robbins maintains the GNU Awk implementation of AWK for more than 10 years. The free GNU Awk manual was also published by O'Reilly in May 2001. Free download of this manual is possible through the following book references.'' * {{cite book | author=[[Arnold Robbins]] | url=http://www.gnu.org/software/gawk/manual/html_node/index.html | edition=Edition 3 | title=GAWK: Effective AWK Programming: A User's Guide for GNU Awk }} * {{cite book | title=sed & awk, Second Edition | author=[[Dale Dougherty]], [[Arnold Robbins]] |edition= Second Edition | year = March 1997 | id=ISBN 1-56592-225-5 | url=http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/sed2/ | publisher=[[O'Reilly Media]] }} ==External links== *[news:comp.lang.awk comp.lang.awk] is a [[USENET]] [[newsgroup]] dedicated to AWK. *[http://www.gnu.org/software/gawk/gawk.html GAWK (GNU awk) webpage] *[http://freshmeat.net/projects/mawk/ ''mawk download site''] *[http://clio.rice.edu/djgpp/win2k/gwk311b.zip DJGPP port of Gawk 3.11b as a downloadable 768KB zipfile] *[https://sourceforge.net/projects/xmlgawk/ ''xgawk download site''] {{Major programming languages small}} [[Category:Curly bracket programming languages|AWK]] [[Category:Domain-specific programming languages]] [[Category:Text-oriented programming languages]] [[Category:Scripting languages]] [[Category:Unix shells]] [[Category:Unix software]] [[ca:Awk]] [[cs:AWK]] [[de:Awk]] [[es:AWK]] [[fr:Awk]] [[ko:AWK 프로그래밍 언어]] [[hr:Awk]] [[it:Awk]] [[hu:Awk programozási nyelv]] [[nl:AWK]] [[ja:AWK]] [[no:Awk]] [[pl:Awk]] [[pt:AWK]] [[ru:AWK]] [[sk:AWK (programovací jazyk)]] [[tr:AWK]] [[uk:Мова програмування AWK]] [[zh:AWK]] 1457 15899938 2002-04-27T16:47:03Z Maveric149 62 *link fix #REDIRECT [[Alzheimer's disease]] 1458 41716948 2006-03-01T06:47:28Z Gandalfxviv 851818 /* University education */ bypassed disambiguation '''Augustus De Morgan''' ([[June 27]], [[1806]] – [[March 18]], [[1871]]) was an [[India|Indian-born]] [[United Kingdom|British]] [[mathematician]] and [[logician]]. He formulated [[De Morgan's laws]] and was the first to introduce the term, and make rigorous the idea of [[mathematical induction]].{{rf|1|De_Morgan}} [[De Morgan (crater)|De Morgan crater]] on the [[Moon]] is named after him. [[Image:AugustusDeMorgan.png|right|float|Augustus De Morgan]] ==Biography== ===Childhood=== Augustus De Morgan was born June 27, 1806{{rf|2|birthyear}} in Madura, [[Madras Presidency]], [[India]] (now [[Madurai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India); His father was Col. De Morgan, who held various appointments in the service of the [[British East India Company|East India Company]]. His mother descended from [[James Dodson]], who computed a table of anti-logarithms, that is, the numbers corresponding to exact [[logarithm]]s. Col. De Morgan moved his family to [[England]] when Augustus was seven months old. As his father and grandfather had both been born in India, De Morgan used to say that he was neither English, nor Scottish, nor Irish, but a Briton "unattached," using the technical term applied to an undergraduate of [[Oxford]] or [[Cambridge]] who is not a member of any one of the Colleges. When De Morgan was ten years old, his father died. Mrs. De Morgan resided at various places in the southwest of England, and her son received his elementary education at various schools of no great account. His mathematical talents were unnoticed till he had reached the age of fourteen. A friend of the family accidentally discovered him making an elaborate drawing of a figure in [[Euclid]] with ruler and compasses, and explained to him the aim of Euclid, and gave him an initiation into demonstration. De Morgan suffered from a physical defect&mdash;one of his eyes was rudimentary and useless. As a consequence, he did not join in the sports of the other boys, and he was even made the victim of cruel practical jokes by some schoolfellows. Some [[psychologist]]s have held that the perception of distance and of solidity depends on the action of two eyes, but De Morgan testified that so far as he could make out he perceived with his one eye distance and solidity just like other people. He received his secondary education from Mr. Parsons, a Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford, who could appreciate classics much better than mathematics. His mother was an active and ardent member of the [[Church of England]], and desired that her son should become a clergyman; but by this time De Morgan had begun to show his non-grooving disposition, due no doubt to some extent to his physical infirmity. ===University education=== In [[1823]], at the age of sixteen he entered [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], where he immediately came under the tutorial influence of [[George Peacock]] and [[William Whewell]]. They became his life-long friends; from the former he derived an interest in the renovation of algebra, and from the latter an interest in the renovation of logic&mdash;the two subjects of his future life work. At college the [[flute]], on which he played exquisitely, was his recreation. He took no part in athletics but was prominent in the musical clubs. His love of knowledge for its own sake interfered with training for the great mathematical race; as a consequence he came out fourth [[wrangler]]. This entitled him to the degree of [[Bachelor of Arts]]; but to take the higher degree of [[Master of Arts (postgraduate)|Master of Arts]] and thereby become eligible for a fellowship it was then necessary to pass a theological test. To the signing of any such test De Morgan felt a strong objection, although he had been brought up in the [[Church of England]]. In about [[1875]] theological tests for academic degrees were abolished in the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. ===London University=== As no career was open to him at his own university, he decided to go to the Bar, and took up residence in [[London]]; but he much preferred teaching mathematics to reading law. About this time the movement for founding the London University took shape. The two ancient universities of Oxford and Cambridge were so guarded by theological tests that no Jew or Dissenter outside the Church of England could enter as a student, still less be appointed to any office. A body of liberal-minded men resolved to meet the difficulty by establishing in London a University on the principle of religious neutrality. De Morgan, then 22 years of age, was appointed Professor of Mathematics. His introductory lecture "On the study of mathematics" is a discourse upon mental education of permanent value which has been recently reprinted in the United States. The London University was a new institution, and the relations of the Council of management, the Senate of professors and the body of students were not well defined. A dispute arose between the professor of anatomy and his students, and in consequence of the action taken by the Council, several of the professors resigned, headed by De Morgan. Another professor of mathematics was appointed, who was accidentally drowned a few years later. De Morgan had shown himself a prince of teachers: he was invited to return to his chair, which thereafter became the continuous centre of his labours for thirty years. The same body of reformers&mdash;headed by [[Henry Peter Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux|Lord Brougham]], a Scotsman eminent both in science and politics who had instituted the London University&mdash;founded about the same time a [[Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge]]. Its object was to spread scientific and other knowledge by means of cheap and clearly written treatises by the best writers of the time. One of its most voluminous and effective writers was De Morgan. He wrote a great work on ''The Differential and Integral Calculus'' which was published by the Society; and he wrote one-sixth of the articles in the ''Penny Cyclopedia'', published by the Society, and issued in penny numbers. When De Morgan came to reside in London he found a congenial friend in William Frend, notwithstanding his mathematical heresy about negative quantities. Both were arithmeticians and actuaries, and their religious views were somewhat similar. Frend lived in what was then a suburb of London, in a country-house formerly occupied by [[Daniel Defoe]] and [[Isaac Watts]]. De Morgan with his flute was a welcome visitor; and in [[1837]] he married Sophia Elizabeth, one of Frend's daughters. The London University of which De Morgan was a professor was a different institution from the [[University of London]]. The University of London was founded about ten years later by the Government for the purpose of granting degrees after examination, without any qualification as to residence. The London University was affiliated as a teaching college with the University of London, and its name was changed to [[University College, London|University College]]. The University of London was not a success as an examining body; a teaching University was demanded. De Morgan was a highly successful teacher of mathematics. It was his plan to lecture for an hour, and at the close of each lecture to give out a number of problems and examples illustrative of the subject lectured on; his students were required to sit down to them and bring him the results, which he looked over and returned revised before the next lecture. In De Morgan's opinion, a thorough comprehension and mental assimilation of great principles far outweighed in importance any merely analytical dexterity in the application of half-understood principles to particular cases. De Morgan had a son George, who acquired great distinction in mathematics both at University College and the University of London. He and another like-minded alumnus conceived the idea of founding a Mathematical Society in London, where mathematical papers would be not only received (as by the Royal Society) but actually read and discussed. The first meeting was held in University College; De Morgan was the first president, his son the first secretary. It was the beginning of the [[London Mathematical Society]]. ===Retirement and death=== In the year [[1866]] the chair of mental philosophy in University College fell vacant. Dr. Martineau, a [[Unitarian]] clergyman and professor of mental philosophy, was recommended formally by the Senate to the Council; but in the Council there were some who objected to a Unitarian clergyman, and others who objected to theistic philosophy. A layman of the school of Bain and Spencer was appointed. De Morgan considered that the old standard of religious neutrality had been hauled down, and forthwith resigned. He was now 60 years of age. His pupils secured a pension of $ 500 for him, but misfortunes followed. Two years later his son George -- the younger Bernoulli, as he loved to hear him called, in allusion to the two eminent mathematicians of that name, related as father and son -- died. This blow was followed by the death of a daughter. Five years after his resignation from University College De Morgan died of nervous prostration on [[March 18]] [[1871]], in the 65th year of his age. ==Mathematical work== De Morgan was a brilliant and witty writer, whether as a controversialist or as a correspondent. In his time there flourished two Sir [[William Hamilton]]s who have often been confounded. The one was [[Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet]] (that is, his title was inherited), a Scotsman, professor of logic and metaphysics at the University of Edinburgh; the other was a knight (that is, won the title), an Irishman, professor at astronomy in the University of Dublin. The baronet contributed to logic, especially the doctrine of the quantification of the predicate; the knight, whose full name was [[William Rowan Hamilton]], contributed to mathematics, especially [[geometric algebra]], and first described the [[Quaternion]]s. De Morgan was interested in the work of both, and corresponded with both; but the correspondence with the Scotsman ended in a public controversy, whereas that with the Irishman was marked by friendship and terminated only by death. In one of his letters to Rowan, De Morgan says, "Be it known unto you that I have discovered that you and the other Sir W. H. are reciprocal polars with respect to me (intellectually and morally, for the Scottish baronet is a polar bear, and you, I was going to say, are a polar gentleman). When I send a bit of investigation to [[Edinburgh]], the W. H. of that ilk says I took it from him. When I send you one, you take it from me, generalize it at a glance, bestow it thus generalized upon society at large, and make me the second discoverer of a known theorem." The correspondence of De Morgan with Hamilton the mathematician extended over twenty-four years; it contains discussions not only of mathematical matters, but also of subjects of general interest. It is marked by geniality on the part of Hamilton and by wit on the part of De Morgan. The following is a specimen: Hamilton wrote, "My copy of Berkeley's work is not mine; like Berkeley, you know, I am an Irishman." De Morgan replied, "Your phrase 'my copy is not mine' is not a bull. It is perfectly good English to use the same word in two different senses in one sentence, particularly when there is usage. Incongruity of language is no bull, for it expresses meaning. But incongruity of ideas (as in the case of the Irishman who was pulling up the rope, and finding it did not finish, cried out that somebody had cut off the other end of it) is the genuine bull." De Morgan was full of personal peculiarities. We have noticed his almost morbid attitude towards religion, and the readiness with which he would resign an office. On the occasion of the installation of his friend, Lord Brougham, as Rector of the University of Edinburgh, the Senate offered to confer on him the honorary degree of LL. D.; he declined the honour as a misnomer. He once printed his name: Augustus De Morgan, ''H - O - M - O - P - A - U - C - A - R - U - M - L - I - T - E - R - A - R - U - M''. He disliked the country, and while his family enjoyed the seaside, and men of science were having a good time at a meeting of the British Association in the country he remained in the hot and dusty libraries of the metropolis. He said that he felt like [[Socrates]], who declared that the farther he got from [[Athens]] the farther was he from happiness. He never sought to become a [[Fellow of the Royal Society]], and he never attended a meeting of the Society; he said that he had no ideas or sympathies in common with the physical philosopher. His attitude was doubtless due to his physical infirmity, which prevented him from being either an observer or an experimenter. He never voted at an election, and he never visited the [[House of Commons]], or the [[Tower of London]], or [[Westminster Abbey]]. Were the writings of De Morgan published in the form of collected works, they would form a small library. We have noticed his writings for the Useful Knowledge Society. Mainly through the efforts of Peacock and Whewell, a Philosophical Society had been inaugurated at Cambridge; and to its Transactions De Morgan contributed four memoirs on the foundations of algebra, and an equal number on formal logic. The best presentation of his view of algebra is found in a volume, entitled ''Trigonometry and Double Algebra'', published in [[1849]]; and his earlier view of formal logic is found in a volume published in [[1847]]. His most unique work is styled a ''Budget of Paradoxes''; it originally appeared as letters in the columns of the ''Athenæum'' journal; it was revised and extended by De Morgan in the last years of his life, and was published posthumously by his widow. If you wish to read something entertaining, get De Morgan's ''Budget of Paradoxes'' out of the library. We shall consider more at length his theory of algebra, his contribution to exact logic, and his Budget of Paradoxes. [[George Peacock]]'s theory of algebra was much improved by D. F. Gregory, a younger member of the Cambridge School, who laid stress not on the permanence of equivalent forms, but on the permanence of certain formal laws. This new theory of algebra as the science of symbols and of their laws of combination was carried to its logical issue by De Morgan; and his doctrine on the subject is still followed by English algebraists in general. Thus Chrystal founds his ''Textbook of Algebra'' on De Morgan's theory; although an attentive reader may remark that he practically abandons it when he takes up the subject of infinite series. De Morgan's theory is stated in his volume on ''Trigonometry and Double Algebra''. In the chapter (of the book) headed "On symbolic algebra" he writes: "In abandoning the meaning of symbols, we also abandon those of the words which describe them. Thus addition is to be, for the present, a sound void of sense. It is a mode of combination represented by <math>+</math>; when <math>+</math> receives its meaning, so also will the word addition. It is most important that the student should bear in mind that, with one exception, no word nor sign of arithmetic or algebra has one atom of meaning throughout this chapter, the object of which is symbols, and their laws of combination, giving a symbolic algebra which may hereafter become the grammar of a hundred distinct significant algebras. If any one were to assert that <math>+</math> and <math>-</math> might mean reward and punishment, and <math>A</math>, <math>B</math>, <math>C</math>, etc., might stand for virtues and vices, the reader might believe him, or contradict him, as he pleases, but not out of this chapter. The one exception above noted, which has some share of meaning, is the sign <math>=</math> placed between two symbols as in <math>A = B</math>. It indicates that the two symbols have the same resulting meaning, by whatever steps attained. That <math>A</math> and <math>B</math>, if quantities, are the same amount of quantity; that if operations, they are of the same effect, etc." Here, it may be asked, why does the symbol <math>=</math> prove refractory to the symbolic theory? De Morgan admits that there is one exception; but an exception proves the rule, not in the usual but illogical sense of establishing it, but in the old and logical sense of testing its validity. If an exception can be established, the rule must fall, or at least must be modified. Here I am talking not of grammatical rules, but of the rules of science or nature. De Morgan proceeds to give an inventory of the fundamental symbols of algebra, and also an inventory of the laws of algebra. The symbols are 0, 1, +, &minus;, &times;, ÷, ()<sup>()</sup>, and letters; these only, all others are derived. His inventory of the fundamental laws is expressed under fourteen heads, but some of them are merely definitions. The laws proper may be reduced to the following, which, as he admits, are not all independent of one another: #Law of signs. +&nbsp;+&nbsp;=&nbsp;+, +&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&minus;, &minus;&nbsp;+&nbsp;=&nbsp;&minus;, &minus;&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;=&nbsp;+, &times;&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&times;, &times;&nbsp;÷&nbsp;=&nbsp;÷, ÷&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;=&nbsp;÷, ÷&nbsp;÷&nbsp;=&nbsp;&times;. #Commutative law. ''a''+''b'' = ''b''+''a'', ''ab''=''ba''. #Distributive law. ''a''(''b''+''c'') = ''ab''+''ac''. #Index laws. ''a''<sup>''b''</sup>&times;''a''<sup>''c''</sup>=''a''<sup>''b''+''c''</sup>, (''a''<sup>''b''</sup>)<sup>''c''</sup>=''a''<sup>''bc''</sup>, ''(ab)''<sup>''c''</sup>= ''a''<sup>''c''</sup>&times;''b''<sup>''c''</sup>. #''a''&minus;''a''=0, ''a''÷''a''=1. The last two may be called the rules of reduction. De Morgan professes to give a complete inventory of the laws which the symbols of algebra must obey, for he says, "Any system of symbols which obeys these laws and no others, except they be formed by combination of these laws, and which uses the preceding symbols and no others, except they be new symbols invented in abbreviation of combinations of these symbols, is symbolic algebra." From his point of view, none of the above principles are rules; they are formal laws, that is, arbitrarily chosen relations to which the algebraic symbols must be subject. He does not mention the law, which had already been pointed out by Gregory, namely, <math>(a+b)+c = a+(b+c), (ab)c = a(bc)</math> and to which was afterwards given the name of the ''law of association''. If the commutative law fails, the associative may hold good; but not ''vice versa''. It is an unfortunate thing for the symbolist or formalist that in universal arithmetic <math>m^n</math> is not equal to <math>n^m</math>; for then the commutative law would have full scope. Why does he not give it full scope? Because the foundations of algebra are, after all, real not formal, material not symbolic. To the formalists the index operations are exceedingly refractory, in consequence of which some take no account of them, but relegate them to applied mathematics. To give an inventory of the laws which the symbols of algebra must obey is an impossible task, and reminds one not a little of the task of those philosophers who attempt to give an inventory of the ''a priori'' knowledge of the mind. De Morgan's work entitled ''Trigonometry and Double Algebra'' consists of two parts; the former of which is a treatise on [[Trigonometry]], and the latter a treatise on generalized algebra which he calls Double Algebra. But what is meant by Double as applied to algebra? and why should Trigonometry be also treated in the same textbook? The first stage in the development of algebra is ''arithmetic'', where numbers only appear and symbols of operations such as <math>+</math>, <math>\times</math>, etc. The next stage is ''universal arithmetic'', where letters appear instead of numbers, so as to denote numbers universally, and the processes are conducted without knowing the values of the symbols. Let <math>a</math> and <math>b</math> denote any numbers; then such an expression as <math>a-b</math> may be impossible; so that in universal arithmetic there is always a proviso, ''provided the operation is possible''. The third stage is ''single algebra'', where the symbol may denote a quantity forwards or a quantity backwards, and is adequately represented by segments on a straight line passing through an origin. Negative quantities are then no longer impossible; they are represented by the backward segment. But an impossibility still remains in the latter part of such an expression as <math>a+b\sqrt{-1}</math> which arises in the solution of the quadratic equation. The fourth stage is ''double algebra''; the algebraic symbol denotes in general a segment of a line in a given plane; it is a double symbol because it involves two specifications, namely, length and direction; and <math>\sqrt{-1}</math> is interpreted as denoting a quadrant. The expression <math>a+b\sqrt{-1}</math> then represents a line in the plane having an abscissa <math>a</math> and an ordinate <math>b</math>. Argand and Warren carried double algebra so far; but they were unable to interpret on this theory such an expression as <math>e^{a\sqrt{-1}}</math>. De Morgan attempted it by ''reducing'' such an expression to the form <math>b+q\sqrt{-1}</math>, and he considered that he had shown that it could be always so reduced. The remarkable fact is that this double algebra satisfies all the fundamental laws above enumerated, and as every apparently impossible combination of symbols has been interpreted it looks like the complete form of algebra. If the above theory is true, the next stage of development ought to be ''triple'' algebra and if <math>a+b\sqrt{-1}</math> truly represents a line in a given plane, it ought to be possible to find a third term which added to the above would represent a line in space. Argand and some others guessed that it was <math>a + b\sqrt{-1} + c\sqrt{-1}\,^{\sqrt{-1}}</math> although this contradicts the truth established by Euler that <math>\sqrt{-1}\,^{\sqrt{-1}}=e^{-\frac{1}{2} \pi}</math>. De Morgan and many others worked hard at the problem, but nothing came of it until the problem was taken up by Hamilton. We now see the reason clearly: the symbol of double algebra denotes not a length and a direction; but a multiplier and ''an angle''. In it the angles are confined to one plane; hence the next stage will be a ''quadruple algebra'', when the axis of the plane is made variable. And this gives the answer to the first question; double algebra is nothing but analytical plane trigonometry, and this is why it has been found to be the natural analysis for alternating currents. But De Morgan never got this far; he died with the belief "that double algebra must remain as the full development of the conceptions of arithmetic, so far as those symbols are concerned which arithmetic immediately suggests." When the study of mathematics revived at the University of Cambridge, so did the study of logic. The moving spirit was Whewell, the Master of Trinity College, whose principal writings were a ''History of the Inductive Sciences'', and ''Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences''. Doubtless De Morgan was influenced in his logical investigations by Whewell; but other influential contemporaries were Sir W. Hamilton of Edinburgh, and Professor Boole of Cork. De~Morgan's work on ''Formal Logic'', published in [[1847]], is principally remarkable for his development of the numerically definite syllogism. The followers of [[Aristotle]] say that from two particular propositions such as '' Some M's are A's '', and '' Some M's are B's '' nothing follows of necessity about the relation of the A's and B's. But they go further and say in order that any relation about the A's and B's may follow of necessity, the middle term must be taken universally in one of the premises. De~Morgan pointed out that from ''Most M's are A's and Most M's are B's'' it follows of necessity that ''some A's are B's'' and he formulated the numerically definite syllogism which puts this principle in exact quantitative form. Suppose that the number of the M's is <math>m</math>, of the M's that are A's is <math>a</math>, and of the M's that are B's is <math>b</math>; then there are at least <math>(a+b-m)</math> A's that are B's. Suppose that the number of souls on board a steamer was 1000, that 500 were in the saloon, and 700 were lost; it follows of necessity, that at least 700+500-1000, that is, 200, saloon passengers were lost. This single principle suffices to prove the validity of all the Aristotelian moods; it is therefore a fundamental principle in necessary reasoning. Here then De Morgan had made a great advance by introducing ''quantification of the terms''. At that time Sir W. Hamilton was teaching at Edinburgh a doctrine of the quantification of the predicate, and a correspondence sprang up. However, De Morgan soon perceived that Hamilton's quantification was of a different character; that it meant for example, substituting the two forms ''The whole of A is the whole of B'', and ''The whole of A is a part of B'' for the Aristotelian form ''All A's are B's''. Philosophers generally have a large share of intolerance; they are too apt to think that they have got hold of the whole truth, and that everything outside of their system is error. Hamilton thought that he had placed the keystone in the Aristotelian arch, as he phrased it; although it must have been a curious arch which could stand 2000 years without a keystone. As a consequence he had no room for De Morgan's innovations. He accused De Morgan of plagiarism, and the controversy raged for years in the columns of the ''Athenæum'', and in the publications of the two writers. The memoirs on logic which De Morgan contributed to the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society subsequent to the publication of his book on ''Formal Logic'' are by far the most important contributions which he made to the science, especially his fourth memoir, in which he begins work in the broad field of the ''logic of relatives''. This is the true field for the logician of the twentieth century, in which work of the greatest importance is to be done towards improving language and facilitating thinking processes which occur all the time in practical life. Identity and difference are the two relations which have been considered by the logician; but there are many others equally deserving of study, such as equality, equivalence, consanguinity, affinity, etc. In the introduction to the ''Budget of Paradoxes'' De Morgan explains what he means by the word. "A great many individuals, ever since the rise of the mathematical method, have, each for himself, attacked its direct and indirect consequences. I shall call each of these persons a ''paradoxer'', and his system a ''paradox''. I use the word in the old sense: a paradox is something which is apart from general opinion, either in subject matter, method, or conclusion. Many of the things brought forward would now be called ''crackpots'', which is the nearest word we have to old ''paradox''. But there is this difference, that by calling a thing a crackpot we mean to speak lightly of it; which was not the necessary sense of paradox. Thus in the 16th century many spoke of the earth's motion as the ''paradox of Copernicus'' and held the ingenuity of that theory in very high esteem, and some I think who even inclined towards it. In the seventeenth century the depravation of meaning took place, in England at least." How can the sound paradoxer be distinguished from the false paradoxer? De Morgan supplies the following test: "The manner in which a paradoxer will show himself, as to sense or nonsense, will not depend upon what he maintains, but upon whether he has or has not made a sufficient knowledge of what has been done by others, especially as to the mode of doing it, a preliminary to inventing knowledge for himself... New knowledge, when to any purpose, must come by contemplation of old knowledge, in every matter which concerns thought; mechanical contrivance sometimes, not very often, escapes this rule. All the men who are now called discoverers, in every matter ruled by thought, have been men versed in the minds of their predecessors and learned in what had been before them. There is not one exception." "I remember that just before the American Association met at Indianapolis in [[1890]], the local newspapers heralded a great discovery which was to be laid before the assembled savants -- a young man living somewhere in the country had squared the circle. While the meeting was in progress I observed a young man going about with a roll of paper in his hand. He spoke to me and complained that the paper containing his discovery had not been received. I asked him whether his object in presenting the paper was not to get it read, printed and published so that everyone might inform himself of the result; to all of which he assented readily. But, said I, many men have worked at this question, and their results have been tested fully, and they are printed for the benefit of anyone who can read; have you informed yourself of their results? To this there was no assent, but the sickly smile of the false paradoxer" [Note: De Morgan did not say this (how could he? He died far before 1890...). Rather, as pointed out on the discussion page, this paragraph (and the rest of the article) is copied verbatim from a lecture given in 1916] The ''Budget'' consists of a review of a large collection of paradoxical books which De Morgan had accumulated in his own library, partly by purchase at bookstands, partly from books sent to him for review, partly from books sent to him by the authors. He gives the following classification: squarers of the circle, trisectors of the angle, duplicators of the cube, constructors of perpetual motion, subverters of gravitation, stagnators of the earth, builders of the universe. You will still find specimens of all these classes in the New World and in the new century. De Morgan gives his personal knowledge of paradoxers. "I suspect that I know more of the English class than any man in Britain. I never kept any reckoning: but I know that one year with another? -- and less of late years than in earlier time? -- I have talked to more than five in each year, giving more than a hundred and fifty specimens. Of this I am sure, that it is my own fault if they have not been a thousand. Nobody knows how they swarm, except those to whom they naturally resort. They are in all ranks and occupations, of all ages and characters. They are very earnest people, and their purpose is ''[[bona fide]]'', the dissemination of their paradoxes. A great many -- the mass, indeed -- are illiterate, and a great many waste their means, and are in or approaching penury. These discoverers despise one another." A paradoxer to whom De Morgan paid the compliment which Achilles paid Hector -- to drag him round the walls again and again -- was James Smith, a successful merchant of Liverpool. He found <math>\pi = 3 \frac{1}{8}</math>. His mode of reasoning was a curious caricature of the ''reductio ad absurdum'' of Euclid. He said let <math>\pi = 3 \frac{1}{8}</math>, and then showed that on that supposition, every other value of <math>\pi</math> must be absurd; consequently <math>\pi = 3\frac{1}{8}</math> is the true value. The following is a specimen of De Morgan's dragging round the walls of Troy: "Mr. Smith continues to write me long letters, to which he hints that I am to answer. In his last of 31 closely written sides of note paper, he informs me, with reference to my obstinate silence, that though I think myself and am thought by others to be a mathematical Goliath, I have resolved to play the mathematical snail, and keep within my shell. A mathematical ''snail''! This cannot be the thing so called which regulates the striking of a clock; for it would mean that I am to make Mr. Smith sound the true time of day, which I would by no means undertake upon a clock that gains 19 seconds odd in every hour by false quadrative value of <math>\pi</math>. But he ventures to tell me that pebbles from the sling of simple truth and common sense will ultimately crack my shell, and put me ''hors de combat''. The confusion of images is amusing: Goliath turning himself into a snail to avoid <math>\pi = 3\frac{1}{8}</math> and James Smith, Esq., of the Mersey Dock Board: and put ''hors de combat'' by pebbles from a sling. If Goliath had crept into a snail shell, David would have cracked the Philistine with his foot. There is something like modesty in the implication that the crack-shell pebble has not yet taken effect; it might have been thought that the slinger would by this time have been singing -- And thrice [and one-eighth] I routed all my foes, And thrice [and one-eighth] I slew the slain." In the region of pure mathematics De Morgan could detect easily the false from the true paradox; but he was not so proficient in the field of physics. His father-in-law was a paradoxer, and his wife a paradoxer; and in the opinion of the physical philosophers De Morgan himself scarcely escaped. His wife wrote a book describing the phenomena of spiritualism, table-rapping, [[table-turning]], etc.; and De Morgan wrote a preface in which he said that he knew some of the asserted facts, believed others on testimony, but did not pretend to know ''whether'' they were caused by spirits, or had some unknown and unimagined origin. From this alternative he left out ordinary material causes. Faraday delivered a lecture on ''Spiritualism'', in which he laid it down that in the investigation we ought to set out with the idea of what is physically possible, or impossible; De Morgan could not understand this. === Relations === De Morgan discovered [[relational algebra]] in his (1966: 208-46), first published in 1860. This algebra was extended by [[Charles Peirce]] (who admired De Morgan and met him shortly before his death), and re-exposited and further extended in vol. 3 of [[Ernst Schröder]]'s ''Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik''. [[Relational algebra]] proved critical to the ''[[Principia Mathematica]]'' of [[Bertrand Russell]] and [[Alfred North Whitehead]]. In turn, this algebra became the subject of much further work, starting in 1940, by [[Alfred Tarski]] and his colleagues and students at the [[University of California]]. ==Notes== {{ent|1|De_Morgan}} De Morgan, (1838) ''Induction (mathematics)'', ''The Penny Cyclopedia''. {{ent|2|birthyear}} The year of his birth may be found by solving a conundrum proposed by himself, "I was <math>x</math> years of age in the year <math>x^2</math> " (He was 43 in 1849). The problem is indeterminate, but it is made strictly determinate by the century of its utterance and the limit to a man's life. ==References== * De Morgan, A., 1966. ''Logic: On the Syllogism and Other Logical Writings''. Heath, P., ed. Routledge. *[[Ivor Grattan-Guinness]], 2000. ''The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870-1940''. Princeton Uni. Press. * [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext06/tbmms10p.pdf Ten British Mathematicians of the 19th Century (PDF)], by Alexander Macfarlane, available through [[Project Gutenberg]] ==External links== * {{MacTutor Biography|id=De_Morgan}} ==See also== * [[De Morgan's laws]] * [[relational algebra]] [[Category:1806 births|De Morgan, Augustus]] [[Category:1871 deaths|De Morgan, Augustus]] [[Category:19th century philosophers|De Morgan, Augustus]] [[Category:British logicians|De Morgan, Augustus]] [[Category:British mathematicians|De Morgan, Augustus]] [[Category:British philosophers|De Morgan, Augustus]] [[Category:Music theorists|De Morgan, Augustus]] [[de:Augustus De Morgan]] [[es:Augustus De Morgan]] [[fi:Augustus De Morgan]] [[fr:Auguste De Morgan]] [[he:אוגוסטוס דה מורגן]] [[ja:オーガスタス・ド・モルガン]] [[nl:Augustus De Morgan]] [[pl:August De Morgan]] [[sk:Augustus De Morgan]] [[sl:Augustus De Morgan]] [[sv:Augustus de Morgan]] [[zh:奧古斯都·德·摩根]] 1459 15899940 2004-08-12T22:38:32Z Ropers 69801 #REDIRECT [[Ascorbic acid]] 1460 39686190 2006-02-15T03:58:50Z SashatoBot 743015 robot Modifying: ja :''This article is about the realm of Norse Mythology. For other uses, see [[Asgard (disambiguation)]].'' In [[Norse mythology]], '''Asgard''' ([[Old Norse language|Old Norse]]: '''Ásgarðr''') is the realm of the gods, the [[Æsir]], thought to be separate from the realm of the mortals, [[Midgard]]. The walls surrounding Asgard were built by a [[giant (mythology)|giant]]. As payment for his work, the giant was to receive the hand of [[Freyja]] in marriage, as well as the [[sun]] and the [[moon]]. This was agreed, provided that the work was completed within six months. In order to avoid honouring the agreement, [[Loki]] transformed himself into a mare to lure away the giant's magic horse, [[Svadilfari]]. The job was therefore not completed on time, and the gods evaded the payment. The plain of [[Idavoll]] is the centre of Asgard. The Æsir meet there for discussions on important issues: the male gods meet in a hall called [[Gladsheim]], and the female gods in a hall called [[Vingólf]]. They also meet daily at the [[Well of Urd]], beneath [[Yggdrasill]]. ==Other spellings== *Alternatives Anglicizations: Ásgard, Ásgardr, Asgardr, Ásgarthr, Ásgarth, Asgarth, Ásgardhr * Common [[Swedish language|Swedish]] and [[Danish language|Danish]] form: Asgård * [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]: Åsgard (also Åsgård, Asgaard) * [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]: Ásgarður {{NorseMythology}} [[Category:Locations in Norse mythology]] [[ca:Asgard]] [[da:Asgård]] [[de:Asgard (Mythologie)]] [[el:Άσγκαρντ]] [[es:Asgard]] [[eo:Ásgarðr]] [[fr:Asgard]] [[hr:Asgard]] [[is:Ásgarður]] [[it:Ásgarðr]] [[he:אסגארד]] [[lt:Asgardas]] [[nl:Asgaard]] [[ja:アースガルド]] [[no:Åsgard]] [[nn:Åsgard]] [[pl:Asgard]] [[pt:Asgard]] [[ru:Асгард]] [[fi:Asgård]] [[sv:Asgård]] 1461 40696016 2006-02-22T10:34:57Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 /* Background */ :''For other meanings, see [[Apollo (disambiguation)]].'' {| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin-left:0.5em;" !colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="skyblue"|'''North American Apollo CSM''' |- |colspan="3" align="center"| [[Image:Apollo_CSM_lunar_orbit.jpg|300px|Apollo CSM in lunar orbit.]] <br/>Apollo CSM in lunar orbit. |- !colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="skyblue"|Description |- |width="75" colspan="1" |'''Role:'''||width="200" colspan="2"| Earth and lunar orbit |- |width="75" colspan="1" |'''Crew: '''||width="250" colspan="2"| 3; CDR, CM pilot, LM pilot |- !colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="skyblue"|Dimensions |- |'''Height:'''|| width="125"|36.2 ft || width="125"|11.03 m |- |'''Diameter:'''|| 12.8 ft || 3.9 m |- |'''Volume:'''|| 218 ft<sup>3</sup> || 6.17 m<sup>3</sup> |- !colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="skyblue"|Weights |- |'''Command module:'''|| 12,807 lb || 5,809 kg |- |'''Service module:''' || 54,064 lb || 24,523 kg |- |'''Total:''' || 66,871 lb || 30,332 kg |- !colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="skyblue"|Rocket engines |- |'''CM RCS''' (N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>/UDMH) x 12:|| 92 [[Pound-force|lbf]] ea || 412 N |- |'''SM RCS''' (N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>/UDMH) x 16:|| 100 lbf ea || 441 N |- |'''Service Propulsion System'''<br /> (N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>/UDMH) x 1:|| 22,000 lbf ea || 97.86 kN |- !colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="skyblue"|Performance |- |''' Endurance:'''|| 14 days || 200 orbits |- |''' Apogee:'''|| 240,000 miles || 386,242 km |- |''' Perigee:'''|| 100 miles || 160 km |- |''' Spacecraft delta v:'''|| 9,200 ft/s <br> (6,272 mi/hr)|| 2,804 m/s <br> (10,094 km/h) |- !colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="skyblue"|''' Apollo CSM diagram''' |- |colspan="3" align="center"| [[image:Apollo-linedrawing.png|300px|Apollo CSM diagram (NASA)]] <br/>Apollo CSM diagram (NASA) |- !colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="skyblue"|North American Apollo CSM |- |} <!-- When using a spelling checker use "Skip All" with this words, or add them all to a User Word List you use when checking this article, I'm sure all the English words are spelled correctly in this list, but I didn't worry about American, British, etc. spelling, I'm not sure if all the names are spelled correctly: align:center td de:Apollo Projekt fr:Programme ja nl:Apollo zh Image:Apollo insignia.png EOR linedrawing.png Houbolt LOR CSM LEM dockings undockings Image:LEM crewless Apollos cancelled CNC litres IB IVB Soyuz Kranz website align --> [[Image:Apollo program insignia.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Apollo Program insignia]] '''Project Apollo''' was a series of [[human spaceflight]] missions undertaken by the [[United States|United States of America]] using the [[Apollo spacecraft]] and [[Saturn (rocket family)|Saturn launch vehicle]], conducted during the years 1961–1972. It was devoted to the goal of landing a man on the [[Moon]] and returning him safely to Earth within the decade of the 1960s. This goal was achieved with the ''[[Apollo 11]]'' mission in July 1969. The program continued into the early 1970s to carry out the initial hands-on scientific exploration of the Moon, with a total of six successful landings. As of 2006, there has not been any further human spaceflight beyond [[low earth orbit]]. The later [[Skylab|Skylab program]] and the joint American-Soviet [[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]] used equipment originally produced for Apollo, and are often considered to be part of the overall program. The name [[Apollo]], like earlier manned space-flight programs, was named after a god from [[classical civilization]]s, and comes from one of the Greek gods. ==Background== The Apollo Program was originally conceived late in the [[Dwight Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] administration as a follow-on to the [[Mercury program]], doing advanced manned earth-orbital missions. In fact, it became the third program, following [[Gemini program|Gemini]]. The Apollo Program was dramatically reoriented to an aggressive lunar landing goal by President [[John F. Kennedy|Kennedy]] with his announcement at a special joint session of Congress on [[May 25]], [[1961]]: :"...I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important in the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish..." (Excerpt from "Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs".[http://www.jfklibrary.org/j052561.htm]) ==Choosing a mission mode== Having settled upon the Moon as a target, the Apollo mission planners were faced with the challenge of designing a set of flights that would meet Kennedy's stated goal while minimizing risk to human life, cost and demands on technology and astronaut skill. Three possible plans were considered. [[Image:Apollo Direct Ascent.png|thumb|left|225px|Apollo configuration for <br />Direct Ascent and<br /> Earth Orbit Rendezvous - 1961 (NASA)]] * '''Direct ascent:''' This plan was to boost a spaceship directly to the moon. The entire spacecraft would land on and return from the moon. This would have required a [[Nova rocket]] far more powerful than any in existence at the time. * '''Earth orbit rendezvous:''' This plan, known as Earth orbit rendezvous (EOR), would have required the launch of two [[Saturn V]] rockets, one containing the space ship and one containing fuel. The spaceship would have docked in earth orbit and be fueled with enough fuel to make it to the moon and back. Again, the entire spacecraft would have landed on the moon. * '''Lunar Surface Rendezvous:''' This would have required two spacecraft to be launched - the first one being an automated vehicle carrying propellants would land on the Moon, to be followed some time later by the 'manned' vehicle. Propellant would be transferred from the automated vehicle to the 'manned' vehicle before the 'manned' vehicle could return to Earth. * '''Lunar orbit rendezvous:''' This plan, which was adopted, is credited to [[John Houbolt]] and used the technique of 'Lunar Orbit Rendezvous' (LOR). The spacecraft was modular, composed of a '[[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Module]]' (CSM) and a '[[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]]' (LM; originally Lunar Excursion Module {LEM}). The CSM contained the life support systems for the three man crew's five day round trip to the moon and the [[heat shield]] for their reentry to Earth's [[earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]]. The LM would separate from the CSM in lunar orbit and carry two astronauts for the descent to the lunar surface, then back up to the CSM. In contrast with the other plans, the LOR plan required only a small part of the spacecraft to land on the moon, thereby minimizing the mass to be launched from the moon's surface for the return trip. The mass to be launched was further minimized by leaving part of the LM (that with the descent engine) behind, on the moon. {| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300" style="margin-left:0.5em;" !colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="skyblue"|'''Grumman Apollo LM''' |- |colspan="3" align="center"| [[Image:Apollo 16 LM.jpg|300px|Apollo LM on lunar surface.]] <br/>Apollo LM on lunar surface. |- !colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="skyblue"|Description |- |width="75" colspan="1" |'''Role:'''||width="200" colspan="2"| Lunar landing |- |width="75" colspan="1" |'''Crew: '''||width="250" colspan="2"| 2; CDR, LM pilot |- !colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="skyblue"|Dimensions |- |'''Height:'''|| width="125"|20.9 ft || width="125"|6.37 m |- |'''Diameter:'''|| 14 ft || 4.27 m |- |'''Landing gear span:'''|| 29.75 ft || 9.07 m |- |'''Volume:'''|| 235 ft<sup>3</sup> || 6.65 m<sup>3</sup> |- !colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="skyblue"|Weights |- |'''Ascent module:'''|| 10,024 lb || 4,547 kg |- |'''Descent module:''' || 22,375 lb || 10,149 kg |- |'''Total:''' || 32,399 lb || 14,696 kg |- !colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="skyblue"|Rocket engines |- |'''LM RCS''' (N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>/UDMH) x 16:|| 100 lbf ea || 441 N |- |'''Ascent propulsion system'''<br />(N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>/[[Aerozine 50]]) x 1:|| 3,500 lbf ea || 15.57 kN |- |'''Descent propulsion system'''<br /> (N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>/[[Aerozine 50]]) x 1:|| 9,982 lbf ea || 44.4 kN |- !colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="skyblue"|Performance |- |''' Endurance:'''|| 3 days || 72 hours |- |''' Apogee:'''|| 100 miles || 160 km |- |''' Perigee:'''|| surface || surface |- |''' Spacecraft delta v:'''|| 15,387 ft/s <br> (10,491 mi/h) || 4,690 m/s <br> (16,884 km/h) |- !colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="skyblue"|''' Apollo LM diagram''' |- |colspan="3" align="center"| [[image:LEM-linedrawing.png|300px|Apollo LM diagram (NASA)]] <br/>Apollo LM diagram (NASA) |- !colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="skyblue"|Grumman Apollo LM |- |} The [[Lunar Module]] itself was composed of a descent stage and an ascent stage, the former serving as a launch platform for the latter when the lunar exploration party blasted off for lunar orbit where they would dock with the CSM prior to returning to Earth. The plan had the advantage that since the LM was to be eventually discarded, it could be made very light, so the moon mission could be launched with a single Saturn V rocket. However, at the time that LOR was decided, some mission planners were uneasy at the large numbers of dockings and undockings called for by the plan. To learn lunar landing techniques, astronauts practiced in the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle ([[LLRV]]), a flying vehicle that simulated (by means of a special, additional jet engine) the reduced gravity that the Lunar Module would actually fly in. ==Flights== The Apollo program included eleven manned flights, designated ''[[Apollo 7]]'' through ''[[Apollo 17]]'', all launched from the [[Kennedy Space Center]], [[Florida]]. ''[[Apollo 4]]'' through ''[[Apollo 6]]'' were unmanned test flights (officially there was no ''Apollo 2'' or ''Apollo 3''). The ''[[Apollo 1]]'' designation was retroactively applied to the originally planned first manned flight which ended in a disastrous fire during a launch pad test that killed three astronauts, [[Virgil Grissom|Virgil "Gus" Grissom]], [[Edward Higgins White|Edward White]], and [[Roger Bruce Chaffee|Roger B. Chaffee]], in January 1967. The first of the manned flights employed the [[Saturn IB]] launch vehicle; the remaining flights all used the more powerful [[Saturn V]]. Two of the flights (''[[Apollo 7]]'' and ''[[Apollo 9]]'') were Earth orbital missions, two of the flights (''[[Apollo 8]]'' and ''[[Apollo 10]]'') were lunar orbital missions, and the remaining 7 flights were lunar landing missions (although one, ''[[Apollo 13]]'', failed to land). ''[[Apollo 7]]'' tested the Apollo command and service modules (CSM) in Earth orbit. ''[[Apollo 8]]'' tested the CSM in lunar orbit. ''[[Apollo 9]]'' tested the [[lunar module]] (LM) in earth orbit. ''[[Apollo 10]]'' tested the LM in lunar orbit. ''[[Apollo 11]]'' achieved the first human lunar landing. ''[[Apollo 12]]'' achieved the first lunar landing at a precise location. ''[[Apollo 13]]'' failed to achieve a lunar landing, but succeeded in returning the crew safely to earth following a potentially disastrous in-flight explosion. ''[[Apollo 14]]'' resumed the lunar exploration program. ''[[Apollo 15]]'' introduced a new level of lunar exploration capability, with a long-stay-time LM and a lunar roving vehicle. ''[[Apollo 16]]'' was the first manned landing in the lunar highlands. ''[[Apollo 17]]'', the final mission, was the first to include a scientist-astronaut, and the program's first manned night launch. ==Apollo Applications Program== In the speech which initiated Apollo, Kennedy declared that no other program would have as great a long-range effect on America's ambitions in [[outer space]]. Following the success of Project Apollo, both NASA and its major contractors investigated several post-lunar applications for the Apollo hardware. The "Apollo Extension Series", later called the "[[Apollo Applications Program]]", proposed at least ten flights. Many of these would use the space that the [[lunar module]] took up in the Saturn rocket to carry scientific equipment. One plan involved using the [[Saturn IB]] to take the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Module]] (CSM) to a variety of low-earth orbits for missions lasting up to 45 days. Some missions would involve the docking of two CSMs, and transfer of supplies. The [[Saturn V]] would be necessary to take it to [[polar orbit]], or [[sun-synchronous orbit]] (neither of which has yet been achieved by any manned spacecraft), and even to the [[geosynchronous]] orbit of [[Syncom 3]], a communications satellite not quite in [[geostationary]] orbit. This was the first functioning [[communications satellite]] at that now-common great distance from the Earth, and it was small enough to be carried through the hatch and taken back to Earth for study as to the effects of radiation on its electronic components in that environment over a period of years. A return to the moon was also planned, this time to orbit for a longer time to map the surface with high-precision equipment. This mission would not include a landing. Of all the plans only two were implemented; the [[Skylab]] space station (May 1973 – February 1974), and the [[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]] (July 1975). [[Skylab]]'s fuselage was constructed from the second stage of a [[Saturn IB]], and the station was equipped with the [[Apollo Telescope Mount]], itself based on a [[lunar module]]. The station's three crews were ferried into orbit atop [[Saturn IB]]s, riding in CSMs; the station itself had been launched with a modified [[Saturn V]]. Skylab's last crew departed the station on [[February 8]], [[1974]], whilst the station itself returned prematurely to Earth in 1979, by which time it had become the oldest operational Apollo component. The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project involved a docking in Earth orbit between an un-named CSM and a Soviet [[Soyuz spacecraft]]. The mission lasted from [[July 15]] to [[July 24]], [[1975]]. Although the Soviet Union continued to operate the Soyuz and [[Salyut]] space vehicles, NASA's next manned mission would not be until [[STS-1]] on [[April 12]], [[1981]]. ==End of the program== [[Image:ApolloCmd.JPG|thumbnail|left|Unflown command module CM-007 in a museum]] Originally three additional lunar landing missions had been planned, as ''Apollo 18'' through ''Apollo 20''. In light of the drastically shrinking [[NASA]] budget and the decision not to produce a second batch of Saturn Vs, these missions were cancelled to make funds available for the development of the [[Space Shuttle]], and to make their Apollo spacecraft and Saturn V launch vehicles available to the [[Skylab]] program. Only one of the Saturn Vs was actually used; the others became museum exhibits. Another excerpt from Kennedy's Special Message to Congress: :"I believe we should go to the moon. But I think every citizen of this country as well as the Members of the Congress should consider the matter carefully in making their judgment, to which we have given attention over many weeks and months, because it is a heavy burden, and there is no sense in agreeing or desiring that the United States take an affirmative position in outer space, unless we are prepared to do the work and bear the burdens to make it successful. If we are not, we should decide today and this year. [[Image:LunarLander.JPG|thumbnail|left|Lunar lander LM2 at the [[National_Air_And_Space_Museum|National Air and Space Museum]] ]] :"This decision demands a major national commitment of scientific and technical manpower, material and facilities, and the possibility of their diversion from other important activities where they are already thinly spread. It means a degree of dedication, organization and discipline which have not always characterized our research and development efforts. It means we cannot afford undue work stoppages, inflated costs of material or talent, wasteful interagency rivalries, or a high turnover of key personnel. :"New objectives and new money cannot solve these problems. They could in fact, aggravate them further--unless every scientist, every engineer, every serviceman, every technician, contractor, and civil servant gives his personal pledge that this nation will move forward, with the full speed of freedom, in the exciting adventure of space." (Excerpt from "Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs") ==Reasons for Apollo== The Apollo program was at least partly motivated by psycho-political considerations, in response to persistent perceptions of American inferiority in space technology vis-a-vis the [[Soviet Union|Soviets]], in the context of the [[Cold War]] and the [[Space Race]]. In this respect it succeeded brilliantly. In fact, American superiority in manned spaceflight was achieved in the precursory [[Gemini program]], even before the first Apollo flight. The Apollo program stimulated many areas of technology. The [[Apollo Guidance Computer|flight computer]] design used in both the lunar and command modules was, along with the [[LGM-30 Minuteman|Minuteman Missile System]], the driving force behind early research into [[integrated circuit]]s. The [[fuel cell]] developed for this program was the first practical fuel cell. Computer controlled machining ([[CNC]]) was pioneered in fabricating Apollo structural components. Many [[astronaut]]s and [[astronaut|cosmonaut]]s have commented on the profound effects that seeing earth from space has had on them. One of the most important legacies of the Apollo program was the now-common, but not universal view of Earth as a fragile, small planet, captured in the photographs taken by the astronauts during the lunar missions. The most famous of these photographs, taken by the [[Apollo 17]] astronauts, is "[[The Blue Marble]]." These photographs have also motivated many people toward [[environmentalism]] and [[space colonization]]. == Miscellaneous information == *The cost of the entire Apollo program: [[United States dollar|USD]] $25.4 billion -1969 Dollars ($135-billion in 2005 Dollars). See [[NASA Budget]]. (Includes Mercury, Gemini, Ranger, Surveyor, Lunar Orbitar, Apollo programs.) Apollo spacecraft and Saturn rocket cost alone, was about $ 83-billion 2005 Dollars (Apollo spacecraft cost $ 28-billion (CS/M $ 17-billion; LM $ 11-billion), Saturn I, IB, V costs about $ 46-billion 2005 dollars). *Amount of [[Moon rocks|moon material]] brought back by the Apollo program: 381.7 [[kilogram|kg]] (841.5 lb). Most of the material is stored at the [[Lunar Receiving Laboratory]] in Houston. ==Missions== [[Image:Moon map showing Apollo missions.PNG|thumb|Location of Apollo missions on the moon]] The Apollo program used four types of launch vehicles: *[[Little Joe II]] - unmanned suborbital [[launch escape system]] development. *[[Saturn I]] - unmanned suborbital and orbital hardware development. *[[Saturn IB]] - unmanned and manned earth orbit development and operational missions. *[[Saturn V]] - unmanned and manned earth orbit and lunar missions. Something to note with Apollo flights is that Marshall Space Flight Center, which designed the Saturn rockets, referred to the flights as Saturn-Apollo (SA), while Kennedy Space Center referred to the flights as Apollo-Saturn (AS). This is why the unmanned Saturn 1 flights are referred to as SA and the unmanned Saturn 1B are referred to as AS. Dates given below are dates of launch. ===Unmanned [[Saturn I]]=== *[[SA-1 (Apollo)|SA-1]] - [[October 27]], [[1961]]. Test of the S-1 Rocket *[[SA-2 (Apollo)|SA-2]] - [[April 25]], [[1962]]. Test of the S-1 Rocket and carried 109 m³ of water into the upper atmosphere to investigate effects on radio transmission and changes in local weather conditions. *[[SA-3 (Apollo)|SA-3]] - [[November 16]], [[1962]]. Same as SA-2 *[[SA-4 (Apollo)|SA-4]] - [[March 28]], [[1963]]. Test effects of premature engine shutdown *[[SA-5 (Apollo)|SA-5]] - [[January 29]], [[1964]]. First flight of live second stage *[[A-101]] - [[May 28]], [[1964]]. Tested the structural integrity of a boilerplate Apollo Command and Service Module *[[A-102]] - [[September 18]], [[1964]]. Carried the first programmable computer on the Saturn I vehicle; last test flight *[[A-103]] - [[February 16]], [[1965]]. Carried Pegasus A micrometeorite satellite *[[A-104]] - [[May 25]], [[1965]]. Carried Pegasus B micrometeorite satellite *[[A-105]] - [[July 30]], [[1965]]. Carried Pegasus C micrometeorite satellite ===Unmanned pad abort tests=== [[Image:Pad Abort Launch.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Pad Abort Test (NASA)]] *[[Pad Abort Test-1 (Apollo)|Pad Abort Test-1]] - [[November 7]], [[1963]]. Launch Escape System (LES) abort test from launch pad. *[[Pad Abort Test-2 (Apollo)|Pad Abort Test-2]] - [[June 29]], [[1965]]. LES pad abort test of near Block-I CM. ===Unmanned [[Little Joe II]]=== *[[QTV]] - [[August 28]], [[1963]]. Little Joe II qualification test. *[[A-001]] - [[May 13]], [[1964]]. LES transonic abort test. *[[A-002]] - [[December 8]], [[1964]]. LES maximum altitude, Max-Q abort test. *[[A-003]] - [[May 19]], [[1965]]. LES canard maximum altitude abort test. *[[A-004]] - [[January 20]], [[1966]]. LES test of maximum weight, tumbling Block-I CM. ===Unmanned [[Apollo spacecraft| Apollo]]-[[Saturn IB]] and [[Saturn V]]=== *[[AS-201]] - [[February 26]], [[1966]]. First test flight of [[Saturn IB]] rocket *[[AS-203]] - [[July 5]], [[1966]]. Investigated effects of weightlessness on fuel tanks of [[S-IVB]] *[[AS-202]] - [[August 25]], [[1966]]. Sub-orbital test flight of [[Apollo spacecraft| Command and Service Module]] *''[[Apollo 4]]'' - [[November 9]], [[1967]]. First test of the Saturn V booster *''[[Apollo 5]]'' - [[January 22]], [[1968]]. Test of the Saturn IB booster and [[Lunar Module]] *''[[Apollo 6]]'' - [[April 4]], [[1968]]. Test of the Saturn V booster ===Manned=== *''[[Apollo 1]]'' - Crew died in spacecraft fire atop launch vehicle during pre-launch tests on [[January 27]], [[1967]]. *''[[Apollo 7]]'' - [[October 11]], [[1968]]. First manned Apollo flight, first manned flight of the Saturn IB. *''[[Apollo 8]]'' - [[December 21]], [[1968]]. First manned flight around the Moon, first manned flight of the Saturn V. *''[[Apollo 9]]'' - [[March 3]], [[1969]]. First manned flight of the Lunar Module. *''[[Apollo 10]]'' - [[May 18]], [[1969]]. First manned flight of the Lunar Module around the Moon. *''[[Apollo 11]]'' - [[July 16]], [[1969]]. First manned landing on the Moon, [[July 20]]. *''[[Apollo 12]]'' - [[November 14]], [[1969]]. First precise manned landing on the Moon. *''[[Apollo 13]]'' - [[April 11]], [[1970]]. Oxygen tank explodes en route, landing is cancelled, first (and, as of [[2006]], only) manned non-orbital lunar flight. *''[[Apollo 14]]'' - [[January 31]], [[1971]]. [[Alan Shepard]], the sole astronaut of the [[Freedom 7|Mercury MR-3 mission]], walks on the Moon. *''[[Apollo 15]]'' - [[July 26]], [[1971]]. First mission with the [[Lunar Rover]] vehicle. *''[[Apollo 16]]'' - [[April 16]], [[1972]]. First landing in the lunar highlands. *''[[Apollo 17]]'' - [[December 7]], [[1972]]. Final Apollo lunar mission, first night launch, only mission with a professional geologist. The original pre-lunar landing program was more conservative but, as the 'all-up' test flights for the Saturn V proved successful, some missions were deleted. The revised schedule published in October 1967 had the first manned Apollo CSM earth orbit mission (''Apollo 7'') followed by an Earth Orbit Rendezvous of the CSM and LM launched on two Saturn 1Bs (''Apollo 8'') followed by a Saturn V launched CSM on a Large Earth Orbit Mission (''Apollo 9'') followed by the Saturn V launched dress rehearsal in Lunar Orbit with ''Apollo 10''. By the summer of 1968 it became clear to program managers that a fully functional LM would not be available for the ''Apollo 8'' mission. Rather than perform a simple earth orbiting mission, they chose to send ''Apollo 8'' around the moon during Christmas. The original idea for this switch was the brainchild of George Low. Although it has often been claimed that this change was made as a direct response to Soviet attempts to fly a piloted [[Zond program|Zond]] spacecraft around the moon, there is no evidence that this was actually the case. NASA officials were aware of the Soviet Zond flights, but the timing of the Zond missions does not correspond well with the extensive written record from NASA about the ''Apollo 8'' decision. It is relatively certain that the ''Apollo 8'' decision was primarily based upon the LM schedule, rather than fear of the Soviets beating the Americans to the moon. ===Cancelled missions=== {{main|Cancelled Apollo missions}} *''Apollo 18'' *''Apollo 19'' *''Apollo 20'' == Current locations of Apollo Command Modules == '''Apollo 6''' Command Module - [[Fernbank Science Center]], [[Atlanta, Georgia]] '''Apollo 7''' Command Module - [[Frontiers of Flight Museum]], [[Dallas, Texas]] '''Apollo 8''' Command Module - [[Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)]], [[Chicago, Illinois]] '''Apollo 9''' Command Module "Gumdrop" - [[San Diego Aerospace Museum]], [[San Diego, California]] '''Apollo 9''' Lunar Module "Spider" - Burned up in Earth's atmosphere '''Apollo 10''' Command Module "Charlie Brown" - [[Science Museum]], [[London, England]] '''Apollo 10''' Lunar Module "Snoopy" - In [[heliocentric orbit]] '''Apollo 11''' Command Module "Columbia" - [[National Air and Space Museum]], [[Washington, D.C.]] '''Apollo 11''' Lunar Module "Eagle" - Jettisoned from Columbia on 7/21/69 at 23:41 UT Impact site unknown '''Apollo 12''' Command Module "Yankee Clipper" - [[Virginia Air and Space Center]], [[Hampton, Virginia]] '''Apollo 12''' Lunar Module "Intrepid" - Impacted Moon 11/20/69 at 22:17:17.7 UT 3.94 S, 21.20 W '''Apollo 13''' Command Module "Odyssey" - [[Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center]], [[Hutchinson, Kansas]] '''Apollo 13''' Lunar Module "Aquarius" - Burned up in Earth's atmosphere 4/17/70 '''Apollo 14''' Command Module "Kitty Hawk" - [[Astronaut Hall of Fame]], [[Titusville, Florida]] '''Apollo 14''' Lunar Module "Antares" - Impacted Moon 2/7/71 at 00:45:25.7 UT 3.42 S, 19.67 W '''Apollo 15''' Command Module "Endeavor" - [[USAF Museum]], [[Wright-Patterson Air Force Base]], [[Dayton, Ohio]] '''Apollo 15''' Lunar Module "Falcon" - Impacted Moon 8/3/71 at 03:03:37.0 UT 26.36 N, 0.25 E '''Apollo 16''' Command Module "Casper" - [[U.S. Space & Rocket Center]], [[Huntsville, Alabama]] '''Apollo 16''' Lunar Module "Orion" - Released 4/24/72, loss of attitude control made targeted impact impossible, impact site unknown '''Apollo 17''' Command Module "America" - [[NASA Johnson Space Center]], [[Houston, Texas]] '''Apollo 17''' Lunar Module "Challenger" - Impacted Moon 12/15/72 at 06:50:20.8 UT 19.96 N, 30.50 E '''Apollo-Soyuz''' Command Module - [[John F. Kennedy Space Center]], [[Cape Canaveral, Florida]] '''Apollo-Soyuz''' Test Command Module - [[Museum of Flight]], [[Seattle, Washington]] '''Skylab 2''' / Crew 1 Command Module - [[National Museum of Naval Aviation]], [[Pensacola, Florida]] '''Skylab 3''' / Crew 2 Command Module - [[Glenn Research Center|NASA John H. Glenn Research Center at Lewis Field]], [[Cleveland, Ohio]] '''Skylab 4''' / Crew 3 Command Module - [[National Air and Space Museum]], [[Washington, D.C.]] ===Later missions using left over Apollo hardware=== *[[Skylab]] - [[May 14]], [[1973]]. **''[[Skylab 2]]'' - [[May 25]], [[1973]]. **''[[Skylab 3]]'' - [[July 28]], [[1973]]. **''[[Skylab 4]]'' - [[November 16]], [[1973]]. *[[Apollo-Soyuz]] - [[July 15]], [[1975]]. ===Apollo Launch Complex utilization=== *'''Launch Complex 34''' - [[SA-1 (Apollo)|SA-1]], [[SA-2 (Apollo)|SA-2]], [[SA-3 (Apollo)|SA-3]], [[SA-4 (Apollo)|SA-4]], [[AS-201]], [[AS-202]], ''[[Apollo 1|AS-204 (Apollo 1)]]'', [[Apollo 7|AS-205 (Apollo 7)]] *'''Launch Complex 37A''' - no launches *'''Launch Complex 37B''' - [[SA-5 (Apollo)|SA-5]], [[A-101]], [[A-102]], [[A-103]], [[A-104]], [[A-105]], [[AS-203]], [[Apollo 5|AS-204 (''Apollo 5'')]] *'''Launch Complex 39A''' - [[Apollo 4|AS-501 (''Apollo 4'')]], [[Apollo 6|AS-502 (''Apollo 6'')]], [[Apollo 8|AS-503 (''Apollo 8'')]], [[Apollo 9|AS-504 (''Apollo 9'')]], [[Apollo 11|AS-506 (''Apollo 11'')]], [[Apollo 12|AS-507 (''Apollo 12'')]], [[Apollo 13|AS-508 (''Apollo 13'')]], [[Apollo 14|AS-509 (''Apollo 14'')]], [[Apollo 15|AS-510 (''Apollo 15'')]], [[Apollo 16|AS-511 (''Apollo 16'')]], [[Apollo 17|AS-512 (''Apollo 17'')]], [[Skylab|AS-513 (Skylab 1)]] *'''Launch Complex 39B''' - [[Apollo 10|AS-505 (''Apollo 10'')]], [[Skylab 2|AS-206 (Skylab 2)]], [[Skylab 3|AS-207 (Skylab 3)]], [[Skylab 4|AS-208 (Skylab 4)]], [[Apollo-Soyuz|AS-210 (ASTP)]]. ==See also== *[[List of lunar astronauts]] *[[List of artificial objects on the Moon]] *[[Extra-vehicular activity]] - List and duration of moonwalks *[[Apollo moon landing hoax accusations]] *[[Splashdown]] *[[Ranger program]] *[[Soviet moonshot]] *[[Surveyor program]] *[[Lunar Orbiter program]] *[[Crew Exploration Vehicle]] *[[Space race]] *[[Launch complex 39]] ==References== * [[Gene Kranz|Kranz, Gene]], ''Failure is Not an Option''. Factual, from the standpoint of a chief flight controller during the [[Project Mercury|Mercury]], [[Project Gemini|Gemini]], and Apollo space programs. ISBN 0743200799 * Chaikin, Andrew. ''A Man on the Moon''. ISBN 0140272011. Chaikin has interviewed all the surviving [[astronaut]]s, plus many others who worked with the program. * [[Charles Shaar Murray|Murray, Charles]]; Cox, Catherine B. ''Apollo: The Race to the Moon''. ISBN 0671611011. This is an excellent account of what it took to build and fly Apollo. * Cooper, Henry S. F. Jr. ''Thirteen: The Flight That Failed''. ISBN 0801850975. Although this book focuses on Apollo 13, it is extremely well-researched and provides a wealth of background information on Apollo technology and procedures. * Wilhelms, Don E. ''To a Rocky Moon''. ISBN 0816510652. Tells the history of Lunar exploration from a geologist's point of view. * Pellegrino, Charles R.; Stoff, Joshua. ''Chariots for Apollo: The Untold Story Behind the Race to the Moon''. ISBN 0380802619. Tells [[Grumman Aerospace Corporation|Grumman]]'s story of building the Lunar Modules. * [[Jim Lovell|Lovell, Jim]]; Kluger, Jeffrey. ''Lost Moon: The perilous voyage of Apollo 13'' aka ''Apollo 13: Lost Moon''. ISBN 0618056653. Details the flight of Apollo 13. * [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Collins, Michael ]]. ''Carrying the Fire; an Astronaut's journeys''. Astronaut Mike Collins autobiography of his experiences as an astronaut, including his flight aboard Apollo 11, the first landing on the Moon * [[Deke Slayton|Slayton, Donald K.]]; Cassutt, Michael. ''Deke! An Autobiograpy''. ISBN 031285918X. This is an excellent account of Deke Slayton's life as an astronaut and of his work as chief of the astronaut office, including selection of the crews which flew Apollo to the Moon. *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19790020032_1979020032.pdf Chariots for Apollo: A history of Manned Lunar Spacecraft - NASA report (PDF format)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19690022643_1969022643.pdf The Apollo spacecraft. Volume 1 - A chronology: From origin to [[7 November]]. 1962 - (PDF format)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19740004394_1974004394.pdf The Apollo spacecraft: Volume 2 - A chronology: [[8 November]] [[1962]] - [[30 September]] [[1964]] - (PDF format)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19760014180_1976014180.pdf The Apollo spacecraft: Volume 3 - A chronology: [[1 October]] [[1964]] - [[20 January]] [[1966]] - (PDF format)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19800011953_1980011953.pdf The Apollo spacecraft: Volume 4 - A chronology: [[21 January]] [[1966]] - [[13 July]] [[1974]] - (PDF format)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19750013242_1975013242.pdf Apollo program summary report: Synopsis of the Apollo program - NASA report (PDF format)] ==External links== * [http://moonpans.com/missions.htm A Collection of Apollo Lunar Surface Panoramas] * [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/history/apollo/index.html Official Apollo program website] * [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/contents.html Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft By Courtney G Brooks, James M. Grimwood, Loyd S. Swenson] * [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm NASA SP-4009 The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology] * [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm SP-4029 Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff] * [http://history.nasa.gov/apollo.html The Apollo Program Page at the NASA History Division Website] * [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/frame.html The Apollo Lunar Surface Journal] * [http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/apollo/apollo.html Project Apollo (Kennedy Space Center)] * [http://history.nasa.gov/diagrams/apollo.html Project Apollo Drawings and Technical Diagrams] * [http://www.lunarrock.com/Inventory.asp Lunar Rock Inventory] * [http://www.Apolloarchive.com/ The Project Apollo Archive] * [http://www.globalcuts.com/NASA/stock_footage_trailer_movie.htm Spirit of Apollo] Apollo 11 Memorial Video * [http://www.nasm.si.edu/collections/imagery/Apollo/Apollo.htm The Apollo Program (National Air and Space Museum)] * [http://sourceforge.net/projects/nassp/ Project Apollo for Orbiter spaceflight simulator] * [http://moon.google.com/ Google Moon: interactive map of the Moon and Apollo landing sites] {{US manned space programs | before=[[Project Gemini|Gemini]] | after=[[Skylab]]}} [[Category:Human spaceflight programmes]] [[Category:Apollo program| ]] {{Link FA|pt}} {{Link FA|pt}} [[ca:Programa Apollo]] [[cs:Program Apollo]] [[da:Apollo-programmet]] [[de:Apollo-Projekt]] [[es:Programa Apollo]] [[eo:Projekto Apollo]] [[fr:Programme Apollo]] [[gl:Misión Apolo]] [[ko:아폴로 계획]] [[it:Progetto Apollo]] [[he:תוכנית אפולו]] [[hu:Apollo-program]] [[nl:Apolloprogramma]] [[nds:Apollo-Programm]] [[ja:アポロ計画]] [[no:Apolloprogrammet]] [[pl:Program Apollo]] [[pt:Projeto Apollo]] [[sk:Program Apollo]] [[fi:Apollo (avaruusohjelma)]] [[sv:Apolloprogrammet]] [[ta:அப்பல்லோ திட்டம்]] [[zh:阿波罗计划]] 1462 15899943 2002-05-21T21:53:42Z Maveric149 62 #redirect [[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]] #redirect [[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]] 1465 15899945 2004-08-26T08:11:59Z Stan Shebs 7777 #REDIRECT [[AutoLISP]] #REDIRECT [[AutoLISP]] 1466 39685782 2006-02-15T03:54:42Z BDAbramson 196446 [[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up {{CrimLaw}} {{otheruses}} '''Assault''' is a [[crime]] of [[violence]] against another [[human|person]]. In some [[jurisdiction]]s, assault is used to refer to the actual violence, while in other jurisdictions (e.g. some in the [[United States]], [[England and Wales]]), assault refers only to the threat of violence, while the actual violence is [[battery (crime)|battery]]. '''Simple assaults''' do not involve deadly [[weapon]]s; '''[[aggravated assault]]s''' often do. Assault is often defined to include not only violence, but any physical contact with another person without their consent. When assault is defined like this, exceptions are provided to cover such things as normal social behavior (for example, patting someone on the back). [[English law]] makes distinctions based on the degree of injury, between: * [[common assault]] (which can be even the most minor assault) * assault with [[actual bodily harm]] (ABH) * assault with [[grievous bodily harm]] (GBH) ==American Jurisprudence== American '''[[common law]]''' has traditionally defined assault as an attempt to commit a [[battery (crime)|battery]]. Assault is typically treated as a [[misdemeanor]] and not as a [[felony]]. The more serious crime of [[aggravated assault]] is treated as a felony. Four elements were required at common law: 1) The apparent, present ability to carry out; 2) an unlawful attempt; 3) to commit a violent injury; 4) upon another. As the criminal law evolved, element 1 was weakened in most jurisdictions so that a reasonable fear of bodily injury would suffice. These four elements were eventually codified in most States. Modern American statutes define assault as: 1) an attempt to cause or purposely, knowingly, or recklessly causing bodily injury to another; or, 2) negligently causing bodily injury to another with a deadly weapon. The requirement is that a person be the subject of the attack or threatened attack. The principle underlying the [[Unborn Victims of Violence Act]] 2004 applies only to offenses over which the [[United States]] government has jurisdiction, namely crimes committed on [[Federal Government of the United States|Federal]] properties, against certain [[Federal Government of the United States|Federal]] officials and employees, and by members of the military, and treats the [[fetus]] as a separate person for the purposes of all levels of assault including [[murder]] and [[attempted murder]]: "Sec. 1841. Protection of unborn children :(a)(1) Whoever engages in conduct that violates any of the provisions of law listed in subsection (b) and thereby causes the death of, or bodily injury (as defined in section 1365) to, a child, who is in utero at the time the conduct takes place, is guilty of a separate offense under this section. :(2)(A) Except as otherwise provided in this paragraph, the punishment for that separate offense is the same as the punishment provided under Federal law for that conduct had that injury or death occurred to the unborn child's mother. :2(B) An offense under this section does not require proof that-- ::(i) the person engaging in the conduct had knowledge or should have had knowledge that the victim of the underlying offense was pregnant; or ::(ii) the defendant intended to cause the death of, or bodily injury to, the unborn child. :2(C) If the person engaging in the conduct thereby intentionally kills or attempts to kill the unborn child, that person shall instead of being punished under subparagraph (A), be punished as provided under sections 1111, 1112, and 1113 of this title for intentionally killing or attempting to kill a human being." Some States also define assault as an attempt to menace (or actual menacing) by placing another person in fear of imminent serious bodily injury. States vary as to whether it is possible to commit an "attempted assault" since it can be considered a double [[inchoate]] offense. In some States, [[consent (criminal)|consent]] is a complete defense to assault. In other jurisdictions, mutual consent is an incomplete defense, with the result that the [[misdemeanor]] is treated as a '''[[petty misdemeanor]]'''. ===Example=== Two men wave metal pipes threateningly at each other in an alley. They are ten feet away from each other. When one man advances, the other retreats, maintaining the distance between them. The police come and break up the disturbance. They charge each man with assault. The men would probably not be found guilty in an American common law jurisdiction. Being ten feet away does not make it likely or apparent that he would have the present ability to carry out an unlawful act. However, they would probably be found guilty in a modern American jurisdiction. Each actor is trying to cause bodily injury to another and the fear of bodily injury is reasonable. Some possible examples of defenses, mitigating circumstances, or failures of proof are: *A defendant could argue that since he was drunk, he could not form the [[intention (criminal)|specific intent]] to commit assault. This defense would most likely fail since only involuntary [[intoxication defense|intoxication]] is accepted as a defense in most American jurisdictions. *The defendants could also argue that they were engaged in mutually consensual behavior. ==General defenses to assaults== Although the range and precise application of defenses varies between jurisdictions, the folloiwng represents a list of the defenses that may apply to all levels of assault: ===Consent=== [[consent (criminal)|Consent]] may a complete or partial defense to assault. In some jurisdictions, most notably [[England]], it is not a defense where the degree of injury is severe: see [http://www.lawteacher.net/Criminal/Non%20Fatal%20Assaults/Consent%20R%20v%20Brown.htm R v Brown (1993) 2 All ER 75]). This can have important consequences when dealing with issues such as consensual [[sadomasochism|sadomasochistic]] [[sexual activity]], the most notable case being the [[Operation Spanner]] case. ===Arrest and other official acts=== [[Police officers]] and court officials have a general power to use force for the purpose of effecting an [[arrest]] or generally carrying out their official duties. Thus, a court officer taking possession of goods under a court order may use force if reasonably necessary, etc. ===Punishment=== In some jurisdictions, [[caning]] and other forms of [[corporal punishment]] are a part of the [[culture]]. Self-evidently, if it is a state-administered [[punishment]], e.g. as in [[Singapore]], the officers who physically adminster the punishment have [[immunity]]. Some states also permit the use of less severe punishment for [[child]]ren in [[school]] and at home by [[parent]]s. In [[English law]], s58 Children Act 2004, limits the availability of the lawful correction defense to common assault under s39 Criminal Justice Act 1988. ===Self-defense=== [[Self-defense (theory)|Self defense and defense of others]] may be defenses to liability. They usually require that the degree of force used was both reasonable and proportionate to the degree of force threatened. ===Prevention of crime=== This may or may not involve self defense in that, using a reasonable degree of force to prevent another from committing a crime could involve preventing an assault, but it could be preventing a crime not involving the use of personal violence. ===[[Defense of property]]=== Some states allow force to be used to prevent damage to valuable property either in its own right, or under one or both of the preceding classes of defense in that a threat or attempt to damage property might be considered a crime (in English law, under s5 [[Criminal Damage Act 1971]] it may be argued that the defendant has a ''lawful excuse'' to damaging property during the defense and a defense under s3 Criminal Law Act 1967) subject to the need to deter [[vigilante]]s and excessive self-help. ==See also== * [[Affray]] * [[Assault (tort)]] * [[Gay-bashing]] * [[Hate crime]] * [[Domestic violence]] * [[Offences Against The Person Act 1861]] * [[Battery (crime)|Battery]] * [[Misdemeanor]] * [[Terrorism|Terroristic Threats]] * [[Mayhem (crime)|Mayhem]] [[Category:Assault|*]] [[Category:Crimes]] [[Category:Violence]] [[es:Asalto]] [[sv:Misshandel]] 1476 15899947 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Prime Minister of Australia]] 1478 40099442 2006-02-18T03:09:17Z Mceder 126127 Bahusia -> Bohuslän :''Alfheim redirects here. For other uses, see [[Alfheim (disambiguation)]]'' '''Álfheim''' (''[[Old Norse language|Old Norse]]'' '''Álfheimr''' 'Elf-home') is the abode of the ''Álfar'' '[[Elves]]' in [[Norse Mythology|Norse mythology]] and appears also in northern [[English ballads]] under the forms '''Elfhame''' and '''Elphame''', sometimes modernized as '''Elfland''' or '''Elfenland'''. It is also an ancient name for the modern Swedish province of [[Bohuslän]]. ==The Elven abode== ===In Old Norse texts=== Álfheim as an abode of the Elves is mentioned only twice in [[Old Norse]] texts. The [[eddic poem]] ''[[Grimnismal|Grímnismál]]'' describes twelve divine dwellings beginning in stanza&nbsp;5 with: <blockquote><blockquote>Ydalir call they &nbsp; &nbsp; the place where [[Ullr|Ull]]<br/> A hall for himself hath set;<br/> And Álfheim the gods &nbsp; &nbsp; to [[Freyr|Frey]] once gave<br/> As a tooth-gift in ancient times.</blockquote></blockquote> A [[tooth-gift]] was a gift given to an [[infant]] on the cutting of the first tooth. [[Snorri Sturluson]] in the ''[[Gylfaginning]]'' relates as the first of a series of abodes in heaven: <blockquote>That which is called Álfheim is one, where dwell the peoples called [[Light Elves|Light-elves]] [''Ljósálfar'']; but the [[Dark elf|Dark-elves]] [''dökkálfar''] dwell down in the earth, and they are unlike in appearance, but by far more unlike in nature. The Light-elves are fairer to look upon than the sun, but the Dark-elves are blacker than pitch. </blockquote> The account later, in speaking of a hall called [[Gimli|Gimlé]] and the southernmost end of heaven that shall survive when heaven and earth have passed away, explains: <blockquote>It is said that another heaven is to the southward and upward of this one, and it is called [[Andlang]] [''Andlangr'' 'Endlong'] but the third heaven is yet above that, and it is called [[Vídbláin]] [''Vídbláinn'' 'Wide-blue'] and in that heaven we think this abode is. But we believe that none but Light-Elves inhabit these mansions now.</blockquote> It is not indicated whether these heavens are identical to Álfheim or distinct. Some texts read Vindbláin (''Vindbláinn'' 'Wind-blue') instead of Vídbláin. Modern commentators speculate (or sometimes state as fact) that Álfheim was one of the nine worlds (''heima'') mentioned in stanza&nbsp;2 of the eddic poem ''[[Völuspá]]''. ===In English text=== In several [[Scots language|Scots]] and [[English language|English]] [[ballad]]s about the [[fairy|fairies]] and their lore, the realm of the those folk is called ''Elphame'' or ''Elfhame'', though at other times ''Elfland'' or '''Elfenland''. The fairy queen is often called the "Queen of Elphame" in ballads such as that of [[Thomas the Rhymer]]: <blockquote><blockquote>'I'm not the Queen of Heaven, Thomas,<br/> That name does not belong to me;<br/> I am but the Queen of fair Elphame<br/> Come out to hunt in my follie.'</blockquote></blockquote> Elfhame, or Elfland, is portrayed in a variety of ways in these ballads and stories, most commonly as mystical and benevolent, but also at times as sinister and wicked. The mysteriousness of the land, and its otherworldly powers are a source of scepticism and distrust in many tales. Examples of journeys to the realm include "Thomas the Rhymer" and the fairy tale "[[Childe Rowland]]", the latter being a particularly negative view of the land. ===Used by J. R. R. Tolkien=== The twentieth century fantasy writer [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] Anglicized the Old Norse name ''Álfheim'' as ''[[Elvenhome]]'' which is imagined in his tales as lying in a coastal region of the [[Undying Lands]] in the far west. The High King of the Elves in the west was [[Ingwë]], an echo of the name [[Yngvi]] often found as a name for Frey, whose abode was in ''Álfheim'' according to the ''Grímnismál''. ==The region in Scandinavia== ===About the region and its folk=== The [[Ynglinga saga]], when relating the events of the reign of King [[Gudröd the Hunter|Gudröd]] (''Guðröðr'') the Hunter relates: <blockquote>Álfheim, at that time, was the name of the land between the ''Raumelfr'' ['Raum Elf river', the modern Glomma river] and the ''Gautelfr'' ['Gaut Elf river', the modern Göta älv].</blockquote> The words "at that time" indicates the name for the region was archaic or obsolete by the [[13th century]]. The element ''elfr'' is a common word for 'river' and appears in other river names. It is cognate with [[Middle Low German]] ''elve'' 'river' and the name of the river [[Elbe]]. The Raum Elf marked the border of the region of Raumaríki and the Gaut Elf marked the border of Gautland (modern [[Götaland]]). It corresponds closely to the historical Swedish province of [[Bohuslän]]. The name Álfheim here may have nothing to do with ''Álfar'' 'Elves', but may derive from a word meaning 'gravel layer'. However the ''[[Thorsteins saga Víkingssonar]] '' claims that the two rivers and the country was named from King Álf the Old (''Álfr hinn gamli'') who once ruled there, and that his descendants were all related to the Elves and were more handsome than any other people except for the giants, a unique and possibly corrupt reference to giants being especially good looking. The ''[[Sögubrot af Nokkrum]]'' also mentions the special good looks of the kindred of King Álf the Old. ===Traditions of Álf the Old=== According to ''Thorsteins saga Víkingssonar'', King Álf the Old was married to Bryngerd (''Bryngerðr'') the daughter of King '''[[Raum the Old|Raum]]''' of Raumaríki. But according to the ''[[Hversu Noregr byggdist]]'', Álf, also called Finnálf, was a son of King Raum who inherited from his father the land from the Gaut Elf river (the modern [[Göta älv]] river) north to the Raum Elf river (the modern [[Glomma]] river), and that the land was then called Álfheim. Finnálf married Svanhild (''Svanhildr'') who was called Gold-feather (''Gullfj&#491;ðr'') and was the daughter of Day (''[[Dagr]]'') son of Dayspring (''[[Delling]]r'') by Sun (''[[Sol (goddess)|Sól]]'') daughter of ''[[Mundilfari]]''. Dag as a personification of day and the sun-goddess Sól are mentioned elsewhere, but only the ''Hversu'' mentions their daughter. Svandhild bore Finnálf a son named Svan the Red (''Svanr inn Rauðr'') who was father of Sæfari, father of Úlf (''Úlfr''), father of Álf, father of Ingimund (''Ingimundr'') and Eystein (''Eysteinn''). According to the eddic poem ''[[Hyndluljód]]'' (stanza&nbsp;12), Óttar, whose genealogy is the subject of this poem, was son of Innstein (''Innsteinn''), son of Álf the Old, son of Úlf, son of Sæfari, son of Svan the Red. So the Innstein of the ''Hyndluljód'' and ''Eystein'' of the ''Hversu'' are presumably identical. ===Later kings of Álfheim=== ====Stuff of Legend==== Later kings are mentioned in some sagas. According to [[Saxo Grammaticus]]' ''[[Gesta Danorum]]'' (Book 8), the sons of King [[Gandálf the Old]] joined King [[Harald Hildetand|Harald]] for the [[battle of Bråvalla]]. The ''[[Sögubrot af Nokkrum|Sögubrot]]'' names the sons of Gandálf as Álfar (''Álfarr'') and Álfarin (''Álfarinn'') and makes them members of King Harald's bodyguard. Presumably they died in the battle. But the kingdom of this Gandálf is not identified in these texts. The ''Sögubrot'' also relates that [[Sigurd Ring|Sigurd Hring]] (''Sigurðr Hringr''), who was Harald's viceroy on the Swedish throne, married Álfhild, the daughter of King Álf the Old of Álfheim. But in a later passage she appears as a descendant of King Álf. The ''Hversu Novegr byggdist'' provides instead a lineage of King Álf the Old of Álfheim who was father of Álfgeir the father of Gandálf the father of Álfhild the mother of the famous [[Ragnar Lodbrok]] (by Sigurd Hring). That Álfhild's father was the same Gandálf whose sons were at the Battle of Bravalla makes good sense in legendary chronology. But this genealogy may have resulted from misidentification of Gandálf the Old of the battle of Bråvalla with Gandálf son of Álfgeir of the ''[[Ynglinga saga]]'' who is discussed below. Or if the two Gandálfs may be rightly identified then the chronology is badly garbled. In all these accounts, the son of Hring and Álfhild was supposedly the famous Ragnar Lodbrok, husband of [[Áslaug]] (''Áslaugr'') the mother of Sigurd Hart (''Sigurðr Hj&#491;rt'') whose daughter Ragnhild (''Ragnhildr'') married [[Halfdan the Black]] and bore to him [[Harald I of Norway|Harald Fairhair]], the first historic king of all Norway. ''[[Illuga saga Gríðarfóstra]]'' relates of a king Áli of Alfheim and his queen Alfrun. When the queen died, the king married a beautiful but evil woman named Grimhild. She murdered him and tyrannized Alfheim until it was laid waste. His daughter Signy would marry king Hringr of Denmark. ====On the borders of history==== The ''Ynglinga saga'', ''Saga of Halfdan the Black'', and ''Saga of Harald Fairhair'', all included in the ''[[Heimskringla]]'', tell of kings of Álfheim at the end of the legendary period: * '''Álf:''' His daughter Álfhild (''Álfhildr'') married King [[Gudröd the Hunter]] of [[Raumaríki]] and [[Vestfold|Westfold]] who brought with her half of the territory of [[Vingulmork]] as her dowry. She bore to Gudröd a son named Óláf (''Óláfr'') who was afterwards named Geirstada-Álf (''Geirstaða-Álfr'') and was the elder half-brother of [[Halfdan the Black]]. * '''Álfgeir:''' He as son of Álf. He regained Vingulmork and placed his son Gandálf (''Gandálfr'') over it as king. * '''Gandálf:''' He was son of Álfgeir. Since this Gandálf was an older contemporary of Harald Fairhair and since the historical Viking leaders identified as sons of Ragnar Lodbrok in some traditions were also contemparies of Harald Fairhair, it is not impossible that Álfhild, the supposed mother of Ragnar Lodbrok, was the daughter of this Gandálf as the ''Hversu Noregr byggdist'' states. What is told in the ''[[Heimskringla]]'' is that after many indecisive battles between Gandálf and Halfdan the Black, Vingulmork was divided between them, Halfdan regaining the portion which had been the dowry of his grandfather's first wife Álfhild. Two sons of Gandálf named Hýsing (''Hýsingr'') and Helsing (''Helsingr'') later led a force against Halfdan but fell in battle and a third son named Haki fled into Álfheim. When Halfdan's son Harald Fairhair succeeded his father, Gandálf and his son Haki were both part of an alliance of kings who attacked Harald. Haki was slain but Gandálf escaped. There was further war between Gandálf and Harald. At last Gandálf fell in battle and Harald seized all of Gandálf's land up to the Raum Elf river, at that time not taking Álfheim itself. But later parts of his saga show Harald in full control of the land west of the Gaut Elf river showing that Álfheim did soon become part of his kingdom. From that point it ceased to be an independent region. The Saga of Harald Fairhair relates that it was first conquered by the Swedish king Eirik Eymundsson ([[Erik Anundsson]]) who lost it to Harald Fairhair. ==Variant spellings== Variant Anglicizations are: '''Álf''': ''Alf''&nbsp;; '''Álfar''': ''Alfar''&nbsp;; '''Álfarin''': ''Alfarin''&nbsp;; '''Álfgeir''': ''Alfgeir''&nbsp;; '''Álfheim''': ''Alfheim''&nbsp;; '''Álfhild''': ''Alfhild''&nbsp;; '''Áslaug''': ''Aslaug''&nbsp;; '''Finnálf''': ''Finnalf''&nbsp;; '''Frey''': ''Freyr''&nbsp;; '''Gandálf''': ''Gandalf''&nbsp;; '''Gimlé''': ''Gimle''&nbsp;; '''Grímnismál''': ''Grimnismal''&nbsp;; '''Gudröd''': ''Gudrod'', ''Guthröth''&nbsp;; '''Haki''': ''Hake''&nbsp;; '''Halfdan the Black''': ''Hálfdan the Black''&nbsp;; '''Raumaríki''': ''Raumarike'', ''Raumarik'', ''Raum's-ric''&nbsp;; '''Sæfari''': ''Saefari''&nbsp;; '''Sigurd Hart''': ''Sigurd Hjort'', ''Sigurth Hart''&nbsp;; '''Sigurd Hring''': ''Sigurd Ring'', ''Sigurth Hring''&nbsp;; '''Sól''': ''Sol''&nbsp;; '''Úlf''': ''Ulf''&nbsp;; '''Ull''': ''Ullr''&nbsp;; '''Völuspá''': ''Voluspá''. {{NorseMythology}} [[Category:Locations in Norse mythology|Alfheim]] [[da:Alfheim]] [[de:Lichtelfenheim]] [[es:Alfheim]] [[fr:Alfheim]] [[lt:Alfheimas]] [[nl:Alfheim]] [[no:Alvheim]] [[pt:Alfheim]] [[ru:Льесальфахейм]] [[fi:Alfheim]] [[sv:Alfheim]] 1482 38695622 2006-02-08T00:53:27Z MTSbot 899034 robot Adding: lt [[Image:Faroe stamp 430 The First Human Beings.jpg|thumb|Ask and Embla on a postage stamp of the Faroe Islands, 2003 by [[Anker Eli Petersen]].]] In [[Norse Mythology]] '''Ask and Embla''' were the first two humans created by the gods, analogous with [[Adam and Eve]]. [[Odin]] and his brothers, [[Ve]] and [[Vili]], created all nine worlds of Norse cosmology. They then found two logs on a beach and gave them a human shape. Odin gave them the breath of life; Vili gave them wit and emotions; Ve gave them senses and speech. These two people, Ask ("[[ash (tree)|ash]]"), the male, and Embla ("[[elm]]"), became the progenitors of humanity; they lived in [[Midgard]]. ==Symbolism== The idea that the first humans were shaped from tree-trunks is apparently a part of the cyclic notions, where light and darkness relieve each other, separated by the semidarkness of the dawn and dusk. We all know the optical illusions of the twilight, where the outline of an object looks like a human being, an animal or some kind of living creature. But when we take a closer look we become aware that the object is a tree-trunk, a tuft or a boulder. The function of the gods as creators of the visible World is their capacity as the bringers of light and darkness. If you can imagine that a living creature can turn into a rock or a tree-trunk when the light arrives, then why not go the other way around and claim that the first humans originally were washed up [[driftwood]]? ==Micro cosmos== Another, just as legitimate explanation, could be conceptions concerning the Micro cosmos. According to this kind of notion, the Cosmos repeats itself in all things, great and small. Our ancestors knew of course, that the skeleton was the basic structure of the human body. The ribs of the chest, the arms and the fingers can associate to the branches of the treetop, while the feet and toes could pass for the roots of the tree. There are by the way, vague reminiscences of an ancient tree-cult in the [[Völuspá]]. The poem often touches on mythical notions regarding trees and woods. The ash and the elm-tree have always been regarded as suitable timber for everyday use. The wood was especially used as shafts on tools, bows, spears and arrows. ==External links== *[http://www.tjatsi.fo/show.php?sprog=5144b84d6c79ae59d7c8fccde1946e9e&side=8571e23dd92101768bc4ea08a59f0d82 Tjatsi.fo - Retelling and Interpretation of Völuspá] (Public Domain, by Anker Eli Petersen) {{NorseMythology}} {{interwikiconflict}} [[Category:Norse mythology]] [[ca:Ask]] [[da:Ask og Embla]] [[de:Ask und Embla]] [[es:Ask y Embla]] [[eo:Ask]] [[fr:Ask]] [[is:Askur og Embla]] [[lt:Askas ir Embla]] [[nl:Ask en Embla]] [[no:Ask og Embla]] [[nn:Ask og Embla]] [[pl:Ask i Embla]] [[pt:Ask]] [[sv:Ask och Embla]] 1484 39694073 2006-02-15T05:03:00Z Snottygobble 111359 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/201.245.183.18|201.245.183.18]] ([[User talk:201.245.183.18|talk]]) to last version by 87.122.33.171 [[Image:Alabama_River.jpg|300px|thumb|The Alabama River at [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] in 2004]] The '''Alabama River''', in the [[United States|U.S.]] state of [[Alabama]], is formed by the [[Tallapoosa River|Tallapoosa]] and [[Coosa River|Coosa]] rivers, which unite about six miles above [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]. It flows west as far as [[Selma, Alabama|Selma]], then southwest until, about 45 miles (72 km) from [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], it unites with the [[Tombigbee River|Tombigbee]] to form the [[Mobile River|Mobile]] and [[Tensas River|Tensas]] rivers, which discharge into [[Mobile Bay]]. The course of the Alabama is tortuous. Its width varies from 200 to 300 yards (200 to 300 m), and its depth from 3 to 7 feet (1 to 2 m). Its length as measured by the [[United States Geological Survey]] is 312 miles (502 km), and by steamboat measurement, 420 miles (676 km). The river crosses the richest agricultural and timber districts of the state, and [[railway]]s connect it with the [[mineral]] regions of north central Alabama. The principal tributary of the Alabama is the [[Cahaba River]] about 200 miles (300 km long, which enters it about 10 miles (16 km) below Selma. Of the rivers which form the Alabama, the Coosa crosses the mineral region of Alabama, and is navigable for light-draft boats from [[Rome, Georgia]] (where it is formed by the junction of the [[Oostanaula River|Oostanaula]] and [[Etowah River|Etowah]] rivers) to about 117 miles (188 km) above [[Wetumpka River|Wetumpka]] (about 102 miles below Rome and 26 miles (42 km) below Greensport), and from Wetumpka to its junction with the Tallapoosa; the channel of the river has been considerably improved by the federal government. The navigation of the Tallapoosa river which has its source in [[Paulding County, Georgia]], and is about 250 miles (400 km) long, is prevented by [[shoal]]s and a 60 foot (18 m) fall at Tallassee, a few miles north of its junction with the Coosa. The Alabama is navigable throughout the year. [[Category:Rivers of Alabama]] [[de:Alabama River]] [[ko:앨라배마 강]] [[pl:Alabama (rzeka)]] [[de:Alabama River]] 1485 41500986 2006-02-27T20:11:52Z William percy 630628 '''Alain de Lille''' (Alanus ab Insulis) (c. [[1128]] - [[1202]]), [[France|French]] [[theology|theologian]] and poet, was born, probably at [[Lille]], some years before 1128. Little is known of his life. He seems to have taught in the schools of [[Paris]], and he attended the [[Third Council of the Lateran|Lateran Council]] in [[1179]]. He afterwards inhabited [[Montpellier]] (he is sometimes called Alanus de Montepessulano), lived for a time outside the walls of any cloister, and finally retired to [[Citeaux]], where he died in 1202. He had a very widespread reputation during his lifetime and his knowledge, more varied than profound, caused him to be called ''Doctor universalis''. Among his very numerous works two poems entitle him to a distinguished place in the [[Latin literature]] of the middle ages; one of these, the ''De planctu naturae'', is an ingenious satire on the vices of humanity. He likened [[homosexual]] behavior to [[grammatical]] barbarism, thus creating the allegory of grammatical "conjugation" which was to have its successors throughout the Middle Ages. The ''Anticlaudianus'', a treatise on morals as [[Medieval allegory|allegory]], the form of which recalls the pamphlet of Claudian against Rufinus, is agreeably versified and relatively pure in its latinity. As a theologian Alain de Lille shared in the mystic reaction of the second half of the 12th century against the [[Scholasticism|scholastic philosophy]]. His [[mysticism]], however, is far from being as absolute as that of the Victorines. In the ''Anticlaudianus'' he sums up as follows: Reason, guided by prudence, can unaided discover most of the truths of the physical order; for the apprehension of religious truths it must trust to faith. This rule is completed in his treatise, ''Ars catholicae fidei'', as follows: Theology itself may be demonstrated by reason. Alain even ventures an immediate application of this principle, and tries to prove geometrically the dogmas defined in the [[Creed]]. This bold attempt is entirely factitious and verbal, and it is only his employment of various terms not generally used in such a connection ([[axiom]], [[theorem]], [[corollary]], etc.) that gives his treatise its apparent originality. Alain de Lille has often been confounded with other persons named Alain, in particular with Alain, archbishop of Auxerre, Alan, abbot of Tewkesbury, Alain de Podio, etc. Certain facts of their lives have been attributed to him, as well as some of their works: thus the ''Life of St Bernard'' should be ascribed to Alain of Auxerre and the ''Commentary upon Merlin'' to [[Alan, abbot of Tewkesbury|Alan of Tewkesbury]]. Neither is the philosopher of Lille the author of a ''Memoriale rerum difficilium'', published under his name; and it is exceedingly doubtful whether the ''Dicta Alani de lapide philocophico'' really issued from his pen. On the other hand, it now seems practically demonstrated that Alain de Lille was the author of the ''Ars catholicae fidei'' and the ''treatise Contra haereticos''. ----- {{1911}} ==External links== *http://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Alanus_ab_Insulis ==Resources== Dynes, Wayne R. ''Alan of Lille.'' [http://williamapercy.com/pub-EncyHom.htm '''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality.'''] Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.), Garland Publishing, 1990. p. 32. [[Category:1128 births]] [[Category:1202 deaths]] [[Category:French theologians]] [[Category:Scholastic philosophers]] [[de:Alanus ab Insulis]] [[fr:Alain de Lille]] [[gl:Alain de Lille]] [[it:Alano di Lilla]] [[la:Alanus ab Insulis]] [[sk:Alanus ab Insulis]] [[pl:Alan z Lille]] 1486 40775010 2006-02-22T23:02:01Z KocjoBot 467651 robot Adding: ca, nl The '''Alamanni''', '''Allemanni''', or '''Alemanni''' were an alliance of warbands formed from [[Germanic tribe]]s, first mentioned by [[Dio Cassius]] when they fought [[Caracalla]] in [[213]]. They apparently dwelt in the basin of the [[Main River|Main]], to the south of the [[Chatti]]. ==Tribal connections== The Alamanni emerged from the [[Irminones]]. According to [[Asinius Quadratus]] their name &mdash;"all men"&mdash;indicates that they were a conglomeration of various tribes formed into warbands, similar to the contemporary [[Huns]]. Another source {{fact}} claims the root of Alamann is ''al-'' from which are also derived Greek ''allos'' "other, alien" and Old High German ''Elisâzzo'' ", Elsaz or Alsace): "the land on the other side of the [[Rhine]]". There can be little doubt, however, that the ancient [[Hermunduri]] formed the bulk of the composite nation. Other groups included the [[Brisgavi]], [[Juthungi]], [[Bucinobantes]], [[Lentienses]], and perhaps the [[Armalausi]]. Close allies of the Alamanni were the East Germanic [[Suebi]], or Suabi (hence [[Swabia]]). The Hermunduri had apparently belonged to the Suebi, but it is likely enough that reinforcements from new Suebic tribes had now moved westward. In later times the names ''Alamanni'' and ''Suebi'' seem to become synonymous, although some of the Suebi later migrated to [[Hispania]] and established an independent kingdom there that endured well into the 6th century. ==Conflicts with the Roman Empire== The Alamanni were continually engaged in conflicts with the [[Roman Empire]]. They launched a major invasion of Gaul and northern [[Italy]] in [[268]], when the Romans were forced to denude much of their German frontier of troops in response to a massive invasion of the [[Goths]]. Their depredations in the three parts of Gaul remained traumatic: [[Gregory of Tours]] (died ca 594) mentions their destructive force at the time of [[Gallienus|Valerian and Gallienus]] (253&ndash;260), when the Alemanni assembled under their "king", whom he calls [[Chrocus]], "by the advice, it is said, of his wicked mother, and overran the whole of the Gauls, and destroyed from their foundations all the temples which had been built in ancient times. And coming to [[Clermont-Ferrand|Clermont]] he set on fire, overthrew and destroyed that shrine which they call ''Vasso Galatae'' in the Gallic tongue," martyring many Christians ([http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/gregory-hist.html#book3 ''Historia Francorum'' Book I.32&ndash;34]). Thus [[6th century]] Gallo-Romans of Gregory's class, surrounded by the ruins of [[Roman temple]]s and public buildings, attributed the destruction they saw to the plundering raids of the Alemanni. In the early summer of 268, the [[Roman Emperors|Emperor]] [[Gallienus]] halted their advance in Italy, but then had to deal with the Goths. When the Gothic campaign ended in Roman victory at the [[Battle of Naissus]] in September, Gallienus' successor [[Claudius II|Claudius II Gothicus]] turned north to deal with the Alamanni, who were swarming over all Italy north of the [[Po River]]. After efforts to secure a peaceful withdrawal failed, Claudius forced the Alamanni to battle at the [[Battle of Lake Benacus]] in November. The Alamanni were routed, forced back into Germany, and did not threaten Roman territory for many years afterwards. Their most famous battle against Rome took place in Argentoratum ([[Strasbourg]]), in [[357]], where they were defeated by [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]], later Emperor of Rome, and their king Chnodomar ("[[Chonodomarius]]") was taken prisoner. On [[January 2]], [[366]] the Alamanni crossed the frozen [[Rhine]] in large numbers, to invade the Gallic provinces. In the great mixed invasion of [[406]], the Alamanni appear to have crossed the [[Rhine|Rhine river]], conquered and then settled what is today [[Alsace]] and a large part of [[Switzerland]]. [[Fredegar]]'s Chronicle gives an account. At ''Alba Augusta'' ([[Aps]]) the devastation was so complete, that the Christian bishopric was removed to [[Viviers]], but Gregory's account that at Mende in [[Lozère]], also deep in the heart of Gaul, bishop Privatus was forced to sacrifice to idols in the very cave where he was later venerated may be a generic literary trope epitomizing the horrors of barbarian violence. ===List of battles between Romans and Alamanni=== * [[268]], [[Battle of Lake Benacus]] &mdash; Romans under Emperor [[Claudius II]] defeat the Alamanni. * [[271]] ** [[Battle of Placentia]] &mdash; Emperor [[Aurelian]] is defeated by the Alamanni forces invading Italy ** [[Battle of Fano]] &mdash; Aurelian defeats the Alamanni, who begin to retreat from Italy ** [[Battle of Pavia (271)]] &mdash; Aurelian destroys the retreating Alamanni army. * [[298]] ** [[Battle of Lingones]] &mdash; [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] [[Constantius Chlorus]] defeats the Alamanni ** [[Battle of Vindonissa]] &mdash; Constantius again defeats the Alamanni * [[356]], [[Battle of Reims (356)|Battle of Reims]] &mdash; [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] is defeated by the Alamanni * [[357]], [[Battle of Strasbourg (357)|Battle of Strasbourg]] &mdash; Julian expels the Alamanni from the [[Rhineland]] * [[367]], [[Battle of Solicinium]] &mdash; Romans under Emperor [[Valentinian I]] defeat yet another Alamanni incursion. * [[378]], [[Battle of Argentovaria]] &mdash; Western Emperor [[Gratianus]] is victorious over the Alamanni, yet again. ==Alamanni and Franks== {{main|Alamannia}} The kingdom (or duchy) of [[Alamannia]] between Strasbourg and Augsburg lasted until [[496]], when the Alamanni were conquered by [[Clovis I]] at the [[Battle of Tolbiac]]. The war of Clovis with the Alamanni forms the setting for the conversion of Clovis, briefly treated by [[Gregory of Tours]] ([http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/gregory-clovisconv.html#n30 Book II.31]) Subsequently the Alamanni formed part of the [[Franks|Frankish]] dominions and were governed by a Frankish duke. In 746, [[Carloman%2C_son_of_Charles_Martel|Carloman]] ended an uprising by summarily executing all Alemannic nobility at the [[blood court at Cannstatt]], and for the following century, Alamannia was ruled by Frankish dukes. Following the [[treaty of Verdun]] of [[843]], Alamannia became a province of the eastern kingdom of [[Louis the German]], the precursor of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. The duchy persisted until [[1268]]. ==List of Alamannic rulers== '''Kings''' * [[Chrocus]] 306 * [[Mederich]] (father of Agenarich, brother to Chnodomar) * [[Chnodomar]] 350, 357 * [[Vestralp]] 357, 359 * [[Ur (Alamannic ruler)|Ur]] 357, 359 * [[Agenarich]] (Serapio) 357 * [[Suomar]] 357, 358 * [[Hortar]] 357, 359 * [[Gundomad]] 354 (co-regent of Vadomar) * [[Ursicin]] 357, 359 * [[Makrian]] 368&ndash;371 * [[Rando]] 368 * [[Hariobaud]] 4th c. * [[Vadomar]] vor 354&ndash;360 * [[Vithicab]] 360&ndash;368 * [[Priarius]] ?&ndash;378 * [[Gibuld]] (Gebavult) c. 470 '''Dukes under [[List of Frankish Kings|Frankish rule]]''' * [[Butilin]] 539&ndash;554 * [[Leuthari I]] before 552&ndash;554 * [[Haming]] 539&ndash;554 * [[Lantachar]] until 548 (Avenches diocese) * [[Magnachar]] 565 (Avenches diocese) * [[Vaefar]] 573 (Avenches diocese) * [[Theodefrid]] * [[Leutfred I]] until 588 * [[Uncilin]] 588&ndash;607 * [[Gunzo]] 613 * [[Chrodobert]] 630 * [[Leuthari II]] 642 * [[Gotfrid]] until 709 * [[Willehari]] 709&ndash;712 (in [[Ortenau]]) * [[Lantfrid]] 709&ndash;730 * [[Theudebald (Alamannic ruler)|Theudebald]] 709&ndash;744 ==Christianization== [[Christianization]] of the Alamanni took place during [[Merovingian]] times (6th to 8th centuries). Sources are sparse, but in the mid-6th century, the Byzantine chronicler [[Agathias of Myrina]] records, in the context of the wars of the Goths and Franks against Byzantium, that the Alamanni fighting among the troops of Frankish king [[Theudebald]] were like the Franks in all respects except religion, since they :"worship trees, rivers, hills and gorges as gods, and decapitate horses and cows, and innumerable other animals, as if it were a holy rite," also adding the particular ruthlessness of the Alamani in destroying Christian sanctuaries and plundering churches while the genuine Franks were respectful towards those sanctuaries. Agathias expresses his hope that the Alamanni would assume better manners through prolongued contact with the Franks, which is by all appearances what eventually happened. Apostles of the Alamanni were [[Saint Columbanus]] and his disciple [[Saint Gall]]. [[Jonas of Bobbio]] records that Columbanus was active in [[Bregenz]], where he disrupted a beer sacrifice to [[Wodan]]. For some time, the Alamanni seem to have continued their pagan cult activities, with only superficial or [[Syncretism|syncretistic]] Christian elements. In particular, there is no change in burial practice, and tumulus warrior graves continued to be erected throughout Merovingian times. Syncretism of traditional Germanic [[theriomorph|animal-style]] with Christian symbolism is also present in artwork, but Christian symbolism becomes more and more prevalent during the 7th century. Unlike the later Christianization of the Saxon and of the Slavs, the Alamanni seem to have adopted Christianity gradually, and voluntarily, spread by emulation of the Merovingian elite. From ca. the 520s to the 620s, there was a surge of Alamannic [[Elder Futhark]] inscriptions. About 80 specimens have survived, roughly half of them on [[fibula]]e, others on belt buckles (see [[Pforzen buckle]]) and other jewellry and weapon parts. Use of runes subsides with the advance of Christianity. The establishment of the bishopric of [[Constance]] cannot be dated exactly and was possibly undertaken by Columbanus himself (before 612). In any case, it existed by [[635]], when [[Gunzo]] appointed [[John of Grab]] bishop. Constance was a missionary bishopric in newly converted lands, and did not look back on late Roman church history (unlike [[Basel]], episcopal seat from [[740]], which continued the line of Bishops of [[Augusta Raurica]], see [[Bishop of Basel]], and the Raetian bishopric of [[Chur]], established [[451]]). The establishment of the church as an institution recognized by worldly rulers is also visible in legal history. The early 7th century ''[[Pactus Alamannorum]]'' marginally mentions special privileges of the church, while [[Lantfrid]]'s ''[[Lex Alamannorum]]'' of [[720]] has an entire chapter reserved for ecclesial matters. See also: [[Germanic Christianity]]. ==Modern Alemanni== ''Allemania'' lost its distinct jurisdictional identity when [[Charles Martel]] absorbed it into the Frankish empire, early in the 8th century. Today, ''Alemannic'' is a linguistic term, referring to [[Alemannic German]], encompassing the dialects of the southern two thirds of [[Baden-Württemberg]] (German State), in western [[Bavaria]] (German State), in [[Vorarlberg]] (Austrian State), [[Swiss German]] in Switzerland and the [[Alsatian language]] of the [[Alsace]] (France). The word "Frankish" eventually gave its name to [[France]] and [[Franconia]], while the Alamanni gave their name for "German" in French (''Allemand''), Spanish (''Alemán'') and Portuguese (''Alemão''). ==References== *''Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective (Studies in Historical Archaeoethnology)''; Ian Wood (Foreword) ISBN 1843830353 {{1911}} [[Category:Alamanni|*]] [[als:Alamannen]] [[br:Alemanned]] [[ca:Alaman]] [[de:Alamannen]] [[es:Alamanes]] [[fr:Alamans]] [[la:Alamanni]] [[nl:Alemannen]] [[pl:Alamanowie]] [[pt:Alamanos]] [[ru:Алеманны]] [[sl:Alemani]] [[fi:Alemannit]] [[sv:Alemanner]] [[uk:Алемани]] 1487 15899957 2003-03-06T17:20:24Z Mic 6273 Moved to Åland #redirect [[Åland]] 1488 41734446 2006-03-01T10:43:29Z 128.84.178.102 The '''American Stock Exchange''' ('''AMEX''') is a [[stock exchange]] operated by American Stock Exchange LLC, a subsidiary of the [[NASD]], in the [[United States|United States of America]]. [[Image:AMEX.jpg|250px|thumb|right|American Stock Exchange]] The Exchange traces its roots back to [[colonial]] times when [[stock broker]]s created outdoor markets to trade new government [[security (finance)|securities]]. The AMEX started out as such a market at the curbstone on Broad Street near Exchange Place. The curb brokers gathered around the lamp posts and mail boxes, resisting wind and weather, putting up lists of [[stock]]s for sale. As trading activity increased, the shouting reached such a high level that special hand signals had to be introduced so that the brokers could continue trading. In [[1921]] the market was moved indoors into the building where it still resides, and the hand signals remained in place for decades even after the move. In 1998, the American Stock Exchange merged with the National Association of Securities Dealers (operators of [[NASDAQ]]) to create "The Nasdaq-Amex Market Group" where AMEX is an independent entity of the NASD parent company. Out of the three major American stock exchanges, the AMEX is known to have the most liberal policies concerning company listing, as most of its companies are generally smaller compared to the NYSE and NASDAQ. The Amex also specialises in the trading of ETFs, and hybrid/structured securities. Located next to the [[World Trade Center]], it was tragically affected by the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], but has recovered well since then. ==See also== *[[Exchange-traded fund]] ([http://www.amex.com/?href=/etf/EtMain.jsp American Stock Exchange - ETFs]) * [[List of stock exchanges]] * [[NASDAQ]] * [[New York Stock Exchange]] (NYSE) * [[Stock exchange]] * [[Economy of New York City]] ==External links== * [http://www.amex.com/ American Stock Exchange website] [[Category:Stock exchanges]] [[Category:Stock exchanges in North America]] [[de:American Stock Exchange]] [[es:American Stock Exchange]] [[fr:American Stock Exchange]] [[sv:American Stock Exchange]] 1490 41777133 2006-03-01T17:55:19Z Rklawton 754622 /* Deaths */ added birth years {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=17}} |} '''[[August 17]]''' is the 229th day of the year (230th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 136 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1427]] - First band of gypsies visits Paris, according to an account of the [[citizen of Paris]] *[[1807]] - [[Robert Fulton]]'s first American [[steamboat]] leaves [[New York City]] for [[Albany, New York]] on the [[Hudson River]], inaugurating the first commercial steamboat service in the world. *[[1850]] - Argentine's War of Independence hero, General [[José de San Martín]], dies in Boulogne-sur-Mer (France), at the age of 77. *[[1862]] - [[Indian Wars]]: [[Lakota]] (Sioux) uprising begins in [[Minnesota]] as desperate Lakota attack white settlements along the [[Minnesota River]]. They will be overwhelmed by the U.S. military six weeks later. *[[1863]] - [[American Civil War]]: In [[Charleston, South Carolina]], [[United States|Union]] batteries and ships bombard [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]]-held [[Fort Sumter]]. Bombardment will not end until [[December 31]], 1863. *[[1864]] - American Civil War: Confederate forces defeated [[United States|Union]] troops at the [[Battle of Gainesville]]. *[[1877]] - [[Arizona]] blacksmith F.P. Cahill is fatally wounded by [[Billy the Kid]]. Cahill will die the next day, becoming the first person killed by the Kid. *[[1883]] - [[Dominican Republic]] the first public performance of the Dominican National Anthem, [[Quisqueyanos valientes]] *[[1896]] - [[London]] - [[Bridget Driscoll]] becomes the first person in the world to die in an [[automobile]] accident after being struck by a car travelling about 4 MPH. *[[1914]] - [[World War I]]: The [[Germany|German]] army of General [[Hermann von Francois]] defeats the [[Russia]]n force commanded by [[Pavel Rennenkampf]] at the [[Battle of Stalluponen]]. *[[1915]] - [[Jew]]ish American [[Leo Frank]] is [[lynching|lynched]] for the alleged murder of a 13-year-old girl in [[Atlanta, Georgia]]. *[[1918]] - [[Bolshevik]] revolutionary leader [[Moisei Uritsky]] is [[assassination|assassinated]]. *[[1943]] - [[World War II]]: The US 7th Army under General [[George S. Patton]] arrive in [[Messina, Italy]], followed several hours later by the British 8th Army under Field Marshal [[Bernard L. Montgomery]], thus completing the [[Allies|Allied]] conquest of [[Sicily]]. *[[1945]] - [[Indonesia]] proclaims itself independent from the [[Netherlands]]. *[[1953]] - [[Addiction]]: First meeting of [[Narcotics Anonymous]] in Southern [[California]]. *[[1960]] - [[Gabon]] gains independence from [[France]]. *[[1962]] - [[East Germany|East German]] border guards kill 18-year-old [[Peter Fechter]] as he attempts to cross the [[Berlin Wall]] into West [[Berlin]]. He thus became the first victim of the wall. *[[1963]] - A ferry linking remote islands off the coast of [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]] sinks, killing 112. *[[1969]] - Category 5 [[Hurricane Camille]] hits the [[Mississippi]] coast, killing 248 people and causing $1.5 billion in damage. *[[1970]] - [[Venera program]]: [[Venera 7]] is launched. It will later becomes the first spacecraft to successfully transmit data from the surface of another [[planet]], [[Venus (planet)|Venus]]. *[[1978]] - ''[[Double Eagle II]]'' becomes first [[balloon]] to cross the [[Atlantic Ocean]] when it lands in [[Miserey]] near [[Paris]], 137 hours after leaving [[Presque Isle, Maine]]. *[[1979]] - Two [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Aeroflot]] jetliners collide in mid-air over [[Ukraine]], killing 156 *[[1980]] - [[Azaria_Chamberlain_disappearance|Azaria Chamberlain disappears]], likely taken by a [[dingo]], leading to what was then the most [[trial by media|publicised trial]] in [[Australian history]]. *[[1988]] - [[Pakistan]]i President [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]] and US Ambassador [[Arnold Raphel]] are killed in a plane crash. *[[1989]] - Paul Murphy is born in Belfast *[[1991]] - Wade Frankum starts his killing spree in Strathfield, Australia, an event that was later dubbed the [[Strathfield Massacre]]. *[[1998]] - [[Monica Lewinsky scandal]]: [[US President]] [[Bill Clinton]] admits in taped testimony that he had an "improper physical relationship" with [[White House]] intern [[Monica Lewinsky]]. On the same day he admits before the nation that he "misled people" about his relationship. *[[1999]] - A 7.4-magnitude [[earthquake]] strikes [[1999 Izmit, Turkey Earthquake|Izmit, Turkey]], killing more than 17,000 and injuring 44,000. *[[2002]] - In [[Santa Rosa, California]], the [[Charles M. Schulz]] Museum opens to the public. *[[2004]] - [[MD5]] collision found by [[China|Chinese]] researchers. *2004 - The [[National Assembly of Serbia]] unanimously adopts new state symbols for [[Serbia]]: [[Boze Pravde]] becomes the new anthem and the [[Serbian coat of arms|coat of arms]] is adopted for the whole country. *[[2005]] - The first forced [[evacuation]] of [[settlers]], as part of the [[Israel unilateral disengagement plan]], starts. ==Births== *[[1473]] - [[Richard, Duke of York (Prince in the Tower)|Richard, Duke of York]], one of the [[Princes in the Tower]] (d. [[1483]]?) *[[1562]] - [[Hans Leo Hassler]] (baptised), German composer (d. [[1612]]) *[[1578]] - [[Francesco Albani]], Italian painter (d. [[1660]]) *[[1601]] - [[Pierre de Fermat]], French mathematician (d. [[1665]]) *[[1629]] - King [[John III of Poland]] (d. [[1696]]) *[[1786]] - [[Davy Crockett]], frontiersman, soldier (d. [[1836]]) *[[1828]] - [[Jules Bernard Luys]], French neurologist (d. [[1897]]) *[[1844]] - Emperor [[Menelek II of Ethiopia]] (d. [[1913]]) *[[1866]] - [[Julia Marlowe]], nee Sarah Frost, Shakespearean actress (d. [[1950]]) *[[1882]] - [[Samuel Goldwyn]], Hollywood producer (d. [[1974]]) *[[1887]] - [[Marcus Garvey]], Jamaican leader, [[Rastafari movement|Rastafari]] prophet (d. [[1940]]) *1887 - Emperor [[Charles I of Austria]] (d. [[1922]]) *[[1893]] - [[Mae West]], American actress and playwright (d. [[1980]]) *[[1904]] - [[Leopold Nowak]], Austrian musicologist *[[1911]] - [[Mikhail Botvinnik]], chess player (d. [[1995]]) *[[1913]] - [[W. Mark Felt]], [[FBI]] associate director and [[Deep Throat (Watergate)|Deep Throat]] [[Watergate]] informant *1913 - [[Rudy York]], baseball player (d. [[1970]]) *[[1920]] - [[Maureen O'Hara]], actress *[[1926]] - [[Jiang Zemin]], former [[President of the People's Republic of China]] *[[1929]] - [[Francis Gary Powers]], U-2 pilot (d. [[1977]]) *[[1930]] - [[Glenn Corbett]], actor (d. [[1993]]) *1930 - [[Ted Hughes]], English poet (d. [[1998]]) *[[1932]] - [[V. S. Naipaul]], West Indian-born writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate *[[1935]] - [[Oleg Tabakov]], Russian actor *[[1939]] - [[Luther Allison]], blues musician, guitarist *[[1943]] - [[Robert De Niro]], actor *[[1948]] - [[Rod MacDonald]], musician *[[1951]] - [[Alan Minter]], boxer *[[1952]] - [[Nelson Piquet]], Brazilian formula one driver *1952 - [[Guillermo Vilas]], Argentinian tennis player *[[1954]] - [[Eric Johnson]], guitarist *[[1958]] - [[Belinda Carlisle]], singer and guitarist *1958 - [[Kirk Stevens]], Canadian snooker player *[[1959]] - [[David Koresh]], American cult leader (d. [[1993]]) *[[1960]] - [[Sean Penn]], actor, director *[[1962]] - [[Gilby Clarke]], American musician [[Guns N' Roses]] *[[1964]] - [[Colin James]], blues musician *[[1966]] - [[Rodney Mullen]], American skateboarder *1966 - [[William E. Dudley]], American poet *[[1968]] - [[Ed McCaffrey]], American football player *[[1969]] - [[Donnie Wahlberg]], American actor and singer *[[1970]] - [[Jim Courier]], American tennis player *[[1971]] - [[Jorge Posada]], Puerto Rican [[Major League Baseball]] player *[[1977]] - [[Thierry Henry]], French footballer *1977 - [[Tarja Turunen]], Finnish singer ([[Nightwish]]) *1977 - [[William Gallas]], French footballer *[[1980]] - [[Lene Marlin]], Norwegian singer ==Deaths== *[[1153]] - [[Eustace IV of Boulogne]], son of [[Stephen of England]] *[[1304]] - [[Emperor Go-Fukakusa]] of Japan (b. [[1243]]) *[[1510]] - [[Edmund Dudley]], English statesman *[[1657]] - [[Robert Blake (admiral)|Robert Blake]], British admiral (b. [[1599]]) *[[1676]] - [[Hans Jakob Christoph von Grimmelshausen]], German novelist *[[1673]] - [[Regnier de Graaf]], Dutch physician and anatomist (b. [[1641]]) *[[1720]] - [[Anne Lefèvre]], French scholar (b. [[1654]]) *[[1723]] - [[Joseph Bingham]], English scholar (b. [[1668]]) *[[1768]] (N. S.) - [[Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky]], Russian poet (b. [[1703]]) *[[1785]] - [[Jonathan Trumbull]], Governor of the Colony and the state of Connecticut (b. [[1710]]) *[[1786]] - King [[Frederick II of Prussia]] (b. [[1712]]) *[[1834]] - [[Husein Gradaščević]], Bosniak rebel leader (b. [[1802]]) *[[1850]] - [[Don José de San Martín]], Argentine general (b. [[1778]]) *[[1875]] - [[Wilhelm Bleek]], linguist (b. [[1827]]) *[[1880]] - [[Ole Bull]], Norwegian violinist (b. [[1810]]) *[[1896]] - [[Bridget Driscoll]], world's first automobile fatality *[[1901]] - [[Edmond Audran]], French composer (b. [[1842]]) *[[1925]] - [[Ioan Slavici]], Transylvanian writer of Romanian origin (b. [[1848]]) *[[1954]] - [[Billy Murray (singer)|Billy Murray]], recording artist (b. [[1877]]) *[[1969]] - [[Otto Stern]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1888]]) *[[1973]] - [[Jean Barraqué]], French composer (b. [[1928]]) *1973 - [[Paul Williams (The Temptations)|Paul Williams]], American singer ([[The Temptations]]) (b. [[1939]]) *1973 - [[Conrad Aiken]], American author (b. [[1889]]) *[[1979]] - [[Vivian Vance]], actress (b. [[1909]]) *[[1983]] - [[Ira Gershwin]], American lyricist (b. [[1896]]) *[[1987]] - [[Rudolf Hess]], Nazi deputy (b. [[1894]]) *[[1988]] - [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]], [[President of Pakistan]] (b. [[1924]]) *[[1990]] - [[Pearl Bailey]], American singer and actress (b. [[1918]]) *[[1992]] - [[Al Parker]], actor (b. [[1952]]) *[[2004]] - [[Gérard Souzay]], French baritone (b. [[1918]]) *[[2005]] - [[John Bahcall]], astrophysicist (b. [[1934]]) == External links == * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/17 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[August 16]] - [[August 18]] - [[July 17]] - [[September 17]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:17 Augustus]] [[ar:17 أغسطس]] [[an:12 d'agosto]] [[ast:17 d'agostu]] [[bg:17 август]] [[be:17 жніўня]] [[bs:17. avgust]] [[ca:17 d'agost]] [[cs:17. srpen]] [[cy:17 Awst]] [[da:17. august]] [[de:17. August]] [[et:17. august]] [[el:17 Αυγούστου]] [[es:17 de agosto]] [[eo:17-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 17]] [[fo:17. august]] [[fr:17 août]] [[fy:17 augustus]] [[ga:17 Lúnasa]] [[gl:17 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 17일]] [[hr:17. kolovoza]] [[io:17 di agosto]] [[id:17 Agustus]] [[ia:17 de augusto]] [[ie:17 august]] [[is:17. ágúst]] [[it:17 agosto]] [[he:17 באוגוסט]] [[jv:17 Agustus]] [[ka:17 აგვისტო]] [[csb:17 zélnika]] [[ku:17'ê gelawêjê]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 17]] [[lb:17. August]] [[hu:Augusztus 17]] [[mk:17 август]] [[nl:17 augustus]] [[ja:8月17日]] [[no:17. august]] [[nn:17. august]] [[oc:17 d'agost]] [[pl:17 sierpnia]] [[pt:17 de Agosto]] [[ro:17 august]] [[ru:17 августа]] [[scn:17 di austu]] [[simple:August 17]] [[sk:17. august]] [[sl:17. avgust]] [[sr:17. август]] [[fi:17. elokuuta]] [[sv:17 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 17]] [[tt:17. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 17]] [[th:17 สิงหาคม]] [[tr:17 Ağustos]] [[uk:17 серпня]] [[wa:17 d' awousse]] [[zh:8月17日]] 1491 41775777 2006-03-01T17:43:41Z Rklawton 754622 /* Deaths */ added birth year {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=12}} |} '''[[August 12]]''' is the 224th day of the year (225th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 141 days remaining. It is the peak of the [[Perseids|Perseid meteor shower]]. It is also known as the "[[Glorious Twelfth]]" in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], as it marks the traditional start of the [[grouse]] shooting season. ==Events== *[[490 BC]] - the [[Battle of Marathon]], in which [[Athens]] defeated an invasion army of [[Iran|Persians]], may have been fought on this date in the [[proleptic Julian calendar]] - but see [[12 September]]. * [[1099]] - The [[First Crusade]] concluded with a decisive victory in the [[Battle of Ascalon]] over [[Fatimid]] forces under [[Al-Afdal Shahanshah]]. * [[1121]] - The [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] army under King [[David the Builder]] won a decisive victory over the famous [[Seljuk]] commander [[Ilghazi]] at the [[Battle of Didgori]]. *[[1323]] - [[Treaty of Nöteborg]] - [[Sweden]] and [[Novgorod]] ([[Russia]]) regulates the border for the first time *[[1332]] - [[Battle of Dupplin Moor]] - Scots under the [[Donald Mormaer, 8th Earl of Mar|Earl of Mar]] routed by [[Edward Balliol]] *[[1676]] - [[Praying Indian]] [[John Alderman]] shot and killed [[Metacomet]] the [[Wampanoag]] war chief, ending [[King Philip's War]]. *[[1851]] - [[Isaac Singer]] granted a patent for his [[sewing machine]] *[[1854]] - Count [[Gaston de Raousset Boulbon]] is executed by shooting, in regard to the [[Battle of Guaymas]]. *[[1877]] - [[Asaph Hall]] discovers [[Deimos (moon)|Deimos]] *[[1883]] - The last [[quagga]] dies at the [[Artis Magistra zoo]] in [[Amsterdam]] *[[1898]] - Armistice ends the [[Spanish-American War]] *1898 - The [[flag of Hawaii|Hawaiian flag]] is lowered from [[Iolani Palace]] in an elaborate annexation ceremony and replaced with the American flag to signify the transfer of sovereignty from the [[Republic of Hawaii]] to the [[United States]]. *[[1908]] - First [[Ford Model T|Model T]] [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] built *[[1914]] - [[World War I]] - Britain declares war on [[Austria-Hungary]]; British Empire countries automatically included. *1914 - World War I: Beginning of the [[Battle of Cer]] between Austria-Hungary and [[Serbia]] *[[1952]] - The [[Night of the Murdered Poets]] - Prominent Jewish intellectuals were murdered in Moscow. *[[1953]] - [[Nuclear testing]]: The [[Soviet atomic bomb project]] proceeded with the detonation of ''[[Joe 4]]'', the first [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[thermonuclear weapon]]. *[[1960]] - ''[[Echo satellite|Echo I]]'', the first [[communications satellite]], launched *[[1966]] - [[Massacre of Braybrook Street]] as three policemen are shot dead in East Acton, London. *[[1978]] - [[Japan]] and [[China]] sign the [[Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Japan and the People's Republic of China]]. *[[1985]] - [[Japan Airlines Flight 123]], a [[Boeing 747]] jumbo jet, crashes into Mount Ogura in [[Gunma Prefecture]] [[Japan]] killing 520 in the world's worst single-plane air disaster. Four people miraculously survive. *[[1990]] - ''[[Sue]]'', the most complete [[skeleton]] of a ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'', was discovered near [[Faith, South Dakota|Faith]], [[South Dakota]]. *[[1992]] - Canada, Mexico and the United States announce completion of negotiations for the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]]. *[[1994]] - The [[Woodstock '94]] rock concert takes place. *1994 - [[Major League Baseball]] players go on strike. The work stoppage will force the cancellation of the [[World Series]]. *[[2000]] - The [[Oscar class submarine]] [[Russian submarine Kursk|K-141 ''Kursk'']] of the [[Russian Navy]] [[Russian submarine Kursk explosion|exploded and sank]] in the [[Barents Sea]] during a [[War exercise|military exercise]]. *[[2004]] - [[Sweden]]'s nine millionth inhabitant is born. *2004 - [[Lee Hsien Loong]] is sworn in as [[Singapore]]'s 3rd [[Prime Minister]]. *[[2005]] - [[Sri Lanka]]'s foreign minister, [[Lakshman Kadirgamar]], is fatally shot by a sniper in his home. *2005 - An F2 rated tornado strikes the coal mining town of [[Wright, Wyoming]], destroying nearly 100 homes and killing two people. *2005 - [[2005 Maldives civil unrest|Civil unrest]] provoked in the [[Maldives]] *2005 - An F-1 [[tornado]] strikes [[Glen Cove, New York]], a rare event on [[Long Island]] ==Births== *[[1503]] - [[Christian III of Denmark and Norway]] (d. [[1559]]) *[[1566]] - [[Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain]] (d. [[1633]]) *[[1604]] - [[Tokugawa Iemitsu]], Japanese shogun (d. [[1651]]) *[[1626]] - [[Giovanni Legrenzi]], Italian composer (d. [[1690]]) *[[1629]] - Tsar [[Alexei I of Russia]] (d. [[1676]]) *[[1643]] - King [[Afonso VI of Portugal]] (d. [[1683]]) *[[1644]] - [[Heinrich Ignaz Biber]], Bohemian composer (d. [[1704]]) *[[1647]] - [[Johann Heinrich Acker]], German writer (d. [[1719]]) *[[1686]] - [[John Balguy]], English philosopher (d. [[1748]]) *[[1696]] - [[Maurice Greene (composer)|Maurice Greene]], English composer (d. [[1755]]) *[[1720]] - [[Konrad Ekhof]], German actor (d. [[1778]]) *[[1762]] - King [[George IV of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1830]]) *[[1774]] - [[Robert Southey]], English poet and biographer (d. [[1843]]) *[[1831]] - [[Helena Blavatsky]], Ukrainian-born author (d. [[1891]]) *[[1856]] - [["Diamond Jim" Brady]], American financier (d. [[1917]]) *[[1859]] - [[Katharine Lee Bates]], American poet (d. [[1929]]) *[[1866]] - [[Jacinto Benavente]], Spanish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1954]]) *[[1867]] - [[Edith Hamilton]], German classicist (d. [[1963]]) *[[1876]] - [[Mary Roberts Rinehart]], American author (d. [[1958]]) *[[1880]] - [[Radclyffe Hall]], British author (d. [[1943]]) *1880 - [[Christy Mathewson]], baseball player (d. [[1925]]) *[[1881]] - [[Cecil B. DeMille]], American director (d. [[1959]]) *[[1883]] - [[Pauline Frederick]], American actress (d. [[1938]]) *[[1885]] - [[Jean Cabannes]], French physicist (d. [[1959]]) *[[1886]] - Sir [[Keith Murdoch]], Australian journalist and newspaper owner (d. [[1952]]) *[[1887]] - [[Erwin Schrödinger]], Austrian physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1961]]) *[[1892]] - [[Alfred Lunt]], American actor (d. [[1977]]) *[[1902]] - [[Mohammad Hatta]], Vice President of Indonesia 1945-1956 (d. [[1980]]) *[[1904]] - [[Alexei Nikolaevich Romanov]], Tsarevich (d. [[1918]]) *[[1906]] - [[Harry Hopman]], Australian-born tennis player and coach (d. [[1985]]) *1906 - [[Tedd Pierce]], American animator (d. [[1972]]) *[[1907]] - [[Joe Besser]], American actor and comedian (d. [[1988]]) *[[1911]] - [[Cantinflas]], Mexican actor (d. [[1993]]) *1911 - [[Jane Wyatt]], American actress *[[1919]] - [[Vikram Sarabhai]], Indian physicist (d. [[1971]]) *[[1924]] - [[Derek Shackleton]], English cricketer *1924 - [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]], leader of Pakistan (d. [[1988]]) *[[1925]] - [[Norris McWhirter]], Scottish co-founder of the ''Guinness Book of Records'' (d. [[2004]]) *1925 - [[Ross McWhirter]], Scottish co-founder of the ''Guinness Book of Records'' (d. [[1975]]) *[[1926]] - [[John Derek]], American actor (d. [[1998]]) *1926 - [[Joe Jones (R&B singer)|Joe "Boogaloo" Jones]], American R&B singer (d. [[2005]]) *[[1927]] - [[Mstislav Rostropovich]], Russian cellist and conductor *1927 - [[Porter Wagoner]], American singer *[[1928]] - [[Bob Buhl]], baseball player (d. [[2001]]) *1928 - [[Dan Curtis]], film and television producer and director *1928 - [[Charles Blackman]], Australian artist *[[1929]] - [[Buck Owens]], American singer *[[1930]] - [[George Soros]] American businessman *[[1931]] - [[William Goldman]], American screenwriter *[[1932]] - [[Sirikit Rajini|Somdej Phra Nangchao Sirikit Phra Boromarajininat]] HM Queen Sirikit of Thailand *[[1933]] - [[Parnelli Jones]], American race car driver *[[1939]] - [[George Hamilton (actor)|George Hamilton]], American actor *[[1943]] - [[Deborah Walley]], American actress (d. [[2001]]) *[[1945]] - [[Ann M. Martin]], American author *[[1949]] - [[Mark Knopfler]], British guitarist *[[1951]] - [[Willie Horton]], American murderer and rapist *[[1954]] - [[Pat Metheny]], American guitarist *1954 - [[Sam J. Jones]], American actor *[[1956]] - [[Bruce Greenwood]], Canadian actor *[[1962]] - [[Miss Cleo]], American psychic *[[1965]] - [[Peter Krause]], American actor *[[1967]] - [[Regilio Tuur]], Dutch boxer *[[1971]] - [[Michael Ian Black]], American comedian *1971 - [[Pete Sampras]], American tennis player *[[1972]] - [[Rebecca Gayheart]], American actress *[[1973]] - [[Richard Reid (terrorist)|Richard Reid]], English terrorist *[[1974]] - [[Matt Clement]], baseball pitcher *[[1976]] - [[Antoine Walker]], American basketball player *[[1977]] - [[Plaxico Burress]], American football player *1977 - [[Jesper Grønkjær]], Danish soccer player *[[1980]] - [[Dominique Swain]], American actress *1980 - [[Matt Thiessen]], Canadian-born singer ([[Reliant K]]) *[[1981]] - [[Djibril Cisse]], French footballer ==Deaths== *[[30 BC]] - [[Cleopatra]] (b. [[69 BC]]) *[[875]] - [[Louis II Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[825]]) *[[1424]] - [[Yongle]], [[Emperor of China]] (b. [[1460]]) *[[1484]] - [[George of Trebizond]], Greek philosopher (b. [[1395]]) *1484 - [[Pope Sixtus IV]] (b. [[1414]]) *[[1512]] - [[Alessandro Achillini]], Italian philosopher (b. [[1463]]) *[[1577]] - [[Thomas Smith (diplomat)|Thomas Smith]], English diplomat and scholar (b. [[1513]]) *[[1588]] - [[Alfonso Ferrabosco (I)]], Italian composer (b. [[1543]]) *[[1612]] - [[Giovanni Gabrieli]], Italian composer *[[1633]] - [[Jacopo Peri]], Italian composer (b. [[1561]]) *[[1648]] - [[Ibrahim I]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (b. [[1615]]) *[[1674]] - [[Philippe de Champaigne]], French painter (b. [[1602]]) *[[1689]] - [[Pope Innocent XI]] (b. [[1611]]) *[[1778]] - [[Peregrine Bertie, 3rd Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven]], British general and politician (b. [[1714]]) *[[1810]] - [[Etienne Louis Geoffroy]], French pharmacist and entomologist (b. [[1725]]) *[[1848]] - [[George Stephenson]], British locomotive designer (b. [[1781]]) *[[1864]] - [[Sakuma Shozan|Sakuma Sh&#333;zan]], Japanese reformer (b. [[1811]]) *[[1865]] - [[William Jackson Hooker]], English botanist (b. [[1785]]) *[[1891]] - [[James Russell Lowell]], American poet and essayist (b. [[1819]]) *[[1900]] - [[Wilhelm Steinitz]], Austrian chess player (b. [[1836]]) *[[1901]] - [[Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld]], Finnish-Swedish explorer (b. [[1832]]) *[[1914]] - [[John Philip Holland]], Irish submarine designer (b. [[1840]]) *[[1918]] - [[Anna Held]], Polish-born actress and singer (b. [[1872]]) *[[1922]] - [[Arthur Griffith]], [[President of Ireland]] (b. [[1871]]) *[[1928]] - [[Leos Janacek]], Czech composer (b. [[1854]]) *[[1934]] - [[Hendrik Petrus Berlage]], Dutch architect (b. [[1856]]) *[[1943]] - [[Bobby Peel]], English cricketer (b. [[1857]]) *[[1948]] - [[Harry Brearley]], English inventor (b. [[1871]]) *[[1955]] - [[Thomas Mann]], German writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1875]]) *1955 - [[James B. Sumner]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1887]]) *[[1964]] - [[Ian Fleming]], English novelist (b. [[1908]]) *[[1973]] - [[Walter Rudolf Hess]], Swiss physiologist, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1881]]) *[[1979]] - [[Ernst Boris Chain]], German-born biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1906]]) *[[1982]] - [[Henry Fonda]], American actor (b. [[1905]]) *1982 - [[Salvador Sanchez]], Mexican boxer (b. [[1959]]) *1982 - [[Varlam Shalamov]], Russian writer (b. [[1907]]) *1982 - [[Joe Tex]], American singer (b. [[1933]]) *[[1985]] - [[Kyu Sakamoto]], Japanese singer (plane crash) (b. [[1941]]) *1985 - [[Manfred Winkelhock]], German race car driver (b. [[1951]]) *[[1988]] - [[Bhakti Raksaka Sridhara Deva Gosvami Maharaja]], religious Guru from India (b. [[1895]]) *[[1989]] - [[William Shockley]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1910]]) *[[1992]] - [[John Cage]], American composer (b. [[1912]]) *[[1997]] - [[Luther Allison]], American musician (b. [[1939]]) *[[2000]] - [[Loretta Young]], American actress (b. [[1913]]) *[[2002]] - [[Enos Slaughter]], baseball player (b. [[1916]]) *[[2004]] - Sir [[Godfrey Hounsfield]], English electrical engineer and inventor, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1919]]) *2004 - [[Peter Woodthorpe]], British actor (b. [[1931]]) *[[2005]] - [[John Loder]], co founder of the anarcho punk band [[CRASS]] (b. [[1946]]) ==Holidays and observations== *[[International observance|United Nations]] - International Youth Day (since [[1999]]) *[[Glorious Twelfth]] at the [[Yorkshire Dales]] *[[Thailand]] - The [[Sirikit Kitiyakara|Queen]]'s Birthday, [[Mother's Day]] *Zaraday ([[Discordianism]]) *[[Zimbabwe]] - Defence Force Day *International [[Ponce de Leon]] day ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/12 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[August 11]] - [[August 13]] - [[July 12]] - [[September 12]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:12 Augustus]] [[an:12 d'agosto]] [[ar:12 أغسطس]] [[ast:12 d'agostu]] [[be:12 жніўня]] [[bg:12 август]] [[bs:12. avgust]] [[ca:12 d'agost]] [[co:12 d'aostu]] [[cs:12. srpen]] [[csb:12 zélnika]] [[cy:12 Awst]] [[da:12. august]] [[de:12. August]] [[el:12 Αυγούστου]] [[eo:12-a de aŭgusto]] [[es:12 de agosto]] [[et:12. august]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 12]] [[fi:12. elokuuta]] [[fo:12. august]] [[fr:12 août]] [[fy:12 augustus]] [[ga:12 Lúnasa]] [[gl:12 de agosto]] [[he:12 באוגוסט]] [[hr:12. kolovoza]] [[hu:Augusztus 12]] [[ia:12 de augusto]] [[id:12 Agustus]] [[ie:12 august]] [[io:12 di agosto]] [[is:12. ágúst]] [[it:12 agosto]] [[ja:8月12日]] [[jv:12 Agustus]] [[ka:12 აგვისტო]] [[ko:8월 12일]] [[ku:12'ê gelawêjê]] [[lb:12. August]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 12]] [[mk:12 август]] [[nl:12 augustus]] [[nn:12. august]] [[no:12. august]] [[oc:12 d'agost]] [[pl:12 sierpnia]] [[pt:12 de Agosto]] [[ro:12 august]] [[ru:12 августа]] [[scn:8 di austu]] [[simple:August 12]] [[sk:12. august]] [[sl:12. avgust]] [[sr:12. август]] [[sv:12 augusti]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 12]] [[th:12 สิงหาคม]] [[tl:Agosto 12]] [[tr:12 Ağustos]] [[tt:12. August]] [[uk:12 серпня]] [[wa:12 d' awousse]] [[zh:8月12日]] 1493 36684083 2006-01-25T20:11:18Z GraemeL 383311 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/204.196.155.1|204.196.155.1]] ([[User talk:204.196.155.1|talk]]) to last version by GraemeL {{History_of_Australia/Chronological}} ==Emergence of the Commonwealth of Australia== ''Main article:'' [[Federation of Australia|Australian federation]] After European settlement in 1788, [[Australia]] was politically organized as a number of separate British [[colonies]], eventually six in all. By the middle of the nineteenth century, these had achieved virtually complete internal self-government under their own colonial Parliaments, with the "mother country" looking after their defence and such foreign relations as they had, and making only the occasional more direct intervention in their affairs. (These arrangements were confirmed by the Colonial Laws Validity Act of 1865.) One result of this was that they each had their own laws, and applied customs duties at the borders between them, which was a significant impediment to Australia's overall economic development. Following the formation of the [[Australasian Federal Council|Federal Council of Australasia]] in 1885 (a weak non-executive, non-legislative federation of Western Australia, Fiji, Queensland, Tasmania and Victoria) the movement for full Federation developed in the late nineteenth century, proposing that the six colonies join together as one federation of several States and territories (it was envisaged that New Zealand might join). In the 1890s, two [[Constitutional Convention (Australia)|constitutional conventions]] were called, which ultimately adopted a constitution based on a combination of British, American and other models (monarchy and parliamentary government from Britain, federalism from the United States, the use of the referendum from Switzerland). This constitution was then approved by the voters in each of the six colonies. (At the time women had the vote in only one of them: South Australia, and Aboriginal Australians in South Australia and Queensland only). It was then passed (with an amendment allowing for some appeals to the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council|Privy Council]] in London) as an Act of the British Parliament: the [[Constitution of Australia|Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act]] 1900. The Act entered into force on [[January 1]] [[1901]], at which point the Commonwealth of Australia came into being. ==The Commonwealth is born== The establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia is commonly taken as the date of Australia's independence from the [[United Kingdom]], but matters are more complicated than that. The Constitution provided the Commonwealth with all the powers associated with a sovereign state, including the power to engage in foreign affairs and to raise its own army. But the United Kingdom still retained the power to engage in foreign affairs on behalf of Australia, and to make laws for it. In the early years Australia continued to be represented by the United Kingdom as part of the British Empire at international conferences. Also, the Constitution provided that the British monarch be represented in Australia by a Governor-General, who was originally appointed on the advice of the British, not the Australian, government, and was generally a British aristocrat. Finally, the Constitution provided that any law of the Australian Parliament could be disallowed within a year by the British monarch (acting on the advice of British ministers), though this power was never in fact exercised. In summary, the constitutional position of the Commonwealth as a whole in relation to the United Kingdom was, originally, the same as that of the individual colonies before Federation. ==From a united empire crown to a shared monarch== A fundamental change in the constitutional structures of the British Commonwealth (formerly the British Empire, and not to be confused with the Commonwealth of Australia) did occur, however, in the late [[1920s]]. Under the British [[Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927]], which implemented a decision of an earlier Commonwealth conference, the unified Crown that had heretofore been the centre point of the Empire was replaced by multiple crowns worn by a ''shared monarch''. Before 1927, King [[George V of the United Kingdom|George V]] reigned as king ''in'' Australia, [[New Zealand]], [[Canada]], the [[Irish Free State]], [[South Africa]], etc., each of these states, in effect, as dominions, amounting to a subset of the United Kingdom. After 1927, he reigned as King ''of'' Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, South Africa, etc. The form of use in the royal title as issued by King [[George V of the United Kingdom|George V]] [http://www.heraldica.org/topics/britain/britstyles.htm#1927] did not mention the dominions by name, except 'Ireland', which changed from being referred to as ''Great Britain and Ireland'' to ''Great Britain, Ireland'', indicating that it was no longer part of the United Kingdom, but a separate state of which the monarch was now directly the head, rather than through linkage with Great Britain. Though unnamed, except through reference to the 'British Dominions beyond the Seas', the ground-breaking move shattered the previous concept of the shared monarch to one of multiple monarchies, all held by the one monarch. Though this principle was implicit in the Act and in the King's new titles, and came out of a Commonwealth Conference, neither the British government nor the dominion governments seemed initially to grasp its significance. So while the Irish ''immediately'' put the principle into effect by assuming the right to select their own governor-general and to demand a direct right of audience with the King (excluding British ministers), other dominions were much slower to go down this path, and when they did so, they were faced with determined, though ultimately futile, attempts to block such evolution in London. Whereas before 1927, it was correct in law to talk about the ''British monarch'' reigning in the dominions, after 1927, there was technically a 'King of Australia', etc., even if that title was never used formally, with the only link being that that monarch ''was'' British and resident outside the Commonwealth of Australia. Curiously, while the Irish asserted the title '[[King of Ireland]]' by having King George V sign an international treaty on behalf of his Irish realm as early as 1931 (where he was formally advised by the Irish Minister for External Affairs who formally 'attended' His Majesty, with no British minister present), the formal title 'Queen of Australia' was only adopted through the ''Royal Style and Titles Act'' [http://www.statusquo.org/royalstyle.html] enacted by the Parliament of Australia in 1973. ==The Statute of Westminster== The next major constitutional change came about with the Act of the British Parliament known as the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]] of [[1931]]. This was associated with the transformation of the British Empire into the British Commonwealth. The UK government recognized Australia (and its other dominions, such as Canada and New Zealand) as independent, and agreed that the British Government and Parliament would only make laws for them if they specifically requested it, with the various dominions having the legal right to adopt and amend past legislation enacted in Westminster. (This allowed the Irish Free State, for example, to remove the requirement that the then Irish constitution be limited by the contents of the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]]. Once that was removed, the [[Oath of Allegiance (Ireland)|Oath of Allegiance]], appeals to the Privy Council, Senate, [[Governor-General of the Irish Free State|governor-generalship]] and [[The Crown|Crown]] were all abolished.) However, for various reasons, the Statute of Westminster did ''not'' apply to the Australian States (at their own request), so that they remained, in relation to the United Kingdom, in the position of substantially self-governing colonies, subject, in theory at least, to any legislation specifically directed at them by the British Parliament. Also, their Governors, representing the monarch, were formally appointed on the advice of British ministers, though these increasingly merely relayed advice given to them by the Australian State Premiers. On the other hand, at the Commonwealth level, the practice was established that the Governor-General was to be appointed by the monarch on the advice of Australian, not British ministers, when the Australian government successfully insisted, against considerable British opposition (including from the King himself), on the appointment of the native-born Sir Isaac Isaacs as Governor-General in 1931. In April [[1933]], a [[referendum]] in [[Western Australia]] produced a 68% yes vote to leave the Commonwealth of Australia with the aim of returning to the [[British Empire]] as an autonomous territory. No action was taken in the British Parliament because no request was received from the Australian Government in line with the Statute of Westminster. ==The Australia Act== The power under the Statute of Westminster to request the British Parliament to make laws for Australia was used on several occasions, primarily in order to enable Australia to acquire new territories. But its most significant use was also its last. This was when the procedure was used to pass the [[Australia Act 1986|Australia Act]] 1986. The Australia Act effectively terminated the ability of the British Parliament or Government to make laws for Australia or its States, even at their request; and provided that any law which was previously required to be passed by the British Parliament on behalf of Australia could now be passed by Australia and its States by themselves. It also removed the right of the monarch personally (that is, not through the local Governor) to exercise his or her powers in the states, except when personally present in them. And it severed the last judicial link with the United Kingdom, by abolishing the right of appeal to the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]]. ==An evolving independence== Thus the independence of Australia from the United Kingdom, rather than occurring as a single event, has, in legal terms, been a continuing process. Some of the significant milestones discussed above have been the following: * mid-1800s: acquisition of substantial internal self-government by the colonies * 1901: establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia * 1927: development of the "shared" monarchy * 1931: passing of the Statute of Westminster * 1986: passing of the Australia Act Since the Australia Act, the only remaining constitutional link with the United Kingdom (if it is one) is in the person of the monarch (see [[Queen of Australia]]). But even that connection may not be automatic. In an important constitutional case (''Sue v Hill'' (1999) 163 ALR 648), three justices of the [[High Court of Australia]] (the ultimate court of appeal) expressed the view that if the British Parliament were to alter the law of succession to the throne, such a change could ''not'' have any effect on the monarchy in Australia, because of the Australia Act: succession to the throne would continue in Australia according to the existing rule, unless and until that was altered ''in Australia''. None of the other four justices in that case disagreed with this reasoning. (Because it was not strictly necessary to decide the case at hand, this is not strictly a binding judicial determination; but it is almost certainly correct given the [[precedent]] of the [[Abdication Crisis of Edward VIII|Abdication Crisis of 1936]].) The same case decided (and on this point the decision ''is'' binding) that the United Kingdom is a "foreign power" within the meaning of the Constitution, and therefore that holders of British citizenship are ineligible for election to the Federal Parliament (though a special "grandfathering" arrangement merely phases out the right of British citizens to vote). ==Crisis in 1975== The elections of the [[Australian Labor Party]] in [[1972]] and [[1974]] under its leader [[Gough Whitlam]] led to several constitutional issues being tested. For two weeks in 1972, the Government had only two ministers, Whitlam and [[Lance Barnard]]. Although it had a majority in the lower House, the ALP faced a hostile Senate, and the defeat of Government bills led to a double dissolution and a consequent [[Joint Sitting, Australian parliament, 1974|joint sitting]] and the passing of the bills into law as allowed under section 57. The political situation however was not improved much by the 1974 election, and the Senate later failed to provide "supply" (i.e. to pass tax and expenditure acts). The resulting [[Australian constitutional crisis of 1975]] raised a series of issues: * Must a State Governor appoint a party's nomination as a replacement in the Senate? * Can the Senate refuse supply or refuse to discuss supply? * Should the Prime Minister resign in such a situation? * If he does not, should the Governor-General dismiss him? * How can the Governor-General and Prime Minister have a sensible discussion when each is able to have the other dismissed immediately provided that the other has not already acted? Of these, only the first has been partly resolved; an amendment in 1977 changed the procedure for casual appointment. while the State Parliaments can still require a state Governor to appoint somebody who is not the party's nominee, by stripping that nominee of their party membership the party can deny them appointment to the Senate. The State parliament can still refuse to appoint the party's nominee; in this case, a standoff can develop where the vacancy goes unfilled. This occurred in 1987, when the Tasmanian state parliament refused to appoint the Labor Party's nominee for a casual vacancy ([http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rp/2001-02/02rp18.pdf], reference 99). ==Towards an Australian republic?== As already seen, the only remaining constitutional connection with the United Kingdom is through the monarch, who is the monarch not only of the UK, but also of Australia and of each of its States. The main function of the monarch is to appoint and dismiss the Governor-General and the State Governors, and this function is exercised on the advice of the Prime Minister or the relevant State Premier. (The monarch is also sometimes asked to perform some function, such as giving the Royal Assent to an Act of Parliament, for ceremonial purposes during a Royal visit.) On recent moves to replace the current constitution with a republic, and the defeat of the referendum for this purpose in 1999, see [[Australian republicanism]]. ==See also== *[[Australian constitutional law]] *[[Constitutional law]] *[[Constitutional convention (political meeting)|Constitutional convention]] ==External links== *[http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/chron/1999-2000/2000chr01.htm Australian Parliamentary Library -- Australia's Constitutional Milestones] *[http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/places/cth/cth1.htm Documentation on Australian Constitutional History] [[Category:Australian constitutional law]] [[Category:Constitutional law]] [[Category:Politics of Australia]] [[Category:History of Australia]] 1494 40547681 2006-02-21T09:45:03Z Kcordina 643099 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.135.1.57|212.135.1.57]] to last version by 137.99.183.222 [[image:Alfred Russel Wallace.jpg|thumb|200px|Alfred Russel Wallace]] :''for the [[Cornwall|Cornish]] painter see [[Alfred Wallis]]'' '''Alfred Russel Wallace,''' [[Order of Merit|OM]] , [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] ([[January 8]] [[1823]] &ndash; [[November 7]] [[1913]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Natural history|naturalist]], [[geographer]], [[anthropologist]] and [[biologist]]. Wallace's independent proposal of a theory of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]] prompted [[Charles Darwin]] to reveal his own more developed and researched, but unpublished, theory sooner than he had intended. He is sometimes called the "[[List of people known as father or mother of something#W|father of biogeography]]". ==Early life== Wallace was born at [[Usk]], [[Monmouthshire]]. He was the eighth of nine children of Thomas Vere Wallace and Mary Anne Greenell. He attended grammar school in [[Hertford]], but left when his family lost their remaining property. He worked for his older brother William in his surveying business, and between [[1840]] and [[1843]] spent his time surveying in the west of [[England]] and [[Wales]]. In [[1844]] he was hired as a master at the Collegiate School in [[Leicester]]. In [[1845]] his brother William died and Wallace returned to run the [[surveying]] business. [[Image:Alfred Russel Wallace 1862 - Project Gutenberg eText 15997.png|thumbnail|right|200px|A. R. Wallace in [[Singapore]] in [[1862]]]] ==Exploration and study of the natural world== In [[1848]], Wallace, together with another naturalist, [[Henry Walter Bates]] (whom he had met in [[Leicester]]), left for [[Brazil]] to collect specimens in the [[Amazon Rainforest]], with the express intention of gathering facts in order to solve the riddle of the origin of species. Unfortunately, a large part of his collection was destroyed when his ship caught fire and sank while returning to Britain in [[1852]]. From [[1854]] to [[1862]], he travelled through the [[Malay Archipelago]] or [[East Indies]] (now [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]]), to collect specimens and study nature. His observations of the marked zoological differences across a narrow zone in the archipelago led to his hypothesis of the zoogeographical boundary now known as the [[Wallace line]]. One of his better known species descriptions during this trip is the gliding tree [[frog]] ''Rhacophorus nigropalmatus'', Wallace's flying frogs. His studies there were eventually published in [[1869]] as ''The Malay Archipelago''. ==Theory of evolution== : See also [[Publication of Darwin's theory]]. In [[1855]], Wallace published a paper, [http://www.wku.edu/%7Esmithch/wallace/S020.htm "On the Law Which has Regulated the Introduction of Species" (1855)], in which he gathers and enumerates general observations regarding the geographic and geologic distribution of species ([[biogeography]]), and concludes that "Every species has come into existence coincident both in space and time with a closely allied species." The paper was a foreshadowing of the momentous paper he would write three years hence. Wallace had once briefly met Darwin, and was one of Darwin's numerous correspondents from around the world, whose observations Darwin used to support his theories. Wallace knew that Darwin was interested in the question of how species originate, and trusted his opinion on the matter. Thus, he sent him his essay, [http://www.wku.edu/%7Esmithch/wallace/S043.htm "On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely From the Original Type" (1858)], and asked him to review it. On [[18 June]] [[1858]] Darwin received the manuscript from Wallace. In it, Wallace described a novel theory of what is now known as "natural selection," and he proposed that it explains the diversity of life. It was essentially the same as the theory that Darwin had worked on for twenty years, but had yet to publish. Darwin wrote in a letter to [[Charles Lyell]]: "he could not have made a better short abstract! Even his terms now stand as heads of my chapters!" Although Wallace had not requested that his essay be published, Charles Lyell and [[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Joseph Hooker]] decided to present the essay, together with excerpts from a paper that Darwin had written in [[1844]], and kept confidential, to the [[Linnean Society of London]] on [[1 July]] [[1858]], highlighting Darwin's priority. Wallace accepted the arrangement after the fact, grateful that he had been included at all. Darwin's social and scientific status was at that time far greater than Wallace's, and it was unlikely that Wallace's views on evolution would have been taken as seriously. Though relegated to the position of co-discoverer, and never the social equal of Darwin or the other elite British natural scientists, Wallace was granted far greater access to tightly-regulated British scientific circles after the advocacy on his part by Darwin. When he returned to England, Wallace met Darwin and the two remained friendly afterwards. ==Religious views, and application of the theory to mankind== In a letter to a relative in [[1861]], Wallace wrote: "I think I have fairly heard and fairly weighed the evidence on both sides, and I remain an utter disbeliever in almost all that you consider the most sacred truths... I can see much to admire in all religions... But whether there be a God and whatever be His nature; whether we have an immortal soul or not, or whatever may be our state after death, I can have no fear of having to suffer for the study of nature and the search for truth...." In [[1864]], before Darwin had publicly addressed the subject&mdash;though others had&mdash;Wallace published a paper, ''The Origin of Human Races and the Antiquity of Man Deduced from the Theory of 'Natural Selection''', applying the theory to mankind. Wallace subsequently became a [[spiritualism|spiritualist]], and later maintained that natural selection cannot account for mathematical, artistic, or musical genius, as well as metaphysical musings, and wit and humor; and that something in "the unseen universe of Spirit" had interceded at least three times in history: 1. The creation of life from inorganic matter. 2. The introduction of consciousness in the higher animals. 3. The generation of the above-mentioned faculties in mankind. He also believed that the raison d'être of the universe was the development of the human spirit. (See Wallace (1889)). These views greatly disturbed Darwin in his lifetime, who argued that spiritual appeals were not necessary and that [[sexual selection]] could easily explain such apparently non-adaptive phenomena. In many accounts of the history of evolution, Wallace is relegated to a role of simply being the "stimulus" to Darwin's own theory. In reality, Wallace developed his own distinct evolutionary views which diverged from Darwin's, and was considered by many (especially Darwin) to be a chief thinker on evolution in his day whose ideas could not be ignored. He is among the most cited naturalists in Darwin's ''[[Descent of Man]]'', often in strong disagreement. [[Image:Alfred Russel Wallace - Project Gutenberg eText 14558.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|Alfred Russel Wallace, and signature, from the frontispiece of ''Darwinism'' (1889)]] ==Precursor of ecology, and awards== Wallace was the first to propose a [[biogeography|"geography"]] of animal species, and as such is considered one of the [[ecology#The_notion_of_biocenose:_Darwin_and_Wallace|precursors of ecology]] and [[biogeography|biogeography]]. ==Awards== Among the many awards presented to Wallace were the [[Order of Merit]] ([[1908]]), the [[Royal Society]]'s [[Copley Medal]] ([[1908]]), the [[Royal Geographical Society]]'s Founder's Medal ([[1892]]) and the Linnean Society's Gold Medal ([[1892]]). He is also honored by having [[Impact crater|crater]]s on [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] and the [[Moon]] named after him. Having sometimes been referred to as "Darwin's Moon" it is amusing that Wallace has a crater on the Moon named after himself. ==References== *Wallace, Alfred Russel (1889). [http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S724CH15.htm ''Darwinism'', Chapter 15.] ==Publications== *Alfred Russel Wallace: ''Vaccination A Delusion'', '''1898''', ''Swan Sonnenschein & Co, LTD'' [http://www.vaccination.org.uk/vaccine/wallace/book.html] ==External links== *[http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/index1.htm The Alfred Russel Wallace Page] *[http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/geo/travel/TheMalayArchipelagoVolume1/toc.html Alfred Russel Wallace, ''The Malay Archipelago''] * {{gutenberg author| id=Alfred+Russel+Wallace | name=Alfred Russel Wallace}} ==Books about Wallace== *''Just Before the Origin: Alfred Russel Wallace's Theory of Evolution'' by John Langdon Brooks ISBN 1583481117 *''The Spice Islands Voyage: The Quest for Alfred Wallace, the Man Who Shared Darwin's Discovery of Evolution'' by Tim Severin ISBN 0786707216 *''My Life'' an autobiography : (1905) Alfred Russel Wallace By Chapman & Hall, Ltd., London ==See also== *[[Australia-New Guinea]] *[[Wallace line]] [[Category:1823 births|Wallace, Alfred Russel]] [[Category:1913 deaths|Wallace, Alfred Russel]] [[Category:British scientists|Wallace, Alfred Russel]] [[Category:Evolutionary biologists|Wallace, Alfred Russel]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Wallace, Alfred Russel]] [[Category:Natives of Monmouthshire|Wallace, Alfred Russel]] [[Category:Welsh scientists|Wallace, Alfred Russel]] [[Category:Members of the Order of Merit|Wallace, Alfred Russel]] [[cy:Alfred Russel Wallace]] [[de:Alfred Russel Wallace]] [[es:Alfred Russel Wallace]] [[fr:Alfred Russel Wallace]] [[he:אלפרד ראסל ואלאס]] [[nl:Alfred Russel Wallace]] [[ja:アルフレッド・ラッセル・ウォレス]] [[no:Alfred Russel Wallace]] [[pl:Alfred Russel Wallace]] [[pt:Alfred Russel Wallace]] [[sv:Alfred Russel Wallace]] [[tr:Alfred Russel Wallace]] 1495 42046235 2006-03-03T12:40:41Z BrownHairedGirl 754619 /* History */ dab. catholic {{redirect|ALP}} {{Infobox_Australian_Political_Party | party_name = Australian Labor Party | party_logo = [[Image:Alp.png|100px|Australian Labor Party Logo]] | party_wikicolourid = Labor | leader = [[Kim Beazley]] | deputy leader = [[Jenny Macklin]] | foundation = [[1890s]] | ideology = [[social democracy]]| headquarters = [[Centenary House]]<br/>19 National Circuit<br/> [[Canberra|BARTON]] [[Australian Capital Territory|ACT]] 2600 | holds_government = [[New South Wales|NSW]], [[Victoria (Australia)|VIC]], [[Queensland|QLD]], [[South Australia|SA]]<br />[[Western Australia|WA]], [[Tasmania|TAS]], [[Australian Capital Territory|ACT]] & [[Northern Territory| NT]]| website = [http://www.alp.org.au Australian Labor Party]| international = [[Socialist International]] }} The '''Australian Labor Party''' or '''ALP''' is [[Australia]]'s oldest [[political party]]. It is so-named because of its origins in and close links to the [[labor union|trade union]] movement. While it is standard practice in [[Australian English]] to spell the word ''[[Wiktionary:labour|labour]]'' with an "-our" ending, the name of the party ends with "-or". ==Policy== Like other [[social democratic]] parties, Labor tends to believe that government is generally a positive force in the community and that it is the responsibility of governments to intervene in the operation of the economy (and society in general) to improve outcomes. Labor believes that the government should ensure that all members of society receive a basic income in order to have a "decent quality of life". Labor also believes that the government should ensure that all members of society are able to access quality and affordable housing as well as education and health services [http://www.alp.org.au/about/values.php]. Taking these objectives into account, like most social democratic parties around the world, Labor has embraced more free market principles since the beginning of the [[1980s]]. For example, Labor supports and implemented the dismantling of trade barriers and deregulation of industry. However, the party argues that it made these changes more moderately and with greater concern for those made worse off from these changes than the [[Coalition (Australia)|Coalition]] would have. Labor's policy shift has had critics from both the [[Left-wing politics|left]] and the [[Right-wing politics|right]] of the political spectrum. The left says that Labor has abandoned its traditional base and values and that its policies are indistinguishable from those of the Coalition. The right argues that Labor doesn't embrace enough neo-liberal economics and that it is sticking to a tired, union-dominated ideology. Since the 1970s and 1980s Labor has supported [[multiculturalism]] and generally is more likely to approve of higher immigration levels than the Coalition. Labor is the primary supporter of issues that affect [[indigenous Australians]] such as land rights and supports a formal apology on the issue of the [[stolen generation]]. Labor is also more likely to support additional rights for gay and lesbian people and it is a stronger supporter of equal opportunity legislation than the Coalition. Labor MPs are more likely to support [[pro-choice]] positions on [[abortion]] and [[euthanasia]], but the party almost always provides MPs with a [[conscience vote]] on these matters. Many MPs use this option to take a [[pro-life]] position, and the ALP has traditionally had a "Catholic Right" element (since Roman Catholics in Australia were traditionally working-class and thus inclined to support Labor) which continues to defend socially conservative positions on the family, abortion, euthanasia and homosexuality; however, its influence has declined somewhat. Many of the more socially liberal positions which often characterise the party today reflect the transformation of the ALP begun in the late 1960s and early 1970s under [[Gough Whitlam]] from a party dominated by the socially conservative working class to a party drawing a large slab of support from the new socially liberal middle class. Internationally, Labor generally believes in [[multilateralism]], but is often more critical of Australia's relationship with large international powers like the [[United States]] and historically the [[United Kingdom]] than the Liberal Party. However, many members of the Labor Party, especially those affiliated with right-wing factions, are strong supporters of the alliance with the United States. This support is also official party policy. However, Labor opposed the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] (though it did support the [[2001 invasion of Afghanistan]]). In his welcome speech to [[President of the United States|US President]] [[George W. Bush]], former leader [[Simon Crean]] said: :''The Australian perspective is bound to differ, from time to time, with the perspective of the United States. Of course, on occasions, friends disagree, as we on this side did with you on the war in Iraq. But, such is the strength of our shared values, interests and principles, those differences can enrich rather than diminish, strengthen rather than weaken, our partnership. Our commitment to the Alliance remains unshakeable, as does our commitment to the [[War on Terror]], but friends must be honest with each other.''[http://www.australianpolitics.com/news/2003/10/03-10-23b.shtml] Labor also supports a greater level of Australian integration with Asia than the Liberal Party, but this distinction is starting to narrow with increasing Liberal Party support for stronger Asian relationships, especially with [[Indonesia]]. ==Structure== The Australian Labor Party is a democratic and federal party, which consists of both individual members and affiliated trade unions, who between them decide the party's policies, elect its governing bodies and choose its candidates for public office. The great majority of trade unions in Australia are affiliated to the party, and their affiliation fees, based on the size of their memberships, makes up a large part of the party's income. The party consists of six state and two territory branches, each of which consists of local branches which any Australian citizen or permanent resident can join, plus affiliated trade unions. Individual members pay a membership fee, which is graduated according to income. Members are expected to attend at least one meeting of their local branch each year. In practice only a dedicated minority regularly attend meetings. Many members only become active during election campaigns. The party has about 50,000 individual members, although this figure tends to fluctuate along with the party's electoral fortunes. [[Image:ac.kimbeazleynew.jpg|thumb|300px|Hon Kim Beazley, Leader of the Australian Labor Party 1996-2001 and since 2005]] The members and unions elect delegates to state and territory conferences (usually held annually, although more frequent conferences are often held). These conferences decide policy, and elect state or territory executives, a state or territory president (an honorary position usually held for a one-year term), and a state or territory secretary (a full-time professional position). The larger branches also have full-time assistant secretaries and organisers. In the past the ratio of conference delegates coming from the branches and affiliated unions has varied from state to state, however under recent national reforms at least 50% of delegates at all state and territory conferences must be elected by branches. The party holds a National Conference every three years, which consists of delegates representing the state and territory branches (many coming from affiliated trade unions, although there is no formal requirement for unions to be represented at the National Conference). The National Conference approves the party's Platform and policies, elects the [[Australian Labor Party National Executive|National Executive]], and appoints office-bearers such as the National Secretary, who also serves as national campaign director during elections. The current National Secretary is [[Tim Gartrell]]. The next National Conference will be held in January [[2007]]. The national Leader of the Labor Party is elected by the Labor members of the national Parliament (the [[Caucus]]), not by the conference. Until recently the national conference elected the party's National President, a largely honorary position, but since [[2003]] the position has rotated among people directly elected by the party's individual members. The current National President is [[Warren Mundine]], who assumed the past in January 2006. The two Vice-Presidents are [[Barry Jones (Australian politician)|Barry Jones]], a veteran party figure who was a minister in the [[Bob Hawke|Hawke]] government, and Dr [[Carmen Lawrence]], a former Premier of Western Australia and minister in the [[Paul Keating|Keating]] government. The Labor Party contests national, state and territory elections. In some states it also contests local government elections: in others it does not, preferring to allow its members to run as non-endorsed candidates. The process of choosing Labor candidates is called '''pre-selection'''. Candidates are pre-selected by different methods in the various states and territories. In some they are chosen by ballots of all party members, in others by panels or committees elected by the state conference, in still others by a combination of these two. Labor candidates are required to sign a pledge that if elected they will always vote in Parliament in accordance with decisions made by a vote of the Caucus. They are also sometimes required to donate a portion of their salary to the party, although this practice has declined with the introduction of public funding for political parties. The Labor Party has always had a left wing and a right wing, but since the 1970s it has been organised into formal factions, to which many party members belong and often pay an additional membership fee. The two largest factions are [[Labor Unity]] (on the right) and the [[Socialist Left|National Left]]. Labor Unity generally supports free-market policies and the U.S. Alliance. The National Left, although it seldom openly espouses [[socialism]], favours more state intervention in the economy and is generally opposed to the U.S. Alliance. The factions are themselves divided into sub-factions, and there is a constantly changing pattern of factional and sub-factional alliances around particular policy issues or around particular pre-selection disputes. Frequently these alliances and disputes reflect power struggles between or within trade unions. The trade unions are also factionally aligned. The largest unions supporting the right are the [[Australian Workers Union]] (AWU), the [[National Union of Workers]] (NUW), the [[Shop, Distributive and Allied Employees' Association]] (SDA). Important unions supporting the left include the [[Australian Manufacturing Workers Union]] (AMWU), the [[Liquor, Hospitality and Miscellaneous Union]] (LHMU), the [[Construction, Forestry, Mining and Energy Union]] (CFMEU), the [[Australian Services Union]] (ASU) and the [[Maritime Union of Australia]] (MUA). But these affiliations are seldom unconditional or permanent. The AWU and the NUW, for example, are bitter rivals and the NUW sometimes aligns itself with the left to further its conflict with the AWU. On some issues, such as opposition to the Howard government's industrial relations policy, all the unions are in agreement and work as a block within the party. Pre-selections are usually conducted along factional lines, although sometimes a non-factional candidate will be given preferential treatment (this happened with [[Cheryl Kernot]] in [[1998]] and again with [[Peter Garrett]] in [[2004]]). Deals between the factions to divide up the safe seats between them are also common. Pre-selections, particularly for safe Labor seats, are often bitterly contested, and have frequently involved practices such as '''[[branch stacking]]''' (signing up large numbers of nominal party members to vote in pre-selection ballots), [[personation]], multiple voting and even fraudulent electoral enrolment. Trade unions were in the past accused of giving inflated membership figures to increase their influence over pre-selections, but party rules changes have stamped out this practice. Pre-selection results are frequently challenged, and the National Executive is sometimes called on to arbitrate these disputes. ==History== No exact date can be given for the founding of the Australian Labor Party, originating as it did from the various colonial labour movements. Labour Leagues and similar electoral organisations existed in [[New South Wales]] and [[Queensland]] from about [[1890]]. Party mythology says the first Labour branch was founded at a meeting of striking pastoral workers under a tree (the "Tree of Knowledge") in [[Barcaldine, Queensland]] in [[1891]]. The [[Balmain, New South Wales]] branch of the party also claims to be the oldest in Australia. The party as a serious electoral force dates from [[1893]] in Queensland, [[1894]] in New South Wales, and later in the other colonies. In [[1899]], [[Anderson Dawson]] formed a minority Labour government in [[Queensland]], the first in the world, which lasted one week. After [[Australian Federation|Federation]], the Federal Parliamentary Labor Party (informally known as the [[caucus|Caucus]]) first met on the [[8 May]] [[1901]] at [[Parliament House, Melbourne]], the meeting place of the first Federal Parliament. This is now taken as the founding date of the federal Labor Party, but it was some years before there was any significant structure or organisation at a national level. (The formal name '''Australian Labor Party''' was adopted in [[1908]].) The ALP during its early years was distinguished by its rapid growth and success at a national level, first forming a minority national government under [[Chris Watson]] in April [[1904]], and forming its first majority government under [[Andrew Fisher]] in [[1910]]. The state branches were also successful, except in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], where the strength of [[Alfred Deakin|Deakinite]] [[liberalism]] inhibited the party's growth. The first majority Labor state governments were formed in [[New South Wales]] and [[South Australia]] in [[1910]], in [[Western Australia]] in [[1911]] and in [[Queensland]] in [[1915]]. Such success eluded equivalent social democratic and labour parties in other countries for many years. One of the party's early innovations was the establishment of a federal [[arbitration]] system for the resolution of industrial disputes, which formed the basis of the industrial relations system for many decades. The party was historically committed to [[socialist]] economic policies, but this term was never clearly defined, and no Labor government ever attempted to implement "socialism" in any serious sense. Labor supported national wage fixing and a strong welfare system, it did not [[nationalisation|nationalise]] private enterprise. The single exception to this was [[Ben Chifley]]'s attempt to nationalise the private banks in the [[1940s]], but this was ruled unconstitutional by the [[High Court of Australia]]. The commitment to nationalisation was dropped by [[Gough Whitlam]]. In the [[1970s]] and beyond, the party, through the efforts of [[Gough Whitlam]] and his supporters within the party, gave up its theoretical commitment to socialism and became a [[social democrat]]ic party. (Some references to [[democratic socialism]] still remain in the party's constitution, but they are generally regarded as a relic). Indeed, during the [[1980s]] the party was responsible for the introduction of many economic policies such as [[privatization|privatisation]] of government enterprises (such as the [[Commonwealth Bank]], which was itself established by an earlier Labor government), and [[deregulation]] of many previously tightly-controlled industries, which are normally the province of [[conservative]] governments. From its formation until the 1950s Labor and its affiliated unions were the strongest defenders of the [[White Australia Policy]], which banned all non-European migration to Australia. This policy was partly motivated by 19th-century theories about "racial purity" (shared by most Australians at this time), and partly by fears of economic competition from low-wage labour. In practice the party opposed all migration, on the grounds that immigrants competed with Australian workers and drove down wages, until after [[World War II]], when the [[Ben Chifley|Chifley]] government launched a major immigration program. The party's opposition to non-European immigration did not change until after the retirement of [[Arthur Calwell]] as leader in [[1967]]. Subsequently Labor has become an advocate of [[multiculturalism]], although some of its trade union base continue to oppose high immigration levels. The Labor Party has suffered three major splits: *In [[1915]] over the issue of conscription, when Prime Minister [[Billy Hughes]] supported the introduction of [[conscription]], while the majority of the party opposed it. After failing to persuade the Australian voters to support a [[referendum]] approving of conscription which bitterly divided the country in the process, Hughes and his followers were expelled from the Labor Party. He formed the [[Nationalist Party of Australia]] in alliance with the conservatives and remained Prime Minister until [[1923]]. *In [[1931]] over economic issues revolving around how to handle the [[Great_Depression|depression]]. The ALP was split between those who believed in radical policies such as NSW Premier [[Jack Lang (Australia)|Jack Lang]], who wanted to repudiate Australia's debt to British bondholders, proto-[[Keynesian economics|Keynesians]] such as federal Treasurer [[Ted Theodore]], and believers in orthodox finance such as Prime Minister [[James Scullin]] and a senior minister in his government, [[Joseph Lyons]]. In [[1931]] Lyons left the party and joined the conservatives, becoming Prime Minister in [[1932]]. *The [[1954]] split on [[communism]]. During the [[1950s]] the issue of communism and support for communist causes or governments caused great internal conflict in the Labor party and the trade union movement in general. During the 1950's, staunchly [[anti-Communist]] [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] members (Catholics being an important traditional support base) became suspicious of Communist infiltration of unions and formed Industrial Groups to gain control of them, fostering intense internal conflict. After Labor's loss of the [[1954]] election, federal leader [[H.V. Evatt|Dr H.V. Evatt]] blamed the subversive activities of the "Groupers" for the defeat. They were expelled from the ALP and formed the [[Democratic Labor Party]] (DLP) whose intellectual leader was [[B.A. Santamaria]]. The DLP was heavily influenced by [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] social teachings and had the support of the Catholic Archbishop of [[Melbourne]], [[Daniel Mannix]]. The DLP helped the [[Liberal Party of Australia]] remain in power for almost two decades but was successfully undermined by the [[Gough Whitlam|Whitlam]] Labor Government during the [[1970s]] and ceased to exist as a parliamentary party after the [[1974]] election. The Labor Party thus served as a development ground for several conservative leaders. Conservative Prime Ministers [[Joseph Cook]], [[Billy Hughes]] and [[Joseph Lyons]] were all ex-members of the Labor Party, with both Hughes and Lyons holding very senior positions in the party (Prime Minister and Premier respectively). Non-Labor premiers such as [[William Holman]] also began their careers in the Labor Party. Labor, like parties of the broad centre in most countries, draws criticism from both left and right. Critics from the left say Labor has abandoned its traditional base and values and that its policies are indistinguishable from those of the conservative parties. Right-wing critics accuse Labor of sticking to a tired, union-dominated ideology. Many members of the party are critical of the role of the factions and of union leaders, who they accuse of colluding to stifle party democracy. The party has also been criticised for accepting political donations from real estate interests, particularly in NSW, and for its links to gambling industries. Through its membership of the [[Socialist International]], the ALP is affiliated with other democratic socialist, social democratic and labour parties in many countries. ==ALP federal leaders== * [[Chris Watson]] 1901-08 (Prime Minister 1904) * [[Andrew Fisher]] 1908-15 (Prime Minister 1908-09, 1910-13, 1914-15) * [[Billy Hughes]] 1915-16 (Prime Minister 1915-23, expelled from Labor Party 1916) * [[Frank Tudor]] 1916-22 * [[Mathew Charlton]] 1922-28 * [[James Scullin]] 1928-35 (Prime Minister 1929-32) * [[John Curtin]] 1935-45 (Prime Minister 1941-45) * [[Ben Chifley]] 1945-51 (Prime Minister 1945-49) * [[H.V. Evatt|Dr H.V. Evatt]] 1951-60 * [[Arthur Calwell]] 1960-67 * [[Gough Whitlam]] 1967-77 (Prime Minister 1972-75) * [[Bill Hayden]] 1977-83 * [[Bob Hawke]] 1983-91 (Prime Minister 1983-91) * [[Paul Keating]] 1991-96 (Prime Minister 1991-96) * [[Kim Beazley]] 1996-2001 * [[Simon Crean]] 2001-03 * [[Mark Latham]] 2003-05 * [[Kim Beazley]] 2005- [[List of ALP federal leaders by time served]] ==Current ALP State Premiers / Territory Chief Ministers== * [[Peter Beattie]] (Premier of [[Queensland]]) * [[Steve Bracks]] (Premier of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]) * [[Mike Rann]] (Premier of [[South Australia]]) * [[Clare Martin]] (Chief Minister of the [[Northern Territory]]) * [[Jon Stanhope]] (Chief Minister of the [[Australian Capital Territory]]) * [[Paul Lennon]] (Premier of [[Tasmania]]) * [[Morris Iemma]] (Premier of [[New South Wales]]) * [[Alan Carpenter]] (Premier of [[Western Australia]]) ==Past ALP State Premiers and Territory Chief Ministers== <!--Please note these are PAST PREMIERS: do NOT put present day Premiers in here-->. '''New South Wales''' * [[Bob Carr]] ([[1995]]&ndash;[[2005]]) * [[Barrie Unsworth]] ([[1986]]&ndash;[[1988|88]]) * [[Neville Wran]] ([[1976]]&ndash;[[1986|86]]) * [[Jack Renshaw]] ([[1964]]&ndash;[[1965|65]]) * [[Robert Heffron]] ([[1959]]&ndash;[[1964|64]]) * [[Joseph Cahill]] ([[1952]]&ndash;[[1959|59]]) * [[James McGirr]] ([[1947]]&ndash;[[1952|52]]) * [[William McKell]] ([[1941]]&ndash;[[1947|47]]) * [[Jack Lang (Australia)|Jack Lang]] ([[1925]]&ndash;[[1927|27]], [[1930]]&ndash;[[1932|32]]) * [[James Dooley (Australian politician)|James Dooley]] ([[1921]]&ndash;[[1921|21]], [[1921]]&ndash;[[1922|22]]) * [[John Storey]] ([[1920]]&ndash;[[1921|21]]) * [[William Holman]] ([[1913]]&ndash;[[1916|16]]) * [[James McGowen]] ([[1910]]&ndash;[[1913|13]], first Labor premier of New South Wales) '''Victoria''' * [[Joan Kirner]] ([[1990]]&ndash;[[1992|92]], first female Premier of Victoria) * [[John Cain]] ([[1982]]&ndash;[[1990|90]]) * [[John Cain (senior)]] ([[1943]], [[1945]]&ndash;[[1947|47]], [[1952]]&ndash;[[1955|55]]) * [[Edmond Hogan]] ([[1927]]&ndash;[[1928|28]], [[1929]]&ndash;[[1932|32]]) * [[George Prendergast]] ([[1924]]) * [[George Elmslie (Australian politician)|George Elmslie]] ([[1913]]) '''Queensland''' * [[Wayne Goss]] ([[1989]]&ndash;[[1996|96]]) *[[Vince Gair]] ([[1952]]-[[1957|57]]) *[[Ned Hanlon]] ([[1946]]-[[1952|52]]) *[[Frank Cooper]] ([[1942]]-[[1946|46]]) *[[William Forgan Smith]] ([[1932]]-[[1942|42]]) *[[William McCormack]] ([[1925]]-[[1929|29]]) *[[William Gillies]] ([[1925]]) * [[Ted Theodore]] ([[1919]]&ndash;[[1925|25]]) * [[Thomas Joseph Ryan|Tom Ryan]] ([[1915]]&ndash;[[1919|19]]) * [[Anderson Dawson]] ([[1899]], world's first leader of a parliamentary socialist government) '''Western Australia''' * [[Geoff Gallop|Dr Geoff Gallop]] ([[2001]]-[[2005]]) * [[Carmen Lawrence|Dr Carmen Lawrence]] ([[1990]]&ndash;[[1993|93]], first female Premier of an Australian state) * [[Peter Dowding]] ([[1988]]&ndash;[[1990|90]]) * [[Brian Burke]] ([[1983]]&ndash;[[1988|88]]) * [[John Tonkin]] ([[1971]]&ndash;[[1974|74]]) * [[Albert Hawke]] ([[1953]]&ndash;[[1959|59]]) * [[Frank Wise]] ([[1945]]&ndash;[[1947|47]]) * [[John Willcock]] ([[1936]]&ndash;[[1945|45]]) * [[Phillip Collier]] ([[1924]]&ndash;[[1930|30]], [[1933]]&ndash;[[1936|36]]) * [[John Scaddan]] ([[1911]]&ndash;[[1916|16]]) * [[Henry Daglish]] ([[1904]]&ndash;[[1905|05]], first Labor premier of Western Australia) '''South Australia''' * [[Lynn Arnold]] ([[1992]]&ndash;[[1993|93]]) * [[John Bannon]] ([[1982]]&ndash;[[1992|92]]) * [[Des Corcoran]] ([[1979]]) * [[Don Dunstan]] ([[1967]]&ndash;[[1968|68]], [[1970]]&ndash;[[1979|79]]) * [[Frank Walsh]] ([[1965]]&ndash;[[1967|67]]) * [[Robert Richards]] ([[1933]]) * [[Lionel Hill]] ([[1926]]&ndash;[[1927|27]], [[1930]]&ndash;[[1933|33]]) * [[John Gunn (Australian politician)|John Gunn]] ([[1924]]&ndash;[[1926|26]]) * [[Crawford Vaughan]] ([[1915]]&ndash;[[1917|17]]) * [[John Verran]] ([[1910]]&ndash;[[1912|12]]) * [[Thomas Price]] ([[1905]]&ndash;[[1909|09]], first Labor premier of South Australia) '''Tasmania''' * [[Jim Bacon]] ([[1998]]&ndash;[[2004]]) * [[Michael Field (Australian politician)|Michael Field]] ([[1989]]&ndash;[[1992|92]]) * [[Harry Holgate]] ([[1981]]&ndash;[[1982|82]]) * [[Bill Neilson]] ([[1975]]&ndash;[[1977|77]]) * [[Eric Reece]] ([[1958]]&ndash;[[1969|69]], [[1972]]&ndash;[[1975|75]]) * [[Edward Brooker]] ([[1947]]&ndash;[[1948|48]]) * [[Robert Cosgrove]] ([[1939]]&ndash;[[1947|47]], [[1948]]&ndash;[[1958|58]]) * [[Edmund Dwyer-Gray]] ([[1939]]) * [[Albert Ogilvie]] ([[1934]]&ndash;[[1939|39]]) * [[Joseph Lyons]] ([[1923]]&ndash;[[1928|28]]) * [[John Earle (Australian politician)|John Earle]] ([[1909]], [[1914]]&ndash;[[1916|16]]) '''Australian Capital Territory''' * [[Rosemary Follett]] ([[1989]], [[1991]]&ndash;[[1995|95]], first female head of an Australian state or territory) ==Other past Labor politicians== * [[Lance Barnard]] * [[John Beasley]] * [[Kim Beazley, senior]] * [[Lionel Bowen]] * [[Clyde Cameron]] * [[Jim Cairns]] * [[Rex Connor]] * [[Frank Crean]] * [[Fred Daly]] * [[Al Grassby]] * [[Ted Holloway]] * [[Brian Howe]] * [[Lionel Murphy]] * [[Graham Richardson]] * [[Ted Theodore]] * [[Eddie Ward]] * [[Ralph Willis]] * [[John Button]] For current ALP federal politicians, see: * [[List of members of the Australian House of Representatives]] * [[List of members of the Australian Senate]] == See also == * [[Politics of Australia]] * [[Premiers of the Australian states]] * [[List of political parties in Australia]] * [[Emma Miller]] == External links == * [http://www.alp.org.au/ Australian Labor Party] * [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/03/21/1079823242925.html Labor coast to coast? Bloody hell!] (critical commentary) * [http://nla.gov.au/nla.aus-vn2599036 Australian Labor Party (ALP) ephemera] digitised and held by the National Library of Australia * [http://www.democracy4sale.org/ Critics of political donations] {{Australian political parties}} [[Category:Australian labour movement]] [[Category:Labour parties]] [[Category:Political parties in Australia]] [[Category:Social democratic parties]] [[Category:Socialist International]] [[de:Australian Labor Party]] [[eo:Aŭstralia Labora Partio]] [[es:Partido Laborista (Australia)]] [[fr:Parti travailliste australien]] [[lt:Australijos darbininkų partija]] [[pl:Australian Labor Party]] [[ru:Австралийская лейбористская партия]] 1496 41777493 2006-03-01T17:58:15Z Rklawton 754622 /* Births */ added reason {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=18}} |} '''[[August 18]]''' is the 230th day of the year (231st in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 135 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1201]] - The [[city]] of [[Riga]] is founded. *[[1541]] - A [[Portugal|Portuguese]] ship drifts ashore in the ancient [[Japan|Japanese]] province of [[Higo Province|Higo]] (modern day [[Kumamoto Prefecture]]). (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: [[July 27]], 1541) *[[1572]] - [[Wedding]] in [[Paris]] of the [[Huguenot]] King [[Henry IV of France|Henry III]] of [[Navarre]] with [[Marguerite de Valois]], in a supposed attempt to reconcile [[Protestantism|Protestants]] and [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]]. *[[1587]] - [[Virginia Dare]], granddaughter of Gov. [[John White (surveyor)|John White]] of the [[Colony of Roanoke]], becomes the first [[England|English]] child born in the [[Americas]]. *[[1590]] - [[John White]], the governor of the [[Colony of Roanoke]], returns from a supply-trip to [[England]] and finds his settlement deserted. *[[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Weldon Railroad]] - [[United States|Union]] forces try to cut a vital [[Confederate States of America | Confederate]] supply-line into [[Petersburg, Virginia]], by attacking the [[Weldon Railroad]]. *[[1868]] - [[France|French]] [[astronomy|astronomer]] [[Pierre Jules César Janssen]] [[Discoveries of the chemical elements|discovers]] [[helium]]. *[[1877]] - [[Asaph Hall]] discovers [[Mars (planet)|Martian]] moon [[Phobos (moon)|Phobos]]. *[[1903]] - [[Germany|German]] [[engineer]] [[Karl Jatho]] allegedly flies his self-made, motored gliding [[airplane]] four months before the first flight of the [[Wright Brothers]]. *[[1904]] - [[Chris Watson]] resigns as [[Prime Minister of Australia]] and is succeded by [[George Reid (Australian politician)|George Reid]]. *[[1909]] - [[Tokyo]] mayor [[Yukio Ozaki]] presents [[Washington, D.C.]] with 2,000 cherry trees, which [[William Howard Taft|President Taft]] decides to plant near the [[Potomac River]]. *[[1920]] - [[Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|19th Amendment to US constitution]] passes, guaranteeing women's [[suffrage]]. *[[1938]] - The [[Thousand Islands Bridge]], connecting [[New York State]], [[United States]] with [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] over the [[St. Lawrence River]], is dedicated by [[U.S. President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]. *[[1941]] - [[Adolf Hitler]] orders a temporary halt to [[Nazi Germany|Nazi Germany's]] systematic [[euthanasia]] of [[mental illness|mentally ill]] and [[handicapped]] due to protests. *[[1950]] - [[Julien Lahaut]], the chairman of the [[Communist Party of Belgium]] is assassinated by far-right elements. *[[1958]] - [[Vladimir Nabokov]]'s controversial novel ''[[Lolita]]'' is published in the United States. *[[1963]] - [[American civil rights movement]]: [[James Meredith]] becomes the first black person to graduate from the [[University of Mississippi]]. *[[1965]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Operation Starlite]] begins - [[United States Marines]] destroy a [[Viet Cong]] stronghold on the [[Van Tuong]] peninsula in the first major American ground battle of the war. *[[1966]] - [[Vietnam War]]: The [[Battle of Long Tan]] occurs, when a patrol of [[Royal Australian Regiment]] encounter the [[Viet Cong]]. *[[1969]] - [[Jimi Hendrix]] plays the unofficial last day of [[Woodstock]]. *[[1971]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] decide to withdraw their troops from [[Vietnam]]. *[[1976]] - In [[North Korea]] at Panmunjom, two [[United States|US]] soldiers are killed while trying to chop down part of a tree in the DMZ which had obscured their view. *[[1982]] - [[Japan|Japanese]] election law is amended to allow for [[proportional representation]]. *[[1983]] - [[Hurricane Alicia]] hits the [[Texas]] coast, killing 22 people and causing over [[USD]] $1 billion in damage (1983 dollars). *[[1989]] - Leading presidential hopeful [[Luis Carlos Galán]] is assassinated near [[Bogotá]] in [[Colombia]]. *[[1991]] - [[Collapse of the Soviet Union]]: [[President of the Soviet Union | Soviet President]] [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] is put under [[house arrest]] while on holiday in the [[Crimea]]. *[[1992]] - [[Wang Laboratories]] files for bankruptcy. *1992 - NBA [[basketball]] player [[Larry Bird]] announces his retirement after winning an [[Olympics|Olympic]] gold medal as a member of the U.S. ''[[Dream Team (basketball)|Dream Team]]''. *[[2004]] - In [[Dublin]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] the [[Dublin Port Tunnel]] excavation works are completed. *[[2005]] - Dennis Rader is sentenced to 175 years in prison for the [[BTK killer|BTK serial killings]]. *2005 - [[2005 Java Blackout|Massive power blackout]] hits the [[Indonesia]]n island of [[Java (island)|Java]], affecting almost 100 million people. *2005 - [[Starbucks]] opens its first outlet in [[Ireland]], in [[Dundrum Town Centre]], south County [[Dublin]]. ==Births== *[[1414]] - [[Jami]], Persian poet (d. [[1492]]) *[[1450]] - [[Marko Marulić]], Croatian poet (d. [[1524]]) *[[1587]] - [[Virginia Dare]], first English child born in North America (d. [[1588]]) *[[1596]] - [[Jean Bolland]], Flemish Jesuit writer (d. [[1665]]) *[[1605]] - [[Henry Hammond]], English churchman (d. [[1660]]) *[[1685]] - [[Brook Taylor]], English mathematician (d. [[1731]]) *[[1692]] - [[Louis Henri, Duc de Bourbon]], [[Prime Minister of France]] (d. [[1740]]) *[[1720]] - [[Laurence Shirley, 4th Earl Ferrers]], English murderer (d. [[1760]]) *[[1750]] - [[Antonio Salieri]], Italian composer (d. [[1825]]) *[[1774]] - [[Meriwether Lewis]], American explorer (d. [[1809]]) *[[1822]] - [[Isaac P. Rodman]], American Union General (d. [[1862]]) *[[1830]] - Emperor [[Franz Josef I of Austria]] (d. [[1916]]) *[[1841]] - [[William Halford]], American naval officer and [[Medal of Honor]] recipient *[[1857]] - [[Libert H. Boeynaems]], Belgian Catholic prelate (d. [[1926]]) *[[1890]] - [[Walther Funk]], German Nazi politician (d. [[1960]]) *[[1896]] - [[Jack Pickford]], Canadian-born actor (d. [[1933]]) *[[1902]] - [[Adamson-Eric]] (Eric Adamson), Estonian painter (d. [[1968]]) *[[1904]] - [[Max Factor]], Polish-born cosmetics entrepreneur (d. [[1996]]) *[[1917]] - [[Caspar Weinberger]], [[United States Secretary of Defense]] *[[1918]] - [[Walter Joseph Hickel]], Governor of Alaska and [[US Secretary of the Interior]] *[[1920]] - [[Bob Kennedy]], baseball player and manager (d. [[2005]]) *[[1922]] - [[Shelley Winters]], American actress *1922 - [[Alain Robbe-Grillet]], French writer *[[1925]] - [[Brian Aldiss]], English writer *[[1927]] - [[Rosalynn Carter]], [[First Lady of the United States]] *[[1928]] - [[Marge Schott]], baseball team owner (d. [[2004]]) *[[1929]] - [[Hugues Aufray]], French singer *[[1932]] - [[William R. Bennett]], Premier of British Columbia *[[1933]] - [[Roman Polanski]], Franco-Polish director and actor *1933 - [[Just Fontaine]], French footballer *[[1934]] - [[Vincent Bugliosi]], American attorney *1934 - [[Roberto Clemente]], Puerto Rican [[Major League Baseball]] player (d. [[1972]]) *1934 - [[Ronnie Carroll]], British singer *[[1935]] - [[Rafer Johnson]], American athlete *1935 - Sir [[Howard Morrison]], New Zealand entertainer *[[1937]] - [[Robert Redford]], American actor and director *[[1939]] - [[Robert Horton| Sir Robert Horton]], UK businessman *[[1943]] - [[Martin Mull]], American comedian and actor *1943 - [[Carl Wayne]], English singer (d. [[2004]]) *[[1945]] - [[Barbara Harris (singer)|Barbara Harris]], American singer ([[The Toys|Toys]]) *[[1952]] - [[Patrick Swayze]], American actor *[[1953]] - [[Louie Gohmert]], American politician *[[1955]] - Dr. [[Taher ElGamal]], Egyptian scientist *[[1957]] - [[Carole Bouquet]], French actress *1957 - [[Denis Leary]], American comedian and actor *[[1958]] - [[Madeleine Stowe]], American actress *[[1960]] - [[Fat Lever]], American basketball player *[[1965]] - [[Koji Kikkawa]], Japanese singer *[[1969]] - [[Masta Killa]], American rapper *1969 - [[Everlast]], American musician *1969 - [[Edward Norton]], American actor *1969 - [[Christian Slater]], American actor *[[1970]] - [[Malcolm-Jamal Warner]], American actor *[[1971]] - [[Richard D James]], Irish-born musician *[[1972]] - [[Leo Ku]], Hong Kong singer *[[1974]] - [[Shivnarine Chanderpaul]], West Indian cricketer *[[1979]] - [[Selena Silver]], pornographic film actress *[[1980]] - [[Esteban Cambiasso]], Argentine footballer *[[1984]] - [[Robert Huth]], German footballer *[[1985]] - [[Spencer Bailey]], symbol of survival, [[United Airlines Flight 232]] crash ==Deaths== *[[472]] - [[Ricimer]], Roman general *[[849]] - [[Walafrid Strabo]], German monk and theologian *[[1227]] - [[Genghis Khan]], Mongol leader *[[1276]] - [[Pope Adrian V]] *[[1430]] - [[Thomas de Ros, 9th Baron de Ros]], English soldier and politician (drowned) (b. [[1406]]) *[[1503]] - [[Pope Alexander VI]] (b. [[1431]]) *[[1559]] - [[Pope Paul IV]] (b. [[1476]]) *[[1563]] - [[Étienne de La Boétie]], French judge and writer (b. [[1530]]) *[[1613]] - [[Giovanni Artusi]], Italian composer *[[1620]] - [[Wanli]], [[Emperor of China]] (b. [[1563]]) *[[1642]] - [[Guido Reni]], Italian painter (b. [[1575]]) *[[1645]] - [[Eudoxia Streshneva]], Tsarina of [[Mikhail I of Russia]] (b. [[1608]]) *[[1683]] - [[Charles Hart (17th-century actor)|Charles Hart]], English actor (b. [[1625]]) *[[1707]] - [[William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire]], English soldier and statesman (b. [[1640]]) *[[1712]] - [[Richard Savage, 4th Earl Rivers]], English soldier *[[1765]] - [[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1708]]) *[[1809]] - [[Matthew Boulton]], English manufacturer and engineer (b. [[1728]]) *[[1815]] - [[Chauncey Goodrich]], U.S. Senator from Connecticut (b. [[1759]]) *[[1842]] - [[Louis de Freycinet]], French explorer (b. [[1779]]) *[[1850]] - [[Honoré de Balzac]], French writer (b. [[1799]]) *[[1940]] - [[Walter P. Chrysler]], American automobile executive (b. [[1875]]) *[[1949]] - [[Paul Mares]], American musician (b. [[1900]]) *[[1963]] - [[Clifford Odets]], American playwright (b. [[1906]]) *[[1981]] - [[Anita Loos]], American screenwriter, playwright, and author (b. [[1889]]) *[[1983]] - [[Nikolaus Pevsner]], German-born art historian (b. [[1902]]) *[[1990]] - [[Grethe Ingmann]], Danish singer (b. [[1938]]) *[[1994]] - [[Richard Laurence Millington Synge]], English chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1914]]) *[[1998]] - [[Persis Khambatta]], Indian actress (b. [[1950]]) *[[2004]] - [[Elmer Bernstein]], American composer (b. [[1922]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[List of saints|RC saints]] - Saint [[Helena of Constantinople]] * [[Buhe]] in the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/18 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[August 17]] - [[August 19]] - [[July 18]] - [[September 18]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:18 Augustus]] [[ar:18 أغسطس]] [[an:18 d'agosto]] [[ast:18 d'agostu]] [[bg:18 август]] [[be:18 жніўня]] [[bs:18. august]] [[ca:18 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 18]] [[cv:Çурла, 18]] [[co:18 d'aostu]] [[cs:18. srpen]] [[cy:18 Awst]] [[da:18. august]] [[de:18. August]] [[et:18. august]] [[el:18 Αυγούστου]] [[es:18 de agosto]] [[eo:18-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 18]] [[fo:18. august]] [[fr:18 août]] [[fy:18 augustus]] [[ga:18 Lúnasa]] [[gl:18 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 18일]] [[hr:18. kolovoza]] [[io:18 di agosto]] [[id:18 Agustus]] [[ia:18 de augusto]] [[ie:18 august]] [[is:18. ágúst]] [[it:18 agosto]] [[he:18 באוגוסט]] [[jv:18 Agustus]] [[ka:18 აგვისტო]] [[csb:18 zélnika]] [[ku:18'ê gelawêjê]] [[la:18 Augusti]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 18]] [[lb:18. August]] [[li:18 augustus]] [[hu:Augusztus 18]] [[mk:18 август]] [[ms:18 Ogos]] [[nap:18 'e aùsto]] [[nl:18 augustus]] [[ja:8月18日]] [[no:18. august]] [[nn:18. august]] [[oc:18 d'agost]] [[pl:18 sierpnia]] [[pt:18 de Agosto]] [[ro:18 august]] [[ru:18 августа]] [[se:Borgemánu 18.]] [[sco:18 August]] [[sq:18 Gusht]] [[scn:18 di austu]] [[simple:August 18]] [[sk:18. august]] [[sl:18. avgust]] [[sr:18. август]] [[fi:18. elokuuta]] [[sv:18 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 18]] [[tt:18. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 18]] [[th:18 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:18 tháng 8]] [[tr:18 Ağustos]] [[uk:18 серпня]] [[wa:18 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 18]] [[zh:8月18日]] [[pam:Agostu 18]] 1497 41777696 2006-03-01T17:59:59Z Rklawton 754622 /* Deaths */ added birth year {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=19}} |} '''[[August 19]]''' is the 231st day of the year (232nd in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 134 days remaining. ==Events== *[[293 BC]] - Oldest known [[Roman temple]] to [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] ''Libitina'' founded on the [[Esquiline Hill]]; institution of [[Vinalia Rustica]] begins. *[[1388]] - [[Battle of Otterburn]][http://www.thenortheast.fsnet.co.uk/Redesdale.htm#BATTLE%20OF%20OTTERBURN], border skirmish between the [[Scottish people|Scottish]] and the [[English people|English]] in Northern [[England]]. *[[1561]] - Queen [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary Stuart]] returns to [[Scotland]]. *[[1692]] - [[Salem Witch Trials]]: In [[Salem, Massachusetts]] five women and a clergyman are executed after being convicted of [[witchcraft]]. *[[1745]] - [[Jacobite Rising]], [[Prince Charles Edward Stuart]] lands from a French warship in [[Glenfinnan]], raises his standard and marches on [[London]] - the start of the Second Jacobite Rebellion known as "the 45" *[[1768]] - [[Saint Isaac's Cathedral]] is founded in [[Saint Petersburg, Russia|Saint Petersburg]], [[Russia]] *[[1782]] - [[Battle of Blue Licks]]: the last major battle of the [[American Revolutionary War]], almost ten months after the surrender of the British commander [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Lord Cornwallis]] following the [[Battle of Yorktown (1781)|Battle of Yorktown]]. *[[1812]] - [[War of 1812]]: American frigate ''[[USS Constitution]]'' defeats the [[Royal Navy|British]] frigate ''[[HMS Guerriere (1806)|HMS Guerrière]]'' off the coast of [[Nova Scotia]]. *[[1813]] - [[Gervasio Antonio de Posadas]] joins [[Argentina]]'s second triumvirate. *[[1839]] - Presentation of [[Louis Daguerre|Jacque Daguerre]]'s new [[photography|photographic]] process to the [[French Academy of Sciences]]. *[[1848]] - [[California Gold Rush]]: The ''[[New York Herald]]'' breaks the news to the East Coast of the [[United States]] of the [[gold rush]] in [[California]] (although the rush started in January). *[[1862]] - [[Indian Wars]]: During an uprising in [[Minnesota]], [[Lakota]] warriors decide not to attack heavily-defended [[Fort Ridgely]] and instead turn to the settlement of [[New Ulm]], killing white settlers along the way. *[[1895]] - [[American frontier]] murderer and outlaw, [[John Wesley Hardin]], is killed by an off-duty policeman in a [[bar (establishment)|saloon]] in [[El Paso, Texas]]. *[[1919]] - [[Afghanistan]] gains independence from the [[United Kingdom]]. *[[1929]] - The [[radio]] [[comedy]] show ''[[Amos and Andy]]'' makes its [[NBC]] debut starring [[Freeman Gosden]] and [[Charles Correll]]. *[[1934]] - The first All-American [[Soap Box Derby]] is held in [[Dayton, Ohio]]. *1934 - The creation of the position [[Führer]] approved by the German electorate with 89.9% of the popular vote. *[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Jubilee]] - The [[2nd Canadian Infantry Division]] leads an [[Allies of World War II|allied forces]] [[amphibious assault]] on [[Dieppe, France]]. *[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: [[Liberation of Paris]] - [[Paris]] rises against [[Nazi Germany|German]] occupation with the help of [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] troops. *[[1945]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Viet Minh]] led by [[Ho Chi Minh]] take power in [[Hanoi]], [[Vietnam]]. *[[1953]] - [[Cold War]]: The [[CIA]] helps to overthrow the government of [[Mohammed Mossadegh]] in [[Iran]] and reinstate the [[Shah]] [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]]. *[[1955]] - In the Northeast [[United States]], severe [[flooding]] caused by [[Hurricane Diane]], claims 200 lives. *[[1960]] - [[Cold War]]: In [[Moscow]], downed American [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] pilot [[Francis Gary Powers]] is sentenced to ten years imprisonment by the [[Soviet Union]] for [[espionage]]. *1960 - [[Sputnik program]]: The [[Soviet Union]] launches [[Sputnik 5]] with the [[dog]]s [[Belka and Strelka]], 40 [[mice]], 2 [[rat]]s and a variety of [[plant]]s. *[[1961]] - The Australian public-affairs show ''Four Corners'' starts on the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]]. *[[1965]] - [[Prime Minister of Japan|Japanese prime minister]] [[Eisaku Sato]] becomes the first post-[[World War II]] sitting prime minister to visit [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]]. *[[1975]] - The cricket test match between [[England]] and [[Australia]] is called off after the pitch is vandalised by supporters of [[George Davis (armed robber)|George Davis]]. *[[1980]] - [[Saudia Flight 163]], a [[Lockheed]] [[Lockheed L-1011|L-1011 TriStar]] burns after making an emergency landing at [[King Khalid International Airport]] in [[Riyadh]], [[Saudi Arabia]], killing 301 people. *[[1981]] - [[Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)|Gulf of Sidra Incident]]: Two [[Libya]]n [[Sukhoi Su-22]] fighter jets intercept [[United States]] fighters over the [[Gulf of Sidra]] and are destroyed by them. *[[1987]] - [[Hungerford Massacre]]: In the [[United Kingdom]], [[Michael Ryan (mass murderer)|Michael Ryan]] kills sixteen people with an [[assault rifle]] and then commits [[suicide]]. *[[1989]] - [[President of Poland|Polish president]] [[Wojciech Jaruzelski]] nominates [[Solidarity]] activist [[Tadeusz Mazowiecki]] to be the first non-communist [[Prime Minister]] in 42 years. *[[1990]] - [[Leonard Bernstein]] conducts his final concert, ending with [[Ludwig van Beethoven]]'s [[Symphony No. 7 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 7]]. *[[1991]] - Soviet Union President [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] is overthrown by a coup. This leads to the fall of the [[Soviet Union]] *[[1999]] - In [[Belgrade]], tens of thousands of [[Serbia]]ns rally to demand the resignation of [[President of Yugoslavia|Federal Republic of Yugoslavia President]] [[Slobodan Milošević]]. *[[2002]] - A [[Russia|Russian]] [[Mi-26]] [[helicopter]] carrying troops is hit by a [[Chechen]] [[missile]] outside of [[Grozny]], killing 118 soldiers. *[[2003]] - A car-bomb attack on [[UN]] headquarters in [[Iraq]] kills the agency's top envoy [[Sergio Vieira de Mello]] and 21 other employers. *[[2005]] - The first-ever joint military exercise between [[Russia]] and [[People's Republic of China|China]], called [[Peace Mission 2005]] begins. ==Births== *[[1398]] - [[Iñigo López de Mendoza|Marqués de Santillana]], Spanish poet (d. [[1458]]) *[[1557]] - [[Frederick I, Duke of Württemberg]] (d. [[1608]]) *[[1590]] - [[Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland]], English soldier (d. [[1649]]) *[[1596]] - [[Elizabeth of Bohemia]] (d. [[1662]]) *[[1621]] - [[Gerbrand van den Eeckhout]], Dutch painter (d. [[1674]]) *[[1631]] - [[John Dryden]], English poet (d. [[1700]]) *[[1646]] - [[John Flamsteed]], English astronomer (d. [[1719]]) *[[1686]] - [[Eustace Budgell]], English writer (d. [[1737]]) *1686 - [[Nicola Porpora]], Italian composer (d. [[1768]]) *[[1689]] - [[Samuel Richardson]], English writer (d. [[1761]]) *[[1711]] - [[Edward Boscawen]], British admiral (d. [[1761]]) *[[1743]] - [[Madame du Barry]], French courtesan (d. [[1793]]) *[[1870]] - [[Bernard Baruch]], American financier (d. [[1965]]) *[[1871]] - [[Orville Wright]], American aviation pioneer (d. [[1948]]) *[[1875]] - [[Stjepan Seljan]], Croatian explorer (d. [[1936]]) *[[1878]] - [[Manuel Quezon]], President of the Philippines (d. [[1944]]) *[[1881]] - [[Georges Enescu]], Romanian composer (d. [[1955]]) *[[1883]] - [[Coco Chanel]], French clothing designer (d. [[1971]]) *1883 - [[Elsie Ferguson]], American film actress (d. [[1961]]) *[[1892]] - [[Alfred Lunt]], American actor (d. [[1977]]) *[[1896]] - [[Olga Baclanova]], Russian-born actress (d. [[1974]]) *[[1902]] - [[Ogden Nash]], American poet (d. [[1971]]) *[[1906]] - [[Philo T. Farnsworth]], American inventor and television pioneer (d. [[1971]]) *[[1907]] - [[Thurston Ballard Morton|Thurston B. Morton]], American politician (d. [[1982]]) *[[1913]] - [[Richard Simmons (actor)|Richard Simmons]], American actor (d. [[2003]]) *[[1914]] - [[Lajos Baróti]], Hungarian footballer and coach (d. [[2005]]) *[[1915]] - [[Ring Lardner, Jr.]], American actor and screenwriter (d. [[2000]]) *[[1919]] - [[Malcolm Forbes]], American publisher (d. [[1990]]) *[[1921]] - [[Gene Roddenberry]], American television producer (d. [[1991]]) *[[1925]] - [[Claude Gauvreau]], Canadian playwright, poet, and polemicist (d. [[1971]]) *[[1926]] - [[Arthur Rock]], American venture capitalist *[[1930]] - [[Frank McCourt (author)|Frank McCourt]], Irish-born author *[[1931]] - [[Willie Shoemaker]], American jockey (d. [[2003]]) *[[1935]] - [[Bobby Richardson]], baseball player *[[1938]] - [[Diana Muldaur]], American actress, dog breeder, and dog judge *[[1939]] - [[Ginger Baker]], English musician *[[1940]] - [[Johnny Nash]], American singer *1940 - [[Jill St. John]], American actress *[[1942]] - [[Fred Dalton Thompson]], U.S. Senator from Tennessee and actor *[[1944]] - [[Charles B. Wang]], Chinese-born philanthropist *[[1945]] - [[Ian Gillan]], English singer *[[1946]] - [[Bill Clinton]], 42nd [[President of the United States]] *1946 - [[Beat Raaflaub]], Swiss conductor *[[1947]] - [[Gerard Schwarz]], American conductor *[[1948]] - [[Tipper Gore]], [[Second Lady of the United States]] *[[1950]] - [[Jennie Bond]], British journalist *[[1951]] - [[John Deacon]], English musician ([[Queen (band)|Queen]]) *[[1952]] - [[Jonathan Frakes]], American actor and director *[[1955]] - [[Peter Gallagher]], American actor *[[1956]] - [[Adam Arkin]], American actor *[[1958]] - [[Anthony Muñoz]], American football player *[[1960]] - [[Morten Andersen]], American football player *[[1963]] - [[John Stamos]], American actor *1963 - [[Joey Tempest]], Swedish singer ([[Europe (band)|Europe]]) *[[1964]] - [[Whitney Prescott]], American fetish model *[[1965]] - [[Kyra Sedgwick]], American actress *[[1966]] - [[Lee Ann Womack]], American musician *[[1969]] - [[Matthew Perry (actor)|Matthew Perry]], American actor *[[1973]] - Crown Princess [[Mette Marit]] of Norway *1973 - [[Callum Blue]], British actor *[[1979]] - [[David Douglas (musician)|David Douglas]] American drummer ([[Relient K]]) *[[1980]] - [[Darius Danesh]], Scottish singer *[[1982]] - [[Erika Christensen]], American actress *[[1983]] - [[Tammin Sursok]], Australian actress ==Deaths== *[[14]] - [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]], [[Roman Emperor]] (b. [[63 BC]]) *[[1186]] - [[Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany]] (b. [[1158]]) *[[1245]] - [[Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence]] (b. [[1195]]) *[[1284]] - [[Alphonso, Earl of Chester]], son of [[Edward I of England]] (b. [[1273]]) *[[1297]] - [[Saint Louis of Toulouse]], French Catholic bishop (b. [[1274]]) *[[1493]] - [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1415]]) *[[1580]] - [[Andrea Palladio]], Italian architect (b. [[1508]]) *[[1646]] - [[Alexander Henderson (theologian)|Alexander Henderson]], Scottish theologian *[[1662]] - [[Blaise Pascal]], French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher (b. [[1623]]) *[[1753]] - [[Balthasar Neumann]], German architect (b. [[1687]]) *[[1819]] - [[James Watt]], Scottish inventor (b. [[1736]]) *[[1822]] - [[Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre]], French mathematician (b. [[1749]]) *[[1872]] - King [[Charles XV of Sweden|Charles XV]] / [[Charles XV of Sweden|Carl IV]] of Sweden and Norway (b. [[1826]]) *[[1889]] - [[Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam]], French writer (b. [[1838]]) *[[1895]] - [[John Wesley Hardin]], American gunfighter (b. [[1853]]) *[[1923]] - [[Vilfredo Pareto]], Italian sociologist and economist (b. [[1845]]) *[[1929]] - [[Sergei Diaghilev]], Russian ballet impresario (b. [[1872]]) *[[1936]] - [[Federico García Lorca]], Spanish author (b. [[1898]]) *[[1950]] - [[Giovanni Giorgi]], Italian physicist (b. [[1871]]) *[[1954]] - [[Alcide De Gasperi]], [[Prime Minister of Italy]] (b. [[1881]]) *[[1957]] - [[David Bomberg]], English painter (b. [[1890]]) *1957 - [[Carl-Gustaf Rossby]], Swedish meteorologist (b. [[1898]]) *[[1959]] - [[Jacob Epstein]], American-born sculptor (b. [[1880]]) *[[1967]] - [[Hugo Gernsback]], Luxembourg-born editor and publisher (b. [[1884]]) *[[1968]] - [[George Gamow]], Ukrainian-born physicist (b. [[1904]]) *[[1969]] - [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]], German architect (b. [[1886]]) *[[1970]] - [[Pawel Jasienica|Paweł Jasienica]], Polish historian (b. [[1909]]) *[[1976]] - [[Alastair Sim]], Scottish actor and former rector of Edinburgh University (b. [[1900]]) *[[1977]] - [[Groucho Marx]], American comedian and actor (b. [[1890]]) *[[1980]] - [[Otto Frank]], father of Anne Frank (b. [[1889]]) *[[1982]] - [[August Neo]], Estonian wrestler, Olympic medalist (b.[[1908]]) *[[1994]] - [[Linus Pauling]], American chemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] and [[Nobel Peace Prize|Peace]] (b. [[1901]]) *[[1995]] - [[Pierre Schaeffer]], French composer (b. [[1910]]) *[[2003]] - [[Carlos Roberto Reina]], [[President of Honduras]] (b. [[1926]]) *2003 - [[Sérgio Vieira de Mello]], Brazilian diplomat (b. [[1948]]) *[[2005]] - [[Bueno de Mesquita]], Dutch comedian and actor (b. [[1918]]) *2005 - [[Mo Mowlam]], British politician (b. [[1949]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Roman festivals]] - [[Vinalia Rustica]] celebrated in honor of [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] ''Libitina'' commemorating the founding of the oldest known temple to her, on the [[Esquiline Hill]], in [[293 BC]] on this date. *[[List of saints|RC saints]] - [[Saint Sebald]], [[Saint Louis of Toulouse]], [[Jean-Eudes de Mézeray]] *[[Afghanistan]] - [[Afghan Independence Day]] ''see above: 1919'' *National Day of the Filipino Language, [[Philippines]] - Holiday for [[Quezon City]], [[Quezon Province]] and other municipalities named after [[Manuel Quezon]] *[[National Aviation Day]], [[United States|USA]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/19 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.tnl.net/when/8/19 Today in History: August 19] ---- [[August 18]] - [[August 20]] - [[July 19]] - [[September 19]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:19 Augustus]] [[ar:19 أغسطس]] [[an:19 d'agosto]] [[ast:19 d'agostu]] [[bg:19 август]] [[be:19 жніўня]] [[bs:19. august]] [[ca:19 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 19]] [[cv:Çурла, 19]] [[co:19 d'aostu]] [[cs:19. srpen]] [[cy:19 Awst]] [[da:19. august]] [[de:19. August]] [[et:19. august]] [[el:19 Αυγούστου]] [[es:19 de agosto]] [[eo:19-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 19]] [[fo:19. august]] [[fr:19 août]] [[fy:19 augustus]] [[ga:19 Lúnasa]] [[gl:19 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 19일]] [[hr:19. kolovoza]] [[io:19 di agosto]] [[id:19 Agustus]] [[ia:19 de augusto]] [[ie:19 august]] [[is:19. ágúst]] [[it:19 agosto]] [[he:19 באוגוסט]] [[jv:19 Agustus]] [[ka:19 აგვისტო]] [[csb:19 zélnika]] [[ku:19'ê gelawêjê]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 19]] [[lb:19. August]] [[li:19 augustus]] [[hu:Augusztus 19]] [[mk:19 август]] [[ms:19 Ogos]] [[nap:19 'e aùsto]] [[nl:19 augustus]] [[ja:8月19日]] [[no:19. august]] [[nn:19. august]] [[oc:19 d'agost]] [[pl:19 sierpnia]] [[pt:19 de Agosto]] [[ro:19 august]] [[ru:19 августа]] [[sco:19 August]] [[sq:19 Gusht]] [[scn:19 di austu]] [[simple:August 19]] [[sk:19. august]] [[sl:19. avgust]] [[sr:19. август]] [[fi:19. elokuuta]] [[sv:19 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 19]] [[tt:19. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 19]] [[th:19 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:19 tháng 8]] [[tr:19 Ağustos]] [[uk:19 серпня]] [[wa:19 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 19]] [[zh:8月19日]] [[pam:Agostu 19]] 1498 42069073 2006-03-03T16:32:04Z 85.20.186.33 /* Births */ {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=20}} |} '''[[August 20]]''' is the 232nd day of the year (233rd in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 133 days remaining. If you take the numbers 232 and 133, you got one 1, two 2´s and three 3´s. ==Events== *[[636]] - [[Battle of Yarmuk]]: [[Arab]] forces led by [[Khalid bin Walid]] take control of [[Syria]] and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] away from the [[Byzantine Empire]], marking the first great wave of [[Muslim]] conquests and the rapid advance of [[Islam]] outside [[Arabia]]. *[[917]] - [[Battle of Anchialus]]: Tsar [[Simeon I of Bulgaria]] invades [[Thrace]] and drives the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] out. *[[1391]] - [[Konrad IV von Wallenrode]] becomes the 24th [[Grand master (order)|Grand Master]] of the [[Teutonic Order]]. *[[1794]] - [[Battle of Fallen Timbers]] - [[United States|American]] troops force a confederacy of [[Shawnee (tribe)|Shawnee]], [[Mingo (tribe)|Mingo]], [[Delaware (tribe)|Delaware]], [[Wyandot]], [[Miami (tribe)|Miami]], [[Ottawa (tribe)|Ottawa]], [[Chippewa]], and [[Potawatomi]] warriors into a disorganized retreat. *[[1804]] - [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]]: The "Corps of Discovery", exploring the [[Louisiana Purchase]], suffers its only death when Sergeant [[Charles Floyd (explorer)|Charles Floyd]] dies, apparently from acute [[appendicitis]]. *[[1833]] - [[Nat Turner]] leads his [[revolt]] against the Southern plantation owners of Southampton County, [[Virginia]] *[[1882]] - [[Piotr Ilyitch Tchaikovsky]]'s [[1812 Overture]] debuts in [[Moscow]]. *[[1900]] - [[Japan|Japan's]] primary school law is amended to provide for four years of mandatory schooling. *[[1914]] - [[World War I]]: [[Germany|German]] forces occupy [[Brussels]]. *[[1920]] - The first commercial [[radio]] station, 8MK (WWJ), begins operations in [[Detroit, Michigan]]. *[[1926]] - [[Japan|Japan's]] [[Public broadcasting|public broadcasting]] company, [[NHK|Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai (NHK)]] is established. *[[1940]] - Exiled [[Russia]]n revolutionary [[Leon Trotsky]] is fatally wounded in [[Mexico City]] by an assassin's ice axe. He will die the next day. *[[1955]] - In [[Morocco]], a force of [[Berber]]s from the [[Atlas Mountains]] region of [[Algeria]], raid two rural settlements and kill 77 [[France|French]] nationals. *[[1960]] - [[Senegal]] breaks from the [[Mali]] federation, declaring independence. *[[1968]] - 200,000 [[Warsaw Pact]] troops and 5,000 [[tank]]s invade [[Czechoslovakia]] to end the "[[Prague Spring]]" of political liberalization. *[[1975]] - [[Viking program]]: [[NASA]] launches the [[Viking 1]] planetary probe toward [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]. *[[1977]] - [[Voyager program]]: The [[United States]] launches the [[Voyager 2]] spacecraft. *[[1982]] - [[Lebanese Civil War]]: A multinational force lands in [[Beirut]] to oversee the [[PLO]] withdrawal from [[Lebanon]]. *[[1986]] - In [[Edmond, Oklahoma]], [[United States Postal Service|US Postal]] employee [[Patrick Sherrill|Patrick Henry Sherrill]] guns down 14 of his co-workers and then commits [[suicide]]. *[[1988]] - [[Peru]] becomes a member of the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]]. *[[1989]] - In [[Beverly Hills, California]], [[Lyle and Erik Menendez]] shoot and kill their wealthy parents. *[[1991]] - [[Collapse of the Soviet Union]]: More than 100,000 people rally outside the [[Soviet Union]]'s parliament building protesting the [[coup]] aiming to depose President [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]. [[Estonia]] reclaimed its independence and seceded from the [[Soviet Union]]. Estonia had been occupied by the Soviets for more than 50 years. *[[1993]] - After rounds of secret negotiations in [[Norway]], the [[Oslo Peace Accords]] were signed, followed by a public ceremony in [[Washington, D.C.]] the next month. *[[1994]] - Circus elephant trainer [[Allen Campbell]] is crushed to death in Honolulu, Hawaii, by the performing elephant "[[Tyke]]". *[[1997]] - [[Souhane massacre]] in [[Algeria]]; over 60 people killed, 15 kidnapped. *[[1998]] - The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] states [[Quebec]] cannot legally secede from [[Canada]] without the federal government's approval. *1998 - [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings|U.S. embassy bombings]]: The [[United States military]] launches [[cruise missile]] attacks against alleged [[al-Qaida]] camps in [[Afghanistan]] and a suspected chemical plant in [[Sudan]] in retaliation for the [[August 7]] bombings of American embassies in [[Kenya]] and [[Tanzania]]. The [[al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory]] in [[Khartoum]] is destroyed in the attack. ==Births== *[[1517]] - [[Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle]], French church leader (d. [[1586]]) *[[1561]] - [[Jacopo Peri]], Italian composer (d. [[1633]]) *[[1601]] - [[Pierre de Fermat]], French mathematician (d. [[1665]]) *[[1625]] - [[Thomas Corneille]], French dramatist (d. [[1709]]) *[[1632]] - [[Louis Bourdaloue]], French Jesuit preacher (d. [[1704]]) *[[1710]] - [[Thomas Simpson]], British mathematician (d. [[1761]]) *[[1719]] - [[Christian Mayer]], Czech astronomer (d. [[1783]]) *1719 - [[Charles-François de Broglie, marquis de Ruffec]], French soldier and diplomat (d. [[1791]]) *[[1779]] - [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]], Swedish chemist (d. [[1848]]) *[[1833]] - [[Benjamin Harrison]], 23rd [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1901]]) *[[1847]] - [[Boleslaw Prus]], Polish writer (d. [[1912]]) *[[1860]] - [[Raymond Poincaré]], French statesman (d. [[1934]]) *[[1881]] - [[Edgar Guest]], English poet (d. [[1959]]) *[[1897]] - [[Tarjei Vesaas]], Norwegian writer (d. [[1970]]) *[[1890]] - [[H. P. Lovecraft]], American writer (d. [[1937]]) *[[1901]] - [[Salvatore Quasimodo]], Italian writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1968]]) *[[1905]] - [[Jean Gebser]], German-born author, linguist, and poet (d. [[1973]]) *1905 - [[Jack Teagarden]], American musician (d. [[1964]]) *[[1908]] - [[Al Lopez]], baseball player and manager (d. [[2005]]) *[[1910]] - [[Eero Saarinen]], Finnish architect (d. [[1961]]) *[[1913]] - [[Roger Wolcott Sperry]], American neurobiologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1994]]) *[[1918]] - [[Jacqueline Susann]], American novelist (d. [[1974]]) *[[1923]] - [[Jim Reeves]], American singer (d. [[1964]]) *[[1931]] - [[Don King]], American boxing promoter *[[1932]] - [[Anthony Ainley]], British actor (d. [[2004]]) *1932 - [[Vasily Aksyonov]], Russian novelist *[[1935]] - [[Ron Paul]], American politician *[[1936]] - [[Hideki Shirakawa]], Japanese chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate *[[1937]] - [[Andrei Konchalovsky]], Russian film director *[[1939]] - [[Fernando Poe Jr.]], Filipino actor and [[2004 Philippine general election|presidential candidate]] *[[1940]] - [[Rubén Hinojosa]], American politician *[[1941]] - [[Slobodan Milošević]], [[President of Serbia]] *1941 - [[Robin Oakley]], British journalist *[[1942]] - [[Isaac Hayes]], American singer, songwriter, and actor *[[1943]] - [[Sylvester McCoy]], Scottish actor *[[1944]] - [[Rajiv Gandhi]], [[Prime Minister of India]] (d. [[1991]]) *[[1946]] - [[Connie Chung]], American journalist *1946 - [[N.R. Narayana Murthy]], Indian businessman *[[1948]] - [[Robert Plant]] English singer ([[Led Zeppelin]]) *[[1949]] - [[Phil Lynott]], Irish musician (d. [[1986]]) *[[1951]] - [[Greg Bear]], American author *[[1952]] - [[John Hiatt]], American musician *[[1954]] - [[Al Roker]], American television broadcaster *[[1955]] - [[Agnes Chan]], Hong Kong singer and writer *[[1956]] - [[Joan Allen]], American actress *[[1961]] - [[Greg Egan]], Australian author *[[1962]] - [[Sophie Aldred]], English actress *1962 - [[James Marsters]], American actor *[[1965]] - [[KRS-One]], American rapper *[[1966]] - [[Dimebag Darrell]], American guitarist ([[Pantera]] and [[Damageplan]]) (d. 2004) *[[1967]] - [[Fabio Verdoglia]], italian playboy *[[1968]] - [[Yuri Shiratori]], Japanese voice actress and singer *[[1970]] - [[John Carmack]], American computer game programmer *[[1970]] - [[Fred Durst]], American singer ([[Limp Bizkit]]) *[[1973]] - [[Todd Helton]], baseball player *[[1974]] - [[Maxim Vengerov]], Russian violinist *[[1984]] - [[Mirai Moriyama]], Japanese actor *[[1986]] - [[Robert Clark (actor)|Robert Clark]], Canadian actor ==Deaths== *[[984]] - [[Pope John XIV]] *[[1384]] - [[Geert Groote]], Dutch founder of the Brethren of the Common Life (b. [[1340]]) *[[1572]] - [[Miguel López de Legazpi]], Spanish conquistador (b.[[1502]]) *[[1580]] - [[Jeronymo Osorio]], Portuguese historian (b. [[1506]]) *[[1611]] - [[Tomás Luis de Victoria]], Spanish composer *[[1639]] - [[Martin Opitz von Boberfeld]], German poet (b. [[1597]]) *[[1643]] - [[Anne Hutchinson]], English Puritan preacher (b. [[1591]]) *[[1648]] - [[Edward Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury]], English diplomat, poet, and philosopher (b. [[1583]]) *[[1672]] - [[Johan de Witt]], Dutch politican (b. [[1625]]) *[[1672]] - [[Cornelis de Witt]], Dutch politician (b. [[1623]]) *[[1680]] - [[William Bedloe]], English informer (b. [[1650]]) *[[1701]] - [[Charles Sedley]], English playwright *[[1707]] - [[Nicolas Gigault]], French organist and composer (b. [[1627]]) *[[1773]] - [[Enrique Florez]], Spanish historian (b. [[1701]]) *[[1811]] - [[Louis Antoine de Bougainville]], French explorer (b. [[1729]]) *[[1823]] - [[Pope Pius VII]] (b. [[1740]]) *[[1825]] - [[William Waldegrave, 1st Baron Radstock]], Governor of Newfoundland (b. [[1753]]) *[[1887]] - [[Jules Laforgue]], French poet (b. [[1860]]) *[[1904]] - [[René Waldeck-Rousseau]], French statesman (b. [[1846]]) *[[1912]] - [[William Booth]], English founder of the Salvation Army (b. [[1829]]) *[[1914]] - [[Pope Pius X]] (b. [[1835]]) *[[1915]] - [[Paul Ehrlich]], German scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1854]]) *[[1917]] - [[Adolf von Baeyer]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1835]]) *[[1961]] - [[Percy Williams Bridgman]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1882]]) *[[1971]] - [[Rashid Minhas]], Pakistani Air Force pilot (b. [[1951]]) *[[1986]] - [[Milton Acorn]], Canadian poet (b. [[1923]]) *[[1998]] - [[Raquel Rastenni]], Danish singer (b. [[1915]]) *[[2001]] - Sir [[Fred Hoyle]], English astronomer and science fiction writer (b. [[1915]]) *[[2005]] - [[Thomas Herrion]], American football player (b. [[1981]]) *2005 - [[Krzysztof Raczkowski]], Polish heavy metal drummer (b. [[1970]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[List of saints|RC saints]] - Saint [[Bernard of Clairvaux]] *[[Bahá'í Faith]] - Feast of Asmá (Names) - First day of the ninth month of the Bahá'í Calendar *[[Estonia]] - Restoration Day *[[Hungary]] - [[Stephen I of Hungary|St. Stephen]]'s day, the main national holiday in Hungary *[[Morocco]] - Revolution of the King and the People Day ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/20 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[August 19]] - [[August 21]] - [[July 20]] - [[September 20]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:20 Augustus]] [[ar:20 أغسطس]] [[an:20 d'agosto]] [[ast:20 d'agostu]] [[bg:20 август]] [[be:20 жніўня]] [[bs:20. august]] [[ca:20 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 20]] [[cv:Çурла, 20]] [[co:20 d'aostu]] [[cs:20. srpen]] [[cy:20 Awst]] [[da:20. august]] [[de:20. August]] [[et:20. august]] [[el:20 Αυγούστου]] [[es:20 de agosto]] [[eo:20-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 20]] [[fo:20. august]] [[fr:20 août]] [[fy:20 augustus]] [[ga:20 Lúnasa]] [[gl:20 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 20일]] [[hr:20. kolovoza]] [[io:20 di agosto]] [[id:20 Agustus]] [[ia:20 de augusto]] [[ie:20 august]] [[is:20. ágúst]] [[it:20 agosto]] [[he:20 באוגוסט]] [[jv:20 Agustus]] [[ka:20 აგვისტო]] [[csb:20 zélnika]] [[ku:20'ê gelawêjê]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 20]] [[lb:20. August]] [[li:20 augustus]] [[hu:Augusztus 20]] [[mk:20 август]] [[ms:20 Ogos]] [[nap:20 'e aùsto]] [[nl:20 augustus]] [[ja:8月20日]] [[no:20. august]] [[nn:20. august]] [[oc:20 d'agost]] [[pl:20 sierpnia]] [[pt:20 de Agosto]] [[ro:20 august]] [[ru:20 августа]] [[sco:20 August]] [[sq:20 Gusht]] [[scn:20 di austu]] [[simple:August 20]] [[sk:20. august]] [[sl:20. avgust]] [[sr:20. август]] [[fi:20. elokuuta]] [[sv:20 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 20]] [[tt:20. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 20]] [[th:20 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:20 tháng 8]] [[tr:20 Ağustos]] [[uk:20 серпня]] [[wa:20 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 20]] [[zh:8月20日]] [[pam:Agostu 20]] 1499 41688273 2006-03-01T01:50:50Z Dcandeto 70441 Revert to revision 40432990 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=21}} |} '''[[August 21]]''' is the 233rd day of the year (234th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 132 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1192]] - [[Minamoto Yoritomo]] becomes [[Shogun|Seii Tai Shōgun]] and the ''de facto'' ruler of [[Japan]]. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: July 12, 1192) *[[1680]] - [[Pueblo people|Pueblo Indians]] capture [[Santa Fe, New Mexico|Santa Fe]] from Spanish during the [[Pueblo Revolt]] *[[1770]] - [[James Cook]] formally claims eastern [[Australia]] for [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]], naming it [[New South Wales]]. *[[1772]] - King [[Gustav III of Sweden|Gustav III]] completes his coup d'etat by adopting a new [[Instrument of Government (1772)|Constitution]], ending [[Age of Liberty in Sweden|half a century of parliamentary rule]] in [[Sweden]] and installing him as an [[Enlightened absolutism|enlightened despot]]. *[[1831]] - [[Nat Turner]] leads slave revolt in [[Southampton County, Virginia]] *[[1841]] - The [[venetian blind]] is first patented in the [[United States]] by [[John Hampson]]. *[[1842]] - The city of [[Hobart]], [[Tasmania]], is founded. *[[1852]] - [[Tlingit]] Indians destroy [[Fort Selkirk]], [[Yukon]] Territory *[[1856]] - [[United States|America's]] first [[consul]] to [[Japan]], [[Townsend Harris]], arrives in [[Shimoda, Shizuoka|Shimoda]]. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: July 21, 1856) *[[1858]] - The [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]]-[[Stephen A. Douglas|Douglas]] debates begin *[[1862]] - The [[Vienna]] [[Wiener Stadtpark|Stadtpark]] opens its gates. *[[1863]] - [[Lawrence, Kansas]] is destroyed by [[Confederate]] guerillas [[Quantrill's Raiders]] in the [[Lawrence Massacre]]. *[[1878]] - The [[American Bar Association]] is founded *[[1879]] - The [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]], along with [[St. Joseph]] and [[St. John the Evangelist]] reportedly appear to the people of [[Knock]], [[County Mayo]], [[Ireland]]. *[[1888]] - The first successful [[adding machine]] in the [[United States]] was patented by [[William Seward Burroughs]]. * [[1911]] - The ''[[Mona Lisa]]'' was [[art theft|stolen]] by a [[Louvre]] employee. *[[1944]] - [[Dumbarton Oaks Conference]], prelude to the [[United Nations]], begins. *[[1959]] - President [[Eisenhower]] signs an executive order proclaiming [[Hawaii]] the 50th state of the union. *[[1968]] - [[Soviet Union]]-dominated [[Warsaw Pact]] troops invade [[Czechoslovakia]], crushing the [[Prague Spring]]; on the same day, [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]], leader of [[Communist Romania]], publicly condemns the Soviet maneuver, encouraging the Romanian population to arm itself against possible Soviet reprisals. *[[1971]] - [[Black Panther Party|Black Panther]] [[George Jackson (Black Panther)|George Jackson]] is shot and killed in the prison yard at [[California]]'s San Quentin prison. *1971 - A bomb exploded in the [[Liberal Party (Philippines)|Liberal Party]] campaign rally in Plaza Miranda, [[Manila]], [[Philippines]] with several anti-[[Ferdinand Marcos|Marcos]] political candidates injured. *[[1976]] - [[Operation Paul Bunyan]] at [[Panmunjeom]], [[Korea]] *[[1983]] - Philippine opposition leader [[Benigno Aquino, Jr.]] was assassinated at the [[Manila International Airport]]. *[[1986]] - Toxic gas erupts from [[volcano|volcanic]] [[Lake Nyos]] in [[Cameroon]], killing over 1700 people. *[[1987]] - [[Hard rock]] band [[Guns N' Roses]] release their classic debut ''[[Appetite for Destruction]].'' *[[1991]] - [[Latvia]] declares its full independence from the [[Soviet Union]]. *1991 - [[coup d'état|Coup]] attempt against [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] collapses. *[[1993]] - [[NASA]] loses contact with the [[Mars Observer]] spacecraft. *[[1997]] - The British Rock Group [[Oasis (band)|Oasis]] release album, ''[[Be Here Now]]''. *[[1998]] - The [[United States]] destroys a pharmaceutical plant (erroneously believed to be a chemical weapons plant) in [[Sudan]]. *[[2001]] - [[NATO]] decides to send a peace-keeping force to the former [[Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] [[Republic of Macedonia]]. *2001 - A sixth-century temple is discovered in central [[Mexico]]. *2001 - The [[Red Cross]] announces that a [[famine]] is striking [[Tajikistan]], and calls for international financial aid for Tajikistan and [[Uzbekistan]]. *[[2002]] - [[Jean Chrétien]], [[Prime Minister of Canada]], announces that he will not seek re-election and would resign within eighteen months. *[[2004]] - A grenade attack on Bangladesh Awamee League, the bigest political party in [[Bangladesh]] kills 22 and injures more than a thousand, including party president [[Sheikh Hasina]]. *[[2005]] - [[Pope Benedict XVI]] concludes [[World Youth Day 2005|World Youth Day]] with a mass. Over 1,100,000+ people attended the closing liturgy. ==Births== *[[1165]] - King [[Philip II of France]] (d. [[1223]]) *[[1535]] - [[Shimazu Yoshihiro]], Japanese samurai and warlord (d. [[1619]]) *[[1567]] - [[Francis de Sales]], Bishop of Geneva and saint (d. [[1622]]) *[[1597]] - [[Roger Twysden]], English antiquarian and royalist (d. [[1672]]) *[[1643]] - King [[Afonso VI of Portugal]] (b. [[1683]]) *[[1660]] - [[Hubert Gautier]], French scientist and civil engineer (d. [[1737]]) *[[1665]] - [[Giacomo F. Maraldi]], French-Italian astronomer (d. [[1729]]) *[[1670]] - [[James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick]], French military leader (d. [[1734]]) *[[1725]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Greuze]], French painter (d. [[1805]]) *[[1754]] - [[William Murdoch]], Scottish inventor (d. [[1839]]) *[[1765]] - [[William IV of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1837]]) *[[1789]] - [[Augustin Louis Cauchy]], French mathematician (d. [[1857]]) *[[1801]] - [[Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer]], Dutch politician (d. [[1876]]) *[[1811]] - [[William Kelly (inventor)|William Kelly]], American inventor (d. [[1888]]) *[[1813]] - [[Jean Stas]], Belgian chemist (d. [[1891]]) *[[1816]] - [[Charles Frédéric Gerhardt]], French chemist (d. [[1856]]) *[[1826]] - [[Karl Gegenbaur]], German anatomist (d. [[1903]]) *[[1872]] - [[Aubrey Beardsley]], English illustrator (d. [[1898]]) *[[1904]] - [[Count Basie|William "Count" Basie]], American bandleader (d. [[1984]]) *[[1906]] - [[Friz Freleng]], American movie animator (d. [[1995]]) *[[1908]] - [[M. M. Kaye]], British writer (d. [[2004]]) *[[1915]] - [[Raquel Rastenni]], Danish singer (d. [[1998]]) *[[1923]] - [[Shimon Peres]], [[Prime Minister of Israel]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] *[[1924]] - [[Jack Buck]], American sports announcer (d. [[2002]]) *1924 - [[Chris Schenkel]], American sports journalist (d. [[2005]]) *1924 - [[Jack Weston]], American actor (d. [[1996]]) *[[1925]] - [[Maurice Pialat]], French actor and director (d. [[2003]]) *[[1928]] - [[Art Farmer]], American trumpet player (d. [[1999]]) *[[1930]] - [[Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon]] (d. [[2002]]) *[[1932]] - [[Melvin Van Peebles]], American actor and screenwriter *[[1933]] - [[Janet Baker]], English opera singer ([[mezzo-soprano]]) *[[1936]] - [[Wilt Chamberlain]], American basketball player (d. [[1999]]) *[[1938]] - [[Kenny Rogers]], American singer and actor *[[1939]] - [[James Burton]], American guitarist *1939 - [[Clarence Williams III]], American actor *[[1944]] - [[Jackie DeShannon]], American singer *1944 - [[Peter Weir]], Australian film director *[[1950]] - [[Patrick Juvet]], Swiss singer *[[1951]] - [[Eric Goles]], Chilean mathematician and computer scientist *[[1952]] - [[Joe Strummer]], British musician and singer ([[The Clash]]) (d. [[2002]]) *[[1954]] - [[Ivan Stang]], American writer *[[1956]] - [[Kim Cattrall]], English-born actress *[[1959]] - [[Jim McMahon]], American football player *[[1962]] - [[Jeff Stryker]], American adult film actor *[[1963]] - [[Mohammed VI of Morocco]] *[[1964]] - [[Trinity Loren]], American actress and model (d. [[1998]]) *[[1967]] - [[Carrie-Anne Moss]], Canadian actress *1967 - [[Serj Tankian]], Lebanese-born singer ([[System of a Down]]) *[[1969]] - [[Josée Chouinard]], Canadian figure skater *[[1970]] - [[Erik Dekker]], Dutch professional cyclist *[[1971]] - [[Liam Howlett]], British musician (([[The Prodigy]]) *[[1978]] - [[Reuben Droughns]], American football player *1978 - [[Jason Marquis]], American baseball player *[[1980]] - [[Burney Lamar]], American race car driver *[[1984]] - [[Alizée]], French singer *[[1991]] - [[Tess Gaerthé]], Dutch singer and actress ==Deaths== *[[1157]] - King [[Alfonso VII of Castile]] (b. 1104/1105) *[[1153]] - [[Bernard of Clairvaux]], French theologian (b. [[1090]]) *[[1271]] - [[Alphonse of Toulouse]], son of [[Louis VIII of France]] (b. [[1220]]) *[[1581]] - [[Sakuma Nobumori]], Japanese retainer and samurai (b. [[1527]]) *[[1614]] - [[Elizabeth Báthory]], Hungarian serial killer (b. [[1560]]) *[[1627]] - [[Jacques Mauduit]], French composer (b. [[1557]]) *[[1673]] - [[Henry Grey, 1st Earl of Stamford]], English soldier *[[1689]] - [[William Cleland]], Scottish poet and soldier *[[1762]] - [[Lady Mary Wortley Montagu]], English writer (b. [[1689]]) *[[1763]] - [[Charles Wyndham, 2nd Earl of Egremont]], British statesman (b. [[1710]]) *[[1796]] - [[John McKinly]], American physician and President of Delaware (b. [[1721]]) *[[1814]] - [[Benjamin Thompson]], American physicist and inventor (b. [[1753]]) *[[1836]] - [[Claude-Louis Navier]], French physicist (b. [[1785]]) *[[1838]] - [[Adelbert von Chamisso]], German writer (b. [[1781]]) *[[1940]] - [[Leon Trotsky]], Russian revolutionary (b. [[1879]]) *1940 - [[Ernest Lawrence Thayer]], American poet (b. [[1863]]) *[[1943]] - [[Henrik Pontoppidan]], Danish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] (b. [[1857]]) *[[1947]] - [[Ettore Bugatti]], Italian automobile manufacturer (b. [[1881]]) *[[1951]] - [[Constant Lambert]], British composer and conductor (b. [[1905]]) *[[1957]] - [[Harald Ulrik Sverdrup]], Norwegian meteorologist and oceanographer (b. [[1888]]) *[[1960]] - [[David Barnard Steinman]], American civil engineer and bridge designer (b. [[1886]]) *[[1978]] - [[Charles Eames]], American designer and architect (b. [[1907]]) *[[1982]] - [[Sobhuza II]], [[King of Swaziland]] (b. [[1899]]) *[[1983]] - [[Benigno S. Aquino Jr.]], Philippine opposition leader (b. [[1932]]) *[[1995]] - [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]], Indian-born astrophysicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1910]]) *[[1997]] - [[Norris Bradbury]], American physicist (b. [[1909]]) *[[2000]] - [[Daniel Lisulo]], Zambian prime minister (b. [[1930]]) *[[2003]] - [[Kathy Wilkes]], English philosopher and aid worker (b. [[1946]]) *2003 - [[Wesley Willis]], American musician (b. [[1963]]) *[[2005]] - [[Marcus Schmuck]], Austrian mountaineer (b. [[1925]]) *2005 - [[Robert Moog]], American pioneer of electronic music (b. [[1934]]) *2005 - [[Dalia Rabikovich]], Israeli poet (b. [[1936]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Ninoy Aquino|Ninoy Aquino Day]] - special holiday in the [[Philippines]]. *[[Roman festivals]] - [[Consualia]], in honor of [[Consus]], is held *[[List of saints|RC saints]] - Pope [[Pius X]] *[[Orthodox]] - [[Thaddaeus]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/21 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[August 20]] - [[August 22]] - [[July 21]] - [[September 21]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:21 Augustus]] [[ar:21 أغسطس]] [[an:21 d'agosto]] [[ast:21 d'agostu]] [[bg:21 август]] [[be:21 жніўня]] [[bs:21. august]] [[ca:21 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 21]] [[cv:Çурла, 21]] [[co:21 d'aostu]] [[cs:21. srpen]] [[cy:21 Awst]] [[da:21. august]] [[de:21. August]] [[et:21. august]] [[el:21 Αυγούστου]] [[es:21 de agosto]] [[eo:21-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 21]] [[fo:21. august]] [[fr:21 août]] [[fy:21 augustus]] [[ga:21 Lúnasa]] [[gl:21 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 21일]] [[hr:21. kolovoza]] [[io:21 di agosto]] [[id:21 Agustus]] [[ia:21 de augusto]] [[ie:21 august]] [[is:21. ágúst]] [[it:21 agosto]] [[he:21 באוגוסט]] [[jv:21 Agustus]] [[ka:21 აგვისტო]] [[csb:21 zélnika]] [[ku:21'ê gelawêjê]] [[la:21 Augusti]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 21]] [[lb:21. August]] [[li:21 augustus]] [[hu:Augusztus 21]] [[mk:21 август]] [[ms:21 Ogos]] [[nap:21 'e aùsto]] [[nl:21 augustus]] [[ja:8月21日]] [[no:21. august]] [[nn:21. august]] [[oc:21 d'agost]] [[pl:21 sierpnia]] [[pt:21 de Agosto]] [[ro:21 august]] [[ru:21 августа]] [[sco:21 August]] [[sq:21 Gusht]] [[scn:21 di austu]] [[simple:August 21]] [[sk:21. august]] [[sl:21. avgust]] [[sr:21. август]] [[fi:21. elokuuta]] [[sv:21 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 21]] [[tt:21. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 21]] [[th:21 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:21 tháng 8]] [[tr:21 Ağustos]] [[uk:21 серпня]] [[wa:21 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 21]] [[zh:8月21日]] [[pam:Agostu 21]] 1500 33591757 2006-01-02T12:39:06Z Hu 133716 Category fictional birds. [[Image:Alice and Dodo.gif|right]] The '''Dodo''' is a fictional character appearing in Chapters 2 and 3 of the book ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' by [[Lewis Carroll]] (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson). It is a reference to Dodgson himself who had a stutter and very frequently pronounced his name "Do-do-dodgson". In this passage Lewis Carroll incorporated references to everyone present on the original boating expedition of [[July 4]], [[1862]] during which Alice's Adventures were first told, with [[Alice (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Alice]] as herself, and the others represented by birds: the [[Lory]] was Lorina Liddell, the [[The Eaglet|Eaglet]] was Edith Liddell, the Dodo was Carroll, and the [[Duck]] was Rev. [[Robinson Duckworth]]. [[Category:Alice characters]] [[Category:Fictional birds]] 1501 32990968 2005-12-28T12:36:55Z Anthony Appleyard 119438 A [[lory]] is any of about 30 [[species]] of small, fast-moving [[parrot]] from southern Asia and New Guinea. See [[lorikeet]]. ---- The '''Lory''' is a character appearing in Chapters 2 and 3 of ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' by [[Lewis Carroll]], a reference to Lorina Liddell, [[Alice (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Alice]]'s sister. In this passage Lewis Carroll incorporated references to everyone present on the original boating expedition of [[July 4]], [[1862]] during which Alice's Adventures were first told, with Alice as [[Alice Liddell|herself]], and the others represented by birds: the Lory was Lorina Liddell, [[the Eaglet]] was Edith Liddell, the [[Dodo (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Dodo]] was [[Lewis Carroll|Carroll]] himself, and the Duck was Rev. [[Robinson Duckworth]]. [[Category:Alice characters]] [[Category:Fictional parrots]] 1502 31596412 2005-12-16T10:39:13Z 202.152.162.216 The '''Eaglet''' is a character appearing in Chapter 2 and 3 of ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' by [[Lewis Carroll]], a reference to Edith Liddell, [[Alice (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Alice]]'s sister. In this passage Lewis Carroll incorporated references to everyone present on the original boating expedition of [[July 4]], [[1862]] during which Alice's Adventures were first told, with Alice as [[Alice Liddell|herself]], and the others represented by birds: the [[Lory]] was Lorina Liddell, the Eaglet was Edith Liddell, the [[Dodo (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Dodo]] was [[Charles Lutwidge Dodgson]], and the Duck was Rev. [[Robinson Duckworth]]. [[Category:Alice characters|Eaglet, The]] [[Category:Fictional birds of prey |Eaglet, The]] 1503 24311853 2005-09-29T11:22:09Z PatGallacher 164032 better disambiguation #redirect [[Alburquerque]] 1504 42096886 2006-03-03T20:30:09Z 62.162.242.140 '''Albert''' is a common first and last name. It is also the name of several historical people. (Note: only persons with "Albert" as their only common name are listed here; persons with "Albert" as a first or last name, such as [[Albert Einstein]], are not listed.)The name was from a germanic name Adalbrecht that meant "bright nobility" * [[Archduke Albert (1817-1895)]], Son of [[Archduke Charles]], [[Austria]]n General. *[[Albert (wojt)]] (after 1317), [[wojt]] of [[Kraków]] *[[Albert I of Belgium]] reigning [[1909]]-[[1934]] *[[Albert I of Brandenburg]] (c. 1100-1170) Margrave of Brandenburg *[[Albert I of Habsburg]] (c. 1250-1308) German king *[[Albert II of Austria]] (1298-1358), Duke of Austria *[[Albert II of Belgium]] reigning [[Belgian monarch]] *[[Albert II of Habsburg]] (=Albert V of Austria) (1397-1439) German king *[[Albert I, Prince of Monaco|Albert I of Monaco]] *[[Albert II, Prince of Monaco|Albert II of Monaco]] reigning [[Monegasque monarch]] *[[Albert III of Austria]], Duke of Austria 1365-1395 *[[Albert IV of Austria]], Duke of Austria 1395-1404 *[[Albert Of Aix]] (c. A.D. 1100) *[[Albert of Mainz]] (1490-1545) Archbishop of Mainz *[[Albert of Prussia]] (1490-1568) First duke of Prussia *[[Albert of Sweden|Albert Mecklenburg, King of Sweden]] reigning [[1363]]-[[1389]] *[[Albert The Degenerate]] (c. 1240-1314) *[[Albert The Warlike]] (1522-1557) Prince of Bayreuth *[[Albert VI of Austria]], Duke of Austria (ruler of Inner Austria) 1446-1463 *[[Albert, duc de Broglie]] (1821-1901), French politician *[[Albert, Duke of Saxony]] (1443-1500) Duke of Saxony *[[Albert, King of Saxony]] (1828-1873) *[[Albert's Real Jamaican Foods]] (Restaurant) *[[Archduke Albert (1559-1621)]], Son of [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor]], Governor of the [[Low Countries]]; *[[Prince_Albert_of_Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha]] (1819-1861) Prince-consort of Queen Victoria of England *[[Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale]] The following places are named '''Albert'''. *[[Albert County, New Brunswick]] *[[Albert (electoral district)]] in New Brunswick, Canada *[[Albert Township, Michigan]] *[[Albert Township, North Dakota]] *[[Albert, Kansas]] *[[Albert, Somme]] is the name of a [[commune in France|commune]] of the [[Somme]] ''[[département in France|département]]'' in [[France]]. In addition, the word ''"Albert"'' can refer to the following: * '''Albert''' is also the name of one of the supporting characters in the early [[1960s]] version of the ''[[Josie and the Pussycats (comic) | Josie]]'' (later ''[[Josie and the Pussycats (comic) | Josie and the Pussycats]]'') comic book produced by [[Archie Comics]]. *'''[[719_Albert|Albert]]''' is also a near-earth [[asteroid]]. *'''[[Albert clarinet maker|Albert]]''' was a [[Belgian]] [[clarinet]] maker. *'''Albert E. Gator''', the mascot of the [[University of Florida]] The female form of Albert is '''[[Alberta]]''' or '''[[Albertina]]''' {{disambig}} [[de:Albert]] [[fr:Albert]] [[hu:Albert (keresztnév)]] [[ja:アルバート]] [[nl:Albert]] [[pl:Albert]] [[pt:Alberto]] [[sk:Albert]] [[fi:Albert]] [[sv:Albert]] Albert LLLESHI DIBER R.Macedonia 1505 38138004 2006-02-04T12:33:58Z Ft1 875504 +it '''Albert I''' is the name of several historical people: *[[Albert I of Belgium]] (1875 - 1934) third king of Belgium *[[Albert I of Brandenburg]] (c. 1100-1170) Margrave of Brandenburg *[[Albert I of Germany|Albert I of Habsburg]] (c. 1250-1308) German king *[[Albert I, Prince of Monaco|Albert I of Monaco]] (1848-1922), Prince of [[Monaco]] *[[Albert I, Count of Namur|Albert I of Namur]] (c. 950-1011), a Belgian count *[[Albert I, Count Vermandois|Albert I of Vermandois]] (917 -- [[8 September]] 987), Count of Vermandois in Normandy {{hndis}} [[fr:Albert_Ier]] [[it:Alberto I]] 1506 38295331 2006-02-05T10:52:48Z Ft1 875504 +it '''Albert II''' is the name of several monarchs: ===Current=== * [[Albert II of Belgium]] (1934&ndash;) * [[Albert II, Prince of Monaco|Albert II of Monaco]] (1958&ndash;) ===Historical=== * [[Albert II of Austria]] (1298&ndash;1358) * [[Albert II of Gorizia]] * [[Albert II of Germany|Albert II of Habsburg]] (1397&ndash;1439) {{hndis}} [[fr:Albert II]] [[it:Alberto II]] [[ko:알베르 2세]] [[nl:Albert II]] [[ja:アルベール2世]] [[no:Albert II]] [[pl:Albert II]] [[fi:Albert II]] 1507 35530412 2006-01-17T11:57:58Z Korg 263660 {{hndis}} '''Albert III''' may mean: *[[Albert III of Austria]] (1349-1395) *[[Albert III, Duke of Bavaria|Albert III of Bavaria]] (1438-1460) *[[Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg]] (1414-1486) *[[Albert III, Count of Namur]] (1048-1102) *[[Albert III, Duke of Saxe-Wittenberg]] (1260-1298) *[[Albert, Duke of Saxony]] (1443-1500), sometimes called "Albert III" {{hndis}} 1508 40852331 2006-02-23T12:32:28Z Saga City 138511 /* References */ '''Albert''' or '''Albrecht''' ([[March 28]] [[1522]]-[[1557]]), prince of [[Bayreuth]], ([[Germany]]), surnamed '''the Warlike''', and also '''Alcibiades''', was a son of [[Kasimir, Margrave of Bayreuth]], and a member of the [[Franconia|Franconian]] branch of the [[Hohenzollern]] family. He was born at [[Ansbach]] and having lost his father in 1527 he came under the guardianship of his uncle George, prince of Ansbach, a strong adherent of [[Protestantism]]. In 1541 he received Bayreuth as his share of the family lands, and as the chief town of his principality was [[Kulmbach]] he is sometimes referred to as the margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. His restless and turbulent nature marked him out for a military career; and having collected a small band of soldiers, he assisted the emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] in his war with France in 1543. The [[Peace of Crepy]] in September 1544 deprived him of this employment, but he had won a considerable reputation, and when Charles was preparing to attack the [[Schmalkaldic League]], he took pains to win Albert's assistance. Sharing in the attack on the Saxon electorate, Albert was taken prisoner at [[Rochlitz]] in March 1547 by [[John Frederick, Elector of Saxony]], but was released as a result of the emperor's victory at the [[Battle of Mühlberg]] in the succeeding April. He then followed the fortunes of his friend [[Maurice of Saxony]], deserted Charles, and joined the league which proposed to overthrow the emperor by an alliance with [[Henry II of France]]. He took part in the subsequent campaign, but when the [[Peace of Passau]] was signed in August 1552 he separated himself from his allies and began a crusade of plunder in [[Franconia]]. Having extorted a large sum of money from the citizens of [[Nuremberg]], he quarrelled with his supporter, the French king, and offered his services to the emperor. Charles, anxious to secure such a famous fighter, gladly assented to Albert's demands and gave the imperial sanction to his possession of the lands taken from the bishops of [[Würzburg]] and [[Bamberg]]; and his conspicuous bravery was of great value to the emperor on the retreat from [[Metz]] in January 1553. When Charles left Germany a few weeks later, Albert renewed his depredations in Franconia. These soon became so serious that a league was formed to crush him, and Maurice of Saxony led an army against his former comrade. The rival forces met at Sievershausen on [[July 9]] [[1553]], and after a combat of unusual ferocity Albert was put to flight. Henry II, duke of Brunswick, then took command of the troops of the league, and after Albert had been placed under the imperial ban in December 1553 he was defeated by Duke Henry, and compelled to flee to France. He there entered the service of Henry II of France and had undertaken a campaign to regain his lands when he died at [[Pforzheim]] on [[January 8]] [[1557]]. He is defined by [[Carlyle]] "a failure of a Fritz," with "features" of a Frederick the Great in him, "but who burnt away his splendid qualities as a mere temporary shine for the able editors, and never came to anything, full of fire, too much of it wildfire, not in the least like an Alcibiades except in the change of fortune he underwent". ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1522 births|Warlike, Albert the]] [[Category:1557 deaths|Warlike, Albert the]] [[Category:House of Hohenzollern]] [[de:Albrecht Alcibiades von Brandenburg-Kulmbach]] 1509 36476681 2006-01-24T08:16:25Z Kmorozov 238736 add cat [[Image:Adalbertus Siegel.JPG|thumb|175px|left|The seal of Albert I]]'''Albert I''' (c. 1100-1170), [[Margrave]] of [[Brandenburg]], also called, '''The Bear''' (Ger: '''Albrecht der Bär'''), was the only son of Otto the Rich, count of [[Ballenstedt]], and [[Eilika of Saxony|Eilika]], daughter of [[Magnus, Duke of Saxony|Magnus Billung]], [[Rulers of Saxony|Duke of Saxony]]. He inherited the valuable estates in northern Saxony of his father in [[1123]], and on his mother's death, in [[1142]], succeeded to one-half of the lands of the house of [[Billung]]. [[Image:Albrecht gesamt.JPG|thumb|Monument commemorating Albrecht, [[Spandau|Spandau Citadel]], Berlin]] Albrecht was a loyal [[vassal]] of his relation, [[Lothair II, Holy Roman Emperor|Lothar I, duke of Saxony]], from whom, about [[1123]], he received the margravate of [[Lusatia]], to the east; after Lothar became king of the Germans, he accompanied him on a disastrous expedition to [[Bohemia]] in [[1126]], when he suffered a short imprisonment. Albert's entanglements in Saxony stemmed from his desire to expand his inherited estates there. In [[1128]] his brother-in-law, Henry II, who was margrave of a small area on the Elbe called the Saxon [[Northern March]], died, and Albert, disappointed at not receiving this fief himself, attacked Udo, the heir, and was consequently deprived of Lusatia by Lothar. In spite of this, he went to [[Italy]] in [[1132]] in the train of the king, and his services there were rewarded in [[1134]] by the investiture of the North Mark, which was again without a ruler. Once he was firmly established in the[[ Nordmark]], Albert's covetous eye lay also on the thinly populated lands to the north and east. Three years he was occupied in campaigns against the Slavic [[Wends]], who as pagans were considered fair game, and whose subjugation to Christianity was the aim of the "Wendish crusade" of 1147 in which Albert took part; diplomatic measures were more successful, and by an arrangement made with [[Pribislav]], the last of the Wendish dukes of Brandenburg, Albert secured this district when the duke died in [[1150]]. Taking the title "Margrave of Brandenburg", he pressed the "crusade" against the Wends, extended the area of his mark, encouraged German migration, established bishoprics under his protection, and so became the founder of the [[Margraviate]] of Brandenburg in [[1157]], which his heirs&mdash;the [[Ascanian]]s&mdash;held until the line died out in 1320. In [[1137]] his cousin and nemesis, [[Henry II, Duke of Saxony|Henry the Proud]] was deprived by the Hohenstaufen [[Conrad III of Germany|Conrad III, King of the Germans]] of his Saxon duchy, which was awarded to Albert, if he could take it. After some initial success in his efforts to take possession, he was driven from Saxony, and also from his Nordmark by Henry, and compelled to take refuge in South Germany. When peace was made with Henry in [[1142]] Albert renounced the Saxon dukedom and received the counties of [[Weimar]] and [[Orlamunde|Orlamünde]]. It was possibly at this time that Albert was made Arch-Chamberlain of the Empire, an office which afterwards gave the Margraves of Brandenburg the rights of a [[prince-elector]]. A feud with Henry's son, [[Henry the Lion]], Duke of Saxony, was interrupted, in [[1158]], by a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and in [[1162]] Albert accompanied the Emperor [[Frederick Barbarossa]] to [[Italy]], where he distinguished himself at the storming of [[Milan]]. In [[1164]] he joined a league of princes formed against Henry the Lion, and peace being made in [[1169]], Albert divided his territories among his six sons, and died on [[November 13]] [[1170]], and was buried at Ballenstedt. His personal qualities won for him the surname of ''the Bear,'' "not from his looks or qualities, for he was a tall handsome man, but from the cognisance on his shield, an able man, had a quick eye as well as a strong hand, and could pick what way was straightest among crooked things, was the shining figure and the great man of the North in his day, got much in the North and kept it, got Brandenburg for one there, a conspicuous country ever since," says [[Thomas Carlyle|Carlyle]], who called Albert "a restless, much-managing, wide- warring man." He is also called by later writers "the Handsome." ==Family and children== He was married in [[1124]] to [[Sofie of Winzenburg]] (d. [[25 March]] [[1160]]) and they had the following children: # [[Otto I, Margrave of Brandenburg]] (1126/28 &ndash; [[7 March]] [[1184]]). # Count [[Hermann I of Orlamünde]] (d. 1176). # Siegfried (d. [[24 October]] [[1184]]), [[Bishop of Brandenburg]] in 1173-80, [[Archbishop of Bremen]] in 1180-84. # Heinrich (d. 1185), a canon in [[Magdeburg]]. # Count [[Albrech of Ballenstedt]] (d. after [[6 December]] [[1172]]). # Count [[Dietrich of Werben]] (d. after [[5 September]] [[1183]]). # Count [[Bernhard of Anhalt]] (1140 &ndash; [[9 February]] [[1212]]), [[Duke of Saxony]] in 1180-1212 as Bernard III. # Hedwig (d. 1203), married to [[Otto, Margrave of Meißen]]. # Daughter, married ca. 1152 to [[Vladislav of Bohemia]]. # Adelheid (d. 1162), a nun in [[Lamspringe]]. # Gertrude, married 1155 to Duke [[Diepold of Moravia]]. # Sybille (d. ca. 1170), Abbess of [[Quedlinburg]]. # Eilika ==External links== *[http://www.underthesun.cc/Classics/Carlyle/Friedrich/Friedrich14.html Thomas Carlyle, ''History of Friedrich ii''] Chapter iv: Albert the Bear *[http://www.kessler-web.co.uk/History/KingListsEurope/GermanyBrandenburg.htm Brandenburg:] table of rulers {{start box}} {{succession box| before=[[Henry II, Duke of Saxony|Henry II]]| title=[[Rulers of Saxony|Duke of Saxony]]| years=1138&ndash;1142| after=[[Henry the Lion|Henry III]]}} {{succession box| before=New creation| title=[[Elector of Brandenburg|Margrave of Brandenburg]]| years=1157&ndash;1170| after=[[Otto I, Margrave of Brandenburg|Otto I]]}} {{end box}} [[Category:Dukes of Saxony]] [[Category:1100 births|Brandenburg, Albert I of]] [[Category:1170 deaths|Brandenburg, Albert I of]] [[Category:Ascanian House|Brandenburg, Albert I of ]] {{Link FA|de}} [[de:Albrecht I. (Brandenburg)]] [[fr:Albert Ier de Brandebourg]] [[it:Alberto I di Brandeburgo]] [[pl:Albrecht Niedźwiedź]] 1510 15899980 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Zundark 70 fix redirect #REDIRECT [[Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg]] 1511 15899981 2004-10-22T15:19:29Z John Kenney 10512 #REDIRECT [[Albert I of Germany]] 1512 15899982 2004-10-18T06:00:28Z John Kenney 10512 #REDIRECT [[Albert II of Germany]] 1513 40429516 2006-02-20T14:05:55Z DabMachine 922466 disambiguation from [[Florin]] to [[German florin]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]]) [[Image:ADurerCardinalAlbrecht.jpg|thumb|right|260px|Cardinal Albert of Hohenzollern, Archbishop of Mainz and Magdeburg: engraved portrait by [[Albrecht Dürer]], 1519]] Cardinal '''Albert of Hohenzollern''' (German: ''Albrecht''; [[June 28]], [[1490]] in [[Cölln]] &ndash; [[September 24]], [[1545]] in [[Aschaffenburg]]), [[Prince-elector|Elector]] and [[Archbishop of Mainz]] and [[Archbishop of Magdeburg]], was the younger son of [[John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg]]. After their father's death, Albert and his older brother [[Joachim I Nestor]] became [[Margrave of Brandenburg|margraves of Brandenburg]] in [[1499]], but only his older brother held the title of an [[elector of Brandenburg]]. Having studied at the university of [[Frankfurt an der Oder]], Albert entered the ecclesiastical profession, and in [[1513]] became [[archbishop]] of [[Archbishopric of Magdeburg|Magdeburg]] and administrator of the [[Diocese of Halberstadt]]. In [[1514]] he obtained the [[Electorate of Mainz]], and in [[1518]] was made a [[Cardinal_(Catholicism)|cardinal]]. Meanwhile to pay for the [[pallium]] of the see of Mainz and to discharge the other expenses of his elevation, Albert had borrowed 21,000 [[ducat]]s from [[Jacob Fugger]], and had obtained permission from [[Pope Leo X]] to conduct the sale of [[indulgences]] in his diocese to obtain funds to repay this loan, as long as half the collection was forwarded to the Papacy. An agent of the Fuggers subsequently traveled in the Cardinal's retinue in charge of the cashbox. For this work he procured the services of [[John Tetzel]], and so indirectly exercised a potent influence on the course of the [[Reformation]]. When the imperial election of [[1519]] drew near, the elector's vote was eagerly solicited by the partisans of Charles (afterwards the emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]) and by those of [[Francis I of France|Francis I]], King of France, and he appears to have received a large amount of money for the vote, which he cast eventually for Charles. Albert's large and liberal ideas, his friendship with [[Ulrich von Hutten]], and his political ambitions, appear to have raised hopes that he would be won over to [[Protestantism]]; but after the [[Peasants' War]] of [[1525]] he ranged himself definitely among the supporters of [[Catholicism]], and was among the princes who met to concert measures for its defence at [[Dessau]] in July [[1525]]. His hostility towards the reformers, however, was not so extreme as that of his brother Joachim I, Elector of Brandenburg; and he appears to have exerted himself in the interests of peace, although he was a member of the [[League of Nuremberg]], which was formed in [[1538]] as a counterpoise to the [[League of Schmalkalden]]. The new doctrines nevertheless made considerable progress in his dominions, and he was compelled to grant religious liberty to the inhabitants of Magdeburg in return for 500,000 [[German florin|florin]]s. During his latter years indeed he showed more intolerance towards the Protestants, and favoured the teaching of the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] in his dominions. Albert adorned the [[collegiate church]] (''Stiftskirche'') at [[Halle (Saale)]] and the [[Mainz Cathedral|cathedral at Mainz]] in sumptuous fashion, and took as his motto the words ''Domine, dilexi decorem domus tuae'' (Latin for: "Lord, I admired the adornment of your house."). A generous patron of art and learning, he counted [[Erasmus]] among his friends. He died at [[Aschaffenburg]] on September 24, 1545. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Roman Catholic archbishops]] [[Category:German cardinals]] [[Category:1490 births]] [[Category:1545 deaths]] [[de:Albrecht (Brandenburg)]] [[no:Albrecht von Brandenburg]] [[zh:阿尔布雷希特 (勃兰登堡)]] 1514 40543700 2006-02-21T08:55:36Z Kmorozov 238736 self rv [[Image:Albrecht von Hohenzollern-Ansbach.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Albrecht von Hohenzollern Grand Master of the Teutonic Order]] [[Image:Albert_of_Prussia.jpg|right|]] '''Albert''' ([[May 16]], [[1490]] - [[March 20]], [[1568]]), ('''Albertus''' in [[Latin]], '''Albrecht''' in [[German language|German]]) Grand Master of the [[Teutonic Order]] and first duke of [[Ducal Prussia]], was the third son of [[Frederick I Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|Frederick of Hohenzollern]], prince of [[Ansbach]] and [[Bayreuth]], and Sophia, daughter of [[Casimir IV Jagiello]] Grand Duke of [[Lithuania]] and King of [[Poland]] and his wife Elisabeth of [[Habsburg]]. Born at [[Ansbach]] on May 16, 1490, he was intended for the church, and spent some time at the court of Hermann, elector of [[Cologne]], who appointed him canon in his cathedral. Duke Albrecht's Titles (on his proclamation of 1561, Koenigsberg): ''Albrecht the Elder, Margrave of Brandenburg, in Prussia, Stettin in Pomerania Duke of the Cassuben (Kashubs) and Wends, Burggrave of Nuremberg and Count of Ruegen etc''. Turning to a more active life, Albrecht accompanied the emperor [[Maximilian I]] to [[Italy]] in 1508, and after his return spent some time in [[Hungary]]. In December, [[Friedrich of Saxony (1473-1510)|Frederick]], Grand Master of the [[Teutonic Order]], died, and Albert was chosen as his successor early in [[1511]] in the hope that his relationship to his maternal uncle [[Sigismund I of Poland|Sigismund I the Old]] Grand Duke of [[Lithuania]] and King of Poland, would facilitate a settlement of the disputes over east Prussia, which had been held by the Order under Polish suzerainty since the [[Second Treaty of Thorn]] in 1466, but this was not acknowledged by pope or emperor and had been circumvented by the Grand Masters. The new Grand Master, aware of his duties to the empire and to the papacy, refused to submit to the crown of Poland and as war to retain independence appeared inevitable, he made strenuous efforts to secure allies, and carried on protracted negotiations with Emperor Maximilian I. The ill-feeling, influenced by the ravages of members of the Order in Poland, culminated in a struggle which began in [[December]] [[1519]]. During the ensuing year Prussia was devastated, and Albert was granted a four-year truce early in [[1521]]. The dispute was referred to the Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] and other princes, but as no settlement was reached he continued his efforts to obtain help in view of a renewal of the war. For this purpose he visited the [[Diet of Nuremberg]] in [[1522]], where he made the acquaintance of the [[Protestant reformation|reformer]], [[Andreas Osiander]], by whose influence he was won over to the new faith. He then journeyed to [[Wittenberg]], where he was advised by [[Martin Luther (religious leader)|Martin Luther]] to abandon the rules of his Order, to marry, and to convert Prussia into a hereditary duchy for himself. This proposal, which was understandably appealing to Albert, had already been discussed by some of his relatives, but it was necessary to proceed cautiously, and he assured [[Pope Adrian VI]] that he was anxious to reform the Order and punish the knights who had adopted [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] doctrines. Luther for his part did not stop at the suggestion, but in order to facilitate the change made special efforts to spread his teaching among the Prussians, while Albert's brother, [[Georg Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|Georg]], Prince of Ansbach, laid the scheme before their uncle [[Sigismund I of Poland|Sigismund of Poland]]. After some delay the king assented to it, with the proviso that [[Ducal Prussia|Prussia]] should be treated as a Polish fiefdom, and after this arrangement had been confirmed by a treaty concluded at [[Kraków]], Albert pledged a personal oath to Sigismund I and was invested with the duchy for himself and his heirs on February 10, 1525. [[Image:Prussian Homage.JPG|400px|left|thumb|"[[Prussian Tribute|The Prussian Tribute]]", oil on canvas by [[Jan Matejko]], 1882, 388 x 875 cm, National Museum in [[Kraków]]. [[Albrecht Hohenzollern]] and his brothers receive the [[Duchy of Prussia]] as a [[fiefdom]] from the Polish King, [[Sigismundus I the Elder]] in [[1525]].]] The [[Estates of the realm | Estates]] of the land then met at [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]] and took the oath of allegiance to the new duke, who used his full powers to promote the doctrines of Luther. This transition did not, however, take place without protest. Summoned before the imperial court of justice, Albert refused to appear and was proscribed, while the Order, having deposed the Grand Master, made a feeble effort to recover Prussia. But as the German princes were experiencing the tumult of the Reformation, the peasants' revolt, and the wars against the conquering Turks, they did not attack the duke, and agitation against him soon died away. In imperial politics Albert was fairly active. Joining the [[League of Torgau]] in [[1526]], he acted in unison with the Protestants, and was among the princes who banded together to overthrow Charles V after the issue of the [[Augsburg Interim]] in May [[1548]]. For various reasons, however, poverty and personal inclination among others, he did not take a prominent part in the military operations of this period. The early years of Albert's rule in Prussia were fairly prosperous. Although he had some trouble with the peasantry, the lands and treasures of the church enabled him to propitiate the nobles and for a time to provide for the expenses of the court. He did something for the furtherance of learning by establishing schools in every town and by freeing serfs who adopted a scholastic life. In 1544, in spite of some opposition, he founded the [[Königsberg University|university at Königsberg]], where he appointed his friend [[Osiander]] to a professorship in [[1549]]. Albert also paid for the printing of the Astronomical Tables ("Prutenische Tafeln") compiled by [[Erasmus Reinhold]]. This step was the beginning of the troubles which clouded the closing years of Albert's reign. Osiander's divergence from Luther's doctrine of justification by faith involved him in a violent quarrel with [[Melanchthon]], who had adherents in Königsberg, and these theological disputes soon created an uproar in the town. The duke strenuously supported Osiander, and the area of the quarrel soon broadened. There were no longer church lands available with which to conciliate the nobles, the burden of taxation was heavy, and Albert's rule became unpopular. After Osiander's death in [[1552]] he favoured a preacher named [[Johann Funck]], who, with an adventurer named [[Paul Skalic | Paul Scalich]], exercised great influence over him and obtained considerable wealth at public expense. The state of turmoil caused by these religious and political disputes was increased by the possibility of Albert's early death and the need, should that happen, to appoint a [[regent]], as his only son, [[Albert Frederick]] was still a mere youth. The duke was consequently obliged to consent to a condemnation of the teaching of Osiander, and the climax came in 1566 when the [[Estates of the realm | Estates]] appealed to [[Sigismund II]], Albert's cousin, son of Sigismund I and Elisabeth Habsburg, Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland, who sent a commission to Königsberg. Scalich saved his life by flight, but Funck was executed. The question of the regency was settled, and a form of Lutheranism was adopted, and declared binding on all teachers and preachers. Virtually deprived of power, the Duke lived for two more years, and died at [[Tapiau]] on [[March 20]], [[1568]]. He had married Dorothea, daughter of [[Frederick I of Denmark|Frederick]], King of [[Denmark]] in [[1526]], and following her death in [[1547]], married Anna Maria, daughter of [[Eric I of Brunswick|Eric I]], Duke of [[Brunswick-Lüneburg]]. Albert was a voluminous letterwriter, and corresponded with many of the leading personages of the time. For switching to Protestantism Albrecht had been excommunicated by the Pope. The [[Habsburg]] rulers of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] continued to claim the office of Grand Master of the [[Teutonic Knights]] as administrators of Prussia. In [[1891]] a statue was erected to his memory at [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]]. ==References== *{{1911}} == External links == *[[William Urban]] on the situation in Prussia [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:lqag5cL8YAAJ:department.monm.edu/history/urban/articles/State_of_the_grandmasters.htm+Casimir+IV+deutscher+orden&hl=en] {{start box}} {{succession box| before=[[Friedrich of Saxony (1473-1510)|Friedrich of Saxony]]| years=[[1510]]-[[1525]]| after=[[Walter von Cronberg]]| title=[[Teutonic Knights#Grand Masters (Hochmeister) of the Teutonic Order, 1198-present|Grand Master]] of the [[Teutonic Knights|Teutonic Order]]| }} {{end box}} [[Category:German nobility]] [[Category:1490 births]] [[Category:1568 deaths]] [[Category:House of Hohenzollern]] [[cs:Albrecht Braniborský]] [[de:Albrecht von Brandenburg-Preußen]] [[fr:Albert de Brandebourg]] [[no:Albrecht av Preussen]] [[pl:Albrecht Hohenzollern]] [[ru:Гогенцоллерн, Альбрехт]] [[sv:Albrekt av Preussen]] 1515 15899985 2004-05-26T18:35:51Z Rossami 9709 redirecting to [[Albert, Duke of Saxony]] #redirect [[Albert, Duke of Saxony]] 1516 31464240 2005-12-15T13:26:20Z Petaholmes 59986 #REDIRECT [[Albrecht II, Markgraf of Meißen]] 1517 15899987 2002-12-14T11:31:41Z 62.30.112.2 Merge these pages. #REDIRECT [[Albert of Aix]] 1519 41923390 2006-03-02T17:23:48Z Rklawton 754622 removed non noteable entry {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=25}} |} '''August 25''' is the 237th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (238th in leap years), with 128 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1537]] - The [[Honourable Artillery Company]], the oldest surviving [[regiment]] in the [[British Army]], and the second most senior, is formed. *[[1580]] - [[Battle of Alcantara]]. [[Spain]] defeats [[Portugal]]. *[[1609]] - [[Galileo Galilei]] demonstrates his first telescope to Venetian lawmakers. *[[1718]] - [[New Orleans, Louisiana]] is founded. *[[1758]] - [[Seven Years War]]: [[Frederick II of Prussia]] defeats the [[Russia]]n army at the [[Battle of Zorndorf]]. *[[1768]] - [[James Cook]] begins his first voyage. *[[1814]] - [[Washington D.C]] and [[White House]] is destroyed by [[British]] forces during the [[War of 1812]] *[[1825]] - [[Uruguay]] declares its independence from [[Spain]]. *[[1830]] - [[Belgium]] revolts from the [[Netherlands]] *[[1835]] - The ''[[New York Sun (historical)|New York Sun]]'' perpetrates the [[Great Moon Hoax]]. *[[1875]] - [[Matthew Webb]] becomes the first person to swim the [[English Channel]]. *[[1894]] - [[Shibasaburo Kitasato]] discovers the infectious agent of the [[Bubonic plague|bubonic plague]] and publishes his findings in ''[[The Lancet]]''. *[[1910]] - [[Yellow Cab]] is founded. *[[1912]] - The [[Kuomintang]], the Chinese nationalist party, is founded. *[[1916]] - The [[United States National Park Service]] is created. *[[1920]] - [[Polish-Soviet War]]: [[Battle of Warsaw (1920)|Battle of Warsaw]], started on [[August 13]], now ends. The [[Red Army]] is defeated. *[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Milne Bay]], [[Papua New Guinea]] *[[1944]] - World War II: [[Liberation of Paris|Paris is liberated]] by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]]. *[[1946]] - [[Ben Hogan]] wins the [[PGA Championship]]. *[[1950]] - President [[Harry Truman]] orders the US Army to seize control of the nation's railroads to avert a strike. *[[1960]] - [[1960 Summer Olympics|Games of the XVII Olympiad]] open in [[Rome]]. *[[1967]] - [[American Nazi Party]] leader [[George Lincoln Rockwell]] is [[assassinated]] in [[Arlington, Virginia]]. *[[1975]] - [[Bruce Springsteen]] releases ''[[Born to Run]]'', the album that would launch him to superstardom. *[[1980]] - [[Microsoft]] announces their version of [[Unix|UNIX]], [[Xenix]]. *1980 - The Broadway musical [[42nd Street (musical)|''42nd Street'']] opens; the show's director, [[Gower Champion]], had died earlier that day. *[[1988]] - The historical center of [[Lisbon]] is destroyed by a fire. *[[1989]] - [[Tadeusz Mazowiecki]] chosen as the first non-communist Prime Minister in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]]. *1989 - [[Voyager 2]] spacecraft flies by [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]], the last major planet it could visit before leaving the [[Solar System]]. *1989 - Mayumi Moriyama becomes [[Japan|Japan's]] first female cabinet secretary. *[[1991]] - [[Linus Torvalds]] first says in a post to the comp.os.minix [[newsgroup]] that he is working on a new free [[computer]] [[operating system]]. *1991 - [[Belarus]] declares independence from the [[Soviet Union]] * [[1997]] - [[Sluggy Freelance]], one of the oldest and well known [[webcomics]] is made. *[[2003]] - The [[Tli Cho]] land claims agreement is signed between the [[Dogrib]] [[First Nations]] and the [[Canada|Canadian]] federal government in [[Rae-Edzo, Northwest Territories]]. *2003 - Fifty-two are killed in two [[Islamic]] terrorist bomb blasts in [[Mumbai]], [[India]]. *[[2005]] - Tom Boonen wins the World Championship cycling in Madrid, Spain. *2005 - [[Hurricane]] [[Hurricane Katrina|Katrina]] makes landfall on the Miami-Dade/Broward county line, hours after reaching hurricane strength. ==Births== *[[1530]] - Tsar [[Ivan IV of Russia]] (d. [[1584]]) *[[1561]] - [[Philippe van Lansberge]], Dutch astronomer (d. [[1632]]) *[[1624]] - [[François de la Chaise]], French confessor of [[Louis XIV of France]] (d. [[1709]]) *[[1635]] - Sir [[Henry Morgan]], Welsh privateer (d. [[1688]]) *[[1662]] - [[John Leverett the Younger]], American President of Harvard (d. [[1724]]) *[[1719]] - [[Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo]], French painter (d. [[1795]]) *[[1724]] - [[George Stubbs]], British painter (d. [[1806]]) *[[1744]] - [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], German writer (d. [[1803]]) *[[1767]] - [[Antoine Louis Léon de Richebourg de Saint-Just]], French revolutionary and writer (d. [[1794]]) *[[1772]] - King [[William I of the Netherlands]] (d. [[1843]]) *[[1786]] - King [[Ludwig I of Bavaria]] (d. [[1868]]) *[[1796]] - [[James Lick]], California land baron (d. [[1876]]) *[[1802]] - [[Nikolaus Lenau]], Austrian poet (d. [[1850]]) *[[1819]] - [[Allan Pinkerton]], American private detective (d. [[1884]]) *[[1836]] - [[Bret Harte]], American writer (d. [[1902]]) *[[1841]] - [[Emil Theodor Kocher|Emil Kocher]], Swiss medical researcher, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1917]]) *[[1845]] - King [[Ludwig II of Bavaria]] (d. [[1886]]) *[[1850]] - [[Charles Richet]], French scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1935]]) *[[1882]] - [[Sean T. O'Kelly|Sean O'Kelly]], [[President of Ireland]] (d. [[1966]]) *[[1898]] - [[Helmut Hasse]], German mathematican (d. [[1975]]) *[[1900]] - Sir [[Hans Adolf Krebs]], German physician and biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1981]]) *[[1902]] - [[Stefan Wolpe]], German-born composer (d. [[1972]]) *[[1903]] - [[Árpád Élő]], Hungarian physicist (d. [[1992]]) *[[1909]] - [[Ruby Keeler]], Canadian singer and actress (d. [[1993]]) * 1909 - [[Michael Rennie]], English actor (d. [[1971]]) *[[1912]] - [[Erich Honecker]], head of state of East Germany (d. [[1994]]) *[[1913]] - [[Walt Kelly]], American cartoonist (d. [[1973]]) *[[1916]] - [[Van Johnson]], American actor *1916 - [[Frederick Chapman Robbins]], American pediatrician and virologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[2003]]) *[[1917]] - [[Mel Ferrer]], American actor *[[1918]] - [[Leonard Bernstein]], American conductor and composer (d. [[1990]]) * 1918 - [[Richard Greene]], English actor (d. [[1985]]) *[[1919]] - [[George Wallace]], Governor of Alabama (d. [[1998]]) *[[1921]] - [[Monty Hall]], Canadian-born game show host *1921 - [[Brian Moore (novelist)|Brian Moore]], Northern Irish-born writer (d. [[1999]]) *[[1927]] - [[Althea Gibson]], American tennis player (d. [[2003]]) *[[1928]] - [[Herbert Kroemer]], German-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate *[[1930]] - Sir [[Sean Connery]], Scottish actor *[[1931]] - [[Regis Philbin]], American television host * 1933 - [[Wayne Shorter]], American musician * 1933 - [[Tom Skerritt]], American actor *[[1935]] - [[Charles Wright (poet)|Charles Wright]], American poet *[[1938]] - [[David Canary]], American actor * 1938 - [[Frederick Forsyth]], English author *[[1939]] - [[John Badham]], American film director *[[1940]] - [[José Van Dam]], Belgian baritone *[[1944]] - [[Anthony Heald]], American actor *[[1946]] - [[Rollie Fingers]], baseball player *[[1947]] - [[Anne Archer]], American actress *[[1949]] - [[Martin Amis]], English novelist * 1949 - [[John Savage (actor)|John Savage]], American actor * 1949 - [[Gene Simmons]], Israeli-born bassist *[[1951]] - [[Rob Halford]], English singer ([[Judas Priest]]) *[[1952]] - [[Peter Wolf]], American singer and composer *[[1954]] - [[Elvis Costello]], English musician *[[1958]] - [[Tim Burton]], American film director, producer, and screenwriter *[[1961]] - [[Billy Ray Cyrus]], American singer *[[1962]] - [[David Packer]], American actor *[[1964]] - [[Maxim Kontsevich]], Russian mathematician * 1964 - [[Blair Underwood]], American actor *[[1968]] - [[Rafet El Roman]], Turkish singer and composer * 1968 - [[Stuart Murdoch (musician)|Stuart Murdoch]], Scottish musician ([[Belle & Sebastian]]) * 1968 - [[Rachael Ray]], American cook and television host *[[1969]] - [[Cameron Mathison]], Canadian actor *[[1970]] - [[Claudia Schiffer]], German model *[[1972]] - [[Marvin Harrison]], American football player *[[1976]] - [[Alexander Skarsgård]], Swedish actor *[[1978]] - [[Franck Queudrue]], French footballer *[[1981]] - [[Rachel Bilson]], American actress *[[1987]] - [[Stacey Farber]], Canadian actress ==Deaths== *[[383]] - [[Gratian]], [[Roman Emperor]] (b. [[359]]) *[[1192]] - [[Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy]] (b. [[1142]]) *[[1270]] - King [[Louis IX of France]] *[[1282]] - [[Thomas Cantilupe]], English saint *[[1330]] - [[James Douglas (the Black)|James Douglas]], Scottish soldier (b. [[1286]]) *[[1482]] - [[Margaret of Anjou]], queen of [[Henry VI of England]] (b. [[1429]]) *[[1554]] - [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk]], English politician (b. [[1473]]) *[[1632]] - [[Thomas Dekker]], English dramatist *[[1650]] - [[Richard Crashaw]], English poet *[[1688]] - [[Henry Morgan]], Welsh privateer *[[1699]] - King [[Christian V of Denmark]] (b. [[1646]]) *[[1711]] - [[Edward Villiers, 1st Earl of Jersey]], English politician *[[1742]] - [[Carlos Seixas]], Portuguese composer (b. [[1704]]) *[[1774]] - [[Niccolò Jommelli]], Italian composer (b. [[1714]]) *[[1776]] - [[David Hume]], Scottish philosopher and historian (b. [[1711]]) *[[1792]] - [[Jacques Cazotte]], French writer (b. [[1719]]) *[[1822]] - [[William Herschel]], German-born astronomer (b. [[1738]]) *[[1867]] - [[Michael Faraday]], English scientist (b. [[1791]]) *[[1900]] - [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], German philosopher (b. [[1844]]) *[[1900]] - [[Kuroda Kiyotaka]], [[Prime Minister of Japan]] (b. [[1840]]) *[[1904]] - [[Henri Fantin-Latour]], French painter (b. [[1836]]) *[[1908]] - [[Henri Becquerel]], French physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1852]]) *[[1925]] - [[Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf]], Austro-Hungarian field marshal (b. [[1852]]) *[[1938]] - [[Aleksandr Kuprin]], Russian writer (b. [[1870]]) *[[1942]] - [[George Edward Alexander Windsor]], Duke of Kent (b. [[1902]]) *[[1945]] - [[John Birch (missionary)|John Birch]], American intelligence officer and missionary (b. [[1918]]) *[[1967]] - [[Stanley Bruce]], eighth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (b. [[1883]]) *[[1967]] - [[Paul Muni]], Polish actor (b. [[1895]]) *[[1967]] - [[George Lincoln Rockwell]], American Nazi Party leader (b. [[1918]]) *[[1971]] - [[Ted Lewis (musician)|Ted Lewis]], American musician and entertainer (b. [[1890]]) *[[1976]] - [[Eyvind Johnson]], Swedish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1900]]) *[[1979]] - [[Stan Kenton]], American musician and bandleader (b. [[1911]]) *[[1980]] - [[Gower Champion]], American dancer, actor, and choreographer (b. [[1919]]) *[[1984]] - [[Truman Capote]], American author (b. [[1924]]) *[[1984]] - [[Waite Hoyt]], baseball player (b. [[1899]]) *[[1985]] - [[Samantha Smith]], American social activist and actress (plane crash) (b. [[1972]]) *[[1990]] - [[Morley Callaghan]], Canadian writer (b. [[1903]]) *[[2000]] - [[Carl Barks]], American cartoonist (b. [[1901]]) *[[2001]] - [[Aaliyah]], American singer (plane crash) (b. [[1979]]) *[[2002]] - [[Dorothy Hewett]], Australian writer (b. [[1923]]) *[[2005]] - [[Peter Glotz]], German social democrat (b. [[1939]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Roman festivals]] - [[Opiconsivia]] held in honor of [[Ops]]. *[[Calendar of Saints|RC Saints]] - [[Genesius of Arles]], Saint [[Louis IX of France]], [[Saint Joseph Calasanz]] *[[Uruguay]] - National Day (independence from Brazil in [[1825]]). *[[Philippines]] - National Heroes' Day. ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/25 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.britannica.com/eb/dailycontent?month=8&day=25 Encyclopædia Britannica: This Day in History] ---- [[August 24]] - [[August 26]] - [[July 25]] - [[September 25]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:25 Augustus]] [[ar:25 أغسطس]] [[an:25 d'agosto]] [[ast:25 d'agostu]] [[bg:25 август]] [[be:25 жніўня]] [[bs:25. august]] [[ca:25 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 25]] [[cv:Çурла, 25]] [[co:25 d'aostu]] [[cs:25. srpen]] [[cy:25 Awst]] [[da:25. august]] [[de:25. August]] [[et:25. august]] [[el:25 Αυγούστου]] [[es:25 de agosto]] [[eo:25-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 25]] [[fo:25. august]] [[fr:25 août]] [[fy:25 augustus]] [[ga:25 Lúnasa]] [[gl:25 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 25일]] [[hr:25. kolovoza]] [[io:25 di agosto]] [[id:25 Agustus]] [[ia:25 de augusto]] [[ie:25 august]] [[is:25. ágúst]] [[it:25 agosto]] [[he:25 באוגוסט]] [[jv:25 Agustus]] [[ka:25 აგვისტო]] [[csb:25 zélnika]] [[ku:25'ê gelawêjê]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 25]] [[lb:25. August]] [[hu:Augusztus 25]] [[mk:25 август]] [[ms:25 Ogos]] [[nap:25 'e aùsto]] [[nl:25 augustus]] [[ja:8月25日]] [[no:25. august]] [[nn:25. august]] [[oc:25 d'agost]] [[pl:25 sierpnia]] [[pt:25 de Agosto]] [[ro:25 august]] [[ru:25 августа]] [[sco:25 August]] [[sq:25 Gusht]] [[scn:25 di austu]] [[simple:August 25]] [[sk:25. august]] [[sl:25. avgust]] [[sr:25. август]] [[fi:25. elokuuta]] [[sv:25 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 25]] [[tt:25. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 25]] [[th:25 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:25 tháng 8]] [[tr:25 Ağustos]] [[uk:25 серпня]] [[wa:25 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 25]] [[zh:8月25日]] [[pam:Agostu 25]] 1520 41662841 2006-02-28T22:35:33Z 195.93.21.134 /* External links */ {{Infobox Town DE| name = Aachen| name_local = | image_coa = Stadtwappen_der_kreisfreien_Stadt_Aachen.png| image_map = Aachen in Germany.png| state = [[North Rhine-Westphalia]] | regbzk = [[Cologne (region)|Cologne]]| district = [[List of German urban districts|urban district]]| population = 257,089 | population_as_of = 2005| population_ref = [http://www.lds.nrw.de/statistik/datenangebot/amtlichebevoelkerungszahlen/rp3_juni05.html source]| pop_dens = 1,599| area = 160.83| elevation = 125-410| lat_deg = 50| lat_min = 46| lat_hem = N| lon_deg = 6| lon_min = 6| lon_hem = E| postal_code = 52062-52080 | area_code = 0241| licence = AC| mayor = Jürgen Linden ([[SPD]]) | website = [http://www.aachen.de/ aachen.de]| }} '''Aachen''' ([[French language|French]] ''Aix-la-Chapelle'', [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''Aken'', [[Latin]] ''Aquisgranum'', [[Ripuarian]] ''Oche'') is a spa city in [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], [[Germany]], on the border with [[Belgium]] and the [[Netherlands]], 65 km to the west of [[Cologne]], and the westernmost city in Germany. [[RWTH Aachen]], established in 1870, is one of the major Institutes of Technology, especially for electrical and mechanical engineering, computer sciences and physics. As a part of it, the [[Klinikum Aachen]] is the biggest single-building hospital in Europe. Over time, a host of software and computer industries have developed around the university. [[Image:Aachen Cathedral from north.jpg|thumb|left|Aachen Cathedral]] [[Image:Aachen-ElegantStreet.JPG|thumb|200px|Typical Aachen street with early [[20th century]] [[Gründerzeit]] houses]] ==History== A quarry on the Lousberg, where flint was obtained in Neolithic times attests to the long occupation of the site of Aachen. The [[Roman empire|Romans]] named the [[hot spring|hot sulphur springs]] of Aachen ''Aquis-Granum''. For the origin of the ''Granus'' several theories were developed, but it is now widely accepted that it derives from a local Celtic god of healing water, not elsewhere attested. Many other Celtic [[toponym]]s are identifiable in the immediate locale. Since [[Roman empire|Roman]] times, the hot springs have been channeled into baths (which are still in use). ''âh-'' is an [[German language|Old German]] cognate with [[Latin]] ''aqua'', both meaning "water". In French-speaking areas of the former [[Roman Empire|Empire]] the word ''aquas'' was turned into ''aix'', hence Aix-la-Chapelle or [[Aix-en-Provence]], an old Roman spa in [[Provence]], [[France]]. [[Image:Construction d Aix-la-Chapelle.jpg|thumb|left|Construction of Aix-la-Chapelle, by [[Jean Fouquet]]]] After Roman times the place passed without comment but could not have been totally abandoned, for [[Einhard]] mentioned that in 765-66 [[Pippin the Younger|Pippin]] spent both Christmas and Easter at ''Aquis villa'' (''Et celebravit natalem Domini in Aquis villa et pascha similiter'') [http://www.noctes-gallicanae.org/Charlemagne/Annales/Pepin_le_Bref.htm], which must have been sufficiently equipped to support the royal household for several months. In the year of his coronation [[768]] [[Charlemagne]] came to spend Christmas at Aachen for the first time. He liked the place and twenty years later he began to build a palace. The sole surviving remnant of the palace, its magnificent chapel constructed in 796, later became [[Aachen Cathedral]]. Charlemagne spent most winters between [[800]] and his death in [[814]] in Aachen in order to enjoy the hot springs. Afterwards the king was buried in the chapel, where his tomb can still be found. In [[936]] [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto I]] was crowned emperor in the cathedral. From then on the emperors of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] were crowned "[[King of the Germans]]" in Aachen, for the next 600 years. The last king to be crowned here was [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]] in 1531. During the [[Middle Ages]] Aachen was one of the largest cities of the Empire. Aachen remained a free city within the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. In the [[Imperial Circle Estates]] of the [[Imperial Reform|Reichsreform]] (Imperial Reform) concluded at [[Worms, Germany|Worms]] in 1495, Aachen was represented in the Lower Rhenish-Westphalian circle. After the [[Thirty Years War]] Aachen only had regional importance. However, the city became the site of several important congresses and peace treaties: the [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)|first congress of Aachen]] (often referred to as ''congress of Aix-la-Chapelle'' in English) in 1668, leading to the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)|First Treaty of Aachen]] in the same year which ended the [[War of Devolution]]. The [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)|second congress]] ended with the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)|second treaty]] in 1748, finishing the [[War of the Austrian Succession]]. The [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)|third congress]] took place in 1818 to decide the fate of occupied France. By 1880, the population was 80,000. Several important [[railway]]s met in Aachen. The city became a site for the manufacturing of railroad [[iron]], [[pin]]s, [[needle]]s, [[button]]s, [[tobacco]], [[wool]]en goods and [[silk]] goods. Badly damaged in [[World War II]], on [[October 21]] [[1944]] Aachen was the first German city to be overrun by [[Allies#World War II|Allied]] troops, the [[U.S. 1st Infantry Division]](aka the [[Big Red One]]). While Charlemagne's palace does not exist anymore, the cathedral is still the main attraction of the city. After its construction it was the largest church north of the [[Alps]] for 400 years. The tombs of Charlemagne and [[Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto III]] can be found in the church. The cathedral of Aachen is listed in the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites|World Heritage]]. [[Image:Aachen-SomeBoulevard.JPG|thumb|200px|Tree-lined boulevard in Aachen]] ==Miscellaneous== Aachen is an industrial centre and a major railway junction, including the [[Thalys]] high-speed train network. A major industry of the past was needle production, which led to the distinctive mark of the people from Aachen, the ''Klenkes''. The small finger of the right hand is spread from the hand, which was originally the way women sorted the needles. [[Robert Browning]]'s poem "How they brought the good news from Ghent to Aix" refers to Aachen, but not to any historical fact. The annual CHIO (short for the French ''Concours Hippique International Officiel'') is the biggest [[equestrianism|equestrian]] meeting of Germany and among horsemen considered to be as prestigious for equitation as the tournament of [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] for tennis. Aachen will also be host of the 2006 [[World Equestrian Games]]. [[Image:GermanyNetherlansBelgiumBORDER.jpg|thumb|200px|German-Netherland-Belgian border is easily seen from the west edge of town]] The local football team [[Alemannia Aachen]] plays in Germany's second division. Their stadium is called [[Tivoli, Aachen|Tivoli]]. Since 1950 the city annually awards the [[Karlspreis]] (German for ''Charlemagne Award'') to persons who did extraordinary service for the unification of Europe. In 2003 the medal was awarded to [[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]]. In 2004, [[Pope]] [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]]'s efforts to unite Europe were honored with an ''Extraordinary Charlemagne Medal'', which was awarded for the first time ever. The local speciality of Aachen are cookies called ''Printen'', a local version of [[gingerbread]]. Unlike [[gingerbread]] (German:''[[Lebkuchen]]''), which is sweetened with honey, ''Printen'' are sweetened with sugar. In 1372, Aachen became the first coin issuing city in the world to regularly place an [[Anno Domini]] date on a general circulation [[coin]], a [[groschen]]. It is written MCCCLXXII. None with this date are known to be in existence any longer. The earliest date for which an Aachen coin is still extant is dated 1373. ''See also'': [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle]], [[Aachen (district)]], [[List of mayors of Aachen]], [[Aachener]] ==[[Town twinning]]== Aachen has several partner cities: * {{flagicon|France}} - [[Reims]] ([[France]]) since [[January 28]] [[1967]] * {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} - [[Halifax, West Yorkshire|Halifax]]/[[Calderdale]] ([[United Kingdom]]) since [[November 14]] [[1979]] * {{flagicon|Spain}} - [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] ([[Spain]]) since [[January 26]] [[1985]] * {{flagicon|People's Republic of China}} - [[Ningbo|Ningbo (宁波)]] ([[China]]) since [[October 25]] [[1986]] * {{flagicon|Germany}} - [[Naumburg]] ([[Saxony-Anhalt]], Germany) since [[May 30]] [[1988]] * {{flagicon|USA}} - [[Arlington County]] ([[Virginia]]), [[United States|USA]]) since [[September 17]] [[1993]] * {{flagicon|Russia}} - [[Kostroma]] ([[Russia]]) since [[June 9]] [[2005]] The municipality Walheim had a partnership with the French [[Montebourg]] since 1960, which was continued by Aachen in 1972 when Walheim was incorporated into the town and became the borough Aachen-[[Kornelimünster]]/Walheim. ==Buildings and Constructions== * [[Water Tower Belvedere]] * [[Aachen Cathedral]] ==Name in different languages== Aachen is known in different languages by different names (see also [[Names of European cities in different languages]]). The names derive from either German, French or Latin. {| class="wikitable" ! Language !! Name !! Pronunciation in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] |- | [[German language|German]] | Aachen |{{IPA|[ˈaːxən]}} |- | [[Ripuarian]]||''Oche''|| {{IPA|[ˈoːxə]}} |- | [[Anglicisation|Anglicized]] version of the German|| Aachen || {{IPA|[ˈɑːkən]}} |- | [[French language|French]]|| Aix-la-Chapelle |{{IPA|[ɛkslaʃapɛl]}} |- | [[Catalan language|Catalan]] | Aquisgrà |{{IPA|[ɐkizˈɣɾa]}} |- | [[Chinese language|Chinese (Simplified)]] | 亚琛 |{{IPA|[ya shen]}} |- | [[Czech language|Czech]] | Cáchy |{{IPA|[ˈtsaːxɪ]}} |- | [[Polish language|Polish]] | Akwizgran | &nbsp; |- | [[Dutch language|Dutch]] | Aken |{{IPA|[ˈaːkən]}} |- | [[Spanish language|Spanish]] | Aquisgrán |{{IPA|[akisˈɣɾan]}} |- | [[Italian language|Italian]] | Aquisgrana |{{IPA|[ˌakwisˈgɾaːna]}} |- | [[Latin]] | Aquīsgrānum |{{IPA|[ˌakwiːsˈgɾaːnum]}} |- | [[Serbian]] | Ahen/Ахен |{{IPA|[,ahen]}} |} ==External links== {{commons|Aachen}} *[http://www.aachen.de/ City of Aachen] (partly available in English) *[http://www.aseag.de/ ASEAG (public bus transport)] (in German) *[http://www-zhv.rwth-aachen.de/zentral/english_index.htm RWTH Aachen] (University of Technology Aachen) *[http://www.fh-aachen.de/ Fachhochschule Aachen] (Aachen University of Applied Sciences) *[http://wikoelsch.dergruenepunk.de/index.php/Aachen Aachen in the Ripuarian Wiki Project] *[http://www.googleearthhacks.com/dlfile11927/Aachen,-Germany,-Image-overlays.htm Google Earth placemark with official image overlays] *[http://www.noctes-gallicanae.org/Charlemagne/Annales/Pepin_le_Bref.htm Einhard's Annals:] first mention of ''Aquis villa'', 765 *[http://www.citymayors.com/cityhalls/aachen_cityhall.html Article on Aachen's historic buildings] ---- {{Germany districts north rhine-westphalia}} ---- [[Category:Aachen|*]] [[Category:Cities in North Rhine-Westphalia]] [[Category:Matter of France]] [[Category:Spa towns]] [[ar:آخن]] [[bg:Ахен]] [[ca:Aquisgrà]] [[cs:Cáchy]] [[da:Aachen]] [[de:Aachen]] [[eo:Aachen]] [[es:Aquisgrán]] [[et:Aachen]] [[fa:آخن]] [[fi:Aachen]] [[fr:Aix-la-Chapelle]] [[he:אאכן]] [[ia:Aachen]] [[it:Aquisgrana]] [[ja:アーヘン]] [[ko:아헨]] [[la:Aquisgranum]] [[li:Aoke]] [[nl:Aken (stad)]] [[no:Aachen]] [[pl:Akwizgran]] [[pt:Aachen]] [[ro:Aachen]] [[ru:Аахен]] [[simple:Aachen]] [[sr:Ахен]] [[sk:Aachen]] [[sl:Aachen]] [[sv:Aachen]] [[th:อาเค่น]] [[wa:Åxhe]] [[zh:阿亨]] 1522 15899990 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Pope Agapetus II]] 1523 38274250 2006-02-05T06:35:33Z Pschemp 110252 Disambiguate [[Contagion]] to [[Disease]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] :''For the French rocket, see [[Agate (rocket)]]''; for the [[font]] also known as "ruby", see [[Ruby character]]. {| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=0 width=250 valign=top style="margin-left:1em" |----- align=center bgcolor="#9966FF" !colspan=2 align=center|Agate |----- align=center !colspan=2|[[image:mossagate.pebble.750pix.jpg|thumb|center|250px|Moss agate pebble, one inch long (2.5 cm).]] |----- align=center bgcolor="#9966FF" !colspan=2|General |----- |Category||[[Mineral]] |----- |[[Chemical formula]]|| Silica, SiO<sub>2</sub> |----- align="center" bgcolor="#9966FF" !colspan=2|Identification |----- | Colour || White to grey, light blue, orange to red, black. |----- | [[Crystal habit]] || [[Cryptocrystal]]line silica |----- | [[Crystal structure|Crystal system]] || [[Hexagonal]] |----- | [[Cleavage (crystal)|Cleavage]]||None |----- | [[Fracture]]|| [[Conchoidal]] with very sharp edges. |----- | [[Mohs Scale]] hardness || 7 |----- | Luster|| Waxy |----- | [[Refractive index]]|| Translucent to transparent |----- | [[Pleochroism]]|| None |----- | [[Streak]]|| None |----- | [[Specific gravity]]|| 2.6 |----- | [[Fusibility]]|| ? |----- | [[Solubility]]|| ? |----- align="center" bgcolor="#9966FF" !colspan=2|Major varieties |----- !colspan=2|None |} '''Agate''' is a term applied not to a distinct [[mineral]] species, but to an aggregate of various forms of [[silicon dioxide|silica]], chiefly [[chalcedony]]. According to [[Theophrastus]], the agate (achates) was named from the river Achates, now the [[Drillo]], in [[Sicily]], where the stone was first found. == Formation and characteristics == Most agates occur as nodules in eruptive rocks or ancient [[lava]]s where they represent cavities originally produced by the disengagement of vapour in the molten mass which were then filled, wholly or partially, by siliceous matter deposited in regular layers upon the walls. Such agates, when cut transversely, exhibit a succession of parallel lines, often of extreme tenuity, giving a banded appearance to the section. Such stones are known as banded agate, riband agate and striped agate. In the formation of an ordinary agate, it is probable that waters containing silica in solution -- derived, perhaps, from the decomposition of some of the silicates in the lava itself -- percolated through the rock and deposited a siliceous coating on the interior of the vapour-vesicles. Variations in the character of the solution or in the conditions of deposit may cause corresponding variation in the successive layers, so that bands of chalcedony often alternate with layers of crystalline [[quartz]]. Several vapour-vesicles may unite while the rock is [[Viscosity|viscous]], and thus form a large cavity which may become the home of an agate of exceptional size; thus a [[Brazil|Brazilian]] [[geode]] lined with [[amethyst]] and weighing 35 tons was exhibited at the [[Dusseldorf Exhibition]] of [[1902]]. The first deposit on the wall of a cavity, forming the "skin" of the agate, is generally a dark greenish mineral substance, like [[celadonite]], [[delessite]] or "[[green earth]]," which are rich in [[iron]] probably derived from the decomposition of the [[augite]] in the mother-rock. This green silicate may give rise by alteration to a brown [[oxide]] of iron ([[limonite]]), producing a rusty appearance on the outside of the agate-nodule. The outer surface of an agate, freed from its matrix, is often pitted and rough, apparently in consequence of the removal of the original coating. The first layer spread over the wall of the cavity has been called the "priming," and upon this base zeolitic minerals may be deposited. [[Image:Agate banded 750pix.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Banded agate. The specimen is one inch (2.5 cm) wide.]] Many agates are hollow, since deposition has not proceeded far enough to fill the cavity, and in such cases the last deposit commonly consists of quartz, often amethyst, having the apices of the [[crystal]]s directed towards the free space so as to form a crystal-lined cavity, or geode. On the disintegration of the matrix in which the agates are embedded, they are set free. Being a siliceous material, which is extremely resistant to the action of air and water, they remain as nodules in the [[soil]] and [[gravel]], or become rolled as pebbles in streams. == Types of agate == A [[Mexico|Mexican]] agate, showing only a single [[eye]], has received the name of "[[cyclops (rock)|cyclops]] agate." Included matter of a green, golden, red, black or other colour or combinations embedded in the chalcedony and disposed in filaments and other forms suggestive of vegetable growth, gives rise to dendritic or [[moss agate]] (named varieties include Maury Mountain, Richardson Ranch, Sheep Creek and others). '''Dendritic''' agates have beautiful fern like patterns on them formed due to the presence of manganese and iron ions. Other types of included matter deposited during agate-building include sagenitic growths (radial mineral crystals) and chunks of entrapped detritus (such as sand, ash, or mud). Occasionally agate fills a void left by decomposed vegatative material such as a tree limb or root and is called limb cast agate due to its appearance. Turritella agate is formed from [[fossil]] Turritella shells silicified in a chalcedony base. Turritella are spiral marine [[gastropod]]s having elongated, spiral shells composed of many whorls. Similarly, [[coral]], [[petrified wood]] and other organic remains or porous rocks can also become agatized. Agatized coral is often referred to as [[Petoskey stone|Petoskey]] agate or stone. Certain stones, when examined in thin sections by transmitted light, show a diffraction spectrum due to the extreme delicacy of the successive bands, whence they are termed [[rainbow agates]]. Often agate coexists with layers or masses of opal, jasper or crystaline quartz due to ambient variations during the formation process. Other forms of agate include carnelian agate (usually exhibiting redish hues), Botswana agate, blue lace agate, plume agate (such as Carey, Graveyard Point, Sage, St. Johns, Teeter Ranch and others), tube agate (with visible flow channels), fortification agate (which exhibit little or no layered structure), fire agate (which seems glow internally like an opal) and Mexican crazy-lace agate (which exhibits an often brightly colored, complex banded pattern). == Agate beliefs == [[Image:Agatebots.jpg|thumb|right|Faceted Botswana agate]] In [[Islam]], agates are deemed to be very precious stones. According to tradition, the wearer of an agate ring, for example, is believed to be protected from various mishaps and will enjoy longevity, among other benefits. In other traditions agate is believed to cure the stings of [[scorpion]]s and the bites of [[snake]]s, soothe the mind, prevent [[Disease|contagion]], still [[thunder]] and [[lightning]], promote [[eloquence]], secure the favour of the powerful, and bring victory over enemies. Persian [[magi]] are also known to have prized agate rings in their work and beliefs. The [[Shia]] Book of collected prayers, ''Mafatih Al-janan'', quotes the fifth Shia saint Imam [[Muhammad al-Baqir]] on agates, as such: ''"Whosoever endures the night 'til sunrise wearing an agate ring on his/her right hand, before seeing or being seen by any human that morning, turns the agate ring toward the palm side of his/her hand, and while looking at the gem recites the 97th chapter of the Qur'an followed by this prayer [specified], then the God of the Universe shall grant him/her immunity on that day from any danger that falls from the sky, or rises up to it, or which disappears into the earth, or rises out of it, and he/she shall remain protected by the power of God and the agents of God until dusk."'' (p1212 of version by Haj Sheikh Abbas Qomi) ==See also== *[[list of minerals]] ==Reference== * [http://www.minsocam.org/MSA/collectors_corner/arc/silicanom.htm ''The Nomenclature of Silica'' by Gilbert Hart, American Mineralogist, Volume 12, pages 383-395, 1927] [[Category:Minerals]] [[Category:Quartz varieties]] [[ar:عقيق]] [[da:Agat]] [[de:Achat]] [[es:Ágata]] [[eo:Agato]] [[fr:Agate]] [[nl:Agaat]] [[ja:メノウ]] [[pl:Agat]] [[pt:Ágata]] [[ru:Агат]] [[sk:Achát]] [[sl:Ahat]] [[fi:Akaatti]] [[sv:Agat]] [[uk:Агат]] 1525 42150395 2006-03-04T03:46:00Z 69.199.235.201 <!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --> {| class="toccolours" border="1" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;" ! {{chembox header}}| '''{{PAGENAME}}''' |- | align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" | [[Image:Acetyl salicylic acid chemical structure.png|120px|{{PAGENAME}}]] |- | [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]] | 2-(acetyloxy)benzoic acid |- | [[Chemical formula]] | C<sub>9</sub>H<sub>8</sub>O<sub>4</sub> [[benzene ring|C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>]]([[oxygen|O]][[acetyl|COCH<sub>3</sub>]])[[carboxylic acid|COOH]] |- | Synonyms | 2-acetyloxybenzoic acid<br/>2-acetoxybenzoic acid<br/>acetylsalicylate<br/>acetylsalicylic acid<br/>O-acetylsalicylic acid |- | [[Molecular mass]] | 180.16 g/mol |- | [[CAS registry number|CAS number]] | 50-78-2 |- {{PubChem Row|2244}} |- | [[ATC code]] | B01AC06 |- | [[Density]] | 1.40 g/cm<sup>3</sup> |- | [[Melting point]] | 136°C (277°F) |- | [[Boiling point]] | decomposes at 140°C (284°F) |- | [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]] | CC(=O)OC1=CC=CC=C1C(=O)O |- | {{chembox header}} | <small>[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Disclaimer and references]]</small> |- |} '''Aspirin''' or '''acetylsalicylic acid''' is a [[Medication|drug]] in the family of [[salicylate]]s, often used as an [[analgesic]] (against minor pains and aches), [[antipyretic]] (against [[fever]]), and anti-[[inflammation|inflammatory]]. It has also an [[anticoagulant]] (blood-thinning) effect and is used in long-term low-doses to prevent [[heart attack]]s. Low-dose long-term aspirin irreversibly blocks formation of [[thromboxane]] A2 in [[platelet]]s, producing an inhibitory effect on [[platelet aggregation]], and this blood-thinning property makes it useful for reducing the incidence of heart attacks. Aspirin produced for this purpose often comes in 75 or 81 [[Milligram|mg]] dispersible [[tablet]]s and is sometimes called "Junior aspirin." High doses of aspirin are also given immediately after an acute heart attack. These doses may also inhibit the synthesis of [[prothrombin]] and may therefore produce a second and different anticoagulant effect. Several hundred fatal overdoses of aspirin occur annually, but the vast majority of its uses are beneficial. Its primary undesirable side effects, especially in stronger doses, are [[gastrointestinal]] distress (including [[gastric ulcer|ulcers]] and stomach bleeding) and [[tinnitus]]. Another side effect, due to its anticoagulant properties, is increased bleeding in [[menstruating]] women. Because there appears to be a connection between aspirin and [[Reye's syndrome]], aspirin is no longer used to control flu-like symptoms in minors. Aspirin was the first discovered member of the class of drugs known as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs ([[NSAID]]s), not all of which are salicylates, though they all have similar effects and a similar action mechanism. == ASPIRIN == The brand name ''Aspirin'' was coined by the [[Bayer]] company of [[Germany]]. In some countries the name is used as a [[genericized trademark|generic term]] for the drug rather than the manufacturer's [[trademark]]. In countries in which Aspirin remains a trademark, the [[initialism]] '''ASA''' is used as a generic term ('''ASS''' in German-language countries, for ''Acetylsalicylsäure''; '''AAS''' in Spanish- and Portuguese-language countries, for ''ácido acetilsalicílico''). [[Image:Aspirin.jpg|thumb|Aspirin]] The name "aspirin" is composed of ''a-'' (from the [[acetyl group]]) ''-spir-'' (from the ''[[spiraea]]'' flower) and ''-in'' (a common ending for drugs at the time). On [[March 6]], [[1899]][[Bayer]] registered it as a [[trademark]]. However, the German company lost the right to use the trademark in many countries as the [[Allies]] seized and resold its foreign assets after [[World War I]]. The right to use "Aspirin" in the United States (along with all other Bayer trademarks) was purchased from the U.S. government by Sterling Drug, Inc. in [[1918]]. Even before the [[patent]] for the drug expired in [[1917]], Bayer had been unable to stop competitors from copying the formula and using the name elsewhere, and so, with a flooded market, the public was unable to recognize "Aspirin" as coming from only one manufacturer. Sterling was subsequently unable to prevent "Aspirin" from being ruled a [[genericized trademark]] in a U.S. federal court in [[1921]]. Sterling was ultimately acquired by Bayer in 1994, but this did not restore the U.S. trademark. Other countries (such as [[Canada]]) still consider "Aspirin" a protected trademark. == Discovery == [[Image:Acetylsalicylicacid.jpg|thumb|180px|Acetylsalicylic acid crystals]] [[Hippocrates]], a [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] physician, wrote in the [[5th century BC]] about a bitter powder extracted from [[willow]] bark that could ease aches and pains and reduce fevers. This remedy is also mentioned in texts from ancient [[Sumeria]], [[Egypt]] and [[Assyria]]. Native Americans claim to have used it for headaches, fever, sore muscles, rheumatism, and chills. The Reverend [[Edward Stone]], a vicar from Chipping Norton in [[Oxfordshire]] [[England]], noted in [[1763]] that the bark of the willow was effective in reducing a fever. The active extract of the bark, called ''salicin'', after the [[Latin]] name for the White willow (''[[Salix alba]]''), was isolated to its crystalline form in [[1828]] by [[Henri Leroux]], a [[France|French]] pharmacist, and [[Raffaele Piria]], an [[Italy|Italian]] chemist, who then succeeded in separating out the acid in its pure state. Salicin is highly acidic when in a saturated solution with water ([[pH]] = 2.4), and is called [[salicylic acid]] for that reason. This chemical was also isolated from [[meadowsweet]] flowers (genus ''[[Filipendula]]'', formerly classified in ''[[Spiraea]]'') by German researchers in 1839. While their extract was somewhat effective, it also caused digestive problems such as irritated stomach and diarrhea, and even death when consumed in high doses. In 1853, a French chemist named Charles Frederic Gerhardt neutralized salicylic acid by buffering it with sodium (sodium salicylate) and acetyl chloride, creating acetosalicylic anhydride. Gerhardt's product worked, but he had no desire to market it and abandoned his discovery. In 1897, [[Felix Hoffmann]], a researcher at [[Bayer|Friedrich Bayer & Co.]] in [[Germany]], derivatized one of the [[hydroxy|hydroxyl]] [[functional group]]s in salicylic acid with an [[acetyl]] group (forming the acetyl [[ester]]), which greatly reduced the negative effects. This was the first synthetic drug, not a copy of something that existed in nature, and the start of the pharmaceuticals industry. Hoffmann made some of the formula and gave it to his father, who was suffering from the pain of arthritis and could not stand the side effects of salicylic acid. With good results, he then convinced [[Bayer]] to market the new wonder drug. Aspirin was patented on March 6, 1899. It was marketed alongside another of Hoffmann's products, an acetylated synthetic of [[morphine]] called [[Heroin]]. Heroin was initially the more successful of the two painkillers, but, as Heroin's shortcoming of addictiveness became more obvious, Aspirin stepped to the forefront. Aspirin was originally sold as a powder and was an instant success; in 1915, Bayer introduced Aspirin tablets. [[Image:BayerHeroin.png|thumb|right|150px|Advertisement for Aspirin, Heroin, Lycetol, Salophen]] Several claims to invention of aspirin have arisen. Acetylsalicylic acid was already being manufactured by the Chemische Fabrik von Heyden Company in [[1897]], although without a brand name. [[Arthur Eichengrün]] claimed in [[1949]] that he planned and directed the synthesis of aspirin while Hoffmann's role was restricted to the initial lab synthesis using Eichengrün's process. In [[1999]], Walter Sneader of the Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences at the University of [[Strathclyde]] in [[Glasgow]] reexamined the case and agreed with Eichengrün's account. Bayer continues to recognize Felix Hoffmann as aspirin's official inventor. Despite its argued origin, Bayer's marketing was responsible for bringing it to the world. It was not until the [[1970]]s that the mechanism of action of aspirin and similar drugs called [[NSAID]]s was elucidated (see below). ==Synthesis of aspirin== [[Image:Aspirin-synthesis.gif]] Aspirin is commercially synthesized using a two-step process. First, [[phenol]] (generally extracted from coal tar) is treated with a sodium base generating sodium phenoxide, which is then reacted with [[carbon dioxide]] under high temperature and pressure to yield salicylate, which is acidifed, yielding [[salicylic acid]]. Salicylic acid is then acylated using [[acetic anhydride]], yielding aspirin. It is a common experiment performed in organic chemistry labs, and generally tends to produce low yields due to the relative difficulty of its extraction from an aqueous state. Formulations containing high concentrations of aspirin often smell of vinegar, this is because aspirin can undergo autocatalytic degradation to salicylic acid in moist conditions, yielding salicylic acid and [[acetic acid]]. == How it works == In a piece of research for which he was awarded both a [[Nobel prize]] in [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine| Physiology or Medicine]] in 1982 and a knighthood, [[John Robert Vane]], who was then employed by the Royal College of Surgeons in London, showed in 1971 that aspirin suppresses the production of [[prostaglandins]] and [[thromboxanes]]. This happens because [[cyclooxygenase]], an [[enzyme]] that participates in the production of prostaglandins and thromboxanes, is irreversibly inhibited when aspirin acetylates it. This makes aspirin different from other NSAIDS (such as [[diclofenac]] and [[ibuprofen]]), which are reversible inhibitors. Prostaglandins are local [[hormone]]s (paracrine) produced in the body and have diverse effects in the body, including but not limited to transmission of pain information to the brain, modulation of the [[hypothalamus|hypothalamic]] thermostat, and inflammation. Thromboxanes are responsible for the aggregation of [[platelet]]s that form [[clot|blood clots]]. Heart attacks are primarily caused by blood clots, and their reduction with the introduction of small amounts of aspirin has been seen to be an effective medical intervention. The side-effect of this is that the ability of the blood in general to clot is reduced, and excessive bleeding may result from the use of aspirin. [[Image:Aspirin-rod-povray.png|thumb|right|3D model of chemical structure of aspirin]] More recent work has shown that there are at least two different types of cyclooxygenase: COX-1 and COX-2. Aspirin inhibits both of them. Newer [[NSAID]] drugs called [[COX-2 selective inhibitor]]s have been developed that inhibit only COX-2, with the hope for reduction of gastrointestinal side-effects. However, several of the new [[COX-2 selective inhibitor]]s have been recently withdrawn, after evidence emerged that COX-2 inhibitors increase the risk of heart attack. It is proposed that endothelial cells lining the arteries in the body express COX-2, and, by selectively inhibiting COX-2, prostaglandins (specifically PGF2) are downregulated with respect to thromboxane levels, as COX-1 in platelets is unaffected. Thus, the protective anti-coagulative effect of PGF2 is decreased, increasing the risk of thrombus and associated heart attacks and other circulatory problems. Since platelets have no DNA, they are unable to synthesize new COX once aspirin has irreversibly inhibited the enzyme, rendering them "useless": an important difference with reversible inhibitors. Furthermore, aspirin has 2 additional modes of actions, contributing to its strong analgesic, antipyretic and antiinflammatory properties: * It uncouples oxidative phosphorylation in cartilaginous (and hepatic) mitochondria. * It induces the formation of NO-radicals in the body that enable the white blood cells (leukocytes) to fight infections more effectively. This has been found recently by Dr. Derek W. Gilroy, winning Bayer's International Aspirin Award 2005. Also, recently aspirin has been proven to prevent carcinoma of the colon, if given in low doses over years. == Indications == Aspirin, as with many older drugs, has proven to be useful in many conditions, and, despite its well-known toxicity, it is widely used, since physicians are familiar with its properties. Indications for its use include: * [[Fever]] * [[Pain]] (especially useful for conditions involving osteoid [[osteoma]], [[arthritis]] and chronic pain) * [[Migraine]] * [[Myocardial infarction]] prophylaxis (low dose) * [[Rheumatic fever]] (drug of choice) * [[Kawasaki's Disease]] (along with IVIG) == Contraindications and warnings == * Do ''not'' take this medicine if you are allergic to aspirin, [[ibuprofen]] or [[naproxen]]. * Talk to your doctor if your symptoms do ''not'' improve after a few days of therapy. * If you have [[kidney disease]], [[ulcer]]s, mild [[diabetes]], [[gout]] or [[gastritis]], talk to your doctor before using this medicine. * Taking aspirin with [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] increases the chance of stomach bleeding. Avoid alcohol with this medicine. * Giving aspirin to children, including teenagers having a cold or flu can cause a serious condition known as [[Reye's syndrome]]. * Patients with [[hemophilia]], other bleeding tendencies, or a bleeding ulcer should not take salicylates. * Some sources recommend that patients with [[hyperthyroidism]] avoid aspirin because it elevates T4 levels. [http://www.patient.co.uk/showdoc/40001339/] == Common side-effects == * Gastrointestinal complaints (stomach upset, [[dyspepsia]], heartburn, small blood loss). To help avoid these problems, it is recommended that aspirin be taken at or after meals. Undetected blood loss may lead to [[hypochromic anemia]]. * Severe gastrointestinal complaints (gross bleeding and/or ulceration), requiring discontinuation and immediate treatment. Patients receiving high doses and/or long-term treatment should receive gastric protection with high-dosed antacids, [[ranitidine]] or [[omeprazole]]. * Frequently, central effects (dizziness, [[tinnitus]], hearing loss, [[Vertigo (medical)|vertigo]], centrally mediated vision disturbances, and headaches). The higher the daily dose is, the more likely it is that central nervous system side effects will occur. * Sweating, seen with high doses, independent from antipyretic action * Long-term treatment with high doses (arthritis and rheumatic fever): often increased liver enzymes without symptoms, rarely reversible liver damage. The potentially fatal [[Reye's syndrome]] may occur, if given to pediatric patients with fever and other signs of infections. The syndrome is due to fatty degeneration of liver cells. Up to 30 percent of those afflicted will eventually die. Prompt hospital treatment may be life-saving. * Chronic [[nephritis]] with long-term use, usually if used in combination with certain other painkillers. This condition may lead to chronic renal failure. * Prolonged and more severe bleeding after operations and post-traumatic for up to 10 days after the last aspirin dose. If one wishes to counteract the bleeding tendency, fresh [[thrombocyte]] concentrate will usually work. * Skin reactions, [[angioedema]], and [[bronchospasm]] have all been seen infrequently. == Overdose == Aspirin overdose has serious consequences and is potentially lethal. Possible effects of overdose include [[tinnitus]], abdominal pain, [[hypokalemia]], [[hypoglycemia]], [[pyrexia]], [[hyperventilation]], [[cardiac arrhythmia|dysrhythmia]], [[hypotension]], [[hallucination]], [[renal failure]], [[Mental confusion|confusion]], [[seizure]], [[coma]] and [[death]]. Overdose can be acute or chronic; that is, a person can overdose by taking one very large dose or smaller doses over a period of time. Acute overdose has a [[mortality rate]] of 2%. Chronic overdose is more commonly lethal with a mortality rate of 25%. The most common cause of death during an aspirin overdose is [[pulmonary edema|noncardiogenic pulmonary edema]]. An acute-overdose patient must be taken to a hospital immediately. Contrary to the [[urban legend]], you can die from eating a bottle of pills, even if you subsequently throw up. Treatment of an acute overdose requires ingestion of [[activated charcoal]] to neutralize the acetylsalicylic acid in the [[gastrointestinal tract]], followed by a [[stomach pump]] with subsequent re-ingestion of [[activated charcoal]]. Patients are then monitored for at least 12 hours and typically given [[intravenous]] [[potassium chloride]] to counteract [[hypokalemia]], [[sodium bicarbonate]] to neutralize [[salicylate]] in the blood and restore the blood's sensitive pH balance, and [[glucose]] to restore [[blood sugar]] levels. Frequent blood work is performed to check [[metabolic]], [[salicylate]], and [[blood sugar]] levels; [[arterial blood gas]] assessments are performed to test for [[alkalosis|respiratory alkalosis]] and [[metabolic acidosis]]. If the overdose was intentional, the patient will undergo psychiatric evaluation, as with any [[suicide]] attempt. Fifty-two deaths involving single-ingredient aspirin were reported in the United States in the year 2000.{{ref|litovitz-2001}} == External links == * http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/321/7276/1591 * http://almaz.com/nobel/medicine/aspirin.html * http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/1biochem/research7.html * http://www.med.mcgill.ca/mjm/issues/v02n02/aspirin.html * http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0297web/health.html * http://www.howstuffworks.com/aspirin *[http://www.bluerhinos.co.uk/molview/indv.php?id=5 Molview from bluerhinos.co.uk] See Aspirin in 3D == References == # {{note|litovitz-2001}} Litovitz TL. 2000 annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers Toxic Exposure Surveillance System. Am J Emerg Med 2001;19(5):337-395 {{analgesics}} [[Category:Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs]] [[Category:Antiplatelet drugs]] [[Category:Over-the-counter substances]] [[Category:Aromatic compounds]] [[Category:Acetates]] [[Category:Carboxylic acids]] {{Link FA|he}} {{Link FA|fr}} {{Link FA|nl}} [[ar:أسبرين]] [[bg:Аспирин]] [[ca:Aspirina]] [[da:Aspirin]] [[de:Acetylsalicylsäure]] [[es:Ácido acetilsalicílico]] [[fa:آسپیرین]] [[fr:Acide acétylsalicylique]] [[gl:Aspirina]] [[ko:아스피린]] [[it:Aspirina]] [[he:אספירין]] [[lt:Aspirinas]] [[hu:Acetilszalicilsav]] [[ms:Aspirin]] [[nl:Aspirine]] [[ja:アスピリン]] [[nn:Acetylsalisylsyre]] [[pl:Aspiryna]] [[pt:Aspirina]] [[ro:Aspirină]] [[ru:Ацетилсалициловая кислота]] [[sr:Аспирин]] [[fi:Aspiriini]] [[sv:Acetylsalicylsyra]] [[th:แอสไพริน]] [[tr:Aspirin]] [[uk:Ацетилсаліцилова кислота]] [[zh:阿司匹林]] 1526 36054067 2006-01-21T05:23:33Z Kfranco 536239 Minor cleanup of verse citations In the [[Book of Samuel]], '''Abner''' ([[Biblical Hebrew]] for "father of [or is a] light"), is first cousin to [[Saul the King|Saul]] and commander-in-chief of his army (1 Samuel 14:50, 20:25). He is only referred to incidentally in Saul's history (1 Samuel 17:55, 26:5), and is not mentioned in the account of the disastrous [[battle of Gilboa]] when Saul's power was crushed. Seizing the youngest but only surviving of Saul's sons, [[Ishbaal]], Abner set him up as king over [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] at [[Mahanaim]], east of the [[Jordan River|Jordan]]. [[David]], who was accepted as king by [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] alone, was meanwhile reigning at [[Hebron]], and for some time war was carried on between the two parties. The only engagement between the rival factions which is told at length is noteworthy, inasmuch as it was preceded by an encounter at [[Gibeon]] between twelve chosen men from each side, in which the whole twenty-four seem to have perished (2 Samuel 2:12). In the general engagement which followed, Abner was defeated and put to flight. He was closely pursued by [[Asahel]], brother of [[Joab]], who is said to have been "light of foot as a wild roe" (2 Samuel 2:18). As Asahel would not desist from the pursuit, though warned, Abner was compelled to slay him in self-defence. This originated a deadly [[feud]] between the leaders of the opposite parties, for Joab, as next of kin to Asahel, was by the law and custom of the country the avenger of his blood. For some time afterwards the war was carried on, the advantage being invariably on the side of David. At length, Ishbaal lost the main prop of his tottering cause by remonstrating with Abner for marrying [[Rizpah]], one of Saul's [[concubine]]s, an alliance which, according to contemporary notions, implied pretensions to the [[throne]] (cf. 2 Samuel 16:21ff.). Abner was indignant at the deserved rebuke, and immediately opened negotiatons with David, who welcomed him on the condition that his wife [[Michal]] should be restored to him. This was done, and the proceedings were ratified by a feast. Almost immediately after, however, Joab, who had been sent away, perhaps intentionally returned and slew Abner at the gate of Hebron. The ostensible motive for the [[assassination]] was a desire to avenge Asahel, and this would be a sufficient justification for the deed according to the moral standard of the time. The conduct of David after the event was such as to show that he had no complicity in the act, though he could not venture to punish its perpetrators (2 Samuel 3:31-39; cf. 1 Kings 2:31ff.). Soon however, Ishbaal/Ishbosheth was assassinated as he slept, and David became king of the reunited kingdoms. {{1911}} [[Category:Tanakh people]] [[fr:Abner]] [[gl:Abner]] [[he:אבנר בן נר]] [[nl:Abner]] 1527 40056446 2006-02-17T20:40:22Z FlaBot 228773 robot Adding: fi [[Image:Sultan ahmed I.jpg|frame|Sultan Ahmed I]] '''Ahmed I''' (in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] أحمد الأول) ([[April 18]], [[1590]] &ndash; [[November 22]], [[1617]]) was the [[sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] from [[1603]] until his death. He succeeded his father [[Mehmed III]] in [[1603]] and became the first Ottoman sultan who reached the throne before attaining his majority. He was of kindly and humane disposition, as he showed by refusing to put to death his brother Mustafa (later [[Mustafa I]]), who eventually succeeded him. He was known for his skills in fencing, horseback riding, and fluency in numerous languages. In the earlier part of his reign he showed decision and vigour, which were belied by his subsequent conduct. The wars which attended his accession both in [[Hungary]] and in [[Iran|Persia]] terminated unfavourably for the Empire, and her prestige received its first check in the [[Treaty of Sitvatorok]], signed in [[1606]], whereby the annual tribute paid by [[Austria]] was abolished. [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and [[Azerbaijan]] was ceded to Persia. Ahmed gave himself up to pleasure during the remainder of his reign, which ended in [[1617]], and demoralization and corruption became as general throughout the public service as indisciplin in the ranks of the army. The use of [[tobacco]] is said to have been introduced in the Empire during his reign. Ahmed I died of [[typhus]] in [[1617]]. Today Ahmed I is remembered mainly for the construction of the [[Sultan Ahmed Mosque]] (also known as the [[Blue Mosque]]), one of the masterpieces of [[Islamic architecture]]. The area in [[Istanbul]] around the Mosque is today called Sultanahmet. He is buried in a masoleum right outside the walls of the famous mosque. {{royal-stub}} {{Ottoman-stub}} {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[Ottoman Sultan]]|before=[[Mehmed III]]|after=[[Mustafa I]]|years=1603&ndash;1617}} {{end box}} [[Category:1590 births|Ahmed I]] [[Category:1617 deaths|Ahmed I]] [[Category:Sultans of the Ottoman Empire]] [[ar:أحمد الأول]] [[de:Ahmed I.]] [[es:Ahmed I]] [[hr:Ahmed I.]] [[hu:I. Ahmed]] [[nl:Ahmet I]] [[ja:アフメト1世]] [[pl:Ahmed I]] [[sr:Ахмед I]] [[fi:Ahmed I]] [[sv:Ahmed I]] [[tr:I. Ahmet]] [[uk:Ахмед I]] [[zh:艾哈迈德一世]] 1528 38843064 2006-02-09T00:14:21Z Darwinek 107928 stub '''Ahmed II''' (in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] أحمد الثانى) ([[February 25]], [[1643]] &ndash; [[1695]]) was the [[sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Ahmed was the son of Sultan [[Ibrahim I]] and succeeded his brother [[Suleiman II]] in [[1691]]. His best known act was to confirm [[Mustafa Köprülü]] as [[grand vizier]]. Only a few weeks after his accession the Ottoman Empire sustained a crushing defeat at the [[Battle of Slankamen]] from the [[Austrian]]s under Margrave [[Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden|Louis William]] of [[Grand Duchy of Baden|Baden]] and was driven from [[Hungary]]. During the four years of his reign disaster followed on disaster, and in 1695 Ahmed died, worn out by disease and sorrow. {{royal-stub}} {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[Ottoman Sultan]]|before=[[Suleiman II]]|after=[[Mustafa II]]|years=1691&ndash;1695}} {{end box}} [[Category:1643 births|Ahmed II]] [[Category:1695 deaths|Ahmed II]] [[Category:Sultans of the Ottoman Empire]] [[ar:أحمد الثاني]] [[bg:Ахмед II]] [[de:Ahmed II.]] [[es:Ahmed II]] [[hr:Ahmed II.]] [[hu:II. Ahmed]] [[nl:Ahmet II]] [[sr:Ахмед II]] [[tr:II. Ahmet]] 1529 41612001 2006-02-28T14:34:41Z Ugur Basak Bot 735354 robot Modifying: ar [[Image:Ahmed III.jpg|thumb|Sultan Ahmed III]] [[Image:Koceks - Surname-i Vehbi.jpg|thumb|right|180px|[[Kocek|Köçeks]] at a fair. Köçek troupe dancing at Sultan [[Ahmed III]]'s 14-day celebration of his sons' circumcision in 1720. Miniature from the ''Surname-i Vehbi'', [[Topkapi Palace]], [[Istanbul]].]] '''Ahmed III''' (Arabic {{ar|أحمد الثالث}}) (born [[December 30]], [[1673]], died [[1736]]) was a [[sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and a son of sultan [[Mehmed IV]]. He succeeded to the throne in 1703 on the abdication of his brother [[Mustafa II]]. Ahmed cultivated good relations with [[England]], in view doubtless of [[Russia]]'s menacing attitude. He afforded a refuge in Turkey to [[Charles XII of Sweden]] after the Swedish defeat at the hands of [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]] in the [[Battle of Poltava]] in 1709. Forced against his will into war with Russia, he came nearer than any Turkish sovereign before or since to breaking the power of his northern rival, whom his [[grand vizier]] [[Baltaji Mahommed Pasha]] succeeded in completely surrounding near the [[Prut River]] in 1711. In the treaty which Russia was compelled to sign, the Ottoman Empire obtained the restitution of [[Azov]], the destruction of the forts built by Russia and the undertaking that the [[tsar]] should abstain from future interference in the affairs of the [[Poland|Poles]] or the [[Cossacks]]. Discontent at the leniency of these terms was so strong at [[Constantinople]] that it nearly brought on a renewal of the war. In 1715 the [[Morea]] was taken from the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]]. This led to hostilities with [[Austria]], in which the Ottoman Empire was unsuccessful, and [[Belgrade]] fell into the hands of Austria in 1717. Through the mediation of England and the [[Netherlands]] the [[peace of Passarowitz]] was concluded in 1718, by which Turkey retained her conquests from the Venetians, but lost [[Hungary]]. A war with [[Persian Empire|Persia]] terminated in disaster, leading to a revolt of the [[Janissary|janissaries]], who deposed Ahmed in September 1730. He died in captivity six years later. Nevsehirli Damad Ibrahim Pasha directed the government from 1718 to 1730. {{Details|Nevsehirli Damad Ibrahim Pasha}} The course of the Persian war, in which the Turks had at made successive conquests with little check from the armies, though often impeded by the nature of the country the fierce spirit of the native tribes, became after a few years less favourable to Ottoman ambition. The celebrated Nadir Konli Khan (who afterwards reconquered and conquered states for himself), gained his first renown by exploits against the enemies of Shah Tahmasp. A report reached Constantinople that the lately despised Persians were victorious, and were invading the Ottoman Empire. This speedily caused excitement and tumult. Sultan Ahmet had become unpopular by reason of the excessive pomp and costly luxury in which he and his principal officers indulged; and on [[20 September]], [[1730]], a mutinous riot of seventeen janissaries, led by the Albanian Patrona Khalil, was encouraged by the citizens as well as the soldiery, till it swelled into an insurrection, before which the Sultan quailed, and gave up the throne. Ahmet voluntarily led his nephew Mahmut to the seat of sovereignty, and made obeisance to him as Padischah of the empire. He then retired to the apartments in the palace from whence his successor had been conducted, and died after a few years of confinement. The reign of Ahmet III, which had lasted for twenty-seven years, though marked by the deep disasters of the Austrian war, was, on the whole, neither inglorious nor unprosperous. The recovery of Azov and the Morea, and the conquest of part of Persia, more than counterbalanced the territory which had been given up to the Austrian Emperor at the peace of Passarowitz. Ahmet left the finances of the Ottoman Empire in a flourishing condition, which had been obtained without excessive taxation or extortionate rapacity. He was a liberal and discerning patron of literature and art; and it was in his time that the first printing press was set up in Constantinople. It was in this reign that an important change in the government of the Danubian Principaiitics was introduced. Hitherto, the [[Porte]] had employed Voivode.s, or native [[Moldavia]]n and [[Wallachia]]n nobles, to administer those provinces. But after the war with [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]] in 1711, in which Prince Cantcinir betrayed the Turkish and aided the Russian interests, the Porte established the custom of deputing Greeks from Constantinople as [[Hospodar]]s, or viceroys, of Moldavia and Wallachia. These were generally selected from among the wealthy Greek families that inhabited the quarter of Constantinople called the [[Fanar]], and constituted a kind of Raya Noblesse, which supplied the Porte with functionaries in many important departments of the state. The Moldo-Wallachians called the period of their history, during which they were under Greek viceroys (and which lasted till 1821), the Fanariote period. ==References== * {{1911}} * This article inncorporates text from ''History of Ottoman Turks'' (1878) {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[Ottoman Sultan]]|before=[[Mustafa II]]|after=[[Mahmud I]]|years=1703&ndash;1730}} {{end box}} [[Category:1673 births|Ahmed III]] [[Category:1736 deaths|Ahmed III]] [[Category:Sultans of the Ottoman Empire]] [[ar:أحمد الثالث]] [[de:Ahmed III.]] [[es:Ahmed III]] [[hr:Ahmed III.]] [[hu:III. Ahmed]] [[nl:Ahmet III]] [[ja:アフメト3世]] [[sr:Ахмед III]] [[sv:Ahmed III]] [[tr:III. Ahmet]] [[uk:Ахмед III]] [[zh:艾哈迈德三世]] 1530 41977655 2006-03-03T00:24:30Z Khoikhoi 657950 format {{Ethnic group| |group=Ainu |image=[[Image:AinuGroup.JPG|320px]] Group of Ainu people, 1904 photograph. |poptime= '''50,000''' people with half or more Ainu ancestry<br> '''150,000''' Japanese people with some Ainu ancestry<br> *(''some estimates on the number of Japanese with some Ainu blood range as high as '''1,000,000'''; the exact number is unknown'')<br> Pre-Japanese era: ~'''50,000''', almost all pure Ainu |popplace=[[Japan]]<br> [[Russia]] |langs='''[[Ainu language|Ainu]]''' is the traditional language, but today somewhere between 1% and 5% of Ainu can speak it fluently, between 5% and 10% are [[passive speakers]] or [[partial speakers]], and about 50% of Ainu have a very basic command of the language |rels=[[Animism]], some are members of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] |related= Modern genetics has proven they are East Asians. They are usually grouped with the non-[[Tungus]]ic peoples of [[Sakhalin]], the [[Amur]] river valley, and the [[Kamchatka peninsula]]: *[[Nivkhs]] *[[Itelmens]] *[[Chukchis]] *[[Koryaks]] *[[Aleuts]] }} The '''Ainu''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] {{IPA|/ˈainu/}}, "eye-noo", アイヌ / aynu) are an ethnic group [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] to [[Hokkaido]], the northern part of [[Honshu]] in Northern [[Japan]], the [[Kuril Islands]], much of [[Sakhalin]], and the southernmost third of the [[Kamchatka peninsula]]. The word "ainu" means "human" in the [[Ainu language]]; '''[[Emishi]]''', '''[[Ezo]]''' or '''[[Yezo]]''' (&#34662;&#22839;) are [[Japanese language|Japanese]] terms; and '''[[Utari]]''', &#12454;&#12479;&#12522;, (meaning "comrade" in Ainu) is now preferred by some members. There are most likely over 150,000 Ainu today, however the exact figure is not known as many Ainu hide their origins or in many cases are not even aware of them, their parents having kept it from them so as to protect their children from racism. ==Origins== The origins of the Ainu are uncertain. Some commentators believe that they derive from an ancient proto-Asian stock that may have occupied most of Asia before the [[Han Chinese|Han]] expansion (see [[Jomon|Jomon people]]). Various other Asian [[indigenous peoples]], from the [[Ryukyu]]s to the [[Taiwanese]] are also thought to be related to them. In the early 20th century [[anthropology|anthropologists]] debated what [[Typology#Anthropology|typological classification]] (such as [[Mongoloid]] or [[Caucasoid]]) the Ainu belonged to. The typological models of [[Race (historical definitions)|racial classification]] in use at that time have since undergone significant revision, in the light of developments in fields such as [[genetics]]. Many physical characteristics which had been employed to distinguish "Mongoloid", "Caucasoid" or other racial-types are viewed by many contemporary authorities to arise more typically from climatic or environmental selection, rather than necessary indicators of relatedness/distinctiveness. While a minority still hold to the view that race typology usefully reflects underlying biological differences, the classification of "Mongoloid" versus other groups is mostly seen as being problematic. ''See also [[Tocharians]] and [[Sami]]'' The prevailing mythology in Japan has been of the Ainu as a race of "noble savages," a proud but reclusive culture of hunter-gatherers. This mythology became a useful defense for the Japanese expropriation of Ainu lands. In fact, the Ainu were farmers from the earliest centuries of the [[Common Era]].[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/hokkaido/ainu.html] ==North American Connection== In the late 20th Century, much speculation arose that the Ainu may have been one of the first groups to settle [[North America]]. This theory is based largely on skeletal and cultural evidence among tribes living in the western part of North America and certain parts of [[Latin America]]. It is quite possible that North America had several peoples among its early settlers--the Ainu being one of them, perhaps even the first. The most well known instance supporting this theory is probably [[Kennewick Man]]. Genetic mapping studies by [[Cavalli-Sforza]] have shown a pattern of genetic expansion from the area of the [[Sea of Japan]] towards the rest of eastern Asia and the American continent. This appears as the third most important genetic movement in Eastern Asia (after the "Great expansion" from the African continent, and a second expansion from the area of Northern Siberia), which would make it consistent with the early [[Jomon]] period <ref>"The synthetic maps suggest a previously unsuspected center of expansion from the Sea of Japan but cannot indicate dates. This development could be tied to the Jomon period, but one cannot entirely exclude the pre-Jomon period and that it might be responsible for a migration to the Americas. A major source of food in those pre-agricultural times came from fishing, then as now, and this would have limited for ecological reasons the area of expansion to the coastline, perhaps that of the Sea of Japan, but also father along the Pacific Coast" "The History and Geography of Human Genes" p253, Cavalli-Sforza ISBN 0691087504</ref>. ==History== At first, contact with the [[Japanese people]] was friendly and both were equals in a trade relationship. However, eventually the Japanese started to dominate the relationship, and soon established large settlements on the outskirts of Ainu territory. As the Japanese moved north and took control over their traditional lands, the Ainu often gave up without resistance, but there was occasional resistance as exemplified in wars in [[1457]], [[1669]], and [[1789]], all of which were lost by the Ainu. Japanese policies became increasingly aimed at assimilating the Ainu in the [[Meiji period]], outlawing their language and restricting them to farming on government-provided plots. Ainu were also used in near-slavery conditions in the Japanese fishing industry. The island of Hokkaido was called ''Ezo'' or ''Ezo-chi'' during the [[Edo period]]. Its name was changed to Hokkaido during the [[Meiji Restoration]] as part of the programme to "unify" the Japanese national character under the aegis of the Emperor, thus reducing the local identity and autonomy of the different regions of Japan. As Japanese citizens, the Ainu are now governed by Japanese laws (though one Ainu man was acquitted of murder because he asserted that he was not a Japanese citizen and the judge agreed{{fact}}) and judged by Japanese tribunals, but in the past, their affairs were administered by hereditary chiefs, three in each village, and for administrative purposes the country was divided into three districts, [[Saru]], [[Usu (district)|Usu]] and [[Ishikari]], which were under the ultimate control of Saru, though the relations between their respective inhabitants were not close and intermarriages were avoided. The functions of judge were not entrusted to these chiefs; an indefinite number of a community's members sat in judgement upon its criminals. Capital punishment did not exist, nor was imprisonment resorted to, beating being considered a sufficient and final penalty, except in the case of murder, when the nose and ears of the culprit were cut off or the tendons of his feet severed. Intermarriages between Japanese and Ainu are not infrequent, and at [[Sambutsu]] especially, on the eastern coast, many children of such marriages may be seen. Today, many Ainu dislike the term Ainu and prefer to identify themselves as ''Utari'' (''comrade'' in the Ainu language). In official documents both names are used. ==Geography== For historical reasons (primarily the [[Russo-Japanese War]]), nearly all Ainu live in Japan. There is, however, a small number of Ainu living on [[Sakhalin]], most of them descendants of Sakhalin Ainu who were evicted and later returned. There is also an Ainu minority living at the southernmost area of the Kamchatka Peninsula and on the Kurile Islands. However, the only Ainu speakers remaining (besides perhaps a few partial speakers) live solely in Japan. There, they are concentrated primarily on the southern and eastern coasts of the island of [[Hokkaido]]. Due to intermarriage with the Japanese and ongoing absorption into the predominant culture, few living Ainu settlements exist. Many "authentic Ainu villages" advertised in Hokkaido are simply tourist attractions. ==Language== The [[Ainu language]] is significantly different from [[Japanese language|Japanese]] in its [[syntax]], [[phonology]], [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], and vocabulary. Although there have been attempts to show that they are related, the vast majority of modern scholars reject that the relationship goes beyond contact, i.e., mutual borrowing of words between Japanese and Ainu. In fact, no attempt to show a relationship with Ainu to any other language has gained wide acceptance, and Ainu is currently considered to be a [[language isolate]]. <!--ethnologue data is incorrect; see [[ainu language]]--> ==Culture== Traditional Ainu culture is quite different from Japanese culture. Never shaving after a certain age, the men had full [[beard]]s and [[moustache]]s. Men and women alike cut their [[hair]] level with the shoulders at the sides of the head, but trimmed it semicircularly behind. The [[women]] [[tattoo]]ed their [[mouth]]s, [[arm]]s, [[Clitoris|clitorides]], and sometimes their [[forehead]]s, starting at the onset of [[puberty]]. The soot deposited on a pot hung over a fire of birch bark was used for [[colour]]. Their traditional [[dress]] is a robe spun from the bark of the elm tree. It has long sleeves, reaches nearly to the feet, is folded round the body, and is tied with a girdle of the same material. Women also wear an undergarment of Japanese cloth. In winter the skins of animals were worn, with leggings of deerskin and boots made from the skin of dogs or [[salmon]]. Both sexes are fond of earrings, which are said to have been made of [[grape]]vine in former times, as also are bead necklaces called [[tamasay]], which the women prized highly. Their traditional cuisine consists of the flesh of [[bear]], [[fox]], [[wolf]], [[badger]], [[ox]] or [[horse]], as well as [[fish]], [[fowl]], [[millet]], [[vegetable]]s, [[herb]]s, and [[root]]s. They never ate raw [[fish]] or flesh, but always either boiled or roasted it. Their traditional habitations were reed-thatched huts, the largest 20 ft. square, without partitions and having a fireplace in the centre. There was no chimney, but only a hole at the angle of the roof; there was one window on the eastern side and there were two doors. The house of the village head was used as a public meeting place when one was needed. Instead of using furniture, they sat on the floor, which was covered with two layers of mats, one of rush, the other of flag; and for beds they spread planks, hanging mats around them on poles, and employing skins for coverlets. The men used [[chopstick]]s when eating; the women had wooden [[spoon]]s. [[Ainu cuisine]] is uncommonly eaten outside Ainu communities; there are only a few Ainu restaurants in Japan, all located in [[Tokyo]] and [[Hokkaido]]. ===Religion=== The Ainu believe in [[Animism]], or that everything in nature has a ''[[kami|kamuy]]'' (spirit or god) on the inside. There is a hierarchy of the ''kamuy''. The most important is grandmother hearth ([[fire]]), then ''kamuy'' of the [[mountain]] (animals), then ''kamuy'' of the [[sea]] ([[Marine biology|sea animals]]), lastly everything else. They have no [[priests]] by profession. The village chief performs whatever religious ceremonies are necessary; ceremonies are confined to making libations of [[sake|rice beer]], uttering [[prayers]], and offering [[willow]] sticks with wooden shavings attached to them. These sticks are called [[Inau]] (singular) and [[Inau|nusa]] (plural). They are placed on an altar used to sacrifice the heads of killed animals. The Ainu people give thanks to the gods before eating and pray to the deity of fire in time of [[sickness]]. They believe their spirits are [[immortal]], and that their spirits will be rewarded hereafter by ascending to ''kamuy mosir'' (Land of the Gods). Some Ainu in the north are members of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]]. ===Sport=== The Ainu excel at many competitive physical activities. Due to their taller physical build, the Ainu have outshone the ethnic Japanese in typically Western sports like [[baseball]], [[football (soccer)|football]] (soccer), and [[track and field]] events. This has engendered much resentment from the ethnic Japanese but the athletic feats of the Ainu people are still celebrated throughout Asia nonetheless (Fitzhugh, 364-366) ==Institutions== There are many different organizations of Ainu trying to further their cause in many different ways. There is an umbrella group of which most Hokkaido Ainu and some other Ainu are members, called the [[Hokkaido Utari Association]], originally controlled by the government with the intention of speeding Ainu assimilation and integration into the Japanese nation-state but which now operates mostly independently of the government and is run exclusively by Ainu. [[Image:FlagofAinuNation.png|thumb|300px|Flag of the Ainu people. The Ainu flag was designed by the late Mr. Bikki Sunazawa in 1973. [[Cerulean blue]] stands for sky and sea, white for snow and red for arrow which is running in the snow beneath Hokkaido's sky. --''Nozomi Kariyasu'', March 21, 1999]] ==Subgroups== *[[Tohoku Ainu]] (from [[Honshu]], no known living population) *[[Hokkaido Ainu]] *[[Sakhalin Ainu]] *[[Kuril Ainu]] (no known living population) *[[Kamchatka Ainu]] *[[Amur Valley Ainu]] (probably none remain) ==See also== *[[Ethnic issues in Japan]] *[[Yukar]] *[[Ainu music]] *[[Honshu]] *[[Hokkaido]] *[[Sakhalin]] *[[Kuril Islands]] *[[Kamchatka peninsula]] *[[Shogun]] *[[Kennewick Man]] ==Notes== <references/> ==References== {{1911}} *Article on the Ainu in ''Japan's Minorities: The Illusion of Homogeneity''. *Kayano, Shigeru. ''Our Land Was a Forest: An Ainu Memoir'' (1994). Translated by Kyoko Selden and Lili Selden. Foreword by Mikiso Hane. Transitions--Asia and Asian America series. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. *{{cite book|author=Fitzhugh, W.|year=2004|title=Ainu:Spirit of a Northern People|publisher=Seattle: University of Washington Press|id=ISBN 0295979127}} ==External links== *[http://www.ainu-museum.or.jp/english/english.html The Ainu Museum] *[http://www.mnh.si.edu/arctic/features/ainu/ Smithsonian Institute] *[http://www.ainu-assn.or.jp/ Nippon Utari Kyokai] *[http://www.molli.org.uk/explorers/the_regions/north_america.asp Ainu-North American cultural similarities] *[http://www.rgj.com/news/specials/story9.html Spirit Cave Man May Rewrite Continent's History] *[http://www.frpac.or.jp/eng/e_prf/index.html Foundation for Research and Promotion of Ainu Culture] *[http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/shogun.html Ainu Lineage] [[Category:Indigenous peoples of Asia]] [[Category:Indigenous peoples of East Asia]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Japan]] [[Category:Ainu| ]] [[da:Ainu]] [[de:Ainu]] [[es:Ainu]] [[eo:Ajnuoj]] [[fr:Aïnus]] [[ko:아이누족]] [[id:Suku Ainu]] [[nl:Ainu (volk)]] [[nds:Ainu]] [[ja:アイヌ]] [[no:Ainu]] [[pl:Ajnowie]] [[ru:Айны]] [[simple:Ainu]] [[fi:Ainut]] [[sv:Ainu]] [[th:ชาวไอนุ]] [[zh:愛努族]] 1531 15899999 2002-09-06T09:12:42Z Aldie 901 redir #REDIRECT [[AIX]] 1532 15900000 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Agrippina_the_elder]] 1533 15900001 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Aachen]] 1535 15900003 2004-10-06T12:54:23Z Andre Engels 300 changed to redirect #REDIRECT [[Acorn]] 1536 39714649 2006-02-15T09:18:38Z Aggelophoros 34669 revert vandalism :''This article is about '''acropolis''' in general. For the best-known example of the kind, see [[Acropolis, Athens]].'' [[image:Athens_Acropolis.jpg|thumb|250px|Acropolis in [[Athens]].]] '''Acropolis''' (Gr. ''akros,'' top, ''polis,'' city), literally the upper part of a town. For purposes of defence early settlers naturally chose elevated ground, frequently a hill with precipitous sides, and these early citadels became in many parts of the world the nuclei of large cities which grew up on the surrounding lower ground. The word "Acropolis", though Greek in origin and associated primarily with Greek cities ([[Athens]], [[Argos]], [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], and [[Corinth]] with its [[Acrocorinth]]), may be applied generically to all such citadels ([[Rome]], [[Jerusalem]], Celtic [[Bratislava]], many in [[Asia Minor]], or even Castle Hill at [[Edinburgh]]). The most famous example of the kind is the [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis of Athens]], which, by reason of its historical associations and the famous buildings erected upon it, is generally known without qualification as simply "The Acropolis". Because of its classical Greco-Roman style, the ruins of [[Mission San Juan Capistrano|Mission San Juan Capistrano's]] "Great Stone Church" (in [[California|California, United States]]) have been dubbed the "American Acropolis". Other parts of the world developed other names for the high [[citadel]] or [[alcázar]], which often reinforced a naturally strong site. In Central [[Italy]], many small rural [[comune|commune]]s still cluster at the base of a fortified habitation known as "La Rocca" of the commune. The term ''Acropolis'' is also used to described the central complex of overlapping structures, such as plazas and pyramids, in many [[Maya]]n cities, including [[Tikal]] and [[Copán]]. {{commons|Acropolis}} [[Category:Classical studies]] [[ca:Acròpoli]] [[de:Akropolis]] [[es:Acrópolis]] [[eu:Akropoli]] [[fr:Acropole]] [[gl:Acrópole]] [[it:Acropoli]] [[he:אקרופוליס]] [[nl:Akropolis]] [[ja:アクロポリス]] [[no:Akropolis]] [[pl:Akropol]] [[pt:Acrópole]] [[ru:Акрополь]] [[sk:Akropola]] [[sl:Akropola]] [[fi:Akropolis]] [[sv:Akropolis]] [[uk:Акрополь]] 1537 42109157 2006-03-03T22:01:07Z Pagingmrherman 7390 /* Theory */ [[Image:Acupuncture chart 300px.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Acupuncture chart from the [[Ming dynasty]].]] '''Acupuncture''' (from Lat. ''acus,'' "needle" (noun), and ''pungere,'' "prick" (verb) or in [[Standard Mandarin]], zhēn jiǔ (針灸) is one of the main branches of [[Traditional Chinese Medicine]], or TCM (others being [[herbal medicine]] and [[tui na]]). It is a [[therapy|therapeutic]] technique from that framework intended to restore health and well-being. The technique involves the insertion of needles into "[[acupuncture point]]s" on the body by trained practitioners. The needles most commonly used in present-day practice are made of [[stainless steel]] and are of approximately the same diameter as a medium thickness guitar string (approximately .01" to .02"). Acupuncture and related practices predate modern concepts of [[science]], and most but not all of its claims are not yet verified in modern studies and clinical practice to the standards of the [[Cochrane Collaboration]]. ==History== In [[China]], the practice of acupuncture can perhaps be traced as far back as the [[1st millennium BC|1<sup>st</sup> millennium BC]], and archeological evidence has been identified with the period of the [[Han dynasty]] (from 202 [[Anno Domini|BC]] to 220 [[Anno Domini|AD]]). The practice spread centuries ago into many parts of Asia; in modern times it is a component of [[traditional Chinese medicine]] (TCM), and forms of it are also described in the literature of [[traditional Korean medicine]] where it is called ''chimsul''. It is also important in [[Kampo]], the traditional medicine system of [[Japan]]. The earliest Chinese medical texts (Ma-wang-tui graves 68 BC) do not mention acupuncture. Later in Chinese history, 365 points along the meridians were spoken of, not because they were anatomically identified, but because there are 365 days in a year. Different acupuncture charts give different numbers and locations of points. The Chinese medical text that first describes acupuncture is The Yellow Emperor’s ''Classic of Internal Medicine (History of Acupuncture)''. Some hieroglyphics have been found dating back to 1000 BC that may indicate an early use of acupuncture. Bian stones, sharp pointed stones used to treat diseases in ancient times, have also been discovered in ruins (History of Acupuncture in China) but are not directly related to acupuncture. RC Crozier in the book ''Traditional medicine in modern China'' (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1968) says the early Chinese Communist Party expressed considerable antipathy towards TCM, ridiculing it as superstitious, irrational and backward, and claiming that it conflicted with the Party’s dedication to science as the way of progress. Acupuncture was included in this criticism. Reversing this position, Communist Party Chairman [[Mao]] later said that "Chinese medicine and pharmacology are a great treasure house and efforts should be made to explore them and raise them to a higher level"[http://www.healthy.net/scr/article.asp?ID=1708]. [[Barefoot doctors]] were trained to provide inexpensive health care in rural Chinese communities. After the [[Cultural Revolution]], TCM instruction was incorporated into university medical curricula under the "Three Roads" policy, wherein TCM, biomedicine and a synthesis of the two would all be encouraged and permitted to develop. ==Acupuncture in modern medicine== Medical law in the [[United States]] regarding acupuncture varies widely from state to state. Notably, states furthest to the west ([[Hawaii]] most particularly, [[California]], etc.) have the most comprehensive laws and regulations regarding acupuncture. In many U.S. states -- those furthest to the east -- medical doctors (M.D.s) are permitted to practice acupuncture with no specific training in acupuncture. In some states, acupuncturists are required to work with an M.D. in a subservient relationship, even if the M.D. has no training in acupuncture. Contrastingly, Hawaii forbids M.D.s to practice acupuncture unless they have received specific training in it and have demonstrated related competency. Acupuncture is becoming accepted today. Over fifteen million Americans in 1994 tried acupuncture. In 1996, the [[FDA]] changed the status of acupuncture needles from Class III to Class II medical devices, meaning that needles are regarded as safe and effective when used appropriately by licensed practitioners [http://www.fda.gov/fdac/departs/596_upd.html] [http://www.fda.gov/cdrh/pmapage.html]. Acupuncture is also in the curriculum of many colleges today. In Australia, the legalities of practicing acupuncture also vary by state. In 2000, an independent government agency was established to oversee the practice of Chinese Herbal Medicine and Acupuncture in the state of Victoria. The Chinese Medicine Registration Board of Victoria [http://www.cmrb.vic.gov.au/] aims to protect the public, ensuring that only apropriately experienced or qualified practitioners are registered to practice Chinese Medicine. The legislation put in place stipulates that only practitioners who are state registered may use the following titles: Acupuncture, Chinese Medicine, Chinese Herbal Medicine, Registered Acupuncturist, Registered Chinese Medicine Practitioner, Registered Chinese Herbal Medicine Practitioner. Warming an acupuncture point, typically by [[moxibustion]] (the burning of [[mugwort]]), is a different treatment than acupuncture itself and is often, but not exclusively, used as a supplementing treatment. The Chinese term zhēn jǐu (針灸), commonly used to refer to acupuncture, comes from ''zhen'' meaning "needle", and ''jiu'' meaning "moxibustion". Moxibustion is still used in the [[21st century|21<sup>st</sup> century]] to varying degrees among the schools of traditional Chinese medicine. For example, one well known technique is to insert the needle at the desired acupuncture point, attach dried mugwort to the external end of an acupuncture needle, and then ignite the mugwort. The mugwort will then smolder for several minutes (depending on the amount adhered to the needle) and conduct heat through the needle to the tissue surrounding the needle in the patient's body. Most modern acupuncturists use disposable [[stainless steel]] needles of very fine [[diameter]] (approximately .015"), sterilized with [[ethylene oxide]] or by [[autoclave]]. The upper third of these needles is wound with a thicker wire (typically bronze) to stiffen the needle, provide a handle for the acupuncturist to grasp while inserting the needle, and also provide a surface to which dried mugwort will more easily adhere. ==Theory== Acupuncture treats the human body as a whole that involves several "systems of function" that are in many cases associated with (but not identified on a one-to-one basis with) physical organs. Some systems of function, such as the "triple heater" ([[San Jiao]], also called the "triple burner") have no corresponding physical organ. Disease is understood as a loss of homeostasis among the several systems of function, and treatment of disease is attempted by modifying the activity of one or more systems of function through the activity of needles, pressure, heat, etc. on sensitive parts of the body of small volume traditionally called "acupuncture points" in English, or "xue" (穴, cavities) in Chinese. Treatment of acupuncture points may be performed along the twelve main or eight extra [[meridian (Chinese medicine)|meridians]], located throughout the body. Of the eight extra meridians, only two have acupuncture points of their own. The other six meridians are "activated" by using a master and couple point technique which involves needling the acupuncture points located on the twelve main meridians that correspond to the particular extra meridian. Ten of the main meridians are named after organs of the body (Heart, Liver, etc.), and the other two are named after so called body functions (Heart Protector or [[Pericardium]], and ''San Jiao''). The two most important of the eight "extra" meridians are situated on the midline of the anterior and posterior aspects of the trunk and head. The twelve primary meridians run vertically, bilaterally, and symmetrically and every channel corresponds to and connects internally with one of the twelve [[Zang Fu]] ("organs"). This means that there are six [[yin]] and six [[yang]] channels. There are three [[yin]] and three [[yang]] channels on each arm, and three [[yin]] and three [[yang]] on each leg. The three [[yin]] channels of the hand ([[Lung]], [[Pericardium]], and [[Heart]]) begin on the chest and travel along the inner surface (mostly the anterior portion) of the arm to the hand. The three [[yang]] channels of the hand ([[Large intestine]], [[San Jiao]], and [[Small intestine]]) begin on the hand and travel along the outer surface (mostly the posterior portion) of the arm to the head. The three [[yang]] channels of the foot ([[Stomach]], [[Gallbladder]], and [[Urinary bladder|Bladder]]) begin on the face, in the region of the eye, and travels down the body and along the outer surface (mostly the anterior and lateral portion) of the leg to the foot. The three [[yin]] channels of the foot ([[Spleen]], [[Liver]], and [[Kidney]]) begin on the foot and travel along the inner surface (mostly posterior and medial portion) of the leg to the chest or flank. The movement of [[qi]] through each of the twelve channels is comprised of an internal and an external pathway. The external pathway is what is normally shown on an acupuncture chart and it is relatively superficial. All the acupuncture points of a channel lie on its external pathway. The internal pathways are the deep course of the channel where it enters the body cavities and related Zang-Fu organs. The superficial pathways of the twelve channels describe three complete circuits of the body. The distribution of [[psuedoscience|energy]] through the meridians is said to be as follows: Lung channel of hand [[taiyin]] to Large Intestine channel of hand [[yangming]] to Stomach channel of foot [[yangming]] to Spleen channel of foot [[taiyin]] to Heart channel of hand [[shaoyin]] to Small Intestine channel of hand [[taiyang]] to Bladder channel of foot [[taiyang]] to Kidney channel of foot [[shaoyin]] to Pericardium channel of hand [[jueyin]] to [[San Jiao]] channel of hand [[shaoyang]] to Gallbladder channel of foot [[shaoyang]] to Liver channel of foot [[jueyin]] then back to the Lung channel of hand [[taiyin]] Traditional Chinese medical theory holds that acupuncture works by normalizing the balance of ''[[qi]]'' "vital energy" throughout the body. Pain or illnesses are treated by attempting to remedy local or systemic accumulations or deficiencies of qi. Pain is considered to indicate blockage or stagnation of the flow of qi, and an axiom of the medical literature of acupuncture is "no pain, no blockage; no blockage, no pain". Many patients claim to experience the sensations of stimulus known in Chinese as "deqi" (得氣 "obtaining the qi"). This kind of sensation was historically considered to be evidence of effectively locating the desired point. There are some electronic devices now available which will make a noise when what they have been programmed to describe as the "correct" acupuncture point is pressed. The [[acupuncturist]] will decide which points to treat by thoroughly questioning the patient, and utilizing the diagnostic skills of [[traditional Chinese medicine]] which include observation of the left and right radial pulses at three levels of imposed pressure and analysis of the tongue coating, color and the absence or presence of teeth marks around the edge. There are also theories being developed to explain effects observed for acupuncture within the orthodox Western medical paradigm. According to the NIH consensus statement on acupuncture[http://consensus.nih.gov/1997/1997Acupuncture107html.htm]: : Despite considerable efforts to understand the anatomy and physiology of the "acupuncture points", the definition and characterization of these points remains controversial. Even more elusive is the basis of some of the key traditional Eastern medical concepts such as the circulation of [[Qi]], the meridian system, and the five phases theory, which are difficult to reconcile with contemporary biomedical information but continue to play an important role in the evaluation of patients and the formulation of treatment in acupuncture. ==An example of acupuncture practice== [[Image:Acupuncture.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Acupuncture]] In western medicine, vascular headaches (the kind that are accompanied by throbbing veins in the temples) are typically treated with analgesics such as aspirin and/or by the use of agents such as niacin that dilate the affected blood vessels in the scalp, but in acupuncture a common treatment for such headaches is to stimulate the sensitive points that are located roughly in the center of the webs between the thumbs and the palms of the patient, the ''hé gǔ'' points. These points are described by acupuncture theory as "targeting the face and head" and are considered to be the most important point when treating disorders affecting the face and head. The patient reclines, and the points on each hand are first sterilized with alcohol, and then thin, disposable needles are inserted to a depth of approximately 3-5 mm until a characteristic "twinge" is felt by the patient, often accompanied by a slight twitching of the muscle between the thmb and hand. Most patients report a pleasurable "tingling" sensation and feeling of relaxation while the needles are in place. The needles are retained for 15-20 minutes while the patient rests, and then are removed. In the clinical practice of acupuncturists, patients frequently report one or more of certain kinds of sensation that are associated with this treatment, sensations that are stronger than those that would be felt by a patient not suffering from a vascular headache: (1) Extreme sensitivity to pain at the points in the webs of the thumbs. (2) In bad headaches, a feeling of nausea that persists for roughly the same period as the stimulation being administered to the webs of the thumbs. (3) Simultaneous relief of the headache. (See ''Zhen Jiu Xue'', p. 177f et passim.) The [[Cochrane Collaboration]], an international organization dedicated to [[evidence-based medicine]], concluded from [[peer-reviewed]] research that "(o)verall, the existing evidence supports the value of acupuncture for the treatment of idiopathic headaches. However, the quality and amount of evidence are not fully convincing. There is an urgent need for well-planned, large-scale studies to assess the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of acupuncture under real-life conditions." [http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab001218.html]. ==Indications and research== In 1979, an interregional seminar in [[Beijing]] sponsored by [[World Health Organization]] drew up the following provisional list of diseases that lend themselves to acupuncture treatment. The list is based on clinical experience, and not necessarily on controlled clinical research: furthermore, the inclusion of specific diseases are not meant to indicate the extent of acupuncture's efficacy in treating them [http://www.aaom.org/default.asp?pagenumber=47494]. :Upper Respiratory Tract ::* Acute sinusitis ::* Acute rhinitis ::* Common Cold ::* Acute tonsillitis :Respiratory System ::* Acute bronchitis ::* Bronchial asthma (most effective in children and in patients without complicating diseases) :Disorders of the Eye ::* Acute conjunctivitis ::* Central retinitis ::* Myopia (in children) ::* Cataract (without complications) :Disorders of the Mouth ::* Toothache, post-extraction pain ::* Gingivitis ::* Acute and chronic pharyogitis :Gastro-intestinal Disorders ::* Spasms of esophagus and cardia ::* Hiccough ::* Gastroptosis ::* Acute and chronic gastritis ::* Gastric hyperacidity ::* Chronic duodenal ulcer (pain relief) ::* Acute duodenal ulcer (without complications) ::* Acute and chronic colitis ::* Acute bacillary dysentery ::* Constipation ::* Diarrhea ::* Paralytic ileus :Neurological and Musculo-skeletal Disorders ::* Headache and migraine ::* Trigeminal neuralgia ::* Facial palsy (early stage, i.e., within three to six months) ::* Pareses following a stroke ::* Peripheral neuropathies ::* Sequelae of poliomyelitis (early stage, i.e., within six months) ::* Meniere's disease ::* Neurogenic bladder dysfunction ::* Nocturnal enuresis ::* Intercosral neuralgia ::* Cervicobrachial syndrome ::* "Frozen shoulder,""tennis elbow" ::* Sciatica ::* Low back pain ::* Osteoarthritis In [[1997]], the [[National Institutes of Health|NIH]] issued a [[Consensus (medical)|consensus statement]] on acupuncture that concluded that :there is sufficient evidence of acupuncture's value to expand its use into conventional medicine and to encourage further studies of its physiology and clinical value[http://consensus.nih.gov/1997/1997Acupuncture107html.htm]. The NIH consensus statement noted that : the data in support of acupuncture are as strong as those for many accepted Western medical therapies and added that :the incidence of adverse effects is substantially lower than that of many [[medication|drug]]s or other accepted medical procedures used for the same condition. For example, [[musculoskeletal]] conditions, such as [[fibromyalgia]], [[myofascial]] pain, and [[tennis elbow]]... are conditions for which acupuncture may be beneficial. These painful conditions are often treated with, among other things, [[Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory drug|anti-inflammatory medication]]s (aspirin, ibuprofen, etc.) or with [[steroid]] injections. Both medical interventions have a potential for deleterious side effects but are still widely used and are considered acceptable treatments. Further, : there is clear evidence that needle acupuncture is efficacious for adult postoperative and [[chemotherapy]] nausea and vomiting and probably for the nausea of pregnancy... There is reasonable evidence of efficacy for postoperative dental pain... reasonable studies (although sometimes only single studies) showing relief of pain with acupuncture on diverse pain conditions such as menstrual cramps, tennis elbow, and fibromyalgia... However, : acupuncture does not demonstrate efficacy for cessation of smoking and may not be efficacious for some other conditions. In [[1999]], clinical researchers reported that inserting the fine needles into specific body points triggers the production of [[endorphin]]s [http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s27924.htm]. In 2005, researchers at [[Hull York Medical School]] reported the effect of acupuncture on perception of pain, noting that acupuncture led to a decrease in activity of part of the [[brain]]'s [[limbic system]] that is responsible for the body's awareness of pain. [http://news.independent.co.uk/world/science_technology/article340079.ece] The NIH consensus statement summarizes: :Acupuncture as a therapeutic intervention is widely practiced in the United States. While there have been many studies of its potential usefulness, many of these studies provide equivocal results because of design, sample size, and other factors. The issue is further complicated by inherent difficulties in the use of appropriate controls, such as placebos and sham acupuncture groups. However, promising results have emerged, for example, showing efficacy of acupuncture in adult postoperative and chemotherapy nausea and vomiting and in postoperative dental pain. There are other situations such as addiction, stroke rehabilitation, headache, menstrual cramps, tennis elbow, fibromyalgia, myofascial pain, osteoarthritis, low back pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, and asthma, in which acupuncture may be useful as an adjunct treatment or an acceptable alternative or be included in a comprehensive management program. Further research is likely to uncover additional areas where acupuncture interventions will be useful. * [http://nccam.nih.gov/health/acupuncture/ NCCAM research summaries on acupuncture] ==Criticisms== One of the major criticisms of studies which purport to find acupuncture is anything more than a placebo is that most such studies are not properly conducted. They are not double blinded and are not randomised. However, since acupuncture is a procedure and not a pill, it is difficult if not impossible to design studies in which the person providing treatment is blinded as to the treatment being given. The same problem arises in double-blinding procedures used in biomedicine, including virtually all surgical procedures, dentistry, physical therapy, etc. The [[Cochrane Collaboration]] reports [http://www.cochrane.org/cochrane/revabstr/ab003527.htm] "(t)here is insufficient evidence to either support or refute the use of acupuncture (either needle or laser) in the treatment of lateral elbow pain." Oxford University reported [http://www.jr2.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/booth/alternat/AT008.html] "There were no high quality trials of acupuncture for stroke that showed that it was beneficial." Using stricter criteria (e.g., double-blinding) than those used in formulating the NIH consensus statement, the [[Cochrane Collaboration]] evaluated studies on acupuncture's efficacy in treating a number of conditions, usually but not always finding evidence to be lacking or inconclusive [http://sun21.imbi.uni-freiburg.de/cc_bin/mno?q=acupuncture&ul=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cochrane.org%2F&m=all]. For the following conditions, the [[Cochrane Collaboration]] reports there is insufficient evidence that acupuncture is beneficial: [http://www.cochrane.org/Cochrane/revabstr/AB000009.htm giving up smoking] [http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab000008.html chronic asthma] [http://www.cochrane.org/cochrane/revabstr/AB002914.htm bell's palsy] [http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab005319.html shoulder pain] [http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab003317.html acute stroke] [http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab003788.html rheumatoid arthritis] [http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab004046.html depression] [http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab001351.html low back pain] [http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab001218.html ideopathic headache](although the review recommended more research be done) [http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab002962.html induction of labour] However the Cochrane Collaboration reported some cases where acupuncture might be better than a placebo. For example: [http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab003281.html "P6 acupoint stimulation seems to reduce the risk of nausea but not vomiting after surgery."] ==Potential risks== Some forms of acupuncture can be [[Invasive (medical)|invasive]], and therefore not without risk, although injuries are rare among patients treated by trained practitioners. [[Hematoma]] may result from accidental puncture of any [[circulatory]] structure. [[Nerve]] injury can result from the accidental puncture of any nerve. [[Brain damage]] or [[stroke]] is possible with very deep needling at the base of the skull. Also rare but possible is [[pneumothorax]] from deep needling into the [[lung]], and [[kidney]] damage from deep needling in the low back. Needling over an occult sternal foramen (an undetectable hole in the breastbone which can occur in up to 10% of people) may result in a potentially fatal haemopericardium. Certain acupuncture points have been shown to stimulate the production of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and oxytocin; these points are contraindicated for use on pregnant women to avoid inducing abortion or harming the fetus. Needles that are not properly sterilized can transfer diseases such as [[HIV]] and [[hepatitis]]. Sometimes, when treating pain or using acupuncture as an anesthetic, a mild electrical current is applied to the needles. This stimulates the nerve cells in the area of the needles so that they become depleted of the chemicals needed to transmit signals. Prolonged stimulation of nerve cells in this way can cause irreversible damage. Severe injury from acupuncture is extremely rare, but not unheard-of. The NIH consensus panel made the following statement about the risks associated with acupuncture: “Adverse side effects of acupuncture are extremely low and often lower than conventional treatments. In a UK study of almost 2000 practitioners covering over 34,000 treatments, there were no serious adverse events and only 43 minor adverse events [http://www.medical-acupuncture.co.uk/journal/2001(2)/093.shtml]. Most acupuncturists in the USA use sterile one-time-use needles. Some still use reusable needles and an autoclave but this practice is declining due to its cost, time and the possibility of failure in sterilizing the needles. ==Acupuncture accreditation and controls== In many countries anyone can call himself an acupuncturist, there are no legal requirements with regard to training and education, nor are licensing boards regulated in any way, making it very hard to assess the actual value of licenses and training of acupuncturists. In the USA the [http://www.nccaom.org/aboutus.htm National Certification Commission for Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine] tests practitioners to ensure they are knowledgeable about Chinese medicine. Many states require this test for licensing, but each state has its own laws and requirements. The U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) approved acupuncture needles for use by licensed practitioners in 1996. The FDA requires that sterile, nontoxic needles be used and that they be labeled for single use by qualified practitioners only.[http://nccam.nih.gov/health/acupuncture/#safe] In the United Kingdom, British Acupuncture Council (BAcC) members observe the Code of Safe Practice which lays down stringent standards of hygiene and sterilisation for other equipment - members use single-use pre-sterilised disposable needles, which are permanently withdrawn from service after being used in treatment. Similar standards apply in most jurisdictions in the United States and Australia. ==See also== * [[Acupressure]] * [[Acupoint therapy]] * [[Chin na]] * [[Chinese martial arts]] * [[Electroacupuncture]] * [[Intramuscular Stimulation]] * [[Qi]] * [[Qigong]] * [[T'ai Chi Ch'uan]] * [[Taoism]] ==External links== * [http://www.acupuncture.com.au Acupuncture news, information, education, research and discussion] - A regularly updated Acupuncture website based in Australia. * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&term=acupuncture&submit=y&cmd=search Search for “acupuncture” on PubMed] - US National Library of Medicine search engine with thousands of scientific articles on acupuncture * [http://forums.acupuncture.net.au/index.php Lively discussions about the issues facing Acupuncturists today] - Acupuncture Network Australasia (ANA) is a dynamic non profit organisation set up to promote and support Acupuncture and Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) in Australia, New Zealand and the South East Asia. * [http://www.healthdiaries.com/news/alternative/archives/acupuncture/index.html Acupuncture News] * [http://www.info-shanghai.com/en/Article/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=536]Topish Acupuncture and History on Traditional Chinese Medicine * [http://odp.od.nih.gov/consensus/cons/107/107_statement.htm NIH 1997 Consensus Statement on Acupuncture] * [http://www.who.int/medicines/library/trm/acupuncture/acupuncture_trials.pdf Acupuncture: Review And Analysis Of Reports On Controlled Clinical Trials, World Health Organization, 2002] * [http://5element.com.au/ Five Element Acupuncture Information Site] A site devoted to the 5 Element Style of Acupuncture * [http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/acupuncture-whatis.html Acupuncture, The Facts.] - An article. * [http://www.rotten.com/library/medicine/acupuncture/ Rotten Library] Article on Acupuncture * [http://www.itmonline.org/arts/acuintro.htm How acupuncture works explained] * [http://dmoz.org/Health/Alternative/Acupuncture_and_Chinese_Medicine Open Directory: Acupuncture and Chinese Medicine.] - A collection of links, mostly to pro-acupuncture sites. * [http://www.spine-health.com/topics/conserv/acu/acupuncture01.html Acupuncture: an ancient treatment for a current problem] - An article discussing acupuncture as a treatment for back and neck pain * [http://www.acumedico.com Acumedico forum, articles and discussion] - An Israeli acupuncture site. * [http://www.skepdic.com/acupunc.html The Skeptics dictionary on acupuncture] * [http://www.straightdope.com/columns/000324.html The Straight Dope on Acupuncture] - A critical site * [http://www.acuwatch.org/hx/fdac1973.shtml Acupuncture past and present (1973)] * [http://www.acuwatch.org/hx/taylor.shtml The uncharted wilderness of acupuncture (1973)] * [http://www.vet-task-force.com/Acuref1.htm A report from a physician who visited China after Nixon] *[http://www.acupuncture.com//education/theory/mechanismacu.htm The Mechanism of Acupuncture] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15510787 Effects of acupuncture on gastroparesis study] * [http://www.medical-acupuncture.co.uk/ British Medical Acupuncture Society] * [http://acupuncture-treatment-specialists.com Acupuncture Clinics & Specialists] - Informational resource and nationwide directory of acupuncturists and clinics. * [http://www.famouschinese.com/jsp/medline/chinese_medicine_medline.html Chinese medicine, Chinese Herbal Medicine and Acupuncture Medline] Most recent research articles on Chinese medicine, Chinese Herbal Medicine and Acupuncture from Medline/Entrez PubMed *[http://www.acupuncture.com/testimonials/restonexp.htm New York Times article by James Reston, 1971] ==Bibliography== * Acupuncture. NIH Consensus Statement Online [[3 November]] - [[5 November]] [1997]] 15(5):1-34. * Richardson PH, Vincent CA. The evaluation of therapeutic acupuncture: concepts and methods. ''Pain'' 24:1-13, 1986. * Richardson PH, Vincent CA. Acupuncture for the treatment of pain. ''Pain'' 24:1540, 1986. * Ter Riet G et al. The effectiveness of acupuncture. ''Huisarts Wet'' 32:170-175, 176-181, 308-312, 1989. * ''Zhen Jiu Xue''/ Tai-zhong Association of Chinese Medical Doctors, the Publishing Committee on Acupuncture, 1976. (Chinese characters for all of this to follow.) * B. Brinkhaus, E. Hahn, C.H. Hempen, J. Hummelsberger, S. Joos, R. Kohnen, R. Nogel, D. Schuppan. (2004). Acupuncture and Chinese Herbal Medicine in the Treatment of Patients with Seasonal Allergic Rhinitis: a randomized-controlled clinical trial. Allergy 2004:59 953-960. * B. Brinkhaus, J. Hummelsberger, S. Jena, K. Linde, D. Melchart, A. Streng, S. Wagenpfeil, H.U. Walther, S.N. Willich, C. Witt. Acupuncture in Patients with Osteoarthritis of the Knee: A Randomised Trial. The Lancet, Vol 366, [[July 9]] [[2005]]. * Edwards, J. Acupuncture and Heart Health. Access, February 2002. * trans by Wolfe, H.L. Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, Acupuncture and its related modalities. Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients, August/September 2005. (translation of article from issue 8, 2001 Zhong Guo Zhen Jiu (Chinese Acupuncture and Moxibustion). * Abusaisha, B.B., Constanzi, J.B., Boulton, A.J.M. Acupuncture for the treatment of chronic painful diabetic neuropathy: a long term study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 39:115-121, 1998. * Bosia, I., Deluze, C., Zirbs, A. Electroacupuncture in fibromyalgia: results of a controlled trial. BMJ 1992 [[21 November]]: 305 (6864): 1249-52 * Chen, J.D.Z., Ouyang, H. Review article: therapeutic roles of acupuncture in functional gastrointestinal disorders. Aliment Pharmacol Therapy 2004; 20:831-841. * Helms, J.M. Acupuncture for the Treatment of Primary Dysmenorrhea. Obstet Gynecology 1987; 69:51-56 * Altshul, Sara. “Incontinence: Finally, Relief That Works.” Prevention December 2005: 33. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. [[30 January]] [[2006]] <http://search.epnet.com/>. * Cademartori, Lorraine. “Facing the Point.” Forbes October 2005: 85. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. [[30 January]] [[2006]] <http://search.epnet.com/>. * “A Few Commonly Used Acupunture Points.” Net Firms. [[2 February]] [[2006]] <http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/acupunture-points.html>. * “History of Acupuncture.” Net Firms. [[2 February]] [[2006]] <http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/history-of-acupuncture.html>. * “History of Acupuncture in China.” Acupuncture Care. [[2 February]] [[2006]] <http://www.acupuncturecare.com/acupunct.htm>. * Howard, Cori. “An Ancient Helper for Making a Baby.” Maclean’s [[23 January]] [[2006]]: 40. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. [[30 January]] [[2006]] <http://search.epnet.com/>. * “Is Acupuncture Safe?” Net Firms. [[2 February]] [[2006]] <http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/acupuncture-safety.html>. * “What Is Acupuncture?” Net Firms. [[2 February]] [[2006]] <http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/acupuncture-whatis.html>. {{commons|Acupuncture}} [[Category:Acupuncture]] [[Category:Alternative medicine]] [[Category:Manipulative therapy]] [[Category:Traditional Chinese medicine]] [[da:Akupunktur]] [[de:Akupunktur]] [[eo:Akupunkturo]] [[es:Acupuntura]] [[fa:طب سوزنی]] [[fr:Acupuncture]] [[he:דיקור סיני]] [[it:Agopuntura]] [[ja:鍼]] [[lt:Akupunktūra]] [[nl:Acupunctuur]] [[pl:Akupunktura]] [[ru:Акупунктура]] [[pt:Acupuntura]] [[sv:Akupunktur]] [[vi:Châm cứu]] [[zh:针灸]] [[zh:针灸]] 1538 38255880 2006-02-05T04:07:58Z Joshbaumgartner 124878 :''This page refers to the type of snake. For an electronic adder, see [[Adder (electronics)]]; for the Russian air-to-air missile that goes by the [[NATO reporting name]] "AA-12 Adder," see [[Vympel R-77]].'' '''Adder''' is another name for the [[viper]]. Most snakes called '''adders''' belong to the family Viperidae, more precisely to subfamily viperinae (by contrast to [[pit vipers]]). An exception is the Australian [[Death adder]], which despite its name is not a viperid at all, but rather a member of the cobra family, Elapidae. {| |- ! align=left | Common Name&nbsp;&nbsp; <th align=left>Technical Name ! align=left | Geographic Range |- | [[Crossed Viper|European Adder]] or Crossed Viper||''Vipera berus'' |Europe and Asia |- | [[Death Adder]] || ''Acanthophis antarcticus'' | Australia, New Guinea |- | [[Dwarf Sand Adder]] || ''Bitis peringueyi'' | Namibia, Angola |- | [[Horned Adder]] || ''Bitis caudalis'' | South Africa, Zimbabwe, Angola, Namibia |- | [[Many-Horned Adder]] || ''Bitis cornuta cornuta'' | Namibia, South Africa |- | [[Namaqua Dwarf Adder]]&nbsp; || ''Bitis schneideri'' | SW South Africa |- | [[Mountain Adder]] || ''Bitis atropos atropos'' | Zimbabwe, South Africa |- | [[Puff Adder]] || ''Bitis arietans arietans'' | Africa, Yemen |- | [[Rhombic Night Adder]] || ''Causus rhombeatus'' | Africa |} ''[[Etymology]]'': The word was ''nædre'' in [[Old English]], which developed into ''nadder'' or ''naddre''; in the 14th century ''a nadder'' was, like ''a napron'', reinterpreted as ''an adder''. It appears with the generic meaning of [[snake|serpent]] in the older forms of many Germanic languages, including [[Old High German]] ''natra'' and [[Gothic language|Gothic]] ''nadrs''. It is thus used in the Old English version of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Scriptures]] for the devil, the ''serpent'' of [[Genesis]]. The Old English word ''nædre'' is assumed to derive in turn from the [[Old Norse]] word [[eitr]], synonymous with [[snake poison]]. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Vipers]] 1539 15900007 2002-09-13T02:29:50Z Dachshund 482 ->Adirondack Mountains #REDIRECT [[Adirondack Mountains]] 1540 41834762 2006-03-02T01:22:02Z 216.100.89.65 /* Legend */ : ''This article is about the Trojan warrior. For the sportsman, see [[Aeneas Williams]].'' [[Image:BarocciAeneas.jpg|thumb|right|350px|''Aeneas flees burning Troy'', [[Federico Barocci]], [[1598]].]] '''Aeneas''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Αινείας, ''Aineías'') was a [[Troy|Trojan]] hero, the son of prince [[Anchises]] and the goddess [[Aphrodite]] ([[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] in Roman sources). He was also the cousin of King [[Priam]] of Troy. The journey of Aeneas from Troy, which led to the founding of the city that would one day become [[Rome]], is recounted in [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Aeneid]]''. He is considered an important figure in [[Greece|Greek]] and [[Rome|Roman]] legend and history. Aeneas is a character in [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' and [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Troilus and Cressida]]''. == Legend == In the ''Iliad'', Aeneas is the leader of the [[Dardan]]s (allies of the Trojans), and a principal lieutenant of [[Hector]], son of the Trojan king [[Priam]]. In the poem, Aeneas's mother [[Aphrodite]] frequently comes to his aid on the battlefield: he is also a favorite of [[Apollo]]. Even [[Poseidon]], who normally favors the Greeks, comes to Aeneas's rescue when the latter falls under the assault of [[Achilles]], noting that Aeneas, though from a junior branch of the royal family, is destined to become king of the Trojan people. When Troy was [[looting|sacked]] by the Greeks, Aeneas gathered a group, collectively known as the [[Aeneads]], traveled to [[Italy]] and became a progenitor of the [[Roman Kingdom|Romans]]. The Aeneads included his trumpeter [[Misenus]], his father [[Anchises]], his friends [[Achates]], [[Sergestus]] and [[Acmon]], the healer [[Iapyx]], his son [[Ascanius]], and their guide [[Mimas]]. He carried with him the [[Lares]] and [[Penates]], the statues of the household gods of Troy, and transplanted them to [[Italy]]. [[Image:Pierre-Narcisse Guérin 001.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Aeneas tells Dido about the fall of Troy, by Pierre-Narcisse Guérin.]] During his journey, Aeneas and his fleet made landfall at [[Carthage]]. It is at this point that the poem of the ''Aeneid'' begins. Aeneas had a brief affair with the [[Carthaginian]] queen Elissa, also known as [[Dido]], who proposed that the Trojans settle in her land and that she and Aeneas reign jointly over their peoples. However, the messenger god [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]] was sent by [[Jupiter]] and Venus to remind Aeneas of his journey and his purpose, thus compelling him to leave secretly and continue on his way. When Dido learned of this, she ordered a funeral pyre to be constructed for herself; and standing on it, she uttered a famous curse that forever would pit Carthage against the Trojans. She then committed suicide by stabbing herself in the chest. When Aeneas later traveled to [[Hades]], he called to her ghost but she neither spoke or acknowledged him. The company stopped on the island of [[Sicily]] during the course of their journey. There Aeneas was welcomed by [[Acestes]], king of the region and son of the river [[Crinisus]] by a [[Dardania]]n woman. When the ship left, [[Achaemenides]], one of [[Odysseus]]' crew who had been left behind, traveled with them. Soon after arriving in Italy, Aeneas made war against the city of [[Falerii]]. [[Latinus]], king of the [[Latin]]s, welcomed Aeneas's army of exiled [[Trojan War|Trojans]] and let them reorganize their life in [[Latium]]. His daughter [[Lavinia]] had been promised to [[Turnus]], king of the [[Rutuli]], but Latinus received a prophecy that Lavinia would be betrothed to one from another land &mdash; namely, Aeneas. Latinus heeded the prophecy, and Turnus consequently declared war on Aeneas at the urging of [[Juno_(mythology)|Juno]], who was aligned with King [[Tarchon]] of [[Etruscan civilization|the Etruscans]] and Queen [[Amata]] of the [[Latins]]. Aeneas' forces prevailed, and Turnus was killed. Aeneas founded the of city [[Lavinium]], named after his wife. He later welcomed Dido's sister, [[Anna Perenna]], who then committed suicide after learning of Lavinia's jealousy. After his death, his mother, [[Aphrodite]] asked [[Zeus]] to make her son immortal. [[Zeus]] agreed and the river god [[Numicius]] cleansed Aeneas of all his mortal parts and [[Aphrodite]] anointed him with Ambrosia and Necar, making him a god. Aeneas was recognized as the god [[Indiges]]. Inspired by the work of [[James Frazer]], some have posited that Aeneas was originally a [[life-death-rebirth]] deity. == Family and legendary descendants == Aeneas had an extensive [[Aeneas's family tree|family tree]]. Aeneas' [[wet-nurse]] was named [[Caieta]]. He was the father of [[Ascanius]] with [[Creusa]], and of [[Silvius]] with Lavinia. [[Ascanius]], the son of Aeneas, also known as [[Iulus]] (or Julius), founded [[Alba Longa]] and was the first in a long series of kings. According to the mythology outlined by Virgil in the ''Aeneid,'' [[Romulus and Remus]] were both descendants of Aeneas through their mother, and thus Aeneas was responsible for founding the Roman people. Some early sources call him their father or grandfather [http://www.4literature.net/Plutarch/Romulus/], but, considering the commonly accepted dates of the fall of Troy ([[1184 BC]]) and the founding of [[Rome]] ([[753 BC]]), this seems unlikely. The Julian family ([[Gens Julia]]) of Rome, whose most famous member was [[Julius Caesar]], traced their lineage to Aeneas's son Ascanius and, in turn, to the goddess Venus. The legendary [[King of the Britons|kings of Britain]] also trace their family through a grandson of Aeneas, [[Brutus of Britain|Brutus]]. See:[[list of the descendants of Aeneas|list of direct descendants]]. ==Classical sources== {{Commonscat|Aeneas}} * [[Homer]], ''[[Iliad]]'' II, 819-21; V, 217-575; XIII, 455-544; XX, 75-352; * [[Apollodorus]], ''[[Bibliotheke]]'' III, xii, 2; * [[Apollodorus]], ''[[Epitome]]'' III, 32-IV, 2; V, 21; * [[Virgil]], ''[[Aeneid]];'' * [[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' XIV, 581-608; * [[Ovid]], ''[[Heroides]],'' VII. {{Roman myth (mortal)}} [[Category: Trojans]] [[Category:People who fought in the Trojan War]] [[Category:Roman mythology]] [[de:Aeneas]] [[et:Aineias]] [[es:Eneas]] [[eo:Eneo]] [[fr:Énée]] [[ko:아이네아스]] [[it:Enea]] [[he:איניאס]] [[la:Aeneas]] [[lt:Enėjas]] [[li:Aeneas]] [[nl:Aeneas]] [[ja:アイネイアス]] [[pl:Eneasz (mitologia)]] [[pt:Enéas]] [[ru:Эней]] [[fi:Aineias]] [[sv:Aeneas]] [[tl:Aineías]] [[zh:亞尼斯]] 1541 41867404 2006-03-02T06:14:44Z Rklawton 754622 formatting <!-- Language links at bottom --> {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=13}} |} '''13&nbsp;April''' is the 103rd [[day]] of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (104th in [[leap year]]s). There are 262 days remaining. It is also the [[Ides]] of [[April]]. ==Events== *[[1055]] - [[Pope Victor II|Victor II]] is consecrated [[pope]] *[[1111]] - [[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry V]] is crowned [[Holy Roman Emperor]] *[[1180]] - [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick Barbarossa]] issues the [[Gelnhausen Charter]] *[[1204]] - The [[Fourth Crusade]] sacks [[Constantinople]] *[[1598]] - [[Henry IV of France]] issues the [[Edict of Nantes]], allowing [[freedom of religion]] to the [[Huguenot]]s *[[1742]] - The world premiere of George Frideric Handel's oratorio Messiah in Dublin, Ireland. *[[1829]] - The [[British Parliament]] grants [[freedom of religion]] to [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholics]] *[[1849]] - [[Hungary]] becomes a republic *[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Fort Sumter]] surrenders *[[1873]] - [[Colfax Massacre]] *[[1883]] - [[Alferd Packer]] is convicted of [[murder]] *[[1902]] - [[James C. Penney]] opens his first store in [[Kemmerer, Wyoming]] *[[1919]] - The Establishment of the [[Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea]] *[[1919]] - [[Amritsar massacre]]: [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Gurkha]] troops [[massacre]] at least 379 unarmed demonstrators in [[Amritsar]], [[India]] *[[1921]] - Foundation of the [[Spanish Communist Workers' Party (1921)|Spanish Communist Workers' Party]]. *[[1939]] - In [[India]], the [[Hindustani Lal Sena]] (Indian Red Army) is formed and vows to engage in armed struggle against the [[UK|British]]. *[[1941]] - Pact of [[neutrality]] between the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] and [[Japan]] is signed *[[1943]] - [[World War II]]: The discovery of a [[mass grave]] of [[Poland|Polish]] [[prisoner of war|prisoners-of-war]] [[execution (legal)| executed]] by [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] forces in the [[Katyn Massacre|Katy&#324; Forest Massacre]] was announced in [[Germany]], driving a wedge between the Western [[Allies]], the [[Polish government in exile|Polish government-in-exile]] in [[London]], and the Soviet Union. *[[1943]] - The [[Jefferson Memorial]] is dedicated in [[Washington, DC]], on the 200th anniversary of [[Thomas Jefferson]]'s birth. *[[1945]] - German troops massacre more than 1000 political and military prisoners in [[Gardelegen (war crime)|Gardelegen]] Germany. The atrocity is discovered two days later by American forces. *[[1970]] - The [[oxygen]] tank aboard ''[[Apollo 13]]'' explodes, putting the crew into deadly peril. The explosion occurred on April 14th in several time zones. *[[1972]] - The [[Universal Postal Union]] decides to recognize the [[People's Republic of China]] as the only legitimate Chinese representative, effectively expelling the [[Republic of China]] administering [[Taiwan]]. *[[1974]] - [[Western Union]] (in cooperation with [[NASA]] and [[Hughes Aircraft]]) launches the [[United States of America|USA]]'s first commercial [[Geosynchronous satellite|geosynchronous]] [[communications satellite]], [[Westar 1]]. *[[1975]] - An attack by [[Phalangist]]s on a [[Palestinian]] bus in Ain El Remmeneh, [[Lebanon]] marks the beginning of a 15 year civil war. *[[1983]] - [[Harold Washington]] is elected as the first African-American mayor in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]'s history *[[1984]] - [[Pete Rose]] becomes the first player in [[National League]] history to collect 4,000 hits *[[1985]] - [[Enver Hoxha]] is succeeded by [[Ramiz Alia]] as the leader of [[Albania]] *[[1986]] - [[Jack Nicklaus]] wins his sixth [[The Masters Tournament|Masters Tournament]] *[[1987]] - [[Portugal]] and [[People's Republic of China|China]] sign an agreement in which [[Macau]] would be returned to China in [[1999]] *[[1990]] - The [[Soviet Union]] admits to committing the [[Katyn Massacre]] *[[1993]] - [[Baseball]]: [[Lee Smith (baseball player)|Lee Smith]] passes [[Jeff Reardon]] for first on the all-time [[save (sport)|save]]s list with his 358th save in a 9-7 win over the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] *[[1997]] - [[Tiger Woods]] becomes the youngest [[golf]]er to win golf's [[The Masters Tournament|Masters Tournament]] *[[1998]] - [[WWE]] [[Monday Night Raw]] overtakes [[WCW Monday Nitro]] in the ratings for the first time in nearly two years, thanks to a [[Steve Austin]] vs [[Vince McMahon]] main event. This started a boost for WWE and decline for WCW, culminating in the WWE takeover of WCW in 2001. *[[2000]] - [[Tazz]] wins ECW world title, first ever match between a [[WCW]] contracted wrestler and a [[WWE]] contracted wrestler. *[[2003]] - The body of [[Laci Peterson]] is found in [[California]]. *[[2003]] - [[Mike Weir]] becomes first Canadian and first [[leftie]] to win the golf [[The Masters Tournament|Masters Tournament]] ==Births== *[[1506]] - [[Peter Faber]], French Jesuit theologian (d. [[1546]]) *[[1519]] - [[Catherine de Medici]], queen of [[Henry II of France]] (d. [[1589]]) *[[1570]] - [[Guy Fawkes]], English conspirator (d. [[1606]]) *[[1584]] - [[Albert VI of Bavaria]] (d. [[1666]]) *[[1593]] - [[Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford]], English statesman (d. [[1641]]) *[[1618]] - [[Roger de Rabutin, Comte de Bussy]], French writer (d. [[1693]]) *[[1648]] - [[Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Motte Guyon]], French (d. [[1717]]) *[[1713]] - [[Frederick North, 2nd Earl of Guilford|Frederick (Lord) North]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1792]]) *[[1715]] - [[John Hanson]], President of the United States in Congress Assembled (d. [[1783]]) *[[1729]] - [[Thomas Percy (bishop)|Thomas Percy]], Bishop of Dromore and magazine editor (d. [[1811]]) *[[1735]] - [[Isaac Low]], New York delegate to the Continental Congress (d. [[1791]]) *[[1743]] - [[Thomas Jefferson]], 3rd [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1826]]) *[[1747]] - [[Louis Philip II, Duke of Orléans]] (d. [[1793]]) *[[1764]] - [[Laurent, Marquis de Gouvion Saint-Cyr]], French marshal (d. [[1830]]) *[[1769]] - [[Thomas Lawrence]], English painter (d. [[1830]]) *[[1771]] - [[Richard Trevithick]], English engineer and inventor (d. [[1833]]) *[[1780]] - [[Alexander Mitchell]], Irish engineer (d. [[1868]]) *[[1784]] - [[Friedrich Graf von Wrangel]], Prussian field marshal (d. [[1877]]) *[[1787]] - [[John Robertson (U.S. congressman)|John Robertson]], U.S. congressman (d. [[1873]]) *[[1802]] - [[Leopold Fitzinger]], Austrian zoologist (d. [[1884]]) *[[1808]] - [[Antonio Meucci]], Italian inventor (d. [[1896]]) *[[1825]] - [[Thomas D'Arcy McGee]], Canadian journalist and politician (d. [[1868]]) *[[1828]] - [[Joseph Barber Lightfoot]], English theologian and Bishop of Durham (d. [[1889]]) *[[1832]] - [[Juan Montalvo]], Ecuadoran author (d. [[1889]]) *[[1841]] - [[Louis-Ernest Barrias]], French sculptor (d. [[1905]]) *[[1850]] - [[Arthur Matthew Weld Downing]], British astronomer (d. [[1917]]) *[[1852]] - [[F.W. Woolworth]], American businessman (d. [[1919]]) *[[1860]] - [[James Ensor]], Belgian painter (d. [[1949]]) *[[1866]] - [[Butch Cassidy]], American outlaw (d. [[1908]]) *[[1872]] - [[Alexander Roda Roda]], Austrian writer (d. [[1945]]) *[[1873]] - [[John W. Davis]], American politician (d. [[1955]]) *[[1875]] - [[Ray Lyman Wilbur]], U.S. Secretary of the Interior (d. [[1949]]) *[[1880]] - [[Charles Christie]], Canadian film studio owner (d. [[1955]]) *[[1881]] - [[Ludwig Binswanger]], Swiss psychiatrist (d. [[1966]]) *[[1885]] - [[Georg Lukács]], Hungarian-born philosopher and literary critic (d. [[1971]]) *[[1887]] - [[Gordon S. Fahrni]], Canadian physician and President of the Canadian Medical Association (d. [[1995]]) *[[1889]] - [[Herbert Osborne Yardley]], American cryptographer (d. [[1958]]) *[[1890]] - [[Frank Murphy]], American public servant (d. [[1949]]) *[[1891]] - [[Nella Larsen]], African-American novelist (d. [[1964]]) *[[1892]] - [[Arthur Travers Harris|Arthur Travers 'Bomber' Harris]], British Air Force commander in World War II (d. [[1984]]) *1892 - Sir [[Robert Watson-Watt|Robert Alexander Watson-Watt]], Scottish inventor (d. [[1973]]) *[[1894]] - [[Arthur Fadden]], thirteenth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1973]]) *[[1897]] - [[Werner Voss]], German World War I pilot (d. [[1917]]) *[[1900]] - [[Pierre Molinier]], French painter and photographer (d. [[1976]]) *[[1901]] - [[Jacques Lacan]], French psychoanalyst and semanticist (d. [[1981]]) *[[1902]] - [[Philippe de Rothschild]], French race car driver and wine grower (d. [[1988]]) *[[1904]] - Sir [[Sir David Robinson|David Robinson]], British philanthropist and entrepreneur (d. [[1987]]) *[[1906]] - [[Samuel Beckett]], Irish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1989]]) *[[1907]] - [[Harold Stassen]], American Presidential candidate (d. [[2001]]) *[[1909]] - [[Stanislaw Marcin Ulam]], Polish mathematician (d. [[1984]]) *1909 - [[Eudora Welty]], American writer (d. [[2001]]) *[[1911]] - [[Ico Hitrec]], Croatian footballer (d.[[1946]]) *[[1919]] - [[Roland Gaucher]], French journalist *1919 - [[Howard Keel]], American actor, singer, and president of the Screen Actors Guild (d. [[2004]]) *1919 - [[Madalyn Murray O'Hair]], American atheist (disappeared [[1995]]) *[[1920]] - [[Roberto Calvi]], Italian banker (d. [[1982]]) *1920 - [[Claude Cheysson]], French politician *1920 - [[Liam Cosgrave]], fifth [[Taoiseach]] of the [[Republic of Ireland]] *1920 - [[John LaPorta]], American musician (d. [[2004]]) *[[1922]] - [[John Braine]], British novelist (d. [[1986]]) *1922 - [[Julius Nyerere]], Tanzanian politician (d. [[1999]]) *[[1923]] - [[Don Adams]], American actor and comedian (d. [[2005]]) *[[1924]] - [[Jack Chick]], American evangelist *1924 - [[Stanley Donen]], American film director *[[1926]] - [[John Spencer-Churchill, 11th Duke of Marlborough]] *[[1928]] - [[Alan Clark]], English politician (d. [[1999]]) *[[1931]] - [[Dan Gurney]], American race car driver *[[1932]] - [[Orlando Letelier]], Chilean politician (d. [[1976]]) *[[1933]] - [[Ben Nighthorse Campbell]], U.S. Senator *[[1935]] - [[Lyle Waggoner]], American actor *[[1937]] - [[Edward Fox (actor)|Edward Fox]], English actor *1937 - [[Lanford Wilson]], American playwright *[[1939]] - [[Seamus Heaney]], Irish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate *1939 - [[Paul Sorvino]], American actor *[[1941]] - [[Michael Stuart Brown]], American geneticist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] *[[1943]] - [[Bill Conti]], American musician *[[1944]] - [[Jack Casady]], American musician ([[Jefferson Airplane]]) *1944 - [[Susan Davis]], American politician *[[1945]] - [[Tony Dow]], American actor *1945 - [[Bob Kalsu]], American football player (d. [[1970]]) *[[1946]] - [[Al Green (musician)|Al Green]], American singer and pastor *[[1948]] - [[Sue Doughty]], British politician *[[1949]] - [[Frank Doran]], Scottish politician *1949 - [[Christopher Hitchens]], English-born journalist, critic, and author *[[1950]] - [[Terry Lester]], American actor (d. [[2003]]) *1950 - [[Ron Perlman]], American actor *1950 - [[William Sadler]], American actor *[[1951]] - [[Peabo Bryson]], American singer *1951 - [[Peter Davison]], English actor *[[1951]] - [[Max Weinberg]], American drummer *[[1952]] - [[Ron Dittemore]], American space administrator *1952 - [[David Drew]], British politician *[[1953]] - [[Stephen Byers]], British politician *[[1954]] - [[Olsen Brothers|Niels Olsen]], Danish singer and [[Eurovision Song Contest]] winner *[[1955]] - [[Ole von Beust]], Mayor of Hamburg *1955 - [[Lupe Pintor]], Mexican boxer *[[1956]] - [[Peter 'Possum' Bourne]], Australian race car driver (d. [[2003]]) *1956 - [[Alison Wheeler]], British activist *[[1957]] - [[Saundra Santiago]], American actress *[[1960]] - [[Rudi Völler]], German football coach *[[1962]] - [[Hillel Slovak]], Israeli-born guitarist ([[Red Hot Chili Peppers]]) (d. [[1988]]) *1962 - [[Jennifer Rubin]], American actress *[[1963]] - [[Garry Kasparov]], Russian chess player *[[1964]] - [[Caroline Rhea]], Canadian actress *[[1970]] - [[Rebecca Cummings]], American porn star *1970 - [[Rick Schroder]], American actor *1970 - [[Gerry Creaney]], Scottish footballer *[[1971]] - [[Bo Outlaw]], American basketball player *[[1972]] - [[Mariusz Czerkawski]], Polish hockey player *1972 - [[Aaron Lewis]], American singer *[[1974]] - [[Sergei Gonchar]], Russian hockey player *[[1975]] - [[Lou Bega]], German-born musician and artist *[[1976]] - [[Jonathan Brandis]], American actor (d. [[2003]]) *1976 - [[Patrick Elias]], Czech hockey player *[[1978]] - [[Arron Asham]], Canadian hockey player *[[1979]] - [[Baron Davis]], American basketball player *[[1980]] - [[Jana Cova]], Czech [[pornographic actress]] *1980 - [[Quentin Richardson]], American basketball player *[[1983]] - [[Schalk Burger]], South African rugby player ==Deaths== *[[799]] - [[Paul the Deacon]], Italian monk and chronicler *[[814]] - [[Krum]], khan of Bulgaria *[[1093]] - Prince [[Vsevolod I of Kiev]] (b. [[1093]]) *[[1279]] - [[Boleslaus the Pious]], Polish duke *[[1605]] - [[Boris Godunov]], Tsar of Russia *[[1635]] - [[Fahkr-al-Din II]], Druze prince of Lebanon (executed) *[[1638]] - [[Henri, duc de Rohan]], French Huguenot leader (b. [[1579]]) *[[1641]] - [[Richard Montagu]], English clergyman (b. [[1577]]) *[[1695]] - [[Jean de la Fontaine]], French author (b. [[1621]]) *[[1722]] - [[Charles Leslie]], Irish Anglican theologian (b. [[1650]]) *[[1793]] - [[Pierre Gaspard Chaumette]], French revolutionary (b. [[1763]]) *[[1794]] - [[Nicolas Chamfort]], French writer (b. [[1741]]) *[[1826]] - [[Franz Danzi]], German composer (b. [[1763]]) *[[1853]] - [[Leopold Gmelin]], German chemist (b. [[1788]]) *[[1853]] - [[James Iredell, Jr.]], Governor of North Carolina 1b. [[1788]]) *[[1855]] - [[Henry De la Beche]], English geologist (b. [[1796]]) *[[1868]] - [[Tewodros II]], [[Emperor of Ethiopia]] (b. [[1818]]) *[[1880]] - [[Robert Fortune]], Scottish botanist (b. [[1813]]) *[[1882]] - [[Bruno Bauer]], German theologian (b. [[1809]]) *[[1909]] - [[Whitley Stokes]], British lawyer (b. [[1830]]) *[[1910]] - [[William Quiller Orchardson]], British painter (b. [[1835]]) *[[1911]] - [[George Washington Glick]], Governor of Kansas (b. [[1827]]) *[[1911]] - [[John McLane]], Governor of New Hampshire (b. [[1852]]) *[[1912]] - [[Ishikawa Takuboku]], Japanese author (b. [[1886]]) *[[1925]] - [[Elwood Haynes]], American automobile pioneer *[[1938]] - [[Grey Owl]], proponent of nature conservation (b. [[1888]]) *[[1941]] - [[Annie Jump Cannon]], American astronomer (b. [[1863]]) *[[1944]] - [[Cécile Chaminade]], French composer and pianist (b. [[1857]]) *[[1945]] - [[Ernst Cassirer]], German philosopher (b. [[1874]]) *[[1962]] - [[Culbert Olson]], Governor of California (b. [[1876]]) *[[1966]] - [[Abdul Salam Arif]], [[President of Iraq]] (b. [[1921]]) *[[1975]] - [[Larry Parks]], American actor (b. [[1914]]) *[[1975]] - [[François (Ngarta) Tombalbaye]], first [[President of Chad]] (b. [[1918]]) *[[1978]] - [[Jack Chambers (artist)|Jack Chambers]], Canadian artist and film maker (b. [[1931]]) *[[1981]] - Prince [[Asaka Yasuhiko]] of Japan (b. [[1887]]) *[[1984]] - [[Richard Hurndall]]. British actor (b. [[1910]]) *[[1984]] - [[Ralph Kirkpatrick]], American musician (b. [[1911]]) *[[1993]] - [[Wallace Stegner]], American writer (car accident) (b. [[1909]]) *[[1997]] - [[Dorothy Frooks]], American author, publisher, military figure, and actress (b. [[1896]]) *[[1999]] - [[Ortvin Sarapu]], New Zealand chess player "Mr NZ Chess" (b. [[1924]]) *[[1999]] - [[Willi Stoph]], German politician (b. [[1914]]) *[[2000]] - [[Giorgio Bassani]], Italian writer (b. [[1916]]) *[[2001]] - [[Robert Moon]], Postal Inspector and "Father" of the [[ZIP Code]] (b. [[1917]]) *[[2002]] - [[Desmond Titterington]], Northern Irish racecar driver (b. [[1928]]) *[[2004]] - [[Lou Berberet]], baseball player (b. [[1929]]) *2004 - [[Caron Keating]], British television presenter (b. [[1962]]) *[[2005]] - [[Johnnie Johnson (musician)|Johnnie Johnson]], American musician (b. [[1924]]) ==Holidays and Observances== * First day of [[Thai New Year]] * [[Easter]] - [[2036]] * First day of [[Cambodian New Year]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/13 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/13 Today in History: April 13] ---- [[April 12]] - [[April 14]] - [[March 13]] - [[May 13]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:13 April]] [[ar:13 ابريل]] [[an:13 d'abril]] [[ast:13 d'abril]] [[bg:13 април]] [[be:13 красавіка]] [[bs:13. april]] [[ca:13 d'abril]] [[ceb:Abril 13]] [[cv:Ака, 13]] [[co:13 d'aprile]] [[cs:13. duben]] [[cy:13 Ebrill]] [[da:13. april]] [[de:13. April]] [[et:13. aprill]] [[el:13 Απριλίου]] [[es:13 de abril]] [[eo:13-a de aprilo]] [[eu:Apirilaren 13]] [[fo:13. apríl]] [[fr:13 avril]] [[fy:13 april]] [[ga:13 Aibreán]] [[gl:13 de abril]] [[ko:4월 13일]] [[hr:13. travnja]] [[io:13 di aprilo]] [[id:13 April]] [[ia:13 de april]] [[ie:13 april]] [[is:13. apríl]] [[it:13 aprile]] [[he:13 באפריל]] [[jv:13 April]] [[ka:13 აპრილი]] [[csb:13 łżëkwiôta]] [[ku:13'ê avrêlê]] [[lt:Balandžio 13]] [[lb:13. Abrëll]] [[li:13 april]] [[hu:Április 13]] [[mk:13 април]] [[ms:13 April]] [[nap:13 'e abbrile]] [[nl:13 april]] [[ja:4月13日]] [[no:13. april]] [[nn:13. april]] [[oc:13 d'abril]] [[pl:13 kwietnia]] [[pt:13 de Abril]] [[ro:13 aprilie]] [[ru:13 апреля]] [[se:Cuoŋománu 13.]] [[sq:13 Prill]] [[scn:13 di aprili]] [[simple:April 13]] [[sk:13. apríl]] [[sl:13. april]] [[sr:13. април]] [[fi:13. huhtikuuta]] [[sv:13 april]] [[tl:Abril 13]] [[tt:13. Äpril]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 13]] [[th:13 เมษายน]] [[vi:13 tháng 4]] [[tr:13 Nisan]] [[uk:13 квітня]] [[ur:13 اپریل]] [[wa:13 d' avri]] [[war:Abril 13]] [[zh:4月13日]] [[pam:Abril 13]] 1542 42105074 2006-03-03T21:33:24Z 196.207.40.213 {{otheruses}} ''Amarant redirects here, for the [[Final Fantasy IX]] character, see: [[Amarant Coral]]'' {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = ''Amaranthus'' | image = Amaranthus tricolor0.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = ''Amaranthus caudatus'' (Love-lies-bleeding) | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Caryophyllales]] | familia = [[Amaranthaceae]] | subfamilia = [[Amaranthoideae]] | genus = '''''Amaranthus''''' | genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]] | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = See text. }} The '''amaranths''' (also called '''pigweeds''') comprise the [[genus]] '''''Amaranthus''''', a widely distributed genus of short-lived [[herb]]s, occurring mostly in temperate and tropical regions. Although there remains some confusion over the detailed taxonomy, there are about 60 ''Amaranthus'' species. Several of them are cultivated as [[leaf vegetable]]s, [[cereal]]s, or [[ornamental plant]]s. Members of this genus share many characteristics and uses with members of the closely related genus ''[[Celosia]]''. ==Cultivation and uses== Several species are raised for '''amaranth grain''' in [[Asia]] and the [[Americas]]. Amaranth grain is a crop of moderate importance in the [[Himalaya]]. It was one of the staple foodstuffs of the [[Inca]]s, and it is known as '''kiwicha''' in the [[Andes]] today. It was also used by the ancient [[Aztec]]s, who called it '''huautli''', and other Amerindian peoples in [[Mexico]] to prepare ritual drinks and foods. To this day, amaranth grains are toasted much like [[popcorn]] and mixed with [[honey]] or [[molasses]] to make a treat called ''alegría'' (literally "joy") in [[Mexican Spanish]]. Amaranth was used in several Aztec ceremonies, where images of their gods (notably [[Huitzilopochtli]]) were made with amaranth mixed with honey. The images were cut to be eaten by the people. This looked like the [[Christian]] [[eucharist|communion]] to the [[Catholic]] priests, so the cultivation of the grain was forbidden for centuries. Because of its importance as a symbol of indigenous culture, and because it is very palatable, easy to cook, and its protein particularly well suited to human [[nutrition]]al needs, interest in [[Amaranth grain|grain amaranth]] (especially ''A. cruentis'' and ''A. hypochondriaca'') was revived in the [[1970s]]. It was recovered in Mexico from wild varieties and is now commercially cultivated. It is a popular snack sold on almost every block of [[Mexico City]], sometimes mixed with [[chocolate]] or [[puffed grain|puffed rice]], and its use has spread to [[Europe]] and [[North America]]. Besides [[protein]], [[Amaranth grain|amaranth grain]] provides a good source of [[dietary fiber]] and [[dietary mineral]]s such as [[iron]], [[magnesium]], [[phosphorus]], [[copper]], and especially [[manganese]]. '''Amaranth greens''', also called '''Chinese spinach''', '''hinn choy''' or '''yin tsoi''' ({{zh-sp|s=苋菜|p=xiàncài}}), '''callaloo''', '''tampala''', or '''quelite''', are a common leaf vegetable throughout the tropics and in many warm temperate regions. They are a very good source of [[vitamin]]s including [[vitamin A]], [[vitamin B6]], [[vitamin C]], [[riboflavin]], and [[folate]], and dietary minerals including [[calcium]], [[iron]], [[magnesium]], [[phosphorus]], [[potassium]], [[zinc]], [[copper]], and [[manganese]]. However their moderately high content of [[oxalic acid]] inhibits the absorption of calcium, and also means that they should be avoided or eaten in moderation by people with [[kidney]] disorders, [[gout]], or [[rheumatoid arthritis]]. The flowers of the Hopi Red Dye amaranth were used by the Hopi Indians as the source of a deep red dye. This dye has been supplanted by a coal tar dye known as [[Red No. 2]] in North America and E123 in the [[European Economic Community|E.E.C.]], also known as amarynth. The genus also contains several well-known ornamental plants, such as ''A. caudatus'' (love-lies-bleeding), a native of [[India]] and a vigorous, hardy annual with dark purplish [[flower]]s crowded in handsome drooping spikes. Another Indian annual, ''A. hypochondriacus'' (prince's feather), has deeply-veined lance-shaped leaves, purple on the under face, and deep crimson flowers densely packed on erect spikes. Amaranths are recorded as food plants for some [[Lepidoptera]] species including [[Nutmeg (moth)|The Nutmeg]] and various case-bearers of the genus ''[[Coleophora]]'': ''C. amaranthella'', ''C. enchorda'' (feeds exclusively on ''Amaranthus''), ''C. immortalis'' (feeds exclusively on ''Amaranthus''), ''C. lineapulvella'' and ''C. versurella'' (recorded on ''A. spinosus''). == Myth, legend and poetry == '''Amaranth''', or Amarant (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''amarantos'', unwithering), a name chiefly used in poetry, and applied to Amaranth and other plants which, from not soon fading, typified immortality. Thus, in [[John Milton|Milton's]] [[Paradise Lost]], iii. 353: <blockquote> :"Immortal amarant, a flower which once :In paradise, fast by the tree of life, :Began to bloom; but soon for man's offence :To heaven removed, where first it grew, there grows, :And flowers aloft, shading the fount of life, :And where the river of bliss through midst of heaven :Rolls o'er elysian flowers her amber stream: :With these that never fade the spirits elect :Bind their resplendent locks." </blockquote> The progessive metal band, Opeth, refers to Amaranth in the extent of immortallity in the song Blackrose Immortal: <blockquote> :"Lullaby of the crescent moon took you :Mesmerized, its kaleidoscopic face :Granted you a hollow stare :Another soul within the divine herd :I have kept it :The amaranth symbol :Hiddin inside the golden shrine :Until we rejoice in the meadow :Of the end :When we both walk the shadows :It will set ablaze and vanish :Black rose immortal" </blockquote> The original spelling is ''amarant''; the more common spelling ''amaranth'' seems to have come from a [[folk etymology]] assuming that the final syllable derives from the Greek word ''anthos'' ("flower"), common in botanical names. In ancient [[Greece]] the amaranth (also called chrusanthemon and elichrusos) was sacred to Ephesian [[Artemis]]. It was supposed to have special healing properties, and as a symbol of immortality was used to decorate images of the gods and tombs. In legend, [[Amarynthus]] (a form of Amarantus) was a hunter of Artemis and king of [[Euboea]]; in a village of Amarynthus, of which he was the eponymous hero, there was a famous temple of Artemis Amarynthia or Amarysia (Strabo x. 448; Pausan. i. 31, p. 5). ''Amaranth'' is also the name of the otherworldly pantheon that amuses itself by toying with individuals' luck in [[Tim Lebbon]]'s novella "The Unfortunate". "Amaranth" is also the name of a long [[Sapphic]] poem by the great [[imagiste]] [[H.D.]], and is based on [[Sappho]]'s fragment 131. In [[White Wolf, Inc.|White Wolf Game Studio]]'s [[Vampire: The Dark Ages]] [[book]]s and [[role-playing game]]s, ''Amaranth'' is the medieval name of what then was widely known as ''[[Diablerie]]'' (consuming the blood and soul of another vampire). ''Amarantine'' is the name of a 2005 album and single by Irish vocal artist [[Enya]]. "Love-Lies-Bleeding" is the title of a 2005 play by [[Don DeLillo]]. == Selected species == * ''Amaranthus acanthochiton'' (Greenstripe) * ''Amaranthus acutilobius'' (Sharplobe Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus albus'' (White Pigweed, Prostrate Pigweed, Pigweed Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus arenicola'' (Sandhill Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus australis'' (Southern Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus bigelovii'' (Bigelow's Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus blitoides'' (Mat Amaranth, Prostrate Amaranth, Prostrate Pigweed) * ''Amaranthus blitum'' (Purple Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus brownii'' (Brown's Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus californicus'' (California Amaranth, California Pigweed) * ''Amaranthus cannabinus'' (Tidal-marsh Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus caudatus'' (Loves-lies-bleeding, Pendant Amaranth, Tassel Flower, Quilete) * ''Amaranthus chihuahuensis'' (Chihuahuan Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus chlorostachys'' * ''Amaranthus crassipes'' (Spreading Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus crispus'' (Crispleaf Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus cruentus'' (Purple Amaranth, Red Amaranth, Mexican Grain Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus deflexus'' (Large-fruit Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus dubius'' (Spleen Amaranth, Khada Sag) * ''Amaranthus fimbriatus'' (Fringed Amaranth, Fringed Pigweed) * ''Amaranthus floridanus'' (Florida Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus greggii'' (Gregg's Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus hybridus'' (Smooth Amaranth, Smooth Pigweed, Red Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus hypochondriacus'' (Prince-of-Wales-feather, Princess Feather) * ''Amaranthus leucocarpus'' * ''Amaranthus lineatus'' (Australian Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus lividus'' * ''Amaranthus mantegazzianus'' (Quinoa de Castilla) * ''Amaranthus minimus'' * ''Amaranthus muricatus'' (African Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus obcordatus'' (Trans-Pecos Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus palmeri'' (Palmer's Amaranth, Carelessweed) * ''Amaranthus paniculus'' (Reuzen Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus polygonoides'' (Tropical Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus powelii'' (Green Amaranth, Powell Amaranth, Powell Pigweed) * ''Amaranthus pringlei'' (Pringle's Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus pumilus'' (Seaside Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus quitensis'' (Ataco, Sangorache) * ''Amaranthus retroflexus'' (Red-root Amaranth, Redroot Pigweed, Common Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus rudis'' (Tall Amaranth, Common Waterhemp) * ''Amaranthus scleropoides'' (Bone-bract Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus spinosus'' (Spiny Amaranth, Prickly Amaranth, Thorny Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus standleyanus'' * ''Amaranthus thunbergii'' (Thunberg's Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus torreyi'' (Torrey's Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus tricolor'' (Joseph's-coat) * ''Amaranthus tuberculatus'' (Rough-fruit Amaranth, Tall Waterhemp) * ''Amaranthus viridis'' (Slender Amaranth, Green Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus watsonii'' (Watson's Amaranth) * ''Amaranthus wrightii'' (Wright's Amaranth) == References and external links == {{Commonscat|Amaranthus}} * Lenz, ''Botanik der alt. Greich. und Rom.'' Botany of old. (1859) * J. Murr, ''Die Pflanzenwelt in der griech. Mythol.'' Plants in Greek Mythology. (1890) * [http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/images/thumbnails/html/amaranthus_hybridus_thumbnails.htm Amaranthus hybridus] * [http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/images/thumbnails/html/amaranthus_spinosus_thumbnails.htm Amaranthus spinosus] * [http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/images/600max/html/starr_010520_0109_amaranthus_viridis.htm Amaranthus viridis] * [http://flora.huh.harvard.edu:8080/flora/browse.do?flora_id=1&taxon_id=101257 Flora online : Flora of North America] * [http://amaranth.twoday.net/topics/Amaranthus+Info/ Amaranthus Info] * [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/amaranth.html Alternate Field Crops Manual] <gallery> Image:Amaranthus caudatus1.jpg|Loves-lies-bleeding (Amaranthus caudatus) Image:Amaranthus.hybridus1web.jpg|Green Amaranth (''A. hybridus'') Image:Seabeach Amaranth.jpg|Seabeach amaranth (''A. pumilus''), an [[endangered species]] of amaranth Image:Illustration Amaranthus retroflexus0.jpg|Red-root Amaranth (''A. retroflexus'') - from Thomé, ''Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz'' 1885 Image:Amaranthus.spinosus1web.jpg|Spiny Amaranth (''Amaranthus spinosus'') Image:Amaranthus spinosus c.jpg|Callaloo (''Amaranthus spinosus "calaloo"'') Image:Amaranthus.viridis1web.jpg|Green Amaranth (''Amaranthus viridis'') </gallery> [[Category:Caryophyllales]] [[Category:Cereals]] [[Category:Grains]] [[Category:Leaf vegetables]] [[Category:Tropical agriculture]] [[Category:Underutilized crops]] [[cs:Laskavec]] [[de:Amarant (Lebensmittel)]] [[eo:Amaranto nutraĵa]] [[es:Amaranto]] [[fr:Amarante]] [[it:Amaranto (alimento)]] [[nl:Amarant (geslacht)]] 1543 37287116 2006-01-30T00:52:11Z Gdrbot 263608 nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}} {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = African Lily | image = Agapanthus africanus.jpg | image_width = 200px | image_caption = Flowers | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Liliopsida]] | ordo = [[Asparagales]] | familia = [[Alliaceae]] | genus = '''''[[Agapanthus]]''''' | species = '''''A. umbellatus''''' | binomial = ''Agapanthus umbellatus'' | binomial_authority = [[Charles Louis L'Héritier de Brutelle|L'Hér.]] }} The '''African lily''' (''Agapanthus umbellatus'') is a member of the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Alliaceae]] and a native of the [[Cape of Good Hope]], from where it was introduced to [[Europe]] at the close of the [[17th century]]. == Description == The African lily has a short stem bearing a tuft of long, narrow, arching leaves 1/2 to 2 ft. long and a central flower stalk 2 to 3 ft. high, ending in an umbel of bright blue, funnel-shaped flowers. Several cultivars are known, such as albidus (white flowers), aureus (leaves striped with yellow), and variegatus (leaves almost entirely white with a few green bands). There are also double-flowered and larger- and smaller-flowered forms. == Cultivation == The African lily is a handsome greenhouse plant and is hardy in the south of [[England]] and [[Ireland]] if protected from severe frosts. The plants are easy to cultivate and (in areas that have winter) are generally grown in large pots or tubs that can be protected from frost. During the summer they require plenty of water and are very effective on the margins of lakes or by running streams, where they thrive. == Propagation == They may be propagated from offsets or by dividing the rootstock in early spring or autumn. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Flowers]] [[Category:Asparagales]] 1544 42055639 2006-03-03T14:21:46Z Haiduc 80885 rev. blanking to last version by Haiduc {{OtherUses|a character in Greek mythology}} [[Image:MaskeAgamemnon.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The so-called '[[Mask of Agamemnon]]'. Discovered by [[Heinrich Schliemann]] in [[1876]] at [[Mycenae]].]] '''Agamémnon''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '''{{polytonic|Ἀγαμέμνων}}''') ("very resolute"), one of the most distinguished heroes of [[Greek mythology]], was the son of King [[Atreus]] of [[Mycenae]] (or [[Argos]]) and Queen [[Aerope]], and brother of [[Menelaus]]. ==Early life== Agamemnon's father Atreus was murdered by [[Aegisthus]], who took possession of the throne of Mycenae and ruled jointly with his father [[Thyestes]]. During this period Agamemnon and Menelaus took refuge with [[Tyndareus]], king of [[Sparta]]. There they respectively married Tyndareus' daughters [[Clytemnestra]] and [[Helen]]. Agamemnon and Clytemnestra had four children: three daughters, [[Iphigeneia]], [[Electra]], and [[Chrysothemis]], and one son, [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]]. Menelaus succeeded Tyndareus in Sparta, while Agamemnon, with his brother's assistance, drove out Aegisthus and Thyestes to recover his father's kingdom. He extended his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful prince in Greece. However, Agamemnon's family history, dating back to legendary king [[Pelops]], had been marred by [[rape|pederastic rape]], [[murder]], [[incest]], and [[treachery]]. The Greeks believed this violent past brought misfortune upon the entire [[House of Atreus]]. ==The Trojan War== [[Image:300px-Iphigenia.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The sacrifice of [[Iphigenia]].]] Agamemnon gathered together the Greek forces to sail for Troy. Preparing to depart from [[Aulis]], a port in [[Boeotia]], Agamemnon's army incurred the wrath of the goddess [[Artemis]] by slaying an animal sacred to her, and by Agamemnon boasting that he was Artemis' equal in hunting. Misfortunes including a plague and a lack of wind prevented the army from sailing; finally, the prophet [[Calchas]] announced that the wrath of the goddess could only be propitiated by the sacrifice of [[Iphigeneia]] (daughter of Agamemnon). Classical dramatizations differ on how willing either father or daughter were to this fate, but Agamemnon did eventually sacrifice Iphigenia. Her death appeased Artemis and the Greek army set out for Troy. Several alternatives to the human sacrifice have been presented in Greek mythology. Other sources claim Agamemnon was prepared to kill his daughter, but Artemis accepted a deer in place of Iphigenia, and whisked her to Taurus in the [[Crimea]]. [[Hesiod]] said she became the goddess [[Hecate]]. Agamemnon was the commander-in-chief of the Greeks during the [[Trojan War]]. During the fighting, Agamemnon killed [[Antiphus]]. Agamemnon's teamster, [[Halaesus]], later fought with [[Aeneas]] in [[Italy]]. The ''[[Iliad]]'' tells the story of the quarrel between Agamemnon and [[Achilles]] in the final year of the war. Agamemnon took an attractive slave and spoil of war [[Briseis]] from Achilles. [[Achilles]], the greatest warrior of the age, withdrew from battle in revenge and nearly cost the Greek armies the war. Although not the equal of [[Achilles]] in bravery, Agamemnon was a dignified representative of kingly authority. As commander-in-chief, he summoned the princes to the council and led the army in battle. He took the field himself, and performed many heroic deeds until he was wounded and forced to withdraw to his tent. His chief fault was his overweening [[haughtiness]]. An over-exalted opinion of his position led him to insult [[Chryses]] and [[Achilles]], thereby bringing great disaster upon the Greeks. After the capture of Troy, [[Cassandra]], doomed prophetess and daughter of [[Priam]], fell to his lot in the distribution of the prizes of war. ==Return to Greece== [[Image:The Return Of Agamemnon - Project Gutenberg eText 14994.png|thumbnail|right|300px|The return of Agamemnon, from an [[1879]] illustration from ''Stories from the Greek Tragedians'' by [[Alfred Church]].]] [[Image:The Murder Of Agamemnon - Project Gutenberg eText 14994.png|thumbnail|right|300px|The murder of Agamemnon, from an 1879 illustration from ''Stories from the Greek Tragedians'' by Alfred Church]] After a stormy voyage, Agamemnon and Cassandra landed in [[Argolis]] or were blown off course and landed in Aegisthus' country. Aegisthus, who in the interval had seduced Clytemnestra, invited him to a banquet at which he was treacherously slain. According to the account given by [[Pindar]] and the tragedians, Agamemnon was slain by his wife alone in a bath, a piece of cloth or a net having first been thrown over him to prevent resistance. Clytemnestra also killed Cassandra. Her wrath at the sacrifice of Iphigenia, and her jealousy of Cassandra, are said to have been the motives of her crime. Aegisthus and Clytemnestra then ruled Agamemnon's kingdom for a time, but the murder of Agamemnon was eventually avenged by his son [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] (possibly with the help of Electra). 69 ==Other stories== [[Athenaeus]] tells a story of [[Argynnus]], an [[eromenos]] of Agamemnon: "Agamemnon loved Argynnus, so the story goes, having seen him swimming in the [[Cephisus]] river; in which, in fact, he lost his life (for he constantly bathed in this river), and Agamemnon buried him and founded there a temple of [[Aphrodite]] Argynnis." (The Deipnosophists of Athenaeus of Naucratis; Book XIII Concerning Women, p.3) This episode is also found in [[Clement of Alexandria]] (Protrepticus II.38.2) and in [[Stephen of Byzantium]] ''(Kopai'' and ''Argunnos),'' with minor variations. The fortunes of Agamemnon have formed the subject of numerous [[tragedy|tragedies]], ancient and modern, the most famous being the [[Oresteia]] of [[Aeschylus]]. In the legends of the [[Peloponnesus]], Agamemnon was regarded as the highest type of a powerful monarch, and in [[Sparta]] he was worshipped under the title of ''Zeus Agamemnon''. His tomb was pointed out among the ruins of [[Mycenae]] and at [[Amyclae]]. Another account makes him the son of [[Pleisthenes]] (the son or father of [[Atreus]]), who is said to have been Aerope's first husband. In works of art there is considerable resemblance between the representations of [[Zeus]], king of the gods, and Agamemnon, king of men. He is generally characterized by the [[sceptre]] and [[diadem]], the usual attributes of kings. ==Agamemnon in modern fiction and film== Modern writers of time travel and historical novels often attempt to show the Trojan War "as it really happened", based on the archeological evidence of [[Mycenaean]] civilization. Such authors frequently use Agamemnon as the archetypical Mycenaean king, bringing life to old artifacts by dressing a familiar face in them. Of particular interest is [[S. M. Stirling]]'s time-travel trilogy ''[[Island in the Sea of Time]]'', ''[[Against the Tide of Years]]'' and ''[[On the Oceans of Eternity]]'', where the fate that befalls the House of Atreus is every bit as horrific as that portrayed in traditional myth. The horror is arranged by a time-travelling villain who is very well aware of the mythology. Agamemnon is also said to have been the ancient [[ancestor]] or relative of the [[nobility|noble]] [[family]] the [[Atreides]] of the [[classic]] [[science fiction]] series ''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]'' by [[Frank Herbert]] (Note that the surname, [[Atreides]] is derived from Agamemnon's father's name, ''[[Atreus]]''). There are many [[parallels]] with the story of Agamemnon and in Dune, such as with the [[protagonist]] [[Paul Atreides]] in that both are [[Tragic hero|tragic heroes]]. Agamemnon makes an appearance in the film ''[[Time Bandits]]'', played by [[Sean Connery]], although his depiction in the film seems more reminiscent of [[Odysseus]]. He also appeared in the 2004 film ''[[Troy (movie)|Troy]]'', played by [[Scotland|Scottish]] actor [[Brian Cox]]. Agamemnon was the name of the Earth fleet Destroyer that John Sheridan commanded near the end of season 4 of Babylon 5. {{1911}} == References == * [[Homer]], ''[[Iliad]]''; * [[Homer]], ''[[Odyssey]]'' I, 28-31; XI, 385-464; * [[Aeschylus]], ''[[Agamemnon (play)]][http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/aeschylus/aeschylus_agamemnon.htm]''; * [[Aeschylus]], ''[[The Libation Bearers]]''; * [[Sophocles]], ''[[Electra]]''; * [[Euripides]], ''[[Electra]]''; *[[Apollodorus]], ''[[Epitome]]'', II, 15-III, 22; VI, 23. Troy movie 2004 Directed by [[Wolfgang Petersen]] [[Category:People who fought in the Trojan War]] [[Category:Mythological kings]] [[Category:Pederastic heroes and deities]] [[da:Agamemnon]] [[de:Agamemnon]] [[es:Agamenón]] [[fr:Agamemnon]] [[gl:Agamenón]] [[ko:아가멤논]] [[it:Agamennone]] [[he:אגממנון]] [[la:Agamemnon]] [[lt:Agamemnonas]] [[lb:Agamemnon]] [[hu:Agamemnón]] [[nl:Agamemnon]] [[ja:アガメムノン]] [[pl:Agamemnon]] [[pt:Agamemnon]] [[ro:Agamemnon]] [[ru:Агамемнон]] [[sr:Агамемнон]] [[fi:Agamemnon]] [[sv:Agamemnon]] [[zh:阿伽门农]] 1545 37477615 2006-01-31T05:50:59Z Wilis.azm 843798 '''Aga Khan I''' ({{lang-ar|أغا خان}}) ([[1800]]-[[1881]]), was the title accorded by general consent to '''Hasan Ali Shah''' (born in [[Iran|Persia]], [[1800]]), when, in early life, he first settled in [[Bombay]] under the protection of the [[United Kingdom|British]] government. He was believed to have descended in direct line from [[Ali Ben Abu Talib|Ali]] by his wife [[Fatima Zahra]], the daughter of the Prophet [[Muhammad]]. Ali's son, Husain, having married a daughter of one of the rulers of Persia before the time of Muhammad, the Aga Khan traced his descent from the royal house of [[Iran|Persia]] from the most remote, almost prehistoric, times. His ancestors had also ruled in [[Egypt]] as ''[[caliphs]]'' of the [[Fatimids|Fatimid]] dynasty for a number of years, at the same time as the [[Crusade|Crusades]]. Before the Aga Khan emigrated from Persia, he was appointed by the emperor [[Fateh Ali Shah]] to be [[governor-general]] of the extensive and important province of [[Kerman]]. His rule was noted for firmness, moderation and high political sagacity, and he succeeded for a long time in retaining the friendship and confidence of his master the Shah, although his career was beset with political intrigues and jealousy on the part of rival and court favourites, and with internal turbulence. At last, however, the fate usual to statesmen in oriental countries overtook him, and he incurred the mortal displeasure of Fateh. He fled from Persia and sought protection in British territory, preferring to settle down eventually in [[India]], making Bombay his headquarters. At that period the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]] was at its height, and in crossing over from Persia through [[Afghanistan]] the Aga Khan found opportunities of rendering valuable services to the British army, and thus cast in his lot forever with the British. A few years later he rendered similar conspicuous services in the course of the [[Sindh]] campaign, when his help was utilized by [[Charles James Napier]] in the process of subduing the frontier tribes, a large number of whom acknowledged the Aga's authority as their spiritual head. Napier held his Muslim ally in great esteem, and entertained a very high opinion of his political acumen and chivalry as a leader and soldier. The Aga Khan reciprocated the British commander's confidence and friendship by giving repeated proofs of his devotion and attachment to the British government, and when he finally settled down in India, his position as the leader of the large [[Ismailis|Ismaili]] section of Muslim British subjects was recognized by the government, and the title of His Highness was conferred on him, with a large pension. From that time until his death in 1881 the Aga Khan, while leading the life of a peaceful and peacemaking citizen, under the protection of British rule, continued to discharge his sacerdotal functions, not only among his followers in India, but towards the more numerous communities which acknowledged his religious sway in distant countries, such as Afghanistan, [[Khorasan]], Persia, [[Arabia]], [[Central Asia]], and even distant [[Syria]] and [[Morocco]]. He remained throughout unflinchingly loyal to the [[British Raj]], and by his vast and unquestioned influence among the frontier tribes on the northern borders of India he exercised a control over their unruly passions in times of trouble, which proved of invaluable service in the several expeditions led by British arms on the northwest frontier of India. He was also the means of checking the fanaticism of the more turbulent Muslims in British India, which in times of internal troubles and misunderstandings finds vent in the shape of religious or political riots. He was succeeded by his eldest son, '''[[Aga Khan II]]'''. This prince continued the traditions and work of his father in a manner that won the approbation of the local government, and earned for him the distinction of a knighthood of the [[Order of the Indian Empire]] and a seat in the legislative council of Bombay. == See also == *[[Aga Khan III]] *[[Aga Khan IV]] *[[Shi'a Islam]] ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Shia Imams]] [[Category:1800 births|Aga Khan I]] [[Category:1881 deaths|Aga Khan I]] [[zh:阿迦汗一世]] 1546 38039226 2006-02-03T19:46:54Z Pizzadeliveryboy 760611 typo [[image:Aga Khan III.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Aga Khan]] III, founder of the Muslim League]] '''Aga Khan III''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: آغا خان الثالث), [[Imperial Privy Council|PC]] ([[November 2]], [[1877]] &ndash; [[July 11]], [[1957]]), also known as '''Sultan Mahommed Shah''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: سلطان محمد شاه), was born in [[Karachi]] (then [[India]], now [[Pakistan]]) and was the only son of [[Aga Khan II]], and succeeded him on his death in [[1885]], becoming the head of the family. Under the care of his mother, a daughter of the ruling house of [[Iran|Persia]], he was given not only that religious and oriental education which his position as the religious leader of the [[Ismailis]] made indispensable, but a sound [[Europe]]an training, a boon denied to his father and grandfather. This blending of the two systems of education produced the happy result of fitting this [[Muslim]] chief in an eminent degree both for the sacerdotal functions which appertain to his spiritual position, and for those social duties required of a great and enlightened leader which he was called upon to discharge by virtue of his position. The Aga Khan travelled in distant parts of the world to receive the homage of his followers, and with the object either of settling differences or of advancing their welfare by pecuniary help and personal advice and guidance. The distinction of a [[Order of the Indian Empire|Knight Commander of the Indian Empire]] was conferred upon him by [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] in 1897 (and later Knight Grand Commander in [[1902]] by [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]]) and he received like recognition for his public services from the German emperor, the sultan of Turkey, the shah of [[Iran|Persia]] and other potentates. In [[1934]] he was made a member of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]]. The Aga Khan was also a founding member and President of the "All India Muslim League," which advocated the division of United India in to Pakistan and India. He was also an owner of thoroughbred racing horses, including five winners of the [[Epsom Derby]]. Bypassing his son [[Aly Khan]], he was succeeded by his grandson [[Aga Khan IV]] *He married, in 1893, Shahazda Begum. *He married, in 1903, Teresa Magliano. *He married, in 1929, Andrée Joséphine Carron. *He married, in 1944, Yvette Blanche Labrousse, elected "Miss Lyon 1929", then "Miss France 1930", named Om Habibah September 10, 1944, and later called HH Begum Mata Salamat (Mother of the Peace) ==See also== * [[Aga Khan I]] &mdash; [[Fatimids]] * [[Aga Khan Palace]] ==Additional reading== *Naoroji M. Dumasia, ''A Brief History of the Aga Khan'' (1903). [[Category:Shia Imams]] [[Category:1877 births]] [[Category:1957 deaths]] [[Category:British racehorse owners & breeders]] [[Category:Knights Grand Commander of the Indian Empire]] [[Category:Knights Grand Commander of the Star of India]] [[Category:Ismailism]] [[fr:Aga Khan III]] [[ja:アーガー・ハーン3世]] [[zh:阿迦汗三世]] 1547 39189942 2006-02-11T09:36:10Z MaxSem 590476 +ru: '''Agasias''' was the name of two different [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] [[Sculpture|sculptor]]s. '''Agasias, son of Dositheus''', signed the remarkable statue called the [[Borghese Warrior]], in the [[Louvre]]. '''Agasias, son of Menophilus''', is the author of another striking figure of a warrior in the museum of [[Athens]]. Both belonged to the school of [[Ephesus]] and flourished approximately [[100 BC]]. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Ancient Greek sculptors]] [[es:Agasio de Éfeso]] [[it:Agasias]] [[fi:Agasias]] [[ru:Агасий]] 1548 36366879 2006-01-23T15:40:16Z Mrfish33 691583 [[Image:Alexander Agassiz pers0118.jpg|thumb|right|Alexander Agassiz]] '''Alexander Emanuel Agassiz''' ([[December 17]], [[1835]] &ndash; [[March 27]], [[1910]]), son of [[Louis Agassiz]], was an [[United States|American]] scientist and engineer. He was born in [[Neuchâtel]], [[Switzerland]] and emigrated to the [[United States]] with his father in [[1849]]. He graduated at [[Harvard]] in [[1855]], subsequently studying [[engineering]] and [[chemistry]], and taking the degree of [[bachelor of science]] at the [[Lawrence scientific school]] of the same institution in [[1857]]; and in [[1859]] became an assistant in the [[United States Coast Survey]]. Thenceforward he became a specialist in marine [[ichthyology]], but devoted much time to the investigation, superintendence and exploitation of [[mining|mine]]s. [[E. J. Hulbert]], a friend of Agassiz's brother-in-law, [[Quincy Adams Shaw]], had discovered a rich copper lode known as the [[Calumet conglomerate]] on the [[Keweenaw Peninsula]] [[Lake Superior]] in [[Michigan]]. He persuaded them, along with a group of friends, to purchase a controlling interest in the mines, which later became known as the [[Calumet & Hecla Mining Company]] based in [[Calumet, Michigan]]. Up until the summer of [[1866]], Agassiz worked as an assistant in the museum of natural history that his father founded at Harvard. That summer, he took a trip to see the mines for himself and he afterwards became treasurer of the enterprise. Over the winter of 1866 and early [[1867]], mining operations began to falter due to the difficulty of extracting copper from the conglomerate. Hulbert had sold his interests in the mines and had moved on to other ventures. But Agassiz refused to give up hope for the mines, and he returned to the mines in March of 1867 with his wife and young son. At that time, Keweenaw Peninsula was a remote settlement, virtually inaccessible during the winter and very far removed from civilization even during the summer. With insufficient supplies at the mines, Agassiz struggled to maintain order, while back in Boston, Shaw was saddled with debt and the collapse of their interests. Shaw obtained financial assistance from John Simpkins, the selling agent for the enterprise to continue operations. Agassiz continued to live at Calumet, making gradual progess in stablizing the mining operations, such that he was able to leave the mines under the control of a general manager and return to Boston in [[1868]] before winter closed navigation. The mines continued to prosper and in May, [[1871]], several mines were consolidated to form the Calumet & Hecla Mining Company with Shaw as its first president. In August, 1871, Shaw "retired" to the board of directors and Agassiz became president, a position he held until his death. Agassiz was a major factor in the mine's continued success and visited the mines twice a year. He innovated by installing a giant engine, known as the Superior, which was able to lift 24 tons of rock from a depth of 4,000 feet. He also built a railroad and dredged a channel to navigable waters. However, after a time the mines did not require his full-time year-round attention and he returned to his interests in natural history at Harvard. Out of his copper fortune, he gave some $500,000 to Harvard for the museum of comparative [[zoology]] and other purposes. In [[1875]] he surveyed [[Lake Titicaca]], [[Peru]], examined the [[copper]] mines of Peru and [[Chile]], and made a collection of Peruvian antiquities for the [[Museum of Comparative Zoology]], of which he was [[curator]] from [[1874]] to [[1885]]. He assisted [[Charles Wyville Thomson]] in the examination and classification of the collections of the ''[[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]]'' exploring expedition, and wrote the ''Review of the Echini'' (2 vols., 1872&ndash;1874) in the reports. Between [[1877]] and [[1880]] he took part in the three [[dredging]] expeditions of the steamer ''Blake'' of the Coast Survey, and presented a full account of them in two volumes ([[1888]]). Of his other writings on marine zoology, most are contained in the bulletins and memoirs of the museum of comparative zoology; but he published in [[1865]] (with [[Elizabeth Cary Agassiz]], his step-mother) ''Seaside Studies in Natural History'', a work at once exact and stimulating, and in [[1871]] ''Marine Animals of [[Massachusetts]] Bay''. He served as a president of the [[National Academy of Sciences]]. He died in [[1910]] onboard the [[SS Adriatic|SS ''Adriatic'']]. == Works == * (with [[Elizabeth Cary Agassiz]]) ''Seaside Studies in Natural History'' ([[1865]]) * ''North American Acalephs'', (1865) * ''[[Marine Animals of Massachusetts|Marine Animals of Massachusetts Bay]]'' ([[1871]]) * ''Revision of the Echini'' (2 vols., [[1872]]&ndash;[[1874]]) * ''North American Starfishes'', ([[1877]]) * ''Report on the Echini of the Challenger Expedition'', ([[1881]]) * ''Explorations of Lake Titicaca'' * ''List of the Echinoderms'' * ''Three Cruises of the ''Blake ([[1888]]) * ''Pacific Coral Reefs'' * ''Coral Reefs of the Maldives'' * ''Panamic Deep Sea Echini'' [[Category:1835 births|Agassiz, Alexander Emanuel]] [[Category:1910 deaths|Agassiz, Alexander Emanuel]] [[Category:American zoologists|Agassiz, Alexander Emanuel]] [[Category:History of Michigan|Agassiz, Alexander Emanuel]] [[Category:Ichthyologists|Agassiz, Alexander Emanuel]] 1549 33292451 2005-12-30T20:52:09Z Ravenous 296838 linked to Thesmophoriazusae '''Agathon''' (c. [[448 BCE|448]]-[[400 BCE|400 BCE]]) was an Athenian tragic poet and friend of [[Euripides]] and [[Plato]]. He is best known from his mention by [[Aristophanes]] in his ''[[Thesmophoriazusae]]'' and in Plato's ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]],'' which describes the banquet given to celebrate his obtaining a prize for his first tragedy ([[416 BCE|416]]). He was the long time (10-15 years) beloved of Pausanias, also mentioned in the ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]'' and ''[[Protagoras (Plato)|Protagoras]]''. Pausanias followed Agathon to the court of [[Archelaus I of Macedon|Archelaus]], king of [[Macedon]], who was recruiting playwrights. This is where Agathon probably died. He introduced certain innovations, and [[Aristotle]] (''Poetica,'' 9) tells us that the plot of his ''Antho'' was original, not, as usually, borrowed from mythological subjects. He is introduced, by Plato, as a handsome young man, well dressed, of polished manners, courted by the fashion, wealth and wisdom of [[Athens]], and dispensing hospitality with ease and refinement. The [[Epideixis]], in praise of love, which he recites in the Symposium, is full of the artificial and rhetorical expressions which might be expected from a former pupil of [[Gorgias]]. Aristotle tells us that he was the first to introduce into the drama arbitrary choral songs, which had nothing to do with the subject, and that he wrote pieces with fictitious names, which appear to have been half way between the idyl and comedy. His intimacy with Aristophanes doubtless saved him from many well-deserved strictures, though in one of his comedies, the latter burlesques his flowery style, representing him as a delicate and effeminate youth, and it may be only for the sake of punning on his name that he makes Dionysus call him a noble poet. Agathon was a friend of [[Euripides]], accompanying him to the court of Archelaus of Macedon, where he died about 402 BCE. He had all the faults, without the genius, of his famous contemporary, and these he carried to excess, attempting to surprise the spectators with unexpected developments and strange, improbable dénouments. Add to this his fondness for [[epigram]], antitheses and other rhetorical embellishments, after the fashion of Gorgias, and no wonder that whatever he possessed of ability was smothered beneath his mannerisms. Yet, of the latter, he appears to have been proud, considering them essential to his verse; for when asked to purge himself of such blemishes, he replied: "You do not see that that would be to purge Agathon's play of Agathon." His poetry was full of trope, inflection and metaphor; glittering with sparkling ideas and flowing softly along, with harmonious words and nice construction, but lacking in the element of truly virile expression and deficient in manly thought and vigor. With him begins the decline of tragic art in its higher sense. See: Aristophanes, ''Thesmoph.'' 59, 106, ''Eccles.'' 100 ==References== *''The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization'', volume 1, by [[Alfred Bates]]. ([[London]]: [[Historical Publishing Company]], [[1906]]) [[Category:Ancient Athenians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek dramatists and playwrights]] [[de:Agathon von Athen]] [[fr:Agathon (poète)]] [[hu:Agathón]] [[pl:Agaton (tragediopisarz)]] 1550 39538651 2006-02-14T04:04:06Z Akendall 764469 {{Plutarch's lives}} '''Agesilaus II''', or '''Agesilaos II''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] '''Ἀγησιλάος'''), king of [[Sparta]], of the [[Eurypontid]] family, was the son of [[Archidamus II]] and Eupolia, and younger step-brother of [[Agis II]], whom he succeeded about [[401 BC]]. Agis had, indeed, a son [[Leotychides]], but he was set aside as illegitimate, current rumour representing him as the son of [[Alcibiades]]. Agesilaus' success was largely due to [[Lysander]], who hoped to find in him a willing tool for the furtherance of his political designs; in this hope, however, Lysander was disappointed, and the increasing power of Agesilaus soon led to his downfall. In [[396 BC]] Agesilaus was sent to Asia with a force of 2000 Neodamodes (enfranchized Helots) and 6000 allies to secure the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] cities against a [[Persian Empire|Persian]] attack. On the eve of sailing from [[Aulis]] he attempted to offer a sacrifice, as [[Agamemnon]] had done before the [[Troy|Trojan]] expedition, but the [[Thebes, Greece|Thebans]] intervened to prevent it, an insult for which he never forgave them. On his arrival at [[Ephesus]] a three months' truce was concluded with [[Tissaphernes]], the [[satrap]] of [[Lydia]] and [[Caria]], but negotiations conducted during that time proved fruitless, and on its termination Agesilaus raided [[Phrygia]], where he easily won immense booty since [[Tissaphernes]] had concentrated his troops in Caria. After spending the winter in organizing a [[cavalry]] force, he made a successful incursion into [[Lydia]] in the spring of [[395 BC]]. [[Tithraustes]] was thereupon sent to replace Tissaphernes, who paid with his life for his continued failure. An armistice was concluded between Tithraustes and Agesilaus, who left the southern satrapy and again invaded [[Phrygia]], which he ravaged until the following spring. He then came to an agreement with the satrap [[Pharnabazus]] and once more turned southward. It was said that he was planning a campaign in the interior, or even an attack on [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes II]] himself, when he was recalled to [[Greece]] owing to the war between Sparta and the combined forces of [[Athens]], [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]], [[Argos]] and several minor states. A rapid march through [[Thrace]] and [[Macedon]]ia brought him to [[Thessaly]], where he repulsed the Thessalian cavalry who tried to impede him. Reinforced by [[Phocis|Phocian]] and [[Orchomenus|Orchomenian]] troops and a Spartan army, he met the confederate forces at [[Chaeronea]] in [[Boeotia]], and in a hotly contested battle was technically victorious, but the success was a barren one and he had to retire by way of [[Delphi]] to the [[Peloponnese]]. Shortly before this battle the Spartan [[navy]], of which he had received the supreme command, was totally defeated off [[Knidos|Cnidus]] by a powerful Persian fleet under [[Conon]] and [[Pharnabazus]]. Subsequently Agesilaus took a prominent part in the [[Corinthian War]], making several successful expeditions into Corinthian territory and capturing [[Lechaeum]] and [[Piraeus]]. The loss, however, of a mora, destroyed by [[Iphicrates]], neutralized these successes, and Agesilaus returned to Sparta. In [[389 BC]] he conducted a campaign in [[Acarnania]], but two years later the [[Peace of Antalcidas]], warmly supported by Agesilaus, put an end to hostilities. When war broke out afresh with Thebes the king twice invaded [[Boeotia]] ([[378 BC]], [[377 BC]]), and it was on his advice that [[Cleombrotus]] was ordered to march against Thebes in [[371 BC]]. Cleombrotus was defeated at Leuctra and the Spartan supremacy overthrown. In [[370 BC]] Agesilaus tried to restore Spartan prestige by an invasion of [[Mantinea]]n territory, and his prudence and heroism saved Sparta when her enemies, led by [[Epaminondas]], penetrated [[Laconia]] that same year, and again in [[362 BC]] when they all but succeeded in seizing the city by a rapid and unexpected march. The [[battle of Mantinea (362 BC)]], in which Agesilaus took no part, was followed by a general peace: Sparta, however, stood aloof, hoping even yet to recover her supremacy. In order to gain money for prosecuting the war Agesilaus had supported the revolted [[satrap]]s, and in [[361 BC]] he went to [[Egypt]] at the head of a [[mercenary]] force to aid [[Tachos]] against Persia. He soon transferred his services to Tachos's cousin and rival [[Nectanebo II]], who, in return for his help, gave him a sum of over 200 talents. On his way home Agesilaus died at the age of 83, after a reign of some 41 years. Agesilaus was of small stature and unimpressive appearance, and was somewhat lame from birth. These facts were used as an argument against his succession, an [[oracle]] having warned Sparta against a "lame reign." He was a successful leader in [[guerrilla warfare]], alert and quick, yet cautious--a man, moreover, whose personal bravery was unquestioned. As a statesman he won himself both enthusiastic adherents and bitter enemies, but of his patriotism there can be no doubt. He lived in the most frugal style alike at home and in the field, and though his campaigns were undertaken largely to secure booty, he was content to enrich the state and his friends and to return as poor as he had set forth. The worst trait in his character is his implacable hatred of Thebes, which led directly to the [[battle of Leuctra]] and Sparta's fall from her position of supremacy. According to [[Plutarch]], he was once asked whether he wanted a memorial erected in his honour. He replied, “If I have done any noble action, that is a sufficient memorial; if I have done nothing noble, all the statues in the world will not preserve my memory.” (In [[Ancient Greek|Greek]]: Εἰ γὰρ τι καλὸν ἔργον πεποίηκα, τοῦτο μνημεῖον ἐστίν; εἰ δὲ μηδὲν, οὐδ' οἱ πάντες ἀνδριάντες.) His daughter [[Cynisca]] became the only woman in ancient history to win at the [[ancient Olympic Games|Olympic Games]]. Quote - Do not go after any man with nothing left to lose, for he will come back at you with the strength of 10 men. == External links == * Biography: [http://www.gottwein.de/Lat/nepos/ages01.php Cornelis Nepos (latin - german)] * [http://www.livius.org/ag-ai/agesilaus/agesilaus.htm Agesilaus] from [http://www.livius.org Livius.Org] {{Plutarch's lives}} [[Category:360 BC deaths]] [[Category:Pederastic lovers]] [[Category:Rulers of Sparta]] [[Category:Ancient Greek generals]] [[de:Agesilaos II.]] [[fr:Agésilas II]] [[he:אגסילאוס]] [[nl:Agesilaüs II]] [[no:Agesilaus II]] [[pl:Agesilaos II]] [[fi:Agesilaos]] [[zh:阿格西莱二世]] 1551 18706747 2005-07-12T23:26:47Z BDAbramson 196446 disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]]) '''Agis''' may refer to: * [[Agis I]]---a [[Sparta|Spartan]] King. * [[Agis II]]---a [[Sparta|Spartan]] King. * [[Agis III]]---a [[Sparta|Spartan]] King. * [[Agis IV]]---a [[Sparta|Spartan]] King. [[Plutarch]] included a chapter on him in his [[Parallel Lives]]. *'''Agis'''---a [[Paionian]] king of the pre-Hellenistic era. *'''Agis'''---an ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] author. {{disambig}} [[nl:Agis]] [[pl:Agis]] 1552 34400910 2006-01-08T20:27:22Z Drini 195374 [[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] fixing redir '''Antonio Cardinal Agliardi''' ([[September 4]], [[1832]] &ndash; [[May 1]], [[1915]]) was a [[Roman Catholic]] [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]], [[archbishop]], and papal diplomat. He was born at Cologno ([[province of Bergamo|Bergamo]]), [[Italy]]. He studied [[theology]] and [[canon law]], and after acting as parish priest in his native diocese for twelve years was sent by the [[pope]] to [[Canada]] as a [[bishop]]'s [[chaplain]]. On his return he was appointed secretary to the [[Congregation of the Propaganda]]. In [[1884]], he was created by [[Pope Leo XIII|Leo XIII]] [[archbishop of Caesarea]] ''in partibus'' and sent to [[India]] as an [[Apostolic Delegate]] to report on the establishment of the [[hierarchy]] there. In [[1887]] he again visited India, to carry out the terms of the [[concordat]] arranged with [[Portugal]]. The same year he was appointed secretary to the Congregation ''super negotiis ecclesiae extraordinariis'', in [[1889]] became papal [[nuncio]] at [[Munich]] and in [[1892]] at [[Vienna]]. Allowing himself to be involved in the ecclesiastical disputes by which [[Hungary]] was divided in [[1895]], he was made the subject of formal complaint by the Hungarian government and in [[1896]] was recalled. In the [[consistery]] of 1896 he was elevated to [[Cardinal Priest]] of ''[[Ss. Nereo ed Acheillo]]'''. In [[1899]] he was made [[Cardinal Bishop]] of [[Albano]]. In [[1903]], he was named vice-chancellor of the Catholic Church, and became the Chancellor of the [[Apostolic Chancery]] in the [[Secretariat of State (Vatican)|Secretariat of State]] in [[1908]]. He died in [[Rome]]. ==References== *{{1911}} *[http://catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bagliardi.html Catholic-Hierarchy.org] [[Category:1832 births|Agliardi]] [[Category:1915 deaths|Agliardi]] [[Category:Diplomats of the Holy See|Agliardi]] [[Category:Italian cardinals|Agliardi]] [[Category:Natives of Lombardy|Agliardi]] [[Category:Roman Catholic archbishops|Agliardi]] [[de:Antonio Agliardi]] [[no:Antonio Agliardi]] 1553 40359124 2006-02-20T01:16:24Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 External links per MoS. '''Agnes Maria of Andechs-Meran''' (d. [[1201]]), queen of [[France]], was the daughter of [[Bertold IV]] (d. [[1251]]), who was independent Count of [[Andechs]], a castle and territory near [[Ammersee]], [[Bavaria]] and from [[1183]] duke of [[Meran]] in [[Tirol]], which has derived its name from his castle Tyrol, above the valley of Meran. The count held his fiefs directly from the Emperor, so he was independent of the great territorial dukes of [[Germany]]. Bertold IV was made Archbishop of [[Kalocsa]] (in [[Hungary]]) and in [[1218]] he was made [[Aquileia|Patriarch of Aquileia]]. She is called Marie by some of the French chroniclers. In June [[1196]] she married [[Philip II of France|Philip Augustus]] (Philip II), king of France, who had repudiated his second wife [[Ingeborg of Denmark]] in [[1193]]. [[Pope Innocent III]] espoused the cause of Ingeborg; but Philip did not submit until [[1200]], when, nine months after [[interdict]] had been added to [[excommunication]], he consented to a separation from Agnes. She died broken-hearted in July of the next year, at the castle of [[Poissy]], and was buried in the church of [[St. Corentin]], near [[Nantes]]. Her two children by Philip II, [[Philip, count of Clermont]] (d. [[1234]]), and Mary, who married Philip, [[Marquis of Namur|count of Namur]], were legitimized by the pope in [[1201]] at the request of the king. Little is known of the personality of Agnes, beyond the remarkable influence which she seems to have exercised over Philip II. She has been made the heroine of a [[tragedy]] by [[François Ponsard]], ''Agnès de Méranie''. Her sister [[Hedwig of Andechs]] married [[Henry I, duke of Silesia]] and was canonized as Saint Hedwig in [[1267]]. Another sister, [[Gertrude of Meran|Gertrude]] was Queen of Hungary. ==External links== *[http://www.niagara.com/~jezovnik/korenine_part_iii.htm Jo&#382;ko &Scaron;avli, "Andechs (A Bavarian Family with Carantanian Roots)"] ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1201 deaths|Agnes of Meran]] [[Category:French royalty]] [[fr:Agnès de Méranie]] [[de:Agnes von Meran]] 1554 41824132 2006-03-01T23:57:27Z 80.6.158.55 {{cleanup-date|December 2005}} :''This article is about the Hindu fire god. For other uses, see [[Agni (disambiguation)]].'' ---- '''Agni''' is a [[Hindu]] deity. The word ''agni'' is [[Sanskrit]] for "fire" (noun), cognate with [[Latin]] ''ignis'' ''Ignite'' In [[Hinduism]], he is a [[deva]], second only to [[Indra]] in the power and importance attributed to him in [[Vedic mythology]]. He is [[Indra]]'s twin, and therefore a son of [[Dyaus Pita]] and [[Prthivi]]. While in other version, he is a son of [[Kasyapa]] and [[Aditi]] or a Queen who kept her pregnancy secret from her husband. He has ten mothers, or ten sisters, or ten maidservants, who represent the ten fingers of the man who lights the fire. He has two parents: these represent the two sticks which, when rubbed together swiftly, create fire (called a fire drill). Some say that he destroyed his parents when he was born because they could not care for him. He is married to [[Svaha]] and father of [[Karttikeya]] by either Svaha or [[Ganga]]. He is one of the [[Ashta-Dikpalas]], representing the southeast. His name is the first word of the first hymn of the [[Rigveda]]:- <br>&#2309;&#2367;&#2386;&#2327;&#2381;&#2344;&#2350;&#2381; &#2312;&#2385;&#2355;&#2375; &#2346;&#2369;&#2352;&#2379;&#2386;&#2367;&#2361;&#2385;&#2340;&#2306; &#2351;&#2332;&#2381;&#2334;&#2386;&#2360;&#2381;&#2351;&#2385; &#2342;&#2375;&#2357;&#2386;&#2350;&#2381; &#2315;&#2367;&#2386;&#2340;&#2381;&#2357;&#2332;&#2385;&#2350;&#2381; &#2404; <br>&#2361;&#2379;&#2340;&#2366;&#2385;&#2352;&#2306; &#2352;&#2340;&#2381;&#2344;&#2343;&#2366;&#2386;&#2340;&#2385;&#2350;&#2350;&#2381; &#2405; <br>''agn<u>i</u>m &#299;&#316;e pur<u>o</u>hitam'' / ''yajñ<u>a</u>sya dev<u>a</u>m &#343;tv<u>i</u>jam'' / ''hot&#257;raM ratnadh<u>&#257;</u>tamam.'' <br>(The vowels which are underlined here, carry the Vedic ''ud&#257;tta'' [[pitch accent]].) <br>"I praise Agni, the priest of the house, the divine ministrant of sacrifice, the invoker, the best bestower of treasure." The sacrifices made to Agni go to the [[deity|deities]] because Agni is a messenger from and to the other gods. He is ever-young, because the fire is re-lit every day; but also he is immortal. In some stories about the Hindu gods, Agni is the one who is sent to the front in dangerous situations. Another hymn runs: "No god indeed, no mortal is beyond the might of thee, the mighty One.". He lives among men and is miraculously reborn each day by the fire-drill, the friction of the two sticks which are regarded as his parents. He is the supreme director of [[religion|religious]] ceremonies and duties, and even has the power of influencing the fate of each man in the future world. Agni is also representative of the power which [[digestion|digests]] the food in every person's [[stomach]]. He created the [[star]]s with the sparks resulting from his flames. He is worshipped under a threefold form: fire on [[earth]] and [[lightning]] and the [[sun]]. His cult survived the change of the ancient Vedic nature-worship into modern [[Hinduism]], and there are fire-priests (agnihotr) whose duty is to watch over his worshippers. The sacred fire-drill for procuring the temple-fire by friction -- symbolic of Agni's daily miraculous birth -- is still used. In Hindu [[art]], Agni is represented as [[red]] and two-faced (sometimes covered with [[butter]]), suggesting both his destructive and beneficent qualities, and with [[black]] [[eye]]s and [[hair]], three [[Human leg|legs]] and seven [[arm]]s. He rides a [[ram (sheep)|ram]], or a [[chariot]] pulled by [[goat]]s or, more rarely, [[parrot]]s. Seven rays of light emanate from his body. The [[Rigveda]] often says that Agni arises from water or dwells in the waters. He may have originally been the same as [[Apam Napat]], which see. Although the Vedic fire-sacrifice ([[yagya]]) has largely disappeared from modern Hinduism, Agni with the fire-sacrifice is still the mode of ritual in any modern Hindu marriage, where Agni is said to be the chief '''sakshi''' or witness of the marriage and guardian of the santity of marriage. Indeed, without seven encirclements around the holy fire, the modern Hindu Marriage Act of law regards a Hindu marriage as void. ==Agni in other faiths and religions== In [[Zoroastrianism]], he is [[Atar]], literally, [[fire]], which symbolically represents the life-animating force radiating from [[Ahura Mazda]]. In Indo-Tibetan [[Buddhism]], he is a [[lokapala]] guarding the South-East. (see e.g. ''jigten lugs kyi bstan bcos:'' = "Make your hearth in the South-East corner of the house, which is the quarter of Agni"). He also plays a central role in most Buddhist [[homa (ritual)|homa]] (fire-[[puja]]) rites. ==See also== *[[Hindu deities]] == External links == *[http://www.crystalrivers.com/poetry/agni.html A Contemplation on the god Agni - The Purifying Fire of the Gods] {{Hindu Deities and Texts}} [[Category:Fire gods]] [[Category:Hindu gods]] [[Category:Solar gods]] [[Category:Persian mythology]] [[ar:آجني]] [[ca:Agni]] [[de:Agni]] [[es:Agni]] [[fr:Agni]] [[it:Agni]] [[lt:Agnis]] [[ja:アグニ]] [[nl:Agni]] [[pl:Agni]] [[pt:Agni]] [[ru:Агни]] [[sl:Agni]] [[fi:Agni]] [[sv:Agni]] 1556 41660812 2006-02-28T22:13:04Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 Wikify dates [[Image:Agrippina the elder.jpg|right|thumb|Agrippina the Elder]] '''Julia Vipsania Agrippina''' ([[14 October]]-[[18 October]] [[14 BC]]&#8211; AD [[33]]), known as '''Agrippina Major''' ('''Agrippina "the Elder"'''), was one of the most powerful women in the [[Roman Empire]] in the early [[1st century]] AD. She was the daughter of [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]] by his third wife [[Julia Caesaris]], was grand-daughter of [[Augustus Caesar|Augustus]], wife of [[Germanicus]], and the mother of [[Agrippina the younger|Agrippina Minor]] and [[Caligula]]. Agrippina was born in [[Athens]], [[Greece]]. In AD 5 she had married Germanicus, her second cousin and step-grandson of the Emperor Augustus. The well-regarded Germanicus was a candidate for the succession and had won fame campaigning in [[Germania]] and [[Gaul]], where he was accompanied by Agrippina. This was most unusual for Roman wives, as convention required them to stay at home, and earned her a reputation as a model for heroic womanhood. She bore him two children in Gaul, a boy and [[Agrippina the younger|Agrippina Minor]] in the Rhine frontier. Agrippina and Germanicus travelled to the [[Near East]] in AD 19, incurring the displeasure of the emperor [[Tiberius]]. He quarrelled with [[Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso]], the governor of [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]], and died in [[Antioch]] in mysterious circumstances. It was widely suspected that Germanicus had been poisoned &ndash; perhaps on the orders of Tiberius himself &ndash; and Agrippina returned to Rome to avenge his death. She boldly accused Piso of the murder of Germanicus. To avoid public infamy, Piso committed suicide. From AD 19 to 29, Agrippina remained in Rome, becoming increasingly involved with a group of senators who opposed the growing power of Tiberius' favourite [[Sejanus]]. Her relations with the emperor became increasingly fraught as she made it clear that she believed that he was responsible for the death of Germanicus. Tiberius also evidently feared that she might seek to secure the throne for her own children. In 26, the emperor rejected her request that she be allowed to marry again. Agrippina and her sons Drusus and [[Nero Caesar]] were arrested in 29 on the orders of Tiberius. They were tried by the Senate and Agrippina was banished to the island of Pandataria (now called [[Ventotene]]) in the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]] off the coast of [[Campania]], where she died on [[October 18]], [[33]] in suspicious circumstances. The official story was that she had starved herself to death, but it seems equally likely that she was starved on the orders of the emperor. After her death, Tiberius convinced the senate to revoke all her former privileges and declared her birthday to be a day of ill-omen. Agrippina had nine children by Germanicus, several of whom died young. Drusus died of starvation after being imprisoned in Rome and Nero Caesar either committed suicide or was murdered after his trial in 29. Only two of her children are of historical importance: [[Agrippina the younger|Agrippina Minor]], also known as Agrippina the Younger, and Gaius Caesar, who succeeded Tiberius under the name of [[Caligula]]. Despite Tiberius' enmity towards Caligula's elder brothers, he nonetheless made Caligula and his cousin [[Tiberius Gemellus]] joint heirs to his property. Agrippina was regarded by contemporaries as being a woman of the highest character and exemplary Roman morals. There is a portrait of her in the [[Capitoline Museums]] at [[Rome]] and a bronze medal in the [[British Museum]] showing her ashes being brought back to [[Rome]] by order of Caligula. See also :[[Tacitus]], ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'' i.-vi. :[[Suetonius]], ''The Twelve Caesars'' :[[Julio-Claudian Family Tree]] ==External links== {{Commons|Agrippina Major}} [[Category:14 BC births]] [[Category:33 deaths]] [[Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty]] [[Category:Ancient Roman women]] [[Category:Women in war]] [[de:Agrippina die Ältere]] [[es:Agripina la mayor]] [[fr:Agrippine l'Aînée]] [[hu:Agrippina Maior]] [[nl:Vipsania Agrippina maior]] [[ja:大アグリッピナ]] [[pl:Agrypina Starsza]] [[pt:Agripina]] [[sv:Agrippina d.ä.]] [[zh:大阿格里皮娜]] 1557 41555964 2006-02-28T03:11:46Z 69.250.137.163 [[Image:agripila.JPG|84px|right|Agrippina the younger]] '''Julia Vipsania Agrippina Minor''' or ''' Agrippina Minor''' (Latin for "the younger") ([[November 7]], [[15|AD 15]] &ndash; March [[59]]), often called "'''Agrippinilla'''" to distinguish her from her mother, was the daughter of [[Germanicus]] and [[Agrippina the elder|Agrippina Major]]. She was sister of [[Caligula]], great granddaughter of [[Augustus]], granddaughter and great-niece of [[Tiberius]], niece and wife of [[Claudius]], and the mother of [[Nero]]. She was born at Oppidum Ubiorum on the [[Rhine]], afterwards named in her honour Colonia Agrippinae (modern [[Cologne]], Germany). Agrippina's first marriage was to consul (1st century AD) [[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]]. From this marriage she gave birth to Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, who would become [[Roman Emperor]] [[Nero]]. Her husband died in January, [[40]]. While still married, Agrippina participated openly in her brother Caligula's decadent court, where, according to some sources, at his instigation she prostituted herself in a palace. While it was generally agreed that Agrippinilla, as well as her sisters, had ongoing sexual relationships with their brother Caligula, incest was an oft-used criminal accusation against the aristocracy, because it was impossible to refute successfully. As Agrippina and her sister became more problematic for their brother, Caligula sent them into exile for a time, where it is said she was forced to dive for sponges to make a living. In January, [[41]], Agrippina had a second marriage to the affluent [[Gaius Sallustius Crispus Passienus]]. He died between [[44]] and [[47]], leaving his estate to Agrippina. As a widow, Agrippina was courted by the freedman Pallas as a possible marriage match to her own uncle, Emperor [[Claudius]], and became his favourite councillor, even granted the honor of being called Augusta (a title which no other queen had ever received). They were married on New Year's Day of [[49]], after the death of Claudius's previous wife [[Messalina]] due her part in a failed coup attempt. As his wife, she commanded Roman legions and Celtic captives assumed that she, not Claudius, was the martial leader and bowed before her throne instead of his. Agrippina then proceeded to persuade Claudius to adopt her son, thereby placing Nero in the line of succession to the Imperial throne over Claudius's own son, [[Britannicus]]. A true Imperial politician, Agrippina did not reject murder as a way to win her battles. Many ancient sources credited her with poisoning Claudius in [[54]] with a plate of poison mushrooms, hence enabling Nero to quickly take the throne as emperor. For some time, Agrippina influenced Nero as he was relatively ill-equipped to rule on his own. But Nero eventually felt that she was taking on too much power relative to her position as a woman of Rome. He deprived her of her honours and exiled her from the palace, but that was not enough. Three times Nero tried to poison Agrippina, but she had been raised in the Imperial family and was accustomed to taking antidotes. Nero had a machine built and attached to the roof of her bedroom. The machine was designed to make the ceiling collapse &mdash; the plot failed with the machine. According to the historians [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]] and [[Suetonius]], Nero then plotted her death by sending for her in a boat constructed to collapse, intending to [[drowning | drown]] Agrippina. However, only some of the crew were in on the plot; their efforts were hampered by the rest of the crew trying to save the ship. As the ship sank, one of her handmaidens thought to save herself by crying that she was Agrippina, thinking they would take special care of her. Instead the maid was instantly beaten to death with oars and chains. The real Agrippina realised what was happening and in the confusion managed to swim away where a passing fisherman picked her up. Terrified that his cover had been blown, Nero instantly sent men to charge her with treason and summarily execute her. Legend states that when the Emperor's soldiers came to kill her, Agrippina pulled back her clothes and ordered them to stab her in the belly that had housed such a monstrous son. ''See also:'' [[Julio-Claudian Family Tree]] ==Notable sources== ===Ancient=== '''Tactitus''' [Critical view, considered her vici ous and had a strong disposition against her due to her femininity and influential role in politics. Perhaps the most comprehensive of Ancient sources.]'''Suetonius'''and evil '''Dio Cassius''' ===Modern=== '''Scullard''' [An overly critical view of Agrippina, suggesting she was ambitious and unscrupulous and a depraved sexual physcopath. "Agrippina struck down a series of victims; no man or woman was safe if she suspected rivalry or desired their wealth."] '''Ferrero''' [Sympathetic and understanding, suggesting Agrippina has been judged harshly by history. Suggesting her marriage to Claudius was to a weak emperor who was, because of his hesitations and terrors, a threat to the imperial authority and government. She saw it her duty to compensate for the innumerable deficiencies of her strange husband through her own intelligence and strength of will.] '''Barret''' [A reasonable view, comparing Scullard's criticisms to Ferrero's apologies.] ==Modern== *Salmonson, Jessica Amanda.(1991) The Encyclopedia of Amazons. Paragon House. Pages 4-5. ==External links== {{Commons|Agrippina Minor}} [[Category:15 births]] [[Category:59 deaths]] [[Category:Ancient Roman women]] [[Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty]] [[Category:Roman empresses]] [[Category:Women in war]] [[de:Agrippina die Jüngere]] [[es:Agripinila]] [[fr:Agrippine la Jeune]] [[it:Agrippina minore]] [[nl:Julia Agrippina minor]] [[ja:小アグリッピナ]] [[pl:Agrypina Młodsza]] [[pt:Agripina Minor]] [[sv:Agrippina d.y.]] [[zh:小阿格里皮娜]] 1558 42017279 2006-03-03T06:15:31Z Ichelhof 2775 /* American vs. Traditional menus */ authentic vegetables just as common in china as european vegetables in american chinese cuisine {{Cuisine_of_China}} '''American Chinese cuisine''' is a unique style of cooking served by Chinese [[restaurants]] in the [[United States]]. This new type of cooking was created for [[Western World|Western]] tastes, but Westerners exposed only to this variety may not realize that it differs from the [[Chinese cuisine|cuisine of China]]. Some restaurants advertise their status by writing "Western food" on their signs in [[hanzi|Chinese]]. It deters those who seek more traditional dishes, while still attracting those who are either unable to read Chinese or are looking for westernized fare. [[Canadian Chinese cuisine]] is quite similar to American Chinese cuisine. == History == In the 19th century, Chinese restaurateurs invented American Chinese cuisine when they modified their food for American tastes. First catering to [[railroad]] workers, they opened restaurants in towns where Chinese food was completely unknown. The influx of immigrants in the late 20th century disdained the Americanized dishes, preferring more traditional Chinese food. Classical Chinese cuisine now dominates major cities like [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] and [[New York, New York|New York]]. But American Chinese cuisine remains, especially in places with few [[Chinese American]]s. One finds Americanized cuisine in "[[mom and pop]]" [[restaurant|restaurants]], "tourist trap" [[diner|diners]], and small town restaurants. [[Panda Express]] and Manchu WOK are popular franchise restaurants that offer Westernized dishes in shopping malls. ==American vs. Traditional menus== American Chinese food treats vegetables as garnish while authentic styles emphasize vegetables. Authentic Chinese cuisine makes frequent use of Asian leafy vegetables like [[bok choy]] and [[gai-lan]], and puts a greater emphasis on [[seafood]]. American Chinese food is usually less pungent than authentic cuisine. [[Image:Chinese buffet2.jpg|left|thumb|250px|A Chinese buffet restaurant in the U.S.]] American Chinese food tends to be cooked very quickly with lots of oil and salt. Many dishes are quickly and easily prepared, and require inexpensive ingredients. [[Stir-frying]], [[Pan frying|pan-frying]], and [[deep-frying]] tend to be the most common cooking techniques which are all easily done using a [[wok]]. The food also has a reputation for high levels of [[Monosodium glutamate|MSG]] to enhance the flavor; the symptoms of MSG sensitivity have been dubbed "[[Chinese restaurant syndrome]]" or "Chinese food syndrome". While there is heated scientific debate over whether or not MSG is harmful, market forces and customer demand have enouraged many restaurants to offer "MSG Free" or "No MSG" menus. Most American Chinese establishments cater to non-Chinese customers, and their menus are written in English. Those that do have Chinese menus, have ones that are different from the English version. Americanized menus might exclude some foods which the Chinese consider delicacies, like liver, and chicken feet. Americanized menus often include: * [[Batter-fried meat]] &mdash; Meat that has been deep fried in bread or flour, such as ''sesame chicken'', ''lemon chicken'', ''orange chicken'', ''[[sweet and sour pork]]'', and ''[[General Tso's chicken]]'' is often overemphasized in American-style Chinese dishes. Battered meat occasionally appears in [[Hunan_cuisine|Hunanese]] dishes, but it generally uses lighter sauces with less sugar and corn syrup. **The [[chicken ball]] uses a large amount of leavening and flour in its preparation and battering process which causes them to be more similar to doughy "[[Hushpuppy|hush puppies]]" than actual batter-fried meat. * [[Chinese chicken salad]] &mdash; Salad is not a Chinese dish. This is a 100% western dish. It is served in Chinese restaurants, because it contains crispy noodle (fried wonton skin) and sesame dressing. Some restaurants serve the salad with Mandarin Orange. * [[Chop suey]] &mdash; Connotes "leftovers" in Chinese. It is usually a mix of vegetables and meat in a brown sauce. * [[Chow mein]] &mdash; literally means 'stir-fried noodles'. Chow mein consists of fried noodles with bits of meat and vegetables. * [[Crab rangoon]] &mdash; Fried [[wonton]] skins stuffed with artificial crab meat and cream cheese, originally served at [[Trader Vic]]'s restaurant in the 1950s. * [[Egg foo young]] also egg foo yung * [[Egg roll]] &mdash; While Chinese [[spring roll|spring rolls]] have a thin crispy skin with mushrooms, bamboo, and other vegetables inside, the New York version uses a thick, fried skin stuffed with cabbage. In other areas, [[bean sprout]]s form the basis of most of the filling. Other American versions remain closer in similarity to their spring roll style authentic counterparts. *[[Fortune cookie]] &mdash; Invented at the Japanese Tea Garden restaurant in [[San Francisco]], fortune cookies became sweetened and found their way to American Chinese restaurants. Fortune cookies have become so popular in the U.S., that even some authentic Chinese restaurants serve them at the end of the meal. Some are even produced with Chinese-language translations of the English-language fortunes. * [[Fried rice]] &mdash; Fried rice dishes are popular offerings in American Chinese food due to the speed and ease of preparation and their appeal to western tastes. Fried rice is generally prepared with rice cooled overnight, so this allows restaurants to put unserved leftover rice to good use. * [[Lo mein]] &mdash; This is a New York-style Chinese food oddity. "Lo mein" in New York is closer to "[[chow mein]]" in the rest of the country. Strictly the term means "mixed noodles", that is one made with eggs, as opposed to most noodles which are made without egg. * [[Moo shu pork]] &mdash; The Chinese version uses more authentic ingredients (including [[wood ear]] fungi and [[daylily]] buds) and thin flour pancakes while the American version uses more Western vegetables and thicker pancakes. * [[Shrimp toast]] &mdash; Triangles of bread, coated with egg, [[shrimp]], and [[water chestnut]]s, and then deep-fried or baked. * [[Wonton soup]] &mdash; The soup noodle does not exist in American Chinese cuisine, while it is ubiquitous in many authentic styles. The closest popular example would be [[ramen]]. The true Cantonese Wonton Soup is a full meal in itself consisting of thin egg noodles and a few wontons in a pork soup broth. ==Regional Variations on American Chinese cuisine== ===San Francisco=== Since the early 1990s, many American Chinese restaurants influenced by the [[Cuisine of California]] have opened in [[San Francisco]] and the [[San Francisco Bay Area|Bay Area]]. The trademark dishes of American Chinese cuisine remain on the menu, but there is more emphasis on fresh vegetables, and the selection is vegetarian-friendly. The new cuisine has exotic ingredients like [[mango]]es and [[portobello mushroom]]s. Other cuisines influence the menu: some restaurants substitute grilled flour tortillas for the rice pancakes in mu shu dishes; [[brown rice]] is often offered as an optional alternative to [[white rice]]. [[Chop suey]] is not widely available in [[San Francisco]], and the city's chow mein is different from Midwestern chow mein. Authentic restaurants with Chinese-language menus may offer 黃毛鶏 (Yale Cantonese: wòhng mouh gāai [Pinyin huang mao ji], literally yellow-hair chicken), essentially a [[free range|free-range]] chicken, as opposed to typical American mass-farmed chicken. Yellow-hair chicken is valued for its flavor, but needs to be cooked properly to be tender due to its lower fat and higher muscle content. This dish usually does not appear on the English-language menu. Dauh Miu (Pinyin: Dou Meo), literally Bean Grass but actually snow pea vines, is a Chinese vegetable that has become popular since the early 1990s, and now not only appears on English-language menus, usually as "pea shoots", but is often served by upscale non-Asian restaurants as well. Originally it was only available during a few months of the year, but it is now grown in greenhouses and is available year-round. ===Hawaii=== Owing to the different history of the [[Chinese in Hawaii]], Hawaiian Chinese food developed a bit differently from the continental United States. Owing to the diversity of ethnicities in Hawaii, Chinese cuisine forms a component of the [[cuisine of Hawaii]], which is a [[fusion cuisine|fusion]] of different culinary traditions. Some Chinese dishes are typically served as part of [[plate lunch]]es in Hawaii. Some names of foods are different like ''[[Manapua|manapua]]'' from Hawaiian meaning ''chewed up pork'' for the dim sum ''bao'', not just the pork variety. As is typical in Hawaii, Chinese food in Hawaii is also noted for its use of [[SPAM]], much to the puzzlement of outsiders. ===Springfield, Missouri=== [[Springfield, Missouri]] has numerous Chinese restaurants with a specialized dish: [[cashew chicken]]. It was invented at Leong's Tea House in Springfield and is responsible for the large numbers of Chinese restaurants in the city. The dish has spread to several other cities, where it is sometimes known as "Springfield-style cashew chicken". == American Chinese fast food chains == * [http://www.foodsystemsunlimited.com/restaurants/asianchao.php Asian Chao] * [http://www.leeannchin.com Leeann Chin] &mdash; Locations in Minnesota. * [http://www.markpi.com Mark Pi's Express] &mdash; Located in Arizona, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, Nevada, and Ohio. * [http://www.mrchausfastfood.com Mr. Chau's Chinese Fast Food] &mdash; Locations in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]] and [[Silicon Valley]]. * [[Panda Express]] &mdash; Nationwide in the USA. * [http://www.peiwei.com Pei Wei] &mdash; Southwest USA &mdash; From the creators of P.F. Chang's. * [http://www.pfchangs.com P.F. Chang's China Bistro] Nationwide, highly Westernized food * [http://www.pickupstix.com Pick Up Stix] &mdash; Located throughout California, Arizona, and Nevada. * [http://www.tastygoody.com Tasty Goody] &mdash; Locations in Southern California. == Museum exhibits == * [http://www.moca-nyc.org Museum of Chinese in the Americas] &mdash; "Have You Eaten Yet?: The Chinese Restaurant in America" running from Sept 2004 to June 2005 ==See also== * [[Chinese cuisine]] * [[American cuisine]] * [[Canadian Chinese cuisine]] * [[List of Chinese dishes]] * [[Oyster pail]] ==External links== * [http://www.well.com/~indigo/crpintro.html Chinese Restaurant Project] &mdash; Indigo Som's project to document Chinese-American restaurants * [http://print.google.com/print?id=mO56R0JGP9QC& The Eater's Guide to Chinese Characters] - Jim McCawley, a linguistics professor at the University of Chicago, wrote a field guide for Westerners who want authentic Chinese cuisine. *[http://www.chopstix.com/ Chopstix] &mdash; From the UK but covers the USA *[http://chinesefood.about.com/ About.com] &mdash; From the USA *[http://www.chineserestaurantsonline.com Chinese Restaurants] Chinese Restaurants in the U.S. [[Category:Asian American-related topics]] [[Category:Chinese cuisine]] [[Category:American Chinese cuisine]] [[Category:Hawaiian cuisine]] 1559 37475186 2006-01-31T05:27:12Z 220.239.42.10 '''''Ahenobarbus''''' ("brazen-bearded" or "red-haired") is the name of a plebeian [[Roman Republic|Roman]] family of the ''[[gens]]'' Domitia. The name was derived from the red beard and hair by which many of the family were distinguished. Amongst its members the following may be mentioned: * '''Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus''', consul [[192 BC]] * '''Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus''', consul [[122 BC]]. As [[proconsul]] in 121 BC, successfully fought against the [[Allobroges]], a [[Gallic]] tribe, in retaliation for their attacks on [[Rome]]'s Allies, the [[Aedui]]. Was subsequently elected [[Censor]] with Lucius Caeilius Metellus, and removed 32 members from the Senate. Father of the following. * '''Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus''', son of the same named consul of 122 BC, tribune of the people [[104 BC]], brought forward a law (''lex Domitia de Sacerdotiis'') by which the priests of the superior colleges were to be elected by the people in the ''comitia tributa'' (seventeen of the tribes voting) instead of by co-optation; the law was repealed by [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]], revived by [[Julius Caesar]] and (perhaps) again repealed by [[Mark Antony]], the triumvir ([[Cicero]], ''De Lege Agraria,'' ii. 7; [[Suetonius]], ''Nero,'' 2). Ahenobarbus was elected pontifex maximus in [[103 BC]], consul in [[96 BC]] and censor in [[92 BC]] with Lucius Licinius Crassus the [[orator]], with whom he was frequently at variance. They took joint action, however, in suppressing the recently established Latin rhetorical schools, which they regarded as injurious to public morality ([[Aulus Gellius]] xv. 11). * '''Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus''', consul [[94 BC]] * '''Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus''', son of Gn. Domitius Ahenobarbus cos 96 BC, husband of Porcia Catones the sister of [[Cato the younger]], friend of [[Cicero]] and enemy of [[Julius Caesar]], and a strong supporter of the aristocratical party. At first strongly opposed to [[Pompey]], he afterwards sided with him against Caesar. He was consul in [[54 BC]], and in 49 he was appointed by the senate to succeed Caesar as governor of Gaul. After the outbreak of the civil war he commanded the Pompeian troops at Corfinium, but was obliged to surrender. Although treated with great generosity by Caesar, he stirred up Massilia (today's [[Marseille]]) to an unsuccessful resistance against him. After its surrender, he joined Pompey in [[Greece]] and was slain in the flight after the [[battle of Pharsalus]], in which he commanded the right wing against Antony (Caesar, ''Bellum Civile,'' i., ii., iii.; Dio Cassius xxxix., xli.; Appian, ''B.C.'' ii. 82). * '''[[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (1st century BC)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]]''', son of the above, ally of Mark Antony and later of [[Augustus]]. * '''Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus''', the only child of the above Gn. Domitius and Aemilia Lepida. His mother was a paternal cousin to triumvir [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]]. His paternal grandmother was [[Porcia Catones]]. He won an honorary [[Roman triumph|triumph]], by penetrating deeper into Germany, than anyone else before him. As a youngman he was a famous charioteer. [[Suetonius]] describes as 'arrogant, cruel, notorius and extravagant'. Lucius held the office of aedile. As praetor and consul made married knights and married women star in pantomimes. He enjoyed presenting gladiatorial contests and wild animal hunts. In Augustus' will he was nominated to purchase his household possessions. Lucius married [[Antonia Major]], Augustus' niece. They had [[Domitia Lepida Major]], Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and [[Domitia Lepida]]. Lucius died in AD [[25]]. * '''[[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (1st century AD)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]]''', son of the above, father of [[Nero]]. * '''Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus''' ('''[[Nero]]'''), fifth [[Roman Emperor]] and son of the above. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Families of Rome]] [[de:Ahenobarbus]] [[nl:Ahenobarbus]] [[pl:Ahenobarbus]] [[Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty]] 1560 40909368 2006-02-23T20:54:34Z Siddiqui 308269 {{mergefrom|Ahmad Shah Durani}} :''See [[Ahmad Shah Qajar]] for the [[Iran|Persia]]n ruler ([[1909]]-[[1925]]).'' [[Image:Ahmad Shah Durrani.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Ahmad Shah Durrani]] '''Ahmad Shah''' ('''احمد شاہ''') (1773–1724), also known as '''Ahmad Shah Abdali''' ([[Persian language|Persian]]: احمد شاہ ابدالی), founder of the [[Durrani]] dynasty in [[Afghanistan]], was the son of Zaman-Khan, hereditary chief of the Abdali tribe. The name 'Durrani' or 'Durr-i-Durran' means the 'pearl of pearls' in Persian and was given to the Abdali tribe in [[1747]] when Ahmad Shah Abdali united the Pashtun tribes following a [[loya jirga]] and changed his own name to Ahmad Shah Durrani when he became the king of Afghanistan and founded the Durrani Empire. Ahmad Shah and his sons were the first [[Pashtun]] rulers of Afghanistan, from the [[Sadozai]] line of the Abdali or [[Durrani]] group of clans. It was under the leadership of Ahmad Shah that the nation of Afghanistan began to take shape following centuries of fragmentation and exploitation. [[Nadir Shah]], then ruler of [[Persian Empire | Persia]], gave Ahmad Shah the command of a body of cavalry composed chiefly of Abdalis. On the assassination of [[Nadir Shah]] in 1747, Ahmad retreated to Afghanistan and persuaded local tribes to join him for a [[jihad]] against [[Hindu]]s. He took with him the [[Koh-i-noor]] diamond, given to him by [[Shah Rukh of Persia | Shah Rukh]], Nadir's grandson. He first crossed the [[Indus river|Indus River]] in 1748, when he took [[Lahore]], and in 1751, he inflicted a heavy defeat on the Sikhs of Lahore. In 1750 he took [[Nishapur]], and in 1752 subdued [[Kashmir]]. In 1756 he stripped and looted every corner of [[Delhi]] and took the treasures of the [[Mughul Empire]]. In 1757, he attacked the Golden Temple in Amritsar once again and filled its sarovar (pond) with the blood of slaughtered cows. Perhaps this was the last straw that prompted the [[Maratha]] chiefs to declare holy war on Ahmad Shah. In 1758 the Marathas obtained possession of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]], but in January 1761 they were routed by Ahmad in the great [[Third Battle of Panipat|Battle of Panipat]]. In a later expedition he inflicted a severe defeat upon the Sikhs, but had to hasten westward immediately afterwards in order to quell an insurrection in Afghanistan. Meanwhile the Sikhs again rose, and Ahmad was now forced to abandon all hope of retaining the command of the Punjab. He died in 1773, leaving to his son [[Timur Shah | Timur]] the great kingdom he had founded. Unfortunately, within 50 years after Ahmad's death, Afghanistan would be embroiled in civil war. Even today there are thousands of people each year named their sons Ahmad Shah in tribute to the first Emir of Afghanistan. ==See also== * [[Durrani Empire]] ==External links== * [http://www.afghan-network.net/Culture/ahmadshah.html Invasions Of Ahmad Shah Abdali] * [http://famousdiamonds.tripod.com/koh-i-noordiamond.html Famous Diamonds: The Koh-I-Noor] {{Afghanistan-bio-stub}} {{royal-stub}} [[Category:1724 births]] [[Category:1773 deaths]] [[Category:Emirs of Afghanistan]] [[fr:Ahmad Shâh]] [[ja:アフマド・シャー・アブダーリー]] [[no:Ahmed Shah Durrani]] [[sv:Ahmed Shah Durrani]] [[zh:艾哈迈德·沙·杜兰尼]] 1561 15900029 2003-11-21T22:12:52Z Stan Shebs 7777 #REDIRECT [[Aedan of Dalriada]] #REDIRECT [[Aedan of Dalriada]] 1562 41687763 2006-03-01T01:46:31Z Android79 88250 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Meowedfr|Meowedfr]] ([[User talk:Meowedfr|talk]]) to last version by Binabik80 '''Saint Aidan of Lindisfarne''' or Lindesfarne , the '''Apostle of Northumbria''' (died [[651]]), was the founder and first [[bishop]] of the [[monastery]] on the island of [[Lindisfarne]] in [[England]]. A [[Christianity|Christian]] [[missionary]], he is credited with restoring Christianity to [[Northumbria]]. An [[Irish ethnicity|Irish]]man, possibly born in [[Connacht]], Aidan was a [[monk]] at the monastery on the island of [[Iona]] in [[Scotland]]. The [[Roman Empire]] had spread Christianity into England, but due to its decline, [[paganism]] was seeing a resurgence in Northern England. [[Oswald of Northumbria]] had been living at the Iona monastery as a king in exile since [[616]] AD. There he converted to Christianity and was [[baptize|baptised]]. In [[634]] he gained the crown of Northumbria, and was determined to bring Christianity to the mostly pagan people there. Due to his past at Iona, he requested missionaries from that monastery instead of the Roman-backed monasteries in England. At first the monastery sent a new bishop named Corman, but he returned to Iona and reported that the Northumbrians were too stubborn to be converted. Aidan criticised Corman's methods and was soon sent as a replacement in [[635]]. Aidan chose the island of [[Lindisfarne]], close to the royal castle at [[Bamburgh]], as his [[diocese]]. King Oswald, who spoke Irish, often had to translate for Aidan and his monks, who did not speak English at first. When Oswald died in [[642]], Aidan received continued support from King [[Oswine of Deira]] and the two became close friends. An inspired missionary, Aidan would walk from one village to another, politely conversing with the people he saw and slowly interesting them in Christianity. According to legend, the king gave Aidan a horse so that he wouldn't have to walk, but Aidan gave the horse to a beggar. By patiently talking to the people on their own level Aidan and his monks slowly restored Christianity to the Northumbrian communities. Aidan also took in twelve English boys to train at the monastery, to ensure that the area's future religious leadership would be English. In [[651]] a pagan army attacked Bamburgh and attempted to set its walls ablaze. According to legend, Aidan prayed for the city, after which the winds turned and blew the smoke and fire toward the enemy, repulsing them. Aidan was a member of the Irish branch of Christianity instead of the Roman branch, but his character and energy in missionary work won him the respect of [[Pope Honorius I]] and [[Felix of Dunwich]]. Aidan's friend Oswine of Deira was murdered in [[651]]. Twelve days later Aidan died, on [[August 31]], in the 17th year of his [[bishop|episcopate]]. He had become ill while at the Bamburgh castle and died leaning against the wall of the local church. The monastery he founded grew and helped found churches and other monasteries throughout the area. It also became a center of learning and a storehouse of scholarly knowledge. [[Saint Bede the Venerable]] would later write Aidan's biography and describe the miracles attributed to him. Saint Aidan's feast day is on [[August 31]]st. {{start box}} {{succession box | before=--| title=[[Bishop of Lindisfarne]]| after=[[Finan of Lindisfarne|Saint Finan]]| years=[[635]] - [[651]]| }} {{end box}} ==External links== *[http://www.irelandseye.com/irish/people/saints/aidan.shtm Irelandseye.com biography of Saint Aidan] *[http://www.lindisfarne.org.uk/general/aidan.htm Saint Aidan of Lindisfarne] by Reverend Canon Kate Tristram *[http://www.britannia.com/bios/saints/aidan.html Britannia biography of Saint Aidan] *[http://www.netacc.net/~mafg/book/v2c3s3.htm A History Of The Church] (around the time of Aidan) by Philip Hughes [[Category:651 deaths]] [[Category:Saints]] [[Category:Roman Catholic bishops]] [[Category:Roman Catholic monks]] [[Category:Bishops of Lindisfarne]] [[Category:Irish saints]] [[de:Aidan von Lindisfarne]] [[uk:Святий Айден]] 1563 34277923 2006-01-07T20:42:52Z YurikBot 271058 robot Adding: sk '''Arthur Aikin''' ([[May 19]], [[1773]] - [[April 15]], [[1854]]), [[United Kingdom|English]] [[chemistry|chemist]], [[mineralogy|mineralogist]] and scientific writer, was born at [[Warrington, England|Warrington]] in [[Lancashire]]. He was the son of Dr. [[John Aikin]]. He studied chemistry under [[Joseph Priestley]] and gave attention to the practical applications of the science. From [[1803]] to [[1808]] he was editor of ''[[Annual Review]]''. He was one of the founders of the [[Geological Society of London]] in [[1807]] and was its honorary secretary in [[1812]]-[[1817]]. He contributed papers on the [[Telford_and_Wrekin|Wrekin]] and the [[Shropshire]] coalfield, among others, to the transactions of that society. Later he became secretary of the [[Royal Society of Arts]], and in [[1841]] treasurer of the [[Chemical Society]]. In early life he had been a [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]] minister for a short time. He was highly esteemed as a man of sound judgment and wide knowledge. He died in [[London]]. Publications: :''Journal of a Tour through North Wales and Part of Shropshire with Observations in Mineralogy and Other Branches of Natural History'' (London, 1797) :''A Manual of Mineralogy'' (1814; ed. 2, 1815) :''A Dictionary of Chemistry and Mineralogy'' (with his brother C. R. Aikin), 2 vols. (London, 1807, 1814). {{chemist-stub}} {{geologist-stub}} [[Category:1773 births|Aikin, Arthur]] [[Category:1854 deaths|Aikin, Arthur]] [[Category:English mineralogists|Aikin, Albert]] [[Category:English chemists|Aikin, Albert]] [[it:Arthur Aikin]] [[sk:Arthur Aikin]] 1564 37287199 2006-01-30T00:52:51Z Gdrbot 263608 nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}} {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = ''Ailanthus'' | image = Ailanthus altissima1.jpg | image_width = 200px | image_caption = ''Ailanthus altissima'' leaf and seeds | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Sapindales]] | familia = [[Simaroubaceae]] | genus = '''''Ailanthus''''' | genus_authority = [[René Louiche Desfontaines|Desf.]] | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = ''[[Ailanthus altissima]]''<br/> ''Ailanthus excelsa''<br/> ''Ailanthus giraldii''<br/> ''Ailanthus malabarica''<br/> ''Ailanthus triphysa''<br/> ''Ailanthus vilmoriniana'' }} '''''Ailanthus''''' (derived from ailanto, an [[Amboine]] word probably meaning "tree of the gods" or "tree of heaven") is a genus of 6-10 species of [[tree]]s belonging to the family [[Simaroubaceae]], in the order [[Sapindales]] (formerly [[Rutales]] or [[Geraniales]]). The genus is native from east [[Asia]] south to northern [[Australasia]]. The best known species, ''[[A. altissima|Ailanthus altissima]]'', English name '''[[Tree of heaven]]''', is a native of northern [[China]]. It is a quick-growing [[deciduous]] tree to 25-35 m tall, with spreading branches and large (40-80 cm) pinnate leaves with 15-35 long pointed leaflets, the terminal leaflet normally present, and the basal pairs of leaflets often lobed at their bases. The small greenish flowers are borne on branched panicles; and the male ones are characterized by having a disgusting odour. The fruits are free in clusters, and each is drawn out into a long wing with the seed in the middle. The wood is fine grained and satiny. [[Image:Ailanthus altissima4.jpg|thumb|left|''Ailanthus altissima'' flowers]] The tree was introduced into [[England]] in 1751 and is a favourite in parks and gardens. It has also been introduced into [[North America]]. This tree has the reputation as being among the most urban-tolerant of any temperate-zone trees in the world, growing in places where most [[weed]]s even refuse to grow. Where the climate is sufficiently similar to that of its homeland, as in much of the east and south of both the [[United States]] and [[Europe]], it has proved to be a serious problem [[invasive species]], causing major problems both in urban areas (where the roots of saplings that germinate close to buildings cause damage to foundations), and in rural areas (where it displaces native species from the environment). A consequent popular [[nickname]] for the species is '''Tree from hell'''. ''A. altissima'' is sometimes also known as ''A. glandulosa'' or ''A. glanduosa''. Under this name, an extract of the bark is sometimes touted as an herbal homeopathic remedy for various ailments. However, taken in large doses, the bark extract is highly toxic. Other species of ''Ailanthus'' include ''A. triphysa'', an [[Australia]]n tree; ''A. vilmoriniana'' and ''A. giraldii'' in south and west China, ''A. malabarica'' in southeast [[Asia]], and ''A. excelsa'', common in [[India]]. A silk spinning moth, the Ailanthus moth (''Samia cynthia''), lives on its leaves, and yields a silk more durable and cheaper than mulberry silk, but inferior to it in fineness and gloss. This moth has been introduced to the eastern United States and is common near many towns; it is about 12 cm across, with angulated wings, and in colour olive brown, with white markings. Other [[Lepidoptera]] whose [[larva]]e feed on ''Ailanthus'' include ''[[Endoclita|Endoclita malabaricus]]''. == External links == * [http://www.inmygarden.org/archives/2005/01/ailanthus_and_s_1.html Ailanthus and Staghorn Sumac], from The Monday Garden. [[Category:Sapindales]] [[de:Götterbaum]] [[eo:Ailanto]] [[gl:Árbore do ceo]] [[it:Ailanthus]] [[nl:Hemelboom]] [[ja:ニワウルシ]] [[pt:Árvore-do-céu]] 1565 32484173 2005-12-23T14:16:11Z Julianonions 69216 Added birth/death category '''Aimoin''' (c. [[960]]-c. [[1010]]), French chronicler, was born at Villefranche de Longchat about 960, and in early life entered the [[monastery]] of [[Fleury]], where he became a monk and passed the greater part of his life. His chief work is a ''Historia Francorum'', or ''Libri v. de Gestis Francorum'', which deals with the history of the [[Franks]] from the earliest times to 653, and was continued by other writers until the middle of the [[12th century]]. It was much in vogue during the middle ages, but its historical value is now regarded as slight. It has been edited by G. Waitz and published in the ''[[Monumenta Germaniae Historica]]: Scriptores'', Band xxvi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). He also wrote a ''Vita Abbonis'', ''abbatis Floriacensis'', the last of a series of lives of the [[abbot]]s of Fleury, all of which, except the life of [[Abbo of Fleury|Abbo]], have been lost. This has been published by [[Jean Mabillon|J. Mabillon]] in the ''Acta sanctorum ordinis sancti Benedicti'' (Paris, 1668-1701). Aimoin's third work was the composition of books ii. and iii. of the ''Miracula sancti Benedicti'', the first book of which was written by another monk of Fleury named Adrevald. This also appears in the Acta sanctorum ordinis sancti Benedicti. Aimoin, who died about 1010, must be distinguished from Aimoin, a monk of Saint-Germain-des-Pres, who wrote ''De miraculis sancti Germani'', and a fragment ''De Normanorum gestis circa Parisiacam urbem et de divine in eos ultione tempore Caroli calvi''. Both of these are published in the ''Historiae Francorum Scriptores'', Tome ii. (Paris, 1639-1649). ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:960 births]] [[Category:1010 deaths]] 1566 41762573 2006-03-01T15:46:44Z Daanschr 316840 /* History */ {{Template:Ancient Mesopotamia}} '''Akkad''' (or '''Agade''') was a city and its region of northern [[Mesopotamia]], situated on the left bank of the [[Euphrates]], between [[Sippar]] and [[Kish]] (located in present-day [[Iraq]], ca. 50 km south-west of the center of [[Baghdad]], {{coor d|33.1|N|44.1|E}}). It reached the height of its power between the [[22nd century BC|22nd]] and [[18th century BC|18th]] centuries BC, before the rise of [[Babylonia]]. Akkad gave its name to the [[Akkadian language]], reflecting use of ''akkadû'' ("in the language of Akkad") in the Old Babylonian period to denote the [[Semitic]] version of a [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] text. It was built in the 23rd century BC. ==History== The earliest records in Akkadian date to the time of [[Sargon of Akkad]] ([[23rd century BC]]). While Sargon is traditionally cited as the first ruler of a combined empire of Akkad and Sumer, more recent work suggests that a Sumerian expansion began under a previous king, [[Lugal-Zage-Si]] of [[Uruk]]. However, Sargon took this process further, conquering many of the surrounding regions to create an empire that reached as far as the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and [[Anatolia]]. It is believed that Akkad was the largest city in the world from 2250 to 2075 BC.[http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011201a.htm] In the later [[Babylonia|Babylonian]] literature the name ''Akkad'', together with ''Sumer'', appears as part of the royal title, as in the [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] ''lugal Kengi (ki) Uru (ki)'' or [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] ''&#154;ar m&#257;t &#138;umeri u Akkadi'', translating to "king of [[Sumer]] and Akkad", which appears to have meant simply "king of Babylonia". The site of Akkad has not been identified, though texts from as late as the [[6th century BC]] mention it, and its ruined buildings. ==Origin of the Name== The city of Akkad is mentioned once in the [[Old Testament]] ([[Genesis]] 10:10). :''And the beginning of his ([[Nimrod (king)|Nimrod]]'s) kingdom was [[Babylon|Babel]], and [[Erech]], and Accad, and [[Calneh]], in the land of [[Shinar]].'' ([[KJV]]) The [[Greek language|Greek]] ([[LXX]]) spelling is ''Archad''. The name Agade is probably from the [[Sumerian language]], appearing e.g. in the [[Sumerian king list]], the later Assyro-Babylonian Semitic form ''Akkadû'' ("of or belonging to Akkad") probably being derived from Agade. It is possible that the name AGA.DE means "Crown of Fire"{{ref|crown}} in allusion to [[Ishtar]], "the brilliant goddess", whose cult was observed in very early times in Agade. This is suggested by the writings of [[Nabonidus]], whose record{{ref|nabonidus}} mentions that Ishtar worship of Agade was later superseded by that of the goddess [[Anunit]], whose shrine was at [[Sippar]]. It is significant in this connection that there were two cities named Sippar, one under the protection of [[Shamash]], the sun-god, and one under Anunit,suggesting proximity of Sippar and Agade. One theory held (as of [[1911]]) was that Agade was situated opposite Sippar on the left bank of the Euphrates, and was probably the oldest part of the city of Sippar. ===Notes=== # {{note|crown}} Prince, "Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon", pp. 23, 73, Journal of Biblical Literature, 1906. # {{note|nabonidus}} I. Rawl. 69, col. ii. 48 and iii. 28. ===References=== *{{1911}} *[[A. Leo Oppenheim]], ''Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization'' ===See also=== *[[Akkadian Empire]] *[[Sargon of Akkad]] *[[Babylonia]] == External links== * [http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Akkad.html Akkad History]: from The History of the Ancient Near East [[Category:Babylonia]] [[Category:Assyria]] [[Category:Babylonia]] [[Category:Assyria]] [[Category:Destroyed cities]] [[Category:Archaeological sites in Iraq]] [[bs:Akad]] [[ca:Akkad]] [[cs:Akkad]] [[de:Akkad]] [[et:Akad]] [[es:Acad]] [[eo:Akado]] [[fr:Akkad (ville)]] [[gl:Acadia (Mesopotamia)]] [[he:אכד]] [[nl:Akkad]] [[ja:アッカド]] [[no:Akkad]] [[pl:Akad]] [[pt:Acádia (Mesopotâmia)]] [[ru:Аккад]] [[fi:Akkad]] [[sv:Akkad]] [[zh:阿卡德]] 1567 36899382 2006-01-27T04:33:49Z 68.42.126.146 '''Ajax''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '''&#913;&#7988;&#945;&#962;'''), a [[Greek mythology|Greek]] hero, son of [[Oileus|Oïleus]] the king of [[Locris]], called the "lesser" or Locrian Ajax, to distinguish him from [[Ajax the great|Ajax]], son of [[Telamon]]. He was the leader of the Locrian contingent during the [[Trojan War]]. He is a significant figure in the ''[[Iliad]]'' and is mentioned in the ''[[Odyssey]]''. [[Homer]] gives a favorable description of him as a warrior. In spite of his small stature, he held his own amongst the other heroes before Troy; he was brave, next to [[Achilles]] in swiftness of foot and famous for throwing the spear. But he was boastful, arrogant and quarrelsome; like the Telamonian Ajax, he was the enemy of [[Odysseus]], and in the end the victim of the vengeance of [[Poseidon]], who wrecked his ship on his homeward voyage ''([[Odyssey]]'', iv. 499). A later story gives a more definite account of the offense of which he was guilty. It is said that, after the fall of Troy, he dragged [[Cassandra]] away by force from the statue of the goddess at which she had taken refuge as a suppliant, and raped her ([[Lycophron]], 360, [[Quintus Smyrnaeus]] xiii. 422). For this, his ship was wrecked in a storm on the coast of [[Euboea]], and he himself was struck by lightning and impaled upon a rock. ([[Virgil]], ''[[Aeneid]]'' I. 40-45). He was said to have lived after his death in the island of [[Leuke]]. He was worshipped as a national hero by the Opuntian Locrians (on whose coins he appears), who always left a vacant place for him in the ranks of their army when drawn up in battle array. He was the subject of a lost tragedy by [[Sophocles]]. The rape of Cassandra by Ajax was frequently represented in [[ancient Greece|Greek]] works of art, for instance on the chest of [[Cypselus]] described by [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] (v. 17) and in extant works. ==References== *{{1911}} {{Commonscat|Ajax the Lesser}} [[Category:People who fought in the Trojan War]] [[de:Ajax der Kleine]] [[es:Ayax el Menor]] [[fr:Ajax fils d'Oïlée]] [[it:Aiace di Locride]] [[lt:Ajaksas Mažasis]] [[ja:小アイアス]] [[ru:Аякс Малый]] [[uk:Аякс Оїлід]] 1568 41887514 2006-03-02T10:51:38Z Jess Cully 147333 /* Ajax the Great */ Now mentioned in Family section '''Ajax''', or Aias (Greek: {{polytonic|'''Αἴᾱς'''}}), was a king of [[Salamis Island|Salamis]], and a legendary [[hero]] of ancient [[Greece]]. == Ajax the Great == To distinguish him from [[Ajax the lesser|Ajax, son of Oileus]] ("Ajax the Lesser"), he was called '''Ajax the Great''' or '''Telamonian Ajax '''. In [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' he is described as of great stature and colossal frame, the tallest among all the Achaeans, second only to his cousin [[Achilles]] in strength and bravery, and the 'bulwark of the Achaeans'. He was trained by the centaur [[Chiron]] (who had also trained his father, [[Telamon]], and Achilles' father [[Peleus]]), at the same time as Achilles was. Outshone only by his cousin, Ajax was the most valuable king in the battlefield, though not as smart as [[Nestor]], [[Idomeneus]], or, of course, [[Odysseus]]. He commanded his army wielding a great axe and a huge shield made of seven ox-hides with a layer of bronze. He was indeed a great asset to king [[Agamemnon]]'s army. He is not wounded in any of the battles described in the ''Iliad'', and he is the only principal character on either side who does not receive personal assistance from any of the gods who take part in the battles. As such, he embodies the virtues of hard work and perseverance. == Trojan War == During the ''[[Iliad]]'', Ajax is notable for his strength and courage, which he displays in abundance, particularly in two fights with [[Hector]]. In Book VII, Ajax is chosen by lot to meet Hector in a duel which lasts most of a whole day. Ajax at first gets the better of the encounter, wounding Hector with his spear and knocking him down with a large stone, but Hector fights on until the [[herald]]s, acting at the direction of [[Zeus]], call a draw: the action ends without a winner and with the two combatants exchanging gifts. In Book IX, [[Agamemnon]] and the other Greek chiefs send Ajax, accompanied by Odysseus and [[Phoenix (Iliad)|Phoenix]], to the tent of Achilles, in an attempt to reconcile with the great warrior and induce him to return to the fight. Although Ajax speaks earnestly and is well received, he does not succeed in convincing Achilles. The second fight between Ajax and Hector occurs when the latter breaks into the [[Achaean]] camp, and fights with the Greeks among the ships. In Book XIV, Ajax throws a giant rock at Hector which almost kills him. In Book XV, Hector is restored to his strength by [[Apollo]] and returns to attack the ships. Ajax, wielding a spear as a weapon and leaping from ship to ship, holds off the [[Trojan]] armies virtually single-handedly. In Book XVI, Hector is able to disarm Ajax (although Ajax is not hurt) and Ajax is forced to retreat under heavy fire. Hector and the Trojans succeed in burning one Greek ship, the culmination of an assault that almost finishes the war. All of the foregoing encounters happened when Achilles was not on the battlefield, because he was angry with Agamemnon. Ajax did manage to kill many of the other Trojan lords, including [[Phorkys]]. When [[Patroclus]] dies, the Trojans try to steal his body and feed him to the dogs, accusing him of being a liar. Ajax is the man who fights to protect the body, and take it back safely to the camp, back to Achilles, the best friend, Patroclus. Ajax, assisted by [[Menelaus]], succeeds in fighting off the Trojans and taking the body back with his chariot; of course, the Trojans had already stolen the armor and left the body naked. Ajax's prayer to Zeus, to remove the fog which has descended on the battle - even if the [[Greeks]] are destined to lose - to allow them to die in the light of day, has become proverbial. Like most of the other Greek leaders, Ajax is alive and well as the ''Iliad'' comes to a close. Later, when Achilles dies, killed by [[Paris_(mythology)|Paris]] (with help from Apollo), Ajax and Odysseus are the heroes that fight against the Trojans to get the body and bury it next to his dear friend, Patroclus. Ajax, with his great axe, manages to get the Trojans away, while Odysseus pulls the body towards his chariot, and rides away. After the burial, both claim the armor for themselves, as recognition for their efforts. But in the end, after some discussion, Odysseus is given the armor. Ajax is furious about it, and falls to the ground, exhausted. When he wakes up, he becomes mad and goes to a group of sheep, and slaughters them, imagining they are the Trojan leaders, as well as Odysseus and Agamemnon. When he comes to his senses, covered in blood, and realises what he did, he decides that he prefers to kill himself rather than to live in shame. He did it with the same sword Hector had given him when they exchanged presents. (''[[Odyssey]],'' XI. 541). From his blood sprang a red flower, as at the death of [[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinthus]], which bore on its leaves the initial letters of his name ''Ai,'' also expressive of lament ([[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] I. 35.4). His ashes were deposited in a golden urn on the [[Rhoetean]] promontory at the entrance of the [[Hellespont]]. The foregoing account of his death is from the ''Ajax'' of [[Sophocles]]; in [[Pindar]]'s "[[Nemea]]", 7; and in [[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'', xiii. 1. Homer is somewhat vague about the precise manner of Ajax's death but does ascribe it to his loss in the dispute over Achilles's armour: when Odysseus visits [[Hades]], he begs the soul of Ajax to speak to him, but Ajax, still resentful over the old quarrel, refuses and descends silently back into [[Erebus]]. Like Achilles, he is represented (although not by Homer) as living after his death in the [[Snake Island (Black Sea)|island of Leuke]] at the mouth of the [[Danube]] ([[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] iii. 19. 11). Ajax, who in the post-Homeric legend is described as the grandson of [[Aeacus]] and the great-grandson of [[Zeus]], was the [[tutelary]] hero of the island of [[Salamis]], where he had a temple and an image, and where a festival called ''Aianteia'' was celebrated in his honour (Pausanias i. 35). At this festival a couch was set up, on which the panoply of the hero was placed, a practice which recalls the Roman [[Lectisternium]]. The identification of Ajax with the family of Aeacus was chiefly a matter which concerned the [[Athenian]]s, after Salamis had come into their possession, on which occasion [[Solon]] is said to have inserted a line in the ''[[Iliad]]'' (II. 557 or 558), for the purpose of supporting the Athenian claim to the island. Ajax then became an Attic hero; he was worshipped at [[Athens]], where he had a statue in the market-place, and the tribe ''Aiantis'' was named after him. == Family == Ajax is the son of [[Telamon]], who was the son of [[Aeacus]] and grandson of [[Zeus]], and his first wife [[Periboea]]. He is the cousin of Achilles, the most remembered Greek warrior, and elder half-brother of [[Teucer]]. Many illustrious Athenians — including [[Cimon]], [[Miltiades]], [[Alcibiades]] and the historian [[Thucydides]] — traced their descent from Ajax. == References == {{Commonscat|Ajax the Great}} *[[Homer]]. [[Iliad]] VII, 181-312; [[Homer]]. [[Odyssey]] XI, 543-67; [[Apollodorus]]. [[Epitome III]], 11-V, 7; [[Ovid]]. [[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]] XII, 620-XIII, 398. *The laundry [[detergent]] brand Ajax's slogan is "Stronger than dirt", presumably in the mythological reference. *[[HMS Ajax]] (part of the [[UK]] [[Royal Navy]]) was named after him, but is no longer in use *The [[USS Ajax]] was named for his valor *Ajax is the name given to one of the most ferocious villians, known as a Titan, in [[Brian Herbert]] and [[Kevin J. Anderson]]'s prequel book trilogy, [[Dune: The Butlerian Jihad]], to [[Frank Herbert]]'s classic sci-fi epic [[Dune (novel)|Dune]]. *Ajax appears as one of the main characters in the [[computer game]] ''[[Age of Mythology]]'' *In the 2004 film ''[[Troy (film)|Troy]]'', Ajax was played by [[professional wrestling|wrestler]] [[Tyler Mane]]. *Amsterdam's football (soccer) club, [[Ajax Amsterdam]], is possibly named after Ajax *Ajax is a character in the 1979 film ''[[The Warriors]]''; played by James Remar, the character exhibits simliar traits to the mythological Ajax {{1911}} [[Category:People who fought in the Trojan War]] [[ca:Àiax el Gran]] [[da:Ajax]] [[de:Ajax der Große]] [[es:Ayax el Grande]] [[fr:Ajax fils de Télamon]] [[it:Aiace Telamonio]] [[he:איאקס]] [[lt:Ajaksas]] [[nl:Ajax (mythologie)]] [[ja:大アイアス]] [[pl:Ajaks]] [[pt:Ájax]] [[ru:Аякс Великий]] [[fi:Aias]] [[uk:Аякс Теламонід]] 1569 40577797 2006-02-21T15:54:30Z 147.83.148.106 The name '''Ajax''' can refer to: * Two figures in Homer's ''Iliad'', from which all other references named '''Ajax''' are derived: ** [[Telamonian Aias]], or Ajax the Great, King of Salamis ** [[Ajax the Lesser]], King of Locris * [[Ajax (Sophocles)|''Ajax'' (Sophocles)]], a tragedy whose protagonist is Ajax the Great * [[Ajax Amsterdam]], the major football (soccer) team of Amsterdam, The Netherlands * Automobiles: ** [[Ajax (1906 automobile)]], Aigner, Switzerland ** [[Ajax (1913 automobile)]], Briscoe, France ** [[Ajax (1921 automobile)]], prototype, U.S. ** [[Ajax (automobile)]], Nash Motors, 1925-26, U.S. * [[Ajax (band)]], from New York City * [[Ajax (arcade game)]], by [[Konami]] * [[Ajax (horse)]], a champion Australian racehorse which raced in the 1930s * [[Ajax (programming)]], Asynchronous JavaScript and XML for web development * [[HMS Ajax|HMS ''Ajax'']], several ships of the Royal Navy * [[Ajax cleanser]] household cleaner * [[Ajax Duckman]], a character in the animated television series ''Duckman'' * [[Ajax, Ontario]], Canada * [[Ajax Records]] * [[Operation Ajax]], a 1953 Anglo-American covert operation to overthrow the government of Iran * [[War Rocket Ajax]], from the 1980 movie [[Flash Gordon]] * Ajax, a character from the 1979 U.S. film ''[[The Warriors]]'' * Ajax, a fictional company in Mickey Mouse cartoons; see [[Acme Corporation]] * Ajax Mountain is an alternative name for [[Aspen Mountain (Colorado)]] * Nike Ajax missile, of the U.S. [[Project Nike]] * a russian hypersonic aircraft project based on plasma stealth technology, see [[Ajax (aircraft)]] {{disambig}} [[bg:Аякс]] [[ca:Ajax]] [[de:Ajax]] [[fr:Ajax]] [[ko:아이아스]] [[it:Ajax]] [[la:Aiax]] [[nl:Ajax]] [[ja:アイアス]] [[pt:Ajax]] [[ru:Аякс]] [[sv:Ajax]] 1570 40067980 2006-02-17T22:19:24Z FlaBot 228773 robot Modifying: sl [[Image:AlaricTheGoth.jpg|thumb|right|270px|An [[1894]] [[photogravure]] of Alaric I taken from a painting by Ludwig Thiersch.]] '''Alaric I''' (Alaric or Alarich, in Latin ''Alaricus'') was likely born about [[370]] on an island named Peuce (the Fir) at the mouth of the [[Danube]], became king of the [[Visigoths]] from [[395]]&ndash;[[410]], and was the first Germanic leader to take the city of [[Rome]]. He was well born, his father kindred to the [[Balti dynasty|Balti]], considered next in worth among Gothic fighters to the [[Amali]]. He was a [[Goths|Goth]] and belonged to the western branch, called the [[Visigoth|Visigoths]], who at the time of his birth dwelt in what is today [[Bulgaria]], having fled beyond the wide estuary marshes of the [[Danube]] to its southern shore so as not to be followed by their foe from the [[steppe]], the [[Huns]]. ==In Roman service== During the [[4th century]] it had become common practice with the emperors to employ ''[[foederati]]''; Germanic [[irregular military|irregular troops]] under Roman command, but organized by tribal structures. The provincial population, crushed under a load of taxation, could no longer furnish soldiers in the numbers needed for the defence of the empire. Moreover, the emperors—ever fearful that a brilliantly successful general of Roman extraction might be proclaimed [[Augustus]] by his followers—preferred that high military command should be in the hands of one to whom such an accession of dignity was as yet impossible. The largest of these contigents were the Goths which had in [[382]] been allowed to settle within the imperial frontier with a large degree of autonomy. In [[394]] Alaric served as a leader of foederati under [[Theodosius I]] in the campaign in which he crushed the usurper [[Eugenius]]. As the [[Battle of the Frigidus]], which terminated this campaign, was fought at the passes of the [[Julian Alps]], Alaric probably learned the weakness of [[Italy|Italy's]] natural defences on its northeastern frontier at the head of the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]]. Theodosius died in 395, leaving the empire to be divided between his two sons [[Arcadius]] and [[Flavius Augustus Honorius|Honorius]], the former taking the eastern and the latter the western portion of the empire. Arcadius showed little interest in ruling, leaving most of the actual power to his [[Praetorian Prefect]] [[Rufinus (Byzantine official)|Rufinus]]. Honorius was still a minor; as his guardian, Theodosius had appointed the ''[[magister militum]]'' [[Stilicho]]. Stilicho also claimed to be the guardian of Arcadius, causing much rivalry between the western and eastern courts. In the shifting of offices which took place at the beginning of the new reigns, Alaric apparently hoped he would be promoted from a mere commander of federates to generalship of one of the regular armies. This was denied him, however. Among the Visigoths, settled in Lower [[Moesia]], the situation was ripe for rebellion. At Frigidus they had suffered disproportional high losses, according to rumour a convenient way of weakening the Gothic tribes. Their rewards after the campaign had also been lacking. So they raised Alaric on a shield and proclaimed him king; leader and followers both resolving (says [[Jordanes]] the Gothic historian) "rather to seek new kingdoms by their own work, than to slumber in peaceful subjection to the rule of others." ==In Greece== Alaric struck first at the eastern empire. He marched to the neighbourhood of [[Constantinople]] but, finding himself unable to undertake the siege of that superbly strong city, retraced his steps westward and then marched southward through [[Thessaly]] and the unguarded pass of [[Thermopylae]] into [[Greece]]. The armies of the eastern empire were occupied with [[Huns|Hunnic]] incursions in [[Asia Minor]] and [[Syria]]. Instead Rufinus attempted to negotiate with Alaric in person. The only results was suspicions in Constantinople that Rufinius was in league with the Goths. Stilicho now marched east against Alaric. According to [[Claudian]], Stilicho was in a position to destroy the Goths, when he was ordered by Arcadius to leave [[Illyricum]]. Soon after Rufinus was hacked to death by his own soldiers. Power in Constantinople now passed to the eunuch chamberlain [[Eutropius (Byzantine official)|Eutropius]]. The death of Rufinus and departure of Stilicho gave Alaric free reins. He ravaged Attica but spared Athens, which at once capitulated to the conqueror. Then he penetrated into the [[Peloponnesus]] and captured its most famous cities—[[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]], [[Argos]], and [[Sparta]]—selling many of their inhabitants into slavery. Here, however, his victorious career ended. In [[397]] Stilicho crossed by sea to Greece and succeeded in shutting up the Goths in the mountains of [[Pholoe]] on the borders of [[Elis]] and [[Arcadia]] in the peninsula. From thence Alaric escaped with difficulty, and not without some suspicion of connivance on the part of Stilicho, who supposedly again had received orders to depart. Alaric then crossed the [[Gulf of Corinth]] and marched with the plunder of [[Greece]] northwards to [[Despotate of Epirus|Epirus]]. Here his rampage continued until the eastern government appointed him ''magister militum per Illyricum'', giving him the Roman command he had desired and authority to resupply his men from the imperial arsenals. ==First invasion of Italy== It was probably in the year [[400]] that Alaric made his first invasion of Italy, cooperating with another Gothic chieftain named [[Radagaisus]]. Supernatural influences weren't lacking to urge him to this great enterprise. Some lines of the Roman poet inform us that he heard a voice proceeding from a [[Oracle|holy grove]], "Break off all delays, Alaric. This very year thou shalt force the Alpine barrier of Italy; thou shalt penetrate to the city." But the prophecy wasn't to be fulfilled at this time. After spreading desolation through North [[Italy]] and striking terror into the citizens of Rome, Alaric was met by [[Stilicho]] at [[Pollentia]], today in [[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]]. The battle which followed on [[April 6]], [[402]] (coinciding with Easter), was a victory for Rome, though a costly one. But it effectually barred the further progress of the Goths. Stilicho's enemies later reproached him for having gained his victory by taking impious advantage of the great Christian festival. Alaric, too, was a Christian, though an [[Arianism|Arian]] rather than a [[Catholic]]. He had trusted to the sanctity of Easter for immunity from attack. The wife of Alaric is said to have been taken prisoner after this battle; and there is some reason to suppose that he was hampered in his movements by the presence with his forces of large numbers of women and children, having given to his invasion of [[Italy]] the character of a national migration. After another defeat before [[Verona, Italy|Verona]], Alaric left Italy, probably in [[403]]. He hadn't indeed "penetrated to the city" but his invasion of Italy had produced important results. It had caused the imperial residence to be transferred from [[Milan]] to [[Ravenna]], it had necessitated the withdrawal of [[Legio XX Valeria Victrix|Legio XX ''Valeria Victrix'']] from Britain, and it had probably facilitated the great invasion of [[Vandals]], [[Suevi|Sueves]], and [[Alans]] into Gaul, which lost Gaul and the provinces of [[Hispania]] to the Empire. ==Second invasion of Italy== We next hear of Alaric as the friend and ally of his late opponent Stilicho. The estrangement between the eastern and western courts had in [[407]] become so bitter as to threaten civil war, and Stilicho was actually proposing to use the forces of Alaric in order to enforce the claims of Honorius to the [[prefecture]] of Illyricum. The death of Arcadius in May [[408]] caused milder counsels to prevail in the western cabinet, but Alaric, who had actually entered Epirus, demanded in a somewhat threatening manner that if he were thus suddenly bidden to desist from war, he should be paid handsomely for what in modern language would be called the expenses of mobilization. The sum which he named was a large one, 4,000 pounds of gold. Under strong pressure from Stilicho the Roman senate consented to promise its payment. But three months later Stilicho himself and the chief ministers of his party were treacherously slain in pursuance of an order extracted from the timid and jealous Honorius. In the disturbances that followed, throughout Italy the wives and children of the foederati were slain. The natural consequence of all this was that these men, to the number of 30,000, flocked to the camp of Alaric, clamouring to be led against their cowardly enemies. He accordingly led them across the Julian Alps and, in September [[408]], stood before the walls of [[Rome]] (now with no capable general like Stilicho as a defender) and began a strict blockade. No blood was shed this time; hunger was the weapon on which Alaric relied. When the ambassadors of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]], in treating for peace, tried to terrify him with their hints of what the despairing citizens might accomplish, he gave with a laugh his celebrated answer: "The thicker the hay, the easier mowed!" After much bargaining, the famine-stricken citizens agreed to pay a ransom of more than two thousand pounds in weight of gold, besides precious garments of [[silk]] and leather and three thousand pounds of [[black pepper|pepper]]. Thus ended Alaric's first siege of Rome. At this time, and indeed throughout his career, Alaric's primary goal wasn't to pull down the fabric of the empire but to secure for himself, by negotiation with its rulers, a regular and recognized position within its borders. His demands were certainly large&mdash; the concession of a block of territory 200 miles long by 150 wide between the Danube and the Gulf of Venice (to be held probably on some terms of nominal dependence on the empire) and the title of commander-in-chief of the imperial army&mdash;but, great as these terms were, the emperor would probably have been well advised to grant them. Honorius, however, was one of those timid and feeble folk who are equally unable to make either war or peace, and refused to look beyond the question of his own personal safety, guaranteed as it was by the dikes and marshes of Ravenna. As all attempts to conduct a satisfactory negotiation with this emperor failed before his impenetrable stupidity, Alaric, after instituting a second siege and blockade of Rome in [[409]], came to terms with the senate. With their consent he set up a rival emperor and invested the prefect of the city, a Greek named [[Priscus Attalus]], with the diadem and the purple robe. Attalus, however, proved quite unfit for his high position; he rejected the advice of Alaric and lost in consequence the [[Africa (province)|province of Africa]], the granary of Rome, which was defended by the partisans of Honorius. The weapon of famine, formerly in the hand of Alaric, was thus turned against him, and loud in consequence were the murmurs of the Roman populace. Honorius was also greatly strengthened by the arrival of six legions sent to his assistance from Constantinople by his nephew [[Theodosius II]]. Alaric therefore cashiered his puppet emperor, after the latter's eleven months of ineffectual rule, and once more tried to reopen negotiations with Honorius. These negotiations would probably have succeeded but for the malign influence of another Goth, [[Sarus]], the hereditary enemy of Alaric and his house. When Alaric found himself once more outwitted by the machinations of such a foe, he marched southward and began in deadly earnest his third, his ever-memorable siege of Rome. No defence apparently was possible; there are hints, not well substantiated, of treachery; there is greater probability of surprise. However this may be&mdash;for our information at this point of the story is meagre&mdash;on [[August 24]], [[410]], Alaric and his Visigoths burst in by the Salarian gate on the northeast of the city. She who had been mistress of the world now lay at the feet of foreign enemies. But in their plundering of the city, the Visigoths weren't absolutely ruthless. The contemporary ecclesiastics recorded with wonder many instances of their clemency: Christian churches saved from ravage; protection granted to vast multitudes both of pagans and Christians who took refuge therein; vessels of gold and silver which were found in a private dwelling, spared because they "belonged to St. Peter"; at least one case in which a beautiful Roman matron appealed, not in vain, to the better feelings of the Gothic soldier who attempted her dishonor. But even these exceptional instances show that Rome wasn't entirely spared those scenes of horror which usually accompany the storming of a besieged city. Nonetheless, the written sources do not tell of any damage wrought by fire, save in the case of [[Sallust]]'s palace, which was situated close to the gate by which the Goths had made their entrance; nor is there any reason to attribute any extensive destruction of the buildings of the city to Alaric and his followers. The [[Basilica Aemilia]] in the [[Roman Forum]] did burn down, which perhaps can be attributed to Alaric, based on evidence from archaeologists: coins dating from 410 found melted in the floor. [[Image:Death of Alaric.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The burial of Alaric in the bed of the [[Busento River]]. 1895 lithograph]] His work being done, his fated task, and Alaric having penetrated to the city, nothing remained for him but to die. He marched southwards into [[Calabria]]. He desired to invade Africa, which on account of its corn crops was now the key of the position, but his ships were dashed to pieces by a storm in which many of his soldiers perished. He died in [[Cosenza]] soon after, probably of fever, at the early age of thirty-four, and his body was buried under the riverbed of the [[Busento]]. The stream was temporarily turned aside from its course while the grave was dug wherein the Gothic chief and some of his most precious spoils were interred; when the work was finished the river was turned back into its usual channel and the captives by whose hands the labor had been accomplished were put to death that none might learn their secret. Alaric was succeeded in the command of the Gothic army by his brother-in-law, [[Ataulf]]. Our chief authorities for the career of Alaric are the historian [[Orosius]] and the poet [[Claudian]], both strictly contemporary; [[Zosimus]], a somewhat prejudiced pagan historian, who lived probably about half a century after the death of Alaric; and [[Jordanes]], a Goth who wrote the history of his nation in the year [[551]], basing his work on the earlier history of [[Cassiodorus]] (now lost), which was written about [[520]]. {{1911}} See also: [[Alaric II]] ==External links== *Edward Gibbon, ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/g43d/chapter30.html Chapter 30] and [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/g43d/chapter31.html Chapter 31]. {{start box}} |width=25% align=center|'''Preceded by:'''<br>'''[[Visigoth#Kings_of_the_Visigoths|Early kings]]''' |width=25% align=center|'''[[Visigoth#Kings_of_the_Visigoths|King of the Visigoths]]'''<br>395&ndash;410 |width=25% align=center|'''Succeeded by:'''<br>'''[[Ataulf]]''' |- {{end box}} [[Category:370 births]] [[Category:412 deaths]] [[Category:Goths]] [[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]] [[Category:Late Antiquity]] [[Category:Kings of the Visigoths]] [[cs:Alarich I.]] [[de:Alarich I.]] [[es:Alarico I]] [[eo:Alariko]] [[fr:Alaric Ier]] [[it:Alarico I]] [[he:אלאריק הראשון]] [[nl:Alarik]] [[pl:Alaryk]] [[pt:Alarico I]] [[sl:Alarik I.]] [[fi:Alarik]] [[sv:Alarik I]] [[zh:亚拉里克一世]] 1571 36213855 2006-01-22T12:55:40Z Mvuijlst 72854 '''Alaric II''', also known as Alarik, Alarich, and ''Alarico'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] or ''Alaricus'' in [[Latin]] (d. [[507]]) succeeded his father [[Euric]] in [[485]] as king of the [[Visigoths]]. His dominions included not only the whole of [[Hispania]] except its north-western corner but also [[Aquitaine]] and the greater part of an as-yet undivided [[Gallia Narbonensis]]. In religion Alaric was an [[Arianism|Arian]], like all the early Visigothic nobles, but he greatly mitigated the persecuting policy of his father Euric toward the [[Catholicism|Catholics]] and authorized them to hold in [[506]] the council of [[Agde]]. He was on uneasy terms with the Catholic bishops of Arles as epitomized in the career of the Frankish [[Caesarius of Arles|Caesarius, bishop of Arles]], born at [[Châlons]] and appointed bishop in 503. Caesarius was suspected of conspiring with the [[Burgundians]] to turn over the Arelate to Burgundy, whose king had married the sister of [[Clovis I|Clovis]], so Alaric exiled him for a year safely at Bordeaux in Aquitaine before allowing him to return unharmed when the crisis had passed ([http://www.ccel.org/w/wace/biodict/htm/iii.iii.iv.htm Wace, ''Dictionary'']). He displayed similar wisdom and liberality in political affairs by appointing a commission to prepare an abstract of the Roman laws and imperial decrees, which should form the authoritative code for his Roman subjects. This is generally known as the ''Breviarium Alaricianum'' or [[Breviary of Alaric]]. Alaric was of a peaceful disposition and endeavoured strictly to maintain the treaty which his father had concluded with the [[Franks]], whose king [[Clovis I]], however, desiring to obtain the Gothic province in Gaul, found a pretext for war in the Arianism of Alaric. The intervention of [[Theodoric the Great|Theodoric]], king of the [[Ostrogoths]] and father-in-law of Alaric, proved unavailing. The two armies met in [[507]] at the [[Battle of Vouillé]], near Poitiers, where the Goths were defeated and their king, who took to flight, was overtaken and slain, it is said, by Clovis himself. His legitimate son [[Amalaric]] was still a child, so he was succeeded by his illegitimate son, [[Gesalec]]. ==External links== ==References== *{{1911}} *Edward Gibbon, [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/g43d/chapter38.html ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''] Chapter 38 {{start box}} |width=25% align=center|'''Preceded by:'''<br>'''[[Euric]]''' |width=25% align=center|'''[[Visigoth#Kings_of_the_Visigoths|King of the Visigoths]]'''<br>485&ndash;507 |width=25% align=center|'''Succeeded by:'''<br>'''[[Gesalec]]''' |- {{end box}} [[Category:507 deaths|Alaric]] [[Category:Goths|Alaric]] [[Category:History of Spain]] [[Category:History of Portugal]] [[Category:Spanish people]] [[Category:Portuguese people]] [[Category:Kings of the Visigoths]] [[de:Alarich II.]] [[es:Alarico II]] [[fr:Alaric II]] [[sv:Alarik II]] [[zh:亚拉里克二世]] 1572 39741255 2006-02-15T15:15:11Z N.MacInnes 611233 #REDIRECT [[Al-Battani]] 1573 42105775 2006-03-03T21:38:10Z Kripkenstein 911653 Minor change [[Image:AlbertusMagnus.jpg|right|thumb|Albertus Magnus (fresco, 1352, Treviso, Italy)]] {{Redirect3|Albertus|is also the name of a [[Albertus (typeface)|typeface]]}} '''Albertus Magnus''' ([[1193]]? &ndash; [[November 15]], [[1280]]), also known as '''Saint Albert the Great''' and '''Albert of Cologne''', was a [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friar who became famous for his universal knowledge and advocacy for the peaceful coexistence of science and religion. He is considered to be the greatest German philosopher and theologian of the [[Middle Age]]s. He was the first medieval scholar to apply [[Aristotle]]'s philosophy to Christian thought at the time. [[Catholicism]] honors him as a [[Doctor of the Church]], one of only 33 men and women with that honor. ==Biography== He was born of the noble family of Bollstadt in [[Lauingen]], [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]] on the [[Danube]], sometime between 1193 and [[1206]]. The term "magnus" is not descriptive; it is the [[Latin]] equivalent of his family name, de Groot. Albertus was educated principally at [[Padua]], where he received instruction in [[Aristotle]]'s writings. After an alleged encounter with the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]], he entered holy orders. In [[1223]] (or [[1221]]) he became a member of the [[Dominican Order]], and studied [[theology]] under its rules at [[Bologna]] and elsewhere. Selected to fill the position of lecturer at [[Cologne]], where the order had a house, he taught for several years there, at [[Regensburg]], [[Freiburg]], [[Strasbourg]] and [[Hildesheim]]. In [[1245]] he went to [[Paris]], received his doctorate and taught for some time, in accordance with the regulations, with great success. In [[1254]] he was made provincial of the Dominican Order, and fulfilled the arduous duties of the office with great care and efficiency. During the time he held this office he publicly defended the Dominicans against the attacks by the secular and regular faculty of the [[University of Paris]], commented on [[John the Evangelist|St John]], and answered the errors of the [[Arab philosophy|Arabian philosopher]], [[Averroes]]. In [[1260]] [[Pope Alexander IV]] made him [[bishop]] of [[Regensburg]], which office he resigned after three years. The remainder of his life he spent partly in preaching throughout Bavaria and the adjoining districts, partly in retirement in the various houses of his order. In [[1270]] he preached the [[eighth Crusade]] in [[Austria]]. Among the last of his labours was the defence of the orthodoxy of his former pupil, [[Thomas Aquinas]], whose death in [[1274]] grieved Albertus. After suffering collapse of health in [[1278]], he died on [[November 15]], [[1280]], in [[Cologne]], [[Germany]]. His tomb is in the [[crypt]] of the Dominican church of [[St. Andreas]] in Cologne. Albertus is frequently mentioned by [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]], who made his doctrine of [[free will]] the basis of his ethical system. In his [[Divine Comedy]], Dante places Albertus with his pupil Thomas Aquinas among the great lovers of wisdom (''Spiriti Sapienti'') in the Heaven of the Sun. Albertus was beatified in [[1622]]. He was canonized and also officially named a Doctor of the Church in [[1931]] by [[Pope Pius XI]]. His feast day is celebrated on November 15th. ==Writings== Albertus's writings collected in [[1899]] went to 38 volumes, displaying his prolific habits and literally encyclopedic knowledge of topics including, but not limited to, logic, theology, botany, geography, astronomy, mineralogy, chemistry, zoölogy, physiology, and [[phrenology]], all of it the result of logic and observation. He was the most widely read author of his time. The whole of [[Aristotle]]'s works, presented in the Latin translations and notes of the Arabian commentators, were by him digested, interpreted and systematized in accordance with church doctrine. He came to be so associated with Aristotle that he was referred to as "Aristotle's ape". Albert's activity, however, was more philosophical than theological (see [[Scholasticism]]). The philosophical works, occupying the first six and the last of the twenty-one volumes, are generally divided according to the Aristotelian scheme of the sciences, and consist of interpretations and condensations of Aristotle's relative works, with supplementary discussions depending on the questions then agitated, and occasionally divergences from the opinions of the master. His principal theological works are a commentary in three volumes on the Books of the Sentences of [[Peter Lombard]] (''Magister Sententiarum''), and the ''Summa Theologiae'' in two volumes. This last is in substance a repetition of the first in a more didactic form. ==Albertus as scientist== Albertus's knowledge of physical science was considerable and for the age accurate. His industry in every department was great, and though we find in his system many of those gaps which are characteristic of scholastic philosophy, yet the protracted study of Aristotle gave him a great power of systematic thought and exposition, and the results of that study, as left to us, by no means warrant the contemptuous title sometimes given him of the "Ape of Aristotle." They rather lead us to appreciate the motives which caused his contemporaries to bestow on him the honourable surnames "The Great" and ''Doctor Universalis.'' It must, however, be admitted that much of his knowledge was ill digested; it even appears that he regarded [[Plato]] and [[Speusippus]] as [[Stoics]]. Albertus was both a student and a teacher of [[alchemy]] and [[chemistry]]. He isolated [[arsenic]] in [[1250]]. He was alleged to be a magician, since he was repeatedly charged by some of his unfriendly contemporaries with communing with the devil, practicing the craft of magic, and with the making of a demonic automata able to speak. He was also one of the alchemists reputed to have succeeded in discovering the [[Philosopher's Stone]]. [[Image:Albertus Magnus-Denkmal.jpg|thumb|Albertus Magnus monument in Cologne]] ==Music== In music history, Albertus is known for his enlightening commentary on musical practice of the time. Most of his musical observations are given in his commentary on Aristotle's ''Poetics''. Among other things, he rejects the idea of "[[music of the spheres]]" as ridiculous: movement of astronomical bodies, he supposes, is incapable of generating sound. He also wrote extensively on proportions in music, and on the three different subjective levels on which [[plainchant]] could work on the human soul: purging of the impure; illumination leading to contemplation; and nourishing perfection through contemplation. Of particular interest to [[20th century]] music theorists is the attention he paid to silence as an integral part of music. ==Trivia== *Magnus is recorded as having made an [[android]], a mechanical [[automaton]] in the figure of a man. {{ref label|1728|1|^}} ==Quotes== ''Natural science does not consist in ratifying what others have said, but in seeking the causes of phenomena.'' ==See also== *[[History of science in the Middle Ages]] ==References== #{{note label|1728|1|^}}{{1728}} [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/HistSciTech/HistSciTech-idx?type=turn&entity=HistSciTech000900240135&isize=L Androides]. ==External links== *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01264a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article] {{Medieval_Philosophy}} [[Category:1193 births]] [[Category:1280 deaths]] [[Category:Catholic philosophers|Albertus Magnus]] [[Category:Christians in science]] [[Category:Discoverers of chemical elements]] [[Category:Doctors of the Church]] [[Category:Dominicans]] [[Category:German chemists]] [[Category:German philosophers]] [[Category:German theologians]] [[Category:Music theorists]] [[Category:Natives of Bavaria]] [[Category:Roman Catholic bishops]] [[Category:German saints]] [[Category:Scholastic philosophers]] [[de:Albertus Magnus]] [[et:Albert Suur]] [[es:Alberto Magno]] [[eo:Alberto la Granda]] [[fa:آلبرت کبیر]] [[fr:Albert le Grand]] [[gl:Alberte o Magno]] [[hr:Sveti Albert Veliki]] [[id:Albertus Magnus]] [[it:Alberto Magno]] [[la:Albertus Magnus]] [[hu:Albertus Magnus]] [[nl:Albertus Magnus]] [[ja:アルベルトゥス・マグヌス]] [[no:Albertus Magnus]] [[pl:Albert Wielki]] [[pt:Alberto Magno]] [[ru:Альберт Великий]] [[sk:Albert Veľký]] [[sl:Albert Veliki]] [[fi:Albert Suuri]] [[sv:Albertus Magnus]] [[tr:Albertus Magnus]] [[uk:Альберт Великий]] 1574 39730222 2006-02-15T13:06:10Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 Wikify dates :''This article is about the archaic name for Great Britain. For other meanings, see [[Albion (disambiguation)]]'' [[Image:white_cliffs_of_dover_09_2004.jpg|320px|thumb|The white cliffs of Dover]]'''Albion''' (in [[Ptolemy]] ''Alouion''), is the most ancient name of [[Great Britain]], though often used to refer specifically to [[England]]. Occasionally it instead refers to only [[Scotland]], whose name in [[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaelic]] is ''[[Alba]]'' (and similarly, in [[Irish language|Irish]], and ''Yr Alban'' in Welsh{{ref|welsh}}). [[Pliny the Elder]], in his ''Natural History'' (iv.xvi.102) applies it unequivocally to Great Britain, "It was itself named Albion, while all the islands about which we shall soon briefly speak were called the Britanniae." The name ''Albion'' was taken by medieval writers from Pliny and [[Ptolemy]]. The name is perhaps of [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] origin or older, from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root that denotes both "white" and "mountain", but the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] took it as connected with ''albus'' (white), in reference to the chalk "[[White Cliffs of Dover]]", and Alfred Holder's ''Alt-Keltischer Sprachschatz,'' (1896) unhesitatingly translates it ''Weissland'' ("whiteland"). The early writer ([[6th century BC]]) whose [[periplus]] was translated by [[Avienus]] at the end of the 4th century AD (see ''[[Massaliote Periplus]]'') does not use the name ''Britannia''; he speaks of ''nesos 'Iernon kai 'Albionon'' (island of the Ierni and the Albiones). So [[Pytheas of Massilia]] ([[4th century BC]]) speaks of ''Albion and 'Ierne''. From the fact that there was a tribe called the ''Albiones'' on the north coast of [[Spain]] in [[Asturias]], some scholars have placed Albion in that neighbourhood (see G. F. Unger, ''Rhein. Mus.'' xxxviii., 1883, pp. 156-196). The pejorative [[sobriquet]] ''[[perfidious Albion]]'' takes its meaning from this old name for Britain. ==References== #{{note|welsh}}[http://www.cs.cf.ac.uk/fun/welsh/LexiconForms.html Welsh Lexicon Forms]. [[Cardiff University]], [[Cardiff School of Computer Science]]. Retrieved [[19 January]] [[2006]]. [[Category:Ancient Roman provinces]] [[Category:British Isles]] {{UK-stub}} [[da:Albion]] [[de:Albion]] [[es:Albión]] [[nl:Albion]] [[ja:アルビオン]] [[no:Albion]] [[pl:Albion (Anglia)]] [[sv:Albion]] [[uk:Альбіон]] 1575 40359123 2006-02-20T01:16:24Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 External links per MoS. '''Alboin''' or '''Alboïn''' (d. [[572]] or [[573]]), king of the [[Lombards]], and conqueror of [[Italy]], succeeded his father [[Audoin]] about [[565]]. The Lombards were at that time dwelling in [[Noricum]] and [[Pannonia]] (the plain of eastern Austria south and east of the Danube, modern-day Slovenia and Istria). In alliance with the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]], an Asiatic people who had invaded central Europe, Alboin defeated the Lombards' hereditary enemies, the [[Gepids]], a powerful nation on his eastern frontier, slew their new king [[Cunimund]], whose skull he fashioned into a drinking-cup, and whose daughter [[Rosamund]] he carried off and made his wife. Three years later, in April, [[568]], on the alleged invitation of [[Narses]], who was irritated by the treatment he had received from the emperor [[Justin II]], Alboin invaded [[Italy]], with the women and children of the tribe and all their possessions, with 20,000 Saxon allies and the subject tribe of the Gepids and a mixed host of other barbarians, probably marching over the pass of the [[Predil]] and crossing the great plain at the head of the Adriatic into Italy. The [[Gothic War]], which had ended in the downfall of the Goths, had exhausted Italy, which was wracked with famine and plague, and the Eastern Emperor's government at Constantinople was powerless to retain the Italian province which [[Belisarius]] and [[Narses]] had recently recovered for it. Alboin's horde overran [[Venice|Venetia]] and the wide district which we now call [[Lombardy]], took Milan in 569, meeting with but feeble resistance till he came to the city of [[Ticinum]] ([[Pavia]]), which for three years ([[569]]-[[572]]) kept the Lombards at bay and then became the new capital. Where the Lombards did meet with resistance, retribution was savage beyond anything Italy had experienced before. The bishops, who were virtually the leaders of the late antique Roman cities, fled, like the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan|bishop of Milan]], or compounded with the barbarians for gentler treatment of their people. While the siege of Pavia was in progress Alboin was also engaged in other parts of Italy, and at Pavia's capitulation he was probably master of [[Lombardy]], [[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]] and [[Tuscany]], as well as of the regions which afterwards went by the name of the duchies of [[Spoleto]] and [[Benevento]]. In [[572]], according to [[Paul the Deacon]] (Paulus Diaconus), the [[8th century]] Lombard chronicler, Alboin fell a victim to the revenge of his wife Rosamund, the daughter of the king of the Gepids, whose skull Alboin had turned into a drinking cup (worn at his belt) and out of which he forced Rosamund to drink. Rosamund immediately went to [[Helemechis]] (or ''Helmgis''), the king's [[squire]] (''scilpor'') or armour-bearer and foster brother, who advised her to seek out [[Peredeo]], a very strong man. Peredeo refused to involve himself in such a crime. So the queen went to the bed of the dressing-maid with whom Peredeo was having an affiar and, unbeknownst to Peredeo, slept with him. When the deed was done, the queen revealed her identity to Peredeo and said :''"...surely now you have perpetrated such a deed, Peredeo, that either you must kill Alboin or he will slay you with his sword."'' Letting Paul the Deacon continue: :''Then he learned the evil thing he had done, and he who had been unwilling of his own accord, assented, when forced in such a way, to the murder of the king. Then Rosemund, while Alboin had given himself up to a noon-day sleep, ordered that there should be a great silence in the palace, and taking away all other arms, she bound his sword tightly to the head of the bed so it could not be taken away or unsheathed, and according to the advice of Peredeo, she, more cruel than any beast, let in Helmechis the murderer. Alboin suddenly aroused from sleep perceived the evil which threatened and reached his hand quickly for his sword, which, being tightly tied, he could not draw, yet he seized a foot-stool and defended himself with it for some time. But unfortunately alas! this most warlike and very brave man being helpless against his enemy, was slain as if he were one of no account, and he who was most famous in war through the overthrow of so many enemies, perished by the scheme of one little woman.''[http://www.northvegr.org/lore/langobard/index.php] So Peredeo and the queen fled to the protection of the Byzantine representative at Ravenna. In these few years the Lombards had established themselves in the north of Italy (henceforth [[Lombardy]]). But they had little practice in governing large provinces. Lombard warlords (which Latin chroniclers called 'dukes') were established in all the strongholds and passes, and this arrangement became increasingly characteristic of the Lombard settlement. Their power extended tenuously across the Apennines into Liguria and Tuscany, and southwards to the outlying Lombard dukedoms of [[Spoleto]] and [[Benevento]]. The invaders failed to secure any maritime ports or any territory that was conveniently commanded from the sea, such as Byzantine [[Ravenna]]. Local inhabitants fled into the marshes and lagoons, where [[Venice]] had its beginnings. After his death and the short reign of his successor [[Cleph]] the Lombards remained for more than ten years without a king, ruled by the various dukes. The authorities for the history of Alboin are first of all [[Paul the Deacon]], the Byzantine [[Procopius]], and [[Agnellus]] (in his history of the church of [[Ravenna]]). ===Sources=== *[[Charles Oman]], ''The [[Dark Ages]] [[476]]-[[918]]''. [[1914]]. Rivingtons, [[London, England|London]]. *{{1911}} ===External links=== *[http://www.northvegr.org/lore/langobard/index.php A translation of Historia Langobardorum] {| border="2" align="center" |width="30%" align="center"|Preceded by:<br>'''[[Audoin]]''' |width="40%" align="center"|'''[[Lombard|King of the Lombards]]''' |width="30%" align="center" rowspan="2"|Followed by:<br>'''[[Cleph]]''' |} [[Category:Lombard kings]] [[de:Alboin]] [[fr:Alboïn]] [[it:Alboino]] [[nl:Alboin van de Langobarden]] [[zh:阿尔博因]] 1576 40877178 2006-02-23T16:37:13Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 Caps in section headings [[Image:afonso_albuquerque3.jpg|thumb|right|Afonso de Albuquerque|125px]]'''Afonso de Albuquerque''', '''Afonso d'Albuquerque''' or '''Alfonso de Albuquerque''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|ɐ.'fõ.su dɨ aɫ.βu.'kɛɾ.kɨ}}) ([[1453]] - [[December 16]], [[1515]]) was a noted [[Portugal|Portuguese]] naval general whose activities helped establish the Portuguese colonial empire in India. ==Early life== Born in Alhandra in the year of 1453, near [[Lisbon]], [[Portugal]], he was for some time known as ''The Great'', and as ''The Portuguese Mars''. Through his father, Gonçalo, who held an important position at court, he was connected by illegitimate descent with the royal family of Portugal. He was educated at the court of [[Afonso V of Portugal]], and after the death of that monarch seems to have served for some time in [[Africa]]. On his return he was appointed ''estribeiro-mor'' (chief [[equerry]]) to [[John II of Portugal|John II]]. ==Expeditions to the East== ===First Expedition, 1503-1504=== In [[1503]] he set out on his first expedition to the East, which was to be the scene of his future triumphs. In company with his kinsman Francisco he sailed round the [[Cape of Good Hope]] to [[India]], and succeeded in establishing the king of Cochin securely on his throne, obtaining in return for this service permission to build a Portuguese fort at Cochin, and thus laying the foundation of his country's empire in the East. ===Operations in the Persian Gulf and Malabar, 1504-1508=== Albuquerque returned home in [[July]] [[1504]], and was well received by King [[Manuel I of Portugal]], who entrusted him with the command of a squadron of five vessels in the fleet of sixteen which sailed for [[India]] in [[1506]] under [[Tristão da Cunha]]. After a series of successful attacks on the [[Arab]] cities on the east coast of Africa, Albuquerque separated from Da Cunha, and sailed with his squadron against the island of [[Ormuz]], in the [[Persian Gulf]], which was then one of the chief centres of commerce in the East. He arrived on [[September 25]], [[1507]], and soon obtained possession of the island, though he was unable long to maintain his position. With his squadron increased by three vessels, he reached the [[Malabarian Coast|Malabar coast]] at the close of the year [[1508]], and immediately made known the commission he had received from the king empowering him to supersede the governor [[Francisco de Almeida]]. The latter, however, refused to recognize Albuquerque's credentials and cast him into prison, from which he was only released, after three months' confinement, on the arrival of the grand-marshal of Portugal with a large fleet, in November 1509. Almeida having returned home, Albuquerque speedily showed the energy and determination of his character. ===Operations in Goa and Malacca, 1510-1511=== An unsuccessful attack upon Calicut (modern [[Kozhikode]]) in January [[1510]], in which the commander-in-chief received a severe wound, was immediately followed by the investment and capture of [[Old Goa|Goa]]. Albuquerque, finding himself unable to hold the town on his first occupation, abandoned it in [[August]], to return with the reinforcements in [[November]], when he obtained undisputed possession. He next directed his forces against the [[Sultanate of Malacca]], which he subdued [[August 24]]th [[1511]] after a severe struggle. He remained in the town nearly a year in order to strengthen the position of the portuguese crown. ===Various operations, 1512-1515=== In [[1512]] he sailed for the coast of Malabar. On the voyage a violent storm arose, Albuquerque's vessel, the ''Flor do Mar'', which carried the treasure he had amassed in his conquests, was wrecked, and he himself barely escaped with his life. In [[September]] of the same year he arrived at Goa, where he quickly suppressed a serious revolt headed by Idalcan, and took such measures for the security and peace of the town that it became the most flourishing of the Portuguese settlements in India. Albuquerque had been for some time under orders from the home government to undertake an expedition to the [[Red Sea]], in order to secure that channel of communication exclusively to Portugal. He accordingly laid siege to [[Aden]] in [[1513]], but was repulsed; and a voyage into the Red Sea, the first ever made by a European fleet, led to no substantial results. In order to destroy the power of [[Egypt]], he is said to have entertained the idea of diverting the course of the [[Nile River]] and so rendering the whole country barren. His last warlike undertaking was a second attack upon Ormuz in [[1515]]. The island yielded to him without resistance, and it remained in the possession of the Portuguese until [[1622]]. ==Political downfall and last years== Albuquerque's career had a painful and ignominious close. He had several enemies at the Portuguese court who lost no opportunity of stirring up the jealousy of King Manuel against him, and his own injudicious and arbitrary conduct on several occasions served their end only too well. On his return from Ormuz, at the entrance of the harbour of Goa, he met a vessel from Europe bearing dispatches announcing that he was superseded by his personal enemy [[Lopo Soares de Albergaria]]. The blow was too much for him and he died at sea on December 16, 1515. Before his death he wrote a letter to the king in dignified and affecting terms, vindicating his conduct and claiming for his son the honours and rewards that were justly due to himself. His body was buried at Goa in the Church of our Lady. The king of Portugal was convinced too late of his fidelity, and endeavoured to atone for the ingratitude with which he had treated him by heaping honours upon his natural son Brás. The latter published a selection from his father's papers under the title ''Commentarios do Grande Affonso d'Alboquerque''. The Indians long remembered his benign rule, and used to visit his tomb to pray him to deliver them from the oppression of his successors. ==References== *{{1911}} *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01270c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article] [[Category:1453 births|Albuquerque, Alfonso d']] [[Category:1515 deaths|Albuquerque, Alfonso d']] [[Category:Portuguese explorers|Alfonso d'Albuquerque]] [[Category:Explorers of Asia|Alfonso d'Albuquerque]] [[Category:Portuguese admirals|Alfonso d'Albuquerque]] [[Category:Portuguese generals|Alfonso d'Albuquerque]] [[bg:Афонсу де Албукерке]] [[cs:Afonso de Albuquerque]] [[de:Afonso de Albuquerque]] [[fr:Alfonso de Albuquerque]] [[id:Alfonso de Albuquerque]] [[nl:Afonso d'Albuquerque]] [[pl:Alfonso de Albuquerque]] [[pt:Afonso de Albuquerque]] [[sv:Afonso de Albuquerque]] Reduce linking to solitary years and solitary months in accordance with the manual of style 1577 40965892 2006-02-24T04:03:23Z RussBot 279219 Robot-assisted disambiguation ([[WP:DPL|you can help!]]): Lesbos '''Alcaeus '''('''Alkaios''')''' of Mitylene''' (ca. [[620s BC|620 BC]]-[[6th century BC]]), [[ancient Greece|Greek]] [[lyric]] poet, was an older contemporary and an alleged lover of [[Sappho]], with whom he exchanged poems. He was of the aristocratic governing class of [[Mytilene]], the main city of [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]], where his life was entangled with its political disputes and internal feuds. He sided with his class against the upstart "[[tyrant]]s" who set themselves up in Mytilene as the voice of the people. He was in consequence obliged to spend a considerable time in exile. He is said to have become reconciled to [[Pittacus]], the ruler set up by the populist party, and to have returned eventually to Lesbos. The date of his death is unknown. When his poems were edited in [[Hellenistic]] [[Alexandria]], they were reported to have filled ten scrolls. However, the poetry of Alcaeus has survived only in quotations: "Fighting men are the city's fortress" and the like, so judging him, rather than his high reputation in [[classical antiquity|antiquity]], is like judging [[Ben Jonson]] through ''[[Bartlett's Familiar Quotations]]''. The subjects of his poems, which were composed in the [[Aeolic Greek]] dialect, were of various kinds: hymns to the gods; martial or political comment, sometimes quite personal; and lastly love-songs and drinking-songs, the kind of poetry that would be read aloud at a [[symposium]]. Alexandrian scholars agreed that Alcaeus was the second greatest lyric poet among the [[Nine lyric poets|canonic nine]]. The considerable number of fragments extant (''see link''), and the imitations of Alcaeus in Latin by [[Horace]], who regarded Alcaeus as his great model, help us to form a fair idea of the character of his poems. ==External links== *[http://mkatz.web.wesleyan.edu/Images2/cciv243.Alcaeus.html A. M. Miller, ''Greek Lyric'':] Alcaeus, many fragments. [[Category:Ancient Greek poets]] [[de:Alkaios von Lesbos]] [[es:Alceo de Mitilene]] [[fr:Alcée de Mytilène]] [[gl:Alceo de Mitilene]] [[is:Alkajos]] [[it:Alceo]] [[he:אלקאיוס]] [[hu:Alkaiosz]] [[nl:Alkaios]] [[fi:Alkaios]] [[uk:Алкей (поет)]] 1578 28960214 2005-11-22T04:39:32Z Jwestbrook 496036 disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]]) '''Alcamenes''' was a Greek [[Sculpture|sculptor]] of [[Lemnos]] and [[Athens]]. He was a younger contemporary of [[Pheidias]] and noted for the delicacy and finish of his works, among which a [[Hephaestus]] and an [[Aphrodite]] "of the Gardens" were conspicuous. [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] says (v. 10. 8) that he was the author of one of the pediments of the temple of [[Zeus]] at [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]], but this seems a chronological and stylistic impossibility. At [[Pergamum]] there was discovered in 1903 a copy of the head of the Hermes "Propylaeus" of Alcamenes (''Athenische Mittheilungen'', 1904, p. 180). As, however, the deity is represented in an archaistic and conventional character, this copy cannot be relied on as giving us much information as to the usual style of Alcamenes, who was almost certainly a progressive and original artist. It is safer to judge him by the sculptural decoration of the [[Parthenon]], in which he must almost certainly have taken a share under the direction of Pheidias. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Ancient Athenians]] [[de:Alkamenes]] [[gl:Alcamenes]] [[pt:Alcâmenes]] 1579 38316140 2006-02-05T15:04:36Z Vervin 98350 /* References */ :'''''[[82 Alkmene]]''' is an [[asteroid]].'' In [[Greek mythology]] '''Alcmene''', or '''Alkmênê''' ("might of the moon") , the daughter of [[Electryon]], king of [[Mycenae]] and a son of [[Perseus]], was the wife of [[Amphitryon]] in his exile, though he had accidentally killed her father. Some mythographers identified her mother as [[Eurydice]] (Graves, 110.c). With Amphitryon she fled to [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], where [[Creon]] purified her husband of his blood-guilt. However, Alcmene's eight brothers had been killed in a cattle raid, and she would not lie with Amphitryon until they had been avenged. Thus at Thebes she was the mother of [[Heracles]] by [[Zeus]], who assumed the likeness of her husband during his absence to lie with her and stayed [[Helios]], to make one night into three; and she was the mother of [[Iphicles]] by Amphitryon, when he returned, giving birth to Heracles' twin, younger by a day. In this way Alcmene is one among several mothers of mythic twins of whom the sire of one is mortal, of the other a god, the most famous of them being the [[Dioscuri]], two from the double set of such twins of [[Leda]]. Theseus combined in his person a double fatherhood, a human father and a divine: see [[Theseus]]. In this case Alcmene's son Iphicles was mortal, while Heracles became immortal. While Alcmene was pregnant with [[Heracles]] ("glory of Hera"), [[Hera]] herself tried to prevent her from giving birth to the [[hero]] who would help establish the new Olympian order. She was foiled by [[Galanthis]], Alcmene's servant, who told Hera that she had already delivered the baby. Hera turned her into a [[weasel]]. Through Heracles, Alcmene was regarded as the ancestress of the [[Heracleidae]], and venerated at [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] and [[Athens]]. After the death of Amphitryon, Alcmene married the Cretan [[Rhadamanthus]], who was exiled in [[Boeotia]]. Their "tombs" were shown to travellers in classical times at Haliartus (Graves, 88.i); such "tombs" were generally sites for propitiatory ancestor [[Cult (religion)|cults]] (compare Burkert 1985). ==External links== *[http://85.1911encyclopedia.org/A/AL/ALCMENE.htm ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' 1911:] "Alcmene" ==References== *[[Walter Burkert|Burkert, Walter]], ''Greek Religion: "Clan and Family Mysteries'' pp 278ff. *[[Robert Graves|Graves, Robert]], 1960. ''The Greek Myths'' (revised edition) [[Category:Greek mythological people]] [[ca:Alcmena]] [[da:Alkmene]] [[de:Alkmene]] [[et:Alkmene]] [[es:Alcmena]] [[fr:Alcmène]] [[gl:Alcmena]] [[it:Alcmena]] [[lt:Alkmenė]] [[nl:Alkmene]] [[pl:Alkmena]] [[pt:Alcmena]] [[ru:Алкмена]] [[sv:Alkmena]] [[uk:Алкмена]] 1580 28049542 2005-11-11T19:34:24Z Bluebot 527862 Standardising 1911 references. '''Alcidamas''', of Elaea, in [[Aeolis]], [[ancient Greece|Greek]] [[sophist]] and [[rhetoric]]ian, flourished in the [[4th century BC]]. He was the pupil and successor of [[Gorgias]] and taught at [[Athens]] at the same time as [[Isocrates]], whose rival and opponent he was. We possess two declamations under his name: ''Peri Sofiston'', directed against Isocrates and setting forth the superiority of extempore over written speeches (a more recently discovered fragment of another speech against Isocrates is probably of later date); ''Odusseus'', in which [[Odysseus]] accuses [[Palamedes]] of treachery during the siege of [[Troy]] (this is generally considered spurious). According to Alcidamas, the highest aim of the orator was the power of speaking ''extempore'' on every conceivable subject. [[Aristotle]] (''Rhet.'' iii. 3) criticizes his writings as characterized by pomposity of style and an extravagant use of poetical epithets and compounds and far-fetched metaphors. Of other works only fragments and the titles have survived: ''Messeniakos'', advocating the freedom of the Messenians and containing the sentiment that "all are by nature free"; a ''Eulogy of Death'', in consideration of the wide extent of human sufferings; a ''Techne'' or instruction-book in the art of rhetoric; and a ''Fusikos lolos''. Lastly, his ''Mouseion'' (a word of doubtful meaning) contained the narrative of the contest between [[Homer]] and [[Hesiod]], two fragments of which are found in the ''Agon Omerou kai Esiodou'', the work of a grammarian in the time of [[Hadrian]]. A [[3rd century]] [[papyrus]] ([[William Matthew Flinders Petrie|Flinders Petrie]], ''Papyri'', ed. [[John Pentland Mahaffy|Mahaffy]], 1891, pl. xxv.) probably contains the actual remains of a description by Alcidamas. Lit.: Aristoteles, Rhetorik III 3; - Vahlen, J., Der Rhetor Alkidamas, in Sitzungsberichte der Wiener Akad., XLIII, 507 ff,1864; - F. Blaß, Die attische Beredsamkeit, 1887-1893; - F. Blaß, Antiphontis orationes ... adiunctis ... Alcidamatis declamationibus (1881) 18922; - Auer, Hubertus, De Alcidamantis declamatione que inscribitur, Münster, Diss., 1913; - Milne, M.J.A., A study in Alcidamas and his Relation to Contemporary Sophistic. Bryn Mawr, Diss, 1924; - Walberer, G., Isokrates und Alkidamas, Hamburg, Diss., 1938; - Dupréel, E., Les sophists, 1948; - Webster, T.B.L., Greek theories of art and literature down to 400 B.C., CQ 33 (1939) 166 -79; - Kurz, D., AKPIBEIA, Das Ideal der Exaktheit bei den Griechen bis Aristoteles, 1970; - Finley, Moses I., Die Sklaverei in der Antike: Geschichte und Probleme, 1981; - Dreher, M., Sophistik und Polisentwicklung, 1983; - Heinz, Schulz-Falkenthal, Sklaverei in der griechisch-roemischen Antike: eine Bibliographie wissenschaftlicher Literatur vom ausgehenden 15. Jh., 1985; - Du&scaron;anic, Slobodan, Alcidamas of Elaea in Plato's Phaedrus, CQ 42, (1992) 347-357: 1997; - O'Sullivan, Neil, Alcidamas, Aristophanes and the beginnings of Greek stylistic Theory, 1992; - Taureck, Bernhard H. F., Die Sophisten zur Einführung, 1995; - Rossner, Christian, Recht und Moral bei den griechischen Sophisten (Rechtswissenschaftliche Forschung und Entwicklung; 595), 1998, zgl.: München, Univ., Diss., 1998; -Schumacher, Leonhard, Sklaverei in der Antike: Schicksal und Alltag der Unfreien (Beck's archaeologische Bibliothek), 2001; - Mariss, Ruth, Alkidamas: Über diejenigen, die schriftliche Reden schreiben, oder über die Sophisten: eine Sophistenrede aus dem 4. Jh. v. Chr., eingeleitet und kommentiert (orbis antiquus; 36), 2002, zugl.: Münster (Westfalen, Univ., Diss, 1998). ==References== *{{1911}} [[category:Ancient Greeks]] [[gl:Alcidamas]] [[hu:Alkidamasz]] 1581 39713758 2006-02-15T09:05:53Z Dbachmann 86857 /* Aldine editions */ '''Aldine Press''' was the [[printing]] office started by [[Aldus Manutius]] in [[1494]] in [[Venice]], from which were issued the celebrated Aldine editions of the classics of that time. The Aldine Press is famous in the history of [[typography]], among other things, for the introduction of italics. The press was continued after Aldus death in [[1515]] by his wife and her father until his son Paolo ([[1512]]-[[1574]]) took over. His grandson Aldo then ran the firm until his death in [[1597]]. ==Initial Innovations== The press was started by Aldus based on his love of classics, and at first printed new copies of Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek and Latin classics. He also printed dictionaries and grammars to help people interpret the books. Since most bibliophiles and book collectors come from academic and classical backgrounds, his first editions are collectors items. His contributions are also respected in the development of a smaller type than others in use. His contemporaries called it ''Aldine Type''; today we call it ''italics''. The goal of the press was to create plentiful, affordable books so that everyone could have access to literature. When the press expanded to current titles, they wrote some books themselves and employed other writers, including [[Erasmus]]. As this expansion into current languages (mainly Italian and French) and current topics continued, the press took on another role and made perhaps even more important contributions. Their logo of the anchor and dolphin is represented today in the symbols and names used by some modern publishers. ==The Literacy Revolution== [[Johann Gutenberg|Gutenberg]] gets credit for inventing the printing press with some justification, but [[Aldus Manutius|Aldus]] and his sons created the revolution. Gutenberg produced some beautiful volumes. They were priced so that a man of moderate wealth could buy a book. They were still large, heavy voumes and expensive. A church that had a Bible would typically chain it to a reading stand. Aldus created smaller books (called ''octavo'') that could fit in a saddlebag and that the average merchant or craftsman could afford. With books readily available, it was now worthwhile to learn to read. In dealing with current topics, the second or third edition is the better book. When Paolo or Aldo hired a great shipbuilder to write a book on shipbuilding, he described all the best techniques he was aware of. Other builders bought the book and then wrote to protest that their technique for a particular technology was better. Many of these improvements were then incorporated in the later editions. Before the Aldine Press, a new innovation might take a hundred years to get from Italy to the Netherlands. Afterward, information started to move in all directions, and communication times were reduced to five or six years. This is an important step in the modernization of Europe, and can even be viewed as a precursor of the [[Internet]]. ==Aldine editions== *1495-1498 [[Aristotle]] *1501 [[Francesco Petrarca]], ''Le cose volgari'' *1502 [[Dante]] *1502 [[Sophocles]] *1503 ''Florilegium diversorum epigrammatum in septem libros'' *1504 and 1517 [[Homer]] *1513 [[Plato]] *1514 ''Institutionum grammaticarum libri quatuor'' *1514 [[Virgil]] ==External links== *http://www.library.ucla.edu/special/scweb/aldexhibit.htm *http://www.nd.edu/~italnet/Dante/text/1502.venice.html [[Category:Book publishing companies of Italy]] [[Category:Renaissance]] 1583 36423862 2006-01-23T23:25:18Z Johnteslade 102856 dab template {{otheruses4|Aldred the English ecclesiastic|the Anglo-Saxon leader|Hwicce}} '''Aldred''', or '''Ealdred''' (d. [[11 September]],[[1069]]), [[England|English]] ecclesiastic, became [[abbot]] of [[Tavistock]] about [[1027]], in [[1044]] was made [[bishop of Worcester]], and in [[1060]], [[archbishop of York]]. He had considerable influence over King [[Edward the Confessor]], and as his interests were secular rather than religious he took a prominent part in affairs of state, and in [[1046]] led an unsuccessful expedition against the [[Wales|Welsh]]. In [[1050]] he was largely instrumental in restoring [[Sweyn]], the son of [[Earl Godwin]], to his earldom, and about the same time went to [[Rome]] "on the king's errand." In [[1054]] he was sent to the emperor [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II]] to obtain that monarch's influence in securing the return to England of Edward, son of Edmund Ironside, who was in [[Hungary]] with King [[Andrew I of Hungary|Andrew I]]. In this mission he was successful and obtained some insight into the working of the German church during a stay of a year with Hermann II, archbishop of [[Cologne]]. After his return to [[England]] he took charge of the sees of [[Hereford]] and [[Ramsbury]], although not appointed to these bishoprics; and in [[1058]] made a pilgrimage to [[Jerusalem]], being the first English bishop to take this journey. Having previously given up Hereford and Ramsbury, Aldred was elected archbishop of [[York]] in [[1060]], and in [[1061]] he proceeded to [[Rome]] to receive the [[pallium]]. On his arrival there, however, various charges were brought against him by a [[synod]], and [[Pope Nicholas II]] not only refused his request but degraded him from the episcopate. The sentence was, however, subsequently reversed, and Aldred received the pallium and was restored to his former station. It is stated by [[Florence of Worcester]] that Aldred crowned King [[Harold Godwinson|Harold II]] in [[1066]], although the [[Normans|Norman]] authorities mention [[Stigand]] as the officiating prelate. After the [[battle of Hastings]], Aldred joined the party who sought to bestow the throne upon [[Edgar Atheling|Edgar the Ætheling]], but when these efforts appeared hopeless he was among those who submitted to [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]] at [[Berkhamstead]]. Selected to crown the new king he performed the ceremony on Christmas Day [[1066]], and in [[1068]] performed the same office at the coronation of Matilda, the Conqueror's wife. But though often at court, he seems to have been no sympathiser with Norman oppression, and is even said to have bearded the king himself. He died at York on the [[September 11]] [[1069]] and was buried in his own cathedral. Aldred did much for the restoration of discipline in the monasteries and churches under his authority, and was liberal in his gifts for ecclesiastical purposes. He built the monastic church of St Peter at [[Gloucester]], and rebuilt a large part of that of St John at Beverley. At his instigation, Folcard, a monk of Canterbury, wrote the Life of St John of Beverley. ==References== *{{1911}} *''The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', edited by C. Plummer ([[Oxford]], [[1892]]-[[1899]]). *Florence of Worcester, ''Chronicon ex Chronicis'', edited by B. Thorpe ([[London]], [[1848]]-[[1849]]). *William of Malmesbury, ''De Gestis Pontificum Anglorum'', edited by N. E. S. A. Hamilton ([[London]], [[1870]]). *W. H. Dixon, ''Fasti Eboracenses'', vol. i., edited by J. Raine ([[London]], [[1863]]). *T. Stubbs, ''Chronica Pontificum Ecclesiae Eboracensis'', edited by J. Raine ([[London]], [[1879]]-[[1894]]). *E. A. Freeman, ''History of the Norman Conquest'', vols. ii., iii., iv. ([[Oxford]], [[1867]]-[[1879]]). {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Cynesige]] | title=[[Archbishop of York]] | after=[[Thomas I of York]] | years=1061&ndash;1069}} {{end box}} [[Category:Roman Catholic archbishops]] [[Category:English prelates]] [[Category:1069 deaths]] [[Category:Archbishops of York]] 1584 15900051 2002-08-09T13:09:02Z Ktsquare 2240 #Redirect [[Alexander of Bulgaria]] 1585 40205467 2006-02-18T23:19:08Z Deville 364144 Disambiguate [[Epirus]] to [[Epirus (region)]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] '''Alexander I of Epirus''' (c. [[370 BC]] - c. [[331 BC]]), also known as '''Alexander Molossus''' was a king of [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]] ([[350 BC]]-[[331 BC]]) of the [[Aeacid dynasty]]. He was the son of [[Neoptolemus]] and brother of [[Olympias]], the mother of [[Alexander the Great]]. He came at an early age to the court of [[Philip II of Macedonia]], and after the Grecian fashion became the object of his attachment. Philip in requital made him king of Epirus, after dethroning his cousin [[Arymbas]]. When Olympias was repudiated by her husband, [[337 BC]], she went to her brother, and endeavoured to induce him to make war on Philip. Philip, however, declined the contest, and formed a second alliance with him by giving him his daughter [[Cleopatra of Macedonia|Cleopatra]] in marriage ([[336 BC]]). At the wedding Philip was assassinated by [[Pausanias (assassin)|Pausanias]]. In [[334 BC]], Alexander, at the request of colony of [[Taranto|Taras]] ([[Magna Graecia]]) and the people the [[Tarentines]], crossed over into [[Italy]], to aid them against the [[Ancient Italic peoples|Italic populations]], [[Lucanians]] and [[Bruttii]]. After a victory over the Samnites and Lucanians near [[Paestum]], [[332 BC]], he made a treaty with the [[Roman Republic|Romans]]. Success still followed his arms. He took [[Heraclea]] from the Lucanians, and [[Terina]] and [[Sipontum]] from the Bruttii. Through the treachery of some Lucanian exiles, he was compelled to engage under unfavourable circumstances near [[Pandosia]], on the banks of the Acheron, and was killed by the hand of one of the exiles, as he was crossing the river. He left a son, Neoptolemus, and a daughter, Cadmea. ==References== *[[Junianus Justinus|Justin]], ''Epitome of Pompeius Trogus'', viii. 6, ix. 6, xii. 2 *[[Livy]], ''[[Ab urbe condita (book)|Ab urbe condita]]'', viii. 3, 17, 24 *[[Aulus Gellius]], ''Noctes Atticae'', xvii. 21 ==External links== *[http://www.livius.org Livius], [http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander01/alexander_molossis.htm Alexander of Molossis] by Jona Lendering *[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0125.html Alexander of Epirus] on [[A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities]] (1870) - text in public domain [[Category:370 BC births]] [[Category:331 BC deaths]] [[Category:Ancient Greek rulers]] [[Category:Ancient Greek generals]] [[Category:Alexander the Great]] [[de:Alexander I. (Epirus)]] [[fr:Alexandre Ier d'Épire]] [[no:Aleksander I av Epirus]] [[fi:Aleksanteri I (Epeiros)]] 1586 40642982 2006-02-22T00:42:31Z That Guy, From That Show! 419920 [[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] cleanup [[Image: AlexanderI.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Silver coin of Alexander I "Balas". The Greek inscription reads ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ&#32;ΑΛΕΧΑΝΔΡΟΥ (king Alexander). The date ΓΞΡ is year 163 of the [[Seleucid dynasty|Seleucid era]], corresponding to [[150 BC|150]]&ndash;[[149 BC]].]] '''Alexander Balas''' (i.e. "lord"), ruler of the [[Greece|Greek]] [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid kingdom]] [[150 BC|150]]-[[146 BC]], was a native of [[Izmir|Smyrna]] of humble origin, but gave himself out to be the son of [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] and heir to the Seleucid throne. Along with his sister Laodice, the youngster Alexander was "discovered" by Heracleides, a former minister of Antiochus IV and brother of [[Timarchus]], a usurper in [[Media]] who had been executed by the reigning king [[Demetrius I of Syria|Demetrius I Soter]]. Alexander's claims were recognized by the Roman senate, [[Ptolemy VI of Egypt|Ptolemy Philometor of Egypt]] and others. He married [[Cleopatra Thea]], a daughter of the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]]. At first unsuccessful, Alexander finally defeated Demetrius Soter in [[150 BC]]. Being now master of the empire, he is said to have abandoned himself to a life of debauchery. Whatever the truth behind this, the young king was forced to depend heavily on his Ptolemaic support and even struck portraits with the characteristic features of king [[Ptolemy I]]. Demetrius Soter's son [[Demetrius II of Syria|Demetrius II]] profited by the opportunity to regain the throne. Ptolemy Philometor, who was Alexander's father-in-law, went over to his side, and Alexander was defeated in a pitched [[battle of Antioch (145 BC)|battle near Antioch]] in Syria. He fled for refuge to a [[Nabataea]]n prince, who murdered him and sent his head to Ptolemy Philometor, who had been mortally wounded in the engagement. See [[1 Maccabees]] 10 ff.; [[Junianus Justinus|Justin]] xxxv. 1 and 2; [[Josephus]], ''Antiq.'' xiii. 2; [[Appian]], ''Sir.'' 67; [[Polybius]] xxxiii. 14. ==References== *{{1911}} {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid King]]|before=[[Demetrius I Soter]]|after=[[Demetrius II Nicator]]'''<br>or<br>'''[[Antiochus VI Dionysus]]|years=150&ndash;146 BC}} {{end box}} [[Category:146 BC deaths]] [[Category:Seleucid rulers|Alexander 1]] [[Category:Ptolemaic dynasty|Alexander 1]] [[ca:Alexandre I Balas]] [[de:Alexander I. Balas]] [[fr:Alexandre Ier Balas]] [[he:אלכסנדר באלאס]] [[nl:Alexander Balas]] [[no:Aleksander I Balas]] 1587 28049794 2005-11-11T19:38:00Z Bluebot 527862 Standardising 1911 references. '''Alexander''', tagus or [[despotism|despot]] of [[Pherae]] in [[Thessaly]], ruled from [[369 BC]] to [[358 BC]]. He was the son and successor of the tyrant [[Jason of Pherae]], who was assassinated in [[370 BC]]. Alexander's [[tyranny]] caused the Aleuadae of [[Larissa]] to invoke the aid of [[Alexander II of Macedon]], whose intervention was successful, but after the Macedonian withdrawal Alexander treated his subjects as cruelly as before. The Thessalians next applied to [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]]; [[Pelopidas]], who was sent to their assistance, was treacherously seized and thrown into prison ([[368 BC|368]]), and it was necessary to send [[Epaminondas]] with a large army to secure his release. Alexander's conduct caused renewed intervention; in 364 he was defeated at [[Battle of Cynoscephalae (364 BC)|Cynoscephalae]] by the Thebans, although the victory was dearly bought by the loss of Pelopidas, who fell in the battle. Alexander was at last crushed by the Thebans, compelled to acknowledge the freedom of the Thessalian cities and to limit his rule to Pherae, and forced to join the [[Boeotia]]n league. He was murdered by his wife's brother at her instigation. Ancient accounts, such as [[Plutarch]]'s ''Life of Pelopidas,'' agree in describing Alexander as a cruel and suspicious tyrant: :''Alexander, the tyrant of Pherae (this last should be his only appellation; he should not be permitted to disgrace the name of Alexander), as he watched a tragic actor, felt himself much moved to pity through enjoyment of the acting. He jumped up, therefore, and left the theatre at a rapid pace, exclaiming that it would be a dreadful thing, if, when he was slaughtering so many citizens, he should be seen to weep over the sufferings of Hecuba and Polyxena. And he came near visiting punishment upon the actor because the man had softened his heart, as iron in the fire.'' :::&mdash;Plutarch, ''Moralia:'' "On the Fortune of Alexander." ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:358 BC deaths]] [[Category:Ancient Greek rulers]] [[fr:Alexandre de Phères]] 1588 41688955 2006-03-01T01:56:30Z Jrp 80959 '''Alexander II''', king of [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]], succeeded his father [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]] in [[272 BC]]. He attacked [[Antigonus II of Macedon|Antigonus Gonatas]] and conquered the greater part of [[Macedon]]ia, but was in turn driven out of both Epirus and Macedonia by [[Demetrius II of Macedon|Demetrius]], the son of Antigonus. He subsequently recovered his kingdom by the aid of the Acarnanians and Aetolians. He died about [[260 BC]]. See Thirlwall, ''History of Greece,'' vol. viii.; [[Johann Gustav Droysen|Droysen]], ''Hellenismus''; B. Niese, ''Geschichte der griechischen und makedonischen Staaten''; J. Beloch, ''Griech. Gesch.'' vol. iii. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Greek monarchs]] [[Category:260 BC deaths]] [[Category:Year of birth missing]] [[de:Alexander II. von Epirus]] 1589 40359142 2006-02-20T01:16:30Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 External links per MoS. {| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=250 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" | align="center" style="background:#efefef;" colspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;" | <font size="+1">'''''Aleksander Jagiellończyk''''' (drawing by [[Jan Matejko]]) |- | align=center colspan=2 | {| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width=250 style="background:#f9f9f9;" [[Image:Aleksander_Jagiellonczyk.jpg|250px|Aleksander Jagiellończyk]] |} |- |'''Reign''' || [[December 12]], [[1501]] -<br> [[August 19]], [[1506]]. |- |'''Coronation''' || [[December 12]], [[1501]],<br>[[Wawel Cathedral]],<br>[[Kraków]], [[Poland]]. |- |'''[[Royal House]]''' || [[Jagiellon]]. |- |'''Parents''' || [[Kazimierz IV Jagiellon]],<br>[[Elzbieta Rakuszanka|Elżbieta Rakuszanka]]. |- |'''Consorts'''|| Helena. |- |'''Children''' || None. |- |'''Date of Birth''' || [[August 5]], [[1461]]. |- |'''Place of Birth''' || [[Kraków]], [[Poland]]. |- |'''Date of Death''' || [[August 19]], [[1506]]. |- |'''Place of Death''' || [[Vilnius]], [[Lithuania]]. |- |'''Place of Burial''' || Holy Mary Cathedral,<br>[[Wilno]], [[Lithuania]]<br>([[1506]]). |- |} '''Aleksander Jagiellon''' ([[Polish language|Polish]]: '''''Aleksander Jagiellończyk'''''; [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]: '''''Aleksandras Jogailaitis'''''; [[1461]] – [[1506]]), King of [[Poland]] and Grand Duke of [[Lithuania]], was the fourth son of [[Kazimierz IV Jagiellon]]. He was elected Grand Duke of Lithuania on the death of his father ([[1492]]), and King of Poland on the death of his brother [[Jan I Olbracht]] ([[1501]]). His shortage of funds immediately made him subservient to the Polish Senate and nobility (''szlachta''), who deprived him of control of the mint (then one of the most lucrative sources of revenue for the Polish kings), curtailed his prerogatives, and generally endeavored to reduce him to a subordinate position. This ill-timed parsimony exerted a deleterious effect on Polish politics. For want of funds, Aleksander was unable to resist the Grand Master of the [[Teutonic Knights]] or prevent Grand Duke of Muscovy [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan III]] from ravaging Lithuania with the [[Tatars]]. The most the King could do was to garrison [[Smolensk]] and other strongholds and employ his wife Helena, the Tsar's daughter, to mediate a truce between his father-in-law and himself after the disastrous [[Battle of Vedrosha]] (1500). In the terms of the truce, Lithuania had to surrennder about a third of its territory to the nascent Russian state. During his reign, Poland suffered much humiliation from the attempts of her subject principality, [[Moldavia]], to throw off her yoke. Only the death of [[Stephen of Moldavia|Stephen]], the great ''[[hospodar]]'' of Moldavia, enabled Poland still to hold her own on the [[Danube River]]; while the liberality of [[Pope Julius II]], who issued no fewer than 29 bulls in favor of Poland and granted Aleksander [[Peter's Pence]] and other financial help, enabled the Polish King to restrain somewhat the arrogance of the Teutonic Order. In Aleksander, the characteristic virtues of the [[Jagiellon]]s, patience and generosity, degenerated into slothfulness and extravagance. Frequently he was too poor to pay the expenses of his own table. He never felt at home in Poland, and bestowed his favor principally upon his fellow-countrymen, the most notable of whom was the wealthy Lithuanian magnate [[Michał Gliński]], who justified his master's confidence by his great victory over the Tatars at Kleck ([[August 5]], [[1506]]), news of which was brought to Aleksander on his deathbed. [[Image:Senatusconsultum.JPG|366px|thumb|left|King Aleksander in Polish Senate]] ==See also== * [[History of Poland (1385-1569)]] ==External links== * [http://www.istorija.net/ Pages and Forums on the Lithuanian History] *[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=3990 Aleksander Jagiellon on Find-A-Grave] {{start box}} {{succession box two to one|before1=[[Kazimierz IV Jagiellon]]|before2=[[Jan I Olbracht]]|title1=[[Grand Duke of Lithuania]]|title2=[[King of Poland]]|years1=1492–1506|years2=1501–1506|after=[[Zygmunt I the Old]]}} {{end box}} {{Monarchs of Poland}} [[Category:1461 births]] [[Category:1506 deaths]] [[Category:Polish monarchs]] [[Category:Lithuanian rulers]] [[de:Alexander (Polen)]] [[pl:Aleksander Jagiellończyk]] [[ru:Александр Ягеллон]] [[sv:Alexander av Polen]] [[uk:Александр Яґеллончик]] [[zh:亚历山大 (波兰)]] 1590 42098392 2006-03-03T20:42:36Z Ksenon 541820 finland '''Aleksander Pavlovich Romanov''' or '''Tsar Alexander I (The Blessed)''', ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Александр I Павлович) ([[December 23]], [[1777]]&ndash;[[December 1]], [[1825]]), was [[Tsar|Emperor]] of [[Russia]] from [[March 23]], [[1801]]&ndash;[[December 1]], [[1825]] and [[King of Poland]] from [[1815]]&ndash;[[1825]], as well as the first Russian [[Grand Duke of Finland]]. He was born in [[Saint Petersburg]] to Grand Duke Paul Petrovich, afterwards [[Paul I of Russia|Paul I]], and [[Sophie Marie Dorothea of Württemberg|Maria Fedorovna]], daughter of the [[Friedrich II Eugen, Duke of Württemberg|Duke of Württemberg]]. Alexander succeeded to the throne after his father was murdered, and ruled Russia during the chaotic period of the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. The strange contradictions of his character make Alexander one of the most interesting Tsars, and he is one of the most important figures in the history of 19th century Europe. [[Image:Aldawe.jpg|thumb|250px|Portrait of Alexander I in the [[Military Gallery]] of the [[Winter Palace]].]] ==Early life== His complex nature resulted, in truth, from the outcome of the complex character of his early environment and education. Reared in the free-thinking atmosphere of the court of [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine the Great]], he had imbibed from his [[Swiss]] tutor, Frederic Caesar de Laharpe, the principles of [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]]'s gospel of humanity; from his military governor, [[Nikolay Saltykov]], the traditions of Russian autocracy; while his father had inspired him with his own passion of military parade, and taught him to combine a theoretical love of [[mankind]] with a practical contempt for [[men]]. These contradictory tendencies remained with him through life, revealed in the fluctuations of his policy and influencing through him the [[fate]] of the [[world]]. ==Succeeds to the throne== Another element in his character emerged when on [[March 23]], [[1801]] he mounted the throne over the body of his murdered father: a mystic melancholy liable at any moment to issue in extravagant action. At first, indeed, this exercised but little influence on the [[Emperor of Russia | Emperor]]'s life. Young, emotional, impressionable, well-meaning and egotistic, Alexander displayed from the first an intention of playing a great part on the world's stage, and plunged with all the ardour of youth into the task of realizing his political ideals. While retaining for a time the old [[Political minister | ministers]] who had served and overthrown the Emperor Paul, one of the first acts of his reign was to appoint the [[Private Committee]], also called ironically the "[[Committee of Public Safety |Comite du salut public]]", consisting of young and enthusiastic friends of his own - [[Victor Palvovich Kochubey|Victor Kochubey]], [[Nikolay Nikolayevich Novosiltsev|Nikolay Novosiltsev]], [[Pavel Alexandrovich Stroganov|Pavel Stroganov]] and [[Adam Jerzy Czartoryski]] - to draw up a scheme of internal reform. Most importantly the liberal [[Mikhail Speransky]] became one of the Tsar's closest advisors, and drew up many plans for elaborate reforms. Their aims, inspired by their admiration for [[Kingdom of Great Britain | English]] institutions, far outstripped the possibilities of the time, and even after they had been raised to regular ministerial positions but little of their programme could come to pass. For [[Imperial Russia | Russia]] was not ripe for [[liberty]]; and Alexander, the disciple of the [[revolution]]ist Laharpe, was&mdash;as he himself said&mdash;but "a happy accident" on the throne of the tsars. He spoke, indeed, bitterly of "the state of [[barbarism]] in which the country had been left by the traffic in men." ==Early reign== "Under Paul," he said, "three thousand [[peasant]]s had been given away like a bag of [[diamond]]s. If [[civilization]] were more advanced, I would abolish this [[slavery]], if it cost me my [[head (anatomy)|head]]". But the universal [[Political corruption|corruption]], he complained, had left him no men; and the filling up of the government offices with [[German people|Germans]] and other foreigners merely accentuated the sullen resistance of the "old [[Russians]]" to his reforms. That Alexander's reign, which began with so large a promise of amelioration, ended by riveting still tighter the chains of the Russian people was, however, due less to the corruption and backwardness of Russian life than to the defects of the tsar himself. His love of liberty, though sincere, was in fact unreal. It flattered his [[vanity]] to pose before the world as the dispenser of benefits; but his theoretical [[liberalism]] linked with an [[autocratic]] will which brooked no contradiction. "You always want to instruct me!" he exclaimed to [[Gavril Romanovich Derzhavin|Derzhavin]], the [[List of Justice Ministers of Imperial Russia|Minister of Justice]], "but I am the autocratic emperor, and I will this, and nothing else!" "He would gladly have agreed," wrote Prince Czartoryski, "that every one should be free, if every one had freely done only what he wished." Moreover, this masterful temper joined an infirmity of purpose which ever let "I dare not wait upon I would," and which seized upon any excuse for postponing measures the principles of which he had publicly approved. ===Legal reform=== [[Image:Althorv.jpg|thumb|225px|Bust of Alexander I, by [[Thorvaldsen]].]] The codification of the laws initiated in 1801 was never carried out during his reign; nothing was done to improve the intolerable status of the Russian peasantry; the constitution drawn up by [[Mikhail Speransky]], and passed by the emperor, remained unsigned. Alexander, in fact, who, without being consciously tyrannical, possessed in full measure the [[tyrant]]'s characteristic distrust of men of ability and independent judgment, lacked also the first requisite for a reforming sovereign: confidence in his people; and it was this want that vitiated such reforms as were actually realized. He experimented in the outlying provinces of his [[Empire]]; and the Russians noted with open [[murmur]]s that, not content with governing through foreign instruments, he was conferring on [[Poland]], [[Finland]] and the [[Baltic States | Baltic provinces]] benefits denied to themselves. ===Social reforms=== ::''Main articles: [[Government reform of Alexander I]] and [[Mikhail Speransky]]'' In Russia, too, certain reforms were carried out; but they could not survive the suspicious interference of the autocrat and his officials. The newly created [[Russian Council of Ministers| Council of Ministers]] and [[State Council]] under [[Governing Senate]], endowed for the first time with certain theoretical powers, became in the end but the slavish instruments of the Tsar and his favorites of the moment. The elaborate system of [[Education]], culminating in the reconstituted, or new-founded, [[university|universities]] of [[Dorpat]], [[Vilna]], [[Kazan]] and [[Kharkov]], was strangled in the supposed interests of "order" and of [[Russian Orthodox Church | Orthodox]] [[piety]]; while the [[military settlements]] which Alexander proclaimed as a blessing to both [[soldier]]s and [[state]] were forced on the unwilling peasantry and army with pitiless cruelty. Even the [[Bible]] [[Society]], through which the Emperor in his later mood of [[evangelism|evangelical]] zeal proposed to bless his people, was conducted on the same ruthless lines. The [[Roman Catholic Church | Roman]] [[Archbishop]] and the Orthodox [[Metropolitan bishop | Metropolitans]] were forced to serve on its committee side by side with [[Protestant]] [[pastor]]s; and [[village]] [[priest]]s, trained to regard any tampering with the letter of the traditional documents of the [[Christian Church | Church]] as [[mortal sin]], became the unwilling instruments for the propagation of what they regarded as works of the [[Devil]]. ==Influence on European politics== ===Views held by his contemporaries=== Autocrat and "[[Jacobin]]", man of the world and mystic, he appeared to his contemporaries as a riddle which each read according to his own temperament. [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon I]] thought him a "shifty [[Derogatory use of Byzantine|Byzantine]]", and called him the [[François Joseph Talma|Talma]] of the North, as ready to play any conspicuous part. To [[Klemens Wenzel von Metternich|Metternich]] he was a madman to be humoured. [[Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh|Castlereagh]], writing of him to Lord Liverpool, gives him credit for "grand qualities," but adds that he is "suspicious and undecided". Alexander's grandiose imagination was, however, more strongly attracted by the great questions of [[Europe]]an politics than by attempts at domestic reform which, on the whole, wounded his pride by proving to him the narrow limits of absolute power. ===Alliances with other powers=== On the morrow of his accession he had reversed the policy of Paul, denounced the League of Neutrals, and made peace with [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] (April, [[1801]]), at the same time opening negotiations with [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]]. Soon afterwards at [[Memel]] he entered into a close alliance with [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], not as he boasted from motives of policy, but in the spirit of true [[chivalry]], out of [[friendship]] for the young [[List of Kings of Prussia|King]] [[Frederick William III of Prussia|Frederick William III]] and his beautiful wife [[Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz]]. The development of this alliance was interrupted by the short-lived peace of October, [[1801]]; and for a while it seemed as though [[French Consulate|France]] and [[Imperial Russia|Russia]] might come to an understanding. Carried away by the enthusiasm of Laharpe, who had returned to [[Russia]] from [[Paris]], Alexander began openly to proclaim his admiration for French institutions and for the person of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoléon Bonaparte]] . Soon, however, came a change. Laharpe, after a new visit to Paris, presented to the Tsar his Reflexions on the True Nature of the Consulship for Life, which, as Alexander said, tore the veil from his eyes, and revealed Bonaparte "as not a true [[Patriotism|patriot]]", but only as "the most famous tyrant the world has produced." His disillusionment was completed by the murder of the [[Louis-Antoine-Henri de Bourbon-Condé, duc d'Enghien|duc d'Enghien]]. The Russian court went into mourning for the last of the [[Prince of Condé|Condés]], and diplomatic relations with Paris were broken off. ===Opposition to Napoleon=== The events of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] that followed belong to the general history of [[Europe]]; but the Tsar's attitude throughout is personal to himself, though pregnant with issues momentous for the world. In opposing Napoleon I, "the oppressor of Europe and the disturber of the world's peace," Alexander in fact already believed himself to be fulfilling a divine mission. In his instructions to Novosiltsov, his special envoy in [[London]], the Tsar elaborated the motives of his policy in language which appealed as little to the common sense of the prime minister, [[William Pitt the Younger|Pitt]], as did later the treaty of the [[Holy Alliance]] to that of the foreign minister, Castlereagh. Yet the document is of great interest, as in it we find formulated for the first time in an official despatch those exalted ideals of international policy which were to play so conspicuous a part in the affairs of the world at the close of the revolutionary epoch, and issued at the end of the 19th century in the Rescript of [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] and the conference of the [[Hague]]. The outcome of the [[war]], Alexander argued, was not to be only the liberation of France, but the universal triumph of "the [[sacred]] [[Human rights |rights of humanity]]". To attain this it would be necessary "after having attached the [[nation]]s to their [[government]] by making these incapable of acting save in the greatest interests of their subjects, to fix the relations of the states amongst each other on more precise rules, and such as it is to their interest to respect." A general treaty was to become the basis of the relations of the states forming "the European Confederation"; and this, though "it was no question of realizing the dream of universal peace, would attain some of its results if, at the conclusion of the general war, it were possible to establish on clear principles the prescriptions of the rights of nations." "Why could not one submit to it," the Tsar continued, "the positive rights of nations, assure the privilege of neutrality, insert the obligation of never beginning war until all the resources which the mediation of a third party could offer have been exhausted, having by this means brought to light the respective grievances, and tried to remove them? It is on such principles as these that one could proceed to a general pacification, and give birth to a league of which the stipulations would form, so to speak, a new code of the law of nations, which, sanctioned by the greater part of the nations of Europe, would without difficulty become the immutable rule of the cabinets, while those who should try to infringe it would risk bringing upon themselves the forces of the new union." ===1807 loss to French forces=== [[Image:Alkruger.jpg|thumb|300px|Equestrian portrait of Alexander I (1812)]] Meanwhile Napoleon, a little deterred by the Russian autocrat's youthful ideology, never gave up hope of detaching him from the coalition. He had no sooner entered [[Vienna]] in triumph than he opened negotiations with him; he resumed them after the [[Battle of Austerlitz]] ([[December 2]], [[1805]]). [[Imperial Russia]] and France, he urged, were "geographical allies"; there was, and could be, between them no true conflict of interests; together they might rule the world. But Alexander was still determined "to persist in the system of disinterestedness in respect of all the states of Europe which he had thus far followed," and he again allied himself with the [[Kingdom of Prussia]]. The campaign of [[Jena]] and the [[battle of Eylau]] followed; and Napoleon, though still intent on the Russian alliance, stirred up [[Poles]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and [[Persians]] to break the obstinacy of the Tsar. A party too in Russia itself, headed by the Tsar's brother [[Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia|Constantine Pavlovich]], was clamorous for peace; but Alexander, after a vain attempt to form a new coalition, summoned the Russian nation to a holy war against Napoleon as the enemy of the Orthodox faith. The outcome was the rout of [[Friedland]] ([[June 13]]/ [[June 14 |14]], [[1807]]). Napoleon saw his chance and seized it. Instead of making heavy terms, he offered to the chastened autocrat his alliance, and a partnership in his glory. The two Emperors met at Tilsit on the [[25 June]], [[1807]]. Alexander, dazzled by Napoleon's [[genius]] and overwhelmed by his apparent generosity, was completely won. Napoleon knew well how to appeal to the exuberant imagination of his new-found friend. He would divide with Alexander the Empire of the world; as a first step he would leave him in possession of the [[Danube River | Danubian]] principalities and give him a free hand to deal with [[Finland]]; and, afterwards, the Emperors of the [[Eastern Roman Empire | East]] and [[Western Roman Empire | West]], when the time should be ripe, would drive the [[Ottoman Empire | Turks]] from Europe and march across [[Asia]] to the conquest of [[Indian subcontinent | India]]. A programme so stupendous awoke in Alexander's impressionable mind an ambition to which he had hitherto been a stranger. The interests of Europe were forgotten. "What is Europe?" he exclaimed to the French ambassador. "Where is it, if it is not you and we?" ===Prussia=== The brilliance of these new visions did not, however, blind Alexander to the obligations of friendship; and he refused to retain the Danubian principalities as the price for suffering a further dismemberment of Prussia. "We have made loyal war," he said, "we must make a loyal peace." It was not long before the first enthusiasm of [[Tilsit]] began to wane. Napoleon I was prodigal of promises, but niggard of their fulfilment. The French remained in Prussia, the Russians on the Danube; and each accused the other of breach of faith. Meanwhile, however, the personal relations of Alexander and Napoleon were of the most cordial character; and it was hoped that a fresh meeting might adjust all differences between them. The meeting took place at [[Erfurt]] in October, [[1808]], and resulted in a treaty which defined the common policy of the two Emperors. But Alexander's relations with Napoleon none the less suffered a change. He realized that in Napoleon sentiment never got the better of reason, that as a matter of fact he had never intended his proposed "grand enterprise" seriously, and had only used it to preoccupy the mind of the Tsar while he consolidated his own power in [[Central Europe]]. From this moment the French alliance was for Alexander also not a fraternal agreement to rule the world, but an affair of pure policy. He used it, in the first instance, to remove "the geographical enemy" from the gates of [[Saint Petersburg]] by wresting [[Finland]] from the [[Sweden|Swedes]] ([[1809]]); and he hoped by means of it to make the Danube the southern frontier of Russia. ===Franco-Russian Alliance=== Events were in fact rapidly tending to the rupture of the Franco-Russian alliance. Alexander, indeed, assisted Napoleon in the war of [[1809]], but he declared plainly that he would not allow the [[Austrian Empire]] to be crushed out of existence; and Napoleon complained bitterly of the inactivity of the Russian troops during the campaign. The Tsar in his turn protested against Napoleon's encouragement of the [[Poles]]. In the matter of the French alliance he knew himself to be practically isolated in Russia, and he declared that he could not sacrifice the interest of his people and empire to his affection for Napoleon. "I don't want anything for myself," he said to the French ambassador, "therefore the world is not large enough to come to an understanding on the affairs of [[Poland]], if it is a question of its restoration." The treaty of Vienna, which added largely to the [[Duchy of Warsaw]], he complained had "ill requited him for his loyalty," and he was only mollified for the time by Napoleon's public declaration that he had no intention of restoring Poland, and by a convention, signed on the [[4 January]], [[1810]] but not ratified, abolishing the Polish name and orders of [[chivalry]]. But if Alexander suspected Napoleon, Napoleon was no less suspicious of Alexander; and, partly to test his sincerity, he sent an almost peremptory request for the hand of the [[Grand Duchess]] Anne, the younger sister of the Tsar. After some little delay Alexander returned a polite refusal, on the plea of the tender age of the [[Princess]] and the objection of the [[Empress dowager]] [[Sophie Marie Dorothea of Württemberg|Maria Fyodorovna]] to the marriage. Napoleon's answer was to refuse to ratify the convention of the [[4 January]], [[1810]] and to announce his engagement to the [[Archduke |Archduchess]] [[Marie Louise of Austria|Marie Louise]] in such a way as to lead Alexander to suppose that the two marriage treaties had been negotiated simultaneously. From this time the relation between the two emperors gradually became more and more strained. The annexation of [[Oldenburg (state) | Oldenburg]], of which the [[Peter Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Oldenburg|Duke of Oldenburg]] ([[January 3]], [[1754]]&ndash;[[July 2]], [[1823]]) was the Tsar's uncle, to [[France]] in December, [[1810]], added another to the personal grievances of Alexander against Napoleon; while the ruinous reaction of "the continental system" on Russian trade made it impossible for the Tsar to maintain a policy which was Napoleon's chief motive for the alliance. An acid correspondence followed, and ill-concealed armaments, which culminated in the [[Summer]] of [[1812]] in Napoleon's invasion of Russia. Yet, even after the French had passed the frontier, Alexander still protested that his personal sentiments towards the Emperor were unaltered; "but," he added, "[[God]] Himself cannot undo the past." It was the occupation of [[Moscow]] and the desecration of the [[Kremlin]], the sacred centre of Holy Russia, that changed his sentiment for Napoleon into passionate hatred. In vain the French Emperor, within eight days of his entry into Moscow, wrote to the Tsar a letter, which was one long cry of distress, revealing the desperate straits of the [[Grand Army]], and appealed to "any remnant of his former sentiments." Alexander returned no answer to these "fanfaronnades." "No more peace with Napoleon!" he cried, "He or I, I or He: we cannot longer reign together!" ===The campaign of 1812=== [[Image:Russparis.jpg|thumb|350px|''Russian army enters [[Paris]] in [[1814]]''.]] The campaign of [[1812]] was the turning-point of Alexander's life; and its horrors, for which his sensitive nature felt much of the responsibility, overset still more a mind never too well balanced. When Napoleon crossed the Russian border with his [[Grand Army]], Alexander I was quite unprepared for the war, trusting the Francophile chancellor [[Rumyantsev|Nikolay Rumyantsev]] more than his French ambassador [[Alexander Kurakin]], who had warned him about Napoleon's bellicose plans. Russia proclaimed a [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia|Patriotic War]] in defence of the Motherland. At the burning of [[Moscow]], he declared afterwards, his own [[soul]] had found illumination, and he had realized once for all the divine revelation to him of his mission as the peacemaker of Europe. He tried to calm the unrest of his conscience by correspondence with the leaders of the [[evangelicalism|evangelical]] revival on the [[continent]], and sought for [[omen]]s and [[supernatural]] guidance in texts and passages of [[scripture]]. It was not, however, according to his own account, till he met the [[Barbara Juliana, Baroness von Krudener|Baroness de Krüdener]] &mdash; a religious adventuress who made the conversion of princes her special mission&mdash;at [[Basel]], in the [[Autumn]] of [[1813]], that his soul found peace. From this time a [[mystic]] [[pietism]] became the avowed force of his political, as of his private actions. Madame de Krüdener, and her colleague, the evangelist Empaytaz, became the confidants of the Emperor's most secret thoughts; and during the campaign that ended in the occupation of [[Paris]] the imperial [[prayer]]-meetings were the [[oracle]] on whose revelations hung the fate of the world. ==Liberal political views== From the end of the year [[1818]] Alexander's views began to change. A [[revolution]]ary [[conspiracy]] among the officers of the guard, and a foolish plot to kidnap him on his way to the [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)|Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle]], are said to have shaken the foundations of his [[Liberalism]]. At Aix he came for the first time into intimate contact with Metternich, and the astute Austrian was swift to take advantage of the psychological moment. From this time dates the ascendancy of Metternich over the mind of the Russian Emperor and in the councils of Europe. It was, however, no case of sudden conversion. Though alarmed by the revolutionary agitation in Germany, which culminated in the murder of his agent, the dramatist [[August von Kotzebue]] ([[March 23]], [[1819]]), Alexander approved of Castlereagh's protest against Metternich's policy of "the governments contracting an alliance against the peoples," as formulated in the [[Carlsbad Decrees]] of July, [[1819]], and deprecated any intervention of Europe to support "a league of which the sole object is the absurd pretensions of absolute power." He still declared his belief in "free institutions, though not in such as age forced from feebleness, nor contracts ordered by popular leaders from their sovereigns, nor constitutions granted in difficult circumstances to tide over a crisis. "Liberty," he maintained, "should be confined within just limits. And the limits of liberty are the principles of order". It was the apparent triumph of the principles of disorder in the revolutions of [[Naples]] and [[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]], combined with increasingly disquieting symptoms of discontent in France, Germany, and among his own people, that completed Alexander's conversion. In the seclusion of the little town of [[Troppau]], where in October of [[1820]] the powers met in conference, Metternich found an opportunity for cementing his influence over Alexander, which had been wanting amid the turmoil and feminine intrigues of Vienna and Aix. Here, in confidence begotten of friendly chats over afternoon tea, the disillusioned autocrat confessed his mistake. "You have nothing to regret," he said sadly to the exultant chancellor, "but I have!" The issue was momentous. In January Alexander had still upheld the ideal of a free confederation of the European states, symbolized by the Holy Alliance, against the policy of a dictatorship of the great powers, symbolized by the Quadruple Treaty; he had still protested against the claims of collective Europe to interfere in the internal concerns of the sovereign states. On [[19 November]] he signed the [[Troppau Protocol]], which consecrated the principle of intervention and wrecked the harmony of the concert. ==The revolt of the Greeks== At [[Congress of Laibach]], whither in the [[Spring (season)|Spring]] of [[1821]] the congress had been adjourned, Alexander first heard of the [[Greek War of Independence | Revolt of the Greeks]]. From this time until his death his mind was torn between his anxiety to realize his dream of a confederation of Europe and his traditional mission as leader of the Orthodox crusade against the [[Ottoman Empire]]. At first, under the careful nursing of Metternich, the former motive prevailed. He struck the name of [[Alexander Ypsilanti (1792-1828)|Alexander Ypsilanti]] from the Russian army list, and directed his foreign minister, [[John Capodistria | Giovanni, Count Capo d'Istria]], himself a Greek, to disavow all sympathy of [[Russia]] with his enterprise; and, next year, a deputation of the [[Morea]] Greeks on its way to the [[Congress of Verona]] was turned back by his orders on the road. He made, indeed, some effort to reconcile the principles at conflict in his mind. He offered to surrender the claim, successfully asserted when the [[Ottoman Sultan]] [[Mahmud II]] had been excluded from the Holy Alliance and the affairs of the [[Ottoman empire]] from the deliberations of Vienna, that the affairs of the East were the "domestic concerns of Russia," and to march into the [[Ottoman Empire]], as Austria had marched into [[Naples]], "as the mandatory of Europe." Metternich's opposition to this, illogical, but natural from the Austrian point of view, first opened his eyes to the true character of Austria's attitude towards his ideals. Once more in Russia, far from the fascination of Metternich's personality, the immemorial spirit of his people drew him back into itself; and when, in the Autumn of [[1825]], he took his dying Empress [[Louise of Baden]] ([[January 24]], [[1779]]&ndash;[[May 26]], [[1826]]) for change of air to the south of Russia, in order&mdash;as all Europe supposed&mdash;to place himself at the head of the great army concentrated near the Ottoman frontiers, his language was no longer that of "the peace-maker of Europe," but of the Orthodox Tsar determined to take the interests of his people and of his religion "into his own hands". Before the momentous issue could be decided, however, Alexander died in [[Taganrog]] on [[1 December]] ([[November 18]], [[Julian calendar | O.S.]]) [[1825]], "crushed", to use his own words, "beneath the terrible burden of a crown" which he had more than once declared his intention of resigning. A report, current at the time and often revived, affirmed that he did not in fact die. By some it is supposed that a mysterious hermit named Fomich, who lived at Tomsk until [[1870]] and was treated with peculiar deference by successive Tsars [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] and [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]], was none other than Alexander. ==A tragic figure== Modern history knows no more tragic figure than that of Alexander. The brilliant promise of his early years; the haunting memory of the [[crime]] by which he had obtained the power to realize his ideals; and, in the end, the terrible legacy he left to Russia: a principle of government which, under lofty pretensions, veiled a tyranny supported by [[spies]] and [[secret police]]; an uncertain succession; an army permeated by organized disaffection; an armed Poland, whose hunger for liberty the tsar had whetted but not satisfied; the quarrel with the [[Ottoman Empire]], with its alternative of war or humiliation for Russia; an educational system rotten with official hypocrisy; a Church in which conduct counted for nothing, [[Orthodoxy]] and ceremonial observance for everything; economical and financial conditions scarce recovering from the verge of ruin; and lastly, that curse of Russia&mdash;[[serfdom]]. ==Private life== In private life Alexander displayed many lovable qualities. All authorities combine in praising his handsome presence and the affability and charm of his address, together with a certain simplicity of personal tastes, which led him in his intercourse with his friends or with the representatives of friendly powers to dispense with ceremony and etiquette. His personal friendship, too, once bestowed, was never lightly withdrawn. By nature he was sociable and pleasure-loving, he proved himself a notable patron of the arts and he took a conspicuous part in all the gaieties of the [[congress of Vienna]]. In his later years, however, he fell into a mood of settled melancholy; and, though still accessible to all who chose to approach him with complaints or petitions, he withdrew from all but the most essential social functions, and lived a life of strenuous work and of Spartan simplicity. His gloom had been increased by domestic misfortune. He had been married, on [[October 9]], [[1793]], without his wishes being consulted, to the beautiful and amiable princess [[Louise of Baden]] (Elisabeth Alexeyevna), a political match which, as he regretfully confessed to his friend [[Frederick William III of Prussia|Frederick William III]], had proved the misfortune of both; and he consoled himself in the traditional manner. The two children of the marriage, a little grand-duchess Elizaveta, died on [[12 May]] [[1808]] and the other little grand-duchess Maria, that died six years earlier on [[26 June]] (or [[8 July]]) [[1800]]; and their common sorrow drew husband and wife closer together. Towards the close of his life their reconciliation was completed by the wise charity of the Empress in sympathizing deeply with him over the death of his beloved daughter by [[Princess Maria Naryshkina]]. ==Death== Tsar Alexander I, the man of mystery, became increasingly involved in [[mysticism]] and increasingly more suspicious of those around him. On the way to the conference in [[Aachen]], [[Germany]], an attempt had been made to kidnap him. Now he would trust no one. At home, his young daughter, an only child, died, and his wife became ill. In [[1825]], the "Tsar of All the Russians" died in the city of [[Taganrog]]. After an official announcement of the Tsar's death, a British ambassador at the Russian court said he had seen Alexander boarding a ship. It was later rumored that a [[monk]] in [[Siberia]], Feodor Kuzmich, was really the former ruler. Whatever the truth, when the [[Soviet]] Government opened Alexander's grave many, many years later, it was empty. Within weeks of Alexander's death, there was an unsuccessful attempt by liberal-minded military officers to seize power from the crown, now known as the [[Decembrist Revolt]]. The Decembrists were caught off guard by confusion regarding the order of succession. Historians believe that the secret societies to wrest power from the crown appeared after the Russian officers' return from their [[Napoleonic wars|Napoleonic campaigns]] in [[Europe]] in 1815. ==Offspring== He had other illegitimate children, nine all together. His other mistresses were [[Sophia Vsevolojsky]], [[Maria Ivanovna Katatcharova]], [[Veronica Dzierzanowska]], [[Marguerite-Josephine Weimer]], and Princess [[Barbara Tourkestanova]]. {{start box}} {{succession box three to one|before1=[[Paul I of Russia|Paul I]]|before2=[[Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden|Gustav IV Adolf]]|before3=&mdash;|title1=[[Emperor of Russia]]|title2=[[Grand Duke of Finland]]|title3=[[King of Poland]]|years1=[[March 23]], [[1801]]&ndash;[[December 1]], [[1825]]|after=[[Nicholas I of Russia]]|years2=1809&ndash;1825|years3=1815&ndash;1825}} {{end box}} ----- {{1911}} [[Category:1777 births]] [[Category:1825 deaths]] [[Category:Natives of Saint Petersburg]] [[Category:Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov]] [[Category:Russian emperors]] [[Category:Rulers of Finland|Alexander I of Russia]] [[bg:Александър I (Русия)]] [[cs:Alexandr I. Pavlovič]] [[da:Alexander 1. af Rusland]] [[de:Alexander I. (Russland)]] [[es:Alejandro I de Rusia]] [[eo:Aleksandro la 1-a (Rusio)]] [[fr:Alexandre Ier de Russie]] [[ko:러시아의 알렉산드르 1세]] [[id:Alexander I dari Rusia]] [[it:Alessandro I di Russia]] [[he:אלכסנדר הראשון קיסר רוסיה]] [[lt:Aleksandras I, Rusija]] [[nl:Alexander I van Rusland]] [[ja:アレクサンドル1世]] [[no:Alexander I av Russland]] [[pl:Aleksander I Pawłowicz]] [[pt:Alexandre I da Rússia]] [[ru:Александр I]] [[sq:Aleksandri I]] [[sr:Александар I Романов]] [[fi:Aleksanteri I (Venäjä)]] [[sv:Alexander I av Ryssland]] [[uk:Олександр І (російський імператор)]] [[zh:亚历山大一世 (俄国)]] 1591 41917826 2006-03-02T16:38:24Z Jareth 293836 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/86.10.40.202|86.10.40.202]] ([[User talk:86.10.40.202|talk]]) to last version by 156.35.192.3 [[Image:AlexanderIIRussia.jpeg|frame|right|Alexander II (1818-1881)]] '''Alexander (Aleksandr) II Nikolaevitch ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Александр II Николаевич)''' ([[April 17]] [[1818]], [[Moscow]]&ndash;[[March 13]] [[1881]]) was the Emperor ([[Czar]]) of [[Russia]] from [[March 2]] [[1855]] until his [[assassination]]. He was also the [[Grand Duke of Finland]]. Born in 1818 and assassinated in 1881, he was the eldest son of Czar [[Nicholas I of Russia]] and [[Charlotte of Prussia]], daughter of [[Frederick William III of Prussia]] and [[Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz]]. His early life gave little indication of his ultimate potential, and up to the time of his accession in [[1855]], few imagined that he would be known to posterity as a great reformer. ==Early life== Insofar as he may have had political convictions in his youth, Alexander seemed to possess the reactionary spirit predominant in Europe at the time of his birth, a trend which continued in [[Russia]] through to the end of his father's reign. In the period of thirty years during which he was [[heir apparent]], the atmosphere of [[Saint Petersburg, Russia|St. Petersburg]] was unfavourable to the development of any intellectual or political innovation. Government was based on principles under which all freedom of thought and all private initiative were, as far as possible, suppressed vigorously. Personal and official [[censorship]] was rife; criticism of the authorities was regarded as a serious offence. Under supervision of the liberal poet [[Vasily Zhukovsky]], Alexander received the education commonly given to young Russians of good family at that time: a smattering of a great many subjects, and a good practical acquaintance with the chief modern [[Europe|European]] [[European languages|languages]]. He took little personal interest in military affairs. To the disappointment of his father, who was passionate about the [[military]], he showed no love of soldiering. Alexander gave evidence of a kind disposition and a tender-heartedness which were considered out of place in one destined to become a military [[autocrat]]. ==Marriages and Children== [[Image:Cartetsar.JPG|thumb|right|Tsar Alexander II, his wife Marie and son, the future Alexander III]] On [[April 16]] [[1841]] he married [[Marie of Hesse and by Rhine|Princess Marie of Hesse]] in St. Petersburg, the daughter of [[Ludwig II, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine]], thereafter known as [[Empress Maria Alexandrovna of Russia|Maria Alexandrovna]]. The marriage produced six sons and two daughters: * [[Alexandra Alexandrovna]] (1842-1849). * [[Nicholas Alexandrovich]] (1843-1865). He was engaged to princess Dagmar of Denmark, who later married his brother Alexander III under the name [[Maria Fyodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark)|Maria Fyodorovna]]. * [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander Alexandrovich]], the future emperor * [[Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia|Maria Alexandrovna]] (1853-1920). Married [[Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]]. * [[Vladimir Alexandrovich of Russia]] (1847-1909). Married Princess Marie of [[Mecklenburg-Schwerin]] and had issue: three sons (Grand Dukes Kirill, Boris and Andrey Vladimirovich) and a daughter (Grand Duchess Elena, who married Prince Nicholas of Greece). * [[Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich of Russia|Alexei Alexandrovich]] (1850-1908). Married Alexandra Zhukovsky and had a son (executed by the Communist regime in 1932). * [[Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich of Russia|Sergei Alexandrovich of Russia]] (1857-1905). Assassinated. Married [[Grand Duchess Elizabeth Fyodorovna|Elisabeth]] of [[Hesse-Darmstadt]], who was murdered by the Bolsheviks in Alapaevsk in 1918. They had no children. * [[Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich of Russia|Paul Alexandrovich of Russia]] (1860-1919). Married first [[Alexandra Yurievna of Greece|Alexandra of Greece]] (daughter of [[George I of Greece]]) and second Olga Karnovich von Pistolkors, [[Princess Paley]], and had issue by both. Both Grand Duke Paul and his son Prince [[Vladimir Paley]] (1897-1918), a remarkable poet, were killed by the Bolsheviks. On [[July 6]] [[1880]], less than a month after Tsarina Maria's death on [[June 8]], Alexander formed a [[morganatic marriage]] with his mistress Princess [[Catherine Dolgoruki]], with whom he already had three children. A fourth child would be born to them before his death. * George Alexandrovich Romanov Yurievsky (1872-1913). Married Countess Alexandra Zarnekau and had issue. They later divorced. * Olga Alexandrovna Romanov Yurievsky (1873-1925). Married Count George von [[Merenberg]]. * Boris Alexandrovich Yurievsky (1876-1876). * Catherine Alexandrovna Romanov Yurievsky (1878-1959). Married first Prince Alexander V. Bariatinsky and second Prince Serge Obolensky, whom she later divorced. ==Emperor== [[Image:AlexanderII_of_Russia(monument).jpg|thumb|200px|New monument to Alexander II in front of the [[Cathedral of Christ the Saviour]] in Moscow.]] Alexander succeeded to the throne upon the death of his father in 1855. The first year of his reign was devoted to the prosecution of the [[Crimean War]], and after the fall of [[Sevastopol]] to negotiations for peace, led by his trusted counselor, [[Alexander Gorchakov|Prince Gorchakov]]. Then he began a period of radical reforms, encouraged by public opinion but carried out with autocratic power. All who had any pretensions to enlightenment declared loudly that the country had been exhausted and humiliated by the war, and that the only way of restoring it to its proper position in Europe was to develop its natural resources and thoroughly to reform all branches of the administration. The government therefore found in the educated classes a new-born public spirit, anxious to assist it in any work of reform that it might think fit to undertake. Fortunately for Russia the autocratic power was now in the hands of a man who was impressionable enough to be deeply influenced by the spirit of the time, and who had sufficient prudence and practicality to prevent his being carried away by the prevailing excitement into the dangerous region of [[Utopia|utopian]] dreaming. Unlike some of his predecessors, he had no grand, original schemes of his own to impose by force on unwilling subjects, and no pet projects to lead his judgment astray. He looked instinctively with a suspicious, critical eye upon the panaceas which more imaginative and less cautious people recommended. These character traits, together with the peculiar circumstances in which he was placed, determined the part which he was to, in great measure, brought to fruition the reform aspirations of the educated classes. However, the growth of a revolutionary movement to the "left" of the educated classes led to an abrupt end to Alexander's changes when he was assassinated by a bomb in 1881. It is interesting to note that after Alexander became czar in 1855, he maintained a generally liberal course at the helm while providing a target for numerous assassination attempts (1866,1873,1880). ==Emancipation of the serfs== :''Main article: [[Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia]].'' Though he carefully guarded his autocratic rights and privileges, and obstinately resisted all efforts to push him farther than he felt inclined to go, Alexander for several years acted somewhat like a constitutional sovereign of the continental type. Soon after the conclusion of peace, important changes were made in legislation concerning industry and commerce, and the new freedom thus afforded produced a large number of [[limited liability company|limited liability companies]]. At the same time, plans were formed for building a great network of [[railroad|railways]] &mdash; partly for the purpose of developing the natural resources of the country, and partly for the purpose of increasing its power for defense and attack. [[Image:Chenstokhov.jpg|thumb|275px|A monument to Alexander II in [[Jasna Góra Monastery|Chestochowa]].]] Then it was found that further progress was blocked by a formidable obstacle: the existence of [[serfdom]]. Alexander showed that, unlike his father, he meant to grapple boldly with this difficult and dangerous problem. Taking advantage of a petition presented by the [[Poland|Polish]] [[landed proprietor]]s of the [[Lithuania|Lithuanian]] provinces, and hoping that their relations with the serfs might be regulated in a more satisfactory way (meaning in a way more satisfactory for the proprietors), he authorized the formation of committees "for ameliorating the condition of the peasants," and laid down the principles on which the amelioration was to be effected. This step was followed by one still more significant. Without consulting his ordinary advisers, Alexander ordered the Minister of the Interior to send a circular to the provincial governors of European Russia, containing a copy of the instructions forwarded to the governor-general of Lithuania, praising the supposed generous, patriotic intentions of the Lithuanian landed proprietors, and suggesting that perhaps the landed proprietors of other provinces might express a similar desire. The hint was taken: in all provinces where serfdom existed, emancipation committees were formed. The deliberations at once raised a host of important, thorny questions. The emancipation was not merely a humanitarian question capable of being solved instantaneously by imperial ''[[ukase]]''. It contained very complicated problems, deeply affecting the economic, social and political future of the nation. Alexander had little of the special knowledge required for dealing successfully with such problems, and he had to restrict himself to choosing between the different measures recommended to him. The main point at issue was whether the serfs should become agricultural labourers dependent economically and administratively on the landlords, or whether they should be transformed into a class of independent communal proprietors. The emperor gave his support to the latter project, and the Russian peasantry became one of the last groups of peasants in Europe to shake off serfdom. The architects of the emancipation manifesto were Alexander's brother [[Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich of Russia|Konstantin]], [[Yakov Rostovtsev]], and [[Nikolay Milyutin]]. On [[March 3]] [[1861]], the sixth anniversary of his accession, the emancipation law was signed and published. ==Other reforms== [[Image:AlexII.JPG|thumb|left|200px|A portrait of Alexander II in St. Petersburg]] Other reforms followed: [[army]] and [[navy]] re-organization (1874); a new judicial administration based on the [[France|French]] model (1864); a new [[penal code]] and a greatly simplified system of civil and criminal procedure; an elaborate scheme of local self-government for the rural districts (1864) and the large towns (1870), with elective assemblies possessing a restricted right of [[taxation]], and a new rural and municipal [[police]] under the direction of the [[MVD|Minister of the Interior]]. However, the workers wanted better worker conditions; national minorities wanted freedom. When radicals began to resort to the formation of secret societies and to revolutionary agitation, Alexander II felt constrained to adopt severe repressive measures. Alexander II resolved to try the effect of some moderate liberal reforms in an attempt to quell the revolutionary agitation, and for this purpose he instituted a [[ukase]] for creating special commissions, composed of high officials and private personages who should prepare reforms in various branches of the administration. ==Suppression of national movements== At the beginning of his reign, Alexander expressed the famous statement "No dreams" addressed for Poles, populating [[Congress Poland]], Western [[Ukraine]], [[Lithuania]], [[Livonia]] and [[Belarus]]. The result was the [[January Uprising]] of 1863-4 that was suppressed after eighteen months of fighting. Thousands of Poles were executed, tens of thousands were deported to [[Siberia]]. The price for suppression was Russian support for Prussian-united Germany. Twenty years later, Germany became the major enemy of Russia on continent. All territories of the former [[Poland-Lithuania]] were excluded from liberal polices introduced by Alexander. The martial law in Lithuania, introduced in 1863, lasted for the next 50 years. Native languages, [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] and [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] were completely banned from printed texts, see, e.g., [[Ems Ukase]]. The [[Polish language]] was banned in both oral and written form from all provinces except [[Congress Kingdom]], where it was allowed in private conversations only . ==Assassination attempts== In [[1866]] there was an attempt on his life in [[Petersburg]] by [[Dmitry Karakozov]]. To commemorate his narrow escape from death (that he referred to only as "the event of April 4, 1866") he held a competition to design a great gate for the city. Architect, painter and costume designer [[Viktor Hartmann]] won the competition. The design was well-received and Hartmann thought it was his finest work, but it would never be built. The painting of the design later became [[Modest Mussorgsky|Mussorgsky's]] inspiration for ''The Great Gate of Kiev'' from ''[[Pictures at an Exhibition]]''. On the morning of [[April 20]] [[1879]], Alexander II was walking towards the Square of the Guards Staff and faced Alexander Soloviev, a 33 year-old former student. Having seen a revolver in his hands, the Tsar ran away; Soloviev fired five times but missed. He was sentenced to death and hanged on [[May 28]]. [[Image:Sankt Petersburg Auferstehungskirche 2005 d.jpg|thumb|150px|left|The [[Church of the Savior on Blood]] commemorates the spot where Alexander was assassinated.]] The student acted on his own, but other revolutionaries were keen to kill Alexander. In December [[1879]], the [[Narodnaya Volya]] (People's Will), a radical revolutionary group which hoped to ignite a social revolution, organised an explosion on the railway from [[Livadia]] to [[Moscow]], but they missed the Tsar's train. Subsequently, on the evening of [[February 5]], [[1880]] the same revolutionaries set off a charge under the dining room of the [[Winter Palace]], right in the resting room of the Guards a story below. The Tsar was not harmed as he was late to the supper, and the explosion did not destroy the dining room either, although the floor was heavily damaged. ==Assassination== After the last assassination attempt, [[Michael Tarielovich, Count Loris-Melikov|Count Loris-Melikov]] was appointed the head of the Supreme Executive Commission and given extraordinary powers to fight the revolutionaries. Loris-Melikov's proposals called for some form of parliamentary body, and the Emperor seemed to agree; these plans were never realized as on [[March 13]] ([[March 1]] [[Old Style and New Style dates|Old Style]]), [[1881]] Alexander fell victim to a [[Nihilist]] plot. While driving on one of the central streets of [[St. Petersburg]], near the [[Winter Palace]], he was mortally wounded by the explosion of hand-made grenades and died a few hours afterwards. [[Nikolai Kibalchich]], [[Sophia Perovskaya]], [[Nikolai Rysakov]], [[Timofei Mikhailov]], and [[Andrei Zhelyabov]] were all arrested and sentenced to death. [[Gesya Gelfman]] was sent to [[Siberia]]. The Tsar was killed by the Pole [[Ignacy Hryniewiecki]] (1856-1881), who died during the attack. Hryniewiecki was a Pole from (Bobrujsk, now [[Babruysk]], [[Belarus]]). The Russians had instigated a complete ban on the [[Polish language]] in public places, schools, and offices in a process now known as [[Russification]]. This Russification scheme, it is theorized, led to Hryniewiecki's resolve to assassinate Alexander II. <br style="clear:both;"> {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[List of Russian monarchs|Emperor of Russia]]|before=[[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]]|after=[[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]]|years=[[March 2]], [[1855]]&ndash;[[March 13]], [[1881]]}} {{end box}} ------- {{1911}} == External links == *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20050106.shtml The Assassination of Tsar Alexander II] from [[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)]] [http://www.emich.edu/public/history/moss/ Alexander II and His Times] {{Commons|Alexander II of Russia}} [[Category:1818 births|Alexander II of Russia]] [[Category:1881 deaths|Alexander II of Russia]] [[Category:Assassinated people|Alexander II of Russia]] [[Category:Crimean War people|Alexander II of Russia]] [[Category:Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov]] [[Category:Knights of the Garter]] [[Category:Murder victims|Alexander II of Russia]] [[Category:Murdered Russian monarchs]] [[Category:Muscovites]] [[Category:Russian emperors]] [[Category:Rulers of Finland|Alexander II of Russia]] [[ca:Alexandre II de Rússia]] [[da:Alexander 2. af Rusland]] [[de:Alexander II. (Russland)]] [[eo:Aleksandro la 2-a (Rusio)]] [[es:Alejandro II de Rusia]] [[et:Aleksander II (Venemaa)]] [[fi:Aleksanteri II (Venäjä)]] [[fr:Alexandre II de Russie]] [[gl:Alexandre II de Rusia]] [[he:אלכסנדר השני קיסר רוסיה]] [[io:Aleksandr 2ma]] [[it:Alessandro II di Russia]] [[ja:アレクサンドル2世 (ロシア皇帝)]] [[nl:Alexander II van Rusland]] [[pl:Aleksander II (car rosyjski)]] [[pt:Alexandre II da Rússia]] [[ru:Александр II]] [[sv:Alexander II av Ryssland]] [[uk:Олександр ІІ (російський імператор)]] [[zh:亚历山大二世 (俄国)]] 1592 41903215 2006-03-02T14:22:50Z 72.146.174.75 /* Principles */ '''Alexander (Aleksandr) III ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Александр III Александрович)''' (b.[[March 10]], [[1845]] &ndash; d.[[November 1]], [[1894]]) reigned as [[Tsar|Emperor]] of [[Russia]] from [[March 14]], [[1881]] until his death. <!--Ivan Kramskoi (1837-1887) Portrait of Alexander III (1845-1894), the Russian Tsar. 1886 --> [[Image:Kramskoy Alexander III.jpg|thumb|Painting of Tsar Alexander III (1886), by [[Ivan Kramskoi]] (1837-1887), original, 41 x 36 in.]] ==Principles== Alexander was born in [[Saint Petersburg]], the second son of [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]] and [[Marie of Hesse and by Rhine]]. In natural disposition he bore little resemblance to his soft-hearted, liberal minded father, and still less to his refined, philosophic, sentimental, chivalrous, yet cunning grand-uncle [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]], who coveted the title of "the first gentleman of [[Europe]]." While an enthusiastic amateur musician and patron of the ballet, he was seen as lacking exquisite refinement and studied elegance. Indeed, he rather gloried in the idea of being of the same rough texture as the great majority of his subjects. His straightforward, abrupt manner savoured sometimes of gruffness, while his direct, unadorned method of expressing himself harmonized well with his rough-hewn, immobile features and somewhat sluggish movements. His education was not fitted to soften these peculiarities. He is also noted for his immense physical strength. ==Rise to Power== During the first twenty years of his life he had no prospect of succeeding to the throne, because he had an elder brother, Nicholas, who seemed of a fairly robust constitution. Even when this elder brother showed symptoms of delicate health it was believed that his life might be indefinitely prolonged by proper care and attention, and precautions had been taken for the succession by his betrothal with the beautiful princess [[Dagmar of Denmark]]. Under these circumstances the greatest solicitude was devoted to the education of Nicholas as csarevich, whereas Alexander received only the perfunctory and inadequate training of an ordinary grand-duke of that period, which did not go much beyond and secondary instruction, practical acquaintance with French, English and German, and a certain amount of military drill. ==Education== When he became heir-apparent by the death of his elder brother in 1865, he began to study the principles of law and administration under [[Konstantin Pobedonostsev]], who was then a professor of civil law at [[Moscow State University]] and who later (in 1880) became [[chief procurator]] of the [[Holy Synod]]. Pobedonostsev awakened in his pupil very little love for abstract studies or prolonged intellectual exertion, but he influenced the character of Alexander's reign by instilling into the young man's mind the belief that zeal for [[Russian Orthodoxy|Russian Orthodox]] thought was an essential factor of Russian patriotism and was to be specially cultivated by every right-minded tsar. On his deathbed, his elder brother had expressed a wish that his affianced bride, Princess Dagmar of Denmark, should marry his successor, and this wish was realized on [[November 9]] [[1866]]. The union proved a most happy one and remained unclouded to the end. During those years when he was heir-apparent&mdash;[[1865]] to [[1881]]&mdash;he did not play a prominent part in public affairs, but he allowed it to become known that he had certain ideas of his own which did not coincide with the principles of the existing government. ==Foreign Relations== [[Image:Paris(Seine).JPG|thumb|275px|Pont Alexandre III in [[Paris]] commemorates the conclusion of the [[Franco-Russian Alliance]].]] He deprecated what he considered undue foreign influence in general, and German influence in particular, and he longed to see the adoption of genuine national principles in all spheres of official activity, with a view to realizing his ideal of a homogeneous Russia&mdash;homogeneous in language, administration and religion. With such ideas and aspirations he could hardly remain permanently in cordial agreement with his father, who, though a good patriot according to his lights, had strong German sympathies, often used the German language in his private relations, occasionally ridiculed the exaggerations and eccentricities of the Slavophiles and based his foreign policy on the Prussian alliance. The antagonism first appeared publicly during the [[Franco-Prussian War]], when the tsar supported the cabinet of [[Berlin]] and the tsarevich did not conceal his sympathies with the French. It reappeared in an intermittent fashion during the years 1875&ndash;1879, when the Eastern question produced so much excitement in all ranks of Russian society. At first the tsarevich was more Slavophile than the government, but his [[phlegmatic]] nature preserved him from many of the exaggerations indulged in by others, and any of the prevalent popular illusions he may have imbibed were soon dispelled by personal observation in [[Bulgaria]], where he commanded the left wing of the invading army. The [[Bulgaria|Bulgarians]] had been represented in [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]] and [[Moscow]] not only as martyrs but also as saints, and a very little personal experience sufficed to correct the error. Like most of his brother officers he could not feel any very great affection for the "little brothers", as the Bulgarians were then commonly called, and he was constrained to admit that the Turks were by no means so black as they had been painted. He did not, however, scandalize the believers by any public expression of his opinions, and did not indeed make himself conspicuous in any way during the campaign. Never consulted on political questions, he confined himself to his military duties and fulfilled them in a conscientious and unobtrusive manner. After many mistakes and disappointments, the army reached [[Constantinople]] and the treaty of San Stefano was signed, but much that had been obtained by that important document had to be sacrificed at the congress of [[Berlin]]. Prince [[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]] failed to do what was confidently expected of him. In return for the Russian support, which had enabled him to create the German empire, it was thought that he would help Russia to solve the Eastern question in accordance with her own interests, but to the surprise and indignation of the cabinet of St. Petersburg he confined himself to acting the part of "honest broker" at the congress, and shortly afterwards he ostentatiously contracted an alliance with [[Austria]] for the express purpose of counteracting Russian designs in Eastern Europe. The tsarevich could point to these results as confirming the views he had expressed during the Franco-Prussian War, and he drew from them the practical conclusion that for Russia the best thing to do was to recover as quickly as possible from her temporary exhaustion and to prepare for future contingencies by a radical scheme of military and naval reorganization. In accordance with this conviction, he suggested that certain reforms should be introduced. ==Anti-reforms== [[Image:Aleximpressio.jpg|thumb|left|300px|[[Paolo Troubetzkoy]]'s equestrian monument to Alexander III (1900-06) brilliantly conveys the impression of brutal power that the tsar was said to emanate.]] During the campaign in Bulgaria he had found by painful experience that grave disorders and gross corruption existed in the military administration, and after his return to St. Petersburg he had discovered that similar abuses existed in the naval department. For these abuses, several high-placed personages&mdash;among others two of the grand-dukes&mdash;were believed to be responsible, and he called his father's attention to the subject. His representations were not favourably received. Alexander II had lost much of the reforming zeal which distinguished the first decade of his reign, and had no longer the energy required to undertake the task suggested to him. The consequence was that the relations between father and son became more strained. The latter must have felt that there would be no important reforms until he himself succeeded to the direction of affairs. That change was much nearer at hand than was commonly supposed. On the [[13 March]] [[1881]] Alexander II was assassinated by a band of [[Nihilist]]s, [[Narodnaya Volya]] (People's Will), and the autocratic power passed to the hands of his son. In the last years of his reign, Alexander II had been much exercised by the spread of Nihilist doctrines and the increasing number of anarchist conspiracies, and for some time he had hesitated between strengthening the hands of the executive and making concessions to the widespread political aspirations of the educated classes. Finally he decided in favour of the latter course, and on the very day of his death he signed an ukaz, creating a number of consultative commissions which might have been easily transformed into an assembly of notables. Following advice of his political mentor [[Konstantin Pobedonostsev]], Alexander III determined to adopt the opposite policy. He at once cancelled the ukaz before it was published, and in the manifesto announcing his accession to the throne he let it be very clearly understood that he had no intention of limiting or weakening the autocratic power which he had inherited from his ancestors. Nor did he afterwards show any inclination to change his mind. All the internal reforms which he initiated were intended to correct what he considered as the too liberal tendencies of the previous reign, so that he left behind him the reputation of a sovereign of the retrograde type. In his opinion Russia was to be saved from anarchical disorders and revolutionary agitation, not by the parliamentary institutions and so-called liberalism of western Europe, but by the three principles which the elder generation of the Slavophils systematically recommended&mdash;nationality, Eastern Orthodoxy and autocracy. His political ideal was a nation containing only one nationality, one language, one religion and one form of administration; and he did his utmost to prepare for the realization of this ideal by imposing the Russian language and Russian schools on his German, Polish and Finnish subjects, by fostering Eastern Orthodoxy at the expense of other confessions, by persecuting the [[Jew]]s and by destroying the remnants of German, Polish and Swedish institutions in the outlying provinces. [[Image:Siberianbarber.jpg|thumb|[[Nikita Mikhalkov]] as Tsar Alexander III in his movie ''The Barber of Siberia'' (1998).]] In the other provinces he sought to counteract what he considered the excessive liberalism of his father's reign. For this purpose he removed what little power had by zemstvo, an elective local administration resembling the county and parish councils in [[England]], had and placed the autonomous administration of the peasant communes under the supervision of landed proprietors appointed by the government. At the same time he sought to strengthen and centralize the imperial administration, and to bring it more under his personal control. In foreign affairs he was emphatically a man of peace, but not at all a partisan of the doctrine of peace at any price, and he followed the principle that the best means of averting war is to be well prepared for it. Though indignant at the conduct of Prince Bismarck towards Russia, he avoided an open rupture with Germany, and even revived for a time the Three Emperors' Alliance. It was only in the last years of his reign, when [[Mikhail Katkov]] had acquired a certain influence over him, that he adopted towards the cabinet of [[Berlin]] a more hostile attitude, and even then he confined himself to keeping a large quantity of troops near the German frontier, and establishing cordial relations with France. With regard to Bulgaria he exercised similar self-control. The efforts of Prince Alexander and afterwards of Stamboloff to destroy Russian influence in the principality excited his indignation, but he persistently vetoed all proposals to intervene by force of arms. In [[1887]], once again the Peoples Will planned the murder of Tsar Alexander III. Among the conspirators captured were one [[Aleksandr Ulyanov]]. Ulyanov was sentenced to death and hanged on [[May 5]] [[1887]]. Alexander Ulyanov was the brother of Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, who would later take the pseudonym [[Vladimir Lenin|V.I. Lenin]]. In [[Central Asia]]n affairs he followed the traditional policy of gradually extending Russian domination without provoking a conflict with the [[United Kingdom]], and he never allowed the bellicose partisans of a forward policy to get out of hand. As a whole his reign cannot be regarded as one of the eventful periods of Russian history; but it must be admitted that under his hard unsympathetic rule the country made considerable progress. He died at [[Livadiya]] on the [[November 1|1st of November]] [[1894]] and was buried at the [[Peter and Paul Fortress]] in [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]]. Alexander III was succeeded by his eldest son [[Nicholas II of Russia]]. ==Children== Alexander III had six children of his marriage with [[Dagmar of Denmark|Princess Dagmar of Denmark]], later known as Marie Feodorovna: *[[Nicholas II of Russia|Tsar Nikolai II]] ([[May 6]], [[1868]] - [[July 17]], [[1918]]). *[[Grand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich of Russia]] ([[June 7]], [[1869]] - [[May 2]], [[1870]]). *[[Grand Duke George Alexandrovich of Russia]] ([[May 6]], [[1871]] - [[August 9]], [[1899]]). *[[Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia]] ([[April 6]], [[1875]] - [[April 20]], [[1960]]). *[[Michael II of Russia|Grand Duke Mikhail Alexandrovich of Russia]] ([[November 22]], [[1878]] - c. [[June 12]], [[1918]]). *[[Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia]] ([[June 13]], [[1882]] - [[November 24]], [[1960]]). {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[List of Russian rulers|Emperor of Russia]]|after=[[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]]|before=[[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]]|years='''[[March 14]][[1881]] &ndash; [[November 1]][[1894]]'''}} {{end box}} {{Commons|Alexander III of Russia}} ==References== *{{1911}} == External links == *[http://www2.sptimes.com/treasures/TC.2.3.18.html A short biography] *[http://www.alexanderpalace.org/palace/alexbio.html Another biography] *[http://www.macgregorishistory.com/ibsvenska/alexanderiiishortpaper.htmpobedon Policies of Alexander III] *[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=7033272&pt=Alexander%20III%20Romanov FindAGrave] 'Alexander III Alexandrovich Romanov' [[Category:1845 births|Alexander III of Russia]] [[Category:1894 deaths|Alexander III of Russia]] [[Category:Natives of Saint Petersburg]] [[Category:Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov]] [[Category:House of Glücksburg]] [[Category:Russian emperors]] [[Category:Rulers of Finland|Alexander III of Russia]] [[Category:Knights of the Garter]] [[ca:Alexandre III de Rússia]] [[de:Alexander III. (Russland)]] [[et:Aleksander III]] [[es:Alejandro III de Rusia]] [[eo:Aleksandro la 3-a (Rusio)]] [[fr:Alexandre III de Russie]] [[gl:Alexandre III de Rusia]] [[io:Aleksandr 3ma]] [[it:Alessandro III di Russia]] [[he:אלכסנדר השלישי קיסר רוסיה]] [[nl:Alexander III van Rusland]] [[ja:アレクサンドル3世]] [[pl:Aleksander III Aleksandrowicz]] [[pt:Alexandre III da Rússia]] [[ru:Александр III]] [[sr:Александар III Александрович]] [[sv:Alexander III av Ryssland]] [[uk:Олександр ІІІ (російський імператор)]] [[zh:亚历山大三世 (俄国)]] 1593 39039788 2006-02-10T07:55:32Z Mais oui! 394460 stub '''Alexander I (Alasdair mac Maíl Choluim)''' (c. [[1078]] &ndash; [[April 23]] [[1124]]), called "The Fierce", king of [[Scotland]], was the fourth son of [[Malcolm III of Scotland|Malcolm Canmore]] by his wife (St) [[Saint Margaret of Scotland | Margaret]], grand-niece of [[Edward the Confessor]]. He was named in honor of [[Pope Alexander II]]. On the death of his brother [[Edgar I of Scotland|Edgar]] in [[1107]] he succeeded to the Scottish crown; but, in accordance with Edgar's instructions, he inherited only a part of its possessions. By a partition, the motive of which is not quite certain, the districts south of the Forth and Clyde were erected into an [[earldom]] for Alexander's younger brother, David. Alexander, dissatisfied, sought to obtain the whole, but without success. A curious combination of the fierce warrior and the pious churchman, he manifested the one aspect of his character in his ruthless suppression of an insurrection on behalf of the descendants of [[Lulach I of Scotland|Lulach]] in his northern dominion (thus gaining for himself the title of "the Fierce"), the other in his munificent foundation of bishoprics and abbeys. Among the latter were those of [[Scone, Perthshire|Scone]] and [[Inchcolm]]. In 1107, he married Sybilla, an illegitimate daughter of [[Henry I of England]]. The exact date and the location of the marriage are not recorded. Sybilla died in unrecorded circumstances on the Island of the Woman (''Eilean nam Ban'') on Loch Tay in July, [[1122]]. The marriage produced no children. Alexander's strong championing of the independence of the Scottish church involved him in struggles with both of the English metropolitan sees. He died on April 23, 25 or 27, 1124 at his court at Stirling; his brother, [[David I of Scotland | David I]] succeeded him. The historian John of Fordun said of him: ''"[Alexander] was humble and courteous to the clergy, but, to the rest of his subjects, terrible beyond measure."'' {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[King of Scots]] | before=[[Edgar of Scotland|Edgar]] | after=[[David I of Scotland|David I]] | years=1107&ndash;1124 }} {{end box}} [[Category:1078 births]] [[Category:1124 deaths]] [[Category:Scottish monarchs]] [[Category:House of Dunkeld]] [[Category:Medieval_Gaels]] {{Scotland-bio-stub}} {{UK-royal-stub}} [[de:Alexander I. (Schottland)]] [[fr:Alexandre Ier d'Écosse]] [[ja:アレグザンダー1世 (スコットランド王)]] [[simple:Alexander I of Scotland]] [[sv:Alexander I av Skottland]] [[uk:Александр І (король Шотландії)]] [[zh:亚历山大一世 (苏格兰)]] 1594 40996053 2006-02-24T10:24:09Z Chochopk 170745 adding years to the succession box '''Alexander II''' ([[August 24]], [[1198]] &ndash; [[July 6]], [[1249]]), king of [[Scotland]], son of [[William I of Scotland|William I]], the Lion, and of [[Ermengarde of Beaumont]], was born at [[Haddington, East Lothian|Haddington]], [[East Lothian]], in [[1198]], and succeeded to the kingdom on the death of his father on [[4 December ]][[1214]]. The year after his accession the clans MacWilliam and MacHeth, inveterate enemies of the Scottish crown, broke into revolt; but loyalist forces speedily quelled the insurrection. In the same year Alexander joined the English barons in their struggle against [[John I of England]], and led an army into the [[Kingdom of England]] in support of their cause; but after John's death, on the conclusion of peace between his youthful son [[Henry III of England]] and the French prince [[Louis VIII of France]], the Scottish king joined in the pacification. Diplomacy further strengthened the reconciliation by the marriage of Alexander to Henry's sister [[Joan of England]] on [[June 18]] or [[June 25]], [[1221]]. The next year marked the subjection of the hitherto semi-independent district of [[Argyll]]. Royal forces crushed a revolt in [[Galloway]] in [[1235]] without difficulty; nor did an invasion attempted soon afterwards by its exiled leaders meet with success. Soon afterwards a claim for homage from Henry of [[England]] drew forth from Alexander a counter-claim to the northern English counties. The two kingdoms, however, settled this dispute by a compromise in [[1237]]. Joanna died in March, [[1238]] in Essex, and in the following year, [[1239]], Alexander remarried. His second wife was Mary of Coucy (Marie de Coucy). The marriage took place on [[May 15]] [[1239]], and produced one son, the future [[Alexander III of Scotland | Alexander III]], born in [[1241]]. A threat of invasion by Henry in [[1243]] for a time interrupted the friendly relations between the two countries; but the prompt action of Alexander in anticipating his attack, and the disinclination of the English barons for war, compelled him to make peace next year at [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]]. Alexander now turned his attention to securing the [[Western Isles]], which still owed a nominal allegiance to [[Norway]]. He successively attempted negotiations and purchase, but without success. Alexander next attempted to dissuade Ewen, the son of Duncan, Lord of Argyll, to sever his allegiance to [[Haakon IV of Norway]]. Ewen rejected these attempts, and Alexander sailed forth to compel him. But on the way he suffered a fever at the Isle of [[Kerrera]] in the [[Inner Hebrides]], and died there in [[1249]]. He was buried at [[Melrose Abbey]], [[Roxburghshire]]. His son [[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]] succeeded him as King of Scots. {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[William I of Scotland|William I]] | title=[[King of Scots]] | years=1214&ndash;1249| after=[[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]] }} {{end box}} [[Category:1198 births]] [[Category:1249 deaths]] [[Category:Natives of East Lothian]] [[Category:Scottish monarchs]] [[Category:House of Dunkeld]] [[Category:House of Anjou]] [[Category:Medieval_Gaels]] [[de:Alexander II. (Schottland)]] [[fr:Alexandre II d'Écosse]] [[ja:アレグザンダー2世 (スコットランド王)]] [[pl:Aleksander II (król Szkocji)]] [[sv:Alexander II av Skottland]] [[uk:Александр ІІ (король Шотландії)]] [[zh:亚历山大二世 (苏格兰)]] 1595 37449312 2006-01-31T02:04:45Z Carlossuarez46 23407 +cat: assassinated kings [[Image:KraljAlexObrenovic.jpg|thumb|right|King Aleksandar Obrenović]] '''Aleksandar Obrenović''' or Александар Обреновић ([[August 14]], [[1876]] - [[June 11]], [[1903]]), was king of [[Serbia]] from [[1889]] to [[1903]]. In [[1889]] his father, [[Milan Obrenovic IV|King Milan]], abdicated and proclaimed Aleksandar king of Serbia under a regency until he should attain his majority at eighteen years of age. In [[1893]], King Aleksandar, being then in his seventeenth year, made his notable first ''[[coup d'état]]'', proclaimed himself of full age, dismissed the [[regency|regents]] and their government, and took the royal authority into his own hands. His action was popular, and was rendered still more so by his appointment of a radical ministry. In May [[1894]] King Aleksandar, by another ''[[coup d'état]]'', abolished the liberal constitution of [[1889]] and restored the conservative one of [[1869]]. His attitude during the Turco-Greek war of [[1897]] was one of strict neutrality. In [[1898]] he appointed his father commander-in-chief of the Serbian army, and from that time, or rather from his return to Serbia in 1894 until [[1900]], [[Milan Obrenovic IV|ex-king Milan]] was regarded as the ''de facto'' ruler of the country. During the summer of [[1900]], [[Milan Obrenovic IV|Milan]] was away from [[Serbia]] on holiday in [[Karlovy Vary|Carlsbad]] and making arrangements to secure the hand of a [[Germany|German]] princess for his son, and while the premier, Dr. Vladan Dyorević, was visiting the [[Paris]] [[World Exhibition|Universal Exhibition]], King Aleksandar suddenly announced to the people of Serbia his engagement to the widow Madame [[Draga Mašin]], formerly a lady-in-waiting to [[Natalija Obrenovic|Queen Natalie]]. The projected union initially aroused great opposition. [[Milan Obrenovic IV|Ex-King Milan]] resigned his post, as did the government; and King Aleksandar had great difficulty in forming a new cabinet. Opposition to the union subsided somewhat on the publication of [[Tsar Nicholas]]'s congratulations to the king on his engagement and of his acceptance to act as the principal witness at the wedding. The marriage was duly celebrated in August [[1900]]. Even so, the unpopularity of the union weakened the King's position in the eyes of the army and the country at large. King Aleksandar tried to reconcile political parties by unveiling a [[classical liberalism|liberal]] [[constitution]] of his own initiative, introducing for the first time in the constitutional history of Serbia the system of two chambers (''[[Assembly|skupshtina]]'' and ''[[senate]]''). This reconciled the political parties but did not reconcile the army which, already dissatisfied with the king's marriage, became still more so at the rumors that one of the two unpopular brothers of [[Queen Draga]], Lieutenant Nicodiye, was to be proclaimed heir-apparent to the throne. Meanwhile, the independence of the [[senate]] and of the council of state caused increasing irritation to King Aleksandar. In yet another ''[[coup d'état]]'', he suspended (March [[1903]]) the [[constitution]] for half an hour, time enough to publish the decrees by which the old senators and councillors of state were dismissed and replaced by new ones. This arbitrary act naturally increased the dissatisfaction in the country. The general impression was that as much as the [[senate]] was packed with men devoted to the royal couple and the government obtained a large majority at the general elections, King Aleksandar would not hesitate any longer to proclaim Queen Draga's brother as the [[heir]] to the throne. Apparently to prevent this, but in reality to replace Aleksandar Obrenović with [[Peter I of Serbia|Petar Karađorđević I]], a military conspiracy by [[Black Hand]] was organized. Their palace was invaded and the Royal couple hid in a cupboard in the Queen's bedroom. The conspirators searched the palace and eventually discovered the royal couple and savagely murdered them in the early morning of [[June 11]], [[1903]]. King Aleksandar and Queen Draga were shot and their bodies mutilated and thrown from a window in the palace. ==References== * {{1911}} {{s-start}} {{s-bef|before=[[Milan Obrenović IV]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of Serbian monarchs|King of Serbia]]|years=[[1889]]—[[1903]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Peter I of Serbia|Peter I]]}} [[Category:1876 births|Obrenović, Aleksandar]] [[Category:1903 deaths|Obrenović, Aleksandar]] [[Category:Assassinated kings|Obrenović, Aleksandar]] [[Category:Serbian nobility|Obrenović, Aleksandar]] [[Category:House of Obrenovic|Obrenović, Aleksandar]] [[de:Aleksandar Obrenović]] [[fr:Alexandre Ier de Serbie]] [[nl:Alexander Obrenović]] [[pl:Aleksander Obrenowić]] [[sr:Краљ Александар Обреновић]] 1596 38308909 2006-02-05T13:37:31Z Mais oui! 394460 rv supercats [[Image:Alexander III.jpg|right]]'''Alexander III''' ([[September 4]], [[1241]] &ndash; [[March 19]], [[1286]]), [[King of Scots]], also known as '''Alexander the Glorious''', ranks as one of [[Scotland|Scotland's]] greatest kings. Born at [[Roxburgh]], [[Scottish Borders|Borders]], as the son of [[Alexander II of Scotland]] by his second wife Marie de Coucy, he became king at the age of eight when his father died ([[6 July]] [[1249]]). His coronation took place on [[July 13]], [[1249]] at [[Scone Abbey]], [[Perthshire]]. The years of his minority featured an embittered struggle for the control of affairs between two rival parties, the one led by [[Walter Comyn]], [[Earl of Menteith]], the other by Alan Durward, the [[justiciar]]. The former dominated the early years of Alexander's reign. At the marriage of Alexander to Margaret of [[England]] in [[1251]], [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] seized the opportunity to demand from his son-in-law homage for the Scottish kingdom, but Alexander did not comply. In [[1255]] an interview between the English and Scottish kings at [[Kelso]] led to Menteith and his party losing to Durward's party. But though disgraced, they still retained great influence, and two years later, seizing the person of the king, they compelled their rivals to consent to the erection of a regency representative of both parties. On attaining his majority at the age of 21 in [[1262]], Alexander declared his intention of resuming the projects on the [[Western Isles]] which the death of his father thirteen years before had cut short. He laid a formal claim before the [[Norway|Norwegian]] king [[Haakon IV of Norway | Haakon]]. Haakon rejected the claim, and in the following year responded with a formidable invasion. Sailing round the west coast of Scotland he halted off the [[Isle of Arran]], and negotiations commenced. Alexander artfully prolonged the talks until the autumn storms should begin. At length Haakon, weary of delay, attacked, only to encounter a terrific [[extreme weather|storm]] which greatly damaged his ships. The [[battle of Largs]] (October 1263) proved indecisive, but even so, Haakon's position was hopeless. Baffled, he turned homewards, but died on the way on the Orkneys (15 December 1263). The Isles now lay at Alexander's feet, and in [[1266]] Haakon's successor concluded the [[1266 Treaty of Perth|Treaty of Perth]] by which he ceded the [[Isle of Man]] and the Western Isles to Scotland in return for a money payment. Norway retained only [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]] in the area. Alexander had married Princess Margaret of England, a daughter of King [[Henry III of England]] and [[Eleanor of Provence]], on [[December 26]], [[1251]]. She died in [[1274]], having given him three children: # Margaret ([[February 28]], [[1260]]-[[April 9]], [[1283]]), married King [[Eirik II of Norway]] # Alexander ([[January 21]], [[1263]]-[[January 28]], [[1283]]) # David ([[March 20]], [[1272]]-June [[1281]]) According to the chronicle of [[Lanercost]], Alexander did not spend his decade as a widower alone: "''he used never to forbear on account of season nor storm, nor for perils of flood or rocky cliffs, but would visit none too creditably nuns or matrons, virgins or widows as the fancy seized him, sometimes in disguise''." Towards the end of Alexander's reign, the death of all three of his children within a few years made the question of the succession one of pressing importance. In [[1284]] he induced the [[Scottish Parliament | Estates]] to recognize as his heir-presumptive his granddaughter [[Margaret I of Scotland | Margaret, the "Maid of Norway"]]. The need for a male heir led him to contract a second marriage to Yolande de [[Dreux]] on [[November 1]], [[1285]]. But the sudden death of the king dashed all such hopes. Alexander died in a fall from his horse in the dark while riding to visit the queen at [[Kinghorn]] in [[Fife]] on [[March 16|16th]] or [[March 19|19th]] of March [[1286]]. His death ushered in a time of political upheaval for Scotland. See [[History of Scotland]] ==Source== *Scott, Robert McNair. ''Robert the Bruce: King of Scots'', 1996 {{start}} {{s-bef|before=[[Alexander II of Scotland|Alexander II]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[King of Scots]]|years=1249&ndash;1286}} {{s-aft|after=[[Margaret of Scotland|Margaret]]}} {{end}} [[Category:1241 births]] [[Category:1286 deaths]] [[Category:Natives of the Scottish Borders]] [[Category:Scottish monarchs]] [[Category:House of Dunkeld]] [[Category:Medieval_Gaels]] [[de:Alexander III. (Schottland)]] [[no:Alexander III av Skottland]] [[ja:アレグザンダー3世 (スコットランド王)]] [[pl:Aleksander III (król Szkocji)]] [[pt:Alexandre III da Escócia]] [[sv:Alexander III av Skottland]] [[uk:Александр ІІІ (король Шотландії)]] [[zh:亚历山大三世 (苏格兰)]] 1597 40764867 2006-02-22T21:48:04Z KocjoBot 467651 robot Adding: sl Please see: * [[Alexander of Greece (king)]] for the [[20th century]] [[monarch|king]] of [[Greece]] * [[Alexander of Greece (rhetorician)]] for the ancient Greek [[rhetoric]]ian Neither of the above should be confused with the Greek king and conqueror [[Alexander the Great]] king of [[Macedon]]. {{hndis}} [[sl:Aleksander Grški]] 1598 15900065 2004-08-20T13:50:13Z Stan Shebs 7777 #REDIRECT [[Alexander Polyhistor]] #REDIRECT [[Alexander Polyhistor]] 1599 40002252 2006-02-17T12:14:46Z Charles Matthews 12978 correct lk '''Alexander of Aphrodisias''', pupil of [[Aristocles of Messene]], the most celebrated of the Greek commentators on the writings of [[Aristotle]], and styled, by way of pre-eminence, ''o exegetes'' ("the expositor"), was a native of [[Aphrodisias]] in [[Caria]]. He came to [[Athens]] towards the end of the [[2nd century]] AD, became head of the [[Lyceum]] and lectured on [[peripatetic]] [[philosophy]]. The object of his work was to free the doctrine from the [[syncretism]] of [[Ammonius Saccas|Ammonius]] and to reproduce the pure doctrine of Aristotle. Commentaries by Alexander on the following works of Aristotle are still extant: *the ''Analytica Priora'', i *the ''Topica'' *the ''Meteorologica'' *the ''De Sensu'' *the ''Metaphysica'', i-v, together with an abridgment of what he wrote on the remaining books of the ''Metaphysica''. His commentaries were greatly esteemed among the [[Arab]]ians, who translated many of them. [[Alexander's band]], an [[optical phenomenon]], is named after him. There are also several original writings by Alexander still extant. The most important of these are a work ''On Fate'', in which he argues against the [[Stoic]] doctrine of necessity; and one ''On the Soul'', in which he contends that the undeveloped reason in man is material (''nous ulikos'') and inseparable from the body. He argued strongly against the doctrine of [[immortality]]. He identified the active intellect (''nous poietikos''), through whose agency the potential intellect in man becomes actual, with God. Several of Alexander's works were published in the Aldine edition of Aristotle, Venice, 1495-1498; his ''De Fato'' and ''De Anima'' were printed along with the works of [[Themistius]] at Venice (1534); the former work, which has been translated into [[Latin]] by [[Grotius]] and also by [[Schulthess]], was edited by [[J. C. Orelli]], [[Zurich]], [[1824]]; and his commentaries on the Metaphysica by [[H. Bonitz]], [[Berlin]], [[1847]]. [[J. Nourisson]] has treated of his doctrine of fate (''De la liberte et du hazard'', [[Paris]], 1870). In the early [[Renaissance]] his doctrine of the soul's mortality was adopted by [[Pietro Pomponazzi]] against the [[Thomists]] and the [[Averroists]]. See also [[Alexandrists]], [[Pietro Pomonazzi]]. Also [[A. Apelt]], ''Die Schrift d. Alex. v. Aphr.'', [[Philolegus]], xlv., 1886: [[C. Ruelle]], ''Alex. d'Aphr. et le pretendu Alex. d'Alexandrie,'' ''Rev. des etudes grecques'', v., 1892; [[Eduard Zeller|E. Zeller]]'s ''Outlines of Gk. Phil.'' (Eng. trans., ed. 1905, p. 296). ==External links== * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/alexander-aphrodisias/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry] ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Latin authors]] [[de:Alexander von Aphrodisias]] [[sk:Alexander z Afrodízie]] [[fi:Aleksanteri Afrodisiaslainen]] 1600 40811659 2006-02-23T04:13:22Z 206.103.49.104 fixing redirect [[Image:Alexander_severus.jpg|right|thumb|Alexander Severus]] '''Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexandrus''' ([[October 1]], [[208]]- [[March 18]], [[235]]), commonly called '''Alexander Severus''', [[Roman Emperors|Roman emperor]] from [[222]] to [[235]], was born at [[Arqa|Arca Caesarea]] in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. His father, [[Gessius Marcianus]], held office more than once as an imperial procurator; his mother, [[Julia Mamaea]], was the daughter of [[Julia Maesa]] and the aunt of [[Elagabalus]] (also called "Heliogabalus"). His original name was Bassianus, but he changed it in 221 when his grandmother, Maesa, persuaded the emperor Elagabalus to adopt his cousin as successor and create him Caesar. In the next year, on [[March 11]], Elagabalus was murdered, and Alexander was proclaimed emperor by the [[Praetorian Guard|Praetorians]] and accepted by the senate. He was then a mere lad, amiable, well-meaning, but entirely under the dominion of his mother, a woman of many virtues, who surrounded him with wise counsellors, watched over the development of his character and improved the tone of the administration, but on the other hand was inordinately jealous, and alienated the army by extreme parsimony, while neither she nor her son had a strong enough hand to keep tight the reins of military discipline. Mutinies became frequent in all parts of the empire; to one of them the life of the jurist and praetorian praefect [[Ulpian]] was sacrificed; another compelled the retirement of [[Dio Cassius]] from his command. On the whole, however, the reign of Alexander was prosperous till he was summoned to the East to face the new power of the [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanians]]. Of the war that followed we have very various accounts; [[Theodor Mommsen|Mommsen]] leans to that which is least favourable to the Romans. According to Alexander's own dispatch to the senate he gained great victories. At all events, though the [[Persians]] were checked for the time, the conduct of the Roman army showed an extraordinary lack of discipline. The emperor returned to [[Rome]] and celebrated a triumph ([[233]]), but next year he was called to face German invaders in [[Gaul]], not far from Mainz, where he was slain, (on either [[March 18|18]] or [[March 19|19]] March [[235]]), together with his mother, in a mutiny of the [[Legio XXII Primigenia|Legio XXII ''Primigenia'']] which was probably led by [[Maximinus Thrax]], a Thracian legionary, and at any rate secured him the throne. [[Image:Bronze-Alexander Severus-Deultum AE25 Moushmov 3583.jpg|thumb|300px|Alexander Severus coin, celebrating [[Artemis]] and the ''Flavian colony of [[Burgas|Deultum]]''.]] Alexander was the last of the Syrian emperors. Under the influence of his mother, he did much to improve the morals and condition of the people. His advisers were men like the famous jurist Ulpian, the historian Dio Cassius and a select board of sixteen senators; a municipal council of fourteen assisted the urban praefect in administering the affairs of the fourteen districts of Rome. The luxury and extravagance that had formerly been so prevalent at the court were put down; the standard of the coinage was raised; taxes were lightened; literature, art and science were encouraged; the lot of the soldiers was improved; and, for the convenience of the people, loan offices were instituted for lending money at a moderate rate of interest. In religious matters Alexander preserved an open mind. In his private chapel he had busts of [[Orpheus]], [[Abraham]], [[Apollonius of Tyana]], and [[Jesus]]. It is said that he was desirous of erecting a temple to the founder of Christianity, but was dissuaded by the pagan priests. There is no doubt that, had Alexander's many excellent qualities been supported by the energy and strength of will necessary for the government of a military empire, he would have been one of the greatest of the Roman emperors. ==See also== * [[Severan dynasty family tree]] ==External links== {{Commons|Alexander Severus}} *[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Severus_Alexander/1*.html Life of Alexander Severus] (''Historia Augusta'' at LacusCurtius: Latin text and English translation) ==References== *{{1911}} *Lampridius, ''Alexander Severus'' *Dio Cassius lxxviii. 30, lxxix. 17, lxxx. 1 *Herodian vi. 1-18 *Porrath, ''Der Kaiser Alex. Sev.'' (1876) *[[Pauly-Wissowa]], ''Realencyclopadie,'' ii. 2526 foll. (Groebe) *RV Nind Hopkins, ''Cambridge Historical Essays,'' No. xiv. (1907). {{Roman Emperor | Prev=[[Elagabalus]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[Maximinus Thrax]]|years=222&ndash;235}} [[Category:208 births]] [[Category:235 deaths]] [[Category:Roman emperors]] [[Category:Severan Dynasty]] [[Category:Crisis of the Third Century]] [[Category:Roman emperors killed by own troops]] [[da:Alexander Severus]] [[de:Severus Alexander]] [[et:Severus Alexander]] [[es:Alejandro Severo]] [[eo:Aleksandro Severo]] [[eu:Alexandro Severo]] [[fr:Sévère Alexandre]] [[ko:세베루스 알렉산더]] [[hr:Aleksandar Sever]] [[it:Alessandro Severo]] [[he:אלכסנדר סוורוס]] [[nl:Severus Alexander]] [[ja:アレクサンデル・セウェルス]] [[pl:Sewer Aleksander]] [[pt:Alexandre Severo]] [[ro:Alexandru Sever]] [[sr:Александар Север]] [[fi:Severus Alexander]] [[sv:Alexander Severus]] 1601 42051302 2006-03-03T13:37:19Z Dbachmann 86857 /* Antiquity */ '''Alexander''' is a common male first name. It also occurs, less frequently, as a [[family name|surname]]. ==Origin== The name in [[English language|English]] is taken from the [[Latin]] "Alexander," which is a Romanization of the original [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] [[nominative]] ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ (''Alexandros''). The [[genitive]] form in Greek is ''Alexandrou''. [[Etymology|Etymologically]], the name derives from ''alex-'', the compound-form of ''alexis'' (from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] [PIE] ''*alek-''), meaning "refuge, protection, defence," together with ''-andros'', the compound form of andēr (from the PIE ''*ner-''), meaning "man." Thus is may be roughly translated as "protector of men." The term is either a rare type of "inverse [[tatpurusha]]" compound, with the modifier in second position (the cognate [[Sanskrit]] tatpurusha being *nararakṣa, cf. [[Ramayana]] 6.33.45; the exact Sanskrit counterpart would be *rakṣinara, from PIE hleks(i)-hnros), or a worn-down [[terpsimbrotos]] type compound, whose original verbal meaning was "he protects men". The earliest reference to the name may be that to [[Alaksandu]] in the [[13th century BC]]. The name was one of the titles ("epithets") given to the Greek goddess [[Hera]] and as such is usually taken to mean "one who comes to the aid of warriors." In the [[Iliad]], the character [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] is known also as Alexander. The name's popularity was spread throughout the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic world]] by the military conquests of King Alexander III of Macedon, commonly known as '''[[Alexander the Great]]''' (''Μέγας Αλέξανδρος''). ==Variants== The female version of the name is Alexandra. Clipped forms derived from the name include: Alexandros/Alexandra, Alexis/Alexia, Alekos/Aleka (Greece), Alec, Alle, Alecu (Romania), Alex, Allie, Lex, Sander, Sandra (Female only), Sandro (Italy), Sandu (Romania), Sandy, (also female) Sanya (Slavic), Sascha (German, common in Austria), Sasha (Russian affectionate form), Shura (also in Russia), Xan, Xander, Xandi, Alexandre(french), Alejandro (spanish). The surname bears various forms depending on the country. In all but a few cases, these forms directly correspond with the form of the first name used in that country. For example, the English version is generally spelled Alexander, the Italian version of the surname is spelled Alessandro, and so on. ==Monarchs== <!-- redlinks out per Mos *[[Aleksander|Alexander]] (* [[1338]], † before [[1386]]) prince of Podolia *[[Alexandru Lapusneanu|Alexandru Lăpuşneanu]], voivode of Moldavia ([[1552]]-[[1561]] and [[1564]] - [[1568]]) *[[Alexandru Movila|Alexandru Movilă]], voivode of Moldavia ([[1615]]-[[1616]]) *[[Alexandru Coconul]], voivode of Moldavia ([[1629]]-[[1630]]) --> ===Antiquity=== *[[Alaksandu]], ca. 1280 BC *[[Alexander of Pherae]] despot of Pherae between [[369 BC|369]] and [[358 BC]] *[[Alexander I of Epirus]] king of Epirus about 342 B.C. *[[Alexander II of Epirus]] king of Epirus 272 B.C. *[[Alexander I of Macedon]] *[[Alexander II of Macedon]] *[[Alexander the Great|Alexander III of Macedon]] (Alexander the Great), King of Macedon, 336–323 BC *[[Alexander IV of Macedon]] *[[Alexander Balas]], ruler of the Seleucid kingdom of Syria between [[150 BC|150]] and [[146 BC]] *[[Alexander III of Byzantium|Alexander III]], Byzantine Emperor *[[Alexander Severus]], ([[208]]-[[235]]), Roman Empire ===Middle Ages=== *[[Alexander I of Scotland]], (c. [[1078]] - April, [[1124]]) *[[Alexander II of Scotland]], ([[1198]] - [[July 6]], [[1249]]) *[[Alexander III of Scotland]], ([[September 4]], [[1241]] - March, [[1286]]) *[[Alexandru cel Bun]], voivode of Moldavia ([[1400]]-[[1432]]) *[[Skenderbeg]], ([[1405]]-[[1468]]), prince of Albania *[[Eskander]] or Alexander, Emperor of Ethiopia ([[1472]] - [[1494]]) *[[Alexander of Poland]] (1461-1506), king of Poland ===Modern=== *[[Alexander I of Russia]], ([[1777]]-[[1825]]), emperor of Russia *[[Alexander II of Russia]], ([[1818]]-[[1881]]), emperor of Russia *[[Alexander III of Russia]], ([[1845]] - [[November 1]], [[1894]]), emperor of Russia *[[Alexander Karadjordjevic, Prince of Serbia|Alexander Karadjordjevic]], ([[1842]]-[[1858]]), Serbian prince *[[Alexander of Bulgaria]], ([[1857]]-[[1893]]), first prince of Bulgaria *[[Alexander John Cuza]], prince of Romania ([[1859]]-[[1866]]) *[[Alexander Obrenovich]], (1876-1903), king of Serbia *[[Alexander of Yugoslavia]] ([[1888]]-[[1934]]), first king of Yugoslavia *[[Zog I]] a.k.a. Skenderbeg III,([[1895]]-[[1961]]), king of Albanians *[[Alexander of Greece (king)]], ([[1917]]-[[1920]]), king of Greece *[[Leka I]], ([[1939]]-), king of Albanians (throne pretender) *[[Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange]] ==Religious leaders== *[[Pope Alexander I|Alexander I, Pope]], (pope [[97]]-[[105]]) *[[Pope Alexander II|Alexander II, Pope]], (pope [[1058]]-[[1061]]) *[[Pope Alexander III|Alexander III, Pope]], (pope [[1164]]-[[1168]]) *[[Pope Alexander IV|Alexander IV, Pope]], (pope [[1243]]-[[1254]]) *[[Pope Alexander V|Alexander V, Pope]], (''Peter Philarges'' ca. [[1339]]-[[May 3]], [[1410]]) *[[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI, Pope]], ([[1431]]-[[1503]]), Roman pope *[[Pope Alexander VII|Alexander VII, Pope]], ([[1599]]-[[1667]]) *[[Pope Alexander VIII|Alexander VIII, Pope]], (pope [[1689]]-[[1691]]), *[[Alexander of Constantinople]], bishop of Constantinople (314-337) *[[Alexander of Alexandria|Alexander (I) of Alexandria]], Coptic Pope, Patriarch of Alexandria between [[313]] and [[328]] *[[Alexander II of Alexandria]], Coptic Pope ([[702]]-[[729]]) <!-- commented out, add back in when article exists *[[Alexander of Antioch]] *[[Alexander of Jerusalem]] [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01285b.htm Alexander (Early Bishops)] - Article from the Catholic Encyclopedia --> <!-- Left dates wiki-linnked on purpose. --> ==Others named Alexander== ===Surname=== *[[Christopher Alexander]], architect. *[[Edward Porter Alexander]], (1835-1910), officer in the U.S. Army and Confederate States Army. *[[F. Matthias Alexander]], Australian actor/orator, founder of [[Alexander Technique]]. *[[Harold Alexander]], British Second World War general. *[[Jason Alexander]], stage name of American actor Jason Scott Greenspan. *[[Jason Allen Alexander]], ex-husband of Britney Spears. *[[John White Alexander]], (1856 - 1915), American artist. *[[Manny Alexander]], Major League Baseball infielder *[[Samuel Alexander]], (1859 - 1938) philosopher and essayist *[[Sarah Alexander]], British actress *[[Shaun Alexander]], NFL running back ===First name=== *[[Alexander (general)]], son of Polyperchon, the regent of Macedonia *[[Alexander of Aphrodisias]] Greek commentator and philosopher *[[Alexander of Greece (rhetorician)]], Greek rhetorician *[[Alexander of Hales]] 13th century Medieval theologian *[[Paris (mythology)]], otherwise known as Alex, the Trojan prince who kidnapped Helen [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01285a.htm Alexander, name of seven men] Article from the Catholic Encyclopedia ==Places== A number of places are also associated with Alexander: <!-- add back in when no red-linked per MoS *[[Alexander, Manitoba]], [[Canada]] *[[Alexander Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador]], Canada *[[Alexander Township, McKenzie County, North Dakota]], United States *[[Alexander Township, Pierce County, North Dakota]], United States *[[Alexander Township, Stutsman County, North Dakota]], United States *[[Alexander Township, Ohio]], United States --> *[[Alexander (town), New York]], United States *[[Alexander (village), New York]], United States *[[Alexander City, Alabama]], United States *[[Alexander River]], New Zealand *[[Alexander, Arkansas]], United States *[[Alexander, Iowa]], United States *[[Alexander, Kansas]], United States *[[Alexander, Maine]], United States *[[Alexander, North Dakota]], United States *[[Alexanderplatz, (central square), Berlin]], Germany ==Other== *[[Alexander (film)]] 2004 film directed by Oliver Stone *[[Alexander the great (film)]] 1956 film directed by [[Robert Rossen]]. *[[Alexander Aircraft Company]], an aircraft manufacturer in [[Colorado]] in the 1920s and 1930s, named for its founder, J. Don Alexander *''[[Alexander (ship)]]'', a convict transport ship in the First Fleet to Australia in 1787 *[[Alexander (game)]] is a PC game Published by UBISOFT based on the life of Alexander the Great <!-- This one's a bit of a stretch, isn't it? * [[Isaac Asimov]]'s short story "Alexander the God" ([[1984]]), reprinted in the anthology ''[[Gold (Asimov)|Gold]]'' ([[1995]]) --> ==See also== *[[List of people by name: Al]] {{disambig}} [[Category:Given names|Alexander]] [[da:Alexander]] [[de:Alexander]] [[el:Αλέξανδρος]] [[fr:Alexandre]] [[ko:알렉산더]] [[he:אלכסנדר (פירושונים)]] [[hr:Aleksandar]] [[lt:Aleksandras]] [[hu:Alexander]] [[nl:Alexander]] [[ja:&#12450;&#12524;&#12463;&#12469;&#12531;&#12480;&#12540;]] [[pl:Aleksander]] [[ru:Александр]] [[sk:Alexander]] [[sl:Aleksander]] [[sv:Alexander]] [[zh:亞歷山大]] 1602 41941945 2006-03-02T19:58:18Z Bluebot 527862 title => bold text + clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]] A number of historical people were named '''Alexander I''': *[[Alexander I of Macedon]], king of [[Macedon]] 495-450 BC *[[Alexander I of Epirus]] King of [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]] about [[342 BC|342 B.C.]] *[[Pope Alexander I]], [[Pope]] from [[106]] to [[115]] *[[Alexander I of Scotland]] (c. [[1078]]-[[1124]]), King of [[Scotland]] *[[Alexander I of Georgia]] ([[1412]]-[[1442]]), King of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] *[[Alexander I of Russia]] ([[1777]]-[[1825]]), Tsar of [[Russia]] *[[Alexander of Bulgaria|Alexander I of Bulgaria]] ([[1857]]-[[1893]]), Prince of [[Bulgaria]] *[[Alexander I of Greece]] ([[1917]]-[[1920]]), King of [[Greece]] *[[Alexander I of Yugoslavia]] ([[1929]]-[[1934]]), King of [[Yugoslavia]] {{hndis}} [[el:Αλέξανδρος Α']] [[fr:Alexandre Ier]] [[it:Alessandro I]] [[nn:Aleksander I]] [[pl:Aleksander I]] [[sv:Alexander I]] [[zh:亚历山大一世]] 1603 40205476 2006-02-18T23:19:12Z Deville 364144 Disambiguate [[Epirus]] to [[Epirus (region)]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] A number of historical people were named '''Alexander II''': * [[Alexander II of Macedon]] was King of [[Macedon]] from [[370 BC|370]] to [[368 BC|368 B.C.]] * [[Alexander II of Epirus]] was the King of [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]] in [[272 BC|272 B.C.]] * [[Pope Alexander II]] was Pope from [[1061]] to [[1073]]. * [[Alexander II of Scotland]] ([[1198]]&ndash;[[1249]]) was the King of [[Scotland]]. * [[Alexander II of Russia]] ([[1818]]&ndash;[[1881]]) was the Emperor of [[Russia]]. {{hndis}} <!-- Localization --> [[fr:Alexandre II]] [[es:Alejandro II]] [[it:Alessandro II]] [[pl:Aleksander II]] [[ru:Александр II (значения)]] [[sv:Alexander II]] 1604 37179312 2006-01-29T06:17:11Z Chlewbot 620581 robot Adding: es '''Alexander III''' may refer to any of the following; *[[Alexander III (emperor)]], [[Byzantine emperor]] (912-913) *[[Pope Alexander III]] [[pope]] from 1159 to 1181 *[[Alexander III of Russia]] (1845-1894), emperor of [[Russia]] *[[Alexander III of Scotland]] (1241-1286), king of [[Scotland]] *[[Alexander III of Macedon]], also known as Alexander the Great {{hndis}} [[es:Alejandro III]] [[fr:Alexandre III]] [[it:Alessandro III]] [[pl:Aleksander III]] [[ru:Александр III (значения)]] [[zh:亚历山大三世]] 1605 41172601 2006-02-25T14:57:24Z Charles Matthews 12978 /* References */ '''Alexander Aetolus''', of [[Pleuron]] in [[Aetolia]], Greek poet and man of letters, the only representative of Aetolian poetry, flourished about [[280 BC]]. When living in [[Alexandria]] he was commissioned by [[Ptolemy Philadelphus]] to arrange the tragedies and satyric dramas in the library; some ten years later he took up his residence at the court of [[Antigonus II Gonatas|Antigonus Gonatas]], king of [[Macedon]]ia. His reputation as a tragic poet was so high that he was allotted a place in the [[Alexandrian Pleiad|Alexandrian tragic ''Pleiad'']]; we only know the title of one play (''Astragalistae.'') He also wrote short epics, epigrams and elegies, the considerable fragments of which show learning and eloquence. ==References== *[[Augustus Meineke|Meineke]], ''Analecta Alexandrina'' (1853) *[[Theodor Bergk|Bergk]], ''Poetae Lyrici Graeci'' *[[Auguste Couat]], ''La Poésie alexandrine'' (1882). ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Ancient Greek poets]] [[hu:Alexandrosz]] 1606 32027788 2005-12-19T23:28:59Z BPK2 476225 [[Image:AlexanderJannaeus.gif|thumb|300px|Coin of '''Alexander Jannaeus''' (103-76 BC). <br>'''Front:''' [[Seleucid]] anchor, with Greek legend "King Alexander". <br>'''Back:''' Eight-spoked wheel or star-within a diadem, with Hebrew letters between the spokes "Yehonatan the King".]] '''Alexander Jannaeus''' (also known as '''Alexander Jannai/Yannai'''), king of [[Judea]] from ([[103 BCE]] to [[76 BCE]]), son of [[John Hyrcanus]], inherited the throne from his brother [[Aristobulus]], and appears to have married his brother's widow, ''Shlamtzion'' or ''Shlomtzion'' or "Shelomit", also known as [[Salome Alexandra]], according to the Biblical law of Yibum ("levirate marriage"), although [[Josephus]] is inexplicit on that point. His likely full Hebrew name was Jonathan; he may have been the High Priest Jonathan, rather than his great-uncle of the same name, who established the [[Masada]] fortress. Under the name King Yannai, he appears as a wicked tyrant in the [[Talmud]], reflecting his conflict with the [[Pharisee]] party. He is among the more colorful historical figures little known, however, outside specialized history, although the impact of him and his widow on the subsequent development of Judaism and Christianity is substantial. ==Civil war against the Pharisees== [[Image:WillemSwiddeAlexanderJannaeus.jpg|thumb|300px|The excution of the Pharisees by Alexander Jannaeus, showing the King and his Court feasting during the executions. Engraving by Willem Swidde, 17th century.]] An avid supporter of the aristocratic [[Hellenism|Hellenist]] faction known as the [[Sadducees]], his reign was constantly challenged by opponents, among them a brother with a rival claim to the throne, and the populist urban-based [[Pharisee]] party. At the beginning of his reign Alexander Jannaeus halted the suppression of the Pharisees and the Sages for a while, under the influence of his wife Salome Alexandra (said to be the sister of the great Jewish sage Shimon ben Shetach). This gave him time and resources to increase his power and prestige by extending the territory under his rule through war and conquest. As his power grew, however, he enlisted foreign soldiers to suppress his own people and eliminate the Pharisees. One year during the Jewish holiday of Sukkot, Alexander Jannaeus, while officiating as the High Priest (Kohen Gadol) at the Temple in Jerusalem, demonstrated his support of the Sadducees by denying the law of the water libation. The crowd responded with shock at his mockery and showed their displeasure by pelting Alexander with the etrogim (citrons) that they were holding in their hands. Unwittingly, the crowd had played right into Alexander's hands. He had intended to incite the people to riot and his soldiers fell upon the crowd at his command. The soldiers slew more than 6,000 people in the Temple courtyard. A civil war started, in which the Pharisees allied with the [[Seleucids]] king [[Demetrius III Eucaerus|Demetrius III]] against Alexander Jannaeus. He first retreated, but then managed to oust his rivals thanks to popular support against the Seleucid invasion of Judea. During the civil war, Alexander Jannaeus suppressed his rivals brutally, killing his brother and many leading Pharisees. ''The New Century Book of Facts'' writes: :''"It is said that 50,000 perished in this civil strife. He quelled a revolt at Jerusalem by slaughtering 6,000. On his return from a short exile into which he had been driven by the Pharisees, he caused 800 rebels to be crucified before him and their wives and children slaughtered ([[86 BC|86 B.C.]])."'' ==Alliance with the Essenes== [[Image:JonathanQumran.gif|thumb|150px|[[Dead Sea scrolls|Dead Sea Scroll]] from Qumran, with a prayer to Alexander Jannaeus.]] Alexander Jannaeus may have been in close relation with the monastic [[Essenes]] at some point, who were probably allies during his fight against the Pharisees. A piece from the [[Dead Sea scrolls]] from [[Qumran]] appears to be an homage to him: :''"holy city/ for king Jonathan/ and all the congregation of your people/ Israel/ who are in the four/ winds of heaven/ peace be (for) all/ and upon your kingdom/ your name be blessed"'' (Transcription and translation by E. Eshel, H. Eshel, and A. Yardeni) Alexander Jannaeus showed considerable competence as a military leader, repelling invaders and expanding the country's borders to the west and south. He was defeated by [[Ptolemy Lathyrus]] in [[Galilee]]; made an alliance with [[Cleopatra]] and drove Ptolemy out. By the end of his rule, the borders of his state would exceed that of David and extend to Gaza and far into Jordan. Upon his death, he was succeeded as monarch by his wife [[Salome Alexandra]], known also and better as [[Shlomzion]], and succeeded as [[High Priest]] by his son John [[Hyrcanus II]]. ==Coinage== The coinage of Alexander Jannaeus is characteristic of the early Jewish coinage in that it avoided human or animal representations, in opposition to the surrounding Greek, and later Roman types of the period. Jewish coinage instead focused on symbols, either natural, such as the [[palm tree]], the [[pomegranate]] or the star, either man-made, such as the temple, the [[Menorah]], trumpets or [[cornucopia]]. [[Image:JanaeusCoinPhoto.JPG|thumb|300px|Coin of Alexander Jannaeus ([[103 BC]] to [[76 BC]]).<br> '''Obv:''' [[Seleucid]] anchor and Greek Legend: BASILEWS ALEXANDROU "King Alexander".<br> '''Rev:''' Eight-spoke wheel or star within diadem. Hebrew legend inside the spokes: "Yehonatan the King".]] Alexander Jannaeus was the first of the Jewish kings to introduce the "eight-ray star" or "eight-spoked wheel" symbol, in his [[bronze]] "Widow's mite" coins, in combination with the wide-spread [[Seleucid]] numismatic symbol of the anchor. These coins are thought to be the ones referred to in the [[Bible]] in Luke 21:1-4: :''"and Jesus sat over against the treasury, and beheld how the people cast money into the treasury; and many that were rich cast in much. And He called unto him His disciples, and saith unto them, Verily I say unto you, that this poor widow hath cast more in, than all they which have cast into the treasury: For all they did cast in of their abundance; but she of her want did cast in all that she had"'' Depending on the make, the star symbol can be shown with straight spokes connected to the outside circle, in a style rather indicative of a wheel. On others, the spokes can have a more "flame-like" shape, more indicative of the representation of a star within a diadem. It is not clear what the wheel or star may exactly symbolize, and interpretations vary, from the morning star, to the sun or the heavens. The influence of some [[Persians|Persian]] symbols of a star within a diadem, or the eight-spoked [[Buddhist]] wheel have also been suggested. The star cannot be a representation of the star of the birth of [[Jesus]], due to the anteriority of the coins by close to a century. On balance, the eight-spoked Macedonian star (a variation of which is the [[Vergina Sun]]), emblem of the royal [[Argead dynasty]] and the ancient kingdom of [[Macedon|Macedonia]], within a Hellenistic [[Diadem (personal wear)|diadem]] symbolizing royalty (many of the coins depict a small knot with two ends on top of the diadem), seem to be the most probable source for this symbol. {{start box}} {{succession box one to two|before=[[Aristobulus|Aristobulus I]]|title1=[[Hasmonean|King of Judaea]]|title2=[[List of High Priests of Israel|High Priest of Jerusalem]]|years1=103&ndash;76 BC|years2=103&ndash;76 BC|after1=[[Salome Alexandra]]|after2=[[Hyrcanus II]]}} {{end box}} ==References== * "Jewish symbols on ancient Jewish coins" Paul Romanoff, New York American Israel Numismatic Association, 1971. * This article incorporates some content from the public domain 1911 edition of ''The New Century Book of Facts'' published by the King-Richardson Company, Springfield, Massachusetts. (This reference gives a death date of 78 BC, but consensus seems to be 76 BC.) ==External links== *[http://www.biblicalmites.com Leptons and Prutahs of Alexander Jannaeus] *[http://dougsmith.ancients.info/feac47wid.html Coinage of King Alexander Jannaeus, "Widow's Mites".] *[http://images.google.co.jp/images?q=Alexander%20Jannaeus%20coins&hl=ja&lr=&sa=N&tab=wi Coins of King Alexander Jannaeus] *[http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/HellenicMacedonia/en/img_A1a.html Miniature 'shield' showing the 8-spoked star of the Argead] [[Category:Hasmoneans]] [[Category:High Priests of Israel]] [[he:&#1488;&#1500;&#1499;&#1505;&#1504;&#1491;&#1512; &#1497;&#1504;&#1488;&#1497;]] 1607 35531544 2006-01-17T12:14:59Z Korg 263660 {{hndis}} '''Alexander IV''' may refer to either of the following; *[[Pope Alexander IV]] *King [[Alexander IV of Macedon]], the son of [[Alexander the Great]] {{hndis}} [[de:Alexander IV.]] [[es:Alejandro IV]] [[fr:Alexandre IV]] [[it:Alessandro IV]] [[sv:Alexander IV]] 1608 15900075 2005-04-21T03:35:52Z John Kenney 10512 #REDIRECT [[Pope Alexander V]] 1609 15900076 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Pope_Alexander_VI]] 1610 15900077 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Pope_Alexander_VII]] 1611 15900078 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Pope_Alexander_VIII]] 1612 28050100 2005-11-11T19:41:57Z Bluebot 527862 Standardising 1911 references. The '''Alexandrists''' were a school of [[Renaissance]] philosophers who, in the great controversy on the subject of personal immortality, adopted the explanation of the ''De Anima'' given by Alexander of Aphrodisias. According to the orthodox [[Thomism]] of the Roman Catholic Church, [[Aristotle]] rightly regarded reason as a facility of the individual soul. Against this, the Averroists, led by [[Agostino Nito]], introduced the modifying theory that universal reason in a sense individualizes itself in each soul and then absorbs the active reason into itself again. These two theories respectively evolved the doctrine of individual and universal immortality, or the absorption of the individual into the eternal One. The Alexandrists, led by Pietro Pomponazzi, boldly assailed these beliefs and denied that either was rightly attributed to Aristotle. They held that Aristotle considered the soul as a material and therefore a mortal entity which operates during life only under the authority of universal reason. Hence the Alexandrists denied the possibility of any form of immortality, holding that, since the soul is organically connected with the body, the dissolution of the latter involves the extinction of the former. ==References== *{{1911}} 1613 40205479 2006-02-18T23:19:14Z Deville 364144 Disambiguate [[Epirus]] to [[Despotate of Epirus]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] [[image:Alexius I.jpg|thumb|Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus]] '''Alexius I''' (Greek: Αλέξιος Α' Κομνηνός or Alexios I Komnenos) ([[1048]] &ndash; [[August 15]], [[1118]]), [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[List of Byzantine Emperors|emperor]] ([[1081]]&ndash;[[1118]]), was the third son of John Comnenus, the nephew of [[Isaac I Comnenus]] (emperor 1057&ndash;1059). His father declined the throne on the abdication of Isaac, who was accordingly succeeded by four emperors of other families between [[1059]] and [[1081]]. Under one of these emperors, [[Romanus IV|Romanus IV Diogenes]] ([[1067]]&ndash;[[1071]]), he served with distinction against the [[Seljuk Turks]]. Under [[Michael VII]] Parapinaces ([[1071]]&ndash;[[1078]]) and [[Nicephorus III]] Botaniates ([[1078]]&ndash;[[1081]]) he was also employed, along with his elder brother Isaac, against rebels in [[Asia Minor]], [[Thrace]] and in [[Despotate of Epirus|Epirus]] in [[1071]]. The success of the [[Comnenus|Comneni]] roused the jealousy of Botaniates and his ministers, and the Comneni were almost compelled to take up arms in self-defence. Botaniates was forced to abdicate and retire to a [[monastery]], and Isaac declined the crown in favour of his younger brother Alexius, who then became emperor at the age of 33. By that time Alexius was the lover of the Empress [[Maria Bagrationi]], a daughter of [[monarch|king]] [[Bagrat IV of Georgia]] who was successively married to [[Michael VII]] Ducas and his successor Botaniates, and was renowned for her beauty. Alexius and Maria lived almost openly together at the Palace of Mangana, and Alexius had [[Michael VII]] and Maria's young son, the prince Constantine Ducas, adopted and proclaimed heir to the throne. The affair conferred to Alexius a degree of dynastic legitimacy, but soon his mother Anna Dalassena consolidated the Ducas family connection by arranging the Emperor's wedding with [[Irene Ducaena]] or Doukaina, granddaughter of the ''caesar'' John Ducas, head of a powerful feudal family and the "kingmaker" behind [[Michael VII]]. Alexius' involvement with Maria continued and shortly after his daughter [[Anna Comnena]] was born, she was betrothed to [[Constantine Ducas]] and moved to live at the Mangana Palace with him and Maria. The situation however changed drastically when [[John II Comnenus]] was born: Anna's engagement to Constantine was dissolved, she was moved to the main Palace to live with her mother and grandmother, Constantine's status as heir was terminated and Alexius became estranged with Maria, now stripped of her imperial title. Shortly afterwards, the teenager Constantine died and Maria was confined to a convent. [[Image:Histamenon nomisma-Alexius I-sb1776.jpg|thumb|300px|This coin was struck by Alexius during his war against [[Robert Guiscard]].]] Alexius' long reign of nearly 37 years was full of struggle. At the very outset he had to meet the formidable attack of the [[Normans]] ([[Robert Guiscard]] and his son [[Bohemund I of Antioch|Bohemund]]), who took [[Durrës|Dyrrhachium]] and [[Corfu]], and laid siege to [[Larissa]] in [[Thessaly]] (see [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)|Battle of Dyrrhachium]]). The Norman danger ended for the time with Robert Guiscard's death in [[1085]], and the conquests were reversed. He had next to repel the invasions of [[Pechenegs]] and [[Kypchaks|Cumans]] in Thrace, with whom the [[Manichaean]] sect of the [[Bogomils]] made common cause; and thirdly, he had to cope with the fast-growing power of the [[Seljuk Turks]] in Asia Minor. Above all he had to meet the difficulties caused by the arrival of the [[knight]]s of the [[First Crusade]], which had been, to a great degree, initiated as the result of the representations of his own ambassadors, whom he had sent to [[Pope Urban II]] at the [[Council of Piacenza]] in [[1095]]. The help which he wanted from the West was simply [[mercenary]] forces and not the immense hosts which arrived, to his consternation and embarrassment. The first group, under [[Peter the Hermit]], he dealt with by sending them on to Asia Minor, where they were massacred by the Turks in [[1096]]. The second and much more serious host of knights, led by [[Godfrey of Bouillon]], he also led into Asia, promising to supply them with provisions in return for an oath of homage, and by their victories recovered for the Byzantine Empire a number of important cities and islands&mdash;[[Nicaea]], [[Chios]], [[Rhodes]], [[Izmir|Smyrna]], [[Ephesus]], [[Philadelphia (Alasehir)|Philadelphia]], [[Sardis]], and in fact most of Asia Minor ([[1097]]&ndash;[[1099]]). This is ascribed by his daughter [[Anna Comnena|Anna]] as a credit to his policy and diplomacy, but by the Latin historians of the crusade as a sign of his treachery and falseness. The crusaders believed their oaths were made invalid when Alexius did not help them during the [[siege of Antioch]]; Bohemund, who had set himself up as [[Principality of Antioch|Prince of Antioch]], briefly went to war with Alexius, but agreed to become Alexius' vassal under the [[Treaty of Devol]] in [[1108]]. During the last twenty years of his life he lost much of his popularity. The years were marked by persecution of the followers of the Paulician and Bogomil heresies&mdash;one of his last acts was to burn [[Basil the Physician|Basil]], a Bogomil leader, with whom he had engaged in a theological controversy; by renewed struggles with the Turks ([[1110]]&ndash;[[1117]]); and by anxieties as to the succession, which his wife Irene wished to alter in favour of her daughter Anna's husband, [[Nicephorus Bryennius]], for whose benefit the special title ''[[Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy|panhypersebastos]]'' ("honored above all") was created. This intrigue disturbed even his dying hours. Alexius was for many years under the strong influence of an ''eminence grise'', his mother [[Anna Dalassena]], a wise and immensely able politician whom, in a uniquely irregular fashion, he had crowned as ''Empress Augusta'' instead of the rightful claimant to the title, his wife Irene. Dalassena was the effective administrator of the Empire during Alexius' long absences in war campaigns: she was constantly at odds with her daughter-in-law and had assumed total responsibility for the upbringing and education of her granddaughter [[Anna Comnena]]. == External links == * [http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/byz/alexius_I/t.html Alexius coinage] ==References== *{{1911}} {{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Nicephorus III]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[John II Comnenus]]}} [[Category:Comnenid dynasty]] [[Category:Byzantine emperors]] [[Category:Crusades]] [[Category:1048 births]] [[Category:1118 deaths]] [[de:Alexios I. (Byzanz)]] [[el:Αλέξιος Α' Κομνηνός]] [[es:Alejo I Comneno]] [[fr:Alexis Ier Comnène]] [[he:אלכסיוס הראשון]] [[hu:I. Alexiosz]] [[nl:Alexius I van Byzantium]] [[ja:アレクシオス1世コムネノス]] [[pl:Aleksy I Komnen]] [[pt:Aleixo I Comneno]] [[fi:Aleksios I Komnenos]] [[sv:Alexios I Komnenos]] [[zh:阿历克塞一世]] 1614 41748138 2006-03-01T13:30:44Z Tasc 853739 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/204.117.145.194|204.117.145.194]] to last version by Naconkantari :''For other senses of this name, see [[Alexis (disambiguation)]].'' '''Alexis''' (ca. [[375 BC]]-ca. [[275 BC]]) was a [[Greece|Greek]] [[comedian|comic]] [[poet]] of the [[Middle Comedy]], born at [[Thurii]] and taken early to [[Athens]], where he became a citizen. He won his first [[Lenaean]] victory in the [[350s BC]], most likely, where he was sixth after [[Eubulus]], and fourth after [[Antiphanes]]. [[Plutarch]] says that he lived to the age of 106, and that he died on the stage while being crowned. According to the ''[[Suda]]'', he wrote 245 comedies, of which some 130 titles are preserved. Only fragments of any of the plays have survived - about 340 in all, totalling about 1,000 lines. They attest to the wit and refinement of the author (see [[Theodor Kock]], ''Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta''). The ''Suda'' also calls him [[Menander]]'s uncle, but an anonymous [[tractate]] on comedy more plausibly states that Menander was his pupil. Alexis was known in [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times; [[Aulus Gellius]] noted that Alexis' plays were used by Roman comedians, including [[Turpilius]] and possibly [[Plautus]]. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:375 BC births]] [[Category:275 BC deaths]] [[Category:Ancient Greek poets]] [[hu:Alexisz]] 1615 42042399 2006-03-03T11:51:27Z KnightRider 430793 warnfile Adding: es '''Alexius II Comnenus''' ([[September 10]], [[1169]] &ndash; October [[1183]]), [[Byzantine emperor]] ([[1180]]-[[1183]]), was the son of emperor [[Manuel I Comnenus]] and [[Maria of Antioch|Maria]], daughter of [[Raymond of Antioch|Raymund]], [[Principality of Antioch|prince of Antioch]]. He was the long-awaited male heir, and was named Alexius as a fulfilment of the [[AIMA prophecy]]. On Manuel's death in [[1180]], Maria, who had been immured in a [[convent]] under the name of Xene, had herself proclaimed regent (1179-1180), and handing over her son to counsellors, who encouraged him in every vice, supported the government of Alexius the ''[[Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy|protosebastos]]'' (a cousin of Alexius II), who was popularly believed to be Maria's lover. The young Alexius and his friends now tried to form a party against the empress mother and the protosebastos; and his sister Maria, wife of Caesar John ([[Renier of Montferrat]]), stirred up riots in the streets of the capital. Their party was defeated ([[May 2]], [[1182]]), but [[Andronicus I Comnenus|Andronicus Comnenus]] took advantage of these disorders to aim at the crown, entered Constantinople, where he was received with almost divine honours, and overthrew the regents. His arrival was celebrated by a massacre of the Latins in Constantinople, especially the [[Venice|Venetian]] merchants, which he made no attempt to stop. He allowed Alexius to be crowned, but forced him to consent to the death of all his friends, including his mother, his sister and the Caesar, and refused to allow him the smallest voice in public affairs. The betrothal in 1180 of Alexius with [[Agnes of France]] , daughter of [[Louis VII of France]] and his third wife [[Adèle of Champagne]] and at the time a child of nine, was quashed. Andronicus was now formally proclaimed as co-emperor, and not long afterwards, on the pretext that divided rule was injurious to the Empire, he caused Alexius to be strangled with a bow-string (October 1183). ==Sources== * Magdalino, Paul. ''The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos'', 1993 ---- {{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Manuel I Comnenus]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[Andronicus I Comnenus]]}} {{1911}} [[Category:Comnenid dynasty]] [[Category:Byzantine emperors]] [[Category:1169 births|Alexius II Comnenus]] [[Category:1183 deaths|Alexius II Comnenus]] [[de:Alexios II. (Byzanz)]] [[el:Αλέξιος Β']] [[es:Alejo II Comneno]] [[fr:Alexis II Comnène]] [[it:Alessio II di Bisanzio]] [[hu:II. Alexiosz]] [[nl:Alexius II van Byzantium]] [[ja:アレクシオス2世コムネノス]] [[pl:Aleksy II Komnen]] [[fi:Aleksios II Komnenos]] 1616 37332985 2006-01-30T08:02:32Z Chlewbot 620581 robot Adding: es '''Alexius III Angelus''' (Greek: Αλέξιος Γ' Άγγελος or Alexios III Angelos), [[Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine emperor]], was the second son of Andronicus Angelus, nephew of [[Alexius I]]. In [[1195]], while his brother [[Isaac II]] was away hunting in [[Thrace]], he was proclaimed emperor by the troops; he captured Isaac at [[Stagira]] in [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], put out his eyes, and kept him henceforth a close prisoner, though he had been redeemed by him from captivity at [[Antioch]] and loaded with honours. To compensate for this crime and to confirm his position as emperor, he had to scatter money so lavishly as to empty his treasury, and to allow such licence to the officers of the army as to leave the Empire practically defenceless. He consummated the financial ruin of the state. The able and forceful empress [[Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamaterina]] tried in vain to sustain his credit and his court; Vatatzes, the favourite instrument of her attempts at reform, was [[assassination|assassinated]] by the emperor's orders. Eastward the Empire was overrun by the [[Seljuk Turks]]; from the north [[Bulgarians]] and [[Vlachs]] descended unchecked to ravage the plains of Macedonia and Thrace; while Alexius squandered the public treasure on his palaces and gardens. Soon he was threatened by a new and yet more formidable danger. In [[1202]] the Western princes of the [[Fourth Crusade]] assembled at [[Venice]], bent on a new [[crusade]]. Alexius, son of the deposed Isaac, escaped from [[Constantinople]] and appealed to the crusaders, promising as a crowning bribe to heal the [[East-West Schism|schism]] of [[Eastern Orthodoxy|East]] and [[Roman Catholicism|West]] if they would help him to depose his uncle. The crusaders, whose objective had been [[Egypt]], were persuaded to set their course for Constantinople, before which they appeared in June [[1203]], proclaiming Alexius as emperor [[Alexius IV]] and summoning the capital to depose his uncle. Alexius III, sunk in debauchery, took no efficient measures to resist. His son-in-law, [[Theodore I Lascaris|Lascaris]], who was the only one to do anything, was defeated at [[Scutari]], and the siege of [[Constantinople]] began. On the [[July 17]] the crusaders, the aged [[Doge of Venice|doge]] [[Enrico Dandolo]] at their head, scaled the walls and took the city by storm. During the fighting and carnage that followed Alexius hid in the palace, and finally, with one of his daughters, Irene, and such treasures as he could collect, got into a boat and escaped to [[Develton]] in Thrace, leaving his wife, his other daughters and his Empire to the victors. Isaac, drawn from his prison and robed once more in the imperial purple, received his son in state. Shortly afterwards Alexius made an effort in conjunction with Murtzuphlos ([[Alexius V]]) to recover the throne. The attempt was unsuccessful and, after wandering about [[Greece]], he surrendered with Euphrosyne, who had meanwhile joined him, to [[Boniface of Montferrat]], then master of a great part of the [[Balkan peninsula]] (the so-called [[Kingdom of Thessalonica]]). Leaving his protection he sought shelter with [[Michael I Ducas]], [[Despotate of Epirus|despot of Epirus]], and then repaired to [[Asia Minor]], where his son-in-law Lascaris was holding his own against the Latins. Alexius, joined by [[Kay Khusrau I]], the [[sultan]] of [[Sultanate of Rüm|Rüm]] (also called the sultan of [[Iconium]] or [[Konya]]), now demanded the crown of Lascaris, and on his refusal marched against him. Lascaris, however, defeated and took him prisoner. Alexius was relegated to a [[monastery]] at [[Nicaea]], where he died on some date unknown. {{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Isaac II Angelus]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[Isaac II Angelus]]</b> and<br /><b>[[Alexius IV Angelus]]}} ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Angelid dynasty]] [[Category:Byzantine emperors]] [[Category:Crusades]] [[de:Alexios III.]] [[es:Alejo III Ángelo]] [[fr:Alexis III]] [[gl:Aleixo III de Bizancio]] [[hu:III. Alexiosz]] [[nl:Alexius III van Byzantium]] [[ja:アレクシオス3世アンゲロス]] [[pl:Aleksy III Angelos]] 1617 40533553 2006-02-21T06:33:10Z Adam Bishop 13008 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.151.50.88|69.151.50.88]] ([[User talk:69.151.50.88|talk]]) to last version by 81.36.74.251 '''Alexius V Ducas Murtzouphlos''' (d. [[1205]]), [[Byzantine emperor]], was proclaimed emperor on [[February 5]], [[1204]], during the siege of [[Constantinople]] by the Latins ([[Fourth Crusade]]). His nickname "Murtzouphlos" referred to his extremely bushy eyebrows. He was related to the imperial Angelus family. A Byzantine nobleman, he had risen to the court position of protovestarius by the time of the [[4th Crusade]]. By January of [[1204]], the Emperors [[Isaac II]] and [[Alexius IV]] had inspired little confidence among the people of Constantinople in their efforts to defend the city from the Latins. As a result of his position, Alexius Ducas had easy access to the Imperial residence, and when a revolution in the city arose with the intent of toppling the two Angeli Emperors, Alexius used that access to capture them. The young [[Alexius IV]] would be killed by the bowstring. The death of his father, [[Isaac II]], shortly afterward, was possibly "artificially induced." Upon his coronation, Alexius V began to strengthen the defenses of [[Constantinople]] and ended negotiations with the Latins. It was too late, however, for the new Emperor to make much of a difference. During the ensuing fight, he defended the city with courage and tenacity. The crusaders would prove to be too strong, and Alexius fled to Thrace shortly before the city fell. He later attempted to ally with his fellow ex-emperor [[Alexius III]] against the Latins, but Alexius III had him blinded and delivered into the hands of the crusaders, who put him to death by casting him from the top of the Pillar of Theodosius as the murderer of Alexius IV. He was the last Byzantine emperor before the establishment of the [[Latin Empire]], which controlled Constantinople for the next 57 years. {{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Isaac II Angelus]]</b> and<br><b>[[Alexius IV Angelus]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[Theodore I Lascaris]]}} ==References== *{{1911}} *John Julius Norwich, "A Short History of Byzantium", Vintage Books, 1999. [[Category:1205 deaths]] [[Category:Angelid dynasty]] [[Category:Byzantine emperors]] [[Category:Crusades]] [[de:Alexios V.]] [[es:Alejo V Ducas]] [[fr:Alexis V (empereur byzantin)]] [[it:Alessio V di Bisanzio]] [[hu:V. Alexiosz]] [[nl:Alexius V van Byzantium]] [[ja:アレクシオス5世ドゥーカス]] [[pl:Aleksy V Murzuflos]] [[pt:Alexius V]] [[fi:Aleksios V]] 1618 15900085 2005-02-08T16:53:56Z John Kenney 10512 #REDIRECT [[Alexis I of Russia]] 1620 41960789 2006-03-02T22:17:09Z Alex Bakharev 294809 fmt [[Image:Tannauer Aleksei.jpg|thumb|200px|Portrait of Alexei by Johann Gottfried Tannauer, c. 1712-16, Russian Museum, St Petersburg]] '''Alexei Petrovich''' ({{lang-ru|Алексей Петрович}}) ({{OldStyleDate|18 February|1690|28 February}} &ndash; {{OldStyleDate|7 July|1718|26 June}}), a [[Russia]]n [[tsarevich]]. He was born in [[Moscow]], the son of Tsar [[Peter I of Russia|Peter I]] and his first wife [[Eudoxia Lopukhina]]. ==Childhood== The young Alexei was brought up by his mother, who fostered an atmosphere of disdain towards [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]], Alexei's father. Alexei's relations with his father suffered from the hatred between his father and his mother, as it was very difficult for him to feel affection for his mother's worst persecutor. From the ages of 6 to 9, Alexei was educated by his tutor Vyazemsky, but after the removal of his mother by Peter the Great to the [[Suzdal]] Intercession Convent, Alexei was confined to the care of educated foreigners, who taught him history, geography, mathematics and French. ==Military career== In [[1703]], Alexei was ordered to follow the army to the field as a private in a [[bombardier (rank)|bombardier]] regiment. In [[1704]], he was present at the capture of [[Narva]]. At this period, the preceptors of the tsarevich had the highest opinion of his ability. Alexei had strong leanings towards [[archaeology]] and [[ecclesiology]]. However, Peter had wished his son and heir to dedicate himself to the service of new [[Russia]], and demanded from him unceasing labour in order to maintain Russia's new wealth and power. Painful relations between father and son, quite apart from the prior personal antipathies, were therefore inevitable. It was an additional misfortune for Alexei that his father should have been too busy to attend to him just as he was growing up from boyhood to manhood. He was left in the hands of [[reactionary]] [[boyars]] and priests, who encouraged him to hate his father and wish for the death of the tsar-[[antichrist]]. In [[1708]] Peter sent Alexei to [[Smolensk]] to collect [[provender]] and [[recruit]]s, and after that to [[Moscow]] to fortify it against [[Charles XII of Sweden]]. At the end of [[1709]], Alexei went to [[Dresden]] for one year. There, he finished lessons in French, German, mathematics and fortification. After his education, Alexei married princess [[Charlotte of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel]], greatly against his will. The wedding was celebrated at [[Torgau]] on [[October 14]], [[1711]], in the house of the queen of [[Poland]]. Three weeks later, the bridegroom was hurried away by his father to [[Torun]] to superintend the provisioning of the Russian troops in Poland. For the next twelve months Alexei was kept constantly on the move. His wife joined him at Torun in December, but in April [[1712]] a peremptory [[ukase]] ordered him off to the army in [[Pomerania]], and in the autumn of the same year he was forced to accompany his father on a tour of inspection through [[Finland]]. ==Self-exile== Immediately on his return from Finland, Alexei was despatched by his father to [[Staraya Russa]] and [[Lake Ladoga]] to see to the building of new ships. This was the last commission entrusted to him, since Peter had not been satisfied with his son's performance and his lack of enthusiasm. Nevertheless, Peter made one last effort to "reclaim" his son. On [[October 11]], [[1715]], princess Charlotte died, after giving birth to a son, the grand-duke Peter, future tsar [[Peter II of Russia|Peter II]]. On the day of the funeral, Peter sent Alexei a stern letter, urging him to take interest in the affairs of the state. Peter threatened to cut him off if he did not acquiesce in his father's plans. Alexei wrote a pitiful reply to his father, offering to renounce the succession in favour of his baby half-brother Peter. Furthermore, in January of [[1716]], Alexei asked his father for permission to become a [[monk]]. Still, Peter did not despair. On the [[August 26]], 1716 he wrote to Alexei from abroad, urging him, if he desired to remain [[tsarevich]], to join him and the army without delay. Rather than face this ordeal, Alexei fled to [[Vienna]] and placed himself under the protection of his brother-in-law, the emperor [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI]], who sent him for safety first to the [[Tirol]]ean fortress of Ahrenberg, and finally to the castle of [[San Elmo]] at [[Naples]]. He was accompanied throughout his journey by his mistress, the [[Finland|Finnish]] girl Afrosina. That the emperor sincerely sympathized with Alexei, and suspected Peter of harbouring murderous designs against his son, is plain from his confidential letter to [[George I of the United Kingdom]], whom he consulted on this delicate affair. Peter felt insulted. The flight of the tsarevich to a foreign potentate was a reproach and a scandal. He had to be recovered and brought back to Russia at all costs. This difficult task was accomplished by Count [[Peter Tolstoi]], the most subtle and unscrupulous of Peter's servants. ==The return== Alexei would only consent to return on his father solemnly swearing, that if he came back he should not be punished in the least, but cherished as a son and allowed to live quietly on his estates and marry Afrosina. On [[31 January]] [[1718]] the tsarevich reached Moscow. Peter had already determined to institute a most searching [[inquisition]] in order to get at the bottom of the mystery of the flight. On [[18 February]] a "confession" was extorted from Alexei which implicated most of his friends, and he then publicly renounced the succession to the throne in favour of the baby grand-duke Peter Petrovich. A horrible reign of terror ensued, in the course of which the ex-tsaritsa Eudoxia was dragged from her monastery and publicly tried for alleged [[adultery]], while all who had in any way befriended Alexei were [[Impalement|impale]]d, broken on the wheel and otherwise lingeringly done to death. All this was done to terrorize the reactionaries and isolate the tsarevich. [[Image:gay_alexis.jpg|thumb|right|350px|''Peter I interrogates Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich at Peterhof'', history painting by Nikolai Ge, 1871, State Tret'yakov Gallery, Moscow]] In April 1718 fresh confessions were extorted from Alexei. Even now there were no actual facts to go upon. The worst that could be brought against him was that he had wished his father's death. In the eyes of Peter, his son was now a self-convicted and most dangerous traitor, whose life was forfeit. But there was no getting over the fact that his father had sworn to pardon him and let him live in peace if he returned to Russia. The whole matter was solemnly submitted to a grand council of [[prelate]]s, [[senator]]s, [[Political minister|minister]]s and other [[dignitary|dignitaries]] on [[13 June]] [[1718]]. The [[clergy]] left the matter to the tsar's own decision. The temporal dignitaries declared the evidence to be insufficient and suggested that Alexei should be examined by torture. Accordingly, on [[19 June]], the weak and ailing tsarevich received twenty-five strokes with the [[knout]], and on the 24th - fifteen more. It was hardly possible that he could survive such treatment. On [[26 June]], Alexei died in the [[Petropavlovskaya fortress]] in [[Saint Petersburg]], two days after the senate had condemned him to death for conspiring rebellion against his father, and for hoping for the cooperation of the common people and the armed intervention of his brother-in-law, the emperor. Some historians believe that Alexei actually died of [[strangulation]] by one of Peter's servants. ==Further Reading== *Matthew S. Anderson, ''Peter the Great'' (London: Thames and Hudson, 1978). *Robert Nisbet Bain, ''The First Romanovs 1613 – 1725'' (London, 1905; reprint, New York, 1967). *Robert K. Massie, ''Peter the Great, His Life and World'' (New York: Ballantine, 1981). *B.H. Sumner, ''Peter the Great and the Emergence of Russia'' (London: English UP, 1968). *Fredrick Charles Weber, ''The Present State of Russia'' vol 1, (1723; reprint, London: Frank Cass and Co, 1968). *---,''The Present State of Russia'' vol 2, (1723; reprint, London: Frank Cass and Co, 1968). ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1690 births|Alexei Petrovich of Russia]] [[Category:1718 deaths|Alexei Petrovich of Russia]] [[Category:Muscovites|Alexei Petrovich of Russia]] [[Category:Romanov|Alexei Petrovich of Russia]] [[Category:Heirs apparent who never acceded|Alexei Petrovich of Russia]] [[de:Alexei von Russland]] [[ru:Алексей Петрович]] 1622 15900089 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Archimedes]] 1623 42102009 2006-03-03T21:12:03Z Rjensen 313197 rv {{sprotected}} {{Infobox_President | name=Andrew Jackson | nationality=american | image=Andrew Jackson.jpeg|200px| | order=7th President | term_start=[[March 4]], [[1829]] | term_end=[[March 3]], [[1837]]<!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. --> | predecessor= [[John Quincy Adams]] | successor= [[Martin Van Buren]] | birth_date= [[March 15]], [[1767]] | birth_place= [[Waxhaw, North Carolina|Waxhaws area]] of [[South Carolina]] | death_date= [[June 8]], [[1845]] | death_place= [[The Hermitage]], [[Nashville]], [[Tennessee]] | spouse= Widowed. [[Rachel Donelson Robards Jackson]] (niece [[Emily Donelson Jackson]] and daughter-in-law [[Sarah Yorke Jackson]] were [[First Lady of the United States|first ladies]]) | party= [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] | vicepresident= [[John C. Calhoun]] (1829-1832) [[Martin Van Buren]] (1833-1837) }} '''Andrew Jackson''' ([[March 15]], [[1767]] &ndash; [[June 8]], [[1845]]), was the seventh [[President of the United States]] (1829-1837), hero of the [[Battle of New Orleans]] (1815), a founder of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]], and the [[eponym]] of the era of [[Jacksonian democracy]]. He was a polarizing figure who helped shape the [[Second Party System]] of [[Politics of the United States|American politics]] in the 1820s and 1830s. Nicknamed "Old Hickory," Jackson was the first President primarily associated with the American [[frontier]] (although born in South Carolina, he spent most of his life in Tennessee). . ==Early life and military career== Jackson was born in a backwoods settlement to [[Scots-Irish Americans|Scots-Irish]] immigrants in the [[Waxhaw, North Carolina|Waxhaw area]] in the [[Carolinas]], on [[March 15]], [[1767]]. He was the youngest son in his family. Both [[North Carolina]] and [[South Carolina]] have claimed him as a "native son." Jackson himself always stated that he was born in South Carolina. He received a sporadic education. At age thirteen, he joined the [[Continental Army]] as a courier. He was captured and imprisoned by the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] during the [[American Revolutionary War]]. Jackson was the last U.S. President to have been a veteran of the American Revolution, and the only President to have been a [[prisoner of war]]. The war took the lives of Jackson's entire immediate family. [[Image:Andrew Jackson brave boy 1780.jpg|thumb|250px|Jackson refusing to clean a British officer's boots (1876 [[lithography]])]] During the Revolution, after the surrender to the British at Charleston, Jackson and his brother Robert were taken as prisoners, and nearly starved to death. When Jackson refused to clean the boots of a British officer, the irate redcoat slashed at Jackson, giving him scars on his left hand and head, as well as an intense hatred for the British. Both of them contracted small pox while imprisoned, and Robert died days after their release. In addition, two of Jackson's brothers and his mother--his entire remaining family--died from war-time hardships that Jackson also blamed upon the British. This [[anglophobia]] would help to inspire a distrust and dislike of Eastern "aristocrats", whom Jackson felt were too inclined to favor and emulate their former colonial "masters". Jackson admired [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], for his willingness to contest British military supremacy. Jackson came to [[Tennessee]] by 1787, having barely read law, but finding that enough to become a young lawyer on the frontier. Since he was not from a distinguished family, he had to make his career by his own merits; and soon he began to prosper in the rough-and-tumble world of frontier law. Most of the actions grew out of disputed land-claims, or from assaults and battery. His courtroom demeanor was of his time. In 1795, he fought a duel with an opposing counsel over a courtroom argument. He was elected as Tennessee's first [[U.S. House of Representatives|Congressman]], upon its statehood in the late 1790s, and quickly became a [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]] in 1797, but quit within a year. In 1798, he was appointed Judge on the [[Tennessee Supreme Court]]. [http://www.virtualology.com/virtualwarmuseum.com/hallofamericanwarsandconflicts/andrewjackson.net/] ===Creek War and War of 1812=== {{main articles|[[Creek War]] and [[Battle of New Orleans]]}} Jackson became a colonel in the Tennessee militia, which he had led since 1801, the beginning of his military career. In 1813, after a massacre of 400 men, women and children at [[Fort Mims Massacre|Fort Mims]] (in what is now Alabama) by Northern [[Creek people|Creek]] Band chieftain [[Peter McQueen]], Jackson commanded in the campaign against the Northern Creek Indians of Alabama and Georgia, also known as the "[[Red Sticks]]". Creek leaders such as [[William Weatherford]] (Red Eagle), Peter McQueen, and [[Menawa]], who had been allies of the British during the War of 1812, violently clashed with other chiefs of the Creek Nation over white encroachment on Creek lands, and the "civilizing" programs administered by U.S. Indian Agent [[Benjamin Hawkins]]. In the [[Creek War]], a theatre of the [[War of 1812]], Jackson defeated the Red Stick Creeks at the [[Battle of Horseshoe Bend]], aided by allies from the Southern Creek Indian Band, who had requested Jackson's aid in putting down what they considered to be the "rebellious" Red Sticks, and some [[Cherokee]] Indians, who also sided with the Americans. Although 800 Northern Creek Band "Red Sticks" Indians were killed in the battle, Jackson spared Weatherford's life from any acts of vengeance. [[Sam Houston]] and [[David Crockett]], later to become famous themselves in Texas, served under Jackson at this time. Following the victory, Jackson imposed the [[Treaty of Fort Jackson]] upon both his Northern Creek enemy and Southern Creek allies, wresting 20 million acres (81,000 km&sup2;) from all Creeks, for white settlement. Jackson's service in the [[War of 1812]] was conspicuous for its bravery and success. He was a strict officer, but was popular with his troops, and was said to have been "tough as old hickory" wood on the battlefield, which gave him his nickname. The war, and particularly his command at the [[Battle of New Orleans]] on [[January 8]], [[1815]], made his national reputation; and he advanced in rank to Major General. In the battle, Jackson's 6,000 militiamen behind barricades of cotton bales opposed 12,000 British regulars marching across an open field, led by General [[Edward Pakenham]]. The battle was a total American victory. The British had over 2,000 casualties to Jackson's 13 killed and 58 wounded or missing. [http://odur.let.rug.nl/~usa/P/aj7/about/bio/jack07.htm] [[Image:Bustofandrewjackson.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A bust of Andrew Jackson at the Plaza Ferdinand VII in [[Pensacola, Florida]], where Jackson was sworn in as territorial governor.]] ===First Seminole War=== {{main|Seminole Wars}} Jackson saw military service again in the [[Seminole Wars|First Seminole War]], when he was ordered by President [[James Monroe]] in December 1817 [http://www.gilderlehrman.org/collection/document.php?id=391] to lead a campaign in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] against the [[Seminole (tribe)|Seminole]] and [[Creek people|Creek]] Indians, and to prevent [[Spanish Florida]] from becoming a "refuge for runaway slaves". It was later said that Jackson exceeded his orders in Florida actions, but Monroe and the public wanted Florida. Before going, Jackson wrote to Monroe, "Let it be signified to me through any channel (say Mr. John Rhea [a mutual confidant]) that the possession of the Floridas would be desirable to the United States, and in sixty days it will be accomplished." Monroe gave Jackson orders that were purposely ambiguous, sufficient for international denials. Jackson's Tennessee volunteers were attacked by Seminoles, but this left their villages vulnerable, and Jackson burned them and their crops. In his investigation, he found letters that indicated that the Spanish and British were "secretly" assisting the Indians. Jackson believed that the United States would not be "secure" as long as Spain and Great Britain encouraged American Indians to fight, and argued that his actions were undertaken in "self-defense". Jackson captured Pensacola with little more than some warning shots, and deposed the Spanish governor. He captured, tried, and executed two British subjects who had been supplying and advising the Indians. Jackson's action also struck fear into the Seminole tribes, as word of his ruthlessness in battle spread. This also created an international incident, and many in the [[James Monroe|Monroe]] administration called for Jackson to be censured. However, Jackson's actions were defended by his [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]], [[John Quincy Adams]]. When the Spanish minister demanded a "suitable punishment" for Jackson, Adams wrote back "Spain must immediately [decide] either to place a force in Florida adequate at once to the protection of her territory, ... or cede to the United States a province, of which she retains nothing but the nominal possession, but which is, in fact, ... a post of annoyance to them." Adams used Jackson's conquest, and Spain's own "weaknesses", to convince the Spanish (in the [[Adams-Onís Treaty]]) to cede Florida to the United States. Jackson was subsequently appointed territorial governor there. ==Election of 1824== {{main|U.S. presidential election, 1824}} During his first run for the Presidency in [[U.S._presidential_election,_1824|1824]], Jackson received a [[plurality]] of both the popular and [[electoral]] votes. Since no candidate received a majority, the election was thrown into the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], which chose John Quincy Adams instead. Jackson denounced it as a "[[corrupt bargain]]" because [[Henry Clay]] threw his votes to Adams, who then made Clay Secretary of State. Jackson later called for abolishing the [[U.S. Electoral College|Electoral College]]. Jackson's defeat burnished his political credentials, however; since many voters believed the "man of the people" had been robbed by the "corrupt aristocrats of the East". Jackson had enemies. [[Albert Gallatin]], who for a while in 1824 was a vice presidential candidate, saw Jackson as "an honest man and the idol of the worshippers of military glory, but from incapacity, military habits, and habitual disregard of laws and constitutional. provisions, altogether unfit for the office." [Adams 599] Thomas Jefferson in retirement said of Jackson in 1824: <blockquote> "I feel much alarmed at the prospect of seeing General Jackson President. He is one of the most unfit men I know of for such a place. He has had very little respect for laws or constitutions, and is, in fact, an able military chief. His passions are terrible. When I was President of the Senate he was a Senator; and he could never speak on account of the rashness of his feelings. I have seen him attempt it repeatedly, and as often choke with rage. His passions are no doubt cooler now; he has been much tried since I knew him, but he is a dangerous man." {{ref|Jefferson}} </blockquote> ==Election of 1828== {{main|United States presidential election, 1828}} ==Presidency 1829-1837== ===Spoils system=== Jackson is accused of introducing the "[[spoils system]]", or "patronage", to American politics. The term "spoils system" was attributed to Senator [[William L. Marcy]] of New York, who was quoted as saying, "To the victor belong the spoils." Upon Jackson's election as President, a sizable number of federal officers found that they had suddenly been replaced by supporters and friends of Jackson. Jackson saw this system as promoting the growth of democracy, rewarding people who were involved in his party and thus encouraging others to get involved. ===Opposition to the National Bank=== {{main|Second Bank of the United States}} [[image:AJ~bank.JPG|thumb|400px|Democratic cartoon shows Jackson fighting the monster Bank]] As president, Jackson worked to take away the federal charter of the [[Second Bank of the United States]] (it would continue to exist as a state bank). The original [[First Bank of the United States|Bank of the United States]] had been introduced in 1791 by [[Alexander Hamilton]], as a way of organizing the federal government's finances. This first Bank's charter lapsed in 1811. It was followed by the second Bank, authorized during [[James Madison]]'s tenure in offce in 1816 for a 20 year period, to "alleviate the economic problems caused by the War of 1812". Both Banks were instrumental in the growth of the U.S. economy; but Jackson opposed the concept on ideological grounds. In Jackson's opinion, the Bank needed to be abolished because: * it was unconstitutional * it concentrated an excessive amount of the nation's financial strength into one single institution * it exposed the government to control by "foreign interests" * it exercised too much control over members of the Congress * it favored Northeastern states over Southern and Western (now Mid-western) states * Jackson had a strong personal and political dislike for the Bank's president, [[Nicholas Biddle (banker)|Nicholas Biddle]] Jackson followed Jefferson as a supporter of the ideal of an "agricultural republic", and felt the Bank improved the fortunes of an "elite circle" of commercial and industrial entrepreneurs, at the expense of farmers and laborers. After a titanic struggle, Jackson succeeded in destroying the Bank, by vetoing its 1832 re-charter by Congress, and by withdrawing U.S. funds in 1833. The Bank's money-lending functions were taken over by the legions of local and state banks that sprang up feeding an expansion of credit and speculation; the commercial progress of the nation's economy was noticeably dented. The [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] censured Jackson on March 27, 1834 for his actions in defunding the Bank of the United States; the censure was later expunged when the Jacksonians had a majority in the Senate. ===Nullification crisis=== {{main|Nullification crisis}} [[Image:andrew_jackson_20bill.jpg|thumb|left|Andrew Jackson is depicted on the U.S. $20 bill.]] Another notable crisis during Jackson's period of office was the "[[nullification crisis]]", or "secession crisis", of 1828&ndash;1832, which merged issues of sectional strife with disagreements over trade [[tariff]]s. Critics alleged that high tariffs (the "[[Tariff of Abominations]]") on imports of common manufactured goods made European goods more expensive than ones from the northern US, and raised the prices paid by planters in the southern US. Southern politicians thus had an argument, to the effect that tariffs benefitted northern industrialists at the expense of southern farmers. The issue came to a head when Vice President [[John C. Calhoun]], in the [[South Carolina Exposition and Protest]] of 1828, supported the claim of his home state, [[South Carolina]], that it had the right to "nullify"&mdash;declare illegal&mdash;the tariff legislation of 1828, and more generally the right of a state to nullify laws which went against its interests. Although Jackson sympathized with the South in the tariff debate, he was also a strong supporter of a strong union, with considerable powers for the central government. Jackson attempted to face Calhoun down over the issue, which developed into a bitter rivalry between the two men. Particularly famous was an incident at the April 13, 1829 Jefferson Day dinner, involving after-dinner toasts. Jackson rose first and voice booming, and glaring at Calhoun, yelled out "Our federal Union: IT MUST BE PRESERVED!", a clear challenge to Calhoun. Calhoun glared at Jackson and yelled out, his voice trembling, but booming as well, "The Union: NEXT TO OUR LIBERTY, MOST DEAR!", an astonishingly quick-witted riposte. In response to South Carolina's threat, Congress passed a "[[Force Bill]]" in 1833, and Jackson vowed to send troops to South Carolina in order to enforce the laws. In December 1832, he issued a resounding proclamation against the "nullifiers", stating: "I consider...the power to annul a law of the United States, assumed by one State, incompatible with the existence of the Union, contradicted expressly by the letter of the [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]], unauthorized by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which it was founded, and destructive of the great object for which it was formed." South Carolina, the president declared, stood on "the brink of insurrection and treason," and he appealed to the people of the state to reassert their allegiance to that Union for which their ancestors had fought. Jackson also denied the right of secession: "The Constitution...forms a ''government'' not a league...To say that any State may at pleasure secede from the Union is to say that the United States is not a nation." The crisis was resolved in 1833 with a compromise settlement orchestrated by [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] politician [[Henry Clay]] and adopted by a South Carolina convention. The settlement substantially lowered the tariffs and hinted that the central government considered itself "weak" in dealing with determined opposition by an individual state. To enforce this view, the convention proudly but pointlessly declared the federal Force Bill nullified, even though the bill was only meaningful with respect to the tariff nullification. Thus, the South Carolina legislature both averted major conflict with the federal government, and reaffirmed Calhoun's beloved doctrine of nullification. ===Indian Removal=== [[Image:Andrew_Jackson_Statue_Nashville.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Statue of Andrew Jackson in [[Nashville, Tennessee]].]] Today, perhaps the most controversial aspect of Andrew Jackson's presidency was his policy regarding [[American Indians in the United States|American Indians]]. Jackson was a leading advocate of a policy known as "[[Indian Removal]]", signing the [[Indian Removal Act]] into law in 1830. Contrary to popular misconception, the Removal Act did not order the removal of any American Indians; what it did was authorize the President to negotiate treaties to purchase tribal lands in the east in exchange for lands further west, outside of existing U.S. state borders. According to biographer [[Robert V. Remini]], Jackson promoted this policy primarily for reasons of national security, seeing that Great Britain and Spain had recruited Native Americans within U.S. borders in previous wars with the United States.<!--Remini (2001), p.113--> According to historian Anthony Wallace, Jackson never publically advocated removing American Indians by force. Instead, Jackson made the negotiation of treaties a priority: nearly seventy Indian treaties&mdash;many of them land sales&mdash;were ratified during his presidency, more than in any other administration. The Removal Act was especially popular in the [[American South|South]], where population growth and the discovery of gold on [[Cherokee]] land had increased pressure on tribal lands. The state of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] became involved in a contentious jurisdictional dispute with the Cherokees, culminating in the 1832 Supreme Court decision (''[[Worcester v. Georgia]]'') that ruled that Georgia could not impose its laws upon Cherokee tribal lands. About this case, Jackson is often quoted as having said, "[[John Marshall]] has made his decision, now let him enforce it!" Jackson probably never said this; the popular story that Jackson defied the Supreme Court in carrying out Indian Removal is untrue. In fact, Jackson had no clear legal right to intervene on behalf of the Cherokees in Georgia. Instead, Jackson used the Georgia crisis to pressure Cherokee leaders to sign a removal treaty. A faction of Cherokees led by Jackson's old ally [[Major Ridge]] negotiated the [[Treaty of New Echota]] with Jackson's administration, a document of dubious legality which was rejected by most Cherokees. However, the terms of the treaty were strictly enforced by Jackson's successor, [[Martin Van Buren]], which resulted in the deaths of thousands of Cherokees along the "[[Trail of Tears]]". In all, more than 45,000 American Indians were relocated to the West during Jackson's administration. During this time, the administration purchased about 100 million acres of Indian land for about $68 million and 32 million acres of western land. Though the relocation process was generally popular with the American people at the time, it resulted in much suffering and death among American Indians. Jackson was criticized at the time for his role in these events, and the criticism has grown over the years. Robert Remini characterizes the Indian Removal era as "one of the unhappiest chapters in American history". {{ref|remini}} ===Assassination attempt=== [[Image:JacksonAssassinationAttempt.jpg|thumb|right|200px||The etching of the assassination attempt.]] On January 30, 1835 an unsuccessful [[assassination]] attempt against Jackson occurred in the [[United States Capital]]. This was the first assassination attempt made against an American President. As Jackson left a funeral, a man named [[Richard Lawrence]] approached Jackson and fired a pistol at point-blank range. The would-be assasin was thwarted as his pistol misfired. He immediately drew another pistol, which also misfired, at which point Jackson attacked him with his cane, subduing him. Lawrence was later found to be mentally ill and commited to an insane asylum. ===Major presidential acts=== *[[Maysville Road Veto]] *Signed [[Indian Removal Act of 1830]] *Vetoed renewal of [[Second Bank of the United States]] (1832) *Signed [[Force Bill]] of 1833 *Executive Order: [[Specie Circular]] (1836) ===Administration and Cabinet=== [[Image:Andrew jackson head.gif|thumbnail|right]] {| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;" align="left" !bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"| |- |align="left"|'''OFFICE'''||align="left"|'''NAME'''||align="left"|'''TERM''' |- !bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"| |- |align="left"|[[President of the United States|President]]||align="left" |'''[[Andrew Jackson]]'''||align="left"|1829&ndash;1837 |- |align="left"|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align="left"|'''[[John C. Calhoun]]'''||align="left"|1829&ndash;1832 |- |align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Martin Van Buren]]'''||align="left"|1833&ndash;1837 |- !bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"| |- |align="left"|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align="left"|'''[[Martin Van Buren]]'''||align="left"|1829&ndash;1831 |- |align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Edward Livingston]]'''||align="left"|1831&ndash;1833 |- |align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Louis McLane]]'''||align="left"|1833&ndash;1834 |- |align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[John Forsyth]]'''||align="left"|1834&ndash;1837 |- |align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align="left"|'''[[Samuel Ingham]]'''||align="left"|1829&ndash;1831 |- |align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Louis McLane]]'''||align="left"|1831&ndash;1833 |- |align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[William Duane]]'''||align="left"|1833 |- |align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Roger B. Taney]]'''||align="left"|1833&ndash;1834 |- |align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Levi Woodbury]]'''||align="left"|1834&ndash;1837 |- |align="left"|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align="left"|'''[[John H. Eaton]]'''||align="left"|1829&ndash;1831 |- |align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Lewis Cass]]'''||align="left"|1831&ndash;1836 |- |align="left"|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||align="left"|'''[[John M. Berrien]]'''||align="left"|1829&ndash;1831 |- |align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Roger B. Taney]]'''||align="left"|1831&ndash;1833 |- |align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Benjamin_Franklin_Butler_(lawyer)|Benjamin F. Butler]]'''||align="left"|1833&ndash;1837 |- |align="left"|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align="left"|'''[[William T. Barry]]'''||align="left"|1829&ndash;1835 |- |align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Amos Kendall]]'''||align="left"|1835&ndash;1837 |- |align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align="left"|'''[[John Branch]]'''||align="left"|1829&ndash;1831 |- |align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Levi Woodbury]]'''||align="left"|1831&ndash;1834 |- |align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Mahlon Dickerson]]'''||align="left"|1834&ndash;1837 |} <br clear="all"> ===Supreme Court appointments=== *[[John McLean]] - 1830 *[[Henry Baldwin (judge)]] - 1830 *[[James Moore Wayne]] - 1835 *[[Roger Brooke Taney]] - Chief Justice - 1836 *[[Philip Pendleton Barbour]] - 1836 ===Supreme Court cases during his presidency=== *''[[Cherokee Nation vs. Georgia]]'', 1831 *''[[Worcester v. Georgia]]'', 1832 *''[[Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge]]'', 1837 ===States admitted to the Union=== * [[Arkansas]] - 1836 * [[Michigan]] - 1837 ==Family and personal life== [[Image:Andrew Jackson Portrait.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Portrait of Andrew Jackson]] Jackson's wife, [[Rachel Donelson Robards Jackson|Rachel]], died of a heart attack just 2 months prior to his taking office as President. She had supposedly divorced her first husband, Col. Lewis Robards; but there were "questions" about the legality of the divorce. Jackson deeply resented attacks on his wife's honor; he killed [[Charles Dickinson (historical figure)|Charles Dickinson]] in a duel over a horse-racing debt and an insult to his wife on [[May 30]], [[1806]]. Jackson was also injured during the duel, and the bullet was so close to his heart that it could never be safely removed. It caused him considerable pain for the rest of his life. Jackson blamed [[John Quincy Adams]] for Rachel's death, because of the marital scandal being brought up in the election of 1828. He felt that this had hastened her death, and never forgave Adams. Jackson had two adopted sons, [[Andrew Jackson Jr.]], the son of Rachel's brother Severn Donelson, and Lyncoya, a [[Creek people|Creek]] Indian orphan adopted by Jackson after the [[Creek War]]. Lyncoya died in 1828 at age 16, probably from [[pneumonia]] or [[tuberculosis]]. The Jacksons also acted as guardians for eight other children. John Samuel Donelson, Daniel Donelson, and [[Andrew Jackson Donelson]] were the sons of Rachel's brother Samuel Donelson who died in 1804. Andrew Jackson Hutchings was Rachel's orphaned grand nephew. Caroline Butler, Eliza Butler, Edward Butler, and Anthony Butler were the orphaned children of Edward Butler, a family friend. They came to live with Andrew and Rachel after the death of their father. The widower Jackson invited Rachel's niece [[Emily Donelson]] to act as his White House hostess and unofficial [[FLOTUS|First Lady]]. Emily was married to [[Andrew Jackson Donelson]], who acted as Jackson's [[private secretary]]. The relationship between the President and Emily became strained during the [[Petticoat Affair]], and the two became estranged for over a year. They eventually reconciled and she resumed her duties as White House hostess. [[Sarah Yorke Jackson]], the wife of Andrew Jackson Jr., became co-hostess of the White House in 1834. It was the only time in history when two women simultaneously acted as unofficial First Lady. Sarah took over all hostess duties after Emily died in 1836. Jackson remained influential in both national and state politics after retiring to "[[The Hermitage]]", his [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]] home, in 1837. Though a slave-holder, Jackson was a firm advocate of the federal union of the states, and declined to give any support to talk of [[secession]]. Jackson was a lean figure standing at 6 feet, 1 inch (1.85 m) tall, and weighing between 130 and 140 pounds (64 kg) on average. Jackson also had an unruly shock of red hair, which had completely grayed by the time he became president at age 61, in 1829. He had a pair of penetrating deep blue eyes. Jackson was one of the more sickly presidents, suffering from chronic headaches, abdominal pains, and a hacking cough that often brought up blood and sometimes even made his whole body shake. After retiring to Nashville he enjoyed eight more years of retirement and died at the Hermitage on June 8, 1845 at the age of 78, of chronic tuberculosis, "[[dropsy]]" and heart failure. His last words were: "Oh, do not cry. Be good children, and we shall all meet in Heaven." In his will, Jackson left his entire estate to his adopted son, Andrew Jackson Jr., except for specifically enumerated items that were left to various other friends and family members. Jackson left several [[slaves]] to his daughter-in-law, and grandchildren. Jackson left a sword to his grandson, with the injunction, ''"that he will always use it in defence of our glorious Union."'' ==Memorials and movies== [[Image:StLouisCathedralJacksonStatue.jpg|thumb|right|[[Jackson Square]] in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]].]] * Memorials to Jackson include a set of three identical equestrian statues located in different parts of the country. One is in [[Jackson Square]] in [[New Orleans, Louisiana]]. Another is in [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]] on the grounds of the [[Tennessee State Capitol]]. The other is in [[Washington, D.C.]] near the [[White House]]. * Numerous counties and cities are named after him, including [[Jacksonville, Florida]], [[Jackson, Michigan]], [[Jackson, Mississippi]], [[Jackson County, Florida]], and [[Jackson County, Missouri]]. * [[United States dollar]] &mdash; Jackson's portrait appears on the [[American twenty dollar bill|$20 bill]]. He has appeared on $5, $10, $50, and $10,000 bills in the past, as well as a Confederate $1,000. * [[Black Jack (stamp)|Blackjack]] United States postage stamp * The story of Andrew and Rachel Jackson's life together was told in [[Irving Stone]]'s best-selling 1951 novel ''The President's Lady'', which was made into the 1953 film of the same title, starring [[Susan Hayward]], [[Charlton Heston]], [[John McIntire]], and [[Carl Betz]] and directed by [[Henry Levin]]. The relationship between the two was also the basis of a successful documentary by the [[Public Broadcasting Service]], called ''Rachel and Andrew Jackson: A Love Story.'' * Heston played Jackson in the 1958 version of ''[[The Buccaneer]]'', a film about the role of pirate [[Jean Lafitte]] in the [[Battle of New Orleans]]. [[Hugh Sothern]] played Jackson in the original 1938 version of the film. ==Trivia== * During Jackson's Administration, the U.S Government was, for the first and ([[as of 2006]]) only time, debt free. * During the 1828 election, his opponents referred to him as a "Jackass". Jackson liked the name and used the Jackass as a symbol for a while, but it died out. [http://www.c-span.org/questions/week174.htm] ==See also== * [[U.S. presidential election, 1824]] * [[U.S. presidential election, 1828]] * [[U.S. presidential election, 1832]] * [[List of places named for Andrew Jackson]] * [[The Hermitage]], Andrew Jackson's home, now a tourist destination * [[List of people on stamps of Ireland]] ==Notes== # {{note|Jefferson}} Paul Leicester Ford, ''The Writings of Thomas Jefferson'' 10 vols. (New York, 1892-99), 10: 331. # {{note|remini}} [[Robert V. Remini]], ''Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars''. (2001) ==References== ===Primary sources=== * Bassett John Spencer, ed. ''Correspondence of Andrew Jackson'' Vols. 1-6. (1926). * Smith Sam B., and Harriet Chappell Owsley, eds. ''Papers of Andrew Jackson'' . Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, Vol. 1, 1980. * Moser Harold D., Sharon MacPherson, and Charles F. Bryan Jr., eds. ''The Papers of Andrew Jackson''. Vols. 2-4. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1988. * [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/jackpap.htm online speeches and presidential messages] ===Secondary sources=== *Brustein, Andrew. ''The Passions of Andrew Jackson''. New York: Knopf, (2003). *Bugg Jr. James L. ed. ''Jacksonian Democracy: Myth or Reality?'' (1952), excerpts from scholars * Gammon, Samuel Rhea. ''The Presidential Campaign of 1832'' (1922)] * Hammond, Bray. ''Andrew Jackson's Battle with the "Money Power"'' (1958) ch 8, an excerpt from his Pulitzer-prize-winning ''Banks and Politics in America: From the Revolution to the Civil War'' (1954). *Hofstatder, Richard. ''The American Political Tradition'' (1948), chapter on Jackson. *James, Marquis. ''The Life of Andrew Jackson'' New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1938. Combines two books: ''The Border Captain'' and ''Andrew Jackson: Portrait of a President''; winner of the [[Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography|Pulitzer Prize for Biography]]. * Latner Richard B. ''The Presidency of Andrew Jackson: White House Politics, 1820-1837'' (1979), standard survey. *Ratner, Lorman A. ''Andrew Jackson and His Tennessee Lieutenants: A Study in Political Culture'' (1997) *[[Robert V. Remini]], ''The Life of Andrew Jackson''. Abridgment of Remini's 3-volume biography, (1998) ** ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767-1821'' (1977); ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822-1832'' (1981); ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845'' (1984) * Remini Robert. ''The Legacy of Andrew Jackson: Essays on Democracy, Indian Removal, and Slavery'' (1988) *Rowland, Dunbar. ''Andrew Jackson's Campaign against the British, or, the Mississippi Territory in the War of 1812, concerning the Military Operations of the Americans, Creek Indians, British, and Spanish, 1813-1815'' (1926) *[[Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.|Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr]]. ''The Age of Jackson''. (1945). Winner of the [[Pulitzer Prize for History]]. *Taylor, George Rogers, ed. ''Jackson Versus Biddle: The Struggle over the Second Bank of the United States'' (1949), excerpts from primary and secondary sources *Syrett, Harold C. ''Andrew Jackson: His Contribution to the American Tradition'' (1953) *Temin, Peter. ''The Jacksonian Economy'' (1969) *Wallace, Anthony F.C. ''The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians'' (1993) *Ward, John William. ''Andrew Jackson, Symbol for an Age'' (1962) * Wilentz, Sean. ''The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln'' (2005) ==External links== {{commons|Andrew Jackson}} {{wikiquote}} {{wikisource author}} * [http://www.expage.com/andrewjackson12 All About Andrew Jackson] * {{gutenberg author| id=Andrew+Jackson | name=Andrew Jackson}} * {{CongBio|J000005}} * [http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/pol-gl.htm#F. American Political History Online] * [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/aj7.html White House Biography] * [http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/jackson/ Andrew Jackson on the Web (resource directory)] * [http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/jackson.htm Critical Resources: Andrew Jackson and Indian Removal] * [http://www.bargeron.com/genealogy/gsb/f3802.html A genealogical profile of the President] * [http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g07.htm Jackson's medical history] * [http://www.wnpt.net/rachel/rachel_andrew/together.html PBS documentary on Rachel & Andrew's life together] * [http://www.floridamemory.com/Collections/CallBrevardPapers/ Andrew Jackson letters to Richard K. Call] ===Inaugural addresses=== * [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/jackson1.htm First Inaugural Address] * [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/jackson2.htm Second Inaugural Address] ===[[State of the Union address]]es=== * [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-1.html First State of the Union of Andrew Jackson] * [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-2.html Second State of the Union of Andrew Jackson] * [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-3.html Third State of the Union of Andrew Jackson] * [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-4.html Fourth State of the Union of Andrew Jackson] * [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-5.html Fifth State of the Union of Andrew Jackson] * [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-6.html Sixth State of the Union of Andrew Jackson] * [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-7.html Seventh State of the Union of Andrew Jackson] * [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-8.html Final State of the Union of Andrew Jackson] {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[United States House of Representatives, Tennessee At Large|Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Tennessee At Large]] | before=''(none)'' | after=[[William C. C. Claiborne]] | years=1796 &ndash; 1797}} {{U.S. Senator box | state=Tennessee | class=1 | before=[[William Cocke]] | after=[[Daniel Smith]] | alongside=[[Joseph Anderson]] | years=1797 &ndash; 1798}} {{succession box | title=Military [[Governor of Florida]] | before=''(none)'' | after=[[William P. Duval]]<br>'''(Territorial Governor) | years=1821}} {{U.S. Senator box | state=Tennessee | class=2 | before=[[John Williams (Tennessee)|John Williams]] | after=[[Hugh Lawson White]] | alongside=[[John H. Eaton]] | years=1823 &ndash; 1825}} {{succession box | title=[[Democratic-Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party presidential nominee]] | before=[[James Monroe]] | after=''(none)'' | years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1824|1824]] (lost)<sup>(a)</sup>}} {{succession box | title=[[List of United States Democratic Party presidential tickets|Democratic Party presidential nominee]] | before=''(none)'' | after=[[Martin Van Buren]] | years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1828|1828]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1832|1832]] (won)}} {{succession box | title=[[President of the United States|President of the United States]] | before=[[John Quincy Adams]] | after=[[Martin Van Buren]] | years=[[March 4]] [[1829]] &ndash; [[March 3]] [[1837]]<!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. -->}} {{succession footnote | marker=<sup>(a)</sup> | footnote=The [[Democratic-Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] split in 1824, fielding four separate candidates: '''Andrew Jackson''', [[John Quincy Adams]], [[Henry Clay]], and [[William Harris Crawford]].}} {{end box}} {{USPresidents}} {{USDemPresNominees}} {{FLGovernors}} [[Category:1767 births|Jackson, Andrew]] [[Category:1845 deaths|Jackson, Andrew]] [[Category:Democratic Party (United States) presidential nominees|Jackson, Andrew]] [[Category:Governors of Florida|Jackson, Andrew]] [[Category:People from North Carolina|Jackson, Andrew]] [[Category:Presbyterians]] [[Category:Presidents of the United States|Jackson, Andrew]] [[Category:Scots-Irish Americans|Jackson, Andrew]] [[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Tennessee|Jackson, Andrew]] [[Category:United States Army generals|Jackson, Andrew]] [[Category:United States Senators from Tennessee|Jackson, Andrew]] [[ar:أندرو جاكسون]] [[bg:Андрю Джаксън]] [[da:Andrew Jackson]] [[de:Andrew Jackson]] [[es:Andrew Jackson]] [[eo:Andrew JACKSON]] [[fr:Andrew Jackson]] [[ga:Andrew Jackson]] [[gl:Andrew Jackson]] [[ko:앤드루 잭슨]] [[id:Andrew Jackson]] [[it:Andrew Jackson]] [[he:אנדרו ג'קסון]] [[mr:अँड्रु जॅक्सन]] [[nl:Andrew Jackson]] [[ja:アンドリュー・ジャクソン]] [[no:Andrew Jackson]] [[nn:Andrew Jackson]] [[pl:Andrew Jackson]] [[pt:Andrew Jackson]] [[sq:Andrew Jackson]] [[simple:Andrew Jackson]] [[fi:Andrew Jackson]] [[sv:Andrew Jackson]] [[tr:Andrew Jackson]] [[zh:安德鲁·杰克逊]] 1624 41558412 2006-02-28T03:33:52Z Rjensen 313197 rv {{Infobox_President | name=Andrew Johnson | nationality=american | image=President Andrew Johnson standing.jpg | order=17<sup>th</sup> President | vicepresident=none | term_start=[[April 15]] [[1865]] | term_end=[[March 3]] [[1869]]<!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on [[March 3]]. --> | predecessor=[[Abraham Lincoln]] | successor=[[Ulysses S. Grant]] | birth_date=[[December 29]] [[1808]] | birth_place=[[Raleigh, North Carolina]] | death_date=[[July 31]] [[1875]] | death_place=[[Greeneville, Tennessee]] | spouse=[[Eliza McCardle Johnson]] | party=[[United States Democratic Party|Democratic]] (elected on National Union ticket) }} {{Otherpeople|Andrew Johnson}} '''Andrew Johnson''' ([[December 29]] [[1808]] – [[July 31]] [[1875]]) was the sixteenth [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] (1865) and the seventeenth [[President of the United States]] (1865–1869), succeeding to the presidency upon the assassination of [[Abraham Lincoln]]. Johnson presided over the [[Reconstruction]] of the United States following the [[American Civil War]], and his conciliatory policies towards the defeated rebels and his vetoes of [[civil rights]] bills embroiled him in a bitter dispute with the Congressional Republicans, leading the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] to [[impeachment|impeach]] him in 1868; he was the first President to be impeached. He was subsequently acquitted by a single vote in the [[United States Senate|Senate]]. ==Early life== Johnson was born on [[December 29]], [[1808]], in [[Raleigh, North Carolina]], to Jacob Johnson and Mary McDonough. When Johnson was four his father died. At the age of 10 he was apprenticed to a tailor, but ran away to [[Greeneville, Tennessee]] in 1826, where he continued his employment as a tailor. He never attended any type of school; his wife, [[Eliza McCardle Johnson]], has historically been credited with teaching him to read and write. ==Early political career== Johnson served as an [[alderman]] in [[Greeneville, Tennessee|Greeneville]] from 1828 to 1830 and mayor of Greeneville from 1830 to 1833. He was a member of the [[Tennessee House of Representatives|State House of Representatives]] from 1835 to 1837 and from 1839 to 1841. He was elected to the [[Tennessee Senate|State Senate]] in 1841, and elected as a [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]] to the Twenty-eighth and to the four succeeding Congresses ([[March 4]] [[1843]] to [[March 3]] [[1853]]). He was chairman of the [[U.S. House Committee on Public Expenditures]] (Thirty-first and Thirty-second Congresses). ==Political ascension== Johnson did not seek renomination, having become a candidate for the governorship of [[Tennessee]]. He was Governor of Tennessee from 1853 to 1857, and was elected as a Democrat to the United States Senate and served from [[October 8]] [[1857]] to [[March 4]] [[1862]], when he resigned. He was chairman of the [[Committee to Audit and Control the Contingent Expense]] (Thirty-sixth Congress). At the time of [[secession]] of [[Confederate States of America|the Confederacy]], Johnson was the only Senator from the seceded states to continue participation in Congress. Johnson was then appointed by President [[Abraham Lincoln]] as Military Governor of Tennessee in 1862. ==Presidency 1865-1869== ===Assumption=== As a leading War Democrat and pro-Union southerner, Johnson was attractive to the Republicans in 1864 as they tried to enlarge their base to include War Democrats. He was elected [[Vice President of the United States]] on the National Union ticket headed by Republican Abraham Lincoln in 1864 and was inaugurated [[March 4]] [[1865]]. A rather embarrassing incident occurred on this day: Johnson had been suffering from typhoid fever and drank whiskey before the ceremony. He gave a rambling, incoherent speech and had to be led away. Lincoln forgave him for this transgression. He became President of the United States on [[April 15]] [[1865]], upon the death of Lincoln. He was the first Vice President to succeed to the U.S. Presidency upon the assassination of a President and the third to succeed upon the death of a President. Johnson had an ambiguous party status. The National Union party vanished after the 1864 election but he did not identify with either party while president--though he did try for the Democratic nomination in 1868. Asked why he did not become a Democrat in July 1868 he said "It is true I am asked why don't I join the Democratic party. Why don't they join me?" [Trefouse p 339] ===Policies=== The Johnson Administration negotiated the [[Alaska purchase|purchase of Alaska]] from Russia on [[April 9]] [[1867]] for $7,200,000. ===Impeachment=== Congress and Johnson argued in an increasingly public way about [[Reconstruction]]: the manner in which the Southern secessionist states would be readmitted to the Union. Johnson favored a very quick restoration of all rights and privileges of other states. However, "Congressional Reconstruction", enforced by repeated acts passed over Johnson's [[veto]], provided for provisional state governments run by the military and ensuring the local passage of [[civil rights]] laws and otherwise imposing the will of the United States Congress &mdash; which was run by the North. Johnson's public criticisms of Congress provoked much talk of impeachment over the months. [[Image:3a05488v.jpg|250px|thumb|''Harper's Weekly'' illustration of Johnson's impeachment trial in the [[United States Senate]].]] On [[February 21]], [[1868]], Johnson notified Congress that he had removed [[Edwin Stanton]] as Secretary of War, and was replacing him in the interim with Adjutant-General [[Lorenzo Thomas]]. This violated the [[Tenure of Office Act]], a law enacted by Congress on [[March 2]], [[1867]], over Johnson's veto, specifically designed to protect Stanton. Johnson had vetoed the Act, claiming it was unconstitutional. The Act said, "...every person holding any civil office, to which he has been appointed by and with the advice and consent of the Senate ... shall be entitled to hold such office until a successor shall have been in like manner appointed and duly qualified," thus removing the President's previous unlimited power to remove any of his Cabinet members at will. Years later in the case ''[[Myers v. United States]]'' in 1926, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruled that such laws were indeed unconstitutional. The Senate and House entered into hot debate. Thomas attempted to move into the War office, for which Stanton had Thomas arrested. Three days after Stanton's removal, the House passed a resolution to impeach Johnson for "high crimes and misdemeanors", specifically, for intentionally violating the Tenure of Office Act and thus violating the law of the land, which he had sworn an oath to enforce. [[Image:AJohnsonimpeach.jpg|thumb|left||The 1868 Impeachment Resolution]] On [[March 5]], [[1868]] a court of impeachment was constituted in the Senate to hear charges against the President. [[William M. Evarts]] served as his counsel. Eleven articles were set out in the resolution and the trial before the Senate lasted almost three months. Johnson's defense was based on a clause in the Tenure of Office Act stating that the then-current Secretaries would hold their posts throughout the term of the President who appointed them. Since Lincoln had appointed Stanton, it was claimed, the applicability of the Act had already run its course. There were three votes in the Senate: one on [[May 16]], [[1868]] for the 11th article of impeachment, which included many of the charges contained in the other articles, and two on [[May 26]] for the second and third articles, after which the trial adjourned ''[[sine die]]''. On all three occasions, thirty-five Senators voted "Guilty" and nineteen "Not Guilty". As the [[United States Constitution]] requires a two-thirds majority for conviction in impeachment trials, Johnson was acquitted. A single changed vote would have sufficed to return a "Guilty" verdict. The decisive vote had been that of a young [[Radical Republican]] named [[Edmund G. Ross]]. Despite monumental pressure from fellow Radicals prior to the first vote, and dire warnings that a vote for acquittal would end his political career, Ross stood up at the appropriate moment and quietly announced "not guilty," effectively ending the impeachment trial. Johnson was the first President to be impeached, and the only one until [[Impeachment of Bill Clinton|Bill Clinton]] on [[December 19]], [[1998]]. Both presidents were acquitted. ===Administration and Cabinet=== {| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;" align="left" !bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"| |- |align="left"|'''OFFICE'''||align="left"|'''NAME'''||align="left"|'''TERM''' |- !bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"| |- |align="left"|[[President of the United States|President]]||align="left" |'''Andrew Johnson'''||align="left"|1865–1869 |- |align="left"|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align="left"|''None''||align="left"|&nbsp; |- !bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"| |- |align="left"|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align="left"|'''[[William H. Seward]]'''||align="left"|1865–1869 |- |align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align="left"|'''[[Hugh McCulloch]]'''||align="left"|1865–1869 |- |align="left"|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align="left"|'''[[Edwin M. Stanton]]'''||align="left"|1865–1868 |- |align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[John M. Schofield]]'''||align="left"|1868–1869 |- |align="left"|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||align="left"|'''[[James Speed]]'''||align="left"|1865–1866 |- |align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Henry Stanberry]]'''||align="left"|1866–1868 |- |align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[William M. Evarts]]'''||align="left"|1868–1869 |- |align="left"|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align="left"|'''[[William Dennison]]'''||align="left"|1865–1866 |- |align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Alexander Randall]]'''||align="left"|1866–1869 |- |align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align="left"|'''[[Gideon Welles]]'''||align="left"|1865–1869 |- |align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]]||align="left"|'''[[John P. Usher]]'''||align="left"|1865 |- |align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[James Harlan (senator)|James Harlan]]'''||align="left"|1865–1866 |- |align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Orville H. Browning]]'''||align="left"|1866–1869 |} <br clear="all"> ===States admitted to the Union=== * [[Nebraska]]: 1867 ==Post-Presidency== [[Image:Pres_andrew_johnson.jpg|thumb|right|230px|President Andrew Johnson]] Johnson was an unsuccessful candidate for election to the United States Senate in 1868 and to the House of Representatives in 1872. He eventually succeeded and was elected as a Democrat to the Senate and served from [[March 4]], [[1875]], until his death near [[Elizabethton, Tennessee]], on [[July 31]], [[1875]]. He is the only President to serve in the Senate after his presidency. Interment was in the Andrew Johnson National Cemetery, [[Greeneville, Tennessee]]. ==See also== * [[U.S. presidential election, 1864]] * [[History of the United States (1865-1918)]] ==References== * Howard K. Beale, ''The Critical Year. A Study of Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction'' (1930). * Michael Les Benedict, ''The Impeachment and Trial of Andrew Johnson'' (1999). * Albert E. Castel, ''The Presidency of Andrew Johnson '' (1979). * D. M. DeWitt, ''The Impeachment and Trial of Andrew Johnson'' (1903). * Eric L. McKitrick, ''Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction'' (1961). * L. P. Stryker, ''Andrew Johnson: A Study in Courage'' (1929). * Hans L. Trefousse, ''Andrew Johnson: A Biography'' (1989). ===Primary sources=== * Newspaper clippings, 1865–1869: http://www.impeach-andrewjohnson.com/ * Series of [[Harper's Weekly]] articles covering the impeachment controversy and trial: [http://www.andrewjohnson.com/09ImpeachmentAndAcquittal/ImpeachmentAndAcquittal.htm] * Johnson's [[obituary]], from the [[New York Times]]: http://starship.python.net/crew/manus/Presidents/aj2/aj2obit.html ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{Wikisource author}} * {{gutenberg author| id=Andrew+Johnson | name=Andrew Johnson}} * [http://jbw1291-essays.wikispaces.org/The+Andrew+Johnson+Administration The Andrew Johnson Administration] * [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/impeach/articles.html Articles of Impeachment] * [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/aj17.html White House Biography] * [http://www.mlwh.org/inside.asp?ID=91&subjectID=2 Mr. Lincoln's White House: Andrew Johnson] * [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=548 Andrew Johnson on Find-A-Grave] <br clear=both> {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[United States House of Representatives, Tennessee District 1|U.S. Congressman for the 1st District of Tennessee]] | before=[[Thomas Dickens Arnold]] | after=[[Brookins Campbell]] | years=1843–1853}} {{succession box | title=[[Governor of Tennessee]] | before=[[William B. Campbell]] | after=[[Isham G. Harris]] | years=1853–1857}} {{U.S. Senator box | state=Tennessee | class=1 | before=[[James C. Jones]] | after=[[David T. Patterson]] <sup>(a)</sup> | alongside= [[John Bell]], [[Alfred O. P. Nicholson]] | years=[[October 8]] [[1857]] – [[March 4]] [[1862]]}} {{succession box | title=[[Governor of Tennessee]] | before=[[Isham G. Harris]] | after=[[E. H. East]] | years=1862 – 1865}} {{succession box | title=[[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|Republican Party<sup>(b)</sup> vice presidential candidate]] | before=[[Hannibal Hamlin]] | after=[[Schuyler Colfax]] | years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1864|1864]] (won)}} {{succession box | title=[[Vice President of the United States]] | before=[[Hannibal Hamlin]] | after=[[Schuyler Colfax]] <sup>(c)</sup> | years=[[March 4]] [[1865]] – [[April 15]] [[1865]]}} {{succession box | title=[[President of the United States]] | before=[[Abraham Lincoln]] | after=[[Ulysses S. Grant]] | years=[[April 15]] [[1865]] – [[March 3]] [[1869]]<!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on [[March 3]]. -->}} {{U.S. Senator box | state= Tennessee | class=1 | before=[[William Gannaway Brownlow]] | after=[[David McKendree Key]] | alongside=[[Henry Cooper]] | years=[[March 4]] [[1875]] – [[July 31]] [[1875]]}} {{succession footnote | marker=<sup>(a)</sup> | footnote=Due to [[Tennessee]]'s secession, the Senate seat was vacant for four years before Patterson succeeded Johnson.}} [[March 4]] [[1869]].}} {{succession footnote | marker=<sup>(b)</sup> | footnote=Lincoln and Johnson ran on the National Union ticket in 1864.}} {{succession footnote | marker=<sup>(c)</sup> | footnote=After Johnson became president in 1865, the Vice Presidency was vacant until [[Schuyler Colfax]] was inaugurated on [[4 March]] [[1869]].}} {{end box}} {{USPresidents}} {{USVicePresidents}} [[Category:1808 births|Johnson, Andrew]] [[Category:1875 deaths|Johnson, Andrew]] [[Category:Autodidacts|Johnson, Andrew]] [[Category:Baptists|Johnson, Andrew]] [[Category:Governors of Tennessee|Johnson, Andrew]] [[Category:Presidents of the United States|Johnson, Andrew]] [[Category:Reconstruction|Johnson, Andrew]] [[Category:Republican Party (United States) vice presidential nominees|Johnson, Andrew]] [[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Tennessee|Johnson, Andrew]] [[Category:United States Senators from Tennessee|Johnson, Andrew]] [[Category:Vice Presidents of the United States|Johnson, Andrew]] [[af:Andrew Johnson]] [[bg:Андрю Джонсън]] [[da:Andrew Johnson]] [[de:Andrew Johnson]] [[es:Andrew Johnson]] [[eo:Andrew JOHNSON]] [[fr:Andrew Johnson]] [[ga:Andrew Johnson]] [[gl:Andrew Johnson]] [[ko:앤드루 존슨]] [[id:Andrew Johnson]] [[it:Andrew Johnson]] [[he:אנדרו ג'ונסון]] [[nl:Andrew Johnson]] [[ja:アンドリュー・ジョンソン]] [[no:Andrew Johnson]] [[nn:Andrew Johnson]] [[pl:Andrew Johnson]] [[pt:Andrew Johnson]] [[sq:Andrew Johnson]] [[simple:Andrew Johnson]] [[sk:Andrew Johnson]] [[sl:Andrew Johnson]] [[fi:Andrew Johnson]] [[sv:Andrew Johnson]] 1625 41267983 2006-02-26T04:35:28Z Bloodshedder 20963 main template [[Image:Solzhenitsyn.jpg|right|thumb|Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]] '''Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn''' ({{lang-ru|Алекса́ндр Иса́евич Солжени́цын}}; born in [[Kislovodsk]], [[Russia]], on [[December 11]], [[1918]]) is a [[Russia|Russian]] [[novel|novelist]], [[drama|dramatist]] and [[historian]]. He was responsible for thrusting awareness of the [[Gulag]] on the world. Solzhenitsyn was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in [[1970]] and was exiled from the [[Soviet Union]] in [[1974]]. == In the Soviet Union == Solzhenitsyn studied [[mathematics]] at [[Rostov State University]], while at the same time taking correspondence courses from the [[Moscow Institute of Philosophy, Literature, and History]]. During [[World War II]], he served as the commander of an artillery position finding company in the [[Soviet Army]], was involved in major action at the front, and was twice decorated. In February [[1945]] while serving in [[East Prussia]] he was arrested for criticising [[Joseph Stalin]] in private correspondence with a friend and sentenced to an eight-year term in a [[labour camp]], to be followed by permanent internal exile. The first part of Solzehnitsyn's sentence was served in several different work camps; the "middle phase", as he later referred to it, was spent in a ''[[sharashka]]'', special scientific research facilities run by Ministry of State Security: these formed the experiences distilled in ''The First Circle'', published in the West in [[1968]]. In [[1950]] he was sent to a "Special Camp" for political prisoners. During his imprisonment at the camp in the town of [[Ekibastuz]] in [[Kazakhstan]] he worked as a [[miner]], a [[bricklayer]], and a [[foundry]]man. His experiences at Ekibastuz formed the basis for the ''[[One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich]]''. While there he had a tumor removed, although his [[cancer]] was not then diagnosed. From [[March]] [[1953]] Solzhenitsyn began a sentence of internal exile for life at Kol-Terek in southern [[Kazakhstan]]. His undiagnosed cancer spread, until by the end of the year he was close to death. However in [[1954]] he was permitted to be treated in a hospital in [[Tashkent]], where he was cured. These experiences became the basis of his novel ''Cancer Ward''. During his years of exile, and following his reprieve and return to European Russia, Solzhenitsyn was, while teaching at a secondary school during the day, spending his nights secretly engaged in writing. He later wrote, in the short [[autobiography]] written at the time of his being awarded the [[Nobel Prize]], that "during all the years until 1961, not only was I convinced that I should never see a single line of mine in print in my lifetime, but, also, I scarcely dared allow any of my close acquaintances to read anything I had written because I feared that this would become known." Finally, when he was 42 years old, he approached a poet and the chief editor of the ''Noviy Mir'' magazine [[Alexander Tvardovsky]] with the manuscript of ''[[One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich]]''. It was published in [[1962]], and would remain his only major work to be published in the Soviet Union until [[1990]]. It was during this decade of imprisonment and exile that Solzhenitsyn abandoned his youthful [[Marxism]] and evolved toward his mature philosophical and religious positions. His gradual turn to a philosophically-minded [[Christianity]] is described at some length in the fourth part of ''[[The Gulag Archipelago]].'' ("The Soul and Barbed Wire.") [[Image:Arch gulag cover.jpg|left|thumb|Solzhenitsyn was exiled from the [[Soviet Union]] for his book ''[[The Gulag Archipelago]].'']] ''One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich'' brought the Soviet system of prison labor to the attention of the West, but it was his monumental history of the Soviet prisons for both criminal and political prisoners that won him the most acclaim in the West. It caused as much a sensation in the Soviet Union as it did the West. But the attention devoted to it in the West meant that Solzhenitsyn was a marked man. The printing of his work quickly stopped, and by [[1965]] the KGB had seized his papers, including the manuscript of <i>The First Circle</i>. Meanwhile Solzhenitsyn continued to secretly and feverishly work upon the most subversive of all his writings, the monumental <i>Gulag Archipelago</i>. ''[[The Gulag Archipelago]]'' was a three volume work on the Soviet prison camp system. It was based upon Solzhenitsyn's own experience as well as the testimony of 227 former prisoners. It discussed the system's origins from [[Lenin]] and the very founding of the Communist regime. The appearance of the book in the West put the word [[gulag]] into the Western political vocabulary and guaranteed swift retribution from the Soviet authorities. On [[February 13]], [[1974]], Solzhenitsyn was deported from the Soviet Union to [[West Germany]] and stripped of his Soviet citizenship. == In the West == After a time in [[Switzerland]], Solzhenitsyn was given accommodation by [[Stanford University]] to "facilitate [your] work, and to accommodate you and your family" He stayed on the 11th floor of the Hoover Tower, part of the [[Hoover Institution]]. Solzhenitsyn moved to [[Vermont]] in [[1976]]. Over the next 18 years Solzhenitsyn completed his historical cycle of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], ''The Red Wheel'', and several shorter works. In [[1990]] his Soviet citizenship was restored, and in [[1994]] he returned to Russia. Despite an enthusiastic welcome on his first arrival in America, followed by respect for his privacy, he had never been comfortable outside his homeland. Solzhenitsyn's warnings about the dangers of Communist aggression and the weakening of the moral fiber of the West were generally well received in conservative circles in the West. But liberals and secularists were increasingly critical of what they perceived as his [[reactionary]] preference for [[Russia]]n patriotism and the [[Russian Orthodox]] religion. He also harshly criticised what he saw as the ugliness and spiritual vapidity of the dominant [[pop culture]] of the modern West, for example television and rock music: "...the human soul longs for things higher, warmer and purer than those offered by today's mass living habits...by TV stupor and by intolerable music." == Return to Russia == Since returning to Russia in 1994 Solzhenitsyn has published eight two-part short stories, a series of contemplative "miniatures" or prose poems, a literary memoir on his years in the West (''The Grain Between the Millstones'') and a two-volume work on the history of Russian-Jewish relations (''Two Hundred Years Together'' 2001, 2002). The latter has been received as philo-semitic by some and anti-semitic by others. In it, Solzhenitsyn emphatically repudiates the idea that the Russian revolutions of 1905 and 1917 were the work of a "Jewish conspiracy" (see chapters 9, 14, and 15 of that work). At the same time, he calls on both Russians and Jews to come to terms with the members of their peoples who acted in complicity with the Communist regime. The reception of this work confirms that Solzhenitsyn remains a polarizing figure both at home and abroad. In his recent political writings, such as ''Rebuilding Russia'' (1990) and ''Russia in Collapse'' (1998) Solzhenitsyn has criticized the oligarchic excesses of the new Russian 'democracy' while opposing any nostalgia for Soviet communism. He has defended moderate and self-critical patriotism (as opposed to extreme nationalism), argued for the indispensability of local self-government to a free Russia, and expressed concerns for the fate of 25 million ethnic Russians in the "near abroad" of the former Soviet Union. One of his sons, [[Ignat Solzhenitsyn]], has achieved acclaim as a [[pianist]] and [[conductor (music)|conductor]] in the United States. == Published works == {{main|Alexandr Solzhenitsyn bibliography}} *''[[One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich]]'' ([[1962]]) *''For the Good of the Cause'' ([[1964]]) *''[[The First Circle]]'' ([[1968]]) *''[[The Cancer Ward]]'' ([[1968]]) *''[[The Love-Girl and the Innocent]]'' ([[1969]]) *''[[August 1914]]'' ([[1971]]). The beginning of a history of the birth of the USSR in an [[historical novel]]. The novel centers on the disastrous loss in the [[Battle of Tannenberg (1914)]] in [[August]], [[1914]]. Other works, similarly titled, follow the story. *''[[The Gulag Archipelago]]'' (three volumes) ([[1973]]-[[1978|78]]), not a memoir, but a history of the entire process of developing and administering a [[police state]] in the Soviet Union. *''[[Prussian Nights]]'' ([[1974]]) * Aleksandr Isaevich Solzhenitsyn, ''A Letter to the Soviet leaders'', Collins: Harvill Press (1974), ISBN 0060139137 *''The Oak and the Calf'' ([[1975]]) *''Lenin in Zurich'' ([[1976]]) *''The Mortal Danger: Misconceptions about Soviet Russia and the Threat to America'' ([[1980]]) *''[[November 1916]]'' ([[1983]]) *''Victory Celebration'' ([[1983]]) *''Prisoners'' ([[1983]]) *''Rebuilding Russia'' ([[1990]]) *''March 1917'' *''April 1917'' *''The Russian Question'' ([[1995]]) *''Invisible Allies'' ([[1997]]) *''Two Hundred Years Together'' on Russian-Jewish relations since 1772, aroused ambiguous public response. ([http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/7033-1.cfm], [http://www.jewishsf.com/bk010831/ip29a.shtml], [http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles/ChukovskayaSolzhenitsyn.htm]) ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *[http://www.almaz.com/nobel/literature/Solzhenitsyn.html The Nobel Prize Internet Archive's page on Solzhenitsyn] *[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/augustine/arch/solzhenitsyn/harvard1978.html A World Split Apart]: Solzhenitsyn's 1978 Commencement Address to the graduating class at Harvard University [[Category:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn|*]] [[Category:1918 births|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]] [[Category:Living people|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]] [[Category:Humanitarians]] [[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]] [[Category:Russian novelists|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]] [[Category:Russian writers|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]] [[Category:Soviet dissidents|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]] [[Category:Soviet expellees|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]] [[Category:Sharashka inmates|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]] [[Category:Russian Orthodox Christians|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]] [[Category:Don Cossacks|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]] [[bg:Александър Солженицин]] [[cs:Alexandr Isajevič Solženicyn]] [[da:Aleksandr Isajevitj Solsjenitsyn]] [[de:Alexander Issajewitsch Solschenizyn]] [[es:Alexander Solzhenitsyn]] [[fr:Alexandre Soljenitsyne]] [[hr:Aleksandar Solženjicin]] [[io:Alexandr Soljenicyn]] [[it:Aleksandr Isaevich Solzhenitsyn]] [[he:אלכסנדר סולז'ניצין]] [[nl:Aleksandr Solzjenitsyn]] [[ja:アレクサンドル・ソルジェニーツィン]] [[no:Aleksandr Solzjenitsyn]] [[pl:Aleksander Sołżenicyn]] [[ro:Alexandr Soljeniţîn]] [[ru:Солженицын, Александр Исаевич]] [[fi:Aleksandr Solženitsyn]] [[sv:Aleksandr Solzjenitsyn]] [[tr:Aleksandr Soljenitsin]] [[zh:亚历山大·索尔仁尼琴]] 1626 15900093 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn]] 1627 41776833 2006-03-01T17:52:32Z Kierant 16754 /* Parks and open spaces */ grammar (following a proper noun) :''This article is about the Scottish city. For other uses see [[Aberdeen (disambiguation)]]'' {| border=1 cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width=300 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em;" |- !colspan=2 align=center bgcolor="#ff9999"|City of Aberdeen |- |colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:ScotlandAberdeen.png]] |- !colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Geography |- |width="45%"|Status:||Unitary, City (1996) |- |[[Regions of Britain|Region]]:||[[Scotland]] |- |Ceremonial County:||[[Aberdeenshire]] |- |[[Surface area|Area]]:<br>- Total||[[Ranked 25th]]<br>[[1 E8 m²|186]] [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] |- |Admin. HQ:||Aberdeen |- || [[British national grid reference system|Grid Ref.]]: || NJ925065 |- |[[ONS coding system|ONS code]]:||00QA |- !colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Demographics |- |[[Population]]:<br>- Total (2003 est.)<br>- [[Density]]||[[Ranked 7th]]<br>212,125<br>1,140 / km&sup2; |- !colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Politics |- |colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:Aberdeen-coa.png]]<br>Aberdeen City Council<br>http://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/ |- |[[Local_government_in_Scotland#Councils_and_councillors|Leadership]]:||Leader & Cabinet |- |Executive:|| [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] +<br>[[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]] |- |[[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|MPs]]:|| <ul><li>[[Anne Begg]]<li>[[Malcolm Bruce]]<li>[[Frank Doran]]</ul> |- |[[Member of the Scottish Parliament|MSPs]]|| <ul><li>[[Lewis Macdonald]]<li>[[Brian Adam]]<li>[[Nicol Stephen]]</ul> |- !colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Post Office and Telephone |- |Post town:||ABERDEEN</ul> |- |Postal district:||AB10-AB12; AB13 (part); AB15-AB25</ul> |- |width="45%"|[[UK telephone numbering plan|Dialling Code]]:||01224 |- |} [[Image:Aberdeen (location).png|thumb|235px|Aberdeen's location in Scotland]] '''Aberdeen''' ([[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]: ''Obar Dheathain'', 'confluence of the [River] Don'), often called '''The Granite City''', is [[Scotland]]'s third largest [[City status in the United Kingdom|city]], with a population of 212,125, and the greatest part of the [[unitary authority|unitary]] [[council area]] named the [[City of Aberdeen]], which is surrounded by, but not within, the [[Aberdeenshire]] council area. Aberdeen is the chief commercial centre and [[port|seaport]] in the north-east of Scotland. It boasts the title of '''Oil Capital of Europe''' thanks to the plentiful supply of [[crude oil]] in the [[North Sea]], and stands on a bay of the North Sea, between the mouths of the rivers [[River Don, Aberdeenshire|Don]] and [[River Dee, Aberdeenshire|Dee]]. The city is currently run by a coalition of 20 [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Scottish Liberal Democrat]] and 3 [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] councillors. ==Coat of Arms and Motto== The [[coat of arms]] shows a red shield bearing three triple towered castles within the double royal tressure. It is widely accepted that these represent the fortifications which from earliest times stood on the three hills where the city sprang up, namely Castle Hill, the Port or Windmill Hill (Gallowgate) and St Catherine's Hill (Adelphi). The Arms are supported by two leopards - one either side - and above, the scroll with the words 'Bon Accord'. Legend has it that during the [[Wars of Scottish Independence]], when the Castle of Aberdeen was stormed and the English troops 'were killed all in one night', the watchword to initiate the campaign was 'Bon Accord', and it is from this massacre that the Coat of Arms and the motto originated. ==History== Aberdeen grew up as two separate burghs - [[Old Aberdeen]] at the mouth of the Don and New Aberdeen, a fishing and trading settlement where the Denburn entered the Dee estuary. The earliest charter was granted by King [[William I of Scotland|William the Lion]] about 1179, confirming the corporate rights granted by David I. The city received other royal charters later. In 1319, the Great Charter of [[Robert I of Scotland|Robert the Bruce]] transformed Aberdeen into a property owning and financially independent community. Bruce had a high regard for the citizens of Aberdeen who had sheltered him in his days of outlawry, helped him win the Battle of Barra and slayed the English garrison at the Castle. He granted Aberdeen with the nearby Forest of Stocket. The income from this land has formed the basis for the city's Common Good Fund, which is used to this day for the benefit of all Aberdonians. The city was burned by [[Edward III of England]] in 1336, but was soon rebuilt and extended, and called New Aberdeen. For many centuries the city was subject to attacks by the neighbouring lords, and was strongly fortified, but the gates were all removed by 1770. In 1497 a blockhouse was built at the harbour mouth as a protection against the English. During the [[Scottish Civil War]] of 1644-47 between the Royalists and Covenanters the city was impartially plundered by both sides. In 1644, it was taken and sacked by Royalist troops comprising of Irishmen and Highlanders after the [[battle of Aberdeen]]. In 1715 the Earl Marischal proclaimed the Old Pretender at Aberdeen, and in 1745 the Duke of Cumberland resided for a short time in the city before attacking the Young Pretender. In the [[18th century]] a new Town Hall was built, elegantly furnished with a marble fireplace from Holland and a set of fine crystal chandeliers and sconces. The latter are still a feature in the Town House. This century also saw the beginnings of social services for the Infirmary at Woolmanhill which was opened in 1742 and the Lunatic Asylum in 1779. The [[19th century]] was a time of considerable expansion. By 1901 the population was 153,000 and the city covered more than 6,000 acres (24 km²). In the late 18th century, the council embarked on a scheme of road improvements, and by 1805 George Street, King Street and Union Street were open, the latter a feat of extraordinary engineering skill involving the partial levelling of St Catherine's Hill and the building of arches to carry the street over Putachieside. The Denburn Valley was crossed by Union Street with a single span arch of 130 ft (40 m). Along these new streets was built the nucleus of the ''Granite City'' in buildings designed by John Smith and [[Archibald Simpson]]. The increasing economic importance of Aberdeen and the development of the shipbuilding and fishing industries brought a need for improved harbour facilities. During this century much of the harbour as it exists today was built including Victoria Dock, the South Breakwater and the extension to the North Pier. Such an expensive building programme had, of course, repercussions, and in 1817 the city was in a state of bankruptcy. However, a recovery was made in the general prosperity which followed the [[Napoleonic wars]]. Improvements in street lighting came in 1824 with the advent of gas, and a vast improvement was made to the water supply in 1830 when water was pumped from the Dee to a reservoir in Union Place. An underground sewerage system was begun in 1865 to replace the open sewers which previously ran along certain of the streets. ==Background== [[Image:Elphinstone_Hall2.jpg|thumb|University of Aberdeen, Elphinstone Hall]] Though Old Aberdeen, extending from the area surrounding the [[University of Aberdeen]] to the southern banks of the Don, had a separate charter, privileges, and history, the distinction between it and New Aberdeen can no longer be said to exist. Aberdeen's popular name of the "Granite City", is justified by the fact that the bulk of the city is built of [[granite]], but to appreciate its more poetical designation of the "Silver City by the Golden Sands", it should be seen after a heavy rainfall when its public buildings and countless houses gleam pure and white under brilliant sunshine. It is also known as the 'Flower of Scotland', as Aberdeen has long been famous for its outstanding parks, gardens and floral displays that include 2 million roses, 11 million daffodils and 3 million crocuses. Aberdeen has won the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]'s [[Britain in Bloom]] contest on numerous occasions, and at one time was banned from entering to enable other cities to win. On [[5 March]], [[2003]] Aberdeen was granted [[Fairtrade City]] status. The area of the city extends to 71.22 square miles (184.46 [[square kilometre|km²]]), and includes the former burghs of Old Aberdeen, New Aberdeen, Woodside and the district of [[Torry]] to the south of the Dee. The city was first [[incorporation (municipal government)|incorporated]] in 1891. The city is represented in Westminster by two MPs who are both from the Labour party, and in the [[Scottish Parliament]] by three MSPs (one Labour, one SNP and one Liberal Democrat). The city council comprises forty-three councillors who represent the city's [[ward (politics)|wards]] and is headed by the Lord Provost. The current [[List of Provosts and Lord Provosts of Aberdeen|Lord Provost]] is John Reynolds. As of 1996, Aberdeen has been governed by the unitary [[City of Aberdeen|Aberdeen City Council]] and no longer has any direct control over the neighbouring area of [[Aberdeenshire (unitary)|Aberdeenshire]] (although the headquarters of Aberdeenshire Council are located within the city's boundaries). Aberdeen has good links to the rest of Scotland and the UK. The main road south to [[Edinburgh]] is a fast dual carriageway and plans are in hand to build a bypass round the city. Aberdeen is served by good rail links to the south and north to [[Inverness]], all services running from the Railway Station in the city centre. Although there are no direct sea links south any more there is still a ferry service running to [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]]. [[Aberdeen Airport]] is located at Dyce, about 5 miles (8 km) north west of the city centre, and has frequent services to [[London]] and several international destinations. The mean temperature is 8 °[[Celsius|C]] (47 °[[Fahrenheit|F]]) and it varies between 0.4 °C (32.7 °F) in winter and 17.6 °C (63.7 °[[Fahrenheit|F]]) in summer. The average yearly rainfall is 816 [[millimetre|mm]]. The city is one of the healthiest in Scotland. ==Art and architecture== [[Image:Union Street, Aberdeen.jpg|thumb|Union Street]] [[Image:Aberdeen Market Cross.jpg|thumb|Aberdeen Market Cross]] [[Image:marschal college.jpg|frame|right|Marischal College as seen from Upperkirkgate]] Union Street is one of the most imposing and famous thoroughfares in Britain. From Castle Street it runs for nearly a mile (1.5 km), is 70 ft (21 m) wide, and originally contained the principal shops and most of the public buildings, all of granite. Part of the street crosses the Denburn ravine (utilized for the line of the Great North of Scotland railway) by Union Bridge, a fine granite arch of 132 ft (40 m) span, with portions of the older town still fringing the gorge, 50 feet (15 m) below the level of Union Street. Union Street was built from 1801 to 1805, and named after the 1800 Act of Union with [[Ireland]]. Amongst the notable buildings in the street are the Town and County Bank, the Music Hall 1822, the Trinity Hall of the incorporated trades (originating between 1398 and 1527), now a shopping mall; the Palace Hotel; the former office of the Northern Assurance Company, and the National Bank of Scotland. In Castle Street, a continuation eastwards of Union Street, is the Town House, the headquarters of the city council. One of the most splendid granite edifices in Scotland, in the Franco-Scottish Gothic style, it contains the great hall, with an open timber ceiling and oak-panelled walls; the Sheriff Court House; the Town and County Hall, with portraits of [[Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Prince Albert]], the 4th [[Earl of Aberdeen]], various Lord Provosts and other distinguished citizens. In the vestibule of the entrance corridor stands a suit of black armour, believed to have been worn by Provost [[Sir Robert Davidson]], who fought in the [[Battle of Harlaw]] in 1411. On the south-western corner is the 210 ft (64 m) grand tower, which commands a fine view of the city and surrounding country. Adjoining the Town House is the old North of Scotland Bank building, in [[Greek Revival]] style. This building is now a pub named the [[Archibald Simpson]], after its original architect. On the opposite side of the street is the fine building of the Union Bank. At the upper end of Castlegate stands [[The Salvation Army]] Citadel, an effective castellated mansion, on the site of the medieval castle. In front of it is the [[Market Cross]], built in 1686 by [[John Montgomery]], a native architect. This open-arched structure, 21 ft (6 m) in diameter and 18 ft (5 m) high, comprises a large hexagonal base from the centre of which rises a shaft with a Corinthian capital, on which is the royal [[unicorn]]. The base is highly decorated, including medallions illustrating Scottish monarchs from [[James I of Scotland|James I]] to [[James VII of Scotland|James VII]]. To the east of Castle Street were the military barracks, which were demolished in 1965 and replaced with two tower blocks. Marischal College on Broad Street, opened by King [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]] in 1906, is the second largest granite building in the world (after the [[Escorial]], [[Madrid]]), and is one of the most splendid examples of Edwardian architecture in Britain. The architect, [[Alexander Marshall Mackenzie]], a native of Aberdeen, adapted his material, white granite, to the design of the building with the originality of genius. This magnificent building is sadly no longer a seat of learning and is under renovation as the new home of Aberdeen City Council. There are no tramways in Aberdeen. The last [[tram]] went through the streets on [[May 3]] [[1958]]. All trams except one were scrapped. The last tram is on display in the Transport Museum in [[Alford, Aberdeenshire]]. ==Churches== Like most Scottish burghs, Aberdeen has many churches, however, in the [[Middle Ages]] there was only one burgh kirk, St Nicholas, one of [[Scotland]]'s largest parish churches. Like a number of other Scottish kirks, it was subdivided after the [[Reformation]], in this case into the East and West churches. The large kirkyard of [[St Nicholas' Kirk, Aberdeen|St Nicholas' Kirk]] is separated from Union Street by a 147 ft (45 m) long Ionic facade, built in 1830. The divided church within, with a central tower and spire, forms one continuous building, 220 ft (67 m) in length. It contains the Drum Aisle (the ancient burial-place of the Irvines of [[Drum Castle]]) and the Collison Aisle, which divide the two congregations and which formed the [[transept]]s of the [[12th-century]] church of St Nicholas (architectural detail survives from this period). The West Church was built in 1775, in the [[Palladian|Italian style]], on the site of the medieval [[nave]], the East originally in 1834 in Gothic-revival style on the site of the [[choir]]. In 1874 a fire destroyed the East Church and the old central tower with its fine peal of nine [[bell (instrument)|bells]], one of which, Laurence or "Lowrie", was 4 ft (1.2 m) in diameter at the mouth, 3.5 ft (1.1 m) high and very thick. The church was rebuilt and a massive granite tower erected over the intervening aisles, a new peal of 36 bells, cast in the [[Netherlands]], being installed to commemorate the [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victorian]] [[Golden Jubilee|jubilee]] of 1887. These were replaced in 1950 with a carillion of 48 bells, the largest in the [[United Kingdom]]. The [[Diocese]] of Aberdeen is said to have been first founded at Mortlach in [[Banffshire]] by [[Malcolm II of Scotland|Malcolm II]] (1005-34) to celebrate his victory there over the Danes, but in 1137 [[David I of Scotland|David I]] (1124-53) transferred the [[bishopric]] to Old Aberdeen, and twenty years later [[St Machar's Cathedral]], situated a few hundred yards from the Don, was begun. Save during the episcopate of [[William Elphinstone]] ([[1484]]-[[1511]]), the building progressed slowly. Gavin Dunbar, who followed him in 1518, completed the structure by adding the two western spires and the southern transept. The church suffered severely at the [[Reformation]], but is still used by the [[Church of Scotland]] as a parish church. The choir was abandoned to decay and the central tower collapsed in the course of the [[17th century]]. It now consists of the nave and the two-storeyed entrance porch (the former in use as the parish church) and the lower walls of the transepts. These are under the care of [[Historic Scotland]], and contain an important group of late [[medieval]] bishops' tombs, protected from the weather by modern canopies. The Cathedral is chiefly built of outlayer granite, and, though one of the plainest cathedrals in Scotland, its stately simplicity and severe symmetry lend it unique distinction. On the unique flat panelled ceiling of the nave (first half of the [[16th century]]) are the heraldic shields of the contemporary kings of Europe, and the chief earls and bishops of [[Scotland]]. The great west window contains modern painted glass of excellent colour and design. The Cathedral contains a number of well-preserved grave-monuments to the late medieval clergy, a rare [[Romanesque]] cross-head and an early Christian cross-slab from Seaton. In the [[Middle Ages]], Aberdeen contained houses of the [[Carmelites]] ([[Whitefriars]]) and [[Franciscans]] ([[Greyfriars]]), the latter surviving in modified form as the chapel of [[Marischal College]] as late as the early [[20th century]]. No remains above ground. [[St. Mary's Cathedral, Aberdeen|St. Mary's Cathedral]] is the [[Roman Catholic]] cathedral. A [[Gothic style|Gothic]] building, it was erected in 1859. [[St. Andrew's Cathedral, Aberdeen|St. Andrew's Cathedral]] is the [[Scottish Episcopal Church|Scottish Episcopal]] cathedral. The Episcopal Church in Aberdeen is notable for having consecrated the first bishop of the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]], [[Samuel Seabury]] ([http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/282.html Web Link]). The cathedral was rennovated in the [[1930s]] to commemorate the 150th anniversary of Seabury's consecration. The memorial was dedicated with a ceremony attended by the then U.S. ambassador to the UK, [[Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr]]. The cemeteries are St Peter's in Old Aberdeen, Trinity near the links, Nellfield at the junction of Great Western and Holburn Roads, Allenvale, adjoining Duthie Park and the most recent Facilities at Dyce. There is also a crematorium and cemetery near Hazlehead. ==Education== The first of Aberdeen's two universities, [[King's College]], was founded in 1495 by [[William Elphinstone]] (1431-1514), [[Bishop of Aberdeen]] and Chancellor of Scotland. [[Marischal College]] was founded in New Aberdeen by George Keith, 5th Earl Marischal of [[Scotland]] in [[1593]]. These foundations were amalgamated to form the present [[University of Aberdeen]] in [[1860]]. King's and Marischal were [[Scotland]]'s third and fifth oldest universities respectively, and the fifth and seventh oldest in [[Britain]] as a whole. [[Robert Gordon's College]] (originally Robert Gordon's Hospital) was founded in 1729 by the merchant [[Robert Gordon]], grandson of the map maker Robert Gordon of Straloch, and was further endowed in 1816 by Alexander Simpson of Collyhill. Originally devoted to the instruction and maintenance of the sons of poor burgesses of guild and trade in the city, it was reorganized in 1881 as a day and night school for secondary and technical education, and in the 1990s became co-educational and a day-only school. It also produced the Robert Gordon Institute of Technology, which in [[1992]] became [[The Robert Gordon University]]. [[Gray's School of Art]], founded in 1886, is one of the oldest established colleges of art in the UK. It is situated in beautiful grounds at Garthdee on the edge of the city. It is now incorporated into Robert Gordon University. [[Aberdeen College]] has several campuses in Aberdeen and offers a wide variety of part-time and full-time courses leading to several different qualifications. It the largest further education institution in Scotland. [[Northern College]] was a [[teacher]] training college with campuses in Aberdeen and Dundee. In 2000, the Aberdeen campus of Northern College became the University of Aberdeen School of Education. [[Aberdeen Grammar School]], (now comprehensive, despite its name) founded in 1263 and one of the oldest schools in Britain, was removed in 1861-1863 from its old quarters in Schoolhill to a large new building, in the [[Scottish baronial style]], off Skene Street. One famous alumnus of the Grammar School is [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]]. There are 12 secondary schools and 54 primary schools which are run by the city council in the city. There are also a small number of private schools. Albyn School for Girls (co-ed as of 2006) and St Margaret's girls school, both in the beautiful granite Queen's Road area just West of the city centre, are two of the better private schools in Scotland. There's also a small French-language school (one of the few in Britain) catering to the oil industry families, an "IB" International school, and a Steiner school. At [[Blairs]], in [[Kincardineshire]], five miles (8 km) S.W. of Aberdeen, is St Mary's Roman Catholic College, currently ([[2006]]) disused, built for the training of young men intended for the priesthood, with plans to turn it into a hotel. ==Culture== [[Image:Playhouseaberdeen.jpg|thumb|250px|left|His Majesty's Theatre, Aberdeen.]] The city is blessed with amenities which cover a wide range of cultural activities and boasts a selection of museums. The Aberdeen Art Gallery houses a collection of Impressionist, Victorian, Scottish and 20th Century British paintings as well as collections of silver and glass. It also includes The Alexander Macdonald Bequest, a collection of late 19th century works donated by the museum's first benefactor and a constantly changing collection of contemporary work and regular visiting exhibitions. The Aberdeen Maritime Museum, located in Shiprow, tells the story of Aberdeen's links with the sea from the days of sail and clipper ships to the latest oil and gas exploration technology. The museum includes a range of interactive exhibits and models, including an 8.5m (28 feet) high model of the Murchison oil production platform and a 19th Century assembly taken from Rattray Head lighthouse. Provost Ross' House is the second oldest dwelling house in the city. It was built in 1593 and became the residence of Provost John Ross of Arnage in 1702. The house retains some original medieval features, including a kitchen, fire places and beam-and-board ceilings. The Gordon Highlanders Regimental Museum tells the story of one of Scotland's best known regiments. The Marischal Museum holds the principal collections of the University of Aberdeen, comprising some 80,000 items in the areas of fine art, Scottish history & archaeology, and European, Mediterranean & Near Eastern archaeology. The museum is open to the public, but also provides an important resource for the University's students and researchers. The permanent displays and reference collections are augmented by regular temporary exhibitions. [[Image:Centrallibraryoutside.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Central Library, Aberdeen.]]Aberdeen's museums and attractions include: *[[Aberdeen International Youth Festival]] *Aberdeen Art Gallery *Aberdeen Maritime Museum *Provost Ross' House *The Gordon Highlanders Museum *Marischal Museum *James Dun's House *King's College Visitor and Conference Centre *Museum of Education Victorian Classroom *Provost Skene's House *Tolbooth Museum *Doonies Farm *Marischal College *Aberdeen Arts Centre *The Lemon Tree *[[Pittodrie|Pittodrie football stadium]] * The Aberdeen Central Public Library contains more than 60,000 volumes. * His Majesty's Theatre (1906) is a fine granite theatre which provides a home for popular entertainments. It has a 1,500 capacity and is one of the most beautiful major touring theatres in Britain. * Doonies Farm has one of the largest collections in Scotland of endangered breeds of farm animals. Open to the public, the farm is nationally recognized as a breeding centre for rare breeds and is situated on the old coast road between the Bay of Nigg and Cove. ==Parks and open spaces== '''Duthie Park''' 50 acres (202,000 m²)), situated on Riverside Drive, was named after and gifted to the city by Miss Elizabeth Crombie Duthie of Ruthrieston in 1881 and opened by Princess Beatrice on [[27 September]] [[1883]]. It occupies an excellent site on the north bank of the Dee and includes extensive gardens, a rose hill, boating pond, bandstand, and play area as well as the David Welch Winter Gardens. First opened in 1899, the Winter Gardens were rebuilt in 1970 following storm damage and extended. They are Europe's largest indoor gardens and one of the most visited in Scotland. '''Victoria Park''' 13 acres (53,000 m²) opened in 1871, is a beautiful park situated in the north-western area. There is a conservatory used as a seating area and a fountain made of 14 different granites, presented to the people by the granite polishers and master builders of Aberdeen. '''Westburn Park''' 13 acres (53,000 m²) opposite Victoria Park, caters for football and tennis, has a children's cycle track and a play area. An open section of the Westburn runs through the park. '''Stewart Park''' (15 acres (61,000 m²) opened in 1894. The park was named after a former Lord Provost of the city, Sir David Stewart; a section is reserved for [[cricket]] and [[football (soccer)|football]]. '''Hazlehead Park''' is a large, heavily wooded park on the outskirts of the city. It is popular with sports enthusiasts, walkers, naturalists and picnickers. Around the park are football pitches, two golf courses, pitch and putt course, a horseriding school and woods for walking. The park has a significant collection of sculpture by a range of artists and heritage items which have been rescued from various places within the city. It also features Scotland's oldest maze, first planted in 1938. '''Aberdeen Beach/Queen's Links''' is a well-loved and extremely popular recreational area of the city, visited by holidaymakers and city residents all year round. The area is well provided with sporting and recreational facilities, including the Beach Leisure Centre and the Lynx Ice Arena, cafes, restaurants, a fun fair, a multiplex cinema, a nightclub and other attractions. '''Johnston Gardens''' is also a great park worth visiting. Situated behind Queen's Road and just beside Nellfield Terrace. It hosts many different types of flowers and plants which have been renowned for their beauty. Johnston Gardens also won many 'Britain in Bloom' competitions. Aberdeen itself has won the title of best city 'In Bloom' for 9 nine years in a row. '''Seaton Park''' (270,000 m²) is located in the north of the city and was purchased by the Council in 1947 from Major Hay. Beside the park's south gates stands St Machar's Cathedral. There are flowerbeds and a walled garden beside the old stables, which have been converted for housing. The Cathedral Walk is always a resplendent sight in midsummer and one of the most popular with visitors to the city. Seaton Park is also an access point for the River Don and there is a walk from the park to the city boundary. '''[[Union Terrace Gardens]]''' forms a popular rendezvous location in the heart of the city. ==Statues== Adjacent to [[Union Terrace Gardens]] stands a colossal bronze statue of [[William Wallace]], by W. G. Stevenson. Also nearby these same gardens are a bronze statue of [[Robert Burns]] and [[Charles Marochetti]]'s seated figure of [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Prince Albert]]. In front of Robert Gordon's College is the bronze statue, by T. S. Burnett, of [[Charles George Gordon|General Gordon]]. At the head of Queen's Road stands the bronze statue of Queen Victoria, erected in 1893 by the royal tradesmen of the city. Near the Cross stands the granite statue of George Gordon, 5th Duke of Gordon. There is a 70 ft (21 m) high [[obelisk]] of [[Peterhead]] granite, originally erected in the square of Marischal College, to the memory of Sir James McGrigor (1778-1851), the military surgeon and director-general of the Army Medical Department, who was thrice elected lord [[rector]] of the College. In the [[1890s]] when the College was extended, the obelisk was moved to the Duthie Park.There is also a statue commemorating Lord Byron in Aberdeen Grammar School in the front grounds. ==Bridges== The Dee is crossed by a number of bridges, from west to east: *Bridge of Dee *King George VI Bridge *Railway bridge *Wellington Suspension Bridge *Queen Elizabeth II Bridge *Victoria Bridge Until 1832, the only access to the city from the south was the Bridge of Dee. It consists of seven semicircular ribbed arches, is about 30 ft (10 m) high, and was built early in the [[16th century]] by Bishops Elphinstone and Dunbar. It was nearly all rebuilt 1718-1723, and in 1842 was widened from 14 to 26 ft (4 to 8 m). This was the site of a battle in 1639 between the Royalists under Viscount Aboyne and the Covenanters who were led by the Marquis of Montrose. The Bridge of Don has five granite arches, each 75 ft (23 m) in span, and was built 1827-1832. A little to the west is the Auld [[Brig o' Balgownie]], a picturesque single arch spanning the deep black stream, said to have been built by [[Robert I of Scotland|King Robert I]], and celebrated by [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron]] in the tenth canto of "[[Don Juan]]". ==Harbour== [[Image:Aberdeen Harbour.jpg|thumb|right|A ship in Aberdeen Harbour.]] Aberdeen Harbour is the principal commercial port in northern Scotland and an international port for general cargo, roll-on/roll-off and container traffic. Originally, the defective harbour, with a shallow sand and gravel bar at its entrance, retarded the trade of Aberdeen, but under various acts since 1773 it was greatly deepened. The north pier, built partly by [[John Smeaton]] [[1770s|1775-1781]], and partly by [[Thomas Telford]] [[1810s|1810-1815]], extends nearly 3,000 ft (1000 m) into the [[North Sea]] and raised the bar. A wet dock of 29 acres (117,000 m²) and with 6000 ft (1800 m) of quay, was completed in 1848 and called Victoria Dock in honour of the queen's visit to the city in that year. Adjoining it is the Upper Dock. By the [[Harbour Act of 1868]], the Dee near the harbour was diverted from the south at a cost of £80,000, and 90 acres (364,000 m²) of new ground, in addition to 25 acres (101,000 m²) formerly made up, were provided on the north side of the river for the Albert Basin (with a graving dock), quays and warehouses. A 1050 ft (320 m) long concrete [[breakwater]] was constructed on the south side of the stream as a protection against south-easterly gales. On Girdleness, the southern point of the bay, a [[lighthouse]] was built in 1833. Thirty-two people were drowned in the harbour on [[5 April]] [[1876]], in the [[River Dee Ferry Boat Disaster]]. Aberdeen Harbour was the first publicly limited company in the United Kingdom. A harbour in [[Hong Kong]] has been named [[Aberdeen Harbour]], supposedly by ex-patriots from the Scottish city. ==Industry== Owing to the variety and importance of its chief industries Aberdeen is one of the most prosperous cities in Scotland. Very durable grey granite was [[quarry|quarried]] at Rubislaw quarry for more than 300 years, and blocked and dressed paving "setts", kerb and building stones, and monumental and other ornamental work of granite have long been exported from the district to all parts of the world. Quarrying finally ceased in 1971. This, though once the predominant industry, was surpassed by the deep-sea fisheries, which derived a great impetus from improved technologies throughout the twentieth century. Lately, however, catches have fallen due to overfishing in previous years, and the use of the harbour by oil support vessels. Aberdeen remains an important fishing port, but the catch landed there is now eclipsed by the more northerly ports of [[Peterhead]] and [[Fraserburgh]]. The [[Fisheries Research Service]] is based in Aberdeen, including its headquarters and a marine research lab. Most of the leading pre-1970s industries date from the [[18th century]], amongst them [[wool]]lens (1703), [[linen]] (1749), and [[cotton]] (1779). These gave employment to several thousands of operatives. The [[paper]]-making industry is one of the most famous and oldest in the city, paper having been first made in Aberdeen in 1694. [[Flax]]-[[spinning]] and [[jute]] and [[comb]]making factories also flourished, along with successful [[foundry|foundries]] and engineering works. In the days of wooden ships [[ship-building]] was a flourishing industry, the town being noted for its fast [[clipper]]s, many of which established records in the "[[tea]] races". The introduction of trawling revived this to some extent, and despite the distance of the city from the [[iron]] fields there was a fair yearly output of iron vessels. The last major shipbuilder in Aberdeen, Hall Russells, closed in the late 1980's. With the discovery of significant oil deposits in the North Sea during the late [[twentieth century]], Aberdeen became the centre of [[Europe]]'s [[petroleum]] industry, with the port serving [[oil rig]]s off-shore. The number of jobs created by the energy industry in and around Aberdeen has been estimated at half a million. In 1988, the city was dealt a heavy blow by the loss-of-life suffered during an explosion and fire aboard one such rig, the [[Piper Alpha]]. ==Population== In 1396 the population was about 3,000. By 1801 it had become 26,992; in 1841 it was 63,262; (1891) 121,623; (1901) 153,503; in 2001 it was 197,328. ==Sport== [[Aberdeen Football Club]] was founded in 1903. Its major success was winning the [[European Cup Winners Cup]] in 1983 and three League Championships between 1980 and 1986, under the current [[Manchester United F.C.]] manager [[Alex Ferguson]]. The club's stadium is [[Pittodrie]] which holds the distinction of being Britain's first all-seater stadium. Aberdeen F.C. holds the distinction of being the last team to have won the [[Scottish Premier League]] Championship outside the [[Old Firm]] and is the only Scottish team to have won two European trophies adding to their European Cup Winners Cup success by winning the [[European Super Cup]] also in 1983. Well known footballers who have played for the club include [[Gordon Strachan]] (Current Celtic manager), [[Alex McLeish]] (Current Rangers manager) and club legend [[Willie Miller]]. [[Denis Law]], the joint top scorer for the Scotland national team was also born in the city, but spent his professional career playing for English and Italian clubs. Aberdeen Golf Club was founded in 1815. It has two 18-hole courses at Balgownie, north of the River Don. There are other golf courses at Auchmill, Balnagask, Hazlehead and King's Links. ==Transport== There are four main roads serving the city; * [[A90 road|A90]] The main arterial route into the city from the South, linking Aberdeen to [[Edinburgh]], [[Dundee]] and [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]]. * [[A96 road|A96]] Links to [[Elgin, Moray|Elgin]] and [[Inverness]] and the North West. * [[A93 road|A93]] The main route to the West, heading towards [[Royal Deeside]] and the [[Cairngorms]]. * [[A92 road|A92]] The original southerly road to Aberdeen prior to the building of the A90, now used as a tourist route, connecting the towns of [[Montrose, Angus|Montrose]], [[Arbroath]] and [[Brechin]] on the east coast. The city's original ring road, Anderson Drive, which was built in the 1930s has long since been engulfed by the expansion of the city, and is inadequate for dealing with today's traffic. To this end, a new main bypass road, the Western Peripheral Route, is planned to divert through traffic away from the city centre. The road is due to open in 2010. The city is well served by the national [[railway]] network. Aberdeen has regular rail services to [[Glasgow]] and Edinburgh as well as long distance trains to [[London]] via Edinburgh. It is possible to take the longest scheduled rail journey in the whole of the UK from Aberdeen. A daily service runs from Aberdeen to [[Penzance]] in [[Cornwall]], which is 722 miles (1,162 km) and twelve and three quarter hours away. Regular trains also run north westerly towards Inverness and north to [[Dyce]] for the airport. Aberdeen also has an [[airport]] in the neighbouring town of Dyce, which is operated by [[BAA plc]]. As well as connecting the city to the rest of the UK, [[Aberdeen Airport]] (sometimes refererred to as ''Dyce Airport'') is the largest [[helicopter]] terminal in the world, serving the many North Sea oil installations. The [[IATA airport code]] for the airport is ABZ. == Wards of the City of Aberdeen == [[Ashley, Aberdeen|Ashley]], [[Auchmill]], [[Bankhead and Stoneywood, Aberdeen|Bankhead and Stoneywood]], [[Berryden]], [[Broomhill, Aberdeen|Broomhill]], [[Bridge of Don]], [[Castlehill, Aberdeen|Castlehill]], [[Cults]], [[Cummings Park, Aberdeen|Cummings Park]], [[Danestone]], [[Donmouth]], [[Duthie]], [[Dyce]], [[Garthdee]], [[Gilcomston]], [[Hazelhead]], [[Hilton, Aberdeen|Hilton]], [[Holburn]], [[Jesmond, Aberdeen|Jesmond]], [[Kincorth]] East, [[Kincorth]] West, [[Kittybrewster]], [[Langstane]], [[Loirston]], [[Mannofield]], [[Mastrick]], [[Midstocket]], [[Murtle]], [[Newhills]], [[Oldmachar]], [[Peterculter]], [[Pittodrie]], [[Queen's Cross, Aberdeen|Queen's Cross]], [[St. Machar]], [[Seaton]], [[Sheddocksley]], [[Springhill, Aberdeen|Springhill]], [[Stockethill]], [[Summerhill, Aberdeen|Summerhill]], [[Sunnybank, Aberdeen|Sunnybank]], [[Torry]], [[Tullos]], [[Woodside, Aberdeen|Woodside]] and [[Tillydrone]] == Twinned cities worldwide == Aberdeen is [[Town twinning|twinned]] with several cities across Europe and throughout the rest of the world. These include: {| | valign="top" | * {{flagicon|Germany}} - [[Regensburg]], [[Germany]] * {{flagicon|France}} - [[Clermont-Ferrand]], [[France]] * {{flagicon|Norway}} - [[Stavanger]], [[Norway]] | valign="top" | * {{flagicon|Belarus}} - [[Gomel]], [[Belarus]] * {{flagicon|Zimbabwe}} - [[Bulawayo]], [[Zimbabwe]] |} ==See also== *[[List of Aberdonians]] *[[List of Bishops of Aberdeen]] *[[List of Provosts and Lord Provosts of Aberdeen]] ==External links== {{commonscat}} *[http://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/acc/default.asp Aberdeen City Council] *[http://www.scots-online.org/grammar/aberdeen.htm Aberdeen Dialect] *[http://www.touchaberdeen.com/ Aberdeen Business portal] {{oscoor gbx|NJ925065}} {{Scottish Cities}} [[Category:Aberdeen| ]] [[Category:Scottish names]] [[da:Aberdeen]] [[de:Aberdeen]] [[et:Aberdeen]] [[es:Aberdeen]] [[eo:Aberdeen]] [[fa:ابردین]] [[fr:Aberdeen]] [[gl:Aberdeen, Escocia]] [[ja:アバディーン (スコットランド)]] [[mk:Абердин]] [[nl:Aberdeen]] [[no:Aberdeen]] [[nn:Aberdeen]] [[pl:Aberdeen (Szkocja)]] [[pt:Aberdeen]] [[ru:Эбердин (город)]] [[sco:Aiberdeen]] [[simple:Aberdeen]] [[fi:Aberdeen]] [[sv:Aberdeen]] 1628 42162744 2006-03-04T05:58:02Z Rklawton 754622 /* Fiction */ formatting {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=23}} |} '''[[August 23]]''' is the 235th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (236th in leap years), with 130 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1305]] - [[William Wallace]] is executed. *[[1328]] - [[Battle of Kassel]]: French troops stop an uprising of Flemish farmers *1328 - King [[Philip VI of France]] is crowned. *[[1541]] - French explorer [[Jacques Cartier]] lands near Quebec City in his third voyage to Canada. *[[1566]] - Calvinists are granted rights in the Netherlands *[[1614]] - The [[University of Groningen]] is established *[[1617]] - In London, the first one-way street is established *[[1651]] - [[Charles II of England]] enters [[Worcester]] and starts a battle. *[[1784]] - [[Eastern Tennessee]] declares itself an independent state under the name of [[State of Franklin|Franklin]]; the step is rejected by Congress one year later *[[1793]] - [[French Revolution]]: a [[levée en masse]] was decreed by the [[National Convention]]. *[[1799]] - [[Napoleon]] leaves [[Egypt]] for [[France]] en route to seize power *[[1813]] - At the [[Battle of Grossbeeren]],the Prussians under [[Von Bulow]] repulse the French army. *[[1821]] - [[Mexico]] gains its independence from [[Spain]] *[[1833]] - [[Slavery]] abolished in the British colonies *[[1839]] - The [[United Kingdom|UK]] captures [[Hong Kong]] *[[1864]] - The Union Navy captures Fort Morgan, [[Alabama]], thus breaking [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] dominance of all ports on the [[Gulf of Mexico]] *[[1866]] - [[Austro-Prussian War]] ends with the [[Treaty of Prague]] *[[1889]] - First [[radio|wireless]] message from a ship to the shore received. *[[1896]] - First Cry of the [[Philippine Revolution]] is made in Pugad Lawin ([[Quezon City]]), in the province of [[Manila]] *[[1904]] - The [[tire chain|automobile tire chain]] is patented. *[[1914]] - [[Japan]] declares war on [[Germany]] and bombs [[Qingdao]], [[China]]. *[[1924]] - The distance between [[Earth]] and [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] is the smallest since the 10th century. *[[1927]] - [[Italy|Italian]] [[anarchist]]s [[Sacco and Vanzetti]] are executed in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]. *[[1929]] - Arabs attack Jews in Israel *[[1939]] - [[World War II]]: [[Germany]] and the [[Soviet Union]] sign a non-aggression treaty, the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]]. In a secret addition to the pact, [[Baltic states]], [[Finland]] and [[Poland]] are divided between the two nations. *[[1940]] - World War II: The Germans start bombing [[London]]. *[[1942]] - World War II: Beginning of the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] *[[1943]] - World War II: [[Kharkov]] liberated. *[[1944]] - World War II: [[Marseille]] liberated. *1944 - World War II: [[Michael of Romania|King Michael of Romania]] dismisses the pro-[[Nazi]] government of [[Ion Antonescu|General Antonescu]]. Romania switches sides from the Axis to the Allies. *1944 - A [[United States Air Force|US Army Air Force]] B-24 Liberator bomber crashes into a school in [[Freckleton]], [[England]] killing 61 people. *1944 - World War II: [[Ion Antonescu]], prime minister of [[Romania]], is arrested and a new gouverment is established. [[Romania]] exits the war against [[Russia]] joining the [[Allies]]. *[[1947]] - The Maynard Midgets beat Lock Haven 16-7 to win the first-ever [[Little League]] World Series championship. *[[1948]] - [[World Council of Churches]] is formed. *[[1952]] - The [[Arab League]] goes into effect. *[[1958]] - [[Chinese Civil War]]: The [[Second Taiwan Strait crisis]] begins with the [[People's Liberation Army]]'s bombardment of [[Quemoy]]. *[[1960]] - In [[Equatorial Guinea]], the world's largest [[frog]] (3.3 kg) is caught. *[[1962]] - First live [[television]] connection between the [[United States]] and [[Europe]], via the [[Telstar]] satellite. *[[1966]] - [[Lunar Orbiter 1]] takes the first photograph of [[Earth]] from orbit around the [[Moon]]. *[[1968]] - [[Ringo Starr]] temporarily quits [[The Beatles]] *[[1973]] - The [[Intelsat]] communication satellite is launched. *[[1975]] - Successful [[Communism|Communist]] coup in [[Laos]] *[[1976]] - A major [[earthquake]] in [[China]] kills thousands of people. *[[1979]] - [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] dancer [[Alexander Godunov]] defects to the [[United States]]. *[[1985]] - [[Hans Tiedge]], top counter-spy of [[West Germany]], defects to [[East Germany]]. *[[1987]] - Heavy rains and floods in [[Bangladesh]] kill hundreds of victims. *[[1989]] - [[Singing Revolution]]: two million people from [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]] stand on the Vilnius-Tallinn road, holding hands ([[Baltic way]]). *1989 - All of [[Australia]]'s 1,645 domestic airline pilots resign after the airlines threaten to sack them and sue them over a dispute. *[[1990]] - [[Saddam Hussein]] appears on Iraqi state television with a number of Western "guests" (actually hostages to try to prevent the [[Gulf War]]). *1990 - [[Armenia]] declares its independence from the [[Soviet Union]]. *1990 - [[West Germany]] and [[East Germany]] announce that they will unite on [[October 3]]. *[[1992]] - [[Hurricane Andrew]] hits South [[Florida]]. *[[1996]] - [[Osama bin Laden]] issues message entitled 'A declaration of war against the Americans occupying the land of the two holy places' *[[1998]] - That 70's Show pilot episode aired on the FOX T.V. Network *[[2000]] - A [[Gulf Air]] [[Airbus A320]] crashes into the [[Persian Gulf]] near [[Manama, Bahrain]], killing 143 *2000 - [[Nicaragua]] becomes a member of the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]]. This essentially [[deprecated]] the [[Buenos Aires Convention]] treaty, because as of this date, all members of the BA Convention were also signatories to Berne. *[[2005]] - [[TANS Peru Flight 204]] crashes near [[Pucallpa]], [[Peru]], killing 41. ==Births== *[[686]] - [[Charles Martel]], grandfather of [[Charlemagne]] (d. [[741]]) *[[1486]] - [[Sigismund von Herberstein]], Austrian diplomat and historian (d. [[1566]]) *[[1524]] - [[François Hotman]], French lawyer and writer (d. [[1590]]) *[[1623]] - [[Stanisław Lubieniecki]], Polish astronomer (d. [[1675]]) *[[1724]] - [[Abraham Yates]], American Continental Congressman (d. [[1796]]) *[[1741]] - [[Jean-François de Galaup, count de La Pérouse]], French explorer (d. [[1788]]) *[[1754]] - King [[Louis XVI of France]] (d. [[1792]]) *[[1769]] - [[Georges Cuvier]], French biologist and statesman (d. [[1832]]) *[[1783]] - [[William Tierney Clark]], English civil engineer (d. [[1852]]) *[[1785]] - [[Oliver Hazard Perry]], U.S. naval officer (d.[[1819]]) *[[1805]] - [[Anton von Schmerling]], Austrian statesman (d. [[1893]]) *[[1829]] - [[Moritz Cantor]], German mathematician (d.[[1920]]) *[[1847]] - [[Sarah Frances Whiting]], American physicist and astronomer (d. [[1927]]) *[[1849]] - [[William Ernest Henley]], British poet, critic, and editor (d. [[1903]]) *[[1852]] - [[Arnold Toynbee]], English economist and social reformer (d.[[1883]]) *[[1864]] - [[Eleftherios Venizalos]], [[Prime Minister of Greece]] (d.[[1936]]) *[[1869]] - [[Edgar Lee Masters]], American author (d. [[1950]]) *[[1875]] - [[William Eccles]], English radio pioneer (d. [[1966]]) *[[1880]] - [[Alexander Grin]], Russian writer (d. [[1932]]) *[[1883]] - [[Jonathan Mayhew Wainwright IV]], U.S. general (d. [[1953]]) *[[1884]] - [[Will Cuppy]], American humorist (d. [[1949]]) *[[1900]] - [[Ernst Krenek]], Austrian-born composer (d. [[1991]]) *[[1901]] - [[John Sherman Cooper]], U.S. Senator from Kentucky (d. [[1991]]) *[[1903]] - [[William Primrose]], Scottish violist (d. [[1982]]) *[[1905]] - [[Constant Lambert]], British composer (d. [[1951]]) *[[1911]] - [[Birger Ruud]], Norwegian athelete (d. [[1998]]) *[[1912]] - [[Gene Kelly]], American dancer and actor (d. [[1996]]) *[[1917]] - [[Tex Williams]], American singer (d. [[1985]]) *[[1921]] - [[Kenneth Arrow]], American economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner *[[1922]] - [[George Kell]], baseball player *[[1923]] - [[Edgar F. Codd]], English computer scientist (d. [[2003]]) *[[1924]] - [[Ephraim Kishon]], Israeli writer (d. [[2005]]) *1924 - [[Robert Solow]], American economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Nobel Prize]] laureate *[[1927]] - [[Dick Bruna]], Dutch illustrator *[[1929]] - [[Vera Miles]], American actress *[[1930]] - [[Michel Rocard]], [[Prime Minister of France]] *[[1931]] - [[Hamilton O. Smith]], American microbiologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] *[[1932]] - [[Houari Boumedienne]], [[President of Algeria]] (d. [[1978]]) *1932 - [[Mark Russell]], American comedian, musician, and political commentator *[[1933]] - [[Robert Curl]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate *1933 - [[Pete Wilson]], Governor of California *[[1934]] - [[Barbara Eden]], American actress *1934 - [[Sonny Jurgensen]], American football player *[[1936]] - [[Henry Lee Lucas]], American serial killer (d. [[2001]]) *[[1943]] - [[Nelson DeMille]], American novelist *[[1947]] - [[Keith Moon]], English singer and drummer ([[The Who]]) (d. [[1978]]) *[[1947]] - [[David Robb]], British actor *[[1949]] - [[Shelley Long]], American actress *1949 - [[Rick Springfield]], Australian singer and actor *[[1951]] - [[Akhmad Kadyrov]], President of Chechnya (d. [[2004]]) *1951 - [[Queen Noor]] of Jordan *[[1952]] - [[Vicky Leandros]], Greek singer *[[1953]] - [[Bobby G]], British singer ([[Bucks Fizz]]) *[[1956]] - [[Andreas Floer]], German mathematician (d. [[1991]]) *[[1963]] - [[Hans-Henning Fastrich]], German field hockey player *1963 - [[Kenny Wallace]], American race car driver *[[1965]] - [[Roger Avary]], Academy Award Winning writer/director/producer *[[1966]] - [[Rik Smits]], Dutch basketball player *[[1969]] - [[Keith Tyson]], Turner prize-winning English artist *1969 - [[Jeremy Schaap]], American sportswriter *[[1970]] - [[Jay Mohr]], American actor and comedian *1970 - [[River Phoenix]], American actor (d. [[1993]]) *1970 - [[Fred Durst]], American singer *[[1974]] - [[Ray Park]], British actor *[[1975]] - [[Eliza Carthy]], English singer and fiddler *[[1978]] - [[Kobe Bryant]], American basketball player *1978 - [[Julian Casablancas]], American musician *[[1982]] - [[Natalie Coughlin]], American olympic swimmer *[[1982]] - [[YTCracker]], American musician *[[1984]] - [[Glen Johnson (footballer)|Glen Johnson]], English footballer *[[1988]] - [[Niki Leinso]], Croatian singer and songwriter ==Deaths== *[[93]] - [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]], Roman Governor of Britain (b. [[40]]) *[[634]] - [[Abu Bakr]], Arabian caliph *[[1176]] - [[Emperor Rokujo]] of Japan (b. [[1164]]) *[[1305]] - [[William Wallace]], Scottish patriot (executed) *[[1387]] - King [[Olav IV of Norway]] (b. [[1370]]) *[[1507]] - [[Jean Molinet]], French writer (b. [[1435]]) *[[1519]] - [[Philibert Berthelier]], Swiss patriot *[[1540]] - [[Guillaume Budé]], French scholar *[[1591]] - [[Luis Ponce de León]], Spanish poet and mystic (b. [[1527]]) *[[1618]] - [[Gerbrand Adriaensz Bredero]], Dutch writer (b. [[1585]]) *[[1628]] - [[George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham]], English statesman (b. [[1592]]) *[[1723]] - [[Increase Mather]], New England Puritan minister (b. [[1639]]) *[[1618]] - [[Gerbrand Adriaensz Bredero]], Dutch writer (b. [[1585]]) *[[1652]] - [[John Byron, 1st Baron Byron]], English royalist politician (b. [[1600]]) *[[1806]] - [[Charles Augustin de Coulomb]], French physicist (b. [[1736]]) *[[1813]] - [[Alexander Wilson]], Scottish-born ornithologist (b. [[1766]]) *[[1819]] - [[Oliver Hazard Perry]], American naval officer (b. [[1785]]) *[[1866]] - [[Auguste Barthelemy]], French poet (b. [[1796]]) *[[1926]] - [[Rudolph Valentino]], Italian actor (b. [[1895]]) *[[1927]] - [[Nicola Sacco]], Italian anarchist (executed) (b. [[1891]]) *1927 - [[Bartolomeo Vanzetti]], Italian anarchist (executed) (b. [[1888]]) *[[1937]] - [[Albert Roussel]], French composer (b. [[1869]]) *[[1955]] - [[Reginald Tate]], British actor (b. [[1896]]) *[[1960]] - [[Oscar Hammerstein II]], American lyricist (b. [[1895]]) *[[1962]] - [[Walter Anderson]], German folklorist (b. [[1885]]) *1962 - [[Hoot Gibson]], American actor (b. [[1892]]) *[[1966]] - [[Francis X. Bushman]], American actor (b. [[1883]]) *[[1974]] - [[Roberto Assagioli]], Italian psychiatrist (b. [[1888]]) *[[1982]] - [[Stanford Moore]], American biochemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1913]]) *[[1997]] - [[John Kendrew]], British molecular biologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] (b. [[1917]]) *[[1999]] - [[James White (author)|James White]], Northern Irish science fiction writer (b. [[1928]]) *[[2001]] - [[Peter Maas]], American novelist (b. [[1929]]) *[[2002]] - [[Hoyt Wilhelm]], baseball player (b. [[1922]]) *[[2003]] - [[Imperio Argentina]], Argentine singer and actress (b. [[1906]]) *2003 - [[Bobby Bonds]], baseball player and manager (b. [[1946]]) *2003 - [[Jack Dyer]], Australian footballer (b. [[1913]]) *2003 - [[John Geoghan]], American Catholic priest *[[2005]] - [[Brock Peters]], American actor (b. [[1927]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Roman festivals]] - [[Vulcanalia]] *[[Calendar of Saints|RC Saints]] - [[Saint Rose of Lima]] *[[Romania]] - [[Liberation Day]] ([[1944]]) *[[Swaziland]] - [[Umhlanga Day]] *[[Astrology]] - First day of sun sign [[Virgo]] == Fiction == *[[Squall Leonhart]]'s birthday (from [[Final Fantasy VIII]]). *[[Temari (Naruto)|Temari's]] birthday (from [[Naruto]]). ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/23 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[August 22]] - [[August 24]] - [[July 23]] - [[September 23]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:23 Augustus]] [[ar:23 أغسطس]] [[an:23 d'agosto]] [[ast:23 d'agostu]] [[bg:23 август]] [[be:23 жніўня]] [[bs:23. august]] [[ca:23 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 23]] [[cv:Çурла, 23]] [[co:23 d'aostu]] [[cs:23. srpen]] [[cy:23 Awst]] [[da:23. august]] [[de:23. August]] [[et:23. august]] [[el:23 Αυγούστου]] [[es:23 de agosto]] [[eo:23-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 23]] [[fo:23. august]] [[fr:23 août]] [[fy:23 augustus]] [[ga:23 Lúnasa]] [[gl:23 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 23일]] [[hr:23. kolovoza]] [[io:23 di agosto]] [[id:23 Agustus]] [[ia:23 de augusto]] [[ie:23 august]] [[is:23. ágúst]] [[it:23 agosto]] [[he:23 באוגוסט]] [[jv:23 Agustus]] [[ka:23 აგვისტო]] [[csb:23 zélnika]] [[ku:23'ê gelawêjê]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 23]] [[lb:23. August]] [[hu:Augusztus 23]] [[mk:23 август]] [[ms:23 Ogos]] [[nap:23 'e aùsto]] [[nl:23 augustus]] [[ja:8月23日]] [[no:23. august]] [[nn:23. august]] [[oc:23 d'agost]] [[pl:23 sierpnia]] [[pt:23 de Agosto]] [[ro:23 august]] [[ru:23 августа]] [[sco:23 August]] [[sq:23 Gusht]] [[scn:23 di austu]] [[simple:August 23]] [[sk:23. august]] [[sl:23. avgust]] [[sr:23. август]] [[fi:23. elokuuta]] [[sv:23 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 23]] [[tt:23. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 23]] [[th:23 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:23 tháng 8]] [[tr:23 Ağustos]] [[uk:23 серпня]] [[wa:23 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 23]] [[zh:8月23日]] [[pam:Agostu 23]] 1629 42102153 2006-03-03T21:13:07Z Squideshi 202826 /* Events */ Treaty with the Ottawa, etc. {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=24}} |} '''[[August 24]]''' is the 236th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (237th in leap years), with 129 days remaining. ==Events== * [[49 BC]] - [[Julius Caesar]]'s general Gaius Curio is defeated in the [[Second Battle of the Bagradas River]] by the [[Numidians]] under Attius Varus and King Juba of [[Numidia]]. Curio is slain in battle. * AD [[79]] - [[Mount Vesuvius]] erupts. The cities of [[Pompeii]], [[Herculaneum]], and [[Stabiae]] are buried in volcanic ash. * [[410]] - The [[Visigoths]] under [[Alaric I|Alaric]] sack [[Rome]] for three days. * [[1215]] - [[Pope Innocent III]] declares the [[Magna Carta]] invalid. * [[1349]] - Six thousand Jews are killed in [[Mainz]] because they are blamed for the [[bubonic plague]]. * [[1391]] - Jews massacred in [[Palma de Mallorca]]. * [[1456]] - The printing of the [[Gutenberg Bible]] is completed. * [[1511]] - [[Alfonso de Albuquerque]] of [[Portugal]] conquers the [[Sultanate of Malacca]]. * [[1572]] - [[Saint Bartholomews Day Massacre|Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre]]: On the orders of king [[Charles IX of France]], a massacre of [[Huguenot]]s (French [[Protestant]]s) begins. * [[1608]] - The first official British representative to [[India]] lands in [[Surat]]. * [[1662]] - [[Act of Uniformity]] requires [[England]] to accept the [[Book of Common Prayer]]. * [[1682]] - [[William Penn]] receives the area that is now the state of [[Delaware]], and adds it to his colony of [[Pennsylvania]]. * [[1690]] - [[Kolkata|Calcutta]], [[India]] is founded. * [[1814]] - British troops invade [[Washington, D.C.]] and burn down the [[White House]] and several other buildings. * [[1816]] - The [[Treaty with the Ottawa, etc.]] is signed in [[Saint Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]], [[Missouri]]. * [[1821]] - The [[Treaty of Córdoba]] is signed in [[Córdoba, Veracruz|Córdoba]], now in [[Veracruz (state)|Veracruz]], [[Mexico]], concluding the [[Mexican War of Independence]] from [[Spain]]. * [[1831]] - [[Charles Darwin]] is asked to travel on [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']]. * [[1847]] - [[Charlotte Brontë]] finishes ''Jane Eyre''. * [[1853]] - [[Potato chips]] are first prepared. * [[1857]] - The [[Panic of 1857]] begins, setting off one of the most severe economic crises in U.S. history. * [[1858]] - In [[Richmond, Virginia]], 90 blacks are arrested for learning. * [[1891]] - [[Thomas Edison]] patents the motion picture camera. * [[1909]] - Workers start pouring concrete for the [[Panama Canal]]. * [[1912]] - [[Alaska]] becomes a [[United States]] territory. * [[1914]] - [[World War I]]: German troops capture [[Namur (city)|Namur]]. * [[1929]] - [[Turkey]] and [[Iran|Persia]] sign a friendship treaty. * 1929 - [[Riots in Palestine of 1929]]: 18 Jews in Safed, 67 in Hebron, and 22 in Jerusalem killed by Arab Palestinians * [[1931]] - [[France]] and the [[Soviet Union]] sign a neutrality/no attack treaty. *[[1931]] - Resignation of the [[United Kingdom]]'s [[Second Labour Government]]. Formation of the [[UK National Government]]. * [[1932]] - [[Amelia Earhart]] is the first woman to fly across the [[United States]] non-stop (from [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] to [[Newark, New Jersey]]). * [[1936]] - The [[Australian Antarctic Territory]] is created. * [[1942]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Battle of the East Solomon Islands]]. [[Japan]]ese [[aircraft carrier]] ''[[Ryuho]]'' is sunk. * [[1944]] - World War II: French and Allied troops start the attack on [[Paris]]. * [[1949]] - The treaty creating [[NATO]] goes into effect. * [[1950]] - [[Edith Sampson]] becomess the first black U.S. delegate to the [[UN]]. * [[1954]] - The [[Communist Control Act]] goes into effect. The [[American Communist Party]] is outlawed. * [[1954]] - [[Getúlio Dornelles Vargas]], president of Brazil, commit suicide and is succeeded by [[João Café Filho]]. * [[1960]] - A temperature of &minus;88°C (&minus;127°F) is measured in [[Vostok, Antarctica|Vostok]], [[Antarctica]] &mdash; a world-record low. * [[1963]] - The 200-metre freestyle is swum in less than 2 minutes for the first time by [[Don Schollander]] (1:58). * [[1967]] - Led by [[Abbie Hoffman]], a group of [[hippies]] temporarily disrupt trading at the [[NYSE]] by throwing dollar bills from the viewing gallery, causing a cease in trading as the brokers scramble to grab them up. * [[1968]] - [[France]] explodes its first [[hydrogen bomb]], thus becoming the world's fifth nuclear power. * [[1971]] - [[Pink Floyd]] performs their most famous concert, in an abandoned Pompeii amphitheatre on the 1892nd anniversary of the infamous disappearance of Pompeii. * [[1979]] - In [[Central Park]], [[New York]] a concert is given by [[The Cars]]. * [[1981]] - [[Mark David Chapman]] is sentenced to 20 years to life in prison for murdering [[John Lennon]]. * [[1989]] - [[Colombia]]n drug barons declare "total war" on the Colombian government. * 1989 - [[Cincinnati Reds]] manager [[Pete Rose]] is banned from [[baseball]] for gambling by Commissioner [[A. Bartlett Giamatti]] * 1989 - [[Voyager 2]] passes [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]]. * [[1990]] - A judge rules that [[Judas Priest]] are not responsible for the deaths of two youths who committed [[suicide]] after listening to the band's music. * 1990 - [[Sinéad O'Connor]] refuses to perform at the Garden State Arts Plaza in [[Holmdel, New Jersey]] if "[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]" is played before her show, as is customary. * [[1991]] - [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] resigns as head of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]. * 1991 - [[Ukraine]] declares itself independent from the [[Soviet Union]]. * [[1992]] - Diplomatic relations are established between the [[People's Republic of China]] and [[South Korea]]. * 1992 - [[Hurricane Andrew]] hits [[South Florida]]. * [[1994]] - Initial accord between [[Israel]] and the [[PLO]] about partial self-rule of the [[Palestinian]]s on the [[West Bank]]. * [[1995]] - [[Windows 95]] is released. * [[1998]] - The [[Netherlands]] is selected as the site for the trial of the two [[Libya]]n suspects of the 1988 PanAm bombing. * [[2001]] - [[Air Transat Flight 236]] runs out of fuel over the Atlantic Ocean (en route to Lisbon from New York) and makes an emergency landing in the Azores. * [[2004]] - Two airliners in [[Russia]], carrying a total of 89 passengers, crash within minutes of each other after flying out of [[Domodedovo International Airport]], near [[Moscow]], leaving no survivors. Authorities suspect suicide attacks by rebels from the breakaway republic of [[Chechnya]] to be the cause of the crashes. ==Births== * [[1113]] - [[Geoffrey of Anjou|Geoffrey Plantagenet]], Count of Anjou (b. [[1113]]) * [[1198]] - King [[Alexander II of Scotland]] (d. [[1249]]) * [[1358]] - King [[John I of Castile]] (d. [[1390]]) * [[1393]] - [[Arthur III, Duke of Brittany]] (d. [[1458]]) *[[1552]] - [[Lavinia Fontana]], Italian painter (d. [[1614]]) *[[1580]] - [[John Taylor (poet)|John Taylor]], English poet (d. [[1654]]) * [[1591]] - [[Robert Herrick (poet)|Robert Herrick]], English poet (d. [[1674]]) * [[1635]] - [[Peder Griffenfeld]], Danish statesman (d. [[1699]]) * [[1669]] - [[Alessandro Marcello]], Italian composer (d. [[1747]]) * [[1759]] - [[William Wilberforce]], English campaigner against slavery (d. [[1833]]) * [[1772]] - King [[William I of the Netherlands]] (1814-1840) * [[1787]] - [[James Weddell]], Antarctica explorer (d. [[1834]]) * [[1817]] - [[Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy]], Russian writer (d. [[1875]]) * [[1837]] - [[Théodore Dubois]], French composer and teacher (d. [[1924]]) * [[1852]] - [[Deacon White]], baseball player (d. [[1919]]) * [[1863]] - [[Dragutin Lerman]], Croatian explorer (d. [[1918]]) * [[1865]] - King [[Ferdinand I of Romania]] (d. [[1927]]) * [[1880]] - [[Joshua Lionel Cowen]], American inventor and entrepreneur (d. [[1965]]) * [[1884]] - [[Earl Derr Biggers]], American author (d. [[1933]]) * [[1887]] - [[Harry Hooper]], baseball player (d. [[1974]]) * [[1890]] - [[Duke Kahanamoku]], Hawaiian swimmer and surfer (d. [[1968]]) * 1890 - [[Jean Rhys]], Dominican writer (d. [[1979]]) * [[1898]] - [[Malcolm Cowley]], American literary critic, writer, and editor (d. [[1989]]) * [[1899]] - [[Jorge Luis Borges]], Argentine writer (d. [[1986]]) * [[1901]] - [[Preston Foster]], American actor (d. [[1970]]) * [[1904]] - [[Alice White]], American film actress (d. [[1983]]) * [[1915]] - [[James Tiptree, Jr.]], American writer (d. [[1987]]) * [[1916]] - [[Hal Smith (actor)|Hal Smith]], American actor and voice actor (d. [[1994]]) *[[1922]] - [[René Lévesque]], Premier of Quebec (d. [[1987]]) *[[1923]] - [[Arthur Jensen]], American psychologist *[[1927]] - [[Harry Markowitz]], American economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner *[[1929]] - [[Yasser Arafat]], Palestinian leader, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[2004]]) *[[1934]] - [[Kenny Baker]], English actor *[[1936]] - [[A. S. Byatt]], English novelist *[[1938]] - [[Halldór Blöndal]], Icelandic politician *1938 - [[David Freiberg]], American bassist ([[Quicksilver Messenger Service]] and [[Jefferson Starship]]) *[[1943]] - [[John Cipollina]], American guitarist ([[Quicksilver Messenger Service]]) (d. [[1989]]) *[[1944]] - [[Jim Capaldi]], British drummer, singer, and songwriter ([[Traffic]]) (d. [[2005]]) *[[1945]] - [[Ken Hensley]], English musician ([[Uriah Heep (band)|Uriah Heep]]) *1945 - [[Vince McMahon]], American professional wrestling entrepreneur *[[1947]] - [[Paulo Coelho]], Brazilian author *[[1948]] - [[Jean-Michel Jarre]], French musician *[[1951]] - [[Orson Scott Card]], American novelist *[[1954]] - [[Libby Mooney]],British Science educator *[[1956]] - [[John Culberson]], American politician *[[1957]] - [[Stephen Fry]], English comedian, author, and actor *[[1958]] - [[Steve Guttenberg]], American actor *[[1958]] - [[Tracy Harris]], American artist *[[1960]] - [[Cal Ripken, Jr.]], baseball player *[[1962]] - [[Craig Kilborn]], American talk show host *1962 - [[David Koechner]], American actor *[[1963]] - [[John Bush]], American singer ([[Anthrax (band)|Anthrax]]) *1963 - [[Hideo Kojima]], Japanese video game director *[[1964]] - [[Salizhan Sharipov]], cosmonaut *[[1965]] - [[Marlee Matlin]], American actress *1965 - [[Reggie Miller]], American basketball player *[[1968]] - [[Shoichi Funaki]], Japanese professional wrestler *1968 - [[Andreas Kisser]], Brazilian guitarist ([[Sepultura]]) *[[1973]] - [[David Chappelle]], American actor and comedian *1973 - [[Inge de Bruijn]], Dutch swimmer *1973 - [[Carmine Giovinazzo]], American actor *[[1974]] - [[Jennifer Lien]], American actress *[[1978]] - [[Rafael Furcal]], Dominican [[Major League Baseball]] player *[[1981]] - [[Chad Michael Murray]], American actor *[[1983]] - [[Christopher Parker]], British actor *[[1988]] - [[Rupert Grint]], English actor ==Deaths== *[[79]] - [[Pliny the Elder]], Roman writer and naturalist (b. [[23]]) *[[1042]] - [[Michael V]], [[Byzantine Emperor]]) (b. [[1015]]) *[[1103]] - King [[Magnus III of Norway]] (b. [[1073]]) *[[1217]] - [[Eustace the Monk]], French mercenary and pirate *[[1540]] - [[Girolamo Francesco Maria Mazzola]], Italian painter (b. [[1503]]) *[[1542]] - [[Gasparo Contarini]], Italian diplomat and cardinal (b. [[1483]]) *[[1572]] - Victims of the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre: ** [[Gaspard de Coligny]], French Huguenot leader (b. [[1519]]) ** [[Petrus Ramus|Pierre de la Ramée]], French humanist (b. [[1515]]) ** [[Charles de Téligny]], French Huguenot soldier *[[1595]] - [[Thomas Digges]], English astronomer (b. [[1546]]) *[[1647]] - [[Nicholas Stone]], English sculptor and architect (b. [[1586]]) *[[1664]] - [[Maria Cunitz]], Silesian astronomer *[[1679]] - [[Jean François Paul de Gondi, cardinal de Retz]], French churchman and agitator (b. [[1614]]) *[[1680]] - [[Thomas Blood]], Irish-born thief of the British crown jewels (b. [[1618]]) *[[1683]] - [[John Owen (theologian)|John Owen]], English non-conformist theologian (b. [[1616]]) *[[1759]] - [[Ewald Christian von Kleist]], German poet (b. [[1715]]) *[[1779]] - [[Kosmas Aitolos]], Greek Orthodox martyr (b. [[1714]]) *[[1831]] - [[August von Gneisenau]], Prussian field marshal (b. [[1760]]) *[[1832]] - [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot]], French mathematician (b. [[1796]]) *[[1888]] - [[Rudolf Clausius]], German physicist (b. [[1822]]) *[[1921]] - [[Nikolay Gumilyov]], Russian poet (b. [[1886]]) *[[1841]] - [[Theodore Edward Hook]], English author (b. [[1788]]) *[[1940]] - [[Paul Gottlieb Nipkow]], German television pioneer (b. [[1860]]) *[[1946]] - [[James Clark McReynolds]], U.S. Supreme Court justice (b. [[1862]]) *[[1954]] - [[Getúlio Vargas]], [[President of Brazil]] (b. [[1882]]) *[[1956]] - [[Kenji Mizoguchi]], Japanese film director (b. [[1898]]) *[[1958]] - [[Paul Henry (painter)|Paul Henry]], Northern Irish artist (b. [[1876]]) *[[1967]] - [[Henry J. Kaiser]], American industrialist (b. [[1882]]) *[[1975]] - [[Eamon de Valera]], [[President of Ireland]] (b. [[1882]]) *[[1978]] - [[Louis Prima]], American band leader (b. [[1910]]) *[[1979]] - [[Hanna Reitsch]], German pilot (b. [[1912]]) *[[1985]] - [[Paul Creston]], American composer (b. [[1906]]) *[[1990]] - [[Sergei Dovlatov]], Russian writer (b. [[1941]]) *[[1991]] - [[Bernard Castro]], Italian inventor (b. [[1904]]) *[[1995]] - [[Alfred Eisenstaedt]], German-born photographer (b. [[1898]]) *[[1998]] - [[E.G. Marshall]], American actor (b. [[1910]]) *[[2002]] - [[Hoyt Wilhelm]], baseball player (b. [[1922]]) *[[2003]] - Sir [[Wilfred Thesiger]], British explorer (b. [[1910]]) *[[2004]] - [[Elisabeth Kübler-Ross]], Swiss-born psychiatrist (b. [[1926]]) ==Holidays and observances== * [[Roman festivals]] - first of the 3 days on which the ''mundus'' was openend * [[Calendar of Saints|RC Saints]] - Feast day of Saint [[Bartholomew]] * [[Liberia]]: Flag Day * [[Sierra Leone]]: President's Birthday * [[Ukraine]]: National Holiday, independence from Russia (1991) ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/24 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[August 23]] - [[August 25]] - [[July 24]] - [[September 24]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:24 Augustus]] [[ar:24 أغسطس]] [[an:24 d'agosto]] [[ast:24 d'agostu]] [[bg:24 август]] [[be:24 жніўня]] [[bs:24. august]] [[ca:24 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 24]] [[cv:Çурла, 24]] [[co:24 d'aostu]] [[cs:24. srpen]] [[cy:24 Awst]] [[da:24. august]] [[de:24. August]] [[et:24. august]] [[el:24 Αυγούστου]] [[es:24 de agosto]] [[eo:24-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 24]] [[fo:24. august]] [[fr:24 août]] [[fy:24 augustus]] [[ga:24 Lúnasa]] [[gl:24 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 24일]] [[hr:24. kolovoza]] [[io:24 di agosto]] [[id:24 Agustus]] [[ia:24 de augusto]] [[ie:24 august]] [[is:24. ágúst]] [[it:24 agosto]] [[he:24 באוגוסט]] [[jv:24 Agustus]] [[ka:24 აგვისტო]] [[csb:24 zélnika]] [[ku:24'ê gelawêjê]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 24]] [[lb:24. August]] [[hu:Augusztus 24]] [[mk:24 август]] [[ms:24 Ogos]] [[nap:24 'e aùsto]] [[nl:24 augustus]] [[ja:8月24日]] [[no:24. august]] [[nn:24. august]] [[oc:24 d'agost]] [[pl:24 sierpnia]] [[pt:24 de Agosto]] [[ro:24 august]] [[ru:24 августа]] [[sco:24 August]] [[sq:24 Gusht]] [[scn:24 di austu]] [[simple:August 24]] [[sk:24. august]] [[sl:24. avgust]] [[sr:24. август]] [[fi:24. elokuuta]] [[sv:24 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 24]] [[tt:24. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 24]] [[th:24 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:24 tháng 8]] [[tr:24 Ağustos]] [[uk:24 серпня]] [[wa:24 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 24]] [[zh:8月24日]] [[pam:Agostu 24]] 1630 41944558 2006-03-02T20:17:19Z Durova 521374 /* Events */ Sorry, Joan of Arc never entered Paris. The battle she fought at the city wall was September 8. {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=26}} |} '''[[August 26]]''' is the 238th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (239th in [[leap year]]s). There are 127 days remaining. ==Events== *[[55 BC]] - [[Julius Caesar]] invades [[British Iron Age|Britain]] *[[1071]] - [[Battle of Manzikert]]: The [[Seljuk Turks]] defeat the [[Byzantine Empire]] at [[Manzikert]] *[[1278]] - [[Ladislaus IV of Hungary]] and [[Rudolph I of Germany]] defeat [[Premysl Ottokar II]] of [[Bohemia]] in the [[Battle of Marchfield]] near [[Dürnkrut]] in [[Moravia]]. *[[1346]] - [[Hundred Years' War]]: The military supremacy of the English [[longbow]] over the French combination of [[crossbow]] and armoured [[knight]]s is established at the [[Battle of Crécy]]. *[[1498]] - [[Michelangelo]] commissioned to carve the [[Michelangelo's Pietà|Pietà]]. *[[1778]] - The first ascent of [[Triglav]], the highest mountain of [[Slovenia]]. *[[1789]] - [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] approved by [[Constituent Assembly]] at [[Palace of Versailles]] *[[1839]] - The ship ''[[Amistad (ship)|Amistad]]'' is captured off [[Long Island]]. *[[1858]] - First news dispatch by [[Telegraphy|telegraph]]. *[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: The [[Second Battle of Bull Run]] begins. *[[1883]] - Eruption of Mount [[Krakatoa]]. *[[1914]] - [[World War I]]: [[Germany|Germans]] defeat [[Russia]]ns in [[Battle of Tannenberg (1914)|Battle of Tannenberg]]. *[[1914]] - World War I: The [[British Expeditionary Force]] briefly checks the German advance at [[Le Cateau-Cambrésis|Le Cateau]]. *[[1914]] - World War I: The German colony of [[Togoland]] is invaded by French and British forces, who take it after 5 days. *[[1920]] - [[United States Constitution/Amendment Nineteen|19th amendment]] to U.S. Constitution gives women the right to vote. *[[1939]] - The first [[Major League Baseball]] game is telecast, a double-header between the [[Cincinnati Reds]] and the [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]] at [[Ebbets Field]], in [[Brooklyn, New York]]. *[[1940]] - [[Chad]] is the first French colony to join the Allies under the administration of Félix Éboué, France's first black colonial governor. *[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: [[Charles de Gaulle]] enters [[Paris]]. *[[1957]] - The [[USSR]] announces the successful test of an [[ICBM]] - a "super longdistance intercontinental multistage ballistic rocket ... a few days ago," according to Tass Soviet News Agency. *[[1968]] - [[1968 Democratic National Convention|Democratic National Convention]] opens in [[Chicago, Illinois]] *[[1968]] - [[The Beatles]]' "[[Hey Jude]]" is released as a [[single (music)|single]] in the United States under the [[Apple Records]] label. *[[1972]] - [[1972 Summer Olympics|Games of the XX Olympiad]] open in [[Munich]], [[Germany]]. *[[1976]] - [[Raymond Barre]] becomes Prime Minister of [[France]]. *[[1978]] - [[Papal conclave, 1978 (August)]]: [[Pope John Paul I]] is elevated to the [[Papacy]]. *[[1978]] - [[Sigmund Jähn]] becomes first [[Germany|German]] [[astronaut|cosmonaut]] on board of the [[Soyuz 31]] spacecraft. *[[1986]] - Toxic gas kills 1700 in [[Cameroon]]. *[[1987]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[Ronald Reagan|Ronald Wilson Reagan]] proclaims [[September 11]], [[1987]] as 9-1-1 [[Emergency telephone number|Emergency Number]] Day. *[[1988]] - [[Merhan Karimi Nasseri]] arrives at [[Charles de Gaulle International Airport]]. * [[1997]] - [[Beni-Ali massacre]] in [[Algeria]]; 60-100 people killed. *[[2002]] - [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] pitcher [[Éric Gagné]] converts his first of a record 84 consecutive successful save opportunities. *[[2002]] - [[Earth Summit 2002]] begins in [[Johannesburg, South Africa]]. *[[2003]] - [[Columbia Accident Investigation Board]] releases its final reports on [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster]]. *[[2005]] - [[Fiji]]'s High Court rules that the island's [[sodomy law]] is unconstitutional. *[[2005]] - [[Jean Michel Jarre]]'s "[[Space of Freedom]]" concert in [[Gdańsk]], [[Poland]] ==Births== *[[1469]] - [[Ferdinand II of Naples]] (d. [[1496]]) *[[1540]] - King [[Magnus of Livonia]] (d. [[1583]]) *[[1676]] - [[Robert Walpole]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1745]]) *[[1694]] - [[Elisha Williams]], American rector of Yale College (d. [[1755]]) *[[1736]] - [[Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle]], French chemist (d. [[1790]]) *[[1743]] - [[Antoine Lavoisier]], French chemist (d. [[1794]]) *[[1775]] - [[William Joseph Behr]], German writer (d. [[1851]]) *[[1792]] - [[Manuel Oribe]], Uruguayan political figure (d. [[1857]]) *[[1850]] - [[Charles Robert Richet]], French physiologist, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1935]]) *[[1873]] - [[Lee DeForest]], American inventor (d. [[1961]]) *[[1874]] - [[Zona Gale]], American novelist (d. [[1938]]) *[[1875]] - [[John Buchan, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir]], Scottish novelist, [[Governor General of Canada]] (d. [[1940]]) *[[1880]] - [[Guillaume Apollinaire]], French poet and art critic (d. [[1918]]) *[[1882]] - [[James Franck]], German-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1964]]) *[[1896]] - [[Ivan Mihailov]], Bulgarian revolutionary (d. [[1990]]) *[[1897]] - [[Yoon Boseon]], [[President of South Korea]] (d. [[1990]]) *[[1898]] - [[Peggy Guggenheim]], American art collector (d. [[1979]]) *[[1900]] - [[Hellmuth Walter]], German engineer and inventor (d. [[1980]]) *[[1901]] - [[Maxwell Taylor]], American general (d. [[1987]]) * 1901 - [[Chen Yi (communist)|Chen Yi]], Chinese communist military commander and politician (d. [[1972]]) *[[1904]] - [[Christopher Isherwood]], English-born writer (d. [[1986]]) *[[1906]] - [[Albert Sabin]], American polio researcher (d. [[1993]]) *[[1909]] - [[Jim Davis (actor)|Jim Davis]], American actor (d. [[1981]]) *[[1914]] - [[Julio Cortázar]], Argentine writer (d. [[1984]]) *[[1921]] - [[Benjamin Bradlee]], American journalist *[[1922]] - [[Irving R. Levine]], American journalist *[[1923]] - [[Wolfgang Sawallisch]], German conductor and pianist *[[1934]] - [[Tom Heinsohn]], American basketball player and commentator *[[1935]] - [[Geraldine Ferraro]], U.S. Vice Presidential candidate *[[1936]] - [[Yvette Vickers]], American actress *[[1940]] - [[Don LaFontaine]], American voice actor *[[1941]] - [[Barbet Schroeder]], Swiss film director * 1941 - [[Akiko Wakabayashi]], Japanese actress *[[1942]] - [[Vic Dana]], American singer *1942 - [[Dennis Turner]], British politician *[[1944]] - [[Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester]] *[[1946]] - [[Valerie Simpson]], American singer * 1946 - [[Tom Ridge]], first [[United States Secretary of Homeland Security]] * 1946 - [[Zhou Ji]], education minister of the People's Republic of China *[[1952]] - [[Michael Jeter]], American actor (d. [[2003]]) *[[1953]] - [[Pat Sharkey]], Northern Irish footballer *[[1956]] - [[Brett Cullen]], American actor *[[1957]] - [[Dr. Alban]], Nigerian singer *[[1960]] - [[Branford Marsalis]], American saxophonist and bandleader *[[1965]] - [[Chris Burke (baseball player)|Chris Burke]], American actor *1965 - [[Jon Hensley]], American actor *[[1966]] - [[Jacques Brinkman]], Dutch field hockey player *1966 - [[Shirley Manson]], Scottish singer *[[1971]] - [[Thalía (actress)|Thalía]], Mexican actress *[[1979]] - [[Jamal Lewis]], American football player *[[1980]] - [[Macaulay Culkin]], American actor ==Deaths== *[[1278]] - King [[Otakar II of Bohemia]] *[[1346]] - Killed in the [[Battle of Crécy]]: **[[Charles II of Alençon]] (b. [[1297]]) **[[Louis I of Flanders]] (b. [[1304]]) **[[John I, Count of Luxemburg]] (b. [[1296]]) **[[Rudolph, Duke of Lorraine]] (b. [[1320]]) *[[1349]] - [[Thomas Bradwardine]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] *[[1551]] - [[Margareta Leijonhufvud]], queen of [[Gustav I of Sweden]] (b. [[1516]]) *[[1595]] - [[Antonio, Prior of Crato]], claimant to the throne of Portugal (b. [[1531]]) *[[1666]] - [[Frans Hals]], Dutch painter *[[1714]] - [[Edward Fowler]], English Bishop of Gloucester (b. [[1632]]) *[[1723]] - [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]], Dutch scientist (b. [[1632]]) *[[1785]] - [[George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville]], British soldier and politician (b. [[1716]]) *[[1850]] - [[Louis-Philippe of France]] (b. [[1773]]) *[[1915]] - [[John Bunny]] American comedian (b. [[1863]]) *[[1930]] - [[Lon Chaney, Sr.]], American actor (b. [[1883]]) *[[1944]] - [[Adam von Trott zu Solz]], German diplomat opposing the Nazi regime (executed) *[[1945]] - [[Franz Werfel]], Austrian writer (b. [[1890]]) *[[1958]] - [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]], English composer (b. [[1872]]) *[[1968]] - [[Kay Francis]], American actress (b. [[1899]]) *[[1974]] - [[Charles Lindbergh]], American aviator (b. [[1902]]) *[[1976]] - [[Lotte Lehmann]], German soprano (b. [[1888]]) *[[1978]] - [[Charles Boyer]], French actor (b. [[1899]]) *1978 - [[José Manuel Moreno]], Argentine footballer (b. [[1916]]) *[[1979]] - [[Mika Waltari]], Finnish author (b. [[1908]]) *[[1980]] - [[Rosa Albach-Retty]], German actress (b. [[1874]]) *1980 - [[Tex Avery]], American cartoonist (b. [[1908]]) *[[1981]] - [[Roger Nash Baldwin]], founder of the American Civil Liberties Union (b. [[1884]]) *[[1986]] - [[Ted Knight]], American actor (b. [[1923]]) *[[1987]] - [[Georg Wittig]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1897]]) *[[1988]] - [[Carlos Paião]], Portuguese singer (b. [[1957]]) *[[1989]] - [[Irving Stone]], American author (b. [[1903]]) *[[1990]] - [[Minoru Honda]], Japanese astronomer (b. [[1913]]) *[[1998]] - [[Frederick Reines]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1918]]) *[[2003]] - [[Jim Wacker]], American football coach (b. [[1937]]) *[[2004]] - [[Laura Branigan]], American singer (b. [[1957]]) *[[2005]] - [[Denis D'Amour]], founding member and guitarist of Canadian metal band Voivod. (b. [[1960]]) *2005 - [[Robert Denning]], Interior designer (b. [[1927]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Calendar of Saints|RC saints]] - [[Pope Zephyrinus|St Zephyrinus]], [[Saint Ninian]], [[David Lewis]] (one of the [[Forty Martyrs of England and Wales]]) *[[Namibia]] - Namibia Day or Heroes' Day *[[Zanzibar]] - [[Sultan's Birthday]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/26 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[August 25]] - [[August 27]] - [[July 26]] - [[September 26]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:26 Augustus]] [[ang:26 Wēodmōnaþ]] [[ar:26 أغسطس]] [[an:26 d'agosto]] [[ast:26 d'agostu]] [[bg:26 август]] [[be:26 жніўня]] [[bs:26. august]] [[ca:26 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 26]] [[cv:Çурла, 26]] [[co:26 d'aostu]] [[cs:26. srpen]] [[cy:26 Awst]] [[da:26. august]] [[de:26. August]] [[et:26. august]] [[el:26 Αυγούστου]] [[es:26 de agosto]] [[eo:26-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 26]] [[fo:26. august]] [[fr:26 août]] [[fy:26 augustus]] [[ga:26 Lúnasa]] [[gl:26 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 26일]] [[hr:26. kolovoza]] [[io:26 di agosto]] [[id:26 Agustus]] [[ia:26 de augusto]] [[ie:26 august]] [[is:26. ágúst]] [[it:26 agosto]] [[he:26 באוגוסט]] [[jv:26 Agustus]] [[ka:26 აგვისტო]] [[csb:26 zélnika]] [[ku:26'ê gelawêjê]] [[la:26 Augusti]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 26]] [[lb:26. August]] [[hu:Augusztus 26]] [[mk:26 август]] [[ms:26 Ogos]] [[nap:26 'e aùsto]] [[nl:26 augustus]] [[ja:8月26日]] [[no:26. august]] [[nn:26. august]] [[oc:26 d'agost]] [[pl:26 sierpnia]] [[pt:26 de Agosto]] [[ro:26 august]] [[ru:26 августа]] [[se:Borgemánu 26.]] [[sco:26 August]] [[sq:26 Gusht]] [[scn:26 di austu]] [[simple:August 26]] [[sk:26. august]] [[sl:26. avgust]] [[sr:26. август]] [[fi:26. elokuuta]] [[sv:26 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 26]] [[tt:26. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 26]] [[th:26 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:26 tháng 8]] [[tr:26 Ağustos]] [[uk:26 серпня]] [[wa:26 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 26]] [[zh:8月26日]] [[pam:Agostu 26]] 1633 41282213 2006-02-26T06:58:59Z 68.100.144.157 /* History */ [[Image:Antipope_Felix_V.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|[[Antipope Felix V]], the last historical Antipope.]] An '''antipope''' is one whose claim to being [[Pope]] is the result of a disputed or contested election. These antipopes were usually in opposition to a specific person chosen by the papal electors (since the [[Middle Ages]], the [[College of Cardinals]]; in the twentieth century, their special secret meeting, called [[conclave]], however applies the age limit for eligibility). Some self-appointed leaders of smaller churches are also called "antipopes." ==History== During certain periods of turbulence in the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]], controversial Papal elections were conducted. Some such elections were considered invalid, either because a large majority of papal electors claimed the election was invalid (such as the election of [[Amadeus VIII of Savoy|Felix V]]), or because they have subsequently been declared invalid (such as [[Antipope Clement VII|Clement VII]]). The earliest antipope, [[Antipope Hippolytus|Hippolytus]], was elected in protest against [[Pope Callixtus I]] by a schismatic group in the city of [[Rome]] in the [[3rd century]]. Hippolytus was [[exile]]d to the mines on the island of [[Sardinia]] in the company of Callixtus' successor [[Pope Pontian]], and was reconciled to the Catholic Church before his death and has been [[canonization|canonized]] by the Church. The [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] also mentions a Natalius[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10448a.htm], before Hippolytus, as first antipope, who, according to Eusebius's EH5.28.8-12, quoting the ''Little Labyrinth'' of Hippolytus, after being "[[Scourge|scourged]] all night by the holy angels", covered in ash, dressed in [[sackcloth]], and "after some difficulty", tearfully submitted to [[Pope Zephyrinus]]. The period when antipopes were most numerous was during the struggles between the Popes and the [[Holy Roman Emperor]]s of the [[11th century|11th]] and [[12th century|12th centuries]]. The emperors would frequently sponsor antipopes in order to further their cause. (The popes, likewise, frequently sponsored rival imperial claimants in Germany in attempts to disrupt imperial policy.) The late [[14th century|14th]] and early [[15th century]] saw a series of rival popes elected, one line of which is counted by the Roman Catholic Church as popes and the other as antipopes. The scandal of multiple claimants added to the demands for reform that produced the [[Protestant Reformation]] at the turn of the [[16th century]]. (See [[Western Schism]], [[Antipope Benedict XIII]].) It was not evident, during periods when two (or three) rival claimants existed, which was the antipope, and which was the pope, and the clear-cut distinctions made between them in retrospect can give a false sense that certainty existed among their contemporaries. Supporters might offer assistance to a given candidate, but could not know which would be determined to have been an antipope, and which the pope, until events had run their course. There has not been an antipope since [[1449]] (unless ''[[Antipope#Sedevacantist antipopes|Sedevacantist antipopes]]'' are counted - see below). Other schisms such as the [[Church of England]], the [[Old Catholic Church]] and the [[Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association]] began in a rejection of a primary [[dogma]] of the papacy. Today the act of becoming an Antipope is considered a schismatic act by the Roman Catholic Church. This would result in automatic [[excommunication]] for the person who became Antipope. == List of antipopes == #[[Antipope Hippolytus|St. Hippolytus]] ''(reconciled with Pope St. Pontian and died as martyr to the church),'' [[217]]&ndash;[[235]] #[[Antipope Novatian|Novatian]], [[251]]&ndash;[[258]] #[[Antipope Felix II|Felix II]] ''(confused with a martyr with the same name and thus considered an authentic pope until recently),'' [[355]]&ndash;[[365]] #[[Antipope Ursicinus|Ursicinus]] (Ursinus), [[366]]&ndash;[[367]] #[[Antipope Eulalius|Eulalius]], [[418]]&ndash;[[419]] #[[Antipope Laurentius|Laurentius]], [[498]]&ndash;[[499]], [[501]]&ndash;[[506]] #[[Antipope Dioscorus|Dioscorus]] ''(legitimate perhaps as opposed to Boniface II but died 22 days after election)'', [[530]] #[[Antipope Theodore|Theodore (II)]] ''(opposed to antipope Paschal),'' [[687]] #[[Antipope Paschal|Paschal (I)]] ''(opposed to antipope Theodore),'' [[687]] #[[Antipope Theofylact|Theofylact]], [[757]] #[[Antipope Constantine II|Constantine II]], [[767]]&ndash;[[768]] #[[Antipope Philip|Philip]] ''(replaced antipope Constantine II briefly; reigned for a day and then returned to his monastery),'' [[768]] #[[Antipope John VIII|John VIII]], [[844]] #[[Antipope Anastasius|Anastasius III Bibliothecarius]], [[855]] #[[Antipope Christopher|Christopher]], [[903]]&ndash;[[904]] #[[Antipope Boniface VII|Boniface VII]], [[974]], [[984]]&ndash;[[985]] #John Filagatto ([[Antipope John XVI|John XVI]]), [[997]]&ndash;[[998]] #[[Antipope Gregory VI|Gregory VI]], [[1012]] #[[Antipope Sylvester III|Sylvester III]], [[1045]] #John Mincius ([[Antipope Benedict X|Benedict X]]), [[1058]]&ndash;[[1059]] #Pietro Cadalus ([[Antipope Honorius II|Honorius II]]), [[1061]]&ndash;[[1064]] #Guibert of Ravenna ([[Antipope Clement III|Clement III]]), [[1080]] & [[1084]]&ndash;[[1100]] #[[Antipope Theodoric|Theodoric]], [[1100]]&ndash;[[1101]] #[[Antipope Adalbert|Adalbert]], [[1101]] #Maginulf ([[Antipope Sylvester IV|Sylvester IV]]), [[1105]]&ndash;[[1111]] #Maurice Burdanus ([[Antipope Gregory VIII|Gregory VIII]]), [[1118]]&ndash;[[1121]] #Thebaldus Buccapecuc ([[Antipope Celestine II|Celestine II]]) ''(legitimate but submitted to opposing pope, Honorius II and afterwards considered an antipope),'' [[1124]] #Pietro Pierleoni ([[Antipope Anacletus II|Anacletus II]]), [[1130]]&ndash;[[1138]] #Gregorio Conti ([[Antipope Victor IV (1138)|Victor IV]]), [[1138]] #Ottavio di Montecelio ([[Antipope Victor IV (1159-1164)|Victor IV]]), [[1159]]&ndash;[[1164]] #Guido di Crema ([[Antipope Paschal III|Paschal III]]), [[1164]]&ndash;[[1168]] #Giovanni of Struma ([[Antipope Callixtus III|Callixtus III]]), [[1168]]&ndash;[[1178]] #Lanzo of Sezza ([[Antipope Innocent III|Innocent III]]), [[1179]]&ndash;[[1180]] #Pietro Rainalducci ([[Antipope Nicholas V|Nicholas V]]), ''antipope in Rome'', [[1328]]&ndash;[[1330]] #Robert of Geneva ([[Antipope Clement VII|Clement VII]]), ''antipope of the Avignon line'', [[20 September]] [[1378]] &ndash; [[16 September]] [[1394]] #Pedro de Luna ([[Antipope Benedict XIII|Benedict XIII]]), ''antipope of the Avignon line'', [[1394]]&ndash;[[1423]] #Pietro Philarghi [[Pope Alexander V|Alexander V]], ''antipope of the Pisan line'', [[1409]]&ndash;[[1410]] #Baldassare Cosa [[Antipope John XXIII|John XXIII]], ''antipope of the Pisan line'', [[1410]]&ndash;[[1415]] #Gil Sánchez Muñoz ([[Antipope Clement VIII|Clement VIII]]), ''antipope of the Avignon line'', [[1423]]&ndash;[[1429]] #[[Bernard Garnier]] (the first Benedict XIV), ''antipope of the Avignon line'', [[1425]]&ndash;c. [[1429]] #[[Jean Carrier]] (the second Benedict XIV), ''antipope of the Avignon line'', [[1430]]&ndash;[[1437]]? #Duke Amadeus VIII of Savoy ([[Antipope Felix V|Felix V]]), [[5 November ]] [[1439]] &ndash; [[7 April]] [[1449]] ==Sedevacantist antipopes== Some breakaway Catholics today, called [[Sedevacantism|sedevacantists]], claim the current Popes are heretics for various reforms which sedevacantists see as innovations in the practices of Roman Catholic Church which were adopted during the reigns of Pope [[John XXIII]] and Pope [[Paul VI]], including aspects of the [[Second Vatican Council]]. Chief among these criticized reforms is the replacing of the [[Tridentine Latin Mass]] with the [[Novus Ordo Missae]]. Many sedevacantists also object to the celebration of the Mass in the [[vernacular]], despite the fact that various provisions existed for the celebration of the Mass in the vernacular prior to the reign of Pope John XXIII. Since the opinion of many Catholic theologians is that a [[heretic]]al Pope would cease to be Catholic and therefore cease to be Pope, sedevacantists believe the current Bishops of Rome are not actually popes. Some sedevacantist groups have their own popes to replace the popes they reject. They are sometimes called antipopes, although it should be noted that in contrast to historical antipopes, the number of their followers is minuscule. Some of these antipopes have developed their own religious infrastructure in recognition that the conventional popes are not likely to consider ceding authority to them, thus being at once antipopes of the ''Universal Church'' and popes of their particular sect. Sedevacantist antipopes frequently refer to the conventional successors of [[Pope Pius XII]] as a series of antipapacies. There is a significant number of antipopes self-proclaimed Peter II, due to the special meaning of this name; see [[Antipope Peter II]]. === Antipopes of the 20th-21st centuries === ====[[Palmarian Catholic Church]]==== * [[Clemente Domínguez y Gómez]] (Gregory XVII), mystically self-proclaimed from [[1978]]&ndash;2005 in [[Spain]], pope of the [[Palmarian Catholic Church]]. * [[Manuel Corral|Manuel Alonso Corral]] ([[Antipope Peter II|Peter II]]), succeeded Gregory XVII as the Pope of the [[Palmarian Catholic Church]] in 2005 in [[Spain]] ====[[Reformed Church of Christ]]/[[Apostles of Infinite Love]]==== *[[Michel-Auguste-Marie Collin]] (Clement XV), self-proclaimed [[1963]] in [[Clémery]], [[France]] (later at [[St. Jovite]], [[Canada]]), Pope of the "[[Renewed Church of Christ]]" or "[[Church of the Magnificat]]" * [[Jean-Gaston Tremblay]] (Gregory XVII), succeeded Clement XV in [[1968]] in [[Canada]]; not to be confused with the Canadian politician [[Gaston Tremblay]] ====[[Conclavist]] movements==== These antipopes are (for the most part) not self-proclaimed in the strictest sense but organized and held elections of 'faithful' Catholics. The verifiable smallest of these '[[Conclave]]s' was attended by only 6 electors, the size of the largest is not known but claimed to be at least larger than the conclave which elected [[Pope Pius XII]]. * [[David Bawden]] (Michael I), self-proclaimed in [[1990]] in [[Kansas]], [[United States|United States of America]] ("conclave" of 6 electors) * [[Victor von Pentz]] (Linus II), either self-proclaimed in [[1994]] in [[Hertfordshire]], [[United Kingdom]] or elected by several Sedevacantists in [[Assisi]] (disputed) * [[Lucian Pulvermacher]] (Pius XIII), self-proclaimed in [[1998]] in [[Montana]], [[United States|United States of America]], Pope of the self-proclaimed "[[true Catholic Church]]". Claims to have been elected by a conclave of a secret number but at least 61 electors. * [[Reinaldus Michael Benjamins]] (Antipope Gregory XIX) self-proclaimed in [[2001]] in [[New York]], [[United States of America]]. ====Independents and Antipopes of other groups==== * [[Gino Frediani]] (Emmanuel I), self-proclaimed from [[1973]]&ndash;[[1984]] in [[Italy]], Pope of the "[[New Church of the Holy Heart of Jesus]]" * [[Valeriano Vestini]] (Valeriano I), self-proclaimed in [[1990]] in [[Province of Chieti|Chieti]], [[Italy]] * [[Maurice Archieri|Maurice Archieri of Le Perreux]] ([[Antipope Peter II|Peter II]]) of Le Perreux, self-proclaimed in [[1995]] in [[France]] * [[Julius Tischler]] ([[Antipope Peter II|Peter II]]) of [[Germany]] * [[Pierre Henri Bubois]] ([[Antipope Peter II|Peter II]]) of [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]] * [[Chester Olszewski]] ([[Antipope Peter II|Peter II]]), self-proclaimed in [[1980]] of [[Pennsylvania]], [[United States|USA]] * [[William Kamm]] ([[Antipope Peter II|Peter II]]) of [[Australia]], Pope of the "Order of Saint Charbel" movement. ==See also== * [[Antipopes in fiction]] * [[Sedevacantism]] * [[List of popes]] *Trentidines recognise the Roman pope, but dispute theology. Notable among these is [[Michael Cox]], of Cree, Birr, Co. Offaly, who infamously ordained [[Sinead O'Conner]] and Bishop [[Pat Buckley]] and conducts weddings of those the regular church refuses to entertain. ==Sources and References== *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01582a.htm Catholic Encyclopaedia- article Antipope] *[http://media.isnet.org/kristen/Ensiklopedia/AntiPope.html The Pope Encyclopaedia - article Antipope] [[Category:Antipopes| ]] [[Category:Ecclesiastical titles]] [[Category:History of the Papacy]] [[Category:Pope-related lists]] [[bg:Антипапа]] [[ca:Antipapa]] [[cs:Vzdoropapež]] [[da:Modpave]] [[de:Gegenpapst]] [[es:Antipapa]] [[et:Vastupaavst]] [[fi:Vastapaavi]] [[fr:Antipape]] [[gl:Antipapa]] [[it:Antipapa]] [[ja:対立教皇]] [[lb:Géigepoopst]] [[lt:Antipopiežius]] [[nl:Tegenpaus]] [[no:Motpave]] [[pl:Antypapież]] [[pt:Antipapa]] [[ro:Antipapă]] [[ru:Антипапа]] [[sv:Motpåve]] [[uk:Антипапа]] [[zh:對立教宗]] 1634 41943492 2006-03-02T20:09:56Z 207.81.107.130 /* External links */ {{globalize|January 2006}} '''Aquaculture''' is the cultivation of the natural produce of water (such as fish or shellfish, algae and other aquatic plants). [[Mariculture]] is specifically [[ocean|marine]] aquaculture, and thus is a subset of aquaculture. Some examples of aquaculture include raising [[catfish]] and [[tilapia]] in freshwater ponds, growing [[pearl|cultured pearls]], and farming [[salmon]] in net-pens set out in a bay. [[Fish farming]] is a common type. == History == The practice of aquaculture is very ancient and found in many cultures. Aquaculture was used in [[China]] circa [[2500 BC]]. When the waters lowered after river floods, some fishes, namely [[Common carp|carps]], were held in artificial lakes. Their brood were later fed using [[nymph (biology)|nymph]]s and feces from [[silkworm]]s used for silk production. The Hawaiian people practiced aquaculture by constructing [[fish pond]]s (see [[Hawaiian aquaculture]]). A remarkable example from [[ancient Hawaii]] is the construction of a fish pond, dating from at least 1,000 years ago, at Alekoko. According to legend, it was constructed by the mythical [[Menehune]]. The Romans were quite adept in breeding fish in ponds. In Europe it became common again in monasteries during the [[Middle Ages]], since fish was scarce and thus expensive. Transportation improvements in the 19th century made fish easily available and inexpensive, even far from the seas, causing a decline in aquaculture. The current boom in aquaculture started in the 1960s as prices for fish began to climb. Wild fish capture was reaching its peak and the human population was continuing to rise. Today, commercial aquaculture exists on a unprecedented, huge scale. In the 1980s open-netcage salmon farming was also expanding; this particular type of aquaculture technology is still a minor part of the production of farmed finfish worldwide, but evidence of its negative impact on wild stocks, which started coming to light in the late 1990s, has caused it to be a major cause of controversy.[http://www.davidsuzuki.org/Oceans/Aquaculture/Salmon/] ==Benefits== Aquaculture has been one of the fastest growing segments of global [[food]] production in recent decades, and has been hailed as an answer to the limits of wild fish stock harvest. Fish and other aquacultured species are generally very efficient converters of feedstuffs into high quality protein when compared to other farmed animals. For example a catfish may take 6 kg of feed (wet weight to wet weight) to produce 1 kg of catfish whereas a chicken might take 10 kg and a pig 30 kg. This is possible primarily because aquaculture species are cold-blooded (or more corectly - poikilothermic), and hence do not waste energy on heating, and because the physics of the aquatic environmment require little energy for movement. Fish and other aquacultured species also tend to be comprised of a higher percentage of edible weight than terrestrial species. Farming of high value (and often overexploited) species can reduce presure on wild stocks. There are inumerable aquatic species farmed in small quantities around the world. Major aquaculture industries around the world include (Apology: latin names are from top of head and may be mis-spelled): '''Atlantic salmon (''Salmo salar'') and Rainbow trout (''Oncorhynchus mykiss'').''' Also smaller volumes of a variety of other salmonids. Originally developed in Norway, Denmark (Rainbow trout although it is an American species) and Scotland, now farmed in significant quatities in Europe, Canada, Chile and Australia (Tasmania). First or Second in the world for production value. '''Tropical shrimp; Mostly Black tiger shrimp (''Penaeus monodon'') and increasingly White shrimp (''Litopenaeus vannemi'').''' Techniques originally developed in Japan and Taiwan. Mostly farmed through tropical and sub-tropical Asia and South America. First or Second in the world for production value. '''Carps; European carp, Chinese carps (Grass, Silver and Black) and Indian major carps''' are easily the largest global aquaculture industry by volume of production but are low in value. Major producers are China, India, Southeat Asia and Europe. China's reported production figures are considered contentious by some authorities. Value of production is also debatable according to whether value is calculated at border (exchange rate) prices or PPP (Purchasing Power Parity) prices. Nonetheless, carps are major contributors of high quality protein to the diets of poorer people around the world. '''Seaweeds; Many species.''' Huge volumes, low value. Mostly farmed in Asia; particuarly Japan, Korea and China. '''Catfish; Major species are Vietmanese basa (), Channel catfish and African and Asian walking catfish (''Clarias'' sp.).''' Mostly farmed in Asia and the Southern United States. '''Tilapia; Nile tilapia and a few other species'''. Very well suited species to subsistance farming although arguably not well suited to large aquabusiness due to finicky breeding biology and low flesh recovery (Although becoming a very successful import in the US and Europe). Mostly farmed in Asia, South America and Africa. '''Oysters; [[Pacific oyster]] (''Crassostrea gigas''), American oyster (''Crassostrea virginica''), Flat oyster (''Ostrea edulis'')''' and others. Mostly farmed in Asia, US, Australia-New Zealand and Europe. Flat oyster was once a huge industry and low cost/very high quality food for the masses in Europe but collapsed under mortalities brought about by the parasite ''Bonamia''. '''Mussels; Blue mussel (''Mytilus edulis''), Green mussels (''Perna'' sp.)''' Mostly farmed in Europe, Asia, New Zealand and South America. These industries are often based in developing countries, and can contribute greatly to food security/quality and income there. Of those industries above, all but Tropical shrimp and salmonids have a low -evel environmental impact. The environmental footprint of the Tropical shrimp and salmonid industries is improving. [[Tuna]] farming in [[Australia]] has seen financial success. Tuna farming at present is really a fattening enterprise, where wild bred juvenile tuna are captured and grown in pens to a larger size and better flesh quality. Having the fish confined in pens also means that harvests can be timed to suit the market. This practice has resulted (at least in Australia) on reduced pressure on wild populations and a much larger value for their relatively small wild (Southern bluefin) tuna quota. Relatively recently, researchers in Japan have closed the life cycle of the Pacific bluefin tuna, and European researchers in Spain are working on breeding Northern bluefin tuna. While the negative impacts of some aquaculture on the environment has been widely publicised, the positive environmental effects of aquaculture are rarely noted. For example many aquacultured species are highly sensitive to water quality conditions and aquaculture farmers often notice the effects of pollution or reductions in water quality before other authorities. Aquaculture businesses have a vested interest in clean waterways, in that a reduction in water quality has a direct effect on their production rates and financial bottom line. Appropriate aquaculture development can serve as 'canaries' for the health of waterways, with farms often a very new and undeveloped industry when compared to terrestrial aquacultures. Only a few species (Atlantic salmon, Pacific white shrimp and possibly several species each of catfish, carp and tilapia) are currently on their way to becoming true domesticated aquabuisiness species in the way that poultry, beef and pork have long been. While the aquaculture industry is still only a small way into the development curve the inherent biological characteristics of aquatic animals bode well for the future contribution of aquatic farming to living standards and the environment. ==Challenges== In countries like the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]], [[Canada]], [[Norway]], and [[Chile]], [[salmon]] and [[trout]] farming are one of the fastest-growing forms of [[agriculture]]. Salmon farming is not increasing in the United States because of heavy competition from other countries, and higher environmental standards for fish farms in the US. Salmon farming, like other food producing operations such as [[beef]], [[wheat]] or [[tomato]]es can impact the environment. However, the difference between shore farming and fish farming is that shore farming takes place on private land, while fish farming often takes place on the public waters. Organic wastes from fish cages can have a significant effect on water quality and the population structure of organisms, beyond the boundaries of the fish pens, increasing the occurrence of toxic [[algal bloom]]s. Scotland, as well as Chile and China, has had serious toxic algae blooms. Algal blooms can cause the death of huge numbers of wild fish and other species, and great harm to wild fisheries. However, even a month of fallow time can return the area to pristine condition. Like other agriculture production, aquaculture must stand up to a rigorous evaluation of any environmental impact. Salmon aquaculture has come under increasing scrutiny from environmental [[nongovernmental organization]]s (ENGO's). In Canada, salmon farming sites occupy a small portion of the coastal zone areas where they are located. The total area occupied by Canadian salmon farms in [[British Columbia]] and the [[Bay of Fundy]] in New Brunswick is about 8,900 acres (36 km²) which is less than 0.01% of the coastal area where these sites are located. Still, even though salmon farms occupy only a small percentage of the public waters, scientists have found a significant degradation of the areas where they exist, with lowered oxygen levels, replacement of native seaweeds with invasive seaweeds, increased algal blooms, reduction of wild species, and loss of nursery habitat for wild fish. Wild Pacific and Atlantic salmon stocks have seen significant declines over the last several decades, before salmon farming operations started. These declines were caused by a combination of factors including [[climate change]], [[overfishing]] and freshwater habitat destruction. However, rivers with fish farms have experienced accelerated decline of wild stocks caused by spread of diseases such as infectious salmon anemia, and parasites such as sea lice from farmed to wild salmon. Concerns have been raised on the East coast that wild Atlantic salmon may interbreed with and catch disease from salmon that escape from farms. Canadian salmon farmers have significantly reduced the escape of their salmon. The evidence shows that the escape of farmed salmon on Canada's west coast poses low risk to Pacific salmon. However, young wild salmon swimming down river to the ocean are free of sea lice parasites before they swim past the salmon farms, and laden with sea lice after they pass the farms. Most die from these sea lice. Many farmed fish species are [[carnivore|carnivorous]], meaning that other wild fish species must be harvested to maintain the fish farm. For example, herring are used to make salmon feed. Since herring are the backbone of the North Atlantic food chain, increased fishing pressure on their numbers is a serious threat to all other fish species which depend on herring for food. It is argued that fish farms, far from removing the pressure on wild fish stocks, increase it. Others argue that it takes less fish (in the form of the fishmeal component of an aquaculture diet) to produce a unit of table fish through aquaculture than through the natural food web. Fisheries that are based on species lower on the trophic web (such as many species used for fishmeal) are also more resistant to overfishing than typical table fish fisheries. The fish farm industry is trying to decrease its reliance on fish for fish feed. The vast majority of aquaculture production on the global scale (species such as carps, catfish and tilapia) occurs with the use of feeds with very little or no fishmeal. A portion of the fish meal used in fish feeds for highly carnivorous species comes from the trimmings and discards of commercial species. More studies are being done concerning shifts in feed composition using poultry and vegetable oils as substitutes for fish protein & oil. However this use of land based feed ingredients results in a decrease of the Omega 3 fish oils in the farmed fish (although in some cases a 'washing out' of the terrestrial oils can be achieved with a short period of feeding with marine oils prior to harvest). The current relectance to further reduce fishmeal and marine oils in the commercial diets of species such as the salmonids and shrimps is not based so much on technical difficulties as consumer resistance to the taste and health qualities of vegetarian fish. In the long term, alternative sources of long chain Omega 3 fatty acids (the most difficult ingredient to source from non fish sources) may be developed from zooplankton or microalgal origins. Other problems with aquaculture include the potential for increasing the spread of unwanted [[invasive species]], as farmed species are often not native to the area in which they are farmed. When these species escape, they can compete with native species and damage ecosystems. Another problem is the spread of introduced parasites, pests, and diseases. ==See also== *[[Algae culture]] *[[Fishery]] *[[Hatchery]] ==References== *Hepburn, J. 2002. ''Taking Aquaculture Seriously''. Organic Farming, Winter 2002 © Soil Association. *Naylor, R.L., S.L. Williams, and D.R. Strong. 2001. ''Aquaculture &ndash; A Gateway For Exotic Species''. [[Science (journal)|Science]], 294: 1655-6. *[http://www.scotland.gov.uk/cru/kd01/green/reia-01.asp The Scottish Association for Marine Science and Napier University. 2002. Review and synthesis of the environmental impacts of aquaculture] *Higginbotham James ''Piscinae: Artificial Fishponds in Roman Italy'' University of North Carolina Press (June, 1997) * Wyban, Carol Araki (1992) ''Tide and Current: Fishponds of Hawai'I'' [[University of Hawaii]] Press :: ISBN 0-82481-396-0 ==External links== * [http://www.cjly.net/deconstructingdinner/020206.htm One Hour Radio Broadcast on Farmed Salmon in British Columbia, Canada - Kootenay Co-op Radio's Deconstructing Dinner program] *[http://www.northernaquafarms.com/links.html Aquaculture Resources Directory] human selected reference links and downloadable reports, articles from numerous sources. * [http://www.fao.org/fi/default.asp FAO Fisheries Department] and its [http://www.fao.org/sof/sofia/index_en.htm SOFIA report] on fisheries and aquaculture *[http://www.greenfacts.org/fisheries/l-2/01-fisheries-production.htm#5 State of World Aquaculture] &ndash; A summary for non-specialists of the above FAO report by [[GreenFacts]]. *[http://www.certifiedorganic.bc.ca/rcbtoa/services/aquaculture.html Organic Aquaculture:] Articles and references on the merits and otherwise of farming fish organically. *[http://govdocs.aquake.org Aquaculture Knowledge Environment:] A searchable online library of government and United Nations documents covering nearly every aspect of aquaculture from pond construction to international codes of conduct. *[http://www.was.org/main/Default.asp World Aquaculture Society:] Founded in 1970, the primary focus of WAS is to improve communication and information exchange within the diverse global aquaculture community. *[http://www.nelha.org/ Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority] Learn how NELHA and its tenants are using sunshine, seawater and ingenuity to bring economic development and diversity. *[http://www.keaholepoint.org/ Friends of NELHA] [FON] is a nonprofit corporation formed for education and outreach tours related to research, commercial and pre-commercial activities at Keahole Point, north of Kailua Kona, Hawaii. *[http://www.watershed-watch.org/ww/Sealicefacts/sealicefacts_main.htm Watershed Watch Society] Salmon farming and sea lice *[http://aquanic.org/ AquaNIC] A comprehensive information server for aquaculture topics, including publications, news, events, job announcements, images, and related resources. *[http://www.fisheries.org American Fisheries Society] *[http://www.fisheries.org/ned/chapters/newyork/ New York Chapter]of the American Fisheries Society *[http://www.nodc.noaa.gov/ National Oceanographic Documentation Center (NOAA)] *[http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=aquaculture&search_crit=title&search=Search&date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime&type=form Read Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Aquaculture] *[http://www.calacademy.org/research/ichthyology/catalog/ A CATALOG OF THE SPECIES OF FISHES] at California Academy of Sciences, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California. *[http://www.stir.ac.uk/aqua/ INSTITUTE OF AQUACULTURE] at the University of Stirling in the United Kingdom. "an international research and post-graduate training centre which is the largest of its kind in the world." *[http://www.fishing4info.com/ FISHING FOR INFORMATION HOME PAGE]: Guide to on-line resources in aquaculture, fisheries and aquatic science *[http://www.asf.ca/ Atlantic Salmon Federation] an international non-profit organization which promotes the conservation and wise management of the Atlantic salmon and its environment. *[http://www.nalms.org/ North American Lake Management Society] *[http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/ Northeast Fisheries Science Center, Woods Hole, Massachusetts] *[http://www.atinet.org Advanced Technology Information Network (Calif Ag Tech Institute)] *[http://www.cce.cornell.edu CENET, the Cornell Extension NETwork] *[http://www.geographyinaction.co.uk/Issues/Lough%20Swilly.html Geographyinaction - Lough Swilly, Ireland example] *[http://www.imagomundi.org/area-mt/ Aquaculture Resources for Ethno-Anthropologists] News mirror service in the field of aquaculture with focus on his social effects [[Category:Edible fish]] [[Category:Fisheries science|Aquaculture]] [[Category:Hydrography|Aquaculture]] [[Category:Physical oceanography|Aquaculture]] [[Category:Sustainability|Aquaculture]] {{Link FA|pt}} [[cs:Akvakultura]] [[de:Aquakultur]] [[fr:Aquaculture]] [[he:חקלאות ימית]] [[nl:Aquacultuur]] [[no:Akvakultur]] [[pt:Aquacultura]] [[simple:Aquaculture]] 1635 40588783 2006-02-21T17:38:57Z CSTAR 61089 /* Chaitin's incompleteness theorem */ It's not proof of Berry's paradox, but a construction in Berry's paradox. In [[computer science]], the '''Kolmogorov complexity''' (also known as '''descriptive complexity''', '''Kolmogorov-Chaitin complexity''', '''stochastic complexity''', '''algorithmic entropy''', or '''program-size complexity''') of an object such as a piece of text is a measure of the computational resources needed to specify the object. For example consider the following two [[string (computer science)|string]]s of length 100 0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101 1100100001100001110111101110110011111010010000100101011110010110001101111111010001100011011001110111 The first string admits a short [[English language]] description namely "50 repetitions of '01'". The second one has no obvious simple description other than writing down the string itself. More formally, the complexity of a string is the length of the string's shortest description in some fixed description language. The sensitivity of complexity relative to the choice of description language is discussed below. It can be shown that the Kolmogorov complexity of any string cannot be too much larger than the length of the string itself. Strings whose Kolmogorov complexity is small relative to the string's size are not considered to be complex. The notion of Kolmogorov complexity is surprisingly deep and can be used to state and prove impossibility results akin to [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]] and [[halting problem|Turing's halting problem]]. Algorithmic information theory is the area of computer science that studies Kolmogorov complexity and other complexity measures on strings (or other [[data structure]]s). The field was developed by [[Andrey Kolmogorov]], [[Ray Solomonoff]] and [[Gregory Chaitin]] starting in the late [[1960s]]. There are several variants of Kolmogorov complexity or algorithmic information. The most widely used one is based on self-delimiting programs and is mainly due to [[Leonid Levin]] (1974). == Definition== To define Kolmogorov complexity, we must first specify a description language for strings. Such a description language can be based on a programming language such as [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]], or [[Java virtual machine]] bytecode. If '''P''' is a program which outputs a string ''x'', then '''P''' is a description of ''x''. The length of the description is just the length of '''P''' as a character string. In determining the length of '''P''', the lengths of any subroutines used in '''P''' must be accounted for. The length of any integer constant ''n'' which occurs in the program '''P''' is the number of bits required to represent ''n'', that is (roughly) log<sub>2</sub>''n''. We could alternatively choose an encoding for [[Turing machine|Turing machines]] (TM), where an ''encoding'' is a function which associates to each TM '''M''' a bitstring <'''M'''>. If '''M''' is a TM which on input ''w'' outputs string ''x'', then the concatenated string <'''M'''> ''w'' is a description of ''x''. For theoretical analysis, this approach is more suited for constructing detailed formal proofs and is generally preferred in the research literature. In this article we will use an informal approach. Fix a description language. Any string ''s'' has at least one description, namely the program '''function''' GenerateFixedString() '''return''' ''s'' Among all the descriptions of ''s'', there is one with shortest length denoted ''d''(''s''). In case there is more than one program of the same minimal length, choose one arbitrarily, for example selecting the lexicographically first among them. ''d''(''s'') is the '''minimal description''' of ''s''. The '''Kolmogorov complexity''' of ''s'', written ''K''(''s''), is :<math>K(s) = |d(s)|. \quad </math> In the other words, ''K''(''s'') is the length of the minimal description of ''s''. We now consider how the choice of description language affects the value of ''K'' and show that the effect of changing the description language is bounded. '''Theorem'''. If ''K''<sub>1</sub> and ''K''<sub>2</sub> are the complexity functions relative to description languages ''L''<sub>1</sub> and ''L''<sub>2</sub>, then there is a constant ''c'' (which depends only on the languages ''L''<sub>1</sub> and ''L''<sub>2</sub>) such that : <math> |K_1(s) - K_2(s)| \leq c, \quad \forall s </math> By symmetry, it suffices to prove that there is some constant ''c'' such that for all bitstrings ''s'', : <math> K_1(s) \leq K_2(s) + c. </math> To see why this is so, there is a program in the language ''L''<sub>1</sub> which acts as an [[interpreter (computing)|interpreter]] for ''L''<sub>2</sub>: '''function''' InterpretLanguage('''string''' ''p'') where ''p'' is a program in ''L''<sub>2</sub>. The interpreter is characterized by the following property: : Running InterpretLanguage on input ''p'' returns the result of running ''p''. Thus if '''P''' is a program in ''L''<sub>2</sub> which is a minimal description of ''s'', then InterpretLanguage('''P''') returns the string ''s''. The length of this description of ''s'' is the sum of # The length of the program InterpretLanguage, which we can take to be the constant ''c''. # The length of '''P''' which by definition is ''K''<sub>2</sub>(''s''). This proves the desired upper bound. See also [[invariance theorem]]. ==Basic results== In the following, we will fix one definition and simply write ''K''(''s'') for the complexity of the string ''s''. It is not hard to see that the minimal description of a string cannot be too much larger than the string itself: the program GenerateFixedString above that outputs ''s'' is a fixed amount larger than ''s''. '''Theorem'''. There is a constant ''c'' such that :<math> K(s) \leq |s| + c, \quad \forall s </math> The first surprising result is that there is no way to effectively compute ''K''. '''Theorem'''. ''K'' is not a [[computable function]]. In other words, there is no program which takes a string ''s'' as input and produces the integer ''K''(''s'') as output. We show this by contradiction. Suppose there is a program '''function''' KolmogorovComplexity('''string''' ''s'') that takes as input a string ''s'' and returns ''K''(''s''). Now consider the program '''function''' GenerateComplexString('''int''' ''n'') '''for''' i = 1 to infinity: '''for''' each string s of length exactly i '''if''' KolmogorovComplexity(''s'') >= ''n'' '''return''' ''s'' '''quit''' This program calls KolmogorovComplexity as a subroutine. This program tries every string, starting with the shortest, until it finds a string with complexity at least ''n'', then returns that string. Therefore, given any positive integer ''n'', it produces a string with Kolmogorov complexity at least as great as ''n''. The program itself has a fixed length ''U''. The input to the program GenerateComplexString is an integer ''n''; here, the size of ''n'' is measured by the number of bits required to represent ''n'' which is log<sub>2</sub>(''n''). Now consider the following program: '''function''' GenerateParadoxicalString () '''return''' GenerateComplexString(''n''<sub>0</sub>) This program calls GenerateComplexString as a subroutine and also has a free parameter ''n''<sub>0</sub>. This program outputs a string ''s'' whose complexity is at least ''n''<sub>0</sub>. By an auspicious choice of the parameter ''n''<sub>0</sub> we will arrive at a contradiction. To choose this value, note ''s'' is described by the program GenerateParadoxicalString whose length is at most :<math> U + \log_2(n_0) + C \quad </math> where ''C'' is the "overhead" added by the program GenerateParadoxicalString. Since ''n'' grows faster than log<sub>2</sub>(''n''), there exists a value ''n''<sub>0</sub> such that :<math> U + \log_2(n_0) + C < n_0. \quad </math> But this contradicts the definition of having a complexity at least ''n''<sub>0</sub>. Thus the program named "KolmogorovComplexity" cannot actually generate strings with the desired Kolmogorov complexity. This is proof by contradiction where the contradiction is similar to the [[Berry paradox]]: "Let ''n'' be the smallest positive integer that cannot be defined in fewer than twenty English words. Well, I just defined it in fewer than twenty English words." == Compression == It is however straightforward to compute upper bounds for ''K''(''s''): simply [[data compression|compress]] the string ''s'' with some method, implement the corresponding decompressor in the chosen language, concatenate the decompressor to the compressed string, and measure the resulting string's length. A string ''s'' is compressible by ''c'' if it has a description whose length does not exceed |''s''| &minus; ''c''. This is equivalent to saying ''K''(''s'') &le; |''s''| &minus; ''c''. Otherwise ''s'' is incompressible by ''c''. A string incompressible by one is said to be simply ''incompressible''; by the [[pigeonhole principle]], incompressible strings must exist, since there are 2<sup>''n''</sup> bit strings of length ''n'' but only 2<sup>''n''&minus;1</sup> shorter strings, that is strings of length ''n''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1. For the same reason, "most" strings are complex in the sense that they cannot be significantly compressed: ''K''(''s'') is not much smaller than |''s''|, the length of ''s'' in bits. To make this precise, fix a value of ''n''. There are 2<sup>''n''</sup> bitstrings of length ''n''. The [[Uniform distribution (discrete)|uniform]] [[probability]] distribution on the space of these bitstrings assigns to each string of length exactly ''n'' equal weight 2<sup>&minus;''n''</sup>. '''Theorem'''. With the uniform probability distribution on the space of bitstrings of length ''n'', the probability that a string is incompressible by ''c'' is at least 1 &minus; 2<sup>&minus;''c''+1 </sup> + 2<sup>&minus;''n''</sup>. To prove the theorem, note that the number of descriptions of length not exceeding ''n'' &minus; ''c'' is given by the [[geometric series]]: :<math> 1 + 2 + 2^2 + \cdots + 2^{n-c} = 2^{n-c+1}-1.\quad </math> There remain at least :<math> 2^n-2^{n-c+1}+1 \quad </math> many bitstrings of length ''n'' that are incompressible by ''c''. To determine the probability divide by 2<sup>''n''</sup>. This theorem is the justification for various challenges in [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/compression-faq/part1/ comp.compression FAQ]. Despite this result, it is sometimes claimed by certain individuals (considered [[Crank (person)#Physics, computer science and mathematics|cranks]]) that they have produced algorithms which uniformly compress data without lossage. See [[lossless data compression]]. ==Chaitin's incompleteness theorem == We know that most strings are complex in the sense that they cannot be described in any significantly "compressed" way. However, it turns out that the fact that a specific string is complex cannot be formally proved, if the string's length is above a certain threshold. The precise formalization is as follows. First fix a particular [[axiomatic system]] '''S''' for the [[natural number|natural numbers]]. The axiomatic system has to be powerful enough so that to certain assertions '''A''' about complexity of strings one can be associate a formula '''F'''<sub>'''A'''</sub> in '''S'''. This association must be such that if '''F'''<sub>'''A'''</sub> is provable in '''S''', then the corresponding assertion '''A''' is true. This "formalization" can be achieved either by an artificial encoding such as a [[Gödel numbering]] or by a formalization which more clearly respects the intended interpretation of '''S'''. '''Theorem'''. There exists a constant ''L'' (which only depends on the particular axiomatic system and the choice of description language) such that there is no string ''s'' for which the statement : <math> K(s) \geq L \quad </math> (as formalized in '''S''') can be proven within the axiomatic system '''S'''. Note that by the abundance of nearly incompressible strings, the vast majority of those statements must be true. The proof of this result is modeled on a self-referential construction used in [[Berry's paradox]]. The proof is by contradiction. If the theorem were false, then :'''Assumption (X)''': For any integer ''n'' there exists a string ''s'' for which there is a proof in '''S''' of the formula "''K''(''s'') &ge; ''n''" (which we assume can be formalized in '''S'''). We can find an effective enumeration of all the formal proofs in '''S''' by some procedure '''function''' NthProof('''int''' ''n'') which takes as input ''n'' and outputs some proof. This function enumerates all proofs. Some of these are proofs for formulas we do not care about here (examples of proofs which will be listed by the procedure NthProof are the various known proofs of the [[law of quadratic reciprocity]], those of [[Fermat's little theorem]] or the proof of [[Fermat's last theorem]] all translated into the formal language of '''S'''). A small fraction are complexity formulas of the form ''K''(''s'') &ge; ''n'' where ''s'' and ''n'' constants in the language of '''S'''. There is a program '''function''' NthProofProvesComplexityFormula('''int''' ''n'') which determines whether the ''n''<sup>th</sup> proof actually proves a complexity formula ''K''(''s'') &ge; ''L''. The strings ''s'' and the integer ''L'' in turn are computable by programs: '''function''' StringNthProof('''int''' ''n'') '''function''' ComplexityLowerBoundNthProof('''int''' ''n'') Consider the folowing program '''function''' GenerateProvablyComplexString('''int''' ''n'') '''for''' i = 1 to infinity: '''if''' NthProofProvesComplexityFormula(i) '''and''' ComplexityLowerBoundNthProof(i) >= ''n'' '''return''' StringNthProof(''i'') '''quit''' Given an ''n'', this program tries every proof until it finds a string and a proof in the formal system '''S''' of the formula ''K''(''s'') &ge; ''n''. The program terminates by our '''Assumption (X)'''. Now this program has a length ''U''. There is an integer ''n''<sub>0</sub> such that ''U'' + log<sub>2</sub>(''n''<sub>0</sub>) + ''C'' < ''n''<sub>0</sub>, where ''C'' is the overhead cost of '''function''' GenerateProvablyParadoxicalString() '''return''' GenerateProvablyComplexString(''n''<sub>0</sub>) '''quit''' The program GenerateProvablyParadoxicalString outputs a string ''s'' for which ''K''(''s'') &ge; ''n''<sub>0</sub> can be formally proved in '''S'''. In particular ''K''(''s'') &ge; ''n''<sub>0</sub> is true. However, ''s'' is also described by a program of length ''U''+log<sub>2</sub>(''n''<sub>0</sub>)+''C'' so its complexity is less than ''n''<sub>0</sub>. This contradiction proves '''Assumption (X)''' cannot hold. Similar ideas are used to prove the properties of [[Chaitin's constant]]. The [[minimum message length]] principle of statistical and inductive inference and machine learning was developed by [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~dld/CSWallacePublications/ C.S. Wallace] and D.M. Boulton in 1968. MML is [[Bayesian probability|Bayesian]] (it incorporates prior beliefs) and information-theoretic. It has the desirable properties of statistical invariance (the inference transforms with a re-parametrisation, such as from polar coordinates to Cartesian coordinates), statistical consistency (even for very hard problems, MML will converge to any underlying model) and efficiency (the MML model will converge to any true underlying model about as quickly as is possible). [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~dld/CSWallacePublications/ C.S. Wallace] and D.L. Dowe showed a formal connection between MML and algorithmic information theory (or Kolmogorov complexity) in 1999. == References == * Ming Li and Paul Vitányi, ''An Introduction to Kolmogorv Complexity and Its Applications'', Springer, 1997. [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/li97introduction.html Introduction chapter full-text]. * Yu Manin, ''A Course in Mathematical Logic'', Springer-Verlag, 1977. * Michael Sipser, ''Introduction to the Theory of Computation'', PWS Publishing Company, 1997. ==See also== *[[Chaitin–Kolmogorov randomness|Chaitin-Kolmogorov randomness]] *[[List of important publications in computer science#algorithmic information theory|Important publications in algorithmic information theory]] ==External links== * [http://www.kolmogorov.com/ The Legacy of Andrei Nikolaevich Kolmogorov] * [http://www.cs.umaine.edu/~chaitin/ Chaitin's online publications] * [http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/ray.html Solomonoff's IDSIA page] * [http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/kolmogorov.html Schmidhuber's generalizations of algorithmic information] * [http://homepages.cwi.nl/~paulv/kolmogorov.html Li & Vitanyi's textbook] * [http://homepages.cwi.nl/~tromp/cl/cl.html Tromp's lambda calculus computer model offers a concrete definition of K()] * [http://www3.oup.co.uk/computer_journal/hdb/Volume_42/Issue_04/pdf/420270.pdf Minimum Message Length and Kolmogorov Complexity] (by [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~dld/CSWallacePublications C.S. Wallace] and [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~dld D.L. Dowe], Computer Journal, Vol. 42, No. 4, 1999). * [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~dld David Dowe]'s [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~dld/MML.html Minimum Message Length (MML)] and [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~dld/Occam.html Occam's razor] pages. * P. Grunwald, M. A. Pitt and I. J. Myung (ed.), [http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?sid=4C100C6F-2255-40FF-A2ED-02FC49FEBE7C&ttype=2&tid=10478 Advances in Minimum Description Length: Theory and Applications], M.I.T. Press, April 2005, ISBN 0-262-07262-9. * [http://nms.lcs.mit.edu/~gch/kolmogorov.html Kolmogorov Complexity] provides a simple explanation of Kolmogorov complexity. [[Category:Algorithmic information theory|*]] [[Category:Information theory|*]] [[de:Kolmogorow-Komplexität]] [[fa:نظریه الگوریتمی اطلاعات]] [[gl:Complexidade de Kolmogorov]] [[ja:コルモゴロフ複雑性]] [[pl:Złożoność Kołmogorowa]] [[pt:Complexidade de Kolmogorov]] [[ru:Колмогоровская сложность]] [[zh:算法信息论]] [[he:סיבוכיות קולמוגורוב]] 1636 15900103 2002-07-31T05:11:56Z Heron 2954 #REDIRECT [[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]] 1637 40359152 2006-02-20T01:16:34Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 External links per MoS. "'''Hymn to Proserpine'''" is a [[poem]] by [[Algernon Swinburne|Algernon Charles Swinburne]], published in [[1866]]. The poem opens with the words ''Vicisti, Galilæe'', [[Latin]] for "You have conquered, O Galilean," the apocryphal [[Famous last words|dying words]] of the Emperor [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]]. He had tried to reverse the official endorsement of [[Christianity]] by the [[Roman Empire]]. The poem is cast in the form of a [[lament]] by a person professing the [[paganism]] of [[classical antiquity]] and lamenting its passing, and expresses regret at the rise of [[Christianity]]: :''Thou hast conquered, O pale Galilean; the world has grown grey from thy breath;'' :''We have drunken of things [[Lethe]]an, and fed on the fullness of death.'' The poem is addressed to the [[goddess]] [[Proserpina]], the Roman equivalent of [[Persephone]]. ==External links== *[http://eir.library.utoronto.ca/rpo/display/poem2088.html Full text] [[Category:British poems]] {{poetry-stub}} 1638 30776356 2005-12-10T01:10:41Z Djnjwd 9595 ext link '''The Triumph of Time''' is a poem by [[Algernon Swinburne]], published in [[1866]]. It is in adapted [[ottava rima]] and is full of elaborate use of literary devices, particularly [[alliteration]]. The theme, which purports to be autobiographical, is that of rejected love. The (male) speaker deplores the ruin of his life, and in tones at times reminiscent of ''[[Hamlet]]'', craves oblivion, for which the sea serves as a constant metaphor. ==External links-- *[http://eir.library.utoronto.ca/rpo/display/poem2104.html Complete text] *[http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/swinburne/swinburne9.html#1 ''Victorian Web'' article] [[Category:British poems]] 1639 41531580 2006-02-27T23:55:19Z 84.142.181.128 /* Births */ <!-- Language links at bottom --> {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=28}} |} '''April 28''' is the 118th day of the year (119th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]], with 247 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1253]] - [[Nichiren]], a [[Japan]]ese [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monk, propounds ''[[Nam Myoho Renge Kyo]]'' for the first time and declares it to be the essence of Buddhism, in effect founding [[Nichiren Buddhism]]. *[[1788]] - [[Maryland]] becomes the 7th state to ratify the [[Constitution of the United States]]. *[[1789]] - [[Mutiny]] on the [[Mutiny on the Bounty (history)|HMS ''Bounty'']]. Captain [[William Bligh]] and 18 sailors are set adrift and the rebel crew sets sail for [[Pitcairn Island]]. *[[1796]] - The [[Armistice of Cherasco]] is signed by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] and [[Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia|Vittorio Amedeo III]], the [[King of Sardinia]], expanding French territory along the [[Mediterranean]] coast. *[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Admiral]] [[David Farragut]] captures [[New Orleans, Louisiana]]. *[[1867]] - [[Pi Beta Phi]] Fraternity for Women founded at [[Monmouth College]] in Monmouth, [[Illinois]] *[[1920]] - [[Azerbaijan]] is added to the [[Soviet Union]]. *[[1930]] - The first night game in organized baseball history takes place in [[Independence, Kansas]]. *[[1932]] - A [[vaccine]] for [[yellow fever]] is announced for use on [[human]]s. *[[1945]] - [[Benito Mussolini]] and his mistress [[Clara Petacci]] are executed by members of the [[Italian resistance movement]]. *[[1947]] - [[Thor Heyerdahl]] and five crewmates set out from [[Peru]] on the ''[[Kon-Tiki]]'' to prove that Peruvian natives could have settled [[Polynesia]]. *[[1950]] - King of Thailand, [[Bhumibol Adulyadej]], got married with his queen,[[Queen Sirikit]], after their quiet engagement in Lausanne, Switzerland on July 19, 1949. *[[1952]] - [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] resigns as Supreme Commander of [[NATO]] in order to run for [[President of the United States]]. *1952 - [[Occupied Japan]]: The [[United States]] occupation of [[Japan]] ends. *[[1965]] - [[United States]] troops land in the [[Dominican Republic]] to "forestall establishment of a [[Communist]] dictatorship" and to evacuate U.S. citizens. *[[1967]] - [[Expo 67]] opens in [[Montréal]], Québec, Canada *[[1969]] - [[Charles de Gaulle]] resigns as [[President of France]]. *[[1970]] - [[Vietnam War]]: U.S. President [[Richard M. Nixon]] formally authorizes [[United States|American]] combat troops to fight [[communist]] sanctuaries in [[Cambodia]]. *[[1977]] - The [[Red Army Faction]] trial ends, with [[Andreas Baader]], [[Gudrun Ensslin]] and [[Jan-Carl Raspe]] found guilty of four counts of [[murder]] and more than 30 counts of [[attempted murder]]. *1977 - The [[Budapest Treaty|Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms for the Purposes of Patent Procedure]] is signed. *[[1978]] - [[President of Afghanistan]] [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]] is overthrown and [[assassin]]ated in a [[coup]] led by pro-communist rebels. *[[1981]] - [[Galicia (Spain)|Galician]] current [[Galician Statute of Autonomy|Statute of Autonomy]] *[[1987]] - [[United States|U.S.]] engineer [[Ben Linder]] is killed in an ambush by US-funded [[Contras]] in northern [[Nicaragua]]. *[[1988]] - Near [[Maui, Hawaii]], a [[flight attendant]] is sucked out of [[Aloha Flight 243]], a [[Boeing 737]], and falls to her death when an upper part of the plane's cabin area rips off in mid-flight. Metal fatigue is later found to be the cause of the failure. *[[1990]] - After 6,237 performances, the [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] musical ''[[A Chorus Line]]'' closes. *[[1994]] - Former [[Central Intelligence Agency]] official [[Aldrich Ames]] pleads guilty to giving [[United States|U.S.]] secrets to the [[Soviet Union]] and later [[Russia]]. *[[1996]] - [[Whitewater scandal]]: President [[Bill Clinton]] gives 4 1/2 hour videotaped testimony for the defense. *1996 - [[Port Arthur massacre]]: [[Martin Bryant]] kills 35 people and wounds another 18 in [[Tasmania]], [[Australia]]. *[[1997]] - The [[1993]] [[Chemical Weapons Convention]] goes into effect. [[Russia]], [[Iraq]] and [[North Korea]] were notable nations who had not ratified the treaty. *[[2001]] - Millionnaire [[Dennis Tito]] becomes the world's first [[space tourism|space tourist]]. *[[2003]] - [[Apple Computer]]'s [[iTunes Music Store]] launches, selling 1 million songs in its first week. *2003 - Iraq: 15 unarmed teenagers were killed by American forces in front of a school during a demostration; marking the beginning of the [[Falluja]] riots that took place during [[April 2003]]. *[[2004]] - Pictures of abuse and torture of prisoners by U.S. armed forces at [[Abu Ghraib prison]] are first shown on [[60 Minutes]]. *[[2005]] - The [[Patent Law Treaty]] goes into effect. ==Births== *[[1442]] - King [[Edward IV of England]] (d. [[1483]]) *[[1630]] - [[Charles Cotton]], English poet (d. [[1687]]) *[[1686]] - [[Michael Brokoff]], Czech sculptor (d. [[1721]]) *[[1715]] - [[Franz Sparry]], composer (d. [[1767]]) *[[1758]] - [[James Monroe]], 5th [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1831]]) *[[1819]] - [[Ezra Abbot]], American Bible scholar (d. [[1884]]) *[[1838]] - [[Tobias Michael Carel Asser]], Dutch jurist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1913]]) *[[1874]] - [[Karl Kraus]], Austrian journalist and author (d. [[1936]]) *[[1878]] - [[Lionel Barrymore]], American actor (d. [[1954]]) *[[1886]] - [[Ghabdulla Tuqay|&#286;abdulla Tuqay]], Russian poet (d. [[1913]]) *[[1889]] - [[António de Oliveira Salazar]], dictator of Portugal (d. [[1970]]) *[[1900]] - [[Jan Oort]], Dutch astronomer (d. [[1992]]) *[[1903]] - [[Johan Borgen]], Norwegian author (d. [[1979]]) *[[1906]] - [[Kurt Gödel]], Austrian mathematician (d. [[1978]]) *1906 - [[Paul Sacher]], Swiss conductor (d. [[1999]]) *[[1908]] - [[Oskar Schindler]], Austrian businessman and anti-Nazi resistance worker (d. [[1974]]) *[[1912]] - [[Odette Sansom]], French resistance worker (d. [[1995]]) *[[1916]] - [[Ferruccio Lamborghini]], Italian automobile manufacturer (d. [[1993]]) *[[1921]] - [[Rowland Evans]], American journalist and commentator (d. [[2001]]) *[[1924]] - [[Kenneth Kaunda]], [[President of Zambia]] *[[1926]] - [[Harper Lee]], American author *[[1928]] - [[Yves Klein]], French painter (d. [[1962]]) *1928 - [[Eugene M. Shoemaker]], American planetary scientist (d. [[1997]]) *[[1930]] - [[James Baker]], American politician *1930 - [[Carolyn Jones]], American actress (d. [[1983]]) *[[1937]] - [[Saddam Hussein]], former leader of Iraq *[[1938]] - [[Madge Sinclair]], Jamaican actress (d. [[1995]]) *[[1941]] - [[Ann-Margret]], Swedish-born actress *1941 - [[K. Barry Sharpless]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate *[[1943]] - [[Jacques Dutronc]], French singer and actor *[[1944]] - [[Jean-Claude Van Cauwenberghe]], Belgian politician *[[1948]] - [[Terry Pratchett]], English author *1948 - [[Marcia Strassman]], American actress *[[1950]] - [[Jay Leno]], American comedian and television host *[[1952]] - [[Mary McDonnell]], American actress *[[1953]] - [[Kim Gordon]], American musician ([[Sonic Youth]]) *[[1955]] - [[Paul Guilfoyle]], American actor *[[1955]] - [[Nicky Gumbel]], British Author and Priest *[[1956]] - [[Jimmy Barnes]], Scottish-born singer *[[1958]] - [[Hal Sutton]], American golfer *[[1960]] - [[John Cerutti]], baseball player and announcer (d. [[2004]]) *[[1966]] - [[John Daly]], American golfer *1966 - [[Too $hort]], American rapper *[[1970]] - [[Nicklas Lidström]], Swedish Hockey player *1970 - [[Diego Simeone]], Argentine footballer *[[1973]] - [[Elisabeth Röhm]], American actress *1973 - [[Jorge Garcia]], American actor *[[1974]] - [[Penélope Cruz]], Spanish actress *1974 - [[Richel Hersisia]], Dutch boxer *[[1981]] - [[Jessica Alba]], American actress *[[1986]] - [[Keri Sable]], American pornographic actress <!-- Please do not add your own birthday to this list. Thank you. --> ==Deaths== *[[1192]] - [[Conrad of Montferrat]], King of Jerusalem *[[1498]] - [[Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland]], English politician (killed in battle) *[[1533]] - [[Nicholas West]], English bishop and diplomat (b. [[1461]]) *[[1695]] - [[Henry Vaughan]], Welsh poet (b. [[1621]]) *[[1710]] - [[Thomas Betterton]], English actor *[[1726]] - [[Thomas Pitt]], British Governor of Madras (b. [[1653]]) *[[1772]] - [[Johann Friedrich Struensee]], physician of [[Christian VII of Denmark]] (b. [[1737]]) *[[1781]] - [[Cornelius Harnett]], American delegate to the Continental Congress]] (b. [[1723]]) *[[1813]] - [[Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov]], Russian field marshal (b. [[1745]]) *[[1816]] - [[Johann Heinrich Abicht]], German philosopher (b. [[1862]]) *[[1841]] - [[Peter Chanel]], French saint (b. [[1803]]) *[[1853]] - [[Ludwig Tieck]], German writer (b. [[1773]]) *[[1858]] - [[Johannes Peter Müller]], German physiologist (b. [[1801]]) *[[1905]] - [[Fitzhugh Lee]], American Confederate general (b. [[1835]]) *[[1926]] - [[Zip the Pinhead]], American freak show performer (b. [[1857]]) *[[1945]] - [[Benito Mussolini]], Italian fascist dictator (b. [[1882]]) *1945 - [[Clara Petacci]], Italian mistress of [[Benito Mussolini]] (shot) (b. [[1912]]) *1945 - [[Roberto Farinacci]], Italian fascist (b. [[1892]]) *[[1954]] - [[Léon Jouhaux]], French labor leader, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1879]]) *[[1973]] - [[Clas Thunberg]], Finnish speed skater (d. [[1893]]) *[[1978]] - [[Sardar Mohammed Daoud]], [[President of Afghanistan]] (shot) (b. [[1909]]) *[[1992]] - [[Francis Bacon (painter)|Francis Bacon]], Anglo-Irish painter (b. [[1909]]) *1992 - [[Iceberg Slim]], American writer (b. [[1918]]) *[[1993]] - [[Jim Valvano]], American basketball coach (b. [[1946]]) *[[1999]] - [[Rory Calhoun]], American actor (b. [[1922]]) *1999 - [[Arthur Leonard Schawlow]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1921]]) *[[2000]] - [[Penelope Fitzgerald]], English writer (b. [[1916]]) *[[2002]] - [[Alexander Lebed]], Russian general (b. [[1950]]) *2002 - [[Lou Thesz]], American wrestler (b. [[1916]]) *[[2005]] - [[Chris Candito|Chris Candido]], professional wrestler (b. [[1972]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Roman Empire]] - first day of the [[Floralia]] in honor of [[Chloris|Flora]] *[[Bahá'í Faith]] - Feast of Jamál (Beauty) - First day of the third month of the Bahá'í Calendar *[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/worldday/ World Day for Safety and Health at Work] *[[Feast day]] of the following [[saint]]s in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]: **[[Saints Theodora and Didymus]] **[[Arthemius]] **[[Saints Vitalis and Valeria]] **[[Patritius]] **[[Luchesius]] **[[Louis Marie Grignon of Montfort]] **[[Peter Chanel]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/28 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[April 27]] - [[April 29]] - [[March 28]] - [[May 28]] – [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:28 April]] [[ar:28 أبريل]] [[an:28 d'abril]] [[ast:28 d'abril]] [[bg:28 април]] [[be:28 красавіка]] [[bs:28. april]] [[ca:28 d'abril]] [[ceb:Abril 28]] [[cv:Ака, 28]] [[co:28 d'aprile]] [[cs:28. duben]] [[cy:28 Ebrill]] [[da:28. april]] [[de:28. April]] [[et:28. aprill]] [[el:28 Απριλίου]] [[es:28 de abril]] [[eo:28-a de aprilo]] [[eu:Apirilaren 28]] [[fo:28. apríl]] [[fr:28 avril]] [[fy:28 april]] [[ga:28 Aibreán]] [[gl:28 de abril]] [[ko:4월 28일]] [[hr:28. travnja]] [[io:28 di aprilo]] [[id:28 April]] [[ia:28 de april]] [[ie:28 april]] [[is:28. apríl]] [[it:28 aprile]] [[he:28 באפריל]] [[jv:28 April]] [[ka:28 აპრილი]] [[csb:28 łżëkwiôta]] [[ku:28'ê avrêlê]] [[lt:Balandžio 28]] [[lb:28. Abrëll]] [[li:28 april]] [[hu:Április 28]] [[mk:28 април]] [[mi:28 Paenga-whāwhā]] [[ms:28 April]] [[nap:28 'e abbrile]] [[nl:28 april]] [[ja:4月28日]] [[no:28. april]] [[nn:28. april]] [[oc:28 d'abril]] [[pl:28 kwietnia]] [[pt:28 de Abril]] [[ro:28 aprilie]] [[ru:28 апреля]] [[sco:28 Aprile]] [[sq:28 Prill]] [[scn:28 di aprili]] [[simple:April 28]] [[sk:28. apríl]] [[sl:28. april]] [[sr:28. април]] [[fi:28. huhtikuuta]] [[sv:28 april]] [[tl:Abril 28]] [[tt:28. Äpril]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 28]] [[th:28 เมษายน]] [[vi:28 tháng 4]] [[tr:28 Nisan]] [[uk:28 квітня]] [[ur:28 اپریل]] [[wa:28 d' avri]] [[war:Abril 28]] [[zh:4月28日]] [[pam:Abril 28]] 1640 42103550 2006-03-03T21:22:59Z UkPaolo 269651 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/80.189.247.197|80.189.247.197]] ([[User talk:80.189.247.197|talk]]) to last version by Stbalbach {{Infobox Monarch Basic | name=Alfred the Great | title=King of England | image=[[Image:Alfred the Great.jpg|200px]] | rank=6th | reign=[[871]]&ndash;[[26 October]], [[899]] | date of birth=c.[[849]] | place of birth=[[Wantage]], modern [[Oxfordshire]],<br/>[[England]] | date of death=[[26 October]] [[899]] | place of death=| | place of burial=Hyde Abbey | married=[[Ealhswith]] | father=[[Ethelwulf of Wessex|Ethelwulf]] | mother=[[Osburga]] }} '''Alfred''' ([[849]]? &ndash; [[26 October]] [[899]]) or ''Ælfred'' was king of the southern [[Anglo-Saxon]] kingdom of [[Wessex]] from [[871]] to [[899]]. Alfred is famous for his defence of the kingdom against the Danes ([[Vikings]]), becoming as a result the only English monarch to be awarded the [[epithet]] "the Great" by his people. Alfred was the first [[List of monarchs of Wessex|King of Wessex]] to style himself "[[List of British monarchs|King of England]]". Details of his life are known as a result of a work by the [[Wales|Welsh]] scholar, [[Asser, Bishop of Sherborne|Asser]]. A learned man, Alfred encouraged education and improved the kingdom's law system ([[Doom book]]). == Childhood == Alfred was born sometime between [[847]] and AD [[849]] at [[Wantage, England|Wantage]] in present-day [[Oxfordshire]], the fourth son of King [[Ethelwulf of Wessex]] (Æþelwulf), most likely by his first wife, [[Osburh]]. He succeeded his brother, [[Ethelred I]] (Æþelræd I), as King of [[Wessex]] and [[Mercia]] in [[871]]. He seems to have been a child of singular attractiveness and promise, and tales of his boyhood were remembered. At five years old, in [[853]], he is said to have been sent to [[Rome]], where he was confirmed by [[Pope Leo IV]], who is also said to have "anointed him as king." Later writers took this as an anticipatory crowning in preparation for his ultimate succession to the throne of Wessex. That, however, could not have been foreseen in 853, as Alfred had three elder brothers living. It is likely to be understood either of investiture with the consular insignia or possibly with some titular royalty such as that of the under-kingdom of [[Kent]]. This tale is likely apocryphal, though in [[854]]&ndash;[[855]] Alfred almost certainly did go with his father on a pilgrimage to [[Rome]], spending some time at the court of [[Charles the Bald]], King of the [[Franks]]. In [[858]], Ethelwulf died. == Public life == During the short reigns of his two eldest brothers, [[Ethelbald of Wessex|Ethelbald]] and [[Ethelbert of Wessex|Ethelbert]], nothing is heard of Alfred. But with the accession of the third brother, Ethelred, in [[866]] the public life of Alfred began, and he began his great work of delivering England from the [[Denmark|Danes]]. It is in this reign that Asser applies to Alfred the unique title of ''secundarius,'' which seems to show a position akin to that of the [[Celt]]ic ''tanist,'' a recognized successor, closely associated with the reigning prince. It is likely that this arrangement was sanctioned by the [[Witenagemot]], to guard against the danger of a disputed succession should Aethelred fall in battle. The arrangement of crowning a successor as co-king, however, is well-known among [[Germanic tribes]], such as the [[Swedes]], and the Franks, with whom the Anglo-Saxons had close ties (see [[diarchy]] and [[Germanic king]]). [[Image:Statue d'Alfred le Grand à Winchester.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Statue of Alfred the Great at Winchester]] In [[868]] Alfred married [[Ealhswith]], daughter of [[Aethelred Mucill]], who is called [[ealdorman]] of the [[Gaini]], a folk who dwelt in [[Lincolnshire]] about [[Gainsborough, England|Gainsborough]]. She was the granddaughter of a former King of Mercia, and they had five or six children, one a daughter, [[Ethelfleda]], who would become queen of Mercia in her own right. The same year Alfred, fighting beside his brother Ethelred, made an unsuccessful attempt to relieve Mercia from the pressure of the Danes. For nearly two years Wessex had a respite. But at the end of [[870]] the storm burst; and the year which followed has been rightly called "Alfred's year of battles." Nine general engagements were fought with varying fortune, though the place and date of two of them have not been recorded. A successful skirmish at [[Battle of Englefield]], [[Berkshire]] ([[31 December]] [[870]]), was followed by a severe defeat at the [[Battle of Reading (871)|Battle of Reading]] ([[4 January]] [[871]]), and this, four days later, by the brilliant victory of [[Battle of Ashdown]], near [[Compton Beauchamp]] in [[Shrivenham Hundred]]. On [[22 January]] [[871]] the English were again defeated at [[Basing]], and on [[22 March]] [[871]] at [[Marton, Wiltshire|Marton]], [[Wiltshire]], the two unidentified battles having perhaps occurred in the interval. === Accession === In April 871 Ethelred died, and Alfred succeeded to the whole burden of the contest. While he was busied with the burial and associated ceremonies for his brother, the Danes defeated the English in his absence at an unnamed spot, and once more in his presence at [[Wilton, Wiltshire|Wilton]] in May. After this peace was made, and for the next five years the Danes were occupied in other parts of England, Alfred merely keeping a force of observation on the border. But in [[876]], the Danes, under a new leader, [[Guthrum the Old| Guthrum]], slipped past him and attacked [[Wareham]]. From there, early in [[877]] and under the pretext of talks, they made a dash westwards and took [[Exeter, England|Exeter]]. Here Alfred blockaded them, and a relieving fleet having been scattered by a storm, the Danes had to submit and withdraw to Mercia. But in January [[878]] they made a sudden swoop on [[Chippenham, Wiltshire|Chippenham]], a royal stronghold in which Alfred had been keeping his Christmas, "and most of the people they reduced, except the King Alfred, and he with a little band made his way… by wood and swamp, and after Easter he… made a fort at [[Athelney]], and from that fort kept fighting against the foe" (Chronicle). [[Image:KingAlfredStatueWantage.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Alfred the Great's birthplace [[Wantage]] boasts a statue of its greatest son.]] A legend tells how, while a fugitive in the marshes of [[Athelney]] near [[North Petherton]] in [[Somerset]], after the first Danish invasion, he was given shelter by a peasant woman who, ignorant of his identity, left him to watch some cakes she had left cooking on the fire. Preoccupied with the problems of the kingdom, Alfred let the cakes burn, and was taken to task by the woman on her return. Upon realizing the king's identity, the woman apologized profusely, but Alfred insisted that he was the one who needed to apologize. The thought that Alfred, during his retreat at Athelney, was a helpless fugitive rests upon the legend of the cakes. In truth he was organizing victory. At about the same time, he is supposed to have disguised himself as a harpist to gain entry to Guthrum's camp and discover his plans. By the middle of May, his preparations were complete and he moved out of Athelney, being joined on the way by the levies of [[Somerset]], [[Wiltshire]] and [[Hampshire]]. The Danes on their side moved out of Chippenham, and the two armies met at the [[Battle of Edington]] in Wiltshire. The result was a decisive victory for Alfred. The Danes submitted. Guthrum, the Danish king, and twenty-nine of his chief men took baptism, recorded by Asser as occuring at [[Treaty of Wedmore|Wedmore]]. As a result, [[England]] became split into two, the south-western half kept by the [[Saxons]] and the north-eastern half becoming known as the [[Danelaw]]. By the next year ([[879]]) not only Wessex, but Mercia, west of [[Watling Street]], was cleared of the invader. Though for the time being the north-eastern half of England, including [[London]], was in the hands of the Danes, in truth the tide had turned. For the next few years there was peace, the Danes being kept busy in Europe. A landing in Kent in [[880s|884 or 885]], though successfully repelled, encouraged the East Anglian Danes to rise up. The measures taken by Alfred to repress this uprising culminated in the taking of London in [[885]] or [[886]], following which an agreement was reached between Alfred and Guthrum, the [[Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum]]. Once more for a time there was a lull; but in the fall of [[890s|892 or 893]] the last storm burst. The Danes, finding their position in Europe becoming more and more precarious, crossed to England in two divisions, amounting in the aggregate to 330 sail, and entrenched themselves, the larger body at [[Appledore, Kent]], and the lesser under [[Haesten]] at [[Milton, Kent|Milton]] also in Kent. The fact that the new invaders brought their wives and children with them shows that this was no mere raid, but a meaningful attempt, in concert with the Northumbrian and East Anglian Danes, to conquer England. Alfred, in 893 or 894, took up a position whence he could observe both forces. While he was in talks with Haesten the Danes at Appledore broke out and struck north-westwards, but were overtaken by Alfred's eldest son, [[Edward the Elder|Edward]], and defeated in a general engagement at [[Farnham]], and driven to take refuge on an island in the [[River Colne, Hertfordshire|Hertfordshire Colne]], where they were blockaded and ultimately compelled to submit. They then fell back on Essex, and after suffering another defeat at [[Benfleet]] coalesced with Haesten's force at [[Shoebury]]. Alfred had been on his way to relieve his son at Thorney when he heard that the Northumbrian and East Anglian Danes were besieging Exeter and an unnamed stronghold on the North [[Devon]] shore. Alfred at once hurried westward and raised the siege of Exeter; the fate of the other place is not recorded. Meanwhile the force under Haesten set out to march up the [[Thames Valley]], possibly with the idea of assisting their friends in the west. But they were met by a large force under the three great ealdormen of Mercia, Wiltshire and Somerset, and made to head off to the northwest, being finally overtaken and blockaded at [[Buttington]], which some identify with [[Buttington Tump]] at the mouth of the [[River Wye|Wye River]], others with Buttington near [[Welshpool]]. An attempt to break through the English lines was defeated with loss; those who escaped retreated to Shoebury. Then after collecting reinforcements they made a sudden dash across England and occupied the ruined Roman walls of [[Chester, England|Chester]]. The English did not attempt a winter blockade, but contented themselves with destroying all the supplies in the neighbourhood. And early in [[894]] (or [[895]]) want of food obliged the Danes to retire once more to Essex. At the end of this year and early in 895 (or [[896]]) the Danes drew their ships up the Thames and [[River Lee|Lea]] and fortified themselves twenty miles above London. A direct attack on the Danish lines failed, but later in the year Alfred saw a means of obstructing the river so as to prevent the egress of the Danish ships. The Danes realized that they were out-maneuvred. They struck off northwestwards and wintered at [[Bridgenorth]]. The next year, 896 (or [[897]]), they gave up the struggle. Some retired to Northumbria, some to East Anglia; those who had no connections in England withdrew to the continent. The long campaign was over. The result testifies to the confidence inspired by Alfred's character and generalship, and to the efficacy of the military reforms initiated by him. These were: #the division of the ''[[fyrd]]'' or national militia into two, relieving each other at set intervals, so as to ensure continuity in military operations; #the building of strongholds (burgs) and garrisons at certain points; #the enforcement of the obligations of thanehood on all owners of five hides of land, thus giving the king a nucleus of highly equipped troops. ==== Reference ==== * Sir [[Francis Palgrave]], ''History of the Anglo-Saxons'' (1876), pg. 102 === Reorganization === After the dispersal of the Danish invaders Alfred turned his attention to the increase of the royal [[navy]], and ships were built according to the king's own designs, partly to repress the ravages of the Northumbrian and East Anglian Danes on the coasts of Wessex, partly to prevent the landing of fresh hordes. This is not, as often asserted, the beginning of the English navy. There had been earlier naval operations under Alfred. One naval engagement was certainly fought under [[Aethelwulf|Æthelwulf]] (in [[851]]), and earlier ones, possibly in [[833]] and [[840]]. The partisan [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle|Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]] credits Alfred with the construction of a new type of boat, 'swifter, steadier and also higher/more responsive (hierran) than the others'; but these new ships were not a great success, as we hear of them grounding in action and foundering in a storm. Nevertheless both the [[Royal Navy]] and the [[United States Navy]] claim Alfred as the founder of their traditions. The first vessel ever commissioned into the United States Navy was [[USS Alfred|USS ''Alfred'']]. Alfred's main fighting force was separated into two, 'so that there was always half at home and half out' ([[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]). The level of organisation required to mobilise his large army in two shifts of which one was feeding the other must have been considerable. The complexity which Alfred's administration had attained by [[892]] is demonstrated by a reasonably reliable charter whose witness list includes a ''thesaurius'', ''cellararius'' and ''pincerna''&mdash;treasurer, food-keeper and butler. Despite the irritation which Alfred must have felt in [[893]], when one division, which had 'completed their call-up (stemn)' gave up the siege of a Danish army even as Alfred was moving to relieve them, this system seems to have worked remarkably well on the whole. One of the weaknesses of pre-Alfredian defences had been that, in the absence of a standing army, fortresses were largely left unoccupied, making it very possible for a Viking force quickly to secure a strong strategic position. Alfred substantially upgraded the state of many of Wessex's fortresses, as has been demonstrated by systematic excavation of four West Saxon boroughs (at [[Wareham]], [[Cricklade]], [[Lydford]] and [[Wallingford]]]) that "in every case the rampart associated by the excavators with the borough of the Alfredian period was the primary defence on the site" (N.P. Brooks ''The Development of Military Obligations in Eighth and Ninth Century England''). We know that such defences were not constructed by the occasional Danish occupiers, thanks to surviving transcripts of the formidable 11th Century administrative manuscript known as the Burghal Hidage, dated within 20 years of Alfred's death&mdash;it may well date to Alfred's reign, and it almost certainly reflects Alfredian policy. This documents the established position of these four [[burh]]s, among many others, as permanently garrisoned and maintained fortress-towns. By comparing town plans of Wallingford and Wareham with that of Winchester, one can see 'that they were laid out in the same scheme' (P. Wormald in J. Campbell, ed., ''The Anglo-Saxons''). This supports the proposition that these newly established burhs were planned as centres of habitation and trade as well as a place of safety in moments of immediate danger. The "[[Tribal Hidage|Burghal Hidage]]" sets out the obligations for the upkeep and defence of these towns; in this way, the English population and its wealth was drawn into towns where it was not only safer from Viking soldiers, but also taxable by the King. Alfred is thus credited with a significant degree of civil reorganization, especially in the districts ravaged by the Danes. Even if one rejects the thesis crediting the 'Burghal Hidage' to Alfred, what is undeniable is that, in the parts of Mercia acquired by Alfred from the Vikings, the [[shire]] system seems now to have been introduced for the first time. This is at least one grain of truth in the legend that Alfred was the inventor of shires, [[Hundred (division)|hundreds]] and [[tithing]]s. The finances also needed attention; but the subject is obscure, and we cannot accept Asser's description of Alfred's appropriation of his revenue as more than an ideal sketch. Alfred's care for the administration of justice is testified both by history and legend; and the title "protector of the poor" was his by unquestioned right. Of the action of the [[Witangemot]] we do not hear very much under Alfred. That he was anxious to respect its rights is conclusively proved, but both the circumstances of the time and the character of the king would tend to throw more power into his hands. The legislation of Alfred probably belongs to the later part of the reign, after the pressure of the Danes had relaxed. === Foreign relations === Asser speaks grandiosely of Alfred's relations with foreign powers, but little definite information is available. He certainly corresponded with [[Elias III]], the [[Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem|patriarch of Jerusalem]], and probably sent a mission to [[India]]. Embassies to Rome conveying the English alms to the [[Pope]] were fairly frequent; while Alfred's interest in foreign countries is shown by the insertions which he made in his translation of [[Orosius]]. Around 890 [[Wulfstan of Haithabu]] undertook a journey from [[Haithabu]] on [[Jutland]] along the [[Baltic Sea]] to the Prussian trading town [[Truso]]. Wulfstan reported details of his trip to Alfred the Great. His relations to the [[Celt]]ic princes in the southern half of the island are clearer. Comparatively early in his reign the [[South Wales|Welsh]] princes, owing to the pressure on them of [[North Wales]] and Mercia, commended themselves to Alfred. Later in the reign the North Welsh followed their example, and the latter co-operated with the English in the campaign of 893 (or 894). That Alfred sent alms to [[Ireland|Irish]] as well as to European monasteries may be taken on Asser's authority; the visit of the three pilgrim "Scots" (i.e., Irish) to Alfred in 891 is undoubtedly authentic; the story that he himself in his childhood was sent to Ireland to be healed by [[St. Modwenna]], though mythical, may show Alfred's interest in that island. === Christianity and His Writings=== The history of the [[Christianity|church]] under Alfred is most obscure. The Danish inroads had told heavily upon it; the monasteries had been special points of attack, and though Alfred founded two or three monasteries and imported foreign monks, there was no general revival of monasticism under him. To the ruin of learning and education wrought by the Danes, and the practical extinction of the knowledge of Latin even among the clergy, the preface to Alfred's translation into [[Old English language|Old English]] of [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory's]] ''[[Pastoral Care]]'' bears eloquent witness. It was to remedy these evils that he established a court school, after the example of [[Charlemagne]]; for this he imported scholars like [[Grimbald]] and [[John the Saxon]] from Europe and Asser from South Wales; for this, above all, he put himself to school, and made the series of translations for the instruction of his clergy and people, most of which yet survive. These belong unquestionably to the latter of his reign, likely to the last four years, during which the chronicles are almost silent. Apart from the lost ''Handboc'' or ''Encheiridion,'' which seems to have been merely a commonplace-book kept by the king, the earliest work to be translated was the ''Dialogues of Gregory,'' a book greatly popular in the [[Middle Ages]]. In this case the translation was made by Alfred's great friend [[Werferth]], Bishop of [[Worcester, England|Worcester]], the king merely furnishing a foreword. The next work to be undertaken was Gregory's ''Pastoral Care,'' especially for the good of the parish clergy. In this Alfred keeps very close to his original; but the introduction which he prefixed to it is one of the most interesting documents of the reign, or indeed of English history. The next two works taken in hand were historical, the ''Universal History'' of Orosius and [[Bede|Bede's]] ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum|Ecclesiastical History of the English People]].'' The priority should likely be given to the Orosius, but the point has been much debated. In the Orosius, by omissions and additions, Alfred so remodels his original as to produce an almost new work; in the Bede the author's text is closely stuck to, no additions being made, though most of the documents and some other less interesting matters are omitted. Of late years doubts have been raised as to Alfred's authorship of the Bede translation. But the sceptics cannot be regarded as having proved their point. We come now to what is in many ways the most interesting of Alfred's works, his translation of ''[[Consolation of Philosophy|The Consolation of Philosophy]]'' of [[Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius|Boethius]], the most popular philosophical handbook of the middle ages. Here again Alfred deals very freely with his original and though the late Dr. G. Schepss showed that many of the additions to the text are to be traced not to Alfred himself, but to the glosses and commentaries which he used, still there is much in the work which is solely Alfred's and highly characteristic of his genius. It is in the Boethius that the oft-quoted sentence occurs: "My will was to live worthily as long as I lived, and after my life to leave to them that should come after, my memory in good works." The book has come down to us in two manuscripts only. In one of these the writing is prose, in the other alliterating verse. The authorship of the latter has been much disputed; but likely they also are by Alfred. In fact, he writes in the prelude that he first created a prose work and then used it as the basis for his poem, the [[Lays of Boethius]], his crowning literary achievement. He spent a great deal of time working on these books, which he tells us he gradually wrote through the many stressful times of his reign to refresh his mind. Of the authenticity of the work as a whole there has never been any doubt. The last of Alfred's works is one to which he gave the name ''Blostman,'' i.e., "Blooms" or Anthology. The first half is based mainly on the ''Soliloquies'' of St [[Augustine of Hippo]], the remainder is drawn from various sources, and contains much that is Alfred's own and highly characteristic of him. The last words of it may be quoted; they form a fitting epitaph for the noblest of English kings. "Therefore he seems to me a very foolish man, and truly wretched, who will not increase his understanding while he is in the world, and ever wish and long to reach that endless life where all shall be made clear." Beside these works of Alfred's, the Saxon Chronicle almost certainly, and a Saxon Martyrology, of which fragments only exist, probably owe their inspiration to him. A prose version of the first fifty [[Psalms]] has been attributed to him; and the attribution, though not proved, is perfectly possible. Additionally, Alfred appears as a character in ''[[The Owl and the Nightingale]],'' where his wisdom and skill with proverbs is attested. Additionally, ''[[The Proverbs of Alfred]]'', which exists for us in a 13th century manuscript contains sayings that very likely have their origins partly with the king. === Death === Alfred died on [[26 October]] [[899]], though the year is uncertain &mdash; but not [[900]] or [[901]] as were previously accepted. How he died is unknown. He was originally buried in the Old Minster, then moved to the New Minster, and then transferred to Hyde Abbey in the year 1110. ==Appearance in Culture== In honour of Alfred, the [[University of Liverpool]] now has a [[King Alfred Chair of English Literature]]. [[Thomas Augustine Arne]]'s ''[[Masque of Alfred]]'' (known for "[[Rule Britannia]]") was a [[masque]] about Alfred the Great (first public performance: [[1745]]). [[G K Chesterton]]'s poetical epic ''[[The Ballad of the White Horse]]'' describes Alfred uniting the fragmented Kingdoms of Britain to chase the northern invaders away from the island. Like [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]'', it deals with the theme of a divinely oriented leader waging physical and spiritual battle against a morally unjust enemy. The [[historical fiction]] author [[Bernard Cornwell]] started, in the early 21st century, a retelling saga ''[[The Saxon Stories]]'' about Alfred's life and his struggle against the [[Vikings]]. A biography of Alfred by Justin Pollard was published in 2005. Alfred was played by [[David Hemmings]] in the [[1969]] film ''Alfred the Great'', which co-starred [[Michael York (actor)|Michael York]] as Guthrum [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0064000/]. [[Alfred University]], located in [[Alfred (village), New York|Alfred, NY]], is named after him. == See also == * [[British military history]] * [[University College, Oxford]] * [[Kingdom of England]] * [[Lays of Boethius]] * [[Alfred Jewel]] == External links == * [http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page25.asp Alfred the Great] from the [http://www.royal.gov.uk/ official website of the British Monarchy] * [http://www.mirror.org/ken.roberts/king.alfred.html King Alfred the Great] and [http://www.mirror.org/ken.roberts/alfred.jewel.html Alfred Jewel] by [http://www.mirror.org/ken.roberts/ Ken Roberts] * [http://rsparlourtricks.blogspot.com/2005/10/alfred-great.html Ron Schuler's Parlour Tricks: Alfred the Great] * [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Lays_of_Boethius Lays of Boethius] {{1911}} {{start box}} {{succession box two to one| title1=[[List of British monarchs|King of England]]| before1=-| years1=| title2=[[List of monarchs of Wessex|King of Wessex]]| before2=[[Ethelred of Wessex|Ethelred]]| years2=| after=[[Edward the Elder]] }} {{succession box| title=[[Bretwalda]]| before=[[Ethelred of Wessex|Ethelred]]| years=| after=None }} {{end box}} [[Category:840s births]] [[Category:899 deaths]] [[Category:History of Europe]] [[Category:Anglo-Saxon monarchs]] [[Category:West Saxon monarchs]] [[Category:Viking Age]] [[Category:University College, Oxford]] [[ang:Ælfrēd se Grēata]] [[cs:Alfréd Veliký]] [[de:Alfred der Große]] [[es:Alfredo el Grande]] [[eo:Alfredo la Granda]] [[fr:Alfred le Grand]] [[he:אלפרד הגדול]] [[lv:Alfreds Lielais]] [[lb:Alfred de Groussen]] [[nl:Alfred de Grote]] [[ja:アルフレッド大王]] [[no:Alfred av England]] [[pl:Alfred Wielki]] [[pt:Alfredo de Inglaterra]] [[ru:Альфред Великий]] [[fi:Alfred Suuri]] [[sv:Alfred den store]] [[uk:Альфред Великий]] 1641 15900108 2004-12-17T22:44:08Z John Kenney 10512 #REDIRECT: [[Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]] 1642 38155460 2006-02-04T15:46:59Z Pietro 19883 it: '''Alessandro Algardi''' (Bologna [[July 31]],[[1598]] &ndash; Rome, [[June 10]], [[1654]]), is mainly known as an [[Italy|Italian]] [[Baroque]] [[Sculpture|sculptor]], the major rival of [[Bernini]] in the field and an outstanding draughtsman. His role as an architect rests largely on his designs for the [[Villa Doria Pamphili]], Rome (1644&ndash1652) and its extensive fountains and other garden features, where much of his free-standing sculpture and bas-reliefs also remain, and for the architectonic features of his sculptural setpieces. While apprenticed in the Bolognese atelier of [[Agostino Carracci]], Algardi's aptitude for sculpture led him to work for the sculptor [[Giulio Cesare Conventi]] (1577&ndash;1640). At the age of twenty he was brought to the notice of [[Duke of Mantua|Ferdinando I, Duke of Mantua]], who gave him several commissions, which gave the young sculptor a chance to immerse himself in one of the greatand exposed the young sculptor a chance to see his large collections of Roman antiquities and sculpture. He was also much employed about the same period by goldsmiths, modelling for them in ivory and making wax ''modelli'' for casting in gold and silver. After a short residence in [[Venice]], he went to [[Rome]] in 1625 with an introduction from the Duke of Mantua to the [[Pope Gregory XV|late pope's]] nephew, [[Ludovico Cardinal Ludovisi]], who employed him for a time in the restoration of ancient statues, which still form the core of the Bonacorsi-Ludovisi collection in [[Palazzo Altemps]]. . [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]], in the first flush of his fame, had the pick of the best available commissions in Rome, and the duke's death left Algardi to his own meagre resources, and for several years he earned a precarious living from these restorations and commissions of goldsmiths and jewellers. His friends included his fellow Bolognese, [[Domenichino]] and [[Pietro da Cortona]], and his early Roman commissions included terracotta portrait busts, while he supported himself with small works like crucifixes. For [[Pietro Buoncompagni]] in 1640, Algardi created his first major public work in marble, a colossal statue of [[Philip Neri]], with kneeling angels. Immediately after this, he produced a similar group, representing the beheading of [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]] in two figures, of the kneeling saint and the executioner poised to strike the sword-blow, for [[San Paolo Maggiore]], the church of the Barnabite Fathers in Bologna. These proficient works expressed Baroque dramatic attitudes and immediacy of expression, at once established Algardi's reputation, and other commissions quickly followed. ==Algardi Gains Papal Favor with the Ascent of Innocent X== For two decades Bernini had dominated the most prominent commissions in Rome, however,with the accession of the Bolognese [[Pamphilj]] [[Pope Innocent X]][http://www.scultura-italiana.com/Galleria/Algardi%20Alessandro/imagepages/image17.html (bust)],[http://members.tripod.com/romeartlover/Juv34.html (coat of arms)]in 1644, Algardi was employed by the Pope and the pope's nephew, [[Camillo Pamphilj]].[http://www.scultura-italiana.com/Galleria/Algardi%20Alessandro/imagepages/image2.html (bust, Hermitage)]For example, he was asked to design the [[Villa Doria Pamphili]] outside the San Pancrazio gate, a project in which he depended on the professional aid of the architect/engineer [[Girolamo Rainaldi]], while Algardi and his studio executed the sculpture-encrusted exteriors and interiors His portrait bust of Camillo Pamphili is at The [[Hermitage Museum]]. A church façade sometimes attributed to Algardi is that of Sant' Ignazio di Loyola in Campo Marzio. In [[1650]] Algardi met [[Diego Velasquez]], who obtained commissions for Spain. There are four chimneypieces by Algardi in the palace of [[Aranjuez]], where the figures on the fountain of [[Neptune (god)|Neptune]] were also by him. The Augustine monastery at [[Salamanca]] contains the tomb of the count and countess de Monterey, another work by Algardi. ==Relief of ''Fuga d'Attila'' in St. Peter's Basilica== Algardi's masterpiece is the large dramatic marble high-relief panel of Pope Leo and Attila [http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/a/algardi/2/meeting.html (image)](1646&ndash;53) for [[St Peter's Basilica]], which reinvigorated the use of marble in reliefs. There had been large marble reliefs used previously, for example Gianlorenzo's father, [[Pietro Bernini]]'s crowded ''Assumption of the Virgin'' for [[Santa Maria Maggiore]](1606); but for most patrons, it was far too costly to use sculpted marble for such a large display as an altarpiece. In this relief, the two theatrically contrasted principal figures, the stern and courageous pope and the dismayed and frightened Attila, surge and protrude from the center. Only these two see the descending angelic warriers rallying to the pope's defense, while all others persist in the background reliefs, peforming respective earthly duties. The subject was apt for a papal state seeking clout, since it depicts the legendary moment when the greatest of Pope Leos, with supernatural aide, had deterred the Huns from looting Rome. From a baroque standpoint it is a moment of divine intervention in the affairs of man. Algardi's patron Leo XI hoped all viewers would be sternly reminded of the papal capacity to invoke divine retribution against enemies. Algardi died within a year of completing his famous relief, which was admired by contemporaries. ==Critical Assessment and Legacy== Algardi was also known for his portraiture which shows an obsessive attention to details of psychologically revealing physiognomy in a sober but immediate naturalism, and minute attention to costume and draperies, such as in the busts of Laudivio Zacchia, Camillo Pamphilj, and Muzio Frangipane and his two sons Lello and Roberto [http://www.romeartlover.it/Algardi.html]. There is also a bronze statue of Innocent X for the ''Palazzo dei Conservatori'' in the [[Campidoglio]]. In St. Peter's Basilica, Algardi was also responsible for the prominent tomb of [[Leo XI]] (completed 1644). In temperament, his style was more akin to the classicized and restrained [[Baroque]] of [[François Duquesnoy]] than to the emotive works of Bernini. From an artistic point of view, he was most successful in portrait-statues and groups of children, where he was obliged to follow nature most closely. His terracotta models, some of them finished works of art, were prized by connoisseur collectors: an outstanding series of them is at the [[Hermitage Museum]], [[Saint Petersburg]]. In his later years Algardi controlled a large studio and amassed a great fortune. His students (including [[Ercole Ferrata]] and [[Domenico Guidi]]) and their followers carried forward their versions of Algardi's classicizing bravura manner well into the 18th century. The latter two sudents completed his altarpiece at ''Vision of Saint Nicholas'' (San Nicola de Tolentino, Rome) using two separate marble pieces linked together in one event and place, yet successfully separating the divine and earthly spheres. ==Some major sculptures== *''Saint Mary Magdalen'' (1629,) *''Saint Philip Neri'' (1636-38,) *''The beheading of Saint Paul'' The standard modern monograph is Jennifer Montagu, 1985. ''Alessandro Algardi'' (Yale University Press) ISBN 0-300-03173-4 ==External links== *[http://www.artnet.com/library/00/0017/T001772.asp Artnet Resource Library:] Alessandro Algardi *[http://54.1911encyclopedia.org/A/AL/ALGARDI_ALESSANDRO.htm ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' 1911:] Alessandro Algardi *[http://gallery.euroweb.hu/html/a/algardi/ Web Gallery of Art:] Algardi, sculptures *[http://www.iht.com/articles/1999/03/20/algardi.2.t.php Roderick Conway-Morris, "Casting light on a Baroque sculptor"], ''International Herald Tribune'', March 20, 1999: Review of exhibition "Algardi: The Other Face of the Baroque,", 1999 *[http://www.getty.edu/art/collections/objects/o453.html A landscape pen-and-ink drawing by Giovanni Francesco Grimaldi, c 1650, to which Algardi has added figures of the Holy Family (Getty Museum)] *[http://www.scultura-italiana.com/Galleria/Algardi%20Alessandro/ Images of nearly all works] [[Category:1598 births|Algardi, Alessandro]] [[Category:1654 deaths|Algardi, Alessandro]] [[Category:Italian sculptors|Algardi, Alessandro]] [[de:Alessandro Algardi]] [[es:Alessandro Algardi]] [[fr:Alessandro Algardi]] [[gl:Alessandro Algardi]] [[it:Alessandro Algardi]] [[pt:Alessandro Algardi]] [[sv:Alessandro Algardi]] 1643 33048155 2005-12-28T22:40:26Z JASpencer 11096 /* References */ '''Alger of Liège''' ([[1055]]-[[1131]]), known also as Alger of Cluny and Algerus Magister, a learned [[France|French]] [[priest]] who lived in the first half of the [[12th century]]. He was first a [[deacon]] of the church of St Bartholomew at [[Liège (city)|Liège]], his native town, and was then appointed (c. 1100) to the cathedral church of [[Saint Lambert (martyr)|Saint Lambert]]. He declined many offers from German bishops and finally retired to the monastery of [[Cluny]], where he died at great age and leaving a good reputation for piety and intelligence. His History of the Church of Liège, and many of his other works, are lost. The most important of those still extant are: 1. ''De Misericordia et Justitia'', a collection of biblical and patristic extracts with a commentary (an important work for the history of church law and discipline), which is to be found in the Anecdota of Martene, vol. v. 2. ''De Sacramentis Corporis et Sanguinis Domini''; a treatise, in three books, against the Berengarian heresy, highly commended by [[Peter of Cluny]] and [[Erasmus]]. 3. ''De Gratia et Libero Arbitrio''; given in B. Pez's ''Anecdota'', vol. iv. 4. ''De Sacrificio Missae''; given in the ''Collectio Scriptor. Vet.'' of Angelo Mai, vol. ix. p. 371. See [[Jacques Paul Migne|Migne]], ''[[Patrologia Latina|Patrol Ser. Lat.]]'' vol. clxxx. pp. 739-.972; Herzog-Hauck, ''Realencyk. für prot. Theol.,'' art. by S. M. Deutsch. ==References== *{{1911}} *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01310c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article] [[Category:Roman Catholic priests]] [[Category:1055 births|Alger of Liège]] [[Category:1131 deaths|Alger of Liège]] [[wa:Ådjî d' Lidje]] 1644 40849621 2006-02-23T11:57:21Z 161.74.11.24 /* History */ style {{Otheruses}} [[Image:Algeria-Alger.png|frame|right|Map of Algeria showing Algiers province]] [[Image:Algiersnasa.jpg|left|250px|Algiers from space]] '''Algiers''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''ولاية الجزائر''') ''El-Jazair'', The Islands) is the capital and largest city of [[Algeria]] in [[North Africa]]. According to the [[1998]] census, the population of the city proper was 1,519,570 whilst the total for the [[agglomeration]] was 2,135,630. Nicknamed ''El-Bahdja'' (البهجة) or ''Alger la Blanche'' ("Algiers the White") for the glistening white of its buildings as seen sloping up from the sea, it is situated on the west side of a bay of the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. The city name is derived from its location on the slopes of the "[[Sahel]]", a chain of hills parallel to the coast. Its geographical co-ordinates are: {{coor dm|36|47|N|3|4|E|}}. The modern part of the city is built on the level ground by the seashore and the old part, the ancient city of the [[dey]]s, climbs the steep hill behind the modern town and is crowned by the [[casbah]] or citadel, 400 feet above the sea. The casbah and the two quays form a triangle. ==History== [[Image:Algiers CNE-v1-p58-J.jpg|thumb|300px|right|City and harbour of Algiers, circa 1921]] A [[Phoenicia|Phoenician]] commercial outpost called ''Ikosim'', turned into a [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] small town called [[Icosium]], existed on what is now the marine quarter of the city. The ''rue de la Marine'' follows the lines of a Roman street. Roman cemeteries existed near ''[[Bab-el-Oued]]'' and ''[[Bab Azoun]]''. The city was given [[Latin]] rights by [[Vespasian]]. The [[bishop]]s of Icosium are mentioned as late as the [[5th century]]. The present city was founded in [[944]] by [[Buluggin ibn Ziri]], the founder of the [[Zirid]]-[[Senhaja]] dynasty, which was overthrown by [[Roger II of Sicily]] in [[1148]]. The [[Zirid]]s had before that date lost Algiers, which in [[1159]] was occupied by the [[Almohades]], and in the [[13th century]] came under the dominion of the Abd-el-Wadid sultans of [[Tlemcen]]. Nominally part of the sultanate of [[Tlemcen]], Algiers had a large measure of independence under [[amir]]s of its own, [[Oran]] being the chief seaport of the Abd-el-Wahid. The islet in front of the harbour, subsequently known as the Penon, had been occupied by the Spaniards as early as [[1302]]. Thereafter a considerable trade grew up between Algiers and [[Spain]]. Algiers, however, continued to be of comparatively little importance until after the expulsion from Spain of the [[Moors]], many of whom sought an asylum in the city. In [[1510]], following their occupation of Oran and other towns on the coast of [[Africa]], the Spaniards fortified the Penon. In [[1516]] the amir of Algiers, Selim b. Teumi, invited the brothers Arouj and Khair-ad-Din ([[Khair ad Din|Barbarossa]]) to expel the Spaniards. Arouj came to Algiers, caused Selim to be assassinated, and seized the town. Khair-ad-Din, succeeding Arouj, drove the Spaniards from the Penon ([[1550]]) and was the founder of the ''pashalik'', afterwards ''deylik'', of Algeria. [[Image:Sm Bombardment of Algiers, August 1816-Luny.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The bombardment of Algiers by Lord Exmouth, August 1816, painted by Thomas Luny]] Algiers from this time became the chief seat of the [[Barbary pirates]]. In October [[1541]] the emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] sought to capture the city, but a storm destroyed a great number of his ships, and his army of some 30,000, chiefly Spaniards, was defeated by the Algerians under their [[pasha]], Hassan. From the 17th century, Algiers, free of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] control and sited on the periphery of both the Ottoman and European economic spheres, and depending for its existence on a Mediterranean that was increasingly controlled by European shipping, backed by European navies, turned to piracy and ransoming. Repeated attempts were made by various nations to subdue the pirates that disturbed shipping in the western Mediterranean and engaged in slave raids as far north as Cornwall. The [[United States]] fought two wars (The [[First Barabary War|First]] and [[Second Barabary War|Second]] [[Barbary Wars]]) over Algiers' attacks on shipping. In [[1816]] the city was bombarded by a British squadron under [[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth|Lord Exmouth]] (a descendant of Thomas Pellew, taken in an Algierian slave raid in [[1715]]), assisted by [[Netherlands|Dutch]] men-of-war, and the corsair fleet burned. On the 4th of July in [[1830]], on the pretext of an affront to their consul - whom the [[dey]] had hit with a fly-whisk when he said the French government was not prepared to pay its large outstanding debts to two Algerian Jewish merchants - a French army under [[Louis-Auguste-Victor, Count de Ghaisnes de Bourmont|General de Bourmont]] attacked the city, which capitulated on the following day. The history of Algiers from [[1830]] to [[1962]] is bound to the larger history of [[Algeria]] and its relationship to [[France]]. In [[1962]], after a bloody independence struggle in which hundreds of thousands of Algerians died (a million according to official Algerian history) at the hands of the French army and the Algerian [[Front de Libération Nationale]], Algeria finally gained its independence, with Algiers as its capital. Since then, despite losing its entire European or [[Pied-noir]] population, the city has expanded massively - it now has 3 million inhabitants, or 10% of Algeria's population - and its suburbs now cover most of the surrounding [[Metidja]] plain. [[Image:Algernuit.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Algiers by night]] * Algiers is hosting the [[2007 All-Africa Games]] for the 2nd time, they hosted the event in [[1978 All-Africa Games|1978.]] == Local architecture == There are many public buildings of interest, including the whole [[casbah]] quarter, Martyrs Square (''Sahat ech-Chouhada'' ساحة الشهداء), the government offices (formerly the [[United Kingdom|British]] consulate), the "Grand", "New", and Ketchaoua [[Mosque]]s, the [[Roman Catholic]] cathedral of [[Notre Dame d'Afrique]], the [[Bardo Museum]] (a former Turkish mansion), the old ''Bibliotheque Nationale d'Alger'' - a [[Turkey|Turkish]] palace built in [[1799]]-[[1800]] - and the new National Library, built in a style reminiscent of the [[British Library]]. The main building in the [[casbah]] was begun in [[1516]] on the site of an older building, and served as the palace of the deys until the [[France|French]] conquest. A road has been cut through the centre of the building, the mosque turned into [[barracks]], and the hall of audience allowed to fall into ruin. There still remain a [[minaret]] and some marble arches and columns. Traces exist of the vaults in which were stored the treasures of the dey. The Grand Mosque (''Jamaa-el-Kebir'' الجامع الكبير) is traditionally said to be the oldest mosque in Algiers. The pulpit (''[[minbar]]'' منبر) bears an inscription showing that the building existed in [[1018]]. The minaret was built by [[Abu Tachfin]], sultan of [[Tlemcen]], in [[1324]]. The interior of the mosque is square and is divided into aisles by columns joined by [[Moors|Moorish]] arches. [[Image:New Mosque (Jamaa el-Jedid) in Algiers 04968r.jpg|thumb|right|350px|The New Mosque (Jamaa el-Jedid) in Algiers - late 1800's]] [[Image:bfc_algiers_synagogue_02_02w.jpg|frame|Algiers. Stone synagogue. Photo early 1900's. [http://www.bfcollection.net/cities/algeria/algiers.html Boris Feldblyum Collection]]] The New Mosque (''Jamaa-el-Jedid'' الجامع الجديد), dating from the [[17th century]], is in the form of a [[Greek cross]], surmounted by a large white cupola, with four small cupolas at the corners. The minaret is 90 ft. high. The interior resembles that of the Grand Mosque. The church of the Holy Trinity (built in [[1870]]) stands at the southern end of the ''rue d'Isly'' near the site of the demolished Fort Bab Azoun باب عزون. The interior is richly decorated with various coloured marbles. Many of these marbles contain memorial inscriptions relating to the English residents (voluntary and involuntary) of Algiers from the time of John Tipton, British consul in [[1580]]. One tablet records that in [[1631]] two Algerine pirate crews landed in [[Ireland]], sacked [[Baltimore, County Cork|Baltimore]], and carried off its inhabitants to slavery; another recalls the romantic escape of Ida M`Donnell, daughter of Admiral Ulric, consul-general of [[Denmark]], and wife of the British consul. When Lord Exmouth was about to bombard the city in [[1816]], the British consul was thrown into prison and loaded with chains. Mrs M`Donnell - who was but sixteen - escaped to the British fleet disguised as a midshipman, carrying a basket of vegetables in which her baby was hidden. (Mrs M`Donnell subsequently married the duc de Talleyrand-Perigord and died at [[Florence]] in [[1880]]). Among later residents commemorated is Edward Lloyd, who was the first person to show the value of [[esparto]] grass for the manufacture of paper, and thus started an industry which is one of the most important in Algeria. The Ketchaoua mosque (''Djamaa Ketchaoua'' جامع كتشاوة), at the foot of the Casbah, was before independence in [[1962]] the cathedral of St Philippe, itself made in [[1845]] from a mosque dating from 1612. The principal entrance, reached by a flight of 23 steps, is ornamented with a [[portico]] supported by four black-veined marble columns. The roof of the nave is of [[Moorish Empire|Moorish]] [[plaster]] work. It rests on a series of arcades supported by white marble columns. Several of these columns belonged to the original mosque. In one of the chapels was a tomb containing the bones of [[San Geronimo]]. The building seems a curious blend of Moorish and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] styles. Algiers possesses a college with schools of law, medicine, science and letters. The college buildings are large and handsome. The [[Bardo]] museum holds some of the ancient sculptures and mosaics discovered in Algeria, together with medals and Algerian money. The port of Algiers is sheltered from all winds. There are two harbours, both artificial - the old or northern harbour and the southern or Agha harbour. The northern harbour covers an area of 235 acres (950,000 m&sup2;). An opening in the south [[jetty]] affords an entrance into Agha harbour, constructed in Agha Bay. Agha harbour has also an independent entrance on its southern side. The inner harbour was begun in [[1518]] by Khair-ad-Din [[Khair ad Din|Barbarossa]] (see History, below), who, to accommodate his pirate vessels, caused the island on which was Fort Penon to be connected with the mainland by a [[mole (architecture)|mole]]. The lighthouse which occupies the site of Fort Penon was built in [[1544]]. Algiers was a walled city from the time of the deys until the close of the 19th century. The French, after their occupation of the city ([[1830]]), built a [[rampart]], [[parapet]] and [[ditch]], with two terminal forts, [[Bab Azoun]] باب عزون to the south and [[Bab-el-Oued]] باب الواد to the north. The forts and part of the ramparts were demolished at the beginning of the [[20th century]], when a line of forts occupying the heights of [[Bouzareah]] بوزريعة (at an elevation of 1300 ft. above the sea) took their place. Notre-Dame d'Afrique, a church built ([[1858]]-[[1872]]) in a mixture of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] styles, is conspicuously situated, overlooking the sea, on the shoulder of the [[Bouzareah]] hills, 2 m. to the north of the city. Above the altar is a statue of the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin]] depicted as a black woman. The church also contains a solid silver statue of the [[archangel Michael]], belonging to the confraternity of [[Naples|Neapolitan]] fishermen. Villa Abd-el-Tif, former residence of the [[dey]], was used during the French period, to accommodate French artists, chiefly painters, and winners of the [[Abd-el-Tif prize]], for a while of two years. Nowadays, Algerian artists are back in the villa's studios. [[Image:Houbel.JPG|thumb|400px| the Monument of the Martyrs(Maquam E’chahid).]] ==References== *{{1911}} == See also == * [[List of Pasha and Dey of Algiers]] ==External links== {{Commons|Algiers|Algiers}} * [http://www.bfcollection.net/cities/algeria/algiers.html Historic images of Algiers] * [http://www.samasafia.dz/carte%20d'alger.gif Map of Algiers] {{Algeria}} [[Category:Capitals in Africa]] [[Category:Cities in Algeria]] [[Category:Coastal cities]] [[Category:Provinces of Algeria]] [[Category:Algiers| ]] [[ar:ولاية الجزائر]] [[bg:Алжир (град)]] [[da:Algier]] [[de:Algier]] [[eo:Alĝero]] [[es:Argel]] [[fi:Alger]] [[fr:Alger]] [[ko:알제]] [[he:אלג'יר]] [[id:Algiers]] [[io:Aljer]] [[is:Algeirsborg]] [[it:Algeri]] [[ja:アルジェ]] [[la:Algeria]] [[lb:Algier]] [[lt:Alžyras (miestas)]] [[nl:Algiers]] [[pl:Algier]] [[pt:Argel]] [[ro:Alger (oraş)]] [[ru:Алжир (город)]] [[simple:Algiers]] [[sk:Alžír]] [[sr:Алжир (град)]] [[sv:Alger]] [[zh:阿爾及爾]] 1645 41211710 2006-02-25T20:42:04Z MB 510460 Alhazen was no Persian, we need to contact an Admin to stand on these acts of distortions by propagandists '''Alhazen Abu Ali al-Hasan Ibn Al-Haitham''' (also: '''Ibn al Haythen''') ([[965]]-[[1040]]) ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: أبو علي الحسن بن الهيثم) was an [[Arabian]] [[mathematician]]; he is sometimes called '''al-Basri''' (Arabic: البصري), after his birthplace [[Basrah]], [[Iraq]]. <!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Alhazen.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Portrait of Alhazen]] --> ==Life== Alhazen was born at [[Basra]], then part of the Islamic(Abbasid) [[Caliphate]], now part of [[Iraq]] (See [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Al-Haytham.html] and [http://www.answers.com/topic/alhazen]), and probably died in [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]]. One account of his career has him summoned to [[Egypt]] by the mercurial [[caliph]] [[al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|Hakim]] to regulate the [[flooding]] of the [[Nile]]. After his field work made him aware of the impracticality of this scheme, and fearing the caliph's anger, he [[feigned madness]]. He was kept under house arrest until Hakim's death in [[1021]]. During this time he wrote scores of important mathematical treatises. Abu Ali Hasan Ibn al-Haitham was one of the most eminent physicists, whose contributions to optics and the scientific methods are outstanding. Known in the West as Alhazen, Ibn aI-Hautham was born in [[965]] A. D. in [[Basrah]], and was educated in Basrah and [[Baghdad]]. Thereafter, he went to Egypt, where he was asked to find ways of controlling the flood of the [[Nile]]. Being unsuccessful in this, he feigned madness until the death of [[Caliph]] al-Hakim. He also traveled to [[Spain]] and, during this period, he had ample time for his scientific pursuits, which included optics, mathematics, physics, medicine and development of scientific methods on each of which he has left several outstanding books. He made a thorough examination of the passage of light through various media and discovered the laws of [[refraction]]. He also carried out the first experiments on the dispersion of light into its constituent [[colors]]. His book Kitab-at-Manazir was translated into [[Latin]] in the [[Middle Ages]], as also his book dealing with the colors of sunset. He dealt at length with the theory of various physical phenomena like [[shadows]], [[eclipse]]s, the [[rainbow]], and speculated on the physical nature of light. He is the first to describe accurately the various parts of the [[eye]] and give a scientific explanation of the process of [[visual perception|vision]]. He also attempted to explain [[binocular vision]], and gave a correct explanation of the apparent increase in size of the [[sun]] and the [[moon]] when near the horizon. He is known for the earliest use of the [[camera obscura]]. He contradicted [[Ptolemy]]'s and [[Euclid]]'s theory of vision that objects are seen by rays of light emanating from the eyes; according to him the rays originate in the object of vision and not in the eye. Through these extensive researches on optics, he has been considered as the [[List_of_people_known_as_the_father_or_mother_of_something|father of modern optics]]. The Latin translation of his main work, Kitab-at-Manazir, exerted a great influence upon Western science e.g. on the work of [[Roger Bacon]] and [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]]. It brought about a great progress in experimental methods. His research in [[catoptrics]] centered on spherical and parabolic mirrors and spherical aberration. He made the important observation that the ratio between the [[angle of incidence]] and [[refraction]] does not remain constant and investigated the [[magnification|magnifying]] power of a [[lens (optics)|lens]]. His catoptrics contain the important problem known as [[Alhazen's problem]]. It comprises drawing lines from two points in the plane of a circle meeting at a point on the [[circumference]] and making equal angles with the normal at that point. This leads to an equation of the fourth degree. In his book Mizan al-Hikmah Ibn al-Haitham has discussed the [[density]] of the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] and developed a relation between it and the height. He also studied atmospheric refraction. He discovered that the [[twilight]] only ceases or begins when the sun is 19° below the horizon and attempted to measure the height of the atmosphere on that basis. He has also discussed the theories of attraction between [[mass|masses]], and it seems that he was aware of the magnitude of acceleration due to [[gravity]]. His contribution to mathematics and physics was extensive. In mathematics, he developed analytical [[geometry]] by establishing linkage between [[algebra]] and geometry. He studied the mechanics of motion of a body and was the first to maintain that a body moves [[perpetual motion|perpetually]] unless an external force stops it or changes its direction of motion. This would seem equivalent to the [[first law of motion]]. The list of his books runs to 200 or so, very few of which have survived. Even his monumental treatise on optics survived through its Latin translation. During the Middle Ages his books on [[cosmology]] were translated into Latin, [[Hebrew language| Hebrew]] and other languages. He has also written on the subject of [[evolution]] a book that deserves serious attention even today. In his writing, one can see a clear development of the scientific methods as developed and applied by the Muslims and comprising the systematic observation of physical phenomena and their linking together into a scientific theory. This was a major breakthrough in scientific methodology, as distinct from guess and gesture, and placed scientific pursuits on a sound foundation comprising systematic relationship between observation, [[hypothesis]] and verification. Ibn al-Haitham's influence on physical sciences in general, and optics in particular, has been held in high esteem and, in fact, it ushered in a new era in optical research, both in theory and practice. Alhazen is also featured on the obverse of the Iraqi 10,000 Dinars banknote issued in 2003. ==Works== Alhazen was a pioneer in [[optics]], [[engineering]] and [[astronomy]]. According to [[Giambattista della Porta]], Alhazen was the first to explain the apparent increase in the size of the moon and sun when near the horizon, although [[Roger Bacon]] gives the credit of this discovery to [[Ptolemy]]. Alhazen also taught that vision does not result from the emission of rays from the eye, and wrote on the [[refraction]] of light, especially on atmospheric refraction, for example, the cause of morning and evening twilight. He solved the problem of finding the point on a [[convex]] [[mirror]] at which a ray coming from one point is reflected to another point. Alhazen's extensive writings influenced many Western intellectuals such as Roger Bacon, [[John Pecham]], [[Witelo]], and [[Johannes Kepler]]. ===''Optics''=== His seven volume treatise on optics ''Kitab al-Manazir'' (''Book of Optics'') (written from [[1015]] to [[1021]]) is possibly the earliest work to use the [[scientific method]]. The ancient Greeks believed that truth was determined by the logic and beauty of reasoning; experiment was used as a demonstration. Alhazen used the results of experiments to test theories. The "emission" theory of light had been supported by [[Euclid]] and Ptolemy. This theory postulated that sight worked by the eye emitting light. The second or "intromission" theory, supported by [[Aristotle]] had light entering the eye. Alhazen performed experiments to determine that the "intromission" theory was scientifically correct. ''Optics'' was translated into Latin by [[Witelo]] in [[1270]]. It was published by [[Friedrich Risner]] in [[1572]], with the title ''Oticae thesaurus Alhazeni libri VII., cum ejusdem libro de crepusculis et nubium ascensionibus.'' This work enjoyed a great reputation during the [[Middle Ages]]. Works by Alhazen on geometrical subjects were discovered in the [[Bibliothèque nationale]] in [[Paris]] in [[1834]] by E. A. Sedillot. Other manuscripts are preserved in the [[Bodleian Library]] at [[Oxford]] and in the library of [[Leiden]]. ==Other Alhazens== There is another Alhazen who translated [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Almagest]]'' in the 10th century. == Bibliography == ''Ibn al-Haytham's Optics: A Study of the Origins of Experimental Science,'' by Saleh Beshara Omar (Bibliotheca Islamica, 1977) ==External links== * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Al-Haytham}} * http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Al-Haytham.html * http://www.answers.com/topic/alhazen * http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761579452/Alhazen.html * http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?eu=5788 * http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/A/Alhazen.html * [http://www.islamonline.net/english/Science/2001/08/article11.shtml Alhazen Master of Optics] [[Category:Arab mathematicians|Alhazen]] [[Category:Egyptian mathematicians|Alhazen]] [[Category:10th century mathematicians|Alhazen]] [[Category:11th century mathematicians|Alhazen]] [[Category:Arab astronomers|Alhazen]] [[Category:Arab engineers|Alhazen]] [[Category:965 births|Alhazen]] [[Category:1040 deaths|Alhazen]] [[Category:Muslim scientists|Alhazen]] [[ar:ابن الهيثم]] [[de:Alhazen]] [[es:Alhazen]] [[fr:Alhazen]] [[gl:Alhazen]] [[it:Alhazen]] [[ka:იბნ ალ-ჰაისამი]] [[ms:Abul Wafa Muhammad Al-Buzjani]] [[nl:Ibn al-Haytham]] [[no:Al-Haitham]] [[pl:Ibn al-Hajsam]] [[pt:Alhazen]] [[sl:Ibn al-Haitam]] [[tr:İbn-i Heysem]] 1647 40694809 2006-02-22T10:17:13Z 213.170.65.38 [[Image:Allori Portrait.jpg|right|thumb|300px|''Portrait of a Woman'' Oil on copper, 37 x 27 cm <br>Galleria degli [[Uffizi]], Florence]] '''Alessandro di Cristofano di Lorenzo del Bronzino Allori''' ([[May 31]], [[1535]] - [[September 22]], [[1607]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] portrait [[painter]] of the late [[Mannerism|Mannerist]] [[Florence|Florentine]] school. He was brought up and trained in art by his uncle, [[Angelo Bronzino]], whose name he sometimes assumed in his pictures. Freedburg derides Allori as derivative, claiming he illustrates "the ideal of Maniera by which art (and style) are generated out of pre-existing art." The polish of figures has an unnatural marble-like form as if he aimed for cold statuary. Collaborators include [[Giovanni Maria Butteri]], main pupil: [[Giovanni Bizzelli]]. He is the father of [[Cristofano Allori]] ([[1577]]-[[1621]]). *''Christ and the Samaritan Woman'', (Altarpiece, 1575, [[Santa Maria Novella]], now Prato) *''Road to Calvary'', (1604, Rome) *''Dead Christ and Angels'', (Museum Fine Arts, Budapest)[http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/a/allori/alessand/] *''Pearl Fishing'', (1570-72, [[Studiolo of Francesco I (Palazzo Vecchio)]], Florence)[http://www.ocaiw.com/jmpopera.php?id=18012 image] *''Sussana and the Elders'' , [http://69.20.65.141/art/customer/product.php?productid=23225&cat=1089&page=8&maincat=T] *''Allegory of Human Life'', [http://www.wga.hu/art/a/allori/alessand/portra2.jpg] *''The Miracle of St. Peter Walking on Water'',[http://www.wga.hu/art/a/allori/alessand/st_peter.jpg image] *''Venus and Cupid'', [http://www.wga.hu/art/a/allori/alessand/venus_cu.jpg image] ==References== {{commonscat}} *{{1911}} *''Painting in Italy 1500-1600'', S.J. Freedberg, (Penguin History of Art, 2nd Edition, 1983). [[Category:1535 births|Allori, Alessandro]] [[Category:1607 deaths|Allori, Alessandro]] [[Category:Italian painters|Allori, Alessandro]] [[Category:Mannerism painters|Allori, Alessandro]] [[Category:Portrait artists|Allori, Alessandro]] [[de:Alessandro Allori]] [[es:Alessandro Allori]] [[gl:Alessandro Allori]] [[it:Alessandro Allori]] [[nl:Alessandro Allori]] [[pt:Alessandro Allori]] [[ru:Аллори, Алесандро]] 1648 15900114 2004-11-01T01:02:36Z SWAdair 50984 #redirect [[Almohad]] -- point to article content instead of creating loop redirect #redirect [[Almohad]] 1649 39062396 2006-02-10T13:03:12Z DeC 821904 +ru '''Almoravides''' (In [[Arabic language|Arabic]] المرابطون ''al-Murabitun'', sing. مرابط ''Murabit''), is a [[Berber]] dynasty from the [[Sahara]] which, in the [[11th century]], founded the fourth dynasty in [[Morocco]]. Under this dynasty the [[Moorish]] empire was extended over [[Tlemcen]] (in modern [[Algeria]]) and a great part of [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]. The name is derived from the Arabic ''Murabit'', variously translated as ''religious ascetic'' or ''warrior monk''. == Beginnings == The most powerful of the invading tribes was the [[Lamtuna]] ("veiled men") from the upper [[Niger River]], whose best-known representatives now are the [[Tuareg]]. They had been converted to [[Islam]] in the early times of the Arab conquest, but their knowledge of Islam did not go much beyond the formula of the [[shahada]] creed---"there is no god but God, and Muhammad is the apostle of God,"--and they were ignorant of the traditions of [[Shariah]], or Islamic law. == Influence of orthodox Islam == About the year 1040 (or a little earlier) one of their chiefs, [[Yahya ibn Ibrahim]], made the [[Hajj|pilgrimage]] to [[Mecca]]. On his way home, he attended the teachers of the mosque at [[Kairouan]], in [[Tunisia]], who soon learnt from him that his people knew little of the religion they were supposed to profess, and that though his will was good, his own ignorance was great. By the good offices of the theologians of Kairawan, one of whom was from [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]], Yahya was provided with a missionary, [[Abd Allah ibn Yasin]], a zealous partisan of the [[Maliki]]s, one of the four [[Four Schools of Madhhab|Madhhab]]; orthodox legal schools of Islam. His preaching was before-long rejected by the Lamtunas; so on the advice of Yahya, who accompanied him, he retired to an island in the [[Niger River]], where he founded a ''[[ribat]]'', or Islamic monastery, from which as a centre his influence spread. There was no element of [[heresy]] in his creed, which was mainly distinguished by a rigid formalism, and strict obedience to the letter of the [[Qur'an]], and the orthodox tradition or [[Sunnah]]. == Ascendence of Militarism == Abd-Allah ibn Yasin imposed a penitential scourging on all converts as a purification, and enforced a regular system of discipline for every breach of the law; even on the chiefs. Under such directions, the Murabits were brought into excellent order. Their first military leader, Yahya ibn Ibrahim, gave them a good military organization. Their main force was infantry, armed with javelins in the front ranks and pikes behind, which formed into a phalanx; and was supported by camelmen and horsemen on the flanks. == Military Successes == From the year [[1053]], the Murabits began to impose their orthodox and puritanical religion on the [[Berber]] tribes of the desert, and on the pagan black Africans. Yahya ibn Ibrahim was killed in a battle in [[1056]], but Abd-Allah ibn Yasin, whose influence as a religious teacher was paramount; named his brother [[Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar]] as chief. Under him, the Murabits soon began to spread their power beyond the desert, and subjected the tribes of the [[Atlas Mountains]]. They then came in contact with the [[Berghouata]], a [[Berber]] people of central [[Morocco]], who followed a "heresy" founded by [[Salih ibn Tarif]], three centuries earlier. The Berghouata made a fierce resistance, and it was in battle with them that Abdullah ibn Yasin was killed. They were, however, completely conquered by Abu Bakr Ibn-Umar, who took the defeated chief's widow, [[Zainab]], as a wife. In 1061, Abu Bakr Ibn-Umar made a division of the power he had established, handing over the more-settled parts to his cousin [[Yusuf ibn Tashfin]], as viceroy; resigning to him also his favourite wife Zainab, who had the reputation of being a sorceress. For himself, he reserved the task of suppressing the revolts which had broken out in the desert, but when he returned to resume control, he found his cousin too powerful to be superseded; so he had to go back to the Sahara, where-in [[1087]], he too attained martyrdom, having been wounded with a poisoned arrow, in battle with the pagan black Africans. === Morocco and Western Sahara === Yusuf ibn Tashfin had in the meantime brought what is now known as [[Morocco]] and the [[Western Sahara]] into complete subjection; and in [[1062]], had founded the city of [[Marrakech]]. In [[1080]], he conquered the kingdom of [[Tlemcen]] (in modern-day [[Algeria]]) and founded the present city of that name, his rule extending as far east as [[Oran]]. === Ghana === In [[1075]], the Almoravides declared "[[jihad]]" ("holy struggle") on the [[Kingdom of Ghana]]. The ensuing war pushed Ghana over the edge: ceasing the kingdom's position as a commercial and military power by [[1100]], as it collapsed into tribal groups and chieftaincies, some of which later assimilated into the Almoravides. === Spain === [[Image:Almoravid map reconquest loc.jpg|thumb|250px|Map of Iberia at the time of the Almoravid arrival]] In [[1086]] Yusuf ibn Tashfin was invited by the Muslim princes in [[Spain]] to defend them against [[Alfonso VI of Castile|Alfonso VI]], King of [[Castile]] and [[Kingdom of León|León]]. In that year, Yusuf ibn Tashfin passed the straits to [[Algeciras]], inflicted a severe defeat on the Christians at the [[Battle of az-Zallaqah|az-Zallaqah]]. He was prevented from following up his victory by trouble in [[Africa]], which he had to settle in person. When he returned to Spain in [[1090]], it was avowedly for the purpose of deposing the Muslim princes, and annexing their states. He had in his favour the mass of the inhabitants, whom had been worn out by the oppressive taxation imposed by their spend-thrift rulers. Their religious teachers, as well as others in the east, (most notably, [[al-Ghazali]] in [[Iran|Persia]] and [[al-Tartushi]] in Egypt, who was himself a Spaniard by birth, from [[Tortosa]]), detested the native Muslim princes for their religious indifference, and gave Yusuf a ''[[fatwa]]'' -- or legal opinion -- to the effect that he had good moral and religious right, to dethrone the heterodox rulers, who did not scruple to seek help from the Christians, whose habits they had adopted. By 1094, he had removed them all; and though he regained little from the Christians except [[Valencia]], he re-united the Muslim power, and gave a check to the reconquest of the country by the Christians. === The Prince of the Muslims === After friendly correspondence with the caliph at [[Baghdad]], whom he acknowledged as ''Amir al-Mu'minin'' (''Prince of the Faithful''), Yusuf ibn Tashfin in [[1097]] assumed the title of ''Amir al Muslimin'' (''Prince of the Muslims''). He died in [[1106]], when he was reputed to have reached the age of 100. The Murabit power was at its height at Yusuf's death, and the Moorish empire then included all North-West Africa as far as [[Algiers]], and all Spain south of the [[Tagus]], with the east coast as far as the mouth of the [[Ebro]], and included the [[Balearic Islands]]. == Decline == Three years afterwards, under Yusef's son and successor, [[Ali ibn Yusuf]], [[Madrid]], [[Lisbon]] and [[Oporto]] were added, and Spain was again invaded in [[1119]] and [[1121]], but the tide had turned; the French having assisted the Aragonese to recover [[Zaragoza]]. In 1138, Ali ibn Yusuf was defeated by [[Alfonso VII of Castile|Alfonso VII of Castile and León]], and in the [[Battle of Ourique]] ([[1139]]), by [[Afonso I of Portugal]], who thereby won his crown; and [[Lisbon]] was recovered by the Portuguese in [[1147]]. Ali ibn Yusuf was a pious non-entity, who fasted and prayed while his empire fell to pieces under the combined action of his Christian foes in [[Spain]] and the agitation of [[Almohades]] (the Muwahhids) in Morocco. After Ali ibn Yusuf's death in [[1142]], his son Tashfin ibn Ali lost ground rapidly before the Almohades, and in 1146 he was killed by a fall from a precipice, while endeavouring to escape after a defeat near [[Oran]]. His two successors [[Ibrahim ibn Tashfin]] and [[Is'haq ibn Ali]] are mere names. The conquest of the city of Marrakesh by the [[Almohades]] in [[1147]] marked the fall of the dynasty, though fragments of the [[Almoravides]] (the [[Banu Ghanya]]), continued to struggle in the [[Balearic Islands]], and finally in [[Tunisia]]. The amirs of the Almoravides dynasty were as follows:--- *[[Yusuf ibn Tashfin]] (1061-1106) *[[Ali ibn Yusuf]] (1106-1142) *[[Tashfin ibn Ali]] (1142-1146) *[[Ibrahim ibn Tashfin]] (1146) *[[Ishaq ibn Ali]] (1146-1147) ==See also== :[[History of Morocco]] :[[History of Islam]] :[[History of Spain]] ==External links== *[http://www.islamicarchitecture.org/dynasties/almoravids.html Almoravids Dynasty] Berber dynasty ==References== *{{1911}} {{Template:Zaragoza rulers}} [[Category:Berber| ]] [[Category:History of the Maghreb]] [[Category:History of Mauritania]] [[Category:History of Morocco]] [[Category:Moorish Spain]] [[Category:Jewish Spanish history]] [[ar:مرابطون]] [[ca:Almoràvit]] [[de:Almoraviden]] [[es:Almorávide]] [[fr:Almoravides]] [[nl:Almoraviden]] [[pt:Almorávidas]] [[ru:Альморавиды]] [[sv:Almoravider]] [[uk:Альморавіди]] 1650 41887302 2006-03-02T10:48:18Z Nikai 9759 /* Chemical properties of Aloin */ sp {{cleanup-date|December 2005}} {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = ''Aloe'' | image = Aloevera2web.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = ''Aloe vera'' | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[monocotyledon|Lilliopsida]] | subclassis = [[Liliidae]] | ordo = [[Asparagales]] | familia = [[Asphodelaceae]] | genus = '''''Aloe''''' | genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]] | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = See [[Aloe#Species|Species]] }} '''Aloe''' is a [[genus]] of [[succulent plant|succulent]], [[flowering plant]]s in the family [[Asphodelaceae]], which contains about 400 different [[species]]. They are native to the drier parts of [[Africa]], especially [[South Africa]]'s [[Cape Province]] and the mountains of tropical Africa. Members of the closely allied genera ''[[Gasteria]]'' and ''[[Haworthia]]'', which have a similar mode of growth, are also sometimes popularly known as aloes. Note that the plant sometimes called "American aloe", ''Agave americana'', belongs to a different family, namely [[Agavaceae]]. Aloe plants are stiff and rugged, consisting mainly of a rosette of large, thick, fleshy [[Leaf|leaves]]. Many common varieties of Aloe are seemingly stemless, with the rosette growing directly at ground level; Other varieties may have a branched or un-branched [[plant stem|stem]] from which the fleshy leaves spring. The leaves are generally lance-shaped with a sharp apex and a spiny margin. They vary in color from grey to bright green and are sometimes striped or mottled. Aloe [[flower]]s are small, tubular, and yellow or red and are borne on densely clustered, simple or branched leafless stems. The plants are cultivated as ornamental plants, especially in public buildings and gardens. ==Uses== Human use of Aloes are primarily as a [[Herbalism|herbal remedy]] in alternative medicines and "home first aid". Both the translucent inner pulp as well as the resinous yellow exudate from wounding the Aloe plant are used ''externally'' to relieve skin discomforts and ''internally'' as purgatives. To date, research has shown in certain cases that Aloes produce positive medicinal benefits for healing damaged skin, however there is still much debate regarding the effectiveness and safety for using Aloes medicinally in other manners{{citeneeded}}. Some Aloes have been used for human consumption. For example drinks made from or containing chunks of aloe pulp are popular in Asia as commercial beverages, and as a tea additive. This is notably true in [[Korea]]. As well, the yellow exudate from the leaves were once used on children's fingers to stop nail-biting. ===External uses=== [[Image:Aloe vera leaf.jpg|thumb|Leaf close up]] The most common uses of aloe vera have been from topical use on human skin to treat various conditions. Aloe vera is also often used to treat skin from burns. Not only does it soothe the skin, ease pain and reduce inflammation, studies have been done to show that using aloe as a topical treatment to burns will help speed up the healing recovery process. A study performed in the 1990s showed that the healing of a moderate severe burn was sped up by six days when covering the wound on a regular basis with aloe vera gel, compared to the healing of the wound covered in a gauze bandage (Farrar, 2005). Aloe vera not only helps burns of various degrees, it also has become a common relief aid in treating sunburns. Aloe vera be found in drugstores in a gel form. When rubbed over over-exposed skin, the redness will disappear within a couple of days and helps to preserve moisture so that the skin will not become dry and peel. Aloe vera can also be used to treat minor cuts and scrapes. Using an aloe vera leaf and rubbing it over a cut will help prevent infection and will speed up the healing response from the body. The aloe vera acts as a sealant and pulls the skin back together like a bandage or a suture (http://www.newstarget.com/001560-02.html). Although aloe should not be used as a substitute for medical treatment, its many uses are beneficial and should be considered for anything such as an everyday moisturizer to a first-aid antiseptic. In addition to the above-mentioned benefits, continuous research is being done to learn how else the aloe vera plant can play an important part in human lives. Many cosmetic companies are now adding this plant to every product possible including makeup, soaps, sunscreens, shampoos and lotions, as well as any product that is created to soothe, protect and moisturize the skin. This is due partially to the fact that Aloe extract is full of vitamins, nutrients and minerals, as well as, the perception of the general public of Aloe as a healing ingredient. The International Aloe Science Council advises choosing products that contain between twenty-five and forty percent aloe in them to receive the ultimate aloe vera benefits to the skin (http://www.iasc.org/aloe.html). Aloe gel is also useful for any dry skin condition, especially [[eczema]] around the eyes and sensitive facial skin, and for treating fungal infections such as ringworm. In [[Ayurvedic]] medicine, the gel is usually applied fresh and can even be converted into an ointment for long-term use. === Internal uses === [[Image:Aloevera1web.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Aloe vera (flowers)]] Aloe contains a number of medicinal substances used as a [[purgative]]. The medicinal substance is produced from various species of aloe, such as ''A. vera'', ''A. vulgaris'', ''A. socotrina'', ''A. chinensis'', and ''A. perryi''. Several kinds of aloes are commercially available: Barbadoes, Socotrine, Hepatic, Indian, and Cape aloes. Barbadoes and Socotrine are the varieties most commonly used for curative purposes. Aloes is the expressed juice of the leaves of the plant. When the leaves are cut, the juice that flows out is collected and evaporated. After the juice has been removed, the leaves are sometimes boiled, to yield an inferior kind of aloes. The juice of the leaves of certain species, e.g. ''Aloe venenosa'', is [[poison]]ous. Aloe vera has been widely marketed as having a number of benefits when taken internally. For example, Aloe has been marketed as a remedy for coughs, wounds, [[ulcer]]s, [[gastritis]], [[diabetes]], [[cancer]], [[headache]]s, [[arthritis]], [[immune-system deficiencies]], and many other conditions. However, these uses are unproven. The only substantiated internal use is as a [[laxative]]. Furthermore, there is evidence of significant adverse side effects (see for example [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15633238 this paper]). Consult your doctor when contemplating taking Aloe internally. Avoid use during pregnancy because the [[anthraquinone]] [[glycoside]]s are strongly [[purgative]]. High doses of the leaves can cause vomiting. Aloe's benefits include ingesting aloe juice to lower blood sugar levels in diabetes patients.{{citeneeded}} == Compounds in Aloes == Aloe vera contains over seventy-five nutrients and twenty minerals, nineteen amino acids including all eight essential amino acids and eleven secondary amino acids as well and twelve vitamins. These vitamins include: A, B1, B6, B12, C and E (http://curezone.com/foods/aloevera.html). It has even been referred to as “a pharmacy in a plant” (Farrar, 2005). Aloes also contain [[anthraquinone gycoside]]s, [[resin]]s, [[polysaccharide]]s, [[sterol]]s, [[gelonin]]s, and [[chromone]]s. It is also a source of a class of chemicals called ''Aloin''s. === Chemical properties of Aloin === [[Image:Split Aloe.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Split Aloe]] Aloins are soluble and easily extracted by water. Aloes is the expressed juice of the leaves of the plant. When the leaves are cut, the juice that flows out is collected and evaporated. After the juice has been removed, the leaves are sometimes boiled, to yield an inferior kind of aloes. According to W. A. Shenstone, two classes of Aloins are to be recognized: (1) [[nataloin]]s, which yield [[picric acid|picric]] and [[oxalic acid]]s with [[nitric acid]], and do not give a red coloration with nitric acid; and (2) [[barbaloin]]s, which yield [[aloetic acid]] (C₇H₂N₃O₅), [[chrysammic acid]] (C₇H₂N₂O₆), picric and oxalic acids with nitric acid, being reddened by the acid. This second group may be divided into a-barbaloins, obtained from Barbadoes aloes, and reddened in the cold, and b-barbaloins, obtained from Socotrine and Zanzibar aloes, reddened by ordinary nitric acid only when warmed or by fuming acid in the cold. Nataloin (2C₁₇H₁₃O₇·H₂O) forms bright yellow scales. Barbaloin (C₁₇H₁₈O₇) forms yellow [[Prism (geometry)|prism]]atic crystals. Aloes also contain a trace of volatile oil, to which its odour is due. === Medicinal use of Aloin === The dose is 130-320 mg, that of aloin being 30-130 mg. Aloes can be absorbed from a broken surface and will then cause purging. When given internally it increases the actual amount as well as the rate of flow of the [[bile]]. It hardly affects the [[small intestine]], but markedly stimulates the muscular coat of the [[large intestine]], causing purging in about fifteen hours. There is hardly any increase in the intestinal secretion, the drug being emphatically not a hydragogue cathartic. There is no doubt that its habitual use may be a factor in the formation of haemorrhoids; as in the case of all drugs that act powerfully on the lower part of the intestine, without simultaneously lowering the venous pressure by causing increase of secretion from the bowel. Aloes also tends to increase the menstrual flow and therefore belongs to the group of emmenagogues. Aloin is preferable to aloes for therapeutic purposes, as it causes less, if any, pain. It is a valuable drug in many forms of constipation, as its continual use does not, as a rule, lead to the necessity of enlarging the dose. Its combined action on the bowel and the [[uterus]] is of especial value in chlorosis, of which amenorrhoea is an almost constant symptom. The drug is obviously contraindicated in pregnancy and when haemorrhoids are already present. Many well-known patent medicines consist essentially of aloes. == Lign-aloes and Agarwood == The lign-aloes are quite different from plants of the ''Aloe'' genus. The term "Aloes" is used in the [[Bible]] (Numbers 24:6), but as the trees usually supposed to be meant by this word are not native in [[Syria]], it has been suggested that the [[Septuagint]] reading in which the word does not occur is to be preferred. Lign-aloe is a corruption of the Latin ''lignum-aloe'', a wood, not a resin. [[Dioscorides]] refers to it as ''agallochon'', a wood brought from [[Arabia]] or [[India]], which was odoriferous but with an astringent and bitter taste. This may be ''[[Agarwood]]'', a native of East India, [[South East Asia]], and [[China]], which supplies the so-called eagle-wood or aloes-wood, which contains much resin and oil. ==[[Species]]== There are around 400 species in the genus ''Aloe''. For a full list, see [[List of species of genus Aloe]]. Common species include: *''[[Aloe angelica]]'' - Wylliespoort Aloe *''[[Aloe arborescens]]'' - Candelabra Aloe, Tree Aloe, Krantz Aloe [[Image:Babosa1.jpg|thumb|right|Candelabra Aloe (''Aloe arborescens'')]] *''[[Aloe aristata]]'' - Torch Plant, Lace Aloe *''[[Aloe barberae]]'' - Tree Aloe *''[[Aloe brevifolia]]'' - Shortleaf Aloe *''[[Aloe castanea]]'' - Cat's Tail Aloe *''[[Aloe ciliaris]]'' - Climbing Aloe *''[[Aloe comosa]]'' - Clanwilliam's Aloe *''[[Aloe dichotoma]]'' - quiver tree or kokerboom [[Image:Aloe dichotoma.jpg|thumb|right|Aloe dichotoma (''Aloe dichotoma'')]] *''[[Aloe dinteri]]'' - Namibian Partridge Breast Aloe *''[[Aloe distans]]'' - Jeweled Aloe *''[[Aloe excelsa]]'' - Noble Aloe, Zimbabwe Aloe *''[[Aloe ferox]]'' - Cape Aloe, Tap Aloe, Bitter Aloe *''[[Aloe glauca]]'' - Blue Aloe *''[[Aloe humilis]]'' - Spider Aloe *''[[Aloe khamiensis]]'' - Namaqua Aloe *''[[Aloe longistyla]]'' - Karoo Aloe, Ramenas *''[[Aloe maculata]]'' - Soap Aloe, Zebra Aloe *''[[Aloe mitriformis]]'' - Gold Tooth Aloe *''[[Aloe nobilis]]'' - Gold Tooth Aloe *''[[Aloe perryi]]'' - Perry's Aloe *''[[Aloe pictifolia]]'' - Kouga Aloe *''[[Aloe pillansii]]'' - Bastard Quiver Tree *''[[Aloe plicatilis]]'' - Fan Aloe *''[[Aloe polyphylla]]'' - Spiral Aloe *''[[Aloe pratensis]]'' - Rosette Aloe *''[[Aloe ramosissima]]'' - Maidens Quiver Tree *''[[Aloe saponaria]]'' - African Aloe *''[[Aloe speciosa]]'' - Tilt-head Aloe *''[[Aloe striata]]'' - Coral Aloe *''[[Aloe tauri]]'' - Bullocks Bottle Brush Aloe *''[[Aloe variegata]]'' - Partridge-breasted Aloe, Tiger Aloe *''Aloe vera'' - True Aloe, Barbados Aloe, Common Aloe, Yellow Aloe, Medicinal Aloe * ''[[Aloe zebrina]]'' - Zebra Aloe ;Hybrids * ''Aloe x spinosissima'' - Gold-tooth Aloe <gallery> Image:Aloe aristata.jpg|Aloe aristata Image:Aloe vera flower bud.jpg|Flower bud of Aloe Vera Image:Aloe Vera flower.jpg|Aloe Vera flower Image:Aloe Vera.jpg </gallery> ==Heraldry== The aloe plant occurs as a charge in [[heraldry]]. ==References== *News Target: http://www.newstarget.com/001560-02.html *International Aloe Science Council: http://www.iasc.org/aloe.html *University of Maryland Medical Center: http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsHerbs/Aloech.html *Craig, Winston. “The All-purpose Gel,” Vibrant Life; July 2001. *Farrar, Maureen Meyers. “Skin Deep,” Better Nutrition; July 2005. *http://curezone.com/foods/aloevera.html == External links == {{commons|Aloe}} * [http://www.aloeverabenefits.com/what-is-in-aloe-vera.html What is in Aloe Vera?] "Inside the leaf of the medicinal herb" * [http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/kings/aloe.html Aloe vera] "King's American Dispensatory" * [http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/a/aloes027.html Aloe] "A Modern Herbal" * [http://www.herbmed.org/herbs/herb3.htm Aloe vera] HerbMed * [http://www.aloeverabenefits.com/aloe-vera-plant.html Aloe Vera Plant] "Detailed history of the Aloe Vera plant" * [http://www.best-home-remedies.com/herbal_medicine/herbs/aloe.htm Aloe Herb - Uses And Side Effects] * [http://www.mcp.edu/herbal/aloe/aloe.pdf Aloe vera] (pdf) Longwood Herbal Task Force * [http://www.aloeverabenefits.com/is-aloe-vera-useful-in.html Is Aloe Vera useful in treating sickness?] "Recent research findings on its medicinal uses" * [http://www.homeoint.org/books3/kentmm/aloe.htm Aloe (aloe)] "Kent's Lectures on Homeopathic Materia Medica" * [http://www.homeoint.org/books5/allenprimer/aloe.htm Aloe] "A Primer of Materia Medica for practitioners of Homoeopathy" * [http://www.foreverliving.com Forever Living Products(FLP)]World's Largest Aloe Vera Distributor * [http://www.aloesajten.com/benefits-of-aloe-vera-juice.php Benefits of Aloe Vera Juice] [[Category:Liliopsida]] [[Category:Medicinal plants]] [[de:Aloen]] [[es:Aloe]] [[fr:Aloès]] [[id:Lidah Buaya]] [[it:Aloe (botanica)]] [[he:אלוורה]] [[hu:Aloe vera]] [[ms:Lidah buaya]] [[ja:アロエ]] [[pl:Aloes]] [[zh:芦荟]] 1651 15900117 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Alured of Beverley]] 1652 30700370 2005-12-09T10:45:35Z Dimadick 24198 Added link to his daughter '''Alyattes II''', king of [[Lydia]] ([[619 BC|619]]-[[560 BC]]), the real founder of the [[Lydian empire]], was the son of [[Sadyattes]], of the house of the [[Mermnadae]]. For several years he continued the war against [[Miletus]] begun by his father, but was obliged to turn his attention to the [[Medes]] and [[Babylonians]]. On [[May 28]], [[585 BC]], during a battle on the [[Halys]] against [[Cyaxares]], king of Media, a [[solar eclipse]] took place (see also [[Thales]]); hostilities were suspended, peace concluded, and the Halys fixed as the boundary between the two kingdoms. Alyattes drove the [[Cimmeria|Cimmerii]] (see [[Scythia]]) from [[Asia]], subdued the [[Carians]], and took several [[Ionia]]n cities ([[Izmir|Smyrna]], [[Colophon]]). ([[Izmir|Smyrna]] was sacked and destroyed c.[[600 BC]], the inhabitants forced to move to the country.) He standardised the weight of coins (1 Stater = 168 grains of wheat). The coins were produced using an anvil die technique and stamped with the Lion's head, the symbol of the Mermnadae. He was succeeded by his son [[Croesus]]. His daughter [[Aryenis of Lydia]] was [[Queen consort]] of [[Astyages]], King of Media. His tomb still exists on the plateau between Lake Gygaea and the river Hermus to the north of [[Sardis]] -- a large mound of earth with a substructure of huge stones. It was excavated by [[Spiegelthal]] in [[1854]], who found that it covered a large vault of finely-cut marble blocks approached by a flat-roofed passage of the same stone from the south. The [[sarcophagus]] and its contents had been removed by early plunderers of the tomb, all that was left being some broken alabaster vases, pottery and charcoal. On the summit of the mound were large [[phallus|phalli]] of stone. ==References== *{{1911}} ==External links== *[http://www.livius.org Livius], [http://www.livius.org/men-mh/mermnads/alyattes.html Alyattes of Lydia] by Jona Lendering [[Category:560 BC deaths]] [[Category:Kings of Lydia]] [[de:Alyattes]] [[nl:Alyattes II]] [[nb:Alyattes]] [[sl:Aliat II.]] 1653 42146388 2006-03-04T03:08:08Z 86.132.136.211 /* Ages of consent in various countries */ previous wording implied no male heterosexual AoC in England and Wales! It's 16 for all, except with "relationship of trust" {{otheruses1|the legal concept}} {{citation style}} In [[criminal law]], the '''age of consent''' (AOC) is the age at which a person is considered to be capable of legally giving [[informed consent]] to any legal contract or behavior regulated by law, including [[sexual acts]] with another person. In most jurisdictions, the Age of Consent is violated when an adult has intercourse with an individual who has not reached that jurisdiction's AOC. In other jurisdictions, the AOC is a minimum age for any type of sexual conduct, and two minor participants can violate a jurisdiction's AOC. The crime and penalties for an AOC violation varies based on jurisdiction, the age of the older actor and the difference between the two actors. Charges may range from a relatively low level misdemeanor such as "corruption of a minor" to [[statutory rape]] (which is considered equivalent to rape, both in severity and sentencing.) Some jurisdictions have a second age of consent that is relevant in situations when the adult actor is in a position of authority over the minor (affecting teachers, coaches, principals, health professionals, police officers, family members.) Though some areas allow certain ages that can have sexual intercourse with someone over or under the age of consent but by only a few years (usually 3-4 years). The age of consent should not be confused with the [[age of majority]] or [[age of criminal responsibility]], and in some jurisdictions, the [[marriageable age]] differs from the age of consent. The age of consent varies widely from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, though most jurisdictions in the world today have an age of consent between 14 to 18 years, but ages as young as 12 and as old as 21 also occur. The relevant age may also vary by the type of sexual act or the gender of the people concerned. ==Social and legal attitudes== Social and legal attitudes towards the appropriate age of consent have drifted upwards in modern times; while ages from ten through to thirteen were typically acceptable in the mid 19th century, fifteen through eighteen had become the norm in many countries by the end of the 20th century. Calls for the age of consent for heterosexual sex to be lowered are largely unheard of outside of US, with a typical age of 14 to 18. Sexual relations with a person under the age of consent is in general a criminal offense, with punishments ranging from token fines to life imprisonment. In the [[United States]] this offense is frequently (but often inaccurately) called [[Statutory rape#Statutory rape|statutory rape]], though outside the United States other names are more commonly used (e.g. "carnal knowledge of a person under sixteen years"). The enforcement practices of age of consent laws tend to vary depending on the social sensibilities of the particular culture. Often enforcement is not exercised to the letter of the law, with legal action being taken only when a sufficiently socially-unacceptable age gap exists between the two individuals, or if the perpetrator is in a position of authority over the minor (e.g. a teacher, priest or doctor). The [[sex]] of each participant also influences perceptions of an individual's guilt and therefore enforcement. "The Supreme Court has held that stricter rules for males do not violate the equal protection clause of the Constitution, on the theory that men lack the disincentives associated with pregnancy that women have to engage in sexual activity, and the law may thus provide men with those disincentives in the form of criminal sanctions." {{ref|posner}} Not only is enforcement more likely in the case of a larger age gap, but in the US at least, laws are becoming more explicit about prohibiting sex between youngsters and authority figures, even when sex would otherwise be legal. That the relationship was consensual is not in general a defense to having sexual relations with a person under the age of consent; however, there are some defenses: common examples include a ''limited mistake of age defence'' and a ''defense of similarity of age''. A mistake of age defense is that the accused mistakenly believed the victim was not under the age of consent; however, where such a defense is provided, it is normally limited to apply only when the victim is above a certain age. Such a defense becomes stronger if the accused can show [[due diligence]] in determining the age of the victim. A defense of similarity of age is that the difference in age between the accused and the victim was fewer than a certain number of years. Another defense is often marriage, for those jurisdictions where the [[marriageable age]] is less than the age of consent. ===Extraterrioriality=== Increasingly the age of consent laws of a state apply not only to acts committed on its own territory, but also acts committed by its nationals and/or inhabitants on foreign territory. Such provisions have been frequently adopted to help reduce the incidence of child [[sex tourism]]. * In the [[United States]] the [[PROTECT Act of 2003]] (signed into law on April 30, 2003) authorizes fines and/or imprisonment for up to 30 years for US citizens or residents who engage in illicit sexual conduct abroad. For the purposes of this law illicit sexual conduct includes commercial sex with anyone under 18, and all sex with anyone under 16. Previous US law was less strict, only punishing those having sex either in contravention of local laws OR in commerce (prostitution); but did not prohibit non-commercial sex with, say, a 14 year-old if such sex is legal in the foreign territory. * [[France]] allows the prosecution of its own citizens on rape charges for sex with minors under 15 abroad even if it was legal with respect to the local jurisdiction. The same applies to [[Germany]] if the minor is under 14. * For inhabitants of the [[Netherlands]] it is a severe crime to have sex with a prostitute under the age of 18, or any person below 16, anywhere in the world. If a foreigner has had sex with someone under the age of 16 or a prostitute below 18—even if this was legal—and if this was done at a time that it was already illegal in the Netherlands, he or she becomes a criminal when immigrating to the Netherlands. (See also [[Universal jurisdiction]]; the effective age of consent may be the highest of those corresponding to the list in [[Universal jurisdiction#Applicable jurisdictions|Applicable jurisdictions]].) ==Age of consent for homosexual and heterosexual sex== Frequently, jurisdictions provide differing ages of consent for [[heterosexual]] and [[homosexuality|homosexual]] intercourse. Most often, the age of consent for heterosexual and female homosexual intercourse is lower than the age of consent for male homosexual intercourse. The [[gay rights movement]] has been attempting in many places to establish an equal age of consent regardless of the sex of the partners; this has resulted in many jurisdictions adopting a common age of consent, though conservatives have frequently and successfully opposed this (see [[Sodomy law]]). However, the [[United States Supreme Court]] decision in [[Lawrence v. Texas]] in 2003 effectively invalidated the disparity between heterosexual and homosexual ages of consent within the US. ==Ages of consent in various countries== <!-- Attention editors: if you alter any information in this section please provide a link to an authority or cite the appropriate law. See talk page heading "The Age of Consent Challenge" --> This table is for relative comparison of the "norm" between countries only and should not be considered authoritative. Most of the information provided is unreferenced, and much is likely to be incorrect. See detailed information for each jurisdiction below. {|class="wikitable" !12 !13 !14 !15 !16 !17 !18 !20 !21 |---- |<!-- 12 --> Mexico<br> Philippines<br> |<!-- 13 --> Guyana<br> Japan<br> South&nbsp;Korea<br> Spain<br> Swaziland<br> |<!-- 14 --> Albania<br> Austria<br> Bulgaria<br> Canada<br> Chile<br> China<br> Colombia<br> Ecuador<br> Estonia<br> Germany<br> Hungary<br> Iceland<br> Italy<br> Montenegro<br> Paraguay<br> Peru<br> Portugal<br> Serbia<br> |<!-- 15 --> Czech&nbsp;Republic<br> Denmark<br> France<br> Greece<br> Morocco<br> Poland<br> Romania<br> Slovakia<br> Slovenia<br> Sweden<br> Thailand<br> Uruguay<br> |<!-- 16 --> Algeria<br> Andorra<br> Antigua<br> Argentina<br> Australia<br> Belgium<br> Finland<br> Great Britain<br> Hong&nbsp;Kong<br> India<br> Israel<br> Jersey<br> Latvia<br> Netherlands<br> New Zealand<br> Norway<br> Puerto&nbsp;Rico<br> Russia<br> Singapore<br> South&nbsp;Africa<br> Switzerland<br> Taiwan<br> Ukraine<br> United&nbsp;States<br> Venezuela<br> |<!-- 17 --> Indonesia<br> Ireland<br> Northern&nbsp;Ireland<br> |<!-- 18 --> Egypt<br> Kazakhstan<br> Pakistan<br> Tanzania<br> Turkey<br> Malaysia<br> Vietnam<br> |<!-- 20 --> Tunisia<br> |<!-- 21 --> Madagascar<br> |} Age of consent in various countries: <!-- Attention editors: if you alter any information in this section please provide a link to an authority or cite the appropriate law. See talk page heading "The Age of Consent Challenge" --> * [[Albania]]: 14 * [[Algeria]]: 16; homosexual relationships are illegal * [[Andorra]]: 16 * [[Antigua and Barbuda|Antigua]]: 16; homosexual relationships are illegal * [[Argentina]]: ** 13 (below that it's considered [[rape]] - ''See Art. 119 [http://www.infoleg.gov.ar/infolegInternet/anexos/15000-19999/16546/texact.htm#17 Argentine Penal Code (in spanish)]''); ** 16, if abusing sexual immaturity or in some other cases ("''Estupro''", which is less severe than [[rape]] - ''See Art. 120 [http://www.infoleg.gov.ar/infolegInternet/anexos/15000-19999/16546/texact.htm#17 Argentine Penal Code (in spanish)]''). ** Prosecutable only after a complaint by the minor, or by their parents/guardians. (Article 72 [http://www.infoleg.gov.ar/infolegInternet/anexos/15000-19999/16546/texact.htm#12 Argentine Penal Code]) ** No "corruption" of minors (below 18) - ''See Art. 125 [http://www.infoleg.gov.ar/infolegInternet/anexos/15000-19999/16546/texact.htm#17 Argentine Penal Code (in spanish)]''. * [[Australia]]: ** Australia is a Federation of States and Territories. Australia's Constitution protects and retains certain residual powers for the States and so the Australian Federal Government (the Commonwealth) has constitutional limitations on what issues it can legislate. This means that each State has its own laws regarding AOC. However, it is worth mentioning that a 1997 Federal Government and the United Nations Human Rights Committee ruling caused each State to repeal any differences in homo/heterosexual AOC. This is due to International Affairs being a power of the Commonwealth. ** Federal Laws (Laws that apply to all Australians): It is an offence for an Australian Citizen, Resident or Body Corporate [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ca191482/s50ad.html {s50AD}] ''while outside of Australia'' to have sexual intercourse with a child '''under the age of 16''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ca191482/s50ba.html {s50BA}] or to induce a child under 16 to have sexual intercourse [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ca191482/s50bb.html {s50BB}], or be somehow involved in a similar sexual act [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ca191482/s50bc.html {s50BC}]&[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ca191482/s50bd.html {s50BD}] ** [[Australian Capital Territory]] (ACT): It is an offence to engage in sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 16''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/act/consol_act/ca190082/s55.html {s55(2)}]. However the law in the ACT does permit as a defence if brought to court, an age difference of 2 years for those older than 10 years [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/act/consol_act/ca190082/s55.html {s55(3b)}]. ** [[New South Wales]]: It is an offence to engage in sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 16''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s66c.html {s66C}] or attempt such an offence [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s66d.html {s66d}]. Further it is an offence to engage in sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 18''' if that person is under the care of the offender [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s73.html {s73}] (Guardian, teacher and etcetera). ** [[Northern Territory]]: It is an offence to engage in sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 16''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nt/consol_act/cca115/sch1.html {s127}] or attempt such an offence [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nt/consol_act/cca115/sch1.html {s131}]. Further it is an offence to engage in sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 18''' if that person is under the care of the offender [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nt/consol_act/cca115/sch1.html {s128}] (Guardian, teacher and etcetera). ** [[Queensland]] (Qld.): It is an offence to have carnal knowledge with a person '''under the age of 16''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/qld/consol_act/cc189994/s215.html {s215}]. '''Note''' that in Qld. “carnal knowledge” does not include “sodomy”. Sodomy ([[anal sex]]) is not permitted with any person '''under the age of 18''', regardless of gender or what position is taken by which individual [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/qld/consol_act/cc189994/s208.html {s208}]. ** [[South Australia]]: It is an offence to have sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 17''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/sa/consol_act/clca1935262/s49.html {s49(3)}]. However it is a defence if both parties were 16 at the time of the offence [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/sa/consol_act/clca1935262/s49.html {s49(4)}] or if both parties are married to one another [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/sa/consol_act/clca1935262/s49.html {s49(8)}]. Further it is an offence to engage in sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 18''' if that person is under the care of the offender [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/sa/consol_act/clca1935262/s49.html {s49(5)}] (Guardian, teacher and etcetera). ** [[Tasmania]]: It is an offence to have sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 17''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/tas/consol%5fact/cca1924115/s13.html {s13-124}]. However it is a defence if no anal sex occurred and the younger person was of or above 12 years and the older was not more than 3 years their senior or, if no anal sex occured and the younger person was of or above 15 years and the older was not more than 5 years their senior [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/tas/consol%5fact/cca1924115/s13.html {s13-124(3)}]. ** [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]: It is an offence to take part in sexual penetration with a person '''under the age of 16''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/ca195882/s45.html {s45(1)}]. However it is a defence if the younger party was aged 10 or more years and the older party was not more than 2 years older [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/ca195882/s45.html {s45(4)(b)}]. Further it is an offence to take part in sexual penetration with a '''16 or 17''' year old person if that person is under the care of the offender [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/ca195882/s48.html {s48}] (Guardian, teacher and etcetera). ** [[Western Australia]]: It is an offence to sexually penetrate a person '''under the age of 16''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/wa/consol_act/cc94/s321.html {s321}]. Further it is an offence to sexually penetrate a person '''under the age of 18''' if that person is under the care of the offender [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/wa/consol_act/cc94/s322.html {s322}] (Guardian, teacher and etcetera). * [[Austria]]: 14 (as of [[August 13]], [[2002]]) * [[Belgium]]: 16 (possible restrictions apply under 18) * [[Brazil]]: ** 18; ** 14-17 prosecutable only after a complaint by the minor. ** Under 14 there seems to be some confusion regarding the age below which the state may unilaterally bring charges without a complaint from the child or parent. Some sources suggest it is 12, others 10. * [[Bulgaria]]: 14 * [[Canada]]: 14 (18 for anal sex between persons not married to each other in all provinces except Ontario and Quebec; 18 for anyone in a position of "trust or authority") ** Courts in Ontario (1995) and Quebec (1998) independently declared Section 159 of the Criminal Code of Canada (Anal Intercourse) unconstitutional. Although not binding in other provinces, these rulings have set a precedent that would make successful prosecution elsewhere in Canada unlikely. ** Persons under 18 are still deemed unable to consent to sexual activity in certain contexts, such as prostitution or pornography; or with certain persons in a position of authority. ** Sex between partners that are within two years of age of each other is always legal unless the age of consent is 18 due to one of the conditions specified above. (14 and 15 year olds are granted an exemption if their partner is less than two years younger than them, 12 and 13 year olds specifically cannot be charged with a violation of the age of consent law, and 11 year olds and under cannot be charged with a crime in Canada.) * [[Chile]]: 14 * [[China|China, People's Republic of]]: 14 ** [[Hong Kong|Hong Kong S.A.R.]]: male homosexual 21 (and both the older AND younger partners can be prosecuted and liable to imprisonment for life) [gay sex laws recently overturned by court], lesbian 16, heterosexual 16. * [[Republic of China|China, Republic of; (Taiwan)]]: 16, including heterosexual and homosexual relationships * [[Colombia]]: 14 * [[Croatia]]: 14 or 18 * [[Czech Republic]]: 15 * [[Denmark]]: 15 for full consent (in regard to age differences) to sexual relationships; no limits when ages are less than 1 year apart (Meaning, no criminal charges are brought) ; 18 for dependency relationships (teacher/student etc.) and professional sexual ([[Prostitution]] is decriminalized in Denmark, but one can consent only when 18 or older). * [[Ecuador]]: ** 14; ** 18 if woman is "honest" (not a prostitute) and "seduction" or deceit is used. * [[Egypt]]: 18, homosexual sex is not mentioned in the law but homosexuals are prosecuted under various moral statutes * [[Estonia]]: 14 * [[Finland]]: 16; 18 in dependency relationships (teacher/student etc.)and prostitution. * [[France]]: 15; however sex with a minor under 18 in a dependency relationship may be criminalized. * [[Germany]]: ** 18 years in dependency relationships (teacher/student etc.) ** 16 years if the older partner is over 18 and coerces the younger partner into sex other than by physical means, or if the older partner pays the younger partner to have sex ([[prostitution]]) ** 16 years if the older partner is over 21 and exploits "lack of sexual self-determination" of the younger partner (only prosecuted after complaints or &#8220;public interest", in practice rarely prosecuted with little or no punishment) ** 14 years for all other sexual relationships * [[Greece]]: 15 (since [[1987]]) * [[Guyana]]: 13 (legislation to raise the age to 16 is [http://www.gina.gov.gy/archive/daily/b050601.html#8 under discussion]) * [[Hungary]]: ** Since the 2002 decision of the Constitutional Court 14 for both heterosexual and homosexual relationships * [[Iceland]]: 14 * [[Indonesia]]: 17 (18 for homosexual men) * [[Iran]]: extramarital sex is illegal (see: [[Marriageable age]]), note that homosexual sex may be punishable by death * [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland, Republic of]]: 17, 15 for non-penetrative sexual contact. ** Different sections of law, and indeed different government departments disagree on whether the age of consent is 17 or 16 or even 15, or whether or not a disparity still exists between male and female ages. The majority of sex education literature in schools, as well as the most recent act referencing the age of consent state 16, however more recent [[Dáil]] debates have put this into doubt. * [[Israel]]: 16, but if the female is under 16 and above 14, the age difference should not be greater than 3 years between her and her partner. 18 if dependency relationships (teacher/student etc.) * [[Italy]]: 14 * [[Japan]]: 13 nationwide. Some prefectures have additional legislation concerning sex with children between 13 and 16 (or 18 if "insincere" relation or prostitution), making the actual age of consent vary between 13 and 16 if prostitution is excluded. Age of marriage for a female with parental approval is 16. * [[Jersey]]: 16 (18 for homosexual intercourse) * [[Kazakhstan]]: 18 * [[Latvia]]: 16 * [[Lithuania]]: 14 * [[Madagascar]]: quite possibly 21 (heterosexual and homosexual) * [[Malaysia]]: ** 18, but [[Muslim]]s must also be married ** homosexual sex is illegal (maximum 20 years' jail) ** Anal penetration is illegal in Malaysia, regardless of age. * [[Mexico]]: [http://www.interpol.int/Public/Children/SexualAbuse/NationalLaws/csaMexico.asp] ** 12 (Article 266 of the Penal Code) ** 16 for prostitution (Article 201) ** 18 if deceit is used (Article 262 of the Penal Code) * [[Morocco]]: 15, homosexual sex is illegal * [[Netherlands]]: 16 (18 if dependent relationship or prostitution) * [[New Zealand]]: 16 [http://www.legislation.govt.nz/libraries/contents/om_isapi.dll?clientID=197507246&infobase=pal_statutes.nfo&jump=a1961-043%2fs.134&softpage=DOC&wordsaroundhits=6#JUMPDEST_a1961-043/s.134 §134] (18 if prostitution ([http://www.legislation.govt.nz/libraries/contents/om_isapi.dll?clientID=197507246&infobase=pal_statutes.nfo&jd=a2003-028%2fs.20&record={98799F16}&softpage=DOC&wordsaroundhits=6 §20–23]) or some types of dependent relationships) **Although anti-pedophile laws in New Zealand (as with all other western countries) are currently severe, consensual relationship between adults and young teens are usually not prosecuted unless the parent or child complain about it. **Before 2005, there was never a law in New Zealand prohibiting any form of sexual relationship between women and boys. Until the Crimes Amendment Act (No.2) came into force in May 2005, the age of consent was 16 for older men and young girls, as well as for homosexual males (since legalization in 1986), but there was no age of consent where a woman was the older partner with a boy, and for Lesbian sex the age of consent was 12 if both partners were under 21 (16 if otherwise). This law was only amended recently after being in force for over 100 years. The legal loophole was identified in 2003 when a 21-year-old man faced imprisonment for sex with a 14-year-old girl, while a 21-year-old woman at the same time made her relationship with a 13-year-old boy public with the media because she knew she couldn't be charged. ** New Zealand decriminalised prostitution in 2003 with a legal age of 18. * [[Norway]]: 16 [http://www.lovdata.no/all/hl-19020522-010.html#196 §196] * [[Pakistan]]: 18 * [[Panamá]]: ** 12 if female. ** 14 if male. * [[Paraguay]]: ** 14; ** 16 if one of them is married to another person; ** 16 if homosexual * [[Peru]]: 14 * [[Philippines]]: 12 (restrictions on partners under 18 such as prostitution) * [[Poland]]: 15 * [[Portugal]]: heterosexual 14, homosexual 16 * [[Puerto Rico]]: 16 * [[Romania]]: 15; 18 in dependency relationships (teacher/student etc.) * [[Russia]]: 16 ** only a person over 18 can be charged; ** charges are relatively low (up to 4 years of prison); this includes sexual acts (hetero and homosexual) and "obscene actions" (with even less charges) – ''Articles 134 and 135 of [http://base.consultant.ru/cons/cgi/online.cgi?req=doc;base=LAW;n=57568;div=LAW Penal Code (in Russian)]''; ** if the victim is proved not to understand the nature and consequences of the act (due to their age or mental abilities), it will be considered rape and charged much more severely (up to 10 years of prison, or up to 15 if victim under 14) – ''Articles 131 and 132 of [http://base.consultant.ru/cons/cgi/online.cgi?req=doc;base=LAW;n=57568;div=LAW Penal Code (in Russian)]''; * [[Saudi Arabia]]: heterosexual must be married, homosexual illegal ** heterosexual sex outside marriage is punishable by [[flogging]] ** male and female homosexual sex is illegal by virtue of being outside marriage and punishable by death ** See: [[Human rights in Saudi Arabia]] * [[Serbia-Montenegro]]: ** [[Serbia]]: heterosexual and female homosexual 14, male homosexual 18 ** [[Montenegro]]: 14 (for all three types) * [[Singapore]]: 16 ** engaging sexual intercourse with a female aged under 14 is considered [[Statutory Rape]] ** engaging sexual intercourse with a female aged under 16 is considered an offense of ''"carnal intercourse with an underage female"'' (less severe than rape but still a punishable offense) ** homosexual sex is illegal and punishable by imprisonment, possibly for 10 years or even life * [[Slovakia]]: 15 * [[Slovenia]]: 15 * [[South Africa]]: homosexual 19, heterosexual 16 * [[South Korea]]: 13 (19 if prostitution) * [[Spain]]: 13 (possible restrictions apply under 16) * [[Swaziland]]: heterosexual 13, homosexual acts are illegal * [[Sweden]]: 15; 18 in dependency relationships (teacher/student etc.) * [[Switzerland]]: 16, under 16 legal if age difference is no more than 3 years * [[Tanzania]]: 18, homosexual sex is illegal * [[Thailand]]: 15 * [[Tunisia]]: 20, anal intercourse between men is illegal * [[Turkey]]: 18 * [[Ukraine]]: 16 * [[Uruguay]]: ** 15, though can be 12 in certain special cases. (Articles 272 and 267, [http://www.parlamento.gub.uy/Codigos/CodigoPenal/l2t10.htm Uruguayan Penal Code]) ** No "corruption" of minors (below 18). (Article 274, [http://www.parlamento.gub.uy/Codigos/CodigoPenal/l2t10.htm Uruguayan Penal Code]) * [[United Kingdom]]: The [[Sexual Offences Act 2003]] is the relevant law. Ages of consent are the same for heterosexuals and homosexuals, but legal treatment varies slightly between different areas of the UK. **[[England]] and [[Wales]]: heterosexual and homosexual 16 for both sexes **[[Scotland]]: heterosexual and male homosexual 16 **[[Northern Ireland]]: heterosexual and male homosexual 17 **18 years for any sexual act if there is a relationship of trust (e.g. teacher/pupil), unless they are a married couple. **Until 2003, there was no specific law regarding the female homosexual, though in England and Wales this has now been set at 16 years old. Although no such legislation exists for Scotland and Northern Ireland, a female under 16 is deemed incapable of consenting to any type of sexual behaviour which could be classed as sexual assault and the courts have taken this to mean that the age of consent is the same as for male homosexual acts. **Before 2001 the homosexual age of consent in England and Wales was 18, and before the early 1990s it was 21, the age it was set at when consensual [[buggery]] was decriminalised in the 1960s. The heterosexual age of consent was raised from 12 to 16 in the late 19th Century. * [[United States]]: Varies from state to state, usually 16; some states formerly forbade homosexual acts entirely, however such laws have been declared unconstitutional in 2003 (''[[Lawrence v. Texas]]''). ''Lawrence'' also had the effect of invalidating the differences between heterosexual and homosexual age of consent laws; the general, albeit untested, consensus is that the youngest age of consent law on the books in any given state now applies regardless of sexuality. **Federal law forbids crossing state lines or international borders with a person who is under 18 (in an attempt to escape the state's AOC or without permission from the minor's legal guardian), or any sex with a person who is under 16 and at least 4 years younger than the perpetrator in Federal territories ([http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/casecode/uscodes/18/parts/i/chapters/109a/sections/section_2243.html 18 U.S.C. 2243], [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/casecode/uscodes/18/parts/i/chapters/117/sections/section_2423.html 18 U.S.C. 2423]). Federal and various state laws makes it is illegal to produce [[pornography]] featuring those under 18 and prosecutions have been commenced for cases where both partners are over the age of consent and under 18 years old, where they were making material solely for their own consumption or that of their lawful partner. The constitutionality of these cases is uncertain. ** [[Alaska]], [[Arkansas]], [[Connecticut]], [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]], [[Delaware]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Hawaii]], [[Kansas]], [[Maine]], [[Maryland]], [[Massachusetts]] [http://www.lawlib.state.ma.us/sex.html#16], [[Michigan]], [[Minnesota]], [[Mississippi]], [[Montana]], [[Nebraska]], [[Nevada]], [[New Jersey]], [[North Carolina]], [[Ohio]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Rhode Island]], [[South Dakota]], [[Vermont]], [[West Virginia]], [[Alabama]]: 16 ** [[Illinois]], [[Louisiana]], [[New York]]: 17 ** [[Arizona]], [[California]], [[North Dakota]], [[Oregon]], [[Tennessee]], [[Utah]], [[Wisconsin]]: 18 ** [[Virginia]]: 18, 15-17 falls under [http://leg1.state.va.us/cgi-bin/legp504.exe?000+cod+18.2-371 18.2-371 contributing to the delinquency of a minor] if partner is over 18, 13-14 falls under [http://leg1.state.va.us/cgi-bin/legp504.exe?000+cod+18.2-63 18.2-63] ** [[Colorado]]: 15 (17 if partner 10 years older and not spouse) ** [[Florida]]: 16 (If partner under 24), 18 (all other adult partners) ** [[Idaho]]: 16 or 17 (if partner less than 5 years older), 18 (all other adult partners) ** [[Indiana]]: 14 (if partner under 18), 16 (all other adult partners) ** [[Iowa]]: 14 or 15 (if partner less than 5 years older), 16 (all other adult partners) State law imposes a mandatory lifetime banishment from most [[Iowa]] cities for a person who violates any state's age of consent law. Iowa's ban applies to conduct that occurs in other states regardless if it was legal in those states. Said persons would not be allowed to legally live in most Iowa cities, and would generally be restricted to rural areas. Federal courts have upheld this law, and the US Supreme Court has refused to review it. ** [[Kentucky]]: 16 (if under 21, a person's partner can legally be no more than 5 years of age younger; i.e. 20 and 15 or 18 and 13) ** [[Missouri]]: 14 (if partner under 21), 17 (all other adults) ** [[New Hampshire]]: 16 [http://www.gencourt.state.nh.us/rsa/html/LXII/632-A/632-A-4.htm RSA 632-A:4], 18 (person in position of authority [http://www.gencourt.state.nh.us/rsa/html/LXII/632-A/632-A-2.htm RSA 632-A:6]) ** [[New Mexico]]: 13 if partner is four or less years older, 18 otherwise (NM Statute 30-9-11 Criminal sexual penetration) ** [[South Carolina]]: 14 (Under state constitution)/16 (Under state law - appears to conflict with state constitution). ** [[Texas]]: 14 if the other partner is within 3 years in age, otherwise 17. ** [[Washington]]: 16 (18 if partner is at least 59 months older, OR in a significant supervisory relationship and uses that relationship to engage in sex with the minor). ** [[Wyoming]]: 16/18 (conflicting laws appear to set two different ages of consent) ** Military: equal to the state the base is located in; homosexuality grounds for dismissal regardless where the base is located. * [[Venezuela]]: 16 * [[Vietnam]]: 18 according to most sources ==See also== *[[Marriageable age]] *[[Age disparity in sexual relationships]] *[[Criminal law]] *[[United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child]] == External links == *[http://www.ageofconsent.com/ageofconsent.htm Age Of Consent chart] (last updated 2003) *[http://www.omaha-neb.com/iowa.htm Iowa's lifetime banishment for violating age of consent laws in any state.] (Law applies even for two teens close in age.) *[http://womhist.binghamton.edu/aoc/doclist.htm Age of Consent Campaign, 1886-1914] (in the USA) *[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/REage.htm Age of Consent] campaigns in the U.K. * [http://www.avert.org/aofconsent.htm Chart of ages of consent around the world] (welcomes suggested updates from readers, if they can provide good sources) *[http://www.interpol.int/Public/Children/SexualAbuse/NationalLaws/Default.asp Legislation of Interpol member states on sexual offences against children] * [http://www.state.hi.us/ag/pdf_documents/Report_Age_of_Consent_Task_Force.pdf Hawaii Age of Consent Task Force Report] (pages 65-68 of this report offer graphical charts of the 50 states showing their ages of consent, especially in the context of age differentiation) * [http://www.moraloutrage.net Current AOC information and statutory rape law reform] (in the USA) ==References== #{{note|posner}} Posner, Richard, A Guide to America's Sex Laws, The University of Chicago Press, 1996. ISBN 0-226-67564-5. Page 45. The case cited is <i>Michael M. v. Superior Court</i>, 450 U.S. 464 (1981). [[Category:Statutory law]] [[Category:Legal fictions]] [[Category:LGBT civil rights]] [[Category:Sex crimes]] [[Category:Sexuality and age]] <!-- The below are interlanguage links. --> [[da:Seksuel lavalder]] [[de:Schutzalter]] [[fr:Majorité sexuelle]] [[he:גיל ההסכמה]] [[hu:Beleegyezési korhatár]] [[ru:Возраст согласия]] 1654 41724186 2006-03-01T08:22:31Z Tagishsimon 51294 links & addition of the word "and" :''[[Alypius of Thagaste]] is also the name of an early [[Christian]] [[Saint]].'' '''Alypius of Antioch''' was a [[geographer]] of the mid [[4th century]] who was sent by the emperor [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] into [[Roman Britain|Britain]] as [[vicarius]]. He ruled during a difficult period and he was probably considered suitable for the post because he came from the far east of the empire and had no associations with the west. He may have had to deal with the insurrection of the usurper named '[[Carausius II]].' Alypius was afterwards commissioned to rebuild the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] as part of Julian's systematic attempt to reverse the [[Christianization]] of the [[Roman Empire]] by restoring [[pagan]] and, in this case, [[Judaism|Jewish]] practices. Among the letters of Julian are two (29 and 30) addressed to Alypius; one inviting him to [[Rome]], the other thanking him for a geographical treatise, which no longer exists. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Ancient geographers]] [[Category:Roman governors of Britain]] [[Category:Ancient Romans]] [[Category:Romans in Britain]] 1655 32697024 2005-12-25T18:42:49Z The One True Fred 263909 '''Amalasuntha''' (also known as '''Amalasuentha''' or '''Amalaswintha''') (d. [[535]]) was a queen of the [[Ostrogoth]]s. A daughter of Ostrogothic king [[Theodoric the Great]], she secretly married a slave named [[Traguilla]]. When her mother [[Audofleda]] found them together Traguilla was killed. She was married in [[515]] to Eutharic, an Ostrogoth noble of the old Areal line, who had previously been living in [[Visigoth]]ic [[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]]. Her husband died, apparently in the early years of her marriage, leaving her with two children, [[Athalaric]] and [[Matasuentha]]. On the death of her father in [[526]], her son succeeded him, but she held the power as [[regent]] for her son. Deeply imbued with the old Roman culture, she gave to that son's education a more refined and literary turn than suited the ideas of her Gothic subjects. Conscious of her unpopularity she banished, and afterwards put to death, three Gothic nobles whom she suspected of intriguing against her rule, and at the same time opened negotiations with the emperor [[Justinian I]] with the view of removing herself and the Gothic treasure to [[Constantinople]]. Her son's death in [[534]] made little change in the posture of affairs. Now queen, Amalasuntha made her cousin [[Theodahad]] partner of her throne (not, as sometimes stated, her husband, for his wife was still living), with the intent of strengthening her position. The choice was unfortunate, for Theodahad, in spite of a varnish of literary culture, was a coward and a scoundrel. He fostered the disaffection of the Goths, and either by his orders or with his permission, Amalasuntha was imprisoned on an island in the Tuscan lake of Bolsena, where in the spring of 535 she was murdered in her bath. The letters of [[Cassiodorus]], chief minister and literary adviser of Amalasuntha, and the histories of [[Procopius]] and [[Jordanes]], give us our chief information as to the character of Amalasuntha. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:535 deaths]] [[Category:Goths]] [[Category:Regents]] [[Category:Murdered royalty]] [[de:Amalasuntha]] [[ko:아말라순타]] [[it:Amalasunta]] [[nl:Amalasuntha]] [[sv:Amalasuntha]] 1656 33241388 2005-12-30T11:18:54Z Charles Matthews 12978 wfy '''Amalric''' (French '''Amaury''') '''of Bena''' (d.c. [[1204]]-[[1207]]) was a [[France|French]] [[theology|theologian]]. He was born in the latter part of the [[12th century]] at Bena, a village in the diocese of [[Chartres]]. He taught philosophy and theology at the university of Paris and enjoyed a great reputation as a subtle [[dialectic]]ian; his lectures developing the [[philosophy of Aristotle]] attracted a large circle of hearers. In [[1204]] his doctrines were condemned by the university, and, on a personal appeal to [[Pope Innocent III]], the sentence was ratified, Amalric being ordered to return to Paris and recant his errors. His death was caused, it is said, by grief at the humiliation to which he had been subjected. In [[1209]] ten of his followers were burnt before the gates of Paris, and Amalric's own body was exhumed and burnt and the ashes given to the winds. The doctrines of his followers, known as the [[Amalrician]]s, were formally condemned by the [[Fourth Council of the Lateran|fourth Lateran Council]] in 1215. ==Propositions== Amalric appears to have derived his philosophical system from [[Johannes Scotus Erigena|Erigena]], whose principles he developed in a one-sided and strongly [[pantheist]]ic form. Three propositions only can with certainty be attributed to him: #that God is all; #that every Christian is bound to believe that he is a member of the body of Christ, and that this belief is necessary for salvation; #that he who remains in love of God can commit no sin. These three propositions were further developed by his followers, who maintained that God revealed Himself in a threefold revelation, the first in Abraham, marking the epoch of the Father; the second in Christ, who began the epoch of the Son; and the third in Amalric and his disciples, who inaugurated the era of the [[Holy Ghost]]. Under the pretext that a true believer could commit no sin, the Amalricians indulged in every excess, and the sect does not appear to have long survived the death of its founder. See [[W. Preger]], ''Geschichte der deutschen Mystik im Mittelalter'' (Leipzig, 1874, i. 167-173); [[Haureau]], ''Hist. de la phil. scol.'' (Paris, 1872); [[C. Schmidt]], ''Hist. de l'Eglise d'Occident itendant le moyen age'' (Paris, 1885); [[Hefele]], ''Conciliengesch.'' (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1886). ==See also== *[[Brethren of the Free Spirit]] ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Heretics]] [[Category:Pantheism]] 1657 42026529 2006-03-03T08:13:56Z 83.55.255.157 <table border=1 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right style=margin-left:1em> <caption><font size="+1">'''Afonso I''' </font></caption> <tr valign=top><td style=background:#efefef; colspan=2 align=center>[[Image:AfonsoI-P.jpg]] <tr valign=top><td>'''Reign'''<td>[[July 26]], [[1139]] - [[December 6]], [[1185]] <tr valign=top><td>'''Queen'''<td>[[Maud of Savoy]] ([[1125]]-[[1157]]) <tr valign=top><td>'''Royal House'''<td>[[House of Burgundy]] <tr valign=top><td>'''Father'''<td>[[Henry, Count of Portugal]] ([[1066]]-[[1093]]) <tr valign=top><td>'''Mother'''<td>[[Teresa of Leon]] ([[1080]]-[[1130]]) <tr valign=top><td>'''Issue'''<td>[[Urraca of Portugal]] ([[1151]]-[[1188]])<br>[[Sancho I of Portugal]] ([[1154]]-[[1212]])<br>[[Teresa of Portugal (1157-1218)|Teresa of Portugal]] ([[1157]]-[[1218]])<br>[[Mafalda of Portugal (1148-1160)|Mafalda of Portugal]] (d. young)<br>Henrique (d. young)<br>João (d. young)<br>Sancha (d. young)<br>[[Urraca Afonso of Aveiro|Urraca Afonso]] (natural daughter)<br>[[Fernando Afonso, Constable of Portugal|Fernando Afonso]] (natural son)<br>[[Pedro Afonso, Grand-Master of the Order of Aviz|Pedro Afonso]] (natural son)<br>[[Afonso of Portugal, Master of the Order of Saint John of Rhodes|Afonso of Portugal]] (natural son)<br>[[Teresa Afonso]] (natural daughter)<tr valign=top><td>'''Date of Birth'''<td>[[July 25]], [[1109]] <tr valign=top><td>'''Place of Birth'''<td>[[Guimarães]] <tr valign=top><td>'''Date of Death'''<td>[[December 6]], [[1185]] <tr valign=top><td>'''Place of Death'''<td>[[Coimbra]]</td></tr> <tr valign=top><td>'''Place of Burial'''<td>[[Santa Cruz Monastery]] (Coimbra) </table> '''Afonso I of Portugal''' ([[English language|English]] ''Alphonzo'' or ''Alphonse''), more commonly known as '''Afonso Henriques''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ɐ.'fõ.su e&#771;.'ʁi.kɨʃ}}/), or also ''Affonso'' (Archaic Portuguese), ''Alfonso'' or ''Alphonso'' ([[Portuguese-Galician languages|Portuguese-Galician]]) or ''Alphonsus'' ([[Latin language|Latin]] version), ([[Guimarães]], [[1109]]?, traditionally [[July 25]] &ndash; [[Coimbra]], [[1185]], [[December 6]]), also known as ''the Conqueror'' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Conquistador''), was the first [[List of Portuguese monarchs|King of Portugal]], declaring his independence from [[Kingdom of León|León]]. ==Life== Afonso I was the son of [[Henry, Count of Portugal|Henry of Burgundy, Count of Portugal]] and [[Teresa of León]], the illegitimate daughter of King [[Alfonso VI of Castile|Alfonso VI of Castile and León]]. He was proclaimed King on [[July 26]] [[1139]], immediately after the [[Battle of Ourique]], and died on [[December 6]] [[1185]] in [[Coimbra]]. At the end of the [[11th century]], the [[Iberian Peninsula]] [[Politics|political]] agenda was mostly concerned with the ''[[Reconquista]]'', the driving out of the [[Muslim]] successor-states to the [[Caliph]]ate of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] after its collapse. With European [[military]] [[Aristocracy|aristocracies]] focused on the [[Crusades]], Alfonso VI called for the help of the [[France|French]] [[nobility]] to deal with the [[Moors]]. In exchange, he was to give the hands of his daughters in wedlock to the leaders of the expedition and bestow royal privileges to the others. Thus, the royal heiress [[Urraca of Castile]] wedded [[Raymond of Burgundy]], younger son of the [[County of Burgundy|Count of Burgundy]], and her half-sister, princess [[Teresa of León]], wedded his cousin, another French crusader, [[Henry of Burgundy]], younger brother of the [[Duchy of Burgundy|Duke of Burgundy]], whose mother was daughter of the [[Count of Barcelona]]. Henry was made Count of Portugal, a burdensome [[earldom]] south of [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], where Moorish incursions and attacks were to be expected. With his wife Teresa as co-ruler of Portugal, Henry withstood the ordeal and held the lands for his father-in-law. From this wedlock several sons were born, but only one, '''Afonso Henriques''' (meaning "Afonso son of Henry") thrived. The boy followed his father as '''Count of Portugal''' in [[1112]], under the tutelage of his mother. The relations between Teresa and her son Afonso proved difficult. Only eleven years old, Afonso already had his own political ideas, greatly different from his mother's. In [[1120]], the young [[prince]] took the side of the [[archbishop]] of [[Braga]], a political foe of Teresa, and both were exiled by her orders. Afonso spent the next years away from his own [[county]], under the watch of the bishop. In [[1122]] Afonso became fourteen, the adult age in the [[12th century]]. He made himself a [[knight]] on his own account in the [[Cathedral]] of [[Zamora]], raised an [[army]], and proceeded to take control of his lands. Near [[Guimarães]], at the [[Battle of São Mamede]] ([[1128]]) he overcame the troops under his mother's lover and ally Count [[Fernando Peres de Trava]] of [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], making her his [[prison]]er and exiling her forever to a [[monastery]] in [[León, León|León]]. Thus the possibility of incorporating Portugal into a Kingdom of Galicia was eliminated and Afonso become sole ruler ('''Dux of Portugal''') after demands for independence from the county's people, church and nobles. He also vanquished [[Alfonso VII of Castile|Alfonso VII of Castile and León]], another of his mother's allies, and thus freed the county from political dependence on the crown of [[Kingdom of León|León]] and [[Castile]]. On [[April 6]], [[1129]], Afonso Henriques dictated the writ in which he proclaimed himself '''Prince of Portugal'''. {{House of Burgundy}} Afonso then turned his arms against the everlasting problem of the [[Moors]] in the south. His campaigns were successful and, on [[July 26]] [[1139]], he obtained an overwhelming victory in the [[Battle of Ourique]], and straight after was unanimously proclaimed '''King of Portugal''' by his [[soldier]]s. This meant that Portugal was no longer a vassal county of León-Castile, but an independent kingdom in its own right. Next, he assembled the first assembly of the estates-general at [[Lamego]], where he was given the [[Crown (headgear)|crown]] from the archbishop of [[Braga]], to confirm the independence. Independence, however, was not a thing a land could choose on its own. Portugal still had to be acknowledged by the neighbouring lands and, most importantly, by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[Pope]]. Afonso wedded [[Maud of Savoy|Mafalda of Savoy]], daughter of Count [[Amadeo III of Savoy]], and sent [[Ambassador|ambassador]]s to [[Rome]] to negotiate with the [[Pope]]. In Portugal, he built several monasteries and [[convent]]s and bestowed important privileges to [[religious order]]s. In [[1143]], he wrote to [[Pope Innocent II]] to declare himself and the kingdom servants of the Church, swearing to pursue driving the Moors out of the [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian]] peninsula. Bypassing any king of Castile or León, Afonso declared himself the direct [[liege]]man of the [[Papacy]]. Thus, Afonso continued to distinguish himself by his exploits against the Moors, from whom he wrested [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] and [[Lisbon]] in [[1147]] (see [[Siege of Lisbon]]). He also conquered an important part of the land south of the [[Tagus]] River, although this was lost again to the Moors in the following years. Meanwhile, King Alfonso VII of Castile (Afonso's cousin) regarded the independent ruler of Portugal as nothing but a rebel. Conflict between the two was constant and bitter in the following years. Afonso became involved in a [[war]], taking the side of the [[Aragon]]ese king, an enemy of Castile. To ensure the alliance, his son [[Sancho I of Portugal|Sancho]] was engaged to [[Dulce Berenguer]], sister of the [[Kings of Aragon|Count of Barcelona]], and princess of Aragon. Finally, in [[1143]], the [[Treaty of Zamora]] established peace between the cousins and the recognition by the Kingdom of Castile and León that Portugal was an independent kingdom. [[Image:DAfonsoHenriques.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of Afonso Henriques in [[Guimarães]].]] In [[1169]], Afonso was disabled in an engagement near [[Badajoz]] by a fall from his [[horse]], and made prisoner by the soldiers of the king of León. Portugal was obliged to surrender as his [[ransom]] almost all the conquests Afonso had made in Galicia in the previous years. In [[1179]] the privileges and favours given to the Roman Catholic Church were compensated. In the [[papal bull]] ''Manifestis Probatum'', [[Pope Alexander III]] acknowledged Afonso as King and Portugal as an independent land with the right to conquer lands from the Moors. With this papal blessing, Portugal was at last secured as a country and safe from any Castilian attempts of annexation. In [[1184]], in spite of his great age, he had still sufficient energy to relieve his son Sancho, who was besieged in [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] by the Moors. He died shortly after, in [[1185]]. The Portuguese revere him as a hero, both on account of his personal character and as the founder of their [[nation]]. ==Afonso's descendants== Afonso married in 1146 Mafalda or [[Maud of Savoy]] ([[1125]]-[[1158]]), daughter of Amadeo III, Count of Savoy, and [[Mafalda of Albon]]. {| border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse;" |- bgcolor=cccccc !Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes |- |colspan=4|'''By [[Maud of Savoy]]''' ([[1125]]-[[1158]]; married in [[1146]]) |- |Henrique||[[March 5]] [[1147]]||[[1147]]||&nbsp; |- |Mafalda||[[1148]]||c. [[1160]]||&nbsp; |- |[[Urraca of Portugal|Urraca]]||c. [[1151]]||[[1188]]||married to King [[Ferdinand II of León]] |- |[[Sancho I of Portugal|Sancho]]||[[1154]]||[[March 26]] [[1212]]||Succeeded him as 2nd [[List of Portuguese monarchs|King of Portugal]] |- |[[Teresa of Portugal (1157-1218)|Teresa]]||[[1157]]||[[1218]]||married to [[Philip I of Flanders]] and after his death to [[Eudes III of Burgundy]] |- |João||[[1160]]||[[1160]]||&nbsp; |- |Sancha||[[1160]]||[[1160]]||&nbsp; |- |colspan=4|'''By [[Elvira Gálter]]''' |- |[[Urraca Afonso, Lady of Aveiro|Urraca Afonso]]||c. [[1130]]||?||Natural daughter. Married Pedro Afonso Viegas. Lady of [[Aveiro]]. |- |colspan=4|'''Other natural offspring''' |- |[[Fernando Afonso, Constable of Portugal|Fernando Afonso]]||c. [[1166]]||c. [[1172]]||High-General of the Kingdom ([[Constable of Portugal]]) |- |[[Pedro Afonso, Master of Aviz|Pedro Afonso]]||c [[1130]]||[[1169]]||A.k.a. Pedro Henriques. 1st Grand-Master of the [[Order of Aviz]]. |- |[[Afonso of Portugal, Master of the Order of Saint John of Rhodes|Afonso]]||c. [[1135]]||[[1207]]||11th Master of the [[Order of Saint John of Rhodes]]. |- |[[Teresa Afonso]]||c. [[1135]]||?||Married Fernando Martins Bravo. |} ==See also== *[[Portugal]] *[[History of Portugal]] *[[Kings of Portugal family tree]] *[[Timeline of Portuguese history]] **[[Timeline of Portuguese history (Second County)|Second County of Portugal (11th to 12th Century)]] **[[Timeline of Portuguese history (First Dynasty)|First Dynasty: Burgundy (12th to 14th Century)]] {{s-start}} {{s-hou|[[House of Burgundy]]|25 July|1109|6 December|1185|[[House of Capet]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Henry, Count of Portugal|Henrique]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of Portuguese monarchs|Count of Portugal]]|years=[[1112]]&ndash;[[1139]]|regent1=[[Theresa, Countess of Portugal|Theresa]]|years1=[[1112]]&ndash;[[1126]]}} {{s-non|reason=Independence<br/>from [[Kingdom of León|León]]&ndash;[[Castile]]}} |- {{s-new|reason=Independence<br/>from [[Kingdom of León|León]]&ndash;[[Castile]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of Portuguese monarchs|Kings of Portugal]]|years=[[1139]]&ndash;[[1185]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Sancho I of Portugal|Sancho I]]}} {{end}} ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Portuguese monarchs]] [[Category:1109 births]] [[Category:1185 deaths]] [[bg:Афонсу I (Португалия)]] [[ca:Alfons I de Portugal]] [[de:Alfons I. (Portugal)]] [[eo:Afonso Henriques]] [[es:Alfonso I de Portugal]] [[fr:Alphonse Ier de Portugal]] [[gl:D. Alfonso Henriques]] [[ia:Afonso Henriques]] [[it:Don Afonso Henriques]] [[ja:アフォンソ1世 (ポルトガル王)]] [[nl:Alfons I van Portugal]] [[pl:Alfons I Zdobywca]] [[pt:Afonso I de Portugal]] [[ru:Афонсу I Завоеватель]] [[sv:Alfons VI av Portugal]] [[uk:Афонсо I (король Португалії)]] [[zh:阿方索一世 (葡萄牙)]] 1658 41852524 2006-03-02T03:50:57Z 213.13.246.244 {{House of Burgundy}} [[Image:AfonsoII-P.jpg|left|Afonso II of Portugal]] '''Afonso II of Portugal''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ɐ.'fõ.su}}/; [[English language|English]] ''Alphonzo''), or ''Affonso'' (Archaic Portuguese), ''Alfonso'' or ''Alphonso'' ([[Portuguese-Galician languages|Portuguese-Galician]]) or ''Alphonsus'' ([[Latin language|Latin]] version), known as ''the Fat'' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Gordo''), third [[List of Portuguese monarchs|king of Portugal]], was born in [[Coimbra]] on [[April 23]] [[1185]] and died on [[March 25]] [[1223]] in the same city. He was the second but eldest surviving son of [[Sancho I of Portugal]] by his wife, Dulce of Barcelona, princess of Aragon. Afonso succeeded his father in [[1212]]. As a king, Afonso II set a different approach of government. Hitherto, Sancho I his father and [[Afonso I of Portugal|Afonso I]] his grandfather, were mostly concerned with military issues either against the neighbouring [[Castile]] or against the [[Moors]] in the south. Afonso did not pursue territory enlargement policies and managed to insure peace with Castile during his reign. Despite this, some towns, like [[Alcácer do Sal]] in [[1217]], were conquered from the Moors by the particular initiative of noblemen. This does not mean that he was a weak or somehow cowardly man. The first years of his reign were marked instead by internal disturbances between Afonso and his brothers and sisters. The king managed to keep security within Portuguese borders only by outlawing and exiling his kin. Since military issues were not a government priority, Afonso established the state's administration and centralized power on himself. He designed the first set of Portuguese written laws. These were mainly concerned with [[private property]], civil [[justice]], and [[minting]]. Afonso also sent ambassadors to [[European]] kingdoms outside the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and began amiable [[trade|commercial]] relations with most of them. Other reforms included the always delicate matters with the pope. In order to get the independence of Portugal recognized by the popes, his grandfather, Afonso I, had to legislate an enormous amount of privileges to the Church. These eventually created a state within the state. With Portugal's position as a country firmly established, Afonso II endeavoured to weaken the power of the [[clergy]] and to apply a portion of the enormous revenues of the [[Catholic church]] to purposes of national utility. These actions led to a serious diplomatic conflict between the pope and Portugal. After being [[excommunicated]] for his audacities by [[Pope Honorius III]], Afonso II promised to make amends to the church, but he died in [[1223]] before making any serious attempts to do so. ===Afonso's descendents=== Afonso married [[Urraca, princess of Castile]], daughter of [[Alfonso VIII of Castile|Alfonso VIII]], [[King of Castile]], and [[Leonora of Aquitaine]], in [[1208]]. {| border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse;" |- bgcolor=cccccc !Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes |- |colspan=4|'''By [[Urraca, princess of Castile|Urraca of Castile]]''' ([[1186]]-[[1220]]; married in [[1208]]) |- |[[Sancho II of Portugal|Sancho II]]||[[September 8]] [[1207]]||[[January 4]] [[1248]]||Succeeded him as 4th [[King of Portugal]] |- |[[Afonso III of Portugal|Afonso III]]||[[May 5]] [[1210]]||[[February 16]] [[1279]]||Succeeded his brother Sancho as 5th [[King of Portugal]] |- |[[Leonor of Portugal (1211-1231)|Eleanor]]||[[1211]]||[[1231]]||Married King [[Valdemar III of Denmark]] |- |[[Ferdinand, Prince of Portugal (1217-1246)|Ferdinand]]||a. [[1217]]||c. [[1243]]||Lord of [[Serpa]] |- |Vicente||[[1219]]||[[1219]]||&nbsp; |- |colspan=4|'''Natural offspring''' |- |[[João Afonso]]||?||[[1234]]||Natural son |- |[[Pedro Afonso]]||c. [[1210]]||?||Natural son |} ===See also=== [[Kings of Portugal family tree]] ==References== *{{1911}} {{s-start}} {{s-bef|before=[[Sancho I of Portugal|Sancho I]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of Portuguese monarchs|King of Portugal]]|years=[[1211]]&ndash;[[1233]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Sancho II of Portugal|Sancho II]]}} [[Category:1185 births]] [[Category:1233 deaths]] [[Category:Portuguese monarchs]] [[ca:Alfons II de Portugal]] [[de:Alfons II. (Portugal)]] [[es:Alfonso II de Portugal]] [[fr:Alphonse II de Portugal]] [[pl:Alfons II (król Portugalii)]] [[pt:Afonso II de Portugal]] [[ru:Афонсу II]] [[zh:阿方索二世 (葡萄牙)]] 1659 41657943 2006-02-28T21:21:44Z 72.224.95.121 {{House of Burgundy}} '''Afonso III of Portugal''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ɐ.'fõ.su}}/; [[English language|English]] ''Alphonzo''), or ''Affonso'' (Archaic Portuguese), ''Alfonso'' or ''Alphonso'' ([[Portuguese-Galician languages|Portuguese-Galician]]) or ''Alphonsus'' ([[Latin language|Latin]]), the ''Bolognian'' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Bolonhês'') or the ''Brave'' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Bravo''), the fifth [[List of Portuguese monarchs|king of Portugal]] ([[May 5]] [[1210]] in [[Coimbra]] &ndash; [[February 16]] [[1279]] in [[Alcobaça]], [[Coimbra]] or [[Lisbon]]). He was the second son of King [[Afonso II of Portugal]] and his wife, [[Urraca of Castile]]; he succeeded his brother, King [[Sancho II of Portugal]] in [[1247]]. {| ALIGN="left" |- | [[Image:AfonsoIII-P.jpg]] |} As the second son of King Afonso II of Portugal, Afonso was not expected to inherit the throne, which was destined to go to his brother Sancho. He lived mostly in [[France]], were he married Matilda, the heiress of [[Boulogne]], in [[1238]], thereby becoming [[Count of Boulogne]]. In [[1246]], conflicts between his brother, the king, and the church became unbearable. [[Pope Innocent IV]] then ordered Sancho II to be removed from the throne and be replaced by the Count of Boulogne. Afonso, of course, did not refuse the papal order and marched to Portugal. Since Sancho was not a popular king, the order was not hard to enforce; he was exiled to [[Castile]] and Afonso III became king in [[1247]]. To ascend the throne, he abdicated from the county of Boulogne and later ([[1253]]) divorced Matilda. In 1253 he married Brites (Beatrix), an illegitimate daughter of King [[Alfonso X of Castile]]. Determined not to commit the same mistakes as his brother, Afonso III paid special attention to what the middle class composed of merchants and small land owners had to say. In [[1254]], in the city of [[Leiria]], he held the first session of the ''[[Cortes Generales|Cortes]]'', a general assembly, comprised of the nobility, the middle class and representatives of all [[municipalities]]. He also made laws intended to restrain the upper classes from abusing the least favoured part of the population. Remembered as a notable administrator, Afonso III founded several towns, granted the title of city to many others and reorganized public administration. [[Image:EstatuaDAfonsoIIIFaro.JPG|thumb|left|Statue of Afonso III in [[Faro, Portugal|Faro]].]] Secure on the throne, Afonso III then proceeded to make war with the [[Muslim]] communities that still thrived in the south. In his reign the [[Algarve]] became part of the kingdom following the capture of [[Faro, Portugal|Faro]]&mdash;Portugal thus becoming the first Iberian kingdom to complete its ''[[Reconquista]]''. Following his success against the Moors, Afonso III had to deal with a political situation arising from the borders with Castile. The neighbouring kingdom considered that the newly acquired lands of Algarve should be Castilian, not Portuguese, which led to a series of wars between the countries. Finally, in [[1267]], a treaty was signed in [[Badajoz]], determining that the southern border between Castile and Portugal should be the River [[Guadiana]], as it is today. ===Afonso's marriages and descendants=== Afonso's first wife was [[Matilda II of Boulogne]], daughter of [[Renaud, Count of Dammartin]], and [[Ida of Boulogne]]. She had two sons but both died young (Roberto and an unnamed one). He divorced Matilda in [[1253]] and in the same year married [[Beatrix of Castile]], illegitimate daughter of [[Alfonso X of Castile|Alfonso X]], [[King of Castile]], and [[Maria de Guzman]]. {| border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse;" |- bgcolor=cccccc !Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes |- |colspan=4|'''By [[Matilda II of Boulogne]]''' (c. [[1202]]-[[1262]]; married in [[1216]]) |- |Robert||[[1239]]||[[1239]]|| &nbsp; |- |colspan=4|'''By [[Beatrix of Castile]]''' ([[1242]]-[[1303]]; married in [[1253]]) |- |[[Branca of Portugal|Branca]]||[[February 25]] [[1259]]||[[April 17]] [[1321]]||Abbess of the Convent of Huelgas |- |Ferdinand||[[1260]]||[[1262]]||&nbsp; |- |[[Dinis of Portugal|Denis]]||[[October 9]] [[1261]]||[[January 7]] [[1325]]||Succeeded him as 6th [[King of Portugal]]; Married Princess Isabel of Aragon |- |[[Afonso, Lord of Portalegre|Afonso]]||[[February 8]] [[1263]]||[[November 2]] [[1312]]||Lord of [[Portalegre]]. Married to Princess Violante Manoel of Castile (daughter of [[Juan Manuel of Castile]]) |- |[[Sancha of Portugal (1264-1279)|Sancha]]||[[February 2]] [[1264]]||c. [[1302]]||&nbsp; |- |[[Maria of Portugal (1264-1304)|Maria]]||[[November 21]] [[1264]]||[[June 6]] [[1304]]||Nun at the [[Santa Cruz Monastery|Convent of Saint John]] in [[Coimbra]] |- |Constance||[[1266]]||[[1271]]||&nbsp; |- |Vincent||[[1268]]||[[1271]]||&nbsp; |- |colspan=4|'''By [[Madragana|Madragana (Mor Afonso)]]''' (c. [[1230]]-?) |- |[[Martim Chichorro|Martim Afonso Chichorro]]||c. [[1250]]||a. [[1313]]||Natural son; Married Inês Lourenço de Valadres. |- |[[Urraca Afonso]]||c. [[1260]]||?||Natural daughter; Married twice: 1st to D. Pedro Anes de Riba Vizela, 2nd to João Mendes de Briteiros |- |colspan=4|'''By [[Maria Peres de Enxara]]''' (?-?) |- |[[Afonso Dinis]]||c. [[1260]]||a. [[1310]]||Natural son; Married to D. Maria Pais Ribeira, Lady of the House of Sousa. |- |colspan=4|'''Other natural offspring''' |- |[[Leonor Afonso, Countess of Neiva|Leonor Afonso]]||c. [[1250]]||[[1291]]||Natural daughter. Married twice: 1st to D. Estevão Anes de Sousa (without issue), 2nd to D. Gonçalo Garcia de Sousa, Count of [[Neiva]] (without issue). |- |[[Gil Afonso]]||[[1250]]||[[December 31]] [[1346]]||Natural son; Gentleman of the Order do Hospital. |- |[[Fernando Afonso]]||?||?||Natural son; Gentleman of the Order do Hospital. |- |[[Rodrigo Afonso]]||[[1258]]||about [[May 12]] [[1272]]||Natural son; Prior of the city of [[Santarem]]. |- |[[Leonor Afonso (nun)]]||?||[[1259]]||Natural daughter; Nun in the Monastery of Santa Clara of [[Santarem]]. |- |[[Urraca Afonso]]||[[1250]]||[[November 4]] [[1281]]||Natural daughter; Nun in the Monastery of Lorvao. |- |[[Henrique Afonso]]||?||?||Natural son; Married to Inês (last name unknown). |} ===See also=== [[Kings of Portugal family tree]] {{s-start}} {{s-bef|before=[[Sancho II of Portugal|Sancho II]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of Portuguese monarchs|King of Portugal]]|years=[[1248]]&ndash;[[1279]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Denis of Portugal|Denis]]}} ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1210 births]] [[Category:1279 deaths]] [[Category:Portuguese monarchs]] [[ca:Alfons III de Portugal]] [[de:Alfons III. (Portugal)]] [[es:Alfonso III de Portugal]] [[fr:Alphonse III de Portugal]] [[pl:Alfons III (król Portugalii)]] [[pt:Afonso III de Portugal]] [[ru:Афонсу III]] [[zh:阿方索三世 (葡萄牙)]] 1660 41696316 2006-03-01T03:01:50Z Sparklegurl32 132183 Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]]) {{House of Burgundy}} '''Afonso IV of Portugal''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ɐ.'fõ.su}}/; [[English language|English]] ''Alphonzo''), or ''Affonso'' (Archaic Portuguese), ''Alfonso'' or ''Alphonso'' ([[Portuguese-Galician languages|Portuguese-Galician]]) or ''Alphonsus'' ([[Latin language|Latin]]), ([[February 8]] [[1291]] &ndash; [[May 28]] [[1357]]), known as ''the Brave'' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Bravo''), was the seventh [[List of Portuguese monarchs|king of Portugal]] from [[1325]] until his death. He was the only legitimate son of [[Dinis of Portugal]] by his wife [[Elizabeth of Portugal|Elizabeth]]. [[Image:AfonsoIV-P.jpg|left|Afonso IV of Portugal]] Afonso, born in [[Lisbon]], was his father's only legitimate son and the rightful heir to the Portuguese throne. However, he was not, according to several sources, Dinis' favourite son; his half-brother, the illegitimate [[Afonso Sanches]], enjoyed full royal favour. From early in life, the notorious rivalry led to several outbreaks of [[civil war]]. On [[January 7]], [[1325]], Afonso's father died and he became king, taking full revenge on his brother. His rival was sentenced to [[exile]] in [[Castile]], and stripped of all the lands and [[fiefdom]]s donated by their common father. Afonso Sanches, however, did not sit still. From Castile, he orchestrated a series of attempts to usurp the crown for himself. After a few failed attempts at invasion, both brothers signed a peace treaty, arranged by the Queen Isabella. In [[1309]], Afonso IV married princess Beatrice, daughter of King [[Sancho IV of Castile]] by his wife [[Maria de Molina]]. The first-born of this union, princess [[Maria of Portugal]], married King [[Alfonso XI of Castile]] in [[1328]], at the same time that Afonso IV's heir, Peter, was promised to another Castilian princess, [[Constance of Penafiel]]. These arrangements were imperiled by the ill will of Alfonso XI of Castile, who was, at the time, publicly mistreating his wife. Afonso IV was not happy to see his daughter abused, and started a war against Castile. Peace arrived four years later, with the intervention of princess Maria herself. A peace treaty was signed in [[Seville]] in [[1339]] and, in the next year, Portuguese troops played an important role in the victory of the [[Battle of Rio Salado]] over the Marinids [[Moors]] in October [[1340]]. The last part of Afonso IV's reign is marked not by open warfare against Castile, but by political intrigue. Civil war between King [[Peter I of Castile]] and his half-brother [[Henry of Trastamara]] led to the exile of many Castilian [[nobility|noble]]s to [[Portugal]]. These immigrants immediately created a faction among the Portuguese court, aiming at privileges and power that, somehow, could compensate what they lost at home. The faction grew in power, especially after [[Ines de Castro]], daughter of an important nobleman and maid of the [[Constance of Penafiel|Crown Princess Constance]], became the lover of her lady's husband: [[Peter I of Portugal|Peter]], the heir of Portugal. Afonso IV was displeased with his son's choice of lovers, and hoped that the relationship would be a futile one. Unfortunately for internal politics, it was not. Peter was openly in love with Ines, recognized all the children she bore, and, worst of all, favoured the Castilians that surrounded her. Moreover, after his wife's death in [[1349]], Peter refused the idea of marrying anyone other than Ines herself. The situation became worse as the years passed and the aging Afonso lost control over his court. Peter's only male heir, future king [[Fernando of Portugal]], was a sickly child, while the illegitimate children sired with Ines thrived. Worried about his legitimate grandson's life, and the growing power of Castile within Portugal's borders, Afonso ordered the murder of [[Ines de Castro]] in [[1355]]. He expected his son to act reasonably, but the heir was not able to forgive him for the act. Enraged at the barbaric act, Peter put himself at the head of an army and devastated the country between the [[Douro]] and the [[Minho]] rivers before he was reconciled to his father in early [[1357]]. Afonso died almost immediately after, in Lisbon in May. As king, Afonso IV is remembered as a soldier and a valiant general, hence the nickname ''the Brave''. But perhaps his most important contribution was the importance he gave to the Portuguese [[navy]]. Afonso IV granted public funding to raise a proper [[trade|commercial]] fleet and ordered the first maritime explorations. The [[Canary Islands]] (today a part of [[Spain]]) were discovered during his reign. ===Afonso's descendants=== Afonso married Beatrice of [[Castile]] ([[1293]]-[[1359]]) in [[1309]], daughter of [[Sancho IV of Castile|Sancho IV]], [[King of Castile]], and Maria de Molia and had four sons and three daughters. {| border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse;" |- bgcolor=cccccc !Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes |- |colspan=4|'''By [[Beatrice of Castile]]''' ([[1293]]-[[1359]]; married in [[1309]]) |- |[[Maria of Portugal (1313-1357)|Princess Maria]]||[[1313]]||[[1357]]||Married to [[Alfonso XI of Castile]] |- |Prince Afonso||[[1315]]||[[1315]]||&nbsp; |- |Prince Denis||[[1317]]||[[1318]]||&nbsp; |- |[[Peter I of Portugal|Peter I]]||[[April 8]] [[1320]]||[[January 18]] [[1367]]||Succeeded him as 8th [[King of Portugal]] |- |Princess Isabel||[[December 21]] [[1324]]||[[July 11]] [[1326]]||&nbsp; |- |Prince John||[[September 23]] [[1326]]||[[June 21]] [[1327]]||&nbsp; |- |[[Leonor of Portugal (1328-1348)|Princess Leonor]]||[[1328]]||[[1348]]||Married to [[Peter IV of Aragon|Peter IV]], [[King of Aragon]] |- |colspan=4|'''Illegitimate offspring''' |- |[[Maria Afonso]]||[[1316]]||[[1384]]||Natural daughter |} ===See also=== [[Kings of Portugal family tree]] {{s-start}} {{s-bef|before=[[Denis of Portugal|Denis]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of Portuguese monarchs|King of Portugal]]|years=[[1325]]&ndash;[[1457]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Peter I of Portugal|Peter I]]}} {{1911}} [[Category:Portuguese monarchs]] [[Category:1291 births|Afonso IV of Portugal]] [[Category:1357 deaths|Afonso IV of Portugal]] [[de:Alfons IV. (Portugal)]] [[es:Alfonso IV de Portugal]] [[fr:Alphonse IV de Portugal]] [[pl:Alfons IV (król Portugalii)]] [[pt:Afonso IV de Portugal]] [[zh:阿方索四世 (葡萄牙)]] 1661 37706610 2006-02-01T18:16:54Z Cyrruss 755021 {{House of Aviz}} [[Image:AfonsoV-P.jpg|left|Afonso V of Portugal]] '''Afonso V of Portugal''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ɐ.'fõ.su}}/; [[English language|English]] ''Alphonzo''), or ''Affonso'' (Archaic Portuguese), ''the African'' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Africano''), 12th [[List of Portuguese monarchs|king of Portugal]] was born in [[Sintra]] in [[January 15]] [[1432]] and died in the same city in [[August 28]] [[1481]]. He was the oldest son of king [[Duarte of Portugal]] by his wife, princess Eleanor of [[Aragon]]. Afonso V was onlly six years old when he succeeded his father in [[1438]]. During his minority, Afonso V was placed under the regency of his mother, according to a late will of his father. As both a foreigner and a woman, the queen was not a popular choice for regent. Opposition rose and the queen's only ally was [[Afonso, Duke of Braganza|Afonso]], the illegitimate half brother of Duarte I and count of Barcelos. In the following year, the ''Cortes'' (assembly of the kingdom) decide to replace the queen with [[Pedro, Duke of Coimbra]], the young king's oldest uncle. His main policies were concerned with avoiding the development of great noble houses, kingdoms inside the kingdom, and concentrating power in the person of the king. The country prospered under his rule, but not peacefully, as his laws interfered with the ambition of powerful nobles. The count of Barcelos, a personal enemy of the duke of Coimbra (despite being half-brothers) eventually became the king's favourite uncle and began a constant struggle for power. In [[1442]], the king made Afonso the first [[Duke of Braganza]]. With this title and its lands, he became the most powerful man in Portugal and one of the richest men in Europe. To secure his position as regent, in [[1445]] Pedro married his daughter, Isabel of Coimbra, princess of Portugal, to Afonso V. But in [[June 9]] [[1448]], when the king came of age, Pedro had to surrender his power to Afonso V. The years of conspiracy by the duke of Braganza finally came to a head. In [[September 15]] of the same year, Afonso V nullified all the laws and edicts approved under the regency. The situation became unstable and, in the following year, being led by what he afterwards discovered to be false representations, Afonso declared Pedro a rebel and defeated his army in the [[battle of Alfarrobeira]], in which both his uncle and father in law was killed. After this battle and the loss of one of Portugal's most remarkable princes, the duke of Braganza became the ''de facto'' ruler of the country. Afonso V then turned his attentions to the North of Africa. In his grandfather's ([[John I of Portugal]]) reign, [[Ceuta]] had been conquered to the king of [[Morocco]], now the new king wanted to expand the conquests. The king's army conquered Alcacer Ceguer ([[1458]]), [[Tangiers]] (won and lost several times between [[1460]] and [[1464]]) and [[Arzila]] ([[1470]]). This achievements granted the king the nickname of ''African''. The king also supported the exploration of the [[Atlantic Ocean]] led by prince [[Henry the Navigator]] but, after Henry's death in [[1460]] he did nothing to pursue this course of action. Administratively, Afonso V was an absent king, since he did not pursue development of laws or commerce, preferring to stand with the legacy of his father and grandfather. [[Image:Domafonsov.jpg|left|200px|Afonso V of Portugal, Conqueror of African strongholds]] When the campaigns in Africa were over, Afonso V found new grounds to battle in the Iberian Peninsula. In neighbouring [[Castile]], a huge scandal with political and dynastic implications was rising. King [[Henry IV of Castile]] was dying without heirs. From his two marriages, only a daughter, [[Joan, princess of Castile]] had been born. But her paternity was questioned, as rumour said the king was impotent and the queen, princess Joana of Portugal, had a notorious affair with a nobleman called Beltrán de La Cueva. The birth of princess Joan in [[1462]], openly called ''the Beltraneja'', caused the divorce of her parents. She was never consider legitimate and, now that the king was dying, no one took her as a serious contender for the crown. Her aunt, [[Isabella I of Castile]] that was due to inherit the crown. But Afonso V was keen to interfere with the succession in Castile. In [[1475]] he married his niece Joan, the Beltraneja, who he considered the legitimate heir to the crown. Since her adulteress mother was his own sister, Afonso V had not only ambition, but the family honour to protect. He proclaimed himself king of Castile and [[Kingdom of León|León]] and prepared to defend his wife's rights. But in the following year he was defeated at the [[battle of Toro]] by king [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]], the husband of Isabella of Castile. He went to [[France]] to obtain the assistance of [[Louis XI of France|Louis XI]], but finding himself deceived by the French monarch, he returned to Portugal in [[1477]] with very low spirits. Disillusioned and depressed he fell into a deep melancholy and abdicated to his son João. After this, he retired to a monastery in [[Sintra]] where he died in 1481. His death was mourned in the country, by the people who loved the king, and by the nobles who were starting to fear his successor. Afonso was a direct descendant of [[Edward III of England]] through his son [[John of Gaunt]] and therefore was a direct descendant of [[William the Conqueror]], [[King of England]]. ===Afonso's marriages and descendants=== Afonso married first to his cousin [[Isabel of Coimbra]] in [[1447]]. Isabel died in [[1455]] and Afonso married again (although not recognized by the Papacy) in [[1475]], this time to [[Joan, princess of Castile|Joan of Castile]] (known as "la Beltraneja"), daughter of [[Henry IV of Castile]] and [[Joan of Portugal]]. This marriage was an attempt to inherit the throne of Castile as Joan was the sole daughter of Henry IV. However this didn't happen as Afonso lost a short war with Castile. {| border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse;" |- bgcolor=cccccc !Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes |- |colspan=4|'''By [[Isabel of Coimbra]]''' ([[1432]]-[[December 2]] [[1445]]; married on [[February 2]] [[1387]]) |- |Prince John||[[January 29]] [[1451]]||[[1451]]||&nbsp; |- |[[Saint Joan of Portugal|Princess Joan]]||[[February 6]] [[1452]]||[[May 12]] [[1490]]||Known as Saint Joan of Portugal or Saint Joan Princess. [[Canonized]] in [[1693]] by [[Pope Innocent XII]] |- |[[John II of Portugal|John II]]||[[March 3]] [[1455]]||[[October 25]] [[1495]]||Who succeeded him as 13th [[King of Portugal]]. |- |colspan=4|'''[[Joan, princess of Castile|Joan of Castile]]''' ([[1462]]-[[1530]]; married on [[May 30]] [[1475]]) |- |colspan=4|'''By [[Maria Álvares de Carvalho]]''' (?-?) |- |[[Álvaro Soares de Carvalho]]||c. [[1467]]||[[1557]]||Natural son. |} '''See also:''' [[Kings of Portugal family tree]], [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] (contemporary Portuguese naval general) {{s-start}} {{s-bef|before=[[Edward of Portugal|Edward]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of Portuguese monarchs|King of Portugal]]|years=[[1438]]&ndash;[[1481]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[John II of Portugal|John II]]}} {{end}} [[Category:Portuguese monarchs]] [[Category:Knights of the Garter]] [[Category:1432 births|Afonso V of Portugal]] [[Category:1481 deaths|Afonso V of Portugal]] [[bg:Афонсу V (Португалия)]] [[de:Alfons V. (Portugal)]] [[es:Alfonso V de Portugal]] [[fr:Alphonse V de Portugal]] [[pl:Alfons V (król Portugalii)]] [[pt:Afonso V de Portugal]] [[zh:阿方索五世 (葡萄牙)]] 1662 32913976 2005-12-27T21:13:35Z Airunp 241848 +es: {|align=right |- |[[Image:Afonsoviportugal.jpg|left|150px]] |- |{{House of Braganza}} |} '''Afonso VI''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ɐ.'fõ.su}}/; [[English language|English]] ''Alphonzo'' or ''Alphonse''), or ''Affonso'' (Old Portuguese), ([[August 21]],[[1643]]-[[September 12]], [[1683]]) was the twenty-second (or twenty-third according to some historians) [[Kings of Portugal|King]] of [[Portugal]], the second of the [[House of Braganza]], known as '''the Victorious''' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Vitorioso''). He succeeded his father ([[João IV]]) in [[1656]] at the age of thirteen. His mother, ([[D. Luisa de Gusmão]]) was named regent in his father's will. At the age of three, he had suffered an illness that left him paralyzed on the left side of his body, as well as leaving him mentally unstable. This, plus his disinterest in ruling left his mother as regent for six years, until 1662. Luisa oversaw military victories over the [[Spain|Spanish]] at [[Ameixial]] ([[June 8]] [[1663]]) and [[Montes Claros]] ([[June 17]] [[1665]]), culminating in the final Spanish recognition of Portugal's independence on [[February 13]] [[1668]]. Colonial affairs saw the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] conquest of [[Jaffnapatam]], Portugal's last colony in [[Sri Lanka]] ([[1658]]) and the cession of [[Bombay]] and [[Tangier]] to [[England]] ([[June 23]] [[1661]]) as dowry for Afonso's sister, [[Catherine of Braganza]] who had married King [[Charles II of England]]. English mediation in 1661 saw the [[Netherlands]] acknowledge Portuguese rule of [[Brazil]] in return for uncontested control of Sri Lanka. In [[1667]] In 1662, the [[Conde de Castelo-Melhor|Count of Castelo-Melhor]] saw an opportunity to gain power at court by befriending the king. He managed to convince the king that his mother was out to steal his throne and exile him from Portugal. As a result, Afonso took control of the throne and his mother sent to a convent. [[Image:AfonsoVIPortugal.jpg|left|thumb|150px]]He was married to ([[Marie Françoise of Nemours]]), the daughter of the Duke of Savoy, in 1666, but this marriage would not last long. Marie, or Maria Francisca, as the Portuguese call her, filed for an annullment in 1667 based on the impotence of the king. The Church granted her the annulment, and she married Afonso's brother, D. Pedro, (future ([[D. Pedro II]])). That same year, D. Pedro managed to gain enough support to force the king to relinquish control of the government and he became the Prince Regent. Afonso was banished to the island of [[Terceira]] in the [[Azores]] for seven years, returning to Portugal shortly before he died at [[Sintra]] in [[1683]]. {{s-start}} {{s-bef|before=[[John IV of Portugal|John IV]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of Portuguese monarchs|King of Portugal]]|years=[[1656]]&ndash;[[1667]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Peter II of Portugal|Peter II]]}} {{end}} ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1643 births|Afonso VI of Portugal]] [[Category:1675 deaths|Afonso VI of Portugal]] [[Category:Portuguese monarchs]] [[Category:Dukes of Braganza]] [[de:Alfons VI. (Portugal)]] [[es:Alfonso VI de Portugal]] [[it:Alfonso VI di Portogallo]] [[ja:アフォンソ6世]] [[pl:Alfons VI (król Portugalii)]] [[pt:Afonso VI de Portugal]] [[zh:阿方索六世 (葡萄牙)]] 1663 15900129 2005-04-13T06:47:33Z JonnyR 234035 {{disambig}} There has not been a monarch known as '''Alphonso''' or '''Alfonso I of Spain''', the first king of that name of the unified [[Spain]] being [[Alfonso XII of Spain|Alfonso XII]] ([[1874]]-[[1885]]). Several precursor kingdoms have had an '''Alfonso I'''. You may have been looking for: *[[Alfonso I of Asturias]] ([[739]]-[[757]]). *[[Alfonso I of Aragon]] and Navarre ([[1104]]-[[1134]]), known as ''the Battler''. *[[Alfonso II of Aragon|Alfons I, Count of Barcelona]] ([[1162]]-[[1196]]) known as ''el Cast (the Chaste)'' or ''el Trobador (the Troubadour)'', also Alfonso II of Aragon. {{disambig}} 1664 40292012 2006-02-19T16:01:57Z Yearofthedragon 472 [[Image:Spain.Santiago.de.Compostela.Alfonso.II.jpg|thumb|Statue Alfonso II, Santiago de Compostela]] '''Alfonso II''' ([[759]]-[[842]], king [[791]]), [[Alfonso I of Asturias|Alfonso I]]'s reputed grandson, bears the name of "the Chaste." The [[Arab]] writers who speak of the [[Spain|Spanish]] kings of the north-west as the Beni-Altons, appear to recognize them as a royal stock derived from Alfonso I. The events of his reign are in reality unknown. Poets of a later generation invented the story of the secret marriage of his sister Ximena with Sancho, count of Saldana, and the feats of their son [[Bernardo del Carpio]]. Bernardo is the hero of a ''[[cantar de gesta]]'' (''chanson de geste'') written to please the anarchical spirit of the nobles. ==References== *{{1911}} {{s-start}} {{s-bef|before=[[Bermudo I of Asturias]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of Asturian monarchs|King of Asturias]]|years=[[791]]–[[842]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Ramiro I of Asturias]]}} {{end}} [[Category:Asturian monarchs]] [[ast:Alfonso II]] [[ca:Alfons II d'Astúries]] [[de:Alfons II. (Asturien)]] [[es:Alfonso II de Asturias]] [[gl:Afonso II de Asturias]] [[nl:Alfons II van Asturië]] [[pt:Afonso II das Astúrias]] 1665 34237308 2006-01-07T13:26:14Z Wiki alf 303874 red Alfonso III of León #Redirect [[Alfonso III of León]] 1666 15900132 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Analytical engine]] 1667 34237448 2006-01-07T13:28:24Z Wiki alf 303874 red Alfonso IV of León #Redirect [[Alfonso IV of León]] 1668 23226170 2005-09-14T15:54:58Z John Kenney 10512 #REDIRECT [[Alfonso V of León]] 1669 40359160 2006-02-20T01:16:37Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 External links per MoS. '''Amara Sinha''' (c. [[375|AD 375]]) was a [[Sanskrit]] [[grammar]]ian and [[poet]], of whose personal history hardly anything is known. He is said to have been "one of the nine gems that adorned the throne of [[Vikramaditya]]," and according to the evidence of Hsuan Tsang, this is the [[Chandragupta Vikramaditya]] ([[Chandragupta II]]) that flourished about AD 375. Amara seems to have been a [[Buddhist]]; and an early tradition asserts that his works, with one exception, were destroyed during the persecution carried on by the orthodox [[Brahmin]]s in the [[5th century]]. The exception is the celebrated ''Amara-Kosha'' (''Treasury of Amara''), a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots, in three books, and hence sometimes called ''Trikanda'' or the "Tripartite." It contains 10,000 words, and is arranged, like other works of its class, in metre, to aid the memory. The first chapter of the ''Kosha'' was printed at [[Rome]] in Tamil character in 1798. An edition of the entire work, with English notes and an index by [[Henry Thomas Colebrooke|HT Colebrooke]], appeared at [[Serampore]] in 1808. The Sanskrit text was printed at [[Calcutta]] in 1831. A French translation by ALA Loiseleur-Deslongchamps as published at Paris in 1839. ==References== *{{1911}} ==External links== *[http://sanskrit.gde.to/doc_z_misc_amarakosha.html Amarakosha Sanskrit text] 1670 15900136 2002-12-29T07:31:48Z Montrealais 3378 #REDIRECT [[Alfonso VI of Castile]] 1671 15900137 2002-12-29T07:32:18Z Montrealais 3378 #REDIRECT [[Alfonso VII of Castile]] 1672 15900138 2002-12-29T07:32:41Z Montrealais 3378 #REDIRECT [[Alfonso VIII of Castile]] 1673 15900139 2004-08-06T23:34:16Z Timwi 13051 fix double-redirect #REDIRECT [[Alfonso IX of Leon]] 1674 15900140 2002-12-29T07:59:34Z Montrealais 3378 #REDIRECT [[Alfonso X of Castile]] 1675 15900141 2002-12-29T16:01:06Z Montrealais 3378 #REDIRECT [[Alfonso XI of Castile]] 1676 41447727 2006-02-27T10:59:39Z Dimadick 24198 Added link to his legal father {|align=right |[[Image:Alfonso XII.png|thumb|'''Alfonso XII'''<br><small>King of Spain</br></small>]] |- |{{House of Bourbon}} |} '''Alfonso XII of Spain''' ([[November 28]], [[1857]]&ndash;[[November 25]], [[1885]]), was king of [[Spain]], reigning from 1875 to 1885, after a ''[[coup d'état]]'' restored the monarchy and ended the ephemeral [[First Spanish Republic]]. He was son of [[Isabella II of Spain]]. His biological paternity is uncertain, though his legal paternity is not: his mother was married to her homosexual cousin [[Francis of Asis de Bourbon]], Infante, and king Consort of Spain, eldest son of the duke of Cadiz, at the time of Alfonso's conception and birth. Alfonso's biological father is said to have been Enrique Puig y Moltó, a captain of the guard, or [[Francisco Serrano y Dominguez|General Serrano]]. When Queen Isabella and her husband were forced to leave Spain by the [[revolution of 1868]], Alfonso accompanied them to [[Paris]], and from there he was sent to the [[Theresianum]] at [[Vienna]] to continue his studies. On [[June 25]] [[1870]] he was recalled to Paris, where his mother abdicated in his favour, in the presence of a number of Spanish nobles who had followed the fortunes of the exiled queen. He assumed the title of Alfonso XII; for although no king of united Spain had previously borne the name, the Spanish monarchy was regarded as continuous with the more ancient monarchy, represented by the eleven kings of [[Kingdom of León|León]] and [[Castile]] also named [[Alfonso]]. Shortly afterwards he proceeded to the [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst]] in the [[United Kingdom]], to continue his military studies, and while there he issued, on the [[December 1]], [[1874]], in reply to a birthday greeting from his followers, a manifesto proclaiming himself the sole representative of the Spanish monarchy. At the end of the year, when Marshal Serrano left [[Madrid]] to take command of the northern army in the [[Carlist War]], Brigadier [[Arsenio Martínez Campos|Martinez Campos]], who had long been working more or less openly for the king, carried off some battalions of the central army to [[Sagunto]], rallied to his own flag the troops sent against him, and entered [[Valencia]] in the king's name. Thereupon the president of the council resigned, and the power was transferred to the king's plenipotentiary and adviser, [[Canovas del Castillo]]. In the course of a few days the king arrived at Madrid, passing through [[Barcelona]] and Valencia, and was received everywhere with acclamation (1875). In 1876 a vigorous campaign against the [[Carlists]], in which the young king took part, resulted in the defeat of [[Infante Carlos of Spain|Don Carlos]] and his abandonment of the struggle. On [[January 23]], [[1878]] Alfonso married his cousin, Princess [[Maria de las Mercedes of Spain|Maria de las Mercedes]], daughter of the duc de Montpensier, but she died within six months of her marriage. Towards the end of the same year a young workman of [[Tarragona]], [[Juan Oliva Moncasi]], fired at the king in Madrid. On [[November 29]], [[1879]] he married a much more distant relative, Archduchess [[Maria Christina of Austria]], daughter of [[Karl Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria|Archduke Karl Ferdinand of Austria]]. During the honeymoon a pastrycook named Otero fired at the young sovereigns as they were driving in Madrid. The children of this marriage were: * [[Maria de las Mercedes]], Princess of Asturias, ([[September 11]], [[1880]] &ndash; [[October 17]], [[1904]]), married on [[February 14]], [[1901]] to Prince Carlos of Bourbon, and titular heiress from the death of her father until the posthumous birth of her brother * Maria Teresa, ([[November 12]], [[1882]] &ndash; [[September 23]], [[1912]]), married to Prince Ferdinand of Bavaria on [[January 12]], [[1906]] * King [[Alfonso XIII of Spain|Alfonso XIII]] who was king from the moment of his birth and thus never held any other Spanish titles from the crown, such as Infante or Prince of Asturias. In 1881 the king refused to sanction the law by which the ministers were to remain in office for a fixed term of eighteen months, and upon the consequent resignation of Canovas del Castillo, he summoned [[Práxedes Mateo Sagasta]], the Liberal leader, to form a cabinet. Alfonso died of [[tuberculosis]]. Coming to the throne at such an early age, he had served no apprenticeship in the art of ruling, but he possessed great natural tact and a sound judgment ripened by the trials of exile. Benevolent and sympathetic in disposition, he won the affection of his people by fearlessly visiting the districts ravaged by cholera or devastated by [[earthquake]] in 1885. His capacity for dealing with men was considerable, and he never allowed himself to become the instrument of any particular party. In his short reign, peace was established both at home and abroad, the finances were well regulated, and the various administrative services were placed on a basis that afterwards enabled [[Spain]] to pass through the disastrous war with the [[United States]] without even the threat of a revolution. [[Image:Monument-to-Alfonso-XII.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Monument to Alfonso XII in [[Parque del Retiro]], [[Madrid]].]] {{s-start}} {{s-hou|[[House of Bourbon]]|[[28 November]]|1857|[[25 November]]|1885}} {{s-non|reason=[[First Spanish Republic|First Republic]]<br/>'''''<small>Title last held by<br/>[[Amadeo I of Spain|Amadeo I]]</small>''}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of Spanish monarchs|King of Spain]]|years=[[1875]]&ndash;[[1885]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Alfonso XIII of Spain|Alfonso XIII]]}} {{end}} ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Spanish monarchs]] [[Category:Knights of the Garter]] [[Category:1857 births|Alfonso XII of Spain]] [[Category:1885 deaths|Alfonso XII of Spain]] [[Category:House of Bourbon]] [[de:Alfons XII. (Spanien)]] [[es:Alfonso XII de España]] [[fr:Alphonse XII d'Espagne]] [[it:Alfonso XII di Spagna]] [[pl:Alfons XII Burbon]] [[pt:Afonso XII de Espanha]] [[sv:Alfons XII av Spanien]] [[zh:阿方索十二世]] 1677 41642999 2006-02-28T19:16:36Z Tail 64886 +lv: {|align=right |[[Image:Alfonso XIII of Spain.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Alfonso XIII'''<br><small>King of Spain</small>]] |- |{{House of Bourbon}} |} '''Alfonso XIII of Spain''' ([[May 17]], [[1886]] &ndash; [[February 28]], [[1941]]), [[List of Spanish monarchs|King of Spain]], posthumous son of [[Alfonso XII of Spain]], was proclaimed King at his birth. He reigned from 1886-1931. His mother, Queen [[Maria Christina of Austria]], was appointed [[regent]] during his minority. In 1902, on attaining his 16th year, the King assumed control of the government. The growth of the young monarch can be seen in his portraits on Spain's periodically issued [[peseta]] coins. On [[May 31]], [[1906]] he married Scottish-born [[Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg]] (1887-1969), a niece of King [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom]] and a granddaughter of Queen [[Victoria of the United Kingdom]]. A [[Serene Highness]] by birth, Ena, as she was known, was raised to Royal Highness status a month before her wedding to prevent the union from being viewed as unequal. As Alfonso XIII and Queen Ena were returning from the wedding they narrowly escaped the assassination attempted by the [[Anarchism|anarchist]] [[Mateu Morral]]; instead, the bomb explosion killed or injured many bystanders and members of the royal procession. The royal couple had seven children: * [[Infante]] Alfonso Pío Cristino Eduardo, [[Prince of Asturias]] ([[1907]]-[[1938]]), a [[hemophiliac|hemophiliac]], he renounced his rights to the throne in 1933 to marry a commoner, Edelmira Sampedro Ocejo y Robato, and became Count of [[Covadonga]]. He later remarried to Marta Esther Rocafort y Altazarra, but had no issue by either of them. * Infante [[Infante Jaime of Spain, Duke of Segovia|Jaime Luitpold Isabelino Enrique]] ([[1908]]-[[1975]]), a [[deaf-mute]] as the result of a childhood operation, he renounced his rights to the throne in 1933 and became Duke of [[Segovia]], and later Duke of Madrid, and who, as a [[legitimist]] [[pretender to the French throne]] from 1941 to 1975, was known as the Duke of [[Anjou]]. * Infanta Beatriz Isabel Federica Alfonsa Eugenia ([[1909]]-[[2002]]), who married [[Don Alessandro Torlonia, 5th Prince di Civitella-Cesi]]. * Infante Fernando, [[stillborn]] (1910) * Infanta [[Maria Cristina Teresa Alejandra]] ([[1911]]-[[1996]]), who married Enrico Eugenio Marone-Cinzano, 1st Conte di Marone. * Infante [[Juan de Borbón, Count of Barcelona|Juan Carlos Teresa Silvestre Alfonso]] ([[1913]]-[[1993]]), named heir to the throne and Count of Barcelona. * Infante Gonzalo Manuel María Bernardo ([[1914]]-[[1934]]), a hemophiliac.[[Image:Alfonso_XIII_sculpted_by_José_Navas-Parejo.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Alfonso XIII sculpted by Jose Navas-Parejo]] The king also had three illegitimate children, Roger Leveque de Vilmorin (1905-1980), by French aristocrat Mélanie de Gaufridy de Dortan; Leandro Alfonso Ruíz Moragas (born in [[1929]]), officially recognized by Spanish courts on [[May 21]] [[2003]] as Leandro Alfonso de Borbón Ruíz, son of the King; and his sister, Ana María Teresa Ruíz Moragas. The mother of both siblings was the Spanish actress Carmen Ruíz Moragas. During his reign [[Spain]] lost its last colonies in [[Cuba]], [[Puerto Rico]] and the [[Philippines]]; lost several wars in north Africa; saw the start of the [[Spanish Generation of 1927]], and endured the dictatorship of [[Miguel Primo de Rivera]]. He was a promoter of [[tourism in Spain]]. The problems with the lodging of his wedding guests prompted the construction of the luxury [[Hotel Palace]] in Madrid. He also supported the creation of a network of state-run lodges (''[[Parador]]'') in historic buildings of Spain. [[Image:Alfonso xiii illustration.3.jpg|thumb|left|125px]]His fondness for the sport of football led to the patronage of several "royal" clubs like [[Real Sociedad]], [[Real Madrid]], [[Real Betis Balompié]] and [[Real Unión]]. When the [[Second Spanish Republic]] was proclaimed on [[April 14]] [[1931]], he abandoned the country with no formal abdication. When the [[Spanish Civil War]] broke out, Alfonso made it clear he favoured the military uprising against the [[Popular Front (Spain)|Popular Front]] government, but General [[Francisco Franco]] in September 1936 declared that the Nationalists would never accept Alfonso as king (the supporters of the rival [[Carlist]] made an important part of the Franco army). First he went into exile in [[France]]. Later he moved to [[Fascist Italy]], and died in [[Rome]] in 1941. After leaving his successory rights to his fourth, but second surviving, son [[Juan de Borbon, Count of Barcelona]], the father of the later King [[Juan Carlos of Spain|Juan Carlos]]. The count of Barcelona renounced his rights to the throne in 1977, in favor of his son, Juan Carlos. {{s-start}} {{s-hou|[[House of Bourbon]]|[[17 May]]|1886|[[28 February]]|1941}} {{s-bef|before=[[Alfonso XII of Spain|Alfonso XII]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of Spanish monarchs|King of Spain]]|years=[[1886]]&ndash;[[1931]]|regent1=[[Maria Christina of Austria|Maria Christina]]|years1=[[1886]]&ndash;[[1902]]}} {{s-non|reason=[[Second Spanish Republic|Second Republic]]<br/>declared}} |- {{s-non|reason=[[Second Spanish Republic|Second Republic]]<br/>declared}} {{s-tul|title=[[List of Spanish monarchs|King of Spain]]|years=[[1931]]&ndash;[[1941]]|reason=[[Second Spanish Republic|Second Republic]]<br/>[[Spanish Civil War]]<br/>[[Spanish State]]|start=1931|end=1975}} {{s-aft|after=[[Juan de Borbón, Count of Barcelona|Juan III]]}} {{end}} {{start box}} {{succession box two to one| before1=[[Alfonso Carlos, Duke of San Jaime|Alphonse Charles XII]]<br><small>(duke of San Jaime)</small>| before2=[[Alfonso Carlos, Duke of San Jaime|Alfonso Carlos I]]<br><small>(duke of San Jaime)</small>| title1=[[Legitimist]] claimants to the throne of France| years1=| title2=[[Carlist]] claimants to the throne of Spain| years2=| after=[[Infante Jaime of Spain, Duke of Segovia|Jacques Henri VI / Jaime IV]]<br><small>(duke of Anjou and Segovia)</small> }} {{end box}} [[Category:Spanish monarchs]] [[Category:British Field Marshals]] [[Category:Knights of the Garter]] [[Category:1886 births|Alfonso XIII of Spain]] [[Category:1941 deaths|Alfonso XIII of Spain]] [[Category:House of Bourbon]] [[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order]] [[Category:Pretenders to the French throne]] [[ca:Alfons XIII d'Espanya]] [[da:Alfons 13. af Spanien]] [[de:Alfons XIII.]] [[es:Alfonso XIII de España]] [[eo:Alfonso la 13-a (Hispanio)]] [[fr:Alphonse XIII d'Espagne]] [[it:Alfonso XIII di Spagna]] [[ka:ალფონსო XIII (ესპანეთი)]] [[lv:Alfonso XIII]] [[nl:Alfons XIII van Spanje]] [[ja:アルフォンソ13世 (スペイン王)]] [[pl:Alfons XIII Burbon]] [[pt:Afonso XIII de Espanha]] [[fi:Alfonso XIII]] [[sv:Alfons XIII av Spanien]] [[uk:Альфонс ХІІІ (король Іспанії)]] [[zh:阿方索十三世]] 1678 28106054 2005-11-12T10:45:00Z Bluebot 527862 Standardising 1911 references. '''Alphonsus a Sancta Maria''', or '''Alphonso de Cartagena''' ([[1396]] - [[July 12]], [[1456]]), [[Spain|Spanish]] historian, was born at [[Cartagena, Spain|Cartagena]], and succeeded his father, Paulus, as bishop of [[Burgos]]. In [[1431]] he was deputed by [[John II of Castile|John II, king of Castile]], to attend the council of [[Basel]], in which he made himself conspicuous by his learning. He was the author of several works, the principal of which is entitled ''Rerum Hispanorum Romanorum imperatorum, summorum pontificum, nec non regum Francorum anacephaleosis''. This is a history of [[Spain]] from the earliest times down to [[1456]], and was printed at [[Granada]] in [[1545]], and also in the ''Rerum Hispanicarum Scriptores aliquot'', by R. Bel (Frankfort, 1579). ==References== *{{1911}} 1679 40347008 2006-02-19T23:40:10Z Srnec 494861 /* Reign */ finished all his battles of the reconquista '''Alfonso I''' (c.[[1073]] &ndash; [[1134]]), called '''the Battler''', was the [[Kings of Aragon|king of Aragón]] and [[Kings of Navarre|Navarre]] from [[1104]] until his death in [[1134]]. He was the second son of King [[Sancho I of Aragon|Sancho Ramírez]] and successor of his brother [[Peter I of Aragon|Peter I]]. Alfonso the Battler won his greatest successes in the middle [[Ebro]], where he expelled the Moors from [[Zaragoza]] in [[1118]] and took [[Egea]], [[Tudela]], [[Calatayud]], [[Borja]], [[Tarazona]], [[Daroca]], and [[Monreal del Campo]]. He died in September 1134 after an unsuccessful battle with the [[Moors]] at the siege of [[Fraga]]. ==Early life== His earliest years were passed in the [[monastery]] of [[Siresa]], learning to read and write and the military arts by Lope Garcés the Pilgrim, who was repaid for his services by his former charge with the county of [[Pedrola]] when he came to the throne. During his brother's reign, he participated in the taking of Huesca (the [[Battle of Alcoraz]], [[1096]]), which became the largest city in the kingdom and the new capital. He also joined [[El Cid]]'s expeditions in [[Valencia]]. His father gave him the lordships of [[Biel]], [[Luna]], [[Ardenes]], y [[Bailo]]. A series of fortunate deaths put Alfonso directly in line for the throne. His brother's children, Isabel and Peter (who married María Rodríguez, daughter of El Cid), died in [[1103]] and 1104 respectively. ==Reign== ===Marriage=== A passionate fighting-man (he fought twenty-nine battles against Christian or Moor), he was married (when well over 30 years and a habitual bachelor) in [[1109]] to [[Urraca of Castile]], widow of [[Raymond of Burgundy]], a very dissolute and passionate woman. The marriage had been arranged by her father [[Alfonso VI of Castile]] in 1106 to unite the two chief Christian states against the [[Almoravides]], and to supply them with a capable military leader. But Urraca was tenacious of her right as proprietary queen and had not learnt chastity in the polygamous household of her father. Alfonso is reported to have said that a real soldier lives with men, not women. Husband and wife quarrelled with the brutality of the age and came to open war. Alfonso had the support of one section of the nobles who found their account in the confusion. Being a much better soldier than any of his opponents he gained victories at [[Sepulveda]] and [[Fuente de la Culebra]], but his only trustworthy supporters were his Aragonese, who were not numerous enough to keep [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]] and [[Kingdom of Leon|León]] subjugated. The marriage of Alfonso and Urraca was declared null by the pope, as they were third cousins, in [[1114]]. During his marriage, he had called himself "King and Emperor of Castile, Toledo, Aragón, Pamplona, Sobrarbe, and Ribagorza" in recognition of his rights as Urraca's husband; of his inheritance of the lands of his father, including the kingdom of his great-uncle [[Gonzalo of Sobrarbe and Ribagorza|Gonzalo]]; and his prerogative to conquer [[Andalusia]] from the Moor. He inserted the title of ''imperator'' on the basis that he had three kingdoms under his rule. ===Church relations=== The king quarrelled with the church, and particularly the [[Cistercian]]s, almost as violently as with his wife. As he beat her, so he drove Archbishop Bernard into exile and expelled the monks of [[Sahagún]]. He was finally compelled to give way in Castile and Leon to his stepson [[Alfonso_VII_of_Castile|Alfonso Raimúndez]], son of Urraca and her first husband. The intervention of [[Pope Calixtus II]] brought about an arrangement between the old man and his young namesake. In [[1122]] in Belchite, he founded a confraternity of knighst to fight agains the Almoravids. It was the start of the military orders in Aragón. Years later, he organised a branch of the ''Militia Christi'' of the [[Holy Land]] at [[Monreal del Campo]]. ===Reconquista=== Alfonso spent his first four years in near-constant war with the Moor. In [[1105]], he conquered Ejea and Tauste and refortified Castellar and Juslibol. In [[1106]], he defeated [[Ahmad II al-Musta'in]] of Zaragoza at Valtierra. In [[1107]], he took Tamarite de Litera and Esteban de la Litera. Then followed a period dominated by his relations with Castile and León through his wife, Urraca. He resumed his Reconquista in [[1117]] by conquering Fitero, Corella, Cintruénigo, Murchante, Monteagudo, and Cascante from Islam. In [[1118]], the Council of Toulouse declared it a [[crusade]] to assist in the reconquest of [[Zaragoza]]. Many Frenchmen consequently joined Alfonso at [[Ayerbe]]. They took Almudévar, Gurrea de Gállego, and Zuera, besieging Zaragoza itself by the end of May. On [[18 December], it fell and the forces of Alfonso occupied the Azuda, the government tower. The great palace of the city was given to the monks of Bernard. Promptly, the city was made Alfonso's capital. Two years later, in [[1120]], he defeated a Moslem army intent on reconquering his new capital at [[Cutanda]]. He promulgated the ''fuero'' of ''tortum per tortum'', facilitating taking the law into one's own hands, and forced the Moslem population of the city (greater than 20,000) to move to the suburbs. In [[1119]], he retook Cervera, Tudejen, Castellón, Tarazona, Ágreda, Magallón, Borja, Alagón, Novillas, Mallén, Rueda, Épila and repopulated the region of [[Soria]]. He began the siege of [[Calatayud]], but left to defeat the army at Cutanda trying to retake Zaragoza. When Calatayud fell, he took Bubierca, Alhama de Aragón, Ariza, and Daroca (1120). In [[1123]], he besieged and took [[Lérida]], which was in the hands of the [[count of Barcelona]]. From the winter of [[1124]] to September [[1125]], he was on a risky expedition to Peña Cadiella deep in Andalusia. In the great raid of 1125, he carried away a large part of the subject Christians from Granada, and in the south-west of France, he had claims as usurper-king of Navarre. From 1125 to [[1126]], he was on campaign against [[Granada]], where he was trying to install a Christian prince, and [[Córdoba]], where got only as far as Motril. In [[1127]], he reconquered Longares, but simultaneously lost all his Castilian possessions to [[alfonso VII of Castile|Alfonso VII]]. He confirmed a treaty with Castile the next year ([[1128]]) at [[Támara]] which fixed the boundaries of the two realms. He conquered Molina de Aragón and repopulated Monzón in [[1129]], before besieging [[Valencia]], which had falled again upon the Cid's death. He went north of the Pyrenees in October [[1130]] to protect the [[Val d'Aran]]. Early in [[1131]], he besieged [[Bayonne]]. It is said he ruled "from Belorado to Pallars and from Bayonne to Monreal." Three years before his death, he made a will leaving his kingdom to the [[Templars]], the [[Hospitallers]], and the Knights of the [[Holy Sepulchre]], which his subjects refused to carry out—instead bringing his brother Ramiro from the monastery to assume royal powers. His final campaigns were against Mequinenza ([[1133]]) and Fraga (1134), where [[García VI of Navarre|García Ramírez]], the future king of Navarre, and a mere 500 other knights fought with him. It fell on [[17 July]]. He was dead by September. Alfonso was a fierce, violent man, a soldier and nothing else, whose piety was wholly militant. He has a great role in the Spanish reconquest. ==Death== His testament was not honored: Aragon took his aged brother abbot-bishop Ramiro out of monastery and made him king; [[Navarrese]] regained independence and put Lord Garcia Ramirez of [[Monzon, Spain|Monzón]], son of his second cousin, to the throne in [[Pamplona]]. ==References== *{{1911}} {{s-start}} {{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[Peter I of Aragon|Peter I]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of Aragonese monarchs|King of Aragon]]|years=[[1104]]&ndash;[[1134]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Ramiro II of Aragon|Ramiro II]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of Navarrese monarchs|King of Navarre]]|years=[[1104]]&ndash;[[1134]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[García VI of Navarre|García VI]]}} {{end}} [[Category:Aragonese monarchs]] [[Category:Navarrese monarchs]] [[Category:1073 births|Alfonso I of Aragon]] [[Category:1134 deaths|Alfonso I of Aragon]] [[ca:Alfons I d'Aragó]] [[de:Alfons I. (Aragón)]] [[es:Alfonso I de Aragón]] [[fr:Alphonse Ier d'Aragon]] [[he:אלפונסו הראשון מלך אראגון]] [[nl:Alfons I van Aragon]] [[pl:Alfons I (król Aragonii)]] [[pt:Afonso I de Aragão]] [[zh:阿方索一世 (阿拉贡)]] 1680 42083640 2006-03-03T18:42:36Z 194.134.193.16 minus pictur of [[Hippeastrum]] {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = ''Amaryllis'' | image = NakedLadies.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = "Naked Lady" flowers in the [[Sinkyone Wilderness State Park]], [[California]] | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[monocotyledon|Lilliopsida]] | ordo = [[Asparagales]] | familia = [[Amaryllidaceae]] | genus = ''Amaryllis'' | species = '''''A. belladonna''''' | binomial = ''Amaryllis belladonna'' | binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]] }} '''''Amaryllis''''' is a monotypic [[genus]] of plant containing one species, the '''Belladonna Lily''' (''Amaryllis belladonna''), a native of [[South Africa]]. ['''Note:''' [[Hippeastrum]] is the flowering bulb commonly sold in November and December for blooming inside] The Belladonna Lily is a [[bulb]] plant, with each bulb being 5-10 cm in diameter. It has several strap-shaped, dull green [[leaf|leaves]], 30-50 cm long and 2-3 cm broad, arranged in two rows. The leaves are produced in the autumn and eventually die down by late spring. The bulb is then dormant until late summer. In late summer the bulb produces one or two naked stems 30-60 cm tall, each of which bear a cluster of 2 to 12 funnel-shaped [[flower]]s at their tops. Each flower is 6-10 cm diameter with six [[tepal]]s (three outer sepals, three inner petals, with similar appearance to each other), white, pink or purple in colour. This flowering pattern is the cause of its common name 'naked lady'. The scientific name ''Amaryllis'' is named after a shepherdess in one of [[Virgil]]'s pastorals, and means any young rustic maiden. The Belladonna Lily was introduced into cultivation at the beginning of the [[18th century]]. However, most of the so-called Amaryllis bulbs sold as 'ready to bloom for the holidays' belong to the allied genus ''[[Hippeastrum]]'', despite being labeled as 'Amaryllis' by sellers and [[nursery (horticulture)|nurseries]]. Adding to the name confusion, some bulbs of other species with a similar growth and flowering pattern are also sometimes called 'naked ladies', even though those species have their own more widely used and accepted common names, such as the [[Resurrection Lily]] (''Lycoris squamigera''). [[Category:Asparagales]] [[de:Amaryllis (Gattung)]] [[es:Amaryllis]] [[fr:Amaryllis (fleur)]] [[it:Amaryllis]] [[nl:Amaryllis]] [[ja:アマリリス]] 1682 15900147 2004-08-13T20:02:22Z Timwi 13051 fix double-redirect #REDIRECT [[Ahmose I]] 1683 41013661 2006-02-24T14:06:27Z Francisco Valverde 495548 /* References */ {{verify}} '''Alfons''' or '''Alfonso III of Aragon''' ([[1265]] &ndash; [[June 18]], [[1291]], also '''Alfons II of Barcelona'''), surnamed ''the Liberal'', was the king of [[Aragon]] and count of [[Barcelona]] from [[1285]] to [[1291]]. He was a son of [[Peter III of Aragon]] and his [[Queen consort]] Constance of Sicily, daughter and heiress of [[Manfred of Sicily]]. His maternal grandmother Beatrice of Savoy was a daughter of [[Amadeus IV of Savoy]] and Anne of Burgundy. He conquered the island of [[Minorca]] in [[1287]]. His inability to resist the demands of his nobles left a heritage of trouble in Aragon. By recognising their right to rebel in the articles called the [[Union of Aragon]] he helped to make anarchy permanent. For this reason, probably, [[Dante Alighieri]], in [[the Divine Comedy]], recounts that he saw Alfonso's spirit seated outside the gates of [[Purgatory]] with the other monarchs whom Dante blamed for the chaotic political state of [[Europe]] during the [[13th century]]. == References == *DANTE ALIGHIERI, ''Purgatorio'', Canto VII, l. 115ff. {{s-start}} {{s-bef|before=[[Peter III of Aragon|Peter III]]}} {{s-ttl|title=King of [[List of Aragonese monarchs|Aragon]] and [[List of Valencian monarchs|Valencia]],<br/>[[List of Counts of Barcelona|Count of Barcelona]] |years=[[1285]]-[[1291]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[James II of Aragon|James II]]}} {{end}} [[Category:1265 births]] [[Category:1291 deaths]] [[Category:Aragonese monarchs]] [[Category:Characters in the Divine Comedy]] [[Category:Counts of Barcelona]] [[ca:Alfons el Franc]] [[de:Alfons III. (Aragón)]] [[es:Alfonso III de Aragón]] [[it:Alfonso III di Aragona]] [[ja:アルフォンソ3世 (アラゴン王)]] [[pt:Afonso III de Aragão]] [[sv:Alfonso III av Aragonien]] 1684 37722042 2006-02-01T20:10:49Z Ian Pitchford 230605 [[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] clean up '''Alfonso IV of Aragon''', surnamed ''the Kind'' ([[Catalan language|Catalan]]: ''Alfons el Benigne'') was the king of [[Aragon]] and count of [[Barcelona]] (as Alfonso III) from [[1327]] to [[1336]]. Born in [[1299]] and died [[January 24]] [[1336]], he was the second son of [[James II of Aragon]] and [[Blanche of Anjou]]. He became heir after his older brother James renounced his rights to become a monk. He married Teresa of Entença and Antillon (1300-1327), heiress of [[Urgell]]. With this marriage, Urgell was definitively incorporated into the crown of Aragon. After widowing, he married Leonor de Castile, who should have been his brother James' wife but he refused to consummate the marriage. She was the sister of [[Alfonso XI of Castile]] and was murdered by her nephew [[Peter I of Castile]]. ===Children=== By Teresa of Entença: * Alfons (lived only one year). * [[Peter IV of Aragon|Peter IV]] * James (Jaume), Count of Urgell (1320-1347). He also inherited Entença and Antillon. * Fadrique (died young). * Constança (1322-1346), married [[James III of Majorca]]. * Elizabeth (died young). * Sanç (1327, lived only a few days). By Leonor de Castile: * [[Ferdinand, Prince of Aragon|Ferdinand]] (Ferran), Marquis of Tortosa. Married [[Maria of Portugal (1342-1367)|Maria of Portugal]] (daughter of [[Peter I of Portugal]]) and was killed by his half-brother Peter IV. * John (Joan). Married Isabel Núñez de Lara and was killed by order of his cousin Peter I of Castile. {{start box}} {{succession box three to three| before=[[James II of Aragon|James II]]| after=[[Peter IV of Aragon|Peter IV]]| title1=[[List of Aragonese monarchs|King of Aragon]]| title2=[[List of Counts of Barcelona|Count of Barcelona]]| title3=[[List of Valencian monarchs|King of Valencia]]| years1=1327&ndash;1336| years2=1327&ndash;1336| years3=1327&ndash;1336| }} {{end box}} [[Category:1299 births]] [[Category:1366 deaths]] [[Category:Aragonese monarchs]] [[Category:Counts of Barcelona]] [[ca:Alfons el Benigne]] [[de:Alfons IV. (Aragón)]] [[es:Alfonso IV de Aragón]] [[it:Alfonso IV di Aragona]] [[ja:アルフォンソ4世 (アラゴン王)]] {{Euro-royal-stub}} 1685 40338054 2006-02-19T22:32:16Z That Guy, From That Show! 419920 [[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] removed redundant category & cleanup formatting {{Template:Hiero/3name | name= Amasis II | horus=<hiero>s-mn:n-U1-mAa:t</hiero> | praenomen=<hiero>ra-W9-m-ib</hiero> | nomen=<hiero>N12-ms-R24-zA</hiero> | align=right | era=lp}} '''Amasis II''' (also '''Ahmose II''') was a [[pharaoh]] ([[570 BC]]-[[526 BC]]) of the [[Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt]], the successor of [[Apries]]. His capital was at [[Sais, Egypt|Sais]]. He was the last great ruler of [[Egypt]] before the [[Iran|Persia]]n conquest. Most of our information about him is derived from [[Herodotus]] (2.161ff) and can only be imperfectly verified by monumental evidence. According to the Greek historian, he was of common origins. A revolt of the native soldiers gave him his opportunity. These troops, returning home from a disastrous expedition to [[Cyrene (city)|Cyrene]], suspected that they had been betrayed in order that [[Apries]], the reigning king, might rule more absolutely by means of his [[mercenaries]], and their friends in Egypt fully sympathized with them. Amasis, sent to meet them and quell the revolt, was proclaimed king by the rebels, and Apries, who had now to rely entirely on his mercenaries, was defeated and taken prisoner in the ensuing conflict at [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]]; the [[usurper]] treated the captive prince with great leniency, but was eventually persuaded to give him up to the people, by whom he was strangled and buried in his ancestral tomb at Sais. An inscription confirms the fact of the struggle between the native and the foreign soldiery, and proves that Apries was killed and honourably buried in the 3rd year of Amasis. Although Amasis thus appears first as champion of the disparaged native, he had the good sense to cultivate the friendship of the [[Ancient Greece|Greek world]], and brought Egypt into closer touch with it than ever before. Herodotus relates that under his prudent administration [[Egypt]] reached the highest pitch of prosperity; he adorned the temples of [[Lower Egypt]] especially with splendid [[monolith]]ic [[shrine]]s and other monuments (his activity here is proved by remains still existing). To the Greeks, Amasis assigned the commercial colony of [[Naucratis]] on the [[Canopic]] branch of the [[Nile]], and when the [[temple of Delphi]] was burnt he contributed 1,000 [[talent (weight)|talents]] to the rebuilding. He also married a Greek princess named '''Ladice''', the daughter of [[Battus]], king of Cyrene, and he made alliances with [[Polycrates of Samos]] and [[Croesus of Lydia]]. His kingdom consisted probably of Egypt only, as far as the [[First Cataract]], but to this he added [[Cyprus]], and his influence was great in Cyrene. At the beginning of his long reign, before the death of Apries, he appears to have sustained an attack by [[Nebuchadrezzar II]] ([[568 BC]]). [[Cyrus II of Persia|Cyrus]] left Egypt unmolested; but the last years of Amasis were disturbed by the threatened invasion of [[Cambyses]] and by the rupture of the alliance with Polycrates of Samos. The blow fell upon his son [[Psammetichus III]], whom the Persian deprived of his kingdom after a reign of only six months. == References == [[William Flinders Petrie|W. M. Flinders Petrie]], ''History'', vol. iii.; [[James Henry Breasted]], ''History and Historical Documents'', vol. iv. p. 509; [[Gaston Maspero]], ''Les Empires''. {{Pharaoh | Prev=[[Apries]] | Dynasty=[[570 BC|570]] &ndash; [[526 BC]]<br>[[Twenty-sixth Dynasty]] | Next=[[Psamtik III]]}} {{1911}} [[Category:526 BC deaths]] [[Category:Pharaohs]] [[ar:أحمس]] [[bg:Амазис]] [[de:Amasis (Pharao)]] [[fr:Amasis]] [[ru:Амасис II]] [[zh:雅赫摩斯二世]] 1686 39543163 2006-02-14T04:44:00Z Srnec 494861 '''Alfons V of Aragon''' (also '''Alfons I of Naples''') ([[1396]] &ndash; [[June 27]], [[1458]]), surnamed ''the Magnanimous'', was the [[Kings of Aragon|King]] of [[Aragon]] and [[Naples]] and count of [[Barcelona]] from [[1416]] to [[1458]]. He was a son of [[Ferdinand I of Aragon]] (also called Ferdinand of Antequera), and is one of the most conspicuous figures of the early [[Renaissance]]. He represented the old line of the counts of Barcelona only through women, and was on his father's side descended from the House of Trastamara, a noble family of [[Castile]]. By hereditary right he was king of [[Sicily]]. He disputed the island of [[Sardinia]] with [[Genoa]] and conquered the [[kingdom of Naples]]. He fought and triumphed amid the exuberant development of individuality which accompanied the revival of learning and the birth of the modern world. When he was a prisoner in the hands of [[Visconti|Filippo Maria Visconti]], Duke of [[Milan]], in [[1435]], Alfonso persuaded his ferocious and crafty captor to let him go by making it plain that it was the interest of Milan not to prevent the victory of the Aragonese party in Naples. Like a true prince of the Renaissance he favoured men of letters whom he trusted to preserve his reputation to posterity. His devotion to the [[classics]] was exceptional even in that time. For example, Alfonso halted his army in pious respect before the birthplace of a Latin writer, carried Livy or Caesar on his campaigns with him, and his panegyrist [[Panormita]] did not think it an incredible lie to say that the king was cured of an illness when a few pages of [[Quintus Curtius Rufus]]' history of [[Alexander the Great]] were read to him. However, the classics had not refined his taste, for he was amused by setting iternant scholars, who swarmed to his court, to abuse one another in the indescribably filthy Latin scolding matches which were then the fashion. Alfons founded nothing, and, after his conquest of [[Naples]] in [[1441]], ruled by his mercenary soldiers and no less mercenary men of letters. His Spanish possessions were ruled for him by his brother [[Juan II of Aragon|John]]. He left his conquest of Naples to his bastard son [[Ferdinand I of Naples|Ferdinand]]; his inherited lands, Sicily and [[Sardinia]], going to his brother John, who survived him. Alfons was the object of diplomatic contacts from the empire of [[Ethiopia]]. In [[1428]], he received a letter from [[Yeshaq I of Ethiopia]], borne by two dignitaries, which proposed an alliance against the [[Muslim]]s and would be sealed by a dual marriage, that would require the Infante Don Pedro to bring a group of artisans to Ethiopia, where he would marry Yashq's daughter. It is not clear how or if Alfonso responded to this letter, although in a letter sent to Yeshaq's successor [[Zara Yaqob]] in [[1450]], Alfons wrote that he would be happy to send artisans to Ethiopia, if their safe arrival could be guaranteed for on a previous occasion a party of 13 of his subjects travelling to Ethiopia had all perished. ^[[#Notes|1]] He was betrothed to [[María de Castilla]] ([[1401]]&ndash;[[1458]]; sister of [[Juan II of Castile]]) in [[Valladolid]] in 1408; the marriage was celebrated in [[Valencia]] during [[1415]]. They failed to produce children. See list of [[Monarchs of Naples and Sicily]]. == Notes == # [[O. G. S. Crawford]] (editor), ''Ethiopian Itineraries, circa 1400 - 1524'' (Cambridge: the Hakluyt Society, 1958), pp. 12f. {{start box}} {{succession box| before=[[Ferdinand I of Aragon|Ferdinand I]]| after=[[John II of Aragon|John II]]| title=King of [[King of Aragon|Aragon]],<br/>[[King of Sicily|Sicily]], [[List of Valencian monarchs|Valencia]], and [[List of Kings of Majorca|Majorca]], <br/>[[List of Counts of Barcelona|Count of Barcelona]]| years=1416&ndash;1458|}} {{succession box| title=[[King of Naples]]| before=[[René I of Naples|René I]]| after=[[Ferdinand I of Naples|Ferdinand I]]| years=1442&ndash;1458}} {{end box}} [[Category:Aragonese monarchs]] [[Category:Kings of Sicily]] [[Category:Knights of the Garter]] [[Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece]] [[Category:1396 births|Alfonso V of Aragon]] [[Category:1458 deaths|Alfonso V of Aragon]] [[ca:Alfons el Magnànim]] [[cy:Alfonso V o Aragon]] [[de:Alfons V. (Aragón)]] [[es:Alfonso V de Aragón]] [[fr:Alphonse V d'Aragon]] [[it:Alfonso V d'Aragona]] [[nl:Alfons V van Aragon]] [[pl:Alfons V (król Aragonii)]] [[pt:Afonso V de Aragão]] [[zh:阿方索五世 (阿拉贡)]] 1687 37520590 2006-01-31T14:55:57Z 194.42.22.4 '''Amathus''' was an ancient city of [[Cyprus]], on the southern coast, about 24 miles west of [[Larnaka]] and 6 miles east of [[Limassol]]. It lies among sandy hills and sand-dunes, which perhaps explain its name in Greek (''amathos'', sand). Being one of the most ancient royal cities, according to the legend, was settled by one of the sons of [[Heracles]], who was worshipped there. According to other legends, [[Ariadne]], the beautiful daughter of Minos, who fled from [[Labyrinth]] in [[Crete]] with [[Theseus]], was later abandoned in Amathus. She died there while giving birth to her child and was buried in a sacred tomb. Amathus was built on the coastal cliffs with an amazing view to the sea. It flourished and became a rich kingdom since the early years of its settlement. During the Post Phoenician Era (800 B.C.) a port was also constructed there, which served the trade with the [[Greeks]] and the Levantines. High on the cliff a temple was built, which became a special worship site to Aphrodite, the goddess of Beauty and Love. The excavators discovered the Temple of Aphrodite, which dates approximately to the first century B.C.. According to the legend, it was where Adonia took place, in which athletes competed in hunting wild boars during sport competitions. They also competed in dancing and singing to the honour of Adonis. The earliest remains hitherto found on the site are tombs of the early [[Iron Age]] period of Graeco-Phoenician influences ([[1000 BC|1000]]-[[600 BC|600 B.C.]]). Amathus is identified by some (E. Oberhummer, ''Die Insel Cypern'', i., 1902, pp. 13-14; but see [[Citium]]) with Kartihadasti (Phoenician "New-Town") in the Cypriote tribute-list of [[Esarhaddon]] of [[Assyria]] (668 B.C.). It certainly maintained strong [[Phoenicia]]n sympathies, for it was its refusal to join the phil-Hellene league of [[Onesilos of Salamis]] which provoked the revolt of Cyprus from [[Iran|Persia]] in [[500 BC|500]]-[[494BC|494 B.C]]. (Herod. v. 105), when Amathus was besieged unsuccessfully and avenged itself by the capture and execution of Onesilos. The phil-Hellene [[Evagoras]] of Salamis was similarly opposed by Amathus about 385-380 B.C. in conjunction with [[Citium]] and [[Soli, Cyprus|Soli]] (Diod. Sic. xiv. 98); and even after [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] the city resisted annexation, and was bound over to give hostages to [[Seleucus]] (Diod. Sic. xix. 62). Its political importance now ended, but its temple of [[Adonis]] and [[Aphrodite]] (Venus Amathusia) remained famous in [[Roman Empire|Roman time]]. The wealth of Amathus was derived partly from its corn ([[Strabo]] 340, quoting [[Hipponax]], fi. 540 B.C.), partly from its [[copper]] mines (Ovid, ''Met.'' x. 220, 531), of which traces can be seen inland (G. Mariti, i. 187; L. Ross, ''Inselreise,'' iv. 195; W. H. Engel, ''Kypros,'' i. 111 ff.). [[Ovid]] also mentions its sheep (Met. x. 227); the epithet ''Amathusia'' in Roman poetry often means little more than "Cypriote," attesting however the fame of the city. Amathus was a rich and densely populated kingdom with a flourishing agriculture and mines situated very close northeast Kalavasos. In the Roman Era it became the capital of one out of the four (4) administrative regions. Later, in the 4th century A.D. it became the Episcopal See and continued to flourish until the [[Byzantine]] Period. At approximately the Late 6th century A.D., Ayios Ioannis Eleimonas (Saint John Charitable), protector of the knights was born in Amathus. Until 1191 when Richard the Lionheart arrived in Cyprus, Amathus had declined. The tombs were plundered and the stones from the beautiful edifices were brought to Limassol to be used for new constructions. Much later, in [[1869]], a great number of blocks of stone from Amathus were used for the construction of the [[Suez Canal]]. Amathus still flourished and produced a distinguished patriarch of [[Alexandria]] ([[St. John the Merciful]]), as late as 606-616, and a ruined [[Byzantian Empire|Byzantine]] church marks the site; but it was already almost deserted when [[Richard I of England|Richard Plantagenet]] won Cyprus by a victory there over [[Isaac Comnenus of Cyprus|Isaac Comnenus]] in 1191. A new settlement close to Amathus but further inland was created, and named after St Tykhon, a bishop of Amathus. The land were the ruins are is within the borders of this village, though the expansion of the Limassol tourist area has threatened the ruins (it is speculated that some of the hotels are on top of the Amathus necropolis). Archaeological excavations in the area by parties of Cypriots and French archaeologists started in 1980 and continue until today. The Acropolis, the Aphrodite’s Temple, the market, the city’s walls, the Basicila and the port have all been excavated. It is an amazing opportunity for the visitor to ramble over the area and have the feeling of living as they used to live. The visitors have a wonderful chance to explore the area and see rare and beautiful archaeological treasures, which are buried in the soil for centuries. In the market there are marvellous marble columns decorated with spiral ornaments and huge paved precincts. At the coastal side of the city there are indications of an Early Christian Basilica with floors decorated with precious gems. Farther, near the terraced road leading to the Temple, situated on the top of the cliff, several houses built in a row dating to the Hellenistic Period have been discovered. In the east and west extremes of the city the two acropolis are situated, where a number of tombs have been found, many of which are intact. The rich [[necropolis]], already partly plundered then, has yielded valuable works of art to New York and to the [[British Museum]]; but the city has vanished, except fragments of wall and of a great stone cistern on the acropolis. A similar vessel was transported to the [[Louvre]] in 1867. You might admire many of the interesting hand-made items with an archaeological value, which have been found during the excavations and are actually exposed at the Cyprus Museum in Nicosia as well as at the Limassol District Archaeological Museum or even at the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art|New York Metropolitan Museum]]. The biggest treasure of Amathus is exposed at Paris Louvre Museum. It is a dim made from limestone, which dates to the 6th century B.C. It is 1.85 m. high and weighs 14 tons. It was made from a single big stone and has four (4) curved handles decorated with the head of a bull. It was used for storing the must from the grapes, which after the fermentation it became wine, which Cyprus is famous for. Two small sanctuaries, with terracotta votive offerings of Graeco-Phoenician age, lie not far off, but the great shrine of Adonis and Aphrodite has not been identified (M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, ''Kypros,'' i. ch.1). The ruins of Amathus are less well-preserved than neighbouring [[Kourion]]. ==References== *{{1911}} *[http://www.limassolmunicipal.com.cy/amathus/index.html Municipality of Limassol] [[category:History of Cyprus]] [[Category:Ancient Cities in Cyprus]] 1688 28802108 2005-11-20T03:43:06Z KnowName 533999 /* Portuguese explorers */ '''''Alfonso''''' (or '''''Afonso''''', '''''Affonso''''', '''''Alphonso''''', '''''Alphonse''''') - ([[English language|English]]: '''''Alphonzo''''') may refer to any of the following; ==[[List of Portuguese monarchs|Kings of Portugal]]== *[[Afonso I of Portugal]] -- (1109-1185) "the Conqueror" (Afonso Henriques) *[[Afonso II of Portugal]] -- (1185-1223) "the Fat" *[[Afonso III of Portugal]] -- (1210-1279) *[[Afonso IV of Portugal]] -- (1291-1357) *[[Afonso V of Portugal]] -- (1432-1481) *[[Afonso VI of Portugal]] -- (1656-1683) second king of the house of Braganza ==Portuguese explorers== *[[Afonso de Albuquerque]] ==Kings of [[Kings of Castile|Castile, Leon or Asturias]]== *[[Alfonso I of Asturias]] -- (739-757) *[[Alfonso II of Asturias]] -- (789-842) *[[Alfonso III of Leon]] -- (866-910) the Great *[[Alfonso IV of Leon]] -- (924-931) *[[Alfonso V of Castile]] -- (999-1028) *[[Alfonso VI of Castile]] -- (1065-1109) *[[Alfonso VII of Castile]] -- (1126-1157) the Emperor *[[Alfonso VIII of Castile]] -- (1158-1214) *[[Alfonso IX of Castile]] -- (1188-1230) *[[Alfonso X of Castile]] -- (1252-1284) The Wise *[[Alfonso XI of Castile]] -- (1312-1350) The Avenger ==[[Kings of Aragon]]== *[[Alfonso I of Aragon]] -- (1104-1134) the Battler *[[Alfonso II of Aragon]] -- (1162-1196) the Chaste *[[Alfonso III of Aragon]] -- (1285-1291) The Liberal *[[Alfonso IV of Aragon]] -- (1327-1336) The Kind *[[Alfonso V of Aragon ]] -- (1416-1458) The Magnanimous ==[[Kings of Spain]]== *[[Alfonso XII of Spain]] -- (1857-1885) king of Spain *[[Alfonso XIII of Spain]] -- (1886-1931) king of Spain See also: [[lists of incumbents]] ==[[Manikongo (Kings of the Congo)]]== [[Affonso I of Kongo]] 1505&#8211;43) ==Variety of mango== '''Alphonso''' is also a variety of [[mango]] found in [[India]], see [[alphonso (mango)]]. ==Places== *[[Alphonse]] Island belongs to the [[Outer Islands]] of [[Seychelles]] *[[Alfonso, Cavite]] is a municipality in the [[Philippines]] {{disambig}} [[de:Alfons]] [[eo:Alfonzo]] [[hu:Alfonz]] [[pl:Alfons]] [[pt:Afonso]] [[sk:Alfonz]] [[sv:Alfons]] 1689 29362807 2005-11-27T08:24:01Z Japanese Searobin 153340 +ja: *[[Afonso I of Portugal]] -- ([[1094]]-[[1195]]) (Afonso Henriques) *[[Alfonso I of Asturias]] -- ([[739]]-[[757]]) *[[Alfonso I (of Castile)]] -- ([[1040]]-[[1109]]) the first King of Castile to be called Alfonso, but better known as [[Alfonso VI of Castile]] as he was the sixth Alfonso in the line that started with Alfonso I of Asturius, and included another monarch of [[Asturias]] called Alfonso and three [[Kings of Leon]] called Alfonso. *[[Alfonso I of Aragon]] -- ([[1104]]-[[1134]]) *[[Alphonso I of Ferrara]], duke of Ferrara (15th century) *[[Alfonso I of Naples]], also known as [[Alfonso V of Aragon]] {{disambig}} [[ca:Alfons I]] [[de:Liste der Herrscher namens Alfons]] [[es:Alfonso I]] [[fr:Alphonse Ier]] [[ja:アルフォンソ1世]] [[nl:Alfons I]] [[pl:Alfons I]] [[pt:Afonso I]] [[zh:阿方索一世]] 1690 34669550 2006-01-10T22:23:55Z GrinBot 411872 robot Adding: no :''For the [[Mazda]] [[luxury car]] [[marque]], Amati, see the main [[Mazda]] article'' '''Amati''' is the name of a family of [[Italy|Italian]] [[violin]]-makers, who flourished at [[Cremona]] from about [[1550]] to [[1740]]. '''Andrea Amati''' (before 1511 &ndash; before 1580) was the first maker of violins whose instruments still survive today. Indeed he seems more or less responsible for giving the instruments of the modern violin family their definitive profile. A small number of his instruments survive, dated between the years of 1564 and 1574 and most bearing the coat of arms of [[Charles IX of France]]. Andrea Amati was succeeded by his sons '''Antonio Amati''' (born c. 1540) and '''Girolamo Amati''' ([[1561]] &ndash; [[1630]]). The "brothers Amati", as they were known, implemented far-reaching innovations in design, including the perfection of the shape of the soundhole. They are also thought to have pioneered the modern alto format of [[viola]] (rather than the older tenor violas). '''Nicolo Amati''' ([[December 3]], [[1596]] &ndash; [[April 12]], [[1684]]) was the son of Girolamo Amati. He was the most eminent of the family. He improved the model adopted by the rest of the Amatis and produced instruments capable of yielding greater power of [[tone]]. His pattern was usually small, but he also made a wider model now known as the "Grand Amati", which have become his most sought-after violins. Of his pupils the most famous were [[Antonio Stradivari]], Andrea [[Guarneri]] (the first of the Guarneri family of violin makers), and [[Bartolomeo Cristofori]] (the inventor of the [[piano|pianoforte]]). The last maker of the family was Nicolo's son, Girolamo Amati, known as '''Hieronymus II''' ([[February 26]], [[1649]] &ndash; [[February 21]], [[1740]]). Although he improved on the arching of his father's instruments, by and large they are inferior and no match for the greatest maker of his day, Antonio Stradivari. ==See also== *[[Amati Quartet]] *[[Luthier]] - provides links to articles about other famous makers of stringed instruments ==External links== *[http://www.theviolinsite.com/violin_making/index.html Violin Making] ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Italian musical instrument makers|Amati]] [[Category:Luthiers|Amati]] [[de:Amati]] [[fr:Amati]] [[hu:Amati]] [[nl:Amati]] [[no:Amati-familien]] [[pl:Amati]] 1691 27035597 2005-11-01T03:22:41Z Joaopais 94195 *[[Alfonso II of Asturias]] -- ([[789]]-[[842]]) *[[Alfonso II of Aragon]] -- ([[1152]]-[[1196]]) *[[Afonso II of Portugal]] -- ([[1185]]-[[1223]]) "the Fat" *[[Alphonso II of Naples]] {{disambig}} [[ca:Alfons II]] [[de:Liste der Herrscher namens Alfons]] [[es:Alfonso II]] [[fr:Alphonse II]] [[pt:Afonso II]] [[zh:阿方索二世]] 1692 27035985 2005-11-01T03:28:29Z Joaopais 94195 There have been several monarchs called '''Alfonso III''': *[[Alfonso III of Leon]] -- (866-914) surnamed "the Great" *[[Afonso III of Portugal]] -- (1210-1279) *[[Alfonso III of Aragon]] -- (1285-1291) *[[Alfonso III of Kongo]] -- (1666-1667) {{disambig}} [[ca:Alfons III]] [[de:Liste der Herrscher namens Alfons]] [[es:Alfonso III]] [[fr:Alphonse III]] [[pt:Afonso III]] 1693 40867459 2006-02-23T15:12:37Z Dabbler 139032 /* Other */ fix link The name '''''Amazon''''' may refer to several concepts: ==Geography== *The [[Amazon River]], [[Amazon Rainforest]], and [[Amazon Basin]] through which it flows. *[[Amazonas]], the name of several administrative divisions in [[South America]] named after the river, including: **[[Amazonas Department, Colombia|Amazonas Department]], Colombia **[[Amazonas Region]], Peru **[[Amazonas State, Brazil]] **[[Amazonas State, Venezuela]] *[[Amazônia Legal]], a government-designated economic and environmental development region covering 61% of Brazil ==Other== *The legendary [[Amazons]], women renowned in antiquity for their prowess in battle. *[[Amazon.com]], the large online store that began as an online book store but which has expanded as a seller of many goods. *[[Volvo Amazon]], a car model from Volvo. Perhaps as P120 in the US. *[[HMS Amazon|HMS ''Amazon'']], name of many ships of the Royal Navy *[[Amazon parrot]]s are a group of parrots native to the New World, which are usually predominantly green. *''[[Swallows and Amazons (series)|Swallows and Amazons]]'' is a series of children's books by English author Arthur Ransome. *[[The Game of the Amazons]], an abstract board game. *''[[Amazons (1986 film)]]'' *[[Dahomey Amazons]], an all-female regiment of the African kingdom of Dahomey. *[[Amazon (band)]], formed in 2002. *Amazon or Amazonia, was the nom de guerre of a [[female gladiator]]. *[[Amazon Guardians of Eden]] an adventure game developed by Access Software. *''[[Amazon Women on the Moon]]'', a 1987 comedic film. *[[Amazon (comics)]] is a female fictional character in the Marvel Universe. {{disambig}} [[de:Amazonas (Begriffsklärung)]] [[es:Amazona]] [[fr:Amazone]] [[id:Amazon]] [[ja:アマゾン]] [[mk:Амазон]] [[nl:Amazone]] [[pl:Amazonka]] [[pt:Amazonas (desambiguação)]] [[ro:Amazon]] [[sv:Amazon]] [[zh:亚马孙]] 1694 33093349 2005-12-29T06:35:44Z 83.226.101.102 link to zh *[[Alfonso IV of Leon]] -- (924-931) *[[Afonso IV of Portugal]] -- (1291-1357) *[[Alfonso IV of Aragon]] -- (1327-1336) {{disambig}} [[pt:Afonso IV]] [[zh:阿方索四世]] 1695 41820621 2006-03-01T23:29:15Z Martial Law 514543 /* Modern depiction of Amazons */ {{dablink|This article is about the Amazon women of Greek mythology and similar cases. For other uses, see [[Amazons (disambiguation)]].}} In [[Greek mythology]], the '''{{polytonic|Ἀμαζόνες}}, Amazons''' were either an ancient legendary nation of female warriors or a land dominated by women at the outer edges of their known world. The legends appear to have a nugget of factual basis in warrior women among the [[Scythia]]ns, but classical Greeks never ceased to be astounded at such role-reversals. Women in classical Greek society were expected to be passive and dependent on males. In early modern usage, the word was often used to refer to strong and independent women, in contrast to conventional stereotypes of women as weak and passive (see "[[damsel in distress]]"), but now "amazon" in such contexts has self-ironic overtones. [[Image:1729.jpg|thumb|300px|The unidentified London cartographer, ''ca'' 1770, has placed ''Amazones'' in the north of ''[[Sarmatians|Sarmatia Asiatica]]'', based on Greek literary sources.]] ==Etymology== The name {{polytonic|Ἀμαζών}} is probably derived from an [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] [[ethnonym]], ''*ha-mazan-'', originally meaning "warriors". A connected word is probably the [[Hesychius of Alexandria|Hesychius]] gloss {{polytonic|&#7937;μαζακ&#8049;ραν· πολεμε&#8150;ν}} ("to make war", containing the [[Indo-Iranian]] root ''kar-'' "make" also in ''[[karma|kar-ma]]''). The Greek variant of the name was connected by [[popular etymology]] to [[privative a]] + ''mazos'', "without [[breast]]", connected with an [[aetiological]] tradition that Amazons had their right breast cut off or burnt out, in order that they might be able to use the bow more freely (contemporary Greeks drew the bowstring to the [[sternum]]); there is no indication of this practice in works of art, in which the Amazons are always represented with both breasts, although the right is frequently covered. Other suggested derivations were: ''a-'' (intensive) + ''mazos'', breast, "full-breasted"; ''a'' (privative) and ''masso'', touch, "not touching" (men); ''maza'', a [[Circassian]] word said to signify "moon", has suggested their connection with the worship of a moon-goddess, perhaps the Asiatic representative of [[Artemis]]. ==Amazons of Greek mythology== [[Image:AmazonBattle.JPG|thumbnail|right|''Amazon Preparing for Battle'' or ''Armed Venus'', by [[Pierre-Eugène-Emile Hébert]].]] Amazons were said to have lived in [[Pontus]],which is part of modern day Turkey near the shore of the [[Euxine Sea]], where they formed an independent kingdom under the government of a queen, often named [[Hippolyta]] ("she lets her horses loose"). They were supposed to have founded many towns, amongst them [[Izmir|Smyrna]], [[Ephesus]], [[Sinope]], [[Paphos]]. According to another account, they originally came to the [[Thermodon]] from the ''Palus Maeotis'' ("Lake Maeotis", the [[Sea of Azov]]). In some versions, no men were permitted to reside in Amazon country; but once a year, in order to prevent their race from dying out, they visited the [[Gargareans]], a neighbouring tribe. The male children who were the result of these visits were either put to death or sent back to their fathers; the females were kept and brought up by their mothers, and trained in agricultural pursuits, hunting, and the art of war ([[Strabo]] xi. p. 503). In the ''[[Iliad]]'', the Amazons were referred to as [[Antianeira]] ("those who fight like men"). [[Herodotus]] called them [[Androktones]] ("killers of men"). The Amazons appear in connection with several Greek legends. They invaded [[Lycia]], but were defeated by [[Bellerophon]], who was sent out against them by [[Iobates]], the king of that country, in the hope that he might meet his death at their hands (''Iliad'', vi. 186). According to [[Diodorus Siculus|Diodorus]], Queen [[Myrine]] led them to victory against the [[Atlantis|Atlanteans]], [[Libya]] and much of [[Gorgon]]. They attacked the [[Phrygia]]ns, who were assisted by [[Priam]], then a young man (''Iliad'', iii. 189). Although in his later years, towards the end of the [[Trojan War]], his old opponents took his side again against the Greeks under their queen [[Penthesilea]], who was slain by [[Achilles]] (Quint. Smyr. i.; Justin ii. 4; Virgil, Aen. i. 490). One of the tasks imposed upon [[Heracles]] by [[Eurystheus]] was to obtain possession of the girdle of the Amazonian queen [[Hippolyte]] (''[[Apollodorus]]'' ii. 5). He was accompanied by his friend [[Theseus]], who carried off the princess [[Antiope (mythology)|Antiope]], sister of Hippolyte, an incident which led to a retaliatory invasion of [[Attica, Greece|Attica]], in which Antiope perished fighting by the side of Theseus. In some versions, however, Theseus marries Hippolyta and in others, he marries Antiope and she does not die. The battle between the Athenians and Amazonians is often commemorated in an entire genre of art, [[amazonomachy]], marble carvings such as from the [[Parthenon]]. The Amazons are also said to have undertaken an expedition against the island of [[Leuke]], at the mouth of the [[Danube]], where the ashes of Achilles had been deposited by [[Thetis]]. The ghost of the dead hero appeared and so terrified the horses, that they threw and trampled upon the invaders, who were forced to retire. [[Pompey]] is said to have found them in the army of [[Mithradates]]. They are heard of in the time of [[Alexander the Great]], when some of the great king's biographers make mention of Amazon Queen [[Thalestris]] visiting him and becoming a mother by him. However, several other biographers of Alexander totally dispute the claim, including the highly regarded secondary source, [[Plutarch]]. In his writing he makes mention of when Alexander's secondary naval commander, [[Onesicritus]], was reading the Amazon passage of his Alexander history to King [[Lysimachus]] of [[Thrace]] who was on the original expedition, the king smiled at him and said "And where was I, then?" The Roman writer [[Virgil]]'s character of the [[Volsci|Volscian]] warrior maiden ''Camilla'' in the ''[[Aeneid]]'' borrows heavily from the myth of the Amazonian. ==Scythian origins== In a recent excavation of [[Sarmatian]] sites by Dr. Jeannine Davis-Kimball, a tomb was found wherein female warriors were buried, thus lending some credence to the myths about the Amazons. Following the excavation in [[2003]] by Dr. Davis-Kimball, she and Dr. Joachim Burger compared the genetic evidence from the site with the nomadic [[Kazakh]]s, and have found a striking genetic link – verified later by the [[University of Cambridge]] [http://www.thirteen.org/pressroom/release.php?get=1272] Before modern archaeology uncovered some of the Scythian burials of warrior-maidens entombed under [[kurgan]]s in the [[Altai]] region of Siberia, giving concrete form at last to the Greek tales of mounted Amazons, the origin of the story of the Amazons has been the subject of speculation among classics scholars. In the 1911 ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' speculation ranged along the following lines. While some regard the Amazons as a purely mythical people, others assume an historical foundation for them. The deities worshipped by them were [[Ares]] (who is consistently assigned to them as a god of war, and as a god of [[Thrace|Thracian]] and generally northern origin) and [[Artemis]], not the usual Greek goddess of that name, but an Asiatic deity in some respects her equivalent. It is conjectured that the Amazons were originally the temple-servants and priestesses (''hierodulae'') of this goddess; and that the removal of the breast corresponded with the self-mutilation of the god [[Attis]] and the [[galli]], Roman priests of [[Cybele]]. Another theory is that, as the knowledge of geography extended, travellers brought back reports of tribes ruled entirely by women, who carried out the duties which elsewhere were regarded as peculiar to man, in whom alone the rights of nobility and inheritance were vested, and who had the supreme control of affairs. Hence arose the belief in the Amazons as a nation of female warriors, organized and governed entirely by women. According to J. Vurtheim (''De Ajacis origine'', [[1907]]), the Amazons were of Greek origin: "all the Amazons were Dianas, as [[Diana (goddess)|Diana]] herself was an Amazon". It has been suggested that the fact of the conquest of the Amazons being assigned to the two famous heroes of Greek mythology, Heracles and Theseus &ndash; who in the tasks assigned to them were generally opposed to monsters and beings impossible in themselves, but possible as illustrations of permanent danger and damage &ndash; shows that they were mythical illustrations of the dangers which beset the Greeks on the coasts of Asia Minor; rather perhaps, it may be intended to represent the conflict between the Greek culture of the colonies on the [[Black Sea]] and the barbarism of the native inhabitants. [[Herodotus]] reported that the [[Sarmatians]]/[[Sauromatians]] were descendants of Amazons and Scythians. Their [[Scythian]]/[[Saka]]/[[Cimmerian]]/[[Gomer]]ian origins are further proved by their origins from [[Thermodon]]'s Scythians who invaded there coming from around the [[Sea of Azov]] and their use of the bow and arrow as their primary weapon as well as fighting on horseback. Medieval and Renaissance authors credit the Amazons with the invention of the [[battle-axe]]. This is probably related to the [[Sagaris]], an axe-like weapon associated with both Amazons and Scythian tribes by Greek authors (see also [[Aleksandrovo kurgan]]). [[Paulus Hector Mair]] expresses astonishment that such a "manly weapon" should have been invented by a "tribe of women", but he accepts the attribution out of respect for his authority, [[Johannes Aventinus]]. ==Amazons in Greek art== In works of art, battles between Amazons and Greeks are placed on the same level as and often associated with battles of Greeks and [[centaurs]]. The belief in their existence, however, having been once accepted and introduced into the national poetry and art, it became necessary to surround them as far as possible with the appearance of not unnatural beings. Their occupation was hunting and war; their arms the bow, spear, axe, a half shield, nearly in the shape of a crescent, called ''pelta'', and in early art a helmet, the model before the Greek mind having apparently been the goddess Athena. In later art they approach the model of Artemis, wearing a thin dress, girt high for speed; while on the later painted vases their dress is often peculiarly [[Iran|Persia]]n &ndash; that is, close-fitting trousers and a high cap called the kidaris. They were usually on horseback but sometimes on foot. They can also be identified in vase paintings by the fact that they are wearing one earring. The battle between Theseus and the Amazons is a favourite subject on the friezes of temples (e.g. the reliefs from the frieze of the temple of [[Apollo]] at [[Bassae]], now in the [[British Museum]]), vases and sarcophagus reliefs; at [[Athens]] it was represented on the shield of the statue of [[Athena Parthenos]], on wall-paintings in the [[Theseum]] and in the [[stoa | ''Stoa Poikile'']]. Many of the sculptors of antiquity, including [[Pheidias]], [[Polyclitus]], [[Cresilas]] and [[Phradmon]], executed statues of Amazons; and there are many existing reproductions of these. ===Legendary Amazons from Greek myth=== *[[Ainia]] *[[Antianara]] *[[Antibrote]] *[[Antiope (mythology)|Antiope]] *[[Asteria]] *[[Cleite]] *[[Helene (mythology)|Helene]] *[[Hippolyte]] *[[Melanippe]] *[[Otrera]] *[[Penthesilea]] *[[Thalestris]] *[[Thebe (mythology)|Thebe]] ==Amazon-like figures in history and folklore== [[Image:Blenda.jpg|right|300px|thumb|'''[[Blenda]]''' leads the women in the defense of their villages, by Hugo Hamilton (1830)]] [[Image:Peter-nicolai-arbo-hervor.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[shieldmaiden]] [[Hervor]] dying after a battle with the [[Huns]] in ''[[Hervarar saga]]'']] [[Image:Dahomey amazon6.jpg|right|thumb|170px|Dahomey Amazons holding muskets. The horns are indicators of rank]] Armed women have often acted as royal [[bodyguard]]s throughout history. [[Chandragupta Maurya]] ([[322 BC|322]]&ndash;[[298 BC]]), the first [[emperor]] to develop a centralized state in [[India]], had a personal guard composed of giant Greek women. Female royal guards re-appear 2000 years later in the [[History of India|history of India]] as guards for the [[Nizam]]s of [[Deccan]] and [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]]. And on the island of [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Kandy]] royal family had a royal guard of female [[archer]]s. In [[Europe]], [[Celt]]ic and [[Germanic tribes]] often had women fighting with their husbands. [[Tacitus]] tells us that [[Boadicea]] had more women than men in her army. There is also a woman in the Old Testament, Deborah, who may be one of the first recorded instances of a woman participating in battle. She was a prophetess, a warrior, a leader, and a Judge of Israel, all in one. She correctly predicted that the enemy general, Sisera, who faced Israel at this time would be slain by a woman (the woman who killed him and also received credit for the army's victory was named Jael.) This story is chronicled in Judges. In [[Scandinavia]], women who did not yet have the responsibility for raising a family could take up arms and live like warriors. They were called [[shieldmaiden]]s and many of them figure in [[Norse mythology]]. One of the most famous shieldmaidens was [[Hervor]] and she figures in the cycle of the magic sword [[Tyrfing]]. The Danish chronicler [[Saxo Grammaticus]] relates that when the Swedish king [[Sigurd Ring]] and the Danish king [[Harald Wartooth]] met at the [[Battle of Bråvalla]], 300 shieldmaidens fought on the Danish side led by Visna. Saxo relates that the shieldmaidens fought with small shields and long swords. Similarly, the '''[[Valkyries]]''' of [[Norse mythology]] are minor female deities, who serve [[Odin]]. The name means ''choosers of the slain''. The valkyries' purpose was to choose the most heroic of those who had died in battle and to carry them off to [[Valhalla]] where they became [[einherjar]]. This was necessary because Odin needed warriors to fight at his side at the preordained battle at the end of the world, [[Ragnarok|Ragnarök]]. A legend which may be based on the Greek Amazons appears in the history of [[Bohemia]]. As the story goes, a large band of women, lead by a certain [[Vlasta]], carried on war against the duke of Bohemia, and enslaved or put to death all men who fell into their hands; eventually, they were mercilessly defeated by the duke. In the [[16th century]] the [[Spain|Spanish]] explorer [[Francisco de Orellana|Orellana]] asserted that he had come into conflict with fighting women in [[South America]] on the [[Marañón River]], which was named after them the [[Amazon River|Amazon]] or river of the Amazons, although others derive its name from the Indian amassona (boat-destroyer), applied to the tidal phenomenon known as the "bore". The armored warrior maiden (whose gender is often unsuspected) is a frequent character in the European chivalric epic. The most famous of these female knights is ''Bradamante'' -- daughter of Aymon, sister to the knight [[Renaud de Montauban]] (''Rinaldo'', ''Ranaldo'') and legendary ancestor to the house of [[Este]] -- who is destined to marry the knight ''Ruggiero'' (or ''Rugiero''). Her adventures are a major element in the Italian [[Renaissance]] epics ''[[Orlando Innamorato]]'' by [[Matteo Maria Boiardo]] and its continuation ''[[Orlando furioso]]'' by [[Ariosto]]. A similar character is the pagan warrior knight ''Clorinda'' who battles against the Christian crusaders in [[Torquato Tasso]]'s epic ''[[Jerusalem Delivered]]''. The vogue of such female knights in literature would continue though the seventeenth century and inspired not only dramatic recreations but also actual military feats (such as the [[Anne, Duchess of Montpensier|duchess of Montpensier]]'s participation in the [[Fronde]]). The [[Dahomey Amazons]] were a 6000 strong military unit of [[Dahomey]] (now [[Benin]]) in [[West Africa]] who were active from the [[16th century|16th]] to the late [[19th century]]. They were largely successful in their battles with neighboring kingdoms, and were finally defeated by the [[France|French]]. [[Libya]] has a long history of Amazon women, which probably pre-dates the Greek Amazons. Even today, [[Gadaffi]] is guarded by female soldiers. Other [[Africa]]n ethnic groups who used fighting women were the [[Igbo (people)|Igbo]] and [[Fulani]], who integrated the women into their armies. In the kingdom of [[Siam]] in the 19th century, the king had a personal battalion of 400 spear-wielding women. They were chosen from the most beautiful women of the country, and were said to be excellent spear-throwers, though they were regarded as too valuable to be sent to war. Almost all countries have female combatants in their history one time or the other; it is simply the matter of more or less. Around 400 women secretly took part as soldiers in the [[American Civil War]]. For notable cases of women became soldiers, reference may be made to [[Mary Anne Talbot]] and [[Hannah Snell]]. In the 20th century, the states of the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Israel]] took the initiative to train and utilize women for light infantry and other combatant roles. Although these moves were initially motivated by the shortage of manpower, for example on USSR's western front in WWII, they led the way for the use of female combatants by the U.S. and other western nations. ==Modern depiction of Amazons== It has been noted that until the 20th century, Amazons were typically depicted in [[literature]] as an alien adversary that threatened the masculinity of heroes. As such, the typical goal of the heroes has been to defeat and humiliate them as a way of reasserting male superiority. In the 20th century, Amazons were depicted with increasing sympathy. Today, the typical depiction of the characters is as an isolated community of powerful and beautiful warriors whom the male heroes are challenged to earn their respect to become valuable allies. The most famous modern example of an Amazon is the [[superhero]], [[Wonder Woman]]. Amazons were also frequently featured on the ''[[Xena: Warrior Princess]]'' and ''[[Hercules: The Legendary Journeys]]'' television series. [[Robert E. Howard]]'s minor character [[Red Sonja]], who was fleshed out more in the ''[[Conan the Barbarian]]'' comic books, and subsequently, in her own movie, also owes much to this modern sympathetic treatment of Amazons. An episode of [[Futurama]] had a planet of [[giant (mythology)|giant]] Amazon-like women where the cast gets stranded. [[Esther Freisner]] has published a series of [[anthology|anthologies]] on the theme of ''Chicks in [[Chainmail]]'', containing humorous takes on Amazon characters by a number of science fiction and fantasy writers. The [[comic book]] series ''[[Y: The Last Man]]'', in which every male on Earth is wiped out in a mysterious plague, includes a hyper-feminist [[cult]] called the Daughters of the Amazon, who believe that [[Mother Earth]] cleansed itself of the "aberration" of the Y chromosome. A [[Buck Rogers in the 25th Century (TV series)|Buck Rogers]] episode, ''Planet of the Amazon Women'' features a society composed solely of women, because all men were either killed in war or held as prisoners of war by their enemy. A [[Star Trek]]: The Next Generation episode features similar women in "Angel One". These women are large and strong and dominate the smaller, weaker, more servile men. [[Zeus, Master of Olympus]], a computer game, features these women under the command of Artemis who is, depending on the scenario/campaign played, are either the player's allies or deadly enemies, since Artemis can either "bless" the game player's leader or "curse" the game player's leader, depending on the scenario/campaign played. Some scenarios also feature ''independent'' amazons, such as the Military 2 scenario and The Labors of Hercules scenario. A [[Sliders]] Episode depicts women in control of a Earth, due to a germ warfare virus killing most of the men, and causing the survivors to be sterile, and left the women unaffected by it. When the male Sliders were found, they were mistaken for men that somehow escaped the plague, not knowing that they're aliens from another dimension, which they were. A [[Stargate SG-1]] episode, Birthright, has the military unit from Earth asking woman warriors on another planet for aid against spaceborne and dimensional enemies. A [[Thundarr the Barbarian]] episode, ''Attack of the Amazon Women'', depicts warlike women located in what was left of Mt. Rushmore. He and his companions defeated a female meglomaniac who had found a "ancient" nuclear warhead, and intended to use it in her attempt at conquest. Another computer game, [[Diablo II]], depicts these women in it as a combat class. In the [[Wheel of Time]] books by [[Robert Jordan]], the [[Aiel]] people have amazon warriors, called ''[[Far Dareis Mai]]'', "Maidens of the Spear". In The Television series [[Futurama]] the characters crash-land on a planet called "Amazonia" inhabited by a race of giant women (Amazonians). Episode 5 of Season 3, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futurama_%28TV_series_-_season_3%29#Amazon_Women_in_the_Moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futurama_%28TV_series_-_season_3%29#Amazon_Women_in_the_Mood Amazon Women in the Mood] A [[Outer Limits]] episode, called [[Lithia]] depicts women who have survived all out war, incl. a nuclear attack and a germ warfare attack which killed all men. In this, a man, who was a [[Major]] in the US Military, was cryogenically frozen as part of a experiment before the war broke out, was revived by some women. He found that humanity survived the war, but were all women. Reproduction was carried out by using frozen sperm, but the virus kills male babies. Due to a social taboo, he was placed BACK into cryogenic stasis. This episode was shown on the [[Sci-Fi]] channel on 3-1-06 @ 3pm EST/EDT, was made in 1998. ==See also== {{wikiquote}} *[[Timeline of women's participation in warfare]] *[[Valkyrie]] *[[Themis]] *[[Artemis]] *[[Diablo II#Amazon|Amazon Class: Diablo II]] *[[Virago]] *[[Joan of Ark]] *[[Amazon Women on the Moon]] ==External links== *[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/case_amazon/index.html Secrets of the Dead: Amazon Warrior Women (PBS)] - includes information on genetic and archaeological study of recent finds of skeletons in tombs *[http://www.moonspeaker.ca/amazonsframe.html Amazon Nation] The Amazons existed. But, their history has been long lost, or else so corrupted by later peoples who would rather we forgot them they are barely recognizable. This is a version of a book in progress, so you may notice differences if you were to compare it to a printed version. *[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Hdt.+4.110.1 Herodotus on the Amazons] *[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?pageno=180&fk_files=1131 Herodotus via Gutenberg] *[http://www.stevequayle.com/Giants/W.Europe/W.Europe4.html] The Amazons existed. They were originally warrior women of Scythians. Greeks later added them to their mythology even sometimes deitifying some of them. *[http://folk.uio.no/thomas/lists/amazon-connection.html The Amazon Connection] - A guide to online resources about Amazons, aiming to cover the entire spectrum of meaning that has been attributed to the term Amazon. *[http://folk.uio.no/thomas/lists/amazons.html Amazons International] - A newsletter dedicated to the image of the Amazon or female hero in fiction and in fact, in art and literature, in the physiques and feats of female athletes, and in gender-related and sexual orientations. *[http://www.theowljournal.com/article.php?issue=06&story=04&comments=1 Man-Handlers: Feminism in Ancient Greece] by Declan Jenkins, New College, Oxford, in [http://www.theowljournal.com ''The Owl Journal''] *[http://www.perseus.org/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0004%3Aid%3Damazon Perseus] *[http://www.sacred-texts.com/wmn/rca/rca02.htm THE AMAZONS IN GREEK LEGEND] *[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mamazon.html Straight Dope] *[http://www.lisasmedman.topcities.com/page22.html Amazons of Mythology] Information on the European and North African Amazons of Greek mythology, comments on archaeological findings, plus an article on sites of interest in Turkey for modern travelers. ==References== *[[A. D. Mordtmann]], ''Die Amazonen'' (1862) *[[W. Stricker]], ''Die Amazonen in Sage und Geschichte'' (1868) *[[A. Klugmann]], ''Die Amazonen in der attischen Literatur und Kunst'' (1875) *[[H. L. Krause]], ''Die Amazonensage'' (1893) *[[F. G. Bergmann]], ''Les Amazones dans l'histoire et dans la fable'' (1853) *[[P. Lacour]], ''Les Amazones'' (1901) *articles in [[Pauly-Wissowa]]'s ''Realencyclopadie,'' and [[W. H. Roscher]]'s ''Lexikon der Mythologie'' *[[George Grote]], ''History of Greece,'' pt. i. ch. 11. *[[J. A. Salmonson]], ''The Encyclopedia of Amazons'' (1991), ISBN 0385423667 ==Sources== About twenty-five hundred years ago, [[Herodotus]] in ''Histories'' in book four records: 110. About the Sauromatai the following tale is told:--When the Hellenes had fought with the Amazons,--now the Amazons are called by the Scythians /Oiorpata/, which name means in the Hellenic tongue "slayers of men," for "man" they call /oior/, and /pata/ means "to slay,"--then, as the story goes, the Hellenes, having conquered them in the battle at the Thermodon, were sailing away and conveying with them in three ships as many Amazons as they were able to take prisoners. These in the open sea set upon the men and cast them out of the ships; but they knew nothing about ships, nor how to use rudders or sails or oars, and after they had cast out the men they were driven about by wave and wind and came to that part of the Maiotian lake where Cremnoi stands; now Cremnoi is in the land of the free Scythians. There the Amazons disembarked from their ships and made their way into the country, and having met first with a troop of horses feeding they seized them, and mounted upon these they plundered the property of the Scythians. 111. The Scythians meanwhile were not able to understand the matter, for they did not know either their speech or their dress or the race to which they belonged, but were in wonder as to whence they had come and thought that they were men, of an age corresponding to their appearance: and finally they fought a battle against them, and after the battle the Scythians got possession of the bodies of the dead, and thus they discovered that they were women. They took counsel therefore and resolved by no means to go on trying to kill them, but to send against them the youngest men from among themselves, making conjecture of the number so as to send just as many men as there were women. These were told to encamp near them, and do whatsoever they should do; if however the women should come after them, they were not to fight but to retire before them, and when the women stopped, they were to approach near and encamp. This plan was adopted by the Scythians because they desired to have children born from them. 112. The young men accordingly were sent out and did that which had been commanded them: and when the Amazons perceived that they had not come to do them any harm, they let them alone; and the two camps approached nearer to one another every day: and the young men, like the Amazons, had nothing except their arms and their horses, and got their living, as the Amazons did, by hunting and by taking booty. 113. Now the Amazons at midday used to scatter abroad either one by one or by two together, dispersing to a distance from one another to ease themselves; and the Scythians also having perceived this did the same thing: and one of the Scythians came near to one of those Amazons who were apart by themselves, and she did not repulse him but allowed him to lie with her: and she could not speak to him, for they did not understand one another's speech, but she made signs to him with her hand to come on the following day to the same place and to bring another with him, signifying to him that there should be two of them, and that she would bring another with her. The young man therefore, when he returned, reported this to the others; and on the next day he came himself to the place and also brought another, and he found the Amazon awaiting him with another in her company. Then hearing this the rest of the young men also in their turn tamed for themselves the remainder of the Amazons; 114, and after this they joined their camps and lived together, each man having for his wife her with whom he had had dealings at first; and the men were not able to learn the speech of the women, but the women came to comprehend that of the men. So when they understood one another, the men spoke to the Amazons as follows: "We have parents and we have possessions; now therefore let us no longer lead a life of this kind, but let us go away to the main body of our people and dwell with them; and we will have you for wives and no others." They however spoke thus in reply: "We should not be able to live with your women, for we and they have not the same customs. We shoot with bows and hurl javelins and ride horses, but the works of women we never learnt; whereas your women do none of these things which we said, but stay in the waggons and work at the works of women, neither going out to the chase nor anywhither else. We therefore should not be able to live in agreement with them: but if ye desire to keep us for your wives and to be thought honest men, go to your parents and obtain from them your share of the goods, and then let us go and dwell by ourselves." 115. The young men agreed and did this; and when they had obtained the share of the goods which belonged to them and had returned back to the Amazons, the women spoke to them as follows: "We are possessed by fear and trembling to think that we must dwell in this place, having not only separated you from your fathers, but also done great damage to your land. Since then ye think it right to have us as your wives, do this together with us,--come and let us remove from this land and pass over the river Tana also". 116. They crossed over the Tana rising sun for three days' journey from Tana North Wind for three days' journey from the Maiotian lake: and having arrived at the place where they are now settled, they took up their abode there: and from thenceforward the women of the Sauromatai practise their ancient way of living, going out regularly on horseback to the chase both in company with the men and apart from them, and going regularly to war, and wearing the same dress as the men. 117. And the Sauromatai make use of the Scythian tongue, speaking it barbarously however from the first, since the Amazons did not learn it thoroughly well. As regards marriages their rule is this, that no maiden is married until she has slain a man of their enemies; and some of them even grow old and die before they are married, because they are not able to fulfil the requirement of the law." [http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?pageno=180&fk_files=1131] {{1911}} {{Commonscat|Amazons}} [[Category:Women in war]] [[Category:Greek mythology]] [[Category:Eurasian nomads]] [[Category:Scythians]] [[Category:Sarmatians]] {{Link FA|no}} [[ar:أمازونيات]] [[da:Amazone]] [[de:Amazonen]] [[es:Amazona (mitología)]] [[eu:Amazona (mitologia)]] [[fr:Amazones]] [[it:Amazzoni]] [[he:אמזונות]] [[lt:Amazonė (mitologija)]] [[hu:Amazonok]] [[nl:Amazone (mythologie)]] [[no:Amasoner]] [[nn:Amasone]] [[pl:Amazonki]] [[pt:Amazonas (guerreiras)]] [[sl:Amazonka (mitologija)]] [[fi:Amatsonit]] [[sv:Amasoner]] [[uk:Амазонки]] 1696 27036875 2005-11-01T03:39:58Z Joaopais 94195 *[[Alfonso V of Castile]] -- (999-1028) *[[Alfonso V of Aragon]] -- (1416-1458) The Magnanimous *[[Afonso V of Portugal]] -- (1432-1481) The African {{disambig}} [[pt:Afonso V]] 1697 41860417 2006-03-02T05:03:51Z SDC 181435 /* Source */ '''Ambergris''' ('''Ambra grisea''', '''Ambre gris''', '''ambergrease''', or '''grey [[amber]]''') is a solid, fatty, flammable substance of a dull grey or blackish color, with the shades being variegated like [[marble]]. It possesses a peculiar sweet, earthy odour not unlike [[isopropyl alcohol]]. Now largely replaced by synthetics, it is occasionally still used as a [[fixative]] in [[perfumery]]. == Source == Ambergris occurs as a [[biliary]] [[concretion]] in the [[intestines]] of the [[sperm whale]], and can be found floating upon the sea, on the sea-coast, or in the sand near the sea-coast. Because lumps of ambergris with embedded beaks of [[giant squid]] have been found, scientists have theorized that the whale's intestine produces the substance as a means of facilitating the passage of hard, sharp objects that the whale might have inadvertently eaten. Ambergris can be found in the [[Atlantic Ocean]]; on the coasts of [[Brazil]] and [[Madagascar]]; also on the coast of [[Africa]], of the [[East Indies]], [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Australia]] and the [[Maluku Islands|Molucca islands]]. However, most commercially collected ambergris came from the [[Bahama Islands]], [[New Providence Island|Providence Island]], etc. It is also sometimes found in the [[abdomen]]s of [[whale]]s. == Physical properties == Ambergris is found in lumps of various shapes and sizes, weighing from &frac12; [[ounce|oz]] (14 [[gram|g]]) to 100 or more [[pound (mass)|pound]]s (45 or more [[kilogram|kg]]). When initially expelled by the whale or removed from it, the fatty precursor of ambergris is pale white in colour (sometimes streaked with black), soft in consistency, with a strong fecal smell. Following months to years of [[photo-degradation]] and [[oxidation]] in the ocean, this precursor gradually hardens, developing a dark grey or black colour, a crusty and waxy texture, and a peculiar odour that is at once sweet, earthy, marine, and animalic. Its smell has been described by many as a vastly richer and smoother version of [[isopropanol]] without its stinging harshness. In this developed condition, ambergris has a [[specific gravity]] ranging from 0.780 to 0.926. It melts at about 62 [[degree (temperature)|&deg;]][[celsius|C]] to a fatty, yellow resinous-like liquid; and at 100 &deg;C it is volatilized into a white vapour. It is soluble in [[diethyl ether|ether]], and in volatile and fixed oils. Ambergris is relatively unreactive to [[acid]]. White crystals of a substance called [[ambrein]], which closely resembles [[cholesterol]], can be separated from ambergris by heating raw ambergris in alcohol then allowing the resulting solution to cool. == Replacement compounds and economics == Historically, the primary commercial use of ambergris has been in [[fragrance]] chemistry, although it has also been used for [[medicine|medicinal]] and [[flavoring]] purposes. Ambergris is one of the most important amber type odorants and is highly sought. However, it is difficult to get a consistent and reliable supply of high quality ambergris. Due to demand for ambergris and its high price, replacement compounds have been sought out by the fragrance industry and chemically [[chemical synthesis|synthesized]]. The most important of these is [[Ambrox]], which has taken its place as the most widely used amber odorant in [[perfume]] manufacture. The oldest and most commercially significant synthesis of Ambrox is from [[sclareol]] (primarily extracted from [[Clary sage]]), although syntheses have been devised from a variety of other [[secondary metabolites|natural products]], including [[cis-abienol]] and [[thujone]]. Procedures for the microbial production of Ambrox have also been devised. Depending on its quality, raw ambergris fetches approximately USD$20 per gram. In the [[United States]], possession of any part of an endangered species &mdash; including ambergris that has washed ashore &mdash; is a violation of the [[Endangered Species Act]] of 1978. ==In literature, cinema and music== '''Ambergris''' is also a fictional city, named for "the most secret and valued part of the whale", appearing in [[Jeff Vandermeer]]'s books ''[[City of Saints and Madmen]]'' and ''[[Shriek: An Afterword]]''. The word also appears in [[Ezra Pound]]'s poem ''Portrait d'une Femme''. Chapters XCI and XCII of ''[[Moby-Dick]]'' relate the extraction of ambergris from a deceased sperm whale. In the 2001 motion picture [[Hannibal (film)|''Hannibal'']], [[Hannibal Lecter|Dr. Lecter's]] secret location in [[Florence, Italy]] was determined after FBI Agent Clarice Starling received a letter from him that was scented with a hand-engineered fragrance containing ambergris. Agent Starling consulted a team of fragrance industry experts who identified the presence of ambergris by smelling the letter and lamented their inability to work with this substance in the United States due to its prohibition. '''Ambergris''' is mentioned during the ''[[Futurama]]'' episode [[Three Hundred Big Boys]] when the whale Mooshu is caused to vomit by the rotten fish it ingests when Leela swims with it. In the [[Encyclopedia Brown]] series of children's detective stories, there is a story called "The Case of Smelly Nellie and the Ambergris". There was also a [[rock music|rock band]] called Ambergris, who released one self-titled album in 1970 through [[ABC Records]]. In the [[World of Warcraft]] [[video game]], players occasionally receive an item called Threshadon Ambergris from defeating [[Loch Ness Monster]]-like sea creatures. '''Ambergris''' is mentioned in ''[[The Far Side of the World]]'', one of the ''[[Aubrey-Maturin series]]'' novels by [[Patrick O'Brian]]. A whale-sized block of ambergris plays a central role in artist [[Matthew Barney]]'s film ''[[Drawing Restraint 9]]'' ==External links== * [http://www.rsmas.miami.edu/support/lib/seas/seasQA/QAs/a/ambergris.html University of Miami Ambergris FAQ] * [http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/editors_pick/1933_05-06_pick.html Natural History Magazine Article: Floating Gold -- The Romance of Ambergris] * [http://www.netstrider.com/documents/ambergris/ Ambergris - A Pathfinder and Annotated Bibliography] * [http://www.laputanlogic.com/articles/2006/02/01-0159-300.html Article on Ambergris and its history] * [http://www.cropwatch.org/amber.htm On the chemistry and ethics of Ambergris] {{1911}} [[Category:Perfumery]] [[Category:Whale products]] [[Category:Animal glandular products]] [[da:Ambra]] [[de:Ambra]] [[eo:ambro]] [[fr:Ambre gris]] [[nl:Amber (potvis)]] [[ja:龍涎香]] [[pl:Ambra]] [[pt:Âmbar cinza]] [[ru:Амбра]] [[fi:Ambra]] [[sv:Ambra]] [[uk:Амбра]] [[zh:龍涎香]] 1698 38961991 2006-02-09T20:27:27Z Gaius Cornelius 293907 [[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up + typo fix '''Ambiorix''' was prince of the [[Eburones]], a [[Belgae|Belgic]] tribe of north-eastern [[Gaul]] ([[Gallia Belgica]]). [[Image:Ambiorix.jpg|thumb|Statue of Ambiorix in [[Tongeren]].]] Although [[Julius Caesar]] had freed him from paying tribute to the [[Atuatuci]], Ambiorix joined [[Catuvolcus]] (winter, [[54 BC]]) in an uprising against the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] forces under [[Q. Titurius Sabinus]] and [[I. Aurunculeius Cotta]], and almost annihilated them. An attack on [[Quintus Cicero]] (brother of the orator), then stationed with a legion in the [[Nervii]]'s territory, failed due to the timely appearance of Caesar. Ambiorix is said to have found safety across the [[Rhine]], but his fate remains unknown. It is certain that Caesar attempted to capture him, eliminating the Eburones and destroying their land in the process. A statue of of Ambiorix (actually a 19th century Romantic interpretation of what Ambiorix might have looked like) can be found in the [[Belgium|Belgian]] town of [[Tongeren]]. Caesar, ''[[Gallic Wars|De Bello Gallico]]'' v. 26-51, vi. 29-43, viii. 24; Dio Cassius xl. 7-11; Florus iii. 10. ==External links== * [http://www.livius.org/am-ao/ambiorix/ambiorix.html Ambiorix] from www.livius.org [[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]] [[Category:Ancient Gauls]] [[de:Ambiorix]] [[fr:Ambiorix]] [[li:Ambiorix]] [[nl:Ambiorix]] [[pt:Ambiorix]] [[sv:Ambiorix]] {{Ancient-Rome-bio-stub}} {{royalty-stub}} 1699 38133427 2006-02-04T11:36:04Z Ft1 875504 +it *[[Alfonso VI of Portugal]] -- (1643-1667) second king of the [[House of Braganza]] *[[Alfonso VI of Castile]] -- (1065-1109) {{disambig}} [[es:Alfonso VI]] [[it:Alfonso VI]] [[pt:Afonso VI]] [[sv:Alfonso VI]] 1700 28106107 2005-11-12T10:46:30Z Bluebot 527862 Standardising 1911 references. '''August Wilhelm Ambros''' ([[November 17]], [[1816]] &ndash; [[June 28]], [[1876]]) was an [[Austrian]] composer and music historian of [[Czech people|Czech]] decent. He was born at Mýto (''Mauth'') near [[Rokycany]], [[Bohemia]]. His father was a cultured man, and his mother was the sister of [[Raphael Georg Kiesewetter]] ([[1773]]-[[1850]]), the musical archaeologist and collector. Ambros was well-educated in music and the arts, which were his abiding passion. He was, however, destined for the law and an official career in the Austrian civil service, and he occupied various important posts under the ministry of justice, music being an avocation. From [[1850]] onwards he became well-known as a critic and essay-writer, and in [[1860]] he began working on his magnum opus, his ''History of Music'', which was published at intervals from [[1864]] in five volumes, the last two ([[1878]], [[1882]]) being edited and completed by [[Otto Kade]] and [[Langhaus]]. Ambros became professor of the history of music at [[Prague]] in [[1869]]. He was an excellent pianist, and the author of numerous compositions somewhat reminiscent of [[Felix Mendelssohn]]. Ambros died at [[Vienna]], Austria at the age of 59. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1816 births|Ambros, August Wilhelm]] [[Category:1876 deaths|Ambros, August Wilhelm]] [[Category:Austrian composers|Ambros, August Wilhelm]] [[Category:Romantic composers|Ambros, August Wilhelm]] [[de:August Wilhelm Ambros]] [[pt:August Wilhelm Ambros]] 1701 41789642 2006-03-01T19:41:32Z Gdr 55814 /* 20th century concerns */ reverft vandalism {{Infobox_river | river_name = Amazon River | image_name = Amazon_river_basin.png | caption = Map showing the course of the Amazon, selected tributaries, and the approximate extent of its drainage area | origin = [[Nevado Mismi]] | mouth = [[Atlantic Ocean]] | basin_countries = [[Brazil]] (62.4%), [[Peru]] (16.3%)<br>[[Bolivia]] (12.0%), [[Colombia]] (6.3%)<br>[[Ecuador]] (2.1%) | length = 6,387 km (3,969 mi) | elevation = 5,597 m (18,364 ft) | discharge = 219,000 m&sup3;/s (7,735,080 ft&sup3;/s) | watershed = 6,915,000 km&sup2; (2,669,882 mi&sup2;) }} The '''Amazon River''' (occasionally ''River Amazon''; [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Río Amazonas'', [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''Rio Amazonas'') of [[South America]] is [[River lengths|one of the two longest]] [[river]]s on Earth, the other being the [[Nile]] in Africa. The Amazon has by far the greatest total flow of any river, carrying more than the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]], [[Nile]], and [[Yangtze River|Yangtze]] rivers combined — so while it may not be the ''longest'' river, it is undoubtedly the ''largest''. Its [[drainage area]], called the [[Amazon Basin]], is the largest of any river system. The quantity of fresh water released to the [[Atlantic Ocean]] is enormous: up to 300,000&nbsp;m&sup3; per second in the rainy season. Indeed, the Amazon is responsible for a fifth of the total volume of [[fresh water]] entering the oceans worldwide. It is said that offshore of the mouth of the Amazon [[potable]] water can be drawn from the ocean while still out of sight of the coastline, and the salinity of the ocean is notably lower a hundred miles out to sea. The main river (which is usually between one and six miles wide) is navigable for large ocean steamers to [[Manaus]], 1,500 km (more than 900 miles) upriver from the mouth. Smaller ocean vessels of 3,000 tons[http://uk.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571466/Amazon.html] and 5.5 m (18 ft) [[Draft (nautical)|draft]][http://www.ultramargroup.com/TextosPeru/Per-013.html] can reach as far as [[Iquitos, Peru|Iquitos]], 3,600 km (2,250 miles) from the sea. Smaller riverboats can reach 780 km (486 mi) higher as far as [[Achual Point]]. Beyond that, small boats frequently ascend to the [[Pongo de Manseriche]], just above Achual Point. The Amazon drains an area of some [[1 E12 m²|6,915,000km]]&sup2; (2,722,000 mile&sup2;), or some 40 percent of South America. It gathers its waters from 5 degrees north latitude to 20 degrees south [[latitude]]. Its most remote sources are found on the inter-[[Andes|Andean]] plateau, just a short distance from the [[Pacific Ocean]]; and, after a course of about 6,400 km (4,000 mi) through the interior of [[Peru]] and across [[Brazil]], it enters the [[Atlantic Ocean]] at the [[Equator|equator]]. The Amazon has changed its drainage several times, from westward in the early [[Cenozoic]] to its present eastward locomotion following the uplift of the [[Andes]]. ==Source and upper reaches== [[Image:Amazon_origin_at_Mismi.jpg|thumb|160px|right|The Amazon originates from a cliff at the [[Nevado Mismi]], with a sole sign of a wooden cross.]] The ultimate source of the Amazon has only recently been firmly established as a stream on a 5,597 metre (18,363 ft) peak called [[Nevado Mismi]] in the Peruvian [[Andes]], roughly 160 km west of Lake [[Titicaca]] and 700 km S.E. of [[Lima, Peru|Lima]]. The mountain was first suggested as the source in [[1971]] but this was not confirmed until [[2001]]. The waters from Nevado Mismi flow into the [[Río Apurímac]] which is a tributary of the [[Ucayali]] which later joins the [[Marañón River|Marañón]] to form the Amazon proper. After the confluence of [[Río Apurímac]] and [[Ucayali]], the river leaves Andean terrain and is instead surrounded by [[flood plain]]. From this point to the [[Marañón River|Marañón]], some 1,600 km (1,000 mi), the forested banks are just out of water, and are inundated long before the river attains its maximum flood-line. The low river banks are interrupted by only a few hills, and the river enters the enormous [[Amazon Rainforest]]. ==Amazonian Rainforest== {{main|Amazon Rainforest}} of the [[Andes]], the Amazon [[Rainforest]] begins. It is the largest rainforest in the world and is of great [[ecological]] significance, as its biomass is capable of absorbing enormous amounts of [[carbon dioxide]]. [[Conservation ethic|Conservation]] of the Amazon Rainforest has been a major issue in recent years. The rainforest is supported by the extremely wet climate of the Amazon basin. The Amazon, and its hundreds of tributaries, flow slowly across the landscape, with an extremely shallow gradient sending them towards the sea: [[Manaus]], 1,600 km (1,000 mi) from the [[Atlantic]], is only 44 m (144 ft) above sea level. The [[biodiversity]] within the rainforest is extraordinary: the region is home to at least 2.5 million insect species, tens of thousands of plants, and some 2,000 birds and mammals. One fifth of all the world's species of birds can be found in the Amazon rainforest. The diversity of plant species in the Amazon basin is the highest on Earth. Some experts estimate that one square kilometre may contain over 75,000 types of trees and 150,000 species of higher plants. One square kilometre of Amazon rainforest can contain about 90,000 tons of living plants. ==Flooding== [[Image:Amazon-river-NASA.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A [[NASA]] satellite image of a flooded portion of the river.]] Seasonal rains give rise to extensive [[floods]] along the course of the Amazon and its tributaries. The average depth of the river in the height of the rainy season is 40 m (120 ft) and the average width can be nearly twenty-five miles. It starts to rise in November, and increases in volume until June, then falls until the end of October. The rise of the [[Negro River|Negro]] branch is not synchronous; the [[rainy season]] does not commence in its valley until February or March. By June it is full, and then it begins to fall with the Amazon. The [[Madeira River|Madeira]] rises and falls two months earlier than the Amazon. The abundance of water in the Amazon basin is due to the fact that much of this lies in the region below the [[Intertropical convergence zone]], where rainfall is at a maximum. Also, the basin lies in the [[Trade Wind]] zone, where moisture from the Atlantic is pushed westwards, and eventually forced to rise over the [[Andes]], the second tallest mountain range on Earth, where the moist air cools and precipitates water. This combination creates more rainfall over a large river basin than anywhere else on the planet. In the rainy season, the Amazon inundates the country throughout its course to the extent of several hundred thousand square miles, covering the flood-plain, called [[vargem]]. The flood-levels are, in some places, from 12 to 15 m (40 to 50 ft) higher than levels during the dry season. During the flood, the level at [[Iquitos]] is 6 m (20 ft); at [[Teffe]], it is 15 m (45 ft); near [[Óbidos, Pará|Óbidos]], 11 m (35 ft); and at [[Pará]], 4 m (12 ft), above the low-water extreme seen during the dry season. <br clear=all /> ==Towards the sea== The breadth of the Amazon in some places is as much as 6 to 10 km (4 to 6 mi) from one bank to the other. At some points, for long distances, the river divides into two main streams with inland and lateral [[channel (geography)|channels]], all connected by a complicated system of natural [[canal]]s, cutting the low, flat igapo lands, which are never more than 5 m (15 ft) above low river, into almost numberless islands. At the narrows of [[Óbidos, Pará|Óbidos]], 600 km (400 mi) from the sea, the Amazon narrows, flowing in a single streambed, a mile (1.6 km) wide and over 200 ft (60 m). deep, through which the water rushes toward the sea at the speed of 6 to 8 km/h (4 to 5 mph). From the village of [[Canaria]] at the great bend of the Amazon to the Negro 1,000 km (600 mi) downstream, only very low land is found, resembling that at the mouth of the river. Vast areas of land in this region are submerged at high water, above which only the upper part of the trees of the sombre forests appear. Near the mouth of the Rio Negro to Serpa, nearly opposite the river Madeira, the banks of the Amazon are low, until approaching Manaus, they rise to become rolling hills. At Óbidos, a bluff 17 m (56 ft) above the river is backed by low hills. The lower Amazon seems to have once been a [[gulf]] of the [[Atlantic Ocean]], the waters of which washed the cliffs near Óbidos. [[Image:Amazon near Manaus.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Amazon near Manaus]] Only about 10% of the water discharged by the Amazon enters the mighty stream downstream of Óbidos, very little of which is from the northern slope of the valley. The drainage area of the Amazon basin above Óbidos is about 5 million km&sup2; (2 million mile&sup2;), and, below, only about 1 million km&sup2; (400,000 mile&sup2;), or around 20%, exclusive of the 1.4 million km&sup2; (600,000 mile&sup2;) of the Tocantins basin. In the lower reaches of the river, the north bank consists of a series of steep, table-topped [[hill]]s extending for about 240 km (150 mi) from opposite the mouth of the Xingu as far as [[Monte Alegre]]. These hills are cut down to a kind of [[Terrace (agriculture)|terrace]] which lies between them and the river. Monte Alegre reaches an altitude of several hundred feet. On the south bank, above the Xingu, an almost-unbroken line of low [[bluff]]s bordering the flood-plain extends nearly to Santarem, in a series of gentle curves before they bend to the south-west, and, abutting upon the lower Tapajos, merge into the bluffs which form the terrace margin of the Tapajos river valley. ==Mouth of the river== [[Image:Amazon-river-delta-NASA.jpg|thumb|250px|A satellite image of the mouth of the Amazon River, looking south]] The width of the mouth of the river is usually measured from [[Cabo do Norte]] to [[Punto Patijoca]], a distance of some 330 km (207 mi); but this includes the ocean outlet, 60 km (40 mi) wide, of the Para river, which should be deducted, as this stream is only the lower reach of the Tocantins. It also includes the ocean frontage of [[Marajó]], an island about the size of [[Denmark]] lying in the mouth of the Amazon. ==Tidal bore== Following the coast, a little to the north of Cabo do Norte, and for 160 km (100 miles) along its Guiana margin up the Amazon, is a belt of half-submerged islands and shallow sandbanks. Here the tidal phenomenon called the [[tidal bore|bore]], or ''Pororoca'', occurs, where the depths are not over 4 [[fathom]]s (7 m). The tidal bore starts with a roar, constantly increasing, and advances at the rate of from 15 to 25 km/h (10 to 15 mph), with a breaking wall of water from 1.5 to 4 m (5 to 12 ft) high. The bore is the reason the Amazon does not have a [[river delta|delta]]; the ocean rapidly carries away the vast volume of [[silt]] carried by the Amazon, making it impossible for a delta to grow. It also has a very large tide sometimes reaching 20 feet. ==Wildlife== The waters of the Amazon support a diverse range of wildlife. Along with the [[Orinoco]], the river is one of the main habitats of the [[Boto]], also known as the Amazon River Dolphin. The largest species of river dolphin, it can grow to lengths of up to 2.6 m. Also present in large numbers are the notorious [[Piranha]], carnivorous fish which congregate in large schools, and may attack livestock and even humans. Although many experts believe their reputation for ferocity is unwarranted, a school of piranha was apparently responsible for the deaths of up to 300 people when their boat capsized near [[Óbidos, Pará|Óbidos]] in [[1981]]. The [[Anaconda]] snake is found in shallow waters in the Amazon basin. One of the world's largest species of snake, the Anaconda spends most of its time in the water, with just its nostrils above the surface. Anacondas have been known very occasionally to attack fishermen. The river also supports thousands of species of fish, as well as crabs and turtles. ==European exploration== The first descent by a European of the Amazon from the [[Andes]] to the sea was made by [[Francisco de Orellana]] in 1541. The first ascent by a European of the river was made in 1638 by [[Pedro Teixeira]], a [[Portugal|Portuguese]], who reversed the route of Orellana and reached [[Quito]] by way of the [[Napo River|Napo River]]. He returned in 1639 with the two [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] fathers [[Christoval de Acuna|Acuna]] and [[Artieda]], who had been delegated by the viceroy of [[Peru]] to accompany Texeira. ==Name== Before the conquest of South America, the ''Río de las Amazonas'' had no general name; instead, indigenous peoples had names for the sections of the river they occupied, such as [[Paranaguazu]], [[Guyerma]], [[Solimões]] and others. In the year 1500, [[Vicente Yañez Pinzon]], in command of a [[Spain|Spanish]] expedition, became the first European to explore the river, exploring its mouth when he discovered that the ocean off the shore was fresh water. Pinzon called the river the ''Rio Santa Maria de la Mar Dulce'', which soon became abbreviated to Mar Dulce, and for some years, after 1502, it was known as the Rio Grande. Pinzon's companions called the river ''El Río Marañón''. The word Marañón is thought by some to be of indigenous origin. This idea was first stated in a letter from [[Pietro Martire Vermigli|Peter Martyr]] to [[Lope Hurtado de Mendoza]] in 1513. However, the word may also be derived from the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word ''"maraña"'' &mdash; meaning a tangle, a snarl, which well represents the bewildering difficulties which the earlier explorers met in navigating not only the entrance to the Amazon, but the whole island-bordered, river-cut and indented coast of what is now the Brazilian state of [[Maranhão]]. The name ''Amazon'' arises from a battle which [[Francisco de Orellana]] had with a tribe of [[Tapuya]]s where the women of the tribe fought alongside the men, as was the custom among the entire tribe. Orellana derived the name Amazonas from the ancient [[Amazons]] of [[Asia]] and [[Africa]] described by [[Herodotus]] and [[Diodorus]]. ==Exploitation== <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Solimoes_and_Negro_converge.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Solimões and Negro rivers join near [[Manaus]]. The Solimões is laden with silt carried down from the Andes; the clear-running Negro has its source in a region with little sediment]] --> [[Image:Amazon at Iquitos.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The Amazon flows past the Malecon in [[Iquitos, Peru|Iquitos]].]] For 350 years after the European discovery of the Amazon by Pinzon, the Portuguese portion of its basin remained an almost undisturbed wilderness, occupied by indigenous tribes split into countless fragments by their quest for food. Because of the difficulty of [[hunter-gatherer|hunting and gathering]] food, the indigenous inhabitants probably had a population density no higher than one person to every 13 km&sup2; (5 sq. miles) of territory. A few settlements on the banks of the main river and some of its tributaries had been founded by the Portuguese either for trade with the Indians or for evangelizing purposes. The total population of the Brazilian portion of the Amazon basin in 1850 was perhaps 300,000, of whom about two-thirds comprised by Europeans and slaves, the slaves amounting to about 25,000. The principal commercial city, [[Para (city)|Para]], had from 10,000 to 12,000 inhabitants, including slaves. The town of Manáos, now [[Manaus]], at the mouth of the Rio Negro, had from 1,000 to 1,500 population. All the remaining villages, as far up as [[Tabatinga]], on the Brazilian frontier of Peru, were very small. On [[September 6]] [[1850]], the emperor, [[Dom Pedro II]], sanctioned a law authorizing steam navigation on the Amazon, and gave Barao Maua ([[Irineu Evangilista de Sousa]]) the task of putting it into effect. He organized the "Compania de Navigacao e Commercio do Amazonas" at Rio de Janeiro in 1852; and in the following year it commenced operations with three small steamers, the ''Monarch'', the ''Marajó'' and ''Rio Negro''. At first, navigation was principally confined to the main river; and even in 1857 a modification of the government contract only obliged the company to a monthly service between Para and Manáos, with steamers of 200 tons cargo capacity, a second line to make six round voyages a year between Manaós and Tabatinga, and a third, two trips a month between Para and Cameta. This was the first step in opening up the vast interior. The success of the venture called attention to the opportunities for economic exploitation of the Amazon, and a second company soon opened commerce on the Madeira, Purus and Negro; a third established a line between Para and Manáos; and a fourth found it profitable to navigate some of the smaller streams. In that same period, the Amazonas Company was increasing its fleet. Meanwhile, private individuals were building and running small steam craft of their own on the main river as well as on many of its tributaries. On [[July 31]], 1867 the government of Brazil, constantly pressed by the maritime powers and by the countries encircling the upper Amazon basin, decreed the opening of the Amazon to all flags; but limited this to certain defined points: Tabatinga&mdash;on the Amazon; Cameta&mdash;on the Tocantins; Santarem&mdash;on the Tapajos; Borba&mdash;on the Madeira and Manáos&mdash;on the Rio Negro. The decree took effect on [[September 7]], 1867. Manáos (now Manaus), Para and Iquitos are now thriving commercial centres. The first direct foreign trade with Manáos was commenced about 1874. The local trade of the river was carried on by the English successors to the Amazonas Company&mdash;the Amazon Steam Navigation Company&mdash;as well as numerous small river steamers, belonging to companies and firms engaged in the rubber trade, navigating the Negro, Madeira, Purfis and many other streams. The principal exports of the valley were [[Rubber|india-rubber]], [[cacao]], [[Brazil nut]]s and a few other products of very minor importance. ==20th century concerns== Four centuries after the discovery of the Amazon river, the total cultivated area in its basin was probably less than 25 square miles (65 km&sup2;), excluding the limited and rudely cultivated areas among the mountains at its extreme headwaters. This situation changed dramatically during the [[20th century]]. [[Image:Manaus-Amazon-NASA.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Manaus]], the largest city on the Amazon, as seen from a [[NASA]] satellite image, surrounded by the muddy Amazon River and the dark [[Negro River]].]] Wary of foreign exploitation of the nation's resources, Brazilian governments in the 1940s set out to develop the interior, away from the seaboard where foreigners owned large tracts of land. The original architect of this expansion was President [[Getúlio Vargas]], the demand for rubber from the Allied forces in [[World War II]] providing funding for the drive. The construction of the new capital [[Brasilia]] in the interior in [[1960]] also contributed to the opening up of the Amazon basin. A large scale colonization program saw families from north-eastern Brazil relocated to the forests, encouraged by promises of cheap land. Many settlements grew along the road from Brasilia to [[Belem]], but rainforest soil proved difficult to cultivate. Still, long-term development plans continued. Roads were cut through the forests, and in 1970, the work on Trans-Amazon highway network began. The network's three pioneering highways were completed within ten years, connecting all the major cities of the Brazilian Amazon interior. Cattle farming became a major impetus in [[deforestation]], with military governments in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] heavily subsidising the creation of large ranches. By the [[1980s]] the rate of destruction of the rainforest was dizzying, and it is estimated that over a fifth of the total area of the rainforest has now been [[clearcut]]. The preservation of the remaining forest is becoming an ever more prominent concern. ==Major tributaries== The Amazon has over 1,000 [[Tributary | tributaries]] in total. Some of the more notable are: {| | * [[Branco River|Branco]] * [[Casiquiare canal]] * [[Huallaga River|Huallaga]] * [[Içá River|Içá (or Putumayo)]] * [[Javary]] * [[Jurua]] * [[Madeira River|Madeira]] * [[Marañón River|Marañón]] * [[Morona]] * [[Nanay]] * [[Napo River|Napo]] |&nbsp;&nbsp;|| * [[Negro River|Negro]] * [[Pastaza River|Pastaza]] * [[Purus]] * [[Río Tambo|Tambo]] * [[Tapajós]] * [[Tigre River|Tigre]] * [[Tocantins River|Tocantins]] * [[Trombetas]] * [[Ucayali]] * [[Xingu River|Xingu]] * [[Yapura]] |} ==Longest rivers in the Amazon system== # 6,387 km - [[Amazon River|Amazon]], [[South America]] # 3,379 km - [[Purus]], [[Peru]] / [[Brazil]], (2,948 km) (3,210 km) # 3,239 km - [[Madeira River|Madeira]], [[Bolivia]] / [[Brazil]] # 2,820 km - [[Yapura]], [[Colombia]] / [[Brazil]] # 2,750 km - [[Tocantins River|Tocantins]], [[Brazil]], (2,416 km) (2,640 km) # 2,575 km - [[Araguaia River|Araguaia]], [[Brazil]] (tributary of Tocantins) # 2,410 km - [[Juruá]], [[Peru]] / [[Brazil]] # 2,250 km - [[Negro River|Negro]], [[South America]] # 2,100 km - [[Xingu River|Xingu]], [[Brazil]] # 1,900 km - [[Tapajós]], [[Brazil]] # 1,749 km - [[Guaporé]], [[Brazil]] / [[Bolivia]] (tributary of Madeira) # 1,575 km - [[Içá River|Içá (Putumayo)]], [[South America]] # 1,415 km - [[Marañón River|Marañón]], [[Peru]] # 1,300 km - [[Iriri River|Iriri]], [[Brazil]] (tributary of Xingu) # 1,240 km - [[Juruena]], [[Brazil]] (tributary of Tapajós) # 1,200 km - [[Tapajós]], [[Brazil]] # 1,130 km - [[Madre de Dios River|Madre de Dios]], [[Peru]] / [[Bolivia]] (tributary of Madeira) # 1,100 km - [[Huallaga River|Huallaga]], [[Peru]] (tributary of Marañón) ==External links== {{Commons|Amazon river}} *[http://www.destination360.com/south-america/brazil/amazon.php Amazon River and Amazon Rainforest virtual tour] *[http://www.extremescience.com/AmazonRiver.htm Information on the Amazon from Extreme Science] *[http://mitosyfraudes.8k.com/photoEng-2.html Map of South America] *[http://www.underwatercolours.com/amazon/ss07.html Pictures of the Amazon River] *[http://www.junglephotos.com Amazon River and rainforest photos and information] *[http://www.amazon-rainforest.org Amazon River and Amazon rainforest information] *[http://www.mbarron.net/Amazon An Amazon River web site] *[http://earthtrends.wri.org/maps_spatial/maps_detail_static.cfm?map_select=410&theme=2 Information and a map of the Amazon's watershed] ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Rivers of Brazil]] [[Category:Rivers of Colombia]] [[Category:Rivers of Peru]] [[ar:أمازون]] [[an:Río Amazonas]] [[bg:Амазонка]] [[ca:Riu Amazones]] [[cs:Amazonka]] [[da:Amazonfloden]] [[de:Amazonas]] [[et:Amazonas]] [[es:Río Amazonas]] [[eo:Amazono (rivero)]] [[fa:رودخانه آمازون]] [[fr:Amazone (fleuve)]] [[gl:Río Amazonas]] [[ko:아마존 강]] [[io:Amazon]] [[id:Sungai Amazon]] [[is:Amasónfljót]] [[it:Rio delle Amazzoni]] [[he:אמזונאס (נהר)]] [[lt:Amazonė (upė)]] [[lb:Amazonas]] [[hu:Amazonas]] [[nl:Amazone (rivier)]] [[ja:アマゾン川]] [[no:Amazonaselva]] [[nn:Amazonaselva]] [[pl:Amazonka (rzeka)]] [[pt:Rio Amazonas]] [[ro:Amazon (fluviu)]] [[ru:Амазонка (река)]] [[simple:Amazon River]] [[sl:Amazonka]] [[sr:Амазон]] [[fi:Amazon (joki)]] [[sv:Amazonfloden]] [[ta:அமேசான் ஆறு]] [[th:แม่น้ำแอมะซอน]] [[zh:亚马逊河]] 1702 15900167 2005-01-06T14:00:41Z Stbalbach 87883 Alredus, or '''Alfred of Beverley''', [[English historians in the Middle Ages|English chronicler]], was [[sacristan]] of the church of [[Beverley]] in the first half of the 12th century. He wrote, apparently about the year 1143, a [[chronicle]] entitled ''Annales sive Historia de gestis regum Britanniae'', which begins with [[Brutus of Britain|Brutus]] and carries the history of [[England]] down to 1129. [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] and [[Simeon of Durham]] are Alured's chief sources. ---- {{1911}} [[Category:Medieval historians]] [[Category:Medieval literature]] 1703 15900168 2002-12-29T07:43:22Z Montrealais 3378 #REDIRECT [[Alfonso VII of Castile]] 1704 15900169 2002-12-29T07:32:56Z Montrealais 3378 #REDIRECT [[Alfonso VIII of Castile]] 1705 15900170 2004-08-06T23:34:23Z Timwi 13051 fix double-redirect #REDIRECT [[Alfonso IX of Leon]] 1706 15900171 2002-12-29T07:57:21Z Montrealais 3378 #REDIRECT [[Alfonso X of Castile]] 1707 15900172 2002-12-29T16:00:15Z Montrealais 3378 #REDIRECT [[Alfonso XI of Castile]] 1708 15900173 2002-12-29T16:21:51Z Montrealais 3378 #REDIRECT [[Alfonso XII of Spain]] 1709 15900174 2002-12-29T16:30:43Z Montrealais 3378 #REDIRECT [[Alfonso XIII of Spain]] 1710 41602295 2006-02-28T12:41:47Z 86.131.6.251 /* Births */ rm graffito <!-- Language links at bottom --> {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=22}} |} '''[[April 22]]''' is the 112th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (113th in [[leap year]]s). There are 253 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1500]] - [[Portugal|Portuguese]] navigator [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] becomes the first European to sight [[Brazil]]. *[[1509]] - [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] ascends the throne of [[England]] after the death of his father. *[[1529]] - [[Treaty of Saragossa]] divides the eastern hemisphere between [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] along a line 297.5 leagues or 17° east of the [[Moluccas]]. *[[1836]] - [[Texas Revolution]]: A day after the [[Battle of San Jacinto]] forces under [[Republic of Texas|Texas]] General [[Sam Houston]] capture [[Mexico|Mexican]] General [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]]. *[[1863]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Grierson's Raid]] begins &ndash; troops under [[United States|Union]] Colonel [[Benjamin Grierson]] attack central [[Mississippi]]. *[[1864]] - The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passes the [[Coinage Act (1864)|Coinage Act]] which mandates that the inscription "In God We Trust" be placed on all coins minted as [[United States currency]]. *[[1889]] - [[Oklahoma land rush]]: President [[Benjamin Harrison]] opens the [[Unassigned_Lands|Unassigned Lands]] in what is now central [[Oklahoma]] to white settlement. *[[1898]] - [[Spanish-American War]]: The [[United States Navy]] begins a [[blockade]] of [[Cuba]]n ports and the [[USS Nashville]] captures a [[Spain|Spanish]] merchant ship. *[[1913]] - ''[[Pravda]],'' the "voice" of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]], begins publications in [[Saint Petersburg]]. *[[1914]] - [[Babe Ruth]], age 19, pitches his first professional game for the minor league [[Baltimore Orioles (minor league)|Baltimore Orioles]]. *[[1915]] - The [[use of poison gas in World War I]] escalates when [[chlorine|chlorine gas]] is released as a [[chemical warfare|chemical weapon]] in the [[Second Battle of Ypres]]. *[[1930]] - The [[United Kingdom]], [[Japan]] and the [[United States]] sign the [[London Naval Treaty]] regulating [[submarine]] warfare and limiting [[shipbuilding]]. *[[1943]] - [[Albert Hofmann]] writes his first report about the hallucinogenic properties of [[LSD]]. *[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Persecution]] initiated &ndash; [[Allies|Allied]] forces land in the Hollandia area of [[New Guinea]]. *[[1945]] - World War II: After learning that [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] forces have taken [[Eberswalde]] without a fight, [[Adolf Hitler]] admits defeat in his underground [[bunker]] and states that [[suicide]] is his only recourse. *[[1946]] - The first installment of the popular [[Japan]]ese comic strip, ''[[Sazae-san]]'', is published in the [[Fukunichi Shimbun]]. *[[1954]] - [[Red Scare]]: [[Army-McCarthy Hearings]] begin. *[[1964]] - The [[1964 New York World's Fair|1964-1965 New York World's Fair]] opens for its first season. *[[1970]] - First [[Earth Day]] celebrated. *[[1971]] - [[John Kerry]], dressed in combat fatigues, testifies on his views of the [[Vietnam War]] before the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations|United States Senate Foreign Relations Committee]] *[[1972]] - [[Vietnam War]]: Increased [[United States|American]] bombing in [[Vietnam]] prompts antiwar protests in [[New York City]], [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], and [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]. *[[1975]] - [[Barbara Walters]] signs a five-year $5 million contract with the American Broadcasting Corporation (ABC), becoming the highest paid [[television]] newsperson. *[[1978]] - [[The Blues Brothers]] make their first appearance on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''. *[[1979]] - [[Brent Mydland]] performs his first show with the [[Grateful Dead]] at [[Spartan Stadium, San Jose|Spartan Stadium]], [[San Jose, California]]. *[[1993]] - In [[Washington, DC]], the [[Holocaust Memorial Museum]] is dedicated. * 1993 - The web browser [[Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic]] version 1.0 is released. *[[1996]] - [[Cisco Systems]] acquires [[StrataCom]] for $4B *[[1997]] - [[Haouch Khemisti massacre]] in [[Algeria]]; 93 villagers killed. * 1997 - A 126-day hostage crisis at the residence of the [[Japan]]ese ambassador in [[Lima, Peru|Lima]], [[Peru]] ends after government commandos storm and capture the building, rescuing 71 hostages. One hostage dies of a [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]], two soldiers are killed from rebel fire, and all 14 rebels are slain. *[[2000]] - In a predawn raid, federal agents seize six-year-old [[Elián González]] from his relatives' home in [[Miami, Florida]]. * 2000 - The [[Big Number Change]] takes place in the [[United Kingdom]]. *[[2004]] - Two fuel trains collide in [[Ryongchon]], [[North Korea]], killing up to 150 people. *[[2005]] - [[Mordechai Vanunu]] installed as [[Lord Rector]] of the [[University of Glasgow]]. ==Births== *[[1451]] - Queen [[Isabella of Castile]] and Leon (d. [[1504]]) *[[1550]] - [[Edward de Vere]], Lord Great Chamberlain of England (d. [[1604]]) *[[1610]] - [[Pope Alexander VIII]] (d. [[1691]]) *[[1658]] - [[Giuseppe Torelli]], Italian composer (d. [[1709]]) *[[1690]] - [[John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville]], English statesman (d. [[1763]]) *[[1692]] - [[James Stirling (mathematician)|James Stirling]], Scottish mathematician (d. [[1770]]) *[[1707]] - [[Henry Fielding]], English author (d. [[1754]]) *[[1711]] - [[Eleazar Wheelock]], American founder of Dartmouth College (d. [[1779]]) *[[1724]] - [[Immanuel Kant]], German philosopher (d. [[1804]]) *[[1766]] - [[Madame de Staël]], French author (d. [[1817]]) *[[1812]] - [[Solomon Caesar Malan]], British orientalist (d. [[1894]]) *[[1840]] - [[Odilon Redon]], French painter (d. [[1916]]) *[[1844]] - [[Lewis Thornton Powell]], would-be [[assassin]] of [[Secretary of State]] [[William Seward]] (d. [[1865]]) *[[1852]] - [[Guillaume IV, Grand Duke of Luxembourg]] (d. [[1912]]) *[[1854]] - [[Henri La Fontaine]], Belgian lawyer and activist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1943]]) *[[1860]] - [[Ada Rehan]], American stage actress (d. [[1916]]) *[[1870]] (N.S.) - [[Vladimir Lenin]], Russian revolutionary (d. [[1924]]) *[[1873]] - [[Ellen Glasgow]], American author (d. [[1945]]) *[[1876]] - [[Robert Bárány]], American physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1936]]) *1876 - [[Georg Lurich]], Estonian wrestler (d. [[1920]]) *[[1881]] - [[Alexander Kerensky]], Russian politician (d. [[1970]]) *[[1884]] - [[Otto Rank]], Austrian psychologist (d. [[1939]]) *[[1891]] - [[Harold Jeffreys]], English astronomer (d. [[1989]]) *[[1899]] - [[Vladimir Nabokov]], Russian writer (d. [[1977]]) *[[1904]] - [[Robert Oppenheimer]], American physicist (d. [[1967]]) *[[1906]] - [[Eddie Albert]], American actor (d. [[2005]]) *1906 - [[Prince Gustaf Adolf, Duke of Westrobothnia]], second in line to the Swedish throne (d. [[1946]]) *[[1907]] - [[Ivan Efremov]], Russian paleontologist and author (d. [[1972]]) *[[1909]] - [[Rita Levi-Montalcini]], Italian neurologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] *[[1910]] - [[Norman Steenrod]], American mathematician (d. [[1971]]) *[[1912]] - [[Kathleen Ferrier]], British contralto (d. [[1953]]) *[[1914]] - [[Jan de Hartog]], Dutch writer (d. [[2002]]) *[[1916]] - [[Yehudi Menuhin]], American-born violinist (d. [[1999]]) *[[1918]] - [[Mickey Vernon]], baseball player *[[1919]] - [[Donald J. Cram]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[2001]]) *[[1922]] - [[Charles Mingus]], American musician (d. [[1979]]) *1922 - [[Wolf V. Vishniac]], American microbiologist (d. [[1973]]) *[[1923]] - [[Bettie Page]], American model *1923 - [[Aaron Spelling]], American television producer and writer *[[1926]] - [[Charlotte Rae]], American actress *1926 - [[James Stirling (architect)|James Stirling]], British architect (d. [[1992]]) *[[1935]] - [[Paul Chambers]], American jazz bassist (d. [[1969]]) *[[1936]] - [[Glen Campbell]], American musician *[[1937]] - [[Jack Nicholson]], American actor *1937 - [[Jack Nitzsche]], American composer and arranger (d. [[2000]]) *[[1939]] - [[Jason Miller (actor)|Jason Miller]], American actor (d. [[2001]]) *[[1943]] - [[Louise Glück]], American poet *[[1944]] - [[Steve Fossett]], American adventurer *[[1946]] - [[John Waters (filmmaker)|John Waters]], American film writer and director *[[1950]] - [[Peter Frampton]], British musician *[[1952]] - [[Marilyn Chambers]], American actress *[[1958]] - [[Ken Olandt]], American actor *[[1959]] - [[Catherine Mary Stewart]], Canadian actress *1959 - [[Ryan Stiles]], Canadian-born actor and comedian *[[1962]] - [[Jeff Minter]], British video game programmer *[[1965]] - [[Peter Zezel]], Canadian ice hockey player *[[1967]] - [[Sheryl Lee]], American actress *[[1968]] - [[Zarley Zalapski]], Canadian ice hockey player *[[1970]] - [[Andrea Giani]], Italian volleyball player *[[1972]] - [[Owen Finegan]], Australian International Rugby Union *[[1974]] - [[Shavo Odadjian]], Armenian-born bassist ([[System of a Down]]) *[[1975]] - [[Greg Moore (race car driver)|Greg Moore]], Canadian race car driver (d. [[1999]]) *[[1977]] - [[Andruw Jones]], baseball player *[[1979]] - [[Daniel Johns]], lead singer of Australian band [[Silverchair]] *[[1981]] - [[Ken Dorsey]], American football player *[[1982]] - [[Kaká]], Brazilian footballer *[[1983]] - [[Matt Jones]], American football player ==Deaths== *[[296]] - [[Pope Caius]] *[[536]] - [[Pope Agapetus I]] *[[1592]] - [[Bartolomeo Ammanati]], Italian architect and sculptor (b. [[1511]]) *[[1672]] - [[Georg Stiernhielm]], Swedish poet (b. [[1598]]) *[[1699]] - [[Hans Erasmus Aßmann, Freiherr von Abschatz]], German statesman and poet (b. [[1646]]) *[[1758]] - [[Antoine de Jussieu]], French naturalist (b. [[1686]]) *[[1778]] - [[James Hargreaves]], English weaver, carpenter, and inventor (b. [[1720]]) *[[1806]] - [[Pierre-Charles Villeneuve]], French admiral (stabbed) (b. [[1763]]) *[[1833]] - [[Richard Trevithick]], English inventor (b. [[1771]]) *[[1892]] - [[Edouard Lalo]], French composer (b. [[1823]]) *[[1896]] - [[Thomas Meik]], British civil engineer (b. [[1812]]) *[[1908]] - [[Henry Campbell-Bannerman]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (b. [[1836]]) *[[1925]] - [[André Caplet]], French composer (b. [[1878]]) *[[1930]] - [[Jeppe Aakjaer]], Danish poet and novelist {b. [[1866]]) *[[1945]] - [[Käthe Kollwitz]], German artist (b. [[1867]]) *[[1946]] - [[Harlan Fiske Stone|Harlan F. Stone]], [[Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court]] (b. [[1872]]) *[[1951]] - [[Horace Donisthorpe]], British entomologist (b. [[1870]]) *[[1968]] - [[Stephen H. Sholes]], American recording executive (b. [[1911]]) *[[1978]] - [[Will Geer]], American actor and activist (b. [[1902]]) *[[1980]] - [[Jane Froman]], American actor and singer (b. [[1907]]) *1980 - [[Fritz Strassmann]], German physicist (b. [[1902]]) *[[1983]] - [[Earl Hines|Earl "Fatha" Hines]], British jazz pianist (b. [[1903]]) *[[1984]] - [[Ansel Adams]], American photographer (b. [[1902]]) *[[1985]] - [[Paul H. Emmett]], American chemical engineer (b. [[1900]]) *[[1986]] - [[Mircea Eliade]], Romanian writer and philosopher (b. [[1907]]) *[[1994]] - [[Richard Nixon]], [[President of the United States]] (b. [[1913]]) *[[1995]] - [[Maggie Kuhn]], American activist (b. [[1905]]) *[[1996]] - [[Erma Bombeck]], American humorist and writer (b. [[1927]]) *[[2002]] - [[Linda Lovelace]], American actress (b. [[1949]]) *[[2003]] - [[Martha Griffiths]], U.S. Congresswoman (b. [[1912]]) * 2003 - [[Michael Larrabee]], American athlete (b. [[1933]]) *[[2004]] - [[Pat Tillman]], American football player and U.S. Army Ranger (killed in action) (b. [[1976]]) *[[2005]] - [[Philip Morrison]], American physicist (b. [[1915]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Earth Day]] *[[Brazil]] - [[Discovery Day]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/22 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[April 21]] - [[April 23]] - [[March 22]] - [[May 22]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[ceb:Abril 22]] [[nap:22 'e abbrile]] [[war:Abril 22]] [[pam:Abril 22]] [[af:22 April]] [[ar:22 أبريل]] [[an:22 d'abril]] [[ast:22 d'abril]] [[bg:22 април]] [[be:22 красавіка]] [[bs:22. april]] [[ca:22 d'abril]] [[cv:Ака, 22]] [[co:22 d'aprile]] [[cs:22. duben]] [[cy:22 Ebrill]] [[da:22. april]] [[de:22. April]] [[et:22. aprill]] [[el:22 Απριλίου]] [[es:22 de abril]] [[eo:22-a de aprilo]] [[eu:Apirilaren 22]] [[fo:22. apríl]] [[fr:22 avril]] [[fy:22 april]] [[ga:22 Aibreán]] [[gl:22 de abril]] [[ko:4월 22일]] [[hr:22. travnja]] [[io:22 di aprilo]] [[id:22 April]] [[ia:22 de april]] [[ie:22 april]] [[is:22. apríl]] [[it:22 aprile]] [[he:22 באפריל]] [[jv:22 April]] [[kn:ಎಪ್ರಿಲ್ ೨೨]] [[ka:22 აპრილი]] [[csb:22 łżëkwiôta]] [[ku:22'ê avrêlê]] [[la:22 Aprilis]] [[lt:Balandžio 22]] [[lb:22. Abrëll]] [[li:22 april]] [[hu:Április 22]] [[mk:22 април]] [[ms:22 April]] [[nl:22 april]] [[ja:4月22日]] [[no:22. april]] [[nn:22. april]] [[oc:22 d'abril]] [[pl:22 kwietnia]] [[pt:22 de Abril]] [[ro:22 aprilie]] [[ru:22 апреля]] [[se:Cuoŋománu 22.]] [[sq:22 Prill]] [[scn:22 di aprili]] [[simple:April 22]] [[sk:22. apríl]] [[sl:22. april]] [[sr:22. април]] [[fi:22. huhtikuuta]] [[sv:22 april]] [[tl:Abril 22]] [[tt:22. Äpril]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 22]] [[th:22 เมษายน]] [[vi:22 tháng 4]] [[tr:22 Nisan]] [[uk:22 квітня]] [[ur:22 اپریل]] [[wa:22 d' avri]] [[zh:4月22日]] 1711 41781229 2006-03-01T18:30:55Z Rklawton 754622 /* Deaths */ same event {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=31}} |} '''[[August 31]]''' is the 243rd day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (244th in leap years), with 122 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1056]] - [[List of Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine Empress]] [[Theodora (11th century)|Theodora]] dies suddenly without children to succeed the [[throne]], ending the [[Macedonian dynasty]] *[[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[United States|Union]] forces led by General [[William T. Sherman]] launch an assault on [[Atlanta, Georgia]]. *[[1876]] - [[Ottoman sultan]] [[Murat V]] is deposed and succeeded by his brother [[Abd-ul-Hamid II]]. *[[1886]] - [[Charleston earthquake | Earthquake]] kills 100 in [[Charleston, South Carolina]] *[[1888]] - Mary Ann Nicholls is murdered. She is perhaps the first of [[Jack the Ripper]]'s victims *[[1895]] - John Brallier is paid [[US$]]10 plus expenses to play football for the [[Latrobe, Pennsylvania]] YMCA, making him the first professional [[American football|football]] player. *[[1897]] - [[Thomas Edison]] patents the [[Kinetoscope]], the first movie projector. *[[1907]] - [[England]], [[Russia]] and [[France]] form the [[Triple Entente]] [[military alliance|alliance]]. *[[1914]] - [[Ecuador]] becomes a signatory to the [[Buenos Aires Convention|Buenos Aires]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]]. *[[1915]] - [[Brazil]] becomes a signatory to the [[Buenos Aires Convention|Buenos Aires]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]]. *[[1920]] - [[Polish-Bolshevik War]]: A decisive Polish victory in the [[Battle of Komarów]]. *1920 - First [[news radio]] program broadcast in [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]], [[Michigan]]. *[[1939]] - [[Nazi Germany]] mounts a staged [[Gleiwitz incident|attack on Gleiwitz radio station]], giving them an excuse to attack [[Poland]] the following day, starting [[European Theatre of World War II|World War II in Europe]]. *[[1943]] - The [[USS Harmon (DE-678)|USS ''Harmon'']], the first [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] ship to be named for a black person, is commissioned. *[[1945]] - The [[Liberal Party of Australia]] is founded by [[Robert Menzies]]. *[[1957]] - The [[Federation of Malaya]] gains its independence from the [[United Kingdom]]. *[[1962]] - [[Trinidad and Tobago]] become independent. *[[1965]] - The [[Aero Spacelines Super Guppy]] [[Aircraft]] makes its first flight. *[[1978]] - [[William Harris (terrorist)|William]] and [[Emily Harris]], founders of the [[Symbionese Liberation Army]], plead guilty to the [[1974]] kidnapping of newspaper heiress [[Patricia Hearst]]. *[[1980]] - The [[Solidarity]] [[trade union]] is formed in Poland. *[[1985]] - [[Richard Ramirez]], the "Night Stalker" [[serial killer]], is arrested in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[California]]. *[[1986]] - An [[Aeroméxico]] [[Douglas DC-9]] collides with a [[Piper Cherokee|Piper PA-28]] over [[Cerritos, California|Cerritos]], [[California]], killing 67 in the air and 15 on the ground. *1986 - The [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] passenger liner ''[[Admiral Nakhimov (ship)|Admiral Nakhimov]]'' sinks in the Black Sea after colliding with the bulk carrier ''Pyotr Vasev'', killing 398. *[[1989]] - [[Buckingham Palace]] officials confirm that [[Anne, Princess Royal|Princess Anne]] and [[Captain]] [[Mark Phillips]] are separating. *[[1991]] - [[Kyrgyzstan]] declares its independence from the [[Soviet Union]]. *[[1992]] - [[Pascal Lissouba]] is inaugurated as the [[Republic of the Congo|President]] of the [[Republic of the Congo]] after a [[Republic of the Congo presidential election, 1992|multiparty presidential election]], ending a long history of one-party oppressive rule under the [[Congolese Workers Party]]. *[[1994]] - The [[Provisional Irish Republican Army]] declares a [[ceasefire]]. *[[1997]] - [[Diana, Princess of Wales|Diana]], [[Prince of Wales|Princess of Wales]], dies in a [[Car accident|car crash]] in [[Paris]]. *[[1998]] - [[North Korea]] reportedly launchs ''[[Kwangmyongsong]]'', its first [[artificial satellite|satellite]]. *[[1999]] - The first of a series of [[Russian Apartment Bombings]] in [[Moscow]], killing one person and wounding 40 others. *[[2004]] - [[Mel Gibson]]'s film ''[[The Passion of the Christ]]'' is released on [[DVD]] and [[VHS]] in stores across the [[United States]], selling approximately 4.1 million copies by the end of the day. *[[2005]] - A [[Baghdad bridge stampede|stampede]] on [[Al-Aaimmah bridge]] in [[Baghdad]] kills 1,199 people. ==Births== *[[12]] - Gaius [[Caligula]], [[Roman Emperor]] (d. [[41]]) *[[161]] - [[Commodus]], [[Roman Emperor]] (d. [[192]]) *[[1569]] - [[Jahangir]], Mughal Emperor of India (d. [[1627]]) *[[1663]] - [[Guillaume Amontons]], French physicist and instrument maker (d. [[1705]]) *[[1721]] - [[George Hervey, 2nd Earl of Bristol]], British statesman (d. [[1775]]) *[[1811]] - [[Theophile Gautier]], French poet and novelist (d. [[1872]]) *[[1821]] - [[Hermann von Helmholtz]], German physician (d. [[1894]]) *[[1834]] - [[Amilcare Ponchielli]], Italian composer (d. [[1886]]) *[[1870]] - [[Maria Montessori]], Italian educator (d. [[1952]]) *[[1878]] - [[Frank Jarvis]], American athlete (d. [[1933]]) *[[1879]] - [[Alma Mahler]], wife of [[Gustav Mahler]], [[Walter Gropius]], and [[Franz Werfel]] (d. [[1964]]) *[[1880]] - Queen [[Wilhelmina I of the Netherlands]] (d. [[1962]]) *[[1885]] - [[DuBose Heyward]], American playwright (d. [[1940]]) *[[1897]] - [[Fredric March]], American actor (d. [[1975]]) *[[1903]] - [[Arthur Godfrey]], American television host (d. [[1983]]) *[[1907]] - [[Ramon Magsaysay]], [[President of the Philippines]] (d. [[1957]]) *1907 - [[William Shawn]], American editor (d. [[1992]]) *[[1908]] - [[William Saroyan]], American novelist and playwright (d. [[1981]]) *[[1913]] - Sir [[Bernard Lovell]], British radio astronomer *[[1914]] - [[Richard Basehart]], American actor (d. [[1984]]) *[[1916]] - [[Daniel Schorr]], American journalist *[[1918]] - [[Alan Jay Lerner]], American composer (d. [[1986]]) *[[1924]] - [[Buddy Hackett]], American actor and comedian (d. [[2003]]) *[[1928]] - [[James Coburn]], American actor (d. [[2002]]) *[[1931]] - [[Noble Willingham]], American actor (d. [[2004]]) *[[1935]] - [[Frank Robinson]], baseball player and manager *1935 - [[Eldridge Cleaver]], American political activist (d. [[1998]]) *[[1938]] - [[Martin Bell]], British journalist and politician *[[1945]] - [[Van Morrison]], Irish musician *1945 - [[Itzhak Perlman]], Israeli violinist *[[1948]] - [[Lowell Ganz]], American screenwriter *1948 - [[Rudolf Schenker]], German guitarist ([[Scorpions (band)|Scorpions]]) *[[1949]] - [[Richard Gere]], American actor *1949 - [[H. David Politzer]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate *[[1953]] - [[György Károly]], Hungarian author *[[1956]] - [[Masashi Tashiro]], Japanese television performer *[[1958]] - [[Edwin Moses]], American athlete *[[1961]] - [[Anri]], [[J-pop|Japanese Singer]] *[[1968]] - [[Todd Carty]], British actor *[[1970]] - [[Deborah Gibson]], American singer *1970 - [[Queen Rania]], Queen of Jordan and wife of King Abdullah II *[[1972]] - [[Chris Tucker]], American actor *[[1977]] - [[Jeff Hardy]], American professional wrestler *1977 - [[Craig Nicholls]], Australian singer, songwriter, and guitarist ([[The Vines]]) *[[1982]] - [[José Manuel Reina Páez|Jose Reina]], Spanish footballer ==Deaths== *[[651]] - [[Saint Aidan of Lindisfarne]], Irish bishop and missionary *[[1056]] - [[Theodora (11th century)|Theodora]], Byzantine Empress (b. [[981]]) *[[1234]] - [[Emperor Go-Horikawa]] of Japan (b. [[1212]]) *[[1372]] - [[Ralph Stafford, 1st Earl of Stafford]], English soldier (b. [[1301]]) *[[1422]] - King [[Henry V of England]] (b. [[1387]]) *[[1645]] - [[Francesco Bracciolini]], Italian poet (b. [[1566]]) *[[1654]] - [[Ole Worm]], Danish physician (b. [[1588]]) *[[1688]] - [[John Bunyan]], English writer (b. [[1628]]) *[[1741]] - [[Johann Gottlieb Heineccius]], German jurist (b. [[1681]]) *[[1772]] - [[William Borlase]], English naturalist (b. [[1695]]) *[[1782]] - [[George Croghan]], American colonist *[[1795]] - [[François-André Danican Philidor]], French chess player (b. [[1726]]) *[[1799]] - [[Nicolas-Henri Jardin]], French architect (b. [[1720]]) *[[1814]] - [[Arthur Phillip]], British admiral, first Governor of New South Wales (b. [[1738]]) *[[1867]] - [[Charles Baudelaire]], French poet (b. [[1821]]) *[[1920]] - [[Wilhelm Wundt]], German psychologist (b. [[1832]]) *[[1941]] - [[Marina Tsvetaeva]], Russian poet (b. [[1892]]) *[[1963]] - [[Georges Braque]], French painter (b. [[1882]]) *[[1967]] - [[Ilya Ehrenburg]], Russian writer (b. [[1891]]) *[[1969]] - [[Rocky Marciano]], American boxer (b. [[1923]]) *[[1973]] - [[John Ford]], American film director (b. [[1894]]) *[[1978]] - [[John Wrathall]], [[President of Rhodesia]] (b. [[1913]]) *[[1979]] - [[Sally Rand]], American dancer and actress (b. [[1904]]) *[[1985]] - [[Frank Macfarlane Burnet]], Australian biologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1899]]) *[[1986]] - [[Henry Moore]], English sculptor (b. [[1898]]) *1986 - [[Urho Kekkonen]], [[President of Finland]] (b. [[1900]]) *[[1997]] - [[Diana, Princess of Wales]] (vehicular collision) (b. [[1961]]) **[[Dodi Fayed]], Egyptian-born film producer (vehicular collision) (b. [[1955]]) *[[2002]] - [[Lionel Hampton]], American vibraphone player (b. [[1908]]) *2002 - [[George Porter]], English chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1920]]) *[[2004]] - [[Carl Wayne]], English singer (b. [[1943]]) *[[2005]] - [[Józef Rotblat]], Polish physicist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1908]]) *2005 - [[Michael Sheard]], British actor (b. [[1940]]) ==Holidays and observances== * [[Calendar of Saints]] - Saint [[Aidan of Lindisfarne]], [[San Abbondio]], Saint [[Raymond Nonnatus]] * [[Moldova]]: Day of Our Language (Limba Noastra) * [[Malaysia]] - [[Hari Merdeka]], a [[National Day]] ([[Independence Day|independence]] within the Commonwealth, [[1957]]) * [[Kyrgyzstan]] - [[Independence Day]] (from USSR, [[1991]]) * [[Trinidad and Tobago]] - [[Independence Day]] (from Great Britain, [[1962]]) <!--* [[United Kingdom]] - the cut-off day which defines the [[school year]] for students.--> ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/31 BBC: On This Day] ----- [[August 30]] - [[September 1]] - [[July 31]] - [[September 30]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:31 Augustus]] [[ar:31 أغسطس]] [[an:31 d'agosto]] [[ast:31 d'agostu]] [[bg:31 август]] [[be:31 жніўня]] [[bs:31. avgust]] [[ca:31 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 31]] [[cv:Çурла, 31]] [[co:31 d'aostu]] [[cs:31. srpen]] [[cy:31 Awst]] [[da:31. august]] [[de:31. August]] [[et:31. august]] [[el:31 Αυγούστου]] [[es:31 de agosto]] [[eo:31-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 31]] [[fo:31. august]] [[fr:31 août]] [[fy:31 augustus]] [[ga:31 Lúnasa]] [[gl:31 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 31일]] [[hr:31. kolovoza]] [[io:31 di agosto]] [[id:31 Agustus]] [[ia:31 de augusto]] [[ie:31 august]] [[is:31. ágúst]] [[it:31 agosto]] [[he:31 באוגוסט]] [[jv:31 Agustus]] [[ka:31 აგვისტო]] [[csb:31 zélnika]] [[ku:31'ê gelawêjê]] [[la:31 Augusti]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 31]] [[lb:31. August]] [[hu:Augusztus 31]] [[mk:31 август]] [[ml:ആഗസ്റ്റ്‌ 31]] [[ms:31 Ogos]] [[nap:31 'e aùsto]] [[nl:31 augustus]] [[ja:8月31日]] [[no:31. august]] [[nn:31. august]] [[oc:31 d'agost]] [[pl:31 sierpnia]] [[pt:31 de Agosto]] [[ro:31 august]] [[ru:31 августа]] [[sco:31 August]] [[sq:31 Gusht]] [[scn:31 di austu]] [[simple:August 31]] [[sk:31. august]] [[sl:31. avgust]] [[sr:31. август]] [[fi:31. elokuuta]] [[sv:31 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 31]] [[tt:31. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 31]] [[th:31 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:31 tháng 8]] [[tr:31 Ağustos]] [[uk:31 серпня]] [[ur:31 اگست]] [[wa:31 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 31]] [[zh:8月31日]] [[pam:Agostu 31]] 1714 36265001 2006-01-22T21:29:42Z Necrothesp 64853 '''Autpert Ambrose (Ambroise)''' (d. [[778]]), was a [[Franks|Frankish]] [[Benedictine]] monk. He became abbot of San Vicenzo on the Volturno in South Italy in the time of [[Desiderius]], king of the [[Lombards]]. Autpert's election as [[abbot]] caused internal dissent at St. Vicenzo, and both [[Pope Stephen III]] and [[Charlemagne]] intervened. The disagreement was based both on objections to Autpert's personality and to his Frankish origin. He wrote a considerable number of works on the Bible and religious subjects generally. Among these are commentaries on the [[Apocalypse]], on the [[Psalms]], and on the [[Song of Solomon]]; Lives of Saints Paldo, Tuto and Vaso; [[Assumption of Mary|Assumption]] of the Virgin; and a ''Combat between the Virtues and the Vices''. * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02143b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article] [[Category:Frankish people]] [[Category:Benedictines]] 1715 41303401 2006-02-26T11:44:46Z Rebelguys2 406178 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/217.218.239.202|217.218.239.202]] ([[User_talk:217.218.239.202|talk]]) to last version by Zora {{Islam}} :''For the entry on Persian philosopher Abū Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi, see [[Al-Razi]].'' '''Abu Bakr''' ({{lang-ar|&#1575;&#1576;&#1608; &#1576;&#1603;&#1585;}}, alternative spellings, '''Abubakar''', '''Abi Bakr''', '''Abu Bakar''') (''ca''. [[573]] &ndash; [[August 23]], [[634]]) ruled as the first of the [[Muslim]] [[caliph]]s ([[632]] &ndash; [[634]]). ==Early life== Abu Bakr was born in [[Mecca]] (Makkah), a [[Quraish]]i of the [[Banu Taim]] clan. According to early Muslim historians, he was a [[merchant]], and highly esteemed as a [[judge]], as an interpreter of [[dream]]s, and as one learned in Meccan traditions. He was one of the last people anyone would have expected to convert to the faith preached by his kinsman [[Muhammad]]. Yet he was one of the [[Identity of first male Muslim | first converts]] to [[Islam]] and instrumental in converting many of the Quraish and the residents of Mecca. Originally called ''Abd-ul-Ka'ba'' ("servant of the [[Kaaba]]"), on his conversion he assumed the name of ''Abd-Allah'' (servant of God). However, he is usually styled ''Abu Bakr'' (from the Arabic word ''bakr'', meaning a young [[camel]]) due to his interest in raising camels. [[Sunni]] Muslims also honor him as Al-Siddiq ("the truthful"). His full name was '''Abd-Allah ibn Abi Quhaafah'''. ==During the lifetime of Muhammad== Abu Bakr was one of Muhammad's companions. When Muhammad fled from Mecca in the [[migration to Medina]] of [[622]], Abu Bakr alone accompanied him. Abu Bakr was also linked to Muhammad by marriage: Abu Bakr's daughter [[Aisha]] married Muhammad soon after the migration to [[Medina]]. He was a trusted lieutenant, high in Muhammad's councils. ==Rise to the Caliphate== During the prophet's last illness, it is said by some traditions that Muhammad allowed Abu Bakr to lead prayers in his absence, and that many took this as an indication that Abu Bakr would succeed Muhammad. Soon after the latter's death (on [[8 June]] [[632]]), a gathering of prominent ''[[Ansar]]'' and some of the ''[[Muhajirun]]'', in Medina, acclaimed Abu Bakr as the new Muslim leader or ''[[caliph]]''. What happened at this meeting, called [[Saqifah]], is much disputed. Abu Bakr's assumption of power is an extremely controversial matter, and the source of the first [[schism]] in Islam, between [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] and [[Shia Islam]]. Shi'a believe that Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, [[Ali ibn Abu Talib]], was his designated successor, while Sunnis believe that Muhammad deliberately declined to designate a successor. They argue that Muhammad endorsed the traditional Arabian method of ''[[shura]]'' or ''consultation'', as the way for the community to choose leaders. Designating one's successor was the sign of kingship, or ''[[mulk]]'', which the independence-minded tribesmen disliked. Whatever the truth of the matter, Ali gave his formal ''[[bay'ah]]'', or submission, to Abu Bakr and to Abu Bakr's two successors. (The Sunni depict this ''bay'ah'' as enthusiastic, and Ali as a supporter of Abu Bakr and [[Umar]]; the Shi'a argue that Ali's support was only ''pro forma'', and that he effectively withdrew from public life in protest). The Sunni/Shi'a schism did not erupt into open warfare until much later. Many volumes have been written on the affair of the succession. A detailed treatment can be found at [[Succession to Muhammad]]. ==The Ridda Wars== Troubles emerged soon after Abu Bakr's succession, threatening the unity and stability of the new community and state. Various Arab tribes of [[Hejaz]] and [[Nejd]] rebelled against the ''caliph'' and the new system. Some withheld the ''[[zakat]]'', the alms tax, though they did not challenge the prophecy of Muhammad. Others [[apostatize]]d outright and returned to their pre-Islamic religion and traditions, classified by Muslims as [[idolatry]]. The tribes claimed that they had submitted to Muhammad and that with Muhammad's death, their allegiance was ended. Abu Bakr insisted that they had not just submitted to a leader but joined the Muslim religious community, of which he was the new head. Apostasy is a capital offense under traditional interpretations of [[Islamic law]], and Abu Bakr declared war on the rebels. This was the start of the ''[[Ridda wars]]'', [[Arabic language|Arabic]] for the Wars of [[Apostasy]]. The severest struggle was the war with [[Ibn Habib al-Hanefi]], known as "Musailimah the Liar", who claimed to be a prophet and Muhammad's true successor. The Muslim general [[Khalid bin Walid]] finally defeated al-Hanefi at the [[Battle of Akraba]]. ==Expeditions to the north== After suppressing internal dissension and completely subduing [[Arabia]], Abu Bakr directed his generals towards the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid]] empires. Khalid bin Walid conquered [[History of Iraq|Iraq]] in a single campaign, and a successful expedition into [[History of Syria|Syria]] also took place. [[Fred Donner]], in his book ''The Early Islamic Conquests'', argues that Abu Bakr's "foreign" expeditions were merely an extension of the Ridda Wars, in that he sent his troops against Arab tribes living on the borders of the [[Fertile Crescent]]. Given that the [[steppe]]s and [[desert]]s over which [[Arabic language|Arabic]]-speaking tribes roamed extended without break from southern Syria down to [[Yemen]], any polity that controlled only the southern part of the steppe was inherently insecure. ==The ''Qur'an''== Some traditions about the origin of the ''Qur'an'' say that Abu Bakr was instrumental in preserving Muhammad's revelations in written form. It is said that after the hard-won victory over Musailimah, [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] (the later ''Caliph'' Umar), saw that many of the Muslims who had memorized the ''Qur'an'' from the lips of the prophet had died in battle. Abu Bakr asked Umar to oversee the collection of the revelations. The record, when completed, was deposited with [[Hafsa bint Umar]], daughter of Umar, and one of the wives of Muhammad. Later it became the basis of [[Uthman ibn Affan]]'s definitive text of the ''Qur'an''. However, other historians give Uthman the principal credit for collecting and preserving the ''Qur'an''. Shi'as strongly refute the idea that Abu Bakr or Umar had anything to do with the collection or preservation of the ''Qur'an''. ==Death== Abu Bakr died on [[August 23]], [[634]] in [[Medina]]. Shortly before his death, likely of natural causes (one tradition ascribes it to [[poison]]), he urged the Muslim community to accept [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] as his successor. The community did so, without serious incident. However, this succession is also a matter of controversy. Shi'a Muslims believe that the leadership should have been assumed by Ali ibn Abu Talib, without any recourse to shura (consultation). Abu Bakr initially served without pay. His followers insisted that he take an official stipend. At his death, his will returned all these payments to the treasury (''Age of Faith'', Durant, p. 187). Abu Bakr lies buried in the [[Masjid al Nabawi]] mosque in Medina, alongside Muhammad and Umar ibn al-Khattab. ==First man to adopt Islam?== Muslim scholars agree that the first woman to adopt Islam was [[Khadijah]], Muhammad's first wife. However, there is some disagreement over the identity of the first male to convert. Some Muslim historians have claimed that it was Abu Bakr, or perhaps Muhammad's adopted son Zayd ibn Harithah. Shi'a Muslims, as well as some other Muslim historians, believe that the first male convert (after Muhammad) was Ali ibn Abi Talib. This matter is discussed at greater length in [[Identity of first male Muslim]]. ==Shia view== :''{{Main|Shia view of Abu Bakr}} Shi'as believe that Abu Bakr, far from being a devout Muslim and wise and humble man, was a schemer who seized the Islamic state for himself, displacing the proper heir, Ali. They believe that Abu Bakr and Umar persecuted Ali, his family, and his followers, and in so doing, caused the death of Ali's wife and Muhammad's daughter, [[Fatima Zahra]], and her unborn child, [[Al Muhsin]]. For a fuller discussion, see [[Succession to Muhammad]]. ==See also== *[[Family tree of Abu Bakr ibn abu Qahafa]] *[[Succession to Muhammad]] ==References== * Donner, Fred -- ''The Early Islamic Conquests'', Princeton University Press, 1981. * Watt, W. Montgomery -- ''Muhammad at Mecca'', Oxford University Press, 1953. {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[Caliph]]|before= --|after=[[Umar ibn al-Khattab|Umar]]|years=632&ndash;634}} {{end box}} ==External links== *http://www.ymofmd.com/books/abas/chapter2.htm *http://www.islamonline.net/English/NewHijriYear/HijrahHeroes/1426/04.shtml * [http://www.lailahailallah.net/Khutbahs/Khutbah17.asf Sirah of Abu Bakr (Radia'Allahuanhu) Part 1] by Shaykh Sayyed Muhammad bin Yahya Al-Husayni Al-Ninowy. * [http://www.lailahailallah.net/Khutbahs/Khutbah16.asf Sirah of Abu Bakr (Radia'Allahuanhu) Part 2] by Shaykh Sayyed Muhammad bin Yahya Al-Husayni Al-Ninowy. [[Category:573 births]] [[Category:634 deaths]] [[Category:Caliphs]] [[Category:Muslims]] [[Category:Sahaba]] [[ar:أبو بكر]] [[da:Abu Bakr]] [[de:Abu Bakr]] [[es:Abu Bakr as-Siddiq]] [[et:Abū Bakr]] [[fa:ابوبکر]] [[fi:Abu Bakr]] [[fr:Abou Bakr]] [[gl:Abu Bakr - ابو بكر الصديق]] [[he:אבו בכר]] [[id:Abu Bakar]] [[it:Abū Bakr]] [[ja:アブー＝バクル]] [[ms:Saidina Abu Bakar]] [[nl:Aboe Bakr]] [[no:Abu Bakr]] [[pl:Abu Bakr]] [[pt:Abu Bakr]] [[ru:Абу Бакр]] [[sv:Abu Bakr]] [[th:อะบูบักรฺ]] [[tr:Ebu Bekir]] [[zh:艾卜·伯克尔]] 1716 36939720 2006-01-27T13:30:28Z Bluebot 527862 Bringing "External links" and "See also" sections in line with the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]]. '''Ambrose the Camaldulian,''' (Ambrogio Traversari) ([[1386]]-[[1439]]), was a [[theology|theologian]], born near [[Forlì]] at the village of Portico di [[Romagna]]. At the age of fourteen he entered the [[Camaldulian]] Order in the monastery of Santa Maria degli Angeli, and rapidly became a leading theologian and Hellenist. In Greek literature his master was [[Manuel Chrysoloras|Emmanuel Chrysoloras]]. He became general of the order in 1431, and was a leading advocate of the [[papacy]]. This attitude he showed clearly when he attended the [[Council of Basel]] as legate of [[Pope Eugenius IV]]. So strong was his hostility to some of the delegates that he described Basel as a western [[Babylon]]. He likewise supported the pope at [[Ferrara]] and Florence, and worked hard in the attempt to reconcile the Eastern and Western Churches. Though this cause was unsuccessful, Ambrose is interesting as typical of the new humanism which was growing up within the church. Thus while among his own colleagues he seemed merely a hypocritical and arrogant priest, in his relations with his brother humanists, such as [[Cosimo de Medici]], he appeared as the student of classical antiquities and especially of Greek theological authors. His chief works are: -- ''Hodoeporicon'', an account of a journey taken at the pope's command, during which he visited the monasteries of Italy; translations of [[Palladius]]' ''Life of Chrysostom;'' of ''Nineteen Sermons of Ephraem Syrus''; of the St Basil ''On Virginity.'' A number of his manuscripts remain in the library of St Mark at Venice. He died on [[October 20]] [[1439]]. ==References== *{{1911}} ==External links== * [http://www.tertullian.org/articles/traversari_index.htm Letters] - a few letters translated into English and a portrait of him from a manuscript he copied. 1717 41724977 2006-03-01T08:33:48Z 193.40.4.119 /* Ambrosian Orders */ '''Ambrosians''' is a term that might be applied either to members of one of the religious brotherhoods which at various times since the [[14th century]] have sprung up in and around [[Milan]] or, exceptionally to a [[16th century]] sect of [[Anabaptist Ambrosians|Anabaptists]]. ==Ambrosian Orders== Only the oldest of the Catholic Ambrosians, the Fratres S. Ambrosii ad Nemus, had anything more than a very local significance. This order is known from a bull of [[Pope Gregory XI]] addressed to the [[monk]]s of the church of St Ambrose outside Milan. Saint Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, certainly did not found religious orders, though he took an interest in the monastic life and watched over its beginnings in his diocese, providing for the needs of a monastery outside the walls of Milam, as Saint Augustine recounts in his ''Confessions''. Ambrose also made successful efforts to improve the moral life of women in the Milan of his time by promoting the permament institution of Virgins, as also of widows. His exhortations and other interventions have survived in various writings: ''De virginibus'', ''De viduis'', ''De virginitate'', ''De institutione virginis'', ''De exhortatione virginitatis'', and ''De lapsu virginis consecratae''. Ambrose was the only Father of the Church to leave behind so many writings on the subject and his attentions naturally enough led to the formation of communities which later became formal monasteries of women. It is against this background that two religious orders or congregations, one of men and one of women, when founded in the Milan area during the [[13th century|13th]] and [[15th century|15th centuries]], took Saint Ambrose as their patron and hence adopted his name. ===The Order of St Ambrose=== The first of these groups was formed in a wood outside Milan by three noble Milanese, Alexander Grivelli, Antonio Petrasancta, and Albert Besuzzi, who were joined by others, including some priests. In [[1375]] [[Pope Gregory XI]] gave them the Rule of St Augustine, with set of constitutions. As a canonically recognized order they took the name "Fratres Sancti Ambrosii ad Nemus" and adopted a habit consisting of a brown tunic, scapular, and hood. The brethren elected a superior with the title of prior who was then instituted by the Archbishop of Milan. The priests of the congregation undertook preaching and other tasks of the ministry but were not allowed to accept charge parishes. In the liturgy they followed the [[Ambrosian Rite]]. Various monasteries were founded on these lines, but without any formal bond between them. In [[1441]] [[Pope Eugene IV]] merged them into one congregation called "Congregatio Sancti Ambrosii ad Nemus", made the original house the main seat, and laid down a system of government whereby a general chapter met every three years, elected the priors who stayed in office till the next chapter. There was a rector, or superior general, who was assisted by two "visitors". Saint Charles Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan, successfully reformed their discipline, grown lax, in [[1579]]. In [[1589]] [[Pope Sixtus V]] united to the Congregation of St Ambrose the monasteries of a group known as the "Brothers of the Apostles of the Poor Life" (or "Apostolini" or "Brothers of St. Barnabas"), whose houses were in the province of Genoa and in the March of Ancona. This was an order that had been founded by Giovanni Scarpa at the end of the [[15th century]]. The union was confirmed by [[Pope Paul V]] in [[1606]], at which time the congregation added the name of St. Barnabas to its title, adopted new constitutions, divided its houses into four provinces, two of them, St Clement's and St Pancras's, being in Rome. Published works have survived from the pen of Ascanio Tasca and Michele Mulozzani, each of whom was superior-general, and of Zaccaria Visconti, Francesco-Maria Guazzi and Paolo Fabulotti. Although various Ambrosians were given the title of Blessed in recognition of their holiness: Antonio Gonzaga of Mantua, Filippo of Fermo, and Gerardo of Monza, the order was eventually dissolved by [[Pope Innocent X]] in [[1650]]. ===Ambrosian Nuns=== The Nuns of St Ambrose (Ambrosian Sisters) wore a habit of the same colour as the Brothers of St Ambrose, conformed to their constitutions, and followed the [[Ambrosian Rite]], but were independent in government. [[Pope Sixtus IV]] gave the nuns canonical status in [[1474]]. Their one monastery was on the top of Monte Varese, near Lago Maggiore, on the spot where their foundress, the Blessed Catarina Morigia (or Catherine of Palanza), had first led a solitary life. Other early nuns were the Blessed Juliana of Puriselli, Benedetta Bimia, and Lucia Alciata. The nuns were esteemed by St Charles Borromeo. Another group of cloistered "Nuns of St Ambrose", also called the Annunciatae (Italian: ''Annunziate'') of Lombardy or "Sisters of St Marcellina", were founded in [[1408]] by three young women of Pavia, Dorothea Morosini, Eleonora Contarini, and Veronica Duodi. Their houses, scattered throughout Lombardy and Venetia, were united into a congregation by St Pius V, under the Rule of St Augustine with a mother-house, residence of the prioress general, at Pavia. One of the nuns in this group was Saint Catharine Fieschi Adorno, who died on [[September 14]], [[1510]]. ===The [[Oblates of St Ambrose and of St Charles]]=== In some sense also "Ambrosians" are the members of a diocesan religious society founded by St Charles Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan. All priests or destined to become priests, they took a simple vow of obedience to their bishop. The model for this was a society that already existed at Brescia, under the name of "Priests of Peace". In August [[1578]] the new society was inaugurated, being entrusted with the church of the Holy Sepulchre and given the name of "Oblates of St. Ambrose." They later received the approbation of Gregory XIII. St Charles died in [[1584]]. These Oblates were dispersed by [[Napoleon I]] in 1810, while another group called the Oblates of Our Lady of Rho escaped this fate. In 1848 they were reorganized and given the name of "Oblates of St. Charles" and reassigned the house of the Holy Sepulchre. In the course of the [[19th century]] similar groups were founded in a number of countries, including the "Oblates of St Charles", established in London by Cardinal Nicholas Wiseman. ==See also== *[[Ambrosian Rite]] See Herzog-Hauck's ''Realencyklopadie'', i. 439. ==References== *{{1911}} *{{catholic}} 1718 29324051 2005-11-26T23:06:35Z Thierry Caro 441183 fr '''Ambrosiaster''', a commentary on St [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]'s epistles, "brief in words but weighty in matter," and valuable for the criticism of the [[Latin]] text of the [[New Testament]], was long attributed to St [[Ambrose]]. [[Erasmus]] in 1527 threw doubt on the accuracy of this ascription, and the author is usually spoken of as Ambrosiaster or pseudo-Ambrose. Because [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] cites part of the commentary on [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] as by "Sanctus Hilarius" it has been ascribed by various critics at different times to almost every known Hilary. Dom G. Morin (''Rev. d'hist. et de litt. religieuses'', tom. iv. 97 f.) broke new ground by suggesting in 1899 that the writer was Isaac, a converted Jew, writer of a tract on the Trinity and Incarnation, who was exiled to [[Spain]] in 378-380 and then relapsed to [[Judaism]], but he afterwards abandoned this theory of the authorship in favour of [[Decimus Hilarianus Hilarius]], proconsul of [[North Africa during the Classical Period|Africa]] in 377. With this attribution Professor Alex. Souter, in his ''Study of Ambrosiaster'' (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1905), agrees. There is scarcely anything to be said for the possibility of Ambrose having written the book before he became a bishop, and added to it in later years, incorporating remarks of [[Hilary of Poitiers]] on Romans. The best presentation of the case for Ambrose is by P. A. Ballerini in his complete edition of that father's works. In the book cited above Professor Souter also discusses the authorship of the ''Quaestiones Veteris et Novi Testamenti,'' which the manuscripts ascribe to [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]. He concludes, on very thorough [[philology|philological]] and other grounds, that this is with one possible slight exception the work of the same "Ambrosiaster." The same conclusion had been arrived at previously by Dom Morin. ==References== *{{1911}} [[fr:Ambrosiaster]] 1719 40977437 2006-02-24T06:14:31Z Betacommand 509520 clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]] '''Ambrosius Aurelianus''' (incorrectly referred to in the ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'' as '''Aurelius Ambrosius ''') was a leader of the [[Romano-British]], who won important battles against the [[Anglo-Saxons]] in the [[5th century]], according to [[Gildas]] and to the legends preserved in the ''[[Historia Britonum]]''. According to the Annal ''Chronicon Maiora'' Ambrosius came to power in [[479]]. Some scholars have speculated that he was the leader of the Romano-British at the [[Battle of Mons Badonicus]] and as such may have become a [[historical basis for King Arthur]]. == Aurelianus according to Gildas == Ambrosius Aurelianus is one of the few people Gildas identifies by name in his sermon [[Gildas#De Excidio Britanniae|De Excidio Britanniae]]. Following the destructive assault of the Saxons, the survivors gather together under the leadership of Ambrosius, who is described as "a gentleman who, perhaps alone of the Romans, had survived the shock of this notable storm. Certainly his parents, who had worn the purple, were slain in it. His descendants in our day have become greatly inferior to their grandfather's [''avita''] excellence." According to Gildas, Ambrosius organised the survivors into an armed force, and achieved the first military victory over the Saxon invaders. However, this victory was not decisive: "Sometimes the Saxons and sometimes the citizens [meaning the Romano-British inhabitants] were victorious." Two points in this brief description have attracted much scholarly commentary. The first is what Gildas meant by saying Ambrosius' parents "had worn the purple": does this mean that Ambrosius was related to one of the [[Roman Emperors]], perhaps the [[House of Theodosius]] or a usurper like [[Constantine III (usurper)|Constantine III]]? The second question is the meaning of the word ''avita'': does it mean "ancestors", or did Gildas intend it to mean more specifically "grandfather" — thus indicating Ambrosius lived about a generation before the Battle of [[Mons Badonicus]]? The lack of information for this period prevents us from decisively answerering these questions. == Other accounts of Aurelianus == The ''Historia Britonum'' preserves several snippets of lore about Ambrosius. The most significant of these is the story about Ambrosius, [[Vortigern]], and the two dragons beneath [[Dinas Emrys]] 'Fortress of Ambrosius' in Chapters 40&ndash;42. This story was later retold with more detail by [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] in his fictional ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'', conflating the personage of Ambrosius with the Welsh tradition of [[Merlin (wizard)|Merlin]] the visonary, known for oracular utterances that foretold the coming victories of the native [[Celt]]ic inhabitants of Britain over the [[Saxons]] and the [[Normans]]. But there are smaller snippets of tradition preserved in ''Historia Brittonum'': in Chapter 31, we are told that Vortigern ruled in fear of Ambrosius; later, in Chapter 66, various events are dated from a battle of Guoloph (often identified with Wallop, 15km ESE of [[Amesbury]] near [[Salisbury, England|Salisbury]]), which is said to have been between Ambrosius and Vitolinus; lastly, in Chapter 48, it is said that Pascent, the son of Vortigern, was granted rule over the kingdoms of [[Buellt]] and [[Gwrtheyrion]]. It is not clear how these various traditions relate to each other or that they come from the same tradition, and it is very possible that these references are to a different Ambrosius. The ''Historia Brittonum'' dates the battle of Guoloph to 439, forty to fifty years before the battles that Gildas says were commanded by Ambrosius Aurelianus. Because Ambrosius and Vortigern are shown in the ''Historia Brittonum'' as being in conflict, some historians have suspected that this preserves a historical core of the existence of two parties in opposition to one another, one headed by Ambrosius, and the other by Vortigern. J.N.L. Myres built upon this suspicion and put forth the hypothesis that belief in [[Pelagianism]] reflected an actively provincial outlook in Britain, and that Vortigern represented the Pelagian party, while Ambrosius led the Catholic one. Some later historians accepted this hypothesis as fact, and have created a narrative of events in fifth-century Britain with various degrees of elaborate detail. Yet a simpler alternative interpretation of this conflict between these two figures is that the ''Historia Brittonum'' is preserving traditions hostile to the purported descendants of Vortigern, who at this time were a ruling house in [[kingdom of Powys|Powys]]. This interpretation is supported by the negative character of all of the stories retold about Vortigern in the ''Historia Brittonum'', which include his alleged practice of [[incest]]. Ambrosius Aurelianus appears in later pseudo-chronicle tradition beginning with [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s ''Historiae Regum Britanniae'' with the slightly garbled name ''Aurelius Ambrosius'', now presented as son of a King Constantine. When King Constantine's eldest son Constans is murdered at Vortigern's instigation, the two remaining sons, Ambrosius and Uther, still very young, are quickly hustled into exile in [[Brittany]]. (Note that this does not fit with Gildas' account in which Ambrosius' family perished in the turmoil of the Saxon uprisings.) Later, when Vortigern's power has faded, the two brothers return from exile with a large army, destroy Vortigern and become friends with Merlin. The Welsh possibly had traditions of two different Ambrosianii, whom Geoffrey of Monmouth confused. In Welsh Ambrosius appears as ''Emrys Wledig''. In [[Robert de Boron]]'s ''Merlin'' he is called simply ''Pendragon'' and his younger brother is named ''Uter'', a name which Uter changes after the death of Pendragon to ''Uterpendragon''. This is probably a confusion that entered oral tradition from [[Robert Wace|Wace]]'s ''Brut''. Wace usually only refers to ''li roi'' 'the king' without naming him and someone has taken an early mention of Uther's epithet ''Pendragon'' as the name of his brother. S. Appelbaum has suggested that [[Amesbury]] in [[Wiltshire]] might preserve in it the name of Ambrosius, and perhaps Amesbury was the seat of his power base in the later fifth century. Place name scholars have found a number of [[Toponymy|place names]] through the Midland dialect regions of Britain with placenames incorporating the ''ambre-'' element: [[Ombersley]] in [[Worcestershire]], [[Ambrosden]] in [[Oxfordshire]], Amberley in [[Herefordshire]], and Amberley in [[Gloucestershire]]. These scholars have claimed this element rerpresents an [[Old English language|Old English]] word ''amor'', the name of a woodland bird. However, [[Amesbury]] in Wiltshire is in a different dialect region, and does not easily fit into the pattern of the Midland dialect place names. This makes Appelbaum's suggestion more likely. If we combine this etymology with the tradition reported by Geoffrey of Monmouth stating Ambrosius Aurelianus ordered the building of [[Stonehenge]] &mdash; which is located within the parish of Amesbury (and where Ambrosius was supposedly buried) &mdash; and with the presence of an [[Iron age]] [[hill fort]] also in that parish, then it is extremely tempting to connect this shadowy figure with Amesbury. == Aurelianus in fiction == In [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]]'s ''[[The Mists of Avalon]]'', Aurelianus is depicted as the aging High King of Britain, a "too-ambitious" son of a Western Roman Emperor. His sister's son is Uther Pendragon, but somehow, Uther is described as not having any Roman blood in him. Strangely, Aurelianus is unable to gather the leadership of the native Celts, who refuse to follow any but their own race. In [[Stephen R. Lawhead]]'s ''[[Pendragon Cycle]]'', Ambrosius Aurelianus (referred to as "[[Aurelius]]") is a minor character, being assassinated soon after becoming [[High King]] of [[Prydein]]. Lawhead alters the standard Arthurian story somewhat, in that he has Aurelius marry [[Igraine]] and become the true father of [[King Arthur]]. In [[Valerio Massimo Manfredi]]'s ''[[The Last Legion]]'', Aurelianus is a major character that is shown as the last loyal Roman that goes to enormous lengths for his boy emperor [[Romulus Augustus]] , whose power has been wrested by the barbarian [[Odoacer]]. In this story [[Romulus Augustus]] marries [[Igraine]], and ''[[Caliban]]'', the sword of [[Julius Caesar]], becomes the legendary [[Excalibur]] in Britain. In [[Rosemary Sutcliff]]'s ''[[The Lantern Bearers (Sutcliff novel)|The Lantern Bearers]]'' Prince Ambrosius Aurelianus drives out the Saxons by training his British army with Roman techniques and making effective use of cavalry. By the end of the novel, the elite cavalry wing is led by a dashing young warrior prince named Artos, who Sutcliff postulates to be the real Arthur. [[Mary Stewart]]'s ''The Crystal Cave'' follows Geoffrey of Monmouth in calling him Aurelius Ambrosius and portrays him as the father of Merlin, the elder brother of Uther (hence uncle of Arthur), an initiate of [[Mithras]], and generally admired by everyone except the Saxons. Much of the book is set at his court in Brittany or during the campaign to retake his throne from Vortigern. Later books in the series show that Merlin's attitude toward Arthur is influenced by his belief that Arthur is a reincarnation of Ambrosius, who is seen through Merlin's eyes as a model of good kingship. Judging by his situation (a Romano-British living in post-Roman Britain and fighting Mons Badonicus), the titular character from the 2004 movie ''[[King Arthur (2004 movie)|King Arthur]]'' was based on Aurelianus, despite the fact that his name ([[Lucius Artorius Castus|Artorius Castus]]) comes from another historical source for Arthur. {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Vortigern]]| title=[[King of the Britons|Mythical British Kings]]| after=[[Uther Pendragon]]| years= | }} {{end box}} <!-- interwiki --> [[Category:5th century births]] [[Category:6th century deaths]] [[Category:Ancient Britons]] [[Category:Ancient Romans]] [[Category:Romans in Britain]] [[Category:Sub-Roman Britain]] [[Category:British traditional history]] [[Category:Arthurian legend]] [[Category:Mythological kings]] [[de:Ambrosius Aurelianus]] [[nl:Aurelius Ambrosius]] [[fr:Ambrosius Aurelianus]] 1721 41983215 2006-03-03T01:06:17Z 24.180.10.191 :''For the people in the Bible, see [[Ammon (nation)]]. For the extinct mollusc see [[Ammonite]].'' :''For the game by [[Reiner Knizia]], see [[Amun-Re (game)]] '''Amun''' (also spelt '''Amon''', '''Amoun''', '''Amen''', and rarely '''Imenand''', and spelt in [[Greek language|Greek]] as '''Ammon''', and '''Hammon''') was the name of a [[deity]], in [[Egyptian mythology]], who gradually rose to become one of the most important deities, before fading into obscurity. {{Hiero|Amun|<hiero>i-mn:n-C12</hiero>|align=right|era=egypt}} ==God of Air== Originally, he was simply nothing more than a deification of the concept of air, and thus [[wind]], one of the four fundamental concepts held to have composed the primordial universe, in the [[Ogdoad]] [[cosmogeny]], whose cult was strongest in [[Hermopolis]]. His name reflects this function, since it means ''the hidden one'', reflecting the invisibility of the air, and of the wind. Like all other members of the Ogdoad, his male aspect was usually depicted as a frog, or frog-headed. Symbolically, invisibility was represented by the [[colour]] [[blue]], since it was the colour of the [[sky]], seen through the air, and so this was the colour usually given to Amun's image. As with the other concepts in the Ogdoad, he was dualistically considered to have a female aspect, referred to as '''[[Amunet]]''' (also spelt '''Amentet''', '''Amentit''', '''Imentet''', '''Imentit''', '''Amaunet''', and '''Ament'''), which was simply the [[feminine]] form of the word ''Amun''. The other female aspects of the Ogdoad were all depicted as snakes, thus Amunet was depicted likewise. ==Creator== [[Image:Amon and mut.png|170px|thumb|left|Amun and Mut]] Gradually, as god of air, he came to be associated with the ''breath of life'', which created the [[Egyptian soul|ba]], particularly in [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]]. By the [[First Intermediate Period]] this had led to him being thought of, in these areas, as the creator god, titled ''father of the gods'', preceding the Ogdoad, although also part of it. As he became more significant, he was assigned a wife (Amunet being his own female aspect, more than a distinct wife), and since he was the creator, his wife was considered the divine mother from which the cosmos emerged, who in the areas where Amun was worshipped was, by this time, [[Mut]]. Amun became depicted in [[human]] form, seated on a throne, wearing on his head a plain deep circlet from which rise two straight parallel plumes, possibly symbolic of the tail [[feather]]s of a [[bird]], a reference to his earlier status as a wind god. Having become more important than [[Menthu]], the local [[war]] [[god]] of Thebes, Menthu's authority became said to exist because he was the son of Amun. However, as Mut was infertile, it was believed that she, and thus Amun, had adopted Menthu instead. In later years, due to the shape of a [[pool]] outside the sacred temple of Mut at Thebes, Menthu was replaced, as their adopted son, by [[Chons]], the [[lunar deity|moon god]]. ==King== [[Image:Amun5.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Bas-relief depicting Amun as king.]] With the eviction of the [[Hyksos]] rulers from Egypt, by the [[army|armies]] of the [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth dynasty]], Thebes, where the victors were based, became the most important city, and so Amun became nationally important. To Amun the [[Pharaoh]]s attributed all their successful enterprises, and on his temples they lavished their wealth and captured spoil. And so, when the Greeks reported back on their [[tourism|visits]] to Egypt, Amun, as king of the gods, became identified by the Geeks with [[Zeus]], and so his consort [[Mut]] with [[Hera]]. As the Egyptians considered themselves opressed during he period of Hyksos rule, the victory under the supreme god Amun, was seen as his championing of the [[underdog]]. Consequently, Amun was viewed as upholding the rights to justice of the poor, being titled ''[[Vizier]] of the poor'', and aiding those who travelled in his name,as the ''Protector of the road''. Since he upheld [[Ma'at]], those who prayed to Amun were required first to demonstrate that they were worthy, by confessing their sins. ==Fertility God== [[image:Chem.jpg|right|thumb|190px|Amun-Min]] When, subsequently, Egypt conquered [[Kush]], they identified the chief deity of the Kushites as Amun. This deity was depicted as [[Ram]] headed, specifically a [[wool]]ly Ram with curved [[horn (anatomy)|horns]], and so Amun started becoming associated with the Ram. Indeed, due to the aged appearance of it, they came to believe that this had been the original form of Amun, and that Kush was where he had been born. However, since rams, due to their [[rutting]], were considered a symbol of [[virility]], Amun became thought of as a fertility deity, and so started to absorb the identity of [[Min (god)|Min]], becoming ''Amun-Min''. This association with virility lead to ''Amun-Min'' gaining the [[epithet]] ''Kamutef'', meaning ''Bull of his mother'', in which form he was often found depicted on the walls of [[Karnak]], [[ithyphallic]], and with a [[scourge]]. ==Sun God== {{Hiero|Amun-Ra|<hiero>i-mn:n-ra:Z1-C1</hiero>|align=left|era=egypt}} As Amun's cult grew bigger, Amun rapidly became identified with the chief God that was worshipped in other areas, ''Ra-Herakhty'', the merged identities of [[Ra]], and [[Horus]]. This identification led to a merger of identities, with Amun becoming ''Amun-Ra''. As [[Ra]] had been the father of [[Shu]], and [[Tefnut]], and the remainder of the [[Ennead]], so Amun-Ra was likewise identified as their father. Ra-Herakhty had been a [[solar deity|sun god]], and so this became true of Amun-Ra as well, Amun becoming considered the ''hidden'' aspect of the sun (e.g. during the night), in contrast to Ra-Herakhty as the ''visible'' aspect, since Amun clearly meant ''the one who is hidden''. This complexity over the sun led to a gradual movement towards the support of a more pure form of deity. Thus the pharaoh, [[Akhenaten|Amenhotep IV]] introduced the worship of [[Aten]], the sun's [[disc]] itself, identifying it as Amun-Ra. Although [[Atenism]], the worship of Aten, had started out as standard [[henotheism]], it very quickly became, for reasons that are not very clear, entirely [[monotheism|monotheistic]]. Indeed, it is even possible that this is the first instance of monotheism in the world. Subsequently, Amenhotep IV started persecuting the worship of Amun, and erased the name from monuments, even changing his own name to [[Akhenaten]] in favour of Aten. However, this abrupt change was unpopular, particularly with the previous [[priesthood]]s, who had now suddenly found themselves without power. Consequently, when Akhenaten died, his name was struck out, and all his changes undone, almost as if they had not occurred. The correct form of mentioning about Akhenaten were figures akin to 'crazy one from Akhetaten'. Worship of Aten was replaced, and that of Amun-Ra restored. The priests persuaded the new underage pharaoh [[Tutankhaten]] (most likely Akhenaten's son), the "live image of Aten", to change his name to [[Tutankhamun]], the "live image of Amun". ==Decline== After the [[Twentieth dynasty of Egypt|Twentieth dynasty]] moved the centre of power back to Thebes, the powerbase of Amun's cult had been renewed, and the authority of Amun began to stack. Under the [[Twenty-first dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-first dynasty]] the secondary line of priest kings of Thebes upheld his dignity to the best of their power, and the [[Twenty-second dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-second]] favoured Thebes. As the sovereignty weakened the division between Upper and Lower Egypt asserted itself, and thereafter Thebes would have rapidly decayed had it not been for the piety of the kings of [[Nubia]] towards Amun, whose worship had long prevailed in their country. Thebes was at first their Egyptian capital, and they honoured Amun greatly, although their wealth and culture were not sufficient to affect much. However, in the rest of Egypt, his cult was rapidly overtaken, in popularity, by the less divisive cult of the [[Legend of Osiris and Isis]], which had not been associated with Akhenaten's actions. And so there, his identity became first subsumed into Ra (''Ra-Herakhty''), who still remained an identifiable figure in the [[Osiris]] cult, but ultimately, became merely an aspect of [[Horus]]. In areas outside of Egypt, where the Egyptians had previously brought the worship of Amun, Amun's fate was not as bad. In Nubia, where his name was pronounced '''Amane''', he remained the national god, with his priesthoods at [[Meroe]] and [[Nobatia]], via an [[oracle]], regulating the whole government of the country, choosing the king, and directing his military expeditions. According to [[Diodorus Siculus]], they were even able to compel kings to commit suicide, although this behaviour stopped when [[Arkamane]], in the [[3rd century BC]], [[slaughter|slew]] them. Likewise, in [[Libya]], there remained an oracle of Amun in [[Libyan Desert|the desert]], at the [[oasis]] of [[Siwa Oasis|Siwa]]. Such was its reputation among the Greeks that [[Alexander the Great]] journeyed there, after the [[battle of Issus]], and during his occupation of Egypt, in order to be acknowledged the son of the god. Even during this occupation, Amun, identified as a form of [[Zeus]], continued to be the great god of Thebes, in its decay. ---- {{1911}} ==Derived Terms== Several words derive from Amun via the Greek form Ammon: [[ammonia]] and [[ammonite]]. Ammonia, as well as being the chemical, is a genus name in the [[foraminifera]]. Both these foraminiferans (shelled [[Protozoa]]) and ammonites (extinct shelled [[cephalopod]]s) have/had spiral shells resembling a ram's, and Ammon's, horns. Ammonia the chemical derives its name in a more round-about way &ndash; see end of article [[ammonia]]. The regions of the [[hippocampus]] in the [[brain]] are called the ''[[cornu ammonis]]'' &ndash; literally "Amun's Horns", due to the horned appearance of the dark and light bands of [[cell (biology) | cellular]] layers. ==References== *[[Adolf Erman]], ''Handbook of Egyptian Religion'' (London, 1907) *[[Ed. Meyer]], article "Ammon" in [[W. H. Roscher]]'s ''Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie'' *[[Pietschmann]], articles "Ammon" and "Ammoneion" in [[Pauly-Wissowa]], ''Realencyclopädie.'' ==External links== *[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/wcd/Ammon Wiki Classical Dictionary: Ammon] *[http://www.maat.sofiatopia.org/amun.htm Leiden Hymns to Amun] [[Category:Egyptian gods]] [[ar:أمون]] [[bg:Амон]] [[ca:Ammon]] [[da:Amon]] [[de:Amun (Ägyptische Mythologie)]] [[et:Amon]] [[es:Amón (mitología)]] [[eu:Amon]] [[fr:Amon]] [[ko:아문]] [[it:Amon]] [[lt:Amonas]] [[nl:Amon (mythologie)]] [[ja:アメン]] [[pl:Amon]] [[pt:Amon]] [[ro:Ammon]] [[ru:Амон]] [[sk:Amón]] [[fi:Amon]] [[sv:Amon]] [[tr:Amun]] [[uk:Амон]] [[zh:阿蒙]] 1722 39998943 2006-02-17T11:25:56Z Meegs 406581 bypassed [[Providence]] disambiguation page '''Ammon''' or '''Ammonites''' ('''&#1506;&#1463;&#1502;&#1468;&#1493;&#1465;&#1503;''' "People", [[Standard Hebrew]] '''&#699;Ammon''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&#699;Ammôn'''), also referred to in the [[Bible]] as the "children of Ammon," were a people living east of the [[Jordan river]], who along with the [[Moabites]] traced their origin to [[Lot (biblical)|Lot]], the nephew of the patriarch [[Abraham]], and who were regarded as close relatives of the [[Israelites]] and [[Edomites]]. ==Territory== The borders of the Ammonite territory are not clearly defined in the Bible. In [[Book of Judges|Judges]] xi. 13, the claim of the king of Ammon, who demands of the Israelites the restoration of the land "from [[Arnon]] even unto [[Jabbok]] and unto [[Jordan River|Jordan]]," is mentioned only as an unjust claim (xi. 15), inasmuch as the Israelite part of this tract had been conquered from the [[Amorite]] king [[Sihon]] who had, in turn, displaced the Moabites; in Judges xi. 22 it is stated that the Israelites had possession "from the wilderness even unto Jordan," and that they laid a claim to territory beyond this, so as to leave no room for Ammon. The [[Book of Numbers]] xxi. 24 describes the Hebrew conquest (compare Judges, xi. 19) as having reached "even unto the children of Ammon, for the border of the children of Ammon was [[Jazer]]" (read the last word, with [[Septuagint]], as "Jazer," instead of "'az," strong, A. V.; compare Judges, xi. 32). Josh. xiii. 25, defines the frontier of the tribe of Gad as being "Jazer ... and half the land of the children of Ammon." The latter statement can be reconciled with Num. xxi. 24 (Deut. ii. 19, 37) only by assuming that the northern part of Sihon's Amorite kingdom had formerly been Ammonite. This explains, in part, the claim mentioned above (Judges, xi. 13). According to Deut. ii. 37, the region along the river Jabbok and the cities of the hill-country formed the border-line of Israel. On the authority of Deut. ii. 20, their territory had formerly been in the possession of a mysterious nation, the Zamzummim (also called Zuzim), and the war of [[Chedorlaomer]] (Gen. xiv. 5) with this nation may be connected with the history of Ammon. When the Israelites invaded Canaan, they passed by the frontier of the Ammonites (Num. xxi. 24; Deut. ii. 19, 37; Josh. xiii. 25). From their original territory the Ammonites are supposed to have been expelled by [[Sihon]], king of the [[Amorites]], who was said to have been found by the Israelites, after their deliverance from [[Egypt]], in possession of [[Gilead]], that is, of the whole country on the left bank of the Jordan, lying to the north of the Arnon ([[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] 21:13). By this invasion, the Ammonites were driven out of Gilead across the upper waters of the Jabbok where it flows from south to north, which henceforth continued to be their western boundary (Numbers 21:24; Deuteronomy 2:37 and 3:16). The other limits of the Ammonitis, or country of the Ammonites ('Lmmanitis chora', [[2 Maccabees]] 4:26) were not exactly defined. On the south it probably adjoined the land of Moab; on the north it may have met that of the king of [[Geshur]] ([[Joshua]] 12:5); and on the east it may have melted away into the desert peopled by [[Kedarites]] and other nomadic tribes. The chief city of the country was ''[[Rabbah]]'' or ''Rabbath Ammon'', i.e. the metropolis of the Ammonites (Deut. 3:11), called ''Rabbathammana'' by the later [[Greeks]] ([[Polybius]] v. 7. 4). [[Ptolemy Philadelphus]] changed its name to Philadelphia, and made it a large and strong city with an [[acropolis]], situated on both sides of a branch of the Jabbok, today known as Nahr `Amman, the river of Ammon -- whence the designation "city of waters" ([[2 Samuel]] 12:27); see Survey of E. Pal (Pal. Explor. Fund), pp. 19ff. The city of [[Amman, Jordan]] is located on roughly the same site. The country to the south and east of Amman is distinguished by its fertility; and ruined towns are scattered thickly over it, attesting that it was once occupied by a population that, however fierce, was settled and industrious; a fact indicated also by the tribute of grain paid annually to [[Jotham of Judah|Jotham]] (2 Chr. 27:5). ==In the [[Torah]], [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] and [[Book of Judges|Judges]]== ===Descent=== According to the pedigree given in [[Genesis]] xix. 37-38, the Ammonites were closely related to the Israelites and still more closely to their neighbors in the south, the Moabites. This relationship is supported by the fact that all names of Ammonitish persons show a pure [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite]] character. But the above passage indicates also the contempt and hatred for the Ammonites felt by the Hebrews ([[Deuteronomy]] xxiii. 4). The Torah excludes the progeny of Ammonites from the assembly of the Lord (but cf. Deut. ii. 19, 37, in which the consciousness of relationship seems to be at the root of the regard shown to Ammon). Both the Ammonites and Moabites are sometimes spoken of under the common name of the children of Lot ([[Deuteronomy]] 2:19; [[Psalms]] 83:8). Both tribes hired [[Balaam]] to curse [[Israel]], which he instead blessed (Deut. 23:4). Also known as the ''Beni-ammi'' ([[Genesis]] 19:38), the Ammonites and the Israelites, throughout the Old Testament and recorded history, were antagonists. ===Role in the Israelite Exodus=== When the Israelites of the Exodus paused before their territory, the Ammonites prohibited them from passing through their lands. For this act, they were denied entry into "the congregation of the Lord" until ten generations had passed (Deuteronomy 23:3). Sometimes a slight distinction only seems to be made between the Ammonites and their southern brothers, the Moabites. Deut. xxiii. 4, 5, for instance, states that the Ammonites and Moabites hired [[Balaam]] to curse the Israelites, while in Num. xxii. 3 et seq. Moab alone is mentioned. Some authorities overcome this discrepancy by the help of the emended text of Num. xxii. 5, according to which Balaam came "from the land of the children of Ammon." This is the reading of most ancient versions; the Septuagint, however, has it like the present Hebrew text: "the children of his people" ("ammo") (see Balaam). ===In the time of the Judges=== In Judges, iii. 13, the Ammonites appear as furnishing assistance to King [[Eglon]] of Moab against Israel; but in Judges, x. 7, 8, 9, in which not only Gilead is oppressed but a victorious war is waged also west of the Jordan, Ammon alone is mentioned. The speech of Jephthah which follows, however, is clearly addressed to the Moabites as well, for he speaks of their god [[Chemosh]] (Judges, xi. 18-24). Some scholars find that these varying statements conflict (compare Deut. xxiii. 3); others conclude that the brother-nations still formed a unit. The small nation of Ammon could face Israel only in alliance with other non-Israelites (compare II Chron. xx. and Ps. lxxxiii. 7). The attack of King [[Nahash]] upon the frontier city Jabesh in Gilead was easily repulsed by Saul (I Sam. xi., xiv. 47). ==During the Kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]== Attacks by the Ammonites on Israelite communities east of the Jordan were the impetus behind the unification of the tribes under [[Saul the King|Saul]], who defeated them. ([[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]] 11:11). From II Sam. x. 2, it may be concluded that [[Nahash]] assisted David out of hatred for Saul; but his son [[Hanun]] provoked David by ill-treating his ambassadors, and brought about the defeat of the Ammonites, despite assistance from their northern neighbors in [[Aram]] (ibid. x. 13). Their capital Rabbah was captured (ibid. xii. 29), and numerous captives were taken from "all the cities of the children of Ammon." In 2 Samuel 12:31, King David is described slaughtering Ammonites: :''And he brought forth the people that were therein, and put them under saws, and under harrows of iron, and under [[axe]]s of iron, and made them pass through the [[brick]]-[[kiln]]: and thus did he unto all the cities of the children of Ammon.'' David's treatment of the captives (ibid. xii. 31) was not necessarily barbarous; the description may be interpreted to mean that he employed them as laborers in various public works. Some scholars claim that these passages recount symbolic gestures of submission common to the times rather than actual reports of massacres. The Chronicler, however, takes it in the most cruel sense (I Chron. xx. 3). The Ammonites, themselves, had a reputation for exceeding cruelty in warfare (I Sam. xi. 2; [[Amos]], i. 13). The new king, [[Shobi]], a brother of Hanun, evidently appointed by David, kept peace, his attitude being even friendly (II Sam. xvii. 27). There were Ammonite [[mercenaries]] in David's army (ibid. 23, 27) and Solomon's chief wife, the mother of his heir, was Naamah, the Ammonitess (I Kings, xiv. 21; compare xi. 1), probably a daughter of Shobi. She became the mother of [[Rehoboam]] ([[Books of Kings|1 Kings]] 14:31; [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]] 12:13). After this, hostilities again broke out, under [[Jehoshaphat]] (II Chron. xx.), [[Jeroboam II]] (Amos, i. 13) and under [[Jotham]], who subjected the Ammonites (II Chron. xxvii. 5). From the [[Assyria|Assyrian]] inscriptions, we learn that the Ammonite king [[Baasha ben Ruhubi| Ba'sa (Baasha)]] son of [[Ruhubi]], with 1000 men, joined [[Ahab]] and the Syrian allies against [[Shalmaneser III]] at the [[Battle of Karkar]] in [[853 BC]]. They may at this time have been [[vassal]]s of [[Bar-Hadad II]], the Aramaean king of [[Damascus]]. In [[734 BC|734]] their king [[Sanipu]] was a vassal of [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] and his successor, [[Pudu-ilu]], held the same position under [[Sennacherib]] and [[Esarhaddon]]. An Assyrian [[tribute]]-list from this period, showing that Ammon paid one-fifth of Judah's tribute, gives evidence of the scanty extent and resources of the country (see Schrader, "K.A.T." pp. 141 et seq.; Delitzsch, "Paradies," p. 294; Winckler, "Geschichte Israels," p. 215). Somewhat later, their king [[Amminadab (Ammon)|Amminadab I]] was among the tributaries who suffered in the course of the great Arabian campaign of [[Assurbanipal]]. Other kings attested to in contemporary sources are [[Barakel]] (attested to in several contemporary [[seal (device)|seal]]s and [[Hissalel]] who reigned about 620 BCE (and who is mentioned on an inscription on a bottle found at [[Tel Siran]], Jordan along with his son, King Amminadab II, who reigned around 600 BCE.) With the neighbouring tribes, the Ammonites under King [[Baalis]] helped the [[Babylonian]] monarch [[Nebuchadrezzar II|Nebuchadrezzar]] against [[Jehoiakim]] (2 Kings 24:2); and if they joined [[Zedekiah]]'s conspiracy ([[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 27:3), and were threatened by the [[Babylonian]] army ([[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] 21:20), they do not appear to have suffered greatly. ==Subsequent History== [[Image:Levant 800.png|thumb|400px|right|Map of the southern [[Levant]], c.[[800 BCE]].]] In the time of [[Nebuchadnezzar II|Nebuchadnezzar]], the Ammonites seem to have been fickle in their political attitude. They assisted the [[Babylonia]]n army against the Jews (II Kings, xxiv. 2); encroached upon the territory of the [[Tribe of Gad|Gad]]; and occupied [[Heshbon]] and [[Jazer]] ([[Jeremiah]] xlix. 1; ''cf.'' [[Zephaniah]] ii. 8); but the prophetic threatenings in Jer. ix. 26, xxv. 21, xxvii. 3, and [[Ezra]], xxi. 20, point to rebellion by them against Babylonian supremacy. They received [[Jew]]s fleeing before the Babylonians (Jer. xl. 11), and their king, [[Baalis]], instigated the murder of [[Gedaliah]], the Babylonians' Jewish governor of Jerusalem and its environs (ibid. xl. 14, xli. 15). At the time of the rebuilding of Jerusalem by Ezra and [[Nehemiah]], they were hostile to the Jews, and [[Tobiah]], an Ammonite (possibly the governor of Ammon), incited them to hinder the work (Neh. iii. 35). But inter-marriages between Jews and Ammonites were frequent (Ezra, ix. 1; I Esd. viii. 69, and elsewhere). Little mention is made of the Ammonites through the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] and early [[Hellenistic]] periods. Their name appears, however, during the time of the [[Maccabees]]. The Ammonites, with some of the neighbouring tribes, did their utmost to resist and check the revival of the Jewish power under [[Judas Maccabaeus]] ([[1 Maccabees]] v. 6; cf. [[Josephus]] ''Ant. Jud.'' xii. 8. 1.). It is stated (I Macc. v. 6) that the Ammonites under [[Timotheus (Ammon)|Timotheus]] were defeated by Judas; but it is possible that, after the exile, the term Ammonite denoted all peoples living in the former country of Ammon and Gad. [[Ezekiel]] xxv. 4-5 seems to mark the beginning of an immigration of tribes from the [[Arabian]] desert (''cf.'' Neh. ii. 19, iv. 7, Josephus, "Ant." xiii. 9, § 1). The last notice of the Ammonites themselves is in [[Justin Martyr]] (''Dial. cum Tryph.'' sec. 119), where it is affirmed that they were still a numerous people. ==[[Language]]== ''Main Article: [[Ammonite language]]'' The few Ammonite names that have been preserved (Nahash, [[Hanun]], and those mentioned above; [[Zelek]] in 2 Samuel 23:37 is textually uncertain) testify, in harmony with other considerations, that their language was [[Semitic]], closely allied to the [[Hebrew language]] and the [[Moabite language]]. ==[[Religion]]== Of the customs, religion, and constitution of the Ammonites, little is known. The frequent assumption that, living on the borders of the desert, they remained more pastoral than the Moabites and Israelites, is unfounded (Ezek. xxv. 4, II Chron. xxvii. 5); the environs of Rabbah, at least, were fertile and were tilled. In regard to other cities than Rabbah, see Judges, xi. 33; II Sam. xii. 31. Of their gods the name of only the chief deity, [[Milcom]] (sometimes given as [[Moloch]]), as in I Kings, xi. 5 [LXX. 7], 33; I Kings, xi. 7; II Kings, xxiii. 13). In Jer. xlix. 1, 3, "Malcam" is to be translated by "Milcom" (the god) and not as in A. V., "their king." In the Bible Milcom is described as having been worshipped with [[human sacrifice]]. From the names of their kings, it seems logical that the [[cult]] of the [[Baal]]im probably coexisted in Ammon, as, possibly, that of [[El (god)|El]]. The name Tobiah suggests that [[YHWH]] may have been worshipped in Ammon as well; possibly this was an import from the era of Israelite domination. Other inscriptions and names suggest the possibility that such gods as the [[Edomite]] deity [[Kaus]] had Ammonite cults. ==Economy== Like its sister-kingdom of Moab, Ammon was the source of numerous natural resources, including [[sandstone]] and [[limestone]]. It had a productive agricultural sector and occupied a vital place along the [[King's Highway (ancient)|King's Highway]], the ancient trade route connecting Egypt with [[Mesopotamia]], [[Syria]], and [[Anatolia]]. As with the Edomites and Moabites, trade along this route gave them considerable revenue. ==In [[Jewish law]]== The Ammonites, still numerous in the south of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] in the second Christian century according to Justin Martyr ("Dialogus cum Tryphone," ch. cxix.), presented a serious problem to the [[Pharisees]] because many marriages with Ammonite and Moabite wives had taken place in the days of Nehemiah (Neh. xiii. 23). Still later, it is not improbable that when Judas Maccabeus had inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Ammonites, Jewish warriors took Ammonite women as wives, and their sons, sword in hand, claimed recognition as Jews notwithstanding the law (Deut. xxiii. 4) that "an Ammonite or a Moabite shall not enter into the congregation of the Lord." Such a condition or a similar incident is reflected in the story told in the [[Talmud]] (Yeb. 76b, 77a; Ruth R. to ii. 5) that in the days of King Saul the legitimacy of David's claim to royalty was disputed on account of his descent from Ruth, the Moabite; whereupon [[Ithra]], the Israelite (II Sam. xvii. 25; compare I Chron. ii. 17), girt with his sword, strode like an Ishmaelite into the schoolhouse of [[Jesse]], declaring upon the authority of [[Samuel]], the prophet, and his [[bet din]] (court of justice), that the law excluding the Ammonite and Moabite from the Jewish congregation referred only to the men—who alone had sinned in not meeting Israel with bread and water—and not to the women. The story reflects actual conditions in pre-Talmudic times, conditions that led to the fixed rule stated in the [[Mishnah]] (Yeb. viii. 3): "Ammonite and Moabite men are excluded from the Jewish community for all time; their women are admissible." The fact that Rehoboam, the son of King Solomon, was born of an Ammonite woman (I Kings, xiv. 21-31) also made it difficult to maintain the [[Messiah|messianic]] claims of the [[Davidic line|house of David]]; but it was adduced as an illustration of divine [[Divine providence|Providence]] which selected the "two doves," [[Ruth]], the Moabite, and Naamah, the Ammonite, for honorable distinction (B. Ḳ. 38b). ==Resources== *[http://www.hostkingdom.net/Jordan.html#Ammon Ammon on Bruce Gordon's Regnal Chronologies] (also at [http://ellone-loire.net/obsidian/Jordan.html#Ammon]) *[http://www.kinghussein.gov.jo/his_testament.html Jordanian government site on ancient Trans-Jordanian kingdoms] *[http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Ammonites.html Ancient Biblical Ammonites] *[http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Umayri_Keramim.html Tel Umayri] *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01431b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article] *[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1414&letter=A Jewish Encyclopedia article] {{eastons}} {{1911}} {{JewishEncyclopedia}} [[Category:Ammon]] [[Category:Ancient Israel and Judah]] [[Category:Ancient peoples]] [[Category:History of Jordan]] [[Category:Tanakh people]] [[Category:Torah people]] [[ca:Ammonites]] [[de:Ammoniter]] [[he:עמון]] [[ru:Аммонитяне]] 1723 39511401 2006-02-14T00:31:35Z BDAbramson 196446 [[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] re-categorisation per [[WP:CFD|CFD]] '''Ammonius Hermiae''' ([[5th century]] AD) was a [[Byzantine Empire|Greek]] [[philosopher]], and the son of [[Hermias]] or Hermeias, a fellow-pupil of [[Proclus]]. He taught at [[Alexandria]], and had among his scholars [[Asclepius]], [[John Philoponus]], [[Damascius]] and [[Simplicius of Cilicia|Simplicius]]. Of his reputedly numerous writings, his commentaries on [[Plato]] and [[Ptolemy]] are lost, but we have: #A commentary on the ''Isagoge'' of [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] (Venice, 1500 fol.); #A commentary on the ''Categories'' (Venice, 1503 fol.), the authenticity of which is doubted by [[C. A. Brandis]]; #A commentary on the ''De Interpretatione'' (Venice, 1503 fol.). They are printed in Brandis's [[scholia]] to Aristotle, forming the fourth volume of the [[Berlin]] Aristotle; they are also edited (1891-1899) in A. Busse's ''Commentaria in Aristot. Graeca''. The special section on fate was published separately by [[J. C. Orelli]], ''Alex. Aphrod., Ammonii, et aliorum de Fato quae supersunt'' (Zurich, 1824). #Other commentaries on the Topics and the first six books of the [[Metaphysics]] of [[Aristotle]] still exist in manuscript. A life of Aristotle, ascribed to Ammonius, but with more accuracy to [[John Philoponus]], is often prefixed to editions of Aristotle. It has been printed separately, with Latin translation and scholia, at [[Leiden]], 1621, at [[Helmstedt]], 1666, and at [[Paris]], 1850. Of the value of the logical writings of Ammonius there are various opinions. K. Prantl speaks of them with great, but hardly merited, contempt. For a list of his works see [[Johann Albert Fabricius|J. A. Fabricius]], ''Bibliotheca Graeca,'' v. 704-707: [[C. A. Brandis]], ''Uber d. Reihenf. d. Bucher d. Aristot. Org.,'' 283 f.; [[K. Prantl]], ''Gesch. d. Logik,'' i. 642. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Latin authors]] 1724 37530826 2006-01-31T16:25:26Z Andrew c 704413 '''Ammonius Saccas''' ([[3rd century|3rd century AD]]) was a Greek [[philosopher]] of [[Alexandria]], often called the founder of the [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonic school]]. Of humble origin, he appears to have earned a livelihood as a [[Porter (carrier)|porter]] at the docks of Alexandria; hence his nickname of "Sack-bearer" (''Sakkas,'' for ''sakkoforos''). The details of his life are unknown. After long study and meditation, Ammonius opened a school of philosophy in Alexandria, where his principal pupils were [[Herennius]], the two [[Origen]]s, [[Cassius Longinus]] and [[Plotinus]]. As he designedly wrote nothing, and, with the aid of his pupils, kept his views secret after the manner of the [[Pythagoreans]], his philosophy must be inferred mainly from the writings of Plotinus. As [[Eduard Zeller]] points out, however, there is reason to think that his doctrines were closer to those of the earlier [[Platonic idealism|Platonists]] than to those of Plotinus. [[Hierocles of Alexandria|Hierocles]], writing in the [[5th century]], states that Ammonius' fundamental doctrine was an eclecticism, derived from a critical study of [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]]. His admirers credited him with having reconciled the quarrels of the two great schools. His death is variously given between AD [[240]] and [[245]], at a great age. The details of the life of the philosopher Ammonius Saccas are so unclear that he has frequently been confused with a Christian philosopher of the [[Ammonius of Alexandria (Christian)|same name]]. ==See also== *[[Origen]] [[Category:240s deaths]] [[Category:Neoplatonists]] [[Category:Roman era philosophers]] [[cs:Ammónios Sakkás]] [[de:Ammonios Sakkas]] [[es:Ammonio Saccas]] [[fr:Ammonios Saccas]] [[it:Ammonio Sacca]] [[hu:Ammóniosz Szakkasz]] [[pl:Amoniusz]] [[pt:Amônio Sacas]] [[ru:Аммоний Саккас]] [[sk:Ammonios Sakkas]] [[fi:Ammonios Sakkas]] 1725 15900190 2004-01-05T04:09:51Z Zestauferov 21678 merge & redirect #REDIRECT[[Amorite]] 1726 41198988 2006-02-25T19:00:33Z Bdc822 990774 /* Where was it written? */ {{Books of the Old Testament}} {{Books of Nevi'im}} The '''Book of Amos''' is one of the books of the [[Nevi'im]] and of the [[Old Testament]]. ==Who wrote it?== '''[[Amos (prophet)|Amos]]''' was a [[prophet]] during the reign of Jeroboam ben Joash (Jeroboam II), ruler of [[Israel]] from 793 BCE to 753 BCE, and the reign of Uzziah, King of Judah, at a time when both kingdoms (Israel in the North and Judah in the South) were peaking in prosperity. He was a contemporary of the prophet [[Hosea]], but likely preceded him. Many of the earlier accounts of prophets found in the [[Old Testament]] are found within the context of other accounts of Israel's history. Amos, however, is the first prophet whose name also serves as the title of the corresponding biblical book in which his story is found. It is unlikely that Amos was a "professional prophet", trained to work in the king's court. Rather, he gives the account of being called by God while working in his trade as a herdsman and farmer. The food that he farmed (sycamore figs) is thought to be a food most widely known as part of an [[Ancient Egyptian|Egyptian]] commoner's diet. Therefore, scholars assume that Amos was not a member of the wealthy elite who he, by God's command, condemns in his prophesy. Rather he appears to be a working-class shepherd. Amos pointed out that he was not trained as a professional prophet, but did not condemn prophecy in itself. ==When was it written?== Most scholars believe that [[Amos (prophet)|Amos]] gave his message in the autumn of 750 BCE or 749 BCE. It is generally understood that his preaching at [[Bethel]] lasted only a single day at the least and a few days at the most. Leading up to this time, Assyrian armies battled against [[Damascus]] for a number of years, which greatly diminished Syria's threat to [[Israel]]. As a result of the fighting amongst its neighbors, Israel had the benefit of increasing its borders almost to those of the time of [[David]] and [[Solomon]]. It should also be noted that Amos preached about two years before a very large earthquake, and made reference to it twice in his book. [[Zechariah]] remembers this earthquake over 200 years later (Zech. 14:5). ==Where was it written?== Some scholars believe that [[Amos (prophet)|Amos]]' message was recorded after he delivered it to the Northern Kingdom, upon returning to his southern homeland of [[Tekoa]], a town eight kilometres south of [[Bethlehem]]. It is mentioned many times in the [[Old Testament]] ([[Joshua]] 15:39, [[2 Samuel]] 14:9 and 23:26, [[1 Chronicles]] 11:28). [[Rehoboam]] is reported to have fortified Tekoa along with other cities in [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] in [[2 Chronicles]] 11:5-6. There are some differing opinions as to the location of the Tekoa Amos was presumably from. It is believed by most that Amos was a southern farmer, called by [[God]] to deliver his prophetic message in the North. However, some believe that Amos was actually from a Tekoa in the North, near [[Galilee]], but this is most likely not true. They believe that it is more probable that Amos was from the North because it has conditions more suitable for the cultivation of sycamore figs than the Tekoa of the South. Sycamore figs grow at a low elevation, lower than the Tekoa of Judah, which is at a relatively high elevation of 850 metres (overlooking both [[Jerusalem]] and [[Bethlehem]]). Others have discredited the theory about the Galilean Tekoa, citing that the difference in elevation between the two locations is not significant. Scholars in support of the idea of Amos being from the North also say it makes more sense because of Amaziah's accusation of conspiracy in chapter seven, verse 10. A conspirator, they argue, is more likely to be a national. Two other opinions of where Amos' writings were recorded deserve mention. They are that 1) disciples of Amos followed him and recorded his message and 2) that someone in his audience in the North recorded his message. ==Why was it written?== The Book of Amos is set in a time when the people of [[Israel]] have reached a low point in their devotion to [[Yahweh]] - the people have become greedy and have stopped following and adhering to their values. The wealthy elite are becoming rich at the expense of others. Peasent farmers who once practiced subsistence farming are being forced to farm what is best for foreign trade, mostly wine and oil. Yahweh speaks to Amos, a farmer and herder and tells him to go to [[Samaria]], the capital of the Northern kingdom. Through Amos, Yahweh tells the people that he is going to judge Israel for its sins, and it will be a foreign nation that will enact his judgement. The people understand judgment as the coming of "the Day of the Lord." "The Day of the Lord" was widely celebrated and highly anticipated by the followers of Yahweh. However, Amos came to tell the people that "the Day of the Lord" was coming soon and that it meant divine judgment and justice for their own iniquity. ==What are the themes of the books?== Many scholars break the book of Amos up into three sections. Chapters one and two look at the nations surrounding [[Israel]] and then Israel itself through a moral/ethical filter. Chapters three to six are a collection of verses that look more specifically at Israel's transgressions. Chapters seven to nine include visions that [[Yahweh]] gave Amos as well as Amaziah's rebuke of the prophet. The last section of the book (7:1 to 9:8), commonly referred to as the Book of Visions, contains the only narrative section. In the first two visions, [[Amos (prophet)|Amos]] is able to convince Yahweh not to act out the scenes of discipline presented to him. The ideas of discipline and justice, although not enacted here, corresponds to the central message in what some refer to as the Book of Woes (5:1 to 6:14). This message can be seen most clearly in verse 24 of chapter five. The plagues in the preceding chapter, chapter four, were supposed to be seen as acts of discipline that turned Israel back to Yahweh. However, the people did not interpret the acts this way and the discipline turned into judgment for the people's disobedience. In the second set of visions (7:7-9), there is no intercession by Amos and Yahweh says that he "will never pass by them again." The plight of Israel has become hopeless. [[God]] will not hold back judgment because Israel refuses to listen to the prophets and even goes so far as to try to silence them (2:12, 3:8, 7:10-17). The central idea of the book of Amos according to most scholars is that Yahweh puts his people on the same level as the nations that surround it -- Yahweh expects the same morality of them all. As it is with all nations that rise up against the kingdom of Yahweh, even Israel and Judah will not be exempt from the judgment of Yahweh because of their idolatry and unjust ways. The nation that represents Yahweh must be made pure of anything or anyone that profanes the name of Yahweh. Yahweh's name must be exalted. Other major themes in the book of Amos include: social justice and concern for the disadvantaged; the idea that Israel's [[covenant]] with Yahweh did not exempt them from his standards of morality; Yahweh is [[God]] of all nations; Yahweh is judge of all nations; Yahweh is God of moral righteousness; Yahweh made all people; Yahweh elected Israel and then redeemed Israel so that he would be known throughout the world; election by Yahweh means that those elected are responsible to live according to the purposes clearly outlined to them in the law; Yahweh will only destroy the unjust and a remnant will remain and; Yahweh is free to judge, redeem and act as savior to Israel. ---- ===Translations of the book of Amos:=== *[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations: ** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=16098 Amos] from Chabad.org *[[Christian]] translations: ** [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=amos;&version=49; ''Amos'' at BibleGateway.com] (Various translations) ===References:=== * Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897. * LaSor, William Sanford et al. ''Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996. * Keil, C.F. et al. ''Commentary on the Old Testament in Ten Volumes''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1986. * Metzger, Bruce M. et al. ''The Oxford Companion to the Bible''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. * Doorly, William J. ''Prophet of Justice: Understanding the Book of Amos''. New York: Paulist Press 1989. * Carroll R., M. Daniel ''Amos: The Prophet and His Oracles''. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2002. * Coote, Robert B. ''Amos Among the Prophets: Composition and Theology''. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1981. * Haynes, John H. ''Amos the Eighth Century Prophet: His Times and His Preaching''. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1988. * Hasel, Gerhard F. ''Understanding the Book of Amos: Basic Issues in Current Interpretations''. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1991. ==External links== Online translations of ''Book of Amos'': * [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/30_amos.htm ''Amos'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version) * {{biblegateway||Amos}} * [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Amos ''Amos'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version) Related articles: * [http://explorers.whyte.com/Bible/amos.htm Nicholas Whyte on Amos] * [http://www.bible.gen.nz/ ''Amos'' Hypertext Bible Commentary] ---- ''Prepared in 2005 for the course BIBL5023 at [[Acadia Divinity College]]'' [[Category:Nevi'im|Amos]] [[Category:Old Testament books|Amos]] [[cs:Kniha Ámos]] [[de:Amos (Buch)]] [[fr:Livre d'Amos]] [[pl:Księga Amosa]] [[fi:Aamoksen kirja]] [[zh:阿摩司書]] 1727 41392175 2006-02-27T00:56:06Z 64.12.116.70 [[Image:Amphipolis location.jpg|right|300px|]] '''Amphipolis''' (modern Greek: '''Amfipoli'''; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]), was an ancient city of [[Macedon]]ia, on the east bank of the river [[Strymon]], where it emerges from Lake Cercinitis, about 3 m. from the sea. Originally a [[Thracian]] town, known as ''Ennea Odoi'' ("Nine Roads"), it was [[colonized]] by Athenians with other Greeks under [[Hagnon]] in [[437 BC]], previous attempts--in [[497 BC|497]], [[476 BC|476]] (Schol. [[Aeschines|Aesch.]] ''De fals. leg.'' 31) and [[465 BC|465]]--having been unsuccessful. In [[424 BC]] it surrendered to the Spartan [[Brasidas]] without resistance, owing to the gross negligence of the historian [[Thucydides]], who was with the fleet at [[Thasos]]. In [[422 BC]] [[Cleon]] led an unsuccessful expedition to recover it, in which both he and Brasidas were slain (see [[Battle of Amphipolis]]). The importance of Amphipolis in ancient times was due to the fact that it commanded the bridge over the Strymon, and consequently the route from northern [[Greece]] to the [[Hellespont]]; it was important also as a depot for the gold and silver mines of the district, and for timber, which was largely used in shipbuilding. This importance is shown by the fact that, in the [[peace of Nicias]] ([[421 BC]]), its restoration to [[Athens]] is made the subject of a special provision, and that about [[417 BC|417]], this provision not having been observed, at least one expedition was made by Nicias with a view to its recovery. [[Philip of Macedon]] made a special point of occupying it ([[357 BC|357]]), and under the early empire it became the headquarters of the Roman propraetor, though it was recognized as independent. Many inscriptions, coins, etc., have been found here, and traces of the ancient fortifications and of a [[Roman aqueduct]] are visible. ==Amphipolis in other media== [[Xena]], the main fictional character in the [[TV]] series ''[[Xena: Warrior Princess]]'', was of Amphipolis. ==External links== *[http://www.livius.org Livius], [http://www.livius.org/am-ao/amphipolis/amphipolis.html Amphipolis (Ennea Hodoi)] by Jona Lendering ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Ancient Greek cities]] [[Category:Athenian colonies]] [[Category:Archaeological sites in Greece]] [[de:Amphipolis]] [[fa:آمفیپولیس]] [[fr:Amphipolis]] [[la:Amphipolis]] [[nl:Amphipolis]] [[pl:Amfipolis]] {{Link FA|fr}} 1728 39187631 2006-02-11T08:55:39Z 70.176.153.107 Amram means "people are exalted" {{dablink|[[Amram Gaon]] was a Jewish Babylonian sage who lived in the 9th century.}} '''Amram''' ('''&#1506;&#1463;&#1502;&#1456;&#1512;&#1464;&#1501;''' "Friend of the most high ([[Elohim|God]]"), or "People are Exalted" [[Standard Hebrew]] '''&#703;Amram''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&#703;Amr&#257;m''') is a [[Levite]], a son of [[Kohath]], the husband of [[Jochebed]] (Ex 6,20 and Num 26,59) and father of [[Aaron]], [[Miriam]] and [[Moses]]. He is mentioned in the [[Book of Exodus]]. According to the [[Talmud]], Amram promulgated the laws of [[marriage]] and [[divorce]] amongst the Jews in Egypt. The Arabic version refers to the father of Moses as Imran - and the Israeli/Jewish people are referred to as "Aale Imran" (Children of Imran) in the [[Qur'an]], the third [[Surah]] of which is titled ''The House of Imran''. "Imran" is also the name attributed by Muslims to the father of the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] (he is not named in the Bible, but called "Joachim" in Catholic and Orthodox Tradition). The Testament of Amram ([[2nd century BC]]) is the name assigned to one of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] (4Q535, Manuscript B). It is related to the [[Watchers]]: ''[[Enoch]]: "I saw Watchers in my vision, the dream-vision. Two men were fighting over me ... holding a great contest over me. I asked them, 'Who are you, that you are thus empowered over me?' They answered, 'We have been empowered and rule over all mankind.' They said to me, 'Which of us do you choose to rule you?' I raised my eyes and looked. One of them was terrifying in his appearance, like a serpent, his cloak, many-colored yet very dark. ... And I looked again, and in his appearance, his visage like a [[viper]]. ... I replied to him, 'This Watcher, who is he?' He answered, 'This Watcher ... his three names are [[Belial]] and [[Prince of Darkness]] and [[King of Evil]].' I said (to the other Watcher), 'My lord, what dominion (have you?)' He answered, 'You saw (the viper), and he is empowered over all Darkness, while I (am empowered over all Light.) ... My three names are [[Michael]], [[Prince of Light]] and [[King of Righteousness]].'"'' (translation Prof. Robert Eisenman) [[Category:Torah people]] [[de:Amram]] [[fr:Imran]] 1729 36832661 2006-01-26T19:56:44Z 168.233.1.6 '''Amyntas I''', king of [[Macedon]] (c. [[540 BC|540]]-[[498 BC]]), was a tributary vassal of [[Darius Hystaspes]] of [[Iran|Persia]]. With him the history of Macedon may be said to begin. He was the first of its rulers to have relations with other countries; he entered into an alliance with the [[Pisistratus|Peisistratidae]] of [[Athens]], and when [[Hippias (son of Pisistratus)|Hippias]] was driven out of Athens he offered him the territory of [[Anthemus]] on the [[Thermaic Gulf]], with the object of turning the [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] party feuds to his own advantage. '''Ancient sources:''' ([[Herodotus]] v. 17, 94; [[Junianus Justinus|Justin]] vii. 2; [[Thucydides]] ii. 100; [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] ix. 40). {{1911}} {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[Kings of Macedon|King of Macedon]] | before=[[Alcetas I of Macedon|Alcetas I]] | after=[[Alexander I of Macedon|Alexander I]] | years=547 BC&ndash;498 BC }} {{end box}} [[Category:498 BC deaths]] [[Category:Macedonian monarchs]] [[Category:Ancient Greece]] [[de:Amyntas I.]] [[fr:Amyntas Ier]] [[no:Amyntas I av Makedonia]] 1730 32160863 2005-12-20T22:48:27Z YurikBot 271058 robot Adding: fr [[Image:Amyntas III-161113.jpg|thumb|Amyntas III, stater]] '''Amyntas III''' (or '''II'''), son of Arrhidaeus, grandfather of [[Alexander the Great]], was king of [[Macedon]] from [[393 BC|393]] (or 389) to [[369 BC]]. He came to the throne after the ten years of confusion which followed the death of [[Archelaus II of Macedon|Archelaus II]], the patron of art and literature. But he had many enemies at home; in [[383 BC|383]] he was driven out by the [[Illyria]]ns, but in the following year, with the aid of the [[Thessalia]]ns, he recovered his kingdom. He concluded a treaty with the [[Sparta]]ns, who assisted him to reduce [[Olynthus]] ([[379 BC|379]]). He also entered into a league with [[Jason of Pherae]], and assiduously cultivated the friendship of [[Athens]]. By his wife, [[Eurydice II of Macedon|Eurydice]], he had three sons, the youngest of whom was the famous [[Philip II of Macedon]]. ==References== *{{1911}} {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[Kings of Macedon|King of Macedon]] | before=[[Argaeus II of Macedon|Argaeus II]] | after=[[Alexander II of Macedon|Alexander II]] | years=393 BC&ndash;369 BC }} {{end box}} [[Category:369 BC deaths]] [[Category:Macedonian monarchs]] [[de:Amyntas III.]] [[fr:Amyntas III]] [[pl:Amyntas III Macedoński]] [[fi:Amyntas III]] [[sv:Amyntas III]] 1731 15900196 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Anabaptist]] 1732 22844082 2005-09-08T14:43:38Z Curps 44727 replace &quot with " [[Image:Anacharsis.jpg|frame|left|Anacharsis]] :''"He marvelled that among the Greeks, those who were skillful in a thing vie in competition; those who have ''no'' skill, judge"'' &mdash;[[Diogenes Laertius]], of Anacharsis. '''Anacharsis''' was a [[Scythian]] philosopher who travelled from his homeland on the northern shores of the [[Black Sea]] to Athens in the early [[6th century BCE]] and made a great impression as a forthright, outspoken "[[barbarian]]," apparently a forerunner of the [[Skepticism|Skeptics]] and [[Cynics]], though none of his authentic works have survived. Anacharsis was half Greek and the son of a Scythian chief, from a mixed Hellenistic culture, apparently in the region of the [[Cimmerian Bosporus]]. He cultivated the outsider's knack of seeing the illogic in familiar things. His conversation was droll and frank, and Solon and the Athenians took to him as a natural philosopher, not unlike the way the French took to [[Benjamin Franklin]]. His rough and free discourse became proverbial among Athenians as 'Scythian discourse'. Arriving in Athens about 589 BCE, he came to the house of [[Solon]] the philosopher and lawgiver, and told Solon's slave that Anacharsis was come to visit, desired to see Solon, and wanted to enter into hospitable relations. The servant returned with Solon's quintessentially Greek answer, "Men generally limit such hospitality to their own countrymen." Thereupon the Scythian stepped significantly across the threshold, and said that, now that he was in Solon's country, it would be quite suitable. Anacharis was the first stranger who received the privileges of Athenian citizenship. He was reckoned one of the [[Seven Sages of Athens]], and it is said that he was initiated into the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]] of the Great Goddess, a privilege denied to those who did not speak fluent Greek. His book paralleling the laws of the Scythians with the laws of the Greeks has been lost. It was he who compared laws to spiders' webs, which catch small flies and allow wasps and hornets to escape. He exhorted moderation in everything, saying that the vine bears three clusters of grapes: the first wine, pleasure; the second, drunkenness, the third, disgust. So he became a kind of [[emblem]] to the Athenians, who inscribed on his statues: 'Restrain your tongues, your appetites, your passions.' (Compare the philosophy of [[Epicurus]].) His famous ''Letter to [[Croesus]]'', the proverbially rich king of [[Lydia]], is apocryphal, but typical of his quality: :"Anarcharsis to Croesus: O king of the Lydians, I am come to the country of the Greeks, in order to become acquainted with their customs and institutions; but I have no need of gold, and shall be quite contented if I return to Scythia a better man than I left it. However I will come to Sardis, as I think it very desirable to become a friend of yours." When he did return to the Scythians, he was killed, Herodotus (iv, 76) reported, by his own brother, for his Greek ways and especially for the impious attempt to sacrifice to the Mother Goddess [[Cybele]], whose role was unwelcome among the patriarchal Scythians. [[Strabo]] makes him the (probably legendary) inventor of the [[anchor]] with two flukes. ==The revival of Anacharsis in the 18th century== In [[1788]] [[Jean Jacques Barthelemy]] (1716-95), a highly esteemed classical scholar and Jesuit, published ''The Travels of Anacharsis the Younger in Greece,'' a learned imaginary travel journal, one of the first [[historical novel]]s, which a modern scholar has called "the encyclopedia of the new cult of the antique" in the late 18th Century; it had a high impact on the growth of [[philhellenism]] in France at the time. The book went through many editions, was reprinted in the United States and translated into German and other languages. It later inspired European sympathy for the [[Greek War of Independence|Greek struggle for independence]] and spawned sequels and imitations through the [[19th century]]. ==External links== *[http://classicpersuasion.org/pw/diogenes/dlanacharsis.htm Diogenes Laertius, ''Lives of the Philosophers'' i, 101: brief entry gives many pithy but apocryphal remarks.] *[http://www.whoosh.org/issue56/rich1.html A witty comparison of the Anacharsis cult with the modern cult of Xena, "Warrior Princess".] (See [[Xena: Warrior Princess|Xena]].) [[Category:Presocratic philosophers]] [[Category:Ancient philosophers]] [[Category:Scythians]] ==Classical references== *Herodotus iv. 76; Lucian, ''Scytha''; Cicero, ''Tusc. Disp.'' v. 32; Diogenes Laertius i. 101. [[de:Anacharsis]] [[fr:Anacharsis]] [[fi:Anakharsis Skyytti]] 1733 41253266 2006-02-26T02:11:12Z Haiduc 80885 Category:Pederasty [[Image:As-anacreonte.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Anacreonte roman copy , Rome in Palazzo dei Conservatori]] '''Anacreon''' (born ca. [[570 BC]]) was a [[Greece|Greek]] [[lyric poem|lyric]] [[poet]], notable for his drinking songs and hymns. Later Greeks included him in the canonical list of [[nine lyric poets]]. == Life == He was born at [[Teos]], an [[Ionia]]n city on the coast of [[Asia Minor]]. Little more is known of his life, but it is likely that he shared the voluntary exile of the mass of his fellow-townsmen who sailed to [[Abdera, Thrace|Abdera]] in [[Thrace]], where they founded a colony, rather than remaining behind to surrender their city to [[Harpagus]], one of [[Cyrus the Great]]'s generals. Cyrus was, at the time ([[545 BC]]), besieging the Greek cities of [[Asia Minor]]. Anacreon seems to have taken part in the fighting, in which, on his own admission, he did not distinguish himself. From Thrace he removed to the court of [[Polycrates of Samos]]. He is said to have acted as [[tutor]] to Polycrates; that he enjoyed the [[tyrant]]'s confidence we learn on the authority of [[Herodotus]] (iii.121), who represents the poet as sitting in the royal chamber when audience was given to the [[Iran|Persia]]n herald. In return for his favour and protection, Anacreon wrote many complimentary [[ode]]s upon his patron. Like his fellow-lyric poet, [[Horace]], who was one of his great admirers, and in many respects a kindred spirit, Anacreon seems to have been made for the society of courts. On the death of Polycrates, [[Hipparchus (son of Pisistratus)|Hipparchus]], who was then in power at [[Athens]] and inherited the literary tastes of his father [[Pisistratus|Peisistratus]], sent a special embassy to fetch the popular poet to Athens in a galley of fifty oars. Here he became acquainted with the poet [[Simonides]], and other members of the brilliant circle which had gathered round Hipparchus. When this circle was broken up by the assassination of Hipparchus, Anacreon seems to have returned to his native town of Teos, where, according to a metrical epitaph ascribed to his friend Simonides, he died and was buried. According to others, before returning to Teos, he accompanied Simonides to the court of [[Echecrates]], a [[Thessaly|Thessalian]] dynast of the house of the [[Aleuadae]]. [[Lucian]] mentions Anacreon amongst his instances of the longevity of eminent men, as having completed eighty-five years. If an anecdote given by [[Pliny the Elder]] (''Nat. Hist.'' vii. 7) is to be trusted, he was choked at last by a grape-stone, but the story has an air of mythical adaptation to the poet's habits, which makes it somewhat [[apocryphal]]. Anacreon was for a long time popular at Athens, where his statue was to be seen on the [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis]], together with that of his friend [[Xanthippus]], the father of [[Pericles]]. On several coins of Teos he is represented holding a lyre in his hand, sometimes sitting, sometimes standing. A marble statue found in [[1835]] in the [[Sabine]] district, and now in the [[Villa Borghese]], is said to represent Anacreon. == Poetry == Anacreon had a reputation as a composer of hymns, as well as of those [[bacchanalian]] and amatory lyrics - some of a [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|pederastic]] nature - which are commonly associated with his name. Two short hymns to [[Artemis]] and [[Dionysus]], consisting of eight and eleven lines respectively, stand first amongst his few undisputed remains, as printed by recent editors. But pagan hymns, especially when addressed to such deities as [[Aphrodite]], [[Eros (god)|Eros]] and [[Dionysus]], are not so very unlike what we call "Anacreontic" poetry as to make the contrast of style as great as the word might seem to imply. The tone of Anacreon's lyric effusions has probably led to an unjust estimate, by both ancients and moderns, of the poet's personal character. The "triple worship" of the [[Muses]], Wine and Love, ascribed to him as his religion in an old Greek epigram (''Anthol.'' iii. 25, 51), may have been as purely professional in the two last cases as in the first, and his private character on such points was probably neither much better nor worse than that of his contemporaries. [[Athenaeus]] remarks acutely that he seems at least to have been sober when he wrote; and he himself strongly repudiates, as Horace does, the brutal characteristics of intoxication as fit only for [[barbarian]]s and [[Scythian]]s (Fr. 64). Of the five books of lyrical pieces by Anacreon which the ''[[Suda]]'' and Athenaeus mention as extant in their time, we have now but the merest fragments, collected from the citations of later writers. Those graceful little poems (most of them first printed from the MSS. by [[Henry Estienne]] in [[1554]]), which long passed among the learned for the songs of Anacreon, and which are well-known to many English readers in the translations of [[Abraham Cowley]] and Moore, are really of much later date, though possibly here and there genuine fragments of the poet are included. Modern critics, however, regard the entire collection as imitations belonging to different periods--the oldest probably to [[Alexandria]]n times, the most recent to the last days of [[paganism]]. They will always retain a certain popularity from their lightness and elegance, and some of them are fair copies of Anacreon's style, which would lend itself readily enough to a clever imitator. A strong argument against their genuineness lies in the fact that the peculiar forms of the [[Ionic Greek]], in which Anacreon wrote, are not to be found in these reputed odes, while the fragments of his poems quoted by ancient writers are full of Ionicisms. Again, only one of the quotations from Anacreon in ancient writers is to be found in these poems, which further contain no references to contemporaries, whereas [[Strabo]] (xiv. p. 638) expressly states that Anacreon's poems included numerous allusions to [[Polycrates]]. In particular, Anacreon addresses a poem to the boy Smerdis, with whom he had fallen in love, and whom Polycrates, in a fit of jealousy had shorn of his locks (Athenaeus (12.540e) and Aelian (VH 9.4). The character of Love as a mischievous little boy is quite different from that given by Anacreon, who describes him as "striking with a mighty [[axe]], like a [[smith]]," and is more akin to the conceptions of later literature. ==A Poem== '''The Wounded Cupid. Song''' Cupid as he lay among<br /> Roses, by a Bee was stung.<br /> Whereupon in anger flying<br /> To his Mother, said thus crying;<br /> Help! O help! your Boy's a dying.<br /> And why, my pretty Lad, said she?<br /> Then blubbering, replied he,<br /> A winged Snake has bitten me<br /> Which Country people call a Bee.<br /> At which she smil'd; then with her hairs<br /> And kisses drying up his tears:<br /> Alas! said she, my Wag! if this<br /> Such a pernicious torment is:<br /> Come, tell me then, how great's the smart<br /> Of those, thou woundest with thy Dart!<br /> Translated from the Greek by [[Robert Herrick (poet)|Robert Herrick]] ([[1591]]-[[1674]]). == External links == *[http://www.gottwein.de/Grie/lyr/LyrAnakr01.php Zweisprchige Textauswahl zu den griechischen Lyrikern mit zus&auml;tzlichen Hilfen] ==Poets named after Anacreon== * ''[[Francesco Albani|Anacreon of Painters]]'', Francesco Albani * ''[[Hafiz|Anacreon of Persia]]'', Hafiz * ''[[Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac|Anacreon of the Guillotine]]'', Barere * ''[[Carl Michael Bellman|Anacreon of Sweden]]'', Bellmann * ''[[Hippolit Bogdanovich|Russian Anacreon]]'', Bogdanovich ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Ancient Greek poets]] [[Category:Pederasty]] [[bg:Анакреон]] [[de:Anakreon]] [[es:Anacreonte]] [[fr:Anacréon]] [[gl:Anacreonte]] [[he:אנאקראון ]] [[it:Anacreonte]] [[hu:Anakreón]] [[nl:Anacreon]] [[pl:Anakreont z Teos]] [[pt:Anacreonte]] [[fi:Anakreon]] [[sv:Anakreon]] [[uk:Анакреонт]] 1734 41377090 2006-02-26T23:05:31Z Charles Matthews 12978 lk ''This article is about the town of Anah. For the character in the Book of [[Genesis]], see [[Minor characters in the Book of Genesis]].'' '''Anah''', or '''`Ana''', a town on the [[Euphrates]], about mid-way between the Gulf of Alexandretta and the [[Persian Gulf]]. It is called '''Hanat''' in a Babylonian letter (about [[2200 BC]]), and '''An-at''' by the scribe of Assur-nasir-pal (879 B.C.), Anatho (Isidore Charax), Anatha (Ammianus Marcellinus) by Greek and Latin writers in the early Christian centuries, `Ana (sometimes, as if plural, `Anat) by Arabic writers. The name has been connected with that of the deity Anat. Whilst `Ana has thus retained its name for forty-one centuries the site is variously described. Most early writers concur in placing it on an island; so [[Assur-nasir-pal]], [[Isidore of Seville|Isidore]], [[Ammianus Marcellinus]], [[Ibn Serapion]], [[al-Istakri]], [[Abulfeda]] and [[al-Karamani]]. Ammianus (lib. 24, c. 2) calls it a munimentum, Theophylactus Simocatta (iv. 10, v. 1, 2) to 'Anathon frourion, [[Zosimus]] (iii. 14) a frourion, opp. Fathusai, which may be the Beth(th)ina of Ptolemy (v. 19).<sup>1</sup> Leonhart Rauwolff, in AD 1574, found it "divided ... into two towns," the one "Turkish," "so surrounded by the river, that you cannot go into it but by boats," the other, much larger, on the Arabian side of the river.<sup>2</sup> GA Olivier in the beginning of the 19th century describes it as a long street (5 or 6 m. long), parallel to the right bank of the Euphrates--some 100 yards from the water's edge and 300 to 400 paces from the rocky barrier of the Arabian desert--with, over against its lower part, an island bearing at its north end the ruins of a fortress (p. 451). This southernmost town of [[Mesopotamia]] proper (Gezira) must have shared the chequered history of that land. Of `Ana's fortunes under the early Babylonian empire the records have not yet been unearthed; but in a letter dating from the third millennium BC, six men of Hanat (Ha-na-atK1) are mentioned in a statement as to certain disturbances which had occurred in the sphere of the Babylonian Resident of Suhi, which would include the district of `Ana. How `Ana fared at the hands of the Mitanni and others is unknown. The suggestion that [[Amenhotep I|Amenophis (Amenhotep) I]]. ([[16th century BC]]) refers to it is improbable; but we seem to be justified in holding `Ana to be the town "in the middle of the Euphrates" opposite (ina put) to which Assur-nasir-pal halted in his campaign of 879 BC. The supposed reference to `Ana in the speech put into the mouth of [[Sennacherib]]'s messengers to Hezekiah (2 Kings xix. 13, Is. xxxvii. 13) is exceedingly improbable. The town may be mentioned, however, in four 7th century documents edited by [[Claude Hermann Walter Johns]].³ It was at `Ana that the emperor Julian met the first opposition on his disastrous expedition against [[Iran|Persia]] (363), when he got possession of the place and transported the people; and there that Ziyad and Shureih with the advanced guard of `Ali's army were refused passage across the Euphrates (36/657) to join `Ali in Mesopotamia (Tabari i. 3261). Later `Ana was the place of exile of the caliph Qaim (al-qaim bi-amr-illah) when [[Basisiri]] was in power (450/1058.) In the 14th century `Ana was the seat of a Catholicos, primate of the Persians (Marin Sanuto). In 1610 [[Della Valle]] found a [[Scotland|Scot]], George Strachan, resident at `Ana (to study Arabic) as physician to the amir (i. 671-681). In 1835 the steamer "Tigris" of the English Euphrates expedition went down in a hurricane just above `Ana, near where Julian's force had suffered from a similar storm. Della Valle described `Ana as the chief Arab town on the Euphrates, an importance which it owes to its position on one of the routes from the west to [[Baghdad]]; Texeira said that the power of its amir extended to [[Palmyra]] (early 17th century); but Olivier found the ruling prince with only twenty-five men in his service, the town becoming more depopulated every day from lack of protection from the Arabs of the desert. [[Von Oppenheim]] (1893) reported that Turkish troops having been recently stationed at the place, it had no longer to pay blackmail (huwwa) to the Arabs. [[FR Chesney]] reported some 1800 houses, 2 mosques and 16 water-wheels; WF Ainsworth (1835) reported the Arabs as inhabiting the northwestern part of the town, the Christians the centre, and the Jews the southeast; Della Valle (1610) found some sun-worshippers still there. Modern `Ana lies from west to east on the right bank along a bend of the river just before it turns south towards Hit, and presents an attractive appearance. It extends, chiefly as a single street, for several miles along a narrow strip of land between the river and a ridge of rocky hills. The houses are separated from one another by fruit gardens. `Ana marks the boundary between the olive (north) and the date (south). Arab poets celebrated its wine (Yuqut, iii. 593 f.), and Mustaufi (8/14th century) tells of the fame of its palm-groves. In the river, facing the town, is a succession of equally productive islands. The most easterly contains the ruins of the old castle, whilst the remains of the ancient Anatho extend from this island for about 2 miles down the left bank. Coarse cloth is almost the only manufacture. ===BIBLIOGRAPHY=== In addition to the authorities cited above may be mentioned: [[Guillaume-Antoine Olivier|G. A. Olivier]], ''Voyage dans l'empire othoman'', etc., iii. 450-459 (1807); Carl Ritter, ''Erdkunde von Asien'', vii. b., pp. 716- 726 (1844); W. F. Ainsworth, ''Euphrates Expedition'', i. 401-418 (1888). ¹ Steph. Byz. (sub Turos) says that [[Arrian]] calls Anatha Turos. ² Texeira (1610) says that "Anna" lay on both banks of the river, and so Della Valle (i. 671). ³ Ass. Deeds and Doc. nos. 23, 168, 228, 385. The characters used are DIS TU, which may mean Ana-tu. ==References== *{{1911}} 1735 40534883 2006-02-21T06:47:54Z 138.16.38.54 :''Note: the word'' '''Ananda''' ''means [[Bliss (feeling)|bliss]] in [[Sanskrit|Sanskrit language]] and is quite often part of a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[Sanyasa|monastic]] name.'' {{buddhism}} '''Ananda''' (Ch:阿難) was one of many principal disciples of the [[Shakyamuni Buddha|Buddha]], a devout attendant and was renowned as the ''Guardian of the Dharma.'' Ananda was the first cousin of the Buddha, and was devotedly attached to him. Once he entered the Order in the second year of the Buddha's ministry, he became one of his personal attendants, accompanying him on most of his wanderings and being the interlocutor in many of the recorded dialogues. He is the subject of a special [[panegyric]] delivered by the Buddha just before his death ([[Mahaparinibbana Sutta]], [[Digha Nikaya]] 16); but it is the panegyric of an unselfish man, kindly, thoughtful for others and popular; not of the intellectual man, versed in the theory and practice of the Buddhist system of self-culture. So in the long list of the disciples given in the [[Anguttara]] (i. xiv.) where each of them is declared to be the chief in some gift, Ananda is mentioned five times (which is more often than any other), but it is as chief in conduct and in service to others and in power of memory, not in any of the intellectual powers so highly prized in the community. This explains why he had not attained to arahatship; and in the earliest account of the convocation said to have been held by five hundred of the principal disciples immediately after the Buddha's death, he was the only one who was not an [[arahat]] ([[Cullavagga]], book xi.). In later accounts this incident is explained away. Thirty-three verses ascribed to Ananda are preserved in a collection of lyrics by the principal male members of the order ([[Theragatha]], 1017-1050). They show a gentle and reverent but simple spirit. Ananda is often called the disciple of the Buddha who "heard much"; because he attended personally upon the Buddha and often traveled with him, Ananda overheard and memorized many of the discourses delivered by the Buddha to various audiences. At the [[Buddhist councils|First Council]], convened shortly after the death of the Buddha, Ananda was called upon to recite many of the discourses that later became the [[Sutta Pitaka]] of the [[Pāli Canon]]. Despite his long association and close proximity to the Buddha, Ananda is depicted as being slow to develop along the Buddhist path. Prior to the First Council, it was proposed that Ananda not be permitted to attend on the grounds that he was not yet an [[arhat]]. According to legend, this prompted Ananda to focus his efforts on the attainment of [[nibbana]], and he was able to reach the specified level of attainment before the calling of the conclave. Ananda was, however, rebuked by the First Council for failing to request that the Buddha remain in the world for a longer period of time; in the [[Mahaparinibbana Sutta]], the Buddha is depicted dropping a number of hints to Ananda that he can remain in the world as long as is required if it is requested by one of his disciples. Ananda fails to pick up on the intimation, and the Buddha soon after passes from the world. In contrast to most of the figures depicted in the [[Pāli Canon]], Ananda is depicted as an imperfect, if sympathetic, figure. He mourns the deaths of both [[Sariputta]], with whom he enjoyed a close friendship, and the [[Buddha]]. A verse of the [[Theragatha]] [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/sutta/khuddaka/theragatha/thag-17-03-ao0.html] reveals his loneliness and isolation following the death of the Buddha. In the [[Zen]] tradition, Ananda is considered to be the second Indian patriarch. He is often depicted with the Buddha alongside [[Mahakashyapa]], the first Indian patriarch. ==External links== *[http://ds.dial.pipex.com/town/avenue/xha71/powsample/images/127vb2.jpg Ananda with the Buddha and Subhuti] *[http://www.acmuller.net/ddb Digital Dictionary of Buddhism] (log in with userID "guest") ==See also== * [[Ananda Mahidol]] &ndash; King Rama VIII of [[Thailand]] ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:disciples of the Buddha]] [[Category:Zen Patriarchs]] [[cs:Ánanda]] [[de:Ananda]] [[fr:Ananda]] [[ja:阿難]] [[nl:Ananda]] [[sv:Ananda]] [[vi:A-nan-đà]] 1736 41482769 2006-02-27T17:39:36Z 209.60.40.210 '''Ananias''' is the [[Greek language|Greek]] form of '''Hananiah''' (Hebrew for "Yahweh is gracious"), or '''Ananiah''', a name occurring several times in the [[Old Testament]] and [[Apocrypha]] ([[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]] 3:23, [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]] 15:23, [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]] 5:12. etc.), and three times in the [[New Testament]]. Special mention need be made only of the bearers of the name in the New Testament: #A member of the first Christian community, who dropped dead suddenly after attempting to deceive the Holy Spirit by withholding part of the profit from the sale of a piece of land. A few moments later his wife, Sapphira also lied and also suffered the same fate. They both lied to Peter about the amount they had received and individually dropped dead upon hearing Peter's rebuke.([[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 5:1-10; cf. [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 7:1 ff.). See [[Ananias and Sapphira]]. #'''Saint Ananias''' (d. ''c.'' [[70]]), A disciple at [[Damascus]] who figures in the story of the conversion and [[baptism]] of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] (Acts 9:10-17, 22:12-16.) #Son of Nedebaios ([[Josephus]], ''Antiquites'' xx. 5. 2), a high priest who presided during the trial of Paul at [[Jerusalem]] and [[Caesarea Palaestina|Caesarea]] (Acts 23:2, 24:1-5). He officiated as high priest from about AD [[47]] to [[59]]. Quadratus, governor of [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]], accused him of being responsible for acts of violence. He was sent to [[Rome]] for trial (AD [[52]]), but was acquitted by the emperor [[Claudius]]. Being a friend of the Romans, he was murdered by the people at the beginning of the Jewish war. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category: Saints]] [[de:Ananias]] [[nl:Ananias]] 1737 40042542 2006-02-17T18:39:40Z 82.76.154.154 {{dablink|This article is about the philosopher Anaxagoras. For the mythical Greek King Anaxagoras of [[Argos]], see [[Anaxagoras (mythology)]].}} [[Image:Anaxagoras.png|thumb|300px|Anaxagoras]]'''Anaxagoras''' (c. [[500 BCE]]&ndash;[[428 BCE]]) was a [[Pre-Socratic philosophy|pre-Socratic]] [[Greece|Greek]] [[philosopher]] who was likely born about 500 BCE (Apollodorus ap. Diog. Laert. ii. 7.). He was a member of what is now often called the [[Ionian School]] of philosophy. At his native town of [[Clazomenae]] in [[Asia Minor]], he appears to have had some amount of property and prospects of political influence; he supposedly surrendered both of these out of a fear that they would hinder his search for knowledge. Although a Greek, he was probably a Persian citizen, perhaps even a soldier of the Persian army since Clazomenae was suppressed during the [[Ionian Revolt]]. In early manhood (c. 464-462 BCE) he went to [[Athens]], which was rapidly becoming the centre of Greek culture. There he is said to have remained for thirty years. [[Pericles]] learned to love and admire him, and the poet [[Euripides]] derived from him an enthusiasm for science and humanity. Some authorities assert that even [[Socrates]] was among his disciples. Anaxagoras brought philosophy and the spirit of scientific inquiry from [[Ionia]] to [[Athens]]. His observations of the celestial bodies led him to form new theories of the universal order; he attempted to give a scientific account of [[eclipse]]s, [[meteor]]s, [[rainbow]]s and the [[sun]], which he described as a mass of blazing metal, larger than the [[Peloponnesus]]. The heavenly bodies, he asserted, were masses of stone torn from the earth and ignited by rapid rotation. However, these theories brought him into collision with the popular faith. Anaxagoras was arrested by his friend Pericles' political opponents on a charge of contravening the established [[dogma]]s of religion (some say the charge was one of [[Medism]]), and it required all the eloquence of Pericles to secure his release. Even so he was forced to retire from Athens to Lampsacus in Ionia (434-433 BCE), where he died about [[428 BCE]]. Citizens of Lampsacus erected an altar to Mind and Truth in his memory, and observed the anniversary of his death for many years afterward. Anaxagoras wrote a book of philosophy, but only fragments of the first part of this have survived through the preservation of [[Simplicius of Cilicia]] (6th century CE). == Cosmological theory == All things have existed from the beginning. But originally they existed in infinitesimally small fragments of themselves, endless in number and inextricably combined. All things existed in this mass, but in a confused and indistinguishable form. There were the seeds (''spermata'') or miniatures of corn and flesh and gold in the primitive mixture; but these parts, of like nature with their wholes (the ''omoiomere'' of [[Aristotle]]), had to be eliminated from the complex mass before they could receive a definite name and character. Thought arranged the segregation of like from unlike; ''panta chremata en omou eita nous elthon auta diekosmese''. This peculiar thing, called Thought (''nous''), was no less illimitable than the chaotic mass, but, unlike the ''[[logos]]'' of [[Heraclitus]], it stood pure and independent (''mounos ef eoutou''), a thing of finer texture, alike in all its manifestations and everywhere the same. This subtle agent, possessed of all knowledge and power, is especially seen ruling in all the forms of life. Thought causes motion. It rotated the primitive mixture, starting in one corner or point, and gradually extended till it gave distinctness and reality to the aggregates of like parts, working something like a centrifuge, and eventually creating the known cosmos. But even after it had done its best, the original intermixture of things was not wholly overcome. No one thing in the world is ever abruptly separated, as by the blow of an axe, from the rest of things. It is noteworthy that Aristotle accuses Anaxagoras of failing to differentiate between ''nous'' and ''psyche'', while Socrates ([[Plato]], ''Phaedo'', 98 B) objects that his ''nous'' is merely a ''[[deus ex machina]]'' to which he refuses to attribute design and knowledge. Anaxagoras proceeded to give some account of the stages in the process from original chaos to present arrangements. The division into cold mist and warm ether first broke the spell of confusion. With increasing cold, the former gave rise to water, earth and stones. The seeds of life which continued floating in the air were carried down with the rains and produced vegetation. Animals, including man, sprang from the warm and moist clay. If these things be so, then the evidence of the senses must be held in slight esteem. We seem to see things coming into being and passing from it; but reflection tells us that decease and growth only mean a new aggregation (sugkrisis) and disruption (''diakrisis''). Thus Anaxagoras distrusted the senses, and gave the preference to the conclusions of reflection. Thus he maintained that there must be blackness as well as whiteness in snow; how otherwise could it be turned into dark water? Anaxagoras marked a turning-point in the history of philosophy. With him speculation passes from the colonies of Greece to settle at Athens. By the theory of minute constituents of things, and his emphasis on mechanical processes in the formation of order, he paved the way for the atomic theory. However, his enunciation of the order that comes from reason suggested the theory that nature is the work of design. The conception of thought causing movement in the world passed from him to Aristotle, who postulated a [[Prime mover]]. {{Presocratics}} ==References== *{{1911}} ==External links== * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Anaxagoras}} [[Category:500 BC births]] [[Category:428 BC deaths]] [[Category:Presocratic philosophers]] [[Category:Ancient philosophers]] [[bg:Анаксагор]] [[bn:এনাক্সাগোরাস]] [[bs:Anaksagora]] [[ca:Anaxàgores]] [[cs:Anaxagorás]] [[de:Anaxagoras]] [[el:Αναξαγόρας]] [[es:Anaxágoras]] [[eu:Anaxagoras]] [[fr:Anaxagore de Clazomènes]] [[gl:Anaxágoras de Clazomenas - Αναξίμανδρος]] [[ko:아낙사고라스]] [[hr:Anaksagora]] [[id:Anaxagoras]] [[it:Anassagora]] [[he:אנכסגורס]] [[la:Anaxagoras]] [[nl:Anaxagoras]] [[ja:アナクサゴラス]] [[pl:Anaksagoras]] [[pt:Anaxágoras de Clazômenas]] [[ro:Anaxagora]] [[ru:Анаксагор из Клазомен]] [[sk:Anaxagoras]] [[sl:Anaksagora]] [[sr:Анаксагора]] [[fi:Anaksagoras]] [[sv:Anaxagoras]] [[tr:Anaksagoras]] [[zh:阿那克萨哥拉]] 1738 29149404 2005-11-24T18:11:49Z Tomisti 348887 +fi '''Anaxarchus''' (flourished around [[340 BC]]), a [[Greece|Greek]] [[philosopher]] of the school of [[Democritus]], was born at [[Abdera, Thrace|Abdera]] in [[Thrace]]. He was the companion and friend of [[Alexander the Great]] in his Asiatic campaigns. According to [[Diogenes Laertius]] (Lives 9.10.2), in response to Alexander's claim to have been the son of Zeus-Ammon, Anaxarchus pointed to his bleeding wound and remarked, "See the blood of a mortal, not [[ichor]], such as flows from the veins of the immortal gods." [[Plutarch]] tells a story that at [[Bactra]], in [[327 BC]] in a debate with [[Callisthenes]], he advised all to worship Alexander as a god even during his lifetime, is with greater probability attributed to the Sicilian [[Cleon]]. Diogenes Laertius (Lives 9.10.3) also says that [[Nicocreon]], the tyrant of [[Cyprus]], commanded him to be pounded to death in a mortar, and that he endured this torture with fortitude and [[Cicero]] relates the same story. His philosophical doctrines are not known, though some have inferred from the epithet ''eudaimonikos'' ("fortunate"), usually applied to him, that he held the end of life to be ''[[eudaimonia]].'' [[Category:Hellenistic philosophers]] [[de:Anaxarch]] [[gl:Anaxarco]] [[pl:Anaksarchos z Abdery]] [[fi:Anaksarkhos]] 1740 15900205 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Ankara]] 1741 34680794 2006-01-10T23:50:05Z JamesReyes 10465 {{dablink|See [[Matthew Arnold]], the poet.}} ---- [[Image:Arnoldmathew.jpg|thumb|right|Bishop Arnold Harris Mathew]] '''Arnold Harris Mathew''' ([[1852]]&ndash;[[1919]]) was the first [[Old Catholic Church|Old Catholic]] [[bishop]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. He was a suspended [[Roman Catholic]] priest who became the leading prelate of the Old Catholic sect in the U.K. Mathew was appointed in [[1908]] after the Utrecht Union of Churches approved the establishment of a mission in the U.K. Mathew convinced the continental Old Catholic prelates that he had a significant following in the U.K. which, in fact, was a rather small following. He was consecrated by Archbishop [[Gerardus Gul]] of Utrecht on [[April 28]], [[1908]]. Assisting Gul was Bishop J. J. Van Thiel of Haarlem, Bishop N. B. P. Spit of Deventer and Bishop J. Demmel of Bonn, Germany. He then returned to England and eventually raised a number of men to the episcopacy himself, including two former Catholic priests, Howarth and Beale, who had been excommunicated by the Bishop of Nottingham for embezzling. Mathew then sent documents to [[Pope Pius X]] attesting to the consecrations. Upon receipt of these documents, Pope Pius X published the ''Bull Cravi Iamdiu Scandalo'' in which he excommunicated Mathew and condemned him as a "pseudo-bishop" and declared him ''vitandus'', a term in church law which meant that Catholics were subject to censure if they had anything to do with Mathew. Pius X also extended his sentence of excommunication to include those who had been consecrated by Mathew. On [[December 29]], [[1910]] Mathew declared his autonomy from the continental Old Catholics due to disagrements with certain practices and disciplines that Mathew felt deviated from Catholic tradition. Mathew later consecrated Prince Rudolph Edward de Landes Berghes, an [[Austrian]] nobleman, in [[1913]] for work in [[Scotland]]. In [[January 1916]], he announced that he would be reconciled to the [[Holy See]], but changed his mind two months later. He then sought union with the [[Church of England]] but the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] refused to give Mathew any position as an Anglican clergyman. Mathew retired to a village in the countryside and contented himself with assisting at services in an Anglican parish church as a layman. By this time, he had been deserted by his wife and abandoned by virtually all the priests and bishops he had made. He died suddenly in [[December 1919]] and was buried as an Anglican layman. His episcopal seal and other documents disappeared after his death. [[Category:Old Catholic bishops|Mathew, Arnold Harris]] [[Category:1852 births|Mathew, Arnold Harris]] [[Category:1919 deaths|Mathew, Arnold Harris]] 1742 15900207 2005-06-14T13:10:30Z Panairjdde 2400 *[[Pope Anastasius I]] -- Pope from 399-401 *[[Anastasius I (emperor)|Anastasius I]] -- (c. 430-518) Byzantine emperor {{disambig}} [[de:Anastasius I.]] [[es:Anastasio I]] [[fr:Anastase Ier]] 1743 15900208 2005-05-11T20:26:38Z Kbdank71 197953 rm category as per cfd *[[Pope Anastasius II]] -- Pope from 496-498 *[[Anastasius II of the Byzantine Empire]] -- (d. 721) Roman emperor in the East *[[Anastasius II of Antioch]] -- Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch {{disambig}} 1744 15900209 2002-04-06T14:14:34Z Bryan Derksen 66 redirect #REDIRECT [[Pope Anastasius III]] 1745 15900210 2002-04-25T17:25:33Z Eclecticology 372 change to redirect #redirect [[Pope Anastasius IV]] 1746 28108524 2005-11-12T11:41:58Z Bluebot 527862 Standardising 1911 references. '''Anaximenes of Lampsacus''' (fl. [[380 BC|380]] - [[320 BC]]), [[Hellenistic Greece|Greek]] [[rhetoric]]ian and historian, was a favourite of [[Alexander the Great]], whom he accompanied in his Persian campaigns. He wrote histories of [[Greece]] and of [[Philip of Macedon]], and an epic on Alexander (fragments in Muller, ''Scriptores Rerum Alexandri Magni''.) As a rhetorician, he was a determined opponent of [[Isocrates]] and his school. The ''Rhetorica ad Alexandrum'' ("Address to Alexander"), traditionally included among the works of [[Aristotle]], is now generally admitted to be by Anaximenes, although some consider it a much later production. ==References== *{{1911}} [[hu:Anaximenész (író)]] 1747 26556922 2005-10-26T20:40:40Z GrinBot 411872 robot Adding: de, eo, hu '''Anastasius''' is part of the name of: *[[Pope Anastasius]]: **[[Pope Anastasius I]] -- Pope from 399-401 **[[Pope Anastasius II]] -- Pope from 496-498 **[[Pope Anastasius III]] -- Pope from 911-913 **[[Pope Anastasius IV]] -- Pope from 1153 to 1154 *[[Anastasius I of the Byzantine Empire]] (c. 430-518) -- Roman emperor *[[Anastasius II of the Byzantine Empire]] (d. 721) -- Roman emperor in the East *[[Anastasius (patriarch)|Anastasius]] -- [[Patriarch]] of [[Constantinople]] from 730-754 *[[Anastasius Bibliothecarius]] (c.810-879) -- [[librarian]] of the [[Church of Rome]], scholar and statesman * [[Anton Alexander Graf von Auersperg]] (1806-1876) -- Austrian poet who wrote under the pseudonym of '''Anastasius Grün'''. {{disambig}} [[de:Anastasius]] [[eo:Anastazio (vira nomo)]] [[hu:Anasztáz]] 1748 39235747 2006-02-11T19:20:24Z Schaengel89 221783 [[Image:Anaximenes.png|thumb|right|180px|Anaximenes of Miletus]] '''Anaximenes''' (in [[Greek language|Greek]]: &#902;&#957;&#945;&#958;&#953;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#951;&#962;) of Miletus ([[585 BC]] - [[525 BC]]) was a [[Greece|Greek]] [[philosopher]] from the latter half of the [[6th century BC|6th century]], probably a younger contemporary of [[Anaximander]], whose pupil or friend he is said to have been. He held that the [[Air (classical element)|air]], with its variety of contents, its universal presence, its vague associations in popular fancy with the phenomena of life and growth, is the source of all that exists. Everything is air at different degrees of density, and under the influence of heat, which expands, and of cold, which contracts its volume, it gives rise to the several phases of existence. The process is gradual, and takes place in two directions, as heat or cold predominates. In this way was formed a broad disk of earth, floating on the circumambient air. Similar condensations produced the sun and stars; and the flaming state of these bodies is due to the velocity of their motions. He states: "Just as our soul, being air, holds us together, so do breath and air encompass the whole world." What makes the three [[Miletus|milesic]] philsophers, [[Thales]], [[Anaximander]] and Anaximenes, stand out is that the theoretical human has become a reality. The way of thinking has in its basic form moved away from the mythological thinking (or ''mythos'') and into the domain of the theoretical thinking (or ''logos''). From now on it is about explaining the universal and the general. Everything in the universe can now be approached by the thoughts of humans. This notably influenced the Pythagoreans. ''See also:'' [[philosophy]] == Reference == * {{1911}} {{Presocratics}} [[Category:585 BC births]] [[Category:525 BC deaths]] [[Category:Presocratic philosophers]] [[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers]] [[Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians]] [[bg:Анаксимен]] [[bn:মাইলেটাস-এর এনাক্সিমেনিস]] [[bs:Anaksimen]] [[ca:Anaxímenes]] [[da:Anaximenes]] [[de:Anaximenes]] [[el:Αναξιμένης]] [[es:Anaxímenes]] [[eu:Anaximenes]] [[fa:آناکسیمن میلتوسی]] [[fr:Anaximène]] [[gl:Anaxímenes de Mileto]] [[hr:Anaksimen]] [[id:Anaximenes]] [[it:Anassimene di Mileto]] [[he:אנכסימנס]] [[la:Anaximenes]] [[nl:Anaximenes]] [[ja:アナクシメネス]] [[no:Anaximenes]] [[nn:Anaximenes frå Milet]] [[pl:Anaksymenes]] [[pt:Anaxímenes de Mileto]] [[ro:Anaximene]] [[ru:Анаксимен]] [[sk:Anaximenes]] [[sl:Anaksimen]] [[sv:Anaximenes]] [[zh:阿那克西美尼]] 1749 41860781 2006-03-02T05:07:25Z Elwikipedista 90304 [[es:Anco Marcio]] '''Ancus Marcius''' (r. [[640 BC]]-[[616 BC]]), fourth of the [[Kings of Rome]], and possibly legendary. Like [[Numa Pompilius|Numa]], his reputed grandfather, he was a friend of peace and religion, but was obliged to make war to defend his territories. He conquered the [[Latin_(disambiguation) | Latins]], and a number of them he settled on the [[Aventine Hill]] formed the origin of the [[Plebeians]]. He fortified the [[Janiculum]], threw a wooden bridge across the [[Tiber]], the [[pons sublicius]], founded the port of [[Ostia]], established salt-works and built a prison which was founded in 625 B.C. and was used to hold people until they decided what to do with them. Before this time, a popular punishment was to exile people. Ancus Marcius is merely a duplicate of Numa, as is shown by his second name, Numa Marcius, the confidant and pontifex of Numa, being no other than [[Numa Pompilius]] himself, represented as priest. The identification with Ancus is shown by the legend which makes the latter a bridge-builder (pontifex), the constructor of the first wooden bridge over the Tiber. It is in the exercise of his priestly functions that the resemblance is most clearly shown. Like Numa, Ancus died a natural death. He was succeeded by [[Lucius Tarquinius Priscus]]. ==References== *{{1911}} {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[King of Rome]]|before=[[Tullus Hostilius]]|after=[[Tarquinius Priscus]]|years=641&ndash;616}} {{end box}} [[Category:616 BC deaths]] [[Category:Ancient Romans]] [[Category:Roman Kingdom]] [[de:Ancus Marcius]] [[es:Anco Marcio]] [[fr:Ancus Martius]] [[hr:Anko Marcije]] [[it:Anco Marzio]] [[he:אנקוס מארקיוס]] [[la:Ancus Marcius]] [[nl:Ancus Martius]] [[pt:Anco Márcio]] [[ru:Анк Марций]] [[fi:Ancus Marcius]] [[sv:Ancus Marcius]] 1750 39665817 2006-02-15T00:57:15Z Khoikhoi 657950 upload the images yourself - don't add links to your own website [[Image:Andamanen(Satellitenaufnahme).jpg|right|thumb|250px|Satellite photo of the Andaman Islands]] The '''Andaman Islands''' are a group of [[island]]s in the [[Bay of Bengal]], and are part of the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] [[Union Territory]] of [[India]]. [[Port Blair]] is the chief community on the islands, and the administrative center of the Union Territory. The Andaman Islands form a single [[Districts of India|administrative district]] within the Union Territory, the [[Andaman district]] (the [[Nicobar district]] was separated and established as a new district in [[1974]]). The [[population]] of the Andamans was 314,084 in 2001. ==Physical Geography== There are approximately 550 islands in the group, 26 of which are inhabited. They are located 950 [[kilometre|km]] from the mouth of the [[Hooghly River]], 193 km from [[Cape Negrais]] in [[Myanmar]], the nearest point of the mainland, and 547 km from the northern extremity of [[Sumatra]]. The length of the island chain is 352 km and its greatest width is 51 km. The total land area of the Andamans is 6408 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]]. The five chief islands over a distance of 251 km, are known collectively as [[Great Andaman]]. These are from north to south, [[North Andaman]], [[Middle Andaman]], [[South Andaman]], [[Baratang]] and [[Rutland Island]]. Four narrow straits part these islands, [[Austin Strait]], between North and Middle Andaman, [[Homfray's Strait]] between Middle Andaman and Baratang, and the north extremity of South Andaman, [[Middle Strait|Middle (or Andaman) Strait]] between Baratang and South Andaman and [[Macpherson Strait]] between South Andaman and Rutland Island. Of these only the last is navigable by ocean-going vessels. Together with the chief islands are, on the extreme north, [[Landfall Islands]], separated by the navigable [[Cleugh Passage]]; [[Interview Island]], separated by the navigable [[Interview Passage]], off the West coast of the Middle Andaman; the [[Labyrinth Island]] off the southwest coast of the South Andaman, through which is the navigable [[Elphinstone Passage]]; [[Ritchie's Archipelago|Ritchie's (or the Andaman) Archipelago]] off the East coast of South Andaman and Baratang, separated by the wide and safe [[Diligent Strait]] and intersected by [[Kwangtung Strait]] and the [[Tadma Juru]] (Strait). Little Andaman, roughly 42 km by 26 km, forms the southern extremity of the whole group and lies 50 km south of Rutland Island across the Manners Strait, the main shipping route between the Andamans and the [[Chennai|Madras]] coast. Besides these are a great number of islets lying off the shores of the main islands. The principal outlying islands include the [[North Sentinel]], a dangerous island of about 73 km&sup2;, lying about 29 km off the west coast of the South Andaman. About 29 km west of the Andamans are the dangerous Western Banks and Dalrymple Bank, rising to within a few [[fathom]]s of the surface of the sea and forming, with the two [[Sentinel Islands]], the tops of a line of submarine hills parallel to the Andamans. Andamans is the only place in India with an [[active volcano]]. [[Barren Island (Andaman Islands)|Barren Island]], northeast of Port Blair, became active in [[1990s]] after being quiescent for almost two hundred years. It erupted again in May 2005, experts pointing to the post-tsunami change in tectonic plates as the likely cause. The isolated extinct volcano of [[Narcondam Island|Narcondam]], rising 710 m out of the sea, is 114 km east of North Andaman. Plans are afoot to make volcano tourism popular. Also 64 km to the east is the [[Invisible Bank]], with one rock just awash, and 55 km southeast of Narcondam is a submarine hill rising to 689 m below the surface of the sea. Narcondam, Barren Island and the Invisible Bank, a great danger of these seas, are in a line almost parallel to the Andamans inclining towards them from north to south. ===Topography=== The Andamans, unlike the Lakshadweep-Chagos chain, are high volcanic islands, arising from a submerged mountain chain that follows the southward extension of the continental shelf. Extensive fringing reefs exist here, as well as a 320 kilometers-long barrier reef on the west coast. Much of the wildlife on these islands is endemic, including 112 species of endemic birds. While poorly known scientifically, these reefs may prove to be the most diverse and best preserved in the Indian Ocean. The islands forming Great Andaman consist of a mass of hills enclosing very narrow valleys, the whole covered by dense tropical jungle. The hills rise to a considerable elevation: the chief heights being in the North Andaman, Saddle Peak (732 m); in the Middle Andaman, Mount Diavolo behind Cuthbert Bay (511 m); in the South Andaman, Koiob (459 m), Mount Harriet (364 m) and the Cholunga range (324 m); and in Rutland Island, Ford's Peak (433 m). Little Andaman is practically flat. There are no rivers and few perennial streams in the islands. The whole of the Andamans and the outlying islands were completely surveyed topographically by the Indian Survey Department under Colonel Hobday in [[1883]]-[[1886]], and the surrounding seas were charted by Commander Carpenter in [[1888]]-[[1889]]. ===Harbours=== The coasts of the Andamans are deeply indented, giving existence to a number of safe harbours, which are often surrounded by mangrove swamps. The chief harbours are (starting northwards from Port Blair, the great harbour of South Andaman) on the East coast: Port Meadows, Colebrooke Passage, Elphinstone Harbour (Homfray's Strait), Stewart Sound and Port Cornwallis. The last three are very large. On the West coast: Temple Sound, Interview Passage, Port Anson or Kwangtung Harbour (large), Port Campbell (large), Port Mouat and Macpherson Strait. There are many other safe anchorages about the coast, notably Shoal Bay and Kotara Anchorage in South Andaman; Cadell Bay and the Turtle Islands in North Andaman; and Outram Harbour and Kwangtung Strait in the archipelago. ==Geology== The Andaman Islands and the [[Nicobar Islands]] to the south form part of a range of submarine mountains, 1130 km long, running from Cape Negrais in the Arakan Yoma range of Burma, to Achin Head in Sumatra. This range separates the Bay of Bengal from the Andaman Sea, and it contains much that is geologically characteristic of the Arakan Yoma. The older rocks are early Tertiary or late Cretaceous. The newer rocks are in Ritchie's Archipelago chiefly, and contain fossils of radiolarians and foraminifera. There is coral along the coasts everywhere, and the Sentinel Islands are composed of the newer rocks with a superstructure of coral. A theory of a still continuing subsidence of the islands was formed by Kurz in [[1866]] and confirmed by Oldham in [[1884]]. Signs of its continuance are found on the east coast in several places. ==Climate== The climate of the Andamans themselves may be described as normal for tropical islands of similar latitude. It is always warm, but with sea-breezes; very hot when the sun is northing; irregular rainfall, but usually dry during the north-east, and very wet during the south-west monsoon. Not only does the rainfall at one place vary from year to year, but there is an extraordinary difference for places quite close to one another. The Islands are barely affected by the often disastrous cyclones that come up the Bay of Bengal, though they are within the influence of practically every one. The Andamans thus were once of great importance for monitoring weather in the region for the benefit of the Indian mainland and ships at sea in the Indian Ocean. A meteorological station was established at Port Blair in [[1868]]. ==Flora== A section of the Forest Department of India was established in the Andamans in [[1883]], and in the neighbourhood of Port Blair 400 km&sup2; were set apart for regular forest operations to be carried on by convict labour. The chief timber of indigenous growth is [[padouk]] ''(Pterocarpus dalbergioides'') used for buildings, boats, furniture, fine joinery and all purposes to which teak, mahogany, hickory, oak and ash are applied. This tree was widespread and formed a valuable export to European markets. Other first-class timbers are koko (''Albizzia lebbek''), white chuglam (''Terminalia bialata''), black chugiam (''Myristica irya''), marble or zebra wood (''Diospyros kurzii'') and satin-wood (''Murraya exotica''), which differs from the satin-wood of Ceylon (''Chloroxylon swietenia''.) All of these timbers are used for furniture and similar fine purposes, but many are now endangered. In addition there are a number of second- and third-class timbers, which are used locally and for export to Calcutta. Gangaw (''Messua ferrea'') the Assam iron-wood, is suitable for railway sleepers; and didu (''Bombax insigne'') is used for tea-boxes and packing-cases. Among the introduced flora are tea, Siberian coffee, cocoa, Ceará rubber (which has not done well), Manila hemp, teak, cocoanut and a number of ornamental trees, fruit-trees, vegetables and garden plants. Tea is grown in considerable quantities and the cultivation was once under a department of the penal settlement. The general character of the forests is Burmese with an admixture of Malay types. Great mangrove swamps supply unlimited fire-wood of the best quality. The great peculiarity of Andaman flora is that, with the exception of the Cocos islands, no coconut palms are found in the archipelago. ==Fauna== The Andamans are home to a wide variety of bird, animal and marine life, with many [[species]] [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to the islands, or even locations on the islands, to a large degree owing to the islands' relative isolation from nearby landmasses. Several of these species are also to be found in the Nicobar islands, whilst others are found only in one or the other island groups. Endemic [[bird]] species include the [[Nicobar scrubfowl]] (''Megapodius nicobariensis'', a type of [[megapode]]), [[Nicobar green imperial pigeon]] (''Ducula aenea nicobarica''), and the [[Nicobar emerald dove]] (''Chancophaps indica augusta''). [[Reptile|Reptilian]] species include the [[saltwater crocodile]] (''Crocodylus porusus'') which nests in [[estuary|estuarine]] regions. Several species of endangered [[Sea turtle]] (family ''Cheloniidae'') are also found in the islands' waters, such as [[Hawksbill turtle]]s (''Eretmochelys imbricata''), [[Leatherback Sea Turtle]]s (''Dermochelys coriacea''), and [[Olive Ridley]] sea turtles (''Lepidochelys olivacea''). Terrestrial- and arboreal-dwelling reptiles include several species of [[lizard]], such as the [[Coryphophylax subcristatus|Bay Island forest lizard]] (''Coryphophylax subcristatus''), a species from the [[Agamidae]] Family of lizards. Marine mammals include [[Dugong]] (''Dugong dugon''), Finless porpoise (''Neophocaena hocaenoides''), and [[Blainville's Beaked Whale]] (''Mesoplodon densirostris''), a wide-ranging but non-migratory species of [[mesoplodont whale]]s. Rich fish and invertebrate faunas exist on the reefs; fish families include Labridae, Pomacentridae, Scaridae, and Blenniidae. Nine species of seagrass are also present. Fish are very numerous and many species are endemic to the Andaman seas. Turtles are abundant and supply the Calcutta market. Of imported animals, cattle, goats, asses and dogs thrive well, ponies and horses indifferently, and sheep badly, though some success has been achieved in breeding them. ==History== It is uncertain whether any of the names of the islands given by [[Ptolemy]] ought to be attached to the Andamans; yet it is probable that his name itself is traceable in the Alexandrian geographer. Andaman first appears distinctly in the Arab notices of the [[9th century]], already quoted. But it seems possible that the tradition of marine nomenclature had never perished; that the ''Agathou daimonos nesos'' was really a misunderstanding of some form like ''Agdaman'', while ''Nesoi Baroussai'' survived as ''Lanka Balus'', the name applied by the Arabs to the [[Nicobar Islands]]. The islands are briefly noticed by [[Marco Polo]], who may have seen them without visiting, under the name ''Angamanain'', seemingly an Arabic dual, "the two Angamans", with the exaggerated picture of the natives as dog-faced [[anthropophagi]]. Another notice occurs in the story of [[Nicolo Conti]] (c. 1440), who explains the name to mean ''Island of Gold'', and speaks of a lake with peculiar virtues as existing in it. The name is probably derived from the [[Malay language|Malay]] ''Handuman'', coming from the ancient ''Hanuman'' (monkey god). Later travellers repeat the stories, too well founded, of the "ferocious hostility" of the people; of whom we may instance [[Cesare Federici]] ([[1569]]), whose narrative is given in ''Ramusio'', vol. iii. (only in the later editions), and in ''Purchas''. A good deal is also told of them in the vulgar and gossiping but useful work of [[Captain A. Hamilton]] ([[1727]]). In [[1788]]-[[1789]] the government of Bengal sought to establish in the Andamans a penal colony, associated with a harbour of refuge. Two officers, Colebrooke of the Bengal Engineers, and Blair of the sea service, were sent to survey and report. In the sequel the settlement was established by Captain Blair, in September [[1789]], on Chatham Island, in the southeast bay of the Great Andaman, now called Port Blair, but then Port Cornwallis. There was much sickness, and after two years, urged by [[Admiral Cornwallis]], the government transferred the colony to the northeast part of Great Andaman, where a naval arsenal was to be established. With the colony the name also of Port Cornwallis was transferred to this new locality. The scheme did ill; and in [[1796]] the government put an end to it, owing to the great mortality and the embarrassments of maintenance. The settlers were finally removed in May [[1796]]. In [[1824]] Port Cornwallis was the ''rendezvous'' of the fleet carrying the army to the first Burmese war. In [[1839]], Dr Helfer, a German savant employed by the Indian government, having landed in the islands, was attacked and killed. In [[1844]] the troop-ships ''Briton'' and ''Runnymede'' were driven ashore here, almost close together. The natives showed hostility, killing all stragglers. Outrages on shipwrecked crews continued so rife that the question of occupation had to be taken up again; and in [[1855]] a project was formed for such a settlement, embracing a convict establishment. This was interrupted by the [[Indian Mutiny of 1857]], but as soon as the neck of that revolt was broken, it became more urgent than ever to provide such a resource, on account of the great number of prisoners falling into British hands. Lord Canning, therefore, in November [[1857]], sent a commission, headed by Dr F. Mouat, to examine and report. The commission reported favourably, selecting as a site Blair's original Port Cornwallis, but pointing out and avoiding the vicinity of a salt swamp which seemed to have been pernicious to the old colony. To avoid confusion, the name of Port Blair was given to the new settlement. For some time sickness and mortality were excessively large, but the [[Land reclamation|reclamation of swamp]] and clearance of jungle on an extensive scale by Colonel Henry Man when in charge ([[1868]]-[[1870]]), had a most beneficial effect, and the health of the settlement has since been notable. The Andaman colony obtained a tragical notoriety from the murder of the viceroy, the earl of Mayo, by a Muslim convict, when on a visit to the settlement on [[February 8]], [[1872]]. In the same year the two groups, Andaman and Nicobar, the occupation of the latter also having been forced on the British government (in [[1869]]) by the continuance of outrage upon vessels, were united under a chief commissioner residing at Port Blair. [[Image:Andaman ross is.jpg|thumb|Ross Island - during the British rule the main military base]] The Andaman islands were later occupied by Japan during [[World War II]]. The islands were nominally put under the authority of the [[Arzi Hukumate Azad Hind]] of Netaji [[Subhash Chandra Bose]]. Netaji visited the islands during the war, and renamed them as Shaheed (Martyr) & Swaraj (Self-rule). General Loganathan of the [[Indian National Army]] , was Governor of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands which had been annexed to the Provisional Government. After the end of the war they briefly returned to British control, before becoming part of the newly independent state of India. On [[26 December]] [[2004]] the coast of the Andaman Islands was devastated by a 10 metre high [[tsunami]] following the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]]. ===Penal Settlement=== The point of enduring interest as regards the Andamans is the [[penal colony]], the object of which is to turn the life-sentence and few long-sentence convicts, who alone are sent to the settlement, into honest, self-respecting men and women, by leading them along a continuous course of practice in self-help and self-restraint, and by offering them every inducement to take advantage of that practice. After ten years' graduated labour the convict is given a ticket-of-leave and becomes self-supporting. He can farm, keep cattle, and marry or send for his family, but he cannot leave the settlement or be idle. With approved conduct, however, he may be absolutely released after twenty to twenty-five years in the settlement; and throughout that time, though possessing no civil rights, a [[Quasi-judicial body|quasi-judicial]] procedure controls all punishments inflicted upon him, and he is as secure of obtaining justice as if free. There is an unlimited variety of work for the labouring convicts, and some of the establishments are on a large scale. Very few experts are employed in supervision; practically everything is directed by the officials, who themselves have first to learn each trade. Under the chief commissioner, who is the supreme head of the settlement, are a deputy and a staff of assistant superintendents and overseers, almost all Europeans, and sub-overseers, who are natives of India. All the petty supervising establishments are composed of convicts. The garrison consists of 140 British and 300 Indian troops, with a few local European volunteers. The police are organized as a military battalion 643 strong. The number of convicts has somewhat diminished of late years and in [[1901]] stood at 11,947. The total population of the settlement, consisting of convicts, their guards, the supervising, clerical and departmental staff, with the families of the latter, also a certain number of ex-convicts and trading settlers and their families, numbered 16,106. The labouring convicts are distributed among four jails and nineteen stations; the self-supporters in thirty-eight villages. The elementary education of the convicts' children is compulsory. There are four hospitals, each under a resident medical officer, under the general supervision of a senior officer of the Indian medical service, and medical aid is given free to the whole population. The net annual cost of the settlement to the government is about six pounds per convict. The harbour of Port Blair is well supplied with buoys and harbour lights, and is crossed by ferries at fixed intervals, while there are several launches for hauling local traffic. On Ross Island there is a lighthouse visible for 19 miles. A complete system of signalling by night and day on the Morse system is worked by the police. Local posts are frequent, but there is no telegraph and the mails are irregular. The above accounts, written while Britain still controlled India, may leave the impression that these settlements were a model of progressive penal reform. Indian accounts, however, paint a different picture. From the time of its development in [[1858]] under the direction of [[James Pattison Walker]], and in response to the mutiny and rebellion of the previous year, the settlement was first and foremost a repository for political prisoners. The [[Cellular Jail]] at Port Blair when completed in [[1910]] included 698 cells designed to better accommodate solitary confinement; each cell measured 4.5 by 2.7 metres with a single ventilation window 3 metres above the floor. [[Vinayak Damodar Savarkar]] had been one of the illustrious prisoners there. The Viper Chain Gang Jail on Viper Island was reserved for troublemakers, and was also the site of hangings. In the 20th century it became a convenient place to house India's freedom fighters, and it was here that on [[December 30]], [[1943]] during Japanese occupation, that [[Subhas Chandra Bose]] first raised the flag of Indian independence. The penal colony was closed on [[August 15]], [[1947]] when India gained its freedom. It has since served as a museum to the freedom fighters. ==Demographics== The population of the Andaman Islands has increased rapidly, from roughly 2000 in 1901 to 157,821 in 1981, 241,453 in 1991, and 314,239 in 2001. These increases are mostly attributable to migration from the Indian mainland. It is estimated that less than ten percent of the population of the Andaman Islands is indigenous Andamanese including in 2005, only 99 [[Onge]], 250 [[Sentinelese]], 39 [[Andamanese]] and 350 [[Jarawa (Andaman Islands)|Jarawas]]. ==Indigenous Andamanese== [[Image:Andaman tribal & linguistic map.jpg|thumb|300px|Ethnolinguistic map of the precolonial Andaman Islands]] The various [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] [[Andamanese]] peoples [[list of subsistence techniques|subsisted]] mostly as [[hunter-gatherer]] communities, supplemented by [[fishing]] and limited [[agriculture|agricultural]] practices. The Sentinelese, Önge, and Jarawa peoples continue in this way of life in the southern part of the archipelago. The indigenous Andamanese are slightly built, dark-skinned, with tightly-curled hair, and physically resemble the [[Semang]] of the [[Malay Peninsula]] and the [[Aeta]] of the [[Philippines]]. The Andamanese, Semang, and Aeta are probably descendants of a people who were more widespread in [[Southeast Asia]] before they were displaced or assimilated by the ancestors of today's [[Austronesian]]-speakers. Their antiquity is attested by the remains found in their kitchen-[[midden]]s. These are of great age, and rise sometimes to a height exceeding 5 metres. The fossil shells, pottery and primitive stone implements, found alike at the base and at the surface of these middens, show that the habits of the islanders have varied little since the remote past, and lead to the belief that the Andamans were settled by their present inhabitants some time during the [[Pleistocene]] period, and certainly no later than the [[Neolithic]] age. The oldest [[archaeological]] evidence for occupation yet obtained is dated to [[3rd century BC|2,200 years ago]]; however, the investigations which have been made are not extensive, and it is most likely that much earlier dates will be attested. The Andamans may have been linked to Myanmar by a land bridge during the [[ice age]]s, and it is possible that the ancestors of the Andamanese reached the islands without crossing the sea. Whether an original sea-crossing was required or not, linguistic and genetic studies indicate that the Andamanese peoples have lived in almost complete isolation for 30,000 to 70,000 years. For example, a report in the journal "Science" [Vol 308, Issue 5724, 996, [[13 May]] [[2005]]] by Thangaraj et al. identifies M31 and M32 [[mitochondrial DNA|mtDNA]] types among indigenous Andamanese, which show that these populations became genetically isolated about 50,000 to 70,000 years ago, apparently after their initial migration from Africa. The indigenous Andamanese spoke several related languages, the [[Andamanese languages]], a distinct [[language family]] unrelated to languages found outside the islands. Of the 13 languages spoken at the beginning of the century, nine are now extinct. The extinct languages were spoken on Great Andaman, and the Great Andamanese now mostly speak [[Hindi]]. The [[Jarawa (Andaman Islands)|Jarawa]], [[Onge|Önge]], and [[Sentinelese]] mostly speak their own languages, and limit their contact with outsiders. The earliest European notice of the Andamanese is in a remarkable collection of early [[Arab]] notes on India and China from the year [[851]] which influenced the view of this people until modern times. The traditional charge of [[cannibalism]] has been very persistent; but it is entirely denied by the islanders themselves, and is now and probably always has been untrue. Of their massacres of shipwrecked crews, there is no doubt, but that the policy of conciliation has secured a friendly reception for shipwrecked crews at any port of the islands. The historic population of the islands is difficult to estimate, but it has probably always been small. The estimated total at a census taken in [[1901]] was only 2,000. Though all descended from one stock, there are twelve distinct [[Tribes of India|tribes]] of the Andamanese, each with its own clearly-defined locality, its own distinct variety of the one fundamental language and to a certain extent its own separate habits. Every tribe is divided into fairly well defined septs. The tribal feeling may be expressed as friendly within the tribe, courteous to other Andamanese if known, hostile to every stranger, Andamanese or other. The Andaman languages are extremely interesting from the philological standpoint. They are [[agglutinative]] in nature, show hardly any signs of syntactical growth though every indication of long etymological growth, give expression to only the most direct and the simplest thought, and are purely colloquial and wanting in the modifications always necessary for communication by writing. The sense is largely eked out by manner and action. Mincopie is the first word in Colebrooke's vocabulary for "Andaman Island, or native country", and the term - though probably a mishearing on Colebrooke's part for Mongebe ("I am an Onge", i.e. a member of the Onge tribe) - has thus become a persistent book-name for the people. Another division of the natives is into [[Aryauto]] or long-shore-men, and the [[Eremtaga]] or jungle-dwellers. The habits and capacities of these two differ, owing to surroundings, irrespectively of tribe. Yet again the Andamanese can be grouped according to certain salient characteristics: the forms of the bows and arrows, of the canoes, of ornaments and utensils, of [[tattoo]]ing and of language. The average height of males is 149 cm; of females, 137 cm. The only artificial deformity is a depression of the skull, chiefly among one of the southern tribes, caused by the pressure of a strap used for carrying loads. The women's heads are shaved entirely and the men's into fantastic patterns. Yellow and [[red ochre]] mixed with grease are coarsely smeared over the bodies, grey in coarse patterns and white in fine patterns resembling tattoo marks. Tattooing is of two distinct varieties. In the south the body is slightly cut by women with small flakes of glass or quartz in zigzag or lineal patterns downwards. In the north it is deeply cut by men with pig-arrows in lines across the body. The male is said to reach adulthood when about fifteen years of age, typically marries when about twenty-six, and lives onto sixty or sixty-five if he reaches old age. Except as to the marrying age, these figures fairly apply to women. Before marriage, free intercourse between the sexes is the rule, though certain conventional precautions are taken to prevent it. Marriages rarely produce more than three children and often none at all. Divorce is rare, unfaithfulness after marriage uncommon and incest virtually unknown. By preference the Andamanese are exogamous as regards sept and endogamous as regards tribe. There is no idea of government, but in each sept there is a head, who has attained that position by degrees on account of some tacitly admitted superiority and commands a limited respect and some obedience. The young are deferential to their elders. Offences are punished by the aggrieved party. Property is communal and theft is only recognized as to things of absolute necessity, such as arrows, pork and fire. Fire is the one thing they are really careful about, not knowing how to renew it. A very rude barter exists between tribes of the same group in regard to articles not locally obtainable. The religion consists of beliefs in spirits of the wood, the sea, disease and ancestors, and of avoidance of acts traditionally displeasing to them. There is neither worship nor propitiation. An anthropomorphic deity, [[Puluga]], is the cause of all things, but it is not necessary to propitiate him. There is an idea that the "soul" will go somewhere after death, but there is no heaven nor hell, nor idea of a corporeal resurrection. There is much faith in dreams, and in the utterances of certain "wise men", who practise an embryonic magic and witchcraft. The great amusement of the Andamanese is a formal night dance, but they are also fond of games. The bows differ altogether with each group, but the same two kinds of arrows are in general use: (1) long and ordinary for fishing and other purposes; (2) short with a detachable head fastened to the shaft by a thong, which quickly brings pigs up short when shot in the thick jungle. Bark provides material for string, while baskets and mats are neatly and stoutly made from canes and buckets out of bamboo and wood. None of the tribes ever ventures out of sight of land, and they have no idea of steering by sun or stars. Their canoes are simply hollowed out of trunks with the adze and in no other way, and it is the smaller ones that are outrigged; they do not last long and are not good sea-boats. The story of raids on Car Nicobar, out of sight across a stormy and sea-rippled channel, must be discredited. Honour is shown to an adult when he dies by wrapping him in a cloth and placing him on a platform in a tree instead of burying him. At such a time the encampment is deserted for three months. ==Reference== *{{1911}} ==External links== *[http://andaman-islands.tripod.com/ Photos from Andaman Islands] 100 photos taken by an Andaman's lover *[http://community.webshots.com/user/mp5ingh Snaps of Andaman and Nicobar Islands] Snaps of Andaman Islands taken by Mahendra Pratap Singh, S/o Shri R.P.Singh *[http://www.andaman.org/ The Andaman Association, Lonely Islands: The Andamanese] [[Category:Ecoregions of India]] [[Category:Archipelagoes]] [[Category:Regions of India]] [[Category:Islands of India]] [[Category:Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] [[Category:Indomalaya]] [[Category:Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests]] [[da:Andamanerne]] [[de:Andamanen]] [[et:Andamani saared]] [[es:Islas Andamán]] [[eo:Andamanoj]] [[fr:Îles Andaman]] [[id:Andaman]] [[nl:Andamanen]] [[no:Andamanene]] [[pl:Andamany]] [[pt:Ilhas Andaman]] 1751 35872567 2006-01-19T22:56:43Z Valentinian 256198 /* References */ stub sorting '''Alexander Anderson''' (c. [[1582]]-[[1620]]?) was a Scottish [[mathematician]] born in [[Aberdeen]]. In his youth he went to the continent and taught mathematics in [[Paris]], where he published or edited, between the years [[1612]] and [[1619]], various [[geometric]] and [[algebraic]] tracts. He was selected by the executors of [[François Viète]] to revise and edit Viete's manuscript works. The works of Anderson amount to six thin quarto volumes, and as the last of them was published in [[1619]], it is probable that the author died soon after that year, but the precise date is unknown. ==References== *{{1911}} {{Scotland-bio-stub}} {{UK-scientist-stub}} {{Mathematician-stub}} [[Category:1582 births|Anderson, Alexander]] [[Category:1620 deaths|Anderson, Alexander]] [[Category:Aberdonians|Anderson, Alexander]] [[Category:Scottish emigrants|Anderson, Alexander]] [[Category:Scottish mathematicians|Anderson, Alexander]] [[Category:Scottish scholars|Anderson, Alexander]] [[Category:University of Paris|Anderson, Alexander]] [[es:Alexander Anderson]] [[sv:Alexander Anderson]] 1752 28108588 2005-11-12T11:42:59Z Bluebot 527862 Standardising 1911 references. '''Andocides''', or '''Andokidès ''', ([[440 BC|440]]&ndash;[[390 BC]]) one of the ten [[Attic orators]]. He was implicated during the [[Peloponnesian War]] in the mutilation of the [[Herms]] on the eve of the departure of the [[Sicilian expedition|Athenian expedition]] against [[Sicily]] in [[415 BC]]. Although he saved his life by turning informer, he was condemned to partial loss of civil rights and went into exile. He engaged in commercial pursuits, and returned to [[Athens]] under the general amnesty that followed the restoration of the democracy ([[403 BC]]), and filled some important offices. In [[391 BC]] he was one of the ambassadors sent to [[Sparta]] to discuss peace terms, but the negotiations failed. Oligarchical in his sympathies, he offended his own party and was distrusted by the democrats. Andocides was no professional orator; his style is simple and lively, natural but inartistic. '''Speeches extant'''--''De Reditu,'' his plea for his return and removal of civil disabilities; ''De Mysteriis,'' his defence against the charge of impiety in attending the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]]; ''De Pace,'' advocating peace with Sparta; ''Contra [[Alcibiades|Alcibiadem]],'' generally considered spurious. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Ancient Athenians|Andocides]] [[de:Andokides (Redner)]] [[el:Ανδοκίδης]] [[fr:Andocide]] [[hu:Andokidész]] 1753 15900218 2002-04-24T05:59:11Z Gianfranco 918 #REDIRECT [[Andrea del Sarto]] - (correct title) - moving content #REDIRECT [[Andrea del Sarto]] 1754 35439958 2006-01-16T20:13:18Z FlaBot 228773 robot Adding: de '''Andrea Andreani''' ([[1540]]-[[1623]]), Italian [[engraver]] on wood, in [[chiaroscuro]]. Born in [[Mantua]] about [[1540]] (Brulliot says [[1560]]) and died at [[Rome]] in [[1623]]. His engravings are scarce and valuable, and are chiefly copies of [[Mantegna]], [[Albrecht Dürer]], and [[Titian]]. The most remarkable of his works are "Mercury and Ignorance", the "Deluge," "Pharaoh's Host Drowned in the Red Sea" (after Titian), the "Triumph of Caesar" (after Mantegna), and "Christ retiring from the judgment-seat of Pilate" after a relief by Giambologna. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1540 births|Andreani]] [[Category:1623 deaths|Andreani]] [[Category:Italian engravers|Andreani]] [[Category:Natives of Mantua|Andreani]] [[de:Andrea Andreani]] 1755 41213584 2006-02-25T20:57:33Z Mathiasrex 776781 '''Andrew II''' ([[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]: ''II. András'' or ''II. Endre'', [[Slovak language|Slovak]]: ''Ondrej II'') ([[1175]]-[[1235]]) was a son of [[Béla III of Hungary|Béla III]] and succeeded his nephew, the infant [[Ladislaus III of Hungary|Ladislaus III]], as King of Hungary in [[1205]]. Few other royal reigns were as detrimental to the Hungarian realm as Andrew's. Valiant, enterprising, pious as he was, all these fine qualities were ruined by a reckless good nature which never thought of the future. He declared in a decree that the generosity of a king should be limitless, and he followed this principle throughout his reign. He gave away everything - money, villages, domains, whole counties - to the utter impoverishment of the treasury, thereby rendering the crown, for the first time in Hungarian history, dependent upon the great [[nobility]] eager for personal gain. In all matters of government, Andrew was equally reckless and haphazard. He was directly responsible for the beginnings of the feudal anarchy which led to the extinction of the [[Árpáds|Árpád]] [[dynasty]] at the end of the [[13th century]]. The great nobles did not even respect the lives of the royal family, for Andrew was recalled from a futile attempt to reconquer [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]] through the murder of his first wife [[Gertrude of Meran]] in [[1213]] by rebellious nobles jealous of the influence of her relatives. In [[1215]] he married Iolanthe (Yolande) of [[France]], but in [[1217]] was compelled by [[Pope Honorius III]] to lead the [[Fifth Crusade]] to the [[Holy Land]], which he undertook in hopes of being elected [[Latin Empire|Latin emperor]] of [[Constantinople]]. The crusade was not popular in Hungary, but Andrew contrived to collect 15,000 men together, whom he led to [[Venice]]. After the surrender of Hungarian claims on Zara ([[Zadar]]), about two-thirds of the crusaders were conveyed to [[Acre (city)|Acre]]. Nevertheless the whole expedition was a forlorn hope. The [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] was by this time reduced to a strip of coast about 440 mi² in extent, and after a drawn battle with the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] on the [[Jordan River]] on [[November 10]] 1217 and fruitless assaults on the fortresses of the [[Lebanon]] and on [[Mount Tabor]], Andrew started home ([[January 18]], [[1218]]) through Antioch ([[Antakya]]), Iconium ([[Konya]]), Constantinople, and [[Bulgaria]]. On his return he found the feudal barons in the ascendant, and they extorted from him the [[Golden Bull of 1222|Golden Bull]]. Andrew's last exploit was to defeat an invasion of [[Frederick II of Austria|Frederick II]] of [[Austria]] in [[1234]]. That same year he married his third wife, Beatrice of [[Este]]. ==Family== Andrew had five children by his first wife, Gertrude: # Maria of Hungary (1203-1221), married Tsar [[Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria]] # [[Bela IV of Hungary]] (1206-1270) # [[Elisabeth of Hungary|Saint Elizabeth of Hungary]] (1207-1231) # Kálmán, Duke of [[Croatia]] (1208-1241) # András, King of Galicia (1210-1234) From his second marriage to Yolande de Courtney, he had one daughter: # Jolán (Yolande) of Hungary (1215-1251), married [[James I of Aragon]] Andrew's third marriage to Beatrice d'Este produced one posthumous son: # István (1236-1271), who was himself father of King [[Andrew III of Hungary]] ==References== * {{1911}} {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[King of Hungary]]|before=[[Ladislaus III of Hungary|Ladislaus III]]|after=[[Bela IV of Hungary|Béla IV]]|years=1205&ndash;1235}} {{end box}} [[Category:Hungarian monarchs]] [[Category:1175 births|Andrew II of Hungary]] [[Category:1235 deaths|Andrew II of Hungary]] [[Category:Crusades]] [[de:Andreas II. (Ungarn)]] [[fr:André II de Hongrie]] [[hu:II. András]] [[ja:エンドレ2世]] [[pl:Andrzej II]] [[pt:André II da Hungria]] [[ro:Andrei al II-lea al Ungariei]] [[sk:Ondrej II. (Uhorsko)]] [[sv:Andreas II av Ungern]] [[zh:安德烈二世]] 1756 42161859 2006-03-04T05:47:49Z Lucidish 75338 '''''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding''''' is a book by the [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[philosopher]] [[David Hume]], published in [[1748]]. This is the book that woke [[Immanuel Kant]] from his self-described "dogmatic slumber". It was a simplification of an earlier effort, Hume's ''[[A Treatise of Human Nature]]'', published anonymously in [[London]] in [[1739]]&ndash;[[1740]]. Hume was disappointed with the reception of the ''Treatise'' (it "fell dead-born from the press", as he put it) and so tried again to get his ideas before the public in this ''Enquiry''. Among the changes from the ''Treatise'' included a removal of Hume's theories of [[personal identity]]. == Summary == The argument of the Enquiry proceeds following these steps: # '''Of the different species of philosophy.''' In the first section of the Enquiry, Hume provides a rough introduction to philosophy as a whole. For Hume, philosophy can be split into two general parts: natural and moral philosophy. By "moral philosophy" Hume means the philosophy of human nature, which investigates both actions and thoughts. He emphasizes in this section, by way of warning, that philosophers with nuanced thoughts will likely be cast aside in favor of those who weild flowery rhetoric. However, he insists, precision helps art and craft of all kinds. # '''Of the origin of ideas.''' In this section, Hume discusses the distinction between impressions and ideas. By "impressions", he means sensations, while by "ideas", he means memories and imaginings. According to Hume, the difference between the two is that ideas are less vivacious than impressions. Along with the empiricist's program, he argues that the source of all ideas are impressions, combined with the operations of the imagination. One noteworthy consequence which he gives some treatment of is the "missing blue shade" problem. # '''Of the association of ideas.''' In this chapter, Hume discusses how thoughts tend to come in sequences, as in trains of thought. He explains that there are at least three kinds of associations between ideas: resemblance, contiguity, and cause-and-effect. He argues that there must be some universal principle that must account for the various sorts of connections that exist between ideas, but does not immediately show what this principle might be. # '''Skeptical doubts concerning the operations of the understanding (in two parts)'''. In the first part, Hume discusses how the objects of inquiry are either "relations of ideas" or "matters of fact", which is roughly the distinction between [[analytic proposition|analytic]] and [[synthetic proposition]]s. In part two, Hume inquires into how anyone can justifiably believe that experience yields any conclusions about the world. He shows how a satisfying argument for experience can be based neither on principles (since no principle exists) nor experience (since that would be a [[circular argument]]). # '''Skeptical solution of these doubts (in two parts).''' For Hume, we assume that experience tells us something about the world because of habit or custom, which human nature forces us to take seriously. This is also, presumably, the principle that organizes the connections between ideas. Indeed, one of the many famous passages of the ''Enquiry'' was on the topic of the incorrigibility of human custom. Hume wrote:''"The great subverter of Pyrrhonism or the excessive principles of skepticism is action, and employment, and the occupations of common life. These principles may flourish and triumph in the schools; where it is, indeed, difficult, if not impossible, to refute them. But as soon as they leave the shade, and by the presence of the real objects, which actuate our passions and sentiments, are put in opposition to the more powerful principles of our nature, they vanish like smoke, and leave the most determined skeptic in the same condition as other mortals."'' # '''Of probability.''' # '''Of the idea of necessary connection (in two parts).''' # '''Of liberty and necessity (in two parts).''' # '''Of the reason of animals (comparable to man).''' # '''Of miracles (in two parts).''' # '''Of a particular providence and of a future state.''' # '''Of the academical or sceptical philosophy (in three parts).''' The first section of the last chapter is organized as an outline of various skeptical arguments. The treatment includes the arguments of atheism, Cartesian skepticism, "light" skepticism, and rationalist critiques of empiricism. Hume shows that even light skepticism leads to crushing doubts about the world which - while ultimately are more philosophically justifiable - may only be combatted through the non-philosophical adherance to custom or habit. He ends the section with his own reservations towards Cartesian and Lockean epistemologies. ==External links== *[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/h/h92e/ ebook text] *{{gutenberg|no=9662|name=An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding}} [[Category:1748 books|Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, An]] [[Category:Books by David Hume|Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, An]] [[Category:Philosophy books|Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, An]] {{Scotland-stub}} {{book-stub}} [[lv:Pētījums par cilvēka sapratni]] 1758 39937801 2006-02-16T23:18:44Z 200.160.81.208 '''Andrew of Longjumeau''' (also Longumeau, Lonjumel, etc.) was a [[13th century]] [[France|French]] [[Dominican Order|Dominican]], [[exploration|explorer]] and diplomat. He accompanied the mission that was sent by [[Pope Innocent IV]] to the [[Mongols]] in [[1247]] under Friar Ascelin or Anselm, which was chronicled by [[Simon of St Quentin]]. At the [[Tatars]]' camp near [[Kars]] he met a certain David, who next year ([[1248]]) appeared at the court of King [[Louis IX of France]] in [[Cyprus]]. Andrew, who was now with Saint Louis, interpreted David's message to the King, a real or pretended offer of alliance from the Mongol general [[Ilchikdai]] (Ilchikadai), and a proposal of a joint attack upon the [[Islam]]ic powers for the conquest of [[Syria]]. In reply to this the French sovereign dispatched Andrew as his ambassador to the great [[Guyuk|Kuyuk Khan]]; with Longjumeau went his brother (a [[monk]]) and several others — John Goderiche, John of Carcassonne, Herbert "Le Sommelier," Gerbert of Sens, Robert (a clerk), a certain William, and an unnamed clerk of [[Poissy]]. The party set out about [[February 16]], [[1249]], with letters from King Louis and the [[papal legate]], and rich presents, including a chapel-tent, lined with scarlet cloth and embroidered with sacred pictures. From Cyprus they went to the port of [[Antioch]] in Syria, and thence travelled for a year to the Khan's court, going ten leagues (55.56 kilometers) per day. Their route led them through [[Iran|Persia]], along the southern and eastern shores of the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] (whose inland character, unconnected with the outer ocean, their journey helped to demonstrate), and probably through [[Talas, Kyrgyzstan|Talas]], north-east of [[Tashkent]]. On arrival at the supreme Mongol court — either that on the [[Imyl river]] (near [[Lake Ala-kul]] and the present Russo-Chinese frontier in the [[Altai]]), or more probably at or near [[Karakorum]] itself, south-west of [[Lake Baikal]] — Andrew found Kuyuk Khan dead, poisoned, as the envoy supposed, by [[Batu Khan]]'s agents. The regent-mother [[Ogul Gaimish]] (the "Camus" of [[William of Rubruck]]) seems to have received and dismissed him with presents and a letter for Louis IX, the latter a fine specimen of Mongol insolence. But it is certain that before the friar had quitted "Tartary" [[Mangu Khan]], Kuyuk's successor, had been elected. Andrew's report to his sovereign, whom he rejoined in [[1251]] at [[Caesarea Palaestina|Caesarea]] in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], appears to have been a mixture of history and fable; the latter affects his narrative of the Mongols' rise to greatness, and the struggles of their leader, evidently [[Genghis Khan]], with [[Prester John]]; it is still more evident in the position assigned to the [[Tatars]] homeland, close to the prison of [[Gog and Magog]]. On the other hand, the envoy's account of Tatar manners is fairly accurate, and his statements about [[Mongolia|Mongol]] Christianity and its prosperity, though perhaps exaggerated (e.g. as to the 800 chapels on wheels in the nomadic host), are based on fact. Mounds of bones marked his road, witnesses of devastations which other historians record in detail. He found [[Christianity|Christian]] prisoners, from [[Germany]] in the heart of "Tartary" (at Talas), and was compelled to observe the ceremony of passing between two fires, as a bringer of gifts to a dead Khan, gifts which were of course treated by the Mongols as evidence of submission. This insulting behaviour, and the language of the letter with which Andrew reappeared, marked the mission a failure: King Louis, says [[Jean de Joinville|Joinville]], "''se repenti fort''" ("felt very sorry"). We only know of Andrew through references in other writers: see especially [[William of Rubruck]]'s in ''Recueil de voyages'', iv. (Paris, 1839), pp. 261, 265, 279, 296, 310, 353, 363, 370; Joinville, ed. Francisque Michel (1858, etc.), pp. 142, etc.; Jean Pierre Sarrasin, in same vol., pp. 254–235; [[William of Nangis]] in ''Recueil des historiens des Gaules'', xx. 359–367; [[Charles de Rémusat|Rémusat]], ''Mémoires sur les relations politiques des princes chrétiens… avec les… Mongols'' (1822, etc.), p. 52. ==See also== *[[Giovanni da Pian del Carpine]] ==References== {{1911}} [[Category:Dominicans|Longjumeau, Andrew of]] [[Category:French diplomats|Longjumeau, Andrew of]] [[Category:French explorers|Longjumeau, Andrew of]] [[Category:Explorers of Asia|Longjumeau, Andrew of]] [[fr:André de Longjumeau]] 1759 28108625 2005-11-12T11:43:57Z Bluebot 527862 Standardising 1911 references. '''Andriscus''', (also spelt Andriskos) often called the "pseudo-Philip," a fuller of Adramyttium, who claimed to be a son of [[Perseus of Macedon|Perseus]], last king of [[Macedon]]ia. He occupied the throne for a year ([[149 BC]]-[[148 BC]].) Unable to obtain a following in Macedonia, he applied to [[Demetrius I of Syria|Demetrius Soter of Syria]], who handed him over to the Romans. He contrived, however, to escape; reappeared in Macedonia with a large body of [[Thracians]]; and, having completely defeated the praetor [[Publius Juventius]] (149), he assumed the title of king. His conquest of [[Thessaly]] and alliance with [[Carthage]] made the situation dangerous. Eventually he was defeated by [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus|Q. Caecilius Metellus]] (148), and fled to [[Thrace]], whose prince gave him up to [[Rome]]. He figured in the triumph of Metellus (146), who received the title of "Macedonicus" for his victory. Andriscus's brief reign was marked by cruelty and extortion. After this Macedonia was formally reduced to a province. [[Marcus Velleius Paterculus|Velleius Paterculus]] i. 11; [[Florus]] ii. 14; [[Livy]], ''Epit.'' 49, 50, 52; [[Diodorus Siculus|Diod. Sic.]] xxxii. 9. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]] [[fi:Andriskos]] 1760 42042677 2006-03-03T11:55:28Z KnightRider 430793 warnfile Adding: es '''Andronicus III Palaeologus''' (c. [[1296]] - [[June 15]], [[1341]]), [[Byzantine emperor]], was the son of [[Michael IX Palaeologus]] and Princess [[Rita of Armenia]]. His conduct during his youth was so violent that, after the death of his father Michael in [[1320]], his grandfather [[Andronicus II]] resolved to deprive him of his right to the crown. Andronicus rebelled; he had a powerful party, and the first period of civil war ended in his being crowned and accepted as colleague by his grandfather, [[1325]]. The quarrel broke out again and, notwithstanding the help of the [[Bulgaria]]ns, the older emperor was compelled to abdicate in [[1328]]. His chief minister during this period was John Cantacuzenus, later Emperor [[John VI Cantacuzenus|John VI]]. During his reign Andronicus III was engaged in constant war, chiefly with the [[Ottoman Turks]], who greatly extended their territory, conquering almost all of [[Asia Minor]] before his coming to power. Under Andronicus's rule, [[Nicaea]] fell to [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[emir]] [[Orhan I]] in 1331, with [[Nicomedia]] following in 1337. After that, in Asia Minor only Philadelphia and a handful of ports remained under Byzantine control. He annexed large regions in [[Thessaly]] and [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]], but they were lost few years after his death in period of new civil war to the rising power of [[Serbia]] under [[Stefan Dusan]]. Andronicus worked on the reorganization of the navy, and recovered [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]], [[Phocaea]], and [[Chios]] from the [[Genoa|Genoese]]. He died in [[1341]], and was succeeded by his son, [[John V Palaeologus|John V]]. {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Andronicus II]] | title=[[Byzantine Emperor]] | years=1325&ndash;1341 <br />''with [[Andronicus II]] in 1325-1328'' | after=[[John V Palaeologus]]}} {{end box}} [[Category:1290s births]] [[Category:1341 deaths]] [[Category:Palaeologus dynasty]] [[Category:Byzantine emperors]] [[de:Andronikos III.]] [[el:Ανδρόνικος Γ']] [[es:Andrónico III Paleólogo]] [[fr:Andronic III Paléologue]] [[hu:III. Andronikosz]] [[ja:アンドロニコス3世パレオロゴス]] [[pl:Andronik III Paleolog]] 1761 42042664 2006-03-03T11:55:17Z KnightRider 430793 warnfile Adding: es '''Andronicus II Palaeologus''' ([[1260]] &ndash; [[February 13]], [[1332]]), [[Byzantine emperor]], was the elder son of [[Michael VIII Palaeologus]], whom he succeeded in [[1282]]. He ruled until 1328. He allowed the fleet, which his father had organized, to fall into decay; and the empire was thus less able than ever to resist the exacting demands of the rival powers of [[Venice]] and [[Genoa]]. During his reign the [[Ottoman Turks]] under [[Osman I|Osman]] conquered nearly the whole of [[Bithynia]]; and to resist them the emperor called in the aid of the [[Catalonia|Catalan]] [[Roger de Flor]], who commanded a body of [[Aragon]]ese and [[Catalonia|Catalan]] adventurers known as [[Almogavars]]. The Turks were defeated, but Roger was found to be nearly as formidable an enemy to the imperial power. He was [[assassination|assassinated]] by Andronicus's son and colleague (sometimes referred to as emperor Michael IX, though he never ruled in his own name), in [[1305]]. His adventurers (known as the [[Catalan Grand Company]] or ''Companyia Catalana'' in [[Catalan language|Catalan]]) declared war upon Andronicus, and, after devastating [[Thrace]] and [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], conquered the [[Duchy of Athens]] and [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]]. From [[1320]] onwards the emperor was engaged in war with his grandson [[Andronicus III|Andronicus]]. He abdicated in [[1328]] and died in [[1332]]. In [[1274]] he married Anne of Hungary, a daughter of King [[Stephen V of Hungary|Stephen V]], with whom he had two sons: # [[Michael IX Palaeologus]] # Constantine After she died in [[1281]] Andronicus married a daughter of Wilhelm IX of Montferrat, Yolande, who took the name of Irene and bore him: # John (c. 1286 - 1308) # [[Theodore I of Montferrat|Theodore I, Marquis of Montferrat]] (1291-1338) # Demetrius (d. after 1343) # Simonis (1294 - after 1336) (married King of [[Serbia]] [[Stefan Milutin|Stephen II Urosh Milutin]]) He also had at least two illegitimate daughters: # Irene, wife of John II despot of [[Thessaly]] # Maria, wife of [[Tokhta]] Khan of the [[Golden Horde]] {{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Michael VIII Palaeologus]] | CoEmperor=with [[Michael IX Palaeologus]]| Next=[[Andronicus III]]}} ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Palaeologus dynasty]] [[Category:Byzantine emperors]] [[Category:1260 births]] [[Category:1332 deaths]] [[de:Andronikos II.]] [[el:Ανδρόνικος Β']] [[es:Andrónico II Paleólogo]] [[fr:Andronic II Paléologue]] [[hu:II. Andronikosz]] [[ja:アンドロニコス2世パレオロゴス]] [[pl:Andronik II Paleolog]] [[zh:安德洛尼卡二世]] 1762 42042654 2006-03-03T11:55:08Z KnightRider 430793 warnfile Adding: es [[Image:ByzantineBillonTrachy.jpg|frame|Billon trachy (a cup-shaped coin) of Andronicus I Comnenus (1183-1185)]] '''Andronicus I Comnenus''' (c.1118 - September 12th 1185), [[Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine emperor]], son of prince [[Isaac Comnenus (d. 1152)|Isaac Comnenus]], and grandson of [[Alexius I Comnenus|Alexius I Comnenus]], was born about the beginning of the [[12th century]]. His birth has been estimated to c. [[1118]]. He was endowed by nature with the most remarkable gifts both of mind and body. He was handsome and eloquent, but licentious; and at the same time active, hardy, courageous, a great general and an able politician. Andronicus' early years were spent in alternate pleasure and military service. In [[1141]] he was taken captive by the [[Seljuk Turks]] and remained in their hands for a year. On being ransomed he went to [[Constantinople]], where was held the court of his cousin, the emperor [[Manuel I Comnenus|Manuel]], with whom he was a great favourite. Here the charms of his niece, the princess Eudoxia, attracted him. She became his mistress, while her sister Theodora stood in a similar relation to the emperor Manuel. In [[1152]], accompanied by Eudoxia, he set out for an important command in [[Cilicia]]. Failing in his principal enterprise, an attack upon [[Mopsuestia]], he returned, but was again appointed to the command of a province. This second post he seems also to have left after a short interval, for he appeared again in [[Constantinople]], and narrowly escaped death at the hands of the brothers of Eudoxia. About this time ([[1153]]) a conspiracy against the emperor, in which Andronicus participated, was discovered and he was thrown into prison. There he remained for about twelve years, during which time he made repeated but unsuccessful attempts to escape. At last, in [[1165]], he was successful; and, after passing through many dangers, reached the court of [[Yaroslav]], grand prince of [[Ruthenia]], at [[Kyiv]]. While under the protection of the grand prince, Andronicus brought about an alliance between him and the emperor Manuel, and so restored himself to the emperor's favour. With a Russian army he joined Manuel in the invasion of [[Hungary]] and assisted at the siege of [[Semlin]]. After a successful campaign Manuel and Andronicus returned together to Constantinople ([[1168]]); but a year after, Andronicus refused to take the oath of allegiance to the prince of Hungary, whom Manuel desired to become his successor. He was removed from court, but received the province of [[Cilicia]]. Being still under the displeasure of the emperor, Andronicus fled to the court of [[Raymond of Antioch|Raymond]], [[Principality of Antioch|prince of Antioch]]. While residing here he captivated and seduced the beautiful daughter of the prince, Philippa, sister of the empress [[Maria of Antioch|Maria]]. The anger of the emperor was again roused by this dishonour, and Andronicus was compelled to flee. He took refuge with [[Amalric I of Jerusalem]], whose favour he gained, and who invested him with the [[Principality of Galilee|Lordship of Beirut]]. In Jerusalem he saw [[Theodora Comnena|Theodora]], the beautiful widow of the late King [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin III]] and niece of the emperor Manuel. Although Andronicus was at that time fifty-six years old, age had not diminished his charms, and Theodora became the next victim of his artful seduction. To avoid the vengeance of the Emperor, she fled with Andronicus to the court of the Sultan of [[Damascus]]; but not deeming themselves safe there, they continued their perilous journey through [[Iran|Persia]] and [[Turkestan]], round the [[Caspian Sea]] and across [[Mount Caucasus]], until at length they settled in the ancestral lands of the Comneni at [[Oinaion]], on the shores of the [[Black Sea]], between [[Trebizond]] and [[Sinope]]. While Andronicus was on one of his incursions, his castle was surprised by the governor of Trebizond, and Theodora with her two children were captured and sent to Constantinople. To obtain their release Andronicus made abject submission to the Emperor and, appearing in chains before him, implored pardon. This he obtained, and was allowed to retire with Theodora into banishment at Oinaion. In [[1180]] the emperor Manuel died, and was succeeded by his son [[Alexius II Comnenus]], who was under the guardianship of the empress Maria. Her conduct excited popular indignation, and the consequent disorders, amounting almost to civil war, gave an opportunity to the ambition of Andronicus. He left his retirement in [[1182]], secured the support of the army and marched upon Constantinople, where his advent was stained by a cruel massacre of the Latin inhabitants, which was focused on the [[Venice|Venetian]] merchants who virtually controlled the economy of the city. Alexius was compelled to acknowledge him as colleague in the empire, but was soon put to death. Andronicus, now ([[1183]]) sole emperor, married [[Agnes of France]], widow of Alexius II and a child twelve years of age. Agnes was a daughter of [[Louis VII of France]] and his third wife [[Adèle of Champagne]]. His short reign was characterized by strong and wise measures. He resolved to suppress many abuses, but, above all things, to check [[feudalism]] and limit the power of the nobles. The people, who felt the severity of his laws, at the same time acknowledged their justice, and found themselves protected from the rapacity of their superiors. The aristocrats, however, were infuriated against him, and summoned to their aid [[William II of Sicily]]. This prince landed in [[Despotate of Epirus|Epirus]] with a strong force, and marched as far as [[Thessalonica]], which he took and destroyed; but he was shortly afterwards defeated, and compelled to return to [[Sicily]]. Andronicus seems then to have resolved to exterminate the aristocracy, and his plans were nearly crowned with success. But in [[1185]], during his absence from the capital, his lieutenant ordered the arrest and execution of [[Isaac II Angelus|Isaac Angelus]], a descendant of the first Alexius. Isaac escaped and took refuge in the church of [[Hagia Sophia]]. He appealed to the populace, and a tumult arose which spread rapidly over the whole city. When Andronicus arrived he found that his power was overthrown, and that Isaac had been proclaimed emperor. Isaac delivered him over to his enemies, and for three days he was exposed to their fury and resentment. His punishments included flogging, being tied to the back of a sick camel and having boiling water thrown in his face. At last they hung him up by the feet between two pillars. His dying agonies were shortened by an [[Italy|Italian]] soldier, who mercifully plunged a sword into his body. He died on [[September 12]], 1185. Andronicus was the last of the [[Comnenus|Comneni]] to rule Constantinople, although his grandsons [[Alexius I of Trebizond]] and his brother [[David (co-emperorof Trebizond)|David]] founded the [[Empire of Trebizond]] in [[1204]]. == External links == {{Commons|Andronicus I Comnenus}} {{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Alexius II Comnenus]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[Isaac II Angelus]]}} [[Category:1118 births]] [[Category:1185 deaths]] [[Category:Comnenid dynasty]] [[Category:Byzantine emperors]] [[Category:Crusades]] [[de:Andronikos I. (Byzanz)]] [[el:Ανδρόνικος Α']] [[es:Andrónico I Comneno]] [[eo:Androniko la 1-a]] [[fr:Andronic Ier Comnène]] [[hu:I. Andronikosz]] [[ja:アンドロニコス1世コムネノス]] [[pl:Andronik I Komnen]] 1763 28106208 2005-11-12T10:49:03Z Bluebot 527862 Standardising 1911 references. '''Andronicus of Cyrrhus''' was a [[Greece|Greek]] [[astronomer]] who flourished about 100 BC. He built a [[horologium]] at [[Athens]], the so-called [[Tower of the Winds]], a considerable portion of which still exists. It is octagonal, with figures carved on each side, representing the eight principal winds. In antiquity a bronze figure of [[Triton (god)|Triton]] on the summit, with a rod in his hand, turned round by the wind, pointed to the quarter from which it blew. From this model is derived the custom of placing weathercocks on steeples. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Greek and Roman astronomers]] [[sl:Andronik]] 1764 28106223 2005-11-12T10:49:23Z Bluebot 527862 Standardising 1911 references. '''Andronicus of Rhodes''' (c. 70 B.C.), was the eleventh scholarch of the [[Peripatetics]]. His chief work was the arrangement of the writings of [[Aristotle]] and [[Theophrastus]] with materials supplied to him by [[Tyrannion]]. Before his time, Aristotle's dialogues were widely known, but his treatises had been lost in obscurity. Besides arranging the works, he seems to have written paraphrases and commentaries, none of which is extant. Two treatises are sometimes erroneously attributed to him, one on the Emotions, the other a commentary on Aristotle's Ethics (really by Constantine Palaeocappa in the 16th century, or by John Callistus of Thessalonica). ==References== *{{1911}} [[hu:rhodoszi Andronikosz]] [[fi:Andronikos Rhodoslainen]] 1765 21539173 2005-08-22T01:33:41Z Pumpie 22949 de & el The name '''Andronicus''' refers to several people: * [[Livius Andronicus]] ([[284 BC|284?]]&ndash;[[204 BC]]) &mdash; introduced [[drama]] to the Romans and produced the first formal play in Latin in c. [[240 BC]] *[[Andronicus of Cyrrhus]] &mdash; [[Greece|Greek]] [[astronomer]] (c. [[100 BC]]) *[[Andronicus of Rhodes]] (c. [[70 BC]]) *[[Andronicus]], an early Christian mentioned in Romans 16 *Four [[Byzantine Emperors]]: **[[Andronicus I Comnenus]] ([[1118]]&ndash;[[1185]]) **[[Andronicus II]] Palaeologus ([[1258]]&ndash;[[1332]]) **[[Andronicus III]] Palaeologus ([[1297]]&ndash;[[1341]]) **[[Andronicus IV]] Palaeologus ([[1348]]&ndash;[[1385]]) *Three [[Empire of Trebizond|Emperors of Trebizond]]: **[[Andronicus I of Trebizond|Andronicus I Gidus Comnenus]] ([[1222]]&ndash;[[1235]]) **[[Andronicus II of Trebizond|Andronicus II Comnenus]] ([[1263]]&ndash;[[1266]]) **[[Andronicus III of Trebizond|Andronicus III Comnenus]] ([[1330]]&ndash;[[1332]]) *[[Titus Andronicus]] &mdash; main character in the play of the same name by [[William Shakespeare]], possibly named after one of the above-listed emperors {{disambig}} [[de:Andronikos]] [[el:Ανδρόνικος]] [[hu:Andronikosz]] [[pl:Andronik]] 1766 15900231 2002-09-03T22:11:27Z Bryan Derksen 66 changing redirect #REDIRECT [[Asteroid belt]] 1767 36166738 2006-01-22T02:55:21Z GBWallenstein 607387 /* External link */ link to the Latin Library '''Ammianus Marcellinus''' was a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] historian who wrote during [[Late Antiquity]]. He was born about [[325]]&#8209;[[330]], probably at [[Antioch]] (the probability hinges on whether he was the recipient of a surviving letter to a Marcellinus from a fellow citizen of Antioch). The date of his death is unknown, but he must have lived till [[391]], as he mentions [[Aurelius Victor]] as the city [[prefect]] for that year. The surviving books of his valuable history cover the years [[353]]&#8209;[[378]]; the work is sometimes referred to by a Latin title as ''Res Gestae'', a usage best avoided, however, since it leads to confusion with the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti]]''. He was "a [[soldier]] and a [[Greek people|Greek]]" he tells us, and his enrollment among the elite ''protectores domestici'' (household guards) shows that he was of noble birth. He entered the army at an early age, when [[Constantius II]] was emperor of the East, and was sent to serve under [[Ursicinus]], governor of [[Nisibis]] in [[Roman Mesopotamia]], and ''magister militiae.'' He returned to Italy with Ursicinus, when he was recalled by Constantius, and accompanied him on the expedition against [[Silvanus the Frank]], who had been forced by the unjust accusations of his enemies into proclaiming himself emperor in [[Gaul]]. With Ursicinus he went twice to the East, and barely escaped with his life from Amida or Amid (modern [[Diyarbakir]]), when it was taken by the Persian king [[Shapur II of Persia|Shapur II]]. When Ursicinus lost his office and the favour of Constantius, Ammianus seems to have shared his downfall; but under [[Julian the Apostate]], Constantius's successor, he regained his position. He accompanied this emperor, for whom he expresses enthusiastic admiration, in his campaigns against the [[Alamanni]] and the [[Sassanid dynasty|Persians]]; after his death he took part in the retreat of [[Jovian]] as far as Antioch, where he was residing when the conspiracy of [[Theodorus]] ([[371]]) was discovered and cruelly put down. Eventually he settled in Rome, where, at an advanced age, he wrote (in Latin) a history of the Roman empire from the accession of [[Nerva]] ([[96]]) to the death of [[Valens]] at the [[Battle of Adrianople (378)|Battle of Adrianople]] ([[378]]), thus forming a continuation of the work of [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]]. This history (''Res Gestae Libri XXXI'') was originally in thirty-one books, but the first thirteen are lost. The surviving eighteen books cover the period from [[353]] to 378. As a whole it has been considered extremely valuable, being a clear, comprehensive and impartial account of events by a contemporary of soldierly honesty, independent judgement and wide reading. Recent studies have, however, shown the [[rhetoric]]al power in his histories. Like all ancient historians, he did not even attempt to produce a history in the modern style: he had a strong political and pagan religious agenda to pursue, and he contrasted Constantius II with Julian to the former's constant disadvantage. [[Edward Gibbon]] judged Ammianus as "an accurate and faithful guide, who composed the history of his own times without indulging the prejudices and passions which usually affect the mind of a contemporary." Ammianus was a [[paganism|pagan]], and when he marginalises [[Christianity]] repeatedly in his account, we are reminded that making Christianity the state religion did not make all Romans Christians. His style is generally harsh, often pompous and extremely obscure, occasionally even journalistic in tone, but the author's foreign origin and his military life and training partially explain this. Further, the work being intended for public recitation, some rhetorical embellishment was necessary, even at the cost of simplicity. It is a striking fact that Ammianus, though a professional soldier, gives excellent pictures of social and economic problems, and in his attitude to the non-Roman peoples of the empire he is far more broad-minded than writers like [[Livy]] and Tacitus; his digressions on the various countries he had visited are particularly interesting. In his description of the Empire &mdash;the exhaustion produced by excessive taxation, the financial ruin of the middle classes, the progressive decline in the morale of the army&mdash; we find the explanation of its fall before the [[Goths]] twenty years after his death. ==Reference== Latin text and facing English translation commonly available in the [[Loeb Classical Library]], 1935&#8209;1940 with many reprintings. ==External links== *[http://odur.let.rug.nl/~drijvers/ammianus/index.htm Ammianus Marcellinus on-line project] *[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/ammianus.html Ammianus Marcellinus' works] in Latin at the Latin Library ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Roman era historians]] [[Category:Late Antique writers]] [[Category:Ancient Roman soldiers]] [[bg:Амиан Марцелин]] [[de:Ammianus Marcellinus]] [[es:Amiano Marcelino]] [[fr:Ammien Marcellin]] [[gl:Ammiano Marcelino]] [[it:Ammiano Marcellino]] [[hu:Ammianus Marcellinus]] [[nl:Ammianus Marcellinus]] [[pl:Ammianus Marcellinus]] [[pt:Ammiano Marcellino]] [[ru:Аммиан Марцеллин]] [[fi:Ammianus Marcellinus]] 1768 41144813 2006-02-25T09:01:45Z 84.58.14.205 '''ALICE''' may stand for: *[[A Large Ion Collider Experiment]], a high energy heavy ion- and particle physics experiment at the European Center for Nuclear Research CERN's Large Hadron Collider LHC *[[All-purpose Lightweight Individual Carrying Equipment]], a package of load-bearing equipment utilized by the United States Armed Forces *[[Artificial Linguistic Internet Computer Entity]], a natural language processing chatterbot ==See also== *[[Alice]] {{disambig}} [[Category:5-letter acronyms]] [[pl:ALICE]] 1769 15900234 2002-06-21T23:53:36Z Bryan Derksen 66 no need to have this in a separate subspace any more #REDIRECT [[An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding]] 1770 42105272 2006-03-03T21:34:43Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 No overlap visible here. If it persists on other borwsers insert {{subst:clear}} :''This article is about the Moon mission. There is also a ''[[Apollo 13 (film)|''film by the name of ''Apollo 13]]''.'' {| class="toccolours" border="1" cellpadding="4" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; width: 20em; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; clear: right;" |+<font size="+1">'''Apollo 13'''</font> |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="9" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission insignia |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:Ap13.jpg|200px|Apollo 13 insignia]] |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission statistics |- |'''Mission name:'''||Apollo 13 |- |'''Call sign:'''||Command module: ''Odyssey''<br />Lunar module: ''Aquarius'' |- |'''Number of<br />crew:'''||3 |- |'''Launch:'''||[[April 11]], [[1970]]<br />19:13:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]<br />[[Kennedy Space Center]]<br />LC 39A |- |'''Lunar flyby:<br />(Pericynthion)'''||[[April 15]], [[1970]]<br />00:21:00 UTC<br />254.3 km from Moon<br />400,171 km from Earth |- |'''Splashdown:'''||[[April 17]], [[1970]]<br />18:07:41 UTC<br />21° 38' 24" S - 165° 21' 42" W |- |'''Duration:'''||5 d 22 h 54 min 41 s |- |'''Mass:'''||CSM 28,945 kg;<br />LM 15,235 kg |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Crew picture |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:GPN-2000-001167.jpg|300px|Apollo 13 crew portrait (L-R: Lovell, Swigert, and Haise)]]<br/>Apollo 13 crew portrait <br/>(L-R: Lovell, Swigert, and Haise) |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Apollo 13 Crew |} '''Apollo 13''' was an [[United States|American]] space mission, part of the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]]. It was intended to be the third mission to land on the [[Moon]], but instead is famous for the critical malfunction it suffered and its difficult but successful return home. ==Crew== *[[James A. Lovell]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 7]]'', ''[[Gemini 12]]'', ''[[Apollo 8]]'' & ''Apollo 13''), commander *[[Jack Swigert]] (flew on ''Apollo 13''), command module pilot *[[Fred Haise]] (flew on ''Apollo 13''), lunar module pilot *[[Ken Mattingly]] was originally slated to be command module pilot, but he was removed from the flight three days before launch after being exposed to [[German Measles]]. He later flew as command module pilot on [[Apollo 16]]. ===Backup crew=== *[[John W. Young|John Young]], commander *[[Jack Swigert]], command module pilot *[[Charles Duke]], lunar module pilot ===Support crew=== *[[Vance Brand]] (flew on [[Apollo-Soyuz]], [[STS-5]], [[STS-41-B]], and [[STS-51]]) *[[Jack Lousma]] (flew on [[Skylab 3]] and [[STS-3]]) *[[William Pogue|Bill Pogue]] (flew on [[Skylab 4]]) *[[Joseph P. Kerwin|Joe Kerwin]] (flew on [[Skylab 2]]) ==Mission parameters== *'''[[Mass]]:''' CM 28,945 kg; LM 15,235 kg *'''[[Perigee]]:''' 181.5 km *'''[[Apogee]]:''' 185.6 km *'''[[Inclination]]:''' 33.5° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 88.07 min ===Oxygen tank explosion=== *[[April 14]], [[1970]], 03:08:53.555 UTC ** 321,860 km from earth. ===Closest approach to Moon=== *[[April 15]], [[1970]], 00:21:00 UTC ** 254.3 km above far side of Moon; ** 400,171 km from Earth (possibly a record distance, see below). ===See also=== * [[Splashdown (spacecraft landing)|Splashdown]] * [[List of artificial objects on the Moon]] ==Quote== Famous '''mis'''quote: "''Houston, we have a problem''"<br /> Actual quote: "''Okay, Houston, we've had a problem here''" [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Timeline/apollo13chron.html], uttered by Swigert to ground. Lovell then uttered this similar phrase: "''Houston, we've had a problem.''" ==Mission highlights== The Apollo 13 mission began with a lesser known malfunction which could have been equally catastrophic. During second stage burn the center engine shut down prematurely. Engineers later discovered that this was due to dangerous [[pogo oscillation]]s which might have torn the second stage apart; the engine was experiencing 68g vibrations at 16 hertz, flexing the thrust frame by 3 inches. Luckily the oscillations caused a low pressure reading to register, and the computer shut the engine down automatically. This was later traced to amplification of the pogo that had occurred on previous flights by an unexpected interaction with the cavitation in the turbopumps. Later missions had anti-pogo devices as had already been planned since before Apollo 13 which solved the problem. When Apollo 13 was 321,860 kilometers (199,990 mi) from Earth, an oxygen tank in the service module exploded. The only solution was for the crew to cancel their planned landing, swing around the Moon and return on a trajectory back to Earth. However, because their command/service module "Odyssey" was severely damaged, the three astronauts had to use the lunar module "Aquarius" as a crowded lifeboat for the return home. The four-day return trip was cold, uncomfortable, and tense. But Apollo 13 proved the program's ability to weather a major crisis and bring the crew back home safely. ===Problem=== As the [[spacecraft]] was on its way to the Moon, the number two oxygen tank in the [[Service Module]] (SM) exploded when [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|Mission Control]] requested that the crew perform a "cryo stir", in which the oxygen "slush" is stirred to prevent it from stratifying. Teflon insulation covering damaged electrical wires powering the stirrer motor caught fire when power was applied. The fire caused a pressure increase above the tank's nominal 1,000 lbf/in&sup2; (7 MPa), and the tank exploded. This explosion damaged other parts of the service module, including the number 1 oxygen tank. At the time of the explosion, however, the true cause was not known; one conjecture was a [[meteoroid]] impact. The loss of both oxygen tanks in the service module and thus the oxygen required to create electrical power for the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Modules]] (CSM) meant that the CSM had to be completely shut down. The [[Command Module]] (CM) contained batteries for use during re-entry, after the Service Module was jettisoned, but these would only last about ten hours, and needed to be saved for re-entry. The crew survived by using the [[Lunar Module]] (LM, still attached to the CM) as a "lifeboat". [[Image:Apollo 13 SM.jpg|thumb|250px|Apollo 13 damaged Service Module (NASA)]] The damage to the CSM meant that the Moon-landing mission (originally intended to land at the [[Fra Mauro formation|Fra Mauro]] Highlands) had to be aborted; a single pass around the Moon was made and the spacecraft returned to [[Earth]]. Considerable ingenuity under extreme pressure was required from both the crew and the [[flight controller]]s to figure out how to [[jury rig]] the craft for the crew's safe return, with much of the world watching the drama on television. One of the major stumbling blocks in this was that the LM "lifeboat" was equipped to sustain two people for two days, and it would now have to sustain three people for four days. One of the most critical problems was that the [[lithium hydroxide]] [[carbon dioxide]] filters in the LM would not last for all four days, and the CM's spare filters were the wrong shape for the LM's filter receptacle; an adapter had to be fabricated from materials in the spacecraft. To accomplish a safe return to Earth, a significant course correction to place the spacecraft on a [[free return trajectory]] was required. This would normally be a simple procedure using the [[service module]] [[Spacecraft propulsion|propulsion]] engine. However, the [[flight controller]]s did not know the extent of the damage the service module had suffered and did not want to risk firing the main engine. Instead, the course correction would have to be performed by firing the lunar module's descent engine. After extensive discussion, engineers on the ground found it was possible. The initial maneuver to change to a free return trajectory was made within hours of the accident. The descent engine was fired again after passage around the Moon in order to accelerate the spacecraft's return to Earth, and later for a minor course correction. As re-entry to Earth's atmosphere approached, NASA took the unusual step of jettisoning the Service Module first, while the Lunar Module was still attached to the Command Module. The LM thrusters were used to maneuver the CM/LM stack to point its windows at the departing SM, and photos were taken. When the crew saw the damaged service module, they reported that the access panel covering the O₂ tanks and fuel cells had been blown off. There was some fear that the extensive condensation in the CM, due to reduced temperatures during the return leg, might have seriously damaged the electronics of the Command Module, which would become apparent upon activation. But the equipment worked perfectly when activated, at least partly due to the extensive design modifications made to the CM after the [[Apollo 1]] fire. [[Image:Apollo13 splashdown.jpg|left|thumb|160px|A successful splashdown (NASA)]] The crew returned unharmed to Earth, although Haise had a [[urinary tract infection]] resulting from the scarcity of potable water on the damaged ship and the difficulty of disposing of urine, and had to be treated in an infirmary. While the crew was unfortunate to have this kind of major malfunction, they were still extremely lucky that it occurred on the first leg of the mission when they had a maximum of supplies, equipment, and power to use in the emergency. If the explosion had occurred while in orbit around the moon, or on the return leg after the LM had been jettisoned, the crew probably would not have survived. After the completion of the mission, there was a full investigation of the incident and the craft was modified to prevent future occurrences of the fault. [[Jim Lovell]] and [[Jeffrey Kluger|Jeffrey Kluger's]] book about the mission, ''[[Lost Moon]]'', was later turned into a successful movie, ''[[Apollo 13 (film)|Apollo 13]]'', starring [[Tom Hanks]], [[Bill Paxton]] and [[Kevin Bacon]] as the Apollo crewmen. ===Cause of the accident=== The explosion on Apollo 13 led to a lengthy investigation of the underlying cause. Thanks to detailed manufacturing records and logs of mission problems, the failure of the faulty oxygen tank was tracked to multiple faults that were not problems individually, but nearly led to disaster on this mission. Liquid gases are very difficult to handle, and most storage containers holding them are unsealed so that pressure from expanding gas will not cause the container to fail (much like freezing water in even the strongest sealed container will shatter it). Apollo's liquid oxygen tank was a marvel of [[engineering]], able to hold several hundred pounds of highly pressurized liquid gas to supply the craft with oxygen, fuel for [[electricity]] (along with hydrogen) and [[water]] from the by-product of the [[fuel cells]]. Left alone, the tank was capable of safely holding liquid oxygen under high pressure for years before it evaporated because of its design and insulation. Unfortunately, the very characteristic that made the tank useful made internal inspection impossible. The tank was made of several basic components that were relevant to the accident: * A [[thermostat]] to control the heater within the tank that sped the evaporation of the liquid into gaseous oxygen; * A [[thermometer]] to determine the temperature of the heater; * Valves and piping that were designed to allow the tank to be completely emptied of liquid by forcing gas into the tank; * An interior coating of [[teflon]] that protected the wiring from the extremely cold gas; and * An internal fan to stir the liquid oxygen (liquid oxygen will turn into a "slush" at these pressures if it is allowed to sit for a long period of time). These were the basic design, manufacturing and operational problems that led to the accident. * The thermostat was originally designed to handle the 28 [[volt]] supply that would be used in the command module. However, the specification for the tank was changed so that it had to handle 65 [[volt]]s on the launch pad. Most of the wiring was changed to handle the higher voltage, but the thermostat was not. * The thermometer was designed to read out at the highest operational temperature of the heater, about 100 degrees Fahrenheit. Higher temperatures registered at 100 °F, but the thermostat was supposed to cut out at 80 °F (27 °C), making higher temperatures impossible. * During assembly, the structure carrying the tank that failed was dropped about 2 inches (5 cm). The exterior was undamaged, but the pipes that directed flow within the tank became misaligned. * For ground testing the tank was filled. However, when it came time to empty it, the problem with the piping was discovered. As such, the tank could not be properly emptied except by running the heater to evaporate the liquid gas. Not using this tank would have delayed the mission and there was no alternative tank available. Lovell was aware of the decision to use the heater to evaporate the oxygen, which was calculated to take a few days at the highest operational temperature of 80 °F (27 °C). * However, when the heater was turned on continuously, the higher voltage fused the thermostat, which allowed the heater to keep heating up. Because the thermometer did not register temperatures higher than 100 degrees Fahrenheit (38 degrees Celsius), the monitoring equipment did not pick this up. The current recorder in the power supply showed that the heater was not cycling on and off, but no-one noticed it at the time. Instead of taking several days, the gas evaporated in hours, and the interior of the tank kept heating up, reaching an estimated 800 degrees Fahrenheit (430 °C). This burned off the teflon coating, leaving the wires inside the tank exposed. * The rest was inevitable. When the tank was refilled with oxygen, it became a bomb waiting to go off. The order to run the "cryo stir" to run the fans set off sparks inside the tank which led to the explosion. * Disaster might have been averted, had not the oxygen tanks been adjacent. Although the second tank survived the explosion, its valves were damaged which allowed the oxygen within to leak out. In future Apollo missions, the two oxygen tanks were separately located. ==Mission notes== *There was no time to properly replace the original [[lunar plaques|lunar plaque]] on ''Aquarius'' (which bore Mattingly's name), so Jim Lovell was given a replacement (with Swigert's name) to place over the original plaque once they landed on the moon. However, because the lunar landing was never made, Lovell kept the plaque, which is one of the few mementos from the mission that he has on display at his home. *As a result of following the free return trajectory, the altitude of Apollo 13 over the [[Far side (Moon)|lunar far side]] was approximately 100 km greater than the corresponding orbital altitude on the remaining Apollo lunar missions. This could mean an all-time [[altitude]] record for human spaceflight&mdash;not even superseded [[as of 2006]]&mdash;but this may well not be the case: the variation in distance between Earth and the Moon owing to the [[eccentricity (orbit)|eccentricity]] of the Moon's orbit about Earth is much larger than this 100 km. The [[Guinness Book of Records]] listed this flight as having the absolute altitude record for a manned spacecraft, and Lovell should have received a certificate from them attesting to this record (Lovell stated in the book ''Lost Moon'' that apart from the plaque and a couple of other pieces of salvage, the only other item he has regarding this mission was a letter from [[Charles Lindbergh]]). *The splashdown point was {{coor dm|21|38|S|165|22|W|}}, SE of American Samoa and 6.5 km (4 mi) from the recovery ship, [[USS Iwo Jima (LPH-2)|USS ''Iwo Jima'']]. *Superstitious people have associated the [[Triskaidekaphobia|belief that 13 is an unlucky number]] to the mission, especially due to the fact that the mission began at 13:13 [[Central Standard Time Zone|CST]], the problems began on [[April 13]], and the mission is called Apollo 13. ==Insignia== The Apollo 13 logo featured three flying horses, and the motto ''Ex luna, scientia'' (from the Moon, knowledge), and the number of the mission in Roman numerals. It is one of two Apollo insignias (the other being ''[[Apollo 11]]'''s) not to include the names of the crew (which was fortunate, considering one of the original crew was replaced not long before the mission began). ==Relics== The command module is currently displayed at the [[Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center]], [[Hutchinson, Kansas]]. It was formerly at the [[Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace]], [[Paris]]. The lunar module burned up in Earth's atmosphere [[17 April]], [[1970]], having been targeted to enter over the Pacific Ocean to reduce the possibility of contamination from a [[radioisotope thermoelectric generator]] (RTG) on board (had the mission proceeded as planned, the RTG would have been used to power the [[Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package]], and then remained on the Moon). The RTG survived reentry (as designed) and landed in the [[Tonga Trench]]. While it will remain radioactive for approximately 2000 years, it does not appear to be releasing radioactive material. ==Dramatization== * ''[[Apollo 13 (film)|Apollo 13]]'' - the 1995 [[film]] directed by [[Ron Howard (American director)|Ron Howard]] and starring, as the astronauts, [[Tom Hanks]], [[Bill Paxton]], and [[Kevin Bacon]], with [[Ed Harris]] as [[flight director]] [[Gene Kranz]], [[Kathleen Quinlan]], and [[Gary Sinise]] in supporting roles. The film was based on ''Lost Moon'', Jim Lovell's book about the incident. * In the [[1993]] film ''[[Falling Down]]'', [[Michael Douglas]]' character compares himself to the crew of Apollo 13, claiming that he had passed the "point of no return" as they had, thus causing them to circle the moon. ==Games== * ''[[Apollo 13 Solarquest]]'' was a [[1995]] board game released by Universal Games. It was based on the popular [[1986]] "space-age" [[Monopoly (game)|Monopoly]] variant, [[Solarquest]]. *[[Sega]] produced an Apollo 13 [[pinball]] machine, featuring a 13-ball [[Glossary of pinball terms#M|multiball]]. *[http://www.apollo13game.com/ Apollo 13 - an ITSM case experience] is a simulation game used in [[ITIL]] training. It's made by Dutch company [http://www.gamingworks.nl GamingWorks BV]. ==External links== * [http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo13.htm Apollo 13 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica] ===References=== *[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog] *[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)] *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology] *[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report] *[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.41.htm Apollo 13 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19770075651_1977075651.pdf Original Apollo 13 Lunar Exploration and Photography Summary Plan (PDF), February 1970] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19930074343_1993074343.pdf Apollo 13 Spacecraft Incident Investigation, (PDF) NASA June 1970] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19700076776_1970076776.pdf Report of Apollo 13 Review Board, (PDF) NASA June 1970] *[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/mission_trans/AS13_TEC.PDF Apollo 13 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcription, April 1970, 765 pages (PDF, 20.4 MB)] *[http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/apr05/2697 Apollo 13, We Have a Solution: Rather than hurried improvisation, saving the crew of Apollo 13 took years of preparation] *Lovell, Jim; Kluger, Jeffrey (1994). ''Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13''. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0395670292. * [http://www.archive.org/details/HoustonWeveGotAProblem ''NASA film on the Apollo 13 mission downloadable from ''archive.org'' ''The Internet Archive''] {{commons|Apollo 13}} {{Project Apollo| before=[[Apollo 12]]| after=[[Apollo 14]]}} [[Category:1970]] [[Category:Apollo program]] [[Category:Human spaceflights]] [[Category:Lunar spacecraft]] [[af:Apollo 13]] [[cs:Apollo 13]] [[da:Apollo 13]] [[de:Apollo 13]] [[et:Apollo 13]] [[fi:Apollo 13]] [[fr:Apollo 13]] [[he:אפולו 13]] [[hu:Apollo-13]] [[it:Apollo 13]] [[ja:アポロ13号]] [[ko:아폴로 13호]] [[nl:Apollo 13]] [[no:Apollo 13]] [[pl:Apollo 13]] [[pt:Apollo 13]] [[ru:Аполлон-13]] [[sk:Apollo 13]] [[sv:Apollo 13]] [[zh:阿波罗13号]] 1771 15900236 2004-10-22T01:07:23Z N328KF 77722 #REDIRECT [[Project Apollo]] 1772 15900237 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Arthritis]] 1773 40359173 2006-02-20T01:16:41Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 External links per MoS. {| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=272 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" |+<big>'''''Apollo 7'''''</big> |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission insignia |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:AP7lucky7.jpg|200px|Apollo 7 insignia]] |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission statistics |- |'''Mission name:'''||Apollo 7 |- |'''Call sign:'''||Command module:<br />''Apollo 7'' |- |'''Number of<br />Crew:'''||3 |- |'''Launch:'''||[[October 11]], [[1968]]<br />15:02:45 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]<br />[[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station]]<br />LC 34 |- |'''Apogee:'''||297 km |- |'''Perigee:'''||231 km |- |'''Period:'''||89.78 min |- |'''Inclination:'''||31.63 |- |'''Splashdown:'''||[[October 22]], [[1968]]<br />11:11:48 UTC<br />27° 38' N - 64° 09' W |- |'''Duration:'''||10 d 20 h 9 min 3 s |- |'''Number of<br />Orbits:'''||163 |- |'''Mass:'''||CSM 14,781 kg |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Crew picture |- |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:GPN-2000-001160.jpg|275px|Apollo 7 crew portrait (L-R: Eisle, Schirra and Cunningham)]]<br><small>''Apollo 7'' crew portrait <br/>(L-R: Eisle, Schirra and Cunningham)</small> |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Apollo 7 crew |} '''Apollo 7''' was the first manned mission in the [[Apollo program]] to be launched. It was an eleven-day earth-orbital mission, the first manned launch of the [[Saturn IB]] launch vehicle, and the first three-man [[United States|American]] space mission. ==Crew== *[[Wally Schirra]] (flew on ''[[Mercury 8]]'', ''[[Gemini 6A]]''), commander *[[Donn Eisele]] (first time in space), command module pilot *[[Walter Cunningham]] (first time in space), lunar module pilot This crew was originally the backup crew of the ill-fated [[Apollo 1]]. ===Backup Crew=== *[[Tom Stafford]], (flew on ''[[Gemini 6A]]'', ''[[Gemini 9A]]'', ''[[Apollo 10]]'', ''[[Apollo-Soyuz]]''), commander *[[John_W._Young|John Young]], (flew on ''[[Gemini 3]]'', ''[[Gemini 10]]'', ''[[Apollo 10]]'', ''[[Apollo 16]]'', ''[[STS-1]]'', ''[[STS-9]]''), command module pilot *[[Eugene Cernan]], (flew on ''[[Gemini 9A]]'', ''[[Apollo 10]]'', ''[[Apollo 17]]''), lunar module pilot ===Support Crew=== *[[Ron Evans]], (flew on ''[[Apollo 17]]'') *[[Ed Givens]], (never flew in space due to being killed in a car accident) *[[John Swigert]], (flew on ''[[Apollo 13]]'') *[[William_Pogue|Bill Pogue]], (flew on ''[[Skylab 4]]'') ==Mission Parameters== *'''[[Mass]]:''' 14,781 kg *'''[[Perigee]]:''' 231 km *'''[[Apogee]]:''' 297 km *'''[[Inclination]]:''' 31.63° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 89.78 min ===Rendezvous with spent S-IVB rocket stage=== *[[October 12]], [[1968]], 20:58:28 UTC Stationkeeping with spent S-IVB rocket stage was performed for 25 minutes. ===See also=== *[[Splashdown]] ==Mission Highlights== Apollo 7 was a confidence-builder. After the January 1967 [[Apollo 1|Apollo launch pad fire]], the Apollo command module had been extensively redesigned. Schirra, who would be the only astronaut to fly [[Mercury program|Mercury]], [[Gemini program|Gemini]] and Apollo missions, commanded this Earth-orbital shakedown of the command and service modules. Since it was not carrying a [[lunar module]], Apollo 7 could be launched with the [[Saturn IB]] booster rather than the much larger and more powerful [[Saturn V]]. The Apollo hardware and all mission operations worked without any significant problems, and the Service Propulsion System (SPS), the all-important engine that would place Apollo in and out of lunar orbit, made eight nearly perfect firings. Even though Apollo's larger cabin was more comfortable than Gemini's, eleven days in orbit took its toll on the astronauts. The food was bad, and all three developed colds. As a result Schirra became irritable with requests from Mission Control and all three began "talking back" to the [[capsule communicator|Capcom]] leading to none of the crew being selected for further missions. But the mission successfully proved the spaceworthiness of the basic Apollo vehicle. Goals for the mission included the first live [[television]] broadcast from an American spacecraft ([[Gordon Cooper]] had broadcast slow scan television pictures from [[Mercury 9|Faith 7]] in 1963) and testing the [[lunar module]] docking maneuver. First orbit: [[Perigee]] 231 km, [[Apogee]] 297 km, Period 89.78 min, Inclination 31.63 deg. Weight: C/SM 14,781 kg. The splashdown point was 27 deg 32 min N, 64 deg 04 min W, 200 nautical miles (370 km) SSW of Bermuda and 13 km (8 mi) north of the recovery ship [[USS Essex (CV-9) | USS Essex]]. For nearly 30 years the Apollo 7 module was on loan (renewable every two years) to the National Museum of Science and Technology of Canada, in [[Ottawa]], along with the space suit worn by [[Wally Schirra]]. In November 2003 the Smithsonian Institution in Washington D.C. requested them back for display at their new annex at the [[Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center]]. The Apollo 7 Capsule is currently on display at the Frontiers of Flight Museum located next to Love Field in Dallas Texas. The spacecraft is on loan from the Smithsonian. Apollo 7 was the only manned Apollo launch to take place from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station's Launch Complex 34, as all subsequent Apollo (including Apollo-Soyuz) and Skylab missions were launched from [[Launch Complex 39]] at the nearby [[Kennedy Space Center]]. ===Reference=== *[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog] *[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)] [[Image:Ap7-KSC-68PC-163.jpg|thumb|left|168px|Apollo 7 launch (NASA)]] [[Image:As7-3-1545.jpg|thumb|left|255px|Apollo 7 SIV-B rocket stage (NASA)]] [[Image:Apollo_7_Florida.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Apollo 7 view of Florida. (NASA)]] <br style="clear: left"/> {{Project Apollo | before=[[Apollo 6]]| after=[[Apollo 8]]}} ==External links== *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19760072144_1976072144.pdf NASA Apollo 7 Mission Report - Dec. 1, 1968 (PDF format)] *[http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo7.htm Apollo 7 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica] *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology] *[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report] [[Category:Human spaceflights|Apollo 07]] [[Category:Apollo program|Apollo 07]] [[Category:1968 in the United States]] [[cs:Apollo 7]] [[de:Apollo 7]] [[fr:Apollo 7]] [[it:Apollo 7]] [[he:אפולו 7]] [[hu:Apollo-7]] [[nl:Apollo 7]] [[pt:Apollo 7]] [[ro:Apollo 7]] [[sk:Apollo 7]] [[fi:Apollo 7]] 1774 42106021 2006-03-03T21:39:45Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 Ced. {| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" |+<font size="+1">'''Apollo 9'''</font> |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission insignia |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:Apollo-9-patch.jpg|200px|Apollo 9 insignia]] |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission statistics |- |'''Mission name:'''||Apollo 9 |- |'''Call sign:'''||Command module:<br />''Gumdrop''<br />Lunar module:<br />''Spider'' |- |'''Number of<br />crew:'''||3 |- |'''Launch:'''||[[March 3]], [[1969]]<br />16:00:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]<br />[[Kennedy Space Center]]<br />LC 39A |- |'''EVA length:'''|| 1 h 8 min 1 s |- |'''Splashdown:'''||[[March 13]], [[1969]]<br />17:00:54 UTC<br />23° 15' N - 67° 56' W |- |'''Duration:'''||10 d 1 h 0 min 54 s |- |'''Number of<br />orbits:'''||152 |- |'''Mass:'''||CSM 26,801 kg;<br />LM 14,575 kg |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Crew picture |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:GPN-2000-001162.jpg|275px|Apollo 9 crew portrait (L-R: McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart)]] <br/>Apollo 9 crew portrait <br/>(L-R: McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart) |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Apollo 9 Crew |} '''Apollo 9''' was the third manned mission in the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]], a ten day earth-orbital mission launched [[3 March]] [[1969]]. It was the second manned flight of the Saturn V launch vehicle and the first manned flight of the [[Apollo Lunar Module]] (LM). ==Crew== *[[James McDivitt]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 4]]'' & ''Apollo 9''), commander *[[David Scott]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 8]]'', ''Apollo 9'', & ''[[Apollo 15]]''), command module pilot *[[Russell Schweickart]] (flew on ''Apollo 9''), lunar module pilot ===Backup crew=== *[[Pete Conrad]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 5]]'', ''[[Gemini 11]]'', ''[[Apollo 12]]'', ''[[Skylab 2]]''), commander *[[Dick Gordon]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 11]]'', ''[[Apollo 12]]''), command module pilot *[[Alan Bean]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 12]]'', ''[[Skylab 3]]''), lunar module pilot. ===Support crew=== *[[Fred Haise]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 13]]'') *[[Jack Lousma]] (flew on ''[[Skylab 3]]'', ''[[STS-3]]'') *[[Edgar Mitchell|Ed Mitchell]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 14]]'') *[[Al Worden]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 15]]'') ==Mission parameters== *'''[[Mass]]:''' CSM 26,801 kg; LM 14,575 kg *'''[[Perigee]]:''' 189.5 km *'''[[Apogee]]:''' 192.4 km *'''[[Inclination]]:''' 32.57° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 88.64 min ===LM - CSM docking=== *'''Undocked''': [[March 7]], [[1969]] - 12:39:36 UTC *'''Re-docked''':[[March 7]], [[1969]] - 19:02:26 UTC ===EVA=== * ''Schweickart'' - EVA - LM forward hatch **'''Start''': [[March 6]], [[1969]], 16:45:00 UTC **'''End''': [[March 6]], [[1969]], 17:52:00 UTC **'''Duration''': 1 hour, 07 minutes * ''Scott'' - EVA - CM side hatch **'''Start''': [[March 6]], [[1969]], 17:01:00 UTC **'''End''': [[March 6]], [[1969]], 18:02:00 UTC **'''Duration''': 1 hour, 01 minute ===See also=== * [[Extra-vehicular activity]] * [[List of spacewalks]] * [[Splashdown]] ==Original mission profile== In October 1967, it was planned that following the first manned orbital flight of the CSM ([[Apollo 7]], also known as the C Mission), the second manned Apollo mission (D Mission) would have a manned CSM launched on a Saturn 1B, and a few days later the Lunar Module launched on a second Saturn 1B to practise the first orbit rendezvous. McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart were given this mission, with [[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell]] and [[William Anders]] being assigned to a later, similar Earth-orbit test (E Mission), this time using the [[Saturn V]] to carry both the CSM and LM. However, production problems with the LM meant that the D Mission would not be able to fly until the spring of [[1969]], so NASA officials created another "C-Prime" mission to go inbetween the C and D missions, involving the CSM (with no LM) making the first manned flight to the Moon. This flight became [[Apollo 8]], and was given to Borman, Lovell and Anders. Although he was in the rotation for it, McDivitt claims he was never offered the "C-Prime" mission as he was already experienced with the LM - but if he had been offered it, he probably would have declined, as he wanted to fly the LM. The original E Mission was subsequently scrubbed - Apollo 9 was the only Earth-orbit test of the full Apollo spacecraft, and was launched on a Saturn V instead of two Saturn 1Bs. This had long lasting consequence - when the crew rotation for Apollos 8 and 9 were swapped, their backup crews were also swapped, putting [[Neil Armstrong]] and his crew (who were Borman, Lovell and Anders' backups) in line for the first manned landing mission instead of [[Pete Conrad]] and his crew. ==Mission highlights== Apollo 9 was the first space test of the complete Apollo spacecraft, including the third critical piece of Apollo hardware - the [[lunar module]]. For ten days, the astronauts put all three Apollo vehicles through their paces in Earth orbit, undocking and then redocking the lunar lander with the command module, just as they would in lunar orbit. Apollo 9 gave proof that the Apollo machines were up to the task of orbital rendezvous and docking. For this and all subsequent Apollo flights, the crews were allowed to name their own spacecraft. The gangly lunar module was named "Spider," and the command module was labelled "Gumdrop" on account of the blue cellophane wrapping in which the craft arrived at KSC. Schweickart and Scott performed an EVA - Schweickart checked out the new Apollo spacesuit, the first to have its own life support system rather than being dependent on an umbilical connection to the spacecraft, while Scott filmed him from the command module hatch. Schweickart was due to carry out a more extensive set of activity to test the suit, and demonstrate that it was possible for astronauts to perform an EVA from the lunar module to the command module in an emergency, but as he had been suffering from [[space sickness]], this was restricted to the stand up test in the Lunar Module hatch. McDivitt and Schweickart later testflew the LM, and practiced separation and docking maneuvers in earth orbit. They flew the LM up to 111 miles from "Gumdrop", using the engine on the descent stage to propel them originally, before jettisoning it and using the ascent stage to return. The splashdown point was 23 deg 15 min N, 67 deg 56 min W, 180 miles (290 km) east of Bahamas and within sight of the recovery ship [[USS Guadalcanal (LPH-7)|USS ''Guadalcanal'']]. The command module was displayed at the [[Michigan Space and Science Center]], [[Jackson, Michigan]] until April 2004 when the center closed. In May, 2004, the command module '''Gumdrop''' was moved to San Diego Aerospace Museum in southern California. The LM ascent stage orbit decayed on [[23 October]] [[1981]], the LM descent stage (1969-018D) orbit decayed [[22 March]] [[1969]]. The S-IVB stage J-2 engine was restarted after Lunar Module extraction and propelled the stage into solar orbit by burning to depletion. ==Apollo 9 maneuver summary== {| border="1" cellspacing="0" align="Left" width="750" ! T + Time ! Event ! Burn Time ! Delta-Velocity ! Orbit |- | T + 00:00:00 || Lift-off ||. ||. ||. |- | T + 00:02:14 || S-IC center engine cut-off || 141 s ||. ||. |- | T + 00:02:43 || S-IC engine cut-off || 169 s ||. ||. |- | T + 00:02:44 || S-II ignition ||. ||. ||. |- | T + 00:03:14 || S-II skirt separation ||. ||. ||. |- | T + 00:03:19 || LES jettison ||. ||. ||. |- | T + 00:08:56 || S-II cut-off ||. ||. ||. |- | T + 00:08:57 || S-II cutoff + separation, S-IVB ignition ||. ||. ||. |- | T + 00:11:05 || S-IVB cutoff + orbital insertion || 127.4 s ||. ||191.3 x 189.5 km |- | T + 02:45:00 || CSM/S-IVB separation ||. ||. ||. |- | T + 03:02:08 || CSM/LM docking ||. ||. ||. |- | T + 04:18:00 || Spacecraft/S-IVB separation ||. ||. ||. |- | T + 05:59:00 || First SPS test || 5.1 s || +10.4 m/s || 234.1 x 200.7 km |- | T + 22:12:03 || Second SPS test || 110 s || +259.2 m/s || 351.5 x 199.5 km |- | T + 25:17:38 || Third SPS test || 281.6 s || +782.6 m/s || 503.4 x 202.6 km |- | T + 28:24:40 || Fourth SPS test || 28.2 s || -914.5 m/s || 502.8 x 202.4 km |- | T + 49:41:33 || First DPS test || 369.7 s || -530.1 m/s || 499.3 x 202.2 km |- | T + 54:26:11 || Fifth SPS test || 43.3 s || -175.6 m/s || 239.3 x 229.3 km |- | T + 92:39:30 || CSM/LM undocking ||. ||. ||. |- | T + 93:02:53 || CSM separation maneuver || 10.9 s || -1.5 m/s ||. |- | T + 93:47:34 || LM DPS phasing maneuver || 18.6 s || +27.6 m/s || 253.5 x 207 km |- | T + 95:39:07 || LM DPS insertion maneuver || 22.2 s || +13.1 m/s || 257.2 x 248.2 km |- | T + 96:16:04 || LM concentric sequence initiation maneuver || 30.3 s || -12.2 m/s || 255.2 x 208.9 km |- | T + 96:58:14 || LM APS constant delta height maneuver || 2.9 s || -12.6 m/s || 215.6 x 207.2 km |- | T + 97:57:59 || LM terminal phase finalization maneuver || 34.7 s || +6.8 m/s || 232.8 x 208.5 km |- | T + 98:59:00 || CSM/LM docking ||. ||. ||. |- | T + 101:32:44 || Post-jettison CSM separation maneuver || 7.2 s || +0.9 m/s || 235.7 x 224.6 km |- | T + 101:53:20 || LM APS burn to depletion || 350 s || +1,643.2 m/s || 6,934.4 x 230.6 km |- | T + 123:25:06 || Sixth SPS test || 1.29 s || -11.5 m/s || 222.6 x 195.2 km |- | T + 169:38:59 || Seventh SPS test || 25 s || +199.6 m/s || 463.4 x 181.1 km |- | T + 240:31:14 || Eighth SPS test || 11.6 s || -99.1 m/s || 442.2 x -7.8 km |- | T + 241:00:54 || Splashdown ||. ||. ||. |} <br style="clear: left"/> [[Image:GPN-2000-001100.jpg|center|thumb|left|225px|Dave Scott spacewalk. (NASA)]] [[Image:GPN-2000-001106.jpg|center|thumb|left|225px|Apollo 9 LM "Spider". (NASA)]] [[Image:GPN-2000-001109.jpg|center|thumb|left|225px|LM "Spider" over ocean. (NASA)]] <br style="clear: left"/> ===References=== *[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog] *[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)] *[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.37.htm Apollo 9 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK] *Baker, David. ''The History of Manned Space Flight''. Crown Publishers, Inc. First Edition. ISBN 051754377X {{Project Apollo | before=[[Apollo 8]] | after=[[Apollo 10]]}} ==External links== * [http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo9.htm Apollo 9 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica] *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology] *[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report] [[Category:Human spaceflights|Apollo 09]] [[Category:Apollo program|Apollo 09]] [[Category:1969]] [[cs:Apollo 9]] [[de:Apollo 9]] [[fr:Apollo 9]] [[it:Apollo 9]] [[he:%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95_9]] [[hu:Apollo-9]] [[nl:Apollo 9]] [[pt:Apollo 9]] [[sk:Apollo 9]] [[sv:apollo 9]] [[fi:Apollo 9]] 1775 15900240 2002-08-28T04:19:05Z Andre Engels 300 correcting redirect #REDIRECT [[Discrete mathematics]] 1776 41970384 2006-03-02T23:26:08Z Arcadian 104523 clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]] {{DiseaseDisorder infobox | Name = Arthritis | ICD10 = M00-M25 | ICD9 = {{ICD9|710}}-{{ICD9|719}} | }} '''Arthritis''' (from Greek ''arthro-'', joint + ''-itis'', inflammation) is a group of conditions that affect the health of the [[bone]] [[joint]]s in the body. One in three adult Americans suffer from some form of arthritis and the disease affects about twice as many women as men. Arthritic [[disease]]s include [[rheumatoid arthritis]] and [[psoriatic arthritis]], which are [[autoimmune disorder|autoimmune diseases]]; [[septic arthritis]], caused by joint infection; and the more common [[osteoarthritis]], or degenerative joint disease. Arthritis can be caused from strains and injuries caused by repetitive motion, sports, overexertion, and falls. Unlike the autoimmune diseases, osteoarthritis largely affects older people and results from the degeneration of joint cartilage. Other forms are discussed below. Arthritic joints can be sensitive to weather changes. The increased sensitivity is thought to be caused by the affected joints developing extra nerve endings in an attempt to protect the joint from further damage. ==Signs and symptoms== All arthritides feature [[pain]], which is generally worse in the morning and on initiating movement, and resolves in the course of time. In elderly people and children, the pain may not be the main feature, and the patient simply moves less (elderly) or refuse to use the affected limb (children). When faced with joint pain, a doctor will generally ask about several other medical symptoms (such as [[fever]], skin symptoms, breathlessness, [[Raynaud's phenomenon]]) that may narrow down the [[differential diagnosis]] to a few items, for which testing can be done. Arthritis and fever together are pointers towards ''septic arthritis'' (see below). This is a [[medical emergency]], and requires urgent referral to a [[rheumatology|rheumatologist]]. ==Diagnosis== The various types of arthritis can be distinguished by the pace of onset, the age and sex of the patient, the amount of (and which) joints affected, additional symptoms such as [[psoriasis]], [[iridocyclitis]], [[Raynaud's phenomenon]], and rheumatoid nodules, and other clues. [[Blood test]]s and [[X-ray]]s of the affected joints are often performed to make the diagnosis. X-rays can show erosions or bone appositions. Screening blood tests: [[full blood count]], [[electrolytes]], [[renal function]], [[liver enzyme]]s, [[calcium]], [[phosphate]], [[protein electrophoresis]], [[C-reactive protein]] and the [[erythrocyte sedimentation rate]] (ESR). Specific tests are the [[rheumatoid factor]], [[antinuclear factor]] (ANF), [[extractable nuclear antigen]] and specific antibodies whenever the ANF is found to be positive. ==Treatment== Treatment options vary depending on the precise condition, but include [[surgery]], and drug treatment, reduction of joint stress, [[Physical therapy|physical]] and [[Occupational therapy|occupational therapy]], and [[pain management]]. There are also numerous herbal remedies that purportedly treat arthritis, including ''[[Harpagophytum procumbens]]''. For specifics, see the articles on the individual conditions listed below. In March 2005, researchers at [[Harvard Medical School]] and [[Brigham and Women's Hospital]] in the USA found that a diet rich in [[oily fish]] raised the body's production of an anti-inflammatory fat, and may thus reduce the effects of arthritis. According to their study published in the [[Journal of Experimental Medicine]], this diet worked best when combined with low [[aspirin]] doses. ==Types of arthritis== Primary forms of arthritis: * [[Septic arthritis]] * [[Rheumatoid arthritis]] * [[Osteoarthritis]] * [[Gout]] and [[pseudogout]] * [[Juvenile arthritis]] * [[Still's disease]] * [[Ankylosing spondylitis]] Secondary to other diseases: * [[Lupus erythematosus|Systemic lupus erythematosus]] (SLE) * [[Henoch-Schönlein purpura]] * [[Psoriatic arthritis]] * [[Reiter's syndrome]] * [[Reactive arthritis]] * [[Hemochromatosis]] * [[Hepatitis]] * [[Wegener's granulomatosis]] (and many other [[vasculitis]] syndromes) * [[Familial Mediterranean fever]] (FMF), [[Hyperimmunoglobinemia D with recurrent fever|HIDS]] (hyperimmunoglobulinemia D and periodic fever syndrome) and [[TRAPS]] ([[TNF-alpha]] receptor associated periodic fever syndrome). Diseases that can mimic arthritis: * [[Pierre Marie-Bamberger syndrome]] (hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy, a [[paraneoplastic phenomenon]] of [[lung cancer]]) * [[multiple myeloma]] * [[osteoporosis]] * ''others'' ==History== While evidence of primary ankle osteoarthritis has been discovered in dinosaurs, the first known traces of human arthritis date back as far as [[4500 BC]]. It was noted in skeletal remains of [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]] found in [[Tennessee]] and parts of what is now Olathe, Kansas. Evidence of arthritis has been found throughout history from Otzi, the name of a mummy (circa 3000 BC) found along the border of modern Italy and Austria, to the Egyptian mummies circ 2590 BC. Around 500 BC willow bark gained popularity when it was discovered that this bark could help relieve some of the aches and pains of arthritis. It wasn't until over 2000 years later in the early 1820s that European scientists began to scientifically study what the chemical compound was in willow bark that alleviated the arthritis symptoms. They discovered the compound was salicin. When they isolated salicin, however, they found it was very noxious to the stomach. Almost 80 years later, in 1897, an employee of Bayer Company -- then a dye production company -- named Felix Hoffman discovered how to isolate the compound and make it less irritating to the stomach. Hoffman was attempting to make the drug in order to help his father who was suffering with arthritis. In 1899, Bayer Company trademarked Hoffman's discovery under the name "Aspirin." Today it is believed that over a trillion tablets of aspirin have been sold worldwide. [http://www.arthritis.org/resources/arthritistoday/2000_archives/2000_01_02_TimeLine.asp]. ==External links== *[http://www.arthritis.org Arthritis Foundation] ([[non-profit organisation]]) *[http://www.ar-i.org Arthritis Rheumatism International] (International Patient Advoacacy Group) *[http://www.rheumatology.org American College of Rheumatologists] (US professional body) - also contains classification criteria of important forms of arthritis *[http://www.rheumatology.org.uk British Society for Rheumatology] (UK professional body) *[http://www.arthritismd.com ArthritisMD] (Physician submitted articles) - research based arthritis articles by physicians [[Category:Arthritis| ]] [[Category:Skeletal disorders]] [[Category:Inflammations]] [[Category:Rheumatology]] [[de:Arthritis]] [[es:Artritis]] [[eo:Artrito]] [[fr:Arthrite]] [[ia:Arthritis]] [[io:Artrito]] [[it:Artrosi]] [[nl:Artritis]] [[ja:関節リウマチ]] [[pl:Artretyzm]] [[pt:Artrite]] [[uk:Артрит]] [[zh:关节炎]] 1777 42163021 2006-03-04T06:01:07Z Rklawton 754622 rv sorry for your loss. However, without a wikipedia article or significant noteability, she doesn't belong here <!-- Language links at bottom --> {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=2}} |} '''April 2''' is the 92nd day of the year (93rd in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian calendar]], with 273 days remaining. ==Events== *[[69]] - [[Galba]], governor of Spain, names himself ''legatus senatus populique Romani'', breaking the line of Roman emperors begun with [[Julius Caesar]] and [[Augustus]]. *[[1453]] - [[Mehmed II]] begins his siege of [[Constantinople]] ([[&#304;stanbul]]), which would fall on [[May 29]] *[[1513]] - [[Juan Ponce de Leon]] sets foot on [[Florida]] becoming the first known [[Europe]]an to do so. *[[1755]] - Commodore [[William James (naval commander)|William James]] captures [[pirate]] fortress of Severndroog on west coast of [[India]]. *[[1792]] - The [[Coinage Act (1792)|Coinage Act]] is passed establishing the [[United States Mint]]. *[[1801]] - [[Napoleonic Wars]]: [[Battle of Copenhagen]] - The British destroy the Danish fleet. *[[1863]] - [[Richmond Bread Riots]]: [[Food]] shortages incite hundreds of angry women to [[rioting|riot]] in [[Richmond, Virginia]] and demand the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] government to release emergency supplies. *[[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Siege of Petersburg]] broken - [[United States|Union]] troops capture the trenches around [[Petersburg, Virginia]], forcing [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] General [[Robert E. Lee]] to retreat. *1865 - American Civil War: Confederate President [[Jefferson Davis]] and most of his Cabinet flee the Confederate capital of [[Richmond, Virginia]]. *[[1900]] The [[Foraker Act]] passes through [[Congress]], giving [[Puerto Ricans]] limited [[self-rule]]. *[[1902]] - "Electric Theatre", the first movie theater in the [[United States]], opens in [[Los Angeles, California]]. *[[1917]] - [[World War I]]: U.S. President [[Woodrow Wilson]] asks the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] for a [[declaration of war]] on [[Germany]]. *1917 - The first [[woman]] ever elected to the U.S. Congress, [[Jeannette Rankin]], takes her seat as a representative from [[Montana]]. *[[1930]] - [[Haile Selassie]] is proclaimed emperor of [[Ethiopia]]. *[[1941]] - The [[radio]] program ''[[Life of Riley]]'' airs for the first time. *[[1956]] - [[General Motors]] board member [[Alfred P. Sloan]] steps down after 19 years as chairman with [[Albert Bradley]] as his successor. *1956 - ''[[As the World Turns]]'' and ''[[The Edge of Night]]'' first aired on the [[CBS]] network in the [[United States]], as the first half-hour serial dramas. *[[1964]] - The [[Saab Automobile|Saab]] board starts ''Project Gudmund'' to develop a new and larger [[automobile|car]], later released as the [[Saab 99]]. *[[1971]] - The final broadcast of ''[[Dark Shadows]]'' airs on [[ABC-TV]]. *[[1972]] - Actor [[Charlie Chaplin]] returns to the [[United States]] for the first time since being labeled a [[communism|communist]] in the early [[1950s]] during the [[Red Scare]]. *1972 - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Easter Offensive]] begins - [[North Vietnam]]ese soldiers of the 304th Division take the northern half of [[Quang Tri Province]]. *[[1973]] - Launch of [[LexisNexis]] computerized legal research service. *[[1975]] - Vietnam War: Thousands of civilian [[refugee]]s flee from the [[Quang Ngai Province]] in front of advancing [[North Vietnam]]ese troops. *[[1978]] - Prime-time Soap Opera ''[[Dallas (TV series)|Dallas]]'' premieres on [[CBS]], beginning a 13-year run. *[[1980]] - U.S. President [[Jimmy Carter]] signs the [[Crude Oil Windfall Profits Tax Act]] in an effort to help the U.S. [[economics|economy]] rebound. *[[1982]] - [[Falklands War]]: [[1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands]] by [[Argentina]]. The disputed [[Falkland Islands|islands]] are later retaken by the [[United Kingdom]]. *1982 - [[John Chancellor]] helms the news desk at the ''[[NBC Nightly News]]'' for the final time, after eleven-and-a-half years. *[[1989]] - [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] arrives in [[Havana]], [[Cuba]] to meet with [[Fidel Castro]] in an attempt to mend strained relations. *[[1992]] - In [[New York]], [[Mafia]] boss [[John Gotti]] is convicted of [[murder]] and [[racketeering]] and is later sentenced to life in prison. *1992 - [[Pierre Bérégovoy]] becomes Prime Minister of [[France]] *[[2002]] - [[Israel]]i forces surrounded the [[Church of the Nativity]] in [[Bethlehem]] which has around 200 [[Palestinians]] inside. A siege ensues. *[[2004]] - [[Islamism|Islamist]] [[terrorism|terrorists]] involved in the [[11 March 2004 Madrid attacks]] attempt a thwarted bombing of the Spanish high-speed train [[AVE]] near [[Madrid]]. *[[2005]] - [[Pope John-Paul II]] dies. Hundreds of millions of Catholics, and non-Catholics mourn worldwide. *2005 - [[James Stewart Jr.]] becomes first African American to win a major motorsports event. ==Births== *[[1510]] - [[Ashikaga Yoshiharu]], Japanese shogun (d. [[1550]]) *[[1545]] - [[Elizabeth of Valois]], queen of [[Philip II of Spain]] (d. [[1568]]) *[[1565]] - [[Cornelis de Houtman]], Dutch explorer (d. [[1599]]) *[[1618]] - [[Francesco Maria Grimaldi]], Italian mathematician and physicist (d. [[1663]]) *[[1653]] - [[Prince George of Denmark]], prince consort of [[Anne of England]] (d. [[1708]]) *[[1719]] - [[Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim]], German poet (d. [[1803]]) *[[1725]] - [[Casanova]], Italian adventurer and writer (d. [[1798]]) *[[1788]] - [[Francisco Balagtas]], Filipino poet (d. [[1862]]) *[[1798]] - [[August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben]], German poet (d. [[1874]]) *[[1805]] - [[Hans Christian Andersen]], Danish writer (d. [[1875]]) *[[1827]] - [[William Holman Hunt]], English painter (d. [[1910]]) *[[1838]] - [[Léon Gambetta]], French statesman (d. [[1882]]) *[[1840]] - [[Émile Zola]], French novelist and critic (d. [[1902]]) *[[1862]] - [[Nicholas Murray Butler]], American president of Columbia University, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1947]]) *[[1867]] - [[Eugen Sandow]], German bodybuilder and circus performer (d. [[1925]]) *[[1869]] - [[Hughie Jennings]], baseball player (d. [[1928]]) *[[1875]] - [[Walter Chrysler]], American automobile pioneer (d. [[1940]]) *[[1891]] - [[Max Ernst]], German painter (d. [[1976]]) *[[1900]] - [[Roberto Arlt]], Argentine writer (d. [[1942]]) *[[1908]] - [[Buddy Ebsen]], American actor and dancer (d. [[2003]]) *[[1914]] - Sir [[Alec Guinness]], English actor (d. [[2000]]) *[[1917]] - [[Lou Monte]], American singer (d. [[1989]]) *[[1920]] - [[Jack Webb]], American actor, director, and producer (d. [[1982]]) *[[1923]] - [[G. Spencer-Brown]], English mathematician *[[1925]] - [[George MacDonald Fraser]], English author *[[1926]] - Sir [[Jack Brabham]], Australian race car driver *[[1927]] - [[Carmen Basilio]], American boxer *1927 - [[Ferenc Puskás]], Hungarian footballer *1927 - [[Kenneth Tynan]], English critic and writer (d. [[1980]]) *[[1928]] - [[Joseph Cardinal Bernardin]], American cardinal (d. [[1996]]) *1928 - [[Serge Gainsbourg]], French singer (d. [[1991]]) *[[1934]] - [[Paul Joseph Cohen]], American mathematician *1934 - [[Brian Glover]], British actor and wrestler (d. [[1997]]) *[[1937]] - [[Dick Radatz]], American baseball player (d. [[2005]]) *[[1939]] - [[Marvin Gaye]], American singer (d. [[1984]]) *[[1940]] - [[Penelope Keith]], English actress *[[1941]] - [[Dr. Demento]], American radio personality *[[1942]] - [[Hiroyuki Sakai]], Japanese chef *[[1945]] - [[Linda Hunt]], American actress *1945 - [[Don Sutton]], [[Major League Baseball]] player player *1945 - [[Reggie Smith]], [[Major League Baseball]] player *[[1947]] - [[Emmylou Harris]], American singer *1947 - [[Camille Paglia]], American feminist writer *[[1949]] - [[Pamela Reed]], American actress *[[1951]] - [[Moriteru Ueshiba]], Japanese martial artist *[[1953]] - [[Jim Allister]], Northern Irish politician *1953 - [[David Robinson (musician)|David Robinson]], American musician *1953 - [[Debralee Scott]], American actress (d. [[2005]]) *[[1954]] - [[Ron Palillo]], American actor *[[1959]] - [[Juha Kankkunen]], Finnish race car driver *[[1960]] - [[Linford Christie]], British athlete *[[1961]] - [[Christopher Meloni]], American actor *1961 - [[Keren Woodward]], British singer ([[Bananarama]]) *[[1962]] - [[Pierre Carles]], French documentarist *1962 - [[Mark Shulman]], American children's author *[[1966]] - [[Bill Romanowski]], American football player *[[1967]] - [[Greg Camp]], American guitarist and songwriter ([[Smash Mouth]]) *1967 - [[Helen Chamberlain]], British television presenter *[[1971]] - [[Todd Woodbridge]], Australian tennis player ==Deaths== *[[1272]] - [[Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall]], Holy Roman Emperor (b. [[1209]]) *[[1335]] - Duke [[Henry of Carinthia]] *[[1412]] - [[Ruy Gonzáles de Clavijo]], Spanish traveler and writer *[[1502]] - [[Arthur Tudor|Prince Arthur Tudor]], son of [[Henry VII of England]] (b. [[1486]]) *[[1507]] - [[Francis of Paola]], Italian founder of the Order of the Minims (b. [[1416]]) *[[1657]] - [[Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1608]]) *[[1720]] - [[Joseph Dudley]], colonial Governor of Massachusetts (b. [[1647]]) *[[1742]] - [[James Douglas (physician)|James Douglas]], Scottish physician and anatomist (b. [[1675]]) *[[1747]] - [[Johann Jacob Dillenius]], German botanist (b. [[1684]]) *[[1754]] - [[Thomas Carte]], English historian (b. [[1686]]) *[[1787]] - [[Thomas Gage]], British general (b. [[1719]]) *[[1801]] - [[Thomas Dadford Junior]], British canal engineer *[[1803]] - [[Sir James Montgomery, 1st Baronet]], Scottish politican and judge (b. [[1721]]) *[[1817]] - [[Johann Heinrich Jung]], German author (b. [[1740]]) *[[1827]] - [[Ludwig Heinrich Bojanus]], German physician and naturalist (b. [[1776]]) *[[1865]] - General [[A. P. Hill]], American Confederate general (b. [[1825]]) *[[1872]] - [[Samuel Morse]], American inventor (b. [[1791]]) *[[1902]] - [[Esther Hobart Morris|Esther Morris]], suffragist and first female American judge (b. [[1814]]) *[[1914]] - [[Paul Johann Ludwig von Heyse|Paul von Heyse]], German writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1830]]) *[[1922]] - [[Hermann Rorschach]], Swiss psychologist (b. [[1884]]) *[[1928]] - [[Theodore William Richards]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1868]]) *[[1930]] - Empress [[Zauditu of Ethiopia]] (b. [[1876]]) *[[1966]] - [[C.S. Forester]], British author (b. [[1899]]) *[[1972]] - [[Gil Hodges]], American baseball player (b. [[1924]]) *[[1974]] - [[Georges Pompidou]], [[President of France]] (b. [[1911]]) *[[1987]] - [[Buddy Rich]], American drummer (b. [[1917]]) *[[1994]] - [[Betty Furness]], American actress (b. [[1916]]) *[[1995]] - [[Harvey Penick]], American golfer (b. [[1904]]) *1995 - [[Hannes Alfvén]], Swedish physicist (b. [[1908]]) *[[2000]] - [[Tommaso Buscetta]], Italian gangster (b. [[1928]]) *[[2001]] - [[Charles Daudelin]], Canadian artist (b. [[1920]]) *[[2003]] - [[Edwin Starr]], American singer (b. [[1942]]) *[[2005]] - [[Pope John Paul II]] (b. [[1920]]) ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/2 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050402.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] * [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Apr&day=02 On This Day in Canada] ---- [[April 1]] - [[April 3]] - [[March 2]] - [[May 2]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:2 April]] [[ar:2 إبريل]] [[an:2 d'abril]] [[ast:2 d'abril]] [[az:2 Aprel]] [[bg:2 април]] [[be:2 красавіка]] [[bs:2. april]] [[ca:2 d'abril]] [[ceb:Abril 2]] [[cv:Ака, 2]] [[co:2 d'aprile]] [[cs:2. duben]] [[cy:2 Ebrill]] [[da:2. april]] [[de:2. April]] [[et:2. aprill]] [[el:2 Απριλίου]] [[es:2 de abril]] [[eo:2-a de aprilo]] [[eu:Apirilaren 2]] [[fo:2. apríl]] [[fr:2 avril]] [[fy:2 april]] [[ga:2 Aibreán]] [[gl:2 de abril]] [[ko:4월 2일]] [[hr:2. travnja]] [[io:2 di aprilo]] [[id:2 April]] [[ia:2 de april]] [[ie:2 april]] [[is:2. apríl]] [[it:2 aprile]] [[he:2 באפריל]] [[jv:2 April]] [[ka:2 აპრილი]] [[csb:2 łżëkwiôta]] [[ku:2'ê avrêlê]] [[lt:Balandžio 2]] [[lb:2. Abrëll]] [[li:2 april]] [[hu:Április 2]] [[mk:2 април]] [[ms:2 April]] [[nap:2 'e abbrile]] [[nl:2 april]] [[ja:4月2日]] [[no:2. april]] [[nn:2. april]] [[oc:2 d'abril]] [[os:2 апрелы]] [[pl:2 kwietnia]] [[pt:2 de Abril]] [[ro:2 aprilie]] [[ru:2 апреля]] [[se:Cuoŋománu 2.]] [[sco:2 Aprile]] [[sq:2 Prill]] [[scn:2 di aprili]] [[simple:April 2]] [[sk:2. apríl]] [[sl:2. april]] [[sr:2. април]] [[fi:2. huhtikuuta]] [[sv:2 april]] [[tl:Abril 2]] [[tt:2. Äpril]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 2]] [[th:2 เมษายน]] [[vi:2 tháng 4]] [[tr:2 Nisan]] [[uk:2 квітня]] [[ur:2 اپریل]] [[wa:2 d' avri]] [[war:Abril 2]] [[zh:4月2日]] [[pam:Abril 2]] 1778 41763366 2006-03-01T15:53:38Z 209.173.6.129 /* Preparation */ <!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --> {| class="toccolours" border="1" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;" ! {{chembox header}}| '''{{PAGENAME}}''' <!-- replace if not identical with the article name --> |- | align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" | [[Image:{{PAGENAME}}.png|200px|{{PAGENAME}}]] <!-- replace if not identical with the pagename --> |- | [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]] | {{PAGENAME}} <!-- replace if not identical with the article name --> |- | [[Chemical formula]] | C₂H₂ |- | Other names | Ethyne, Ethine |- | [[Molecular mass]] | 26.0373 g/mol |- | [[CAS registry number|CAS number]] | 74-86-2 |- | [[Density]] | 1.09670E-03 g/cm³ |- | [[Melting point]] | -84 °C |- | [[Boiling point]] | -80.8 °C |- | [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]] | C#C |- {{PubChem Row|6326}} |- {{EINECS Row|200-816-9}} |- | {{chembox header}} | <small>[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Disclaimer and references]]</small> |- |} The [[chemical compound]] and [[alkyne|unsaturated]] [[hydrocarbon]] '''acetylene''', also known under [[IUPAC nomenclature]] (see [[IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry]]) as '''ethyne''', was discovered in 1836 by [[Edmund Davy]], in [[England]]. ==Preparation== The principal raw materials for acetylene manufacture are [[calcium carbonate]] ([[limestone]]) and [[coal]]. The calcium carbonate is first converted into calcium oxide and the coal into [[coke (fuel)|coke]], then the two are reacted with each other to form [[calcium carbide]] and [[carbon monoxide]]: :CaO + 3C &rarr; CaC₂ + CO Calcium carbide (or calcium acetylide) and water are then reacted by any of several methods to produce acetylene and [[calcium hydroxide]]. :CaC₂ + 2H₂O &rarr; Ca(OH)₂ + C₂H₂ Acetylene can also be manufactured by the partial [[combustion]] of [[methane]] with [[oxygen]], or by the [[Cracking (chemistry)|cracking]] of [[hydrocarbon|hydrocarbons]]. ==Safety and handling== ===Compression=== Acetylene can explode with extreme violence if the pressure of the gas exceeds about 100 kPa as a gas or when in liquid or solid form, so it is shipped and stored dissolved in [[acetone]]. The majority of acetylene's chemical energy is contained in the carbon-carbon triple bond. ===Toxic effects=== Inhaling acetylene may cause dizziness, headache and nausea<ref name="HitCL">Muir, GD (ed.) 1971, ''Hazards in the Chemical Laboratory'', The Royal Institute of Chemistry, London.</ref>. It may also contain toxic impurities: the [http://www.cganet.com/publication_detail.asp?id=G-1.1 Compressed Gas Association Commodity Specification for acetylene] has established a grading system for identifying and quantifying [[phosphine]], [[arsine]], and [[hydrogen sulfide]] content in commercial grades of acetylene in order to limit exposure to these impurities. ===Fire hazard=== Mixtures with air containing between 3% and 82% acetylene are explosive on ignition. The minimum ignition temperature is 335°C.<ref name="HitCL" /> ==Reactions== Above 400 °C (which is quite low for a hydrocarbon), the [[pyrolysis]] of acetylene will start. The main products are the [[dimer]] [[vinylacetylene]] (C₄H₄) and [[benzene]]. At temperatures above 900 °C, the main product will be [[soot]]. Polymerization with [[Ziegler-Natta catalyst]]s produces [[polyacetylene]] films. ==Uses== Approximately 80 percent of the acetylene produced annually in the [[United States]] is used in chemical synthesis. The remaining 20 percent is used primarily for [[oxyacetylene]] [[gas welding]] and [[blowtorch|cutting]]. Combustion with oxygen produces a flame of over 3300°C, releasing 11,800 [[Joule|J]]/g. Acetylene is also used in the [[carbide lamp|acetylene ('carbide') lamp]], formerly found in mines (not to be confused with the [[Davy lamp]]), and on vintage [[automobile|cars]]; it is still sometimes used by [[spelunker]]s. In this context, the acetylene is generated by adding [[calcium carbide]] (CaC₂) pellets to [[water]]. In former times a few towns used acetylene for lighting, including [[Tata_(Hungary)|Tata]] in [[Hungary]] where it was installed on [[24 July]] [[1897]], and [[North Petherton]], [[England]] in 1898. Nowadays acetylene is used for [[carburization]] (that is, [[carburization|hardening]]) of [[steel]]. Research in the last ten years has concluded that acetylene is the best hydrocarbon available for this purpose. Acetylene has been proposed as a carbon feedstock for [[Molecular Manufacturing]] using Nanotechnology. Since it does not occur naturally, using acetylene could limit out-of-control self-replication. ==Other meanings== Sometimes the plural "acetylenes" is used to more generally mean organic chemical compounds that contain the -C<u>=</u>C= group: see [[-yne]]. ==References== <!--See [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags--> <references/> ==External links== * [http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/JCESoft/CCA/CCA5/MAIN/1ORGANIC/ORG07/MENU.HTM Acetylene at Chemistry Comes Alive!] * {{gutenberg|name=Acetylene, the Principles of Its Generation and Use|no=8144}} [[Category:Alkynes]] [[ca:Acetilè]] [[da:Acetylen]] [[de:Ethin]] [[el:Αιθίνιο]] [[es:Acetileno]] [[eo:Acetileno]] [[fr:Acétylène]] [[it:Acetilene]] [[hu:Acetilén]] [[nl:Acetyleen]] [[ja:アセチレン]] [[pl:Etyn]] [[pt:Acetileno]] [[sk:Acetylén]] [[sr:Ацетилен]] [[fi:Asetyleeni]] [[sv:Etyn]] [[zh:乙炔]] 1779 31644715 2005-12-16T19:48:35Z 81.153.10.145 '''Alfred''' is the name of some places in the [[United States|United States of America]]: *[[Alfred, Maine]] *[[Alfred, New York]] (village) *[[Alfred (town), New York |Alfred, New York]] (town) and in [[Canada]]: *[[Alfred, Ontario]] There are also: *[[Alfred the Great]], king of [[Wessex]] and first king of [[England]] *[[Alfred Hitchcock]] *[[Alfred Nobel]], the inventor of [[dynamite]]. *[[Alfred Pennyworth]], Bruce Wayne's ([[Batman]]) butler *[[Alfred State College]] (in [[New York]] State) *[[Alfred University]] (in [[New York]] State) *[[Alfred Rosenberg]] *[[Alfred (masque)]], [[Thomas Augustine Arne]]'s ''[[Masque]] of Alfred'' (known for "[[Rule Britannia]]") *[[King Alfred Chair of English Literature]] (at the [[University of Liverpool]]) *[[The Alfred Hospital]] in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]] ==Note== Alfred University (NY) , Alfred State College (NY), the town Alfred (NY), Arne's ''Masque of Alfred'' and Liverpool's King Alfred Chair of English Literature are all named after Alfred the Great. '''Alfred''' is also a [[Computer and video games|video game]] [[fictional character|character]] from the [[Fatal Fury]] series. '''Alfred''' is also the name by which the personnel of the [[Charles de Gaulle International Airport]] in Paris calls [[Merhan Karimi Nasseri]], who has been living in the departure hall of Terminal 1 since 1988. {{disambig}} [[de:Alfred]] [[eo:Alfredo]] [[fr:Alfred]] [[hu:Alfréd]] [[pl:Alfred]] [[sk:Alfréd]] [[sv:Alfred]] 1781 42113144 2006-03-03T22:29:49Z Rklawton 754622 rv silliness {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=28}} |} '''[[August 28]]''' is the 240th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (241st in leap years), with 125 days remaining. ==Events== *[[475]] - The Pannonian general [[Orestes (Roman soldier)|Orestes]] forces western [[Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] [[Julius Nepos]] to flee his capital of [[Ravenna]] and appoints [[Romulus Augustus]] in his place. *[[489]] - [[Theodoric the Great|Theodoric]], king of the [[Ostrogoths]] defeats [[Odoacer]] at the [[Battle of Isonzo (489)|Battle of Isonzo]], forcing his way into Italy. *[[1521]] - The [[Turkey|Turks]] occupy [[Belgrade]] *[[1542]] - Reinforced with at least 600 arquebusiers and cavalry, Imam [[Ahmad Gragn]] attacks the Portuguese camp in the [[Battle of Wofla]]. The Portuguese are scattered, their leader [[Christovão da Gama]] captured and afterwards executed. *[[1565]] - [[St. Augustine, Florida]], established. It is the oldest surviving European settlement in the [[United States]]. *[[1609]] - [[Henry Hudson]] discovers [[Delaware Bay]]. *[[1619]] - [[Ferdinand II of Germany|Ferdinand II]] is elected emperor of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. *[[1830]] - The ''[[Tom Thumb]]'' presages the first railway service in the United States. *[[1845]] - ''[[Scientific American]]'' magazine publishes its first issue *[[1849]] - After a month-long siege, [[Venice]], which had declared itself independent, surrenders to [[Austria]]. *[[1850]] - [[Richard Wagner]]'s opera ''[[Lohengrin (opera)|Lohengrin]]'' premieres in [[Weimar, Germany]]. *[[1862]] - [[Second Battle of Bull Run]], also known as the battle of Second Manassas *[[1867]] - The United States occupies [[Midway Island]]. *[[1879]] - [[Cetshwayo]], last king of the [[Zulu]]s, is captured by the British. *[[1884]] - First known photograph of a [[tornado]] is made. *[[1898]] - [[Caleb Bradham]] renames his carbonated soft drink "[[Pepsi-Cola]]". *[[1907]] - [[UPS]] is founded by [[James E. (Jim) Casey]] in [[Seattle, Washington]]. *[[1913]] - [[Queen Wilhelmina]] opens the [[Peace Palace]] in [[The Hague]]. *[[1914]] - The [[Royal Navy|British fleet]] beats the German fleet in the [[Battle of Heligoland Bight]]. *[[1916]] - [[Germany]] declares war on [[Romania]]. *1916 - [[Italy]] declares war on Germany. *[[1917]] - Ten [[Suffragettes|suffragist]]s are arrested when picketing the [[White House]]. *[[1918]] - [[PFC Spartak Varna]] founded. *[[1937]] - [[Toyota]] Motors becomes an independent company *[[1943]] - In [[Denmark]], a [[general strike]] against the [[Nazi]] occupation is started. *[[1944]] - [[Marseille]] and [[Toulon]] are liberated. *[[1953]] - [[Nippon Television]] broadcasts [[Japan]]'s first television show, including its first TV advertisement. *[[1955]] - Black [[Mississippi]]an [[Emmett Till]] is murdered, allegedly for whistling to a white woman and calling her ''baby''. *[[1963]] - During a 200,000-person [[civil rights]] rally in at the [[Lincoln Memorial]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] gives his famous ''[[I have a dream]]'' speech. *[[1964]] - The [[Philadelphia 1964 race riot|Philadelphia race riot]] began. *[[1968]] - Riots in [[Chicago, Illinois]], during the Democratic National Convention *[[1971]] - The [[dollar]] is allowed to float against the [[yen]] for the first time. *[[1972]] - During the [[Olympic Games]] in [[Munich]], [[Mark Spitz]] gets his first of seven gold medals in [[swimming]] events. *[[1975]] - Missionary Armand Doll is imprisoned in [[Mozambique]] by Marxist extremists. *[[1979]] - An [[provisional IRA|IRA]] bomb explodes on the Great Market in [[Brussels]]. *[[1981]] - The [[National Centers for Disease Control]] announce a high incidence of [[Pneumocystis]] and [[Kaposi's sarcoma]] in gay men. Soon, these will be recognized as symptoms of an [[immune system|immune]] disorder, which will be called [[AIDS]]. *[[1986]] - Stage of siege declared in [[Bolivia]]. *1986 - US Navy officer [[Jerry A. Whitworth]] is sentenced to 365 years [[imprisonment]] for [[espionage]] for the [[Soviet Union]]. *[[1988]] - At an air show in [[Ramstein]], [[West Germany]], three stunt fighters collide; 69 people die. *[[1990]] - [[Iraq]] declares [[Kuwait]] to be its newest [[Provinces of Iraq|province]]. *1990 - [[The Plainfield Tornado]]: An F5 tornado hits in [[Plainfield, Illinois]], and [[Joliet, Illinois]], killing 28 people. *[[1991]] - A drunk motorman speeds into the [[Union Square (New York City)|Union Square]] station on the No. 4 line in [[New York City]]. The train derails on the curve, killing six passengers and injuring dozens. *[[1993]] - A dam breaks in [[Qinghai]], [[China]]. 223 die. *1993 - 76 die in an airplane crash in [[Tajikistan]]. *1993 - [[Ong Teng Cheong]] elected president of [[Singapore]] *[[1994]] - First [[Japan]]ese [[Gay pride|gay pride march]]. *[[1995]] - A mortar shell kills 38 people in [[Sarajevo]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]]. *[[1996]] - Britain's [[Charles, Prince of Wales]], and [[Diana, Princess of Wales]], are divorced. *[[1998]] - Pakistan's [[National Assembly of Pakistan|National Assembly]] passes a [[Constitution of Pakistan|constitutional]] [[Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan|amendment]] to make the "[[Qur'an]] and [[Sunnah]]" the "supreme law" but the bill is defeated in the [[Senate of Pakistan|Senate]]. *[[2001]] - [[Netherlands|Dutch]] prime minister [[Wim Kok]] announces that he will not be available for another term as PvdA party leader or prime minister after the 2002 elections. *[[2005]] - A [[Effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans|mandatory evacuation]] is ordered by [[New Orleans, Louisiana]] mayor [[Ray Nagin]] and Louisiana governor [[Kathleen Blanco]] as [[Hurricane Katrina]] moved nearer to Louisiana. ==Births== *[[1025]] - [[Emperor Go-Reizei]] of Japan (d. [[1068]]) *[[1582]] (O.S.) - [[Taichang Emperor]], of the Ming dynasty of China (d. [[1620]]) *[[1592]] - [[George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham]], English statesman (d. [[1628]]) *[[1612]] - [[Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn]], Dutch scholar (d. [[1653]]) *[[1714]] - [[Anthony Ulrich II, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]] (d. [[1774]]) *[[1749]] - [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]], German writer and scientist (d. [[1832]]) *[[1774]] - [[Elizabeth Ann Seton]], first American-born Catholic saint (d. [[1821]]) *[[1814]] - [[Sheridan le Fanu]], Irish writer (d. [[1873]]) *[[1828]] (O.S.) - [[Leo Tolstoy]], Russian writer (d. [[1910]]) *[[1849]] - [[Benjamin Godard]], French composer (d. [[1895]]) *[[1853]] - [[Vladimir Shukhov]], Russian engineer and inventor (d. [[1939]]) *[[1867]] - [[Umberto Giordano]], Italian composer (d. [[1948]]) *[[1878]] - [[George Whipple]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1976]]) *[[1894]] - [[Karl Böhm]], Austrian conductor (d. [[1981]]) *[[1897]] - [[Charles Boyer]], French actor (d. [[1978]]) *[[1903]] - [[Bruno Bettelheim]], American psychologist (d. [[1990]]) *[[1904]] - [[Secondo Campini]], Italian jet engine pioneer (d. [[1980]]) *[[1906]] - [[John Betjeman]], English poet (d. [[1984]]) *[[1908]] - [[Roger Tory Peterson]], American ornithologist and illustrator (d. [[1996]]) *[[1910]] - [[Tjalling Koopmans]], Dutch economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (d. [[1985]]) *[[1911]] - [[Joseph Luns]], Dutch politician (d. [[2002]]) *[[1913]] - [[Robertson Davies]], Canadian writer (d. [[1995]]) *1913 - [[Richard Tucker]], American tenor (d. [[1975]]) *[[1916]] - [[Jack Vance]], American author *[[1917]] - [[Jack Kirby]], American comic book artist (d. [[1994]]) *[[1919]] - [[Godfrey Hounsfield]], English electrical engineer and inventor, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[2004]]) *[[1919]] - [[Gyula Várady]], Hungarian footballer (d. [[2002]]) *[[1924]] - [[Janet Frame]], New Zealand author *1924 - [[Peggy Ryan]], American actress (d. [[2004]]) *[[1925]] - [[Donald O'Connor]], American singer, dancer, and actor (d. [[2003]]) *[[1929]] - [[Istvan Kertesz]], Hungarian conductor (d. [[1973]]) *[[1930]] - [[Ben Gazzara]], American actor *[[1931]] - [[John Shirley-Quirk]], English bass-baritone *[[1932]] - [[Andy Bathgate]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player *[[1938]] - [[Paul Martin]], [[Prime Minister of Canada]] *1938 - [[Maurizio Costanzo]], Italian television journalist *[[1941]] - [[Sybille de Selys Longchamps|Baroness Sybille de Selys Longchamps]], Belgian aristocrat *[[1942]] - [[Sterling Morrison]], American guitarist ([[The Velvet Underground]]) (d. [[1995]]) *[[1943]] - [[David Soul]], American actor *1943 - [[Lou Piniella]], baseball manager *[[1944]] - [[Marianne Heemskerk]], Dutch swimmer *[[1947]] - [[Liza Wang]], Hong Kong actress *[[1957]] - [[Daniel Stern (actor)|Daniel Stern]], American actor *1957 - [[Rick Rossovich]], American actor *[[1958]] - [[Scott Hamilton]], American figure skater *[[1960]] - [[Emma Samms]], English actress *[[1961]] - [[Kim Appleby]], British singer *[[1965]] - [[Amanda Tapping]], Canadian actress *[[1965]] - [[Shania Twain]], Canadian singer *[[1966]] - [[René Higuita]], Colombian football goalkeeper *[[1968]] - [[Billy Boyd]], Scottish actor *[[1969]] - [[Jason Priestley]], Canadian actor *1969 - [[Jack Black (actor)|Jack Black]], American actor and musician *[[1971]] - [[Janet Evans]], American swimmer *[[1978]] - [[Jess Margera]], American drummer *[[1979]] - [[Robert Hoyzer]], German football referee *[[1981]] - [[Martin Erat]], Czech hockey player *[[1982]] - [[LeAnn Rimes]], American singer ==Deaths== *[[388]] - [[Magnus Maximus]], [[Roman usurper]] against [[Valentinian III]] *[[430]] - [[Augustine of Hippo]], North African saint and theologian (b. [[354]]) *[[1341]] - King [[Leo V of Armenia]] (murdered) (b. [[1309]]) *[[1481]] - King [[Afonso V of Portugal]] (b. [[1432]]) *[[1645]] - [[Hugo Grotius]], Dutch philosopher and writer (b. [[1583]]) *[[1654]] - [[Axel Oxenstierna]], Lord High Chancellor of Sweden (b. [[1583]]) *[[1678]] - [[John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton]], English soldier (b. [[1602]]) *[[1757]] - [[David Hartley (philosopher)|David Hartley]], English philosopher (b. [[1705]]) *[[1784]] - [[Junípero Serra]], Spanish Franciscan missionary (b. [[1713]]) *[[1785]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Pigalle]], French sculptor (b. [[1714]]) *[[1793]] - [[Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine]], French general (executed) (b. [[1740]]) *[[1805]] - [[Alexander Carlyle]], Scottish church leader (b. [[1722]]) *[[1818]] - [[Jean Baptiste Point du Sable]], founder of Chicago *[[1839]] - [[William Smith (geologist)|William Smith]], English geologist (b. [[1769]]) *[[1900]] - [[Henry Sidgwick]], English philosopher (b. [[1838]]) *[[1903]] - [[Frederick Law Olmsted]], American landscape architect (b. [[1822]]) *[[1919]] - [[Louis Botha]], Boer leader (b. [[1862]]) *[[1943]] - King [[Boris III of Bulgaria]] (b. [[1894]]) *[[1959]] - [[Bohuslav Martinů]], Romanian composer (b. [[1890]]) *[[1965]] - [[Giulio Racah]], Israeli physicist (b. [[1909]]) *[[1975]] - [[Fritz Wotruba]], Austrian sculptor (b. [[1907]]) *[[1981]] - [[Béla Guttman]], Hungarian footballer (b. [[1900]]) *[[1985]] - [[Ruth Gordon]], American actress (b. [[1896]]) *[[1987]] - [[John Huston]], American movie director (b. [[1906]]) *[[1990]] - [[Willy Vandersteen]], Belgian cartoonist (b. [[1913]]) *[[1993]] - [[William Stafford]], American writer (b. [[1914]]) *[[1995]] - [[Michael Ende]], German writer (b. [[1929]]) *[[2005]] - [[Esther Szekeres]], Hungarian mathematician (b. [[1910]]) *2005 - [[George Szekeres]], Hungarian mathematican (b. [[1911]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Hong Kong]]: Liberation Day ([[1945]]) *Many Christian churches: feast day of Saint [[Augustine of Hippo]]. ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/28 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[August 27]] - [[August 29]] - [[July 28]] - [[September 28]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:28 Augustus]] [[ar:28 أغسطس]] [[an:28 d'agosto]] [[ast:28 d'agostu]] [[bg:28 август]] [[be:28 жніўня]] [[bs:28. august]] [[ca:28 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 28]] [[cv:Çурла, 28]] [[co:28 d'aostu]] [[cs:28. srpen]] [[cy:28 Awst]] [[da:28. august]] [[de:28. August]] [[et:28. august]] [[el:28 Αυγούστου]] [[es:28 de agosto]] [[eo:28-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 28]] [[fo:28. august]] [[fr:28 août]] [[fy:28 augustus]] [[ga:28 Lúnasa]] [[gl:28 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 28일]] [[hr:28. kolovoza]] [[io:28 di agosto]] [[id:28 Agustus]] [[ia:28 de augusto]] [[ie:28 august]] [[is:28. ágúst]] [[it:28 agosto]] [[he:28 באוגוסט]] [[jv:28 Agustus]] [[ka:28 აგვისტო]] [[csb:28 zélnika]] [[ku:28'ê gelawêjê]] [[la:28 Augusti]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 28]] [[lb:28. August]] [[hu:Augusztus 28]] [[mk:28 август]] [[ms:28 Ogos]] [[nap:28 'e aùsto]] [[nl:28 augustus]] [[ja:8月28日]] [[no:28. august]] [[nn:28. august]] [[oc:28 d'agost]] [[pl:28 sierpnia]] [[pt:28 de Agosto]] [[ro:28 august]] [[ru:28 августа]] [[sco:28 August]] [[sq:28 Gusht]] [[scn:28 di austu]] [[simple:August 28]] [[sk:28. august]] [[sl:28. avgust]] [[sr:28. август]] [[fi:28. elokuuta]] [[sv:28 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 28]] [[tt:28. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 28]] [[th:28 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:28 tháng 8]] [[tr:28 Ağustos]] [[uk:28 серпня]] [[wa:28 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 28]] [[zh:8月28日]] [[pam:Agostu 28]] 1782 15900247 2002-04-17T16:56:03Z Lee Daniel Crocker 43 * #REDIRECT [[wikipedia talk:Neutral point of view]] 1783 41720947 2006-03-01T07:37:28Z Savidan 677067 fix link {{otheruses}} {{WivesMuhammad}} '''Aisha''', '''Ayesha''', ''''A'isha''', or ''''Aisha''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic ]]عائشة ''`ā'isha'', "she who lives") was a wife of [[Muhammad]], whom Muslims regard as the final prophet of [[Islam]]. == Early life == It is not clear when Aisha was born. Most scholars calculate her age by reference to the date of her marriage to Muhammad ([[622]]) and then subtracting her age at marriage. However, there are many theories as to [[Aisha#Young marriage age controversy|her age at marriage]]. Aisha was the daughter of [[Abu Bakr]] of [[Mecca]]. They belonged to the [[Bani Tamim]] clan of the tribe of the [[Quraysh]], the tribe to which Muhammad also belonged. Aisha is said to have followed her father in accepting Islam when she was still young. She also joined him in his migration to [[Ethiopia]] in [[615]] CE; a number of Mecca's Muslims emigrated then, seeking refuge from persecution by the Meccans who still followed their pre-Islamic religions. According to the early Islamic historian [[al-Tabari]], Aisha's father tried to spare her the dangers and discomfort of the journey by solemnizing her marriage to her fiance, Jubair, son of Mut`am ibn `Adi. However, Mut’am refused to honor the long-standing betrothal, as he did not wish his family to be connected to the Muslim outcasts. The emigration to Ethiopia proved temporary and Abu Bakr's family returned to Mecca within a few years. Aisha was then betrothed to Muhammad. == Aisha's marriage to Muhammad == The marriage was delayed until after the [[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]], or migration to [[Medina]], in 622. Aisha and her older sister [[Asma]] only moved to Medina after Muhammad had already fled there. Abu Bakr gave Muhammad the money to build a house for himself. After this, the wedding was celebrated very simply, by the bride and groom drinking a bowl of milk in front of witnesses. === Status as "favorite wife" === Even though the marriage may have been politically motivated, to mark the ties between Muhammad and his companion Abu Bakr, most early accounts say that Muhammad and Aisha became sincerely fond of each other. Aisha is usually described as Muhammad's favorite wife. [[Shi'a]] Muslims would disagree with this description, regarding it as politically motivated. They adduce the following episodes as proof that Muhammad and Aisha's marriage did not always go smoothly. ==== Aisha accused of adultery ==== Aisha was traveling with her husband Muhammad and some of his followers. She left camp in the morning to search for her lost necklace; when she returned, she found that the company had broken camp and left without her. She waited patiently for half a day, until she was rescued by a man named Safwan and taken to rejoin the caravan. Malicious tongues started to wag, claiming that she must have been having an affair with Safwan. Some urged Muhammad to divorce his wife. He then received a revelation directing that adultery be proven by four eyewitnesses, rather than simply inferred from opportunity. One passage of the Qur'an, "Verily! They who spread the slander are a gang among you..." (Qur'an 24.11), is usually taken as a rebuke to those who slandered Aisha. ====The story of the honey==== According to one widely-accepted tale, Muhammad's wife Zainab bint Jahsh was given a skin filled with honey, which she shared with her husband. He was fond of sweets and stayed overlong with Zainab bint Jash; at least in the opinion of Aisha and her co-wife [[Hafsa]]. Aisha and Hafsa conspired. Each of them was to tell Muhammad that the honey had given him bad breath. When he heard this from two wives, he believed that it was true and swore that he would eat no more of the honey. Soon afterwards, he reported that he had received a revelation, in which he was told that he could eat anything permitted by God (Qur'an 66:1). In the following verses, Muhammad's wives are rebuked for their unruliness: "your hearts are inclined (to oppose him)". Word spread in the small Muslim community that Muhammad's wives were tyrannizing over the mild-mannered man, speaking sharply to him and conspiring against him. Umar, Hafsa's father, scolded his daughter and also spoke to Muhammad of the matter. Muhammad, saddened and upset, separated from his wives for a month, sleeping by himself on a lumpy mattress. By the end of this time, his wives were humbled and harmony, of a sort, was restored. When Muslim commentators on the [[Qur'an]] explicate [[Surah]] 66, it is usually this story that is told to explain the "occasion of revelation". There is a similar but alternative explanation of [[At-Tahrim|Surah 66]], also involving Aisha. In this story, Aisha and her co-wives were unhappy because Muhammad was infatuated with [[Maria al-Qibtiyya]], the Christian Coptic woman who bore Muhammad a brief-lived son. (Some accounts say that she was a slave, some that she converted to Islam, was freed, and was taken as a wife.) ==== The death of Muhammad ==== Ibn Ishaq, in his ''Sirat Rasulallah'', states that during Muhammad's last illness, he sought Aisha's apartments and died with his head in her lap. The Sunni take this as evidence of Muhammad's fondness for Aisha. Aisha never remarried after Muhammad's death. A passage in the Qur'an forbids any Muslim to marry the prophet's widows. : ''Nor is it right for you that ye should annoy God's Apostle, or that ye should marry his widows after him at any time. Truly such a thing is in God's sight an enormity.'' (Al-Ahzab 33: 53) ==After Muhammad == === Aisha's father becomes the first caliph === After Muhammad's death in 632 C.E., Aisha's father Abu Bakr became the first [[caliph]], or leader of the Muslims. This matter is extremely controversial. Shi'a believe that Ali should have been chosen to lead; Sunni maintain that the community chose Abu Bakr, and did so in accordance with Muhammad's wishes. This is discussed in much greater detail in the article [[Succession to Muhammad]]. ===The battle of the camel=== Abu Bakr's reign was short, and in 634 C.E. he was succeeded by [[Umar ibn al-Khattab|Umar]], as caliph. Umar reigned 10 years, and was then followed by [[Uthman ibn Affan|Uthman]] in 644 C.E. Both of these men had been among Muhammad's earliest followers, were linked to him by clanship and marriage, and had taken prominent parts in various military campaigns. Aisha, in the meantime, lived in Medina and made several pilgrimages to Mecca. In 656 C.E. Uthman was killed by rebellious Muslim soldiers. The rebels then asked Ali to be the new caliph. Many reports absolve Ali of complicity in the murder. He is reported to have refused the caliphate, saying, "You are not a people fit for my rulership nor am I a master fit for you people". He agreed to rule only after his followers persisted. Aisha raised a small army which confronted [[Ali]]'s army outside the city of [[Basra]]. Battle ensued and Aisha's forces were defeated. Aisha was directing her forces from a howdah on the back of a camel; this [[656]] battle is therefore called the [[Battle of the Camel]]. Ali captured Aisha but declined to harm her. He sent her back to Medina under military escort. She lived a retired life until she died in approximately [[678]]. == Young marriage age controversy == The age of Aisha at marriage is an extremely contentious issue. On the one hand, there are several [[hadith]]s (said to have been narrated by Aisha herself) which state she was six or seven years old when betrothed and nine when the marriage was consummated. On the other hand, calculations based on information found in an early Muslim chronicler, [[Ibn Ishaq]], indicate that Aisha was at least fourteen to sixteen years old, thus past the age of [[puberty]]. Other [[hadith]]s suggest that Aisha may have been nineteen or twenty years old when she married. Many Muslim scholars have accepted the tradition that Aisha was nine years old when the marriage was consummated. This has in turn led critics to denounce Muhammad for having sexual relations with a girl so young, which in modern times would be classified as [[child sexual abuse]]. Some respond to this criticism by claiming that Aisha was post-pubescent at nine and that early [[marriageable age|marriages]] were common in most cultures until fairly recent times. However, other Muslim scholars point to other traditions that conflict with those attributed to Aisha in this matter. If the other traditions are right, this would imply that Aisha was either confused in her dating, was exaggerating her youth at marriage, or that her stories (which were not written down until more than 100 years after her death) had been garbled in transmission. If we believe traditions that say she was post-pubescent when married, then these other traditions, from [[Ibn Ishaq]] and [[Tabari]] and others, seem much more convincing. From the viewpoint of the Islamic clergy, the [[ulema]], this explanation, while relieving them of one difficulty, poses another. The "late marriage" argument values the biographical and historical literature, the [[sira]], over the canonical [[hadith]], or oral traditions accepted by the ulema. However, anything that threatens the value of the hadith, and especially hadith narrated by Aisha, threatens the whole elaborate structure of Islamic law, or [[sharia]]. The [[Shi'a]] version of shari'a is less at risk in this one instance, as the Shi'a deprecate anything sourced to Aisha. Liberal Muslims do not see any problem with saving Muhammad's character at the expense of shari'a. Conservative Muslims, and the ulema, tend to embrace the "early puberty" theories. === Evidence that Aisha was nine when the marriage was consummated === These traditions are from the hadith collections of [[Bukhari]] (d. [[870]]) and [[Muslim b. al-Hajjaj]] (d. [[875]]). These two collections are in general regarded as the most authentic by [[Sunni]] Muslims. * Sahih Muslim Book 008, Number 3310: 'Aisha (Allah be pleased with her) reported: Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) married me when I was six years old, and I was admitted to his house when I was nine years old. * Sahih Bukhari Volume 7, Book 62, Number 88 Narrated 'Urwa: The Prophet wrote the (marriage contract) with 'Aisha while she was six years old and consummated his marriage with her while she was nine years old and she remained with him for nine years (i.e. till his death). * Sahih Bukhari Volume 7, Book 62, Number 64 Narrated 'Aisha: that the Prophet married her when she was six years old and he consummated his marriage when she was nine years old, and then she remained with him for nine years (i.e., till his death). * Sahih Bukhari 8:151, Narrated 'Aisha: "I used to play with the dolls in the presence of the Prophet , and my girl friends also used to play with me. When Allah's Apostle used to enter (my dwelling place) they used to hide themselves, but the Prophet would call them to join and play with me. (The playing with the dolls and similar images is forbidden, but it was allowed for 'Aisha at that time, as she was a little girl, not yet reached the age of puberty.) (Fateh-al-Bari page 143, Vol.13) * Sahih Bukhari vol. 5, Book 58, Number 234 Narrated 'Aisha: The prophet engaged me when I was a girl of six. We went to Medina and stayed at the home of Harith Kharzraj. Then I got ill and my hair fell down. Later on my hair grew (again) and my mother, Um Ruman, came to me while I was playing in a swing with some of my girl friends. She called me, and I went to her, not knowing what she wanted to do to me. She caught me by the hand and made me stand at the door of the house. I was breathless then, and when my breathing became all right, she took some water and rubbed my face and head with it. Then she took me into the house. There in the house I saw some Ansari women who said, "Best wishes and Allah's blessing and a good luck." Then she entrusted me to them and they prepared me (for the marriage). Other hadith in Bukhari repeat this information. History from [[Tabari]], volume 9, page 131 * "Then the men and women got up and left. The Messenger of God consummated his marriage with me in my house when I was nine years old. Neither a camel nor a sheep was slaughtered on behalf of me"......(The Prophet) married her three years before the Emigration, when she was seven years old and consummated the marriage when she was nine years old, after he had emigrated to Medina in Shawwal. She was eighteen years old when he died. === Evidence that Aisha was older than nine === * According to [[Ibn Hisham]]'s recension of [[Ibn Ishaq]]'s (d. [[768]]) biography of Prophet Muhammad, the ''Sirat Rashul Allah'', the earliest surviving biography of Muhammad, Aisha accepted Islam before [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]]. If true, then Aisha accepted Islam during the first few years of Islam. She could not have been less than 14 years in 1 AH - the time she got married (Al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, Ibn Hisham, Vol 1, Pg 227 - 234, Arabic, Maktabah al-Riyadh al-hadithah, Al-Riyadh). * [[Tabari]] reports that when Abu Bakr planned on migrating to [[Ethiopia]] (8 years before [[Hijrah]]), he went to Mut`am - with whose son Aisha was engaged at that time - and asked him to take Aisha as his son's wife. Mut`am refused because Abu Bakr had converted to Islam. If Aisha was only six years old at the time of her betrothal to Muhammad, she could not have been born at the time Abu Bakr decided on migrating to [[Ethiopia]]. ''Tehqiq e umar e Siddiqah e Ka'inat, Habib ur Rahman Kandhalwi'', p. 38. * Tabari in his treatise on Islamic history reports that Abu Bakr had four children and all four were born during the [[Jahiliyyah]] - the pre Islamic period. If Aisha was born in the period of jahiliyyah, she could not have been less than 14 years in 1 AH. ''Tarikh al-umam wa al-mamloo'k'', Al-Tabari, Vol. 4, p. 50. * According to Ibn Hajar, [[Fatima Zahra|Fatima]] was five years older than Aisha. Fatima is reported to have been born when Muhammad was 35 years old. Muhammad migrated to Medina when he was 52, making Aisha 14 years old in 1 AH. ''Tamyeez al-Sahaabah'', Ibn Hajar al-Asqalaniy'', Vol. 4, p. 377. * According to Abd ar Rahman ibn Abi Zannad, Aisha was 10 years younger than her sister Asma. (Siyar a´lâm an-nubalâ', adh-Dhahabî, Vol. 2, p. 289, Mu'assat ar-Risâla, Beirut, 1992). That is also confirmed by Ibn Kathir (al-Bidâya wa-n-nihâya, Ibn Kathîr, Bd. 8, S. 371, Dâr al-Fikr al-´Arabî, al-Dschîza, 1933). Virtually all other historical reports also agree in this matter. Ibn Kathir also reports that Asma was present when her son died in 73 AH and she herself died 5 days thereafter (other reports differ slightly, giving between 5 and 100 days between the deaths of the two). At the time of her death she was 100 years old (al-Bidâya wa-n-nihâya, Ibn Kathîr, Vol. 8, p. 372, Dâr al-Fikr al-´Arabî, al-Dschîza, 1933). This is also confirmed by Ibn Hadschar al-´Asqalânî who reports that she died in 73 or 74 AH at the age of 100 years. (Taqrîb at-tahdhîb, Ibn Hadschar al-´Asqalânî, p. 654, Bâb fi-n-nisâ', harfu l-alif, Lucknow). But this means, of course, that Asma was 27 or 28 years old at 1 AH and the 10 years youger Aisha already 17 or 18, so when Muhammad and Aisha started to live together she was already 19 or 20. * Aisha has become known for having at the side of Muhammad in the battle of Badr (see for example hadiths by Muslim) as well as in the battle of Uhud (see e.g. hadiths by Bukhari). Bukhari also reports (Kitâb al-maghâzî, Bâb Ghazawat al-Khandaq wa-hiya l-Ahzâb) that the Prophet did not allow 14 year olds to participate but allowed them to join on their 15th birthday. This implies that Aisha was older at that time of these battles. However, it's also possible that the age restriction was not applied to Aisha as a wife of Muhammad. * In a hadith of Bukhari, Aisha says: "I was a young girl (dschâriya) when Surah al-Qamar was revealed (Sahîh al-Bukhârî, Kitâb at-tafsîr, Bâb qaulihî Ta´âlâ "Bali-s-sâ´atu mau´iduhum wa-s-sâ´atu ad-hâ wa-amarr"). That Surah was revealed 8 years before Hijra and at that time Aisha would have been at most a baby (sabiyya) had she been only 9 years old at the age of her marriage. The word dschariya is most fitting for a 6-13 year old which would mean her age of marriage would be anywhere between 14 and 21. However, the exact dates of when al-Qamar was revealed is disputed. Thus, making this a weak argument. * Most Muslims generally agree that Aisha had reached the age of puberty at her marriage. This would be unlikely for a 9 year old. In addition, Aisha was already termed 'bikr', meaning virgin adult woman even when the marriage was discussed, i.e. 3 years before the actual marriage. (Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Vol. 6, p. 210, Dâr Ihyâ' at-Turâth al-´Arabî, Beirut). * Some Muslim scholars{{fact}} say that the hadith collectors Bukhari and Muslim applied less stringent standards to hadith relating to history than they did to hadith relating directly to prayer and family law. Hence a historical tradition included in Bukhari or Muslim cannot be presumed to be "strong". == Sunni and Shia views of Aisha == [[Sunni]] historians praise Aisha as a Mother of Believers and a learned woman, who tirelessly recounted stories from the life of Muhammad and explained Muslim history and traditions. She is considered to be one of the foremost scholars of Islam's early age and is revered as a role model by millions of women. [[Shi'a]] historians take a much dimmer view of Aisha. They believe that Ali should have been the first caliph, and that the other three caliphs were usurpers. Aisha not only supported [[Umar]], [[Uthman]] and her father [[Abu Bakr]], she also raised an army and fought against [[Ali]], her step-son-in-law. The Shia believe that in opposing Ali, the divinely appointed successor of Muhammad, she committed a grievous sin. ==See also== * [[Muhammad]] * [[Muhammad's marriages]] * [[Family tree of Aisha]] ==External links== Sunni view of Aisha: * [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/history/biographies/sahaabah/bio.AISHAH_BINT_ABI_BAKR.html Biography of Aisha] Shi'a view of Aisha: * [http://www.islamic-paths.org/Home/English/Sects/Shiite/Encyclopedia/Chapter_1a_Part09.htm Shi'a view of Aisha] * [http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/ayesha/en/chap1.php Answering some important issues regarding Aisha] Questioning hadith re Aisha's age at marriage: * [http://www.muslim.org/islam/aisha-age.htm#_ftn3 From muslim.org] * [http://www.understanding-islam.com/ri/mi-005.htm From understanding-islam.com] [[Category:678 deaths]] [[Category:Women in war]] [[Category:Muslim women]] [[Category:Arab people]] [[Category:Islam and controversy]] [[Category:Islamic history]] [[ar:عائشة بنت أبي بكر]] [[de:ʿĀʾischa bint Abī Bakr]] [[eo:Aiŝa]] [[fa:عایشه]] [[fr:Aïcha]] [[gl:Aisha - عائشه]] [[it:Aisha]] [[nl:Aïsja]] [[ja:アーイシャ]] [[pl:Aisza]] [[sv:Aisha]] [[th:อาอิชะหฺ]] [[zh:阿伊莎]] 1784 41961728 2006-03-02T22:23:53Z TKE 531146 Revert to revision 41098540 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] [[Image:ac.pnyx.jpg|thumb|400px|The speaker's platform in the [[Pnyx]], the meeting ground of the assembly where all the great political struggles of Athens were fought during the "Golden Age". Here Athenian statesmen stood to speak, such as [[Pericles]] and [[Aristides]] in the 5th century BC and [[Demosthenes]] and [[Aeschines]] in the 4th — along with countless humbler citizens as well. In the background high on the [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis]] is the [[Parthenon]], the temple of [[Athena]], the city's protective goddess, looking down upon their deliberations.]] The '''Athenian democracy''' (sometimes called '''classical democracy''') was the [[democracy|democratic]] system developed in the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[city-state]] of [[Athens]] (comprising the central city-state of Athens and its surrounding territory [[Attica, Greece|Attica]]). Athens was one of the very first known democracies, and probably the most important in ancient times. Other Greek cities set up democracies, most but not all following an Athenian model, but none were as powerful or as stable (or, relatively speaking, as well-documented) as that of Athens. It remains a unique and intriguing experiment in direct democracy where the people do not elect representatives to vote on their behalf but vote on legislation and executive bills in their own right. Participation was by no means open to all inhabitants of Attica, but the in-group of participants was constituted with no reference to economic class and they participated on a scale that was truly phenomenal. Never before had so many people spent so much of their time in governing themselves. The dates traditionally given for it are from around 508 BC with its foundation under [[Cleisthenes]] to its suppression under the [[Macedon|Macedonia]]ns in 322 BC. The Athenians themselves however were more likely to talk about it as going back to [[Solon]] almost a century before Cleisthenes, or even to retroject it into their remotest past ([[Theseus]]). There was also a short period of revival in the 4th century BC. Nor was the democratic period entirely continuous; there were two brief takeovers by [[oligarch]]ic [[revolution]]aries. The word "democracy" combines the elements ''demos'' ("the people") and ''kratos'' ("force, power"). ''Kratos'' is an unexpectedly brutish word. In the words "monarchy" and "oligarchy", the second element ''arche'' means rule, leading, or being first. It is possible that the term "democracy" was coined by its detractors who rejected the possibility of, so to speak, a valid "demarchy". Whatever its original tone, the term was adopted wholeheartedly by Athenian democrats. (The word is attested in some of the earliest Greek prose to survive, but even this may not have been written before 440 or 430 BC. It is not at all certain that the word goes back to the beginning of the democracy, but from around 460 BC at any rate an individual is known whose parents had decided to name him 'Democrates', a name evidently manufactured as a gesture of democratic loyalty.) ==Overview== ===Assembly=== The central events of the Athenian democracy were the meetings of the assembly. Unlike a [[parliament]], the assembly's 'members' were not elected, but attended by right when and if they chose. Members of the Assembly were chosen by lot. It was open only to adult male citizens over the age of 30, but to all of them: unlike earlier schemes there was no property qualification. Although the entire citizen body never gathered in one place at one time, this body did not represent the people — it was them. That is to say, the version of Greek democracy created at Athens was a [[direct democracy]] and not [[representative democracy]]: there was no electorate selecting representatives to decide for them. Members were chosen annually by a form of lottery. It was an honor and a privilege to be part of the Assembly. It was the duty of the individual to attend. The ''ekklesia'' had at least four functions: it made executive pronouncements (decrees, such as deciding to go to war or granting citizenship to a foreigner); it elected some officials; it legislated; and it tried political crimes. As the system evolved these last two functions were shifted to the law courts. The standard format was that of speakers making speeches for and against a position followed by a general vote (usually by show of hands) of yes or no. Unlike in modern parliaments, the speeches were actually attempts to persuade those present. Though there might be blocs of opinion, sometimes enduring, on crucial issues, there were no political parties and likewise no [[government]] or [[opposition]] (as in the [[Westminster system]]). In effect, the 'government' was whatever speaker(s) the assembly agreed with on a particular day. Voting was by simple [[majority rule|majority]]. In the 5th century at least there were scarcely any limits on the power exercised by the assembly. If the assembly broke the law, the only thing that might happen is that they would punish those who had made the proposal that they had agreed to. If a mistake had been made, from their viewpoint it could only be because they had been 'misled'. ===Officeholders=== Administration was in the hands of officeholders, over a thousand each year. They were mostly chosen by [[sortition|lot]], with a much smaller (and more prestigious) group [[elected]]. Neither was compulsory; individuals had to nominate themselves for both selection methods. By and large the power exercised by these officials was routine administration and quite limited. In particular, those chosen by lot were citizens acting without particular expertise. This was almost inevitable since, with the notable exception of the generals ([[strategoi]]), each office could be held by the same person only once. Part of the ethos of democracy, however, was the building of general competence by ongoing involvement. In the 5th century version of the democracy, the ten annually elected generals were often very prominent, but for those who had power, it lay primarily in their frequent speeches and in the respect accorded them in the assembly, rather than their vested powers. While citizens voting in the assembly ''were'' the people and so were free of review or punishment, those same citizens when holding an office ''served'' the people and could be punished very severely. All of them were subject to a review beforehand that might disqualify them for office and an examination after stepping down. Officeholders were the agents of the people, not their representatives. ===Council of 500=== The council (''boule'') of 500, the largest board of officeholders, formed a steering committee for the assembly, drafting legislation and setting its agenda. The 500 was selected by a lottery, held each year. A citizen could serve on the council twice in their lifetime. Any citizen could submit proposals to the council for drafting. Technically it was forbidden for the assembly to vote on measures without a pre-proposal (''probouleuma'') from the council. These might be concrete, worked-out proposals or 'open', that is little more than items on the agenda. The council, or rotating sections of it, also served as a kind of front desk for the state, on duty in the council chamber 24 hours a day. Every day of the year one of these councillors was head of state for the day (for instance, holding the keys to the treasury and the seal of the city and being responsible for greeting foreign envoys, and in the 5th century presiding over the assembly and council meetings). It has been calculated that one quarter of all citizens must at one time in their lives have held the post. This head of state position could be held once only in a lifetime. ===Courts=== Courts consisting of massive juries (smallest 200, largest 6000) heard cases argued by litigants (both citizen and non-citizen) without the involvement of lawyers or judges. In particular there was no state prosecutor: all cases, even the most public (e.g. for treason) had to be brought by citizens acting on their own initiative. These juries formed a second site for the expression of popular sovereignty: as in the assembly, citizens acting as jurors acted as the people and were immune from review or punishment. (Notably when the jurors are addressed by speakers as "you", they can be referred to as having committed any act ever committed by the 'Athenian people', such as battles fought before any of them were born or court decisions made by other juries whose membership may have had no overlap with those currently addressed.) Jurors however had a minimum age of 30 and they were under oath. From an Athenian perspective, where the young are rash and age brings wisdom and where an oath is a serious matter, both of these requirements gave jurors more weight than the citizens attending the assembly. Here only the legislative function of courts will be described, though this by no means exhausts the relevance of the courts to the workings of the democracy. ===Shifting balance between Assembly and Courts=== As the system evolved, the courts (that is, citizens under another guise) intruded upon the power of the assembly. From 355 BC political trials were no longer held in the assembly, but only in a court. In 416 BC the [[graphe paranomon]] ("indictment against measures contrary to the laws") was introduced. Under this anything passed by the assembly or even proposed but not yet voted on, could be put on hold for review before a jury — which might annul it and perhaps punish the proposer as well. Remarkably, it seems that a measure blocked before the assembly voted on it did not need to go back to the assembly if it survived the court challenge: the court was enough to validate it. Once again it is important to bear in mind the lack of 'neutral' state intervention. To give a schematic scenario by way of illustration: two men have clashed in the assembly about a proposal put by one of them; it passed, and now the two of them go to court with the loser in the assembly prosecuting both the law and its proposer. The quantity of these suits was enormous: in effect the courts became a kind of upper house. In the 5th century there was in effect no procedural difference between an executive decree and a law: they were both simply passed by the assembly. But from 403 BC they were set sharply apart. Henceforth laws were made not in the assembly, but by special panels of 1000 citizens drawn from the annual jury pool of 6000. They were known as the ''nomothetai'', the lawmakers. Here again it is not anything like a legislative commission sitting down to discuss the pros and cons and drafting proposals, but the format is that of a trial, voting yes or no after a clash of speeches. ===Citizen-initiator=== The institutions sketched above — assembly, officeholders, council, courts — are incomplete without the figure that drove the whole system, ''Ho boulomenos'', he who wishes, or anyone who wishes. This expression encapsulated the right of citizens to take the initiative: to stand to speak in the assembly, to initiate a public law suit (that is, one held to affect the political community as a whole), to propose a law before the lawmakers or to approach the council with suggestions. Unlike officeholders, the citizen initiator was not vetted before taking up office or automatically reviewed after stepping down — it had after all no set tenure and might be an action lasting only a moment. But any stepping forward into the democratic limelight was risky and if someone chose (another citizen initiator) they could be called to account for their actions and punished. The degree of participation among citizens varied greatly, along a spectrum from doing virtually nothing towards something like a fulltime committent. But for even the most active citizen the formal basis of his political activity was the invitation issed to everyone (every qualified free male Athenian citizen) by the phrase "whoever wishes". There are then three functions: the officeholders organized and saw to the complex protocols; ''Ho boulomenos'' was the initiator and the proposer of content; and finally the people, massed in assembly or court or convened as lawmakers, made the decisions, either yes or no, or choosing between alternatives. ==Participation and exclusion== ===Size and make-up of the Athenian population=== The population of Attica can only be roughly guessed at as the Athenians themselves never conducted a complete census. Numbers of [[slaves]] and [[metic]]s (resident aliens) in particular will have fluctuated. During the [[4th century BC]], the population of Athens may well have comprised some 250,000—300,000 people. Citizen families may have amounted to 100,000 people and out of these some 30,000 will have been the adult male citizens entitled to vote in the assembly. In the mid-5th century the number of adult male citizens was perhaps as high as 60,000, but this number fell precipitously during the Peloponnesian war. This slump was permanent due to the introduction of a stricter definition of citizen described below. From a modern perspective these figures seem pitifully small, but in the world of Greek city-states Athens was huge: most of thousand or so Greek cities could only muster 1000-1500 adult male citizens and Corinth, a major power, had at most 15,000. The non-citizen component of the population was divided between metics and slaves, with the latter perhaps somewhat more numerous. Around 338 BC the orator [[Hyperides]] (fragment 13) claimed that there were 150,000 slaves in Attica, but this figure is probably not more than an impression: slaves outnumbered those of citizen stock but did not swamp them. ===Citizenship in Athens=== Only adult male Athenian citizens who had completed their military training as [[ephebe]]s &ndash; effectively twenty years and over &ndash; had the right to vote in Athens. This excluded a majority of the population, namely [[Slavery#Slavery in Greece|slaves]], women and resident foreigners ([[metic]]s). Also disallowed were citizens whose rights were under suspension (typically for failure to pay a debt to the city: see [[Atimia (loss of citizen rights)|atimia]]); for some Athenians this amounted to permanent (and in fact inheritable) disqualification. Still, in contrast with oligarchical societies, there were no real property requirements limiting access. (The property classes of [[Solon]]'s constitution remained on the books, but they were a dead letter). Given the exclusionary and ancestral conception of citizenship held by Greek [[city-states]], a relatively large portion of the population took part in the government of Athens and of other radical democracies like it. At Athens some citizens were far more active than others, but the vast numbers required just for the system to work testify to a breadth of particpation among those eligible that greatly exceeded any present day democracy. Athenian citizens had to be legitimately descended from citizens&mdash;after the reforms of Pericles in [[450 BC]] on both sides of the family, excluding the children of Athenian men and foreign women. Although the legislation was not retrospective, five years later the Athenians removed 5000 from the citizen registers when a free gift of corn arrived for all citizens from an Egyptian king. Citizenship could be granted by the assembly and was sometimes given to large groups (Plateans in 427 BC, Samians in 405 BC), but by the 4th century only to individuals and by a special vote with a quorum of 6000. This was generally done as a reward for some service to the state. In the course of a century the numbers involved were in the hundreds rather than thousands. This reflected the general conception of the ''polis'' as a community, somewhat like an extended family, rather than as a territorial state. Modern democracies too have their own exclusions: resident foreigners (legal and otherwise), individuals below a certain age and in some cases incarcerated citizens and those who have committed felonies. The modern form has other limitations as well: the right of voting is usually restricted to once every several years, and voters merely get to choose their representatives in the legislative or executive branches&mdash;and it is these representatives, not the voters themselves, who make policy decisions (with the exception of occasional [[referendum|referenda]]). ==Main bodies of governance== There were three political bodies where citizens gathered in numbers running into the hundreds or thousands. These are the assembly (in some cases with a quorum of 6000), the council of 500 (''[[boule]]'') and the courts (a minumum of 200 people, but running at least on some occasions up to 6000). Of these three bodies it is the assembly and the courts that were the true sites of power — although courts, unlike the assembly, were never simply called the ''demos'' (the People) as they were manned by a subset of the citizen body, those over thirty. But crucially citizens voting in both were not liable to review and prosecution as were council members and all other officeholders. In the 5th century BC we often hear of the assembly sitting as a court of judgement itself for trials of political importance and it is not a coincidence that 6000 is the number both for the full quorum for the assembly and for the annual pool from which jurors were picked for particular trials. By the mid-4th century however the assembly's judicial functions were largely curtailed, though it always kept a role in the initiation of various kinds of political trial. ===Council of 500=== The council (''boule'') of 500, the largest board of officeholders, formed a steering committee for the assembly, drafting legislation and setting its agenda. A citizen could serve on the council twice in their lifetime. Any citizen could submit proposals to the council for drafting. Technically it was forbidden for the assembly to vote on measures without a pre-proposal (''probouleuma'') from the council. These might be concrete, worked-out proposals or 'open', that is little more than items on the agenda. The council, or rotating sections of it, also served as a kind of front desk for the state, on duty in the council chamber 24 hours a day. Every day of the year one of these councillors was head of state for the day (for instance, holding the keys to the treasury and the seal of the city and being responsible for greeting foreign envoys, and in the 5th century presiding over the assembly and council meetings). It has been calculated that one quarter of all citizens must at one time in their lives have held the post. This head of state position could be held once only in a lifetime. ===Assembly=== As usual in ancient democracies, one had to physically attend a gathering in order to vote. Military service or simple distance prevented the exercise of citizenship. Voting was usually by show of hands (cheirotonia, "arm stretching") with officials 'judging' the outcome by sight. With thousands of people attending, counting was impossible. For a small category of votes a quorum of 6000 was required, principally grants of citizenship, and here coloured balls were used, white for yes and black for no. Probably at the end of the session, each voter tossed one of these into a large clay jar which was afterwards cracked open for the counting of the ballots. ([[Ostracism]] required to voters to scratch names onto pieces of broken pottery, though this did not occur within the assembly as such.) In the 5th century BC, there were 10 fixed assembly meetings per year, one in each of the ten [[Attic calendar#State calendar|state months]], with other meetings called as needed. In the following century the meetings were set to forty a year, with four in each state month. (One of these was now as the main meeting, ''kuria ekklesia''.) Additional meetings might still be called, especially as up until 355 BC there were still political trials that were conducted in the assembly rather than in court. The assembly meetings did not occur at fixed intervals, as they had to dodge the annual festivals that were differently placed in each of the twelve lunar months. There was also a tendency for the four meetings to bunch up toward the end of each state month. Attendance at the assembly was voluntary. In the 5th century public slaves forming a cordon with a red-stained rope herded citizens from the [[agora]] into the assembly meeting place (''[[pnyx]]''), with a fine for those who got the red on their clothes. This, however, cannot compare with the compulsory voting schemes of some modern democracies. It was rather an immediate measure to get enough people rapidly in place, like an aggressive form of ushering. After the restoration of the democracy in 403 BC, pay for assembly attendance was introduced for the first time. At this there was a new enthusiasm for assembly meetings. Only the first 6000 to arrive were admitted and paid, with the red rope now used to keep latecomers at bay. These two uses of the red rope are known from [[Aristophanes]]'s comedy ''Acharnians'' 17-22, the forcing in, and his ''Ekklesiazousai'' 378-9 for the keeping out. ===Athenian Courts=== Athens had an elaborate legal system centred on the '''''dikasteria''''' or jury courts: the word is derived from '''''dikastes''''', 'judge/juror.' These [[Athenian law court (classical period)|jury courts]] were manned by large panels selected by lot from an annual pool of 6,000 citizens. To be eligible to serve as juror, a citizen had to be over 30 years of age and in possession of full citizen rights (see [[atimia (loss of citizen rights)|atimia]]). The age limit, the same as that for office holders but ten years older than that required for participation in the assembly, gave the courts a certain standing in relation to the assembly: for the Athenians older was wiser. Added to this was the fact that jurors were under oath, which was not a feature of attendance at the assembly. However, the authority exercised by the courts had the same basis as that of the assembly: both were regarded as expressing the direct will of the people. Unlike office holders (magistrates) who could be impeached and prosecuted for misconduct, the jurors could not be censured, for they, in effect, were the people and no authority could be higher than that. A corollary of this was that, at least in words spoken before the jurors, if a court had made an unjust decision, it must have been because it had been misled by a litigant Essentially there were two grades of suit, a smaller kind known as ''dike'' or private suit, and a larger kind known as ''graphe'' or public suit. For private suits the minimum jury size was 201 (increased to 401 if a sum of over 1000 drachmas was at issue), for public suits 501. For particularly important public suits the jury could be increased by adding in extra allotments of 500. One thousand and 1500 are regularly encountered as jury sizes and on at least one occasion, the first time a new kind of case was brought to court (see [[graphe paranomon]]), all 6,000 members of the juror pool were put onto the one case. In public suits the litgants each had something like three hours to speak, less in private suits. The cases were put by the litigants themselves in the form of an exchange of single speeches timed by water clock, first prosecutor then defendant. In a public suit the litigants each had three hours to speak, much less in private suits (though here it was in proportion to the amount of money at stake). Decisions were made by voting without any time set aside for deliberation. Nothing, however, stopped jurors from talking informally amongst themselves during the voting procedure and juries could be rowdy shouting out their disapproval or disbelief of things said by the litigants. This may have had some role in building a consensus. The jury could only cast a 'yes' or 'no' vote as to the guilt and sentence of the defendant. For private suits only the victims or their families could prosecute, while for public suits anyone (''ho boulomenos'', 'whoever wants to' i.e. any citizen with full citizen rights) could bring a case since the issues in these major suits were regarded as affecting the community as a whole. Justice was rapid: no case could last no longer than one day. Some convictions triggered an automatic penalty, but where this was not the case the two litgants each proposed a penalty for the convicted defendant and the jury chose between them in a further vote. No appeal was possible. There was however a mechanism for prosecuting the witnesses of a successful prosecutor, which it appears could lead to the undoing of the earlier verdict. Payment for jurors was introduced around 462 BC and is ascribed to [[Pericles]], a feature described by Aristotle as fundamental to radical democracy (''Politics'' 1294a37). Pay was raised from 2 to 3 [[obol]]s by [[Cleon]] early in the Peloponnesian war and there it stayed; the original amount is not known. Notably this was introduced more than fifty years before payment for attendance at assembly meetings. Running the courts was one of the major expenses of the Athenian state and there were moments of financial crisis in the 4th century when the courts, at least for private suits, had to be suspended. The system shows a marked anti-professionalism. No judges presided over the courts nor was there anyone to give legal direction to the jurors, as the magistrates in charge of the courts had only an administrative function and were themselves in any case amateurs (most of the annual magistracies at Athens could only be held once in a lifetime). There were no lawyers as such, but the litigants acted solely in their capacity as citizens. Whatever professionalism there was tended to disguise itself: it was possible to pay for the services of a speechwriter (''logographos'') but this was not advertised in court (except as something your opponent in court has had to resort to), and even politically prominent litigants made some show of disowning special expertise. ==Officeholders== Citizens active as office holders served in a quite different capacity from when they voted in the assembly or served as jurors. The assembly and the courts were regarded as the instantiation of the people of Athens: they were the people, no power was above them and they could not be reviewed, impeached or punished. However, when an Athenian took up an office, he was regarded as 'serving' the people. As such, he could be regarded as failing in his duty and be punished for it. There were two methods of selecting people as officeholders, lottery or election. Something like 1100 citizens (including the memebrs of the council of 500) held office each year and about a 100 of these were elected. ===Selection by lot (Allotment)=== Selection by lottery was the standard means as it was regarded as the more democratic: elections will favour those who are rich, noble, eloquent and well-known, while [[sortition|allotment]] spreads the work of administration throughout the whole citizen body, engaging them in the crucial democratic experience of, to use Aristotle's words (Politics 1317b28-30), "ruling and being ruled in turn." The allotment of an individual was based on citizenship rather than merit or any form of personal popularity which could be bought. Allotment therefore was seen as a means to prevent the corrupt purchase of votes and it gave citizens a unique form of political equality as all had an equal chance of obtaining government office. Individuals who were interested in holding office had to nominate themselves as available for selection the year before. Officeholders were paid a stipend, but it was intended as a small sum to cover loss of income fixed at the lowest end of the scale. That is, virtually anyone able to work could earn more elsewhere. Payment is confirmed for the 5th century; was cancelled under the oligarchs in 404; may or may not have been restored after democracy was reinstituted. The random assignment of responsibility to individuals who may or may not be competent has obvious risks, but the system included features meant to obviate possible problems. Athenians selected for office served as teams (boards, panels). In a group someone will know the right way to do things and those that do not may learn from those that do. During the period of holding a particular office everyone on the team is observing everybody else. There were however officials such as the nine archons, who while seemingly a board carried out very different functions from each other. There were in fact some limitations on who could hold office. Age restrictions were in place with thirty (and in some cases forty) years as a minimum, rendering something like a third of the adult citizen body ineligible at any one time. An unknown proportion of citizens were also subject to disenfranchisement ([[Atimia (loss of citizen rights)|atimia]]), excluding some of them permanently and others temporarily (depending on the type). Furthermore, all citizens selected were reviewed before taking up office (''dokimasia'') at which they might be disqualified. Competence does not seem to have been the main issue, but rather, at least in the 4th century BC, whether they were loyal democrats or had oligarchic tendencies. After leaving office they were subject to a scrutiny (''euthunai'', literally 'straightenings') to review their performance. Both of these processes were in most cases brief and formulaic, but they opened up in the possibility, if some citizen wanted to take some matter up, of a contest before a jury court. In the case of a scrutiny going to trial, there was the risk for the former officeholder of suffering severe penalties. Finally, even during his period of office, any officeholder could be impeached and removed from office by the assembly. In each of the ten "main meetings" (''kuriai ekklesiai'') a year, the question was explicitly raised in the assembly agenda: were the office holders carrying out their duties correctly? No office appointed by lot could be held twice by the same individual. The only exception was the boule or council of 500. In this case, simply by demographic necessity, an individual could serve twice in a lifetime. This principle extended down to the secretaries and undersecretaries who served as assistants to magistrates such as the archons. To the Athenians it seems what had to be guarded against was not incompetence but any tendency to use office as a way of accumulating ongoing power. The powers of officials were precisely defined and their capacity for imitative limited. They administered rather than governed. When it came to penal sanctions, no officeholder could impose a fine over fifty drachmas fine. Anything higher had to go before a court. ===Elected=== Something like a hundred officials were elected rather than chosen by lot. There were two main categories in this group: those required to handle large sums of money, and the 10 generals, the ''[[strategoi]]''. One reason that financial officials were elected was that any money [[embezzled]] could be recovered from their estates; election in general strongly favoured the rich, but in this case wealth was virtually a prerequisite. Generals were elected not only because their role required expert knowledge but also because they needed to be people with experience and contacts in the wider Greek world where wars were fought. In the [[5th century BC]], principally as seen through the figure of [[Pericles]], the generals could be among the most powerful people in the state. Yet in the case of Pericles it is wrong to see his power as coming from his long series of annual generalships (each year along with nine others). His office holding was rather an expression and a result of the influence he wielded. That influence was based on his relation with the assembly, a relation that in the first instance lay simply in the right of any citizen to stand and speak before the people. Under the [[4th century|4th century]] version of democracy the roles of general and of key political speaker in the assembly tended to be filled by different persons. In part this was a consequence of the increasingly specialised forms of warfare practiced in the later period. Elected officials too were subject to review before holding office and scrutiny after office. And they too could be removed from office any time the assembly met. In one case from the [[5th century BC]] the 10 treasurers of the [[Delian]] league (the ''hellenotamiai'') were accused at their scrutinies of misappropriation of funds. Put on trial, they were condemned and executed one by one until before the trial of the tenth and last an error of accounting was discovered, allowing him to go free. ([[Antiphon]] 5.69-70) ==Individualism in Athenian democracy== Another interesting insight into Athenian democracy comes from the law that excluded from decisions of war those citizens who had property close to the city walls - on the basis that they had a personal interest in the outcome of such debates because the practice of an invading army was at the time to destroy the land outside the walls. A good example of the contempt the first democrats felt for those who did not participate in politics can be found in the modern word 'idiot' that finds its origins in the ancient Greek word {{polytonic|&#x1f30;&#948;&#953;&#x1f7d;&#964;&#951;&#962;}} (idi&#333;t&#275;s) meaning a private person, a person who is not actively interested in politics; such characters were talked about with contempt and the word eventually acquired its modern meaning. ==Criticism of the democracy== Athenian democracy has had many critics, both ancient and modern. Modern critics are more likely to find fault with the narrow definition of the citizen body, but in the ancient world the complaint if anything went in the opposite direction. Ancient authors were almost invariably from an elite background for whom giving poor and uneducated people power over their betters seemed a reversal of the proper, rational order of society. For them the ''demos'' in democracy meant not the whole people, but the people as opposed to the elite. Instead of seeing it as a fair system under which 'everyone' has equal rights, they saw it as the numerically preponderant poor tyrannising over the rich. They viewed society like a modern stock company: democracy is like a company where all shareholders have an equal say regardless of the scale of their holding; one share or ten thousand, it makes no difference. They regarded this as manifestly unjust. In Aristotle this is categorised as the difference between 'arithmetic' and 'geometric' (i.e. proportional) equality. Democracy was far from being the normal style of governance and the beliefs on which it was based were in effect a minority opinion. Those writing in later centuries generally had no direct experience of democracy themselves. To its ancient detractors the democracy was reckless and arbitrary. They had some signal instances to point to, especially from the long years of the Peloponnesian war. *In 406 BC, after years of defeats in the wake of the annihilation of their vast invasion force in Sicily, the Athenians at last won a naval victory at [[Battle of Arginusae| Arginusae]] over the Spartans. After the battle a storm arose and the eight [[strategoi|generals]] in command failed to collect survivors: the Athenians sentenced all of them to death. Technically, it was illegal, as the generals were tried and sentenced together, rather than one by one as Athenian law required. [[Socrates]] happened to be the citizen presiding over the assembly that day and refused to cooperate, though to little effect. Standing against the idea that it was outrageous for the people to be unable to do whatever they wanted. Later they repented the executions, but made up for it by executing those who had accused the generals before them. (A long account in [[Xenophon]] ''Hellenica'' 1.7.1-35) *Years earlier, the ten treasurers of the [[Delian league]] (''Hellenotamiai'') had been accused of embezzlement. They were tried and executed one after the other until, when only one was still alive, the accounting error was discovered and that last surviving treasurer was acquitted. Perfectly legal in this case, but an example of the extreme severity with which the people could punish those who served them. ([[Antiphon]] 5.69-70) *In 399 BC [[Socrates]] himself was put on trial and executed for 'corrupting the young and believing in strange gods'. His death gave Europe its first ever intellectual hero and martyr, but guaranteed the democracy an eternity of bad press at the hands of his disciple [[Plato]]. In the [[Gorgias]] written years later Plato has [[Socrates]] contemplating the possibility of himself on trial before the Athenians: he says he would be like a doctor prosecuted by a pastry chef before a jury of children. Two right wing coups briefly interrupted democratic rule during the Peloponnesian war, both named by the numbers in control: the Four Hundred in 411 BC and the [[Thirty Tyrants|Thirty]] in 404 BC. The focus on number speaks to the drive behind each of them: to reduce the size of the electorate by linking the franchise with property qualifications. Though both ended up as rogue governments and did not follow through on their constitutional promises, they began as responses from the Athenian elite to what they saw as the inherent arbitrariness of government by the masses. (Plato in the ''Seventh Epistle'' does remark that the Thirty made the preceding democratic regime look like a Golden Age.) Whether the democratic failures should be seen as systematic, or as a product of the extreme conditions of the Peloponnesian war, there does seem to have been a move toward correction. A new version of democracy was established from 403 BC, but it can be linked with both earlier and subsequent reforms ([[graphe paranomon]] 416 BC; end of assembly trials 355 BC). For the first time a conceptual and procedural distinction was made between laws and decrees. Increasingly, responsibility was shifted from the assembly to the courts, with laws being made by jurors and all assembly decisions becoming reviewable by courts. That is to say, the mass meeting of all citizens lost some ground to smaller gatherings (of only a thousand or so!) which were under oath, free of men in their impetuous 20's and with more time to focus on just one matter (though never more than a day). One downside was that the new democracy was less capable of rapid response. Another tack of criticism is to notice the disquieting links between democracy and a number of less than appealing features of Athenian life. Although it predated it by over thirty years, democracy is strongly bound up with Athenian imperialism. For much of the 5th century at least democracy fed off an empire of subject states. [[Thucydides son of Milesias|Thucydides]] the son of Milesias (not the historian), an aristocrat, stood in opposition to these policies, for which he was ostracised in 443 BC. At times the imperialist democracy acted with extreme brutality, as in the decision to execute the entire male population of [[Melos]] and sell off its woman and children simply for refusing to became subjects of Athens. The common people were numerically dominant in the navy, which they used to pursue their own interests in the form of work as rowers and in the hundreds of overseas administrative positions. Further they used the income from empire to fund payment for officeholding. This is the position set out by the anti-democratic pamphlet known whose anonymous author is often called the [[Old Oligarch]]. On the other hand the empire was, more or less, defunct in the 4th century BC so it cannot be said that it was democracy was not viable without it. Only then in fact was payment for assembly attendance, the central event of democracy. (Similarly for the period before the Persian wars, but for the very early democracy the sources are very meagre and it can be thought of as being in an embryonic state.) A case can be made that discriminatory lines came to be drawn more sharply under Athenian democracy than before or elsewhere, in particular in relation to woman and slaves, as well as in the line between citizens and non-citizens. By so strongly validating one role, that of the male citizen, it has been argued that democracy compromised the status of those who did not share it. *Male citizenship had become a newly valuable, indeed profitable, possession, to be jealously guarded. Under [[Pericles]] in 450 BC restrictions were tightened so that a citizen had to be born from citizen parentage on both sides. ''Metroxenoi'', those with foreign mothers, were now to be excluded. Traditionally for the poorer citizens local marriage was the norm, while the elite had been much more likely to marry abroad as a part of aristocratic alliance building. A habit of one group in society was thus codified as a law for the whole citizen body, which thus lost one axis of openness. Many Athenians prominent earlier in the century would have lost citizenship, had this law applied to them: [[Cleisthenes]], the founder of democracy, had a non-Athenian mother, and the mothers of [[Cimon]] and [[Themistocles]] were not Greek at all, but [[Thrace|Thracian]]. As Athens attracted an increasing number of resident aliens (''[[metic]]s''), this shift in the definition of citizen worked to keep the immigrant population more sharply distinguished politically. *Likewise the status of women seems lower in Athens than in many Greek cities. At Sparta women competed in public exercise — so in [[Aristophanes]]' ''Lysistrata'' the Athenian women admire the tanned, muscular bodies of their Sparten counterparts — and women could own property in their own right, as they could not at Athens. [[Misogyny]] was by no means an Athenian invention, but it has been claimed that in regard to gender democracy generalised a harsher set of values derived, again, from the common people. Democracy may well have been impossible without the contribution of women's labour (Hansen 1987: 318). *[[Slavery in antiquity|Slave]] use was more widespread at Athens than in other Greek cities. Indeed the extensive use of imported non-Greeks ("[[barbarian]]s") as [[chattel slavery|chattel slaves]] seems to have been an Athenian development. This triggers the parodoxical question: Was democracy "based on" slavery? It does seem clear that possession of slaves allowed even poorer Athenians — owning a few slaves was by no means equated with wealth — to devote more of their time to political life. But whether democracy depended on this extra time is impossible to say. The breadth of slave ownership also meant that the leisure of the rich (the small minority who were actually free of the need to work) rested less than it would have on the exploitation of their less well-off fellow citizens. Working for wages was clearly regarded as subjection to the will of another, but at least debt servitude had been abolished at Athens (under the reforms of Solon at the start of the 6th century BC). By allowing a new kind of equality among citizens this opened the way to democracy, which in turn called for a new means, chattel slavery, to at least partially equalise the availability of leisure between rich and poor. In the absence of reliable statistics all these connections remain speculative. However, as [[Cornelius Castoriadis]] pointed out, other societies also kept slaves, yet did not develop democracy. Even with respect to slavery the new citizen law of 450 BC may have had effect: it is speculated that originally Athenian fathers had been able to register for citizenship offspring had with slave women (Hansen 1987:53). This will have rested on an older, less categorical sense of what it meant to be a slave. Contemporary opponents of [[majoritarianism]] (arguably the principle behind Athenian democracy) call it an illiberal regime (in contrast to [[liberal democracy]]) that allegedly leads to [[anomie]], [[balkanization]] and [[xenophobia]]. Proponents (especially of majoritarianism) deny these accusations, and argue that any faults in Athenian democracy were due to the fact that the franchise was quite limited (only male citizens could vote - women, slaves and non-citizens were excluded). Despite this limited franchise, Athenian democracy was certainly the first - and perhaps the best - example of a working [[direct democracy]]. ==See also== *[[History of Athens]] *[[History of democracy]] *[[List of politics-related topics]] *[[Areopagus]] *[[Athenian empire]] *[[Atimia (loss of citizen rights)]] *[[Attic calendar]] *[[Boule]] *[[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)]] *[[Graphe paranomon]] *[[Hellenic civilization]] *[[Metic]] *[[Ostracism]] *[[Persian Wars]] *[[Strategos]] ==References== *Hansen M.H. 1987, The Athenian Democracy in the age of Demosthenes. Oxford. *Manville B. and J. Ober 2003, A company of citizens : what the world's first democracy teaches leaders about creating great organizations. Boston. *Meier C. 1998, Athens: a portrait of the city in its Golden Age (translated by R. and R. Kimber). New York. *Ober J 1989, Mass and Elite in Democratic Athens: Rhetoric, Ideology and the Power of the People. Princeton. *Ober J and C. Hendrick (edds) 1996, Demokratia : a conversation on democracies, ancient and modern. Princeton. *Rhodes P.J.(ed) 2004, Athenian democracy. Edinburgh. ==External links== *[http://www.constitution.org/ari/athen_00.htm The Athenian Constitution, Aristotle] *[http://www.stoa.org/projects/demos/home?greekEncoding=UnicodeC D&#275;mos: Classical Athenian Democracy], A digital encyclopedia: the history, institutions, and people of democratic Athens in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, Christopher Blackwell, ed. [[Category:Ancient Greece]] [[Category:Political systems]] [[Category:Ancient Greek law]] [[da:Det athenske demokrati]] [[de:attische Demokratie]] [[fr:Démocratie athénienne]] [[pl:Demokracja ateńska]] 1786 42046572 2006-03-03T12:44:34Z Deeptrivia 274615 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/137.163.18.136|137.163.18.136]] to last version by Noe {{Otheruses2|Arabic numerals}} {{numeral systems}} [[Image:Numerals.png|thumb|240px|right|Numerals [[sans serif]]]] '''Arabic numerals''', also known as '''[[Hindu-Arabic numerals]]''', '''[[Indian numerals]]''', '''[[Hindu numerals]]''', '''[[European numerals]]''', and '''Western numerals''', are the most common [[Symbol|symbolic]] representation of [[number]]s around the world. They are considered an important milestone in the development of [[mathematics]]. One may distinguish between the [[decimal]] system involved, also known as the [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system]], and the precise [[glyph]]s used. The glyphs most commonly in conjunction with the [[Latin alphabet]] since [[Early modern Europe|Early Modern]] times are <big>[[0 (number)|0]] [[1 (number)|1]] [[2 (number)|2]] [[3 (number)|3]] [[4 (number)|4]] [[5 (number)|5]] [[6 (number)|6]] [[7 (number)|7]] [[8 (number)|8]] [[9 (number)|9]]</big>. The system was developed in [[India]] by the [[Hindus]] around [[400 BCE]], found its way to [[Persia]], and was relayed to Europe by Arabs. Hence, they became known in the West as "Arabic numerals". The glyphs underwent some modifications en route from India to Europe. ==Description== {{main articles|[[Algorism]] and [[glyphs used with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system]]}} The numeral system employed, known as [[Algorism]], is [[positional notation|positional]] [[decimal]] notation. Various symbol sets are used to represent numbers in the [[Hindu-Arabic numerals (system)|Hindu-Arabic numeral system]], all of which evolved from the [[Brahmi numerals]]. The symbols used to represent the system have split into various typographical variants since the [[Middle Ages]]: *the widespread Western "Arabic numerals" used with the [[Latin alphabet]], in the table below labelled "European", descended from the "West Arabic numerals" which were developed in [[al-Andalus]] and the [[Maghreb]] (There are two [[typographic]] styles for rendering European numerals, known as lining figures and [[text figures]]). *the "Arabic-Indic" or "'''[[Eastern Arabic numerals]]'''" used with the [[Arabic alphabet]], developed primarily in what is now [[Iraq]]. A variant of the Eastern Arabic numerals used in Persian and Urdu languages as shown as "East Arabic-Indic". *the "Devanagari numerals" used with [[Devanagari]] and related variants grouped as '''[[Indian numerals]]'''. [[Image:Arabic numerals-en.svg|500px|Table of numerals]] ==History== ===Origins=== {{main|History of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system}} [[Buddhist]] inscriptions from around 300 BCE use the symbols which became 1, 4 and 6. One century later, their use of the symbols which became 2, 4, 6, 7 and 9 was recorded. [[Image:Indian numerals 100AD.gif|frame|left|[[Brahmi numeral]]s in [[India]] in the first century CE]] The system was adopted by the Arabs in the [[8th century]]. The first certain positional use of zero dates to the [[9th century]], in an inscription at [[Gwalior]] dated to [[870]], and in the work of [[Al-Khwarizmi]]. [[Image:EgyptphoneKeypad.jpg|right|thumb|Modern day Arab telephone keypad with Hindu-Arabic numerals and corresponding Arabic-language numerals]] The numeral system came to be known to both the [[Persians|Persian]] mathematician [[Al-Khwarizmi]], whose book ''On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals'' written about [[825]], and the [[Arab]] mathematician [[Al-Kindi]], who wrote four volumes, "On the Use of the Indian Numerals" (Ketab fi Isti'mal al-'Adad al-Hindi) about [[830]], are principally responsible for the diffusion of the Indian system of numeration in the [[Middle-East]] and the West [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/%7Ehistory/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html]. In the [[10th century]], [[Middle-East]]ern mathematicians extended the decimal numeral system to include fractions, as recorded in a treatise by [[Syrian]] mathematician [[Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi]] in [[952]]-[[953]]. In the Arab World&mdash;until modern times&mdash;the Arabic numeral system was used only by mathematicians. Muslim scientists used the [[Babylonian_numerals|Babylonian numeral system]], and merchants used the [[Abjad numerals]]. Therefore, it was not until [[Fibonacci]] that the Arabic numeral system was used by a large population. ===West Arabic numerals=== A distinctive "West Arabic" variant of the symbols begins to emerge in ca. the [[10th century]] in the [[Maghreb]] and [[Al-Andalus]], called the ''ghubar'' ("sand-table" or "dust-table") numerals. The first mentions of the numerals in the West are found in the Codex Vigilanus of [[976]] [http://www.mathorigins.com/V.htm]. From the [[980s]], [[Pope Silvester II|Gerbert of Aurillac]] began to spread knowledge of the numerals in Europe. Gerbert studied in [[Barcelona]] in his youth, and he is known to have requested mathematical treatises concerning the [[astrolabe]] from [[Lupitus of Barcelona]] after he had returned to France. ===Adoption in Europe=== [[Image:Talhoffer_Thott_140r.jpg|thumb|300px|German manuscript page teaching use of Arabic numerals ([[Hans Talhoffer|Talhoffer]] Thott, [[1459]]). At this time, knowledge of the numerals was still widely seen as esoteric, and Talhoffer teaches them together with the [[Hebrew alphabet]] and [[astrology]].]] [[Image:Petrus Astronomus Astronomical clock in Uppsala Cathedral.jpg|thumb|300px|Woodcut showing the 16th century [[astronomical clock]] of [[Uppsala]] cathedral, with two clockfaces, one with Arabic and one with Roman numerals.]] [[Image:Horloge-republicaine1.jpg|thumb|250px|Late 18th century French revolutionary "decimal" clockface.]] [[Al-Khwarizmi]]'s [[825]] treatise ''On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals'' was translated into Latin in the [[12th century]], as ''Algoritmi de numero Indorum'' (''Algoritmi'' being the translator's rendition of the author's name, ''{{Unicode|al-ḫwārizmī}}'', ultimately leading to the term [[algorithm]]). [[Leonardo of Pisa|Fibonacci]], an [[Italy|Italian]] mathematician who had studied in [[Bejaia]] ([[Bougie]]), [[Algeria]], promoted the Arabic numeral system in [[Europe]] with his book ''[[Liber Abaci]]'', which was published in [[1202]], still describing the numerals as "Indian" rather than "Arabic". :"When my father, who had been appointed by his country as public notary in the customs at Bugia acting for the Pisan merchants going there, was in charge, he summoned me to him while I was still a child, and having an eye to usefulness and future convenience, desired me to stay there and receive instruction in the school of accounting. There, when I had been introduced to the art of the Indians' nine symbols through remarkable teaching, knowledge of the art very soon pleased me above all else and I came to understand it.." The numerals are arranged with their lowest value digit to the right, with higher value positions added to the left. This arrangement was adopted identically into the numerals as used in Europe. The Latin alphabet running from left to right, unlike the Arabic alphabet, this resulted in an inverse arrangement of the place-values relative to the direction of reading. The European acceptance of the numerals was accelerated by the invention of the [[printing press]], and they became commonly known during the [[15th century]]. The first known use in [[England]] was on a 1487 inscription (the date being written in Arabic numerals) at [[Piddletrenthide]] church, [[Dorset]]. By the mid [[16th century]], they were in common use in most of Europe.[http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/52545.html.] Roman numerals remained in use mostly for the notation of years of the [[Common Era]], and for numbers on clockfaces. Sometimes, Roman numerals are still used for enumeration of lists (as an alternative to alphabetical enumeration), and numbering pages in prefatory material in books. ==Encodings== The Arabic numerals are encoded in [[ASCII]] (and [[Unicode]]) at positions 48 to 57: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |- !style="width: 5.5em"|Binary !style="width: 2.5em"|Dec !style="width: 2.5em"|Hex !Glyph |- |0011&nbsp;0000 |48 |30 |0 |- |0011&nbsp;0001 |49 |31 |1 |- |0011&nbsp;0010 |50 |32 |2 |- |0011&nbsp;0011 |51 |33 |3 |- |0011&nbsp;0100 |52 |34 |4 |- |0011&nbsp;0101 |53 |35 |5 |- |0011&nbsp;0110 |54 |36 |6 |- |0011&nbsp;0111 |55 |37 |7 |- |0011&nbsp;1000 |56 |38 |8 |- |0011&nbsp;1001 |57 |39 |9 |} ==See also == {{Table Numeral Systems}} *[[Hindu-Arabic numeral system]] ==References== *[http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab34 History of Counting Systems and Numerals]. Retrieved [[11 December]] [[2005]]. *[http://www.laputanlogic.com/articles/2003/06/01-95210802.html The Evolution of Numbers]. [[16 April]] [[2005]]. *O'Connor, J. J. and Robertson, E. F. [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/%7Ehistory/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html Indian numerals]. November 2000. ==External links== *History of the Numerals **[http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/%7Ehistory/HistTopics/Arabic_numerals.html Arabic numerals]: **[http://www.scit.wlv.ac.uk/university/scit/modules/mm2217/han.htm Hindu-Arabic numerals]: [[Category:Numeration]] [[da:Arabiske talsystem]] [[de:Arabische Ziffern]] [[sr:Арапски бројеви]] [[es:Numeración arábiga]] [[eo:Eŭropaj ciferoj]] [[fr:Chiffre arabe]] [[gu:હિન્દુ-અરેબીક અંકો]] [[ko:아라비아 수 체계]] [[hr:Arapski brojevi]] [[la:Numeri arabici]] [[nl:Arabische cijfers]] [[ja:アラビア数字]] [[pl:Cyfry arabskie]] [[ru:Арабские цифры]] [[sl:Arabske številke]] [[fi:Arabialaiset numerot]] [[vi:Chữ số Ả Rập]] [[uk:Арабська система цифр]] [[zh:阿拉伯数字]] 1787 41990933 2006-03-03T02:06:32Z LtPowers 749490 rm redlinked person who died 15 years before he was born. <!-- Language links at bottom --> {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=9}} |} '''[[April 9]]''' is the [[99 (number)|99th]] day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (100th in [[leap year]]s). There are 266 days remaining. ==Events== *[[193]] - [[Septimius Severus]] is proclaimed [[Roman Emperor]] by the army in [[Illyricum]] (in the [[Balkans]]). *[[1241]] - [[Battle of Legnica|Battle of Liegnitz]]: [[Mongol]] forces defeats the [[Poland|Polish]] and [[Germany|German]] armies. *[[1667]]: First public art exhibition opens in Paris *[[1682]] - [[René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle|Robert Cavelier de La Salle]] discovers the mouth of the [[Mississippi River]], claims it for [[France]] and names it [[Louisiana]]. *[[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Mansfield]] - [[United States|Union]] General [[Nathaniel Banks]]' [[Red River Campaign]] is thwarted by [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] General [[Richard Taylor (general)|Richard Taylor]]'s forces at [[Mansfield, Louisiana]]. *[[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Robert E. Lee]] surrenders the [[Army of Northern Virginia]] (26,765 troops) to [[Ulysses S. Grant]] at [[Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia]], effectively ending the [[war]]. *[[1867]] - [[Alaska purchase]]: Passing by a single vote, the [[United States Senate]] ratifies a [[treaty]] with [[Russia]] for the purchase of [[Alaska]]. *[[1909]] - The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passes the [[Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act]]. *[[1913]] - The [[Brooklyn Dodgers]]' [[Ebbets Field]] opens. *[[1916]] - [[World War I]]: [[Battle of Verdun]] - [[Germany|German]] forces launch their third offensive of the [[battle]]. *[[1917]] - World War I: [[Battle of Arras (1917)|Battle of Arras]] - The [[battle]] begins with [[Canada|Canadian]] forces executing a massive assault on the [[Vimy Ridge]]. *[[1939]] - [[Marian Anderson]] sings at the [[Lincoln Memorial]], after having been refused the right to sing at the [[Daughters of the American Revolution]]'s [[Constitution Hall]]. *[[1940]] - [[World War II]]: [[Germany]] invades [[Denmark]] and [[Norway]]. *[[1942]] - [[World War II|Second World War]]: [[Battle of Bataan]]/[[Bataan Death March]] - [[United States]] forces surrender on the [[Bataan Peninsula]]. [[Japanese Navy]] launches air raid on [[Trincomalee]] in [[Ceylon]] ([[Sri Lanka]]); [[Royal Navy]] [[aircraft carrier]] [[HMS Hermes]] and [[Royal Australian Navy]] [[Destroyer]] [[HMAS Vampire]] are sunk off the country's East Coast. *[[1945]] - The [[German pocket battleship Admiral Scheer]] is sunk. *[[1947]] - The [[Glazier-Higgins-Woodward Tornadoes]] kill 181 and injure 970 in [[Texas]], [[Oklahoma]], and [[Kansas]]. *1947 - The [[Journey of Reconciliation]], the first interracial [[Freedom Ride]] of 16 black and white men traveling through the upper [[Southern United States|South]] in violation of [[Jim Crow]] laws begins. The riders, sponsored by [[CORE]] and the [[Fellowship of Reconciliation]], are seeking to force southern states to enforce the [[United States Supreme Court]]'s [[1946]] [[Irene Morgan]] decision that banned [[racial segregation]] in interstate travel. *[[1948]] - [[Jorge Eliécer Gaitán]]'s assassination provokes a violent riot in [[Bogotá]] (the ''Bogotazo''), and a further ten years of violence in all of [[Colombia]] (''La violencia''). *1948 - Massacre at [[Deir Yassin]]. *[[1949]] - The [[Gurkha Contingent]] of the [[Singapore Police Force]] is formed. *[[1953]] - [[Warner Brothers]] premieres the first [[3-D film]], entitled ''[[House of Wax (1953 movie)|House of Wax]]'' *[[1959]] - [[Mercury program]]: [[NASA]] announces the selection of the [[United States]]' first seven [[astronaut]]s which the news media quickly dub the "Mercury Seven". *[[1967]] - The first [[Boeing 737]] (a 100 series) takes its maiden flight. *[[1969]] - The "[[Chicago Eight]]" plead not guilty on federal charges of conspiracy to incite a riot at the [[1968 Democratic National Convention]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. *[[1986]] - The [[government of France]] rules against the privatization of [[France|French]] automaker [[Renault]]. *[[1987]] - [[Dikye Baggett]] becomes the first person to undergo corrective surgery for [[Parkinson's disease]]. *[[1991]] - [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] declares its independence from the [[Soviet Union]]. *[[1992]] - [[Manuel Noriega]] is convicted of eight crimes. *1992 - [[John Major]]'s [[Conservative Party]] wins an unprecedented fourth general election victory in the [[United Kingdom]]. *[[1998]] - The [[National Prisoner of War Museum]] is dedicated in [[Andersonville, Georgia]], on the site of an [[American Civil War]] POW camp. *[[1999]] - [[Ismail Omar Guelleh]] is elected president of [[Djibouti]]. *1999 - [[Niger | Nigerian]] President [[Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara]] is assassinated. *[[2002]] - The funeral of [[Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon | HM Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother]] of the [[United Kingdom]] is held at [[Westminster Abbey]]. *[[2003]] - [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]: The Ba'ath regime headed by [[Saddam Hussein]] in [[Iraq]] is deposed. *[[2005]] - [[HRH]] [[Charles, Prince of Wales]] [[Wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales and Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall | weds]] [[Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall | Camilla Parker Bowles]] ==Births== *[[1336]] - [[Tamerlane]], Turkish conqueror (d. [[1405]]) *[[1498]] - [[John, Cardinal of Lorraine]], French churchman (d. [[1550]]) *[[1597]] - [[John Davenport (clergyman)|John Davenport]], Connecticut pioneer (d. [[1670]]) *[[1648]] - [[Henri de Massue, Marquis de Ruvigny, 1st Viscount Galway]], French soldier and diplomat (d. [[1720]]) *[[1649]] - [[James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth]], illegitimate son of [[Charles II of Great Britain] (d. [[1685]]) *[[1680]] - [[Philippe Néricault Destouches]], French dramatist (d. [[1754]]) *[[1686]] - [[James Craggs the Younger]], British politician (d. [[1721]]) *[[1691]] - [[Johann Matthias Gesner]], German classical scholar (d. [[1761]]) *[[1757]] - [[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth]], British admiral (d. [[1833]]) *[[1770]] - [[Thomas Johann Seebeck]], German physicist (d. [[1831]]) *[[1773]] - [[Étienne Aignan]], French writer (d. [[1824]]) *[[1794]] - [[Theobald Boehm]], German inventor of the modern flute (d. [[1881]]) *[[1806]] - [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]], British engineer (d. [[1859]]) *[[1821]] - [[Charles Baudelaire]], French poet (d. [[1867]]) *[[1830]] - [[Eadweard Muybridge]], English-born photographer and motion picture pioneer (d. [[1904]]) *[[1835]] - King [[Léopold II of Belgium]] (d. [[1909]]) *[[1865]] - [[Erich Ludendorff]], German general in World War I (d. [[1937]]) *[[1867]] - [[Chris Watson]], third [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1941]]) *[[1872]] - [[Léon Blum]], French prime minister (d. [[1950]]) *[[1888]] - [[Sol Hurok]], Russian-born impresario (d. [[1974]]) *[[1889]] - [[Efrem Zimbalist]], Russian violinist (d. [[1985]]) *[[1897]] - [[John B. Gambling]], American radio talk-show host (d. [[1974]]) *[[1898]] - [[Curly Lambeau]], American football coach, executive (d. [[1965]]) *1898 - [[Paul Robeson]], American singer and activist (d. [[1976]]) *[[1903]] - [[Ward Bond]], American actor (d. [[1960]]) *[[1904]] - [[Sharkey Bonano]], American musician (d. [[1972]]) *[[1905]] - [[J. William Fulbright]], U.S. Senator from Arkansas (d. [[1995]]) *[[1906]] - [[Antal Dorati]], Hungarian conductor (d. [[1988]]) *[[1908]] - [[Victor Vasarely]], Hungarian-born painter (d. [[1997]]) *[[1910]] - [[Abraham Ribicoff]], American politician (d. [[1998]]) *[[1912]] - [[Lew Kopelew]], Russian author (d. [[1997]]) *[[1917]] - [[Johannes Bobrowski]], German lyricist, narrative writer, adaptor and essayist (d. [[1965]]) *1917 - [[Brad Dexter]], American actor (d. [[2002]]) *[[1918]] - [[Jørn Utzon]], Danish architect *[[1919]] - [[J. Presper Eckert]], American computer pioneer *[[1926]] - [[Hugh Hefner]], American editor and publisher *[[1928]] - [[Tom Lehrer]], American musician and mathematician *[[1932]] - [[Jim Fowler]], American zoologist *1932 - [[Carl Perkins]], American musician (d. [[1998]]) *[[1933]] - [[Jean-Paul Belmondo]], French actor *[[1934]] - [[Bill Birch]], New Zealand politician *[[1935]] - [[Avery Schreiber]], American actor (d. [[2002]]) *[[1937]] - [[Marty Krofft]], children's television producer *[[1938]] - [[Viktor Chernomyrdin]], Russian politician *[[1939]] - [[Michael Learned]], American actress *[[1942]] - [[Brandon De Wilde]], American actor (d. [[1972]]) *[[1945]] - [[Peter Gammons]], baseball journalist *[[1954]] - [[Dennis Quaid]], American actor *1954 - [[Iain Duncan Smith]], British politician *[[1957]] - [[Severiano Ballesteros|Seve Ballesteros]], Spanish golfer *[[1962]] - [[Imran Sherwani]], British field hockey player *[[1964]] - [[Rick Tocchet]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player *[[1965]] - [[Jeff Zucker]], American television executive *[[1966]] - [[Cynthia Nixon]], American actress *[[1967]] - [[Rajendra Yadav]], Indian doctor *[[1971]] - [[Jacques Villeneuve]], Canadian race car driver *[[1974]] - [[Jenna Jameson]], American adult entertainer *[[1975]] - [[Robbie Fowler]], English footballer *[[1977]] - [[Gerard Way]], American singer ([[My Chemical Romance]]) *[[1978]] - [[Jorge Andrade]], Portuguese footballer *1978 - [[Rachel Stevens]], English singer *1978 - [[Vesna Pisarović]], Croatian singer *[[1979]] - [[Keshia Knight Pulliam]], American actress *[[1981]] - [[Milan Bartovic|Milan Bartovič]], Slovak ice hockey player *[[1987]] - [[Jesse McCartney]], American singer/actor *[[1990]] - [[Kristen Stewart]], American actress *[[1998]] - [[Elle Fanning]], American child actress ==Deaths== *[[491]] - [[Zeno of the Byzantine Empire|Zeno]], [[Byzantine Emperor]] *[[715]] - [[ Pope Constantine]] *[[1024]] - [[Pope Benedict VIII]] *[[1137]] - [[William X of Aquitaine|William X, Duke of Aquitaine]] (b. [[1099]]) *[[1483]] - King [[Edward IV of England]] (b. [[1442]]) *[[1484]] - [[Edward of Middleham]], [[Prince of Wales]] (b. [[1473]]) *[[1553]] - [[François Rabelais]], French writer *[[1557]] - [[Mikael Agricola]], Finnish scholar (b. [[1510]]) *[[1626]] - Sir [[Francis Bacon]], English philosopher, statesman, and essayist (b. [[1561]]) *[[1693]] - [[Roger de Rabutin, Comte de Bussy]], French writer (b. [[1618]]) *[[1739]] - [[Nicolas Saunderson]], English scientist and mathematician (b. [[1682]]) *[[1747]] - [[Simon Fraser, 11th Lord Lovat]], Scottish clan chief *[[1754]] - [[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Christian Wolff]], German philosopher (b. [[1679]]) *[[1761]] - [[William Law]], British minister (b. [[1686]]) *[[1804]] - [[Jacques Necker]], French statesman (b. [[1732]]) *[[1806]] - [[William V of Orange]], [[Stadtholder]] of the Dutch Republic *[[1889]] - [[Michel Eugène Chevreul]], French chemist (b. [[1786]]) *[[1917]] - [[James Hope Moulton]], British scholar of Classical Greek (b. [[1863]]) *[[1936]] - [[Ferdinand Tönnies]], German sociologist (b. 1855) *[[1940]] - [[Mrs. Patrick Campbell]], British actress (b. [[1865]]) *[[1944]] - [[Evgeniya Rudneva]], Russian World War II heroine (executed) (b. [[1920]]) *[[1945]] - [[Wilhelm Canaris]], German Nazi leader (b. [[1887]]) *1945 - [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]], German theologian (executed) (b. [[1906]]) *[[1948]] - [[Jorge Eliécer Gaitán]], Colombian politician (b. [[1903]]). *[[1951]] - [[Vilhelm Bjerknes]], Norwegian physicist (b. [[1862]]) *[[1959]] - [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], American architect (b. [[1867]]) *[[1961]] - King [[Zog of Albania]] (b. [[1895]]) *[[1963]] - [[Eddie Edwards]], American jazz trombonist (b. [[1891]]) *[[1976]] - [[Dagmar Nordstrom]], American composer, pianist, one of The [[Nordstrom Sisters]] (b. [[1903]]) *1976 - [[Phil Ochs]], American singer (b. [[1940]]) *[[1988]] - [[Brook Benton]], American actor (b. [[1931]]) *[[1991]] - [[Martin Hannett]], record producer (b. [[1948]]) *[[1996]] - [[Richard Condon]], American novelist (b. [[1915]]) *1996 - [[James W. Rouse]], American real estate developer, activist, and philanthropist (b. [[1914]]) *[[1997]] - [[Laura Nyro]], American singer and songwriter (b. [[1947]]) *[[1999]] - [[Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara]], Niger politician and general (b. [[1949]]) *[[2001]] - [[Willie Stargell]], baseball player (b. [[1940]]) *[[2002]] - [[Leopold Vietoris]], Austrian mathematician (b. [[1891]]) *[[2005]] - [[Andrea Dworkin]], American feminist and writer (b. [[1946]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Bahá'í Faith]] - Feast of Jalál (Glory) - First day of the second month of the Bahá'í Calendar *[[Bataan Death March|Bataan Day]] (Day of Valor - ''Araw ng Kagitingan'') in the [[Philippines]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/9 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/9 Today in History: April 9] ---- [[April 8]] - [[April 10]] - [[March 9]] - [[May 9]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[ceb:Abril 9]] [[nap:9 'e abbrile]] [[war:Abril 9]] [[pam:Abril 9]] [[af:9 April]] [[ar:9 أبريل]] [[an:9 d'abril]] [[ast:9 d'abril]] [[bg:9 април]] [[be:9 красавіка]] [[bs:9. april]] [[ca:9 d'abril]] [[cv:Ака, 9]] [[co:9 d'aprile]] [[cs:9. duben]] [[cy:9 Ebrill]] [[da:9. april]] [[de:9. April]] [[et:9. aprill]] [[el:9 Απριλίου]] [[es:9 de abril]] [[eo:9-a de aprilo]] [[eu:Apirilaren 9]] [[fo:9. apríl]] [[fr:9 avril]] [[fy:9 april]] [[ga:9 Aibreán]] [[gl:9 de abril]] [[ko:4월 9일]] [[hr:9. travnja]] [[io:9 di aprilo]] [[id:9 April]] [[ia:9 de april]] [[ie:9 april]] [[is:9. apríl]] [[it:9 aprile]] [[he:9 באפריל]] [[jv:9 April]] [[ka:9 აპრილი]] [[csb:9 łżëkwiôta]] [[ku:9'ê avrêlê]] [[lt:Balandžio 9]] [[lb:9. Abrëll]] [[li:9 april]] [[hu:Április 9]] [[mk:9 април]] [[ms:9 April]] [[nl:9 april]] [[ja:4月9日]] [[no:9. april]] [[nn:9. april]] [[oc:9 d'abril]] [[pl:9 kwietnia]] [[pt:9 de Abril]] [[ro:9 aprilie]] [[ru:9 апреля]] [[se:Cuoŋománu 9.]] [[sco:9 Aprile]] [[sq:9 Prill]] [[scn:9 di aprili]] [[simple:April 9]] [[sk:9. apríl]] [[sl:9. april]] [[sr:9. април]] [[fi:9. huhtikuuta]] [[sv:9 april]] [[tl:Abril 9]] [[tt:9. Äpril]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 9]] [[th:9 เมษายน]] [[vi:9 tháng 4]] [[tr:9 Nisan]] [[uk:9 квітня]] [[ur:9 اپریل]] [[wa:9 d' avri]] [[zh:4月9日]] 1788 40429517 2006-02-20T14:05:56Z 85.34.201.166 + [[Agent based model]] '''ABM''' is a [[three-letter abbreviation]] with multiple meanings: * [[Acoustic black metal]], for example [[Impaled Northern Moonforest]] * [[Activity-based management]], see [[cost management]] * [[Anti-ballistic missile]] or the [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]] * [[Anything But Microsoft]], a [[zealot]]ry which espouses that [[Microsoft]] is evil; therefore no one should use their products or technology regardless of technical merit. A particular zealot of this nature is an ABMer. Antonym: NBM * [[Agent based model]] * [[Asynchronous Balanced Mode]] * [[Automatic Banking Machine]], usually referred to by the term [[Automatic teller machine]] * [[Bamaga Injinoo Airport]] (IATA airport code: ABM) in Bamaga, Queensland, Australia * [[Uru: Ages Beyond Myst]], a computer game {{TLAdisambig}} [[de:ABM]] [[nn:ABM]] [[sv:ABM]] 1789 39480442 2006-02-13T17:12:26Z Kbdank71 197953 per [[WP:CFD]] [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 5|Feb 5]] :''Apuleius should not be confused with [[Lucius Appuleius Saturninus]], a Roman demagogue or with [[Pseudo-Apuleius]], an author.'' '''Lucius Apuleius''' (c. A.D. [[123]]/[[125|5]] - c. A.D. [[180]]), an utterly [[Roman Empire|Romanized]] [[Berber]] who described himself as "half-[[Numidia|Numidian]] half-[[Gaetulia|Gaetulian]]", is remembered most for his bawdy [[Picaresque novel|picaresque]] [[Latin]] [[novel]] ''[[The Golden Ass]]'' or, in Latin, the '''Aureus Asinus''' (where the Latin word ''aureus'' - golden - connoted an element of blessed luckiness). He was born in [[Madaurus]] (now [[Mdaourouch]], [[Algeria]]), a [[Roman colony]] in Numidia on the North African coast, bordering Gaetulia; this is the same ''[[colonia]]'' where [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]] later received part of his early education, and, though located well away from the Romanized coast, is today the site of some pristine Roman ruins. Details regarding his life come mostly from his defense speech (see below) and a work entitled "Florida," which consists of snippets taken from some of his best speeches. There is also a desire on the part of many to take details from his seemingly autobiographical novel and apply them to Apuleius, but this is not a reliable source -- most notably, the novel is misused as evidence that Apuleius was a worshiper of [[Isis]], though there is good reason to think that this was not the case. (Another dubious conclusion is that "Lucius," the first name of the main character of the novel, was also the first name of Apuleius -- wishful thinking for which there is no concrete evidence.) Apuleius inherited a substantial fortune from his father, a provincial magistrate. Apuleius studied with a master at [[Carthage]] and later at [[Athens]], where he studied [[Platonic philosophy]] among other subjects. He subsequently went to [[Rome]] to study [[Latin]] [[oratory]] and, most likely, to declaim in the law courts for a time before returning to his native North Africa. He also travelled extensively in [[Asia Minor]] and [[Egypt]], studying [[philosophy]] and [[religion]], burning up his inheritance while doing so. After being accused of using [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]] to gain the attentions (and fortune) of the wealthy widow he married (the mother of a school chum from his days in Athens), he declaimed and then distributed a witty ''tour de force'' in his own defense before the [[proconsul]] and a court of magistrates convened in [[Sabratha]], near [[Tripoli]], the ''Apologia (A Discourse on Magic)''. The work has very little to do with magic, and a lot to do with making mincemeat of his opponents, with hilarity and panache. It is among the funniest works that have come down to us from Antiquity -- it is certainly the most entertaining example of Latin courtroom oratory to survive, though some fans of Cicero might disagree -- and firmly places Apuleius among the great humorists of his day. His other works include ''On the God of Socrates'', ''Florida'', ''On Plato and his Doctrine'', and possibly ''On the Universe''. ''The Golden Ass'' is the only Latin novel that has survived in its entirety. It is an imaginative, irreverent, and amusing work that relates the ludicrous adventures of one Lucius, who experiments in magic and is accidentally turned into an [[donkey|ass]]. In this guise he hears and sees many unusual things, until escaping from his predicament in a rather unexpected way (see SPOILER below). Within this [[frame story]] are found multiple [[story within a story|digressions]], the longest among them being the well-known tale of [[Cupid and Psyche]]. {{spoiler}} The ending of "The Golden Ass" is unexpected, and should not be spoiled for those who have not read the book. However, since it is an important aspect of Apuleius's masterpiece, it cannot be omitted from this site -- thus the use of this warning. "The Golden Ass" ends with the hero, Lucius, being rescued by Isis and transformed back from his donkey form. Lucius subsequently becomes a worshiper of Isis, and Apuleius provides a lengthy account of his initiation into the [[mystery religion|mysteries]] of [[Isis]], which some see as [[autobiography|autobiographical]]. But Apuleius need not have been a worshiper of Isis to know the details he provides, and this work is more likely to belong to a sub-genre of stories involving rescue by Isis. It is even possible that he is mocking such intensely devout worshipers of the goddess. == External links == *{{gutenberg author|id=Apuleius|name=Apuleius}} *[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/apuleius.html Apulei Opera] (Latin texts of all the surviving works of Apuleius) at [[The Latin Library]] *[http://www.cwru.edu/UL/preserve/stack/Apologia.html English translation of ''Florida'' by H. E. Butler (PDF)] *[http://www.chieftainsys.freeserve.co.uk/apuleius_apology01.htm English translation of the ''Apologia'' by H. E. Butler] *[http://www.cwru.edu/UL/preserve/stack/Apologia.html English translation of the ''Apologia'' by H. E. Butler (PDF)] *[http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/apuleius/index.html Apuleius - Apologia: Seminar] (Latin text of the ''Apologia'' with H. E. Butler's English translation and an English crib with discussion and commentary) *[http://www.unisi.it/ricerca/ist/anc_hist/online/apuleio/hunink/hunink.htm Apuleius of Madauros, ''Pro Se De Magia (Apologia)'', edited with a commentary by Vincent Hunink] (Long and detailed introduction to the ''Apologia'') [[Category:Roman era humorists]] [[Category:Roman era novelists]] [[Category:Ancient Roman rhetoricians]] [[cs:Lucius Apuleius]] [[de:Apuleius]] [[el:Απουλήιος]] [[es:Apuleyo]] [[fr:Apulée]] [[gl:Apuleio]] [[it:Apuleio]] [[la:Apuleius]] [[hu:Apuleius]] [[nl:Lucius Apuleius Madaurensis]] [[pt:Apuleio]] [[ru:Апулей]] [[sr:Апулеј]] [[fi:Apuleius]] [[sv:Apuleius]] 1790 40196255 2006-02-18T22:06:31Z 67.185.117.241 /* Cast away life */ __NOTOC__ '''Alexander Selkirk''', born '''Alexander Selcraig''', ([[1676]]&ndash;[[13 December]] [[1721]]) was a sailor who spent four years as a [[castaway]] on an uninhabited island; he is supposed to be the prototype of [[Daniel Defoe|Defoe's]] ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]''. ==Biography== ===Early life=== The son of a shoemaker and [[tanning|tanner]] in [[Lower Largo]], [[Fife]], [[Scotland]], he was born in 1676. In his youth he displayed a quarrelsome and unruly disposition, and having been summoned on [[27 August]] [[1695]] before the kirk-session for his "''undecent carriage''" (indecent behaviour) in church, "''did not compear [appear], having gone away to &thorn;e sea: this bussiness is continued till his return''" ([[quotation]] in original [[spelling]]). At an early period he was engaged in [[buccaneer]] expeditions to the South Seas, and in [[1703]] joined famed [[privateer]] and [[exploration|explorer]] [[William Dampier]] on the [[galleon]] ''Cinque Ports'' as sailing master. The following year, in [[October]], the ''[[Cinque Ports (1703 ship)|Cinque Ports]]'' was stopped over at the uninhabited [[archipelago]] of [[Juan Fernández Islands|Juan Fernández]] for a mid-expedition restock of supplies and fresh water. At this point, Selkirk had grave concerns about the seaworthiness of his vessel (the ''Cinque Ports'', later sank, losing most hands) and opted to stay ashore, banking on an impending visit by another ship. His decision spawned almost immediate regret. He chased and called after his boat to no avail; Selkirk spent a solitary residence of four years and four months on [[Juan Fernández Islands|Juan Fernández]]. He took with him a [[musket]], [[gunpowder]], [[carpenter|carpenter's]] tools, a knife, a Bible, and his clothing. ===Cast away life=== Selkirk initially stayed on the beach, fearing strange inland sounds he assumed to be dangerous beasts. During this period, he camped in a small cave, consumed [[shellfish]] for nutrition, surveyed the ocean each day for a possible rescue, and suffered from deep loneliness, depression, and regret. Eventual hordes of [[sea lion]]s, collecting on the beach for their mating and weaning season, drove him to the island's interior. There, life became significantly better. A bevy of new food sources became available: [[Wild Goat|wild goats]], introduced by earlier sailors, provided [[meat]] and [[milk]]; uncultivated [[turnips]], [[cabbage]], and [[black pepper|pepper]] berries offered diversity and spice. [[Rat]]s, also not native, were an initial problem -- they made a habit of gnawing on Selkirk during the night. However, by domesticating and living near equally feral [[cat]]s, he was able to sleep soundly. Selkirk made extraordinary use of the equipment he took from the ship and, later, that which he made from island materials. He carpentered two [[hut]]s out of native [[Pimento tree]]s and employed his musket and knife to hunt and clean goats. However, when his gunpowder dwindled, he had to resort to chasing his prey on foot. This resulted in a major injury wherein he tumbled off a cliff and was rendered unconscious for about twenty four hours (his prey had unwittingly intervened, sparing him a broken back).{{ref|fall}} He also read from the [[Bible]] frequently, finding it beneficial to his emotional state and grasp of English. When Selkirk's clothing wore out, he fashioned new garments from goatskin using a [[nail]] to sew. His father was a tanner, and the lessons he had learned as a child helped him greatly on the island. When his shoes were no longer usable, Selkirk's feet had become so toughened and calloused that he found them unnecessary. He forged a new knife out of iron barrel rings left on the beach. Two vessels arrived and departed before his escape; both were [[Spain|Spanish]]. As a [[Scotland|Scotsman]] and [[privateer]], he faced a fate worse than death if captured. Selkirk hid from both crews. The long awaited rescue occurred on [[2 February]] [[1709]] by way of privateer ''Duke'', a ship piloted by the same William Dampier mentioned earlier. Selkirk was discovered off the island by the ''Duke''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s [[Captain]], [[Woodes Rogers]], who called him the Governor of the island. Upon being found, the four year castaway was completely incoherent with joy. The agile Selkirk caught two or three goats a day, helping restore the health of Rogers's men. Rogers eventually made Selkirk his mate and gave him the independent command of one of his prizes. Rogers's ''A cruising voyage round the world: first to the South-Sea, thence to the East-Indies, and homewards by the Cape of Good Hope'' was published in [[1712]], with an account of Selkirk's ordeal. In 1717 Selkirk had returned to Lower Largo, but only stayed a few months. There he met Sophia Bruce, a sixteen year old dairymaid, and they eloped to [[London]]. Within a year he had again gone to sea. On a visit to [[Plymouth]], he married a widowed innkeeper. According to the ship's [[data logging|log]], he died at 8 p.m. on [[December 13]], [[1721]] while [[lieutenant]] on board the Royal ship ''[[Weymouth]]'', probably succumbing to the [[yellow fever]] which had devastated the voyage. He was buried at sea off the west coast of [[Africa]]. ==The Island== *One of the islands in [[Juan Fernández Islands]] has been named Alejandro Selkirk. ==Notes== #{{note|fall}} Rodgers, Woodes, ''Providence display’d, or a very surprizing account of one'', p. 6. ==References== *Selcraig, B. (July 2005). "The Real Robinson Crusoe". ''[[Smithsonian]]'', p.82-90. {{1911}} ==Further reading and information== Diana Souhami, ''Selkirk's Island: The True and Strange Adventures of the Real Robinson Crusoe'', (2001) ISBN 0151005265 == External links == *[http://www.ini.unizh.ch/~tobi/alex/alex.html Account of a trip to Selkirk's Island] *[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3-1783811,00.html Site of Selkirk's camp indentified], from [[The Times]] (London), [[17 September]] [[2005]]. [[Category:1676 births|Selkirk, Alexander]] [[Category:1721 deaths|Selkirk, Alexander]] [[Category:Natives of Fife|Selkirk, Alexander]] [[Category:Castaways|Selkirk, Alexander]] [[de:Alexander Selkirk]] [[fr:Alexandre Selkirk]] [[nl:Alexander Selkirk]] [[fi:Alexander Selkirk]] [[sv:Alexander Selkirk]] 1791 41381115 2006-02-26T23:35:14Z Mahanchian 606519 Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]]) An '''anti-ballistic missile''' (ABM) is a [[missile]] designed to counter [[ballistic missile]]s. A ballistic missile is used to deliver [[nuclear weapon| nuclear]], [[Chemical warfare| chemical]], [[Biological warfare| biological]] or conventional [[warhead]]s in a [[External ballistics|ballistic]] flight [[trajectory]]. The term "anti-ballistic missile" describes any antimissile system designed to counter ballistic missiles. However the term is more commonly used for ABM systems designed to counter long range, nuclear-armed [[Intercontinental ballistic missile]]s (ICBMs). Only two ABM systems have previously been operational against ICBMs, the U.S. [[Safeguard (nuke)| Safeguard]] system, and the Russian A-35 system which used the Galosh interceptor. Safeguard was only briefly operational; the Russian system has been improved and is still active, now called A-135 and using two missile types, Gorgon and Gazelle. However the U.S. [[Ground-Based Midcourse Defense]] (GMD, previously called [[National Missile Defense|NMD]]) system has recently reached initial operational capability. Three shorter range tactical ABM systems are currently operational: the U.S. [[MIM-104 Patriot| Patriot]], Navy [[Aegis combat system]]/[[Standard missile| Standard SM-3]], and the Israeli [[Arrow missile| Arrow]]. The longer-range U.S. [[Terminal High Altitude Area Defense]] (THAAD) system is scheduled for deployment in 2011. In general short-range tactical ABMs cannot intercept ICBMs, even if within range. The tactical ABM radar and performance characteristics do not allow it, as an incoming ICBM warhead moves much faster than a tactical missile warhead. However it's possible the higher performance THAAD missile could be upgraded to intercept ICBMs. Latest versions of the U.S. [[MIM-23 Hawk| Hawk missile]] have a limited capability against tactical ballistic missiles, but is usually not described as an ABM. For current US developments, see [[Missile Defense Agency]]. For other short-range missiles, see [[Sea Wolf missile|Sea Wolf]], [[MBDA Aster|Aster 15]] and [[Crotale missile]]. ==Early history of ABMs== === From World War II through the 1950s=== The idea of shooting down rockets before they can hit their target dates from the first use of modern missiles in warfare, the German [[V-1]] and [[V-2]] program of [[World War II]]. British and American fighters attempted to destroy V-1 "buzz bombs" in flight prior to impact, with some success. The V-2, the first true ballistic missile, proved impossible to intercept using [[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfire]]s and similar craft. Instead, the Allies launched [[Operation Crossbow]] to find and destroy V-2s before launch. The operation was largely ineffective, as was a similar operation during the first [[Persian_gulf|Persian]] [[Gulf War]] nearly fifty years later against the V-2's direct descendant, the Iraqi [[Scud]] missile. The American armed forces began experimenting with anti-missile missiles shortly after World War II, as the extent of German research into rocketry became clear. But defenses against Soviet long-range bombers took priority until the later 1950s, when the Soviets began to test their missiles (most notably via the [[Sputnik program|Sputnik]] launch in October 1957). The first experimental ABM system was [[Project Nike|Nike Zeus]], a modification of existing air defense systems. Nike Zeus proved unworkable, and so work proceeded with [[Project Nike|Nike X]]. [[Image:NIKE Zeus.jpg|thumb|right|Launch of a Nike Zeus missile]] Another avenue of research by the U.S. was the test explosions of several [[hydrogen bomb]]s at very high altitudes over the southern Atlantic ocean, launched from ships. When such an explosion takes place a burst of [[X-ray]]s are released that strike the Earth's atmosphere, causing secondary showers of charged particles over an area hundreds of miles across. The movement of these charged particles in the Earth's magnetic field causes a powerful [[electromagnetic pulse|EMP]] which induces very large currents in any conductive material. The idea was to destroy any electronics on the warheads. The project was found to be unworkable, although the exact reasons are not given. Other countries were also involved in early ABM research. A more advanced project was at [[DRE Valcartier|CARDE]] in [[Canada]], which rearched the main problems of ABM systems. This included developing several advanced [[infrared]] detectors for terminal guidance, a number of missile airframe designs, a new and much more powerful solid rocket fuel, and numerous systems for testing it all. After a series of drastic budget cuts in the late 1950s the research wound down. One offshoot of the project was [[Gerald Bull]]'s system for inexpensive high-speed testing, consisting of missile airframes fired from a [[sabot]] round, which would later form the basis of [[Project HARP]]. ==Developments in the 1960s and 1970s== ===Nike-X, Sentinel and Safeguard=== [[Image:meck6.jpg|thumb|185px|Dual launch of Sprint missiles during a salvo test at [[Meck|Meck island]] ]] Nike X was a US system of two missiles, radars and their associated control systems. The original Nike Zeus (later called Spartan) was upgraded for longer range and a much larger 5 megatonne warhead intended to destroy warheads with a burst of x-rays outside the atmosphere. A second shorter-range missile called [[Sprint (missile)|Sprint]] with very high acceleration was added to handle warheads that evaded longer-ranged Spartan. Sprint was a very fast missile (some sources claimed it accelerated to 8,000 mph within 4 seconds of flight--an average acceleration of ''100 [[g]]''!) and had a smaller W66 [[Neutron bomb|enhanced radiation]] warhead in the 1-3 kiloton range for in-atmosphere interceptions. The new Spartan changed the deployment plans as well. Previously the Nike systems were to have been clustered near cities as a last-ditch defense, but the Spartan allowed for interceptions at hundreds of miles range. Therefore the basing changed to provide almost complete coverage of the United States in a system known as [[Safeguard (nuke)|Sentinel]]. Later Sentinel was restructured to a more limited defense of ICBM sites against incoming warheads. That system used the same Spartan/Sprint missiles and radar, and was called [[Safeguard (nuke)| Safeguard]]. ===Moscow ABM system=== The only other ICBM ABM system to reach production was the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] A-35 system. It was initially a single-layer exoatmospheric (outside the atmosphere) design, using the Galosh (SH-01/ABM-1) interceptor. It was deployed at four sites around [[Moscow]] in the early 1970s. Originally intended to be a larger deployment, the system was downsized to the two sites allowed under the 1972 ABM treaty. It was upgraded in the 1980s to a two-layer system. The Gorgon (SH-11/ABM-4) long-range missile was designed to handle intercepts outside the atmosphere, and the Gazelle (SH-08/ABM-3) short-range missile endoatmospheric intercepts that eluded Gorgon. In general the system is thought to have capabilities similar to that of the former U.S. Safeguard system. ===The problem of defense against MIRVs=== [[Image:Peacekeeper-missile-testing.jpg|thumb|right|Testing of the [[LGM-118A Peacekeeper]] re-entry vehicles, all eight fired from only one missile. Each line represents the path of a warhead which, were it live, would detonate with the explosive power of twenty-five [[Little Boy|Hiroshima-style]] weapons.]] ABM systems were initially developed to counter single warheads from large [[Intercontinental ballistic missile]]s (ICBMs). The economics seemed simple enough: since rocket costs increase rapidly with size, interceptor cost should be less than the attacking ICBMs (which had much longer range and heavier payloads). In an arms race the defense would always win. Things changed dramatically with the introduction of [[Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle]] (MIRV) warheads. Suddenly each launcher was throwing not one warhead, but several. The defense would still require a rocket for every warhead, as they would be re-entering over a wide space and could not be attacked by several warheads from a single antimissile rocket. Suddenly the defense was more expensive than offense: it was much less expensive to add more warheads, or even decoys, than it was to build the interceptor needed to shoot them down. The experimental success of Nike X persuaded the [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] administration to propose a thin ABM defense. In a September 1967 speech, Defense Secretary [[Robert McNamara]] described it as [[Safeguard (nuke)| Sentinel]]. McNamara, a private ABM opponent because of cost and feasibility (see [[cost-exchange ratio]]), claimed that Sentinel would be directed not against the Soviet Union's missiles (since the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] had more than enough missiles to overwhelm any American defense), but rather against the potential nuclear threat of the [[People's Republic of China]]. In the meantime a public debate over the merit of ABMs broke out. Even before the MIRV problem made ABM effectiveness non-workable in the late [[1960s]], some technical difficulties had already made an ABM system questionable for a large sophisticated attack. One problem was the [[Fractional Orbital Bombardment System]] (FOBS) that would give little warning to the defense. Another problem was high altitude EMP (whether from offensive or defensive nuclear warheads) which could degrade defensive radar systems. Technical difficulties aside, the debate turned to an odd position: that no defense at all was better than any defense. Namely, a false sense of security might encourage ABM-defended nations to escalate against minor threats, believing they would be protected against any response. By this reasoning simply starting to deploy such a system could prompt a full-scale attack before it could become operational and thereby render such an attack useless. This curious set of arguments thus put the system in a terrible position: it couldn't possibly work, but if it did that would be even worse. ===The ABM Treaty of 1972=== Various technical, economic and political problems led to the [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty|ABM treaty]] of 1972, which restricted the deployment of strategic (not tactical) antiballistic missiles. Under the ABM treaty and a 1974 revision, each country was allowed to deploy a single ABM system with only 100 interceptors to protect a single target. The Soviets deployed a system named A-35 (using Galosh interceptors), designed to protect Moscow. The U.S. deployed [[Safeguard (nuke)| Safeguard ]] (using Spartan/Sprint interceptors) to defend ballistic missile sites at Grand Forks Air Force Base, North Dakota, in 1975. The U.S. Safeguard system was only briefly operational. The Russian system (now called A-135) has been improved and is still active around Moscow. On June 13, 2002, the US withdrew from the treaty. Why did the Soviets and Americans accept the treaty? * Deployment of even a limited defensive system might well invite a pre-emptive nuclear attack before it could be implemented * Soviet leaders suspected that the United States, with its mammoth resources and technological superiority, might well be able to create a leakproof defense. * Deploying ABM systems would likely invite another expensive arms race for defensive systems, in addition to maintaining existing offensive expenditures * Then-current technology did not permit a thorough defense against a sophisticated attack * Concerns that use of nuclear warheads on antimissile interceptors would degrade capability of defensive radar, thus possibly rendering defense ineffective after the first few intercepts * In the U.S, political and public concern of detonating defensive nuclear warheads over friendly territory * An ICBM defense could jeopardize the [[Mutual assured destruction|Mutually Assured Destruction]] concept, thus being a destabilizing influence In an ironic twist, this limitation of defensive arms eventually led to treaties limiting the construction of offensive arms, known as the [[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks|SALT I]] treaties. Although designed and ratified under Republican President Nixon and Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, conservatives in the United States generally remained opposed to the ABM Treaty. ==ABM developments in the 1980s and Persian Gulf War== The [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]]-era [[Strategic Defense Initiative]] (better known as "Star Wars"), along with research into various energy-beam weaponry, brought new interest in the area of ABM technologies. SDI was an extremely ambitious program to provide a total shield against a massive Soviet ICBM attack. The initial concept envisioned large sophisticated orbiting laser battle stations, space-based relay mirrors, and nuclear-pumped X-ray laser satellites. Later research indicated that some planned technologies such as X-ray [[Laser]]s were not feasible with then-current technology. As research continued, SDI evolved through various concepts as designers struggled with the difficulty of such a large complex defense system. SDI remained a research program and was never deployed. However several SDI technologies were used in follow on ABM systems. The [[MIM-104 Patriot|Patriot antiaircraft missiles]] was the first deployed tactical ABM system, although it was not designed from the outset for that task and consequently had limitations. It was used in the 1991 Gulf War to attempt to intercept Iraqi [[Scud]] missiles. Post-war analyses show that the Patriot much less effective than initially thought because of its radar and control system's inability to discriminate warheads from other objects when the Scud missiles broke up during reentry. On the other hand, the Scud itself was highly inaccurate and not very reliable. It was more a psychological than real threat to military targets. <!--(See new 1990s section. The arrow system doesn't require hit-to-kill and is non-nuclear which contradicts this section) <!--(You're right, I fixed it.- joema 23-Feb-06)Testing of ABMs and ABM technology continued through the 1990s with mixed success. Use of non-nuclear interceptors requires that the interceptor physically contact the incoming payload -- a much more difficult problem. There are also many unresolved issues with warhead discrimination and decoy deployment. There is little doubt that occasional intercepts are possible. The issue is whether an ABM system is a cost effective deterrent or whether a potential enemy will simply deploy a few more missiles with more warheads.--> ==Post Gulf War ABM developments in the 1990s== ===Tactical ABMs deployed=== [[Image:Navy Theater Ballistic Missile Defense.JPG|thumb|right|230px|Developed in th late 1990s, the Lightweight Exo-Atmospheric Projectile (LEAP) attaches to a modified [[Standard missile|SM-2 Block IV missile]] used by the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]]]] <!--[http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/program/nmd/index.html FAS] also has a time line for ABM/NMB/TBMD starting in [http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/program/milestone.htm Missie Defense Milestones]--> Testing of ABMs and ABM technology continued through the 1990s with mixed success. However, following the Gulf War, improvements were made to several U.S. air defense systems. [[MIM-104 Patriot| Patriot PAC-3]] was developed and tested following the Gulf War. The PAC-3 is a complete redesign of the system deployed during the war, including a totally new missile. The improved guidance, radar and missile performance improves the probablility of kill over the earlier PAC-2. In operation Iraqi Freedom, the Patriot PAC-3 had a near 100% sucess rate at intercepting short range [[tactical ballistic missile]]s (TBMs). However since no longer range Iraqi [[Scud]] missiles were fired, PAC-3 effectiveness againt those was untested. Also the PAC-3 was involved in two [[fratricide]] incidents: two incidents of Patriot firings at coalition aircraft and one of U.S. aircraft firing on a Patriot battery [http://www.acq.osd.mil/dsb/reports/2005-01-Patriot_Report_Summary.pdf]. From 1992 to 2000 a demonstration system for the US Army [[Terminal High Altitude Area Defense]] was deployed at [[White Sands Missile Range]]. Tests were conducted on a regular basis and resulted in early failures, but successful intercepts occurred in 1999. A new version of the Hawk missile was tested in the early to mid 90's and by the end of 1998 the majority of US Marine Corps [[MIM-23 Hawk|Hawk]] systems were modified to support basic theater anti-ballistic missile capabilities[http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/program/hawk.htm]. Following the Gulf war, the [[Aegis combat system]] was expanded to include ABM capabilities. The [[Standard missile]] system was also enhanced and tested for ballistic missile interception. In the late 90's SM-2 block IVA missiles were tested in a theater ballistic missile defense role.[http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/program/sm2.htm] Standard Missile 3 (SM3) systems have also been tested for an ABM role. In 1998, Defense secretary William Cohen proposed spending an additional $6.6 billion on ballistic missile defense programs to build a system to protect against attacks from North Korea or accidental launches from Russia or China[http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/military/jan-june99/nmd_1-28a.html]. The [[Israel]]i [[Arrow missile|Arrow]] system was initially tested in 1990, before the first Gulf War. The Arrow was supported by the United States throughout the nineties. ===Brilliant Pebbles=== Approved for acquisition by the Pentagon in 1991 but never realized, Brilliant Pebbles was a proposed space-based anti-ballistic system that tried to avoid some of the problems of the earlier SDI concepts. Rather than use sophisticated large laser battle stations and nuclear-pumped X-ray laser satellites, Brilliant Pebbles consisted of a thousand very small, highly intelligent orbiting satellites with kinetic warheads. The system relied on advances in computer technology, avoided problems with overly centralized command and control and risky, expensive development of large, complicated space defense satellites. It promised to be much less expensive to develop and have less technical development risk. The name Brilliant Pebbles comes from the small size of the satellite interceptors and great computational power enabling more autonomous targeting. Rather than rely exclusively on ground-based control, the many small interceptors would cooperatively communicate among themselves and target a large swarm of ICBM warheads in space or in the late boost phase. Development was later discontinued in favor of a limited ground-based defense. ===SDI changed to NMD=== In the early 1990s, President G. H. W. Bush called for a more limited version using rocket-launched interceptors based on the ground at a single site. In 1993, SDI was reorganized as the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization. Deployment of the more limited system, called the National Missile Defense (NMD) was planned to protect all 50 states from a rogue missile attack. Research and development of the NMD system continued under the Clinton administration from 1992 to 2000. ==Current ABM developments== A renewed interest in missile defense cooincided with the election of President [[George W. Bush]] in 2000. In several tests, the U.S. military has demonstrated the feasibility of shooting down long and short range ballistic missiles. Combat effectivness of newer systems against tactical ballistic missiles seems very high, as the [[MIM-104 Patriot| Patriot PAC-3]] had a 100% success rate in Operation Iraqi Freedom. However NMD real-world effectiveness against longer range ICBMs is less clear. While the Reagan era Strategic Defense Initiative was intended to shield against a massive Soviet attack, the current [[National Missile Defense]] has the more limited goal of shielding against a limited attack by a [[rogue state]]. The Bush administration has accelerated development and deployment of a system proposed in 1998 by the Clinton administration. The system is a dual purpose test and interception facility in Alaska, and as of 2006 is operational with a few interceptor missiles. The Alaska site provides more protection against North Korean missiles or accidental launches from Russia or China, but is likely less effective against missiles launched from Iran. The Alaska interceptors may be later augmented by the naval [[Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System]], by ground-based missiles in other locations, or by the [[Boeing YAL-1| Boeing Airborne Laser]]. President Bush has referenced the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks]] and the proliferation of ballistic missiles as reasons for missile defense. <!-- (Seems POV and a broad generalization, and I can't find a source for it. Please cite source and uncomment) Often overlooked in the ABM debate in the United States is the resistance of many Pentagon leaders to the construction of a National Missile Defense. Admirals and generals of all services oppose spending huge sums (currently $8bn/yr in 2003) to research, develop, and procure NMD systems. They would prefer to have that money spent on new conventional weapons, training, equipment, or pay. By conventional [[procurement]] methodologies ([[cost-benefit analysis]] and [[cost-utility analysis]]) missile defense would be regarded as a 'bad buy' owing to its very high costs, high level of project risk (it is essentially a research project, not acquisition of proven technologies) and the benefits are disputed. In order to prevent its cancellation by the Pentagon, successive administrations have placed missile defense outside of direct Pentagon control in a separate organisation.--> ===International ABM efforts=== [[Image:Arrow missle.jpg|thumb|right|An Arrow anti-ballistic missile interceptor]] In 1993, a symposium was held by western European nations to explore potential future ballistic missile defense programs. In the end, the council recommended deployment of early warning and surveillance systems as well as regionally controlled defense systems. [http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/program/europe/weu_93/weu1363tasc.htm] In 1998 the [[Israel]]i military conducted a successful test of their [[Arrow missile|Arrow ABM]], developed in Israel with American assistance. Designed to intercept incoming missiles traveling at up to 2 mile/s (3 km/s), the Arrow is expected to perform much better than the Patriot did in the Gulf War. [[Taiwan]] is also engaged in the development of an anti-ballistic missile system, based on its indigenously developed Tien Kung-II (Sky Bow) SAM system. Although reports suggest a promising system, the ROC government continues to show strong interest towards the American [[Terminal High Altitude Area Defense]] (THAAD) program. <!--'A link to a section on international responses to American NMD is needed. A link to international ABM systems and Non-US systems is needed.'--> ==See also== *[[National Missile Defense]] *[[nuclear disarmament]] *[[nuclear proliferation]] *[[nuclear warfare]] *[[atmospheric reentry]] *[[Terminal High Altitude Area Defense]] *[[Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System]] *[[sprint (missile)]] *[[Spartan (missile)]] *[[Safeguard (nuke)| Safeguard/Sentinel ABM system]] ==External links== * The [http://www.cdi.org Center for Defense Information] has many resources on ABMs and NMD. * The [http://www.fas.org/ssp/bmd/index.html Federation of American Scientists], as usual, is a wonderful resource for technical data, full-text of key documents, and analysis. * [http://www.missilethreat.com/systems/ MissileThreat.com], a listing and descriptions of ABM systems around the world. * [http://www.srmsc.org/ The unofficial website of the Stanley R. Mickelson Safeguard complex] contains relevant images and history of the Safeguard program. * [http://www.redstone.army.mil/history/vigilant/intro.html History of U.S. Air Defense Systems] {{Missile types}} :<br /> {{airlistbox}} [[Category:Anti-ballistic missiles|*]] [[he:&#1496;&#1497;&#1500; &#1504;&#1490;&#1491; &#1496;&#1497;&#1500;&#1497;&#1501;]] [[nn:ABM]] 1793 41906422 2006-03-02T14:54:48Z Jimmmmmmmmm 515208 /* Births */ added Babayaro {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=29}} |} '''[[August 29]]''' is the 241st day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (242nd in [[leap year]]s), with 124 days remaining. It is also the 1st day of [[Thoth]] - which is the 1st day of the Egyptian Horoscope. Thoth is the Ibis-headed god of knowledge. ==Events== *[[708]] - Copper coins are minted in [[Japan]] for the first time (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: August 10, 708). *[[1189]]- [[Ban Kulin]] wrote "The Charter of Kulin", which become a symbolic "birth certificate" of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnian]] statehood *[[1261]] - [[Pope Urban IV|Urban IV]] becomes [[Pope]], the last man to do so without being a [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] first. *[[1475]] - The [[Treaty of Picquigny]] ends a brief war between [[France]] and [[England]]. *[[1484]] - [[Pope Innocent VIII|Cardinal Giovanni Battista Cibo]], a staunch supporter of the [[Spanish Inquisition]], is elected Pope Innocent VIII. *[[1521]] - The [[Ottoman Turks]] capture [[Nándorfehérvár]], now known as [[Belgrade]]. *[[1526]] - [[Battle of Mohács]]: The Ottoman Turks led by [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] defeat and kill the last [[Jagiellonian]] king of [[Hungary]] and [[Bohemia]]. *[[1533]] - [[Inca]] [[emperor]] [[Atahualpa]] is [[Execution (legal)|executed]] in [[Cajamarca]] by the garrote. *[[1541]] - The Ottoman Turks capture [[Buda]], the capital of the Hungarian Kingdom. *[[1756]] - [[Frederick the Great]] attacks [[Saxony]], beginning the [[Seven Years' War]]. *[[1786]] - [[Shays' Rebellion]], an armed uprising of [[Massachusetts]] farmers, begins in response to high debt and tax burdens. *[[1831]] - [[Michael Faraday]] discovers [[electromagnetic induction]]. *[[1842]] - The [[Tokugawa shogunate]] orders the local [[Daimyo|daimyō]] to begin providing foreign ships with fresh water and supplies when requested. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: July 24, 1842). *[[1862]] - [[Battle of Aspromonte]]: [[Italy|Italian]] royal forces defeat rebels. *[[1869]] - The [[Mount Washington Cog Railway]] opens, making it the world's first [[cog railway]]. *[[1871]] - [[Emperor Meiji]] orders the [[Abolition of the han system]] and the establishment of [[Prefectures of Japan|prefectures]] as local centers of administration. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: July 14, 1871). *[[1885]] - [[Gottlieb Daimler]] patents the world's first [[motorcycle]]. *[[1895]] - The formation of the [[Rugby League| Northern Rugby Union]] at the George Hotel, [[Huddersfield]], [[England]]. *[[1896]] - [[Chop suey]] is invented in [[New York City]]. *[[1898]] - The [[Goodyear]] tire company is founded. *[[1907]] - The [[Quebec Bridge]] collapses during construction, killing 75 workers. *[[1910]] - [[Japan]] changes [[Korea|Korea's]] name to [[Joseon|Chōsen]] and appoints a governor-general to rule its new colony. *[[1911]] - [[Ishi]], considered the last [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] to make contact with whites, emerges from the wilderness of northeastern [[California]]. *[[1922]] - Turkish forces set fire to [[Smyrna]], in [[Asia Minor]]. *[[1930]] - The last 36 remaining inhabitants of [[St Kilda, Scotland|St Kilda]] are voluntarily evacuated to Scotland. *[[1943]] - [[Occupation of Denmark|German-occupied Denmark]] [[scuttle]]s most of its navy; Germany dissolves Danish government. *[[1944]] - [[Slovak National Uprising]] takes place as 60,000 [[Slovaks|Slovak]] troops turn against the [[Nazi]] rulers. *[[1949]] - [[Soviet atomic bomb project]]: The [[Soviet Union]] tests its first [[atomic bomb]], known as ''First Lightning'' or ''[[Joe 1]]'', at [[Semipalatinsk Test Site|Semipalatinsk]], [[Kazakhstan]]. *[[1952]] - Premiere of [[John Cage]]'s ''4'33"'' in [[Woodstock, New York]]. *[[1958]] - [[United States Air Force Academy]] opens in [[Colorado Springs, Colorado]]. *[[1966]] - Last [[The Beatles|Beatles]] concert, in [[San Francisco, California]]. *1966 - Execution of [[Sayyid Qutb]], a leading theoretician of the Egyptian [[Muslim Brotherhood]]. *[[1982]] - The synthetic [[chemical element]] [[Meitnerium]], [[atomic number]] 109, is first synthesized at the [[Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung]] in [[Darmstadt]], Germany. *[[1991]] - [[Supreme Soviet]] suspends all activities of the Soviet Communist Party. *[[1995]] - [[NATO]] launches [[Operation Deliberate Force]] against Bosnian Serb forces. *[[1996]] - [[Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801]], a [[Vnukovo Airlines]] [[Tupolev Tu-154]] crashes into a mountain on the [[Arctic]] island of [[Spitsbergen]], killing all 141 aboard. *[[1997]] - At least 98 villagers are killed by the [[Armed Islamic Group|GIA]] in the [[Rais massacre]], [[Algeria]]. *1997 - Serial killer [[Ángel Maturino Reséndiz]] bludgeons to death [[Christopher Maier]] of [[Lexington, Kentucky]], [[United States|USA]], the first of nine victims. *[[2003]] - [[Ayatollah]] [[Sayed Mohammed Baqir al-Hakim]], the [[Shia Muslim]] leader in [[Iraq]], is [[assassin]]ated in a [[terrorism|terrorist]] bombing, along with nearly 100 worshippers as they leave a [[mosque]] in [[Najaf]]. *[[2005]] - [[Hurricane Katrina]] [[Effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans|devastates]] much of the [[U.S. Gulf Coast]] from [[Louisiana]] (especially [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]) to the [[Florida Panhandle]], killing more than 1,417 and costing over 75 billion dollars in damage. *2005 - [[Esquivalience]] found to be a false word ==Births== *[[1619]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert]], French minister of finance (d. [[1683]]) *[[1628]] - [[John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath]], English royalist statesman (d. [[1701]]) *[[1632]] - [[John Locke]], English philosopher (d. [[1704]]) *[[1725]] - [[Charles Townshend]], English politician (d. [[1767]]) *[[1756]] - [[Heinrich Graf von Bellegarde]], Austrian field marshal and statesman (d. [[1845]]) *[[1756]] - [[Jan Śniadecki]], Polish mathematician, philosopher and astronomer (d. [[1830]]) *[[1777]] - [[Nikita Yakovlevich Bichurin]], Russian Sinologist (d. 1852) *[[1780]] - [[Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres|Jean Ingres]], French painter (d. [[1867]]) *[[1805]] - [[Frederick Maurice]], English theologian (d. [[1872]]) *[[1809]] - [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.]], American physician and writer (d. [[1894]]) *[[1810]] - [[Juan Bautista Alberdi]], founding father of the Argentine Republic (d. [[1884]]) *[[1843]] - [[David B. Hill]], Governor of New York (d. [[1910]]) *[[1844]] - [[Edward Carpenter]], English Socialist poet (d. [[1929]] *[[1862]] - [[Andrew Fisher]], fifth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1928]]) *1862 - [[Maurice Maeterlinck]], Belgian writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1949]]) *[[1871]] - [[Albert Lebrun]], French politician (d. [[1950]]) *[[1876]] - [[Charles F. Kettering]], American inventor (d. [[1958]]) *[[1898]] - [[Preston Sturges]], American screenwriter (d. [[1959]]) *[[1904]] - [[Werner Forssmann]], German physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1979]]) *[[1905]] - [[Dhyan Chand]], Indian hockey player (d. [[1979]]) *[[1915]] - [[Ingrid Bergman]], Swedish actress (d. [[1982]]) *[[1916]] - [[George Montgomery]], American actor (d. [[2000]]) *[[1917]] - [[Isabel Sanford]], American actress (d. [[2004]]) *[[1920]] - [[Charlie Parker]], American jazz saxophonist and composer (d. [[1955]]) *[[1923]] - [[Richard Attenborough|The Lord Attenborough]], English film director *[[1924]] - [[Consuelo Velázquez]], Mexican songwriter (d. [[2005]]) *1924 - [[Dinah Washington]], American singer (d. [[1963]]) *[[1933]] - [[Arnold Koller]], Swiss Federal Councilor *[[1936]] - [[John McCain]], American politician *[[1937]] - [[James Florio]], Governor of New Jersey *[[1938]] - [[Elliott Gould]], American actor *1938 - [[Robert Rubin]], [[United States Secretary of the Treasury]] *[[1939]] - [[William Friedkin]], American film director *1939 - [[Joel Schumacher]], American film director *[[1940]] - [[Gary Gabelich]], race car driver and land world speed record holder *[[1941]] - [[Robin Leach]], English television host *[[1946]] - [[Bob Beamon]], American jumper *[[1958]] - [[Michael Jackson]], American singer and songwriter *[[1958]] - [[Lenny Henry]], British Comic *[[1959]] - [[Ernesto Rodrigues]], Portuguese composer *[[1959]] - [[Akkineni Nagarjuna]], Telugu film actor *1959 - [[Timothy Perry Shriver]], American chairman of the Special Olympics *[[1961]] - [[Carsten Fischer]], German field hockey player *[[1962]] - [[Rebecca De Mornay]], American actress *[[1963]] - [[Elizabeth Fraser]], English singer ([[Cocteau Twins]]) *[[1969]] - [[Me'Shell NdegéOcello]], American singer *1969 - [[Joe Swail]], Northern Irish snooker player *[[1970]] - [[Jacco Eltingh]], Dutch tennis player *[[1971]] - [[Carla Gugino]], American actress *[[1976]] - [[Stephen Carr]], Irish footballer *[[1978]] - [[Celestine Babayaro]], Nigerian footballer *[[1979]] - [[Chieu Luu]], Canadian journalist *[[1980]] - [[David Desrosiers]], Canadian musician ([[Simple Plan]]) *[[1981]] - [[Lanny Barbie]], Canadian [[porn star]] *[[1985]] - [[Dušan Jocić]], Serbian Warlord ==Deaths== *[[886]] - [[Basil I]], [[Byzantine Emperor]] (b. [[811]]) *[[1093]] - [[Hugh I, Duke of Burgundy]] (b. [[1057]]) *[[1395]] - Duke [[Albert III of Austria]] (b. [[1349]]) *[[1435]] - [[Isabeau de Bavière]], queen of [[Charles VI of France]] (b. [[1371]]) *[[1442]] - [[John VI, Duke of Brittany]] (b. [[1389]]) *[[1526]] - King [[Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia]] (killed in battle) (b. [[1506]]) *[[1533]] - [[Atahualpa]], last Inca ruler of Peru *[[1542]] - [[Cristovão da Gama]], Portuguese soldier (born c.[[1510s|1516]]) *[[1657]] - [[John Lilburne]], English dissenter *[[1712]] - [[Gregory King]], English statistician (b. [[1648]]) *[[1769]] - [[Edmund Hoyle]], English author and teacher (b. [[1672]]) *[[1780]] - [[Jacques-Germain Soufflot]], French architect (b. [[1713]]) *[[1799]] - [[Pope Pius VI]] (b. [[1717]]) *[[1877]] - [[Brigham Young]], American religious leader and western settler (b. [[1801]]) *[[1904]] - [[Murad V]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (b. [[1840]]) *[[1930]] - [[William Archibald Spooner]], English writer (b. [[1844]]) *[[1935]] - [[Astrid of the Belgians|Queen Astrid of Belgium]] (b. [[1905]]) *[[1947]] - [[Manolete]], Spanish bullfighter (b. [[1917]]) *[[1966]] - [[Sayyid Qutb]], Egyptian theoretician (b. [[1906]]) *[[1968]] - [[Ulysses S. Grant III]], American soldier and planner (b. [[1881]]) *[[1972]] - [[Lale Andersen]], German singer (b. [[1905]]) *[[1975]] - [[Eamon de Valera]], first [[Taoiseach]] and third [[President of Ireland]] (b. [[1882]]) *[[1981]] - [[Lowell Thomas]], American writer and broadcaster (b. [[1892]]) *[[1982]] - [[Ingrid Bergman]], Swedish actress (b. [[1915]]) *[[1987]] - [[Lee Marvin]], American actor (b. [[1924]]) *[[1989]] - [[Peter Scott]], English explorer, naturalist, and painter (b. [[1909]]) *[[2003]] - Ayatollah [[Sayed Mohammed Baqir al-Hakim]], Iraqi political leader (b.[[1939]]) *[[2004]] - [[Hans Vonk]], Dutch conductor (b. [[1942]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Christianity]] and [[Calendar of Saints|Roman Catholic Church]] commemorate the beheading of [[John the Baptist]] with a feast day *[[Slovakia]] - [[Slovak National Uprising]] Day ([[1944]], against the Nazi's) *[[United States]] - Hurricane Awareness Day (in response to [[Hurricane Katrina]]) ==Fictional== * The day the running stopped for fugitive [[Richard Kimble]] - [[29 August]] [[1967]]. * Judgment Day in the movie ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'' - [[29 August]] [[1997]]. ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/29 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[August 28]] - [[August 30]] - [[July 29]] - [[September 29]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:29 Augustus]] [[ar:29 أغسطس]] [[an:29 d'agosto]] [[ast:29 d'agostu]] [[bg:29 август]] [[be:29 жніўня]] [[bs:29. august]] [[ca:29 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 29]] [[cv:Çурла, 29]] [[co:29 d'aostu]] [[cs:29. srpen]] [[cy:29 Awst]] [[da:29. august]] [[de:29. August]] [[et:29. august]] [[el:29 Αυγούστου]] [[es:29 de agosto]] [[eo:29-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 29]] [[fo:29. august]] [[fr:29 août]] [[fy:29 augustus]] [[ga:29 Lúnasa]] [[gl:29 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 29일]] [[hr:29. kolovoza]] [[io:29 di agosto]] [[id:29 Agustus]] [[ia:29 de augusto]] [[ie:29 august]] [[is:29. ágúst]] [[it:29 agosto]] [[he:29 באוגוסט]] [[jv:29 Agustus]] [[ka:29 აგვისტო]] [[csb:29 zélnika]] [[ku:29'ê gelawêjê]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 29]] [[lb:29. August]] [[hu:Augusztus 29]] [[mk:29 август]] [[ms:29 Ogos]] [[nap:29 'e aùsto]] [[nl:29 augustus]] [[ja:8月29日]] [[no:29. august]] [[nn:29. august]] [[oc:29 d'agost]] [[pl:29 sierpnia]] [[pt:29 de Agosto]] [[ro:29 august]] [[ru:29 августа]] [[sco:29 August]] [[sq:29 Gusht]] [[scn:29 di austu]] [[simple:August 29]] [[sk:29. august]] [[sl:29. avgust]] [[sr:29. август]] [[fi:29. elokuuta]] [[sv:29 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 29]] [[tt:29. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 29]] [[th:29 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:29 tháng 8]] [[tr:29 Ağustos]] [[uk:29 серпня]] [[wa:29 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 29]] [[zh:8月29日]] [[pam:Agostu 29]] 1794 41841633 2006-03-02T02:20:54Z Can't sleep, clown will eat me 603177 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/210.8.54.32|210.8.54.32]] to last version by Rklawton {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AugustCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=30}} |} '''August 30''' is the 242nd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (243rd in leap years), with 123 days remaining. ==Events== *[[711]] - [[K'inich K'an Joy Chitam]], king of the [[Maya civilization|Maya]] city of [[Palenque]], disappears from history. He was probably taken prisoner by a rivalling city state. *[[1574]] - [[Guru Ram Das]] became the Fourth Sikh Guru/Master *[[1590]] - [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] enters [[Edo Castle]]. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: August 1, 1590) *[[1813]] - [[Battle of Kulm]]: [[France|French]] forces defeated by [[Austria]]n-[[Prussia]]n-[[Russia]]n alliance * 1813 - [[Creek War]]: [[Creek people|Creek]] [[Red Sticks]] carried out the [[Fort Mims Massacre]]. *[[1850]] - [[Honolulu, Hawaii]], becomes a city *[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Richmond, Kentucky]]: [[Confederate States of America|Confederates]] under [[Edmund Kirby Smith]] rout a [[Union Army|Union army]] under General [[Horatio Wright]] *[[1862]] - American Civil War: Union forces are defeated in [[Second Battle of Bull Run]] *[[1873]] - [[Austrian]] explorers [[Julius von Payer]] and [[Karl Weyprecht]] discover the archipelago of [[Franz Joseph Land]] in the [[Arctic Sea]]. *[[1909]] - [[Burgess Shale]] fossils discovered by [[Charles Doolittle Walcott]] *[[1914]] - [[Battle of Tannenberg (1914)|Battle of Tannenberg]] *[[1918]] - [[Fanya Kaplan]], an [[assassin]], shoots and seriously injures [[Bolshevik]] leader [[Vladimir Lenin]]. This, along with the assassination of Bolshevik senior official [[Moisei Uritsky]] days earlier, prompts the decree for [[Red Terror]]. *[[1922]] - [[Battle of Dumlupinar]], final battle in [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)]] ("[[Turkish War of Independence]]") *[[1941]] - [[Siege of Leningrad]] begins. * [[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Alam Halfa]] begins. *[[1945]] - [[Hong Kong]] is liberated from Japan by British Forces. *1945 - Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces, [[Douglas MacArthur|General Douglas MacArthur]] lands at [[NAF Atsugi|Atsugi Air Force Base]]. *[[1962]] - [[Japan]] conducts a test of the [[NAMC YS-11]], its first aircraft since the [[World War II|war]] and its only successful commercial aircraft from before or after the war. *[[1963]] - Hotline between U.S. and Soviet leaders goes into operation. *[[1965]] - [[Casey Stengel]] announces his retirement from baseball *1965 - [[Rock and roll|Rock]] musician [[Bob Dylan]] releases his influential album ''[[Highway 61 Revisited]]'' featuring the song "Like a Rolling Stone." *[[1967]] - [[Thurgood Marshall]] is confirmed as the first [[African American]] Justice of the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]]. *[[1974]] - A [[Belgrade]]-[[Dortmund]] express train derails at the main train station in [[Zagreb]] killing 153 passengers. *[[1976]] - [[Tom Brokaw]] becomes news anchor of the ''[[The Today Show|Today Show]]''. *[[1984]] - [[STS-41-D]]: The [[Space Shuttle]] ''[[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]'' takes off on its maiden voyage. *[[1990]] - [[Tatarstan]] declares independence from the [[RSFSR]]. *[[1991]] - [[Azerbaijan]] declares independence from the [[Soviet Union|USSR]]. *[[1992]] - [[Michael Schumacher]] wins his first [[Formula One]] race at the [[1992 Belgian Grand Prix|Belgian Grand Prix]]. *[[1993]] - ''[[The Late Show with David Letterman]]'' debuts on [[CBS]]. *[[1999]] - [[East Timor]]ese vote for independence in a referendum. *[[2002]] - The [[Tandy Center Subway]] in [[Fort Worth, Texas]], ceases to operate. *[[2005]] - The [[17th Street Canal]] in New Orleans is breached during [[Hurricane Katrina]], leading to massive flooding and destruction. ==Births== *[[1334]] - King [[Peter I of Castile]] (d. [[1369]]) *[[1377]] - [[Shah Rukh (Timurid dynasty)|Shah Rukh]], ruler of Persia and Transoxonia (d. [[1447]]) *[[1705]] - [[David Hartley (philosopher)|David Hartley]], English philosopher (d. [[1757]]) *[[1720]] - [[Samuel Whitbread (brewer)|Samuel Whitbread]], English brewer and politician (d. [[1796]]) *[[1748]] - [[Jacques-Louis David]], French painter (d. [[1825]]) *[[1797]] - [[Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley]], English writer (d. [[1851]]) *[[1839]] - [[Gulstan Ropert]], French Catholic prelate (d. [[1903]]) *[[1848]])- [[Andrew Onderdonk]], Railway Contractor. *[[1852]] - [[Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff]], Dutch chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1911]]) *[[1856]] - [[Carle David Tolmé Runge]], German physicist (d. [[1927]]) *[[1871]] - [[Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson]], New Zealand physicist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] (d. [[1937]]) *[[1884]] - [[Theodor Svedberg]], Swedish chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1971]]) *[[1893]] - [[Huey Long]], American politician (d. [[1935]]) *[[1896]] - [[Raymond Massey]], Canadian actor (d. [[1983]]) *[[1898]] - [[Shirley Booth]], American actress (d. [[1992]]) *[[1901]] - [[Roy Wilkins]], American civil rights leader ([[1981]]) *[[1906]] - [[Joan Blondell]], American actress (d. [[1979]]) *[[1908]] - [[Fred MacMurray]], American actor (d. [[1991]]) *[[1912]] - [[Edward Mills Purcell]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1997]]) *[[1913]] - [[Richard Stone]], British economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (d. [[1991]]) *[[1918]] - [[Ted Williams]], baseball player (d. [[2002]]) *[[1919]] - [[Kitty Wells]], American singer *[[1922]] - [[Lionel Keith Murphy|Lionel Murphy]], Australian politician and judge *[[1925]] - [[Laurent de Brunhoff]], French writer and illustrator *[[1927]] - [[Geoffrey Beene]], American fashion designer *[[1930]] - [[Warren Buffett]], American entrepreneur * 1930 - [[Jerry Tarkanian]], American basketball coach *[[1935]] - [[John Phillips (musician)|John Phillips]], American singer (The [[Mamas and the Papas]]) (d. [[2001]]) *[[1939]] - [[John Peel]], English radio disc jockey (d. [[2004]]) *[[1941]] - [[Ben Jones (US)|Ben Jones]], American actor and politician *[[1943]] - [[R. Crumb]], American cartoonist *1943 - [[Jean-Claude Killy]], French skier *[[1944]] - [[Molly Ivins]], American political humorist *[[1947]] - [[Peggy Lipton]], American actress *[[1948]] - [[Lewis Black]], American comedian *[[1949]] - [[Peter Maffay]], German Rock Musician *[[1951]] - [[Timothy Bottoms]], American actor *[[1951]] - [[Dana (singer)]], Irish singer and politician *[[1954]] - [[Alexander Lukashenko]], President of Belarus *[[1959]] - [[Mark 'Jacko' Jackson]], Australian footballer and actor *[[1963]] - [[Paul Oakenfold]], British disc jockey *[[1971]] - [[Lars Frederiksen]], American Guitarist ([[Rancid]]/[[UK Subs]]) *[[1972]] - [[Cameron Diaz]], American actress * 1972 - [[Pavel Nedved]], Czech footballer *[[1974]] - [[Aaron Barrett]], American guitarist and singer ([[Reel Big Fish]]) *[[1975]] - [[Radhi Jaidi]], Tunisian footballer *[[1982]] - [[Andy Roddick]], American tennis player ==Deaths== *[[1158]] - King [[Sancho III of Castile]] (b. [[1134]]) *[[1428]] - [[Emperor Shoko of Japan]] (b. [[1401]]) *[[1483]] - King [[Louis XI of France]] (b. [[1423]]) *[[1580]] - [[Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy]] (b. [[1528]]) *[[1617]] - [[Rose of Lima]], Peruvian saint (b. [[1586]]) *[[1619]] - [[Shimazu Yoshihiro]], Japanese samurai and warlord (b. [[1535]]) *[[1751]] - [[Christopher Polhem]], Swedish scientist and inventor (b. [[1661]]) *[[1856]] - [[Gilbert Abbott à Beckett]], English writer (b. [[1811]]) *[[1879]] - [[John Bell Hood]], American Confederate general (b. [[1831]]) *[[1896]] - [[Alexei Lobanov-Rostovsky]], Russian statesman (b. [[1824]]) *[[1907]] - [[Richard Mansfield]], American actor and manager (b. [[1857]]) *[[1928]] - [[Wilhelm Wien]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1864]]) *[[1935]] - [[Henri Barbusse]], French novelist and journalist (b. [[1873]]) *[[1940]] - [[J.J. Thomson]], English physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1856]]) *[[1941]] - [[Peder Oluf Pedersen]], Danish engineer and physicist (b. [[1874]]) *[[1943]] - [[Father Eustaquio van Lieshout]], Dutch Catholic priest (b. [[1890]]) *[[1949]] - [[Arthur Fielder]], English cricketer (b. [[1877]]) *[[1961]] - [[Charles Coburn]], American actor (b. [[1877]]) *[[1981]] - [[Vera-Ellen]], American actress (b. [[1921]]) *[[1985]] - [[Taylor Caldwell]], English-born author (b. [[1900]]) *[[1991]] - [[Jean Tinguely]], Swiss painter and sculptor (b. [[1925]]) *[[1994]] - [[Lindsay Anderson]], English film director (b. [[1923]]) *[[1995]] - [[Sterling Morrison]], American guitarist ([[The Velvet Underground]]) (b. [[1942]]) *[[1999]] - [[Raymond Poïvet]], French comics artist, creator of ''[[Les Pionniers de l'Espérance]]'' (b. [[1910]]) *[[2003]] - [[Charles Bronson]], American actor (b. [[1921]]) *[[2003]] - [[Donald Davidson (philosopher)|Donald Davidson]], American philosopher (b. [[1917]]) *[[2004]] - [[Fred Lawrence Whipple]], American astronomer (b. [[1906]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[List of public holidays in Peru|Peru]] - [[Saint Rose of Lima]]'s Day *[[Turkey]] - [[Victory Day (Turkey)|Victory Day]] (to commemorate the [[Battle of Dumlupinar]] in [[1922]]) *[[International Day of the Disappeared]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/30 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050831.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] * [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Aug&day=30 On This Day in Canada] ---- [[August 29]] - [[August 31]] - [[July 30]] - [[September 30]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:30 Augustus]] [[ar:30 أغسطس]] [[an:30 d'agosto]] [[ast:30 d'agostu]] [[bg:30 август]] [[be:30 жніўня]] [[bs:30. avgust]] [[ca:30 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 30]] [[cv:Çурла, 30]] [[co:30 d'aostu]] [[cs:30. srpen]] [[cy:30 Awst]] [[da:30. august]] [[de:30. August]] [[et:30. august]] [[el:30 Αυγούστου]] [[es:30 de agosto]] [[eo:30-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 30]] [[fo:30. august]] [[fr:30 août]] [[fy:30 augustus]] [[ga:30 Lúnasa]] [[gl:30 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 30일]] [[hr:30. kolovoza]] [[io:30 di agosto]] [[id:30 Agustus]] [[ia:30 de augusto]] [[ie:30 august]] [[is:30. ágúst]] [[it:30 agosto]] [[he:30 באוגוסט]] [[jv:30 Agustus]] [[ka:30 აგვისტო]] [[csb:30 zélnika]] [[ku:30'ê gelawêjê]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 30]] [[lb:30. August]] [[hu:Augusztus 30]] [[mk:30 август]] [[ms:30 Ogos]] [[nap:30 'e aùsto]] [[nl:30 augustus]] [[ja:8月30日]] [[no:30. august]] [[nn:30. august]] [[oc:30 d'agost]] [[pl:30 sierpnia]] [[pt:30 de Agosto]] [[ro:30 august]] [[ru:30 августа]] [[sco:30 August]] [[sq:30 Gusht]] [[scn:30 di austu]] [[simple:August 30]] [[sk:30. august]] [[sl:30. avgust]] [[sr:30. август]] [[fi:30. elokuuta]] [[sv:30 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 30]] [[tt:30. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 30]] [[th:30 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:30 tháng 8]] [[tr:30 Ağustos]] [[uk:30 серпня]] [[wa:30 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 30]] [[zh:8月30日]] [[pam:Agostu 30]] 1797 41487937 2006-02-27T18:22:20Z Kbh3rd 88976 revert: "pole" is a linear measure, not area. :''This article is about the unit of measure known as the ''acre''. For other definitions, see [[Acre (disambiguation)]].'' An '''acre''' is an [[English unit]] of area, which is also frequently used in the United States and some [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries. It is most often used to describe areas of land. == UK definition == The UK has a definition in the system of [[Imperial unit]]s of the acre in [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995] as 4,046.8564224 [[metre|m²]]. This is equivalent to 43,560&nbsp;square feet using the definition of foot in the same source. == U.S. customary units == The [[U.S. customary units]] definition of the acre in [http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/appxc/appxc.htm NIST Handbook 44] is 43,560.0 [[square foot|square feet]]. However, the U.S. has two definitions of foot (''international foot'' and ''survey foot'') and thus two definitions of acre: * The ''international acre'' is 4,046.8564224 m². This is based on ''international foot'' of 0.3048 m. * The U.S. ''survey acre'' is 4,046.87261 m². This is based on the U.S. ''survey foot'' of <sup>1200</sup>&frasl;<sub>3937</sub> m. ==Related linear measurements== Two obsolete, but related, measurements are the acre's length and the acre's breadth. *1 acre's length = 1 [[furlong]], 40 [[pole (length)|poles]], or 220 yards *1 acre's breadth = 1 [[chain (unit)|chain]], 4 poles, or 22 yards == Conversion == An international acre may be [[Conversion of units|converted]] to other units because it is equivalent to exactly: * 4,046.8564224 [[metre|m²]] (SI unit) * 40.468564224 [[Are|a]], * 0.40468564224 [[hectare|ha]], * 43,560 square feet, * 4,840 square [[yard]]s, * 160 square [[rod (unit)|rod]]s, * 4 [[rood]], * 1/640 [[square mile]], * a 10:1 rectangle of 1 [[furlong]] by 1 [[chain (length)|chain]]. * 10 square chains. An acre is equivalent to approximately: * a square of side 208.71 [[feet]] (63.61 [[metre]]s). One [[square mile]] is 640 acres. A square parcel of land ¼ mile wide is 40 acres. A square parcel of land ½ mile on a side is 160 acres, the usual land tract under the [[Homestead Act]] in the [[United States]]. This results in common field lengths of ½ mile, with every [[rod (unit)|rod]] in width equal to one acre. One acre is slightly less than 91 yards on an [[American Football]] field, with the full field, including the end zones, covering approximately 1.32 acres. ==History== The acre was selected as approximately the amount of land tillable by one man behind an [[ox]] in one [[day]]. This explains its rectangular definition one-[[chain (length)|chain]] by one-[[furlong]] parcel of land; a long narrow strip of land is more efficient to plough than a square plot, since the plough does not have to be turned so often. Statutory values were enacted in England by acts of * [[Edward I of England|Edward I]], * [[Edward III of England|Edward III]], * [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], * [[George IV of the United Kingdom|George IV]] and * [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victoria]] - the British "Weights and Measures Act" of [[1878]] defined it as containing 4,840 square yards. In the UK use of acres is officially discouraged, but it is still a very familiar measure of land with the general public, especially middle-aged and elderly people. Acre is measured on "flat plane", therefore land that is steeply sloped may contain more area than one acre while actually being only one acre on a map. ==See also== * [[Conversion of units]] * [[Acre-foot]] * [[Acre (Scots)]] ==External links== * [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995] * [http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/appxc/appxc.htm NIST Handbook 44] [[Category:Units of area]] [[Category:Imperial units]] [[Category:Customary units in the United States]] [[Category:Real estate]] [[da:Acre (arealenhed)]] [[de:Acre (Einheit)]] [[eo:Akreo (Mezurunuo)]] [[fr:Acre (unité)]] [[he:אקר]] [[nl:Acre (oppervlaktemaat)]] [[ja:エーカー]] [[pl:Akr]] [[pt:Acre (unidade)]] [[ru:Акр]] [[sl:Aker]] [[ta:ஏக்கர்]] [[vi:Mẫu Anh]] [[uk:Акр]] [[zh:英亩]] 1798 29401637 2005-11-27T19:09:11Z Gilgamesh 47947 #REDIRECT [[Acre, Israel]] 1799 40708635 2006-02-22T13:34:59Z Ravn 47881 mv tennis association in category "usually" '''ATP''' usually refers to: *[[Adenosine triphosphate]], the universal energy currency of all living organisms ([[biochemistry]]) *[[Association of Tennis Professionals]], professional men's tennis association '''ATP''' may also refer to: ;Companies: *[[Alberta Theatre Projects]], a major [[Canada|Canadian]] theatre company. *[[Associated Talking Pictures]], a British film company which later became [[Ealing Studios]] *[[BAe ATP]], the ''British Aerospace ATP'' ;Organizations *[[Academic Talent Program]] *[[Association of Test Publishers]] ;Technologies *[[AppleTalk|AppleTalk Transaction Protocol]] *[[Automated theorem proving]] *[[Automatic train protection]] *[[Anti-Tachycardia Pacing]] (see [[Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator]]) *[[Asynchronous Transfer Protocol]] (telecommunications) ;Other *[[Airline Transport Pilot License]] *[[Australian Technology Park]] *[[All Tomorrow's Parties (music festival)|All Tomorrow's Parties]], a music festival. **''All Tomorrow's Parties'', A song by the [[Velvet Underground]], released in 1967 on the album ''The Velvet Underground and Nico'' **''All Tomorrow's Parties'', A novel in the [[Bridge trilogy]] by [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]] *[[Accepted Test Plan]] *[[Addressee To Pay]] *[[Adult Treatment Panel]], guidelines for patients with high cholesterol *[[Allmänna tilläggspensionen]], a [[supplementary]] (income-related) pension in [[Sweden]]. *[[Arbejdsmarkedets Tillægspension]], a [[supplementary]] (income-related) pension in [[Denmark]] *[[Available To Promise]] {{TLAdisambig}} [[cs:ATP (rozcestník)]] [[da:ATP]] [[de:ATP]] [[es:ATP]] [[fr:ATP]] [[ko:ATP]] [[it:ATP]] [[lb:ATP]] [[nl:ATP]] [[pt:ATP (desambiguação)]] [[fi:ATP]] [[sv:ATP]] [[zh:ATP]] 1800 41811677 2006-03-01T22:28:44Z 64.81.70.227 Remove extra ] in chemical name (was introduced 21:29, 26 February 2006) :''For other uses of the initials ATP, see [[ATP (disambiguation)]]'' <div> <!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --> <!-- Submit {{:subst:chembox_simple_organic}} to get this template or go to [[:Template:Chembox_simple_organic]]. --> {| align="right" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" style="margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; background: #FFFFFF; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: #C0C090; width: 320px;" ! {{chembox header}}| '''Adenosine 5'-triphosphate''' |- | align="center" colspan="2" | [[Image:ATP_chemical_structure.png|320px|Chemical structure of ATP]] |- | [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />]] | [[[5-(6-aminopurin-9-yl)-3,4-dihydroxy-oxolan-2-yl]<br/>methoxy-hydroxy-phosphoryl]<br/>oxy-hydroxy-phosphoryl] oxyphosphonic acid |- | Abbreviations | '''ATP<br/>''' |- | [[Chemical formula|Chemical&nbsp;formula]] | C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>16</sub>N<sub>5</sub>O<sub>13</sub>P<sub>3</sub> |- | [[Molecular mass]] | 507.181 g mol<sup>-1</sup> |- | [[Melting point]] | ? °C |- | [[Density]] | ? g/cm<sup>3</sup> |- | [[Acid dissociation constant|p''K''<sub>a</sub>]] | ? |- | [[CAS registry number|CAS number]] | 56-65-5 |- {{EINECS Row|200-283-2}} |- {{PubChem Row|5957}} |- |} </div> <!-- TEXT --> '''Adenosine 5'-triphosphate''' ('''ATP''') is a multifunctional [[nucleotide]] primarily known in [[biochemistry]] as the "[[molecule|molecular]] currency" of intracellular [[energy]] transfer. In this role ATP transports chemical energy within [[cell (biology)|cell]]s. It is produced as an energy source during the processes of [[photosynthesis]] and [[cellular respiration]]. ATP is also one of four monomers required for the synthesis of [[ribonucleic acid]]s. Furthermore, in signal transduction pathways, ATP is used to provide the phosphate for protein-kinase reactions. ==Chemical properties== ATP consists of [[adenosine]] and three [[phosphate]] groups (triphosphate). The phosphoryl groups, starting with that on [[adenosine monophosphate|AMP]], are referred to as the alpha (&alpha;), beta (β), and gamma (&gamma;) phosphates. ATP is extremely rich in chemical energy, in particular between the second and third phosphate groups. The net change in energy of the decomposition of ATP into [[Adenosine diphosphate|ADP]] and an inorganic phosphate is -12 kCal / mole ''in vivo'' (inside of a living cell) and -7.3 kCal / mole ''in vitro'' (in laboratory conditions). This massive release in energy makes the decomposition of ATP extremely [[exergonic]], and hence useful as a means for chemically storing energy. ==Synthesis== [[Image:Atp_space_filling_ray_trace.jpg|200px|thumb|Space filling image of ATP]] ATP can be produced by various cellular processes: Under aerobic conditions, the majority of the synthesis occurs in [[mitochondria]] during [[oxidative phosphorylation]] and is catalyzed by [[ATP synthase]] and, to a lesser degree, under anaerobic conditions by [[fermentation]]. The main fuels for ATP synthesis are [[glucose]] and [[triglyceride]]s. The fuels that result from the breakdown of triglycerides are [[glycerol]] and [[fatty acid]]s. First, glucose and glycerol are metabolised to [[pyruvate]] in the [[cytosol]] using the [[glycolysis|glycolyitic]] pathway. This generates some ATP through [[substrate-level phosphorylation|substrate phosphorylation]] catalyzed by two enzymes: [[Phosphoglycerate kinase|PGK]] and [[Pyruvate kinase]]. Pyruvate is then oxidised further in the [[mitochondrion]]. In the mitochondrion, pyruvate is oxidised by [[pyruvate dehydrogenase]] to [[acetyl-CoA]], which is fully oxidised to carbon dioxide by the [[Krebs cycle]]. Fatty acids are also broken down to acetyl CoA by [[beta-oxidation]] and metabolised by the Krebs cycle. Every turn of the Krebs cycle produces an ATP equivalent (GTP) through [[substrate-level phosphorylation|substrate phosphorylation]] catalyzed by [[Succinyl-CoA synthetase]] as well as reducing power as NADH. The electrons from NADH are used by the [[electron transport chain]] to generate a large amount of ATP by [[oxidative phosphorylation]] coupled with ATP synthase. The whole process of oxidising glucose to carbon dioxide is known as [[cellular respiration]] and is more than 40% efficient at transfering the chemical energy in glucose to the more useful form of ATP. ATP is also synthesized through several so-called "replenishment" reactions catalyzed by the enzyme families of NDKs ([[nucleoside diphosphate kinase]]s), which use other nucleoside triphosphates as a high-energy phosphate donor, and the ATP:guanido-phosphotransferase family, which uses [[creatine]]. ::[[adenosine diphosphate|ADP]] + [[guanosine triphosphate|GTP]] <math>\to</math> ATP + [[guanosine diphosphate|GDP]] In plants, ATP is synthesized in [[chloroplast]]s during the light reactions of [[photosynthesis]]. Some of this ATP is then used to power the [[Calvin cycle]], which synthesizes [[triose]] sugars. If a [[clot]] causes a decrease in [[oxygen]] delivery to the [[cell]], the amount of '''ATP''' produced in the [[mitochondria]] will decrease. ==Function== ATP energy is released when [[hydrolysis]] of the [[high energy phosphate|phosphate-phosphate]] bonds is carried out. This energy can be used by a variety of [[enzyme]]s, [[motor protein]]s, and [[transport protein]]s to carry out the work of the cell. Also, the hydrolysis yields free inorganic [[phosphate|P<sub>i</sub>]] and [[adenosine diphosphate|ADP]], which can be broken down further to another P<sub>i</sub> and [[adenosine monophosphate|AMP]]. ATP can also be broken down to AMP directly, with the formation of [[pyrophosphate|PP<sub>i</sub>]]. This last reaction has the advantage of being an effectively irreversible process in [[aqueous]] [[solution]]. ==ATP in the human body== The total quantity of ATP in the human body is about 0.1 [[Mole (unit)|mole]]. The energy used by human cells requires the [[hydrolysis]] of 200 to 300 moles of ATP daily. This means that each ATP molecule is recycled 2000 to 3000 times during a single day. ATP cannot be stored, hence its consumption must closely follow its synthesis. On a per-hour basis, 1 kilogram of ATP is created, processed and then recycled in the body. ==Other uses== There is talk of using ATP as a [[power (physics)|power]] source for [[nanotechnology]] and implants. [[Artificial pacemaker]]s could become independent of [[battery (electricity)|batteries]]. ATP is also present as a neurotransmitter independent from its energy-containing function. Receptors that utilise ATP as their [[ligand]] are known as purinoceptors. == See also == * [[Adenosine diphosphate]] (ADP) * [[Adenosine monophosphate]] (AMP) * [[Cyclic adenosine monophosphate]] (cAMP) * [[ATPases]] * [[ATP hydrolysis]] * [[Citric acid cycle]] (also called the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle) * [[Phosphagen]] * [[ATP thermochemistry]] * [[Nucleotide exchange factor]] ==External links== * [http://www.zytologie-online.net/atp.php ATP and Cell Biology (Ger)] * [http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookATP.html ATP and biological energy] {{Nucleic acids}} [[Category:Cellular respiration]] [[Category:Exercise physiology]] [[Category:Nucleotides]] [[Category:Organic compounds]] [[Category:Organophosphates]] [[Category:Phosphates]] [[ar:أدينوزين ثلاثي الفوسفات]] [[cs:Adenozin trifosfát]] [[da:ATP (kemi)]] [[de:Adenosintriphosphat]] [[es:Adenosín trifosfato]] [[fi:Adenosiinitrifosfaatti]] [[fr:Adénosine triphosphate]] [[he:ATP]] [[id:ATP]] [[is:Adenósínþrífosfat]] [[ja:アデノシン三リン酸]] [[ko:아데노신 삼인산]] [[lb:Adenosintriphosphat]] [[lt:ATP]] [[nl:Adenosinetrifosfaat]] [[pl:ATP]] [[pt:Adenosina tri-fosfato]] [[ru:Аденозинтрифосфорная кислота]] [[sl:Adenozintrifosfat]] [[sr:Аденозин трифосфат]] [[su:Adénosin trifosfat]] [[sv:Adenosintrifosfat]] [[zh:三磷酸腺苷]] 1801 15900265 2002-04-20T22:56:04Z Maveric149 62 *#redirect [[Abbasid]] #redirect [[Abbasid]] 1802 41505652 2006-02-27T20:46:12Z Nebiros 114866 Reverted vandalism to version 15 February 2006 by ZwoBot :''This article is about a mythological figure. For the software, see [[Aegir (software)]]; for the [[tidal bore]] on the English River Trent see [[River Trent]].'' '''Ægir''' is a [[jotun|giant]] and a king of the sea in [[Norse mythology]]. He seems to be a personification of the power of the [[ocean]]. He was also known for throwing massive parties for the gods. In [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s [[Skáldskaparmál]] Ægir is identified with Gymir and Hlér who lived on [[Hlesey|Hlésey]]. Gymir, it may be noticed, is the name of the giant father of the beautiful [[Gerd|Gerðr]] wooed by [[Freyr]]. Another link between the [[Æsir]] and the sea giants is found in [[Hymir]], who is said in [[Hymiskviða]] to be father of [[Týr]]. Ægir is said to have had [[Daughters of Ægir|nine daughters]] with his wife, [[Rán]]. His daughters were called the billow maidens. They were named Bára, Blóðughadda, Bylgja, Dúfa, Hefring, Himinglæva, Hrönn, Kólga, and Unnr. The names of each reflect different types of waves of the sea. Ægir is son of [[Fornjót]]r and brother of Logi (fire, flame) and Kári (wind). He is also called Hlér and Gymir. In the [[Lokasenna]], he has a festival for the gods, where he provides the ale brewed in an enormous pot provided by [[Thor]]. The story of Thor getting the pot for the brewing is told in the [[Hymiskviða]]. Ægir had two servants, Fimafengr (killed by Loki) and Eldir. ==Familiar forms== Ægir's name is sometimes [[Old Norse orthography|anglicized]] as "Aegir" or "Aeger". The common Swedish form is Ägir. {{NorseMythology}} [[Category:Norse giants]] [[Category:Sea and river gods]] [[da:Ægir]] [[de:Ägir]] [[el:Εγκίρ]] [[es:Ægir]] [[eo:Ægir]] [[fr:Ægir]] [[he:אייגיר]] [[ms:Aegir]] [[nl:Aegir]] [[ja:エーギル]] [[no:Æge]] [[pt:Aegir]] [[ru:Эгир]] [[sv:Ägir]] 1804 15900268 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Albert Schweitzer]] 1805 42161642 2006-03-04T05:45:20Z GreatWhiteNortherner 35888 spelling, standardize on UK English, delete duplicated word An '''antibiotic''' is a [[Medication|drug]] that kills or slows the growth of [[bacterium|bacteria]]. Antibiotics are one class of [[antimicrobial]]s, a larger group which also includes anti-viral, anti-fungal, and anti-parasitic drugs. They are relatively harmless to the host, and therefore can be used to [[healthcare treatment|treat]] [[infection]]s. The term, coined by [[Selman Waksman]], originally described only those formulations derived from living organisms, in contradistinction to "chemotherapeutic agents", which were purely synthetic. Nowadays the term "antibiotic" is also applied to [[Chemical synthesis|synthetic]] antimicrobials, such as the [[sulfonamide]]s. Antibiotics are small [[molecule]]s with a [[molecular weight]] less than 2000. They are not [[enzyme]]s. Some antibiotics are made from mould. Unlike previous treatments for infections, which included poisons such as [[strychnine]] and [[arsenic]], antibiotics were labelled "magic bullets": [[medication|drugs]] which targeted disease without harming the host. Conventional antibiotics are not effective in [[virus|viral]], [[fungal]] and other nonbacterial infections, and individual antibiotics vary widely in their effectiveness on various types of bacteria. Antibiotics can be categorised based on their target specificity: 'narrow-spectrum' antibiotics target particular types of bacteria, such as [[Gram-negative]] or [[Gram-positive]] bacteria, while 'wide-spectrum' antibiotics affect a larger range of bacteria. The effectiveness of individual antibiotics varies with the location of the infection, the ability of the antibiotic to reach the site of infection, and the ability of the bacteria to resist or inactivate the antibiotic. Some antibiotics actually kill the bacteria (bactericidal), whereas others merely prevent the bacteria from multiplying (bacteriostatic) so that the host's immune system can overcome them. Oral antibiotics are the simplest approach when effective, with intravenous antibiotics reserved for more serious cases. Antibiotics may sometimes be administered topically, as with eyedrops or ointments. Antibiotics can also be classified by the organisms against which they are effective, and by the type of infection in which they are useful, which depends on the sensitivities of the organisms that most commonly cause the infection and the concentration of antibiotic obtainable in the affected tissue. == History == :''See also: [[Timeline of antibiotics]]'' Many ancient cultures, including the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] and [[Ancient China|ancient Chinese]], already used [[mould|moulds]] and other plants to treat [[infections|infection]]. This worked because some moulds produce antibiotic substances. However, they couldn't distinguish or distil the active component in the moulds. Modern research on antibiotics began with the discovery of [[Penicillin]] in [[1928]] by [[Alexander Fleming]]. == Classes of antibiotics == {| width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" frame="none" rules="none" border="0" |+'''Antibiotics{{Ref|antibiotics-classes-table}}''' |- !style="text-align:left; background:aqua" | Class !!style="background:silver;" | Generic&nbsp;Name !!Brand&nbsp;Names !!style="background:silver" | Common&nbsp;Uses !!style="text-align:left" | Side&nbsp;Effects |- !colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Aminoglycosides]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Amikacin]] || ||rowspan="7" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | Infections caused by [[Gram-negative bacteria]], such as [[Escherichia coli]] and [[Klebsiella]] || rowspan="7" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Hearing loss<br />[[Vertigo (medical)|Vertigo]]<br />Kidney damage |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Gentamicin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Kanamycin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Neomycin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Netilmicin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Streptomycin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Tobramycin]] |- !colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Carbacephem]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Loracarbef]] || || rowspan="1" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | || rowspan="1" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | |- !colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Carbapenems]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Ertapenem]] || || rowspan="3" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | || rowspan="3" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Imipenem]]/[[Cilastatin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Meropenem]] |- !colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Cephalosporins]] ([[Cephalosporins#First Generation Cephalosporins|First generation]]) |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefadroxil]] || || rowspan="3" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | || rowspan="3" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhoea<br />Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently)<br />Allergic reactions |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefazolin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cephalexin]] |- !colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Cephalosporins]] ([[Cephalosporins#Second Generation Cephems|Second generation]]) |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefaclor]] || || rowspan="5" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | || rowspan="5" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhoea<br />Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently)<br />Allergic reactions |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefamandole]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefoxitin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefprozil]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefuroxime]] |- !colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Cephalosporins]] ([[Cephalosporins#Third Generation Cephalosporins|Third generation]]) |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefixime]] || || rowspan="10" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | || rowspan="10" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhoea<br />Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently)<br />Allergic reactions |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefdinir]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefditoren]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefoperazone]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefotaxime]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefpodoxime]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Ceftazidime]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Ceftibuten]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Ceftizoxime]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Ceftriaxone]] |- !colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Cephalosporins]] ([[Cephalosporins#Fourth Generation Cephalosporins|Fourth generation]]) |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cefepime]] || || rowspan="1" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | || rowspan="1" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhoea<br />Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently)<br />Allergic reactions |- !colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Glycopeptide antibiotics|Glycopeptides]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Teicoplanin]] || || rowspan="2" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | || rowspan="2" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Vancomycin]] |- !colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Macrolides]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Azithromycin]] || [http://www.pfizer.com/pfizer/do/medicines/mn_zithromax.jsp Zithromax&reg;]&nbsp;([[Pfizer]])<br />[http://www.sumamed.com.hr/disclaim.htm Sumamed&reg;]&nbsp;([[Pliva]]) || rowspan="5" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | [[Streptococcal infection]]s, [[syphilis]], [[respiratory infection]]s, [[mycoplasmal infection]]s, [[Lyme disease]] || rowspan="5" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea (especially at higher doses)<br />Jaundice |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Clarithromycin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Dirithromycin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Erythromycin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Troleandomycin]] |- !colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Monobactam]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Aztreonam]] || || rowspan="1" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | || rowspan="1" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | |- !colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Penicillins]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Amoxicillin]] || style="text-align:left" | [http://cipla.com/admin.php?mode=prod&action=disp&id=196 Novamox&trade;]&nbsp;([[Cipla]])|| rowspan="12" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | Wide range of infections; penicillin used for [[streptococcal infection]]s, [[syphilis]], and [[Lyme disease]] || rowspan="12" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhoea<br />Allergy with serious [[anaphylactic reaction]]s<br />Brain and kidney damage (rare) |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Ampicillin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Azlocillin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Carbenicillin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Cloxacillin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Dicloxacillin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Flucloxacillin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Mezlocillin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Nafcillin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Penicillin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Piperacillin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Ticarcillin]] |- !colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Polypeptide antibiotics|Polypeptides]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Bacitracin]] || || rowspan="3" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | Eye, ear or bladder infections; usually applied directly to the eye or inhaled into the lungs; rarely given by injection|| rowspan="3" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Kidney and nerve damage (when given by injection) |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Colistin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Polymyxin B]] |- !colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Quinolones]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Ciprofloxacin]] || style="text-align:left" | [http://cipla.com/admin.php?mode=prod&action=disp&id=161 Ciplox&trade;]&nbsp;([[Cipla]])|| rowspan="9" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | Urinary tract infections, [[bacterial postatitis]], [[bacterial diarrhoea]], [[gonorrhea]]|| rowspan="9" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Nausea (rare) |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Enoxacin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Gatifloxacin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Levofloxacin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Lomefloxacin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Moxifloxacin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Norfloxacin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Ofloxacin]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Trovafloxacin]] |- !colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Sulfonamides]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Mafenide]] || || rowspan="9" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | Urinary tract infections (except sulfacetamide and mafenide); mafenide is used topically for burns|| rowspan="9" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea<br />[[Allergy]] (including skin rashes)<br />Crystals in urine<br />Kidney failure<br />Decrease in [[white blood cell]] count<br />Sensitivity to sunlight |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Prontosil]] (archaic) |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Sulfacetamide]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Sulfamethizole]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Sulfanilimide]] (archaic) |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Sulfasalazine]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Sulfisoxazole]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Trimethoprim]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Trimethoprim]]-[[Sulfamethoxazole]] ([[Co-trimoxazole]]) ([[TMP-SMX]]) |- !colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| [[Tetracyclines]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Demeclocycline]] || || rowspan="5" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;" | [[Syphilis]], [[chlamydial infection]]s, [[Lyme disease]], [[mycoplasmal infection]]s, [[rickettsial infection]]s|| rowspan="5" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | Gastroitestinal upset<br />Sensitivity to sunlight<br />Staining of teeth<br />Potential toxicity to mother and foetus during pregnancy |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Doxycycline]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Minocycline]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Oxytetracycline]] |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Tetracycline]] |- !colspan="5" style="text-align:left; background:aqua;"| Others |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Chloramphenicol]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || || |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Clindamycin]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || || |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Ethambutol]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || || |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Fosfomycin]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || || |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Furazolidone]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || || |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Isoniazid]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || || |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Linezolid]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || || |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Metronidazole]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || || |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Nitrofurantoin]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || || |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Pyrazinamide]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || || |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Quinupristin/Dalfopristin]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || || |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Rifampin]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || || |- | || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | [[Spectinomycin]] || style="text-align:left;"| || style="text-align:left; background:silver;" | || || |- !style="text-align:left; background:aqua" | Class !!style="background:silver;" | Generic&nbsp;Name !!Brand&nbsp;Names !!style="background:silver" | Common&nbsp;Uses !!style="text-align:left" | Side&nbsp;Effects |} == Production == :''Main article: [[Production of antibiotics]]'' Since the first pioneering efforts of [[Howard Walter Florey|Florey]] and [[Ernst Boris Chain|Chain]] in 1939, the importance of antibiotics to [[medicine]] has led to much research into discovering and producing them. The process of production usually involves screening of wide ranges of microorganisms, testing and modification. Production is carried out using [[fermentation]]. == Side effects == Possible side effects are varied, and range from fever and nausea to major allergic reactions. One of the more common side effects is [[diarrhea|diarrhoea]], which results from the antibiotic disrupting the normal balance of intestinal flora. Other side effects can result from interaction with other drugs, such as elevated risk of [[tendon]] damage from administration of a [[Quinolones|quinolone]] antibiotic with a systemic [[corticosteroid]]. Some antibiotics can interfere with the efficacy of birth control pills. Such effects were found to be unusual, and have been studied only for a limited number of antibiotics. == Antibiotic misuse == Common forms of antibiotic misuse include taking them in inappropriate situations, such as the use of antibacterials for viral infections such as the [[common cold]], and failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, usually because the patient feels better before the infecting organism is completely eradicated. In addition to treatment failure, these practices can result in [[antibiotic resistance]] in the bacteria that survive the abbreviated treatment. In the United States, vast quantities of certain antibiotics are routinely included as low doses in the diet of some kinds of healthy farm animals, where this practice has been proved to make animals grow faster. Opponents of this practice, however, point out the likelihood that it also leads to an environment conductive to the evolution of antibiotic resistance, frequently in bacteria that are known to also infect humans. There has been little or no evidence as yet of the evolution of antibiotic resistance in such bacteria actually occurring. As the majority of bacteria is killed in the pasteurization process applied to the milk, and the cooking of the meat of such animals, any possible resistance may go unnoticed until the bacteria survives it. Theoretically, though, there is a significant possibility that such resistances could be transferred through the bacterial plasmids. Excessive use of [[prophylaxis|prophylactic]] antibiotics in travellers may also be classified as misuse. == Antibiotic resistance == :''Main article: [[Antibiotic resistance]]'' Use or misuse of antibiotics may result in the development of ''antibiotic resistance'' by the infecting organisms, similar to the development of [[pesticide resistance]] in insects. [[Evolutionary theory]] of [[selection|genetic selection]] requires that as close as possible to 100% of the infecting organisms be killed off to avoid selection of resistance; if a small subset of the population survives the treatment and is allowed to multiply, the average susceptibility of this new population to the compound will be much less than that of the original population, since they have descended from those few organisms which survived the original treatment. This survival often results from an inheritable resistance to the compound which was infrequent in the original population but is now much more frequent in the descendants thus selected entirely from those originally infrequent resistant organisms. Antibiotic resistance has become a serious problem in both the developed and underdeveloped nations. By 1984 half of the people with active [[tuberculosis]] in the [[United States]] had a strain that resisted at least one antibiotic. In certain settings, such as hospitals and some child-care locations, the rate of [[antibiotic resistance]] is so high that the normal, low cost antibiotics are virtually useless for treatment of frequently seen infections. This leads to more frequent use of newer and more expensive compounds, which in turn leads inexorably to the rise of resistance to those drugs, and a never-ending ever-spiralling race to discover new and different antibiotics ensues, just to keep us from losing ground in the battle against infection. The fear is that we will eventually fail to keep up in this race, and the time when people did not fear life-threatening bacterial infections will be just a memory of a golden era. Another example of selection is ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'', which could be treated successfully with penicillin in the 1940s and 1950s. At present, nearly all strains are resistant to [[penicillin]], and many are resistant to [[nafcillin]], leaving only a narrow selection of drugs such as [[vancomycin]] useful for treatment. The situation is worsened by the fact that genes coding for antibiotic resistance can be transferred between bacteria, making it possible for bacteria never exposed to an antibiotic to acquire resistance from those which have. The problem of antibiotic resistance is worsened when antibiotics are used to treat disorders in which they have no efficacy, such as the common cold or other viral complaints, and when they are used widely as prophylaxis rather than treatment (as in, for example, animal feeds), because this exposes more bacteria to selection for resistance. == Beyond antibiotics == Unfortunately, the comparative ease of finding compounds which safely cured bacterial infections proved much harder to duplicate with respect to fungal and viral infections. Antibiotic research led to great strides in our knowledge of basic biochemistry and to the current biological revolution; but in the process it was discovered that the susceptibility of bacteria to many compounds which are safe to humans is based upon significant differences between the cellular and molecular physiology of the bacterial cell and that of the mammalian cell. In contrast, despite the seemingly huge differences between fungi and humans, the basic biochemistries of the fungal cell and the mammalian cell are much more similar; so much so that there are few therapeutic opportunities for compounds to attack a fungal cell which will not harm a human cell. Similarly, we know now that viruses represent an incredibly minimal intracellular parasite, being stripped down to a few genes worth of [[DNA]] or [[RNA]] and the minimal molecular equipment needed to enter a cell and actually take over the machinery of the cell to produce new viruses. Thus, the great bulk of viral metabolic biochemistry is not merely similar to human biochemistry, it actually is human biochemistry, and the possible targets of antiviral compounds are restricted to the relatively very few components of the actual virus itself. Research into [[bacteriophage]]s is ongoing at the moment. Bacteriophages are a specific type of virus that only targets bacteria. Research suggests that nature has evolved several types of bacteriophage for each type of bacteria. While research into bacteriophages is only in its infancy the results are promising and have already lead to major advances in microscopic imaging (see [http://news.uns.purdue.edu/UNS/html4ever/2006/060201.Jiang.salmonella.html]). While bacteriophages provide a possible solution the problem of antibacterial resistance there is as of yet no proof that we will actually be able to deploy these microscopic killers in humans, we can only continue the research and see where it leads. == References == #{{Note|antibiotics-classes-table}} The Merck Manual of Medical Information - Home Edition, Robert Berkow (Ed.), Pocket (September, 1999), ISBN 0-671-02727-1. == External links == * [http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/categories/index/drugs/resist.php Antibiotic News from Genome News Network (GNN)] * [http://www.eff.org/Misc/Publications/Bruce_Sterling/FSF_columns/fsf.15 Bruce Sterling's Bitter Resistance] * [http://www.jaapa.com/issues/j20040601/articles/antibiotics0604.html JAAPA: New antibiotics useful in primary care] * [http://www.isracast.com/tech_news/090605_tech.htm A new method for controlling bacterial activity without antibiotics] - Research conducted at the Hebrew University === Resources === * [http://www.apua.org Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics] [[Category:Antibiotics|*]] [[Category:Pharmacologic agents]] [[ca:Antibiòtic]] [[cs:Antibiotika]] [[da:Antibiotikum]] [[de:Antibiotikum]] [[es:Antibiótico]] [[eo:Antibiotiko]] [[fr:Antibiotique]] [[ko:항생제]] [[io:Antibiotiko]] [[id:Antibiotik]] [[he:אנטיביוטיקה]] [[lt:Antibiotikas]] [[hu:Antibiotikum]] [[nl:Antibioticum]] [[ja:抗生物質]] [[no:Antibiotika]] [[nn:Antibiotikum]] [[pl:Antybiotyk]] [[pt:Antibiótico]] [[ru:Антибиотики]] [[simple:Antibiotic]] [[sk:Antibiotikum]] [[fi:Antibiootti]] [[sv:Antibiotika]] [[th:ยาปฏิชีวนะ]] [[tr:Antibiyotik]] [[uk:Антибіотик]] [[zh:抗生素]] 1806 42118998 2006-03-03T23:13:54Z Karrmann 244252 replace fair use image with free use image {{Infobox_Governor |name=Arnold Schwarzenegger |image=Arnold Schwarzenegger.jpg|400px |caption= |order=38<sup>th</sup> |office=Governor of California |term_start=[[November 17]], [[2003]] |term_end=''present'' |lieutenant=[[Cruz Bustamante]] |predecessor=[[Gray Davis]] |successor=''incumbent'' |birth_date= [[July 30]], [[1947]] |birth_place=[[Thal, Austria|Thal bei Graz]], [[Steiermark]], [[Austria]] |death_date= |death_place= |spouse= [[Maria Shriver]] |profession= [[Actor]], [[Politician]] |party=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] |footnotes= }} '''{{Audio|de_ArnoldSchwarzenegger.ogg|Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger}}''' (born [[July 30]], [[1947]]) is an [[Austria|Austrian]]-[[United States|American]] [[bodybuilder]], [[Golden Globe]] award winning [[actor]], and [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[Politics of the United States|politician]], currently serving as the 38th [[Governor of California]]. He was elected on [[October 7]], [[2003]] in [[2003 California recall|a special recall election]] which removed the sitting governor, [[Gray Davis]], from office. Schwarzenegger was sworn in on [[November 17]], [[2003]], to serve the remainder of Davis' term, which lasts until [[January 8]], [[2007]]. On September 16th, 2005 he officially announced that he will seek re-election to a full term in [[California gubernatorial election, 2006|California's 2006 gubernatorial election]]. Nicknamed "The Austrian Oak" in his body-building days, and more recently "The Governator" (a [[portmanteau]] of the words "Governor" and "Terminator", after the film role), Schwarzenegger as a young man gained widespread attention as a highly successful bodybuilder, and later gained worldwide fame as a [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywood]] [[action film]] star. Some of his most famous films include ''[[The Terminator]]'', ''[[Predator (movie)|Predator]]'', ''[[True Lies]]'', ''[[Kindergarten Cop]]'', ''[[Total Recall (film)|Total Recall]]'', and his Hollywood breakthrough film ''[[Conan the Barbarian (film)|Conan the Barbarian]]''. ==Personal background== [[Image:Arnold military.jpg|framed|left|Arnold Schwarzenegger pictured next to an [[Patton tank|M47]] tank, which he was trained to operate.]] <!--Dates verified at http://www.bodybuildbid.com/articles/mrolympia/arnold-schwarzenegger.html--> Schwarzenegger was born in [[Thal, Austria]], a small town near the [[Styria|Styrian]] capital, [[Graz]], and christened Edward James Albetski. His parents were the local [[police chief]] and former [[Nazi stormtrooper]] [[Gustav Schwarzenegger]] (1907-1972), and his wife, the former Aurelia Jadrny (1922-1998), who had been married on [[October 20]], [[1945]], when he was 35 and she was 23 and widowed. Gustav was a strict and demanding father, who generally favored the elder of his two sons, the handsome and blonde Meinhard. Meinhard died in a car accident in 1971, and Gustav died the following year. Schwarzenegger attended neither's funeral. In ''[[Pumping Iron]]'' he claimed he did not attend his father's funeral as he was training for a bodybuilding contest, although both he and the film's producer later stated that this story was taken from another bodybuilder. As a boy, Schwarzenegger played many sports, but discovered his passion for [[bodybuilding]] when in his mid-teens his [[soccer]] coach took the team for [[weight training]]. He attended a [[gym]] in Graz, where he also frequented the local [[Movie theater|cinema]]s, viewing his idols such as musclemen [[Reg Park]], [[Steve Reeves]], and [[Johnny Weissmuller]] on the big screen. Arnold served in the [[Military of Austria|Austrian army]] in [[1965]], completing the mandatory one year service required at the time for all 18 year old Austrian men. During this year he snuck off the base to compete in his first bodybuilding competition, the junior division of Mr. Europe, where he won first place. Schwarzenegger left Thal for a job managing a gym in [[Munich, Germany]], while continuing his bodybuilding. He made his first plane trip in [[1966]], attending the [[NABBA Mr. Universe]] competition being held in [[London]]. He arrived in [[England]] knowing little English, and it was here he first started being referred to as "The Austrian Oak", due to his large build and the story of him performing [[chin ups]] from the limb of an [[Oak tree]] on the banks of the river Thalersee, the lake of his hometown. He would come second in the competition, but would win the title the next year, becoming the youngest ever Mr Universe at age 20. Schwarzenegger moved to the [[United States]] in [[September]] [[1968]], with little money or knowledge of the English language, and trained at [[Gold's Gym]] in [[Santa Monica]] under the [[patronage]] of [[Joe Weider]]. He became a U.S. citizen in [[1983]], although he has also retained his Austrian citizenship. During this time, he earned a [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] from the [[University of Wisconsin-Superior]] where he graduated with degrees in [[marketing|international marketing]] of fitness and [[business administration]] in 1979. In 1983 his autobiography, ''Arnold: The Education of a Body-Builder'' was published. In 1986, Schwarzenegger married TV journalist [[Maria Shriver]], niece of the late [[President of the United States]] [[John F. Kennedy]]. The couple have four children: daughters Katherine (born [[December 13]], [[1989]]) and Christina (b.[[July 23]], [[1991]]), and sons Patrick (b.[[September 18]], [[1993]]) and Christopher (b.[[September 27]], [[1997]]). Together, the couple own a home in [[gated community|gated]] [[Bel Air, California]] as well as at the fabled [[Kennedy Compound]] in [[Massachusetts]]. His distinctive and oft-imitated accent has led many entertainers and pundits to refer to him simply as "Ah-nuldt". Though Schwarzenegger refuses to discuss his plastic surgery ("You are confusing me with [[Cher (entertainer)|Cher]]," he told ''[[People Magazine]]'' in 2002), citing before and after photos, critics allege he has undergone procedures on his eyes and chin, and has received at least one facelift (see [http://www.rotten.com/library/bio/entertainers/actors/arnold-schwarzenegger/]). ==Bodybuilding career== Schwarzenegger first gained fame as a [[bodybuilding|bodybuilder]]. One of the first competitions he won was Junior Mr. Europe. He would go on to compete in and win many bodybuilding (as well as some [[powerlifting]]) contests, including 4 [[NABBA Mr. Universe]] wins and a record 7 [[Mr. Olympia]] wins, a record which would remain until [[Lee Haney]] won his eighth straight Mr. Olympia title in 1991. In 1967 Arnold won the Munich stone lifting contest in which a stone weighing 508 German pounds, approximately 560 English pounds, is lifted between the legs while standing on two foot rests. Arnold broke the existing record, winning the contest. Arnold's goal was to become the greatest bodybuilder in the world, which meant becoming Mr. Olympia. His first attempt was in 1969 where he lost to three-time champion [[Sergio Oliva]]. Arnold entered the contest confident, but when he saw Oliva in the pump room his confidence was shattered. The terrifying image of Oliva spurred Arnold to come back in 1970 with a vengence. He convincingly won the competition. Arnold won the 1971 Mr. Olympia with little incident. Then, in 1972, Oliva came back with what is still considered by many to be the greatest physique ever displayed. Arnold won the show but it was very close and bodybuilding fans still argue over whether Arnold or Sergio should have won. In 1973, Arnold once again won the Olympia with no real competition. He displayed his best physique to that point. Perhaps Arnold was in such great shape for the 1973 Olympia because he feared Oliva would once again enter the competition. In 1974, Arnold was once again in top form and won the title for the fifth consecutive time. Lou Ferrigno also competed at the '73 Olympia. Ferrigno was the first possible threat to Arnold's reign since Oliva. Arnold retired from competition after the 1974 Olympia. However, George Butler and Charles Gaines convinced him to compete one more time so they could make the bodybuilding documentary called ''[[Pumping Iron]]''. Arnold had only three months to prepare for the competition after losing significant weight to appear in the film ''Stay Hungry'' with Jeff Bridges. Ferrigno proved to not be a threat and a lighter than usual Schwarzenegger convincingly won the 1975 Olympia. After being declared Mr. Olympia for a sixth consecutive time Arnold once again retired from competition. Arnold came out of retirement to compete in the 1980 Mr. Olympia, the most controversial Olympia ever. [[Mike Mentzer]] was defeated in this competition, despite being on his best ever form (a fact which caused him to leave the world of bodybuilding). Arnold was a late entry and won with only eight weeks of preparation. Schwarzenegger is considered among the most important figures in the history of bodybuilding, and his legacy is commemorated in the [[Arnold Classic]] annual bodybuilding competition. Schwarzenegger has remained a prominent face in the bodybuilding sport long after his retirement, in part due to his ownership of gyms and fitness magazines. He has presided over numerous contests and awards shows. For many years he wrote a monthly column for the bodybuilding magazines [[Muscle and Fitness|Muscle & Fitness]] and ''Flex''. Shortly after being elected Governor, he was appointed executive [[editor]] of both magazines in a largely symbolic capacity. The magazines agreed to donate $250,000 a year to the Governor's various physical fitness initiatives. The magazine ''MuscleMag International'' has a monthly two page article on him and refers to him as "The King". Schwarzenegger's first political appointment was to the [[President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports]], on which he served from 1990 to 1993. He was nominated by [[George H. W. Bush]], who called him Conan the Republican. In 2003 two [[African-American]] bodybuilders came forward claiming that Schwarzenegger has a history of making [[racist]] comments. Schwarzenegger has allegedly said, "If you gave these [[Black people|Blacks]] a country to run, they would run it down the tubes" (see [http://www.drudgereport.com/ar1.htm]). ===Bodybuilding contests=== Schwarzenegger won most of the bodybuilding contests he competed in. Those he did not win are indicated in ''italics'' *1965 Junior Mr. Europe (Germany) *1966 Best Built Man of Europe (Germany) *1966 Mr. Europe (Germany) *1966 International Powerlifting Championship (Germany) *''1966 [[NABBA Mr. Universe]] amateur (London), 2nd to [[Chet Yorton]]'' *1967 NABBA Mr. Universe amateur (London) *1968 NABBA Mr. Universe professional (London) *1968 German Powerlifting Championship *1968 IFBB Mr. Internaional (Mexico) *''1968 [[IFBB Mr. Universe]] (Florida), 2nd to [[Frank Zane]]'' *1969 IFBB Mr. Universe (New York) *1969 NABBA Mr. Universe professional (London) *1970 NABBA Mr. Universe professional (London), defeating his boyhood idol [[Reg Park]] *''1969 [[Mr. Olympia]], 2nd to [[Sergio Oliva]]'' *1970 Mr. World (Columbus, Ohio), the first time he had beaten Sergio Oliva *1970 Mr. Olympia (New York) *1971 Mr. Olympia (Paris) *1972 Mr. Olympia (Essen, Germany) *1973 Mr. Olympia (New York) *1974 Mr. Olympia (New York) *1975 Mr. Olympia (Pretoria, South Africa), the subject of the documentary ''[[Pumping Iron]]'' *1980 Mr. Olympia ===Steroid Use=== Schwarzenegger has admitted to using performance-enhancing [[anabolic steroid]]s whilst they were legal, writing in 1977 that "[steroids] were helpful to me in maintaining muscle size while on a strict diet in preparation for a contest. I did not use them for muscle growth, but rather for muscle maintenance when cutting up." However, some bodybuilders who used the same steroid cocktails as Schwarzenegger in the 1970s dispute the notion that they were used merely for "muscle maintenance". Even Schwarzenegger has called the drugs "tissue building." (see [http://hjem.get2net.dk/JamesBond/www/artikler/steroidemisbrug/arnoldandsteroids.htm]) In 1999, Schwarzenegger sued Dr. Willi Heepe, a German doctor who publicly predicted an early death for the bodybuilder based on a link between steroid use and later heart problems. Because the doctor had never examined him personally, Schwarzenegger collected a [[Deutsche Mark|DM]] 20,000 ($12,000 USD) libel judgment against him in a German court. In 1999 Schwarzenegger also sued and settled with [[Globe Magazine]], a U.S. tabloid which had made similar predictions about the bodybuilder's future health. As late as 1996, a year before open heart surgery to replace an [[aortic valve]], Schwarzenegger publicly defended his use of anabolic steroids during his bodybuilding career. (see [http://espn.go.com/columns/farrey_tom/1655597.html]) Schwarzenegger was born with a [[bicuspid aortic valve]]; a normal heart has [[tricuspid]] valves. According to a spokesman, Schwarzenegger has not used anabolic steroids since 1990 when they were made illegal (see [http://hjem.get2net.dk/JamesBond/www/artikler/steroidemisbrug/arnoldandsteroids.htm]). In bodybuilder slang, steroids are sometimes refered to as "Arnolds" (see [http://www.streetdrugs.org/dgsa.htm]). ==Acting career== ===Roles=== Schwarzenegger had long planned to segue from bodybuilding into a career in acting, as had done many of his idols, such as [[Reg Park]]. Initially he had trouble breaking into films due to his long surname, large muscles, and foreign accent, but was eventually chosen to play the role of Hercules (as had done both Reg Park and [[Steve Reeves]]) in ''[[Hercules in New York]]'' (1970). Credited under the name ''Arnold Strong'', his accent in the film was so thick that his lines had to be [[dubbed]] after production. His second film appearance was as a [[deaf]] and [[mute]] hitman for the mob in director [[Robert Altman|Robert Altman's]] ''[[The Long Goodbye]]'' (1973), which was followed by a much more significant part in the film ''[[Stay Hungry (film)|Stay Hungry]]'' (1976), for which he was awarded a [[Golden Globe]] for Best New Male Star. Schwarzenegger came to the attention of more people in the documentary ''[[Pumping Iron]]'' (1977), elements of which were dramatized. In 1991, Schwarzenegger purchased the rights to this film, its outtakes, and associated still photography (see [http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/arnoldpump1.html]). [[Image:Terminator.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''[[The Terminator]]'', starring Schwarzenegger (1984)]] The 6'2" Schwarzenegger's breakthrough film was ''[[Conan the Barbarian (film)|Conan the Barbarian]]'' (1982), and this was cemented by a sequel, ''[[Conan the Destroyer]]'' (1984). As an actor, he is best-known as the title character of director [[James Cameron]]'s android thriller ''[[The Terminator]]'' (1984). Schwarzenegger's acting ability (described by one critic as having an emotional range that "stretches from A almost to B") has long been the butt of many jokes; he retains a strong Austrian accent in his speech even in roles which do not call for such an accent. However, few of the fans of his work seem to care. He also made a mark for injecting his films with a droll, often self-deprecating sense of humor, setting him apart from more serious action heroes such as [[Sylvester Stallone]], his most prominent contemporary. (As an aside, his alternative-universe comedy/thriller ''[[Last Action Hero]]'' featured a poster of the movie ''Terminator 2: Judgment Day'' which, in that alternate universe had Sylvester Stallone as its star; a similar in-joke in ''[[Twins (movie)|Twins]]'' suggested that the two actors might one day co-star, something which has yet to come to pass). [[Image:predator.gif|thumb|180px|left|''[[Predator (movie)|Predator]]'', starring Schwarzenegger (1987)]] Following his arrival as a Hollywood superstar, he made a number of commercially successful films: ''[[Commando (film)|Commando]]'' (1985), ''[[Raw Deal (1986 movie)|Raw Deal]]'' (1986), ''[[The Running Man]]'' (1987), and ''[[Red Heat]]'' (1988). In ''[[Predator (movie)|Predator]]'' (1987), another commercially successful film, Schwarzenegger led a cast which included future [[Minnesota]] [[List of Governors of Minnesota|Governor]] [[Jesse Ventura]] (Ventura also appears in ''Running Man'') and future [[Kentucky]] [[List of Governors of Kentucky|Gubernatorial]] Candidate [[Sonny Landham]]. ''[[Twins (movie)|Twins]]'', (1988) a comedy with [[Danny DeVito]], was a change of pace. ''[[Total Recall (film)|Total Recall]]'' (1990), at that time the most expensive film ever, netted Schwarzenegger $10 million and 15% of the gross, and was a widely praised, thought-provoking science-fiction script behind his usual violent action. ''[[Kindergarten Cop]]'' (1990) was another comedy. Schwarzenegger had a brief foray into directing, first with a [[1990]] episode of the [[TV series]] ''[[Tales from the Crypt (TV series)|Tales from the Crypt]]'', entitled "[[List of Tales from the Crypt episodes#Season 2 (1990)|The Switch]]", and then with the [[1992]] [[telemovie]] ''[[Christmas in Connecticut]]''. He has not directed since. Schwarzenegger's critical and commercial high-water mark was ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'' (1991). His next film project, the self-aware action comedy ''[[Last Action Hero]],'' (1993), had the misfortune to be released opposite ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', and suffered accordingly. Schwarzenegger's career never again achieved quite the same prominence, his aura of box-office invincibility suffering. ''[[True Lies]]'' (1994) was a popular sendup of spy films, and saw Schwarzenegger reunited with director [[James Cameron]], whose own career had taken off with ''[[The Terminator]]''. Shortly thereafter came ''[[Junior (film)|Junior]]'', which brought Schwarzenegger his second [[Golden Globe]] nomination, this time for Best Actor - Musical or Comedy. It was followed by the popular, albeit by-the-numbers ''[[Eraser (movie)|Eraser]]'' (1996), and ''[[Batman and Robin (1997 movie)|Batman & Robin]]'' (1997), his final film before taking time to recuperate from a back injury. Although ''[[Batman and Robin (1997 movie)|Batman & Robin]]'' was a famous disaster, Schwarzenegger emerged largely unscathed. Several film projects were announced with Schwarzenegger attached to star including the remake of ''[[Planet of the Apes]]'', a new film of ''[[I Am Legend]]'' and a World War II film scripted by [[Quentin Tarantino]] that would have seen Schwarzenegger finally play an Austrian. Instead he returned with ''[[End of Days]]'' (1999) - an unsuccessful and atypically dark attempt to broaden his acting range - ''[[The 6th Day]]'' (2000) and ''[[Collateral Damage]]'' (2002), none of which came close to recapturing his former prominence. He starred in the popularly received ''[[Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines]]'' (2003) His last film appearance to date was a cameo appearance in the 2004 remake of ''[[Around the World in 80 Days (2004 movie)|Around the World in 80 Days]]'', notable for featuring him onscreen with action star [[Jackie Chan]] for the first time. ===Filmography=== *''[[Brutal Deluxe]]'' (2008/2009) *''[[The Kid & I]]'' (2005) *''[[Around the World in 80 Days (2004 movie)|Around the World in 80 Days]]'' (2004) *''[[The Rundown]]'' (2003) (cameo) *''[[Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines]]'' (2003) *''[[Collateral Damage (movie)|Collateral Damage]]'' (2002) *''[[Dr. Dolittle 2]]'' (2001) (voice) *''[[The 6th Day]]'' (2000) *''[[End of Days]]'' (1999) *''[[Batman & Robin]]'' (1997) *''[[Eraser (1996 film)|Eraser]]'' (1996) *''[[Jingle All the Way]]'' (1996) *''[[Beretta's Island]]'' (1994) *''[[True Lies]]'' (1994) *''[[Junior (film)|Junior]]'' (1994) *''[[Last Action Hero]]'' (1993) *''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'' (1991) *''[[Kindergarten Cop]]'' (1990) *''[[Total Recall (film)|Total Recall]]'' (1990) *''[[Twins (film)|Twins]]'' (1988) *''[[Red Heat]]'' (1988) *''[[Predator (film)|Predator]]'' (1987) *''[[The Running Man]]'' (1987) *''[[Raw Deal (1986 film)|Raw Deal]]'' (1986) *''[[Red Sonja (1985 film)|Red Sonja]]'' (1985) *''[[Commando (film)|Commando]]'' (1985) *''[[The Terminator]]'' (1984) *''[[Conan the Destroyer]]'' (1984) *''[[Conan the Barbarian (film)|Conan the Barbarian]]'' (1982) *''[[The Jayne Mansfield Story]]'' (1980) *''[[The Villain]]'' (1979) *''[[Scavenger Hunt]]'' (1979) *''[[Pumping Iron]]'' (1977) *''[[Stay Hungry (film)|Stay Hungry]]'' (1976) *''[[Happy Anniversary and Goodbye]]'' (1974) *''[[The Long Goodbye (film)|The Long Goodbye]]'' (1973) *''[[Hercules in New York]]'' (1970) ==Political career== [[Image:Arnoldandson.jpg|thumb|200px|Schwarzenegger and son Patrick at [[Edwards Air Force Base]], [[California]] in December 2002.]] ===Political affiliation=== Schwarzenegger is a registered [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]], unusual among the often heavily [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywood]] community. He describes himself as fiscally conservative and socially moderate (i.e. he is [[pro-choice]] and supports [[stem cell]] research.) Schwarzenegger backed Republican President [[Ronald Reagan]] (another movie star turned politician) while Reagan was in office, and campaigned for [[George H.W. Bush]] in 1988. However, he chastised fellow Republicans during the impeachment of [[Bill Clinton]] in 1998. Sensing an opportunity to affect the outcome of the [[U.S. presidential election, 2004|2004 Presidential race]], Schwarzenegger campaigned in Ohio for Republican [[George W. Bush]] in the closing days of the campaign. In an interview on [[October 29]], [[2002]], with [[MSNBC]]'s [[Chris Matthews]] at [[Chapman University]], Schwarzenegger explained why he is a Republican: :"Well, I think because a lot of people don't know why I'm a Republican, I came first of all from a socialistic country which is Austria and when I came over here in 1968 with the [[U.S. presidential election, 1968|presidential elections]] coming up in November, I came over in October, I heard a lot of the press conferences from both of the candidates [[Hubert Humphrey|Humphrey]] and [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]], and Humphrey was talking about more government is the solution, protectionism, and everything he said about government involvement sounded to me more like [[Social Democratic Party of Austria|Austrian socialism]]. :Then when I heard Nixon talk about it, he said open up the borders, the consumers should be represented there ultimately and strengthen the military and get the government off our backs. I said to myself, what is this guy's party affiliation? I didn't know anything at that point. So I asked my friend, what is Nixon? He's a Republican. And I said, I am a Republican. That's how I became a Republican." Regarding a run for public office, in 1999, he told ''Talk'' magazine that "I think about it many times." He also said, "The possibility is there because I feel it inside. I feel there are a lot of people standing still and not doing enough. And there's a vacuum." ===Venturing into politics=== Schwarzenegger was appointed Chairman of the [[President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports]] in the administration of [[George H. W. Bush]] from 1990 to 1993. During that time, Schwarzenegger traveled across the U.S. promoting physical fitness to kids and lobbying all 50 governors in support of school fitness programs. "He would hit sometimes two or three governors in a day in his own airplane, at his own expense, somewhere around $4,000 an hour," said George Otott, his chief of staff at the time. "When he walked in, it wasn't about the governor, it was about Arnold," said Otott, a retired Marine. "He has what we in the military call a ''command presence''. He becomes the number one attention-getter." He later served as Chairman for the California ''Governor's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports'' under Governor [[Pete Wilson]]. Schwarzenegger scored his first real political success on [[November 5]], [[2002]], when [[California]]ns approved his personally crafted and sponsored [[California Proposition 49 (2002)|Proposition 49]], the "After School Education and Safety Program Act of 2002", an initiative to make state grants available for after-school programs. ===2003 California recall=== For years, Schwarzenegger had discussed with friends, potential donors, advisors and political allies a possible run for high political office; on [[April 10]], [[2003]], for example, he met with Republican political operative [[Karl Rove]] to discuss a future campaign. In the months leading to the [[2003 California recall]], Schwarzenegger was widely rumored to be considering a run at becoming [[Governor of California]]. In the July 2003 issue of ''[[Esquire Magazine]]'', he said, "Yes, I would love to be governor of California ... If the state needs me, and if there's no one I think is better, then I will run." When a petition to recall [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic]] governor [[Gray Davis]] qualified for the ballot on [[July 24]], Schwarzenegger left many wondering whether he would jump into the contest. Schwarzenegger was just wrapping up a promotional tour for ''Terminator 3'' and said he would announce his decision on whether to run on [[August 6]] on ''[[The Tonight Show with Jay Leno]]''. [[Image:Arnold Schwarzenegger inauguration-crowd750.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Crowd watching Schwarzenegger inauguration]] In the days and even hours leading up to the show's taping, political experts and insiders concluded that Schwarzenegger was leaning against running in California's [[October 7]] recall election. Even his closest advisors said he was probably not going to run. Rumors leading up to the announcement said that his wife, [[Maria Shriver]], a Kennedy family Democrat, was against his running, and he wanted her approval in order to run. When announcing his candidacy on [[The Tonight Show with Jay Leno|the Tonight Show]], he joked, "It's the most difficult [decision] I've made in my entire life, except the one I made in 1978 when I decided to get a bikini wax". Ultimately, Shriver said she would support Schwarzenegger no matter what he chose, so he decided to run. Schwarzenegger told Leno, "The politicians are fiddling, fumbling and failing. The man that is failing the people more than anyone is [[Gray Davis]]. He is failing them terribly, and this is why he needs to be recalled and this is why I am going to run for governor of the state of California." As a candidate in the recall election, Schwarzenegger had the most name recognition in a crowded field of candidates, but he had never held public office and his political views were unknown to most Californians. His candidacy was immediate national and international news, with media outlets dubbing him the "Governator" (referring to ''[[The Terminator]]'' movies, see above) and "The Running Man" (the name of another of his movies), and calling the recall election "Total Recall" (ditto) and "Terminator 4: Rise of the Candidate" (referring to his movie ''[[Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines]]''). Schwarzenegger was quick to make use of his well-known one-liners, promising to "pump up [[Sacramento, California]]" (the state capital) and tell [[Gray Davis]] ''hasta la vista''. At the end of his first press conference, he told the audience "I'll be back." Schwarzenegger looked to follow in the footsteps of former California governor and one-time movie star [[Ronald Reagan]]. However, due to his status as a [[naturalize]]d citizen, he would not be eligible to seek the [[President of the United States|Presidency]] unless the [[Constitution]] were to be amended (as proposed in 2000 by [[United States House of Representatives|Congressman]] [[Barney Frank]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]]-[[Massachusetts|MA]]), and in July 2003 (the [[Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment]]) by [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[Orrin Hatch]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]]-[[Utah|UT]])). Among his campaign team were Democrat actor [[Rob Lowe]], Democrat sounding billionaire [[Warren Buffett]], and moderate [[George Shultz]] (former Nixon and Reagan aide). [[Image:Arnold Schwarzenegger sexual harassment protestors750.jpg|thumb|300px|Sexual harassment protesters]] During the campaign, allegations of sexual and personal misconduct were raised against Schwarzenegger (see [[Gropegate]]). Within the last five days before the election, news reports appeared in the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' recounting allegations of sexual misconduct from several individual women, sixteen of whom eventually came forward with their personal stories. Chronologically, they ranged from Elaine Stockton, who claimed that Schwarzenegger groped her breast at a [[Gold's Gym]] in 1975 (she was 19 at the time), to a 51 year old woman who said that he pinned her to his chest and spanked her shortly after she met him in connection with production of his film, ''[[The Sixth Day]]'', in 2000. Schwarzenegger admitted that he has "behaved badly sometimes" and apologized, but also stated that "a lot of (what) you see in the stories is not true". This came after a magazine interview from the same era (1975) surfaced in which Schwarzenegger discussed attending sexual orgies and indulging in drugs like [[marijuana]] and [[cocaine]] (see [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/news/archive/2003/10/03/state1434EDT0082.DTL]], [[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/arnoldinter1.html]], [[http://www.latimes.com/news/printedition/front/la-me-women2oct02,1,4493659,print.story]). Allegations printed on the front page of ''[[The Los Angeles Times]]'', based on selective quotation, which Schwarzenegger claimed not to recall, were also made that he at one time admired [[Adolf Hitler]] and had praised him as a great propagandist. However the full text of the statement from which the quotation was taken significantly reduces the credibility of the allegations. Although Schwarzenegger's father was in fact a member of the [[Nazi]] party, Schwarzenegger has been a strong supporter of various Jewish groups, and has denounced the principles of the fascist German regime, saying "I have always despised everything that Hitler stands for". March 1992 [[Spy Magazine]] article mentions a story confirmed by "a businessman and longtime friend of Schwarzenegger's" -- that in the '70s Arnold "enjoyed playing and giving away records of Hitler's speeches" (see [http://www.s-t.com/daily/12-96/12-25-96/c06ae100.htm]]). Schwarzenegger supported the campaign of his friend, [[Kurt Waldheim]], former [[UN]] chief and a former Austrian politician who was accused of [[war crimes]] during World War II in [[Yugoslavia]], which resulted in both Waldheim, and his wife, Elisabeth, both of whom belonged to the Nazi Party, being excluded from entering the [[United States]]. Schwarzenegger's name remained on Waldheim's campaign posters, even after allegations of Waldheim's war crimes were brought to light. Waldheim was also invited to Arnold's wedding with [[Maria Shriver]], but declined (see [[http://arnoldexposed.com/arnold.htm#nazi]). These allegations were brought up mainly in the context of his campaign, but they continue to be occasionally used by some critics. [[Garry Trudeau]], the [[cartoonist]] behind the [[comic strip]] [[Doonesbury]], combined the allegations by nicknaming Schwarzenegger "Herr Gröpenführer" and depicting Schwarzenegger as a huge, groping hand in his artwork. A slightly smaller scandal arose when campaign ads were shown to have citizens of California out of focus, but products from campaign contributors clear. This got little press but still angered many. On [[October 7]], [[2003]], the [[2003 California recall]] resulted in Governor [[Gray Davis]] being recalled with 55.4% of the ''Yes'' vote. Schwarzenegger was elected Governor of California under the second question on the ballot with 48.6% of the vote, defeating Democrat [[Cruz Bustamante]], fellow Republican [[Tom McClintock]] and others. In total, Arnold won the election by about 1.3 million votes. He was sworn into office on [[November 17]], [[2003]]. Schwarzenegger's inauguration was opened by [[Vanessa Lynn Williams]], his co-star from ''[[Eraser (movie)|Eraser]]'', singing the [[The Star-Spangled Banner|National Anthem]]. Hollywood attendees included [[Danny DeVito]], [[Rhea Perlman]], [[Dennis Miller]] and [[Rob Lowe]] (Only Miller is a Republican). The Schwarzenegger children joined others in reciting the [[Pledge of Allegiance]], then [[Maria Shriver]] spoke and held the Bible while Schwarzenegger was sworn into the office of Governor. He spoke briefly: "Today is a new day in California. I did not seek this office to do things the way they've always been done. What I care about is restoring your confidence in your government... This election was not about replacing one man. It was not replacing one party. It was about changing the entire political climate of our state." ===Governorship=== [[Image:BushCAGovs.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Arnold Schwarzenegger, [[President of the United States|President]] [[George W. Bush]], and [[Gray Davis]] speak to firefighters on [[November 4]], [[2003]].]] [[Image:Arnold and Edmund 1.jpg|thumb|300px|Arnold Schwarzenegger and [[Bavaria]]'s minister president [[Edmund Stoiber]].]] In his first few hours in office Schwarzenegger fulfilled his campaign promise to repeal an unpopular 200% increase in vehicle license fees undertaken to fund the state's budget. The increase was a restoration to 1998 levels. On his first full day in office, Schwarzenegger proposed a three-point plan to address the budget woes. First, Schwarzenegger proposed floating $15,000,000,000 (USD) in [[bond]]s. Second, he urged voters to pass a [[constitutional amendment]] to limit state spending. Third, he sought an overhaul of [[workers' compensation]]. Schwarzenegger also called the state legislature into a special session and said that spending cuts would also be necessary. He initiated the cuts by agreeing to serve as governor with no salary, a savings of $175,000 (USD) per year. To fulfill the first two points, he urged California voters to pass [[California Proposition 57 (2004)|Proposition 57]] and [[California Proposition 58 (2004)|Proposition 58]] in the [[March 2]], [[2004]], election, which authorized the sale of $15 billion in bonds and mandated balanced budgets, respectively. Despite initially tepid support from the public, the combination of heavy campaigning by Schwarzenegger, endorsements from a number of leading Democrats, and warnings about the dire consequences should the propositions fail to pass, led to overwhelming votes in favor of the two propositions. Prop. 57 passed with 63.3% of the votes in favor and Prop. 58 passed with 71.0% in favor. He accomplished the third point when he signed a workers' compensation reform bill on [[April 19]], [[2004]]. Schwarzenegger convinced the Democratic-controlled state legislature to approve the package by threatening to take the issue directly to state voters in a November ballot initiative if the legislature did not act. Schwarzenegger was later criticized for reneging on his campaign pledges not to take money from special interests and for failing to answer directly the sexual harassment allegations raised by the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' immediately preceding the recall election. However, Schwarzenegger made a point shortly after becoming governor of voluntarily attending a training course conducted by the state Attorney General's office on preventing sexual harassment (along with several members of his senior staff). Schwarzenegger continues to collect campaign contributions from private interests (see [http://arnoldwatch.org/special_interests/index.html]]) at a greater rate than any politician in California history, including Gray Davis, whom he criticized on that very issue (see [[http://www.nbc4.tv/politics/2385057/detail.html]). In February 2004 when [[San Francisco]] city mayor, [[Gavin Newsom]], ordered a change in the certificate application documents to allow for [[same-sex marriage]]s, Governor Schwarzenegger opposed the move as being beyond the powers of the mayor, but also said that he supports gay rights and has expressed support for a law to grant [[civil unions]] to gay couples. In 2005 when he vetoed a bill that would have legalized same-sex marriages he defended his actions by saying that California voters had passed an initiative banning such recognition and that he supports that state's domestic partnership law that gives same-sex couples many of the same rights as a heterosexual married couple. Still, critics have observed that there is no federal requirement that other states recognize a state-granted domestic partnership, as is the case with marriages under the [[Full Faith and Credit Clause]] of the United States Constitution. Also in February 2004, he declined [[amnesty]] to convicted murderer [[Kevin Cooper]] who had asked him for clemency in his [[death penalty]] sentence. Nevertheless, Cooper's planned [[Execution (legal)|execution]] was stayed by the [[Ninth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals]] pending a revisiting of evidence. The first execution under his administration was that of [[Donald Beardslee]]. [[Austrian Green Party]] spokesman, [[Peter Pilz]], later called for Schwarzenegger to be stripped of his Austrian [[citizenship]]. Pilz claimed that Austrian law forbids any Austrian citizen from taking part in or ordering executions. However, Schwarzenegger does not appear to be in any danger of losing his Austrian citizenship. The governor has granted [[clemency]] to a number of [[Felony|convicted felons]] &ndash; more than Democrat predecessor Gray Davis, who presided over numerous executions. The power of clemency is often controversial. After a longer period of consideration than is usual, on [[December 12]], [[2005]], Schwarzenegger denied clemency to quadruple murderer [[Stanley Tookie Williams]], who was executed on [[December 13]]. In a statement (see [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4523352.stm]) Schwarzenegger argued not on the grounds that Williams' actions were beyond atonement: instead he appeared to acknowledge that atonement was possible, but Williams had not done so, Schwarzenegger stating that "the one thing [apologising for the four murders he committed] that would be the clearest indication of complete remorse and full redemption is the one thing Williams will not do." Despite expectations that Schwarzenegger would be vulnerable to opposition critics once taking office, his early governorship showed some successes. He has dealt successfully with California politicians as diverse as [[John Burton]] on the left to [[Tom McClintock]] on the right. At the end of May, 2004, the Field poll put his popularity at 65%, the highest for a California governor in 45 years, including 41% of Democrats, party adherents of his opposition. By comparison, former [[United States President]] [[Ronald Reagan]], known as "the Great Communicator,&quot; never hit 60% approval while serving as California governor. (see [http://www.latimes.com/news/local/politics/cal/la-me-lopez28may28,1,2650515.column?coll=la-news-politics-california]) In March, 2004 libertarian policy research foundation, [[The Cato Institute]], rated him 1st in their 1994 fiscal policy report card (see [http://www.cato.org/pub_display.php?pub_id=3691]) of the tax and spending policies of the nation's governors. In July 2004, however, Schwarzenegger and the state legislature deadlocked, failing to approve the state budget on time. Trying to rouse public support for his position, he compared lawmakers to kindergartners who need a "timeout," and in a rally of supporters called his budget opponents "girlie men" (a reference to a long-running ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' skit parodying Schwarzenegger). He said about the legislators: "They are part of a bureaucracy that is out of shape, that is out of date, that is out of touch and that is definitely out of control in Sacramento. They cannot have the guts to come out there in front of you and say, 'I don't want to represent you. I want to represent those special interests: the unions, the trial lawyers.' ... if they don’t have the guts, I call them girlie-men. They should get back to the table and they should finish the budget." The remark became national news and was not received well by his opponents, including gay advocacy and feminist groups who labeled it homophobic and sexist, in spite of his earlier support for gay rights (see the Gavin Newsom incident above), not to mention the legislators themselves. Others however, were quick to point out that the critics actually were expressing a sentiment of latent [[homophobia]] themselves because they automatically connected the phrase "girlie-men" with [[homosexual]]s. His supporters made "girly men" T-shirts and the Governor continued to use the term, including when he addressed the [[Republican National Convention]] in NYC, calling critics of the current U.S. economic situation "economic girlie men". Despite what some viewed as political snags during the summer, the Field polls released in August and October 2004 showed that Schwarzenegger's approval rating remained at 65%. Additionally, in October, for the first time in four years a plurality of Californians felt the state was "on the right track". However, when asked if they would support Schwarzenegger if he could run for president, 50% said they would oppose, while only 26% said they would support the governor in a presidential bid (see [http://field.com/fieldpollonline/subscribers/RLS2137.pdf]). ====Spring 2005==== <!--Please remember to report neutrally in this section--> In the spring of 2005, polls began showing Schwarzenegger's approval ratings had dropped to between 40-49%. (See [http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-cap7apr07,1,63188.column?coll=la-headlines-california&amp;ctrack=3&cset=true], [http://www.woai.com/news/local/story.aspx?content_id=A367E183-FC31-4616-8669-4FD5D36181D4], [http://www.surveyusa.com/50governorsrated051005.htm], [http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000103&sid=ac98Wx3eNeSw&refer=us].) On [[June 13]], [[2005]], Schwarzenegger called a [[California special election, 2005|statewide special election]] for [[November 8]], [[2005]], to vote on a series of reform measures he initially proposed in his 2005 State of the State address. A non-partisan Field poll released a week later showed his support had dropped to 37%, one of the lowest approval ratings for any California governor and barely above the support of recalled former Governor, [[Gray Davis]] (see [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2005/06/21/state/n060039D76.DTL]). Schwarzenegger's spokesman responded that Schwarzenegger had not yet had enough time to explain his proposals to voters. The Legislature also shared low approval ratings, with just 24% of voters saying they approve of the job lawmakers have been doing. That represents a drop of 10% since February. The governor has responded that the poll sends a "very clear message to us. They are saying they want us to work together." He has also responded "I know popularity goes up and down... as soon as you start making decisions and strong decisions, sometimes they're not popular decisions." (see [http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,159854,00.html], video, right side) Republicans have claimed that the drop in popularity was due to a multi-million dollar ad campaign by various groups such as unions for nurses, police and firefighters, who opposed his plans for the state pension and his administration's lawsuit to delay implementation of a nurse-to-patient staffing ratio plan. In late June 2005, another non-partisan Field Poll had similar numbers as the earlier one, finding that 57% of California voters are not inclined to elect Schwarzenegger to a second term as Governor in 2006 (see [http://news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&u=/nm/20050629/pl_nm/politics_fieldpoll_dc_3]], [[http://news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&u=/afp/20050621/ts_alt_afp/uspolitics_050621195840]). When asked about the lessons of the poll, Schwarzenegger has responded "People make mistakes sometimes, and I think that we learn. [...] These are very clear messages that we must work together, and so I am looking forward to that." To some degree, Governor Schwarzenegger's unpopularity has had to do with his confrontations with three popular labor groups: nurses, teachers, and firefighters. Some unions and activists reacted with anger (see [http://www.sfist.com/archives/2005/04/05/fk_arnold_nurses_firefighters_and_teachers_protest_the_governator.php], [http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/news/politics/12112103.htm], [http://cbs5.com/topstories/local_story_192212252.html], [http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/news/local/states/california/northern_california/11964407.htm]), and others with humor (see [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/7445648/site/newsweek/], [http://arnoldwatch.org/assets/governator_rap.mp3], [http://talent.pratt.edu/user/114/114_-711700702-main.jpg]). ====Summer 2005==== =====Accusation of conflict of interest===== While governor, Schwarzenegger continued to hold a position of executive editor of two [[American Media]] magazines. He announced in March 2004 that his $250,000 a year salary would be donated to charity. Schwarzenegger has an extensive history with the magazines and was frequently their star in his body-building days. As executive editor, he produces monthly columns based on his body-building history. Schwarzenegger drew fire when a second contract, a consulting position, was subsequently discovered in [[SEC filing]]s, by the ''L.A. Times''. This second contract would net him an estimated $8,000,000 (USD) over the next five years (see [http://www.latimes.com/features/health/nutrition/la-me-bill15jul15,1,6217015.story?coll=la-health-nutrition-news]). His consulting duties are not clear, except that the job allegedly "takes up little time." ''[[The New York Times]]'' further reported (on July 15) that under the five-year November 2003 contract, signed two days before his inauguration as Governor, '''Oak Productions''', Mr. Schwarzenegger's company, is to receive 1 % of the net print advertising revenues of '''Weider Publications'''. But the payment must be at least $1,000,000 (USD) per year. Mr. Schwarzenegger has also been granted '''phantom equity''', a way of sharing in the growth of the value of the company. The equity could become worth 1% of the company's value, which was stated at the time of the contract as $520,000,000 (USD)" (see [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/15/national/15calif.html?ex=1279080000&en=d59de5489ea19d3b&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss]). This contract was seen as a conflict of interest by critics, who note that the magazines receive much of their revenue from advertisements for dietary supplements, a government-regulated industry affected by Schwarzenegger's veto (September 2004) of a bill that would ban schools from accepting sponsorships from firms that make performance-enhancing dietary supplements. In Schwarzenegger's reason for his veto, he drew a distinction between performance-enhancing dietary supplements and steroid usage, which he says is what needs to be prevented in high school students. (see [http://www.townhall.com/news/politics/200507/POL20050718a.shtml]). Supporters point out that he did sign into law a bill that prohibited companies from selling the supplements to minors. Following the accusation, Schwarzenegger responded he would end the contracts with the magazines. In August 2005, the [[Washington Post]] reported that American Media had paid former TV actress [[Gigi Goyette]], $20,000 (USD) to keep silent about a seven-year extramarital affair Schwarzenegger had with her beginning in 1975, when Goyette was 16 years old (see [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/12/AR2005081201651_pf.html]]). Since the [[age of consent]] in California is 18 years, Schwarzenegger may have committed [[statutory rape]]. In addition, American Media's knowledge of the Goyette affair put it in a position of being able to [[blackmail]] Schwarzenegger, providing further reason for Schwarzenegger to align his interests with theirs. Also in August, the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' reported that five non-profit organizations had collected $3,000,000 (USD), chiefly from large businesses, in order to help defray Schwarzenegger's personal and political expenses, including the rent on the $6,000-a-month hotel suite that Schwarzenegger uses when in Sacramento (see [http://ktla.trb.com/news/local/la-me-nonprofits24aug24,0,3132004.story?coll=ktla-news-1]]). The governor's spokesman subsequently reported that Schwarzenegger had directed the disclosure of the contributors to the "residence fund" (see [[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-ed-funds29aug29,0,213871.story?coll=la-home-oped]). ====Fall 2005==== On [[September 29]], [[2005]], Schwarzenegger vetoed the California gay marriage bill after it had passed both houses of the legislature (see [http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=46212], [http://www.southernvoice.com/thelatest/thelatest.cfm?blog_id=2680]). He stated that he vetoed the bill because he felt that it was in opposition to the will of the voters as expressed by [[Proposition 22]], that had passed in 2000 with 61.4% of the vote. Proposition 22 stated that only marriages between a man and a woman would be recognized in the state of California. On [[September 16]], [[2005]], Schwarzenegger announced that he would seek a second term as governor. Despite his initially high approval ratings, a Field Poll conducted the week before indicated that only 36% of California voters were inclined to reelect him. Schwarzenegger vetoed SB 469 (Bowen) October 7. It would have required people circulating petitions to say whether the signature gatherers are volunteers or are being paid to collect signatures. Running up to the November special election, Schwarzenegger campaigned heavily throughout the state for his slate of propositions. Through an organization called "Join Arnold", tens of millions of dollars were funneled into the state, mostly from corporate interests, to fund the campaign. Schwarzenegger even reportedly spent 7 million dollars of his own money. Schwarzenegger characterized the four propositions as being key to his reform agenda. State unions and other groups opposed to the measures spent large sums of money opposing Schwarzenegger. Total spending by both sides leading up to the election was estimated at $300 million. Schwarzenegger made personal appearances at numerous so-called "town hall meeting" events throughout the state to promote the measures. In reality these events were highly choreographed, and typically featured Hollywood-style set lighting and coordinated electronic displays. A group of four or so "ordinary citizens", pre-selected by local Republican operatives, would appear on stage with Schwarzenegger to ask him questions at the appropriate time. The time and location of these events would not be released to the public until two hours in advance, to limit the time anti-Schwarzenegger forces had to organize protests. In the [[November 8]], [[2005]] special election, California voters dealt a devastating blow to Schwarzenegger by soundly rejecting all four ballot initiatives that Schwarzenegger had proposed to reform the state government. All propositions were defeated by a margin of at least 7 percentage points. The two propositions most key to Schwarzenegger's agenda, propositions 76 and 77, were defeated by 24 and 19 points respectively. The defeat left Schwarzenegger significantly weakened politically, depriving him of the one source of leverage he had against the Democratic legislature. Some opponents took to calling him "the One-terminator", a play on his popular role as "the Terminator" in films, implying that his chances of winning re-election had been diminished. In the aftermath of the election, Schwarzenegger has moved back to the center. He has hired a former aide of [[Gray Davis]] as his chief of staff, and is working with California State Senate Majority Leader, [[Don Perata]], for development of a bond, estimated in the billions of dollars, to accelerate construction of [[infrastructure]] such as freeways and waterworks. ===Electoral History=== *'''2003 Recall Election for Governor''' **Arnold Schwarzenegger (R), 49% **[[Cruz Bustamante]] (D), 32% **[[Tom McClintock]] (R), 13% ==Miscellaneous== *On [[January 8]], [[2006]], while riding his [[Harley Davidson]] [[motorcycle]], with his son in the sidecar, another driver backed into the street he was riding on causing him and his son to collide with the car at a low speed. While his son and the other driver were unharmed, the govenor sustained a minor injury to his lip, forcing him to get 15 [[sutures]]. "No citations were issued" said officer Jason Lee, a police spokesman. Schwarzenegger, who famously rode motorcycles in the [[Terminator]] movies, has never actually obtained an M-1 or M-2 endorsement on his [[California]] [[driver's license]] that would allow him to legally ride one on the street. In December 2001, he broke six ribs and was hospitalized for four days after another motorcycle crash in L.A. * In honor of its most famous son, Schwarzenegger's home town of [[Graz]] had named its [[soccer]] stadium after him. The Arnold Schwarzenegger Stadium, now officially titled [[Stadion Graz-Liebenau]], is the home of both [[Grazer AK]] and [[Sturm Graz]]. Following the [[Stanley Tookie Williams]] execution and after street protests in his home town, several local politicians began a campaign to remove Schwarzenegger's name from the stadium. Schwarzenegger responded, saying that "to spare the responsible politicians of the city of Graz further concern, I withdraw from them as of this day the right to use my name in association with the Liebenauer Stadium". Graz officials removed Schwarzenegger's name from the stadium in December 2005 (see [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4560182.stm]). * In a satirical tribute to Schwarzenegger in 2002, Forum Stadtpark, a local cultural association, proposed plans to build a 25-metre (82 foot) tall ''Terminator'' statue in a park in central Graz. Schwarzenegger reportedly said he was flattered, but thought the money would be better spent on social projects and the [[Special Olympics]] (see [http://www.killoggs.com/news/?news=609]). * In 2005 [[Peter Pilz]] from the [[Austrian Green Party]] in parliament demanded to revoke Schwarzenegger's Austrian citizenship. This demand was based on article 33 of the Austrian citizenship act that states: '''A citizen, who is in the public service of a foreign country, shall be deprived of his citizenship, if he heavily damages the reputation or the interests of the Austrian Republic''' (see [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4198633.stm]). Pilz claimed that Schwarzenegger's actions in support of the death penalty (prohibited in Austria under Protocol 13 of the [[European Convention on Human Rights]]) had indeed done heavy damage to Austria's reputation. Schwarzenegger justified his actions by referring to the fact that his only duty as Governor of California was to prevent an error in the judicial system. "Schwarzenegger has a lot of muscles, but apparently not much heart," said Julien Dray, spokesman for the Socialist Party in France, where the death penalty was abolished in 1981. * Schwarzenegger as president of the U.S. was jokingly referenced in the 1993 [[Sylvester Stallone]] film, ''[[Demolition Man (film)|Demolition Man]],'' where a future America passed a constitutional amendment to allow [[naturalization| naturalized]] Americans like Schwarzenegger to become [[President of the United States]], and that film has reference to a "Schwarzenegger Presidential Library". * Because Schwarzenegger opted in 1997 for a replacement heart valve made of his own transplanted tissue, medical experts predict he will require repeated heart valve replacement surgery in the next two to eight years (as his current valve degrades). Schwarzenegger apparently opted against a mechanical valve, the only permanent solution available at the time of his surgery, because it would have sharply limited his physical activity and capacity to exercise. * He bought the first [[Hummer]] manufactured for [[civilian]] use in 1992, a model so large, 6,300 lb (2900 kg) and 7 feet (2.1 m) wide that it is classified as a large truck and U.S. fuel economy regulations do not apply to it. During the Gubernatorial Recall campaign he announced that he would convert one of his Hummers to burn hydrogen (see [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/3180817/]). The conversion was reported to have cost about $21,000 (USD). After the election, he signed an executive order to jumpstart the building of hydrogen refueling plants called the "California Hydrogen Highway Network", and gained a [[United States Department of Energy|DOE]] grant to help pay for its projected $91,000,000 (USD) cost (see [http://www.bmwworld.com/hydrogen/schwarzenegger.htm]). California took delivery of the first H2H (Hydrogen Hummer) in October 2004 (see [http://trucks.about.com/od/hybridcar/a/hummer_h2h.htm]). * His fellow bodybuilder and actor, [[Sven-Ole Thorsen]], has collaborated with him in 15 movies so far. * He has appeared alongside his fellow actor from [[Around the World in 80 Days (2004 film)|Around the World in 80 Days]], [[Jackie Chan]], in a government advert to combat piracy, (see [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=6443035544827856436&q=Jackie+Chan&pr=goog-sl]). * Schwarzenegger's official height has usually been reported as 6'2", though some observers debit him two or three inches. While campaigning for [[George W. Bush]] in Ohio in 2004, he appeared only about an inch taller than the 5'11" President. Schwarzenegger's weight while competing was in the 245 pound range; currently, he carries about 210 pounds. * In 1983 Arnold Schwarzenegger starred in the promotional video "Carnival in Rio", which ''could'' be seen as advertising [[sex tourism]] in [[Brazil]] (see [http://www.devilducky.com/media/38195/]). ==Net worth== According to ([http://www.arnoldexposed.com/]), Schwarzenegger's net worth has been estimated conservatively at $100,000,000 (USD), and over the years, he invested his bodybuilding and movie earnings in an array of stocks, bonds, privately controlled companies and real estate holdings in the US and worldwide. ==See also== * [[Spy Magazine]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{commons|Arnold Schwarzenegger}} ===Official=== *[http://www.governor.ca.gov/ State of California - Office of Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger] *[http://www.schwarzenegger.com/en/index.asp Arnold Schwarzenegger's Official Website] (Non-Political) *[http://www.joinarnold.com/ Arnold Schwarzenegger's Official Political Website] *[http://www.citizenstosaveca.org/ Citizens to Save California, a broad-based committee supporting the reform agendas of Governor Schwarzenegger and others ] ===Unofficial=== *[http://ezinearticles.com/?id=105280 Arnold's Office Refuses to Comment] *[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000216/ Arnold Schwarzenegger] at [[The Internet Movie Database]] * [http://www.twoop.com/people/archives/2005/10/arnold_schwarzenegger.html Arnold Schwarzenegger] - Timeline of his life *[http://www.askmen.com/men/mar00/15_arnold_schwarzenegger.html Arnold Schwarzenegger on AskMen.com] * [http://www.commandofans.com CommandoFans.com] A website and message board dedicated to the Schwarzenegger film ''Commando''. * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/film/3131155.stm Arnold and the American dream] (BBC News) * Greg Palast [http://www.gregpalast.com/detail.cfm?artid=283&row=1 Arnold Unplugged] (exposé on the Schwarzenegger-Enron connection) * [http://www.schwarzenegger.ca Schwarzenegger.ca] A bodybuilding forum, complete with a dedicated Arnold section * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/media/video/39425000/rm/_39425228_arnie_speech_vi.ram Video: Arnold's victory speech] (BBC News) * [http://www.languagemonitor.com/uploads/pjjp_au_interview.mp3 ArnoldSPEAK: The Governator's Impact on Language] * [http://100towatch.com/2008/arnold-schwarzenegger.html Arnold Schwarzenegger news and related links] * [http://www.mediaman.com.au/profiles/schwarzenegger.html Arnold Schwarzenegger: King of bodybuilding, movies, politics and media] * [http://www.globalarnold.com/ globalarnold.com] (Global Arnold Schwarzenegger fan community) * [http://www.schwarzeneggergovernor.com/ Arnold Schwarzenegger Governor] * [http://usliberals.about.com/b/a/235539.htm About.com's Arnold Schwarzenegger, California's Newest Democrat ] * [http://www.arnoldexposed.com/ Anti-Schwarzenegger web site.] * [http://www.arnoldcalls.com/ Site dedicated to Arnold Schwarzenegger prank calls.] * [http://www.mashhur.com/item/commando Schwarzenegger's popularity in Pakistan] * [http://arnoldaloisschwarzenegger.com/ Arnold Schwarzenegger] Unofficial Blog for Arnold Schwarzenegger * [http://arnoldexposed.com/ Arnold Exposed] An unofficial website claiming to have evidence of Schwarzenegger's misconduct ==References== * Arnold Schwarzenegger, ''Arnold: Developing a Mr Universe Physique'', 1977 * ---- [http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/arnoldinter1.html Interview in ''Oui'' magazine, August 1977 ] * ---- [http://www.time.com/time/nation/printout/0,8816,483264,00.html Excerpts from ''Time Out'' (London) interview, 1977] * ---- ''Arnold: The Education of a Bodybuilder'', 1983, Simon & Schuster, Reprint edition, 1993, ISBN 06717974841983. autobiography * ---- ''Arnold's Body Building for Men'', Simon & Schuster, Reprint edition, 1984, ISBN 0671531638 * ---- ''The New Encyclopedia of Modern Bodybuilding : The Bible of Bodybuilding'', 1985, Fully Updated and Revised, Simon & Schuster, 1999, ISBN 0684857219 * Nigel Andrews, ''True Myths of Arnold Schwarzenegger : The Life and Times of Arnold Schwarzenegger, from Pumping Iron to Governor of California'', Bloomsbury USA, Revised edition, 2004, ISBN 1582344655 * Michael Blitz, ''Why Arnold Matters: The Rise of a Cultural Icon'' *Karen Brandon, ''Arnold Schwarzenegger''. *Colleen A. Sexton, ''Arnold Schwarzenegger (A&E Biography)'', Lerner Publications, 2004, ISBN 0822522233 * Susan Zannos, ''Arnold Schwarzenegger (Real-Life Reader Biography)'' * Andy Borowitz, ''Governor Arnold : A Photodiary of His First 100 Days in Office'', Simon & Schuster, 2004, ISBN 0743262662 * "Arnold Schwarzenegger - Hollywood Hero" DVD ~ Todd Baker * "Pumping Iron" (25th Anniversary Special Edition) DVD ~ George Butler * {{imdb name|id=0000216|name=Arnold Schwarzenegger}} *[http://www.cinemovie.info/ArnoldSchwarzenegger_scheda.html Cinemovie.Info: Arnold Schwarzenegger] {{start box}} {{incumbent succession box| title=[[List of Governors of California|Governor of California]]| before=[[Gray Davis]]| start=2003| }} {{end box}} {{CAGovernors}} {{Template:Current U.S. governors}} [[Category:1947 births|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Roman Catholic politicians|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Roman Catholics|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Actor-politicians|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:American bodybuilders|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:American entrepreneurs|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Austrian actors|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Austrian-Americans|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Batman actors|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Film actors|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Foreign-born US political figures|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Governors of California|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Kennedy family|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Living people|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Pro-choice celebrities|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Pro-choice politicians|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Worst Actor Razzie Nominee|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Worst Supporting Actor Razzie Nominee|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]] [[Category:Terminator actors]] [[bg:Арнолд Шварценегер]] [[bs:Arnold Schwarzenegger]] [[cs:Arnold Schwarzenegger]] [[da:Arnold Schwarzenegger]] [[de:Arnold Schwarzenegger]] [[eo:Arnold SCHWARZENEGGER]] [[es:Arnold Schwarzenegger]] [[fi:Arnold Schwarzenegger]] [[fr:Arnold Schwarzenegger]] [[he:ארנולד שוורצנגר]] [[hr:Arnold Schwarzenegger]] [[hu:Arnold Schwarzenegger]] [[id:Arnold Schwarzenegger]] [[it:Arnold Schwarzenegger]] [[ja:アーノルド・シュワルツェネッガー]] [[ko:아널드 슈워제네거]] [[la:Arnoldus Schwarzeneggerus]] [[nl:Arnold Schwarzenegger]] [[no:Arnold Schwarzenegger]] [[pl:Arnold Schwarzenegger]] [[pt:Arnold Schwarzenegger]] [[ru:Шварценеггер, Арнольд Алоис]] [[sq:Arnold Schwarzenegger]] [[sr:Арнолд Шварценегер]] [[sv:Arnold Schwarzenegger]] [[zh:阿诺·施瓦辛格]] 1807 41890320 2006-03-02T11:39:37Z Rmosler2100 518794 spelling correction '''ASA''' may stand for: * '''ASA''' is the ICAO code for [[Alaska Airlines]] * [[Accessible Surface Area]] * Acetylsalicylic acid, acetylsalicylic acid; see [[Salicylic acid]] and [[Aspirin]] * [[Adaptive Simulated Annealing]] optimization algorithm. * [[Advertising Standards Authority]] in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] * [[Amateur Softball Association]] * [[American Sailing Association]] * [[American Society of Anesthesiologists]] and a I-V rating of [[anesthetic risk]] * [[American Sociological Association]] * [[American Speed Association]], was a second-tier [[stock car racing]] circuit in the [[United States]] * "American Standards Association"; a former name of the [[American National Standards Institute]] (ANSI) * ASA [[film speed]] * [[Anti-Soviet agitation]] * [[Arlington Hall|Army Security Agency]]; formerly the Signals Security Agency, an [[intelligence agency]] of the [[United States]] * [[ASA (automobile)|ASA]] was an [[Italy|Italian]] car. * Associate of the [[Society of Actuaries]] * [[Anti-Semitic Association]] * [[Atlantic Southeast Airlines]] * "Australian Soccer Association", a former name of the [[football (soccer)]] governing body now known as [[Football Federation Australia]] * [[Autism Society of America]] * [[Atlético Sport Aviação]], a football (soccer) club from [[Angola]] * [[Agremiação Sportiva Arapiraquense]], a football (soccer) club from [[Brazil]] ''See also'': [[Asa]] {{TLAdisambig}} [[de:ASA]] [[fr:ASA]] [[ja:ASA]] 1808 15900272 2002-03-08T16:40:37Z Eclecticology 372 * #REDIRECT [[Alfred North Whitehead]] 1809 15900273 2004-01-13T07:02:27Z Snoyes 8289 Reverted to last edit by Conversion script #REDIRECT [[Thomas Aquinas]] 1810 41800778 2006-03-01T21:07:26Z RexNL 241337 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.101.125.35|209.101.125.35]] ([[User talk:209.101.125.35|talk]]) to last version by 85.157.101.9 '''Actium''' (mod. Punta), the ancient name of a [[promontory]] in the north of [[Acarnania]] ([[Greece]]) at the mouth of the Sinus Ambracius ([[Gulf of Arta]]) opposite [[Nicopolis]], built by [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]] on the north side of the strait. On the promontory was an ancient temple of [[Apollo]] Actius, which was enlarged by Augustus, who also, in memory of the [[battle]], instituted or renewed the quinquennial games called Actia or Ludi Actiaci. Actiaca Aera was a computation of time from the [[Battle of Actium]]. There was on the promontory a small [[town]], or rather [[village]], also called Actium. == History == Actium belonged originally to the [[Corinth|Corinthian]] [[colonist]]s of Anactorium, who probably founded the [[worship]] of Apollo Actius and the Actia games; in the [[3rd century BC|3rd century B.C.]] it fell to the [[Acarnania|Acarnanians]], who subsequently held their synods there. Actium is chiefly famous as the site of [[Caesar Augustus]]' decisive [[battle of Actium|victory]] over [[Mark Antony]] ([[September 2]] [[31 BC|31 B.C.]]). This battle ended a long series of ineffectual operations. The final conflict was provoked by Antony, who is said to have been persuaded by [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra VII]] to retire to [[Egypt]] and give battle to mask his retreat; but lack of provisions and the growing demoralization of his [[army]] would eventually account for this decision. == External links == * [http://www.acdgthemovie.co.uk/index.html Augustus Caesar: Diamond Geezer — a short film about the Battle of Actium] [[Category:Archaeological sites in Greece]] [[Category:Corinthian colonies]] [[Category:Roman sites in Greece]] [[da:Actium]] [[de:Actium]] [[fr:Actium]] [[hr:Akcij]] [[la:Actium]] [[nl:Actium]] [[ro:Actium]] [[fi:Aktion]] [[sv:Actium]] 1811 15900275 2005-02-14T17:11:03Z SimonP 1591 [[Category:Chemical processes]] '''Amide hydrolysis''' involves the C-N bond being broken in reaction with water ([[hydrolysis]]). The reaction is [[catalyst|catalysed]] by either [[acid]] or [[alkali]]. [[image:amide_hydrolysis.png]] '''Procedure:''' The [[amide]] is heated under reflux with moderately concentrated acqueous acid or alkali. If an ''[[acid]]'' is used, the product contains Ammonium ions. If a ''[[alkali]]'' is used, the [[carboxylic acid]] loses an H<sup>+</sup> ion and the product contains carboxylate ions. [[Category:Chemical processes]] 1812 41819814 2006-03-01T23:23:36Z Illusion408 586799 /* Lines of Sponsorship */ {{Infobox Company | company_name = Amway | company_logo = [[Image:amwaylogo.gif]] | company_type = [[Private company|Private]] | foundation = [[1959]] | location = [[Ada, Michigan|Ada]], [[Michigan]] | key_people = [[Steve Van Andel]]<br/>[[Doug DeVos]]<br/>[[Lynn Lyall]] | industry = [[Multi-level marketing]] | products = | revenue = | operating_income = | net_income = | num_employees = | homepage = [http://www.amway.com/ www.amway.com] }} '''Amway''' is a [[multi-level marketing]] company founded in [[1959]] by [[Jay Van Andel]] and [[Rich DeVos]]. The company's name is a [[portmanteau]] of "American Way." [http://www.amway.com/en/History/history-10362.aspx] Based in [[Ada, Michigan]], the company & family of companies under [[Alticor]] reported sales of $6.4 billion for the performance year ending August 31, 2005 marking the company’s sixth straight year of growth. Its product lines include personal care products, jewelry, dietary supplements, and [[cosmetics]], among others. Today, Amway conducts business through a number of affiliated companies in more than ninety countries and territories around the world [http://www.amway.com/en/History/global-growth-10106.aspx]. In [[1999]] the founders of the Amway corporation launched a sister (and separate) [[Internet]]-based company named [[Quixtar]]. The [[Alticor]] corporation owns both Amway and Quixtar, plus several other concerns. Quixtar replaced the North American business of Amway in [[2001]], with Amway operating in the rest of the world. [[Amivo]] acts as an Amway subsidiary in [[Europe]], as does [[a2k]] in [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]. Amway cofounder Jay Van Andel (in 1980) and later his son Steve Van Andel (in 2001) were elected by the board of directors of the [[United States Chamber of Commerce]] as chairman of that organization. ==The Corporation== Anyone can become an Amway [[Independent Business Owner]] (or ''IBO'', formerly known as a ''Distributor''); IBOs may purchase products from Amway at rates published as [[wholesale]] prices. Each product has an associated Points Value (PV), which is the same for that product all around the world. It operates like an international [[currency]], which represents the amount of [[profit]] inherent in the product. The sum of the group's PV determines the commission level (3%, 6%, ... 25%) payable. The Business Volume (BV) turns the PV into the local currency, after removing items such as [[value added tax]] (which obviously cannot be part of the profit). The [[commission]] level is applied to the BV in determining the monthly payments to be received as commission. As in most MLM businesses, a person wishing to join Amway is "sponsored" by an existing IBO. This involves the new IBO purchasing an "Amway Opportunity Kit" or "Business Pack" and completing the appropriate forms. The kit also contains literature and some starter product. IBOs must pay a yearly fee to remain in Amway, although they are not required to buy a minimum amount of products. Amway claims to have 4 million distributors worldwide who have renewed at least once, including 500,000 in the U.S. [[Japan]] represents a very fast-growing market with 1 million distributors. Recently, Amway received permission to establish a network in [[China]] and have done sales of over 2 Billion U.S. dollars in 2004. (It should be noted that Amway cannot conduct Chinese operations as it typically does elsewhere due to a ban on direct sales). Training organizations exist to offer a variety of business services to IBOs as well as their prospective business partners. This includes training [[seminar]]s, CDs and literature. Often, public meetings are made available as a way of helping present the concept to prospects. Amway's distributors are organized hierarchically, and the corporation employs a system of ''pin levels'' to reward successful distributors (so-called because attainees are awarded a stick pin to indicate their level.) Higher-level distributors act as mentors to newer distributors, organize regular meetings of their group and (controversially) may derive most of their profit from the sale of motivational tools to them. "Crosslining," or associating with people from a different "leg" or distributor chain, is generally discouraged. ===Pin Levels=== Pin levels reflect the level an IBO has reached in the Amway business. As such they are an indication of both the size of an IBO's group and their income, and by extension the IBO's knowledge and expertise in the field. Top pin level IBOs may have groups numbering hundreds or thousands of people, and are in high demand. They also command respect and adulation from their group. High pin levels are named after precious metals or gems to convey a sense of the wealth that they are supposed to represent. The lowest pin levels reflect successively higher volumes of PV sold through the IBO's group, and are named after the percentage bonus that each level pays. The first significant pin level is that of ''Platinum'' (formerly known as a ''Direct''.) The term Direct came from distributors beginning to get products sent to them directly from the corporation after attaining this level, as opposed to previously having bought them via their "sponsoring" distributor. (These days the "Direct" concept is defunct, as all IBOs order their product direct from Amway.) This level requires the IBO's group to be moving 7,500 PV (or 10,000 PV in some countries) of product per month, and the Amway recruitment plan customarily shows that such a group will have a total of 70-100 people; although in practice that number is often larger. The income at the Platinum level, generally speaking, is approximately the same as the average full-time wage in the IBO's country of origin, although this will depend on a number of factors including business structure, volume of retail sales versus group sales, and the total PV turnover. Variations typically range from half to over double the average full-time wage. A significant pin level is that of ''Diamond''. This level requires that six people the IBO has sponsored have themselves reached the Platinum level (or higher). The remuneration at Diamond is (generally) a "six-figure" passive annual income, and advertised to represent financial freedom for the IBO. Almost all IBOs aspire to this pin level because of this "freedom" aspect. (Note that it cannot merely be assumed that the income of a Diamond IBO is a simple 6x multiple of the income of a Platinum, since there are several other ranks between Direct and Diamond, and monetary bonuses are paid as a result of having attained these as well.) The highest level is ''Crown Ambassador''. This level used to require at least twenty legs, each at least at the Platinum level. Amway has recently introduced a system called FAA Points, where it is possible to become a Crown Ambassador with only 9 legs - however each needs to have a Diamond within that leg. This is helping to create much more stable sustainable businesses. Only a small number of people in the world have attained this pin level, and they are in constant demand for recruitment, training and motivational speaking engagements. The remuneration at the Crown Ambassador level runs into the millions annually. Other pin levels include ''Ruby'' (15,000 PV per month), ''Emerald'' (three Platinum legs), and ''Executive-'', ''Double-'' and ''Triple Diamond'' (nine and twelve and 15 Platinum legs respectively - or with differing numbers of FAA Points.) On top of the remuneration for PV moved through their group, an IBO may be entitled to additional monetary incentives. These bonuses are paid for meeting growth targets, extraordinary recruitment number, etc and can represent a significant portion of an IBO's income. Alticor recently started a program that makes it possible to attain the Crown Ambassador level with only 9 legs. If all of the 9 legs are Diamonds, the IBO receives 27 FAA points as every Diamond counts for 3 FAA points. This allows for greater earnings than with the "old-fashioned way." Additionally, approximately 80 FAA-points would guarantee a 7 figure bonus (USD) per year. ==="Crown Ambassador"=== By way of their seniority most Crown Ambassadors sit on various Amway [[board of directors|boards]], deciding business policy which affect all IBOs worldwide. Most also run, or contribute heavily to, their own motivational organizations. [[Dexter Yager]], one of the biggest landowners in [[Charlotte, North Carolina]], considered a legend by some within the Amway organization, is probably the most famous American Crown Ambassador. He created a training system of functions, [[book]]s of the month, and [[tape]]s. This has been done by a number of other organizations, such as Network 21 which is the most international of the business systems which run parallel to Amway. ===Lines of Sponsorship=== A line of sponsorship (LOS or [[line of affiliation]]) is an essential organizational concept in Amway organizations. Status is determined by where one is on the hierarchical continuum within the LOS. Those [[upline]] have higher status and those and [[downline]] have less status. [http://www.mlmsurvivor.com/stewart_v_gooch4.htm] A given IBO signs an agreement upon registration that says he/she will not switch LOS ([[Crossline]]). [http://www.quixtar.com/Documents/IWOV/VIS/010-EN/PDFs_Redstar90104/IBO_Support/Registration/LA1037H_Registration.pdf] Some of Amway LOS have included: [[TEAM (company)|TEAM]] (formerly Team of Destiny), [[InterNET]], [[BWW]], [[WorldWide Dream Builders]] (WWDB), [[Alliance Net Solutions]] (ANS), [[Empire]], [[True North]], [[eFinity]], [[InterNet Associates]] (INA), [[International Connection]], [[International Leadership Development]] (ILD), [[MarkerMan Productions]] (MMP), [[ProAlliance]], [[Interbiz]], [[IBO Alliance]], and [[GlobalNet]].[http://whataboutquixtar.com/forum/index.php?sid=7a767a537c21a12c6a3d4db1dbb75114] ==Controversy== Amway (and its online incarnation, [[Quixtar]]) have been controversial for years because of allegations that these companies are [[pyramid scheme]]s. Critics claim that most of the products sold by Amway are to the Independent Business Owners (IBOs) themselves for personal consumption rather than to retail consumers who aren't enrolled as IBOs. Buying products from Amway or Quixtar gives IBOs points and they are paid back on the number of points that they generate from personal consumption. It is claimed to be a business opportunity and hence an existing IBO can help others to get an IBO number and divert their buying habit from other stores to Amway or Quixtar. Thus the business grows as a greater number of people join the group. The share of profit is based on the leverage that an IBO has. Typically, IBOs spend a large amount of money on tapes, books, and seminars (known as "tools" in AMO parlance) which are ostensibly "required" to "hone the business skills of the IBOs". These are not provided by Amway itself but organizations often described as [[Amway Motivational Organization]]s (AMO) in general run by people in the higher ranks of the organization. Claims regarding the support material range from "can be of help to an IBO " to "are absolutely required" to "build a big business". However, undercover investigations like one done by [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4375477/ MSNBC Dateline] in [[April 2003]] suggest that most of the money being earned by these successful individuals was coming from the hidden "tools" business rather than through selling the company products. Critics also claim that the materials are specifically geared towards encouraging IBOs to continue working for a non-economic return, rather than improving their actual business skills. [[Dexter Yager]]'s organization, the International Dreambuilders' Association/Digital Alliance (usually simply referred to by the abbreviation IDA) is arguably the largest and best-known of the AMOs, and is probably the one most commonly associated with Amway. ==Political causes/Culture== Commentators have often (but not strictly accurately) identified Amway as supporting the [[United States Republican Party|US Republican Party]] and other [[right-wing]] causes. Amway Corporation claims to support no political party, yet 100% of its political donations have been to Republicans. [[Rich DeVos]] and [[Jay Van Andel]], who fully owned the company until their retirement (when they delegated authority and substantial ownership to their children), have strongly supported the Republican Party and socially and economically [[conservative]] causes, but that has been with their personal assets, not as a company position ''per se''. Many of Amway's best-known distributors, including Dexter Yager, have also declared themselves Republicans. Amway touts the [[environmental]] benefits of many of its products, and in June [[1989]] the [[United Nations Environmental Programme]]'s Regional Office for North America recognized it for its contributions to the cause of the environment. As well as tending towards being right wing, the senior distributors also promote a worldview encompassing [[Pentecostal]] [[Christian fundamentalism]], and a general advocacy of [[Baby boomer|boomer]]/[[1950s|50s]] values. The Amway Motivational Organization's (AMO's) perception of the role of women, though, always includes successful women in awards, recognition and speaking engagements. One rarely, if ever, sees a male, married distributor speak on stage without his wife getting equal billing, and explaining her active role in the business. This is a reflection of the AMOs' strong advocacy of the [[1950s]] style [[nuclear family]] model. (Women have successfully developed Amway/Quixtar businesses around the world.) A significant part of the Amway culture is the promotion and sale of training materials, as well as the attendance at meetings and rallies locally, regionally, and nationally. Training includes education about the topic of generalised, non-Amway specific [[entrepreneurship]]. The purpose of this is to create interest and enthusiasm. They are intended to maintain and increase membership, and to inspire IBOs to be more successful in their businesses. To a casual observer, they have some resemblance to a religious gathering. By involving people in a regular schedule of meetings, people are encouraged to maintain their focus, and to not be distracted by critics and other nay-sayers. [[Doug Wead]], who was a Special Assistant to former U.S. President [[George H. W. Bush]], is a successful IBO who is a regular speaker at group rallies. In May of 2005, former Amway President Dick DeVos, one of the wealthiest people in Michigan, and his wife Betsy were listed as two of the largest campaign contributors of the 2004 election. Just days later, Dick announced that he would run against Governor [[Jennifer Granholm]] in [[2006]]. ==Supporters== [[Robert Kiyosaki]], author of the best-selling (but controversial) business books ''[[Rich Dad, Poor Dad]]'' and ''[[Cashflow Quadrant]]'', endorses organizations that, according to him, promote financial literacy. A few of those organizations utilize Amway as a vehicle to develop a business. ==Legal rulings== In the [[1979]] ''In re. Amway Corp.'' (93 F.T.C. 618) ruling [http://www.ftc.gov/speeches/other/dvimf16.htm#N_19_], the [[Federal Trade Commission]] found that Amway does not qualify as an illegal pyramid scheme since the main aim of the enterprise is the sale of product. It did, however, order Amway to change several business practices and prohibited the company from misrepresenting the amount of profit, earnings or sales its distributors are likely to achieve. Amway was ordered to accompany any such statements with the actual averages per distributor, pointing out that more than half of the distributors do not make any money, with the average distributor making less than $100 per month. The order was violated with a [[1986]] ad campaign, resulting in a $100,000 fine. [http://www.ftc.gov/opa/predawn/F86/amway.htm] In [[1983]], Amway pleaded guilty to [[tax evasion]] and [[Customs (tax)|customs]] [[fraud]] in Canada, resulting in a fine of CDN$25 million, the largest fine ever imposed in that country. ==Other violations== In 2005, Amway/Quixtar orchestrated an attempt to drown out sites reporting deceptive practices and negative opinions. The [http://www.webraw.com/quixtar/archives/2004/10/the_quixtar_web_initiative.php "Web Initiative"] was flagged as [[Google bombing]], a violation of [http://www.google.com/webmasters/guidelines.html Google's Quality Guidelines]. ==External links and references== * [http://www.amway.com/ Amway Corporation] *[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/40/40031.html Yahoo! - Alticor Inc. Company Profile] *[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/103/103441.html Yahoo! - Amway Corporation Company Profile] *[http://www.amway.co.jp/ Amway Japan Limited] Amway detractors accuse the company of spreading [[right-wing]] beliefs among its distributors: *[http://www.motherjones.com/news/special_reports/1996/09/burstein.html Mother Jones] *[http://io.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0412/S00154.htm Scoop]. This has led to the derogatory term "Amway Christian", which suggests a professed Christian with a lack of commitment to the social-justice elements of the faith *[http://www.webraw.com/quixtar/archives/2005/02/amway_christian.php, Webraw] *[http://www.augustafreepress.com/stories/storyReader$31336 Augusta] *[http://www.ftc.gov/speeches/other/dvimf16.htm Prepared Statement of Debra A. Valentine, General Counsel for the U.S. FTC, on "Pyramid Schemes"] *[http://www.ftc.gov/opa/predawn/F86/amway.htm Amway Corp. to Pay $100,000 Civil Penalty (1986), from ftc.gov] ==Resources== *[http://www.quixtar.com/ Quixtar homepage] *[http://www.alticor.com/companies/quixtar.html Alticor Inc. (Amway & Quixtar Parent Company)] *[http://www.pyramidschemealert.org/ Pyramid Scheme Alert] a non profit consumer rights organization. *[http://dmoz.org/Business/Opportunities/Opposing_Views/Amway_and_Quixtar/ Dmoz.org: Amway and Quixtar] Selection of opposing websites. *[http://www.merchantsofdeception.com/ Merchants of Deception (MOD) - True Amway Quixtar story by former Emerald IBO] (free PDF eBook by Eric Scheibeler) *[http://www.letsgetthewordout.com Let's Get the Word Out] - A grassroots movement to help those disassociating from Amway Quixtar and multi-level marketing *[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4375477/ MSNBC Dateline undercover investigation of Amway, Quixtar and Bill Britt] - transcript *[http://www.quixtarresponse.com Quixtar's response to the Dateline report] *[http://www.technorati.com/tags/Amway Technorati 'Amway' tag site] - gathers blog posts, links and images related to Amway *[http://amquix.info/ Quixtar Business Analysis] - analyzes and criticizes Amway extensively, mostly from a financial perspective *[http://www.amwaylive.com/ amwaylive.com] A Japanese site where IBOs in Japan order products and find business tools *[http://www.amquix.info/blakey.html The Blakey Report] A report by a drafter of recent American organized crime legislation, comparing the structure and function of Amway, when combined with the distributor organizations, with that of the American Mafia [[Category:Amway]] [[Category:Multi-level marketing]] [[Category:Companies based in Michigan]] [[de:Amway]] [[nl:Amway]] [[ja:&#12450;&#12512;&#12454;&#12455;&#12452;]] [[pl:Amway]] [[fi:Amway]] [[sv:Amway]] [[zh:&#23433;&#21033;]] 1814 42116676 2006-03-03T22:55:53Z RexNL 241337 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/138.89.41.193|138.89.41.193]] ([[User talk:138.89.41.193|talk]]) to last version by Bluemoose {{Otherpeople|Adam Smith}} {{Infobox_Philosopher | <!-- Scroll down to edit this page --> <!-- Philosopher Category --> region = Western Philosophers | era = [[18th-century philosophy]]<br>(Modern Philosophy) | color = #B0C4DE | <!-- Image and Caption --> image_name = AdamSmith.jpg | image_caption = Adam Smith | <!-- Information --> name = Adam Smith | birth = [[June 5]], [[1723]] (baptized) ([[Kirkcaldy]], [[Fife]], [[Scotland]]) | death = [[July 17]], [[1790]] ([[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]]) | school_tradition = [[Classical economics]] | main_interests = [[Political philosophy]], [[ethics]], [[economics]] | influences = [[Aristotle]], [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], [[John Locke|Locke]], [[David Hume|Hume]], [[Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]] | influenced = [[Thomas Malthus|Malthus]], [[David Ricardo|Ricardo]], [[John Stuart Mill|Mill]], [[John Maynard Keynes|Keynes]], [[Karl Marx|Marx]], [[Friedrich Engels|Engels]], [[Founding Fathers of the United States|American Founding Fathers]] | notable_ideas = [[Classical economics]], modern [[free market]], [[division of labour]] | }} '''Adam Smith, [[Royal Society of Edinburgh|FRSE]]''' (baptised [[June 5]], [[1723]] – [[July 17]], [[1790]]) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[political economy|political economist]] and [[moral philosophy|moral philosopher]]. His ''[[The Wealth of Nations|Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations]]'' was one of the earliest attempts to study the historical development of industry and commerce in [[Europe]]. That work helped to create the modern academic discipline of [[economics]] and provided one of the best-known intellectual rationales for [[free trade]] and [[capitalism]]. ==Biography== Smith was a son of the controller of the customs at [[Kirkcaldy]], [[Fife]], [[Scotland]]. The exact date of his birth is unknown, but he was baptized at Kirkcaldy on [[June 5]], [[1723]], his father having died some six months previously. At around the age of 4, he was kidnapped by a band of [[Roma people|Gypsies]], but he was quickly rescued by his uncle and returned to his mother. Smith's biographer, [[John Rae (biographer)|John Rae]], commented wryly that he feared Smith would have made "a poor Gypsy." At the age of fourteen, Smith proceeded to the [[University of Glasgow]], studying moral philosophy under "the never-to-be-forgotten" (as Smith called him) [[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Francis Hutcheson]]. Here Smith developed his strong passion for liberty, reason and free speech. In [[1740]] he entered [[Balliol College, Oxford]], but as William Robert Scott has said, "the [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] of his time gave little if any help towards what was to be his lifework," and he left the university in [[1746]]. In [[1748]] he began delivering public lectures in [[Edinburgh]] under the patronage of [[Lord Kames]]. Some of these dealt with rhetoric and ''belles-lettres'', but later he took up the subject of "the progress of opulence," and it was then, in his middle or late 20s, that he first expounded the economic philosophy of "the obvious and simple system of natural liberty" which he was later to proclaim to the world in his ''Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations''. About [[1750]] he met [[David Hume]], who became one of the closest of his many friends. In [[1751]] Smith was appointed professor on [[logic]] at the University of Glasgow, transferring in [[1752]] to the chair of [[moral philosophy]]. His lectures covered the fields of [[ethics]], [[rhetoric]], [[jurisprudence]], [[political economy]], and "police and revenue." In [[1759]] he published his ''[[The Theory of Moral Sentiments]]'', embodying some of his [[Glasgow]] lectures. This work, which established Smith's reputation in his day, was concerned with how human communication depends on sympathy between agent and spectator (that is, the individual and other members of society). His analysis of language evolution was somewhat superficial, as shown only 14 years later by a more rigourous examination of primitive language evolution by [[Lord Monboddo]] in his ''Of the Origin and Progress of Language''{{ref|monboddo}}. Smith's capacity for fluent, persuasive, if rather rhetorical argument is much in evidence. He bases his explanation, not as the third Lord Shaftesbury and Hutcheson had done, on a special "moral sense", nor (as Hume did) on [[utilitarianism|utility]], but on sympathy. Smith now began to give more attention to jurisprudence and economics in his lecture and less to his theories of morals. An impression can be obtained as to the development of his ideas on political economy from the notes of his lectures taken down by a student in about [[1763]] which were later edited by [[Edwin Cannan]]{{ref|cannan}}, and from what Scott, its discoverer and publisher, describes as "An Early Draft of Part of The Wealth of Nations", which he dates about 1763. Cannan's work appeared as ''Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue and Arms''. A fuller version was published as [[Lectures on Jurisprudence]] in the Glasgow Edition of 1976. At the end of 1763 Smith obtained a lucrative post as tutor to the young [[Henry Scott, 3rd Duke of Buccleuch|Duke of Buccleuch]] and resigned his professorship. From [[1764]]-[[1766|66]] he traveled with his pupil, mostly in France, where he came to know such intellectual leaders as [[Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune|Turgot]], [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert| Jean D'Alembert]], [[André Morellet]], [[Helvétius]] and, in particular, [[Francois Quesnay]], the head of the [[physiocrats|Physiocratic school]] whose work he respected greatly. On returning home to Kirkcaldy he devoted much of the next ten years to his [[magnum opus]], ''An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations,'' which appeared in [[1776]]. It was very well-received and popular, and Smith became famous. In [[1778]] he was appointed to a comfortable post as commissioner of customs in Scotland and went to live with his mother in Edinburgh. He died there on July 17, 1790, after a painful illness and was buried in Canongate Churchyard, Royal Mile, Edinburgh. He had apparently devoted a considerable part of his income to numerous secret acts of charity. Smith's literary executors were two old friends from the Scottish academic world; physicist/chemist [[Joseph Black]] and pioneering geologist [[James Hutton]]. Smith left behind many notes and some unpublished material, but gave instructions to destroy anything that was not fit for publication. He mentioned an early unpublished ''History of Astronomy'' as probably suitable, and it duly appeared in 1795, along with other material, as [[Essays on Philosophical Subjects]]. ==Works== Shortly before his death Smith had nearly all his manuscripts destroyed. In his last years he seemed to have been planning two major treatises, one on the theory and history of law and one on the sciences and arts. The posthumously published ''Essays on Philosophical Subjects'' ([[1795]]) probably contain parts of what would have been the latter treatise. ''The Wealth of Nations'' was influential since it did so much to create the field of economics and develop it into an autonomous systematic discipline. In the Western world, it is arguably the most influential book on the subject ever published. When the book, which has become a classic [[manifesto]] against [[mercantilism]] (the theory that large reserves of [[bullion]] are essential for economic success), appeared in [[1776]], there was a strong sentiment for [[free trade]] in both [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] and [[United States|America]]. This new feeling had been born out of the economic hardships and poverty caused by the war. However, at the time of publication, not everybody was immediately convinced of the advantages of [[free trade]]: the British public and [[Palace of Westminster|Parliament]] still clung to mercantilism for many years to come. ''The Wealth of Nations'' also rejects the [[Physiocrats|Physiocratic]] school's emphasis on the importance of land; instead, Smith believed labour was paramount, and that a [[division of labour]] would effect a great increase in production. ''Nations'' was so successful, in fact, that it led to the abandonment of earlier economic schools, and later economists, such as [[Thomas Malthus]] and [[David Ricardo]], focused on refining Smith's theory into what is now known as [[classical economics]] ([[Modern economics]] evolved from this). Malthus expanded Smith's ruminations on [[overpopulation]], while Ricardo believed in the "[[iron law of wages]]" — that overpopulation would prevent wages from topping the subsistence level. Smith postulated an increase of wages with an increase in production, a view considered more accurate today. One of the main points of ''The Wealth of Nations'' is that the free market, while appearing chaotic and unrestrained, is actually guided to produce the right amount and variety of goods by a so-called "[[Invisible Hand|invisible hand]]". If a product shortage occurs, for instance, its price rises, creating a profit margin that creates an incentive for others to enter production, eventually curing the shortage. If too many producers enter the market, the increased [[competition]] among manufacturers and increased supply would lower the price of the product to its production cost, the "[[natural price]]". Even as profits are zeroed out at the "natural price," there would be incentives to produce goods and services, as all costs of production, including compensation for the owner's labour, are also built into the price of the goods. If prices dipped below a zero profit, producers would drop out of the market; if they were above a zero profit, producers would enter the market. Smith believed that while human motives are often [[selfishness|selfish]] and [[Greed (emotion)|greedy]], the competition in the free market would tend to benefit society as a whole by keeping prices low, while still building in an incentive for a wide variety of goods and services. Nevertheless, he was wary of businessmen and argued against the formation of [[monopoly|monopolies]]. Smith vigorously attacked the antiquated government restrictions which he thought were hindering industrial expansion. In fact, he attacked most forms of government interference in the economic process, including [[tariff]]s, arguing that this creates inefficiency and high prices in the long run. This theory, now referred to as "[[laissez-faire]]", which means "let them do", influenced government legislation in later years, especially during the [[19th century]]. (However, it must be remembered that Smith advocated for a Government that was active in sectors other than the economy: he advocated for public education of poor adults; for institutional systems that were not profitable for private industries; for a judiciary; and for a standing army.) Two of the most famous and oft-quoted passages in ''The Wealth of Nations'' are: :''It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages.'' :''As every individual, therefore, endeavours as much as he can both to employ his capital in the support of domestic industry, and so to direct that industry that its produce may be of the greatest value; every individual necessarily labours to render the annual value of society as great as he can. He generally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry, he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. Nor is it always the worse for the society that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the public good. It is an affectation, indeed, not very common among merchants, and very few words need be employed in dissuading them from it.'' ==''The "Adam Smith-Problem"''== {{liberalism}} There has been considerable controversy as to whether there is a contradiction between Smith's emphasis on sympathy in his ''Theory of Moral Sentiments'' and the key role of self-interest in ''The Wealth of Nations''. Economist [[Joseph Schumpeter]] referred to this in German as ''[[:de:Adam-Smith-Problem|das 'Adam Smith-Problem']]''. In his ''Moral Sentiments'' Smith seems to emphasize the broad synchronization of human intention and behaviour under a beneficent Providence, while in ''The Wealth of Nations'', in spite of the general theme of "the invisible hand" Adam Smith makes the claim that, within the system of capitalism, an individual acting for his own good tends also to promote the good of his community. creating harmony out of conflicting self-interests, he finds many more occasions for pointing out cases of conflict and of the narrow selfishness of human motives. Yet it would be inaccurate to describe the Adam Smith of the ''Moral Sentiments'' as disbelieving of an essential selfishness of most human motives, for he writes that: :''Thus self-preservation, and the propagation of the species, are the great ends which Nature seems to have proposed in the formation of all animals. Mankind are endowed with a desire of those ends, and an aversion to the contrary; with a love of life, and a dread of dissolution; with a desire of the continuance and perpetuity of the species, and with an aversion to the thoughts of its entire extinction. But though we are in this manner endowed with a very strong desire of those ends, it has not been entrusted to the slow and uncertain determinations of our reason, to find out the proper means of bringing them about. Nature has directed us to the greater part of these by original and immediate instincts. Hunger, thirst, the passion which unites the two sexes, the love of pleasure, and the dread of pain, prompt us to apply those means for their own sakes, and without any consideration of their tendency to those beneficent ends which the great Director of nature intended to produce by them.'' Adam Smith himself cannot have seen any contradiction, since he produced a slightly revised edition of ''Moral Sentiments'' after the publication of ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]''. Both sets of ideas are to be found in his [[Lectures on Jurisprudence]]. He may have believed that moral sentiments and self-interest would always add up to the same thing. Some scholars have given another explanation: Adam Smith was trying to illustrate the complicated economy with two simple dimensions. It was the people who, due to historical limitations, emphasized the "wealth" part. In the future, due to the change of world economy, the emphasis may well change. ==Influence== ''The Wealth of Nations'', and to a lesser extent ''The Theory of Moral Sentiments'', have become the starting point for any defence or critique of forms of [[capitalism]], most influentially in the writings of [[Karl Marx|Marx]] and [[Humanism|Humanist]] [[economist]]s. Because capitalism is so often associated with unbridled [[selfishness]], there is a recent movement to emphasize the moral philosophy of Smith, with its focus on [[sympathy]] with one's fellows. There has been some controversy over the extent of Smith's originality in ''The Wealth of Nations''; some argue that the work added modestly to the already established ideas of thinkers such as [[Anders Chydenius]] ([[The National Gain]] (1765)), [[David Hume]] and the [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Baron de Montesquieu]]. Indeed, many of the theories Smith sets out simply describe historical trends away from [[mercantilism]], towards [[free trade]], that had been developing for many decades, and had already had significant influence on governmental policy. Nevertheless, it organizes their ideas comprehensively, and remains one of the most influential and important books in the field today. Smith was ranked #30 in [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]]. ==Major works== * ''[[The Theory of Moral Sentiments]]'' (1759) * ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' (1776) * ''[[Essays on Philosophical Subjects]]'' ==Notes== #{{note|cannan}} ''"Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue and Arms"'', 1896 #{{note|monboddo}} Cloyd, E.L.: ''"[[James Burnett, Lord Monboddo]]"'', pp 64-66. Oxford University Press, 1972 ==See also== *[[Liberalism]] *[[Contributions to liberal theory]] *[[Adam Smith rule]] *[[Capitalism]] *[[History of economic thought]] *[[Anders Chydenius]] *''[[The National Gain]]'' *[[Times obituary of Adam Smith]] *[[William Petty]] ==External links== {{Wikiquote}} {{Wikisource author}} ;General * {{gutenberg author| id=Adam+Smith | name=Adam Smith}} *[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/bios/Smith.html Biography] at the ''Concise Encyclopedia of Economics'' *[http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Rae/raeLS.html ''Life of Adam Smith''] by John Rae, at the Library of Economics and Liberty *[http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/smith.htm Smith's works] *[http://econ161.berkeley.edu/Economists/smith.html Brad deLong's Adam Smith page] *[http://www.adamsmith.org The Adam Smith Institute] *[http://www.libertyforums.com/ LibertyForums] - Classical Liberal, Libertarian & Objectivist Discussion Board. *[http://www.boomerbible.com/adam20.html Excerpt from "The Book of the VIP Adam"] *[http://web.uvic.ca/~rutherfo/a_smith.html Grave of Adam Smith] on the [http://web.uvic.ca/~rutherfo/mr_grvs.html Famous Economists Grave Sites] *[http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/ Images at the National Portrait Gallery] *[http://www.importantscots.com/adam-smith.htm Adam Smith - Important Scots] *[http://www.cfh.ufsc.br/ethic@/et42art2.pdf Reflections on Smith's ethics] ;Works *[http://www.econlib.org/library/Smith/smWN.html ''The Wealth of Nations''] at the [http://www.econlib.org/index.html Library of Economics and Liberty]. Cannan edition. Definitive, fully searchable, free online. *{{Gutenberg|no=3300|name=The Wealth of Nations}} *[http://www.mondopolitico.com/library/wealthofnations/toc.htm ''The Wealth of Nations''] from [http://www.mondopolitico.com/library/ Mondo Politico Library] - full text; formatted for easy on-screen reading. *[http://www.adamsmith.org/smith/won-intro.htm ''The Wealth of Nations''] from the [http://www.adamsmith.org/ Adam Smith Institute] - elegantly formatted for on-screen reading *[http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/BookSetToCPage.php?recordID=0141 ''Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith'']. Glasgow edition, 7 volumes at the [http://oll.libertyfund.org/ Online Library of Liberty]. Definitive, free online. *[http://www.econlib.org/library/Smith/smMS.html ''The Theory of Moral Sentiments''] at the [http://www.econlib.org/index.html Library of Economics and Liberty] [[Category:1723 births|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:1790 deaths|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Adam Smith]] [[Category:Business theorists|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Economists|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Enlightenment philosophers|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Glaswegians|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Natives of Fife|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Scottish economists|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Scottish Enlightenment|Smith]] [[Category:Scottish philosophers|Smith, Adam]] [[Category:Scottish writers|Smith, Adam]] [[bg:Адам Смит]] [[bn:এডাম স্মিথ]] [[bs:Adam Smith]] [[ca:Adam Smith]] [[cs:Adam Smith]] [[da:Adam Smith]] [[de:Adam Smith]] [[eo:Adam SMITH]] [[es:Adam Smith]] [[et:Adam Smith]] [[eu:Adam Smith]] [[fi:Adam Smith]] [[fr:Adam Smith]] [[ga:Adam Smith]] [[gd:Adam Smith]] [[he:אדם סמית]] [[hr:Adam Smith]] [[hu:Adam Smith]] [[id:Adam Smith]] [[io:Adam Smith]] [[is:Adam Smith]] [[it:Adam Smith]] [[ja:アダム・スミス]] [[ko:애덤 스미스]] [[lt:Adamas Smitas]] [[ms:Adam Smith]] [[nl:Adam Smith]] [[nn:Adam Smith]] [[no:Adam Smith]] [[pl:Adam Smith]] [[pt:Adam Smith]] [[ro:Adam Smith]] [[ru:Смит, Адам]] [[scn:Adam Smith]] [[sco:Adam Smith]] [[sh:Adam Smith]] [[simple:Adam Smith]] [[sk:Adam Smith]] [[sr:Адам Смит]] [[sv:Adam Smith]] [[th:แอดัม สมิท]] [[tr:Adam Smith]] [[vi:Adam Smith]] [[zh:亚当·斯密]] 1820 15900283 2002-02-25T15:43:11Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Antoine Lavoisier]] 1821 15900284 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Antoine Lavoisier]] 1822 41585319 2006-02-28T08:34:58Z 204.69.190.75 /* Can a severed head think? */ {{Infobox Celebrity | name =Antoine Lavoisier | image = Antoine_lavoisier_color.jpg | caption = [[List of people known as the father or mother of something|Father of modern chemistry]] | birth_date = [[August 26]] [[1743]] | birth_place = [[Paris]],[[France]] | death_date = [[May 8]] [[1794]] | death_place = [[Paris]],[[France]] | occupation = [[Chemist]], [[economics|economist]] and [[nobility|nobleman]]. | salary = | networth = | website = | footnotes = }} '''Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier''' ([[August 26]] [[1743]] &ndash; [[May 8]] [[1794]]) was a [[France|French]] [[nobility|nobleman]] prominent in the histories of [[chemistry]], [[finance]], [[biology]], and [[economics]]. The "''[[List of people known as the father or mother of something|father of modern chemistry]]''", he stated the first version of the [[Law of Conservation of Matter]], recognized and named [[oxygen]] ([[1778]]), disproved the [[phlogiston theory]], and helped to reform chemical nomenclature. He was also an investor and administrator of the ''[[Ferme Générale]]'', a private tax collection company; chairman of the board of the [[Discount Bank]] (later the [[Banque de France]]); and a powerful member of a number of other aristocratic administrative councils. Due to his prominence in the pre-revolutionary government in [[France]], he was [[Decapitation|beheaded]] at the height of the [[French Revolution]]. ==Early life== [[Image:David_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier.jpg|thumb|200px|left|''Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier and his Wife'', by [[Jacques-Louis David]].]] Born to a wealthy family in [[Paris]], Antoine Laurent Lavoisier inherited a large fortune when his mother died. He attended the [[College Mazarin]] from [[1754]] to [[1761]], studying [[chemistry]], [[botany]], [[astronomy]], and [[mathematics]]. His education was filled with the ideals of the French [[The Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] of the time, he felt fascination for [[Maquois|Maquois's]] dictionary. His devotion and passion for chemistry was largely influenced by [[Étienne Condillac]], a prominent French scholar of the [[18th century]]. His first chemical publication appeared in [[1764]]. In [[1767]] he worked on a geological survey of [[Alsace-Lorraine]]. He was elected a member of the [[French Academy of Sciences]], France's most elite scientific society, at the age of 25 in [[1768]] for an essay on street lighting and in recognition for his earlier research. In [[1769]] he worked on the first geological map of [[France]]. In [[1771]], he married 13-year-old [[Marie-Anne Pierette Paulze]], the daughter of a co-owner of the Ferme. With time, she proved to be a scientific colleague to her husband. She translated documents from English for him, including [[Richard Kirwan]]'s "''Essay on Phlogiston''" and [[Joseph Priestley]]'s research. She created many [[drawing|sketches]] and carved engravings of the laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier and his colleagues. She also edited and published Lavoisier’s memoirs and hosted many parties during which eminent scientists would discuss new chemical theories. As a result of her close work with her husband, it is difficult to separate her individual contributions from his, but it is correctly assumed that much of the work accredited to him bears her fingerprints. ==Contributions to chemistry== [[Image:Antoine_lavoisier.jpg|thumb|100px|right|[[Portrait]] of Antoine Lavoisier in his youth.]] ===Background=== Beginning in [[1775]], he served in the [[Royal Gunpowder Administration]], where his work led to improvements in the production of [[gunpowder]] and the use of [[agricultural chemistry]] by designing a new method for preparing [[saltpeter]]. [[Image:Hidrogenexp1.jpg|thumb|180px|left|[[Drawing|Hand sketch]] design aparatus for hydrogen combustion experiment made by Lavoisier in the [[1780s]].]] ===Major works=== Some of Lavoisier's most important experiments examined the nature of [[combustion]], or burning. Through these experiments, he demonstrated that burning is a process that involves the combination of a substance with oxygen. He also demonstrated the role of oxygen in metal rusting, as well as its role in animal and plant respiration: working with [[Pierre-Simon Laplace]], Lavoisier conducted experiments that showed that respiration was essentially a slow combustion of organic material using inhaled oxygen. Lavoisier's explanation of combustion replaced the [[phlogiston]] theory, which postulates that materials release a substance called phlogiston when they burn. ===Research on hydrogen and role disproving Phlogiston theory=== [[Image:Hidrogenexp2.gif|thumb|170px|right|Aparatus for hydrogen combustion experiment made from Lavoisier's sketch by Jean Baptiste Meusnier in [[1783]].]] He also discovered that the inflammable air of [[Henry Cavendish]] which he termed ''[[hydrogen]]'' ([[Ancient Greek|Greek]] for "water-former"), combined with oxygen to produce a dew, as [[Joseph Priestley]] had reported, which appeared to be water. Lavoisier's work was partly based on the work of Priestley (he corresponded with Priestley and fellow members of the [[Lunar Society]]). However, he tried to take credit for Priestley's discoveries. This tendency to use the results of others without acknowledgment, then draw conclusions is said to be characteristic of Lavoisier. In ''Sur la combustion en general'' (''On Combustion in general'', [[1777]]) and ''Considérations Générales sur la Nature des Acides'' (''General Considerations on the Nature of Acids''), [[1778]]), he demonstrated that the "air" responsible for combustion was also the source of acidity. In [[1779]], he named this part of the air ''oxygen'' (Greek for "acid-former"), and the other ''azote'' (Greek for "no life"). In ''Reflexions sur le Phlogistique'' (''Reflections on Phlogiston'', [[1783]]), Lavoisier showed the [[phlogiston theory]] to be inconsistent. ===Pioneer of [[Stoichiometry]]=== [[Image:Instruments_lavoisier.jpg|thumb|175px|left|[[Laboratory equipment|Laboratory instruments]] used by Lavoisier circa [[1780s]].]] Lavoisier's experiments were among the first truly quantitative chemical experiments ever performed; that is, he carefully weighed the reactants and products involved, a crucial step in the advancement of chemistry. He showed that, although matter changes its state in a chemical reaction, the quantity of matter is the same at the end as at the beginning of every chemical reaction. He burnt phosphorus and sulfur in air, and proved that the products weighed more than the original. Nevertheless, the weight gained was lost from the air. These experiments provided evidence for the law of the conservation of matter, or in other words, '''the law of conservation of mass .''' ===Major works on analytical chemistry and chemical nomenclature=== Lavoisier also investigated the composition of water and air, which at the time were considered elements. He discovered the components of water were oxygen and hydrogen, and that air was a mixture of gases - primarily [[nitrogen]] and oxygen. With the French chemists [[Claude-Louis Berthollet]], Antoine Fourcroy and Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier devised a chemical nomenclature, or a system of names describing the structure of chemical compounds. He described it in ''Méthode de nomenclature chimique'' (''Method of Chemical Nomenclature'', [[1787]]). Their system facilitated communication of discoveries between chemists of different backgrounds and is still largely in use today, including names such as sulfuric acid, sulfates, and sulfites. [[Image:Lavoisiers_lab.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A replica of Lavoisier's laboratory at the ''Deutsches Museum'' in [[Munich]], [[Germany]].]] His ''Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Elementary Treatise of Chemistry'', [[1789]], translated into English by [[Robert Kerr (writer)|Robert Kerr]]) is considered to be the first modern chemical [[textbook]], and presented a unified view of new theories of chemistry, contained a clear statement of the [[Law of Conservation of Mass]], and denied the existence of phlogiston. Also, Lavoisier clarified the concept of an element as a simple substance that could not be broken down by any known method of chemical analysis, and he devised a theory of the formation of chemical compounds from elements. [[Image:Lentilles_ardentes.jpg|thumb|170px|left|Combustion, generated by focusing sun light over [[flammable]] materials using lenses, experiment conducted by Lavosier circa [[1770s]].]] In addition, it contained a list of elements, or substances that could not be broken down further, which included oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, [[phosphorus]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]], [[zinc]], and [[sulphur]]. It also forms the basis for the modern list of elements. His list, however, also included light and [[Caloric theory|caloric]], which he believed to be material substances. While many leading chemists of the time refused to believe Lavoisier's new revelations, the ''Elementary Treatise'' was written well enough to convince the younger generation. [[Image:Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg|thumb|180px|right|Lavoisier while conducting combustion experiment.]] ===Aftermath=== Lavoisier's fundamental contributions to chemistry were a result of a conscious effort to fit all experiments into the framework of a single theory. He established the consistent use of [[chemical balance]], used oxygen to overthrow the phlogiston theory, and developed a new system of chemical nomenclature which held that oxygen was an essential constituent of all acids (which later turned out to be erroneous). Lavoisier also made introductory research on physical chemistry and thermodynamics in joint experiment with [[Laplace]], when he used a calorimeter to estimate the heat evolved per unit of carbon dioxide produced, eventually they found the same ratio for a flame and animals, indicating that animals produced energy by a type of combustion. [[Image:Calorimeter.gif|thumb|115px|left|Constant [[pressure]] [[calorimeter]] made by Lavoisier for chemical [[enthalpy]] experiment.]] He also made remarkable contributions to [[chemical bond|chemical bonding]] by stating the radical theory, believing that radicals, which function as a single group in a chemical reaction, would combine with oxygen in reactions. He also introduced the possibility of [[allotropy|allotropy in chemical elements]] when he discovered that [[diamond]] is a crystalline form of carbon. He also updated many chemical concepts, for the first time the modern notion of elements was laided out systematically; the three or four elements of classical chemistry gave way to the modern system, and Lavoisier worked out reactions in chemical equations that respect the conservation of mass (see, for example, the [[nitrogen cycle]]).[[Image:Lavoisier_humanexp.jpg|thumb|240px|right|Lavoisier conducting an experiment in the [[1770s]].]] His contributions are considered the most important in advancing the science of chemistry to the level of what had been achieved in physics and mathematics during [[18th century]]. ==Law and politics== Of key significance in Lavoisier's life was his study of [[law]]. He received a [[law degree]] and was admitted to the [[bar association|bar]], but never practiced as a [[lawyer]]. He did become interested in French [[politics]], and as a result, he obtained a position as [[tax]] collector in the ''[[Ferme Générale]]'', a [[tax farming]] company, at the age of 26, where he attempted to introduce reforms in the French [[monetary system|monetary]] and [[tax]]ation system. While in government work, he helped develop the [[SI|metric system]] to secure uniformity of [[weights and measures]] throughout France. ==Execution== As one of 28 French tax collectors and a powerful figure in the unpopular Ferme Générale, Lavoisier was branded a traitor during the Reign of Terror by [[French Revolution|revolutionists]] in 1794, and tried, convicted and [[guillotine|guillotined]] all on one day in Paris, at the age of 51. Ironically, Lavoisier was one of the few liberals in his position. One of his actions that may have sealed his fate was a contretemps a few years earlier with the young [[Jean-Paul Marat|Jean-Paul Marat]], who subsequently became a leading revolutionary. An appeal to spare his life was cut short by the judge: "The Republic has no need of geniuses [or, alternately, "scientists."]." His importance for science was expressed by the mathematician [[Joseph Louis Lagrange]] who lamented the beheading by saying: "It took them only an instant to cut off that head, but France may not produce another like it in a century." One and a half years following his death, Lavoisier was exonerated by the French government. When his private belongings were delivered to his widow, a brief note was included reading "To the widow of Lavoisier, who was falsely convicted." About a century after his death, a statue of Lavoisier was erected in Paris. It was later discovered that the sculptor had not actually copied Lavoisier's head for the statue, but used a spare head of the [[Marquis de Condorcet]], the Secretary of the Academy of Sciences during Lavoisier's last years. Lack of money prevented alterations being made and, in any case, the French argued pragmatically that all men in wigs looked alike anyway. The statue was melted down during the [[World War II|Second World War]] and has never been replaced. == Can a severed head think? == A story relates how Lavoisier arranged a final experiment at his death intended to determine whether and for how long a severed head remains conscious after [[decapitation]]. Supposedly, Lavoisier decided to blink as many times as possible, and had an assistant count the blinks, which numbered between 15 and 20. The story may be apocryphal. Standard biographies have never mentioned the incident, and some biologists have expressed skepticism that it would be possible. However romantic, the story is false.[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a5_262.html] ==References== * Berthelot, M. ''La révolution chimique: Lavoisier.'' Paris: Alcan, 1890. * Daumas, M. ''Lavoisier, théoricien et expérimentateur.'' Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1955. * Lavoisier, A. ''Traité élémentaire de chimie, présenté dans un ordre nouveau et d'après les découvertes modernes, 2 vols.'' Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789. Reprinted Bruxelles: Cultures et Civilisations, 1965. * Antoine Lavoisier, ''Elements of Chemistry'', Dover Publications Inc., New York, NY,1965, 511 pages. ==Further reading== *Donovan, Arthur, "Antoine Lavoisier: Science, Administration, and Revolution.", Cambridge University Press, 1993. * Hundred Greatest Men, 1885 [http://www.lib.utexas.edu www.lib.utexas.edu] *Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics by Jack Kelly - The history of the explosive that changed the world (Basic Books, 2004 - 0-465-03718-6). *Grey, Vivian. "The Chemist Who Lost His Head: The Story of Antoine Lavoisier.", Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, Inc. , 1982 ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{commons|Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier|Antoine Lavoisier}} * [http://moro.imss.fi.it/lavoisier/ A virtual museum of Antoine Lavoisier] * [http://histsciences.univ-paris1.fr/i-corpus/lavoisier/index.php The Complete Works of Lavoisier] * [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a5_262.html Does the head remain briefly conscious after decapitation?] from [[The Straight Dope]], references Lavoisier's execution * [http://www.chemheritage.org/EducationalServices/chemach/fore/all.html Antoine Lavoisier], Chemical Achievers profile [[Category:1743 births|Lavoisier, Antoine]] [[Category:1794 deaths|Lavoisier, Antoine]] [[Category:French scientists|Lavoisier, Antoine]] [[Category:French chemists|Lavoisier, Antoine]] [[Category:Lunar Society|Lavoisier, Antoine]] [[Category:Guillotined French Revolution figures|Lavoisier, Antoine]] [[Category:Discoverers of chemical elements|Lavoisier, Antoine]] [[ar:أنطوان لافوازييه]] [[bg:Антоан Лавоазие]] [[ca:Antoine Laurent Lavoisier]] [[da:Antoine Laurent Lavoisier]] [[de:Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier]] [[el:Αντουάν Λωράν Λαβουαζιέ]] [[es:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[fr:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[ko:앙투안 라부아지에]] [[hr:Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier]] [[id:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[it:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[he:אנטואן לבואזיה]] {{Link FA|he}} [[ka:ლავუაზიე, ანტუან]] [[ms:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[nl:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[ja:アントワーヌ・ラヴォアジエ]] [[no:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[pl:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[pt:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[ru:Лавуазье, Антуан Лоран]] [[sk:Antoine Laurent Lavoisier]] [[sl:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[fi:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[sv:Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier]] [[tr:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[zh:拉瓦锡]] 1823 42054440 2006-03-03T14:10:24Z 212.113.198.67 Interview link :''For the radio presenter, see [[Alan Cox (radio presenter)]].'' '''Alan Cox''' (born 1968) is a [[programmer]] heavily involved in the development of the [[Linux kernel]] since its early days (1991). Whilst employed on the campus of [[University of Wales, Swansea]], he installed a very early version of [[Linux]] on one of the machines belonging to the [[Swansea University Computer Society|university computer society]]. This was one of the first Linux installations on a busy [[computer network| network]], and revealed many bugs in the networking code. Cox fixed many of these bugs, and went on to rewrite much of the networking subsystem. He then became one of the main developers and maintainers of the whole kernel. [[Image:With-alan-cox.jpg|thumb|Alan Cox, wearing a red hat, with two [[Gentoo]] developers at the LinuxWorld Expo 2005]] He maintained an old branch (2.2.x), and his own versions of the previous stable branch (2.4.x) (signified by an "ac" in the version, for example 2.4.13-ac1). This branch was very stable and contained bugfixes that went directly into the vendor kernels. He was once commonly regarded as being the "second in command" after [[Linus Torvalds]] himself. His dense and friendly comments have guided many programmers on the [[linux kernel mailing list]]. Alan is employed by [[Red Hat]] and lives in [[Swansea]], [[Wales]] with his wife, Telsa Gwynne. Since then he has also been involved in the [[GNOME]] and [[Xorg]] projects. He was the main developer of [[AberMUD]], which he wrote whilst a student at the [[University of Wales, Aberystwyth]]. He is an ardent supporter of programming freedom, and an outspoken opponent of [[software patent]]s, the [[DMCA]] and the [[CBDTPA]]. He resigned from a subgroup of [[Usenix]] in protest, and said he would not visit the [[United States]] for fear of being imprisoned after the arrest of [[Dmitry Sklyarov]] for DMCA violations. Cox was the recipient of the [[Free Software Foundation]]'s [[2003]] [[FSF Award for the Advancement of Free Software|Award for the Advancement of Free Software]] at the [[FOSDEM]] conference in [[Brussels]]. On October 5th 2005, Cox received a lifetime achievement award at the [[LinuxWorld]] awards in London. == External links == *[http://www.softpanorama.org/People/Cox/index.shtml Alan Cox: The maintainer of production version of the Linux kernel. Ch. 5 of ebook ''Open Source Pioneers'', includes a lot of difficult to find interviews] *[http://www.redhat.com/advice/ask_alancox.html Interview on his biography] *[http://zenii.linux.org.uk/diary/ His diary] in [[Welsh language|Welsh]] *[http://zenii.linux.org.uk/~telsa/Diary/diary.html His wife Telsa's diary] *[http://lwn.net/1999/features/ACInterview/ LWN interviews Alan Cox] *[http://kerneltrap.org/node/view/9 Interview with Alan Cox - January 15, 2002] *[http://www.sucs.org/ The Swansea University Computer Society] *[http://www.lugradio.org/episodes/24 LugRadio interview] *[http://www.linuxformat.co.uk/modules.php?op=modload&name=Sections&file=index&req=viewarticle&artid=15 Linux Format interview - August 2005] <!-- Categories --> [[Category:1968 births|Cox, Alan]] [[Category:Adult learners of Welsh|Cox, Alan]] [[Category:Bloggers|Cox, Alan]] [[Category:Linux|Cox, Alan]] [[Category:British hackers|Cox, Alan]] [[Category:Living people|Cox, Alan]] [[Category:Programmers|Cox, Alan]] [[Category:Welsh people|Cox, Alan]] [[Category:University of Wales, Aberystwyth Alumni|Cox, Alan]] [[Category:Free Software developers]] <!-- Translations --> [[ca:Alan Cox]] [[cs:Alan Cox]] [[de:Alan Cox]] [[es:Alan Cox]] [[fr:Alan Cox]] [[pl:Alan Cox]] 1824 15900287 2005-05-21T18:19:15Z Kelly Martin 158241 changed to redirect #REDIRECT [[Footage]] 1825 23283077 2005-09-15T13:29:14Z David Berardan 369964 interwiki [[Image:Adolfkolbe.jpg|right]] '''Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe''' ([[September 27]], [[1818]] &ndash; [[November 25]], [[1884]]) was a [[chemist]]. Kolbe was born in Elliehausen near [[Hanover]], [[Germany]]. He became an assistant to [[Robert Wilhelm Bunsen]] at the [[University of Marburg]] in [[1842]], after studying [[chemistry]] with [[Friedrich Woehler|Friedrich Wöhler]]. Subsequently he assisted [[Lyon Playfair, 1st Baron Playfair|Lyon Playfair]] at the University of [[London]] and from 1847 to 1851 was engaged in editing the ''Handwörterbuch der reinen und angewandten Chemie'' (''Dictionary of Pure and Applied Chemistry'') written by [[Justus von Liebig]] and Wöhler. Kolbe then succeeded Bunsen at Marburg, and in 1865 he went to the University of [[Leipzig]]. At that time, it was believed that organic and [[inorganic compound]]s are independent from each other, and that organic compounds could be created only by living organisms. Kolbe believed that [[organic compound]]s could be derived from inorganic ones, directly or indirectly, by substitution processes. He validated his theory by converting [[carbon disulfide]], in several steps, to [[acetic acid]] (1843-45). Introducing a modified idea of structural [[free radical|radicals]], he contributed to the establishment of [[structural theory]]. He also predicted the existence of secondary and tertiary [[alcohol]]s. He worked on the [[electrolysis]] of the salts of [[fatty acid|fatty]] and other [[acid]]s ([[Kolbe electrolysis]]) and prepared [[salicylic acid]], a building block of [[aspirin]] in a process called [[Kolbe synthesis]] or [[Kolbe-Schmitt reaction]]. With [[Edward Frankland]] he found that [[nitrile]]s can be hydrolyzed to the corresponding acids. As editor of the ''Journal für praktische Chemie'' (''Journal of practical chemistry'', 1869), he was sometimes severely critical of the work of others. He died in [[Leipzig]], [[Germany]] [[Category:1818 births|Kolbe, Adolph Wilhelm Hermann]] [[Category:1884 deaths|Kolbe, Adolph Wilhelm Hermann]] [[Category:German chemists|Kolbe, Adolph Wilhelm Hermann]] [[de:Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe]] [[fr:Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe]] 1826 40972460 2006-02-24T05:09:50Z Calton 128887 <!-- Language links at bottom --> {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=18}} |} '''April 18''' is the 108th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (109th in [[leap year]]s). There are 257 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1025]] - [[Boleslaus I of Poland|Boles&#322;aw I Chrobry]] is crowned as the first king of [[Poland]]. *[[1042]] - [[Michael V]] attempts to remain sole ruler of the [[Byzantine Empire]] by sending his adoptive mother and co-ruler [[Zoe (empress)|Zoë of Byzantium]] to a [[monastery]]. *[[1518]] - [[Bona Sforza]] is crowned as queen of [[Poland]]. *[[1775]] - Two [[lantern]]s were hung from the [[steeple (architecture)|steeple]] of the [[Old North Church]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]. [[Paul Revere]], [[William Dawes]] and [[Samuel Prescott]] ride to warn of impending arrests of [[Samuel Adams]] and [[John Hancock]] and seizure of weapons. Only Prescott finishes the ride. *[[1797]] - [[Battle of Neuwied (1797)|Battle of Neuwied]] resulted in the victory of [[France|French]] under General [[Louis Lazare Hoche]] against [[Austria]]ns under General [[Wermecek]]. *[[1880]] - A [[Fujita scale|F4]] tornado strikes [[Marshfield, Missouri]], killing 99 people and injuring 200. *[[1899]] - [[St. Andrew's Ambulance Association]] is granted a [[Royal Charter]] by [[Queen Victoria]] *[[1906]] - An [[earthquake]] with an estimated magnitude of 7.8, destroys much of [[San Francisco, California]]. (See [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]]) *1906 - The ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' runs a front-page story on the [[Azusa Street Revival]], launching [[Pentecostalism]] as a worldwide movement. *[[1915]] - Early [[France|French]] [[aviator]] and a [[fighter aircraft]] pilot [[Roland Garros]] was shot down and glided to a landing on the [[Germany|German]] side of the lines during [[World War I]]. *[[1923]] - [[Yankee Stadium]], "The House that [[Babe Ruth|Ruth]] Built", opens. *[[1934]] - The first [[washateria]] opens in [[Fort Worth, Texas]]. *[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Doolittle Raid]] on [[Tokyo]] occurs. *1942 - [[Pierre Laval]] becomes Prime Minister of [[Vichy France]]. *[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: Over 1,000 bombers attack the small island of [[Heligoland]], [[Germany]], leaving nothing standing. *[[1946]] - The [[League of Nations]] is dissolved. *[[1949]] - The [[Republic of Ireland Act]] comes into force. *[[1954]] - [[Gamal Abdal Nasser]] seizes power in [[Egypt]]. *[[1958]] - A [[U.S.]] federal court rules that [[poet]] [[Ezra Pound]] be released from an [[insane asylum]]. *[[1961]] - [[Conferência das Organizações Nacionalistas das Colónias Portuguesas|CONCP]] is founded in [[Casablanca]] as a united front of African movements opposing [[Portugal|Portuguese]] colonial rule. *[[1972]] - The [[Roland Corporation]] is founded in [[Osaka, Osaka|Osaka]], [[Japan]]. *[[1974]] - [[Italy|Italian]] prosecutor [[Mario Sossi]] is kidnapped by the [[Red Brigades]]. *[[1980]] - The Republic of [[Zimbabwe]] (formerly [[Rhodesia]]) comes into being, with [[Canaan Banana]] as the country's first [[List of Presidents of Zimbabwe|President]]. *[[1981]] - A [[Minor League baseball]] game between the [[Rochester Red Wings]] and the [[Pawtucket Red Sox]] at [[McCoy Stadium]] in [[Pawtucket]], [[Rhode Island]] becomes the [[longest baseball game|longest professional baseball game]] in history: 8 hours and 25 minutes/33 innings (the 33rd inning was not played until [[June 23|June 23rd]]). *[[1983]] - A [[suicide bomber]] [[April 1983 U.S. Embassy bombing|destroys the United States embassy]] in [[Beirut]], [[Lebanon]], killing 63 people. *[[1987]] - [[Mike Schmidt]] becomes the 14th member of the [[500 home run club]] with a [[Home run|home run]] at [[Three Rivers Stadium]] in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]]. *[[1988]] - U.S. launches [[Operation Praying Mantis]] against Iranian naval forces in retaliation for the [[April 14]] [[naval mine|mining]] of the [[USS Samuel B. Roberts (FFG-58)]] in the [[Persian Gulf]] during [[Operation Earnest Will]]. The one-day action is the world's largest naval battle since World War II. *[[1992]] - [[General]] [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]] revolted against [[President of Afghanistan|President]] [[Mohammad Najibullah]] of the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]] and allied with [[Ahmed Shah Massoud]] to capture [[Kabul]]. *[[1996]] - In [[Lebanon]], 102 [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] civilians are killed when the [[Israel Defense Forces]] shell the [[UN]] compound at [[Qana]] (see [[Qana Massacre]]). *[[2002]] - A new order of [[insect]]s, [[Mantophasmatodea]], is announced. ==Births== *[[1480]] - [[Lucrezia Borgia]], Florentine ruler and daughter of [[Pope Alexander VI]] *[[1580]] - [[Thomas Middleton]], English dramatist (d. [[1627]]) *[[1590]] - [[Ahmed I]], [[Ottoman Emperor]] (d. [[1617]]) *[[1605]] - [[Giacomo Carissimi]], Italian composer (d. [[1674]]) *[[1771]] - [[Karl Philipp Fürst zu Schwarzenberg]], Austrian field marshal (d. [[1820]]) *[[1772]] - [[David Ricardo]], English economist (d. [[1823]]) *[[1797]] - [[Adolphe Thiers]], French statesman (d. [[1877]]) *[[1819]] - [[Franz von Suppé]], Austrian composer (d. [[1895]]) *[[1838]] - [[Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran]], French scientist (d. [[1912]]) *[[1857]] - [[Clarence Darrow]], American attorney (d. [[1938]]) *[[1864]] - [[Richard Harding Davis]], American author (d. [[1916]]) *[[1874]] - [[Ivana Brlic-Mazuranic]], Croatian writer (d. [[1938]]) *[[1880]] - [[Sam Crawford]], baseball player (d. [[1968]]) *[[1882]] - [[Leopold Stokowski]], Polish conductor (d. [[1977]]) *[[1888]] - [[Duffy Lewis]], baseball player (d. [[1979]]) *[[1897]] - [[Ardito Desio]], Italian topographer and mountaineer (d. [[2001]]) *[[1902]] - [[Giuseppe Pella]], [[Prime Minister of Italy]] (d. [[1981]]) *[[1904]] - [[Pigmeat Markham]], American comedian (d. [[1981]]) *[[1905]] - [[George H. Hitchings]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1998]]) *[[1907]] - [[Miklós Rózsa]], Hungarian-born composer (d. [[1995]]) *[[1917]] - [[Ty LaForest]], Canadian baseball player (d. [[1947]]) *[[1918]] - [[Cliff Hillegass]], American publisher (d. [[2001]]) *[[1921]] - [[Jean Richard]], French actor (d. [[2001]]) *[[1924]] - [[Clarence Gatemouth Brown|Clarence "Gatemouth" Brown]], American musician *1924 - [[Henry Hyde]], American politician *[[1927]] - [[Samuel P. Huntington]], American political scientist *[[1936]] - [[Tommy Ivo]], American race car driver *[[1939]] - [[Thomas J. Moyer]], Chief Justice of the Ohio Supreme Court *[[1940]] - [[Joseph L. Goldstein]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] *1940 - [[Robert N. Kucey]], Canadian author *[[1945]] - [[Margaret Hassan]], Irish-born aid worker (d. [[2004]]) *[[1946]] - [[Hayley Mills]], English actress *[[1947]] - [[Kathy Acker]], American author (d. [[1997]]) *1947 - [[Dorothy Lyman]], American actress, director, producer *1947 - [[Cindy Pickett]], American actress *1947 - [[James Woods]], American actor and poker player *[[1949]] - [[Geoff Bodine]], American race car driver *[[1954]] - [[Rick Moranis]], Canadian comedian *[[1956]] - [[Anna Kathryn Holbrook]], American actress *1956 - [[Eric Roberts]], American actor *1956 - [[Melody Thomas Scott]], American actress *[[1958]] - [[Malcolm Marshall]], West Indian cricketer (d. [[1999]]) *[[1961]] - [[Jane Leeves]], British actress *[[1963]] - [[Eric McCormack]], Canadian actor *1963 - [[Conan O'Brien]], American comedian *[[1964]] - [[Niall Ferguson]], British historian *[[1966]] - [[Trine Hattestad]], Norwegian athlete *[[1967]] - [[Maria Bello]], American actress *[[1968]] - [[David Hewlett]], Canadian actor *[[1969]] - [[Princess Sayako]] of Japan *[[1970]] - [[Greg Eklund]], American musician ([[Everclear (band)|Everclear]]) *[[1971]] - [[David Tennant]], Scottish actor *[[1973]] - [[Haile Gebrselassie]], Ethiopian athlete *[[1976]] - [[Melissa Joan Hart]], American actress *[[1979]] - [[Vahid Rahbani]], Iranian actor and director *1979 - [[Michael Bradley (basketball)|Michael Bradley]], American basketball player *1979 - [[Matthew Upson]], English footballer *[[1981]] - [[Audrey Tang]], [[Taiwan]]ese [[free software]] [[programmer]] *[[1989]] - [[Alia Shawkat]], American actress ==Deaths== *[[1161]] - [[Theobald of Bec]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] *[[1552]] - [[John Leland]], English antiquarian (b. [[1502]]) *[[1556]] - [[Luigi Alamanni]], Italian poet (b. [[1495]]) *[[1567]] - [[Wilhelm von Grumbach]], German adventurer (b. [[1503]]) *[[1558]] - [[Roxelana]], wife of [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] *[[1636]] - [[Julius Caesar (judge)|Julius Caesar]], English judge *[[1650]] - [[Simonds d'Ewes]], English antiquarian and politician (b. [[1602]]) *[[1674]] - [[John Graunt]], English statistician (b. [[1620]]) *[[1689]] - [[George Jeffreys]], British Chief Justice (b. [[1648]]) *[[1690]] - [[Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine]], general of the Holy Roman Empire (b. [[1643]]) *[[1794]] - [[Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden]], Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (b. [[1714]]) *[[1796]] - [[Johan Wilcke]], Swedish physicist (b. [[1732]]) *[[1802]] - [[Erasmus Darwin]], English physician and botanist (b. [[1731]]) *[[1873]] - [[Justus von Liebig]], German chemist (b. [[1803]]) *[[1898]] - [[Gustave Moreau]], French painter (b. [[1826]]) *[[1935]] - [[Panait Istrati]], Romanian writer (b. [[1884]]) *[[1936]] - [[Ottorino Respighi]], Italian composer (b. [[1879]]) *[[1943]] - [[Isoroku Yamamoto]], Japanese admiral. (b. [[1884]]) *[[1945]] - [[John Ambrose Fleming]], English physicist and electrical engineer (b. [[1849]]) *1945 - [[Ernie Pyle]], American journalist (b. [[1900]]) *[[1947]] - [[Josef Tiso]], Slovakian leader (b. [[1887]]) *[[1955]] - [[Albert Einstein]], German-born Jewish physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1879]]) *[[1964]] - [[Ben Hecht]], American playwright and screenwriter (b. [[1894]]) *[[1976]] - [[Henrik Dam]], Dutch biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1895]]) *[[1996]] - [[Piet Hein (Denmark)|Piet Hein]], Danish mathematician and inventor (b. [[1905]]) *[[1998]] - [[Terry Sanford]], American politician (b. [[1917]]) *[[2002]] - [[Thor Heyerdahl]], Norwegian explorer (b. [[1914]]) *2002 - [[Wahoo McDaniel]], American football player and wrestler (b. [[1938]]) *[[2003]] - [[Edgar F. Codd]], English computer scientist (b. [[1923]]) *2003 - [[Daijiro Kato]], Japanese motorcycle racer (b. [[1976]]) *[[2004]] - [[Kamisese Mara|Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara]], first [[Prime Minister of Fiji]] and [[President of Fiji]] (b. [[1920]]) *[[2005]] - [[Sam Mills]], [[American football]] [[linebacker]] (b. [[1959]]) ==Holidays and observances== * [[Feast day]]s of ** [[Saint Apollonius]] (d. [[186]]) ** [[Perfecto|Saint Perfecto]] (d. [[850]]) ** [[Galdino|Saint Galdino]] (d. [[1176]]) ** [[Eusebius]] (d. [[526]]) ** [[Agia|Saint Agia]] (d. [[707]]) ** [[Marie de l'Incarnation]] ([[1566]] &ndash; [[1618]]) * [[Zimbabwe]] &ndash; Independence Day ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/18 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050418.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] * [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Apr&day=18 On This Day in Canada] ---- [[April 17]] - [[April 19]] - [[March 18]] - [[May 18]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:18 April]] [[ar:18 أبريل]] [[an:18 d'abril]] [[ast:18 d'abril]] [[bg:18 април]] [[be:18 красавіка]] [[bs:18. april]] [[ca:18 d'abril]] [[ceb:Abril 18]] [[cv:Ака, 18]] [[co:18 d'aprile]] [[cs:18. duben]] [[cy:18 Ebrill]] [[da:18. april]] [[de:18. April]] [[et:18. aprill]] [[el:18 Απριλίου]] [[es:18 de abril]] [[eo:18-a de aprilo]] [[eu:Apirilaren 18]] [[fo:18. apríl]] [[fr:18 avril]] [[fy:18 april]] [[ga:18 Aibreán]] [[gl:18 de abril]] [[ko:4월 18일]] [[hr:18. travnja]] [[io:18 di aprilo]] [[id:18 April]] [[ia:18 de april]] [[ie:18 april]] [[is:18. apríl]] [[it:18 aprile]] [[he:18 באפריל]] [[jv:18 April]] [[ka:18 აპრილი]] [[csb:18 łżëkwiôta]] [[ku:18'ê avrêlê]] [[lt:Balandžio 18]] [[lb:18. Abrëll]] [[li:18 april]] [[hu:Április 18]] [[mk:18 април]] [[ms:18 April]] [[nap:18 'e abbrile]] [[nl:18 april]] [[ja:4月18日]] [[no:18. april]] [[nn:18. april]] [[oc:18 d'abril]] [[pl:18 kwietnia]] [[pt:18 de Abril]] [[ro:18 aprilie]] [[ru:18 апреля]] [[se:Cuoŋománu 18.]] [[sq:18 Prill]] [[scn:18 di aprili]] [[simple:April 18]] [[sk:18. apríl]] [[sl:18. april]] [[sr:18. април]] [[fi:18. huhtikuuta]] [[sv:18 april]] [[tl:Abril 18]] [[tt:18. Äpril]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 18]] [[th:18 เมษายน]] [[vi:18 tháng 4]] [[tr:18 Nisan]] [[uk:18 квітня]] [[ur:18 اپریل]] [[wa:18 d' avri]] [[war:Abril 18]] [[zh:4月18日]] 1827 41983889 2006-03-03T01:11:55Z 24.130.221.252 /* Births */ <!-- Language links at bottom --> {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=23}} |} '''[[April 23]]''' is the 113th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (114th in [[leap year]]s). There are 252 days remaining. ==Events== *[[215 BC]] - A temple is built on the [[Capitoline Hill]] dedicated to [[Venus Erycina]] to commemorate the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] defeat at [[Battle of Lake Trasimene|Lake Trasimene]]. *[[1014]] - [[Battle of Clontarf]]: [[Brian Boru]] defeats [[Viking]] invaders, but is killed in battle. *[[1348]] - The founding of the [[Order of the Garter]] by King [[Edward III of England]] is announced on [[Saint George|St George's Day]]. *[[1521]] - [[Battle of Villalar]]: [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|King Charles I of Spain]] defeats the [[Comuneros]]. *[[1533]] - The [[Church of England]] annuls the marriage between [[Catherine of Aragon]] and [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] of England. *[[1597]] - Shakespeare's ''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor]]'' is first performed, with Queen [[Elizabeth I of England]] in attendance. *[[1660]] - [[Treaty of Oliwa]] is established between [[Sweden]] and [[Poland]]. *[[1661]] - King [[Charles II of England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]] is crowned in [[Westminster Abbey]]. *[[1827]] - [[William Rowan Hamilton]] presents his ''Theory of systems of rays''. *[[1867]] - [[William Lincoln]] patents the [[zoetrope]], a machine which shows animated pictures by mounting a strip of drawings in a wheel. *[[1920]] - The national council in [[Turkey]] denounces the government of [[Sultan]] [[Mehmed VI]] and announces a temporary constitution. *[[1923]] - Inauguration ceremonies take place of [[Gdynia]] as a temporary military port and fishers' shelter. *[[1932]] - The 153-year old [[De Adriaan]] Windmill in [[Haarlem]], [[the Netherlands]] burns down. *[[1935]] - [[Polish Constitution of 1935]] is adopted. *[[1940]] - A fire at a dance hall in [[Natchez, Mississippi]] kills 198 people. *[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Baedeker Blitz]] &ndash; [[Germany|German]] bombers hit [[Exeter]], [[Bath]] and [[York]] in retaliation for the British raid on [[Lübeck]]. *[[1948]] - [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]: [[Haifa]], the major port of [[Israel]], is captured from Palestinian forces. *[[1954]] - [[Hank Aaron]] hits his first major league [[home run]]. *[[1956]] - [[Elvis Presley]] makes his first appearance in [[Las Vegas, Nevada]]. *[[1961]] - [[Judy Garland]] appears in her celebrated concert at [[Carnegie Hall]] in [[New York]]. *[[1967]] - A group of young radicals are expelled from the [[Nicaraguan Socialist Party]] (PSN). This group goes on to found the [[Communist Party of Nicaragua|Socialist Workers Party]] (POS). *[[1968]] - The [[United Kingdom]] produces its first decimalised coins, a 5p and a 10p coin. *1968 - [[Vietnam War]]: Student protesters at [[Columbia University]] in [[New York City]] take over administration buildings and shut down the university. *[[1974]] - A [[Pan American World Airways]] [[Boeing]] 707 crashes in [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]], killing 107. *[[1979]] - Fighting in London between the [[Anti-Nazi League]] and the [[Metropolitan Police]]'s [[Special Patrol Group]] results in the death of protestor [[Blair Peach]]. *[[1981]] - [[Stefano Bontade]], [[Mafia]] boss in [[Sicily]], is murdered in [[Palermo]], the opening shot in a Mob War orchestrated by [[Salvatore Riina]]. *[[1985]] - [[New Coke]], a [[list of major flops|marketing disaster]] is introduced. *[[1990]] - [[Namibia]] becomes the 160th member of the [[United Nations]] and the 50th member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. *[[1993]] - [[Eritrea]]ns vote overwhelmingly for independence from [[Ethiopia]] in a [[United Nations]]-monitored referendum. *[[1994]] - [[physics|Physicists]] discover the [[top quark]] [[subatomic particle]]. *[[1995]] - [[Association of Autonomous Astronauts]] founded. *[[1997]] - [[Omaria massacre]] in [[Algeria]]; 42 villagers killed. *[[2001]] - [[Intel]] introduces the [[Pentium 4]] Processor. *[[2003]] - [[Beijing]] closes all schools for two weeks due to the [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome|SARS]] virus. ==Births== *[[1185]] - King [[Afonso II of Portugal]] (d. [[1223]]) *[[1484]] - [[Julius Caesar Scaliger]], Italian philosopher (d. [[1558]]) *[[1500]] - [[Alexander Ales]], Scottish theologian (d. [[1565]]) *[[1516]] - [[Georg Fabricius]], German poet, historian, and archaeologist (d. [[1571]]) *[[1564]] - [[William Shakespeare]], English poet and playwright [uncertain] (d. [[1616]]) *[[1598]] - [[Maarten Tromp]], Dutch admiral (d. [[1653]]) *[[1628]] - [[Johann van Waveren Hudde]], Dutch mathematician (d. [[1704]]) *[[1676]] - King [[Frederick I of Sweden]] (d. [[1751]]) *[[1720]] - [[Vilna Gaon]], Lithuanian rabbi (d. [[1797]]) *[[1725]] - [[Saint Gerard Majella]], [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] [[saint]] *[[1775]] - [[William Turner]], English ornithologist (d. [[1851]]) *[[1791]] - [[James Buchanan]], 15th [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1868]]) *[[1792]] - [[John Thomas Romney Robinson]], Irish astronomer and physicist (d. [[1882]]) *[[1805]] - [[Johann Karl Friedrich Rosenkranz]], German philosopher (d. [[1879]]) *[[1813]] - [[Stephen A. Douglas]], U.S. Senator from Illinois and Presidential candidate (d. [[1861]]) *[[1823]] - [[Abd-ul-Mejid]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (d. [[1861]]) *[[1858]] - [[Max Planck]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1947]]) *[[1861]] - [[Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby]], British general (d. [[1936]]) *[[1867]] - [[Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger]], Danish scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1928]]) *[[1876]] - [[Arthur Moeller van den Bruck]], German historian (d. [[1925]]) *[[1880]] - [[Michel Fokine]], Russian choreographer and dancer (d. [[1942]]) *[[1882]] - [[Albert Coates]], British composer (d. [[1953]]) *[[1889]] - [[Karel Doorman]], Dutch admiral (d. [[1942]]) *[[1893]] - [[Frank Borzage]], American film director (d. [[1952]]) *1893 - [[Allen Dulles]], American Central Intelligence Agency director (d. [[1969]]) *[[1895]] - [[Ngaio Marsh]], New Zealand writer (d. [[1982]]) *[[1897]] - [[Lucius Clay]], American general (d. [[1978]]) *1897 - [[Lester B. Pearson]], fourteenth [[Prime Minister of Canada]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1972]]) *[[1899]] - Dame [[Ngaio Marsh]], New Zealand author (d. [[1982]]) *1899 - [[Bertil Ohlin]], Swedish economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (d. [[1979]]) *[[1900]] - [[Joseph Green]], Polish-born actor and director (d. [[1996]]) *[[1901]] - [[Edmund Brisco Ford|E.B. Ford]], British ecological geneticist (d. [[1988]]) *[[1902]] - [[Halldór Laxness]], Icelandic writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1998]]) *[[1904]] - [[Duncan Renaldo]], Spanish-American actor (d. [[1985]]) *[[1907]] - [[Fritz Wotruba]], Austrian sculptor *[[1910]] - [[Simone Simon]], French actress (d. [[2005]]) *[[1918]] - [[Maurice Druon]], French author *[[1921]] - [[Warren Spahn]], baseball player (d. [[2003]]) *[[1923]] - [[Dolph Briscoe]], Governor of Texas *1923 - [[Avram Davidson]], American writer (d. [[1993]]) *[[1928]] - [[Shirley Temple]], American actress and politician *[[1932]] - [[Jim Fixx]], American athlete and writer (d. [[1984]]) *1932 - [[Halston]], American fashion designer (d. [[1990]]) *1932 - [[Estelle Harris]], American actress *[[1935]] - [[Bunky Green]], American musician *1935 - [[Ray Peterson]], American singer (d. [[2005]]) *[[1936]] - [[Roy Orbison]], American singer and musician (d. [[1988]]) *[[1939]] - [[Lee Majors]], American actor *[[1941]] - [[Jacqueline Boyer]], French singer *1941 - [[Paavo Lipponen]], [[Prime Minister of Finland]] *[[1942]] - [[Sandra Dee]], American actress (d. [[2005]]) *[[1943]] - [[Tony Esposito]], Canadian hockey player *1943 - [[Frans Koppelaar]], Dutch painter *1943 - [[Hervé Villechaize]], French actor (d. [[1993]]) *[[1947]] - [[Bernadette Devlin]], Irish politician *[[1948]] - [[Pascal Quignard]], French author *[[1949]] - [[Joyce DeWitt]], American actress *[[1954]] - [[Michael Moore]], American filmmaker *[[1955]] - [[Judy Davis]], Australian actress *1955 - [[Tony Miles]], English chess player (d. [[2001]]) *[[1958]] - [[Hilmar Örn Hilmarsson]], music composer, art director and ''allsherjargoði'' (chief [[goði]]) of the [[Íslenska Ásatrúarfélagið]] (Icelandic Ásatrú Association) *1958 - [[Tove Jensen]], Swedish porn actress *1958 - [[Ryan Walter]], Canadian ice hockey player *[[1960]] - [[Valerie Bertinelli]], American actress *1960 - [[Steve Clark]], English guitarist ([[Def Leppard]]) (d. [[1991]]) *[[1961]] - [[George Lopez]], American actor and comedian *[[1967]] - [[Melina Kanakaredes]], American actress *[[1968]] - [[Timothy McVeigh]], American terrorist (d. [[2001]]) *[[1972]] - [[Patricia Manterola]], Mexican singer *[[1975]] - [[Jón Þór Birgisson]], Guitar player and lead singer of the Icelandic post-rock band Sigur Rós *[[1977]] - [[John Cena]], American professional wrestler and rapper *[[1978]] - [http://www.decalhaven.com John Cummings], Great American entripenuer *[[1979]] - [[Jaime King]], American actress *[[1983]] - [[Daniela Hantuchová]], Slovakian tennis player *[[1986]] - [[Jessica Stam]], Canadian supermodel *[[1989]] - [[Nicole Vaidišová]], Czech tennis player ==Deaths== *[[303]] - [[Saint George]], Roman soldier and Christian martyr *[[725]] - [[Wihtred]], [[King of Kent]] *[[871]] - [[Ethelred of Wessex]] *[[1014]] - [[Brian Boru]], [[High King of Ireland]] (killed in battle) *[[1016]] - [[Ethelred II of England]] *[[1124]] - King [[Alexander I of Scotland]] (b. [[1078]]) *[[1151]] - Queen [[Adeliza]] of England (b. [[1103]]) *[[1217]] - King [[Inge II of Norway]] (b. [[1185]]) *[[1407]] - [[Olivier de Clisson]], French soldier (b. [[1326]]) *[[1616]] - [[Miguel Cervantes]], Spanish author (b. [[1547]]) *1616 - [[William Shakespeare]], English writer and actor (b. [[1564]]) *[[1625]] - [[Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange]] (b. [[1567]]) *[[1702]] - [[Margaret Fell]], English Quaker leader (b. [[1614]]) *[[1740]] - [[Thomas Tickell]], English writer (b. [[1685]]) *[[1781]] - [[James Abercrombie (general)|James Abercrombie]], British general (b. [[1706]]) *[[1792]] - [[Karl Friedrich Bahrdt]], German theologian and adventurer (b. [[1741]]) *[[1794]] - [[Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes]], French statesman (executed) (b. [[1721]]) *[[1850]] - [[William Wordsworth]], English poet (b. [[1770]]) *[[1889]] - [[Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly]], French writer (b. [[1808]]) *[[1895]] - [[Carl Ludwig]], German physician (b. [[1815]]) *[[1936]] - [[Teresa de la Parra]], Venezuelan writer (b. [[1889]]) *[[1951]] - [[Charles G. Dawes]], [[Vice President of the United States]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1865]]) *[[1952]] - [[Julius Freed]], American inventor and banker (b. [[1887]]) *[[1975]] - [[William Hartnell]], English actor (b. [[1908]]) *[[1979]] - [[Blair Peach]], New Zealand-born anti-fascist (b. [[1946]]) *[[1983]] - [[Buster Crabbe]], American swimmer and actor (b. [[1908]]) *[[1984]] - [[Red Garland]], American jazz pianist (b. [[1923]]) *[[1985]] - [[Sam Ervin]], American politician (b. [[1896]]) *[[1986]] - [[Harold Arlen]], American composer (b. [[1905]]) *1986 - [[Jim Laker]], English cricketer (b. [[1922]]) *1986 - [[Otto Preminger]], Austrian-born film director (b. [[1906]]) *[[1990]] - [[Paulette Goddard]], American actress (b. [[1911]]) *[[1991]] - [[Johnny Thunders]], American musician (b. [[1952]]) *[[1992]] - [[Satyajit Ray]], Indian filmmaker (b. [[1921]]) *[[1993]] - [[César Chávez]], American labor activist (b. [[1927]]) *[[1995]] - [[Howard Cosell]], American sports journalist (b. [[1918]]) *1995 - [[John C. Stennis]], U.S. Senator from Mississippi (b. [[1904]]) *[[1996]] - [[P. L. Travers]], Australian author (b. [[1899]]) *[[1997]] - [[Denis Compton]], English cricketer (b. [[1918]]) *[[1998]] - [[James Earl Ray]], American assassin (b. [[1928]]) *[[2002]] - [[Linda Lovelace]], American actress (b. [[1949]]) *[[2003]] - [[James H. Critchfield]], American Central Intelligence agent (b. [[1917]]) *2003 - [[Fernand Fonssagrives]], French photographer (b. [[1910]]) *[[2005]] - Sir [[Joh Bjelke-Petersen]], Premier of Queensland (b. [[1911]]) *2005 - [[Al Grassby]], Australian immigration minister (b. [[1928]]) *2005 - Sir [[John Mills]], English actor (b. [[1908]]) *2005 - [[Romano Scarpa]], Italian-born comic artist (b. [[1927]]) *2005 - [[Earl Wilson]], baseball player (b. [[1934]]) ==Holidays and observances== *Feast Day of [[Saint George]]: **[[National Day]] of [[England]] **Celebrated as ''St. Jordi's Day'' in [[Catalonia]], presents of books and roses. See below. **[[Jurgi]] festival, in ancient [[Latvia]] *[[UNESCO]] [[World Book and Copyright Day|International Day of the Book]] in honor of Shakespeare's and Cervantes's death on April 23, 1616. *[[Catalonia]] - Lover's Day. Men receive a book as a gift from their romantic interest, while women receive roses. The book is in honor of Shakespeare's and Cervantes's death on April 23, 1616. *[[Turkey]] - National Sovereignty and Children's Day ([[1920]]) *[[Israel]] - [[Yom Ha'atzma'ut]] (Israeli Independence Day) for [[2007]]: (the observed date of this [[national holiday]] is determined by the [[Jewish Calendar]]). *Independence Day for the [[Conch Republic]] *National [[Beer]] Day in [[Germany]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/23 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[April 22]] - [[April 24]] - [[March 23]] - [[May 23]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[ceb:Abril 23]] [[ilo:Abril 23]] [[nap:23 'e abbrile]] [[war:Abril 23]] [[pam:Abril 23]] [[af:23 April]] [[ar:23 أبريل]] [[an:23 d'abril]] [[ast:23 d'abril]] [[bg:23 април]] [[be:23 красавіка]] [[bs:23. april]] [[ca:23 d'abril]] [[cv:Ака, 23]] [[co:23 d'aprile]] [[cs:23. duben]] [[cy:23 Ebrill]] [[da:23. april]] [[de:23. April]] [[et:23. aprill]] [[el:23 Απριλίου]] [[es:23 de abril]] [[eo:23-a de aprilo]] [[eu:Apirilaren 23]] [[fo:23. apríl]] [[fr:23 avril]] [[fy:23 april]] [[ga:23 Aibreán]] [[gl:23 de abril]] [[ko:4월 23일]] [[hr:23. travnja]] [[io:23 di aprilo]] [[id:23 April]] [[ia:23 de april]] [[ie:23 april]] [[is:23. apríl]] [[it:23 aprile]] [[he:23 באפריל]] [[jv:23 April]] [[ka:23 აპრილი]] [[csb:23 łżëkwiôta]] [[ku:23'ê avrêlê]] [[lt:Balandžio 23]] [[lb:23. Abrëll]] [[li:23 april]] [[hu:Április 23]] [[mk:23 април]] [[ms:23 April]] [[nl:23 april]] [[ja:4月23日]] [[no:23. april]] [[nn:23. april]] [[oc:23 d'abril]] [[pl:23 kwietnia]] [[pt:23 de Abril]] [[ro:23 aprilie]] [[ru:23 апреля]] [[sco:23 Aprile]] [[sq:23 Prill]] [[scn:23 di aprili]] [[simple:April 23]] [[sk:23. apríl]] [[sl:23. april]] [[sr:23. април]] [[fi:23. huhtikuuta]] [[sv:23 april]] [[tl:Abril 23]] [[tt:23. Äpril]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 23]] [[th:23 เมษายน]] [[vi:23 tháng 4]] [[tr:23 Nisan]] [[uk:23 квітня]] [[ur:23 اپریل]] [[wa:23 d' avri]] [[zh:4月23日]] 1828 41963178 2006-03-02T22:34:11Z 202.62.123.178 {{Infobox_Celebrity | name = Amitabh Bachchan | image = AmitabhBhachchan.jpg | birth_date = [[October 11]], [[1942]] | birth_place = [[Allahabad]], [[India]] | death_date = | death_place = | occupation = [[Actor]] | salary = | networth = | website = }} '''Amitabh Bachchan''' (born [[October 11]], [[1942]], in [[Allahabad]], [[India]]) also known as '''Big B''', is an iconic [[India]]n [[actor]] whose [[Bollywood]] career has spanned four decades. He was declared Superstar of the Millennium in 1999 in an international poll hosted by the [[BBC]]. ==Biography== Amitabh was born to Teji and [[Harivansh Rai 'Bachchan']]. Harivansh Rai was a well-known [[Hindi]] poet. Amitabh attended Boys' High School in [[Allahabad]] followed by [[Sherwood College]] in [[Nainital]] and went on to [[Delhi University]] to earn a degree in science. He gave up his job as a freight broker for the shipping firm Bird and Company in Calcutta to pursue an acting career. He entered FTII Pune (the Film And Television Institute of India at Pune). Jaya Bhaduri (whom he later married), Anil Dhawan (director David Dhawan's brother), Shatrughan Sinha, Romesh Sharma, Danny Denzongpa, and Amitabh were all classmates at FTII Pune. Bachchan began his acting career in 1969 with ''[[Saat Hindustani]]''. He became well known as a [[movie star]] in 1973, with the films ''[[Abhimaan]]'' and ''[[Zanjeer]]''. In 1982, Bachchan was injured while filming on the set of ''[[Coolie]]''. People were so concerned about his health that they thronged to temples and prayed for his life and quick recovery. He recovered and resumed making films. Popular interest in his injury had been so high that when ''Coolie'' was released, it featured a freeze-frame and caption, isolating the exact instant during a fight scene when Amitabh was hurt. While his popularity waned in the [[1990s]], Bachchan made a comeback in the early [[2000s]] by hosting ''[[Kaun Banega Crorepati]]'', the Indian version of ''[[Who Wants to be a Millionaire]]''. Bachchan married actress [[Jaya Bhaduri]] in 1973. He has co-starred with Jaya in many films: ''[[Zanjeer]]'', ''[[Abhimaan]]'', ''Milli'', ''Chupke Chupke'',''[[Sholay]]'', ''[[Silsila]]'' and, ''[[Kabhi Khushi Kabhi Gham]]''. They have two children: [[Shweta Bachchan-Nanda]] and [[Abhishek Bachchan]]. Abhishek Bachchan has followed in his father's footsteps, having starred in a number of movies. ==Career== Bachchan's first film was ''[[Saat Hindustani]]'' (1969). He became well known as a [[movie star]] in 1973 following the success of ''[[Abhimaan]]'' and ''[[Zanjeer]]''. Amitabh's most loved films and characters date from this period. Fans remember him from box office hits like ''[[Sholay]]'', ''[[Amar Akbar Anthony]]'', ''[[Trishul]]'', ''[[Don]]'', ''[[Deewar ]]'' and more recently in ''Baghban''. Amitabh often played an angry young man fighting a corrupt establishment -- a theme that had immense appeal in India during that time. The screen-writing duo of [[Salim-Javed]] [http://www.upperstall.com/people/salimjaved.html] have often been credited with creating this persona. In a sense, the relationship was symbiotic. Neither Salim-Javed nor Amitabh have since attained the level of success they achieved with their collaborations. Amitabh is famous for playing a person who is angry with the whole system, doesn't believe in God and replies back to evils of society, a person who believes in right and does right, a person who doesn't bow before anyone else except his mother. As a result of portraying these kind of images in the films he worked, the people and media call him "an [[Angry young man]]". In an era where producers looked to cast a handsome full-bodied man as the hero, Amitabh was written off, due to his unconventional looks and tall, lanky frame. His baritone (since regarded as his biggest asset) once failed to get him a job as a [[news presenter]] at [[All India Radio]]. The success of ''Zanjeer'' and ''Sholay'' turned that around. Audiences adored his on-screen presence and a flair for comedy. Many of his films in the 1970s followed a set formula: a poor childhood, parents murdered or separated after birth, survival through street-smart instincts, entry of a villain (usually a social oppressor or smuggler or his parents' killer or long lost father), some comedy scenes, a drunk scene, songs, dances, an action finale and a dying speech. It can be argued that the Salim-Javed stories written for Amitabh during the 1970s form an informal sequel, with the same character being played out in various settings. Critics would regard most of these 1970s films as run-of-the-mill ''masala'' movies with creaking plots and sub-par production values. However, Amitabh's persona lifted them to incredible heights of popularity. He continued making films all through the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]], but his appeal seemed to have waned. Though a few of his movies were successful (''[[Bade Miyan Chhote Miyan]]'' and ''[[Mohabbatein]]''), critics said that they succeeded due to Amitabh's co-stars, [[Govinda (actor)|Govinda]] and [[Shahrukh Khan]]. Industry gossip said that Amitabh was finished as an actor. Then Amitabh proved the critics wrong. First came the fan accolades. In 1999, in a [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] Online Poll, he was named the Superstar of the Millennium. In [[June]] [[2000]] he became the first living [[Asian]] to have a wax statue erected in his honor at [[Madame Tussaud's]]. In 2000, he was chosen as the host for ''[[Kaun Banega Crorepati]]'', the Indian version of ''[[Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?]]''. The show became an enormous hit. While the show was on, street traffic dropped dramatically; restaurants and movie theaters complained of diminishing clientèle. Critics were forced to admit that Amitabh could still pull big crowds. The show was aired again as ''Kaun Banega Crorepati 2'', with a prize money double the first version. The reason for the popularity of Amitabh has probably been the uncanny portrayal of the Indian consciousness in his roles. We can see the development of 70's India to the corporate setup of the present era. In this transformation the identity of "Indian-ness" is not lost. Since his game show success, he has appeared in several hit movies. He has also appeared in many [[Advertising|ads]] for commercial products and for various [[non-profit organization]]s. He has supported campaigns for eye donations and against [[polio]] and [[AIDS]]. ==Public life== In 1984, Bachchan briefly entered politics in support of long-time family friend [[Rajiv Gandhi]]. He contested Allahabad's parliament seat against H. N. Bahuguna, a well-known politician and won (winning 68.2% of the vote). {{ref|election}} However, his political career was short-lived; he resigned after three years before finishing his term. At the time of his resignation, it was rumored that he might have been involved in the [[Bofors scandal]]. Bachchan was not implicated in the corruption and has since distanced himself from the Gandhi family. Bachchan denies that the these events were connected, commenting that he "should have never got into politics." {{ref|politics}} In 1995, Amitabh went into business, founding Amitabh Bachchan Corporation Ltd., an entertainment company that specialized in film production and event management. The company did not succeed and Bachchan was pushed into huge debt when a big-budget production bombed at the Bollywood box office. He did not, however, file for bankruptcy. Apart from what is a commonly held belief that influential public figures such as Sahara Group chairman Subroto Roy and politician Amar Singh helped bail Bachchan financially out of his debts, the actor also took on visibly more acting and endorsing contracts to pay off his creditors. According to most accounts, with his return to the small screen for a second season of Kaun Banega Crorepati, his debts may have been completely cleared in 2005. Some observers speculate that he will try to revive his company. He was admited to hospital in November 2005 for Ulcerative Colitis. For weeks this formed the basis of the main news stories in the Indian media. Such is the popularity of Amitabh that prayers were held all over India and special ‘pujas' conducted, in scenes reminiscient of the Coolie film accident. In 2006, Indian National Organisation for Tobacco Eradication (Note) accused Bachchan of breaking national law by appearing smoking a cigar on advertising posters for the film ''Family''. India's government banned tobacco advertisements in 2003, and Note threatened the film star with legal action. ==Trivia== Amitabh Bachchan has played a character named Vijay in at least seventeen of his films! Veteran Hindi actor Raaj Kumar was first approached to play the role of Police Inspector in Zanjeer, for some reason Raaj Kumar (who was known for his eccentric mannerisms)didn't accept the role and the role went to Amitabh. Had Raaj Kumar accepted the Zanjeer's hero's role, Amitabh might not have been what he is today. ==Awards== Bachchan has received the [[Padma Shri]] (1983) and [[Padma Bhushan]] (2005), civilian honours from the [[Government of India|Indian government]]. In 1990, he won the National Award for his portrayal of a mafia don in ''Agneepath''. In 1999, he was named [[BBC]] Superstar of the Millennium. He has also won 14 [[Filmfare Award]]s in various categories.He recently won the 2006 FilmFare award for best actor for his role in film Black. ==Filmography== {{ActingFilmography}} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Kamagata Maru]] | Year = 2006 | Role = }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Happy New Year (film)|Happy New Year]] | Year = 2007 | Role = }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Baiju Aur Tansen | Year = 2006 | Role = Tansen }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Sholay]] | Year = 2006 | Role = Gabbar Singh }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Darna Zaroori Hai | Year = 2006 | Role = }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = God Tussi Great Ho | Year = 2006 | Role = }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna]] | Year = 2006 | Role = Mohinder Sharma }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Baabul]] | Year = 2006 | Role = Balraj Kapoor }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Eklavya (film)|Eklavya]] | Year = 2006 | Role = }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Khazan | Year = 2006 | Role = }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Struggler | Year = 2006 | Role = }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Zamaanat | Year = 2006 | Role = Shiv Shankar }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Family | Year = 2006 | Role = Viren Sahai }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Ek Ajnabee]] | Year = 2005 | Role = Suryaveer Singh }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Dil Jo Bhi Kahey... | Year = 2005 | Role = Shekhar Sinha }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Viruddh]] | Year = 2005 | Role = Vidhyadar Ramkrishna Patwardhan }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Parineeta]] | Year = 2005 | Role = Narrator }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Sarkar (film)]] | Year = 2005 | Role = Subhash Nagare 'Sarkar' }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Paheli]] | Year = 2005 | Role = The Shepherd }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Ramji Londonwale]] | Year = 2005 | Role = Amitabh Bachchan as Himself }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Bunty Aur Babli]] | Year = 2005 | Role = DCP Dashrath Singh }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Waqt]] | Year = 2005 | Role = Ishwarchand Thakur }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Black (The Movie)|Black]] | Year = 2005 | Role = Debraj Sahai }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Khakee]] | Year = 2004 | Role = DCP Anant Kumar Shrivastav }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Aetbaar | Year = 2004 | Role = Dr. Ranveer Malhotra }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Rudraksh | Year = 2004 | Role = Narrator }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Insaaf: The Justice | Year = 2004 | Role = Narrator }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Dev]] | Year = 2004 | Role = Dev }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Lakshya]] | Year = 2004 | Role = Col. Sunil Damle }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Deewaar]] | Year = 2004 | Role = Maj. Ranvir Kaul }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Kyun...! Ho Gaya Na]] | Year = 2004 | Role = Raj Chauhan }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Hum Kaun Hai? | Year = 2004 | Role = Dual Role (Major Frank John Williams & Frank James Williams) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Veer-Zaara]] | Year = 2004 | Role = Chaudhary Sumer Singh }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Ab Tumhare Hawale Watan Saathiyo | Year = 2004 | Role = Major General Amarjeet Singh }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Fun2shh | Year = 2003 | Role = Narrator }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Baghban]] | Year = 2003 | Role = Raj Malhotra }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Boom]] | Year = 2003 | Role = Bade Mia }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Mumbai Se Aaya Mera Dost ]] | Year = 2003 | Role = Narrator }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Armaan | Year = 2003 | Role = Dr. Siddharth Sinha }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Khushi | Year = 2003 | Role = Narrator }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Kaante]] | Year = 2002 | Role = Yashvardhan Rampal 'Major' }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Agnivarsha | Year = 2002 | Role = Indra }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Hum Kisise Kum Nahi | Year = 2002 | Role = Dr. Rastogi }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Aankhen | Year = 2002 | Role = Vijay Singh Rajput }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Lagaan]] | Year = 2001 | Role = Narrator }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham]] | Year = 2001 | Role = Yashvardhan 'Yash' Raichand }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Aks]] | Year = 2001 | Role = Inspector Manu Verma }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Ek Rishta - The Bond of Love | Year = 2001 | Role = Vijay Kapoor }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Mohabbatein]] | Year = 2000 | Role = Narayan Shankar }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Kohraam | Year = 1999 | Role = Col. Balbir Singh Sodi, aka Devraj Hathoda/Dada Bhai }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Hindustan Ki Kasam | Year = 1999 | Role = Kabeera }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Hello Brother]] | Year = 1999 | Role = Voice of God }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Sooryavansham | Year = 1999 | Role = Dual Role (Thakur Bhanu Pratap Singh & Heera Singh) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Lal Baadshah | Year = 1999 | Role = Dual Role (Lal 'Baadshah' Singh & Ranbhir Singh) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Bade Miyan Chhote Miyan]] | Year = 1998 | Role = Dual Role (Inspector Arjun Singh & Bade Miyan) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Majorsaab | Year = 1998 | Role = Maj. Jasbir Singh Rana }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Mrityudata]] | Year = 1997 | Role = Dr. Ram Prasad Ghayal }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Tere Mere Sapne | Year = 1996 | Role = Narrator }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Insaniyat]] | Year = 1994 | Role = Inspector Amar }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Khuda Gawah]] | Year = 1992 | Role = Baadshah Khan }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Indrajeet]] | Year = 1991 | Role = Indrajeet }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Hum]] | Year = 1991 | Role = Tiger/Shekhar }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Akayla]] | Year = 1991 | Role = Inspector Vijay Verma }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Ajooba]] | Year = 1991 | Role = Ajooba/Ali }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Krodh | Year = 1990 | Role = }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Agneepath]] | Year = 1990 | Role = Vijay Deenanath Chauhan }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Aaj ka Arjun]] | Year = 1990 | Role = Bheema }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Toofan]] | Year = 1989 | Role = Dual Role (Toofan & Shyam) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Main Azaad Hoon]] | Year = 1989 | Role = Azaad }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Jaadugar]] | Year = 1989 | Role = }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Soorma Bhopali | Year = 1988 | Role = (Guest Appearance) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Shahenshah]] | Year = 1988 | Role = Inspector Vijay Kumar Srivastava/Shahenshah }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Kaun Jeeta Kaun Haara (Guest) | Year = 1988 | Role = }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Ganga Jamuna Saraswati]] | Year = 1988 | Role = Ganga Prasad }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Jalwa | Year = 1987 | Role = Special Appearance as himself }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Hero Hiralal | Year = 1987 | Role = Special Appearance as himself }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Ek Ruka Hua Faisla | Year = 1986 | Role = (Guest Appearance) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Aakhree Raasta]] | Year = 1986 | Role = Dual Role }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Naya Bakra | Year = 1985 | Role = }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Mard]] | Year = 1985 | Role = Raju 'Mard' Tangewala }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Giraftaar]] (Guest) | Year = 1985 | Role = Inspector Karan Kumar Khanna }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Sharaabi]] | Year = 1984 | Role = Vicky Kapoor }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Inquilaab]] | Year = 1984 | Role = Amarnath }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Nastik]] | Year = 1983 | Role = Shankar (Sheru)/Bhola }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Pukar]] | Year = 1983 | Role = Ramdas/Ronnie }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Mahaan]] | Year = 1983 | Role = Triple role (Amit/Rana Ranveer, Guru & Inspector Shankar) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Coolie]] | Year = 1983 | Role = Iqbal }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Andha Kanoon]] (Guest) | Year = 1983 | Role = Jan Nissar Akhtar Khan (Guest Appearance) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Shakti]] | Year = 1982 | Role = Vijay Kumar }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Satte pe Satta]] | Year = 1982 | Role = Dual Role (Ravi Anand/Babu) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Namak Halaal]] | Year = 1982 | Role = Arjun Singh }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Khud-daar]] | Year = 1982 | Role = Govind Srivastav/Chotu Ustad }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Desh Premee]] | Year = 1982 | Role = Dual Role (Master Dinanath & Raju) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Bemisaal]] | Year = 1982 | Role = Dual Role (Dr. Sudhir Roy & Adhir Roy) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Yaraana]] | Year = 1981 | Role = Kishan Kumar }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Silsila]] | Year = 1981 | Role = Amit Malhotra }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Naseeb]] | Year = 1981 | Role = John, Jaani, Janardhan }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Lawaaris]] | Year = 1981 | Role = Heera }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Vilayati Babu (Special Appearance) | Year = 1981 | Role = Jagga (Special Appearance) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Kaalia]] | Year = 1981 | Role = Kallu/Kaalia }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Barsaat ki Ek Raat]] | Year = 1981 | Role = ACP Abhijeet Rai }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Commander (Guest) | Year = 1981 | Role = Guest Appearance }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Chashme Buddoor (Guest) | Year = 1981 | Role = Guest Appearance }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Shaan]] | Year = 1980 | Role = Vijay Kumar }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Ram Balraam]] | Year = 1980 | Role = Inspector Balram Singh }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Dostaana]] | Year = 1980 | Role = Vijay Varma }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Do aur Do Panch]] | Year = 1980 | Role = Vijay/Ram }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Cinema Cinema | Year = 1979 | Role = }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Suhaag]] | Year = 1979 | Role = Amit Kapoor }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Mr. Natwarlal]] | Year = 1979 | Role = Natwarlal/Avtar Singh }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Manzil]] | Year = 1979 | Role = Ajay Chandra }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Kaala Patthar]] | Year = 1979 | Role = Vijay Pal Singh }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Jurmaana | Year = 1979 | Role = Inder Saxena }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[The Great Gambler]] | Year = 1979 | Role = Dual Role (Jay & Inspector Vijay) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Gol Maal]] | Year = 1979 | Role = as himself Guest Appearance }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Muqaddar ka Sikandar]] | Year = 1978 | Role = Sikandar }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Trishul]] | Year = 1978 | Role = Vijay Kumar }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Kasme Vaade]] | Year = 1978 | Role = Dual Role (Amit & Shankar) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Ganga Ki Saugandh]] | Year = 1978 | Role = Jeeva }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Don]] | Year = 1978 | Role = Double Role (Don/Vijay) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Besharam]] | Year = 1978 | Role = Ram Kumar Chandra/Prince Chandrashekar }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Shatranj Ke Khilari | Year = 1977 | Role = Narrator }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Parvarish]] | Year = 1977 | Role = }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Khoon Paseena]] | Year = 1977 | Role = Shiva/Tiger }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Imaan Dharam]] | Year = 1977 | Role = Ahmed Raza }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Amar Akbar Anthony]] | Year = 1977 | Role = Anthony Gonsalves/Raju }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Alaap]] | Year = 1977 | Role = Alok Prasad }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Charandas (Special Appearance) | Year = 1977 | Role = Qawwali Singer (Special Appearance) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Adalat]] | Year = 1976 | Role = Dual Role (Dharma/Thakur Dharam Chand & Raju) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Hera Pheri]] | Year = 1976 | Role = Vijay }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Kabhie Kabhie]] | Year = 1976 | Role = Amitabh "Amit" Malhotra }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Do Anjaane]] | Year = 1976 | Role = Amit Roy/Naresh Dutt }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Sholay]] | Year = 1975 | Role = Jai (Jaidev) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Mili]] | Year = 1975 | Role = Shekhar Dayal }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Zameer]] | Year = 1975 | Role = Baadal/Chimpoo }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Faraar]] | Year = 1975 | Role = Rajesh (Raj) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Deewar]] | Year = 1975 | Role = Vijay Verma }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Chupke Chupke]] | Year = 1975 | Role = Professor Sukumar Sinha/Parimal Tripathi }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Kunwara Baap (Guest) | Year = 1974 | Role = as Himself (Guest Appearance) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Roti Kapda aur Makaan]] | Year = 1974 | Role = Vijay }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Majboor]] | Year = 1974 | Role = Ravi Khanna }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Kasauti]] | Year = 1974 | Role = Amitabh Sharma (Amit) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Dost (Guest) | Year = 1974 | Role = Anand (Guest Appearance) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Benaam]] | Year = 1974 | Role = Amit Srivastav }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Bada Kabutar (Guest) | Year = 1973 | Role = Guest appearance }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Zanjeer]] | Year = 1973 | Role = Inspector Vijay }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Saudagar]] | Year = 1973 | Role = Mothi }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Namak Haram]] | Year = 1973 | Role = Vikram (Vicky) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Gehri Chaal]] | Year = 1973 | Role = Ratan }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Baandhe Haath | Year = 1973 | Role = Dual Role (Shyamu & Deepak) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Abhimaan]] | Year = 1973 | Role = Subir Kumar (Beeru) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Raaste Ka Patthar | Year = 1972 | Role = Jai Shankar Rai }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Bawarchi (Guest) | Year = 1972 | Role = Narrator }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Jaban | Year = 1972 | Role = }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Ek Nazar]] | Year = 1972 | Role = Manmohan Akash Tyagi }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Bombay to Goa]] | Year = 1972 | Role = Ravi Kumar }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Bansi Birju | Year = 1972 | Role = Birju }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Piya Ka Ghar (Guest) | Year = 1971 | Role = Guest Appearance }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Reshma Aur Shera]] | Year = 1971 | Role = Chotu }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Sanjog]] | Year = 1971 | Role = Mohan }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Parwaana]] | Year = 1971 | Role = Kumar Sen }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Pyar Ki Kahani | Year = 1971 | Role = Ram Chandra }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Guddi]] | Year = 1971 | Role = as himself guest appearance }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Anand]] | Year = 1970 | Role = Dr. Bhaskar K. Bannerjee/Babu Moshai }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Bhuvan Shome]] | Year = 1969 | Role = Narrator aka Mr. Shome }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Saat Hindustani]] | Year = 1969 | Role = Anwar Ali Anwar }} {{Filmography-end }} ===Current projects=== *''[[Baiju Aur Tansen]]'' *''[[Happy New Year!!! (film)| Happy New Year!!!]]'' *''[[Sarkar 2]]'' *''[[Sholay]]'' *''[[God Tussi Great Ho]]'' *''[[Darna Zaroori Hai]]'' *''[[Baabul]]'' *''[[Khazan]]'' *''[[Eklavya]]'' *''[[Struggler]]'' ==References== *{{note|election}} "[http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/specials/amitabh/politics.htm Amitabh Bachchan: Stint in Politics]" HindustanTimes.com. Accessed on [[December 5]], [[2005]]. *{{note|politics}} "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4487416.stm Amitabh Bachchan: The comeback man]" BBC News. Accessed on [[December 5]], [[2005]]. ==External links== * {{imdb name|name=Amitabh Bachchan|id=0000821}} * [http://www.AmitabhBachchan.net An unofficial Amitabh Bachchan Website] * [http://www.filmlinc.com/wrt/programs/4-2005/ab05.htm Bachchan film retrospective at Lincoln Center] * [http://www.bharatmatrimony.com/matrimonyxpress/celeb-speak/indian/bollywood-actor/amitabh-bachchan-01.shtml An interview with Amitabh Bachchan] [[Category:1942 births|Bachchan, Amitabh]] [[Category:Living people|Bachchan, Amitabh]] [[Category:Actors|Bachchan,Amitabh]] [[Category:Actor-politicians|Bachchan, Amitabh]] [[Category:Film actors|Bachchan,Amitabh]] [[Category:Indian actors|Bachchan,Amitabh]] [[Category:Indian film actors|Bachchan,Amitabh]] [[Category:Indian television presenters|Bachchan,Amitabh]] [[Category:Padma Bhushan awardees|Bachchan, Amitabh]] [[Category:Padma Shri awardees|Bachchan, Amitabh]] [[Category:Vegetarians|Bachchan,Amitabh]] [[de:Amitabh Bachchan]] [[fa:آمیتاب باچان]] [[fr:Amitabh Bachchan]] [[gu:અમિતાભ બચ્ચન]] [[hi:अमिताभ बच्चन]] [[nl:Amitabh Bachchan]] [[sa:अमिताभ बच्चन]] [[sv:Amitabh Bachchan]] [[he:אמיטאב באצ'אן]] 1830 15900293 2002-04-27T07:46:26Z Chato 159 changed redirect to &quot;Air pollution&quot; #REDIRECT [[Air pollution]] 1831 15900294 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]] 1832 40198555 2006-02-18T22:23:34Z Localzuk 687650 [[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}} <!-- Keep this note! Technical term, necessary for wikipedia articles; don't assign for wiktionary --> ''This article is about a lingustic term. See [[Pseudomorph]] for another meaning of the word.'' ---- In [[linguistics]] an '''allomorph''' is a variant form of a [[morpheme]]. The meaning remains the same, while the sound can vary. For example, in the [[English language]] the past tense morpheme is -ed. It occurs in several allomorphs depending on its phonological environment, assimilating voicing of the previous segment or inserting a [[schwa]] when following an alveolar stop: * as {{IPA|/əd/}} in 'hunted' or 'banded', * as {{IPA|/d/}} in 'buzzed', * as {{IPA|/t/}} in 'fished' Allomorphy can also exist in case distinctions, as in Classic [[Sanskrit]]: {| class="wikitable" |+'''Vāk''' (voice) |- ! !'''Singular''' !'''Plural''' |- ! [[Nominative]] |{{IPA|/va&#720;k/}} |{{IPA|/va&#720;&#679;-as/}} |- ! [[Genitive case|Genitive]] |{{IPA|/va&#720;&#679;-as/}} |{{IPA|/va&#720;&#679;-a&#720;m/}} |- ! [[Instrumental case|Instrumental]] |{{IPA|/va&#720;&#679;-a&#720;/}} |{{IPA|/va&#720;g-b&#689;is/}} |- ! [[Locative case|Locative]] |{{IPA|/va&#720;&#679;-i/}} |{{IPA|/va&#720;k-&#642;i/}} |} The nominative {{IPA|/va&#720;k/}} is the basic form of the morpheme and, because of Pre-Indic palatalazation of [[velars]] and the merging of {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/o/}} into {{IPA|/a/}} (making the alternation unpredictable on phonetic grounds), morphophonemic variation has occurred that isn’t directly related to phonological processes. ==See also== * [[Consonant mutation]] * [[Grassman's Law]] ==Reference== *{{cite book|title= Principles and Methods for Historical Linguistics |author= Jeffers, Robert J. and Lehiste, Ilse |year=1979| publisher= MIT press |}} {{ling-stub}} [[Category:Linguistic morphology]] [[de:Allomorph]] [[nl:Allomorf]] [[pl:Allomorf]] [[sv:Allomorf]] 1833 15900296 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Cultural_imperialism]] 1834 39139570 2006-02-10T23:34:59Z Chlewbot 620581 robot Adding: gl ''This article is about the sense of "allophone" used in linguistics. For other senses, see [[allophone (disambiguation)]].'' In [[phonetics]], an '''allophone''' is one of several similar [[phone]]s that belong to the same [[phoneme]]. A phone is a sound that has a definite shape as a sound wave, while a phoneme is a basic group of sounds that can distinguish words (i.e. changing one phoneme in a word can produce another word); speakers of a particular language perceive a phoneme as a single distinctive sound in that language. Thus an allophone is a phone considered as a member of one phoneme. Each allophone is used in a specific phonetic context and many times there is some sort of [[phonology|phonological]] process. Not all phonemes have significantly different allophones, but there are always minor differences in articulation from one piece of speech to the next. For example, {{IPA|[p&#688;]}} as in ''pin'' and {{IPA|[p]}} as in ''cap'' are allophones for the phoneme /p/ in the [[English language]] because they occur in [[complementary distribution]]. English speakers generally treat these as the same sound, but they are different. The latter is [[unaspirated]] (plain): if plain {{IPA|[p]}} is also found in words such as the second '''p''' in ''paper'' {{IPA|[p&#688;eɪ.pɚ]}} or ''spin'' {{IPA|[spɪn]}}. Outside of contexts that plain '''p''' appears in English, speakers may hear it as '''b''' since English '''b''' is typically unaspirated. [[Chinese language|Chinese]] treats these two phones differently and the latter is always written as '''b''' in [[pinyin]]; thus, they are not allophones in Chinese. Similarly, English-speaking people may become aware of the difference between two allophones of the phoneme '''t''' when they consider the pronunciations of the following phrases: :night rate :nitrate ==See also== *[[List of phonetics topics]] [[Category:Phonetics]] [[Category:Phonology]] [[br:Alofonenn]] [[da:Allofon]] [[de:Allophon]] [[es:Alófono]] [[eo:Alofono]] [[fr:Allophone]] [[gl:Alófono]] [[ko:이음]] [[it:Allofono]] [[he:אלופון]] [[hu:Allofón]] [[nl:Allofoon]] [[nn:Allofon]] [[pl:Alofon]] [[ru:Аллофон]] [[sco:Allophones]] [[fi:Allofoni]] [[sv:Allofon]] 1835 39117935 2006-02-10T20:59:14Z Chlewbot 620581 robot Adding: gl An '''affix''' is a [[morpheme]] that is attached to a base morpheme such as a [[root (linguistics)|root]] or to a [[stem (linguistics)|stem]], to form a word. Affixes may be [[derivation_(linguistics)|derivational]], like English ''-ness'' and ''pre-'', or [[inflection|inflectional]], like English plural ''-s'' and past tense ''-ed''. ==Types of affixes== Affixes are divided into several types, depending on their position with reference to the root: * [[Prefix]]es (attached before another morpheme) * [[Suffix]]es (attached after another morpheme) * [[Infix]]es (inserted within another morpheme) * [[Circumfix]]es (attached before and after another morpheme or set of morphemes) * [[Interfix]]es (semantically empty linking elements in compounds) * [[Suprafix]]es (also ''superfix'', attached [[suprasegmental]]ly to another morpheme) * [[Simulfix]]es (also ''transfix'' or ''root-and-pattern morphology'', discontinuous affix interweaved throughout a discontinuous base) * [[Duplifix]] (little used term referring to affix composed of both a reduplicated and non-reduplicated element, see [[Reduplication#Reduplication and other processes|Reduplication and other processes]]) Affixes are [[bound morpheme]]s by definition. Prefixes and suffixes may be [[separable affix]]es. There also has been a proposal of a somewhat different type of affix, a ''[[disfix]]'' or ''subtractive morpheme'', which subtracts phonological segments from bases. Affixes are central to the process of [[concatenation]]. {| class="wikitable" ! affix !! example |- align="center" | prefix || <u>''un''</u>do<br>''prefix'' + root |- align="center" | suffix || look<u>''ing''</u><br>root + ''suffix'' |- align="center" | infix <sup>1</sup> || fan<u>''freaking''</u>tastic<br>ro- + ''infix'' + -ot |- align="center" | circumfix || [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]]: {{IPA|<u>''θ''</u>issli<u>''θ''</u>}} "bride"<br>(compare to {{IPA|issli}} "groom")<br>''circumfix'' + root + ''circumfix'' |- align="center" | suprafix || '''pro'''duce (noun)<br>pro'''duce''' (verb)<br>(changing [[lexical stress|stress]]) |} <small><sup>1</sup> [[English language|English]] [[tmesis|tmeses]], as in this example, are by some considered infixes.</small> <br> ==Lexical affixes== ''Lexical affixes'' (or ''semantic affixes'') are bound elements that appear as affixes, but function as [[incorporated noun]]s within verbs and as elements of [[compound noun]]s. In other words, they are similar to word roots/stems in function but similar to affixes in form. Although similar to incorporated nouns, lexical affixes differ in that they never occur as freestanding nouns, i.e. they always appear as affixes. Lexical affixes are relatively rare. The [[Wakashan languages|Wakashan]], [[Salishan languages|Salishan]], and [[Chimakuan languages|Chimakuan]] languages all have lexical suffixes — the presence of these is an [[areal feature]] of the Pacific Northwest of the [[North America]]. The lexical suffixes of these languages often show little to no resemblance to free nouns with similar meanings. Compare the lexical suffixes and free nouns of [[Saanich language|Northern Straits Saanich]] written in the Saanich orthography and in [[Americanist phonetic notation|Americanist notation]]: {| border="1" cellpadding="4" style="border-collapse: collapse; background: #f9f9f9; margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.2em; font-family: Chrysanthi Unicode, Doulos SIL, Gentium, GentiumAlt, Code2000, TITUS Cyberbit Basic, DejaVu Sans, Bitstream Vera Sans, Bitstream Cyberbit, Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode, Hiragino Kaku Gothic Pro, Matrix Unicode;" |- style="font-size: 85%; background: #efefef;" ! colspan="3" | Lexical Suffix ! colspan="3" | Noun |- | -O, | -aʔ | "person" | ,EL̶TÁLṈEW̱ | ʔəɬtelŋəxʷ | "person" |- | -NÁT | -net | "day" | SC̸IĆEL | skʷičəl | "day" |- | -SEN | -sən | "foot, lower leg" | SXENE, | sx̣ənəʔ | "foot, lower leg" |- | -ÁWTW̱ | -ew̕txʷ | "building, house, campsite" | ,Á,LEṈ | ʔeʔləŋ | "house" |} Lexical suffixes when compared with free nouns often have a more generic or general meaning. For instance, one of these languages may have a lexical suffix that means water in a general sense, but it may not have any noun equivalent referring to water in general and instead have several nouns with a more specific meaning (such "saltwater", "whitewater", etc.). In other cases, the lexical suffixes have become [[grammaticalization|grammaticalized]] to various degrees. Some linguists have claimed that these lexical suffixes provide only adverbial or adjectival notions to verbs. Other linguists disagree arguing that they may additionally be syntactic [[Verb argument|arguments]] just as free nouns are and thus equating lexical suffixes with incorporated nouns. Gerdts (2003) gives examples of lexical suffixes in the [[Halkomelem language]] (the [[word order]] here is [[Verb Subject Object]]): :{| cellpadding="5" vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.2em; text-align: center; font-family: Chrysanthi Unicode, Doulos SIL, Gentium, GentiumAlt, Code2000, TITUS Cyberbit Basic, DejaVu Sans, Bitstream Vera Sans, Bitstream Cyberbit, Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode, Hiragino Kaku Gothic Pro, Matrix Unicode;" |- style="line-height: 1.0em; font-size: 75%" | | | style="background: #bbbbff" | VERB | style="background: #ffebad" | SUBJ | style="background: #ffbbbb" | OBJ |- | (1) | niʔ | šak’ʷ-ət-əs | łə słeniʔ | <span style="color:#008000"><u>łə qeq</u></span> |- | | colspan="3" | "the woman bathed <span style="color:#008000"><u>the baby</u></span>" |- style="line-height: 1.0em; font-size: 75%" | &nbsp; |- style="line-height: 1.0em; font-size: 75%" | | | style="background: #bbbbff" | VERB<span style="color:#800000">+LEX.SUFF</span> | style="background: #ffebad" | SUBJ | |- | (2) | niʔ | šk’ʷ<span style="color:#800000"><u>-əyəł</u></span> | łə słeniʔ | |- | | colspan="3" | "the woman bathed <span style="color:#800000"><u>the/a baby</u></span>" |} In sentence (1), the verb "bathe" is {{unicode|'''šak’ʷətəs'''}} where {{unicode|'''šak’ʷ-'''}} is the root and {{unicode|'''-ət'''}} and {{unicode|'''-əs'''}} are inflectional suffixes. The subject "the woman" is {{unicode|'''łə słeniʔ'''}} and the object <span style="color:#008000">"the baby"</span> is <span style="color:#008000">{{unicode|'''łə qeq'''}}</span>. In this sentence, "the baby" is a free noun. (The {{unicode|'''niʔ'''}} here is an [[auxiliary]], which can be ignored for explanatory purposes.) In sentence (2), <span style="color:#800000">"the/a baby"</span> does not appear as a free noun. Instead it appears as the lexical suffix <span style="color:#800000">{{unicode|'''-əyəł'''}}</span> which is affixed to the verb root {{unicode|'''šk’ʷ-'''}} (which has changed slightly in pronunciation, but this can also be ignored here). Note how the lexical suffix may be translated as either "the baby" (definite) or "a baby" (indefinite): this change in [[definiteness]] is a common change in meaning that happens with incorporated nouns. ==See also== * [[Derivation (linguistics) | Derivation]] * [[List of English prefixes]] * [[List of English suffixes]] * [[Family name affixes]] * [[Combining form]] ==Bibliography== * Gerdts, Donna B. (2003). The morphosyntax of Halkomelem lexical suffixes. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'', ''69'' (4), 345-356. * Montler, Timothy. (1986). ''An outline of the morphology and phonology of Saanich, North Straits Salish''. Occasional Papers in Linguistics (No. 4). Missoula, MT: University of Montana Linguistics Laboratory. * Montler, Timothy. (1991). ''Saanich, North Straits Salish classified word list''. Canadian Ethnology service paper (No. 119); Mercury series. Hull, Quebec: Canadian Museum of Civilization. [[Category:Linguistic morphology]] [[Category:Affixes|*]] [[cv:Аффикс]] [[de:Affix#Affixe in der klassischen Linguistik]] [[es:Afijo]] [[eo:Afikso]] [[fr:Affixe]] [[gl:Afixo]] [[is:Aðskeyti]] [[nl:Affix]] [[ja:接辞]] [[pl:Afiks]] [[pt:Afixo]] [[sv:Affix]] [[zh:詞綴]] 1837 41477317 2006-02-27T16:52:50Z Buchanan-Hermit 775423 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/163.153.27.11|163.153.27.11]] to last version by Colonies Chris An '''allegory''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] &alpha;&lambda;&lambda;&omicron;&sigmaf;, ''allos'', "other", and &alpha;&gamma;&omicron;&rho;&epsilon;&upsilon;&epsilon;&iota;&nu;, ''agoreuein,'' "to speak in public") is a figurative mode of [[representation (arts)|representation]] conveying a [[meaning]] other than and in addition to the literal. Through allegory a subject of a higher spiritual order is described in terms of that of a lower which is made out to resemble it in properties and circumstances, the principal subject being so kept out of view that we are left to construe the drift of it from the resemblance of the two subjects. Allegory is generally treated as a figure of [[rhetoric]], but an allegory does not have to be expressed in [[language]]: it may be addressed to the eye, and is often found in [[painting]], [[sculpture]] or some form of [[mimetic art]]. The [[etymology|etymological]] meaning of the word is wider than that which it bears in actual use. Though it is similar to other rhetorical comparisons, an allegory is sustained longer and more fully in its details than a [[metaphor]], and appeals to imagination where an [[analogy]] appeals to reason. The [[fable]] or [[parable]] is a short allegory with one definite moral. [[Northrop Frye]] discussed the continuum of allegory from what he termed the "naive allegory" of ''The Faerie Queen'' to the more private allegories of modern paradox literature. The characters in a "naive" allegory are not fully three-dimensional, for each aspect of their individual personalities and the events that befall them embodies some moral quality or other abstraction. The allegory has been selected first: the details merely flesh it out. Since meaningful stories are always applicable to larger issues, allegories may be read into many stories, sometimes distorting their author's overt meaning. For instance, many people have suggested that [[The Lord of the Rings]] was an allegory for the [[world war|World Wars]], an interpretation which the author sharply denied, stating, "I cordially dislike allegory in all of its manifestations." The allegory has been a favourite form in the literature of nearly every nation. The Hebrew scriptures present frequent instances of it, an example of which is the comparison of the history of Israel to the growth of a vine in {{Bibleverse|Psalm||80:8-17|}}. In the Rabbinic tradition fully-developed allegorical readings were applied to every text, with every detail of the narrative given an [[emblem]]atic reading. A particularly important case is the [[Song of Solomon|Song of Songs]], which was accepted as [[Biblical canon|canonical]] only because of an allegorical reading. This tradition of Biblical interpretation was inherited by Christian writers, for whom allegorical similitudes are the basis of [[exegesis]], the origin of the arts of [[hermeneutics]]. The late Jewish and Early Christian visionary [[Apocalyptic literature]], with its base in the ''[[Book of Daniel]]'', presents allegorical figures, of which the [[Whore of Babylon]] and the Beast of ''Revelation'' are the most familiar. In classical literature two of the best-known allegories are the cave of shadowy representations in [[Plato]]'s ''[[Republic]]'' (Book VII) and the story of the stomach and its members in the speech of Menenius Agrippa ([[Livy]] ii. 32); and several occur in [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]].'' In Late Antiquity [[Martianus Capella]] organized all the information a 5th-century upper-class male needed to know into an allegory of the wedding of Mercury and ''Philologia,'' with the seven [[liberal arts]] as guests, an allegory that was widely read through the Middle Ages. Medieval thinking accepted allegory as having a ''reality'' underlying any rhetorical or fictional uses. The allegory was as true as superficial facts. Thus, the bull ''[[Unam Sanctam]]'' (1302) presents themes of the unity of [[Christendom]] with the pope as its head in which the allegorical details of the metaphors are adduced as ''actual facts'' which take the place of a logical demonstration, employing the vocabulary of logic: "''Therefore'' of this one and only Church there is one body and one head—not two heads as if it were a monster... If, then, the Greeks or others say that they were not committed to the care of Peter and his successors, they ''necessarily'' confess that they are not of the sheep of Christ" [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Unam_sanctam (complete text)]. In the late 15th century, the enigmatic ''[[Hypnerotomachia]]'', with its elaborate woodcut illustrations, shows the influence of themed pageants and [[masque]]s on contemporary allegorical representation, as [[Renaissance humanism|humanist dialectic]] conveyed them. Some elaborate and successful specimens of allegory are to be found in the following works, arranged in approximately chronological order: * [[Aesop]] &ndash; ''[[Aesop's Fables| Fables]]'' * [[Plato]] &ndash; ''[[Plato's Republic|The Republic]]'' (''[[Plato's allegory of the cave]]'') * [[Plato]] &ndash; ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]'' (''[[Chariot Allegory]]'') * ''[[Book of Revelation]]'' (for allegory in Christian theology, see [[typology (theology)]]) * [[Martianus Capella]] &ndash; ''De nuptiis philologiæ et Mercurii'' * ''[[The Romance of the Rose]]'' * [[William Langland]] &ndash; ''[[Piers Plowman]]'' *[[Pearl (poem)|Pearl]] * [[Dante Alighieri]] &ndash; ''[[The Divine Comedy]]'' * [[Edmund Spenser]] &ndash; ''[[The Faerie Queene]]'' * [[John Bunyan]] &ndash; ''[[Pilgrim's Progress]]'' * [[Jean de La Fontaine]] &ndash; ''Fables'' * [[Jonathan Swift]] &ndash; ''[[A Tale of a Tub]]'' * [[Joseph Addison]] &ndash; ''Vision of Mirza'' * [[Edgar Allan Poe]] &ndash; ''[[The Masque of the Red Death]]'' Modern allegories in fiction tend to operate under constraints of modern requirements for [[verisimilitude]] within conventional expectations of [[realism (arts)|realism]]. Works of fiction with strong allegorical overtones include: * [[William Golding]] &ndash; ''[[Lord of the Flies (novel)|Lord of the Flies]]'' * [[George Orwell]] &ndash; ''[[Animal Farm]]'' * [[Arthur Miller]] &ndash; ''[[The Crucible]]'' * [[Philip Pullman]] &ndash; ''[[His Dark Materials]]'' * [[Hualing Nieh]] &ndash; ''[[Mulberry and Peach]]'' * [[David Lindsay (novelist)|David Linday]] &ndash; ''A Voyage to Arcturus' Where some requirements of "realism", in its flexible meanings, are set aside, allegory can come more strongly to the surface, as in the work of [[Bertold Brecht]] or [[Franz Kafka]] on one hand, or on the other in science fiction and fantasy, where an element of universal application and allegorical overtones are common, from ''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]'' to ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]''. Allegorical films include: * [[Fritz Lang]]'s ''[[Metropolis (movie)|Metropolis]]'' * [[Ingmar Bergman]]'s ''[[The Seventh Seal]]'' * ''[[El Topo]]'' etc. Allegorical artworks include: * [[Sandro Botticelli]] &ndash; ''La Primavera (Allegory of Spring)'' * [[Albrecht Dürer]] &ndash; ''[[Melancholia I]]'' * [[Artemisia Gentileschi]] &ndash; ''Self-Portrait as the Allegory of Painting''; ''Allegory of Inclination'' * [[Jan Vermeer]] &ndash; ''The Allegory of Painting'' ==See also== *[[Allegory in the Middle Ages]] *[[Allegorical sculpture]] *[[Roman à clef]] ==External links== *[http://www.tnellen.com/cybereng/lit_terms/allegory.html Good brief definition of Allegory] *[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-07 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Allegory in Literary history *[http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ElAnt/V1N5/levis.html ''Electronic Antiquity'', Richard Levis, "Allegory and the ''Eclogues''"] Roman definitions of ''allegoria'' and interpreting Vergil's ''[[Eclogue]]s''. ==Further reading== *[[Northrop Frye|Frye, Northrop]], 1957. ''[[Anatomy of Criticism]]'' [[Category:Rhetoric]] [[cs:Alegorie]] [[da:Allegori]] [[de:Allegorie]] [[es:Alegoría]] [[eo:Alegorio]] [[fr:Allégorie]] [[gl:Alegoría]] [[io:Alegorio]] [[ia:Allegoria]] [[it:Allegoria]] [[he:אלגוריה]] [[hu:Allegória]] [[nl:Allegorie (letterkunde)]] [[no:Allegori]] [[nn:Allegori]] [[pl:Alegoria]] [[sk:Inotaj]] [[sv:Allegori]] [[uk:Алегорія]] 1838 15900301 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Amazon River]] 1839 41612128 2006-02-28T14:35:53Z Wayward 184087 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.165.43.10|207.165.43.10]] ([[User talk:207.165.43.10|talk]]) to last version by Chobot {{expert}} {{Sections}} [[Image:Allotropy.jpg|thumb|right|Example of allotropic materials: graphite vs. Diamond]] '''Allotropy''' (Gr. ''allos'', other, and ''tropos'', manner), a name applied by [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]] to the property possessed by certain substances of existing in forms with different chemical structures; the various forms are known as ''allotropes''. Jöns Jakob Berzelius used the name in an entirely different sense (see Macmillan Encyclopedia of Chemistry, edited by J.J.Lagowski, 1997, Simon Schuster). Some classic examples of elements that have allotropes are [[phosphorus]] (in "red", "white", "purple" etc. forms), [[oxygen]] (O<sub>2</sub>, [[ozone|O<sub>3</sub>]], and [[tetraoxygen|O<sub>4</sub>]]) and [[carbon]] (in the form of [[graphite]], [[diamond]], [[fullerenes]], and others - see [[allotropes of carbon]]). The term allotropes may also be used to refer to the molecular forms of an element (such as a diatomic gas), even if there is only one such additional form. [[Sulfur]] is an additional example of an element with several allotropic forms. Amorphous (plastic sulfur) is produced by quickly cooling the crystalline form, generating helical structure with eight atoms per spiral. Allotropy specifically refers to the chemical bond structure between atoms of the same kind and should not be confused with the existence of [[phases of matter|multiple physical states]], such as with [[water]], which can exist as a [[gas]] ([[steam]]), a [[liquid]] (water), or a [[solid]] ([[ice]]). These phases of water are not allotropes, since they are caused by changes in the physical bonding between water molecules, rather than changes in the chemical bonding of the water molecules themselves. Allotropes of an element can be in any state, gaseous, liquid, or solid. Allotropy usually refers to pure elemental solids, while [[allotropy|polymorphism]] may refer to elemental solids or more generally to any material having multiple crystal structures. As can be seen with the example of carbon allotropes, certain physical properties can vary dramatically from allotrope to allotrope. In diamond, carbon [[atom]]s are connected each to four other carbon atoms in a [[tetrahedron|tetrahedral]] lattice structure, whereas in graphite, each carbon atom is firmly bonded to just three other carbon atoms in [[hexagon]]al sheets. These hexagonal sheets are then more loosely coupled to one another in stacks. The structure of fullerenes (a [[carbon]] allotrope found in [[soot]]) resembles that of graphite, except that instead of hexagons of carbon atoms, smaller regular [[polygon]]s are formed, such as a mix of hexagons and [[pentagon]]s, such that the sheet can fold back onto itself into closed [[spheroid]]s, as with the seams of a [[soccer]] ball. Allotropes not only show dramatic differences in physical properties but also show differences in chemical properties. Graphite can be oxidized by [[nitric acid]] to give compounds related to [[benzene]] whereas diamond does not give compounds related to benzene. ==See also== *[[Tin pest]] *[[Allotropes of carbon]] [[Category:Inorganic chemistry]] [[ar:تآصل]] [[ca:Al·lotropia]] [[de:Allotropie]] [[et:Allotroopia]] [[es:Alotropía]] [[eo:Alotropo]] [[fr:Allotropie]] [[ko:동소체]] [[is:Fjölgervi]] [[it:Allotropia]] [[he:אלוטרופיה]] [[hu:Allotrópia]] [[ms:Alotrop]] [[nl:Allotroop]] [[ja:同素体]] [[nn:Allotrope former]] [[pl:Alotropia]] [[pt:Alotropia]] [[ru:Аллотропия]] [[sl:Alotropija]] [[fi:Allotropia]] [[tr:Allotrop]] [[uk:Алотропія]] [[zh:同素异形体]] 1840 39478656 2006-02-13T16:35:25Z 213.41.174.227 fr: {{otheruses}} '''Agathocles''' ([[361 BC]]-[[289 BC]]), [[tyrant]] of [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]] ([[317 BC]]-[[289 BC]]) and king of [[Sicily]] ([[304 BC]]-[[289 BC]]). [[Image:agathocles coin.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Coin of Agathocles.]] He was born at Thermae Himeraeae (modern name [[Termini Imerese]]) in Sicily. The son of a [[pottery|potter]] who had moved to Syracuse in about [[343 BC]], he learned his father's trade, but afterwards entered the army. In [[333 BC]] he married the [[widow]] of his patron Damas, a distinguished and wealthy citizen. He was twice [[banishment|banished]] for attempting to overthrow the [[oligarchy|oligarchical]] party in Syracuse. In [[317 BC]] he returned with an army of [[mercenary|mercenaries]] under a solemn oath to observe the [[democracy|democratic]] [[constitution]] which was then set up. Having banished or murdered some 10,000 citizens, and thus made himself master of Syracuse, he created a strong army and fleet and subdued the greater part of Sicily. War with [[Carthage]] followed. In [[311 BC]] Agathocles was [[siege|besieged]] and defeated in Syracuse in [[Battle of Himera (311 BC)|the battle of Himera]]. After defeat in [[310 BC]] he took the desperate resolve of breaking through the [[blockade]] and attacking the enemy in [[Africa]]. In Africa he concluded the treaty with [[Ophellas]], ruler of [[Cyrenaica]]. After several victories he was at last completely defeated ([[307 BC]]) and fled secretly to Sicily. After concluding peace with Carthage in [[306 BC]], Agathocles styled himself king of Sicily in [[304 BC]], and established his rule over the [[Greece|Greek]] cities of the island more firmly than ever. A peace treaty with Carthage left him in control of Sicily east of the [[Halycus River]]. Even in his old age he displayed the same restless energy, and is said to have been contemplating a fresh attack on Carthage at the time of his death. His last years were harassed by ill-health and the turbulence of his grandson [[Archagathus]], at whose instigation he is said to have been [[poison|poisoned]]; according to others, he died a natural death. He was a born leader of mercenaries, and, although he did not shrink from cruelty to gain his ends, he afterwards showed himself a mild and popular "tyrant." Agathocles restored the Syracusan democracy on his death bed and did not want his sons to succeed him as king. Agathocles married [[Theoxena]], stepdaughter of [[Ptolemy I of Egypt]]. His daughter [[Lanassa]] married King [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]]. ==Sources== * [[Junianus Justinus|Justin]] * [[Diodorus Siculus]] xix., xxi., xxii. (follows generally Timaeus who had a special grudge against Agathocles) * [[Polybius]] ix. 23 ==References== * Schubert, (1887) ''Geschichte des Agathokles'' * Grote, ''History of Greece'', ch. 97. {{1911}} [[Category:361 BC births]] [[Category:289 BC deaths]] [[Category:Ancient Greek generals]] [[Category:Sicilian tyrants]] [[de:Agathokles von Syrakus]] [[es:Agatocles]] [[fr:Agathoclès de Syracuse]] [[pl:Agatokles (tyran Syrakuz)]] [[sv:Agathokles]] [[zh:阿加托克利斯]] 1841 34900031 2006-01-12T16:20:44Z Circeus 98785 rm {{alberta}} The primary '''[[Industry|industries]] in [[Alberta]]''', [[Canada]] are [[Energy development|energy]], [[logging|lumber]], and [[Agriculture|farming]] and [[ranching]]. While [[gold]] and other [[mining]] operations still exist from the time of the [[Klondike Gold Rush]], they have diminished in importance as [[petroleum|oil]] and [[natural gas|gas]] extraction have achieved dominance in the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]]. Vast beds of [[coal]] are found extending for hundreds of miles, a short distance below the surface of the plains. The coal belongs to the [[Cretaceous]] beds, and while not so heavy as that of the Coal Measures in [[England]] is of excellent quality. In the valley of the [[Bow River]], alongside the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]], valuable beds of anthracite coal are still worked. The usual coal deposits of the Province of Alberta are of bituminous or semi-bituminous coal. These are largely worked at [[Lethbridge, Alberta|Lethbridge]] in southern Alberta and [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] in the centre of the province. Many other parts of the province have pits for private use. Notable gas reserves were discovered in the [[1890s]], when the town of [[Medicine Hat, Alberta|Medicine Hat]] began using gas for lighting the town, and suppling light and fuel for the people, and a number of industries using the gas for manufacturing. In fact a large glassworks was established at Redcliff. When Rudyard Kipling visited Medicine Hat he described it as the city "with all hell for a basement." Since the early [[1940s]], Alberta had supplied oil and gas to the rest of Canada and the [[United States]]. The [[Athabasca River]] region, as well as localities far north on the [[Mackenzie River]], produce oil for internal and external use. The [[Athabasca Oil Sands]] contain the largest proven reserves of oil in the world. [[Natural gas]] has been found at several points, and in 1999, the production of natural gas liquids ([[ethane]], [[propane]], and [[butane|butanes]]) totaled 172.8 million barrels (27,000,000 m&sup3;), valued at $2.27 billion. Alberta also provides 13% of all the natural gas used in the United States. In 1999, [[lumber]] products from Alberta were valued at $4.1 billion of which 72% were exported around the world. Since forests cover approximately 59% of the province's land area, the government allows about 23,300,000 cubic metres to be harvested annually from the forests on public lands. In the past, [[cattle]], [[horses]], and [[domestic sheep|sheep]] were reared in the southern prairie region on ranches or smaller holdings. Currently Alberta produces cattle valued at over $3.3 billion, as well as other livestock in lesser quanities. In this region [[irrigation]] is widely used. [[Wheat]], accounting for almost half of the $2 billion agricultural economy, is supplemented by [[canola]], [[barley]], [[rye]], [[sugar beets]], and other mixed farming. Alberta is the richest province in Canada (GDP per capita wise) and if it were its own country, it would be ranked second richest in the world (after Luxembourg). The average Albertan salary is more than $7,000 US higher than the American average. If oil prices do not collapse, then within a few short years Albertans are expected to have not only the highest salaries in the world but also the highest quality of life. [[Category:Alberta]] 1842 40589465 2006-02-21T17:45:19Z Predr 395615 +da [[Image:Augustin_Louis_Cauchy.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Augustin Louis Cauchy]] '''Augustin Louis Cauchy''' ([[August 21]], [[1789]] &ndash; [[May 23]],[[1857]]) was a [[France|French]] [[mathematician]]. He started the project of formulating and proving the theorems of [[calculus]] in a rigorous manner and was thus an early pioneer of [[mathematical analysis|analysis]]. He also gave several important theorems in [[complex analysis]] and initiated the study of [[permutation group]]s. A profound mathematician, Cauchy exercised by his perspicuous and rigorous methods a great influence over his contemporaries and successors. His writings cover the entire range of mathematics and [[mathematical physics]]. Having received his early education from his father [[Louis François Cauchy]] ([[1760]]&ndash;[[1848]]), who held several minor public appointments and counted [[Joseph Louis Lagrange|Lagrange]] and [[Pierre-Simon Laplace|Laplace]] among his friends, Cauchy entered the [[École Centrale du Panthéon]] in [[1802]], and proceeded to the [[École Polytechnique]] in [[1805]], and to the [[École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées]] in [[1807]]. Having adopted the profession of an [[Engineering|engineer]], he left [[Paris]] for [[Cherbourg]] in [[1810]], but returned in [[1813]] on account of his health, whereupon Lagrange and Laplace persuaded him to renounce engineering and to devote himself to mathematics. He obtained an appointment at the École Polytechnique, which, however, he relinquished in [[1830]] on the accession of [[Louis-Philippe_of_France|Louis-Philippe]], finding it impossible to take the necessary oaths. A short sojourn at [[Fribourg]] in [[Switzerland]] was followed by his appointment in [[1831]] to the newly-created chair of mathematical physics at the [[University of Turin]]. In [[1833]] the deposed king [[Charles X of France]] summoned Cauchy to be tutor to his grandson, the duke of [[Bordeaux]], an appointment which enabled Cauchy to travel and thereby become acquainted with the favourable impression which his investigations had made. Charles created him a [[baron]] in return for his services. Returning to Paris in [[1838]], Cauchy refused a proffered chair at the [[Collège de France]], but in [[1848]], the oath having been suspended, he resumed his post at the École Polytechnique, and when the oath was reinstituted after the [[coup d'état]] of [[1851]], Cauchy and [[François Arago]] were exempted from it. Cauchy had two brothers: [[Alexandre Laurent Cauchy]] ([[1792]]&ndash;[[1857]]), who became a president of a division of the court of appeal in [[1847]], and a judge of the court of cassation in [[1849]]; and [[Eugène François Cauchy]] ([[1802]]&ndash;[[1877]]), a publicist who also wrote several mathematical works. The genius of Cauchy was illustrated in his simple solution of the [[Apollonian gasket|problem of Apollonius]], i.e. to describe a [[circle]] touching three given circles, which he discovered in [[1805]], his generalization of [[Euler's theorem]] on [[polyhedra]] in [[1811]], and in several other elegant problems. More important is his memoir on [[wave]] propagation, which obtained the Grand Prix of the Institut in [[1816]]. His greatest contributions to mathematical science are enveloped in the rigorous methods which he introduced. These are mainly embodied in his three great treatises, ''Cours d'analyse de l'École Polytechnique'' ([[1821]]); ''Le Calcul infinitésimal'' ([[1823]]); ''Leçons sur les applications de calcul infinitésimal''; ''La géométrie'' ([[1826]]&ndash;[[1828]]); and also in his ''Courses of mechanics'' (for the École Polytechnique), ''Higher algebra'' (for the [[Faculté des Sciences]]), and of ''Mathematical physics'' (for the Collège de France). His treatises and contributions to scientific journals (to the number of 789) contain investigations on the theory of series (where he developed with perspicuous skill the notion of convergency), on the theory of numbers and complex quantities, the theory of groups and substitutions, the theory of functions, differential equations and determinants. He clarified the principles of the calculus by developing them with the aid of limits and continuity, and was the first to prove [[Taylor's theorem]] rigorously, establishing his well-known form of the remainder. In [[mechanics]], he made many researches, substituting the notion of the continuity of geometrical displacements for the principle of the continuity of matter. In [[optics]], he developed the wave theory, and his name is associated with the simple dispersion formula. In [[elasticity]], he originated the theory of [[stress (physics)|stress]], and his results are nearly as valuable as those of [[Simeon Poisson]]. He was the first to prove the [[Fermat polygonal number theorem]]. He created the [[residue theorem]] and used it to derive a whole host of most interesting series and integral formulas. He was the first to define complex numbers as pairs of real numbers. He discovered many of the basic formulas in the theory of [[q-series]]. His collected works, ''&#338;uvres complètes d'Augustin Cauchy'', have been published in 27 volumes. ==See also== * [[Cauchy integral theorem]] * [[Cauchy's integral formula]] * [[Cauchy-Schwarz inequality]] * [[Cauchy distribution]] * [[Cauchy determinant]] * [[Cauchy formula for repeated integration]] * [[Cauchy sequence]] * [[Cauchy-Riemann equations]] * [[Cauchy-Frobenius lemma]] * [[Cauchy product]] * [[Cauchy principal value]] * [[Cauchy-Binet formula]] * [[Cauchy-Euler equation]] * [[Cauchy's equation]] * [[Cauchy problem]] * [[Cauchy horizon]] * [[Cauchy boundary condition]] * [[Cauchy surface]] * [[Cauchy-Kovalevskaya theorem]] * [[Maclaurin-Cauchy test]] * [[Cauchy's radical test]] * [[Cauchy (crater)]] ==External links== * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Cauchy}} * [http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/CauchyCriterionForConvergence.html Cauchy criterion for convergence] ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1789 births|Cauchy, Augustin Louis]] [[Category:1857 deaths|Cauchy, Augustin Louis]] [[Category:19th century mathematicians|Cauchy, Augustin Louis]] [[Category:French mathematicians|Cauchy, Augustin Louis]] [[Category:Alumni of the École Polytechnique|Cauchy, Augustin Louis]] [[Category:Christians in science|Cauchy]] {{Link FA|de}} [[bg:Огюстен Луи Коши]] [[cs:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[da:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[de:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[es:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[eo:Augustin Louis CAUCHY]] [[fr:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[ko:오귀스탱 루이 코시]] [[hr:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[is:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[it:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[he:אוגוסטין לואי קושי]] [[lt:Augustinas Luisas Koši]] [[hu:Augustin Cauchy]] [[nl:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[ja:オーギュスタン＝ルイ・コーシー]] [[pl:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[pt:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[ru:Коши, Огюстен Луи]] [[fi:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[sv:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[vi:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[tr:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[uk:Коші Оґюстен-Луї]] 1844 42093182 2006-03-03T20:00:12Z DominvsVobiscvm 862379 :''For other senses of this word, see [[Archimedes (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:Archimedes.jpg|thumb|right|Archimedes of Syracuse.]] '''Archimedes''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Αρχιμηδης ) (''c''. [[287 BC]]&ndash;[[212 BC]]) was an ancient Sicilian [[mathematician]], [[physicist]], [[engineer]], [[astronomer]] and [[philosopher]] born in the seaport colony of [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]]. He is considered by some [[history of mathematics|historians of mathematics]] to be one of the greatest mathematicians in [[antiquity]]; [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] considered him one of the three greatest ever. ==Discoveries and inventions== [[Image:Archimedes' screw.jpg|thumb|The [[Archimedes' screw]] lifts water to higher levels for irrigation]] Archimedes became a popular figure as a result of his involvement in the defense of Syracuse against the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] [[siege]] in the [[Second Punic War]]. He is reputed to have held the Romans at bay with war machines of his own design; to have been able to move a full-size ship complete with crew and cargo by pulling a single rope[http://www.smith.edu/hsc/museum/ancient_inventions/shipshaker2.html]; to have [[discovery (observation)|discover]]ed the principles of [[density]] and [[buoyancy]], also known as [[Archimedes' principle]], while taking a bath (thereupon taking to the streets naked he called "[[Eureka (word)|Eureka]]"). He has also been credited with the possible invention of the [[odometer]] during the First Punic War. One of his inventions used for military defense of Syracuse against the invading Romans was the [[claw of Archimedes]]. [[Image:DeathRayDiagram.gif|thumb|left|A diagram showing how Archimedes may have enabled the defenders of Syracuse aim their mirrors at approaching ships]]It is said that he prevented one Roman attack on Syracuse by using a large array of [[mirror]]s (speculated to have been highly polished shields) to reflect sunlight onto the attacking ships causing them to catch fire. This popular legend was tested on the Discovery Channel's ''[[MythBusters]]'' program. After a number of experiments, whereby the hosts of the program tried burning a model wooden ship with a variety of mirrors, they concluded that the enemy ships would have had to have been virtually motionless and very close to shore for them to ignite, an unlikely scenario during a battle. A group at MIT subsequently performed their own tests and concluded that the mirror weapon was a possibility [http://web.mit.edu/2.009/www/lectures/10_ArchimedesResult.html], although later tests of their system showed it to be ineffective in conditions that more closely matched the described siege [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2005/10/22/state/n121443D54.DTL]. Archimedes was killed by a Roman soldier in the sack of Syracuse during the Second Punic War, despite orders from the Roman general, [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus|Marcellus]], that he was not to be harmed. The Greeks said that he was killed while drawing an equation in the sand; engrossed in his diagram and impatient with being interrupted, he is said to have muttered his [[famous last words]] before being slain by an enraged Roman soldier: Μὴ μοὺ τους κύκλους τάραττε ("Don't disturb my circles"). This story was sometimes told to contrast the Greek high-mindedness with Roman ham-handedness; however, it should be noted that Archimedes designed the siege engines that devastated a substantial Roman invasion force, so his death may have been out of retribution. In creativity and insight, he exceeded any other European mathematician prior to the European [[Renaissance]]. In a civilization with an awkward numeral system and a language in which "a myriad" (literally "ten thousand") meant "infinity", he invented a positional numeral system and used it to write numbers up to 10<sup>64</sup>. He devised a [[heuristic]] method based on [[statistics]] to do private calculation that we would classify today as [[integral calculus]], but then presented rigorous [[geometry|geometric]] proofs for his results. To what extent he actually had a correct version of integral calculus is debatable. He proved that the [[ratio]] of a [[circle]]'s [[perimeter]] to its [[diameter]] is the same as the ratio of the circle's area to the [[square (geometry)|square]] of the [[radius]]. He did not call this ratio [[Pi|&pi;]] but he gave a procedure to approximate it to arbitrary accuracy and gave an approximation of it as between 3 + 10/71 (approximately 3.1408) and 3 + 1/7 (approximately 3.1429). He was the first [[ancient Greece|Greek]] mathematician to introduce [[mechanical]] curves (those traced by a moving point) as legitimate objects of study. He proved that the area enclosed by a [[parabola]] and a straight line is 4/3 the area of a [[triangle (geometry)|triangle]] with equal base and height. (See the illustration below. The "base" is any [[secant line]], not necessarily [[orthogonal]] to the parabola's [[axis]]; "the same base" means the same "horizontal" component of the length of the base; "horizontal" means orthogonal to the axis. "Height" means the length of the segment parallel to the axis from the [[vertex]] to the base. The vertex must be so placed that the two horizontal distances mentioned in the illustration are equal.) <div style="float:right;padding:5px;text-align:center">[[Image:Parabola.png]]<br></div> In the process, he calculated the oldest known example of a [[geometric series]] with the [[ratio]] 1/4: :<math> \sum_{n=0}^\infty 4^{-n} = 1 + 4^{-1} + 4^{-2} + 4^{-3} + \cdots = {4\over 3} \; . </math> If the first term in this series is the area of the triangle in the [[illustration]] then the second is the sum of the areas of two triangles whose bases are the two smaller secant lines in the illustration. Essentially, this paragraph summarizes the proof. Archimedes also gave a quite different proof of nearly the same [[proposition]] by a method using [[infinitesimals]] (see "[[How Archimedes used infinitesimals]]"). He proved that the [[area]] and volume of the [[sphere]] are in the same ratio to the area and volume of a circumscribed straight [[cylinder (geometry)|cylinder]], a result he was so proud of that he made it his [[epitaph]]. Archimedes is probably also the first [[mathematical physicist]] on record, and the best before [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] and [[Isaac Newton|Newton]]. He invented the field of [[statics]], enunciated the law of the [[lever]], the law of [[equilibrium]] of [[fluids]] and the law of [[buoyancy]]. (He famously discovered the latter when he was asked to determine whether a crown had been made of pure gold, or gold adulterated with silver; he realized that the rise in the water level when it was immersed would be equal to the volume of the crown, and the decrease in the weight of the crown would be in proportion; he could then compare those with the values of an equal weight of pure gold). He was the first to identify the concept of [[center of gravity]], and he found the centers of gravity of various geometric figures, assuming uniform [[density]] in their interiors, including triangles, [[paraboloid]]s, and [[sphere|hemisphere]]s. Using only [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[geometry]], he also gave the equilibrium positions of floating sections of paraboloids as a function of their height, a feat that would be taxing to a modern physicist using [[calculus]]. Apart from general physics he was an [[astronomer]], and [[Cicero]] writes that the Roman [[consul]] [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus|Marcellus]] brought two devices back to [[Rome]] from the sacked city of Syracuse. One device mapped the [[sky]] on a sphere and the other predicted the motions of the [[sun]] and the [[moon]] and the [[planet]]s (i.e., an [[orrery]]). He credits [[Thales]] and [[Eudoxus of Cnidus|Eudoxus]] for constructing these devices. For some time this was assumed to be a legend of doubtful nature, but the discovery of the [[Antikythera mechanism]] has changed the view of this issue, and it is indeed probable that Archimedes possessed and constructed such devices. [[Pappus]] of [[Alexandria]] writes that Archimedes had written a practical book on the construction of such spheres entitled ''[[On Sphere-Making]]''. Archimedes' works were not widely recognized, even in [[classical antiquity|antiquity]]. He and his contemporaries probably constitute the peak of Greek [[mathematical rigour]]. During the [[Middle Ages]] the mathematicians who could understand Archimedes' work were few and far between. Many of his works were lost when the [[library of Alexandria]] was burnt (twice) and survived only in [[Latin]] or [[Arabic language|Arabic]] [[translation]]s. As a result, his ''[[how Archimedes used infinitesimals|mechanical method]]'' was lost until around [[1900]], after the [[arithmetization of analysis]] had been carried out successfully. We can only speculate about the effect that the "method" would have had on the development of [[calculus]] had it been known in the [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th]] centuries. == Writings by Archimedes == * ''On the Equilibrium of Planes'' (2 volumes) :This scroll explains the law of the lever and uses it to calculate the areas and centers of gravity of various geometric figures. * ''On Spirals'' :In this scroll, Archimedes defines what is now called [[Archimedean spiral|Archimedes' spiral]]. This is the first mechanical curve (i.e., traced by a moving point) ever considered by a Greek mathematician. Using this curve, he was able to [[Squaring the circle|square the circle]]. * ''On the Sphere and The Cylinder'' :In this scroll Archimedes obtains the result he was most proud of: that the area and volume of a sphere are in the same relationship to the area and volume of the circumscribed straight cylinder. * ''On Conoids and Spheroids'' :In this scroll Archimedes calculates the areas and volumes of sections of cones, spheres and paraboloids. * ''On Floating Bodies'' (2 volumes) :In the first part of this scroll, Archimedes spells out the law of equilibrium of fluids, and proves that water around a center of gravity will adopt a spherical form. This is probably an attempt at explaining the observation made by Greek astronomers that the Earth is round. Note that his fluids are not self-gravitating: he assumes the existence of a point towards which all things fall and derives the spherical shape. One is led to wonder what he would have done had he struck upon the idea of universal [[gravitation]]. :In the second part, a veritable ''tour-de-force'', he calculates the equilibrium positions of sections of paraboloids. This was probably an idealization of the shapes of ships' hulls. Some of his sections float with the base under water and the summit above water, which is reminiscent of the way [[iceberg]]s float, although Archimedes probably was not thinking of this application. * ''The Quadrature of the Parabola'' :In this scroll, Archimedes calculates the area of a segment of a parabola (the figure delimited by a parabola and a secant line not necessarily perpendicular to the axis). The final answer is obtained by [[Triangulation|triangulating]] the area and summing the geometric series with ratio 1/4. * ''Stomachion'' :This is a Greek puzzle similar to [[Tangram]]. In this scroll, Archimedes calculates the areas of the various pieces. This may be the first reference we have to this game. Recent discoveries indicate that Archimedes was attempting to determine how many ways the strips of paper could be assembled into the shape of a square. This is possibly the first use of [[combinatorics]] to solve a problem. * ''Archimedes' Cattle Problem'' :Archimedes wrote a letter to the scholars in the Library of Alexandria, who apparently had downplayed the importance of Archimedes' works. In these letters, he dares them to count the numbers of cattle in the [[Herd of the Sun]] by solving a number of simultaneous [[Diophantus|Diophantine]] equations, some of them [[quadratic equation|quadratic]] (in the more complicated version). This problem is one of the famous problems solved with the aid of a computer. The solution is a very large number, approximately {{sn|7.760271|206544}} (See the external links to the Cattle Problem.) * ''[[The Sand Reckoner]]'' :In this scroll, Archimedes counts the number of grains of sand fitting inside the [[universe]]. This book mentions [[Aristarchus of Samos]]' theory of the [[solar system]] (concluding that "this is impossible"), contemporary ideas about the size of the Earth and the distance between various celestial bodies. From the introductory letter we also learn that Archimedes' father was an astronomer. * ''"[[Archimedes Palimpsest|The Method]]"'' :In this work, which was unknown in the Middle Ages, but the importance of which was realised after its discovery, Archimedes pioneered the use of [[infinitesimal]]s, showing how breaking up a figure in an infinite number of infinitely small parts could be used to determine its area or volume. Archimedes did probably consider these methods not mathematically precise, and he used these methods to find at least some of the areas or volumes he sought, and then used the more traditional [[method of exhaustion]] to prove them. This particular work is found in what is called the [[Archimedes bathtub flotation device]]. Some details can be found at [[how Archimedes used infinitesimals]]. ==Quotes about Archimedes== * "Perhaps the best indication of what Archimedes truly loved most is his request that his tombstone include a cylinder circumscribing a sphere, accompanied by the inscription of his amazing [[theorem]] that the sphere is exactly two-thirds of the circumscribing cylinder in both surface area and volume!" (Laubenbacher and Pengelley, p. 95)<sup id="fn_1_back">[[#fn_1|1]]</sup> * "...but regarding the work of an engineer and every art that ministers the needs of life as ignoble and vulgar, he devoted his earnest efforts only to those studies the subtlety and charm of which are not affected by the claims of necessity." [[Plutarch]], possibly explaining why Archimedes produced no writings that describe precisely the design of his inventions. It has also been suggested that this statement merely reflects the prejudices of Plutarch and his peers, influenced by [[Platonic]] beliefs in pure [[reasoning]] and [[deduction]] over [[experimentation]] and [[induction (philosophy)|inductive]] processes. Given Archimedes's prodigious output as an engineer, Plutarch's often quoted comments on him seem hard to believe for modern historians. ==Named after Archimedes== * [[Archimedes (crater)|Archimedes crater]] on [[the Moon]]. * [[3600 Archimedes|Asteroid 3600 Archimedes]], named in his honour * The [[Acorn Archimedes]] * [[Archimedes' principle]] * [[Archimedean property]] * [[Archimedean solid]] * [[Archimedean point]] * [[Tiling_by_regular_polygons#Archimedean.2C_uniform_or_semiregular_tilings|Archimedean tiling]] * [[Archimedean spiral]] * [[Archimedean field]] * [[Trammal of Archimedes]] * [[Claw of Archimedes]] * [[Archimedes' screw|Archimedean screw]] * Archimedean [[copula (statistics)|copula]] * [[Archimedes number]] ==See also== * [[Archimedes Palimpsest]] * [[How Archimedes used infinitesimals]] == Notes== <cite id="fn_1">[[#fn_1_back|Note 1:]]</cite> p. 95, ''[[Mathematical Expeditions: Chronicles by the Explorers]]'' by [[Reinhard Laubenbacher|Laubenbacher]] and [[David Pengelley|Pengelley]] ([[1999]]) ISBN 0387984348 (Hardcover) ISBN 038798433X (Paperback) [[Category:287 BC births]] [[Category:212 BC deaths]] [[Category:Ancient Greek engineers]] [[Category:Ancient Greek inventors]] [[Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek physicists]] [[Category:Hellenistic philosophers]] [[Category:Sicilian Greeks]] [[Category:Murdered scientists]] [[Category:History of physics]] == External links == {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Geometry/BookOfLemmas/index.shtml Archimedes' Book of Lemmas] at [[cut-the-knot]] *[http://agutie.homestead.com/files/rhombicubocta.html Archimedes and the Rhombicuboctahedron] by Antonio Gutierrez from Geometry Step by Step from the Land of the Incas. *[http://www.mcs.drexel.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/contents.html Archimedes Home Page] * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Archimedes }} *[http://www.thewalters.org/archimedes/frame.html The Archimedes Palimpsest] web pages at the [[Walters Art Museum]]. *[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/archimedes/palimpsest.html NOVA program on Archimedes Palimpsest] *[http://www.mcs.drexel.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Crown/CrownIntro.html Archimedes - The Golden Crown] points out that in reality Archimedes may well have used a more subtle method than the one in the classic version of the story. *[http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/archimedes/parabola.html Archimedes' ''Quadrature Of The Parabola''] Translated by [[Thomas Heath]]. *[http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/archimedes/circle.html Archimedes' ''On The Measurement Of The Circle''] Translated by [[Thomas Heath]]. * [http://www.mcs.drexel.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Cattle/Statement.html Archimedes' Cattle Problem] * [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ArchimedesCattleProblem.html Archimedes' Cattle Problem] *{{gutenberg author|id=Archimedes|name=Archimedes}} * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/pythagoras/archi.shtml Angle Trisection by Archimedes of Syracuse (Java)] * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/ctk/Parabola.shtml#ArchimedesTriangle Archimedes'Triangle (Java)] * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/pythagoras/Archimedes.shtml An ancient extra-geometric proof] * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/ctk/Parabola.shtml#SqParabola Archimedes' Squaring of Parabola (Java)] at [[cut-the-knot]] * [http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Mirrors.htm Archimedes and his Burning Mirrors, Reality or Fantasy?] [[ar:أرخميدس]] [[bg:Архимед]] [[bn:আর্কিমিডিস]] [[ca:Arquimedes]] [[cs:Archimédés]] [[da:Arkimedes]] [[de:Archimedes]] [[et:Archimedes]] [[el:Αρχιμήδης]] [[es:Arquímedes]] [[eo:Arkimedo]] [[fr:Archimède]] [[gl:Arquimedes]] [[ko:아르키메데스]] [[hr:Arhimed]] [[ia:Archimedes]] [[io:Archimede]] [[id:Archimedes]] [[is:Arkímedes]] [[it:Archimede]] [[he:ארכימדס]] [[la:Archimedes]] [[lt:Archimedas]] [[mk:Архимед]] [[nl:Archimedes]] [[ja:アルキメデス]] [[no:Arkimedes]] [[pl:Archimedes]] [[pt:Arquimedes]] [[ru:Архимед]] [[sco:Archimedes]] [[scn:Archimedi]] [[simple:Archimedes]] [[sk:Archimedes]] [[sl:Arhimed]] [[sr:Архимед]] [[fi:Arkhimedes]] [[sv:Arkimedes]] [[tl:Archimedes]] [[th:อาร์คิมิดีส]] [[vi:Archimedes]] [[tr:Arşimet]] [[uk:Архімед]] [[zh:阿基米德]] 1845 42123227 2006-03-03T23:47:58Z Dieter Simon 2599 /* Critiques */ Have formatted this link. This does not reflect my acceptance or otherwise of the opinions professed {{mergefrom|Complementary and alternative medicine}} '''Alternative medicine''' broadly describes methods and practices used in place of, or in addition to, [[medicine|conventional medical]] treatments. The precise scope of alternative medicine is a matter of some debate and depends to a great extent on the definition of "conventional medicine." Many practitioners regard the distinction as false, preferring "good medicine" (which demonstrably works) and "bad medicine." Richard Dawkins, professor of the Public Understanding of Science at Oxford, notes that alternative medicine is defined as that set of practices that cannot be tested, refuse to be tested or consistently fail tests. The debate on alternative medicine is complicated further by the diversity of treatments that are categorized as "alternative." These include practices that incorporate spiritual, metaphysical, or religious underpinnings; non-European medical traditions; newly developed approaches to healing; and a number of others. Proponents of one class of alternative medicine may reject others. Detractors of alternative medicine may also define it as "diagnosis, treatment, or therapy which can be provided legally by persons who are not licensed to diagnose and treat illness," although some medical doctors find value using alternative therapies in the practice of "complementary medicine." Many in the scientific community define alternative medicine as any treatment, the efficacy and safety of which has not been verified through [[peer-review]]ed, controlled studies. This form of definition is not based on political views, turf protection, or economic interests, but hinges exclusively on questions of effectiveness and safety. It is thus possible for a method to change categories ''in either direction'', based on increased knowledge of its effectiveness or lack thereof. Some techniques and therapies once considered to be "alternative", have - upon being proven to be effective - been accepted into mainstream medicine. The opposite is equally true, with methods once thought to be effective being dropped when it has been discovered that their only effect was because of the [[placebo effect]], or when their side effects were found to result in an unfavorable safety-to-benefit ratio. Various advocates and critics of alternative therapies believe that the term "alternative medicine" is misleading. Some advocates believe that Western therapies are the "alternative" in that they were preceded by traditional therapies. Others believe that the term was invented by advocates of "allopathic" medicine in an attempt to discredit natural therapies [http://www.quackpotwatch.org/]. Critics of alternative therapies assert that they are not effective and consequently are not a legitimate alternative to [[conventional medicine]]. [[Richard Dawkins]], professor of the Public Understanding of Science at Oxford University, defines alternative medicine as ''"that set of practices that cannot be tested, refuse to be tested or consistently fail tests"'' (See Diamond 2003). Many on both sides believe that alternative therapies can become accepted as conventional medicine if they are scientifically proven to be effective. <!--INFOBOX -- SCROLL DOWN SEVERAL LINES FOR TEXT OF ARTICLE --> <div style="float:right;width:225px;margin:0 0 1em 1em;"> <table border=1><tr><th bgcolor="#ffcc99"> '''Alternative Medicine'''<tr><td> <tr><td align="center">This article is part of the [[Terms and concepts in alternative medicine#CAM|CAM]] series of articles.<tr><td> <tr><td> <tr><td colspan="2" align="center" bgcolor="#ffcc99">'''[[:Category:Alternative medicine|CAM Article Index]]''' </td></tr> </table> </div> <!--//END OF INFOBOX--> ==Complementary and alternative medicine== The [[National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine]] defines [[complementary and alternative medicine]] as "a group of diverse medical and health care systems, practices, and products that are not presently considered to be part of conventional medicine". One distinction that the NCCAM makes is that complementary medicine is used in conjunction with conventional medicine whereas alternative medicine is used in place of conventional medicine. The NCCAM also defines integrative medicine as the combination of "mainstream medical therapies and CAM therapies for which there is some high-quality scientific evidence of safety and effectiveness". "''Importantly, integrative medicine is not synonymous with complementary and alternative medicine (CAM). It has a far larger meaning and mission in that it calls for restoration of the focus of medicine on health and healing and emphasizes the centrality of the patient-physician relationship."'' (Snyderman, Weil 2002) ==Regulation== [[Jurisdiction]] differs concerning which branches of alternative medicine are legal, which are regulated, and which (if any) are provided by a government-controlled [[Publicly_funded_medicine | health service]] or reimbursed by a [[ Health_insurance |private health medical insurance company]]. A number of alternative medicine advocates disagree with the restrictions of government agencies that approve medical treatments (such as the American [[Food and Drug Administration]]) and the agencies' adherence to experimental evaluation methods. They claim that this impedes those seeking to bring useful and effective treatments and approaches to the public, and protest that their contributions and discoveries are unfairly dismissed, overlooked or suppressed. Alternative medicine providers often argue that health fraud should be dealt with appropriately when it occurs. ==Contemporary use of alternative medicine== [[Edzard Ernst]] wrote in the [[Medical Journal of Australia]] that "''about half the general population in developed countries use complementary and alternative medicine (CAM)''" (Ernst 2003). A [http://nccam.nih.gov/news/2004/052704.htm survey] (Barnes et al 2004) released in May 2004 by the [[National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine]], part of the [[National Institutes of Health]] in the United States, found that in 2002, 36% of Americans used some form of alternative therapy in the past 12 months &mdash; a category that included yoga, meditation, herbal treatments and the [[Atkins diet]]. If [[prayer]] was counted as an alternative therapy, the figure rose to 62.1%. Another study by Astin et al (1998) suggests a similar figure of 40%. A British telephone survey by the BBC of 1209 adults in 1998 shows that around 20% of adults in Britain had used alternative medicine in the past 12 months (Ernst & White 1999) The use of alternative medicine appears to be increasing. Eisenburg et al carried out a study in 1998 which showed that use of alternative medicine had risen from 33.8% in 1990 to 42.1% in 1997. In the United Kingdom, a [[2000]] report ordered by the [[House of Lords]] suggested that "limited data seem to support the idea that CAM use in the United Kingdom is high and is increasing"[http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld199900/ldselect/ldsctech/123/12301.htm]. ===Medical education=== Increasing numbers of medical colleges have begun offering courses in alternative medicine. For example, the [[University of Arizona]] College of Medicine offers a program in [[Integrative Medicine]] under the leadership of [[Andrew Weil|Dr. Andrew Weil]] which trains physicians in various branches of alternative medicine which "''neither rejects conventional medicine, nor embraces alternative practices uncritically.''" [http://www.ahsc.arizona.edu/opa/horizons/1997/integrate.htm] In three separate research surveys that surveyed the 125 medical schools offering a MD degree, the 19 medical schools offering a DO degree, and 585 schools of nursing in the United States: 60 percent of U.S. medical schools offering a MD degree teach CAM, 95% of Osteopathic medical school teach CAM, and 84.8% of US schools of nursing teach CAM. (Wetzel et al 1998, Saxon et al 2004, Fenton & Morris 2003) In the UK, no medical schools offer courses that teach the clinical practise of alternative medicine. However, alternative medicine is taught in several schools as part of the curriculum. Teaching is based mostly on theory and understanding alternative medicine, with emphasis on being able to communicate with alternative medicine specialists. To obtain competence in practising clinical alternative medicine, qualifications must be obtained from individual medical societies. The student must have graduated and be a qualified doctor. The [http://www.medical-acupuncture.co.uk British Medical Acupuncture Society], which offers medical acupuncture certificates to doctors, is one such example. == Support for alternative medicine == Advocates of alternative medicine hold that alternative therapies often provide the public with services not available from conventional medicine. This argument covers a range of areas, such as [[patient empowerment]], alternative methods of [[pain management]], treatment methods that support the [[biopsychosocial model]] of health, stress reduction services, other preventive health services that are not typically a part of conventional medicine, and of course complementary medicine's [[palliative care]] which is practiced by such world renowned cancer centers such as [[Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center|Memorial Sloan-Kettering]] (see Vickers 2004). ===Efficacy=== Advocates of alternative medicine hold that the various alternative treatment methods are effective in treating a wide range of major and minor medical conditions, and contend that recently published research (such as Michalsen 2003, Gonsalkorale 2003, and Berga 2003) proves the effectiveness of specific alternative treatments. They assert that a PubMed search revealed over 370,000 research papers classified as alternative medicine published in Medline-recognized journals since 1966 in the National Library of Medicine database (such as Kleijnen 1991, Linde 1997, Michalsen 2003, Gonsalkorale 2003, and Berga 2003). Advocates of alternative medicine hold that alternative medicine may provide health benefits through [[patient empowerment]], by offering more choices to the public, including treatments that are simply not available in conventional medicine. ''"Most Americans who consult alternative providers would probably jump at the chance to consult a physician who is well trained in scientifically based medicine and who is also open-minded and knowledgeable about the body's innate mechanisms of healing, the role of lifestyle factors in influencing health, and the appropriate uses of dietary supplements, herbs, and other forms of treatment, from osteopathic manipulation to Chinese and Ayurvedic medicine. In other words, they want competent help in navigating the confusing maze of therapeutic options that are available today, especially in those cases in which conventional approaches are relatively ineffective or harmful."'' (Snyderman, Weil 2002) Some physicians are willing to embrace some aspects of alternative medicine. Although advocates of alternative medicine acknowledge that the [[placebo effect]] may play a role in the benefits that some receive from alternative therapies, they point out that this does not diminish their validity. Skeptics are confounded by this view and claim that it is acknowledgement of the inefficacy of alternative treatments. ===Danger reduced when used as a complement to conventional medicine=== A major objection to alternative medicine is that it may be done in place of conventional medical treatments. As long as alternative treatments are used alongside standard conventional medical treatments, most medical doctors find most forms of complementary medicine acceptable (Vickers 2004). Consistent with previous studies, the CDC recently reported that the majority of individuals in the United States (i.e., 54.9%) used CAM in conjunction with conventional medicine. (CDC Advance Data Report #343, 2002) Patients should however always inform their medical doctor they are using alternative medicine. Some patients do not tell their medical doctors since they fear it will hurt their patient-doctor relationship. However some alternative treatments may interact with orthodox medical treatments. The issue of alternative medicine interfering with conventional medical practices is minimized when it is only turned to after the conventional medicine path has been exhausted. Many patients believe alternative medicine can help in coping with chronic illnesses for which conventional medicine offers no cure and only management. It is becoming more common for a patient's own MD to suggest alternatives when they cannot offer a treatment. == Criticism of alternative medicine == Due to the wide range of therapies that are considered to be "alternative medicine" few criticisms apply across the board. For more information about a particular therapy or branch of alternative medicine, including specific criticism, please refer to the following link: [[List of branches of alternative medicine]]. Criticisms directed at specific branches of alternative medicine range from the fairly minor (conventional treament is believed to be more effective in a particular area) to incompatibility with the known laws of physics (for example, in [[homeopathy]]). Proponents of the various forms of alternative medicine reject criticism as being founded in prejudice, financial self-interest, or ignorance. ===Efficacy=== ====Lack of proper testing==== Despite the large number of studies regarding alternative therapies, critics contend that there are no statistics on exactly how many of these studies were controlled, double-blind peer-reviewed experiments or how many produced results supporting alternative medicine or parts thereof. They contend that many forms of alternative medicine are rejected by conventional medicine because the efficacy of the treatments has not been demonstrated through double-blind [[randomized controlled trial]]s. Some skeptics of alternative practices point out that a person may attribute symptomatic relief to an otherwise ineffective therapy due to the natural recovery from or the cyclical nature of an illness, the [[placebo effect]], or the possibility that the person never originally had a true illness [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/altpsych.html]. ====Problems with known tests and studies==== Critics contend that observer bias and poor study design invalidate the results of many studies carried out by alternative medicine promoters. A review of the effectiveness of certain alternative medicine techniques for cancer treatment (Vickers 2004), while finding that most of these treatments are not merely "unproven" but are proven not to work, notes that several studies have found evidence that the [[psychosocial treatment]] of patients by [[psychologist]]s is linked to survival advantages (although it comments that these results are not consistently replicated). The same review, while specifically noting that "complementary therapies for cancer-related symptoms were not part of this review", cites studies indicating that several complementary therapies can provide benefits by, for example, reducing pain and improving the mood of patients. Some argue that less research is carried out on alternative medicine because many alternative medicine techniques cannot be patented, and hence there is little financial incentive to study them. Drug research, by contrast, can be very lucrative, which has resulted in funding of trials by pharmaceutical companies. Many people, including conventional and alternative medical practitioners, contend that this funding has led to corruption of the scientific process for approval of drug usage, and that ghostwritten work has appeared in major [[peer review|peer-reviewed]] medical journals. (Flanagin ''et al.'' 1998, Larkin 1999). Increasing the funding for research of alternative medicine techniques was the purpose of the [[U.S. National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine|National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine]]. NCCAM and its predecessor, the Office of Alternative Medicine, have spent more than $200 million on such research since 1991. The German Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices [[Commission E]] has studied many herbal remedies for efficacy. [http://www.csicop.org/si/2003-09/alternative-medicine.html] ===Safety=== Critics contend that "dubious therapies can cause death, serious injury, unnecessary suffering, and disfigurement" [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/harmquack.html] and that some people have been hurt or killed directly from the various practices or indirectly by failed diagnoses or the subsequent avoidance of conventional medicine which they believe is truly efficacious [http://www.valleyskeptic.com/perrot.htm]. Alternative medicine critics agree with its proponents that people should be free to choose whatever method of healthcare they want, but stipulate that people must be informed as to the safety and efficacy of whatever method they choose. People who choose alternative medicine may think they are choosing a safe, effective medicine, while they may only be getting [[quackery|quack]] remedies. ====Delay in seeking conventional medical treatment==== They state that those who have had success with one alternative therapy for a minor ailment may be convinced of its efficacy and persuaded to extrapolate that success to some other alternative therapy for a more serious, possibly life-threatening illness. For this reason, they contend that therapies that rely on the placebo effect to define success are very dangerous. ==== Danger can be increased when used as a complement to conventional medicine ==== A Norwegian multicentre study examined the association between the use of alternative medicines (AM) and cancer survival. 515 patients using standard medical care for cancer were followed for eight years. 22% of those patients used AM concurrently with their standard care. The study revealed that death rates were 30% higher in AM users than in those who did not use AM: "The use of AM seems to predict a shorter survival from cancer." -- [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Retrieve&list_uids=12565991&dopt=Citation Does use of alternative medicine predict survival from cancer?] Eur J Cancer 2003 Feb;39(3):372-7 Associate Professor Alastair MacLennan of the Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology in Adelaide University, Australia reports that a patient of his almost bled to death on the operating table. She had failed to mention she had been taking "natural" potions to "build up her strength" for the operation - one of them turned out to be a powerful anticoagulant which nearly caused her death. ====Issues of regulation==== Critics contend that some branches of alternative medicine are often not properly regulated in some countries to identify who practices or know what training or expertise they may possess. Critics argue that the governmental regulation of any particular alternative therapy does necessitate that the therapy is effective. ==See also== *[[Famous people in alternative medicine]] *[[History of alternative medicine]] *[[Terms and concepts in alternative medicine]] Skeptical terms: *[[Pseudoscience]] *[[Quackery]] *[[Snake oil]] *[http://www.skepticwiki.org/wiki/index.php/SCAM sCAM (so-Called "Alternative" Medicine)] == References == ===Dictionary definitions=== *[http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?query=Complementary+medicine&action=Search+OMD Complementary medicine] ===World Health Organization publication=== *[http://www.who.int/bookorders/anglais/detart1.jsp?sesslan=1&codlan=1&codcol=15&codcch=614 WHO Global Atlas of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicine] === Journals dedicated to alternative medicine research === * Alternative therapies in health and medicine. Aliso Viejo, CA : InnoVision Communications, c1995- NLM ID: [http://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&v2=1&ti=1,1&Search_Arg=9502013&Search_Code=0359&CNT=20&SID=1 9502013] * Alternative medicine review : a journal of clinical therapeutic. Sandpoint, Idaho : Thorne Research, Inc., c1996- NLM ID: [http://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&v2=1&ti=1,1&Search_Arg=9705340&Search_Code=0359&CNT=20&SID=1 9705340] * [http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6882 BMC complementary and alternative medicine]. London : BioMed Central, 2001- NLM ID: [http://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&v2=1&ti=1,1&Search_Arg=101088661&Search_Code=0359&CNT=20&SID=1 101088661] * Complementary therapies in medicine. Edinburgh ; New York : Churchill Livingstone, c1993- NLM ID: [http://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&v2=1&ti=1,1&Search_Arg=9308777&Search_Code=0359&CNT=20&SID=1 9308777] * [http://ecam.oxfordjournals.org/ Evidence based complementary and alternative medicine] * [http://www.openmindjournals.com/EBInteg.html Evidence Based journal of Integrative medicine] * [http://www.jintmed.com/ Journal of Integrative medicine.] * [http://www.catchword.com/titles/10755535.htm The journal of alternative and complementary medicine : research on paradigm, practice, and policy.] New York, NY : Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., c1995- NLM ID: [http://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&v2=1&ti=1,1&Search_Arg=9508124&Search_Code=0359&CNT=20&SID=1 9508124] * Journal of alternative & complementary medicine. London : Argus Health Publications, c1989- NLM ID: [http://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&v2=1&ti=1,1&Search_Arg=9883124&Search_Code=0359&CNT=20&SID=1 9883124] *[http://www.liebertpub.com/publication.aspx?pub_id=26 Journal for Alternative and Complementary Medicine] *[http://www.sram.org/index.html Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine (SRAM)] === Research articles cited in the text === # Astin JA "Why patients use alternative medicine: results of a national study" ''JAMA'' 1998; '''279'''(19): 1548-1553 # Barnes P, Powell-Griner E, McFann K, Nahin R. "Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use Among Adults: United States, 2002." ''Advanced data from vital health and statistics'' 2004; Hyattsville, Maryland:NCHS [http://nccam.nih.gov/news/report.pdf Online] # Benedetti F, Maggi G, Lopiano L. "Open Versus Hidden Medical Treatments: The Patient's Knowledge About a Therapy Affects the Therapy Outcome." ''Prevention & Treatment'', 2003; '''6'''(1), [http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume6/pre0060001a.html APA online] # Berga SL, Marcus MD, Loucks TL. "Recovery of ovarian activity in women with functional hypothalamic amenorrhea who were treated with cognitive behavior therapy." ''Fertility and Sterility'' 2003; ''80''(4): 976-981 [http://www.fertstert.org/article/PIIS0015028203011245/abstract Abstract] # Downing AM, Hunter DG. "Validating clinical reasoning: a question of perspective, but whose perspective?" ''Man Ther'', 2003; '''8'''(2): 117-9. PMID 12890440 [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WN0-487KJXH-3&_coverDate=05%2F31%2F2003&_alid=110095405&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=6948&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=8da5eb9e5359691e31c6cee489724da8 Manual Therapy Online] # Eisenberg DM. "Advising patients who seek alternative medical therapies." ''Ann Intern Med'' 1997; '''127''':61-69. PMID 9214254 # Eisenberg, DM, Davis RB, Ettner SL "Trends in alternative medicine use in the United States 1990-1997." ''JAMA'', 1998; '''280''':1569-1575. PMID 9820257 # Ernst E. "Obstacles to research in complementary and alternative medicine." '''Medical Journal of Australia'', 2003; '''179'''(6): 279-80. PMID 12964907 http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/179_06_150903/ern10442_fm-1.html MJA online] # Fenton MV, Morris DL. "The integration of holistic nursing practices and complementary and alternative modalities into curricula of schools of nursing." ''Altern Ther Health Med,'' 2003; '''9'''(4):62-7. PMID 12868254 # Flanagin A, Carey LA, Fontanarosa PB. "Prevalence of articles with honorary authors and ghost authors in peer-reviewed medical journals." ''JAMA'', 1998; '''280'''(3):222-4. [http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/280/3/222 Full text] # Gonsalkorale WM, Miller V, Afzal A, Whorwell PJ. "Long term benefits of hypnotherapy for irritable bowel syndrome." ''Gut'', 2003; '''52'''(11):1623-9. PMID 14570733 # Gunn IP. "A critique of Michael L. Millenson's book, Demanding medical excellence: doctors and accountability in the information age, and its relevance to CRNAs and nursing." ''AANA J'', 1998 '''66'''(6):575-82. Review. PMID 10488264 # Kleijnen J, Knipschild P, ter Riet G. "Clinical trials of homoeopathy." ''BMJ'', 1991; '''302''':316-23. Erratum in: ''BMJ'', 1991;'''302''':818. PMID 1825800 # Larkin M. "Whose article is it anyway?" ''Lancet'', 1999; '''354''':136. [http://www.thelancet.com/journal/vol354/iss9173/full/llan.354.9173.news.3708.1 Editorial] # Linde K, Clausius N, Ramirez G. "Are the clinical effects of homeopathy placebo effects? A meta-analysis of placebo-controlled trials." ''Lancet'', 1997; '''350''': 834-43. Erratum in: Lancet 1998 Jan 17;351(9097):220. PMID 9310601 # Michalsen A, Ludtke R, Buhring M. "Thermal hydrotherapy improves quality of life and hemodynamic function in patients with chronic heart failure." ''Am Heart J'', 2003; '''146'''(4):E11. PMID 14564334 # Saxon DW, Tunnicliff G, Brokaw JJ, Raess BU. "Status of complementary and alternative medicine in the osteopathic medical school curriculum." ''J Am Osteopath Assoc'' 2004; '''104'''(3):121-6. PMID 15083987 # Snyderman R, Weil AT. "Integrative medicine: bringing medicine back to its roots." ''Arch Intern Med'' 2002; '''162''':395&#8211;397. # Tonelli MR. "The limits of evidence-based medicine." ''Respir Care'', 2001; '''46'''(12): 1435-40; discussion 1440-1. Review. PMID 11728302 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11863470 PMID: 11863470] # Vickers A. "Alternative Cancer Cures: "Unproven" or "Disproven"?" ''CA Cancer J Clin'' 2004; '''54''': 110-118. [http://caonline.amcancersoc.org/cgi/content/full/54/2/110 Online] # Wetzel MS, Eisenberg DM, Kaptchuk TJ. "Courses involving complementary and alternative medicine at US medical schools." ''JAMA'' 1998; '''280'''(9):784 -787. PMID 9729989 # Zalewski Z. "Importance of Philosophy of Science to the History of Medical Thinking." ''CMJ'' 1999; '''40''': 8-13. [http://www.bsb.mefst.hr/cmj/1999/4001/400102.htm CMJ online] === Other works that discuss alternative medicine === * Diamond, J. ''Snake Oil and Other Preoccupations'' 2001 (ISBN 0099428334), foreword by Richard Dawkins reprinted in Dawkins, R. ''A Devil's Chaplain'' 2003 (ISBN 0753817500). * [http://www.cwru.edu/med/epidbio/mphp439/Sources_of_Healthcare.htm WHERE DO AMERICANS GO FOR HEALTHCARE?] by Anna Rosenfeld, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA. *Planer, Felix E. 1988 ''Superstition'' Revised ed. Buffalo, New York: Prometheus Books *Hand, Wayland D. 1980 ''Folk Magical Medicine and Symbolism in the West'' in ''Magical Medicine'' Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 305-319. *Phillips Stevens Jr. Nov./Dec. 2001 ''Magical Thinking in Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' Skeptical Inquirer Magazine, Nov.Dec/2001 * Illich I. Limits to Medicine. Medical Nemesis: The expropriation of Health. Penguin Books, 1976. * Dillard, James and Terra Ziporyn. ''Alternative Medicine for Dummies''. Foster City, CA: IDG Books Worldwide, Inc., 1998. ==External links== ===General information=== * [http://nccam.nih.gov/ The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine] - US National Institutes of Health * [http://www.i-c-m.org.uk/ Institute for Complementary Medicine (ICM), UK] - includes article "What is Complementary Medicine?" *[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/nccam/camonpubmed.html Complementary and Alternative Medicine on PubMed] - Alternative Medicine Research Database * Web pages for [http://www.open2.net/alternativemedicine/index.html new BBC/Open University television series "Alternative Medicine"] that examines the evidence scientifically. ===Advocacy=== *[http://www.noah-health.org/en/alternative/ Consumer focused alternative medicine information] - in English and Spanish *[http://www.rosenthal.hs.columbia.edu/ Complementary and alternative medicine information] - Columbia University supported and ad-free *[http://www.wholehealthmd.com/ WholeHealth Networks' CAM education website] - created by practicing MD's *[http://goldbamboo.com/ Traditional and Alternative Medicine] - both clinical and alternative health perspectives *[http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/Chinese-medicine.html Alternative Medicine: Chinese medicine] *[http://www.hands-on-london.com Alternative Medicine: Osteopathy] *[http://circleofhealers.com Circle of Healers] - Alternative Medicine News and Resources *[http://tutorials.naturalhealthperspective.com/history.html A History of Western Natural Healing Practices] *[http://autopenhosting.org/whatismedicine/ What is Medicine?] - Historical perspective of various modes of medicine *[http://www.dailystar.com/dailystar/printDS/6529.php "Weil's integrative medicine gathering steam"], by Carla McClain, ''Arizona Daily Star'', Published: 01-20-2004 *[http://health.dailynewscentral.com/content/view/0001181/31/ Alternative Medicine Becoming Mainstream] *[http://www.alternativehealth.co.uk/ Alternative Health &amp; Complementary Medicine UK Directory] *[http://www.althealthinfo.com/ Alternative Medicine and Natural Health] Information and news on alternative medicine *[http://www.clickabove.com/alternative.htm Comprehensive list of Alternative Medicine Websites] ===Critiques=== *[http://www.skepdic.com/tialtmed.html Skeptic's Dictionary: Alternative Medicine] *[http://www.canoe.ca/HealthAlternative/home.html Alternative medicine: A Skeptical Look] *[http://www.quackwatch.org/index.html Quackwatch: Your Guide to Health Fraud, Quackery, and Intelligent Decisions] *[http://podbazaar.com/object/program/read/126100789566373908?k=29E23E6803DC7B878CFD8141B78AD53C Shreekant Gokhale's Podcasts Challenging Alternative Medicine.] <!-- Categorization --> [[Category:Alternative medicine|*0]] [[Category:Pseudoscience]] [[Category:Protoscience]] <!-- Localization --> [[ar:طب بديل]] [[da:Naturmedicin]] [[de:Alternativmedizin]] [[et:Alternatiivmeditsiin]] [[es:Medicina alternativa]] [[fr:Médecine parallèle]] [[ko:대체의학]] [[it:Medicina alternativa]] [[he:רפואה אלטרנטיבית]] [[nl:Alternatieve geneeswijze]] [[ja:代替医療]] [[no:Alternativ medisin]] [[pl:Medycyna niekonwencjonalna]] [[pt:Medicina alternativa]] [[ru:Альтернативная медицина]] [[fi:Vaihtoehtoinen hoitomuoto]] [[sv:Alternativmedicin]] [[uk:Альтернативна медицина]] 1847 38475065 2006-02-06T16:09:33Z Joseolgon 577139 In [[geometry]] an '''Archimedean solid''' or [[semiregular polyhedra|'''semi-regular solid''']] is a semi-regular [[convex]] [[polyhedron]] composed of two or more types of [[polygon|regular polygon]] meeting in identical [[vertex|vertices]]. They are distinct from the [[Platonic solid]]s, which are composed of only one type of polygon meeting in identical vertices, and from the [[Johnson solid]]s, whose regular polygonal faces do not meet in identical vertices. ==Origin of name== The Archimedean solids take their name from [[Archimedes]], who discussed them in a now-lost work. During the [[Renaissance]], [[artist]]s and [[mathematician]]s valued ''pure forms'' and rediscovered all of these forms. This search was completed around [[1619]] by [[Johannes Kepler]], who defined prisms, antiprisms, and the non-convex solids known as [[Kepler-Poinsot solid]]s. ==Classification== There are 13 Archimedean solids (15 if the [[mirror image]]s of two [[chirality (mathematics)|enantiomorph]]s, see below, are counted separately). Here the ''vertex configuration'' refers to the type of regular polygons that meet at any given vertex. For example, a vertex configuration of (4,6,8) means that a square, hexagon, and octagon meet at a vertex (with the order taken to be clockwise around the vertex). The number of vertices is 720° divided by the vertex [[Defect (geometry)|angle defect]]. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- ! Name ! picture ! colspan=2|Faces ! Edges ! Vertices ! [[Vertex configuration]] ! [[Symmetry group]] |- | [[truncated tetrahedron]] | [[image:truncatedtetrahedron.jpg|60px|Truncated tetrahedron]]<br /><small>([[:image:truncatedtetrahedron.gif|Video]])</small> | 8 || 4 triangles<br>4 [[hexagon]]s || 18 | 12 | 3.6.6 || T<sub>d</sub> |- | [[cuboctahedron]] | [[image:cuboctahedron.jpg|60px|Cuboctahedron]]<br /><small>([[:image:cuboctahedron.gif|Video]])</small> | &nbsp;14&nbsp; || 8 [[triangle (geometry)|triangle]]s<br>6 [[square (geometry)|square]]s | 24 || 12 || 3.4.3.4 | O<sub>h</sub> |- | [[truncated cube]]<br />or truncated hexahedron | [[image:truncatedhexahedron.jpg|60px|Truncated hexahedron]]<br /><small>([[:image:truncatedhexahedron.gif|Video]])</small> | 14 || 8 triangles<br>6 [[octagon]]s || 36 | 24 | 3.8.8 || O<sub>h</sub> |- | [[truncated octahedron]] | [[image:truncatedoctahedron.jpg|60px|Truncated octahedron]]<br /><small>([[:image:truncatedoctahedron.gif|Video]])</small> | 14 || 6 squares<br>8 hexagons || 36 || 24 | 4.6.6 || O<sub>h</sub> |- | [[rhombicuboctahedron]]<br />or small rhombicuboctahedron | [[image:rhombicuboctahedron.jpg|60px|Rhombicuboctahedron]]<br /><small>([[:image:rhombicuboctahedron.gif|Video]])</small> | 26 ||8 triangles<br>18 squares || 48 || 24 | 3.4.4.4 || O<sub>h</sub> |- | [[truncated cuboctahedron]]<br />or great rhombicuboctahedron | [[image:truncatedcuboctahedron.jpg|60px|Truncated cuboctahedron]]<br /><small>([[:image:truncatedcuboctahedron.gif|Video]])</small> | 26 || 12 squares<br>8 hexagons<br>6 octagons | 72 || 48 || 4.6.8 || O<sub>h</sub> |- | [[snub cube]]<br />or snub cuboctahedron<br>(2 [[chirality (mathematics)|chiral]] forms) | [[image:snubhexahedronccw.jpg|60px|Snub hexahedron (Ccw)]]<br /><small>([[:image:snubhexahedronccw.gif|Video]])</small><br />[[image:snubhexahedroncw.jpg|60px|Snub hexahedron (Cw)]]<br /><small>([[:image:snubhexahedroncw.gif|Video]])</small> | 38 ||32 triangles<br>6 squares || 60 || 24 | 3.3.3.3.4 | O |- | [[icosidodecahedron]] | [[image:icosidodecahedron.jpg|60px|Icosidodecahedron]]<br /><small>([[:image:icosidodecahedron.gif|Video]])</small> | 32 || 20 triangles<br>12 [[pentagon]]s | 60 || 30 | 3.5.3.5 || I<sub>h</sub> |- | [[truncated dodecahedron]] | [[image:truncateddodecahedron.jpg|60px|Truncated dodecahedron]]<br /><small>([[:image:truncateddodecahedron.gif|Video]])</small> | 32 ||20 triangles<br>12 [[decagon]]s || 90 | 60 | 3.10.10 || I<sub>h</sub> |- | [[truncated icosahedron]]<br />or [[Fullerene|buckyball]]<BR>or [[Football (ball)|football]]/soccer ball | [[image:truncatedicosahedron.jpg|60px|Truncated icosahedron]]<br /><small>([[:image:truncatedicosahedron.gif|Video]])</small> | 32 || 12 pentagons<br>20 hexagons || 90 | 60 | 5.6.6 || I<sub>h</sub> |- | [[rhombicosidodecahedron]]<br />or small rhombicosidodecahedron | [[image:rhombicosidodecahedron.jpg|60px|Rhombicosidodecahedron]]<br /><small>([[:image:rhombicosidodecahedron.gif|Video]])</small> | 62 || 20 triangles<br>30 squares<br>12 pentagons | 120 || 60 || 3.4.5.4 | I<sub>h</sub> |- | [[truncated icosidodecahedron]]<br />or great rhombicosidodecahedron | [[image:truncatedicosidodecahedron.jpg|60px|Truncated icosidodecahedron]]<br /><small>([[:image:truncatedicosidodecahedron.gif|Video]])</small> | 62 ||30 squares<br>20 hexagons<br>12 decagons | 180 || 120 || 4.6.10 | I<sub>h</sub> |- | [[snub dodecahedron]]<br />or snub icosidodecahedron<br>(2 [[chirality (mathematics)|chiral]] forms) | [[image:snubdodecahedronccw.jpg|60px|Snub dodecahedron (Ccw)]]<br /><small>([[:image:snubdodecahedronccw.gif|Video]])</small><br />[[image:snubdodecahedroncw.jpg|60px|Snub dodecahedron (Cw)]]<br><small>([[:image:snubdodecahedroncw.gif|Video]])</small> | 92 || 80 triangles<br>12 pentagons || 150 | 60 | 3.3.3.3.5 | I |} The cuboctahedron and icosidodecahedron are edge-uniform and are called quasi-regular. The snub cube and snub dodecahedron are known as ''chiral'', as they come in a left-handed (Latin: levomorph or laevomorph) form and right-handed (Latin: dextromorph) form. When something comes in multiple forms which are each other's three-dimensional [[mirror image]], these forms may be called enantiomorphs. (This nomenclature is also used for the forms of [[chemical compound]]s). The [[dual polyhedron|duals]] of the Archimedean solids are called the [[Catalan solid|Catalan solids]]. Together with the [[bipyramid|bipyramids]] and [[trapezohedron|trapezohedra]], these are the face-uniform solids with regular vertices. == See also == * [[List of uniform polyhedra]] ==External links== *[http://www.software3d.com/Archimedean.html Paper models of Archimedean solids] *[http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra] *[http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra *[http://www.cs.utk.edu/~plank/plank/origami/penultimate/intro.html Penultimate Modular Origami] *[http://ibiblio.org/e-notes/3Dapp/Convex.htm Interactive 3D polyhedra] in Java [[Category:Archimedean solids]] [[Category:Polyhedra]] [[es:sólidos de Arquímedes]] [[de:Archimedischer Körper]] [[ko:아르키메데스의 다면체]] [[it:Solido archimedeo]] [[nl:Halfregelmatig veelvlak]] [[pl:Wielościan półforemny]] [[pt:Sólidos de Arquimedes]] [[ru:Полуправильный многогранник]] [[zh:半正多面體]] 1848 15900310 2004-10-10T03:54:39Z Timwi 13051 fix double-redirect #REDIRECT [[African languages]] 1849 15900311 2005-02-03T20:39:25Z ALoan 63066 #REDIRECT [[Airbus]] #REDIRECT [[Airbus]] 1851 42125228 2006-03-04T00:04:10Z Tomruen 63601 /* Star antiprisms */ {| border="1" bgcolor="#ffffff" cellpadding="5" align="right" style="margin-left:10px" width="250" !bgcolor=#e7dcc3 colspan=2|Set of uniform antiprisms |- |align=center colspan=2|[[image:antiprism17.jpg|240px|Heptadecagonal antiprism]]<br /> |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Type||Antiprism |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Faces||2 [[polygon|n-gon]]s, 2n [[triangle]]s |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Edges||4n |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Vertices||2n |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Vertex configuration]]||3.3.3.n |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Symmetry group]]||[[Symmetry_group#Three_dimensions|''D''<sub>''nd''</sub>]] |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Dual polyhedron]]||[[trapezohedron]] |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Properties||convex, semi-regular (vertex-uniform) |} An ''n''-sided '''antiprism''' is a [[polyhedron]] composed of two parallel copies of some particular ''n''-sided [[polygon]], connected by an alternating band of [[triangle]]s. Antiprisms are a subclass of the [[prismatoid]]s. Antiprisms are similar to [[prism (geometry)|prism]]s except the bases are twisted relative to each other: the vertices are symmetrically staggered. In the case of a regular ''n''-sided base, one usually considers the case where its copy is twisted by an angle 180°/n. Extra regularity is obtained by the line connecting the base centers being perpendicular to the base planes, making it a '''right antiprism'''. It has, apart from the base faces, 2''n'' isosceles triangles as faces. A '''[[Uniform_polyhedron|uniform]] antiprism''' has, apart from the base faces, 2''n'' equilateral triangles as faces. They form an infinite series of vertex-uniform polyhedra, as do the uniform prisms. For ''n''=2 we have as degenerate case the regular [[tetrahedron]]. == Forms == [[Image:Tetrahedron.png|80px]] [[Image:Trigonal_antiprism.png|80px]] [[Image:Square antiprism.png|80px]] [[Image:Pentagonal antiprism.png|80px]] [[Image:Hexagonal antiprism.png|80px]] [[Image:Octagonal antiprism.png|80px]] [[Image:Decagonal antiprism.png|80px]] [[Image:Dodecagonal antiprism.png|80px]] * (linear antiprism) [[Tetrahedron]] - 4 triangles - self dual * (trigonal antiprism) [[Octahedron]] - 8 triangles - dual [[cube]] * [[Square antiprism]] - 8 triangles, 2 squares - dual [[tetragonal trapezohedron]] * [[Pentagonal antiprism]] - 10 triangles, 2 pentagons - dual [[pentagonal trapezohedron]] * [[Hexagonal antiprism]] - 12 triangles, 2 hexagons - dual [[hexagonal trapezohedron]] * ''Septagonal antiprism'' - 14 triangles, 2 septagons - dual [[septagonal trapezohedron]] * [[Octagonal antiprism]] - 16 triangles, 2 octagons - dual [[octagonal trapezohedron]] * ... * [[Decagonal antiprism]] - 20 triangles, 2 decagons - dual [[decagonal trapezohedron]] * ... * [[Dodecagonal antiprism]] - 24 triangles, 2 dodecagons - dual [[dodecagonal trapezohedron]] * ... * '''n-agonal antiprism''' - 2n triangles, 2 n-agons - dual [[trapezohedron|n-agonal trapezohedron]] If ''n''=3 then we only have triangles; we get the [[octahedron]], a particular type of right triangular antiprism which is also edge- and face-uniform, and so counts among the [[Platonic solid]]s. The [[dual polyhedron|dual polyhedra]] of the antiprisms are the [[trapezohedron|trapezohedra]]. Their existence was first discussed and their name was coined by [[Johannes Kepler]]. == Cartesian coordinates == [[Cartesian coordinates]] for the vertices of a right antiprism with ''n''-gonal bases and isosceles triangles are : <math>( \cos(k\pi/n), \sin(k\pi/n), (-1)^k a )\;</math> with ''k'' ranging from 0 to 2''n''-1; if the triangles are equilateral, :<math>2a^2=\cos(\pi/n)-\cos(2\pi/n)\;</math>. == Symmetry == The [[symmetry group]] of a right ''n''-sided antiprism with regular base and isosceles side faces is ''D<sub>nd</sub>'' of order 4''n'', except in the case of a tetrahedron, which has the larger symmetry group '''T<sub>d</sub>''' of order 24, which has three versions of ''D<sub>2d</sub>'' as subgroups, and the octahedron, which has the larger symmetry group '''O<sub>d</sub>''' of order 48, which has four versions of ''D<sub>3d</sub>'' as subgroups. The symmetry group contains [[inversion]] [[iff]] ''n'' is odd. The [[rotation group]] is ''D<sub>n</sub>'' of order 2''n'', except in the case of a tetrahedron, which has the larger rotation group '''T''' of order 12, which has three versions of ''D<sub>2</sub>'' as subgroups, and the octahedron, which has the larger rotation group '''O''' of order 24, which has four versions of ''D<sub>3</sub>'' as subgroups. == Star antiprisms == Uniform antiprisms can also be constructed on [[star polygon]]s: {''n''/''m''} = {5/2}, {7/3}, {7/4}, {8/3}, {9/2}, {9/4}, {10/3}... For any [[coprime]] pair of integers ''n,m'' such that 2''m'' < ''n'', there are two forms: * a normal '''antiprism''' with vertex configuration ''3.3.3.n/m''; * a '''crossed antiprism''' with vertex configuration ''3.3.3.n/(n-m)''. {| |align=center|[[Image:Pentagrammic antiprism.png|100px]]<BR>[[Pentagrammic antiprism|''3.3.3.5/2'']] |align=center|[[Image:Pentagrammic crossed antiprism.png|100px]]<BR>[[Pentagrammic crossed-antiprism|''3.3.3.5/3'']] |} ==External links== *[http://www.software3d.com/Prisms.html Paper models of prisms and antiprisms] *[http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra] *[http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra ** [[VRML]] models [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/alphabetic-list.html (George Hart)] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/octahedron.wrl <3>] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/square_antiprism.wrl <4>] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/pentagonal_antiprism.wrl <5>] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/hexagonal_antiprism.wrl <6>] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/heptagonal_antiprism.wrl <7>] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/octagonal_antiprism.wrl <8>] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/enneagonal_antiprism.wrl <9>] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/decagonal_antiprism.wrl <10>] [[Category:Polyhedra]] [[Category:Uniform polyhedra]] [[Category:Prismatoid polyhedra]] [[pl:Antygraniastos&#322;up]] [[pt:Antiprisma]] [[ru:&#1040;&#1085;&#1090;&#1080;&#1087;&#1088;&#1080;&#1079;&#1084;&#1072;]] [[ja:反角柱]] 1852 15900314 2004-11-18T17:33:02Z Didactohedron 71041 fixing double redirect #REDIRECT [[Ancient Greece]] 1853 40587451 2006-02-21T17:27:02Z Xerocs 757355 rvv ===Flora=== The vegetation of [[Africa]] follows very closely the distribution of heat and moisture. The northern and southern temperate zones have a flora distinct from that of the continent generally, which is tropical. In the countries bordering the [[Mediterranean]] are groves of [[orange (fruit)|orange]]s and [[olive]] trees, evergreen [[oak]]s, [[cork oak|cork]] trees and [[pine]]s, intermixed with [[cupressus|cypresses]], [[myrtle]]s, [[arbutus]] and fragrant [[Erica|tree-heaths]]. South of the [[Atlas mountains|Atlas]] range the conditions alter. The zones of minimum rainfall have a very scanty flora, consisting of plants adapted to resist the great dryness. Characteristic of the [[Sahara]] is the [[date palm]], which flourishes where other vegetation can scarcely maintain existence, while in the semidesert regions the [[acacia]] (whence is obtained gum-arabic) is abundant. The more humid regions have a richer vegetation; dense forest where the rainfall is greatest and variations of temperature least, conditions found chiefly on the tropical coasts, and in the west African equatorial basin with its extension towards the upper [[Nile]]; and [[savanna]] interspersed with trees on the greater part of the plateaus, passing as the desert regions are approached into a scrub vegetation consisting of thorny acacias, etc. Forests also occur on the humid slopes of mountain ranges up to a certain elevation. In the coast regions the typical tree is the [[mangrove]], which flourishes wherever the soil is of a [[swamp]] character. The dense [[forest]]s of West Africa contain, in addition to a great variety of [[hardwood]]s, two [[Arecaceae|palms]], ''Elaeis guincensis'' ([[oil palm]]) and ''Raphia vinifera'' ([[bamboo palm]]), not found, generally speaking, in the savanna regions. ''[[Bombax]]'' or silk-cotton trees attain gigantic proportions in the forests, which are the home of the india rubber-producing plants and of many valuable kinds of timber trees, such as [[odum]] (''Chlorophora excelsa''), [[ebony]], [[mahogany]] (''Khaya senegalensis''), [[Oldfieldia]] (''Oldfieldia africana'') and [[camwood]] (''Baphia nitida''). The climbing plants in the tropical forests are exceedingly luxuriant and the undergrowth or "bush" is extremely dense. In the savannas the most characteristic trees are the monkey bread tree or [[baobab]] (''Adanisonia digitata''), [[doom palm]] (''Hyphaene'') and [[euphorbia]]s. The [[coffee]] plant grows wild in such widely separated places as [[Liberia]] and southern [[Abyssinia]]. The higher mountains have a special flora showing close agreement over wide intervals of space, as well as affinities with the mountain flora of the eastern [[Mediterranean]], the [[Himalaya]] and [[Indo-China]]. In the swamp regions of north-east Africa [[papyrus]] and associated plants, including the soft-wooded [[ambach]], flourish in immense quantities, and little else is found in the way of vegetation. South Africa is largely destitute of forest save in the lower valleys and coast regions. Tropical flora disappears, and in the semi-desert plains the fleshy, leafless, contorted species of [[kapsia]]s, [[mesembryanthemum]]s, [[aloe]]s and other succulent plants make their appearance. There are, too, valuable timber trees, such as the [[Podocarpus|Yellow-wood]] (''Podocarpus elongatus''), [[stinkwood]] (''Ocotea''), [[sneezewood]] or [[Cape ebony]] (''Pteroxylon utile'') and ironwood. Extensive miniature woods of heaths are found in almost endless variety and covered throughout the greater part of the year with innumerable blossoms in which red is very prevalent. Of the grasses of Africa alfa is very abundant in the plateaus of the Atlas range. ===Fauna=== The fauna again shows the effect of the characteristics of the vegetation. The open savannas are the home of large [[ungulate]]s, especially [[antelope]]s, the [[giraffe]] (peculiar to Africa), [[zebra]], [[Cape_buffalo|buffalo]], wild [[donkey|ass]] and four species of [[rhinoceros]]; and of carnivores, such as the [[lion]], [[leopard]], [[hyena]], etc. The [[okapi]] (a genus restricted to Africa) is found only in the dense forests of the [[Congo River|Congo]] basin. [[Bear]]s are confined to the Atlas region, [[wolf|wolves]] and [[fox]]es to North Africa. The [[elephant]] (though its range has become restricted through the attacks of hunters) is found both in the savannas and forest regions, the latter being otherwise poor in large game, though the special habitat of the [[chimpanzee]] and [[gorilla]]. [[Baboon]]s and [[mandrill]]s, with few exceptions, are peculiar to Africa. The single-humped [[camel]], as a domestic animal, is especially characteristic of the northern deserts and steppes. The rivers in the tropical zone abound with [[hippopotamus|hippopotami]] and [[crocodile]]s, the former entirely confined to Africa. The vast herds of game, formerly so characteristic of many parts of Africa, have much diminished with the increase of intercourse with the interior. Game reserves have, however, been established in [[South Africa]], [[British Central Africa]], [[British East Africa]], [[Somahland]], etc., while measures for the protection of wild animals were laid down in an international convention signed in May 1900. The [[ornithology]] of northern Africa presents a close resemblance to that of southern Europe, scarcely a species being found which does not also occur in the other countries bordering the Mediterranean. Among the birds most characteristic of Africa are the [[ostrich]] and the [[secretary-bird]]. The ostrich is widely dispersed, but is found chiefly in the [[desert]] and [[steppe]] regions. The secretary-bird is common in the south. The [[weaver bird]]s and their allies, including the [[long-tailed whydah]]s, are abundant, as are, among game-birds, the [[francolin]] and [[guineafowl]]. Many of the smaller birds, such as the [[sunbird]]s, [[bee-eater]]s, the [[parrot]]s and [[kingfisher]]s, as well as the larger [[plantain-eater]]s, are noted for the brilliance of their plumage. Of [[reptile]]s the [[lizard]] and [[chameleon]] are common, and there are a number of venomous [[snake]]s, though these are not so numerous as in other tropical countries. The [[scorpion]] is abundant. Of [[insect]]s Africa has many thousand different kinds; of these the [[locust]] is the proverbial scourge of the continent, and the ravages of the [[termite]]s are almost incredible. The spread of [[malaria]] by means of [[mosquito]]es is common. The [[tsetse fly]], whose bite is fatal to all domestic animals, is common in many districts of South and East Africa. Fortunately it is found nowhere outside Africa. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Africa]] 1854 38566653 2006-02-07T03:51:36Z Cdc 132820 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.101.215.25|71.101.215.25]] ([[User talk:71.101.215.25|talk]]) to last version by LeonardoGregianin [[Image:LocationAfrica.png|300px|right]] {{commonscat|Maps of Africa}} '''[[Africa]]''' is a [[continent]] comprised of 61 political territories (including 53 [[United Nations member states|countries]]), representing the largest of the three great southward projections from the main mass of [[Earth]]'s surface. It includes, within its remarkably regular outline, an area of 30,368,609 [[square kilometre|km<sup>2</sup>]] (11,725,385 [[square mile|mi<sup>2</sup>]]), including adjacent islands. Separated from [[Europe]] by the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and from much of [[Asia]] by the [[Red Sea]], Africa is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by the Isthmus of Suez (which is transected by the [[Suez Canal]]), 130 km (80 miles) wide. For [[geopolitical]] purposes, the [[Sinai Peninsula]] of [[Egypt]] – east of the Suez Canal – is often considered part of Africa. From the most northerly point, Ras ben Sakka in [[Morocco]], a little west of [[Cape Blanc]], in 37°21′ N, to the most southerly point, [[Cape Agulhas]] in [[South Africa]], 34°51′15″ S, is a distance approximately of 8,000 km (5,000 miles); from [[Cape Verde]], 17°33′22″ W, the westernmost point, to Ras Hafun in [[Somalia]], 51°27′52″ E, the most easterly projection, is a distance (also approximately) of 7,400 km (4,600 miles). The length of coast-line is 26,000 km (16,100 miles) and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is shown by the fact that Europe, which covers only [[1 E12 m²|9,700,000 km<sup>2</sup>]] (3,760,000 square miles), has a coastline of 32,000 km (19,800 miles). The main structural lines of the continent show both the east-to-west direction characteristic, at least in the eastern hemisphere, of the more northern parts of the world, and the north-to-south direction seen in the southern peninsulas. [[Africa]] is thus composed of two segments at right angles, the northern running from east to west, the southern from north to south, the subordinate lines corresponding in the main to these two directions. === Main Geographical Features === [[Image:Africa satellite plane.jpg|thumb|300px|]] The average elevation of the continent approximates closely to 600 m (2,000 ft), which is roughly the elevation of both [[North America|North]] and [[South America]], but is considerably less than that of [[Asia]], 950 m (3,117 ft). In contrast with the other continents it is marked by the comparatively small area both of very high and of very low ground, lands under 180 m (600 ft) occupying an unusually small part of the surface; while not only are the highest elevations inferior to those of Asia and South America, but the area of land over 3,000 m (10,000 ft) is also quite insignificant, being represented almost entirely by individual peaks and mountain ranges. Moderately elevated tablelands are thus the characteristic feature of the continent, though the surface of these is broken by higher peaks and ridges. (So prevalent are these isolated peaks and ridges that a special term [Inselberg-landschaft] has been adopted in [[Germany]] to describe this kind of country, which is thought to be in great part the result of wind action.) As a general rule, the higher tablelands lie to the east and south, while a progressive diminution in altitude towards the west and north is observable. Apart from the lowlands and the [[Atlas mountains|Atlas mountain]] range, the continent may be divided into two regions of higher and lower plateaus, the dividing line (somewhat concave to the north-west) running from the middle of the [[Red Sea]] to about 6 deg. S. on the west coast. Africa can be divided into a number of geographic zones: *The coast plains - often fringed seawards by mangrove swamps - never stretching far from the coast, except on the lower courses of streams. Recent alluvial flats are found chiefly in the delta of the more important rivers. Elsewhere the coast lowlands merely form the lowest steps of the system of terraces which constitutes the ascent to the inner plateaus. *The [[Atlas Mountains|Atlas range]], which, orographically, is distinct from the rest of the continent, being unconnected with any other area of high ground, and separated from the rest of the continent on the south by a depressed and desert area (the [[Sahara]]), in places below sea-level. ===Plateau region=== [[Image:topography of africa.jpg|thumb|320px|Topography of Africa]] The high southern and eastern plateaus, rarely falling below 600 m (2000 ft), and having a mean elevation of about 1000 m (3500 ft). The [[South African plateau]] as far as about 12° S, bounded east, west and south by bands of high ground which fall steeply to the coasts. On this account South Africa has a general resemblance to an inverted saucer. Due south the plateau rim is formed by three parallel steps with level ground between them. The largest of these level areas, the [[Great Karoo]], is a dry, barren region, and a large tract of the plateau proper is of a still more arid character and is known as the [[Kalahari Desert]]. The South African plateau is connected towards the north-east with the [[East African plateau]], with probably a slightly greater average elevation, and marked by some distinct features. It is formed by a widening out of the eastern axis of high ground, which becomes subdivided into a number of zones running north and south and consisting in turn of ranges, tablelands and depressions. The most striking feature is the existence of two great lines of depression, due largely to the subsidence of whole segments of the earth's crust, the lowest parts of which are occupied by vast lakes. Towards the south the two lines converge and give place to one great valley (occupied by [[Lake Nyasa]]), the southern part of which is less distinctly due to rifting and subsidence than the rest of the system. Farther north the western depression, known as the [[Great Rift Valley]] is occupied for more than half its length by water, forming the [[Great Lakes (Africa)|Great Lakes]] lakes of [[Lake Tanganyika|Tanganyika]], [[Lake Kivu|Kivu]], [[Lake Edward]] and [[Lake Albert, Africa|Lake Albert]], the first-named over 400 miles (600 km) long and the longest freshwater lake in the world. Associated with these great valleys are a number of volcanic peaks, the greatest of which occur on a meridional line east of the eastern trough. The eastern depression, known as the East African trough or rift-valley, contains much smaller lakes, many of them [[brackish water|brackish]] and without outlet, the only one comparable to those of the western trough being [[Lake Rudolf]] or Basso Norok. At no great distance east of this rift-valley are [[Mount Kilimanjaro]] - with its two peaks Kibo and Mawenzi, the former 5889 m (19,321 ft), and the culminating point of the whole continent - and [[Mount Kenya]], 5184 m (17,007 ft). Hardly less important is the [[Ruwenzori Range]], over 5060 m (16,600 ft), which lies east of the western trough. Other volcanic peaks rise from the floor of the valleys, some of the Kirunga (Mfumbiro) group, north of Lake Kivu, being still partially active. The third division of the higher region of Africa is formed by the [[Ethiopian Highlands]], a rugged mass of mountains forming the largest continuous area of its altitude in the whole continent, little of its surface falling below 1500 m (5000 ft), while the summits reach heights of 4600 m to 4900 m (15,000 to 16,000 ft). This block of country lies just west of the line of the great East African Trough, the northern continuation of which passes along its eastern escarpment as it runs up to join the Red Sea. There is, however, in the centre a circular basin occupied by [[Lake Tsana]]. Both in the east and west of the continent the bordering highlands are continued as strips of plateau parallel to the coast, the Ethiopian mountains being continued northwards along the Red Sea coast by a series of ridges reaching in places a height of 2000 m (7000 ft). In the west the zone of high land is broader but somewhat lower. The most mountainous districts lie inland from the head of the [[Gulf of Guinea]] (Adamawa, etc.), where heights of 1800 m to 2400 m (6000 to 8000 ft) are reached. Exactly at the head of the gulf the great peak of the Cameroon, on a line of volcanic action continued by the islands to the south-west, has a height of 4075 m (13,370 ft), while Clarence Peak, in [[Fernando Po]], the first of the line of islands, rises to over 2700 m (9000 ft). Towards the extreme west the Futa Jallon highlands form an important diverging point of rivers, but beyond this, as far as the Atlas chain, the elevated rim of the continent is almost wanting. ==Plains== The area between the east and west coast highlands, which north of 17° N is mainly desert, is divided into separate basins by other bands of high ground, one of which runs nearly centrally through North Africa in a line corresponding roughly with the curved axis of the continent as a whole. The best marked of the basins so formed (the [[Congo River|Congo]] basin) occupies a circular area bisected by the equator, once probably the site of an inland sea. Running along the south of desert is the plains region known as the [[Sahel]]. The arid region, the [[Sahara Desert|Sahara]] &mdash; the largest desert in the world, covering 9,000,000 km<sup>2</sup> (3,500,000 square miles) &mdash; extends from the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] to the Red Sea. Though generally of slight elevation it contains mountain ranges with peaks rising to 2400 m (8000 ft) Bordered N.W. by the Atlas range, to the northeast a rocky plateau separates it from the [[Mediterranean]]; this plateau gives place at the extreme east to the delta of the Nile. That river (see below) pierces the desert without modifying its character. The [[Atlas Mountains|Atlas range]], the north-westerly part of the continent, between its seaward and landward heights encloses elevated steppes in places 160 km (100 miles) broad. From the inner slopes of the plateau numerous wadis take a direction towards the Sahara. The greater part of that now desert region is, indeed, furrowed by old water-channels. The following table gives the approximate altitudes of the chief mountains and lakes of the continent: {| border="0" |- | style="vertical-align: top" | {| border="1" |- ! Mountain ! ft ! m |- | [[Mount Rungwe]] (Nyasa) || style="text-align: right" | 10,400 | style="text-align: right" |3170 |- | [[Drakensberg]] || style="text-align: right" | 10,700 | style="text-align: right" |3261 |- | [[Mount Lereko|Lereko]] or [[Sattima]] (Aberdare Range) | style="text-align: right" | 13,214 | style="text-align: right" |4028 |- | [[Mount Cameroon|Cameroon]] || style="text-align: right" | 13,370 | style="text-align: right" |4075 |- | [[Mount Elgon|Elgon]] || style="text-align: right" | 14,152 | style="text-align: right" |4314 |- | [[Mount Karisimbi|Karisimbi]] (Mfumbiro) | style="text-align: right" | 14,683 | style="text-align: right" | 4475 |- | [[Mount Meru (Tanzania)|Meru]] || style="text-align: right" | 14,955 | style="text-align: right" |4558 |- | [[Mount Taggharat|Taggharat]] (Atlas) | style="text-align: right" | 15,000 | style="text-align: right" |4572 |- | [[Simen Mountains|Simens]], [[Ethiopia]] | style="text-align: right" | 15,160 | style="text-align: right" | 4621 |- | [[Ruwenzori]] || style="text-align: right" | 16,619 | style="text-align: right" | 5065 |- | [[Mount Kenya|Kenya]] || style="text-align: right" | 17,007 | style="text-align: right" | 5184 |- | [[Mount Kilimanjaro|Kilimanjaro]] || style="text-align: right" | 19,321 | style="text-align: right" | 5889 |} | style="vertical-align: top" | {| border="1" |- ! Lake ! ft ! m |- | [[Lake Chad|Chad]] || style="text-align: right" | 850 | style="text-align: right" | 259 |- | [[Lake Mai-Ndombe|Mai-Ndombe]] || style="text-align: right" | 1100 | style="text-align: right" | 335 |- | [[Lake Rudolf|Rudolf]] || style="text-align: right" | 1250 | style="text-align: right" | 381 |- | [[Lake Nyasa|Nyasa]] || style="text-align: right" | 1645 | style="text-align: right" | 501 |- | [[Lake Albert|Albert]] || style="text-align: right" | 2028 | style="text-align: right" | 618 |- | [[Lake Tanganyika|Tanganyika]] || style="text-align: right" | 2624 | style="text-align: right" | 800 |- | [[Lake Ngami|Ngami]] || style="text-align: right" | 2950 | style="text-align: right" | 899 |- | [[Lake Mweru|Mweru]] || style="text-align: right" | 3000 | style="text-align: right" | 914 |- | [[Lake Edward|Edward]] || style="text-align: right" | 3004 | style="text-align: right" | 916 |- | [[Lake Bangweulu|Bangweulu]] || style="text-align: right" | 3700 | style="text-align: right" | 1128 |- | [[Lake Victoria|Victoria]] || style="text-align: right" | 3720 | style="text-align: right" | 1134 |- | [[Lake Abaya|Abaya]] || style="text-align: right" | 4200 | style="text-align: right" | 1280 |- | [[Lake Kivu|Kivu]] || style="text-align: right" | 4829 | style="text-align: right" | 1472 |- | [[Lake Tsana|Tsana]] || style="text-align: right" | 5690 | style="text-align: right" | 1734 |- | [[Lake Naivasha|Naivasha]] || style="text-align: right" | 6135 | style="text-align: right" | 1870 |} |} === National Parks and Game Reserves === * [[List of National Parks in Africa]] === The Hydrographic Systems === From the outer margin of the African plateaus a large number of streams run to the sea with comparatively short courses, while the larger rivers flow for long distances on the interior highlands before breaking through the outer ranges. The main drainage of the continent is to the north and west, or towards the basin of the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The high lake plateau of East Africa contains the head-waters of the [[Nile]] and [[Congo River|Congo]]: the former the longest, the latter the largest river of the continent. The upper Nile receives its chief supplies from the mountainous region adjoining the Central African trough in the neighbourhood of the equator. Thence streams pour east to [[Lake Victoria]], the largest African lake (covering over 26,000 square m.), and west and north to [[Lake Edward]] and [[Lake Albert]], to the latter of which the effluents of the other two lakes add their waters. Issuing from it the Nile flows north, and between 7 deg. and 10 deg. N. traverses a vast marshy level during which its course is liable to blocking by floating vegetation. After receiving the Bahr-el-Ghazal from the west and the [[Sobat River|Sobat]], [[Blue Nile]] and [[Atbarah River|Atbara]] from the Ethiopian highlands (the chief gathering ground of the flood-water), it crosses the great desert and enters the Mediterranean by a vast delta. The most remote head-stream of the Congo is the [[Chambezi River|Chambezi]], which flows south-west into the marshy [[Lake Bangweulu]]. From this lake issues the Congo, known in its upper course by various names. Flowing first south, it afterwards turns north through [[Lake Mweru]] and descends to the forest-clad basin of west equatorial Africa. Traversing this in a majestic northward curve and receiving vast supplies of water from many great tributaries, it finally turns south-west and cuts a way to the Atlantic Ocean through the western highlands. North of the Congo basin and separated from it by a broad undulation of the surface is the basin of [[Lake Chad]] - a flat-shored, shallow lake filled principally by the Shad coming from the south-east. West of this is the basin of the [[Niger River|Niger]], the third river of Africa, which, though flowing to the Atlantic, has its principal source in the far west, and reverses the direction of flow exhibited by the Nile and Congo. An important branch, however - the [[Benue River|Benue]] - comes from the south-east. These four river-basins occupy the greater part of the lower plateaus of North and West Africa, the remainder consisting of arid regions watered only by intermittent streams which do not reach the sea. Of the remaining rivers of the Atlantic basin the [[Orange River|Orange]], in the extreme south, brings the drainage from the [[Drakensberg]] on the opposite side of the continent, while the Kunene, Kwanza, Ogowe and Sanaga drain the west corst highlands of the southern limb; the [[Volta]], Komoe, Bandama, [[Gambia River|Gambia]] and [[Senegal River|Senegal]] the highlands of the western limb. North of the Senegal for over 1000 miles (1600 km) of coast the arid region reaches to the Atlantic. Farther north are the streams, with comparatively short courses, which reach the Atlantic and Mediterranean from the Atlas mountains. Of the rivers flowing to the [[Indian Ocean]] the only one draining any large part of the interior plateaus is the [[Zambezi]], whose western branches rise in the west coast highlands. The main stream has its rise in 11°21′3″ S 24°22′ E at an elevation of 5000 ft. It flows west and south for a considerable distance before turning to the east. All the largest tributaries, including the Shire, the outflow of [[Lake Nyasa]], flow down the southern slopes of the band of high ground which stretches across the conbnent in 10 deg. to 12 deg. S. In the south-west the Zambezi system interlaces with that of the [[Taukhe River|Taukhe]] (or Tioghe), from which it at times receives surplus water. The rest of the water of the Taukhe, known in its middle course as the [[Okavango River|Okavango]], is lost in a system of swamps and saltpans which formerly centred in [[Lake Ngami]], now dried up. Farther south the [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] drains a portion of the interior plateau but breaks through the bounding highlands on the side of the continent nearest its source. The [[Rovuma River|Rovuma]], [[Rufiji River|Rufiji]], [[Tana River|Tana]], [[Jubba River|Jubba]] and [[Webi Shebeli River|Webi Shebeli]] principally drain the outer slopes of the East African highlands, the last named losing itself in the sands in close proximity to the sea. Another large stream, the [[Hawash river|Hawash]], rising in the Ethiopian mountains, is lost in a saline depression near the Gulf of Aden. Lastly, between the basins of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans there is an area of inland drainage along the centre of the East African plateau, directed chiefly into the lakes in the great rift-valley. The largest river is the [[Omo river|Omo]], which, fed by the rains of the Ethiopian highlands, carries down a large body of water into [[Lake Rudolf]]. The rivers of Africa are generally obstructed either by bars at their mouths or by cataracts at no great distance up-stream. But when these obstacles have been overcome the rivers and lakes afford a network of navigable waters of vast extent. The calculation of the areas of African drainage systems, made by Dr A. Bludau (Petermanns Mitteilungen, 43, 1897, pp. 184-186) gives the following general results: {| border="1" |- ! ||mi² || Mm² |- | Basin of the Atlantic || 4,070,000 || 10.541 |- | Basin of the Mediterranean || 1,680,000 || 4.351 |- | Basin of the Indian Ocean || 2,086,000 || 5.403 |- | Inland drainage area || 3,452,000 || 8.941 |} The areas of individual river-basins are: {| border="1" |- ! || mi² || Mm² |- | Congo, length over 3000 mi (4800 km) || 1,425,000 || 3.691 |- | Nile, length fully 4000 mi (6500 km) || 1,082,000 || 2.802 |- | Niger, length about 2600 mi (4200 km) || 808,000 || 2.093 |- | Zambezi, length about 2000 mi (3200 km) || 513,500 || 1.330 |- | Lake Chad || 394,000 || 1.020 |- | Orange, length about 1300 mi (2100 km) || 370,505 || 0.9596 |- | Orange (actual drainage area) || 172,500 || 0.447 |} The area of the Congo basin is greater than that of any other river except the Amazon, while the African inland drainage area is greater than that of any continent but Asia, in which the corresponding area is 4,000,000 square miles (10 Mm²). The principal African lakes have been mentioned in the description of the East African plateau, but some of the phenomena connected with them may be spoken of more particularly here. As a rule the lakes which occupy portions of the great rift-valleys have steep sides and are very deep. This is the case with the two largest of the type, Tanganyika and Nyasa, the latter of which has depths of 430 [[fathom]]s (790 m). Others, however, are shallow, and hardly, reach the steep sides of the valleys in the dry season. Such are [[Lake Rukwa]], in a subsidiary depression north of Nyasa, and Eiassi and Manyara in the system of the eastern rift-valley. Lakes of the broad type are of moderate depth, the deepest sounding in [[Lake Victoria]] being under 50 fathoms (90 m). Besides the East African lakes the principal are: - [[Lake Chad]], in the northern area of inland drainage; [[Lake Bangweulu|Bangweulu]] and [[Lake Mweru|Mweru]], traversed by the head-stream of the Congo; and [[Lake Mai-Ndombe]] and Ntomba (Mantumba), within the great bend of that river. All, except possibly Mweru, are more or less shallow, and Chad appears to by drying up. The altitudes of the African lakes have already been stated. Divergent opinions have been beld as to the mode of origin of the East African lakes, especially [[Lake Tanganyika|Tanganyika]], which some geologists have considered to represent an old arm of the sea, dating from a time when the whole central Congo basin was under water; others holding that the lake water has accumulated in a depression caused by subsidence. The former view is based on the existence in the lake of organisms of a decidedly marine type. They include a jelly-fish, molluscs, prawns, crabs, etc. === Islands === With one exception - [[Madagascar]] - the African islands are small. Madagascar, with an area of 229,820 square miles (595,230 km²), is, after [[Greenland]], [[New Guinea]] and [[Borneo]], the largest island of the world. It lies off the S.E. coast of the continent, from which it is separated by the deep Mozambique channel, 250 miles (400 km) wide at its narrowest point. Madagascar in its general structure, as in flora and fauna, forms a connecting link between Africa and southern Asia. East of Madagascar are the small islands of [[Mauritius]] and [[Réunion]]. [[Socotra]] lies E.N.E. of Cape Guardafui. Off the north-west coast are the [[Canary Islands|Canary]] and [[Cape Verde]] archipelagoes. which, like some small islands in the Gulf of Guinea, are of volcanic origin. === Climate and health === Lying almost entirely within the tropics, and equally to north and south of the equator, Africa does not show excessive variations of temperature. Great heat is experienced in the lower plains and desert regions of North Africa, removed by the great width of the continent from the influence of the ocean, and here, too, the contrast between day and night, and between summer and winter, is greatest. (The rarity of the air and the great radiation during the night cause the temperature in the Sahara to fall occasionally to freezing point.) Farther south, the heat is to some extent modified by the moisture brought from the ocean, and by the greater elevation of a large part of the surface, especially in East Africa, where the range of temperature is wider than in the Congo basin or on the Guinea coast. In the extreme north and south the climate is a warm temperate one, the northern countries being on the whole hotter and drier than those in the southern zone; the south of the continent being narrower than the north, the influence of the surrounding ocean is more felt. The most important climatic differences are due to variations in the amount of rainfall. The wide heated plains of the Sahara, and in a lesser degree the corresponding zone of the Kalahari in the south, have an exceedingly scanty rainfall, the winds which blow over them from the ocean losing part of their moisture as they pass over the outer highlands, and becoming constantly drier owing to the heating effects of the burning soil of the interior; while the scarcity of mountain ranges in the more central parts likewise tends to prevent condensation. In the inter-tropical zone of summer precipitation, the rainfall is greatest when the sun is vertical or soon after. It is therefore greatest of all near the equator, where the sun is twice vertical, and less in the direction of both tropics. The rainfall zones are, however, somewhat deflected from a due west-to-east direction, the drier northern conditions extending southwards along the east coast, and those of the south northwards along the west. Within the equatorial zone certain areas, especially on the shores of the Gulf of Guinea and in the upper Nile basin, have an intensified rainfall, but this rarely approaches that of the rainiest regions of the world. The rainiest district in all Africa is a strip of coastland west of [[Mount Cameroon]], where there is a mean annual rainfall of about 390 in (9.91 m) as compared with a mean of 458 in (11.63 m) at [[Cherrapunji]], in [[Meghalaya]], [[India]]. The two distinct rainy seasons of the equatorial zone, where the sun is vertical at half-yearly intervals, become gradually merged into one in the direction of the tropics, where the sun is overhead but once. Snow falls on all the higher mountain ranges, and on the highest the climate is thoroughly Alpine. The countries bordering the Sahara are much exposed to a very dry wind, full of fine particles of sand, blowing from the desert towards the sea. Known in [[Egypt]] as the [[khamsin]], on the Mediterranean as the [[sirocco]], it is called on the Guinea coast the [[harmattan]]. This wind is not invariably hot; its great dryness causes so much evaporation that cold is not infrequently the result. Similar dry winds blow from the [[Kalahari Desert]] in the south. On the eastern coast the monsoons of the Indian Ocean are regularly felt, and on the southeast hurricanes are occasionally experienced. ==Extreme points== This is a list of the '''extreme points of [[Africa]]''', the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location on the continent. '''''Africa''''' * Northernmost Point &mdash; [[Ra's al Abyad]] ([[Cape Blanc]]), [[Tunisia]] * Southernmost Point &mdash; [[Cape Agulhas]], [[South Africa]] (34°51'15"S) ¹ * Westernmost Point &mdash; [[Santo Antão]], [[Cape Verde]] Islands (25°25'W) * Easternmost Point &mdash; [[Rodrigues (island)|Rodrigues]], [[Mauritius]] (63°30'E) '''''Africa (mainland)''''' * Northernmost Point &mdash; [[Ra's al Abyad]] ([[Cape Blanc]]), [[Tunisia]] * Southernmost Point &mdash; [[Cape Agulhas]], [[South Africa]] ({{coor dms|34|51|15|S|17|33|22|E|}}) * Westernmost Point &mdash; [[Pointe des Almadies]], [[Cap Vert]] Peninsula, [[Senegal]] (17°33'22"W) * Easternmost Point &mdash; [[Ras Hafun]] (Raas Xaafuun), [[Somalia]] (51°27'52"E) *¹ If the [[Prince Edward Islands]] are included in Africa, then [[Marion Island]] is the southernmost point at 46°54'S. ----- {{1911}} ==See also== ===Articles=== *[[Africa]] ===External links=== *[http://plasma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0509/feature1/zoomify/index.html Africa: The Human Footprint]. Interactive map of human impact on Africa by [[National Geographic]]. {{Africafooter}} {{Africa in topic|Geography of}} [[Category:Africa]] [[fr:Géographie de l'Afrique]] [[he:גאוגרפיה של אפריקה]] [[pl:Geografia Afryki]] [[pt:Geografia da África]] [[sr:Географија Африке]] 1855 15900317 2003-10-30T12:13:29Z Andre Engels 300 removing 'see also' from redirect page #REDIRECT [[History of Africa]] 1856 15900318 2003-10-30T12:13:44Z Andre Engels 300 removing 'see also' from redirect page #REDIRECT [[North Africa]] 1857 40976664 2006-02-24T06:02:33Z Commadot 951397 /* Effect on elections */ balanced fallacious spin against AV by conflicting interests [[Image:Approval ballot.svg|thumb|right|On an approval ballot, the voter can vote for any number of candidates.]] '''Approval voting''' is a [[voting system]] used for [[election]]s, in which each voter can vote for as many or as few candidates as the voter chooses. It is typically used for single-winner elections, but can be extended to multiple winners. (However, multi-winner Approval voting does not return [[proportional representation|proportional]] results.) Approval voting is a limited form of [[range voting]], where the range that voters are allowed to express is extremely constrained: accept or not. It was advocated in 1968 and 1977 by [[Guy Ottewell]]. The term "Approval voting" was first coined by [[Robert J. Weber]] in 1976, but was fully devised in 1977 and published in 1978 by political scientist [[Steven Brams]] and mathematician [[Peter Fishburn]]. Historically, something resembling Approval voting for candidates was used in the [[Republic of Venice]] during the 13th century and for elections in 19th century [[England]]. Also the UN uses a process similar to Approval Voting to elect the Secretary General. ==Procedures== Each voter may vote for as many options as he or she chooses, at most once per option. This is equivalent to saying that each voter may "approve" or "disapprove" each option by voting or not voting for it, and it's also equivalent to voting +1 or 0 in a range voting system. The votes for each option are tallied. The option with the most votes wins. ==Example== {{Tenn_voting_example}} Supposing that voters voted for their two favorite candidates, the results would be as follows (a more sophisticated approach to voting is discussed below): *Memphis: 42 total votes *Nashville: 68 total votes (wins) *Chattanooga: 58 total votes *Knoxville: 32 total votes ===Potential for tactical voting=== Approval voting passes the [[monotonicity criterion]], in that voting for a candidate never lowers that candidate's chance of winning. Indeed, there is never a reason for a voter to [[tactical voting|tactically vote]] for a candidate X without voting for all candidates he or she prefers to candidate X. It is also never necessary for a voter to vote for a candidate liked ''less'' than X in order to elect X. However, as approval voting does not offer a single method of expressing sincere preferences, but rather a plethora of them, voters are encouraged to analyze their fellow voters' preferences and use that information to decide which candidates to vote for. This feature of approval voting makes it difficult for theoreticians to predict how approval will play out in practice. One possible tactic is that a voter will only approve of their first preference candidate; this will make it more difficult for other candidates to win. If every voter uses this tactic, then the election essentially turns into a [[first-past-the-post]] election, where the candidate with the largest plurality of first preference supporters wins. One good tactic is to vote for every candidate the voter prefers to the leading candidate, and to also vote for the leading candidate if that candidate is preferred to the current second-place candidate. When all voters use this tactic, there is a good chance that the [[Condorcet method|Condorcet winner]] will be elected. Approval voting fails to satisfy the [[Condorcet criterion]]. It is even possible that a Condorcet loser can be elected. In the above election, if Chattanooga is perceived as the strongest challenger to Nashville, voters from Nashville will only vote for Nashville, because it is the leading candidate and they prefer no alternative to it. Voters from Chattanooga and Knoxville will withdraw their support from Nashville, the leading candidate, because they do not support it over Chattanooga. The new results would be: *Memphis: 42 *Nashville: 68 *Chattanooga: 32 *Knoxville: 32 If, however, Memphis were perceived as the strongest challenger, voters from Memphis would withdraw their votes from Nashville, whereas voters from Chattanooga and Knoxville would support Nashville over Memphis. The results would then be: *Memphis: 42 *Nashville: 58 *Chattanooga: 32 *Knoxville: 32 The mathematics of approval voting lend it to some manipulation and tactical voting. As each vote counts as one vote and the winner is the one with the highest total, each vote equally helps the candidate/issue (city in this example) selected win. Because of this, voters are more likely to only vote for their favorite. Because Approval voting has not been used much for real elections, this phenomenon is not well documented. ==Effect on elections== The effect of this system as an [[electoral reform]] measure is not without critics. [[Instant-runoff voting]] advocates like the [[Center for Voting and Democracy]] argue that Approval Voting would lead to the election of "lowest common denominator" candidates disliked by few, and liked by few, but this could also be seen as an inherent strength against demagoguery in favor of a discreet popularity. A study by Approval advocates [[Steven Brams]] and [[Dudley R. Herschbach]] published in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' in 2001<ref>Brams and Herschbach {{Journal reference|Title=The Science of Elections|ID={{DOI|10.1126/science.292.5521.1449}}|Journal=Science|Volume=292|Issue=5521|Pages=1449|Year=2001}}</ref> argued that approval voting was "fairer" than [[Preferential voting|preference voting]] on a number of criteria. They claimed that a close analysis shows that the hesitation to support a lesser evil candidate to the same degree as one supports one's first choice actually outweighs the extra votes that such second choices get. One study showed that approval voting would not have chosen the same two winners as plurality voting (Chirac and Le Pen) in [[French_presidential_election%2C_2002|France's presidential election of 2002]] (first round) - it instead would have chosen Chirac and Jospin. This seems a more reasonable result since Le Pen was a radical who lost to Chirac by an enormous margin in the second round.{{fact}} ==Other issues and comparisons== Advocates of approval voting often note that a single simple ballot can serve for single, multiple, or negative choices. It requires the voter to think carefully about who or what they really accept, rather than trusting a system of tallying or compromising by formal ranking or counting. Compromises happen but they are explicit, and chosen by the voter, not by the ballot counting. Some features of approval voting include: *Unlike [[Condorcet method]], [[instant-runoff voting]], and other methods that require ranking candidates, approval voting does not require significant changes in ballot design, voting procedures or equipment, and it is easier for voters to use and understand. This reduces problems with mismarked ballots, disputed results and recounts. *It provides less incentive for [[negative campaigning]] than many other systems, though the same incentive as [[instant runoff voting]], [[condorcet method]], and [[Borda count]]. *It allows voters to express [[tolerances versus preferences|tolerances but not preferences]]. Some political scientists consider this a major advantage, especially where acceptable choices are more important than popular choices. *Each voter may vote as many times as they wish, at most once per candidate. This is equivalent to saying that each voter may ''approve'' or ''disapprove'' each candidate by voting or not voting for them, and it's also equivalent to voting +1 or 0 in a [[range voting]] system. *It is easily reversed as [[disapproval voting]] where a choice is disavowed, as is already required in other measures in politics (e.g. representative [[recall election|recall]]). *In contentious elections with a super-majority of voters who prefer their favorite candidate vastly over all others, approval voting tends to revert to [[plurality voting]]. Some voters will support only their single favored candidate when they perceive the other candidates to be poor compromises. *Approval voting fails the [[majority criterion]], so that the favorite candidate of a majority can fail to be elected. However strategy issues of candidate list order if voters are not fully aware and reflective of the full set of candidates before any votes are cast.) ===Multiple winners=== Approval voting can be extended to multiple winner elections, either as ''block approval voting'', a simple variant on [[block voting]] where each voter can select an unlimited number of candidates and the candidates with the most approval votes win, or as ''[[proportional approval voting]]'' which seeks to maximise the overall satisfaction with the final result using approval voting. That first system has been called minisum to distinguish it from minimax, a system which uses approval ballots and aims to elect the slate of candidates that differs from the least-satisfied voter's ballot as little as possible. ===Relation to effectiveness of choices=== [[Operations research]] has shown that the effectiveness of a policy and thereby a leader who sets several policies will be [[Logistic function|sigmoidally]] related to the level of approval associated with that policy or leader. There is an acceptance level below which effectiveness is very low and above which it is very high. More than one candidate may be in the effective region, or all candidates may be in the ineffective region. Approval voting attempts to ensure that the most-approved candidate is selected, maximizing the chance that the resulting policies will be effective. ==Ballot types== Approval ballots can be of at least four semi-distinct forms. The simplest form is a blank ballot where the names of supported candidates is written in by hand. A more structured ballot will list all the candidates and allow a mark or word to be made by each supported candidate. A more explicit structured ballot can list the candidates and give two choices by each. (Candidate list ballots can include spaces for write-in candidates as well.) {| BORDER |- | [[Image:Approvalballotname.png|160px]] | [[Image:Approvalballotword.png|160px]] | [[Image:Approvalballotmark.png|160px]] | [[Image:Approvalballotchoice.png|160px]] |} All four ballots are interchangeable. The more structured ballots may aid voters in offering clear votes so they explicitly know all their choices. The Yes/No format can help to detect an "undervote" when a candidate is left unmarked, and allow the voter a second chance to confirm the ballot markings are correct. ==See also== *[[List of democracy and elections-related topics]] *[[Borda count]] *[[Bucklin voting]] *[[First Past the Post electoral system]] (also called Plurality or Relative Majority) *[[Condorcet method]] *[[Schulze method]] *[[Instant-runoff voting]] *[[Majority Choice Approval]] *[[Range voting]] *[[Voting system]] - many other ways of voting ==References== <references/> ==External links== *[http://approvalvoting.org/ Citizens for Approval Voting] *[http://approvalvoting.com/ Americans for Approval Voting] *[http://av.beyondpolitics.org/ Approval Voting Free Association Wiki] *[http://alum.mit.edu/ne/whatmatters/200211/index.html Approval Voting: A Better Way to Select a Winner] Article by Steven J. Brams. *[http://pareto.uab.es/wp/2004/61904.pdf Approval Voting on Dichotomous Preferences] Article by Marc Vorsatz. *[http://pareto.uab.es/wp/2004/61704.pdf Scoring Rules on Dichotomous Preferences] Article by Marc Vorsatz. *[http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/VPP/VPPpdf_Wshop2/jflkvdscaen.pdf Approval Voting: An Experiment during the French 2002 Presidential Election] Article by Jean-François Laslier and Karine Vander Straeten. *[http://www.universalworkshop.com/pages/ArithmeticOfVoting.htm The Arithmetic of Voting] article by Guy Ottewell *[http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/politics/faculty/brams/avcritical.pdf Critical Strategies Under Approval Voting: Who Gets Ruled In And Ruled Out] Article by Steven J. Brams and M. Remzi Sanver. *[http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/politics/faculty/brams/theory_to_practice.pdf Going from Theory to Practice:The Mixed Success of Approval Voting] Article by Steven J. Brams and Peter C. Fishburn. *[http://www.vcharite.univ-mrs.fr/idep/document/dt/dt0405.pdf Strategic approval voting in a large electorate] Article by Jean-François Laslier. *[http://www.williams.edu/Economics/oak/Papers/approval.pdf Approval Voting with Endogenous Candidates] An article by Arnaud Dellis and Mandor P. Oak. *[http://www.math.hmc.edu/seniorthesis/archives/2003/duminsky/duminsky-2003-thesis.pdf Generalized Spectral Analysis for Large Sets of Approval Voting Data] Article by David Thomas Uminsky. *[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/~baron/vote.pdf Approval Voting and Parochialism] Article by Jonathan Baron, Nicole Altman and Stephan Kroll. *[http://www.gregdennis.com/voting/approval_conversation.html Conversation with an Approval Voting Advocate] Article by Greg Dennis [[Category:Voting systems]] [[de:Wahl durch Zustimmung]] [[eo:Aprobobalotado]] [[fr:Vote par approbation]] [[nl:Instemmingsverkiezing]] [[ja:Approval voting]] [[pt:Votação por aprovação]] [[fi:Hyväksymisvaalitapa]] [[ur:ویکیپیڈیا:ویکیپیڈیا فائونڈیشن کے بورڈ آف ٹروٹیز کے انتخابات]] 1858 38069213 2006-02-03T23:32:40Z V8rik 195918 revert, historically aroma may be associated with aromatic, in any case deleting this context has implications for disamb status for this page '''Aromatic compound''' has different meanings depending on the context: * [[Aroma compound]], a [[chemical compound]] possessing an aroma, fragrance, flavor, smell, or [[odor]]. * [[Aromatic]] compound, an [[Organic chemistry|organic]] [[chemical compound]] that contains [[simple aromatic ring|aromatic rings]] like [[benzene]], [[pyridine]], or [[indole]]. These compounds exhibit an unusual stability known as [[aromaticity]], which can be understood using [[Hückel's rule]]. The term ''aromatic'' in chemistry is no longer associated with ''aroma'', and many aromatic compounds have no smell. {{disambig}} [[Category:Organic chemistry]] [[es:Compuesto aromático]] [[fr:Composé aromatique]] [[ja:&#33459;&#39321;&#26063;&#21270;&#21512;&#29289;]] [[vi:Hợp chất thơm]] 1859 42048404 2006-03-03T13:04:59Z Ewlyahoocom 241538 Disambiguate [[Assembly]] to [[Deliberative assembly]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] {{Infobox_University |name = Arizona State University |image = [[Image:asu.jpg]] |motto = |established = 1885 |type = [[Public university|Public]] |president= [[Michael Crow]] |city = [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]] |state = [[Arizona|Arizona]] |country = [[United States|USA]] |undergrad = 48,955 |postgrad = 12,078 |staff= 2,406 |endowment = US$277.3 million (2005 report) |campus = [[Urban design|Urban]], 580 acres (2.3 km&sup2;) |mascot = [[Sparky (Arizona State Mascot)|Sparky]] [[Image:Arizona-state-sund.gif|30px|]] |free_label = Athletics |free = 18 varsity teams |website= [http://www.asu.edu/ www.asu.edu] }} '''Arizona State University''' (ASU) is currently (as of Fall 2005) the [[List of largest US universities by enrollment|largest university]], in terms of student enrollment, in the [[United States]], with a main-campus student body of 51,612. Founded in 1885 as a territorial [[normal school]], the institution went through several changes of name and purpose before becoming a state [[university]] in 1958. ASU's main campus, now called the Tempe campus, is located in [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]], [[Arizona]]. Satellite campuses were created in 1984 in [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] ([[ASU West]]) and in 1996 in [[Mesa, Arizona|Mesa]] ([[ASU Polytechnic]], formerly called ASU East). Combined, [[ASU West]] and [[ASU Polytechnic]] enroll around 12,500 students. An additonal satellite campus, [[ASU Downtown Phoenix]], is under development in downtown [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]]. Each year, nearly 10,000 students graduate from the university's three campuses. In 2005, 155 National Merit Scholars chose to attend ASU. Many are part of the Barrett Honors College, which has produced 54 [[Fulbright Program|Fulbright]] scholars, 28 [[Barry Goldwater|Goldwater]] scholars, and 13 [[Harry Truman|Truman]] scholars. Under the [[Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education]] ASU is classified as a Doctoral/Research University&#8211;Extensive. ==Current State of the University== <!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Asu_campus.jpg|thumb|right|The campus of Arizona State University in Tempe, Arizona, viewed from the air in July 2004. Sun Devil Stadium can be viewed in the bottom-right, Wells Fargo Arena in the center, and Gammage Auditorium, designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, in the top-right corner. Photo courtesy of, and obtained from, [http://www.incredibleeagle.com/ Geoff Boeing]] -->'''ASU''' is currently aspiring to climb from its current third tier status in the rankings published by ''[[U.S. News and World Report]]''. Under the leadership of its 16th president, [[Michael Crow]], several initiatives are being pursued toward this end, the most notable of which is the [[Arizona Biodesign Institute]]. Additionally, a gift of $100 million was given to the College of Engineering, now the [[Ira A. Fulton School of Engineering]], and a $50 million dollar gift to the College of Business, now the [[W.P. Carey School of Business]]. The university was selected to host the third United States Presidential debate on October 13, 2004 at Gammage Auditorium. [[Edward Prescott]] of the [[W.P. Carey School of Business]] was awarded the 2004 [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel]] (also known as The Nobel Prize in Economics), a first for an ASU faculty member. At the end of the 2004, [[George Poste]], director of the Arizona Biodesign Institute, was named Scientist of the Year by ''R&D Magazine.'' ==Academics== Many of ASU's departments were ranked in the top 50 by [[US News and World Report]] in 2005. The College of Education [http://coe.asu.edu] was ranked 35th in the nation in 2005. Its program in counseling was ranked 12th in the nation, and its Education Policy Studies [http://coe.asu.edu/elps/] doctoral program was ranked 15th. Six out of nine of the College's specialty programs were ranked in the top 20. The following graduate departments in [[engineering]] were listed with their respective rankings (out of 300+ institutions): *[[Electrical Engineering]]: 29th *[[Aerospace]]/[[Aeronautical Engineering]]: 25th *[[Biomedical]]/[[Bioengineering]]: 20th *[[Chemical Engineering]]: 50th *[[Civil Engineering]]: 41st *[[Computer Engineering]]: 34th *[[Industrial Engineering]]: 15th *[[Mechanical Engineering]]: 37th The [[W.P. Carey School of Business]] MBA program was ranked 31st and the undergraduate [[business]] program ranked 25th. Graduate business programs listed are as follows (out of 300+ institutions): *[[Supply Chain Management]]: 5th *[[Computer Information systems]]: 18th *[[Production]]/[[operations]]: 21st *[[Accounting]]: 26th *[[Management]]: 28th The [[College of Architecture and Environmental Design]] is reputedly rigorous and highly ranked. An annual event for the [[Walter Cronkite School of Journalism]] is a visit from [[Walter Cronkite]] himself to award the distinguished Cronkite Award. ==Extracurriculars== [[Image:198557795wVVdGH ph.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Arizona State University is adorned with towering Mexican Fan Palms along its main walkway, Palm Walk. (Photo taken from the Bateman Physical Sciences Center, looking toward the Student Health Center)]]Arizona State University has an active [[extracurricular]] involvement program (Sun Devil Involvement Center) with over 450 registered clubs and organizations on campus. Located on the 3rd floor of the [[Memorial Union]], the Sun Devil Involvement Center (SDIC) provides opportunities for student involvement through [[clubs]], [[sororities]], [[fraternities]], [[community service]], [[leadership]], [[student government]], and [[co-curricular]] programming. In 2003 the Student Government adopted a new [[Constitution]] under the oversight of several individuals that split it into 3 branches; "[[Undergraduate]]", "[[Graduate Student|Graduate]]", and the "Programming and Activities Board". All three branches are overseen by a [[Supreme Court]]. A [[Senate]] and [[Executive (government)|Executive]] department are set aside for the [[Undergraduate]] branch, and an [[Deliberative assembly|Assembly]] and [[Executive (government)|Executive]] department are set aside for the [[Graduate Student|Graduate]] branch. The [[Senate]] and [[Deliberative assembly|Assembly]] have representatives from all colleges on campus, providing a critical forum for the discussion and resolution of issues that come before the student body. ''ASU Cares'' is the largest community service project sponsored by the university. It is an annual event that allows students to give back some time by helping residents and communities clean up, rebuild, and/or serve eachother. Faculty, staff, alumni, members of the community and their families and guests are also invited to be part of this large ASU effort to help residents of the various communities surrounding the metropolitan area. The Freshman Year Experience (FYE) and the [[Fraternities and sororities|Greek]] community (Greek Life) at Arizona State University have been important in binding students to the university, and providing social outlets. The Freshman Year Experience at Arizona State University was developed to improve the freshman experience at Arizona State University and increase student retention figures. FYE provides advising, computer labs, free walk-in tutoring, workshops, and classes for students. In 2003, ''[[U.S. News and World Report]]'' ranked FYE as the 23rd best first year program in the nation. It has also been recognized as one of the best in both public and private universities by the ''Chronicle of [[Higher Education]]''. In student media, ''The Blaze 1260 AM'' is the student run radio station at Arizona State University, while [[Sun Devil Television|Sun Devil Television (SDTV)]] is the student run television station. ==Athletics== ASU is a member of the [[Pacific Ten Conference|Pac-10]] athletic conference. Athletes, students, and alumni of ASU are known as "Sun Devils," a nickname adopted in 1946; earlier nicknames were the Normals or the Owls and, later, the Bulldogs. The nickname was said to have come from an article in the newspaper in which the writer said the quote "Lets call them Sun Devils," and the name eventually caught on the with the university. The Sun Devil mascot, Sparky, was designed by [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] illustrator [[Bert Anthony]]. The ASU fight song is [[Maroon and Gold]], named for the school's colors. ASU's chief rival is the [[University of Arizona]]. ASU's football venue is named [[Sun Devil Stadium]]. Notable athletic alumni include baseball players [[Barry Bonds]], [[Paul Lo Duca]], [[Fernando Viña]] and [[Reggie Jackson]], football players [[Jake Plummer]], [[Todd Heap]], [[Danny White]], [[Terrell Suggs]], [[David Fulcher]], [[Darren Woodson]], and [[Pat Tillman]], basketball players [[Byron Scott]], [[Ike Diogu]] and [[Eddie House]], golfer [[Phil Mickelson]], and announcer [[Al Michaels]]. ASU is arguably one of the most successful baseball programs in the country. They have won five national championships, the third most by any school, and have the third most alumni to ever play in [[Major League Baseball]]. ASU won national championships in men's archery 15 times, women's archery 21 times, mixed archery 20 times, men's badminton 13 times, women's badminton 17 times, mixed badminton 10 times, baseball 5 times, women's tennis 3 times, men's gymnastics once, men's track and field once, wrestling once, men's golf twice, women's golf 13 times, women's softball twice, and women's swimming and diving 7 times, for a total of 129 national championships. Additionally, the men's basketball team has participated in 12 [[NCAA]] tournaments and the football team won the [[Rose Bowl (game)|Rose Bowl]] in 1986 as well as the [[Fiesta Bowl]] in 1982, [[1975]], [[1973]], [[1972]], and 1971. ===Football=== The Sun Devils played in the [[Border Intercollegiate Athletic Association|Border Conference]] between 1931 and 1961, before joining the [[Western Athletic Conference]] the following year. Led by legendary head coach [[Frank Kush]], the Sun Devils posted a remarkable 62-9 record between 1970 and 1975, culminating in a 17-14 upset of the [[University of Nebraska-Lincoln|Nebraska Cornhuskers]] in the 1975 Fiesta Bowl. In 1978, both ASU and the [[University of Arizona]] joined the Pacific Ten Conference, and in that year ASU celebrated with an emotional 20-7 victory over number-one-ranked [[University of Southern California]]. The Sun Devils then began a slow decline, interrupted only briefly by victories in the 1983 Fiesta Bowl and 1987 Rose Bowl. After a 1987 [[Freedom Bowl]] victory over [[United States Air Force Academy|Air Force]], the Sun Devils went a combined 43-44-1 between 1988 and 1995. In 1996, the Sun Devils went a surprising 11-1, highlighted by a 19-0 shutout of the number-one-ranked [[University of Nebraska-Lincoln|Nebraska Cornhuskers]] in Tempe. ASU quarterback [[Jake Plummer]] led the Sun Devils, propelling Arizona State into the Rose Bowl against the [[Ohio State Buckeyes]]. In a game with [[NCAA Division I-A national football championship|National Championship]] potential, the Sun Devils held a slim 17-14 lead with 1:47 left in the fourth quarter, but surrendered a late touchdown to Ohio State, falling by a final score of 20-17. Between 1997 and 2000, the Sun Devils underachieved greatly, leading to the dismissal of popular head [[American football|football]] coach [[Bruce Snyder]]. The hiring of head coach [[Dirk Koetter]] from [[Boise State University]] gave the Sun Devils a charismatic leader with a penchant for molding strong quarterbacks. Arizona State began the Dirk Koetter era with a thud, falling to 4-7 in 2001. However, ASU improved to 8-6 in 2002, highlighted by the play of defensive end [[Terrell Suggs]] and wide receiver [[Shaun McDonald]]. Quarterback [[Andrew Walter]] emerged to pass for a staggering 3,877 yards and 28 touchdowns. The Sun Devils eventually lost a nailbiter to [[Kansas State University]] in the 2003 [[Holiday Bowl]]. In 2004, the Sun Devils surprised nearly everyone, jumping out to a 5-0 record (including an impressive 44-7 victory over Iowa in Tempe). [[Andrew Walter]] led the suddenly resurgent Sun Devils, passing for 1,249 yards and 15 TDs through five games. This set up an attractive matchup between ASU and [[University of Southern California|Southern California]] in [[Los Angeles]] on October 16, 2004, which they lost. After a dramatic come from behind victory over Stanford University and a win over Washington State in a game in which ASU retired Pat Tillman's number, they ended up losing to rival University of Arizona. ASU won the Vitalis [[Sun Bowl]] over Purdue, 27-23, on New Year's Eve. 2005 brought a 6-5 record. The Sun Devils narrowly lost to [[Louisiana State University]] in that school's first game after [[Hurricane Katrina]]. Another narrow loss to USC was emotional, considering the Sun Devils led at the half. However, the school was still looking forward to a BCS bowl until [[Stanford University]] upset the Devils, which cost the school its national ranking. The wins over Washington State and Washington were unable to get back the ranking. In a thrilling 23-20 victory over archrival Arizona, the Sun Devils clinched a berth in, and eventually won, the [[Insight Bowl]] against [[Rutgers]]. ===Softball=== One of the nation's founding programs, the Sun Devils are in their 39th season on the diamond in Tempe. ASU holds a 1,039-561-1 (.649) all-time record since the 1967 team posted a 5-1 record. ASU has recorded 23 season of at least 30 wins and six with 40 or more victories, including an all-time high of 46 in 2002. The Sun Devils have earned 16 postseason bids, fourth all-time in the Pac-10 Conference, and has made four trips to the [[College World Series]]. Prior to the current NCAA format, ASU went to seven WCWS, claiming back-to-back national tiles in 1972 and 1973. Arizona State's storied tradition of softball excellence continues to flourish under the tutelage of 16th-year head coach [[Linda Wells]], one of the most prominent and successful coaches in NCAA history. Wells, who is currently the 7th-most successful active coach in NCAA Division I history with 907 victories (9th all-time), has led the Sun Devils to 11 (seven consecutive 1997-03) NCAA Regional appearances in 15 seasons, including two trips in the past six years to the College World Series (1999/2002). While at ASU, Wells has compiled a record of 554-394 and has had seven players earn a total of 12 All-American awards. Her 554 wins are the most victories all-time in ASU's storied 39-year history, surpassing coaching legend Mary Littlewood's 536. Wells earned the victory with a 3-2 win over Sacramento State (2/13/05). Wells' vast coaching experience and tireless work ethic has not gone unnoticed by the country or by the world as she was named the head coach of the Greek Olympic National Team that competed in the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens. Wells has coached 35 career .300 hitters at ASU in her 15 seasons, averaging a combined .335 -- not an easy accomplishment in the pitching-rich Pac-10 where games are traditionally low scoring, and with the addition of three more All-Pac-10 selections in 2004, Wells has now coached 75 all-conference players during her tenure at Arizona State, averaging five All-Pac-10 selections every season. ==Famous alumni and former students== ''see also [[:Category:Arizona State University alumni]]'' *[[Steve Allen]] - writer, comedian, musician *[[Adam Archuleta]] - [[National Football League|NFL]] player *[[Sal Bando]] - former [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] player *[[Barry Bonds]] - [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] player *[[Amanda Borden]] - [[1996 Summer Olympics]] team gold medal winner in [[gymnastics]] *[[Amanda Brown]] - author of [[Legally Blonde]] *[[William P. Carey]] - founder and chairman of [[W. P. Carey & Co. LLC]] *[[Henry Carr]] - winner of two gold medals at the [[1964 Summer Olympics]] *[[Paul Casey]] - professional golfer *[[Christopher J. Cohan]] - founder, Sonic Communications; owner, [[Golden State Warriors]] *[[Eric Crown]] - chairman of the board and co-founder, [[Insight Enterprises]] *[[Ed Dee]] - author *[[Doug Ducey]] - president and CEO of [[Cold Stone Creamery]] *[[Ike Diogu]] - [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] player *[[Mike Esposito]] - [[Major League Baseball]] pitcher for the [[Colorado Rockies]]. *[[Andre Ethier]] - [[outfielder]] with the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] of [[MLB]]. *[[David Fulcher]] - former National Football League [[defensive back]] *[[Ira Fulton]] - businessman *[[Jack D. Furst]] - private equity *[[Larry Gura]] - former All-Star [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] pitcher, played for the [[Chicago Cubs]], [[New York Yankees]], and [[Kansas City Royals]]. *[[Todd Heap]] - [[National Football League|NFL]] player *[[Cecil Heftel]] - founder Heftel Broadcasting; former U.S. Representative *[[Doug Hopkins]] - former lead guitarist and principal songwriter, [[Gin Blossoms]] *[[Eddie House]] - [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] player *[[Reggie Jackson]] - former [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] player, member of the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]] *[[Paul Justin]] - retired [[National Football League]] quarterback *[[Jimmy Kimmel]] - talk-show host and comedian *[[Bill Leen]] - bass player, [[Gin Blossoms]] *[[Paul Lo Duca]] - [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] player *[[Billy Mayfair]] - professional golfer *[[Al Michaels]] - television broadcaster *[[Phil Mickelson]] - professional golfer *[[Ed Pastor]] - U.S. Congressman *[[Ken Phelps]] - radio broadcaster, former [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] player *[[Jake Plummer]] - [[National Football League|NFL]] player *[[Robert Rey]] - plastic surgeon, television personality *[[Rick Rosenthal]] - KPMG *[[Matt Salmon]] - former gubernatorial candidate for Arizona *[[Byron Scott]] - head coach, [[New Orleans Hornets]]; former [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] player *[[Courtney Simpson]] - [[Erotic actress]] *[[David Spade]] - comedian *[[Kate Spade]] - fashion designer *[[Paul Spudis]] - geologist and lunar scientist *[[Phillippi Sparks]] - former [[National Football League|NFL]] player *[[Terrell Suggs]] - [[National Football League|NFL]] player *[[Pat Tillman]] - former [[National Football League|NFL]] player; [[United States Army|US Army]] Corporal *[[Andrew Walter]] - [[National Football League|NFL]] player *[[Danny White]] - former [[National Football League|NFL]] player and [[Arena Football League]] coach ==Notable faculty and staff== * [[David Berliner]] - Professor, College of Education *[[Phil Christensen]] * [[Samuel A. DiGangi]] - Professor, College of Education; Assistant Vice Provost, Information Technology *[[Robert "Coach" Fleming]] - Professor of music, associate director of bands and director of the ASU Sun Devil Marching Band *[[Donald Johanson]] - Director, Institute of Human Origins; discovered 3.18 million year old fossil hominid "Lucy" in Ethiopia *[[Dirk Koetter]] - Head Football Coach *[[Richard Lerman]] - Professor, Interdisciplinary Arts and Performance *[[Robert E. Mittelstaedt]] - Dean, [[W.P. Carey School of Business]] *[[Pat Murphy_(baseball coach)| Pat Murphy]] - Head Baseball Coach * Baltazar Nunez - Magnaflow Senior Planner *[[George Poste]] *[[Edward C. Prescott]] - Professor, [[W.P. Carey School of Business]]; awarded the 2004 Nobel Prize in Economics *[[Stephen J. Pyne]] - Professor, School of Life Sciences *[[Morris Starsky]] - Former Professor, Philosophy *[[Claudia Zapata]] - ECE 100 ==External links== * [http://www.asu.edu ASU Web site] * [http://www.thesundevils.com Official Sun Devil athletics site] * [http://www.wireddevils.com Wired Devils] * [http://www.michigan-football.com/ncaa/f/arzstate.htm Arizona State Sun Devils Historical Football Records] * [http://sports.espn.go.com/ncaa/clubhouse?collegeId=9&sport=ncf ESPN.com - Clubhouse (Arizona State)] * [http://www.asu.edu/ASASU ASU's Student Government] * [http://www.theblaze1260.com The Blaze 1260 AM, student radio station] * [http://www.asuband.org The ASU Sun Devil Marching Band website] * [http://www.law.asu.edu ASU College of Law website] {{Pacific Ten Conference}} {{Colleges and Universities in Arizona}} [[Category:Pacific Ten Conference]] [[Category:Universities and colleges in Arizona]] [[Category:Arizona State University|*]] [[Category:Sports in Phoenix, Arizona]] [[de:Arizona State University]] [[ja:アリゾナ州立大学]] [[sv:Arizona State University]] 1860 15900322 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Astoria, Oregon]] 1862 41597544 2006-02-28T11:34:59Z Valentinian 256198 /* Events */ 1864: Updated the link. More npov version. <!-- Language links at bottom --> {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=14}} |} '''April 14''' is the 104th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (105th in [[leap year]]s). There are 261 days remaining. ==Events== *[[43 BC]] - [[Battle of Forum Gallorum]]. [[Mark Antony]], besieging [[Julius Caesar]]'s assassin [[Decimus Junius Brutus]] in [[Mutina]], defeats the forces of the [[consul]] [[Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus|Pansa]], who is killed. *[[69]] - [[Vitellius]], commander of the Rhine armies, defeats [[Roman Emperor|Emperor]] [[Otho]] in the [[Battle of Bedriacum]] and seizes the throne. *[[1028]] - [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry III]], son of Conrad, was elected king of the [[Germany|Germans]]. *[[1205]] - [[Battle of Adrianople (1205)|Battle of Adrianople]] between [[Bulgars]] and [[Crusades|Crusaders]]. *[[1450]] - [[Battle of Formigny]]. French attack and nearly annihilate English, ending English domination in northern France. *[[1471]] - In [[England]], the Yorkists under [[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]] defeated the Lancastrians under Warwick at the battle of Barnet; the Earl of Warwick was killed and Edward IV resumed the throne. *[[1632]] - [[Battle of Rain]], [[Sweden|Swedes]] under [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustavus Adolphus]] defeat the [[Holy Roman Empire]] during the [[Thirty Years' War]]. *[[1775]] - The first [[abolition]] society in the [[North America]] was established. The "[[Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage]]" was organized in Philadelphia by [[Benjamin Franklin]] and Benjamin Rush. *[[1828]] - [[Noah Webster]] copyrights the first edition of his [[dictionary]]. *[[1849]] - [[Hungary]] declared itself independent of [[Austria]] with Louis Kossuth as its leader. *[[1860]] - The first [[Pony Express]] rider reaches [[Sacramento, California]]. *[[1864]] - [[Battle of Dybbøl]]: A Prussian-Austrian army defeats Denmark and gains control of [[Duchy of Schleswig|Schleswig]]. Denmark surrenders the province in the following peace settlement. *[[1865]] - [[Abraham Lincoln]] is shot by [[John Wilkes Booth]]; he dies the next day. *[[1890]] - The [[Pan-American Union]] was founded by the First International Conference of American States at their meeting in Washington. Known originally as the International Bureau of American Republics, William Elleroy Curtis became its first director. *[[1894]] - [[Thomas Edison]] demonstrates the [[kinetoscope]], a device for peep-show viewing using [[photograph]]s that flip in sequence, a precursor to [[film|movie]]s. *[[1910]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[William Howard Taft]] becomes the first president to throw out the first [[baseball]] on opening day. *[[1912]] - The British ocean liner [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] strikes an iceberg in the North Atlantic on its maiden voyage, plunging beneath the waves and taking with it over 1,500 lives at about 2:20 a.m. the following morning. *[[1915]] - The [[Ottoman Empire|Turk]]s invaded [[Armenia]]. *[[1927]] - The first [[Volvo]] 'Rolls' off the assembly line in [[Gothenburg]], [[Sweden]]. *[[1931]] - [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Cortes Generales|Cortes]] deposes King [[Alfonso XIII of Spain|Alfonso XIII]] and proclaims the [[Second Spanish Republic|2nd Spanish Republic]]. *[[1935]] - "Black Sunday", the worst dust storm of the [[Dust Bowl]]. *1935 - [[Babe Ruth]] played his first [[National League]] game in [[Fenway Park]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]. He was playing for the Boston Braves, not his old team the Red Sox, in this, his last year of pro ball in the major leagues. In this season, Ruth played 28 games, getting 13 hits and six home runs, before retiring. *[[1940]] - [[Royal Marines]] land in [[Namsos]], Norway, occupying key points, preparatory to a larger force arriving two days later. *[[1941]] - World War II: The [[Ustashe]], a [[Croatian]] [[far-right]] organisation which pursued nazi/fascist policies, was put in charge of the [[Independent State of Croatia]] by the [[Axis Powers]]after the invasion of [[Yugoslavia]] on April 6 during Operation Castigo *[[1944]] - Huge explosion rocks the [[Bombay]] [[harbour]] killing 300 and causing a loss of 20 million pounds at that time. See: [[Bombay Explosion (1944)]]. *[[1956]] - [[Videotape]] is first demonstrated at the 1956 NARTB (now [[National Association of Broadcasters|NAB]]) convention in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. It was the demonstation of the first practical and commercially successful format called [[2" Quadruplex]]. *[[1962]] - [[Georges Pompidou]] becomes Prime Minister of [[France]]. *[[1964]] - A [[Delta rocket]]'s third-stage motor prematurely ignites in an assembly room at [[Cape Canaveral]], killing 3. *[[1965]] - ''[[In Cold Blood]]'' killers Richard Hickock and Perry Smith, convicted of murdering four members of the Herbert Clutter family of [[Holcomb, Kansas]], are executed by hanging at the Kansas State Penitentiary For Men in [[Lansing, Kansas]]. *[[1969]] - At the [[Academy Awards]], a tie between [[Katharine Hepburn]] and [[Barbra Streisand]] results in the two sharing the [[Academy Award for Best Actress|Best Actress Oscar]]; Hepburn also becomes the only actress to win three Best Actress Oscars. *[[1970]] - One of [[Apollo 13]]'s oxygen tanks explodes, causing a cancelled moon mission. The explosion occurred on April 13th in several time zones. *[[1981]] - The [[Space Shuttle]] [[Space Shuttle Columbia|''Columbia'']] passes its first test flight. *[[1986]] - In retaliation for the [[April 5]] [[1986 Berlin discotheque bombing|bombing]] of the [[La Belle (discotheque)|La Belle Discotheque]] in [[West Berlin]] in which two U.S. servicemen were killed, [[Ronald Reagan]] ordered [[Operation El Dorado Canyon|major bombing raids]] against [[Tripoli]] and [[Benghazi]], in [[Libya]], which killed 60 people. *1986 - 2.2 lb (1 kg) [[hailstone]]s fall on the Gopalganj district of [[Bangladesh]], killing 92. These are the heaviest [[hailstone]]s ever recorded. *[[1988]] - [[USS Samuel B. Roberts (FFG-58)|USS ''Samuel B. Roberts'']] strikes a [[naval mine|mine]] in the [[Persian Gulf]] during [[Operation Earnest Will]]. U.S. retaliates against [[Iran]] on [[April 18]] with [[Operation Praying Mantis]], the world's largest naval battle since World War II. *[[2003]] - [[Human Genome Project]] successfully completed with 99% of the human [[genome]] sequenced to 99.99% accuracy. *2003 - [[Jean Charest]]'s [[Parti libéral du Québec]] defeats [[Bernard Landry]] and the [[Parti Québécois]] in [[Quebec]]'s general elections. ==Births== *[[1336]] - [[Emperor Go-Kogon]] of Japan (d. [[1374]]) *[[1527]] - [[Abraham Ortelius]], Flemish cartographer and geographer (d. [[1598]]) *[[1572]] - [[Adam Tanner]], Austrian mathematician and philosopher (d. [[1632]]) *[[1578]] - King [[Philip III of Spain]] (d. [[1621]]) *[[1629]] - [[Christiaan Huygens]], Dutch mathematician & astronomer (d. [[1695]]) *[[1714]] - [[Adam Gib]], Scottish religious leader (d. [[1788]]) *[[1788]] - [[David G. Burnet]], interim president of the Republic of Texas (d. [[1870]]) *[[1827]] - [[Augustus Pitt-Rivers]], English archaeologist (d. [[1900]]) *[[1868]] - [[Peter Behrens]], German architect and designer (d. [[1940]]) *[[1872]] - [[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]], Islamic scholar and translator (d. [[1953]]) *[[1886]] - [[Ernst Robert Curtius]], Alsatian philologist (d. [[1956]]) *[[1897]] - [[Claire Windsor]], American actress (d. [[1972]]) *[[1902]] - [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]], Ukrainian rabbi (d. [[1994]]) *[[1904]] - Sir [[John Gielgud]], English actor (d. [[2000]]) *[[1907]] - [[François Duvalier]], Haitian politician (d. [[1971]]) *[[1917]] - [[Marvin Miller]], American labor activist *[[1921]] - [[Thomas Schelling]], American economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner *[[1925]] - [[Abel Muzorewa]], Prime Minster of Zimbabwe *1925 - [[Gene Ammons]], American jazz saxophonist (d. [[1974]]) *1925 - [[Rod Steiger]], American actor (d. [[2002]]) *[[1930]] - [[Bradford Dillman]], American actor *[[1933]] - [[Morton Subotnick]], American composer *[[1935]] - [[Erich von Däniken]], Swiss writer *[[1936]] - [[Kenneth Mars]], American actor *1936 - [[Frank Serpico]], American policeman *[[1940]] - [[Loretta Lynn]], American singer *[[1941]] - [[Julie Christie]], British actress *1941 - [[Pete Rose]], baseball player *[[1942]] - [[Valeriy Brumel]], Russian athlete (d. [[2003]]) *1942 - [[Valentin Lebedev]], cosmonaut *[[1945]] - [[Ritchie Blackmore]], English guitarist *[[1949]] - [[John Shea]], American actor *[[1951]] - [[Julian Lloyd Webber]], English cellist and composer *[[1960]] - [[Brad Garrett]], American actor *[[1961]] - [[Robert Carlyle]], British actor *[[1964]] - [[Brian Adams (wrestler)]] American Pro Wrestler *[[1966]] - [[David Justice]], baseball player *1966 - [[Greg Maddux]], baseball player *[[1968]] - [[Anthony Michael Hall]], American actor *[[1973]] - [[Adrien Brody]], American actor *[[1974]] - [[Da Brat]], American rapper *[[1975]] - [[Amy Dumas]], American professional wrestler *[[1977]] - [[Sarah Michelle Gellar]], American actress *[[1980]] - [[Ben Wells]], American Actor *[[1983]] - [[James McFadden]], Scottish footballer ==Deaths== *[[1132]] - Prince [[Mstislav of Kiev]] (b. [[1076]]) *[[1279]] - Duke [[Boleslaus of Greater Poland]] *[[1322]] - [[Bartholomew de Badlesmere, 1st Lord Badlesmere]], English soldier (b. [[1275]]) *[[1345]] - [[Richard Aungerville]], English bishop and writer (b. [[1287]]) *[[1471]] - [[Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick]], English kingmaker (b. [[1428]]) *[[1574]] - [[Louis of Nassau]], Dutch general (killed in battle) (b. [[1538]]) *[[1578]] - [[James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell]], consort of [[Mary I of Scotland]] *[[1599]] - [[Henry Wallop]], English statesman *[[1662]] - [[William Fiennes, 1st Viscount Saye and Sele]], English statesman (b. [[1582]]) *[[1682]] - [[Avvakum]], Russian priest and writer (b. [[1621]]) *[[1716]] - [[Arthur Herbert, 1st Earl of Torrington]], British admiral *[[1721]] - [[Michel Chamillart]], French statesman (b. [[1652]]) *[[1759]] - [[George Frideric Handel]], German composer (b. [[1685]]) *[[1785]] - [[William Whitehead]], English writer (b. [[1715]]) *[[1792]] - [[Maximilian Hell]], Slovakian astronomer (b. [[1720]]) *[[1912]] - [[Henri Brisson]], French statesman (b. [[1835]]) *[[1914]] - [[Hubert Bland]], English co-founder of the Fabian Society (b. [[1855]]) *[[1917]] - [[L. L. Zamenhof|Ludovich Lazarus Zamenhof]], Polish creator of Esperanto (b. [[1859]]) *[[1925]] - [[John Singer Sargent]], English artist (b. [[1856]]) *[[1930]] - [[Vladimir Mayakovsky]], Russian writer (b. [[1893]]) *[[1935]] - [[Emmy Noether|Amalie Emmy Noether]], German mathematician (b. [[1882]]) *[[1964]] - [[Rachel Carson]], American writer and environmentalist (b. [[1907]]) *[[1968]] - [[Al Benton]], baseball player (b. [[1911]]) *[[1975]] - [[Fredric March]], American actor (b. [[1897]]) *[[1986]] - [[Simone de Beauvoir]], French feminist writer (b. [[1908]]) *[[1995]] - [[Burl Ives]], American singer and actor (b. [[1909]]) *[[1999]] - [[Ellen Corby]], American actress (b. [[1911]]) *1999 - [[Anthony Newley]], British actor and singer (b. [[1931]]) *[[2000]] - [[Phil Katz]], American computer programmer (b. [[1962]]) *[[2001]] - [[Hiroshi Teshigahara]], Japanese director (b. [[1927]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[New Year]] Celebrations in parts of India and whole of Sri Lanka *[[Baisakhi]] - [Celeberations in Punjab, India] *[[Poila Baisakh]] - [Celeberations in Bengal, India] *[[Vishu]] - [Harvest festival in Kerala, India] *[[Black Day]] - informal celebration day for single people in [[South Korea]] *[[Youth Day]] in [[Angola]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/14 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/14 Today in History: April 14] ---- [[April 13]] - [[April 15]] - [[March 14]] - [[May 14]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:14 April]] [[an:14 d'abril]] [[ar:14 ابريل]] [[ast:14 d'abril]] [[be:14 красавіка]] [[bg:14 април]] [[bs:14. april]] [[ca:14 d'abril]] [[ceb:Abril 14]] [[co:14 d'aprile]] [[cs:14. duben]] [[csb:14 łżëkwiôta]] [[cv:Ака, 14]] [[cy:14 Ebrill]] [[da:14. april]] [[de:14. April]] [[el:14 Απριλίου]] [[eo:14-a de aprilo]] [[es:14 de abril]] [[et:14. aprill]] [[eu:Apirilaren 14]] [[fi:14. huhtikuuta]] [[fo:14. apríl]] [[fr:14 avril]] [[fy:14 april]] [[ga:14 Aibreán]] [[gl:14 de abril]] [[he:14 באפריל]] [[hr:14. travnja]] [[hu:Április 14]] [[ia:14 de april]] [[id:14 April]] [[ie:14 april]] [[io:14 di aprilo]] [[is:14. apríl]] [[it:14 aprile]] [[ja:4月14日]] [[jv:14 April]] [[ka:14 აპრილი]] [[kn:ಎಪ್ರಿಲ್ ೧೪]] [[ko:4월 14일]] [[ku:14'ê avrêlê]] [[la:14 Aprilis]] [[lb:14. Abrëll]] [[li:14 april]] [[lt:Balandžio 14]] [[mk:14 април]] [[ms:14 April]] [[nap:14 'e abbrile]] [[nl:14 april]] [[nn:14. april]] [[no:14. april]] [[oc:14 d'abril]] [[pam:Abril 14]] [[pl:14 kwietnia]] [[pt:14 de Abril]] [[ro:14 aprilie]] [[ru:14 апреля]] [[scn:14 di aprili]] [[se:Cuoŋománu 14.]] [[simple:April 14]] [[sk:14. apríl]] [[sl:14. april]] [[sq:14 Prill]] [[sr:14. април]] [[sv:14 april]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 14]] [[th:14 เมษายน]] [[tl:Abril 14]] [[tr:14 Nisan]] [[tt:14. Äpril]] [[uk:14 квітня]] [[ur:14 اپریل]] [[vi:14 tháng 4]] [[wa:14 d' avri]] [[war:Abril 14]] [[zh:4月14日]] 1864 41883716 2006-03-02T09:56:10Z 209.155.145.244 Added info about TransAmerica Trail [[Image:ORMap-doton-Astoria.png|right|280px]] [[Image:Astoria Column.jpg|250px|right|thumb|The Astoria Column]] [[Image:Astoria-Megler.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Astoria.]] '''Astoria''' is the [[county seat]] of [[Clatsop County, Oregon]]{{GR|6}}, situated near the mouth of the [[Columbia River]]. It was named after the [[United States|American]] investor [[John Jacob Astor]]. As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 9,813. == History == The [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] spent the winter of 1805-1806 at [[Fort Clatsop]], a small log structure south and west of modern day Astoria. The expedition had hoped a ship would come by to take them back east, but instead endured a tortuous winter of rain and cold, then returned east the way they came. Today the fort has been recreated and is now a [[national monument]]. Several years later, in 1811, Astor's [[Pacific Fur Company]] founded [[Fort Astoria]] as its primary fur-trading post in the Northwest, and in fact the first permanent U.S. settlement on the Pacific coast. It was an extremely important post for American exploration of the continent and was influential in helping establish American claims to the land. The fort and fur trade was sold to the British in [[1813]], and while the fort was restored to the U.S. in [[1818]], control of the fur trade would remain under the British until American pioneers following the [[Oregon Trail]] began filtering into the port town in the mid-1840's. The first U.S. Post Office west of the [[Rocky Mountains]] was also established in Astoria in [[1847]]. As the [[Oregon Territory]] grew and became increasingly more settled, Astoria likewise grew as an ocean/river [[port|port city]]. In 1876 the community was legally incorporated. It attracted a host of [[Scandinavian]] settlers, and the area still boasts a high concentration of descendants of these original settlers. In [[1883]], and again in [[1922]], downtown Astoria was devastated by fire, but the city economy was strong enough in both cases to rebuild and thrive. Astoria has served as a port of entry for over a century and remains the trading center for the lower Columbia basin. In addition to Fort Clatsop, another popular point of interest includes the [[Astoria Column]], a tower 38 m high built atop the hill above the town, with an inner circular staircase allowing visitors to climb to see a breathtaking view of the town, the surrounding lands, and the mighty Columbia flowing into the Pacific. The column was built in 1926 to commemorate the region's early history by the Astor family. Eclipsed by [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]] and other ports further inland along the Columbia, Astoria's economy centered around fishing, fish processing, and lumber. In 1945, about 30 canneries could be found along the Columbia; however, in 1974 [[Bumblebee Seafood]] moved its headquarters out of Astoria, and gradually reduced its presence until 1980 when the company closed its last cannery. The [[timber industry]] likewise declined, with Astoria Plywood Mill, the city's largest employer, closing in 1989, and the [[Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway]] announcing in 1996 that they were discontinuing service. Today, tourism, Astoria's growing art scene, and light manufacturing are the main economic activities of the city. It is a port of call for [[cruise ship]]s, with many docking in 2004, 2005, and 13 scheduled in 2006. Astoria was the setting of the [[1985]] hit movie ''[[The Goonies]]'', which was filmed on location. Other movies filmed in Astoria include ''[[Short Circuit]]'', ''[[Kindergarten Cop]]'', ''[[Free Willy]]'', ''[[Free Willy Two]]'', ''[[Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles]] III'', ''[[Benji]]'' and ''[[The Ring Two]]''. Astoria is also the western terminus of the [[TransAmerica Trail]], a [[bicycle touring]] route created by the [[American Cycling Association]]. == Geography == Astoria is located at {{coor dms|46|11|20|N|123|49|16|W}} (46.188825, -123.821007){{GR|1}}. According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 27.5 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (10.6 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 15.9 km&sup2; (6.1 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 11.6 km&sup2; (4.5 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 42.18% water. == Demographics == [[Image:DSCN6804 astoriawalkingdogontracks e.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Woman walking her dog along the Columbia River in Astoria]] As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 9,813 people, 4,235 households, and 2,469 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 617.1/km&sup2; (1,597.6/mi&sup2;). There are 4,858 housing units at an average density of 305.5/km&sup2; (790.9/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 91.08% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.52% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 1.14% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.94% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.19% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 2.67% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.46% from two or more races. 5.98% of the population are [[Hispanic American]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race. There are 4,235 households out of which 28.8% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.5% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 11.2% have a female householder with no husband present, and 41.7% are non-families. 35.4% of all households are made up of individuals and 13.6% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.26 and the average family size is 2.93. In the city the population is spread out with 24.0% under the age of 18, 9.1% from 18 to 24, 26.4% from 25 to 44, 24.5% from 45 to 64, and 15.9% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 38 years. For every 100 females there are 92.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 89.9 males. The median income for a household in the city is $33,011, and the median income for a family is $41,446. Males have a median income of $29,813 versus $22,121 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $18,759. 15.9% of the population and 11.6% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 22.0% of those under the age of 18 and 9.6% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. == Tourist attractions == *[http://www.nps.gov/focl/ Fort Clatsop National Memorial] *[http://www.oregoncoast.com/Astorcol/Astorcol.htm Astoria Column]= *[[Columbia River Maritime Museum]] *[http://virtualguidebooks.com/Oregon/OregonCoast/ClatsopSpit/PeterIredaleWreck.html Peter Iredale Wreck] == External links == *[http://www.oldoregon.com/ Official Site for Astoria, Oregon] {{Mapit-US-cityscale|46.188825|-123.821007}} [[Category:Astoria, Oregon|*]] [[Category:Cities in Oregon]] [[Category:County seats in Oregon]] [[Category:Clatsop County, Oregon]] [[Category:Oregon Coast]] [[Category:The Astors]] [[de:Astoria (Oregon)]] [[gl:Astoria]] [[io:Astoria, Oregon]] 1865 38525318 2006-02-06T22:39:53Z SlimVirgin 129409 redirect #REDIRECT [[Animal Liberation Front]] 1866 40359284 2006-02-20T01:17:29Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 External links per MoS. '''''Alarums and Excursions''''' ('''''A&E'''''), started in 1975 by Lee Gold, was one of the first [[fanzine]]s to focus on [[role-playing game]]s. Each issue consists of contributions from different authors, often featuring game design discussions, rules variants, write-ups of game sessions, reviews, and comments on others contributions. As one might guess, the quality varies; but with a no advertising policy and a huge range of viewpoints on display, A&E often makes for interesting reading. It was a three time winner of the [[Charles Roberts Award|Charles Roberts]]/[[Origins Award]] for best amateur [[magazine]]. ==External links== <!-- * http://www.rahul.net/starport/xeno/aande.html (Broken) --> * http://thestarport.org/xeno/aande.html {{mag-stub}} [[Category:Role-playing game magazines]] [[Category:Origins award winners]] [[Category:Charles Roberts award winners]] [[Category:Fanzines]] 1869 41217960 2006-02-25T21:31:25Z Magnus Manske 4 /* External links */ * {{gutenberg author| id=Jarry+Alfred | name=Alfred Jarry}} [[Image:AlfredJarry.jpg|thumb|178px|right|Alfred Jarry]] {{French literature (small)}} '''Alfred Jarry''' ([[September 8]], [[1873]] &ndash; [[November 1]], [[1907]]) was a [[France|French]] [[writer]] born in [[Laval, Mayenne|Laval]], [[Mayenne]], [[France]], not far from the border of [[Brittany]]; he was of [[Brittany|Breton]] descent on his mother's side. Best known for his [[play]] ''[[Ubu Roi]]'' ([[1896]]), which is often cited as a forerunner to the [[theatre of the absurd]], Jarry wrote in a variety of genres and styles. He wrote plays, novels, poetry, essays and speculative journalism. His texts present some pioneering work in the field of absurdist literature. Sometimes grotesque or misunderstood (i.e. the opening line in his play ''Ubu Roi'', "Merdre!", has been translated into English as "Shittr!", "Shikt!", and "Shitsky!"), he invented a science called ''[['pataphysics]]''. ==Biography and works== A precociously brilliant student, Jarry enthralled his classmates with a gift for pranks and troublemaking. At the lycée in [[Rennes]] when he was 15, he led of a group of boys who devoted much time and energy to poking fun at their well-meaning, obese and incompetent physics teacher, a man named Hébert. Jarry and classmate Charles Morin wrote a play they called ''Les Polonais'' and performed it with [[marionettes]] in the home of one of their friends. The main character, ''Père Heb'', was a blunderer with a huge belly; three teeth (one of stone, one of iron, and one of wood); a single, retractable ear; and a misshapen body. In Jarry's later work ''[[Ubu Roi]]'', Père Heb would develop into Ubu, one of the most monstrous and astonishing characters in French literature. At 17, Jarry passed his [[baccalauréat]] and moved to [[Paris]] to prepare for admission to the École Normale Supérieure. Though he was not admitted, he soon gained attention for his original poems and prose-poems. A collection of his work, ''Les minutes de sable mémorial'', was published in 1893. That same year, both his parents died, leaving him a small inheritance which he quickly spent. Jarry had meantime discovered the pleasures of alcohol, which he called "my sacred herb" or, when referring to [[absinthe]], the "green goddess". A story is told that he once painted his face green and rode through town on his bicycle in its honour (and possibly under its influence). Drafted into the army in 1894, his gift for turning notions upside down defeated attempts to instill military discipline. The sight of the small man in a uniform much too large for his less than 5-foot frame&mdash;the army did not issue uniforms small enough&mdash;was so disruptively funny that he was excused from parades and marching drills. Eventually the army discharged him for medical reasons. His military experience eventually inspired the novel, ''Days and Nights''. Jarry returned to Paris and applied himself to drinking, writing, and the company of friends who appreciated his witty, sweet-tempered, and unpredictable conversation. This period is marked by his intense involvement with [[Remy de Gourmont]] in the publication of ''L'Ymagier'', a luxuriously produced "art" magazine devoted to the symbolic analysis of medieval and popular prints. [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]] as an art movement was in full swing at this time and ''L'Ymagier'' provided a nexus for many of its key contributors. Jarry's play ''Caesar Antichrist'' (1895) drew on this movement for material. This is a work that bridges the gap between serious symbolic meaning and the type of critical absurdity with which Jarry would soon become associated. Using the biblical [[Book of Revelations]] as a point of departure, ''Caesar Antichrist'' presents a parallel world of extreme formal symbolism in which [[Christ]] is resurrected not as an agent of [[spirituality]] but as agent of the [[Roman Empire]] that seeks to dominate spirituality. It is a unique [[narrative]] that effectively links the domination of the [[soul]] to contemporaneous advances in the field of [[Egyptology]] such as the 1894 excavation the [[Narmer Palette]], an ancient artifact used for situating the [[rebus]] within [[hermeneutics]]. The spring of 1896 saw the publication, in Paul Fort's review ''Le Livre d'art'', of Jarry's 5-act play ''[[Ubu Roi]]''&mdash;the rewritten and expanded ''Les Polonais'' of his school days. ''Ubu Roi'''s savage humor and monstrous absurdity, unlike anything thus far performed in French theater, seemed unlikely to ever actually be performed on stage. However, impetuous theater director [[Aurélien-Marie Lugné-Poe]] took the risk, producing the play at his Théâtre de l'Oeuvre. On opening night ([[December 10]], [[1896]]), with traditionalists and the [[avant-garde]] in the audience, King Ubu (played by [[Firmin Gémier]]) stepped forward and intoned the opening word, "Merdre!" ("Shittr!"). A quarter of an hour of pandemonium ensued: outraged cries, booing, and whistling by the offended parties, countered by cheers and applause by the more forward-thinking contingent. Such interruptions continued through the evening. At the time, only the dress rehearsal and opening night performance were held, and the play was not revived until 1907. The play brought fame to the 23-year-old Jarry, and he immersed himself in the fiction he had created. Gémier had modeled his portrayal of Ubu on Jarry's own staccato, nasal vocal delivery, which emphasized each syllable (even the silent ones). From then on, Jarry would always speak in this style. He adopted Ubu's ridiculous and pedantic figures of speech; for example, he referred to himself using the [[royal we|royal ''we'']], and called the wind "that which blows" and the bicycle he rode everywhere "that which rolls". Jarry moved into a flat which the landlord had made by horizontally dividing one flat into two. He could just manage to stand up in the place, but guests had to bend or crouch. Jarry took to carrying a loaded pistol. In response to a neighbor's complaint that his target shooting endangered her children, he replied, "If that should ever happen, ma-da-me, we should ourselves be happy to get new ones with you" (though he was not at all inclined to engage with females in the manner implied). Living in worsening poverty, neglecting his health, and drinking excessively, Jarry went on to write what is often cited as the first [[cyborg]] sex novel, ''[[Supermale (novel)|The Supermale]]'', which is partly a satire on the [[Symbolist]] ideal of self-transcendence. Unpublished until after his death, his fiction ''[[Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll, pataphysician]]'' (''Gestes et opinions du docteur Faustroll, pataphysicien'') describes the exploits and teachings of a sort of antiphilosopher who, born at age 63, travels through a hallucinatory Paris in a sieve and subscribes to the tenets of ''[['pataphysics]]''. 'Pataphysics deals with "the laws which govern exceptions and will explain the universe supplementary to this one". In 'pataphysics, every event in the universe is accepted as an extraordinary event. Jarry once wrote, expressing some of the bizarre logic of 'pataphysics, "If you let a coin fall and it falls, the next time it is just by an infinite coincidence that it will fall again the same way; hundreds of other coins on other hands will follow this pattern in an infinitely unimaginable fashion". In his final years, he was a legendary and heroic figure to some of the young writers and artists in Paris. [[Guillaume Apollinaire]], [[André Salmon]], and [[Max Jacob]] sought him out in his truncated apartment. After his death, [[Pablo Picasso]], fascinated with Jarry, acquired his pistol and wore it on his nocturnal expeditions in Paris, and later bought many of his manuscripts as well as executing a fine drawing of him. Jarry lived in his 'pataphysical world until his death in Paris on [[November 1]], [[1907]] of [[tuberculosis]], aggravated by drug and alcohol use. It is recorded that his last request was for a toothpick. He was interred in the [[Cimetière de Bagneux]], near Paris. ==See also== * [['pataphysics]] * ''[[Ubu Roi]]'' ==Selected Jarry works== ===Plays=== * [[Ubu Roi|''Ubu the King'' or ''King Turd (Ubu Roi)'']], written at age 15 as ''Les Polonais''. * ''Ubu Cuckolded (Ubu cocu ), Ubu Bound (Ubu enchaíné)'' ===Novels=== * ''[[Supermale (novel)|The Supermale]] (Le Surmâle)'' * ''[[Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll, pataphysician]] (Gestes et opinions du docteur Faustroll, pataphysicien)'' ===Other notable works=== * Short story, ''The Passion Considered as an Uphill Bicycle Race'', has been widely circulated and imitated, notably by [[J.G. Ballard]]. == Bibliography == * {{cite book | author=Beaumont, Keith| title=Alfred Jarry: A Critical and Biographical Study | publisher=U.S.: St. Martin's Press | year=1984 | id=ISBN 0-3120-1712-X}} * {{cite book | author=Tompkins, Calvin | title=Duchamp: A Biography | publisher=U.S.: Henry Holt and Company, Inc | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0-8050-5789-7}} * ''The Banquet Years'' by Roger Shattuck (1958) ISBN 0394704150 == External links == {{wikiquote}} * [http://pata.obspm.fr/livres/jarry/Ubu_roi.html ''Ubu Roi''] (French) * [http://pata.obspm.fr/livres/jarry/faustrol.htm ''Gestes et opinions du docteur Faustroll, pataphysicien''] (French) * [http://pata.obspm.fr/ College of Pataphysics] (French) *[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=9101496 Alfred Jarry at Find-A-Grave] *[http://www.blather.net/shitegeist/2001/05/alfred_jarry_absinthe_bicycle.htm Alfred Jarry: Absinthe, Bicycles and Merdre] * {{gutenberg author| id=Jarry+Alfred | name=Alfred Jarry}} [[Category:1873 births|Jarry, Alfred]] [[Category:1907 deaths|Jarry, Alfred]] [[Category:French dramatists and playwrights|Jarry, Alfred]] [[Category:Pataphysicians|Jarry, Alfred]] [[Category:French satirists|Jarry, Alfred]] [[br:Alfred Jarry]] [[cs:Alfred Jarry]] [[de:Alfred Jarry]] [[es:Alfred Jarry]] [[fr:Alfred Jarry]] [[it:Alfred Jarry]] [[ka:ჟარი, ალფრედ]] [[nl:Alfred Jarry]] [[pl:Alfred Jarry]] [[sr:Алфред Јари]] [[sv:Alfred Jarry]] 1870 35514196 2006-01-17T07:28:50Z Jaraalbe 261435 hndis '''Amalric''' is the name of several kings. * [[Amalaric|Amalric]] - King of the [[Visigoths]] from 526 to 531 * [[Amalric I of Jerusalem]] - [[kingdom of Jerusalem|King of Jerusalem]] from 1162 to 1174 * [[Amalric II of Jerusalem]] - [[King of Jerusalem]] from 1197 to 1205 * [[Amalric of Bena]] - French theologian ca. 1200 AD * [[Amalric of Tyre]] - [[Kingdom of Cyprus|King of Cyprus]] from 1306 to 1310 A French variant of this name is '''Amaury.''' {{hndis}} 1871 41308826 2006-02-26T12:54:52Z DabMachine 922466 disambiguation from [[Knights Templar]] to [[Knights Templar (military order)]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]]) '''Amalric I''' (also '''Amaury''' or '''Aimery''') ([[1136]] &ndash; [[July 11]], [[1174]]) was [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|King of Jerusalem]] [[1162]]&ndash;[[1174]], and [[Count of Jaffa and Ascalon]] before his accession. Amalric was the second son of [[Melisende of Jerusalem]] and [[Fulk of Jerusalem]]. ==Youth== After the death of Amalric's father, the throne passed jointly to his mother Melisende and his older brother Baldwin III. Melisende did not step down when Baldwin came of age, and by [[1150]] the two were becoming increasingly hostile towards each other. In [[1152]] Baldwin had himself crowned sole king, and civil war broke out, with Melisende retaining [[Jerusalem]] while Baldwin held territory further north. Amalric, who had been given the County of Jaffa as an [[apanage]] when he reached the age of majority in [[1151]], remained loyal to Melisende in Jerusalem, and when Baldwin invaded the south, Amalric was besieged in the [[Tower of David]] with his mother. Melisende was defeated in this struggle and Baldwin ruled alone thereafter. In [[1153]] Baldwin captured the [[Egypt]]ian fortress of [[Ascalon]], which was then added to Amalric's fief of Jaffa (see [[Battle of Ascalon (1153)|Battle of Ascalon]]). Amalric married [[Agnes of Courtenay]] in [[1157]]. Agnes, daughter of [[Joscelin II of Edessa]], had lived in Jerusalem since the western regions of [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] were lost in 1150. [[Patriarch Fulk of Jerusalem|Patriarch Fulcher]] objected to the marriage on grounds of [[consanguinity]], as the two shared a great-great-grandfather, [[Guy I of Montlhéry]], and it seems that they waited until Fulcher's death to marry. Agnes bore Amalric two children, first [[Sibylla of Jerusalem|Sibylla]] and then the future [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|Baldwin IV]] in [[1161]]. Both would come to rule the kingdom in their own right. ==Succession== Baldwin III died in 1162 and the kingdom passed to Amalric, although there was some opposition among the nobility to Agnes; they were willing to accept the marriage in 1157 when Baldwin III was still capable of siring an heir, but now the ''[[Haute Cour of Jerusalem|Haute Cour]]'' refused to endorse Amalric as king unless his marriage to Agnes was annulled. The hostility to Agnes, it must be admitted, may be exaggerated by the chronicler [[William of Tyre]], whom she prevented from becoming [[Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem]] decades later, as well as from William's continuators like [[Ernoul]], who hints at a slight on her moral character: "car telle n'est que roine doie iestre di si haute cite comme de Jherusalem" ("there should not be such a queen for so holy a city as Jerusalem"). Nevertheless, consanguinity was enough for the opposition. Amalric agreed and ascended the throne without a wife, although Agnes continued to hold the title Countess of Jaffa and Ascalon and received a pension from that fief's income. Agnes soon thereafter married [[Hugh of Ibelin]], to whom she had been engaged before her marriage with Amalric. The church ruled that Amalric and Agnes' children were legitimate and preserved their place in the order of succession. Through her children Agnes would exert much influence in Jerusalem for almost 20 years. == Conflicts with the Muslim states == As a [[Crusader state]] Jerusalem was constantly in a state of war. Since Baldwin III's blunder by attacking allied [[Damascus]] during the [[Second Crusade]] in [[1147]], the northern frontier was exposed to [[Nur ad-Din]], whose own power continued to grow from his bases in [[Mosul]], [[Aleppo]], and later Damascus when that city fell under his control. Jerusalem lost influence to Byzantium in northern Syria when the Empire imposed its suzerainty over the [[Principality of Antioch]], although Byzantium was increasingly beset by its own conflicts, particularly with the [[Normans]] in [[Sicily]]. The main theatre of conflict of Amalric's reign was [[Fatimid]] [[Egypt]], which was suffering from a series of young [[caliph]]s and civil wars. The crusaders had wanted to conquer Egypt since the days of [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin I]], and even [[Godfrey of Bouillon]] had promised to cede Jerusalem to the [[Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem|Patriarch]] [[Dagobert of Pisa]] if he could capture [[Cairo]]. The capture of Ascalon by Baldwin III made the conquest of Egypt more feasible, and the [[Knights Hospitaller]] began preparing maps of the possible invasion routes. ===Invasions of Egypt=== Amalric led his first expedition into Egypt in [[1163]], claiming that the Fatimids had not paid the yearly tribute that had begun during the reign of Baldwin III. The vizier, Dirgham, had recently overthrown the vizier Shawar, and marched out to meet Amalric at [[Pelusium]], but was defeated and forced to retreat to [[Bilbeis]]. The Egyptians then opened up the [[Nile]] dams and let the river flood, hoping to prevent Amalric from invading any further. Amalric returned home but Shawar fled to the court of Nur ad-Din, who sent his general [[Shirkuh]] to settle the dispute in [[1164]]. In response Dirgham sought help from Amalric, but Shirkuh and Shawar arrived before Amalric could intervene and Dirgham was killed. Shawar, however, feared that Shirkuh would seize power for himself, and he too looked to Amalric for assistance. Amalric returned to Egypt in 1164 and besieged Shirkuh in Bilbeis until Shirkuh retreated to Damascus. Amalric could not follow up on his success in Egypt because Nur ad-Din was active in Syria, having taken [[Bohemund III of Antioch]] and [[Raymond III of Tripoli]] prisoner at the [[Battle of Harim]] during Amalric's absence. Amalric rushed to take up the regency of Antioch and Tripoli and secured Bohemund's ransom in [[1165]] (Raymond remained in prison until [[1173]]). The year [[1166]] was relatively quiet, but Amalric sent envoys to the [[Byzantine Empire]] seeking an alliance and a Byzantine wife, and throughout the year had to deal with raids by Nur ad-Din, who captured [[Banias]]. In [[1167]], Nur ad-Din sent Shirkuh back to Egypt and Amalric once again followed him, establishing a camp near [[Cairo]]; Shawar again allied with Amalric as well and a treaty was signed with the caliph [[al-Adid]] himself. Shirkuh encamped on the opposite side of the [[Nile]]. After an indecisive battle, Amalric retreated to Cairo and Shirkuh took his troops to capture [[Alexandria]]; Amalric followed and besieged Shirkuh there, aided by a fleet from Jerusalem. Shirkuh negotiated for peace and Alexandria was handed over to Amalric. However Amalric could not remain there forever, and after exacting an enormous tribute, returned to Jerusalem. ===Byzantine alliance=== After his return in 1167 he married [[Maria Comnena]], a great-grandniece of [[Byzantine emperor]] [[Manuel I Comnenus]]. The negotiations had taken two years, mostly because Amalric insisted that Manuel return [[Antioch]] to Jerusalem. Once Amalric gave up on this point he was able to marry Maria in [[Tyre]] on [[August 29]], [[1167]]. During this time the queen dowager, Baldwin III's widow [[Theodora Comnena|Theodora]], eloped with her cousin [[Andronicus I Comnenus|Andronicus]] to [[Damascus]], and [[Akko|Acre]] reverted back into the royal domain of Jerusalem. It was also around this time that [[William of Tyre]] was promoted to [[archdeacon]] of Tyre, and was recruited by Amalric to write a history of the kingdom. In [[1168]] Amalric and Manuel negotiated an alliance against Egypt, and William of Tyre was among the ambassadors sent to [[Constantinople]] to finalize the treaty. Although Amalric still had a peace treaty with Shawar, Shawar was accused of attempting to ally with Nur ad-Din, and Amalric invaded. The [[Knights Hospitaller]] eagerly supported this invasion and may have even been responsible for convincing the king to do it, while the [[Knights Templar (military order)|Knights Templar]] refused to have any part in it. In October, without waiting for any Byzantine assistance (and in fact without even waiting for the ambassadors to return), Amalric invaded and seized Bilbeis. The inhabitants were either massacred or enslaved. Amalric then marched to Cairo, where Shawar offered Amalric two million pieces of gold. Meanwhile Nur ad-Din sent Shirkuh back to Egypt as well, and upon his arrival Amalric retreated. ===Rise of Saladin=== In January of 1169 Shirkuh had Shawar assassinated. Shirkuh became vizier, although he himself died in March, and was succeeded by his nephew [[Saladin]]. Amalric became alarmed and sought help from the kings and nobles of Europe, but no assistance was forthcoming. Later that year however a Byzantine fleet arrived, and in October Amalric launched yet another invasion and besieged [[Damietta]] by sea and by land. The siege was long and famine broke out in the Christian camp; the Byzantines blamed the crusaders for the failure and vice versa, and a truce was signed with Saladin. Amalric returned home. Now Jerusalem was surrounded by hostile enemies. In [[1170]] Saladin invaded Jerusalem and took the city of [[Eilat]], severing Jerusalem's connection with the Red Sea. Saladin, who was set up as Vizier of Egypt, was declared Sultan in [[1171]] with the death of the last of the Fatimid dynasty. Saladin's rise to Sultan was an unexpected reprieve for Jerusalem, as Nur ad-Din was now preoccupied with reining in his powerful vassal. Nevertheless, in 1171 Amalric visited Constantinople himself and envoys were sent to the kings of Europe for a second time, but again they were uninterested. Over the next few years the kingdom was threatened by not only Saladin and Nur ad-Din, but also the [[Hashshashin]]; in one episode, the Knights Templar murdered some Hashshashin envoys, leading to further disputes between Amalric and the Templars. == Death == Nur ad-Din died in 1174, upon which Amalric immediately besieged Banias. On the way back after giving up the siege he fell ill from [[dysentery]], which was ameliorated by doctors but turned into a [[fever]] in Jerusalem. William of Tyre explains that "after suffering intolerably from the fever for several days, he ordered physicians of the Greek, Syrian, and other nations noted for skill in diseases to be called and insisted that they give him some purgative remedy." Neither they nor Latin doctors could help, and he died on July 11, 1174. Maria Comnena had borne Amalric two daughters: [[Isabella of Jerusalem|Isabella]], who would eventually marry four husbands in turn and succeed as queen, was born in [[1172]]; and a stillborn child some time later. On his deathbed Amalric bequeathed [[Nablus]] to Maria and Isabella, both of whom would retire there. The leprous child Baldwin IV succeeded his father and brought his mother Agnes of Courtenay (now married to her fourth husband) back to court. ==Physical characteristics== William was a good friend of Amalric and described him in great detail. "He had a slight impediment in his speech, not serious enough to be considered as a defect but sufficient to render him incapable of ready eloquence. He was far better in counsel than in fluent or ornate speech." Like his brother Baldwin III, he was more of an academic than a warrior, who studied law and languages in his leisure time: "He was well skilled in the customary law by which the kingdom was governed – in fact, he was second to no one in this respect." He was probably responsible for an assize making all rear-vassals directly subject to the king and eligible to appear at the Haute Cour. Amalric had an enormous curiosity, and William was reportedly astonished to find Amalric questioning, during an illness, the [[Resurrection of the dead|resurrection]] of the body. He especially enjoyed reading and being read too, spending long hours listening to William read early drafts of his history. He did not enjoy games or spectacles, although he liked to hunt. He was trusting of his officials, perhaps too trusting, and it seems that there were many among the population who despised him, although he refused to take any action against those who insulted him publicly. He was tall and fairly handsome; "he had sparkling eyes of medium size; his nose, like that of his brother, was becomingly aquiline; his hair was blond and grew back somewhat from his forehead. A comely and very full beard covered his cheeks and chin. He had a way of laughing immoderately so that his entire body shook." He did not overeat or drink to excess, but his corpulence grew in his later years, decreasing his interest in military operations; according to William, he "was excessively fat, with breasts like those of a woman hanging down to his waist." Amalric was pious and attended mass every day, although he also "is said to have absconded himself without restraint to the sins of the flesh and to have seduced married women…" Despite his piety he taxed the clergy, which they naturally opposed. As William says, "he was a man of wisdom and discretion, fully competent to hold the reins of government in the kingdom." He is considered the last of the "early" [[kings of Jerusalem]], after whom there was no king able to save Jerusalem from its eventual collapse. Within a few years, Emperor Manuel died as well, and Saladin remained the only strong leader in the east. == Sources == *Bernard Hamilton, "Women in the Crusader States: The Queens of Jerusalem", in Medieval Women, edited by Derek Baker. Ecclesiatical History Society, 1978 *[[Steven Runciman]], ''A History of the Crusades, vol. II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem''. [[Cambridge University Press]], 1952 *[[William of Tyre]], ''A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea'', trans. E.A. Babcock and A.C. Krey. [[Columbia University Press]], 1943 *{{1911}} {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[King of Jerusalem]] | before=[[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin III]] | after=[[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|Baldwin IV]] | years=1162&ndash;1174}} {{end box}} [[Category:1136 births|Amalric I of Jerusalem]] [[Category:1174 deaths|Amalric I of Jerusalem]] [[Category:Kings of Jerusalem]] [[de:Amalrich I. (Jerusalem)]] [[es:Amalarico I de Jerusalén]] [[fr:Amaury Ier de Jérusalem]] [[he:אמלריך הראשון מלך ירושלים]] [[pl:Amalryk I]] [[zh:阿马尔里克]] 1872 41825248 2006-03-02T00:06:09Z Silverwhistle 320505 typo correction '''Amalric II''' ([[1145]] &ndash; [[April 1]], [[1205]]), [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|King of Jerusalem]] [[1197]]&ndash;[[1205]], was an older brother of [[Guy of Lusignan]]. The [[Lusignan]] family was noted for its many Crusaders. Amalric and Guy were sons of [[Hugh VIII of Lusignan]], who had himself campaigned in the Holy Land in the [[1160s]]. After being expelled from [[Poitou]] by their overlord, [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lion-hearted]], for the murder of [[Patrick of Salisbury]], 1st [[Earl of Salisbury]], Amalric arrived in Palestine c. [[1174]], Guy possibly later. Amalric married Eschiva, daughter of [[Baldwin of Ibelin]]. He then took service with [[Agnes of Courtenay]], wife of [[Reginald of Sidon]] and mother of [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem]]. The pro-Ibelin ''Chronicle of [[Ernoul]]'' later claimed that he was her lover, but it is likely that she and Baldwin IV were attempting to separate him from the political influence of his wife's family. He was appointed [[Officers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem|constable of Jerusalem]] in [[1179]]. [[Guy of Lusignan|Guy]] married the king's widowed older sister, [[Sibylla of Jerusalem]] in [[1180]], and so gained a claim to the kingdom of Jerusalem. Amalric was among those captured with his brother after the disastrous [[Battle of Hattin]] in [[1187]]. In [[1194]], on the death of Guy, he became [[Kingdom of Cyprus|King of Cyprus]] as Amalric I. By his first wife, Eschiva of Ibelin, he was the father of [[Hugh I of Cyprus]]. After Eschiva's death in [[1197]] he married [[Isabella of Jerusalem|Isabella]], the daughter of [[Amalric I of Jerusalem]] by his second marriage, and became [[kings of Jerusalem|King of Jerusalem]] in right of his wife in January, [[1198]]. In 1198 he was able to procure a five years' truce with the [[Muslim]]s, owing to the struggle between [[Saladin]]'s brothers and his sons for the inheritance of his territories. The truce was disturbed by raids on both sides, but in [[1204]] it was renewed for six years. Amalric died of dysentery (allegedly brought on by "a surfeit of white mullet") in 1205, just after his son Amalric and just before his wife. The kingdom of Cyprus passed to [[Hugh I of Cyprus|Hugh]], his son by Eschiva, while the [[kingdom of Jerusalem]] passed to [[Maria of Montferrat|Maria]], the daughter of Isabella by her previous marriage with [[Conrad of Montferrat]]. ==Wives and Children== His first wife was Eschiva of Ibelin, married in [[1174]]. They had six children: # Bourgogne (c. [[1178]] &ndash; c. [[1210]]), married [[Raymond VI of Toulouse]] [[1193]], div. [[1194]], married Walter of Montbéliard [[1197]] # Guy, died young # John, died young # [[Hugh I of Cyprus]] (c. [[1194]]&ndash;[[1218]]) # Helvis (c. [[1190]] &ndash; c. [[1217]]), married c. 1205 Eudes of Dampiere, Lord of Chargey-le-Grey, div. [[1210]], married September 1210 [[Raymond-Roupen of Antioch]] # Alix, died young His second wife was Isabella of Jerusalem, married January, 1198 in [[Akko|Acre]]. They had three children: # [[Sibylla of Lusignan]] ([[1198]]-[[1230]]), married King [[Leo II of Armenia]] # [[Melisende of Lusignan]] ([[1200]] &ndash; aft. [[1249]]), married [[January 1]], [[1218]] [[Bohemund IV of Antioch]] # Amalric ([[1201]]&ndash;[[February 2]], [[1205]], Acre) {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[Kingdom of Cyprus|King of Cyprus]] | before=[[Guy of Lusignan|Guy]] | after=[[Hugh I of Cyprus|Hugh I]] | years=1194&ndash;1205}} {{succession box | title=[[King of Jerusalem]] | before=[[Isabella of Jerusalem|Isabella]] and [[Henry II of Champagne|Henry II]] | after=[[Maria of Montferrat|Maria]] | years=1197&ndash;1205<br />(with '''[[Isabella of Jerusalem|Isabella]]''')}} {{end box}} ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1145 births|{{{key}}}]] [[Category:1205 deaths|{{{key}}}]] [[Category:Kings of Jerusalem]] [[Category:Kings of Cyprus]] [[Category:Kings consort]] [[de:Amalrich I. (Zypern)]] [[fr:Amaury II de Lusignan]] [[pl:Amalryk II]] 1873 41523035 2006-02-27T22:53:13Z TigerShark 161478 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.187.26.156|70.187.26.156]] ([[User talk:70.187.26.156|Talk]]) to last version by 147.145.40.43 {{cleanup-date|January 2006}} '''Anthemius of Tralles''' (c. [[474]] - c. [[534]]) was professor of [[geometry]] at [[Constantinople]] and [[architect]], with [[Isidore of Miletus]], of [[Hagia Sophia]]. Anthemius came from an educated family; he was one of five brothers--the sons of Stephanus, a physician of Tralles--who were all more or less eminent in their respective departments. Dioscorus followed his father's profession in his native place; Alexander became at Rome one of the most celebrated medical men of his time; Olympius was deeply versed in Roman jurisprudence; and Metrodorus was one of the distinguished grammarians of the great Eastern capital. He is known both a mathematician and an architect. As an architect he is best known for replacing the old church of [[Hagia Sophia]] at [[Constantinople]] in [[532]]; his daring plans for the church strikingly displayed at once his knowledge and his ignorance. His skills seem also to have extended to engineering for he is said to have been employed to repair flood defences at [[Daras]]. Anthemius had previously written a book on [[conic section]]s, excellent preparation for designing the elaborate vaulting of Hagia Sophia. He compiled a survey of mirror configurations in his work on remarkable mechanical devices which was known to certain of the Arab mathematicians such as [[Al-Haytham]]. There are a number of stories told about Anthemius, which we may not be able to ascertain for an indefinite amount of time. Regardless of the veracity, these might be the only clues available as to the character of Anthemius. It is related of Anthemius that, having a quarrel with his next-door neighbour Zeno, he annoyed him in two ways. First, he made a number of leathern tubes the ends of which he contrived to fix among the joists and flooring of a fine upper-room in which Zeno entertained his friends, and then subjected it to a miniature earthquake by sending steam through the tubes. Secondly, he simulated thunder and lightning, the latter by flashing in Zeno's eyes an intolerable light from a slightly hollowed mirror. Certain it is that he wrote a treatise on burning-glasses. A fragment of this was published under the title &Pi;&eta;&rho;&iota; &pi;&alpha;&rho;&alpha;&delta;&omicron;&xi;&omega;&nu; &mu;&eta;&chi;&alpha;&nu;&eta;&mu;&alpha;&tau;&omega;&nu; by L. Dupuy in 1777, and also appeared in 1786 in the forty-second volume of the ''Hist. de l'Acad. des Inscr''.; A. Westermann gave a revised edition of it in his &Pi;&alpha;&rho;&alpha;&delta;&omicron;&xi;&omicron;&gamma;&rho;&alpha;&phi;&omicron;&iota; (''Scriptores rerum mirabilium Graeci''), 1839. In the course of constructions for surfaces to reflect to one and the same point # all rays in whatever direction passing through another point, # a set of parallel rays, Anthemius assumes a property of an ellipse not found in Apollonius (the equality of the angles subtended at a focus by two tangents drawn from a point), and (having given the focus and a double ordinate) he uses the focus and directrix to obtain any number of points on a parabola--the first instance on record of the practical use of the directrix. == References == * Procopius, ''De Aedific''. i. 1 * Agathias, ''Hist''. v. 6-9 * Gibbon's ''Decline and Fall'', cap. xl. * {{1911}} * Biography in ''Dictionary of Scientific Biography'' (New York 1970-1990) * [[T L Heath]], ''A History of Greek Mathematics''(2 Vols.) (Oxford, 1921) * [[G L Huxley]], ''Anthemius of Tralles'' (Cambridge, Mass., 1959). [[Category:474 births]] [[Category:534 deaths]] [[Category:Byzantine mathematicians]] [[Category:Byzantine architects]] [[Category:5th century mathematicians]] [[Category:6th century mathematicians]] ==External links== * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Anthemius}} [[es:Antemio de Tralles]] [[fr:Anthemius de Tralles]] [[ja:トラレスのアンテミオス]] [[pt:Antemio de Tralles]] 1874 34289838 2006-01-07T22:33:29Z YurikBot 271058 robot Modifying: de '''Absalon''' (''c''. [[1128]]&ndash;[[March 21]], [[1201]]) was a [[Denmark|Danish]] [[archbishop]] and statesman. He was the son of Asser Rig of Fjenneslev ([[Zealand]]), at whose castle he and his brother Esbjørn (Esbern) were brought up along with the young prince Valdemar, afterwards King [[Valdemar I of Denmark|Valdemar I]]. The Rigs were as pious and enlightened as they were rich. They founded the monastery of [[Sorø]] as a civilizing centre, and after giving Absalon the rudiments of a sound education at home, which included not only book-lore but every manly and martial exercise, they sent him to the schools of [[Paris]]. Absalon first appears in [[Saxo Grammaticus|Saxo]]'s Chronicle as a fellow-guest at [[Roskilde]], at the banquet given, in [[1157]], by King Sweyn to his rivals Canute and Valdemar. Both Absalon and Valdemar narrowly escaped assassination at the hands of their treacherous host on this occasion, but at length escaped to [[Jutland]], whither Sweyn followed them, but was defeated and slain at the [[battle of Grathe Heath]]. The same year (1158) which saw Valdemar ascend the Danish throne saw Absalon elected bishop of [[Roskilde]]. Henceforth Absalon was the chief counsellor of Valdemar, and the promoter of that imperial policy which, for three generations, was to give Denmark the dominion of the Baltic. Briefly, it was Absalon's intention to clear the northern sea of the Wendish pirates, who inhabited that portion of the Baltic [[littoral]] which was later called [[Pomerania]], and ravaged the Danish coasts so unmercifully that at the accession of Valdemar one-third of the realm of Denmark lay wasted and depopulated. The very existence of Denmark demanded the suppression and conversion of these stiff-necked pagan freebooters, and to this double task Absalon devoted the best part of his life. The first expedition against the [[Wends]], conducted by Absalon in person, set out in [[1160]], but it was not till [[1168]] that the chief Wendish fortress, at Arkona in [[Rügen]], containing the sanctuary of their god [[Svantovit]], was surrendered, the Wends agreeing to accept Danish suzerainty and the Christian religion at the same time. From Arkona Absalon proceeded by sea to Garz, in south Rügen, the political capital of the Wends, and an all but impregnable stronghold. But the unexpected fall of Arkona had terrified the garrison, which surrendered unconditionally at the first appearance of the Danish ships. Absalon, with only Sweyn, bishop of [[Aarhus]], and twelve "house carls," thereupon disembarked, passed between a double row of Wendish warriors, 6000 strong, along the narrow path winding among the morasses, to the gates of the fortress, and, proceeding to the temple of the seven-headed god [[Rugievit]], caused the idol to be hewn down, dragged forth and burnt. The whole population of Garz was then baptized, and Absalon laid the foundations of twelve churches in the isle of Rügen. The destruction of this chief sally-port of the Wendish pirates enabled Absalon considerably to reduce the Danish fleet. But he continued to keep a watchful eye over the Baltic, and in [[1170]] destroyed another pirate stronghold, farther eastward, at Dievenow on the isle of [[Wolin]]. Absalon's last military exploit was the annihilation, off Strela ([[Stralsund]]), on Whit-Sunday [[1184]], of a Pomeranian fleet which had attacked Denmark's vassal, [[Jaromir of Rügen]]. He was now but fifty-seven, but his strenuous life had aged him, and he was content to resign the command of fleets and armies to younger men, like Duke Valdemar, afterwards King [[Valdemar II of Denmark|Valdemar II]], and to confine himself to the administration of the empire which his genius had created. In this sphere Absalon proved himself equally great. The aim of his policy was to free Denmark from the German yoke. It was contrary to his advice and warnings that Valdemar I rendered fealty to the emperor [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick Barbarossa]] at Dole in [[1162]]; and when, on the accession of [[Canute V of Denmark|Canute V]] in [[1182]], an imperial ambassador arrived at [[Roskilde]] to receive the homage of the new king, Absalon resolutely withstood him. "Return to the emperor," cried he, "and tell him that the king of Denmark will in no wise show him obedience or do him homage." As the archpastor of Denmark Absalon also rendered his country inestimable services, building churches and monasteries, supporting international religious orders like the [[Cistercians]] and [[Augustinians]], founding schools and doing his utmost to promote civilization and enlightenment. It was he who held the first Danish Synod at [[Lund]] in [[1167]]. In [[1178]] he became archbishop of [[Lund]], but very unwillingly, only the threat of excommunication from the holy see finally inducing him to accept the pallium. Absalon died in [[1201]] at the family monastery of Sorø, which he himself had richly embellished and endowed. Absalon remains one of the most striking and picturesque figures of the [[Middle Ages]], and was equally great as churchman, statesman and warrior. That he enjoyed warfare there can be no doubt; and his splendid physique and early training had well fitted him for martial exercises. He was the best rider in the army and the best swimmer in the fleet. Yet he was not like the ordinary fighting bishops of the Middle Ages, whose sole concession to their sacred calling was to avoid the "shedding of blood" by using a mace in battle instead of a sword. Absalon never neglected his ecclesiastical duties, and even his wars were of the nature of Crusades. Moreover, all his martial energy notwithstanding, his personality must have been singularly winning; for it is said of him that he left behind not a single enemy, all his opponents having long since been converted by him into friends. See Saxo, ''[[Gesta Danorum]],'' ed. Holder (Strassburg, 1886), books xvi.; Steenstrup, ''Danmarks Riges Historie. Oldtiden og den ældre Middelalder,'' pp. 570-735 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905). Absalon's Testamentum, in [[Jacques Paul Migne|Migne]], ''[[Patrologia Latina]]'' 209,18. ''Absalon'' is also a variant form of the (otherwise unrelated) name [[Absalom]]. This variant spelling is best known from the title of the musical work [[Absalon fili mi]]. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1201 deaths]] [[Category:Archbishops and bishops of Lund]] [[da:Absalon]] [[de:Absalon von Lund]] [[nl:Absalon]] [[pl:Absalon (biskup duński)]] [[sv:Absalon Hvide]] 1875 40359314 2006-02-20T01:17:43Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 External links per MoS. '''Adhemar''' (also known as '''Adémar''', '''Aimar''', or '''Aelarz''') '''de Monteil''' (d. [[August 1]], [[1098]]), one of the principal personages of the [[First Crusade]], was bishop of [[Puy-en-Velay]] from before [[1087]]. At the [[Council of Clermont]] in [[1095]], Adhemar showed great zeal for the crusade (there is evidence Urban II had conferred with Adhemar before the council) and having been named [[apostolic legate]] and appointed to lead the crusade by [[Pope Urban II]], he accompanied [[Raymond IV of Toulouse|Raymond IV]], [[count of Toulouse]], to the east. Whilst Raymond and the other leaders often conflicted with each other over the leadership of the crusade, Adhemar was always recognised as the spiritual leader of the crusade. Adhemar negotiated with [[Alexius I Comnenus]] at [[Constantinople]], reestablished at [[Nicaea]] some discipline among the crusaders, fought a crucial role at the battle of Dorylaeum and was largely responsible for sustaining morale during the [[siege of Antioch]] through various religious rites including fasting and special observances of holy days. After the capture of [[Antioch|the city]] in June, [[1098]], and the subsequent siege led by [[Kerbogha]], Adhemar organized a procession through the streets, and had the gates locked so that the Crusaders, many of whom had begun to panic, would be unable to desert the city. He was extremely skeptical of [[Peter Bartholomew]]'s discovery in Antioch of the [[Holy Lance]], especially because he knew such a relic already existed in Constantinople; however, he was willing to let the Crusader army believe it was real if it raised their morale. When Kerbogha was defeated, Adhemar organized a council in an attempt to settle the leadership disputes, but he died on August 1, 1098, probably of [[typhus]]. The disputes among the higher nobles went unsolved, and the march to [[Jerusalem]] was delayed for months. However, the lower-class foot soldiers continued to think of Adhemar as a leader; some of them claimed to have been visited by his ghost during the [[siege of Jerusalem (1099)|siege of Jerusalem]], and reported that Adhemar instructed them to hold another procession around the walls. This was done, and Jerusalem was taken by the Crusaders in [[1099]]. ==External links== *[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/urban2-5vers.html Urban's letter of December 1095 appointing Adhemar] ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Crusades]] [[Category:Roman Catholic bishops]] [[Category:1098 deaths|Adhemar of Le Puy]] [[de:Adhemar de Monteil]][[nl:Adhemar van Monteil]][[fr:Adhémar de Monteil]] [[it:Ademaro di Monteil]] [[pl:Ademar z Monteil]] 1876 15900338 2004-06-10T12:47:45Z Olivier 3808 redir after merger of 2 articles #Redirect [[Adémar de Chabannes]] 1877 30064977 2005-12-04T01:18:05Z Tom harrison 42168 redirect to albigensians #redirect [[Albigensians]] 1878 37515239 2006-01-31T14:04:24Z Charles Matthews 12978 /* References */ wfy {{Template:Direct Capetians}} [[fi:Alphonse (Toulouse]] [[fr:Alphonse de Poitiers]] '''Alphonse, [[Counts of Toulouse|Count of Toulouse]] and [[Count of Poitiers|of Poitiers]]''' ([[November 11]], [[1220]] &ndash; [[August 21]], [[1271]]). [[Image:Blason Alphonse Poitiers.png|thumb|100px|left|Coat of arms of Alphonse: Per pale azure semé-de-lis or (France ancient) dimidiating gules semé of castles or (Castile)]] Alphonse was a son of [[Louis VIII of France|Louis VIII]], [[King of France]] and [[Blanche of Castile]]. He was a younger brother of [[Louis IX of France]] and an older brother of [[Charles I of Sicily]]. He joined the county of [[Toulouse]] to his ''[[appanage]]'' of [[Poitou]] and [[Rulers of Auvergne|Auvergne]], on the death, in September [[1249]], of [[Raymond VII of Toulouse]], whose daughter [[Joan of Toulouse]] Alphonse had married in [[1237]]. He took part in two crusades with his brother, St Louis, in [[1248]] (the [[Seventh Crusade]]) and in [[1270]] (the [[Eighth Crusade]]). In [[1252]], on the death of his mother, Blanche of Castile, he was joint regent with [[Charles of Anjou]] until the return of Louis IX. During that time he took a great part in the negotiations which led to the [[Treaty of Paris (1259)|Treaty of Paris]] in [[1259]], under which King [[Henry III of England]] recognized his loss of continental territory to [[France]] (including [[Normandy]], [[Maine (province of France)|Maine]], [[Anjou]], and [[Poitou]]) in exchange for France withdrawing support from English rebels. His main work was on his own estates. There he repaired the evils of the [[Albigensian Crusade|Albigensian war]] and made a first attempt at administrative centralization, thus preparing the way for union with the crown. The charter known as "Alphonsine," granted to the town of [[Riom]], became the code of public law for [[Auvergne (province)|Auvergne]]. Honest and moderate, protecting the middle classes against exactions of the nobles, he exercised a happy influence upon the south, in spite of his naturally despotic character and his continual and pressing need of money. He is noted for ordering the first recorded local expulsion of [[Jew]]s, when he did so in Poitou in [[1249]]. He died without heirs on his return from the [[Eighth Crusade]], in [[Italy]], probably at [[Savona]], on [[August 21]], 1271. As part of his [[bequest]], he left his lands in the [[Comtat Venaissin]] to the [[Holy See]] and it became a [[Papal States|Papal territory]] in [[1274]], a status that it retained until [[1791]]. ==References== * [[B. Ledain]], ''Histoire d'Alphonse, frère de S. Louis et du comte de Poitou sous son administration (1241-1271)'' (Poitou, 1869) * [[E. Bourarie]], ''Saint Louis et Alphonse de Poitiers'' (Paris, 1870) * [[A. Molinier]], ''Etude sur l'administration de S. Louis et d'Alphonse de Poitiers'' (Toulouse, 1880) * * A. Molinier, ''Correspondance administrative d'Alphonse de Poitiers'' in the ''Collection de documents inedits pour servir à l'histoire de France'' (Paris, 1894 and 1895). *http://www.davidsconsultants.com/jewishhistory/history.php?startyear=1240&endyear=1249 (Retrieved February 16, 2005) ==External links== *[http://www.briantimms.com/rolls/WalfordsC1.html Coat of Arms in the Walford Roll] {{start box}} {{succession box two to one | before1=&mdash; | title1=[[Count of Poitiers]] | years1=1225&ndash;1271 | after=''to royal domain'' | before2=[[Raymond VII of Toulouse|Raymond VII]] | title2=[[Count of Toulouse]] | years2=1249&ndash;1271<br>''with [[Joan of Toulouse|Joan]]''}} {{end box}} {{1911}} [[Category:1220 births]] [[Category:1271 deaths]] [[Category:Counts of Toulouse|Alphonse II]] [[Category:French nobility|Toulouse, Alphonse of]] 1879 40581250 2006-02-21T16:28:41Z Adam Bishop 13008 disambig [[fr:Alphonse Jourdain]] '''Alphonse I''' ([[1103]]&ndash;[[1148]]), [[Counts of Toulouse|Count of Toulouse]], son of Count [[Raymond of Toulouse|Raymond IV]] by his third wife, [[Elvira of Castile]], was born in the castle of [[Mont-Pelerin]], [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]], in today's [[Lebanon]]. He was born while his father was on crusade, attempting to create the [[County of Tripoli]] on the Palestinian coast. He was surnamed ''Jourdain'' after being [[baptized]] in the [[Jordan River]]. His father died when he was two years old and he remained under the guardianship of his cousin, [[Guillaume Jourdain]], count of [[Cerdagne]] (d. [[1109]]), until he was five. He was then taken to [[Europe]] and his brother [[Bertrand of Toulouse|Bertrand]] gave him the countship of [[Rouergue]]. In his tenth year, upon Bertrand's death ([[1112]]), he succeeded to the countship of Toulouse and marquisate of [[Provence]], but Toulouse was taken from him by [[William IX of Aquitaine|William IX]], [[count of Poitiers]], in [[1114]], who claimed it by right of his wife Philippa of Toulouse, daughter of William IV of Toulouse. He recovered a part in [[1119]], but continued to fight for his possessions until about [[1123]]. When at last successful, he was [[excommunication|excommunicated]] by [[Pope Callixtus II]] for having expelled the monks of [[Saint-Gilles]], who had aided his enemies. He next fought for the sovereignty of Provence against [[Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona|Raymond Berenger III]], and not till September [[1125]] did the war end in an amicable agreement. Under it Jourdain became absolute master of the regions lying between the [[Pyrenees]] and the [[Alps]], [[Auvergne (province)|Auvergne]] and the sea. His ascendancy was an unmixed good to the country, for during a period of fourteen years art and industry flourished. About [[1134]] he seized the countship of [[Narbonne]], only restoring it to the Viscountess [[Ermengarde of Narbonne|Ermengarde]] (d. [[1197]]) in [[1143]]. The claim of the now deceased Philippa of Toulouse was pressed again when [[Louis VII of France|Louis VII]] besieged Toulouse in [[1141]], in right of his wife [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]], the grandaughter of Philippa, but without result. Next year Jourdain again incurred the displeasure of the church by siding with the rebels of [[Montpellier]] against their lord. A second time he was excommunicated; but in [[1146]] he took the cross at the meeting of [[Vezelay]] called by Louis VII, and in [[August]], [[1147]] embarked for the East in the [[Second Crusade]]. He lingered on the way in [[Italy]] and probably in [[Constantinople]]. Alphonse might have met [[Eastern Roman Emperor]] [[Manuel I Comnenus]] during his visit there. But in [[1148]] Alphonse had finally arrived at [[Acre, Palestine|Acre]]. Among his companions he had made enemies and he was destined to take no share in the crusade he had joined. He was poisoned at [[Caesarea]], either by [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]], the wife of Louis, or [[Melisende of Jerusalem|Melisende]], the mother of [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin III]], [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|king of Jerusalem]] suggesting the draught. {{start box}} {{succession box|before=[[Raymond of Toulouse|Raymond]]|years=1105&ndash;1109<br>(regent&nbsp;[[William-Jordan]])|title=[[County of Tripoli|Count of Tripoli]]|after=[[Bertrand of Toulouse|Bertrand]]}} {{succession box|before=[[Bertrand of Toulouse|Bertrand]]|years=1112&ndash;1148|title=[[Counts of Toulouse|Count of Toulouse]]|after=[[Raymond V of Toulouse|Raymond V]]}} {{end box}} ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1103 births]] [[Category:1148 deaths]] [[Category:Counts of Tripoli]] [[Category:Counts of Toulouse]] [[de:Alfons I. (Toulouse)]] [[pl:Alfons I z Tuluzy]] 1880 32444069 2005-12-23T03:54:18Z Adam Bishop 13008 link MGH '''Ambrose''' (around [[1190]]), [[Normans|Norman]] [[poet]], and chronicler of the [[Third Crusade]], [[author]] of a work called ''L'Estoire de la guerre sainte'', which describes in rhyming [[Old French language|French]] [[verse]] the adventures of [[Richard I of England|Richard Coeur de Lion]] as a [[crusader]]. The poem is known to us only through one [[Vatican Library|Vatican]] [[manuscript]], and long escaped the notice of [[historian]]s. The credit for detecting its value belongs to the late [[Gaston Paris]], although his edition ([[1897]]) was partially anticipated by the editors of the ''[[Monumenta Germaniae Historica]]'', who published some selections in the twenty-seventh volume of their Scriptores ([[1885]]). Ambrose followed Richard I as a [[noncombatant]], and not improbably as a court-[[minstrel]]. He speaks as an eye-witness of the king's doings at [[Messina, Italy|Messina]], in [[Cyprus]], at the [[siege of Acre]], and in the abortive campaign which followed the capture of that city. Ambrose is surprisingly accurate in his [[chronology]]; though he did not complete his work before [[1195]], it is evidently founded upon notes which he had taken in the course of his [[pilgrimage]]. He shows no greater [[politics|political]] insight than we should expect from his position; but relates what he had seen and heard with a naïve vivacity which compels attention. He is prejudiced against the [[Saracens]], against the [[France|French]], and against all the rivals or enemies of his master; but he is never guilty of deliberate misrepresentation. He is rather to be treated as a [[biographer]] than as a historian of the Crusade in its broader aspects. None the less he is the chief authority for the events of the years 1190-1192, so far as these are connected with the [[Holy Land]]. The ''Itinerarium Regis Ricardi'' (formerly attributed to [[Geoffrey Vinsauf]], but in reality the work of Richard, a canon of Holy Trinity, London) is little more than a free paraphrase of Ambrose. The first book of the Itinerarium contains some additional facts; and the whole of the [[Latin]] version is adorned with dowers of [[rhetoric]] which are foreign to the style of Ambrose. But it is no longer possible to regard the Itinerarium as a first-hand [[narrative]]. [[William Stubbs|Stubbs]]'s edition of the Itinerarium ([[Rolls Series]], 1864), in which the contrary [[hypothesis]] is maintained, appeared before Gaston Paris published his discovery. ==See also== *[[Anglo-Norman literature]] *[[Norman language]] ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Crusade literature]] 1881 41928639 2006-03-02T18:08:58Z Toksook 690292 [[Image:Stamp-ctc-art-deco.jpg|thumb|The Art Deco spire of the [[Chrysler Building]], built 1928-1930, commemorated on a US stamp]] '''Art Deco''' ([[French (language)|French]]: ''Exposition Internationale des '''Art'''s '''Déco'''ratifs et Industriels Modernes'') was an early twentieth century movement in the [[decorative art]]s, that also grew in influence to affect [[architecture]], [[fashion]] and the [[visual arts]]. ==Overview== Art Deco derived its name from the [[World's fair]] held in [[Paris]] in [[1925]], formally titled the [[Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes]], which showcased French luxury goods and reassured the world that Paris remained the international center of style after [[World War I]]. Art Deco did not originate with the Exposition; it was a major style in [[Europe]] from the early [[1920s]], though it did not catch on in the [[United States|U.S.]] until about [[1928]], when it quickly modulated into the [[Streamline Moderne]] during the [[1930s]], the decade with which Americanized Art Deco is most strongly associated today. Paris remained the center of the high end of Art Deco design, epitomized in furniture by [[Jacques-Emile Ruhlmann]], the best-known of Art Deco furniture designers and perhaps the last of the traditional Parisian ''ébénistes'', and [[Jean-Jacques Rateau]], the firm of [[Süe et Mare]], the screens of [[Eileen Gray]], wrought iron of [[Edgar Brandt]], metalwork and lacquer of Swiss-Jewish [[Jean Dunand]], the glass of [[René Lalique]] and [[Maurice Marinot]], clocks and jewelry by [[Cartier SA|Cartier]]. The term '''Art Deco''' was coined during the Exposition of 1925 but did not receive wider usage until it was re-evaluated in the [[1960s]]. Its practitioners were not working as a coherent community. It is considered to be eclectic, being influenced by a variety of sources, to name a few: *Early work from the [[Wiener Werkstätte]]; functional industrial design *"Primitive" arts of Africa, Egypt, or Aztec Mexico *Ancient Greek sculpture and pottery design of the less naturalistic "[[Archaic_period_in_Greece|archaic period]]" *[[Léon Bakst]]'s sets and costumes for [[Diaghilev]]'s ''[[Ballets Russes]]'' *Fractionated, crystalline, facetted form of decorative [[Cubism]] and [[Futurism (art)|Futurism]] *[[Fauvism|Fauve]] color palette *Severe forms of [[Neoclassicism]]: Boullée, Schinkel *Everything associated with Jazz, [[Jazz Age]] or "jazzy" *Animal motifs and forms; tropical foliage; [[ziggurat|ziggurats]]; crystals; "sunbursts"; stylized fountain motifs *Lithe athletic "modern" female forms; flappers' bobbed haircuts *[[Streamline_Moderne|Machine age]] technology such as the [[radio]] and [[skyscraper]]. [[Image:Asheville_City_Hall.jpg|thumb|[[Asheville, North Carolina]] City Hall, 1926&ndash;1928 epitomizes the American [[Art Deco]] style.]] Corresponding to these influences, the Art Deco is characterised by use of materials such as [[aluminium]], [[stainless steel]], lacquer, inlaid wood, sharkskin, and zebraskin. The bold use of zigzag and stepped forms, and sweeping curves (unlike the sinuous curves of the [[Art nouveau]]), [[Chevron (insignia)|chevron]] patterns, and the [[sunburst]] motif. Some of these motifs were ubiquitous — for example the sunburst motif was used in such varied contexts as a lady's shoe, a radiator grille, the auditorium of the [[Radio City Music Hall]] and the spire of the [[Chrysler Building]]. Art Deco was an opulent style and this opulence is attributed as a reaction to the forced austerity during the years of World War I. Art Deco was a popular style for interiors of cinema theatres and [[ocean liner]]s such as the [[SS Ile de France|''Ile de France'']] and [[SS Normandie|''Normandie'']]. A parallel movement following close behind, the [[Streamline]] or [[Streamline Moderne]], was influenced by manufacturing and streamlining techniques arising from science and the mass production shape of bullet, liners, etc., where aerodynamics are involved. Once the Chrysler Air-Flo design of [[1933]] was successful, "streamlined" forms began to be used even for objects such as pencil sharpeners and refrigerators. In architecture, this style was characterised by rounded corners, used predominantly for buildings at road junctions. Some historians see Art Deco as a type of or early form of [[Modernism]]. Art Deco slowly lost patronage in the West after reaching mass production, where it began to be derided as gaudy and presenting a false image of luxury. Eventually the style was cut short by the austerities of [[World War II]]. In colonial countries such as India, it became a gateway for Modernism and continued to be used well into the 1960s. A resurgence of interest in Art Deco came with graphic design in the 1980s, where its association with [[film noir]] and 1930s glamour led to its use in ads for jewelry and fashion. This is still the image of Art Deco held in the minds of most Americans. ==Noted Art Deco artists and designers== [[Image:Maurice_Ascalon_Art_Deco.jpg|right|156px|thumb|Vintage catalogue image of Art Deco metalwork designed by [[Maurice Ascalon]] and manufactured by his Pal-Bell Company.]] *[[Maurice Ascalon]] *[[Adolphe Mouron Cassandre]] *[[Jean Dunand]] *[[Jean Dupas]] *[[Romain de Tirtoff|Erté]] ([[Romain de Tirtoff]]) (1892-1990) *[[Aleksandra Ekster|Alexandra Exter]] *[[Eileen Gray]] *[[Georg Jensen]] *[[René Lalique]] *[[Jules Leleu]] *[[Oscar Bach]] *[[Joseph Kiselewski]] *[[Tamara de Lempicka]] *[[Paul Manship]] *[[Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann]] *[[Sue et Mar]] *[[Walter Dorwin Teague]] *[[Carl Paul Jennewein]] ==Noted Art Deco architects== *[[Pablo Antonio]] *[[George Coles]] *[[Ernest Cormier]] *[[Banister Fletcher|Banister Flight Fletcher]] *[[Oliver Hill]] *[[Charles Holden]] *[[Raymond Hood]] *[[Ely Jacques Kahn]] *[[Henry Vaughan Lanchester]] *[[Edwin Lutyens]] *[[James McKissack]] *[[George Val Myer]] *[[William van Alen]] *[[Wirt C. Rowland]] *[[Giles Gilbert Scott]] *[[Clifford Strange]] *[[Joseph Sunlight]] *[[Ralph Walker]] *[[Wallis, Gilbert and Partners|Thomas Wallis]] *[[Ernest A. Williams]] *[[Owen Williams]] ==Noted Art Deco designs== [[Image:Carbon_jc01.jpg|right|156px|thumb|Chicago's Carbon and Carbide Building]] [[Image:Supreme Court of Canada.jpg|right|230px|thumb|The Supreme Court Building in Ottawa, Canada]] [[Image:Nicanor reyes hall.jpg|right|thumb|230px|Far Eastern University Campus in downtown Manila, Philippines]] [[Image:IMG 0175.JPG|thumb|right|230px|The North Building of the Peace Hotel in Shanghai, China]] *The [[Argyle Hotel]] in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]] * The Bullock's Wilshire Building in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]] (now home to Southwestern University School of Law) *[[Empire State Building]] *[[Chrysler Building]] *[[Fair Park|Dallas Fair Park]] [[Hall of State]] *[[Golden Gate Bridge]] *[[Fisher Building]] in [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]] *[[Guardian Building]] in [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]] *The [[Mapes Hotel]] in [[Reno, Nevada]] *[[Peace Hotel]] in [[Shanghai]] *[[Buffalo City Hall]] in [[Buffalo, New York]] *[[Asmara]], the [[capital city]] of [[Eritrea]] * The [[ocean liner]]s [[SS Ile de France|''Ile de France'']], [[SS Normandie|''Normandie'']] and [[RMS Queen Mary]] * The [[Montreal Eaton 9th floor restaurant]] is a copy of the huge ''SS Ile de France'' first class dining room *[[Napier, New Zealand]] - In 1931 the city of Napier was levelled by the [[Napier earthquake]] and ensuing fires. The city was rebuilt in the Art Deco style. * The [[Hoover Building]], Perivale, London * The former [[Byrant and May]] match factory in [[Speke]], [[Liverpool]]. * The [[India of Inchinnan]] office block, [[Inchinnan]], [[Renfrewshire]], [[Scotland]] *[[Anzac War Memorial]], [[Sydney]] built 1929-34 designed [[C Bruce Dellit]] (1900-1942), Sculptor: [[Rayner Hoff]]. * [[Radio City Music Hall]] * [[Université de Montréal]] central building * [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in [[Ottawa]] * [[Marine Building]] in [[Vancouver]] * The East and West Stands at [[Arsenal Stadium]] in [[London]] * [[Eltham Palace]] extension, south-east London * The [[Colleen Moore]] Dollhouse at the [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] [[Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago|Museum of Science and Industry]] * [[Boston Avenue Methodist Church]] in [[Tulsa]], [[Oklahoma]]. Designed by [[Bruce Goff]]. *The city hall of [[Asheville]], [[North Carolina]], built 1926 - 28 [http://www.ci.asheville.nc.us/commune/history.htm]. * The [[Cincinnati Museum Center at Union Terminal]] in [[Cincinnati]], [[Ohio]]. *[[Waterman pens|Waterman]] [[Waterman Phileas|Phileas]] [[fountain pen]] *[[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Illinois]] **[[Chicago Board of Trade Building]] **[[Carbon and Carbide Building]] *720 and 730 Fort Washington Avenue, in the [[Hudson Heights, Manhattan|Hudson Heights]] area of [[Manhattan]] in [[New York City]], [[New York]]. *[[South Beach]] in [[Miami Beach, Florida|Miami Beach]], [[Florida]]. *Former [[Pennsylvania Railroad]] [[30th Street Station]] and [[Suburban Station]] in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]] *[[Far Eastern University|Far Eastern University Campus]] in the [[Manila|City of Manila]], Philippines * The [[Price Building]] (aka [[Édifice Price]]), Quebec City, Quebec, Canada, home to the Hotel Clarendon. The top floor is where the premier of Quebec stays while in the capital city. Originally built by Price Brothers (paper industry). ==External links== *[http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/1157_art_deco/resources/ V & A Art Deco exhibition, 2003] *[http://www.artdecoworld.com/gallery03.htm Article on Anzac Memorial with photos] *[http://www.ci.chi.il.us/Landmarks/Tours/ArtDeco.html Art Deco architecture tour of Chicago landmarks] *[http://www.decopix.com large collection of photographic examples] ==Further reading== * Duncan, Alastair. ''Art Deco Furniture: The French Designers'', Thames and Hudson, 1984. ISBN 0500234124 {{Westernart}} [[Category:Art Deco|*Art Deco]] [[de:Art Déco]] [[es:Art decó]] [[fa:آرت دکو]] [[fr:Art déco]] [[he:ארט דקו]] [[it:Art Decò]] [[nl:Art Deco]] [[ja:アール・デコ]] [[ka:არტ-დეკო]] [[no:Art deco]] [[pl:Art déco]] [[pt:Art Déco]] [[ro:Art Deco]] [[sv:Art déco]] [[zh:装饰艺术运动]] 1884 42109434 2006-03-03T22:03:05Z 82.33.121.92 /* Types and examples of ASCII art */ {| align=right | <pre><nowiki> _ ____ ____ ___ ___ _ /_\ / ___| / ___|_ _|_ _| __ _ _ __| |_ //_\\ \___ \| | | | | | / _` | '__| __| / ___ \ ___) | |___ | | | | | (_| | | | |_ /_/ \_\____/ \____|___|___| \__,_|_| \__| </nowiki></pre> |} '''ASCII art''', an artistic medium relying primarily on [[computer]]s for presentation, consists of pictures pieced together from the 95 printable [[character (computing)|characters]] defined by [[ASCII]]. The term is also used more loosely to refer to [[#Other text based art|text based art in general]]. They can be created with any [[text editor]], and are often used with [[free-form language]]s. Most examples of ASCII [[art]] require a [[typeface#Proportion|fixed-width font]] (non-proportional [[typeface|fonts]], like on a traditional [[typewriter]]) such as [[Courier (font)|Courier]] for presentation. ASCII art is used wherever text can be more readily printed or transmitted than graphics, or in some cases, where the transmission of pictures is not possible. This includes typewriters, [[teletype]]s, non-graphic [[computer terminal]]s, in early [[computer network]]ing (e.g., [[bulletin board system|BBSes]]), [[e-mail]], and [[Usenet]] news messages. ASCII art is also used within the [[source code]] of computer programs for representation of company or product logos, and flow control or other diagrams. In some cases, the entire source code of a program is a piece of ASCII art - for instance, an entry to one of the earlier [[International Obfuscated C Code Contest]] is a program that adds numbers, but visually looks like a binary adder drawn in logic ports. Taking the medium to extremes, there exists a video driver for the popular video game ''[[Quake]]'' that displays the game in ASCII art. ASCII art is also very commonly used amongst software piracy groups to display group logos inside text (*.nfo) files containing the instructions for installing and cracking the software (though these commonly use PC text mode characters as well as just ASCII). Pop artist [[Beck]] has a music video "Black Tambourine" made up entirely of ASCII characters that approximate the original footage. ''Animated ASCII art'' is possible by embedding video terminal escape sequences such as ANSI X3.64 for cursor movement into the "picture". ==Types and examples of ASCII art== The simplest forms of ASCII art are combinations of two or three characters for expressing emotion in text. They are commonly referred to as '[[emoticon]]', 'smilie', or 'smiley'. Mentally rotate these examples 90 degrees clockwise for a more recognizable orientation: {|- |- |<pre> :-) or :) :-( or :( ;-) or ;) :-P or :p >:( :x smile frown wink tongue out mad sour B-) or 8-) :-O or :O :-0 or :0 :-S or :S :D :? sunglasses shouting surprised confused laugh eh? </pre> |} There is another type of one-line ASCII art that does not require the mental rotation of pictures, which is widely known in Japan as [[Emoticon#East Asian style|kaomoji]] (literally "face characters".) Traditionally, they are referred to as "ASCII face". Today, some call them "verticons": {|- |- | <pre> (^_^) (-_-) (X_X) happy sad dead \(^o^)/ (o.~) o< d(O.O)b joyous winking conspiracy duck thumbs up (b_d) <(^_^<) (>^_^)> <(^_^<) (>^_^)> (o_O) (O_o) glasses pointing / dancing eye stare ^_^; (v_v) (~_~) ;_; (T_T) embarrassed sleeping/ crying ';' for sweatdrop downcast ',' for tears </pre> |} More complex examples use several lines of text to draw large symbols or more complex figures. Some common examples: {|- |- | <pre> o o o o o <o <o> o> o .|. \|. \|/ // X \ | <| <|> ASCII Macarena /\ >\ /< >\ /< >\ /< >\ /< (__) (oo) /-------\/ __ O _ ,__o / | || /o)\ /|\ >(o)__ _-\_<, * ||----|| \(o/ / \ (_~_/ (*)/'(*) ~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~ Bull Yin/Yang Person Rubber Duck Cyclist ,-._,-. (|) \/)"(\/ | | (_o_) | | | | Dog () () Tulip </pre> |} A more intricate example of this depicts a building: {|- |- |<pre> .-. /___\ ||--------------. |___| ||.___TO_LET___.| |]_[| || asciihomes | / I \ || 555-1212 | JL/ | \JL ||______________| .-. i () | () i ||./ .-. |_| .^. /_\ LJ=======LJ /_\ ||/ .^. |_| ._/___\._./___\_._._._._.L_J_/.-. .-.\_L_J._._||._._/___\._./___\._._._ ., |-,-| ., L_J |_| [I] |_| L_J ., |-,-| ., ., JL |-O-| JL L_J%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%L_J JL |-O-| JL JL IIIIII_HH_'-'-'_HH_IIIIII|_|=======H=======|_|IIIIII_HH_'-'-'_HH_IIIIII_HH_ -------[]-------[]-------[_]----\.=I=./----[_]-------[]-------[]--------[]- _/\_ ||\\_I_//|| _/\_ [_] []_/_L_J_\_[] [_] _/\_ ||\\_I_//|| _/\_ ||\ |__| ||=/_|_\=|| |__|_|_| _L_L_J_J_ |_|_|__| ||=/_|_\=|| |__| ||- |__| |||__|__||| |__[___]__--__===__--__[___]__| |||__|__||| |__| ||| IIIIIII[_]IIIII[_]IIIIIL___J__II__|_|__II__L___JIIIII[_]IIIII[_]IIIIIIII[_] \_I_/ [_]\_I_/[_] \_I_[_]\II/[]\_\I/_/[]\II/[_]\_I_/ [_]\_I_/[_] \_I_/ [_] ./ \.L_J/ \L_J./ L_JI I[]/ \[]I IL_J \.L_J/ \L_J./ \.L_J | |L_J| |L_J| L_J| |[]| |[]| |L_J |L_J| |L_J| |L_J |_____JL_JL___JL_JL____|-|| |[]| |[]| ||-|_____JL_JL___JL_JL_____JL_J </pre> |} {|- |- |<pre> AHHHHA AHHHHHHA AllSTOPllA VHHHHHHV VHHHHV </pre> |} It is popular to put such art in [[signature block]]s to be included in e-mail and Usenet postings. Other ASCII art ignores the particular shape of the characters and instead uses their overall boldness or lightness to create varying gradients. {|- |- | <pre> _a, _yQa. _qTWW( je`?QX: <d+ -3Wm; _qos_s%mWw, a2?????TWW( sd( -?Qm;. .amm; .xmWmc """""` """"""" </pre> |} </font> One use for ASCII art is to create unique typography, for example: {|- |- | ___ __, ( / ( o _/_ / / __, _ _ `. _ _ , / /_ _/_(_/(_/ /_(/_ (___)/ / /_(_(__/ /_ // (/ |} The program ''[[Figlet]]'' (and other programs that support its standard) allow for the design and use of ASCII fonts: {|- |- |<pre> _____ ___ ____ _ _ | ___|_ _/ ___| | ___| |_ | |_ | | | _| |/ _ \ __| | _| | | |_| | | __/ |_ |_| |___\____|_|\___|\__| </pre> |} What follows is an example of "[[Amiga]]-style" (also referred to as "oldschool style") [[computer art scene|scene]] ASCII art. This kind of ASCII art is handmade in a text editor. Popular editors used to make this kind of ASCII art include CygnusEditor aka CED (Amiga) and EditPlus2 (PC). {|- |- |<pre> ______.----------------------------.______ :_) (_: ....|: :|.... : :<> <>: : :···|: :|···: .---+- -:- -:- -+---. /\___ | /\___ /\_____ /\______ /\______ | /\___ _/ / | _/ /___ _/ __ / _/ __ / _/ __ / : _/ / \ __//\ :/\\ _// / \ )/ //\ \ )/ //\ \ )/ //\ /\ \_ //\ _/¯¯ \)¯ \/ ¯¯ __¯ \/¯¯ ¯ ¯¯ \/¯¯ ¯_ ¯¯ \/¯¯ ¯_ ¯¯ \/ ¯)/ ¯¯ \_ \ )/¯ (/ (/ ¯ / /¯¯ / / / _ ¯¯\ \_ /\__/ /\_ /\__/ /\__/ /\_(/ _/ =/ /===/ /==/ /===/ /=©d/ /=:=/ /= ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯\/: :¯¯¯¯¯¯\/ ¯¯¯¯¯¯\/ ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯\/ ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯\/ | ¯¯¯¯¯¯\/ ______.---+- :____ /\_____ : : ________: -+---.______ :_)····· :..... _/ /--+--./\_____.---+---./\___ .....: ·····(_: |: : ..:..\ / : _/ / : _/ / ..:.. : :| <> :.:.: : \ __//\ /\\ __ //\ /\ \_ //\ : :.:.: <> |: :..._/¯¯ \)¯ \/ ¯¯ )/ ¯¯ \/ ¯¯)/ ¯¯ \_...: :| : ____ ____ \ ¯ ¯ / ____ ____ : \_. _\_ \\ //¯¯ _ ¯¯\\ // _/_ ._/ ---· _ \¯ _ \\ \\_ /\_ /\_(/ _// // _ ¯/ _ ·--- /¯· \¯¯¯ ¯\¯¯¯ ¯¯=/ /:=/ /=:=/ /= ¯¯ ¯¯¯/¯ ¯¯¯/ ·¯\ : ¯¯¯¯¯¯ ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯\/-+--¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯\/--+--¯¯¯¯¯¯\/ ¯¯¯¯¯¯ : |: : : :| <> . . <> |: _ . | __ .__.__ .|__ __ . :| :¯)..... __(__|-|(_/_| (| ((__||__)(__)(__|__ .....(¯: ¯¯¯¯¯¯·-----------·-------|----|--|----(/----------(/--·-----------·¯¯¯¯¯¯ </pre> |} ==Methods for generating ASCII art== While some prefer to use a simple [[Text editor]] to produce ASCII art, [[ASCII Art#ASCII art editors|specialized programs]] have been developed to allow you to draw text in lines, boxes, and filled areas as you would in a normal paint package. [[ASCII Art#ASCII art generators|Other programs]] allow you to automatically convert an image to ASCII art, which is a special case of [[vector quantization]]. A method is to sample the image down to [[grayscale]] with less than [[integer (computer science)|8-bit]] precision, and then assign a character for each value. An example of a converted image, created using [http://ascgen2.sourceforge.net Ascgen dotNet], is given below, next to the original: <div style="float:right;margin:10 10 1em 1em;">[[image:Redwingblackbird1.jpg|200px|Photo of redwing blackbird]]</div> <font size="-2" color="black"> <pre> tt%%%%%%tttttttttttttttttt;;;tttttt;;;:::;;;;;ttttttttt;;;;;;;;;tttt%%%C7O7 t,;;;;;;;;;;;;:;;;;::;;;::::::;;:::,... .......,...................,,:,::;t t;ttttt%C7OO7%tttt%%%%%%tttttt%%tt;;,,....,,,,.,,,,,:::::;;;;;:,,:::;;;;;t; t;ttttttCCCCC%%tt%tCO77x27777O77C%tttt;;::::::,,,,,,,,,,,:;;;::,,,,,:;::;;; t:tttttttt;tttttttt%CC7OO77CC%%72OOO7C%ttt;;;;:,,,..,.,,......;xsQsG:...,:: ;,;;;;;:;;:;;;;:,,,,,,,;;tttt;tttt%t%ttt;;;;:,...... tSMMM#Q%;:::,:;: ;,;;;;;:;;;;;:,tD@@@@8Zt,,:;;;;:;;;:;;:,,........... .;DMMMMD;...,;tttttt; ;,;;;;tttt;;.,@MMMMMMMMM#C..,..........:;tZ0SKbE@#MMMMMMMMC. .,;tCC7C%C%%t; ,.,,,,:;;:..,NMMMMMMMMMMMMMSQKE###NNNMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM#C;7GDDD5G2OCCttt; . ,sMMMMMNNN#NNMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMN@NMMbODS99Qs5xx2O77CCt .,. DMMN##MNMMMMMMMMMMMMMMN#MN@NNNN##NN###@EE@MM@ttttt;;ttCC777Ot .,::;:. ;NNNEGOCOZQG. ,MM#@@##@##@#####NNNN#NN@@K8Qx:,::::,:;;;ttt%t ..:;%ZsD0D0Ds57;@ME:,:;tO MN@@@#########NNNMMMM#K5t;,,;tt%ttttttt;;;;;: tOQDDs5DQgEE@@bSMM,.;tx2 MMM#######NNNNN##NMNgx;::;t7O22xZ22xxOC%tt;;,:, sQSsG2C%CxGs00DZ0Mt:t;. .tQMM########NNNN#NMMK. .,,:;:,,,...,,::,,,,,,, sD8S9DsZxxxx22OCtO#MME8QMMMMM#######NN#NNNNMD. ...,,,... ...,:;tt; t;tt%t%%tttt;;;;:,.,7#MMMMMMNNNNNNN#N####NMK...,:::;;;t;;;:,.. ..,:;%7t t,;;;;:,,,,,.,,,... :s@NMN#NMMMMMNNNNMN@Z%xxZxxZZxxO7C%ttt;;:,,,,,,:;;;: t;tttttttttt%%tt%tt;;,. t@NNNO,7S#MMM#sttt7xGZZZZZZxxZxZZx2x227%ttt;;::;, t;tttCO2xGGsD00QQ99QD52%t,%59N#. .@D. .............,,,::::::::,.......,. x7x2OOCC%ttt;;tttCCC%%tt;;.. ,,. 0% ......... .... ... xxD5Z27OC%tt;;;:;;;:::;:,.... .2x@t ,;;tt%%77O7CC%tt;;:,..,,,,,... .,, t:;;::::;;;ttttttt%%7O2xxx27Ob: 0M% ..,.,::;;;;;;;:,... .....,,:t%2GGt : . ..,;::::;;;;;ttt;Q5 MC ..,..... .. ...,:,,::;tCC%t; , ......... .,;tt9G; ,ttt%7OxxxxxZZxxxZZ5D009QSS8g8S0Dsx7Ctttt . ......,...,,. ;OG5D98gKSgK9 CZ7C2xGs0S8gKbEEE@@@@@bg8ggKEEE@@@@@@5 :.,...,:::,,,.,,,t CgES0098b@M. .x57CCttt%CxxZxxO7C%ttt;;;;;;tt%OxGsZ% :;;.,....,,;;t2509x ,OGZ772,O, t%t;:,.. ..;;;,. ..,,,,.. . .. .;tD2, ,: ,t .,.... .. . ,tOZ2; tDOt2, ;;:::::,:;;ttt:. . ...,;:,. . . ,:;,. t;2; .;::;;;;tt;::.,........,::....;C; . ,. .. . .. :;tt... .;:,..,. ....... .:;:... .. </pre> </font> ==Non fixed-width ASCII== Most ASCII art is created using a [[monospace]] font, where all characters are identical in width ([[Courier (font)|Courier New]] is a popular font). However, most of the most commonly used fonts in word processors, web browsers and other programs are proportional fonts, such as [[Arial]] or [[Times New Roman]], where different widths are used for different characters. ASCII art drawn for a fixed width font will usually appear distorted, or even unrecognisable when displayed in a proportional font. Some ASCII artists have produced art for display in such fonts. These ASCIIs, rather than using a purely shade-based correspondence, use characters for slopes and borders and use block shading. These ASCIIs generally offer greater precision and attention to detail than fixed-width ASCIIs for a lower character count, although they are not as universally accessible since they are usually relatively font-specific. ==Other text based art== There are a variety of other types of art using text symbols from character sets other than ASCII and/or some form of color coding. Despite not being pure ASCII, these are still often referred to as "ASCII art". The character set portion designed specifically for drawing are known as the line drawing characters or pseudo-graphics. ===IBM PC=== {| align=right |<font color=#008000><pre> ▄▄▀▀▀▀▀▄▄ ▄▀ ▀▄ ▄▀ █ █ ▀▄ █ █▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄█ █ █ █ █ █ █ ▀▄▄▄▄▄▀ █ ▀▄▄ ▄▄▀ ▀▀▀▀▀ </pre></font> |<table align=right style="border: 1px dashed #2f6fab;" > <tr><td> <span style="margin:0px; line-height:1.2em; font-family: monospace; background-color: #f9f9f9;"><font color="#f9f9f9">█</font>▄▄▄▄▄▄▄<font color="#f9f9f9">█</font><br> <font color="#f9f9f9">█</font>█ <font color=red>▄ ▄</font> █&nbsp;<br> <font color="#f9f9f9">█</font>█<font color="#f9f9f9">██</font><font color=green>▄</font><font color="#f9f9f9">██</font>█&nbsp;<br> <font color="#f9f9f9">█</font>█<font color="#f9f9f9">██</font><font color=green>▀</font><font color="#f9f9f9">██</font>█&nbsp;<br> <font color="#f9f9f9">█</font>█ <font color=blue>▀▀▀</font> █&nbsp;<br> <font color="#f9f9f9">█</font>▀▀▀▀▀▀▀&nbsp; </table> |} The IBM PC graphics hardware in text mode uses 16 bits per character. It supports a variety of configurations, but in its default mode under DOS they are used to give 256 glyphs from one of the IBM PC code pages ([[Code page 437]] by default), 16 foreground colors, 8 background colors, and a flash option. Such art can be loaded into screen memory directly. ANSI.SYS, if loaded, also allows such art to be placed on screen by outputting escape sequences that indicate movements of the screen cursor and color/flash changes. If this method is used then the art becomes known as [[ANSI art]]. The IBM PC code pages also include characters intended for simple drawing which often made this art appear much cleaner than that made with more traditional character sets. Plain text files are also seen with these characters, though they have become far less common since Windows GUI text editors (using the [[Windows ANSI code page]]) have largely replaced DOS based ones. ===Shift_JIS=== {{main|Shift_JIS art}} A large character selection, the widespread use of Japanese on the internet, and the availibility of standard fonts with predictable spacing make [[Shift-JIS|Shift_JIS]] a common format for text based art on the internet. ===Unicode=== [[Unicode]] would seem to offer the ultimate flexibility in producing text based art with its huge variety of characters. However, finding a suitable fixed-width font is likely to be difficult if a significant subset of Unicode is desired. Also, the common practice of rendering Unicode with a mixture of variable width fonts is likely to make predictable display hard if more than a tiny subset of Unicode is used. ===Overprinting=== In the 1970s and early 1980s it was popular to produce a kind of ASCII art that relied on overprinting &mdash; the overall darkness of a particular character space dependent on how many characters, as well as the choice of character, printed in a particular place. Thanks to the increased granularity of tone, photographs were often converted to this type of printout. Even manual typewriters or [[daisy wheel printer]]s could be used. The technique has fallen from popularity since all cheap printers can easily print photographs, and a normal text file (or an e-mail message or Usenet posting) cannot represent overprinted text. However, something similar has emerged to replace it: shaded or colored ASCII art, using [[ANSI]] video terminal markup or color codes (such as those found in [[HTML]], [[IRC]], and many internet [[message board]]s) to add a bit more tone variation. In this way, it is possible to create ASCII art where the characters only differ in color. ==See also== * [[ASCII stereogram]] * [[Wikipedia:Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense/ASCII cows]] ==Further reading== * Danet, Brenda. ''Cyberpl@y: Communicating Online''. Oxford, UK: Berg, 2001. ISBN 1-85973-424-3. * Riddell, Alan, ed. ''Typewriter Art''. London, UK: London Magazine Editions (LME), 1975. ISBN 900-626-99-2. * Roemer, Madge. ''Fun With Your Typewriter''. Indian Hills, CO, USA: The Falcon's Wing Press, 1956. LCCN 56-13336. ==External links== ===ASCII art editors=== Editors created solely for the purpose of creating hand-made ASCII art. *[http://download.com.com/3000-2192-10141644.html?tag=lst-0-1 ACiDDraw 1.25r] The leading ANSI and ASCII art editor for IBM PC DOS *[http://torchsoft.com/en/aas_information.html ASCII Art Studio 2.11 for Windows] Shareware (30-day trial); allows freehand line-art illustration using the mouse *[http://www.stud.tu-ilmenau.de/~siha-in/thesoftware.html ASCII/edit] Shareware (30-day trial); Mac OS X; objects can be grouped, overlap, combined, and intersection characters can be turned on or off individually for each line and frame *[http://www.sigsoftware.com/emaileffects/ Email Effects] ASCII art editor for Mac and Windows, also converts pictures and supports FIGlet fonts. *[[JavE]] Freeware; A java ASCII editor with standard Photoshop-style tools, image conversion, FIGlet support, math formulas editor and a lot of other features. Requires [[Java virtual machine]]. *[[PabloDraw|PabloDraw for Windows]] Freeware; features a peer-to-peer "joint editing" mode *[http://sourceforge.net/projects/tundradraw/ TundraDraw] A cross-platform ANSI and ASCII editor for Microsoft Windows and X environments. Source code available. *[http://www.pixio.biz/ TextDraw] Full-color ASCII art editor for Windows with an interface similar to Microsoft Paint. Export formats: BMP, JPG, HTML, RTF, TXT and TDF. *[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://dmoz.org/Arts/Visual_Arts/ASCII_Art/Software/ List of ASCII art editors] *[http://editors.asciiart.net/ ASCIIart.net list of editors] A ''comprehensive'' list of ASCII editors for DOS and Windows with informative reviews on each one * [http://ansilove.sourceforge.net Ansilove/PHP] A set of tools for converting ANSi/BiN/ADF/iDF/TUNDRA/XBiN files into PNG images ===ASCII art generators=== Tools which convert bitmapped images to ASCII text or otherwise automatically generate ASCII art with a minimal degree of human interaction. *[http://aa-project.sourceforge.net/ AA-lib] A portable library which converts high-resolution images or video down to ASCII text images or 'video.' *[http://www.the-mathclub.net/site/demos/abadporn.tar.gz APF] An ASCII/ANSI color console MPEG/Video player. *[http://www.alterlife.org/asciiartist/ Alternate's ASCII Artist] A tiny Open-Source ASCII Art Generator written in C++ . *[http://www.glassgiant.com/misc_ascii.php ASCII Artist] A simple Art-to-ASCII generator. *[http://www.network-science.de/ascii/ ASCII Generator] Online; generates ASCII art text in a variety of fonts. *[http://www.kammerl.de/ascii/AsciiSignature.php ASCII Signature Generator] Figlet Server - Online Ascii Art Signature Generator. *[http://www.kammerl.de/ascii/AsciiStereo.php ASCII Stereogram Image Generator] Online; generates free ASCII stereograms. *[http://www.kammerl.de/ascii/AsciiStereoMovie.php ASCII Stereogram Movie Generator] Online; generates free ASCII stereogram movies! *[http://reactor.reality-protocol.de/main.php?page=asciiart ASCii.art 0.4] Freeware; An image bitmap to ASCII text converter. Supports conversion to colored ASCII using HTML color tags and features multiple image resize capabilities. *[http://ascgen.jmsoftware.co.uk/ ASCII Generator (ascgen)] Freeware; A 32-bit Windows program that converts a large variety of images to ASCII art. *[http://ascgen2.sourceforge.net/ ASCII Generator dotNET (ascgen)] Open Source and improved version rewritten in C#. *[http://boxes.thomasjensen.com/ Boxes] GNU GPL; Draws ASCII art boxes around text. Useful for programmers. *[http://www.figlet.org/ Figlet text generator] FIGlet font generator. *[http://www.pixio.biz/ Imagetrix] Full-color ASCII Art conversion wizard for Windows. *[http://img2ascii.sourceforge.net/ IMG2ASCII] GNU GPL; Transforms JPG or PNG images to [[Unicode]] or ASCII text online. *[http://reactor.reality-protocol.de/main.php?page=jasciiart JASCiiArt 0.1] Freeware; Java Ascii Art generator for Windows, Linux, Mac OS. Reads BMP, GIF, JPG and PNG files and is able to generate HTML, RTF, TXT, BMP, PNG, JPG output ascii art. *[http://www.pizzinini.net/projects/pic2ascii/ Pic2ASCII] Freeware; Transforms bitmaps to text (even analyzes symbol fonts). Reads BMP, GIF and JPG. *[http://www.the-mathclub.net/index.php/JPEGTOCHAT JPEGTOCHAT] [[Public domain]]; converts [[JPG]] images to colored ASCII art. *[http://png2mirc.sourceforge.net/ png2mirc] [[Public domain]]; converts [[PNG]] images to coloured [[mIRC]] ASCII art. *[http://www.text-image.com/convert/ascii.html Text-Image.com] Online Image to ASCII converter. ===ASCII art groups=== ASCII art groups are defined as organized bodies of people dedicated to the purpose of creating ASCII text based artwork. <!-- please help keep the list items in alphabetical order--> *[http://123.ione.se/ 123] *[http://boards.gamefaqs.com/gfaqs/gentopic.php?board=585451/ Alphabet Zoo] - ASCII artists predominantly skilled in the use of Arial font. *[http://www.chemical-reaction.de/ Chemical Reaction] *[http://www.galza.tk/ Galza] ASCII artists which predominantly make use of the IBM-PC Russian ASCII [[codepage]] *[http://www.gamefaqsascii.com/ GameFAQsASCII] - a spinoff of Alphabet Zoo *[[Impure ASCII]] [http://www.impure.tk/] *[http://www.kuro5hin.org/user/uid:44416 The K5 ASCII reenactment players] *[http://www.thelo0p.prv.pl/ The lo0p] Polish ASCII art group *[[Mimic ASCII]] [http://www.mimic.ca/] *[http://pen15.technopop.biz/ Pen15]: It's pronounced "Pen Fifteen" *[[Remorse ASCII]] [http://www.remorse.org/] *[[Superior Art Creations]] *[news:alt.ascii-art alt.ascii-art], a Usenet newsgroup. ===ASCII artscene portals=== *[http://www.muff1n.com/ Muffin A&A] - ASCII Scene News, Interviews, Gallerys *[http://www.asciiscene.org/ Boondocks] - ASCII Scene Forums for PC and Amiga *[http://www.downmix.com/ Downmix] - ASCII, ANSI, & Hires Scene News & Releases *[http://www.thuglife.org/ Thuglife.org] - ASCII Scene News, Releases, and Forum ===Other links=== *[http://mbox.bz/slurp/ascii/bbsads/ BBS Ads Collection v1.0 - One of the most complete BBS textmode ad collections, containing over 1.500 single ads from various platforms and scenes.] *[http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/Gallery/4219/ascii.html Heister's Digital Art - ASCII page] *[http://www.acid.org/info/mirror/jgs/history.html History of ASCII (Text) Art] by [[Joan Stark]] (Mirror) *[http://www.ludd.luth.se/~vk/pics/ascii/junkyard/techstuff/tutorials/Joan_Stark.html#tutorials ASCII Art Drawing Tutorials] *[http://artcode.org/ascii/ ASCII Arts Ring and Directory] *[http://www.asciimation.co.nz/ Star Wars] (a 22-minute long ''ASCIImation'' movie: requires Java) ** telnet://towel.blinkenlights.nl ([[telnet]] version of the [[Star Wars]] movie) *[http://onyx.chattanoogastate.edu/~jack/matrix/ The.Matrix-ASCII] The original [[The Matrix|Matrix]] film converted to ASCII animation (DVD ISO) *[http://www.romanm.ch//seiten_layout/portfolio_ascii.php More ascii art movies] *[http://aa5.2ch.net/mona/ Japanese ASCII Art]: requires Japanese font (available free from Windows/IE update, for Windows users) *[http://www.geocities.co.jp/HeartLand-Yurinoki/1836/ How to draw Mona-style AA] (in Japanese) *[http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?UmlAsciiArt Illustrating software design using UnifiedModelingLanguage is discussed] *[http://www.chris.com/ascii/ An ASCII art archive] *[http://userpages.umbc.edu/~dschmi1/cows/ascii.html ASCII art cow collection] *[http://www.asciiartfarts.com/ ASCII Art Farts] *[http://www.asciibabes.com/ Actors' and musicians' portraits rendered in ASCII] *[http://www.nerd-boy.net/ www.nerd-boy.net] [[Nerd Boy]], an ASCII comic strip by Joaquim Gandara. *[http://www.ascii-art.de/ ASCII art dictionary] Huge collection by Andreas Freise sorted by words (topics). *[http://www.ascii-art.com/ ASCII art gallery by Joan Stark] *[http://www.ascii-art.net/ ASCII art by Sebastian Stoecker] *[http://xcski.com/~ptomblin/planes.txt The ORIGINAL Ascii Airplane Collection] *[http://www.colintheowl.com/ Colin The Owl] Several cartoons including Colin The Owl, Derren Brown's School Days, and ASCII 'interpretations' of classic video games. *[http://www.baetzler.de/humor/ascii_cows.var The canonical list of Ascii Cows ] *[http://www.unicodeart.com/ &#1160; Unicode art - an extended ASCII art form &#1160;] *[http://www.freewebs.com/civiascii2/warriornessfaq.htm Tutorial for Gamefaqs compatible ASCII] *[http://www.freewebs.com/ysqure3/links.htm Collection of non fixed-width artists] *[http://kylewiki.mine.nu/wiki/ASCII_Art KyleWiki:Ascii Art] A collection of fixed-width ascii art *[http://kozou.run.buttobi.net/ AA underground thread @ hiding place (English version)] *[http://abstract.cs.washington.edu/~renacer/ascii-matrix.html.gz The Matrix - Bullet Dodging Scene] *[http://www.info-brevetti.org/ascii/ The best of ASCII art] The best in 20 categories *[http://ridaas.org/punkabbestia/ascii-art.htm ASCII/ANSI Art] ASCII/ANSI Art *[http://ridaas.org/ascii-search ASCII-Search] ASCII Art Search Engine *[http://www.apollosoft.de/ASCII/ ASCII Font] An ASCII Font for Windows *[http://www.cumbrowski.com/RoySAC/#asciiartstyles The three Styles of the Underground ASCII Art Scene] learn about the 3 dominant underground ascii styles * [http://cleaner.untergrund.net Cleaner Alternative Museum] Cleaner's ASCii/ANSi galleries. [[Category:Articles with ASCII art]] [[Category:ASCII art]] [[Category:Digital art]] [[cs:ASCII art]] [[de:ASCII-Art]] [[eo:Arto ASCII]] [[es:Arte ASCII]] [[fi:ASCII-taide]] [[fr:Art ASCII]] [[he:אמנות ASCII]] [[ia:Arte in ASCII]] [[it:ASCII art]] [[ja:アスキーアート]] [[lt:ASCII menas]] [[nl:ASCII art]] [[pl:ASCII-Art]] [[pt:ASCII art]] [[simple:ASCII-art]] [[sk:ASCII umenie]] [[sl:ASCII umetnost]] [[sv:ASCII-konst]] [[zh:ASCII艺术]] 1885 41701525 2006-03-01T03:52:28Z 69.192.37.62 /* Cultural references */ '''Autoerotic asphyxiation''', or '''AEA''', is the practice of self-[[strangulation]], typically by the use of a [[Ligature (medicine)|ligature]], while [[masturbation|masturbating]] in order to heighten the sexual pleasure as more [[endorphine]]s are produced when the body reaches the near state of [[asphyxia]]. While highly pleasurable, AEA is also an extremely dangerous practice that results in many accidental deaths each year. A small number of people doing AEA use a plastic bag over their head, but most prefer the strangulation method. Deaths often occur when the loss of consciousness caused by partial asphyxia leads to loss of control over the means of strangulation, resulting in continued asphyxia and death. Victims are often found to have rigged some sort of "rescue mechanism" which has not worked in the way they anticipated as they lost consciousness. It has also been speculated that in some cases autoerotic asphyxiation may have triggered the little-known phenomenon of [[carotid sinus#Carotid sinus reflex death|carotid sinus reflex death]]. It is a popular subject in [[tabloid]]s and celebrity gossip magazines, particularly when a celebrity dies as a result of [[suicide]] or other mysterious circumstances. Such was reputedly the case with the deaths of [[Jerzy Kosiński]] (in 1991) and [[Michael Hutchence]] (in 1997), though no evidence to support the claim was produced in either case. The artist [[Vaughn Bodé]] died from this cause in 1975. The death in 1994 of [[Stephen Milligan]], the British Conservative MP for Eastleigh, was a case of auto-erotic asphyxiation combined with [[self-bondage]]. This combination is particularly lethal. A more recent case is the death in 2004 of [[British National Party|BNP]] and [[British National Front|National Front]] member [[Kristian Etchells]]. [http://www.oldham-chronicle.co.uk/NEWSF04.html][http://www.oldhamadvertiser.co.uk/news/s/177/177605_national_front_member_died_during_sex_act.html] Recent court cases have come to varied results as to whether the unintentional death resulting from autoerotic asphyxiation falls under the "self-induced injury" clause of standard [[life insurance]] policies, which prevents payouts for suicide. In June of 2003, one US court said the intent was not death and therefore the case was an accident [http://home.aigonline.com/content/0,1109,15975-1567-legal--legal,00.html], while another in August 2003 said it does technically fall within the terms since death is the logical result of asphyxiation [http://home.aigonline.com/content/0,1109,16158-1572-legal,00.html]. == Cultural references == Autoerotic asphyxiation is key to the plots of many books, movies, and TV shows. Included is an accidental death in the film ''[[The Ruling Class]]'' (1972), starring [[Peter O'Toole]], as well as the movies ''[[Ken Park]]'' and ''[[Full Frontal]]'', the [[Thomas Harris]] novel ''[[Hannibal (film)|Hannibal]]'', the [[P. D. James]] novel ''[[An Unsuitable Job for a Woman]]'', the [[Erika Barr]] book ''[[Acquisition of Power]]'' (ISBN 1591293073), a 2002 episode of the HBO television series ''[[Six Feet Under]]'', the US version of [[Queer as Folk (U.S.)|Queer as Folk]], a 2005 episode of the CBS television series ''[[CSI: Crime Scene Investigation]]'', and is mentioned and talked about in the 2005 [[George Carlin]] HBO Special ''[[Life is Worth Losing]]''. In the movie "Life As A House" the main character Sam (Hayden Christensen) is depicted indulging in autoerotic asphyxiation in the first few scenes. == External links == * http://www.silentvictims.org/ * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/8/newsid_2538000/2538165.stm BBC News story about the death of Stephen Milligan] * [http://216.239.41.104/search?q=cache:hcGyRuuPeagJ:www.cwu.edu/~jenkinsa/Autoerotic_Asphyxia_Page.html+%22autoerotic+asphyxiation%22+dictionary+OR+glossary+OR+words+OR+terms+OR+lexicon&hl=en&lr=lang_en&ie=UTF-8 Information on the practice of autoerotic asphyxia] [[Category:Masturbation]] 1886 42033751 2006-03-03T09:49:18Z UW 358956 Revert - no overall relevance [[Image:Poster-red-cross-volunteer-for-victory.jpg|thumb|202px|A WWII-era poster encouraged American women to volunteer for the Red Cross as part of the war effort.]] The '''American Red Cross''' (chartered as the '''American National Red Cross''') is a humanitarian organization that provides emergency assistance, disaster relief and education inside the [[United States]], as part of the [[International Federation of the Red Cross]]. Today, in addition to domestic [[disaster relief]], the American Red Cross offers compassionate services in five other areas: community services that help the needy; support and comfort for [[military]] members and their families; the collection, processing and distribution of lifesaving [[blood]] and blood products; educational programs that promote health and safety; and international relief and development programs. Governed by [[volunteers]] and supported by community [[donations]], the American Red Cross is a nationwide network of nearly 1,000 chapters and Blood Services regions dedicated to saving lives and helping people prevent, prepare for and respond to [[emergencies]]. More than a million Red Cross volunteers and 30,000 employees annually mobilize relief to families affected by more than 67,000 disasters, train almost 12 million people in lifesaving skills and exchange more than a million emergency messages for U.S. military service personnel and their families. The Red Cross is also the largest supplier of blood and blood products to more than 3,000 hospitals across the nation and also assists victims of international disasters and conflicts at locations worldwide. The American Red Cross is headquartered in [[Washington, D.C.]]. Jack McGuire serves as interim president following the resignation of [[Rear Admiral]] Marsha J. Evans ([[United States Navy|USN]], ret.), in December, 2005. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/13/international/13cnd-cross.html?ex=1292130000&en=b1afad6cb3ef7854&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss] [[Image:Lawn1917.jpg|thumb|202px|WWI Red Cross rally at the [[University of Virginia]], May 1917.]] [[Image:AmRedCross.jpg|thumb|202px|The headquarters of the American Red Cross in [[Washington, D.C.]] was built in 1917 and dedicated "in memory of the heroic women of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]".]] == Founders == The American Red Cross was established on [[May 21]], [[1881]] by [[Clara Barton]], who became the first president of the organization. Barton first organized a meeting on [[May 12]] of that year at the home of [[United States Senate|Sen.]] [[Omar D. Conger]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]], [[Michigan|MI]]) [http://www.redcross.org/museum/history/charter.asp]. Fifteen were present at this first meeting, including Barton, Conger, and [[United States House of Representatives|Rep.]] [[William Lawrence (Ohio)|William Lawrence]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]], [[Ohio|OH]]) (who became the first vice-president [https://www.trianglearc.org/ARCweb/FD/2001ballreview.htm],[http://www.co.logan.oh.us/museum/Logan_County_History/body_logan_county_history.html]). [[Jane Delano]] (1862-1919) was the founder of the [[American Red Cross Nursing Service]]. === Clara Barton === [[Clara Barton]] (1821-1912) had already had a career as a teacher and federal bureaucrat when the [[American Civil War]] broke out. (She started teaching around the age of 15 or 16.) After working tirelessly on [[humanitarian]] work during and after the conflict, on advice of her doctors, in 1869, she went to Europe for a restful vacation. There, she saw and became involved in the work of the [[International Red Cross]] during the [[Franco-Prussian War]], and determined to bring the organization home with her to America. When Clara Barton began the organizing work in the U.S. in 1873, no one thought the country would ever again faced an experience like the Civil War. However, Barton was not one to lose hope in the face of the bureaucracy, and she finally succeeded during the administration of President [[Chester A. Arthur]] on the basis that the new American Red Cross organization could also be available to respond to other types of crisis. As Barton expanded the original concept of the Red Cross to include assisting in any great national disaster, this service brought the United States the "Good Samaritan of Nations" label in the International Red Cross. Barton naturally became President of the American branch of the society, known officially as the American National Red Cross. [[John D. Rockefeller]] gave money to create a national headquarters in [[Washington, DC]], located one block from the [[White House]]. Clara Barton led one of the group's first major relief efforts, a response to the Great Fire of 1881 ([[Thumb Fire]]) in the Thumb region of Michigan, which occurred on Sept 4-6, 1881. Over 5000 were left homeless. The next major disaster dealt with was the [[Johnstown Flood]] which occurred on [[May 31]], [[1889]]. Over 2,209 people died and thousands more were injured in or near [[Johnstown, Pennsylvania]] in one of the worst disasters in United States history. She resigned from the American Red Cross in [[1904]]. == Red Cross biomedical services == {{copyvio|url=<http://www.redcrossstl.org/public/blood/biomedical_services.htm>}} <!-- NOTE: This section may be a copyright violation (source: http://www.redcrossstl.org/public/blood/biomedical_services.htm). Please reword it. --> ===Blood=== The American Red Cross supplies roughly 45% of the [[blood donation|donated blood]] in the United States. Independent community-based blood centers supply 45% and 10% is collected directly by hospitals. In December of 2004, the American Red Cross completed their largest blood processing facility in the United States in [[Pomona, California]] on the campus grounds of the [[Cal Poly Pomona|California State Polytechnic University, Pomona]]. The Red Cross has had several controversies surrounding their blood program in which the center mishandled donated blood. ===Tissue services=== For more than twenty years, the American Red Cross provided [[allograft]] tissue for [[transplant]] through its Tissue Services Program. It cared for thousands of donor families who gave the gift of [[tissue donation]] and helped more than 1 million transplant recipients in need of this life saving or life-enhancing gift of tissue. At the end of January 2005, the American Red Cross ended its Tissue Services program in order to focus on its primary missions of Disaster Relief and Blood Services. ===Plasma services=== A leader in the [[Blood plasma|plasma]] industry, the Red Cross provides more than one quarter of the nation's plasma products. Red Cross Plasma Services seeks to provide the American people with plasma products which are not only reliable and cost-effective, but also as safe as possible. In February [[1999]], the Red Cross completed its "Transformation," a $287 million program that: re-engineered Red Cross Blood Services' processing, testing and distribution system; and established a new management structure. ===Nucleic Acid Testing=== On [[March 1]], [[1999]], the American Red Cross became the first U.S. blood banking organization to implement a [[Nucleic Acid Testing]] (NAT) study. This process is different from traditional testing because it looks for the [[genetics|genetic]] material of [[HIV]] and [[hepatitis C]] (HCV), rather than the body's response to the disease. The NAT tests for HIV and HCV have been licensed by the [[FDA]]. These tests are able to detect the genetic material of a transfusion-transmitted virus like HIV without waiting for the body to form antibodies, potentially offering an important time advantage over current techniques. ===Leukoreduction=== A person's own [[leukocytes]] (white blood cells) help fight off foreign substances such as [[bacteria]], [[viruses]] and abnormal cells, to avoid sickness or disease. But when transfused to another person, these same leukocytes do not benefit the recipient. In fact, these foreign leukocytes in transfused [[red blood cells]] and [[platelets]] are often not well tolerated and have been associated with some types of transfusion complications. The Red Cross is moving toward system-wide universal prestorage leukocyte reduction to improve patient care. ===Research=== The Red Cross operates the [[Jerome H. Holland Laboratory]], based in [[Rockville, Maryland]]. Each year, the Red Cross invests more than $25 million in research activities at the Holland Laboratory and in the field. ===Cellular therapies=== One technique the Red Cross has identified that shows strong potential for treating people in new ways is through [[cellular therapy|cellular therapies]]. This new method of treatment involves collecting and treating blood cells from a patient or other blood donor. The treated cells are then introduced into a patient to help revive normal cell function; replace cells that are lost as a result of disease, accidents or aging; or used to prevent illnesses from appearing. Cellular therapy may prove to be particularly helpful for patients who are being treated for illnesses such as [[cancer]], where the treated cells may help battle cancerous cells. ==Court ordered consent decree== The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) took court action against the American Red Cross in response to deficiencies in their tracking and procedures for ensuring the safety of the blood supply. The consent decree outlines some of the violations of federal law that the American Red Cross engaged in before 1993. Fines were imposed in the millions of dollars. In response to the decree, Red Cross Biomedical Services now has: a standardized [[computer]] system that efficiently maintains the blood donor database; a network of eight, state-of-the-art National Testing Laboratories (NTLs) that test about 6 million units of blood collected by the Red Cross's 36 blood regions; the Charles Drew Biomedical Institute, which allows for the Red Cross to provide training and other educational resources to Red Cross Blood Services' personnel; a highly qualified Quality Assurance/Regulatory Affairs Department, which helps to ensure compliance with [[FDA]] regulations in every Red Cross Blood Services region; and, a centrally managed blood inventory system to ensure the consistent availability of blood and blood components in every Red Cross Blood Services region throughout the country. In an [http://www.fda.gov/ora/frequent/letters/1000123507_ARC/consent_decree_100023507.pdf agreement with the American Red Cross] the Consent Decree was amended in 2003 with penalties for specific violations. The FDA can impose penalties after April 2003 up to the following maximum amounts: * $10,000 per event (and $10,000 per day) for any violation of an ARC standard operating procedure (SOP), the law, or consent decree requirement and timeline * $50,000 for preventable release of each unit of blood for which FDA determines that there is a reasonable probability that the product may cause serious adverse health consequences or death **$5,000 for the release of each unit that may cause temporary problems, up to a maximum of $500,000 per event * $50,000 for the improper re-release of each unsuitable blood unit that was returned to ARC inventory * $10,000 for each donor inappropriately omitted from the [[National Donor Deferral Registry]], a list of all unsuitable donors == Red Cross Health and Safety services == The American Red Cross has become a household name for providing first aid, Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR), Automated External Defibrillator (AED), water safety and lifeguarding training throughout the United States. The training programs are primarily aimed at laypersons, workplaces, and aquatic facilities. In 2005, the American Red Cross co-lead the 2005 Guidelines for First Aid, which aims to provide up-to-date and peer-reviewed first aid training material. Many American Red Cross chapters also sell first aid kits and other related equipment. ==Disaster services== Each year, the American Red Cross responds immediately to more than 67,000 [[disasters]], including house or apartment [[fires]] (the majority of disaster responses), [[hurricane]]s, [[flood]]s, [[earthquake]]s, [[tornado]]es, [[hazardous materials]] spills, transportation [[accidents]], [[explosions]], and other natural and man-made disasters. Although the American Red Cross is not a [[government]] agency, its authority to provide disaster relief was formalized when, in [[1905]], the Red Cross was chartered by [[Congress]] to "carry on a system of national and international relief in time of peace and apply the same in mitigating the sufferings caused by pestilence, famine, fire, floods, and other great national calamities, and to devise and carry on measures for preventing the same." The Charter is not only a grant of power, but also an imposition of duties and obligations to the nation, to disaster victims, and to the people who support its work with their donations. Red Cross disaster relief focuses on meeting people's immediate emergency disaster-caused needs. When a disaster threatens or strikes, the Red Cross provides [[shelter]], [[food]], and [[health]] and [[mental health]] services to address basic human needs. In addition to these services, the core of Red Cross disaster relief is the assistance given to individuals and families affected by disaster to enable them to resume their normal daily activities independently. The Red Cross also feeds emergency workers, handles inquiries from concerned family members outside the disaster area, provides blood and blood products to disaster victims, and helps those affected by disaster to access other available resources. The American Red Cross also works hard to encourage preparedness by providing important literature on readiness. Many chapters also offer free classes to the general public. ==2005 Hurricanes== The 2005 Hurricane Season proved to be the most challenging disaster response the American Red Cross had ever seen in its history. Forcasting a major disaster before the landfall of [[Hurricane Katrina]], the organization enlisted 2,000 volunteers throughout the nation to be on a "stand by" deployment list. During and after the Hurricanes Katrina, Wilma and Rita, the American Red Cross had opened 2,700 different shelters across 27 different states (and registered 3.4 million overnight stays), some of which were evacuation centers for those displaced by the disaster. A total of 225,000 Red Cross workers (95% of which were non-paid volunteers) were utilized to provide sheltering, casework, communication and assessment services throughout thse three hurricanes. The organization served 34 million meals and 30 million snacks to victims of the disasters and to rescue workers. Red Cross emergency financial assistance was provided to 1.4 million families, which encompassed a total of 4 million people. The Red Cross estimated that it would need USD $2.1 Billion to cover costs associated with the disaster. No other non-governmental agency has provided such a significant amount assistance to the victims of the Hurricane Season of 2005. On February 3rd 2006, 5 months after Katrina's landfall, the American Red Cross announced that it had met its fundraising goals, and would no longer engage in new 2005 Hurricane relief fundraising. The National organization urged the public to help other charities engaged in hurricane relief work, or to donate to their local Red Cross chapters. ==September 11 controversy== In the aftermath of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], the Red Cross, like many charitable organizations, solicited funds and blood donations for Red Cross activities for the victims of the attacks. Dr. Bernardine Healy, the president of the American Red Cross, appeared on telethons urging individuals to give generously. However, according to America's Blood Centers, the nonprofit consortium that provides the other 50% of the United States blood supply, no national blood drive was needed, since localized blood drives in the affected areas would be sufficient to meet the demand. The American Red Cross felt that the terrorist attacks were a sign of increased instability and urged people to donate blood, even though it wasn't needed at that time. In the end, some blood was destroyed unused. Also, the American Red Cross created the ''Liberty Fund'' that was ostensibly designed for relief for victims of the terrorist attacks. However, when the fund was closed in October, after reaching the goals of donations, only 30% of the $547 million received was spent. Dr. Healy announced that the majority of the remainder of the money would be used to increase blood supply, improve telecommunications, and prepare for terror attacks in other parts of the country. Many donors felt that they had donated specifically to the victims of the September 11 attacks and objected to the diversion of funds. Survivors complained of the bureaucratic process involved in requesting funds and the slow delivery of the checks to meet immediate needs. Congressional hearings were called and New York State Attorney General [[Eliot Spitzer]] investigated the Red Cross. In the end, the American Red Cross appointed former U.S. senator [[George_J._Mitchell|George Mitchell]] to handle distribution of the funds. Dr. Healy was forced to resign for her role in the situation, and the Red Cross pledged that all funds would go to directly benefit the victims of the September 11 attacks. Healy received a severance payment of $1,569,630 [http://www.give.org/reports/arc.asp]. In the end, out of the $961 million received, 71% went as cash assistance to those directly affected, 15% went for long term mental care and hospital care for the victims and people in the affected region, and 10% went for immediate disaster relief like shelters, food, and health care. The remaining 4% went for administration. [http://www.redcross.org/press/disaster/ds_pr/pdfs/libertyfund013103.pdf] Significant changes to Red Cross fundraising collection and policy have since been implemented after the Liberty Fund debacle. Numerous watchdog organizations, such as Charity Navigator, have since given high praise to the improved system of honoring donor's intent and minimizing administration costs. During the Hurricane Katrina disaster, the American Red Cross issued a statement saying that 91 cents of every dollar donated specifically for the Hurricane Katrina disaster will go directly to disaster relief. This low overhead is remarkably low for such a large organization. ==International services== The American Red Cross is involved with many international projects, such as the African Measles Initiative and the relief effort for the 2004 South Asia Tsunami disaster. The Measles Initiative is a co-ordinated campaign with the US Centers for Disease Control, the World Health Organization and other public health groups, and aims to reduce measles deaths to zero in Africa. The campaign has achieved remarkable successes, in part due to the partnership with local goverments and vaccine producers which allow USD$ 1 to provide one child's measles vaccination. The program has been credited in reducing measles mortality and morbidity in the region, as well as boosting infrastructure for other vaccination and public health programs such as malaria prevention. The program has since been used in areas affected by the 2004 Asian Tsunami disaster. The American Red Cross has a depot of pre-positioned emergency relief supplies in Dubai, Saudi Arabia, which was used to respond to the 2004 Asian tsunami disaster, as well as the 2005 Pakistan/South Asia Earthquakes. The American Red Cross handles international tracing requests and searches for families who have been separated by war or disaster and are trying to locate relatives worldwide. This is not a genealogical service but one that attempts to establish contact between family members who knew each other at the time of the war related separation. Tracing services also provide the exchange of hand written Red Cross Messages between individuals and their relatives who may be refugees or prisoners of war. At any given time the American Red Cross tracing program is handling the aftermath of 20-30 wars, conflicts, etc. When new information from many former Soviet Union archives became available in 1990s, a special unit was created to handle World War II/Holocaust tracing services [http://english.its-arolsen.org/ (See International Tracing Service)]. The world-wide structure of national Red Cross, Red Crescent societies, the Magen David Adom of Israel and the International Committee of the Red Cross make this service possible. ==Armed Forces Emergency Services== Although not a government agency, the American Red Cross provides important services to the United States military. The most notable service is emergency family communications, where families can contact the Red Cross to send important family messages (e.g. death in the family, or new birth). In such cases, the Red Cross can also act as a verifying agency of the situation. The American Red Cross works closely with other military societies, such as the Veteran's Administration, to provide other services to soldiers and their families. The American Red Cross is not involved with [[prisoners of war]]; rather, these are monitored by the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]], an international rather than national body. A persistent comment by many veterans of World War II is their memory of the American Red Cross selling "comfort items" such as toothpaste and cigarettes to the troops. The American Red Cross acknowledges that they did indeed sell such items, and the unfortunate repercussions have marred the agency's name for many years. In response to such allegations, the American Red Cross responds with these facts, indicating that the organization did not initially want to charge for such products: * At the request of the Secretary of War, the American Red Cross charged a nominal fee for coffee and doughnuts, as well as for lodging, barber and valet services, in stationary military installations overseas. It did not charge in mobile facilities such as Clubmobiles. * This request was made because other agencies working overseas were compelled to charge for similar items. Giving these items free to U.S. service members would, it was feared, demoralize Allied troops. * The official War Department recommendation was made in a letter dated May 20, 1942, written by Mr. Stimson, Secretary of War, and addressed to the Chairman of The American National Red Cross. == Clara Barton National Historic Site == In [[1975]], [[Clara Barton National Historic Site]] was established as a unit of the [[National Park Service]] at her Glen Echo, Maryland home near [[Washington, D.C.]] The first National Historic Site dedicated to the accomplishments of a woman, it preserves the early history of the American Red Cross and the last home of its founder. Clara Barton spent the last 15 years of her life in her Glen Echo home, and it served as an early headquarters of the American Red Cross as well. The National Park Service has restored eleven rooms, including the Red Cross offices, parlors and Miss Barton's bedroom. Visitors to Clara Barton National Historic Site can gain a sense of how Miss Barton lived and worked surrounded by all that went into her life's work. Visitors to the site are led through the three levels on a guided tour emphasizing Miss Barton's use of her unusual home, and come to appreciate the site in the same way visitors did in Clara Barton's lifetime. [http://www.nps.gov/clba/house.htm] ==Further reading== *[[Foster Rhea Dulles]] ''American Red Cross'' (Harper & Brothers, 1950) ==See also== *[[Red Cross]] *[[First aid]] *[[cardiopulmonary resuscitation|CPR]] *[[List of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies]] *[[Johnstown Flood]] ==External links== *[http://www.redcross.org Official website] *[https://www.givelife.org Blood Donations] *[http://www.blitzkriegbaby.de/ ARC history and WWII women's uniforms in color] &mdash; WWII US women's service organizations (ARC, WAC, WAVES, ANC, NNC, USMCWR, PHS, SPARS and WASP)] [[Category:American charities]] [[Category:Red Cross]] 1887 21780908 2005-08-25T04:48:11Z Boojum 66698 rv blanking There have been several people named '''Alexius''' * [[Alexius I Comnenus]] ([[1048]]-[[1118]]), [[Byzantine emperor]] * [[Alexius II Comnenus]] ([[1167]]-[[1183]]), Byzantine emperor * [[Alexius III]], Byzantine emperor * [[Alexius IV]], Byzantine emperor * [[Alexius V]], Byzantine emperor * [[Alexius I of Trebizond]], [[Empire of Trebizond|Emperor of Trebizond]] * [[Alexius II of Trebizond]], Emperor of Trebizond * [[Alexius III of Trebizond]], Emperor of Trebizond * [[Alexius IV of Trebizond]], Emperor of Trebizond * [[Alexius Mikhailovich]] ([[1629]]-[[1676]]), [[tsar]] of [[Russia]] * [[Alexius Petrovich]] ([[1690]]-[[1718]]), [[Russia]]n tsarevich * [[Alexius, Metropolitan of Moscow]], ([[1354]]-[[1378]]) * [[Patriarch Alexius II]] ([[1990]]-present), [[Patriarch of Moscow]] and all [[Russia]] * [[Saint Alexius]] {{disambig}} [[nl:Alexius]] 1889 15900350 2005-03-11T01:58:54Z Maveric149 62 #REDIRECT [[Federal assault weapons ban]] 1890 41910104 2006-03-02T15:32:53Z Adrian Robson 265480 "far be it from me" not a good example as this used all the time in Britain {{English dialects}} '''American English''' ('''AmE''') is the [[dialect]] of the [[English language]] used mostly in the [[United States|United States of America]]. It is estimated that approximately two thirds of [[first language|native speakers]] of English live in the [[United States]].{{ref|Crystal}} American English is also sometimes called '''United States English''' or '''U.S. English'''. ==History== English was inherited from [[British colonization of the Americas|British colonization]]. The first wave of English-speaking settlers arrived in North America in the 17th century. In that century, there were also speakers in North America of the [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], myriad [[Native American languages|Native American]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Scots language|Scots]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]] and [[Finnish language|Finnish]] languages. ==Phonology== {{IPA notice}} In many ways, compared to [[British English]], American English is conservative in its [[phonology]]. The conservatism of American English is largely the result of the fact that it represents a mixture of various dialects from the British Isles. Dialect in North America is most distinctive on the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] of the continent; this is largely because these areas were in contact with England, and imitated prestigious varieties of British English at a time when those varieties were undergoing changes. The interior of the country was settled by people who were no longer closely connected to England, as they had no access to the ocean during a time when journeys to Britain were always by sea. As such the inland speech is much more homogeneous than the East Coast speech, and did not imitate the changes in speech from England. [[Image:Non rhotic-whites-usa.png|thumb|left|The red areas are those where non-rhotic pronunciations are found among some whites in the [[United States]]. [[African American Vernacular English|AAVE]]-influenced non-rhotic pronunciations may be found among blacks throughout the country. Map based on Labov, Ash, and Boberg (2006: 48).]] Most North American speech is [[rhotic and non-rhotic accents|rhotic]], as English was in most places in the 17th century. Rhoticity was further supported by [[Hiberno-English]], [[Scottish English]], and [[West Country dialects|West Country]] English. In most varieties of [[North American English]], the sound corresponding to the letter "R" is a [[retroflex]] [[semivowel]] rather than a trill or a tap. The loss of syllable-final ''r'' in North America is confined mostly to the accents of [[Boston accent|eastern New England]], [[New York-New Jersey English|New York City]] and surrounding areas, South [[Philadelphia]], and the coastal portions of the [[Southern American English|South]]. Dropping of syllable-final ''r'' sometimes happens in natively rhotic dialects if ''r'' is located in unaccented syllables or words and the next syllable or word begins in a consonant. In England, lost 'r' was often changed into {{IPA|[ə]}} ([[schwa]]), giving rise to a new class of falling [[diphthong]]s. Furthermore, the 'er' sound of (stressed) ''fur'' or (unstressed) ''butter'', which is represented in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] as stressed {{IPA|[ɝ]}} or unstressed {{IPA|[ɚ]}} is realized in American English as a [[monophthong]]al [[r-colored vowel]]. This does not happen in the non-rhotic varieties of North American speech. Some other British English changes in which most North American dialects do not participate: * The shift of {{IPA|[æ]}} to {{IPA|[ɑ]}} (the so-called "[[broad A]]") before {{IPA|[f], [s], [θ], [ð], [z], [v]}} alone or preceded by {{IPA|[n]}}. This is the difference between the British [[Received Pronunciation]] and American pronunciation of ''bath'' and ''dance''. In the United States, only linguistically conservative eastern-New-England speakers took up this innovation. * The shift of intervocalic {{IPA|[t]}} to glottal stop {{IPA|[ʔ]}}, as in {{IPA|/bɒʔəl/}} for ''bottle''. This change is not universal for British English (and in fact is not considered to be part of [[Received Pronunciation]]), but it does not occur in most North American dialects. [[Newfoundland English]] and the dialect of [[New Britain, Connecticut]] are notable exceptions. On the other hand, North American English has undergone some sound changes not found in Britain, at least not in standard varieties. Many of these are instances of [[phonemic differentiation]] and include * The [[Phonological history of the low back vowels#Father-bother merger|merger of {{IPA|[ɑ]}} and {{IPA|[ɒ]}}]], making ''father'' and ''bother'' rhyme. This change is nearly universal in North American English, occurring almost everywhere except for parts of eastern New England, like the [[Boston accent]]. * The replacement of the lot vowel with the strut vowel in ''what'', ''was'', ''of'', ''from'', ''everybody'', ''nobody'', ''somebody'', ''anybody'', ''because'', and in some dialects ''want''. * The merger of {{IPA|[ɒ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}}. This is the so-called [[Phonological history of the low back vowels#Cot-caught merger|cot-caught merger]], where ''cot'' and ''caught'' are [[homophone]]s. This change has occurred in eastern New England, in [[Pittsburgh English|Pittsburgh]] and surrounding areas, and from the [[Great Plains]] westward. * [[English-language vowel changes before historic r|Vowel merger]] before intervocalic {{IPA|/r/}}. Which (if any) vowels are affected varies between dialects. * The merger of {{IPA|[ʊɹ]}} and {{IPA|[ɝ]}} after [[palatal consonant|palatals]] in some words, so that ''cure'', ''pure'', ''mature'' and ''sure'' rhyme with ''fir'' in some speech registers for some speakers. * [[English consonant cluster reductions#Yod-dropping|Dropping]] of {{IPA|[j]}} after [[alveolar consonant]]s so that ''new'', ''duke'', ''Tuesday'', ''suit'', ''resume'', ''lute'' are pronounced {{IPA|/nuː/}}, {{IPA|/duːk/}}, {{IPA|/tuːzdeɪ/}}, {{IPA|/suːt/}}, {{IPA|/ɹɪzuːm/}}, {{IPA|/luːt/}}. * [[Phonological history of English short A#æ-tensing|æ-tensing]] in environments that vary widely from accent to accent. In some accents, particularly those from [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]] to [[New York City]], {{IPA|[æ]}} and {{IPA|[eə]}} can even contrast sometimes, as in ''Yes, I '''can''''' {{IPA|[kæn]}} vs. ''tin '''can''''' {{IPA|[keən]}}. * Laxing of {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} to {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, {{IPA|/ɪ/}} and {{IPA|/ʊ/}} before {{IPA|/ɹ/}}, causing pronunciations like {{IPA|[pɛɹ]}}, {{IPA|[pɪɹ]}} and {{IPA|[pjʊɹ]}} for ''pair'', ''peer'' and ''pure''. * The [[flapping]] of intervocalic {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} to [[alveolar tap]] {{IPA|[ɾ]}} before reduced vowels. The words ''ladder'' and ''latter'' are mostly or entirely homophonous, possibly distinguished only by the length of preceding vowel. For some speakers, the merger is incomplete and 't' before a reduced vowel is sometimes not tapped following {{IPA|[eɪ]}} or {{IPA|[ɪ]}} when it represents underlying 't'; thus ''greater'' and ''grader'', and ''unbitten'' and ''unbidden'' are distinguished. Even among those words where {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} are flapped, words that would otherwise be homophonous are, for some speakers, distinguished if the flapping is immediately preceded by the diphthongs {{IPA|/ɑɪ/}} or {{IPA|/ɑʊ/}}; these speakers tend to pronounce ''writer'' with {{IPA|[əɪ]}} and ''rider'' with {{IPA|[ɑɪ]}}. This is called [[Canadian raising]]; it is general in [[Canadian English]], and occurs in some northerly versions of American English as well (often just applying to the diphthong {{IPA|/ɑɪ/}}, but not to {{IPA|/ɑʊ/}}). * Both intervocalic {{IPA|/nt/}} and {{IPA|/n/}} may be realized as {{IPA|[n]}} or {{IPA|[ɾ̃]}}, making ''winter'' and ''winner'' homophones. This does not occur when the second syllable is stressed, as in ''entail''. * The [[Phonological history of the high front vowels#Pin-pen merger|pin-pen merger]], by which {{IPA|[ɛ]}} is raised to {{IPA|[ɪ]}} before [[nasal consonant]]s, making pairs like ''pen''/''pin'' homophonous. This merger originated in [[Southern American English]] but is now widespread in the Midwest and West as well. Some mergers found in most varieties of both American and British English include: * The [[English-language vowel changes before historic r#Horse-hoarse merger|horse-hoarse merger]] of the vowels {{IPA|[ɔ]}} and {{IPA|[oʊ]}} before 'r', making pairs like ''horse/hoarse'', ''corps/core'', ''for/four'', ''morning/mourning'' etc. [[homophones]]. * The [[English consonant cluster reductions#Wine-whine merger|wine-whine merger]] making pairs like ''wine/whine'', ''wet/whet'', ''Wales/whales'', ''wear/where'' etc. [[homophone]]s, in most cases eliminating {{IPA|/ʍ/}}, the [[voiceless labiovelar fricative]]. Many older varieties of southern and western American English still keep these distinct, but the merger appears to be spreading. ==Differences in British English and American English== ''Main article'': [[American and British English differences]] American English has both spelling and grammatical differences from [[British English]] (or [[Commonwealth English]]), some of which were made as part of an attempt to rationalize the English spelling used by British English at the time. Unlike many 20th century [[language reform]]s (for example, [[Turkey]]'s alphabet shift, [[Norway]]'s spelling reform) the American [[spelling]] changes were not driven by government, but by textbook writers and dictionary makers. The first American dictionary was written by [[Noah Webster]] in [[1828]]. At the time the United States was a relatively new country and Webster's particular contribution was to show that the region spoke a different dialect from Britain, and so he wrote a dictionary with many spellings differing from the standard. Many of these changes were initiated unilaterally by Webster. Webster also argued for many "simplifications" to the idiomatic spelling of the period. Somewhat ironically, many, although not all, of his simplifications fell into common usage alongside the original versions with simple spelling modifications. Many words are shortened and differ from other versions of English. Spellings such as ''center'' are used instead of ''centre'' in other versions of English. Conversely, American English sometimes favors words that are [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphologically]] more complex, whereas British English uses clipped forms, such as AmE ''transportation'' and BrE ''transport'' or where the British form is a [[back-formation]], such as AmE ''burglarize'' and BrE ''burgle'' (from ''burglar''). ==English words that arose in the U.S.== A number of words that arose in the United States have become common, to varying degrees, in English as it is spoken internationally. Although its origin is disputed, most etymologies of "[[Okay|OK]]" place its widespread usage in America of the early 19th century. Other American introductions include "belittle," "[[gerrymander]]" (from [[Elbridge Gerry]]), "[[blizzard]]", "[[teenager]]", and many more. ==English words obsolete outside the U.S.== A number of words that originated in the English of the British Isles are still in everyday use in North America, but are no longer used in most varieties of British English. The most conspicuous of these words are ''[[autumn|fall]]'', the season; ''to quit'', as in "to cease an activity" (as opposed to "to leave a location" as still used in most other Anglophone countries); and ''gotten'' as a [[past participle]] of ''get''. Americans are more likely than Britons to name a [[stream]] a ''creek'' if its breadth or volume is judged insufficient for it to be a ''[[river]]''. The word ''[[diaper]]'' goes back at least to [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], and usage was maintained in the U.S. and Canada, but was replaced in the British Isles with ''nappy''. Some of these words are still used in various dialects of the British Isles, but not in formal standard British English. Many of these older words have cognates in [[Lowland Scots]]. The [[subjunctive mood]] (America, America, God '''shed''' His grace on thee, and '''crown''' thy good... ) is livelier in North American English than it is in British English; it appears in some areas as a spoken usage, and is considered obligatory in more formal contexts in American English. British English has a strong tendency to replace subjunctives with [[auxiliary verb]] constructions. ==Regional differences== ''Main article: [[American English regional differences]]'' Spoken American English is not homogeneous throughout the country, and various regional and ethnic variants exist. These differences affect both pronunciation and the lexicon, and can make one accent a little difficult for speakers of another accent to understand. [[General American]] is the name given to any American accent that is relatively free of noticeable regional influences. It enjoys high prestige among Americans, but is not a [[standard language|standard accent]] in the way that [[Received Pronunciation]] is in [[England]]. ==See also== *[[Regional accents of English speakers]] *[[Regional Vocabularies of American English]] *[[Dictionary of American Regional English]] *[[International Phonetic Alphabet for English]] *[[IPA chart for English]] *Dialects: [[African American Vernacular English]], [[Liberian English]] (a descendant of American English) *[[UK-US Heterologues A-Z]] *[[List of dialects of the English language]] ==Further reading== *<cite>The American Language 4th Edition, Corrected and Enlarged</cite>, [[H. L. Mencken]], Random House, 1948, hardcover, ISBN 0394400755 *<cite>How We Talk: American Regional English Today</cite>, Allan Metcalf, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000, softcover, ISBN 0618043624 ** 1st and 2nd supplements of above. * Craig M. Carver. ''American Regional Dialects: A Word Geography''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1987. ISBN 0472100769 ==References== {{note|Crystal}} [[David Crystal|Crystal, David]] (1997). ''English as a Global Language'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521530326. *[[William Labov|Labov, William]], Sharon Ash, and Charles Boberg (2006). ''The Atlas of North American English'', Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3110167468. ==External links== {{Wiktionary}} *[http://www.pbs.org/speak/ Do You Speak American]: PBS special *[http://cfprod01.imt.uwm.edu/Dept/FLL/linguistics/dialect/ Dialect Survey] of the United States, by Bert Vaux et al., [[Harvard University]]. The answers to various questions about pronunciation, word use etc. can be seen in relationship to the regions where they are predominant. *[http://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/home.html Phonological Atlas of North America] at the [[University of Pennsylvania]] *[http://students.csci.unt.edu/~kun Guide to Regional English Pronunciation] includes working versions of the Telsur Project maps from the Phonological Atlas site *[http://www.peak.org/~jeremy/dictionary/ The American•British British•American Dictionary] *[http://classweb.gmu.edu/accent/ Speech Accent Archive] *[http://www.world-english.org/ World English Organization] *[http://www.esuus.org English Speaking Union of the United States] * [http://australianenglish1.narod.ru Australian American British English Lexical Differences In One Table And More] * [http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/words_list/british_american.htm British, American, Australian English - Lists and Online Exercises] * [http://www.globalenglishsalon.com/ Listen to spoken American English (midwest}] [[Category:American English|*]] [[Category:Languages of the United States|English]] [[Category:North American English]] [[Category:Forms of English]] [[de:Amerikanisches Englisch]] [[fr:Anglais américain]] [[ko:미국 영어]] [[it:Dialetto inglese americano]] [[he:אנגלית אמריקנית]] [[hu:Amerikai angol nyelv]] [[simple:American English]] [[fi:Amerikanenglanti]] [[sv:Amerikansk engelska]] [[th:อังกฤษอเมริกัน]] [[zh:美国英语]] 1893 38042782 2006-02-03T20:12:08Z Floydspinky71 481511 [[Image:Al_Spalding_Baseball.jpg|right|thumb|Al Spalding's sporting goods company made a lasting impact on baseball.]] '''Albert Goodwill Spalding''' ([[Byron, Illinois|Byron]], [[Illinois]] [[September 2]], [[1850]] &ndash; [[September 9]], [[1915]] in [[Point Loma, California|Point Loma]], [[California]]) was a professional [[baseball]] player and famous [[Sports equipment|sporting goods]] manufacturer founder. Having played baseball throughout his youth, Spalding first played competitively with the [[Rockford, Illinois|Rockford]] Pioneers, a youth team, whom he joined in [[1865]]. After pitching his team to a 26-2 victory over a local men's amateur team (the Mercantiles), he was approached by another, the Forest Citys, for whom he played for two years. In the autumn of [[1867]] he accepted a $40 per week contract, nominally as a clerk, but really to play professionally for the Chicago Excelsiors, a not uncommon arrangement contrary to the rules of the time. Following the formation of the [[National Association of Professional Baseball Players|National Association]], baseball's first professional league, in [[1871]], Spalding joined the [[Atlanta Braves|Boston Red Stockings]] (a different club to the modern Red Sox) and was highly successful; winning 205 games (and losing only 53) as a pitcher and batting .323 as a hitter. After the NA folded, he joined the [[Chicago Cubs|Chicago White Stockings]] of the newly formed [[National League]] in 1876, winning 47 games as the club captured the league's inaugural pennant. Spalding retired from baseball two years later. {{MLB HoF}} Retired from the game, he and his brother opened a sporting goods store in Chicago, obtaining the rights to produce the official National League ball. The business, which grew rapidly over the next 25 years, with 14 stores by 1901, expanded from retail into manufacturing baseball equipment and is still a going concern. In 1900 Spalding was appointed by [[William McKinley|President McKinley]] as the USA's Commissioner at that year's [[Summer Olympic Games]]. Seven years later, his prompting would lead to the founding of the commission that (erroneously) declared baseball to be the invention of [[Abner Doubleday]]. Receiving the archives of the late [[Henry Chadwick]] in 1908, Spalding combined these records with his own memories (and biases) to write ''[[Americas National Game]]'' (published 1911) which, despite its flaws, was probably the first scholarly account of the [[history of baseball]]. He was elected to the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]] by the Old Timer's Committee in [[Baseball Hall of Fame balloting, 1939|1939]]. {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[Chicago Cubs|Chicago White Stockings Manager]] | before=''First Manager'' | years=1876-1877| after= [[Bob Ferguson (baseball manager)|Bob Ferguson]] }} {{end box}} ==External links== * [http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/hofers_and_honorees/hofer_bios/spalding_al.htm Baseball Hall Of Fame] * [http://www.spalding.com Official webpage of Spalding's company] * {{baseball-reference|id=s/spaldal01}} [[Category:1850 births|Spalding, Albert]] [[Category:1915 deaths|Spalding, Albert]] [[Category:Baseball Hall of Fame|Spalding, Albert]] [[Category:19th century baseball players|Spalding, Albert]] [[Category:Baseball executives|Spalding, Albert]] [[Category:Baseball managers|Spalding, Albert]] 1894 36796204 2006-01-26T15:08:52Z Moyogo 44443 The '''Africa Alphabet''' was developed in [[1928]] under the lead of [[Diedrich Westermann]]. He developed it with a group of [[Africanist]]s at the International Institute of African Languages and Cultures (later the [[International African Institute|IAI]]) in London. Its aim was to be able to write all the [[African languages]] for practical and scientific purposes. == Characters == {|class="wikitable" |- | '''lowercase''' || a || b || ɓ || c || d || ɖ || e || ɛ || ǝ || f || ƒ || g || ɣ || h || x || i || j || k |- style="border-bottom: solid" | '''uppercase''' || A || B || Ɓ || C || D || Ɖ || E || Ɛ || Ǝ || F || Ƒ || G || Ɣ || H || X || I || J || K |- | '''lowercase''' || l || m || n || ŋ || o || ɔ || p || r || s || ʃ || t || u || v || ʋ || w || y || z || ʒ |- | '''uppercase''' || L || M || N || Ŋ || O || Ɔ || P || R || S || Ʃ || T || U || V || Ʋ || W || Y || Z || Ʒ |} ==See also== [[Standard Alphabet by Lepsius]], [[African reference alphabet]] ==References== ''The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems'', Florian Coulmas, 1996, Blackwell, Oxford IIACL [http://www.bisharat.net/Documents/poal30.htm ''Practical Orthography of African Languages''], Revised Edition, London: Oxford University Press, 1930 {{writingsystem-stub}} [[Category:Alphabetic writing systems]] [[de:Afrika-Alphabet]] [[fr:Alphabet international africain]] 1896 41752318 2006-03-01T14:14:44Z 80.61.63.34 /* Variants */ [[Image:acquirecover.jpg|200px|right|]] '''Acquire''' is an abstract [[board game]] of investing in [[hotel]] chains. It was designed by the renowned game inventor [[Sid Sackson]] in the [[1960s]], and is currently owned by [[Avalon Hill]]. It is well-suited to family play because the rules are simple, no one gets eliminated, and each game takes only about 75 minutes. On the other hand, it also attracts hard core gamers because there are many opportunities for skilled players to gain an advantage over less-skilled players. The random drawing of tiles keeps the game fresh for everyone and gives weaker players an opportunity to triumph, but does not prevent stronger players from winning most of the time. ==Equipment== * The game board, a rectangular array with room for one tile per location, as in [[Scrabble]]. The twelve columns are labeled 1 to 12, and the nine rows labeled from A to I. * 108 wooden tiles ( later versions having plastic ), one for each space of the board. Each tile has its location such as '''7A''' or '''1H''' printed on one side; that is the only location in which the tile may be played. Each tile represents a hotel, and adjacent tiles represent hotel chains. * Six racks in which the players hold the tiles they have drawn. * Seven markers for hotel chains: two indicating relatively cheap chains, two indicating relatively expensive chains, and three indicating medium cost chains. * Twenty-five shares of stock for each of the seven hotel chains. * A supply of play money. ==Rules== From three to six may play comfortably. It is possible to play with two, but not very interesting. Standard tournament games are played with four. The game starts with six tiles picked randomly and placed in their locations. This doubles as a convenient way to determine which player goes first: each player draws one of the tiles for the initial setup, and the player with the lowest-numbered tile goes first. Each player begins the game with $6000 in cash and six tiles picked at random for their starting racks. On each turn of the game, the player whose turn it is # must play one tile # must deal with the merger or founding of a new company if one results # may buy stock # must draw one tile Whenever a player places a tile horizontally or vertically adjacent to a tile which is not already part of a hotel chain, that player has the option of founding a new hotel chain, unless all seven hotel chains are already in play. The player may choose to found any chain not already in play, and receives one share of stock in the new chain at no charge. Each player may, after playing a tile on his turn, purchase up to three shares of stock in existing hotel chains. Only the player whose turn it is may buy stock. When a new tile is placed adjacent to an existing hotel chain, the chain becomes larger and its stock increases in value and price. When a new tile is placed adjacent to tiles from two or more different chains, those chains merge into a single hotel chain, with the largest chain taking over. If there is a tie for the largest chain, the player placing the merging tile chooses which of those will take over. When a hotel chain is merged out of existence, the players with the most and second-most shares receive cash bonuses. Then each player decides what to do with their shares in the now-defunct chain. They may: # Trade them in for cash at face value # Trade them in at a ratio of two to one for shares of the chain that took over # Keep the shares in the hopes that the hotel chain will be founded again later. Hotel chains with eleven or more tiles are deemed too big to be merged out. A tile which would connect two chains of eleven or more is unplayable, and may be placed face-down in its location at any time in exchange for a fresh tile. The game ends when one hotel chain reaches forty-one tiles, or when all chains are too large to merge. At the end of the game, all hotel chains pay bonuses to the largest shareholders as if they were being merged out, and all shares of stock are cashed in for face value. The richest player wins. ==Strategy== [[Cash flow]] is the critical element of [[strategy]]. On one hand there is pressure to buy stock in order to become the largest shareholder and receive a bonus, but on the other hand holding only stock and no cash prevents one from buying into lucrative new chains as they are founded. The winner is often not the majority stockholder in the hotel chain which acquires all the others, but the player who contrives to have several of his small chains acquired while holding a majority. The mergers of hotel chains are the critical junctures of the game because those are the only times cash comes to the players. Stock can't be traded or sold except during a merger. On the other hand, some games (and some players) will be more cash rich than others, which decreases the importance of holding cash and increases the importance of holding stock. At such times it may be wiser to hold onto stock or to trade it in two for one. The cash flow of a game is greatly affected by the number of players involved. All players can sell during a merger, but only the player whose turn it is can buy stock, so five- or six-player games have relatively many opportunities to sell, whereas three- player games have relatively many opportunities to buy. Experts consider the four-player game the best for creating critical cash flow decisions. Whenever cash is plentiful, which tends to happen towards the middle of the game, but will happen at different times for different players, and sooner or later depending on the relative number of mergers, it becomes more important to think about the shareholder bonuses when the game ends. One must consider that all twenty-five shares in each company will probably be bought before the players run out of cash. At the crux between the game-end bonuses and the short-term need for cash is the decision whether to increase the size of a chain by playing next to it, or to withhold adjacent tiles. If your chain doesn't grow, your shares don't increase in value, and you could conceivably be forced to cash out at exactly the price you bought in at. On the other hand, if you play all the adjacent tiles you have, you will not be able to create mergers when you need them; the timing will be in someone else's hands. ==Variants== * Some players play with all information (except the tiles held by players) open at all times, while others play that the cash and stock holdings of players are kept secret. The official rules do not clearly prefer either variant. * There is also a variant of the game in which play is simultaneous, instead of players taking turns. For each phase of a turn, the players prepare their moves and then announce them when everyone is ready. If players try to make moves that conflict with each other (such as two people trying to buy stock in the same chain when only one share is available), they must bid cash to decide the outcome. This variant tends to be faster-paced and less predictable than the standard rules. * One variant is to begin play with all tiles, except the ones the players have on hand, placed out on the board in their proper places, but placed upside down. The player then picks freely any one of these tiles at the end of his turn. This decreases the element of luck in game play. * A nice touch is to grant a player who just created a new chain a one-time opportunity to buy four shares of that chain instead of three (no shares of other chains may be bought). This makes for an extra incentive to start a new chain. ==External links== * [http://www.boardgamegeek.com/game/5 Acquire information at boardgamegeek.com] [[Category:Economic simulation board games]] [[de:Acquire]] [[zh:Acquire]] 1897 42096734 2006-03-03T20:28:52Z 62.31.55.223 /* Cultivated Australian English */ removed blank line {{English_dialects}} '''Australian English''' ('''AuE''') is the form of the [[English language]] used in [[Australia]]. ==Relationship to other varieties of English== Australian English began to diverge from [[British English]] soon after the foundation of the [[colony]] of [[New South Wales]] (NSW) in [[1788]]. The settlement was intended originally as a [[penal colony]] for British [[convict]]s. They were mostly people from large [[England|English]] cities, such as [[Cockney]]s. In [[1827]], [[Peter Cunningham]], in his book ''Two Years in New South Wales'', reported that native-born white Australians spoke with a distinctive accent and vocabulary, albeit with a strong Cockney influence. (The transportation of convicts to Australian colonies continued until 1868.) A much larger wave of immigration, as a result of the first [[Australian gold rushes]], in the [[1850s]], also had a significant influence on Australian English, including large numbers of people who spoke English as a second language. Since that time, Australian English has borrowed increasingly from external sources. The so-called "[[Americanisation]]" of Australian English &mdash; signified by the borrowing of words, terms and usages from [[American English]] &mdash; which began during the goldrushes, was accelerated by a massive influx of US military personnel during [[World War II]]. The large-scale importation of [[television]] programs and other [[mass media]] content from the [[United States]], from the 1950s onwards, has also had a significant effect. As a result, for example, Australians use the word ''truck'' instead of the British ''lorry''. Due to their shared history and geographical proximity, Australian English is most similar to [[New Zealand English]]. However, the difference between the two spoken versions is obvious to people from either country, if not to a casual observer from a third country. The vocabulary used also exhibits some striking differences. ===Spelling=== The exposure to the different spellings of British and American English leads to a certain amount of spelling variation such as ''organise/organize''. British spelling is generally preferred, although some words are usually written in the American form, such as ''program'' and ''jail'' rather than ''programme'' and ''gaol'' (although commonly one could be 'jailed' in a 'gaol'). Publishers, schools, universities and governments typically use the [[Macquarie Dictionary]] as a standard spelling reference. Both -ise and -ize are accepted, as in British English, but '-ise' is the preferred form in Australian English by a ratio of about 3:1 according to the [[Australian Corpus of English]]. There is a widely-held belief in Australia that American spellings are a modern "intrusion", but the debate in fact goes back to the [[19th century]]. A pamphlet titled ''The So Called "American Spelling."'', printed in Sydney over 100 years ago, argued that "there is no valid etymological reason for the preservation of the u in such words as honor, labor, etc." At the time it was noted that "the tendency of people in Australasia is to excise the u, and one of the Sydney morning papers habitually does this, while the other generally follows the older form". Some Melbourne newspapers once excised the "u", but do not anymore, and the [[Australian Labor Party|Australian ''Labor'' Party]] officially adopted the '-or' ending in [[1912]]. ===Irish influences=== There is some influence from [[Hiberno-English]], but perhaps not as much as might be expected given that many Australians are of [[Ireland|Irish]] descent. Perhaps most noticeable is the widespread – but not universal – pronunciation of the name of the letter "H" as "''haitch''" {{IPA|/hæɪtʃ/}}, rather than the unaspirated "''aitch''" {{IPA|/æɪtʃ/}} found in New Zealand, as well as most of Britain and North America. This is most often found amongst speakers of ''Broad Australian English'' and is thought to be the influence of Irish [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] priests and nuns. Others include the non-standard plural of "you" as "''youse''" {{IPA|/jʉːz/}}, which is common in some social circles, and the expression "''good on you''" or "''good onya''", although the former is common throughout North America and the latter is also encountered in New Zealand English and British English. Another usage indicative of an Irish influence is use of the word 'me' replacing 'my'. Example: ''Where's me hat?'' ===Samples of Australian English=== The [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] provides many [http://www.abc.net.au/streaming/ streams of their radio programmes]. Non-Australians can also gain an impression of Australian English from well-known actors and other native speakers. The voices of [[Cate Blanchett]], [[Russell Crowe]], [[Nicole Kidman]], [[Hugh Jackman]] and [[Naomi Watts]] are examples of [[Australian_English#General_Australian_English|General Australian accents]], unless they are acting in roles as non-Australians. Several [[List of Australians#Film_and_television|Australian actors]] provided voices for ''[[Finding Nemo]]'': Nigel the pelican, the three sharks, and the dentist have Australian accents. Television star [[Steve Irwin|Steve "Crocodile hunter" Irwin]] has a [[Australian_English#Broad_Australian_English|Broad Australian accent]] (see below) and as a result his voice is often parodied inside Australia as well as out. [[John O'Grady]]'s novel ''[[They're a Weird Mob]]'' has many good examples of pseudo-phonetically written Australian speech during the 1950s, such as ''"owyergoinmateorright?"'' ("how're you going mate, alright?") and [[Tom Keneally]]'s novels, particularly ''The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith'', of putatively 19th century Australianisms such as "yair" for "yes" and "nothink" for "nothing." ==Vocabulary== {{main|Australian words}} ===The origins of Australian words=== Australian English incorporates many terms that Australians consider to be unique to their country. One of the best-known of these is ''outback'' which means remote, sparsely-populated areas. The similar ''bush'' can mean either native forests, or country areas in general. Both terms are historically widely used in many English speaking countries, however. Many such words, phrases or usages originated with the British convicts transported to Australia. Many words used frequently by country Australians are, or were, also used in all or part of England, with variations in meaning. For example: a ''creek'' in Australia, as in North America, is any stream or small river, whereas in England it is a small watercourse flowing into the sea; ''paddock'' is the Australian word for a field, while in England it is a small enclosure for livestock and; wooded areas in Australia are known as ''bush'' or ''scrub'', as in North America, while in England, they are commonly used only in proper names (such as [[Shepherd's Bush]] and [[Wormwood Scrubs]]). Cockney and Australian English also both use the word ''mate'' to mean a close friend of the same gender (rather than the conventional meaning of "a [[spouse]]"), although this usage has also become common in some other varieties of English. The origins of other terms are not as clear, or are disputed. ''Dinkum'' (or "fair dinkum") means "true", or when used in speech: "is that true?", "this is the truth!", and other meanings, depending on context and inflection. It is often claimed that dinkum dates back to the [[Australian goldrushes]] of the 1850s, and that it is derived from the [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] (or Hokkien) ''ding kam'', meaning "top gold". However, scholars give greater credence to the notion that it originated with a now-extinct dialect word from the [[East Midlands]] in England, where dinkum (or dincum) meant "hard work" or "fair work", which was also the original meaning in Australian English.[http://www.anu.edu.au/andc/ozwords/November_98/7._dinkum.htm] The derivation ''dinky-di'' means a native-born Australian. Similarly, ''g'day'', a stereotypical Australian greeting, is no longer synonymous with "good day" in other varieties of English and is never used as an expression for "farewell", as "good day" is in other countries. Some elements of [[Australian Aboriginal languages|Aboriginal languages]] have been incorporated into Australian English, mainly as names for places, flora and fauna (for example [[dingo]], [[kangaroo]]). Beyond that, some terms have been adopted into the wider language, except for some localised terms, or slang. Some examples are ''cooee'', ''yarn'' and ''Hard yakka''. The former is a high-pitched call (pronounced {{IPA|/kʉː.iː/}}) which travels long distances and is used to attract attention. ''Cooee'' has also become a notional distance: ''if he's within cooee, we'll spot him''. ''Yarn'' means to chat or tell a story. This has further evolved into ''spin a yarn'' for telling a long and engaging tale. ''Hard yakka'' means ''hard work'' and is derived from ''yakka'', from the [[Yagara]]/[[Jagara]] language once spoken in the Brisbane region. Also from the Brisbane region comes the word ''bung'' meaning broken. A failed piece of equipment might be described as having ''gone bung''. Though often thought of as an Aboriginal word, [[didgeridoo]] (a well known wooden musical instrument) is probably an [[onomatopoeia|onomatopaoeic]] word of Western invention. It has also been suggested that it may have an [[Irish language|Irish]] derivation.[http://www.flinders.edu.au/news/articles/?fj09v13s02] ==Varieties of Australian English== Most linguists consider that there are three main varieties of Australian English: "'''Broad'''", "'''General'''" and "'''Cultivated'''". These three main varieties are actually part of a continuum and are based on variations in accent. They often, but not always, reflect the [[social class]] and/or [[education]]al background of the speaker. ====Broad Australian English==== Broad Australian English is the [[archetype|archetypal]] and most recognisable variety and is familiar to English speakers around the world, because of its use in identifying Australian characters in non-Australian [[film]]s and [[television]] programs. In reality it is less common than General Australian English. Broad Australian English is recognisable by a certain nasal [[drawl]] and the prevalence of long [[diphthong]]s. Broad Australian English is more likely to be encountered when travelling farther away from the capital cities. ====General Australian English==== General Australian English is the [[stereotype|stereotypical]] variety of Australian English. It is the variety of English used by the majority of Australians and it dominates the accents found in contemporary Australian-made films and television programs, such as ''[[Neighbours]]''. This variety has noticeably shorter vowel sounds than Broad Australian English, among other differences. There is perhaps a trend towards General Australian away from the extremes. ====Cultivated Australian English==== Cultivated Australian English (CAE) has many similarities to [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Received Pronunciation]], and is often mistaken for it. CAE is now spoken by less than 10% of the population. An overwhelmingly large and growing majority of Australians now have either General or Broad accents. One effect of this is that the speech of people like [[Alexander Downer]], the [[Minister for Foreign Affairs (Australia)|Minister for Foreign Affairs]] is mocked as sounding "[[wiktionary:affected|affected]]", "[[wiktionary:snobby|snobby]]" or "[[wiktionary:aloof|aloof]]", when his accent is simply an example of CAE, reinforced by the fact that he completed his secondary schooling at a [[public school]] in England and went to university there. CAE was once common among public figures in Australia. ====Examples of Broad, General and Cultivated Australian accents==== Examples of each include the normal speaking voices of the following identities: '''Broad''' *Prime Minister [[Bob Hawke]] *actor [[Bryan Brown]] *actor [[Paul Hogan (actor)|Paul Hogan]] *television personality [[Steve Irwin]] *television/stage character [[Dame Edna Everage]] <!-- Note: Edna may believe that she has a cultivated or general Australian accent, but listen to her vowels. --> '''General''' *Prime Minister [[John Howard]] *actress [[Nicole Kidman]] *actor [[Hugh Jackman]] *actor [[Russell Crowe]] *actor [[Jesse Spencer]] '''Cultivated''' *actress [[Judy Davis]] *Prime Minister [[Malcolm Fraser]] *actor [[Geoffrey Rush]] *opera singer [[Dame Joan Sutherland]] *comedian/actor [[Barry Humphries]] ===Regional variation=== It is sometimes claimed that regional variations in pronunciation and accent exist, but if present at all they are very small compared to those of British and American English &ndash; sufficiently so that linguists are divided on the question. Overall, pronunciation is determined less by region than by social and educational influences. ====Regional vocabulary==== There is, however, some variation in Australian English vocabulary between different regions. An example often cited by linguists is the variety of names given by Australians to bland, processed [[pork]] products &ndash; known in other countries as pork [[luncheon meat]] or [[baloney]] &ndash; is so great, that these words are used by linguists to ascertain not only which Australian state or territory a person is from, but also regional origin within states in some cases. For example, in [[South Australia]] (SA) this product is known as ''fritz'', for most people in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] (Vic) it is ''stras'', in most of [[New South Wales]] (NSW) it is ''devon'', in [[Western Australia]] (WA) ''polony'', in [[Queensland]] (Qld) ''windsor'' (''"devon"'' is also used), in [[Tasmania]] (Tas) ''belgium'', and so on. (See [[Australian_words#Processed_pork|Australian words for processed pork]], for more details.) Regional variation does not respect [[States and territories of Australia|state borders]], and this is shown, for example, by the fact that both Queenslanders and people from northern New South Wales say ''port'' (short for [[Portmanteau (travelling case)|portmanteau]]) while people in the other states say ''case'', ''school bag'', ''backpack'' and/or ''knapsack''. In the past variation was so strong that the residents of the NSW town of [[Maitland, New South Wales|Maitland]] would use the word port where [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]], some 20 kilometres away, would prefer the latter term. There is also great variety in the names of beer glasses from one area to another. For example, a standard 285ml (10 fl.oz.) glass, in different states or regions, is known as a ''middy'' (NSW/WA/[[Australian Capital Territory|ACT]]), ''pot'' (Vic/Qld/Tas), ''handle'' (NT/SA), ''ten'' (SA/Tas) or ''schooner'' (SA). Such variation causes great confusion, especially since a schooner is a 425 ml (15 fl.oz.) glass in every state that uses the word except SA. (See [[Australian_words#Beer_glasses|Australian words for beer glasses]] for a full list.) Although swimwear is known as ''bathers'' in most areas, people in NSW and Queensland do not conform, preferring terms such as ''swimmers'', ''cossie'' or ''togs'' (see [[Australian_words#Swimwear|Australian words for swimwear]]). Another example is the word ''tuckshop'' which is used in Queensland and northern NSW to describe a food outlet on school premises; the word ''canteen'' is now more common in other areas of Australia, although tuckshop may occasionally be used in those areas as well. There are many regional variations for describing [[social class]]es or [[subculture]]s. The best example is probably ''[[bogan]]'' (fairly universal), which is also referred to as ''bevan'' in Queensland<!---removed ", ''westie'' around Sydney," "westie" is not synonymous with "bogan" ---> and ''booner'' in the ACT. The differences are not restricted to words. For example, it is often said that people from some parts of [[Queensland]] end sentences with the interrogative "''eh''?" (or "''hay?''", "''hey''", and so on), although this is also common in both [[New Zealand English]] and [[Canadian English]]. The steadily increasing centralisation of film, TV and radio production, however, may be spreading new words more rapidly and blurring such distinctions. {{see also|South Australian English|Western Australian English}} =====Sport variations===== Many regional variations are as a result of the Australian passion for sport and the differences in non-linguistic traditions from one state to another: the word ''[[football]]'' refers to the most popular code of football in different States or regions, or even ethnic groups within them. [[Victoria (Australia)|Victorians]] start a game of [[Australian rules football]] with a ''ball up'', [[Western Australia]]ns with a ''bounce down''; [[New South Wales|New South Welsh]] people and [[Queensland]]ers start a game of [[Rugby League]] or [[Rugby Union]] with a ''kick off'', as do [[football (soccer)|soccer]] fans across Australia. In the early 21st century the [[Football Federation Australia| national governing body for football (soccer)]] attempted to foster use of "football" to mean soccer, in accordance with general international usage. It is yet to be seen whether this will spead into the mainstream, however it is important to note that several media outlets have adopted the use of the word football in accordance with this. The Australian slang word ''footy'' has been traditionally associated with the native code of Australian rules football. The word has also been adopted to a lesser degree by rugby league followers, following directly from the association of the word to describe the most popular football code. Examples in popular culture includes the [[The Footy Show]]. More recently it has been adopted in other countries in reference to other codes, such as the UK (soccer) and New Zealand (rugby union). For many Australian rules followers, the verb ''barrack'' (or the accompanying noun form ''barracker''), is used to describe following a team or club. (In New South Wales and Queensland the term ''support'' or ''supporter'' is generally used instead.) Barrack has its origins in British English, although in the UK it now usually means to jeer or denigrate an opposing team or players. The expression "root (or rooting) for a team", as used in the United States, is not generally used in Australia as ''root'' (or rooting) is slang for [[sexual intercourse]]. ==Phonology== {{main|Australian English phonology}} Australian English is a [[Rhotic and non-rhotic accents|non-rhotic]] variety. It is unique in its remarkable homogeneity over a vast area. Unlike most varieties of English, it has a [[vowel length|phonemic length distinction]]. It has a reasonably standard consonant inventory. {{see also|Phonemic differentiation}} ===Myths about Australian accents=== Australian English is sometimes described as high-pitched, nasal, lazy or drawling. The claims of high pitch and nasality are not entirely true, as many Australian English speakers perceive much of American English to be nasal, while laziness and drawling are impossible to test objectively. Similarly, stereotypes of Australian speech as having a "rising tone" or "questioning intonation", known in linguistics as [[high rising terminal]], are not entirely justified by the empirical evidence. Many Australians' speech patterns do not conform to this stereotype, and the "questioning intonation" can be found in many regional speech patterns, such as those in the south of England, Northern Ireland, and even North America. ==Use of words by Australians== Perception has it that a common trait is the frequent use of long-winded [[simile|similes]], such as "slow as a wet week", "built like a brick shit-house", "mad as a cut snake", "up and down like a bride's nightie", "dry as a dead dingo's donger", "off like prawns in the sun", "sweating like a pig on fire", or "flat out like a lizard drinking". Moreover, several such expressions are common in many parts of the English-speaking world and are only perceived as uniquely Australian by Australians. Many Australians believe themselves to be direct in manner, and this is typified by statements such as "why call a spade a spade, when you can call it a bloody shovel". Such sentiments can lead to misunderstandings and offence being caused to people from cultures where an emphasis is placed on avoiding conflict, such as people from [[East Asia]]. Spoken Australian English is generally more tolerant of offensive and/or abusive language than other variants. A famous exponent was the former [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] [[Paul Keating]], who referred in [[Parliament of Australia|Parliament]] to various political opponents as a "mangy maggot", a "stupid foul-mouthed grub", and so on. He drew ire from then Malaysian leader [[Mahathir Mohammed]] for calling him a "recalcitrant". This tradition was continued by fellow [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] [[Member_of_parliament|MP]] [[Mark Latham]] who, in 2002, unapologetically described a visit by Prime Minister [[John Howard]] to [[George W. Bush]] as "an arse-licking effort". The widespread desire among Australians to avoid pomposity, leading to a rejection of even formal or dignified speech, is sometimes seen as reflecting a suspicion of success in general, a phenomenon sometimes known as the [[tall poppy syndrome]], another term widely used in the English speaking world but perceived by many Australians to be a local coinage. ===Humour=== An important aspect of Australian English usage, inherited in small part from Britain and Ireland, is the use of [[deadpan humour]], in which a person will make extravagant, outrageous and/or ridiculous statements in a neutral tone, and without explicitly indicating they are joking. Tourists seen to be gullible and/or lacking a sense of humour may be subjected to tales of kangaroos hopping across the [[Sydney Harbour Bridge]] and similar tall tales. (See also [[Drop Bear]].) ===Diminutives=== Australian English makes far more frequent use of [[diminutive]]s than other varieties of English. These which can be formed in a number of ways such as adding ''-o'' or ''-ie'' to the ends of abbreviated words. They can be used to indicate familiarity, although in many [[speech community|speech communities]] the diminutive form is more common than the original word or phrase. Examples with the -o ending include ''abo'' (aborigine, now considered offensive), ''arvo'' (afternoon), ''doco'' (documentary), ''servo'' (service station, known in other countries as a "petrol station" or "gas station"), ''bottle-o'' (bottle-shop or liquor store), ''rego'' (still pronounced with a {{IPA|/&#676;/}}) (annual motor vehicle registration), ''compo'' (compensation), ''leso'' or ''lesbo'' (lesbian, also offensive, pronounced with a {{IPA|/z/}}), ''ambo'' (ambulance officer). [[The Salvation Army]] is often referred to as "The Salvos". The city of [[Fremantle, Western Australia|Fremantle]] is known by many of its inhabitants as ''Freo''. [[Filipino people|Filipino]] youth in Australia refer to themselves as being a ''Filo'', a word not used by [[Filipino American]]s. Examples of the -ie ending include ''barbie'' (barbecue), ''bikkie'' (biscuit), ''bikie'' (member of a motorcycle club), ''brekkie'' (breakfast), ''blowie'' (blowfly), ''brickie'' (brick layer), ''mozzie'' (mosquito), and ''pollie'' (politician). The city of [[Brisbane]] is often called ''Brissie'' (pronounced with a {{IPA|/z/}}). Occasionally, a ''-za'' diminutive is used, usually for personal names where the first of multiple syllables ends in an "r". Karen becomes ''Kazza'' and Jeremy becomes ''Jezza''. Also popular and common is the ''-z'' diminutive form (also found in British English) whereby Karen becomes ''Kaz'' and so on. Other diminutive forms include: * last one or two syllables, prefaced with a [[definite article]]: for example, ''The Gabba'' for the [[Brisbane Cricket Ground]] at [[Woolloongabba, Queensland|Woolloongabba]]; ''The Gong'' for [[Wollongong]]. * first syllable plus "-s": ''turps'' [[turpentine]] (usually referring to drinking alcohol, e.g. "a night on the turps") or [[Ian Turpie]]; Gabs, pet form of [[List of English given names|Gabrielle]]. * first syllable plus "-ers": ''Honkers'' ([[Hong Kong]]). ===Rarely Used Phrases=== Because of the caricaturised over-use, or "Hollywoodisation", of some phrases attributed to Australians, some of these have dropped out of common conversation (at least in most urban areas). Words being used less often are ''strewth'' and ''crikey'', and archetypal phrases like ''Flat out like a lizard drinking'' are rarely heard without a sense of irony. Other terms were never used in the first place. The much-quoted line "''[[Shrimp_on_the_barbie|Throw another shrimp on the barbie]]''" was a phrase that has never been used by Australians, but was a concoction of the Australian Tourist Commission for a US advertisement for tourism to Australia. "[[Shrimp]]" is an international English term — they are called [[prawns]] in Australia. ==See also== *[[Australian Aboriginal English]] *[[International Phonetic Alphabet for English]] *[[IPA chart for English]] *[[Nickname]] ==References== *{{cite journal | author=Harrington, J., F. Cox, and Z. Evans | title=An acoustic phonetic study of broad, general, and cultivated Australian English vowels | journal=Australian Journal of Linguistics | year=1997 | volume=17 | pages=155&ndash;84}} *Mitchell, Alexander G., 1995, ''The Story of Australian English'', Sydney: Dictionary Research Centre. *Peters, Pam. (1986) "Spelling principles", In: Peters, Pam, ed., Style in Australia: Current Practices in Spelling, Punctuation, Hyphenation, Capitlisation, etc., * ''The So Called "American Spelling." Its Consistency Examined.'' pre-1900 pamphlet, Sydney, E. J. Forbes. Quoted by Annie Potts in [http://www.bikwil.zip.com.au/Vintage19/Webster's-Dictionary.html this article] ==External links== *[http://www.anu.edu.au/ANDC/ Australian National Dictionary Centre] *[http://abc.net.au/wordmap/ ABC.net Australian Word Map] *[http://www.ling.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/topics.html Introduction to Australian Phonetics and Phonology] *[http://www.macquariedictionary.com.au/ Macquarie Dictionary] *[http://www.world-english.org/ World English Organisation] *[http://www.nma.gov.au/play/aussie_english_for_the_beginner/ Aussie English for beginners -- the origins, meanings and a quiz to test your knowledge] at the National Museum of Australia. [[Category:Australian English| ]] [[Category:English language]] [[Category:Forms of English]] [[Category:English dialects]] [[Category:Sociolinguistics]] [[de:Australisches Englisch]] [[he:אנגלית אוסטרלית]] [[sv:Australisk engelska]] 1898 41644173 2006-02-28T19:26:51Z Ummit 328950 /* See also */ * [[Australian and New Zealand Army Corps]], the name used to describe the combination of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps during wartime * [[Anzac biscuit]], a traditional Australian biscuit * [[Anzac class frigate]], class of frigate currently used by the Royal Australian Navy and Royal New Zealand Navy * [[ANZAC Day]], a public holiday on the 25th of April every year to commemorate the landing at Gallipoli * [[ANZAC spirit]], a component of modern Australasian mythology describing the spirit of mateship and cheerful suffering amongst Australians * [[Anzac (Currency)]], a proposed name for a combined Australian and New Zealand currency ==See also== * [[HMAS Anzac]] for a list of Royal Australian Navy ships bearing the name ''Anzac'' {{disambig}} 1899 41529422 2006-02-27T23:38:53Z 64.216.18.180 {{Sep11}} '''American Airlines Flight 11''' was an [[American Airlines]] flight aboard a [[Boeing 767-223ER]] [[aircraft]], registration number N334AA. Flight 11 regularly flew from [[Logan International Airport]] in [[East Boston, Massachusetts|East Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], to [[Los Angeles International Airport]]. On [[September 11]], [[2001]], the aircraft on this route was [[Aircraft hijacking|hijacked]] in a [[September 11, 2001 attacks|terrorist attack]]; the hijackers crashed into the [[One World Trade Center tenants|North Tower]] of the [[World Trade Center]] in [[New York City]]. [[Image:911 commission AA11 path.png|thumb|left|AA 11 flight path from Boston to New York City.]] The regularly scheduled flight took off from Logan International Airport at 7:59 a.m., and the plane is believed to have been hijacked at 8:14. At around that time, when the plane stopped responding to [[air traffic control]], the [[Federal Aviation Administration]] had thought the plane had been hijacked. By 8:25, there was no doubt. There were five hijackers believed to have participated in the hijacking. [[Mohamed Atta al Sayed]], the ringleader and pilot, was in seat 8D. [[Satam al-Suqami]], who had paid in cash that day, sat in seat 10B. [[Waleed al-Shehri]] sat in seat 2B, while [[Wail al-Shehri]] sat next to him in seat 2A. [[Abdulaziz al-Omari]], who had earlier flown with Atta to Logan Airport from Portland, Maine, was also on this flight. Some information about what had happened on board was sent by flight attendants on the plane. According to [[Madeline Amy Sweeney]] and [[Betty Ong]], three people&ndash;two attendants and a passenger&ndash;were stabbed or had their throats slashed by the hijackers. The passenger, [[Daniel M. Lewin|Daniel Lewin]], a notable [[Internet]] [[entrepreneur]], had also previously served as an officer in the elite [[Sayeret Matkal]] unit of the [[Israeli Defense Forces|Israeli military]]. A 2002 [[FAA]] memo referenced Lewin as possibly being killed by [[Satam al-Suqami]] after he attempted to stop the hijacking. The first-class area had been sequestered by the surviving crew, and the rest of the passengers had been led to believe that a medical emergency was taking place in the first class area. The hijackers also used [[mace (spray)|mace]], [[pepper spray]], or some other [[aerosol spray]]-based [[tear gas|irritant]] to discourage entry into the first class area and the cockpit. One reported that her eyes were burning and that she was having trouble breathing. The hijackers claimed to have a bomb, although there is no evidence they actually had an explosive device. At 8:46:40 a.m., Flight 11 was deliberately crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center between the 94th and 98th floors. This was the first crash in the attacks of the day. The plane was carrying 81 passengers (including the five hijackers) and 11 crew. All on board were killed, along with many hundreds in the building, and the tower later collapsed, killing hundreds more. Although the impact itself caused extensive structural damage, it was the long-lasting fire, starting with burning jet fuel, which is blamed for the structural failure of the North Tower. Many have speculated that this is why the hijackers chose to use this fully fueled transcontinental flight. The centralized-support design (in the center core and exterior walls, instead of throughout) of the towers also contributed to the collapse. In a later recording, [[Osama bin Laden]] seemed to take credit for the attack, and stated that he did not expect the towers would collapse. The [[flight route designation]] (flight number) for future flights on the same route at the same takeoff time was changed to "Flight 25," to disassociate other planes from the one used in the attack and out of respect for those who had died in the attack. An American flag now flies on the jet bridge that Flight 11 departed from at Logan Airport. The pilot on the flight was John Ogonowski, 52, of Dracut, Massachusetts. ==Initial Suspects== *[[Adnan Bukhari]] *[[Ameer Bukhari]] *[[Amer Kamfar]] ==External links== *[http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report] *[http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=complete_911_timeline&day_of_911=aa11 AA Flight 11: Minute by Minute] *[[:sep11:American Airlines Flight 11 victims|American Airlines Flight 11 manifest]] [[Category:September 11, 2001 attacks]] [[fr:Vol 11 d'American Airlines]] 1902 41530274 2006-02-27T23:45:03Z 64.216.18.180 [[Image:Pentagonfireball.jpg|230px|thumb|right|Security Camera image of the moment that American Airlines Flight 77 hit the [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]].]] {{Sep11}} '''[[American Airlines]] Flight 77''' was a morning flight that routinely flew from [[Washington Dulles International Airport]] in [[Fairfax County, Virginia|Fairfax]] and [[Loudoun County, Virginia|Loudoun Counties, Virginia]], near [[Washington, D.C.]], to [[Los Angeles International Airport]] (IAD-LAX). On [[September 11]], [[2001]], the [[Boeing 757-223]], N644AA, was hijacked as part of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11 attacks]]. The hijackers were reported to have been [[Khalid al-Mihdhar]], [[Majed Moqed]], [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]], [[Salem al-Hazmi]], and the suicide pilot [[Hani Hanjour]]. The flight was scheduled to depart at 8:10 AM EDT, but actually departed at 8:20. It was later determined that three of the hijackers had been stopped before boarding the flight because they failed the metal detector test, but were nonetheless allowed to enter the plane. [[Image:911 commission AA77 path.png|thumb|left|AA 77 flight path from Dulles to Pentagon (to east of Dulles).]] The flight was probably hijacked between 8:51 to 8:54. The assailants used knives and box-cutters to gain entrance to the [[cockpit]]. By 8:56, the flight was turned around, and the [[transponder]] had been disabled. The [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] was aware at this point that there was an emergency aboard the plane. (By this time, [[American Airlines Flight 11]] had already crashed into the [[World Trade Center]], and [[United Airlines flight 175]] was known to have been hijacked as well.) According to the 9/11 Commission Report, two passengers made phone calls to contacts on the ground. At 9:12, passenger Renee May was reported to have called her mother, Nancy May, in Las Vegas. She said her flight was being hijacked by six individuals and they had been moved to the rear of the plane. [[Barbara K. Olson]], another passenger, called her husband, [[United States Solicitor General]] [[Theodore Olson]] at the [[Justice Department]] twice to tell him about the hijacking and to report that the passengers and pilots were held in the back of the plane. After the call was cut off, Theodore Olson tried unsuccessfully to contact [[Attorney General]] [[John Ashcroft]]. Flight 77 crashed into the western side of [[The Pentagon]] in [[Arlington County, Virginia]], just south of [[Washington, D.C.]] at 9:37 AM EDT, killing all of its 58 passengers (including the hijackers) and 6 crew (but see [[#Disputes about the final destination of Flight 77|Disputes]] below). The section of the Pentagon hit consisted mainly of recently renovated, unoccupied offices, and was damaged by the crash and the ensuing violent fire. The crash and subsequent fire penetrated three outer ring sections of the western side. The outermost ring section was largely destroyed, and a large section collapsed. One hundred twenty-five people in the Pentagon died from the attack. After the crash, the [[flight route designation]] for future flights on the same route was renumbered Flight 149. Among American Airlines Flight 77 were 3 young schoolchildren, embarking on an educational trip to the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary near Santa Barbara, California, as part of a program funded by the National Geographic Society. The student names were Bernard Brown, 11, Asia Cotton, 11, and Rodney Dickens, also 11 years old. Their chaperones; Sarah Clark, 65; James Debeuneure, 58; Ann Judge, 45; Hilda Taylor and Joe Ferguson also died. In total 5 passengers were under 12 years old. ==Disputes about the final destination of Flight 77== {{main|9/11 conspiracy theories#The Pentagon}} Some dispute the claim that Flight 77 struck the Pentagon. Claims that the Pentagon was not hit by a Boeing 757 have been raised based on photographs taken from the highway (hundreds of feet from the building) in which there is a seeming lack of debris and a lack of damage to the building or the lawn. Those who believe that the Pentagon was not hit by a Boeing 757 allege that no pieces of a commercial aircraft were found, that the footage was confiscated, and other factors. However, many of these claims have been refuted[http://911review.com/errors/pentagon/index.html],[http://911research.wtc7.net/essays/pentagontrap.html],[http://www.oilempire.us/pentagon.html]. Additionally, all of these theories must by definition ignore most of the [http://eric.bart.free.fr/iwpb/witness.html over 100 eyewitness testimonies] documented online which describe a commercial jet impacting the building. None of these theories account for the fate of the aircraft after the above mentioned in-flight calls made by the passengers to their loved ones describing the hijacking. Though some express doubts concerning the ability of making a successful cellphone call above 30,000 ft, others point out that cell phones are regularly used on private and corporate planes thousands of times every day without incident. ==External links== * [[:sep11:Casualties of the September 11, 2001 attacks: plane passengers|Flight manifest for American Airlines flight 77]] * [[sep11:American Airlines flight 77|Memorial wiki tribute to those killed in this flight]] (with flight manifest) *[http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=complete_911_timeline&day_of_911=aa77 CooperativeResearch.org] - 'Project: Complete 911 Timeline' (Open-Content project) *[http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html GPOAccess.gov] - 'The 9-11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, Official Government Edition' [[2005]]) *[http://www.oilempire.us/pentagon.html Oilempire.us] - A list of detailed analyses that argue for complicity but against the "no plane" claims. [[Category:History of Virginia]] [[Category:September 11, 2001 attacks]] [[fr:Vol 77 d'American Airlines]] [[id:American Airlines Penerbangan 77]] 1903 15900363 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Jiang 10049 moved to "American_Airlines_Flight_77" #REDIRECT [[American_Airlines_Flight_77]] 1904 15900364 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Jiang 10049 moved to "American_Airlines_Flight_11" #REDIRECT [[American_Airlines_Flight_11]] 1905 41072536 2006-02-24T21:51:26Z 4.154.243.30 :''For the [[Avalon Hill]] board game, see [[Ambush!]].'' :''For the [[breakcore]] record label, see [[Ambush records]].'' An '''ambush''' is a long established [[military tactics|military tactic]] in which an ambushing force uses [[concealment]] to attack an enemy that passes its position. Ambushers strike from concealed positions such as among dense [[underbrush]] or behind [[hill]]tops. The [[tactic]] is generally used to gather intelligence or to establish control over an area. Ambushes have been used consistently throughout history, from [[ancient warfare|ancient]] to [[modern warfare|modern]] [[warfare]]. ==Procedure== In modern warfare, an ambush is most often employed by ground troops up to [[platoon]] size against enemy targets which may be other ground troops or possibly vehicles. During ancient warfare, an ambush often might involve thousands of soldiers on a large scale, such as over a [[mountain pass]]. ===Planning=== Ambushes are complex multi-phase operations and are therefore usually planned in some detail. First a suitable ''killing zone'' is identified. This is the place where the ambush will be laid. It is generally a place where enemy units are expected to pass, and which gives reasonable cover for the deployment, execution, and extraction phases of the ambush patrol. A path along a wooded valley floor would be a stereotypical example. ===Preparation=== To be successful an ambush patrol must deploy into the area covertly, ideally under the cover of darkness. The patrol will establish secure and covert positions overlooking the ''killing zone''. Usually, two or more ''cut off'' groups will be sent out a short distance from the main ambushing group into similarly covert positions. Their job is twofold; firstly to give the ambush commander early-warning of approaching enemy (usually by radio), and secondly, when the ambush is initiated, to prevent any enemy from escaping. Another group will cover the rear of the ambush position and thus give [[all round defence]] to the ambush patrol. Care must be taken by the ambush commander to ensure that fire from any weapon cannot inadvertently hit any other friendly unit. ===Waiting=== Having set the ambush, the next phase is to wait. This could be for a few hours or a few days depending on the tactical and supply situation. It is obviously much harder for an ambush patrol to remain covert and alert if sentry rosters, shelter, sleeping, sanitary arrangements, food and water, have to be considered. Ambush patrols will almost always have to be self-sufficient as re-supply would not be possible without compromising their covert position. ===Execution=== The arrival of an enemy in the area should be signalled by one of the cut-off units. This may be done by radio or by some other signal, but the enemy must not detect the signal. The ambush commander will have given a clear instruction for initiating the ambush. This might be a burst from an automatic [[weapon]], use of an explosive device (such as a [[claymore mine]]or other directonal weapon), or possibly a simple whistle blast. When the ambush commander judges that the ambush will be most effective he gives the signal. After the [[firefight]] has been won, the now compromised ambush patrol will need to leave the area as soon as it is practical to do so. Before this is done it is a common practice to clear the killing zone by checking bodies for intelligence, taking prisoners, and treating any enemy wounded. If communication orders permit, a brief contact report may be sent. This done, the ambush patrol will leave the area by a pre-determined route. ==See also== * [[sniper]] * [[List of military tactics]] [[Category:Military tactics]] [[da:Baghold]] [[de:Hinterhalt]] [[fr:embuscade]] [[io:Embusko]] 1906 15900366 2003-09-18T12:14:21Z Ap 122 redirect [[Aberration of light]] #REDIRECT [[Aberration of light]] 1908 33648317 2006-01-02T22:34:45Z FlaBot 228773 robot Adding: de An '''abzyme''' (from [[antibody]] and [[enzyme]]), also called ''catmab'' (from ''catalytic monoclonal antibody''), is a [[monoclonal antibody]] with [[catalytic activity]]. Molecules which are modified to gain new catalytic activity are called [[synzymes]]. Abzymes are usually artificial constructs, but are also found in normal humans (anti-vasoactive intestinal peptide autoantibodies) and in patients with the [[autoimmune disease]] systemic [[lupus erythematosus]], where they can bind and hydrolyze [[DNA]]. Abzymes are potential tools in [[biotechnology]], e.g., to perform specific actions on DNA. Enzymes function by lowering the activation energy of the transition state, thereby catalyzing the formation of an otherwise-less-favorable molecular intermediate between reactants and products. If an antibody is developed to a stable molecule that's similar to an unstable intermediate of another (potentially unrelated) reaction, the developed antibody will enzymatically bind to and stabilize the intermediate state, thus catalyzing the reaction. Source: Vevek Parikh - Biochem Dept., Univ. of Miami. {{biochem-stub}} [[de:Abzyme]] 1909 40670588 2006-02-22T04:46:05Z 66.73.160.177 '''Adaptive radiation''' describes the rapid [[speciation]] of a single or a few [[species]] to fill many [[ecological niche]]s. This is an [[evolution]]ary process driven by [[mutation]] and [[natural selection]]. Adaptive radiation often occurs when a species is introduced to a new [[ecosystem]], or when a species can survive in an [[natural environment|environment]] that was unreachable before. For example, 14 species of [[Darwin's finch]]es on the [[Galapagos islands]] developed from a single species of [[finch]]es that reached the islands. Other examples include anoles of the Caribbean islands, Hawaiian silverswords and picture-winged fruit flies, the development of the first [[bird]]s, which suddenly were able to expand their [[territory]] into the air, or the development of [[lung fish]] during the [[Devonian period]], about 300 million years ago. Another example of adaptive radiation is the diversity within Phylum [[Mollusca]]. The dynamics of adaptive radiation are such that, within a relatively short time, many species derive from a single or a few ancestor species. The rise and fall of new species is now progressing very slowly, compared to the initial outburst of species. There are three basic types of adaptive radiation. They are : # '''General adaptation.''' A species that develops a radically new ability can reach new parts of its environment. An example of general adaptation is bird flight. # '''Environmental change.''' A species that can, in contrast to the other species in the ecosystem, successfully survive in a radically changed environment will probably branch into new species that cover the new ecological niches created by the environmental change. An example of adaptive radiation as the result of an environmental change is the rapid spread and development of [[mammal]]ian species after the extinction of the dinosaurs. # '''[[Archipelago]]es.''' Isolated [[ecosystem]]s, such as islands and mountain areas, can be colonized by a new species which upon establishing itself undergoes rapid divergent evolution. [[Darwin's finches]] are examples of adaptive radiation occurring in an archipelago. In [[science fiction]] sometimes adaptive radiation of [[human]]s is imagined. This often makes for interesting multi-species [[science fiction universe|worlds]]. ==References== *Wilson, E. et al. ''Life on Earth,'' by Wilson,E.; Eisner,T.; Briggs,W.; Dickerson,R.; Metzenberg,R.; O'brien,R.; Susman,M.; Boggs,W.; (Sinauer Associates, Inc., Publishers, Stamford, Connecticut), c 1974. Chapters: ''The Multiplication of Species; Biogeography,'' pp 824-877. 40 Graphs, w species pictures, also Tables, Photos, etc. Includes '''[[Galapagos Islands]], [[Hawaii]], and Australia subcontinent,''' (plus [[St. Helena]] Island, etc.). [[Category:Speciation]] [[de:Adaptive Radiation]] [[es:Radiación adaptativa]] [[ja:適応放散]] [[nl:Adaptieve radiatie]] [[pl:Radiacja adaptacyjna]] [[sk:Adaptívna radiácia]] 1910 37497532 2006-01-31T10:11:49Z SeventyThree 183256 /* References */ reformatting done, rm duplicates [[image:DNA Agarose Gel Electrophor.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Digital printout of an agarose gel electrophoresis of ''cat''-insert plasmid DNA]] '''Agarose gel electrophoresis''' is a method used in [[molecular biology]] to separate [[DNA]] strands by size, and to determine the size of the separated strands by comparison to strands of known length. Similarly, in [[proteomics|proteomics research]], this method is also used to separate and quantify proteins based on their charge and size. Electrophoresis uses a mechanism similar to sifting objects through a sieve. In the case of DNA-based gel electrophoresis, an [[electric field]] is used to push negatively charged DNA molecules through a gel matrix. Shorter, more compact DNA molecules move faster than longer, more convoluted ones since they are able to slip through the matrix more easily. The same general principal applies to protein separation although more variables exist to determine how a protein will run through a gel. DNA-based gel electrophoresis can be used for the separation of DNA fragments of 50 [[base pair]]s up to several megabases (millions of bases). Large DNA molecules are only able to move end on in a process called "reptation" and are more difficult to separate. In general the lower the concentration of agarose, the larger is the ideal size of a molecule to be resolved up to 750,000 bp. The disadvantage of lower concentrations is the long run times (sometimes days) and the problem of handling the fragile gel. The rate of migration is affected by a number of factors. The concentration of agarose is one that has been mentioned. The conformation of DNA is also a factor and is demonstrated by the forms of a [[plasmid]]: supercoiled, nicked, linear and single-stranded. Each conformation runs at a different rate, with supercoiled running the fastest and linear running the slowest. The presence of [[ethidium bromide]] (EtBr) in the gel causes DNA to run slower, as EtBr intercalates and uncoils DNA. EtBr has the unique property of fluorescing under UV light. By running DNA through an EtBr-treated gel and exposing it to UV light, distinct bands of DNA become visible. The voltage is also a factor in migration and can only be so high before a decrease in resolution (about 5 to 8 V/cm). Loading buffers are added with the DNA in order to visualize it and sediment it in the gel well. Negatively charged indicators keep track of the position of the DNA. Bromphenol Blue and Xylene cyanol FF are used and run at about 300 bp and 4 kbp respectively. There are a number of buffers used for agarose electrophoresis, but only two will be mentioned here: tris acetate [[EDTA]] (TAE), and [[sodium boride]] (SB). TAE has the lowest buffering capacity but provides the best resolution. This means a lower voltage and more time, but a better product. SB is relatively new and is ineffective in resolving fragments larger than 5kb but it has the highest buffering capacity allowing voltages up to 350 V<ref>Sambrook J, Russel DW (2001). Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual 3rd Ed. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. Cold Spring Harbor, NY.</ref><ref>Brody JR, Calhoun ES, Gallmeier E, Creavalle TD, Kern SE (2004). Ultra-fast high-resolution agarose electrophoresis of DNA and RNA using low-molarity conductive media. Biotechniques. 37:598-602. [http://www.biotechniques.com/default.asp?page=article_archive&subsection=article_display&id=101200415&prevpage=article_archive]</ref>. ==Material== For an agarose gel electrophoresis, several items are needed: * The DNA that is to be separated. * A [[DNA ladder]], a mixture of DNA fragments (usually 10-20) of known size. The size of the DNA strands that are separated is determined by comparison of their relative position to that of the DNA strands of the DNA ladder. There are several DNA ladder mixes commercially available. * [[Buffer solution]], usually [[TBE]] or TAE 0.5x, pH 8.0 * [[Agarose]] * [[Ethidium bromide]] (5.25 mg/ml in H₂O) * [[Nitrile]] gloves * A color marker containing a low [[molecular weight]] [[dye]] such as "[[bromophenol blue]]" (to enable tracking the progress of the electrophoresis) and glycerol (to make the DNA solution more dense so it will sink into the wells of the gel). * A gel rack * A "comb" (usually cut from a sheet of [[teflon]]) ==Preparation== There are several methods for preparing agarose gels. A common example is shown here. Other methods might differ in the buffering system used, the sample size to be loaded, the total volume of the gel (typically thickness is kept to a minimum while length and breadth are varied as needed), and whether the gel is prepared horizontally or vertically (the vast majority of agarose gels used in modern molecular biology are prepared and run horizontally). # Make a 1% agarose solution in 0.5x [[TBE]]. If you analyze small DNA strands, go up to 2%. Use 15-70 ml, depending on the size of the gel. # Boil solution, preferably in a [[microwave oven]]. # Let the solution cool down to about 60 °C at room temperature. Stir the solution while cooling. # Add 1 ul ethidium bromide per 10 ml gel solution. '''Wear gloves from here on, [[ethidium bromide]] is a potent [[mutagen]] ''(nitrile gloves recommended)'' !''' Some researchers prefer not to add ethidium bromide to the gel itself, instead soaking the gel in an ethidium bromide solution after running. # Stir the solution to disperse the ethidium bromide, then fill it into the gel rack. # Insert the comb at one side of the gel, about 5-10 mm from the border of the gel. # When the gel has cooled down and become solid, remove the comb. The holes that remain in the gel are the slots. # Put the gel, together with the rack, into a chamber with 0.5x TBE. Make sure the gel is completely covered with TBE, and that the slots are at the electrode that will have the negative current. # Add the color marker to the DNA ladder is usually already stained. '''''for more information on ethidium bromide safety see references <ref>States, Kelly M. (2003). Ethidium Bromide in [http://web.princeton.edu/sites/ehs/chemwaste/WastePaper/0302.htm ''The Waste-Paper:The Hazardous Waste Disposal Monthly Update'']. Retrieved 2005-01-31.</ref>,<ref name=Wisconsin>Office of Biological Safety, Univ. of Wisconsin (Madison) (2003). Ethidium Bromide: Alternatives and Safe Handling in [http://www2.fpm.wisc.edu/biosafety/bioside_lines/bioside_lines_04_2003.htm ''BioSide Lines:The Newsletter of the UW Office of Biological Safety'']. Retrieved 2005-01-31.</ref>,<ref>Environmental Health and Safety at The Scripps Research Intititute (1999). WILL YOUR GLOVES PROTECT YOU? in [http://www.scripps.edu/researchservices/ehs/News/safetygram/sg1999/sg1999b.html ''Environmental Health & Safety:Second Quarter 1999''] Retrieved 2005-01-31.</ref>''''' '''''for information on alternatives to ethidium bromide see references <ref name=Wisconsin/>,<ref>Madden, Dean (2004 [last modified]). [http://www.bioscience-explained.org/EN1.2/schollar.html Safer stains for DNA]. Retrieved 2005-01-31.</ref>''''' ==Procedure== After the gel has been prepared, use a micropipette to inject about 25 µl of stained DNA (a DNA ladder is also highly recommended). Close the lid of the electrophoresis chamber and apply current (typically 100 V for 30 minutes with 15 ml of gel). The colored dye in the DNA ladder and DNA samples acts as a "front wave" that runs faster than the DNA itself. When the "front wave" approaches the end of the gel, the current is stopped. It is now possible to visualize the DNA (stained with ethidium bromide) with [[ultraviolet]] light. [[image:Agarose Gel Electrophoresis.png|frame|none|Figure 1: Schematic drawing of the electrophoresis process, see text for description of steps]] Steps: #The agarose gel with three slots (S). #Injection of DNA ladder ([[molecular weight]] markers) into the first slot. #DNA ladder injected. Injection of samples into the second and third slot. #A current is applied. The DNA moves toward the positive [[anode]] due to the negative charges on its [[phosphate]] backbone. #Small DNA strands move fast, large DNA strands move slowly through the gel. The DNA is not normally visible during this process, so the marker dye is added to the DNA to avoid the DNA being run entirely off the gel. The marker dye has a low molecular weight, and migrates faster than the DNA, so as long as the marker has not run past the end of the gel, the DNA will still be in the gel. #The DNA is spread over the whole gel. The electrophoresis process is finished. Illuminate the gel with an [[ultraviolet]] lamp (usually by placing it on a light box) to view the DNA bands - ethidium bromide [[fluorescence|fluoresces]] pink in the presence of DNA. Wear protective glasses! The DNA band can also be cut out of the gel, and can then be dissolved to retrieve the purified DNA. ==Analysis== Modern day gel electrophoresis research often leverages software-based image analysis tools, such as those used in [[two-dimensional gel electrophoresis]], or 2-DE. In [[proteomics|proteomics research]], these tools primarily analyze bio-markers by quantifying individual, and showing the separation between one or more protein "spots" on a scanned image of a 2-DE product. Additionally, these tools match spots between gels of similar samples to show, for example, proteomic differences between early and advanced stages of an illness. Two leading tools in this study are [http://www.bio-rad.com PDQuest] and [http://support.nonlinear.com/products/2d/progenesis.asp Progenesis Workstation]. While this technology is widely utilized, the intelligence has not been perfected yet. For example, while both of the aforementioned tools tend to agree on the quantification and analysis of well-defined well-separated protein spots, they deliver different results and tendencies with less-defined less-separated spots.<ref>Arora, Pankaj S., et al. (2005). Comparative evaluation of two two-dimensional gel electrophoresis image analysis software applications using synovial fluids from patients with joint disease. Journal of Orthopaedic Science 10(2):160-166. [http://www.springerlink.com/openurl.asp?genre=article&id=doi:10.1007/s00776-004-0878-0]</ref> == References == <references/> == See also == *[[SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis]] *[[Southern blot]] *[[Northern blot]] *[[PCR]] *[[Restriction endonuclease]] [[Category:Molecular biology]] [[Category:Laboratory techniques]] [[Category:Electrophoresis]] [[de:Agarose-Gelelektrophorese]] [[ja:アガロースゲル電気泳動]] 1911 41683399 2006-03-01T01:11:36Z ESkog 88149 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/67.83.116.136|67.83.116.136]] ([[User talk:67.83.116.136|talk]]) to last version by Vsmith An '''allele''' is any one of a number of viable DNA codings of the same [[gene]] (sometimes the term refers to a non-gene sequence) occupying a given [[locus]] (position) on a [[chromosome]]. An individual's [[genotype]] for that gene will be the set of alleles it happens to possess. In an organism which has two copies of each of its chromosomes (a [[diploid]] organism), two alleles make up the individual's genotype. An example is the gene for blossom color in many species of [[flower]] -- a single gene controls the color of the [[petals]], but there may be several different versions of the gene. One version might result in red petals, while another might result in white petals. The color of an individual flower will depend on which two alleles it possesses for this color gene, and how the two interact. Organisms that are [[diploid]] have paired [[homologous]] chromosomes in their [[somatic cell]]s, and these contain two copies of each gene. An organism in which the two copies of the gene are identical -- that is, have the same allele -- is said to be [[homozygote|homozygous]] for that gene. An organism which has two different alleles of the gene is said to be [[heterozygote|heterozygous]]. [[phenotype|Phenotypes]] (the expressed characteristics) associated with a certain allele can sometimes be [[dominant gene|dominant]] or [[recessive]], but often they are neither. A dominant phenotype will be expressed when only one allele of its associated type is present, whereas a recessive phenotype will only be expressed when both alleles are of its associated type. However, there are exceptions to the way heterozygotes express themselves in the phenotype. One exception is [[incomplete dominance]] (sometimes called [[blending inheritance]]) when alleles blend their traits in the phenotype. An example of this would be seen if, when crossing [[Antirrhinum]]s -- flowers with incompletely dominant "red" and "white" alleles for petal color -- the resulting offspring had pink petals. Another exception is [[co-dominance]], where both alleles are active and both traits are expressed at the same time; for example, both red and white petals in the same bloom or red and white flowers on the same plant. Codominance is also apparent in human [[blood type]]s. A person with one "A" blood type allele and one "B" blood type allele would have a blood type of "AB". A [[wild type]] allele is an allele which is considered to be "normal" for the organism in question, as opposed to a [[mutant]] allele which is usually a relatively new modification. (Note that with the advent of the study of [[genetic marker]]s, the term allele is often now used to refer to DNA codings in [[junk DNA]]. For example, the term [[allele frequency]] tables are often presented for genetic markers, such as the [[DYS (DNA)|DYS]] markers.) ==Equations== There are two simple equations for the frequency of two alleles of a given gene (see [[Hardy-Weinberg principle]]): Equation 1:<math>p^2+2pq+q^2=1</math> Equation 2: <math>p+q=1</math> Where p is the frequency of one allele and q is the frequency of the other allele. p² is the population fraction that is homozygous for the p allele, 2pq is the frequency of heterozygotes and q² is the population fraction that is homozygous for the q allele. [[Natural selection]] can act on p and q in Equation 1, and obviously affect the frequency of genes seen in Equation 2. It should be noted that the second equation can be derived from the first (or vice versa) since <math>p^2+2pq+q^2=1</math> implies <math>(p+q)^2=1</math> and p and q are positive numbers. ==See also== * [[Mendelian inheritance]] [[Category:Classical genetics]] [[cs:Alela]] [[da:Allel]] [[de:Allel]] [[es:Alelo]] [[fr:Allèle]] [[gl:Alelo]] [[he:אלל]] [[nl:Allel]] [[ja:対立遺伝子]] [[lv:Alēle]] [[pl:Allel]] [[pt:Alelo]] [[fi:Alleeli]] [[sv:Allel]] [[uk:Аллель]] [[vi:Allele]] [[it:Allele]] 1912 41589686 2006-02-28T09:38:47Z NongBot 817745 robot Adding: th [[Image:ampicillin.png|thumb|'''Ampicillin''' ([[Carbon|C]]₁₆[[Hydrogen|H]]₁₈[[Nitrogen|N]]₃[[Oxygen|O]]₄[[Sulfur|S]])]] '''Ampicillin''' (C₁₆H₁₈N₃O₄S ; [[CAS registry number|CAS No.]]: 69-53-4) is an [[aminopenicillin]] and, as such, is a broad-spectrum [[antibiotic]] and has been used extensively to treat [[bacterium|bacterial]] [[infection]]s since [[1961]]. It can sometimes result in allergic reactions that range in severity from a rash to potentially lethal [[anaphylaxis]]. Belonging to the group of [[beta-lactam]] antibiotics, ampicillin is able to penetrate [[Gram-negative]] bacteria. It inhibits the third and final stage of bacterial [[cell wall]] synthesis, which ultimately leads to cell [[lysis]]. Ampicillin is closely related to [[Amoxicillin]], another type of [[penicillin]], and both are used to treat [[urinary tract infections]], [[otitis media]], uncomplicated community acquired [[pneumonia]], [[Haemophilus influenzae]], invasive [[salmonella]] and [[Listeriosis|Listeria]] [[meningitis]]. It is used with [[Flucloxacillin]] in the combination antibiotic [[Co-fluampicil]] for [[empiric]] treatment of [[cellulitis]]; providing cover against [[Group A streptococcal infection]] whilst the Flucloxacillin acts against [[Staphylococcus aureus]]. Ampicillin is often used in [[molecular biology]] as a test for the uptake of [[gene]]s (e.g., by [[plasmid]]s) by bacteria (e.g., ''[[E. coli]]''). A gene that is to be inserted into a bacterium is coupled to a gene [[code for|coding for]] an ampicillin resistance (in ''E. coli'', usually the ''bla'' gene, coding for [[beta-lactamase|&beta;-lactamase]]). The treated bacteria are then grown on a medium containing ampicillin. Only the bacteria that successfully take up the desired genes become ampicillin resistant, and therefore contain the other desired gene as well. [[category:Beta-lactam antibiotics]] [[de:Ampicillin]] [[fr:Ampicilline]] [[hu:Ampicillin]] [[th:แอมพิซิลลิน]] 1913 39482612 2006-02-13T17:43:56Z Vsmith 84417 /* External links */ rmv spam '''Anneal''' may refer to: *[[Annealing (metallurgy)]], a heat treatment wherein the microstructure of a material is altered, causing changes in its properties such as strength and hardness. *[[Annealing (glass)]], heating a piece of glass until its temperature reaches a stress-relief point. *[[Annealing (biology)]], in genetics, DNA or RNA pairing by hydrogen bonds to a complementary sequence, forming a double-stranded polynucleotide. *[[Simulated annealing]], a technique for searching for a solution in a space otherwise too large for "ordinary" search methods to yield results. *[[Information annealing]] or knowledge annealing, in library and information science, is a network-based information system or body of knowledge in which all users of the system are permitted to change the system at will. {{disambig}} [[de:Anlassen]] [[fr:Recuit]] [[it:Ricottura]] [[nl:Gloeien (metallurgie)]] 1914 42033498 2006-03-03T09:45:37Z Tangotango 210997 Revert to revision 41974443 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] '''Antibiotic resistance''' is the ability of a [[microorganism]] to withstand the effects of an [[antibiotic]]. Antibiotic resistance naturally develops via [[natural selection]] through random [[mutation]] and [[plasmid]] exchange between [[bacterium|bacteria]] of the same [[species]]. Antibiotic resistance can also be introduced artificially into a microorganism through [[transformation (genetics)|transformation]] protocols. If a bacterium carries several resistance genes, it is called '''multiresistant''' or, informally, a '''superbug'''. ==Causes== Antibiotic resistance is a consequence of [[evolution]] via [[natural selection]]. The antibiotic action is an environmental pressure; those bacteria which have a mutation allowing them to survive will live on to reproduce. They will then pass this trait to their offspring, which will be a fully resistant generation. Several studies have demonstrated that patterns of antibiotic usage greatly affect the number of resistant organisms which develop. Overuse of [[broad-spectrum antibiotic]]s, such as second- and third-generation [[cephalosporin]]s, greatly hastens the development of methicillin resistance, even in organisms that have never been exposed to the selective pressure of methicillin ''per se''. [Thus the resistance was already present.] Other factors contributing towards resistance include incorrect diagnosis, unnecessary prescriptions, improper use of antibiotics by patients, and the use of antibiotics as livestock food additives for growth promotion. ==Resistant pathogens== ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' (colloquially known as "Staph aureus") is one of the major resistant pathogens. Found on the [[mucous membranes]] and the [[skin]] of around a third of the population, it is extremely adaptable to antibiotic pressure. It was the first bacterium in which [[penicillin]] resistance was found -- in 1947, just four years after the drug started being mass-produced. [[Methicillin]] was then the antibiotic of choice. MRSA ([[Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus|methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'']]) was first detected in Britain in 1961 and is now "quite common" in hospitals. MRSA was responsible for 37% of fatal cases of blood poisoning in the UK in 1999, up from 4% in 1991. Half of all ''S. aureus'' infections in the US are resistant to penicillin, methicillin, [[tetracycline]] and [[erythromycin]]. This left [[vancomycin]] as the only effective agent available at the time. However, VRSA ([[Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus|Vancomycin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'']]) was first identified in Japan in 1997, and has since been found in hospitals in England, France and the US. VRSA is also termed GISA (glycopeptide intermediate ''Staphylococcus aureus'') or VISA (vancomycin intermediate ''Staphylococcus aureus''), indicating resistance to all [[Glycopeptide antibiotic|glycopeptide]] antibiotics. A new class of antibiotics, [[Linezolid|oxazolidinone]]s, became available in the 1990s, and the first commercially available oxazolidinone, [[linezolid]], is comparable to vancomycin in effectiveness against MRSA. Linezolid-resistance in ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' was reported in 2003. ''[[enterococcus|Enterococcus faecium]]'' is another superbug found in hospitals: penicillin resistance was seen in 1983, vancomycin resistance (VRE) in 1987 and [[linezolid]] resistance (LRE) in the late 1990s. Penicillin-resistant [[pneumonia]] (or pneumococcus, caused by ''Streptococcus pneumoniae'') was first detected in 1967, as was penicillin-resistant [[gonorrhea]]. Resistance to penicillin substitutes is also known beyond ''S. aureus''. By 1993 ''[[Escherichia coli]]'' was resistant to five [[quinolones|fluoroquinolone]] variants. ''[[tuberculosis|Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]'' is commonly resistant to [[isoniazid]] and [[rifampin]] and sometimes universally resistant to the common treatments. Other pathogens showing some resistance include ''[[Salmonella]]'', ''[[Campylobacter]]'', and ''[[Streptococci]]''. In November, 2004, the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) reported an increasing number of ''[[Acinetobacter baumannii]]'' bloodstream infections in patients at military medical facilities in which service members injured in the [[Iraq]]/[[Kuwait]] region during [[Iraq war|Operation Iraqi Freedom]] and in [[Afghanistan]] during [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] were treated. Most of these showed [[multidrug resistance]] (MRAB), with a few isolates resistant to all drugs tested. [http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5345a1.htm] ==Antibiotic resistance and the role of animals== [[Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus|MRSA ]] is acknowledged to be a human commensal and pathogen. MRSA has been found in cats, dogs and horses, where it can cause the same problems as it does in humans. Owners can transfer the organism to their pets and vice-versa, and MRSA in animals is generally believe to be derived from humans. This is not the case for other pathogens, however. There are concerns that some antibiotic resistant organisms may derive from the use of antibiotics in food animals. 15% of all antibiotics manufactured in Europe are used on animals. For precisely this reason, in many countries, antibiotics that are licensed for human use are banned from use in animals. However, related antbiotics are often used as growth promoters (particularly in poultry) and have been associated with the development of resistant strains. The US [[Food and Drug Administration]] banned [[enrofloxacin]] from use in poultry in July 2005. [[Campylobacter]] is an avian gut [[commensal]], and Campylobacter [[gastroenteritis]] in humans is associated with the consumption of undercooked chicken. Campylobacter resistance is up to 20% in parts of the developed world. Enrofloxacin is a [[fluoroquinolone]] whose mechanism of action is very similar to ciprofloxacin; it is used in veterinary practice to treat respiratory infections of poultry, when it is added to water or to the feed and may be used to medicate a whole flock. Farmers lobby groups often agitate that there is no evidence of the transfer of antibiotic resistance in food animals to humans, but given Campylobacter does not naturally occur in humans and that ciprofloxacin resistance is increasing, it is difficult not to draw the conclusion that ciprofloxacin-resistant Campylobacter in humans arises from eating enrofloxacin-resistant Campylobacter in chickens, hence the FDA ban on [[enrofloxacin]]. The illegal use of [[amantadine]] to medicate poultry in the South of China and other parts of southeast Asia, means that although the H5N1 strain that appear in Hong Kong in 1997 was amantadine sensitive, the more recent strains have all been amantadine resistant. This seriously reduces the treatment options available to doctors in the event of an influenza pandemic. Eighteen UK organisations banded together in November 1997 to set guidelines on the use of antibiotics in farm animals, in order to address the concerns of the larger public. The consortium is called RUMA ([[Responsible use of Medicine in Agriculture Alliance]]) Members of this consortium include the [[British Poultry Council]] and various industry and pharmaceutical firms. The European Union has banned the use of all antibiotics as growth promoters from [[1 January]] [[2006]]. ==Alternatives to antibiotics== ===Prevention=== [[Hand washing|Wash hands properly]] to reduce the chance of getting sick and spreading infection. Wash fruits and vegetables thoroughly. Avoid raw eggs and undercooked meat, especially in ground form. Do not ''demand'' antibiotics from your physician; if antibiotics are not prescribed, there is a reason. When given antibiotics, take them '''''exactly''''' as prescribed, and complete the full course of treatment; do '''''not''''' hoard pills for later use, or share leftover antibiotics. ===Vaccines=== [[Vaccine]]s do not suffer the problem of resistance because a vaccine enhances the body's natural defenses, while an antibiotic operates separately from the body's normal defenses. Nevertheless, new strains may evolve that escape immunity induced by vaccines. While theoretically promising, anti-staphylococcal vaccines have shown limited efficacy, because of immunological variation between ''Staphylococcus'' species, and the limited duration of effectiveness of the antibodies produced. Development and testing of more effective vaccines is under way. ===Phage therapy=== [[Phage therapy]] is a more recent alternative that can cope with the problem of resistance. ==Development of newer antibiotics== The resistance problem demands that a renewed effort be made to seek antibacterial agents effective against pathogenic bacteria resistant to current antibiotics. One of the possible strategies towards this objective is the rational localization of bioactive phytochemicals. Plants have an almost limitless ability to synthesize aromatic substances, most of which are phenols or their oxygen-substituted derivatives such as tannins. Most are secondary metabolites, of which at least 12,000 have been isolated, a number estimated to be less than 10% of the total{{fact}}. In many cases, these substances serve as plant defense mechanisms against predation by microorganisms, insects, and herbivores. Many of the herbs and spices used by humans to season food yield useful medicinal compounds including those having antibacterial activity. Traditional healers have long used plants to prevent or cure infectious conditions. Many of these plants have been investigated scientifically for antimicrobial activity and a large number of plant products have been shown to inhibit growth of pathogenic bacteria. A number of these agents appear to have structures and modes of action that are distinct from those of the antibiotics in current use, suggesting that cross-resistance with agents already in use may be minimal. ==See also== *[[list of environment topics]] *[[nosocomial infection]] *[[tuberculosis]] *[[bacterial conjugation]] ==External links== * [http://www.cc.nih.gov/hes/vre.html Vancomycin Resistant Enterococcus - Guidelines for Healthcare Workers] * [http://antibiotic.org Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics] * [http://www.stoptriclosan.com StopTriclosan.com] [[Category:Antibiotics]] [[Category:Microbiology]] [[da:Antibiotikaresistens]] [[de:Antibiotikum-Resistenz]] [[nl:Resistentie]] [[fr:Résistance aux antibiotiques]] ==References== * {{cite journal | author=Lord Soulsby of Swaffham Prior | title=Resistance to antimicrobials in humans and animals | journal=Brit J Med | year=2005 | volume=331 | pages=1219&ndash;20 | url=http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/extract/331/7527/1219?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&andorexactfulltext=and&searchid=1138116795534_11131&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&volume=331&firstpage=1219&resourcetype=1 }} 1915 42046833 2006-03-03T12:47:51Z Reinoutr 158685 /* Origin of antigens */ added autoantigen An '''antigen''' is a substance that stimulates an [[immune system|immune]] response, especially the production of [[antibodies]]. ''Antigens'' are usually [[protein]]s or [[polysaccharide]]s, but can be any type of molecule, including small molecules ([[hapten]]s) coupled to a [[carrier-protein]]. ==Types of antigens== *'''Immunogen''' - Any substance that provokes the immune response when introduced into the body. An immunogen is always a [[macromolecule]] (protein, polysaccharide). Its ability to stimulate the immune reaction depends on its commoness to the host, molecular size, chemical composition and heterogeneity (e.g. simlar to amino acids in a protein). *'''Tolerogen''' - An antigen that invokes a specific immune non-responsiveness due to its [[molecular form]]. If its molecular form is changed, a tolerogen can become an immunogen. *'''Allergen''' - An allergen is a substance that causes the [[allergic reaction]]. It can be ingested, inhaled, injected or comes into contact with skin. Cells present their antigens to the et via a [[histocompatibility molecule]]. Depending on the antigen presented and the type of the histocompatibility molecule, several types of [[immune cell]]s can become activated. ==Origin of antigens== We can also classify antigens according to their origin. ===Exogenous antigens=== Exogenous antigens are antigens that have entered the body from the outside, for example by inhalation, ingestion, or injection. By [[endocytosis]] or [[phagocytosis]], these antigens are taken into the [[antigen-presenting cell]]s (APCs) and processed into fragments. APCs then present the fragments to [[T helper cells]] ([[CD4]]⁺) by the use of [[Major histocompatibility complex|class II histocompatibility molecule]]s on their surface. Some T cells are specific for the peptide:MHC complex. They become activated and start to secrete [[cytokine]]s. Cytokines are substances that can activate [[cytotoxic T lymphocytes]] (CTL), antibody-secreting [[B cells]], [[macrophages]] and other cells. ===Endogenous antigens=== Endogenous antigens are antigens that have been generated within the cell, as a result of normal cell [[metabolism]], or because of viral or intracellular bacterial [[infection]]. The fragments are then presented on the cell surface in the complex with [[class I histocompatibility molecule]]s. If activated cytotoxic CD8⁺ [[Cytotoxic T cell|T cell]]s recognize them, the T cells begin to secrete different [[toxin]]s that cause the [[lysis]] or [[apoptosis]] of the infected cell. In order to keep the cytotoxic cells from killing cells just for presenting self-proteins, self-reactive T cells are deleted from the repertoire as a result of [[central tolerance]] (also known as [[negative selection]] which occurs in the [[thymus]]). Only those CTL that do not react to self-peptides that are presented in the thymus in the context of [[MHC class I]] molecules are allowed to enter the bloodstream. There is an exception to the exogenous/endogenous antigen paradigm, called [[cross-presentation]]. ===Autoantigens=== An [[autoantigen]] is usually a normal protein or complex of proteins (and sometimes DNA or RNA) that is recognized by the immune system of patients suffering from a specific [[autoimmune disease]]. These antigens should under normal conditions not be the target of the immune system, but due to mainly genetic and enviromental factors the normal [[immunological tolerance]] for such an antigen has been lost in these patients. ==Tumor antigens== '''Tumor antigens''' are those antigens that are presented by the [[MHC I]] molecules on the surface of [[tumor cell]]s. These antigens can sometimes be presented only by tumor cells and never by the normal ones. In this case, they are called '''tumor-specific antigens''' and typically result from a tumor specific mutation. More common are antigens that are presented by tumor cells and normal cells, and they are called '''tumor-associated antigens'''. [[Cytotoxic T lymphocytes]] that recognized these antigens may be able to destroy the tumor cells before they proliferate or [[metastasize]]. Tumor antigens can also be on the surface of the tumor in the form of, for example, a mutated receptor, in which case they will be recognized by [[B cells]]. ==External links== National Library of Medicine/Medline (National Insititute of Health) website '''http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002224.htm''' {{immune_system}} [[Category:Immune system]] [[Category:Immunology]] [[bg:Антиген]] [[cs:Antigen]] [[da:Antigen]] [[de:Antigen]] [[es:Antígeno]] [[eu:Antigeno]] [[fr:Antigène]] [[ko:항원]] [[it:Antigene]] [[he:אנטיגן]] [[nl:Antigeen]] [[ja:抗原]] [[no:Antigen]] [[pl:Antygen]] [[pt:Antígeno]] [[ro:Antigen]] [[fi:Antigeeni]] [[sv:Antigen]] [[vi:Kháng nguyên]] [[uk:Антиген]] [[zh:抗原]] 1916 40212087 2006-02-19T00:09:48Z GrinBot 411872 robot Adding: hu An '''autosome''' is a non-sex [[chromosome]]. It is an ordinary paired chromosome that is the same in both [[sex]]es of a [[species (biology)|species]]. For example, in humans, there are 22 pairs of autosomes. The X and Y chromosomes are not autosomal. Non-autosomal chromosomes are usually referred to as [[sex chromosome]]s or, less frequently, as gonosomes. ===Uses=== An ''autosomal dominant gene'' is one on an autosome that is always expressed, even if a single copy exists. The chance is 1:2 for passing this gene to offspring. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans. {{chromo}} [[Category:Chromosomes]] [[de:Autosom]] [[et:Autosoom]] [[es:Autosómico]] [[fr:Chromosome homologue]] [[he:אוטוזומי]] [[hu:Autoszóma]] [[nl:Autosoom]] [[pl:Autosom]] [[sr:Аутозом]] [[sv:Autosom]] 1919 38625655 2006-02-07T15:54:35Z Percy Snoodle 163840 [[computer role-playing game]] '''Antwerp''' (''Antwerpen'' in [[Dutch language|Dutch]]) is the name of a city and a province in [[Flanders]], one of the three regions of [[Belgium]]: * [[Antwerp]] (city) * [[Antwerp (province)]] '''Antwerp''' is also the name of a number of places in the [[United States]]: * [[Antwerp, Ohio]] * [[Antwerp Township, Michigan]] * [[Antwerp (village), New York |Antwerp, New York]] (village) * [[Antwerp (town), New York |Antwerp, New York]] (town) An '''antwerp''' is also a monster in the classic [[computer role-playing game]] [[Quest for Glory]] series. It is unclear whether the monster was named after the city in Belgium or if this was a coincidence. {{disambig}} 1920 41753198 2006-03-01T14:23:02Z Colonies Chris 577301 moved CEV to [[Altair (disambiguation)]] The term '''Aquila''' can refer to several things: *''Aquila'' is Latin for [[eagle]]. *''Aquila'' is a genus of birds to which some eagles, particularly the [[Golden Eagle]], belong. See [[eagle]]. *[[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]] is the astronomical constellation of The Eagle. *[[Aquila (Roman)|Aquila]] is the eagle-shaped battle standard of a Roman legion. '''Places:''' *[[L'Aquila]], sometimes "Aquila", is a town in [[Italy]]. *[[Aquila, Michoacán]], is a municipality and its main town in the Mexican state of [[Michoacán]]. *[[Aquila, Veracruz]], is a municipality and its main town in the Mexican state of [[Veracruz]]. *[[Aquila, Switzerland]], is a village in the canton of [[Ticino]]. '''People:''' *[[Aquila (bible)|Aquila]], a Biblical person from the Acts and Paul's letters. *[[Aquila of Sinope]], 2nd century author of a translation of the Old Testament into Greek '''Craft:''' * [[USS Aquila (PHM-4)|USS ''Aquila'']], a hydrofoil formerly operated by the U.S. Navy. * The [[Italian aircraft carrier Aquila|''Aquila'']], a World War II Italian aircraft carrier. * [http://i1.tinypic.com/nz3asx.jpg ''Aquila UAV''] was the [[US Army]]'s first [[unmanned aerial vehicle|UAV]] for reconnaissance '''Organisations:''' * [[Aquila Airways]], a British flying boat operator (1948&ndash;1958). * [[Aquila, Inc.]], an electric and gas utility headquartered in Kansas City, Missouri, United States. * ''Aquila'' is an Italian car manufacturer or brand - see [[List of automobile manufacturers]] * ''Aquila Cycles'' is a [http://www.aquilacycles.com/ Canadian bicycle manufacturer] '''Entertainment and literature:''' * ''Aquila'' is the title of a book by [[Andrew Norriss]] * [[Aquila (TV Show)|''Aquila'']] was a BBC TV production for children that originally aired in the UK during the late 1990s. {{disambig}} [[ca:Aquila]] [[de:Aquila]] [[es:Aquila]] [[fr:Aquila]] [[it:Aquila]] [[nl:Aquila]] [[pl:Orzeł (strona ujednoznaczniająca)]] [[pt:Aquila (desambiguação)]] [[tr:Kartal]] 1921 move=:edit= 42158957 2006-03-04T05:15:58Z JW1805 104381 rvt {{lowercase|title=al-Qaeda }} [[Image:Osama-med.jpg|thumb|right|[[Osama bin Laden]], founder of al-Qaeda, in the 1990's.]] '''al-Qaeda''' ({{lang-ar|القاعدة}}, ''el-Qā‘idah'' or ''al-Qā‘idah''; "the foundation" or "the base") is the name given to an international [[Islamic fundamentalism|Islamic fundamentalist]] campaign comprised of independent and collaborative cells that all profess the same cause of reducing outside influence upon [[Islam]]ic affairs. Though al-Qaeda is philosophically heterogeneous, prominent members of the movement are considered to have [[Salafi]] beliefs. The [[National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States]] (9/11 Commission) says that al-Qaeda is responsible for a large number of high-profile, violent attacks against civilians, military targets, and commercial institutions in both the west and the Muslim world. The [[9/11 Commission Report]] attributed the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] on the [[World Trade Center]] in [[New York City]], [[The Pentagon]] in [[Arlington, Virginia|Arlington]] and Flight 93 in Pennsylvania to al-Qaeda. Although the group may have been directly responsible for these attacks, many respected observers such as [[Michael Scheuer]], an ex-[[CIA]] terrorism analyst, believe that al-Qaeda has evolved into a ''movement'' "...where the [[jihad]] is self-sustaining, where Islamic warriors fight America with or without allegiance to al-Qaeda’s bin Laden, and where the name 'al-Qaeda' provides the inspiration for subsequent international attacks." <ref>{{cite web | title=Experts fear 'endless' terror war | work=MSNBC.com | url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/8524679 | accessdate=July 9 | accessyear=2005}}</ref> The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] invasion of [[Afghanistan]], when a cadre of non-Afghani, [[Arab]] [[Muslim]] fighters joined the largely [[United States]] and [[Pakistan]]-funded Afghan [[mujahideen|mujāhidīn]] anti-Russian resistance movement. [[Osama bin Laden]], a member of a prominent Saudi Arabian business family, led an informal grouping which became a leading fundraiser and recruitment agency for the Afghan cause in Muslim countries; it channelled Islamic fighters to the conflict, distributed money and provided logistical skills and resources to both fighting forces and Afghan refugees. After the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1989 many committed veterans of the war wished to fight for Islamic causes elsewhere. The invasion and occupation of Kuwait by Iraq in 1990 saw US and coalition troops sent to Saudi Arabia in preparedness for expelling Iraqi occupying forces from Kuwait. Al-Qaeda was strongly opposed to the secular regime of [[Saddam Hussein]] and bin Laden had offered use of his fighters' services to the Saudi throne, but the deployment of 'infidel' forces to Islamic sacred territory was seen as an act of treachery by bin Laden. He placed the grouping in militant opposition to the [[United States]] and its allies. Al-Qaeda came to claim that the U.S. is oppressive toward Muslims citing U.S. support for [[Israel]] in the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]], the US military presence in several Islamic countries (particularly Saudi Arabia) and latterly the 2003 invasion and occupation of Iraq, ("[[Iraq war]]") as reasons for militant action. [[Osama bin Laden]] and [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] are senior members of al-Qaeda's [[shura]] council, and are believed to be in contact with some of al-Qaeda's other cells. ==Overview== In formal communications, Bin Laden has preferred to use the '''International Front for Jihad against the Jews and Crusaders''' as the name for the grouping rather than "al-Qaeda". [[Image:Zawahiri.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ayman al-Zawahiri]].]] While common usage of the name "al-Qaeda" dates from much earlier, 2001 saw the first formal use of the name "al-Qaeda" for the grouping when the American government decided to prosecute Bin Laden in his absence using anti-Mafia laws that required the existence of a named criminal organisation. Bin Laden himself is probably the best source for the origin of the al-Qaeda label. Speaking in 2001 he said: "The name 'al Qaeda' was established a long time ago by mere chance. The late Abu Ebeida El-Banashiri established the training camps for our mujahedeen against Russia's terrorism. We used to call the training camp al Qaeda [meaning 'the base' in English]. And the name stayed."<ref>{{cite web | title=Transcript of Bin Laden's October interview | work=CNN.com | url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/south/02/05/binladen.transcript/index.html | accessdate=February 2 | accessyear=2005}}</ref> Al-Qaeda's philosophical inspiration comes from the writings of [[Sayyid Qutb]], a prominent thinker from the [[Muslim Brotherhood]], whose essays inspired most of the principal militant [[Islamism|Islamist]] movements in the Middle East today. Though it adheres to no particular sect, in general its philosophy is [[Salafist]]. It calls for an armed Islamist [[revolution]] to foment the overthrow of all regimes which do not rule by Islamic law and to enforce the expulsion of Western military and commercial interests from all Muslim countries. According to statements broadcast by al-Qaeda on the internet and on satellite TV channels, the ultimate goal of al-Qaeda is to re-establish the [[Caliphate]] across the Islamic world, by working with allied Islamic extremist groups to overthrow secular or Western-supported regimes. Anti-Israeli sentiments are often expressed. In a 1997 interview with Peter Arnett, Osama bin Laden cites America's presence in the Middle East and its support for Israel as the chief reasons for his organization's actions. Al-Qaeda believes that western governments, and particularly the American government, act against the interests of Muslims. Their grievances have included: the provision of economic and military support to regimes perceived by al-Qaeda as oppressive of Muslims (particularly the US and its support for Israel), the vetoing of United Nations condemnations of Israel, attempts to influence the affairs of Islamic governments and communities, direct support by means of arms or loans for anti-Islamist Arab regimes, maintaining a troop presence in Muslim countries, especially in Saudi Arabia, and (although al-Qaeda has a long history of opposition to Saddam Hussein) the American and British [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. Besides the [[September 11, 2001, attacks]] on the [[World Trade Center]] in [[New York]] and [[the Pentagon]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], al-Qaeda is believed to have been implicitly involved in the [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings]] in [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]], and [[Dar-Es-Salaam]], [[Tanzania]], the [[USS Cole bombing|attack on the USS Cole]], the [[7 July 2005 London bombings]], as well as many attacks on people in and of other nations around the world. The military leader of al-Qaeda is widely reported to have been [[Khalid Shaikh Mohammed]], who was arrested in [[Pakistan]] in 2003. Its previous military leader, [[Mohammed Atef]], was killed in a U.S. bombing raid on [[Afghanistan]] in late 2001. ==History of al-Qaeda== ===Afghan jihad=== [[Image:Mujahidin3-250.jpg|thumb|right|275px|A Mujahid (plural:Mujahidin) during the Soviet war in Afghanistan. Photo by Del Boone]] Al-Qaeda evolved from the [[Maktab al-Khadamat]] (Office of Services, MAK) — a [[mujahideen|Mujahidin]] organization fighting to establish an Islamic state during the [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]] in the [[1980s]]. Original funding was fosterd by the [[CIA]]. Osama bin Laden was a founding member of the MAK, along with [[Palestinian]] militant [[Abdullah Yusuf Azzam]]. The role of the MAK was to channel funds from a variety of sources (including donations from across the Middle East) into training [[mujahideen|Mujahidin]] from around the world in guerrilla combat, and to transport the combatants to Afghanistan. The MAK was mostly funded by donations from wealthy Muslim individuals but was also allegedly aided by the governments of [[Pakistan]] and [[Saudi Arabia]], and indirectly by the [[United States]], which channeled much of its support via the Pakistani intelligence service, the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) Directorate. During the latter half of the 1980s, the MAK was a relatively minor grouping in Afghanistan with no direct combatants; rather it limited its activities to fundraising, logistics, housing, education, refugee care, recruitment and the financing of other mujahideen. After a protracted and costly war lasting nine years, the Soviet Union finally withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989. [[Mohammed Najibullah]]'s socialist Afghan government was rapidly overthrown by elements of the Mujahidin. With Mujahidin leaders unable to agree on a structure for governance, anarchy ensued with ever-changing control of ill-defined territories falling under constantly reorganising alliances and schisms between regional warlords. ===Outreach from Afghanistan=== Toward the end of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] military mission to Afghanistan, some [[mujahideen|Mujahidin]] wanted to expand their operations to include Islamist struggles in other parts of the world. A number of overlapping and interrelated organizations were formed to further those aspirations. One of these was the organization that would eventually be called al-Qaeda which was formed by Osama bin Laden in 1988. Bin Laden wished to extend the conflict to nonmilitary operations in other parts of the world; Azzam, in contrast, wanted to remain focused on military campaigns. After Azzam was assassinated in 1989, the MAK split, with a significant number joining bin Laden's organization. ===Gulf War and start of US enmity=== Following the Soviet Union withdrawal from Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden returned to [[Saudi Arabia]]. The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 had put the Saudi Arabian ruling House of Saud at risk both from internal dissent and the perceived possibility of further Iraqi expansionism. In the face of seemingly massive Iraqi military presence, Saudi Arabia's own forces were well armed but outnumbered. Bin Laden offered the services of his mujahideen to [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia|King Fahd]] to protect Saudi Arabia from the Iraqi army. But from the strategic viewpoint, were Iraqi forces to be ejected from Kuwait, Saudi Arabia provided the only possible land-bridge whereby international troops could assemble in order that the Iraqi invasion could be repulsed. After some deliberation the Saudi Monarch refused bin Laden's offer and instead opted to allow United States and allied forces to deploy on his territory. Bin Laden considered this a treacherous deed. He believed that the presence of foreign troops in the "land of the two mosques" ([[Mecca]] and [[Medina]]) profaned sacred soil. After speaking publicly against the Saudi government for harboring American troops he was quickly forced into exile to Sudan and his Saudi citizenship was revoked. Shortly afterwards the movement which came to be known as al-Qaeda was formed. ===Sudan=== In 1991, Sudan's [[National Islamic Front]], an Islamist group that had recently gained power, invited al-Qaeda to move operations to their country. For several years, al-Qaeda ran several businesses (including an import/export business, farms, and a construction firm) in what might be considered a period of financial consolidation. The group was responsible for the construction of a major 1200km (845mi) highway connecting the capital Khartoum with Port Sudan. But they also ran a number of camps where they trained aspirants in the use of firearms and explosives. In 1996, Osama bin Laden was asked to leave Sudan after the US put the regime under extreme pressure to expel him, citing possible connections to the 1994 attempted assassination of [[Egypt|Egyptian]] President [[Hosni Mubarak]] while his motorcade was in [[Addis Ababa, Ethiopia]]. A controversy exists regarding whether Sudan offered to turn bin Laden over to the U.S. prior to the expulsion. The Sudanese government never indeed made such an offer but were prepared to turn him over to Saudi Arabia who declined to take him. Osama bin Laden finally left Sudan in a well planned and executed operation accompanied by some 200 of his supporters and their families travelling directly to Jalalabad, Afghanistan by air in late 1996. ===Bosnia=== The secession of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]] from the multicultural [[Yugoslavia|Yugoslavian Federation]] and the subsequent declaration of Bosnia-Herzegovinan independence in October 1991 opened up a new ethnic and quasi-religious conflict at the heart of Europe. [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] was ethnically diverse, with a nominal Muslim majority but with significant numbers of ethnic ([[Orthodox Christian]]) [[Serbs]] and ([[Roman Catholic]]) [[Croats]] distributed across its territory. It comprised a large, but militarily weak component of the former Yugoslavia and Yugoslavian disintegration saw some ethnic Serbs and some ethnic Croats within Bosnia, supported by their rump adjacent states (Serbia and Croatia), engage in a three way conflict against the [[Bosniaks]] dominated core. Radical Arab veterans of the war against the Soviets in [[Afghanistan]] seized on Bosnia as a new opportunity to "defend Islam". Besieged on two fronts and seemingly abandoned by the West, the Bosnian regime was willing to accept any help it could get, military or financial, including that of a number of Islamic organisations, of which al-Qaeda was one<ref>{{cite book | author = Kohlmann, Evan F. | title = Al-Qaida's Jihad in Europe: The Afghan-Bosnian Network | publisher = Berg | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 1859738079}}</ref>. Several close associates of Osama bin Laden (most notably, Saudi [[Khalid bin Udah bin Muhammad al-Harbi]], alias Abu Sulaiman al-Makki) joined the conflict in Bosnia<ref>{{cite book | author=Kohlmann, Evan F. | title = Al-Qaida's Jihad in Europe: The Afghan-Bosnian Network | publisher=Berg | year=2004 | id=ISBN 1859738079}}</ref>, but while al-Qaeda might initially have seen Bosnia as a possible bridgehead enabling the radicalisation of European Muslims for operations against other European states and America, [[Bosniaks]] had been secularised for generations and their interest in fighting was largely limited to securing the survival of their nascent state. The "Bosnian Mujahidin" (comprising largely Arab veterans of the Afghan war and not ''necessarily'' members of al-Qaeda) thus operated as a largely autonomous force within central Bosnia. While their bravery in the fray initially attracted a small number of native Bosnians to join them, their brutality and a rising number of atrocites committed against civilians came to appall many native Bosnians and repelled new recruits. At the same time, their vigorous attempts to Islamicize the local population with rules on appropriate dress and behaviour were widely resented and largely went unheeded. In his book ''Al-Qaida’s Jihad in Europe: the Afghan-Bosnian network'', Evan Kohlmann sums up: ‘In spite of vigorous efforts to ‘Islamicise’ the nominally Muslim Bosnian populace, the locals could not be convinced to abandon pork, alcohol, or public displays of affection. Bosnian women persistently refused to wear the [[hijab]] or follow the other mandates for female behaviour prescribed by extreme fundamentalist Islam.’ The signing of the [[Washington Agreement]] in March 1994 brought to an end the Bosnian-Croatian conflict. While the "Bosnian Mujahidin" remained to fight on in the war against the Serbs, the [[Dayton Peace Accord]] of November 1995 brought that conflict to an end and required that foreign fighters disband and leave the country, with aid being conditional on this taking place. With Bosnian government support, [[NATO]] forces took effective action to close their bases and deport them. A limited number of former Mujahidin who had either married native Bosnians or who could not be found a country to go to were permitted to stay in Bosnia and granted Bosnian citizenship, but with the war in Bosnia over, many committed battle-hardened veterans had already returned to familiar territory. ===Return to Afghanistan=== After the Soviet withdrawal, Afghanistan was effectively ungoverned for seven years and plagued by constant infighting between the former allies, the various Mujahidin groups and their leaders. Throughout the 1990s a new force began to emerge. The origins of the [[Taliban]] (literally "students") lay in children of Afghanis, many of them orphaned by the war, and many of whom had had been educated in the rapidly expanding network of Islamic schools (madrassas) either in Kandahar or in the refugee camps on the Afghan-Pakistani border. According to Ahmad Rashid's well-regarded book ''Taliban'', five leaders of the Taliban were graduates of a single madrassa, Darul Uloom Haqqania, Akora Khattak, near Peshawar which is situated in Pakistan but which was largely attended by Afghan refugees. This institution reflected Salafi beliefs in its teachings and much of its funding came from private donations from wealthy Arabs for which bin Laden provided conduit. A further four more leading figures (including the perceived Taliban leader Mullah [[Mohammed Omar]] Mujahed) attended a similarly funded and influenced madrassa in Kandahar, Afghanistan. The ties between the Afghan Arabs and Taliban ran deep. Many of the mujahidin who later joined the Taliban fought alongside Afghan warlord Mohammad Nabi Mohammadi's Harkat i Inqilabi grouping at the time of the Russian invasion. This grouping had also enjoyed the loyalty of most Afghan Arab fighters. The continuing internecine strife between various factions and accompanying lawlessness following the Soviet withdrawal enabled the growing and well-disciplined [[Taliban]] to expand their control over territory in Afghanistan and they came to establish an enclave which it called the [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan]]. In 1994, they captured the regional centre of Kandahar and making rapid territorial gains thereafter, went on to conquer the capital, Kabul, in September 1996. After Sudan made it clear bin Laden and his group were no longer welcome in that year, Taliban-controlled Afghanistan -- with previously established connections between the groups, a similar outlook on world affairs and largely isolated from American political influence and military power -- provided a perfect location for al Qaeda to headquarter. Some 200 bin Laden supporters and their families departed Khartoum for Jalalabad by air in 1996. Thereafter al-Qaeda enjoyed the Taliban's protection and a measure of legitimacy as part of their Ministry of Defense, although only Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the [[United Arab Emirates]] recognized the Taliban as the legitimate government of Afghanistan. Al-Qaeda training camps in Afghanistan and the Pakistan border regions are alleged to have trained militant Muslims from around the world. Despite the perception of some people, al-Qaeda members are ethnically diverse and are connected by their radical version of Islam. An ever-expanding network of supporters thus enjoyed a safe haven in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan until the Taliban were defeated by a combination of local forces and US troops in 2001. Osama Bin Laden and other al-Qaeda leaders are still believed to be located in areas where the population is sympathetic to the Taliban in Afghanistan or the border Tribal Areas of Pakistan. ===Start of militant operations against civilians=== On [[February 23]], [[1998]], Osama bin Laden and [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] of [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]] issued a [[fatwa]] under the banner of the '''World Islamic Front for Jihad Against the Jews and Crusaders''' saying that "to kill Americans and their allies, civilians, and military is an individual duty of every Muslim who is able." Although neither man possessed the Islamic credentials, education or stature to issue a fatwa of any kind, this seems to have been overlooked in the enthusiasm of the moment. This was also the year of the first major attack reliably attributed to al-Qaeda, the [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings|embassy bombings]] in [[East Africa]], which resulted in upward of 300 deaths. In 1999, Egyptian Islamic Jihad officially merged with al-Qaeda, and al-Zawahiri became bin Laden's closest confidant. ===September 11 attacks=== [[Image:WTC attack 9-11.jpg|thumb|left|United Airlines Flight 175 crashing into the South World Trade Center Tower]] Following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] attributed by authorities to al-Qaeda, the United States began to build up military forces in preparation for an attack on Afghanistan (whose government harboured bin Laden's organization) in response. In the weeks before the United States invaded, the Taliban twice offered to turn over bin Laden to a neutral country for trial if the United States would provide evidence of bin Laden's complicity in the attacks. The Americans, however, refused, and soon thereafter [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan|invaded Afghanistan]] and, together with the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]], deposed the [[Taliban]] government. As a result of this invasion, Taliban training camps were destroyed and much of the alleged existing operating structure of al-Qaeda was disrupted, although strong resistance has remained in Afghanistan, and its main leaders, including Bin Laden, have not been caught. The American government now claims that two-thirds of the top leaders of al-Qaeda in 2001 are currently in custody (including [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]], [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]], [[Abu Zubaydah]], [[Saif al Islam el Masry]], and [[Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri]]) or dead (including [[Mohammed Atef]]), though it warns the organization is not yet defeated and battles between the United States forces, the Taliban and al-Qaeda continue. ===Activity in Iraq=== [[Image:Zarqawi001.jpg|frame|right| Abu Musab Al-Zarqawi]] {{See also|Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda}} Osama bin Laden first took interest in [[Iraq]] when that country invaded [[Kuwait]] in 1990 (giving rise to concerns that the secular, [[socialist]] [[Baathist]] government of Iraq might next set its sights on [[Saudi Arabia]], homeland of bin Laden and of Islam itself). In a letter sent to [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia|King Fahd]], he offered to send an army of mujahideen to defend Saudi Arabia <ref>{{cite web | title=Who is Osama Bin Laden? | work=BBC.com | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1551100.stm | accessdate=July 20 | accessyear=2004}}</ref>. During the [[Gulf War]], the organization's interests became split between outrage with the intervention of the United Nations in the region and hatred of [[Saddam Hussein|Saddam Hussein's]] [[secular]] government, as well as expression of concern for the suffering that Islamic people in Iraq were undergoing. Bin Laden referred to Saddam Hussein (and the Baathists) as evil, a demon or devil worshipper in his speeches and recorded/written announcements, calling for his overthrow by the people of Iraq. In spite of the distrust Osama bin Laden and Saddam Hussein had for each other, published reports documented a number of alleged contacts between their organizations. Official investigations by the [[NSA]], [[CIA]], [[DIA]], [[FBI]], the [[US Department of State|State Department]], the [[9/11 Commission]], and the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] -- have led most analysts to conclude that there is no evidence of a cooperative relationship between them. (See [[Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda]]). During the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], al-Qaeda took more formal interest in the region and is known to have been responsible for actively organizing and aiding local resistance to the occupying coalition forces and the emerging democracy. During Iraq's elections in January 2005 al-Qaeda claimed responsibility for nine suicide blasts in the Iraqi capital [[Baghdad]]. [[Abu Musab al-Zarqawi]], founder of [[Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad]] and alleged ally of al-Qaeda, formally merged with al-Qaeda on [[17th October]] [[2004]]. The organization started to use the banners of "[[Al-Qaeda in Iraq|al-Qaeda in the Land Between the Two Rivers]]", instead of old [[Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad]] banners. In the merger al-Zarqawi declared loyalty to [[Osama bin Laden]]. ===Harmony Papers=== Documents seized from al-Qaeda were recently declassified from the Harmony database and became the subject of a published study from West Point titled ''Harmony and Disharmony: Exploiting al-Qa’ida’s Organizational Vulnerabilities.'' [http://www.ctc.usma.edu/aq/Harmony%20and%20Disharmony%20--%20CTC.pdf] The papers give an interesting look into the history of the movement, organizational structure, tensions among leadership and the lessons learned. One al-Qaeda writer concluded that one of the lessons learned is the influence of secular Baathist thinking distorts the message of jihad. This writer advises the movement not to allow the jihad message to be influenced by the Iraqi Baath message. (Page 79) [http://www.ctc.usma.edu/aq/Harmony%20and%20Disharmony%20--%20CTC.pdf] ==Incidents attributed by some to al-Qaeda== ''Note: al-Qaeda does not take credit for most of the following actions, resulting in ambiguity over how many attacks the group has actually conducted. Following the U.S. declaration of the [[War on Terrorism]] in 2001, the U.S. government has striven to highlight any connections between other terrorist groups and al-Qaeda. Some prefer to attribute to [[al-Qaedaism]] actions that might not be directly planned by al-Qaeda as a military headquarter, but which are inspired by its tenets and strategies.'' [[Image:TerroristAttacksAlQaeda.png|thumb|right|500px|World Map of attacks attributed to al-Qaeda]] The first militant attack that al-Qaeda allegedly carried out consisted of three bombings at hotels where American troops were staying in [[Aden]], [[Yemen]], on [[December 29]], 1992. A Yemeni and an [[Austria]]n tourist died in one bombing. There are disputed claims that al-Qaeda operatives assisted in the shooting down of U.S. [[helicopter]]s and the killing of U.S. servicemen in [[Somalia]] in 1993. (see: [[Battle of Mogadishu]]) [[Ramzi Yousef]], who was involved in the 1993 World Trade Center bombing (though probably not an al-Qaeda member at the time), and [[Khalid Sheik Mohammed]] planned [[Operation Bojinka]], a plot to destroy airplanes in mid-Pacific flight using explosives. An apartment fire in [[Manila, Philippines]] exposed the plan before it could be carried out. Youssef was arrested, but Mohammed evaded capture until 2003. Al-Qaeda is often listed as a suspect in two bombings in [[Saudi Arabia]] in 1995 and 1996: the bombing at a U.S. military facility in [[Riyadh]] in [[November]] [[1995]], which killed two people from [[India]] and five Americans, and the June 1996 [[Khobar Towers bombing]], which killed American military personnel in [[Dhahran, Saudi Arabia|Dhahran]]. However, these attacks are usually ascribed to [[Hizbullah]]. Al-Qaeda is believed to have conducted the [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings|bombings]] in August 1998 of the U.S. embassies in [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]], and [[Dar es Salaam]], [[Tanzania]], killing more than 200 people and injuring more than 5,000 others. In [[December]] [[1999]] and into 2000, al-Qaeda [[2000 millennium attack plots|planned attacks]] against U.S. and [[Israel]]i tourists visiting [[Jordan]] for millennial celebrations; however, [[Jordan]]ian authorities thwarted the planned attacks and put 28 suspects on trial. Part of this plot included the planned bombing of the [[Los Angeles International Airport]] in [[Los Angeles, California]], but this plot was foiled when bomber [[Ahmed Ressam]] was caught at the US-[[Canada|Canadian]] border with explosives in the trunk of his car. Al-Qaeda also planned to attack the [[USS The Sullivans (DDG-68)|USS ''The Sullivans'']] on [[January 3]], [[2000]], but the effort failed due to too much weight being put on the small boat meant to bomb the ship. Despite the setback with the USS ''The Sullivans'', al-Qaeda succeeded in bombing a U.S. warship in October 2000 with the [[USS Cole bombing]]. [[Germany|German]] police foiled a plot to destroy a [[Notre-Dame de Strasbourg|cathedral]] in [[Strasbourg]], [[France]] in [[December]] [[2000]]. See: [[Strasbourg cathedral bombing plot]] The most destructive act ascribed to al-Qaeda was the series of attacks in the USA on [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11th, 2001]]. Several attacks and attempted attacks since [[September 11]], [[2001]] have been attributed to al-Qaeda. The first of which was the [[Paris embassy attack plot]], which was foiled. The second of which involved the attempted shoe bomber [[Richard Reid (terrorist)|Richard Reid]], who proclaimed himself a follower of Osama bin Laden, and got close to destroying [[American Airlines]] [[American Airlines Flight 63|Flight 63]]. Other attacks ascribed to al-Qaeda and its affiliates: *The [[Singapore embassies attack plot]]. *The [[kidnap]]ping and [[murder]] of [[Wall Street Journal]] reporter [[Daniel Pearl]], and numerous bombings in Pakistan. *The [[El Ghriba synagogue|El Ghriba]] [[Ghriba Synagogue Attack|synagogue bombing]] in [[Djerba]], [[Tunisia]], which killed 21. *Foiled attacks on Western warships in the [[Strait of Gibraltar]]. *The [[Limburg tanker bombing]]. *A [[November]] [[2002]] [[Kenyan hotel bombing|car bombing]] in [[Mombasa]], [[Kenya]], and an attempt to shoot down an Israeli airliner. *[[Riyadh Compound Bombings|Bombings of Western compounds]] in Riyadh in May 2003 and other attacks of the [[Insurgency in Saudi Arabia|Saudi insurgency]]. *The [[Istanbul Bombings]] in [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]], in 2003. Al-Qaeda has strong alliances with a number of other Islamic militant organizations including the Indonesian Islamic extremist group [[Jemaah Islamiyah]]. That group was responsible for the [[October]] [[2002]] [[Bali bombing]], and the [[2005 Bali bombings]]. Although there have been no identified al-Qaeda attacks within the territory of the United States since the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], numerous al-Qaeda attacks in the Middle East, Far East, Africa and Europe have caused extensive casualties and turmoil. In the aftermath of several [[March 11]], [[2004]] [[March 11, 2004 Madrid attacks|attacks on commuter trains in Madrid]], a [[London]] newspaper reported receiving an email from a group affiliated with al-Qaeda, claiming responsibility and a videotape claiming responsibility was also found. The timing of the attacks with the spanish elections, as well as the lack of proof on the real identity of the perpetrators has shed doubt on the al-Qaeda theory behind these attacks. It is also believed that al-Qaeda was involved in the [[7 July 2005 London bombings]], a series of attacks against mass transit in London which killed 56 people (see [[Mohammad Sidique Khan]]).A statement from a previously unknown group, "The Secret Organization of al-Qaeda in Europe", claimed responsibility; however, the authenticity of the statement and the group's connection to al-Qaeda has not been independently verified. The suspected perpetrators have not been definitively linked to al-Qaeda, although the contents of a video tape made by one of the bombers [[Mohammad Sidique Khan]] prior to his death and subsequently sent to [[Al Jazeera]] gives strong credence to an al-Qaeda connection. An apparently unconnected group attempted to duplicate the attack later that month, but their bombs failed to detonate. Al-Qaeda is suspected of being involved with the [[2005 Sharm el-Sheikh attacks]] in Egypt. On [[July 23]], [[2005]], a series of suspected car bombs killed about 90 people and wounded over 150. The attack was the deadliest terrorist action in the history of [[Egypt]]. Al-Qaeda is also suspected in the [[November 9]], [[2005]] [[Amman]], [[Jordan]] attacks in which [[2005 Amman bombings|three simultaneous bombings]] occured at [[United States|American]] owned hotels in Amman. The blast killed at least 57 people and injured 120 people. Most of the injured and killed were attending a wedding at the [[Radisson]] Hotel. ==The chain of command== Though the current structure of al-Qaeda is unknown, information mostly acquired from the defector [[Jamal al-Fadl]] provided American authorities with a rough picture of how the group was organized. While the veracity of the information provided by al-Fadl and the motivation for his cooperation are both disputed, American authorities base much of their current knowledge of al-Qaeda on his testimony. Bin Laden is the '''[[emir]]''' of al-Qaeda (although originally this role may have been filled by [[Abu Ayoub al-Iraqi]]), advised by a '''shura council''', which consists of senior al-Qaeda members, estimated by Western officials at about twenty to thirty people. * The '''Military committee''' is responsible for training, weapons acquisition, and planning attacks. * The '''Money/Business committee''' runs business operations. The travel office provides air tickets and false [[passport]]s. The payroll office pays al-Qaeda members, and the Management office oversees money-making businesses. In the US 911 Commission Report it is estimated that al-Qaeda requires 30,000,000 USD / year to conduct its operation. * The '''Law committee''' reviews Islamic law and decides if particular courses of action conform to the law. * The '''Islamic study/fatwah committee''' issues religious edicts, such as an edict in 1998 telling Muslims to kill Americans. * In the late 1990s there was a publicly known '''Media committee''', which ran the now-defunct newspaper ''Nashrat al Akhbar (Newscast)'' and did [[public relations]]. It is currently assumed that media operations are now outsourced to internally redundant parts of the organization. ==Political revolt or structured terrorist organization: unknown== Some organizational specialists have said that Al Qaeda's network structure, as opposed to a [[Hierarchical organization|hierarchical structure]] is its primary strength. The decentralized structure enables Al Qaeda to have a worldwide distributed base while retaining a relatively small core. While an estimated 100,000 Islamist militants are said to have received instruction in Al Qaeda camps since its inception, the group is believed to retain only a small number of militants under direct orders. Estimates seldom peg its manpower higher than 20,000 world wide. For its most complex operations (such as the 9/11 attacks on the US) all participants, planning and funding are believed to have been directly provided by the core Al Qaeda organisation. But in many attacks around the world where there appears to be an Al Qaeda connection, its precise role has been less easy to define. Rather than handling these operations from conception to delivery, Al Qaeda often appears to act as an international financial and logistical support-network, channelling income obtained from a network of fundraising activities to provide training capital and coordination for local radical groups. In many cases it is these local groups, only loosely affiliated to core Al Qaeda, which actually undertake the attacks. The [[2002 Bali bombing]] and subsequent bombing of the Marriott Hotel in Jakarta in 2003 provide some insight into Al Qaeda's decentralized method of operations: the attacks showed far greater coordination and effectiveness than might historically have been expected from regional terrorist networks. But police investigations and subsequent trials showed that while Al Qaeda was believed to have provided expertise and coordination, much of the planning and all the personnel who undertook the attacks came from local radical Islamist groups. Al Qaeda has been known to establish and foster new groups to further the radical Islamic interest in local conflicts. Indeed the Taliban might be deemed to fall into this category, the roots of the organisation formed from radicalised students from the Bin-Laden funded medressas of the Afghan refugee camps at the time of the Russian occupation. ==Is al-Qaeda a global network or a small organization?== Al-Qaeda has no clear structure, and this permits debate as to how many members make up the organization, whether it is millions scattered across the globe, or whether it is even zero. According to the controversial [[BBC]] documentary ''[[The Power of Nightmares]]'', al-Qaeda is so weakly linked together that it is hard to say it exists ''apart from'' [[Osama bin Laden]] and a small clique of close associates. The lack of any significant numbers of convicted al-Qaeda members despite a large number of arrests on terrorism charges is cited by the documentary as a reason to doubt whether a ''widespread'' entity that meets the description of al-Qaeda exists at all. Still, the extent and nature of al-Qaeda remains a topic of dispute. The al-Qaeda name itself does not seem to have been used by bin Laden himself to apply to his organization until after the [[September 11 attacks]]. Previous attacks attributed to bin Laden and al-Qaeda were, at the time, claimed by organizations under a variety of names. Bin Laden himself has since attributed the al-Qaeda name to the MAK base in Pakistan, dating from the Afghan war days. Daniel Benjamin in "The Age of Sacred Terror" cites an incident in the early 1990s where a document titled "The Foundation", Arabic "Al-Qa'eda", was found on an associate of Ramzi Youssef <ref>{{cite web | title=The making of the terror myth | work=Guardian Unlimited | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/terrorism/story/0,12780,1327904,00.html | accessdate=October 15 | accessyear=2004}}</ref>. [[Fawaz A. Gerges]] writes that "Although in 1987 sheikh [[Abdullah Azzam]], the spiritual father of the Afghan Arabs, planted the seeds of a transnationalist organization called 'Al Qaeda al-Sulbah' (the Solid Foundation), the bin Laden network saw the light much later, around the mid-1990s."<ref>{{cite book | author=Gereges, Fawaz A. | title=The Far Enemy: Why Jihad Went Global | publisher=Oxford: Cambridge University Press | year=2005 | page=306 | id=ISBN 0521791405}}</ref> Other alleged al-Qaeda leaders include: * [[Saif al-Adel]] * [[Sulaiman Abu Ghaith]] * [[Abu Hafiza]] * [[Abu Faraj al-Libbi]] (arrested in Pakistan, 2005)<ref>{{cite web | title= Pakistan 'catches al-Qaeda chief' | work=BBC.com | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4512885.stm | accessdate=May 4 | accessyear=2005}}</ref> * [[Abu Mohammed al-Masri]] * [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]] (captured in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, in 2003)<ref>{{cite web | title=How mobile phones and an £18m bribe trapped 9/11 mastermind | work=Guardian Unlimited | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/alqaida/story/0,12469,911860,00.html | accessdate=March 11 | accessyear=2003}}</ref> * [[Thirwat Salah Shirhata]] * [[Abu Musab al-Zarqawi]] * [[Ayman al-Zawahri]] * [[Abu Zubaydah]] (captured in 2002) ==Internet activities== In the wake of its evacuation from Afghanistan, al-Qaeda and its successors have migrated online to escape detection in an atmosphere of increased international vigilance. As a result, the organization’s use of the Internet has grown more sophisticated, encompassing financing, recruitment, networking, mobilization, publicity, as well as information dissemination, gathering, and sharing. More than other terrorist organizations, al-Qaeda has embraced the Web for these purposes. For example, [[Abu Musab al-Zarqawi]]’s al-Qaeda movement in [[Iraq]] regularly releases short videos glorifying the activity of jihadist suicide bombers. This growing range of multimedia content includes terrorist training clips, stills of victims about to be murdered, testimonials of suicide bombers, and epic-themed videos with high production values that romanticize participation in jihad through stylized portraits of mosques and stirring musical scores. A website associated with al-Qaeda, for example, posted a video of a man named [[Nick Berg]] being decapitated in Iraq. Other decapitation videos and pictures, including those of [[Paul Johnson (hostage)|Paul Johnson]], [[Kim Sun-il]], and [[Daniel Pearl]], were first posted onto jihadist websites. With the rise of “locally rooted, globally inspired” terrorists, counterterrorism experts are currently studying how al-Qaeda is using the Internet – through websites, chat rooms, discussion forums, instant messaging, and so on – to inspire a worldwide network of support. The July 7, 2005 bombers, some of whom were well integrated into their local communities, are an example of such “globally inspired” terrorists, and they reportedly used the Internet to plan and coordinate, but the Internet’s precise role in the process of radicalization is not thoroughly understood. A group called the Secret Organization of al-Qaeda in Europe has claimed responsibility for these London attacks on a militant Islamist website – another popular use of the Internet by terrorists seeking publicity. The publicity opportunities offered by the Internet have been particularly exploited by al-Qaeda. In December 2004, for example, bin Laden released an audio message by posting it directly to a website, rather than sending a copy to [[al Jazeera]] as he had done in the past. Some analysts speculated that he did this to be certain it would be available unedited, out of fear that his criticism of Saudi Arabia — which was much more vehement than usual in this speech, lasting over an hour — might be edited out by al Jazeera editors worried about offending the touchy [[Saudi royal family]]. In the past, [[Alneda.com]] and [[Jehad.net]] were perhaps the most significant of al-Qaeda websites. Alneda was initially taken down by an American, but the operators resisted by shifting the site to various servers and strategically changing content. The US is currently attempting to extradite an IT specialist, Babar Ahmad, from the UK, who is the creator of various English language al-Qaeda websites such as Azzam.com <ref>{{cite web | author=Whitlock, Craig| year=2005| title=Briton Used Internet As His Bully Pulpit | format=http | work=WashingtonPost.com | url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/07/AR2005080700890.html | accessdate=January 20 | accessyear=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Babar Ahmad Indicted on Terrorism Charges | work=United States Attorney's Office District of Connecticut | url=http://www.usdoj.gov/usao/ct/Press2004/20041006.html | accessdate=October 6 | accessyear=2004}}</ref>. Ahmad's extradition is opposed by various British Muslim organizations, such the [[Muslim Association of Britain]]. Finally, at a mid-2005 presentation for US government terrorism analysts, Dennis Pluchinsky called the global jihadist movement “Web-directed,” and former CIA deputy director John E. McLaughlin has also said it is now primarily driven today by “ideology and the Internet.” == Financial activities == Financial activities of Al-Qaeda have been a major preoccupation of US government following the September 11, 2001 attacks, leading for example to the discovery of former Chilean dictator [[Augusto Pinochet]]'s tax evasion, for which his wife, [[Lucía Hiriart de Pinochet]], has been arrested in January 2006. It was also discovered by investigative reporter [[Denis Robert]] that funds from Osama Ben Laden's [[Bahrain International Bank]] transited through illegal unpublished accounts of "clearing house" [[Clearstream]], which has been qualified as a "bank of banks". ==Notes on naming== Al-Qaeda's name can also be [[transliteration|transliterated]] as al-Qaida, al-Qa'ida, el-Qaida, or al Qaeda. In Arabic it is spelled القاعدة. Its [[Arabic language|Arabic]] pronunciation ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/ɛlˈqɑːʕidʌ/}}) can be approximated as IPA {{IPA|/ɛl 'kɑ:-idʌ/}}, which for [[American English]] speakers could be spelled "el-kAW-ee-deh," with the emphasized "AW" and "ee" clearly separated. However, English speakers more commonly pronounce it in a manner influenced by its spelling - IPA {{IPA|/ɑɫ 'kaɪdɑ/}} for [[American English]], {{IPA|/ɑ:ɫ 'kaɪdɑ:/}} in [[British English]]. [http://ibb7.ibb.gov/pronunciations/sounds/2930.ra Listen to the US pronunciation] ([[RealPlayer]]). Al-Qaeda has other names, such as: * International Front for Jihad against the Jews and Crusaders * [[Islam]]ic [[Army]] * Islamic Army for the Liberation of the [[Holy]] Places * Osama bin Laden Network * Osama bin Laden Organization * [[Islam]]ic [[Salvation]] Foundation * The Group for the Preservation of the Holy Sites ==See also== * [[Al-Qaedaism]] * [[Clearstream]] through which funds from Osama Ben Laden's [[Bahrain International Bank]] passed. * [[Insurgency in Saudi Arabia]] * [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] * [[Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal]] * [[Muslim Brotherhood]] * [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]] aka al-Jihad * [[Terrorist incidents]] * [[List of alleged al-Qaeda members]] * [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] * [[The Power of Nightmares]]; BBC documentary * [[Psychological operations]] * [[Al Barakaat]] * [[Islamist terrorism]] * [[Osama bin Laden's Declaration of War]] * [[Osama tapes]] * [[Steven Emerson]] * [[Takfir Wal Hijira]] ==Notes & references== <references/> ==External links== *[http://cfrterrorism.org/groups/alqaeda.html Terrorism Q&A] *[http://www.rewardsforjustice.net/ Rewards for Justice - Most Wanted Terrorists] *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1551100.stm Who is Osama Bin Laden?] BBC report *[http://web.archive.org/web/20050331091340/http://www.usdoj.gov/ag/trainingmanual.htm Al Qaeda Training Manual used by British member of Al Qaeda, Manchester, England] (URL accessed March 2005) *[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/front PBS FRONTLINE "Al Qaeda's New Front" January 2005] *[http://carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/03spring/thomas.htm Al-Qaida's Internet Activities may cause problems] *[http://www.intellnet.org/documents/200/060/269.html Al-Qaida history to end of 1998, and explanation of its origins.] *[http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/ladin.htm Al-Qaida history up to 11th September 2002, and list of further links.] *[http://www.janes.com/security/international_security/news/misc/janes010928_1_n.shtml Two accounts of al-Qaida terrorist activities, and background on three mujahideen leaders.] *Peter Marsden [http://www.bond.org.uk/networker/2003/july03/opinion.htm Does al-Qaida exist?] *Brendan O'Neill [http://www.spiked-online.com/articles/00000006DFED.htm Does al-Qaida exist?] *[http://www.guardian.co.uk/afghanistan/story/0,1284,649744,00.html Al-Qaida has been more active in Britain] [http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2003/09/16/cheney_link_of_iraq_911_challenged/ than in Iraq] *[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/front/special/roots.html PBS FRONTLINE "Identity Crisis: Old Europe Meets New Islam" by Marlena Telvick January 2005.] *[http://terrorismfiles.org/organisations/al_qaida.html Terrorism files info on al-Qaida] *[http://usembassy.state.gov/japan/wwwhse0612.html State Department letter with list of countries al-Qaida operates in] *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/panorama/3519414.stm Who is winning the war?]; BBC; [[21 March]] [[2004]]. *[http://globalguerrillas.typepad.com/globalguerrillas/2004/05/al_qaedas_grand.html "Al Qaeda's Grand Strategy"]; Robb, John -- Superpower "baiting" *[http://globalguerrillas.typepad.com/globalguerrillas/2004/04/global_guerrill.html "Global Guerrilla Financing"]; Robb, John -- How al Qaeda will finance operations in the future. *[http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/print/200409/cullison Inside Al-Qaeda's Hard Drive]; Alan Cullison, The Atlantic Monthly, September 2004. *[http://www.blogger.com/email-post.g?blogID=3463907&postID=109487993311862124 "September 11 and Its Aftermath"] Professor of history Juan Cole explains the al-Qaeda world-view *[http://www.guardian.co.uk/terrorism/story/0,12780,1327904,00.html The making of the terror myth]; Guardian; [[October 15]] [[2004]] *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/3755686.stm The Power of Nightmares]; A three-part BBC documentary about the [[War on Terrorism]] *[http://www.guardian.co.uk/terrorism/story/0,12780,1523838,00.html Comment: The struggle against terrorism cannot be won by military means]; The late British politician Robin Cook's article on defeating al-Qaeda contains a unique theory on how the organisation came to be named; Guardian; [[July 8]] [[2005]] *[http://memritv.org/Search.asp?ACT=S5&P1=139 Middle East Media Research Institute TV clips] *Kurt Nimmo [http://kurtnimmo.com/?p=131 Truth about al-CIA-duh (al-Qaeda) the Database] *John Diamond. [http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:uDdRNGwXIbUJ:rssfeeds.usatoday.com/UsatodaycomNation-TopStories%3Fm%3D2013+John+Diamond+Posted+2/14/2006&hl=en&lr=&strip=1 Secret U.S. military campaigns in the Middle East through 'proxies'], [[USA Today]], February 14, 2006. [[Category:Anti-Semitism]] [[Category:Al-Qaeda| ]] [[Category:Islamist groups]] [[ar:قاعدة (منظمة)]] [[ca:Al-Qaida]] [[da:Al-Qaida]] [[de:Al-Qaida]] [[eo:Al-Kaida]] [[es:Al Qaida]] [[eu:Al-Kaida]] [[fa:القاعده‌]] [[fi:Al-Qaida]] [[fr:Al-Qaida]] [[fy:Al Kaida]] [[gl:Al Qaida]] [[he:אל-קאעידה]] [[hr:Al-Qaeda]] [[io:Al-Kaida]] [[it:Al-Qaida]] [[ja:アルカーイダ]] [[ko:알카이다]] [[ku:El-Qaîde]] [[la:Alcaeda]] [[nl:Al Qaida]] [[nn:Al-Qaida]] [[no:Al-Qaida]] [[pl:Al-Kaida]] [[pt:Al Qaeda]] [[ro:Al-Qaida]] [[ru:Аль-Каида]] [[simple:Al-Qaeda]] [[sk:Al-Káida]] [[sl:Al Kaida]] [[sr:Ал Каида]] [[sv:Al-Qaida]] [[vi:Al-Qaeda]] [[zh:基地組織]] 1923 41930934 2006-03-02T18:28:34Z Svencb 261323 {{Commons|Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta}} {{Infobox Celebrity | name = '''Alessandro Volta''' | image = Alex_volta.jpg | caption = | birth_date = [[February 18]], [[1745]] | birth_place = [[Como]], [[Lombardy]],[[Italy]] | death_date = [[March 5]], [[1827]] | death_place = [[Como]], [[Lombardy]],[[Italy]] | occupation = [[Physics|Physicist]] | salary = | networth = | website = | footnotes = }} '''Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta''' ([[February 18]], [[1745]] - [[March 5]], [[1827]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[Physics|physicist]] known especially for the development of the [[battery (electricity)|electric battery]] in 1800. Late in life, he received the title of [[Count]]. ==Biography== Volta was born and educated in [[Como]], [[Lombardy]] ([[Italy]]), where he became [[professor]] of [[physics]] at the Royal School in [[1774]]. His passion had always been the study of electricity, and still a young student he had even written a poem in [[Latin]] on this fascinating new discovery. ''De vi attractiva ignis electrici ac phaenomenis inde pendentibus'' is his first scientific paper. [[Image:Alevoltafoto02.jpg|143px|thumb|left|De vi attractiva ...]] In [[1775]] he devised the [[electrophorus]], a device that produced a static electric charge. In [[1776]]-[[1777|77]] he studied the [[chemistry]] of [[gas]]es, discovered [[methane]], and devised experiments such as the [[ignition]] of gases by an electric [[spark]] in a closed vessel. In [[1779]] he became professor of physics at the University of [[Pavia]], a chair he occupied for 25 years. In [[1794]] Volta married Teresa Peregrini, daughter of Count Ludovico Peregrini; the couple had three sons. In [[1800]], as the result of a professional disagreement over the galvanic response advocated by [[Luigi Galvani]], he developed the so-called [[voltaic pile]], a forerunner of the electric battery, which produced a steady electric current. Volta had determined that the most effective pair of dissimilar metals to produce electricity was [[zinc]] and [[silver]]. Initially he experimented with individual cells in series, each cell being a wine goblet filled with brine into which the two dissimilar electrodes were dipped. The electric pile replaced the goblets with cardboard soaked in brine. (The number of cells, and thus the voltage it could produce, was limited by the pressure, exerted by the upper cells, that would squeeze all of the brine out of the cardboard of the bottom cell.) [[Image:alessandro_volta2.jpg|right|thumb|160px|Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta portrait.]] ==Honors== In honor of his work in the field of [[electricity]], [[Napoleon]] made him a [[count]] in [[1810]]; in [[1815]] the [[Emperor]] of [[Austria]] named him a professor of [[philosophy]] at [[Padova]]. Volta is buried in the city of [[Como]] in [[Italy]]; the '''Tempio Voltiano''' near [[Lake Como]] is a museum devoted to explaining his work; his original instruments and papers are on display there. The building appeared, along with his portrait, on Italian 10.000 [[Italian lira|lira]] banknote, before the introduction of the [[euro]]. In [[1881]] an important electrical [[SI derived unit|unit]], the [[volt]], was named in his honor. [[Volta (crater)|Volta crater]], on the [[Moon]], is also named after him. ==Interesting facts== Toyota Motor Corp has created a concept vehicle with the name [[Toyota Alessandro Volta|Alessandro Volta]]. == Weblinks == {{Commons|Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta}} [[Category:1745 births|Volta]] [[Category:1827 deaths|Volta]] [[Category:Italian physicists|Volta]] [[Category:History of neuroscience|Volta]] [[Category:Natives of Como|Volta]] [[ar:ألسندرو فولتا]] [[bs:Alessandro Volta]] [[ca:Alessandro Volta]] [[cs:Alessandro Volta]] [[de:Alessandro Volta]] [[et:Alessandro Volta]] [[es:Alessandro Volta]] [[eo:Alessandro VOLTA]] [[fr:Alessandro Volta]] [[ko:알레산드로 볼타]] [[hr:Alessandro Volta]] [[it:Alessandro Volta]] [[he:אלסנדרו וולטה]] [[nl:Alessandro Volta]] [[ja:アレッサンドロ・ボルタ]] [[no:Alessandro Volta]] [[nn:Alessandro Volta]] [[pl:Alessandro Volta]] [[pt:Alessandro Volta]] [[ro:Alessandro Volta]] [[ru:Вольта, Алессандро]] [[sk:Alessandro Volta]] [[sl:Alessandro Volta]] [[sr:Алесандро Волта]] [[fi:Alessandro Volta]] [[sv:Alessandro Volta]] [[tr:Alessandro Volta]] 1924 32802159 2005-12-26T21:47:46Z Eskimbot 477460 robot Adding: es [[Image:Argo-hevelius.jpg|thumb|250px|The constellation Argo Navis drawn by Johannes Hevelius in 1690]] '''Argo Navis''' (or simply '''Argo''') was a large southern [[constellation]] representing the ''[[Argo]]'', the ship used by [[Jason]] and the [[Argonauts]] in [[Greek mythology]]. The abbreviation was "Arg" and the genitive was "Argūs". It is the only one of [[Ptolemy]]'s list of 48 constellations that is no longer officially recognised as a constellation, having been broken up by [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]] into [[Carina (constellation)|Carina]] (the keel of the ship), [[Puppis]] (the poop) and [[Vela (constellation)|Vela]] (the sails). Were it still considered a single constellation, it would be the largest of all, being larger than [[Hydra (constellation)|Hydra]]. When Argo Navis was split, its [[Bayer designation]]s were also split. Carina has the &alpha; and &beta;, Vela has &gamma; and &delta;, Carina has &epsilon;, Puppis has &zeta;, and so on. The constellation [[Pyxis]] (the compass) occupies an area which in antiquity was considered part of Argo's mast. But Pyxis is not usually considered part of Argo Navis, and in particular its Bayer designations are separate from those of Carina, Puppis and Vela. ==See also== [[Asterism (astronomy)]] {{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}} {{ConstellationsNLDLAltered}} [[Category:Argo Navis constellation|*]] [[de:Schiff Argo (Sternbild)]] [[es:Argo Navis]] [[fr:Navire Argo (constellation)]] [[ko:아르고자리]] [[it:Argo Navis]] [[nl:Schip Argo]] [[ja:アルゴ座]] [[pl:Argo (gwiazdozbiór)]] [[pt:Argo Navis]] [[ru:Корабль Арго (созвездие)]] [[sk:Súhvezdie Loď Argo]] [[fi:Argo-laiva]] [[sv:Skeppet Argo]] [[th:กลุ่มดาวเรืออาร์โก]] 1925 39779098 2006-02-15T20:44:54Z B00P 544776 suggested mergefrom {{mergeto|Boast of Cassiopeia}} {{mergefrom|Boast of Cassiopeia}} :''See [[Andromeda (disambiguation)]] for other uses of "Andromeda".'' In [[Greek mythology]], '''Andromeda''' ("ruler of men") was the daughter of [[Cepheus]] and [[Boast of Cassiopeia|Cassiopeia]], king and queen of the [[Ethiopia|Ethiopians]]. [[Image:Paul_Gustave_Dore_Andromeda.jpg|thumb|[[Gustave Doré|Paul Gustave Doré]] painted Andromeda exposed to the sea-monster.]] Cassiopeia, having boasted herself equal in beauty to the [[Nereids]], drew down the vengeance of [[Poseidon]], who sent an inundation on the land and a sea-monster, which destroyed man and beast. The [[oracle]] of [[Ammon]] announced that no relief would be found until the king exposed his daughter Andromeda to the monster, so she was fastened to a rock on the shore. [[Perseus (mythology)|Perseus]], returning from having slain the [[Gorgon]], found Andromeda, slew the monster, set her free, and married her in spite of [[Phineus]], to whom she had before been promised. At the wedding a quarrel took place between the rivals, and Phineus was turned to stone by the sight of the Gorgon's head ([[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' v. 1). Andromeda followed her husband to [[Tiryns]] in [[Argos]], and became the ancestress of the family of the [[Perseidae]] through Perseus' and Andromeda's son, [[Perses]]. Perseus and Andromeda had six sons ([[Perseides]]): [[Perses]], [[Alcaeus]], [[Heleus]], [[Mestor]], [[Sthenelus]], and [[Electryon]], and one daughter, [[Gorgophone]]. Their descendants ruled Mycenae from [[Electryon]] down to [[Eurystheus]], after whom [[Atreus]] got the kingdom, and include the great hero [[Heracles]]. According to this mythology, Perses is the ancestor of the [[Persians]]. After her death she was placed by [[Athena]] amongst the [[constellation|constellations]] in the northern sky, near Perseus and Cassiopeia. [[Sophocles]] and [[Euripides]] (and in more modern times [[Pierre Corneille|Corneille]]) made the story the subject of tragedies. The tale is represented in numerous ancient works of art. Andromeda is represented in the northern sky by the [[constellation]] [[Andromeda (constellation)|Andromeda]] which contains the [[Andromeda Galaxy]]. This event was depicted in a modified version in the [[1981]] [[Film|movie]] ''[[Clash of the Titans]]''. ==Sources== *[[Apollodorus]], ''[[Bibliotheke]]'' II, iv, 3-5 *[[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' IV, 668-764. [[Category:Greek mythological people]] [[ca:Andròmeda (mitologia)]] [[de:Andromeda (Mythologie)]] [[et:Andromeda]] [[es:Andrómeda (mitología)]] [[fr:Andromède (mythologie)]] [[gl:Andrómeda]] [[ko:안드로메다]] [[it:Andromeda (mitologia)]] [[he:אנדרומדה]] [[lt:Andromeda (mitologija)]] [[hu:Androméda]] [[nl:Andromeda (mythologie)]] [[ja:アンドロメダ]] [[pl:Andromeda (mitologia)]] [[pt:Andrômeda]] [[ru:Андромеда (мифология)]] [[sk:Andromeda (mytológia)]] [[sl:Andromeda (mitologija)]] [[fi:Andromeda (mytologia)]] [[sv:Andromeda (mytologi)]] [[uk:Андромеда]] 1926 39502903 2006-02-13T23:28:20Z RJHall 91076 /* Notable and named stars */ {{Infobox Constellation| name = Antlia | abbreviation = Ant | genitive = Antliae | symbology = the pump | RA = 10 | dec= &minus;30 | areatotal = 239 | arearank = 62nd | numberstars = 0 | starname = [[Alpha Antliae|&alpha; Ant]] | starmagnitude = 4.25 | meteorshowers = None | bordering = *[[Hydra (constellation)|Hydra]] *[[Pyxis]] *[[Vela (constellation)|Vela]] *[[Centaurus]] | latmax = 45 | latmin = 90 | month = April | notes=}} The [[constellation]] '''Antlia''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[pump]]'') is a relatively new constellation as it was only created in the [[18th century]], being too faint to be acknowledged by the ancient Greeks. The [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]] adopted it as one of the 88 modern constellations. Beginning at the north, Antlia is surrounded by the sea snake [[Hydra (constellation)|Hydra]], the compass [[Pyxis]], the sails ([[Vela (constellation)|Vela]]) of the mythological ship [[Argo]] and finally the centaur [[Centaurus]]. ==Notable features== Antlia is a faint constellation void of bright stars. Its least faint star is: *[[Alpha Antliae|&alpha; Ant]]: being Antlia's principal star its apparent brightness is still only 4.25 mag. Its spectral class is K4&nbsp;III ==Notable deep sky objects== *[[NGC 2997]]: [[Spiral galaxy]] of type Sc which is inclined 45° to our line of sight. *[[NGC 3132]]: This [[planetary nebula]] is also called ''Eight Burst Nebula'' or ''Southern Ring Nebula''. At its heart is a binary system. *[[PGC 29194]]: This [[dwarf spheroidal galaxy]] with an apparent brightness of only 14.8m belongs to our [[Local Group]] of galaxies. It was only discovered as recently as [[1997]].[http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap970423.html] ==History== The French astronomer Abbé [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]] created 13 constellations for the southern sky to fill some star poor regions, among them Antlia. It was originally denominated ''Antlia pneumatica'' (Latin for the [[air pump]] invented by [[Robert Boyle]]) which is why in English this constellation is also often called Air Pump. It is interesting to note that no attempt seems to have been made to assign [[Bayer designation|Bayer letters]] according to their apparent brightness. There is no mythology attached to Antlia as Lacaille discontinued the tradition of giving names from mythology to constellations and instead chose mostly names of instruments used in science. ==Notable and named stars== {| class="wikitable" |- ! [[Bayer designation|BD]] ! Names and other designations ! [[apparent magnitude|Mag.]] ! [[Light year|Ly]] away ! Comments |- | &alpha; || [[Alpha Antliae]] || 4.28 || 366 || |- | &epsilon; || [[Epsilon Antliae]] || 4.51 || 700 || |- | &iota; || [[Iota Antliae]] || 4.60 || 199 || |- | &theta; || [[Theta Antliae]] || 4.78 || 384 || |- | &eta; || [[Eta Antliae]] || 5.23 || 106 || |- | || [[U Antliae]] || 5.50 || 840 || [[carbon star]] |- | &delta; || [[Delta Antliae]] || 5.57 || 481 || |- | &zeta;&sup1; || [[Zeta Antliae|Zeta-1 Antliae]] || 5.75 || 372 || [[binary star]]; component magnitudes: 6.18, 7.00 |- | &zeta;&sup2; || [[Zeta Antliae|Zeta-2 Antliae]] || 5.91 || 374 || |- | || [[HD 93083]] || 8.33 || 94.2 || has a planet |} Source: <cite>The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed.</cite>, <cite>The Hipparcos Catalogue, ESA SP-1200</cite> The faint star [[DENIS 1048-39]], discovered in [[2000]] and located in the Antilia constellation, may be as close as 13.2 light years from the Sun.[http://www.hawaii.edu/ur/News_Releases/NR_Nov00/lowmass.html] <!-- Source of values for "nebulae": SEDS' data on NGC --> ==See also== {{ConstellationsByLacaille}} {{ConstellationList}} == External links == {{Commons|Antlia}} [[Category:Antlia constellation|*]] * [http://www.nightskyinfo.com/constellations/antlia/ NightSkyInfo.com: Constellation Antlia] [[ca:Màquina Pneumàtica (constel·lació)]] [[da:Luftpumpen]] [[de:Luftpumpe (Sternbild)]] [[es:Antlia]] [[fr:Machine pneumatique]] [[ga:An tAerchaidéal]] [[ko:공기펌프자리]] [[id:Antlia]] [[it:Antlia]] [[la:Antlia (sidus)]] [[lt:Siurblys (astronomija)]] [[hu:Légszivattyú (csillagkép)]] [[nl:Luchtpomp (sterrenbeeld)]] [[ja:ポンプ座]] [[nn:Luftpumpa]] [[pl:Pompa (gwiazdozbiór)]] [[pt:Antlia]] [[ru:Насос (созвездие)]] [[sk:Súhvezdie Výveva]] [[th:กลุ่มดาวเครื่องสูบลม]] [[vi:Tức Đồng]] [[zh:唧筒座]] 1927 40039033 2006-02-17T18:06:54Z AstroMalasorte 527461 /* External links */ {{Infobox Constellation| name = Ara | abbreviation = Ara | genitive = Arae | symbology = the Altar | RA = 17.39 | dec= &minus;53.58 | areatotal = 237 | arearank = 63rd | numberstars = 1 | starname = [[Beta Arae|&beta; Ara]] | starmagnitude = 2.9 | meteorshowers = None | bordering = *[[Corona Australis]] *[[Scorpius]] *[[Norma (constellation)|Norma]] *[[Triangulum Australe]] *[[Apus]] *[[Pavo (constellation)|Pavo]] *[[Telescopium]] | latmax = 25 | latmin = 90 | month = July | notes=}} '''Ara''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[Altar]]'') is a faint southerly [[constellation]] between the constellations [[Telescopium]] and [[Norma (constellation)|Norma]]. == Notable features == Ara's brightest star, [[Beta Arae|&beta; Arae]], has an [[apparent magnitude]] of 2.9. Its &gamma; star is a [[double star]] just south of &beta;. [[Mu Arae|&mu; Arae]] is believed to have at least three planets orbiting it, one of which is thought to be rocky in nature. == Notable deep sky objects == The northwest corner of Ara is crossed by the [[Milky Way]] and contains several [[open cluster]]s and [[diffuse nebula]]e. The brightest of the [[globular cluster]]s, [[NGC 6397]], is 8,200 [[light-year]]s from our [[solar system]] and may be the closest cluster of that kind. == History == This constellation was one of [[Ptolemy]]'s original 48 constellations. == Mythology == The altar, usually depicted upside down, but sometimes upright with the smoke drifting into the Milky Way, was identified as that of the [[centaur]] [[Chiron]]; its original Latin name was Ara Centauri. It was also occasionally called the altar of [[Dionysus]]. Since, however, the constellation was identified, and introduced, in the 18th Century, connection to this mythology is likely to have been by design of the constellation's creator, and unconnected to the actual beliefs of the ancient Greeks about this area of sky. ==Notable and named stars== {| class="wikitable" |- ! [[Bayer designation|BD]] ! Names and other designations ! [[apparent magnitude|Mag.]] ! [[Light year|Ly]] away ! Comments |- | &beta; || [[Beta Arae]] || 2.85 || 603 || |- | &alpha; || [[Alpha Arae]], Choo, Tchou || 2.95 || 242 || * < &#26485; (Mandarin ''ch&#468;'') The pestle * [[Be star]] |- | &zeta; || [[Zeta Arae]], Tseen Yin || 3.12 || 574 || * < &#22825;&#38512; (Mandarin ''ti&#257;ny&#299;n'') The dark sky [actually in Aries?] |- | &gamma; || [[Gamma Arae]] || 3.34 || 1140 || |- | &delta; || [[Delta Arae]], Tseen Yin || 3.62 || 187 || * < &#22825;&#38512; (Mandarin ''ti&#257;ny&#299;n'') The dark sky [actually in Aries?] |- | &theta; || [[Theta Arae]] || 3.65 || 1010 || |- | &eta; || [[Eta Arae]] || 3.77 || 313 || |- | &epsilon;&sup1; || [[Epsilon Arae|Epsilon-1 Arae]], Tso Kang || 4.06 || 304 || * < &#24038;&#26356; (Mandarin ''zu&#335;g&#275;ng'') The left watch [actually in Aries?] |- | &sigma; || [[Sigma Arae]] || 4.56 || 386 || |- | &lambda; || [[Lambda Arae]] || 4.76 || 71.3 || |- | &mu; || [[Mu Arae]] || 5.14 || 49.8 || * has three planets |- | &kappa; || [[Kappa Arae]] || 5.19 || 398 || |- | &iota; || [[Iota Arae]] || 5.21 || 720 || * [[Gamma Cassiopeiae variable|Gamma Cassiopeiae type]] [[variable star]] |- | &pi; || [[Pi Arae]] || 5.25 || 138 || |- | &epsilon;&sup2; || [[Epsilon Arae|Epsilon-2 Arae]] || 5.27 || 85.9 || |- | &nu;&sup1;, &upsilon;&sup1; || [[Nu Arae|Nu-1 Arae]], Upsilon-1 Arae, V539 Arae || 5.68 || 820 || * [[eclipsing binary]] |- | &nu;&sup2;, &upsilon;&sup2; || [[Nu Arae|Nu-2 Arae]], Upsilon-2 Arae || 6.09 || 508 || |} Source: <cite>The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed.</cite>, <cite>The Hipparcos Catalogue, ESA SP-1200</cite> == See also == {{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}} {{ConstellationList}} == External links == {{Commons|Ara}} * [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/norma/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Ara] * [http://www.nightskyinfo.com/constellations/ara/ NightSkyInfo.com: Constellation Ara] <!-- The below are interlanguage links. --> [[Category:Ara constellation| ]] [[ca:Altar (constel·lació)]] [[cs:Oltář (souhvězdí)]] [[da:Alteret]] [[de:Altar (Sternbild)]] [[es:Ara]] [[fr:Autel (constellation)]] [[ga:An Altóir]] [[ko:제단자리]] [[id:Ara]] [[it:Ara (astronomia)]] [[la:Ara (sidus)]] [[lt:Aukuras (astronomija)]] [[hu:Oltár (csillagkép)]] [[nl:Altaar (sterrenbeeld)]] [[ja:さいだん座]] [[nn:Alteret]] [[pl:Ołtarz (gwiazdozbiór)]] [[pt:Ara]] [[ru:Жертвенник (созвездие)]] [[sk:Súhvezdie Oltár]] [[sv:Altaret]] [[th:กลุ่มดาวแท่นบูชา]] [[zh:天坛座]] 1928 39870436 2006-02-16T12:46:15Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 '''Auriga''' can refer to: *[[Auriga (constellation)|A constellation of stars]] *[[Auriga (slave)|A Roman slave chauffeur]] *[[Alien: Resurrection|A spaceship in Alien: Resurrection]] {{disambig}} [[ca:Auriga]] [[es:Auriga]] [[it:Auriga]] [[pl:Woźnica (gwiazdozbiór)]] [[pt:Auriga]] [[sv:Auriga]] 1930 42066997 2006-03-03T16:11:04Z ScottMainwaring 288266 rv vandalism {{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}} ---- {{US Confederate state | Name = Arkansas | Fullname = State of Arkansas | Flag = Flag of Arkansas.svg | Flaglink = [[Flag of Arkansas]] | Seal = Arkansasstateseal.jpg | Map = Map_of_USA_highlighting_Arkansas.png | Nickname = The Natural State | Capital = [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]] | OfficialLang = [[English language|English]] | LargestCity = [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]] | Governor = [[Mike Huckabee|Mike Huckabee]] (R)| Senators = [[Blanche Lincoln]] (D) [[Mark Pryor]] (D) | PostalAbbreviation = AR | TradAbbreviation = Ark. | AreaRank = 29^th | TotalArea = 137&nbsp;732 | LandArea = 134&nbsp;856 | WaterArea = 2876 | PCWater = 2.09 | PopRank = 33^rd | 2004Pop = 2,752,629 | DensityRank = 34^th | 2000Density = 19.82 | AdmittanceOrder = 25^th | AdmittanceDate = [[June 15]], [[1836]] | SecessionDate = [[May 6]], [[1861]] | ReadmittanceDate = [[June 22]], [[1868]] | TimeZone = [[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-6/[[Daylight saving time|DST]]-5 | Latitude = 33°N to 36°30'N | Longitude = 89°41'W to 94°42'W | Width = 385 | Length = 420 | HighestElev = 839 | MeanElev = 198 | LowestElev = 17 | ISOCode = US-AR | TradAbbrev = Ark | Website = www.state.ar.us }} '''Arkansas''' ([[IPA chart for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|/ˈɑ(r)k(ə)nˌsɑː/}} or {{IPA|/ˈɑ(r)k(ə)nˌsɔ/}}) is a [[U.S. Southern States|Southern]] [[U.S. state|state]] in the [[United States]]. The population according to the [[United States Census, 2004|2004 census]] was 2,752,629. It was admitted as the 25th state of the United States in 1836. ==History== The early French explorers of the state gave it its name, which is probably a phonetic spelling for the French word for "downriver" people, a reference to the [[Quapaw]] people and the river along which they settled. Other [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] nations living in present-day Arkansas were [[Caddo]], [[Cherokee]] and [[Osage]] Nations. On [[June 15]], [[1836]], Arkansas became the 25th state of the [[United States]] as a [[slave state]]. Arkansas refused to join the [[Confederate States of America]] until after [[Abraham Lincoln]] called for troops to invade South Carolina. It seceded from the Union on May 6, 1861. The state was the scene of numerous small-scale battles during the [[American Civil War]]. Under the Military Reconstruction Act, Congress, in June 1868, readmitted Arkansas. ===Historical references=== *[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3070180 Blair, Diane D. ''Arkansas Politics & Government: Do the People Rule?'' (1998)] *Deblack, Thomas A. ''With Fire and Sword: Arkansas, 1861-1874'' (2003) *Donovan, Timothy P. and Willard B. Gatewood Jr., eds. ''The Governors of Arkansas'' (1981) *Dougan, Michael B. ''Confederate Arkansas'' (1982), *Duvall, Leland. ed., ''Arkansas: Colony and State'' (1973) *Fletcher, John Gould. ''Arkansas'' (1947) *Hanson, Gerald T. and Carl H. Moneyhon. ''Historical Atlas of Arkansas'' (1992) *Key, V. O. ''Southern Politics'' (1949), chapter on Arkansas *Moore, Waddy W. ed., ''Arkansas in the Gilded Age, 1874-1900'' (1976). *[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=52694010 Peirce, Neal R. ''The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States'' (1974)] solid reporting on politics and economics 1960-72 *Thompson, George H. ''Arkansas and Reconstruction'' (1976) *Whayne, Jeannie M. et al. ''Arkansas: A Narrative History '' (2002) *Whayne, Jeannie M. ''Arkansas Biography: A Collection of Notable Lives'' (2000) *White, Lonnie J. ''Politics on the Southwestern Frontier: Arkansas Territory, 1819-1836'' (1964) ===Primary sources=== *Williams, C. Fred. ed. ''A Documentary History Of Arkansas'' (2005) *[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59509893 WPA., ''Arkansas: A Guide to the State'' (1941)] ==Law and government== [[Image:LR capitol.jpg|thumb|right|The Arkansas State Capitol.]] The current governor of Arkansas is [[Mike Huckabee]], a [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]. Huckabee, who had been elected lieutenant governor in a [[1993]] special election, became governor in [[1996]] when Governor [[Jim Guy Tucker]], a [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]], was convicted as part of the [[Whitewater Scandal]]. This led to a state "Constitutional crisis" when Tucker refused to give up the governor's office for a short period of time, because the Arkansas Constitution does not allow a convicted felon to be governor of the state. Tucker had been lieutenant governor under [[Bill Clinton]] and had become governor as a result of Clinton's election to the presidency. Arkansas' two U.S. Senators are Democrats [[Blanche Lincoln]] and [[Mark Pryor]]. The state has four seats in House of Representatives. Three seats are held by Democrats&mdash;[[Marion Berry]] ([http://nationalatlas.gov/printable/images/preview/congdist/ar01_109.gif map]), [[Vic Snyder]] ([http://nationalatlas.gov/printable/images/preview/congdist/ar02_109.gif map]), and [[Mike Ross]] ([http://nationalatlas.gov/printable/images/preview/congdist/ar04_109.gif map]). One seat is held by the state's lone Republican Congressman, [[John Boozman]] ([http://nationalatlas.gov/printable/images/preview/congdist/ar03_109.gif map]). The Democratic Party holds [[super-majority]] status in the [[Arkansas General Assembly]]. Republicans actually lost seats in the State House in 2004. A majority of local and statewide offices are also held by Democrats. This arrangement is extremely rare in the modern [[U.S. Southern States|South]], where a majority of statewide offices are held by Republicans. Most Republican strength lies mainly in northwest Arkansas in the area around [[Fort Smith, Arkansas|Fort Smith]], while the rest of the state is strongly Democratic. Arkansas has only elected one Republican to the United States Senate since [[Reconstruction]] and the Arkansas General Assembly has not been controlled by the Republican Party since Reconstruction, and is the fourth most Democratic Legislature in the country, after [[Massachusetts General Court|Massachusetts]], [[Hawaii State Legislature|Hawaii]], and [[Connecticut General Assembly|Connecticut]]. Arkansas is also the only state among the states of the former [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] that sends two Democrats to the U.S. Senate. However, the state is perceived as generally being conservative &ndash; its voters passed a ban on [[gay marriage]] and Arkansas is one of a handful of states that has legislation on its books banning [[abortion]] in the event [[Roe vs. Wade]] is ever overturned. In Arkansas, the lieutenant governor is elected separately from the governor and thus can be from a different political party. Each office's term is four years long. Office holders are [[term-limited]] to two full terms plus any partial terms prior to the first full term. Some of Arkansas' [[counties]] have two county seats, as opposed to the usual one seat. The arrangement dates back to when travel was extremely difficult in the states. The seats are usually on opposite sides of the county. Though travel is no longer the difficulty it once was, there are few efforts to eliminate the two seat arrangement where it exists, since the county seat is a source of pride (and jobs) to the city involved. ''See: [[List of Arkansas Governors]]'' ===Pronunciation and symbols=== The state is the only one with a pronunciation specified by law. Section 105 of Chapter 4 of Title 1 of the Arkansas code^{[http://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/NXT/gateway.dll/ARCode/title00000.htm/chapter00063.htm/section00068.htm?f=templates$fn=document-frame.htm$3.0#JD_1-4-105]} determined in 1881 the official, codified pronunciation of Arkansas: "It should be pronounced in three (3) syllables, with the final "s" silent, the "a" in each syllable with the Italian sound, and the accent on the first and last syllables." The same section states that the variation ''are-KAN-sas'' "is an innovation to be discouraged." There are differing abbreviations of ''Arkansas'' in use: '''AR''' ([[U.S. postal abbreviations|postal]]), '''Ark.''' ([[List of U.S. states by traditional abbreviation|traditional]] and [[AP Stylebook]]), and '''US-AR''' ([[ISO 3166-2]]). The following [[Lists of U.S. state insignia|state symbol]]s are officially recognized by the state law. *State American Folk Dance: [[Square Dance]] *State Anthem: ''[[Arkansas (song)|Arkansas]]'' by [[Eva Ware Barnett]] *State Beverage:[[ Milk]] *State Bird: [[Mockingbird]] *State Flower: [[Apple]] Blossom *State Folk Dance: [[Square Dance]] *State Fruit: South Arkansas Vine Ripe Pink [[Tomato]] *State Gem: [[Diamond]] *State Historical Song: ''The [[Arkansas Traveler]]'' (folk song) *State Historic Cooking Vessel: [[Dutch oven]] *State Insect: [[Honeybee]] *State Mammal: [[White-tailed Deer]] *State Mineral: [[Quartz]] Crystal *State Motto: ''[[Regnat Populus]]'' (The People Rule) *State Musical Instrument: the [[Fiddle]] *State Rock: [[Bauxite]] *State Soil: [[Stuttgart Soil Series]] *State Songs: "Arkansas (You Run Deep in Me)" by Wayland Holyfield and "Oh, Arkansas" by Terry Rose and Gary Klass *State Tree: Pine *State Vegetable: South Arkansas Vine Ripe Pink Tomato == Famous Arkansans == *[[John Harold Johnson]], [[Johnson Publishing Company]]. Born in [[Arkansas City, Arkansas]], January 19, 1918. *[[Johnny Cash]], [[Country Music]] [[legend]]. Born in [[Kingsland, Arkansas]], February 26th 1932. *[[Buddy Jewell]], [[Country Music]] [[star]]. Born in [[Osceola, Arkansas]]. *[[Bill Clinton]], former [[President of the United States]]. Born August 19th 1946, in [[Hope, Arkansas]]. *[[Matt Jones]], [[NFL]] [[football]] [[star]] and 2005 1st round [[NFL draft]] pick to the [[Jacksonville Jaguars]]. Born April 22nd 1983 in [[Fort Smith, Arkansas]]. *[[Paul "Bear" Bryant]], [[legendary]] [[University of Alabama]] [[football]] [[coach]]. Born in [[Moro Bottom, Arkansas]] on September 11, 1913. *[[Jody Evans]], rising [[Country Music]] [[star]]. Born November 15th, 1976, in [[Arkadelphia, Arkansas]]. *[[Derek Fisher]], [[NBA]] [[basketball]] [[star]]. Born August 9th, 1974 in [[Little Rock, Arkansas]]. *[[Billy Bob Thornton]], [[Hollywood]] [[film star]] and famous personality. August 4th 1955, in [[Hot Springs, Arkansas]]. *[[Jimmy Driftwood]], famous [[Folk Music]] and [[Country Music]] personality. Born June 20th 1907, in [[Mountain View, Arkansas]]. *[[Sam Walton]], creator of [[Wal Mart]] stores, and one of the worlds wealthiest men. Born in [[Oklahoma]], but created [[Wal Mart]] in 1962, in [[Rogers, Arkansas]]. *[[Alan Ladd]], [[Hollywood]] [[actor]] most famous for his leading role in ''[[Shane]]''. Born September 3rd 1913 in [[Hot Springs, Arkansas]]. *[[Mary Steenburgen]], [[Academy Award]]-winning [[Hollywood]] [[actress]] for her 1981 supporting role in ''Melvin and Howard'', and a co-star on the canceled [[CBS]] [[television program|television series]] ''[[Joan of Arcadia]]''. Born February 8th 1953 in [[Newport, Arkansas]]. *[[Glen Campbell]], [[Country Music]] [[star]] most famous for his songs "[[Rhinestone Cowboy]]" and "[[Wichita Lineman]]". Born in [[Delight, Arkansas]] in 1936. *[[Floyd Cramer]], famous [[musician]] most known for his [[piano]] [[instrumental]] "Last Date". Born in [[Shreveport, Louisiana]] and raised in [[Huttig, Arkansas]] in 1933. *[[Gail Davis]], [[Hollywood]] film actress, best know as [[Annie Oakley]] from the 1950's [[television series]]. Born in [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]] on October 5th 1925 and raised in [[McGehee, Arkansas]]. *[[Tracy Lawrence]], [[Country Music]] [[star]]. Born in [[Atlanta, Texas]] in 1968, raised in [[Foreman, Arkansas]]. *[[Freeman Owens]], former [[World War I]] [[combat camera]] operator, who later perfected the art of putting sound on [[film]] as a [[pioneer]] in [[cinematography]]. Born in [[Pine Bluff, Arkansas]] in 1890. *[[Dick Powell]], [[Hollywood]] [[actor]], [[producer]] and [[Film director|director]], best know for 1930's films such as ''[[42nd Street]]'' and ''[[A Midsummer Nights Dream]]''. Born in [[Mountain View, Arkansas]] in 1904. *[[Collin Raye]], [[Country Music]] star best known for his songs "Little Rock", and "Love Me". Born in [[De Queen, Arkansas]] in 1960. *[[Conway Twitty]], [[Country Music]] [[legend]] with number 1 music hits such as "It's Only Make Believe", "Hello Darlin' " and "Tight Fitting Jeans". Born in [[Friars Point, Mississippi]] in 1933, he was raised in [[Helena, Arkansas]]. Born with the name [[Harold Jenkins]], he took his [[stage name]] from the towns of [[Conway, Arkansas]] and [[Twitty, Texas]]. *[[John Grisham]], [[author]] and [[attorney]], best known for his books that were later transformed into popular [[movies]], such as ''[[The Pelican Brief]]'', ''[[A Time To Kill]]'', ''[[The Client]]'', ''[[The Rainmaker]]'', ''[[The Firm (book)|The Firm]]'' and ''[[The Chamber]]''. Born in [[Jonesboro, Arkansas]] in 1955. *[[Lou Brock]], former [[Major League Baseball]] player, thought to be the greatest [[base]] stealer of his era. Started his professional [[baseball]] career with the [[Chicago Cubs]] in 1961. Born in [[El Dorado, Arkansas]] in 1939. *[[William Carr]], 1932 [[Olympic Gold Medalist]]. Born in [[Pine Bluff, Arkansas]] in 1909. *[[John Daly]], [[PGA]] [[golf]] [[champion]]. Born in [[California]] in 1966, raised from age 5 in [[Dardanelle, Arkansas]]. *[[Dizzy Dean|Jay Hanna "Dizzy" Dean]], member of the [[National Baseball Hall of Fame]]. Born in [[Lucas, Arkansas]]. *[[Jerry Jones]], owner of the [[NFL]] team [[Dallas Cowboys]]. Born in 1942 in [[North Little Rock, Arkansas]], specifically hailing from [[Rose City, Arkansas|Rose City]]. *[[George Kell]], member of the [[National Baseball Hall of Fame]]. Born in 1942 in [[Swifton, Arkansas]]. *[[Mark Martin]], [[NASCAR]] [[race car]] driver. Born in 1956 in [[Batesville, Arkansas]]. *[[Sidney Moncrief]], retired [[NBA]] [[star]] who played for the [[Milwaukee Bucks]] and who set several college records with the [[University of Arkansas]]. Born in 1957 in [[Little Rock, Arkansas]]. *[[Scottie Pippen]], former [[NBA]] [[legend]] who played for the [[Chicago Bulls]] championship teams, and arguably one of the most talented players ever to play the game. Born in 1965 in [[Hamburg, Arkansas]]; attended the [[University of Central Arkansas]]. *[[Brooks Robinson]], member of the [[National Baseball Hall of Fame]]. Born in 1937 in [[Little Rock, Arkansas]]. *[[Barry Switzer]], former head [[coach]] of the [[NFL]] team [[Dallas Cowboys]]. Born in [[Crossett, Arkansas]] in 1937. *[[John Hanks Alexander]], the first [[African American]] to hold a regular command position in the [[US Armed Forces]] and the second [[African American]] to graduate from [[West Point]]. Born in [[Helena, Arkansas]] on January 6th 1864. *Corliss Williamson, former NBA 6th Man of the Year and member of the 2004 NBA Champion [http://www.nba.com/pistons Detroit Pistons]. Lead the Arkansas Razorbacks to the 1994 NCAA title. Now a member of the [http://www.nba.com/kings Sacramento Kings]. Born and raised in Russellville, Arkansas. ==Geography== {{ussm|arkansas.PNG|ar}} ''See: [[List of Arkansas counties]], [[List of cities in Arkansas]], [[List of Arkansas townships]], [[List of Arkansas native plants]].'' The capital of Arkansas is [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]]. Arkansas is the only state in the US where [[Diamond|diamonds]] are found naturally (near [[Murfreesboro, Arkansas]]). The eastern border for most of Arkansas is the [[Mississippi River]] except in Clay and Greene counties where the St. Francis River forms the western boundary of the [[Missouri Bootheel]]. Arkansas shares its southern border with [[Louisiana]], its northern border with [[Missouri]], its eastern border with [[Tennessee]] and [[Mississippi]], and its western border with [[Texas]] and [[Oklahoma]]. Arkansas is a beautiful land of mountains and valleys, thick forests and fertile plains. Northwest Arkansas is part of the [[Ozark Plateau]] including the [[Boston Mountains]], to the south are the [[Ouachita Mountains]] and these regions are divided by the Arkansas River; the southern and eastern parts of Arkansas are called the Lowlands. The so called Lowlands are better known as the [[Mississippi embayment|Delta]] and the Grand Prairie. The land along the Mississippi river is referred to as the "Delta" of Arkansas. It gets this name from the formation of its rich alluvial soils formed from the flooding of the mighty Mississippi. The Grand Prairie is slightly away from the Mississippi river in the southeast portion of the state and consists of a more undulating landscape. Both are fertile agricultural areas and home to much of the crop agriculture in the state. [[Image:PetitJean.jpg|right|thumb|260px|''Petit Jean State Park'', one of many attractions that give the state's nickname ''The Natural State''.]] Arkansas is home to many [[List of caves in Arkansas|cave]]s, such as [[Blanchard Springs Caverns]]. [[Hot Springs National Park]] and the [[Buffalo National River]] can also be found within its borders. ===[[Interstate highway]]s=== *[[Interstate 30]] *[[Interstate 40]] *[[Interstate 55]] *[[Interstate 430]] *[[Interstate 440 (Arkansas)|Interstate 440]] *[[Interstate 530]] *[[Interstate 540 (Arkansas)|Interstate 540]] *[[Interstate 630]] ===[[United States highway]]s=== {| |- | align=center | ''North-south routes'' | align=center | ''East-west routes'' |- | valign=top | *[[U.S. Highway 425]] *[[U.S. Highway 49]] *[[U.S. Highway 59]] *[[U.S. Highway 61]] *[[U.S. Highway 63]] *[[U.S. Highway 65]] *[[U.S. Highway 165]] *[[U.S. Highway 67]] *[[U.S. Highway 167]] *[[U.S. Highway 71]] *[[U.S. Highway 371]] *[[U.S. Highway 79]] | valign=top | *[[U.S. Highway 412]] *[[U.S. Highway 62]] *[[U.S. Highway 64]] *[[U.S. Highway 70]] *[[U.S. Highway 270]] *[[U.S. Highway 278]] *[[U.S. Highway 82]] |} ===Major Arkansas highways=== {| |- | align=center | ''North-south routes'' | align=center | ''East-west routes'' |- | valign=top | *[[Arkansas State Highway 1]] *[[Arkansas State Highway 5]] *[[Arkansas State Highway 7]] | valign=top | *[[Arkansas State Highway 4]] *[[Arkansas State Highway 10]] |} ==Economy== [[Image:wiki_arkansas.jpg|thumb|300px|Greetings from Arkansas]] The state's total gross state product for 2003 was $76 billion. Its Per Capita Personal Income for 2003 was $24,384, 50^th in the nation. The state's agriculture outputs are poultry and eggs, soybeans, sorghum, cattle, cotton, rice, hogs, and milk. Its industrial outputs are food processing, electric equipment, fabricated metal products, machinery, paper products, bromine, and vanadium. In recent years, [[automobile]] parts manufacturers have opened factories in eastern Arkansas to support auto plants in other states (though Arkansas does not yet have an auto plant itself, it is rumored to be a future site for a [[Toyota]] plant as well as for a truck plant to be built by Toyota's subsidiary [[Hino Motors]]). Tourism is also very important to the Arkansas economy; the official state nickname "The Natural State" is prominently displayed in state tourism advertising. The effect of [[Tyson Foods]], [[Wal-Mart]], [[J.B. Hunt]] and other multinational companies located in NW Arkansas cannot be understated. The area is currently in a long-running economic boom due to being the forefront of Global Trade. [[Wal-Mart]] alone accounts for $8.90 out of every $100 spent in U.S. retail stores. ==Demographics== {{main|List of people from Arkansas}} {| class="toccolours" align="right" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;" |- ! colspan=2 bgcolor="#ccccff" align="center"| Historical populations |- ! align="center"| Census<br>year !! align="right"| Population |- | colspan=2|<hr> |- | align="center"| 1810 || align="right"| 1,062 |- | align="center"| 1820 || align="right"| 14,273 |- | align="center"| 1830 || align="right"| 30,388 |- | align="center"| 1840 || align="right"| 97,574 |- | align="center"| 1850 || align="right"| 209,897 |- | align="center"| 1860 || align="right"| 435,450 |- | align="center"| 1870 || align="right"| 484,471 |- | align="center"| 1880 || align="right"| 802,525 |- | align="center"| 1890 || align="right"| 1,128,211 |- | align="center"| 1900 || align="right"| 1,311,564 |- | align="center"| 1910 || align="right"| 1,574,449 |- | align="center"| 1920 || align="right"| 1,752,204 |- | align="center"| 1930 || align="right"| 1,854,482 |- | align="center"| 1940 || align="right"| 1,949,387 |- | align="center"| 1950 || align="right"| 1,909,511 |- | align="center"| 1960 || align="right"| 1,786,272 |- | align="center"| 1970 || align="right"| 1,923,295 |- | align="center"| 1980 || align="right"| 2,286,435 |- | align="center"| 1990 || align="right"| 2,350,725 |- | align="center"| [[United States 2004 Census|2004]] || align="right"| 2,752,629 |} As of 2005, Arkansas has an estimated population of 2,779,154, which is an increase of 29,154, or 1.1%, from the prior year and an increase of 105,756, or 4.0%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 52,214 people (that is 198,800 births minus 146,586 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 57,611 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 21,947 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 35,664 people. 48.8% is male, and 51.2% is female. Racially, Arkansas is: *78.6% [[Whites|White]] non-Hispanic *15.7% [[African American|Black]] *3.2% [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] *0.8% [[Asian American|Asian]] *0.7% [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] *1.3% [[Mixed race]] The five largest ancestry groups in the state are: [[United States|American]] (15.9%), [[African American]] (15.7%), [[Ireland|Irish]] (9.5%), [[German-American|German]] (9.3%), [[British American|English]] (7.9%). People of American ancestry have a strong presence in the northwestern Ozarks and the central part of the state. Blacks live mainly in the fertile southern and eastern parts of the state, especially along the Mississippi river. Arkansans of British and German ancestry are mostly found in the far northwestern Ozarks near the Missouri border. As of 2000, 95.0% of Arkansas residents age 5 and older speak [[English language|English]] at home and 3.3% speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. [[French language|French]] is the third most spoken language at 0.3%, followed by [[German language|German]] at 0.3% and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] at 0.1%. ===Religion=== Arkansas, like most other Southern states, is overwhelmingly Protestant. The religious affiliations of the people are as follows: *[[Christianity|Christian]] &ndash; 86% **[[Protestant]] &ndash; 78% ***[[Baptist]] &ndash; 39% ***[[Methodist]] &ndash; 9% ***[[Pentecostal]] &ndash; 6% ***[[Church of Christ]] &ndash; 6% ***[[Assemblies of God]] &ndash; 3% ***Other Protestant &ndash; 15% **[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] &ndash; 7% **Other Christian &ndash; 1% *Other Religions &ndash; <1% *Non-Religious &ndash; 14% ==Important cities and towns== {| |- | valign=top | *[[Arkadelphia, Arkansas|Arkadelphia]] *[[Batesville, Arkansas|Batesville]] *[[Bella Vista, Arkansas|Bella Vista]] *[[Benton, Arkansas|Benton]] *[[Bentonville, Arkansas|Bentonville]] *[[Blytheville, Arkansas|Blytheville]] *[[Bryant, Arkansas|Bryant]] *[[Cabot, Arkansas|Cabot]] *[[Camden, Arkansas|Camden]] *[[Conway, Arkansas|Conway]] *[[El Dorado, Arkansas|El Dorado]] *[[Fayetteville, Arkansas|Fayetteville]] *[[Forrest City, Arkansas|Forrest City]] *[[Fort Smith, Arkansas|Fort Smith]] *[[Harrison, Arkansas|Harrison]] *[[Hope, Arkansas|Hope]] *[[Hot Springs, Arkansas|Hot Springs]] *[[Jacksonville, Arkansas|Jacksonville]] *[[Jonesboro, Arkansas|Jonesboro]] *[[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]] *[[Lonoke, Arkansas|Lonoke]] | valign=top | *[[Magnolia, Arkansas|Magnolia]] *[[Maumelle, Arkansas|Maumelle]] *[[Monticello, Arkansas|Monticello]] *[[Mountain Home, Arkansas|Mountain Home]] *[[North Little Rock, Arkansas|North Little Rock]] *[[Paragould, Arkansas|Paragould]] *[[Pine Bluff, Arkansas|Pine Bluff]] *[[Pocahontas, Arkansas|Pocahontas]] *[[Pottsville, Arkansas|Pottsville]] *[[Rector, Arkansas|Rector]] *[[Rogers, Arkansas|Rogers]] *[[Russellville, Arkansas|Russellville]] *[[Searcy, Arkansas|Searcy]] *[[Sherwood, Arkansas|Sherwood]] *[[Smackover, Arkansas|Smackover]] *[[Springdale, Arkansas|Springdale]] *[[Siloam Springs, Arkansas|Siloam Springs]] *[[Texarkana, Arkansas|Texarkana]] *[[Van Buren, Arkansas|Van Buren]] *[[West Helena, Arkansas|West Helena]] *[[West Memphis, Arkansas|West Memphis]] |} ==Education and research centers== ===Centers of research=== * [http://www.comanchelodge.com/chickamauga-cherokee.html Arkansas Cherokee Indian Research] * [[Dale Bumpers National Rice Research Center]] [http://www.dbnrrc.ars.usda.gov/ website] * [[National Center for Toxicological Research]] [http://www.fda.gov/nctr/ website] ===Colleges and universities=== [[Image:UAMS Cancer.JPG|thumb|right|[[University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences]], Little Rock.]] *[[University of Arkansas System]] **[[University of Arkansas]] **[[University of Arkansas - Fort Smith]] **[[University of Arkansas at Little Rock]] **[[University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences]] **[[University of Arkansas at Monticello]] **[[University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff]] <p> *[[Arkansas Baptist College]] *[[Arkansas Tech University]] *[[Central Baptist College]] *[[Harding University]] *[[Henderson State University]] *[[Hendrix College]] *[[John Brown University]] *[[Lyon College]] *[[Ouachita Baptist University]] *[[Philander Smith College]] *[[Southern Arkansas University]] *[[University of Central Arkansas]] *[[University of the Ozarks]] *[[Williams Baptist College]] [[Image:Astate.jpg|thumb|right|[[Arkansas State University]], Jonesboro.]] *[[Arkansas State University System]] **[[Arkansas State University|Arkansas State University - Jonesboro]] **[[Arkansas State University - Beebe]] **[[Arkansas State University - Mountain Home]] **[[Arkansas State University - Newport]] **[[Arkansas State University - Marked Tree]] **[[Arkansas State University - Heber Springs]] **[[Arkansas State University - Searcy]] ==See also== *[[Arkansas Literature]] *[[Ivory-billed Woodpecker]], long thought extinct, was recently re-discovered in the Big Woods of Arkansas *[[South Arkansas]] *[[List of Arkansas native plants]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Arkansas}} *[http://www.state.ar.us Official State website Homepage] *[http://www.arcountydata.com Online access to Arkansas County Records] *[http://www.arkansas.com/things-to-do/history-heritage/facts.asp Facts About Arkansas] *[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/05000.html U.S. Census Bureau] *[http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/arkansas Arkansas Newspapers] *[http://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/data/ar_code.asp Arkansas State Code (the state statutes of Arkansas)] * [http://www.southernlitreview.com/states/arkansas Literature of Arkansas] {{United_States}} {{Arkansas}} [[Category:Arkansas|*]] [[Category:States of the United States]] [[Category:1836 establishments]] [[ang:Arkansas]] [[ar:أركنساس]] [[ast:Arkansas]] [[bg:Арканзас]] [[zh-min-nan:Arkansas]] [[bs:Arkansas]] [[ca:Arkansas]] [[cs:Arkansas]] [[da:Arkansas]] [[de:Arkansas]] [[et:Arkansas]] [[es:Arkansas]] [[eo:Arkansaso]] [[fr:Arkansas]] [[ga:Arkansas]] [[gd:Arkansas]] [[gl:Arcansas]] [[ko:아칸소 주]] [[id:Arkansas]] [[is:Arkansas]] [[it:Arkansas]] [[he:ארקנסו]] [[ka:არკანზასი]] [[la:Arcansia]] [[lv:Ārkanzasa]] [[lt:Arkanzasas]] [[lb:Arkansas]] [[hu:Arkansas]] [[mk:Арканзас]] [[ms:Arkansas]] [[nl:Arkansas]] [[ja:アーカンソー州]] [[no:Arkansas]] [[nn:Arkansas]] [[os:Арканзас]] [[pl:Arkansas]] [[pt:Arkansas]] [[ru:Арканзас]] [[sa:आर्कन्‍सा]] [[sq:Arkansas]] [[simple:Arkansas]] [[sk:Arkansas]] [[sl:Arkansas]] [[sr:Арканзас]] [[fi:Arkansas]] [[sv:Arkansas]] [[tr:Arkansas]] [[uk:Арканзас]] [[zh:阿肯色州]] 1931 41185087 2006-02-25T17:00:28Z Sango123 223113 a -> A {{portal}} {{wiktionarypar|atmosphere}} '''Atmosphere''' may refer to: *[[Celestial body atmosphere]], such as: **[[Earth's atmosphere]] **[[Stellar atmosphere]]s *[[Atmosphere (unit)]], a unit of pressure *[[Gas]] mixture (an artificial atmosphere) *Ambience or [[mood]] *[[Atmosphere (band)]], a hip-hop music group *[[Adobe Atmosphere]], a 3D computer graphics product by Adobe Systems {{disambig}} [[ar:غلاف جوي]] [[ca:Atmosfera]] [[da:Atmosfære]] [[de:Atmosphäre (Begriffsklärung)]] [[eo:Atmosfero]] [[es:Atmósfera]] [[et:Atmosfäär]] [[fr:Atmosphère]] [[lt:Atmosfera]] [[nl:Atmosfeer]] [[pl:Atmosfera]] [[ru:Атмосфера]] [[sl:Atmosfera (razločitev)]] [[sv:Atmosfär]] [[uk:&#1040;&#1090;&#1084;&#1086;&#1089;&#1092;&#1077;&#1088;&#1072;]] 1932 15900392 2002-04-22T23:54:30Z Lee Daniel Crocker 43 * #REDIRECT [[wikipedia talk:Avoid statements that will date quickly]] 1933 40828570 2006-02-23T07:09:07Z Palica 188933 robot Adding: sk :''For the genus of birds, see [[Apus (genus)]].'' :''For the computer, see [[APUS_Computer|APUS]].'' {{Infobox Constellation| name = Apus | abbreviation = Aps | genitive = Apodis | symbology = the [[bird of paradise]] | RA = 16 | dec= &minus;75 | areatotal = 206 | arearank = 67th | numberstars = 0 | starname = [[Alpha Apodis|&alpha; Aps]] | starmagnitude = 3.83 | meteorshowers = None | bordering = *[[Triangulum Australe]] *[[Circinus]] *[[Musca]] *[[Chamaeleon]] *[[Octans]] *[[Pavo (constellation)|Pavo]] *[[Ara]] | latmax = 5 | latmin = 90 | month = July | notes=}} '''Apus''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[bird of paradise]]'' or ''[[swallow]]'', from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''&alpha;&pi;&omicron;&upsilon;&sigmaf;'', lit. "no-feet") is a faint southern [[constellation]], not visible to the ancient Greeks. The constellation was one of twelve constellations created by [[Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser]] and [[Frederick de Houtman]] between [[1595]] and [[1597]], and it first appeared in [[Johann Bayer]]'s ''[[Uranometria]]'' of [[1603]]. ==Notable and named stars== {| style="color:#000000; font-size:smaller;" cellspacing=2 cellpadding=0 |- ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | [[Bayer designation|BD]] ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | Names and other designations ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | [[apparent magnitude|Mag.]] ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | [[Light year|Ly]] away ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" | Comments |- | &alpha; || [[Alpha Apodis]] || 3.83 || 411 || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &gamma; || [[Gamma Apodis]] || 3.86 || 160 || |- | &beta; || [[Beta Apodis]] || 4.23 || 158 || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &delta;&sup1; || [[Delta Apodis|Delta-1 Apodis]] || 4.68 || 770 || * [[irregular variable]] * [[double star]] with [[Delta Apodis|&delta;&sup2; Apodis]] |- | &zeta; || [[Zeta Apodis]] || 4.79 || 312 || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &eta; || [[Eta Apodis]] || 4.89 || 140 || |- | &epsilon; || [[Epsilon Apodis]] || 5.06 || 551 || * [[Gamma Cassiopeiae variable|Gamma Cassiopeiae type]] [[variable star]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &delta;&sup2; || [[Delta Apodis|Delta-2 Apodis]] || 5.27 || 663 || * [[double star]] with [[Delta Apodis|&delta;&sup1; Apodis]] |- | &iota; || [[Iota Apodis]] || 5.39 || 1140 || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &kappa;&sup1; || [[Kappa Apodis|Kappa-1 Apodis]] || 4.68 || 1020 || * [[Gamma Cassiopeiae variable|Gamma Cassiopeiae type]] [[variable star]] |- | || [[R Apodis]] || 5.37 || 428 || |- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | &kappa;&sup2; || [[Kappa Apodis|Kappa-2 Apodis]] || 5.64 || 735 || |- | &theta; || [[Theta Apodis]] || 5.69 || 328 || * [[semiregular variable|semiregular]] [[variable star]] |} Source: <cite>The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed.</cite>, <cite>The Hipparcos Catalogue, ESA SP-1200</cite> <BR clear="all"/> ==See also== {{ConstellationsByBayer}} {{ConstellationList}} == External links == *[http://www.astronomical.org/portal/modules/wfsection/article.php?articleid=3 Peoria Astronomical Society - Apus] * [http://www.nightskyinfo.com/constellations/apus/ NightSkyInfo.com: Constellation Apus] {{Commons|Apus}} {{astro-stub}} [[Category:Apus constellation| ]] [[ca:Au del Paradís]] [[cs:Rajka (souhvězdí)]] [[da:Paradisfuglen]] [[de:Paradiesvogel (Sternbild)]] [[es:Apus]] [[fr:Oiseau de paradis (constellation)]] [[ko:극락조자리]] [[id:Apus]] [[it:Apus]] [[la:Apus (sidus)]] [[lt:Rojaus Paukštis (astronomija)]] [[hu:Paradicsommadár (csillagkép)]] [[nl:Paradijsvogel (sterrenbeeld)]] [[ja:ふうちょう座]] [[nn:Paradisfuglen]] [[pt:Apus]] [[ru:Райская Птица (созвездие)]] [[sk:Súhvezdie Rajka]] [[th:กลุ่มดาวนกการเวก]] [[vi:Thiên Yến]] [[zh:天燕座]] 1934 41724005 2006-03-01T08:20:14Z Phil Boswell 24373 migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]] [[Image:Abadan.png|right|Map of Iran (Persia) and surrounding lands, showing location of Abadan]] '''Abadan''' (&#1570;&#1576;&#1575;&#1583;&#1575;&#1606; in [[Persian language|Persian]]) is a city in the [[Khuzestan]] province in southwestern [[Iran]] ([[Persian empire|Persia]]). It lies on Abadan Island, on the [[Arvand]] river. In 2005 the population was estimated to be at 1,291,690.<small>[http://www.mongabay.com/igapo/2005_world_city_populations/Iran.html]</small> ==Etymology== In [[medieval]] sources and up to the present century, the name of the Island always occurs in the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] form '' 'Abadan''(ﻥﺍﺩﺎﺒﻋ). This name has sometimes been derived from the word ''worshiper''(ﺩﺎﺒﻋ). On the other hand, ''Beladori''(d.[[892]]) quotes the story that the town was founded by '' 'Abbad bin Hosayn Khabethi'', who established a garrison there during the governorship of ''Hajjaj'' in the [[Ummayad]] period. An Iranian etymology of the name (from the Persian word "ab" (water) and the root "p&#257;" (guard, watch) thus "coastguard station"), was suggested by ''B. Farahvashi''. Supporting evidence is the name "Apphana" which [[Ptolemy]] applies to an island off the mouth of The Tigris. The Persian version of the name had begun to come into general use before it was adopted by official decree in [[1935]] (see [http://www.iranica.com/articles/search/searchpdf.isc?ReqStrPDFPath=/home1/iranica/articles/v1_articles/abadan&OptStrLogFile=/home/iranica/public_html/logs/pdfdownload.html Abadan], in [[Encyclopaedia Iranica]], pp.51-52). The geographer Marcian also renders the name "Apphadana" in his writings (see ''Geographia Marciani Heracleotae'', ed. David Hoeschel, Augsburg 1600 p48). ==History== Abadan is thought to have originally developed as a port city under the [[Abbasid]]s' rule. From 17th century onward, the Island of Abadan was part of the lands of the [[Arab]] ''Ka'ab'' ([[Bani Kaab]]) tribe. One section of this tribe, ''Mohaysen'', had its headquarters at ''Mohammara''(present-day [[Khorramshahr]]), until the removel of Shaikh [[Khaz'al Khan]] in [[1924]]. (see [http://www.iranica.com], p.53, under ''Abadan'') It was not until the [[20th century]] that rich oil fields were discovered in the area. In 1910, the population had been around 400. The [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company]] built their first [[oil refinery]] in Abadan, starting in 1909 and completing it in 1913. By 1938, it was the largest in the world. To this day it remains a vast facility for refining [[petroleum]]. Only a low 9 percent of managers (of the oil company) were from Khuzestan. The proportion of natives of [[Tehran]], the [[Caspian]], [[Azarbaijan]] and [[Kurdistan Province, Iran|Kurdistan]] rose from 4 percent of [[blue collar]] workers to 22 percent of [[white collar]] workers to 45 percent of managers. Thus while [[Arabic]] speakers were concentrated on the lower rungs of the work force, managers tended to be brought in from some distance.(see [http://www.iranica.com], p.56, under ''Abadan'') On [[August 20]] [[1978]], the Cinema Rex, a movie theater in Abadan, was locked from the outside and [[arson|set on fire]], resulting in 430 deaths. To this day it is not entirely clear what happened, but it was believed by some that the government of the Iranian [[Shah]] [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]] purposely set the theater ablaze to kill several [[dissident]]s who were hiding inside. This event sparked [[protest|mass demonstrations]] against Pahlavi's government, which was overthrown six months later by [[Islam]]ic [[fundamentalism|fundamentalists]] and their supporters (see [[Iranian Revolution]]). Most more accurately accuse Ayatollah Ali Khamenei of committing this tragedy. In September 1980, Abadan was almost overrun during a surprise attack on Khuzestan by Iraq, marking the beginning of the [[Iran-Iraq War]]. For 18 months Abadan was besieged, but never captured, by Iraqi forces. Much of the city, including the oil refinery, was badly damaged or destroyed by the siege and by bombing. Previous to the war, the city's civilian [[population]] was about 300,000, but before it was over most of the populous had sought refuge elsewhere in Iran. After the war, the biggest concern was the rebuilding of Abadan's oil refinery. In 1993 the refinery began limited operation, and by 1997 it reached the same rate of production it was at before the war. ===Recent events=== To honor the 100th anniversary of the refining of oil in Abadan, city officials are planning an "oil [[museum]]" {{ref|chn.ir}} <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Abadan.jpg|thumb|200px|Abadan]] --> ==Places of Interest== [[Image:Abadan_taj_cinema.jpg|thumb|250px|Taj cinema in Abadan|frame|Taj cinema in Abadan]] The [[Abadan Institute of Technology]] was established in Abadan in 1939. The school specialized in [[engineering]] and petroleum [[chemistry]], and was designed to train staff for the refinery in town. The school's name has since changed several times, but since 1989 has been considered a branch campus of the [[Petroleum University of Technology]], centered in [[Tehran]]. There is an international [[airport]] in Abadan. It is represented by the [[IATA airport code]] [[ABD]]. ==Trivia== * The Abadan oil refinery was featured on the reverse side of Iran's 100-rial banknotes printed in 1965 and from 1971 to 1973. ==See also== * [[Abadan Crisis]] ==References== * {{note|chn.ir}} {{cite web | title=Southern Iran Craves for an Oil Museum | url=http://www.chn.ir/en/news/?id=5870&section=2 | accessdate= October 20 | accessyear= 2005 }} ==External links== * [http://www.put.ac.ir/abadan/Default.htm Abadan Institute of Technology] - Home page * [http://www.abadan-ref.org/ Abadan Oil Refinery] - Home page * [http://www.ostan-kz.ir/en/albumdetail_aen_i_1.html Abadan Photo Gallery from the Khuzestan Governorship] * [http://www.abadan.net Abadan.Net] ---- ''Abadan'' is also the name of a 2003 Iranian movie from director [[Mani Haghighi]]. [[Category:Cities in Iran]] [[ar:عبدان]] [[da:Abadan]] [[de:Abadan]] [[et:Ābādān]] [[eo:Abadano]] [[es:Abadán]] [[fa:آبادان]] [[fr:Abadan]] [[gl:Abadán - آبادان]] [[it:Abadan]] [[nl:Abadan]] [[no:Abadan]] [[ja:アバダーン]] [[pl:Abadan]] [[ru:Абадан]] [[fi:Abadan]] [[sv:Abadan]] [[uk:Абадан]] 1935 33853741 2006-01-04T15:59:51Z RussBot 279219 Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -"Attorney at Law" +"Attorney at law" #REDIRECT [[Attorney at law]] 1936 15900396 2002-02-25T15:51:15Z Conversion script Automated conversion #REDIRECT [[Astronomical_unit]] 1937 40701747 2006-02-22T12:08:10Z 138.130.144.90 /* Accolades */ [[image:Alexander-fleming.jpg|thumb|Alexander Fleming]] Sir '''Alexander Fleming''' ([[August 6]], [[1881]] &ndash; [[March 11]], [[1955]]) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[biologist]] and [[pharmacologist]]. He discovered the [[antibiotic]] substance [[lysozyme]] and isolated the antibiotic substance [[penicillin]] from the fungus ''[[Penicillium notatum]]'', for which he shared a [[Nobel Prize]]. == Birth and education== Fleming was born on a [[farm]] at [[Lochfield]] near [[Darvel]] in [[East Ayrshire]], and was schooled for two years at the Academy in [[Kilmarnock]]. He later attended [[St Mary's Hospital (London)|St Mary's Hospital]] medical school in [[London]] until [[World War I]] broke out. He and many of his colleagues worked in battlefield hospitals at the fronts in [[France]]. He learned of the works by [[Ernest Duchesne]]. ==Fable== The popular story of [[Lord Randolph Churchill|Winston Churchill's father]]'s paying for Fleming's education after Fleming's father saved young [[Winston Churchill|Winston]] from death is certainly false. According to the biography, "Penicillin Man: Alexander Fleming and the Antibiotic Revolution" by Kevin Brown, Alexander Fleming is quoted as saying that this was "a wonderful fable". Nor did he save Winston Churchill himself during WWII. Churchill was saved by [[Lord Moran]], using [[sulphonamide]]s, since he had no experience with penicillin, when Churchill fell ill in Carthage in Tunisia in 1943. The Daily Telegraph and The Morning Post on 21 December 1943 wrote that he had been saved by penicillin. It is probable that, as [[sulphonamides]] were a German discovery, and there was a war with the Germans, the patriotic pride in the miracle cure of penicillin had something to do with this error in reporting. ==Rediscovery== Fleming worked with the mold for some time, but refining and growing it was a difficult process better suited to chemists. Fleming's impression was that, because of the problem of producing the drug in quantity and because its action seemed slow, it would not be an important resource for treating infection. Furthermore, his initial paper was not well received in the medical community. Fleming therefore did not pursue the subject further. It was left to two other scientists, [[Howard Walter Florey|Howard Florey]] and [[Ernst Boris Chain]], to develop a method of purifying penicillin to an effective form. Through their work, the drug was available for mass distribution during [[World War II]]. ==Accolades== For his achievements, Fleming was knighted in 1944, he was known as Sir Gustav santina, after his Grandfather, and step Great grandfather Gustav Lichtenstein, and Santina Gauchiosos ( from Checkoslavakia and Spain ). Fleming, Florey, and Chain were the joint recipients of the [[Nobel Prize in Medicine]] in 1945. Florey was later given the honour of a peerage for his monumental work in making penicillin available to the public and saving millions of lives in World War II. Fleming was ranked #43 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]]. The discovery of penicillin was ranked as the most important discovery of the millennium when the year 2000 was approaching by at least 3 large Swedish magazines, as seen in for example: http://www.nyteknik.se/pub/ipsart.asp?art_id=1462. It is impossible to know how many lives have been saved by this discovery, but some of these magazines placed their estimate near 200 million lives, which, if even remotely true, might arguably make this man the greatest hero ever. Fleming was long a member of the [[Chelsea Arts Club]], a private club for artists of all genres, founded in 1891 at the suggestion of the painter [[James McNeil Whistler]]. Fleming was admitted to the club after he made "germ paintings," in which he drew with a culture loop using spores of highly pigmented bacteria. The bacteria were invisible while he painted, but when cultured made bright colours. :''[[Serratia]] marcescens'' - red :''[[Chromobacterium]] violaceum'' - purple :''[[Micrococcus]] luteus'' - yellow :''[[Micrococcus]] varians'' - white :''[[Micrococcus]] roseus'' - pink :''[[Bacillus]] sp.'' - purple ==Death== Fleming died in 1955 of a [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] at the age of 73. He was buried as a national hero in the crypt of [[St. Paul's Cathedral]] in [[London]]. His discovery of penicillin had changed the world of modern medicines by introducing the age of useful [[antibiotic]]s and his discovery of the penicillin has, and still, saved millions of people. ==External links== *[http://www.importantscots.com/sir-alexander-fleming.htm Sir Alexander Fleming - Important Scots] * "Penicillin Man", by Kevin Brown, official biographer for Fleming at St Mary's Hospital. http://www.amazon.co.uk/exec/obidos/ASIN/0750931523/203-6687617-7055925 [[Category:1881 births|Fleming, Alexander]] [[Category:1955 deaths|Fleming, Alexander]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Fleming, Alexander]] [[Category:Freemasons|Fleming, Alexander]] [[Category:Humanitarians]] [[Category:Knights Commander of the British Empire|Fleming, Alexander]] [[Category:Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences|Fleming, Alexander]] [[Category:Natives of East Ayrshire|Fleming, Aleaxnder]] [[Category:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners|Fleming, Alexander]] [[Category:Pharmacologists|Fleming, Alexander]] [[Category:Scottish biologists|Fleming, Alexander]] [[Category:Scottish inventors|Fleming, Alexander]] [[Category:Scottish Nobel laureates|Fleming, Alexander]] [[Category:Scottish scholars|Fleming, Aleaxnder]] [[Category:Alumni of Imperial College London|Fleming, Aleaxnder]] [[Category:Lecturers of Imperial College London|Fleming, Aleaxnder]] [[ar:ألكسندر فلمينغ]] [[ca:Alexander Fleming]] [[cs:Alexander Fleming]] [[cy:Alexander Fleming]] [[da:Alexander Fleming]] [[de:Alexander Fleming]] [[es:Alexander Fleming]] [[eo:Alexander FLEMING]] [[fr:Alexander Fleming]] [[ko:알렉산더 플레밍]] [[hr:Alexander Fleming]] [[io:Alexander Fleming]] [[id:Alexander Fleming]] [[it:Alexander Fleming]] [[he:אלכסנדר פלמינג]] [[ka:ფლემინგი, ალექსანდერ]] [[hu:Alexander Fleming]] [[nl:Alexander Fleming]] [[ja:アレクサンダー・フレミング]] [[no:Alexander Fleming]] [[pl:Alexander Fleming]] [[pt:Alexander Fleming]] [[ro:Alexander Fleming]] [[ru:Флеминг, Александр]] [[fi:Alexander Fleming]] [[sv:Alexander Fleming]] [[ta:அலெக்ஸாண்டர் பிளெமிங்]] [[vi:Alexander Fleming]] [[tr:Alexander Fleming]] [[zh:亚历山大·弗莱明]] 1938 42102828 2006-03-03T21:17:38Z 68.44.143.168 /* Postwar years, 1865-1880: Carnegie the investor */ {{Infobox Celebrity | name =Andrew Carnegie | image = Andrew-carnegie-portrait-pd.png | caption = | birth_date = [[November 25]] [[1835]] | birth_place = [[Dunfermline]], [[Scotland]] | death_date = [[August 11]] [[1919]] | death_place = [[Lenox, Massachusetts]] | occupation = [[List of business people|Businessman]] and [[Philanthropist]] | salary = | networth = | website = | footnotes = }} '''Andrew Carnegie''' ([[November 25]] [[1835]] &ndash; [[August 11]] [[1919]]) was a [[Scottish-American]] [[List of business people|businessman]], a major [[philanthropist]], and the founder of the [[Carnegie Steel Company]] which later became [[U.S. Steel]]. He is known for having, later in his life, given away most of his riches to fund the establishment of many libraries, schools, and universities in America and worldwide. ==Formative influences== ===The Carnegie family in Scotland=== Andrew Carnegie was born on Wednesday, November 25, 1835, in [[Dunfermline]], [[Fife]], [[Scotland]]. He was the son of a [[hand loom]] weaver, William Carnegie. His mother was Margaret, daughter of one Thomas Morrison, a [[tanner]] and [[shoemaker]]. Many of Carnegie's closest relatives were self-educated tradesmen and class activists. William Carnegie, whilst poor, had educated himself and, as far as his resources would permit, saw to it that his children received an education, as well. William Carnegie was moreover a militant political activist and was involved with those organising demonstrations against the [[Corn laws]]. He was also a [[Chartist]]. Andrew Carnegie's maternal grandfather, Thomas Morrison, was one of the most persistent campaigners for [[Liberalism|liberal]] reforms in Scotland. Through the dint of his own efforts of [[self education]], Thomas Morrison acquired an eloquence with the written word that matched his more privileged "betters". He wrote frequently to newspapers and contributed articles in the [[Radicalism|radical]] [[pamphlet]], ''Cobbett's Register'' edited by [[William Cobbett]]. Amongst other things, he argued for: abolition of the [[Rotten Boroughs]] and reform of the [[British House of Commons]], which occurred much later in the [[Great Reform Act of 1832]], [[Catholic Emancipation]], and Laws governing safety at work, which were passed many years later in the [[Factory Acts]]. Most radically of all, however, he promoted the abolition of all forms of hereditary privilege, including all [[Monarchy|monarchies]]. Another great influence on the young Andrew Carnegie was his uncle, George Lauder, a proprietor of a small grocers shop in Dunfermline High Street. This uncle introduced the young Carnegie to such historical Scottish heroes as [[Robert the Bruce]], [[William Wallace]], and [[Rob Roy]]. He was also introduced to the writings of [[Robbie Burns]]. It was, perhaps, Burns who most influenced Carnegie, who regarded Burns as one of the greatest preachers of [[Democracy]]. Uncle George Lauder had Carnegie commit to memory many pages of Burns's writings, writings that were to stay with him for the rest of his life. George Lauder was additionally interested in the [[United States]]. Lauder saw the U.S.A. as a country with "democratic institutions". Another uncle, his mother's brother, "Ballie" Morrison, was also a radical political firebrand. The chief object of this gentleman's tirades was the [[Church of England]] and the [[Church of Scotland]]. "Ballie" Morrison was a fervent [[nonconformist]]. In 1842, the young Carnegie's radical sentiments were stirred further at the news of Uncle "Ballie" being imprisoned for his part in a "Cessation of Labour" ([[Strike action|strike]]). At this time, withdrawal of labour by an hireling was covered by criminal law. Notwithstanding these literary and political influences, poverty in the Carnegie family was always at hand and severe. === Emigration to America=== Andrew Carnegie's father had worked as a jobbing hand loom weaver. This involved receiving the mill's raw materials at his cottage and weaving them into cloth on the primitive loom in the cottage. In the 1840's, a new system was coming into being, the factory system. During this era, mill owners began constructing large weaving mills with looms powered at first by water wheels and later by steam engines. These factories could produce cloth at far lower cost, partly through increased mechanisation and economies of scale, but partly also by paying mill workers very low wages and by working them very long hours. The success of the mills forced William Carnegie to seek work in the mills or elsewhere away from home. However, the radical views of Andrew Carnegie's father were well known, and he was not wanted. He chose to emigrate. His mother's two sisters had already emigrated, but it was his wife who persuaded William Carnegie to make the passage. Making the passage was not easy, however, for they had to find the passage money. They were forced to sell their meagre possessions and borrow some £20 from friends, a considerable sum in 1848. That May, his family emigrated to the U.S.A., sailing on the ''Wiscasset'', a former [[whaler]] that took the family from Broomielaw, in [[Glasgow]], to New York. From there they proceeded up the [[Hudson River]] and the [[Erie Canal]] to [[Lake Erie]] and then to [[Allegheny, Pennsylvania]], where William Carnegie found work in a cotton factory. Young Andrew Carnegie found work in the same building as a "Bobbin boy" for the sum of $1.20 per week. His younger brother, by some eight years, Thomas, was sent to school. Andrew Carnegie, the Scot, quickly became Andrew Carnegie the American. Three years after arriving in the U.S.A., the young Carnegie began writing to his friends in Scotland extolling the great virtues of American democracy whilst disparaging and criticising "feudal British institutions". At the same time, he followed in his father's footsteps and wrote letters to the newspapers including the ''[[New York Tribune]]'' on subjects such as slavery. ==Early career== ===1850-1860: A 'self made man'=== Andrew Carnegie's education and passion for reading was given a great boost by one Colonel [[James Anderson]], who opened his personal library of 400 volumes to working boys each Saturday night. Carnegie was a most persistent borrower. Andrew Carnegie was a "self made man" in the roundest possible sense insofar as it applied not only to his economic development but also to his intellectual and cultural development. His capacity and willingness for hard work, his perseverance, and his alertness, soon brought forth opportunities. In 1851, he became a [[Telegraphy|Telegraph]] Messenger boy in the [[Pittsburgh]] Office of the [[Ohio Telegraph Company]], at $2.50 per week. This, to the young Carnegie, seemed a fortune. In addition to providing him with an increase in income, the job also provided him with a lifelong love of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare's]] works. He was frequently required to deliver messages to a [[theatre]], and he often managed to contrive appearing just as the curtain had been raised on a performance. Using a charm that was to pay even greater dividends in the future, Carnegie was then usually able to convince the theatre's manager to allow him to stay and watch the performance for free. When Carnegie was not at the theatre or improving his mind with a book, he would spend time listening to the telegraph instrument itself. The electric telegraph transmitted its signals along the wires that traversed the nation. When they were received into the telegraph office, they were transcribed into readable script on a long paper tape with the aid of an elaborate machine. He quickly learned to distinguish the differing sound the incoming signals produced and learned to transcribe, himself. At the time, Andrew Carnegie was one of only two or three persons so gifted in the entire country. Having learned Telegraphy, he was noted by [[Tom Scott (PRR)|Thomas A. Scott]] of the [[Pennsylvania Railroad Company]], who employed him as a secretary/Telegraph operator starting in 1853, at the princely salary of $4.00 per week. Carnegie was sixteen and soon began a rapid advancement through the company, eventually becoming the Superintendent of the Pittsburgh Division. ===1860-1865: Carnegie during the [[U.S. Civil War]]=== During the pre-war period, Andrew Carnegie had formed a partnership with a Mr. Woodruff, an inventor. Woodruff's invention was the [[sleeping car]]. The great distances transversed by railways had meant stopping for the night at hotels and inns by the railside, so that passengers could rest. The sleeping car sped up travel and helped Americans settle the American west. The investment proved a great success and a source of great fortune for Woodruff and Carnegie. The young Carnegie, who started work at an early age as a [[bobbin boy]] in a [[cotton]] mill, and, who was, a few years later, engaged as a [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] clerk and operator with the [[Atlantic and Ohio Company]], now became the superintendent of the western division of the entire line. In this post, Carnegie was responsible for several improvements in the service. When the [[American Civil War]] opened in 1861, he accompanied Scott, then [[Assistant United States Secretary of War]], to the front. Following his good fortune, Carnegie proceeded to increase it still further through fortunate and careful investments. In 1864, Carnegie invested the sum of $40,000 in Storey Farm on [[Venango County, Pennsylvania|Oil Creek, in Venango County, Pennsylvania]]. In one year, the farm yielded over $1,000,000 in cash dividends, and oil from [[oil well]]s on the property sold profitably. Carnegie was subsequently associated with others in establishing a [[steel]] [[rolling mill]]. Aside from Carnegie's investment successes, he was beginning to figure prominently in the American cause and in American culture. With the Civil War raging, Carnegie soon found himself in Washington. Carnegie was selected by his boss at the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, Thomas A. Scott, who was now Assistant Secretary of War in charge of military transportation, to join him in Washington. Carnegie was appointed Superintendent of the Military Railways and the Union Government's telegraph lines in the East and was Scott's right hand man. Carnegie, himself, was on the foot plate of the locomotive that pulled the first brigade of Union troops to reach Washington. Shortly after this, following the defeat of Union forces at Bull Run, he personally supervised the transportation of the defeated forces. Under his organization, the telegraph service rendered efficient service to the Union cause and significantly assisted in the eventual victory. During his work "in the field", Carnegie fell ill and needed treatment for sunstroke. The Civil War, as so many wars before it, brought boom times to the suppliers of war. The U.S. iron industry was one such. Before the war its production was of little significance, but the sudden huge demand brought boom times to Pittsburgh and similar cities and great wealth to the iron masters. Carnegie had some investments in this industry before the war and, after the war, left the railroads to devote all his energies to the ironworks trade. Carnegie worked to develop several iron works, eventually forming The Keystone Bridge Works and the Union Ironworks, in Pittsburgh. Although he had left the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, he did not totally sever his links with the railroads. These links would prove valuable. The Keystone Bridge Company made iron train bridges, and, as company superintendent, Carnegie had noticed the weakness of the traditional wooden structures. These were replaced in large numbers with iron bridges made in his works. As well as having good business sense, Carnegie possessed charm and literary knowledge. He was invited to many important social functions, functions that Carnegie exploited to his own advantage and to the fullest extent. Carnegie’s philanthropic inclinations began some time before retirement. He wrote; "I propose to take an income no greater than $50,000 per annum! Beyond this I need ever earn, make no effort to increase my fortune, but spend the surplus each year for benevolent purposes! Let us cast aside business forever, except for others. Let us settle in Oxford and I shall get a thorough education, making the acquaintance of literary men. I figure that this will take three years active work. I shall pay especial attention to speaking in public. We can settle in London and I can purchase a controlling interest in some newspaper or live review and give the general management of it attention, taking part in public matters, especially those connected with education and improvement of the poorer classes. Man must have an idol and the amassing of wealth is one of the worst species of idolatry! No idol is more debasing than the worship of money! Whatever I engage in I must push inordinately; therefore should I be careful to choose that life which will be the most elevating in its character. To continue much longer overwhelmed by business cares and with most of my thoughts wholly upon the way to make more money in the shortest time, must degrade me beyond hope of permanent recovery. I will resign business at thirty-five, but during these ensuing two years I wish to spend the afternoons in receiving instruction and in reading systematically!" Carnegie postponed most of his philanthropic intentions to "proper old age". ===Postwar years, 1865-1880: Carnegie the investor=== In the late 1860’s and into the 1870s, Carnegie was "out and about and all over the place". Carnegie now had new investments aside from the iron venture, the [[Keystone Bridge Company]]. Carnegie had added to his investments in Pennsylvania oil investments in [[Texas]], which earned him a small fortune, and, after the war, undertook several trips to [[Europe]] selling railroad securities on a commission basis for, among others, the London firm of [[Junius S. Morgan & Company]]. The last of these trips was in 1872, the commission earned being $150,000. Andrew Carnegie's multiple successes in bond selling, oil trading, and bridge building were so rapidly successful that the conservative Pittsburgh business community regarded him with a certain circumspection. It was during these trips to Europe and to Britain, in particular, that Carnegie came into contact with British steel makers, then the world leaders. He obtained a working knowledge of the [[Bessemer process]] of steel making and became a friend of its inventor, Sir [[Henry Bessemer]]. In 1868, he introduced the Bessemer steel making process into the U.S.A. and, in 1873, decided on a now famous gamble. He decided to "put all his eggs in one basket, and then watch the basket." That year he staked all his wealth on steel making. His fellow Americans did not realize it at the time, but the day Carnegie decided to take this gamble was the day the eventual industrial supremacy of the U.S. became certain. It took Andrew Carnegie only a matter of a few years to become the principal owner of the [[Homestead & Edgar Thompson Steel Works]], and only a short time more to be heading the firms of [[Carnegie, Phipps & Company]] and[[ Carnegie Bros. & Company]], as well. ===1880-1890: Carnegie the scholar and activist=== Whilst Carnegie continued his business career, some of his literary intentions were fulfilled. During this time, he made many friends in the literary and political worlds. Among these were such as [[Malcolm Arnold]] and [[Herbert Spencer]] as well as being in correspondence and acquaintance with most of the U.S. Presidents, statesmen, and notable writers of the time. Many were visitors to the Carnegie home. Carnegie greatly admired [[Herbert Spencer]], the polymath who seemed to know everything. He did not, however, agree with Spencer's [[Social Darwinism]] which held that philanthropy was a bad idea. In 1881, Andrew Carnegie took his family, which included his mother, then aged 70, on a trip to Great Britain. They toured the sights of [[England]] and [[Scotland]] by coach having several receptions en-route. The highlight for them all was a triumphal return to Dunfermline where Carnegie's mother laid the foundation stone of the "Carnegie Library". Andrew Carnegie's criticism of British society did not point to a dislike of the country of his birth, on the contrary, one of Carnegie's ambitions was to act as a catalyst for a close association between the English speaking peoples. To this end, he purchased, in the first part of the 1880's, a number of newspapers in England, all of which were to advocate the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of "the British Republic". Surprisingly, Carnegie's charm aided by his great wealth meant that he had many British friends, including [[Prime Minister]] [[William Ewart Gladstone|Gladstone]]. In 1886, tragedy struck Carnegie when his young brother Thomas died at the early age of 43. Success in the business continued, however. At the same time as owning steel works, Carnegie had purchased, at low cost, the most valuable of the iron ore fields around Lake Superior. The same year Andrew Carnegie became a figure of controversy. Following his tour of Great Britain, he wrote about his experiences in a book entitled, ''An American Four-in-hand in Britain''. Although still actively involved in running his many businesses, Carnegie had become a regular contributor of articles to numerous serious minded magazines, most notably the ''Nineteenth Century'', under the editorship of [[James Knowles]], and the ''North American Review'', whose editor, [[Lloyd Bryce]], oversaw the publication during its most influential period. That year, 1886, Carnegie penned his most radical work to date, entitled ''Triumphant Democracy''. The work, liberal in its use of statistics to make its arguments, was an attempt to argue his view that the American [[republic]]an system of government was superior to the British [[monarchy|monarchical]] system. It not only gave a overly-favourable and idealistic view of American progress, but made some considerable criticism of the British royal family. Most antagonistic, however, was the cover that depicted amongst other motifs, an upended royal crown and a broken sceptre. Given these aspects, it was no surprise that the book was the cause of some considerable controversy in Great Britain. The book itself was successful. It made many Americans aware for the first time of their country's economic progress and sold over 40,000 copies, mostly in the U.S.A. In 1889, Carnegie stirred up yet another hornet's nest when an article entitled [http://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/rbannis1/AIH19th/Carnegie.html "Wealth" appeared in the June issue of the ''North American Review''.] After reading it, Gladstone requested its publication in England, and it appeared under a new title, "The Gospel of Wealth" in the ''Pall Mall Gazette''. The article itself was the subject of much discussion. In the article, the author argued that the life of a wealthy industrialist such as Carnegie should comprise two parts. The first part was the gathering and the accumulation of wealth. The second part was to be used for the subsequent distribution of this wealth to benevolent causes. ==Carnegie the industrialist== ===1885-1900: Building an empire of steel=== [[Image:Steelmills.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A steel mill owned by Andrew Carnegie in Pittsburgh, PA]] But all this was only a preliminary to the success attending his development of the [[iron]] and [[steel]] industries at [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]]. Carnegie made his fortune in the steel industry, controlling the most extensive integrated iron and steel operations ever owned by an individual in the United States. His great innovation was in the cheap and efficient mass production of steel rails for railroad lines. In the late 1880s, Carnegie Steel was the largest manufacturer of [[pig iron|pig-iron]], [[steel-rails]], and [[coke (fuel)|coke]] in the world, with a capacity to produce approximately 2,000 tons of [[pig metal|pig-metal]] a day. In 1888, he bought the rival [[Homestead Steel Works]], which included an extensive plant served by tributary coal and iron fields, a railway 425 miles long, and a line of lake steamships. An agglutination of the assets of he and his associates occurred in 1892 with the launching of the [[Carnegie Steel Company]]. By 1889, the U.S. output of steel exceeded that of the U.K., and Andrew Carnegie owned a large part of it. Carnegie had risen to the heights he had by being a supreme organiser and judge of men. He had the talent of being able to surround himself with able and effective men, while, at the same time, retaining the control and the direction of the enterprise. Carnegie's businesses were uniquely organised in that his belief in "democratic principles" found itself interpreted into these businesses. This did not mean that Carnegie was not in absolute control, however. The businesses incorporated Carnegie's own version of profit sharing. Carnegie wanted his employees to have a stake in the business, for he knew that they would work best if they saw that their own self interest was allied to the firm's. As a result, men who had started as labourers in some cases, eventually ended up millionaires. Carnegie also often encouraged unfriendly competition between two of his workers and goaded them into outdoing one another. These rivalries became so important to some of the workers that they wouldn't talk to each other for years. Carnegie maintained control by incorporating his enterprises not as joint stock corporations but as limited partnerships with Carnegie as majority and controlling partner. Not a cent of stock was publicly sold. If a member died or retired, his stock was purchased at book value by the company. Similarly, the other partners could vote to call in stock from those partners who underperformed, forcing them to resign. The internal organisation of his businesses was not the only reason for Andrew Carnegie's rise to pre-eminence. Carnegie introduced the concept of counter-cyclical investment. Carnegie's competitors, along with virtually every other business enterprise across the globe, pursued the conventional strategy of procyclical investment; manufacturers reinvesting profits in new capital in times of boom and high demand. Because demand is high, investment in bull markets is is more expensive. In response, Carnegie developed and implemented a secret tactic. He shifted the purchasing cycle of his companies to slump times, when business was depressed and prices low. Carnegie observed that business cycles alternated between "boom" and "bust". He saw that if he capitalized during a slump, his costs would be lower and profits higher. During the years 1893 to 1897, there was a great slump in economic demand, and so Carnegie made his move. At rock bottom prices, he upgraded his entire operation with the latest and most cost effective steel mills. When demand picked up, prosperity followed for the Homestead & Edgar Thompson Steel Works, the Carnegie, Phipps & Company, and Carnegie Bros. & Company as a flood tide of profit. In 1900, the profits of Carnegie Bros. & Company alone stood at $40,000,000 with $25,000,000 being Carnegie's share. Carnegie's empire grew to include the [[J. Edgar Thomson Steel Works]], (named for [[John Edgar Thomson]], Carnegie's former boss and president of the Pennsylvania Railroad), Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Works, the Lucy Furnaces, the Union Iron Mills, the Union Mill (Wilson, Walker & County), the Keystone Bridge Works, the Hartman Steel Works, the Frick Coke Company, and the Scotia ore mines. Also, Carnegie, through Keystone, supplied the steel for and owned shares in the landmark [[Eads Bridge]] project across the Mississippi River in [[St. Louis, Missouri]] (completed 1874). This project was an important proof-of-concept for steel technology which marked the opening of a new steel market. ===1901: The formation of U.S. Steel=== Carnegie was now 65 and was wanting to retire. He reformed his enterprises into conventional joint stock corporations as preparation to this end. Carnegie, however, wanted a good price for his stock. There was a man who was to give him his price. This man was [[John Pierpont Morgan]]. Morgan was a banker and perhaps America's most important financial deal maker. He had observed how efficiency produced profit. He envisioned an integrated steel industry that would cut costs, lower prices to consumers and raise wages to workers. To this end he needed to buy out Carnegie and several other major producers, and integrate them all into one company by eliminating duplication and waste. Negotiations were concluded on 2nd March with the formation of the United States Steel Corporation. It was the first corporation in the world with a market capitalization in excess of $1,000,000,000. The buyout, which was negotiated in secret by [[Charles M. Schwab]] (no relation to [[Charles R. Schwab]], the brokerage house founder), was the largest such industrial takeover in [[United States]] history to date. The holdings were incorporated in the [[United States Steel Corporation]], a trust organized by [[J. P. Morgan]], and Carnegie himself retired from business. His steel enterprises were bought out at a figure equivalent to twelve times their annual earnings; $480 million [http://www.carnegie.org/sub/kids/legacy.html], which at the time was the largest ever personal commercial transaction. Andrew Carnegie's share of this amounted to a massive $225,639,000 which was paid to Carnegie in the form of 5%, 50 year gold bonds. The letter agreeing to sell his share was signed on the 26th February, 1901. On the 2nd March 1901, the circular formally filing the organisation and capitalisation (at $1,400,000,000 - 4% of U.S national wealth at the time) of the United States Steel Corporation actually completed the contract. The bonds were to be delivered within two weeks to the Hudson Trust Company of Hoboken, New Jersey in trust to Robert A. Franks, Carnegie's business secretary. There, a special vault was built to house the physical bulk of nearly $230,000,000 worth of bonds. It was said that "....Carnegie never wanted to see or touch these bonds that represented the fruition of his business career. It was as if he feared that if he looked upon them they might vanish like the gossamer gold of the leprechaun. Let them lie safe in a vault in New Jersey, safe from the New York tax assessors, until he was ready to dispose of them...." As they signed the papers of sale, Carnegie remarked, "Well, Pierpont, I am now handing the burden over to you." In return, Andrew Carnegie became one of the world's wealthiest men. Retirement was a stage in life that many men dreaded. Carnegie was not one of them. He was looking forward to retirement, for it was his intention to follow a new course from then on. Besides steel, Carnegie's companies were involved in other areas of the railroad industry. His company, [[Pittsburgh Locomotive and Car Works]], was noted for its building of large [[steam locomotive]]s at the turn of the 20th century. His associates and partners included [[Henry Clay Frick]] and [[F. T. F. Lovejoy]]. He owned 18 English [[newspapers]], which he controlled in the interests of [[radicalism]]. At the height of his career, he was the second richest person in the world, behind only [[John D. Rockefeller]]. ==1901-1915: Carnegie the philanthropist== Andrew Carnegie spent his last years as a [[philanthropist]]. From 1901 forward, public attention was turned from the shrewd business capacity which had enabled Carnegie to accumulate such a fortune, to the public-spirited way in which he devoted himself to utilizing it on philanthropic objects. His views on social subjects and the responsibilities which great wealth involved were already known from ''Triumphant Democracy'' (1886), and from his "[[Gospel of Wealth]]" (1900). He acquired [[Skibo Castle]], in [[Sutherland]], [[Scotland]], and made his home partly there and partly in New York and then devoted his life to the work of providing the capital for purposes of public interest and social and educational advancement. In all his ideas, he was dominated by an intense belief in the future and influence of the English-speaking people, in their democratic government and alliance for the purpose of peace and the abolition of war, and in the progress of education on nonsectarian lines. He was a powerful supporter of the movement for [[spelling reform]] as a means of promoting the spread of the [[English language]]. [[Image:Carnegie-library-flint-mi.png|left|thumb|220px|Carnegie established over 1600 libraries in the U.S. alone.]] Among all of his many philanthropic efforts, the establishment of [[public library|public libraries]] in the United States, the [[United Kingdom]], and in other English-speaking countries was especially prominent. [[Carnegie library|Carnegie libraries]], as they were commonly called, sprang up on all sides. The first of which was opened in 1883 in Dunfermline, Scotland. His method was to build and equip, but only on condition that the local authority provided site and maintenance. To secure local interest, in 1885, he gave $500,000 to Pittsburgh for a public library, and in 1886, he gave $250,000 to Allegheny City for a music hall and library, and $250,000 to Edinburgh, Scotland, for a free library. In total Carnegie funded some 3,000 libraries, located in every [[U.S. state]] except [[Alaska]], and [[Delaware]]. Carnegie also built libraries in [[Canada]] and overseas in [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[Ireland]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], the [[West Indies]], and [[Fiji]]. He gave $2 million in 1901 to start the [[Carnegie Institute of Technology]] (CIT) at [[Pittsburgh]] and the same amount in 1902 to found the [[Carnegie Institution]] at [[Washington, D.C.]]. He would later contribute more to these and other schools. CIT is now part of [[Carnegie Mellon University]]. In Scotland, he gave $2 million in 1901 to establish a trust for providing funds for assisting education at the Scottish universities, a benefaction which resulted in his being elected [[Lord Rector]] of [[University of St. Andrews]]. He was a large benefactor of the [[Tuskegee Institute]] under [[Booker Washington]] for [[African American]] education. He also established large pension funds in 1901 for his former employees at Homestead and, in 1905, for American college professors. He also funded the construction of 7,000 church organs. [[Image:Carnaigiebirthplace.jpg|thumb|Carnegie's birthplace in Scotland is now a museum.]] Also, long before he sold out, in 1879, he erected commodious swimming-baths for the use of the people of his hometown of Dunfermline, Scotland. In the following year, Carnegie gave $40,000 for the establishment of a free library in the same city. In 1884, he gave $50,000 to [[Bellevue Hospital Medical College]] to found a [[histology|histological]] laboratory, now called the [[Carnegie Laboratory]]. He owned [[Carnegie Hall]] in [[New York City]] from its construction in 1890 until his widow sold it in 1924. He also founded the [[Carnegie Hero Fund]] commissions in America (1904) and in the United Kingdom (1908) for the recognition of deeds of heroism, contributed $500,000 in 1903 for the erection of a [[Peace Palace]] at [[The Hague]], and donated $150,000 for a [[Pan-American Palace]] in Washington as a home for the [[International Bureau of American Republics]]. By the rough and ready standards of 19th century tycoons, Carnegie was not a particularly ruthless man, but the contrast between his life and the lives of many of his own workers and of the poor, in general, was stark. "Maybe with the giving away of his money," commented biographer Joseph Wall, "he would justify what he had done to get that money." [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carnegie/filmmore/description.html] By the time he died in [[Lenox, Massachusetts]], Carnegie had given away $350,695,653. At his death, the last $30,000,000 was likewise given away to foundations, charities, and to pensioners. He is interred in [[Sleepy Hollow Cemetery]] in [[Sleepy Hollow, New York]]. ==Later personal life== In an era in which financial capital was consolidated in [[New York City]], Carnegie famously stayed aloof from the city, preferring to live near his factories in western [[Pennsylvania]] and at [[Skibo Castle]], [[Scotland]], which he bought and refurbished. However, he also built (in 1901) and resided in a townhouse on [[New York City]]'s [[Fifth Avenue]] that later came to house [[Cooper-Hewitt]]'s [[National Design Museum]]. Carnegie married [[Louise Whitfield]] in 1887 and had one daughter, Margaret, who was born in 1897. His brother, [[Thomas M. Carnegie]], also born in Dunfermline, Scotland, was born on [[October 2]], [[1843]]. He was associated with Andrew in his business enterprises, but died in [[Homewood, Pennsylvania]], on [[October 19]], [[1886]]. ==Controversial aspects of Carnegie's life== ===1892: The Homestead strike=== [[Image:Homesteadstrike.jpg|thumb|right|The Homestead Strike]] The [[Homestead Strike]] was a bloody labor confrontation lasting one-hundred and forty-three days in 1892 and was one of the most serious in the history of the United States. The conflict was situated around Carnegie Steel's main [[Homestead]], [[Pennsylvania]] plant and grew out of disputation between the National Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers of the United States and the Carnegie Steel Company. Carnegie, who had cultivated a pro-labor image in his dealings with company mill workers, departed the country for a trip to his Scottish homeland before the unrest peaked. In doing so, Carnegie left mediation of the dispute in the hands of his associate and partner [[Henry Clay Frick]]. Frick was well known in industrialist circles as maintaining staunch anti-union sensibilities. The company had attempted to cut the wages of the skilled steel workers, and, when the workers refused the pay cut, management locked the union out (workers considered the stoppage a "[[lockout (industry)|lockout]]" by management and not a "[[Strike action|strike]]" by workers). Frick brought in thousands of strikebreakers to work the steel mills and [[Pinkerton National Detective Agency|Pinkerton]] agents to safeguard them. The arrival, on the [[July_6|6th of July]], of a force of three hundred [[Pinkerton National Detective Agency|Pinkerton]] agents from [[New York City]] and [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] resulted in a fight in which ten men - seven strikers and three Pinkertons - were killed and hundreds were injured. Pennsylvania Governor [[Robert Pattison]] discharged two brigades of the state militia to the strike site. Then, allegedly in response to the fight between the striking workers and the Pinkertons, [[Anarchism|anarchist]] [[Alexander Berkman]] tried to kill Henry Clay Frick with a gun provided by [[Emma Goldman]]. However, [[Henry_Clay_Frick#Assassination_Attempt|Frick was only wounded]], and the attempt turned public opinion away from the striking workers. Afterwards, the company successfully resumed operations with non-unionized immigrant employees in place of the Homestead plant workers, and Carnegie returned stateside. Carnegie was one of over 50 wealthy members of the [[South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club]], which was blamed for the [[Johnstown Flood]] that killed over 2,200 people in 1887. ==Philosophy== Carnegie wrote ''[[The Gospel of Wealth]]'', in which he stated his belief that the rich should use their wealth to help enrich society. The following is taken from one of Carnegie's memos to himself: {{cquote|Man does not live by bread alone. I have known millionaires starving for lack of the nutriment which alone can sustain all that is human in man, and I know workmen, and many so-called poor men, who revel in luxuries beyond the power of those millionaires to reach. It is the mind that makes the body rich. There is no class so pitiably wretched as that which possesses money and nothing else. Money can only be the useful drudge of things immeasurably higher than itself. Exalted beyond this, as it sometimes is, it remains Caliban still and still plays the beast. My aspirations take a higher flight. Mine be it to have contributed to the enlightenment and the joys of the mind, to the things of the spirit, to all that tends to bring into the lives of the toilers of Pittsburgh sweetness and light. I hold this the noblest possible use of wealth.}} Carnegie also believed that achievement of financial success could be reduced to a simple formula, which could be duplicated by the average person. In 1908, he commissioned [[Napoleon Hill]], then a newspaper reporter, to interview over 500 millionaires to find out the common threads of their success. Hill eventually became his adviser, and their work was published in 1928, after Carnegie's death, in Hill's book ''[[The Law of Success]]''. ==Writings== Carnegie was a frequent contributor to periodicals on labour issues. In addition to ''[[Triumphant Democracy]]'' (1886), ''[[Gospel of Wealth]]'' (1900) and ''[[The Law of Success]]'' (1928), other publications by him were ''An American Four-in-hand in Britain'' (1883), ''[[Round the World]]'' (1884), ''[[The Empire of Business]]'' (1902), a ''[[Life of James Watt]]'' (1905) and ''[[Problems of To-day]]'' (1908). ==Trivia== * Various sources quote Carnegie's height at 5 feet (1.524 metre) 5 feet 1" (1.549 metre) 5 feet 2" (1.578 metre) or 5 feet 3" (1.6 metre) - there is even one at 5 feet 6" (1.676 metres) - but this must be considered as being incorrect - in other words; he was short. * Two municipalities in the United States are named after Andrew Carnegie, the most famous being [[Carnegie, PA]]. The other is [[Carnegie, OK]]. * The dinosaur ''[[Diplodocus]] carnegiei'' (Hatcher) was named for Andrew Carnegie after he sponsored the expedition that discovered its remains in the [[Morrison Formation]] ([[Jurassic]]) of [[Utah]]. Carnegie was so proud of “Dippi” that he had casts made of the bones and plaster replicas of the whole skeleton donated to several museums in Europe. The original fossil skeleton is assembled and stands in the Hall of Dinosaurs at the [[Carnegie Museum of Natural History]] in [[Pittsburgh, PA]]. ==See also== *[[American Anti-Imperialist League]], an organization to which Carnegie belonged *[[Carnegie libraries image gallery]] *[[Robber baron (industrialist)]] *[[List of universities named after people]] ==References== ===Secondary sources=== * Josephson; Matthew. ''The Robber Barons: The Great American Capitalists, 1861- 1901'' (1938) * Morris, Charles R. ''The Tycoons: How Andrew Carnegie, [[John D. Rockefeller]], [[Jay Gould]], and [[J. P. Morgan]] Invented the American Supereconomy '' 2005 ISBN: 0805075992 * Krass, Peter. ''Carnegie'' (2002) * Livesay, Harold C. ''Andrew Carnegie and the Rise of Big Business'' 2nd Edition (1999) * Wall, Joseph Frazier. ''Andrew Carnegie'' (1989) * [http://www.eh.net/encyclopedia/article/Whaples.Carnegie Whaples, Robert. "Andrew Carnegie"] in EH encyclopedia ===Primary Sources=== * [http://www.wordowner.com/carnegie/preface.htm Carnegie, Andrew. ''Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie'' (1920)] * [http://alpha.furman.edu/~benson/docs/carnegie.htm Carnegie, Andrew. "Wealth" (1888)] * Wall, Joseph Frazier, ed. ''The Andrew Carnegie Reader'' (1992) ==External links== *[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carnegie/ PBS: Carnegie] *[http://www.americaslibrary.gov/cgi-bin/page.cgi/aa/carnegie LOC: Carnegie] *[http://www.carnegie.org/ Carnegie Corporation of New York] *[http://www.clpgh.org/exhibit/carnegie.html Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh: <em>Andrew Carnegie: A Tribute</em>] *[http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/ Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching] *[http://www.carnegiebirthplace.com/ Carnegie Birthplace Museum website] *[http://homepage.ntlworld.com/g.blaikie/andrew.htm Andrew Carnegie - His Scottish Connections] *[http://www.michaellorenzen.com/carnegie.html Deconstructing the Philanthropic Library] *[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?author=carnegie%2C+andrew&amode=start&title=&tmode=words Online Books by Andrew Carnegie] * {{gutenberg author| id=Andrew+Carnegie | name=Andrew Carnegie}} *[http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/acs/1890s/carnegie/strike.html The Homestead Strike 1892 by Cheri Goldner] *[http://www.importantscots.com/andrew-carnegie.htm Andrew Carnegie - Important Scots] *{{1911}} *{{appletons}} [[Category:People from Pittsburgh|Carnegie, Andrew]] [[Category:People from Pennsylvania|Carnegie, Andrew]] [[Category: 1835 births|Carnegie, Andrew]] [[Category: 1919 deaths|Carnegie, Andrew]] [[Category:Andrew Carnegie| Carnegie, Andrew]] [[Category:Scottish-Americans|Carnegie, Andrew]] [[Category:Scottish business people|Carnegie, Andrew]] [[Category:American entrepreneurs|Carnegie, Andrew]] [[Category:Natives of Fife|Carnegie, Andrew]] [[Category:American philanthropists|Carnegie, Andrew]] [[Category:American railroad executives|Carnegie, Andrew]] [[Category:Autodidacts|Carnegie, Andrew]] [[Category:History of Pennsylvania|Carnegie, Andrew]] [[Category:Important people in rail transport|Carnegie, Andrew]] [[Category:Natives of Fife|Carnegie, Andrew]] [[Category:Presbyterians|Carnegie, Andrew]] [[Category:Steel magnates|Carnegie, Andrew]] [[Category:Scottish philanthropists|Carnegie, Andrew]] [[bg:Андрю Карнеги]] [[de:Andrew Carnegie]] [[fr:Andrew Carnegie]] [[lt:Endriu Karnegis]] [[ja:アンドリュー・カーネギー]] [[no:Andrew Carnegie]] [[pt:Andrew Carnegie]] [[sv:Andrew Carnegie]] [[zh:安德鲁·卡耐基]] 1939 40018119 2006-02-17T15:03:51Z 69.253.251.251 {{Manner_of_articulation}} '''Approximants''' are speech sounds that could be regarded as intermediate between [[vowel]]s and typical [[consonant]]s. In the articulation of approximants, articulatory organs produce a narrowing of the vocal tract, but leave enough space for air to flow without much audible turbulence. Approximants are therefore more open than [[Fricative|fricatives]]. This class of sounds includes [[Lateral consonant|lateral]] approximants like {{IPA|[l]}}, as in ''lip'', and approximants like {{IPA|[j]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} in ''yes'' and ''well'' which correspond closely to [[vowel]]s and [[semivowel]]s. ==Corresponding vowels== [[palatal consonant|Palatal]] approximants correspond to [[front vowel]]s, [[velar consonant|velar]] approximants to [[back vowel]]s, and labialized approximants to [[rounded vowel]]s. They are typically briefer and closer than the corresponding vowels. ==Approximants vs. fricatives== When emphasized, approximants may be slightly fricated (that is, the airstream may become slightly turbulent), which is reminiscent of fricatives. Examples are the ''y'' of English ''yes!'' (especially when lengthened) and the "weak" [[allophones]] of [[Spanish pronunciation|Spanish]] ''b, d, g'', which are often transcribed as fricatives (often due perhaps to a lack of dedicated approximant symbols). However, such frication is generally slight and intermittant, unlike the strong turbulence of fricative consonants. This confusion is also common with voiceless approximants, which necessarily have a certain amount of fricative-like noise. For example, the voiceless labialized velar approximant {{IPA|[ʍ]}} has traditionally been called a fricative. [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] has a voiceless lateral approximant, {{IPA|[l̥]}}, and [[Welsh language|Welsh]] has a voiceless lateral fricative {{IPA|[ɬ]}}, but the distinction is not always clear from descriptions of these languages. For places of articulation further back in the mouth, languages do not contrast voiced fricatives and approximants. Therefore the IPA allows the symbols for the voiced fricatives to double for the central approximants, with or without a lowering [[diacritic]]. Occasionally the glottal "fricatives" are called approximants, since [h] typically has no more frication than voiceless approximants, but they are often [[phonation]]s of the glottis without any accompanying manner or place of articulation. ==Central approximants== *[[bilabial approximant]] {{IPA|[β̞]}} (usually written {{IPA|<β>}}) *[[labiodental approximant]] {{IPA|[ʋ]}} *[[dental approximant]] {{IPA|[ð̞]}} (usually written {{IPA|<ð>}}) *[[alveolar approximant]] {{IPA|[ɹ]}} (a consonantal {{IPA|[ɚ]}}) *[[retroflex approximant]] {{IPA|[ɻ]}} *[[palatal approximant]] {{IPA|[j]}} (a consonantal {{IPA|[i]}}) *[[velar approximant]] {{IPA|[ɰ]}} (a consonantal {{IPA|[ɯ]}}) *[[uvular approximant]] {{IPA|[ʁ̞]}} (usually written {{IPA|<ʁ>}}) *[[pharyngeal approximant]] {{IPA|[ʕ̞]}} (usually written {{IPA|<ʕ>}}) *[[epiglottal approximant]] {{IPA|[ʢ̞]}} (usually written {{IPA|<ʢ>}}) ==Lateral approximants== *[[alveolar lateral approximant|voiced alveolar lateral approximant]] {{IPA|[l]}} *[[voiceless alveolar lateral approximant]] {{IPA|[l̥]}} *[[retroflex lateral approximant]] {{IPA|[ɭ]}} *[[palatal lateral approximant]] {{IPA|[ʎ]}} *[[velar lateral approximant]] {{IPA|[ʟ]}} ==Coarticulated approximants with dedicated IPA symbols== *[[voiced labial-velar approximant|voiced labialized velar approximant]] {{IPA|[w]}} (a consonantal {{IPA|[u]}}) *[[voiceless labial-velar fricative|voiceless labialized velar approximant]] {{IPA|[ʍ]}} *[[labial-palatal approximant|labialized palatal approximant]] {{IPA|[ɥ]}} (a consonantal {{IPA|[y]}}) *[[velarized alveolar lateral approximant]] {{IPA|[ɫ]}} ==A "central" approximant?== Although many languages have [[central vowel]]s {{IPA|[ɨ, ʉ]}} which lie between back/velar {{IPA|[ɯ, u]}} and front/palatal {{IPA|[i, y]}}, there are no confirmed reports of corresponding approximants. However, [[Mapudungun_language|Mapudungun]] may be a possibility: It has three high vowel sounds, {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/u/}}, {{IPA|/&#616;/}}, written "i", "u", "ü", and three corresponding consonants, written "y", "w", "q". The first two are clearly {{IPA|/j/}} and {{IPA|/w/}}. The "q" is often described as a voiced unrounded velar fricative, but some texts note a correspondence between "q" and {{IPA|/&#616;/ that is parallel to {{IPA|/j/}}-{{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/w/}}-{{IPA|/u/}}. An example is ''liq'' {{IPA|/'liɣ/}} "white" [http://www.logosdictionary.org/sound/mp/5119539_n.wav]. ==See also== * [[List of phonetics topics]] * [[Semivowel]] {{consonants}} [[Category:Consonants]] [[de:Approximant]] [[fr:Consonne spirante]] [[ko:접근음]] [[he:עיצורים מקורבים]] [[ja:接近音]] [[ro:Consoană sonantă]] [[sv:Approximant]] 1940 31767055 2005-12-17T20:54:18Z Stoive 262923 [[WP:WS]] fixing wikisyntax '''Astronomer Royal''' is a senior post in the [[Royal Household]] of the [[Monarch | Sovereign]] of the [[United Kingdom]]. There are two officers, the senior being the Astronomer Royal dating from [[22 June]] [[1675]], and the second the [[Astronomer Royal for Scotland]], which dates from [[1834]]. [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]], who founded the [[Royal Observatory Greenwich]] in [[1675]] instructed the first Astronomer Royal [[John Flamsteed]], "to apply himself with the most exact care and diligence to the rectifying of the tables of the motions of the heavens, and the places of the fixed stars, so as to find out the so much desired longitude of places for the perfecting of the art of navigation." From that time until [[1972]] the Astronomer Royal was Director of the Royal Observatory Greenwich. As Astronomer Royal he receives a [[stipend]] of £100 a year and is a member of the [[Royal Household]], under the general authority of the [[Lord Chamberlain]]. After the separation of the two offices the position of Astronomer Royal has been largely honorary, though he remains available to advise the Sovereign on astronomical and related scientific matters, and the office is of great prestige. There was also formerly an [[Astronomer Royal for Ireland]]. == List of Astronomers Royal == {| | Rev'd [[John Flamsteed]] || [[1675]] &ndash; [[1719]] |- | Professor [[Edmond Halley]] || [[1720]] &ndash; [[1742]] |- | Dr [[James Bradley]] || [[1742]] &ndash; [[1762]] |- | [[Nathaniel Bliss]] || [[1762]] &ndash; [[1764]] |- | Rev'd [[Nevil Maskelyne]] || [[1765]] &ndash; [[1811]] |- | [[John Pond]] || [[1811]] &ndash; [[1835]] |- | Sir [[George Airy | George Biddell Airy]] || [[1835]] &ndash; [[1881]] |- | Sir [[William Christie (astronomer)|William Christie]] || [[1881]] &ndash; [[1910]] |- | Sir [[Frank Dyson]] || [[1910]] &ndash; [[1933]] |- | Sir [[Harold Spencer Jones]] || [[1933]] &ndash; [[1955]] |- | Professor Sir [[Richard van der Riet Woolley]] || [[1956]] &ndash; [[1971]] |- | Professor Sir [[Martin Ryle]] || [[1972]] &ndash; [[1982]] |- | Professor Sir [[Francis Smith (astronomer)|Francis Graham-Smith]] || [[1982]] &ndash; [[1990]] |- | Professor Sir [[Arnold Wolfendale]] || [[1991]] &ndash; [[1995]] |- | [[Martin Rees]], Baron Rees of Ludlow || [[1995]] &ndash; |} [[Category:Astronomers]] [[Category:Lists of British people]] [[Category:Positions within the British Royal Household]] [[fr:Astronomer Royal]] [[it:Astronomo Reale]] [[sl:Kraljevi astronom]] 1941 41192762 2006-02-25T18:08:05Z Tomisti 348887 [[fi:Aion]] :''For the [[Geology|geologic]] word, see [[eon]]. For other uses of Aeon, see [[Aeon (disambiguation)]].'' The [[Latin]] word '''''aeon''''', also spelled '''''eon''''' or '''''æon''''', means "forever" or "for [[eternity]]". It is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word αίών (''aion''), which at one point meant "a period of existence" or "life". In [[geology]], the word [[eon (geology)|eon]] quantitatively refers to a period of time of 1,000,000,000 years. However, geologists refer to the period in which [[animal]]s evolved into abundance as the [[Phanerozoic]] Eon, which has only lasted 545 million years, to the present day. ==In philosophy and mysticism== Occultists sometimes speak of a "magical Aeon" that may last for far less time, perhaps as little as 2,000 years. See [[Thelema]]. [[Plato]] used the word ''aeon'' to denote the eternal world of ideas, which he conceived was "behind" the perceived world, as demonstrated in his famous [[Plato's allegory of the cave|cave allegory]]. ===In Gnosticism=== In many [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] systems, the various [[emanationism|emanations]] of the [[God]], who is also known by such names as '''the One''', the [[Monad (Gnosticism)|Monad]], Aion teleos (The Perfect Aeon), [[Bythos]] (Depth or profundity, Greek Βυθος), Proarkhe (Before the Beginning, Greek προαρχη), E Arkhe (The Beginning, Greek η αρχη), are called '''aeons'''. This first being is also an æon and has an inner being within itself, known as Ennoea (Thought), Charis (Grace), or Sige (Greek Σιγη, Silence). The split perfect being conceives the second aeon, Caen (Power), within itself. Along with the male Caen comes the female æon Akhana (Truth, Love). The aeons often came in male/female pairs called ''syzygies'', and were frequently numerous (20-30). Two of the most commonly listed æons were [[Jesus]] and [[Sophia (gnosticism)|Sophia]]. The aeons constitute the ''[[pleroma]]'', the "region of light". The lowest regions of the pleroma are closest to the darkness; that is, the physical world. When an æon named ''Sophia'' emanates without her partner aeon, the result is the ''[[Demiurge]]'', or half-creator (Occasionaly referred to as '''Ialdaboth''' in Gnostic texts), a creature that should never have come into existence. This creature does not belong to the pleroma, and the One emanates two savior æons, ''[[Christ]]'' and ''the [[Holy Spirit]]'' to save man from the Demiurge. Christ then took the form of the man, ''Jesus'', in order to be able to teach man how to achieve [[gnosis]]; that is, return to the pleroma. ====Valentinus==== According to [[Tertullian]]'s ''Against the Valentinians'' (Latin: ''Adversus Valentinianos'') chapter VII and VIII (and we only know the details of this system from its opponents), the Gnostic [[Valentinius]] had 30 different aeons which emanate each other in sequence. The first 8 of these (corresponding to generations one through four below) is referred to as the ''Ogdoad''. *First generation **''Bythos'' (the One) and ''Sige'' (Silence, Charis, Ennoea etc) *Second generation **''Caen'' (Power) and ''Akhana'' (Love) *Third generation, emanated from Caen and Akhana **''Nous'' (Nus, Mind) and ''Aletheia'' (Veritas, Truth) *Fourth generation, emanated from Nous and Aletheia **''Sermo'' (the Word) and ''Vita'' (the Life) *Fifth generation, emanated from Sermo and Vita **''Anthropos'' (Homo, Man) and ''Ecclesia'' (Church) *Sixth generation **Emanated from Sermo and Vita: ***''Bythios'' (Profound) and ''Mixis'' (Mixture) ***''Ageratos'' (Never old) and ''Henosis'' (Union) ***''Autophyes'' (Essential nature) and ''Hedone'' (Pleasure) ***''Acinetos'' (Immovable) and ''Syncrasis'' (Commixture) ***''Monogenes'' (Only-begotten) and ''Macaria'' (Happiness) **Emanated from Anthropos and Ecclesia ***''Paracletus'' (Comforter) and ''Pistis'' (Faith) ***''Patricas'' (Paternal) and ''Elpis'' (Hope) ***''Metricos'' (Maternal) and ''Agape'' (Love) ***''Ainos'' (Praise) and ''Synesis'' (Intelligence) ***''Ecclesiasticus'' (Son of Ecclesia) and ''Macariotes'' (Blessedness) ***''Theletus'' (Perfect) and ''Sophia'' (Wisdom) ====Ptolemy and Colorbasus==== According to [[Irenaeus|St. Irenaeus]] ''Against heresies'' (Latin: ''Adversus Haereses'') also known as ''The Detection and Overthrow of Falsely So-Called Gnosis'' book 1, chapter 12, the followers of the [[Gnosticism|Gnostics]] [[Ptolemy (Gnostic)|Ptolemy]] and [[Colorbasus]] had aeons which differ from those of [[Valentinius]]. Logos is created when Anthropos learn to speak. The first four are called the ''Tetrad'' and the eight are called the ''Ogdoad''. *First generation **''Bythos'' (the One) and ''Sige'' (Silence, Charis, Ennoea etc) *Second generation (conceived by the One): **''Caen'' (Power) and ''Akhana'' (Love) *Third generation, emanated from Caen and Akhana: **''Ennoae'' (Thought) and ''Thelesis'' (Will) *Fourth generation, emanated from Ennoae and Thelesis: **''Nous'' (or ''Monogenes'') and ''Aletheia'' *Fifth generation, emanated from Nouse and Aletheia: **''Anthropos'' (Homo, Man) and ''Ecclesia'' (Church) *Sixth generation, emanated from Anthropos and Ecclesia: **''Logos'' and ''Zoe'' *Seventh generation: **Emanated from Logos and Zoe: ***''Bythius'' and ''Mixis'' ***''Ageratos'' and ''Henosis'' ***''Autophyes'' and ''Hedone'' ***''Acinetos'' and ''Syncrasis'' ***''Monogenes'' and ''Macaria'' **Emanated from Anthropos and Ecclesia: ***''Paracletus'' and ''Pistis'' ***''Patricos'' and ''Elpis'' ***''Metricos'' and ''Agape'' ***''Ainos'' and ''Synesis'' ***''Ecclesiasticus'' and ''Macariotes'' ***''Theletos'' and ''Sophia'' The order of Anthropos and Ecclesia versus Logos and Zoe are somewhat debated, different sources give different accounts. Logos and Zoe are unique to this system as compared to the previous and may be an evolved version of the first, totalling 34 æons, but it is not clear if the first two were actually regarded æons. ==See also== *[[Plato]] *[[Gnosticism]] *[[Aeon (disambiguation)]] *[[Mythology of Final_Fantasy X#Fayth and Aeons|Final Fantasy X Aeons]] are powerful beings that summoners can summon to give them aid in the battle. In [[Final Fantasy X]] only 8 Aeons are known : Valefort, Ifrit, Shiva, Ixion, Bahamut, Anima, Yojimbo and The Magus Sisters ==External links== *[http://www.gnosis.org/library/ter_val.htm Tertullian's account against the Valentinians] is the source text for much of what we know about the Æons. *[http://www.gmu.edu/departments/fld/CLASSICS/tertullian.valentinianos.html Corresponding text in original Latin] *[http://www.gnosis.org/library/advh1.htm Irenaeus: Against heresies] [[Category:Gnostic deities]] [[Category:Gnosticism]] [[de:Äon]] [[pt:Aeon]] [[fi:Aion]] 1942 41859634 2006-03-02T04:56:21Z Mexaguil 217002 fixed typo :''For other uses, see [[Airline (disambiguation)]].'' [[image:virgin.b747-400.g-vbig.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[Boeing 747|Boeing 747-400]] belonging to [[Virgin Atlantic Airways]], one of the [[United Kingdom|UK]]'s largest airlines.]] An '''airline''' is an organization that specializes in providing scheduled [[civil aviation|air transport services]] to [[passenger|passengers]] and/or for [[freight]]; although some airlines do provide [[Charter airline|chartered]] [[aviation|flight]] services as well. Airlines [[lease|lease]] or own their [[airliner|aircraft]] with which to supply these services and may form [[partnerships]] or [[alliances]] with other airlines for reasons of mutual benefit. ==Industry overview== The scale and scope of airline companies are from those with a single airplane carrying mail or cargo, through full-service international airlines operating many hundreds of airplanes in various types. Airline services can be categorized as being intercontinental, intracontinental, [[regional airline|regional]] or domestic and may be operated as scheduled services or charters. These variations in the types of airline companies, their operating scope, and the routes they serve makes analysis of the airline industry somewhat complex. Nevertheless, some patterns have emerged in the last 50 years of experience: [[Image:Air-India-building.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The headquarters of [[Air India]] in [[Mumbai]].]] * The general pattern of ownership has gone from government owned or supported to independent, for-profit public companies. This occurs as regulators permit greater freedom, in steps that are usually decades apart. This pattern has not been completed for all airlines in all regions. * The demand for air travel services is derived demand. That is, it depends on other things: business needs for cargo shipments, business passenger demand, leisure passenger demand, all influenced by macroeconomic activity in the markets under study. These patterns are highly seasonal, and often day-of-week, time-of-day, and even directionally variable. * Notwithstanding these demand patterns, the overall trend of demand has been consistently increasing. In the [[1950s|1950's]] and [[1960s|1960's]], annual growth rates of 15% or more were common. Annual growth of 5-6% persisted through the [[1980s|1980's]] and [[1990s|1990's]]. Growth rates are not consistent in all regions, but certainly areas where deregulation provided more competition and greater pricing freedom resulted in lower fares and sometimes dramatic spurts in traffic growth. The [[United States|U.S.]], [[Australia]], [[Japan]], [[Brazil]], [[Mexico]], and other markets exhibited this trend. * The industry is cyclical. Four or five years of poor performance are followed by five or six years of gradually improving good performance. But profitability in the good years is generally low, in the range of 2-3% net profit after interest and tax. It is in this time that airlines begin paying for new generations of airplanes and other service upgrades they ordered to respond to the increased demand. Since 1980, the industry as a whole has not even earned back the cost of capital during the best of times. Conversely, in bad times losses can be dramatically worse. * As in many mature industries, consolidation is a trend, as airlines form new business combinations, ranging from loose, limited bilateral partnerships to long-term, multi-faceted alliances of groups of companies, to equity arrangements between companies, to actual [[Mergers and acquisitions|mergers]] or [[Takeover|takeovers]]. Since governments often restrict ownership and merger between companies in different countries, we see most consolidation taking place within a country. In the U.S., over 200 airlines have been merged, taken over, or simply gone out of business since deregulation began in [[1978]]. Many international airline managers are actively lobbying their governments to permit greater consolidation, in order to achieve higher economies of scale and greater efficiencies. ===Early development of airlines in the U.S.=== Following [[World War I]], the United States found itself swamped with aviators. Many decided to take their war-surplus aircraft on barnstorming campaigns, performing acrobatic maneuvers to woo crowds. In [[1918]], the [[United States Postal Service]] won the financial backing of [[Congress]] to begin experimenting with [[air mail]] service, initially using [[Curtiss Jenny]] aircraft that had been procured by the [[United States Army]] for reconnaissance missions on the Western Front. The Army was the first to fly these missions, but quickly lost the contract when they proved to be too unreliable. By the mid-[[1920s]], the [[United States Postal Service|Postal Service]] had developed its own air mail network, based on a transcontinental backbone between [[New York, New York|New York]] and [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]. To supplant this service, they offered twelve contracts for spur routes to independent bidders: the carriers that won these routes would, through time and mergers, evolve into [[Braniff Airlines]], [[American Airlines]], [[United Airlines]] (originally a division of [[Boeing]]), [[Trans World Airlines]], [[Northwest Airlines]], and [[Eastern Airlines]], to name a few. Passenger service during the early 1920s was sporadic at best: most airlines at the time were focused on carrying bags of mail. In 1925, however, [[Ford Motor Company]] bought out the Stout Aircraft Company and began construction of the all-metal [[Ford Trimotor]], the first successful American airliner. With a 12-passenger capacity, it made passenger service potentially profitable. Air service was seen as a supplement to [[rail transport|rail]] service in the American transportation network. At the same time, [[Juan Trippe]] began a crusade to create an air network that would link America to the world, and he achieved this goal through his airline, [[Pan American World Airways]], with a fleet of flying boats that linked [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] to [[Shanghai]] and [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] to [[London]]. Pan Am was the only U.S. airline to go international before the 1940s, and quickly became a symbol of the potential of the American airline industry. With the introduction of the [[Boeing 247]] and [[Douglas DC-3]] in the 1930s, the U.S. airline industry was generally profitable, even during the [[Great Depression]]. This trend continued until the beginning of [[World War II]]. ===Early development of airlines in Europe=== [[Image:National Audit Office - Victoria - London - 020504.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The Imperial Airways Empire Terminal, Victoria, [[London]]. Trains ran from here to [[flying boats]] in [[Southampton]], and to [[Croydon Airport]].]] The first countries in Europe to embrace air transport were [[France]], [[Germany]] and the [[Netherlands]]. In [[1919]] [[KLM]] was founded, still the oldest carrier operating under its original name. The first flight transported two English passengers to [[Schiphol]], [[Amsterdam]] from [[London]] in [[1920]]. Like other major European airlines of the time (see France and the UK below), KLM's early growth depended heavily on the needs to service links with far-flung colonial possessions ([[Dutch Indies]]). It is only after the loss of the [[Dutch Empire]] that [[KLM]] found itself based at a small country with few potential passengers, depending heavily on transfer traffic, and was one of the first to introduce the hub-system to facilitate easy connections. France began an air mail service to [[Morocco]] in [[1919]] that was bought out in [[1927]], renamed [[Aéropostale (aviation)|Aéropostale]], and injected with capital to become a major international carrier. In [[1933]], Aéropostale went [[Bankruptcy|bankrupt]], was nationalized and merged with several other airlines into what became [[Air France]]. The German airline industry began with [[Lufthansa]] in [[1926]], which, unlike most other airlines at the time, became a major investor in airlines outside of Europe, founding [[Varig]] and [[Avianca]]. German airliners built by [[Junkers]], [[Dornier GmbH|Dornier]], and [[Fokker]] were the most advanced in the world at the time. The peak of German air travel came in the mid-[[1930s]], when [[Nazi]] propaganda ministers approved the start of commercial [[zeppelin]] service: the big [[airship]]s were a symbol of industrial might, but the fact that they used flammable hydrogen gas raised safety concerns that culminated with the [[Hindenburg]] disaster of [[1937]]. [[United Kingdom]]'s flag carrier during this period was [[Imperial Airways]], which became [[BOAC]] (British Overseas Airlines Co.) in [[1939]]. Imperial Airways used huge [[Handley-Page]] [[biplane]]s for routes between [[London]], the [[Middle East]], and [[India]]: images of Imperial aircraft in the middle of the [[Rub'al Khali]], being maintained by [[Bedouin]]s, are among the most famous pictures from the heyday of the [[British Empire]]. ===Development of airlines post-1945=== As governments met to set the standards and scope for an emergent civil air industry toward the end of the war, it was no surprise that the U.S. took a position of maximum operating freedom. After all, U.S. airline companies were not devastated by the war, as European companies and the few Asian companies had been. This preference for "open skies" operating regimes continues, within limitations, to this day. World War II, like World War I, brought new life to the airline industry. Many airlines in the Allied countries were flush from lease contracts to the military, and foresaw a future explosive demand for civil air transport, for both passengers and cargo. They were eager to invest in the newly emerging flagships of air travel such as the [[Boeing Stratocruiser]], [[Lockheed Constellation]], and [[Douglas DC-6]]. Most of these new aircraft were based on American bombers such as the [[B-29]], which had spearheaded research into new technologies such as [[pressurization]]. Most offered increased efficiency from both added speed and greater payload. In the 1950s, the [[De Havilland Comet]], [[Boeing 707]], [[Douglas DC-8]], and [[Sud Aviation Caravelle]] became the first flagships of the Jet Age in the West, while the [[Soviet Union]] bloc countered with the [[Tupolev Tu-104]] and [[Tupolev Tu-124]] in the fleets of state-owned carriers such as [[Aeroflot]] and [[Interflug]]. The [[Vickers Viscount]] and [[Lockheed L-188 Electra]] inaugurated turboprop transport. The next big boost for the airlines would come in the 1970s, when the [[Boeing 747]], [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10]], and [[Lockheed L-1011]] inaugurated widebody ("jumbo jet") service, which is still the standard in international travel. The [[Tupolev Tu-144]] and its Western counterpart, [[Concorde]], made supersonic travel a reality. In 1972, [[Airbus]] began producing Europe's most commercially successful line of airliners to date. The added efficiencies for these aircraft were often not in speed, but in passenger capacity, payload, and range. With deregulation in the U.S. beginning in 1978, barriers to entry were lowered for new entrants. Typically, a new wave of start-ups would enter during downturns in the normal 8-10 year business cycle. At that time, they find aircraft, financing, hangar and maintenance services, training all relatively inexpensive, and laid off staff from other companies eager and willing to take a job with the new company. Alas, as the business cycle returned to normalcy, major airlines were able to dominate their routes through aggressive pricing and additional capacity offerings, often swamping the new startup. Only [[America West Airlines]] (now known as USAirways) has remained as a significant survivor from this new entrant era, as dozens, even hundreds, have gone under. In many ways, the biggest winner in the deregulated environment was the air passenger. Indeed, the U.S. witnessed an explosive growth in demand for air travel, as many millions who had never or rarely flown before became regular fliers, even joining [[frequent flyer]] loyalty programs and receiving free flights and other benefits from their flying. New services and higher frequencies meant that business fliers could fly to another city, do business, and return the same day, for almost any points in the country. Air travel's advantages put intercity bus lines under pressure, and most have withered away. By the 1980's, almost half of the total flying in the world took place in the U.S., and today the domestic industry operates over 10,000 daily departures nationwide. Toward the end of the century, a new style of [[low-cost carrier|low cost airline]] was seen, offering a consistent, often high-quality product, using new aircraft models, at a price that was well-received. [[JetBlue]], [[AirTran Airways]], and other companies represented a serious challenge to legacy carriers, as their counterparts in Europe, Canada, and Asia did to legacy carriers in those regions. Their commercial viability also represented a serious cost threat to employees at legacy airlines, as they set the standard for wage rates in the industry that were a fraction of the prevailing wage. Thus the last 50 years of the airline industry have varied from reasonably profitable, to devastatingly depressed. As the first major market to deregulate the industry in 1978, U.S. airlines have experienced more turbulence than almost any other country or region. Today, airlines representing approximately one-half of total U.S. seat capacity are operating under Chapter 11 bankruptcy provisions. ==Regulatory considerations== ===Government regulation=== [[image:airindia.longshot.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Air India]] [[Boeing 747-400]]]] Many countries have [[national airline]]s that are owned and operated by the government. Even fully privatized airlines are subject to a great deal of government regulation for economic, political, and safety concerns. Airline labor actions, for instance, are often halted by government intervention in order to protect the free flow of people, communications, and goods between different regions without compromising safety. The United States, Australia, and to a lesser extent Brazil, Mexico, the European Union, and Japan have "deregulated" their airlines. In the past, these governments dictated airfares, route networks, and other operational requirements for each airline. Since deregulation, airlines have been largely free to negotiate their own operating arrangements with different airports, enter and exit routes easily, and to levy airfares and supply flights according to market demand. The entry barriers for new airlines are lower in a deregulated market, and so the U.S. has seen hundreds of airlines start up (sometimes for only a brief operating period). This has produced far greater competition than before deregulation in most markets, and average fares tend to drop 20% or more, spurring new sources of demand. The added competition, together with pricing freedom, means that new entrants often take market share with highly reduced rates that, to a limited degree, full service airlines must match. This is a major constraint on profitability for established carriers, which tend to have a higher cost base. As a result, profitability in a deregulated market is uneven for most airlines. These forces have caused some major airlines to go out of business, in addition to most of the poorly established new entrants. ===International regulation=== [[image:singapore.b747.london.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Singapore Airlines]] [[Boeing 747]].]] Groups such as the [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] establish worldwide standards for safety and other vital concerns. Most international air traffic is regulated by bilateral agreements between countries, which designate specific carriers to operate on specific routes. The model of such an agreement was the [[Bermuda Agreement]] between the US and UK following World War II, which designated airports to be used for transatlantic flights and gave each government the authority to nominate carriers to operate routes. Bilateral agreements are based on the "[[freedoms of the air]]," a group of generalized traffic rights ranging from the freedom to overfly a country to the freedom to provide domestic flights within a country (a very rarely granted right known as [[cabotage]]). Most agreements permit airlines to fly from their home country to designated airports in the other country: some also extend the freedom to provide continuing service to a third country, or to another destination in the other country while carrying passengers from overseas. In the 1990s, "[[open skies]]" agreements became more common, which take many of these regulatory powers from state governments and open up international routes to further competition. Open skies agreements have met some criticism, particularly within the [[European Union]], whose airlines would be at a comparative disadvantage with the United States' because of cabotage restrictions. ==Economic considerations== Although many countries continue to operate state-owned or parastatal airlines, most large airlines today are privately-owned and are therefore governed by microeconomic principles in order to maximize shareholder profit. ===Financing=== Airline financing is quite complex, since airlines are highly leveraged operations. Not only must they purchase (or lease) new airline bodies and engines regularly, they must make major long-term fleet decisions with the goal of meeting the demands of their markets while producing a fleet that is relatively economical to operate and maintain. Compare [[Southwest Airlines]] and their reliance on a single airplane type (the [[Boeing]] 737 and derivatives), with the now bankrupt [[Eastern Airlines]] which operated 17 different aircraft types, each with varying pilot, engine, maintenance, and support needs. A second financial issue is that of hedging [[Petroleum|oil]] and [[fuel]] purchases, usually second only to labor in its relative cost to the company but with the fuel price touching $70/barrel it has become biggest part of total airlines expenses.While [[hedging instruments]] can be expensive, they can easily pay for themselves many times over in periods of increasing fuel costs, such as in the 2000-2005 period. ===Operating costs=== In a mature industry with low fare new entrants and tiny operating margins, it is imperative that airline managers identify controllable costs. Full-service airlines have a high level of fixed and operating costs in order to establish and maintain air services: labor, fuel, airplanes, engines, spares and parts, IT services and networks, airport equipment, airport handling services, sales distribution, catering, training, insurance, and other costs. Thus all but a few cents on the dollar in ticket sales is paid out to a wide variety of external providers or internal cost centers. Moreover, the industry is structured so that airlines often act as tax collectors. Airline fuel is untaxed however due to a series of treaties existing between countries. Ticket prices include a number of fees, taxes, and surcharges they have little or no control over, and these are passed through to various providers. Airlines are also responsible for enforcing government regulations. If airlines carry passengers without proper documentation on an international flight, they are responsible for returning them back to the originating country. Analysis of the 1992-1996 period shows that every player in the air transport chain is far more profitable than the airlines, who collect and pass through fees and revenues to them from ticket sales. While airlines as a whole earned 6% return on capital employed (2-3.5% less than the cost of capital), airports earned 10%, catering companies 10-13%, handling companies 11-14%, aircraft lessors 15%, aircraft manufacturers 16%, and global distribution companies more than 30%. (Source: Spinetta, 2000, quoted in Doganis, 2002) In contrast, [[Southwest Airlines]] has been the most profitable of airline companies since 1970. Indeed, some sources have calculated Southwest to be the best performing stock over the period, outperforming [[Microsoft]] and many other high performing companies. The chief reasons for this are their product consistency and cost control. The widespread entrance of a new breed of low cost airlines beginning at the turn of the century has accelerated the demand that full service carriers control costs. Many of these low cost companies emulate [[Southwest Airlines]] in various respects, and like Southwest, they are able to eke out a consistent profit throughout all phases of the business cycle. As a result, a shakeout of airlines is occurring in the U.S. and elsewhere. [[United Airlines]], [[US Airways]] (twice), [[Delta Air Lines]], and [[Northwest Airlines]] have all declared [[Chapter 11]] bankruptcy, and [[American Airlines|American]] has barely avoided doing so. [[Alitalia]], [[Scandinavian Airlines System]], [[SABENA]], [[Japan Air System]], [[Air Canada]], [[Ansett Australia]], and others have flirted with or declared bankruptcy since 2000, as low cost entrants enter their home markets as well. Some argue that it would be far better for the industry as a whole if a wave of actual closures were to reduce the number of "undead" airlines competing with healthy airlines while being artificially protected from creditors via [[bankruptcy]] law. ===Ticket sales=== Airlines assign prices to their services in an attempt to maximize profitability. To do this well requires [[yield management]] technology and pricing flexibility. They use differentiated pricing, a form of [[price discrimination]], in order to sell air services at varying prices simultaneously to different segments. Factors influencing the price include the days remaining until departure, the current booked load factor, the forecast of total demand by price point, competitive pricing in force, and variations by day of week of departure and by time of day. A complicating factor is that of origin-destination control ("O&D control"). Someone purchasing a ticket from say, Melbourne to Sydney for $A200 is competing with someone else who wants to fly Melbourne to Los Angeles through Sydney on the same airplane, and who is willing to pay $A1400. Should the airline prefer the $A1400 passenger, or the $A200 passenger + a possible Sydney-Los Angeles passenger willing to pay $A1300? Airlines have to make hundreds of thousands of similar pricing decisions daily in their markets. In contrast, low fare carriers usually offer straightforward, preannounced, simple prices. They can do this by quoting prices for each leg of a trip; passengers simply add them together to construct a full journey. The advent of advanced computerized reservations systems in the late 1970s, most notably [[Sabre (computer system)|Sabre]], allowed airlines to easily perform [[cost-benefit analysis|cost-benefit analyses]] on different pricing structures, leading to almost perfect price discrimination in some cases (that is, filling each seat on an aircraft at the highest price that can be charged without driving the consumer elsewhere). The intense nature of airfare pricing has led to the term "[[fare war]]" to describe efforts by airlines to undercut other airlines on competitive routes. Computers also allow airlines to predict, with some accuracy, how many passengers will actually fly after making a reservation to fly. This allows airlines to overbook their flights enough to fill the aircraft while accounting for "no-shows," but not enough (in most cases) to force paying passengers off the aircraft for lack of seats. Since an average of 1/3 of all seats are flown empty, stimulative pricing for low demand flights coupled with overbooking on high demand flights can help reduce this figure. ===See also=== * [[Price discrimination]] * [[Travel class]] * [[Yield management]] ===Airport operations=== Where an airline has established an engineering base at an airport then there may be considerable economic advantages in using that same airport as a preferred focus (or "hub") for its scheduled flights. In view of the congestion apparent at many international [[airport|airports]], the ownership of slots at certain airports (the right to take-off or land an aircraft at a particular time of day or night) has become a significant tradeable asset in the portfolios of many airlines. Clearly take-off slots at popular times of the day can be critical in attracting the more profitable business traveler to a given airline's flight and in establishing a competitive advantage against a competing airline. If a particular city has two or more airports, market forces will tend to attract the less profitable routes, or those on which competition is weakest, to the less congested airport, where slots are likely to be more available and therefore cheaper. Other factors, such as surface transport facilities and onward connections, will also affect the relative appeal of different airports and some long distance flights may need to operate from the one with the longest runway. ===Business-to-business relations=== [[Code sharing]] is the most common type of airline partnership; it involves one airline selling tickets for another airline's flights under its own airline code. An early example of this was [[Japan Airlines]]' code sharing partnership with [[Aeroflot]] in the 1960s on flights from [[Tokyo]] to [[Moscow]]: Aeroflot operated the flights using Aeroflot aircraft, but JAL sold tickets for the flights as if they were JAL flights. This practice allows airlines to expand their operations, at least on paper, into parts of the world where they cannot afford to establish bases or purchase aircraft. Since airline reservation requests are often made by city-pair (such as "show me flights from Chicago to Dusseldorf"), an airline who is able to code share with another airline for a variety of routes might be able to be listed as indeed offering a Chicago-Dusseldorf flight. The passenger is advised however, that Airline 1 operates the flight from say Chicago to Amsterdam, and Airline 2 operates the continuing flight (on a different airplane, sometimes from another terminal) to Dusseldorf. Thus the primary rationale for code sharing is to expand one's service offerings in city-pair terms so as to increase sales. Virtually all international airlines practice code sharing. A more recent development is the [[airline alliance]], which became prevalent in the 1990s. These alliances can act as virtual mergers to get around government restrictions. Groups of airlines such as the [[Star Alliance]], [[oneworld]], and [[SkyTeam]] coordinate their passenger service programs (such as lounges and frequent flyer programs), offer special interline tickets, and often engage in extensive codesharing (sometimes systemwide). These are increasingly integrated business combinations-- sometimes including cross-equity arrangements-- in which products, service standards, schedules, and airport facilities are standardized and combined for higher efficiency. One of the first airlines to start an alliance with another airline was [[KLM]], who partnered with [[Northwest Airlines]]. Both airlines later entered the [[SkyTeam]] alliance after the fusion of KLM and [[Air France]] in 2004. Often the companies combine IT operations, buy fuel, or purchase airplanes as a bloc in order to achieve higher bargaining power. However, the alliances have been most successful at purchasing invisible supplies and services, such as fuel. Airlines usually prefer to purchase items visible to their passengers to differentiate themselves from local competitors. If an airline's main domestic competitor flies Boeing airliners, then the airline may prefer to use Airbus aircraft regardless of what the rest of the alliance chooses. ==Customs and conventions== Each operator of a scheduled or charter flight uses a distinct [[airline call sign]] when communicating with airports or air traffic control centers. Most of these call-signs are derived from the airline's trade name, but for reasons of history, marketing, or the need to reduce ambiguity in spoken English (so that pilots do not mistakenly make navigational decisions based on instructions issued to a different aircraft), some airlines and air forces use call-signs less obviously connected with their trading name. For example, British Airways uses a ''Speedbird'' call-sign, named after the logo of its predecessor, [[British Overseas Airways Corporation|BOAC]]. == Airline personnel == The various types of airline personnel include: *[[Flight crew]]s, responsible for the operation of aircraft while airborne. Flight crew members include: ** [[Aviator|Pilot]]s ([[captain]] and [[first officer]]: some older aircraft also require [[flight engineer]]s and/or [[navigator]]s) ** [[Flight attendant]]s (led by a [[purser]] on larger aircraft) ** [[Sky marshal|In-flight security personnel]] on some airlines (most notably [[El Al]]) *[[Ground crew]]s, responsible for operations at airports. Ground crew members include: **[[Airframe]] and [[powerplant]] technicians **[[Avionics]] technicians **[[Flight dispatcher]]s **Baggage handlers **Rampers **Gate agents **Ticket agents **Passenger service agents (such as [[airline lounge]] employees) *Reservations agents, usually (but not always) at facilities outside the airport Most airlines follow a [[corporation|corporate]] structure where each broad area of operations (such as maintenance, flight operations, and passenger service) is supervised by a vice president. Larger airlines often appoint vice presidents to oversee each of the airline's hubs as well. Airlines also tend to employ considerable numbers of lawyers to deal with regulatory procedures and other administrative tasks. ==See also == *[[Air safety]] *[[Airport security]] &ndash; no longer a responsibility of the airlines. *[[Cargo airline]] *[[Charter airline]] *[[Commuter airline]] *[[Low-cost carrier]] *[[Airlines at the movies]] *[[Airliners.net]] *[[1000 Airlines in Color]] *[[Airline timetable]] *[[Red-eye flight]] *[[Transportation Security Administration]] *[[Federal Aviation Administration]] *[[IATA]] &ndash; industry standards organization === Lists === * [[List of largest airlines]] * [[List of low-cost airlines]] * [[List of airlines]] &ndash; A fairly comprehensive listing * [[List of accidents and incidents on commercial airliners]] * [[List of national airlines]] * [[List of defunct airlines]] * [[Timeline of airline bankruptcies]] ==External links== *[http://www.pbs.org/kcet/chasingthesun/ Chasing the Sun] - History of commercial aviation, from PBS ==References== "Flying Off Course: The Economics of International Airlines," 3rd edition. Rigas Doganis, Routledge, New York, 2002. "The Airline Business in the 21st Century." Rigas Doganis, Routledge, New York, 2001. [[Category:Aviation]] [[Category:Airlines| ]] [[da:Flyselskab]] [[de:Fluggesellschaft]] [[es:Línea aérea]] [[fr:Compagnie aérienne]] [[ko:항공사]] [[id:Maskapai penerbangan]] [[it:Compagnia aerea]] [[nl:Luchtvaartmaatschappij]] [[ja:航空会社]] [[pl:Linie lotnicze]] [[pt:Linha aérea]] [[uk:Авіакомпанія]] [[zh:航空公司]] 1943 39089252 2006-02-10T17:18:06Z Hall Monitor 265063 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.63.188.29|207.63.188.29]] ([[User talk:207.63.188.29|talk]]) to last version by 202.72.148.102 {{Infobox_Australian_Political_Party | party_name = Australian Democrats | party_logo = [[Image:Ausdem_newlogo.JPG|200px]] | party_wikicolourid = Democrats | leader = [[Lyn Allison]] | foundation = 1977 | ideology = [[liberalism|social liberal]] | headquarters = Level 1<br>16 National Circuit<br>Barton, ACT 2600 | holds_government = Nowhere| website = [http://www.democrats.org.au Australian Democrats]| international = No affiliation }} The '''Australian Democrats''' (in regular parlance, just the '''Democrats'''), is an [[Australia|Australian]] social [[liberal parties|liberal party]] formed in 1977 from the earlier [[Australia Party]] by [[Don Chipp]], who left the [[Liberal Party of Australia]] to do so. His stated aim was to "Keep the Bastards Honest" (the "bastards" being politicians in general). Despite its name (and the name of the rival and [[Liberal conservatism|liberal conservative]] [[Liberal Party of Australia]]), the Australian Democrats can be considered the counterpart of European [[liberal parties]]. After a poor performance at the [[Australian legislative election, 2004|2004 federal election]], the Australian Democrats' future as a political force is in question. ==Policy== The party's original support base was disaffected middle-class traditional Liberal voters from the centre-right Liberal Party's socially liberal, "wet" wing. The party aimed to combine liberal social policies with centrist economics. However, the major parties, including the [[social democracy|social democratic]] [[Australian Labor Party|Labor Party]], have moved to the right on economics since the early 1980s, shifting the 'centre' of Australian politics well to the right. Thus the Democrats have come to be seen as leaning to the left on economic as well as social issues. The Democrats' agenda includes [[economic interventionism|interventionist economic]] policies, commitment to [[environmentalism|environmental]] causes, support for [[reconciliation]] with Australia's [[Indigenous Australians|indigenous population]] through such mechanisms as formal treaties, [[pacifism|pacifist]] approaches to international relations, and [[left-wing]] approaches to social issues such as sexuality and drugs, and constitutional and treaty protections for [[human rights]]. Its core support base is overwhelmingly [[tertiary education|tertiary-educated]], and [[middle class|middle-class]]. They also explicitly target voters who seek a brake on the powers of the government of the day to change things, with their long-term hold on the Senate balance of power. The party has a platform of participatory democracy, with policies supporting [[proportional representation]] and [[citizen initiated referendum|citizens' initated referenda]]. Many important internal issues (such as electoral preselection and leadership) are decided by direct postal ballot of the membership. Although policies are theoretically set in a similar fashion, Democrat parliamentarians have extensive freedom in interpreting them. ==Support== Support for the Democrats historically tended to fluctuate between about 5 and 10 percent of the population and was geographically concentrated around the wealthy dense [[Central Business District|urban neighbourhoods]] (known in Australia as the [[Central business district|"inner-suburbs and CBD"]]) of the [[Australian capital cities|capital cities]] (especially [[Adelaide, Australia|Adelaide]]). Therefore, they never managed to win a [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] seat (despite coming close on a number of occasions). During the 1980s, 1990s and early 2000s they typically held one or two of the Federal [[Australian Senate|Senate]] seats in each state, as well as a handful of representatives in state parliaments and local councils. However, the rise of the Greens and internal bickering in the early 2000s changed this, and the Democrats are now in heavy decline - receiving 1.24% nationally, and less than 3% of the vote at all but a handful of booths, even in their Adelaide heartland. Their voters are turning to the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberals]] (to the right) and [[Australian Greens|Greens]] (to the left) in almost equal numbers. ==Leadership== The Democrats are notable for their willingness to elect female and [[Indigenous Australian]] parliamentary leadership. Of the party's ten leaders, six have been women. Aboriginal Senator [[Aden Ridgeway]] was deputy leader under Natasha Stott Despoja. The leaders of the Australian Democrats have been: * [[Don Chipp]] (1977-1986) * [[Janine Haines]] (1986-1990) * [[Janet Powell]] (1990-91) * [[John Coulter]] (1991-93) * [[Cheryl Kernot]] (1993-97) * [[Meg Lees]] (1997-2001) * [[Natasha Stott Despoja]] ([[6 April]] [[2001]] to [[21 August]] [[2002]]) * [[Brian Greig]] (2002) * [[Andrew Bartlett]] (2002-2004) * [[Lyn Allison]] (2004-present) [[Andrew Bartlett]] is currently deputy leader. ==A short history== In terms of percentage votes, the Democrats' electoral peak was probably the 1990 federal election. The failure of then-leader Janine Haines to win a [[Division of Kingston|House of Representatives seat]] led to a leadership change; her successor, Janet Powell, was too radical for many in the party and lacked electoral appeal. After an affair with another Senator, she lost the support of much of the caucus. These internal divisions damaged the party in the early 1990s, although recovery occurred under Cheryl Kernot. During the [[Bob Hawke|Hawke]] and [[Paul Keating|Keating]] [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] Governments (1983-96), which pursued [[economic rationalism|economic rationalist]] [[neoliberalism|neoliberal]] policies, the Democrats positioned themselves to the left of the ALP government and thus at the left end of mainstream Australian politics. However, the party's progressive-liberal politics remained attractive to middle class [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] supporters who were disaffected by the Liberal party's social conservatism ("wet" Liberals). After the election of the [[John Howard|Howard]] government in 1996, this philosophical division became apparent; there was no longer a single obvious location for the party on the political spectrum. The left of the party was horrified by John Howard's policies, and wanted to undermine and block them whenever possible. Others wanted to engage with the government, using the Senate balance of power to negotiate with it and moderate its legislation. The question was whether the Democrats should be a centrist party, at least on economics, (though socially liberal and environmentalist), ready in most cases to negotiate with the government of the day whether Liberal or Labor (the position suggested by the party's "wet Liberal" roots) or a left-wing party, to the left of both mainstream parties on economic as well as social policy, in strong and consistent opposition to the Liberals and willing to take an obstructionist approach in the Senate to the Howard government's legislative program (a position on the political spectrum more similar to the [[Australian Greens|Greens]]). This conflict manifested itself in tensions over Cheryl Kernot's policy on [[industrial relations]] (see the [[Workplace Relations Act]] of 1996). Under Kernot, after negotiations and some compromises from the government, the Democrats voted for the Howard Government's right-leaning industrial relations legislation which decreased union power and allowed a larger role for individual employer-employee contracts. Kernot, however, remained both ambitious and broadly opposed to the Liberal government. This, together with her personal ambition for a role in government, lead her to defect to the ALP in 1997. Initially both Labor and the Democrats benefitted from Kernot's move, with polls showing that the Democrats had attracted a significant "sympathy vote". In the [[Australian legislative election, 1998|1998 federal election]], the Democrats came within 3% of taking Liberal Foreign Minister [[Alexander Downer]]'s seat of [[Division of Mayo|Mayo]] in the Adelaide Hills under Australia's [[Preferential voting|preferential voting]] system. Internal conflict over the government's proposed [[Goods and Services Tax]] (GST), during the 1998 federal election and in Parliament in 1999 was extremely damaging to the Democrats. Meg Lees campaigned on a modified GST platform, opposing the GST on food and books. After negotiations with Prime Minister [[John Howard|Howard]], Meg Lees and Andrew Murray (both part of the centrist element within the Democrats) agreed to support the GST legislation with exemptions for most food and some medicines. Many left-wing Democrat voters and a large number of party members regarded this as a betrayal, and two senators on the party's left, [[Natasha Stott Despoja]] and [[Andrew Bartlett]], voted against the GST. After very poor state election results in 2001, Lees was replaced by the articulate young left-leaning senator, [[Natasha Stott Despoja]]. Stott Despoja worked hard to bring dissafected former Democrat voters back in the 2001 federal election, although she was not able to bring back enough voters to prevent the loss of a seat to Greens Senator [[Kerry Nettle]], indicating the loss of Democrat votes on the left. (The task was not made any easier by the [[Tampa affair]].) Ongoing tensions between Stott Despoja and Lees (who quit the party in 2002, but was supported by some of the Senators, nicknamed the [[Gang of Four (disambiguation)|Gang of Four]] by the media) forced a protracted leadership battle in 2002, which eventually led to the election of Senator Andrew Bartlett as leader. However, the tension led to [[Meg Lees]] leaving the party and becoming an independent, which deprived the Democrats of the balance of power in the Senate and greatly lessened their relevance and media exposure. Since the decision to support the GST in 1999, and especially after the very public infighting in 2002, the Democrats have suffered a severe decline in public support. Although the left-right division within the parliamentary party and between the parliamentary party and the grass roots membership has existed for many years, the recent leadership battles have created bitterness within the party, and exposed the disunity to public scrutiny. With the [[Australian Greens]] picking up many of their voters on the left, and some voters from the centre returning to the Liberals, the Democrats are facing their greatest crisis to date. At the height of the disunity in 2002, most political observers believed that the party would soon split or disappear as a serious force in Australian politics. Under Senator Bartlett's leadership the Democrats found a degree of stability and an end to public feuding, but they have made little progress toward recovering their traditional share of electoral support and are now largely ignored by the media. On [[6 December]] [[2003]], Andrew Bartlett stepped aside temporarily as leader of the party, after an incident in which he assaulted [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] Senator [[Jeannie Ferris]] on the floor of [[Parliament of Australia|Parliament]] while intoxicated. The party issued a statement stating that Deputy Leader [[Lyn Allison]] would serve as the Acting Leader of the party. Bartlett apologised to the Democrats, Jeannie Ferris and the Australian public for his behaviour and assured all concerned that it would never happen again. On [[January 29]] [[2004]], after seeking medical treatment, Bartlett returned to the Democrats leadership. Andrew Bartlett has not consumed any alcohol since that incident. Almost totally ignored by the media during the election campaign, the Democrats suffered a massive loss of support at the [[Australian legislative election, 2004|2004 Federal election]], reducing them to 1.24% of the national vote. Nowhere was this more noticeable than in their key support base of suburban [[Adelaide]], where they received between 7 and 31% of the Lower House vote at polling booths in 2001, and between 1% and 4% in 2004. None of their Senators up for re-election survived the vote. Most electoral analysts concluded that, while most of the party's left-wing support had gone to the Greens (who now had an equal number of Senate seats with the Democrats and seemed to have taken their place as the leading minor party), many of the party's centrist middle-class voters from a 'wet Liberal' background had returned to the Liberal Party, helping the Howard Government to win a majority in the Senate, the first government to do so for a quarter of a century. With their Senate numbers almost halved, the Democrats face complete annihilation at the next election if the 2004 result is repeated. Following the loss, Bartlett stated that he would not stand down, but in the following month swapped positions with Allison, with Allison becoming the new leader and Bartlett the deputy. However, Allison, like Bartlett, has failed to gain any real media exposure or to increase the party's support in opinion polls. On [[1 July]] [[2005]] the Democrats lost most of their remaining parliamentary influence when the senators elected in 2004 were sworn in, giving the governing Coalition outright control of the Senate. On [[5 January]] [[2006]], the ABC reported that the State Electoral Commission of Tasmania had deregistered that branch of the party for failing to provide a list of members. ==See also== *[[Liberalism]] *[[Liberalism worldwide]] *[[List of liberal parties]] *[[Liberal democracy]] *[[Timeline of (small-l) liberal parties in Australia]] ===External links=== *[http://www.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats] official site *[http://www.andrewbartlett.com/ Senator Andrew Bartlett] *[http://www.sa.democrats.org.au/html/ Australian Democrats (SA)] *[http://www.vic.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats (VIC)] *[http://www.wa.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats (WA)] *[http://www.nsw.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats (NSW)] *[http://www.nt.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats (NT)] *[http://www.qld.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats (QLD)] *[http://www.tas.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats (TAS)] *[http://www.act.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats (ACT)] *[http://andrewbartlettonline.blogspot.com/ Andrew Bartlett's personal blog] *[http://www.um.com.au/outsiders/ Outsiders: Australian politics discussion site for Democrats] {{Australian political parties}} [[Category:Liberal parties]] [[Category:Political parties in Australia]] [[pl:Australian Democrats]] 1944 41848887 2006-03-02T03:20:59Z Naconkantari 676502 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/61.69.12.17|61.69.12.17]] ([[User talk:61.69.12.17|talk]]) to last version by Naconkantari {{redirect|ACT}} {{Australia state or territory | Name = Australian Capital Territory | Fullname = Australian Capital Territory | Flag = Flag of the Australian Capital Territory.svg | the = the | CoatOfArms = Canberra_coat_of_arms.jpg | Map = Australian Capital Territory locator-MJC.png | Motto = "Pro Rege, Lege et Grege" (For the Queen, the Law and the People) | Nickname = (none)| Capital = [[Canberra]]| ChiefType = Chief Minister| Chief = [[Jon Stanhope]] | ChiefParty = [[Australian Labor Party|ALP]] | Viceroy = None | ViceroyType = Administrator | PostalAbbreviation = ACT | EntityAdjective = Territorial | GSP = $13,928 | GSPYear = 2001-02 | GSPRank = 6^th | GSPPerCapita = $43,168 | GSPPerCapitaRank = 2^nd | AreaRank = 8^th | TotalArea = 2,358 | LandArea = 2,358 | WaterArea = 0 | HighestElev =[[Mount Bimberi|Mt. Bimberi]] (1,912 m)| LowestElev =[[Murrumbidgee River]] (429 m)| PercentWater = 0 | PopulationRank = 7^th | Population = 325,100 | PopulationYear = End of March [[2005]]| DensityRank = 1^st | Density = 137.87 | TimeZone = [[UTC10|UTC+10]] ([[UTC11|+11]] [[Daylight Saving Time|DST]]) | HouseSeats = 2 | SenateSeats = 2 | ISOCode = AU-CT | Website = www.act.gov.au }} The '''Australian Capital Territory''' ('''ACT''') is the [[capital territory]] of the [[Australia|Commonwealth of Australia]] and its smallest, but most populous, self-governing territory. It is an inland [[enclave]] in [[New South Wales]], situated in [[bush]]land. The ACT was conceived during the federation conventions of the late 1800s as neutral location for a new National Capital. The [[Constitution of Australia|Australian Constitution]] provided that following [[Federation of Australia|Federation]] in 1901, land would be ceded to the new [[Government of Australia|Federal Government]]. The Territory was transferred to the Commonwealth by the state of [[New South Wales]] in 1911, and construction of the capital, [[Canberra]], began in 1913. The [[floral emblem]] of the ACT is the [[Wahlenbergia gloriosa|Royal Bluebell]] and the faunal emblem is the [[Gang-gang cockatoo]]. ==History== {{main|History of the Australian Capital Territory}} Before European settlement the area now known as the ACT was inhabited by three [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal tribes]]: the [[Ngunnawal people|Ngunnawal]], [[Walgalu]], and [[Ngarigo]]. White exploration and settlement did not occur until the [[1820s]]. From 1824 onwards, settlements and homesteads, and ultimately some small townships such as [[Hall, Australian Capital Territory|Hall]] and [[Tharwa, Australian Capital Territory|Tharwa]], were established in the area. One homestead of special historical interest was Lambrigg, near Tharwa. This was the place in which [[William Farrer]] developed the [[rust (fungus)|rust]]-resistant Federation [[wheat]] strain that had a major beneficial effect on Australia's wheat industry. Farrer died at Lambrigg in 1906. When the [[Constitution of Australia|constitution]] for the [[Commonwealth of Australia]] was being negotiated between the colonies, [[Melbourne]] was nominated as the Capital city of Australia, however, [[Sydney]] disputed this and wanted to become the capital. To cease the dispute created by [[Sydney]] a new capital city would be built. When finally decided, the Constitution specified that the new capital city would be located in territory taken from [[New South Wales]], but be at least 100 [[statute miles]] from Sydney. The present site was chosen in 1908{{ref|GovAct1908}}, with additional territory at [[Jervis Bay Territory|Jervis Bay]] (now a naval base on the NSW coast) allocated so the national capital could have a seaport. In 1909 New South Wales transferred the land for the territory to federal control and in 1910 an act of parliament created the legal framework for the territory{{ref|SeatofGov1909}}{{ref|SeatGovAct1910}}. The Minister for Home Affairs, [[King O'Malley]], who had charge of the legislation creating the ACT, also proposed a bill making the ACT an alcohol-free area. With his strong support, the bill became law later that year. In 1911 an international design competition was held, which was won by [[Walter Burley Griffin]]. The official naming of Canberra and its official construction began on [[March 12]], [[1913]]. The seat of the Federal Government officially moved to the ACT from Melbourne on the formal opening of the [[Provisional Parliament House]] on [[9 May]] [[1927]]. Among the first acts passed by the parliament in its new location was the repealing of the prohibition laws. At first the public service continued to be based in Melbourne, but the various departments were gradually moved to Canberra over many years. The territory was initially known as the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). In 1938, the territory was formally named the Australian Capital Territory. In a 1978 referendum, Canberrans rejected self-government by 63% of the vote {{ref|PatWACT}}. Despite this, in December 1988, the ACT was granted full self-government through an Act of the Commonwealth Parliament that made the ACT a body politic under the crown{{ref|SelfGovAct1988}}. Following the first elections in February 1989, a 17-member Legislative Assembly sat at its offices in London Circuit, Civic, on [[May 11]], [[1989]]. The [[Australian Labor Party]] formed the ACT's first government, led by the Chief Minister [[Rosemary Follett]], who made history as Australia's first female head of government. ==Geography== [[Image:ACT-Jervis Bay-Sydney-MJC.png|left|thumb|125px|Location of the ACT and Jervis Bay]] Apart from [[Canberra]] city, the Australian Capital Territory also contains agricultural land ([[domestic sheep|sheep]], [[dairy cattle]], [[vineyard]]s and a small amount of crops), and a large area of national park ([[Namadgi National Park]]), much of it mountainous and forested. Small townships and communities located within the ACT include Williamsdale, Naas, [[Uriarra, Australian Capital Territory|Uriarra]], [[Tharwa, Australian Capital Territory|Tharwa]] and [[Hall, Australian Capital Territory|Hall]]. Tidbinbilla is a locality to the south-west of Canberra that features the [[Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve]] and the [[Canberra Deep Space Communications Complex]], operated by [[NASA]] as part of its [[Deep Space Network]]. There are a large range of mountains, rivers and creeks in the Namadgi National Park. These include the Naas and Murrumbidgee Rivers. In 1915 the ''[[Jervis Bay Territory Acceptance Act 1915]]'' created the [[Jervis Bay Territory]] as an annexe to the Australian Capital Territory. In 1988 when the ACT gained self-government, Jervis Bay became a separate territory administered by the Minister for Territories. ===Climate=== Because of its elevation and distance from the coast, the Australian Capital Territory experiences four distinct seasons, unlike many other Australian cities whose climates are moderated by the sea. Canberra is notorious for hot, dry summers, and cold winters with heavy [[fog]] and frequent [[frost]]s. Many of the higher mountains in the territory's south-east are snow covered for at least part of the winter. [[Thunderstorm]]s can occur between October and March, and annual rainfall is 623&nbsp;[[millimetre|mm]], with rainfall maximums in spring and summer and minimum in winter. '''Highest maximum temperature:''' 42.2&nbsp;°C (108.0&nbsp;°F), [[Canberra]], [[1 February]] [[1968]] '''Lowest minimum temperature:''' -10.0&nbsp;°C (14.0&nbsp;°F), [[Canberra]], [[11 July]] [[1971]] ===Geology=== {{main|Natural history of the Australian Capital Territory}} Notable geological formations in the Australian Capital Territory include the ''Canberra Formation'', the ''Pittman Formation'', ''Black Mountain Sandstone'' and ''State Circle Shale''. In the 1840s [[fossil]]s of [[brachiopod]]s and [[trilobite]]s from the [[Silurian]] period were discovered at Woolshed Creek near [[Duntroon, Australian Capital Territory|Duntroon]]. At the time these where the oldest fossils discovered in Australia, though this record has now been far surpassed.{{ref|Woolshedheritage}} Other specific geological places of interest include the State Circle cutting and the Deakin anticline.{{ref|StateCircleCutting}}{{ref|DeakinAnticlineNT}} The oldest rocks in the ACT date from the [[Ordovician]] around 480 million years ago. During this period the region along with most of Eastern Australia was part of the ocean floor; formations from this period include the ''Black Mountain Sandstone'' formation and the ''Pittman Formation'' consisting largely of [[quartz]]-rich [[sandstone]], [[siltstone]] and [[shale]]. These formations became exposed when the ocean floor was raised by a major [[orogeny|volcanic activity]] in the [[Devonian]] forming much of the east coast of Australia. ==Governance== {{see also|Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly}} [[Image:ACT Legislative Assembly.JPG|thumb|The ACT Legislative Assembly building]] The ACT has internal self-government, but it does not have the legislative independence of the Australian states. It is governed by a Ministry headed by a Chief Minister (currently [[Jon Stanhope]], [[ALP|Australian Labor Party]]). Laws are made in a 17-member [[Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] that has all state and local government functions. However, its decisions can be overruled by the Australian Government under section 122 of the [[Australian Constitution]]. (See also [[Electoral systems of the Australian states and territories]]). The ACT Government is a member of the [[Council of Australian Governments]]. Unlike other self-governing Australian territories (e.g. [[Norfolk Island]], [[Northern Territory]]), the ACT does not have an Administrator. The Crown is represented by the [[Governor-General of Australia]] in the government of the ACT. In Australia's [[Parliament of Australia|Federal Parliament]], the ACT is represented by four members: two [[Australian Senate|Senators]], and two members of the [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]; the [[Division of Fraser]] and the [[Division of Canberra]]. ==Demographics== In the 2001 census the population of the ACT was 311,947, of which only 429 were outside Canberra. The ACT median weekly income for people aged over 15 was in the range $500-$599 while the population living outside Canberra was at the national average of $300-$399. The average level of education in the ACT is significantly higher than the national average. Within the ACT 4% of the population have a postgraduate degree compared to just 1.4% in the whole of Australia. ==Education== {{main|Education in the Australian Capital Territory}} [[Image:Canberra school of art.JPG|right|thumb|[[Australian National University|ANU]] school of art, originally built as Canberra High School]] Almost all educational institutions in the Australian Capital Territory are located within [[Canberra]]. The ACT public education system schooling is normally split up into [[Pre-School]], [[Primary School]] (K-6), [[High School]] (7-10) and [[College#Australia|College]] (11-12) followed by studies at [[university]] or [[TAFE]]. Many private high schools include years 11 and 12 and are referred to as colleges. In February 2004 there were 140 [[List of schools in the Australian Capital Territory|public and non-governmental schools]] in Canberra; 96 were operated by the Government and 44 are non-Government.{{ref|ABSACTSchools}} In 2005 there where 60,275 students in the ACT school system. 59.3% of the students where enrolled in government schools with the remaining 40.7% in non-government schools. There where 30,995 students in primary school, 19,211 in high school, 9,429 in College and a further 340 in special schools. {{ref|ACTenrolments}} As of May 2004, 30% of people in the ACT aged 15&ndash;64 had a level of educational attainment equal to at least an [[bachelor's degree]], significantly higher that the national average of 19%. {{ref|2004Education}} The two main tertiary institutions are the [[Australian National University]] (ANU) in [[Acton, Australian Capital Territory|Acton]] and the [[University of Canberra]] (UC) in [[Bruce, Australian Capital Territory|Bruce]]. There are also two religious university campuses in Canberra: Signadou is a campus of the [[Australian Catholic University]] and St Mark's Theological College is a campus of [[Charles Sturt University]]. Tertiary level vocational education is also available through the multi-campus [[Canberra Institute of Technology]]. The [[Australian Defence Force Academy]] (ADFA) and the [[Royal Military College, Duntroon]] (RMC) are in the suburb of [[Campbell, Australian Capital Territory|Campbell]] in Canberra's inner northeast. ADFA teaches [[military]] [[undergraduate]]s and [[Quaternary education|postgraduate]]s and is officially a [[campus]] of the [[University of New South Wales]] while Duntroon provides [[Australian Army]] [[Officer (armed forces)|Officer]] [[training]]. ==References== {{sisterlinks|Australian Capital Territory}} #{{note|GovAct1908}}[http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=110 National Archives of Australia - Seat of Government Act 1908 (Cth)] #{{note|SeatofGov1909}}[http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?sdID=93 National Archives of Australia - Seat of Government Acceptance Act 1909 (Cth)] #{{note|SeatGovAct1910}}[http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=111 National Archives of Australia - Seat of Government (Administration) Act 1910 (Cth)] #{{note|PatWACT}}[http://www.parliament.curriculum.edu.au/act.php3 Parliament@Work - At a Glance Australian Capital Territory] #{{note|SelfGovAct1988}}[http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=118 National Archives of Australia - Australian Capital Territory (Self-Government) Act 1988 (Cth)] #{{note|Woolshedheritage}}[http://www.environment.act.gov.au/Files/heritageregister20010.pdf ACT Heritage Register - Woolshed Creek Fossil Site] #{{note|StateCircleCutting}}[http://www.deh.gov.au/cgi-bin/ahdb/search.pl?mode=place_detail;place_id=105733 Australian Heritage Database - State Circle Cutting] #{{note|DeakinAnticlineNT}}[http://www.act.nationaltrust.org.au/places/deak-anti.html National Trust of Australia - Deakin Anticline] #{{note|ABSACTSchools}}Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2005. [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/849f25e83fc56ff2ca257079007b87c6!OpenDocument Schools in the ACT] #{{note|ACTenrolments}}ACT Department of Education and Training. 2005. [http://www.decs.act.gov.au/publicat/pdf/ACT_Gov_NonGov_Enrol_1995_2005.pdf Enrolments in ACT Schools 1995 to 2005] #{{note|2004Education}}Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2005. [http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/71bcf1841bfa37f9ca256f84007c28f5!OpenDocument Education in the ACT] {{Australia}} [[Category:Australian Capital Territory|*]] [[ca:Territori de la Capital Australiana]] [[da:Australian Capital Territory]] [[de:Australian Capital Territory]] [[et:Austraalia pealinna ala]] [[es:Territorio de la Capital Australiana]] [[fr:Territoire de la capitale australienne]] [[id:Australian Capital Territory]] [[is:Höfuðborgarsvæði Ástralíu]] [[it:Australian Capital Territory]] [[he:טריטוריית הבירה האוסטרלית]] [[ka:ფედერალური ტერიტორია (ავსტრალია)]] [[lt:Australijos sostinės teritorija]] [[lb:Australeschen Haaptstadterritoire]] [[nl:Australisch Hoofdstedelijk Territorium]] [[no:Australian Capital Territory]] [[ja:オーストラリア首都特別地域]] [[pl:Australijskie Terytorium Stołeczne]] [[ru:Территория федеральной столицы]] [[scn:Australian Capital Territory]] [[sv:Australian Capital Territory]] [[uk:Австралійська столична територія]] 1945 41949657 2006-03-02T20:56:20Z 68.9.127.177 /* External links */ :''This article is about the television series. For the ''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]]'' episode of the same name, see [[Animaniacs! (Tiny Toons episode)]].'' {{Infobox_television | show_name = Animaniacs | image = [[Image:Animaniacs.jpg|center|250px]] | caption = Animaniacs logo featuring [[Yakko, Wakko, and Dot]] plus [[Pinky and the Brain]]. | rating = {{TV-G}} | format = [[Animated series]] | runtime = 30 minutes | creator = <!-- none credited --> | starring = [[Rob Paulsen]] <br> [[Jess Harnell]] <br> [[Tress MacNeille]] <br> [[Maurice LaMarche]] <br> [[Sherri Stoner]] <br> [[Nathan Ruegger]] <br> [[John Mariano]] <br> [[Chuck Vennera]] <br> [[Bernadette Peters]] <br> [[Frank Welker]] <br> [[Nancy Cartwright (actress)|Nancy Cartwright]] <br> [[Julie Brown]] <br> [[Laura Mooney]] | country = [[United States|USA]] | network = [[Fox Broadcasting|FOX]] (1993-1995) <br> [[The WB Television Network|The WB]] (1995-1998) | first_aired = [[1993]] | last_aired = [[1998]] | num_episodes = 99 | |}} '''''Steven Spielberg Presents Animaniacs''''' was a popular [[United States|American]] [[animated television series]], distributed by [[Warner Bros.]], and produced by [[Amblin Entertainment]]. The cartoon, usually referred to by the shorter title '''''Animaniacs''''', first aired on [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]] from [[1993]] until [[1995]]; the show appeared on [[The WB Television Network|The WB]] as part of its "Kids' WB" afternoon programming block from [[1995]] to [[1998]]. Like many other animated series, it has continued to appear on television through [[Television syndication|syndication]] long after its original airdate. ''Animaniacs'' was the second animated series produced by the collaboration of [[Steven Spielberg]] and [[Warner Bros. Animation]] during the [[Modern animation of the United States|animation renaissance]] of the [[1990s]]. The studio's first series, ''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]],'' had proved to be a big hit among younger viewing audiences, and it had attracted a sizable number of adult viewers as well. ''Tiny Toon Adventures'' had drawn heavily from the classic [[Termite Terrace]] cartoons of old for inspiration, as well as plots and characterization. The modern Warner Bros. writers and animators used the experience gained from the previous series to create brand new animated characters that were cast in the mold of [[Tex Avery]]'s and [[Bob Clampett]]'s creations, but were not slavish imitations. The show itself was a [[variety show]], with many short skits featuring a large cast of unique characters. Each episode was traditionally composed of three short mini-episodes, each starring a different set of characters. == The Animaniacs: the Warner Brothers (and the Warner Sister) == This show focused on the adventures, or more accurately, misadventures of the [[Yakko, Wakko, and Dot|Warner Bros. (Yakko and Wakko Warner) and the Warner Sister (Dot)]], who claim to be the stars of some of the early Warner Bros. [[animated cartoon]]s, which were so [[insane]] that the studio execs locked them away in the [[water tower]] at Warner Bros. Studios in [[Burbank, California]]. This description of the Warners is a tongue-in-cheek homage to [[Bosko]], Warner Bros.' first cartoon character, whose cartoons were not highly regarded by many people. The red-nosed Warner siblings bear a striking resemblance to the portrayals of Bosko and his girlfriend Honey (who look remarkably like Dot and Yakko) in a 1990 episode of ''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]]'' entitled ''Fields of Honey'', also created by Steven Spielberg. Afraid that the portrayals of Bosko and Honey might be deemed controversial, they were changed to anthropomorphic doglike characters, and that episode served as the "bridge" between ''Tiny Toon Adventures'' and ''Animaniacs''. Originally, the Warners were intended to be [[ducks]], but producer [[Tom Ruegger]] realized they'd been done enough by [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] (see ''[[DuckTales]]''), so he made them indeterminate children. He also modeled their personalities a bit after his three sons (who all did voices on the series at one time or another). == ''Animaniacs'' characters == ''Animaniacs'' introduced a number of recurring characters, including: * [[Yakko, Wakko, and Dot]] - the "Warner Brothers" (and the Warner Sister), voiced by [[Rob Paulsen]], [[Jess Harnell]], and [[Tress MacNeille]]. Yakko (the oldest) is a fast-talking smart aleck, reminiscent at times of [[Groucho Marx]]. Wakko (the middle child) has a huge appetite and a gaggy bag filled with tricks (and an accent oddly reminiscent of [[Ringo Starr]]), and Dot (the youngest) is cute and sassy, and uses her apparent innocence to manipulate and torment those who stand in her way. The Warners are some of the few characters that actually appear in all the short skits, usually being chased by Ralph. Most other characters are confined to their own segments. * [[Dr. Otto Scratchansniff]] - the [[Austria]]n-accented studio [[psychiatrist]], voiced by Rob Paulsen, who attempts to force the Warners to be less "zany" * [[Thaddeus Plotz]] - the height-impaired [[CEO]] of the Warner Bros. Studios cartoon enterprise, voiced by [[Frank Welker]] * [[Hello Nurse]] - the buxom studio nurse, voiced by Tress MacNeille, over whom Yakko and Wakko continually fawn * [[Ralph (Animaniacs)|Ralph]] - a dim-witted Warners Studio [[security guard]] charged with recapturing the Warners and confining them to the [[water tower]]. His voice and vocal mannerisms are reminiscent of early Warner Brothers cartoon secondary characters intended to parody the character of Lennie from the film adaptations of ''[[Of Mice and Men (1939 movie)|Of Mice and Men]]''. * [[Pinky and the Brain]] - an imbecilic white mouse and his genius companion, voiced by [[Rob Paulsen]] and [[Maurice LaMarche]]. The Brain and his environment evoke [[Orson Welles]] and ''[[Citizen Kane]]''. * [[Slappy Squirrel]] - an aging cartoon star voiced by [[Sherri Stoner]] * [[Skippy Squirrel]] - Slappy's young nephew, voiced by [[Nathan Ruegger]], whose chipper personality is the polar opposite of his aunt's. * [[Goodfeathers]] - a trio of cartoon pigeons— Bobby, Squit and Pesto, voiced by Maurice LaMarche, [[John Mariano]] and [[Chick Vennera]] — spoofing characters from the movie ''[[Goodfellas]]'' * [[Rita and Runt]] - a singing cat (voiced by [[Bernadette Peters]]) and a loyal but stupid dog (voiced by Frank Welker) * [[Buttons and Mindy]] - a heroic [[Lassie]]-like dog (voiced by Frank Welker) and the accident-prone baby (voiced by [[Nancy Cartwright (actress)|Nancy Cartwright]]) he is sworn to protect * [[Minerva Mink]] - an incredibly sexy [[mink]], voiced by [[Julie Brown]], who inspires lustful fits in every male creature around her * [[Katie Ka-Boom]] - a girl, voiced by [[Laura Mooney]], who has comically violent overreactions to trivially "embarrassing" situations in a parody of stereotypical teenage behavior, obviously modeled on the [[Incredible Hulk]] * [[Flavio and Marita]] - also known as "the Hip Hippos", a wealthy hippo couple (voiced by Frank Welker and Tress MacNeille) obsessed with being trendy * [[Chicken Boo]] - a six-foot-tall chicken who is curiously successful at imitating humans despite minimal efforts at disguise * [[Mr. Director]] - a caricature of [[Jerry Lewis]] (voiced by [[Paul Rugg]]) who first appears in ''Hello Nice Warners''; in later episodes he parodies [[Marlon Brando]] in ''[[Apocalypse Now]]'' and appears as a clown who scares Mr. Plotz and Wakko * [[The Flame]] - a childlike candle flame (voiced by [[Cody Ruegger]]) who is present at important historical events such as [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson's]] authoring of [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|The Declaration of Independence]] and [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow|Longfellow]]'s writing of ''The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere'' * [[Charlton Chipmunk]] - an aspiring actor/director and generally neurotic [[chipmunk]]; when people annoy him, he asks them to write their names down in a book and promises that when he becomes famous, he will remember to not like them * [[Mr. Skullhead]] - a mute skeleton seen in short ''Good Idea/Bad Idea'' clips and a parody of [[Tim Burton]]'s ''[[Edward Scissorhands]]''. These clips were narrated by humorist and [[Motel 6]] spokesman, [[Tom Bodett]]. * The Mime - a nameless [[Mime_artist|mime]] who mainly appeared in brief clips; the mime would usually begin a demonstration of some miming technique (e.g. "walking against the wind" or "trapped in a box") only to be inexplicably maimed * Colin, also known as the Randy Beaman Kid - a wide-eyed boy who relates improbable stories that allegedly happened to his (never-seen) friend Randy Beaman * [[Ms. Flamiel]]- the Warners' prim and easily frustated teacher. * [[Pip (Animaniacs)|Pip]] - generally a foil and annoyance to the Warners, endlessly shaking hands and rambling nonsensically with an iron grip. The Warners could never seem to get their hand detached from the grip of Pip, despite the great length of sight gags they employed to remove themselves. Voiced by [[Ben Stein]]. Celebrities in "Animaniacs": * [[Steven Spielberg]] - Spielberg plays as himself - always referred to in hushed tones as simply "Steven" - making short cameo appearances in very few episodes with one (or two) lines. * [[Kirk Douglas]] - Not mentioned by name - Caricatured in the role of [[Michaelangelo]] painting the [[Sistine Chapel]] ceiling, reminiscent of [[Charlton Heston]] in [[The Agony and the Ecstasy]]. Meets [[Steven Spielberg]] who is referred to as "His Eminence". == Popularity of Animaniacs== The comedy of ''Animaniacs'' was a broad mix of old-fashioned wit, [[slapstick]], [[pop culture]] references, and cartoon wackiness. The show also featured a number of [[education]]al segments that covered subjects from [[history]] to [[math]] to [[geography]]. These educational segments, while simplistic in nature, were at a considerably more advanced level than in such children's shows as ''[[Sesame Street]]''; in fact, most adults could probably learn something from the show's explanations of world geography, the voyage of [[Ferdinand Magellan]], or the [[Panama Canal]]. While episodes of the show did have their share of flops (the Hip Hippos especially, followed mostly by Chicken Boo and Katie Ka-Boom), a surprisingly high number of well-written, outrageously funny cartoons were aired during the series, as the new madcap Warner Bros. animators merrily poked fun at everything and everyone, including their own fans ("The Please Please Pleese Get A Life Foundation", which directly took from the ''alt.tv.animaniacs'' [[FAQ]] for its material). <!-- That "pleese" is correct here, it was spelled that way on screen. --> While the show was very popular among younger viewers (the target demographic for Warner Bros.' TV cartoons), a great deal of the show's sly, subversive humor was definitely aimed at an adult audience. In fact, one character, Minerva Mink, was soon deemphasized as a feature character on account that her featured episodes were considered too sexually suggestive for the show's intended timeslot. Adults responded in droves, giving the show cult-hit status and leading to one of the first [[Internet]]-based [[fandom]] cultures. During the show's prime, the Internet newsgroup ''[news:alt.tv.animaniacs alt.tv.animaniacs]'' was an active, popular gathering place for fans of the show (most of whom were definitely adults) to discuss the latest antics of the Warner Brothers and the Warner Sister. The online popularity of the show did not go unnoticed by the show's producers, and several of the most active participants on the newsgroup were invited to the [[Warner Bros. Animation]] studios for informal get-togethers. == Series history == ===Reputation and legacy=== [[Image:TTA meets YWD.jpg|right|thumb|[[Yakko, Wakko and Dot]] shake hands with their predecessors: [[Babs and Buster Bunny|Buster and Babs Bunny]] and [[Plucky Duck]] (from ''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]]'') in an episode of ''Animaniacs'']] ''Animaniacs'' premiered on [[September 13]], [[1993]]. New episodes of the show were aired during the [[1993]] through [[1998]] seasons, and episodes of the show were rerun in [[TV syndication|syndication]] for several years after production of new episodes ceased. One feature-length [[direct-to-video]] ''Animaniacs'' movie, ''[[Wakko's Wish]]'', was released on VHS only (there was no [[DVD]] release) in [[1999]]. The series was popular enough for Warner Bros. Animation to invest in additional episodes of the show past the traditional 65-episode marker for syndication; a total of 99 episodes were finally produced. One theatrical cartoon short film starring the Warner siblings, "I'm Mad," was produced and released to theaters in [[1994]] with the feature ''[[Thumbelina (film)|Thumbelina]]''. The show introduced the popular cartoon characters [[Pinky and the Brain]], who were subsequently [[spin off|spun-off]] into their own TV series in [[1995]]. Animation fans consider ''Animaniacs'' the high point of the Warner Bros. revival of the [[1990s]] that was inspired by the original [[Termite Terrace]]. After ''Animaniacs,'' Spielberg collaborated with Warner Bros. Animation for a third time to produce the short-lived series ''[[Freakazoid]]'', along with the Animaniacs spin-off series ''[[Pinky and the Brain]]''. Warner Bros. also produced two additional "zany" and "madcap" series in the later half of the decade entitled ''[[Histeria!]]'' (much like Animaniacs, but focusing on American history) and ''[[Detention]]'' (an animated sitcom of several quirky junior high kids trying to get out of after-school holding), but neither of these series found a sizable audience, and they were both swiftly cancelled. Warner Bros. cut back the size of its animation studio (the high cost and relatively low profit of its animated feature films of the period also had an effect on the studio), and production on further Warner Bros. animated comedy series ceased. ''Animaniacs'' and ''Tiny Toon Adventures'' continued to rerun in syndication through the [[1990s]] into the early [[2000s]]. In [[2005]], it was removed from the [[NickToons TV|NickToons]] network, and is not currently airing on [[TV]] in the [[U.S.]] &ndash; In the [[United Kingdom]], however, it currently airs on [[Boomerang (TV channel)|Boomerang]]. An ''Animaniacs'' comic book, published by [[DC Comics]], ran from [[1995]] to [[2000]] (59 regular monthly issues, plus two specials). [[Animaniacs (video game)|Animaniacs]], the [[Computer and video games|video game]] based on the series was also made for the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super NES]] and [[Sega Genesis]]. There are new ''Animaniacs'' [[video games]] planned for release in the future on the [[Nintendo GameCube]] (''[[Animaniacs: The Great Edgar Hunt]]'') and [[Nintendo DS]] (''[[Animaniacs: Lights, Camera, Action!]]''). An Animaniacs book called ''Dezanitized'' was produced. Apparently to take place when the Warners first escape, Dr. Scratchansniff attempts to subject the Warners to psychicatry, and thus root out the cause of the their zaniness and, as the book's title says, successfully ''dezanitize'' them. Although he meets them both as a trio and as indiviuals, Scratchansniff is unsuccessful, and in the book's final segment, is is he who is being psycho-analyzed by the Warners themselves. The book appears in a black-and-white comic strip or graphic novel format, and the [[fourth wall]] is often broken: Scratchansniff comments, when people yell at him, that "the big letters" hurt his ears. Wakko also splatters ink over the page, and the doctor complains that the book is messy, and now no one will want to buy it. The series will re-run on Warner Bros. and [[AOL]]'s new broadband internet channel [[Toontopia TV]]. == The Animaniacs on DVD == Warner Bros. has announced ''Animaniacs'' may be released on DVD in the summer of 2006: [http://www.tvshowsondvd.com/newsitem.cfm?NewsID=4475] ==Music== ''Animaniacs'' was a very musical cartoon, with every episode featuring an original score (and in many cases, several original songs). Each group of characters had its own sub-theme in the score, and the Hip Hippos and Pinky and the Brain even had their own full [[theme song]]s. The three Warner siblings often performed songs, including parodies of classical and folk music, often with an educational twist, listing, for example, U.S. states or American presidents. Pinky and the Brain occasionally got songs to sing as well, and the most complicated songs in the series usually went to Rita, voiced by singer [[Bernadette Peters]] (poking fun at Broadway shows in general, and [[Stephen Sondheim]]'s works in particular). Rita and Runt even took on Broadway directly with a parody of ''[[Les Misérables (musical)|Les Misérables]]'' called ''Les Miseranimals'', which aired early in the first season. Three albums of music from the series were released: ''Animaniacs'', ‘‘Yakko’s World'', and ''Variety Pack'', and the sing-along videos, especially "Yakko's World", remained some of the best selling skit compilation VHS tapes. The final bars of the Animaniacs theme (as well as [[Bugs Bunny]] and the WB shield) are commonly used by [[Warner Bros.]] to begin various animated series. The song ''[[Yakko's World]]'' is perhaps their most famous. ==Games== *[[Animaniacs (video game)|Animaniacs]] for [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super Nintendo]], [[Sega Genesis]], and [[Game Boy]] *[[Animaniacs: The Great Edgar Hunt]] for [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]], and [[Xbox]] ''Announced'' [[Animaniacs: Lights, Camera, Action!]] for Nintendo DS ==Parodies== ''Animaniacs'' often parodied popular TV shows and movies. Some of the most frequent "targets" were children's television shows and action-adventure series. For example, ''Super Strong Warner Siblings'' lampooned the 90's TV series ''[[Mighty Morphin Power Rangers]]'', featuring replicas of the "real" show's costumes and "megazord". Another parody, albeit a [[cold open]]ing rather than a full "segment", depicted the ''Animaniacs'' characters as babies in a parody of the title sequence to ''[[Rugrats]]''. Popular kids' character [[Barney & Friends|Barney]] was also represented as "Baloney", a goofy character whose upbeat personality remained unaffected by the massive amounts of abuse to which the Warners subjected him. Another example was the parody of ''[[Friends]]'' called "Acquaintances" where the character [[Chandler Bing|Chandler]] had his sarcastic putdowns horrifically enacted upon him. ''Animaniacs'' mocked an abundance of celebrities, including the likes of [[David Hasselhoff]], [[Whoopi Goldberg]], [[Howard Stern]], [[Jaleel White]], and [[Regis Philbin]]. They have also paid tributes to now-dead celebrities, such as [[Christa McAuliffe]], who was ''supposed'' to be the first [[Teacher in Space Project|teacher in space]], but tragically, she perished in the [[1986]] [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster]]. They even made spoofs of various other disasters, such as the sinking of the ''[[Titanic]]''. ==External links== * {{imdb title|id=0105941|title=Animaniacs}} * [http://www.tv.com/animaniacs/show/2077/summary.html?q=Animaniacs ''Animaniacs'' at TV.com] * [http://www2.cruzio.com/~keeper/anibeg.html Animaniacs: In the Beginning] * [http://members.cruzio.com/~keeper/AMLF.html Animaniacs Mega Lyrics File] * [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/tv/animaniacs/faq/ NARF - the Nifty Animaniacs Reference File] * [http://www2.cruzio.com/~keeper/AHEM.txt Animaniacs Handy Episode Manual] * [http://www.disinfotainmenttoday.com/darenet/animania.htm Animaniacs Scripts] by Michael Dare * [http://www.fortunecity.com/meltingpot/armenia/1064/DOCS/TTA_A.txt Tiny Toon Adventures references in Animaniacs] * [http://wba.toonzone.net/voice/august/animaniacs.html Jaime J. Weinman's short article on the history of Animaniacs] * [http://travish.forumup.org//viewforum.php?f=1&mforum=travish Animaniacs Message Board] * Jaime J. Weinman's longer articles on Animaniacs: [http://zvbxrpl.blogspot.com/2004/06/animaniacs-part-1.html 1], [http://zvbxrpl.blogspot.com/2004/06/animaniacs-part-2.html 2] [[Category:Animaniacs|*]] [[Category:Kids WB shows]] [[Category:1990s TV shows in the United States]] [[Category:Animated television series]] [[Category:Fox network shows]] [[Category:Warner Bros. Cartoons]] [[de:Animaniacs]] [[es:Animaniacs]] [[pt:Animaniacs]] 1946 38209774 2006-02-04T22:48:07Z ZeroOne 88248 [[Image:Red Wine Glas.jpg|thumb|right|A glass of red wine contains about one unit of alcohol]] In some countries a system of '''units of alcohol''' is employed for an approximate measure of the amount of [[ethanol|alcohol]] in different drinks. == Formula == A unit of alcohol is equivalent to 10 [[litre|millilitre]]s (or approximately 8 [[gram]]s) of pure [[ethanol]], the active chemical ingredient in alcoholic beverages. The number of units of alcohol in a drink can be determined by multiplying the volume of the drink (in millilitres) by its percentage [[Alcohol by volume|ABV]], and dividing by 1000. Thus a [[pint]] (568ml) of beer at 4%&nbsp;ABV contains <math>\frac{568 \times 4}{1000} = 2.3\mbox{ units}</math> == Quantities == As a rough guide: *A glass of [[wine]] or [[sherry]], a single measure of [[Alcoholic beverage|spirits]] and a half pint of [[beer]] each contain about ''one unit'', or 8&nbsp;g (0.25&nbsp;oz) of alcohol. *A large glass of red or white wine or half a pint of [[cider]] contains about 12g (3/8oz), or one and a half units. However strong [[lager]] may contain as much as two units per half pint. == Limits == Since 1995 the UK government has advised that regular consumption of between three and four units a day for men and between two and three units a day for women would not pose significant health risks, but that consistently drinking four or more units a day (men) or three or more units a day (women) is not advisable. The difference between genders is given due to the (typically) lower weight and water-to-body-mass-ratio of women. ==See also== *[[Standard drink]] [[Category:Units of measure]] [[Category:Alcohol]] 1947 15900407 2005-04-04T12:00:09Z UtherSRG 33145 '''''Aotus''''' is both a plant and an animal: *It is one of the genera for the [[Aotus (pea)|golden pea]]s in [[Fabaceae]] (bean family). *It is the genus for the [[night monkey]]s in Aotidae. The name means "earless" in both cases: the monkey is missing external [[ear]]s, and the pea is missing earlike bracteoles. {{disambig}} 1948 41723868 2006-03-01T08:18:16Z Bookofjude 94969 Revert to revision 40544561 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] {{infobox television | | show_name = Ally McBeal | image = [[Image:mcbeal.jpg]] | caption = Ally McBeal Logo | format = [[Dramedy]] | runtime = 45 minutes | creator = [[David E. Kelley]] | starring = [[Calista Flockhart]]<br>[[Courtney Thorne-Smith]]<br>[[Greg Germann]]<br>[[Lisa Nicole Carson]]<br>[[Peter MacNicol]]<br>[[Jane Krakowski]]<br>[[Portia de Rossi]]<br>[[Lucy Liu]]<br>[[Gil Bellows]]<br>[[Barry Humphries]] (as [[Dame Edna Everage]], though uncredited)<br>[[Vonda Shepard]] | country = [[United States|USA]] | network = [[FOX Network|FOX]] | first_aired = [[September 8]], [[1997]] | last_aired = [[May 20]], [[2002]] | num_episodes = 112 }} [[Image:Timeallymcbeal.jpg|thumb|''[[Time]]'' magazine, [[June 29]], [[1998]]. This cover depicts pioneering women [[Susan B. Anthony]], [[Betty Friedan]], and [[Gloria Steinem]] juxtaposed with McBeal and asks "Is Feminism Dead?" It is an example of the debate which revolved around the show and how it depicted women's roles in American society in the 1990s.]] '''''Ally McBeal''''' was an [[United States|American]] [[television]] [[dramedy]] created by [[David E. Kelley]], with [[Calista Flockhart]] in the title role as a young [[lawyer]] working in a [[fiction]]al [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] law firm named Cage & Fish, filled with similarly young lawyers whose lives and loves are highly [[melodrama]]tic. The show ran on the [[Fox Television Network|FOX]] network from [[1997]] to [[2002]]. Despite its legal environment, the show pays minimal attention to the actual practice of law. Instead it focuses on the romantic and personal lives of the main characters, though sometimes juxtaposing legal proceedings as plot devices to contrast or reinforce a character's drama. For example, bitter divorce litigation of a client might backdrop Ally's decision to break up with a boyfriend. Particularly notable, the show frequently used vivid, dramatic fantasy visuals for a character's wishful thinking. Also, regular visits to a local, idealized [[bar (establishment)|bar]] where singer and cast member [[Vonda Shepard]] regularly performed (though occasionally handing over the microphone to the characters). Each episode generally concluded on an upbeat, hopeful note with energetic music. ''Ally McBeal'' was hugely successful, but received much criticism from TV critics and [[feminist]]s who found the title character annoying and demeaning to women because of her excessive flightiness, lack of demonstrated legal knowledge, and extreme emotional instability. Flockhart's visible loss of weight by the second season also caused much media speculation. However, Ally's search for true love struck a chord with young female audiences, and the [[eccentricity (behaviour)|eccentric]] characters around her were developed further, giving the show firm footing. In the fourth season, [[Robert Downey Jr.]] joined the regular cast as Ally's boyfriend Larry, resurrecting the [[ratings]] of a show that had lost its novelty and thus much of its audience. However, when Downey was forced to leave as his (real life) [[drug addiction]] caused him legal troubles, plus other central cast members such as [[Lucy Liu]] also left, the ratings sank again. Not even guest appearances from [[Matthew Perry (actor)|Matthew Perry]] and singer [[Jon Bon Jovi]] and [[Christina Ricci]] in season five were enough to save the show. The major cast members of the show included: *[[Calista Flockhart]]- Ally McBeal *[[Greg Germann]] - Richard Fish *[[Jane Krakowski]] - Elaine Vassal *[[Gil Bellows]] - Billy Thomas (1997-2000) *[[Lisa Nicole Carson]] - Renée Radick (1997-2001) *[[Courtney Thorne-Smith]] - Georgia Thomas (1997-2000) *[[Peter MacNicol]] - John Cage *[[Vonda Shepard]] - Herself *[[Lucy Liu]] - Ling Woo (1998-2001) *[[Portia de Rossi]] - Nelle Porter (1998-2002) *[[Robert Downey Jr.]] - Larry Paul (2000-2001) *[[James LeGros]] - Mark Albert (2000-2001) *[[Regina Hall]] - Corretta Lipp (2001-2002) *[[Josh Hopkins]] - Raymond Milbury (2001-2002) *[[James Marsden]] - Glenn Foy (2001-2002) *[[Julianne Nicholson]] - Jenny Shaw (2001-2002) *[[Barry Humphries]] (as [[Dame Edna Everage]], uncredited) - (2002) Notable guest stars on the show included comedian [[Tracey Ullman]] as Ally's unusual [[therapy|therapist]], and singers [[Barry White]], [[Al Green (musician)|Al Green]], [[Gordon Sumner|Sting]], [[Tina Turner]], and [[Barry Manilow]] as themselves. Special musical guests included [[KC and the Sunshine Band]], [[Elton John]] and [[Josh Groban]]. Barry White's music was frequently showcased on the show as a sexual stimulant; when one of the characters mentally "heard" the music, other characters would be attracted. This action was often accompanied by dancing and took place in the unisex bathroom. At the height of its popularity, re-edited half-hour versions of the show ran under the name ''Ally''. The show is also noted by many for introducing the '[[dancing baby]]' [[computer-generated image]] (CGI) to mainstream American pop culture. Known for controversial topics, the show was well-known for the infamous Cro-Magnon episode, whereby a well-endowed male model becomes the focus of the Ally's attentions. Some critics have claimed that this [[penis size]] obsessed view of female sexuality is distorted and reflects more of a male point of view, as the show was written by [[David E. Kelley]]. Others have charged that the ridiculing of modestly endowed men is sexist and harmful, contributing to body issues for men similar to that of young women over their weight. On that note as well, the show has been criticized for the "[[Anorexia nervosa|anorexic]]" main character as being a bad role model for girls. Due to [[music rights]] issues, Ally McBeal has not been made available on DVD in the United States, though it has been available in [[Italy]], [[Japan]] and [[UK]]. ==Awards & Nominations== ===Awards Won=== '''[[Emmy Awards]]:''' * Outstanding Comedy Series (1999) * Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series [[Peter MacNicol]] (2001) '''[[Golden Globe Awards]]:''' * Best TV Series-Comedy/Musical (1998-1999) * Best Performance by an Actress in a TV Series-Comedy/Musical [[Calista Flockhart]] (1998) * Best Supporting Actor in a TV Series [[Robert Downey Jr.]] (2001) '''[[Screen Actors Guild]]:''' * Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series (1999) * Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series [[Robert Downey Jr.]] (2001) ===Awards Nominated=== '''[[Emmy Awards]]:''' * Outstanding Comedy Series (1998) * Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series (1998-1999, 2001) * Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series [[Peter MacNicol]] (1999-2000) * Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series [[Lucy Liu]] (1999) '''[[Golden Globe Awards]]:''' * Best TV Series-Comedy/Musical (2000-2002) * Best Performance by an Actress in a TV Series-Comedy/Musical [[Calista Flockhart]] * Best Supporting Actress in a TV Series [[Jane Krakowski]] (1999) '''[[Screen Actors Guild]]:''' * Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series (1998, 2000-2001) * Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series [[Calista Flockhart]] (1998-2001) * Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series [[Lucy Liu]] (2000) * Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series [[Peter MacNicol]] (1999-2001) ==External links== ''*[http://www.salon.com/ent/tv/1997/10/20ally.html Ally McBeal: Woman of the '90s or Retro Airhead]'' [[Category:Ally McBeal]] [[Category:Comedy-drama television series]] [[Category:David E. Kelley television programs]] [[Category:Fox network shows]] [[Category:Fictional lawyers|McBeal]] [[ca:Ally McBeal]] [[de:Ally McBeal]] [[et:Ally McBeal]] [[es:Ally McBeal]] [[fr:Ally McBeal]] [[gd:Alli Nic a' Bheoil]] [[it:Ally McBeal]] [[he:אלי מקביל]] [[nl:Ally McBeal]] [[ja:アリーmyラブ]] [[pt:Ally McBeal]] [[sk:Ally McBealová]] 1949 41800134 2006-03-01T21:02:29Z Churchh 391005 Give little translation excerpt '''André le Chapelain''', in Latin '''Andreas Capellanus''' (''Capellanus'' meaning "chaplain"), was the 12th century author of a treatise entitled ''[[De amore]]'' (''On Love''). The complete title of his three-volume work published ''c.'' 1185 reads ''Liber de arte honeste amandi et reprobatione inhonesti amantis'' (''Book of the Art of Loving Nobly and the Reprobation of Dishonourable Love'', also known as ''The Book of Courtly Love''). Capellanus is also an important author for our understanding of mediæval education&mdash;a source of much information about the [[trivium]] and [[quadrivium]] of the period. After becoming popularized by the troubadours of southern France in the 12th Century, the social system of "courtly love" soon spread. Evidence of the influence of courtly love in the culture and literature of most of Western Europe spans centuries. The unabridged edition of The Art of Courtly Love codified life at Queens Eleanor's court at Poitiers between 1170 and 1174 (although Capellanus wrote it most likely several years later) into "one of those capital works which reflect the thought of a great epoch, which explains the secret of a civilization." This translation of a work that may be viewed as didactic, mocking, or merely descriptive, preserves the attitudes and practices that were the foundation of a long and significant tradition in English literature. Andreas Capellanus (Andre the Chaplain) wrote this work at the request of Countess Marie of Troyes, daughter of Eleanor of Aquitaine. (As found on the reverse of The Art of Courtly Love, trans. John Jay Parry, 1960) The work gives a listing of the stages of love which resembles in some ways the modern [[baseball euphemism]]: :"Throughout all the ages, there have been only four degrees <nowiki>[</nowiki>''gradus''] in love: :"The first consists in arousing hope; :"The second in offering kisses; :"The third in the enjoyment of intimate embraces; :"The fourth in the abandonment of the entire person." == External links == * [http://icg.harvard.edu/~chaucer/special/authors/andreas/de_amore.html Extracts from Capellanus' De amore] * [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/capellanus.html Full text of De Amore, in Latin] at [[The Latin Library]] [[nl:Andreas Capellanus]] [[Category:Medieval literature]] 1950 42074850 2006-03-03T17:26:32Z 68.72.166.118 [[Image:Aclu.png|right| ]] The '''American Civil Liberties Union''', or '''ACLU''', is a [[non-governmental organization]] (NGO) whose stated goal is to "defend and preserve the [[individual rights]] and [[liberty|liberties]] guaranteed to every person ... by the [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]] and [[Law of the United States|laws]] of the [[United States]]." [[Lawsuit]]s brought by the ACLU have been influential in several important developments in [[U.S. constitution]]al law, and according to the annual report has over 500,000 members as of the end of 2005. The ACLU provides [[lawyer]]s and legal expertise in cases where it believes an individual's or group of individuals' rights are being challenged by the government or other citizens. In many cases where it does not provide legal representation, the ACLU submits ''[[amicus curiae]]'' [[brief (law)|brief]]s in support of its positions. The ACLU has never officially supported or opposed a political candidate, and is not aligned with any political party, though it has been harshly critical of various elected officials of both the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] and the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] over the years. Outside of its legal work, the organization has also engaged in [[lobbying]] of elected officials and civil liberties [[activism]] [http://action.aclu.org/site/PageServer?pagename=AP_action_homepage]. The ACLU is one of the most influential NGOs in the United States today; often controversial, its stances have engendered criticism from both sides of the political spectrum (see [[American Civil Liberties Union#Critics of the ACLU|Critics of the ACLU]]). ==History, structure and leadership== The ACLU was originally established in 1917 as the [[National Civil Liberties Bureau]] (NCLB), an outgrowth of the [[American Union Against Militarism]], an organization that was against American intervention in [[World War I]]. The NCLB provided legal advice and aid for [[conscientious objector|conscientious objectors]] and those being prosecuted under the [[Espionage Act of 1917]] or [[Sedition Act of 1918]]. The organization was subpoenaed by the New York legislature's Joint Legislative Committee to Investigate Seditious Activities, popularly known as the [[Lusk Committee]], which considered the organization's efforts and pacifist ties to be a vehicle for socialist and communist propaganda. The NCLB changed its name in 1920 to the American Civil Liberties Union.[http://www.aclu.org/about/index.html] Founders include [[Crystal Eastman]], [[Albert DeSilver]] and [[Roger Nash Baldwin]] among others. In the year of its birth, the ACLU was formed to protect aliens threatened with [[deportation]], and U.S. nationals threatened with criminal charges by [[U.S. Attorney General]] [[Alexander Mitchell Palmer]] for their [[communist]] or [[socialist]] activities and agendas (see [[Palmer Raids]]). It also opposed attacks on the rights of the [[Industrial Workers of the World]] and other [[labor union]]s to meet and organize. In 1940, the ACLU formally barred communists from leadership or staff positions, and would take the position that it did not want communists as members either. The board declared that it was "inappropriate for any person to serve on the governing committees of the Union or its staff, who is a member of any political organization which supports [[totalitarian dictatorship]] in any country, or who by his public declarations indicates his support of such a principle." [http://www.aclu-mass.org/about/about_history.html] [http://infoshare1.princeton.edu/libraries/firestone/rbsc/finding_aids/aclu1920/] The purge, which was led by Baldwin, himself a former supporter of Communism, began with the ouster of [[Elizabeth Gurley Flynn]], a member of both the [[Communist Party of the USA]] and the [[IWW]] [http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.org/unitarians/baldwin.html]. The ACLU has been criticized by some of its later members for this policy, and in the 1960s there was an internal push to remove this prohibition. [http://volokh.com/archives/archive_2005_09_04-2005_09_10.shtml#1126047007] In the 1988 presidential election, then-[[Vice President]] [[George H.W. Bush]] called then-[[Governor]] [[Michael Dukakis]] a "card-carrying member of the ACLU," which Dukakis proudly acknowledged. [http://www.pbs.org/newshour/debatingourdestiny/dod/1988-broadcast.html] It now serves as a jocular recruitment slogan for the ACLU. [http://www.aclu.org/Contribute/Contribute.cfm] The [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], and the ensuing debate regarding the proper balance of civil liberties and security including the passage of the [[USA PATRIOT Act]], led to a 20% increase in membership between August 2001 and December 2002, when its total enrollment reached 330,000 [http://www.post-gazette.com/localnews/20021202aclusidebarp8.asp]. The growth has continued; in August 2004, ACLU membership was at 400,000 [http://www.madison.com/tct/news/images/index.php?ntid=7175&ntpid=0]. The ACLU has been a vocal opponent of the PATRIOT Act of 2001, the proposed (as of 2003) [[Domestic Security Enhancement Act of 2003|PATRIOT 2]] Act, and associated legislation made in response to the threat of domestic terrorism, that it believes violates either the letter or the spirit of the [[United States Bill of Rights|U.S. Bill of Rights]]. In response to a requirement of the PATRIOT Act, the ACLU withdrew from a Federal Donation Program that provides matching funds from the federal government for federal employees. The requirement was that ACLU employees must be checked against a federal anti-terrorism watch list. The ACLU estimates that it will lose approximately $500,000 in such contributions. ''See also:'' [[ACLU v. Ashcroft (2004)]] <!--Need more here on PATRIOT Act challenges, and ACLU activities post-9/11 in general, including stats on increase in membership.--> Currently, the leadership of the ACLU includes Executive Director [[Anthony Romero]], President [[Nadine Strossen]], and Legal Director [[Steven Shapiro]]. Notably, [[Ruth Bader Ginsburg]], a current Justice of the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]], founded the ACLU's Women's Rights Project in 1972. [[Image:Antonio Villaraigosa.jpg|left|thumb|260px|[[Los Angeles]] Mayor [[Antonio Villaraigosa]] speaking at an [[ACLU]] event. Villaraigosa is the former director of the ACLU Southern California affiliate.]] Although the ACLU has its national headquarters located in New York City, the organization does most of its work through locally based affiliates, organized into fifty state chapters. These affiliates maintain a certain amount of autonomy from the National organization, and are able to work independently from each other. Many of the ACLU's cases originate from the local level and are handled by lawyers from the local affiliates. The ACLU's involvement in the internment of Japanese in the United States during World War II, which bears on the question of local autonomy, is misunderstood, and often misrepresented. There are differing ideas on the role the ACLU took, some have argued that the ACLU remained silent on the issue. Still others have claimed that the national branch of the ACLU threatened to revoke the chapter status of the ACLU of Northern California for defending Toyosaburo Korematsu in the Supreme Court in [[Korematsu v. United States]], {{ussc|323|214|1944}}. These arguments are hard to square with the fact that the national branch of the ACLU actually filed a brief of amicus curiae with the court on behalf of Mr. Korematsu. In fact, the ACLU argued that some internments may have been necessary for the security of the nation, but that by interning Americans without giving them a hearing, the military was violating their right to due process. The ACLU argued that the internments should have civilian oversight, instead of military, and that the Japanese in the camps had been interned on the basis of racial discrimination. State chapters remain the basic unit of the ACLU's organization. In a twenty month period beginning January 2004, the ACLU's [[New Jersey]] chapter, to take one example, was involved in fifty-one cases according to their annual report -- thirty-five cases in state courts, and sixteen in federal court. They provided legal representation in thirty-three of those cases, and served as amicus in the remaining eighteen. They listed forty-four volunteer attorneys who assisted them in those cases. ==Positions== The ACLU's stated mission is to defend the rights of all citizens as enshrined in the [[Bill of Rights]] of the United States Constitution. While the bulk of the ACLU's cases involve the [[First Amendment]], Equal Protection and Due Process and cases involving the right to privacy (see, ''e.g.'', the [[Louisiana]] chapter [http://www.laaclu.org/Complaints/complaints.html]), the organization has taken positions on a wide range of controversial issues. In particular, the ACLU: * Supports the [[separation of church and state in the United States|separation of church and state]]; under this mandate, the ACLU: ** Opposes the government-sponsored display of religious symbols on [[public property]]; ** Opposes official prayers, religious ceremonies, or [[moment of silence|moments of silence]] in public schools or schools funded with public [[money]]; * Supports full [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|first amendment]] rights of citizens, organizations and the press, including school [[newspaper]]s; * Supports [[reproductive rights]], including the right to use [[contraception]] and to have an [[abortion]]; * Supports full civil rights for [[homosexuality|homosexuals]], including government benefits for homosexual couples equal to those provided for heterosexual ones; * Supports [[affirmative action]] as a means of redressing past discrimination and achieving a racially diverse student body [http://www.aclu.org/RacialEquality/RacialEqualityMain.cfm]; * Supports the rights of [[defendant]]s and suspects against [[unconstitutional]] [[police]] practices; * Supports the [[decriminalization]] of [[recreational drug use|drugs]] such as [[heroin]], [[cocaine]] and [[marijuana]] [http://www.aclu.org/DrugPolicy/DrugPolicy.cfm?ID=12401&c=19]; * Opposes demonstration permits and other requirements for protests in public places; * Is critical of current surveillance camera practices, citing privacy violations [http://www.aclunc.org/police/oak-video.html]. The ACLU has opposed some campaign finance laws such as the [[Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act]], which it considers an inappropriate restriction upon freedom of expression. It does not, however, have a blanket opposition to all laws on campaign finance. The official policy of the national ACLU argues that the [[Second Amendment to the United States Constitution|second amendment]] is "intended mainly to protect the right of the states to maintain militias to assure their own freedom and security against the central government" and is not intended to "confer an unlimited right upon individuals to own guns or other weapons." [http://www.aclu.org/PolicePractices/PolicePractices.cfm?ID=9621&c=25] The ACLU has generally avoided taking gun-related cases, and this has occasioned criticism by those who consider their interpretation of the amendment to be far "softer" than its "hard-line" stances on other parts of the law. The ACLU has been noted for vigorously defending the right to express unpopular, controversial, and extremist opinions on both the left and right. Some have expressed the view that the ACLU sometimes plays a role comparable to that played by [[public defender]]s, helping to ensure that even unpopular defendants receive due process. ==Notable cases== Since its founding, the ACLU has been involved in many cases (see the [[List of ACLU Cases]] for a fuller list). A few of the most significant are discussed here. In 1925, the ACLU persuaded [[John T. Scopes]] to defy [[Tennessee]]'s anti-[[evolution]] law in a court test. [[Clarence Darrow]], a member of the ACLU National Committee, headed Scopes' legal team. The ACLU lost the case and Scopes was fined $100. The Tennessee Supreme Court later upheld the law but overturned the conviction on a technicality. In 1942, a few months after the [[Japan]]ese attack on [[Pearl Harbor]], the ACLU affiliates on the West Coast became some of the sharpest critics of the government's policy on enemy aliens and U.S. citizens descended from enemy ancestry. This included the relocation of [[Japanese American Internment|Japanese-American citizens]], [[internment]] of aliens, prejudicial curfews (''[[Hirabayashi v. United States]]'', 1943), and the like. However, the national board of the ACLU dodged the issue, taking a mildly pro-government position: it accepted the internment in principle and only demanded that relocatees, once "cleared" of any suspicion of wrongdoing, be released from the concentration camps in which they were held. <!--missing blurb on its 1947 case which brought the idea of the separation of church and state into american legal practice--> In 1954, the ACLU played a role in the case of ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'', which led to the ban on segregation in U.S. [[public school]]s. In 1973, the organization was the first major national organization to call for the [[impeachment]] of President [[Richard M. Nixon]], giving as reasons the violation by the Nixon administration of civil liberties. That same year, the ACLU was involved in the cases of ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'' and ''[[Doe v. Bolton]]'', in which the Supreme Court held that the constitutional right of privacy extended to women seeking [[abortion]]s. In 1977, the ACLU filed suit against the Village of [[Skokie, Illinois]], seeking an injunction against the enforcement of three town ordinances outlawing [[Nazi]] parades and demonstrations (Skokie had a large [[Jew]]ish population). A federal district court struck down the ordinances in a decision eventually affirmed by the [[U.S. Supreme Court]]. The ACLU's action in this case led to the resignation of about 15 percent of the membership from the organization (25 percent in [[Illinois]]), especially of [[Judaism|Jewish]] members. A cutback in its activities was avoided by a special mailing which elicited $500,000 in contributions. In his February 23, 1978 decision overturning the town ordinances, US District Court Judge Bernard M. Decker described the principle involved in the case as follows: "It is better to allow those who preach racial hatred to expend their venom in rhetoric rather than to be panicked into embarking on the dangerous course of permitting the government to decide what its citizens may say and hear ... The ability of American society to tolerate the advocacy of even hateful doctrines ... is perhaps the best protection we have against the establishment of any Nazi-type regime in this country." In the 1980s, the ACLU filed suit to challenge the [[Arkansas]] 1981 [[creationism]] statute, which required the teaching in public schools of the biblical account of creation as a scientific alternative to evolution. The law was declared unconstitutional by a Federal District Court. ==Funding== The ACLU receives funding from a large number of sources; the distribution and amount of funding for each chapter varies from state to state. To take one particular example, the ACLU of [[New Jersey]] reported $1.2 million in income to both the ACLU-NJ and its affiliated tax-exempt foundation in the the 2005 fiscal year. Of that income, 46% came from contributions, 19% came from membership dues, 18% came from court awarded attorney fees, 12% came from grants, 4% came from investment income and the remainder from other sources. Its expenses in the same period were $800,000, of which 12% went to administration and management. Smaller chapters with fewer resources, such as that in [[Nebraska]], receive subsidies from the national ACLU [http://www.aclunebraska.org/faq.htm#10]. The ACLU and its affiliated tax-exempt foundation receive annual support from the [[Ford Foundation|Ford]], [[Rockefeller Foundation|Rockefeller]], [[Carnegie Foundation|Carnegie]], [[Field Foundation|Field]], [[Tides Foundation|Tides]], [[Gill Foundation|Gill]], [[Arcus Foundation|Arcus]], [[Horizons Fund|Horizons]], and other foundations. However, recently the ACLU rejected $1.5 million from both the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations because it viewed a clause in the donation agreement stipulating that "none of the money would go to underwriting terrorism or other unacceptable activities" as a threat to civil liberties. The ACLU also withdrew from a federal charity drive, losing an estimated $500,000, taking a stand against the attached condition that it would "not knowingly hire anyone on terrorism watch lists." Other key donors include Peter B. Lewis (an insurance magnate) [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/08/national/08aclu.html]. It is sometimes asserted that the ACLU collects legal fees in the event that they are involved on the winning side of a legal judgment [http://stoptheaclu.com/archives/2005/08/05/christian-group-asks-congress-to-investigate-aclu-for-frivolous-dangerous-lawsuits/]. As described in greater detail below, while there are restrictions on how fees may be collected, the ACLU has in a number of cases indeed received substantial monetary awards. The awarding of legal fees to groups like the ACLU in civil rights cases remains highly controversial for some. The Public Expression of Religion Act of 2005, for example, introduced by Representative [[John N. Hostettler]], seeks to alter prior civil rights legislation to prevent monetary judgements in the particular case of violations of church-state separation [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c109:H.R.2679:], and groups such as the [[American Legion]] have taken stances opposing the ACLU's right to collect fees under such legislation [http://www.legion.org/word/aclu.rtf]. On the other hand, the recovery of legal fees by non-profit legal advocacy organizations is common practice across the political spectrum; the [[pro-life]] [[Thomas More Law Center]], for example, generally seeks, and is successful in, recovery of legal fees in the same manner as the ACLU [http://www.thomasmore.org/news.html?NewsID=227], [http://www.thomasmore.org/news.html?NewsID=383]. In many cases however, due to the nature of its legal work, the ACLU is involved in litigation against governmental bodies, which are generally protected from adverse monetary judgements: ''i.e.'', a town, state or Federal agency may be required to change its laws or behave differently, but not to pay monetary damages except by an explicit statutory waiver [http://www.oyez.org/oyez/resource/case/959/]; [http://www.chainyounger.com/pa_cases_against_government.html#1]. In some cases, the law does permit plantiffs who successfully sue government agencies to collect damages. In particular, a 1976 Federal law, the Civil Rights Attorney's Fees Awards Act, among other similar laws, does leave the government liable in some civil rights cases. In many cases where the ACLU represents plantiffs, the case is handled not by ACLU attorneys, but by sympathetic law firms who provide their services ''[[pro bono]]''. In these cases, the law firm may sue for legal fees; in such circumstances the money would be awarded to the firm, and not the ACLU. [http://www.stcynic.com/blog/archives/2005/08/volokh_on_stopt.php] These caveats aside, the ACLU and its state chapters do, in cases where they provide legal services and laws permit government liability, share in monetary judgements against government agencies. It shared, for example, with other plantiffs in a $156,960 judgement against the State of [[Nebraska]] in a gay marriage case now on appeal [http://www.journalstar.com/articles/2005/08/02/local/doc42efae0b8e7f7297850171.txt]. A separate example involves a string of church-state cases. The Georgia chapter was awarded $150,000 in fees after suing a county courthouse for the removal of a [[Ten Commandments]] display [http://www.acluga.org/press.releases/0507/barrow.county.html]; a second Ten Commandments case in the State, in a different county, led to a $74,462 judgment [http://www.acluga.org/docket.html]. Meanwhile, the State of [[Tennessee]] was required to pay $50,000, the State of [[Alabama]] $175,000, and the State of [[Kentucky]] $121,500, in similar Ten Commandments cases [http://www.enquirer.com/editions/2003/07/09/loc_kytencommandments09.html], [http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_10cb.htm]. The State of [[Kentucky]] was in fact required by courts to pay the ACLU nearly $700,000 in legal fees in the years 1994-2003, mainly for passing abortion and state religion-related laws later struck down by courts [http://www.enquirer.com/editions/2003/07/09/loc_kytencommandments09.html]. Ref. [http://www.reclaimamerica.org/Pages/News/newspage.asp?story=2859] is a partial list of various judgments awarded to the ACLU and its state chapters over the years, which cover a wide variety of cases including judgments involving creationism, internet pornography, church-state and free speech cases, and total approximately $2.9 million. Usually, judgements are made against states, although [[Operation Rescue]] was required to pay the Union $111,000 in fees in a [[San Diego]] case. When taking on highly contentious cases the ACLU leaves itself liable to potentially damaging judgements against it if it were found to be filing a "frivolous" suit, regardless of whether the government may be liable. [http://volokh.com/archives/archive_2005_07_31-2005_08_06.shtml#1123261056] ==Controversial stances== The organization believes that free speech rights must be available to all citizens and residents of the United States. Therefore, it has taken on unpopular cases to defend the free speech rights of clients such as [[Ku Klux Klan]] members, [[neo-Nazi]] groups, and [[North American Man-Boy Love Association|NAMBLA]], a group which supports legalization of [[pederasty]]. A number of controversial cases in which the ACLU has been involved are discussed in the sections below. The ACLU has defended [[Frank Snepp]] formerly of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (from an attempt of this government agency to gag him) and Lieutenant Colonel [[Oliver North]] (convicted on the basis of coerced testimony&mdash;a violation of his [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|fifth amendment rights]]). The ACLU's stance on [[Spam (electronic)|spam]] is considered controversial by a broad cross-section of political points-of-view. The ACLU has opposed many anti-spam laws, and in 2000 Marvin Johnson, a legislative counsel for the ACLU, claimed that anti-spam laws are a bad idea because "it's relatively simple to click and delete," [http://archives.cnn.com/2000/TECH/computing/06/09/amend.spam.idg/] advice which is rejected by many spam fighters. [http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/spam/chapter/ch01.html] The debate found the ACLU joining with the [[Direct Marketing Association]] and the [[Center for Technology and Democracy]] in criticizing a bipartisan bill in the [[House of Representatives]] in 2000; already by 1997 the ACLU had taken a strong position that nearly all spam legislation was improper [http://www.anu.edu.au/mail-archives/link/link9709/0306.html], although it has supported "[[opt-out]]" requirements in some cases. Most recently the ACLU opposed the 2003 [[CAN-SPAM_Act_of_2003|CAN-SPAM]] act [http://www.aclu.org/freespeech/commercial/10953leg20030730.html] suggesting the possibility of a [[chilling effect]]. In many cases, whether or not a stance is considered controversial depends on other political views the critic may hold. These are discussed in greater detail in sections below. ==Critics of the ACLU== The ACLU's involvement in hundreds of legal cases over the years have led to a great deal of criticism from numerous points of view. In many situations, the criticism may be focused on the ACLU's stance in a particular case or group of cases; in others, the criticism focuses on the general principles that guide the ACLU's choices of which cases to take. It may be taken for granted that many groups oppose some or all of the ACLU's "positions" listed above; here we discuss only the most general themes the criticism has taken. ===Conservative critics=== The ACLU's most vocal critics are generally those who consider themselves, or are commonly regarded as, [[conservative]]s. Many of these conservatives allege that the ACLU has not dedicated itself to the defense of constitutional rights, but that it seeks to advance a [[liberal]] agenda. Some critics point to its opposition to the [[death penalty]], which has been declared constitutional by the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] since 1976, although it had been declared unconstitutional in practice from 1972 to 1976. The ACLU continues to argue that the death penalty violates the [[Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Eighth Amendment]] restriction against "cruel and unusual punishment," the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] guarantee of equal protection, and that it is contrary to [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights|international human rights]] norms. The 1980 ''[[Polovchak v. Meese]]'' case is also sometimes considered evidence of liberal sympathies on the part of the ACLU. [[Walter Polovchak]] was from [[Ukraine]], at that time part of the [[Soviet Union]], and when his parents were returning to Ukraine, tried to stay in the US and claim [[refugee|political asylum]]. The ACLU attempted to block him from doing so. In 1999 the Florida chapter of the ACLU referred to the ACLU's role in the Polovchak case in their brief for the [[Elián González]] case. Critics also argue that the ACLU has not been consistent in defending all civil liberties, pointing out that it is not active in protecting [[Gun politics in the US|gun rights]]. Critics claim gun rights enjoy similar constitutional protection to other civil rights and should be treated equally by the ACLU if it is not motivated by a partisan agenda. The organization declares itself officially "neutral" on the issue of gun control, pointing to previous Supreme Court decisions such as ''[[United States v. Miller]]'' to argue that the [[Second Amendment]] applies to the preservation or efficiency of a well-regulated militia, and the unlimited possession of weapons by individuals is not constitutionally protected. [http://www.aclu.org/PolicePractices/PolicePractices.cfm?ID=9621&c=25] Some critics argue that this position is inconsistent with their stated philosophy, and have suggested that the ACLU may only adopt this stance to appease liberal-leaning supporters of the group who happen to also support gun control. Critics also point out that the ACLU does not take up cases that involve possible abuses by the [[BATFE]] that go beyond the debate over the private ownership of firearms. [http://www.civilrightsunion.org/acluwatch/socalledgun.htm] The ACLU has been involved in a few gun rights cases; most recently the ACLU of Texas joined with the [[National Rifle Association|NRA]] in favor of a proposed Texas law, HB 823, in 2006, and claiming that current legislation allowed for the harassment of gun owners [http://gritsforbreakfast.blogspot.com/2005/03/pack-your-pistola-and-hit-road.html]. In 1982, the ACLU became involved in a case involving the distribution of [[child pornography]] (''New York v. Ferber, 458 U.S. 747'' [http://www.oyez.org/oyez/resource/case/279/].) In a controversial amicus brief, the ACLU argued that the [[New York State]] law in question "has criminalized the dissemination, sale or display of constitutionally protected non-obscene materials which portray juveniles in sexually related roles", while arguing that child pornography deemed [[obscene]] under the [[Miller test]] deserved no constitutional protection and could be banned [http://campus.westlaw.com/Find/Default.wl?SerialNum=1982191934&FindType=Y&AP=0-2&ReturnTo=CLID_RT4918149&POP=False&IT=BRIEF&TF=15&TC=1&mt=CampusLegal&fn=_top&sv=Split&vr=2.0&sp=princeton-2000&rs=WLW5.09]. The ACLU's stance on this case has drawn great criticism from conservatives [http://euphoria.jarkolicious.com/journal/2005/06/16/516/]. In a 2002 letter, the ACLU stated that it "opposes child pornography that uses real children in its depictions" [http://www.aclu.org/Privacy/Privacy.cfm?ID=10364&c=252]. The group has also come under fire, again mostly from conservative critics, for fighting against [[Megan's Law|Megan’s Law]], a law ostensibly enacted to protect children from sex offenders. Though the ACLU has fought Megan’s Law(s) in many states, it has been unable to attain significant victories in these cases. [[Bill O'Reilly (journalist)|Bill O'Reilly]] has referred to the ACLU as "the most dangerous organization in America", and as an "anti-American" and "[[fascist]] organization" on his various broadcasts, and frequently [[Bill O'Reilly (journalist)#American Civil Liberties Union|criticizes the group]] [http://mediamatters.org/items/200406080005]. [[Michael Medved]] has referred to the ACLU sarcastically as the "American Criminal Lawyer Union", due to its frequent stances at end with conservatives. The construction of alternative [[backronyms]] is something of a sport; others invented by critics include "American Communist Lawyers Union" [http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=41751]. The group "Stop the ACLU" ran a backronym contest [http://www.stoptheaclu.org/wst_page9.html]. The thirty entries variously implied that the ACLU was atheist, Communist, lesbian, aligned with [[Lucifer]], or overly [[litigation|litigious]]. The most frequent assertion, made in a plurality of eleven entries, was that the union was anti-Christian. ===Conservative Christian critics=== At the grassroots level, the ACLU often involves itself in cases involving the [[separation of church and state]]. Therefore, some [[Christians]], including many who may be considered [[conservative Christian]], often take issue with its positions. Many in this community contend that the ACLU is part of an effort to remove all references to religion from American government. In 2004, for example, the ACLU of Southern California (ACLU/SC) threatened to sue the city of [[Redlands, California]] if it did not remove a picture of a cross from the city's seal. The ACLU/SC argued that having a cross on the seal amounted to a government-sponsored endorsement of Christianity and violated separation of church and state. The city complied with the ACLU/SC and removed the cross from all city vehicles, business cards, and police badges. However, the issue will be put on the November 2005 ballot [http://www.redlandsseal.org]. The ACLU/SC also threatened [[Los Angeles County, California]] if it did not remove an image of a cross from its seal. As in the Redlands case, the county board complied with the demands and voted to remove the cross from its seal as well. There was a petition against the changing of the seal, which ended on [[August 15]], [[2005]] [http://www.savetheseal.net/]. In [[1990]], [[Pat Robertson]] founded the [[American Center for Law and Justice]], as a counterweight to the ACLU, which is perceived by Robertson as "liberal" and "hostile to traditional [[American values]]"; another non-profit legal center, the [[Thomas More Law Center]], also bills itself as the "Christian answer to the ACLU." After the [[September 11, 2001 terrorist attack]], the Rev. [[Jerry Falwell]] remarked that the ACLU, by trying to "secularize America," had provoked the wrath of God, and therefore caused those terrorist attacks. (Falwell later apologized for the remark.) Other critics of the ACLU do not make such strong accusations, but claim that the organization pushes the concept of separation of church and state beyond its original meaning. The ACLU and Jerry Falwell sometimes find themselves on the same side. Notably, the ACLU filed an amicus brief supporting a suit by Falwell against the state of Virginia. The suit, which was successful, overturned the Virginia constitution's ban on the incorporation of Churches. In addition, the ACLU has defended the rights of a Christian church to run anti-Santa ads on Boston subways, the rights to religious expression by jurors, and the rights of Christian students to distribute religious literature in school. [http://www.aclu.org/ReligiousLiberty/ReligiousLiberty.cfm?ID=17598&c=38] While the ACLU does oppose the use of crosses in public monuments [http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20040331/news_7m31soledad.html], [http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=43799], there have been false allegations that the ACLU has urged the removal of cross-shaped [[headstone]]s from federal [[cemetery|cemeteries]] and has opposed prayer by [[soldier]]s; such charges have been deemed to be [[urban legend]]s. [http://www.snopes.com/politics/religion/cemetery.asp] Many minority religious groups like [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] and [[Muslim]]s have at times been defended by the ACLU and are ardent supporters of it. In the [[Mormon]] community, the ACLU is viewed positively by some, who cite [[Santa Fe Independent School Dist. v. Doe]], a case litigated by the ACLU on behalf of a Mormon student concerning [[school prayer]] [http://wenger.blogspot.com/2003_08_10_wenger_archive.html#106087652143939285]. However, a good number of Mormons, including some local leaders, are strongly against the activities of the ACLU [http://www.timesandseasons.org/archives/000198.html]. Jehovah's Witnesses were involved in twenty-three Supreme Court rulings between 1938 and 1946 over religious objections to serving in the armed forces and over saluting the flag and reciting the pledge of allegiance [http://www.commondreams.org/views/022800-105.htm], over local and state ordinances prohibiting the Witnesses from publishing criticisms of the [[Roman Catholic]] church [http://www.commondreams.org/views/022800-105.htm], as well as over government reluctance to prosecute anti-Witness vigilantes; the ACLU was directly involved in these cases [http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/petjud.html]; the ACLU's involvement with Jehovah's Witnesses continues, and they joined the Witnesses in a 2002 case over doorbell-ringing [http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/nation/1272268.html]. ===Liberal critics=== The ACLU has also, though less frequently, been subject to criticism from the [[political left]]. Some critics object to the organization's advocacy for corporations' protection by the Bill of Rights known as [[corporate personhood]], as well as its stance against some campaign finance reform laws. ===Feminist & Left critics=== Some [[Anti-pornography movement|anti-pornography activists]], including [[Nikki Craft]] and [[Catharine MacKinnon]], who oppose pornography on [[feminist]] grounds, are also strong critics of the ACLU; in her lifetime, [[Andrea Dworkin]]'s positions on pornography also led her to similar stances. A group, started by Craft in the early 1990s, is called "Always Causing Legal Unrest (ACLU)"; the resultant acronym confusion led the then-director of the Union [[Dorothy M. Ehrlich]] to send a letter of protest [http://www.nostatusquo.com/ACLU/aclu/Ehrlich.html], but the Union did not pursue legal action against Craft's group. ===Libertarian critics=== While some refer to the ACLU as a [[libertarian]] organization and while the ACLU has defended the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|US Libertarian Party]] in recent cases [http://www.aclu.org/VotingRights/VotingRights.cfm?ID=10305&c=32], a number of libertarians and [[objectivists]] oppose the ACLU for its support of laws that they view as distinctly anti-liberty, such as [[affirmative action]] and anti-discrimination laws that apply to private property. One objection held by some libertarians is the belief that private business owners have an inherent right to discriminate against serving customers, or hiring employees, based on criteria such as race or sex. Former ACLU member [[Nat Hentoff]] has criticized the organization in a libertarian vein for promoting affirmative action and for supporting what he sees as government protected liberal speech codes enacted on college campuses and the workplace [http://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/hentoff092099.asp]. Law professor [[David Bernstein]]'s book "You Can't Say That! The Growing Threat to Civil Liberties from Antidiscrimination Laws" takes the ACLU to task for frequently seeking to undermine expressive rights when they conflict with antidiscrimination laws, as in the 2000 Supreme Court case of [[Boy Scouts of America v. Dale]]. Some libertarians have formed an organization they describe as the "libertarian ACLU" [http://www.lpws.org/spokane/why.htm], the [[Institute for Justice]]. ==National affiliates== Below are some of the ACLU's bigger affiliates: * [http://www.aclu-sc.org/ ACLU of Southern California] * [http://www.aclunc.org/ ACLU of Northern California] * [http://www.aclu-nca.org/ ACLU of the National Capital Area (District of Columbia, and Prince George's and Montgomery Counties of Maryland)] * [http://www.aclufl.org/ ACLU of Florida] * [http://www.aclu-il.org/ ACLU of Illinois] * [http://www.aclu-mass.org/ ACLU of Massachusetts] * [http://www.aclumich.org/ ACLU of Michigan] * [http://www.aclu-mn.org/ ACLU of Minnesota] * [http://www.aclu-em.org/ ACLU of Eastern Missouri] * [http://www.aclunebraska.org/ ACLU of Nebraska] * [http://www.aclu-nj.org/ ACLU of New Jersey] * [http://www.nhclu.org/ New Hampshire Civil Liberties Union] * [http://www.nyclu.org/ New York Civil Liberties Union] * [http://www.acluohio.org/ ACLU of Ohio] * [http://www.aclupa.org/ ACLU of Pennsylvania] * [http://www.acluva.org/ ACLU of Virginia] * [http://www.aclu-wa.org/ ACLU of Washington] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.aclu.org Official website] * [http://www.topix.net/news/aclu ACLU News from Topix.net] * [http://www.aclu.org/SafeandFree/SafeandFree.cfm?ID=12666&c=206 Freedom Under Fire: Dissent in a Post-9/11 America] * [http://www.stoptheaclu.org Stop the ACLU Main Site] (Critics of the ACLU) [[Category:1917 establishments]] [[Category:Civil rights]] [[Category:Court cases litigated by the American Civil Liberties Union|*]] [[Category:Government watchdog groups in the U.S.]] [[Category:Legal defence organizations]] [[de:American Civil Liberties Union]] [[it:American Civil Liberties Union]] [[ja:アメリカ自由人権協会]] [[nl:American Civil Liberties Union]] 1951 41168035 2006-02-25T14:07:19Z 67.23.84.125 /* Christological aspects */ {{otheruses}} [[Image:Narnia aslan.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Aslan in promotional artwork from the film ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'']] '''Aslan''' the "Great Lion" is the main character in ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]'' a series of seven fantasy novels for children written by [[C. S. Lewis]]. He appears in all seven books of the series. The word ''aslan'' is [[Turkish Language|Turkish]] for "[[lion]]" and is used as a title for [[Ottoman Dynasty|Ottoman]]/[[Seljukids|Seljukid]] and [[Persian Empire]](Turkic) rulers. The figure of Aslan may have been suggested by a mysterious lion which suddenly appears and disappears at key moments in the novel [[The Place of the Lion]], by Lewis' close friend [[Charles Williams]]. ==Christological aspects== Throughout the series it is often repeated that he is "not a tame lion", since, despite his gentle and loving nature, he is powerful and can be dangerous. He takes the role of a [[Christ|Christ-like]] figure, though according to Lewis he is not an [[allegorical]] portrayal of Christ, but rather a different, hypothetical, [[incarnation]] of Christ himself: :''If Aslan represented the immaterial Deity, he would be an allegorical figure. In reality however he is an invention giving an imaginary answer to the question, 'What might Christ become like if there really were a world like Narnia and He chose to be incarnate and die and rise again in that world as He actually has done in ours?' This is not allegory at all.'' Thus, Lewis claimed that the Chronicles were not Christian allegory because they are not allegory, not because they are not Christian. This interpretation is related to [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s concept of "[[secondary creation]]" expounded in his [[1947]] essay ''[[On Fairy-Stories]]'', reflecting discussions Lewis and Tolkien had in the [[Inklings]] group. ==Role in the Narnia narrative== {{spoiler}} In the course of ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', Aslan is put to death by the White Witch on the Stone Table in the place of a traitor - symbolic of the [[Crucifixion]]. He subsequently rises from the dead, and makes appearances in the remaining books in the series. He appears as the creator of Narnia in the prequel ''[[The Magician's Nephew]]''. When Narnia is destroyed in ''[[The Last Battle]]'', Aslan judges every creature who has died. It turns out his kingdom is the real Narnia and the one that was destroyed was merely a copy. The books also make reference to an [[Emperor-Over-Sea]], whose son Aslan is said to be; this further highlights his Christ-like status. The Emperor-over-the-Sea is similar to ''[[Eru Ilúvatar]]'' of [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s [[Middle-earth]], in His separation from His creation. At various points, Aslan's role as an evangelist for Christian beliefs becomes explicit. After turning from a lamb (Jesus was often said to be the Lamb of God in the Bible) back into a lion (Christ was often called the Lion of the Tribe of Judea) in [[The Voyage of the Dawn Treader|''The Voyage of the'' Dawn Treader]], he announces he is known by another name in our world, and while that name is not mentioned specifically, the connotations and imagery in Aslan's story strongly suggest that he is referring to Christ. See the Wikipedia entry on [[The Voyage of the Dawn Treader|''The Voyage of the'' Dawn Treader]] for this description. {{endspoiler}} ==Portrayals in film and television== In all three (''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', ''Prince Caspian and The Voyage of the Dawn Treader'', ''The Silver Chair'') of the [[BBC]] television serial adaptations of the late [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]], Aslan is voiced by [[Ronald Pickup]], with the costume operated by William Todd Jones. In the 2005 film ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]'', he is voiced by [[Liam Neeson]]. ==References== * [http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/lion/section10.rhtml Spark notes reference to the meaning of Aslan's death] * [http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/010/22.32.html "Aslan is still on the move" ''Christianity Today'' editorial, [[6 August]] [[2001]]. ==See also== {{NarniaCharacters}} [[Category:Narnia characters]] [[Category:Fictional lions|Aslan]] [[Category:Fictional deities|Aslan]] [[Category:Fictional kings]] [[es:Aslan]] [[eo:Aslano]] [[pl:Aslan]] [[pt:Aslan]] 1952 15900412 2004-10-27T21:20:06Z Radiojon 15970 #redirect [[Industry Standard Architecture]] #redirect [[Industry Standard Architecture]] 1955 41868339 2006-03-02T06:25:30Z 00user001 1015755 {{Infobox Company | company_name = Adobe Systems, Inc. | company_logo = [[Image:AdobeSystems.png|196px]] | company_type = [[Corporation]] ([[NASDAQ]]: [http://quotes.nasdaq.com/asp/SummaryQuote.asp?symbol=ADBE ADBE]) | foundation = [[San Jose, California|San Jose]] ([[1982]]) | location = [[San Jose, California|San Jose]], [[California]] | key_people = [[Charles Geschke]], Founder<br />[[John Warnock]], Founder<br />[[Bruce Chizen]], [[Chief Executive Officer|CEO]] | industry = [[Software|software publishing]] [http://www.hoovers.com/adobe/--ID__12518--/free-co-factsheet.xhtml] | products = [[#Products|See complete products listing.]] | revenue = [[Image:green up.png]] $1.97 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[2005]]) | num_employees = 3,142 (2005) | homepage = [http://www.adobe.com/ www.adobe.com] }} '''Adobe Systems''' ({{nasdaq|ADBE}}) ({{lse|ABS}}) is an [[United States|American]] [[computer]] [[Computer software|software]] company headquartered in [[San Jose, California]] that was founded in December 1982 by [[John Warnock]] and [[Charles Geschke]]. They founded Adobe after leaving [[Xerox PARC]] in order to further develop and commercialize the [[PostScript]] [[page description language]]. Adobe played a significant role in sparking the [[desktop publishing]] revolution when [[Apple Computer]] licensed PostScript for use in the [[LaserWriter]] [[computer printer|printer]] product line in 1985. The company name ''Adobe'' comes from the Adobe Creek, which ran behind the house of one of the company's founders. In 2005, Adobe Systems had over 4,000 employees, at least half of whom were located in San Jose. Adobe also has major development operations in [[Seattle, Washington]]; [[Noida]], [[India]]; and [[Ottawa]], [[Canada]]. Minor Adobe development offices include a location near [[Minneapolis]], [[Minnesota]] and in [[Hamburg]], [[Germany]]. The 4,000 count was prior to the [[December 3]], [[2005]] merger with [[Macromedia]] of [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[California]]. ==History== [[Image:Adobe HQ.JPG|300px|thumb|right|Adobe Systems headquarters in San Jose]] Adobe's first products following PostScript were digital [[Typeface|font]]s. Adobe has continued to be a strong presence in the fonts market: in 1996, the company, in combination with [[Microsoft]], announced the [[OpenType]] font format, and in 2003 Adobe completed the conversion of its library of [[Type 1 font]]s to OpenType. In the mid-[[1980s]], soon after introducing PostScript, Adobe entered the consumer [[Computer software|software]] market with [[Adobe Illustrator]], a [[vector graphics|vector]]-based drawing program for the [[Apple Macintosh]]. Illustrator was the logical outgrowth of commercializing their in-house font-development software. Additionally, it helped popularize the use of PostScript-enabled [[laser printer]]s. Unlike [[MacDraw]] (then the standard Macintosh vector drawing program), Illustrator described all shapes with more flexible [[Bézier curve]]s, providing a level of accuracy not seen in other programs. Font rendering in Illustrator, however, was left to the Macintosh's [[QuickDraw]] libraries and would not be superseded by a PostScript-like approach until Adobe's own [[Adobe Type Manager]] software was introduced, preceding Apple's eventual adoption of [[TrueType]]. Although Illustrator was an excellent product and continues to be highly valued by the [[prepress]] industry, Adobe introduced what was to become its [[flagship]] product, [[Adobe Photoshop]] for the Macintosh, in 1989. Although Photoshop 1.0 had competitors, it was extremely stable and well-featured&mdash;and Adobe had the resources to market it. The combination enabled Photoshop to soon dominate its market. Arguably, one of Adobe's few missteps on the Macintosh platform was their failure to develop their own [[desktop publishing]] (DTP) program. Instead, [[Aldus]] with [[Adobe PageMaker|PageMaker]] in 1985 and [[Quark, Inc.|Quark]] with [[QuarkXPress]] in 1987 gained early leads in the DTP market. Adobe was also slow to address the emerging [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] DTP market. In a classic failure to predict the direction of computing, Adobe released a complete version of Illustrator for [[Steve Jobs]]' ill-fated [[NeXT]] system, but a poorly produced version for Windows. History has been kind to Adobe however, because the company always had licensing fees from the PostScript interpreter to fall back on, Adobe was able to simply outlast many of its rivals in the late 1980s and early [[1990s]], and, like [[Microsoft]], eventually acquired its main competitors or continued to improve its applications until they became industry standards. For reasons unknown, [[Corel]] never leveraged their [[CorelDraw]] product to do professional illustration&mdash;users quietly derided it as something only office users would touch&mdash;so when Illustrator was finally revamped for Windows, prepress users found it too good to ignore. Corel's interest in acquiring [[WordPerfect]] from [[Novell]] Corporation around this time may have proved to be a key distraction. In 1994, Adobe took over Aldus and acquired PageMaker and the [[TIFF]] file format; in 1995 they acquired the long-document DTP application [[FrameMaker]] from Frame Technologies. Adobe's latest efforts are mainly centered on its [[Portable Document Format]] (PDF). Although sales of [[Adobe Acrobat]], which generates PDF files, were slow to start in the mid-1990s, Adobe continued to develop the product, perceiving its long-term potential for revenues. History has since shown this to be a wise investment. Adobe has also seen several ancillary benefits: PDF provides a common, high-quality data exchange infrastructure for its DTP applications. Among open software advocates, some see Adobe as overly aggressive. This image was created with their decision to use an encrypted, proprietary format for their high-quality Type 1 fonts, thus allowing them to charge licensing fees for any other company that wanted to produce or use Type 1 fonts. The size of these fees was a factor in Apple's development of their own [[TrueType]] technology as well as Microsoft's decision to license TrueType from Apple. At the presentation at which TrueType was introduced, Adobe head Warnock followed TrueType talks from both Apple and Microsoft VPs, and was near tears as he said that they were being sold "smoke." In fact, TrueType had definitive advantages: it provided not only full scalability, but also precise control of the pixel pattern created by the font's outlines. A few months later Adobe published the Type 1 specification, and soon released the "Adobe Type Manager" software, which allowed for [[WYSIWYG]] scaling of Type 1 fonts on screen, just like TrueType (though without the precise pixel-level control). However, these moves were too late to stop the rise of TrueType, which quickly became the standard for business and the average Windows user, with Type 1 remaining the standard in the graphics/publishing market. On [[2005-04-18]] Adobe Systems announced an agreement to acquire its former main rival [[Macromedia]] in a stock swap valued at about $3.4 billion on the last trading day before the announcement. The acquisition was consummated on [[2005-12-03]]. ==Employees== ===Key employees=== {| width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" |- | colspan="2" | '''Executive Board''' |- valign="top" | width="150" | [[Charles Geschke|Charles M. Geschke]] | Co-[[Chairman of the Board]] |- valign="top" | width="150" | [[John Warnock|John E. Warnock]] | Co-Chairman of the Board |- valign="top" | width="150" | [[Bruce R. Chizen]] | [[CEO]], Director (2003 Compensation: $1,848,124 [[United States dollar|USD]]) |- valign="top" | width="150" | [[Shantanu Narayen]] | President & Chief Operating Officer (2003 Compensation: $879,247 [[United States dollar|USD]]) |- valign="top" | [[Murray J. Demo]] | [[CFO]], [[SVP]] ([[2003]] Compensation: $777,753 [[United States dollar|USD]]) |- | |- | colspan="2" | '''Non Executive Board''' |- valign="top" | width="150" | Carol Mills | Director (executive vice president and general manager, Infrastructure Products Group, Juniper Networks) |- valign="top" | width="150" | Mike R. Cannon | Director (president, CEO and directors, Solectron Corp.) |- valign="top" | width="150" | James E. Daley | Director (independent consultant, former [[CFO]] of Electronic Data Systems) |- valign="top" | width="150" | Colleen M. Pouliot | Director (attorney, former [[SVP]] and general counsel of Adobe Systems) |- valign="top" | width="150" | [[Robert Sedgewick (computer scientist)|Robert Sedgewick]] | Director (computer science professor, [[Princeton University]]) |- valign="top" | width="150" | [[Del Yocam|Delbert W. Yocam]] | Director (independent consultant, former chairman and CEO of [[Borland]]) |- | |- | colspan="2" | '''Senior Management''' |- valign="top" | width="150" | [[Stephen Elop]] | [[President]], Worldwide Field Operations |- valign="top" | [[Karen O. Cottle]] | [[SVP]], General Counsel, Secretary |- valign="top" | width="150" | [[James Heeger]] | [[SVP]], Creative Professional Business Unit (2003 Compensation: $591,086 [[United States dollar|USD]]) |- valign="top" | width="150" | [[John Brennan]] | [[SVP]], Corporate Development |- valign="top" | [[Melissa Dyrdahl]] | [[SVP]], Corporate Marketing and Communications |- valign="top" | width="150" | [[Bryan Lamkin]] | [[SVP]], Creative Solutions (acting) |- valign="top" | width="150" | [[Naresh Gupta]] | [[SVP]], Print and Classic Publishing Solutions, & Managing Director, India Research and Development |- valign="top" | width="150" | [[Thomas Hale]] | [[SVP]], Knowledge Wordker Solutions |- valign="top" | width="150" | [[Kevin Lynch]] | [[SVP]], Platforms |- valign="top" | width="150" | [[Tom Malloy]] | [[SVP]] and Chief Software Architect, Advanced Technology Labs |- valign="top" | width="150" | [[David Mendels]] | [[SVP]], Enterprise and Developer Solutions |- valign="top" | width="150" | [[Alan S. Ramadan]] | [[SVP]], Mobile and Device Solutions |- valign="top" | width="150" | [[Kevin Burr]] | [[VP]], Corporate Communications |} ==Reputation== In many circles Adobe is considered one of the most principled of the major software companies, and one that treats its large corporate customers and employees well, although customer service for smaller businesses and individuals has often received unfavorable press. Adobe has climbed [[Fortune magazine]]'s rankings as an outstanding place to work over the last several years (2001-03). Adobe was rated the fifth best American company to work for in 2003 and sixth best in 2004. Adobe was ineligible for Fortune's ranking in 2005 due to its major acquisition of Macromedia. ==Products== <!-- Don't include plugins or derivative products. Derivative products should be described on the root product's page. --> <!-- Instead of listing each product like so, there should be a brief description of each product complemented by relevant financial data (not prices). --> {| width="600" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" |- | colspan="2" | '''Current''' |- valign="top" | * [[Adobe Central Output Server]] * [[Adobe Creative Suite]] ** [[Adobe Acrobat]] ** [[Adobe Bridge]] ** [[Adobe GoLive]] ** [[Adobe Illustrator]] ** [[Adobe InDesign]] ** [[Adobe Photoshop]] (includes: [[Adobe ImageReady]]) ** [[Adobe Stock Photos]] * [[Adobe Document Server]] * [[Adobe Document Policy Server]] * [[Adobe eBook Reader]] * [[Adobe Fonts]] * [[Adobe Form Manager]] ** [[Adobe Form Server]] * [[Adobe FrameMaker]] * [[Adobe InCopy]] * [[Adobe LiveCycle Barcoded Forms]] * [[Adobe LiveCycle Designer]] * [[Adobe LiveCycle Document Security]] * [[Adobe LiveCycle Reader Extensions]] (previously Document Server for Reader Extensions and other names) * [[Adobe LiveCycle Forms]] (previously Form Server) * [[Adobe LiveCycle Form Manager]] * [[Adobe LiveCycle Policy Server]] * [[Adobe LiveCycle Workflow]] * [[Adobe Output Designer]] * [[Adobe PageMaker]] * [[Adobe PDF JobReady]] * [[Adobe Photoshop Album]] * [[Adobe Photoshop Album Starter Edition]] * [[Adobe Photoshop Elements]] * [[Adobe Premiere Elements]] * [[Adobe Reader]] * [[Adobe SVG Viewer]] * [[Adobe Production Studio]] ** [[Adobe After Effects]] ** [[Adobe Audition]] ** [[Adobe Encore]] ** [[Adobe Premiere Pro]] * [[Adobe Web Output Pak]] * [[Digital Negative Specification]] | colspan="2" | '''Recently Acquired''' *[[Macromedia Studio]] *[[Macromedia Flash]] *[[Macromedia Dreamweaver]] *[[Macromedia Breeze]] *[[Macromedia Flex]] *[[Macromedia ColdFusion]] *[[Macromedia Director]] *[[Authorware#Macromedia Authorware|Macromedia Authorware]] *[[Macromedia FreeHand]] *[[Macromedia Fireworks]] *[[Macromedia Contribute]] *[[Macromedia Robohelp]] *[[Macromedia Captivate]] *[[Macromedia Shockwave]] *[[Macromedia JRun]] *[[Macromedia HomeSite]] *[[Macromedia FlashPaper]] *[[Fontographer|Macromedia Fontographer]] *[[Macromedia Central]] *[[Macromedia FlashCast]] *[[Macromedia Web Publishing System]] | colspan="2" | '''Discontinued''' * [[Adobe Atmosphere]] * [[Adobe Dimensions]] * [[Adobe InProduction]] * [[Adobe LiveMotion]] * [[Adobe PageMill]] * [[Adobe Persuasion]] * [[Adobe PhotoDeluxe]] * [[Adobe PressReady]] * [[Adobe PressWise]] * [[Adobe SiteMill]] * [[Adobe Streamline]] * [[Adobe Transcript]] * [[Adobe TrapWise]] * [[Adobe Type Manager]] Deluxe * [[Adobe TypeAlign]] * [[Adobe TypeReunion]] |} ==Financial information== <!-- Fact-check and display accurate data. Financial data is EASY to acquire. --> Adobe Systems entered [[NASDAQ]] in 1986. As of December 2004, Adobe's [[market capitalization]] is roughly $15 [[1 E9|billion]] [[United States dollar|USD]], and its shares are traded for $62 [[United States dollar|USD]]. Adobe's 2002 revenues were about $1.2 billion [[United States dollar|USD]]. On [[2005-04-18]], Adobe Systems announced its acquisition of [[Macromedia]] at $3.4 billion [[United States dollar|USD]]. *Press Releases: **[http://www.adobe.com/aboutadobe/invrelations/adobeandmacromedia.html Adobe Press Release] **[http://www.macromedia.com/macromedia/proom/pr/2005/adobe_macromedia.html Macromedia Press Release] *News on that issue: <!-- That issue? Define "that issue". --> **[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/18/technology/18cnd-adobe.html New York Times] **[http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/technology/[[2005-04-18]]-adobe-macromedia_x.htm?csp=34 USA Today] **[http://news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&u=/ap/20050418/ap_on_bi_ge/adobe_macromedia_9 Yahoo! Financial Report] ==See also== *[[CoolType]] *[[OpenType]] *[[Portable Document Format|PDF]] *[[PostScript]] ==External links== *[http://www.adobe.com/ Adobe Systems, Inc.] **[http://www.adobe.com/type Adobe Type Library] ** {{cite web | url = http://www.adobe.com/aboutadobe/pressroom/pdfs/Adobe2004Timeline_101804fin.pdf | title = Adobe timeline | format = PDF }} * {{cite web | title = Patents owned by Adobe Systems | work = US Patent & Trademark Office | url = http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&u=%2Fnetahtml%2Fsearch-adv.htm&r=0&p=1&f=S&l=50&Query=an%2F%22Adobe+Systems%22&d=ptxt | accessdate = December 8 | accessyear = 2005 }} <!-- Merge into article. | *As of [[2003-11-15]], [[Adobe LiveMotion]] is no longer distributed. [http://www.adobe.com/products/livemotion/main.html] --> ===Data=== * {{cite web | url = http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/12/12518.html | publisher = Yahoo! | title = Adobe Systems Incorporated Company Profile }} [[Category:Adobe Systems| ]] [[Category:Companies based in California]] [[Category:Companies listed on NASDAQ]] [[Category:Computer companies of the United States]] [[Category:Software companies]] [[Category:Type foundries]] [[Category:1982 establishments]] [[cs:Adobe Systems]] [[de:Adobe Systems]] [[es:Adobe Systems]] [[fi:Adobe Systems]] [[fr:Adobe Systems]] [[he:אדובי מערכות]] [[it:Adobe Systems]] [[ja:アドビシステムズ]] [[nl:Adobe]] [[no:Adobe Systems]] [[pl:Adobe Systems]] [[pt:Adobe Systems]] [[ro:Adobe]] [[ru:Adobe Systems]] [[sv:Adobe Systems]] [[th:Adobe Systems]] [[zh:Adobe系统公司]] 1957 39982003 2006-02-17T06:42:33Z AED 232796 {{verify}} {{verify}} The '''Alexander Technique''' teaches how to recognize and overcome habituated limitations within a person's manner of movement. The Alexander Technique is usually learned from an ''Alexander teacher'' in one-to-one sessions by an ''Alexander student,'' using specialized hand contact and verbal instructions. The name denotes both the educational methods taught by ''Alexander teachers'' and the individual method practiced by teachers and students of the technique. It takes its name from [[F. Matthias Alexander]] ([[1869]]&ndash;[[1955]]), a former Shakespearean recitalist, who first observed and formulated its principles during [[1890]] &ndash; [[1900]]. Alexander regarded the empirical scientific method to be the foundation of his work. He used self-observation and reasoning to make effortless the physical acts of every-day movement: sitting, standing, breathing, working with the hands and speaking. He designed his methods to make experimentation and training deliberately repeatable, and to learn in a way that would allow continuing improvement from any starting point. F.M. Alexander trained teachers of his technique from [[1931]] until [[1955]] in London, UK and from [[1941]] to [[1943]] in Massachusetts, USA, together with his brother, A.R. Alexander ([[1874]]&ndash;[[1947]]), who continued with the training of teachers in the USA until [[1945]]. During his lifetime, F.M. Alexander gained considerable support for his work, including [[John Dewey]], [[Aldous Huxley]], [[George Bernard Shaw]], and scientists [[Raymond Dart]], [[George E. Coghill]], [[Charles Sherrington]], and [[Nikolaas Tinbergen]]. = History = '''F.M. Alexander''' was a Shakespearean orator who developed problems with his voice. Careful observation with multiple mirrors revealed that he needlessly stiffened his whole body in a particular habitual pattern in preparation to recite or speak. It took ten years of self-observation to successfully apply his original discoveries to solve his voice problem. Eventually, he fashioned a "Technique" to teach others to pass on his experience. His work continues today, extending in a lineage that has expanded from many lifetime dedications. =The Technique= ==Basic Premises== The Alexander Technique educates the student's sense of [[kinesthesia]] or [[proprioception]]. This sense is used to internally calibrate one's own bodily location, weight and to judge the effort necessary for moving. Alexander Technique teachers believe that humans have a built-in proprioceptive blind spot; people become habituated to whatever they repeat. Repetitious circumstances lead people to create habits as they adapt and learn. These habits are both deliberate and non-deliberate responses that include physical movement patterns, coping and learning strategies. The advantage of adapting is that behavior and learning becomes simplified; it becomes possible to meet a given stimulus or interpretation of circumstances with a ready-made reaction. As a person adds one habit onto another, the disadvantage is they may train themselves to also repeat unintentional side effects - the tension, over-compensation and cumulative stress that the Alexander Technique addresses. Adapting has a further serious drawback: ''habits disappear sensation.'' Using the habit decreases the importance of paying attention to perceptual differences. Also, sensory systems can flood from accommodating too many contradicting habits and intentions. From disuse or flooding, perceptual sensitivity shuts down and eventually become dull and untrustworthy, just as skin becomes numb if the same spot is rubbed for too long. Loss of perceptual awareness encourages mistaken interpretations for the need to choose a particular response. In a panic, all opposing habits can fire off at once, pulling in all directions, sometimes without the person noticing it has happened. Because habits are designed to become innate, people will commonly experience no sensation of ''doing'' a successfully automated habit. Forgetting what they have trained themselves to now do without thinking, this drawback encourages people to feel convinced that whatever effort or ways they now use to move to respond is customary and necessary, even when it is far from normal. How our kinesthetic sense becomes untrustworthy from adapting to needless overcompensating is built into many innocent situations. For instance, if a person often carries a bag on their forearm, he will later find himself holding up his arm when the bag is not on it. Misunderstanding a teacher's directions, a student may repeat what the teacher knows is unnecessary, but the teacher forgivingly allows the mistake to go by when he should not. A self-taught student may unknowingly adopt useless and later problematic mannerisms. If someone is afraid while learning, adapting can mean he will most likely continue doing the skill fearfully. If someone has healed from a temporary injury, a subtle wincing in anticipation of pain can be automatically continued indefinitely, even though pain has healed. Also due to rapid growth, teenagers often move their own bodies based on inaccurate assumptions of their size and structure. According to Alexander teachers, few adults in Western culture retain their ability to move freely without needless self-imposed interference. Teachers find that most people assume that they "must" move in the only way they assume is possible. Given an unceasing cumulative demand that unnecessarily stresses the body’s structural design, the price as adults grow older can range from feelings of stress and resignation to very real physical problems, due to movement limitations that could be changed. According to those who teach Alexander Technique, most of the time, giving up a certain activity isn't necessary if a learner is ready to free specific habits that work against the body's structural design. ==Benefits== As a technique addressing the entirety of a person's activity, the Alexander Technique aims to benefit people of all sorts. Its proponents, including many well known actors, musicians and educators believe that its practice results in improved awareness, objectivity and the connection between body and mind, ease of movement, improved balance, stamina and less muscular tension. Additionally, those who practice it often report that it gives them an enhanced ability to clarify their thinking, observations and the ability to choose new responses. Proponents further see the technique as a way to use less effort for movement and thus perform more efficiently, feel easier, look more graceful and free themselves from unintentional self-imposed limitations. It is applied both remedially and in the areas of performing arts and sports. It is taught in performance schools of dance, acting, circus, music, voice and some Olympic sports. Since Alexander Technique is suitable for those at any fitness level, it is also used as remedial movement education to complete recovery and provide pain management. Alexander Technique is a first-hand experience of the reality of body/mind unity. Its principles apply to psychology, creative thinking, learning theory and styles of coaching, training and effective communication for teachers and directors. Although the Alexander Technique is considered by those in its field to be primarily educational, taught in a student/teacher relationship as compared to being a treatment regimen between client and practitioner, it is regarded by the [[National Health Service|United Kingdom National Health Service]] to offer an alternative and complementary management for many medical complaints. A partial list is: back problems, unlearning and avoiding [[Repetitive Strain Injury]], improving ergonomics, stuttering, speech training and voice loss, mobility for those with [[Parkinson's disease]], posture or balance problems, or to complete recovery from injury as an adjunct to [[Physical therapy]]. It is also been known to help performers with getting past the ''plateau'' effect (despite trying, no improvement,) performance anxiety, getting beyond a supposed "lack of talent" and to sharpen discrimination and description ability. It has also helped people control unwanted reactions, phobias and depression. Of course, applications are very subjective and personal by nature; many testimonies exist on the Internet. See STAT link below for scientific studies. Note that Alexander Technique is regarded to be a helpful adjunct to traditional medical treatment regimens and not as a substitution for them. ==Reported Effects== Students often describe the immediate effect of an ''Alexander lesson'' as both being unusual, and also strangely familiar. During hands-on lessons, pupils have reported an immediate feeling of a "state of grace," despite their inability to evoke or sustain this state by themselves. Other reported experiences include hearing their own voice sounding different, feeling lighter or having a temporary disorientation of where their body is located spatially. Though most students experience these perceptual paradoxes as feeling good, students are often admonished by teachers to regard their sensations as not worth trying to repeat. Students learn to avoid ''end-gaining,'' meaning, to resist going directly for results using one’s habit. Instead students are to allow themselves the room to use the deliberate new processes of experimenting proscribed by ''the Technique,'' called ''means whereby.'' For this reason students must continue practice of AT without expectation or reinforcement of ''feeling'' themselves changing, because their senses may not yet be awake enough to register the crucial subtle adjustments. Improved sensitivity can be trained or reawakened by sustained practice, but this takes patience. The learner may at different times still paradoxically experience both states; the unusual sensory effects described above during a progressive leap ahead; and a sense of nothing happening when gradual progress is, in fact, taking place. Evidence of change is sought in verifiable outside feedback; using a mirror; by noting, comparing, or describing differences of the relative location of one's eyes, balance or weight changes; a change in the sound of one's voice or the effects on one’s objectives, props or environment. Alexander teachers have been educated to perceive, observe and articulate very subtle but crucial differences influencing motion, and they offer this education and feedback to their students. Depending on the causes of limitations, structural posture may or may not improve, but freedom of motion should always improve during the lesson with a teacher. To take improvements away from the class, the dedication of later remembering to attentively experiment is required on the part of the learner. A willingness to experiment is key to gaining continuing results. ==Effective under what circumstances== Remembering to use Alexander Technique to get its benefits is required, but not a special practice activity; merely an experimental, thinking moment while doing any other action. Of course, the longer these moments of awareness can be sustained, the greater the effect over time. Alexander Technique can be practiced while doing any other activity. Practice at any time while awake will result in its benefits. Curiosity, a willingness to experiment and recognition of gradual improvement are the attitudes that most effectively bring attention to the continuous possible choices of response that momentarily arise. Practice should be unnoticed by others due to the fact that it's an internal process of personal sensory experience. Unlike many similar self-improvement regimens, the Alexander Technique is '''not''' a series of exercises. Rather, it teaches inter-related principles for human response, such as [[directions]], which are the governing characteristics of how people can use their own bodies easier to perform their objectives. Which motions, actions and criteria someone might apply for an activity that could benefit from practice will range from the most simple and mundane motions to the most strenuously demanding physical challenges. ==Disadvantages== Alexander Technique may not be effective for everyone. It requires the student to work at a somewhat paradoxical goal that is, at first, based on the teacher's (or classmates') perception of success. Habits are often tied to self-image, emotions and cultural assumptions. The student must be willing and able to challenge the validity and criteria of their assumptions, judgments and motives. Because of this, the road of learning can be rocky. It's difficult to change that which cannot be perceived. In rare occasions, undoing habits may trigger possibly unpleasant "unresolved" emotions that originally justified the habitual remedies, perhaps requiring additional professional help. Some ingrained habit patterns seem to have a sense of self-preservation that objects to its possible lack of importance. There can be a time during mid-learning when the student can't yet reliably sustain the new ways of moving he prefers. What used to feel comfortable instead becomes experienced as an unpleasantly heavy, pressured sagging sensation. It's a stage where every posture the student can assume seems to have something wrong with it. Often the student constantly notices other people around them are always stiff and slumping. It seems that once the door to perception is open, there is no going back to unselfconsciousness. If the student feels he cannot continue lessons at this point, perhaps sampling a number of teachers from different teaching styles is advisable rather than quitting altogether. Alexander Technique will not solve structural problems such as [[arthritis]] or alter bone structure. However, many adult students have reported a gaining an inch or so in height after a few months of regular lessons. ===Scientific Proof=== Proof the Alexander Technique works has only been verified in rare previous and current scientific research. But results in neuroscience and current movement gait lab research on the effects and function of body motion are promising. (See STAT links.) Meanwhile, UK medical communities recognize the effectiveness of the ''Technique,'' though is still often classified as pseudo-scientific in other countries. ===Learning time=== Progress in learning is unlimited, but commonly slow; often taking a significant commitment of months, even years of discipline. Most teachers consider twenty to forty lessons to be required for learning to use it personally. Speed of learning seems to depend on the motivation to shed outdated habits, and the persistence of the learner to confront the power of their own habits with resolve, clear thinking and new responses. During daily lessons in a workshop environment, a rare fast learner can gain rapid functionality in a matter of a few weeks. The fastest learners are often people who are motivated by gaining freedom from chronic pain, or someone recovering from injury who can now again devote themselves to a beloved art or skill. The reason Alexander Technique takes so long to learn is because the kinesthetic sense is often the most "taken for granted" and habitually ingrained. The student is often without words for the qualities in themselves that are changing. =Learning and Teaching= Teachers train “pupils” in a personalized, living anatomy lesson. Most use a specialized hands-on technique of guided modeling to show what they mean. Even if only briefly for group classes, movement is guided with very light, one-on-one hand contact, usually about the student's head, neck and back. The value of effortlessness is advocated. Coaching the substitution of more appropriate, specific ways to detour limitations are also suggested. As anyone knows who has tried substitution strategies against a habit, there are often more complex paradoxes involved, because habits can be tricky. Alexander Technique addresses these concerns, tailoring how to establish personally constructive experimentation uniquely for each student. Most commonly at the beginning of lessons, teachers may suggest activities that are routine, such as walking or sitting. For part of the lesson, some teachers have learners lie on a table, so the student can experience the principles in action without having to pay attention to maintaining balance, called ''table work.'' ''Working on oneself'' while lying semi-supine with knees up is taught to be used while taking a break during the student's workday. Depending on the student's purposes, the teacher might later suggest simulating a particularly stressful situation for using Alexander Technique under pressure, such as acting, public speaking, shouting or other demanding performance. ==Learning Environments== Teaching methods vary; all have in common guided discovery of easier, more positive ways to carry intention into physical action and how to recognize and prevent outdated habits from derailing intended results. To begin lessons, there is no prerequisite level of fitness or movement ability. Alexander Technique is most often taught in private lessons. Group, shared lessons and workshops are recently becoming more common - especially as an adjunct to a specialized art, sport or skill and as required curriculum in music & drama colleges. Because the Alexander Technique can be taught and practiced during any activity, some teachers leave the choice of activity up to the student. Many Alexander teachers also have additional specialties; such as teaching children in grade school, [[Repetitive strain injury]] or pain management. Some teach Alexander Technique with an additional professional skill, such as being a speech or physical therapist or yoga teacher. ''AT'' may also be included as an adjunct to improve a sport, as in horsemanship, running or golf. However, the Alexander teacher does not need to be trained in the specific skill, sport or activity for its benefits to be experienced. ==Teacher Training== Training for being a teacher of Alexander Technique involves more than 1600+ hours of classes over at least a three-year period. Teacher trainees must qualify to graduate; attendance is not a guarantee of becoming a teacher. Trainees are evaluated for the presence of a signature of effortlessness and freedom in themselves and the quality of their touch. Alexander Technique's unexpected poise should be an immediate shared fact for both teacher and student in every hands-on ''Alexander lesson.'' After qualifying, most professional teaching associations require continuing development courses. The UK professional Alexander teaching organizations and some trained by them believe the public should beware of inadequately trained impostors, because there are no laws that require legal certification of AT teachers. The necessary skill to teach is impossible to "fake" - a fact obviously witnessed by those with the professional skill to see it in action but not by the general public. Regardless of what other ''body science'' or ''holistic therapy'' experience someone who claims Alexander Technique knowledge may have, if he has not qualified at a professional teacher-training course in an establishment approved by a recognized professional AT organization, he is not a certified professional Alexander teacher. Professional organizations generally advise checking references of any teacher you might consider studying with. ===The Importance Attached To Learning From An Alexander Teacher=== F.M. Alexander and his brother A.R. Alexander often stressed that ''The Technique'' could not be acquired without the active cognitive participation of a student and the help of a suitably qualified instructor trained in the hands-on technique, deceptive self awareness being the significant effect of ''sensory adaptation.'' Most Alexander teachers today agree, but F.M. and A.R. did it first alone. So theoretically it is possible to learn without a teacher, although some properly trained help obviates many common pitfalls. Alexander Technique is difficult to describe and teach in words because it requires description of subjective kinesthetic sensations and momentary situations, as well as the ability to perceive them. Most people have little conscious awareness of kinesthetic sensation and not much to say if asked to describe what happens as they move. The possibility of moving in an easier way most often emerges as a surprise from underneath a learner's current sensory ability to command it on purpose. It is needlessly difficult to attempt to learn to apply the Alexander Technique for oneself simply by reading about it. Most ''Alexander teachers'' are of the professional opinion that twenty to forty individual lessons are required to learn to use the Technique for yourself. Other teachers believe that group workshops are at least as effective as individual lessons, because camaraderie is supportive, and group teaching usually involves some individual hands-on "turns" directly with the teacher as the class watches. A few teachers believe it is entirely possible to learn and continue to experiment with the basic principles on one's own. Everyone in the field, including other students, agree that having at least a few one-to-one sessions with a trained teacher is useful to appreciate how AT works and to get the benefits it offers. Availability of Alexander teachers is limited, except in the United Kingdom, where the profession is in the process of being included in the [[Complementary and alternative medicine]] of the [[National Health Service|UK National Health Service]]. Only a handful of teachers who were personally trained by the founder are still living. '''Alexander Technique''' has the lifetime dedication from less than five thousand teachers worldwide, usually grouped in associated professional societies. Alexander teachers differ in teaching style. Differences in teaching approaches evolved as various teachers originated what they believed constituted more effective teaching. Usually, a style of teaching is not just an imitation of training methods, but integrates many such personal lifetime discoveries. It's rare that a teacher can or will articulate the deliberate reasoning behind their teaching variations. Traditionalists believe that spending time on general intellectual concepts may encourage their student's misuse. These teachers may dodge discussions of principles until the student can have the conversation without their old habits of speaking. ==In-depth principles== Many of the principles of Alexander Technique are unique concepts. As has been mentioned previously, human senses are built to adapt to continuous messages sent by the brain. '''Repetition makes perceptual sensation disappear'''. Keeping muscles contracted when they don't need to be used compares to leaving the kitchen light on continuously because it so often needs to be on - which is a waste of energy. This principle was originally called ''debauchery''. It was later referred to as ''sensory adaptation'' by behavioral scientists. To unlearn these habits, a prerequisite seems to be a willingness to welcome experimentation and unfamiliarity; what is new feels strange. Another unique concept is a specialized use of the word ''Inhibition.'' Many Alexander teachers believe this concept to be the foundation of Alexander Technique. It is possible to learn to recognize and prevent a habitual patterned reaction and choose differently. As a carnivore stalking prey inhibits its natural urges in order to choose a deliberate leap for an effective attack, an unwanted habitual urge can be deliberately and strategically ''inhibited.'' Suggested practical means to effectively subvert a particular unwanted habit vary with each Alexander teacher's experience. Sidestepping, stalling, tricking, boring the old habitual solution - anything is fair game to get the old habit to disengage or entirely prevent it, leaving the freedom to try something different, something easier. A stiffening of the neck in a startle response, head down and back narrowed was discovered by Alexander to be the source of his self-imposed limitations. To address these indirectly rather than fight them, he originated an action called [[Direction]] which is an ingredient of his principle of [[Primary Control]]. People who direct themselves visualize movement and mentally guide the flow of using force through their body. Rather than gunning the motor and muscling their way through an activity, people who direct use their mind to guide or envision their own coordinated dynamic expansion while moving. By doing so, the body's reflexive coordination seems to spontaneously recover from habit to gracefully handle the action by lengthening as if by itself. The more inclusive principle of [[Primary Control]] shows the head's lightest initiation of moving is its structural balancing act, cradled at the top of the spine. By integrating attention, using direction and refusing habit, the whole body can follow any of the smallest initiation of motion with its own easiest qualities of movement. To the extent the learner can also pay attention to what they are doing, their suspended goal improves. Occasionally the result is a significant practical insight about the suspended goal, as refreshed senses give new sensory information. ===Sample lesson=== The Alexander Technique principles say that it is possible to learn to insert a new choice before a habitual reaction takes over, but how is this actually done? The principles may be put together in any sequence, not necessarily in this order. What follows is an example lesson. First, choosing some sort of movement to practice with is required. Sitting down or walking is a commonly selected activity. The teacher prompts the student how to observe him or herself during action. Students are asked to describe without value judgments and are encouraged to avoid being self-chastising. Habits are not demonized. A basic activity is to identify and stop habitual interference so a freer capacity to respond can reassert itself. Toward leaving out habit, the goal of the chosen action or motion is temporarily suspended, so motivation for immediate results does not encourage the habit to jump in to helpfully answer the urge to respond. Intercepting unnecessary habits might also be made easier by creating an arbitrary beginning moment of intentional choice. Once a sample activity is observed and described, the teacher and student craft experiments to avoid habitual interference, usually by slowing down reaction time. In keeping with the ''sensory adaptation'' principle, customary kinesthetic orientation and preparation assumed necessary is repeatedly noted to be unnecessary. The teacher shows how the head, neck and back together can ''lengthen'' to increase capacity for freedom of movement. The teacher may use their hands as "training wheels" to help the student perceive exactly when their habit is interfering - often during movement preparation. Teachers bring a student's attention to pivotal timing issues and specific qualities of motion that influences freedom. Teachers may experiment alongside students; modeling the process they would prefer the student to emulate. Sometimes the effect of this prevention of habit feels immediately strange or disorienting to the student. The teacher steadies and encourages the student to resist a need to go back down into the familiar habit and to tolerate additional unfamiliarity for longer periods of time. A sensation termed ''Do-less-ness'' may be used as the new measure of success. Just as often seeking any results is also suspended, because the ability to sense subtle perceptual differences may have become dulled from ''sensory adaptation.'' Usually, this is all that is required to be practiced in the lesson. Sometimes habits are trickier and remedies to detour habit are crafted and used. Some of these strategies are directly prescribed by F.M. Alexander's historic examples, but many may be invented on the spot. Now that the student's senses are not being dampened by habit, a discovery about the suspended objective of the activity may emerge at this time. These discoveries are noted and integrated into repeated experimentation to make them more reliable. It is important that this observing of results comes after doing the preventing and moving, not before; otherwise the unwanted habits can take back control. When additional results are desired, a similar process of questioning, experimenting and observing possible results is again used (or the principles recombined in another order, tailored for a student's needs. Some students need to suspend expectation of results entirely.) After repeated successes from much experimentation, hopefully a learner's tolerance for unfamiliarity increases. Using this Alexander Technique process never stops feeling surprising. =See Also= * [[Somatic|Somatic education]] * [[Feldenkrais method]] =External links= ===Professional Alexander Teaching Organizations=== * [http://www.ati-net.com Alexander Teachers International (ATI)] * [http://www.alexandertech.org American Society for the Alexander Technique] * [http://www.stat.org.uk Society for Teachers of the Alexander Technique, largest in the UK] * [http://www.isatt.net Irish Society of Teachers of the Alexander Technique] * [http://www.paat.org.uk Professional Association Of Alexander Teachers - UK website containing a variety of cogent articles] ===Specific Alexander teacher and educational sites=== * [http://www.franis.org/Alexander Franis Engel's site of the origin of this definition] * [http://www.bodymap.org Andover Educators - A site with resources for learning AT through a complementary original idea known as Body Mapping] * [http://ergonomics.org Ergonomics, Posture and the Alexander Technique] * [http://www.barstowinstitute.org Annual summer training workshop in Nebraska in the tradition of Marjorie L. Barstow] * [http://physicaltherapy.org Information about the Alexander Technique of special interest to physical therapists] * [http://pilatesandalexander.com Exploration of the relationships between the Alexander Technique and the Pilates Method] * [http://www.auspiciousdragon.net/thoughts/alexander.html An everyday guide to habit and backache - written by an Alexander student] * [http://www.alexander-tech.com Articles on how the Alexander Technique can help actors, musicians, pregnant women and those suffering with stress] *[http://www.stat.org.uk/pages/researchpage.htm Online documentation of scientific research at a UK largest professional Society of Teachers of the Alexander Technique (STAT)] * [http://www.alexandertechnique.com Large and inclusive site with comprehensive information on locating an Alexander teacher worldwide] * [http://www.performanceschool.org An Alexander teacher training school in Seattle, WA with a study guide of Alexander's books & online learning guides] [[Category:Alternative medicine]] [[Category:Exercise]] [[Category:Mind-body interventions]] [[de:Alexander-Technik]] [[fi:Alexander-tekniikka]] [[ja:&#12450;&#12524;&#12463;&#12469;&#12531;&#12480;&#12540;&#12539;&#12486;&#12463;&#12491;&#12540;&#12463;]] 1959 33361889 2005-12-31T09:25:17Z Ricky81682 125787 rm double redirect #REDIRECT [[Central office]] 1960 34254860 2006-01-07T16:59:34Z 87.2.130.148 [[Image:Emblema CLXXXIX.gif|right|160px|thumb|Emblema CLXXXIX stating ''Mentem, non formam, plus pollere'']] '''Andrea Alciato''' (1492-1550), was a [[jurist]] born in [[Alzano]], near [[Milan]], [[Italy]] on the [[1492]]-[[January 12|01-12]]. Alciato settled in France in the early [[16th century]]. He displayed great literary skill in his exposition of the laws, and was one of the first to interpret the civil law by the history, languages and literature of antiquity, and to substitute original research for the servile interpretations of the glossators. He published many legal works, and some annotations on Tacitus. Alciato is most famous for his ''[[Emblemata]],'' published in dozens of editions from 1531 onward. This collection of short Latin verse texts and accompanying woodcuts created an entire European genre, the [[emblem book]], which attained enormous popularity in continental Europe and Britain. Andrea Alicato died at [[Pavia]] in [[1550]]. Alciati's history of Milan, under the title ''Rerum Potriae, seu Historiae Mediolanensis, Libri IV''., was published posthumously at Milan in 1625. ==External links== *[http://www.mun.ca/alciato/index.html Description, Reproduction and translation] Memorial University of Newfoundland ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Italian writers]] [[Category:1492 births]] [[Category:1550 deaths]] [[it:Andrea Alciato]] 1961 41801305 2006-03-01T21:11:23Z BaronLarf 137600 /* Origin of the name */ cleanup {{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}} {| align="right" |- | cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" | {{US state | Name = Arizona | Fullname = State of Arizona | Flag = Flag of Arizona.svg | Flaglink = [[Flag of Arizona]] | Seal = Arizonastateseal.jpg | Map = Map_of_USA_highlighting_Arizona.png | Nickname = The [[Grand Canyon]] State, The Copper State | Capital = [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] | OfficialLang = [[English language|English]] | Languages = [[English language|English]] 74.1%, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] 19.5%, [[Navajo]] 1.9% | LargestCity = [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] | Governor = [[Janet Napolitano]] (D)| Senators = [[John McCain]] (R) <br> [[Jon Kyl]] (R) | PostalAbbreviation = AZ | AreaRank = 6th | TotalArea = 295,254 | LandArea = 294,312 | WaterArea = 942 | PCWater = 0.32 | PopRank = 20th | 2000Pop = 5,939,292 | DensityRank = 36th | 2000Density = 17.43 | AdmittanceOrder = 48th | AdmittanceDate = [[February 14]], [[1912]] | TimeZone = [[Mountain Standard Time Zone|Mountain]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-7<br />| Latitude = 31°20'N to 37°N | Longitude = 109°3'W to 114°50'W | Width = 500 | Length = 645 | HighestElev = 3,851 | MeanElev = 1,250 | LowestElev = 21 | ISOCode = US-AZ | Website = www.az.gov }} |- | {{US state symbols | Name = Arizona | Flag = Flag of Arizona.svg | Seal = Arizonastateseal.png | Nickname = Grand Canyon State | Capital = [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] | Bird = [[Cactus Wren]] | Animal = [[Ringtail Cat]] | Fish = [[Apache trout|Apache Trout]] | Butterfly = [[Two-Tailed Swallowtail]] | Insect = [[Two-Tailed Swallowtail]] | Reptile = [[Rattlesnake|Arizona Ridgenose Rattlesnake]] | Furbearer = [[Ringtail Cat]] | Tree = [[Palo Verde]] | Flower = [[Saguaro]] Blossom | Grass = None | Wildflower = None | Gemstone = [[Turquoise]] | Fossil = [[Petrified wood]] | StateRock = [[Petrified wood]] | Soil = Arizona Casa-Grande | Mineral = [[Agate|Fire Agate]] | Colors = [[Blue]], [[Red]] & Old Gold | Dance = Unknown | Neckwear = [[Bola Tie]] | Motto = ''Ditat Deus'' (God Enriches) | Nicknames = "The [[Grand Canyon]] State" and "The [[Copper]] State" | Ships = U.S.S. Arizona (Destroyed 1941) | Song = "Arizona March Song"<br />"Arizona" | Waltz = None | Beverage = None | MusicalInstrument = None | Game = Unknown | Tartan = None | }} |} '''Arizona''' {{IPA|/&#716;&#603;&#633;.&#618;&#712;zon.&#601;/}} is a large [[U.S. state|state]] in the [[Western_United_States|western]] [[United States]]. It is best known for its [[desert]] landscape, which includes [[cacti]]. Arizona is also known for its exceptionally hot summers and mild winters. Less well known is the pine-covered high country in the north-central portion of the state, which contrasts with the lower deserts of the state. Arizona is one of the [[Four Corners (United States)|Four Corners]] states, situated south and east of the [[Colorado River (U.S.)|Colorado River]]. It borders [[New Mexico]], [[Utah]], [[Nevada]], [[California]], touches [[Colorado]], and has a 389-mile (626 km) [[international border]] with [[Mexico]]. Arizona is the sixth largest state in area, after [[New Mexico]] and before [[Nevada]]. Aside from the [[Grand Canyon National Park|Grand Canyon]], a number of other [[National Forest]]s, [[National parks (United States)|Parks]], [[National parks (United States)|Monuments]], and [[Indian reservation]]s are located in the state. Arizona was the 48th state admitted into the U.S. (1912), and the last of the [[Continental United States|contiguous states]] admitted. Three ships named [[USS Arizona]] have been named in honor of the state, although only [[USS Arizona (BB-39)]] was so named after statehood was achieved. ==Origin of the name== Historians disagree about the [[etymology|origin]] of the name "Arizona" and its attachment to the region. Two possible derivations are: *[[O'odham language|O'odham]] words "al&#301; &#7779;on" ("small spring"), actually the name of a town which is called "Arizonac" in English. Arizonac is a small town about eight miles (12 km) south of the [[U.S.-Mexico border|United States&ndash;Mexican border]]. Historically, it may have been "al&#301; son" or even "al&#301; sona". The O'odham "l" is a [[voiced alveolar lateral fricative]], which might sound to a Spanish or English speaker like an "r" sound. Later in the mid [[18th century]] Spanish missionaries changed Father [[Eusebio Francisco Kino]]'s maps of the area; they renamed the town Arizonac as Arizona. As the maps were republished and circulated in [[Europe]], the name Arizona became attached to the whole northern part of [[New Spain]]. *[[Spanish language|Spanish]] words "árida zona" ("arid zone") This would be grammatically incorrect however, since in Spanish, the noun precedes the adjective. ==History== ''Main article: [[History of Arizona]]'' Beyond its original [[Native Americans in the United States|native]] inhabitants, [[Marcos de Niza]], a [[Franciscan]], explored the area in [[1539]]. [[Francisco Vásquez de Coronado|Coronado]]'s expedition entered the area in [[1540]]&ndash;[[1542|42]] during its search for [[Quivira and Cíbola|Cíbola]]. Father Kino developed a chain of missions and taught the Indians [[Christianity]] in [[Pimería Alta]] (now southern Arizona and northern [[Sonora]]) in the [[1690s]] and early [[1700s]]. [[Spain]] founded fortified towns (presidios) at Tubac in [[1752]] and Tucson in [[1775]]. All of what is now Arizona became part of Mexico's northwest frontier upon the Mexican assertion of independence from Spain in [[1810]]. The United States took possession of most of Arizona at the end of the [[Mexican War]] in [[1848]]. In [[1853]] the land below the [[Gila River]] was acquired from Mexico in the [[Gadsden Purchase]]. Arizona was administered as part of the Territory of New Mexico until it was organized into a separate territory on [[February 24]], [[1863]]. [[Brigham Young]] sent [[Mormon]]s to Arizona in the mid to late [[1800s]]. They founded [[Mesa, Arizona|Mesa]], [[Snowflake, Arizona|Snowflake]], [[Heber-Overgaard, Arizona|Heber]], [[Safford, Arizona|Safford]] and other towns. They also settled in the [[Phoenix Valley]] (or "Valley of the Sun"), [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]], [[Prescott, Arizona|Prescott]], among other areas. Arizona was the site of a [[Germany|German]] and [[Italy|Italian]] prisoner of war camp during [[World War II|WWII]]. The site was purchased after the war by the Maytag family, and is currently utilized as the [[Phoenix Zoo]]. A [[Japan|Japanese]] internment camp was located on [[Mount Lemmon]], just outside of the state's southeastern city of Tucson. Arizona became a U.S. state on [[February 14]], [[1912]]. ==Law and government== ''See: [[United_States_Congress/Arizona|List of Congressmen]]'' [[Image:AZ_capitol.jpg|thumb|left|Arizona State Capitol, Phoenix]] The state capitol of Arizona is in [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]]. The original capitol building, with its distinctive copper dome, was dedicated in 1901 (construction was completed for $136,000 in 1900), when the area was still a territory, and became the official state capitol with Arizona's admission to the union in 1912. Separate legislative buildings for the [[Arizona House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] and [[Arizona Senate|Senate]] were dedicated in 1960, and an Executive Office Building was dedicated in 1974 (the ninth floor of this building is where the Office of the Governor is located). The original capitol building was converted into a museum. The capitol complex is fronted and highlighted by the richly landscaped [[Wesley Bolin Memorial Park]], named after [[Wesley Bolin]], a governor who died in office in the 1970's. Numerous monuments and memorials are on the site, including the anchor and signal mast from the [[USS Arizona]] (one of the U.S. Navy ships sunk in Pearl Harbor); a granite version of the [[Ten Commandments]]; and the [[Arizona Vietnam Veterans' Memorial]]. Arizona's legislature is [[bicameral]] (like the legislature of every other state except [[Nebraska]]) and consists of a thirty-member [[Arizona Senate|Senate]] and a 60-member [[Arizona House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. Legislators are elected for two-year terms. Each Legislature covers a two-year period. The first session following the general election is known as the first regular session, and the session convening in the second year is known as the second regular session. Each regular session begins on the second Monday in January and adjourns sine die (i.e., terminates for the year) no later than Saturday of the week in which the 100th day from the beginning of the regular session falls. The President of the Senate and Speaker of the House, by rule, may extend the session up to seven additional days. Thereafter the session can only be extended by a majority vote of members present of each house. The majority party is the [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]], which has held power since [[1950]]. The [[2002]] budget of the Arizona state legislature was $14.3 billion, while the executive budget was $13.8 billion. Besides the money spent on state agencies, money has also been allocated for tax cuts, pay raises for government employees, and health insurance for government employees. The executive budget has allocated money to previously passed legislation. Arizona state senators and representatives are elected for two year terms and there are no terms limits. However, no more than four terms may be served consecutively. Arizona's [[executive branch]] is headed by a governor elected for a four-year term. The governor may serve any number of terms, though no more than two in a row. The current Governor of Arizona is [[Janet Napolitano]], a [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]. She has been governor since [[2003]]. ''See:[[List of Arizona Governors]]'' The two U.S. Senators from Arizona are Senator [[John McCain]] (Republican) and Senator [[Jon Kyl]] (Republican). Arizona's representatives in the United States House of Representatives are [[Rick Renzi]] (R-1), [[Trent Franks]] (R-2), [[John Shadegg]] (R-3), [[Ed Pastor]] (D-4), [[J.D. Hayworth]] (R-5), [[Jeff Flake]] (R-6), [[Raul Grijalva]] (D-7), and [[Jim Kolbe]] (R-8). Arizona gained two seats in the House of Representatives due to [[redistricting]] based on [[United_States_2000_census|Census 2000]]. While the Republican Party has dominated Arizona politics since the [[1950s]], the state did support one Democratic presidential candidate in that time, [[Bill Clinton]] in [[1996]]. In [[2004]], [[George W. Bush]] won the state's ten [[electoral vote|electoral votes]] by a margin of 11 percentage points with 54.9 percent of the vote. The state's concentration of Democrats is strongest in the City of Tucson (excluding Tucson's historically Republican-dominated suburbs), Yuma, and [[Santa Cruz County, Arizona|Santa Cruz]] and [[Apache County, Arizona|Apache]] counties. ==Geography== [[Image:Noaa topo az.jpg|thumb|200px|State Topography Image: Arizona]] {| |- | ''See:'' || ''[[List of Arizona counties]]'' | ''[[List of Arizona rivers]]'' || ''[[List of Arizona lakes]]'' |- | &nbsp; | ''[[List of Arizona state parks|Arizona state parks]]'' | ''[[List of U.S. National Forests]]'' |} Like other states of the Southwest, Arizona has an abundance of topographical characteristics in addition to its [[desert]] climes. More than half of the state features [[mountains]] and [[plateaus]] and contains the largest stand of Ponderosa pine in the [[United States]]. The [[Mogollon Rim]], a 600&nbsp;meter (2000-foot) [[escarpment]], cuts across the central section of the state and marks the southwestern edge of the [[Colorado Plateau]], where the state experienced its [[Rodeo-Chediski fire|worst forest fire ever]] in [[2002]]. Arizona belongs firmly within the [[Basin and Range Province]] of North America. The region was shaped by prehistoric [[volcanism]], followed by a cooling-off and related subsidence. The entire region is slowly sinking. [[Image:Colorado River from Desert View-1000px.jpeg|thumb|left|The Grand Canyon.]] The [[Grand Canyon]] is a colorful, steep-sided [[gorge]], carved by the [[Colorado River (U.S.)|Colorado River]], in northern Arizona. The canyon is one of the [[seven natural wonders of the world]] and is largely contained in the [[Grand Canyon National Park]]&mdash;one of the first [[national parks]] in the [[United States]]. President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] was a major proponent of the Grand Canyon area, visiting on numerous occasions to hunt [[mountain lion]] and enjoy the breathtaking scenery. The Canyon, created by the [[Colorado River]] cutting a channel over millions of years, is about 277 miles (446 km) long, ranges in width from 4 to 18 miles (6 to 29 kilometers) and attains a depth of more than 1 mile (1.6 km). Nearly 2 billion years of the [[Earth]]'s history has been exposed as the Colorado River and its tributaries cut through layer after layer of [[sediment]] as the [[Colorado Plateau]]s have uplifted. Arizona does not observe [[Daylight saving time|DST]], except in the [[Navajo Nation]] located in the northeastern region of the state. :Statistics :*''Largest City:'' [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] :*''Highest Point:'' [[Humphreys Peak]] - 12,633 ft. (3851 m) near Flagstaff :*''Lowest Point:'' [[Colorado River]] - 70 ft. (21 m) ==Art== Arizona has featured a continuous string of dancing and performing groups of many ethnicities. The state is a recognized center of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] art, with a number of galleries such as the [[Heard Museum]] showcasing historical and contemporary works. [[Sedona]] and [[Tubac]] are known as budding artist colonies, and small arts scenes exist in the larger cities and near the state universities. Many tourist souvenirs produced in Arizona or by its residents display characteristic images, such as sunsets, coyotes, and desert plants. Several major Hollywood films, such as ''[[U-Turn]]'', ''[[Waiting to Exhale]]'', ''[[Just One of the Guys]]'', ''[[Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure]]'', and ''[[Raising Arizona]]'' have been made there (as indeed have many [[Westerns]]). ==Climate== Due to its large area and variations in elevation, the state has a wide variety of climates. In the lower elevations, the climate is primarily desert, with mild winters and hot summers. Typically, from late fall to early spring, the weather is mild, averaging a minimum of 60 degrees Fahrenheit (15&nbsp;&deg;C). November through February are the coldest months with temperatures typically ranging from 40&ndash;75 degrees Fahrenheit (4&ndash;24&nbsp;&deg;C), although occasional frosts are not uncommon. About midway through February, the temperatures start to rise again with sunny warm days, and cool breezy nights. The summer months of May through August bring a dry heat ranging from 90&ndash;100 degrees Fahrenheit (32&ndash;38&nbsp;&deg;C), with occasional high temperatures exceeding 125 °F (52&nbsp;&deg;C) having been observed in the desert area. Due to the primarily dry climate, large temperature swings often occur between day and night, with some as large as 50 °F (10&nbsp;&deg;C) in the summer months. However, the northern third of Arizona is a plateau at significantly higher altitudes than the lower desert, and has an appreciably cooler climate, with cold winters and mild summers. Extreme cold temperatures are not unknown; cold air systems from the northern states and [[Canada]] occasionally push into the state, bringing temperatures below 0 °F (-18&nbsp;&deg;C) to the higher parts of the state. Monsoon season in Arizona is from the end of July through August. Monsoon season storms bring lightning, thunderstorms, wind, and torrential, if usually brief, downpours. It is rare for tornadoes to occur in Arizona. <!-- how much precipitation is missing--> Indicative of the variation in climate, Arizona is the state which has both the metropolitan area with the most days over 100 degrees Fahrenheit (37.8&nbsp;&deg;C) (Phoenix), and the metropolitan area in the lower 48 states with the most days with a low temperature below freezing (Flagstaff). ==Economy== [[Image:AZlicenseplt.gif|thumb|right|Current Arizona License Plate. Courtesy Arizona DOT/MVD]] The 2004 total [[gross state product]] was $187.27 billion. If Arizona were an independent country, it would have the 61^st largest economy in the world ([http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html CIA - The World Factbook]). This figure gives Arizona a larger economy than most other countries, including [[Norway]], [[Denmark]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Ireland]], [[Finland]], and [[New Zealand]]. Arizona currently has the 21^st largest economy among states in the [[U.S.]]. [[Image:wiki_arizona.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Greetings from Arizona]] The state's [[per capita income]] is $27,232, 39^th in the U.S. Early in its history, Arizona's economy relied on the "Five C's": [[copper]], [[cotton]], [[cattle]], [[citrus]], and [[climate]] ([[tourism]]). At one point Arizona was the largest producer of cotton in the country. Copper is still extensively mined from many expansive open-pit and underground mines, accounting for two-thirds of the nation's output. [[Image:Entering Arizona on I-10 Westbound.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Entering Arizona on I-10 from New Mexico]] The state government is the Arizona's largest employer, while [[Wal-Mart]] is the state's largest private employer, with 17,343 employees ([[2003]]). Arizona lost much of its comparative advantage as a [[high-tech]] industry leader between [[1990]] and [[2001]], according to a state [http://www.commerce.state.az.us/ Department of Commerce] report. In [[2001]], 161,166 Arizonans were employed in the high-tech sector, accounting for about 8.3 percent of total private-sector employment of more than 1.9 million. High-tech payroll in 2001 was $2.2 billion, or 14.7 percent of the private-sector total. High-tech employment was led by [[Computer software|software]] and [[computers]], with 34,314; [[electronics]] components manufacturing, 30,358; [[aerospace]] manufacturing, 25,641; architectural and engineering services, 21,378; telecommunications, 21,224; and instruments manufacturing, 13,056. ==Demographics== {| class="toccolours" align="right" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;" |- ! colspan=2 bgcolor="#ccccff" align="center"| Historical populations |- ! align="center"| Census<br>year !! align="right"| Population |- | colspan=2|<hr> |- | align="center"| 1860 || align="right"| 6,482 |- | align="center"| 1870 || align="right"| 9,658 |- | align="center"| 1880 || align="right"| 40,440 |- | align="center"| 1890 || align="right"| 88,243 |- | align="center"| 1900 || align="right"| 122,931 |- | align="center"| 1910 || align="right"| 204,354 |- | align="center"| 1920 || align="right"| 334,162 |- | align="center"| 1930 || align="right"| 435,573 |- | align="center"| 1940 || align="right"| 499,261 |- | align="center"| 1950 || align="right"| 749,587 |- | align="center"| 1960 || align="right"| 1,302,161 |- | align="center"| 1970 || align="right"| 1,770,900 |- | align="center"| 1980 || align="right"| 2,718,215 |- | align="center"| 1990 || align="right"| 3,665,228 |- | align="center"| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align="right"| 5,130,632 |} As of 2005, Arizona has an estimated population of 5,939,292, which is an increase of 199,413, or 3.5%, from the prior year and an increase of 808,660, or 15.8%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 241,732 people (that is 462,739 births minus 221,007 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 576,238 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 168,078 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 408,160 people. The racial breakdown of the state is as follows: *63.8% [[Whites|White]] non-Hispanic *25.3% [[Hispanics|Hispanic]] *5% [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] *3.1% [[Blacks|Black]] *1.8% [[Asian American|Asian]] *2.9% [[Mixed race]] According to 2003 U.S. Census estimates, Arizona has the second highest number (and the 6th highest percentage) of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s of any state in the Union. 286,680 reportedly live in Arizona, representing more than 10% of the country's total Indian population of 2,752,158. Only [[California]] has more Indians than Arizona, and Arizona has slightly more Indians than [[Oklahoma]] [http://eire.census.gov/popest/data/states/ST-EST2002-ASRO-03.php]. The largest ancestry groups in Arizona are [[Mexico|Mexican]] (21 percent), [[Germany|German]], [[England|English]], [[Ireland|Irish]], and [[American Indian]]. The southern and central parts of the state are heavily Mexican-American, especially in Yuma and Santa Cruz counties. The north-central and northwestern counties are largely inhabited by residents of English ancestry. The northeastern part of Arizona has many American Indians. Arizona is projected to become a [[minority-majority]] state by the year 2035, if current population growth trends continue. In 2003, for the first time, there were more Hispanic births in the state than white non-Hispanic births. As of 2000, 74.1% of Arizona residents age 5 and older speak [[English language|English]] at home and 19.5% speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. [[Navajo language|Navajo]] is the third most spoken language at 1.9%, followed by Other Native North American languages at 0.6% and [[German language|German]] at 0.5%. 49.9% of the population is male, 50.1% is female. ''See also the list of [[Natives of Arizona|Arizona Natives]]. '' ===Religion=== Four in five Arizonans are self-described Christians, with large numbers of both Catholics and Protestants living in the state. There is also a significant Latter-day Saint (Mormon) population. Religious affiliations in Arizona: *[[Christianity|Christian]] &ndash; 79.9% **[[Protestantism|Protestant]] &ndash; 42% ***[[Baptist]] &ndash; 9% ***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &ndash; 5% ***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] &ndash; 4% ***Other Protestant/general Protestant &ndash; 24% **[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] &ndash; 31% **[[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|LDS]] &ndash; 6% **Other Christian &ndash; 1% *Other Religions &ndash; 2% *Non-Religious &ndash; 18% ==Important cities and towns== {{ussm|arizona.png|az}} [[Image:phoenix sykline.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Phoenix ]] [[Image:City Street of Tucson, AZ.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Tucson]] See: [[List of cities in Arizona]], [[List of cities in Arizona (by population)]], [[List of Arizona counties]] [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] is the largest, primary city and capital of the state. The [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] metro area includes [[Mesa, Arizona|Mesa]], [[Glendale, Arizona|Glendale]], [[Chandler, Arizona|Chandler]], [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]], and [[Scottsdale, Arizona|Scottsdale]]. The Phoenix metropolitan area supports a population of nearly 3.9 million. [[Tucson, Arizona|Tucson]] is the state's second largest city, located 135 miles (220 km) [[southeast]] of the Phoenix metropolitan area. The Tucson metropolitan area has a population rapidly nearing 1 million. Each city named in '''bold''' has a population greater than 100,000. {| |- | valign="top" | *[[Apache Junction, Arizona|Apache Junction]] *[[Avondale, Arizona|Avondale]] *[[Benson, Arizona|Benson]] *[[Bullhead City, Arizona|Bullhead City]] *[[Camp Verde, Arizona|Camp Verde]] *[[Casa Grande, Arizona|Casa Grande]] *[[Casas Adobes, Arizona|Casas Adobes]] *[[Catalina Foothills, Arizona|Catalina Foothills]] *[[Chandler, Arizona|'''Chandler''']] *[[Cottonwood, Arizona|Cottonwood]] *[[Cottonwood-Verde Village, Arizona|Cottonwood-Verde Village]] *[[Douglas, Arizona|Douglas]] *[[Drexel Heights, Arizona|Drexel Heights]] *[[Eloy, Arizona|Eloy]] *[[Flagstaff, Arizona|Flagstaff]] *[[Florence, Arizona|Florence]] *[[Flowing Wells, Arizona|Flowing Wells]] *[[Fortuna Foothills, Arizona|Fortuna Foothills]] *[[Fountain Hills, Arizona|Fountain Hills]] *[[Gilbert, Arizona|'''Gilbert''']] *[[Glendale, Arizona|'''Glendale''']] *[[Globe, Arizona|Globe]] *[[Goodyear, Arizona|Goodyear]] *[[Green Valley, Arizona|Green Valley]] *[[Kingman, Arizona|Kingman]] *[[Lake Havasu City, Arizona|Lake Havasu City]] *[[Marana, Arizona|Marana]] *[[Mesa, Arizona|'''Mesa''']] | valign="top" | *[[Mohave Valley, Arizona|Mohave Valley]] *[[New Kingman-Butler, Arizona|New Kingman-Butler]] *[[New River, Arizona|New River]] *[[Nogales, Arizona|Nogales]] *[[Oro Valley, Arizona|Oro Valley]] *[[Paradise Valley, Arizona|Paradise Valley]] *[[Payson, Arizona|Payson]] *[[Peoria, Arizona|'''Peoria''']] *[[Phoenix, Arizona|'''Phoenix''']] *[[Prescott Valley, Arizona|Prescott Valley]] *[[Prescott, Arizona|Prescott]] *[[Safford, Arizona|Safford]] *[[San Luis, Arizona|San Luis]] *[[Scottsdale, Arizona|'''Scottsdale''']] *[[Sedona, Arizona|Sedona]] *[[Sierra Vista Southeast, Arizona|Sierra Vista Southeast]] *[[Sierra Vista, Arizona|Sierra Vista]] *[[Sun City West, Arizona|Sun City West]] *[[Sun City, Arizona|Sun City]] *[[Sun Lakes, Arizona|Sun Lakes]] *[[Surprise, Arizona|Surprise]] *[[Tanque Verde, Arizona|Tanque Verde]] *[[Tempe, Arizona|'''Tempe''']] *[[Tucson Southeast, Arizona|Tucson Southeast]] *[[Tucson, Arizona|'''Tucson''']] *[[Yuma, Arizona|Yuma]] *[[Youngtown, Arizona|Youngtown]] |} ===25 Richest Places in Arizona=== Ranked by [[per capita income]] {| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"> |- |City |Income |City |Income |- |1 [[Paradise Valley, Arizona]] |$81,290 |14 [[Sedona, Arizona]] |$31,350 |- |2 [[Carefree, Arizona]] |$62,433 |15 [[Green Valley, Arizona]] |$31,138 |- |3 [[Rio Verde, Arizona]] |$58,783 |16 [[Oro Valley, Arizona]] |$31,134 |- |4 [[Tubac, Arizona]] |$46,643 |17 [[Williamson, Arizona]] |$30,232 |- |5 [[Catalina Foothills, Arizona]] |$42,006 |18 [[Big Park, Arizona]] |$30,026 |- |6 [[Scottsdale, Arizona]] |$39,158 |19 [[Queen Valley, Arizona]] |$28,886 |- |7 [[Cave Creek, Arizona]] |$38,070 |20 [[Corona de Tucson, Arizona]] |$28,304 |- |8 [[Litchfield Park, Arizona]] |$37,793 |21 [[Elgin, Arizona]] |$27,909 |- |9 [[Tanque Verde, Arizona]] |$36,467 |22 [[Sonoita, Arizona]] |$27,312 |- |10 [[Gold Camp, Arizona]] |$35,010 |23 [[Sun City, Arizona]] |$25,935 |- |11 [[Sun Lakes, Arizona]] |$33,394 |24 [[New River, Arizona]] |$25,932 |- |12 [[Fountain Hills, Arizona]] |$32,230 |25 [[Tortolita, Arizona]] |$25,550 |- |13 [[Sun City West, Arizona]] |$32,049 !colspan=2|[[Richest Places in Arizona|''See complete list of Arizona places'']] |} ==Notable people== Famous Arizonans also include former [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] [[Justice]] [[Sandra Day O'Connor]], author [[Zane Grey]], former Governor and Secretary of the Interior [[Bruce Babbitt]], architect [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], Presidential candidate (1964) and former Senator [[Barry Goldwater]], Presidential candidate (1976) and former Arizona congressman [[Mo Udall]] and his brother Secretary of the Interior [[Stewart Udall]], Presidential candidate (2000) and Senior Republican Senator [[John McCain]], former senator [[Carl Hayden]] and former [[Solicitor General]] [[Rex E. Lee]]. From the rock and roll world, both [[Alice Cooper]] and [[Stevie Nicks]] of [[Fleetwood Mac]] are from Phoenix; [[Linda Ronstadt]] is from Tucson. Film director [[Steven Spielberg]] grew up in Scottsdale, as did [[Wonder Woman]] star [[Lynda Carter]]. Labor leader [[Cesar Estrada Chavez]] is from Yuma. For a complete list, see ''[[List of people from Arizona]]''. ==Education== '''Universities''' Higher education in Arizona is governed at the university level by the [[Arizona Board of Regents]] or the ABOR, a 12-member body. According to information published by the ABOR office and available on their Web site, eight volunteer members are appointed by the Governor to staggered eight-year terms; two students serve on the Board for two-year appointments, with the first year being a nonvoting apprentice year. The Governor and the Superintendent of Public Instruction serve as voting ex-officio members. The ABOR provides "policy guidance" and oversight to the three major degree-granting universities, as provided for by Title 15 of the [[Arizona Revised Statutes]]. '''Community colleges''' Community colleges in Arizona were governed historically by a separate statewide Board of Directors, but a bill passed in the 2002 regular session of the Legislature (HB 2710, which later became ARS 15-1444) transferred almost all oversight authority to individual community college districts. ===Colleges and universities=== ====State universities==== (Ranked by student enrollment) *[[Arizona State University]] *[[University of Arizona]] *[[Northern Arizona University]] ====Community colleges==== *[[Central Arizona Community College]] *[[Chandler-Gilbert Community College]] *[[Coconino Community College]] *[[Estrella Mountain Community College]] *[[GateWay Community College]] *[[Glendale Community College (AZ)|Glendale Community College]] *[[Mesa Community College]] *[[Paradise Valley Community College]] *[[Phoenix College]] *[[Rio Salado Community College]] *[[Scottsdale Community College]] *[[South Mountain Community College]] *[[Pima Community College]] **Desert Vista Campus **Downtown Campus **East Campus **Northwest Campus **West Campus *[[Eastern Arizona College]] *[[Yavapai Community College]] *[[Prescott College]] *[[Cochise College]] *[[Mohave Community College]] *[[South Mountain Community College]] *[[Arizona Western College]] *[[Northland Pioneer College]] ====Private colleges and trade schools==== *[[American Indian College of the Assemblies of God]] *[[Art Institute of Phoenix]] *[[Collins College]], Tempe *[[DeVry University, Phoenix]] *[[Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University]] *[[Grand Canyon University]] *[[Prescott College]] *[[Southwestern College (Arizona)|Southwestern College]] *[[Thunderbird - The Garvin School of International Management]] *[[University of Phoenix]] *[[Western International University]] ===Elementary and secondary education=== Public schools in Arizona are separated into about 220 local school districts which operate independently, but are governed in most cases by elected county school superintendents; these are in turn overseen by the [[Arizona State Board of Education]] (a division of the [[Arizona Department of Education]]) and the state Superintendent of Public Instruction (elected in partisan elections every even-numbered year when there is not a presidential election, for a four-year term). ===Education associations=== *[[Arizona Music Educators Association]] *[[Arizona School Boards Association]] ==Professional sports teams== *[[Arizona Cardinals]] ([[National Football League]]) *[[Arizona Diamondbacks]] ([[Major League Baseball]]) *[[Arizona Rattlers]] ([[Arena Football League]]) *[[Arizona Sting]] ([[National Lacrosse League]]) *[[Mesa Miners]] ([[Golden Baseball League]]) *[[Phoenix Coyotes]] ([[National Hockey League]]) *[[Phoenix Mercury]] ([[Women's National Basketball Association]]) *[[Phoenix Roadrunners]] ([[East Coast Hockey League]]) *[[Phoenix Suns]] ([[National Basketball Association]]) *[[Surprise Fightin' Falcons]] ([[Golden Baseball League]]) *[[Tucson Sidewinders]] ([[Minor League Baseball]]) *[[Yuma Scorpions]] ([[Golden Baseball League]]) ===Spring training=== Arizona is a popular location for [[Major League Baseball]] [[spring training]], as it is the site of the '''Cactus League'''. The only other location for spring traing is in [[Florida]] with the '''Grapefruit League'''. The state hosts the following teams: *[[Arizona Diamondbacks]] in [[Tucson Electric Park]] *[[Chicago Cubs]] in [[HoHoKam Park]] *[[Chicago White Sox]] in [[Tucson Electric Park]] *[[Colorado Rockies]] in [[Hi Corbett Field]] *[[Kansas City Royals]] in [[Surprise Stadium]] *[[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim]] in [[Tempe Diablo Stadium]] *[[Milwaukee Brewers]] in [[Maryvale Baseball Park]] *[[Oakland Athletics]] in [[Phoenix Municipal Stadium]] *[[San Diego Padres]] in [[Peoria Sports Complex]] *[[San Francisco Giants]] in [[Scottsdale Stadium]] *[[Seattle Mariners]] in [[Peoria Sports Complex]] *[[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]] in [[Surprise Stadium]] ==References== {{unsourced}} *David M. Thomas (Ed.) (2003). '''Arizona Legislative Manual.''' In ''[http://www.azleg.state.az.us/alispdfs/Council/legman2003.pdf]''. Phoenix, AZ, Arizona Legislative Council. Google Print. Retrieved January 16, 2006. ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Arizona}} *[http://www.azreps.com/gallery1.htm Arizona Photos] *[http://www.funonthenet.in/content/view/145/31/ Arizona Pictures] *[http://www.az.gov/webapp/portal/ Arizona @ Your Service] *[http://www.bea.doc.gov/bea/regional/map/map.asp?po=AZ Arizona Regional Accounts Data] *[http://www.fedstats.gov/qf/states/04000.html Arizona Demographic Data from FedStats] *[http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/2001/tables/redist_az.html Census 2000 Data for Arizona] *[http://www.arizonaguide.com/home.asp Official Arizona Office of Tourism] *[http://www.pr.state.az.us/Parks/parksites.html Arizona State Parks] *[http://www.lib.az.us/ Arizona State Library, Archives and Public Records] *[http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/arizona Arizona Newspapers] {{Arizona}} {{United_States}} [[Category:1912 establishments]] [[Category:Arizona|*]] [[Category:States of the American West]] [[Category:States of the United States]] [[ang:Arizona]] [[ar:أريزونا]] [[ast:Arizona]] [[bg:Аризона]] [[zh-min-nan:Arizona]] [[bs:Arizona]] [[ca:Arizona]] [[cs:Arizona]] [[da:Arizona]] [[de:Arizona]] [[et:Arizona]] [[es:Arizona]] [[eo:Arizono]] [[eu:Arizona]] [[fr:Arizona]] [[ga:Arizona]] [[gd:Arizona]] [[gl:Arizona]] [[ko:애리조나 주]] [[haw:ʻAlikona]] [[id:Arizona]] [[is:Arizona]] [[it:Arizona]] [[he:אריזונה]] [[ka:არიზონა]] [[kw:Arizona]] [[la:Arizona]] [[lv:Arizona]] [[lt:Arizona]] [[lb:Arizona]] [[li:Arizona]] [[hu:Arizona]] [[ms:Arizona]] [[nl:Arizona]] [[ja:アリゾナ州]] [[no:Arizona]] [[nn:Arizona]] [[os:Аризонæ (штат)]] [[pl:Arizona]] [[pt:Arizona]] [[ro:Arizona]] [[ru:Аризона (штат)]] [[sq:Arizona]] [[simple:Arizona]] [[sk:Arizona]] [[sl:Arizona]] [[sr:Аризона]] [[fi:Arizona]] [[sv:Arizona]] [[tr:Arizona]] [[uk:Арізона]] [[zh:亞利桑那州]] 1962 41562250 2006-02-28T04:08:45Z CambridgeBayWeather 294180 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.201.244.197|68.201.244.197]] ([[User talk:68.201.244.197|talk]]) to last version by JYOuyang The '''apparent magnitude''' ('''''m''''') of a [[star]], [[planet]] or other celestial body is a [[measurement|measure]] of its apparent [[brightness]] as seen by an observer on Earth. The brighter the object appears, the lower the numerical value of its '''magnitude'''. The scale upon which magnitude is measured has its origin in the [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic]] practice of dividing those stars visible to the naked eye into six ''magnitudes''. The brightest stars were said to be of first magnitude (''m'' = 1), while the faintest were of sixth magnitude (''m'' = 6), the limit of [[human]] [[visual perception]] (without the aid of a [[telescope]]). Each grade of magnitude was considered to be twice the brightness of the following grade. This somewhat crude method of indicating the brightness of stars was popularized by [[Ptolemy]] in his ''[[Almagest]]'', and is generally believed to have originated with [[Hipparchus (astronomer)|Hipparchus]]. This original system did not measure the magnitude of the [[Sun]]. Because the response of the eye to light is logarithmic, the resulting scale is also logarithmic. In [[1856]], [[Norman Robert Pogson|Pogson]] formalized the system by defining a typical first magnitude star as a star that is 100 times as bright as a typical sixth magnitude star; thus, a first magnitude star is about 2.512 times as bright as a second magnitude star. The fifth root of 100, an [[irrational number]] about (2.512) is known as ''Pogson's Ratio''. Pogson's scale was originally fixed by assigning [[Polaris]] a magnitude of 2. Astronomers later discovered that Polaris is slightly variable, so they first switched to [[Vega]] as the standard reference star, and then switched to using tabulated zero points for the measured fluxes (see second Reference below). The magnitude depends on the wavelength band (see below). The modern system is no longer limited to 6 magnitudes or only to visible light. Very bright objects have ''negative'' magnitudes. For example, [[Sirius]], the brightest star of the [[celestial sphere]], has an apparent magnitude of &minus;1.44 to &minus;1.46. The modern scale includes the [[Moon]] and the [[Sun]]; the full Moon has an apparent magnitude of &minus;12.6 and the Sun has an apparent magnitude of &minus;26.8. [[Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble]] has located stars with magnitudes of 30 at visible wavelengths and the [[Keck telescopes]] have located similarly faint stars in the infrared. {| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" | colspan="2" |<big>'''Scale of apparent magnitudes'''</big> |- ! App. Mag. ! Celestial object |- | &minus;26.73 || [[Sun]] |- | &minus;12.6 || full [[Moon]] |- | &minus;8.0 | Maximum brightness of an [[Satellite flare|Iridium Flare]] |- | &minus;4.4 | Maximum brightness of [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] |- | &minus;4.0 | Faintest objects observable during the day with naked eye |- | &minus;2.8 | Maximum brightness of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] |- | &minus;1.5 || Brightest star at visible wavelengths: [[Sirius]] |- | &minus;0.7 || Second brightest star: [[Canopus (star)|Canopus]] |- | 0 | The zero point by definition: This used to be [[Vega]]</br> (see [[Apparent magnitude#References|references]] for modern zero point) |- | ~3 | Faintest stars visible in an urban neighborhood |- | ~6 | Faintest [[star]]s observable with naked eye |- | 12.6 || Brightest [[quasar]] |- | 27 | Faintest objects observable in visible light with 8m ground-based telescopes |- | 30 | Faintest objects observable in visible light with [[Hubble Space Telescope]] |- |- | 38 | Faintest objects observable in visible light with planned [[Overwhelmingly_Large_Telescope|OWL]] (2020) |- | colspan=2 | (see also [[List of brightest stars]]) |} These are only approximate values at visible wavelengths (in reality the values depend on the precise bandpass used) &mdash; see [[Airglow#How_to_calculate_the_effects_of_airglow|airglow]] for more details of telescope sensitivity. As the amount of light received actually depends on the thickness of the [[celestial body atmosphere|atmosphere]] in the line of sight to the object, the apparent magnitudes are normalized to the value it would have outside the atmosphere. The dimmer an object appears, the higher its apparent magnitude. Note that apparent brightness is not equal to actual brightness &mdash; an extremely bright object may appear quite dim, if it is far away. The rate at which apparent brightness changes, as the distance from an object increases, is [[calculation|calculated]] by the [[inverse-square law]] (at cosmological distance scales, this is no longer quite true because of the [[curvature of space]]). The [[absolute magnitude]], ''M'', of a star or [[galaxy]] is the apparent magnitude it would have if it were 10 [[parsec]]s (~ 32 [[lightyears]]) away; that of a planet (or other solar system body) is the apparent magnitude it would have if it were 1 [[astronomical unit]] away from both the [[Sun]] and [[Earth]]. The absolute magnitude of the Sun is 4.83 in the V band (yellow) and 5.48 in the B band (blue). The apparent magnitude in the band x can be defined as :<math>m_{x}= -2.5 \log_{10} (F_x) + C\!\,</math> where <math>F_x\!\,</math> is the observed [[flux]] in the band x, and <math>C\!\,</math> is a constant that depends on the units of the flux and the band. The constant <math>C\!\,</math> is defined in [[Apparent_magnitude#References|Aller et al 1982]] for the most commonly used system. The second thing to notice is that the scale is [[logarithm]]ic: the relative brightness of two objects is determined by the difference of their magnitudes. For example, a difference of 3.2 means that one object is about 19 times as bright as the other, because Pogson's ratio raised to the power 3.2 is 19.054607... The logarithmic nature of the scale is due to the fact of the human [[eye]] itself having a logarithmic response, see [[Weber-Fechner law]]. Magnitude is complicated by the fact that light is not [[monochromatic]]. The sensitivity of a light detector varies according to the wavelength of the light, and the way in which it varies depends on the type of light detector. For this reason, it is necessary to specify how the magnitude is measured in order for the value to be meaningful. For this purpose the UBV system is widely used, in which the magnitude is measured in three different wavelength bands: U (centred at about 350 nm, in the near [[ultraviolet]]), B (about 435 nm, in the blue region) and V (about 555 nm, in the middle of the human visual range in daylight). The V band was chosen for spectral purposes and gives magnitudes closely corresponding to those seen by the light-adapted human eye, and when an apparent magnitude is given without any further qualification, it is usually the V magnitude that is meant, more or less the same as '''visual magnitude'''. Since cooler stars, such as [[red giant]]s and [[red dwarf]]s, emit little energy in the blue and UV regions of the spectrum their power is often under-represented by the UBV scale. Indeed, some [[stellar classification|L and T class]] stars have an estimated magnitude of well over 100, since they emit extremely little visible light, but are strongest in [[infrared]]. Measures of magnitude need cautious treatment and it is extremely important to measure like with like. On early 20th-century and older orthochromatic (blue-sensitive) [[photographic film]], the relative brightnesses of the blue [[supergiant]] [[Rigel]] and the red supergiant [[Betelgeuse]] irregular variable star (at maximum) are reversed compared to what our eyes see since this archaic film is more sensitive to blue light than it is to red light. Magnitudes obtained from this method are known as [[photographic magnitude]]s, and are now considered obsolete. For objects within our Galaxy with a given [[absolute magnitude]], 5 is added to the apparent magnitude for every tenfold increase in the distance to the object. This relationship does not apply for objects at very great distances (far beyond our galaxy), since a correction for [[General Relativity]] must then be taken into account due to the non-Euclidean nature of space. ==See also== * [[Absolute magnitude]] * [[Brightest stars|List of Brightest stars]] * [[List of nearest bright stars]] * [[List of nearest stars]] == References == * [http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1857MNRAS..18...47P Magnitudes of Thirty-six of the Minor Planets for the first day of each month of the year 1857], [[Norman Robert Pogson|N. Pogson]], [[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society|MNRAS]] 17 pp 12 [[1856]] -- in which Pogson first introduced his magnitude system * [http://ukads.nottingham.ac.uk/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1982lbor.book.....A&amp;db_key=AST Landolt-Börnstein: Numerical Data and Functional Relationships in Science and Technology - New Series " Gruppe/Group 6 Astronomy and Astrophysics " Volume 2 Schaifers/Voigt: Astronomy and Astrophysics / Astronomie und Astrophysik " Stars and Star Clusters / Sterne und Sternhaufen] Aller, L. H. et al, ISBN # 3-540-10976-5; 0-387-10976-5 [[1982]] -- modern definition of the zero point for the most common magnitude system == External links == * [http://www.astronomynotes.com/starprop/s4.htm The Magnitude system] * [http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/stars/magnitudes.html About stellar magnitudes] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/sim-fid.pl Obtain the magnitude of any star from SIMBAD] [[Category:Observational astronomy]] [[als:Scheinbare Helligkeit]] [[bg:Видима величина]] [[ca:Magnitud aparent]] [[cs:Hvězdná velikost]] [[de:Scheinbare Helligkeit]] [[et:Tähesuurus]] [[es:Magnitud aparente]] [[fr:Magnitude apparente]] [[ko:겉보기 등급]] [[id:Magnitudo tampak]] [[it:Magnitudine apparente]] [[he:בהירות]] [[hu:Magnitúdó]] [[nl:Magnitude]] [[ja:等級 (天文)]] [[pl:Wielkość gwiazdowa]] [[ro:Magnitudine aparentă]] [[ru:Видимая звёздная величина]] [[sk:Zdanlivá hviezdna veľkosť]] [[sl:Navidezni sij]] [[th:โชติมาตรปรากฏ]] [[vi:Độ sáng biểu kiến]] [[zh:星等]] 1963 41786857 2006-03-01T19:18:17Z TreyHarris 67000 /* Computation */ no need for math mode for inline π In [[astronomy]], '''absolute magnitude''' is the [[apparent magnitude]], ''m'', an object would have if it were at a standard [[luminosity distance]] away from us. It allows the overall brightnesses of objects to be compared without regard to distance. The absolute magnitude uses the same convention as the visual magnitude, with a ~2.512<!--- exact = 100**(1/5) ---> difference in [[brightness]] between step rates (because 2.512⁵ ≈ 100). The [[Milky Way]], for example, has an absolute magnitude of about &minus;20.5. So a [[quasar]] at an absolute magnitude of &minus;25.5 is 100 times brighter than our [[galaxy]]. If this particular quasar and our galaxy could be seen side by side at the same distance, the quasar would be 5 magnitudes (or 100 times) brighter than our galaxy. == Absolute Magnitude for stars and galaxies ('''''M''''') == In stellar and galactic astronomy, the standard [[distance]] is 10 [[parsec|parsecs]] (about 32.616 [[light year|light years]], or 3&times;10¹⁴ [[kilometre]]s). A star at ten parsecs has a parallax of 0.1" (100 milli arc seconds). In defining absolute magnitude it is necessary to specify the type of [[electromagnetic radiation]] being [[measurement|measured]]. When referring to total [[energy]] output, the proper term is '''bolometric magnitude'''. The dimmer an object (at a distance of 10 parsecs) would appear, the higher its absolute magnitude. The lower an object's absolute magnitude, the higher its [[luminosity]]. A [[mathematics|mathematical]] [[equation]] [[Relation (mathematics)|relates]] apparent magnitude with absolute magnitude, via [[parallax]]. Many stars visible to the naked eye have an absolute magnitude which is capable of casting [[shadow]]s from a distance of 10 parsecs; [[Rigel]] (&minus;7.0), [[Deneb]] (&minus;7.2), [[Naos]] (&minus;7.3), and [[Betelgeuse]] (&minus;5.6). For comparison, [[Sirius]] has an absolute magnitude of 1.4 and the [[Sun]] has an absolute visual magnitude of 4.83 (it actually serves as a reference point). Absolute magnitudes for stars generally [[range]] from &minus;10 to +17. The absolute magnitude for galaxies can be much lower (brighter). For example, the giant [[elliptical galaxy]] [[Elliptical Galaxy M87|M87]] has an absolute magnitude of &minus;22. === Computation === You can compute the absolute magnitude <math>M\!\,</math> of a star given its [[apparent magnitude]] <math>m\!\,</math> and [[luminosity distance]] <math>D_L\!\,</math>: :<math> M = m - 5 (\log_{10}{D_L} - 1)\!\,</math> where <math>D_L\!\,</math> is the stars luminosity distance in [[parsecs]], which are (&#8776; 3.2616 [[light-year]]s) For nearby astronomical objects (such as stars in our galaxy) the [[luminosity distance]] ''D_L'' is almost identical to the real [[distance]] to the object, because spacetime within our galaxy is almost Euclidean. For much more distant objects the Euclidean approximation is not valid, and [[General Relativity]] must be taken into account when calculating the luminosity distance of an object. In the Euclidean approximation for nearby objects, the absolute magnitude <math>M\!\,</math> of a star can be calculated from its [[apparent magnitude]] and [[parallax]]: :<math> M = m + 5 (\log_{10}{\pi} + 1)\!\,</math> where π is the star's parallax in seconds of an arc. ==== Example ==== : [[Rigel]] has a visual magnitude of m_V=0.18 and distance about 773 light-years. :: M_{V_Rigel} = 0.18 + 5*log₁₀(32.616/773) = &minus;6.7 : [[Vega]] has a parallax of 0.133", and an apparent magnitude of +0.03 :: M_{V_Vega} = 0.03 + 5*(1 + log₁₀(0.133)) = +0.65 : [[Alpha Centauri]] has a [[parallax]] of 0.750" and an apparent magnitude of -0.01 :: M_{V_{&alpha; Cen}} = &minus;0.01 + 5*(1 + log₁₀(0.750)) = +4.37 === Apparent magnitude === Given the absolute magnitude <math>M\!\,</math>, for objects within our galaxy you can also calculate the apparent magnitude <math>m\!\,</math> from any distance <math>d\!\,</math>: :<math> m = M + 5 (\log_{10}{d} - 1)\!\,</math> For objects at very great distances (outside our galaxy) the [[luminosity distance]] ''D_L'' must be used instead of ''d''. == Absolute Magnitude for planets ('''''H''''') == For [[planets]], [[comet]]s and [[asteroid]]s a different definition of absolute magnitude is used which is more meaningful for nonstellar objects. In this case, the absolute magnitude is defined as the apparent magnitude that the object would have if it were one [[astronomical unit]] (au) from both the [[Sun]] and the [[Earth]] and at a [[phase angle (astronomy)|phase angle]] of zero degrees. This is a physical impossibility, but it is convenient for purposes of calculation. To convert a stellar or galactic absolute magnitude into a planetary one, subtract 31.57. This factor also corresponds to the difference between the Sun's [[visual magnitude]] of &minus;26.8 and its (stellar) absolute magnitude of +4.8. Thus, the Milky Way (galactic absolute magnitude &minus;20.5) would have a planetary absolute magnitude of &minus;52. === Calculations === Formula for H: (Absolute Magnitude) : <math> H = m_{Sun} - 5 \log_{10}\frac{ \sqrt { a } r}{d_0}\!\,</math> where <math>m_{Sun}\!\,</math> is the apparent magnitude of the Sun at 1 au (&minus;26.73), <math>a\!\,</math> is the geometric [[albedo]] of the body (a number between 0 and 1), <math>r\!\,</math> is its [[radius]] and <math>d_0\!\,</math> is 1 au (&#8776;149.6 Gm). ==== Example ==== Moon: <math>a_{Moon}\!\,</math> = 0.12, <math>r_{Moon}\!\,</math> = 3476/2 km = 1738 km : <math> H_{Moon} = m_{Sun} - 5 \log_{10}\frac{ \sqrt { a_{Moon} } r_{Moon}}{d_0} = +0.25\!\,</math> === Apparent magnitude === The absolute magnitude can be used to help calculate the apparent magnitude of a body under different conditions. :<math>m = H + 2.5 \log_{10}{(\frac{d_{BS}^2 d_{BO}^2}{p(\chi) d_0^4})}\!\,</math> where <math>d_0\!\,</math> is 1 au, <math>\chi\!\,</math> is the [[phase angle (astronomy)|phase angle]], the angle between the Sun-Body and Body-Observer lines; by the [[law of cosines]], we have: :<math>\cos{\chi} = \frac{ d_{BO}^2 + d_{BS}^2 - d_{OS}^2 } {2 d_{BO} d_{BS}}\!\,</math> <math>p(\chi)\!\,</math> is the [[phase integral]] (integration of reflected light; a number in the 0 to 1 range) :Example: (An [[Lambertian_diffuse_lighting_model|ideal diffuse reflecting]] [[sphere]]) - A reasonable first approximation for planetary bodies <math>p(\chi) = \frac{2}{3} ( (1 - \frac{\chi}{\pi}) \cos{\chi} + (1/\pi) \sin{\chi} )\!\,</math> : A full-phase diffuse sphere reflects 2/3 as much light as a diffuse disc of the same diameter : Distances: :: <math>d_{BO}\!\,</math> is the distance between the observer and the body :: <math>d_{BS}\!\,</math> is the distance between the Sun and the body :: <math>d_{OS}\!\,</math> is the distance between the observer and the Sun ==== Example ==== Moon : <math>H_{Moon}\!\,</math> = +0.25 : <math>d_{OS}\!\,</math> = <math>d_{BS}\!\,</math> = 1 au : <math>d_{BO}\!\,</math> = 384.5 Mm = 2.57 mau : How bright is the Moon from Earth? :: Full Moon: <math>\chi\!\,</math> = 0, (<math>p(\chi)\!\,</math> &#8776; 2/3) ::: <math>m_{Moon} = 0.25 + 2.5 \log_{10}{(\frac{3}{2} 0.00257^2)} = -12.26\!\,</math> ::: (Actual -12.7) A full Moon reflects 30% more light at full phase than a perfect diffuse reflector predicts. :: Quarter Moon: <math>\chi\!\,</math> = 90°, <math>p(\chi) \approx \frac{2}{3\pi}\!\,</math> (if diffuse reflector) ::: <math>m_{Moon} = 0.25 + 2.5 \log_{10}{(\frac{3\pi}{2} 0.00257^2)} = -11.02\!\,</math> ::: (Actual approximately &minus;11.0) The diffuse reflector formula does better for smaller phases. == See also == * [[H-R diagram|Hertzsprung-Russell diagram]] - Relates absolute magnitude or [[luminosity]] versus spectral color or surface [[temperature]]. * [[Jansky]] radio astronomer's prefered unit - linear in power/unit area ==External links== * [http://www.astronomynotes.com/starprop/s4.htm The Magnitude system] * [http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/stars/magnitudes.html About stellar magnitudes] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/sim-fid.pl Obtain the magnitude of any star from SIMBAD] * [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/cfa/ps/lists/Sizes.htm Converting magnitude of minor planets to diameter] Absolute Magnitude may also refer to a science fiction magazine of that name. * [http://www.dnapublications.com/absmag/ DNA Publications website] [[Category:Observational astronomy]] [[bg:Абсолютна величина]] [[ca:Magnitud absoluta]] [[cs:Absolutní hvězdná velikost]] [[da:Absolut størrelsesklasse]] [[de:Absolute Helligkeit]] [[es:Magnitud absoluta]] [[fr:Magnitude absolue]] [[ko:절대 등급]] [[hr:Apsolutna magnituda]] [[id:Magnitudo multak]] [[it:Magnitudine assoluta]] [[hu:Abszolút magnitúdó]] [[nl:Lichtkracht]] [[pl:Absolutna wielkość gwiazdowa]] [[pt:Magnitude absoluta]] [[ru:Абсолютная звёздная величина]] [[sk:Absolútna hviezdna veľkosť]] [[sl:Absolutni izsev]] [[sv:Absolut magnitud]] [[th:โชติมาตรสัมบูรณ์]] [[zh:絕對星等]] 1965 40858377 2006-02-23T13:40:52Z DabMachine 922466 disambiguation from [[Insulation]] to [[thermal insulation]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]]) {| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="float:right;margin-left:1em;width:250px;" |+<big>'''Apollo 1'''</big> |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission Insignia |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:Apollo_1_patch.jpg|200px|Apollo 1 insignia]] |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Planned Mission |- |'''Mission Name:'''||Apollo 1 (AS-204) |- |'''Call Sign:'''||Command module:<br />''Apollo 1'' |- |'''Number of<br />Crew:'''||3 |- |''' Planned<br />Launch:'''||[[February 21]] [[1967]]<br />[[Kennedy Space Center]]<br />LC 34 |- |'''Planned<br />Apogee:'''||~300 km |- |'''Planned<br />Perigee:'''||~230 km |- |'''Planned<br />Period:'''||~89.7 m |- |'''Planned<br />Inclination:'''||~31° |- |'''Planned<br />Landing:'''||[[March 7]] [[1967]]<br />Atlantic Ocean<br />N of Puerto Rico<br />planned carrier<br />[[USS Essex (CV-9)]] |- |'''Planned<br />Duration:'''||14 days |- |'''Planned<br />Number of<br />Orbits:'''||~200 |- |'''Mass:'''||CSM 20,412 kg |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Crew Picture |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:GPN-2000-000618.jpg|250px|Apollo 1 crew portrait (L-R: Grissom, White and Chaffee)]] <br/>Apollo 1 crew portrait<br/>(L-R: Grissom, White and Chaffee) |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Apollo 1 Crew |} '''Apollo One''' is the official name given retroactively to the '''Apollo/Saturn 204''' ('''AS-204''') spacecraft, destroyed by [[fire]] during a training exercise on [[January 27]] [[1967]], at Pad 34 (Launch Complex 34 at [[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station|Cape Canaveral]]) atop a [[Saturn IB]] rocket. Its crew were the astronauts selected for the initial [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]] mission and all three died in the accident: Command Pilot [[Gus Grissom|Virgil I. Grissom]], Senior Pilot [[Edward Higgins White|Ed White]], and Pilot [[Roger B. Chaffee]]. <br style="clear: left"/> ==Crew== *[[Gus Grissom|Virgil Grissom]] (flew on ''[[Mercury 4]]'' & ''[[Gemini 3]]''), Command Pilot *[[Edward Higgins White|Ed White]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 4]]''), Senior Pilot *[[Roger B. Chaffee]] (never flew in space), Pilot ===Backup crew=== *April - December [[1966]] **[[James McDivitt]], Command Pilot **[[David Scott]], Senior Pilot **[[Rusty Schweickart]], Pilot This crew became the crew of ''[[Apollo 9]]''. *December [[1966]] - January [[1967]] **[[Walter Schirra]], Command Pilot **[[Donn Eisele]], Senior Pilot **[[Walter Cunningham]], Pilot This crew became the crew of ''[[Apollo 7]]''. ==The accident== [[Image:Apollo 1 fire.jpg|thumb|left|The charred remains of Apollo 1]] The Apollo 1 Command Module was a "Block I" design, built for spaceflight but never intended for a trip to the moon, as it lacked the necessary docking equipment. Immediately prior to the accident, the crew members were reclining in their horizontal couches, running through a checklist of things they would do in space while a communication system problem was being fixed. Suddenly, a voice (now believed to be Chaffee's, as his was the only clear channel) was heard over the COM link, "We've got fire in the cockpit." A few seconds later the transmissions ended with a cry of pain. On the television monitors, Ed White was seen to be attempting to open the hatch. However, the two-piece hatch was of a design which required that the crew undo several bolts in order to remove the inner section, and was impossible to open quickly. Furthermore, the inner portion of hatch opened inwards, an intentional design feature intended to exploit the cabin's air pressure in order to further tighten the hatch seal during spaceflight. The hot gasses produced by the fire held the hatch shut, and within a few seconds the air pressure had risen enough to prevent the crew from escaping (and in fact the air pressure rose so high as to rupture the capsule). ===Cause=== The fire is believed to have been caused by a spark somewhere in the capsule's 30 miles (50 km) of wiring. Due to the pure oxygen inside the capsule (which was at a pressure of 15 [[Pound-force per square inch|psi]] or 100 [[kilopascal|kPa]]) the fire was quickly out of control. The Apollo 204 Review Board determined that a [[silver]]-[[Plating|plated]] [[copper]] [[wire]] running through an environmental control unit near the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|command module]] pilot's couch had become stripped of its insulation and abraded by repeated opening and closing of an associated access door. This weak point in the wiring also happened to pass near a junction in a [[ethylene glycol]] / water cooling line, which had developed a leak. The [[electrolysis]] of ethylene glycol solution with the [[anode]] made of silver resulted in a violent [[exothermic reaction]] that ignited the ethylene glycol mixture, which in turn was able to burn in the atmosphere of pure pressurized oxygen.[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/v4p2b.htm] A similar March [[1961]] incident had previously claimed the life of Soviet [[cosmonaut]] trainee [[Valentin Bondarenko]] when the pure oxygen atmosphere in the isolation chamber he had been occupying had caught fire, a calamity the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] had, for years, concealed from the public. ===The fire=== The fire spread quickly and within seconds was an inferno. The ground crew needed five minutes to open the hatch and suppress the flames. The fire had melted the astronauts' space suits and the air lines which connected them to the capsule's life support systems. Grissom's and White's suits were found to have fused together. It was evident from how the corpses lay that they had tried to get out, but they never had a chance. Ed White, who was supposed to open the hatch, was partway out of his harness and had apparently made an effort to escape. The procedure would have had Grissom lower White's headrest, and White proceed to unlatch over 12 bolts to release the hatch. Indeed, even if he were to accomplish that, the internal pressure had risen so high that the inward-opening hatch could not have been opened. Chaffee's job was to begin shutting down the spacecraft and maintain communications with ground control, and was found dead still strapped into his right hand seat. Only 17 seconds from the first call of "Fire!", all three were dead. It was later confirmed that the crew had actually died of smoke inhalation rather than burns. According to the Report of the Apollo 204 Review Board — Appendix D Panel 11, (link provided below), Grissom suffered third degree burns on 36% of his body (1st, 2nd and 3rd degree burns covered 60% of his body) and his spacesuit was 70% destroyed. White suffered third degree burns on 40% of his body (1st, 2nd and 3rd degree burns covered 48% of his body) and his spacesuit was 25% destroyed. Chaffee suffered third degree burns on 23% of his body (1st, 2nd and 3rd degree burns covered 29% of his body) and his spacesuit was 15% destroyed. The company that produced the command module, [[North American Aviation]], had originally suggested that the hatch open outward and be able to open with [[explosive bolt]]s in case of emergency. They had also suggested that the atmosphere be an oxygen/nitrogen mixture, like on the earth's surface. [[NASA]] didn't agree, arguing that the hatch could be accidentally opened (this is what caused [[Liberty Bell 7]] — ironically, piloted by Grissom — to sink into the ocean during splashdown recovery operations; Grissom himself argued that the hatch should be stronger, more secure, and harder to open), and that if too much nitrogen were released into the atmosphere, the astronauts would pass out and then die. They also argued that since a pure oxygen atmosphere was used safely in [[Mercury program|Mercury]] and [[Gemini program|Gemini]], it should be safe to use for Apollo. Furthermore, such a design saved weight. After the fire, Apollo was grounded pending a redesign, with the following results: * The atmosphere would not be pressurized to 2 lbf/in&sup2; (14 [[Pascal_(unit)|kPa]]) above [[atmospheric pressure]]. It would consist of 60% oxygen and 40% nitrogen at sea-level pressure at launch, lowering to 5 kPA of pressure during launch, and gradually changing over to 100% oxygen during the first 24 hours of the trans-lunar coast. * The hatch would open outward, and be operable in less than ten seconds. * [[Flammable]] materials in the cabin were replaced with self-extinguishing materials. * [[Plumbing]] and wiring were covered with protective [[thermal insulation|insulation]]. * 1,407 wiring problems were corrected. * [[Nylon]] suits were replaced with coated glass fabric suits, much more difficult to ignite. ==The naming of Apollo 1== When [[North American Aviation]] shipped Spacecraft CM-012 to [[Kennedy Space Center]], it bore a banner proclaiming it "Apollo One" and Grissom's crew had received approval for an "Apollo 1" patch in June [[1966]], but NASA was planning to call that mission "AS-204." After the fire, the astronauts' widows asked that "Apollo 1" be reserved for the flight their husbands would never make. For a time, mission planners called the next scheduled launch "Apollo 2." Suggestions were made that the flights should be called "Apollo 1" (AS-204), "Apollo 1A" (AS-201), "Apollo 2" (AS-202), and "Apollo 3" (AS-203). Finally, the NASA Project Designation Committee approved "[[Apollo 4]]" for the first (unmanned) Apollo-Saturn V mission (AS-501), but declared that there would be no retroactive renaming of AS-201, -202, or -203. The Apollo 1 (AS-204) Saturn IB rocket was taken down from Launch Complex 34 and later reassembled at Launch Complex 37B. It was used to launch the [[Apollo 5]] LM-1 into earth orbit for the first [[Lunar Module]] test mission. ==Memorial== [[image:Apollo_1_plaque.png|thumb|right|300px|Drawing of Apollo 1 plaque that is attached to Launch Complex 34]] [[image:Apollo1plaque.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Apollo 1 plaque that is attached to Launch Complex 34]] [[image:LaunchComplex34.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Launch Complex 34, showing plaque on right rear post]] While Launch Complex 34 has been essentially dismantled, the cement and steel-reinforced launch platform remains at the site. The platform bears two plaques for the 3 men who perished. One says: <blockquote>''LAUNCH COMPLEX 34''<br /> ''Friday, 27&nbsp;January 1967''<br /> ''1831 Hours''<br /> <br /> ''Dedicated to the living memory of the crew of the Apollo 1'':<br /> <br /> ''U.S.A.F. Lt. Colonel Virgil I. Grissom''<br /> ''U.S.A.F. Lt. Colonel Edward H. White, II''<br /> ''U.S.N. Lt. Commander Roger B. Chaffee''<br /> <br /> ''They gave their lives in service to their country in the ongoing exploration of humankind's final frontier. Remember them not for how they died but for those ideals for which they lived.''</blockquote> <br style="clear: left"/> [[image:Apollo_1_2nd_plaque.png|thumb|right|300px|Drawing of second Apollo 1 plaque that is attached to Launch Complex 34]] The other says: <blockquote>''IN MEMORY OF THOSE WHO MADE THE ULTIMATE SACRIFICE SO OTHERS COULD REACH FOR THE STARS''<br /> <br /> ''AD ASTRA PER ASPERA''<br /> ''(A ROUGH ROAD LEADS TO THE STARS)''<br /> <br /> ''GOD SPEED TO THE CREW OF APOLLO 1''</blockquote> This plaque was featured in the film ''[[Armageddon (movie)|Armageddon]]''. In addition to both, a college classmate of one of the astronauts fashioned three granite benches, one for each member of the crew. The benches were installed in January 2005. Each year the families of the Apollo 1 crew are invited to the site for a memorial, and the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Center offers a visit to the site for those who choose to take a special tour to the older launch sites that are on Cape Canaveral. Three stars, [[Epsilon Cassiopeiae|Navi]], [[Dnoces]] and [[Regor]] were named in honor of the crew. The names are "Ivan," "Second" and "Roger" spelled backwards. Ivan was Grissom's middle name and White was Edward H. White the Second. The crew used the stars to calibrate their equipment and, as a practical joke, recorded the names in official NASA documentation. The names eventually stuck as a posthumous honor.{{ref|star_names}} ==Conspiracy theories== The space community, particularly [[USENET]] newsgroups sci.space.history and sci.space.policy, frequently see semi-anonymous postings which accuse NASA and/or other US authorities of [[arson]] and conspiracy to assassinate the crew of Apollo 1. It is claimed that NASA administrators held Grissom personally responsible for the loss of the [[Liberty Bell 7]] capsule at sea, and wanted to avenge this agency-wide loss of face. According to the Star tabloid, Grissom's son [[Scott Grissom]], a pilot himself, demanded a renewed investigation into the Apollo 1 disaster back in [[1999]]. Nonetheless, the accusations are generally regarded as [[Internet troll|trolling]] by the USENET community. ==References== *{{note|star_names}} http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a15/a15.postland.html Search the page for "regor" to find the reference. ==See also== [[List of space disasters]] ==External links== *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Apollo204/ NASA Apollo 1 website] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19730061045_1973061045.pdf Apollo spacecraft 012 (Apollo 1) Operations Handbook (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066930_1982066930.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066928_1982066928.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix A: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066927_1982066927.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix B: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066925_1982066925.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix C Section 1: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066936_1982066936.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix C Section 2: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066931_1982066931.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix D Panels 1 through 4: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066926_1982066926.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix D Panel 5: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066932_1982066932.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix D Panels 6 through 10: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066929_1982066929.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix D Panel 11: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066933_1982066933.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix D Panels 12 through 17: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066923_1982066923.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix D Panel 18: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066934_1982066934.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix D Panels 19 through 21: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066935_1982066935.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix E: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066537_1982066537.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix F: (PDF)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820067189_1982067189.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix G: (PDF)] {{Project Apollo | before=[[AS-202]] <br> [[Gemini 12]] | after=[[Apollo 4]] <br> [[Apollo 7]]}} [[Category:Apollo program|Apollo 01]] [[Category:Space Program Deaths]] [[Category:1967 in the United States]] [[cs:Apollo 1]] [[de:Apollo 1]] [[es:Apollo 1]] [[fr:Apollo 1]] [[it:Apollo 1]] [[he:אפולו 1]] [[hu:Apollo-1]] [[nl:Apollo 1]] [[ja:アポロ1号]] [[pl:Apollo 1]] [[pt:Apollo 1]] [[ru:Аполлон-1]] [[sk:Apollo 1]] [[fi:Apollo 1]] [[sv:Apollo 1]] 1966 42106610 2006-03-03T21:43:52Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 Header - references plural {| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" |+<font size="+1">'''Apollo 10'''</font> |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission insignia |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:APXexcalibur.JPG|200px]] |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission statistics |- |'''Mission Name:'''||Apollo 10 |- |'''Call sign:'''||Command module:<br />''Charlie Brown''<br />Lunar module:<br />''Snoopy'' |- |'''Number of<br />Crew:'''||3 |- |'''Launch:'''||[[May 18]], [[1969]]<br />16:49:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]<br />[[Kennedy Space Center]]<br />LC 39B |- |'''Lunar orbit:'''||[[May 21]] 20:44:54 UTC-<br />[[May 24]] 10:25:29 UTC |- |'''Splashdown:'''||[[May 26]], [[1969]]<br />16:52:23 UTC<br />15° 2' S - 164° 39' W |- |'''Duration:'''||8 d 0 h 03 min 23 s |- |'''Number of<br />Lunar Orbits:'''||31 |- |'''Time in<br />Lunar Orbit:'''||61 h 37 min 23.6 s |- |'''Mass:'''||CSM 28,834 kg;<br />LM 13,941 kg |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Crew picture |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:GPN-2000-001163.jpg|275px|Apollo 10 crew portrait (L-R: Cernan, Stafford, and Young)]] <br/>Apollo 10 crew portrait <br/>(L-R: Cernan, Stafford, and Young) |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Apollo 10 Crew |} '''Apollo 10''' was the fourth manned mission in the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]], and the first (and only manned Saturn V) mission to launch from pad 39B. The mission included the second crew to orbit the Moon, and the test of the [[Apollo Lunar Module|lunar module]] in lunar orbit. The module came to within 8.4 nautical miles (15.6 km) of the lunar surface during practice maneuvers. According to the 2001 Guinness World Records Apollo 10 has the record for the highest speed attained by a manned vehicle: 39,897 km/h (11.08 km/s or 24,791 mph). The speed record was set during the return from the Moon on the [[26 May]], [[1969]]. ==Crew== *[[Thomas Stafford]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 6A]]'', ''[[Gemini 9A]]'', ''Apollo 10'', & ''[[Apollo-Soyuz]]''), commander *[[John W. Young]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 3]]'', ''[[Gemini 10]]'', ''Apollo 10'', ''[[Apollo 16]]'', ''[[STS-1]]'', & ''[[STS-9]]''), command module pilot *[[Eugene Cernan]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 9A]]'', ''Apollo 10'', & ''[[Apollo 17]]''), lunar module pilot ===Backup Crew=== *[[Gordon Cooper]] (flew on ''[[Mercury 9]]'', ''[[Gemini 5]]''), commander *[[Donn Eisele]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 7]]''), command module pilot *[[Edgar Mitchell]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 14]]'', lunar module pilot ===Support Crew=== *[[Charles Duke]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 16]]'') *[[Joe Engle]] (flew on ''[[STS-2]]'', ''[[STS 51-I]]'') *[[James Irwin]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 15]]'') *[[Jack Lousma]] (flew on ''[[Skylab 3]]'', ''[[STS-3]]'') ==Mission Parameters== *'''[[Mass]]:''' CSM 28,834 kg; LM 13,941 kg *'''[[Perigee]]:''' 184.5 km *'''[[Apogee]]:''' 190 km *'''[[Inclination]]:''' 32.5° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 88.1 min *'''[[Perilune]]:''' 111.1 km *'''[[Apolune]]:''' 316.7 km *'''[[Inclination]]:''' 1.2° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 2.15 hours ===LM - CSM Docking=== *'''Undocked''': [[May 22]], [[1969]] - 19:00:57 UTC *'''Redocked''': [[May 23]], [[1969]] - 03:11:02 UTC ===LM closest approach to lunar surface=== *[[May 22]], [[1969]], 21:29:43 UTC On [[May 22]] [[1969]] at 20:35:02 UTC, a 27.4 second LM descent propulsion system burn inserted the LM into a descent orbit of 112.8 km by 15.7 km so that the resulting lowest point in the orbit occurred about 15° from lunar landing site 2 (the Apollo 11 landing site). The lowest measured point in the trajectory was 15.6 km <!--see talk--> above the lunar surface at 21:29:43 UTC. ===See also=== *[[Splashdown]] *[[List of artificial objects on the Moon]] ==Mission Highlights== This dress rehearsal for a Moon landing brought Stafford and Cernan's lunar module, nicknamed "[[Snoopy]]", to 8.4 nautical miles (15.6 km) from the lunar surface. Except for that final stretch, the mission went exactly as a landing would have gone, both in space and on the ground, where Apollo's extensive tracking and control network was put through a dry run. Shortly after leaving low Earth orbit, the command/service module separated from the S-IVB stage, turned around, and docked its nose to the top of the lunar module still nestled in the S-IVB. The CSM/LM stack then separated from the S-IVB for the trip to the moon. Upon reaching lunar orbit, Young remained alone in his command module "[[Charlie Brown]]," while Stafford and Cernan flew separately in the LM. They checked out the LM's radar and ascent engine, rode out a momentary gyration in the lunar lander's motion (due to a faulty switch setting), and surveyed the Apollo 11 landing site in the Sea of Tranquillity. This test article of the lunar module was not equipped to land, however. Apollo 10 also added another first - broadcasting live color TV from space. On [[May 22]] [[1969]] Apollo 10's lunar module flew within 15.6 km of the [[Moon]]'s surface. :Launched: [[May 18]], [[1969]] from Pad 39B :Returned: [[May 26]], [[1969]] :Crew members: [[Tom Stafford]], commander; [[John W. Young|John Young]], command module pilot; [[Gene Cernan]], lunar module pilot :Command module: [[Charlie Brown]] :Lunar module: [[Snoopy]] The command module is displayed at the [[Science Museum (London)|Science Museum]] in [[London]]. The lunar module is in heliocentric orbit, thus making it the only intact lunar module ascent stage out of all of the lunar modules sent into space (Apollos [[Apollo 5|5]], [[Apollo 9|9]], [[Apollo 13|13]] LM ascent stages burned up in Earth's atmosphere, ''[[Apollo 11]]'' LM ascent stage left in lunar orbit - eventually crashed on moon, Apollos [[Apollo 12|12]], [[Apollo 14|14]], [[Apollo 15|15]], [[Apollo 16|16]], [[Apollo 17|17]] LM ascent stages deliberately crashed into moon) . <gallery> Image:Ap10-KSC-68C-7912.jpg|The [[S-IC]] first stage in the VAB Image:Ap10-KSC-69PC-110.jpg|Apollo 10 during rollout (NASA) Image:As10-27-3881.jpg|CSM "Charlie Brown" (NASA) Image:As10-345117.jpg|LM "Snoopy" (NASA) Image:Apollo_10_earthrise.jpg|Apollo 10 view of Earth rise. (NASA) </gallery> {{Project Apollo| before=[[Apollo 9]]| after=''[[Apollo 11]]''}} ==References== *[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog] *[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)] * [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.38.htm Apollo 10 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK] ==External links== * [http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo10.htm Apollo 10 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica] *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology] *[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report] *[http://vesuvius.jsc.nasa.gov/er/seh/Ap10.html Mission Report: Apollo 10] {{commons|Apollo 10}} [[Category:1969]] [[Category:Apollo program]] [[Category:Human spaceflights]] [[Category:Lunar spacecraft]] [[da:Apollo 10]] [[de:Apollo 10]] [[fi:Apollo 10]] [[fr:Apollo 10]] [[he:אפולו 10]] [[hu:Apollo-10]] [[it:Apollo 10]] [[nl:Apollo 10]] [[pt:Apollo 10]] [[sv:Apollo 10]] 1967 42106663 2006-03-03T21:44:08Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 Header - references plural {| class="toccolours" border="1" cellpadding="4" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; clear: right; font-size:100%;" |+<font size="+1">'''Apollo 12'''</font> |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission insignia |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:AP12goodship.JPG|200px|Apollo 12 insignia]] |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission statistics |- |'''Mission name:'''||Apollo 12 |- |'''Call sign:'''||Command module:<br />''Yankee Clipper''<br />Lunar module:<br />''Intrepid'' |- |'''Number of<br />crew:'''||3 |- |'''Launch:'''||[[November 14]], [[1969]]<br />16:22:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]<br />[[Kennedy Space Center]]<br />LC 39A |- |'''Lunar landing:'''||[[November 19]], 1969<br />06:54:35 UTC<br />3° 0' 44.60" S - 23° 25' 17.65" W<br /> Oceanus Procellarum/Mare Cognitium <br />(Ocean of Storms/Known Sea) |- |'''Lunar EVA<br />length:'''||1st: 3 h 56 min 03 s<br />2nd: 3 h 49 min 15 s<br />Total: 7 h 45 min 18 s |- |'''Lunar surface<br />time:'''||31 h 31 min 11.6 s |- |'''[[Lunar sample]]<br />mass:'''|| 34.35 kg (75.729 lb) |- |'''Splashdown:'''||[[November 24]], [[1969]]<br />20:58:24 UTC<br />15° 47' S - 165° 9' W |- |'''Duration:'''||10 d 4 h 36 min 24 s |- |'''Number of<br />lunar orbits:'''||45 |- |'''Time in<br />lunar orbit:'''||88 h 58 min 11.52 s |- |'''Mass:'''||CSM 28,838 kg;<br />LM 15,235 kg |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Crew picture |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:GPN-2000-001165.jpg|center|thumb|225px|Apollo 12 crew portrait (L-R: Conrad, Gordon and Bean)]] |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Apollo 12 Crew |} '''Apollo 12''' was the sixth manned mission in the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]] and the second to land on the [[Moon]]. ==Crew== *[[Charles Conrad|Pete Conrad]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 5]]'', ''[[Gemini 11]]'', ''Apollo 12'', & ''[[Skylab 2]]''), commander *[[Richard F. Gordon, Jr.|Richard Gordon]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 11]]'' & ''Apollo 12''), command module pilot *[[Alan Bean]] (flew on ''Apollo 12'', ''[[Skylab 3]]''), lunar module pilot ===Backup crew=== *[[David Scott]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 8]]'', ''[[Apollo 9]]'', ''[[Apollo 15]]''), commander *[[Alfred Worden]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 15]]''), command module pilot *[[James Irwin]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 15]]''), lunar module pilot ===Support crew=== *[[Gerald Carr]] (flew on ''[[Skylab 4]]'') *[[Edward Gibson]] (flew on ''[[Skylab 4]]'') *[[Paul J. Weitz|Paul Weitz]] (flew on ''[[Skylab 2]]'', ''[[STS-6]]'') ==Mission parameters== *'''[[Mass]]:''' CSM 28,838; LM 15,235 kg *'''[[Perigee]]:''' 185 km *'''[[Apogee]]:''' 189.8 km *'''[[Inclination]]:''' 32.54° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 88.16 min *'''[[Perilune]]:''' 115.9 km *'''[[Apolune]]:''' 257.1 km *'''[[Inclination]]:''' ° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 120 min *'''Landing Site:''' [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunar_sites.html 3.01239 S - 23.42157 W] or<BR> 3° 0' 44.60" S - 23° 25' 17.65" W ===LM - CSM docking=== *'''Undocked''': [[November 19]], [[1969]] - 04:16:02 UTC *'''Redocked''': [[November 20]], [[1969]] - 17:58:20 UTC ===EVAs=== ===='''EVA 1 start''': [[November 19]], [[1969]], 11:32:35 UTC==== * ''Conrad'' - EVA 1 *'''Stepped onto Moon''': 11:44:22 UTC *'''LM ingress''': 15:27:17 UTC * ''Bean'' - EVA 1 *'''Stepped onto Moon''': 12:13:50 UTC *'''LM ingress''': 15:14:18 UTC ===='''EVA 1 end''': November 19, 15:28:38 UTC==== *'''Duration''': 3 hours, 56 minutes, 03 seconds ===='''EVA 2 start''': [[November 20]], [[1969]], 03:54:45 UTC==== * ''Conrad'' - EVA 2 *'''Stepped onto Moon''': 03:59:00 UTC *'''LM ingress''': 07:42:00 UTC * ''Bean'' - EVA 2 *'''Stepped onto Moon''': 04:06:00 UTC *'''LM ingress''': 07:30:00 UTC ===='''EVA 2 end''': November 20, 07:44:00 UTC==== *'''Duration''': 3 hours, 49 minutes, 15 seconds ===See also=== * [[Extra-vehicular activity]] * [[List of spacewalks]] * [[Splashdown]] * [[List of artificial objects on the Moon]] * [[Google Moon]] ==Quote== ''Whoopie! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me.'' &mdash;Pete Conrad (somewhat shorter in stature than Armstrong) as he stepped onto the lunar surface for the first time. ==Mission Highlights== {| style="float: right" |- |[[Image:Apollo_12_Bean.jpg |thumb|235px|Alan Bean descends from the LM. (NASA)]] |- |[[Image:Apollo12Visor.jpg|thumb|235px|Alan Bean pictured by Pete Conrad (echoed in Bean's helmet) (NASA)]] |- |[[Image:GPN-2000-001316.jpg|thumb|235px|Conrad, Surveyor 3 and the LM Intrepid (NASA)]] |- |[[Image:Surveyor 3 Conrad.jpeg|thumb|235px|Conrad jiggles the Surveyor III craft. (NASA)]] |- |[[Image:a12-plaque.jpg|right|thumb|photograph of the plaque attached to the Apollo 12 LM]] |} Shortly after liftoff from Cape Canaveral, the Saturn V rocket body was hit by a bolt of upper-atmosphere [[lightning]]. The CM's instruments momentarily went off-line and Mission Control lost the telemetry feeds from the spacecraft for several seconds. When ground control regained telemetry lock with the spacecraft, the feeds were garbled and reported incomplete and possibly inaccurate information. [[EECOM]] [[John Aaron]] thought that the garbled telemetry might be caused by a malfunction in the launch vehicle's Signal Condition Equipment, since the SCE controlled the spacecraft's electrical power measurements and would have automatically gone off-line in response to the kind of disruption to the spacecraft's electrical systems that a lightning strike would cause ([http://history.nasa.gov/SP-287/ch5.htm source]). With this in mind, he suggested the crew "Try SCE to aux," or switch to the auxiliary set of Signal Condition Equipment. The command was a relatively obscure one and neither the [[Flight Director]], [[Capsule communicator|CAPCOM]], or mission CDR Conrad could immediately recall how to implement it; however, LMP Al Bean remembered that the SCE switch was on his panel because of a training incident a year prior to launch where just such a failure had been simulated. John Aaron's quick thinking and Al Bean's memory were able to salvage what otherwise would have been an [[Apollo abort modes|aborted mission]] (at the time of the failure, the flight had just entered abort mode One Bravo). With telemetry restored, the crew proceeded to parking orbit and was able to fully restore and verify the functionality of their spacecraft before re-igniting the [[S-IVB]] third stage for [[Trans Lunar Injection|trans-lunar injection]]. The S-IVB was originally intended to be put into a solar orbit by venting the remaining propellant. However an extra long burn of the ullage motors meant that venting the remaining propellant in the tank of the S-IVB did not give the rocket stage enough energy to escape the Earth-Moon system and instead the stage ended up in a semi-stable orbit around the Earth after passing by the Moon in [[November 18]], [[1969]]. It finally entered into solar orbit [[1971]], but returned to Earth orbit (briefly) 31 years later. It was discovered by amateur astronomer [[Bill Yeung]] and he gave it the temporary designation [[J002E3]] before it was determined to be an artificial, not natural, object. The Apollo 12 mission landed on an area of the Ocean of Storms that had been visited earlier by several unmanned missions ([[Luna 5]], [[Surveyor 3]], and [[Ranger 7]]). The [[International Astronomical Union]], recognizing this, christened this region ''Mare Cognitium (Known Sea)''. The landing site would thereafter be listed as ''[[Statio Cognitium]]'' on lunar maps (Conrad and Bean did not formally name their landing site, interestingly enough, though the intended touchdown point was nicknamed ''Pete's Parking Lot'' by Conrad). The second lunar landing was an exercise in precision targeting. The descent was automatic, with only a few manual corrections by Conrad. Although ''[[Apollo 11]]'' had made an almost embarrassingly imprecise landing well outside the designated target area, Apollo 12 succeeded, on [[November 19]], in making a pin-point landing, within walking distance (less than 200 meters) of the [[Surveyor 3]] probe, which had landed on the Moon in April [[1967]]. Conrad actually landed ''Intrepid'' 580 feet short of ''Pete's Parking Lot'' because the planned landing point looked rougher than anticipated during the final approach to touchdown. The planned landing point was a little under 1180 feet from ''Surveyor 3'', a distance that was chosen to eliminate the possibility of lunar dust (being kicked up by ''Intrepid's'' descent engine during landing) from covering ''Surveyor 3''. But the actual touchdown point - 600 feet from ''Surveyor 3'' - did cause a thin film of dust to coat the probe, giving it a light tan hue. To improve the quality of television pictures from the Moon, a color camera was carried on Apollo 12 (unlike the monochrome camera that was used on ''[[Apollo 11]]''). Unfortunately, when Bean carried the camera to the place near the lunar module where it was to be set up, he inadvertently pointed it directly into the Sun, destroying the [[vidicon tube]]. Television coverage of this mission was thus terminated almost immediately. Conrad and Bean removed pieces of the [[Surveyor 3]], to be taken back to Earth for analysis, and took two Moon-walks lasting just under four hours each. They collected rocks and set up equipment that took measurements of the Moon's seismicity, solar wind flux and magnetic field, and relayed the measurements to Earth. (By accident Bean left several rolls of exposed film on the lunar surface.) Meanwhile Gordon, on board the ''Yankee Clipper'' in lunar orbit, took multispectral photographs of the surface. The lunar plaque attached to the descent stage of ''Intrepid'' is unique in that unlike the other [[lunar plaques]], it (a) did not have a depiction of the Earth, and (b) it was textured differently (the other plaques had black lettering on polished stainless steel while the Apollo 12 plaque had the lettering in polished stainless steel while the background was brushed flat). ''Intrepid's'' ascent stage was dropped (per normal procedures) after Conrad and Bean rejoined Gordon in orbit. It impacted the Moon on [[20 November]], [[1969]] at 3.94 S, 21.20 W. The seismometers the astronauts had left on the lunar surface registered the vibrations for more than an hour. The crew stayed an extra day in lunar orbit taking photographs, for a total lunar stay of thirty-one and a half hours. The command module and its crew were flawlessly recovered by the aircraft carrier [[USS Hornet (CV-12)|USS ''Hornet'']]. The ship is now open to the public as a museum in [[Alameda, CA]]. The command module is displayed at the [[Virginia Air and Space Center]], [[Hampton, Virginia]] ==Trivia== *Pete Conrad smuggled a camera-shutter self-timer device on to the mission with the intent of taking a photograph with himself, Alan Bean and the Surveyor 3 probe in the frame. As the timer was not part of their standard equipment, such an image would have thrown post-mission photo analysts into confusion over how the photo was taken. Unfortunately the self-timer was mis-placed during the EVA and the plan was never executed. *The Apollo 12 backup crew managed to 'insert' into the astronaut's lunar checklist (attached to the wrists of Conrad's and Bean's spacesuits) reduced sized pictures of [[Playboy]] centerfolds, thus introducing [[pornography]] to the moon for the first time when Conrad and Bean were looking through the lists during their first EVA. *Another idea that did not materialize was that Conrad - who loved collecting baseball caps - had a giant one made that would fit over his space helmet. He wanted to wear it during his lunar EVA's, but there was no way that it could be smuggled on board Apollo 12 without it being found out. *The Apollo 12 mission patch has four stars on it—one each for the three astronauts who flew the mission and one for [[Clifton Williams]]. Williams was killed on [[October 5]], [[1967]], after a mechanical failure caused the controls of his T-38 trainer to stop responding. He had been assigned to the back-up crew for what would be the [[Apollo 9]] mission and would have most likely been assigned as Lunar Module pilot for Apollo 12. *A part of one of the rock samples collected on Apollo 12, lunar sample 12013, has a composition which is remarkably similar to some [[tektite]]s. It is especially similar to high-magnesium javenites (part of the Australasian strewn field of Southeast Asia). ==References== * [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.40.htm Apollo 12 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19720019081_1972019081.pdf Analysis of Surveyor 3 material and photographs returned by Apollo 12 (PDF) 1972] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19730064630_1973064630.pdf Examination of Surveyor 3 surface sampler scoop returned by Apollo 12 mission (PDF) 1971] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19760072997_1976072997.pdf Apollo 12 Mission Report (PDF) March 1970] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19720066106_1972066106.pdf Analysis of Apollo 12 Lightning Incident, (PDF) February 1970] ==External links== *[http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/apollo/apollo-12/apollo-12-patch.jpg Image of mission patch] *[http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/LunarAtlas/maps/images/AP12Trav.jpg Map of surface activities for Apollo 12] *[http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo12.htm Apollo 12 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica] *[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog] *[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)] *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology] *[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report] {{Project Apollo| before=''[[Apollo 11]]''| after=[[Apollo 13]]}} [[Category:1969]] [[Category:Apollo program]] [[Category:Human spaceflights]] [[Category:Lunar spacecraft]] [[da:Apollo 12]] [[de:Apollo 12]] [[fi:Apollo 12]] [[fr:Apollo 12]] [[hu:Apollo-12]] [[it:Apollo 12]] [[ja:アポロ12号]] [[nl:Apollo 12]] [[pl:Apollo 12]] [[pt:Apollo 12]] [[sl:Apollo 12]] [[sv:Apollo 12]] 1968 42106669 2006-03-03T21:44:09Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 Header - references plural {| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" |+<font size="+1">'''Apollo 14'''</font> |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission insignia |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:AP14nightingale.jpg|200px|Apollo 14 insignia]] |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission statistics |- |'''Mission name:'''||Apollo 14 |- |'''Call Signs:'''||Command module: ''Kitty Hawk''<br />Lunar module: ''Antares'' |- |'''Number of<br />crew:'''||3 |- |'''Launch:'''||[[January 31]], [[1971]]<br />21:03:02 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]<br />[[Kennedy Space Center]]<br />LC 39A |- |'''Lunar landing:'''||[[February 5]], 1971<br />09:18:11 UTC<br />3° 38' 43.08" S - 17° 28' 16.90" W<br />[[Fra Mauro]] |- |'''Lunar EVA<br />length:'''||1st: 4 h 47 min 50 s<br />2nd: 4 h 34 min 41 s<br />Total: 9 h 22 min 31 s |- |'''Lunar surface<br />time:'''||33 h 30 min 29 s |- |'''[[Lunar sample]]<br />mass:'''|| 42.28 kg (93.211 lb) |- |'''Splashdown:'''||[[February 9]], [[1971]]<br />21:05:00 UTC<br />27° 1' S - 172° 39' W |- |'''Duration:'''||9 d 0 h 1 min 58 s |- |'''Number of<br />lunar orbits:'''||34 |- |'''Time in<br />lunar orbit:'''||66 h 35 min 39.99 s |- |'''Mass:'''||CSM 29,240 kg;<br />LM 15,264 kg |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Crew picture |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:GPN-2000-001168.jpg|300px|Apollo 14 crew portrait (L-R: Roosa, Shepard, and Mitchell)]] <br/>Apollo 14 crew portrait <br/>(L-R: Roosa, Shepard, and Mitchell) |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Apollo 14 crew |} '''Apollo 14''' was the eighth manned mission in the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]] and the third mission to land on the moon. ==Crew== *[[Alan Shepard]] (flew on ''[[Mercury 3]]'' & ''Apollo 14''), commander *[[Stuart Roosa]] (flew on ''Apollo 14''), command module pilot *[[Edgar Mitchell]] (flew on ''Apollo 14''), lunar module pilot ===Backup crew=== *[[Gene Cernan]], commander *[[Ron Evans]], command module pilot *[[Joe Engle]], lunar module pilot ===Support crew=== *[[Philip K. Chapman|Philip Chapman]] *[[Bruce McCandless]] *[[William Pogue]] *[[Gordon Fullerton]] ==Mission parameters== *'''[[Mass]]:''' CSM 29,240 kg; LM 15,264 kg *'''[[Perigee]]:''' 183.2 km *'''[[Apogee]]:''' 188.9 km *'''[[Inclination]]:''' 31.12° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 88.18 min *'''[[Perilune]]:''' 108.2 km *'''[[Apolune]]:''' 314.1 km *'''[[Inclination]]:''' ° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 120 min *'''Landing Site:''' [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunar_sites.html 3.64530° S - 17.47136° W] or<br /> 3° 38' 43.08" S - 17° 28' 16.90" W ===LM - CSM docking=== *'''Undocked''': [[February 5]], [[1971]] - 04:50:43 UTC *'''Docked''': [[February 6]], [[1971]] - 20:35:42 UTC ===EVAs=== ===='''EVA 1 start''': [[February 5]], [[1971]], 14:42:13 UTC==== * ''Shepard '' - EVA 1 *'''Stepped onto moon''': 14:54 UTC *'''LM ingress''': 19:22 UTC * ''Mitchell'' - EVA 1 *'''Stepped onto moon''': 14:58 UTC *'''LM ingress''': 19:18 UTC *'''EVA 1 end''': February 5, 19:30:50 UTC **'''Duration''': 4 hours, 47 minutes, 50 seconds ===='''EVA 2 start''': [[February 6]], [[1971]], 08:11:15 UTC==== * ''Shepard '' - EVA 2 *'''Stepped onto moon''': 08:16 UTC *'''LM ingress''': 12:38 UTC * ''Mitchell'' - EVA 2 *'''Stepped onto moon''': 08:23 UTC *'''LM ingress''': 12:28 UTC *'''EVA 2 end''': February 6, 12:45:56 UTC **'''Duration''': 4 hours, 34 minutes, 41 seconds ===See also=== * [[Extra-vehicular activity]] * [[List of spacewalks]] * [[Splashdown]] * [[List of artificial objects on the Moon]] * [[Google Moon]] ==Mission highlights== [[Image:Apollo_14_LM_adapter.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Apollo 14 LM is placed in LM Adapter. (NASA)]] [[Image:Apollo14Launch.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Launch of Apollo 14]] [[Image:As14-66-9232.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Alan Shepard on lunar surface. (NASA)]] [[Image:40_A14LEM.jpg|thumb|250px|Panoramic Assembly of Fra Mauro - Apollo 14 Landing Site]] [[Image:a14-plaque.jpg|right|thumb|Depiction of the plaque left on the moon by Apollo 14]] On the way down, the LM "Antares" had two problems. First, the LM computer began getting an ABORT signal from the ABORT switch. NASA believed that the computer might be getting erroneous readings like this if a tiny ball of soldering material had shaken loose and was floating between the switch and the contact, closing the circuit. The immediate solution - tapping on the panel next to the switch - did work, but if the problem recurred after the descent engine fired, the computer would think the signal was real and would initiate the sequence to blow the Ascent Stage back into orbit. NASA and the software teams at MIT scrambled to find a more permanent solution - reprogramming the computer to ignore the signal - and Shepard and Mitchell were able to accomplish this just in time. The second problem was the failure of the radar to lock onto the moon's surface. Eventually, at close to the last possible moment, it started working. Shepard landed the LM closer to its intended mark than any of the other five moon landing missions. After landing in the [[Fra Mauro formation]] - the destination for [[Apollo 13]] - Shepard and Mitchell took two moon­walks, adding new seismic studies to the by now familiar Apollo experiment package, and using a "lunar rickshaw" pull cart to carry their equipment. Roosa, meanwhile, took pictures from on board command module "Kitty Hawk" in lunar orbit. The second moonwalk, or EVA, was intended to reach the rim of the 1,000­ foot (300 m) wide Cone Crater. However, the two astronauts were not able to find the rim amid the rolling terrain of the crater's slopes. Later analysis, using the pictures that they took, determined that they had come within 65 feet of the crater's rim. Shepard and Mitchell deployed and activated various scientific instruments and experiments and collected almost 100 pounds (45 kg) of lunar samples for return to earth. Other Apollo 14 achievements included: first use of Mobile Equipment Transporter (MET); largest payload placed in lunar orbit; longest distance traversed on the lunar surface; largest payload returned from the lunar surface; longest lunar surface stay time (33 hours); longest lunar surface EVA (9 hours and 17 minutes); first use of shortened lunar orbit rendezvous techniques; first use of color TV with new [[vidicon tube]] on lunar surface; and first extensive orbital science period conducted during CSM solo operations. On the way back to Earth, the crew conducted the first U.S. materials processing experiments in space. The Apollo 14 astronauts were the last lunar explorers to be quarantined on their return from the Moon. Shepard and Mitchell named their landing site ''Fra Mauro Base'', and this designation is recognized by the [[International Astronomical Union]] (depicted in Latin on lunar maps as ''Statio Fra Mauro''). ===Mission notes=== *Shepard is the only astronaut from [[Project Mercury]] (the original seven astronauts) to reach the Moon. *Shepard smuggled a makeshift six iron [[golf]] club and two golf balls to the [[moon]], and took several swings. He exuberantly, and somewhat whimsically, exclaimed that the second ball went "miles and miles and miles" in the lunar [[gravity]], but later estimated it actually went 200 to 400 yards (200 to 400 m). Mitchell then used a lunar scoop handle as a javelin, creating the first 'Lunar Olympics'. *Mitchell conducted some unauthorized [[extra-sensory perception]] experiments while en route to the Moon, with friends back on Earth; the number of matches were reportedly less than would have been obtained by [[random]] chance. *Shepherd's moonwalking suit was the first to incorporate red bands on the arms and legs, and a red stripe on the top of the lunar EVA sunshade "hood," as to allow easy identification of the commander while on the surface; on the [[Apollo 12]] pictures, it had been almost impossible to distinguish between the two crewmen, causing a great deal of confusion. This feature was on [[Jim Lovell]]'s [[Apollo 13]] suit, but because of the accident, this was not used. It was used on the remaining three Apollo flights and is used on both the U.S. and Russian spacesuits on both the [[Space Shuttle]] and [[International Space Station]]. *Of the three crewmen, only Mitchell is the only member of the crew to remain alive (as of 1/06)--Roosa dying in 1994 from [[pancreatitis]] and Shepherd from [[leukemia]] in 1998. *The mission was somewhat of a personal success for Shepard, who had battled back from [[Ménière’s disease]], earned his flight status back and made his first mission in space in ten years. The mission's command module ''Kitty Hawk'' is displayed at the [[Astronaut Hall of Fame]], [[Titusville, Florida]] and the lunar module ''Antares'' impacted the Moon [[7 February]], [[1971]] at 3.42° S, 19.67° W. ===Quotes=== "It's been a long way, but we're here." Alan B. Shepard, Jr, his first words on the moon. Unlike Apollo 11's Neil Armstrong and Apollo 12's Pete Conrad, Shepard had already gotten off the ladder and was a few meters from the LM. "I think you're all finks." Edgar B. Mitchell. ''(said in response to Cmdr. Shepard's suggestion to turn back during their second EVA, where they came within 65 feet (21 m) of the rim of the 1,000­ foot (300 m) wide Cone Crater that they were looking for)'' ==Media== {{video|filename=Ap14 flag.ogg|title=Shepard and Mitchell erect flag on lunar surface|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}} ==See also== *[[Moon tree]]s, taken from seeds brought to the Moon on Apollo 14. ==External links== *[http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/LunarAtlas/maps/images/AP14_traverseL.jpg Map of surface activities for Apollo 14] *[http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo14.htm Apollo 14 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica] *[http://groups.msn.com/spacecowboysaloon/apollo14underconstruction.msnw From the Space Cowboy Saloon] ===References=== *[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog] *[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)] *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology] *[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report] *[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.42.htm Apollo 14 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK] {{commons|Apollo 14}} {{Project Apollo| before=[[Apollo 13]]| after=[[Apollo 15]]}} [[Category:1971]] [[Category:Apollo program]] [[Category:Human spaceflights]] [[Category:Lunar spacecraft]] [[ar:أبولو 14]] [[da:Apollo 14]] [[de:Apollo 14]] [[et:Apollo 14]] [[fr:Apollo 14]] [[it:Apollo 14]] [[hu:Apollo-14]] [[ja:アポロ14号]] [[nl:Apollo 14]] [[pt:Apollo 14]] [[fi:Apollo 14]] [[sv:Apollo 14]] [[th:ยานอะพอลโล 14]] 1969 40560424 2006-02-21T12:46:47Z Mmmoo 968033 /* Lunar surface */ {| class="infobox" style="font-size: 95%; width: 20em;" |+<big>'''''Apollo 15'''''</big> |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission insignia |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:Apollo-15-LOGO.jpg|220px|Apollo 15 insignia]] |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission statistics |- |'''Mission name:'''||Apollo 15 |- |'''Call sign:'''||Command module: ''Endeavour''<br />Lunar module: ''Falcon'' |- |'''Number of<br />crew:'''||3 |- |'''Launch:'''||[[July 26]], [[1971]]<br />13:34:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]<br />[[Kennedy Space Center]]<br />LC 39A |- |'''Lunar landing:'''||[[July 30]], 1971<br />22:16:29 UTC<br />26° 7' 55.99" N - 3° 38' 1.90" E<br />Hadley Rille |- |'''Lunar EVA<br />length:'''||LM Stand Up: 33 min 7 s<br />1st: 6 h 32 min 42 s<br />2nd: 7 h 12 min 14 s<br />3rd: 4 h 49 min 50 s<br />Total: 18 h 34 min 46 s |- |'''CMP EVA:'''|| 39 min 7 s |- |'''Lunar surface<br />time:'''||66 h 54 min 53.9 s |- |'''[[Lunar sample]]<br />mass:'''|| 77 kg (170 lb) |- |'''Splashdown:'''||[[August 7]], [[1971]]<br />20:45:53 UTC<br />{{coor dm|26|13|N|158|13|W|}} |- |'''Duration:'''||12 d 7 h 11 min 53 s |- |'''Number of<br />lunar orbits:'''||74 |- |'''Time in<br />lunar orbit:'''||145 h 12 min 41.68 s |- |'''Mass:'''||CSM 30,370 kg;<br />LM 16,430 kg |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Crew picture |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:Apollo 15 crew.jpg|250px|Apollo 15 crew portrait (L-R: Scott, Worden and Irwin)]]<br><small>''Apollo 15'' crew portrait <br/>(L-R: Scott, Worden and Irwin)</small> |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Apollo 15 crew |} '''''Apollo 15''''' was the ninth manned mission in the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]] and the fourth mission to land on the [[Moon]]. It was the first of what were termed J missions &mdash; long duration stays on the Moon with a greater focus on science than had been on previous missions. Commander [[David Scott]] and Lunar Module Pilot [[James Irwin]] spent three days on the Moon and a total of 18½ hours outside the spacecraft on lunar [[extra-vehicular activity]]. The mission was the first not to land in a [[Lunar mare]], instead landing near [[Mons Hadley|Hadley rille]] in an area of the [[Mare Imbrium]] called ''Palus Putredinus'' (Marsh of Decay). The crew explored the area using the first [[Lunar Rover]] allowing them to travel much further from the [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]] lander than had previously been possible. They collected a total of 77 kg (170 lb) lunar surface material. At the same time Command Module Pilot [[Alfred Worden]] orbited the Moon, using a Scientific Instrument Module (SIM) to study the lunar surface and environment in great detail using a panoramic camera, [[gamma ray spectrometer]], mapping camera, laser [[altimeter]], [[Mass spectrometry|mass spectrometer]], and lunar sub-satellite that was launched at the end of the mission. == Crew == *[[David Scott]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 8]]'', ''[[Apollo 9]]'', & ''Apollo 15''), commander *[[Alfred Worden]] (flew on ''Apollo 15''), command module pilot *[[James Irwin]] (flew on ''Apollo 15''), lunar module pilot === Backup crew === The backup crew trained to take the place of the prime crew in case of illness or death. *[[Dick Gordon]], commander *[[Vance Brand]], command module pilot *[[Harrison Schmitt]], lunar module pilot === Support crew === The support crew were not trained to fly the mission but were able to stand in for astronauts in meetings and be involved in the minutiae of mission planning, while the prime and backup crews trained. They often also served as Capcoms during the mission. *[[Joseph P. Allen|Joe Allen]] *[[Robert A. Parker|Bob Parker]] *[[Karl Henize]] == Mission parameters == *'''Mass:''' **Launch mass: 2,921,005 kg **Total spacecraft: 46,782 kg ***CSM mass: 30,354 kg, of which CM was 5840 kg, SM 24,514 kg ***LM mass: 16,428 kg, ascent stage at lunar liftoff 4,951 kg *'''Earth orbits:''' 3 before leaving for Moon, about one on return *'''Lunar orbits:''' 74 ===Earth parking orbit=== *'''[[Perigee]]:''' 169.5 km *'''[[Apogee]]:''' 171.3 km *'''[[Inclination]]:''' 29.679° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 87.84 min === LM-CSM docking === *'''Undocked''': [[July 30]], [[1971]] - 18:13:16 UTC *'''Docked''': [[August 2]], [[1971]] - 19:10:25 UTC === EVAs === *'''''Scott''''' - Stand up EVA - LM upper hatch *'''Start Stand Up EVA''': [[July 31]], [[1971]], 00:16:49 UTC *'''End Stand Up EVA''': [[July 31]], 00:49:56 UTC *'''Duration''': 33 minutes, 07 seconds * '''''Scott and Irwin''''' - EVA 1 *'''EVA 1 Start''': [[July 31]], [[1971]], 13:12:17 UTC *'''EVA 1 End''': [[July 31]], 19:45:59 UTC *'''Duration''': 6 hours, 32 minutes, 42 seconds * '''''Scott and Irwin''''' - EVA 2 *'''EVA 2 Start''': [[August 1]], [[1971]], 11:48:48 UTC *'''EVA 2 End''': [[August 1]], 19:01:02 UTC *'''Duration''': 7 hours, 12 minutes, 14 seconds * '''''Scott and Irwin''''' - EVA 3 *'''EVA 3 Start''': [[August 2]], [[1971]], 08:52:14 UTC *'''EVA 3 End''': [[August 2]], 13:42:04 UTC *'''Duration''': 4 hours, 49 minutes, 50 seconds * ''''' Worden ''''' - Transearth EVA 4 *'''EVA 4 Start''': [[August 5]], [[1971]], 15:31:12 UTC *'''EVA 4 End''': [[August 5]], 16:10:19 UTC *'''Duration''': 39 minutes, 07 seconds === See also === * [[Extra-vehicular activity]] * [[List of spacewalks]] * [[Splashdown]] * [[List of artificial objects on the Moon]] * [[Google Moon]] ==Mission Highlights== ===Incident=== Shortly after stage 1 separation, the instrumentation on stage 1 went dead. This was traced to the exhaust of stage 2 striking the stage and burning out the electronics. This had never happened before; and was traced to a reduction in the number of retrofire charges from 8 to 4. It was discovered that the two stages were in fact uncomfortably close, due to the slow thrust decay of the F-1 engines, and failure of any one charge could have caused a collision. Later flights had the original retrofire configuration. ===Planning and training=== The crew for ''Apollo 15'' had previously served as the backup crew for ''Apollo 12''. There had been a friendly rivalry between that prime and backup crew on that mission, with the prime being all [[United States Navy|Navy]], and the backup all [[United States Air Force|Air Force]]. Originally ''Apollo 15'' would have been an H mission, like Apollos ''[[Apollo 12|12]]'', ''[[Apollo 13|13]]'', ''[[Apollo 14|14]]''. But on [[September 2]], [[1970]], [[NASA]] announced it was cancelling what were to be the current incarnations of the ''Apollo 15'' and ''[[Cancelled Apollo missions|Apollo 19]]'' missions. To maximize the return from the remaining mission, ''Apollo 15'' would now fly as a J mission and have the honor of carrying the first Lunar Rover. One of the major changes in the training for ''15'' was the geology training. Although on previous flights the crews had been trained in field geology, for the first time ''15'' would make it a high priority. Scott and Irwin would train with [[Lee Silver]], a Caltech geologist who on Earth was interested in the [[Precambrian]]. Silver had been suggested by [[Harrison Schmitt]] as an alternative to the classroom lecturers that NASA had previously used. Among other things, Silver had made important refinements to the methods for dating rocks using the decay of [[uranium]] into [[lead]] in the late 1950s. At first Silver would take the prime and backup crews to various geological sites as if it was just a normal field geology lesson, but as the time of launch began to approach, these trips became more and more realistic. The crews would begin to wear mock-ups of the backpacks they would carry and communicate using [[walkie-talkie]]s to a CapCom in a tent (during a mission the Capsule Communicators, CapComs, were the only people who would normally speak to the crew). With the CapCom would be a group of geologists who did not know the area and would have to rely on the astronauts descriptions to interpret the area. The decision to land at Hadley came in September 1970. The Site Selection Committees had narrowed the field down to two sites &mdash; Hadley Rille or the crater [[Marius (crater)|Marius]], near which were a group of low, possibly volcanic, domes. Although not ultimately his decision, the commander of a mission always held great sway. To Dave Scott the choice was clear, with Hadley, being "exploration at its finest". Command Module Pilot Al Worden also undertook geology training, but of a different kind. Working with an [[Egypt]]ian, [[Farouk El-Baz]], he would fly over areas in an [[airplane]] simulating the speed at which terrain would pass below him while in the CSM in orbit. He became quite adept at making observations as the object traveled below. ===Hardware=== [[image:Apollo 15 commander Dave Scott geology training.jpg|thumb|250px|Commander Dave Scott during geology training in [[New Mexico]] on [[March 19]], [[1971]].]] The Lunar Roving Vehicle, or the Rover, had been in development since May 1969, with the contract awarded to [[Boeing]] (who also were the lead contractors for the [[S-II]] second stage of the [[Saturn V]]). It could be folded into a space 5 ft by 20 in (1.5 m by 0.5 m). Unloaded it weighed 460 lb (209 kg) and when carrying two astronauts and their equipment, 1500 lb (700 kg). Each wheel was independently driven by 1/4 [[horsepower]] (200 W) electric motor. Although it could be driven by either astronaut, the Commander always drove. Travelling at speeds up to 6 to 8 mph (10 to 12 km/h), it meant that for the first time the astronauts could travel far afield from their lander and still have enough time to do some serious science. The Saturn V that launched ''Apollo 15'' was designated SA-510, the tenth flight-ready model of the rocket. ''Apollo 15'' used [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Module]] CSM-112, which was given the callsign ''Endeavour'', named after the [[HM Bark Endeavour|HM Bark ''Endeavour'']] and [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]] LM-10, callsign ''Falcon'', named after the [[United States Air Force Academy]] [[mascot]]. If ''Apollo 15'' had flown as an H mission it would with CSM-111 and LM-9. The CSM was used by the [[Apollo Soyuz Test Project]] and the Lunar Module was unused and is now on display at the [[Kennedy Space Center]]. As the payload of the rocket was greater, changes were made to its launch trajectory and Saturn V itself. The rocket was launched in a more southerly direction (80&ndash;100 degrees [[azimuth]]) and the Earth parking orbit lowered to 166 km (90 nautical miles) above the Earth's surface. These two changes meant 1100 pounds (500 kg) more could be launched. The [[propellant]] reserves were reduced and the number of retrorockets on the [[S-IC]] first stage reduced from eight to four. The four outboard engines of the S-IC would be burned longer and the center engine would also burn longer before being shutdown (see [[Saturn V]] for more information on the launch sequence). Changes were made to the [[S-II]] second stage to stop [[pogo oscillation]]s. On the Lunar Module, the [[fuel]] and [[oxidizer]] tanks were enlarged on both the descent and ascent stages and the [[engine bell]] on the descent stage was extended. Batteries and [[solar cell]]s were added for increased electrical power. In all this increased the weight of the Lunar Module to 36,000 pounds (16,330 kilograms), 4000 pounds (1800 kg) heavier than previous models. The astronauts themselves wore new spacesuits. On all previous Apollo flights, including the non-lunar flights, the commander and lunar module pilot had worn suits with the life support, liquid cooling, and communications connections in two parallel rows of threes. On Apollo 15, the new suits, dubbed the "A7L-B," have the connectors situated in triangular pairs. This new arrangement, along with the relocation of the entry zipper (which went in an up-down motion on the old suits), from the right shoulder to the left hip, allowed the inclusion of a new waist joint, allowing the astronauts to bend completely over, and even to sit on the rover. Upgraded backpacks allowed for longer-duration moonwalks, and the command module pilot, who wore a suit with three connectors, would wear a five-connector version of the old moon suit--the liquid cooling water connector being removed, as the command module pilot would make a "deep-space EVA" to retrieve film cartridges on the flight home. [[Image:Apollo_15_SIM_bay.jpg|thumb|Apollo 15 SM SIM bay (NASA)]] Technicians at the [[Kennedy Space Center]] had many problems with the SIM bay. It was the first time it had flown and experienced problems from the start. Problems came from the fact the instruments were designed to operate in zero gravity, but had to be tested in the 1 [[gee]] on the surface of the Earth. As such things like the 7.5 m booms for the [[Mass spectrometry|mass]] and [[gamma-ray spectrometer]]s could only be tested using railings that tried to mimic the space environment, though never worked particularly well. When the technicians tried to integrate the entire bay into the rest of the spacecraft, [[data stream]]s would not synchronize and lead investigators of the instruments would want to make last minute checks and changes. When it came time to test the operation of the gamma-ray spectrometer it was necessary to stop every engine within 10 miles (16 km) of the test site. Once all the various components had been installed on the Saturn V, it was moved to the launch site, Launch Complex 39A. During late June and early July 1971, the rocket and Mobile Service Structure were struck by [[lightning]] at least four times. All was well however, with only minor damage suffered. :''The following is a brief overview of the ''Apollo 15'' mission. For more in-depth information, see each the main article for each section.'' ===Outward journey=== {{Apollo15series}} {{main|Apollo 15, Outward journey}} Launching at 9:34:00 am EDT on [[July 26]], [[1971]], ''Apollo 15'' would take four days to reach the Moon. After spending two hours in orbit around the Earth, the [[S-IVB]] third stage of the [[Saturn V]] was reignited to send them to the Moon. During the retrieval of the LM from its stowed position below the CSM, a light came on the control panel that indicated the valves of the Service Propulsion System were open and the engine should be firing. A short was found in a switch that controlled on the redundant valves for the engine. New procedures were developed to deal with this. During their first inspection of the LM, Scott and Irwin found that the glass cover of a tapemeter had broken forcing them to clean up the glass shards lest they breathe them in. On the fourth day they entered into lunar orbit and prepared for lunar descent. ===Solo operations=== {{main|Apollo 15, Solo operations}} During the three day explorations of the Moon by Scott and Irwin, Worden had a busy schedule of observations. ''Apollo 15'' was the first mission to carry the SIM bay, which contained a [[panorama|panoramic]] camera, [[gamma ray spectrometer]], [[mapping]] camera, [[laser]] [[altimeter]] and [[mass spectrometer]]. Worden had to operate the [[Shutter (photography)|shutter]] and [[optical device|lens]]es on the camera and turn on and off the various instruments. During the coast back to Earth, he would perform an EVA to retrieve film cassettes from the cameras. ===Lunar surface=== {{main|Apollo 15, Lunar surface}} [[Image:Apollo 15 flag, rover, LM, Irwin.jpg|thumb|250px|Jim Irwin salutes the US flag]] [[Image:40_A15Sta8.jpg|thumb|250px|Panoramic Assembly of Apollo 15 Landing Site]] ''Apollo 15'' was the first mission to perform three EVAs on the lunar surface. After landing at [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunar_sites.html 26°8&#8242; N 3°38&#8242; E], Scott removed the top hatch of the LM to perform a site survey and get a brief overview of the surrounding areas. The first EVA took the crew on the Rover to the base of Mount Hadley Delta. Back at the LM the crew started the deployment of the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package (ALSEP). Scott had extreme difficulty drilling the holes for the heat-flow experiment, forcing him to come back the next day to complete the task. The second EVA again took Scott and Irwin to the base of Mount Hadley Delta but they went up its slope. Here they found the [[Genesis Rock]]. Returning to the LM, Scott completed the heat flow holes and began on a core sample which once again was extremely difficult to drill. He was once again forced to leave it for the next day. The difficulties with the core sample meant the cancellation of the traverse to the North Complex. The crew still travelled to the edge of Hadley Rille. Returning to the LM for the last time, Scott dropped a falcon feather and his geology hammer to show that in gravity fields, the mass of the object does not affect the rate at which it falls. On LRV 1, a plaque was attached bearing the inscription: :MANS FIRST WHEELS ON THE MOON, DELIVERED BY FALCON, JULY 30, 1971 And the signatures of the Apollo 15 Astronauts. ===Return to Earth=== {{main|Apollo 15, Return to Earth}} After lifting off from the lunar surface, ''Falcon'' and ''Endeavour'' rendezvoused and docked. After transferring across the lunar samples and other equipment, ''Falcon'' was jettisoned. It would fire its rocket engine to cause it to impact the lunar surface. During lunar liftoff, the [[United States Air Force]] song "Wild Blue Yonder" was played, signifying the all-Air Force makeup of the Apollo 15 crew. ''Apollo 15'' spent one more day in lunar orbit, continuing the observations of Worden. After releasing a subsatellite, they ignited their Service Propulsion system to put them on a trajectory back to Earth. The next day, Worden performed an EVA to retrieve the film cassettes from the SIM bay cameras. The twelfth day in space was uneventful, with Mission Control holding a press conference where the astronauts were asked questions submitted by the news media. On their 13th and final day they prepared for reentry. During descent one of their parachutes failed, meaning they landed under only two. ==The stamp controversy== [[Image:Apollo 15 Space Suit David Scott.jpg|thumb|Dave Scott's space suit on display at the [[National Air and Space Museum|NASM]].]] After a highly successful mission, the reputation of the crew was tarnished somewhat by a deal they made with [[H. Walter Eiermann]], an American citizen who had many professional and social contacts to NASA employees and the astronaut corps. Scott had carried 398 unauthorized [[First day of issue|First-Day Cover]]s in his spacesuit. Eiermann, had promised each astronaut [[United States dollar|US$]]7000 in the form of [[Savings deposit|savings accounts]] in return for 100 covers signed after having returned from the Moon. He told them that he would not advertise or sell the covers until the end of the Apollo program. Scott sent 100 of these covers to Eiermann to [[Stuttgart]], [[Germany]]. Eiermann then passed them on to the stamp dealer [[Herman E. Sieger]] from [[Lorch]], [[Germany]], who had previously approached him and had suggested the deal. Sieger proceeded to sell the covers for an average price of US$1,500 in a public sale in Germany. On hearing these news, Scott contacted Eiermann, asking him to stop the sale. The crew also decided against receiving any money from Eiermann. NASA took possession of the remaining 298 covers. All three crew members were formally reprimanded and their official [[Efficiency Report]]s as military officers were changed to reflect a formal finding of "lack of judgment". Another minor controversy centered around two [[timepiece]]s, a [[wristwatch|watch]] and [[stopwatch]], carried by Scott. He had agreed to evaluate the timepieces for the manufacturer at the request of a friend. Thinking they might be useful, particularly for the possible timing of a manually controlled emergency propulsion maneuver, Scott took them along on the mission without prior authorization. One final controversial event happened after the flight. The crew had contacted Belgian [[Sculpture|sculptor]] [[Paul Van Hoeydonck]] to create a small statuette to personally commemorate those astronauts and cosmonauts having lost their lives in the furtherance of space exploration. The small [[aluminium]] sculpture called "[[Fallen Astronaut]]" was left on the Moon, along with a plaque bearing the names of fourteen American and Russian astronauts and cosmonauts. They had agreed with Van Hoeydonck that no replicas were to be made. After mentioning the statuette during their post-flight press conference, the [[National Air and Space Museum]] contacted the crew asking for a replica made for the museum. The crew agreed under the condition that it was to be displayed with good taste and without publicity. Van Hoeydonck was contacted to make the replicas. In May 1972 Scott learned that Van Hoeydonck planned to make more replicas and sell them. Van Hoeydonck could not be persuaded not to and 950 replicas were sold for $750 apiece at the [[Waddell Gallery]] of [[New York]]. == Media == {{multi-video start}} {{multi-video item | filename = Apollo 15 Lunar Rover training.ogg | title = Rover training | description = Scott and Irwin train on Earth to use the Lunar Rover. (2.57 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). | format = [[Theora]] }} {{multi-video item | filename = Apollo 15 launch.ogg | title = Launch of ''Apollo 15'' | description = Launch of ''Apollo 15'' running from T-30s through to T+40s. (1.29 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). | format = [[Theora]] }} {{multi-video item | filename = Apollo 15 TandD.ogg | title = Transposition, Docking and Extraction | description = ''Endeavour'' comes into dock with ''Falcon'' (3.03 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). | format = [[Theora]] }} {{multi-video item | filename = Apollo 15 CSM moving away from LM.ogg | title = CSM moving away | description = ''Endeavour'' filmed from ''Falcon'' after undocking. (3.05 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). | format = [[Theora]] }} {{multi-video item | filename = Apollo 15 landing on the Moon.ogg | title = Landing on the Moon | description = The landing on the Moon at Hadley seen from the perspective of the Lunar Module Pilot. Starts at about 5000 feet. (5.47 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). | format = [[Theora]] }} {{multi-video item | filename = Apollo 15 lunar rover EVA2.ogg| title = Onboard the Lunar Rover | description = 16 mm film sequence of driving the Lunar Rover. (3.26 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). | format = [[Theora]] }} {{multi-video item | filename = Apollo 15 feather and hammer drop.ogg| title = Hammer and Feather Drop | description = Scott demonstrates that Galileo was right. (1.38 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). | format = [[Theora]] }} {{multi-video item | filename = Apollo 15 liftoff from the Moon.ogg | title = Liftoff from the Moon | description = The liftoff from the Moon as seen by the TV camera on the Rover. (2.31 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). | format = [[Theora]] }} {{multi-video item | filename = Apollo 15 liftoff from inside LM.ogg | title = Liftoff from the Moon | description = The liftoff from the Moon as from the Lunar Module Pilot. (1.18 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). | format = [[Theora]] }} {{multi-video item | filename = Apollo 15 Worden EVA.ogg | title = Worden's EVA | description = Worden undertakes an EVA to retrieve film cassettes from the Science Instrument Module. (2.81 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). | format = [[Theora]] }} {{multi-video item | filename = Apollo 15 splashdown.ogg | title = Splashdown | description = Descent and splashdown of the ''Apollo 15''. (3.67 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). | format = [[Theora]] }} {{multi-video end}} == References == *Chaikin, Andrew (1994). ''A Man On The Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts''. Viking. ISBN 0670814466. *Harland, David M. (1999). ''Exploring the Moon: The Apollo Expeditions''. Springer/Praxis Publishing. ISBN 1852330996. *NASA Manned Spacecraft Center (1972). ''Apollo 15 Preliminary Science Report''. Scientific and Technical Office, NASA. *[http://history.nasa.gov/ap15fj/ Apollo 15 Flight Journal]. Retrieved on [[June 17]], [[2005]] *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a15/a15.html Apollo 15 Lunar Surface Journal]. Retrieved on [[June 17]], [[2005]] *[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_15a_Summary.htm Apollo By The Numbers: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)]. Retrieved on [[June 17]], [[2005]] *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/ch20-6.html Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations]. Retrieved on [[June 17]], [[2005]] *[http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo15.htm Apollo 15] in the [[Encyclopedia Astronautica]]. Retrieved on [[June 17]], [[2005]] *[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report]. Retrieved on [[June 17]], [[2005]] *[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo15info.html NSSDC Apollo 15 page]. Retrieved on [[June 17]], [[2005]] *NASA ([[September 15]], [[1972]]). ''[http://www.collectspace.com/resources/flown_a15_articlescarried.html Articles Carried on Manned Space Flights]''. Press Release. *[http://www.spacephilatelics.com/suchap3-32.html Sieger Flown Moon Covers]. Retrieved on [[June 18]], [[2005]] *[http://www.archive.org/details/IntheMountainsOfTheMoonApollo15 In the Mountains of the Moon (Part 1) NASA film on the Apollo 15 mission downloadable at www.archive.org The Internet Archive] *[http://www.archive.org/details/InTheMountainsOfTheMoon In the Mountains of the Moon (Part 2) NASA film on the Apollo 15 mission downloadable at www.archive.org The Internet Archive] {{commons|Apollo 15}} {{Project Apollo | before=[[Apollo 14]] | after=[[Apollo 16]]}} [[Category:Apollo program]] [[Category:Human spaceflights]] [[Category:Lunar spacecraft]] [[Category:1971]] [[da:Apollo 15]] [[de:Apollo 15]] [[et:Apollo 15]] [[fi:Apollo 15]] [[fr:Apollo 15]] [[hu:Apollo-15]] [[it:Apollo 15]] [[nl:Apollo 15]] [[pt:Apollo 15]] [[sv:Apollo 15]] 1970 42106675 2006-03-03T21:44:11Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 Header - references plural {| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" |+<font size="+1">'''Apollo 16'''</font> |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission Insignia |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:AP16hennings.JPG|200px|Apollo 16 insignia]] |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission Statistics |- |'''Mission Name:'''||Apollo 16 |- |'''Call Sign:'''||Command module: ''Casper''<br />Lunar module: ''Orion'' |- |'''Number of<br />Crew:'''||3 |- |'''Launch:'''||[[April 16]], [[1972]]<br />17:54:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]<br />[[Kennedy Space Center]]<br />LC 39A |- |'''Lunar Landing:'''||[[April 21]], 1972<br />02:23:35 UTC<br />8° 58' 22.84" S - 15° 30' 0.68" E<br />[[Descartes Highlands]] |- |'''Lunar EVA<br />length:'''||1st: 7 h 11 min 2 s<br />2nd: 7 h 23 min 9 s<br />3rd: 5 h 40 min 3 s<br />Total:20 h 14 min 14 s |- |'''CMP EVA:'''||1 h 23 min 42 s |- |'''Lunar surface<br />time:'''||71 h 2 min 13 s |- |'''[[Lunar sample]]<br />mass:'''|| 95.71 kg (211 lb) |- |'''Splashdown:'''||[[April 27]], [[1972]]<br />19:45:05 UTC<br />0° 43' S - 156° 13' W |- |'''Duration:'''||11 d 1 h 51 min 5 s |- |'''Number of<br />Lunar Orbits:'''||64 |- |'''Time in<br />Lunar Orbit:'''||125 h 49 min 32.59 s |- |'''Mass:'''||CSM 30,395 kg;<br />LM 16,445 kg |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Crew Picture |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:GPN-2000-001134.jpg|300px|Apollo 16 crew portrait (L-R: Mattingly, Young and Duke)]] <br/>Apollo 16 crew portrait <br/>(L-R: Mattingly, Young and Duke) |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Apollo 16 Crew |} '''Apollo 16''' was the tenth manned mission in the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]] and the fifth mission to land on the Moon. ==Crew== *[[John W. Young]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 3]]'', ''[[Gemini 10]]'', ''[[Apollo 10]]'', ''Apollo 16'', ''[[STS-1]]'', & ''[[STS-9]]''), commander *[[Ken Mattingly|Thomas K. (Ken) Mattingly Jr.]] (flew on ''Apollo 16'', ''[[STS-4]]'', & ''[[STS-51-C]]''), command module pilot *[[Charles Moss Duke, Jr.|Charles Duke Jr.]] (flew on ''Apollo 16''), lunar module pilot ===Backup crew=== *[[Fred Haise]], commander *[[Stuart Roosa]], command module pilot *[[Edgar Mitchell]], lunar module pilot ===Support crew=== *[[Philip K. Chapman|Philip Chapman]] *[[Anthony England]] *[[Henry Hartsfield]] *[[Robert Overmyer]] ==Mission parameters== *'''Mass:''' **Launch mass: 2,921,005 kg **Total spacecraft: 46,782 kg ***CSM mass: 30,354 kg, of which CM was 5840 kg, SM 24,514 kg ***LM mass: transposition and docking 36,252 lb (16,444 kg), separation for landing 36,743 lb (16,666 kg), ascent stage at lunar liftoff 10,949 lb (4966 kg) *'''Earth orbits:''' 3 before leaving for Moon, about one on return *'''Lunar orbits:''' 64 *'''[[Perigee]]:''' 166.7 km *'''[[Apogee]]:''' 176.0 km *'''[[Inclination]]:''' 32.542° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 87.85 min *'''[[Perilune]]:''' 107.6 km *'''[[Apolune]]:''' 315.4 km *'''[[Inclination]]:''' 168° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 120 min *'''Landing Site:''' [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunar_sites.html 8.97301° S - 15.50019° E] or<br /> 8° 58' 22.84" S - 15° 30' 0.68" E ===LM - CSM docking=== *'''Undocked''': [[April 20]], [[1972]] - 18:07:31 UTC *'''Docked''': [[April 24]], [[1972]] - 03:35:18 UTC ===EVAs=== * '''''Young and Duke''''' - EVA 1 *'''EVA 1 Start''': [[April 21]], [[1972]], 16:47:28 UTC *'''EVA 1 End''': April 21, 23:58:40 UTC *'''Duration''': 7 hours, 11 minutes, 02 seconds * '''''Young and Duke''''' - EVA 2 *'''EVA 2 Start''': [[April 22]], [[1972]], 16:33:35 UTC *'''EVA 2 End''': April 22, 23:56:44 UTC *'''Duration''': 7 hours, 23 minutes, 09 seconds * '''''Young and Duke''''' - EVA 3 *'''EVA 3 Start''': [[April 23]], [[1972]], 15:25:28 UTC *'''EVA 3 End''': April 23, 21:05:31 UTC *'''Duration''': 5 hours, 40 minutes, 03 seconds * ''''' Mattingly ''''' - Transearth EVA 4 *'''EVA 4 Start''': [[April 25]], [[1972]], 20:33:46 UTC *'''EVA 4 End''': April 25, 21:57:28 UTC *'''Duration''': 1 hour, 23 minutes, 42 seconds The splashdown point was 0 deg 43 min S, 156 deg 13 min W, 215 miles (350 km) southeast of Christmas Island and 5 km (3 mi) from the recovery ship [[USS Ticonderoga (CV-14)|USS ''Ticonderoga'']]. ==Introduction== [[Image:a16-plaque.jpg|right|thumb|depiction of the plaque left on the moon by Apollo 16]] The crew members: [[John W. Young]], commander; [[Ken Mattingly]], command module pilot; and [[Charles Duke]], lunar module pilot. It was a J-class mission, featuring a [[Lunar Rover]]. It brought back 94.7 kg of lunar samples. It included three lunar [[Extra-vehicular activity|EVA]]: 7.2 hours, 7.4 hours, 5.7 hours and one trans-earth EVA of 1.4. This was only the second trans-earth EVA ever and was used to bring in film from exterior cameras and conduct an experiment on microbial survival. The Apollo 16 subsatellite was launched from the CSM while it was in lunar orbit. The subsatellite carried out experiments on magnetic fields and solar particles. It was launched [[April 24]], [[1972]] at 21:56:09 UTC and orbited the Moon for 34 days and 425 revolutions. It had a mass of 80 lb (36.3 kg) and consisted of a central cylinder and three 1.5 m booms. Enroute to the moon, the Apollo 16 astronauts took several photos of Earth. One of which was with North America in the background, with much of the northern portion of the continent under extensive cloud cover. This photo would later be used as a backdrop for the opening sequence of television's [[World Class Championship Wrestling]], a Dallas-based professional wrestling organization, from 1983 to 1987. ==Mission highlights== [[Image:40_A16Plum.jpg|thumb|360px|Panoramic Assembly of Apollo 16 Plum and Flag Craters (moonpans.com)]][[Image:AS16-113-18339.jpg|thumb|360px|John Young jumps while saluting the flag. (NASA)]] [[Image:Apollo_16_LM_Orion.jpg|thumb|360px|John Young works at the LRV near the LM Orion (NASA)]] A malfunction in a yaw gimbal servo loop in the main propulsion system of the CSM "Casper" caused concerns about firing the engine to adjust the CSM's lunar orbit, and nearly caused the Moon landing to be scrubbed. But it was decided that the malfunction presented relatively little risk, and Young and Duke (who were already undocked, and flying LM "Orion" when the problem occurred) were permitted to land on the Moon. However, the mission was shortened by a day (reducing the time in orbit around the Moon after the LM left the Moon and docked with the CSM), as a safety measure. Young and Duke spent three days exploring the Descartes highland region, while Mattingly circled overhead in "Casper." The astronauts discovered that what was thought to have been a region of volcanism was actually a region full of impact-formed rocks (breccias). Their collection of returned specimens included an 25 pound (11 kg) chunk that was the largest single rock returned by the Apollo astronauts (nicknamed ''Big Muley''). The Apollo 16 astronauts also conducted performance tests with the lunar rover, at one time getting up to a top speed of 11 miles per hour (18 kilometers per hour), which still stands as the record speed for any wheeled vehicle on the Moon (listed as such in the [[Guinness Book of Records]]). ===Relics=== The command module is currently at the [[U.S. Space & Rocket Center]], in [[Huntsville, Alabama]]. The lunar module ascent stage separated [[24 April]] [[1972]] but a loss of attitude control rendered it out of control. It orbited the Moon for about a year. Its impact site on the Moon is unknown. <br clear="all"> ==Media== {{video|filename=Ap16 rover.ogg|title=The Lunar Rover in use|description=An Apollo 16 astronaut driving the [[Lunar Rover]]|format=[[Ogg]]}} ==See also== * [[Extra-vehicular activity]] * [[List of spacewalks]] * [[Splashdown]] * [[List of artificial objects on the Moon]] * [[Google Moon]] ==References== *[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog] *[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)] *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology] *[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report] *[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.44.htm Apollo 16 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK] ==External links== * [http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo16.htm Apollo 16 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica] * [http://www.spacecamp.com/museum/ U.S. Space & Rocket Center Museum] (location of Apollo 16 command module) * [http://www.archive.org/details/NothingSoHiddenApollo16 (Part 1)NASA film on the Apollo 16 mission downloadable from www.archive.org The Internet Archive) * [http://www.archive.org/details/NothingSoHidden (Part 2)NASA film on the Apollo 16 mission downloadable from www.archive.org The Internet Archive) {{commons|Apollo 16}} {{Project Apollo | before=[[Apollo 15]] | after=[[Apollo 17]]}} [[Category:Lunar spacecraft]] [[Category:Human spaceflights]] [[Category:Apollo program]] [[Category:1972]] [[af:Apollo 16]] [[da:Apollo 16]] [[de:Apollo 16]] [[et:Apollo 16]] [[fr:Apollo 16]] [[it:Apollo 16]] [[hu:Apollo-16]] [[ja:アポロ16号]] [[nl:Apollo 16]] [[pt:Apollo 16]] [[fi:Apollo 16]] [[sv:Apollo 16]] 1971 42108098 2006-03-03T21:53:46Z Rich Farmbrough 82835 /* Quotes */ {| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" |+<font size="+1">'''Apollo 17'''</font> |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission Insignia |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:Ap17recon.jpg|200px|Apollo 17 insignia]] |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Mission Statistics |- |'''Mission Name:'''||Apollo 17 |- |'''Call Sign:'''||Command module: ''America''<br />Lunar module: ''Challenger'' |- |'''Number of<br />Crew:'''||3 |- |'''Launch:'''||[[December 7]], [[1972]]<br />05:33:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]<br />[[Kennedy Space Center]]<br />LC 39A |- |'''Lunar Landing:'''||[[December 11]], 1972<br />19:54:57 UTC<br />20° 11' 26.88" N - 30° 46' 18.05" E<br />Taurus-Littrow |- |'''Lunar EVA<br />length:'''||1st: 7 h 11 min 53 s<br />2nd: 7 h 36 min 56 s<br />3rd: 7 h 15 min 8 s<br />Total: 22 h 3 min 57 s |- |'''CMP EVA:'''||1 h 5 min 44 s |- |'''Lunar surface<br />time:'''||74 h 59 min 40 s |- |'''[[Lunar sample]]<br />mass:'''|| 110.52 kg (243.65 lb) |- |'''Splashdown:'''||[[December 19]], [[1972]]<br />19:24:59 UTC<br />17° 53' S - 166° 7' W |- |'''Duration:'''||12 d 13 h 51 min 59 s |- |'''Number of<br />Lunar orbits:'''||75 |- |'''Time in<br />Lunar orbit:'''||147 h 43 min 37.11 s |- |'''Mass:'''||CSM 30,369 kg;<br />LM 16,456 kg |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Crew picture |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:GPN-2000-001151.jpg|300px|Apollo 17 crew portrait (L-R: Schmitt, Cernan (seated) and Evans)]] <br/>Apollo 17 crew portrait <br/>(L-R: Schmitt, Cernan (seated) and Evans) |- !colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|Night View |- |colspan="2" align="center"|[[Image:Apollo 17 The Last Moon Shot Edit1.jpg|300px|Apollo 17 - The Last Moon Shot]] <br/>Apollo 17 &mdash; ''The Last Moon Shot'' |} '''Apollo 17''' was the eleventh [[manned space mission]] in the [[NASA]] [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]] and was the sixth and last mission to date to land on the [[Moon]]. It was the first night launch, and the final mission, of the Apollo program. ==Crew== *[[Eugene Cernan]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 9A]]'', ''[[Apollo 10]]'', & ''Apollo 17''), commander *[[Ron Evans]] (flew on ''Apollo 17''), [[Apollo_Command/Service_Module|command module]] pilot *[[Harrison Schmitt|Harrison "Jack" Schmitt]] (flew on ''Apollo 17''), [[lunar module]] pilot ===Backup crew=== *[[John_W._Young|John Young]], commander *[[Stuart Roosa]], command module pilot *[[Charles Duke]], lunar module pilot ===Support Crew=== *[[Robert Overmyer]] *[[Robert A. Parker|Bob Parker]] *[[Gordon Fullerton]] ==Mission parameters== *'''Mass:''' **Launch mass: 6,445,000 lb (2,923,400 kg) **Total spacecraft: 102,900 lb (46,700 kg) ***CSM mass: 66,840 lb (30,320 kg), of which CM was 13,140 lb (5960 kg), SM 53,700 lb (24,360 kg) ***LM mass: transposition and docking stage 36,274 lb (16,454 kg), separation for lunar landing 36,771 lb (16,679 kg), ascent stage at liftoff 10,997 lb (4,988 kg) *'''Earth orbits:''' 2 before leaving for Moon, about one on return *'''Lunar orbits:''' 75 *'''[[Perigee]]:''' 104.9 mi (168.9 km) *'''[[Apogee]]:''' 106.4 mi (171.3 km) *'''[[Inclination]]:''' 28.526° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 87.83 min *'''[[Perilune]]:''' 60.5 mi (97.4 km) *'''[[Apolune]]:''' 195.6 mi (314.8 km) *'''[[Inclination]]:''' 159.9° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' min *'''Landing Site:''' [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunar_sites.html 20.19080° N - 30.77168° E] or <br /> 20° 11' 26.88" N - 30° 46' 18.05" E ===Docking=== *'''Undocked''': [[December 11]], [[1972]] - 17:20:56 UTC *'''Docked''': [[December 15]], [[1972]] - 01:10:15 UTC ===EVAs=== * '''''Cernan and Schmitt''''' - EVA 1 *'''EVA 1 Start''': [[December 11]], [[1972]], 23:54:49 [[Coordinated Universal Time |UTC]] *'''EVA 1 End''': [[12 December]] 07:06:42 UTC *'''Duration''': 7 hours, 11 minutes, 53 seconds * '''''Cernan and Schmitt''''' - EVA 2 *'''EVA 2 Start''': [[December 12]], [[1972]], 23:28:06 UTC *'''EVA 2 End''': [[13 December]] 07:05:02 UTC *'''Duration''': 7 hours, 36 minutes, 56 seconds * '''''Cernan and Schmitt''''' - EVA 3 *'''EVA 3 Start''': [[December 13]], [[1972]], 22:25:48 UTC *'''EVA 3 End''': [[14 December]] 05:40:56 UTC *'''Duration''': 7 hours, 15 minutes, 08 seconds * ''''' Evans ''''' - Transearth EVA 4 *'''EVA 4 Start''': [[December 17]], [[1972]], 20:27:40 UTC *'''EVA 4 End''': [[17 December]] 21:33:24 UTC *'''Duration''': 1 hour, 05 minutes, 44 seconds ===See also=== * [[Extra-vehicular activity]] * [[List of spacewalks]] * [[Splashdown]] * [[List of artificial objects on the Moon]] * [[Google Moon]] The splashdown point was 17° 53&prime; S, 166° 7&prime; W, 350 nautical miles (650 km) SE of the Samoan Islands and 6.5 km (4 mi) from the recovery ship [[USS Ticonderoga (CV-14)|USS ''Ticonderoga'']]. Apollo 17 landed approximately 640 meters from its target point. ==Mission highlights== [[Image:As17-140-21391c1.jpg|thumb|left|Schmitt took this picture of Cernan flanked by an American flag and their [[lunar rover]]'s umbrella-shaped high-gain antenna near the beginning of their third and final excursion across the lunar surface. The prominent Sculptured Hills lie in the background while Schmitt's reflection can just be made out in Cernan's helmet.]] [[Image:Apollo_17_Trans-Earth_EVA.jpg|thumb|Command Module pilot Ron Evans performs a trans-earth EVA to retrieve film from the Apollo 17 SIM Bay camera. (NASA)]] [[Image:Ap17-S72-55974.jpg|thumb|Apollo 17 recovery operations. (NASA)]] [[Image:a17-plaque.gif|right|thumb|depiction of the plaque left on the moon by Apollo 17]] One of the last two men to set foot on the Moon was also the first scientist-astronaut, geologist Harrison Schmitt. While Evans circled in "America," Schmitt and Cernan collected a record 240 pounds (109 kilograms) of rocks during three Moonwalks. The crew roamed for 21 miles (34 kilometers) through the Taurus-Littrow valley in their rover, discovered orange-colored soil, and left the most comprehensive set of instruments in the ALSEP on the lunar surface. Their mission was the last in the Apollo lunar program. ===Introduction=== Crew members were [[Gene Cernan]], commander; [[Ron Evans]], command module pilot; and [[Harrison Schmitt]], lunar module pilot. The landing site for this mission was on the southeastern rim of the [[Mare Serenitatis]], in the southwestern [[Montes Taurus]]. This was a dark mantle between three high, steep [[massif]]s, in an area known as the Taurus-Littrow region. Pre-mission photographs showed boulders deposited along the bases of the mountains, which could provide bedrock samples. The area also contained a landslide, several impact craters, and some dark craters which could be volcanic. A J-class mission, featuring the [[Lunar Rover]], they conducted three lunar surface excursions, lasting 7.2, 7.6 and 7.3 hours. The mission returned 243.6 lb (110.5 kg) of samples from the Moon. The Command module is currently on display at NASA's [[Johnson Space Center]], in [[Houston, Texas]]. The lunar module impacted the Moon on [[15 December]] [[1972]] at 06:50:20.8 UT (1:50 AM EST) at 19.96 N, 30.50 E. On this mission the astronauts took a famous photograph of the earth known as "[[The Blue Marble]]". ===Mission notes=== *Schmitt, a [[geologist]], was the first (and to date, only) scientist to walk on the Moon. *Like the astronauts of Apollos [[Apollo 10|10]], [[Apollo 12|12]], [[Apollo 13|13]], and [[Apollo 14|14]] before it, the Apollo 17 crew were recovered in [[Pacific]] waters near [[American Samoa]] after [[splashdown]], and were flown from the recovery ship to the airport at [[Tafuna, American Samoa|Tafuna]] where they were greeted with an enthusiastic (and well practiced!) Samoan reception before being flown on to [[Honolulu]], thence to [[Houston]]. * The [[lunar plaques|plaque]] left on the ladder of the descent stage of [[Challenger]] read: ''Here Man completed his first explorations of the moon. December 1972 AD. May the spirit of peace in which we came be reflected in the lives of all mankind''. The plaque showed two hemispheres of Earth and the near side of the Moon, plus the signatures of Cernan, Evans, Schmitt, and [[Richard Nixon|President Nixon]]. * Commander [[Eugene Cernan]] left a Czechoslovak flag on the Moon because his ancestors came from [[Czechoslovakia]]. *Schmitt was originally due to fly on the cancelled Apollo 18 but following pressure from the science community was moved up to LM pilot on Apollo 17 in place of [[Joe Engle]]. *Apollo 17 broke several records set by previous flights, including longest manned lunar landing flight; longest total lunar surface extravehicular activities; largest lunar sample return, and longest time in lunar orbit. [[Image:40_A17shorty.jpg|thumb|right|550px|Panoramic Assembly of Schmitt at Shorty Crater (moonpans.com)]] ==Quotes== "As I take man's last step from the surface, back home for some time to come - but we believe not too long into the future &mdash; I'd like to just [say] what I believe history will record. That America's challenge of today has forged man's destiny of tomorrow. And, as we leave the Moon at Taurus-Littrow, we leave as we came and, God willing, as we shall return, with peace and hope for all mankind. Godspeed the crew of Apollo 17." :&mdash; Eugene A. Cernan, Apollo 17 Commander. Last man to walk on the moon, [[14 December]] [[1972]]. "Okay, Jack. Let's get this mother outta here." :&mdash; Eugene A. Cernan, Apollo 17 Commander. Apocryphal last 'informal' words said on the lunar surface, one second before lunar liftoff. ==Media== {{multi-video start}} {{multi-video item|filename=Ap17 schmitt falls.ogg|title=Schmitt falls|description=Astronaut [[Harrison Schmitt]] falls while on a moonwalk|format=[[Theora]]}} {{multi-video item|filename=Ap17 strolling.ogg|title=Schmitt sings|description=[[Harrison Schmitt]] sings ''I was strolling on the Moon one day''|format=[[Theora]]}} {{multi-video item|filename=Ap17-ascent.ogg|title=Apollo 17's Lunar Module blasts off and leaves the moon|description=|format=[[Theora]]}} {{multi-video end}} ==References== * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo17info.html Apollo 17 Info by NASA] * [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)] * [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4209/appb.htm Development of Manned Space Flight, American and Soviet NASA SP-4209] * [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology] * [http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report] * [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.45.htm Apollo 17 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK] * [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a17/a17.html Apollo 17 entry at Apollo Lunar Surface Journal] - Provides an extensive insight of the mission, along with full transcripts and detailed interviews with the crewmembers. ==External links== {{commons|Apollo 17}} * [http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo17.htm Apollo 17 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica] * [http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0407/online_extra.html?c=Newsletters&n=2Q04_Insider2&t=internal September 1973 National Geographic Magazine article] * [http://sourceforge.net/projects/nassp/ Apollo simulation for Orbiter spaceflight sim] * [http://moon.google.com Apollo landing Locations at Google Moon] {{Project Apollo| before=[[Apollo 16]]| after=[[Skylab 1]] <br> [[Skylab 2]]}} [[Category:Lunar spacecraft]] [[Category:Human spaceflights]] [[Category:Apollo program]] [[Category:1972]] [[cs:Apollo 17]] [[da:Apollo 17]] [[de:Apollo 17]] [[et:Apollo 17]] [[es:Apollo 17]] [[eo:Apollo 17]] [[fr:Apollo 17]] [[gl:Apollo 17]] [[it:Apollo 17]] [[hu:Apollo-17]] [[nl:Apollo 17]] [[nn:Apollo 17]] [[ja:アポロ17号]] [[pl:Apollo 17]] [[pt:Apollo 17]] [[sk:Apollo 17]] [[fi:Apollo 17]] [[sv:Apollo 17]] [[zh:阿波罗17号]] 1972 15900430 2003-11-09T05:30:56Z DavidLevinson 1689 #REDIRECT [[Aviation]] (merge) #REDIRECT [[Aviation]] 1973 42150566 2006-03-04T03:47:48Z Naconkantari 676502 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.23.198.165|69.23.198.165]] ([[User talk:69.23.198.165|talk]]) to last version by 129.12.200.49 The '''American Revolution''' ended two centuries of British rule for most of the North American colonies and created the modern United States of America. The Revolutionary era was both exhilarating and disturbing---a time of progress for some, dislocation for others. In the wake of the Revolution came events as varied as the drafting and ratification of the Constitution of the United States of America and the rebellions of slaves who saw the contrast between slavery and proclamations of liberty. The American Revolution is the series of events, ideas, and changes that resulted in the [[revolution]] and ensuing political separation of [[thirteen colonies]] in [[North America]] from the [[British Empire]] and the creation of the [[United States|United States of America]] with a new political system. The [[American Revolutionary War|American War of Independence]] (1775&ndash;1783) was one part of the revolution, but the revolution by the Americans began before the [[Shot heard 'round the world|first shot]] was fired at [[Battle of Lexington and Concord|Lexington and Concord]] and continued after the British surrender at [[Battle of Yorktown (1781)|Yorktown]]. Years later, in 1818, [[John Adams]] wrote: "The Revolution was effected before the War commenced," and "The [[Revolution]] was in the minds and hearts of the people." The precise nature and extent of the revolution is a matter of great interpretation. It is generally agreed that the revolution originated around the time of the [[French and Indian War]] (1754&ndash;1763), and ended with the election of [[George Washington]] as the first [[President of the United States]] in 1789. Beyond that, interpretations vary. At one end of the spectrum is the view that the American Revolution was not "revolutionary" at all, that it did not radically transform colonial society, but 'simply replaced a distant government with a local one'. The opposite view is that the American Revolution was a unique and radical event, producing significant changes that had a profound impact on world history. Most current interpretations fall somewhere in between these two positions. [[Image:map of territorial growth 1775.jpg|thumb|300px|Before the Revolution: The [[13 colonies]] are in red, the pink area was claimed by Great Britain after the [[French and Indian War]], and the orange region was claimed by [[Spain]]. Note that this map does not show the bulk of [[British North America]] of that time.]] ==Origins== In the early 1760's, [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] possessed a [[British North America|vast empire]] on the North American continent. In addition to the thirteen British colonies, victory in the [[Seven Years' War]] had given Great Britain claim over [[New France]] ([[Canada]]), [[History of Florida|Spanish Florida]], and the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] lands east of the [[Mississippi River]]. A war against France's former Indian allies&mdash;[[Pontiac's Rebellion]]&mdash;had, if not conquered, at least 'pacified' the western frontier. At this time, most white colonists in America considered themselves loyal subjects of the British Crown, with the same rights and obligations as Englishmen in Britain. ===Philosophy and radical thought=== [[The Enlightenment]] elevated [[natural philosophy]], and began to replace arguments born of tradition and authority with those based upon observation and independent reasoning. The implications of the earlier [[scientific revolution]] began to have a greater effect on everyday life and in the conscious thought of men everywhere. Increased publication and communications between like-minded people opened up new areas to question and consideration. The early works of thinkers like [[John Locke]] became the analysis of men like [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]]. The [[Deism|deist]] views of several of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States]], and their views on the proper form of government have roots in this European Enlightenment, and were a source for ideas regarding [[separation of church and state]] and other liberties. In addition, the ideas of "[[social contract]]" and "[[natural rights]]", espoused by [[John Locke]], formed the basis of political reasonings. ===Road to rebellion=== After the [[French and Indian War]] and Pontiac's Rebellion, the British government sought to overhaul its expansive North American possessions. In order to make the Empire more stable and profitable, new economic and land distribution policies were implemented. Specifically, the new British policies included the understandable desire of the crown that the colonists would shoulder a greater share of the burdens of war and the cost of their own defense, as well as the curtailment of smuggling with the colonies of the West Indies, the payment of royal tariffs and the exclusive with the British homeland. ===Economic disputes, 1760-70 === King George wanted the colonists' money. The British national debt had risen to alarming levels during the war years and so in 1760 [[the Crown]] began a series of economic initiatives designed to extract more revenue from the colonies. These policies were 'justifiable', the reasoning went, because the colonists were enjoying the benefits of the peace that had been won. [[Image:James Otis.gif|thumb|right|100px|James Otis]] In theory, Great Britain already [[mercantilism|regulated the economies]] of the colonies through the [[Navigation Acts]], but widespread evasion of these laws had long been tolerated. Now, through the use of open-ended search warrants ([[Writs of Assistance]]), strict enforcement became the practice. In 1761, Massachusetts lawyer [[James Otis]] argued that the writs violated the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|constitutional rights]] of the colonists. He lost the case, but [[John Adams]] later wrote, "American independence was then and there born." In 1763, [[Patrick Henry]] argued the [[Parson's Cause]] case. Clerical pay had been tied to the price of tobacco by Virginia legislation. When the price of tobacco skyrocketed after a bad crop in 1758, the [[House of Burgesses|Virginia legislature]] passed the Two-Penny Act to stop clerical salaries from inflating as well. In 1763, [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] vetoed the Two-Penny Act. Patrick Henry defended the law in court and argued "that a King, by disallowing Acts of this salutary nature, from being the father of his people, degenerated into a Tyrant and forfeits all right to his subjects' obedience." In 1764, [[British Prime Minister]] [[George Grenville]]'s [[Sugar Act]] and [[Currency Act]] created economic hardship in the colonies. Protests led to the boycott of British goods, and to the emergence of the popular slogan "[[no taxation without representation]]," in which colonists argued that only their colonial assemblies, and not [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]], could levy taxes on them. [[Committee of correspondence|Committees of correspondence]] were formed in the colonies to coordinate resistance to paying the taxes. In previous years, the colonies had shown little inclination towards collective action. Grenville's policies were bringing them together. A milestone in the Revolution occurred in 1765, when Grenville passed the [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]], as a way to finance the quartering of troops in North America. The Stamp Act required all legal documents, permits, commercial contracts, newspapers, pamphlets, and playing cards in the colonies to carry a [[stamp duty|tax stamp]]. Colonial protest was widespread. Secret societies known as the [[Sons of Liberty]] were formed in every colony, and used [[propaganda]], intimidation, and mob violence to prevent the enforcement of the Stamp Act. The furor culminated with the "[[Stamp Act Congress]]", which sent a formal protest to Parliament in October of 1765. Parliament responded by repealing the Stamp Act, but pointedly [[Declaratory Act|declared its legal authority]] over the colonies &#8220;in all cases whatsoever.&#8221; [[Image:Boston Massacre.jpg|300px|right|thumb|This exaggerated depiction of the "[[Boston Massacre]]" by [[Paul Revere]] was designed to inflame opposition to the military occupation of Boston.]] The sequel to the Stamp Act was not long in coming. In 1767, Parliament passed the [[Townshend Acts]], placing taxes on a number of common goods imported into the colonies, including glass, paint, lead, paper, and tea. In response, colonial leaders organized boycotts of these British imports. On [[June 10]], [[1768]], the ''Liberty'', a ship belonging to colonial merchant [[John Hancock]] and suspected of smuggling, was seized by customs officials in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]. Angry protests on the street led customs officials, fearing for their safety, to report to London that Boston was in a state of insurrection. British troops began to arrive in Boston in October of 1768. Tensions continued to mount; culminating in the "[[Boston Massacre]]" on [[March 5]], [[1770]], when British soldiers of the [[29th Regiment of Foot]] fired into an angry mob, killing five. Revolutionary agitators, like [[Samuel Adams]], used the event to stir up popular resistance, but, after the trial of the soldiers, who were defended by [[John Adams]], tensions diminished. The Townshend Acts were repealed in 1770, after much colonial protest, and it was still theoretically possible that further bloodshed in the colonies might be avoided. However, the British government had left one tax from the Townshend Acts in place as a symbolic gesture of their right to tax the colonies&mdash;the tax on tea. For the revolutionaries, who stood firm on the principle that only their colonial representatives could levy taxes on them, it was still "one tax too many". This resulted in the [[Boston Tea Party]]. ===Western land dispute=== The [[British Royal Proclamation of 1763|Proclamation of 1763]] sought to limit the conflicts between [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s and the English settlers by restricting settlement west of the [[Appalachian Mountains]]. However, groups of settlers, led for example by [[Daniel Boone]], continued to move into the region beyond the Proclamation Line and fought with the [[Shawnee]]s and other peoples inhabiting the area. Furthermore, the [[Quebec Act]] of 1774, extended [[Quebec]]'s boundaries to the [[Ohio River]], reestablished [[Civil Code of Quebec#Under the British Empire|French civil law]], and instituted toleration for [[Roman Catholic]]s in that territory, an action which horrified some colonials, who had come to New England to establish their own [[protestant]] sects. Proposals to post British regulars to man forts in the west further disquieted Americans eager to occupy Indian land. ===Crises, 1772-75=== While there were many causes of the American Revolution, it was a series of specific events, or crises, that finally triggered the outbreak of war. [[Image:Gaspee Affair.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Burning of the ''Gaspee'']] The first of these was the [[Gaspée Affair]]. The ''HMS Gaspée'', a British ship that had been vigorously enforcing unpopular trade regulations (the [[Navigation Acts]]), ran aground on [[June 9]], [[1772]], off of [[Narragansett Bay]] in [[Rhode Island]], while chasing the packet boat ''Hannah''. In an act of defiance that gained considerable notoriety, the ship was attacked, boarded, stripped of valuables and torched by American patriots, who later denied knowing about the entire affair. [[Image:Boston tea party.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This 1846 lithograph has become a classic image of the Boston Tea Party.]] The next crisis was a result of the so-called "[[Tea Act]]", passed by the British Parliament in 1773. This act allowed the [[British East India Company]] to sell [[tea]] to the [[Thirteen Colonies|British colonies]] without the usual colonial [[tax]], thereby allowing it to undercut the prices of the colonial merchants. To help pay for its colony in [[India]], the British government intended to give the [[British East India Company|East India Company]] a [[monopoly]] on tea imports to the colonies; this, however, backfired. Because many American merchants earned their living from [[smuggling]], this act would take away their livelihood. The result was widespread [[boycott]]s of tea throughout the colonies, and, eventually, to the [[Boston Tea Party]] where American colonists, believed to be the [[Sons of Liberty]], dressed up like Indians and threw crates of tea from the [[British East India Company|East India Company]] ships into the [[Boston Harbor]]. The [[Intolerable Acts]], called by the British the "Coercive Acts" or "Punitive Acts", were a series of laws, passed by the [[British Parliament]] in 1774, in response to the growing unrest in the thirteen [[Thirteen Colonies|American colonies]], particularly in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] with its [[Boston Tea Party]]. Enforcement of the Acts played a major role in the outbreak of the [[American Revolutionary War]] and the establishment of the [[Continental Congress|First Continental Congress]]. The Intolerable Acts included: *[[Massachusetts Government Act]] *[[Administration of Justice Act]] *[[Boston Port Act]] *[[Quartering Act]] The [[First Continental Congress]] was convened in 1774 in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]] and endorsed the [[Suffolk Resolves]], which declared the Intolerable Acts to be unconstitutional, called for the people to form [[militia]]s, and for [[Massachusetts]] to form a Patriot government. In response, primarily to the Massachusetts Government Act, the inhabitants of Worcester, Massachusetts set up an armed picket line in front of the local courthouse and refused to allow the British magistrates to enter. The magistrates, faced with over 1500 armed men, did not attempt to force entry. Thereafter, the town of Worcester largely governed itself. Similar events occurred, soon after, all across the colony. British troops were sent from England, but, by the time they arrived, the entire colony of Massachusetts, with the exception of the heavily garrisoned city of Boston, had thrown off British control of local affairs. The [[Battles of Lexington and Concord|Battle of Lexington and Concord]] were the first [[battle]]s of the [[American Revolutionary War]]. They were fought on [[April 19]], [[1775]] in [[Province of Massachusetts Bay|Massachusetts]] within the towns of [[Lexington, Massachusetts|Lexington]], [[Concord, Massachusetts|Concord]], [[Lincoln, Massachusetts|Lincoln]], [[Arlington, Massachusetts|Menotomy]], and [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]. The battles marked the outbreak of open [[war]] between [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] and the colonies and are known as the "[[shot heard 'round the world]]." The [[Second Continental Congress]] convened in 1775, after the war had started. While creating the [[Continental Army]], it also extended the [[Olive Branch Petition]] to the crown as an attempt at reconciliation. King [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] refused to receive it, leaving the American Patriots no other choice but to wage war against Britain to achieve their Independence. [[Image:joinordie.png|thumb|250px|This [[political cartoon]] (attributed to [[Benjamin Franklin]]) originally appeared during the [[French and Indian War]], but was recycled to encourage the American colonies to unite against British rule.]] The American revolutionaries, known as [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriot]]s (or Whigs or rebels), included many shades of opinion. [[Alexander Hamilton]], [[John Jay]] and [[George Washington]] represented a socially conservative faction that would later take shape as the [[Federalist party]] and are traditionally characterized as preoccupied with preserving the wealth and power of the "better sorts" of colonial society. [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[James Madison]], [[Benjamin Franklin]] and [[Thomas Paine]] are usually portrayed as representing the less economically affluent side of society, accepting greater political equality. After the revolution, some of these men would become known as the "[[anti-federalists]]" who, led by [[George Mason]], considered the [[Constitution of the United States]] to be a dangerously flawed document, one which would cause greater tyranny than either the British [[Parliament]] or the [[British Crown]] had. A great many American colonists remained loyal to the British Crown; these became known as [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]]s (or 'Tories', or 'King's men'). Loyalists were often of the same well-to-do social circles that produced the right wing of the Patriots (for example [[Thomas Hutchinson]]); however, the Scottish highlanders of the [[Mohawk Valley]] and the frontiersmen of [[Province of Georgia|Georgia]] included a large number of poorer men. Some Loyalists were [[Native Americans of the United States|Native Americans]], including [[Joseph Brant]], who led a mixed band of Indians and white farmers and laborers in the Loyalist cause; others were [[black Loyalist]]s. After the war, [[United Empire Loyalists]] became a central component of the populations of the [[Abaco]] islands (in the [[Bahamas]]), and the [[Canada|Canadian]] provinces of [[New Brunswick]] and [[Ontario]], where many of them fled to escape persecution in the new United States. Some of the African Americans, who had been freed from slavery by fighting for the British, were settled in [[Freetown]], [[Sierra Leone]]. ===Loyalists and Neutrals=== Main article [[Loyalist (American Revolution)]] Some British North American colonists remained loyal subjects of the British crown during the American Revolution. They included those who were not convinced by the political arguments of the Patriots.They were called Loyalists (also called Tories or "King's Men"). From an American perspective, the Loyalists were traitors who turned against their fellow citizens and collaborated with the enemy, while Loyalists themselves considered the American rebels the traitors. Loyalists took some part in fighting, especially near Canada. 70,000 left the 13 colonies during or after the war. About 45,000 later settled in Canada, which they profoundly influenced. In addition, a vast number of colonists in the thirteen colonies, perhaps over half, chose to stay neutral in the highly political American Revolution. While patriots undoubtedly outnumbered loyalists, the neutrals probably outnumbered both groups. ===Class differences among the Patriots=== Just as there were rich and poor Loyalists, the Patriots were a 'mixed lot', and often had different aims for the revolution. Wealthy Patriots viewed independence as a means of freeing themselves from British taxation and limitations on taking western land, but had every intention of remaining in control of the resulting nation. Many craftsmen, small merchants and small farmers, however, were looking at independence as a means of reducing the power and privilege of the elite. Wealthy Patriots knew that they needed the support of the lower classes, but were fearful of their more radical democratic aims. John Adams (an elite more by education than by wealth) attacked Thomas Paine's ''[[Common Sense]]'' for the "absurd democratical notions" it proposed. ===Women=== [[Image:Abigail Adams.jpg|left|thumb|120px|[[Abigail Adams]].]] The boycott of British goods would have been entirely unworkable without the willing participation of American women: women made the bulk of household purchases, and the boycotted items were largely household items such as tea and cloth. And as cloth was still a basic necessity, for the boycott to work, women would have to return to spinning and weaving, skills that had fallen into disuse. In 1769, the women of Boston produced 40,000 skeins of yarn, and 180 women in Middletown, Massachusetts wove 20,522 yards of cloth. As the Revolution progressed and economic disruption deepened, women participated directly in the food riots and [[tar and feather]]ing that was the people's response to price gouging by merchants, Loyalist and Patriot alike. On [[August 24]], [[1777]], [[Thomas Boyleston]], a Patriot merchant who was withholding coffee and sugar from the market waiting for prices to rise, was confronted by a crowd of 100 or more women, who seized the keys to his warehouse and distributed the coffee themselves while a large crowd of men stood by and watched, dumbfounded. ===Writing the state constitutions=== By 1776, the colonies had overthrown their existing government, closing courts and driving British agents and governors from their homes, and they had elected conventions and "legislatures" that existed outside of any legal framework whatsoever&mdash; new constitutions were desperately needed in each colony to replace the superseded royal charters. On [[January 5]], [[1776]], [[New Hampshire]] ratified the first state constitution, six months before the signing of the [[Declaration of Independence]]. Then, in May 1776, Congress voted to suppress all forms of crown authority, to be replaced by locally created authority. [[Virginia]], [[South Carolina]], and [[New Jersey]] created their constitutions before July 4. [[Rhode Island]] and [[Connecticut]] simply took their existing [[royal charter]]s and deleted all references to the crown. The new states had to decide not only what form of government to create, they first had to decide how to select those who would craft the constitutions and how the resulting document would be ratified. This would be just the start of a process that would pit conservatives against radicals in each state. In states where the wealthy exerted firm control over the process, such as [[Maryland]], [[Virginia]], [[Delaware]], [[New York]] and [[Massachusetts]], the result was constitutions that featured: *substantial property qualifications for voting and even more substantial requirements for elected positions (though New York and Maryland lowered property qualifications); *[[bicameral legislature]]s, with the upper house as a check on the lower; *strong governors, with [[veto]] power over the legislature and substantial appointment authority; *few or no restraints on individuals holding multiple positions in government; *the continuation of state-established religion. In states where the less affluent had organized sufficiently to have significant power, especially [[Pennsylvania]], [[New Jersey]], [[New Hampshire]] and [[Vermont]], the resulting constitutions embodied: *universal white manhood suffrage, or minimal property requirements for voting or holding office (New Jersey went so far as to enfranchise women, a radical step that they retracted 25 years later); [[Image:Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale_1783.jpg|140px|thumb|Dr. [[Benjamin Rush]], 1783]] *strong, [[Unicameralism|unicameral legislatures]]; *relatively weak governors, without veto powers, and little appointing authority; *prohibition against individuals holding multiple government posts; *disestablishment of religion. Naturally, the fact that conservatives or radicals held sway in a state did not mean that the side with less power accepted the result quietly. In Pennsylvania, the propertied class was horrified by their new constitution ([[Benjamin Rush]] called it "our state dung cart"), while in Massachusetts, voters twice rejected the constitution that was presented for ratification; it was ultimately ratified only as a result of the legislature tinkering with the third vote. The radical provisions of Pennsylvania's constitution were to last only fourteen years&mdash; in 1790, conservatives gained power in the state legislature, called a new constitutional convention, and wrote a new constitution that substantially reduced universal white-male suffrage, gave the governor veto power and patronage appointment authority, and added an upper house with substantial wealth qualifications to the unicameral legislature. Thomas Paine called it a constitution unworthy of America. ==War for independence, 1775-83== [[image:commonsense.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Common Sense by Thomas Paine]] [[Image:Yorktown80.JPG|thumb|right|280px|The Battle of Yorktown was the last major battle of the American Revolutionary War. It ended with the surrender of British forces.]] ''Main article: [[American Revolutionary War]]'' On January 10, 1776, [[Thomas Paine]] published a pamphlet entitled ''[[Common Sense]]'' arguing that the only solution to the problems with Britain was [[Republicanism]] and independence from Great Britain. On July 4, 1776, the [[United States Declaration of Independence]] was ratified by the [[Second Continental Congress]]. The '''Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union''', commonly known as the '''[[Articles of Confederation]]''', formed the first governing document of the [[United States|United States of America]]. They combined the colonies of the [[American Revolutionary War]] into a loose [[confederation]] of sovereign [[states]]. The second [[Continental Congress]] adopted the Articles on November 15, 1777. ==America after the war== The American Revolution saw several noteworthy political innovations: the [[separation of church and state]], which ended the special privileges of the [[Church of England]] in the South and the [[Congregationalist]] Church in [[New England]]; an assertion of liberty, individual rights and equality which would prove highly appealing in Europe; the idea that government should be by consent of the governed (including the right of rebellion against tyranny); the delegation of power to the government through written constitutions; and the notion that colonial peoples of the Americas could become self-governing nations in their own rights. All was not well, however, in the new nation. The [[Shays Rebellion]] was an armed uprising in [[Western Massachusetts]] that lasted from 1786 to 1787. Many of the rebels, known as [[Shaysites]] or Regulators, were small farmers angered by high debt and tax burdens. A state [[militia]] that had been raised as a private army defeated the Shaysites. The lack of a government force to respond to the uprising led some to re-evaluate of the effectiveness of the [[Articles of Confederation]]. The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)]] had given the U.S. government control, on paper, of all land east of the [[Mississippi River]] and south of the [[Great Lakes]], but the Native American nations actually living in this region were not a party to this treaty and had not been militarily defeated by the Patriots. Further, the British remained in possession of the Great Lakes forts through which they continued to supply their Native American allies with trade items (including weapons) and to otherwise stir up trouble for Americans. Then, Congress sought to stabilize the dollar and pay down its war debt through the sale of western lands still under Native American control. The [[Land Ordinance of 1785]] gave encouragement to land speculators, surveyors, and so on, who sought to gain this land-- sometimes through bribery or deceit--for resale to white settlers. Congress negotiated a treaty with Native Americans in 1785 to acquire most of the eastern portion of [[Ohio Country]] for settlement. However, settlers were already moving into land that the treaty set aside for the tribes. Conflict soon broke out, as the [[Northwest Indian War]]. Due to the lack of an army under the Confederation government, Congress was unable to successfully fight the tribes. These events and others led the Continental Congress to support the [[Philadelphia Convention]] in [[1787]], leading to the creation of a new central government that lasts to this day in the United States. ==The impact on British North America== For tens of thousands of inhabitants of the Thirteen Colonies, the victory of the revolutionaries was followed by exile. Approximately fifty thousand [[United Empire Loyalists]] fled to the remaining British colonies in North America, such as the [[Province of Quebec (1763-1791)|Province of Quebec]], (concentrating in the [[Eastern Townships]]), [[Upper Canada]] (now known as [[Ontario]]), and [[Prince Edward Island]] and [[Nova Scotia]] (where their presence would result in the creation of [[New Brunswick]]). This exodus sowed the seeds for the French-English duality in British North America, arguably the most prominent political and cultural feature of what would one day become [[Canada]]. ==Revolution beyond America== The American Revolution was the first wave of the [[Atlantic Revolutions]] that would also take hold in the [[French Revolution]], the [[Haitian Revolution]], and the [[Bolívar's War|Latin American wars of liberation]]. [[Aftershock]]s would also be felt in [[Ireland]] in the [[Irish Rebellion of 1798|1798 rising]], in the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], and in the [[Netherlands]]. The Revolution had a strong immediate impact in Great Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, and France. Many British and Irish [[Whig]]s had been openly indulgent to the Patriots in America, and the Revolution was the first lesson in politics for many European radicals who would later take on active roles during the era of the [[French Revolution]]. Jefferson's Declaration had [http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/chap3a.html an immediate impact] on the French [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen]] of 1789. The American Revolution affected the rest of the world. The thinkers of the [[Enlightenment]] only wrote that common people had the right to overthrow unjust governments. The American Revolution was a case of practical success, which provided the rest of the world with a 'working model'. The American Revolution set an example to the people in Europe and other parts of the world. It encouraged the people to realize they had rights independent of the sovereign; it promoted republicanism to overthrow monarchs. It incited people to fight for their rights, and it showed them that it was possible to win even against the world's foremost power, Great Britain. Nowhere was the influence of the American Revolution more profound than in Latin America, where American writings and the model of colonies, which actually broke free and thrived decisively, shaped their struggle for independence. Historians of Latin America have identified many links to the U.S. model . See [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&id=0QghsDsSCB4C&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=jefferson&prev=http://books.google.com/books%3Fq%3Djefferson%2Bindependence%2Blatin%2Bamerica&sig=v0afdyhrNgB42XLqhBEB9IQhCDU John Lynch, "The Origins of Spanish American Independence," in ''Cambridge History of Latin America'' Vol. 3 (1985), pp 45-46] ==Legacy and interpretations== The American Revolution is often cited as a milestone in the history of [[American Exceptionalism]]. The [[intellectual]]s of the Revolution ([[Thomas Paine]]'s ''[[Common Sense]]'' is most likely the best example) for the first time expressed the belief that America was not just an extension of Europe but a new land, a country of nearly unlimited potential and opportunity that was being abused by the British mother country they had outgrown. These sentiments laid the intellectual foundations for the Revolutionary concept of American exceptionalism and was closely tied to [[Republicanism]], the belief that sovereignty belonged to the people, not to a hereditary ruling class. ==See also== *[[British colonization of the Americas]] *[[Founding Fathers of the United States]] *[[Industrial Revolution]] *[[List of important people in the era of the American Revolution]] *[[Second American Revolution]] *[[Timeline of United States revolutionary history (1760-1789)]] *[[List of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War]] ==Scholarly Secondary Sources== :*Bailyn, Bernard. ''The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution.'' Harvard University Press, 1967. ISBN 0674443012. :*Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. ''Encyclopedia of the American Revolution.'' New York: McKay, 1966; revised 1974. ISBN 0811705781. :*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104464395 Crow, Jeffrey J. and Larry E. Tise. ''The Southern Experience in the American Revolution'' (1978)] :*Higginbotham, Don. ''The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763-1789'' (1983) Online in ACLS History E-book Project; best overview of military topics :*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=9503720 Lecky, William Edward Hartpole. ''The American Revolution, 1763-1783'' (1898)], British viewpoint :* McCullough, David. ''1776'' (2005). :*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=55002630 Mackesy, Piers. ''The War for America: 1775-1783'' (1992)] British viewpoint. :*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=84633736 Middlekauff, Robert. '' The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763-1789'' (1985)] :*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14559136 Miller, John C. ''Triumph of Freedom, 1775-1783'' (1948)], excellent overview :*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=493014 Miller, John C. ''Origins of the American Revolution'' (1943)] :*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8875493 Morison, S. E. ed. ''Sources and Documents Illustrating the American Revolution, 1764-1788, and the Formation of the Federal Constitution'' (1923)] :*Nash, Gary B. ''The Unknown American Revolution: The Unruly Birth of Democracy and the Struggle to Create America''. (2005). ISBN 0670034207. :* Purcell, L. Edward. "Who Was Who in the American Revolution" (1993) :*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10268028 Van Tyne, Claude Halstead. ''American Loyalists: The Loyalists in the American Revolution'' (1902)] :*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106799260 Volo, James M. and Dorothy Denneen Volo. ''Daily Life during the American Revolution'' (2003)] :*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3566256 Wahlke, John C. ed. ''The Causes of the American Revolution'' (1967)] :*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=72423772 Wrong, George M. ''Washington and His Comrades in Arms: A Chronicle of the War of Independence'' (1921)] short overview :* Wood, Gordon S. ''The Radicalism of the American Revolution: How a Revolution Transformed a Monarchical Society into a Democratic One Unlike Any That Had Ever Existed''. Alfred A. Knopf, 1992. ISBN 0679404937. == External links == *[http://www.americanrevolution.com The American Revolution at americanrevolution.com] - historical information, documents, pictures, and more *[http://www.pbs.org/ktca/liberty/ PBS Television Series] [[Category:American Revolution]] [[Category:Rebellions in the United States]] [[Category:The Enlightenment]] [[Category:Revolutions]] [[bn:&#2438;&#2478;&#2503;&#2480;&#2495;&#2453;&#2494;&#2472; &#2476;&#2495;&#2474;&#2509;&#2482;&#2476;]] [[da:USA's uafhængighedskrig]] [[de:Amerikanische Unabhängigkeitsbewegung]] [[eo:Usona Revolucio]] [[es:Guerra de la Independencia de los Estados Unidos]] [[fi:Amerikan vallankumous]] [[fr:Guerre d'indépendance des États-Unis d'Amérique]] [[ga:Cogadh Réabhlóideach Mheiriceá]] [[he:מלחמת העצמאות של ארצות הברית]] [[id:Perang Revolusi Amerika]] [[is:Bandaríska frelsisstríðið]] [[it:Guerra di indipendenza americana]] [[ja:アメリカ独立戦争]] [[ko:미국 독립전쟁]] [[nl:Amerikaanse Onafhankelijkheidsoorlog]] [[pl:Rewolucja ameryka&#324;ska]] [[pt:Guerra da Independência dos Estados Unidos da América]] [[sk:Americká vojna za nezávislosť]] [[sv:Amerikanska revolutionen]] [[zh:&#32654;&#22283;&#38761;&#21629;]] 1974 42075364 2006-03-03T17:30:35Z 63.80.167.195 /* Births */ <!-- Language links at bottom --> {| style="float:right;" |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=17}} |} [[April 17]] is the 107th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (108th in [[leap year]]s). There are 258 days remaining. ==Events== * [[69]] - After the First [[Battle of Bedriacum]], [[Vitellius]] becomes [[Roman Emperor]]. *[[1397]] - [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] tells the [[Canterbury Tales]] for the first time at the court of [[Richard II of England|Richard II]]. Chaucer scholars have also identified this date (in [[1387]]) as when the book's [[pilgrimage]] to [[Canterbury]] starts. *[[1492]] - [[Spain]] and [[Christopher Columbus]] sign a contract for him to sail to [[Asia]] to get [[spice]]s. *[[1521]] - [[Martin Luther (religious leader)|Martin Luther]] speaks to the assembly at the [[Diet of Worms]], refusing to recant his [[Lutheranism|teachings]]. *[[1524]] - [[Giovanni da Verrazano]] reaches [[New York City|New York]] harbor. *[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Virginia]] secedes from the [[United States|Union]]. *[[1864]] - American Civil War: [[Battle of Plymouth (1864)|Battle of Plymouth]] begins &ndash; [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] forces attack [[Plymouth, North Carolina]]. *[[1865]] - [[Mary Surratt]] is arrested as a conspirator in the [[assassination]] of [[Abraham Lincoln]]. *[[1895]] - The [[Treaty of Maguan]] (also known as the "Treaty of Shimonoseki") between [[China]] and [[Japan]] is signed. This marks the end of the first [[Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) | Sino-Japanese War]], and the defeated [[Qing Empire]] is forced to renounce its claims on [[Korea]] and to concede the southern portion of the [[Fengtien]] [[Political divisions of China|province]], [[Taiwan]] and the [[Pescadores Islands]] to [[Japan]]. *[[1924]] - [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]] studios is formed from a merger of Metro Pictures, Goldwyn Pictures, and the Louis B. Mayer Company. *[[1935]] - [[Sun Myung Moon]] has a vision of [[Jesus Christ]] who tells him to complete his mission from almost 2000 years ago. *[[1937]] - [[Daffy Duck]] debuts in [[Warner Bros]]' short ''[[Porky's Duck Hunt]]''. *[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]] surrenders to [[Germany]]. *[[1942]] - [[POW]] [[France|French]] General [[Henri Giraud]] escapes from his castle prison in [[Festung Königstein]]. *[[1945]] - In [[Strassfurt]], [[Germany]], U.S. Lieutenant Colonel [[Boris T. Pash]] seizes half a ton of [[uranium]], in an attempt to foil [[Soviet Union]] plans to build an [[atomic bomb]]. *[[1961]] - [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]]: A group of [[CIA]]-financed and -trained [[Cuba]]n refugees lands at the [[Bay of Pigs]] in [[Cuba]] with the aim of ousting [[Fidel Castro]]. *[[1964]] - The [[Ford Motor Company]] unveils the [[Ford Mustang]] at the [[New York World's Fair]]. *1964 - [[Jerrie Mock]] becomes the first woman to circumnavigate the world by air. *[[1969]] - [[Sirhan Sirhan]] is convicted of assassinating [[Robert F. Kennedy]]. *1969 - [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak]] Communist Party chairman [[Alexander Dubček]] is deposed. *[[1970]] - [[Apollo program]]: The ill-fated [[Apollo 13]] spacecraft returns to [[Earth]] safely. *[[1975]] - [[Cambodian Civil War]] ends: The [[Khmer Rouge]] captures the capital [[Phnom Penh]] and [[Cambodia]]n government forces surrender. *[[1976]] - During his unsuccessful re-election bid, U.S. President [[Gerald Ford]] appears as himself on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''. *[[1982]] - Patriation of the [[Canadian constitution]] in Ottawa by Proclamation of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], [[Queen of Canada]]. *[[1984]] - Police Constable [[Yvonne Fletcher]] is killed by automatic gunfire coming from the [[Libya]]n People's Bureau in central [[London]]. She had been policing a small demonstration outside the embassy. Ten other people are wounded. The events lead to an 11-day [[siege]] of the building. *[[1986]] - Treaty signed, ending [[Three Hundred and Thirty Five Years' War]] between the [[Netherlands]] and the [[Isles of Scilly]]. *[[1991]] - The [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] closes above 3,000 for the [[Closing milestones of the Dow Jones Industrial Average|first time ever]] gaining 17.58 to 3,004.46. *[[2001]] - [[Barry Bonds]] becomes the 17th member of the [[500 home run club]] at [[SBC Park|Pacific Bell Park]] in [[San Francisco, California]]. *[[2002]] - Four [[Canadian Forces]] soldiers are killed in [[Afghanistan]] by [[friendly fire]] from two [[U.S. Air Force]] [[F-16]]s, the first deaths in a combat zone for Canada since the Korean War. ==Births== *[[593]] - [[Emperor Jomei]], emperor of Japan (d. [[641]]) *[[1573]] - [[Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria]] (d. [[1651]] *[[1586]] - [[John Ford (dramatist)|John Ford]], English dramatist *[[1598]] - [[Giovanni Riccioli]], Italian astronomer (d. [[1671]]) *[[1710]] - [[Henry Erskine, 10th Earl of Buchan]], British Freemason (d. [[1767]]) *[[1734]] - [[Taksin]], King of Thailand (d. [[1782]]) *[[1794]] - [[Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius]], German botanist (d. [[1868]]) *[[1837]] - [[J.P. Morgan]], American financier, art collector, and philanthropist (d. [[1913]]) *[[1842]] - [[Maurice Rouvier]], French statesman (d. [[1911]]) *[[1852]] - [[Cap Anson]], baseball player (d. [[1922]]) *[[1863]] - [[Augustus Edward Hough Love]], English mathematician (d. [[1940]]) *[[1866]] - [[Ernest Starling]], British physiologist (d. [[1927]]) *[[1882]] - [[Artur Schnabel]], Polish pianist (d. [[1951]]) *[[1885]] - [[Isak Dinesen]], Danish author (d. [[1962]]) *[[1890]] - [[Art Acord]], American actor and rodeo rider (d. [[1931]]) *[[1894]] - [[Nikita Khrushchev]], [[Premier of the Soviet Union]] (d. [[1971]]) *[[1897]] - [[Thornton Wilder]], American dramatist (d. [[1975]]) *[[1902]] - [[Jaime Torres Bodet]], Mexican writer, politician, and diplomat (d. [[1974]]) *[[1903]] - [[Gregor Piatigorsky]], Russian cellist (d. [[1976]]) *1903 - [[Morgan Taylor]], American athlete (d. [[1975]]) *[[1915]] - [[Joe Foss]], American soldier and politician (d. [[2003]]) *[[1916]] - [[Helenio Herrera]], French footballer player and manager (d. [[1997]]) *[[1917]] - [[Bill Clements]], Governor of Texas *[[1918]] - [[William Holden (actor)|William Holden]], American actor (d. [[1981]]) *[[1923]] - [[Lindsay Anderson]], English film director (d. [[1994]]) *1923 - [[Harry Reasoner]], American journalist (d. [[1991]]) *[[1926]] - [[Gerry McNeil]], Canadian hockey player (d. [[2004]]) *[[1929]] - [[James Last]], German band leader *[[1934]] - [[Don Kirshner]], American television producer and composer *[[1938]] - [[Ben Barnes]], Lieutenant Governor of Texas *[[1940]] - [[Anja Silja]], German soprano *[[1947]] - [[Linda Martin]], Irish singer and [[Eurovision Song Contest]] winner *[[1948]] - [[Jan Hammer]], Czech composer *[[1950]] - [[Bruce McNall]], American former [[National Hockey League|NHL]] team owner *[[1951]] - [[Olivia Hussey]], Argentine-born actress *[[1952]] - [[Zeljko Raznatovic]], Serbian Warlord *[[1954]] - [[Riccardo Patrese]], Italian race car driver *1954 - [[Roderick Toombs|"Rowdy" Roddy Piper (Roderick Toombs)]], professional wrestler, actor *[[1957]] - [[Nick Hornby]], English author *[[1959]] - [[Sean Bean]], English actor *[[1961]] - [[Boomer Esiason]], American football player *[[1963]] - [[Joel Murray]], American actor *[[1964]] - [[Maynard James Keenan]], American singer ([[Tool (band)|Tool]] and [[A Perfect Circle]]) *[[1967]] - [[Marquis Grissom]], baseball player *1967 - [[Liz Phair]], American musician/songwriter *[[1969]] - [[Henry Ian Cusick]], Peruvian-born actor *[[1972]] - [[Muttiah Muralitharan]], Sri Lankan [[Cricket]] Player *1972 - [[Tony Boselli]], American football player *1972 - [[Jennifer Garner]], American actress *[[1974]] - [[Victoria Adams]], English singer *1974 - [[Mikael Åkerfeldt]], Swedish singer and guitarist ([[Opeth]]) *[[1977]] - [[Sizzla]] Jamaican dancehall artist *[[1977]] - [[Chad Hedrick]], American speed skater *[[1978]] - [[Jordan Hill]], American singer *[[1983]] - [[Miguel Cabrera]], Venezuelan [[Major League Baseball]] player ==Deaths== *[[487]] - [[Proclus]], Greek philosopher (b. [[412]]) *[[1080]] - King [[Harald III of Denmark]] (b. [[1041]]) *[[1427]] - [[John IV, Duke of Brabant]] (b. [[1403]]) *[[1539]] - [[George, Duke of Saxony]] (b. [[1471]]) *[[1574]] - [[Joachim Camerarius]], German classical scholar (b. [[1500]]) *[[1695]] - [[Sor Juana]], Mexican writer (d. [[1695]]) *[[1696]] - [[Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, marquise de Sévigné]], French writer (b. [[1626]]) *[[1711]] - [[Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1678]]) *[[1742]] - [[Arvid Horn]], Swedish statesman (b. [[1664]]) *[[1761]] - [[Thomas Bayes]], English mathematician *[[1764]] - [[Johann Mattheson]], German composer (b. [[1681]]) *[[1790]] - [[Benjamin Franklin]], American politician, inventor, diplomat, and printer (b. [[1706]]) *[[1799]] - [[Richard Jupp]], English architect (b. [[1728]]) *[[1843]] - [[Samuel Morey]], American inventor (b. [[1762]]) *[[1891]] - [[Alexander Mackenzie]], second [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (b. [[1822]]) *[[1936]] - [[Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck]], Dutch prime minister (b. [[1873]]) *[[1941]] - [[Al Bowlly]], dance band vocalist (b. [[1899]]) *[[1942]] - [[Jean Perrin]], French physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1870]]) *[[1944]] - [[Jack Hearne (John Thomas Hearne)|J.T. Hearne]] English cricketer (b. [[1867]]) *[[1960]] - [[Eddie Cochran]], American musician (b. [[1938]]) *[[1967]] - [[Red Allen]], American jazz trumpeter (b. [[1908]]) *[[1975]] - [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]], Indian philosopher (b. [[1888]]) *[[1977]] - [[William Cardinal Conway]], Northern Irish clergyman (b. [[1913]]) *[[1988]] - [[Louise Nevelson]] - American sculptor (b. [[1900]]) *[[1990]] - Reverend [[Ralph Abernathy]], American civil rights activist (b. [[1936]]) *[[1994]] - [[Roger Wolcott Sperry]], American neurobiologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1913]]) *[[1998]] - [[Linda McCartney]], American photographer, activist, and musician (b. [[1941]]) *[[2003]] - Dr. [[Robert Atkins]], American diet doctor (b. [[1930]]) *2003 - [[Paul Getty]], American-born philanthropist (b. [[1932]]) *2003 - [[Earl King]], American musician and songwriter (b. [[1934]]) *[[2004]] - [[Edmond Pidoux]], Swiss writer (b. [[1908]]) *2004 - [[Soundarya]], Indian actress (b. [[1971]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Feast day]] of the following [[saint]]s: **[[Pope Anicetus|Anicetus]] (d. [[166]]) **[[Stephen Harding]] (d. [[1134]]) ***[[Day of the Rock]] ==Fiction== *[[Rei Hino]]/[[Sailor Mars]]'s birthday (from [[Sailor Moon]]). ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/17 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[April 16]] - [[April 18]] - [[March 17]] - [[May 17]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:17 April]] [[ar:17 إبريل]] [[an:17 d'abril]] [[ast:17 d'abril]] [[bg:17 април]] [[be:17 красавіка]] [[bs:17. april]] [[ca:17 d'abril]] [[ceb:Abril 17]] [[cv:Ака, 17]] [[co:17 d'aprile]] [[cs:17. duben]] [[cy:17 Ebrill]] [[da:17. april]] [[de:17. April]] [[et:17. aprill]] [[el:17 Απριλίου]] [[es:17 de abril]] [[eo:17-a de aprilo]] [[eu:Apirilaren 17]] [[fo:17. apríl]] [[fr:17 avril]] [[fy:17 april]] [[ga:17 Aibreán]] [[gl:17 de abril]] [[ko:4월 17일]] [[hr:17. travnja]] [[io:17 di aprilo]] [[id:17 April]] [[ia:17 de april]] [[ie:17 april]] [[is:17. apríl]] [[it:17 aprile]] [[he:17 באפריל]] [[jv:17 April]] [[ka:17 აპრილი]] [[csb:17 łżëkwiôta]] [[ku:17'ê avrêlê]] [[lt:Balandžio 17]] [[lb:17. Abrëll]] [[li:17 april]] [[hu:Április 17]] [[mk:17 април]] [[ms:17 April]] [[nap:17 'e abbrile]] [[nl:17 april]] [[ja:4月17日]] [[no:17. april]] [[nn:17. april]] [[oc:17 d'abril]] [[pl:17 kwietnia]] [[pt:17 de Abril]] [[ro:17 aprilie]] [[ru:17 апреля]] [[se:Cuoŋománu 17.]] [[sco:17 Aprile]] [[sq:17 Prill]] [[scn:17 di aprili]] [[simple:April 17]] [[sk:17. apríl]] [[sl:17. april]] [[sr:17. април]] [[fi:17. huhtikuuta]] [[sv:17 april]] [[tl:Abril 17]] [[tt:17. Äpril]] [[te:ఏప్రిల్ 17]] [[th:17 เมษายน]] [[vi:17 tháng 4]] [[tr:17 Nisan]] [[uk:17 квітня]] [[ur:17 اپریل]] [[wa:17 d' avri]] [[war:Abril 17]] [[zh:4月17日]] [[pam:Abril 17]] 1975 41624681 2006-02-28T16:33:30Z DJ Clayworth 16175 /* See also */ '''Sir Alan Ayckbourn''' [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] (born [[April 12]], [[1939]]) is a popular and prolific [[England|English]] [[playwright]]. He is frequently cited as being the second most-performed English language playwright, after [[William Shakespeare]]. ==Life== Ayckbourn was born in [[London]] and wrote his first play at prep school when he was about 10. At [[Haileybury and Imperial Service College|Haileybury]], he toured [[Europe]] and [[United States|America]] with the school Shakespeare company. He left school at 17 to go straight into the theatre with an introduction to Sir [[Donald Wolfit]] by his French master. Ayckbourn joined Wolfit on tour as an [[Stage management|assistant stage manager]] and [[actor]]. By 1957, Ayckbourn was acting with director [[Stephen Joseph]] at [[Scarborough]]. In 1959 he played Stanley in the second production of writer-director [[Harold Pinter]]'s ''The Birthday Party''. Ayckbourn has written and produced some sixty plays in Scarborough and London and is the artistic director of the [[Stephen Joseph Theatre]] in Scarborough. Almost all of his plays receive their first performance at this theatre. More than 25 have subsequently been produced in the [[West End theatre|West End]], at the [[Royal National Theatre]] or by the [[Royal Shakespeare Company]] since his first hit ''[[Relatively Speaking]]'' opened at the Duke of York's Theatre in 1967. Major successes include ''[[Absurd Person Singular]]'', The [[Norman Conquests trilogy]], ''[[Bedroom Farce (comedy)|Bedroom Farce]]'', ''[[Just Between Ourselves]]'', ''[[A Chorus Of Disapproval]]'', ''[[Woman In Mind]]'', ''[[A Small Family Business]]'', ''[[Man Of The Moment]]'' and House & Garden. His plays have won numerous awards, including seven London Evening Standard Awards. They have been translated into over 30 languages and are performed on stage and television throughout the world. Ayckbourn plays have also been filmed in French and English. Four of his plays have been seen on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] attracting two [[Tony Awards|Tony]] nominations. In 1991, he received a Dramalogue Critics Award for his play ''[[Henceforward...]]''. Although his plays have received major West End productions almost from the beginning of his writing career, and hence have been reviewed in [[United Kingdom newspapers|British newspapers]], Ayckbourn's work was for years routinely dismissed as being too slight for serious study. Recently scholars have begun to view Ayckbourn as an important commentator on the lifestyles of the British [[suburb]]an [[middle class]] and as a stylistic innovator, experimenting with theatrical styles within the boundaries set by popular tastes. ==Career== {| |1956&ndash;57||Stage manager and actor, Donald Wolfit's company, in Edinburgh, Worthing, Leatherhead, Scarborough, and Oxford |- |1957&ndash;62||Actor and stage manager, Stephen Joseph Theatre-in-the-Round, Scarborough, Yorkshire |- |1962&ndash;64||Associate director, Victoria Theatre, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire |- |1964&ndash;70||Drama producer, BBC Radio, Leeds |- |1970&mdash;||Artistic director, Stephen Joseph Theatre-in-the-Round |- |1986&ndash;88||Associate director, National Theatre, London |- |1991&ndash;92||Professor of contemporary theatre, Oxford University |} ==Honours== Evening Standard award, 1973, 1974, 1977, 1985, 1987, 1989, 1990<br /> Olivier award, 1985<br /> Plays and Players award, 1987<br /> D.Litt.: [[University of Hull]], Yorkshire, 1981<br /> D.Litt.: [[Keele University|University of Keele]], Staffordshire, 1987<br /> D.Litt.: [[University of Leeds]], 1987<br /> C.B.E. (Commander, Order of the British Empire), 1987 <br /> ==Works== '''*''' indicates retitled {| |1959||''The Square Cat'' |- |1959||''Love After All'' |- |1960||''Dad's Tale'' |- |1961||''Standing Room Only'' |- |1962||''Christmas V Mastermind'' |- |1963||''Mr Whatnot'' |- |1965||''Meet My Father'' * ''Relatively Speaking'' |- |1967||''The Sparrow'' |- |1969||''How The Other Half Loves'' |- |1970||''The Story So Far...'' *''Me Times Me Times Me'' *''Family Circles'' |- |1971||''Time And Time Again'' |- |1972||''[[Absurd Person Singular]]'' |- |1973||''Fancy Meeting You'' *''Table Manners'' (Norman Conquests) |- |1973||''Make Yourself At Home'' *''Living Together'' (Norman Conquests) |- |1973||''Round And Round The Garden'' (Norman Conquests) |- |1974||''Absent Friends'' |- |1974||''[[Confusions]]'' |- |1975 ||''Jeeves'' (re-written 1996 as ''By Jeeves'') |- |1975||''Bedroom [[Farce]]'' |- |1976||''Just Between Ourselves'' |- |1977||''Ten Times Table'' |- |1978||''Joking Apart'' |- |1979||''Sisterly Feelings'' |- |1979||''Taking Steps'' |- |1980||''Suburban Strains'' |- |1980||''Season's Greetings'' |- |1981||''Way Upstream'' |- |1981||''Making Tracks'' |- |1982||''Intimate Exchanges Consisting Of 8 Plays'' |- |1983||''It Could Be Any One Of Us'' |- |1984||''A Chorus Of Disapproval'' |- |1985||''Woman In Mind'' |- |1987||''A Small Family Business'' |- |1987||''Henceforward...'' |- |1988||''Man Of The Moment'' |- |1988||''Mr A's Amazing Maze Plays'' |- |1989||''The Revengers' Comedies'' |- |1989||''Invisible Friends'' |- |1990||''Body Language'' |- |1990||''This Is Where We Came In'' |- |1990||''Callisto 5'' (re-written in 1999 as ''Callisto 7'') |- |1991||''Wildest Dreams'' |- |1991||''My Very Own Story'' |- |1992||''Time Of My Life'' |- |1992||''Dreams From A Summer House'' |- |1994||''Communicating Doors'' |- |1994||''Haunting Julia'' |- |1994||''The Musical Jigsaw Play'' |- |1995||''A Word From Our Sponsor'' |- |1996||''The Champion Of Paribanou'' |- |1997||''Things We Do For Love'' |- |1998||''Comic Potential'' |- |1998||''The Boy Who Fell Into A Book'' |- |1999||''House'' (House & Garden) |- |1999||''Garden'' (House & Garden) |- |2000||''Virtual Reality'' |- |2000||''Whenever'' |- |2001||''Gameplan'' (Damsels In Distress) |- |2001||''Flatspin'' (Damsels In Distress) |- |2001||''Roleplay'' (Damsels In Distress) |- |2002||''Snake In The Grass'' |- |2003||''My Sister Sadie'' |- |2004||''Drowning on Dry Land'' |- |2004||''Private Fears in Public Places'' |- |2005||''Improbable Fiction'' |} ==See also== *''The Crafty Art of Playmaking'', Palgrave Macmillan (US) 2003, ISBN 1403962294 <br /> *[http://www.alanayckbourn.net The official Alan Ayckbourn website] * {{contemporary writers|id=C2D9C28A1605c22C66hRk2050A6F}} [[Category:1939 births|Ayckbourn, Alan]] [[Category:Living people|Ayckbourn, Alan]] [[Category:English dramatists and playwrights|Ayckbourn, Alan]] [[Category:North Yorkshire|Ayckbourn, Alan]] [[Category:Knights bachelor|Ayckbourn, Alan]] [[Category:Commanders of the British Empire|Ayckbourn, Alan]] [[Category:Old Haileyburians|Ayckbourn, Alan]] [[de:Alan Ayckbourn]] [[nl:Alan Ayckbourn]] 1976 39141128 2006-02-10T23:47:00Z Calgacus 140005 #redirect [[Adomnán of Iona]] 1977 39343538 2006-02-12T14:37:44Z Solipsist 49943 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/201.17.175.164|201.17.175.164]] ([[User talk:201.17.175.164|talk]]) to last version by 24.124.113.145 '''Architectural engineers''' apply the skills of many engineering disciplines to the design, construction, operation, maintenance and renovation of buildings while paying attention to their impacts on the surrounding environment. In countries such as Canada, the UK and Australia, architectural engineering is more commonly known as '''Building Engineering'''. In some languages, "architect" is literally translated as "architectural engineer". ==Difference from component disciplines== What differentiates architectural engineering from its component disciplines is the effort to understand and design for the integration of all the building systems. [[Civil engineering|Civil Engineers]], for instance, can and do design the structure of a building. The Architectural Engineer with a specialization in structures may understand and accommodate not only the structural requirements for a building, but also the architectural, [[HVAC]], plumbing, electrical, transportation, acoustic requirements - only the most common of those usually considered problematic. ==Difference from architecture== A common confusion is the distinction between [[architecture]] and architectural engineering. In essence, architectural engineering is a component of architecture. [[Architects]] are directly responsible for the form and appearance of a building, including the way in which people use and experience the spaces of the building, and they typically act as the leader of the design team. They also coordinate the various engineering requirements of a building project. Architectural Engineering concentrates on ensuring that "the building works" (that it stands up, that the HVAC system operates, that light and power are delivered as needed). Architectural engineers, as a distinct and separate profession, are somewhat redundant in that their role overlaps that of the architect and other project engineers. Like architects, they seek to achieve optimum system selection and sizing within the overall constraints, except using primarily the tools of engineering. In most parts of the world, architectural engineers are not entitled to practice architecture unless they are architects, and are limited to one or more engineering disciplines. In some locations, such as Japan, architects are also known as architectural engineers. ==Major specializations== * [[Architecture]] * [[Structural engineering]] * [[HVAC|HVAC - Heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning engineering]] * [[Electrical engineering|Building power systems]] * [[Lighting]] * [[Plumbing]] * [[Fire protection engineering]] * [[Building transportation system]]s * [[Acoustics]] * [[Construction engineering]] * [[Project management]] ==Subjects of interest== * [[Building construction]] * [[Energy efficiency]] * [[Renewable energy]] ** [[Solar power]] * [[Intelligent building]]s * [[Autonomous building]]s ==External links== * [http://www.aeinstitute.org/intro.cfm Architectural Engineering Institute of the American Society of Civil Engineers] ==Educational institutions offering AE== * [http://www.concordia.ca/ Concordia University, Montreal, Canada] * [http://www.arce.calpoly.edu/general/general.html California Polytechnic State University] * [http://www.engr.psu.edu/AE/ Penn State Architectural Engineering Department] * [http://bechtel.colorado.edu/new/undergrad/advising/ University of Colorado] * [http://www.ce.utexas.edu/ University of Texas at Austin] * [http://www.cae.drexel.edu/ Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA] * [http://www.msoe.edu/ae/ Milwaukee School of Engineering, Milwaukee, WI] * [http://www.ceae.ku.edu/arce/ University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS] [[Category:Architecture|Engineering]] [[Category:Building engineering]] [[Category:Engineering]] [[ar:هندسة معمارية]] [[ko:건축 공학]] [[nl:Bouwkunde]] 1978 15900436 2005-06-04T23:57:56Z Gtrmp 38984 merge and redirect to [[assassin (disambiguation)]] #redirect [[assassin (disambiguation)]] 1979 41937613 2006-03-02T19:24:14Z Gcapp1959 298824 revert vandalism :''This article is about the star system. For the Video Game see [[Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri]]. {{mergefrom|Proxima Centauri}} {{Starbox begin | name = Alpha Centauri A/B }} {{Starbox image | image = [[Image:Position_Alpha_Cen.png | 250px]] | caption = The position of Alpha Centauri. }} {{Starbox observe | epoch = J2000 | ra = 14h 39m 36.5/35.1s | dec = -60° 50' 02/13" | appmag_v = -0.01/+1.34 | constell = [[Centaurus]] }} {{Starbox character | class = G2 V/K1 V | b-v = 0.65/0.85 | u-b = 0.24/0.64 | variable = None }} {{Starbox astrometry | radial_v = -21.6 | prop_mo_ra = -3678.19 | prop_mo_dec = 481.84 | parallax = 747.23 | p_error = 1.17 | dist_ly = 4.36 | dist_pc = 1.338 | absmag_v = 4.38/5.71 }} {{Starbox detail | age = 5-6 &times; 10⁹ | metal = 130-230% Sun | mass = 1.10/0.91 | radius = 1.23/0.87 | rotation = ? | luminosity = 1.57/0.51 | temperature = 5,800/5,300 }} {{Starbox visbin | name = Alpha Centauri B | period = 79.24 | axis = 17.59 | eccentricity = 0.516 | inclination = 79.24 | node = 204.87 | periastron = 1955.56 }} {{Starbox catalog | names = Alp Cen, Rigil Kentaurus, Rigil Kent, Toliman, Bungula, [[Henry L. Giclas catalogue | Gl]]&nbsp;559 A/B, [[Harvard Revised catalogue | HR]]&nbsp;5459/5460, [[Cape Photographic Durchmusterung | CP(D)]]-60°5483, [[Henry Draper catalogue | HD]]&nbsp;128620/128621, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes | GCTP]]&nbsp;3309.00, [[Luyten Half-Second catalogue | LHS]]&nbsp;50/51, [[Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory | SAO]]&nbsp;252838, FK5&nbsp;538, [[Hipparcos catalogue | HIP]]&nbsp;71683/71681. }} {{Starbox end}} '''Alpha Centauri''' (&alpha; Cen / &alpha; Centauri) is the brightest [[star system]] (a triple star system) in the southern [[constellation]] of [[Centaurus]], and contains the [[list of brightest stars|fourth brightest star]] in the night sky, with an [[apparent visual magnitude]] of &minus;0.01. It is famous in the Southern Hemisphere as the outermost &ldquo;pointer&rdquo; to the [[Crux|Southern Cross]], but it is too far south to be visible in most of the northern hemisphere. To the naked eye, the two brightest components of the system are too close for the eye to be able to resolve them as separate stars, so it is perceived as a single source of light with a total visual magnitude of about &minus;0.27, which is brighter than [[Arcturus]]. It is the closest [[star]] system beyond our own [[solar system]], at 4.2–4.4 [[light-year]]s. That makes it a logical choice as "first port of call" for [[science fiction]] speculation about space travel. In fact many [[novels]], [[video game]]s, and the like focus on man's eventual exploration of the system, and even colonisation of speculative [[planet]]s within the system. ==Names== It bears the proper name '''Rigil Kentaurus''' (often shortened to '''Rigil Kent'''), derived from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] phrase ''Al Rijl al Kentaurus'', meaning "foot of the centaur," but is nonetheless usually referred to by its [[Bayer designation]] ''Alpha Centauri''. Another alternative name is '''Toliman'''. It is also sometimes known as '''Bungula''', possibly from the [[Latin]] word ''ungula'' meaning "hoof". It and [[Beta Centauri]] (which is close to Alpha Centauri in [[angular]] distance as seen from the Earth, but is actually many light-years away) are the "Pointers" to the [[Crux|Southern Cross]]. Alpha and Beta Centauri are the second closest pair of first magnitude stars as seen from the Earth, and due to the effects of [[proper motion]], they will become the closest pair in around 2166, overtaking [[Acrux]] and [[Becrux]]. ''Alpha Centauri A'' is also known as [[Henry Draper Catalogue|HD]] 128620, [[Harvard Revised catalogue|HR]] 5459, [[Cape Photographic Durchmusterung|CP-60°5483]], [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes|GCTP]] 3309.00A, and [[Luyten Half-Second Catalogue|LHS]] 50. ''Alpha Centauri B'' is also known as HD 128621, HR 5460, GCTP 3309.00B, and LHS 51. ==System components== [[Image:Alpha Centauri relative sizes.png|thumb|left|300px|Size and color of the Sun compared to the stars in the Alpha Centauri system]] Alpha Centauri is a triple star system. It consists of two main stars, ''Alpha Centauri A'' and ''Alpha Centauri B'' (which form a [[binary star]] together) at a distance of 4.36 [[light-year|ly]], and a dimmer [[red dwarf]] named [[Proxima Centauri]] at a distance of 4.22 ly. Both of the two main stars are rather similar to the [[Sun]]. The larger member of the binary star, ''Alpha Centauri A'', is the most similar to the [[Sun]], but a little larger and brighter. Like the Sun, its [[Stellar classification|spectral type]] is G2 V, and, like the sun, shines in a yellowish-white light. The smaller of the two, ''Alpha Centauri B'', is dimmer, with a spectral type of K1 V, somewhat smaller and dimmer than the sun, but astronomically similar enough, shining with more of an orangish-yellow-white light. The two orbit one another elliptically ([[Eccentricity (orbit) |e]]=0.52), approaching as close as 11.2 [[astronomical unit]]s (2&times;10^&minus;4 ly) and receding to 35.6 AU (6&times;10^&minus;4 ly), with a period of just under 80 years. Hence the sum of the two masses is <math>23.4^3/80^2=2.0</math> times that of the Sun (see [[Two-body problem#Gravity|formula]]). These two stars are about 5 to 6 billion years old. The red dwarf Proxima Centauri is about 13,000 astronomical units away from Alpha Centauri (1 ly = 63,241 AU, hence this is 0.21 ly, about 1/20 of the distance between Alpha Centauri and the Sun, it is 0.14 ly closer to us) and may be in orbit about it, with a period on the order of 500,000 years or more. For this reason, Proxima is sometimes referred to as ''Alpha Centauri C''. However, it is not clear if it really is in orbit, although the association is unlikely to be entirely accidental as it shares approximately the same motion through space as the larger star system. Seen from Earth, Proxima is separated by 2 degrees from Alpha Centauri A and B (about 4 times the angular diameter of the full Moon), and the latter are at an angular distance of up to 40" from each other. [[Image:AlphaCentauri_AB_Trajectory.gif|thumb|left|300px|Apparent and real trajectory of B component relative to A component]] The closest neighbours to the Alpha Centauri system are the Sun and [[Barnard's star]] (1.98 [[parsec|pc]] or 6.47 ly), which is also the next nearest star from Earth, at a distance of 5.96 ly. ==Possibility of planet formation== Computer models of planetary formation suggest that [[terrestrial planet]]s would be able to form close to both Alpha Centauri A and B, but that [[gas giant]] planets similar to our [[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]] would not be able to form because of the binary stars' gravitational effects. Given the similarities in star type, age and stability of the orbits it has been suggested that this solar system may hold one of the best possibilities for [[extraterrestrial life]]. However, some astronomers have speculated that any terrestrial planets in the Alpha Centauri system may be dry because it is believed that Jupiter and Saturn were crucial at directing [[comet]]s into the inner solar system and providing the inner planets with a source of [[water]]. This would not be a problem, however, if Alpha Centauri B happened to play a similar role for Alpha Centauri A that the gas giants do for the [[Sun]], and vice versa. Both stars are of the right [[spectral type]] to harbor life on a potential planet (most astronomers believe that stars of spectral types from about F5 to K5 are hot enough, but long-lived and stable enough, to support potential Earthlike worlds). A planet around Alpha Centauri A would be about 1.25 [[astronomical unit|AU]]'s away from the star if it were to have Earthlike temperatures, or about halfway between the distances of [[Earth]]'s orbit and [[Mars]]' orbit in our own [[solar system]]. For dimmer, cooler Alpha Centauri B, the distance would be about 0.7 [[AU]]'s, or about the distance of [[Venus]] from the [[Sun]]. ==Sky appearance from Alpha Centauri== Viewed from near Alpha Centauri, the sky (other than the Alpha Centauri stars) would appear very much as it does to observers on Earth, with most of the constellations such as [[Ursa Major]] and [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]] being almost unchanged. However, Centaurus would be missing its brightest star and our [[Sun]] would appear as a 0.5-magnitude star in [[Cassiopeia (constellation)|Cassiopeia]]. Roughly speaking, the \/\/ of Cassiopeia would become a /\/\/, with the Sun at the leftmost end, closest to [[Epsilon Cassiopeiae|&epsilon; Cassiopeiae]]. The position can easily be plotted as [[right ascension|RA]] 02h39m35s, [[declination|dec]] +60°50', or [[antipodal point|antipodal]] to Alpha Centauri's position as seen from Earth. Nearby very bright stars such as [[Sirius]] and [[Procyon]] would appear to be in very different positions, as would [[Altair]] to a lesser extent. Sirius would become part of the constellation of Orion, appearing 2 degrees to the west of [[Betelgeuse]], slightly dimmer than from here (-1.2). The stars [[Fomalhaut]] and [[Vega]], although further away, would appear somewhat displaced as well. Proxima Centauri would be an inconspicuous 4.5 magnitude star, which considering it would only be a quarter of a [[light-year]] away shows just how dim Proxima really is. <!--- To compute the following figures, use masses 1.1 and 0.92 Suns, luminosities 1.57 and 0.51 Suns (Sun visual magnitude -26.73), and an orbit of 11.2 to 35.6 AUs; min luminosity adds the planet's orbital radius to the max A-B distance (conjunction), max luminosity subtracts the planet's orbital radius from the min A-B distance (opposition) --->A hypothetical planet around either &alpha; Centauri A or B would see the other star as a very bright secondary. For example, an Earth-like planet at 1.25 [[Astronomical Unit]]s from &alpha; Cen A (with a revolution period of 1.34 [[year|a]]) would get Sun-like illumination from its primary, and &alpha; Cen B would appear 5.7 to 8.6 magnitudes dimmer (&minus;21.0 to &minus;18.2), 190 to 2700 times dimmer than &alpha; Cen A but still 29 to 9 times brighter than the full Moon. Conversely, an Earth-like planet at 0.71 AUs from &alpha; Cen B (with a revolution period of 0.63 [[year|a]]) would get Sun-like illumination from its primary, and α Cen A would appear 4.6 to 7.3 magnitudes dimmer (&minus;22.1 to &minus;19.4), 70 to 840 times dimmer than &alpha; Cen B but still 45 to 15 times brighter than the full Moon. In both cases the secondary sun would, in the course of the planet's year, appear to circle the sky. It would start off right beside the primary and end up, half a period later, opposite it in the sky (a "midnight sun"). After another half period, it would complete the cycle. For a hypothetical Earthlike planet around either star, the secondary sun would not be bright enough to adversely affect climate or plant photosynthesis (being as far away as [[Saturn]] is from our [[Sun]]), but would mean that for about half the year, the night sky, instead of a pitch black would appear a dark blue, and one could walk around rather easily without artificial light. ==Apparent movement== In about 4000 years, the [[proper motion]] of Alpha Centauri will mean that from the point of view of Earth it will appear close enough to [[Beta Centauri]] to form an optical [[double star]]. Beta Centauri is in reality far more distant than Alpha Centauri. [[Image:Motion-of-Alpha-Cen.jpg|thumb|170px|Apparent motion of Alpha Centauri relative to [[Beta Centauri]].]] ==Alpha Centauri in fiction== Because of its status as our star's nearest galactic neighbor, Alpha Centauri has frequently been referred to in science fiction stories involving interstellar travel. In ''[[The Centauri Device]]'' (1975) by [[M. John Harrison]] the native Centaurians (humanoid aliens able to interbreed with humans) have been wiped out in a [[genocidal]] attack by expanding Earth colonisation of the galaxy. The novel's main character, whose mother was Centauran, is one of the few people in the cosmos able to operate the 'device' of the book's title; a weapon of enormous power. Alpha Centauri is mentioned at the beginning of ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' by [[Douglas Adams]]. Shortly before the [[Vogons]] demolish the Earth to make way for a hyperspace bypass, they inform the planet that "All the planning charts and demolition orders have been on display in your local planning department on Alpha Centauri for fifty of your Earth years, so you've had plenty of time to lodge any formal complaint and it's far too late to start making a fuss about it now." When someone objects to this, [[Minor characters from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy#Prostetnic Vogon Jeltz|Protstetnic Vogon Jeltz]] replies, "What do you mean you've never been to Alpha Centauri? For heaven's sake mankind, it's only four light years away you know. I'm sorry, but if you can't be bothered to take an interest in local affairs that's your own lookout." This scene appears in every incarnation of the story except the [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (film)|movie]] version. The story also mentions that in the old days of the Universe, "men were ''real'' men, women were ''real'' women, and small furry creatures from Alpha Centauri were ''real'' small furry creatures from Alpha Centauri." In the ''[[Lost In Space]]'' TV series, Alpha Centauri is the intended destination of the United States spacecraft ''Jupiter 2'' launched [[October 16]], [[1997]] and crewed by the Robinson family and Major Don West. Stowaway Dr. Zachary Smith sabotages the mission on behalf of a foreign government, sending the ship off course. In the 1991 computer game [[Civilization (computer game)|Civilization]] and its sequals, one of the ways to achieve victory is to successfully launch an expidition to colonize Alpha Centauri. "[[Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri]]," a spiritual sequel, involves seven ideological factions competing to colonize the Earth-like planet Chiron that orbits Alpha Centauri. In an episode of ''[[Star Trek: The Original Series]]'', [[Zefram Cochrane]], the inventor of the [[warp drive]] is said to be from Alpha Centauri, though there is considerable debate as to whether this was intended to identify his place of origin, or of residence. However, he cannot be from AC, as seen in [[Star Trek: First Contact]], the 8th film in the series, as he is found by the [[Enterprise-E]] crew on Earth in the late 21st century. The novel "Federation" by Garfield and Judith Reeves-Stephens (co-writers on Star Trek: Enterprise), though superceded by the movie First Contact, postulates that Cochrane grew up on Earth, developed warp drive with the backing of Micah Brack, then led the settlement at Alpha Centauri that safeguarded humanity just a few short years later when a terrible war devastated Earth; Cochrane subsequently lived most of his remaining pre-Companion life at Alpha Centauri, thus accounting for his being "of" Alpha Centauri. In the [[DC Comics]] universe, the planet [[Rann]] originated in the Alpha Centauri system. Rannians are so close to normal Earth-based humans that [[Adam Strange]] was brought to the planet to act as a sort of breeding stud. This was before Rann was teleported out of the Alpha Centauri system, into a parallel [[pocket universe]], and then to the [[Polaris]] system. In [[James P. Hogan]]'s 1982 [[space opera]] novel [[Voyage from Yesteryear]], a human colony is artificially created at Alpha Centauri by automatic probe. ==See also== * [[List of nearest stars]] * [[List of brightest stars]] ==External links== * [http://www.glyphweb.com/esky/stars/alphacentauri.html Alpha Centauri] * [http://homepage.sunrise.ch/homepage/schatzer/Alpha-Centauri.html Alpha Centauri: A Candidate for Terrestrial Planets And Intelligent Life] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/sim-id.pl?protocol=html&Ident=alpha+centauri SIMBAD observational data] * {{cite web | title = Alpha Centauri 3 | work = SolStation | url = http://www.solstation.com/stars/alp-cent3.htm | accessdate = November 30 | accessyear = 2005 }} * {{cite web | title = A Family Portrait of the Alpha Centauri System | work = SpaceRef.com | url = http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid = 11016 | accessdate = March 21 | accessyear = 2003 }} * {{memoryalpha}} * [http://jumk.de/astronomie/near-stars/alpha-centauri.shtml Alpha Centauri System] [[Category:Triple star systems]] [[Category:Centaurus constellation]] [[Category:Yellow dwarfs|Centauri, Alpha]] [[Category:Orange dwarfs|Centauri, Alpha]] [[Category:Bayer objects|Centauri, Alpha]] [[Category:HD and HDE objects]] [[bg:Алфа Кентавър]] [[ca:Alfa Centauri]] [[cs:Alfa Centauri]] [[de:Rigil Kentaurus]] [[es:Alfa Centauri]] [[eo:Alpha Centauri]] [[fr:Alpha Centauri]] [[io:Alpha Centauri]] [[it:Alpha Centauri]] [[he:אלפא קנטאורי]] [[la:Alpha Centauri]] [[hu:Alfa Centauri]] [[nl:Alpha Centauri]] [[ja:ケンタウルス座アルファ星]] [[no:Alfa Centauri]] [[pl:Alfa Centauri]] [[ro:Alfa Centauri]] [[ru:Α Центавра]] [[sk:Alfa Centauri]] [[fi:Alfa Centauri]] [[sv:Alfa Centauri]] [[uk:Альфа Центавра]] [[zh:南門二]] 1980 42056001 2006-03-03T14:25:03Z 148.4.33.125 /* Technical features */ :''This article is about the family of home computers. For other uses, see [[Amiga (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:Amiga Logo.jpg|right|265px]] [[Image:Amiga 1000.jpg|thumb|255px|The original Amiga (1985)]] The '''Amiga''' is a family of [[home computer|home]]/[[personal computer]]s originally developed by [[Amiga Corporation]] as an advanced [[game console]]. Development on the Amiga began in [[1982]] with [[Jay Miner]] as the principal hardware designer. [[Commodore International]] introduced the machine to the market in [[1985]], after having bought Amiga Corp. The machine was ahead of its time, sporting a [[Original Amiga chipset|custom chipset]] with advanced graphics and sound capabilities, and a sophisticated multitasking [[operating system]], now known as [[AmigaOS]]. Based on the [[Motorola]] [[68k]] series of [[32-bit]] [[microprocessor]]s, the Amiga provided a significant upgrade from 8-bit computers such as the [[Commodore 64]], the Amiga quickly grew in popularity among computer enthusiasts, especially in Europe. It also found a prominent role in the video production business. ==History== ===Amiga Corporation=== The Amiga's chipset was designed by a small company called [[Amiga Corporation]] during the end of the first home video game boom. Wary of industrial espionage, the chipset was codenamed Lorraine during development. Amiga Corp. funded the development of the Lorraine by manufacturing [[joystick]]s while seeking investors. The chipset was to be used in a video game machine, but following the [[video game crash of 1983]], the Lorraine was repurposed to be a personal computer. Before Amiga Corp. could bring the machine to market, the company encountered financial difficulties and was purchased by Commodore in August 1984. The Amiga was designed to be the ultimate video game machine. Since a video game console requires lots of processing power, memory, CPU bandwidth, audo and video hardware, it can be seen that the relatively small additions of a capable operating system and good keyboard will make a video game console into a highly capable personal computer. ===Commodore=== The first Amiga computer, simply called the Amiga (and conspicuously devoid of references to Commodore), was released in [[1985]] by [[Commodore International|Commodore]], who marketed it both as their intended successor to the [[Commodore 64]] and as their competitor against the [[Atari ST]]. It was later renamed the [[Amiga 1000]] (or A1000 for short). Revolutionary for its time, it could display 4,096 colors and produce 4 channels of 8-bit stereo digital audio. It is also notable for having the first [[Computer multitasking#Preemptive multitasking|preemptive multitasking]] operating system with a color [[GUI]], allowing users to perform multiple tasks at the same time. [[Image:Amiga500 system1.jpg|thumb|350px|An Amiga 500, with 1084S RGB monitor and A1010 floppy disk drive. (1987)]] In [[1987]], Commodore released two new Amiga models, the [[A500]] and the [[A2000]]. These were marketed as low-end and high-end machines, respectively. The former became the most popular Amiga computer of the decade and served primarily as a games machine, while the latter was marketed as a more serious workstation for graphic purposes, due to the presence of a [[SCSI]] controller option, a [[Genlock]] slot and a video I/O connector. In [[1990]], the [[A3000]] was introduced as the successor to both the A1000 and A2000, with an [[Extended chip set|enhanced chipset]] (ECS) and the second release of its operating system, which would eventually be called [[AmigaOS]]. In the same year, Commodore released three new low-end machines: the [[CDTV]], aimed to move the platform to the living room; the [[A500plus|A500+]], with the same enhancements as the A3000; and the [[A600]], basically an A500+ in a smaller box with an [[IDE]] controller for hard disks. All of these were commercial failures, mainly due to poor marketing. Mass-market Amigas were then considerably cheaper than PCs and Macs at the time. This factor helped to boost sales in the more price-conscious European markets, but it also led to Commodore being viewed in U.S. markets as a producer of cheap "game machines". This perception was furthered by the fact that most Commodore retail outlets were toy stores, and marketing campaigns were woefully mismatched with the status-conscious American public. Overall, the Amiga was very successful in [[Europe]], but it sold less than a million units in the [[United States|U.S.]]. In [[1992]], Commodore released their last Amiga computer models, the [[A1200]] and the [[A4000]]: Each featured the new [[Advanced Graphics Architecture|AGA]] chipset and the third release of [[AmigaOS]]. In [[1993]], menaced by console giants [[Sega]] and [[Nintendo]], Commodore marketed the [[Amiga CD32|CD32]] in a desperate attempt to save their business. The CD32 was one of the earliest [[Compact Disc|CD]]-based consoles and was also the world's first 32-bit game machine, with specifications similar to the A1200. [[Image:Amiga-Computer.jpg|thumb|left|250px|An Amiga A500 computer, photographed in the early [[1990s]].]] ===Bankruptcy=== In [[1994]], Commodore filed for bankruptcy and its assets were purchased by [[Escom]], a German PC manufacturer, who created the [[subsidiary]] company [[Amiga Technologies]]. However, Escom in turn went bankrupt in [[1997]]. The Amiga brand was then sold to another PC manufacturer, [[Gateway 2000]], which had announced grand plans for it. However, in 2000, Gateway dropped the Amiga brand. This is rumored to be due to pressure by [[Microsoft]]; however, the real reason for the sale is unknown. ===Amiga, Inc.=== The current owner of the trademark, [[Amiga, Inc.]], has licensed the rights to make hardware using the Amiga brand to a U.K. computer vendor, [http://www.eyetech.co.uk Eyetech Group, Ltd], which was founded by some former UK employees of [[Commodore International]]. They are currently selling the [[AmigaOne]] via an international dealer network. The AmigaOne is a [[PowerPC]] computer designed to run the last remnants of [[AmigaOS]], which was itself licensed to a Belgian-German company, [http://www.hyperion-entertainment.biz Hyperion Entertainment]. Only a very few Amiga [[Clone (computer science)|clone]]s were ever produced, as both Commodore and subsequent owners of the trademark refused to license the Amiga technology to third-party manufacturers. Today, Amigas running AmigaOS version 3.9 and earlier are now considered "Classic" Amigas, as opposed to the new Amiga Inc./Eyetech/Hyperion models. Due to its popularity as a gaming platform, many people incorrectly refer to the Amiga as a games console (even though it is a fully-featured computer). However, there are many "Classic" Amigas still in use around the world. A popular use for the classic Amiga is as an automated readerboard for local community-access TV stations. ==Technical features== For its time, the Amiga was quite an advanced computer for the home market. It provided impressive sound and graphics for games, and it was also popular in business environments until around the mid-1990s, aiding users in video editing and 3D graphics. The very first model, the [[Amiga 1000]], had a 7.14 MHz CPU, designed to work directly with [[NTSC]] video. The CPU clock frequency was precisely double the 3.57 MHz color carrier frequency. The A1000 had a built-in composite video output, which allowed the computer to be hooked up directly to a TV or VCR. However, the output signal was considered too "hot" (strong) by many to be useful for anything other than home use (however, this could be remedied by running the A1000's composite output through a video processing amplifier, or "proc amp", to bring the video levels down to a suitable amount). The [[Original Amiga chipset]], or OCS, was more advanced than other architectures of its time: it had dedicated chips for real-time video effects, allowing users to easily work with [[genlock]]s to overlay graphics atop live video. The Amiga's unique [[overscan]] feature, the ability to run at custom, user-defined resolutions, allowed it to draw images past the visible borders of a television screen, allowing seamless fly-ins and scrolling from off-frame. Today, many TV stations and broadcast corporations are still using [[A3000]]s and [[A4000]]s for their real-time video effects. Many programs were also written for creating "[[fansub]]s" of foreign films and [[Japanese animation]]. Many competing products were created for the Amiga's video capabilities ranging from simple genlocks that allowed you to simply switch the RGB overlay feed on and off, to more advanced devices like the Supergen which had faders, and the ultimate expression of the Amiga's native power, the Newtek [[Video Toaster]]. Other interesting products that used the genlock capability enabled users to do motion tracking and interactivity, 20 years before similar products like the Sony EyeToy for the Playstation 2 video-game console. Due to its ability to genlock, that is, adjust its own screen refresh timing to match the signal from a VCR, the Amiga also had a niche market among biologists analyzing video of organisms in motion at a time when other systems capable of doing similar tasks cost an order of magnitude more. At the time, several video boards for IBM-compatible systems could overlay computer-generated graphics on top of the signal from a video camera, but these boards required the camera to accept a sync pulse from the computer, so were useless for overlaying graphics on VCR output. In the late 1980s the Amiga was for some biologists working on limited budgets the only affordable way to do kinematic analysis of video captured by a VCR. Another unique feature provided by the Amiga was the ability to change display resolutions ''on the fly'' &mdash; the computer could display different scan lines at different resolutions, allowing for multiple screens of information at different resolutions that could overlap one another without interfering with each other. The chipset also included a [[blitter]], which could copy and manipulate large amounts of graphics data at once (making the Amiga well-suited to arcade action games), and accelerated line-drawing and area-filling functions, which helped advance the popularity of real-time [[3D computer graphics|3D graphics]] and games. However, the Amiga would later become disadvantaged with the advent of [[first-person shooter]] games such as the PC game [[Doom]]. This was partly because the Amiga's [[planar]] graphics chipsets were less well suited to this type of 3D graphics, compared to the [[chunky]] graphics chipsets found on PC and [[Macintosh]] computers. ==Operating systems== [[Image:Amiga_kick34.5_askforwb1.3.png|right|frame|After powering up or rebooting an Amiga 500 this screen display is seen, meaning the OS started and asking the user to insert a bootable floppy disk. The displayed OS is [[Kickstart]] 1.3.]] The operating system, [[AmigaOS]], was also quite sophisticated for its time, combining an intuitive [[graphical user interface]] (GUI) like that of the [[Apple Macintosh]] together with an elegant [[Command Line Interface]] (CLI) which then eventually evolved into a very powerful Shell. This gives the user of Amiga some of the flexibility of [[Unix|UNIX]] while retaining a simplicity that made maintenance rather easy. While its [[AmigaOS|operating system]] was the only [[preemptive multitasking]] platform with an efficient message-passing kernel in the consumer marketplace for several years with an efficient [[memory management]], [[robustness]] left something to be desired, mainly due to the absence of [[protected memory]], resulting in the famous "[[Guru Meditation]]" errors. The Amiga operating system was resurrected in [[2000]] as [[AmigaOS#AmigaOS 4|AmigaOS 4]], which currently runs only on [[AmigaOne]] computers and on [[A1200]]s and [[A4000]]s with a [[PowerPC]] accelerator card. Other, still maintained, operating systems are available for the classic Amiga platform, including [[Linux]] and [[NetBSD]]. Older versions of [[OpenBSD]] can also be run - the last Amiga release was 3.2. [[Commodore Amiga Unix]] (based on AT&T System V Rel. 4) was available only for the [[A2500]] and [[A3000]]. ===MS-DOS on Amiga via Sidecar or Bridgeboard=== [[MS-DOS]] compatibility was a major issue during the early years of the Amiga's lifespan in order to promote the machine as a serious business machine. In order to run the MS-DOS operating system, Commodore released the 'Sidecar' for Amiga 1000, basically a [[8086]] board in a closed case that connected to the side of the Amiga. Clever programming (a library named Janus, after the two-faced [[Janus (mythology)|Roman god]] of doorways) made it possible to run PC software in an Amiga window without use of [[emulation]]. At the introduction of the Sidecar the crowd was stunned to see the MS-DOS version of ''[[Microsoft Flight Simulator]]'' running at full speed in an Amiga window on the [[AmigaOS#workbench|Workbench]]. Later the Sidecar was implemented on an expansion card named 'Bridgeboard' for Amiga 2000+ models. Bridgeboard cards appeared up to [[Intel 80486|486 processor]] variants. The Bridgeboard card and the Janus library made the use of PC expansion cards and harddisk/floppydisk drives possible. The bridgeboard card was manufactured by Commodore, later third party cards also appeared for the A500/1200 expansion slot such as the KCS Powerboard. Eventually, full-software emulators, such as PC-Task allowed Amigas to run MS-DOS programs, including Microsoft Windows, without additional hardware, at the costs of speed and compatibility. ===Mac OS on Amiga=== Also introduced for the Amiga were two products, A-Max (both internal and external models)and the Emplant expansion card. Both allowed the Amiga to emulate an [[Apple Macintosh]] and run the [[Mac OS|Macintosh Operating System]] using the process of [[Translation emulation|translation emulation]]. It required an Apple Macintosh ROM image, or actual ROMs in the case of A-Max, which needed to be obtained from a real Macintosh. The user needed to own the real Macintosh or Mac ROMs to legally run the emulator. In 1988 the first Apple Mac emulator,A-Max, was released as an external device for any Amiga. It needed Mac ROMs to function, and could read Mac disks when used with a Mac floppy drive (Amiga floppy drives are unable to read Mac disks. Unlike Amiga disks Mac floppy disks spin at variable speeds, much like CD ROM drives). It wasn't a particularly elegant solution, but it did provide an affordable and usable Mac experience. ReadySoft, makers of A-Max, followed up with A-Max II in the early '90s. A-Max II was contained on a zorro compatible card and allowed the user, again using actual Mac roms, to emulate a color Macintosh. In fact, an Amiga 3000 emulating a Mac via A-Max II was significantly faster than the first consumer color Mac, the LC. Over time full-software emulation was available, but you still had to get a ROM image. Example emulators include [[ShapeShifter (emulator)|ShapeShifter]] (not to be confused with the third party preference pane [[ShapeShifter]]), later superseded by [[Basilisk II]] (both by the same programmer who conceived [[SheepShaver]], [[Christian Bauer]]), Fusion and iFusion (the latter ran classic MacOS using translation emulation with a [[PowerPC]] "coprocessor" accelerator card). This form of emulation has been said to equal or better the speed of a Macintosh with the same processor, especialy with respect to the m68k series due to real Macs running in [[Memory management unit|MMU]] trap mode, hampering performance. Moreover, in the period when no new 68k Mac models were being developed and the majority of Mac software was not natively available on PowerPC Macintosh yet (but only runnable through a slow 68k emulation), the fastest "Macintosh" machines around were actually by far Amiga computers with [[68060]] CPUs running ShapeShifter or Fusion. One should note that although Amigas were very successful at emulating Macintoshes, it was never considered to be a [[Macintosh clone]] as it could not use MacOS as a primary operating system. ==Third party hardware== Many expansion boards were produced for Amigas to improve the performance and capability of the hardware, such as memory expansions, SCSI controllers, CPU boards, graphics boards; famous hardware manufacturers were Great Valley Products (GVP) and [[Phase5]]. In addition to expansion boards with 68060 CPUs, Phase5 also designed the PowerUp boards (BlizzardPPC and CyberstormPPC) featuring both a 68k and a PPC CPU, which were able to run the two CPUs at the same time (and shared the system memory). The PPC CPU on PowerUp boards was usually used as a coprocessor for heavy computations (a powerful CPU was needed to run for example MAME, but even decoding JPEG pictures and MP3 audio was considered heavy computation in those years). It was also possible to ignore the 68k CPU and run Linux on the PPC (project Linux APUS), but a PPC native Amiga OS was not available when the PPC boards appeared. ==Third party software== Amiga was originally supported by such prestigious software titles as [[WordPerfect]], Electronic Arts' [[Deluxe Paint]], and [[Lattice C]]. Newtek's [[Video Toaster]], one of the first all-in-one graphics and video editing packages, began on the Amiga. The Video Toaster was one of the few accessories for the "big box" Amigas (2000, 3000 and 4000) that used the video slot, and enabled users to turn their Amiga into the heart of an entire TV Production suite. The later addition of the Video Flyer by Newtek made possible the first non-linear video editing program for the Amiga. The Amiga made 3D [[raytrace|raytracing]] graphics available for the masses with [[Sculpt 3D]] (before the Amiga, raytracing was only available for dedicated graphic workstations). The Amiga was well known for its 3D rendering capability, with many titles being added to the mix as the years went by. Some titles were later ported to [[Microsoft Windows]] and continue to thrive there, such as the rendering software [[Cinema 4D]] from Maxon, and [[LightWave]] from Newtek, which was originally part of the [[Video Toaster]]. The [[Video Toaster]] itself has even been ported to the Windows platform. Even [[Microsoft]] produced software for use on the Amiga. [[AmigaBASIC]], an advanced [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] software development environment, complete with an Interactive Development Environment (IDE), was written by Microsoft under contract. [[Richmond Sound Design]] (RSD) created both [[show control]] and theatre [[sound design]] software which was used extensively in the theatre, theme park, display, exhibit, show and themed entertainment industries in the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] and at one point in the mid 90s, there were many high profile shows at major theme parks around the world being controlled by Amigas. There were dozens at [[Walt Disney World]] alone and more at all other [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]], [[Universal Studios]], [[Six Flags]] and [[Madame Tussauds]] properties as well as in many venues in Las Vegas including [[The Mirage]] hotel Volcano, the [[MGM Grand]] [[EFX]] show, [[Broadway theatre]], London's [[West End]], the [[Royal Shakespeare Company]]'s many venues, most of [[Branson, Missouri]]'s theatres, and scores of theatres on cruise ships, amongst hundreds of others. RSD purchased used Amigas on the web and reconditioned them to provide enough systems for all the shows that specified them and only stopped providing new Amiga installations in 2000. There are still an unknown number of shows on cruise ships and in themed venues being run by Amigas. Much shareware and free software was written for the Amiga and could be obtained via the [[Fred Fish]] disk series or from the [[Aminet]] software archive. ==Amiga Emulators== Many Amiga users actually use a system that boots directly into the emulator. There is the [[Unix Amiga Emulator]] (UAE) that can emulate a full system on Macintosh and Intel systems, including undocumented behavior and the custom chips. Also there is a special Windows port, WinUAE. There is a commercial product [[Amiga Forever]] that includes an emulator and the AmigaOS as well as several other important parts. Another emulator is [[Fellow (computing)|Fellow]]. They are available at: *[http://amigasys.fw.hu/ AmigaSYS] *[http://www.freiburg.linux.de/~uae/ UAE] *[http://www.rcdrummond.net/uae/ e-UAE] *[http://www.winuae.net/ WinUAE] *[http://www.amigaforever.com/ Amiga Forever] *[http://fellow.sourceforge.net/ WinFellow ] {{Sectstub}} ==User Base== The Amiga was considered by some to have had an extraordinarily loyal fan base. When Commodore went bankrupt in 1994, there was still a very active Amiga community, and this continued to support the platform long after mainstream commercial vendors abandoned the platform. There were many fans who believed that the Amiga was unique and was better than other platforms - some still exist to this day using the AmigaOne (manufactured by UK firm Eyetech), despite utilising slower hardware compared to a PC of the same price. One reason for this loyalty was due to the strengths of the machine at the time: it had a stable, compact, efficient, multitasking OS, it was relatively easy to program for, software had relatively easy access to the hardware (the base hardware was fixed so software could be coded specifically to the hardware), there was a wealth quality software, and it was an affordable multimedia machine for its time. However as time wore on, the hardware was overtaken and as the PC improved in software and hardware the Amiga started to look dated. Despite this, its solid userbase continued to produce software and get as much as they possibly could out of the machine. Amiga users managed to squeeze every drop of performance and capability out of the machines, with software and hardware expansions to enhance its capabilities. Even today there is enough demand for expansion hardware to keep some small scale manufacturers in business. ==Models and variants== Amigas fall into several categories, Classic models, such as the 1200 and the 4000, PPC based models such as the AmigaOne, and unoffocial models. Amigas were first produced in 1985, and continue to be produced. :''Main article: [[Amiga models and variants]]'' ==Trivia== * The name ''amiga'' is the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] word for 'female friend', from the [[Latin]] ''amica''. * The Amiga [[as of 2006|still]] has a very strong user community, particularly outside the United States. * The Amiga community made a significant contribution to a computer subculture known as the [[Demoscene]]. The Demoscene was more or less a phenomenon inherited from [[Commodore 64]] times. * Much [[operating system advocacy]] surrounded the technology implemented in the Amiga. This led some to accuse Amiga users of [[computer zealotry|zealotry]] (look for "Amiga Persecution Complex" in the [[Jargon File]]). * Amiga has two [[Three-finger salute (computing)|Three-finger salute]]s, one for warm reset (CTRL plus the two "Amiga" keys) and the other for reboot (CTRL plus the two "Alt" keys). The latter method was introduced with AmigaOS 4.0. * When an Amiga crashes, it displays a flashing red box with a mysterious [[Guru Meditation]] number. The number is actually the 68000 exception number, and some other piece of information, such as the address (in hexadecimal) of the task that caused the crash. * During the Commodore era, machines with 'thousands' model numbering were marketed as 'quality' machines for business use, while the other machines (A500, A500+, A600, A1200) were 'consumer' machines. * The three most popular low-end models of the Amiga - the 500, 600 and 1200 - each had the name of a [[The B-52's|B-52's]] song written on their [[motherboard]]. The most widely cited reason for this is the designers having been fans of the band. The motherboard of the 500 says "[[Rock Lobster]]", that of the 600 says "[[June Bug (song)|June Bug]]" and that of the 1200 says "[[Channel Z]]". No other models have song names on their motherboards. * The Amiga 600 was originally supposed to be the Amiga 300, a very low-cost "introductory" model, but in an attempt to cut costs plans from CBM management changed at the last minute, and it was instead marketed as the successor to the 500 and the 500+. The motherboard of the Amiga 600 still says "Amiga 300". * A common misconception is that before Amiga was sold to Commodore, [[Atari]] was in the running for purchasing the small, [[Los Gatos]]-based company. The misconception further states that after Atari lost the acquisition, it developed the Atari ST to compete with the (then) "Commodore" Amiga.<br/>The truth is that it was Warner's Atari Inc. that had made a deal with Amiga back in 1983 (which can be seen [http://www.atarimuseum.com/articles/mickey.html here]) and not Tramiel's Atari Corp. (which developed the ST). The agreement basically gave Atari Inc. access to the Amiga hardware for their own computer system codenamed "Mickey".<br/>As part of the agreement, Atari would sell "Mickey" (formally the [[Atari 1850XLD]]) as a video game system with no keyboard for 1 year. After that, Atari could then sell a keyboard add-on and sell full blown versions of "Mickey" to the public. Work was started but Atari ran in to the well known financial troubles and Warner wound up breaking up and selling off the parts of Atari Inc.<br/>The consumer division (which included consoles and computers) was sold to former Commodore founder Jack Tramiel. Jack had left Commodore in [[January 1984]] and after taking a short vacation decided to return to the business with his own next generation low cost computer system. So he formed [[Tramiel Technology, Ltd.]] (TTL) with some former Commodore employees and designed what would become known as the ST series of computers. In late [[May 1984]] he purchased Atari Consumer for their manufacturing capabilities and distribution network, which he'd need to manufacture and sell his new computer.<br/>The takeover was completed on [[July 2]]nd, and the truth of the matter is that the ST was 90% finished by the time this occurred. The operating system being the only major work needed to be finished. Jack and his people had '''no''' idea about the Amiga agreement at the time. When they took over Atari Consumer and formed Atari Corp., all projects were put on hold until they could evaluate them. In the meantime, more engineering and management left Commodore to join up at Jack's new Atari Corp. Within the span of a few weeks, several major occurrences happened. # In late July, Commodore filed suit against Jack for stealing trade secrets because of this influx of former Commodore employees. # Commodore bought Amiga. # During the project evaluations, the Tramiel's discovered Atari Inc.'s previous agreement with Amiga and used it to launch a countersuit against Commodore via Amiga on [[August 13]]th.<br/>All suits were eventually dropped and/or settled out of court. * [[Steve Jobs]] was shown the original prototype for the first Amiga (Amiga 1000) before it had been purchased by Commodore, and said there was "too much hardware". He was working on [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] at the time. * Two of the designers of the original Amiga, [[RJ Mical]] and [[Dave Needle]], would later go on to design the [[Atari Lynx]], giving it a framebuffer based display with a blitter very similar to that in the Amiga. The two would also go on to work on the [[3DO Interactive Multiplayer]]. * When [[Great Valley Products]] first released their [[68030]] accelerator board for the Amiga 2000, it ran Apple's MacOS faster than any real Mac. Apple soon caught up, though. ==See also== *[[AmigaOS]] *[[Amiga demos]] *[[Amiga games]] *[[Unix Amiga Emulator]] *[[SCA virus]] *[[Gateway 2000]] *[[List of arcade games ports to Amiga]] ==References== *[[John J. Anderson]], "Amiga Lorraine: finally, the 'next generation Atari'?" ''[[Creative Computing]]'', April 1984 [http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v10n4/150_Amiga_Lorraine_finally_.php] *[[Dave Haynie]]. "The Amiga A3000+ System Specification". 1991 DevCon Release. July 17, 1991. [http://www.thule.no/haynie/research/a3000p/docs/a3000p.pdf] ==External links== ===News and discussions=== *[http://www.amiga.org/ Amiga.org] *[http://www.amigaworld.net/ Amigaworld.net] - Official support forum for the [[AmigaOne]]. *[http://www.ann.lu/ ANN] *[http://obligement.free.fr/ Obligement] - magazine about AmigaOS and MorphOS. *[http://www.classicamiga.com/ ClassicAmiga.com] - Amiga game database and discussion forum. *[http://www.lemonamiga.com/ Lemon Amiga] - A friendly Amiga community mostly focusing on games. *[http://www.abime.net/ Abime.net] - Amiga addicts sanctuary, an Amiga community. *[http://www.the-amiga-zone.com/ The Amiga Zone] - Amiga emulation and discussion forum. ===Software=== *[http://os.amigaworld.de/index.php?lang=en AmigaOS] - Unofficial AmigaOS Support Homepage *[http://www.aminet.net/ Aminet] - Public domain and freely available software for AmigaOS. *[http://www.os4depot.net/ OS4Depot] - Unofficial repository for AmigaOS 4.x software. *[http://amiga.sourceforge.net/ Amiga.sf] - Your source to Amiga ports. ===Links directory=== * [http://amp.dascene.net/links.php A big Amiga web directory] ===Link pages=== *[http://www.amigarealm.com/ Amiga Realm] - Amiga Internet Directory Service and Archive Resource. *[http://amiga1200.deviantart.com/ Amiga Links List] - A 'Best of' List of Useful Amiga Links ===History=== *[http://www.amigahistory.co.uk/ Amiga History Guide] *[http://haynie.amigaworld.de/ The Dave Haynie Archives] *[http://braeburn.ath.cx/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=1&mode=thread&order=0&thold=0 The History of the Amiga] *[http://www.amiga.org/modules/xoopsfaq/index.php?cat_id=4#q16 Amiga.org] links ===Other=== *[http://os4.hyperion-entertainment.biz AmigaOS 4.0] - Official OS4 site from Hyperion Entertainment. *[http://www.freiburg.linux.de/~uae UAE] - UAE Amiga Emulator. *[http://www.winuae.net WinUAE] - Official Windows port of UAE. *[http://amp.dascene.net Amiga Music Preservation] - All about the Amiga Audio/Module/Protracker/Mods/Modules scene. *[http://www.amigawiki.com Amiga Wiki] *[http://www.blazemonger.com/BM/ BLAZEMONGER] - Amiga humor. *[http://www.pouet.net Pouet] - A demoscene portal. *[http://ada.planet-d.net Amiga Demoscene Archive] - Demoscene portal entirely dedicated to Amiga. *[http://www.amiga-hardware.com/ The Big Book of Amiga Hardware] *[http://www.softpres.org/ The Software Preservation Society] - Dedicated to the preservation of classic software for the Amiga and other platforms. *[http://amiga.resource.cx/ The Amiga Hardware Database] - Collection of Amiga hardware expansions and the Amiga models. *[http://www.jamesalanpatterson.com/amiga.html Jim's Amiga Commercial Page!] - Watch original Amiga commercials. *[http://hol.abime.net/ Hall Of Light] - The database of Amiga games. *[http://powerup.amigaworld.de/index.php?lang=en PowerUP] - Unofficial PowerUP Support Homepage. *[http://grex.amigaworld.de/index.php?lang=en G-Rex PCI] - Unofficial G-Rex PCI Support Homepage. *[http://www.amiganostalgia.com AmigaNostalgia] - Retro software for all your emulation needs. {{CBM computers}} [[Category:Home computers]] [[Category:Personal computers]] [[Category:Commodore Amiga|*Amiga]] [[Category:CBM hardware]] [[ca:Amiga]] [[cs:Amiga]] [[da:Amiga]] [[de:Amiga]] [[es:Commodore Amiga]] [[fr:Amiga]] [[hr:Amiga]] [[it:Amiga]] [[nl:Amiga]] [[ja:Amiga]] [[no:Amiga]] [[nn:Amiga]] [[pl:Amiga]] [[pt:Amiga]] [[ru:Amiga]] [[fi:Amiga]] [[sv:Amiga]] [[tr:Amiga]] 1981 42044311 2006-03-03T12:16:04Z 217.75.122.74 /* Cleanup and the environment */ {{dablink|This page is about the group of minerals. For the locations in [[Quebec]], see [[Asbestos, Quebec|Asbestos]] and [[Asbestos Regional County Municipality, Quebec|Asbestos Regional County Municipality]]}} [[Image:Asbestos with muscovite.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Fibrous asbestos on [[muscovite]]]] [[Image:Asbestos2USGOV.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Asbestos]] [[Image:Asbestos3USGOV.jpg|thumb|200px|Asbestos]] '''Asbestos''' (a misapplication of [[Latin]]: ''asbestos'' "[[quicklime]]" from [[Greek language|Greek]] ἄσβεστος: a-, "not"; sbestos, "extinguishable") describes any of a group of fibrous [[metamorphic rock|metamorphic mineral]]s of the [[hydrous]] [[magnesium]] [[silicate]] variety. The name is derived for its historical use in lamp wicks; the resistance of asbestos to fire has long been exploited for a variety of purposes. It was used in fabrics such as [[Egypt]]ian burial cloths and [[Charlemagne]]'s tablecloth, which, according to legend, he threw in a fire to clean. Asbestos occurs naturally in many forms (see below); it is mined from metamorphic deposits. When asbestos is used for its resistance to fire or heat, the fibers are typically mixed with [[cement]] or woven into fabric or mats. It is used in [[brake]] shoes and [[gasket]]s for its heat resistance, and in the past was used on electric oven and hotplate wiring for its electrical insulation at elevated temperature, and in buildings for its flame-retardant and insulating properties, its [[tensile strength]], flexibility, and resistance to chemicals. However, the [[inhalation]] of some kinds of asbestos fibers causes various serious illnesses, including [[cancer]], and thus most uses of asbestos are banned in many countries. [[Fiberglass]] has been found to be a suitable substitute for thermal insulation and woven [[ceramic]] fiber performs as well or better as an insulator of high-temperature electrical conductors. Most respirable asbestos fibers are invisible to the unaided human eye because their size is about 3.0-20.0 [[Micrometre|µm]] in length and can be as thin as 0.01 µm. Human hair ranges in size from 17 to 181 µm.[http://hypertextbook.com/facts/1999/BrianLey.shtml] Fibers ultimately form because when these minerals originally cooled and crystallized, they formed by the [[polymer]]ic molecules lining up parallel with each other and forming oriented [[crystal structure|crystal lattices]]. These crystals thus have three cleavage planes as other minerals and gemstones have. But in their case, there are two cleavage planes that are much weaker than the third direction. Thus when sufficient force is applied they tend to break along their weakest directions, resulting in a linear fragmentation pattern and hence a fibrous form. This fracture process can keep occurring over and over until they have been broken down to their smallest unit dimensions. For this reason, one larger asbestos fiber can ultimately become the source of hundreds of much thinner and smaller fibers in a normal environment over the course of time. As they get smaller and lighter, they become more mobile and more easily entrained (wafted) into the air, where human respiratory exposures typically result. Confusingly, the [[Modern Greek]] word ''άσβεστος'' means ''[[calcium oxide|quicklime]]''. ==Types of asbestos== [[Image:Asbestos1USGOV.jpg|thumb|200px|Chrysotile asbestos]] [[Image:Asbestos fibres.jpg|thumb|200px|Asbestos fibres]] *[[Chrysotile]], or ''white asbestos'', [[CAS registry number|CAS No.]] 12001-29-5, is obtained from Canadian [[serpentine]] rocks. It is less [[friability|friable]] (and therefore less likely to be inhaled) than the other types and is the type most often used industrially. Chrysotile should not be confused with [[chrysolite]], a synonym of [[olivine]]. There is some evidence that this form of asbestos is not actually harmful when inhaled. However it should be noted that there is also evidence that this type of asbestos is harmful, although not perhaps as harmful as other forms (refer to UK Health & Safety Commission report ''Asbestos: Effects on health of exposure to asbestos'', 1985). One formula given for Chrysotile is Na₂Fe²⁺₃Fe³⁺₂Si₈O₂₂(OH)₂. *[[Amosite]], CAS No. 12172-73-5, also known as ''Grunerite'' or ''brown asbestos'', is an amphibole from [[Africa]], named as an [[acronym]] from Asbestos Mines of South Africa. One formula given for Amosite is Fe₇Si₈O₂₂(OH)₂. *[[Crocidolite]], or ''blue asbestos'', CAS No. 12001-28-4, is an amphibole from Africa and [[Australia]]. It is the fibrous form of [[riebeckite]]. Blue asbestos is commonly thought of as the most dangerous type of asbestos (see above and below). One formula given for Crocidolite is Na₂Fe²⁺₃Fe³⁺₂Si₈O₂₂(OH)₂. Notes: Serpentine rocks are those with curled fibres. [[Amphibole]]s have straight, needle-like fibres. The amphiboles, in their fibrous form, are [[friability|friable]] and therefore the most carcinogenic, although they also exist in safer non-fibrous forms. Asbestos with particularly fine fibers is also referred to as "amianthus". Other asbestos minerals, such as [[tremolite]], CAS No. 77536-68-6, Ca₂Mg₅Si₈O₂₂(OH)₂; [[actinolite]] (or ''smaragdite''), CAS No. 77536-66-4, Ca₂(Mg, Fe)₅Si₈O₂₂(OH)₂; and [[anthophyllite]], CAS No. 77536-67-5, (Mg, Fe)₇Si₈O₂₂(OH)₂; are less-used industrially but can still be found in a variety of construction materials and insulations and occur in a few consumer products, such as talcum powders and vermiculite. In the United States, the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) has banned all construction-related products that have asbestos content of 1% or greater. It has also banned asbestos in all other friable (easily crushed by finger pressure) products. ==Uses== ===Historic usage=== Items made of asbestos were held in so great an esteem as to be of equal value with gold; none but emperors and kings had napkins made of it. Some antiquaries have believed that ancients made shrouds of asbestos, wherein they burnt the bodies of their kings, in order to entirely preserve their ashes, and prevent their being mixed with those of wood, or other combustible materials commonly used in building funeral piles.{{ref label|1728|1|^}} Others assert that the ancients used asbestos to make perpetual wicks for sepulchral lamps. In more recent centuries, asbestos was indeed used for this purpose. Although asbestos causes skin to itch upon contact, ancient literature indicates that it was prescribed for diseases of the skin, and particularly for the itch. It is possible that they used the term ''asbestos'' for [[alumen plumosum]], because the two terms have often been confused throughout history.{{ref label|1728|1|^}} ===Modern usage=== ====Serpentine group==== Chrysotile is the form of asbestos from the serpentine group that has been used commercially. In the [[United States]], chrysotile has been the most commonly used type of asbestos. Chrysotile is often present in a wide variety of materials, including but not limited to: * sheetrock taping * mud and texture coats * vinyl floor tiles, sheeting, adhesiv